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JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
ROYAL SOCIETY
OF
NEW SOUTH WALES
Volume 128, Parts 1 and 2
(Nos. 375-376)
1995
ISSN 0035-9173
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Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 128,01-12, 1995
ISSN 0035-9173/95/010001-12 $4 .00/1
THE NEUROSCIENCE OF SYNTAX, SEMANTICS AND SUM RARIES
Oo
nARIE:
BRAIN AND MIND: DESCARTES AND KANT.
MAX R. BENNETT
(with illustrations by
GILLIAN BENNETT)
Descartes (Figurel) first posed the dualistic
problem of the relationship between the brain,
treated as an object for physical study, and
consciousness. Kant (Figure 2) analyzed this
problem further by distinguishing between sensory
information, such as temperature and vision, that
we receive through the excitation of different
classes of sensory receptors and those activities
that categorize these experiences as belonging to,
for example, substances or to causal relations.To
the first of these he gave the name Sensibilities
and to the latter Categories of Understanding.
Kant thought that the gathering of Sensibilities
was most likely carried out by physical processes
whereas the mind uses its Categories of
Understanding to construct our awareness and
comprehension of the physical world from the
Sensibilities. The reception of sensory information
and its early processing by the nervous system is
generally agreed to be a physical procedure. This is
thought to obey procedures that have a clear
syntactical structure. Such a structure involves a
systematic statement of the rules governing the
formulas of a logical system, like those that
determine the arrangement of words and phrases
in sentences, or the organization of computer
programs. On the other hand, our comprehension
of the physical world requires understanding the
meaning of signs and symbols, including things
like sentences and words; this is the problem of
semantics. At perhaps an even more complex level,
there are also feelings and sensations that
accompany our awareness of the world; the set of
these that are associated with a particular object
are called qualia.
The question arises as to whether the procedures of
semantics or the development of qualia are clearly
such that they are carried out by physical means,
like those generally agreed to be responsible for the
Syntactical mechanisms in the nervous system
involved in the generation of sensations. This
essay is concerned then with the problem of how
might syntax, semantics and qualia arise in the
Nervous system.
NEURONAL MECHANISMS FOR SYNTAX: ALAN
TURING AND DAVID MARR.
David Marr suggested that the syntactical
structure of the information processing that is
carried out by the Sensibilities can be divided into
three levels. These are illustrated by means of the
problem of what is called global stereopsis. In this
the visual system seeks to arrive at a three-
dimensional reconstruction of an object that is
being viewed by the retinas of both eyes. There are
three levels at which this information processing
task must be analyzed, according to Marr. The first
of these involves computational theory: in this we
seek a definition of the information processing
problem whose solution is the goal of the
computation; in this case the problem of global
Stereopsis, which involves characterization of the
abstract properties of the computation to be
carried out. Surprisingly, this is in general by far
the most complex aspect of trying to seek a
solution to an information processing task.In the
case of global stereopsis it involves identifying the
properties of the visible world that constrain the
computational problem. For example, one of these
might be that surfaces in the real world tend to lie
in similar depth planes; smooth gradients in
depth of the visual field are far more common
than sudden changes or discontinuities. The
second level of analysis is simpler and involves
obtaining an algorithm, that is a formal set of
steps or procedures, which will carry out the
2 Max R. Bennett
of the brain, but it could also be solved by a
computer chip that was appropriately designed to
compute the global stereopsis algorithm.
The distinction between the three levels of
analysis of an information processing device
(including the brain) can be illustrated by
considering a very interesting property of some
neurones in the eye. The nerve cells in the retina
that send visual information from it to the brain
along the optic nerve are referred to as retinal
ganglion cells. In some species these neurones are
3 directionally selective, that is a ganglion cell fires
W/ impulses at a high rate when an object is moved
5 past the overlying light-sensitive rod receptors that
LZ Vf
le
are connected to it in one direction (therefore
called the preferred direction); when the object
moves in the opposite direction the ganglion cell
IN
Ly ara?
x
F MUA bY
Mr
Figure 1. Rene Descartes (1596-1650).
computation. The third level involves physical ¥
realization of the algorithm. This may be
implemented with the neurones of the brain or by®
a computer chip. According to Marr it does not
matter whether the hardware is biological
machinery or a computer as far as the
computational or algorithmic levels of the
information processing problem are concerned. We
know that the problem of global stereopsis is
Figure 2. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804).
solved by neurones in the visual cortex at the back
SYNTAX, SEMANTICS AND QUALIA 3
Pig = NULL I REC7 en)
Figure 4. The retina provides a biological means of
implementing the directional selectivity algorithm
given in Figure 3. The equivalence between the
retinal neurones and the elements that compose
Figure 3 are: the rod receptors (R) are the
receptors; the bipolar cells (B) are the layer 1 units;
and the horizontal neurones (H) are the At units.
The output units, not shown in Figure 3, are the
retinal ganglion cells (G).
RECEFr TOMS
EAN ee |
Figure 3. An algorithm for detecting the direction
of movement of an object. A, B and C are receptors
that can sense the object, which moves over them
in either the direction indicated by the arrow or in
the opposite direction. These receptors can each
excite activity in the units immediately beneath
them. Each box containing a At is a unit which if
excited by the receptor connected to it will after a
delay of length At prevent excitation of the
adjacent unit in the null direction indicated by
the arrow. The way in which this algorithm
functions to give directional selectivity is
explained in the text.
4 Max R. Bennett
does not fire ( and so this is called the null
direction). An algorithm for this process has been
developed and is shown in Figure 3. When an
object moves in the null direction, electrical
activity from an excited receptor (say C in Figure
3) excites (+) a unit in the layer immediately
beneath it while at the same time inhibiting (-)
the next unit in the null direction; each receptor
in turn, namely C, B, and A carries out this process
as the object moves over them. The delay units
(shown as At in Figure 3) determine that the
inhibitory process stops the excitatory activity
from A and B moving through these gates if
motion is in the null direction but reaches the
gates too late to produce such inhibition if motion
is in the preferred direction.
Implementation of this algorithm in the
biological material of the retina is as follows (see
Figure 4). The direct excitatory pathway in the
retina is from the photoreceptors (R), through the
bipolar cells (B), to reach the retinal ganglion cells
(G). This excitatory pathway is modulated by the
horizontal cells (H); they receive an excitatory
input from the photoreceptors, and conduct this
laterally in the null direction through their long
dendrites (Td) to inhibit the bipolar cells in
adjacent regions. The wiring of the retinal
neurones in this way prevents excitation of the
ganglion cells when an object moves in the null
direction but does not prevent such excitation
when an object moves in the preferred direction.
Comparison of Figure 4 with Figure 3 shows that
the horizontal cells are equivalent to At delay
units and the bipolar cells to the layer one units.
It is clear that the algorithm of Figure 3 can be
implemented in either the wet-ware of neurones or
the hard-ware of a silicon chip.
Although it has been stressed that the algorithm
for global stereopsis as well as that for directional
selectivity may be implemented using neurones or
chips, they may also be carried out using a
computer. It was Alan Turing (Figure 5) who first
showed that a machine could in principle be built
to solve a particular algorithm; this is often called
the Turing machine. Turing went on to show that
hs ft,
menage Pees :
a
=
bis
Figure 5. Alan Turing (1912-1954).
a Universal Machine could be built that could
simulate any machine, so that this Machine could
solve any algorithm. The present day computer is
such a Machine. It can run as different kinds of
computer (an IBM or a MacIntosh) if programmed
appropriately and therefore can solve any
algorithm. Suppose that all syntactical structures,
from the rules governing the arrangement of words
and phrases in sentences to those governing the
logic followed by devices for directional selectivity,
are algorithmic: it follows then that they can be
implemented on a computer. The retina acts as
one kind of Turing machine when it solves the
algorithm for directional selectivity.
The idea that different parts of the nervous
SYNTAX, SEMANTICS AND QUALIA
ac¥Somato -
sensory
- N
2 pudition se
fx
ai)
Figure 6. Possible algorithmic processes carried out
in the neocortex. A, shows the neocortex in a side
view; several different regions are delineated that
process different sensory modalities, such as smell
(olfaction), sound (audition), touch
(somatosensory) and sight (visual ); also shown is
the area of the neocortex that is responsible for
movement of the limbs (motor cortex; M). B, shows
different regions of the neocortex that are thought
by some to be involved in the solution of a
number of different algorithms ; these include
reconstruction of the images of faces in the inferior
L o.+
Vision
temporal lobe ; the recategorization of phonemes,
that is, the sounds that distinguish one word from
another and their order, in Wernicke's speech area;
computing the motion of an object in the parietal
cortex ; and finally, computing shape from
movement in a region anterior to the visual
cortex.
6 Max R. Bennett
System, such as the retina, have an objectively
formal syntactical structure like that of a
computer programme has been challenged by
John Searle. He uses the word ‘computational’ in
the context of solving the algorithmic problem
rather than in Marr's sense of posing the problem
and the constraints associated with it. His
challenge goes like this: the computational state of
the directional selectivity mechanism refers to the
identification of the synapses in the system that
are solving the algorithm for this problem. But it is
we that make this selection, which is then not
intrinsic to the retina like its temperature or mass,
but assigned to it. Every neurone in the retina has
thousands of synapses on it, so that it is
impossible to look at the efficacy of each of these
and determine that it is part of a directional
mechanism algorithm. The algorithmic properties
of the retina are assigned to it and are not
intrinsic. The fact that algorithms can be
implemented on different kinds of hard-ware, such
as a retina or a silicon chip, simply shows that the
computational processes of the algorithm are not
intrinsic properties at all. They depend on
interpretation from outside the system considered.
That the computational patterns are carried out
on a computer or in a nervous system does not
explain how they work. Searle arrives at the
important conclusion § that syntax is an observer
relative notion. According to this view then what
seems to be a relatively straightforward
proposition, namely that different parts of the
nervous system solve different sets of algorithms
which are objectively posited in the system like its
temperature and mass, is erroneous. The
proposition that a system has computational
properties, intrinsic to it like those of its physical
properties, is incorrect. Accordingly, syntax is
Observer relative.
NEURONAL NETWORKS IN THE BRAIN AND
SEMANTICS: WITTGENSTEIN AND SEARLE.
Neuroscience has shown that different parts of
the neocortex (Figure 6A), the mantle of the brain,
process different aspects of our experience of. the
world and of our reactions to those experiences.
For example, the process of determining the shape
of an object from the way it is shaded is known to
occur in an area of the neocortex that lies just in
front of the primary visual cortex (compare Figure
6B with Figure 6A). Computing the movement of
an object occurs in the parietal cortex whereas
identification of the object occurs in the inferior
temporal lobe (Figure 6B). The ability to process
sounds that distinguish one word from another as
well as their order occurs in the part of the
neocortex called the area of Wernicke (Figure 6B).
Dennett claims that each of these different areas of
the neocortex is carrying out its task by solving an
appropriate algorithm and that they are therefore
acting as computers. Furthermore the semantic
content of these processes, their meaning, is the
process itself. This is equivalent to saying that the
meaning that we attach to the identity of an
object is part of the algorithm that is carried out
by the appropriate neurones in the inferior
temporal lobe used for this purpose (Figure 6B). In
this case meaning is ascribed to the computational
process that carries out the algorithm. Algorithms
have been devised for carrying out the process of
identifying objects from their shading (as in the
area anterior to the visual cortex, Figure 6B); these
are based on the kinds of information that this
area is likely to receive from the visual cortex, and
are framed in such a way as to offer a plausible
description of what the neurones in this part of
the brain do. Is it possible that such a
computation also contains within it the meaning
of the algorithm?
Searle has a now famous argument that meaning
is not embodied in algorithmic processes. Even if
the idea that different parts of the brain possess
intrinsic computational properties as a
consequence of the way the neurones are
connected is admitted, which Searle does not, the
algorithmic process they carry out could have no
meaning associated with it that is intrinsic, that
does not lie outside the computational process.
Searle's argument involves the idea of the Chinese
Room. Consider a number of people each of whom
has been taught one component of the process
involved in manipulating Chinese symbols
SYNTAX, SEMANTICS AND QUALIA 7
(aa BRsKets oF CHINESE sy HEOUS il
ar ~ Sree -
Figure 7. The Chinese Room. Searle proposed that
in this room a series of manipulations are made to
the symbols that comprise a Chinese manuscript
so as to render the manuscript into English. Each
set of manipulations is made to the entire
manuscript according to a set of instructions in
English. The important point is that the person in
the room does not know what is going on in the
room; he is only aware of the rules that must be
followed in carrying out the choice of Chinese
characters according to the English instructions.
Although questions in Chinese may be posed and
answered in Chinese, there is no understanding
involved by the person in the room.
according to instructions in English. This room
receives Chinese texts through one delivery port,
the same receptionist being used to receive each
text; a text is then handed onto a person whose job
it is to carry out the first process in manipulating
the symbols according to the list of written
instructions in English. This may involve certain
rules of syntax being applied: for instance certain
symbols in Chinese might be exchanged for certain
other Chinese characters, each of which may be
found in a separate basket. This person in turn
passes this text onto the next person in the chain,
and so on until the penultimate text is received by
the last person who, after carrying out the last
process on the text, delivers a completed
manuscript to the exit port of the room. None of
the persons in the room have any understanding
of the processes carried out by any of the others,
nor of the overall process. Yet an effective response
to the original Chinese text may be achieved by
this procedure even though the process is without
meaning to those in the room. Now Searle suggests
that the same argument holds if just one person
carries out all these processes in the room; that is
manipulates symbols according to a set of rules
(syntax; see Figure 7). For instance to those outside
the room, some of the text presented may require
questions on specific subjects to be answered.
These are eventually supplied, and considered as
answers to those outside the room, without having
any meaning to those in the room(Figure 7).
Searle's point is that an algorithm, such as that
involved in manipulating the Chinese symbols, is
computed without meaning being ascribed to any
element of the process. This of course holds if we
replace the persons in the Chinese Room with a
neuronal network that carries out the
computation. The Chinese Room only has
meaning for the person who designed it in the first
place; it does not arise from the workings of the
room itself.
Wittgenstein (Figure 8), the greatest philosopher
since Kant, argued further that meaning only
arises as a consequence of some form of dialogue
which presupposes a sociological setting. As there
are an infinite number of such settings for each of
us, and unique to each of us, then semantics
cannot be algorithmic. For example, when a person
talks about the colour "blue', they do not have an
image of "blue" in their brains to which they refer
and which has somehow become imprinted there.
Rather it is the application of the word "blue" to
an object in a sociological setting that determines
the character of the images which the person
accepts as "blue". The meaning of this word is
maintained by its public applications not by
reference to some template in the brain.
Wittgenstein maintained that this also holds for
words like "pain" which do not apply to public
objects: their meaning is maintained by
sociological interactions involving use of the word.
It follows that semantics is embedded in an
enormous variety of discourses and so cannot be
algorithmic.
A further argument that meaning cannot be
achieved by purely algorithmic processes is due to
the mathematician Roger Penrose. His argument
depends on the famous demonstration by Godel
that any reasonably sophisticated system of
axioms gives rise to statements that are obviously
true but cannot be proved to be true within the
particular system generated by the axioms. One
can "see" that the statement is not formally
provable within the system. As a consequence,
Penrose claims that the concept of mathematical
truth cannot be encapsulated in any formalistic
scheme. If this is true then no formal system of
syntax can give rise to understanding, such as in
the above case of identifying the truth of the
Max R. Bennett
Figure 8. Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951).
statement. A computer or a neural network in our
brains, which is following a formal set of rules,
cannot then understand. This lies outside the
system.
THE PROBLEM OF A NEURONAL BASIS FOR QUALIA:
EDELMAN AND DENNETT.
The attempt to incorporate qualia into an
algorithmic procedure is much more difficult to
conceive of than the possibility that syntactical or
even semantic processes are algorithmic. The
awareness of your mother in a room, sitting at her
sowing, may involve qualia of movement,
particular colours, the sound of her voice and the
smell of her perfume. Such memories may be
SYNTAX, SEMANTICS AND QUALIA 9
Figure 9. Qualia and the neocortex. The question is
can the qualia associated with an auditory cortex
listening to a fugue in Leipzig at the time of Bach
(Leipziger auditory cortex in the upper panel) be
reconstructed in the cortex of a contemporary
listener in Boston (Bostonian auditory cortex in
the lower panel) . Dennett claims that a list of the
differences between the two periods and places,
4
although very long, is possible. It is feasible then
for the Bostonion brain to possess the qualia of the
Bach fugue experienced by the Leipziger brain. This
idea is refuted by Wittgenstein, who has shown
that an infinite number of differences are
involved, which are furthermore peculiar to each
individual at any time.
10
. G
Wy iy J
ty OC Ae,
Yi heyy, 94 Le,
Ye iY My, wi
GY ZTG a
Z sa
hy Be 2
Figure 10. The neocortex is viewed by Dennett as a
parallel computational processor of algorithms.
The algorithms are each implemented in series by
neurones in the neocortex. The location of some of
the parallel processors associated with the
implementation systems of audition, vision,
movement and touch are indicated. Consciousness
is then regarded as the computational process
itself. According to Searle, however, these
computations are not intrinsic properties of the
brain but are observer dependent; that is the
experimentalist chooses the particular sets of
Synapses and neurones that he believes could
stored in the parietal cortex and the temporal
lobes, where they have been built up over a huge
number of experiences involving your mother in
different sociological settings since the time you
were born. It was a triumph of seventeenth
century physics to rid qualia from objects for the
purposes of describing their intrinsic properties,
such as weight and temperature, which could be
used as variables in different physical laws. Qualia
are an essential ingredient of consciousness. The
elimination of qualia for the purposes of reporting
on those properties of an object that are useful in
Max R. Bennett
carry out the computation which realizes the
algorithm which is very different from measuring
intrinsic properties such as the temperature of the
neurones. Furthermore, Searle uses the Chinese
Room argument to show that meaning cannot
arise from within an algorithmic process itself; this
can only be ascribed to the person that designed:
the algorithm in the first place. If the brain is a
parallel computational processor then according
to Searle the meaning of these computations can.
only arise from outside the processors.
the formulation or carrying out of so-called
physical laws is to eliminate mind from nature.
Wittgenstein pointed out that it is not possible to
have knowledge of what we call qualia without
consideration of the sociological setting in which
this knowledge is obtained. In the words of
Edelman," One cannot render obvious to a
hypothetical qualia-free animal what qualia are by
any linguistic description."
It is possible, according to Dennett, to
reconstruct qualia if they are merely "dispositional
SYNTAX, SEMANTICS AND QUALIA 11
states of the brain". In this case qualia could be
incorporated into algorithmic processes. For
example the brain may consider information
about wine in the form of taste, colour and smell.
The disposition for a particular preference could
be genetically built into the wiring of our neurones
through evolutionary pressures; for example the
colour red may give a complex of conflicting
emotional responses, arising from now largely
redundant genetic information that red fruit is
good and red snakes are bad. A more complex
example, which attempts to face up to the
criticisms of Wittgenstein, involves consideration
of the qualia experienced when listening to a Bach
fugue. An attempt is made to contrast the qualia
of a middle-class person from Leipzig listening to a
fugue at the time of Bach with that of a middle-
class Bostonian listening now (Figure 9). Dennett
Suggests that if a list is made of the differences
between these periods and places, then it should
be possible to interchange the qualia associated
with the fugue between the two periods and
places. However Wittgenstein, Searle and Edelman
have indicated that there are an effectively
infinite number of such differences which are
unique to an individual's experiences. Qualia
cannot then be objectified in this way. They
cannot be accompanied within a theory that
draws up lists for each person of their entire life's
experiences, embedded as this is in language and a
unique sociology.
To what extent then has neuroscience
illuminated our understanding of syntax,
semantics and qualia? Neuroscientists certainly
assume that the early processing of sensory
information, like that giving directional selectivity
in the retina, is syntactical. Furthermore that
algorithms can be found which carry out the
appropriate computation, and that neurones exist
which are connected up so as to carry out this
computation. Yet it must be said that at this time
Searle's criticism of syntax as involving the
execution of algorithms holds: no complete
Synaptic wiring diagram of a set of neurones
subserving the implementation of an algorithm
has been obtained; all wiring diagrams to this time
assume that anatomical synaptic connections are
functional. This is very unlikely. Therefore Searle's
criticism concerning the subjective routine
followed in the choice of synapses involved in
integrative processes has not been refuted. As far
as semantics is concerned, the claim that meaning
arises from the computational process enacted in
solving an algorithm seems to be refuted by the
Chinese Room argument. Neuroscience at present
has nothing to say about meaning. It may arise at
levels of the neocortex that are so far removed
from what we do know something about, namely
the neural basis or early sensory processing, that it
is as yet beyond neuroscience.
Neuroscience may have something to say about
qualia. The neocortex contains different areas each
specialized for dealing with different senses such
as vision, audition, touch (somatosensory) as well
as with distinguishing the sounds for different
words (Wernicke's area) and with many other
processes (Figure 10). There is some evidence to
suggest that memories associated with a particular
sensory modality are eventually stored in areas of
the neocortex that are closely associated with that
modality. For example, memory for a particular
face is stored in the inferior temporal lobe, the
area of the neocortex concerned with visually
identifying objects. The possibly arises then that
the qualia associated with your mother, such as
her complexion, the sound of her voice and the
smell of her perfume, are stored respectively in the
visual cortex, the auditory cortex and the olfactory
cortex. The many other qualia with which you
identify your mother would likewise be stored in
the appropriate part of the cortex, depending on
the modality involved. In this way different
components of the immense number of
experiences you have participated in with her
would be maintained in a distributed set of
modules throughout the cortex. Your feelings and
sensations about your mother would then require
that these modules be activated in parallel. What
the mechanism is for such activation and more
importantly, how such a distributed system could
12 Max R. Bennett
give rise to the holistic experience of a set of
mother qualia, is considered in the next paper.
References.
Dennett,D.C.,1991,CONSCIOUSNESS EXPLAINED.
Penguin Press,New York.
Edelman,G.M., 1989. NEURAL DARWINISM. THE
THEORY OF NEURONAL GROUP SELECTION. Oxford
University Press, Oxford.
Searle,J., 1992. THE REDISCOVERY OF THE MIND.
M.I.T. Press,Boston.
The Neurobiology Laboratory,
Department of Physiology,
University of Sydney,
N.S.W. 2006,
Australia.
(Manuscript received 29-11-1994)
Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.128, 13-28,1995 13
ISSN 0035-9173/95/010013-28 $4.00/1
THE BINDING PROBLEM AND CONSCIOUSNESS
Neuroscience of Attention
Max R. Bennett
When viewing an attractive scene, such as a
garden, one is aware of particular trees, shrubs and
perhaps even flowers. It is extraordinary that we
can attend to just these named objects in the
garden amongst the enormous number of visual
impressions that our retinas receive from the scene.
For there is nothing really to distinguish the
photons which reach our retinas from say the bark
on a tree and those from the shrubs surrounding it.
What is it then that allows us to experience the tree
as an holistic structure? What neural processes bind
together its trunk, boughs and leaves into a single
entity which is readily identifiable from the
surrounding and sometimes partially enveloping
shrubs? This is referred to as the binding problem.
Clearly the binding problem can be considered at
other levels of holistic experiences. For example, a
breeze may occur that produces a rustle as it passes
over the leaves of the tree. In this case we may be
conscious of both the visual identity of the tree,
involving our visual cortex, as well as the sound of
the rustle of its leaves, involving our auditory
cortex. How is it in this case that we have an holistic
experience which involves two quite different areas
of our brains? This essay is concerned with what
solutions to the binding problem are now offered
by neuroscience.
NEURONAL GROUPS AND 40 Hz OSCILLATIONS.
Thomas Young (Figurel) conceived the idea that
the neocortex might be thought of as being made
up largely of neuronal groups. A neuronal group is
a set of neurones in the neocortex which possess a
very large number of synapses that interconnect
the individual neurones in the group. This large
number of intrinsic connections is in contrast to the
relatively sparse number of synapses in the group
that brings in extrinsic connections from other
nearby groups or from distant groups elsewhere in
the neocortex (Figure2). A neuronal group can be
identified functionally by means of electrical
recordings. An electrode placed outside of the
neurones in some part of the neocortex records a
field potential, which is the cumulative effect due to
the separate impulses firing in the group of
neurones within a short distance of the electrode
(Figure3, first trace); another electrode is now
placed inside a neurone, near the first electrode; if
the impulse firing of this neurone is at the same
frequency as that of the local field potential and
occurs in phase with this field potential, then we
are recording from a neurone within a neuronal
group (Figure3, third trace).
Gerald Edelman has argued at length that
neuronal groups are to be considered as building
blocks in the solution of binding problems. The
very large number of horizontal connections
between different parts of the neocortex are
considered by him to subserve reciprocal
connections between neuronal groups. Such
recurrent horizontal connections occur both
between groups within a selected modality as well
as between modalities. For example, the neuronal
groups may be in the same area of the visual cortex
(Figure4). They may be in different areas of the
visual cortex. They may even be in different
hemispheres, such as the visual cortex in each
hemisphere, connected by the very large number of
axons that join the two hemispheres called the
corpus callosum. Neuronal groups may also be
connected across different modalities ; for example
vision and touch ( in the somatosensory cortex;
Figure4).
NEURONAL GROUPS PARTICIPATE IN SOLUTION OF
THE BINDING PROBLEM IN VISUAL CORTEX
14 Max R. Bennett
Figure 1. Thomas Young (1773-1829)
Wolfgang Singer has provided evidence that there
is a dynamic coupling of appropriate neuronal
groups in the neocortex with the solution of a
binding problem. Consider, for example, two
vertically orientated light bars moving at the same
speed in the same direction past the eyes. There will
be a tendency for these to appear as a single object,
that is bound together as one. Each of these bars at
a particular time excites two different neuronal
groups in the visual cortex (Figure4), each
connected with the appropriate parts of the retina
that are being excited by one of the bars. The
photomicrograph in Figure5 shows the position of
two such neuronal groups in the visual cortex of a
cat: the black areas in this flat mount of the surface
of the cortex indicate columns of neurones, of
ELECTRODE
IN celtr.
EXTRINSIC INPUTS
FROM LGN AND OLTINATELY
FROM “HE RETINA oF “THE EYE
Figure 2. Diagram illustrating the synaptic
connectivity of neurones that constitute neuronal
groups. Neurones within a particular group are
identified by the large number of synaptic
connections between the members of the group in
comparison with the relatively low number of
connections between groups. Extrinsic connections
from sources that are a long way away from the
groups in question are also shown. These extrinsic
connections could come ultimately from the retina,
so that the neuronal groups shown are in the visual
cortex.
which only the tops are shown, that are particularly
responsive to vertical contours. Microelectrodes are
placed in the neuronal groups positioned at the
white arrows about 7mm apart on the cortex and
these record the oscillatory responses to the
movement of the white bars as shown in A ( and on
an expanded time scale in B). The oscillatory field
potential in one neuronal group, which gives a
measure of the common impulse activity amongst
Neuroscience of Attentio1 15
the neurones within the group, fires at the same
frequency (about 40Hz) and in phase with the field
potential in the other neuronal group, even though
this is 7mm away. No such coupled firing would be
expected for neuronal groups at such a distance.
The experience that the two light bars are one
object is correlated with the fact that the neuronal
groups in the visual cortex that are excited
independently by images of each of the bars on the
retina are joined in a dynamic way, as indicated by
a common frequency and phase of their neuronal
firing. This is an example of the transient excitatory
coupling of two neuronal groups within the same
area of neocortex, in this case visual area V (see
Figure4).
Singer has also shown that there is
interhemispheric synchronization of activity in the
visual cortex when a binding problem is being
solved for a visual object. Suppose a single light bar
is sufficient to stimulate three different neuronal
groups in the visual cortex of one hemisphere that
are about 1mm apart (Figure 6A); the
synchronization of the impulse firing and the phase
of this firing, as measured by three different
electrodes, can be shown by means of what is called
an cross-correlogram (Figure 6B); if a periodic
pattern is discernible in the cross-correlogram then
this indicates that the signals are correlated and
gives information as to the common frequency and
phase in the correlation (Figure 6B). The cross-
correlograms for the recordings from the three
electrodes in either hemisphere show a strong
oscillatory modulation in the same frequency range
of about 40Hz, even though they may be separated
by as much as 2mm (Figure 6B). Cross-correlograms
of the recordings from electrodes in both
hemispheres show similar correlations to that in.
Figure3B indicating that both hemispheres
participate in the solution of the binding problem
for the single white bar. This is not the case
however if the group of axons that join the two
hemispheres (the so-called corpus callosum) is cut.
The cross-correlogram for recordings from the two
hemispheres is now devoid of any periodic pattern
and is flat (Figure 6C), indicating that the firing of
neuronal groups due to the light bar in each of the
Multi unit activity (MUA)
and local field potential (LFP)
re
“oN
ie pV
100 pV
500 ms
20 ms
Figure 3. Neuronal groups can be identified
functionally using recording electrodes.The first
trace shows recordings with an electrode placed
within a cluster of neurones; in this case the
electrode records the summed electrical impulse
firing from all the neurones in its vicinity, called a
field potential. In the second trace another
electrode is placed inside a neurone so that it only
records the impulse firing from the impaled cell; it
will be noted that there is heightened activity at the
same time in both the first and second traces.The
third trace shows a small segment of the second
trace on an expanded time scale; it is now evident
that the field potential is oscillating at about 40 Hz,
that is the neurones in the vicinity of the electrode
must be firing at this frequency and in phase; this is
confirmed by the fourth trace, that shows the
individual impulses in the impaled neurone which
are firing in very fast bursts at intervals of about 25
ms, that is at 40 Hz. Data from Singer,1991.
16 Max R. Bennett
y Audition _
Figure 4. Some neuronal groups (indicated by
clusters of dots) are shown on a side view of the
brain. The very large number of horizontal synaptic
connections between the myriads of neuronal
groups in the neocortex are not shown. Sets of
groups are shown, however, in the visual cortex , in
the auditory cortex , and in the touch
(somatosensory) cortex.
Figure 5. Synchronized neuronal firing of two
different groups of neurones in the visual cortex of
a cat (area 17) during the observation of two
vertically oriented light bars moving with the same
speed and in the same direction. The bars are
sufficiently far apart to be seen by two quite
different parts of the retina which project to two
neuronal groups in the visual cortex that are 7mm
apart (as indicated on the photomicrograph of the
surface of the visual cortex by the arrows).
Recordings made with electrodes placed in the
vicinity of these two neuronal groups are shown in
A. The average impulse firing of the neurones in
each of the groups (as shown by the field n
potentials) is oscillatory. B, shows on an expanded Pari
time scale that the oscillations of the two groups is _|150 uv __|150 uv
at 40 Hz and that they are in phase. It is predicted aggrme ae
that these two light bars would then appear as a way. Data in the photomicrograph from Siegrid
coherent object to the cat as the neuronal groups Lowel; electrophysiological data from Gray and
excited by them are coupled in their firing in this Singer, 1991.
Neuroscience of Attention 7
Within hemisphere
2-3
4-6
"
5-6
[38
200
-80 0 +80
Time (ms)
Inter hemisphere
1-4 =
@
Q
E
=]
2-4 S
2)
@®
=
1-6 a
60
2-6 a
200
100
#1) 0 +80
Time (ms)
Figure 6. Synchronized neuronal firing of three
different groups of neurones in each hemisphere of
the visual cortex of a cat. (A), shows the position of
three electrodes in area 17 of each hemisphere; the
distance between the electrodes is about 1mm, and
each electrode is given a number. (B), shows the
cross-correlograms for the field recordings of pairs
of neuronal group activity indicated by the
electrode positions 1-3,2-3,4-6,5-6; the oscillatory
responses are synchronized within each
hemisphere, even though two of the neuronal
groups recorded from are 2 mm apart; the
correlograms show that the synchronized frequency
is about 40 Hz. (C), the cross-correlograms between
the activity of neuronal groups in different
hemispheres (pairs 1-4,2-4,1-6,2-6) show no
temporal correlations when the corpus callosum has
been cut, that is the correlograms are flat (the
corpus callosum is a group of axons which allows
the activity in one hemisphere to be conveyed to
the other); this is in contrast to cross-correlograms
between the activity of neuronal groups in different
hemispheres before the corpus callosum is cut,
which show 40Hz synchronized activity like that in
B. Data from Engel,Konig, Kreiter and Singer,1991.
FX, (c-Tiey Wwe
(Jie F (Xe(t Tey)
Xe (t)
ie(c)
Figure 7. Modelling of a neuronal group by a
delayed non-linear oscillator. This figure shows an
excitatory unit (+) with an excitatory synaptic
connection to an inhibitory unit (-) which in turn
has an inhibitory synaptic connection back onto the
excitatory unit; in addition there is an extrinsic
input to the excitatory element. The symbols on the
units and their connections refer to the following
properties which these have: xe(t) indicates the
activity of the excitatory unit; xj(t) indicates the
activity of the inhibitory unit; F(x) gives the output
function of a unit; wej gives the strength of the
synapse from the excitatory unit to the inhibitory
unit; wie gives the strength of the synapse from the
inhibitory unit to the excitatory unit; Tej gives the
time delay built into the connection between the
excitatory unit and the inhibitory unit; Tie the time
delay between the inhibitory unit and the
excitatory unit; ie(t) indicates the extrinsic input to
the element. This element will oscillate at a
characteristic frequency determined by the values
of the parameters. Data from Konig and Schillen,
1991.
18 Max R. Bennett
hemispheres is no longer correlated. The corpus
callosum then mediates the dynamic connections
between the two hemispheres that most likely
participate in the solution of the binding problem.
MECHANISMS OF DYNAMIC COUPLING BETWEEN
NEURONAL GROUPS
Several plausible models are now available that
explain how dynamic coupling between neuronal
groups might arise during solution of the binding
problem by the neocortex. For simplicity a neuronal
group may be modelled as a single oscillatory
element, like that shown in Figure7. This element
oscillates as a consequence of the coupling of an
excitatory unit, that is one that only forms
excitatory connections, with an inhibitory unit,
namely one that only forms inhibitory connections;
each of the connections possesses delays built into
them. An input element allows for extrinsic
connections to the oscillatory element. Activity of a
single oscillatory element depends on the delay
time in the connections, on the level of input from
the extrinsic element, and on the strength of the
coupling which each connection makes with a unit
in the element. These elements are referred to as
delayed non-linear oscillators.
Synchronization between oscillatory elements in a
layer, equivalent to synchronizing the activity
between neuronal groups across a part of the
neocortex, is achieved by coupling the excitatory
unit of one element with the inhibitory unit of
another (Figure8). Consider, for example, a set of
elements laied out in a rectangular matrix of 14 by
7 elements. At first all the inhibitory connections
between the elements have been made but none of
the excitatory connections; in addition, the
oscillatory activity of each element (for which T1 is
the period length of oscillation of an isolated
element) is desynchronized by a noisy extrinsic
input. Figure 9 shows the activity of 20 units chosen
at random from the matrix both before excitatory
connections are made between nearest-neighbour
elements in the matrix (time less thanO) and after
the connections are made. Note that the elements
become synchronized on making the excitatory
synaptic connections, despite the high noise level
being maintained (Figure9). This effect can also be
illustrated by means of an activity-phase map, like
that shown in Figure10: each circle represents an
element in the 14 by 7 matrix, with the diameter of
the circle proportional to the activity of the element
and the degree of shading proportional to the
oscillation phase. The upper matrix shows the
elements under conditions of excitatory coupling of
adjacent elements; under these conditions
maximum activity is observed for each element and
they are all in phase; when these excitatory
connections are broken, the activity of most of the
elements declines and they are mostly out of phase,
as shown in the lower matrix. This example shows
how the appropriate coupling of inherently
oscillatory elements leads to maximizing their
activity and brings them all into phase, a necessary
condition for a correct model of the dynamic
coupling of neuronal groups.
How then do these delayed non-linear oscillators
provide insights into the solution of the binding
problem? Consider a two-dimensional array of such
elements,coupled together by excitatory
connections, each representing a neuronal group;
these groups might be taken to analyze in visual
cortex a small part of the visual scene projecting
onto a small part of the retina (Figurel1). The
effect of coherency in the stimulation of different
members of these elements, giving rise in a real
cortex to synchronization of their activity
associated with the solution of a binding problem, is
considered for two short light bars; these are taken
to provide extrinsic excitation of the elements
shown in Figures11 A and B; note that the light bars
are at different distances apart in A and B. Another
example is provided by a continuous light bar equal
in length to the two short bars (Figure11C).
Figures11D,E and F show the cross-correlations for
the numbered elements in Figures11A,B and C
respectively: The dashed line shows the cross-
correlation within the stimulus bar segments
(numbers 1-2 and 3-4 in Figures11 A,B and C) and
the continuous line the cross-correlations between
the bar segments (numbers 2-3). The cross-
correlations between bar segments are equivalent to
Neuroscience of Attention
stimulus coherency, that is the two bar segments
are bound together as one object. It will be noted
that this occurs most strongly for the light bar
segments when they are reasonably close together,
as in Figurel11B, and shown by the large size of the
cross-correlation in Figure11E (continuous line for
numbers 2-3). When the bar segments are relatively
far apart, as in Figure 11A, the cross-correlation is
very small (Figure 11D; continuous line for
numbers 2-3). The cross-correlation for the
numbers within both the short bar segments as well
as the long bar segments is always high (that is for
numbers 1-2 and 3-4). This example shows that
correlated impulse firing of neuronal groups that
are separated in space may be expected if there is
some form of stimulus coherency.
ATTENTIONAL MECHANISMS SUBSERVING THE
BINDING PROBLEM.
Although mechanisms of the kind described
above may be involved in the solution of the
binding problem, they do not necessarily provide
an explanation of how it is that we attend toa
particular object in our visual field. There may be a
number of different objects in the visual field, the
SSS ee
fan ee ee
-}
J
get os eae
|
EXTRINSIC INPOT
19
images of each falling on our retina; the visual
neocortex may then solve the binding problem for
each of these but what then is the mechanism
involved in the process of attending to only one of
these objects? The mechanism of selective attention
is well illustrated by the experiment shown in
Figure 12. Recordings are made of the electrical
activity of a neurone in part of the monkey
neocortex that subserves vision; the neurone fires
impulses when the image of an object falls over any
part of a fairly large area of the retina, indicated by
the large dotted rectangle in the Figure; this area is
called the receptive field of the neurone. A red bar
(hatched bar in Figurel2) presented anywhere over
the area of this receptive field produced vigorous
firing of the neurone, whereas a green bar (open
bar in Figurel 2) failed to excite the neurone at all.
The animal was then taught to attend to different
locations within the receptive field, using an
appropriate reward procedure. In the first
experiment, the monkey attended to the location of
the red bar (the attention being indicated in
Figurel2 by a searchlight), whilst a green bar was
also introduced into the receptive field; under these
conditions the neurone fired vigorously, as shown
in the lower part of Figurel 2A. In the second
experiment, the monkey was taught to attend to the
location of the green bar, so ignoring the location of
the red bar that was still maintained within the
Figure 8. Modelling of the horizontal connections
between neuronal groups by coupled delayed non-
linear oscillators. In this case synchronization
between elements can be obtained by synaptic
connections between the excitatory unit of one
element and the inhibitory unit of another. Figure
after Konig and Schillen, 1991.
20 Max R. Bennett
- 5T 0 . 15T
Time
SHeSosees
SC SSS608300866 |
@--@-+++.e@:@ee
@e e¢ee@: @» -@°6
@@eG@xeo-- + -r»*O@dS
, s+ @-@-$e-@- oy
a. @-@2 @G@S@ ~- »-@e@--
o»:-@$9@0e@-+@-#v-s
e@e-:-«@«@e--+=@OQ
receptive field (Figure12B); in this case the neurone
fired at a much lower rate (lower part of Figure 2),
even though the red bar was still within the
receptive field of the neurone and might then be
expected to give rise to vigorous firing of the
neurone. It is clear that lack of attention to the
location of the red bar greatly decreased the rate of
firing of the neurone. This experiment shows that
neuronal mechanisms that are responsible for
Figure 9. The activity of 20 delayed non-linear
oscillator units (each representing a neuronal
group) chosen at random from a two-dimensional
matrix of 14 by 7 coupled elements (which may be
considered to be representing a large array of
neuronal groups, for example in the visual cortex).
This graph shows that if the excitatory connection
between elements is not connected, and there is a
high noise input from an extrinsic element, then
activity of the 20 chosen elements is highly
desynchronized (if T is taken as the length of the
period of oscillation of an isolated element, then the
desynchronized time is taken from -ST to O). At
time O these connections were made and all 20
elements started to oscillate together in phase. Data
from Konig and Schillen, 1991.
Figure 10. An activity phase map of all 14 by 7
non-linear oscillator elements (or neuronal groups).
The diameter of each circle is proportional to the
activity level of the unit and the shading gives the
phase of the activity. When all the nearest
neighbour excitatory couplings are made between
nearest neighbour elements ( of which there are 8
for each element) then all elements fire with
maximum activity and all are in phase (upper
matrix). When these connections are broken, the
activity of many of the elements falls to near zero,
and those that remain active are generally out of
phase (lower matrix). Data from Konig and Schillen,
1991.
attention must be engaged, possibly in addition to
those that solve the binding problem, in order for a
neurone that is involved in high-order visual
processing to fire impulses at an optimal rate.
We have seen that reciprocal connections between
neuronal groups in neocortex can lead to 40Hz
synchronized oscillations of action potential firing
in a particular set of groups that are solving a
Neuroscience of Attention 21
Figure 11. The effect of stimulus coherency on the
activity of a matrix of non-linear oscillator units
(representing coupled neuronal groups in the visual
cortex). (A), shows the array of elements that are
excited by extrinsic inputs representing two light
bars; these are three elements apart and have
numbered elements 1/2 and 3/4 respectively.(B),
shows the array of elements that are also excited by
two light bars but this time they are only two
elements apart and have numbers 1/2 and 3/4 as
before. (C), shows a single white bar of the same
binding problem. What then are the mechanisms
that determine which particular solutions of the
binding problem will be attended to and not others.
This is equivalent to asking, in the case of visual
phenomena, what objects in the visual field for
which the binding problem has been solved in
neocortex will be allowed to reach consciousness?
Francis Crick has suggested that the attentional
mechanism for this process is centred in the
thalamus. The sensory inputs to the neocortex arise
from the thalamus (Figurel3). The principal
total length as the two single bars with elements
1/2 and 3/4 as before. (D), (E) and (F) give the
cross-correlations between elements 1/2 and 3/4
within the bars (dashed line) and between elements
2/3 between the bars (continuous line) for each of
(A), (B) and (C) respectively. Note that the cross-
correlations are very strong between the separate
bars even when they are seperated by two non-
excited elements (B). Data from Konig and Schillen,
1991.
neurones of the thalamus in turn receive
connections from such sources of sensory
information as the retina. The principal neurones in
the thalamus are surrounded by a concentric layer
of neurones called the reticular complex; this
receives connections from the neocortex as well as
from axons that leave the thalamus on their way to
the neocortex (Figurel 3). Most importantly, these
reticular neurones make connections with the
principal neurones of the thalamus that are only
inhibitory (Figure13). Within the thalamus itself
22 | Max R. Bennett
FIX
t re
@ -— RF
'
S
Ges
EFFECTIVE
NY SENSORY
STIMULUS
INEFFECTIVE
SENSORY.
STIMULUS
Figure 12. The effect of selective attention on the
firing of a neurone in the visual cortex of a monkey.
This neurone fires impulses when certain visual
phenomena fall on any part of the area of the retina
indicated by the large broken rectangle. One of
these is a vertical red bar (hatched rectangle);
however the neurone does not fire at all if the
image of a vertical green bar (open rectangle) falls
onto this part of the retina. If the monkey is taught
to attend to the area indicated by the circle
(searchlight) as in (A), which includes the red bar,
there is another set of neurones, called the pulvinar
(Figurel3), which also receives connections from
the neocortex as well as projecting extensively to
the neocortex; these pulvinar neurones, like those
of the reticular complex, make inhibitory
connections with the principal neurones of the
thalamus. Crick has argued that if we are conscious
of a particular aspect of the visual field, such as
our mother's face, then an attentional mechanism is
operating that involves the reticular complex and
the pulvinar. Neurones in these structures depress
the sensory input from the thalamus to the
neocortex that is not relevant to solving the binding
problem concerning your mothers face. The
then the neurone in the visual cortex fires at a high
rate as shown in (A). If, however, the monkey is
taught to attend to a different area which this time
includes the green bar as in (B) then the firing of
the neurone falls well below the maximum rate,
even though the red bar is still being projected qnto
this part of the retina (B). Attention to the red bar
is required in addition to it being in the correct part
of the retina in order for this neurone to fire off at
a high rate. Data from Moran and Desimone, 1985.
neuronal groups in visual neocortex that are solving
this problem are therefore given an excitatory
advantage over those solving other binding
problems as a consequence of the activity of the
principal neurones in the thalamus.
The discovery of principal neurones in the
thalamus that fire impulses in the frequency range
from 30 Hz to 40 Hz, and which possess an
underlying rhythmicity of about this frequency
(Figurel4), does much to support the idea that the
thalamus participates in the generation of 40Hz
oscillations in the neocortex. Further support for
the idea comes from studies on patients with
Neuroscience of Attention 23
_| COMPLEX
a 2
y
ps ee a
RETICULAR
Figure 13. Sensory inputs to the neocortex, such as
vision, must project through the thalamus ( with
the exception of the sense of smell). This involves
these inputs first connecting to principal neurones
in the thalamus; these neurones in turn make
connections with the input neurones in the
neocortex as shown. Sets of neurones in or around
the thalamus called the reticular complex neurones
and the pulvinar neurones also connect to the
principal neurones of the thalamus, as shown. The
reticular and pulvinar neurones have the effect of
inhibiting the principal neurones, so decreasing the
activity of these due to the sensory inputs.
Furthermore, the reticular and pulvinar neurones
receive inputs themselves from the neocortex, as
well as from the brain stem, as shown. These
neurones are therefore under both neocortical and
brainstem control, so that these regions of the brain
can modulate the input of sensory information
from the thalamus to the neocortex. Diagram partly
from Crick, 1984.
—55mV
Figure 14. Electrical recordings from two principal
neurones in the thalamus showing that these have
intrinsic impulse firing rates of about 40 Hz. (A)
and (B) show that there is an oscillation of the
baseline potential in these neurones (each
oscillation is called a prepotential, one of which is
indicated in (B) by an arrow) that occurs at about
40 Hz. These oscillations are sometimes large
enough to fire impulses, two of which are indicated
by *. These results suggest that at least part of the
40 Hz oscillations recorded in the neocortex arise
from this kind of oscillatory activity in the
thalamus. Data from steriade, Dossi, Pare and
Oaksen, 1991.
24 Max R. Bennett
1100
1000
3900
800
700
Reaction time (ms)
600
pean e
500
DAMAGED
Not DRMAGED
if J
200 400
i. 1 fi
600 800 1000
Cue-target interval (ms)
Figure 15. Evidence that the thalamus contains
neurones that are necessary for attentional
behavour. This graph shows the reaction times of
patients with damage to the reticular complex or
the pulvinar on one side of their brain (filled
squares). This is compared with the reaction times
when the side of the brain that is not injured is
engaged in the measurement (filled circles). The
horizontal axis indicates the interval between
damage to the reticular complex or the pulvinar.
Defects in attention are readily discerned in such
patients. For example, the reaction times of such
patients to the site of a particular target presented
at random times after presentation of a clue may be
used to determine an attentional deficit. Figure 15
shows the results of such an experiment: the
vertical axis on the graph shows the patients'
reaction times to respond to visual targets, and the
horizontal axis gives the intervals between
presentation of the cues and that of the targets. If
presenting a cue and that of a target to be
identified at a random interval later; the vertical
axis gives the reaction time between the
presentation of the target and its identification by
the patient. The reaction times are several hundred
milliseconds longer for patients with thalamic
injuries.
the cue-target combination was presented to the
part of the visual field subserved by the injured
thalamus the reaction time was always about one-
fifth of a second slower than when the cue-target
combination was presented to the part of the visual
field subserved by the normal thalamus on the
other side of the brain (Figure 15). This was the
case no matter what the interval between
presentation of the cue and that of the target
(Figurel15). Attentional mechanisms appear to
involve the reticular complex and the pulvinar of
ZS
Neuroscience of Attention
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thalamus, the locus coeruleus neurones the
Figure 16. Brain stem sets of neurones that project
to the reticular complex and the pulvinar of the
transmitter noradrenaline and the peribrachial
neurones the transmitter acetylcholine. Brain stem
thalamus. This medial view of the brain shows the
neurones are associated with determining the
tion, the raphe
sets of brain stem neurones in ques
general levels of excitability of the thalamus and
nucleus (RN) and the locus coeruleus (LC) (with
therefore of the cortex, such as that associated with
the sleep/wake cycle.
ial nucleus not shown)
another set, the peribrach
The raphe neurones secrete the transmitter
substance serotonin from their terminals in the
thalamus participate in attentional mechanisms in
this way, then what determines which particular
the thalamus in humans as well as in other animals
as Crick first suggested. Crick called his theory of
attention the searchlight hypothesis, as
groups of neurones in these regions of the thalamus
are active? Put another way, what determines that
In a sense
the reticular complex and the pulvinar promote
we attend to a particular object over another in our
visual field, this attending process requiring the
enhanced activity of just a particular set of
only a small proportion of the activity that reaches
the thalamus on its way to neocortex: this increased
activity can then be likened to a searchlight that
lights up a part of the neocortex. The patches of
neurones in the reticular complex and the pulvinar
of the thalamus? The brain stem, at the top of the
neocortex that are solving binding problems for the
objects attended to will then possess much greater
spinal cord, contains three groups of neurones that
t to the reticular complex, and which have a
projec
ty than other patches. A final set of coherent
oscillations then emerges only for those neuronal
groups which the searchl
ivi
act
powerful modulating effect on the neurones there.
These groups of neurones belong to the locus
These
ight has sought out.
coeruleus, the raphe nucleus and the peribrachial
nucleus (Figurel6). The neurones in these groups
release from their nerve endings the transmitters
then constitute consciousness of the attended
objects.
If the reticular complex and pulvinar of the
26
ee
+108
Control]
Fg.'7
Figure 17. Evidence that brain stem neurones
participate in the generation of 40 Hz oscillatory
impulse firing in the neocortex. (A), shows twenty
separate power spectra of electroencephalogram
recordings taken from the neocortex (over a part
called the suprasylvian gyrus); the frequency range
about 40 Hz gives the maximum size waveform,
indicating that most of the impulse firing cells are
discharging at this frequency; the first ten records
(from -10 to O) are controls whereas the next ten
records (from O to 10) are taken during stimulation
of the brain stem parabrachial neurones, which
increased the size of the 40 Hz oscillations. (B),
shows another twenty recordings, taken under the
same conditions as those in (A), but when the
effects of transmitter release in the thalamus from
the brain stem neurones is blocked with the drug
scopolamine; in this case the 40 Hz oscillations are
20 40 60Hz
fe)
20 40 60Hz
ie)
Max R. Bennett
Global Map = Consciousness
Neuronal groups at 40 Hz
Brain Stem and Neocortex
Hypothalamus
Amygdala and Hippocampus lj
Frontal Temporal and Parietal Cortex
EDELMAN
Consciousness
Neurones at 40 Hz
Thalamic reticular complex and pulvinar
Frg 18
virtually wiped out in both the control condition (
from -10 to O) as well as during stimulation of the
brain stem (from O to 10). Data from Steriade,
Curro Dossi, Pare and Oakson, 1991.
Figure 18. Comparison of the ideas of Edelman and
Crick for generating consciousness. In both cases
consciousness consists of groups of neurones in the
neocortex that have the same temporal firing
properties at a particular moment in time, with
emphasis placed on the phase matching of 40Hz
oscillations. In the case of Crick, the choice of a
particular group of neurones results from an
interaction between the brain stem, thalamic
reticular complex/pulvinar and the neocortex itself.
In the case of Edelman a similar scheme is
envisaged, but with more emphasis on the memory
systems associated with emotional experiences (in
the amygdala) and with declarative memory (in the
hippocampus). The small arrow-heads indicate the
direction of interaction between the different parts
of the brain, with the large arrow-heads showing
the final pathway for the selection of the neurones
that give rise to consciousness.
CRICK
Neuroscience of Attention 21
noradrenaline, serotonin and acetylcholine
respectively. Experimental evidence which shows
that these pathways mediate the firing of the 40 Hz
oscillations in the cortex associated with the
solution of the binding problem and with
attentional mechanisms is shown in Figurel 7.
Electrodes are placed over a part of the neocortex in
order to record the electroencephalogram (EEG);
this gives a measure of the extent to which
neurones are firing impulses at different
frequencies in neocortex. Figurel 7 shows that
frequencies at about 40 Hz are the most common
and that the number of neurones that fire impulses
at this rate (given by the amplitude of the 40 Hz
waveform) is greatly increased following
stimulation of the brainstem peribrachial neurones.
If however the action of the transmitter released by
these neurones (acetylcholine) is blocked (with the
drug scopolamine) then the number of neurones
that are firing in neocortex at 40 Hz is greatly
decreased (Figure 17); stimulation of the
peribrachial neurones now has no effect on the
number of neocortical neurones firing at 40 Hz.
Observations such as these for the other brainstem
groups of neurones mentioned confirm that the
control of the reticular complex and the pulvinar by
the brainstem determines the gating process on the
principal neurones of the thalamus. The brain stem
then appears to have a major role in determining
that the neocortex will possess neurones that are
firing at 40 Hz. It would seem natural that this
should be the case, as brain stem neurones are also
involved in controlling the sleep-wake cycle, namely
in determining the general extent of arousal of the
neocortex. Although it is clear that the brain stem
has a major excitatory effect on the gating
mechanism in the thalamus, this is not to say that
our attention is determined by the brain stem.
There are more nerves projecting from the
neocortex to the thalamus than from the thalamus
to the neocortex (Figure13). It is very likely that the
neocortical projections to the reticular complex and
the pulvinar play a major role in determining which
neurones in these areas will be activated and that
the brain stem input ensures that the neurones so
chosen are excited.
CONSCIOUSNESS AND GLOBAL MAP NEURONAL
GROUPS.
Crick's idea, then, is that the thalamic reticular
complex and the pulvinar interact with the brain
stem and neocortical mechanisms to reach a salient
decision as to which neuronal groups that are active
will be brought into consciousness by the spotlight
of attention Figure 18). Edelman has a rather
similar notion of how consciousness arises. He
refers to the neuronal groups that are participating
in the synchronous 40 Hz firing as constituting a
"global map" which at any particular time provides
the content of what he refers to as primary
consciousness. This "global map" is chosen by
interaction with the emotional centres in the
hypothalamus and brainstem through the
hippocampus; these in turn interact with the frontal
lobes, parietal cortex and temporal lobes to draw on
the memory there laid down previously by the
emotional emphasis given to previous "global
maps" (Figure 18). These parts of neocortex then
interact with the "global map neuronal groups" to
settle on the final "global map". It is this map that
constitutes consciousness. Edelman's mechanism of
choosing the final "global map" is in principle the
same as that suggested by Crick: neuronal groups in
neocortex solve different binding problems but only
a particular set of these is chosen by the spotlight
of attention, to form the final global map. The
difference between Crick and Edelman is in the
details of what parts of the brain constitute the
spotlight of attention. The important claim by both
Crick and Edelman is, of course, that the final
"global map neuronal groups" at any particular
time constitute consciousness at that time.
References
Crick,F., 1984.Function of the thalamic reticular
complex: the searchlight hypothesis. Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences of the U.S.A. ,81,
4586-4590.
28
Edelman,G., 1992. BRIGHT AIR, BRILLIANT FIRE.
Penguin Press,New York.
Engel,A.K.,Konig,P.,Kreiter,A.K. and Singer,W.,
1991.Interhemispheric synchronization of
oscillatory neuronal responses in cat visual cortex.
Science 252, 1177-1179.
Gray,C.M., and Singer,W., 1989.Stimulus specific
neuronal oscillations in orientation columns of cat
visual cortex. Proceedings of the National Academy
of Sciences of the U.S.A. ,86, 1698-1702.
Konig,P., and Schillen,T.B., 1991.Stimulus
dependent assembly formation of oscillatory
responses: Synchronization. Neural Computation 3,
155-166.
Moran,J., and Desimone,R., 1985.Selective attention
gates visual processing in the extrastriate
cortex.Science ,229, 782.
The Neurobiology Laboratory,
Department of Physiology,
University of Sydney,
N.S.W.2006,
Australia.
Max R. Bennett
Singer,W., 1991. Response synchronization of
cortical neurones: an epiphenomenon or a solution
to the binding problem? JBRO News 19, 6-7.
Steriade,M.,Curro Dossi,R.,Pare.D and Oakson,G.,
1991.Fast oscillations (20-40 Hz) in the
thalamocortical systems and their potentiation by
mesopontine cholinergic nuclei in the
cat.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
of the U.S.A., 88, 4396-4400.
(Manuscript received 29-11-1994)
Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.128, pp 29-32,1995 29
ISSN 0035-9173/95/010029-04 $4.00/1
DISCUSSION OF 'LACHLAN AND NEW ENGLAND: FOLD BELTS OF
CONTRASTING MAGMATIC AND TECTONIC DEVELOPMENT'
BY B.W. CHAPPELL
C.M. GRAY
Chappell (1994) (Journal and Proceedings of the Royal
Society of New South Wales, 127, 47-59) presents a
review of the magmatic and tectonic development of
the Lachlan and New England Orogenic Belts. The
genetic model espoused for the granitic rocks in this,
and numerous other publications, recognises
fundamentally different S- and I-type granites, such
that ‘S-type granites were effectively derived
exclusively from sedimentary material within the
crust’, and I-type granites formed ‘by fractional
melting of previously solidified mantle-derived
material’.
The main alternative view to the Chappell model is
that of Gray (1984, 1990), a postulate that granite
genesis involved a crustally-derived component, a
magma akin to the Cooma Granodiorite and formed
by melting metasedimentary rocks, which interacts
with basalt magma. In a discussion of the genesis of
granitic rocks in the Lachlan Orogenic Belt (LOB)
Chappell (1994) purports to disprove this hypothesis.
Unfortunately, Chappell misconstrues significant
parts of the Gray (1984) model and as a result his
criticism is invalid.
Chappell (1994) reiterates the important observation
that the Ca contents of typical Ordovician turbidites
are distinctly lower than those of the majority of the
LOB S-type granites, leading to the conclusion that
these sedimentary rocks cannot have been the source
material for the granites. The Gray (1984) hypothesis
is then described in the following terms. ‘Gray (1984)
argued that .... the Lachlan granites result from mixing
of basaltic material and granitic melt derived from the
melting of Ordovician sedimentary rocks', and 'melt
derived from the Ordovician sedimentary rocks, as
postulated by Gray (1984)'. Criticism takes the form,
‘Mixing of basalt with material derived from the
Ordovician sedimentary rocks would increase the Ca,
Na and Sr abundances as required, although not
necessarily by the appropriate amounts' (my italics).
These attributions to Gray (1984) are direct factual
errors. Both papers by Gray (1984, 1990) were very
carefully written to ensure that the source was not
stated to be typical exposed Ordovician turbidite.
However, when considering the Cooma Granodiorite
as the crustal end member, Chappell (1994)
compounds the error with the statement 'To make
things even more difficult, it is now commonly
accepted that the Cooma granite was not derived from
typical Ordovician sedimentary rocks ........ , but either
from relatively feldspar-rich Ordovician material, or
from unexposed older rocks of that character (Steele et
al., 1991)'. Rather, the actual source of Gray (1984) was
the high grade metasedimentary rock of the Cooma
Complex and not the low grade turbidites. Some of
these gneisses have Ca contents distinctly higher than
typical low grade turbidites and similar to those of the
Cooma Granodiorite (Munksgaard, 1988). In addition,
it was noted that the high grade rocks may have been
carried from depth diapirically by the granodiorite
(Flood and Vernon, 1978) and could be older than the
low grade sequence. This is essentially the type of
source proposed by Steele et al. (1991) and accepted by
Chappell (1994). Melting of this source gave rise to the
derivative crustal end member in the Gray (1984)
hypothesis. For the purposes of simplifying the
discussion in Gray (1984) the crustal end member was
limited to material of Cooma type. However, the end
member may vary in composition in response to
change in the nature of the metasedimentary source.
This is explicit in Gray (1984), 'The Cooma
Granodiorite (72% SiO?) will be taken as characteristic
of meta-sedimentary-derived melts for the region
recognising that this single pluton need not be
perfectly representative’; the point was reiterated in
Gray (1990). The exact meaning of the vague
Statement by Chappell (1994) italicised above
concerning the inability of basalt mixing to generate
the granite Ca, Na and Sr contents is unclear.
However, part or all of this supposed difficulty can be
accommodated by variation in source composition; it
is hoped to discuss this issue at length elsewhere.
Chappell (1994) questions the involvement of basalt
magmas in granite genesis in several ways. A further
implication of the italicised statement above is that
basalt compositions are incompatible with granite
geochemical variation. The Gray (1984) model
approached this issue using silica variation diagrams.
To the author's knowledge of the published data for
the Berridale, Kosciusko and Moruya Batholiths, all of
30 C.M. GRAY
the granites with well-defined variation trends
uninfluenced by fractionation can be projected to
valid basaltic compositions; while this does not prove
basalt involvement, it is consistent with it. It is true
that exposed Palaeozoic basalt or gabbro is rare in the
LOB and this may be a weakness of the basalt mixing
model, but is not a fatal difficulty. Chappell (1994) is
explicit in saying 'there is no direct evidence for the
basalt end-member'.* This is incorrect. The variation
diagrams for the I-type granites of the Kosciusko
Batholith of Hine et al. (1978) include a gabbro from
the region that is totally consistent with the Jindabyne
I-type suite trends for virtually all analysed elements.
Given the propensity of gabbros for fractionation and
contamination that would induce scatter in variation
trends, the agreement is startling. Hensen (pers.
comm., 1995) has identified basaltic dykes in the
Moruya Batholith with identical compositions to the
distinctive basalt type predicted from granite variation
diagrams; in this instance, the local basalt end
member is available for inspection. The presence of
mafic magma in the granite system (coexisting
gabbroic diorite and tonalite magmas) is well-
documented on a mesoscopic scale in the same
batholith (Vernon et al., 1988). Chappell (1994) also
notes that 'metaluminous enclaves that could have
been derived from ..... basaltic material are extremely
rare in the mafic S-type granites’. However, if basalt-
derived enclaves are partly hybridised or react with a
peraluminous host magma, their metaluminous
character will be lost. Fine grained, mafic, igneous-
textured enclaves that could be the product, do occur
in S-type granites.
A plot of normative corundum versus total FeO
(Chappell, 1994) [or the equivalent aluminium
saturation index (ASI defined as Alz03/CaO + Na2O +
K2O) versus total FeO (White and Chappell, 1988)] for
the Bullenbalong S-type suite has a normative
corundum (ASI) peak at intermediate FeO values (Fig.
1). The derivative statement by Chappell (1994) is,
'This is not consistent with the presence of a larger
basaltic component in the more mafic rocks’. Such a
statement should not have been left hanging as an
apparent conclusion, for a legitimate interpretation of
this diagram consistent with basalt mixing was
enunciated by Gray (1990). This alternative
interpretation is evident from Chappell's following
discussion, but the proposition that mixing and
fractionation are responsible is lost as the argument
merges with another issue of the refractory nature of
the source (see below), which also supposedly has a
negative outcome for the Gray (1984) model.
Recourse to this style of diagram necessitates
comment on its properties - the ASI versus total FeO
* Note that this is an invalid argument to question the Gray (1984)
hypothesis because it applies equally well to the Chappell (1994)
source regions for S- and I-type granites for which there is no direct
evidence.
version will be used as it is more amenable to
numerical treatment. Because the ASI is a compound
ratio, two component mixing on an ASI versus total
FeO diagram has an hyperbolic trajectory. Consider
the case of mixing between a Bullenbalong sample of
high ASI and basalt magma. The trajectory has a steep
gradient from the Bullenbalong point curving
towards the FeO axis with increasing FeO content (Fig.
1). In contrast, fractionation from the Bullenbalong
sample to the quartz-feldspar assemblage of the
granite minimum produces a curve in the opposite
sense towards low ASI and FeO (Fig. 1). The
combination of these two processes produces a peak
on the ASI - FeO plot that comfortably accounts for the
geometry of the Bullenbalong data array. Note that
fractionation may affect any granite on the mixing
curve so that fractionation is more accurately
considered in terms of a family of curves towards the
granite minimum. At the very least, the sample with
the lowest total FeO (KB45) has the characteristics of a
fractionated rock given its low CaO (1.26%) and Sr (65
ppm) contents. Given the likelihood of substantial
fractionation the Bullenbalong suite is unsuited to
any discussion of granite variation. The diagram for
the Bullenbalong suite is difficult to assess completely
because only 30 of 85 analyses used by White and
Chappell (1988) have been published, though the
complete data array can be found on their Figure 9.
This data set does include numerous substantial
plutons and can be regarded as important to the
granite geochemistry of the LOB. However, as far as
this author is aware using the data of White et al.
Bullenbalong
to basalt
to minimum
% babalt mixing
Figure 1: Aluminium saturation index (ASI -
Al203/CaO + Na2O + K2O) versus total FeO
percentage for granitic rocks of the Bullenbalong suite
shown as open squares - data from White et al. (1977)
and White and Chappell (1989). The field shown is
for the complete Bullenbalong data of White and
Chappell (1988). Calculated points that illustrate
fractionation to a granite minimum composition
(crosses to aplite BB72) and mixing to a basalt
composition (solid circles to the Blind Gabbro which is
located off the diagram) are anchored on the
Bullenbalong point at highest ASI.
DISCUSSION 31
(1977) and White and Chappell (1989), the
Bullenbalong suite is the solitary example in the
Berridale and Kosciusko Batholiths that has a data
array with an unequivocal intermediate ASI peak.
For that reason alone it is dangerous for Chappell
(1994) and White and Chappell (1988) to generalise
from it, and its ASI diagram certainly does not
disprove basalt mixing. All other suites are directly
consistent with simple basalt mixing.
Chappell (1994) follows a further train of thought on
the nature of the granitic end member that supposedly
casts doubt on the Gray (1984) hypothesis. It appears to
be presupposed that the end member (Cooma
Granodiorite-like) must be a pure melt (i.e. no
suspended crystals), hence the Cooma Granodiorite
cannot be the end member, presumably because of its
abundant suspended refractory minerals like
cordierite. That being the case, the real Gray end
member, being a true melt, has to have been an even
more refractory composition and supposedly very
difficult to produce. None of this has any relevance to
the Gray (1984) model. The end member is explicitly
stated to be a magma like the Cooma Granodiorite and
any consideration of more refractory compositions is
irrelevant. Ultimately, the details of the origin of the
Cooma Granodiorite are unimportant to the model;
all that is required is for it, or other purely
metasedimentary-derived magmas, to exist, so that
they can be the target for variable incorporation of
basalt magma to generate a derivative spectrum of
granites. As an aside, the words magma and meit
were used synonymously in Gray (1984), in retrospect
a loose usage that may have given rise to the Chappell
(1994) concern about total melting.
The genetic model adopted for granitic rocks has
significant input into tectonic interpretations of the
LOB. The Chappell (1994) approach considers each
distinct granite geochemical system to reflect a
particular source region deep in the crust giving
granites the capacity to directly 'image' the deep crust.
The basalt mixing model ascribes a significant degree
of granite geochemical variation to the type of basalt
involved, greatly reducing the geochemical capacity to
probe the crust; isotopic compositions then provide
the more significant information (Gray, 1990).
The tectonic model of Chappell (1994) is dominated by
the concept of ‘deposition of the widespread
Ordovician flysch sequence on continental-type crust,
as required by the data for the S-type granites’ (a
derivative of the above argument concerning the
chemical difference between the turbidites and the
granites). This idea is at variance with the view of
deposition of the turbidites on essentially oceanic
crust (e.g. Cas et al., 1980). There is also the muted
suggestion that the source may have a Precambrian
age (from White et al., 1976), which has influenced
tectonic models to the extent of postulation that
Precambrian rocks have been underthrust into the
belt (e.g. Crawford et al., 1984). These conclusions are
not automatic. It is worth considering the constraints
on the age and affinities of the granite source. The
argument for a Precambrian age (Compston and
Chappell, 1979) applies to I-type granites and exploits
the restite hypothesis overlain with geochemical
calculation; the conclusion is very model-dependent.
On the other hand, if the S-type granites formed by
direct melting of the basement source (Chappell, 1994)
their initial Sr isotopic compositions are inconsistent
with Australian Precambrian metasedimentary
successions (Gray, 1990). However, the literal
interpretation of the ages of some inherited zircons in
the granites as Early Palaeozoic (Williams, 1992) gives
an unequivocal upper limit to the age of the source.
As to the nature of the source, the pattern of inherited
zircon ages in the granites is similar to that in the
exposed turbidites (albeit the low-Ca turbidites which
are not considered the granite source) (Chappell et al.,
1991). In terms of the complete Rb-Sr isotopic system
(pseudo-isochron diagram) the granite trend in the
eastern LOB is directed towards mean values for some
of the turbidites (Gray, 1984, 1990). The conclusion
here is that the granite source is undoubtedly Early
Palaeozoic in age and there are several points that
argue a prima facie link with some part of the
turbidites. Accordingly, it is unnecessary to postulate
a distinct crustal basement to the Ordovician sequence
to act as the granite source, and this concept should
not be a significant constraint on tectonic models. The
basement may exist, but at present there is no
evidence for it.
The second major tectonic issue is the nature of the
heat source responsible for the extensive crustal
melting evidenced by the granites. Chappell (1994)
leaves this question unanswered. The basalt mixing
model has an immediate explanation for the high
geothermal gradient, namely the injection of basalt
magma into the crust, though the trigger for this is
unknown.
Let hypotheses contend. The basalt - crustal melt
mixing model provides a relatively complete and
internally consistent view of granite genesis and
crustal structure.
References
Cas, R.A.F., Powell, C. McA. and Crook, K.A.W., 1980.
Ordovician palaeogeography of the Lachlan Fold Belt:
A modern analogue and tectonic constraints. Journal
of the Geological Society of Australia, 27, 19-31.
Chappell, B.W., 1994. Lachlan and New England: Fold
Belts of Contrasting Magmatic and Tectonic
Development. Journal and Proceedings of the Royal
Society of New South Wales, 127, 47-59.
32 C.M. GRAY
Chappell, B.W., White, A.J.R. and Williams, I.S., 1991.
A transverse section through granites of the Lachlan
Fold Belt. Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and
Geophysics, Canberra, Record 1991/22, 125 pp.
Compston, W. and Chappell, B.W., 1979. Sr-isotope
evolution of granitoid source rocks, in THE EARTH,
ITS ORIGIN, STRUCTURE AND EVOLUTION, pp.
377-426. M.W. McElhinny (Ed.). Academic Press,
London.
Crawford, A.J., Cameron, W.E. and Keays, R.R., 1984.
The association boninite low-Ti andesite-tholeiite in
the Heathcote Greenstone Belt, Victoria; ensimatic
setting for the early Lachlan Fold Belt. Australian
Journal of Earth Sciences, 31, 161-75.
Flood, R.H. and Vernon, R.H., 1978. The Cooma
Granodiorite, Australia: an example of in situ crustal
anatexis? Geology, 6, 81-84.
Gray, C.M., 1984. An isotopic mixing model for the
origin of granitic rocks in. southeastern Australia.
Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 70, 42-60.
Gray, C.M., 1990. A strontium isotopic traverse across
the granitic rocks of southeastern Australia:
Petrogenetic and tectonic implications. Australian
Journal of Earth Sciences, 37, 331-49.
Hine, R., Williams, I.S., Chappell, B.W. and White,
A.J.R., 1978. Contrasts between I- and S-type
granitoids of the Kosciusko Batholith. Journal of the
Geological Society of Australia, 25, 219-34.
Munksgaard, N.C., 1988. Source of the Cooma
Granodiorite, New South Wales - A possible role of
fluid-rock interactions. Australian Journal of Earth
Sciences, 335 ,.363-77.
Steele, D.A., Price, R.C., Fleming, P.D. and Gray, C.M.,
1991. The origin of Cooma Supersuite granites: source
protoliths and early magmatic processes. Second
Hutton Symposium on Granites and Related Rocks,
Abstracts, Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and
Geophysics, Canberra, Record 1991/25, 100 pp.
Vernon, R.H., Etheridge, M.A. and Wall, V.J., 1988.
Shape and microstructure of microgranitoid enclaves:
indicators of magma mingling and flow. Lithos, 22, 1-
yg &
White, A.J.R. and Chappell, B.W., 1988. Some
supracrustal (S-type) granites of the Lachlan Fold Belt.
Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh: Earth
Sciences, 79, 168-81.
White, A.J.R. and Chappell, B.W., 1989. GEOLOGY OF
THE NUMBLA 1:100,000 SHEET 8624. New South
Wales Geological Survey, Sydney. 160pp.
White, A.J.R., Williams, I.S. and Chappell, B.W., 1976.
The Jindabyne Thrust and its tectonic, physiographic
and petrogenetic significance. Journal of the
Geological Society of Australia, 23, 105-12.
White, A.J.R., Williams, I.S. and Chappell, B.W., 1977.
GEOLOGY OF THE BERRIDALE 1:100,000 SHEET.
New South Wales Geological Survey, Sydney. 138pp.
Williams, I.S., 1992. Some observations on the use of
zircon U-Pb geochronology in the study of granitic
rocks. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh:
Earth Sciences, 83, 447-458.
School of Earth Sciences
La Trobe University
Bundoora Victoria 3083
Australia
(Manuscript received 11-4-1995)
Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Yo1,128
ISSN 0035-9173/95/010033-03 $4.00/1
» PP 33-35, 1995 33
"ORE ELEMENTS IN ARC LAVAS" by R. L. Stanton
FORTY YEARS OF UNDERSTANDING
THE GENESIS OF GREAT STRATIGRAPHIC OREBODIES
OF THE WORLD
Reviewed by John C. Grover O.B.E.
Well known internationally, the
author of numerous major papers and the
text-book ORE PETROLOGY (which sold
some 18,000 copies), Richard L. Stanton,
formerly Professor of Geology at New
England University, New South Wales, has
recently produced a unique volume of value
to practical mineral exploration and to uni-
versity teaching.
Of 403 pages, and traditional hard
cover, ORE ELEMENTS IN ARC LAVAS is
Oxford Science Publication Monograph on
Geology and Geophysics, Number 29.
If ever there were a labour of love (of
science) this is it: the finale after forty years
of thoughtful field work and laboratory re-
search laced with adventure -- if one reads
between the lines.
Beginning in the late 1940s with
studies of conformable mineral deposits in
New South Wales (Stanton, 1955a and b), in
December 1950 Stanton was co-opted at short
notice to join Professor Charles E. Marshall's
Sydney University Geological Expedition and
flown to the then British Solomon Islands
Protectorate. It was to prove one of the most
productive ventures of its day, to study what
was geologically one of the least known
regions of the world (Umbgrove 1945, p.
209: Glaessner 1950, p.870; Grover 1994,
pp. 37-43).
Disappointed at having to cancel his
arrangements for research during those
summer holidays, Stanton was in no mood for
the venture. He had no idea that he was
about to see a grand picture in the rocks of
those jungle-covered, roadless, volcanic
mountains of islands rising from the Pacific --
where it rained heavily nearly every day and
sometimes for days at a time. It did not halt
his islanders, and the work continued on foot
or by hired canoe, or launches whose engines
too often failed to work. However, he was
soon fired up with what he saw, taking the
remoteness, the physical hardships and the
administrative difficulties in his — stride.
Christmas Day he spent as an honoured guest
in a small village of Santa Isabel watching the
dancing prior to a feast of succulent pig
cooked in a ground oven of hot stones.
Three months later he flew out to
New Guinea and Australia. Stanton knew
that his life had been changed by this visit
(personal communication, 1951). Evidence
Stimulated his thoughts on stratiform metalli-
ferous orebodies.
He later returned to the Solomon
Islands with the support of the BSI Geological
Survey Department. Visits by Stanton (and
his colleague Dr P.J. Coleman, at different
times) were to become annual events.
Welcomed at Honiara airport, after
two nights as guest of the Geological Survey
the visitor was then able to join the twin-
screw 10.3 metre Geological Survey ship
Noula, crewed, fuelled and supplied, with
geological assistants and bearers ready to go
-- all of them competent old hands quietly
proud of their jobs. Shore work involved
following and mapping many streams and
rivers where outcrops were visible. Where
the population was small and confined largely
to the coast, inland areas were often track-
less.
These expeditions considerably in-
creased the knowledge of the Survey, for
specimens and samples were air freighted to
the university for study. Findings were
published in due course. The contributions
by Stanton and Coleman were on-going for
years. In turn, Australian Universities deve-
loped a knowledge of island arc geology
34
on was previously lacking (Grover 1994,
p.42).
Stanton's further studies at Queens
University in North America embraced
deposits at New Brunswick and in Newfound-
land, and brought him into touch with other
lively minds of the day, who gave him further
encouragement.
In 1959, in company with Dr J.D.
Bell of the Solomons Geological Survey,
Stanton began investigating the Pliocene-to-
Recent lavas of the New Georgia Group in
the Solomons -- a wide spectrum of volcanics
ranging from highly olivine-rich picritic lavas
to felsic andesites. Suspicion that exhalative
ores might have genetic ties with with lava
differentiation stages led to the study of traces
of the metals copper, zinc, lead, etc. It began
in 1963 with wet chemical and x-ray fluores-
cence methods, but the techniques then were
inadequate and the project was postponed for
another decade or so -- after atomic absorp-
tion work by his long-time research assistant,
Mrs W.P.H. Roberts, had shown that trace
metals in the Solomon lavas occurred system-
atically and were probably amenable to
geochemical investigations. Field work
continued.
Interest led to a crescendo of scienti-
fic activity in the 1960s by the Royal Society,
by private companies and by George P.
Woollard and American Universities -- result-
ing in much geophysical documentation of
this once least-known region of the world.
By 1980 automated and highly accur-
ate X-ray fluorescence became available,
along with the electron-probe microanalyser.
The large collection of specimens from the
previous three decades could be thus subjec-
ted to study.
Some 12,000 _ electron-microprobe
analyses of mineral grains and glass in situ
were made by Stanton, assisted by N.G.
Ware of the Research School of Earth Sci-
ences, Australian National University. 900
X-ray fluorescence, neutron activation and
ICP-MS (inductively coupled plasma emis-
sion spectrometry/mass spectrometry) ana-
lyses of whole rock and mineral and
groundmsss separations were made by Dr B.
W. Chappell.
The results enshrined in this volume
are set in the context of geochemistry from
Other island-arc lavas and mid-ocean ridges.
JOHN C. GROVER
Previously little had been known of
the behaviour of the principal ore minerals in
lavas, and there was no systematic documen-
tation of their incidence in the lavas of island
arcs, the main locale of volcanic ores in
ancient terrains. Yet the suggestion that some
ores might have a volcanic origin had been
made long ago (Beaumont. 1847; Bowen,
1933; Fenner, 1933). Their work had never
been investigated. Clear statements of the
theory began to emerge in the mid-1950s and
this history of events is covered in the Intro-
duction.
Chapters 2 to 4 give an outline of
problems in volcanic ore petrology that led to
the investigation and the historic connota-
tions. Chapter 5 is more detailed, about the
petrology and geochemistry of the Solomons
lavas as a basis tor the more detailed geo-
chemical chapters.
Chapters 6 to 19 are concerned with
the geochemistry and abundance behaviour of
each of 14 elements in exhalative ores. The
principal components, apart from iron and
sulphur, are copper, zinc, lead, and barium.
Strontium is next, though conspicuous by its
absence from volcanic exhalative ores -- in
spite of its close chemical relationship with
barium, an eloquent clue to ore-forming
processes. The remaining nine elements are
dealt with in sequence of increasing atomic
number.
Chapter 20 is about the behaviour of
the hyperfusible elements sulphur, chlorine
and fluorine, and minor metals silver, gold,
molybdenum, cadmium and uranium; and the
semi-metals arsenic, antimony and bismuth.
It demonstrates some of the relationships
between elements.
(a) abundances of potassium, rubidi-
um, zirconium and strontium which indi-
cate the melt process;
(b) minerals like barium, a trace
constituent of lavas and also a major
element of exhalative ores;
(c) ore elements, such as lead, which
are important components of many ores
associated with volcanic rocks, although
their igneous systematics are not well
known.
Data on the Solomons lavas have
been given a frame of reference for the read-
er: early information from mid-ocean ridge
BOOK REVIEW
basalts is followed by island arc descriptions.
Some arcs are fully oceanic, like Vanuatu,
Tonga and the Solomons, which have no
connection with continental crust. Other arcs
do in part: like the Aleutians, the Lesser
Antilles and the southern part of the Tonga-
Kermadecs. Such information could have
many uses as well as indicating areas needing
more attention.
In Chapter 21 the information in the
foregoing chapters is applied to examining the
abundance patterns in a crystallising volcanic
melt of Solomons island-arc type -- the
Younger Volcanic suite.
Fractional crystallisation and loss of
the volatile phase probably affected the en-
richment and impoverishment of ore elements
in melts. Leading from this, Chapter 22 is
about volcanic sublimates, condensates, gases
and plumes, Chapter 23 concerns the deriva-
tion and development of Solomons lavas,
mainly the basalt-picrite and basalt-andesite-
dacite lineages. Chapter 24 deals with the
petrogenesis of exhalative ores in the light of
all the features observed in the Solomon
Islands Younger Volcanic Suite. This leads
to relations between crystallisation, lava type,
and reflections on the leaching hypothesis.
The account concludes with thoughts
on ore-element geochemistry and the refining
35
of mineral exploration methods in ancient
island arc terrains, like those in Australia.
A purpose of the book has been to
show how intimately and systematically some
ore deposits are related to magmatic differen-
tiation. It will serve to emphasise Crook's
perceptiveness in 1914, and add substance to
the past work of Lindgren, Fenner, Bower,
Niggli and Buddington.
R. L. Stanton's ORE ELEMENTS IN
ARC LAVAS is essential reading for university
geology departments, geological surveys and
for those engaged in major mineral search
ventures
John Grover,
21 Cotentin Road,
BELROSE, NSW 2085
AUSTRALIA
Phone: (02) 451 5205
Fax: (02) 451 5964
E-mail:
jcgrover@peg.pegasus.oz.au
(Manuscript received 9-5-1995)
36 Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 128, pp 36-38,1995
ISSN 0035-9173/95/010036-03 $4.00/1
Master of Science (Mathematics) Thesis Abstract:
Dipole Modelling for the Localization of Human Visual
Evoked Scalp Potential Sources
Monica K. Hurdal
One of the major goals of electrophysiology is the
determination of sources of electrical activity in the
human brain. Visual stimuli elicit visual evoked scalp
potentials (VEPs) which can be recorded non-
invasively as electroencephalograms (EEGs) by using
scalp electrodes. This electrical activity is generated
by electrical sources in the brain. A model of the
head structure is required as well as a model of a
source of electrical activity. Using this type of model,
the location of electrical sources can be estimated.
The use of electrophysiological techniques, such as
the standard 10-20 system of electrode placement
and the use of brain scans as a further aid to VEP
research are described, as is the anatomy of the visual
cortex. The visual field appears to have a retinotopic
mapping onto the visual cortex which can be
represented by a cruciform model where the visual
field locations project onto the opposite hemisphere
of the primary visual cortex and the upper and lower
fields project onto the lower and upper parts of the
visual cortex respectively.
In this thesis, the forward problem, which is the
prediction of a potential distribution due to a given
electrical source, is examined. Various head models
are reviewed and a three shell model which
represents the head as three concentric spheres is
used. The source of electrical activity is assumed to
be a dipole. The forward problem is solved with this
model and implemented practically with computer
programs. Modifications involving rotations are
applied to the model in order to accomplish this.
These programs calculate a potential distribution on
the surface of the scalp when given a single neural
source. The radii of the spheres representing the head
and their conductivities are incorporated into the
model and a dipole source is described by six
parameters which determine the position and
orientation of the source. Topography maps are used
to display the electrical potential distributions.
Subsequently, the inverse problem, which 1s to
determine a dipole source that is the best generator of
a given potential distribution, is solved in the least
squares sense. The same model is used as in the
forward problem. As the calculation of the potential
is nonlinear in three of the six parameters, various
minimization search algorithms are discussed. A
computational procedure which uses the Levenberg-
Marquardt method for nonlinear least squares is
implemented and determines the best dipole source
by varying the six parameters associated with the
dipole's position, orientation and strength. Predictions
of the potentials at the electrode sites which are
closest to the observed potentials in the least squares
sense are-obtained. The dipole at this point is thought
of as the source of the observed EEG activity.
When solving the inverse problem, the choice of
electric potential reference site should not affect the
location of the dipole source. A new method is
presented which adds an additional parameter, a
constant, to the model that is to be estimated along
with the six dipole parameters. This method accounts
for variations in the reference site of the observed
potential data so an estimated dipole source 1s not
affected by the reference site. Confidence intervals
involving the model parameters are also calculated
and help determine the validity of the dipole solution.
Testing has revealed that quick convergence rates of
the dipole solution, high signal to noise ratios in the
EEG data, small confidence interval ranges for the
estimated parameters, and similar observed and
predicted results help to indicate the validity of a
dipole solution.
The computer implementation of the inverse problem
is then applied to visual evoked potential data
obtained from two experiments. In this manner,
dipole source localization is applied to experimental
findings as a data analysis technique. The first
experiment uses a checkerboard pattern reversal
stimulus and the second uses a pattern onset stimulus
and data is analyzed for two subjects in both
experiments. Both experiments also use magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) scans of the subjects' heads
to determine if morphological differences between
subjects contribute towards individual differences in
the VEPs.
THESIS ABSTRACTS 37
Results from the checkerboard pattern onset
experiment using dipole source localization revealed
that stimuli in the left visual field generated sources
in the right hemisphere of the brain. The sources due
to upper visual field stimuli localized lower in the
visual cortex than did the sources which were caused
by stimuli in the lower visual field. In addition, the
sources due to the peak positive and negative latency
in a cyclic waveform from the same stimulus
condition were located in the same position but had
opposite orientations, indicating a polarity reversal.
These results conform to the cruciform model.
However, as the stimulus moved from the upper
visual field to the lower visual field, a polarity
reversal was only seen in some of the stimulus
conditions. As stimulus eccentricity increased, the
dipole sources due to the upper visual field stimuli
moved deeper into the cortical tissue, but this was
more difficult to see in the lower visual field sources.
Results from the pattern onset experiment did reveal
a polarity reversal as the stimulus moved from upper
to lower visual fields. It was expected that the first
component would be striate related. Three peak
components were observed, but no conclusions could
be made about the origin of the source for the evoked
potential response. There was a large variability in
the VEPs between subjects. The MRI scans revealed
large variability in the calcarine fissures between
subjects as well. The dipole localization of the VEPs
in conjunction with the MRI scans indicated that the
large individual variability between subjects could be
explained by anatomical differences in the occipital
lobe rather than functional differences.
Thus, dipole source modelling for the localization of
human visual evoked potential sources is examined in
this thesis. Dipole analysis results of the two
experiments in conjunction with magnetic resonance
images and electrical potential topography maps help
to indicate how anatomical differences in the brain
may play a role in individual variability. These
experiments demonstrate that dipole source
localization has a practical place in analyzing visual
evoked potential data. Dipole modelling is a useful
and effective tool for the localization of human visual
evoked potentials.
This research has been presented at two conferences
which will have their proceedings published (Hurdal,
McElwain and Finlay, 1995: Hurdal, McElwain and
Finlay, in press) as well as a third conference
(Hurdal, unpublished). A paper including the dipole
source localization method is in submission for
publication (Hurdal, McElwain and Finlay, in
submission). A paper incorporating results from one
of the visual evoked potential studies has been
published (Chorlton, Hurdal, Fulham, Finlay and
McElwain, 1994) and another VEP paper which uses
dipole source localization is also in submission
(Hurdal, Fulham, McElwain and Finlay, in
submission).
References
Chorlton, M. C., Hurdal, M. K., Fulham, W. R.,
Finlay, D. C. and McElwain, D. L. S. (1994), Visual
evoked potentials to small stimuli presented along a
vertical meridian: Individual differences and dipole
modelling, Australian Journal of Psychology 46,
87--94.
Hurdal, M. K. (unpublished), Using an equivalent
dipole model to localize human brain electrical
activity evoked by visual stimuli. Presented at the
1994 Australian and New Zealand Industrial and
Applied Mathematics Conference.
Hurdal, M. K., McElwain, D. L. S. and Finlay, D. C.
(1995), Dipole source localization of human visually
evoked scalp potentials, pp. 192--193 in Liebert, B.,
Ward, P. B. and Michie, P., Biological Psychology,
39, Abstracts of papers presented at the Third Annual
Conference of the Australian Society for
Psychophysiology, 187--202. Presented at the 1993
Australasian Conference on Psychophysiology.
Hurdal, M. K., McElwain, D. L. S. and Finlay, D. C.
(in submission), Dipole source localization:
Confidence intervals and reference-free modelling,
IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering.
Hurdal, M. K., McElwain, D. L. S. and Finlay, D. C.
(in press), Dipole source estimation: The localization
of visually evoked potential sources, Brain
Topography. Presented at the 1994 Pan Pacific
Conference on Brain Electric Topography.
Hurdal, M. K., Fulham, W. R., McElwain, D. L. S.
and Finlay, D. C. (in submission), Localization of
brain activity associated with pattern reversal VEPs
38 THESIS ABSTRACTS
using the equivalent dipole ecimeeh
Electroencephalography and Clinical
Neurophysiology.
Thesis was submitted for the Degree of
Master of Science in the Department of
Mathematics, University of Newcastle,
1994.
School of Mathematics
Faculty of Science
Queensland University of Technology
Gardens Point
GPO Box 2434
BRISBANE QLD 4001
Australia
(Manuscript received 29-3-1995)
$4.00/1
Journal and proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 128, p 39,1995
ISSN 0035-9173/95/010039-01
DOCTORAL THESIS ABSTRACT
Doctoral Thesis Abstract: Population dynamics of Steinernema carpocapsae and
Heterorhabditis bacteriophora in in vivo and in vitro culture
JINXIAN WANG
The population development of
Heterorhabditis bacteriophora and Steinernema
carpocapsae has been studied in larvae of the
greater wax moth, Galleria mellonella, after
being initiated from a_ single reproductive
individual. The insect host was used to establish
an optimal standard for fecundity with which to
compare the fecundity obtained in in vitro
culture.
Studies of the population dynamics of H.
bacteriophora and S. carpocapsae in in vitro
solid culture showed that inoculum size is
important for optimising the final yields of
infective juveniles, and the time in which these
are achieved. The highest yield for UH.
bacteriophora was found with an inoculum of
one million infective juveniles per flask which
was ten fold the optimal inoculum for S.
carpocapsae. Studies on the populations of these
nematodes derived from the extremes of high and
low inocula (one or two infective juveniles to ten
million infective juveniles per flask) also
provided interesting information on _ the
population development of the nematodes. The
significance of these findings for commercial
mass production are discussed.
In liquid culture, varying inoculum sizes
of S. carpocapsae was shown to have a greater
effect on the population development and the
final yields of infective juveniles than in solid
culture, particularly with lower levels of inocula.
Liquid culture required much larger inocula, and
the nematodes did not reproduce when the
inoculum was low. The effects of shear force
from agitation for oxygenation in, and other
factors involved with, in vitro monoxenic liquid
culture are also discussed. The relationship
between the populations of S. carpocapsae and
its symbiotic bacterium, § Xenorhabdus
nematophilus, was investigated and the symbiotic
bacterium populations were shown to _ be
influenced by the population development of the
nematode.
The present study also demonstrated the
separate effects of different levels of oxygen and
carbon dioxide on the population development
and final yields of S. carpocapsae. Lowering
oxygen levels resulted in slower population
development and reduced final yields of infective
juveniles. Negligible or no increase of nematode
populations was found with oxygen levels below
2%. In contrast, the higher the carbon dioxide
levels, the lower the nematode yields, with yields
in 10% CO being little more than half, and in
20% CO being only about one thirtieth, the
yields in air. These findings have significant
bearing on optimising yields of infective juveniles
in the mass production of entomopathogenic
nematodes.
Preliminary studies were made on the
possibility that pheromones affect the formation
and recovery of the infective juveniles of S.
carpocapsae. Despite a variety of experiments
with culture supernatant and solvent extracts of
cultures, no positive results were achieved.
Further investigations are needed to finally
determine the existence and effect of such
pheromones.
CSIRO
Division of Entomology
GPO Box 1700
Canberra ACT 2601
AUSTRALIA
(Manuscript received 2-2-1995)
39
40 Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 128, p 40, 1995
ISSN 0035-9173/95/010040 $4.00/1
Ph.D. Thesis Abstract:
OPTIMIZATION ALGORITHMS ON HOMOGENEOUS SPACES: WITH
APPLICATIONS IN LINEAR SYSTEMS THEORY.
ROBERT MAHONY
Constrained optimization problems are Robert Mahony
commonplace in linear systems’ theory. Department of Systems Engineering
In many cases the constraint set is a Research School of Information Sciences
homogeneous space and the additional and Engineering
geometric insight provided by the Lie- Australian National University
group structure provides a framework in Canberra ACT 0200
which to tackle the numerical Australia
optimization task. The fundamental
advantage of this approach is that
algorithms designed and implemented
using the geometry of the homogeneous
space explicitly preserve the constraint
set.
In this thesis the numerical solution of ;
a number of optimization problems (Manuscript received 8-9-1994)
constrained to homogeneous spaces are
considered. The first example studied
is the task of determining the (Manuscript received in final form 25-5-1995)
eigenvalues of a symmetric matrix (or
the singular values of an arbitrary
Matrix) by interpolating known gradient
flow solutions using matrix
exponentials. Next the related problem
of determining principal components of a
synmmetric matrix is discussed. A
continuous-time gradient flow is derived
that leads to a discrete exponential
interpolation of the continuous-time
flow which converges to the desired
Limit. A comparison to classical
algorithms for the same task is given.
The third example discussed, this time
drawn from the field of linear systems
theory, is the task of arbitrary pole
placement using static feedback for a
structured class of linear systems.
The remainder of the thesis provides a
review of the underlying theory relevant
to the three examples considered and
develops a mathematical framework in
which the proposed numerical algorithms
can be understood. This framework leads
to a general form for a solution to any
optimization problem on a homogeneous
space. An important consequence of the
theoretical review is that it develops
the Mathematical tools necessary to
understand more sophisticated numerical
algorithms. The thesis concludes by
proposing a quadratically convergent
numerical optimization method, based on
the Newton-Raphson algorithm, which
evolves explicitly on a Lie-group.
KEYWORDS: Constrained optimization, Lie
groups, Homogeneous spaces, Symmetric
eigenvalue problem, Linear systems
theory, Steepest ascent method, Newton-
Raphson method.
Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.128, pp 41-42,1995 41
ISSN 0035-9173/95/016041-02 $4.00/1
Doctoral Thesis Abstract
Wood Digestion in Panesthia cribrata
Andrew M. Scrivener
The Australian cockroach Panesthia cribrata lives
in and feeds on rotting Eucalyptus spp. logs. All of
the carbohydrates in the wood diet were digested
by the cockroach to some extent; lignin was not
digested. Carbohydrase activities in the gut were
generally appropriate to the diet.
Endo-B-1,4-glucanase (EC 3.2.1.4), B-glucosidase
(EC 3.2.1.21), endo-B-1,4-xylanase (EC 3.2.1.8),
Q-amylase (EC 3.2.1.1), maltase (EC 3.2.1.20)
and sucrase (EC 3.2.1.48) activities were similarly
distributed in the gut, with more than 90% of each
activity in the foregut and midgut.
The cellulase of P. cribrata is endogenous and
consists of two major (EG1 and EG2) and at least
four minor endo-B-1,4-glucanase components and
one major (GD1) and one minor (GD2)
B-glucosidase component. EG1 and EG2 were
purified by molecular sieve and ion exchange
chromatography and had molecular weights of
53,600 and 48,800, respectively. With
carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) the Km, Vmax and
Keat for EG1 were 9.4 mg/ml, 22.2 mg reducing
sugar/min/mg protein and 20.0 s-!, respectively;
corresponding values for EG2 were 6.8, 88.3 and
64.2. Values for Km, Vmax and kcat were also
calculated for activity against cellotetraose and
cellopentaose; neither EG1 or EG2 hydrolysed
cellobiose or cellotriose. Relative activities of EG1
and EG2 against CMC and crystalline cellulose
were 5200: 1 and 3500: 1, respectively. EG1 and
EG? constituted approximately 13% of the protein
in the foregut and midgut contents. It is proposed
that the inefficiency of EGl and EG2 against
crystalline cellulose is compensated for by their
presence in large amounts in the gut. Four minor
components (EG3-6) contributed between
4 and 10% of the gut endo-B-1,4-glucanase
activity.
The B-glucosidase components GD1 and GD2 were
partially purified. Values for Km and Vmax with
cellodextrins from cellobiose to cellopentaose and
p-nitrophenyl-B-D-glucopyranoside were estimated
for GD1 and GD2; neither component hydrolysed
CMC or crystalline cellulose. GDI was
competitively inhibited by glucono-6-1,5-lactone
(Kj = 0.33 mM), but was not inhibited by glucose
at physiological concentrations.
P. cribrata inhabit wood extensively degraded by
fungi; the contribution of fungal cellulase to
cellulose digestion in P. cribrata was investigated.
Minor cockroach and fungal endo-B-1,4-glucanase
components co-eluted on Bio-Gel A-0.5 m; minor
P. cribrata components were shown to be
endogenous as they were present in salivary gland
and midgut epithelium extracts and extracts from
cockroaches maintained on cellulose and starch.
Fungal cellulase was not present in the gut, did not
42 THESIS ABSTRACTS
synergise with cockroach cellulase and did not
contribute to cellulose digestion in P. cribrata.
Fungi are not required to convert crystalline into
amorphous cellulose as both were hydrolysed at
similar rates by cockroach gut extracts. It is
concluded that fungi soften the wood, facilitating
burrowing by the cockroach.
An abstract from the thesis submitted to the
University of Sydney for the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy, July 1994.
CSIRO Plant Industry
P.O.Box 1600
CANBERRA CITY ACT 2601
Australia
(Manuscript received 2-2-1995)
Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.128, p 43,1995 43
ISSN 0035-9173/95/010043-01 $4 .00/1
DOCTORAL THESIS ABSTRACT
THE DEVELOPMENT OF MUTATION DETECTION TECHNIQUES
AND THEIR APPLICATION TO DISEASE DIAGNOSIS
Andrea M. Douglas, B.Sc.(Hons.)
Advances in the polymerase chain reaction
(PCR) have been responsible for much of the progress
in human genetics that has taken place of late. The
development of PCR has revolutionised the methods
available for the detection of DNA mutations at the
molecular level. The purpose of this research was to
assess specific PCR mutation detection techniques, to
test the efficiency of existing protocols, and improve
upon these where necessary. In addition, to allow the
ultimate analysis of mutation detection, a more
practical sequencing protocol for PCR products than
those currently available was to be developed.
The cytochrome P450 IID6 enzyme is responsible
for the metabolism of at least 25 drugs, resulting in two
distinct phenotypes in the population, the extensive
(EM) and poor (PM) metabolisers. The identification of
the mutant alleles causing the PM phenotype allows
the genetic testing of individuals via DNA based
assays. This study tested the efficiency of existing PCR
screening procedures in both clinical and forensic
samples. Previously used PCR/RFLP based techniques
were assessed with regard to the detection of the three
major inactivating mutations in the CYP2D6 gene.
These methods were found to be limiting, either
because of the lack of controls for restriction enzyme
digestion, or because of the need for multiple rounds
of PCR. These detection methods were therefore
modified to include a site-specific PCR method which
resulted in the analysis of all the mutations in a single
PCR. This simpler PCR method was successful in
accurately predicting phenotype in 88 % of individuals.
When individuals were homozygous for two mutant
alleles or two wild-type alleles present at either locus
the accuracy was 96 %. Furthermore, when
individuals were heterozygous for both of the
CYP2D6(A) and (B) alleles it was discovered that
phenotyping was more complex, requiring familial
analyses.
A simple, multiplex method was also developed
for the direct sequencing of PCR products, superior to
previously described protocols. Sequencing reactions
were performed directly on PCR products without the
need for purification of the template by removal of
residual deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates and
primers. The coupling of a chemiluminescent
detection system with the use of the same primers in
the initial and sequencing PCRs allowed the
sequencing of a number of PCR fragments on the one
gel.
In the course of extending this direct sequencing
protocol to PCR products greater than 1 kilobase, it was
found that the sequencing procedure was more
efficient if smaller PCR fragments were amplified and
then multiplexed. In addition, during the process of
optimising these larger PCR systems, it was
demonstrated that degradation of PCR products occurs
in the 94 °C denaturation step of the cycling. Thus, the
denaturation time is now considered a variable that
needs to be optimised with any new PCR system.
An analysis of the entire apolipoprotein AI gene
resulting in the detection of previously unknown
point mutations demonstrated the reliability of this
sequencing method to search for point mutations in a
defined region of DNA. Furthermore, the variation of
gel loading of sequencing samples employed in this
study resulted in the detection of new mutations in a
more efficient manner.
A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy in the Department of Forensic Medicine,
Monash University, July 1994.
Victorian Institute of Forensic Pathology
57-83 Kavanagh St, Sth Melbourne, 3205
Australia
(Manuscript received 2-8-1994)
(Manuscript received in final form 27-2-1995)
44 Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.128, p 44,1995
ISSN 0035-9173/95/010044-01 $4.00/1
Doctoral Thesis Abstract
Development of Metal Chelates
as Potential Probes of DNA Structure
Susan E. Kidd
A series of ruthenium(II) complexes
containing the N,-tetradentate ligand
N,N’ -bis(2-picolyl)-1,2-diaminocyclohexane
(picchxn) has been synthesised. The complex
products showed a predisposition for the
tetradentate to coordinate in a cis-B structural
arrangement to the metal ion. Only in one case did
the ligand coordinate to form a cis-a& complex.
With the isolation of A-8,-[Ru(RR-picchxn)-
(dmso)CIJC1O,.2H,O and A-8,-[Ru(RR-picchxn)-
(dmso)Cl1]C1O,.3.5H,O and their enantiomers (n is
either 1 or 2) it is shown that the interaction of
Ru(II) and picchxn is neither truly stereo- nor
enantiospecific.
On reaction of the enantiomeric 8, forms
with the amino acids (aa), S-alanine' or
S-tryptophan, the complexes A-(or A-)B-[Ru(RR-(or
SS-)picchxnmi)(aa)]* were formed. Here the
coordinated tetradentate was found to undergo a
photo-oxidative dehydrogenation reaction to form a
monoimine (picchxnmi) with the amino acid not
being oxidised. The isolation of
A-8,-[Ru(RR-picchxnmi)(dmso)C1]C10,.0.5H,O
suggested that this photo-oxidative reaction was not
an isolated occurrence for the amino acid
complexes only.
All products were characterised by a
combination of microanalysis, electronic absorption,
nuclear magnetic resonance and circular dichroism
spectroscopic methods.
Both enantiomeric forms of the 8, and 8,
species were observed to interact with calf-thymus
DNA. The proposed interaction for these complexes
is one of covalent binding which is found to be
photoinduced. The amino acid complexes under
photo-controlled conditions, are not labile and do
not show any major form of interaction with
calf-thymus DNA.
To further develop complexes to act as
spectroscopic probes of nucleic acid structure via
intercalation into DNA, the 8,-dmso-Cl
enantiomeric complexes were reacted with a
number of bidentate ligands based upon substituted
1,10-phenanthroline or o-phenylenediamine. During
these reactions the picchxn ligand remained
stereospecific in its coordination to the central
metal ion. Again the tetradentate in these
complexes was shown to be susceptible to
photo-oxidative dehydrogenation to form the
monoimine. One such complex,
A-8-[Ru(RR-picchxnmi)(phen)](C10,),.phen.3.5H,O
was found to cocrystallise with an unbound phen
molecule, and containing both phens in a stacking
arrangement. These non-labile bidentates prevented
covalent binding of the Ru(picchxn)** moiety to
DNA.
Intercalation of the phen based complexes
was concluded if their visible absorption spectra
showed a red shift and hypochromicity when
combined with DNA in aqueous solution. The
complexes containing phen, dip, dppz or dppzMe,
are proposed to behave in this manner. The metal
complex with the most potential for use as a chiral
probe of DNA is thought to be 8-[Ru(picchxnmi)-
(dip)]**, with its A enantiomer showing a 95%
preference when interacting with calf-thymus DNA.
Lower preferences were determined for the racemic
diamine and monoimine phen species although
again their A enantiomers are preferred.
An abstract from the thesis submitted to Macquarie
University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy,
March 1994.
School of Chemistry
Macquarie University
NSW. 2109
AUSTRALIA
(Manuscript received 5-1-1995)
Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.128, pp45-66,1995 45
ISSN 0035-9173/95/010045-22 $4.00/1
Annual Report of Council
for the year ended 3lst March 1995
PATRON
The Council wishes to express its
gratitude to his Excellency Rear Admiral
Peter Sinclair, AC Governor of New South
Wales, for his continuing support as
Patron of the Society.
MEETINGS
Eight General Monthly Meetings and the
127th Annual General Meeting were held
during the year. The Annual _ General
Meeting and seven of the General Monthly
Meetings were held at the Australian
Museum. A summary of proceedings is set
out below.
Special meeting and events in 1994/95:-
February 14th, 1995 (AGL Centre, North
Sydney)
The Society was co-sponsor of a joint
meeting with four societies: The
Australian Institute of Energy (Sydney);
the Australian Nuclear Association; The
Nuclear Engineering Panel and the
Institution of Engineers, Australia
(Sydney).
Dr. K.M. Sullivan spoke on:- "Energy and
Climate:- An Update".
March 15th, 1995
The Society's Annual Dinner was held at
the Holme and Sutherland Room,
University of Sydney Union Reception
Centre. The Guest of Honour was’ the
Lord Mayor of Sydney, Mr. Frank Sartor,
who presented an address concerning the
significance of the forthcoming Olympic
Games in Sydney.
Meetings of Council:
Eleven Meetings of Council were held at
the Society's Offices at North Ryde.
The average attendance was 13.
April, 29th, 1994 (at Kurnell, Sydney) :-
Tne President, Mr. John Hardie, and the
Hon. Secretary Ed., Mrs Krysko v. Tryst,
accepted an invitation to represent’ the
Society at the ceremony to commemorate
the landing of Captain Cook on 29 April
Oh ig 0
June 23rd, 1994
Mrs. Shirley Sinclaic, wife of His
Excellency Rear Admiral Peter Sinclair,
A.C. Governor of New South Wales’ and
Patron of the Society visited the Rooms
of the Society at North Ryde. Mrs.
Sinclair was accompanied by her
Secretary, Miss Jacqueline Chaulker.
Mrs. Sinclair was welcomed by the Hon.
Librarian, Miss Pat Callaghan, the Hon.
Secretary (Editorial), Mrs. M. Krysko v.
Tryst, and by the office Secretary, Mrs.
V. Chandler.
After inspecting the Rooms and
activities Mrs. Sinclair took afternoon
tea.
July 30th, 1994 (at History
Sydney)
The Society was a co-sponsor of a joint
meeting with ANZAAS NSW _ and ily Glee OH @ fe
operation with the Colonial Science Club
on ‘Achievements of European Scientists
and Engineers in Auscralia'. Four
addresses were delivered during the half
day seminar:-
House,
die Dr. Jan Todd (Research School of
Social Sciences ANU) on
Contributions from Pasteur
Institute's Overseas Branch in
Sydney.
2 Mrs. Uta von Homeyer (Faculty of
Social Science, Flinders
University, S.A.) and
3. Emeritus Prof. H.K. Messerle FTS
(University of Sydney) discussed
Achievements by German Scientists
and Engineers during the early post
war period.
4. PLO, Ps Fritz (University of
Technology, Sydney) on
"Contributions by Scientists and
Engineers from Eastern European
countries.
August 9th, 1995 (at the University of
New South Wales
The 29th Liversidge Research Lecture for
1994 was delivered by Prof. Ian G. Dance
(Dept. of Inorganic Chemistry,
University of New South Wales) on
"Inorganic Chemistry:-Frontiers and
Future.
PUBLICATIONS
Volume 127, Parts 1,2,3 and 4 of the
Journal and Proceedings were published
during the year. They incorporated nine
papers including the 47th Clarke
Memorial Lecture for 1993, an address by
46
His Excellency Rear Admiral Peter
Sinclair, AC., Governor of New South
Wales and Patron of the Society at the
Annual Dinner 1994 and the Presidential
address’ for 1994. Twelve abstracts of
post graduate theses were also published
in this volume as well as the Annual
Report of Council for .1993-94 . Council
wishes to thank all the voluntary
referees who assessed papers offered for
publication. Nine issues of the
Bulietin (No. 176-184) were published
during the year, and Council thanks the
authors “of “Short “articles for’ their
contribution.
Council granted permission to reproduce
material from the Journal and
Proceedings in several instances.
AWARDS
awards were made for
The following
1994:-
JAMES COOK MEDAL (£or outstanding
contributions to science and human
welfare in and for the Southern
Hemisphere) :-
Sir Gustav Nossal, AC,CBE,FRS,FAA,
Director of the Walter and Eliza
Hall Institute of Medical Research,
Melbourne Vic.
CLARKE MEDAL (in Botany) :-
Joint award: Dr « Barbara Gillian
Briggs , Senior Assistant
Director (Scientific)
Royal Botanic Gardens,
Sydney NSW.
and Prof. Craig Anthony
Atkins, D:Sc.;, Dept. of
Botany, University of
Western Australia.
EDGEWORTH DAVID MEDAL (research worker
under 35 years of age):-
A/Professor Richard Hume Middleton
Ph.D. , _Dept. of Electrical and
Computer Engineering ,University of
Newcastle, N.S.W.
THE SOCIETY'S MEDAL (for scientific
research and services to the Society) :-
Dr. Edmund Clarence Potter, Kariong
N.S.W.
ARCHIBALD D. OLLE PRIZE (best paper
published by a member in the Society's
Journal) <=
Mr. Michael Organ, 8B.Sc,Archivist
University of Wollongong N.S.W.
The Walter Burfitt was not awarded for
1994.
MEMBERSHIP
The membership of the Society at
31st March 1995 was:-
ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL
Patron 1
Honorary Members 16
Members 265
Associates, Spouse members 20
Total: 302
During the year Emeritus Professor
John M. Bennett, AO, and Professor
Donald H. Napper, FAA, were elected
Honorary Members.
The deaths of the following members
were announced with regret:-
Mr Kenneth John BROWN, on 13 July,
1994.
Mr Beverly CORTIS-JONES, an, 12
June, 1994.
Dr John Allan DULHUNTY, on 7 April,
1994.
Miss Dorothy Jean ELLISON, on 5
October, 1994.
Dr Robert Mortimer GASCOIGNE, on 3
April, 1994.
Mr Kenneth Roderick GLASSON, on 27
November, 1994.
Mr Norman Frederick HALL, on 13
June 1994.
Dr Harvey Donald Robert MALCOLM, on
18 March, 1994.
Professor Simon James PROKHOVNIC,
on 20 June 1994.
Dr Phyllis Margaret ROUNTREE, on
27 July, 1994.
Sir Frederick WHITE (Honorary
Member), on 17 August, 1994.
OFFICE
The Society continued during the year to
lease for its office and Library a half
share of Convocation House, 134 Herring
Road, North Ryde, on the _ southeastern
edge of the Macquarie University Campus.
The Council is gratefui Ea the
University for allowing it to continue
leasing the premises. Council greatly
appreciates the secretarial assistance
rendered by Mrs. V. Chandler during the
past year.
SUMMER SCHOOL
As in previous years the Summer School
for 1995. (16=20 January 1995) was
successfully conducted. The venue was
Macquarie University.
54 students were enrolled from i
private high schools and 21 _ state high
schools within the State of New South
Wales. Among the country centres who
took part in the Summer School were
Broken Hild, Tumbarumba, Walgett,
Gunnedah and Moree and others. Fifteen
voluntary speakers from private,
government and academic institutions
responded to Council's invitation to
address the students during the week-
ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL 47
long activities. Two half-day
excursions were carried out, both of
them to private industrial enterprises.
These excursions play a vital part as
they provide industrial insight and
contact with persons’ working in the
particular field covered by the Summer
School. One visit was made to Burns
Philp Research and Development (Food and
Fermentation Division), the other to
Colby Engineering (Design and
Manufacture of Packaging Systems for the
International Dairy Powder Industry
world-wide). Council thanks both
establishments for their generous’ co-
operation.
Council of the Society also wishes’ to
thank the voluntary speakers and
organisers of the visits whose well
presented addresses and demonstrations
greatly contributed to the success of
the Summer School.
Council's appreciation is extended to
Mrs. Krysko, Dr. Coenraads and to the
various Council Members who assisted and
chaired sessions as well as to Mrs.
W.C.H. Swaine and Mrs. Nancy Sutherland.
The Official Opening was undertaken by
Mrs. Shirley Sinclair, wife of His
Excellency Rear Admiral Peter Sinclair,
A.C. Governor of New South Wales and
Patron of the Royal Society of New South
Wales. Council offers its thanks to
Mrs. Sinclair.
Also taking part in the Official Opening
were the President of the Society, Mr.
John Hardie, Mr. Andrew A. Tink, M.P.,
Member of the Council of Macquarie
University, and ProOE. Jefe Piper
representing the Vice-Chancellor
Emeritus Professor Di Yerbury AM, of
Macquarie University.
LIBRARY REPORT FOR 1994/1995
As in previous years, acquisition
by gift and exchange has been
maintained. The relevant lists of
journals and other publications received
in this way have been monitored to
accommodate any changes that may have
occurred. Material from overseas’ and
some Australian material are sent
directly to the Dixson Library at the
University of New England, other
Australian material is held in the
Society's Office at North Ryde.
The Council thanks Mr Karl Schmude,
University Librarian, University of New
England, for his continuing efficient
care and responsibility in maintaining
the processing and availability of the
Royal Society Collection in the Dixson
Library.
In January 1995, the Hon. Librarian
Miss Patricia M. Callaghan, g the
President (1994/5) of the Society, Mr
John R. Hardie, visited the Dixson
Library at the invitation of Mr Schmude.
The visit included a guided tour of the
Dixson Library and Les special
collections. The Royal Society
Collection is housed in a_e special room
where a notice gives details of the
history of the Society. However, some
serials have been used to compiete, or
add to the Dixson Serials Collection.
Each item of the Royal Society
Collection is identifiable by a logo on
the spine (of the book) and a weil
designed book plate.
The Catalogue of the Royal Society,
Dixson Library, University of New
England is a subject catalogue in
classified (Dewey) order, published in
book-form. It was suggesced that a
complementary author/title catalogue
would be useful.
Mr Schmude had arranged a_ luncheon
at a town restaurant where we were
joined by Em. Professor R.L. Stanton of
the University of New Engiand, and a
member of the New England Branch of the
Society. A very interesting and
pleasant day - "a happy occasion", as
Professor Stanton described it.
SOUTHERN HIGHLANDS BRANCH REPORT
The Inaugural Meeting of this Branch was
held on Sunday 19th June 1994 act Oxley
Coliege. 24 people were present
including the President, Mr. John Hardie
(who addressed the Meeting), Dr. Aian
Dqy and Dr. R. Bhathal, Mrs. Jane Lemann
was elected Branch Chair-person, Roger
Ware Branch Vice Chair-person, Drs
Kelvin Grose Branch Honorary Secretary,
Mr. Martin L}mann Branch Honorary
Treasurer, Mr. Roy Perry Branch
Publicity Officer and Mr. Roger Ware
Branch Newsletter Editor. Dr. Kelvin
Grose represents the Branch on the
Council of the Royal Society of New
South Wales.
Friday 15th July 1994
On this day Dr. Kelvin Grose located the
grave of Dr. Henry Grattan Douglass at
St. John's Anglican Church, Camden. Dr.
Douglass was one of the founders’ of the
Philosophical Society of Australasia
which ultimately became the Royal
Society of New South Wales. Dr. Grose
reported to his own Branch and to
Council that the grave is in need of
renovation.
Wednesday, 27th July 1994
Dr Ken McCracken delivered an address
which he entitled "Reminiscences of a
48 ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL
Scientist", illustrated by
hardware in the form of actual pieces of
satellites and photographs taken from
satellites. The meeting was held at
Bowral Golf Club where 32 members’ and
visitors sat down to dinner with Dr
McCracken. The evening was’ voted an
outstanding success. A vote of thanks
was proposed by Dr Phillip Knowles.
Space
Thursday, 6 October 1994
Dr Armstrong Osborne gave a slide
presentation and address entitled "Tales
from Marble Halls: Reading the Rocks at
Wombeyan Caves". 40 members and
visitors were present at Links House for
the talk and 30 afterwards sat down to
an excellent dinner with Dr Osborne.
Commander David Robertson proposed a
vote of thanks to the lecturer.
October 1994: A sum of $200 (Trust
Fund) was received from Mr. Douglass
Baglin of Mudgee towards the
restoration of Dr Douglass's grave.
October 1994: Dr Kelvin Grose located
Mrs Barbara King, a descendant of Dr
Douglass. Mrs King's brother, Edgar
well-known figure in the
Illawarra district for many years (he
died in 1989). Solicitor, historian,
promoter of the University College which
ultimately became the University of
Wollongong, Edgar's special interest was
history and particularly the history of
Australian exploration. He wrote eight
books, and four of these were devoted to
the explorers Kennedy and Charles Sturt.
On his death he left behind the
manuscript of another book on Sturt.
Beale, was a
Fciday, 11 November 1994
A function was held at St Anne's
Anglican Church, Ryde in honour of Ann
Rumsby and Dr H.G. Douglass. The
President, Mr. John Hardie, the Hon.
Libracian Miss Pat Callaghan and the
Hon. Secretary (Editorial) Mrs. M.
Krysko attended. The President, John
Hardie, welcomed everyone and Dr Kelvin
Grose explained how Dr Douglass and his
wife, Hester, brought Ann Rumsby and her
husband, Wiliiam Bragge, together (both
are buried in the churchyard where the
function was held). Mrs Berenice
Campbell of Wahroonga and her sister
Sybil (Great Great Grand-daughters of
Ann and William) assembled at least a
dozen representatives of the Bragge
family. Present also were Miss Barbara
King and her’ son Rory McGuire. Mrs King
is the Great Great Grand-daughter of Dr
Douglass.
Thursday, 24 November 1994
Professor F.O. Stephens gave his talk on
"New Approaches with Integrated
Treatment of Locally Advanced Cancers"
at Bowral
Golf Club, 30 members’ and
visitors were present including six
members of the medical Profession. 24
members and guests sat down to dinner
with Professor Stephens. Martin Lemann
Proposed the vote of thanks.
NEW ENGLAND BRANCH REPORT
The Branch held the following meetings
during 1994:
Tuesday, 21st June 1994:- Professor
Aubrey Egan of the Cattle and Beef
Industry Co-operative Research Centre in
Armidale spoke on "What is Meat
Research?". The speaker provided the
following abstract:-
"Meat has been an important
the human diet throughout
HISEOry « Consumption is now
in countries with
standards as
component of
recorded
increasing
rising living
diets change and consumers
move towards "Western" foods. In
contrast, consumption in developed
countries with traditionally high per
Capita levels is now falling.
Meat is a major commodity in world trade
and Australia is a leading exporter.
Currently exports are valued at $3
billion with about half of our beef
production going overseas. Overall, the
industry is internationally competitive,
but is facing major challenges
especially in the processing sector.
Meeting market specifications for
quality and consistency and satisfying
increasingly demanding consumer
requirements are major issues.
The talk will cover the properties of
meat and factors affecting its quality.
Research issues will be identified and
Current Australian research activities
described.
Members and
visitors attended the
meeting which was held in the Main
(Somerville) Lecture Theatre, Department
of Physics, University of New England,
Armidale.
Wednesday, 26th October 1994:- Professor
Bruce G. Thom, Vice-Chancellor of the
University (of New England _ spoke on
"Coastal Environmental Change and
Coastal POUICy .. He supplied the
following notes:-
"Of increasing
are pressures
development on the
the coastal zone.
seek economic gain
natural resources as
see the need to
ecosystems.
concern to the community
being placed by
natural heritage of
There are those who
from the use of
well as those who
conserve fragile
ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL 49
There are also those who aspire to a
life style of relaxation (and
retirement) close to the sea, but with
comforts that put pressure on the use of
space within the coastal zone especially
through the demand and disposal of
water. Government agencies are forced
to plan for a future which in New’ South
Wales and southern Queensland will
embrace a doubling of population by the
year 2020.
Consideration of matters of conflict in
the use of coastal land must be
understood in the context of past,
present and future knowledge of coastal
environmental change. There are several
scales at which change can be evaluated.
The natural inheritance from period of
rising to stable sea levels provides a
scale which embraces sediment transport
to form the major coastal features as we
know them. However, human activities
and global forces (eg. enhanced green
house effect) are now stimulating
further changes which can regionally and
locally threaten plans for use of
coastal lands.
Members and visitors attended the
Meeting in the Main (Somerville) Lecture
Theatre, Department of Physics,
University of New England, Armidale.
ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS
6 April, 1994
(a) The 1040th General Monthly Meeting
was held at the Australian Museum,
Sydney. The President, Dr. RAs Li,
Osborne, was in the Chair and 20 members
and visitors were present.
(ob) The 127th Annual General Meeting.
Same location. The President, Dr. R.A.L.
Osborne was in the Chair, and 20 members
and visitors were present. The Annual
Report of Councii for 1993-94 and_ the
Financial Report for 1993 were adopted;
Messrs. Wylie and Puttock were elected
Auditors for 1994.
The following Awards for 1993 were
announced: -
Clarke Medal (Zoology) :-
Professor Gordon
Grigg
Edgeworth David Medal:-
Dr. John Howard Scerritt
The Royal Society of New South
Wales Medal:-
Dr. Harold George Royal
Clifford
These Awards’ had been presented by
His Excellency Rear Admiral Peter
Sinclair AC, on the occasion of the
Annual Dinner on March 22nd, 1994.
The Walter Burfitt Prize, the
Archibald D. Olle Prize and the Cook
Medal were not awarded this year.
The following Office-Bearers and
Council Members were elected for
1994/1995:
President: Mr. J.R. Hardie
Vice-Presidents: Dr R.A.L. Osborne
Dr. F.L. Sutherland
Professor Jwlic
Loxton
Dru B.C. Potter
Dr. D.J. Swaine
Honorary Treasurer: Assoc/Prof DoE
Winch
Honorary Librarian: Miss P.M. Callaghan
Honorary Secretaries:
Mrs. Me “Krysko- ov.
Tryst
Mr. G.W.K. Ford
Members of Council: Dr. R.S. Bhathal
Dr. D.F. Branagan
Dr. A.A. Day
Dr. G.C. Lowenthal
Assoc/Prof. W.E.
Smith
New England Representative:
Professor Sate
Haydon
The retiring President, Dr.
Acmstrong Osborne, who had Chaired both
the Meetings to this point, yielded the
Chair to the incoming President, Mr.
John Hardie.
Dire Osborne presenced his
presidential address: "Caves, Cement,
Bats & Tourists: Karst Science &
Limestone Resource Management in
Australia". A vote of thanks was
proposed by Dr. F.L. Sutherland.
May 4th, 1994
The 104lst General Monthly Meeting
was’ held in the Australian Museum,
Sydney. The President Mr. J.R. Hardie
was in the Chair and 26 members and
visitors were present.
Mr. W. Hudson-Shaw addressed the
meeting on "Lawrence Hargrave - The
Forgotton Man". A vote of thanks was
proposed by Dr. R.S. Bhathal.
June lst, 1994
The 1042nd General Monthly Meeting
was’ held at the Australian Museum,
Sydney. The President, Mr. J.R. Hardie
was in the Chair and 22 members’ and
visitors attended. Mr. K.W. Riley from
the Div. of Coal and Energy Technology,
CSIRO, presented an address "Fogs,
50 ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL
Fossil Fuels and the Fall from Grace of
St. Mary's Purgatory Stone". The vote
of thanks was offered by Dre Dir
Branagan.
July 6th, 1994
The 1043rd General Monthly Meeting
was. held at the Australian Museum,
Sydney. The President Mr. J.R. Hardie
was in the Chair and 43 members’ and
visitors were present. Professor John
M. Brooke of the Department of History,
Lancaster University, U.K. gave an
address entitled "The Earth Sciences and
their Cultural Implications: The
Question of Religious Belief".
Dr. A.A. Day proposed a vote of thanks.
This meeting was held jointly with the
EIEN International Congress on the
History of The Geological Sciences,
Sydney.
Council announced that a new branch
The Southern Highlands Branch of the
Royal Society of New South Wales was
formed and its inaugural meeting took
place on 19th June, 1994 in Bowral
N.S.W.
August 3rd, 1994
The 1044th General Monthly Meeting
was’ held at the Australian Museum,
Sydney. The President Mr. J.R. Hardie
was in the Chair and 19 members’ and
visitors were present.
Dr. Robert A. Creelman gave an
address entitled "Hunter Valley
Salinity". Dr. F.L. Sutherland proposed
a vote of thanks.
September 7th, 1994
The 1045th General Monthly Meeting
was held at the Australian Museum,
Sydney. The President Mr. J.R. Hardie
was in the Chair and 33 members’ and
visitors were present.
Dr. Robert Coenraads addressed the
Meeting on "The Stone Statues of Easter
Island: A Secret in their Making". The
vote of thanks was proposed by Dr. E&E.C.
POLECE.
October 5th, 1994
The 1046th General Monthly Meeting
took place at the Australian Museum,
Sydney. The President Mr. J.R. Hardie
was in the Chair and 14 members and
visitors attended.
Professor Frederick O. Stephens AM,
University of Sydney and Royal Prince
Alfred Melanoma Unit, gave an address on
"Critical Review of Recently Published
Cancer Cures". The President Mr J.R.
Hardie, proposed a vote of thanks.
November 2nd, 1994
The 1047th General Monthly Meeting
was held at the University of Western
Sydney, Macarthur. The President Mr.
J.R. Hardie was in the Chair and 47
members and visitors attended.
A/Professor Roger Alexander, Dean
of the Faculty of Business and
Technology, University of Western
Sydney, Macarther, addressed the Meeting
on "Integrated Commerce and Science
Education". Professor. W.J. Vagg,..the
Foundation Dean of the Faculty and a
member of the Society, proposed a vote
of thanks.
31
ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL
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AWARDS
CLARKE MEDAL FOR 1994
(Joint Award)
Professor Craig Anthony’ Atkins is
Professor in the Department of Botany,
University of Western Australia. He
studied at the Farrer Memorial
Agricultural High School in Tamworth,
New South Wales, before going on to
higher studies at_ the University of
Sydney. Here he gained a MSc Agr. in
1966, and went on to Queens University,
Kingston, Canada, where he was awarded a
PhD .ain 1969. He returned to Australia
as a Post Doctoral Fellow, working in
the Plant Physiology Unit CSIRO, the
Botany Department, University of Sydney
and the Department of Biology, Macquarie
University. Further overseas experience
as a Research Scientist at the
Internacional Atomic Enecgy Agency,
Vienna, Austria, was followed by
appointment as Lecturer in the
Department of Botany, University of
Western Australia in 1974. His progress
at that institution was capped by an
award of DSc in 1983 and appointment as
Professor in 1986.
in his scientific field, Professor
Atkins is distinguished for his’ unique
contributions to facets of the celiular
locations or purine metabolism in
legumes. In early collaborative work,
Professor Atkins helped establish the
carbon and nitrogen economics of the
Dr Barbara Gillian Briggs has’ greatly
enhanced the work of the Royal Botanic
Gardens in Sydney, where she is
presently Senior Assistant Director
(Scientific). From Hornsby Girls High
School, she proceeded to higher studies
at the University of Sydney where she
gained lst Class Honours in 1956 and a
PhD in 1961. After taking a CSIRO
overseas scholarship at the University
of California, Berkeley, she was
appointed a Botanist ac the Royal
Botanic Gardens in 1967. From here she
developed her studies of major
Australian botanic groups, placing these
groups abel gers! world perspective and
achieving international status for her
work.
Dr Briggs was one of the E1rst
Australian botanists to consider
evolutionary relationships between taxa
in the context of plant migration, plate
grain legume-module of symbiosis. He
then independently discovered that
proplastids of infected cells are the
major sites of purine synthesis. His
work is characterised by experiments
that use ali the advances of chemical,
biochemical and molecular technology.
His current collaborative work on
genetic manipulation of pod abortion in
grain legumes has fundamental and
practical importance.
Professor Atkins’ has an outstanding
record in administrative avenues and in
gaining grant funds for scientific
projects. He has extensive connection
with and is an adviser to many
Institutions and government agencies.
He serves on the editorial boards of
several international journals and has
been an invited lecturer to many
meetings and organisations.
For his most distinguished record in his
research on legumes and in services to
both academic and agricultural
organisations, Professor Atkins is a
most worthy recipient for the award of
the Clark Medai in Botany for 1994.
FLS
tectonics and geological history. Hec
studies include: examination of
chromosome numbers and morpnology;
ecological and reproductive barriers to
gene flow; evolution of infiorescence
structure; interrelationships of higher
level taxa; and cladistic analyses of
morphology and DNA sequences at generic
and family levels. Particularly
important are her investigations of the
three great Southern plant families the
Myrtacaea, Proteaceae and Restionaceae.
Dr Briggs is an active administrator in
the scientific role of the Royal Botanic
Gardens, which has become the premier
institute for taxonomic botany ame}
Australia. She has encouraged the
development of scientific expertise in
her institution and assisted funding for
this scientific work, such as the
advance in phycological studies. She
has facilitated and contributed to the
60 ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL
"Flora of New South Wales", a major
publication of four volumes. She has
been President and Councillor of the
Linnean Society of New South Wales, and
has participated in the work of several
overseas professional bodies that
promote biological studies.
Dr Barbara Briggs has continued the
scientific spirit of the Reverend W.B.
Clarke more than a century later and is
a worthy recipient of the Clarke Medal
in Botany for 1994.
FLS
THE JAMES COOK MEDAL FOR 1994
The James Cook Medal for "outstanding
contributions to science’ and human
welfare in and for the Southern
Hemisphere" is awarded to Sir Gustav
Nossal, AC, CBE, FRS, FAA, Director of
The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of
Medical Research.
Sir Gustav was born.- in Bad “ischi,
Austria, and came to Australia in 1939.
He gained his primary degrees in
Medicine at The University of Sydney,
and his PhD from the University of
Melbourne. Apart from a few years
overseas at Stanford University, at the
Pasteur Institute and as a Special
Consultant to the WHO, all Nossal's
research has been done at _ The Hall
Institute. He was made an Honorary
Member of our Society in 1986.
Sir Gustav Nossal has made major
contributions to the fields of antibody
formation and immunological tolerance.
His research has required the use of
novel and technically gi EEVCcuLe
mMicromanipulation techniques which, for
example, enabled studies to be done on
antibody formation by single cells. The
discovery that one cell always made one
antibody specificity was fundamental to
the understanding of the immune = system.
Amongst his other major discoveries are
in the field of lymphoid cells, namely,
T cells and B cells, and in bone marrow
differentiation, where definite proof
was established that bone marrow is the
factory for B- lymphocytes. Nossal's
work on the nature of immunological
tolerance has led to the development of
a new theory, called the clonal anergy
theory. As well as his own research,
Nossal has collaborated with several
other scientists and their work
exemplifies the importance of the team
approach to research.
Sir Gustav Nossal has written 5 books
and published more than 400 papers and
he has received a host of honours’ from
about 10 countries. He is a_ foreign
Associate of the US National Academy of
Sciences, a Member of the Academie des
Sciences of France, and the recipient of
the Albert Einstein World Award of
Science, the Emil von Behring Prize
and the Rabbi Shai Shacknai Prize. His
involvement with internationl health is
maintained by his chairmanship. of the
WHO Committee on the Global Program on
Vaccines. There is* no doubt /that. Sir
Gustav Nossal is an outstanding
scientist. His work and that of his
team have established world leadership
by dint of innovative and
experimentaily-challenging research.
There are few Australian scientists who
have achieved such eminence. re 7s
surely fitting that Sir Gustav Nossal
joins the select group of recipients of
The Cook Medal.
DJS
EDGEWORTH DAVID MEDAL FOR 1994
The Edgeworth David Medal, for distinguished con-
tributions to Australian science by a young scientist un-
der the age of 35 years old, is awarded to Richard Hume
Middleton, BSc, BE (Hons), PhD, Newcastle.
Richard Middleton studied Electrical Engineering at
the University of Newcastle where he obtained first class
honours and a University Medal in 1983 and the Doctor
of Philosophy in 1985 with a thesis on Modern continuous
and discrete control. He was appointed to a Lectureship
at the University of Newcastle in 1986 and rose rapidly to
the rank of Associate Professor in 1993. He is currently
Head of the Department of Electrical and Computer Engi-
neering and Associate Director of the Centre for Industrial
Control Science at the University of Newcastle.
Richard Middleton has held major grants from the
Australian Research Council since 1988 for such projects
AWARDS
as ‘Analysis and design of robust control systems’ and
‘Electrical energy generation and storage using small-to-
medium sized wind-powered turbines.’ He won the out-
standing young investigator award of the Australian Tele-
communications and Electronics Research Board in 1991.
His research interests are in microprocessor systems
and control, power electronics and satellite tracking sys-
tems. He has written a well-known text book on Digital
Control and Estimation and 22 papers in international
refereed journals as well as a number of short communi-
cations and conference presentations. He has developed
61
sophisticated signal processing algorithms which are be-
ing used commercially to track satellites at locations in a
number of countries.
Richard Middleton has made widespread contribu-
tions to the theory and practice of Electrical Engineering
in Australia and is a worthy recipient of the Edgeworth
David Medal.
THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES
MEDAL FOR 1994
This Medal for achievemencs in science
and for the advancement of the Society
is awarded to Dr Edmund Clarence Potcer.
Dr. Potter graduated in chemistry from
London University in 1944 and took his
PhD in electrochemistry at Imperial
College. Then followed the publication
of a well-regarded book, entitled
"Electrochemistry = Principles and
Applications” . His early research on
metallic corrosion established nim as a
prime worker in various aspects of
corrosion and he is scili frequentciy
consulted for informed statements on
certain corrosion problems.
In 1968 he joined the CSIRO at North
Ryde where his relevant electro-—
chemistry background was used to
investigate several aspects of the
electrostatic precipitacion of flyash
particles from the combuscion of coal
for power generation. His studies,
involving bench-scale experiments
related to the full-scale Situation,
helped to shed iight on this important
matter. His experimental work is
Cnaractercised by a certain flaic for
innovation. Dr. Potter retired from
CSIRO as a Chief Research Scientist. He
nad also been very active in the CSIRO
Officers * Association, especially as
President.
Dc. Potter's research has been mainly in
applied science and the results of his
work are embodied in about 70 papers’ and
4 patents. In 1956 he received a Beilby
Memorial Award for advances in power-
station chemistry and in 1982 he was
awarded the Corrosion Medal of the
Australasian Corrosion Association. He
JHL
is a Fellow of the Royal Society of
Chemistry and of the Royal Auscralian
Chemical Institute. He has esctablisned
a dual international reputation in his
two main research fields. He has snown
a proper appreciation of the key roie of
analytical chemistry in most chemical
research projects, something not
commonly appreciated nowadays.
Although he has specialised in the
fields of corrosion and electrostatic
precipitation, Edmund Potter is keenly
interested in science in the broadest
sense, inciuding historical aspects. He
is a very active bushwalker where his
powers of observation often detect
interesting details.
Since retiring from CSIRO in 1988,
Edmund Potter has been an enthusiastic
and effective member of our Society. He
is always there when extra tasks have to
be performed and these he does with
Much-appreciated good humour. He has
been a member of the Council since 1989
as a Vice-President and as President in
1991-1992. Edmund Potter's
contributions to science and to our
Society strongly endorse this award of
the Society's Medal.
DJS
62
ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL
ARCHIBALD D. OLLE PRIZE FOR 1994
The Archibald D. Olle Prize is awarded
from time_to time at the discretion of
the Council to the member of the Society
who in any year submits to the Society
che best treatise, Or writing, Or paper
on any subject coming within the
province of the Society for that year.
The prize is awarded to Mr. Michael
Organ, BSc, for hisS paper entitled
‘Bibliography of the Reverend W.B.
Clarke (1798-1878) : "Father of
Australian Geology", published in the
Journal and Proceedings, Volume L205
part 3. The Reverend Clarke was one of
the founders of this Society during the
second half of last century, and a
comprehensive bibliography of his’ many
works has been long wanting. As early
as 1879, the year following Clarke's
death, the then president of the
Society, Professor John Smith, bemoaned
the absence of such a listing.
Mr. Organ, a member of the Society,
obtained an Honours degree majoring in
geology from the University of
Wollongong in 1986 and has’ been a long-
time student of the Reverend Clarke. A
paper on Clarke was recently published
in.the Historical Records of Australian
Science, whilst Mr. Organ has also been
involved in collaborative projects on
coal geology of the Sydney Basin and
igneous petrology at Wollongong
University. He is also a_ keen historian
(Secretary of the Illawarra Historical
Society), with a number of publications
on Aboriginal history.
The Clarke bibliography was begun in
1987 and has’ received input from fellow
students of the history of Australian
earth sciences, including the late Prof.
T.G. Vallance, Ann Moyal, and David
Williams of the Bureau of Meteorology.
Mr. Organ is at present employed as
Archivist at the University of
Wollongong, after having worked as a
Research Assistant in various
departments at that institution since
1989. His current research interests
include the history of the development
of the oil shale industry in New South
Wales during the late 1860s and the
ViISLE of an Austrian scientific
expedition to Sydney in 1858 aboard the
Imperial Frigate Novara.
Report on Presentation of the Clarke Medal for 1992
Recipient:
Professor Alfred Edward Ringwood
(see Vol. 126 Parts 1 and 2, p 105 for
citation).
Professor D.H. Green of the
Research School of Earth Sciences
Institute of Advanced Studies,
Australian National University, Canberra
ACT, kindly arranged the presentation
and reported as follows:-
"The Clarke Medal of the Royal
Society of New South Wales was accepted
by Mr Peter Ringwood on behalf of his
father, the late Professor A.E.
Ringwood, FAA, FRS. The medal was
presented by Professor Ken Campbell
representing the Royal Society of New
South Wales and the presentation took
place on Friday, 20 May ins he
Director's Office, Research School of
Earth Sciences. The presentation was
attended by members of Professor
Ringwood's Petrochemistry Research Group
and by the Executive Officer, RSES.
Light refreshments were served after the
presentation".
ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL 63
BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR
KENNETH RODERICK GLASSON
1921-1944
Ken Glasson died suddenly in Fiji on 27
November, 1994, in his seventy fourth year and
was buried a few days later on Nananu -i-ra Island.
It was the way he would have liked to go, quickly,
after a refreshing swim with his wife Margaret,
during a short break from his life's work, the
search for, and the development of new ore bodies.
Ken Glasson was born on 7 October 1921 at
Bathurst, the middle child (of five) of Kenneth
Leichhardt and Melvina Mary (née Gordon)
Glasson, of Cornish farming stock. Ken spent his
early years in Bathurst, completing his secondary
schooling at Bathurst High School, where he was
School Captain in his final year, 1938. In 1939 he
became a pupil surveyor with a local practitioner,
continuing with his surveying experience until
May, 1940.
In that month the Australian Government
formed a number of new army units, including the
2/1 Survey Regiment, in which Ken enlisted on 30
May. After training at Greta and Cowra the
regiment went to the Middle East in March, 1941.
Ken was involved in surveys and reconnaissance in
Palestine, Transjordan, the Palestine-Syrian
border, and after the occupation of Syria, on its
northern border with Turkey. During this time he
found great interest in the historical cities and sites,
visiting many during his brief periods of leave.
Japanese activities in the Pacific saw the
regiment return to Australia in April, 1942, Ken’s
first assignment being survey work on the
“Brisbane Line” of defence. In August the
regimental organisation was discontinued and his
troop became 2/6 Survey Battery.
The 2/6 Battery, including Ken amongst its
65 members, went to New Guinea early in 1943,
spending a year on that tour of duty, producing
survey information for artillery and mapping.
During this period Ken was articled to an officer
who was a registered surveyor. After leave and
training in Queensland he returned to New Guinea,
as a Bombardier and observer in charge of one of
the survey parties. Early in February, 1945, as the
Australian forces advanced towards Wewak, Ken
received notice of early discharge and admission to
a B.Sc. course at Sydney University through the
C.R.T.S. scheme. He insisted on completing the
survey to the limits of the infantry advance that
day, before leaving next day for Australia and
Sydney University. His exemplary service was
recognised by the award of a British Empire Medal
at the end of the campaign.
Ken kept in touch with many of his army
friends, took an active interest in the Unit
association, and at the time of his death, was
President. In 1993 he completed (in association
with some others) a history of the Regiment.
Ken plunged into his university work with
enthusiasm, having already decided to concentrate
on geology. He was amongst the first group of ex-
service students, which joined very much younger
and inexperienced students, and those who had
interrupted their courses to go to war. Despite the
calls of his studies Ken played a part in the
Student’s Geological Society and _ other
organisations, and while in his second year of study
(1946) married Margaret Robbins. By his final
year Ken had made up his mind to specialise in
mining geology.
Immediately on graduating at the end of
1947 Ken began his professional work at Captain’s
Flat, then one of Australia’s largest lead/zinc
mines. Beginning as Geologist, he progressed to
Senior Geologist and finally Chief Geologist
responsible for all mine and exploration geology,
rapid promotion in less than four years.
In 1952 Ken had a brief stint of six months
with CSR in Melbourne before moving to Radium
Hill, South Australia, then Australia’s sole uranium
mine, as Project Geologist, responsible for
exploration and development of the mine, planning
and ore reserve calculations. The last-named matter
was one that was to fascinate Ken for the rest of his
life. The nearly three years at Radium Hill also
gave him a taste for the Precambrian, and for the
challenging geology of the Broken Hill region.
Between 1954 and 1956 Ken was Senior
Consulting Geologist with Mining and Prospecting
Services, a small, privately-owned company
offering a wide range of mineral exploration and
mining services to a number of public companies.
In this period he was involved in exploration in all
states and Papua New Guinea, concentrating on the
64 ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL
BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
search for uranium, but also for base metals and
gold. The uranium search included airborne work
in the Kimberleys and extensive exploration of the
Cloncurry-Mt. Isa region, shortly after the Mary
Kathleen discovery. Notably he worked on the
‘other side’ of the structure that contained Mary
Kathleen, and is credited with much of the work
that led to the delineation of several uranium
deposits in that region. This, and subsequent work
exposed Ken to many of the early developments in
Australasia’s mining and exploration industry at a
time when there were too few qualified
professionals.
In late 1956 Ken returned to the Department
of Geology and Geophysics at the University of
Sydney at the invitation of Professor Charles
Marshall, following the resignation of Richard
Stanton. He began as a Teaching Fellow, teaching
economic geology. This gave him the opportunity
to write up his previous work on Captains Flat,
which he submitted for the degree of Master of
Science. At the end of the year he was appointed to
a Senior Lectureship, with responsibility for both
economic (mainly metalliferous) and engineering
geology. His work entailed teaching to senior
classes in Geology, and to students in Mining
Engineering and Civil Engineering, getting his
message over with a mixture of hands-on practical
work and the benefit of his own wide local
knowledge.
From the field and mine face he took his
geological mapping experience and practices with
him to the University where he imparted them to
his students. With his belief in the need for field
experience, particularly mapping, he ensured that
all these groups went into the field as much as
possible. He also introduced mineragraphic work
and soil mechanics in his laboratory courses.
During this period Ken was consultant for a
number of companies on a part-time or retainer
basis. Between 1958-1962 he was involved with
Consolidated Goldfields in base metal exploration
in the Broken Hill, Central Western New South
Wales and North Queensland regions.
In 1962 Ken was President of the Science
Association, a Faculty of Science (largely student-
run) organisation, but which relied on staff
encouragement and active support to bring together
the disparate strands within the Faculty, which also
suffered from its wide physical spread on the
campus. Characteristically his Presidential address
was “The role of Geology and Geologists in
Australia’s Mineral Production’.
In January 1962, Ken and his senior students
undertook the exploration of the Mount Cleveland
tin deposit near Waratah in western Tasmania,
where they mapped and succeeded in determining
the ore-forming structure, from which tin and
copper concentrates were then produced for more
than 20 years. Until 1969 Ken made available to
the Aberfoyle Company his consulting geological
services in many fields throughout Australia,
particularly in the search for tin. Between 1960
and 1966 he was also consultant for various
companies involved in the construction of dams and
tunnels in the Snowy Mountains Scheme.
Ken’s teaching and his related consulting,
which provided important material for his students,
gave him little opportunity for publishing papers in
learned journals. While Ken enjoyed the University
work there was some frustration that his teaching
methods were not appreciated, and his lack of
papers in technical journals, perceived as
inadequate research, hindered his promotion to
Associate Professor. Professor Charles Marshall
finally succeeded in convincing the bureaucracy of
Ken’s worth, but it was too late, and the wider
world was beckoning and another 25 years’
exciting work began.
In 1969 Ken left the University. He had
registered Foundation and Geological Services Pty.
Ltd. as a company that year, and the consultant
company was specifically retained, first by Union
Miniére Mining and Development (Belgian owned).
Ken invited some of his former students to join
him in major mineral exploration and evaluation
programs in Australia. This work extended from
1969 to 1975. Between 1976 and 1983 Ken and his
company was Technical Adviser and Geological
Consultant to Aquitaine Australia Minerals Pty.
Ltd., a French-owned company, and he investigated
numerous exploration ventures in Australia and
Fiji. Ken’s love affair with Fiji began at this time,
in 1983.
From 1984 until his untimely death Ken
Glasson continued his busy and productive schedule
acting as consultant to a number of companies
involved in the exploration for gold, base metals
ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL 65
BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
and non-ferrous metals in Australia and Fiji. He
also practiced as a qualified engineering geologist
in the Sydney-Wollongong region. During these
later years he turned his attention to environmental
and social matters, working for sensible solutions
to local environmental and developmental problems
in his home region of Kiama, gaining the
confidence of public servants, community groups
and the general public alike.
His participation in land deals between native
peoples and mining groups in Central Australia and
Fiji drew considerable praise as he gained the
respect of Aboriginal people by his courtesy,
friendliness and good humour. The Central Land
Council recruited him to give advice to Traditional
Owners and other tribal elders on exploration and
mining ventures proposed in Central Australia,
advice which he gave unstintingly and without
charge.
Although always a strong individual, Ken's
wife Margaret played an immensely important
supportive role in his work throughout his life.
Their family of two sons Robert and Jim was close-
knit and the family treasured their times together,
particularly after they moved from Sydney to
Minnamurra, near Kiama.
Ken joined the Society in 1948, and when
opportunity offered contributed to its activities. His
single Society publication, on mineral deposits, was
an important joint contribution to the Society's
Centenary volume. He was a member of the
Geological Society, of the Australasian Institute of
Mining and Metallurgy (particularly the Joint Ore
Reserves Committee, 1983-1992, Chairman 1986-
1992) and a co-founder of the Australian Institute
of Geoscientists (President 1983-1987). At the time
of his death he was also President of the Edgeworth
David Society (alumni of the Department of
Geology & Geophysics, University of Sydney).
Publications of K.R. Glasson
Glasson, K.R., 1962. The role of Geology and
Geologists in Australia’s Mineral Production, in
SCIENCE YEAR BOOK, 1962, pp. 22-27.
University of Sydney Science Association, Sydney.
1962. Mineral Deposits in New South Wales. (with
E.O. Rayner and D.K. Tompkins). In A GOODLY
HERITAGE, pp.36-57. 36th Meeting ANZAAS,
Sydney.
1965. The hydrothermal concept as a guide to ore
search. Proceedings of the 8th Commonwealth
Mining and Metallurgical Congress, 2, 19-24.
1965. Lead-zinc-copper deposits of Lake George
Mines, Captain’s Flat. (with V.R. Paine).
Proceedings of the 8th Commonwealth Mining and
Metallurgical Congress, 1, 423-431.
1968. Applied Geology in New South Wales. (with
L.J. Lawrence). A CENTURY OF SCIENTIFIC
PROGRESS, PP. 280-309. Centenary Volume,
Royal Society of New South Wales, Sydney.
1989. (with other members of Joint Ore Reserves
Committee, AusIMM). Code for reporting of
identified Mineral Resources and Ore Reserves.
AusIMM.
1990. Can Geoscientists survive the Winds of
Change? In| COAL IN AUSTRALIA. D.F.
Branagan & K.L. Williams (Eds.),. Third
Edgeworth David Day Symposium: 125-133.
1990. (Editor with J.H. Rattigan). GEOLOGICAL
ASPECTS OF THE DISCOVERY OF SOME
IMPORTANT MINERAL DEPOSITS _ IN
AUSTRALIA. Monograph 17, AustIMM.
1991. The contribution of Mining Companies in
relation to Mine Mapping and Geological Surveys.
In GEOLOGICAL MAPPING OF TWO
SOUTHERN CONTINENTS. D.F. Branagan, G.S.
GIBBONS & K.L. Williams (Eds.),. First and
Second Edgeworth David Day Symposia: 67-76.
1992. Gossans true and false. Jn SURFACE WITH
GEOLOGY - AUSTRALIAN LANDSCAPES
AND ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS. D.F.
Branagan & K.L. Williams (Eds.),. Fifth
Edgeworth David Day Symposium: 20-26.
1993. (With T. Lenehan and B Sturday)
LOCATING THE ENEMY! AUSTRALIAN
ARTILLERY SURVEYORS AT WAR 1940-1945.
A History of the 2/1 Australian Survey Regiment
RAA. 2/\st Australian Survey Association, 158pp.
66
ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL
BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
1993. Research today-Tomorrow's development. In
WHITHER GEOLOGICAL RESEARCH?.
AUSTRALIAN GEOSCIENCE RESEARCH - IN
THE NATIONAL INTEREST R.A. Facer, D.F.
Branagan & K.L.° Williams (Eds.),. Sixth
Edgeworth David Day Symposium: 5-8.
In addition to these formal publications Ken
wrote numerous Letters to the Editor of various
journals and newspapers (even to Sports Editors!),
which set out his ideas and positive suggestions on a
variety of (often) controversial subjects.
There are also innumerable reports to
Companies. These now form an important archive
and hopefully will soon be housed in the Noel
Butlin Archives (for Business and Labour) at the
Australian National University.
NORMAN FREDERICK HALL
Mr Norman Frederick Halil passed away on
13 June, 1994. He had been a member of
the Society for sixty years. Having
gained a MSc degree in Organic Chemistry
from the University of Sydney, he joined
the then Council for ScientrEic. jad
Industrial Research's Tobacco Research
Section and remained with the
CSIR/CSIRO.
After retirement he went to live at
Elanora Heights, Sydney, and whiie in
poor health had to be evacuated
hurriedly in the face of the ‘severe
bushfires which raged in January 1994.
This disruption hastened the decline . in
Mr Hali's health. The Council is sure
members JOINIe Lt in expressing the
Society's deep sympathy to Mrs’ Halil and
her two sons in their loss.
DOROTHY JEAN ELLISON
We also record with regret the passing
of Miss Dorothy Jean Ellison. An
Honours MSc graduate from the University
of New Zealand, she was a_ science
teacher at Abbotsleigh School,
Wahroonga, for a period and joined the
Society in 1949, She died on 5th
October, 1994.
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NOTICE TO AUTHORS
A “Style Guide” to authors is available from the
Honorary Secretary, Royal Society of New South
Wales, PO Box 1525, Macquarie Centre, NSW
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CONTENTS
VOLUME 128, PARTS 1 and 2
BENNETT, Max R.
The Neuroscience of Syntax, Semantics and Qualia
(Brain and Mind: Descartes and Kant) 1
BENNETT, Max R.
The Binding Problem and Consciousness: Neuroscience
of Attention
GRAY, C.M.
by B.W.Chappell
GROVER OBE, John C.
R.L.Stanton
ABSTRACTS OF THESES:
HURDAL, Monica K,:
WANG, Jinxian :
13
Discussion of "Lachlan and New England: Fold Belts
of Contrasting Magmatic and Tectonic Development"
29
Review of book 'Ore Elements in Arc Lavas"' by
33
Dipole Modelling for the
Localization of Human Visual Evoked
Scalp Potential Sources 36
Population Dynamics of Steinernema
carpocapsae and Heterorhabditis
bacteriophora in in vivo and in
Vitro culture 59
MAHONY, Robert:
SCRIVENER, Andrew M,:
DOUGLAS, Andrea M,:
KIDD, Susan E,:
COUNCIL REPORT: 1994 - 1995
Optimization Algorithms on
Homogeneous Spaces: with Application
in Linear Systems Theory 40
Wood Digestion in Panesthia
cribrata 4]
The Development of Mutation
Detection Techniques and their
Application to Disease Diagnosis 43
Development of Metal Chelates as
Potential Probes of DNA Structure 44
Annual Report 45
Abstract of Proceedings 49
Summer-School Photo 51
Financial Statement 52
Awards 59
Biographical Memoirs 63
DATE of PUBLICATION: Vol.128 Parts 1 and 2
June 1995
— | Issued December 1995
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Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol,128,67-78, 1995
ISSN 0035-9173/95/020067-12 $4.00/1
ISSUES IN ASSESSING THE LONG-TERM STABILITY OF ENGINEERED
AUSTRALIA
S.J.Riley
ABSTRACT
Assessment of the long-term stability of engineered landforms of rehabilitated uranium mines and uranium
mill tailings containment structures is primarily a geomorphic issue. It involves consideration of site
stability, containment stability and the dispersion of the products of weathering and erosion and hence
relies on models of the hydrogeomorphic environment.
For Ranger Uranium Mine geomorphic assessment has defined areas with the least risk of instability and
the erosional stability of uranium mill tailings containment structures has been modelled using the
geomorphic model SIBERIA. Assessment of the dispersion of products throughout the receiving fluvial
system is critical in setting the guidelines for acceptable levels of erosion and risk to the environment of
failure of the containment structure.
Design and assessment is ultimately an issue of acceptable probabilities of failure (risk), which are set by
society. The geomorphic research is directed towards assessing whether or not the designs meet acceptable
67
standards.
INTRODUCTION
Uranium mill tailings require containment and
isolation from humans and the environment for
thousands of years (Commonwealth of Australia,
1987). During these long periods the geomorphic
stability of cover materials and sites will be critical in
determining whether or not engineered structures
maintain their integrity (Schumm et al., 1981, 1982;
Pidgeon, 1982; East, 1986; Riley et al., 1993; Riley,
1994). The assessment of rehabilitation and
containment stability must rely on geomorphic
modelling because there is no other tool outside of
modelling with which long-term stability can be
assessed.
The geomorphic models cannot be considered as
anything other than predictive tools for estimating
probabilities of success of rehabilitation and
containment (Riley and Waggitt, 1992a,b; Waggitt
and Riley, 1992; Willgoose, 1993) as forecasting is
precluded by the chaotic nature of micro-relief,
stratigraphy and micro-processes of erosion and
weathering. For example, prediction of gully
development on engineered landforms is possible
(Nelson et al., 1983, 1986), but forecasting the exact
location and geometry of individual gullies is
unlikely. Thus, the assessment of geomorphic
stability is concerned with predictions that are
probabilistic, not deterministic. Further, assessment
must be based on risk to the environment of failure,
which incorporates the probabilities of failure and
impact of the failure.
This paper briefly discusses issues that have been
considered in assessing the geomorphic stability of
uranium mill tailings containment structures at
Ranger Uranium Mine (RUM), Northern Territory,
Australia. The purpose of the paper is to present the
conceptual approach to addressing the issues. Results
of studies completed to date are briefly discussed,
reference being made to the relevant reports detailing
the results.
RANGER URANIUM MINE
Ranger Uranium Mine (RUM) is surrounded by
the World Heritage Listed area of Kakadu National
Park (Fig 1) and is within the Magela Creek valley.
68 S.J.RILEY
132° t\
0
oF Fs:
VAN DIEMEN GULF
ie)
ARAFURA SEA
DARWIN
is) \e
ARNHEM LAND ABORIGINAL
RESERVE
Rum Jungle ®
Ng Adelaide River
Pine Creek
Katherine
Alligator Rivers Region (ARR)
0 50 100 km N
tl I J Mataranka
K
Mudglnberr!
Billabong
Stier ies
Macphee
> alrstrip
L&
z
Mpconeer
campsite
i Ranger
Corndor| Project Area
Billabong =
Lease boundary
Wabiru airstrip
{
| SENT 7 siceeeg
a
© Manaburduma g
campsite |
aX Oeenara
Lease boundary
Figure 1. Location of Ranger Uranium Mine, Northern Territory, Australia.
ASSESSING THE LONG-TERM STABILITY OF ENGINEERED LANDFORMS 69
The valley is occupied by its traditional aboriginal
owners and downstream of the mine is a substantial
area of wetlands. Hence, there are both human and
environmental reasons for confirming that the
rehabilitation of RUM, and _ specifically the
containment of the mill tailings, will be within
guidelines and that the highest standards will be
achieved (Fox, 1977).
There are several guidelines and constraints that
are relevant to the rehabilitation of uranium mill
tailings at RUM, in particular the Code of Practice on
the Management of Radioactive Wastes
(Commonwealth of — Australia, 1987), the
Commonwealth and Northern Territory Governments'
agreed goals and objectives, and the Environmental
Requirements (Commonwealth of Australia, 1979)
that applied to the granting of the licence to mine.
Inherent within these goals, objectives and guidelines
are explicit and implicit statements on the stability,
weathering and erosion of the rehabilitated mine
which will be briefly reviewed in the following.
The Guidelines of the Code of Practice on the
Management of Radioactive Wastes from the Mining
and Milling of Radioactive Ores 1987
(Commonwealth of Australia, 1987) recognise two
periods for the containment structures, namely the
design life and the structural life. The recommended
design life is 200 years, the structural life is 1000
years. In the US the design life may be much greater
than 200 years (Waggitt, 1994) but should not to be
confused with the design life for containment
structures of high level radioactive substances.
Structural life is the period over which a structure
is expected by the designer to continue to perform its
basic functions, even if at a reduced level. It should
be recognised that a specified design or structural life
is not a statement that the structure will not fail in
either of these periods. Any engineering structure has
a finite probability of failure. The critical issue is that
the structure will have a probability of failure that is
low and acceptable, as expressed by the period of the
design and structural lives.
The goals and objectives for rehabilitation at
Ranger aim to establish a post-mining environment
that is similar to the adjacent areas of Kakadu
National Park, with similar vegetation, stable
radiological conditions and dose limits as low as
reasonably achievable, and erosion rates as low as
those of the surrounding area. These goals and
objectives need to be examined in terms of the
predictions made by the biophysical modelling of
options for rehabilitation. For example, the erosion
standards are updated with the continual assessment
of the environmental impacts and hazards of
dispersed erosion products (Waggitt and Riley,
1992):
GEOMORPHIC ISSUES
The three main geomorphic issues related to the
geomorphic stability of engineered landforms at
Ranger are the probable stability of the site, the
probable life of the containment structure, and the
likely sediment loads and deposition sites (Pickup et
al, 1987; East, 1986) (Fig 2). The issues have to be
considered in terms of the constraints on design of
rehabilitation structures, such as cost and risk to the
environment, and the geomorphic processes that
dictate the stability conditions, principally weathering
and fluvial erosion. The results of deliberations on
issues are expressed in the preferred options for the
design of the rehabilitation structures, which are then
evaluated by modelling.
These three issues can also be examined in terms
of the on-site and off-site issues of geomorphic
stability. On-site it is the nature of the products of
mining disposed of on-site, the characteristics of
processes that release these materials and the loads,
concentrations and toxicity of materials exported to
off-site areas that are of concern. The issue of the
integrity of the engineered (artificial or designed)
landforms arises in on-site considerations. The
stability of an engineered landform will influence the
amount, rate and form of export of material. The two
main potential sources of contaminants exported to
off-site areas are the mill tailings and the waste rock
dumps (Pidgeon, 1982; Ellis, 1989).
Off-site concerns are impact related. Large
quantities of material may be exported off-site but
may have no impact either because they are benign or
because they are deposited in sinks where impacts
are negligible. Off-site impact analysis requires an
understanding of the sensitivity of the receptive
environment to the influx of materials. Off-site
ae S..RILEY
CONSTRAINTS
Environmental
requirements
Risk
(probability of failure)
Design/Structural life
Economics
ISSUES
PROCESSES
Weathering
(biogeochemical)
Site stability
Structural stability
Dispersion of materials and |
environmental impact
EVALUATION BY
MODELLING
(Risk analysis)
Figure 2. Conceptual model of geomorphic issues, processes and
constraints in the assessment of mill tailings containment structure. Refer
to text for details.
concerns dictate boundary conditions for the design
of the rehabilitation structure. Erosion rates must be
below levels that impact on the environment of the
transport corridors and sediment and solute sinks. Of
the four major processes by which material may be
eroded and moved from the mine site to surrounding
areas (Gray and Boyer, 1981) fluvial activity is
dominant at Ranger (Pickup et al., 1987; Duggan,
1988; Riley and East, 1990).
Each of the three geomorphic issues is examined
in the following.
PROBABLE STABILITY OF THE SITE
Detailed surveys of the geomorphology of the
Ranger lease area, which included dating of the main
landform elements and stability analysis of small
streams, suggest that the primary rehabilitation sites
are stable in the long term. The areas of greatest
instability are the main streams and the immediately
adjacent areas. Details of the analyses are provided in
East et al. (1993) and Duggan (1988). Duggan
Suggests that erosion rates in natural areas around
Ranger are of the order of 0.01-0.1 mmyr' and are
significantly increased by land disturbance. This
estimate of denudation provides an ‘ultimate’ target
for erosion rates on the engineered landforms
although recent work by Nott (1994) would suggest
that the long-term denudation rate is much lower.
Magela Creek has aggraded significantly in the
last 10,000 years but for the present appears to be
stable near Ranger. Thus, it is unlikely that the stable
interfluve landforms around the mine site will become
unstable as a result of river instability (Nanson et al.,
1990; Roberts, 1991; East et al., 1993). It is highly
ASSESSING THE LONG-TERM STABILITY OF ENGINEERED LANDFORMS 71
unlikely that very low frequency floods will create
instability (Murray et al., 1992).
PROBABLE LIFE OF THE CONTAINMENT STRUCTURE
Details of the research undertaken to assess the
stability of the containment structure is presented in
Riley (1994). Essentially, the problem is one of
establishing the long-term weathering and erosion
regime, taking account of termporal variations that
arise from ecosystem development on the engineered
landforms, and then calibrating suitable geomorphic
models.
Weathering and associated § ecosystem
development on engineered landforms introduces to
modelling the complication that the — surficial
properties change over time. The _ biophysical
reactions at and near the surface change the hydraulic
properties and erodibility of the materials (Riley,
1994). Changes in landform shape as a result of
erosion, eg the development of gullies, impose
changes in the drainage network and slope gradients
and often the nature of erosion. An unstable structure
would not allow soil development to progress to the
point where a stable system could develop, that is the
ecosystem would be degraded or unable to develop.
Large quantities and rates of sediment discharged
into the adjacent environment would exacerbate off-
site impacts, such as infilling of billabongs, changes
in the substrate of streams and floodplains, increases
in turbidity, and ecological changes arising from
these sedimentological changes (Riley and Waggitt,
1992a,b). The discharged sediments would initially
be the weathering products of the containment
Structure. Once the containment structure was
breached the sediments would include tailings.
One proposed rehabilitation structure at Ranger
(Unger et al., 1989) would incorporate the existing
above ground tailings dam (1km2 in area) and use the
waste rock as a cover material. The final landform
would be more than 4kmZ2 in area and rise more than
17m above the surrounding lowlands. The waste rock
is dominated by a highly chloritised schist, which
weathers rapidly in the seasonally wet tropical
climate, producing large quantities of easily eroded
materials (Uren, 1991).
Two main agents of fluvial erosion that will affect the
stability of the rehabilitation structure are interrill
erosion, dominated by rainsplash and wash, and the
complex of processes associated with rilling and
gullying. Gullying is not evident on many gentler
slopes of the region, but is common in schist areas
with relief in excess of 10 metres (Riley and
Williams, 1991). Wash and _ rainwash erosion
processes are well documented for the area
(Williams, 1978; Duggan, 1988). A combination of
monitoring and simulation experiments have been
used to collect the data required to define these key
hydrogeomorphic processes and calibrate the models
of these processes. Simulation experiments
incorporate the use of a rainfall simulator (Riley and
East, 1990; Riley and Gardiner, 1991) and
concentrated flow simulator (Riley, 1992), both
specifically designed for the project (Fig 3). The
latter uses a 12m long race through which water is
discharged and depths of erosion, sediment
concentration and bedload measured (Fig 3).
There are two approaches to erosion modelling,
soil erosion modelling and geomorphic modelling.
Soil erosion modelling assists in predicting sediment
and hydrologic characteristics of the immediate time.
However, soil erosion models do not allow for
interaction between the development of landforms
and the erosion processes. Geomorphic modelling is
the approach that is used when the modelling has to
simulate processes over long periods. There are
significant differences between the two approaches
(Willgoose, 1993) but they can be complementary.
For example, the geomorphic modelling predicts
landform development over the long term and, at
specific times, the predicted landform and material
characteristics can be used as input to soil erosion
models. These soil erosion models may include water
quality and productivity modules.
Geomorphic modelling of containment structures
at Ranger uses the model SIBERIA (Willgoose and
Riley, 1993a,b) which explicitly incorporates the
interaction between the hillslopes and the growing
channel or gully network. The model has two main
components. The first component is a model of
elevation variation; the second component models the
position of channels in the catchment. The channels
develop in response to changes in elevation and, in
turn, the elevations change in response to the
channels. Further details of the model, including the
assumptions in its application, and sensitivity analysis
are given in Willgoose and Riley (1993a,b)
ue S.J-.RILEY
Figure 3a. A rainfall simulation
experiment, in which the
processes of interrill erosion are
studied by monitoring the water
and sediment discharge and
hydraulic conditions of runoff
under specified rainfall intensities.
Figure 3b. A _ concentrated flow simulation
experiment, in which the discharge of water through
the race, sealed to the surface, provides data on the
processes of erosion of the surface under controlled
hydraulic conditions.
ASSESSING THE LONG-TERM STABILITY OF ENGINEERED LANDFORMS 73
B.
Figure 4. SIBERIA predictions of landform changes as a result of erosion
of the above ground option for rehabilitation of the Ranger uranium mill
tailings. The upper diagram (A) shows the engineered landform proposed
by Ranger Uranium Mines in its pristine condition. The lower diagram (B)
shows the landform after 1000 years of erosion. Note the major gully
system in the central area. The view is from the north east looking south
west and each side of the block is approximately 3km long.
Geomorphic modelling of Ranger rehabilitation
structures shows that there is substantial erosion in
the central section of the proposed rehabilitation
structure and on the margins of the steeper batter
slopes (Fig 4). Erosion in some areas exceeds 8m in
depth after 1000 years. Detailed work on _ the
sensitivity of the model to settlement in the structure
Suggests that denudation rates are increased and
valley incision enhanced by the chaotic redefinition
of topography (Willgoose, 1993).
SEDIMENT LOADS, DEPOSITION SITES AND
ENVIRONMENTAL RISK
The third issue concerns the dispersal of products
eroded from the rehabilitation structure. Aspects of
the assessment of the environmental impact of
dispersed products, an essential element of risk
analysis, is dependant on the ability to predict the
quantities, rates and nature of products eroded from
the mine site and discharged into the tributary
streams. The likely locus of deposition of fine-
grained material transported by Magela Creek is a
30km? area immediately downstream of Mudginberri
(Wasson, 1993). Examination of tailings dispersal in
the catchment of the old Hercules Mine at Moline,
south of Ranger (East et al., 1988), suggests by
analogy that tailings released in catastrophic
circumstances from Ranger will probably disperse
over the floodplain and through the channel systems,
with swales, billabongs and other low points in the
landscape being preferential deposition _ sites.
Irrespective of catastrophic events, it is certain that
erosion of the engineered landforms of Ranger will
lead to more rapid infilling of billabongs and changes
in the sedimentology of the streams that drain the
mine site (Riley and Waggitt, 1992a,b).
74
Magela Creek carries an annual load of
approximately 5000 tonnes of silt-clay and an
equivalent amount of coarser grained suspended and
bed loads (Roberts, 1991). The impact on sediment
transport systems of sediment eroded from the
rehabilitated mine and deposited in Magela Creek
can be gauged by comparing the natural load with the
additional load. The estimated natural sediment load
also can be used to establish a ‘dilution’ factor for
eroded sediment, which will assist in setting
standards for release of eroded materials.
The analysis of environmental risk, which will set
the constraints for the design of the containment
structure is still a matter of research (Riley and
Rippon, in prep), although aspects of risk analysis for
rehabilitated landforms is discussed by Waggitt and
Riley (1994).
DISCUSSION
Each of the three geomorphic issues of site
stability, probable life of the structure and sediment
loads and deposition regimes is highly connected.
Failure of site stability will lead to failure of the
structure which will lead to higher rates of sediment
discharge into the surrounding environment. Design
must take account of all three issues and sometimes
compromises have to be reached. For example, a
structure may be made more stable by adopting low
angle slopes and a lower height, but the consequence
is a structure that covers a larger area. A large area
structure may overlap high risk areas in terms of site
stability and may directly connect to drainage lines
and not allow for buffer zones.
Ultimately the decision on the acceptable level of
risk and environmental impact is one that has to be
made by society (Whyte and Burton, 1980; Douglas
and Wildavsky, 1982; Dreith, 1982). However,
ecological and human safety issues, while important
in assessing the design, only set the boundary
conditions. As long as design specifications meet the
environmental concerns then there is flexibility within
the guidelines for different design options (Waggitt
and Riley, 1994). A number of solutions may be
developed for stablizing structures but cost may
mitigate their usefulness. While technological
developments during the life of a mine may also
influence design decisions and rehabilitation options,
S.J.RILEY
economic considerations dictate that rehabilitation
issues have to be considered at all stages (Jackson,
1991; Bell, 1990, 1993). Costs of reshaping
landforms are high and mine managers seek to
minimise these by placing waste material directly in
its final position.
Thus, in assessing and designing containment
structures and engineered landforms it is important to
realise the constraints on design and management.
Acceptable levels of risk will have to be balanced
against cost. The design and the assessment of a
rehabilitation structure will use one or more models
to evaluate the design and establish whether it meets
guidelines and standards. The design-modelling step
is iterative, as the design will be modified if the
assessment by modelling suggests that design criteria
are not achieved. In some situations where design
specificiations cannot be met it may be necessary to
revisit constraints and renegotiate them (Evans and
Riley, 1994). Ultimately the geomorphologist can
only make assessments and suggestions based on the
key issues. The risk and cost issues are matters of
public and company concer. In a contentious
industry such as uranium mining in a Sensitive area
like Kakadu, some of the decisions on rehabilitation
are Clearly in the ambit of the politicians.
CONCLUSIONS
Geomorphic surveys have established that the
proposed site for rehabilitation of the uranium mill
tailings is amongst the most stable in the area and
will probably be stable over the structural life of the
containment structure.
The principal geomorphic processes that will
influence the stability of the Ranger uranium mill
tailings containment structure are related to the
fluvially dominated processes of gullying and interrill
erosion. Monitoring and simulation experiments at a
number of sites are directed towards development of
models to predict the erosion and hydrology of the
surface of the containment structure. The eventual
outcome of this research is a geomorphic model that
can be used to predict the long-term stability of the
ASSESSING THE LONG-TERM STABILITY OF ENGINEERED LANDFORMS 75
structure and provide a tool for design of a structure
that meets guidelines and standards.
The first phase of modelling has suggested design
problems with one proposed rehabilitation structure
for Ranger. The depths of erosion and_ the
development of gullying are likely to put at risk the
containment of tailings for the above ground option
and will lead to large quantities of sediment being
discharged off-site. The visual degradation of the site
will be considerable over the thousand year period.
There is an interactive process of design and testing
with best available models that will lead to a more
secure rehabilitation structure at Ranger Uranium
Mine.
Risk analysis of the rehabilitation and
containment structures of Ranger will be based on the
potential impact on the environment as well as
economic and social considerations. Initial studies of
the redistribution of material eroded from Ranger
Suggests that the greatest areas at risk are the
tributary streams within the lease area and an area of
floodplain immediately downstream of Mudginberri
Lagoon.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks are due to my colleagues who contributed
to this paper either through discussions we held, the
assistance they gave in the field, or comments on an
earlier draft.
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Environmental Research Institute of the Supervising
Scientist Jabiru NT 0886
Australia
present address
Faculty of Engineering
University of Western Sydney - Nepean
PO Box 10
Kingswood NSW 2747
Australia
(Manuscript Received 3-5-1994)
(Manuscript Received in final form 10-11-1995)
Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 128, 79-88, 1995 79
ISSN 0035-9173/95/020079-10 $4.00/1
THE OCCURRENCE AND ORIGIN OF WELL-CRYSTALLISED UVAROVITE GARNET FROM
THE PODIFORM CHROMITITE DEPOSITS OF SOUTH-EASTERN
NEW SOUTH WALES.
Ian T Graham and David M Colchester
ABSTRACT. Chromian garnets occur within three podiform chromitite deposits in south-eastern N.S.W.
Fourteen new analyses of these garnets are presented in this paper and these reveal that the garnets are either
uvarovite or chromian grossular in composition. These analyses, along with analyses of uvarovite garnets
from other world occurrences, suggest that there is no distinct relationship between the composition of
uvarovite garnets and the geological setting in which they occur. Although the composition of the
chromium-bearing garnets from the two deposits which are examined in some detail in this paper are quite
different, their environment of formation was similar. All of the Cr-bearing garnets have formed during
calcium metasomatism congruent with localised remobilisation of chromium.
INTRODUCTION
Uvarovite (or chromian garnet), the rarest of the six common
species of the garnet group (Deer ef al. 1982), rarely occurs in
well formed crystals.
Well-formed bright green garnet crystals, on a matrix of
chromitite occur at several localities in south-eastern NSW
associated with podiform chromitite deposits (Graham et al.
1991). X-ray diffraction, refractive index determinations and
SEM analysis have shown that these garnets are Cr-bearing.
Chromium garnets from this region of N.S.W were first
described by Golding and Bayliss (1968) and Ashley (1969).
But to the authors' knowledge, this paper presents the most
detailed study on the chromian garnets of this region of NSW
and presents analyses of these garnets for the first time.
REGIONAL GEOLOGICAL SETTING
A series of N-S trending serpentinite belts occur in the south-
eastern portion of NSW (Figure 1). The two largest belts are
known as the Coolac Serpentinite Belt (CSB) and the
Wambidgee Serpentinite Belt (WSB). Chromian garnet
crystals have been discovered within both these belts.
The belts are emplaced into a variety of early and middle
Palaeozoic strata and are exposed over a total linear distance
of 230 km (Franklin et al. 1992). They vary in size from
small lenses less than 5m in length, up to a single large body
which crops out continuously for some 56km and are
composed of variably foliated harzburgite and dunite. All of
the belts contain varying amounts of primary, weakly
serpentinised ultramafic rocks (i.e. wehrlite, lherzolite) as
well as talc-carbonate bodies and rodingite dykes. Podiform
chromitite bodies have been found in the CSB and WSB with
associated minor platinum-group element (PGE)
mineralisation (Franklin et al. 1992).
The belts differ in their degree and nature of alteration,
metamorphism and deformation. Overall, the degree of
metamorphism ranges from lower greenschist facies
assemblages (lizardite-chrysotile assemblages within the
CSB) to the uppermost amphibolite facies (garnet and
pyroxene-bearing amphibolites in the WSB), indicating a
temperature variation from as low as 150° C to some 700° C.
Gross lithological and meso-scale mineral layering are
observable within the CSB and fibre-vein foliations and S-C
dominated shear fabrics occur in all of the belts. Controversy
exists regarding the origin, emplacement history, and relative
and absolute age of these belts as well as the possible
relationship between the different belts.
GEOLOGY OF THE CHROMIAN- GARNET
MINERAL OCCURRENCES
Well-crystallised chromian garnets have been found within
the CSB and WSB. In both cases, the garnets occur on a
matrix of chromite and are restricted to the podiform
chromitite bodies. These bodies include: the MLA deposit
(CSB), Kangaroo East Mine (CSB) and the Fontenoy
chromite mine (WSB). The largest crystals (up to 2mm in
diameter) occur at the Fontenoy chromite mine whereas the
best formed, most transparent crystals occur at the MLA
deposit (generally less than 1 mm in diameter). In all cases
the garnets are localised and exist as fracture-fill minerals
associated with chromian clinochlore.
At the MLA deposit, the chromian garnet occurrence Is
restricted to a narrow area (some 2 m by 2 m) where the
chromitite body is in contact with a metasomatite dyke. The
chromitite itself is moderately fractured and contains
approximately 80% Al-rich chromite with the remaining 20%
consisting of chrysotile, talc and magnesite. The garnet
occurs as a fracture lining within the chromitite and is often
associated with chromian clinochlore. The metasomatite
80
LEGEND
Undifferentiated metasediments
and volcanics
Cocoparra Group and
Barrat Conglomerate
2:4 ‘Tertiary Igneous Complex
Blowcring Formation
Young Granodiorite & Douro &
Goobarragandra Volcanics
J Honeysuckle Beds
= North Mooney & Micalong
Swamp Complexes
Fa 4 Coolac Serpentinite Belt
Jindalee Beds
Al Frampton Volcanics
Oya WWambidgce Serpentinite Belt
Bogong Granite
FONT = Fontenoy Mine
KEM = Kangaroo East Mine
MLA = Mount Lightning Adit
SCALE
OUNG ANTICLINORIAL Zone
AUSTRALIA
GRAHAM AND COLCHESTER
= + + + + + +
coe + + + + +
-2=% + + + $+ 4+
aes + + + + +
eee + + + + + 4+
=== es ee eee ee
Som + + + + + +
f=es6 + + + + +
haa Oly \EeEae a ee oe eee:
= Cootamundra \=-=-= Z+ + + + +
Stale jeceee S + + + + +
pe ee -2-=- H2Z+ + + + +
vetet}y "a3 ee ee
ey ane We ee + + + + +
en =I=r + + + + + +
0B NU Nea eo ee ees
fe DRO) sts + + + + + 4+
ees a Ae GE a A ts
pias. co S=s Jugiong wt + + +
myo = et ae
Coolac
+
+ Creek
Cp n
radGlugany
Figure 1:
consists of the minerals albite, biotite, vermiculite, prehnite
and pyrophyllite.
Spatially associated with both the chromitite body and the
metasomatic dyke are veinlets and small dyke-like bodies of
massive rodingite. This rodingite consists mainly of prehnite
with minor vermiculite. It would appear that both the
rodingite and metasomatite are related to each other and that
they have played an important role in the formation of the
uvarovite.
em
} PACIFIC
4! OCEAN
ie
ro a
ad
Locality map showing the distribution of the serpentinite
belts and chromian garnet occurrences.
The Fontenoy chromitite bodycrops out in a creek bed on
Fontenoy station near the town of Wombat. Again, the
chromitite body is moderately fractured. Chromian garnet
again occurs as a fracture lining within the chromitite and is
associated with chromian clinochlore and diopside. In rare
cases, the garnet occurs as a fracture lining within a diopside
dominated granoblastic rock. The garnet appears to be evenly
distributed throughout the deposit and is of fairly common
occurrence at this locality. No metasomatites or rodingites
UVAROVITE GARNET FROM PODIFORM CHROMITITES NSW
Fontenoy Garnets
(hkl) dA aA
(400) 2.996 11.985
(420) 2.680 11.985
(422) 2.446 11.830
(611) 1.944 11.930
(642) 1.602 11.988
(average) 11.985
R.I. = 1.855 (+,- 0.003)
* indicates rather broad peaks
81
MLA Garnets
(hkl) dA aA
(400) 2.970 11.882
(420) 2.660 11.896
(422) 2.468 12.090
(611) 1.931 11.903*
(642) 1.609 12.040*
(average) 11.962
R.I. = 1.853 (4,- 0.003)
Table 1: Principle d-spacings, unit cell dimensions and refractive indices for Fontenoy
and MLA garnets.
occur, however diopside-clinochlore dominated rocks are
closely associated with the chromitite body.
At the Kangaroo East mine, minute chromian garnets were
found on the mine dumps but their actual occurrence within
the mine is unknown. Again the garnets occur on chromite
and are associated with chromian clinochlore and an
unidentified secondary amphibole. Clinochlore is a common
constituent as a fracture fill mineral in the chromitite of this
mine and rodingite dykes are known to exist within the
general area although none are visible in the actual vicinity of
the mine itself. Not enough material was collected from this
source to test.
METHODS USED TO DETERMINE THE GARNET
COMPOSITIONS
Refractive index (RI) and unit cell measurements
The refractive index of the garnets was determined by the
Becke line method using Cargille RI liquids. Their refractive
indices were checked using a Leitz-Jelley refractometer using
sodium light.
Powder XRD charts were made of the garnets and they
closely matched the JCPDS card 11-696 for uvarovite. The
charts were run on a Philips PW1840 diffractometer, the
alignment of which was checked using silicon powder as a
standard. Charts were run from 2° (20) to 70° (20) using Co
K alpha radiation under the following conditions:- speed,
0.02° 26/sec; chart speed 10mm per 1° 20; chart range 2000
c/s and a time constant of | sec.
The unit cell sizes of the garnets were calculated as an
average, using the standard formula;
a, A= (hkl) (h2+k2+12)1/2 from five d spacings.
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) Investigations
The chromian garnet crystals were scraped-off selected
samples and mounted in epoxy resin before being polished.
The garnets were then analysed using a JEOL 6300F Force
Electron Gun Scanning Electron Microscope (FEGSEM) at
the Regional Research Facility for Microscopy and
Microanalysis at UTS. The accelerating voltage was 15kV,
the beam current 0.3nA and the counting time was 200
seconds. Also, the actual beam width is only a few nm.
Although the analyses are '‘standardless analyses', the
accuracy of this procedure has been checked by re-analysing
a selection of minerals of known composition. The
differences were never greater than 2%.
Garnet composition.
Principle d-spacings, unit cell dimensions and refractive
indices for Fontenoy and MLA garnets are given in Table 1.
From the data (Table 1), one can see quite clearly that the
unit cell values (ag A) are distinctly different between the two
deposits but that the average RI values are very similar. The
average unit cell size for the Fontenoy garnets is appreciably
higher than that for the MLA garnets.
The results (Tables 2 and 3) show that the garnets vary
considerably in composition between the two different
localities and that there is also some variability within an
individual locality.
Garnets from the Fontenoy deposit can be classified as
uvarovite. Grossular, together with andradite, make-up the
majority of the remaining garnet molecules. Small amounts
(5.30 to 7.80) of pyrope occur in 3 of the 6 analyses,
indicating some Mg in the environment of garnet formation.
The most variable oxides are TiO07, MgO and FeO (Total Fe)
while the other oxides (Si07, Al703, Cr203 and CaO) occur
in similar amounts.
82
GRAHAM AND COLCHESTER
°
wt. % Cr,0;
aoA R.I. wt.% CaO
End Member (D.H. & Z 1982)! 11.996 1.865 30.37 33.62
analyses 5 (Frankel 1959)’ 11.961 1.830 11.49 33.26
analyses 10 (Frankel 1959)” 11.975 1.837 14.83 32.81
analyses 2 (von Knorring 1951)° 11.892 1.798 - 1.804 14.97 33.08
analyses 3 (von Knorring 1951)° 11.922 1.821 - 1.829 22.60 34.25
Fontenoy 11.985 1.855 15.96 37.91
MLA 11.962 1.853 11.83 39.30
Table 2: Table comparing physical and chemical properties of uvarovite garnets from various localities.
'Deer, W.A., Howe, R.A. and Zussman, J., (1982). ORTHOSILICATES VOLUME IA. 2nd edn. Longman Publishing, London and
New York, p.473.
“Frankel, J.J., (1959). Uvarovite garnet and South Africa jade (hydrogrossular) from the Bushveld Complex, Transvaal.
The American Mineralogist, 44, table III p. 571.
*von Knorring, O., (1951). A new occurrence of uvarovite from northern Karetia in Finland. Mineralogical Magazine, 29, tavle 1V
p: 599.
Cr°*‘(ion %)
LEGEND
NSW analyses listed in Table 3
e =Fontenoy
x =MLA
Other world occurrences with analyses listed in Table 4
1 =a(3) (podiform chromitite, Quebec)
2 =a(4) (podiform chromitite in an
ophiolite complex)
a(6) (chromite orebody, Orissa India)
b (4)
b (6)
c (6) (layered chromitite in
c Bushveldt Complex, South Africa)
(kimberlite pipes)
CNHD UN WwW
tou wou tl
3+
Al
(ion %)
Fe*
(ion %)
Figure 2: Al’. Cr°*- Fe** Triangular diagram of uvarovite garnets
Garnets from the MLA deposit are classified as grossulars. garnets analysed.
Uvarovite is the next most abundant with only minor amounts
of andradite and pyrope being present. These garnets are Al-
rich (containing some 10.74 to 13.09 Alj03) and very Fe-
poor (0.41 to 0.76 FeO (Total Fe)- Unlike the garnets from
the Fontenoy deposit, the most variable oxides within the
MLA garets are Cr2O3 and A103, with similar amounts of
Si02, CaO and FeO (Total Fe) Occuring within all of the
On the Al3+-Cr3+-Fe3+ triangular diagram (Figure 2), the
garnets from both deposits fall within very discrete
fields. Due to the low and constant Fe3+ content of the MLA
garnets, they almost fall on the Cr3+, Al3+ join whereas
those from the Fontenoy deposit fall within the middle of the
triangular diagram.
UVAROVITE GARNET FROM PODIFORM CHROMITITES NSW 83
TABLE 3
Garnet Analyses (weight %)
1 2 3 4 5 8
Font. Font. Font. Font. Font. Font.
SiOz 31.94 32.14 32.05 33.13 32.89 31.23
TiO2 1-5 1.63 1.44 cas: 1687 125
Al,O3 6.24 6:57 5.72 6.93 6.16 5:95
Cr,O3 16.80 15.63 WSK 15.49 16.22 14.07
CaO 37.95 38.38 37.69 38.13 37.40 38.06
MgO 0.25 = - Opts 0.19 15229
FeOcor) 5.32 S05 7.43 4.43 SET Ars 8.15
Total $9.99 99.98 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.01
Number of ions on the basis of 24 (O)
Ca** 3.098 3.138 3.078 3.105 3.060 3.093
Fe** = 3.01 : aie s 3.08 : 3.12 3.08 2 3.26
Mg** - - - 0.019 0.025 0.164 |
A 0.594 0.676 0.594 0.707 0.634 0.613
Cr* 0.985] 4 99 0.978] 599 0.985] 545 0.966] 4 99 1.015) 5 44 0.874] 509g
Te 0.090 0.102 0.090 0.107 0.086 0.077| —
Fe? 0.479 0.362 0.475 0.283 0.370 0.518
~4+
Si’ 2.754| 399 2.745 | 5 g6 2.754| 575 2.814| 396 2.810| 599 2.660 | 9 66
A 0.246 0.118 : 0.186 0.106 z
Uvarovite 47.5 46.6 48.0 46.4 45.4 41.9
Andradite 27.0 21.9 O77 18.8 299 28.6
Grossular 25.0 31.4 24.2 34.2 27.6 24.2
Pyrope 1.0 2 = 0.6 0.8 5.3
10 14 12 13 14
MLA MLA MLA MLA MLA
SiO, 34.55 34.34 34.52 34.31 34.60
TiO, 1.49 1.52 1.31 1.47 1.20
Al,0; 13.09 12.28 1247 10.74 12.09
Cr0; 10.33 11.39 11.61 13.66 12.18
CaO 39.34 39.35 39.46 38.97 39.37
MgO 0.54 0.36 0.25 0.24 0.15
FoQ,ror) 0.68 0.76 0.67 0.61 0.41
Total 100.01 100.00 99.99 100.00 100.00
Cac" 3.096 3.111 8.122 3.107 3.119
Fe?* = | 346 - | 3.15 3.15 5 G14 Sieh facie"
Mg?* 0.060 0.042 0.030 0.029 0.018
Al 1.253 1.186 1.176 1.052 1.169
Cr* 0.622 | 5 04 0.689 | 5 94 0.703] 599 0.834] 5 94 0.738] » 94
aie: 0.090 0.092 0.079 0.090 0.073
Fe+ 0.042 0.047 0.042 0.038 0.026
Sir’ — 9 84 ral 2 83 mi 5 85 ee 5 85 al > 86
Al = = = = a
Uvarovite One} CPT 35.0 42.0 3125
Andradite 6.0 6.6 6.0 6.0 6.0
Grossular 61.5 59.3 58.0 51.0 56.0
Pyrope 1:5 1.3 1.0 1.0 0.5
End member analyses calculated according to Deer et al, 1982 1A:482
84
Reference
SiO>
TiOo
Al,O,
CrzO0,
CaO
MgO
MnO
FeOcrot)
Total
Mg**
Fe?*
Mn?*
Ca**
Alt
Cr3*
Fest
ti
or
A\?*
Almandine
Andradite
Grossular
Knorringite
Pyrope
Spessartine
Uvarovite
Reference
SiOz
TiO2
Al,O3
CrzO3
CaO
MgO
MnO
FeOcrot)
Total
7
c (6)
36.86
0.40
8.98
11.54
35.93
0.62
5.14
99.47
GRAHAM AND COLCHESTER
TABLE 4
Uvarovite Analyses From Other Localities (weight %)
2
a (4)
37.31
5.34
22.60
34.25
0.25
0.15
0.30
100.20
Number of ions on the basis of 24 (O)
0.030
3.10 -
0.0114
2.965
0.509
1.444
0.018
1.92
3.00
Number of ions on the basis of 24 (O)
Mg"*
Fact
Mn?*
Ca2*
ar’
Cr3*
Fes+
7a
st
A\**
Almandine
Andradite
Grossular
Knorringite
Pyrope
Spessartine
Uvarovite
2.23
2.28
3.01
Io?
3.22
2.10
2.67
3
a (6)
32.44
0.07
8.90
21.96
18.82
13.02
0.05
1.87
100.01
1.562
0.037] 1.94
0.004
1.623
0.455
1.397 3.23
0.081
0.004
2.611 3.00
0.390
18.1
19.7
62.2
N
foe)
(op)
=|
o ®
{0b)
o 06
o a
2
®
co
(3) Uvarovite, South Ham, Wolfe County Quebec (Dunn, 1978) (podiform chromitite body)
Uvarovite-diopside-tremolite skarn Outokumpu, Finland (Knorring, 1951)
(4)
(this deposit has recently been interpreted as an ophiolite complex with contained
podiform chromitite bodies, Vuollo et al, 1993)
(6) Uvarovite from Kammererite-Uvarovite vein in chromitite ore Kalrangi Mines,
5
b (4)
38.65
0.52
12.20
12.76
21.07
8.88
0.35
5.38
99.81
1.019
0.226
0.023
1.738
3.01
1.081
0.777
0.108
0.030
2.00
2.975
0.026
3.00
Orissa India (Chakraborty, 1968)
(11) Uvarovite from a kimberlite pipe, Newlands 60km NW of Kimberley South Africa
(Clarke and Carswell, 1977)
Clarke and Carswell, 1977 (kimberlites from South Africa)
b
Frankel, 1959 (layered chromitites from the Bushveld Complex of South Africa)
(6) Derdegelid, 141 Lydenburg District
Cc
6
b (6)
38.02
0.40
10.49
14.04
23.86
6.61
0.37
5.85
99.64
0.772
0.203! 3.00
0.025
2.002
0.945
0.869
0.162
0.024
2.00
2.977
0.023
3.00
6.70
7.37
15.18
25.72
0.82
43.47
(10) Doornbosch, 423 Lydenburg District
Analysis not used
4
UVAROVITE GARNET FROM PODIFORM CHROMITITES NSW
Comparison with uvarovite garnets from various world
localities
Table 2 lists the physical properties of these chromian garnets
along with those of other occurrences. The unit cell size of
the MLA garnets are similar to those of Frankel's (1959) No.5
garnets whereas the unit cell size for the Fontenoy garnets 1S
in between that of the theoretical end-member and Frankel's
(1959) No.10 garnets. The average RI value of the garnets
from both deposits is closest to the theoretical uvarovite end-
member.
Looking at the Cr203 contents, neither the Fontenoy nor
MLA garnets are close to the theoretical end-member. The
Fontenoy garnets are similar to analysis 2 of von Knorring
(1951) whereas the MLA garnets are closest to analysis 5 of
Frankel (1959). There is no clear relationship between the
Cr703 content of the garnets and the unit cell size of these
garnets unlike that reported by Frankel (1959).
Uvarovite garnets from various world localities were chosen
for their different tectonic/genetic settings and their analyses
are presented in Table 4. One can see that they vary widely in
composition with the variability being most pronounced
within the oxides Ti07, AlgO3, Cr203, CaO, MgO and FeO
(Total Fe)-
The uvarovite occurrences can be grouped into the following:
(a) podiform chromitite bodies
(b) meta-ophiolite bodies
(c) kimberlite pipes
(d) layered chromitites
If we plot the analyses from Table 4 on to the Al3+-Cr3+-
Fe3+ triangular diagram (Figure 2), we find that the
uvarovites from the different groups described above fall into
discrete fields on the triangle, with the exception of the
podiform chromitites and meta-ophiolites (which fall into the
same field) and the uvarovites from the layered chromitites
which do not fall into a discrete field on this triangle. Thus,
based on this small number of analyses, one can see that
uvarovite garnets which occur in rocks that have formed in
distinctly different tectonic/genetic environments are
compositionally different.
From the analyses (Table 4), we can see that the uvarovite
garnets from both podiform chromitites and metaophiolites
have highly restricted Cr203 contents of approx. 22-23%.
With the exception of FeO (Total Fe), analyses | and 2 are
almost identical. Analysis 3 varies from the other two in
having less Si07 and CaO but more Al703, MgO and FeO
(Total Fe):
Both garnets from kimberlite pipes have very similar
compositions to each other, and have quite high AljO3
(10.49 and 12.20 Wt%) and FeO (Total Fe) (6.61 and 8.88
Wt%). Those from the Bushveld layered chromitites also
have very similar compositions to each other (though
distinctly different from the other
occurrences), with moderate Al7O03 (8.98 and 8.05 Wt%) and
quite high FeO (Total Fe):
From their analyses (Table 3) and position on the Al3+-Cr3+-
Fe3+ triangular diagram (Figure 2), the uvarovite garnets
from the Fontenoy deposit are most like those from the
layered chromitites of the Bushveld Complex although the
tectonic environment of the rocks that they occur within is the
same as those from the podiform chromitites. The chromian
grossulars from the MLA deposit are distinct from all of the
other garnet analyses presented. They have similar Alj03
and Cr O03 concentrations to the uvarovites from kimberlite
pipes but much higher CaO and significantly lower FeO
(Total Fe): However, on the Al3+-Cr3+-Fe3+ triangular
diagram, they fall very close to the field for the uvarovites
from kimberlite pipes in South Africa.
Compared to the uvarovite garnets from the podiform
chromitite deposits and metaophiolites (which occur in rocks
that have formed in similar tectonic/genetic environments to
those of the MLA and Fontenoy garnets), those from the
Fontenoy deposit contain significantly less CrgO3 and MgO,
but significantly higher Ti07, CaO and FeO (Total Fe):
Those from the MLA deposit have significantly less Cr203
and FeO (Total Fe) but much higher T1072, Al703 and CaO.
Comparison and effectiveness of the two techniques
Winchell (1958) constructed determination charts relating
chemical composition (in terms of end member molecular
proportions) with unit cell size and refractive index. He
constructed two triangular charts, one with pyrope, almandine
and grossular and the other with grossular, almandine and
andradite as end members. It was intended to examine the
validity of using this physical method of determining end
member molecular proportions with end member molecular
proportions determined chemically from microprobe
analyses. An appropriate chart would have andradite,
grossular and uvarovite as end members. Unfortunatly the
value of the unit cell size of andradite (12.048 A) and
uvarovite (11.996 A) are too close to make this method
practical.
In the ternary system of andradite (Ca3Fe73+Si3012);
uvarovite (Ca3Cr73+Si30 12) and grossular
(Ca3Alp3+Si30 13) there is substitution between the trivalent
cations Fe3+ (0.64 A), Cr3+ (0.63 A) and Al3+ (0.51 A).
Since the ionic radii of Fe3+ and Cr3+ are similar,
substitution of these cations for Al3+ would expand the
lattice in a similar way. Thus, a graph of unit cell size versus
Cr3++4Fe3+ should be approximately linear.
Although the combination of unit cell size and refractive
index measurements for the garnets from both the MLA and
Fontenoy deposits point to them as being the species
uvarovite, the SEM analyses show that the Fontenoy garnets
are in fact true uvarovite garnets whereas those from the
MLA deposit cannot be termed uvarovite as the grossular
molecule is the dominant garnet molecule present and they
therefore should be termed chromian grossular garnets.
85
86 GRAHAM AND COLCHESTER
FORMATION OF UVAROVITE
General statement
In order to explain the formation of both garnet occurences,
the following facts must be taken into account:
1) Rarity and localised occurrence.
2) Restriction to podiform chromitite bodies.
3) Fracture-fill occurrence.
4) Association with chromian clinochlore.
5) Spacial association of the MLA garnets with a
metasomatite dyke and rodingite bodies.
6) Spatial association of the Fontenoy garnets with
diopside-clinochlore rocks.
7) Differing chemistry of the garnets between the two
deposits.
The rarity and localised occurrence of the garnets suggests
that the conditions required for their formation are only rarely
met in nature. Although the CSB contains over 50 podiform
chromitite deposits, chromian garnets have to date only been
found within two of them (The MLA and Kangaroo East
Mines), both cases, of rare occurence.
All of the chromian garnets found occur within podiform
chromitite bodies. This suggests that the chromium for their
formation is derived from chromite within the podiform
chromitite bodies and not from either accessory chromite
grains or chromium-bearing silicates from within the partially
serpentinised harzburgite hostrock. Thus, during the
formation of the chromium-bearing garnets, chromium from
within the chromitite must have been at least locally
remobilised (Franklin et al, 1992) and then incorporated
within the garnet molecule during its growth. Other
components required for the formation of the garnets (such as
Al, Mg and Fe) may have also been released from the
chromite grains at this time.
As the chromian garnets occur as a fracture-fill assemblage
within the chromitite ore, they must postdate the formation
and solidification of the podiform chromitite bodies and are
therefore not likely to have formed within the initial
magmatic environment of formation of the podiform
chromitite deposits (Graham ef al, in press). Both field and
scanning electron microscope observations suggest that they
have in fact formed at the onset of serpentinisation during a
period of rodingitisation (Calcium metasomatism with Ca
being released from Ca-rich diopsidic clinopyroxenes in the
host harzburgite and being subsequently concentrated within
intrusive gabbroic dykes (now rodingites) (Graham et al.
1994).
The association of the chromian garnets with chromian
clinochlore suggests that these two minerals were cogenetic
and also points to a hydrothermal source for the formation of
the garnets.
The chromian grossular occurence at the MLA mine is
spatially associated with a metasomatite dyke (consisting of
the minerals albite, biotite, prehnite, vermiculite and
pyrophyllite) and various rodingite dykes (composed of
various proportions of grossular, prehnite, zoisite,
vesuvianite, diopside and vermiculite) while those from the
Fontenoy deposit are associated with diopside-chromian
clinochlore rocks. Thus, both occurrences of chromian
garnets are associated with rocktypes which contain the
nesessary components, other than chromium which is derived
from the chromitites, for their formation.
Although both of them occur within podiform chromitite
bodies, the chromian garnets that are found at the two
deposits are distinctly different in their composition. Also,
within the one deposit, the composition of the chromian
garnets tends to be very similar. Therefore, there must be a
local factor controlling the composition of the garnets
formed.
Uvarovite formation
Clarke and Carswell (1977) stated that a high Cr3+/R3+ ratio
is needed in the environment of formation of uvarovite
garnet. Thus, the Cr3+ ion must be available in the
environment of formation of uvarovite. As the chromian
garnet occurrences in this study are restricted to the podiform
chromitite deposits, the obvious source for the chromium
within the garnets is the chromite from within the deposits.
Von Knorring (1951) noted that chromite inclusions in
uvarovite are common and that the first generation of
uvarovite was a replacement product of original chromite
grains. Also, Frankel (1959) noted that within the Bushveld
Complex of South Africa, all of the uvarovite occurrences
were restricted to the chromitite seams and that uvarovite
formation is entirely dependent on the presence of adequate
amounts of chromium. For chromium to be released from the
chromite grains during the formation of uvarovite, the
chromite grains have to be both physically and chemically
"broken-down" in order to at least locally remobilise
chromium. Such localised remobilisation of chromium within
the CSB was reported by Graham et al, (1994).
The chromium garnets described in this paper were all found
within the fracture-fill assemblages of the host chromitites. A
similar fracture-fill occurence was reported from Orissa,
India, by Mitras (1973). Thus, uvarovite clearly postdates the
formation of chromite from which some of its components
are derived.
Experimental data (Huckenholz (1975), Huckenholz and
Knittel (1975), Clarke and Carswell (1977)) showed that
uvarovite garnet is derived from a host rock rich in both Cr
and Ca; there is a complete solid solution series between
uvarovite and grossular at temperatures below 855 +-5°C;
and that uvarovite forms at subsolidus temperatures through
the breakdown of a primary clinopyroxene-spinel
assemblage.
Clarke and Caswell (1977), showed that the Cr/AI ratio in
uvarovite increases with pressure. It is possible that the
UVAROVITE GARNET FROM PODIFORM CHROMITITES NSW 87
I Magmatic Stage
Ca+Si
Da
Serpentinising
fluids
Ca + Si
Hostrock peridotite
: 4 Chromitite
Wallrock dunite
Gabbro dyke
[- | Rodingite
enlargement
Fluid flow
\ Ay Garnet crystals
Chromian clinochlore
Figure 3. Sketch diagram showing the formation of uvarovite
Fontenoy garnets (which are uvarovite garnets) formed under
conditions of higher pressure than the MLA garnets (which
are chromian grossulars) as the metamorphic grade of the
WSB is significantly higher than that of the CSB. This is
expressed in the serpentine-group minerals of the belts as
antigorite is the dominant species in the WSB whereas the
CSB almost’ exclusively contains _ lizardite-chrysotile
assemblages. However, the differing Cr/Al ratio of the
garnets could also simply be due to the fact that the Fontenoy
garnets are associated with Cr-rich chromite whereas the
MLA garnets are associated with Al-rich chromite. Thus,
during serpentinisation, more Cr was available for localised
remobilisation in the Fontenoy deposit compared to that
available in the MLA deposit.
It is certainly apparent that the differing Cr/Al ratios in
uvarovite reflects the primary chromite host composition and
this composition would almost certainly seem to be the
controlling factor in the formation of uvarovite. Another
important factor is the availability of Ca in the localised
environment during the serpentinisation process. Huckenholz
and Knittel (1975) have shown that Ca substitutes for both
Mg2+ and Fe2+ in the 8-fold position, during the formation
of uvarovite. This would explain the occurence of both
andradite and pyrope molecules in the Fontenoy garnets and
the absence of them in the MLA garnets which are chromian
grossulars that are unusually Ca-rich and contain negligible
Mg2+ and Fe2+. Thus, during their formation, excess Ca was
available for the MLA garnets but not for the Fontenoy
garnets. The actual amount of Ca available for garnet growth
in this environment of formation may well be controlled by
either the original composition of the host peridotite and/or
the T-P conditions at the time of their formation.
Thus, like Frankel (1959) and Mitras (1973), we would say
that the formation of uvarovite garnets is due to calcium (or
lime) metasomatism and that the chromium required for their
formation is released from local chromite enrichments (i.e
chromitites) during this process which would seem to occur
at the onset of the serpentinisation process (Graham et al,
1991). This process is best shown diagramatically in Figure
a
CONCLUSIONS
Unit cell size measurements combined with refractive index
measurements are not sufficient to distinguish between
uvarovite and chromian grossular. The only accurate way to
determine the dominant garnet molecule present is to analyse
the garnet (in the case of this study, by using a scanning
electron microscope) as solid solution between the uvarovite
and grossular end-members is pervasive. This is also possibly
true for all of the other garnet species.
The chromian garnets from southeastern NSW formed during
88 GRAHAM AND COLCHESTER
the onset of the serpentinisation process by calcium
metasomatism and localised chromium
remobilisation from the adjacent podiform chromitite bodies.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Associate Professor Brenda
Franklin of UTS for her most useful advice and Miss
Leighonie Hunt of UTS for the drafting of figures.
REFERENCES
Ashley, P.M., 1969. The petrology and mineralisation of the
Coolac Serpentine Belt , east of Brungle, N.S.W.
Proceedings of the Australasian Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy, 230, 99-127.
Clarke, D.B. and Carswell, D.A., 1977. Green garnets from
the Newlands Kimberlite, Cape Province, South Africa.
Earth And Planetry Science Letters, 34, 30-38.
Deer, W.A., Howie, R.A. and Zussman, J., 1982.
ORTHOSILICATES VOLUME 1A. 2rd edn. Longman
Publishing, London and New York.
Frankel, J.J., 1959. Uvarovite garnet and South African jade
(hydrogrossular)from the Bushveld Complex, Transvaal.
The American Mineralogist, 44, 565-591.
Franklin, B.J., Marshall,B. Graham, I.T. and McAndrew, J.,
1992. Remobilisation of PGE in podiform chromitite in the
Coolac Serpentinite Belt, Southeastern Australia.
Australian Journal of Earth Sciences, 39, 365-371.
Golding, H.G. and Bayliss, P., 1968. Altered chrome
ores from the Coolac Serpentine Belt, New South Wales,
Australia. American Mineralogist, 36, 162-183.
Graham, I.T., Marshall, B. and Franklin, B.J., 1991. PGE
remobilisation, CoolacSerpentinite, Australia, Jn
SOURCE, TRANSPORT AND DEPOSITION OF
METALS, pp. 619-622. Pagel, M.and Leroy, J.L. (Eds.).
Balkema, Rotterdam.
Graham, I.T., Franklin, B.J. and Marshall, B., 1994. Evidence
and timing of remobilisation in upper mantle peridotite.
Geological Society of Australia Abstracts, 37, 143.
Huckenholz, H.G., 1975. Uvarovite stability in the CaSi03-
Cr203 join. NeuesJahrbuch fur Mineralogie Monatschefte,
337-360.
Huckenholz, H.G. and Knittel, D., 1975. Uvarovite: Stability
of Uvarovite-Grossularite Solid Solution at low pressure.
Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, 49, 211-231.
Mitras, S., 1973. Mineralogy and paragenesis of Cr-chlorites
and uvarovites in chromites of Sukinda, Orissa, India.
Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie Monatschefte, 139-147.
Von Knorring, O., 1951. A new occurrence of uvarovite from
northern Karelia in Finland. Mineralogical Magazine, 29,
594-601.
Vuollo, J., Piirainen, T., Nykanen, V. and Liipo, J., 1993. The
Outokumpu ophiolite complex and new data on its
podiform chromitites and PGE anomalies. Terra nova ,
Volume 5, Abstract Supplement No 3, 56.
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DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED GEOLOGY
UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, SYDNEY
PO BOX 123
BROADWAY, NSW 2007
AUSTRALIA
(Manuscript received 23.5.1995)
(Manuscript received in final form 31.10.1995)
Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 128, 89-112, 1995 89
ISSN 0035-9173/95/020089-24 $4.00/1
A CENTURY OF X-RAYS
Proceedings of a half-day seminar commemorating
Professor ROntgen's discovery of X-rays in 1895
Editors' Foreword
Some inventions and discoveries strike the
popular imagination more than others. The an-
nouncement of the discovery of a new, utterly
mysterious radiation, revealing what had so far
been absolutely hidden from human eyes — not
least the bones and organs in living men,
women and children — caused a sensation
which our blasé age would find it hard to
duplicate.
The discovery was made by Wilhelm Conrad
ROntgen (1845-1923), Professor of Physics at
the University of Wurzburg, then a smallish
town in south-west Germany. Although it hap-
pened at a time when many astonishing inven-
tions and discoveries in physics, chemistry and
engineering were appearing, ROntgen's discov-
ery of these mysteriously penetrating rays and
what could be done with them, provoked a
sense of wonder not unmixed with uneasiness.
The centenary of ROntgen's discovery is
worthily commemorated all around the world.
However, most of these functions are directed
to members of scientific and other professional
societies. The following six papers were
contributed to a Seminar commemorating
ROntgen's discovery and recalling its numerous
consequences in almost every field of human
endeavour. The addresses given at the
Seminar and reported in these proceedings
were directed primarily to members of the
general public, and this did not happen by
chance.
In recent years there had been increasing
public awareness of negative sides of scientific
activities. The innumerable ways in which
science and scientific technology have made
life more secure and more comfortable are
often taken for granted. On the surface, and
most of us rarely see or are able to see below
the surface of scientific achievements,
everything appears clear and simple like
pictures on a television screen. The complex
physics behind the screen is quietly
overlooked.
As it happened, ROntgen's discovery began
with a fluorescent screen which had much in
common with today's TV screens. But that was
only the beginning. A consideration of how
ROntgen rays became, over the years,
indispensable tools in innumerable spheres of
human activity was thought to offer a welcome
opportunity to stimulate interest in some of the
science behind the TV screen. The Seminar
was organised with this opportunity in mind.
It is still necessary to add a few words about
ROntgen the man. When he made his path
breaking discovery he was no longer young but
in his 51st year — an age when he might have
welcomed this chance to start a new career
which had every prospect of leading to fame
and fortune beyond the dreams of avarice.
None of this happened. On December 28, 1895,
he announced his discovery to the members of
the Physical-Medical Society of Wurzburg ina
sober and cautiously worded publication. Over
the next few years he published two or three
more papers on his discovery, but that was all.
He left it to younger men to follow up what he
had initiated, which was done with a
vengeance. By December 1896, just a year
after the first announcement, more than a
thousand papers had been published seeking to
elucidate phenomena which were to remain
inexplicable for over 15 years.
ROntgen received innumerable invitations to
demonstrate his discoveries from men of dis-
tinction in all walks of life. He declined in
almost every case, though he did demonstrate
the powers of his mysterious rays to the
German Emperor in a special audience. He
received the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1901,
the first year in which this coveted distinction
was awarded, but he refused to patent his
discovery, not wishing to impede the spread of
an innovation with the potential to benefit vast
90 A CENTURY OF X-RAYS
numbers of people everywhere. He refused
numerous other opportunities to gain material
advantage from what he had done.
To R6ntgen, and to many other scientists before
and since, the certainty of having added to
knowledge about the world was all the reward
they sought and found. He died in 1923 in
poverty and ill health in his 78th year, but we
have reason to be confident that he had the
satisfaction of knowing that he was leaving a
heritage of achievement which few would or
could have equalled.
However, there is another side to all human
activities. It was ROntgen's even more famous
countryman, the great German poet Johann
Wolfgang von Goethe, who raised this other
side over a hundred years before the coming of
Rontgen rays. Goethe took a very different
view of the benefits to be expected from a
growth of knowledge about the world around
us, and this has not been overlooked in what
follows.
The papers presented at the Seminar are re-
printed here to introduce readers to the vast
extent of ROntgen's heritage, demonstrating
that it touches our lives in many more ways
than is commonly realised. We hope that these
contributions will not only encourage a
balanced appreciation of scientific activities,
but also stimulate a continuing interest in their
rich history.
W.R. Albury
G.C. Lowenthal
A Century of R6ntgen Rays
E.A. Booth
Mr Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen:
Some thirty years ago I was invited to speak at
a dinner arranged by the Medical Society of the
University of New South Wales. A short time
before, there had been the first Conferring of
Degrees of the Faculty of Medicine from this
University, when its main address had been
given by Sir Macfarlane Burnet. During my
speech at that dinner I endeavoured to make
the point that the end of the medical course
was only the beginning of one's medical career,
and I stressed the need to develop an inquiring
mind. About a hundred years ago Wilhelm
Conrad Rontgen did just that.
At that time, it had been shown that something
happened when a large electric current was
transmitted from the cathode to the anode of a
glass tube from which air had been evacuated.
It had been found that certain chemicals fluor-
esced on these occasions.
Holding a piece of material coated with one of
these chemicals near such an energised tube
ROntgen saw the bones of the fingers stripped
of their flesh. One can imagine his excitement.
However, being a true scientist he went on to
produce many papers to elucidate these
mysterious, unknown X-rays.
There have been other similar discoveries such
as penicillin (Fleming), smallpox vaccination
(Jenner), etc. Scientists asked "Why is it so?" as
Professor Sumner Miller used to do, and pro-
ceeded to find an answer.
I am reminded of the prayer of Maimonides,
the medieval physician and philosopher, "In all
things let me be content — in all but the great
science of my calling. Let the thought never
arise that I have attained to enough
knowledge; but vouchsafe to me ever the
strength, the leisure, and the eagerness to add
to what I know. For art is great and the mind
of a man ever growing".
We are here today to celebrate a century of
ROntgen rays — the 100th anniversary of ROnt-
gen's discovery. It is a momentous occasion
and although there have been such great
changes in our knowledge and use of X-rays, it
all began when ROntgen sought an answer —
"Why is it so?"
We all do well to remember this great man and
the benefits that have followed his wonderful
discovery. I am sure we are all most grateful
A CENTURY OF X-RAYS i 91
to the organisers and sponsors of this seminar,
which I now have much pleasure in declaring
"Open".
Dr E.A. Booth, FRACR, FRSM
Past President, RACR
3 Lynwood Avenue
Killara, NSW 2071, Australia
The Discovery of X-Rays and its Immediate Impact
J. Ryan
Abstract: Professor ROntgen called the rays he had dis-
covered X-rays because their origin was a deep mystery to
him and it did remain unexplained for another 15 years.
He spent seven weeks following his discovery working
intensely in his laboratory to clarify as many of the char-
acteristics of these mysterious rays as was then possible
before announcing his discovery on 28th December 1895,
to experience, within days, a sensationalism of press
reporters that was no less strident in 1895 than it is at
present. Another lesson came when he had to defend his
priority to the discovery against jealous colleagues. X-ray
applications expanded rapidly all around the globe and not
only in medicine. The news of R6ntgen's discovery arrived
in Australia during the first days of January 1896.
Subsequent early developments in this country will be
described in some detail.
When ROntgen announced the discovery of X-
rays at the end of December, 1895, one of the
illustrative images he displayed to the
Physical-Medical Society of Wurzburg was a
picture of his wife's hand, showing the bones of
her hand and wrist with her wedding ring on
her fourth finger. Seeing this X-ray was
disturbing to Bertha, as it was the first time
that a skeleton had been seen in a living
person, and she felt distressed by the
phenomenon.
After presenting his paper ROntgen wrote to a
number of colleagues in the world of physics to
tell them of his results, giving full details of his
work so that they could easily replicate it and
confirm his experiment. Within a very short
time, the news of his discovery had been sent
around the world. This was done mainly in the
newspapers of the day, and it was then that
ROntgen discovered that the lay press is not
the optimal means of communicating scientific
information, since there were many wild and
inaccurate observations made about these new
rays. So much so that "X-ray proof" clothes
were advertised for sale, legislation against "X-
ray opera glasses" was proposed (to protect the
modesty of stage performers and those sitting
near the stage) and photographers offered
special photographic effects using the new
technique. This was ROntgen's first lesson.
After he announced his discovery, there was
considerable discussion as to whether he had
in fact been the first to produce X-rays, and
several others claimed priority. There is no
doubt that X-rays had been produced in many
laboratories before November, 1895, as there
are many stories of photographic film being
spoiled when it was kept near Crookes' tubes
as currents were passed through them. One
well documented case is of Morris Wilbur
Stine, a New York physicist, who noted that he
had produced his first "skiagraph" in February,
1892. Arthur Willis Goodspeed specified that
he had obtained actual images of metallic
92 A CENTURY OF X-RAYS
objects in the winter of 1890, but he
specifically denied any claim to priority,
because he had failed to interpret these
shadows and had not recognised the cause of
the images on the photographic plate.
The most bitter claimant to priority was the
German physicist Philipp Lenard, who had des-
cribed the penetration of "cathode rays"
through aluminium. When Rontgen announced
his discovery, Lenard congratulated him in a
letter, referring to "your great discovery", to
which Réntgen replied, acknowledging the
work of Lenard and his teacher Hertz in his
Wurzburg lecture. However, when R6ntgen
was awarded the first Nobel prize for physics
in 1901, Lenard felt great animosity toward
ROntgen, as he felt that he should have shared
in the prize. This was ROntgen's second lesson.
Rontgen was invited to demonstrate his dis-
covery to the Kaiser on 13th January, 1896.
Amongst those present was the surgeon-
general of the German Army, General Leuthold,
who expressed interest in the possible military
applications of the new technique. This
thought was prophetic, since amongst the first
applications of X-rays were examinations of
war casualties, in particular diagnosing the
extent of fractures and locating metallic foreign
bodies. At this demonstration, R6ntgen was
awarded the Royal Order of Merit of the
Bavarian Crown, which carried with it personal
nobility.
The importance to the military of diagnosis by
X-ray is shown by the fact that many of the
622,000 deaths that occurred in the American
Civil War were caused by the treatment of
injuries when inadequate diagnosis made amp-
utation a frequent occurrence in the treatment
of gun shot and bomb blast wounds. The posi-
tion and severity of fractures and the sites of
foreign bodies could only be assessed clinically,
by palpation.
The first recorded military use of X-rays was
by an Italian, Lieutenant Giuseppe Alvaro, at
the military hospital in Naples. After the
battle of Adowa, in (then) Abyssinia on Ist
March, 1896, two casualties were radiographed
to localise fragments of shrapnel in their
forearms, when all clinical efforts had failed to
find the small pieces of metal. In the Graeco-
Turkish war of 1897, the German Red Cross
provided a hospital unit to support the Turkish
army in Constantinople, complete with an X-
ray apparatus supplied by the British Red
Cross. The batteries of H.M.S. Rodney were
used to recharge the unit. In 1897, in the
Tirah campaign fought near the Khyber Pass,
the British Surgeon-Major Beevor used X-ray
apparatus in assessing casualties. In 1899,
Surgeon-Major Battersby wrote: "Radiography
can boast its most brilliant results in obscure
injuries to bone, particularly when the injured
parts are too swollen to admit of careful
examination by ordinary methods, or when
such examination cannot be borne by the
patient."
Other military uses of X-rays were reported
from the battle of Omduram in the Sudan and
from the Spanish-American war of 1898, the
first reported use of X-rays in a military
context in the western hemisphere. During the
Boer War (1899-1902) field issue British Army
X-ray equipment was supplied to all general
hospitals.
Long before these military applications of
radiography, there had been numerous
instances of other medical uses of X-rays. A
prescient letter by Arthur Schuster, Professor
of Physics at Manchester University published
on 11th January, 1896, in the British Medical
Journal stated: "....there can be no doubt that a
most important discovery has been made. It is
not necessary to enter into the many possible
medical applications that this photograph [of
Frau R6ntgen's hand] open out."
Although there were many demonstrations of
X-rays as a kind of parlour trick in 1896, most
of the work carried out was done by serious
medical experimenters seeking ways in which
X-rays could be used for diagnostic purposes.
To begin with, this consisted of demonstrating
foreign bodies, and then fractures were shown,
in addition to bone pathology. The first
medical radiologist was Sidney Donville
Rowland, in Great Britain, who was regularly
examining patients from February, 1896. In
the British Medical Journal of 22 February,
1896, the surgeon Bertram Leonard Adams
described the surgical removal of a post
traumatic spur from the little finger of one of
his patients, the preliminary X-ray being taken
by Rowland.
Diagnostic radiology was thus born and soon
was being practised throughout the world, as
A CENTURY OF X-RAYS 93
news of the discovery was reported. In
Australia, the first press reports were
published in several daily newspapers on 31st
January, 1896, but it was not until the next
month that details of the method were
available. There were at the time numerous
people, mainly physicists, who had access to
Crookes' tubes and the other apparatus
required to produce X-rays. They immediately
set out to duplicate the experiment, and it was
not long before many examinations were being
performed. There is, probably inevitably, dis-
cussion and conjecture as to who actually was
the first to use X-rays in Australia. The follow-
ing list of published reports suggests that Pro-
fessor Thomas Ranken Lyle of the University of
Melbourne preceded the others, but there are
conflicting claims. A letter from the grandson
of Dr. F.J. Clendinnen in the Archives of the
College of Radiologists suggest that Clendinnen
had, in fact, discovered X-rays before ROntgen,
but that communication delays prevented him
announcing this before the report of ROntgen's
work was published in Australia in January,
1896.
e 4th March, 1896, the Melbourne Argus pub-
lished a radiogram of a foot taken by
Professor Lyle.
e 16th May, 1896, the Australasian published
a radiograph of a rat taken by Mr. G.W.
Selby.
e 28th May, 1896, the South Australian
Register reported that Mr. Barbour and
Professor William Bragg had taken an X-ray
of a hand.
e 13th June, 1896, the Australasian published
a radiograph of a flounder, taken by Dr. F.J.
Clendinnen.
e 27th July, 1896, the Ballarat Free Press re-
ported successful surgery on the hand of
Eric Thompson after a gun shot injury was
shown in an X-ray taken by Father Joseph
Slattery at St. Stanislaus' College, Bathurst.
The accepted three Australian pioneers in
radiology are Father Joseph Slattery in
Bathurst, Walter Drowley Filmer in Newcastle
and Thomas Ranken Lyle in Melbourne. One of
Filmer's sons, Roy, claims that his father
produced X-rays within two days of the details
of the discovery being published, presumably
on 15th February, 1896. (There was
insufficient detail published in Australia before
this.) These X-rays showed and located a
broken needle in a patient's foot. Another son,
Walter, claimed that his father had
radiographed his (Walter's) hand prior to that.
There were many others who took X-rays in
the first half of 1896, but after this time much
of the unpublished information must be taken
with care. There is no doubt, however, that the
first practising radiologist in Australia was Dr
Frederick John Clendinnen of Melbourne, and
he was also the first medical practitioner to X-
ray a patient, on 22nd May, 1896.
It is evident that the immediate impact of the
discovery of X-rays was in the investigation
and assessment of trauma, in particular the
diagnosis of fractures and the location of
foreign bodies, usually metallic, but glass
foreign bodies were also demonstrated. Other
diagnostic uses were applied from an early
date. On 24th April, 1896, William Morton
read a paper on dental radiography to the New
York Odontological Society, presenting radio-
graphs of the roots of teeth, fillings and
diseases of the adjacent bones. Also in 1896,
William Rollins of Boston devised an intraoral
film for dental radiography. The first dental
radiograph in Australia was produced by FJ.
Clendinnen.
Radiotherapy also became useful very soon
after ROntgen's discovery was made known. To
begin with, the use of X-rays was quite
empirical, in the spirit of "Let us see what
these new rays will do." For this reason, skin
lesions were first treated, as they were visible
and any effects could be seen and evaluated.
In March, 1896, John Daniel, a physicist at
Vanderbilt University in Tennessee, reported
that an unexpected side effect of radiation was
to cause the hair to fall out. This conclusion
was reached when X-rays were taken of a
child's head after he was accidentally shot.
Partial shielding was carried out, to avoid
scattered radiation degrading the film. Twenty
one days after the X-rays were taken, the
child's hair fell out, but only from the part of
the scalp that had been irradiated. The protec-
ted part of the scalp retained its hair and was
quite unaffected. The conclusion drawn from
this accidental experiment was that living
tissue was sensitive to radiation. Epilation in
the treatment of ring worm became popular,
using radiation. Acne also was successfully
treated, as was lupus vulgaris, and it was not
long before skin cancers were irradiated, with
success.
94 A CENTURY OF X-RAYS
Radiotherapy had been carried out for skin
diseases in Australia for some time, and in
1896, Dr Cleaver Woods of Albury used
radiation to attempt a cure of a carcinoma of
the larynx, with only limited success. This was
one of the first uses of radiotherapy in
Australia for cancer not of the skin. When
radium became available, radium therapy and
X-ray therapy were instituted in most
hospitals in the capital cities, in addition to
numerous private practices. Over the five or
ten years from the discovery of X-rays, the
uses of diagnostic and therapeutic radiology
were extended at a rapid rate. By 1900,
kidney stones and gall stones had been
demonstrated, and vessels had been shown in
X-ray images with the use of opaque material,
usually on cadavers, as a safe contrast was not
available for routine clinical work. Some in
vivo arteriograms and venograms were made,
using soluble bismuth salts in very low doses.
The early history of radiology is replete with
tales of priority disputes, of empirical dis-
coveries and ever-expanding applications of
this new kind of ray. The discovery of X-rays
by R6ntgen opened up new worlds of
diagnostic possibilities, and R6ntgen ranks with
Vesalius, Lister, Pasteur and Koch in the un-
ending story of the development of medical
science from Hippocrates to the present day.
References
Eisenberg, R.L., 1992. RADIOLOGY. AN ILLUS-
TRATED HISTORY. Mosby-Year Book Inc., St.
Louis, MO, 606 pp.
Grigg, E.R.N., 1965. THE TRAIL OF THE INVIS-
IBLE LIGHT: FROM X-STRAHLEN TO RADIO-
(BIO)LOGY. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL,
974 pp.
Ryan, J.F., Sutton, K. and Baigent, M.,_____. A
HISTORY OF AUSTRALASIAN RADIOLOGY. Mc-
Graw-Hill Book Company Australia, Roseville,
Australia. (In press).
Dr J. Ryan, FRACR, DDU
Park House
187 Macquarie Street
Sydney, NSW 2000, Australia
Roentgen's X-Rays, A Pioneering Discovery
for the Development of 20th Century Physics
B.A. Roberts
Abstract: ROntgen's 1895 discovery was the culmination
of centuries of observation and experimentation in
electricity and magnetism. The magnetic properties of
amber (a Baltic fossil resin) were discovered by the Greeks
2,500 years ago. Sailors in the Mediterranean for
thousands of years had used Lodestone, a naturally
occurring magnetic ore as a primitive form of compass.
The observation that friction caused amber to attract light
objects and the ability of Lodestone to attract ore led to
the first scientific study of this phenomenon. In addition
to electricity and magnetism, the third major physical
principle involved in X-ray production is the vacuum and
the evacuated glass tube. This occurred in the 19th
century with the development of the Crookes tube. It was
Ro6ntgen's ability to both synthesise the scientific work
A CENTURY OF X-RAYS
95
that had gone before him and make the forward leap to
postulate the existent of a new form of ray that was the
hallmark of his genius. Nevertheless, ROntgen's discovery
in itself was simply part of an evolving spectrum of
scientific discovery which subsequently resulted in the
discovery of radioactivity, the development of nuclear
energy and (regrettably) nuclear weaponry.
"In the history of science, nothing is more true
than that the discoverer, even the greatest dis-
coverer, is but the descendent of his scientific
forefathers; he is always essentially the
product of the age in which he is born."
Sylvanus P. Thompson, 1897
(Eisenberg, 1992: 3)
Roentgen's 1895 discovery was the culmination
of centuries of observation and experimen-
tation in electricity and magnetism. Some
2,500 years ago the Greeks discovered the
electric properties of amber — a Baltic fossil
resin. From earliest times the use of Lodestone
— anaturally occurring magnetic ore — asa
primitive compass was widely practised.
Four hundred years ago the analogy of amber
attracting light objects and the lodestone at-
tracting iron led to the first scientific study of
the phenomenon. Anticipating Newton's theory
of gravitation, William Gilbert postulated that
all bodies in the vicinity of the earth are
attracted to the great mass of the earth. His De
Magnete (Gilbert, 1600) formed the scientific
foundation for subsequent investigations of
electricity and magnetism. "All of my experi-
ments were repeated again and again under
my own eyes", he wrote, and his comment was
echoed by Réntgen 295 years later.
In addition to electricity and magnetism, the
third major physical prerequisite for X-ray
production is the vacuum and the evacuated
glass tube. The development of the Crookes'
tube and identification of cathode rays (elec-
trons) fulfilled this requirement.
When using tubes with a vacuum raised to a
millionth of an atmosphere, Crookes unknow-
ingly was generating X-rays and he found that
photographic plates in unopened boxes were
Strangely fogged and blackened. When he
complained to the manufacturer, Ilford, he was
initially sent replacements — and Ilford later
suggested that the damage was occurring in his
own institution.
Crookes was not the first to produce X-rays un-
knowingly. In 1785 William Morgan experi-
mented with electricity in a vacuum. In the
course of his experiments, the tube cracked
and admitted air. Morgan observed a suc-
cession of beautiful colours — beginning with
yellowish green and passing through blue and
purple to red. After R6ntgen's discovery the
identification of the yellow-green shade with
X-rays made it clear that Morgan had produced
them.
At the same time, the Scottish physicist James
Clerk Maxwell interpreted Michael Faraday's
work in terms of higher mathematics to form
the electromagnetic theory of light — a theoret-
ical prediction of the existence of X-rays.
Maxwell's theories in turn influenced Hermann
von Helmholtz — the mathematical discoverer
of X-rays. In his "dispersal theory of the spec-
trum" he allowed for X-rays and radio waves,
specifying properties that included the ability
to pass through opaque material. Helmholtz's
pupil, Heinrich Hertz, was assigned the task of
producing these waves in the laboratory.
The theories of Helmholtz led Sir Oliver Lodge
and Sir Joseph John Thompson to conclude,
only eight months after ROntgen's discovery
(but fifteen years before it was experi-
mentally proven) that X-rays belonged to the
short-wave end of the light spectrum.
In 1887 Hertz discovered wireless or radio
waves. He then discovered that cathode rays
would pass through a thin film of aluminium
placed within the tube. This led Philipp Lenard
to study the effects of cathode rays on fluores-
cing substances such as phosphates and
ketones. It was noted that cathode radiation
could darken a photographic plate protected by
a light proof folder.
Lenard observed that the rays scattered in all
directions outside the aluminium window. He
compared the absorption of cathode rays by
96 A CENTURY OF X-RAYS
different solids and gases, and developed an
aluminium ladder with one to nine layers of
foil to analyse the penetration. He did not
realise that after passing through the
aluminium window they were mixed with
another kind of ray. Years later Lenard
became embroiled in a bitter controversy as to
whether he, rather than ROntgen, should be
honoured as the discoverer of X-rays.
On Friday, November 8, 1895, Réntgen had
recently repeated Lenard's experiments with
cathode rays from an aluminium window pro-
ducing luminescent effects on fluorescing salts
and darkening a photographic plate.
He noticed that a barium platinocyanide screen
fluoresced despite the tube being shielded by
black cardboard and despite the screen being
at a much greater distance than observed in
cathode ray experiments.
If this curious emanation could escape the
light-proof cardboard box, could it penetrate
other substances? R6ntgen held a variety of
objects between the tube and the screen. Most
showed little reduction in the intensity of the
glowing screen. Only lead and platinum
obstructed the rays. He then observed the
ghostly shadow of the bones and soft tissues of
his own fingers. He replaced the fluorescent
screen with a photographic plate and produced
an image using the vacuum tube as a light
source.
ROntgen realised this was a new form of light
which was invisible to the eye and had never
been observed or recorded.
For the next seven weeks ROntgen remained
secluded in his laboratory, concentrating
entirely on a large number of carefully planned
experiments. "I have discovered something
interesting — but I do not know whether or not
my discoveries are correct".
"On a New Kind of Rays, a Preliminary Com-
munication" was handed to the secretary of the
Wurzburg Physical-Medical Society on
December 18, 1895. R6ntgen requested
publication prior to presentation at the next
meeting.
To speed critical reading and evaluation of his
work, ROntgen sent copies of the article and
examples of prints of X-rays, to a number of
well known physicists. To his wife he said,
"Now there will be the Devil to pay”.
ROntgen disliked the sensationalism of radio-
graphy, which he considered only a means of
documenting his fluoroscopic observations and
experiments. On January 23rd, 1896, at a
public demonstration R6ntgen addressed the
Wirzburg Physical-Medical Society. Although
he lived another 27 years, this was the only
formal lecture he gave on X-rays. At this
meeting it was proposed that they be called
"ROntgen's rays".
In March 1896 and May 1897, ROntgen issued
further communications on the properties of X-
rays. These were so detailed that Sylvanus P.
Thompson complained "ROntgen had so thor-
oughly explored the new properties of the new
rays by the time his discovery was announced,
that there remained little for others to do be-
yond elaborating his work" (Eisenberg, 1992:
32).
The Discovery of Radium
Since fluorescence appeared to be necessary
for the formation of X-rays, investigation then
proceeded on the possibilities of naturally oc-
curring radiation. Henri Becquerel, a professor
of physics in Paris, experimented with uranium
salts. As a result of his experiments he
concluded that neither sunlight, fluorescence
nor phosphorescence was necessary -—- the rays
were emitted spontaneously from all uranium
salts and from uranium itself. Like X-rays, the
radiation could not be reflected by mirrors nor
refracted by prisms and could discharge an
electroscope by ionising the surrounding air.
Unlike X-rays, the new radiation was a specific
property of the atom itself and actually
represented the property of that matter.
Becquerel's paper "On Visible Radiations
Emitted by Phosphorescent Bodies", presented
to the French Academy of Sciences in 1896,
interested Marie Sklodowska. She had joined
her sister in 1891 at the Sorbonne to study
mathematics and physics.
She met Pierre Curie in 1894. A physicist
working at the Sorbonne, he was the son of a
Paris physician. He had discovered piezo-
electricity and with his brother Jacques con-
structed an electrometer which was later given
their name. Marie and Pierre married in 1895
A CENTURY OF X-RAYS 97
and 3 years later Marie selected Becquerel's
"spontaneous radioactivity" for her doctoral
research. After systematic purification of
pitchblende, she announced the discovery of a
new substance, a metal related to bismuth
which she called Polonium.
The Curies subsequently recognised a second
substance two million times more radioactive
than uranium, which they called radium.
Marie Curie never adequately protected herself
in all her years of contact, even though she in-
sisted that safety precautions be taken by her
colleagues and students. She eventually devel-
oped severe radiation burns on her hands and
died on July 4th, 1934, of aplastic anaemia. At
67, she was three years older than the average
life expectancy of women at that time.
In his Nobel lecture in 1904 Pierre Curie said,
"One may also imagine that in criminal hands
radium might become very dangerous, and
here we may ask ourselves if humanity has
anything to gain by learning the secrets of
nature, if it is right enough to profit by them,
or if its knowledge is not harmful."
Forty years later the secrets of nature had led
to the development of nuclear fission and
fusion, culminating in the development and
detonation of the atom bomb.
References
Eisenberg, R.L., 1992. RADIOLOGY. AN IL-
LUSTRATED HISTORY. Mosby-Year Book Inc.,
St. Louis, MO, 606 pp.
Gilbert, W., 1600. DE MAGNETE, MAGNETICIS-
QUE CORPORIBUS, ET DE MAGNO MAGNETE TEL-
LURE; PHYSIOLOGIA NOVA. London.
Dr B.A. Roberts, FRACP, FRACR
Park House
187 Macquarie Street
Sydney, NSW 2000, Australia
R6ntgen Rays in Early Twentieth Century Medical
Diagnosis and Therapy:
Searchlight or Scalpel?
W.R. Albury
Abstract: A comparison of the early medical use of ROnt-
gen rays and the introduction of the stethoscope reveals
some informative parallels and contrasts. Both technolo-
gies served a clinical need for visualisation, but the ability
of X-rays to produce photographic and fluoroscopic images
led to an overemphasis on the ways in which they were
analogous to light rays and an underemphasis on the ways
in which their biological effects differed from those of
ordinary light. As a result of this attitude, many X-ray
pioneers showed little concern for the possible dangers of
this new technology, with adverse consequences for
themselves and their patients. It is suggested that a dif-
ferent analogy for the medical use of X-rays would have
encouraged a more cautious approach by these early
pioneers.
98
This paper compares two technological inno-
vations which were introduced into medical
practice roughly a century apart, ROntgen's X-
rays at the beginning of the twentieth century
and Laennec's stethoscope at the beginning of
the nineteenth century. While the early X-ray
apparatus was a far more sophisticated device
than the early stethoscope, both innovations
made use of the principles of physics to
provide important new clinical information,
and both met a pre-existing medical need for
"visualising" the internal organs of the living
body. In some ways, one could say that X-rays
completed the trend toward visualisation in
medicine that the stethoscope began (Reiser,
1978).
To understand the relationship between these
two technologies we must begin by considering
the state of medical knowledge a century be-
fore ROntgen's discovery, at the outset of the
nineteenth century.
In the years around 1800, medicine was aban-
doning its traditional understanding of diseases
as complexes of symptoms, and adopting in-
stead the concept that diseases were localised
lesions of specific organs. Symptoms, which
had previously been the principal defining
characteristics of a disease, now became the
external signs of internal lesions. To reach a
correct diagnosis the physician had to forma
mental picture of pathological changes in the
body of the living patient which the autopsy
would later reveal in the deceased patient's
cadaver (Ackerknecht, 1967; Foucault, 1973).
For this reason, active diagnostic examination
began to assume greater importance in clinical
practice than had previously been the case.
The objective was for the physician to be able
to "see", at least in his imagination, into the
living human body without damaging it in the
process. In this context it is easy to under-
stand how important the introduction of the
stethoscope was when it was invented by the
French physician Laennec in 1816 (Laennec,
1816). This instrument, the first piece of
technology invented specifically for diagnostic
use in clinical medicine (Reiser, 1978), allowed
the physician to identify a wide range of
pathological changes to internal organs, simply
by listening to the sounds they produced.
The fact that Laennec named his instrument
the stethoscope, or "chest-seer" rather than the
A CENTURY OF X-RAYS
stethophone, shows how important the visual-
isation of internal organs was to the medicine
of his day. The physician who translated
Laennec's treatise into English compared the
use of the stethoscope to placing "a window in
the breast" of the patient, "through which we
can see the precise state of things within"
(Forbes, 1821: xiv).
Although the concept of disease changed mark-
edly over the next hundred years, especially
with the introduction of the germ theory, the
clinical need for visualisation was no less
strong in ROntgen's day than it was in
Laennec's. A number of endoscopic devices
had been invented in the latter half of the
nineteenth century, but these gave access only
to limited areas of the body (Reiser, 1978).
R6ntgen's discovery overcame this limitation
and was adopted for medical use around the
world almost as quickly as information about it
could be communicated. The medical use of X-
ray technology seemed at last to provide a real
"window" into the body, allowing the visual
inspection of the patient's internal organs ina
non-invasive way.
While it is appealing to contrast the real "win-
dow" produced by X-rays and the imaginary
"window" resulting from the use of the stetho-
scope, we must not carry the idea of the X-ray
"window" too far. It is true that X-rays pro-
duce visual data about the living body while
the stethoscope produces only auditory data.
But the way in which these visual data are
produced by X-rays makes the "window" meta-
phor a rather misleading one.
Because the stethoscope was introduced as an
auditory instrument, specifically applying the
physical principles of acoustics (Laennec,
1816), it was immediately clear that any talk
of using it to visualise the internal organs of
the body was highly metaphorical. But Ront-
gen's X-rays were introduced into medicine in
a visual context. Visible light had been con-
ceptualised by nineteenth century physics as a
form of electromagnetic radiation, and because
ROntgen's new electrically produced rays left
permanent traces on photographic plates they
were soon being described as a new form of
light (Grigg, 1965: 9).
Rontgen himself noted that "some kind of re-
lation seems to exist between the new rays and
light rays". But he concluded on the basis of
A CENTURY OF X-RAYS is
his experiments that X-rays "behave entirely
differently from the infra-red, visible, and
ultraviolet rays known at present" (ROntgen,
1895: 52, 51). The "window" into the body
which X-rays opened up for clinical medicine
was therefore just as metaphorical as Laennec's
stethoscopic "Window". The latter was based
on a limited psychological analogy between
seeing and imagining, while the former was
based on a limited physical analogy between
visible light and R6ntgen rays.
For present purposes, the most important
limitation of the analogy between visible light
and Rontgen rays is that visible light typically
provides us with visual data about objects
(other than light sources) by being differ-
entially reflected off those objects, showing
brighter and duller surfaces, for example, or
different colours. R6ntgen rays, on the other
hand, provide us with visual data about objects
by differentially passing through those objects,
showing the relative densities of the parts
involved. The observer's best vantage point in
the case of visible light is on the same side of
the object as the light source. But in the case of
ROntgen rays it is on the opposite side of the
object, using a fluorescing screen, for example.
Thus the way in which visual data are
produced by X-rays makes the "window" meta-
phor misleading because viewing an object
through a window does not usually change it in
any significant way. Viewing the internal state
of the body by means of X-rays, however,
depends on this radiation passing through the
body and being more absorbed by some parts
than by others. So while the analogy between
X-rays and visible light may be useful for some
purposes, for others — such as anticipating the
effects of X-rays on living tissues — it is not.
When the effects of a technology are not well
understood, as is usual in the case of techno-
logical innovation, we need to anticipate any
hazards it might pose and estimate the risk in-
volved in its use. Here we work from the best
available information, but we interpret this in-
formation differently according to where we
locate the burden of proof. Do we assume the
technology is safe until proven dangerous, or
dangerous until proven safe?
This was the question facing the early pioneers
of ROntgen radiation, although they did not
explicitly formulate it in this way. Judging
from their behaviour, their answer was that X-
rays were to be considered safe until proven
dangerous. And my proposal is that part of the
reason for this attitude was their overextension
of the analogy between visible light and
Rontgen rays — or "invisible light" (Grigg, 1965:
9, 170), as they were sometimes called.
It was initially assumed that looking into the
body through the R6ntgen ray "window" was as
unlikely to harm it as looking at it with visible
light would be. But by April 1896 accounts
were being published of skin damage and hair
loss in people exposed to X-rays. What is
striking is the response to this information by
people working with the new technology.
Rontgen was "distressed" to believe that X-rays
might cause such effects (Glasser, 1958: 90),
and "many medical men were unwilling ... to
admit that these results were due to the X rays
themselves" (Eddy, 1946: 143; cf. Reiser, 1978:
67).
The burning and blistering of the skin after
exposure to X-rays was immediately likened to
sunburn (Glasser, 1932: 76, 78, 80), even
though sunburn would not normally cause hair
loss. I suggest that the light analogy inclined
people toward this interpretation. It also of-
fered a way to exonerate X-rays from the ac-
cusation that they were dangerous, since many
argued that X-rays, like visible light, were
harmless in themselves and that associated
ultraviolet radiation was the cause of skin
damage.
Other causes were also proposed, although ex-
periments reported by Elihu Thomson in 1896
supported the conclusion that X-rays them-
selves and not associated phenomena caused
tissue damage. Nevertheless "even as late as
1903 there were still writers who contended
that the injurious effects were due to ozone,
chemical effects or to electro-static discharges"
(Christie, 1928: 296). And Thomson himself
later complained that "in spite of the deliber-
ation I used [in exposing his hand to X-rays], I
have seen this burn of mine erroneously
described as the result of an accident"
(Thomson, 1932: 386).
So even though by August 1896 "Several re-
ports had appeared of extensive damage to
hands and face and evidences of radiation sick-
ness were described" (Eddy, 1946: 143), and
although deep tissue damage had been
100 A CENTURY OF X-RAYS
observed by 1897 (Christie, 1928: 295), many
of those working with X-rays continued to treat
the effects of exposure as superficial and
transitory, just as the effects of sunburn were
thought to be at that time.
Since most of the visible damage to exposed
skin appeared to heal fairly quickly, it was
common for X-ray personnel to avoid further
exposure when symptoms appeared, but then
to return to work when it seemed that healing
had taken place. "This fact," as Eddy writes,
"coupled with the ignorance of the long-term
effects which gave no early visible evidence,
led to the unhappy experiences of many pio-
neers" (Eddy, 1946: 143) in the early twentieth
century. And the same may no doubt be said
of many patients on whom X-rays were used
for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes.
A more balanced assessment of the biological
effects of X-rays came from Joseph Lister in
September 1896. After commenting on the
diagnostic value of X-rays, Lister added: "It is
found that if the skin is long exposed to their
action it becomes very much irritated, affected
with a sort of aggravated sunburning. This
suggests the idea that the transmission of the
rays through the human body may not be al-
together a matter of indifference to internal
organs, but may by long continued action pro-
duce, according to the condition of the part
concerned, injurious irritation or salutary
stimulation" (Lister, 1909: 491).
In these remarks Lister recognised that the
visible similarity between the symptoms of
sunburn and those of X-ray burns was a matter
of superficial resemblance only. The important
difference between ultraviolet light and
ROntgen rays was "the transmission of the rays
through the human body". In addition, Lister
recognised that the internal effects of these
rays could be either harmful or beneficial,
according to the circumstances involved. In
this way he signalled both the therapeutic
potential of X-rays and the caution needed in
applying them for either diagnostic or thera-
peutic purposes.
Lister was a distinguished clinician, but he was
not directly involved in the use of X-rays. This
situation seemed to allow him a greater degree
of objectivity in assessing the potential medical
consequences of X-rays than many of the X-ray
pioneers exhibited. For those most closely in-
volved in early medical X-ray work, the sug-
gestion that X-rays were in any way dangerous
tended to produce resentment rather than
caution (Grigg, 1965: 39). Their enthusiasm for
the new technology caused them to take the
analogy with light too literally and to expose
both themselves and countless patients to
harmful levels of radiation.
At the outset of this discussion we noted how
medical use of the stethoscope was compared
to viewing the body's interior through a win-
dow. One physician offered a quite different
metaphor of the process, however, when he
wrote: "We anatomise ... while the patient is
yet alive" (Latham, 1835-36). If the medical
use of ROntgen rays had initially been
compared to opening the living body with a
scalpel rather than projecting light into it
through a window, I suspect that more of the
early pioneers of medical X-rays would have
shared the perspective of Lister, who was, after
all, a surgeon. This surgical analogy would
probably not have dampened their enthusiasm
for the valuable potential of this new techno-
logy, but it would have highlighted the need
for them to balance their enthusiasm with pru-
dence.
Acknowledgment
Iam grateful to my former student, Dr. C. R.
Lloyd, whose M.Sc.Soc. project report (Lloyd,
1979) first drew my attention to a number of
key journal articles which I have used in this
paper.
References
Ackerknecht, E.H., 1967. MEDICINE AT THE
PARIS HOSPITAL, 1794-1848. Johns Hopkins
Press, Baltimore, 242 pp.
Christie, A.C., 1928. The early development of
Roentgenology. American Journal of Roentgen-
ology, 19, 294-297.
Eddy, C.E., 1946. The fiftieth anniversary of
the discovery of X-rays. Medical Journal of
Australia, 33(1), 138-144.
Forbes, J., 1821. Translator's preface, pp. vii-
xxvili in Laennec, 1821.
Foucault, M., 1973. THE BIRTH OF THE CLINIC.
Vintage, New York, 215 pp.
A CENTURY OF X-RAYS
Glasser, O., 1932. First observations on the
physiological effects of Roentgen rays on the
human skin. American Journal of Roentgen-
ology, 28, 75-80.
Glasser, O., 1958. DR. W. C. RONTGEN. 2nd ed.,
Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL, 169 pp.
Grigg, E.R.N., 1965. THE TRAIL OF INVISIBLE
LIGHT: FROM X-STRAHLEN TO RADIO(BIO)-
LOGY. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL, 974
Pp.
Laennec, R.T.H., 1816. DE L'AUSCULTATION
MEDIATE, OU TRAITE DU DIAGNOSTIC DES
MALADIES DES POUMONS ET DU COEUR FONDE
PRINCIPALEMENT SUR CE NOUVEAU MOYEN
D'EXPLORATION. 2 vols., Brosson et Chaudé,
Paris, 456 + 472 pp.
Laennec, R.T.H., 1821. A TREATISE ON THE
DISEASES OF THE CHEST. Underwood, London,
437 pp.
Latham, P.M., 1835-36. Lectures on subjects
connected with clinical medicine, in Reiser,
1978, p. 30.
Lister, J.. 1909. On the interdependence of sci-
ence and the healing art [1896], in THE COLLEC-
TED PAPERS OF JOSEPH, BARON LISTER, vol. 2,
pp. 489-514. 2 vols., Clarendon Press, Oxford.
101
Lloyd, C.R., 1979. The use of X-rays in medi-
cine. M.Sc.Soc. project report, UNSW. (Un-
publ.).
Reiser, S.J., 1978. MEDICINE AND THE REIGN OF
TECHNOLOGY. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, 317 pp.
Rontgen, W.C., 1895. On a new kind of rays
(preliminary communication), in Glasser, 1958,
pp. 41-52.
Thomson, E., 1932. Work in the first decade of
Roentgenology. American Journal of Roentgen-
ology, 28, 385-388.
Professor W.R. Albury, Head
School of Science and Technology Studies
University of New South Wales
Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
The Role of R6ntgen Rays in Contemporary
Medical Imaging
F.J. Palmer
Abstract: In a matter of weeks following ROntgen's pro-
visional communication of 28 December, 1895, X-rays
were being used for clinical diagnosis. Starting from
crude, and often dangerous, technology, progress to the
production of images of excellent quality and radiation
safety was inexorable. For a hundred years, X-rays have
been the mainstay of medical imaging, providing
invaluable information for the diagnosis and management
of disease. The ability to visualise pathology within the
intact body also led to advances in medicine and surgery.
The introduction of Computerised Tomography, which
102
A CENTURY OF X-RAYS
utilises X-rays in a different manner, has, in recent years,
revolutionised the practice of medicine. Recent decades
have seen the introduction of imaging modalities which do
not utilise X-rays — notably Ultrasound and Magnetic
Resonance Imaging. Whilst these have replaced X-ray
examinations to some extent, the latter remain the
preponderant form of imaging, and ROntgen's X-rays are
alive and well in medicine a century after this great
discovery.
The discovery of the physical properties of X-
rays produced a major advance in medical sci-
ence. For the first time, organic pathology
could be visualised within the intact body. Ina
matter of weeks, from ROntgen's provisional
communication of 28 December, 1895, X-ray
examinations of clinical value were being
obtained both in Europe and America — of
metallic foreign bodies, fractures and other
bone abnormalities. In England, Sidney
Donville Rowland began a radiology practice as
early as March, 1896. In the same year,
Thomas Edison developed the use of a fluor-
escent screen as an alternative to recording the
image on a photographic plate. This method
refined over the years to reduce dosage and
improve contrast and spatial discrimination
and remains an active service for visualisation
in real-time.
Apart from the noxious effects of overexposure
to X-rays, which cost the lives of many of the
early pioneers, it was recognised early in the
history of this new branch of medical science
that there were limitations to the diagnostic
information that diagnostic X-rays could pro-
vide. Essentially, conventional diagnostic X-
rays allow the discrimination of only six basic
densities: gas, fat, soft tissue and fluid, bone,
calcium and heavy metals. A normal, or patho-
logical structure, has to be "outlined" by tissue
of different density in order to be imaged.
For instance, the multiple organs within the ab-
domen are largely of soft-tissue density and
their outlines hard or impossible to detect on
conventional X-rays. A tumour within the liver
substance cannot be detected since both
tumour and normal liver are of the same
density. Only the gas-filled stomach and colon
are clearly visualised within the soft-tissue
background.
The problem was partially overcome by intro-
ducing substances of different density into
body "cavities" by various means. Barium
could be used to outline the digestive tract, air
introduced into the brain ventricular system
by lumbar puncture, or iodine compounds
utilised to demonstrate the urinary tract as
they were excreted by the kidneys.
The power of the X-ray beam required to
penetrate and depict bony structures such as
the skull or spine, was such that the important
structures of the brain and spinal cord could
not be seen at all, although some information
could be obtained by outlining the sub-
arachnoid space or appropriate arteries with
contrast agents.
A major advance in the use of ROntgen rays
occurred with the development of Computer-
ised Tomography (CT) (Hounsfield, 1973).
Although similar in principle to conventional
radiography, in that the produced image is a
grey-scale representation of the degree to
which body components alternate the X-ray
beam, CT employs multiple collimated X-ray
exposures, sophisticated electronic detectors,
and computer analysis and refinement, to
produce a cross-sectional slice of body tissue.
Movement of the X-ray source around the body
allows multiple readings of small volumes of
tissue within the slice to provide a cross-
sectional image which avoids superimposition
of structures and accurately indicates their
density so that soft-tissue structures can be
differentiated both in outline and density.
With this method it was possible, for the first
time, to depict the structures of the brain and
spinal cord, and to detect soft-tissue abnormal-
ities within soft-tissue structures, e.g., tumours,
abscesses and haemorrhages in the brain and
in abdominal organs.
Intravenous injection of an iodine containing
contrast medium is frequently used during CT
examinations to provide further contrast
differentiation between normal and abnormal
tissues and to visualise vascular structures.
A CENTURY OF X-RAYS 103
Advances in CT technology now allow for 3D
reconstruction, fine-section examination of
complex and relatively minute structures and
image manipulation. CT can thus be used, not
only for diagnosis, but also to plan surgical,
radiotherapeutic or other forms of therapy,
accurately place needles percutaneously for
biopsy and provide excellent visualisation for
interventional procedures, such as drainage of
abscesses.
There are available other important means of
imaging that do not use R6ntgen rays. Radio-
isotopes can be introduced into the body and
the emission of gamma rays detected by an
external gamma camera. Since the substances
used have radioactivity, this method requires
the same attention to dosage and safety as is
required for ROntgen rays. Further, the images
obtained do not provide the contrast range and
anatomical detail of R6ntgenograms. They do,
however, provide very useful information re-
garding function and an area of functional
abnormality, e.g., bone infection or impaired
renal function, can be detected in the absence
of detectable changes on radiographs. Radio-
isotope scanning of the lungs similarly may
detect the occurrence of pulmonary embolism
in the presence of a normal chest X-ray.
Ultrasound was developed as a modality for
medical imaging in the early 1960s. In this
system, high-frequency sound produced from a
transducer of piezoelectrical material is trans-
mitted as a longitudinal wave into the tissues.
The sound wave is reflected back to the trans-
ducer from tissue boundaries and the trans-
ducer can detect these during a "listening"
phase. The returned signal is converted into an
electrical signal, with an electronic display
which displays the returned echoes as variable
levels of brightness on the screen. The infor-
mation can also be manipulated by a computer.
The operator, by sweeping the transducer over
the body part, can build up a series of images
which demonstrate the anatomy in various
phases of section, and sees the image display in
real-time.
A major advantage of diagnostic ultrasound
over R6ntgenography is the absence of ionising
radiation. This has proved of particular advan-
tage in the imaging of the foetus in utero be-
cause, not only is the danger of radiation
eliminated, but also the soft tissue structures of
the foetus, placenta and uterus are clearly
visualised. Ultrasound has revolutionised the
practice of obstetrics as CT revolutionised the
practice of neurology.
Apart from obstetrics, diagnostic ultrasound
has an important role in the imaging of the
liver and biliary system, the kidneys, and other
abdominal organs, and in the heart. Functional
assessments can be made such as detection of
the foetal heart beat and assessment of the
function of the heart muscle and valves in the
adult patient. The Doppler phenomenon of
sound is utilised to determine flow in arteries
and veins, and many invasive radiological pro-
cedures that were previously necessary can be
avoided.
The major disadvantage of ultrasound is the
difficulty of imaging where there is bone or
gas-filled structures which deflect and distort
the image. It has, however, been used to good
effect to image the structures of joints, such as
the shoulder and hip.
The latest addition to the armamentarium of
the diagnostic radiologist is Magnetic Reson-
ance Imaging (MRI). The physics of this
technique is formidable but, in essence, the
response of hydrogen protons to a varying
magnetic field is detected electronically and
their situation in the body located by gradient
magnetic fields in three planes. An image can
thus be formed.
MRI provides images of exquisite anatomical
detail. It is of particular value in the brain and
spinal cord, but also can provide detailed ana-
tomical images of joints, muscles, abdomen and
heart. Special techniques and image manipu-
lation allow functional studies such as assess-
ment of cardiac function and the flow of cer-
ebro-spinal fluid.
The "magical" rays which ROntgen discussed
have made an enormous contribution to
medical science in the twentieth century.
Without them, many other medical and surgical
advances would not have been possible.
As discussed above, there are now several
other forms of imaging available. How well has
Rontgenography survived after 100 years?
Indeed, RO6ntgenography is alive, well and
flourishing. It remains the predominant means
of imaging the chest, since the air-filled lungs
104 A CENTURY OF X-RAYS
give excellent contrast delineation from patho-
logical processes; it remains the best method
for examining the skeletal structures, particu-
larly for suspected fractures and joint dis-
orders; the plain film of the abdomen remains
the prime imaging tool for suspected bowel ob-
struction and kidney stones.
The new modalities have replaced some previ-
ously common radiographic procedures, either
because more useful information is obtained or
because interventional procedures are avoided.
The pneumoencephalogram, in which air inject-
ed into the spinal subarachnoid space outlines
the brain ventricular system, has been com-
pletely replaced by CT and MRI. This was an
unpleasant procedure for the patient, gave
limited information, and had potential compli-
cations. The new modalities provide much bet-
ter information without the previous discom-
fort and dangers. Similarly, the injection of a
contrast medium into the bronchial tree, bron-
chography, has been replaced by CT — again,
discomfort and complications are reduced and
more useful information is obtained.
Many radiographic procedures remain in use
but have been partially replaced by other mo-
dalities: ultrasound may be used to visualise
the kidneys rather than an intravenous pyelo-
gram which involves injection of an iodine-
containing compound and multiple radiograph-
ic investigations. The barium meal for stomach
problems has been significantly replaced by
endoscopy which allows direct inspection of the
gastric mucosa; CT, rather than a skull X-ray, is
the procedure of choice for a serious head
injury; MRI is the definitive examination for
suspected multiple sclerosis.
Angiography, although replaced in some areas
by other modalities, remains an important ra-
diological investigation. Catheters, introduced
via a peripheral artery, can be introduced into
the aorta or its branches and the flow of an in-
jected contrast medium visualised in real-time
or on multiple radiographic images. This tech-
nique is currently employed, particularly for
atheroma and other arterial disorders which
reduce blood flow to the limbs, brain or heart.
The ability to introduce catheters into the
arterial system has led in recent years to the
exciting, new sub-specialty of interventional
radiology. Sites of bleeding, congenital vascu-
lar abnormalities and some tumours can be
treated by obliterating the feeding arteries
with suitable injected material. Selected vas-
cular lesions occurring in the brain may also be
treated in this manner.
Further important angiographic interventional
techniques in frequent use are the dilatation of
narrowed arteries by balloon catheters and the
insertion of metallic filters into the inferior
vena cava in the management of pulmonary
embolism from venous thrombosis in the legs.
The techniques of vascular intervention have
been adapted for use outside the vascular sys-
tem, and have allowed for the replacement of
surgical techniques for some pathological pro-
cedures. For instance, catheters can be intro-
duced percutaneously to drain obstructed kid-
neys, obstructed bile ducts, abscesses or other
fluid collections; narrowed areas in the urinary
tract or biliary tract may be treated by percu-
taneous passage of a stent that can be left in
situ to provide drainage through the narrowed
area or dilated with balloon catheters.
The field of interventional radiology is a fertile
one for the inventive and skilful radiologist,
and one where ROntgen rays provide signifi-
cant contribution to the treatment of disease as
well as its diagnosis.
After 100 years, and the introduction of com-
peting technologies, the rays discovered by
Rontgen still provide the majority of imaging
investigations and provide a major contribution
to both diagnosis and treatment of disease.
Reference
Hounsfield, G.N., 1976. Computerised trans-
verse axial scanning (tomography). 1. Des-
cription of system. British Journal of Radiology,
46, 1016-1022.
A/Prof. F.J. Palmer, MRCP, DMRD, FRACR, FRCR
Director, Department of Diagnostic Radiology
The Prince Henry Hospital, Anzac Parade
Little Bay, NSW 2036, Australia
A CENTURY OF X-RAYS
Roentgen Rays, An Indispensable Tool In
Contemporary Engineering And Science
C.M. Hockings
Abstract: The use of radiographic methods in non-medical
science and industry is widespread and long established.
Growth in its application can be shown to follow the tech-
nological development of radiography equipment. The
scope of applications vary from an atomic level in the ex-
amination of crystals to the evaluation of structures as
large as buildings. Many applications are related to public
health and safety, hence radiography makes a significant
contribution to society. However most people in the com-
munity are unaware that their lives are improved by its
105
use.
Introduction
Wilhelm Conrad R6ntgen's discovery of X-rays
in 1895 should not be considered in isolation,
for this was a period of several significant
scientific achievements in the understanding of
the physical world. The notoriety of the
discovery may be traced to its ability to
produce dramatic images of what had hitherto
been hidden, whether this be anatomical
structure or an inanimate object. The pre-
sentation of some of these images in the
newspapers and other print media stimulated
an interest in the work at all levels of the
community and the sciences. Along with
medicine, engineering and science have made
use of ROntgen's X-rays from a very early
stage. The method is used in science as a
research tool and in industries such as
automotive, chemical, manufacturing, aero-
space and mining as an aid in both production
and maintenance. Its acceptance and efficacy
in many applications has placed it in a unique
position as an investigative method of immense
value; but for the general public, the use of
non-medical X-ray technologies goes mostly
unseen.
Present Applications
It is not possible here to detail fully the uses to
which Réntgen's discovery has been put. What
follows is a broad cross section of applications
which should leave the reader with an impres-
sion of the diversity of its use and the value
that it adds to our contemporary way Of life.
X-ray Microscopy
The use of X-rays for micro-investigation is
Shared by scientists in biology, chemistry,
physics, geology, metallurgy, and other disci-
plines. The main advantage of extending mi-
croscopy to the X-ray wavelength is the in-
creased penetration and higher resolving pow-
er which permits examination of mediums that
are opaque to light.
Microradiography
Early radiographic examination of very small
objects by Heycock and Neville around 1887
was made by enlarging the film. Modern
methods utilise X-ray sources as small as 8-15
microns to project images of very small objects.
Computer programs for image enhancement
and manipulation are essential for some appli-
cations.
X-ray Diffraction Techniques
X-ray diffraction techniques use radiation of a
single wavelength. The equipment consists of
an X-ray generator, a goniometer (a device for
measuring angles in a crystal or prism), X-ray
detector, a rate meter and scaler. In 1912 Max
von Laue found that some X-rays diffract when
passed through very thin sections of crystals.
The parallel planes of the crystal are spaced at
the same dimensional order as the wavelength
of applied X-rays and they diffract the beam as
it passes through the crystal. The diffraction of
106 A CENTURY OF X-RAYS
the beam may be measured. This can be relat-
ed to the crystalline spacing and hence the
structure of the material.
Security
The security scanning of baggage prior to its
being loaded aboard an aircraft is accepted as
standard procedure for enhancing safety. Al-
though the technology was well established, its
worldwide application was brought about by a
proliferation of terrorist activities against some
commercial airlines in the 1970s. Today's reg-
ular passenger would probably be disconcerted
if this examination was not performed. Mod-
ern inspection units use power levels of be-
tween 90 and 160 kV, electronic zoom, image
enhancement, pseudo colour and silicon diode
array sensors which effectively image the item
with only a very small amount of radiation. As
a guide to the flexibility of these devices, they
have the ability to examine dense and light
materials in a single image. Skilled operators
can also distinguish between plastic explosives
and harmless materials. Baggage which is
loaded in the under floor area is also examined
in this way.
Similar equipment is becoming commonplace
anywhere that security needs to be enhanced.
Courts, government buildings, prisons, consul-
ates, foreign offices, and even some museums
and art galleries are using this technology.
Forensic Science
Special radiographic techniques may be applied
to very thin or low atomic number materials.
Such is the case in some forensic examinations.
X-rays generated at about 5-25 kV are used
for this purpose. In situations where finger-
prints are difficult to "lift" from a surface or
not easily photographed, conventional X-ray
may be used after the fingerprint is treated
with a type of lead powder. It is even possible
to image fingerprints which are deposited on
skin tissue or other parts of the body. Post
mortem examinations usually use low power
industrial X-ray units because radiation ex-
posure of the subject is not a safety consider-
ation. These examination results may be in-
cluded into court's evidence in circumstances
where identification of a subject is made by
comparing previous radiographic records with
images made during post mortem examination.
Radiographic techniques can also suggest bone
age where the subject is less than 25 years old.
The use of contrast media can be introduced
into damaged tissue to show the extent of
wounds.
Other forensic uses include the examination of
documents, bank notes and securities, and even
the evaluation of gunpowder patterns of bullet
holes.
Art Works and Antiquities
Those involved with the validation and restor-
ation of art works have made use of X-radio-
graphy. In the past several years for example,
Australian Defence Industries (ADI) have used
radiography to examine various bronze statues
around the Sydney city area to assess their
condition before the cost of restoration work
could be estimated. Such examinations are
routine for museums involved in the care and
investigation of art works and antiquities.
Industrial Radiography
Many products and processes have radio-
graphy as an essential part of manufacture and
maintenance. The routine examination of
casting, forgings, assemblies and other fabri-
cations ensure quality and conformance with
customer specifications. The automotive in-
dustry for example examines such things as
vehicle tyres for correct placement of rein-
forcing wires, brake assemblies for proper
assembly and aluminium alloy road wheels for
internal defects such as voids and inclusions
which could adversely affect the service life of
the part. These applications are examples of
how the manufacturers of auto parts and
vehicles enhance the safety of road vehicles by
minimising the occurrence of mechanical
failure.
Ships, pipelines, storage vessels and petro-
chemical plant contain a high proportion of
welded fabrication. The examination of the
welds at the time of construction and during
maintenance is standard practice using radio-
graphy as well as other non-destructive means.
The consequences of a defect passing undetect-
ed will of course vary depending on the item
examined. It may only be a nuisance or could
pose a significant hazard to the public and
property. As an example, consider pressurised
and unpressurised storage vessels which are
subject to inspection in accordance with strict
COLLOQUIUM
codes. It is not difficult to envisage the prob-
lems which could be caused should the con-
tents be uncontrollably released as a result of a
structural failure.
Public structures such as buildings and bridges
may also be radiographically examined to en-
sure their integrity. One interesting example is
the Statue of Liberty in New York harbour. As
part of the refurbishment of the statue for its
centenary in 1986, its steel framework which
supports the outer copper cladding was radio-
graphed to establish the extent of corrosion
which would necessitate repairs.
Aerospace and aviation has long been recog-
nised as an industry where components are
designed to marginal limits yet must have a
very low probability of failure or malfunction.
Evaluating the condition of aircraft and space-
craft requires many specialised inspection
techniques. Radiography is one such technique
which is very important to this industry and in
some circumstances cannot be substituted by
alternative methods. At manufacture many of
the parts and assemblies are radiographed for
the same reasons as the automotive examples.
However in addition to this, at preplanned
maintenance intervals parts of the structure
which may suffer damage, usually by fatigue,
are examined by radiography. Fuselage and
wing panels are subjected to cyclic loading
which, when occurring at an area of stress
concentration, can develop cracks. These may
be detected by radiography. Engine compo-
nents are radiographed for correct assembly,
internal defects and at areas where weld re-
pairs have been made. In some circumstances
the condition of a part may be monitored by
comparing the radiographic images from past
inspections to those of the present. This per-
mits the part to remain in service for its maxi-
mum safe life.
The food industry like others would wish to
avoid the expense of a product recall or pro-
duct liability claims where contamination is
found in their products. To address this issue,
products ranging from meat pies, processed
cheese and baby food to confectionery and
potato crisps are subjected to radiographic
examination for contamination such as metal
filings and broken glass. Provided that the
contaminant has a radiographic opacity which
is different to that of the product, it will
probably be detectable by X-ray methods. A
A CENTURY OF X-RAYS 107
similar application is used to detect high den-
sity carbide chips from machine tools which
can contaminate recycled titanium. If left un-
detected these chips can find their way into the
melted metal and form inclusions from which
larger defects may develop.
As a final example of the practical uses of X-
rays, consider their application to the detection
of the internal degradation of timber power
poles. The pole's structural integrity may be
significantly reduced with no external indica-
tions of the decay within. Several systems
have been developed using X-ray tomography
to examine the base of timber power poles.
Internal cavities caused by rot and natural
ageing can be clearly identified, which provides
the power authority with timely information
for the management of a replacement program
for these timber poles maximising the pole's
useful life.
Conclusion
What has been attributed to Wilhelm Réntgen
was a unique and novel discovery. It captured
the imagination of scientists, and the com-
munity at large. He received awards, recog-
nition and tributes from foreign governments,
heads of state, universities and institutions.
Even royalty and politicians sought him out to
demonstrate and explain what he had found.
Busts and statues were commissioned. ROntgen
was a true celebrity of his time, and one can
only wonder what a person of science would
need to accomplish today to achieve the same
degree of recognition.
References
Barer, R.D. and Peters, B.F., 1986. WHY MET-
ALS FAIL. Gordon and Breach Science Pub-
lishers, New York, 345 pp.
Bertin, E.P., 1975. PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE
OF X-RAY SPECTROMETRIC ANALYSIS. Plenum
Press, New York, 1079 pp.
Bleich, A.R., 1960. THE STORY OF X-RAYS FROM
ROENTGEN TO ISOTOPES. Dover, New York, 186
Pp.
Glasser, O., 1958. DR. W.C. RONTGEN. 2nd ed.,
Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL, 169 pp..
Gosslett, V.E., Engstrom, A. and Pattee, H.H.,
108 A CENTURY OF X-RAYS
1957. X-RAY MICROSCOPY AND MICRORADIO-
GRAPHY. Academic Press, New York.
Graham, D., 1973. USE OF X-RAY TECHNIQUES
IN FORENSIC INVESTIGATION. Churchill-Liv-
ingstone, London, 142 pp.
Griem, D., 1995. ONE HUNDRED YEARS OF X-
RAY INSPECTION, TECHNOLOGY-INSPECTION
SYSTEMS THEN AND NOW. Rich Siefert Co.,
presented to the Australian Institute for Non-
destructive Testing, Sydney.
Halmshaw, R. (Ed),1972. PHYSICS OF INDUST-
RIAL RADIOLOGY. Heywood Books, London,
498 pp.
Loretto, M.H., 1984. ELECTRON BEAM ANALY-
SIS OF MATERIALS. Chapman and Hall,
London, 210 pp.
Silk, M.G., Stoneham, A. and Temple, J.A.G.,
1987. RELIABILITY OF NON-DESTRUCTIVE IN-
SPECTION. Adam Hilger, Bristol, 207 pp.
Summerscales, J. (Ed), 1987. NON-DESTRUC-
TIVE TESTING OF FIBRE REINFORCED PLASTICS
COMPOSITES. Elsevier Applied Science, London.
Taira, S. (Ed), 1974. X-RAY STUDIES ON THE
MECHANICAL STRUCTURE OF MATERIALS. So-
ciety of Materials Science Japan, Tokyo.
Woodward, R.J., 1989. NON-DESTRUCTIVE TEST
METHODS FOR CONCRETE BRIDGES. Transport
and Road Research Laboratory, Research Report
No. 250, Bridges Division, Structures Group,
Crowthorne, Berkshire, 18 pp.
C.M. Hockings, Manager,
Non-destructive Testing
Qantas Airways Ltd.
Qantas Centre
Mascot, NSW 2020, Australia
Goethe's Scientific Ideas and the Advancement of
Experimental Science since his Death in 1832.
O.G. Reinhardt
Abstract: This paper looks at Goethe's scientific theories
and the aspects that caused them to have so little
influence on experimental science in the nineteenth
century. Essentially these were that he believed in nature
as a unity that should not be interfered with but observed;
that hypotheses would lead to finding only what one was
looking for; and that the mathematical model is an
inadequate way of explaining the world — ideas that went
against the basic tenets of empirical science, so that
despite his own discoveries, he was respected only as a
poet. The twentieth century has come to value his holistic
approach to nature and his historical approach to notions
of truth.
A CENTURY OF X-RAYS 109
A topic containing words like "Goethe and..."
suggests some kind of influence, in this case an
influence the great poet's scientific ideas might
have had on experimental science after his
death. If we can establish such an influence,
well and good, but if not, what then? Let me
say at the outset that most of those who have
found an influence have approached the
question from the literary side, while those
who come from science have generally not
found an influence. I also freely admit that I
come from a background in literature. Even so,
I should like to turn the question around
somewhat and — assuming the scientists know
their business better — ask not only how can it
be that he had no real influence but, perhaps
more significantly, how could experimental
science in Germany have proceeded in spite of
him?
To put this into a clearer perspective: the intel-
lectual climate in nineteenth century Germany
was completely dominated by a man of aston-
ishing energy and productivity, the intellectual
giant that was Goethe, sometimes called the
last Renaissance man who knew everything
there was to know in his time. Not only was he
acknowledged as the greatest German writer,
but he had written on almost every subject.
Composers set his poems to music, his works
were studied and actually read at schools and
universities, he was generally revered as the
great national sage. There was no getting past
him: Schopenhauer had wanted to be a writer
but became a philosopher instead because he
realised he could not compete, and even in
Sydney, when Ludwig Leichhardt arrived in
1842, he befriended a man who had translated
some of Goethe's poems! (Roderick, 1988: 170)
Goethe had published many of his ideas and so
had to be part of the debate, and further, one
of his central ideas was the notion that the
individual had to be seen as a whole, that is,
you could not like Goethe's Faust and reject his
science. In view of all this, and given that
Goethe had rejected experimental science, it is
amazing that Helmholtz, Hertz, Liebig, Koch and
Rontgen happened at all.
To examine this problem in the sociology of sci-
ence, I should like to proceed by looking at
Goethe's main scientific ideas and how he
arrived at them, then at their influence in the
nineteenth century, how they have fared in the
twentieth, and to conclude with some obser-
vations on the issue as a whole.
Goethe's father wanted him to be a lawyer, but
the young rebel attended lectures in all
manner of areas including medicine, which was
where one did science in those days. It was
not until after his appointment to the court in
Weimar at the age of twenty-six in 1775,
however, that he began to take a serious
interest in scientific matters — he needed
botany to cope with managing the forests,
geology because he was in charge of the mines
and so on. From this purely practical mo-
tivation, his interest quickly generalised to
embrace what we would call pure science, that
is, the theoretical underpinnings, and he did so
with characteristic energy and intensity, es-
pecially between 1782 and 1810.
His fundamental idea is an ultimately religious
belief that nature is an emanation of the
divinity and therefore a unity, a mix of Plato
and Spinoza (Nisbet, 1972: 6-22). This
wholeness of Nature manifests itself as a
polarity, such as light and dark, positive and
negative electric poles, and what he calls
"Steigerung" (intensification). From this it
follows that understanding of the physical
world — "der Gottheit lebendiges Kleid", as he
puts it in Faust — can result only from
observation and not interference. By
observation he means collecting data and then
trying to see what the data mean on the level
of an Idea (Goethe, 1823). He did not approve
of doing violence to Nature, "torturing" it to
produce certain phenomena, as Newton had
done in forcing light through a small hole and
then through a prism; because then the results
would be based on an unnatural situation and
not nature. He was opposed to hypotheses, as
these would lead the scientist to see what he is
looking for and not what is there. He believed
that the results of experiments ought to be ina
form comprehensible to the intelligent lay
person. He was unfortunately bad at mathe-
matics and in particular he despised applied
mathematics; this meant that he rejected the
descriptions of the world in terms of
mathematical models that were becoming
increasingly necessary and thus common in
just the period when he was developing his
most controversial theories, those in physical
optics. He preferred what he called symbols,
and refused to accept that what mathematics
provides is essentially also a symbolic des-
cription of phenomena. In many ways, he was
the epitome of a reasonable, if not a rationalist
eighteenth century man.
110 A CENTURY OF X-RAYS
The principal areas in which he was active, and
which fill thirteen volumes of the Weimar edi-
tion of his works, were anatomy, botany, zoo-
logy, geology, mineralogy, physiological and
physical optics, meteorology and the history
and theory of science. As his work has been
well documented (e.g. Wells, 1978), there is no
need to recapitulate it here; suffice to
summarise by saying that he is credited with
the discovery of the intermaxillary bone in
humans, and with major contributions both to
physiological optics, in his study of subjective
reactions to colours, and to what became
known as evolution, in his work on
"metamorphosis" (Weizsacker, 1955: 537) —
not bad for a man who actually earned his
living being a sort of super-bureaucrat run-
ning a number of ministries including war, fi-
nance, justice, roads, and education (admittedly
in a relatively small though independent
duchy).
The significance of the intermaxillary bone is
that its absence in humans had been taken as
evidence that man was not related to the apes
(Weizsacker, 1955: 545), though Goethe did not
pursue the implications. His work on the meta-
morphosis of plants involved a great deal of
accurate observation and classification. Clear-
ly his idea was not evolution in the Darwinian
sense (Wells, 1978: 45), a concept with which
most people at that time had great difficulty.
Rather, he was searching for the "Urpflanze"
(archetypal plant) of which all others were
adaptations, which we might think of as a kind
of Platonic idea with real existence. He
reported accurately and interpreted pheno-
mena in physiological optics, particularly in
relation to negative after images; some of these
have still not been better explained. These
were his successes. It is obvious that his dis-
coveries could be, and indeed were, made using
the approaches he advocated.
Goethe's other work did not meet with the
same acceptance. His idea that the skull of
mammals is an extension of the vertebrz
would require such a vague definition of
vertebre as to be useless, as Helmholtz pointed
out (Helmholtz, 1876). In his studies in
geology and mineralogy he made perfectly
reasonable assumptions on the basis of the
evidence available, for instance he correctly
attributed the North German erratics to glacial
transport, i.e. he posited an ice age, but
generally there was simply not enough
evidence available at the time. Indeed, the
main problem was that people were still
thinking of the age of the earth in terms of
thousands of years. This applies also to his
work on zoology and botany (Wells, 1978: 70).
His meteorological studies involved assembling
typical barometric readings and trying to come
to some general conclusions about them; they
were ignored at the time and have not been
revived since.
It was his colour theory, however, that most
obsessed Goethe (Reinhardt, 1986). Despite ac-
ceptance of his ideas in physiological optics, it
was his dispute with Newton on the physical
side of optics that occupied him most, causing
him to write his longest work. This argument
has been discussed in great detail (Wells, 1978,
Groth, 1972, Burwick, 1986, Fink, 1972,
Gogelein, 1972 and others) and there is no
need to rehearse it here. What is important in
it is the vituperation and rationalisation Goethe
invested in it, for it shows that he could not
bear to be wrong and that he built a very
elaborate system around it in order to
vindicate his own organic, anti-mechanistic
approach to nature. Indeed his writing of
history and theory of science is all designed to
show that Newton ushered in an unproductive
age not of science but of superstition, while the
new fruitful age at the end of the eighteenth
century culminates in Goethe himself (Goethe,
1810; Groth, 1972).
Taken as a whole, Goethe's lasting contribution
to science is not enormous, compared to, Say,
ROntgen. In many cases, he simply did not
have access to the data that would have
allowed him to arrive at what we now consider
the right conclusions. Above all, however, he
adheres to his system of nature even at the
cost of his avowed methodology. For instance,
despite what he said about hypotheses, he
almost certainly started with the notion that an
Urpflanze existed and could in fact be found,
possibly in Sicily (Goethe, 1787). He also used
microscopes, telescopes and other apparatus to
conduct experiments.
Goethe was probably unfortunate in living at
the beginning of an age in which pure
observation was no longer sufficient and he did
not understand the branch of science that
would now be necessary — mathematics. Nor
was his holistic system appropriate in a time of
vastly more complex and abstract kinds of
A CENTURY OF X-RAYS 111
science. And so it was that while everyone
read and admired his literary works, both his
successful and his unsuccessful science came to
be disregarded, and men like Helmholtz could
quietly get on with analysing the world.
What about ROntgen? Surely forcing negative
charges through very low pressure gases is far
removed from everyday, natural life. Would
Goethe have thought he was putting nature on
the rack, discovering yet more of those
wretched rays that are said to be behind
colour? Or would he have thought here was a
man playing serendipitously with a new piece
of equipment in order to get to the bottom of
nature's secrets and, by closely observing the
results, come up with an explanation that
would lead to one of the most helpful
inventions of recent times? Even if he thought,
as many people did at the time, that here was
an ultimate invasion of privacy, another part of
him, the scientist, would surely have been
impressed by the capacity of the new machine
to help us visualise. Goethe referred to himself
as an "Augenmensch", as a man of the eye, so
he could not help but be overwhelmed by the
Capacity of X-rays not just to see, but to enable
us to see through the mortal coils to the
structure underneath. In the Magic Mountain,
Thomas Mann has his young hero see his
cousin in an X-ray machine, and this makes
him think of death and of his cousin as a
skeleton. Not so, I think, the scientist Goethe,
who was accustomed to handling skeletons —
he would have seen the underlying structure,
the basis that holds the body together, the
Skeleton as a living and functioning mechan-
ism, a vision of the "original body". And be-
cause it was true, for Goethe it would have
been beautiful.
While the second half of the nineteenth
century was dominated by a very positivist
approach to science, the end of it started
revealing mysteries no longer explicable by the
classic Newtonian model. This also pointed to
the relative nature of scientific truth more than
previous changes had. In our own day, there is
a much greater interest in seeing the world
from a holistic approach, and environ-
mentalism could look to Goethe as its
forerunner. As Sir John Maddox said recently,
we should think of ourselves as being at the
beginning of science, not as its greatest
achievement. Thus the issue may be not
whether Goethe was wrong, or science was
right, it may be whether Goethe's theory that
science moves in ever expanding spirals is per-
haps the best way of looking at the advance-
ment of knowledge.
References
Burwick, F., 1986. THE DAMNATION OF NEW-
TON: GOETHE'S COLOUR THEORY AND ROMAN-
TIC PERCEPTION. De Gruyter, Berlin, New York,
308pp.
Goethe, J.W.v., 1787. ITTALIENISCHE REISE, 11,
266 in GOETHE, WERKE. Hamburger Ausgabe,
11, pp. 537-554, Wegner, Hamburg, 5th ed.,
1966.
Goethe, J.W.v., 1823. Der Versuch als
Vermittler von Objekt und Subjekt, in GOETHE,
WERKE, Hamburger Ausgabe, 13, pp. 10-23,
Wegner, Hamburg, 5th ed., 1966.
Gogelein, C., 1972. ZU GOETHES BEGRIFF DER
WISSENSCHAFT. Hanser Verlag, Munich, 208
Pp.
Groth, A., 1972. GOETHE ALS WISSENSCHAFTS-
HISTORIKER. Fink Verlag, Munich, 447 pp.
Helmholtz, H.v., 1876. Uber Goethes naturwis-
senschaftliche Arbeiten, in POPULARE WISSEN-
SCHAFTLICHE VORTRAGE, 31-53, (postscript, p.
54f.) Braunschweig.
Nisbet, H.B., 1972. GOETHE AND THE SCIEN-
TIFIC TRADITION. Institute of Germanic Stud-
ies, London, 83 pp.
Reinhardt, O.G., 1986. Goethe and the trilogy of
passion, in LITERATURE AND INFATUATION,
pp. 61-71, H. Heseltine (Ed). Australian De-
fence Force Academy, Department of English,
Occasional Papers, vol. 6, Canberra.
Roderick, C., 1988. LEICHHARDT THE DAUNT-
LESS EXPLORER. Angus and Robertson, Sydney,
526 pp.
Weizsacker, C.F.v., 1955. Nachwort, in GOETHE,
WERKE. Hamburger Ausgabe, 13, pp. 537-554,
Wegner, Hamburg, 5th ed., 1966.
Wells, G.A., 1978. GOETHE AND THE DEVELOP-
MENT OF SCIENCE, 1750-1900. (Science in
History, 5), Sijthoff & Noordhoff, Alphen an den
112 A CENTURY OF X-RAYS
Rijn, 161 pp.
Dr O.G. Reinhardt, Head
Department of German and Russian Studies
University of New South Wales
Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
Acknowledgements
The Organising Committee for this Seminar,
which was held on November 18, 1995, at the
University of New South Wales, wishes to ac-
knowledge the contributions of all those who
made the event possible. It is most grateful to
the speakers whose Seminar presentations are
reproduced in this publication, and to Professor
Albury and his secretary, Ms Soula Georgiadis,
for editing and preparing these papers for
printing.
The Committee also received welcome financial
support from Medical Applications, a joint
venture company of Philips Medical Systems
and Siemens Medical Division. Last but not
least, it wishes to express its gratitude for
assistance provided by members of the Royal
Society of New South Wales and of ANZAAS
(NSW), and for administrative support received
from the School of Mechanical and Manufac-
turing Engineering at the University of New
South Wales.
Dr G.C. Lowenthal
Honorary Convener of the Seminar
30/ 2-8 Gerard Street
Cremorne N.S.W. 2090
Australia
(Manuscript Received 18.11.1995)
Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol, 128, 113-116, 1995 113
ISSN 0035-9173/95/020113-04 $4.00/1
NEWER APPROACHES IN INTEGRATED TREATMENTS
FOR LOCALLY ADVANCED CANCERS
FREDERICK O STEPHENS AM
Over the ages medical practitioners have searched
for and applied a large number of medicinal
agents (including herbs and toxins), physical and
chemical agents, dietary changes, spiritual
activities and a variety of potions and _ local
applications in attempts to find a cancer cure.
However a somewhat crude form of operative
surgery was the only effective anti-cancer
treatment available until approximately 150 years
ago.
The situation changed after the discovery of
general anaesthesia in 1842 when painless
surgery became possible. An era of severe
surgical cross-infections followed the new upsurge
of pain free operative surgery. This was changed
by the work of such greats as Lister, Pasteur,
Semmelweis and Koch who discovered the
association between micro-organisms and wound
infection. They introduced aseptic techniques for
surgical operation. This combination of surgery
under anaesthesia with aseptic technique was the
basis upon which the modern era of great
advances in operative surgery was founded
allowing treatment of many diseases including
cancer.
The second effective modality in cancer treatment,
radiotherapy, was introduced less than 100 years
ago. This followed the work of the Curies in
discovering Xrays at the turn of the century.
Thus for most of this century localised cancers
have been treated either by surgeons or by
radiotherapists. Sometimes operative surgery and
radiotherapy have been used in combination in
integrated treatments particularly for such tumours
as small localised breast cancers. After surgical
removal of the obvious cancer, follow up
radiotherapy is often used in an attempt to cure
without total removal of the breast.
The first effective medical anti-cancer agents were
discovered about 50 years ago. First certain
hormones were found to affect growth of some
tumours followed by discovery of the first
effective cytotoxic anti-cancer drugs. Thus a third
effective anti-cancer treatment modality was
developed.
Early in the use of the new anti-cancer agents an
accidental ciscovery led to a technique of more
effective use of these agents in treating some
cancers. It was observed following accidental
injection of one of the agents into an artery rather
than a vein there was considerable reaction in the
tissue supplied with blood by the artery. This led
to a belief that drugs given into an artery
supplying a tumour region should have a greater
anti-cancer effect in that region than drugs
distributed equally throughout the circulation by
the usual systemic or intravenous route.
As surgeons treated most patients with cancer and
surgeons had the facility of exposing and injecting
arteries with drugs, surgeons were amongst the
first clinicians to use anti-cancer drugs to treat
their most difficult cancer problems.
Unfortunately initial experience in doing this was
disappointing. When used by medical colleagues
the drugs appeared to be active against a number
of tumours which were widespread throughout the
body but they appeared to have little beneficial
action on locally advanced tumours treated by
surgeons whether or not intra-arterial infusion of
the agents was used. Surgeons therefore lost
interest in the use of anti-cancer agents,
particularly in treating locally advanced cancers,
even when given by intra-arterial delivery. The
use of these new agents was left largely to
haematologists and other physicians who treated
more responsive widespread malignant disease.
Some years later it was appreciated that the
predominant reason the early experience of
surgeons ‘was so disappointing was that the drugs
had been used largely to treat patients who had
tumours which had recurred after initial attempts
114 FREDERICK O. STEPHENS, AM
at surgical resection and/or treatment by
radiotherapy had failed. These recurrent tumours
were in tissues to which the blood supply had
been compromised by previous operative surgery
and/or by radiotherapy. Thus the agents used
being carried in the locally reduced blood stream
could not reach the tumour tissue in effective
concentrations. However by this time surgeons in
general had lost interest in the use of the drugs
and their application was reserved mainly for
palliative treatment of widespread cancer and later
treatment of a small group of uncommon cancers
which were unusually sensitive to certain anti-
cancer agents.
Thus for the past 50 years there have been 3 main
methods of anti-cancer treatment. In general
localised cancers have been treated by surgical
removal wherever possible or by radiotherapy.
More widespread cancers have been treated by
medical oncologists by systemic injection or
infusion (ie. given intra-venously equally to all
body tissues) either to get palliation of
symptoms or as "adjuvant" treatment. Adjuvant
treatment is treatment given after the main cancer
has been effectively removed by surgery or
radiotherapy but there is a significant risk that
small numbers of malignant cells may have
already spread to other parts of the body. These
scattered cancer cells are likely to cause tumour
recurrence (metastases) in a_ distant tissue.
“Adjuvant” treatment is usually given by a
medical oncologist after a surgeon or
radiotherapist has dealt with the original primary
cancer. Breast cancers and bone sarcomas are the
most common malignant tumours to be treated by
adjuvant chemotherapy after operative surgery
because with these tumours there is a considerable
risk that malignant cells have already broken
away from the original (primary) tumour and may
be starting to develop new cancer colonies
(secondaries or metastases) in other tissues.
Breast cancer cells and bone sarcoma cells are
sensitive to anti-cancer drugs so that adjuvant
chemotherapy can be very effective in destroying
small colonies of cancer cells before they develop
into significant metastatic cancers.
A fourth treatment modality, immunology, has
been the subject of intensive research over the
past two decades. There has been great hope that
a new and more effective immunological anti-
cancer treatment modality would be found. In
spite of studies in immunology giving much
increased knowledge about tumours, until recently
most of the expectations and great hopes that have
arisen from time to time have not resulted in any
significant improvement in treatment. However,
quite recently immunological studies have been
more encouraging. There are now prospects of an
effective immunological anti-cancer agent
becoming available. This new discovery is called
tumour necrosis factor (TNF). This product of
immunology research appears to be too toxic for
effective clinical use on its own and too toxic to
give systemically to the whole body tissues.
However when used in small doses with other
anti-cancer cytotoxic agents better results have be
achieved in treating some cancers than from using
cytotoxic agents alone.
In spite of the original disappointing results of
most surgeons who first used anti-cancer drugs by
intra-arterial infusion some surgeons continued to
believe that there should be a role for use of anti-
cancer agents given intra-arterially to treat
aggressive or advanced cancer in a localised
region. The benefit of this technique is now
being widely appreciated.
It became clear that provided anti-cancer drugs
were infused into the tumour blood supply whilst
the blood supply was intact and had not been
damaged by previous operation or radiation the
regional tumour response could be considerable.
It was therefore apparent that to achieve the most
effective response of locally advanced cancers
with chemotherapy the anti-cancer agents should
be used before either operative surgery or
radiotherapy had damaged the tumour blood
supply. Thus intra-arterial chemotherapy is best
given before surgery or radiotherapy rather than
after. | When anti-cancer drugs are given as the
first treatment either systemically or preferably
into the arteries of supply by intra-arterial infusion
or perfusion many large and aggressive tumours
can be reduced in size and aggressive qualities.
Such tumour reduction can make the tumours
more curable by following radiotherapy and/or
surgical resection. In early experience when the
drugs were used last the results were poor but
when the drugs are used first in a combined
treatment program, the results of treatment of
large and aggressive tumours are significantly
better. Such treatment was subsequently referred
to as "neo-adjuvant" chemotherapy although a
LOCALLY ADVANCED CANCERS - INTEGRATED TREATMENTS 115
more appropriate description of the use of
chemotherapy first is “induction chemotherapy".
By induction chemotherapy is meant using
chemotherapy to induce changes to achieve
reduction of tumour size and _ aggressive
characteristics and so make the tumours more
curable by following radiotherapy and/or surgical
resection.
Sadly due to the early failed experience of
surgeons in using chemotherapy there has been a
reluctance cf many surgeons and other clinicians
to re-look at the prospective value of using
chemotherapy prior to planned subsequent
radiotherapy or surgery and especially to use the
chemotherapy by intra-arterial infusion or
perfusion on a regional basis. In general surgeons
lost interest in the use of the drugs and physicians
in general ‘do not have facilities for giving drugs
on a regional basis. The integrated treatment
programs therefore have been left largely in the
hands of small numbers of dedicated clinicians
combining the expertise of surgeons, medical
oncologists, radiotherapists and others. New to
this dedicated group are some relatively recent
specialists, the interventional radiologists, who
have become vital to the success of such a team.
Interventional radiologists have expertise in
putting cannulas into arteries in many parts of the
body without requiring a surgical operation. The
other essential professionals in such team work
are dedicated nursing staff, experienced in
observing the responses and potential problems
that may arise in giving strong anti-cancer drugs
into a localised region.
Such has been the background of development of
integrated anti-cancer treatment for locally
advanced and aggressive cancers. Better prosects
of cure are achieved by such integration with
effective chemotherapy as the first modality of
treatment, to reduce the tumour size and aggessive
characteristics followed by either radiotherapy or
surgical resection, or both as the definitive follow
up treatment to eliminate the reduced residual
cancer.
The use of regional chemotherapy naturally
depends upon the tumour being supplied with
blood by one or sometimes more regional arteries
which can be effectively cannulated for regional
treatment and the likelihood that the cancer is
totally contained in that region. Such cancers
with regional blood supply and likely to remain
localised in the tissue of origin and yet are
commonly not successfully treated by surgical
operation or radiotherapy are locally advanced
cancers in the head and neck region (where there
is One major artery of supply), cancers of stomach
(again there is one artery of supply), and
advanced malignant tumours in limbs (again with
one major artery of supply).
Locally advanced breast cancers may also be
effectively treated with a _ similar plan of
integrated regional chemotherapy, radiotherapy
and surgical resection but with this particular
cancer there is also a considerable likelihood of
tumour ceils being more widespread into other
body tissues. For such tumours and also for
malignant tumours in bone (called osteosarcoma
and common in young people) to achieve local
response and local tumour erradiaction by using
follow-up radiotherapy and/or operative surgery is
only part of required treatment. These tumours
are likely to have small deposits of cancer spread
to other body tissues. For this reason additional
post-operative adjuvant systemic chemotherapy is
also given with considerable effect. In the case of
advanced soft tissue sarcomas in limbs and
osteosarcomas in limbs. studies in Sydney
University Surgical Oncology Service have shown
that the standard treatment by limb amputation
can now be avoided in about 80% of patients with
equally good survival results. In the case of
stomach cancer our studies have shown
approximately twice the number of cures when
intra-arterial chemotherapy is given first followed
by operation than by operation alone.
There are other techniques for using regional
chemotherapy, especially in limbs. By limited
isolation of the limb from the general body
circulation using tourniquets, very high
concentrations of drugs can be delivered into the
arteries for a limited period of time. Used in
combination with tumour necrosis factor (TNF)
such treatments have given even better prosects of
cure of sarcomas and other tumours in limbs.
Other workers are exploring the possibility of
using similar integrated techniques in treatment of
tumours in the pelvis, especially in ovary, uterus,
bladder and prostate. However at this stage more
experience and information are required before
116 FREDERICK O. STEPHENS, AM
application of these combined and _ integrated
techniques can be generally recommended or
applied. Similar studies are being made with
integrated treatment for cancer of the pancreas
which is not only becoming more common in our
community but remains one of the most difficult
cancers to treat. Techniques are being developed
to apply the advantages of regional chemotherapy
by special techniques even though there are
considerable difficulties in cannulating and
treating the tumour-bearing area without damaging
adjacent bowel and other tissues.
Cancers in tissue supplied by arteries which
cannot be appropriately cannulated, but where
results of standard radiotherapy and/or operative
surgery are unsatisfactory, include lung cancer and
cancer of the oesophagus. A number of studies
are in progress to try to improve prospects of cure
using of systemic chemotherapy preceding
radiotherapy and/or operative surgery. Again
although there have been some _ encouraging
prospects, as yet there are still unsolved
difficulties and results to date have not shown
definite iniprovement.
SUMMARY:
In summary it should be stated that local
malignant tumours which can be effectively
treated by surgical resection or by radiotherapy
alone or in combination are best treated by those
standard treatment methods. This applies to most
early cancers which are therefore best treated by
appropriate surgeons and/or by radiotherapists.
On the other hand tumours which are so locally
advanced that they are unlikely to be cured by
operation or radiotherapy, or tumours which are
so locally aggressive that standard treatment does
not offer good prospects of cure, or tumours for
which standard treatment requires severe
mutilation such as limb amputation; the possibility
of improving results by the use of integrated
regional treatment including chemotherapy (where
appropriate on a regional basis) with radiotherapy
and/or operative surgery should be considered.
Such integrated treatment may offer significantly
improved prospects of cure and without
mutilation.
The former policy of patients being referred to
one doctor be it surgeon, radiotherapist or medical
oncologist for treatment by his or her specialised
expertise only, should no longer apply when
dealing with tumours with poor outlook from one
treatment modality alone. Integrated treatment,
much of which has been pioneered by the
Department of Surgery at the University of
Sydney, may well offer better prospects of cure.
Sydney Melanoma/Surgical Oncology Unit
The University of Sydney
Gloucester House, Level 5
Royal Prince Alfred Hospital
Missenden Road
CAMPERDOWN NSW _= 2050
AUSTRALIA
(Manuscript Received 1-8-1995)
Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.128,117-130, 1995 117
ISSN 0035-9173/95/020117-14 $4.00/1
Award of the James Cook Medal to Sir Gustav Nossal
on 13 September, 1995, and his Address:
Medical Science and Human Goals:
a Struggling Pilgrim's Progress
General Meeting No 1053 of the Royal
Society of New South Wales was opened by
the President, Dr D.F.Branagan, at 6.30 pm
on Wednesday 13th September 1995 in _ the
Rooftop Room of the Australian Museum.
The President indicated that this was a
special occasion for the Society, and that
it was his pleasant duty to introduce’ the
speaker for the evening, & to award to him
the Cook Medal.
The Cook Medal was first set up in 1947,
& was funded by Henry Ferdinand Halloran,
who had been a Member who had joined the
Society in 1892 as a 23 year-old. Halloran
waS a surveyor, engineer & town planner.
He did not publish anything in the
Society's Journal, but he waS a very
enthusiatic Supporter of research.
Halloran funded what were to become the
Society's two most prestigious Awards, the
James Cook Medal, and the Edgeworth David
Medal, the latter the Medal for young
scientists.
The James Cook Medal is for outstanding
contributions to science & human welfare
in & for the Southern Hemisphere. The
Society has made some 25 Awards in the 48
years the Award has been established. Only
four of the Cook Medal Awards have’ been
external to Australia: but they do include
Albert Schweitzer. so I think he must have
just got in because he did work close to
the equator in Africa, but maybe it was
just within the Southern Hemisphere.
We have only had one politician, that was
Lord Casey, an engineer, but there have
been several other engineers; we've had a
chemist or two, agriculturalists, & we've
had physicists; in all cases Australians
of considerable calibre, but we've
particularly had a predominance of medical
scientists.
On the Epping Road at Lane Cove, on _ the
way to the Society's office & Maccquarie
University, at this time of the year there
is a particularly wonderful display of
azaleas of the finest quality & in a
variety of colours. But there are _ some
that I suppose we could call really purple
patches.
And when I look back at the Cook Awards I
notice that there have been at least three
Sir Gustav Nossal FRS
purple patches in the Awards through staff
at the Walter & Eliza Hall Institute in
Melbourne. They are, of course, first, Sir
Frank Macfarlane Burnet, who was awarded
the Medal in 1954, and more recently Dr
Donald Metcalfe, for cancer research. It's
certainly an impressive record, I think,
for the Institute, which of course has an
unparalleled renown in Australia.
Tonight, Sir Gustav Nossal is the third,
and I hope that in ten years! time his
protege will be here to follow on_ the
story. I don"t think I need to7go into Sir
Gustav's long & illustrious career: I
Suppose I can say that he is a Sydney
University graduate: he has come from this
fair city. He became the Director of the
Walter & Eliza Hall Institute in 1965, &
Professor of Medical Biology at Melbourne
Umiversity. He is currently President of
the Australian Academy of Science, & he is
a Director of the CSIRO & of a number of
118 SIR GUSTAV NOSSAL
companies. He is Chairman of the
Scientific Advisory Group of Experts on
the World Health Organisation on Global
Programs on Vaccines. He is a Fellow of
the Royal Society, and was awarded the CBE
in 1970, KT in 1977; he is a Member of the
Prime Minister's Scientific Council.
He has other interests: he has’ been
involved, of course, in the Felton
Bequest, in the Gallery in Melbourne. But
unlike the original donor of the Cook
Award, F.H.Halloran, whose recreation was
motoring, Sir Gustav's recreations, he
says, are literature & golf. I'm not sure
how good at either he is; he says he is
promising to get into literature, at least
in the scientific sense, in the next’ few
years: #°& I ‘won't ask him about his) igolt
handicap!
I think without further ado 2 “should
present Sir Gustav with the Medal: on the
reverse side the medal reads:
"Physical Science, Biological Science &
Social Science" with a map of the Southern
Hemisphere; on the obverse side:
Cook ,Medal ‘for
"The James Outstanding
Contributions to Science & Human Welfare
in the Southern Hemisphere
"Awarded to Gustav Joseph Victor Nossal
KT, 1994, by the Royal Society of New
South Wales"
It is my great pleasure to
Medal to you.
present this
Medical Science and Human Goals:
a Struggling Pilgrim's Progress
Mr President, distinguished Members of the
Royal Society of New South Wales, Ladies &
Gentlemen: this has been a _ particularly
moving introduction, and a». Very;; very
Special occasion for me to be back here,
in the city that never leaves your heart
once you have grown up here, and in
particular to be receiving this award
under the Presidency of this distinguished
person, of my old University mate, David
Branagan: we have been good friends’ for
forty years, and its absolutely wonderful
to be receiving this award under his
Presidency.
I should
that lt
immediately state, of course,
is very wonderful to have the
chance of thinking about James Cook:
really he was a medical scientist! Long
after the controversy about who really did
discover Australia is over (and it wasn't
Cook), people will remember him as_ the
discoverer of vitamin Cr and the
prevention of scurvy on those many long
boat voyages. And indeed his’ tremendous
enthusiasm for science (he sponsored Banks
and many others) makes him truly one of us
in science. I think he would be extremely
pleased about the giving of this award to
scientists and to those interested in
science down the years. It is a tremendous
honour to receive this medal with its
distinguished history: and I can only say
it is immensely humbling.
Now having said that, I thought to myself
you might all find the title, of my, talk a
Putele bit self-indulgent: "Medical
Science & Human Goals: a Struggling
Pilgrim's Progress'. Why did I choose such
a sentimental-sounding title? Well, I got
to thinking that this medal would probably
be the last award which I would receive
before my retirement in eight months'
time. Its been a long ride in the Walter &
Eliza Hall Institute: as a matter of fact,
it was thirty years as Director just
eleven days ago, on the lst of September,
1965, when I took over, and now it's
coming to an end. I got to thinking about
what does it all mean? You know, what has
my life been about?
And I came to the realisation quite
quickly that society at large has only the
dimmest of outlines of what a_ medical
scientist actually does, and of where
medical science sits in the great spectrum
of national development & world health. So
I thought it would be quite good fun,
albeit a bit self-indulgent, to sketch the
pilgrim's progress, to tell a little about
where it all began, to tell you a_ little
bit about what I think is important, and
where it may be headed. And I have a
subtitle for the Address: the subtitle is
called: "From Molecules to Persuasion".
MEDICAL SCIENCE AND HUMAN GOALS 119
To give you a sort of glimpse of what I
would like you to take away, I actually
believe that medical science is a seamless
web, and to improve the health of
humanity, including our own citizenry, we
will need everything: from molecular
science, the understanding of DNA, and the
biochemistry & genetics of the cell; & the
physiology of bodily systems, which has
been my main line of activity; through the
more applied sciences of pathology &
clinical medicine; and right through to
the very applied population sciences of
epidemiology & public health. You need all
these in order that the discoveries speed
their way to as large a proportion of the
citizenry as possible in the_- shortest
possible time-frame.
So roughly speaking, I want to divide’ the
talk into three not quite equal thirds: I
will. talk a little bit about the science
that I've done. That's going to be a touch
hard, but I promise you it won't take more
than fifteen minutes. There's got to be a
bit of science in a talk like this, or it
would be trivialising the occasion!
Then I wanted to talk for a while about
what this great science of immunology
means for the world, in terms of the total
population, not, | that. one-third. of a
percent of it which lives in Australia, or
indeed that approximately one-sixth of it
which lives in the fully-industrialised
world.
And then lastly, I want to talk
about the work that still has to be done,
when the medical scientist & the medical
professional have finished, before the
society at large can benefit from anything
that happened.
briefly
Early Motivating Influences
I want to set the scene by describing in
just a very few minutes how I even got’ to
thinking about medical science. I _ had
started medical school in 1948, and there
may be a few people in the room who might
remember that at that time we only _ had
five years of secondary education in New
South Wales. So Iwas a little young
Starting, all of sixteen years old when I
entered medical school: just imagine that,
making a decision about what you are going
to do for the rest of your life at the age
of sixteen! Amazing to think back on.
And we had in 1948 probably the height of
that big wave of repatriated soldiers, who
were the ex-service men & women, who
swelled the year to a very large size.
Now, I remind you, there was no quota in
those days: anyone who passed the Leaving
Certificate examination, or to be quite
precise, who matriculated, which meant you
had to get five subjects (four subjects
would pass you, five subjects gave you
matriculation), anyone could get into
medical school. And so we were S1x hundred
im £irvste year.
We had a rather profane medical student
song which had as its refrain '50% must
fail, 50% must fail'. And it was actually
literally true, because in fact in second
year we started anatomy: that was the main
subject, and the main way of learning
anatomy was carving-up the human body. And
there were a maximum of thirty-two
students to a body. So you can work out
the sums: with a few slippages from second
year, and second year repeats, they could
only pass three hundred of us, because
there were only ten tables! Eight people
to a quarter body, trying to carve it up,
when I think back, was really quite
ridiculous.
So 50% indeed did fail, and when I woke up
& recognised that I was really now a uni
student, I was already in the third year!
By then I was eighteen, and sort Of
getting out of childhood & into adulthood.
And a group of us from what you might call
perhaps. the brighter kids in the class,
said ‘listen, this is no good, we're not
learning anything: if we're going to learn
teach
anything, we're going to have to
ourselves'. Which is probably not a bad
adage to take through life, if you~ think
back: you know, the best learning may be
that which you do for yourself.
So we started in this little group to give
each other seminars: that is to say, one
person might read up, for example, how
blood cells are formed; another person
might read up about the Krebs cycle &
intermediary metabolism in cells &
biochemical features; and a third person
might read up the latest thing about Jack
Eccles' work on the nervous system. And we
would read into these topics, & then’ give
it in very digestible form to the six,
eight or ten kids that formed this
particular study group, the end result
being that we did pretty well in the exams
if one of those topics perchance’ turned
Upt “CL Course, Jf) bt didn t,. 1c was ~ Just
for our own interest & so forth. This
process of digging into’ the medical
literature gave me a real feeling for
research.
Two other things things contributed to my
choice of science. First, I had an elder
brother who had done science, not med., &
had become a biochemist. He was quite a
few years older than myself, and of course
you tend to hero-worship your elder
brother. He had moved to Adelaide, but he
always used to bring back friends for the
ANZAAS Meetings. In those days in_ the
"forties, ANZAAS was a big thing: it was
THE national science meeting. And _ these
people would come & stay in our family
home. My head, as a thirteen or fourteen-
120 SIR GUSTAV NOSSAL
with the
people
year-old kid, would be buzzing
wondrous researches that’ these
were doing. And that helped too.
So in’ the event, I took a year off to
study viruses at Sydney Uni, under a_ chap
called Pat de Burgh, a Senior Lecturer in
Bacterioiology. He waS a virologist, a
very clever man, and during that year (he
only had two students doing this’ Bachelor
of Medical Science course) he took us
down to Melbourne & we spent three days at
the Walter & Eliza Hall Institute, one day
at the Fairfield Infectious Diseases
Hospital, and one day at_ the Baker
Institute: three of the great centres of
medical research in Australia. And I guess
I got hooked during that week. I _ found
that so fascinating that, at the ripe old
age of twenty-one, by now, I said ‘gosh,
I've got to give this thing a try’.
But life had stored up one funny little
surprise for me: you see, I thought this
business of the viruses & the biochemistry
would be my life. Now, why viruses?
Because they were the smallest form of
life. And why biochemistry?
Well, it was a little before DNA broke,
but I really thought biochemistry would
turn out to be the king of the sciences,
of the life sciences, because it was’ the
most basic. That did indeed turn out to be
true, except now they call that branch of
biochemistry ‘molecular biology', which
word had not been coined in 1952.
So here was I, seeking to discover all the
secrets of the life process by becoming a
biochemical virologist. What could be
better than to sit at the feet of the
world's greatest virologist, Mac Burnet?
In. ...1957, 1 tiptoed. into,.his- dab, ” having
graduated in medicine, done my residency
at Prince Alfred Hospital for a couple of
years; all my friends thought I was mad to
go & do this research business. Why, with
another two years you could have become a
Member of the College of Physicians, & you
could have become a cardiologist, & put
your shingle up on Macquarie Street, & it
would have been fantastic: they aia
thought I was absolutely crazy to go into
this research business.
But I tiptoed into Burnett's lab, only to
find out that he _ had switched his
interests from the virus, the cause of
many diseases, to the immune system, the
immune defence system which fought’ the
virus diseases.
To be frank, I had absolutely no interest
in immunology, none whatsoever! But’ the
die was cast, I had set my life to moving
down to Melbourne, with my wife & tiny
little baby daughter. Hence I was perforce
an immunologist!
So, you know, things happen in strange
wayS: my brother being a biochemist, Pat
de Burgh being a biochemical virologist,
my meeting Burnet at such a young age, &
hearing him talking about the polio virus
& the polio vaccine. Fantastic stuff for a
twenty-one year-old. And here I am, _ the
virologist perforce turned immunologist.
Discoveries in Cellular Immunology
The big problem in immunity was the number
of things you can become immune to. The
vast diversity of antibodies, each capable
of recognising portions of different bugs.
And, you know, that had been known for a
long time. But then along come Watson &
Crick, and they tell us that DNA is’ the
master molecule, and they tell us
information is carried: in. DNA, rand: Dt
can't be carried “into they cefin byita
foreign invading germ, by the proteins of
a virus or a bacterium.
So three people: Niels Jerne in
California, David Talmage in Denver, and
Mac Burnet in Melbourne, came up with this
theory, for which Mac Burnet’ received
enormous credit. The theory said that’ the
antibody molecule is not shaped or
patterned aS a template against the
vaccine molecule, the antigen. Rather, it
is pre-formed in the body existing as a
receptor on the surface of the cell. All
that the antigen then has to do is to come
& Stimulate the right cell, and _ then
through mutation afterwards, a really good
antibody would be formed, exactly
congruous to the antigen.
I. said to myself; .gosh; this etsisxaa bre
crazy. We'd all been brought up to’ think
that this direct template notion, which
had been around for about twenty years, &
had been backed by the great Linus Pauling
(one of the few people to win two Nobel
Prizes), must be correct.
Burnet challenged me to think again, and I
said ‘I think we can disprove this’ very
quickly: I am considering immunising a
mouse or a rat with three different
vaccines (three different antigens, to use
the technical term), get the antibody-
forming cells from the lymph node or from
the spleen of these animals, and very
quickly show that each cell will produce
all three antibodies'. Now if that's true,
Burnet's clonal selection theory is’ dead.
It was a Popperian situation: I could
perhaps disprove the new hypothesis.
Well, of course, there weren't any methods
for studying antibody formation by single
cells, and I had to invent those, and
fundamentally, we came to a pretty simple
conclusion, and this will appeal to many
of those of you who are physicists or
chemists, & understand the law of mass
action.
MEDICAL SCIENCE AND HUMAN GOALS
If only one cell is producing antiboby in
tissue culture, and you were to put it
into, say, one mil in a test-tube, of
course the antibody formed would be
extremely dilute, and you would never
detect 1t.° But 1£ im point of fact you
could confine the environment into’ which
the cell puts out its antibody to a_ tiny
little droplet, of perhaps a ten millionth
of a millilitre in volume, then the
antiboby titre, as we call it, the
antibody concentration reached at the end
@f£ a four hour or twenty-four incubation
period, would be exactly the same as if
we'd put 100 million cells into 10 ml,
because it's a question of concentration.
So we could get a high concentration of
these antibodies into these tiny, tiny
little droplets, which we stopped from
evaporation by surrounding’ them with
mineral oil.
And then we used aS a titration method, an
antibody detection method, a very tiny
number of motile bacteria, instilled into
that droplet by micromanipulation, which,
aft any antibody were present, would
immediately stop swimming & begin to
clump; if no antiboby were present, then
they would swim happily for half an hour,
after which you would terminate the
experiment.
The resulting thing was, that one cell
always formed only one antibody. The first
iietie step had been taken towards
suggesting that this clonal selection
theory (see Fig.l) could indeed be true.
Just a little side-light to history: we
worked on antibody formation by single-
cells for about five or six years, but we
weren't clever enough to recognise how
brat liant He would “ber “6 we could
immortalise those antibdody-forming cells
by fusing them to a cancer cell.
And that is exactly what Milstein & Kohler
did, for which they won a Nobel Prize, and
for which you. now have monoclonal
antibodies that are widely used in
diagnosis, in therapy, & in industrial
applications. One of the greatest tools of
modern biology is monoclonal antibodies.
We laid the groundwork for that work: we
did the pure science, but we didn't do the
applied science. H+tence the seamless web,
the need to continue this matrix of
scholarship all over the world.
i,, should goon to say that the very fact
of this highly diverse repertoire OF
antibody genes & antibody-forming cells,
means that every single cell makes
antibodies that are a little bie
different. And hence the monoclonal
antibody has a razor-like precision of
recognition: that's what determines its
Special properties.
121
CLONAL SELECTION THEORY OF ANTIBODY
FORMATION
ANTIGEN
‘a Q,
.
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SEleetS GELLC |
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CAUSING
DIVISION AND
ACCELERATED
ANTIBODY
SYNTHESIS (
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ee
naa
Fig.l: The revolutionary aspect of the
clonal selection theory of antibody
formation was that it saw the antigen only
as selecting a cell with a corresponding
receptor, not as carrying new information
into the cell.
The next thing we did was to say ‘well
we've got to disprove this direct template
hypothesis more clearly'. What we did was
EO make the antigen very highly
radioactive with an extremely high
specific activity of radioactive iodine,
whicn waS a convenient 1sotope EOP
registering on photographic film. And _ we
injected Eis very hot antigen in
limitingly small amounts into rats (see
Fig.2). Then we performed what we call an
autoradiograph: it was really taking an
X-ray on a single cell, basically.
Wherever the isotope goes, you get a
little dark silver grain in the
photographic emulsion that you've applied
to the cell. An antigen-containing cell
would be black with dots on it. A cell
without antigen would have no developed
silver grains on it. We went through
hundreds of single cells and finally
proved that these cells had no antigen in
122 SIR GUSTAV NOSSAL
them. In- point.ofpftactya we: could have
detected easily four molecules of antigen
in the cell, and we found absolutely none.
So the direct template hypothesis was
untenadle as there is no antigen in_ the
antibody-forming cell to wack as a
template.
That actually rated a fairly sizable story
in the New York Times, about half a page,
and it iS an interesting reflection on
U.S. science journalism that so much
publicity camsbe given to a totally basic-
science discovery.
We went on (and you won't believe it, we
took a total of eighteen years from _ the
first experiment to the last) to provide a
formal proof of the clonal selection
theory.
We did this by actually fractionating
normal lymphocytes, normal white cells on
antigen layers, recovering a tiny fraction
(one cell in ten thousand or one cell in
100 thousand) capable of binding that
antigen. We could then culture, in single-
cell microcultures, the antigen-specific
cells, and we could prove that the only
antigen against which those could form
antibodies was the antigen that had been
used in the fractionation procedure: it
couldn't form antibody to anything else.
So here if you want, in a totally un-
immunised animal, we found the needle in
the haystack, we found that one cell that
would make that one antibody, ready with
pre-formed receptors.
A very important thing happened when
Jacques Miller joined me, another Sydney
University graduate, who had been working
in London for quite a few years; Miller
waS an expert on the thymus, which is the
big lymphoid organ in the chest; and I had
been working a lot on bone marrow.
Miller, Warner, Szenberg, Mitchell and
others worked out that the white cells in
the blood, which we call lymphocytes, the
cells of your immune system, belong to two
great families: those thymus-derived, now
called T-lymphocytes; and _ those bone-
marrow-derived, called the B-lymphocytes.
The thymus makes T-lymphocytes, bone-
marrow makes B-lymphocytes. They leave
these organs and reach the lymph-nodes &
spleen and the circulating blood,;and this
1S your defence army.
The two types of cells do two entirely
different jobs: the B-lymphocytes’ make
antibody: they are the cells that go wrong
when you have agammaglobulinemia, which
you treat with injections of gamma
globulin. The T-lymphocytes, on the other
hand, don't make antibodies, but they do
mediate a strong inflammatory response.
ANTIGEN BINDING BY NORMAL LYMPHOCYTES
re
REMOVE
LYMPH NODE
OR SPLEEN
251-ANTIGEN A
a
MIX WITH WASH BY
CENTRIFUGATION
30 min, O°
PREPARE SMEAR
PERFORM RADIOAUTOGRAPHY
<I! PER CENT BIND ANTIGEN A
Fag .2it so Ghias
heterogeneous i ;
The great majority of cells do not bind at all. Some bind it
experiment
little
100,000) binds
shows that normal B
in their capacity to bind a given antigen,
lymphocytes are very
antigen A.
Fuse. va
bit. Only. a very occasional cell (perhaps 1 in 10,000. oF 173411
with, high, ‘affinity.
If this cell can be separated,
culture experiments show that it will form antibody to antigen A.
MEDICAL SCIENCE AND HUMAN GOALS 123
Think of the B-cell as a policeman with a
gun that can shoot an enemy at a_ long
distance: a B-cell-making antiboby in the
lymph-node could kill a small-pox virus
entering via the big toe, because the
antibody moves in the blood-stream.
The thymus-cell, the T-cell, is more’ like
a wrestler, who wrestles a foe in close
combat by direct cell contact. It turns
out that the T-cells are particularly
important in viral infections, because
they are capable of killing virus-infected
cells, and therefore of cutting short an
infection, and stopping the spread from
cell tO cell. T-cells also Elght
infections by promoting inflammation and
strengthening the action of scavenger
cells. One kind of T-cell is the target in
ADDS <
We found out two more things: we found out
that the T-cells & B-cells had to
collaborate in order for a good immune
response to go forward; and we found out
ways of distinguishing and separating the
different kinds of lymphocytes.
Now are you beginning to get the drift of
my story? Here was research that was
genuinely the purest of the pure. Our
purpose was. solely to find out how. the
immune system worked: how cells make
antibodies; how the genetic code works in
terms of antibody formation; what’ the
thymus contributes to immunity; what the
bone marrow did; how the cells interacted
with one another: pure science, with no
applied intent.
Along comes something like the AIDS virus,
but because of this prior work, and of
course, a lot of other work from around
the world which I haven't had a chance to
mention, it is possible to understand the
AIDS virus, define its target, and grow it
in the test-tube. Had that prior basic
knowledge not existed you would never have
been able to grow the AIDS virus, and
nobody would have been able to develop
immuno-therapeutic AZT or DDI or any of
the other drugs, nor would you have had a
chance to create experimental vaccines.
Unfortunately we do not yet have an AIDS
vaccine about which we can be confident.
So, basic science, applied science, the
seamless web.
Now, the last thing that I want to say in
terms of my own scientific work, is that
to the immunity, there is a mirror image.
You make antibody to lots of things: you
make antiboby to viruses and bacteria, you
also make antibody and a_ strong T-cell
attack to someone's kidney graft, if I
choose to place a kidney graft in your
body in order to cure your chronic’ renal
failure. We have to use drugs to keep that
immune response at bay. But you don't make
antibody to yourself,
Now there's a deep puzzle here. Why should
another person with the greatest of vigour
reject my kidney, no matter how carerully
Stitched into his body, and why’ should
that person so readily allow his own
kidney to live without Eéjection? There's
got to be some principle behind that.
We've also now worked on this subject of
immunological tolerance (see Fig.3) for,
well, in my case, thirty-eight years; and
we've got a long way towards determining
the secret of how it works. When I say
‘we’, I must immediately add that it was
really the global pesr=grounp.
Tolerance, the capacity to tolerate
yourself, is the opposite of clonal
selection. It is in fact a negative action
of antigen when it acts on the white cells
under certain circumstances. And it comes
in two flavours: either an actual physical
killing of the anti-self cells, or a= non-
lethal regulatory signal, which I termed
"clonal anergy’ in 1980. To my great
pleasure, that word has stuck, and we now
recognise these two forms of tolerance,
anergy & deletion. Right at the moment, my
main work is actually in tidying up_ the
exact difference between those two.
-_-—--—--—-— —-— -_——-- ——— — Sy —- Ke -—-— - -
I want to move on to the next’ stage,
because that's all a little bit technical.
Round about the middle to late
I became very impressed with the
selfishness of what we were doing. I
thought to myself 'O.K., here I am running
the Hall Institute, here we are doing all
of this basic science, here we are having
fantastic fun, we're actually becoming
world-famous (I shouldn't say it, but it's
true), doing this basic science, which has
given us a lot of pleasure. But to the
extent that we're working on diseases: on
multiple sclerosis, on leukemia and other
cancers, what in fact were we doing to be
true to the Pasteurian heritage? What were
we doing about vaccines, what were we
doing about tropical diseases, what were
we thinking about the third world, what
were we doing about poor countries? The
answer was nothing.
seventies,
So I did two things: I started a large
program under Dr Graham Mitchell at _ the
Institute, which I won't talk about today,
which is searching for a malarial vaccine,
and which has now reached the stage of
124 SIR GUSTAV NOSSAL
Antigen selects
cell X causing
division and
accelerated
antibody
synthesis
Fig.3: Immunological
tolerance
Anti-X cell:
‘Not allowed
to be born;
clonal abortion.
‘Born but
silenced;
clonal anergy.
(cight-hand side of the
diagram) is more or less the mirror image of clonal selection
(left-hand
side). If the antigen encounters’ the
lymphocyte
population while the latter is still immature, as would be
the case with a self-antigen,
rendered anergic.
early clinical trials: we then hope to go
into larger field trials, either late this
year, Or, more probably, early next year.
So the malaria vaccine work has_ been
slowly rumbling along as an effort that we
started in direct response to this pain in
my breast that we hadn't been true to the
Pasteurian heritage.
And the second thing I achieved was,
through invitation, to become tied up with
the World Health Organisation. And I'm now
the Chairman of what they call the Global
Program on Vaccines & Immunisation. And
this program has three components:
First is the delivery component, called
EPI, the Expanded Program on Immunisation,
the naked aim of which is to get’ the
common childhood vaccines, which all our
kids get, to every single one of the one-
hundred & thirty million children that are
born into the world each year. That's an
amazing goal, isn't it? A suberb challenge
to meet this aim. Now that of course means
that we have to have, for all the world,
vaccine supplies & vaccine quality
control.
The second goal therefore is to work out
politically how to transfer the technology
to some of the larger ag eM ako | world
countries, such as China & Indonesia,
enabling them to make at least some of
the cell is either deleted or
their own vaccines, and somehow to make
sure that we haven't got two classes of
vaccines, one with good quality control,
and one that may be inferior.
The third and very ,important..goali,ds
Vaccine Research & Development, or VRD:
more vaccines, particularly for diseases
where we don't have vaccines yet. This
third component in its turn ~has, three
components:
First, to promote the development of new
vaccines of importance to the world, and
prepare for their -introduction.,\ into..the
Expanded Program on Immunisation;
secondly, to simplify vaccination
procedures; and thirdly to develop cheap &
simple new diagnostic tools.
In regard to the second item under VRD,
vaccination procedures, my colleagues’ in
WHO have a slide that looks a bit like St
Sebastian: its got arrows , sticking ,,all
through, except that the arrows aren't
arrows: they're syringes with needles. We
can't have children looking like
pincushions. Our own children have already
received a lot of vaccination shots by the
time they're eighteen months: they get
their DPT at 2 months, 4 months,, 6 months.
Polio is fortunately given as drops.Then
they have measles, mumps & rubella. Now
there's the excellent meningitis vaccine.
MEDICAL SCIENCE AND HUMAN GOALS 125
Imagine if we had twelve more other good
vaccines, we could get into a consumer
revolt, even in the developed countries,
let alone in an African village, where you
might have to walk five miles to get to
the little station where this vaccine is
given.
So simplified vaccination procedures are
very much required.
As you come close to the total eradication
of diseases (and that is very close for
polio, could be a reality for measles, and
is a reality, of course, as you all know,
for small-pox), before you can cease
vaccination, thereby saving huge amounts
of money, you have to be damned sure that
it's completely gone. For that you have to
have excellent surveillance mechanisms.
And thinking of remote African & Indian
villages, that means cheap & simple new
diagnostic tools, the third item listed in
the Vaccine Research & Development agenda.
Now a few words on the Expanded Program on
Immunisation. There are seven vaccines
that are supposed to be going to all _ the
children of the world: diphtheria,
pertussis, tetanus, polio, measles, BCG
for tuberculosis, and hepatitis B.
We in Australia do not use the
tuberculosis vaccine for two reasons:
there isn't much TB left, thank God (but
it could come back); and also the BCG is
not as good as it should be (there is a
requirement for more research &
development of a more satisfactory TB
vaccine). Vaccine for hepatitis B- from
1995, according to the World Health
Assembly should be going to all countries
with a high carrier rate. Vaccine for
yellow fever is also required in = some
countries. The program has made great
progress in polio myelitis.
In the Peoples Republic of China, where
ehe . birth cohort is 23 million children
each year, they had one case of polio in
1994, one certified case: remarkable
progress. And we have set our cap at
global polio eradication by the year 2000.
A very tough task! A very difficult goal
to achieve: it will, as with smallpox, be
Africa that will be the hardest nut to
erack:.
We have some countries both in Africa & in
the Balkans where civil strife could
frustrate the procedure, but we are making
really excellent progress. And you imagine
the world without polio, you imagine the
world where no-one has to get the _ polio
drops any more, and it's been estimated
that the net present value of polio
eradication is
dollars. The
thirteen ba Llton US
costs, we believe, to get
this point will be a hundred million a
year extra to what we've got each year
between now and 2000.
Immunisation coverage over this period has
gone from 5% of the developing world to
80%: but unfortunately I have to tell you
it appears to have have stalled then, and
the last 20% are going to be very
APE ric Mtoe aget.
The plan was for 95% reduction of measles
deaths by this year: there has been a very
Significant reduction of these deaths,
probably not quite to the 95% of the 2 to
3 million deaths per year that is
"normal". All told, vaccines prevent 3
million deaths per year, but 2 million
vaccine-preventable deaths remain. Sixty
percent of the deaths which the present
vaccines could stop are being stopped,
forty percent of them are still eluding
LS.
Now what's the total picture?
There are 12 million deaths of children in
the world each year: 9 million of these
are due to infectious communicable
diseases. Only one quarter of the pie is
accessible with present vaccines. We have
three quarters of the deaths from diseases
for which no suitable vaccine has yet been
made.
What are these diseases?
killers are two-fold: the
diarrhoeal diseases, both bacterial and
viral; and accute pneumonia of infants,
which is particularly a problem in our own
The biggest
part of the world, where, in Papua-New
Guinea, for example, pneumonia beats
malaria as the number one killer. Malaria
is a further enormous problem: there are
somewhere between one & two million deaths
per year from malaria each year.
If you pool both childhood & adult deaths,
there are nearly three million deaths per
year from tuberculosis. I think that in
itself shows that the BCG is not doing a
good job. We have to do a lot better. And
consider the number of deaths from
measles: 2.>to 3°mil lion per. year." One
reason is that the current measles vaccine
is not active in very young children, and
the second is that measles and bacterial
complications from measles are much more
serious in a third world setting.
Measles is immuno-suppressive, and_ the
immune response is not good for about a
year after the attack, or not as good as
it should be. That means that if you're
under-nourished, and if you are in a
situation of constantly being exposed to
infectious micro-organisms every single
day, your resistance will crumble, and so
126 SIR GUSTAV NOSSAL
this overall measles death incidence is
about 2 to 3 percent; it's still not high,
but when everybody gets a disease, you can
Galculate what the ‘toll “is.
Now, the existing measles vaccine is much
less efficient when antibodies of maternal
origin persist at the time of
immunisation. I've told you everyone gets
measles, rignt? They've either been
immunised or they've had the disease, so
Mum has antibodies. Those antibodies cross
the placenta, enter the foetal blood
stream, protect the child against measles
over the first four months of life.
But then, gradually, the maternal immunity
wanes; and the vaccine doesn't take too
well before 9 months, even in developed
countries. So we have a blind period and
many unprotected infants. We have to
devise a measles vaccine which works in
the presence of low levels of anti-measles
antibodies derived from the mother.
Now, another important development would
be a single-dose tetanus vaccine. But why?
Well, I've told you that this EPI program
is new, and I've told you that, previous
to its existence about 10 years ago,
vaccine coverage was 5% in the developing
countries. This means that young mothers-
to-be aren't protected against tetanus.
Riqnt?
So, they have their babies, in a little
African village, where there have _ been
domestic animals, where’ the hygienic
conditions are not good. As you all know,
tetanus spores (a) live for a long time,
(b) are carried in animal faeces, or human
faeces for that matter, and they can
remain in the ground for a long time. End
result: neo-natal tetanus: when the little
baby is born, it gets tetanus, it dies of
lock-jaw, with the horrible frothing at
the mouth, that we now only read about’ in
Eext—books; that you maybe have heard as
horror stories from some older uncle or
grandmother.
Now we've got to stop that: and we've got
to catch these pregnant women, but we may
not be able to get them to come back for
three injections. And actually, they
certainly need three, they may perhaps’ in
fact even need four, depending on where in
the world, and how good the vaccines are,
and so forth.
So we need a one-shot vaccine which gives
a lasting effect to simplify the
vaccination schedule. And”’that is, “as 71
say, overall, quite apart from tetanus, a
very big goal in our research program.
Applied research: not very glamourous, not
nearly as Nobel-Prize-winning as
monoclonal antibodies. But this applied
research is enormously important.
And so we come to vaccine combinations: we
come to new ideas about immunising via
mucosal surfaces. We come to oral
vaccines: easier and cheaper; no needles,
no need for sterilisation of syringes; no
AIDS transmission, no hepatitus-B
transmission, LE your autoclaving
equipment breaks down. Of course
disposable needles & syringes are the
ideal, but sometimes difficult to achieve
in a third world setting. A very new idea
is nucleic acid vaccines, which we won't
be able to go into tonight. Oral) vaccines
are certainly one simplification of
vaccine delivery.
So much for the responsibilities that I
think we carry for the third world. But. 1
want to end up on a surprising note, a
note which you might find a little bit
unusual.
I've actually come to the view, over’ the
last seven or eight years, that the
medical science, and even the public
health application, such as these public
health vaccine programs, are only two-
thirds of the story: the final third of
the story relates to human behaviour.
Now, let me surprise you: you believe that
smoking rates have gone down: they have:
30% of the population still smokes, and
that's 45 years after Richard Dold’ wEirst
snowed that smoking causes lung cancer,
and 30-plus years after it was shown that
smoking was responsible for much of heart
disease. We're only just now starting to
see the down-turn of lung cancer rates in
men, in Australia, and we have not yet
seen the end of the rise of lung cancer
deaths in women: it's still rising.
That's what I mean by persuasion. You
can't just be a scientist: you've also got
to be a marketer: you've got to get your
ideas across to both the profession and
the public at large.
I wanted to talk for a moment about STD's.
I think Australia has done a wonderful job
in STD's; but the pressure has got to be
kept up.
We cannot be complacent, we have to keep
investing, we have to keep spending money
to keep AIDS out of the heterosexual
community, and to continue to reduce its
impact on the gay community, and on_ the
intravenous-drug-using community. It's got
to be a persuasion game, it's got to be a
case of smart marketing.
Let me tell you a story about vaccines.
There's a new vaccine, which your kids &
grandkids are getting. It's called HiB.
It's the vaccine against the worse of the
two forms of bacterial meningitis: a
MEDICAL SCIENCE AND HUMAN GOALS
wonderful vaccine. Efficacy rate in the
high 90's, side reactions virtually
unknown.
And we're doing a good job in introducing
it: but the most brilliant job has been
done in the United Kingdom, where’ they
blitzed the population with an expensive
media campaign, a little akin to our’ road
accident campaign in Victoria, which you
may have heard about: the horrendously
graphic ads which showed the effects of
drink driving & the effects of speed, and
which in their way have made Victoria’ the
leader in the world in-= reduction of
traffic deaths.
So we've got to be marketers, and we've
got to get into the persuasion game, and
we've got to take public health and
preventive medicine very seriously. Right
at the moment, you & I are spending eight
& a half percent of this country's Gross
Domestic Product on health. But of that,
97 to 98% is spent on the sick now, here &
today's sick. I wouldn't deny the genuine
demands of those sick today.
But we very rarely think about public
health, preventive medicine, positive
health promotion, health education; the
simple things: avoidance of smoking,
avoidance of substance abuse, eating a
healthy diet, getting a very diversified
diet, having your blood pressure checked
regularly, having a mammogram, having a
Pap smear, and possibly, as the next
major step, the introduction of fibre-
optic Sigmoidoscopy EOL the early
diagnosis of colon cancer.
These unglamourous things, actually very
straight-forward, on which we spend the
two or three percentile, can have a major
impact on mortality & morbidity, and are
in many wayS a much more appropriate
expenditure of the health dollar.
But you see, its tough, because when
grandma's sick, let alone when a child is
sick, you'll pull out all the stops. There
is nothing that you won't do to urge the
politicians to build that extra liver
transplantation unit or two, somehow make
sure the district -hospital doesn't close,
or somehow doing something for the one
already sick.
The more cerebral activity of preventing
the 30 years of pathology which leads to
coronary artery disease, through a
healthier diet & exercise, and keeping
people of a reasonable weight, that
doesn't grab the public imagination nearly
as much.
That's why I need to talk about it with
you, that's why I'm absolutely delighted
that our friend from the 'Australian' is
taking avid notes, because this is really
127
important. We've got to redress the
current imbalance between acute crisis
medicine which uses hign-tech
intervention, for people who have been
harbouring pathology in the’ body LOL
LALety years, and the _ future, whicn
depends on research, the search for better
cures, and on education for preventive
medicine and public health. Thank you very
much.
(Applause)
President: Thankyou, Sir Gustav.
President: Sir Gustav has indicated to. me
he is certainly prepared to answer
questions & take on discussion: I'm sure
there will be many who would like to take
advantage of this.
Dry FeLeSutherland: It vou. are <rceducing
infant mortality, by the vaccination
program, does that not create a bigger
population problem to the world?
SLE Gustav: BES: oa very important
question, fortunately it does have an
answer: in the 25 years or so since T have
been interested in world health, I've
talked to literally dozens, if not’ scores
of people from the developing world, and
people interested in the development
process.
They are absolutely unanimous” on one
thing: that is that you can sell birth
control only ino the: context Of maternal ‘&
child health. If you can guarantee a woman
she will have a healthy child, and if you
persuade the woman that spacing the births
will add to that child's health, you have
a- chance,
Tf you attempt to control the human
population by high death rates (really, in
a sense, what you're saying: doing
something that doesn't reduce the death
rate, but maintains a high death rate),
the sheer answer is that people over-
compensate, and more particularly do they
over-compensate since the green revolution
has produced plentiful foodstuffs in most
of these countries (even India is now a
net exporter of food: if you remember
thirty years ago how many famines’ there
were in India).
SO as countries leave true poverty, and
begin to enter newly industrialised
status, the pattern has always been
exactly the same: reduce the infant
mortality rate, and your birth-rate will
come down at an increased rate. Increase
the death rate, be it by’ famine or
pestilence, and human be ings over-
compensate, because, don't forget, there
is no social security in these countries.
The only guarantee for your old age, which
128 SIR GUSTAV NOSSAL
probably hats -you' .1n the '50"s. ass your
living male children. So wouldn't you’ too
guarantee that you'd have a little bit of
redundancy left, so that you don't starve
when you're old & you can't work any more?
And that is absolutely clear-cut.
It's a hard one to explain, I mean, it's a
bree counter=intuitive: you “say, OsK ay
nopulation size is a mixture o€f birth-
rates & death-rates: there's two ways of
controlling this: increase the death-rate,
Or decrease the birth-rate: the fact of
the matter is, increasing the death-rate
doesn't do. 1b.
Lady questioner: Is there any work on a
birth control vaccine?
Sir Gustav: Yes, a lot of work. The answer
is: there is right here & now a. birth-
control vaccine: it is a vaccine directed
against the hormone human chorionie
gonadotrophin, which is produced by the
Ovary in the first few days of pregnancy
(it is produced actually as the ovum
travels down the Fallopian tube): it's
absolutely essential for implantation of
the fertilized egg in the womb.
And that works: it doesn't work perfectly:
it's been primarily trialled in India, and
it's reversible. It doen't seem to have
any side-effects, but the problem with it
at the moment is that it only works in
women who get an antibody titre over 50
nanograms per millilitre, and only 70% or
so of the women at the moment do that.
SO you cannot say to them "go away & have
unprotected sex": you've got go & say to
them "come back to my tent & have an
antibody test": and that just won't work
in a field situation: antibody tests for
everybody are just far too expensive. So
there is need for a stronger vaccine.
There's also a male vaccine which is being
developed in India. It is not permanently
sterilising, but it. attacks the outer
coating of the sperm, and makes the semen
essentially sperm-free; and it works’ in
cattle.
Now, whether you going ‘to-- geit that
accepted in the human setting (knowing
what the male of the species is like) I
don't know.
But it is working in a veterinary setting,
and it's being strongly promoted by some
of the more liberal elements in India to
reduce their terrible problem of the
sacred cows, wandering around & eating all
the food, & not being able to be of.--use
for anything. And there are many people
who say a male vaccine will be required,
and I think this is. an. alternative).
I actually believe that for women (and
men, but the burden seems to fall chiefly
on women) to have the total control over
their own fertility will demand a_ variety
of techniques, suitable to different
ethnicities, to different physiologies, to
different religious beliefs, & to
different cultural patterns. And we have
seen very clearly with the pill that
Slavisn adherence to one method only isn't
going to do the trick, at least noky tor a
life-time. Certainly birth control
vaccines will have a place in the future.
Dr G.C.Lowenthal: What about the effect of
HIV/AIDS? Presumably the effect of it will
be found in time to reduce populations? Is
there a development in the resistance of
the virus to drugs?
Sir Gustav: Yes, this, asia, very). topical
subject today, there's no question. Had I
been giving this lecture five years ago
I would have said to you that there are
really no good anti-viral treatments, that
most of what we have is far too toxic.
Now, since then we've had two, I would
call them, wonder-drugs: we've had AZT in
the HIV situation, and we've had
interferon, which has had its’ biggest
success in hepatitis=-B and =-C... Both ,. of
them have drawbacks, and with the AZT, it
is exactly as you've said, the very rapid
development of resistance.
Although, I would say to you, . that my
colleagues, such as Penny and Cooper, &
others at Saint Vincents, who are so
fantastic in HIV, tell me that the in-
vitro resistance doesn't always mean that
the drug has stopped working in vivo.
There might be some little discordance,
and there are people who believe that AZT
should be given for longer than the 9 or
2 months, until the disease has
developed. But this is a very special
virus with quite extraordinary mutation
rates, and I think that the fact that AZT
works for at least 9 months or so, has
given a whole filip to the field of smart
antiviral drugs. There are more coming
down the track.
Interferon is a different kind Of
substance. That's not, a, ;.dBglUGg?- .b US. a
natural substance of the body. If you
want, its the body's own defence against
viral infections, apart from the immune
system, and it can be mass-produced by
recombinant DNA technology, that is a
genetic engineering technology, and its
been what we call in the trade a
"sleeper'.
Sales of interferon were very
disappointing shortly after LES
introduction, but more uses are being
found as doctors learn how to use the drug
better (its expensive, of course). The
main areas in which it has had greatest
MEDICAL SCIENCE AND HUMAN GOALS 129
success are certain forms of cancer and
overwhelming viral infections. There is
progress. We do not yet have the
"penicillin for viruses', something as
completely non-toxic and also very broad
in its effectiveness as the antibiotics,
but the progress is now quite good good.
Further question from Dr Lowenthal: The
other side of that is what you might call
the reaction to the innoculation op a
vaccination: I mean, a vaccination takes
hold of an agent of the body, and no doubt
the system reacts to it, and to some
extent it may need another vaccination to
cure the first vaccination.
Sir Gustav: Well, look, you're also right
there, Dr Lowenthal. There is no medical
intervention, even taking an aspirin, one
aspirin, whicn is entirely risk-free. So
any medical intervention has a cisk-
benefit aspect. Take anaesthetics: you
know, I receive from the Medical Board
each year the report = on anaesthetics
deaths in Australia. And its not a _ very
small number: it's not like three, you
knows there are always numbers of 20, 40
or so anaesthetic deaths per year: the
accidents which shouldn't happen but do.
I can tell you that with vaccines) slight
reactions are very common: by slight
reactions I mean the reddening of the
injection sites, a sore lump in the groin,
a fever. Or even, with the measles, mumps,
rubella vaccine, a little bit of a rash,
just a few little marks of colour; these
are what you might call in the trivial
class. The fever may not happen, we're
often told now to give the kids’ some
Panadol, because that'll avoid a bit of
trouble the next day.
Now you're not really referring to these.
There are, occasionally, more serious
reactions, and the worst of the reactions
has been with the whooping cough component
of DPT. In roughly one case in two
thousand, the whooping-cough vaccine will
cause febrile convulsions. This is not
dangerous, but is extremely distressing,
as any of you who have had kids or
grandkids who have had convulsions will
agree.
However, the serious complication of an
encephalitis, leading to permanent brain
damage, has been intensively investigated
in every English-speaking country in the
world, most prominently in the United
States. A blue ribbon panel has”~ recently
published the incidence of serious CNS
complications as somewhere between one in
200,000 and zero. In other words, it is so
rare, that even this profound
investigation could not deny the
possibility that the few cases which
appeared in the year in the United States
were totally due to chance. So the serious
complications are vanishingly rare.
There is now an acellular pertussis
vaccine which has no whole bacteria in it:
it just has material from the bacteria,
much purer, totally non-reactogenic, and
it works wonderfully. Your grand-kids will
be getting this vaccine within a year or
two; whether the African villagers will
be, 1S a very different question. That's
where I have to be persuasive and
optimistic, as the vaccine is much more
expensive. But the technical problem is
now solved.
With polio, incidence of reversion to
virulence Of the Sabin vaccine is
estimated at somewhere between one in half
a million & one in two million. Not
negligible, if you happen to be the one in
two million; and in the United States
there is now a very lively debate as polio
transmission has ceased, to ask the
question whether the old Salk vaccine,
which is killed, and therefore entirely
safe, should come back: they're talking
about two shots of Salk vaccine followed
by two doses of oral Sabin vaccine.
Once again that's a question of cost. The
injection is mucn more expensive, it has
to have much more virus in it than the
oral (which multiplies itself in the
gastro-intestinal tract). So aren't these
nice questions? We can afford the luxury
of debating it for the one case in two
million. I think the African villagers
cannot afford the luxury of that debate:
they will have to stay with the Sabin
vaccine for now.
Di. Bi CePotter: There's a dJady living” an
France, who, if she lives for six weeks or
so, will become the oldest person who has
ever lived. She was born in 1875: do you
think there is something to learn from
studying the extreme aging?
Sir -Custav:- Oh, look, 2-thank | Ghat «rs >a
totally fascinating question: I happen
genuinely not to be an expert on_ the
question, but 1€ 1s not only worthy “of
Study, but it is being studied extremely
intensively. However, not quite so much in
people, but more in mice & rats. For the
very Simple reason, that a rat and a mouse
live for three years, and therefore you
can work towards four & a half year-old
rats, \but-you can’t do a lot -of work for
120 year old women.
There are some fascinating things that are
already clear: let me hit you with the
clearest, which was surprising: that
malnutrition can lead to huge prolongation
of life. Huge! So if you feed mice & rats
a low-protein diet, and have the mice &
cats go through their lives looking like a
Belsen concentration camp victim, they'll
live longer.
The fact is that puberty is delayed, the
130
menarche is delayed, and the menopause is
delayed, everything is delayed; but so,
of course, is mental development. So, I
mean, this is a trivial example, because
it's a lite totally lacking 1m ~ quality:
it's not realistic. But it does show that
the life-span, as such, is not absolutely
fixed, and there are profound things yet
to be learned about ageing.
However, I would put it to you, that the
real centre-point of the ageing dilemma is
encoded by that very brief statement that
I've already made: a fly lives for a_ few
days, a mouse lives three years, a dog
lives fourteen, a human lives eighty: then
there's standard deviations on either
side.
Now, no mouse has ever lived to eighty, no
dog has ever lived to forty: dogs might
get to twenty-two or something, so there
seems to be some program, some program
entity whicn we don't understand at all,
that's got to do with -the’ nature of
species & speciation, that determines how
long that particular biological species
will live. What that program may be is is
the subject of very intense investigation,
with more questions than answers.
Mr G.W.K.Ford: There was this debate
about, if you stamp out smallpox, do you
or do you not stamp out’ the final
laboratory strains? That must be a general
question applying to all these things?
Sir Gustav: I had the great good
in relation to this question, of sitting
next to Frank Fenner at a dinner aé_e few
weeks ago. Frank Fenner is the doyen of
Australia's virologists, who has been
fortune,
multiply honoured for his role in_ the
smallpox eradication campaign, which in
large measure was based upon his-~ model
work with booth myxomatosis and mouse-pox,
the ectromelia virus. His belief very
strongly is that, once eradication has not
only been certified, but has also been
documented by experience, you know, that
after the certiEication nothing's
happened, that all stocks should be
destroyed.
basis:
re-create
He justifies that on the following
should it ever be necessary to
the virus, the virus has been completely
sequenced, all of its genetic code is
known, and should there be some secret
encrypted in there, some kind of genetic
engineering could re-create it anyway, so
that there is no excuse for keeping the
actual Specimen. Now that is = not a
universal view, but it the view that’ the
World Health Organisation has adopted, and
it is now a question of the Russians
signing off. Because I think, from memory,
there are three repositories, and _ these
three parties have to agree: I think
there's one in Washington, there's one in
Moscow, & I think there may be one other
one under the control of the WHO.
SIR GUSTAV NOSSAL
President: Thank you very much, Sir
Gustav. I'11 call upon Dr Norbert; {| skelvin
to move the vote of thanks to our speaker:
Dr Norbert Kelvin: Sir Gustav, it gives me
great pleasure to propose this vote of
thanks. I think that this work just shows
how important human endeavour is to making
our lives more enjoyable, more fulfilled,
longer. I think that we are truly blessed
in this country to have,’a) ‘man, ciheSir
Gustav's stature working on these kinds of
ventures. I must say that, as a_ chemical
engineer, I'm fascinated by the prospect
of chemical engineers around the world
looking at better ways of delivering these
drugs, not just manufacturing)” them,,) but
delivering them, and I think that there is
an enormous opportunity for engineers &
chemists, and scientists generally, to
improve the methods of delivery, as he has
shown: this is a quite unique opportunity.
Well, without any futher ado, I'd like you
all to-=join me in’ giving?) our usual
expression of thanks for your wonderful
talk.
(applause)
Closure: the President invited Sir Gustav,
and visitors, tO Sign. /@he Society's
Visitors' Book, which was commenced in
1876: a year after the French lady,
mentioned by Dr Potter, was born!
Sir Gustav Nossal FRS
DITeCtoL,
Walter & Eliza Hall
Institute of Medical Research,
The Royal Melbourne Hospital,
Victoria.3050;,
Australia
(Transcript prepared from a tape-recording
oy Mr G.W.K.Ford, Hon.Sec.RSNSW, and
checked & amended by the speaker prior to
Final editing) 133 Wattle Road
Jannali NSW 2226
Australia
(Manuscript received 23-11-1995)
Journal and Proceedings, Royal
ISSN 0035-9173/95/020131-10
Inorganic Chemistry: Frontiers and Future
$4.00/1
I. G. DANCE
Liversidge Lecture 1994
Abstract
Inorganic chemistry — the chemistry of all elements — has
turned up some real surprises in the last few years. Even
elemental carbon is undergoing a revolution, literally.
Molecules which are simply binary combinations of the
elements, such as M,Sy and MxCy, have been discovered.
These are molecular fragments of compounds otherwise
known only as non-molecular solids, and are totally
unexpected and unpredictable: their structures are being
explored by computational methods. The multiple "non-
bonded" interactions between inorganic molecules in crystals
are being recognised and understood, and can be deployed in
crystal engineering. Highly evolved molecular biology
reveals tantalising chemical possibilities beyond current
laboratory capabilities, such as the mild reduction of the most
recalcitrant molecule in chemistry, Nz, by the enzyme
Society of New South Wales, Vol.128, 131-140, 1995
131
nitrogenase. Insight into the mechanism of this enzyme
comes from investigations of the clusters M,Cy.
Introduction
Professor Liversidge's instructions required that ".. the
lectures shall be such as will primarily encourage research and
stimulate the lecturer and the public to think and acquire new
knowledge by research ..". I trust that by examining some of
the current frontiers of inorganic chemistry, and by looking
forward, this account will meet his expectations.
Of the many frontiers in inorganic chemistry, I will focus here
on several that I see as contemporary and expanding. My
approach is mainly inductive, and, consistent with the terms of
the Liversidge endowment, seeks more to point to significant
directions of research and less to review current knowledge.
What is inorganic chemistry, and where are its frontiers? The
name "inorganic chemistry" reveals only what this science
isn't, and is unsuitable, and anachronistic. However, I don't
expect an immanent and positive renaming of this field of
science, particularly since it took so long even to effect a
logical renumbering of the periodic table. The old name of
the Inorganic Division of the Royal Australian Chemical
Institute, namely "Coordination and Metal-organic
Chemistry", is more positively descriptive.
Inorganic chemistry is the chemistry of compounds of all of
the elements, involving the fundamental chemical activities and
attributes of (1) synthesis, (2) structure (geometric and
electronic) and architecture for molecules and assemblies, and
(3) reactions and reactivity. There are close and
important connections with the fields of catalysis, and with
materials and the materials sciences, and with the biological
sciences. Like non-inorganic chemistry, it is supported by
theory, by the innumerable spectroscopies, and by analysis.
Structural Molecularity
One essential characteristic of compounds over the periodic
table is the molecularity of their architectures and geometrical
structures. Structural molecularity refers to the existence, or
not, of the discrete groups of atoms which are termed
molecules because they are surrounded by non-bonded
boundaries. Actually, the boundaries which surround and
define molecules are weakly bonding rather than non-bonding,
but the significant fact is that the intermolecular attractive
energies are an order of magnitude less than intramolecular
bond energies. The significance of structural molecularity in
inorganic chemistry can be illustrated with one of the frontiers,
namely the chemistry of the element carbon. For a very long
time our knowledge has been restricted to two allotropes of
carbon, diamond and graphite. Both of these are non-
molecular: diamond is three dimensionally non-molecular
because there are infinite extensions of strong bonds in three
dimensions, while graphite is two-dimensionally non-
molecular. But then came C¢o, which is totally molecular and
remarkably symmetrical, as shown in Figure 1. The bonds
around the 12 pentagons and 20 hexagons in C¢o are arranged
exactly as the seams in a soccer ball. The molecular
allotropes of carbon are named "fullerenes", from the
analogous architecture of the geodesic domes of Buckmuinster-
Fuller. And not only is there one molecular allotrope of
carbon, but there are many fullerenes C,, some with n < 60
but most with n > 60. And there are geometrical isomers of
individual fullerenes C,. Further, elemental carbon which is
one-dimensionally non-molecular is known in the carbon
nanotubes, which are like concentric rolls of graphite. Part of
a single nanotube is illustrated in Figure 2. Ina little over a
decade the inorganic chemistry of a common and long-known
element, carbon, has undergone a surprising revolution which
is spawning a plethora of compounds with intriguing
properties.
The Domains of Inorganic Molecules
This frontier of inorganic chemistry, namely the occurrence of
molecules and of molecular structure for compounds
previously known only in non-molecular form, is occurring
with many other fundamental inorganic compounds, as I will
explain below. In order to develop this frontier and others, I
132 I. G. DANCE
Figure 1 A molecular allotrope of carbon, C¢o.
will define a conceptual framework for the components of
molecular metallocompounds. Figure 3 shows the molecular
structures of the cluster compound [S4Cdj0(SPh)16]4~ which
we have investigated. In this Figure the atoms are shaded
according to location in the molecule.
These molecules can be viewed as having three domains, the
domain MI of the metal atom or atoms usually near the centre,
surrounded by the domain of the ligand donor atoms ID
bonded directly to the metals, which is then surrounded by the
ligand framework IL often composed of carbon and hydrogen.
These domains are shown diagrammatically in Figure 4, with
the same shading as Figure 3. Tens of thousands of other
metallocompounds can be viewed the same way: they vary in
size and shape but this analysis of molecular architecture is
widely sustainable, and is implicit in most of the literature.
Two of the frontiers of inorganic chemistry involve
modifications of this view: I am going to subtract and add
domains. One of the frontiers involves molecules in which
the ligand framework IL no longer exists. The molecules
contain only the MI and ID domains, and they are commonly
encountered as binary compounds in gas phase inorganic
chemistry. The metal and donor atoms, often quite
intimately involved, are effectively in vacuum.
The expanded view of metallomolecules focuses on their
periphery, domain IP, and on its interaction with the
environment of the molecule, domain IE (see Figure 5). In
the condensed phases, where most chemistry occurs, every
molecule has an environment, and interacts with that
environment through weak interactions. This is the frontier
of supramolecular inorganic chemistry.[Dance, 1995]
Supramolecular chemistry is the chemistry of non-bonds, or
"chemistry beyond the molecule", or interactions across the
boundaries of molecules.[Lehn, 1990] Supramolecular
chemistry is precisely the interaction between the periphery of
a molecule and its environment. Supramolecular chemistry is
distinct from supermolecular chemistry, which deals with big
molecules. The importance and significance of interactions
across molecular boundaries has of course been known for a
long time in molecular biology, and its significance is well
recognised in that context. But only in recent years has that
knowledge been developed for non-biological molecules, and
for metallomolecules and inorganic compounds this is a
frontier yet to be explored.
There are two other important themes that I will describe.
One is the relationship between molecular biology and
metallochemistry, and the other is the contribution of
computational methods to the development of metallo-
chemistry. Thus the four principal frontiers of inorganic
a re
i \
|
Figure 3 Skeletal and space-filling pictures of
[S4Cd10(SPh)16]4-, representing the domains. The metal
atoms are dark, the donor atoms bonded to the metal are
speckled, and the outer atoms are grey (carbon) or white
(hydrogen).
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY FRONTIERS 133
LIGAND FRAMEWORK
Figure 4 The domains of a metallocompound, MI, ID, and
IL.
chemistry to be championed here are:
Supramolecular metallochemistry — the total view
¢ Gas-phase metallochemistry — the fundamental and
pristine state, indicating possibilities and opportunities
¢ The contributions of computational methods — which
are now powerful
¢ The knowledge-base of molecular biology — and its
recognition and use in inorganic chemist
I will first develop and illustrate some of the concepts of
supramolecularity for metal containing compounds,
concentrating on the interface of the molecular periphery and
the environment. Then I will describe some of our gas-phase
inorganic chemistry, the cut-down and pristine view of
inorganic chemistry, which reveals the fundamentals and the
possibilities and opportunities. This will involve a brief
description of the power of contemporary computational
methods for these compounds, and finally I will look at
naturally occurring systems, in particular the amazing enzyme
nitrogenase.
Supramolecular metallochemistry
Why is supramolecular chemistry so important? Most of the
processes of life depend on molecular recognition, and on the
concerted and synergistic actions of molecular assemblies.
Processes such as the pumping of nutrient chemicals and
waste chemicals through cell walls, the conversion of solar
energy into chemical energy, the catalysis of reactions under
remarkably mild conditions, and the operation of the amazing
molecular computer called the brain, all depend on
supramolecular chemistry. Nature is the expert supramolecular
chemist, and nature, that is evolved molecular biology, uses
metals and inorganic materials. Evolved molecular biology
has developed supramolecular chemistry to a sophistication far
greater than that of any laboratory chemist. Evolved
molecular biology reveals amazing possibilities for chemistry,
and thereby presents the challenge to understand and possibly
deploy these possibilities.
But there is no need to be a molecular biologist to be involved
with supramolecular chemistry. As chemists we practice
supramolecular chemistry every time we crystallise a
molecular compound. The formation of crystals is one of the
supreme supramolecular events, and every structure of a
crystal is the consequence of innumerable non-bonded
interactions.
ENVIRONMENT
Figure 5 The domains of a metallocompound in a
condensed phase environment.
energy
non-bonded
interatomic
distance
t
van der Waals
closest contact
distance
van der Waals
attractive
contact distance
Figure 6 The repulsive and attractive interaction regimes
between "non-bonded" atoms.
What are the characteristics and magnitudes of the "non-
bonding" interactions? There are the van der Waals repulsive
interactions at short distances, and the van der Waals
attractions at longer distances, according to the curve in Figure
6. Note that the conventional van der Waals separations and
the radii derived from them refer to the closest possible
approach, which is slightly repulsive. The attractive
interactions, responsible for the condensed phases, are at
longer distances, and there is another set of van der Waals
radii characterising these attractive interactions for the
elements, just as there is a set of values for the magnitudes of
the attractive energies at the shallow minima. Van der Waals
interactions following curves of this type are described
analytically in computer programs for supramolecular
chemistry.
There is another interaction, the coulombic forces between
regions of excess or deficient electron density in molecules.
This is expressed in terms of partial charges on atoms. There
are two important attributes of the coulombic interaction,
namely its magnitude, and its extent. For metallocompounds
the partial charges on atoms can be appreciable, up to about +1
electrons, and as a consequence the coulombic contributions to
134 I. G. DANCE
the total energies are often substantially larger than the van der
Waals energies.
It is important to recognise that there is an immense amount of
data on supramolecular chemistry of metallocompounds
available in the Cambridge Crystallographic Database (CSD).
Just as crystallisation is common, so determination of crystal
structure is very largely a routine operation, frequently
practised, and the journals are full of pictures of molecular
structure obtained by diffraction analysis of crystal structure.
In the 1993 version of the Database there are 115,000 entries,
of which 45,000 contain transition metals. The
supramolecular information here for metallocompounds is
immense, and has been largely ignored.
I will expound here on one aspect, which I call the phenyl
factor. In the CSD there are 4300 transition metal
compounds containing at least one triphenylphosphine ligand.
Here the donor domain is phosphorus, and the periphery of
each ligand brings three phenyl groups (Ph). In the CSD
there are 1150 crystals of anionic compounds using Ph4P* or
Ph4Ast as the cation. Each of these cations is fully coated
with phenyl groups.
Pheny] and related aryl groups in domain P have specific
supramolecular interactions. These are responsible for the
characteristic herringbone crystal structure of benzene and its
abnormally high melting point. The two interaction motifs for
benzene molecules and phenyl groups are the edge to face
and offset face to face conformations. These geometries
are determined by coulombic attractions between the partial
positive charges on H atoms and the negative m-electron
density of the aromatic. The net attractive energy for a pair of
phenyl] groups is calculated to be almost 10 kJ per mole.
This is known (albeit subconsciously) to many synthetic
chemists, who know that phenylated molecules often have
lower solubility and form better crystals. It is also the reason
why there are so many compounds with Ph3P ligands, and so
many salts with Ph4Pt in the Cambridge database: these are
the compounds that are easier to isolate and easier to obtain as
good crystals, for reason of the phenyl factor. It is also the
reason why many metal complexes with extensive heterocyclic
ligands have low solubility, and why the trick to increase
solubility is to introduce alkyl substituents which are
impediments to both of the favourable non-bonded
conformations. There are many other ligand systems with
these effects: the benzenethiolate ligand gives compounds
more easily crystallised than other thiols, and the same applied
to phenoxides. Supramolecular chemistry is behind much of
the folklore of laboratories engaged in synthetic coordination
chemistry.
There is acaveat. The interpretation of crystal structure data
to provide information on molecular structure can be invalid if
the molecule is conformationally fluxional, because the total
energy of the interactions between the molecule and its
environment, particularly where phenyl] groups are involved,
can be larger than the intramolecular conformational energies.
Details of molecular stereochemistry could be influenced by
the environment in the crystal. Much of the discussion of fine
details of molecular structure deriving from crystal structure
data is probably unwarranted: the high precision of the crystal
structure results can be deluding, because it is tempered by the
low accuracy with respect to the structure of the molecule in
solution.
The phenyl factor appears in a variety of structures. Some
years ago we synthesised and determined the crystal structures
of some compounds Cd(S-Aryl)2, which have complex
polycyclic and non-molecular structures.[Dance, Garbutt,
Craig and Scudder, 1987; Dance, Garbutt and Bailey, 1990;
Dance, Garbutt and Scudder, 1990] For example, the
cadmium compound with 2-methylbenzenethiolate when
crystallised from N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) has the
formula Cd7(SC6H4-2-Me)),4(DMF)2.[Dance, Garbutt and
Scudder, 1990.] In order to simplify and interpret this
structure, we published diagrams which had the phenyl
groups removed, to reveal the chains and cycles of Cd and S
atoms. However, this is a crystal structure dominated by the
phenyl factor. In fact the crystal is composed mainly of ary]
groups which arrange themselves in face-to-face and edge-to-
face conformations: the Cd-S sequences threading through
relatively small spaces, and the DMF molecules are included to
fill space, with their coordination to Cd being secondary.
Examples of the phenyl factor occur throughout the crystal
chemistry of anionic metal polysulfide compounds, frequently
crystallised with Ph4Pt cations. An example is (Ph4P*)4
[In2(S4)2(S¢6)2S7]*, [Dhingra and Kanatzidis, 1993] in which
the cations construct elaborate networks with multiple
attractive phenyl-pheny] interactions. Figure 7 shows this
layer of attractively interacting cations in this crystalline
compound.
We have recognised a supramolecular motif which occurs
frequently in crystals of this type.[Dance and Scudder, 1995]
The motif involves two Ph4P* cations embracing through
three phenyl groups each, such that hydrogen atoms on each
Ph group are attracted to C atoms of the next ring on the other
cation, with the interactions arranged fairly symmetrically
around the array of six Ph groups involved in the embrace.
In short, the cations are calling the supramolecular tune in
these compounds. These features provide opportunities for
crystal design and engineering. There is a gold mine for
research here. With understanding of crystal structures (as
distinct from molecular structures) it will be possible to design
and fabricate materials using these supramolecular principles.
There is a large volume of design data available in the
Cambridge crystallographic database.
Inorganic gas phase chemistry.
In the following I strip away all of the environment, and all of
domains [IL and P, and look at molecular systems which
contain only metals atoms and donor atoms. In many cases
these will be binary compounds, MxEy (E = any element),
Figure 7 The layer of attractively interacting Ph4P* cations
in crystalline (Ph4P+)4[In2S27]4-: (a) front view; (b) side
view.
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY FRONTIERS 135
high energy
laser pulse
ca 3000°
collisional
cooling
SYNTHESIS BY
ASSOCIATION
packet of.
ion trapping cell 6 ions | |
of
ion cyclotron resonance |’ | | | 7)
mass spectrometer
trapping potential
Figure 8 Simplified representation of the gas phase
synthesis experiments using laser ablation for generation of
precursors, and product containment and monitoring in an ion
trap mass spectrometer.
previously known only with non-molecular structure as metal
oxides, sulfides, nitrides, phosphides, and carbides.
Our research here involves synthesis in the gas phase, through
ablation of a solid using a high energy laser pulse, creating
atoms, ions and molecular fragments in the plasma plume
above the hot surface of the solid (see Figure 8). As these
cool they reassemble to form molecules and clusters. These
are contained in the ion trap of a Fourier transform ion
cyclotron resonance (FTICR) mass spectrometer, where they
can be separated, held, monitored, and reacted with other
gaseous reagents. It is important to recognise that this is
unlike conventional mass spectrometry, because it does not
reveal molecules present in the precursor solid but rather
allows synthesis by assembly of atoms, ions, and small
fragments liberated from the precursor. Further, the time
scale for experiments in the ion trap ranges up to 100 seconds,
which is very many orders of magnitude larger than in ion
beam experiments.
I will present a representative selection of our results. When
CoS is subject to laser ablation the mass spectrum of negative
ions contains 83 peaks, each of which is a new molecule
containing only Co and S.[El Nakat, Fisher, Dance and
Willett, 1993] Prior to this cobalt sulfide was known only as
a non-molecular solid, and our result reveals an unexpected
vista of cobalt sulfide molecular chemistry. Figure 9 contains
a map of the compositions of these new ions [CoxSy]~
obtained by laser ablation of a sample of CoS, and also a map
of [Cu,Sy]- from a similar experiment involving copper.
Similar results are obtained with other metal sulfides.[Dance
and Fisher, 1994] Figure 10 maps the compositions of the
iagtti
zs
:
ae
PS .4 RRR
b248 See eee
Figure 9 Maps of the compositions of the ions [CoxSy]-
generated by laser ablation of CoS, and of the [Cu,Sy]- ions
formed by laser ablation of various copper solid solids.
molecular sulfides formed by iron and nickel. These charts
give the composition rules for molecules of compounds
previously seen only as non-molecular solids, and as
minerals. We have no predictive methodology for such
compounds, and now seek to determine the new chemical
principles that are contained in their compositions and
structures. This chemistry is unexpected and unprecedented,
and yet reveals the fundamentals of inorganic binary
compounds. This frontier is a binary analog of the fullerene
frontier for elemental carbon.
It is possible to separate these ions in the gas phase, and
thereby to keep just one composition in the ion trap, and then
to study its reactions and reactivity. There are as yet no direct
data about structure, and experimental access to structural
information is rather difficult with the very low concentrations
in the gas phase. Our experiments occur at pressures of less
than 10-8 mbar.
In this situation, where intriguing new molecules are glimpsed
but cannot be easily subjected to spectroscopic
characterisation, important insight can be provided by theory
and computational methods. In these compounds where the
bonds are likely to be unusual, force-field methods which
require pre-definition of bonds are quite unsuitable. The
appropriate technique is quantum theoretical calculation of the
electronic structures of these compounds, coupled with
geometry optimisation by minimisation of the electronic
energy. There are various levels of quantum theory which
have been applied to transition metal compounds, but the
density functional methodology which I will describe and have
used extensively is very promising for inorganic chemistry,
and for big molecules with big atoms.
136 I. G. DANCE
Rit. Tae ees
[| @ 20-40% [TTT Tt
( > 40%
ia
Figure 10 Maps of the observed compositions of the ions
[M,xS,]- formed by laser ablation of the sulfides of iron and
nickel.
Density functional theory
Density functional theory, which has been used in solid state
physics for decades, is quantum theory in which the
conventional Schrodinger equation is re-expressed (by the
Hohenberg-Kohn theorem) in terms of the electron density.
The difficulty in quantum theory is evaluation of the two-
electron interaction energies for complex systems: these two-
electron interactions are the exchange and the correlation
energies. In density functional theory these energies are
derived from their expressions for an electron gas. In effect
this is ab initio quantum theory, in which there are no
empirical parameters, but there are variations in the
"functionals" which describe the exchange and correlation
energies. The two important advantages of density functional
methods (relative to conventional Hartree-Fock methods) are
the suitability for inorganic molecules where exchange and
correlation energies are more significant, and computational
expediency which allows investigation of larger molecules
with accessible computing resources.
The methods I use are embodied in the computer program
DMol, with geometry optimisation by energy minimisation.
The accuracy and power of this computational chemistry are
demonstrated by results for the large metal selenide cluster
Cuyz9Se15(PPr'3)12, optimised as Cuz9Se15(PH3)12, pictured
in Figure 11. The calculated bond distances are generally
within 0.05A of those measured for Cuz9Se15(PPri3)12. This
provides confidence in the application of density functional
methodologies to the newly observed inorganic clusters with
unknown structures. I see a very valuable future for density
functional theory in inorganic chemistry.
~ er
Wee ZS
<F Vente
&
PS
ed
i
Ry
=
Wes
rR
ce =
@ cu @)P OH
Figure 11 The calculated structure of Cuz9Se15(PH3) 12,
which is virtually identical with the measured structure of
Cuz9Se15(PPr'3)12.
The density functional calculations minimise the energy and
thereby optimise the geometry for a postulated geometrical
structure. They enable the mapping of the geometry-energy
hypersurfaces of the newly discovered inorganic molecules,
and elucidation of the new structural and bonding principles.
Using this method I have been able to explore and optimise the
structures of many of the metal sulfide clusters. These
results, and the structural principles they reveal, are too
voluminous to report here, but I will provide some results for
a different new frontier in gas phase inorganic chemistry, that
of metal carbon clusters.
In addition to the fullerenes, there are metallofullerenes in
which metal atoms reside inside or outside the carbon cages,
and there are metal-filled carbon nanotubes. A related but
different class of unprecedented binary metal-carbon
compounds are the metallocarbohedrenes, which are
Clusters of approximately equal numbers of metal and carbon
atoms. Metallocarbohedrenes are generated in the gas phase
by reaction of metal clusters with hydrocarbons.
The first metallocarbohedrene to be detected, in 1992, was
TigC12. The original proposal for its structure was the cube
of Ti with C2 groups parallel to the edges, as shown in Figure
12 (a). However, I was able to show by density functional
calculations that the alternative structure in Figure 12 (b) is
very much more stable, by more than 1000 kJ mol-!. [Dance,
1992] This structure has four inner Ti atoms and four outer
Ti atoms, which form slightly folded diamonds on the surface,
and the C» groups are cradled in the diamonds, along the long
diagonals. All other theoretical investigations have now
confirmed the much greater stability of this alternative
structure, and the C2 group diagonal to a diamond shaped
array of metal atoms is a prominent geometrical feature of
other stable metallocarbohedrenes.
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY FRONTIERS 137
An interesting sequence of copper carbohedrenes has been
reported recently, with many belonging to the general series
[Cu2n+1C2n]t. Using density functional calculations I have
defined the structural principles for them.[Dance, 1993a] In
Figure 13 are shown the optimised structures for [Cu,3C 12]+
and for [Cu25C24]*.[Dance, 1993b] Again a key structural
feature is the occurrence of C2 groups diagonal to Cuq
quadrilaterals.
The C2 group which appears to be a fundamental feature of the
metallocarbohedrenes is formally C2-, or acetylide, which is
isostructural with cyanide, CN-. Therefore we have
commenced investigations of gas phase metal cyanide
chemistry. While there is an immense literature on metal
cyanides and their applications in solution and in solids, prior
to our research only one paper mentioned metal cyanides in the
gas phase.
The laser ablation of copper cyanide or silver cyanide
generates series of positive ions with the composition
[M,x(CN) x-1]* and negative ions [M,(CN) x+1]-.[Dance, Dean
and Fisher, 1994.] These retain the formal M+! oxidation
state. Again the question arises, what are there structures?
The structural principles which evolve from the density
functional investigations of various postulates are very
different from those of the copper carbohedrenes. The most
stable structures are those in which cyanide forms a linear
bridge between metal atoms, which are themselves two-
coordinate, forming long linear molecules, as shown in Figure
14. These are unique molecules in chemistry: the
[Cus(CN)¢]- ion is more than 30A long, and yet only one
atom thick. In addition to the image of an abacus invoked in
Figure 14, these molecules suggest spear-like concepts. This
research on the fundamentals of copper and silver cyanide
molecules in the gas phase reveals possibilities for new
structures and properties in metal cyanide chemistry. There
are no analogs of these linear structures amongst crystalline
metal cyanides, and the challenge is now how to stabilise such
molecules in crystals.
The gas phase chemistry of zinc and cadmium cyanides is
equally intriguing.[Dance, Dean and Fisher, 1995] The
anions observed after laser ablation belong to a general series
[Mx(CN)2x41]-. The structure type which is supported by
computational investigations, using both density functional
and force-field methods, is a helix of the type shown in Figure
15. Here each metal atom is three-coordinate, approximately
planar, with one terminal cyanide ligand and connected by two
linear cyanide bridges to adjacent metal atoms in the helix.
The helix is maintained by coulombic attractions between
bridging cyanide ligands and the contiguous metal atoms in the
preceding and succeeding turns of the helix. The terminal
cyanide ligands are not radial to the axis of the helix, but bent
slightly in order to increase the coulombic energy with
contiguous metal atoms. Stability is also maintained if the
helix contains 6.7 metal atoms per turn rather than the 5.7
metal atoms per turn shown in Figure 15.
The metal cyanide helices in Figure 15, and the metal cyanide
spears of Figure 14, have been assembled in the gas phase
from M and CN fragments. These new architectures are not
present in the precursor solids, and now the challenge is
synthesis of the newly revealed structures in condensed
phases.
Finally, having described research on new polymetal
compounds containing the C22- and CN- ligands, I will turn
to another diatomic ligand which is isoelectronic with them,
namely N2. The special interest in N2 and metal clusters
occurs for the enzyme nitrogenase, which effects the
biological reduction of N2. This is most intriguing chemistry.
The N2 molecule is one of the most recalcitrant in chemistry,
Figure 12 (a) The original proposal for the structure of the
metallocarbohedrene TigC;2. (b) The most stable structure
for TigC12, as revealed by density functional calculations.
with a very strong triple bond. Industrial processes for the
hydrogenation of Nz (developed by Haber during the first
world war and now used principally for production of
fertilisers), involve pressures of 100 — 1000 atm, temperatures
of 400 — 500°C, iron catalysts, and cause only partial
conversion. Meanwhile the enzyme nitrogenase, present in
bacteria symbiotic with plants, catalyses the reduction of N2 to
the amines of life at a N2 pressure of 0.8 atm and ambient
temperature. It is established that the active site where No is
bound and reduced is a metal sulfide cluster, containing iron
and (normally) molybdenum. The question which tantalises
inorganic (and other) chemists is simply: How does it work?
What is the mechanism?
In 1993 the structure of the main proteins of the enzyme, and
of the active site, were revealed by Xray diffraction of
crystals.[Kim and Rees, 1992; Chan, Kim and Rees, 1993;
Bolin, Campobasso, Muchmore, Mortenson and Morgan,
1993] The essential features of the Fe7MoSog cluster at the
active site are shown in Figure 16, together with the
significant protein environment and the two connections
between the cluster and the protein. While this structural
138 I. G. DANCE
Figure 13 The optimised structures of the copper
carbohedrenes (a) [Cu,3Cj2]*, (b) [Cuz25C24]*.
revelation was a major breakthrough, the new information
referred to the inactive enzyme, and the question of the site of
binding of N2 and the question of mechanism remained
unanswered.
In this context my investigations of the binding of C22- to the
faces of metal clusters allowed me insight into the possibilities
for nitrogenase.[Dance, 1994] The six iron atoms at the
centre of the Fe7MoSg cluster constitute an approximate
trigonal prism, with three quadrilateral faces similar to those
which bind C2 in the metallocarbohedrenes. There are iron
carbohedrenes with structures similar to the other
metallocarbohedrenes mentioned above. Examination of the
protein surrounds revealed that one of these faces was very
Figure 14 The structures of the gaseous metal cyanide ions
[Cuy(CN) .1]* and [Cu,(CN) x4 1]-. Cu atoms are dark, C
atoms grey, N atoms hatched.
suitable for binding of N2. Further, it was known from the
metallocarbohedrene investigations that the most bonding
configuration for C2 was along the long diagonal of an M4
rhombus, while location of C2 parallel to an edge of
rectangular M4 was antibonding. This factor connected with
the fact that the Fe7MoSog cluster was connected to the protein
only at its ends, with the Mo end anchored while rotation
about the Fe-cysteine bond would be unrestricted. If the top
section of the cluster and the Fe¢ trigonal prism rotated slightly
relative to the bottom section, the Fe4 face at which N2 is
postulated to bind could change between a rectangle and
rhombus, and provide the bonding and antibonding
configurations for N2.
These hypotheses were evaluated by density functional
calculations of the ligated Fe7MoSg core, with bound N32, and
small twists about the long axis. These calculations support
the hypothesis that twisting of the cluster core will be a factor
in the binding of N2 and then in the weakening of the triple
bond of bound N32.
This model was developed further, in terms of the supply of
Ht to the N>2 during the course of reduction. There are two
sulfide ions which flank the binding site and doubly bridge
pairs of Fe atoms on the vertical edges of the Feg¢ trigonal
prism. Calculations show that addition of electrons to the
cluster causes greatest variation of partial atom charge at these
flanking S atoms, which become more basic on reduction.
Further, these sulfide ions are able to participate in hydrogen
bonds to residues behind the binding face. Thus there is a
straightforward hypothesis which involves these two S atoms
becoming more basic during reduction, and transferring to the
coordinated N2 a pair of H+ introduced via hydrogen bonds.
This feature of the mechanism is also supported by density
functional calculations.
After reduction, product ammonia leaves the active site. The
binding site and mechanism which I advance explains this
stage, because the homocitrate is located to just below the site,
and provides a hydrophilic environment for the egress of the
hydrophilic ammonia.
Full details this research and the proposed mechanism are
published.[Dance, 1994] The model is holistic, accounting
for the essential nature of iron but not molybdenum, the
limited axial connection of the cluster to protein, the exposed
face of undercoordinated iron atoms as binding site, doubly-
bridging sulfide ions flanking the binding face which provide
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY FRONTIERS 139
Figure 15 The proposed helical structure of [Zn27(CN)s55]-.
proton transfer pathways, the sixfold coordination of
molybdenum providing an anchor point for torsional twist of
the binding site, the Fe7MoSog core allowing electron reservoir
action, the homocitrate as provider of local hydrophilic
environment for product egress
The investigations of the mechanism of nitrogenase provide a
connection between the frontier of gas phase cluster chemistry
to the frontier of evolved molecular biology.
To summarise and conclude: I have shown that gas phase
inorganic chemistry coupled with ion trap mass spectrometry
and density functional theory enables investigations similar to
those of the more conventional condensed phases, with
syntheses, separations, measurements of reactivities and
reactions, and approaches to structures. This research,
involving the pristine state, reveals the fundamentals of
inorganic chemistry, and indicates possibilities that might not
otherwise have been contemplated. Certainly gas phase
inorganic chemistry is provocative.
Then I have included all of the domains of the condensed
phases, including the environment of a molecule which is
often ignored. I have shown something of the nature and
effects of the supramolecular interactions for metallo-
compounds, different from those of non-metal compounds,
and different from lattices containing monatomic ions. What
we know as the outcomes of evolved molecular biology (that
is supreme supramolecular chemistry) such as the chemistry
effected by the enzyme nitrogenase, indicates that there are
many further enticing processes and materials still to be
developed.
I conclude that the frontiers of inorganic chemistry are indeed
rich and certainly not "inorganic". The future is exciting.
Finally, I acknowledge with pleasure the contributions to this
research made by Dr Marcia Scudder, Dr Keith Fisher,
Professor Phil Dean, previous and current students Robert
Garbutt, Garry Lee, John Cusick, John El-Nakat, Dawit
Gizachew, and Ma Nu Li. Resources provided through the
Australian Research Council, the University of New South
Feg¢ trigonal
prism
— AUG
eae
a
hi
| homocitrate
G howe
4,
oy
CS) Mo a N
® s @ 0
Figure 16 The Fe7MoSog cluster which is the active site of
nitrogenase. The cluster is connected to the protein only at
the cysteine bonded to the top Fe atom and the histidine
bonded to Mo at the bottom. The homocitrate which chelates
to the Mo atom is an essential component. Nearby protein
residues which are significant for the mechanism are marked.
@»
Wales, and Australian Numerical Simulations and Modelling
Services (at ANSTO) are very gratefully acknowledged.
References
Bolin, J.T., Campobasso, N., Muchmore, S.W., Mortenson,
L.E. and Morgan, T.V., 1993, J. Inorganic Biochemistry,
51, 356.
Chan, M.K., Kim, J. and Rees, D.C, 1993, Science 260,
792-794.
Dance, I.G., 1992. Geometric and Electronic Structures of
[TigCj]: Analogies with Cg, J. Chemical Society, Chemical
Communications, 1779.
Dance, I.G., 1993a. Structural Principles for Copper
Carbohedrene Clusters [Cux(C2)y]*, J. Chemical Society,
Chemical Communications, 1306-1308.
Dance, I.G., 1993b. Structures and Structural Principles for
Copper Carbohedrene Clusters [Cu,3Cj2]* to [Cuz25C24]*, J.
American Chemical Society, 115, 11052-3.
Dance, I.G., 1994. Australian Journal of Chemistry, 47,
979-990.
140 I. G. DANCE
Dance, I.G., 1995. Supramolecular Inorganic Chemistry,
in Perspectives in Supramolecular Chemistry, G. Desiraju
(Ed), John Wiley.
Dance, I.G., Dean, P.A.W.D. and Fisher, K.J., 1994. Gas
Phase Metal Cyanide Chemistry: Formation, Reactions and
Structures of Copper(I) and Silver(I) Cyanide Clusters,
Inorganic Chemistry, 33, 6261-6269.
Dance, I.G., Dean, P.A.W.D. and Fisher, K.J., 1995. Self-
assembled Helicates of Zinc and Cadmium Cyanides,
Angewandte Chemie, International Edition in English, 34,
314-316.
Dance, I.G. and Fisher, K.J. 1994. Metal Chalcogenide
Clusters, M,Ey: Generation and Structure, in Soft Chemistry
Routes to New Materials, J. Rouxel, M. Tournoux and R.
Brec (eds) Trans Tech Publications, Switzerland.
Dance, I.G., Garbutt, R.G., Craig, D.C. and Scudder, M.L.,
1987. Inorganic Chemistry, 26, 4057-4064.
Dance, I.G., Garbutt, R.G. and Bailey, T.D., 1990.
Inorganic Chemistry, 29, 603-8
Dance, I.G., Garbutt, R.G. and Scudder, M.L., 1990.
Inorganic Chemistry, 29, 1571-5
Dance, I.G. and Scudder, M.L. 1995. The Sextuple Phenyl
Embrace, a Ubiquitous Concerted Supramolecular Motif, Ian
Dance and Marcia Scudder, J. Chemical Society, Chemical
Communications, 1039-1040.
Dhingra, S. and Kanatzidis, M.G., 1993. Inorganic
Chemistry, 32, 3300-3305.
El Nakat, J., Fisher, K.J., Dance, I.G. and Willett, G.D.,
1993. Inorganic Chemistry, 32, 1931-1940.
Kim, J. and Rees, D.C, 1992, Nature 360, 553-560.
Lehn, J.-M., 1990. Angewandte Chemie, International
Edition in English, 29, 1304-1319
School of Chemistry,
University of NSW, NSW 2052,
Australia
The 29th Liversidge Research Lecture,
delivered before the Royal Society of
New South Wales, 9th August 1994,
(Manuscript Received 28-11-1995)
Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.128, p.141, 1995 141
THESIS ABSTRACTS
ISSN 0035-9173/95/020141-01 $4.00/1
MEnvSt Thesis Abstract
Introductory Studies of Silica Fume Released as a
By-product of Electrometallurgical Processes
Elizabeth A. Cunningham
The introductory studies of silica fume released
as a by-product of electrometallurgical
processes which have been undertaken in this
thesis included, as the central theme, a
consideration of the morphological
characterization of the fume particles. Using a
Transmission Electron Microscope the count
median diameter (CMD) was calculated to be
340A with a geometric standard deviation (Sg)
of 1.86. The characterization was somewhat
limited in scope, in that the morphological
assessment included primary particle size only
not aggregate size.
On the basis of the characterization of the silica
fume as an ultrafine aerosol, predictions of
possible patterns of deposition in the human
respiratory system were attempted. The
predictions were. based on the findings of a
literature review of the deposition of particles
in the respiratory system, and attempted to
reflect patterns of deposition to be expected in
the general community.
The literature on the effects of silica fume
inhalation on both animal and human
respiratory systems was reviewed and included
the results of a minor survey conducted in
southern Tasmania on some aspects of
respiratory health in the population living in
two geographical areas of Tasmania, one of
which was situated in the vicinity of a silicon
smelter. The review was undertaken to
provide a basis for an examination of the
previous and current TLV recommendations
for industry by the ACGIH. The current
problems with regard to the monitoring of
silica fume are discussed as well as the need for
future studies in the industry.
An abstract from the thesis submitted to the
University of Tasmania for the degree of
Master of Environmental Studies, awarded
May 1994.
Centre for Environmental Studies
University of Tasmania
GPO Box 252C
HOBART TASMANIA 7001
Australia
(Manuscript Received 28-11-1995)
ISSN 0035-9173/95/020142-01 $4.00/1
142 Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.128, p.142, 1995
THESIS ABSTRACTS
PhD Thesis Abstract: Light Scattering Studies of Microstructure
in YBayCu307_, Superconductors.
John M. Long.
Raman spectroscopy and optical microscopy have
proven to be useful techniques for the
characterisation of YBa),Cu307_, and other
ceramic superconductors. As the primary
electrical properties of bulk YBayCu307_,
superconductors are dependent on microstructure
of the materials, an investigation was carried out
to apply Raman spectroscopy and optical micro-
scopy to the analysis of microstructure in
polycrystalline YBayCu307_,. The two tech-
niques have not previously been used closely
together for microstructural analysis of
YBayCu307_,. It was found that the two
methods work well together. Raman spectroscopy
provides much detailed information on individual
grains of particular samples, and optical micro-
scopy provides more overall, general information
concerning a whole sample surface. Micro-
Raman techniques were far superior to conven-
tional Raman techniques when applied to the
analysis of YBa,Cu307_,.
Micro-Raman spectroscopy analysis was directly
correlated with optical microscopy observations.
Sample colours as observed through crossed
polarisers were calibrated and correlated with
primary sample properties such as oxygen
stoichiometry and orientation of YBa,Cu307_,
grains. The presence and distribution of
impurities was determined by both Raman
spectroscopy and optical microscopy.
Refinements of Raman analysis techniques were
also developed. A Raman spectral peak near 335
wavenumbers (cm7!) was found to have a
systematic variation in asymmetry as a function of
oxygen stoichiometry, 7—x. This variation was
calibrated against the position of another Raman
peak near 500 cm! whose position is sensitive to
7-x. YBa,Cu307_, grains can have an orientation
such that in a Raman experiment, the peak near
500 cm-! is weakly detected (or not at all), but
that near 335 cm~! is easily detected, and the
asymmetry of this peak may give a measure of
7—x, an essential parameter in the preparation of
YBa,Cu307_, as a superconductor. Two
previously published mathematical equations used
to describe peak asymmetry were examined, and
one was selected as more convenient for routine
analysis of YBayCu307_, samples. A ratio
between the intensity of the peak near 335 cm7!
and the sum of the intensities of two other peaks
near 440 and 500 cm~! was established to partly
quantify grain orientation.
The partial substitution of dysprosium for yttrium
in some YBa)Cu307_, samples was also detected
by micro-Raman spectroscopy as part of their
microstructural analysis.
The effect on the spectra of strong laser
irradiation was also investigated. Heating caused
by the incident laser beam produced one or two
extra Raman peaks from crystal defects between
550 and 650 cm~!, depending on the orientation
of the grain under examination and its initial
oxygen stoichiometry. The results are more or
less consistent with previously published results of
similar heating experiments.
The experiments were carried out in the context
of a larger research programme on microstructural
and electrical properties of polycrystalline
YBa,Cu307_,. Some of the samples from this
programme were examined. Some correlations
were found between the microstructural
properties and previously determined electrical
properties.
Monash University,
Department of Physics,
Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia
(Manuscript received 16-11-1995)
Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.128,p. 143, 1995
ISSN 0035-9173/95/020143-01 $4.00/1
THESIS ABSTRACTS
PhD Abstract: Shock Wave / Boundary Layer Interaction at
a Compression Corner in Hypervelocity Flows.
Samuel George Mallinson
Hypervelocity flow over compression corners with both sharp
and blunt leading edges is examined. In particular, the effects
of real gas behaviour on the shock wave / boundary layer
interaction at the corner are investigated. The flat plate flow,
which is the datum case, is also considered in detail.
The problem was studied both experimentally and theoretically.
Experiments were conducted in a free-piston driven shock
tunnel with reservoir enthalpies and free-stream speeds ranging
up to 19 MJ kg! and 5.5 km s-I, respectively. Measurements
were made of the surface pressure and heat transfer. Some flow
visualization data were also obtained. The experimental data
were compared with several theories that are strictly valid for
perfect gas flows. The local flat plate similarity method was
also extended to include real gas effects and used to predict flat
plate and compression corner flow for three idealized
conditions of practical importance.
Real gas effects on the sharp leading edge flat plate flow
appeared to be small. For the blunt leading edge flat plate
flows, the pressure and heat transfer were greater than for the
sharp leading edge flows. These differences seemed less
pronounced at high enthalpy. It is thought this may be due to
the smaller shock stand-off that occurs for real gas flows.
The separation and plateau pressures, the upstream influence,
the peak heating near reattachment and the incipient separation
angle are important characteristics of compression corner flow.
With leading edge sharp, the high and low enthalpy data for
these characteristics compared well with each other and also
with theories strictly valid for perfect gas flows. With leading
edge blunt, the plateau pressure appeared to increase and the
upstream influence and the pressure & heat transfer on the
ramp face were seen to decrease relative to the sharp leading
edge flows. The plateau pressure and upstream influence at
high and low enthalpy seemed to compare well with each other.
There were some discrepancies between the peak heating data
for high and low enthalpy, which was perhaps due to transition
to turbulence on the ramp face.
From the experimental data, the real gas effects on flat plate and
compression corner flow do not seem significant. It was,
however, still of interest to examine real gas effects on shock
wave / boundary layer interaction. To do this, the local flat
plate similarity theory for laminar hypersonic flows was
extended to include real gas effects. The gas chemistry was
based on the ideal dissociating gas model. It was shown that the
boundary layer displacement thickness is reduced for a real gas
by an amount that depends upon the energy lost to
endothermic processes in the boundary layer. This suggests
the extent of separation, which varies with the displacement
thickness, would be reduced by real gas effects. The theory
predicted the real gas effects on the pressure and heat transfer
for flat plate flow to be small. For the compression corner, the
theory indicated lower levels of pressure and higher levels of
heat transfer on the ramp face. The latter is attributed to the
reduced boundary layer thickness for the real gas.
University College, University of New South Wales,
Australian Defence Force Academy
Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering
Canberra ACT 2600
Australia.
(Manuscript received 16-11-1995)
143
144 Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.128, p.144, 1995
ISSN 0035-9173/95/020144-01 $4 .00/1
THESIS ABSTRACTS
Doctoral Thesis Abstract
Geological factors influencing erosion gullying in
the Grenfell-Gooloogong area, mid western New
South Wales.
Sara G. Beavis
The Thesis is concerned with understanding the
geological influences on gully erosion. Although
it is accepted that a factorial complex, comprising
parent material, climate, topography, land-use
and drainage basin area, defines the system, the
roles of geology has been assessed by selecting
sites where other variables are constant.
Extensive field surveys and _ laboratory analyses
have formed the basis for describing quantitatively
the influence of geological structure on_ gully
pattern, orientation and_ density. Furthermore,
field evidence has indicated that groundwater
discharge, in association with major faults and/or
highly fractured parent material, is of major
importance in the location of gully systems.
The different parent materials, having varying
mineralogy, texture, fabric and degree of
weathering, influence the soil's physical, chemical
and engineering properties. Mechanisms of erosion
are a dynamic expression of soil properties.
This relationship, although it cannot be quantified,
explains the observed phenomenon of the same
process producing dissimilar rates of linear
extension.
The study of mechanisms led to the development
of equipment to measure directly water throughflow
at gully headcuts. Results strongly suggest that
throughflow is the most significant process of
water movement at_ gully headcuts,' effecting
detachment of material from the headcut face.
It has been shown, further, that the configuration
of throughflow hydrographs is influenced by the
clay mineralogy of the soil.
Soil properties influence the incidence and severity
of erosion gullying. Multiple regression analyses
have been utilised to define statistically the
relationship between soil properties and rates of
erosion. It is clear from this research that the
relationship is complex, and that the various
geological/soil factors are interactive and do not
operate in isolation. Significantly, it has been
found that the interaction between, and_ the
controlling set of, variables causing erosion, are
unique according to parent rock associations.
Multiple regression analyses have quantified further
the variability of controlling sets of factors. When
hydrological parameters are held constant, over
90% of the variance in the rate of linear extension
of gullies is accounted for by _ soil _ properties.
Even taking the hydrological factors into account,
soil properties account for over 50% of the
variance.
An abstract of a thesis submitted to the University
of New South Wales for the Degree of Doctor
of Philosophy, 1992.
Centre of Resource and Environmental Studies
Australian National University
Canbéerra- A:Gal;
(Manuscript received 7-9-1995)
Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.128,pp.145-146, 1995
THESIS ABSTRACTS
ISSN 0035-9173/95/020145-02 $4.00/1
Master’s Thesis Abstract
Parameters Affecting S.I. Engine Knock
A high speed, single cylinder spark ignition
engine with an_ optically accessible
combustion chamber, was used to study the
influence of various engine parameters on
knock tendency. The test engine resulted
from major modifications made on an
existing engine’ situated in the
thermodynamics laboratory of the
Mechanical Engineering department at the
University of Melbourne. Knock was
assumed in this study to be initiated by the
spark plug as the ignition source ("Spark
Knock"). The parameters influencing knock
that were examined were inlet air
temperature, coolant temperature, engine
speed and combustion chamber shape. An
improved understanding of engine factors
affecting knock, should lead to methods for
its reduction. Knock reduction is crucial in
developing spark ignition engines with
higher compression ratios that offer greater
thermal efficiencies.
To avoid engine damage, incipient knock
was produced corresponding to sudden
acceleration of the flame traversing the
fuel-air charge in the combustion chamber.
Thus, the knock tendencies of two
combustion chambers were compared. The
first combustion chamber contained a
"swirl vane" (close to the inlet valve)
whilst this vane was removed for the other
chamber. Numerical results including
pressure and crank angle data for various
knocking conditions that were obtained
from the swirl vane combustion chamber,
were manipulated and compared with
theoretical expectations. Data manipulation
entailed visual screening of important
points of the "raw" data, and numerical
filtering. The data was then processed by a
"reduction" program to convert the filtered
data into an acceptable form with SI units.
The spark advance required to initiate
knock was found to increase with engine
speed. The spark advance increase was
Petros Lappas
approximately 10 degrees for each 200
r/min increase in engine speed over the
range tested. This is because, the time for
which the end-gas is exposed to extremes
of pressure and temperature during
combustion, reduces with engine speed and
lessens the chance of knock unless the
spark is further advanced.
Combustion duration (in ms), which is a
direct indication of the time for which the
end-gas is exposed to extremes of pressure
and temperature, was evaluated with the
aid of computer code developed by the
author to determine important information
including mass fraction burnt history. The
code was based on a combustion model
that assumes separated regions of burnt and
unburnt gas in the combustion chamber.
The flame shapes observed in combustion
photographs taken confirms _ this
assumption, thus validating the model used.
Despite the well known phenomenon that
knock tendency increases with inlet air
temperature, there was no_ relationship
detected between inlet air temperature and
knock advance. This is because of the
errors associated with the determination of
the knock advance due to a) necessary
haste whilst increasing the spark timing
(until knock is initiated) because of
imminent cylinder overheating and b) the
non-proportional alteration of spark
advance due to eccentricity in the advance
screw mechanism. For similar reasons, the
expected increase in knock sensitivity with
cylinder head coolant temperature was not
detected.
Even though all tests had a similar degree
of knock, higher NOx levels were recorded
in tests with higher engine speed and inlet
air temperature, because of the higher
pressures and temperatures reached in these
conditions.
145
146
THESIS ABSTRACTS
The observations from the swirl vaned
combustion chamber did not conflict with
established theory on the causes of spark
knock. Combined with concepts expanded
by the author, this knock theory (which is
intimately connected to autoignition theory)
was applied to combustion photographs for
both combustion chambers to predict which
one was the least likely to knock.
Computer code was written to demonstrate
the insignificance of heat transfer relative
to burn-rate. On the basis that autoignition
is highly dependent on burn-rate and less
so on end-gas heat transfer, the combustion
chamber without the swirl chamber was
predicted as the one least likely to knock.
An abstract from the thesis submitted to the
University of Melbourne for the degree of
Master of Engineering Science, August
1995.
Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing
Engineering
The University of Melbourne
Parkville VIC 3052
Australia
(Manuscript received
17-10-1995)
Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.128,pp 147-150,1995
ISSN 0035-9173/95/020147-04
$4.00/1
147
BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR
ALAN HEYWOOD VOISEY
1911-1995
Professor Alan Voisey, former Head of the
Department of Geology, University of New
England and the School of Earth Sciences,
Macquarie University, died suddenly in Sydney on
15th April 1995, 4 days after his 84th birthday. His
association with the subject he loved spanned 65
years and Australia has lost one of its great teachers
of Geology.
Alan Heywood Voisey, an only child, was born on
11th April, 1911 at Cessnock, the day of a mine
disaster. His primary school days were at
Macksville and in 1922 Alan became Dux of the
School. However because the family could not
afford to send him as a boarder to high school at
Kempsey, Alan repeated the final year of primary
school, in order to apply for and be awarded a
bursary, worth 40 pounds a year. In 1923 he was
also Dux of the School. At the end of his secondary
education at West Kempsey Intermediate High
School, in 1928, he was Dux and in his Leaving
Certificate examination topped the State Honours
List in Geology.
In 1929 at the onset of the Great Depression, Alan
entered the Faculty of Science at the University of
Sydney with the aid of a Sydney Teachers Training
College scholarship. It was here that he was to
study and be influenced by the "greats" of
Australian geology. Professor T. W. Edgeworth
David who had held the Chair for 33 years,
vacating it in 1924, was still there, active, revered
and influential. Others on the staff included W. R.
Browne, L. A. Cotton, L. L. Waterhouse, G. D.
Osborne, W. S. Dun and Ida A. Brown. Alan not
only excelled at his studies, but formed attitudes and
ideals that influenced and served him well
throughout his life. Tales of these times were oft
repeated by Alan with relish to the generations of
university students he taught. Alan's students
remember well the geology excursions they
attended, with Alan holding forth, around a
campfire or at the local pub, about his student days,
of the Sydney staff, and of the academic rivalries
with his fellow students, in particular his lifelong
friend Sam Warren Carey. There was more to his
stories than just the events; it was his sincerity and
friendliness, his deep and abiding respect for the
ideas and teachings of others, his love of geology,
and his sense and appreciation of history in passing
on information.
After four years at Sydney, Alan graduated in 1933
with a B.Sc.Degree, First Class Honours and was
awarded the University Medal in Economic
Geology. He shared with Sam Carey the Coutts
Scholarship for Proficiency in Science. Being
under bond to the NSW Education Department, he
was required to attend the Teachers Training
College during 1933. However, instead of being
appointed as expected to a secondary school in early
1934, the depression and lack of Government
funding meant that Alan spent six months
unemployed until he was appointed as a primary
teacher to Greta Public School, nearby his
birthplace. Greta was a mining town, where all the
mines were closed and virtually the only people in
employment were government employees. This was
an extremely difficult time for Alan and he was
delighted when at the end of 1934, he was offered a
temporary position with a mining company in
Victoria, and soon afterwards, a position with the
newly formed Aerial, Geological and Geophysical
Survey of Northern Australia as Assistant
Geologist. During this time, Alan developed skills
of regional mapping, interpretation of aerial
photographs, and the ability to "rough it" in harsh
and uncompromising terrains.
148 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR
In 1937 and 1938 a Macleay Fellowship from the
Linnean Society of New South Wales enabled Alan
to return to Sydney University for Master of
Science research under Dr W. R. Browne. He
worked on Upper Palaeozoic rocks in the Wingham
area of the Manning River district, and it was here
he met Phyllis Cox of "Colraine" Kimbriki, who
became his wife in 1938. In his memoirs (Voisey
1991), he acknowledged "..my gratitude and thanks
to my wife, Phyllis, who, in one way or another
was involved in almost everything I did - whether
she approved or not, over more than fifty years.
Besides caring for me and our children, Yvonne
and Lynette, and where possible for our
grandchildren, she welcomed and entertained at
home my colleagues, particularly geologists - dirty
or not!"
New England University College was established in
1938 as part of Sydney University and in 1939 Alan
was appointed lecturer in Geology and Geography.
He was to scrounge, borrow and buy equipment, as
1939 was the first year of teaching of geology and
geography. Initial student accommodation was the
laundry at "Booloomimbah" and transport for
student excursions was in Alan's sturdy 1924 Dodge
tourer "Bertha". The Armidale years (1939-1965)
were productive for Alan in terms of research and
in 1954 was awarded his DSc from the University
of Sydney. Later research papers reflected the
emergence of geosynclinal theory to plate tectonics.
Alan and family also made sabbatical visits to
Antioch College, Ohio in 1952-1953, ANU in 1960,
University of Otago in 1961 and Eastern Michigan
University 1964-1965. In the period 1939 to 1965,
the teaching staff increased to 5 and saw the College
become an autonomous university. These were
years of proud achievement for Alan, for in that
time he had attracted a dedicated staff of high
research calibre. To cope with increased students
and staff, Alan negotiated and helped design a new
building for the Department of Geology, opened in
1960. The centrepiece of the building, was a stone
entrance wall that consisted of an E-W cross-
sectional mosaic of rocks from the New England
Fold Belt. Alan had overseen the collecting and
laying of each hewn block. He would delight in
showing it to visitors and students at every
opportunity.
Alan was an active participant in the changes to the
secondary school curriculum of N.S.W. during the
years that Dr H. S. Wyndham was Director General
of Education. As the geologist on the Syllabus
Committee, Alan was instrumental in establishing an
integrated course in Geology and Biology as from
1962. As Chairman of the Geology Group, he
contributed a large part of the text book "Science
for High School Students" produced by Professor
Harry Messel and the Nuclear Research Foundation
in the University of Sydney.
In 1964, as a result of his experiences in New
England and his interest in education, Alan was
invited to form part of a government committee to
advise on the establishment of a third Sydney
University — Macquarie. His enthusiastic input and
spirited stand in promoting Geology and Geophysics
ensured that many of Alan's ideas were adopted in
the Regulations. He was appointed as Professor of
Geology and Head of the School of Earth Sciences
in 1966, and teaching commenced in 1967. As in
the case of New England, Alan set about to appoint
young and vigorous academics to devise and teach
courses to the students who numbered in the
hundreds. His policy was never to turn a student
away, and unlike more traditional schools in the
University, Earth Sciences, consisting of Geology
and Geography continued to grow. By 1971, just 4
years after teaching commenced, there were 36
lecturing staff and 11 tutoring staff, a remarkable
achievement.
By 1971 and with many of his academic
expectations realised, Alan retired, but instead of
opting for the quiet life, he plunged into the world
of mining and finance. This was a vastly different
world from that of academia, where he had spent
much of his life. Both the rewards and the lifestyle
were different. However, Alan's long and varied
experience and knowledge meant that he was
invaluable to the burgeoning mining developments
of the seventies and eighties. His experience in
geology and his contacts in the mining world, some
of whom were his former students, resulted in Alan
being appointed to directorships or consulting for
many companies including Mining Finance
Corporation, ICI Australia, Oakbridge Limited, Era
South Pacific, Minerol Investments, Negri River
Corporation, Sedimentary Gold, Cracow Gold and
Sedimentary Holdings. It was a lifestyle he was to
follow until 1987.
The University of New England, honoured him
with an Honorary DSc in 1978 and in 1980 the
Geology Department formed the A. H. Voisey Club.
At that time, there were 450 graduates in geology
and the purpose of the club was to keep in touch and
contribute to the growth of the Geology
Department. Macquarie University awarded him an ©
Honorary DSc in 1993, the 25th year of teaching.
BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR 149
The New South Wales Division of the Geological
Society of Australia, now awards an annual A. H.
Voisey Medal to "a younger member of the Society
for outstanding research work". Alan joined the
Royal Society of New South Wales in 1933, was for
some years a Member of Council, and President in
1966.
Throughout his life Alan continued to make friends
in all walks of society. His love of geology was a
major facet of his life. However, another most
important aspect was his attitude to, and his
relationship with, his students. He was imbued with
a determination to ensure that his students came to
love geology and that one and all achieved to their
maximum potential. Equally importantly, Alan was
proud of the achievements of his students and took
pride in their successes. He was a man who set
goals and steadfastly pursued them throughout a
long and useful life. The following saying has been
attributed to Alan: ... "I never took on a fight that I
didn't intend to win". Most members of staff who
have sat through School meetings with Alan in the
Chair would agree with those sentiments.
His death occurred at the end of a busy week which
included a Geological Society, N. S. W. Division
meeting, a Chancellors’ luncheon at Macquarie
University, and his 84th birthday party attended by
his wife, their two daughters, two of his
grandchildren and two of his former University
students. He died just four days later. His mind
was always active and clear, he had no regrets, he
had lived his life to the full.
Publications of A. H. Voisey
1934 A preliminary account of the geology of the
middle North Coast district of New South
Wales. Proc. Linn. Society. N.S.W. 59: 333-
347.
1934 The physiography of the middle North coast
district of New South Wales. Journ. & Proc.
Roy. Soc. N.S.W. 68: 88-103.
1935 The Silverwood-Lucky Valley Upper
Palaeozoic succession. Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld.
46: 60-65.
1936 The Upper Palaeozoic rocks around Yessabah
near Kempsey, N.S.W. Journ. & Proc. Roy.
Soc. N.S.W. 70: 183-204.
1936 Geographical notes on the country between
Orroroo and Oodnadatta. The Australian
Geographer 3: 20-22.
1936 The Upper Palaeozoic rocks in the
neighbourhood of Boorook and Drake,
N.S.W. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. 59: 155-
168.
1937 (Part 2 of a joint paper with Dr A.N. Lewis)
A record of volcanic activity in Tasmania
during Triassic times. Papers and Proc. Roy.
Soc. Tas., 1937: 31-39.
1937 House types in the Northern Territory. The
Australian Geographer 3: 3-7.
1938 The stratigraphy of the Northern Territory.
Journ. & Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W. 72: 136-
159
1938 A contribution to the geology of the
MacDonnell Ranges, Central Australia.
Journ. & Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W. 72: 160-
174.
1938 The Upper Palaeozoic rocks of Tasmania.
Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. 63: 309-333.
1938 The Upper Palaeozoic rocks in the
neighbourhood of Taree, N.S.W. Proc. Linn.
Soc. N.S.W. 63: 453-462.
1938 The geology of the Armidale district, N.S.W.
Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. 63: 463-467.
1939 The Upper Palaeozoic rocks between Mount
George and Wingham, New South Wales.
Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. 64: 242-254.
1939 The Lorne Triassic Basin and associated
rocks. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. 64: 255-
265.
1939 The geology of the Lower Manning district,
New South Wales. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.
64: 394-407.
1939 The geology of the County of Buller, New
South Wales. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. 64:
385-393.
1940 The Upper Palaeozoic rocks in the country
between the Manning and Kuruah Rivers,
New South Wales. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.
65: 192-210.
150
BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR
1942 The Tertiary land surface in southern New
England. Journ. & Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W.
76: 82-85.
1942 The geology of the County of Sandon, New
South Wales. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. 67:
288-293.
1943 The Daly River region Northern Territory.
The Australian Geographer, June 1943: 1-8.
1944 Correlation of some Carboniferous sections
in New South Wales. Proc. Linn. Soc.
N.S.W. 70: 34-40.
1946 The peculiar drainage pattern in the Guyra-
Aberfoyle area. The Australian Geographer,
1946.
1948 The geology of the country around the Great
Lake, Tasmania. Papers and Proc. Roy. Soc.
Tas. 1948: 95-103.
1948 The geology of the country between Arthur's
Lakes and the Lake River. Papers and Proc.
Roy. Soc. Tas. 1948: 105-110.
1950 The Permian rocks of the Manning-Macleay
province, N.S.W. Journ. & Proc. Roy. Soc.
N.S.W. 84: 64-67.
1953 Geological structure of the Eastern Highlands
in New South Wales, in Geology of
Australian Ore Deposits. Aust. Inst. Min. &
Met. 1953, 1: 850-862.
1954 Portion of N.S.W. section of Symposium on
Contributions to the corrrelation of the
Permian in Australia and New Zealand.
Journ. Geol. Soc. Aust. 2: 92.
1956 Erosion surfaces around Armidale, N.S.W.
Journ & Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W. 90: 128-
133:
1957 Further remarks on the sedimentary
formations of New South Wales, (Clarke
Memorial Lecture) - Journ. & Proc. Roy.
Soc. N.S.W. 91: 165-189.
1957 The Manilla Syncline and associated faults.
Journ. & Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W. 91: 209-
214.
1959 Tectonic evolution of north-eastern N.S.W.
Australia. Journ. & Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W.
92: 191-203.
1959 Australian Geosynclines. Presidential
Address Sec. C. ANZAAS, 1959. Aust.
Journ. Science 22: 188-198.
1963 Contributions as Chairman of Geology Group
to "Science for High Schools". Nuclear
Research Foundation, University of Sydney.
1964 With K.L. Williams. The geology of the
Carroll-Keepit-Rangari area of New South
Wales. Journ. & Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W.
97: 65-72.
1965 Geology and mineralization of eastern New
South Wales in Geology of Australian Ore
Deposits, second edition. Aust. Inst. of Min.
and Met.: 402-410.
1968 Geological Techniques - Presidential Address
1967. Journ. & Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W. 101:
137-146.
1968 The Environment in A Century of Scientific
Progress - Centenary Volume of the Royal
Society of New South Wales, 1968: 33-52.
1969 The recognition and location of ore bodies.
Australian Science Teachers Journal 15: 63-
66.
1969 Contributions on the New England province
in The Geology of New South Wales (G.H.
Packham, ed.). Geological Society of
Australia 16.
1991 Sixty Years on the Rocks. (Harrington, H. J.,
Yeates, A.J., Branagan, D. F., Mc Nally, G.
H., eds). Earth Sciences History Group,
Geological Society of Australia.
S.E.S
Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol.128,pp151-156,1995 151
ISSN 0035-9173/95/020151-06 $4.00/1
Members of the Society
November 1995
The year of election is given in brackets; an asterisk indicates pre-paid Life Membership.
Assoc. = Associate member. The number of papers published in the Journal is indicated by P.
Degrees and diplomas are listed in order of seniority, with awarding institution, where
known.
Honorary Members
Appointed by Council; total number restricted to 20.
BENNETT, Emeritus Professor J. M. AO. FTS. PhD(Camb),
BE-Civ, BE-Mech&Elect, BSc (Qld). FACS, FBCS,
FIEAust, FIMA. Balgowlah, NSW. (1978; Hon. Mem.
1995).
BIRCH, Emeritus Professor A.J. AC, CMG. FAA, FRS.
DPhil, MSc. Bruce, ACT. (1973; P8; Hon. Mem. 1986).
CAREY, Emeritus Professor S. W. AO. FAA. DSc(Syd),
HonDSc (PNG). FNI, FGS. Dynnyrne, Tas. (1938; P2;
Hon. Mem. 1976).
CORNFORTH, Emeritus Professor Sir John W. AC, Kt.
CBE. Nobel Laureate. FRS. DPhil (Oxf), MSc (Syd).
Lewes, E. Sussex, England. (P6; Hon. Mem. 1977).
CRAIG, Emeritus Professor D. P. AO. FAA, FRS. DSc,
PhD (Lond), HonDSc, MSc(Syd),
HonDrChem(Bologna). FRACI, FRIC. O'Connor, ACT.
(1941; P7; Hon. Mem. 1985).
FIRTH, Emeritus Professor Sir Raymond W. Kt. PhD,
MA. FBA. London, England. (Hon. Mem. 1952).
HILL, Emeritus Professor D. AC, CBE. FAA, FRS. DSc,
HonLLD (Qld), PhD(Camb). FGS. St Lucia, Qld. (1938;
P7; Hon. Mem. 1973).
MCCARTHY, Dr F._D. FAHA. HonDSc(ANU),
DipAnthr(Syd). Northbridge, NSW. (1949; P1; Pres.
1956; Hon. Mem. 1979).
NAPPER, Professor D. H. FAA. PhD(Camb), MSc(Syd).
FRACI. Dept. of Physical Chemistry, University of
Sydney, NSW. (1973; Pres. 1979; Hon. Mem. 1995).
NOSSAL, Sir Gustav. AC, Kt. CBE. FAA, FTS, FRS. HonDSc,
MB, BS, BScMed (Syd); HonDSc(ANU); PhD(Melb).
FRACP, FRCP, FRSE. Director, Walter & Eliza Hall
Institute, Melbourne, Vic. (Hon. Mem. 1986).
OLIPHANT, Sir Marcus L. E. AC, KBE. FAA, FTS, FRS.
HonDSc (Melb, Birm); HonLLD (StAndr); MA, PhD
(Camb). Griffith, ACT. (Hon. Mem. 1948).
PRICE, Sir J. Robert. KBE. FAA. DSc(Adel); DPhil(Oxf).
Red Hill South, Vic. (Hon. Mem. 1976).
ROBERTSON, Emeritus Professor Sir Rutherford N. AC,
Kt. CMG. FAA, FRS. DSc(Syd), PhD(Camb).
Binalong, NSW. (Hon. Mem. 1985).
RUNCORN, Emeritus Professor S. K. FRS. ScD, PhD, MA
(Camb). HonDSc (Paris & Utrecht). Imperial
College, London, UK. (Hon. Mem. 1993).
STANTON, Emeritus Professor R. L. FAA. PhD, MSc
(Syd). HonFIMM, HonFGSAn, MAusIMM.
University of New England, Armidale, NSW. (1949;
P2; Hon. Mem. 1988).
WILD, Dr J. P. AC. CBE. FAA, FTS, FRS. ScD, MA (Camb);
HonDSc (ANU). Ann Arbor, Mich., USA. (Hon.
Mem. 1990).
Members
ADRIAN, J. BSc(Syd). Beacon Hill, NSW. (1970).
ALDRICH-WRIGHT, Dr J. R. PhD(Macq), BAppScHons.
University of Western Sydney, Macarthur, NSW.
(1994; Pl).
ALEXANDER, C. V. FICA(UK). Pymble, NSW. (1990).
ALEXANDER, Professor R. D. PhD, BScHons. University
of Western Sydney, Macarthur, NSW. (1994).
ALLEN, E. I. Nowra, NSW. (1994).
ANDERSON, G. W. BSc, BE(Syd). Lane Cove, NSW. (1948).
ARDITTO, P. A. BSc, MSc, DipEd (NSW). BHP Petroleum,
Melbourne, Vic. (1981).
ASANTE, S. MSc. Dept. of Zoology, University of New
England. (Assoc. 1992).
BADHAM, Dr C. D. MB, BS (Syd), BSc(NSW), DR(Syd).
FRACR. Paddington, NSW. (1962).
BAGGS, D. W. BArchHons (NSWIT). Castle Hill, NSW.
(1992).
BAGGS, J. C. Chatswood, NSW. (Assoc., 1989).
BAGGS, Dr S. A. PhD, MArch, DipArch (NSW),
GradDipLandDes, DipBldgBiol&Ecol(BBEInst, NZ).
FRAIA, FRIBA, FSA(Lond). Chatswood, NSW. (1989;
P2).
BAILEY, T. D. PhD, BScHons (Qld). Department of
Chemistry, University of Western Sydney,
Macarthur, NSW. (1994).
BANFIELD, J. E. PhD, MSc (Melb). Department of
Botany, University of New England, Armidale,
NSW. (1963).
BARKAS, J. P. MSc(Syd). Pymble, NSW. (1972).
BARNETT, I. L. DipAgr (Hawkesbury). Kenthurst,
NSW. (1990).
BASDEN, H. MAppSci (NSWUT); BSc, DipEd(Syd).
Collaroy Beach, NSW. (1970).
BASDEN, Dr K S. PhD, BSc (NSW), ASTC. CPEng, CChem.
MRACI, MAusIMM, FlInstE, FAIE, MIEAust. Lawson,
NSW. (1951; P1)
BEAN, Dr J. M. PhD, BScHons (NE). Gunnedah, NSW.
(1975; P1).
BEAVIS, Emeritus Professor F. C. MA(Camb), PhD,
BSc(Melb), LLB (NSW). FGS. Cowra, NSW. (1973; P1;
Pres. 1978).
BENNETT, Professor M. R. FAA. DSc(Syd), PhD, MSc, BE
(Melb). Neurobiology Laboratory, Department of
Physiology, University of Sydney, NSW. (1993; P4).
BHATHAL, Dr R. S. PhD(Qld), BSc(Sing), CertEd(Birm).
FSAAS. Georges Hall, NSW. (1982; P2; Pres. 1984).
152 MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY
BILLS, Dr R. M. MB, BS(Syd). Queanbeyan, NSW.
(1982).
BINNS, Dr R. A. PhD(Camb), BSc(Syd). CSIRO Division
of Exploration & Mining, North Ryde, NSW. (1964;
Pi).
BLACK, Professor D. StC. PhD(Camb), MSc(Syd),
AMusA. FRACI. Professor of Organic Chemistry,
Department of Organic Chemistry, University of
New South Wales, Sydney, NSW. (1983; P1).
BLACK, L. F. BScHons(NSW), DipEd(MCAE). Broken
Hill, NSW. (Assoc., 1975).
BLACK, P. L. OAM. BSc(NSW). Broken Hill, NSW. (1975).
BLANKS, F. R. AM. _ BSc(Syd). Greenwich, NSW.
(1948*).
BLAXLAND, D. G. MB, BS (Syd). FRCPA. Adaminaby,
NSW. (1977).
BLAYDEN, Dr I. D. PhD, BScHons(Newc), MBA.
Lindfield, NSW. (1966).
BRAKEL, Dr A. T. PhD, BSc(Newc). c/o Australian
Geological Survey Organisation, Canberra, ACT.
(1968; P2).
BRANAGAN, Dr D. F. PhD, MSc(Syd). FGS, HonMGSAus.
Northbridge, NSW. (1967; P5; Pres 1995).
BROPHY, Dr J. J. PhD, BSc(NSW); DipEd(Monash).
ARACI. c/o Department of Organic Chemistry,
University of New South Wales, NSW. (1983; P5).
BROWN, Dr D. J. PhD, DSc, DIC(Lond), MSc(Syd). FRACI.
O'Connor, ACT. (1942*).
BRYAN, Dr J. H. PhD, BScHons (NSW). Managing
Director, McElroy Bryan & Associates Pty Ltd.
Willoughby, NSW. (1968).
BUCKLEY, L. A. AM. Order of the Rising Sun (Japan).
BScHons (Syd). FAIM, FAICD. Managing Director,
Broughton & Co. Ltd. Chelmer, Qld. (1940).
BURNS, B. B. OBE. MDS(Syd). FICD. Collaroy, NSW.
(1961).
CALLAGHAN, P. M. MSc(Melb), BSc(Syd). ALAA. North
Sydney, NSW. (1984).
CALLENDER, J. H. MScHons(W'gong), BSc(NSW).
Wahroonga, NSW. (1969).
CAMPBELL, I. G. S. BSc(Syd). Wahroonga, NSW. (1955).
CAMPBELL, Emeritus Professor K. S. W. FAA. PhD, MSc
(Qld). Campbell, ACT. (1975; P1).
CAMPBELL, Dr M. T. PhD(WA), BSc(Syd), DipEd(SCAE).
University of Western Sydney, Macarthur, NSW.
(1994).
CASTILLO, Dr R. PhD, MSc(NSW), LicFil(Chile).
Woronora Heights, NSW. (1994).
CAVILL, Emeritus Professor G. W. K. FAA. DSc,
PhD(Liv), MSc(Syd). FRACI. Seaforth, NSW. (1944;
Pl).
CHAFFER, E. K. Chatswood, NSW. (1954*; Pl; Pres.
1975).
CHALMERS, R. O. ASTC. Cleveland, Qld. (1933*; P1).
CHATFIELD, S. P. Lane Cove, NSW. (1988).
CHERAS, Dr P. A. PhD, BAppSci(Qld). Thornlands, Qld.
(1993; P1).
CHURCHWARD, Dr J. G. PhD, BScAgr. Mount Eliza, Vic.
(1935**P2)
CLANCY, Dr B. E. PhD, MSc (NSW), DipEd(Syd).
Lugarno, NSW. (1957; P1).
COENRAADS, Dr R. R. PhD, BAHons (Macq), MSc (Brit
Colombia). Frenchs Forest, NSW. (1991; P4).
COHEN, S. B. MSc, BEc (Syd). CChem. MRACI. Darling
Point, NSW. (1940*).
COLE, Dr E. R. PhD(NSW), MSc(Syd). FRACI. Eastwood,
NSW. (1940; P2). f
COLE, J. M. BScHons(Syd). Eastwood, NSW. (1940; P2).
COLE, Professor T. W. FTS. PhD(Camb), BE(WA).
FIEAust. University of Sydney, NSW. (1978; P1;
Pres. 1982).
COLLETT, G. BSc, DipEd (Syd). ARACI. Cheltenham,
NSW. (1940).
COOK, Dr J. L. PhD, MSc(NSW). FAIP, MAPS. Caringbah,
NSW. (1990; P2).
COPLAND, B. J. MSc, BA, DipTeach. Moss Vale, NSW.
(1994).
COX, C. D. BSc, DipEd (Qld). Forestville, NSW. (1964).
CREELMAN, Dr R. A. PhD, MScHons, BA(Macq).
Epping, NSW. (1973).
CROOK, Dr K. A. W. PhD(NE), MSc(Syd), BA(ANU).
University of Hawaii, Hawaii, USA. (1954; P9).
CROSSLEY, Assoc. Professor M. J. PhD, BSc(Melb).
CChem. ARACI. University of Sydney, NSW. (1993).
DAY, Dr A. A. PhD(Camb), BSc(Syd). FGS, FAusIMM.
Lindfield, NSW. (1952; Pres. 1965; P3).
DRAKE, Dr L. A. PhD, MA(Calif), BAHons, BSc(Melb).
Observatorio San Calixto, La Paz, Bolivia. (1962; P3).
DREW, Dr C. A.. PhD, BScHons(Syd). South Hurstville,
NSW. (1987).
ENGEL, Dr B. A. PhD(Newc), MSc(NE). University of
Newcastle, NSW. (1961; P1).
EVANS, Dr P. R. PhD(Brist), BA(Oxf). MAIG.
Turramurra, NSW . (1968; P2).
FACER, Dr R. A. PhD, BScHons (Syd). FAIG. FAusIMM,
MGSAus, MAGU. Killara, NSW. (1965; P3).
FAYLE, R. D. H. Dip Pharm. Armidale, NSW. (1961).
FEATHERSTONE, Dr J. L. BDS(Syd), FDS RCS(Lond),
FRACDS. Mittagong, NSW. (1994).
FELTON, Dr E. A. PhD(W'gong), BScHons(ANU), FGAA.
Eden, NSW. (1977).
FENTON, Dr R. R. PhD, BScHons (Macq). Padstow
Heights, NSW. (1985; P1).
FERGUSSON, Dr C. L. PhD(NE), BAHons(Macq). Dept. of
Geology, University of Wollongong, NSW. (1980;
P33
FEWELL, Dr M. P. PhD, BScHons (ANU). Dept. of
Physics, University of New England, Armidale,
NSW. (1988).
FINLAY, C. J. BSc(Syd). North Ryde, NSW. (1975).
FLATT, D. N. MBE. FRIBA. Bowral, NSW. (1995).
FLATT, M. J. Bowral, NSW. (Assoc., 1995).
FLETCHER, H. O. MSc. Castle Hill, NSW. (1933*).
FOLDVARY, G. Z. MSc(NSW). Matraville, NSW. (1965;
Pi:
FORD, G. W. K. MBE. MA(Cantab). Jannali, NSW. (1974;
Pl; Pres. 1990).
FORD, J. E. Jannali, NSW. (Assoc., 1988).
FROST, J. P. BA, DipEd (Macq). Orange, NSW. (1977).
GANDEVIA, Dr S. C. MD, PhD, MB, BS, BScMed (NSW).
Coogee, NSW. (1985).
GEORGE, Dr C. R. P. MB, BS. FRACP. St Ives. (1995).
GIBBONS, Dr G. S. PhD(NSW), MSc(Syd). FAIG.
Stanmore, NSW. (1966; P2; Pres. 1980).
GILLESPIE, L. H. BScHons. Drummoyne, NSW. (1993).
GILLESPIE, T. R. BSc, BA, GradDipSc (Syd). Lilyfield,
NSW. (1986).
GLEN, Dr R. A. PhD(Adel), BScHons(Syd). New South
Wales Dept. of Mineral Resources, St Leonards,
NSW. (1983; P3).
GOULD, Dr R. E. PhD, BSc(Qld). Clayfield, Qld. (1973;
P3}).
GOW, N. N. BScHons(NE). Burlington, Ontario, Canada.
(1966).
GRAHAM, I. T. BAppSciHons(NSW). Kingsford, NSW.
(1987; P1).
GRANT, J. N. GG. DipEng(Leghorn). Armidale, NSW.
(1961).
GRAY, N. M. BSc(WA). Cremorne, NSW. (1952).
MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY
GRIFFITH, J. L. MSc, BA, DipEd (Syd). Caringbah, NSW.
(1952*; P17; Pres. 1958).
GROSE, Dr J. A. PhD(Lond); MEd, BA, DipEd (Syd). FACE.
Bowral, NSW. (Assoc., 1994).
GROSE, Dr K. L. PhD, BA(Syd); CertEd(Exeter). Bowral,
NSW. (1986).
GROVER, C. Belrose, NSW. (Assoc., 1991).
GROVER, J. C. OBE. MSc, BEMin&Met (Syd). Belrose,
NSW. (1990; P1).
GUY, Dr B. B. PhD, BScHons (Syd). Rose Bay, NSW.
(1968; P2).
HANCOCK, H. S. MSc(Syd). Wahroonga, NSW. (1955;
Pres. 1989).
HANCOCK, K. M. Wahroonga, NSW. (Assoc., 1989).
HANLON, Dr M. A. PhD, BAHons. Mosman, NSW. (1991).
HARDIE, J. R. BSc(Syd). MACE, FGS. Edgecliff, NSW.
(1979; P1; Pres. 1994).
HARDWICK, R. L. MEd, BSc, GradDipHydrogeol (QId).
Leyburn, Qld. (1968).
HARDY, Dr C. J. DSc, PhD, BScHons (Brist). CChem.
FRCS, FIE. Hurstville, NSW. (1976).
HARPER, K. SupervCert; QualTechCert; SalesCyberCert.
Cronulla, NSW. (1991).
HARRISON, Dr P. L. PhD, BScHons (J.Cook). Southern
Cross University, Lismore, NSW. (1994).
HAWKINS, D. Killara, NSW. (1975).
HAYDON, Professor S. C. PhD(Wales), MA(Oxf). FInstP,
FAIP. Armidale, NSW. (1965).
HAYES, W. J. MAppSc, BScHons. Campbelltown, NSW.
(1995).
HEATHCOTE, K. A. MEngSc, MCom, BE (NSW). MIEAust,
MAIB. Davidson, NSW. (1994; P1).
HELBY, Dr R. J. PhD, MSc (Syd). Lane Cove, NSW.
(1966; P3).
HIBBERD, Dr F. H. HonFellUNE. DSc(WA); PhD, MSc
(Syd). Physics Dept., University of New England,
Armidale, NSW. (1993).
HODGSON, J. D. MEngSc. FIEAust. Mona Vale, NSW.
(1982).
HOGG, Dr G. R. PhD, MSc (Melb). Robertson, NSW.
(1994).
HOSKING, A. D. BEHons(WA), DIC. FGS, MIEAust.
Bermagui, NSW. (1988).
HUMPHRIES, J. W. BSc(NZ). CPhys. MAIP. Killara,
NSW. (1959; Pl; Pres. 1964).
HUNT, Assoc. Professor D. C. PhD, MSc(Warwick),
BScHons (Syd). School of Mathematics, University
of NSW. (1986).
IRWIN, D. M. MA, BSc, DipEd (Macq). West Ryde, NSW.
(1994).
JAMES, Dr V. J. PhD(NSW), BA, BSc(QlId). MAIP.
Kenthurst, NSW. (1985).
JEFFERY, Dr_ 5S. PhD, DipPlantPath(Syd);
BRurScHons(NE), DipHEd(NSW); GNC, MidWifCert.
University of Western Sydney, Macarthur, NSW.
(1994).
JENKINS, Dr T. B. H. PhD, BSc (Wales). FGS. Lindfield,
NSW. (1956).
JEZ, J. FRAIA, ARIBA. Sylvania Heights, NSW. (1974).
JOASS, G. G. MAppScMinGeomech (NSW); BAppScHons,
DipTech (NSWIT). Collie, WA. (Assoc., 1975).
JONES, The Honourable B. O. AO. MHR. FTS, FAHA.
HonDSc(Macq), MA, LLB (Melb). Werribee, Vic.
(1984; P1).
KAZIRO, Dr R. W. PhD(Syd), Mc(NSW. CChem. MRACI.
Petersham, NSW. (1994).
KELVIN, Dr N. V. P. PhD, MPhil, MS (Yale), BEHons
(NSW). Lavender Bay, NSW. (1990).
KERSAITIS, C. J. BSc(Macq). Pendle Hill, NSW. (1994).
153
KHOO, Dr C. S. PhD, MChem, BSc (NSW). University of
Western Sydney, Macarthur, NSW. (1994).
KIDD, Dr S. E. PhD, MSc, BA, DipEd (Macq).
Turramurra, NSW. (1984; P1).
KING, Dr D. S. PhD, BScHons. North Ryde, NSW. (1977;
|g PAE
KING, Dr G. F. PhD, BScHons(Syd). Dept. of
Biochemistry, University of Sydney, NSW. (1986).
KNOWLES, Dr P. J. MB, BS (Syd); D(Obs)RCOG;
CMM(Paris), CMM(RACGP). FRACGP. Bundanoon,
NSW. (1994).
KNOWLES, R. E. BA, DipEd (Macq). Bundanoon, NSW.
(Assoc., 1994).
KNUCKEY, G. J. BAHons. Dept. of Archaeology,
University of New England, Armidale, NSW. (1995).
KOCH, Dr L. E. DrPhil, DrHabil (Cologne). Lindfield,
NSW. (1948; P5).
KORNFELD, R. L. Burradoo, NSW. (1994).
KORSCH, Dr R. J. PhD, BScHons, DipEd (NE). c/o
Australian Geological Survey Organisation,
Canberra, ACT.(1971; P10).
KRYSKO, von TRYST, M. BSc, GradDipMinTech (NSW).
MAusIMM. Epping, NSW. (1959).
KRZYSZTON, A. J. M. MB, BS, BScMed (Syd).
Springwood, NSW. (1985).
LAKE, Dr M. R. PhD, BSc (Syd). Thornleigh, NSW.
(1993).
LAMPERT, Dr R. J. PhD. FAHA, FSA. Moss Vale, NSW.
(1995).
LANDER, DrJ. PhD, MB, BS, BScMed. FFA, RACS. Bondi,
NSW. (1977).
LASSAK, Dr E. V. PhD, MSc (NSW), ASTC. FRACI. St
Ives, NSW. (1964; P8).
LAU, H. P. K. MB, BS. FRCPA. Townsville, Qld. (1979).
LAWRENCE, Dr L. J. DSc(Syd), PhD(NSW), DipCom(Syd),
DIC. FAusIMM. Epping, NSW. (1951; P6).
LEAVER, G. E. BSc(Wales), DipEd. FGS. Wahroonga,
NSW. (1961).
LEE, G. F. BSc(NSW). Penshurst, NSW. (1994; P1).
LE FEVRE, Dr C. G. DSc(Lond). MAAForensicSc; Patron
Aust FndnSc. Northbridge, NSW. (1961).
LEMANN, F. M. Bowral, NSW. (Assoc., 1994).
LEMANN, J. A. DipEd(SKTC); HortCert; BushRegenCert.
Bowral, NSW. (1994).
LINDLEY, Dr I. D. PhD, BScHons (NSW). Rabaul, PNG.
(1980; P2).
LIONS, J. E. BSc. North Turramurra, NSW. (1940).
LIYANAGE, Dr L. PhD, MSc, BSc. University of
Western Sydney, Macarthur, NSW. (1995). :
LOMB, Dr N. R. PhD, BSc. Sydney Observatory, Sydney,
NSW. (1980; P5).
LOUGHNAN, Dr F. C. DSc, PhD (NSW), BSc (Syd).
FAusIMM. Castle Cove, NSW. (1979; P7).
LOWENTHAL, Dr G. C. Chevalier de 1'O. Nat. Mérite,
France. PhD, MSc (UNSW), BA, BSc,
DipPubAdmin(Melb). FAIP, MInstP. Cremorne,
NSW. (1989).
LOXTON, Dr E. H. MB, BS, DObsRCOG. Burradoo, NSW.
(1995).
LOXTON, Professor J. H. PhD(Camb), MSc(Melb).
Deputy Vice-Chancellor, Macquarie University,
NSW. (1974; P1; Pres. 1985).
LOXTON, Dr S. MB, ChB, DPH, MFCM. Burradoo, NSW.
(Assoc., 1995).
LYONS, M. T. MChem(UNSW), DipTechSc(NSWIT).
Miranda, NSW. (1974; P1).
MARTIN, Professor P. M. PhD, MScAgr, DipEd (Syd).
FLS(Lond), FAIAS. Dept. of Urban Horticulture,
University of Sydney, NSW. Pymble, NSW. (1968;
Pie :
154 MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY
MAWSON, Assoc. Professor R. PhD, BA (Macq). School
of Earth Sciences, Macquarie University, NSW.
(1974; P1).
McAULEY, Capt. W. J. W. MSc(NE). FAusIEnergy.
Womboota, NSW. (1975).
McCRACKEN, Dr K. G. AO. FAA, FTS. DSc, PhD, BSc.
FAusIMM. Mittagong, NSW. (1995).
McGHEE, M. E. MinCom(SES); NatMedal. Carlton, NSW.
(1975).
McKERN, H. H. G. MSc, ASTC. FRACI. Roseville, NSW.
(1943*; P12; Pres. 1963).
McNAUGHTON, J. E. AM. FlISAust. Newcastle, NSW.
(1982).
McNAUGHTON, P. M.
(Assoc., 1989).
McPHIE, Dr J. PhD (NE), BAHons, DipEd (Macq). Dept.
of Geology, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tas.
(1980).
MELLOR, Dr R. W. PhD, AM (Harv); BA(Syd).
University of Western Sydney, Macarthur, NSW.
(1994).
MILBURN, Professor J. A. PhD(Aberd), BSc(Newcastle-
upon-Tyne). FIBiol. Dept. of Botany, University of
New England, Armidale, NSW. (1986).
MINTY, E. J. MSc, DipEd (Syd). Huon, Vic. (1991; P1).
MITCHELL, G. A. Kooringal, NSW. (1995).
MORSE-EVANS, D. W. Mittagong, NSW. (1994).
MOSKOS, M. BE-Mech(UNSW). Northbridge, NSW.
(1975).
MURPHY, Dr A. B. PhD, BScHons. Lindfield, NSW.
(1995).
AMusA. Merewether, NSW.
NAPPER, Professor D. H. FAA. PhD(Camb), MSc(Syd).
FRACI. Dept. of Physical Chemistry, University of
Sydney, NSW. (19 73; Pres. 1979; Hon. Mem. 1995).
NASHAR, Emeritus Professor B. OBE. HonDSc(Newc),
PhD(Tas), BSc, DipEd(Syd). Adamstown Heights,
NSW. (1946; P3).
NEEF, Dr. G. PhD, BSc (Well, NZ). Dept. of Applied
Geology, University of NSW, Sydney, NSW. (1989;
PT):
NEELY, Dr D. F. PhD, BAHons, DipEd (Macq). MAIP.
Bradbury, NSW. (1994).
NEUHAUS, J. W. G. MSc, ASTC. Baulkham Hills, NSW.
(1943*; Pl; Pres. 1969).
NORTHCOTT, C. R. Drummoyne, NSW. (1993).
O'CONNOR, Dr D. J. PhD, MSc (Melb); MEc(Syd). Castle
Cove, NSW. (1993).
O'KEEFFE, E. D. MSc(Macq), BSc, DipEd(Syd). Marsfield,
NSW. (1984).
O'MEARA, Dr T. J. PhD, BAgSc. University of Western
Syd ney, Macarthur, NSW. (1994).
ORGAN, M. Ke BScHons(W'gong);
DipArchAdmin(NSW). Wonona, NSW. (1994; P1).
OSBORNE, Dr R. A. L. PhD, MSc, DipEd (Syd). Harbord,
NSW. (1984; P4; Pres. 1993).
O'SHEA, Dr T. PhD, BVSc (Syd); MSc(NZ). Dept. of
Physiology, University of New England, Armidale,
NSW. (1973).
OXENFORD, R. A. MPhil(Camb), BSc(Syd). Sorrento, -
Vic. -(1950).
PAIGE, S. C. B. BSc. Uralla, NSW. (1995; P1).
PARTRIDGE, A. D. MSc(NSW), BSc(Syd). Macleod, Vic.
C1977):
PAWLOFF, Dr T. MD, DOM. FRANZCP. Avalon Beach,
NSW. (1979).
PERKINS, D. A. DipPharm(Syd). Bundanoon, NSW.
(1995).
PERRY, H. R. BSc(Syd). Bowral, NSW. (1948).
PERSSE, G. Burrawang, NSW. (Assoc., 1994).
PERSSE, J. W. deB. Burrawang, NSW. (1994).
PICKETT, Dr J. W. DrPhilNat (Frankfurt/M), MSc(NE).
McMahon's Point, NSW. (1965; P3; Pres. 1974).
POGSON, R. E. BAppScHons, DipTechSci(NSWIT);
MAusIMM._ Panania, NSW. (1979).
POLLARD, Dr J. P. PhD, MSc(UNSW), DipAppChem
(Swinburne). Gymea, NSW. (1963; P1; Pres.1973).
PORRITT, P. M. Turramurra, NSW. (1987).
POSTON-ANDERSON, Dr B. PhD, MALibr (Iowa);
MA(Macq). Baulkham Hills, NSW. (1990).
POTTER, Dr E. C. PhD, DIC: (Lond). “FRSC FRACI.
Kariong, NSW. (1988; Pl; Pres. 1991).
POWER, P. A. LLM(UTS), MSc(NSW), BSc(Syd). CChem,
CBiol. ARACI, MRSC, MAIBiol, MIBiol, AIPAA,
AIArbA. Bondi Junction, NSW. (1980).
PROCTOR, G. F. Mosman, NSW. (1991*).
PROUD; Sir John S: Kt. BEMin(Syd). FAusIMM.
Turramurra, NSW. (1945*).
PUTTOCK, A. M. FCA. Wylie & Puttock, Kent St, Sydney,
NSW. (1975).
QUINSEY, P. M. MAppScToxicol, BAppScBiotech
(RMIT). Charnwood, ACT. (1994; P1).
RAMM, E. J. MSc, DipChem&Met(PTC). CEng. MRACTI,
FAusIMM, FIM, FlICeram, FlEAust. Lilli Pilli, NSW.
(1959).
RICE, T. D. MSc(Syd); GradDipEd(NE). Katoomba, NSW.
(1964).
RICKARD, Assoc. Professor K. RFD. MB, BS (Melb).
FRACP, FRCPEdin, FRCPGlas, FRCPathLond, FRCPI.
French's Forest, NSW. (1977).
RICKWOOD, Dr P. C. PhD(Cape Town), BScHons(Lond).
CChem. MRCS. Dept.of Applied Geology, University
of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW. (1974).
RILEY, B. E. BAHons(Syd); MA, DipEd (Macq). Killara,
NSW. (Assoc., 1973).
RILEY, K. W. BSc. Eastwood, NSW. (1994; P1).
RILEY, Assoc. Professor’ Srv: PhD, BScHons(Syd),
MEngSc(UNSW). Killara, NSW. (1969; P1).
ROBERTS, H. G. BSc. Manuka, ACT. (1957).
ROBERTS, Professor J. PhD(WA), BSc(NE). Dept. of
Applied Geology, University of New South Wales,
Sydney, NSW. (1961; P5).
ROBERTSON, D. J. CBE. Bowral, NSW. (1994).
ROBERTSON-CUNINGHAME, Dr R. C. AO. HonDUniv(NE),
DPhil(Oxon), BScAg(Syd). Armidale, NSW. (1982).
ROBINSON, D. H. ASTC. Lorne, NSW. (1951).
RODGER, Dr P. M. PhD, BScHons(Syd). Dept. of
Chemistry, University of Reading, Reading, U.K.
(1986).
ROGERSON, Dr R. J. PhD, BScHons (Syd). PNG Dept. of
Minerals and Energy. Port Moresby, PNG. (1979).
ROWLING, J. BE. Thomleigh, NSW. (1993).
ROYLE, Dr H. G. MB, BS (Syd). Armidale, NSW. (1961).
RUNNEGAR, Professor B. DSc, PhD (Qld). FAA,
FAmAAS. University of California, Los Angeles,
USA. (1970).
SALAMONSON, Y. M, BSc (Macq); GradDipNurs(ACAE).
RNS. Rosemeadow, NSW. (1994).
SCHMIDT, F. C. Bowral, NSW. (1994).
SCHMIDT, M. J. Bowral, NSW. (Assoc., 1994).
SCOTT, M. E. DipSc(RNC), DipAdvAdmin(Stanford).
FIDA, AFAIM, MIMH. Liena, Tas. (1977).
SELBY, E. J. DipCom(Syd). Roseville, NSW. (1933*).
SHARP, K. R. BSc(Syd). Cooma, NSW. (1948*).
SHAW, J. A. BA, BSc, ARMIT. FIChemE, FRACI, FAIM,
FInstPet. St Ives, NSW. (1991).
SHAW, Dr S. E. PhD(NE), BSc(WA). FGAA. School of
Earth Sciences, Macquarie University, NSW. (1966;
Pl).
MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY 155
SHERWIN, Dr L. PhD(Macq), BSc(Syd). Geological
Survey of NSW, Orange, NSW. (1967).
SHEUMACK, Dr D. D. PhD, BAHons (Macq).
MSEnvTox&Chem, MISTox. South Maroota, NSW.
(1985).
SIMS, K. P. BSc. Frenchs Forest, NSW. (1950; P20).
SINCLAIR, T. J. St Leonards, NSW. (1986).
SMITH, V. MSc(Newc), HortCert. Newcastle, NSW.
(1978).
SMITH, Professor W. E. PhD(NSW), MSc(Syd), BSc,
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SYMON, J. Lower Templestowe, Vic. (Assoc., 1975).
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156
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Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 128, 157-158, 1995 157
ISSN 0035-9173/95/020157 - 02 $4.00/1
INDEX
VOLUME 128, PARTS 1 and 2, PARTS 3 and 4
DANCE, I.G.
Abstract of Proceedings, 1995, 49 Inorganic Chemistry: Frontiers
and Future (29th Liversidge Research
Abstracts of Theses, Lecture 1994) 131
Hurdal, Monica K. 36
Wang, Jinxian 39 EDGEWORTH DAVID MEDAL 1994 60
Mahony, Robert 40
Scrivener, Andrew M. Al ELLISON, Dorothy J., Obituary 66
Douglas, Andrea M, 43
Kidd, Susan E, 44 Financial Statement 1994 52
Lappas, P. 145
Beavis, Sara G. 144 Frontiers and Future, Inorganic Chemistry
Mallinson, Samuel G. 143 Dance, I.G, 131
Long, John M, 142
GEOLOGY
Awards, citations 59 Engineered Landforms 67
Lachlan and New England 29
ALBURY, W.R. Magmatic Development (Discussion) 29
Rontgen Rays in Early Twentieth Book Review "Ore Elements in Arc
Century Medical Diagnosis and Laras" 33
Therapy: Search Light a Scalpel? 97 Uvarovite Garnet 79
BENNETT, Max R,. Geomorphology of Engineered Landforms
The Neurosciences of Syntax, Semantics - Ranger Uranium Mine, Northern
and Qualia (Brain and Mind: Descartes Territory Australia 67
and Kant) 1
BENNETT, Max R. GLASSON, K.R. Obituary 63
The Binding Problem and Consciousness:
Neuroscience of Attention 13 GRAHAM, Ian T. and COLCHESTER, David M,
The Occurrence and Origin of well-
Biographical Memoirs 63, 147 crystallised Uvarovite Garnet from the
podiform Chromitite Deposits of South
BOOTH, EAs - Eastern New South Wales 79
A Century of Rontgen Rays 90
GRAY, C.M.,
Cancers, New Approaches in Integrated Discussion of "Lachlan and New
Treatments for locally advanced, England: Fold Belts of Contrasting
Stephens, Frederick, 0. Bs Magmatic and Tectonic Development"
by B.W. Chappell 29
Chemistry
Inorganic Chemistry Lt GROVER OBE, John C.,
Review of book "Ore Elements in Arc
Clarke Medal (Joint Award) 1994 59 Laras" by R.L. Stanton 53
Clarke Medal 1992 (Report) 62 HALL, Norman F., Obituary 66
COLCHESTER, David M, HOCKINGS, C.M., R¥entgen Rays, An
The Occurrence and origin of well- Indispensable Tool in Contempory
Crystallised Uvarovite garnet from Engineering and Science 105
the podiform Chromitite Deposits of
South-Eastern New South Wales, Inorganic Chemistry: Frontiers and
GRAHAM, Ian T. and 79 Future, Dance, I.G. (29th Liversidge
Research Lecture 1994) Tt
Consciousness: Neuroscience of Attention
The Binding Problem and, Bennett, LIVERSIDGE RESEARCH LECTURE 1994 131
Max R, 13
MEDICINE
Contents Vol. 128 1/2 and 3/4 Neurosciences 1, 13
Integrated Treatments for Cancers 113
COOK Medal 1994 60 Medical Science and Human Goals i
MEMBERSHIP LIST 151
COOK Medallist (G.J.V. Nossal Kt, CBE, AC,
address by, 17, Neuroscience of Attention. The Binding
: Problem and Consciousness. Bennett,
Council Report 1994 - 1995 45 Mase R 13
158
INDEX VOLUME 128
Neuroscience of Syntax, Samantics and
Qualia (Brain and Mind: Descartes and
Kant). Bennett, Max R. it
New South Wales
Uvarovite garnet 79
Newer Approaches in Integrated
Treatments for locally advanced cancers.
Stephens, Frederick, 0. ins
NOSSAL, Kt, CBE, AC, G.J.V., Medical
Science and Human Goals: a struggling
Pilgrim's Progress 117
Occurrence and Origin of Well-crystall-
ised Uvarovite Garnet from the podiform
chromitite Deposits of South-Eastern
New South Wales, Graham, Ian T. and
Colchester, David M. fee}
OLLE PRIZE 1994 62
PALMER, F.J. The Role of RUntgen Rays
in Contempory Medical Imaging. 101
REINHARDT, 0.G.,
Goethe's Sceintific Ideas and the
Advancement of Experimental Science
since his Death in 1832 108
RILEY, Saclay
The Geomorphology of Engineered
Landforms - Ranger Uranium Mine,
Northern Territory, Australia 67
ROBERTS, B.A.,
RBUntgen's X-Rays, A Pioneering
Discovery for the Development of
20th Century Physics 94
ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES
MEDAL 1994 61
RYAN, J., The Discovery of X-Rays and
its Immediate Impact 91
STEPHENS, Frederick 02.
Newer Approaches in Integrated
Treatments for locally advanced
cancers 113
Syntax, Semantics and Qualia (Brain and
Mind: Descartes and Kant). The
Neuroscience of, Bennett, Max G. 1
VOISEY, A. Obituary 147
JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
ROYAL SOCIETY
OF
NEW SOUTH WALES
Volume 128, Parts 1 and 2
Parts 3 and 4
1995
ISSN 0035-9173
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY
P.O. BOX 1525, MACQUARIE CENTRE, NSW 2113
Issued June 1995
Issued December 1995
ROYAL SOCIETY
OF NEW SOUTH WALES
President
D.F. BRANAGAN
Vice-Presidents
J<sR. HARDIE F.,L, SUTHERLAND
J.H. LOXTON D.J. SWAINE
E-CG. POTTER
Honorary Secretaries
G.W.K. FORD M. KRYSKO von TRYST
(General) Editorial)
Honorary Treasurer Honorary Librarian
D.E. WINCH P.M. CALLAGHAN
Members of Council
R.S. BHATHAL D.J. O'CONNOR
R.R. COENRAADS W.E. SMITH
A oA.~DAY W.J. VAGG
G.C. LOWENTHAL
Branch Representatives
New England S.C. HAYDON
Southern Highlands K.L. GROSE
CONTENTS
VOLUME 128, PARTS 1 and 2
BENNETT, Max R,
The Neuroscience of Syntax, Semantics and Qualia
(Brain and Mind: Descartes and Kant) 1
BENNETT, Max R.
The Binding Problem and Consciousness: Neuroscience
of Attention
GRAY, C.M.
by B.W.Chappell
GROVER OBE, Jon: GC.
R.b,.otanton
ABSTRACTS OF THESES:
HURDAL, Monica K.:
WANG, Jinxian :
13
Discussion of "Lachlan and New England: Fold Belts
of Contrasting Magmatic and Tectonic Development"
29
Review of book "Ore Elements in Arc Lavas" by
55
Dipole Modelling for the
Localization of Human Visual Evoked
scalp Potential Sources 36
Population Dynamics of Steinernema
carpocapsae and Heterorhabditis
bacteriophora in in vivo and in
Vicro=culLture 59
MAHONY, Robert:
SCRIVENER, Andrew M,:
DOUGLAS,Andrea M,:
KIDD, Susan: E.2
COUNCIL REPORT:
1994 - 1995
Optimization Algorithms on
Homogeneous Spaces: with Application
in Linear Systems Theory 40
Wood Digestion in Panesthia
cribrata 4]
The Development of Mutation
Detection Techniques and) their
Application to Disease Diagnosis 43
Development of Metal Chelates as
Potential Probes of DNA Structure 44
Annual Report 45
Abstract of Proceedings 49
Summer-School Photo 4
Financial Statement D2
Awards a9
Biographical Memoirs 63
DATE of PUBLICATION:
Vol.128 Parts 1 and 2
June 1995
CONTENTS
VOLUME 128, PARTS 3 and 4
RILEY, S.J.
Issues Assessing the Long-Term stability of Engineered
Landforms at Ranger Uranium-Mine, Northern Territory,
Australia
GRAHAM, Ian T. and Colchester, David M,
The Occurrence and Origin of well-crystallised Uvarovite
garnet from the podiform Chromitite Deposits of South
Eastern New South Wales
A CENTURY OF X-RAYS (SEMINAR)
STEPHENS, Frederick 0,
New Approaches in Integrated Treatments for locally
advanced cancers.
NOSSAL, Kt, CBE; AC, G.J.V:
Medical Science and Human Goals: a Struggling Pilgrim's
Progress
DANCE, I.G.
Inorganic Chemistry: Frontiers and Future
(29th Liversidge Research Lecture, 1994)
ABSTRACTS OF THESES: -
CUNNINGHAM, Elizabeth A.: Introductory Studies of Silica
Fume released as a By-Product
of Electrometallurgical Process
LONG, John M.: Light Scattering Studies of
Microstructure in YBa.GU_0
2 a TX
Superconductors
MALLINSON, Samuel G.: Shock Wave/Boundary Layer
Interaction at a Compression
Corner in Hypervelocity Flows
BEAVIS, Sara iG; Geological Factors influencing
erosion gullying in the Green-
fell Gooloogong Area, Mid-
Western New South Wales
LAPPAS, P.: Parameters affecting S.I.
Engine Knock
BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
MEMBERSHIP LIST
INDEX TO VOLUME 128
DATE OF PUBLICATION:
Vol. 128 Parts 3 and 4: December 1995
67
fi)
89
113
i Wy
LSi
141
142
143
144
145
147
LSt
157
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Contents Volume 128
Parts 3 and 4
RELEY, gos0 <
Issues Assessing the Long-Term stability of Engineered
Landforms at Ranger Uranium-Mine, Northern Territory,
Australia
GRAHAM, Ian T, and COLCHESTER, David M,
The Occurrence and Origin of well-crystallised Uvarovite
garnet from the podiform Chromitite Deposits of South
Eastern New South Wales
A Century of X-Rays (Seminar)
STEPHENS, Frederick 0.
New Approaches in Integrated Treatments for locally
advanced cancers,
NOSSAL KE, CBE, AC,.G.J.V.
Medical Science and Human Goals: a Struggling Pilgrim's
Progress
DANCE, I.G.
Inorganic Chemistry: Frontiers and Future
(29th Liversidge Research Lecture, 1994)
ABSTRACTS OF THESES: -
CUNNINGHAM, Elizabeth A.: Introductory Studies of Silica
Fume released as a By-Product
of Electrometallurgical Process
LONG, John M.: Light Scattering Studies of
Microstructure in YBa_Cu_O
2) AO hax
Super-conductors
MALLINSON, Samuel G.: Shock Wave/Boundary Layer
Interaction at a Compression
Corner in Hypervelocity Flows
BEAVIS, Sara G.: Geological Factors influencing
erosion gullying in the Green-
fell Gooloogong Area, Mid-
western New South Wales
LAPPAS, P.: Parameters affecting Sole
Engine Knock
BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
MEMBERSHIP LIST
INDEX To VOLUME 128
DATE of PUBLICATION:
Vol. 128 Parts 3 and 4: December 1995
67
79
89
113
La
131
141
142
143
144
145
147
151
is 7/
JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS -
OF THE
ROYAL SOCIETY
OF NEW SOUTH WALES
~ Volume 129, Parts 1 and 2
(Nos. 379-380)
1996
ISSN 0035-9173
_ PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY
P.O. BOX 1525, MACQUARIE CENTRE, NSW 2113
Issued June 1996
THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES
OFFICE BEARERS FOR 1996-97
Patrons - His Excellency the Honourable Sir William Deane, AC, KBE, Governor-General of the
Commonwealth of Australia.
His Excellency the Honourable Gordon Samuels AC, Governor of New South Wales
President - Dr. K.L. Grose BA Syd, PhD Syd, Cert. Ed. Exeter
Vice Presidents - Dr. D.F. Branagan, MSc Syd, PhD Syd, FGS, MAusIMM
Mr. J.R. Hardie, BSc Syd, FGS, MACE
Prof. J.H. Loxton, MSc Melb, PhD Camb
Prof. W.E. Smith, MSc Syd, MSc Oxf, PhD NSW, MInstP, MAIP
Dr. D.J. Swaine, MSc Melb, PhD Aberd, FRACI
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THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES
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ISSN 0035-9173
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Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 129, 01-32, 1996
ISSN 0035-9173/96/010001-32 $4.00/1
BRICKS, BRAWN AND BRAINS - TWO CENTURIES OF GEOLOGY &
ENGINEERING IN THE SYDNEY R
D.F. Branagan
ABSTRACT. Since the beginning of European settlement both ge
played important roles in the development of the "made" environment. Contri the likes of
John Busby, George Barney and Thomas Mitchell (each broadly trained and experienced) prior to 1850
saw an essentially unified approach to problems of road construction, harbour reclamation and water
supply and their solutions. The rise of the civil engineering profession in the latter portion of the
nineteenth century coincided with virtual neglect of geological aspects of projects such as bridge and
dam construction. Perhaps more by good luck than good planning there were no major disasters.
However, during the same period, applied geologists, with few exceptions, devoted their attention to
mining rather than to the relevant aspects of civil engineering, and perhaps saw no need to make
useful contributions. By the 1920s the scale of projects, introduction of new methods and equipment,
and some failures, began to bring the two professions together. The major project which heralded the
present period of co-operation was the Warragamba Dam, built between 1939 and 1960. From the
1970s there was more co-operation and geologists contributed with the mapping of significant fracture
systems and dyke intrusions which affected planning and construction. From 1970 there was also
greater combined study of the significance and measurement of horizontal stress in the Sydney rocks.
Nevertheless there are still failures of fact and communication, and Sydney still lacks a central scheme
for the gathering and dissemination of geological data for the civil engineering profession, for town
planners and concerned citizens.
INTRODUCTION
In July 1996 we remember the 175th
anniversary of the Philosophical Society of
Australasia. One of the original members of that
Society in 1821 was Alexander Berry, who did not
need to take up Thomas Mitchell’s later comment
that “every settler is under the necessity of
becoming a geologist” as he was already
knowledgeable about geology and a very practical
man to boot. Berry was the first to report on the
unconformity at the base of the Sydney Basin
sequence (Berry, 1822). Berry set up his south
coast trading post at Coolangatta near the mouth
of the Shoalhaven River, where he also put his
knowledge of geology to use, when after a fatal
disaster at the mouth of the Shoalhaven River on
21 June 1821, he sailed up the Crookhaven River,
which had an accessible mouth, and dragged his
boat across a sandspit into the Shoalhaven. A few
days later he left Hamilton Hume (who was also
associated with the Philosophical Society) and
three other men to cut a passage through the spit.
Using only hand tools they cut Australia's first
canal, some 200m long in just 12 days. This was
widened by natural activity over the years and is
now the real entrance to the Shoalhaven River
(Cambage, 1921; Jeffcoat, 1988).
Mitchell himself is the epitome of using
geology and his ability to relate together the two
disciplines of geology and engineering is one of
the great success stories of Australian science and
technology (see later). The infant colony of New
South Wales was blessed with practical men as
leaders in its earliest years, Arthur Phillip setting
the example, based on his experience as leader in
the small Portuguese colony at Colonia on the
River Plate, now part of Uruguay (Vallance and
Branagan, 1969; Branagan, 1994).
This paper will not discuss the relations
between mining and geology, which have received
attention in earlier papers (Branagan, 1972a), but
2 D.F. BRANAGAN
considers geology and civil engineering and deals
essentially only with the Sydney region, extending
to the edge of the Blue Mountains and the
Hawkesbury River.
In Branagan (1972b) I suggested that five basic
areas of geological information should be available
to the engineer and town planner. They are:
foundation conditions, availability of materials,
transport, water supply/sewerage and visual aspects
of the landscape. That paper discussed the
geological controls on the development of Sydney,
and attempted a quantitative rating of geological
conditions in relation to engineering requirements,
while comparing the geology of Australian capital
cities. Listed simply for this paper the relevant
topics are materials, water, surface conditions and
the underground.
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MATERIALS
Bricks
One of the first demands of the First Fleeters
was materials for construction of permanent
buildings, displacing the temporary timber and
canvas structures. There was need for clay for
bricks, stone for various purposes and lime for
cement. Vallance (1975) has conveyed the
excitement that eventuated when clay from Sydney
(and from Lion Island) (Vallance, 1985)
recommended to Governor Arthur Phillip by Abbé
Mongez of La Perouse's Expedition as certain "to
make good china" was sent to England, was tested
by the great Josiah Wedgwood and was pronounced
to be unique! The new colony had produced a new
mineral, Sydneyia, to set besides new animals and
plants! German mineral chemists were more
sceptical, and it was not long before Martin
Klaproth showed that the clay was ordinary
’ Rim Ss ASS &
Se en OBERT TNR NS
Figure 1. 1802 French map of Sydney showing bricks pits at Woolloomooloo (No. 33) and at Brickfield
Hill (at the south end of the map on Route de Parramatta}.
za
TWO CENTURIES OF GEOLOGY & ENGINEERING IN THE SYDNEY REGION 3
enough, and Charles Hatchett followed suite in
England in 1797 showing that Wedgwood's
chemicals were contaminated.
However this did not concern the colonists
who had to get on with the business of
brickmaking. Although we hear much of the shale
of Brickfield Hill (the shale fields were about the
present Pitt and Campbell Streets) as the early
source of bricks shown on Phillip's map of 1792,
I suspect that easier sources were found in the
alluvium along the banks of the stream draining
into Woolloomooloo Bay, as shown on Lesueur's
map of 1802 (Figure 1). Kelly and Crocker (1977)
provide a succession of maps that give some
indication of the various sites where materials were
quarried or treated from the beginning of European
settlement until 1900. Andrews (1991) states
categorically that the first hand-made convict
bricks were made under the supervision of James
Bloodsworth in March 1788 two miles from the
settlement at "Long Cove, today known as Farm
Cove". Bloodsworth almost certainly used the
brick moulds brought out by Governor Phillip. A
brickmaking facility (belonging to Commissary
John Palmer) operated there at least until 1822.
Bloodsworth also seems to have been responsible
for locating the Brickfield Hill source with its
supply of fresh water. At Parramatta too there was
a small kiln on the banks of the Parramatta River,
below Old Government House as a painting of
1791 shows (Steven, 1988, p.47). This kiln, I
suspect, would also have first used the alluvial
clay of the river bank, rather than the Ashfield
Shale, although the latter certainly occurs close
by. The opeations of this brick kiln at Parramatta
were overseen by another convict, John Becket; it
employed 52 people and produced 25 000 bricks
weekly, but the quality of theses bricks proved
poor (Andrews, op.cit.).
By the 1820s a number of private pits were
operating in the Sydney region. In the years that
followed the Wianamatta Group of rocks
(particularly the Ashfield Shale) was the source of
bricks from many sites south and north of the
harbour and gave the suburbs of Sydney much of
their flavour. Few of the quarries have been
preserved, but we do have a memory to this
important, but always conservative, industry in the
Sydney Park at St. Peters (Figure 2). Aspects of
the more recent geology and technology of
brickmaking properties of the shales of the Sydney
region are discussed by Herbert (1979).
Figure 2. St. Peters Bricks. The end of production.
The area is now a heritage site.
Lime
Lime was to be a constant source of worry, as
the shell deposits (some undoubtedly Aboriginal
middens) around Sydney Harbour were rapidly
used, as later were the deposits at the mouth of the
Hunter River. According to Thomas (1979) lime
kilns operated near Bennelong Point and near the
north end of Kent Street before 1823. Some lime
could have been brought from Norfolk Island, and
indeed may have been, for we see one interesting
use of stone from Norfolk Island at Hambledon
Cottage, Parramatta. This is a filter "tank" of
calcarenite used for purifying water. The lime
4 D.F. BRANAGAN
shortage however was not to be relieved until after
1815 when George Evans discovered limestones
west of the Blue Mountains, and Limekilns, north
of Bathurst, came into operation, being visited
shortly after work began by Governor Macquarie
and his entourage (Carne and Jones, 1919).
Sandstone
In parallel with brickmaking was the use of
stone. In fact stone quarrying may have preceded
brick making, as the map prepared by a convict in
June 1788 shows a quarry close to the present
Opera House site, while Thomas (op. cit.) shows
one towards the northern end of Kent Street. Many
others followed east and west of the growing
settlement. What is sure is that "Sydney
Sandstone" became well accepted as a fine building
stone for many purposes, and its use spread well
beyond Sydney to Twofold Bay, and even New
Zealand, and has given the city of Sydney much of
its character, even if today it tends to be
overshadowed by various showy imports!
Figure 3. Quarry in contact altered sandstone,
North Bondi. (University of Sydney Archives).
Hawkesbury Sandstone has been used not just
for ornamental purposes but as cut stone in
masonry dams, crushed stone for road base, and,
when hardened by contact metamorphism, for
railway ballast (Figure 3). However its quality
does vary, as the weathering of buildings shows
us. Although examined microscopically by Woods
(1882), Curran (1891) and others towards the end
of the 19th century, micropetrology was not used
in an applied sense. However Liversidge (1895a &
b) carried out experiments on the waterproofing of
sandstones and bricks with oils, and incidentally
also studied the porosity of plasters and cements.
Baker (1915) waxes lyrical on the qualities of the
Hawkesbury (Sydney) Sandstone as a building
material, but comments that little had been written
specifically on its properties or those of various
other Australian stone materials. However Baker
and Nangle (1909) a little earlier did carry out a
series of heat and pressure tests on blocks of
various stones, including some sandstones from
around Sydney.
Not until 1959 was there a detailed study of
the petrology of the Hawkesbury Sandstone by
Golding, published in the Society's Journal. This
was followed by some interesting physical tests by
Robson in 1978. There were also important
studies by O'Brien (1969), Pells (1977, 1985),
Gibbons (1981), Riley (1994) and others, some of
these dealing with problems of weathering in
general, or particular problems such as salt
efflorescence.
There have been many quarries in the
Hawkesbury Sandstone (Van Heeswyck, 1976),
including the interesting ones at Mosman and at
Cockatoo Island (referred to later). Narrabeen
Group sandstones in the Gosford area began to be
used in quantity following the completion of the
Homebush - Hamilton Railway in the 1880s.
Igneous Rocks
Igneous Rocks attracted geologists from
earliest times. Thomas Mitchell was intimately
involved in developing the Dundas quarry, one of
the first sources of road metal in the colony, later
TWO CENTURIES OF GEOLOGY & ENGINEERING IN THE SYDNEY REGION 5
described by C.S. Wilkinson (1879), David et al
(1893) and in the 1940s by F.N. Hanlon (1947).
Part of the quarry face is still exposed at Dundas.
However, even earlier, the French geologist
Lesson (1824) had commented on the larger
Prospect occurrence, which was visited in 1840 by
J.D. and W.B. Clarke (Dana, 1849). H.S. Jevons
et al (1911), Wilshire (1967) and others continued
the interest in the Prospect intrusion, which is
still being quarried. Geology since the 1960s has
made a significant contribution to the economics
of quarrying at Prospect.
Significant quarrying began at Prospect about
1883 by a Mr. Sperring, the face being drilled by
hand, shot out and broken down by a 16lb spalling
hammer: it was then broken into 2inch metal by a
small 21lb hammer, this method of operation
continuing until 1900. In that year Lewis Litton
and Arch Turnbull, who were operating a crushing
plant at Emu Plains, bought the quarry. The face
was then drilled by steam-operated rock drills for
primary blasting. In 1902 a railway was built from
Toongabbie. This operated until 1946, and was
used for instance for the direct transport of
aggregate to Waterfall for the Woronora Dam
(Blacktown Technical College, 1976). The
availability of exposures was most useful to the
geologists (Jevons et al., op. cit.), but there seems
to have been little call on their expertise in
relation to quarrying until the 1950s.
Morrison (1904), Minty (1959 and 1964),
Wallace (1971), Adamson and Taylor (1976) are
important sources on the construction materials of
the region.
WATER
John Busby can be rightly called Australia's
first Engineering Geologist. Busby came to
Sydney, at the age of 58 in 1824, after a successful
career in England. and Scotland, where he was
greatly in demand as an adviser and practical
builder of drainage and water systems. His original
appointment in the colony was to deal with
mineral occurrences, and he had some hopes of
being financially and practically involved in the
privatisation of the coal mines at Newcastle
(Branagan, 1972a).
However he was soon embroiled in providing a
safe and adequate water supply for Sydney. Busby
has been poorly treated by writers, accused of
incompetence and fear of his convict workers
(Beasley, 1988, Jeffcoat, 1988), whereas the record
shows his expertise and dedication in the face of
bureaucratic resistance or indolence.
As early as 25 March 1824 Busby was putting
forward his ideas on water supply for Sydney,
recommending boring rather than shaft sinking to
obtain preliminary information about the quantity
and quality of water available in the area. Water
from the Tank Stream was collected in three tanks
cut out on the stream bank, close to the present
intersection of Hunter and Pitt Streets. These tanks
were fenced to reduce pollution. They can be
clearly seen in a painting by Edward Dayes, which
is accompanied by an explanatory plate (Flower,
1973);
Busby, having convinced the Colonial
Secretary of the viability of his scheme to bring
water from the Lachlan Swamps (the present
Centennial Park) to the city, began in Hyde Park
in September 1827 with an open-cut. This
extended 1570 feet, built up with ashlar covered by
stone flagging [brought by cart from a "quarry on
the east side of the Government domain"], and
flagged "at such places as found necessary.... a
series of shafts on the line of the tunnel was then
decided on and ten were marked out. By October
1831 4732 feet of tunnelling, averaging 6 feet
high and 3 wide, had been completed (Busby, 17
Oct 1831). Busby had contemplated that the
quality of water coming from the tunnelled rocks
might be poor compared with the lagoon water to
be tapped, so he envisaged that pipes would be
required. However he found to his delight that the
rock water quality was excellent, and this water in
fact supplied the town well before the completion
of the project. Hard sandstone between pits 7 and 8
required blasting in 1828, causing Busby to defend
6 D.F. BRANAGAN
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BUSBY'’S BORE
Not to scale.Tunnel length 3.6 kilometres.
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Figure 4. Busby's Bore showing location of shafts and geology encountered.
the "enormous expenditure of gunpowder" because
of the "enclosed specimen" which was
"almostThere was thus "no reason to suspect the
embezzlement of gunpowder". A very different
problem occurred between "Pits 4 and 5 [where] it
was necessary to construct a brickway one hundred
and thirty feet in length, in consequence of a clay
vein which runs nearly parallel with the tunnel" .
This probably was the result of intersecting a
dykewhich runs nearly parallel to Oxford Street
(Branagan, 1969).
In the following six months (to July 1832)
Busby encountered considerable problems as the
tunnel had influxes of water and large inflows of
sand near the northern end of Moore Park, because
the miners withdrew supporting timber too early.
Consequently Busby decided to change the
direction of the tunnel to remain in rock, as along
the original route the rock was rapidly becoming
deeper. In fact the tunnel was diverted at least five
times because of encountering sand (Figure 4).
The irregularity of the sandstone/sand interface
in the eastern suburbs of Sydney continues to
present foundation problems for the engineer and
builder, as shown in sites as diverse as Randwick,
Bellevue Hill, Dover Heights, University of New
South Wales, Kippax Street (near Central
Railway) and Double Bay there may be erosion
during periods of flood rain (Branagan, 1986).
Many of these problems could have been averted
and considerable savings made by the systematic
preparation and publication of detailed engineering
geology maps.
During the early stages of Busby's major
project the Tank Stream had already been
abandoned as a source of drinking water and
although, as Keele (1908) points out, there were at
that time also professional water-borers in the
colony, water had to be transported to the city
from the Blackwattle Swamp (Broadway) and the
Lachlan Swamps. However Busby was requested to
improve the water supply in the meantime by a
system of public wells in the city, although he
pointed out to the Governor that such wells would
draw water away from already established "private"
wells. T.H. Scott (1824) noted that the water in
wells "being not more than 30 feet deep, the water
is not good", but for one, whose location is not
given, he states "one well, sunk 82 feet to a great
mass of sandstone, gives excellent water”.
TWO CENTURIES OF GEOLOGY & ENGINEERING IN THE SYDNEY REGION 7
Nevertheless Busby recommended 6 wells to
depths of thirty feet at Barracks Square, Market,
King and Pitt Streets to be completed by free men
in a month, but he warned against taking any of
his miners for the work (Busby, 25 January,
1828). One well was completed by 21 March
1828, the others a short time later. However
Busby was somewhat put out when a worthy of
the town sued him for damage to his carriage,
which tipped up on some of the excavated clay,
and the government refused to indemnify Busby!
One of Busby's wells was discovered during the
excavations for Wynyard Station in 1927. It was
30 feet deep in solid rock with "wooden piping so
neatly dovetailed that the joints were still
watertight" - a century-old tribute to Busby's
engineering (Anon, 1962).
Sutton (1992) indicates that Major George
Barney completed Busby's Bore water scheme.
Barney attested to the good work done by Busby
and in consequence (with the support of a large
number of Sydney's residents) Busby was paid a
gratuity of £1 000 in addition to arrears of salary
owing to him (Walsh, 1966). Nevertheless Busby
did not spend all his efforts on the water scheme.
We find him advising the Governor also on the
removal of rock bars in the Parramatta River close
to its tidal limits near Rosehill, a matter that also
involved Barney a few years later.
The story of the construction of the third water
supply for Sydney, the Lakes Scheme, during the
1850-60s, has been well told by Smith (1868),
Henry (1939) and by Aird (1961), although there
are many aspects still worth exploring. There were
official enquiries about new sources of water as
early as 1847 as Sydney grew. A similar Enquiry
at Parramatta in 1849, at which Rev. W.B. Clarke
(1849) gave evidence, led to the construction of a
15m high dam there in the next decade (see below).
Henry and Aird (ops. cit.) deal with the problems
of the engineers in constructing the dams in the
Botany sandhills, dams which still remain, albeit
modified in the intervening years. One dam (the
Engine Pond, (a water puddle dam) close to the
shores of Botany Bay) had been built by convict
labour in 1838, but the others were not considered
until 1862 and were finally designed by the City
Engineer Edward Bell in 1867. Construction of
these earth dams, built with timber by-washes,
began the same year. Many of the dams failed in
the following year but were reconstructed about
1873. Some were badly damaged again in July
1931 but were restored.
In the 1860s and 1870s the Royal Society (and
its predecessor) devoted considerable time to the
discussion of Sydney's water supply. While the
"visionaries" looked to the Upper Nepean, there
were those who envisaged damming Cook's River,
and more particularly George's River, somewhere
not far above where it entered Botany Bay. A small
dam had been built much further upstream on the
George's River at Liverpool in 1837, probably
designed by David Lennox, who is more renowned
as a designer and builder of bridges. The 1867
Commission included Professor John Smith,
Edward O. Moriarty, P.F. Adams, F.H. Grundy,
T. Woore & W.C. Bennett (all with strong
engineering leanings), and it considered possible
sources on the Grose River, Warragamba River,
Georges River, Upper Nepean River & Cataract
River. The last named had two alternatives - a high
level large dam and a smaller low level structure
linked to a holding supply at Prospect. This
scheme was the one finally chosen.
Other suggestions looked at were the Loddon
River & Maddens Plains, Wingecarribee Swamps,
Erskine Valley, a tributary of the Nepean, and
wells on the Botany Reserve, while an alternative
to Prospect, holding reservoirs at Kenny Hill, was
also rejected. This alternative proposal came from
F.B. Gipps (1880) who gained considerable
support from the media. To some degree Gipps'
scheme was inspired by his opposition to E.O.
Moriarty, designer of the Prospect scheme, who
lacked academic qualifications unlike Gipps.
William Clark, an engineer who came from
England in 1876 was appointed "external arbiter"
for the schemes. Moriarty must have been
delighted to be able to pour scorn on Gipps's
8 D.F. BRANAGAN
proposal when it was shown to have considerable
technical deficiencies (Keele, 1908).
The Legislative Assembly published an
important review on the "The Water Supply for
Sydney and Suburbs" in 1878 with various
suggestions considered, including Richard Sadlier's
earlier (1852) proposal for a tunnel from the
Nepean River to George's River, while Thomas
Holt resurrected Sir Thomas Mitchell's 1850
proposal for a dam on the George's River. A report
by Archibald Liversidge on Water Quality was also
appended.
Some of these alternative suggestions were
brought into play as Sydney grew. The scheme for
wells on the Botany Reserve was investigated by
Glenister Shiel in 1942 as a potential emergency
water source for Sydney should the war require it
(Figure 5).
The Hudson Brothers' amazing achievement of
building a temporary supply pipeline in six
months (1885-6) has been documented by Dorter
(1961), but this involved little geological work.
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ROADS AND BRIDGES
"The Construction and Preservation of safe and
commodious High-ways is a matter of great and
general Importance, and tends greatly to increase
Commerce, and promote Civilization."
(proclamation of Governor Lachlan Macquarie,
Sydney Gazette, 6 April, 1811.). It is obvious that
geology plays an essential part in the placing and
operation of roads and railways. The natural surface
variations, the availability of suitable materials to
ensure good travelling conditions, the underlying
strata and the topography each affect to some
extent every road and railway.
Thus the crossing of the small Tank Stream
was regarded as "a work of the first public
importance". The cornerstone of the first stone
bridge over the Tank Stream at Bridge Street was
laid on 1 July 1803 by Governor P.G. King. This
24 feet long arch structure was begun a little
earlier, when "a number of Masons and Labourers
were employed in sinking the foundations"
(Sydney Gazette 5 June 1803). However things did
not go well. In December 1803 the commodious
stone house of the contractor Isaac Payton was
auctioned "to defray the Expence of finishing the
New Bridge, which from a Breach of Contract is
necessarily taken in hand bye Government". When
the "centers" were removed on 5 January 1804 "a
number of spectators beheld the work with much
agitation, as an opinion had been formed that the
arch was not likely to stand". Despite the hope
that the bridge would be a lasting monument to
industry and "early improvement" the poor
workmanship, combined with heavy rains, caused
its collapse the following October. Being in a key
position it was repaired soon after, with further
attention by Lt. William Minchin in 1806.
Thomas Mitchell and Roads
Thomas Mitchell had a great eye for the
landscape, as his wonderful sketches show. This
stood him in good stead in his placing of roads,
and particularly in his solutions to crossing the
natural topographic obstructions leading to the
plateaux west, north and south of Sydney. He also
TWO CENTURIES OF GEOLOGY & ENGINEERING IN THE SYDNEY REGION 9
was lucky to have available the skills of men such
as David Lennox for bridge design and building and
the military-trained George Barney, Percy Palmer,
and George Mann (although Barney and Mitchell
did not see eye to eye). Mitchell was responsible
for the daring answer at Lapstone, i.e. cutting
directly through the monoclinal structure, up a
small valley, thus avoiding the problems that have
dogged the builders and maintainers of later roads
and railways running along the front of the steeply
dipping escarpment. He was equally daring at Mt.
Victoria by ignoring official orders and throwing a
causeway across a narrow gap to provide a solution
that continues in use to the present.
Mitchell’s solution north of Sydney is no
longer in use, for various reasons, but it is
nevertheless also a classic one, still worthy of
study. The major obstacle was the ascent from
Wisemans Ferry to the Hornsby Plateau, which
Mitchell attacked with typical boldness but
effectively, by replacing the first ascent route
surveyed by Surveyor Heneage Finch, and with a
sense of proportion, building a steep, but steady
grade road by cut and fill, with particular attention
to drainage, and using the local Hawkesbury
Sandstone. He undoubtedly made provision to
protect from erosion the weathered dyke which the
road crosses halfway up the ascent. Ash (1992)
points out that Lieutenant Percy Palmer was also
involved in this project and may have been
involved in the details of construction of this fine
piece of engineering construction. As mentioned
earlier Mitchell's broad knowledge and his use of
the Dundas igneous material as road base (and
other similar material as available) ensured good
results.
Later road engineers during the 19th century
seem to have largely "gone it alone" as indicated
by Warren (1888) and Dare (1903). Warren's very
long and detailed paper contains few mentions of
geological matters except for noting "a very
romantic, but somewhat dangerous road has been
made around the Coal Cliff", which he amplifies
slightly by commenting on the need for
modifications in the slopes of embankments, due
to the "treacherous nature of the material
excavated, and the formation of the country.
Several slips of considerable magnitude have
occurred in the embankments and cuttings on the
Illawarra railway".
Concerning roads Warren wrote: "the [Sydney]
streets with light traffic were reconstructed with
satisfactory results in the following manner: a
solid foundation, consisting of hand-packed
hammer-dressed sandstone pitchers, ten inches
deep, was laid and covered with a layer of broken
basalt two and a-half inch gauge which was rolled
to a smooth surface with a steam roller: the rise in
the road was made one in forty. On steep grades, in
which Sydney roads abounds, frequently ranging
from one in nine to one in twenty two, dry
Macadam stone stacked on a platform is covered
with well-boiled tar and left for about five weeks
before using on the road. It is spread and rolled to a
smooth surface and finished by sprinkling over
the surface fine screenings or sand. Later, from
1880 hardwood blocks laid on concrete were used
with tar and basalt screening filling the spaces".
The Department of Public Works introduced
road material testing before 1921 (Dept of Main
Roads, 1976), but not till the 1950s did the
Department of Main Roads take geologists into
the fold as an essential part of their organisation.
Much of the history about routes and
construction can be found in Upton (1932) and
Department of Main Roads (1976).
The Pyrmont Bridge
The Pyrmont Swing Bridge is regarded as a
classic of its kind for its engineering design. In
relation to the geology encountered the paper by
the designer Percy Allan (1907) notes only that
five boreholes passed through 3 feet of mud and 25
feet of arenaceous clay then sandstone with a "dip
of 8 feet in the diameter of the pier". Because of
"the thick clay layer it was determined to sink a
wrought-iron caisson to the rock by open dredging,
then to pump out the water in the caisson and
excavate a trench in the sloping rock sufficient to
10 D.F. BRANAGAN
enable the whole periphery of the cutting edge to
be bedded in the solid rock". It is not made clear by
this description taken from Allan's paper, but it
seems likely that the clay encountered by the
boreholes was indicating the presence of a
weathered dyke, and that the pivot pier could have
been poorly founded. The fact that piles had to be
driven 78 feet through clay to support the ‘rest
pier' on the Sydney side of the brige supports this
idea. Although not marked on Edgeworth David's
"dyke map" (David, c. 1900) (Figure 6) recent
work indicates a northwest trending dyke close to
this position. Allan's last bridge design was Tom
Ugly's road bridge, (1924-29). Here the geology
finally forced itself on the engineers and it received
the attention it deserved, because of the 52m of silt
encountered.
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Bradfield (1913) gives a brief history of plans
to bridge Sydney Harbour up to that time. The
Harbour bridge thrusts its weight on two gigantic
steel bearings, set in foundations of concrete, forty
feet deep, embedded in solid sandstone. Although
Bradfield (1932) still gives no details of tests on
the bearing capacity of the founding sandstone he
notes that the transfer of load through the steel and
concrete base should produce a pressure on the
sandstone of 200 pounds per square inch. The
steelwork of the arches is supported by cables
anchored 132 feet in rock in tunnels inclined at
45°. Gladesville Bridge is a later example of a
single arch bridge built using the strength of the
sandstone.
RAILWAYS
It was to be many years before geological
advice was sought by the railway engineers, but
the geologists benefited by the availability of fresh
cuttings to work out stratigraphy and to examine
dykes and structural features in the Sydney region.
C.S. Wilkinson set an early good example, by
publicising these features in the local press, and
later in tourist publications sponsored by the
Railways. Details of the construction of the
northern line, involving some interesting
geological problems, and a discussion of the
interesting zig-zag from Thornleigh to the quarry
of prismatic sandstone are given in Singleton
(1965-66) and Branagan (1995). The major
geological problems were undoubtedly with
construction of the Hawkesbury Bridge.
THE HAWKESBURY BRIDGE
Because of the importance of this bridge I will
review its planning and construction. When the
decision was made for the route of the railway the
Chief Railway engineer, John Whitton, himself
designed a bridge for the Hawkesbury crossing,
although there was talk of a train ferry to
overcome the problem (Preston, 1983). However
Whitton's proposal was rejected in favour of an
international tendering process, which selected the
Union Bridge Company of Brooklyn, USA, which
TWO CENTURIES OF GEOLOGY & ENGINEERING IN THE SYDNEY REGION 11
then sublet almost all phases of the bridge
construction.
Quite good details of the construction methods
for the piers are given in newspaper articles and
illustrations, drawn on the spot (Sydney Mail,
1886, Daily Telegraph, 1889) (Figure 7). The
method employing caissons was new, being
employed almost simultaneously on two other
bridges (one on the Hudson River, USA, the other
on the Hooghley in India, ). Three dredging tubes
were placed within an outer steel caisson, which
was constructed on site from sections brought by
ship. As material was removed it was replaced by
concrete and additional caisson rings added until
firm foundations were reached. The deepest
foundation proved to be the last of the piers
emplaced, reaching a (then) record 169 feet. This
caisson was completed in one year (May 9, 1887
-May 11, 1888). Bluestone (probably from
Melbourne) formed the plinths of the piers
(although Fewtrell (1949) suggests Gib
microsyenite), and local Hawkesbury Sandstone
the upper portions.
But what of the foundation conditions for this
mighty structure? Burge (1909a) indicates that
preliminary borings were made and The Engineer
(1886) bears this out, but I have found no details
of the methods employed. Burge just states that “a
belt of mud” extended to a depth varying from 60
to 170 ft below HW mark, overlying sand, the
greatest depth of water being 77 feet. On the other
hand H.C. Russell (1885) says that a water depth
of 49 feet overlay 31 feet of light mud, 87 feet of
black mud, 8 feet of very hard sand, a total of 170
feet. However, sadly both statements seem to have
been interpreted as providing uniform thickness
and properties of each sedimentary unit across the
site, a matter which proved to be far from the
truth, as the builders were to find to their cost.
It is perhaps significant of engineers’ attitudes
of the time that W.H. Warren, Professor of
Engineering at Sydney University, in his
discussion of engineering progress in Australia
a
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Figure Ts ore Badger construction.
(1888), makes no comment on the foundation
conditions of the Hawkesbury Bridge, while noting
that "this bridge represents in its design the
combined experience of the most eminent
engineers both in England and America."
It turns out there were real geological problems
encountered during the bridge construction and
which led ultimately to the mere fifty year life of
this structure, one of the world’s acclaimed
engineering masterpieces of the nineteenth century.
Why this bridge did not fail remains a mystery to
me!
Burge (op. cit.), following his minimal
discussion of the foundation conditions, describes
the caissons in considerable detail, commenting on
the splaying out of the dredging wells to meet the
outer skin and each other in a strong cutting edge
formed of heavy steel plates. The theory of placing
12 D.F. BRANAGAN
the caissons was straightforward. “The shoe,
having been built on shore at Dangar Island, and
provided with a timber false bottom was floated
out to position and sunk to the bottom of the
river, by removing the temporary bottom, and
partially loading the caisson with concrete. The
caisson was then sunk through the mud by
dredging the material from the bottom of the wells
and by loading the space between the wells and the
skin with concrete, more steel being built up as
the caisson went down."
As soon as the structure was firmly in the
sand, the dredging wells were filled with concrete,
and the masonry was then begun at a level
somewhat below low-water. The concrete was
supposed to be composed of one part of Portland
cement, 3 parts of sand, and 6 parts of stone,
broken to 21/2-inch gauge. The stone was what is
locally known as Kiama blue stone.
The practice of the caisson sinking and
concrete preparation was something else altogether
from the theory. Caisson number 5, the first
begun (on 9 December, 1886), gave most cause for
alarm, and was the last finished (9 October, 1888).
After it entered the mud it started to tilt
downstream (to the east). The first method tried to
correct this was to excavate the eastern well in
advance of the other two, thus, in theory, causing
the caisson to tilt its vertical axis towards the
west. However this method did not work, even
when the difference in excavation depth was more
than 4m. Dredging outside the caisson was then
tried, and all excavated mud was dumped on the
eastern side. By the time the caisson had reached
75 ft (22m) below the river bed, the divergence
was 5 ft at the base and 3 ft at the top, the axis
still tilting to the east. The allowable margin for
lateral divergence was 2 ft. When the caisson
began to enter sand it began to move towards the
vertical, but there was more lateral divergence at
the top. Then the dredge grabs got into difficulties,
one being permanently lost, not recoverable by
divers.
The (sub) contractors, Anderson & Barr of New
Jersey, then drove a series of piles on the east side
to support a cribwork, which was loaded with
stone and intended to prevent further movement.
They put in a similar structure about 140m
upstream to anchor the caisson top firmly, while
further digging continued in the eastern well.
However the two cribwork structures were still
founded in mud, and as the sinking continued and
the caisson continued to correct itself it pushed
over the eastern cribwork. The caisson was now
well into the sand at 144 below HW of ordinary
spring tides. The next solution tried was to place
an additional caisson in the form of a crescent,
made of steel plates, on the western side of the
original structure. Two wells for dredging were
provided, the space between being loaded with
concrete. However when the structure was about
28 ft from the bottom the wells caved in under the
pressure of the mud on the west side and the
original caisson on the east, so that further sinking
was impossible, and it could not be got up either!
The only solution was to begin the masonry
structure at a much lower level than originally
proposed (some 3.7m, 12 ft 6 in) and corbel out.
A coffer dam enabled this to be done, with solid
stone, (basalt or microsyenite) 7 to 8 ft in length,
with a 9 inch overhang in each course, and the
centre line of the western girder was situated over
the centre of the masonry column. This fell within
the resultant line of pressure on the pier.
The difficulty was attributed to variations in
the consistency of the mud, the east side being
more consistent than on the west and consequently
not caving in so quickly. Part of the problem
seems to have been caused by the outward splay of
the bottom of the caisson. This was corrected in
the later caissons Nos. 1, 2 & 3 before sinking,
and they went down without significant diversion.
No. 4 gave few problems, with only slight
divergence from its planned position, but No. 6,
sunk near the northern channel moved sideways
towards the bank, and was affected by the founding
on a section of mud that contained large tree trunks
(David and Halligan, 1908) so that the span
lengths had to be varied in this part of the bridge.
TWO CENTURIES OF GEOLOGY & ENGINEERING IN THE SYDNEY REGION 13
Survey measurements between 1890 and 1945
revealed progressive settlement of the piers as well
as lateral movement. In May 1945, the top of pier
6 was 5&11/16 inches downstream from its correct
position.
How much of the concrete was properly mixed
and placed remains somewhat uncertain. Within a
year of the opening of the bridge the
subcontractors for cement, Burge and Barrows of
Kent, were required to remove faulty material at
the top of the caissons. A cofferdam built around
each caisson exposed concrete of the poorest
quality in each case. At No. 2 pier 15 cu yds of a
mixture of sand, mud and a little cement had to be
replaced. The Union Bridge Company spent 9
months replacing the faulty material. In 1937
inspection by divers revealed extensive rusting of
caisson 4; furthermore the concrete inside could be
easily penetrated by pushing a rod into it, and the
other piers showed similar weakness.
Between June 1937 and August 1938 cracks in
the masonry of No. 4 pier alerted engineers to the
need for a careful investigation of the piers below
water level, using a diver and sinking a shaft inside
a cofferdam and boring tests inside the caisson. It
turned out that some of the pier problems were the
result of a push and pull action because of
virtually inoperative expansion bearings. Cracks in
No. | pier, inactive since 1938, extended rapidly in
August 1945.
It is interesting that the bridge specifications
did not give a limiting foundation pressure, which
led to very different tenders for the foundation
costs. This lack of tight specification was perhaps
the major weakness in the bridge design, as
opposed to the extraordinary details specified for
the superstructure.
C.O. Burge (1909b) has a nice finish to his
story of the Hawkesbury River Bridge: “The bridge
was opened by the Governor of the colony, Lord
Carrington, in the presence of eight hundred guests
from all the colonies, and in an inevitable banquet
that followed, speeches went to buttering, on both
sides, politicians whose share in the work was
infinitesimal, and never mentioning those who had
anything to do with its construction. A stranger
hearing them might think that the bridge was ready
made like Venus from the froth of the sea, that it
required as little preparation for the work as
supposed necessary for the duties of a Member of
Parliament."
QUAYS AND DOCKS
Circular Quay
The portion of Sydney popularly referred to as
Circular Quay hides what Stephenson and Kennedy
(1980) call "the biggest and most enduring
engineering construction" of early Sydney" and
"one of the biggest enterprises of foreshore
reclamation [ten acres] in the world at that time".
This area which should perhaps be correctly called
semi-circular Quay, was an original triangular
shape with its tidal limit about Bridge Street. The
plan was designed and supervised by George
Barney, requiring a waterline 2 500 feet long with
a depth of 20 feet to accommodate 20 average size
vessels. It involved the conversion of the Tank
Stream to a sewer, and required importing a
dredger, two punts, two diving bells and a light
railway system (Sutton, 1992). Convict labour
used sandstone from the Argyle Cut quarries to the
west, the Tarpeian rock to the east and from
Cockatoo Island to fill the area on the east side of
the Tank Stream, leaving the deep water section
available for limited navigation to Bridge Street.
This work, begun in 1837, was completed by
1844, the last and largest work by convict labour
in the Colony. During the construction of the
Cahill Expressway in the 1950s the Quay became
a rectangular one.
Moves for a similar semi-circular quay in
Woolloomooloo Bay were set in place in the
1850s, Thomas Mitchell being involved in
ensuring public access and the reservation of
streets aS various private individuals attempted to
manoeuvre for privileged shoreline control.
Sandstone blocks were readily available to supply
the walls of this structure.
14 D.F. BRANAGAN
Docks
The constant demand for building materials
Saw many quarry sites in the inner city area, and
islands in the harbour were not immune. Goat
Island, for example, was quarried for building stone
and rubble, to such an extent that Thomas
Mitchell complained in 1831 that the island was in
danger of being quarried away. There was
discussion on the possible use of the island for a
dock. However in 1854 Mort's dock was begun in
Balmain. It was a difficult pick and shovel
excavation; 400 feet long by 50 feet wide, and later
enlarged. On Cockatoo Island twenty feet deep
"bottles" were cut in the solid sandstone about
1840. This stone was quarried and used to fill
Circular Quay. In 1851 a large graving dock was
completed on the east side. A larger dock was built
on the west side between 1884 and 1890. The
earlier dock was designed and built by G. K.
Mann, who had worked under George Barney.
Mann tested the strength of the sandstone to
calculate the amount of gunpowder needed, and in
1848 blasted away in one explosion the cliff
covering the dock site avoiding fragmentation.
During extension of the eastern dock in the 1860s
a Labyrinthodont was discovered, which caused
considerable interest among geologists (Stephens
1886a & b).
In this century we have seen several large _
harbour projects that have involved geology.
Helffenstein (1952) discusses the construction of
the Garden Island dockyard, commenced in 1945
for the Navy by the Water Board (Beasley, op.
Cite):
The Botany Bay project, an environmental
project begun in 1972, set out to assess the impact
of human settlement on a "typical" coastal
environment. There had been many changes in the
almost two hundred years since European activity.
The construction of coastal barriers along the
western side of the bay had been studied by
Andrews (1912 & 1916) and later by Goodwin
(1971) and others. The changes to Cooks River
during the initial construction of Kingsford-Smith
Aerodrome, and the more extensive changes during
ay ~w Fou inal sbenDern 2968
the construction of the runways into the bay,
followed by the construction of a research
laboratory, were major examples of the interaction
of engineering and geology, but geologists were
involved generally too little, and often too late.
Many of the structures were designed and
constructed prior to essential knowledge of the
wave and wind conditions they were designed to
protect against. The massive seawall built to
protect the new port facilities was begun in 1974
and by this time there was considerable
consultation and co-operation between geologists
and engineers.
DAMS
The need for dams became evident early, and
P.E. Strzelecki (1845) was one of the first to
recommend a dam on the Warragamba River.
Thomas Woore, in 1867, was enthusiastic for such
an edifice, and provided drawings for a large
earth/rock fill structure (Figure 8), which probably
would have failed, and which was well beyond the
capacity of the colony°“at) they time.
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Figure 8. Warragamba Dam design by T. Woore
(1867).
TWO CENTURIES OF GEOLOGY & ENGINEERING IN THE SYDNEY REGION 15
When Rev. W.B. Clarke gave evidence on the
need for a good water supply for Parramatta in
1849 he recommended a damsite at North Rocks,
which he believed "could supply the whole county
of Cumberland for the next century". Despite this
somewhat over-enthusiastic optimism, the site
was adopted shortly after, and Lieutenant Percy
Simpson was commissioned to prepare plans for a
"circular dam" (Ash, 1992). This was an
extraordinary decision in a way, as few arch dams
had ever been built, and at the time only one
modern arch structure was in planning and
construction (in France). The original height of the
dam, built on Hunt's Creek and completed in
1856, was 41 feet. It was built of masonry in
Roman cement, and raised to 52 feet in 1898,
using concrete. Ash (op. cit.) has photos of the
dam and Wade (1909) describes it in some detail.
The construction of Prospect Dam in 1888 has
been well-documented (Henry, op. cit.), but a
probably apocryphal story persists of employing
for compaction the prototype of the sheepfoot
roller, a flock of sheep driven back and forth. The
real story seems to be that a very large roller, made
of basalt, and brought overland from Ballarat by
William Pincott, was used, pulled by a team of
bullocks. The northern abutment was fortuitously
supplied by the edge of the Prospect intrusion, the
southern by a sandstone ridge within the
Wianamatta Group.
Warren (1888) gives details of the construction
of the Prospect reservoir noting "the puddle wall is
carried 6 feet below the solid shale, eight feet wide
at the top, protected on each side by red and white
clay rammed in layers 6 inches thick, the water
slope is pitched with diorite blocks eighteen inches
deep". It seems certain that Warren is referring to
Prospect dolerite as the rock used.
This dam, painted by Arthur Streeton in 1895,
was the storage dam for water pumped from the
Cataract system, the site being chosen by engineer
Edward Moriarty. A sizable dam was built on Curl
Curl Creek, Manly Vale, in 1892 to supply Manly
and Warringah, but this had to be supplemented by
water from the metropolitan system in 1906, and
the dam was enlarged three times up to 1922. It
was replaced by the metropolitan system in 1924,
but was used for ten months in 1942 near the end
of a seven year drought. More recently the dam
became the supply for several hydraulic research
laboratories for the Water Board and the University
of New South Wales, investigating aspects of
flooding of the Hunter Valley, the offshore sewage
tunnels, designs for enlarging Warragamba Dam,
and hydraulic drawdown in large wells among
others.
From early in this century, as dams became
popular, engineers of the Water Board adopted as
their preferred dam type in the Sydney region,
concrete cyclopean masonry gravity, but slightly
curved to add strength by using the abutments to
some extent to take part of the load. These dams
were preferred to the buttress type as built at the
Junction Reefs Mine, near Mandurama, or rock or
earth fill types. According to Coltheart and Fraser
(1987), they were all designed by Ernest de Burgh,
who in 1904 visited England and France to study
dam construction and water supply. The design of
these dams was strongly influenced by theoretical
calculations of the American engineer Edward
Wegmann. It was found, in later years, that the
structures were too light, and likely to be affected
by uplift and overturning, and all had to be
strengthened.
As far as I have been able to ascertain the early
dam design and construction work in the region
was done without any geological advice. There
seems to have been little or no consultation with
geologists during the construction of the Cataract
(1903-7) (but see below), and the Cordeaux (1926)
dams, (the latter attracting 600 aldermen, few
engineers and fewer geologists to its official
opening).
THE CATARACT DAM
One reason for the construction of the large
Cataract Dam (Figure 9) early in the century was
that the low-level structure built there in the 1880s
16 D.F. BRANAGAN
Figure 9. Cataract Dam. Masonry blocks being
placed (Courtesy Water Board).
was proving inadequate. The Prospect reservoir
could not be lowered too much as parts of the wall
were unstable when the drawdown was high, and
this was beginning to happen quite frequently as
demand for water rose and there was insufficient
supply from Cataract. In fact there were a number
of small failures of the wall at Prospect in 1888
and the toe was weighted several times with stone.
News of these failures again brought pressure on
Moriarty, and he was not helped by media
agitation alleging unsafe tunnels in the Upper
Nepean work. Moriarty had insisted these tunnels
not be bricked and that they would stand up
unsupported. Some timbering had been used by the
contractors where the roof was in shale. In fact
they proved satisfactory, with few rock falls, and
opposition to the general Nepean-Prospect scheme
gradually abated (Keele, 1908).
L.A. Wade's paper "Concrete and masonry dam
construction in New South Wales" presented in
London in 1909 caused considerable discussion.
There had been few large dams anywhere built in
sandstone country to that time. The President of
the Institution of Civil Engineers, J.C. Inglis,
commented that it was "particularly gratifying to
get papers of this kind from Colonial members".
He thought it dealt with a "work of a courageous
character", while Mr. C.E. Jones felt that "fears
were aroused....a dangerous point had been reached
in the construction of dams for impounding
water.... Australian engineers must be suffering
many sleepless nights, hoping their dams would
not fail".
Beginning with a brief discussion of earlier
dams, including those of Parramatta and Picton,
Wade drew attention to the geology of the
foundations, commenting that granite conditions
were usually the best. However most of the paper
is devoted to the Cataract Dam. Wade discussed the
qualities of the sandstone, and the testing of a large
block for its expansion/contraction when wet. He
commented that the readily available Hawkesbury
Sandstone was satisfactory in large blocks "if
carefully quarried from selected layers and disposed
in the work to be free from the influences of
weathering". He also noted "The Hawkesbury
sandstones are intersected by numerous basaltic
dikes, which are in the majority of cases so
decomposed as to be unfit for use as concrete, but
in all cases the sandstone walls enclosing them are
more or less vitrified by the heat of the basalt
flow, and afford in limited quantities an excellent
material for such a purpose". However, the normal
sandstone was not satisfactory for use in the
concrete and its use was specifically forbidden in
the specifications. Basalt for the concrete was
quarried from a dyke about six and a half miles
from the dam site.
T.W. Keele, a fellow Colonial, was critical of
much of the construction (costs), and particularly
the lack of a cut-off wall upstream of the dam,
needed, he felt, because of "the uncertain and
treacherous formation" [of the Hawkesbury
Sandstone]. Keele referred to the failure of the
Broughton's pass weir in 1897 (because of air
entrapment between blocks). Mr. Mattern
"considered a careful examination of the rock
foundation in regard to its soundness and its
suitability for supporting a high dam, as well as
the testing of the watertightness of the site of the
reservoir, to be one of the most important
TWO CENTURIES OF GEOLOGY & ENGINEERING IN THE SYDNEY REGION 17
conditions for the construction of a solid and stable
dam. For this purpose wide experience was
necessary, and the engineer and the geologist must
work together, the engineer however, having the
controlling hand". In answering these comments
Wade made no mention of Mattern's call for
geology/engineering interaction.
Although there seems to have been no specific
consultation with geologists about the actual
damsite, the Government Geologist at the time
E.F. Pittman, and the Chief Inspector of Mines
A.A. Atkinson, were called in to examine the
situation from the point of view of preventing
sterilisation of the coal underlying the dam and
reservoir. E. Wegmann, the American designer,
commented on a number of aspects, particularly
the pressures to be imposed by the dam.
L.F. Harper (then Government Geologist) was
involved in advising for the Nepean (1925), Avon
(1927) and Woronora dams (1927-1941). At the
Nepean site he was called in when faulting was
suspected, while in the Avon case he duly
impressed the engineers by predicting the exact
depth at which the Narrabeen shales would be
encountered. At Woronora there were some very
loose "sand" layers within the Hawkesbury
Sandstone, but Harper seems to have been
convinced that this unit was quite strong, and that
there were few problems of any magnitude to be
encountered. Nevertheless several significant
changes were made in the Nepean and Woronora
Dams with the introduction of thrust trenches at
the toe and modification of the grout patterns and
cutoff trenches. Although Harper's work was not
extensive it probably marks the first real
involvement by a geologist in large-scale
engineering works in the Sydney region. Harper
(1930) was also apparently the first geologist to
publish in the Australian engineering literature on
geological problems for dam builders.
Figure 10. Calyx cores, Warragamba Dam.
WARRAGAMBA DAM
Despite the earlier proposals by Strzelecki and
Woore in the 19th century and recommendations
by E.M. de Burgh in 1908 for a dam on the
Warragamba, not till 1918 was there a more
specific proposal, again by de Burgh who
submitted a design and an estimate of cost
(Coltheart and Fraser, op. cit.). The following year
L. F. Harper selected a site for the proposed dam
after a hasty reconnaissance. Probably for
economic reasons, and the state's involvement in
the construction of the Burrinjuck Dam, the
Warragamba scheme only began to be considered
seriously just prior to World War II.
The Warragamba Dam story from here on
forms an important part of the story of interaction
between Geologists and Engineers. Harper's 1919
choice of a site was the best topographical
position in the valley, but drilling tests later were
to show that it was not suitable for the large dam
proposed. An Emergency Scheme was constructed
there between 1937 and 1941 as a long drought
reduced the Sydney dams to 12.5% of capacity by
1942. When the project finally took off in 1944
L.L. Waterhouse of the University of Sydney was
invited to act as consultant. He, in turn, invited
W.R. Browne to work with him, which they did
for the next two years, being involved in the
drilling which progressively moved the site
upstream to avoid weak shale breccia layers in the
foundations. Browne had advised on the Hume
Reservoir site in the 1930s, his advice on such
18 D.F. BRANAGAN
matters having been largely forgotten by those
who regard him as essentially a petrologist. For
some reason Waterhouse was unable to continue in
1946 and Browne took over as sole geological
consultant, but with the assistance of a young
graduate, D. Moye, who was to gain considerable
fame later for his work on the Snowy Mountains
Scheme. Moye cut his engineering geology teeth
on this project, working with Browne and
Waterhouse, but employed by the Board. In the
next four years there was a disciplined application
of geology, which was clearly of significance in
the design and construction of the dam. Fault and
joint zones were recognised, unstable marcasite
was found in foundation sandstones, and other
conditions were found to be variable. Fortunately
the Water Board realized the need to have its own
geologists to work on the day-to-day problems of
the dam construction, and W. Johnson continued
this task from 1950 to 1955 (Waterhouse et al,
1951; Johnson, 1960). The problems faced during
the construction of Warragamba were considerable,
and the job attracted widespread attention among
the engineering fraternity worldwide. It was
completed in 1960.
T.B. Nicol's 1964 paper on the building of the
dam, like Wade's fifty years earlier, was delivered
in London and caused much discussion among
engineers. H.G. Sweet (1965) added information
based on monitoring of the structure, as did the
engineer W.I.S. Moyes (1964). Significant matters
were: 1). Conspicuous rock movements had
occurred during construction, which could be
attributed to changes in loads on the foundation
rocks (with relatively low modulus of elasticity).
2). Stratification of the sedimentary rocks was a
controlling factor in the magnitude and direction of
the rock movements. Uplift of foundation strata
downstream and in the abutments could be
attributed to the reaction resulting from the
depression of the strata beneath the centre of the
dam. 3). Rock movements had probably occurred
in the vicinity of the dam before construction
started, and evidence was accumulating that there
were some small but measurable oscillatory
horizontal and vertical movements still taking
place. These were attributed to regional flexure
occurring independently of the elastic readjustment
of the foundation rock near the dam. Further
careful measurements were necessary to identify
the type of movements occurring and to bring
about an understanding of their causes.
In discussion H.H. Thomas asked if seismic
risk was taken into account in the Warragamba
design. J.K. Hunter warned about the problems of
estimation of design floods. He also noted that the
actual stresses in many existing dams were
different from those assumed when built. Their
survival was due in part to being small by present
standards and the margins of strength inherent in
the materials were large. R.C.S. Walters asked
why were rock-fill or earth embankments ruled out
[they would have been 350 ft high]. Nicol replied
that the dam was designed because of the success
of the previous gravity dams in the Sydney region
(although some problems were already emerging),
and there were no precedents for high rock fill
dams using sandstone of the quality available near
the site. Moreover floodwaters were more easily
disposed of over a concrete dam. He pointed out
that jointing in the abutment walls prevented an
arch dam, and that no specific allowances were
made for earthquakes in the design (although this
was certainly taken into account in later
modifications of the dam).
Nicol's reply [Item 311] noted that careful
measurements of rock movements would continue
for a long time and commented that there was
already evidence that in at least some part of the
world there was significant horizontal compression
in the earth's crust. This somewhat throwaway
comment was to prove of considerable significance
to engineers in the Sydney region in later years.
Moyes (op. cit.) developed these ideas.
More recently attention has centred on
"disaster" aspects of the Warragamba dam, the
consequences of a "hundred-year" flood or
"probable Maximum Flood" 2.5 times the largest
flood ever recorded in 1867, on both the structure
and the downstream region. Consequently the dam
TWO CENTURIES OF GEOLOGY & ENGINEERING IN THE SYDNEY REGION 19
was raised and strengthened through post-
tensioning between 1987 and 1989. Plans have
been drawn up for a new auxiliary spillway, to be
followed sometime after 2000 by a larger rock-fill
structure, not dissimilar to that proposed almost
150 years ago by Thomas Woore, but technically
somewhat better designed!
Not until 1980 was a large rock dam
(Mangrove Creek) constructed in the Sydney
region using local (Narrabeen Group) sandstone as
its main component. There were inevitably a few
problems at the Mangrove site, not least the degree
of wetness which would achieve best compaction
during rolling. There was also some movement
caused by stress relief during excavation.
TUNNELS
"There are not many opportunities for the
enjoyment of novel sensations in Sydney, life is
very humdrum" wrote a reporter for the Sydney
Morning Herald in 1887... "[the thrill-seeker]
can do nothing better than descend into the Bondi
Sewer, where novelty of a peculiarly invigorating
kind may be very easily and effectually
obtained...he will arm himself with the necessary
permission and wend his way to one of the shafts
situated at certain points in the city, which dive
down into the bowels of the earth some hundred
feet or more to the level of the tunnel. That at the
intersection of Liverpool and Oxford Streets affords
ample opportunities for arriving at the true
beauties of the tunnel....having arrived he will
provide himself with a candle, ascend 12 feet to a
platform from where he is lowered in a bucket
(liberally coated with wet clay), amidst the
enthusiastic applause of one small boy without
boots". He added "[the tunnel is]....the greatest
sand-drive in the world, it is absolutely
flawless...the magnitude of the project absolutely
flawless. The outlet is at Merriverri cliffs....One of
Nature's altars". The sand tunnelling mentioned
was in fact largely a cut and cover for that portion
of the work which extended through the sand dunes
which formerly existed in the vicinity of Blair
Street, Bondi, and not unlike the proposal put
forward by Thomas Woore in 1872.
G. Mansfield (1898) in somewhat triumphalist
fashion praised the efforts of the engineers: "this
tunnel was the result of a desire to remove sewage
from flowing into the harbour, which had been the
‘easy’ solution in earlier years". Thus the
Government developed a "system of sewerage,
constructed upon the most approved methods of
modern science, and which in its full development
will challenge comparison as a triumph of
engineering skill with that of any city in the
world".
A few railway tunnels were in process of being
cut in the Sydney region about this time,
including the very long Woy-Woy tunnel
(Branagan, 1995), but discussion of these is
outside the scope of the present paper.
A HARBOUR TUNNEL?
Crossing Sydney Harbour by means of tunnels
was seriously considered by engineers as early as
1885, when F.B. Gipps and C. O'Neill (who
devoted his spare time to forming the St. Vincent
de Paul Society in Australia) designed a tunnel. In
the same year pipes were laid across the harbour to
carry water to the North Shore. These were tested
by driving out the salt water and replacing it with
fresh. This was the year when Henry Parkes won
the seat of St Leonards with the catch-cry "Now
who will stand at my right hand and build the
bridge with me?" as there had been agitation to
build a bridge to mark the centenary of European
settlement and John Whitton the previous year
proposed a suspension bridge across Sydney
Harbour. Gipps consulted for the Harbour Tunnels
Company in 1887, tunnels being planned for both
railway and vehicular traffic, at an estimated cost
of £450 000, and with at least 30 feet of solid rock
between the crown and the harbour floor. Gipps
(1887) undertook a series of borings between Fort
Macquarie Point and Beulah Street, and between
Dawes Point and Milsons Point to "find the
character of the supposed rocky bottom" on the
20 D.F. BRANAGAN
lines of the proposed tunnels. He was more than a
little surprised that the Government charts were
misleading, as the sounding rod indicated a
minimum thickness of 44 feet of silt, and a
maximum of 64 feet. Although there was more
than 63 feet of silt at Dawes Point, the greatest
amount of silt occurred at Fort Macquarie, and he
pondered whether this was the result of
accumulation from city drainage, this point being
the principal outlet for city sewage from the 1850s
to the mid 1880s. The increased gradient, if the
tunnel was to remain in rock, was one of the
reasons for abandoning the scheme at that time.
However the idea of a harbour tunnel did not
die with this realisation of the irregularity of the
rock floor. J.LH. Maiden (1897) refers to the
activities of a select committee at that time
considering a double tramway track to North
Sydney requiring some 11/4 miles of tunnel. There
were in fact proposals at this time for separate rail
and road tunnels (Figure 10), with provision for a
partially cut tunnel in rock and an iron "pipe"
driven through the soft alluvium, a solution that
did not greatly differ from the road tunnel finally
constructed in 1990. Bradfield (1913) and
Stephenson and Kennedy (1980) note that a 1908-9
committee recommended that two tunnels, one for
railway, one for road, be built under the harbour,
with a subway under the city. However sceptics
still considered the tunnels would flood or cave in.
Bradfield (1913) compared crossing the harbour
by bridge and tunnel, but devoted only a little
attention to the water depth, and made no comment
on the geological variation under the water, but, of
course, his major interest was in a bridge crossing.
The harbour was finally first crossed by a
tunnel, but of considerably reduced dimensions,
built between 1913 and 1922 from Long Nose
Point to Manns Point, Greenwich for electricity
cables. Dargan (1992) discusses the problems
encountered during this pioneer work, which cut
through a weathered dyke, and much weak rock.
The tunnel continues, I believe, to attract intrepid
divers.
The rate of change in attitudes and
achievements can be seen in the opening of the
Harbour Tunnel in 1994. Sydney newspapers of
the 1970s and 80s indicate conflicting opinions
about sites and methods of achieving satisfactory
results. Hawley (1972) discusses a pefabricated
tunnel proposal, while the Stekete (1982) featured
Figure 11. Sydney Harbour Tunnel Plans (1897).
TWO CENTURIES OF GEOLOGY & ENGINEERING IN THE SYDNEY REGION 21
a combined tunnel and bridge (between Greenwich
and Birchgrove) proposal supported by the
Department of Main Roads, although two years
earlier City Express (1980) was remarked gloomily
that Sydney would "have to wait until after the
year 2000 before it gets moving on a second
harbour crossing".
THE PRESSURE TUNNEL
One of the most significant tunnels in the
Sydney region was the Pressure Tunnel built by
the Water Board in the 1920s from Potts Hill
Reservoir to Waterloo Pumping Station (10
miles), approved by the Board in 1915, and
approved by a special panel of experts in 1919 as
two cylindrical tubes in one heading, at a cost of
£1 000 000. It was later amended to a single 10
foot tunnel. Trial bores were put down during
1921-2 followed by the sinking of 17 shafts. This
tunnel was to be an essential part of the city's
water supply for many years. It was expected to
withstand the pressure of water pumped through it
merely by the rock cover and a thin concrete
lining. Virtually as it was being tested over a
distance of two and a half miles miles (May 1930)
it failed over a length of 700 feet where it had
passed through a dyke and weak rock. In fact cracks
had been observed in the concrete lining prior to
testing. A Royal Commission was held over this
structure between November 1932 and May 1933
when engineer D.G. Bruce gave evidence that the
failures were "due to bad ground, others to
insufficiency of cover". He felt that some
apparently safe sections might fail in "18 months
or two years". The Commission attributed the
failure to incorrect design and location, but agreed
that the recommended remedial measures (by
placing an impervious steel lining within) were
adequate, but at a cost of £2 886 000! No
geologists seem to have been involved in the
enquiries associated with this tunnel, which at the
time was one of the largest pressure tunnels ever
built (Haskins 1931-32). A second tunnel was
begun in 1946 at depths between 15 and 65
metres. Of the 16 kms 8 were driven through
sandstone, 7 kms through shale and | km through
a mixture of sandstone and shale.
Braybrooke (1985) has summarised the history
of tunnel construction in the region, prior to the
time of the successful completion of the three
offshore tunnels for the Sydney Water Board, as it
then was.
OFFSHORE TUNNELS PROJECT
The recent and much-maligned Offshore
Tunnels project of the former Sydney Water Board
is an impressive example of co-operation between
engineers and geologists, particularly within the
Principal's organisation, but also with the
contractors. These offshore tunnels might be
regarded as the end-point of a system which was
built up over more than 150 years for the disposal
of Sydney's sewage, having in 1888 diverted the
disposal from the previously happily-accepted
method of running pipes into the harbour, which
began in the 1850s. Whether the future will see a
continuance of the present method, retreatment of
sewage water or a move to local more efficient
sewage farms or other more environmentally
friendly methods remains to be seen (Beder, 1989).
The Water Board decided on the offshore tunnel
option in 1980 and ten years later had completed
the project with the minimum of fuss. There was a
constant exchange of information between the
engineers and geologists, the project getting under
way with a considerable amount of drilling on and
offshore. Laboratory tests suggested that some of
the claystones would not stand up for long during
tunnelling, but geologists argued that the material
en masse, and remaining damp, would behave quite
well in the tunnels, a contention that proved
correct, and which had been earlier substantiated in
the construction of the Kincumber Tunnel,
McNally (1980). Engineering geological logging
was carried out almost continuously through the
tunnels at a scale of 1:200.
Contractors for the offshore tunnels tended
initially to reject geological advice that horizontal
22 D.F. BRANAGAN
stresses could cause difficulties during initiation of
tunnelling, but soon learnt that such could occur!
On the other hand geologists’ fears that the
intersection of tunnels with dykes not far below
sea level at Bondi and at North Head might result
in inundation by sea-water proved negative. Other
dykes encountered offshore in the North Head
Tunnel were assessed well ahead of time by long-
hole probing. One final aspect of the project was
tunnel at Epping on the M4 expressway (Allison,
1995) and serious plans for other tunnels in the
central business district. More ambitious schemes
jave been discussed by others (Baggs, 1994:
Totaro, 1996, Lewis, 1996), tt1s* work tnotme
that the architect/engineer Florence Taylor (1920)
was well before her time 1n advocating tunnels to
relieve Sydney's traffic congestion (Loder, 1989).
Figure 12. City Railway construction 1920s. Note inclined jointing controlling rock breakage.
the need to monitor the tunnels for the possible
influx of methane gas. Several significant inflows
(derived from the closely underlying coa! measures)
were recorded late in the project. Aspects of the
geology of this impressive project have been
discussed by Hawkins and Thomas (1993), Lowe
and McQueen (1990): the engineering aspects by
Clancy (1980), Henderson (1990) and other Water
Board engineers.
More recently there has been an increased
interest in using the underground in Sydney, with
a number of pedestrian tunnels, a particularly
significant parking station for the Sydney Opera
House using a double helix design, a large road
STABILITY OF STRUCTURES
Little attention seems to have been given to
structural defects in the local rocks prior to the
1970s. This was largely the result of the "soft-
rock" methods of heavy support employed in
tunnelling, and the generally slow rates and limited
depth of excavation for building foundations.
which allowed adjustments in rock faces to go
largely unobserved. Branagan (1969) pays little
attention to faulting and jointing, but work in the
next decade showed that these structures were quite
significant. Branagan (1977, 1985), Norman and
Branagan (1984), Branagan et al (1988), Mills et al
(1989), Mills and Branagan (1990), Branagan
TWO CENTURIES OF GEOLOGY & ENGINEERING IN THE SYDNEY REGION 23
(1991) deal with a range of structural defects that
have caused problems in the Sydney region. Some
of the close-spaced shear zones noted by Norman
and Branagan (op. cit.) caused difficulties during
the construction of the city railway in the 1920s
(Fraser,1930; Humphries, 1931), but sadly these
were never mapped or followed up at the time and
their intersections during later constructions in the
city area usually caught engineers unprepared and
their treatment caused additional delays and added
costs on numerous sites.
Experience gained on the Warragamba project
and the Snowy Mountain Scheme was important
in beginning to understand the existence of
relatively high horizontal stress, which was
recognised in the Sydney district by David Jordan
during examination of the Kings Cross and Martin
Place Stations on the Eastern Suburbs Railway.
The problems such stress and its relief could cause
began to be recognised in a variety of large
building sites, such as the present Stock
Exchange, World Square and the ANA Hotel , the
latter two both being adjacent to railway tunnels
and which required special support treatment
(Pells, 1990, Baxter and Nye, 1990). At times
there have even been explosive failures of cliff
faces, probably caused by the relief of such stress,
as at Northbridge and Woronora (Branagan, 1985).
REVIEW
By the 1970s co-operation between geologists
and engineers was fairly well-established in the
Sydney region, brought together by a realisation
that there was economic value in working
together. Technical knowledge was spread by
meetings and publications of the Australian
Geomechanics Society (formed 1970) and the
Engineering Geology Specialists Group of the
Geological Society of Australia (formed 1979). As
a result McMahon et al (1975) set out the first
engineering classification of sedimentary rocks for
the Sydney area based largely on Moye's
classification developed on the Snowy Mountains
Scheme (Moye, 1960), but adapted for sedimentary
rocks.
Figure 13. Failure of wall at Pyrmont due to
horizontal stress from adjacent sandstone.
Burgess (1977) also pointed out that only in
the mid-1960s were the effects of geological
conditions given much consideration by engineers.
He discusses the problems encountered during
construction of a telephone exchange building in
Hay Street, due to the late identification of a wide
weathered dyke. Similar problems were also
discussed by Branagan (1969) and Rodway (1985).
These papers highlighted the continuing lack of a
systematic approach to recording sites of potential
weakness, and continuance of out-of-date building
codes, (e.g. shale bearing-capacity values) which
professionals needed to overcome through
organisation and new standards. There was co-
operative research on the use of crushed sandstone
as aggregate, lime stabilisation of picrite and
breccia, tunnel boring of Hawkesbury Sandstone,
which has led to many changes. The acceptance of
Burgess's predictions have taken place to some
24 D.F. BRANAGAN
extent (mapping at scale, crushed sandstone,
recording weak spots, revision of codes).
Engineers learned to their cost that numbers
alone do not supply all the answers. One can cite
the Pressure Tunnels problems of the 1920s, the
earlier Hawkesbury Bridge, laboratory tests for the
offshore tunnels, and the Sydney floods of 1984 as
just a few examples.
Pells (1985) brought together much of the
recent information and approach to engineering
geology in the Sydney region which had developed
in the previous twenty years.
In the introduction I mentioned I had earlier
(Branagan, 1972b) attempted a quantitative rating
of geological conditions in relation to engineering
requirements in the Sydney region. A somewhat
different approach was taken by Burgess (1974) in
applying a numerical approach to the particulars of
site conditions, and which built on the earlier
classifications of Moye (1960) and others. The
cynical amongst the engineers might regard these
numbers games as attempts by geologists to win
back the lost ground of geomechanics which was
largely taken over by engineers in the 1960s.
While this may be so we must not lose sight of
the essential qualitative and even intuitive nature
of much geological work, which can stand quite
proudly alongside the equally essential quantitative
work of the engineer.
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ISSN 0035-91 73/96/010033-12
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$4.00/1
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN PLANETARY RESEARCH
STUART ROSS TAYLOR
ABSTRACT. Our ideas about the origin and evolution of the solar system have advanced
significantly as a result of the past 25 years of space exploration. The paper begins with an
assessment of the problems of building the giant gaseous planets. The role of meteoritic, asteroidal
and planetesimal impacts, and of the importance of random events is emphasised. Other topics include
the reasons for the existence of the asteroid belt, and the small sizes of Mars and Mercury. A
discussion is given of the Moon and Mars, including the problems in forming our unique satellite, the
Moon. The geology of Venus, once thought to be a twin of the Earth, has revealed startling
differences in tectonic and igneous activity, now revealed by the Magellan Mission. Since it is so
difficult to form a clone of the Earth in our own solar system, the chances finding one in another
planetary system seems highly improbable because of the large number of chance events involved.
The importance of asteroidal impacts is emphasised by a discussion of the massive impact on the
Earth at the end of the Cretaceous Period, that has provided a possible new explanation for the
extinction of at least 70% of species living at that time, including all of the dinosaurs and the giant
marine reptiles. The dominance of the mammals and the emergence of Homo sapiens is due to such a
chance event.
"Since one of the most wondrous and noble questions in Nature is whether there is one world or
many, a question that the human mind desires to understand per se, it seems desirable for us to inquire
33
about it." (Albertus Magnus, 1200-1280 A.D.)
THE SOLAR NEBULA
The solar nebula formed about 4670 m.y. ago,
in a universe that would look quite familiar to us
and which had already existed for at least twice as
long. This mass of gas and dust became detached
from a larger molecular cloud in a spiral arm of the
Milky Way galaxy and collapsed under
gravitational attraction into a disk. If the disk had
been larger or spinning more rapidly, a double star
system (these constitute about 80% of all stars)
would have formed instead of a single star and
neither the planets nor ourselves would exist.
The composition of the solar nebula is well
understood. It comprised 98% “gas” (71% H, 27%
He), 1.5% “ices” (mostly water, with methane and
ammonia) and 0.25% other elements usually
referred to as “rock”. The amount of “rock” is so
small that it could be ignored to a first
approximation, except that we are standing on
some of it.
Due to the fortunate coincidence between the
composition of CI meteorites and that of the Sun,
as recorded in the photospheric spectra, we are very
well informed about the composition of the “rock”
for nearly all the elements in the Periodic Table
(Taylor, 1992, Table 2.15.1). As the disk
contracted, mass flowed inwards, the Sun formed
in the centre and angular momentum (spin) was
transferred outwards, so that the planets are
spinning much faster than the Sun. Probably the
disk was non-axisymmetric, a condition which
would allow both the inward flow of mass and the
outward transfer of angular momentum (Boss,
1988). Small, metre to kilometre size bodies
began to grow in the nebula. As the Sun grew to
about 30% of its present mass, pressures and
temperatures in the solar interior ignited the
nuclear furnace and the conversion of hydrogen to
helium began. Observations on young stars
suggest that the Sun underwent violent T Tauri
and FU Orionis outbursts as it proceeded on its
evolutionary path toward the main sequence.
34 STUART ROSS TAYLOR
Strong stellar winds began to disperse the nebula,
thus limiting the ultimate size of the Sun (Shu et
al., 1987).
Astrophysical evidence suggests lifetimes of a
few million years before the nebula is dispersed.
Thus infra-red observations which imply the
presence of dusty disks around pre-main sequence
stars indicate that such disks are dispersed on
timescales of about three million years (Strom et
al. 1989). Although this observation refers to the
dust components of the nebula, it seems
reasonable that once the dust has dissipated, the
gas has gone as well, either by collapse onto
Jupiter-like bodies, or by being driven away by
T Tauri-phase stellar winds, which operate on
even shorter timescales.
Widespread loss of volatile elements such as
Rb relative to refractory elements such as Sr and of
volatile Pb relative to refractory U and Th occurred
in the inner portions of the early nebula. Venus,
Earth, Mars and some meteorites are depleted in
volatile elements, as shown by their low K/U
ratios, and by the U/Pb and Rb/Sr isotopic
systematics in the case of the Earth. This depletion
thus appears to be typical of the entire inner solar
system out to perhaps 3 A. U. at which distance,
more primitive asteroids begin to dominate the
asteroid belt (Bell et al, 1989; Gaffey, 1990).
Possible models for losing volatile elements
include heating in small planetesimals. Such
scenarios are judged unlikely since even a thin
surface skin on a molten body inhibits loss (e.g.,
Gibson and Hubbard, 1972). More definitive
evidence has ruled out loss of volatile elements by
evaporation. Humayun and Clayton (1995) have
demonstrated that the potassium isotope ratios are
uniform in all solar system materials. Loss of
potassium, a volatile element would alter the
ratios. The most plausible hypothesis is that early
violent solar activity swept away not only the H,
He and other gaseous elements from the inner solar
nebula within a few million years, but also
volatile elements not condensed or trapped in
planetesimals large enough (metre-km size?) to
survive the violent solar activity.
PLANETARY FORMATION
There are two ways to form planets. One calls
for the formation of the planets by fragmentation
and condensation of the primordial solar nebula.
Jupiter should be the prime example of such a
process. However, there are two principal
objections. The first problem is that Jupiter does
not possess the solar bulk composition that would
be expected if Jupiter were derived from a fragment
of the primordial nebula: this gas giant has a
(rock+ice)/gas ratio about 10 times that of the
Sun. Secondly, the moment of inertia data for
Jupiter show that it possesses a central core of 15-
20 earth masses. At the prevailing conditions in
the centre of Jupiter (20,000K; 40 megabars) rock
and ice will be miscible with the gaseous
components (Stevenson, 1985). It will thus not be
possible for a core to "rain-out" in the manner of
the metallic core in the Earth. At the temperatures
and pressures within the Earth, there are both
significant density differences and metal-silicate
immiscibility (Stevenson, 1985) that enable core
separation, in contrast to the conditions inside a
giant planet. Thus in the case of Jupiter, it is
necessary to form a massive core first, which can
then collect the gas by gravitational attraction.
Thus although stars form by gravitational
collapse of gaseous nebulae, it seems that planets
in contrast are built up "brick by brick" from
smaller bodies, a concept consistent with the
apparent lack of objects, such as "brown dwarfs"
bridging the gap between the smallest observable
stars and Jupiter-size planets.
It is worth noting that only three of the giant
planets, Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus possess
substantial regular satellite systems, (the capture
of Triton was probably responsible for the
destruction of any primordial satellite system of
Neptune). Although these miniature solar systems
around Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus might have
been expected to be similar, they are all quite
PLANETARY RESEARCH $35
distinct. There is apparently no simple formula to
produce satellite systems within our own solar
system. Since all the planets, as well as the 60-odd
satellites are different, it appears that a large
element of chance has entered in the evolution of
our present solar system. This conclusion has lead
to the realisation that it is difficult, if not
impossible, to construct general theories for the
origin of planetary systems.
THE FORMATION OF JUPITER
Early formation of Jupiter (318 x Earth-mass)
appears to be required for several reasons. It has to
form early enough to deplete the asteroid belt
(which now contains only 5% of lunar mass) in
material, and to be responsible for the small mass
of Mars (0.11 Earth-mass). Jupiter must also have
formed before the gaseous components of the
nebula were dispersed: astrophysical evidence
suggests nebular lifetimes of perhaps 3 m.y.
(Strom et al. 1989). Thus it is first necessary to
form a central core of 15-20 Earth masses, which
can then collect the H and He envelope by
gravitational attraction.
How did such a large nucleus form so rapidly
and so early so far (5 A.U.) from the Sun? Since it
seems less likely that there were primary density
inhomogeneities or a "lumpy" nebula, secondary
processes connected with early solar evolution
seem to be responsible. A plausible scenario has
been suggested by Lissauer (1987). Observations
on stars at a similar evolutionary stage suggest
that as the Sun settles toward the main sequence
and nuclear reactions intensify, intense solar winds
will begin to clear the inner nebula (see discussion
in Taylor, 1992).
As early strong solar winds, associated with
the T Tauri stage of stellar evolution, swept out
the uncondensed components from the inner
nebula, water ice condensed at about 5 A.U. at
which location the nebular temperature feil below
about 160K. This condensation caused a local
increase in particle density of the nebula at such a
"snow line", which also acted as a "cold trap" for
other components. Rapid accretion of a large ice
and rock core can thus occur at this unique
location, and act as a nucleus to collect a hydrogen
and helium envelope. Clearly the accretion of the
jovian core was decoupled from the accretion of the
gaseous envelope. The low gas/ice + rock ratio in
Jupiter implies that by the time that the core of
Jupiter had grown large enough to collect a
gaseous envelope, the gaseous nebula was already
being dispersed, and that Jupiter simply ran out of
material. Once Jupiter formed, this massive planet
dominated subsequent evolution of the solar
system. Depletion of material in the asteroid belt
occurred both from accretion of material to Jupiter,
and subsequent pumping up of eccentricities and
inclinations of the remaining asteroids , so that the
survivors have been unable to collect themselves
into a planet. Others asteroids were tossed out cf
the system entirely (Binzel et al., 1990).
ACCRETION OF THE TERRESTRIAL
PLANETS IN A GAS-FREE
ENVIRONMENT
In the region of the inner nebula now occupied
by the Earth and the other terrestrial planets, the
gas was mostly swept away. Only rocky bodies,
large enough (metre to kilometre in size) to
survive the early intense heating and intense solar
wind episodes from the early Sun, were left. These
bodies grew by collisions into planetesimals of
varying dimensions, a few of which reached the
size of Mars (about 10-15% earth mass), before
finally falling into the Earth or Venus, a process
taking perhaps 50-100 million years.
There is much observational evidence that the
Earth and the inner planets were thus built up
brick by brick from a hierarchical suite of
planetesimals. This evidence includes the existence
of heavily cratered ancient surfaces on the Moon,
Mars and Mercury, indicating that the
bombardment with a wide range of projectiles
continued after the solidification of the lunar
highland crust at 4440 + 20 m.y. ago (Carlson and
Lugmair, 1988). However, these late-falling
objects rarely exceeded 50-100 km in diameter, and
3 6 STUART ROSS TAYLOR
many may be connected with a late spike or
"cataclysm" about 3800-4000 m.y. ago (Ryder,
1990).
Other evidence for the former existence of
much larger planetesimals during planetary
accretion comes from the obliquities or tilts of the
planets. Even the giant planets have been knocked
about, the most dramatic example being Uranus,
lying on its side with its pole pointing toward the
Sun, but with its set of nine rings and 15 satellites
more or less in the equatorial plane of the planet,
only Miranda showing a relatively minor deviation
from that arrangement. The high metal/silicate
ratio of Mercury is best explained by stripping of
much of the silicate mantle during a large
collisional event; other hypotheses encountering
many difficulties (Benz et al., 1988).
The Earth's rotation may also be a consequence
of a giant impact. Venus, in contrast, has nearly
zero obliquity, and is rotating slowly backwards.
These properties may result from the accretion of
Venus from many small bodies, and from the lack
of a giant impact on that planet (Wood, 1986).
Venus has also retained a massive atmosphere
probably due to the lack of very large collisions
with that planet. It is usually considered that the
absence of a primitive terrestrial atmosphere on the
Earth and the thin atmosphere on Mars are due to
removal by early massive collisions (Melosh and
Vickery, 1989).
Accretion of planetesimals into the four
observed terrestrial planets in the low density
environment of the inner nebula is estimated to
take between 10 and 100 m.y. (Wetherill, 1989).
Since the dispersal time for the gaseous portions
of the nebula are in the range of 1 to 3 m.y., Mars
and the other inner planets must thus have accreted
in an essentially gas-free environment. This is
consistent with the extreme depletion of the noble
gases in the Earth.
Most of the material in the Earth and Venus
must have been derived locally from the nebula.
Since the Earth accreted subsequently to the
depletion of the asteroids, the asteroid belt was not
a very good "quarry" from which to obtain material
for the inner planets. The accretion of Mars took
place in a zone depleted in planetesimals from the
same cause (early formation of Jupiter) and this
impoverished region, at 1.5 A.U. again does not
seem capable of supplying much material for
Venus or the Earth.
What was the size of the bodies which finally
accreted to form the planets? There is ample
evidence from the battered surfaces of planets and
satellites throughout the solar system that they
were hit by many large (>100 km diameter)
bodies. The large tilts (obliquities) of most planets
relative to the plane of the ecliptic are consistent
with collision of very large objects (>1000 km
diameter). These and other observations all point
to the growth of planets mostly from a series of
massive objects rather than from infall of dust or
small (<10 km diameter) bodies.
DIFFERENTIATED PLANETESIMALS
Although most chondritic meteorites come
from undifferentiated parent bodies, there is
considerable meteoritic evidence for the existence
of differentiated planetesimals within a few m.y. of
To. The evidence assembled by Gaffey (1990) is
persuasive that such bodies were differentiated early
in the inner nebula. Metal, sulfide and silicate
phases were already present before the accretion of
the planetesimals; simple heating would result in
separation of these phases in bodies large enough
(100 km diameter?) for gravitational settling to
occur. Since igneous meteorites with very old ages
are known, planetesimals of such sizes must have
formed within a few (20?) million years of To
(Tilton, 1988). 7
Internal cooling of such bodies to temperatures
below 1000°C is expected to occur on timescales
exceeding 108 yr. The accretion of such hot,
perhaps molten planetesimals to the growing
terrestrial planets will produce two results:
planetary melting during accretion and effectively
instant metallic core separation. Metal-silicate
PLANETARY RESEARCH 37
equilibration is likely to have occurred at low
pressures in the precursor planetesimals.
This is in contrast to models which accrete the
Earth from small cold planetesimals. In such
scenarios, a cold undifferentiated interior is
overlain by a hot mantle. Eventually, this unstable
situation results in overturning, with reduced
melted metal sinking to the interior. Core
formation thus occurs rather late, and under high
pressures, in such an accretionary sequence
(Stevenson, 1981: Ida et al., 1987).
THE ORIGIN OF THE MOON
Hypotheses for the origin of the Moon must
explain the high value for the angular momentum
of the Earth-Moon system, the strange lunar orbit
inclined at 5.1° to the plane of the ecliptic, the
high mass relative to that of its primary planet,
and the low bulk density of the Moon (3.34
gm/cm?), much less than that of the Earth (5.514
gm/cm>) or of the other inner planets. The
chemical composition revealed by the returned
lunar samples (Taylor, 1982) added additional
complexities to these classical problems, since the
lunar composition is unusual by either cosmic or
terrestrial standards. Several hypotheses have been
advanced to account for lunar origin:-
(a) Capture of an already formed Moon from an
independent orbit is highly unlikely on
dynamic grounds. The hypothesis provides no
explanation for the bone-dry refractory element-
rich composition. If the Moon was a captured
body, it could be expected to be an example of
a common and primitive early solar system
object, similar to the captured rock-ice
satellites of the outer planets. It would be an
extraordinary coincidence if the Earth had
captured an object with a unique composition.
(b) If the Earth and the Moon formed as a
double planet system, one immediately
encounters the problems of their differing
density and composition. Various attempts to
Overcome the density problem led to co-
accretion scenarios in which disruption of
incoming differentiated planetesimals formed a
ring of low density silicate debris. Models
involved the break-up of differentiated
planetesimals as they come within the Roche
Limit (about 3 Earth radii). The denser and
tougher metallic cores of the planetesimals
survived and accreted to the Earth while their
rocky mantles formed a circum-terrestrial ring
of broken-up silicate debris from which the
Moon could accumulate. However the proposed
breakup of planetesimals close to the Earth is
unlikely to occur and it is difficult to achieve
the required high value for the angular
momentum of the Earth-Moon system in this
model. Such a process might be expected to
have been common during the formation of the
terrestrial planets and so satellites formed in
this way should be common, but the Moon is
unique.
(c) George Darwin proposed in 1879 that the
Moon was derived from the terrestrial mantle
by rotational fission following core formation
thus producing a low density metal-poor
Moon. However, the angular momentum of
the Earth-Moon system, although large, is
insufficient by a factor of about four to allow
for rotational fission. If the Earth had been
spinning fast enough for fission to occur, there
is no available mechanism for removing the
excess angular momentum following lunar
formation. The lunar sample-return provided an
opportunity to test this hypothesis which
predicts that the bulk composition of the
Moon should provide some identifiable
signature of the terrestrial mantle. However,
there are significant chemical differences
between the composition of the Moon and that
of the terrestrial mantle. The Moon contains
higher concentrations of refractory elements
(e.g., Al, Ca, U) and lower amounts of volatile
elements (e.g., Bi, Pb). The Moon and the
Earth have distinctly different siderophile
element patterns. These differences between the
chemical composition of the Earth's mantle
38 STUART ROSS TAYLOR
and the Moon are fatal to theories which wish
to derive the Moon from the Earth.
(d) One proposed modification of the fission
hypothesis uses multiple small impacts on the
Earth to place terrestrial mantle material into
orbit. It is exceedingly difficult to obtain the
required high angular momentum by such
processes, while once again, the Moon should
possess some unique terrestrial signature.
None of these theories accounted for the high
angular momentum of the Earth-Moon system, a
rock on which they all foundered. In these
scenarios, moons should be general features of
planetary and satellite formation and moon-like
satellites should occur around the other terrestrial
planets. The models fail to account for the unique
nature of the Earth-Moon system, and the very
peculiar bone-dry composition of the Moon, and
do not account for the differences between the lunar
composition and that of the terrestrial mantle
(Newsom and Taylor, 1989).
THE SINGLE IMPACT HYPOTHESIS
This was developed by A. G. W. Cameron
(Cameron and Benz, 1991) basically to solve the
angular momentum problem but it has accounted
for other parameters as well in the manner of
successful hypotheses, and has become virtually a
consensus. The theory proposes that during the
final stages of accretion of the terrestrial planets, a
body somewhat larger than Mars collided with the
Earth, and spun out a disk of material from which
the Moon formed. This giant impact theory
resolves many of the problems associated with the
origin of the Moon and its orbit. The following
scenario is one of several possible, although
restricted variations on the theme: In the closing
stages of the accretion of the terrestrial planets, the
Earth suffered a grazing impact with an object
about 0.15 earth mass (over 30% larger than
Mars). This body is assumed to have differentiated
into a silicate mantle and a metallic core. It came
from the same general region of the nebula as the
Earth, since the oxygen and chromium isotopic
signatures of Earth and Moon are identical.
The impactor is disrupted by the collision and
mostly goes into orbit about the Earth. Following
the impact, the mantle material is accelerated, but
the core of the impactor remains as a coherent
mass and accretes to the Earth within about 4
hours. A metal-poor mass of silicate remains in
orbit (Cameron and Benz, 1991).
This highly energetic event accounts for the
geochemical evidence which indicates that at least
half the Moon was molten shortly after accretion.
The giant impact event vaporized much of the
material which subsequently was recondensed to
make up the Moon. This effect thus explains such
unique geochemical features as the extreme
depletion of very volatile elements, the bone-dry
nature of the Moon, and the enrichment of
refractory elements in the Moon in addition to
providing an initially molten Moon.
MARS
A cructal piece of evidence for solar system
evolution is the small size of Mars. This planet is
only 1.5 A.U. from the Sun. Jupiter is 5 A.U.
distant from the Sun, but is 3000 times more
massive than Mars. The very small size of Mars
and the absence of H and He in that planet are
consistent with the notion that the accretion of
Mars took place in a gas-free nebula subsequent to
that of Jupiter. The-most reasonable scenario is
that Mars formed from a very depleted population
of planetesimals left over from the formation of
Jupiter. By this time, the gaseous nebula had
dispersed, leaving a surviving population of
differentiated planetesimals in the inner nebula.
Although Mars is only about 11% of the mass
of the Earth, its surface is dominated by basaltic
rocks. This basaltic surface invites comparison
with both the basalts of the ocean floors and with
the flood basalts on the Earth, as well as with
terrestrial shield volcanoes. The southern
hemisphere of Mars is broadly composed of an
PLANETARY RESEARCH 39
Ancient Cratered Terrain, that is older than about
4000 m.y. based on the analogy with the lunar
cratering record. Its composition is unknown, but
there are a number of convergent lines of evidence
that indicate that it is unlikely to be acidic or very
different in composition from that of the basaltic
plains that dominate the northern hemisphere. In
contrast, this consists of volcanic plains and large
volcanoes, all most likely basaltic in composition.
The Viking Landers at the two sites in the
Northern hemisphere were 4000 km apart but their
X-Ray Refraction major element data were both
similar and basaltic in composition.
Material from the Ancient Cratered Terrain is
probably present in the fine material analysed by
the Viking Landers. Since the terrain is heavily
cratered, it should possess a high proportion of
dust and finely comminuted debris. This material
is likely to be a significant component in the
planetary-wide dust storms. Although both Landers
were in the northern hemisphere, the fine material
analysed by the Viking Landers represents a
planetary-wide dust average (analogous to
terrestrial loess) and provides some kind of average
sample of the surface. Thus the Martian crust is
dominated by rocks with low silica contents and so
provides some analogy with the terrestrial oceanic
crust.
The ages of the volcanic plains, based on crater
counting and stratigraphic relationships, extend
over much of geologic time and basaltic volcanic
activity thus appears to have continued through
most of Martian history. A feature of Martian
volcanism is the growth of enormous central
volcanoes. Olympus Mons, 26 km high and 600
km in diameter, is the most extreme example. The
curious circumferential scarp, up to two km high,
that surrounds the base of the mountain is
probably a consequence of outward sliding of this
great pile of material. The Tharsis plateau (10 km
high and 8000 km across; large enough to affect
the Martian obliquity) is also probably mostly
formed by volcanic activity. This localisation of
volcanic activity over stationary hot-spots,
contrasts strongly with the surface expression of
terrestrial hot-spots under mobile plates, of which
the most familiar example is the Hawaiian
volcanic and Emperor seamount chain in the
central Pacific.
MARTIAN BULK COMPOSITION
The SNC (Shergotty, Nakhla, Chassigny)
meteorites come from a geochemically evolved
planet. The presence of a trapped atmospheric
component, similar to the Martian atmospheric
composition recorded by the Viking Landers, is
decisive evidence for a Martian origin for these
meteorites. Thus we can study Martian samples in
terrestrial laboratories. The Rb-Sr systematics and
K/U ratios of the SNC meteorites indicate that
Mars has about twice the volatile element budget
of the Earth. Thus K/U ratios are closer to 2 x 103
rather than about 103 for the Earth. Mars,
although volatile-rich, has a low abundance of the
noble gases, probably due to atmospheric removal
by early collisions (Melosh and Vickery, 1989).
Although Mars is volatile-rich compared to the
Earth and Venus, it is still much depleted in
comparison with the primordial solar nebula
values. Its mantle is iron-rich, the basic cause of
the iron-rich lavas and the ubiquitous presence of
iron oxides at the surface that produce the red
colour. The Martian core probably has a
substantial component of FeS that could act as a
sink for the chalcophile elements which are so
highly depleted in the SNC meteorites.
A SCENARIO FOR THE EVOLUTION
OF MARS
A possible scenario for the evolution of Mars
begins with melting of the planet. This is an
inevitable consequence of planetesimal accretion.
Core formation occurred early and a transient
magma ocean formed. During this period the
mantle was depleted in chalcophile elements,
presumably scavenged by FeS into the core. The
north-south crustal dichotomy is probably due to
an early global convective pattern, perhaps aided
by massive impacts; the greater thickness of the
40 STUART ROSS TAYLOR
lunar crust on the farside of the moon is usually
attributed to a similar cause.
Large volumes of basaltic crust formed by
partial melting, due to the high heat flux
following the solidification of the magma ocean.
This thick early crust was subjected to heavy
cratering and now forms the ancient cratered
terrain. Recycling of the early basaltic crust was
difficult since the eclogite stability field is not
reached near the surface on account of the low
pressures on Mars. No plate tectonics appears to
have operated on Mars, so that it forms another
example, like Venus and the Moon, of a one plate
planet. The absence of subduction has also
inhibited the development of more acidic rocks,
and the view is taken here that granites and similar
evolved rocks are mostly restricted to the Earth
(see extended treatment in Kieffer, 1992)
VENUS
The Earth and Venus are often thought of as
"twin" planets. What similarities and differences
exist? Venus is 320 km smaller in radius than the
Earth, and its density (5.24 gm/cm?) is 5% less
than the terrestrial value of 5.514 gm/cm?, This
density difference however is mostly due to the
lower internal pressures. After correcting for the
pressure differences, the uncompressed density of
3.95 gm/cm? is close to that of the Earth (4.03
gm/cm?) perhaps with a slightly smaller core
mass, but not requiring any real difference in bulk
composition. Venus has no detectable magnetic
field, its surface temperature is 470°C, and the
only detectable water is the atmospheric content of
about 50 ppm. Venus rotates very slowly
backwards (243 days), it has no satellite, and
possesses a thick atmosphere (95 bars, mostly
CO72), which contains about 80 times as much of
the non-radiogenic argon isotopes (36Ar, 38Ar) as
the Earth. Thus despite the similarity in size and
density there are major differences between Venus
and the Earth, probably the consequence of a
differing collisional history from the Earth.
THE VENUSIAN CRUST
How does the crust of Venus compare with
that of the Earth? The Magellan mission has
revealed, in stunning clarity, that the Venusian
crust is dominated by basaltic lavas and the
presence of extensive areas of granite, analogous to
the terrestrial continental crust, appears unlikely
on Venus. The high standing regions of Aphrodite
Terra and Ishtar Terra on Venus are apparently
crumpled-up basaltic lavas. The conclusion that
the surface is dominantly basaltic is confirmed by
the presence on the volcanic plains of over 50,000
small shield volcanoes, typically 1-10 km in
diameter with slopes of about 5°. They resemble
terrestrial oceanic floor seamounts in density and
size range but there are topographic distinctions
from terrestrial examples.
Some domes, called "pancakes", about 20 km
across, appear to be composed of more viscous
lavas They may represent Venusian equivalents of
rhyolites or other silica-rich rocks formed from the
voluminous basaltic magmas by fractional
crystallization in small magma chambers. These
"pancakes" are isolated occurrences and are not
similar to the voluminous terrestrial granitic
continental shields.
In summary, the Venusian crust appears to be
dominated by basaltic lavas and the presence of
extensive areas of more fractionated rocks is
minimal. There is no sign of the operation of plate
tectonics and there appears to be no equivalent on
Venus to the extensive terrestrial mid-ocean ridge
system. Venus must be losing its heat by simple
conduction, in contrast to the loss of heat by the
Earth which occurs mostly at the mid-ocean ridges,
since the present amount of lava being erupted on
Venus is about equivalent to that of the Hawaiian
volcano, Kilauea, a mere dribble on a planetary
scale.
Nor is there any sign on Venus of the great
trench systems and it seems unlikely that any
recycling of the crust back into the mantle is
occurring on Venus. The crust is apparently too
PLANETARY RESEARCH 41
thin for basalt to be transformed into denser
eclogite which could sink into the mantle and
undergo melting to produce more siliceous rocks
and perhaps granites. There are many examples of
compressional tectonics, such as the banded terrain
of Ishtar Terra, which contains the major mountain
ranges, up to 11 km high (Maxwell Montes).
Coronae are large (150-1000 km diameter) circular
features formed of concentric rings of grooves and
ridges. They may be the surface expression of hot
spots and of mantle upwelling. Other unique
features of the Venusian surface include the closely
packed sets of grooves and ridges or tesserae which
appear to result from compression. Most of the
surface features can be explained as resulting from
mantle plumes. The dominant horizontal
movements of the terrestrial ocean floors appear to
be mainly replaced on Venus by upwellings and
downwellings associated with mantle plumes. The
absence of abundant water is probably the crucial
difference between the two planets and Venus and
the Earth are similar only in a "Jekyll-Hyde"
sense.
THE AGE OF THE VENUSIAN
SURFACE
Most of the surface is about 300 million years
old (Strom et al., 1994). These ages are based on
crater counting. No ancient heavily cratered
surfaces, that are common on Mars, Mercury or
the Moon, have been discovered.
Most of the craters appear relatively pristine
and there is a scarcity of partially degraded craters.
It appears that there was a massive resurfacing
event over the whole planet about 300-500 million
years ago. There are no impact craters with
diameters below 3 km and few with diameters less
than 30 km. This is a consequence of the
blanketing effect of the thick (95 bar) atmosphere.
There are numerous dark smooth craterless patches
or "splotches" of kilometre dimensions apparently
caused by shock waves impinging the surface due
to meteorites which were too small to penetrate
and which broke up in the atmosphere. Most of
the ejecta blankets have a missing sector. This
seems to be due to atmospheric turbulence
engendered by the incoming meteorite or asteroid.
The missing sector of the ejecta blanket thus
indicates the direction of the infall of the
impacting body.
A total of 950 impact craters are present on a
surface of Phanerozoic age. One large crater has
formed every 0.5 million years. Four large multi-
ring basins with diameters exceeding 144 km are
observed. These impact rates must be comparable
to those on the Earth similar in size to Venus.
Due to erosion and the presence of the oceans,
only about 150 impact structures, mostly very
degraded, have been located on the Earth on terrains
extending back over 2 billion years. Several large
events must have occurred during the Phanerozoic
on the Earth and it is of interest to consider the
effects of the best documented case: the impact at
the Cretaceous-Tertiary Boundary.
CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY EVENT
"No fact in the long history of the world is so
startling as the wide and repeated extermination of
its inhabitants." (Charles Darwin, in Ralling,
1978)
The most massive event was the extinction of
90% of species at the close of the Paleozoic Era
(Stanley and Wang, 1994). This catastrophe came
close to extinguishing life on this planet. The
causes of such extinctions, of which there are
many in the geological record, are widely debated.
Another major disaster was the extinction of the
land-dwelling dinosaurs and the marine plesiosaurs
and ichthyosaurs at the end of the Cretaceous
Period, 65 million years ago, that ended the "Age
of Reptiles". It was the most spectacular episode
of a widespread extinction that destroyed at least
70% of species living at that time, including all
land animals heavier than about 20 kg, and most
shallow-dwelling marine species. Over 74% of the
total phytoplankton and 95% of the zooplankton,
including 97% of the foraminifera, became extinct.
Several major groups, such as the ammonites, died
at this time. The removal of the giant reptiles
42 STUART ROSS TAYLOR
facilitated the evolution of the mammals during
the subsequent Tertiary Era. Many explanations
have been offered for this catastrophe ranging from
a nearby supernova to a more gradual decline of the
various species. The discovery of evidence for the
impact of a 10 km diameter asteroid that formed a
200 km diameter crater at Chicxulub in the
Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico, at the end of the
Cretaceous has provided a new and widely accepted
explanation for this major extinction. (See
extended discussion in Sharpton and Ward, 1990).
The energy release is estimated at 100 million
megatons of TNT equivalent. Among the most
spectacular evidence for the impact are the world-
wide hundred-folds enrichments of iridium (a
meteoritic signature), grains of quartz shocked to
hundreds of kilobars by the impact, and a deposit
of soot so extensive that most of the terrestrial
biomass must have been burnt. The impact
excavated evaporite beds, and an estimated 600
billion tons of SO2 was lofted into the
atmosphere. Acid rains were produced both from
this and from nitric acid produced in the
atmosphere by the explosion of the asteroid. The
environmental stresses caused by the collision
include the following: For some hours, winds up
to 500 km/hour and tsunamis swept over the
surface. These were followed by some months of
darkness from dust and smoke and resultant low
temperatures. Wildfires and an H2O greenhouse
persisted for months, while a CO? greenhouse
with temperature rise and acid rains continued for
years. These effects destroyed most land vegetation
(ferns were the first to reappear in the fossil record
(Nichols and Fleming, 1990)) while the oceanic
food chain was destroyed either by darkness or acid
rain or both. Such effects seem adequate to account
for the suddenness of extinctions in the fossil
record.
EPILOGUE
One may answer the question of Albertus
Magnus with the following comments. Chance
events have dominated the formation of the solar
system and the course of life. Other planetary
systems doubtless exist, but the chances of finding
both a clone of the Earth and of an evolutionary
sequence that has led to intelligent life and to
something resembling Homo sapiens seem highly
improbable. Too many chance events have
intervened.
REFERENCES
Bell, J. F., Davis, D. R., Hartmann, W. K. and
Gaffey, M. J., 1989. Asteroids: the big picture,
in ASTEROIDS II(editors: R. P. Binzel, T.
Gehrels and M. S. Matthews) University of
Arizona Press, 921-945.
Benz, W. , Slattery, L. and Cameron, A. G. W.,
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Department of Nuclear Physics The 48h Clarke Memorial Lecture in Geology,
Research School of Physical Sciences delivered before the Royal Society of New South
Australian National University Wales, 11" October, 1995
Canberra, A.C.T. 0200
Australia
(Manuscript received 18 - 1 - 1996)
Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 129, pp45-68, 1996 45
ISSN 0035-91 73/96/010045-24 $4.00/1
FULL CIRCLE: THE RESURGENCE OF THE SOLAR ECONOMY
David R. Mills
ABSTRACT. Solar Energy is our most ancient fuel and remains by far the most important energy
foundation for activity on this planet. The intelligent use of solar energy was well understood by
many ancient civilisations, but commercial use has suffered numerous collapses throughout history.
This is because the economic foundations upon which it was based failed to account fully for the
environmental benefits offered by this remarkable fuel. However, a fuller cost/benefit accounting of
solar energy is beginning to enter the marketplace at the same time as numerous solar technologies are
dropping rapidly in cost due to technical improvement. The alliance of these two factors is powerful,
and should allow us to return to a solar economy over the next few decades. The process has already
begun.
INTRODUCTION
Solar Energy: the name evokes the aura of a
new field, full of exciting but untested
possibilities. In fact, solar energy development
dates from ancient times and has a history far
longer than any of our modern commercial energy
technology.
Solar is not only our oldest fuel, but it became
commercial before other fuels, in the trade of wood
fuel and charcoal, and in the construction of
buildings with specifically solar features. Solar
becomes commercial when you must pay for a
collection and wide distribution system for it. This
is true for all fuels. The commercial value we put
on coal or oil arises from the extraction and
distribution system constructed to access the fuel,
rather than any intrinsic economic value in it.
It would be no surprise to anyone that,
throughout billions of years of evolution, the
energy economy of plants and animals rested
almost completely upon solar energy in the form
of direct warming and photosynthesis. But we
often forget that humankind remains in a similar
position today. Our preoccupation with the costs
and the problems of commercial fuels blinds us to
the fact that the commercial fuel market is
thousands of times smaller than the solar energy
required to warm our planet, grow our crops, and
maintain the biosphere. The debate about solar
energy is a debate about diverting one ten
thousandth of the solar energy used by this planet
to replace fossil fuels for commercial purposes.
Given this perspective, such a diversion seems
sensible, given the big trouble we are having with
chemical pollution associated with non-renewable
fuels.
It is mostly the commercial and technical
history of solar energy of which I will address in
this lecture. But this subject involves more than
dry technology. It is a history of great hopes, great
disappointments, and great achievements. There
have been many extended cycles of development,
often with complete obliteration of the technology
at the end. It is a realm where idealism and
philosophy are important ingredients. The bold
navigators of the past can help us to better chart
the future if we let them speak.
Solar energy is a diverse field technically, and
different techniques arose at different times. More
than that, the same techniques often arose several
times. A good example of that is in the field of
Solar building design.
SOLAR HOMES
Solar Architecture depends upon usage of the
seasonal changes in elevation of the sun to make a
building more comfortable than it would otherwise
be. It represents a fine-tuning response which takes
46 DAVID R. MILLS
advantage of the sun's apparent seasonal motion to
optimise comfort in the home. The most basic
situation is described in the words of Socrates (as
quoted by Xenophon):
"In houses that look toward the south, the sun
penetrates the portico in winter, while in summer
the path of the sun is right over our heads and
above the roof, so that there is shade."
These days, we fancy ourselves more advanced
than the Greeks, but most modern homes are very
poorly designed, so that considerable additional
fuel is required to make them comfortable. But in
ancient days, there were times whén wood fuel
became scarce and considerable thought was put
into solar building design. Many classical Greek
homes (see drawings in Butti and Perlin) were
built with living spaces facing toward the equator,
and Olynthus was an entire Greek town planned
with a street grid which allowed equal solar access
to each building. Such a plan was viewed as
politically correct as well, fitting in with the
democratic ideals of the time. Olynthus also used
adobe brick dried by the sun instead of burnt brick.
This saved considerable wood fuel in what today
we would call invested energy. The Greeks lacked
glass windows for their homes, but the designs
remained effective. When solar heat was
unavailable, charcoal was used to warm the home.
Priene was another such town, and there were
no doubt many others. In fact, Aeschylus, the
Greek playwright, suggested that a south facing
orientation was indicative of a civilised people. In
a clear anticipation of our so-called modern
society, he describes Barbarians as follows:
"Though they had eyes to see, they saw to no
avail. They had ears, but understood not. But like
shapes in dreams, ...... they wrought all things in
confusion. They lacked knowledge of
houses.....turned to face the sun, dwelling beneath
the ground like swarming ants in sunless caves.
The Romans adopted many Greek ideas and in
the case of solar building design, improved upon
the Greeks by the addition of the first glass and
mica windows. A first century Roman architect
(Vitruvius) advised as follows: "One type of house
seems appropriate for Egypt, another for Spain...
one still different for Rome, and so on with lands
and countries of different characteristics. This is
because one part of the earth is directly under the
sun's course, another far away from it, while
another lies midway between these two.... It is
obvious that designs for homes ought to conform
to diversities of climate."
In modern Australia, we resolutely build
poorly insulated brick veneer homes from Cape
York to Hobart, regardless of the climate.
Rome was less democratic than the Greek
ideal, and places on sun-facing hillsides were
populated by the rich, with the poor finding any
space they could below. Many large public
buildings such as Baths also used solar heat
trapping principles.
Glass began to be used by the wealthy in the
Ist century AD, and the Romans also invented
Greenhouses to grow plants out of season for the
wealthy. The Emperor Tiberius had a fondness for
cucumbers. According to Pliny the Elder, "There
was never a day in which he went without." The
emperor's kitchen gardeners, under obvious
pressure to innovate, had special cucumber beds
mounted on wheels which faced the sun, and in
winter they placed cold frames of glass over the
plant beds to retain the solar heat.
A Roman satirist (Martial), had a friend who
enclosed his vineyard in glass so that "the jealous
winter may not sear the purple clusters nor chill
frost consume the gifts of Bacchus."
The Romans and Greeks even used the concept
of thermal mass in floors. Roman writers
recommended that a shallow pit be dug under the
floor and filled with rubble and broken
earthenware. On top, a mixture of dark sand, ash
and lime was spread to absorb the solar heat. The
rubble retained the heat until late in the evening. A
RESURGENCE OF THE SOLAR ECONOMY 47
Roman architect (Flaventius) who was famous for
self sufficiency manuals on solar heating and waste
heat recovery from hot baths, advised that the dark
floor would stay warm until dinner time and that
the floor "will please your servants, even those
who go barefoot."
The Romans were the also first to introduce
solar law in the form of sunlight rights. We have
found this difficult to enact in Australia because
the influential classes use fossil fuel prodigiously,
but in Rome solar architecture was only used by
the wealthy. The Heliocaminus, or solar furnace,
was a special sunroom in many wealthy Roman
homes, and it was ruled in the second century AD
that a Heliocaminus' right to sunlight could not be
violated. This was later incorporated into the
Justinian code four centuries later, indicating that
sunrooms remained in use at that time, and that
the wealthy were still there.
Solar architecture and proper alignment of
streets arose in China at about the same time. Fuel
has always been in short supply in China, and
traditional Chinese home design used a similar
layout to the Greeks, with the useful addition of
rice paper windows to improve heat balance. Farm
houses in China use this layout to this day.
With the Dark Ages, the understanding of solar
principles in Europe largely disappeared although
the Chinese traditions continued. The New World
was developing it own solar path as well. The
ruins of Acoma show that the 11th century Pueblo
Indians of the American South West were designed
in a similar manner to the Greek solar towns,
allowing each home maximum winter solar access.
Greek knowledge of solar technology was not lost
completely however, resting in the Arabs and
Spanish and thence to the New World by Spanish
colonists who replaced the Indians. The Adobe
structures of the Spanish Colonies were often built
to a solar plan with south windows able to be
shuttered and large eaves to shield from summer
sun In the South West of the United States, this
sensible architecture mostly disappeared when the
English speaking colonists drove them out, and
the wooden houses which were then built were
better suited to the New England climate than to
California.
But in Europe, the first solar architecture cycle
was over. The use of glazing all but disappeared
during the Dark Ages and, according to legend (see
Butti and Perlin, 1980, p.41) had a less than
promising rebirth in the Twelfth century when a
Dominican monk was burned at the stake by the
Church for forcing fruits and flowers in a
Greenhouse. His sin was demonic tampering with
the divine plan, a charge not dissimilar in
seriousness to the current charge of tampering with
the free market.
Glazing slowly recovered in Europe as glass
technology improved, getting a boost in the
extensive use of Greenhouses during the Little Ice
Age of 1550 to 1850 and culminating in the grand
conservatories of the Victorian Age.
Conservatories became hugely fashionable, and
people began to forget that the direction in which
they faced was important. Those that faced the
wrong way became large energy users and required
extensive heating. When fuel rationing came into
force in World War I, the fashion disappeared.
In Europe after World War I, many architects
became interested in housing schemes for the
populace which would use solar energy. In
Germany, such schemes started off somewhat
unsuccessfully using narrow north-south row
house construction which eliminated winter sun
and maximised summer sun (Mumford, 1933), but
efforts then turned to smaller single story solar
row houses running east west in groups of six.
These were more successful, and used extensive
glass frontage like later American designs, but
were considered to be communistic by the new
Nazi government and the programme was stopped
in 1934,
Solar developments also occurred Sweden,
Switzerland, and the Netherlands. In Switzerland,
a solar cooperative community was created at
Neubihl, near Ziirich (Roth, 1948). This bears a
48 DAVID R. MILLS
strong resemblance to early Greek planned
communities like Olynthus, and as in the Greek
case, personal welfare was the primary motivation.
After World War 2, however, the advent of cheap
fossil fuels halted further development.
In the USA, there were some experiments with
solar wall glazing about 1881 by Professor Edward
Morse, but although architects embarked upon a
number of theoretical studies in the early 1930's,
the main impetus came from the practical efforts
of George Keck, an architect from Chicago. He
designed a house of tomorrow for the 1933 World's
Fair which incorporated an extensive glass
structure, but for looks rather than for energy
efficiency. However, he soon discovered the
workmen were working inside the home with their
coats off during zero weather outside, and became
intrigued with the possibilities of home heating
using south facing glass walls. In 1940 Keck
designed the first modern solar home for Howard
Sloan of Glenview, Illinois. This home used
double glazing and purpose-designed overhangs to
reduce summer overheating. Sloan was a real estate
developer who then proceeded to market solar
housing developments during World War 2. These
were subsequently tested by researchers who agreed
that there were benefits to the designs.
After the war, a large number of solar homes
were built including prefabricated types. An
Arizona architect named Arthur Brown developed a
heat storage system consisting of a black interior
wall which ran the length of the building (Brown,
1950). The living areas were south of the wall, and
the sleeping areas to the north. At night, winter
heat collected by the wall would have travelled
through the wall thickness, heating the occupants
in the bedrooms at night. This was intentional use
of what is now called thermal mass to dampen out
diurnal variations in internal temperature.
There were notable research efforts at MIT and
elsewhere to understand the behaviour of solar
homes. The first MIT home was built in 1939,
and led to test reports (Hottel and Woertz, 1943)
which became key documents underlying the
technical advancement of solar thermal systems.
The reports were the basis for the later CSIRO
technical work in Australia which ultimately
spawned an industry in solar water heaters.
At the University of Colorado, George LOf,
developed a rooftop array heating air collector with
a rock bed storage unit (L6f, 1944). This was
integrated with a Gas fired heating system, and
functioned as a fuel saver. The system saved about
a third of winter heating fuel.
After the war the MIT programme continued
until 1958, but such heating systems were too
expensive in the period of cheap oil, and the
programme was shut down.
BURNING MIRRORS
Many of the ancients seemed to be preoccupied
in large part by building houses of their own and
destroying those of their enemies. Regarding the
latter activity, there was quite a long attempt at
constructing a solar Doomsday Weapon. Solar
isn't really very suitable for this sort of thing
because the enemy can choose to fight on a cloudy
day, but the effort persisted for a long time. Early
burning mirrors used spherical geometry, but the
Greek mathematician Dositheius invented the first
paraboloidal mirror (Heath, 1921) in the third
century BC and in a scientific paper a century later
called "On the Burning Mirror" Diocles gave the
first formal proof of the optical properties of
parabolic and spherical mirrors (Diocles, 1976).
The references I have seen seem to agree that
the reported use by Archimedes of burning mirrors
to ignite the Roman fleet at Syracuse is a myth, as
it is not mentioned by other historians of the
period. While not taken up for war, burning
mirrors were used to ignite sacred fires in Greece
and in China. In Delphi, the sacred flame had to be
relit with "pure and unpolluted flame from the
sun.", and the Olympic flame is to this day. The
Chou Li book of ceremonies, written in 20 AD,
describes what were ancient rituals then: "The
Directors of Sun Fire have the duty of receiving,
RESURGENCE OF THE SOLAR ECONOMY 49
with the concave mirror, brilliant fire from the sun
in order to prepare brilliant torches for sacrifice."
(Needham, 1954).
During the Dark Ages the Arabs improved the
understanding of the geometry of parabolic mirrors
and by the Thirteenth century, Roger Bacon
became convinced that the Arabs were working on
the ultimate weapon. He advised Pope Clement IV
that "The mirror would burn fiercely everything on
which it could be focussed. We are to believe that
the Anti-Christ will use these mirrors to burn up
cities, camps and weapons." (Bacon, 1928). Bacon
advocated building and testing the new technology
to save Christendom and serve the aristocracy. But
when the Pope died, the conservatives were
successful in the next Papal election and decided
that this new empirical view threatened the
tradition of devine revelation. Bacon was cast into
the dungeon.
The next major proponent of a Big Dish was
Leonardo da Vinci, although his aim was peaceful.
He planned a mirror four miles across that could
supply heat for any boiler in a dyeing factory, and
with this a pool can be warmed up because there
will always be boiling water. This was the first
dream of industrial solar power. As might be
expected, the mirror was not completed.
Unfortunately, he wrote in code so that his
writings could not be deciphered after his death.
Throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth
century, burning mirrors became larger and more
sophisticated. While the main aim still seemed to
be one of destruction there was an increasing trend
to looking at the results experimentally. An
eighteenth century research worker using a five
foot diameter reflector made by Peter Hoesen in
Dresden found that copper ore melted in one
second, lead melted in the blink of an eye, asbestos
changed to a yellowish-green glass after only three
seconds, and slate became a black glassy material
in 12 seconds.
Finally, the advent of gunpowder made the
burning mirror obsolete as gunpowder was much
more destructive and convenient. Nevertheless, the
burning mirror effort sowed the technical seeds for
the later development of solar thermal power.
SOLAR WATER HEATING
In Australia, while it was always possible to
warm a container of water by placing it in the sun,
the use of water heating technology 1s relatively
recent. The origins of this technology lead back to
eighteenth century France, where Horace de
Saussure, a French naturalist, built a small
‘Russian Dolls' hot box in 1767 using five square
boxes of glass, one inside the other. The
temperature achieved inside, 189.5°F, encouraged
de Saussure to build a triple glazed wooden hot
box which reached 228°F, above the boiling point
of water, later achieving 240°F by using bottom
insulation. By taking the box to the tops of
mountains, he showed that the temperature
achieved was similar in all locations, indicating
that the sun shone equally well at all altitudes.
This showed that the difference between air
temperatures at different altitudes was due to
differences in the retention of heat by the
atmosphere rather than initial transmission. This
was an early demonstration of the Greenhouse
effect, caused mainly by water vapour in the lower
atmosphere. De Saussure (1784) suggested that
"Someday some usefulness might be drawn from
this device, for it is actually quite small,
inexpensive and easy to make."
Sir John Herschel, the well known astronomer,
made a solar cooker from a similar hot box on a
trip to South Africa in the 1830's, and Samuel
Langley, the American Astrophysicist tested a hot
box in 1881. Such devices showed that it was
possible to heat water to useful temperatures with
simple equipment. They were the ancestors of the
solar hot water systems we use today.
During the late 1800s in the United states,
people used water heating tanks attached to
cooking stoves and operating using the
thermosyphon principle. Some nameless early
pioneers soon found that they could place such
50 DAVID R. MILLS
tanks on the roof and produce hot water by direct
heating of the sun. But the tanks lost heat rapidly
in the evening because they were uninsulated.
The first true production solar water heating
systems were invented by Clarence Kemp of
Baltimore in the United States. In 1891 he
patented the Climax Solar Water Heater in which
the black tanks were placed inside a hot box which
aided both collection during the day and retention
of heat overnight. These became popular on the
market about the turn of the century, and 1600
were sold in California by the year 1900. The
payback time in coal saved was 4 years, and those
who used wood appreciated the saving in labour.
The next major improvement was put on the
market by Frank Walker, in which the box was
integrated with the existing conventional water
heating system so that hot water was available the
year round. The tank was then made rectangular to
fit the box envelope and insulation was improved.
However, the system could not hold heat until the
morning.
In 1909, probably the definitive step was
achieved in system design. William J. Bailey of
Los Angeles began selling a new system which
used a coil of pipes in a hot box, mounted below a
storage tank which was insulated. Water circulated
by natural thermosyphon from the hot box - these
days called a solar panel - to the elevated tank, and
that hot water would stay hot all night because the
tank could now be insulated. At night, the solar
panel would cool down and the thermosyphon
would stop. Backup electricity or gas was used
with the tank for poor weather. This design is
essentially the basic design used to this day, and
systems using a design very similar to Bailey's are
on sale around the world.
The new system was called the Day and Night
Solar Heater and the panel design was soon
improved by using a ‘flat plate’ collector attached
to a zig-zag of water tubes, almost identical to
current systems. It was more expensive than the
Climax system but the increased convenience of
the Day and Night system led to its eventual
market dominance.
In 1920 more than 1000 systems were sold but
the sudden discovery of large quantities of natural
gas in the Los Angeles basin changed that. Gas
companies offered monthly financing for
customers with free gas for a year or two, and solar
companies could not match this. As a company,
Day and Night Solar heaters survived the
onslaught by manufacturing an excellent gas heater
using much of the automatic technology developed
for the solar heaters. In 1927 only 40 solar heaters
were sold and production ceased in 1941 as the war
began.
In Florida, natural gas was not available, and a
flourishing solar water heating industry was set up
by H.M. Carruthers, who bought rights to the Day
and Night system for the price of $8000 and his
Oldsmobile car. This industry began just as the
Californian solar industry was dying out. The
Federal Housing Administration allowed financing
of solar heaters at 4% interest and no down
payment. As a result, more than half the
population of Miami used solar water heating by
1941, with solar outselling conventional fuelled
heaters by two to one (Scott, 1975). However, the
war halted solar heater production by freezing
supplies of copper. After the war gradually
declining electricity costs and increasing copper
costs led to a gradual decline in business, with the
industry ceasing in the late 1950's as the USA
entered a 15 year periad of very cheap fossil fuelled
electricity.
A sizable Japanese water heating industry arose
after the second world war, catering to the
traditional evening hot steaming bath popular with
Japanese families. This used very inexpensive
wooden or vinyl containers and the industry
expanded to 250,000 per year by 1966, but the
industry collapsed soon after under competition
from cheap imported oil and cheap off peak
electricity.
RESURGENCE OF THE SOLAR ECONOMY 51
The focus then shifted to Australia, which had
not participated in the earlier solar industry
expansion. However, in the 1950s Roger Morse
and Wal Read of the CSIRO assisted industry to
develop solar water heating technology and the
federal government encouraged installation on
government buildings in tropical areas.
Solahart, a firm which developed from a
machine tool company S.W. Hart, then developed
the close coupled design now used by all
Australian manufacturers. In this design, the tank
ran horizontally along the top edge of the
collectors, eliminating the need for in-roof tank
installation. This is essentially the design used
today. 40,000 collectors were sold between 1958
and 1973, but after the 1973 Oil shock and the
Darwin cyclone, production increased greatly and
Australian water heaters are now marketed around
the world, with Solahart being the world's largest
exporter of Solar Water Heating technology.
Currently Prof. Graham Morrison and the
author are assisting Solahart to incorporate
improvements into the design of their products
which will allow much improved winter
performance in mid-latitude regions such as
Sydney and Meibourne. We now expect that
systems in the near future will deliver between
80% and 90% of the hot water heating load in
Sydney, compared with the present 63-70%. This
should represent a substantial drop in pollution and
energy cost in the near future.
SOLAR POWER
In 1860, Augustine Mouchot, a mathematician
and possibly the greatest solar pioneer, wrote that
"One must not believe, despite the silence of
modern writings, that the idea of using solar heat
for mechanical operations is recent. On the
contrary, one must recognise that this idea is very
ancient and in its slow development over the
centuries it has given birth to various curious
devices" (Mouchot, 1879).
The famous solar syphon built by Hero of
Alexandria is the first known of such devices, and
used solar heated air in a globe which forced water
out through a tube. In 1659, Isaac de Caus built a
variant of this device called a solar whistle. The
expelled water from the solar syphon entered a
partially water filled box and expelled air from the
box left through two organ pipes mounted on the
top of the box. This was inspired by the legendary
‘voice of Memnon’, a sound which is said by the
historian Tacitus to have emanated from a Theban
statue of the Ethiopian king Memnon when the
statue was struck by the morning sun.
Mouchot was much more focussed on useful
work. He tried to adapt the hot box of de Saussure
to the production of steam, but the efficiency was
much too low at such temperatures. He then
created a heat trap from concentric bell jars, but
this would still have been too large to be practical.
He persisted, and decided that using reflector
technology developed for burning mirrors with the
heat trap could be the answer, mounting a solar
reflector next to the trap. This worked well.
Mouchot created several key solar inventions
in the process. He used the device as the first solar
cooker, making what he called 'a fine pot roast in
the sun’. He then used the device as the first solar
still to purify wine into brandy, which he said had
a "most agreeable flavour", and constructed a solar
pump similar to the Hero design but capable of
producing a spray of water ten feet long for half an
hour.
After patenting the device in 1861, Mouchot
then invented the first parabolic trough solar
collector, using a copper collector tube, which
powered the first solar steam engine in 1866. This
engine was presented to Napoleon III. He then
built a seven foot long version using a glassed-in
double cylindrical boiler, complete with a tracking
parabolic trough mirror running from a clockwork
mechanism. However, he recognised that the sun
only struck half of this absorber, so he moved to a
new design in which the reflector was a truncated
cone illuminating the absorber on all sides. This
5:2 DAVID R. MILLS
was a great success and was able to drive a 1/2
horsepower motor at 80 cycles per minute.
In 1878, Mouchot and his assistant Abel Pifre
built a larger unit for the Paris Universal
Exposition . It was capable of pumping 500
gallons of water per hour, and he also demonstrated
solar cooking, distilling, and the machine was
even harnessed to produce ice.
Unfortunately, the cost of the silver plated
mirrors used was prohibitive, and the new
electrical technologies run by fossil fuel proved to
be much cheaper. Mouchot returned to his
mathematical studies in 1880, but his ovens and
stills were used for a time in Algeria by the French
Foreign Legion and the local people (Mouchot,
p.263). Pifre continued the work and produced the
first paraboloidal dish in 1880, which he used to
run a printing press at a demonstration in Paris
(Pifre, 1882). These gentlemen laid the foundation
for several important technologies with their work.
It was work inspired by the long term view, for
Mouchot was very concerned about future energy
supplies for Europe.
The initiative then passed to the United States.
John Ericsson also contended that solar power was
the answer to the rapid consumption of coal
(Church, 1890). He had invented the first screw
propeller for steamboats, and had built the
successful Monitor ironclad steamboat which
defeated the Confederate Merrimac in the American
Civil War. Ericsson completed his first solar
motor in 1870, claiming it as the world's first in
spite of Mouchot's work. He used a parabolic
trough reflector and bare metal absorber tubes
without glass covers, and steam from this ran a
small engine. Details of this motor were never
released because of Ericsson's secrecy about details.
He then moved to a hot air engine in 1872,
using a parabolic dish, but the cost of silvered
reflector was prohibitive, as it had been with
Mouchot's work. Ericsson then made a major
innovation in the first use of silvered window
glass, which did not tarnish and was much cheaper
than silvered metal. In 1884 (Ericsson, 1884 and
1888) he revealed his new parabolic trough
reflector design but before production plans were
finalised he died in 1889, at the age of 86. Details
of his last designs were never found.
In his obituary (Nature, 1889) it is said that
"He continued to labour at his sun motors until
within two weeks of his death. As he saw his end
approaching, he expressed regret only because he
could not live to give the invention to the world in
completed form. It occupied his thoughts to the
last hour."
In 1898, Aubrey Eneas built a prototype of a
parabolic trough collector which was almost
identical to Ericsson's design, but this did not
achieve sufficient performance to run steam
engines of the time. He then moved to a conical
reflector like Mouchot's, except that the reflector at
the bottom was moved out to allow more
collection at the bottom of the absorber. Eneas
designed a novel tracking structure to track the
seasonal movements of the sun, and displayed the
first prototype at an Ostrich farm in California,
where it proved capable of irrigating 300 acres of
citrus plantation, drawing 1400 gallons of water
per minute from a 16 foot deep reservoir. The
boiler was pressure self regulated, and the motor
oiled itself. According to a reporter who covered
the story, the operator had time off "to hoe his
garden, or read his novel, or eat oranges, or go to
sleep" (Butti and Perlin, p. 85).
Eneas sold one to a rancher, Dr. A.J. Chandler,
in Arizona in 1903, but this suffered severe
damage in a storm. Another, sold to John May
near Wilcox Arizona worked well until hit by a
hailstorm in 1904. These problems, plus a cost
which was two to five times the capital cost of
conventional steam plant, caused Eneas to abandon
the effort.
Another approach was made by a refrigeration
engineer Charles Tellier of France in the early
1880's. This used a solar pump based upon heating
ammonia instead of water. Vapourisation of
RESURGENCE OF THE SOLAR ECONOMY a3
ammonia requires only low temperature collectors,
and Tellier used a device built on his shop in Paris
to pump water via an expanding and contracting
diaphragm (Tellier, 1885). Tellier never wrote up
the results of his experiments, and mysteriously
returned to work on refrigeration. But between
1892 and 1909, two American engineers, H.E.
Willsie and John Boyle, built similar collectors
which used warmed water to vapourise sulphur
dioxide in a manner to the ammonia cycle of
Tellier. A plant was built at Needles, California in
1909. It incorporated storage for the first time, in
the form of hot water. However, although the
plant worked very well, the technology was not
commercisalised by the inventors for reasons
which are unknown.
In 1906, an inventor and solar visionary,
Frank Shuman, who had studied the problems of
high temperature systems produced by Mouchot,
Ericsson and Eneas, also decided that the low
temperature approach was the way to go. He
produced working prototypes of systems similar to
the Needles plant of Willsie and Boyle in
Philadelphia. However, Shuman, unlike his
predecessors, was an excellent salesman, and
persuaded investors who had made money on his
previous inventions to back development of a large
scale solar power plant. When further funding was
required, he formed the Sun Power Company in
1910 and built a trial plant of about 100 m2 which
used reflectors to augment the solar energy to the
flat absorbers. Today, we call such a system a 'V-
trough’. However, the economics of using low
boiling point fluids were not encouraging, so
Shuman designed a low pressure steam motor and
converted the collector system to produce low
pressure steam at slightly below atmospheric
pressure in a sealed system. This was highly
successful, delivering 3000 gallons of water per
minute, with the collector achieving a heat
collection efficiency of 30% and the engine a
maximum of 32 horsepower.
However, the British investors called in a
consultant, British Physicist C.V. Boys, and he
suggested that a parabolic reflector concentrating
on a two-sided fin boiler could do even better. This
was something like Ericsson's design, but the low
pressure steam system allowed good performance.
The first system was installed in Egypt in 1913
and produced more than 41 kW, pumping 27 cubic
meters of water per minute. It consisted of five
north south axis sun tracking troughs
approximately 62 metres long and 4 metres wide,
for a total collection area of 1255 m2. Technically,
it was highly successful and reliable (Hally,1914).
Lord Kitchener, who attended its opening
ceremony in Meadi, Egypt, offered a 30,000 acre
cotton plantation in the Sudan on which to test
solar irrigation, and the German government
offered $200,000 in Deutschmarks for a sun plant
in German South West Africa. Shuman spoke of
building 20,250 square miles of reflectors in the
Sahara, giving the world "in perpetuity the 270
million horsepower a year required to equal all the
fuel mined in 1909" (Shuman, 1913).
This was the largest solar collector ever built
up to that time, more than 15 times larger than
Eneas' design, and would retain that crown for the
next 65 years. Unlike present designs, it even
included 24 hour operation through the use of a
large hot water tank. It offered a payback time of
only two years in coal-starved Egypt. The future
seemed very bright, but soon after the outbreak of
the Great War, the engineers running the plant
were recalled to do war work and Shuman returned
to the United States where he died before the war
ended. In 1919 the great expansion in oil began
with the formation of the Anglo-Persian oil
company, and cheap oil soon became available in
precisely the sunny desert regions which Shuman
had targetted. Without Shuman, the project quickly
died.
In the late 1880s another key development
occurred on the road to solar power. Charles Fritts,
an American inventor, invented the first
photovoltaic cells (Fritts, 1885). These use the
photoelectric effect discovered by Edmund
Berquerel (1839).
54 DAVID R. MILLS
Photovoltaic cells use the energy of photons of
sunlight to promote electrons into the conduction
band of semiconductors, where they can be
accessed as direct electric current without the need
for heat engines. The Fritts cells used selenium
which had less than one per cent efficiency. Fritts'
results were not believed by the classical
physicists and engineers of the time (Siemens, W.
1885), but armed with the new quantum theory,
they began to reproduce the designs of Fritts in the
1930s.
In 1954, a major step forward occurred when
Gordon Pearson, Darryl Chapin and Calvin Fuller
at Bell Labs in the United States produced the first
silicon photovoltaic cell. By 1955 they had cells
which were 6% efficient, and in 1956 they had
produced the first PV panel .
Although early cells were extremely expensive
and the age of cheap fossil fuel had arrived, for
once solar technology was lucky, for the US Space
program had begun in earnest and the new
technology could provide the remote space power
source required by artificial satellites, with cost as
no object. The US government did not fund PV for
terrestrial use at all, however. This had to wait
until the mid 1970s.
Between the fifties and the seventies, the dream
of nuclear power took solid hold, and solar energy
was quietly forgotten. Only a few voices rose to
question this course. In an article called "Nuclear
Energy or Solar Energy?", George Russler (1959)
wrote prophetically: "If one projects the problem
into the future when all the world's conventional
power plants, multiplied by a factor of 23 or more,
are replaced by atomic plants, the enormity of the
problem of waste disposal becomes apparent.
Perhaps, on this scale, the problem may not be
solvable."
And again: " Solar Energy is the one major
source of energy which would not require several
decades of development before large contributions
could be obtained. Its use does not involve such
serious problems as the control of a critical mass,
or disposal of dangerous waste products, or
operating health hazards. It does not require multi-
billion dollar installations, nor huge
concentrations of basic materials, nor elaborate
controls. Sufficient engineering knowhow, a well
as simple processes, are already available .... The
only elements lacking are an appreciation of the
urgency of the energy situation and a determination
to get started."
Few people were listening, however. And
decades were to be required for development, not
because of technical difficulty, but because the
determination to get started was not there.
NEW GENERATION
The current solar energy development cycle had
to wait until the oil shock of the early 1970's. The
oil shock was the result of an embargo by Arab
nations against the United States as a result of the
US assistance to Israel in the Yom Kippur war in
1973. It put and end to the era of cheap oil, and
stimulated plans for new energy sources.
The United States concentrated on a plan based
upon increased coal usage, shale oil and nuclear
breeder reactors, but this fell into great difficulty.
Solar funds were also increased around the world
but at much lower levels than for research into
fossil and nuclear fuels. The solar vs fossil fuel
debate of the time was mainly centred around the
possibility of dwindling supplies of fossil fuels,
and around deteriorating local air pollution due to
fossil fuel combustion in powerplants and
vehicles.
Many of the current leaders in solar energy
research began work at that time, and many new
ideas were developed including new non-imaging
optics, advanced selective surfaces, evacuated tube
absorbers, advanced photovoltaics, and a host of
minor advances. Australian researchers have played
a strong role in all of these areas.
By the late seventies considerable progress was
made in solar and wind technology, and for the
RESURGENCE OF THE SOLAR ECONOMY SS
first time political measures began to be discussed
in earnest. Soon after, U.S. Federal and State tax
credits were enacted for renewable energy, and these
were to have far reaching effects. In the decade
from 1982, 15000 wind turbines were installed in
California and 350 MW of solar thermal
electricity. This development laid down the basis
for both future industries.
However, by the mid-eighties we were in the
‘greed is good' decade and the unconstrained market
became king. Solar fell on hard times because the
new economic religion had nothing in its
scriptures about attaching value to the
environment, so it was decided to forget about the
problem.
In Australia, solar research centres were closed
down under the guise of economic efficiency and
research budgets were slashed while research
budgets in other fuel areas remained high. Hagen
and Kaneff (1991) claim that real Federal renewable
energy expenditure dropped by an order of
magnitude between 1978 and 1990.
It was even said in justification by some that
nothing of note emerged from the research money
expended in the late seventies and early eighties.
Yet during the period in question, Australia
actually reigned high in research and research
papers, developed key technologies such as the
cermet selective coatings, PV technology, non-
imaging optics, solar parabolic dish technology,
and did it on budgets which were minuscule
compared to those overseas. Those of us in
research at the mid to late eighties found it to be a
very hard period, because of entrenched views in
Government bureaucracies that solar was always
going to be a niche player rather than a future
dominant one.
This bias was not an Australian phenomenon
but a global one. Conventional energy industry
everywhere discovered solar and didn't like what it
saw. In the UK, Department of Energy rankings
which put renewables at the top of development
priorities were reversed by a new committee. The
conservative government would not reveal the
composition of the committee for fear of exposing
the members to public ire, but eventually the
names came out, and it was composed of he
executives of competing industries.
In the USA, research money suddenly
evaporated, the solar energy research centre funding
was Slashed to a small amount and things were
made difficult for many solar projects. The
discrimination became petty; I recall driving to
visit the impressive Solar One project near
Barstow in the Californian desert and was having
some trouble finding the site because there were no
signs at all, because the Federal administration
wouldn't allow them on Federal highway land. The
plant was cancelled eight times by the Reagan
administration and reinstated eight times by
Congress, causing Martin Marietta, the plant
contractor, considerable difficulty. The lesson to
companies was clear - keep away from solar.
THE ENVIRONMENT TO THE
RESCUE
Things were not looking good for solar energy
development, but scientists had by now begun to
warn of the possible impact of global warming. In
1986, the UN Bruntland Commission gave its
findings in a report which was to have far reaching
impact. It identified sustainable development as a
necessity for our long term tenancy of the planet.
Sustainable comes from ‘to sustain’, with the
definition given by the Shorter Oxford Dictionary
being 'to keep in being; to cause to continue in a
certain state; to keep or maintain at a certain level
or standard; to preserve the status of." Clearly, the
most infinitesimal net downgrading of the
environment is not allowed, because eventually
these changes will accumulate to destroy the
system.
Sustainable development is a new approach
which incorporates long term social improvement
as a means of supporting environmental stability.
I believe that this is in direct opposition to current
5 6 DAVID R. MILLS
- conventional economic theory. In the latter, the
future is discounted to zero within a decade or two,
so there is no long term accountability. The
implications of your actions do not revert to you
but to someone else. It as always been easier to
make a profit if someone else will pay the bill for
you later.
A UN process was set in train which resulted
in the Rio Summit and Berlin Klimat 95 which
have set an international direction toward
limitation of emissions. This is being supported
by findings of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC), which has this year
(1996) demonstrated scientific evidence of human
effects upon the climate. There is now fast rising
international interest in clean energy technology as
not only an environmental saviour, but a business
opportunity.
ENERGY TECHNOLOGY FOR THE
FUTURE
Renewable energy proponents have claimed for
many years that stimulus of early production using
marketplace measures would reduce costs
substantially, allowing cost competition against
fossil fuel and nuclear technology for he generation
of electricity. This is now happening. I will
describe only four important technologies, but
there are many others in the renewable energy
stable.
Wind Generation
The first significant cab off the rank is wind
power. Because it uses no exotic principles, and
has had a more continuous development experience
behind it over the century in Denmark and
elsewhere than other solar technologies, wind has
been able to be quickly developed.
Wind is the kind of modular energy supply
which can grow very quickly, and it provides a
concrete example of the growth potential of
renewable systems. The first wind generator was
invented in Denmark in the 1890's, and the Danes
and Americans slowly advanced the technology
until the 1970's when wind energy received a boost
from the oil shock. Installations were promoted by
government incentives in California and Denmark
in the 1980's and wind has now become a rapidly
growing sector. Between 1982 and 1994, wind
energy cost dropped by a factor of three, and 3000
MW of plant was installed starting with a base
production of virtually zero. Danish subsidies of
US$50 million ceased in 1989, but the Danes have
been well rewarded by a new industry selling
approximately 45% of world capacity.
Wind is not particularly limited by site
availability. There is a very large wind resource in
Canada and the United States which can be
exploited relatively straightforwardly. Siting is
very important because the energy extractable from
the wind rises as the cube of the wind velocity.
Wind sites are now divided up by class, and wind
sites over class 5 (over 7.5 meters per second at 50
m high) are currently exploitable competitively. It
is estimated by Grubb and Meyer (1993) that sites
within the USA (in the mid-West) above this
figure, with moderate land constraints, could
supply 25% of total US electricity generation, and
sites above class three (above 6.4 metres per
second could supply 1.65 times current US
generation under 'severe' site restriction criteria. In
Canada, using severe site restriction criteria, the
resource potential is 19 times current Canadian
electricity usage, and nearly 3 times that of the
USA and Canada combined. New Zealand is very
well placed, having a large hydroelectric storage
system for future wind systems, and a large wind
potential.
Recent work (Grubb and Meyer) suggests that
a wind fraction of 25 to 45% is feasible in a large
national grid before fluctuation due to variability
become unacceptable. Without storage systems,
other renewable energy sources would be required
in the mix. But this is still a very substantial
contribution.
In Australia, total class 5+ wind resources
exceed those of Europe by 20%. Previous
estimates were low because wind speed
RESURGENCE OF THE SOLAR ECONOMY 1
measurement poles were made too short.
However, much wind is in low population density
regions such as Tasmania or South-Western
Australia.
Wind energy is currently selling electricity
competitively in the USA at about five cents per
kWh, and the Sacramento Municipal Utility
District is building a 50 MW wind plant with
projected energy costs of 4.3 cents per kWh(e).
2000 MW more is already contracted to be built
in the USA before 2000. The newest advanced
turbines being tested are aimed at class 4 operation
below 4 cents per kWh(e). The ultimate wind
electricity cost is estimated at US$0.03 per kWh
(Flavin and Lensson, 1995; Cavallo et al, 1993),
which would make wind the cheapest form of
electricity of any kind.
The American Wind Energy Association's
objectives for the year 2000 are:
¢10000 MW installed in the USA
¢$4 billion industry per annum.
ecosts below US 4 cents per kWh(e)
Globally, the second order generation potential,
which includes many site restrictions, is estimated
at 50000 TWh per year, compared to global
electricity usage in 1988 of 10,600 TWh per year.
Plants are being installed in India, China the UK,
the former Soviet Union, and many others. There
is even now expansive talk of global installations
achieving 400,000 MW by 2020, about 10% of
global electricity consumption.
Solar Thermal Electricity
This technology is about a decade behind wind,
because it is more complex and had to start from a
zero technical base in the late 1970's. However,
solar thermal potential is very large, particularly if
new designs are used which are not limited to
desert regions.
The potential for solar thermal power is largest
with low concentration technology, described in
the following. The technology, mated with natural
gas backup, could be used over about 2/3 of the
United States and most of Australia with little
variation in delivered electricity cost. Backup fuel
use rises in poorer solar areas, but this variation is
not more than a 0.5 cents per kWh(e). The
compact design of technology such as the new
Fresnel reflector plant described below would allow
more than 10% conversion of total land area solar
radiation to electrical power, accounting for spaces
between the collector panels. Based on 6 kWh per
day of solar, this is 0.6 kWh(e) per m2 of land per
day, or 219 kWh(e) per m2 per year.
The 2020 target of 400,000 MW(e) suggested
for wind generation is equivalent to 1000 TWh(e)
or 10!2 kWh per year, about 10% of global
electricity consumption. For solar thermal
electricity to do the same, the land area required
would be 10!2 kWh/219 kWh = 4.6 x 10? m2, or
4600 km 2. This is a square 70 km on a side.
To provide the whole of global electricity
consumption would require 214 km on a side.
Available poor land is much larger than this. The
area of Western Australia alone is 55 times the
required size. 46000 km? is a large area in one
block but a small one when distributed amongst
the world's nations according to local requirements.
For Australian requirements, primary energy use is
approximately 1% of the global total, so the area
for Australian requirements would be much
smaller. However, it should be understood that we
already use similar areas for conventional fuels
(Worldwatch, 1990). The debate is not therefore
one of resource availability. It is one of cost and
practicality.
Solar thermal electricity has been successfully
demonstrated on a large scale in California over the
last 15 years, and newer technology is just
breaking through at this time. But the technology
in all cases has advanced far beyond what was
achievable at the turn of the century. For example,
the large parabolic trough Shuman plant of 1913
is similar in basic concept to the contemporary
versions, but the efficiency of conversion in 1913
58 DAVID R. MILLS
was about 3% at best. The last Luz plants built in
California achieved a peak of 24%, an eight-fold
improvement, and the next generation of solar
thermal plants should achieve almost 30%. These
days, high temperatures can be achieved without
excessive losses, allowing big improvements in
thermodynamic conversion efficiency because high
pressure steam can be used.
Linear Tracking Systems
The majority of direct solar electricity world
wide is generated not in photovoltaic arrays but in
8 large solar thermal plants in California built by
an Israeli company, Luz. The plants have a
capacity of 354 Megawatts. The research and
development for the plants was privately backed,
but the plants were built on market incentives
offered by California and the Federal government.
The Luz technology descended from parabolic
trough process steam technology which began to
be developed in the USA in the late 1970's, and by
Luz at about 1980. A 5576 m2 process steam
parabolic trough system installed (not by Luz) in
Chandler Arizona in 1983 is still operating, and
Luz installed two systems in Israel before moving
to electricity plants.
The technology chosen by Luz used single-axis
parabolic trough collectors that track the sun with
a North-South axis of rotation (Fig. 1). The
collectors are mounted parallel to the ground,
which allows the use of big reflector units
(because they are not elevated high into the air).
The LS-3 collector has an aperture area of 545
square metres and uses 224 glass mirror segments
(Jaffe et al, 1987). An 80 MW plant utilizes nearly
900 such collectors.
The Luz collector utilizes an evacuated-annulus
receiver consisting of an inner stainless steel tube
mounted in a concentric cylindrical glass envelope.
The glass envelope is evacuated, which serves to
minimize convective and conductive losses. To
limit radiative losses, the outer surface of the inner
(steel) tube is coated with a special wavelength-
selective material—commonly known as a
"selective surface"—that readily absorbs visible
sunlight while emitting comparatively little in the
infrared spectrum. Heat transfer oil is used. The
operating temperature of current parabolic trough
solar thermal electric plants exceeds 390°C.
The Luz plants are operated as contract
electricity suppliers to Southern California Edison,
and have so far proved to be more cost effective
and efficient than US Government backed central
receiver technology. The cost of solar electricity
dropped from US$0.265 cents per kWh(e) in the
first 1984 plant, SEGS 1, to US$0.086 in SEGS
VIII (De Laquil et al, 1993). The average solar to
electricity efficiency of the 1990 SEGS XIII plant
is about 17%, about twice that of the Solar One
central receiver of 1982 and about equal to
proposed future central receivers of 200 MW size
in the next century. Between 97% and 99% of all
solar collectors have been available throughout
operation.
Luz went bankrupt in 1991, when it could not
fulfill its commitment to fund SEGS X. The Luz
operations depended upon government tax breaks,
and the government failéd""to-smeet wits
commitments to Luz (Lotker, 1991; Flavin and
Lensson, 1995, p.146). The tax breaks required
annual renewal, but the 1989 congress only passed
9 months instead of 12, forcing Lux to complete
SEGS VIII 3 months early and raising costs. Then
a faulty analysis by the Californian Finance
Department caused a temporary revocation of the
Luz property tax exemption, at which point Luz
investors wound up the company. This has
interrupted technical development for several years.
Luz4s now renamed Solel and is attempting to
restart the technology with plants in India and
China. It is working on advanced versions of the
technology which may reduce electricity cost to
US$0.07 per kWh.
RESURGENCE OF THE SOLAR ECONOMY 59
Fig. 1. Photo of Luz plant in California, taken by the author.
In 1991 our group at Sydney University
developed new selective surfaces for solar evacuated
tube absorbers (Mills, 1991; Zhang and Mills,
1992). These new surfaces have broken all world
solar surface performance records, and they could
reduce the future cost and complexity of solar
thermal systems substantially below current
levels. In Mills and Keepin (1993), Will Keepin
and I showed that the use of such surfaces in new
low concentration designs would dramatically drop
the cost of systems, and allow increased
performance. Such low concentration designs
accept more circumsolar radiation, the light from
the solar halo - allowing operation in non desert
areas. Other issues canvassed in the paper were the
benefits of hybrid solar/gas operation, with
superheating being done by fossil fuel, the
advantages of rock Bed thermal storage, which
seems to offer the possibility of 24 operation
without an increase in the cost per kWh. Biomass
fuel could be substituted for natural gas later.
There are several low concentration designs which
could use such evacuated tubes, but Sydney
University is seeking patent protection on a
particular design which uses linear Fresnel reflector
construction (Fig. 2), with mirror strips and main
receiver axis running East-West, but the axis of
orientation could be North-South in some
locations. The plant uses Dewar type all glass
evacuated tubes as the receiver rather than the more
traditional cavity receiver. The tubes can be
arranged vertically in a linear elevated curtain-
60 DAVID R. MILLS
like row to provide a favourably shaped optical
target analogous to a ‘double sided flat plate’
receiver.
The design uses natural circulation of
water/steam rather than incur pumping losses,
which in the case of Luz are 13% of net output. It
addresses many weaknesses in previous designs,
and offers significant cost advantages over existing
trough or dish plants, including low reflector cost
(using flat or elastically curved reflectors), low
structural cost, low receiver cost, high optical
efficiency, low field losses, simple and low cost
passive heat transfer, fully stationary receiver, high
receiver thermal efficiency, and high ground use
efficiency.
Generation costs of below A$0.07 per kWh
($US0.05) are feasible in good solar areas, and
perhaps A$0.06 in the very best areas in the North
and North West of Australia.
Central Receivers
Central receiver technology uses multiple
mirror facets to concentrate solar energy on a
receiver mounted on a tower. The idea dates from
1896, when C.G. Barr was allowed a patent for the
concept of illuminating a solar engine on top of a
tower, with the reflectors moving on railway cars
surrounding the tower. In 1957, Russian engineers
Fig. 2. Fresnel strip collector
proposed by author visualised
on a building at the 2000
Olympics. Visualisation
courtesy of Lawrence Nield
and Associates and the
Unwersity of Sydney
Department of Achitectural
and Design Science.
designed a 19000 m2 plant of this type using 1293
railway flatcars grouped into 23 trains. A 1:50
model was built, so far as is known, the first such
device.
The Power Tower concept using tracking
heliostat reflectors was developed by Lorin Vant-
Hull and Alvin Hildebrandt at the University of
Houston in the early 1970's (Vant-Hull and
Hildebrandt, 1976), and a number have been
constructed around the world. The largest was the
10 MW Solar One plant commissioned in 1982.
This ran successfully, although at poorer than
expected efficiency, for several years. Recently it
has been refurbished, provided with nitrate salt
thermal storage, and renamed Solar Two, and it is
hoped that this will lead to a 100 MW installation
within a few years (Vant-Hull, 1991).
A European consortium is promoting a
different design using a volumetric receiver which
uses a forest of tiny black wires to absorb sunlight
and air as the transfer fluid. A plan to build one in
Jordan has been delayed for political reasons.
In a very interesting effort, the Wietzmann
Institute in Israel is currently using small
aeroderivative gas turbines as a possible alternative
to conventional absorbers in their central receiver.
RESURGENCE OF THE SOLAR ECONOMY 61
Paraboloidal Dishes
An Australian technologies under development
the Big Dish (Kaneff, 1991) uses a somewhat
traditional design of paraboloidal dish, but on a
larger scale than any previously. The dishes are
interconnected with steam lines to a central steam
powerplant. It is hoped to cut costs to the point
of achieving eventual competitiveness on grid, and
a plan to put 28 such Dishes into a project at
Tennant Creek in the Northern Territory is being
evaluated. The Dish is also suitable for solar
chemical fuels production and efforts are being
made in that direct at ANU.
The other major Dish related activity uses
efficient stirling engine generators mounted at the
focus of a dish. Cummins, known for diesel
engine technology, is actively developing this
approach in the USA.
BIOMASS TECHNOLOGY
There are many thousands of Megawatts of
biomass-fired steam turbine powerplants around
the world using wood or agricultural residues like
bagasse from sugar processing. About 9000 MW
of this was installed in the USA as a result of
Federal incentives introduced in 1978. These
typically are small have low operation
temperatures, leading to high cost of operation. As
a result, most biomass systems rely on zero cost
residues to allow viable operation.
A new trend is to use biomass in a gas turbine,
which runs at higher temperatures and higher
efficiencies than the small steam turbines. Of
course, one cannot stuff trees into turbine inlets,
so the biomass is modified into gaseous form, or
gasified first.
Gasification is a two stage process, with
biomass being partially combusted into charcoal
and gas, with the charcoal then being used to
convert the carbon dioxide and water into carbon
monoxide and hydrogen. Closed versions of the
technology were basically developed for use with
coal, but have been recently adapted to use with
biomass in plants such as the new 6 MW(e)
Varnamo plant in Sweden (Williams and Larson,
1993), which uses gasified wood fuel run through
a gas turbine, then pushing waste heat through a
steam turbine to generate more electricity, and then
low temperature waste heat from the steam turbine
as district hot water.
To function as a large scale technology, the
biomass must be grown sustainably, and this can
raise costs compared to cuttings from old growth
forests or agricultural residues. The cost and
pollution associated with transporting biomass to
a central plant can also be an important issue.
It was estimated that production of global
residues in important industries were 56 exajoules
in 1988. Using these residues in Varnamo type
plants would provide as much electricity as was
produced by all the world's fossil fuel powerplants
in 1988. Of course, mobilising all such residues
would be impossible, but it demonstrates that
there is considerable potential in the area.
Williams and Larson (p.778) suggests that
100,000 MW of advanced biomass fired capacity
could be installed by 2020, about 7% of current
world electricity consumption. Costs in the region
of $US 0.04-0.05 are anticipated in large plants
using agricultural residues.
Biomass may be an interesting partner with
solar thermal power, since both can use the same
heat engine and generator. Biomass is cleaner than
coal because it contains no sulphur and the carbon
is recycled, but there are some worries about
nitrogen oxides being emitted.
PHOTOVOLTAIC TECHNOLOGY
In modern photovoltaics, impurities are added
to the semiconductor material, which is usually
silicon, to produce doped silicon. One thin top
layer is doped with a material which has more
electrons that the silicon atoms displaced; this is
an 'n -type' material. An adjacent layer is doped
with a material with an electron deficit; this is a 'p
- type’ material.
6 2 DAVID R. MILLS
The junction between the two regions is called
a'p - n' junction and it creates an inherent electric
field which separates the charges produced by the
absorption of photons of solar energy near it. This
tends to push the negative charges (electrons) to
the back of the cell where a metallic contact
removes the charges to the electrical load. Each
cell produces a voltage of about 0.5 volts, and the
cells may be added in series or parallel to produce
any voltage and current combination. The circuit is
made complete by a thin network of conductors on
the top of the solar cell.
Photovoltaic systems comprise a module, a
mounting structure which may be tracking or
stationary, and a power conditioning system to
present the power to the load in an acceptable
state. PV power is DC, and must be converted to
AC for grid use. Various losses occur from
electrical connection and power conditioning, and
costs are increased markedly if lead acid battery
storage is employed.
Photovoltaic technology has established an
early niche market in remote area power systems
because of its simplicity and adaptability. It is
very popular in developing countries, where more
than 200,000 homes in Mexico, Indonesia, South
Africa, Sri Lanka, and other countries use PV
power supplies.
The ultimate position of photovoltaics in the
electricity generation picture is unclear, but could
be very important indeed. While the author
believes that solar thermal electricity will be
cheaper for grid connection over the next 10-15
years, after that time there is a clear possibility
that PV will become cheaper as a supplier of 24
hour grid power, in possible combination with
biomass fuelled combined cycle or advanced gas
turbine plants. Most groups in the field believe
that cost-competition against conventional fossil
fuel prices will be achieved within 15 years, and
that many major markets can be addressed before
then.
There are several major avenues of
photovoltaic development which are described in
the following sections. All of them are attempting
to eventually become cost-competitive against
fossil fuel.
Single and Polycrystalline Technology
The evolution of silicon single crystal cells
dates from Russel Ohl's early work at Bell Labs
(Ohl, 1941). Since then, a wide variety of detailed
improvements have taken place, including
improved doping, diffused aluminium conductor
backing, textured cell surfaces, and the more recent
laser grooving technology (Chong et al., 1988)
developed in Australia by Prof. Martin Green's
group at the University of NSW.
Single crystal cells are the traditional method
of manufacture, and these are produced by sawing
slices of silicon, called wafers, from an ingot of
crystalline silicon. This method is expensive and
incurs waste from the sawing process. However, it
has produced the highest efficiency cells to date,
with some laboratory cells reaching 25%.
Investment of energy in the process is very high
however.
Nevertheless, progress is being made in
reducing cell thickness, and the UNSW has
pioneered a method whereby incoming photons can
be scattered sideways in a thin film, increasing the
chance that they will be absorbed. Recently, a thin
film polycrystalline cell achieved 21% at the
UNSW, a new record. In addition new cell
multilayer construction has been proposed by that
group in order to achieve high performance using
cheaper low grade construction. Recently Pacific
Power contributed $45 million to start up Pacific
Solar, a company based around advanced thin film
PV technology originated under Prof. Martin
Green at the University of New South Wales.
New developments in thin film work being
undertaken around the world and by three groups in
Australia, and success in this area could see
considerable expansion of the industry within 5
years. The technology continues to drop in cost, as
RESURGENCE OF THE SOLAR ECONOMY 6 3
with the other renewables. Module supply
contracts have fallen from A$28 per peak Watt
(1993 Dollars) in 1980 to below $3 for a recent
Malaysian contract. The Green group are
proposing module costs below $1 per peak Watt.
PV Solar Concentrators
Another means of attacking the problem of
high cost to minimise the area of PV cell used
This is possible because PV cells can be designed
to accept very high concentration of sunlight with
high efficiency. The technology then is expressed
as a solar concentrator, with sunlight being
concentrated on cells areas tens or hundreds of
times smaller than the collection aperture of the
solar collector. Efficiencies can be quite high
because more expensive multilayer or Gallium
Arsenide cells can be used and a 20% efficient
module using a Fresnel lens concentrator.
This approach sacrifices the simplicity of the
simple PV panel, and it is not a likely candidate
for usage in the domestic sector for his reason.
However, for grid power generation the approach is
simpler than using a heat engine with a solar
thermal concentrator, and potentially very reliable.
At this time, solar concentrators are still more
expensive than their solar thermal counterparts
because high solar cell costs still drive up system
costs. However, projected costs for solar
concentrating systems of the future are not
dissimilar from those of advanced solar thermal, at
between A$0.04 and A$0.10 cents per kWh for
large plants of 100 MW(e) depending upon
financial assumptions.
Amorphous Photovoltaics
These use a non-crystalline material as the
solar absorber. There is a Photovoltaic effect in
such materials which was first noted by R.
Chittick and colleagues at the Standard
Telecommunication Laboratories in 1969, and
developed by Chris Wronski of RCA laboratories
in 1974. These materials have a much higher
absorption coefficient than polycrystalline silicon,
and can be made much thinner. The potential for
inexpensive cells made of such materials was
soon realised, by the Japanese in particular, who
developed a new industry based around such cells
being used in consumer items such as
wristwatches and other consumer items.
The efficiency of amorphous silicon has been
historically much lower than for polycrystalline
material, but has been rising steadily. However,
amorphous cells were found to lose efficiency to
about 6% after extended exposure to sunlight and
this has compromised initial optimism.
Nevertheless, the consumer market has made this
type of cell very popular and it now comprises
about 30% of the market. Amorphous silicon can
be combined with other amorphous materials such
as Cadmium Indium Diselenide (CIS) to produce
cells with up to 15% efficiency, and it may
ultimately be possible to produce stabilised
efficiencies of 18% with such material. However,
the recent 21% performance from thin film
polycrystalline silicon cells will make life difficult
because the cost of the basic material for both cell
types is fairly low compared to other balance of
system costs, and silicon is both common and
non-toxic.
Predicted future module prices for Amorphous
silicon are of the order of $A 1 per peak watt, and
thus are about the same as for the other PV
technologies. A Japanese company is rumoured to
be close to the marketing of amorphous Si PV
near this cost.
Photovoltaic power has established an early
niche market in remote area power systems
because of its simplicity and adaptability. It is
very popular in developing countries, where more
than 200,000 homes in Mexico, Indonesia, South
Africa, Sri Lanka, and other countries use PV
power supplies. New developments in thin film
work being undertaken around the world and by
three groups in Australia could see considerable
expansion within 5 years.
The technology continues to drop in cost, as
with the other renewables. Module supply
64 DAVID R. MILLS
contracts have fallen from A$28 (1993 Dollars) in
1980 to below $3 for a recent Malaysian contract.
PV may have to face tough competition for
other energy sources on grid. However, PV has
some markets to itself, and my personal belief is
that the greatest environmental value of PV may
be in providing 'on roof’ supplement power for
future electric cars, even the majority of the power
in some cases. This development would strongly
drop net NO emissions as well as carbon
emissions, and would at the same time extend the
range of such vehicles. It is a suitable high cost
energy market, because PV would compete with a
taxed fuel burnt at poor efficiency.
TIME FOR THE USERS TO PAY
In Australia, the economy is heavily based
upon coal and oil, and industrial giants often seem
to have the final say on issues such as carbon
taxes and forests.
But our society is more enmeshed in polluting
behaviour than it first seems. George Wilkenfeld
(1990) has shown that Australia's energy related
emissions are dominated by 43% from electricity
generation, and 26% for transport related emissions
from fuel usage. However, a recent paper by
Parikh and Watson (1995) at the University of
Melbourne breaks down vehicle manufacturing
emissions and shows that domestic vehicle
emissions during construction are perhaps 90% of
lifetime vehicle emissions. In other words, much
of manufacturing emissions are a result of the
motor car as well. All up, motor vehicle related
emissions probably rival those of the power
sector, although there would be some double
counting of electricity used in manufacturing
vehicles.
What this implies is that a very significant
share of our total manufacturing activity is devoted
to polluting technology like motor cars. This
includes the aluminium industry for engine blocks,
the steel industry, rubber, glass, electronics, and so
on. Power generation is also a large industry.
These industries employ many Australians.
However, they also cost Australians a terrific
amount in money and invested labour. We
complain about two adults per family having to
work full time to cover the house payments, but
most families now have two cars. Compare the
finance costs of purchasing and running several
$25000 cars over 25 years against those associated
with purchase of the family home!
The above shows we have to be very careful in
how we shift to a clean economy so that the whole
manufacturing ecology can be weaned from fossil
fuel without social and industrial dislocation. But
it can be done. We can still have a car industry if
they are electric or alcohol powered. We can still
have a power industry if solar power plants are
used. However, to do this, we have to intervene in
the economy to realise true market value of
renewables.
Carbon emission regulations on powerplants
and cars which include invested pollution could
affect perhaps 80% of the energy emissions
‘market’. Regulation can be targetted very narrowly
and still have a massive and beneficial effect.
However, a most damaging aspect of the current
economic view is its de facto opposition to market
intervention on behalf of the environment.
The last decade has clearly demonstrated that
competition is often necessary for economic
efficiency. To that extent the free marketeers are
right. But the notion of an unconstrained market is
preposterous; that is why we have laws. The 'real
world’ is not one of macho business takeovers and
massive deficits, but of crashing fish stocks,
disappearing soil futures, and air filled with things
that shouldn't be there. We already regulate other
activity which is dangerous to the community.
Degradation of the environment also such an
activity, possibly the most dangerous of all.
However, competition and efficiency can be
maintained within such a regulated market. Indeed,
we are heading toward such a synthesis of market
and environmental principles.
RESURGENCE OF THE SOLAR ECONOMY 65
As an example, the NSW government has
recently split up the electricity industry in NSW as
an aid to competition and efficiency. However, the
same government is introducing direct market
intervention in the energy sector which is an
expression of community value for the
environment. The market may compete freely
within these parameters. Redneck industry tends to
view this as market bias. But, as the NSW
Sustainable Energy Fund Working Party (SEF,
1995) states: ".....there are a number of barriers to
the introduction of these technologies. The most
notable include.. [several barriers].. environmental
costs (externalities) not included in prices." The
so-called ‘free market’ poorly accounts for true total
societal costs. It must be restored to balance. This
is ‘user pays' in the strictest possible sense.
IN CONCLUSION
It is clear that solar technology is under highly
active development, production is at the highest
levels ever, and costs in all technologies are
dropping very rapidly. However, the history of
solar energy is one of a technology which is
highly sensitive to initial cost price, and to the
financing of that cost. If the cost and/or financing
structure is right, the technology competes very
well as did solar water heaters in Florida, and as do
present solar systems in Darwin today.
The solar industry died in California in 1920
because of high cost, a cheap competitor the lack
of financing and the fact that no appropriate value
was put upon clean operation. Today we finance
electricity and gas central facilities for the
consumer but still do not provide the same service
for a domestic solar collector.
The importance of the recent NSW
government innovations and other similar
measures emerging around the world is that for the
first time in history, something closer to the real
value of renewable energy to society is at last
about to be entrenched in the economic system,
and hidden subsidies historically propping up
polluting fuels are gradually being removed. The
valuation of renewable energy need not be perfect,
and indeed the environment can never be fully
valued in purely economic terms. But it is
probably enough to supply a _ modest
environmental rebate and long term financing of
capital cost.
Most renewable systems are close enough to
conventional cost that they would expand rapidly
with such assistance. The is much evidence that
this will allow sufficient production volume to
achieve low cost. Once high volume production is
achieved, even fully justified environmental
subsidies may not be required.
In older times the advantage that a renewable
technology might have could be quickly eclipsed
by a new underpriced fuel or a war. Today a firmer
foundation is emerging. This foundation is not
based upon resource scarcity or a local pollution
advantage, but upon a mix of economic and
environmental criteria which reflect true social and
environmental requirements required for our long
term tenancy of our planet.
For early Humankind, there was no choice but
to use solar energy. The necessities for individual
survival which ruled us then are now being
replaced by the necessities of global survival. But
the choice remains the same. The circle is nearly
complete.
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ISSN 0035-91 73/96/010069-11 $4.00/1
CONSCIOUSNESS AND QUANTUM MECHANICS.
Max.R. Bennett
with illustrations by Gillian Bennett
TWO GREAT MYSTERIES:
CONSCIOUSNESS AND QUANTUM
MECHANICS.
Quantum mechanics provides a theory for the
behaviour of elementary particles and atoms. Even
though it has been enormously successful in this
task, the conceptual foundations of the theory are
still a matter of hot debate. Mysterious dilemmas
emerge as one probes deeper into the meaning of
quantum mechanical ideas. Given that
consciousness is itself such a mystery, some
pundits have suggested that the spate of
publications over the last decade on the possibility
that quantum mechanical principles are needed to
explain consciousness arise from the conviction
that two such fundamental mysteries must be
related! Perhaps the foremost exponent of the idea
that quantum mechanical effects are involved in
consciousness is the great mathematical physicist
Roger Penrose. However Francis Crick, perhaps
the greatest biologist of this century, dismisses the
idea entirely. This article sets out the arguments so
far developed for a role of quantum mechanical
effects in consciousness. Suffice it to say that no
Cut
Figure 1. The founders of quantum mechanics in
discussion together, 1962. Niels Bohr (left),
Werner Heisenberg (middle) and Paul Dirac.
quantum principles have yet been needed to explain
any neuroscientific phenomenon observed in the
laboratory, with the possible exception of the
interaction of photons with the photoreceptors of
the eye. But then, of course, is consciousness a
laboratory phenomenon?
QUANTUM MECHANICS
The problem confronting the founding fathers
of quantum mechanics (Figure 1), concerning the
behaviour of subatomic particles, is best illustrated
by means of the following experiment. Consider
an apparatus consisting of an element (H) that
gives rise to electrons and shoots them out
through a very narrow hole A2, as shown in
Figure 2A. The dots in this figure indicate the
pattern of the positions of electron collisions built
up on a scintillation screen when many pulses of
the electron gun have been activated. Note that the
extent of the scatter becomes greater as the hole
A2 becomes smaller than a certain value. An
additional hole A3 is now added to the apparatus,
as shown in Figure 2B. In this case the expected
pattern of electron collisions is simply the addition
of two patterns like that in Figure 2A. However
the actual observed pattern of collisions is quite
different,consisting of regions of high density
collisions alternating with regions in which there
are no collisions at all.
This surprising result has an analogy with the
propagation of waves through holes. Figure 2C(a)
shows wave fronts (vertical lines) propagating
through a hole which is much larger than their
wavelength whereas (b) shows that the waves
spread out when they propagate through a hole that
is of similar or smaller wave length; this is
analogous to the increased scattering of electron
collisions as the hole becomes smaller in Fig 2A.
oo ° GON GUTH VERY NARROLS
Hole Ad
SCATTER, BECOMES GREATER
AS THE HOLE AL BE OHES
° CERTAIN MAGNITUDE
EXPECTED PRTTERN TO
BE BUILT UP FROM TH
HoresS A2,AS3
Cc
|
PROPAGATION OF WAVES PROPAGATION OF WAVES
THROUGH HOLE MGCH THROUGH
HCLES
THROUGH HOLE LARGER
THEN WAVELENCQTH SMALLER. THAN
WAVELENGTH
Figure 2. Experiments illustrating the quantum mechanical
behaviour of subatomic particles.
In Figure 2C(c) the waves are made to
propagate through two holes; in this case the
waves through one hole interfere with the waves
through the other, so that in some cases they
reinforce each other and in other cases negate each
other, The consequence, as shown, is that there are
regions where the waves are strong and these
alternate with regions where there are no waves.
The situation is analogous to that of the pattern of
electron collisions shown in Figure 2B.
PATTERN Buiet UP BY
MANY PULSES CF ELECTRON
SHRULER_ THAN A!
ACTUAL PRPOITERN
RECORDED
bn :
PROPAGATION OF WAVES
TW0 SMALL
MAX.R. BENNETT
BOHR'S INTERPRETATION
OF SCHRODINGER'S WAVE
EQUATION.
Schrodinger's wave equation
provides a quantum mechanical
description of this behaviour of
electrons and is interpreted in the
oar following way by the adherents of
Siete Niels Bohr of Denmark (Figure 3) and
oes for this reason is called the
ap Copenhagen interpretation. An
reste as: electron is considered to be in a
superposition of the different states of
the observable which is to be
measured, say its collision position
on the scintillation screen in Figure
2B; that is to say the electron is
considered to be at several different
\ positions on the screen , as given by
the solutions of Schrodinger's
))))) equation. The measuring apparatus
} (namely the scintillation screen) used
))) to determine the position is also in a
state of superposition with the
different states of the observable,
namely the collision positions.
According to this interpretation, when
an observer looks at the scintillation
screen a superposition of observable
states occurs involving the screen and the
observer's brain. This piling on of states of
superposition can only be terminated at the level
of consciousness. All these correlated states can be
ascertained by the deterministic Schrodinger wave
equation. The question then arises as to where does
the discontinuity occur which leads to the collapse
of all the eigenstates except that one associated
with a particular position on the scintillation
screen, namely that observed? Schrodinger’s wave
equation for the electrons passing through the two
holes of the partition in the experiment of Figure
2B therefore has solutions which give non-zero
values for the position of electron collisions in
those areas in which a position measurement
might ultimately find that a collision has occurred.
In the standard Copenhagen dogma the superposed
CONSCIOUSNESS AND QUANTUM MECHANICS 71
Figure 3. Niels Bohr (1885 - 1962).
positions of the electron collision all exist in
reality up to the moment that a measuring device
is used by an observer to determine the collision
site; at this time the wave function collapses to
zero at all sites except one.
The extraordinary implications of the
Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics
is illustrated by means of the famous thought
experiment named Schrodinger's cat, which is
illustrated in Figure 4. Electrons are fired at a
partition with two holes as in Figure 2B. If the
electrons appear in the middle of the scintillation
screen they trigger via a light sensing photoelectric
tube, the release of a hammer which smashes a
glass capsule of cyanide that kills a cat, resident in
the same closed box as the apparatus. The position
of the electron on the scintillation screen is a
quantum mechanical problem, so the solution of
Schrodinger's equation gives the superposition of
States of the electron being at the different
positions on the screen. The photoelectric tube and
the hammer also have correlated states with the
electron positions that are given by Schrodinger's
equation; these involve (a) whether the tube is
excited to give a current or not (for instance) and
(b) the position of the hammer (for instance).
Finally, the cat is part of this quantum system
with states in which it is dead or alive. In this
isolated quantum system then, the paradox arises
that the cat is neither dead nor alive. The
Copenhagen interpretation is that this chain, called
the von Neumann -chain, is completed by an
observer who looks into the isolated room. The
conscious observer then becomes part of the
quantum system. According to Eugene Wigner,
this chain is broken but at the level of the mind ,
so that all the different states given by
Schrodinger's equation collapse but one, and the
cat is found either dead or alive. In practice the
Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics
draws an arbitrary line of demarcation between the
quantum world (of say atomic particles) and the
classical world (of say measuring instruments and
human brains), as illustrated by the cartoon of
Figure 5. Application of Schrodinger's equation is
then confined to the quantum world.
BOHM'S INTERPRETATION OF
SCHRODINGER'S WAVE EQUATION.
David Bohm’'s interpretation of Schrodinger's
equation escapes these dilemmas of the
Copenhagen school. This is illustrated by the
following thought experiment given in Figure 6.
A laser sends a photon to a beam splitter at which
the photon's wave function splits and passes along
pathways A and B, whereas the photon continues
along just path A; it is then reflected with its wave
function into a switching box. If the switch is on
then the part of the wave function which took the
same route as the photon, together with the part
which did not, meet at D, where they give the
interference patterns shown on the screen. These
patterns indicate the probability distribution of
where the photons impact on the screen. If the
switch is off then the part of the wave function
that did not take the same route as the photon
never meets the photon again; this is decisive
information for the photon, which then acts as a
V2 MAX.R. BENNETT
Figure 4. Schrodinger's cat highlights the dilemmas presented by the Copenhagen interpretation of
quantum mechanics.
Fal f RX SKS
MAE | cose] RRR
4
ie Cg
Figure 5. The cartoon illustrates the dilemma posed by the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum
mechanics. It points up how arbitrary is the division assumed to demarcate the quantum world (of say
atomic particles) with the classical world (of say measuring instruments).
CONSCIOUSNESS AND QUANTUM MECHANICS Pe
MIRROR,
RBERM SPUTWETR
/ PATH A
MIRROR
Cc PHOTON
DETECTOTR
Figure 6. Bohm's interpretation of Schrodingers equation is illustrated by this experiment.
particle and is recorded as such by the photo-
detector. In this interpretation of Schrodinger's
equation there are no superimposed states that lead
to the difficulties which arise in the Copenhagen
School's ideas.
Schrodinger’s cat escapes the dilemma of being
neither dead nor alive in David Bohm’s
intepretation of how the Schrodinger wave
equation should be applied in quantum mechanics.
In this case the position of the electron on the
scintillation screen, after it has passed through one
of the two double slits, is not given by the
superposition of states of the electron at different
positions on the screen, so that the electron is not
simultaneously at different sites before an
observation is made . Rather the position of the
electron on the screen is ascertained deterministic
manner in the following way. The Schrodinger
wave function of the electron splits up and passes
through both slits in the screen, while the electron
itself passes through one of the slits as a single
particle must do. Which slit the electron passes
through is deterministic, based simply on the
initial position and initial wave function,
according to the linear differential equations of
motion. The two parts of the electron's wave
function join on the other side of the double-slit
— screen, with the part of the wave function that did
not take the same pathway as the electron itself
Interfering with the wave function that went with
the electron. It is the interference of these two
_ waves which then determines the position at which
the electron hits the screen (the part of the wave
function that did not go with the electron is not
capable of conveying effects to any other particle).
This deterministic procedure does not involve the
metaphysical paradoxes which arise in the case of
the Copenhagen Interpretation, with its
superposition of different states. According to
Bohm’s theory the electron has either hit the
middle of the screen or not, so that the cat is dead
or alive before the observer looks in the box. The
cat is not in a superposition of states in which it
is neither dead or alive.
GELL MANN AND ZUREK'S
INTERPRETATION OF
SCHRODINGER'S WAVE EQUATION
Schrodinger’s cat also escapes the dilemma of
being neither dead or alive in the Gell Mann and
Zurek interpretation of how Schrodinger's equation
should be interpreted. In this case it is argued that
the quantum-system residing in the Schrodinger cat
cage is not a closed system, isolated from the
environment even in the absence of an observer.
Indeed no macroscopic system is isolated from its
environment. This allows one to avoid the
difficulty that the evolution of the deterministic
linear Schrodinger wave equation of a system
evolves into a state that simultaneously contains
many possibilities which we never see to coexist,
such as the cat being both dead and alive. The core
problem is the principle of superposition that
resides in Schrodinger's wave equation in contrast
74 MAX.R. BENNETT
to our common experience of a classical reality.
Gell Mann and Zurek argue that while Wigner is
correct in saying that the final point in the von
Neumann chain resides in our consciousness of the
world, that is we are conscious of only one of the
superposition states given by the Schrodinger
equation, it is very likely that the state is already
chosen from amongst the superpositions before
consciousness is involved at all. In the cases of
Schrodinger’s cat, the superpositions are destroyed
by interaction between the quantum events in the
cage and the environment, well before an observer
looks in the cage. It is argued that the environment
effectively makes a superselection which prevents
certain superpositions from occurring, so that only
states that survive this process become classical
and so are observed. This is the reason why we
perceive just one of the quantum alternatives. In a
sense, the interaction of the quantum system with
the environment involves a transfer of information
from the quantum system to the environment. If
an observer is present then such leakage of
information from the quantum system will be to
the brain of the observer, in this case constituting
part of the environment. Indeed, quantum events in
our own brains, say involving different quantum
superpositions of the states of a neurone, will be
lost very quickly compared with the times of
biological process. This is due to information
leaking from the neurone to the environment (in
this case consisting of ions etc surrounding the
neurone), leaving the neurone in a preferred
classical state.
According to this scheme observers have lost
their privileged position in monitoring a system
involving the tranfer of information to a recording
apparatus. Information is also transferred from the
quantum system to other elements of the
environment. The only difference between the two
is the difficulty of decoding the information taken
up by elements of the environment compared with
that taken up by our specially designed observing
apparatus. In the case of the two slit experiment,
by the time the electron reaches the screen it will,
under normal circumstances, have interacted with
components of the environment that greatly
decrease the probability that superimposed states
will exist at the screen. Only definite states will
exist, that is the electron will have hit the screen
within one of the three regions shown in Figure
2B.
It is usually argued that the brain is too hot at
body temperature to maintain the coherent states of
superposition for a neurone which might arise
from interference effects at the quantum level. Gell
Man and Zurek contend that even if such
interference effects exist, giving rise to coherent
states of superposition, they will very quickly
(compared with biological times) dissipate due to
interactions between the neurone and its
environment so removing all but one of the
solutions to the Schrodinger equation.
THE CONCEPT OF NON-LOCAL
REALITY IN QUANTUM
MECHANICS.
All interpretations of quantum mechanics so
far enumerated require the concept of non-local
reality. In non-local reality an event that occurs in
say region A can instantaneously have a physical
effect in region B, independent of how far A is
from B and of the conditions in the space between
A and B. This is illustrated in Figure 7 by the
following simple experiment. A source of photons
is placed midway between two polarizing films
which allow the passage of all photons that are
linearly polarized along a horizontal axis; however
they allow with decreasing probability the passage
of photons that are linearly polarized at an angle q
to the horizontal (where the probability is
proportional to cos~q). The source contains
photons that each have a superposition of states in
which they are linearly polarized along a horizontal
axis and a vertical axis; in this case q is 459 so
that cos@q = 0.5 and there is a 50% probability
that a photon will pass through the horizontally
oriented polarizing film. If pairs of such correlated
photons are simultaneously shot out of the source
at both screens, then the expectation is that each
should independently pass through with a 50%
probability. Instead, what happens is that if one
CONSCIOUSNESS AND QUANTUM MECHANICS 12>
LIGHT CPHOTONS)
POLARIZED AT RIGHT VPOLARIZED FILM
ANGLES TO TRANSMISSION
wa
LIGHT PoLARILED ALONG
TRANSMISSION RXIS
LIGHT POLARIZED
AT SAME ANGLE To
POLARIZING FILMS WITH HORIZONTALLY
CRIENTED “TRANSHISSION AxIS
Figure 7. All interpretations of quantum
mechanics involve the concept of non-local reality,
which is illustrated by means of this experiment.
photon is transmitted so is the other and if one is
blocked so is the other. The second photon of the
pair knows what the other photon does even
though they are well separated. There is
instantaneous transmission of information from
one photon to the other. The discovery that such
correlated particles can affect each other over large
distances independent of intervening space,
amounts to a non-local interaction and is thus
termed ‘non-local reality’.
It has been suggested by Penrose that an
example of non-local reality at work can be
observed in the assembly of quasi crystals. For
instance the Al-Li-Cu alloy due to Gayle(1987)
has a crystal symmetry that apparently can only be
assembled by using non-local ordering of the
atoms. In this case, to assemble such a crystal
requires that the pattern of atoms some distance
from the region of assembly be determined in order
to avoid errors in the arrangement of atoms
gathered up at the point of assembly. This could
be done by a mechanism of non-local reality, as
described in Figure 7.
Figure 8. C.S. Sherrington (1858-1952).
IDEAS CONCERNING THE
OPERATION OF NON-LOCAL
REALITY IN THE BRAIN: THE
ORIGINS OF CONSCIOUSNESS?
Beck and Eccles (1992) believe that nerve
terminals may be considered to have a crystal-like
structure, so that non-local phenomenon occur by
quantum mechanical means at these terminals. The
physical structure of nerve terminals and of the site
where they attach to the surface of neurones was
first given emphasis by Sherrington (Figure 8),
the founder of neuroscience, and called by him 'the
synapse’. Synapses form all over the surface of
neurones, as is illustrated in Figure 9 by
7 6 MAX.R. BENNETT
EON Sia Chae vo a
Figure 9. A neurone from the CA3 region of the
hippocampus together with synapses on its round
cell body as well as on the large dendritic shafts.
considering a neurone from the memory region of
the brain called the hippocampus: this neurone has
synapses (S) on its round cell body as well as on
the large dendritic shafts; the largest synapse in the
brain, formed by the so-called mossy fibre
synapses (MP), are also illustrated. The class of
large neurones in the brain are called pyramidal
cells, and each may possess up to 30,000 synapses
on their surface. Synaptic terminals also form on
neurones in the thalamus, which is the part of the
brain concerned with passing sensory information,
such as that involved in vision, to the neocortex
from the sensory receptors, such as the
photoreceptors in the eye. Figure 10 shows a
single dendritic shaft (relatively dark) of a thalamic
neurone which gives off a spine-like protrusion.
This spine has four synaptic boutons (relatively
pale) impinging on it and these can be identified
by the collection of small vesicles crowded
together in each bouton as well as by the dark bars
in the spine which underly the collection of
vesicles. Some of the synaptic boutons also
receive synapses on their membranes. The small
vesicles contain transmitter substances which, if
released from the bouton, diffuse onto the
membrane of the neurone, and transiently bind to
it, therebye increasing or decreasing the electrical
excitability of the neurone.
A synaptic bouton may then have a
paracrystalline structure which requires
Schrodinger’s equation to describe its quantum
states. The membrane of the synaptic bouton
immediately impinging on a neurone soma (see
Figure 10 ) or dendrite (see Figures 9 and 10 )
possesses dense projections (dp) with the
dimensions shown in Figure 11. These dense
projections constitute what is called the active
zone of the bouton. The synaptic vesicles (SV)
insert between the projections of the active zone. It
is hypothesized that following arrival of a nerve
impulse in the bouton a single vesicle on the
active zone may release its contents by the method
of exocytosis. Other vesicles (about 50 to 100 on
the zone) are prevented from releasing because the
hypothesized paracrystalline array of the active
zone possess components that are in a state of
quantal coherence enabling non-local instantaneous
interactions of different parts of the active zone.
Once a vesicle, interacting with the active zone, is
irretrievably committed to the release of its
transmitter then this information is conveyed
instantaneously to the rest of the active zone,
producing non-local changes in the paracrystalline
array that prevent other vesicles from releasing
transmitter.
Non-local reality may arise in a different’ way
in the brain through quantum correlations
involving phonons, as first suggested by Frolich
CONSCIOUSNESS AND QUANTUM MECHANICS 77
ese
RES
+.
a
©
o
oO B88
Figure 10. Synaptic terminals formed on a neurone in the thalamus.
(1968). Phonons stand in relation to the electrical
vibration of matter (say a dipole molecule) in an
analogous way to photons and oscillations of the
electromagnetic field. Phonons can be thought of
as particles then in the same way as photons and
so are subject to quantum mechanical effects in the
same way as photons. How may phonons be used
by neurones? One possibility involves
consideration of the way in which the proteins in
the membrane of neurones, that are responsible for
the movement of ions between the inside and
outside of the neurone, interact with the
intracellular skeleton of the neurone.The
components of these membrane proteins may be
considered to be dipole molecules that give rise to
phonons. If the rate of energy supply to these
oscillating dipoles from the cytoskeleton is
sufficiently high a fraction of the energy is not
lost to the elements that make up the constant
temperature heat bath surrounding these membrane
proteins, such as ions moving in the solutions on
either side of the neurones membrans. This energy
fraction may then be stored in such a way as to
create phase and amplitude correlations between the
phonons of the system over very large distances.
In other words the energy fraction is stored in the
phonons of the system and may be used to create
new phonons. Quantum correlations arise between
the phonons in this way so that coherent
superpositions occur in the system of phonons
over large distances. Frohlich (1968, 1986) and
Marshall (1989) have argued that quantum
correlations between phonons of the neurone
membrane channel proteins responsible for the
excitability of the neurons could arise over large
distances in the nervous system.
78 MAX.R. BENNETT
Non-local reality, however it arises, has been
suggested by Penrose (1987) to mediate the
holistic experiences of consciousness that involve
correlations between near simultaneous events at
large distances apart in the neocortex. Such events
may involve identification of an object in the
inferior temporal cortex with determination of its
movement in parietal cortex, many centimetres
away. These quantum correlations over extensive
distances may then be responsible for the
coherence of conscious experience involving many
of the brains parallel processing neuronal units
spread throughout the neocortex.
The possibility that quantum mechanical ideas,
which are so removed from ‘commonsense’, will
be required to explain some aspect of synaptic or
neuronal function is still open. Although at
present this is not the case, we are still at such a
profound level of ignorance concerning synaptic,
neuronal and brain function that it would be very
premature to say the case is closed for quantum
mechanical explanations of consciousness. The
high temperature of the brain would seem to be a
large obstacle for the emergence of any states of
Figure 11. A synaptic bouton may have a
paracrystalline structure which requires
Schrodinger’s equation to describe its quantum
states.
quantum coherence. However the recent success in
obtaining superconductivity at relatively high
temperatures, involving as it does quantum
mechanical effects, does suggest that even the
temperature problem may not be an
insurmountable obstacle. It may well be that the
weird world of the quantum does include our
consciousness.
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Eccles, J.C.,1993. HOW THE SELF
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(Manuscript received 16 - 1 - 1996)
(Manuscript received in final form 16 - 4 - 1996)
Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 129, p80, 1996 8 0
ISSN 0035-91 73/96/010080-01 $4.00/1
MASTERS THESIS ABSTRACT
Towards a Crop Growth, Development, and Yield Model for Lupinus
angustifolius (Narrow Leafed lupin) in Tasmania
Andrew C. Bishop, B.App.Sc
Experiments were conducted between 1988 and
1990 at Elliott, Cressy, and Ross in Tasmania
using three cultivars (Yandee, Geebung, and
75A329) of narrow-leafed lupin (Lupinus
angustifolius). The purpose of these experiments
was to examine narrow-leafed lupin growth and
development in Tasmania in relation to specific
environmental factors. These factors were related to
growth and development measurements. It was
hoped to use these relationships in a simple crop
model suitable for assessing sites for the
commercial production of lupins.
Preliminary experiments in 1988 examined the
lupin cultivars for agronomic suitability in
Tasmania. Increased grain yield was a function of
more pods/m2 rather than increased pods/plant.
This suggested that lower yields of the
indeterminate line 75A329 could be compensated
for by a higher plant density than in the
indeterminate cultivars. Lupins responded to higher
rainfall and extended growing season at Elliott thus
outyielding crops at Cressy and Ross.
Detailed field experiments were conducted in
1989 and 1990 at Elliott and Cressy. Lupin crops
developed very slowly in the first 8-10 weeks, and
then grew rapidly after flowering was initiated. It
appeared floral initiation was a function of higher
temperatures and longer days in Yandee and
75A329, with further responses to vernalisation in
Geebung.
Plant density significantly affected grain yield.
75A329 showed the largest yield responses to
increased plant density. Although increased plant
density resulted in increased leaf area, leaf
senescence took place earlier in the highest density
crops probably due to competitive effects.
Optimum density for the indeterminate cultivars
was 40 plants/m2. It may be higher for
determinate cultivars. Low density crops were able
to utilise their leaf area for light interception more
efficiently than high density crops. In the latter,
branches and leaves were pushed more towards
vertical rather than horizontal thus less leaf area
was presented to intercept light.
The study established that early sowing of
lupins in Tasmania allows more time to grow and
develop and yield more grain. A direct relationship
was established between increased total dry matter
and increased grain yield.
The model developed in this study used thermal
time as its only external factor to determine L,
intercepted radiation (%), and total dry matter
(kg/ha) during crop growth. From the predicted
figure for total dry matter accumulated by harvest
time, an estimate of potential grain yield could be
made for that crop.
This study demonstrated the principle of
collecting agronomic data and, guided by basic
plant physiological principles and mathematical
procedures, assembling simple sub-models that
when linked can approximate a particular aspect of
crop growth.
An abstract from a thesis submitted to the
University of Tasmania for the degree of Master of
Agricultural Science, December 1994.
Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries
PO Box 303
Devonport
Tasmania 7310
AUSTRALIA
(Manuscript received 20 - 2 - 1996)
Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 129, p81, 1996 81
ISSN 0035-91 73/96/010081-01 $4.00/1
DOCTORAL THESIS ABSTRACT
The Twenty-Four Caprices of Niccolo Paganini
Their significance for the history of violin playing and the music of the
Romantic era
Philippe Borer
This project attempts to describe and elucidate
the compositional and instrumental character of the
twenty-four Caprices of Niccolo Paganini and their
far-reaching influence on violin playing and on
musical creativity up to the present time. There is
also the wider inspirational value which can be
traced in literature, poetry and fine arts.
The first chapter aims to place the twenty-Four
Caprices in their historical perspective. The
reception accorded to the work by prominent
musicians of the time ( in particular Chopin, Liszt
and Schumann) whose attention was drawn to the
concept of virtuosity as an essential parameter in
musical composition is examined.
Chapter 2 investigates the unique significance
of the dedication "alli Artisti" which suggests a
Romantic manifesto some ten years before Hugo's
prefaces to Cromwell and to the Eastern Lyrics.
Chapter 3 investigates Paganini's instrumental
and musical background. It has often been claimed
that Paganini was self-taught. however, evidence of
his all-important early training in violin and
composition makes him the true heir of the old
Philippe Borer
Department of History
The University of Tasmania
GPO Box 252c
Hobart Tasmania 7001
Australia.
Italian masters, representing at the same time a
vital milestone for subsequent development of
instrumental and compositional techniques.
Paganini can thus be seen as representing a link
between the classico-romantic and modern attitudes
to instrumental writing, reaching well into the
twentieth century.
In Chapter 4, some aspects of Paganini's
compositional and performing styles are examined.
a striking interpretative concept (the "suonare
parlante") is discussed. special consideration is
given to instrumental techniques which are not
employed in the Caprices. Their absence suggests
that the Caprices represent a perhaps intentionally
restrained statement of Paganini's violinistic
knowledge.
Chapter 5 traces the origins of the violin
Caprice and its development as a musical genre.
The appendices include an analysis of selected
Caprices, a diplomatic transcript of Caprices 1-4, a
facsimile of the manuscript, as well as supporting
documents such as Feuilles d'album and scales
written by Paganini.
(Manuscript received 5 - 12 - 1996)
Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 129, p82, 1996
ISSN 0035-91 73/96/010082-01 $4.00/1
8 2
DOCTORAL THESIS ABSTRACT
The Making of an alienated Generation
LEUNG Sai-wing
In this thesis, we argue that the four
presuppositions of the consensus model of political
socialisation are empirically unfounded. Neither are
Marxist approaches to political socialisation
supported by empirical evidence. We thus propose
our dissensus model of political socialisation: due
to process variation, life cycle variation, generation
variation, and social variation, the outcome of
political socialisation could be dissensus. likewise.
socialisation of alienation is as equally possible as
socialisation of allegiance. The so-called
socialisation of alienation, our theoretical
framework, refers to the accentuation of the
socialisation process by political events such that
people are sensitised to political reality and thus
feel alienated.
From an historical review of political
socialisation in Hong Kong in the past four
decades, we found that because of the immigrant
nature of Hong Kong population, there was an anti-
Communist china sentiment which was kindled by
a series of political confrontations between the
Chinese Government, the Hong Kong Government
and local Chinese during the transition of Hong
Kong from a British colony to a Special
Administrative Region (SAR) Government under
the sovereignty of China. Growing up in this
turbulent transitional period, the young generation
of Hong Kong has been socialised to be alienated to
the Chinese Government. to study this process, we
conducted a case study of a secondary schooll
(including interviews with the teachers and
students), a society-wide survey of secondary school
students, and a mail questionnaire survey of
sampled school teachers in 1988 and obtained four
data sets.
On the basis of analysing these four data sets,
we found that there was a benevolent image of the
Hong Kong Government but a malevolent image of
the Chinese Government. However, the event effect
on the socialisation of alienation was only salient
in a subsample, which thought the most important
contrast between Hong Kong and China was the
market system, but not visible in three other
subsamples. There were hints that students might
be socialised to be alienated by parents and
stereotyping. Because of the depoliticisation and
trivialisation of civic education in secondary
schools, we found that secondary school students
were not implanted with any political identity.
Interestingly, in the "market system" subsample,
more civic education helped to heighten the
alienation from the Chinese Government. We found
also that a prestige school environment, a
secondary education, and the school subject
"Government and Public Affairs", are three salient
factors in producing political alienation. From the
eight strata of our sample, we found that the most
alienated group of students were Form 7 arts
students from symmetrical schools.
The widespread alienation from the Chinese
Government was found to be related to students’
pessimistic view of Hong Kong" future, an
atrophying sense of political community (more
opted for migration and took an apathetic attitude
towards future political participation), and a rising
sense of localism (more identified with Hong Kong
and rejected Chinese officials taking up positions in
both the public and private sectors of Hong Kong).
After the June 4th 1989 Incident, this widespread
alienation must be fuelled to the extent that the
legitimacy of the SAR government and the
political identity of the younger generation of Hong
Kong would be in doubt.
(Manuscript accepted 16-1-1996)
Leung Sai-wing
Assistant Professor
Department of Applied Social Studies
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong
Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 129, pp83-84, 1996 8 3
ISSN 0035-91 73/96/010083-02 $4.00/1
DOCTORAL THESIS ABSTRACT
Reproductive Biology in relation to phylogeny of the Orchidaceae,
especially the tribe Diurideae.
Mark Alwin Clements
Aspects of the biology of representatives of the
so-called "primitive" members of the family
Orchidaceae, especially the fundamentally Diurideae
(subfamily Orchidoideae), were studied to determine
and characterise developmental patterns and to
enunciate phylogenetic relationships between these
taxa. Representatives of the closely related families
Alstoemeriaceae, Asphodelaceae, Burmannia
Haemodoraceae, Hypoxidaceae and Iridaceae were
also studied for comparative purposes. Early
reproductive tissue development was studied in c.
360 species using freshly collected material of
anthers or ovaries, cleared in lacto-phenol and
examined either on a Nikon Opiphot-pol or
Confocal scanning laser microscope. Images were
captured and stored digitally on disc. When fresh
material was unavailable, ovaries sampled from
dried herbarium specimens and reconstituted in
‘ammonia solution or lacto-phenol, provided
sufficient detail to determine general embryological
developmental patterns.
Microsporogenesis and microgametogenesis are
very uniform throughout most "primitive" orchids
and conform to that reported for most other
monocotyledons. Microspores mature in tetrads
with the exception of Apostasia, Neuwiedia
(subfamily Apostasioideae) and certain members of
the subfamily Cypripedioideae which form monads.
The microspore monads so formed are relatively
uniform in shape whereas those that result from the
later breakdown of a mature tetrad are irregular in
shape.
For the majority of study taxa including all taxa
Studied in the tribe Diurideae, megasporogenesis
and megagametogenesis are characterised as being
anatropous, tenuinucellate, with monosporic
-Megaspores that generate Polygonum-type embryo
Sacs with a bitegmic condition. In the case of
Apostasia, Neuwiedia and members of the
Cypripedioideae, megasporogenesis is the bisporic
type and megagametogenesis results in an Allium-
type embryo sac. The unitegmic condition was
only found in Epipogium and Spiculaea.
Embryogenesis in the "primitive" orchids,
conforms to recognisable developmental patterns
characterised by the presence or absence of a
suspensor, position (internal or external to the
embryo sac), its structure (number of cells, whether
in a linear row or as a multiple group of cells) and
the origin of cells in the embryo proper (apical cell
or apical and basal). Endosperm development was
not observed in any orchids. When present, the
suspensor appears to aid in the transfer of nutrients
from cells of the outer integument which becomes
vacuolated as the embryo reaches maturity. Lipids
and other storage bodies were observed in cells of
the embryo proper from an early stage of
proembryo development. Apomixix and
polyembryony were observed in some taxa.
Seven fundamental embryo patterns were
identified within the "primitive" orchids, termed the
Cyripedioid, Vanilloid, Epidendroid, Cymbidioid,
Nettioid, Spiranthoid and Orchidoid embryo
patterns. The Cyripedioid pattern is present in
Apostasia, Neuwiedia, Paphiopedium,
Cypripedium, Phragmipedium, Tropidia, Epipactis,
Cephalanthera and Gastodia. The Vanilloid pattern
occurs in Vanilla, Eriaxis and Erythrorchis. The
Epidendroid occurs in Cattleya and Encyclia. The
Cymbidioid pattern exists in Bletilla, Cymbidium,
Dipodium, Eulophia and Grammatophyllum. The
Neottioid pattern is restricted to Neottia and Listera.
Three embryo types exist within the Orchideae,
Diurid and Townsonia types, these being
differentiated by the number of cells present in the
suspensor: four to eight in the Orchideae; one or
8 4 MARK ALWIN CLEMENTS
occasionally two in the Diurids and none in the
Townsonia. The Orchideae type is present in both
the tribes Diseae and Orchideae. The Diurid type
embryo is present in the majority of genera
traditionally treated as part of the tribe Diurideae,
except for Chloraea, Bipinnula, Geoblasta and
Gavilea and the Pterostylidinae which have a
Spiranthoid embryo pattern. The Townsonia type is
found exclusively in that genus. The Spiranthoid
embryo pattern also occurs in the tribes
Spiranthinae and Goodyerinae.
Embryogenesis in Orchidaceae differs from that
found in Burmannia, Hypoxis, Alstroemeria and
Tribonanthes, mainly by the lack of endosperm and
possession of vascularisation in the funiculus.
The ontogeny of the protocorm-seedlings was
studied in approximately 260 species, representative
of most major taxonomic groups within the
Orchidaceae. Eleven basic categories were identified
and named, based on gross morphological features,
viz. obovoid, obovoid-deorsum, elongate, reptant,
discoid, bracteate, rhizomatous, callus, isobilateral,
echinate and globular.
Broad (family) and narrow (subfamily and
below) based cladistic analyses were undertaken to
determine phylogenetic relationships between these
taxa. Characters and states were based on studies of
the floral and vegetative morphology of fresh
material, developmental embryological data and
protocorm-seedling morphology. The inclusion of
developmental embryological data proved
significant in resolving the phylogenetic
relationships.
Research School of Biological Science,
Australian National University
Canberra, ACT, 0200
Australia
At the broad level, the Orchidaceae, with
Apostasia, Neuwiedia and the Cypripedioideae
included, is unequivocally shown to be
monophyletic based on possession of five
synapomorphies; (i) partially or fully fused style
and filaments to form a column; (ii) lacking an
endosperm; (111) an undifferentiated embryo; (iv) a
protocorm; and (v) lacking vascularisation of the
funiculus.
At the narrow level, subfamily Orchidoideae is
monophyletic when the Spiranthinae, Goodyerinae
and Pachyplectroninae are included along with the
Orchideae (Orchideae, Diseae), Diurid (Diuridinae,
Acanthinae and Caladeniinae) and Cryptostylid
(Cryptostylidinae, Rimacola, Megastylis) clades.
Thus the subfamily Spiranthoideae is
taxonomically superfluous. The Diurideae is
monophyletic with the removal of the
Pterostylidinae and the Chloraeinae (to the
Spiranthoid clade) and Rimacola and Megastylis to
the Cryptostylid clade. a new classification of the
subfamily is proposed based on these results.
The Cypripedoid embryo pattern is common to —
all basic taxa and it is therefore considered the
plesiomorphous state for this character. The
rhizomatous type protocorm-seedling development
is also considered the likely plesiomorphous state
for the family. The interpretation of this character
and number of fertile anthers in the orchid flower, |
is re-evaluated based on the results of these cladistic —
analyses. |
(Manuscript received 2-4-1996)
Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 129, pp85-86, 1996
ISSN 0035-9173/96/010085-02 $4.00/1
85
DOCTORAL THESIS ABSTRACT
A contrastive analysis of English and Persian intonation patterns
A. Majid Hayati
The contrastive analysis (Ca) hypothesis
attempts to predict the areas of difficulty which
learners of a second/foreign language will
encounter. It has been the subject of debate among
linguists for a long time.
The arguments advanced by the researchers in
the field have produced three different versions of
the CA hypothesis: strong, weak and moderate. All
assume the importance of interference phenomenon
but each approaches it from a different viewpoint.
however, in all versions, there seems to be
argument on two important aspects of the CA
hypothesis:
a. degree of similarity corresponds to
degree of simplicity
b. degree of difference corresponds to
degree difficulty
In the context of this hypothesis, the present
study has compared and contrasted the intonation
patterns of English and Persian. This research has
two primary objectives:
a. As far as I am aware, there has been no
comprehensive comparative study of English and
Persian intonation patterns, particularly with the
aim of identifying possible pedagogical
implications. Consequently, the first objective is to
present to Iranian teachers of English a set of
_ general ideas about the possible problems that
Persian learners of English may face in the process
of language learning. The present contrastive
analysis will, I hope, be beneficial to language
teachers, curriculum designers, and material
developers to use in their class activities and overall
plans.
b. The second objective is to evaluate and
reformulate the hypothesis. to this end, an
experiment involving ten Iranian students studying
at the University of Wollongong was conducted.
The subjects were of approximately the same level
of proficiency as determined by the scores they had
achieved at the end of a three-month English
course.
Approximately sixty out of-of-context
sentences of different types were given to the
subjects to read. Their readings were recorded by a
high-quality tape-recorder. These were then
presented to three native speakers of Australian
English (two linguists and a postgraduate student
majoring in English Literature) who were asked to
describe the intonation patterns. An American
native speaker ( a linguist) was asked to read the
same sentences and then his reading was used as a
model to measure the rise and fall of the intonation.
Analysis of the data revealed that although the
sentence-final intonation patterns are similar, the
subjects nevertheless had problems using the
correct English intonation over the whole structure
because they attempted to put the primary stress on
words partly according to the stress system of their
own language. In fact they made very few mistakes
in producing the correct sentence-final intonation
pattern of English.
The experiment showed the need to take stress
patterns into account since they are an integral and
significant feature in determining the rise and fall of
the pitch contours. Since the stress placement
system is different in English and Persian, the
intonation pattern of the two languages will also be
different. This is illustrated by the following
examples from English and Persian:
8 6
Persian:
maen ne-mi-tun-aem be-raem?unja.
/Sub Neg-Vpr-can-pp Vpr-go Adv/
ise ada an
English:
I can't go there.
—
(Abbreviations used in the Persian sentence are
as follows: Sub=subject, Neg=negative marker,
Vpr=verb prefix, pp=personal pronoun,
Adv.=adverb. )
If we only consider the sentence-final position,
where the final intonation change occurs, that
aspect of the hypothesis that similarities present no
difficulties to the learners is supported because the
sentence-final intonation patterns of the two
languages are quite similar (falling in statements
and wh-questions, rising in yes/no questions, etc.)
A look at the above examples reveals that in
the Persian sentence, the negative marker, "ne",
receives the primary stress and causes a rising tone
on the same constituent; but, it is different in
English: the change of tone normally close to the
end of the sentence where "go" as the content word
carries the strongest stress.
Comparing the results of the experiment with
the predictions, it was concluded that three out of
the four predictions were in fact confirmed.
Moreover, that part of the hypothesis suggesting
A. Majid Hayati
Department of English
Shahid Chamran University
Ahvaz
Iran
A. MAJID HAYATI
the relation between difference and difficulty was —
partially (at most in negative sentences) confirmed.
In regard to wh-questions, however, the results did
not match the predictions.
This suggests that in contrastive analyses of the
intonation pattern of any two languages it is
important that the analyst consider the entire
sentence as the domain of the intonation contour.
Secondly, since some predictions were not
confirmed, a reformulation of the contrastive
analysis hypothesis which required consideration of
levels of similarity and difference was suggested.
Finally, the study reveals the need to take both
similarities and differences into account in treating
students’ problems in using English intonation. for
intonation is a suprasegmental phenomenon and
requires that the learner have sufficient command of
the elements affecting the tone variations.
This is not, however, best acquired from formal
explanations of the nature of intonation of the two
languages. Instead, depending on the student's level
of proficiency, the whole process of teaching
intonation may start with pure imitation of a model
(preferably a native speaker's voice on a tape-
recorder) and end with free communication. In the
meantime, using gestures to show the rise and/or
fall of voice can be of great benefit to teachers of
English.
The study provides a more adequate basis for
teaching intonation patterns and identifies one
source of interference from another phonological
process (stress placement) which at the first glance
might appear to be not directly related to
intonation.
(Manuscript received 2-1-1996).
Journal and Proceedings, Royal Society of New South Wales, Vol. 129, pp87-104, 1996 87
ISSN 0035-9173/96/010087-18
$4.00/1
Annual Report of Council
for the year ended 31st March, 1996
PATRON.
On retiring from the Office of Governor-
General of Australia His Excellency the Governor-
General Mr. Bill Hayden expressed his pleasure at
having been associated with the Society and
extended his best wishes for the future. The
Council wishes to express its gratitude to His
Excellency Rear Admiral Peter Sinclair AC,
Governor of New South Wales for his continuing
support as Patron of the Society during his term of
office which ended in February 1996. The Council
wishes to welcome the incoming Governor of New
South Wales, His Excellency the Honourable
Gordon Samuels AC and thank His Excellency for
graciously granting Vice-Regal patronage to the
Society.
MEETINGS
Eight General Monthly Meetings and the
128th Annual General Meeting were held during
the year. The Annual General Meeting and seven
of the General Monthly Meetings were held at the
Australian Museum and one (October) at the
University of Western Sydney. A summary of
Proceedings is set out below.
SPECIAL MEETINGS AND EVENTS IN
1995/96:
April 29th, 1995, The outgoing President Mr.
J.R. Hardie, the Hon. Secretary (Ed.), Mrs M.
Krysko v. Tryst, the Vice-President Dr. E.C.
Potter and Mrs. Potter accepted an invitation from
the Council of Sutherland Shire to represent the
Society at the 225th Anniversary Commemoration
of the Landing of Captain James Cook, RN, at
Kurnell (Sydney) on 29 April 1770.
August 19th, 1995: Dr. D.F. Branagan and Dr.
H.C. Cairns led a Field Meeting to the Ku-ring-gai
National Park to examine aboriginal and other
markings on rock surfaces. About 15 members and
visitors attended.
October 11th, 1995 The 48th Clarke Memorial
Lecture (1995) was delivered by Dr. Ross Taylor,
Research School of Physical Sciences, The
Australian National University, Canberra, at
Macquarie University, North Ryde NSW. The
lecture, seen as a celebration of the Moon Landing,
was entitled "Recent Developments in Planetary
Research". A vote of thanks was offered by Dr.
D.J. Swaine.
November 18th 1995: a_ meeting
commemorating Professor Rontgen's discovery of
X-rays in 1895 was arranged by Dr. G.C.
Lowenthal and held at the Square House,
University of New South Wales, Kensington
NSW. Six speakers addressed an audience of about
35 persons.
February 13th 1996 The Society was co-
sponsor of a Joint Meeting with four other
societies:- The Australian Institute of Energy
(Sydney), the Australian Nuclear Association, The
Institution of Engineers (Australia) and The
Nuclear Engineering Panel. The meeting took
place at the Stephen Roberts Theatre, The
University of Sydney.
Dr. David Mills, Research Fellow, Dept. of
Applied Physics, University of Sydney, delivered
the Pollock Memorial Lecture for 1995 entitled:-
"Full Circle:- The Resurgence of the Solar
Economy". Dr. E.C. Potter offered a vote of
thanks. About 150 members and visitors attended.
March 13th 1996 The Society's Annual Dinner
was held at the University of Sydney Staff Club,
MacCallum Building. The Guest of Honour was
Emeritus Professor Richard L. Stanton AO, from
Armidale, NSW, who presented an after dinner
address.
88 ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL
MEETINGS OF COUNCIL
Council held 10 ordinary meetings at the
Society's office at North Ryde NSW.
Attendance was as follows: Dr. R.S. Bhathal
(2), Dr. D.F. Branagan (9), Miss P.M. Callaghan
(10), Dr. R.R. Coenraads (4), Dr. A.A. Day (10),
Mr. G.W.K. Ford (10), Mr. J.R. Hardie (5), Mrs.
M. Krysko v. Tryst (10), Dr. G.C. Lowenthal (8),
Prof. J.H. Loxton (2), Dr. D.J. O'Connor (8), Dr.
E.C. Potter (9), Dr. D.J. Swaine (9), Prof. W.E.
Smith (9), Dr. F.L. Sutherland (7), Prof. W.J.
Vagg (0), A/Prof. D.E. Winch (3). In July A/Prof.
Winch resigned as Hon. Treasurer and Dr. D.J.
O'Connor took over.
PUBLICATIONS
Volume 128, Parts 1, 2, 3 and 4 of the Journal
and Proceedings were published during the year.
They incorporated seven papers including the 29th
Liversidge Research Lecture 1994, papers delivered
during a Seminar "A Century of X-Rays", one
discussion paper and one book review. Eleven
abstracts of post-graduate theses as well as
Biographical Memoirs, a current Membership List,
a list of officers of the Society 1950-1995 and the
Annual Report of Council for 1994-95 were
published in this volume. Council wishes to thank
all the voluntary referees who assessed papers
offered for publication. Nine issues of the
Society's Bulletin (Nos 185-193) were published
during the year and Council thanks the various
authors of short articles for their contribution.
Sincere thanks go also to Mr. O'Keeffe who was
instrumental in the publication of the Bulletin.
Council received several applications to reproduce
material from the Journal and Proceedings.
AWARDS
The following awards were made for 1995:
CLARKE MEDAL (in Geology): Professor
Christopher McA. Powell (University of Western
Australia, Perth W.A.)
EDGEWORTH DAVID MEDAL (research
worker under 35 years of age): Dr. Anthony B.
Murphy Acting Chief, CSIRO Div. of Applied
Physics, Lindfield NSW).
THE SOCIETY'S MEDAL (for scientific
research and service to the Society) Dr. Gerhard C.
Lowenthal (University of New South Wales and
Prince Alfred Hospital, Nuclear Medicine).
WALTER BURFITT PRIZE (for scientific
work done in Australia or New Zealand): Dr.
Richard M. Manchester (Director, Australian
Telescope National Facility, CSIRO, Epping
NSW).
The James Cook Medal and the Archibald D.
Olle Prize were not awarded for 1995.
MEMBERSHIP
The membership of the Society at 31st March
1996 was: Patrons 2, Honorary Members 16,
Members 262, Associates, Spouse Members 22.
During the year, Emeritus Professor Di
Yerbury, AM, and Dr. Ken McCracken, AO,
FAA, FTS, were elected Honorary Members.
The deaths of the following members were
announced with regret:
Dr Viktor KASTALSKY, on 30 March 1995.
Professor Alan Heywood VOISEY, on 15
April 1995.
Norman James WARD, on 18 June 1995.
Eldred George BISHOP, on 8 August 1995.
Thomas Baikie SWANSON, on 18 August
1995:
Professor Stanley Keith RUNCORN,
Honorary Member, on 5 December 1995
ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL 89
Professor Arthur John BIRCH, Honorary
Member, on 8 December, 1995.
A List of Members was published in the
Journal and Proceedings, Vol. 128 parts 3 & 4.
OFFICE
The Society continued during the year to lease
for its Office and Library a half share of
Convocation House, 134 Herring Road, North
Ryde, on the southeastern edge of the Macquarie
University Campus.
The Council is grateful to the University for
allowing it to continue leasing the premises.
Council greatly appreciates the secretarial
assistance rendered by Mrs. V. Chandler during the
past year.
SUMMER SCHOOL
A Summer School on computer science was
planned but cancelled due to low enrolments.
LIBRARY REPORT FOR 1995/1996
As in previous years, acquisition of literature
(usually journals) by gift and exchange has been
maintained. The exchange & gift agreements are
arranged and monitored at the Head Office of the
Society in North Ryde, Sydney. Material from
overseas and some Australian literature are sent
directly to the Dixson Library at the University of
New England. Other Australian material is received
and added to the collection at Head Office of the
Society.. Changes of address of foreign material
received in the Dixson Library must be noted and
communicated to the Hon. Librarian at Head
Office, to ensure exchange agreements are in order.
Council thanks Mr. Karl Schmude University
Librarian, University of New England, and his
Staff - particularly Mrs. Helen Stokes for their
continuing efficient care and responsibility in
Maintaining the processing and availability of the
Royal Society Collection in the Dixson Library.
NEW ENGLAND BRANCH REPORT FOR
1995/96
The Branch held the following meetings during
1995: Wednesday, 14th June 1995: Professor
Lesley Rogers and Dr Gisela Kaplan presented
jointly some of the results of their recent
observations on orang-utans in Borneo under the
title "Orangutan Behaviour in the Natural
Environment". The speakers provided the
following notes: "Until recently, studies on the
behaviour of apes tended to concentrate on group-
living species such as the chimpanzee (Pan
troglodyte) and the gorilla (Gorilla gorilla). The
relatively solitary orang-utan (Pongo pygmaeus
pygmaeus) was neglected and the few studies that
existed were usually conducted in zoos and on very
small samples. Our research in Borneo has shown
thatthe little we know of orang-utans was at times
distorted by the study environment of the zoo and
by the attitudes about orang-utans. In the first part
of our talk we refer to the nature of prejudice that
prevented insight into this species and generally
provide an overview of orang-utan behaviour in the
natural habitat, incorporating the latest knowledge
of fieldwork including our own work. The second
part of our talk will report our results on the first
major study of handedness in orangutans.
Handedness reflects a characteristic of brain-
function once thought to be unique to humans. It
is now known that lower primates are
predominantly left handed and that the evolution of
a bipedal posture in higher primates coincided with
a shift to right handedness. Orang-utans represent
an exception to this pattern of hominoid
evolution, being both apes and retaining an
arboreal existence. Study of their hand preference
therefore provides insight into the evolution of
brain lateralisation".
Wednesday, 20th March 1996: Associate
Professor G.A. Woolsey, Dept. of Physics,
University of New England, NSW delivered an
address on "Lightning -Nature's Sound and Light
Show". The following is an abstract of the talk
supplied by the speaker:-"At any moment, there
are about 2000 thunderstorms taking place around
90 ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL
the globe. They have their origins in
thunderclouds, each of which is a turbulent soup of
ice and water particles. Collisions between the
particles cause electrons to transfer from one
particle to another, so that ultimately, the top and
bottom of a cloud become oppositely charged.
This charge can build up until the electric voltage
between a cloud and ground, or between two
clouds, exceeds hundreds of millions of volts. This
leads to the generation of a large current of
electricity flowing in a narrow channel through the
atmosphere for a fraction of a second. The flow of
current causes the lightning flash, and heats the air
along its path to a temperature of over 20 000
degrees. This sudden temperature increase raises the
air pressure in the lightning channel to such a
level that a shock wave is produced, and hence
thunder is generated. The talk examined the
processes of charge transfer in clouds, the nature of
the lightning flash, and the acoustics of thunder;
and will be illustrated with practical
demonstrations. Advice will be given on how to
stay safe in a thunderstorm, so that you can relax
and enjoy the excitement of Nature's most
spectacular light and sound show".
Members and visitors attended both meetings
in the Main (Somerville) Lecture Theatre,
Department of Physics, University of New
England, Armidale NSW.
SOUTHERN HIGHLAND BRANCH REPORT
FOR 1995/96
The Branch held seven meetings as follows:-
April 13th 1995, Professor Neville Fletcher of the
Australian National University in Canberra
addressed 30 members and visitors on "The
Acoustics of Musical Instruments" at the
Chevalier College Music Centre. The meeting was
joint with the Berrima District Music Group.
Professor Fletcher combined with Megan Corlette,
Christine Tilley and Dal Oldham in performing
Teleman's E Minor Quartet for flute, violin,
continuo and cello. Mr. Ian Cooper of the
Frensham School proposed a vote of thanks.
Thursday 25th May 1995, Dr. Graeme I.
Pearman, Meteorologist, Div. of Atmospheric
Physics, C.S.I.R.O. Aspendale Vic, spoke on
"The Impact on Australia of Global Warming".
The meeting took place at the Moss Vale College
of TAFE, N.S.W. 29 members and visitors
attended. Mrs. Jan Grose proposed a Vote of
thanks. Thursday 6th July 1995, Dr. F.L.
Sutherland of the Australian Museum, Sydney
NSW, addressed 36 members and visitors on "The
Demise of the Dinosaurs". The meeting took place
at Frensham School. Miss Shirley Walton offered
a vote of thanks.
Thursday 7th September, 1995 A meeting,
held at Craigieburn NSW, was addressed by Dr.
Peter Krug of the Optical Fibre Technology
Centre, University of Sydney, on "Optical Fibre
Technology and the Future". 35 members and
visitors were present. A vote of thanks was
proposed by Mr. George Thirkell.
Thursday 19th October, 1995, Professor Keith
L. Williams of the School of Biological Sciences,
Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW,
addressed 40 members and visitors on "The Human
Genome" at "Links House" Hotel Bowral. The
vote of thanks was moved by Mr. Dick Flatt.
Sunday 19th November, 1995, Mr. Marsden
Hordern, naval historian of Warrawee, Sydney
NSW delivered an address on "Australia's Debt to
Captain Stokes and the "Beagle" at Frensham
School. 24 Members and visitors attended. A vote
of thanks was proposed by Mr. Roy Perry.
The Southern Highlands Branch of the Society
received donations for the purpose of restoration of
Dr. Henry Gratton Douglass's grave as follows:-
$200 from Douglass Baglin, $200 from Barbara
King, $100 from the Royal Society of NSW and
$1500 from the Chancellor's Fund of the
University of Sydney. Dr. H.G. Douglass
represents a link with the early forerunners of the —
Royal Society of NSW reaching back to the 1821 |
Philosophical Society of Australasia.
ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL 91
ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS
April Sth, 1995
The 1048th General Monthly Meeting was
held at the Australian Museum. The President, Mr.
J.R. Hardie, was in the Chair and 30 members and
visitors were present. The 128th Annual General
Meeting. Same location. The President, Mr. J.R.
Hardie was in the Chair, and 30 members and
visitors attended. The Annual Report of Council
for 1994-1995 and the Financial Report for 1994
were adopted, Messrs Wylie and Puttock were
elected Auditors for 1995.
The following AWARDS for 1994 were
announced:
James Cook Medal:-Sir Gustav Nossal Kt,
CBE, AC (not present).
Clarke Medal (Botany) Joint Award:-Dr. Barbara
Gillian Briggs and Prof. C.A. Atkins (not
present).
Edgeworth David Medal:- Richard Hume
Middleton.
Royal Society of New South Wales Medal:- Dr.
Edmund Clarence Potter.
Archibald Olle Prize:- Mr. Michael Organ.
These Awards were presented by the President to
the attending medallists.
Special arrangements were made for Prof. C.A.
Atkins and for Sir Gustav Nossal.
The Walter Burfitt Prize was not awarded for 1994.
The following Office-Bearers and Council
-Members for 1995/1996 were elected:
President:
-Vice-Presidents:
Dr. D.F. Branagan
Mr. J.R. Hardie
Prof. J.H. Loxton
Dr. E.C. Potter,
Dr. F.L. Sutherland
Dr. D.J. Swaine
Honorary Secretaries:
General:
Editorial:
Mr. G.W.K. Ford MBE
M. Krysko von Tryst
Honorary Treasurer: A/Prof. D.E. Winch
Honorary Librarian: Miss P.M. Callaghan
Members of Council: Dr. R.S. Bhathal
Dr. R.R. Coenraads
Dr. A.A. Day
Dr. G.C. Lowenthal
Dr. D.J. O'Connor
Prof. W.E. Smith
Prof. W. VaggNew
England Branch Representative:
Prof. S.C. Haydon
Southern Highlands Branch Representative:
Dr. K.L. Grose.
The retiring President, Mr. J.R. Hardie, who had
chaired both meetings to this point, yielded the
Chair to the incoming President, Dr. D.F.
Branagan. Mr. J.R. Hardie presented his
Presidential Address "Designs on Learning". A
vote of thanks was proposed by Dr. G.C.
Lowenthal.
May 3rd, 1995 The 1049th General Monthly
Meeting was held in the Australian Museum,
Sydney. The Vice President, Dr. F.L. Sutherland
was in the Chair and 13 members and visitors were
present. Mr. Ross Pearson (formerly ABC)
addressed the audience on "Ross Smith - Soldier,
Patriot and Pioneer Airman", a biographical
account of Ross Smith's flight achievements
during and after the war. The talk was of great
interest and many questions were raised. A vote of
thanks was proposed by Mr. G.W.K. Ford, MBE.
June 7th, 1995 The 1050th General Monthly
Meeting was held at the Australian Museum,
Sydney. The meeting was opened and chaired by
the Vice-President, Mr. J.R. Hardie. 26 members
and visitors were present. A/Prof. Denis Winch
introduced Prof. K. Runcorn FRS, to address the
meeting on "The Origins of the Solar System".
A/Prof. Winch proposed the vote of thanks.
July 5th, 1995 The 1051st General Monthly
Meeting took place in the Australian Museum,
Sydney. The Vice-President, Dr. F.L. Sutherland
opened and chaired the meeting 19 members and
92 ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL
visitors attended. Dr. Mary White (Consultant
Palaeobotanist) gave an address entitled "After the
Greening - The Browning of Australia". Mr. John
Grover OBE proposed a vote of thanks.
August 2nd, 1995 The 1052nd General
Monthly Meeting took place at the Australian
Museum, Sydney. The President Dr. D.F.
Branagan was in the Chair and 24 members and
visitors were present. Dr. Edmund Potter delivered
an address entitled "Learning new lessons from the
1994 Bushfires or Seeing the Wood for Trees".
The address was illustrated with many slides,
photographs and diagrams of extreme interest. Dr.
Paul Adams of ANZAAS proposed a vote of
thanks.
September 13th, 1995 The 1053rd General
Monthly Meeting was held at the Australian
Museum. The President Dr. D.F. Branagan was in
the Chair and 22 visitors and members attended.
Sir Gustav Nossal, AC Kt CBE, was introduced
and presented with the James Cook Medal for
1994. Sir Gustav then addressed the meeting on
"Medical Science and Human Goals: A struggling
Pilgrim's Progress". The vote of thanks was
offered by Dr. Norbert Kelvin.
October 4th, 1995
Monthly Meeting was held at the University of
Western Sydney. The Vice-President Dr. F.L.
Sutherland was in the Chair and 27 members and
visitors were present. Council noted that one of its
Vice-Presidents, Prof. John Loxton was appointed
as Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Academic) of
Macquarie University, Sydney. Dr. Frank
Stootmen, Sen. Lecturer in Physics, University of
Western Sydney, delivered an address "Physics and
Metaphysics". Dr. Donald Neely proposed the vote
of thanks.
November Ist, 1995 The 1055th General
Monthly Meeting was held at the Australian
Museum. The President Dr. D.F. Branagan was in
the Chair and 26 members and visitors attended.
Dr. Robert R. Coenraads gave an address entitled
"Mexico: Understanding its Culture: Indian or
Spanish, a Mestizo Dilemma". Dr. D.J. O'Connor
proposed the vote of thanks.
The 1054th General
93
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100
ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL
AWARDS
THE WALTER BURFITT PRIZE
Richard M. Manchester
The Walter Burfitt Prize for 1995 is awarded to
Richard M. Manchester, PhD, FAA, Chief
Scientist at the CSIRO Australian Telescope
National Facility. He is clearly one of the foremost
scientists in the field of radio pulsars, and leads an
international group which is pre-eminent in the
discovery and interpretation of pulsars. Amongst
his recent achievements are the Parkes Southern
pulsar survey, the discovery of a bright pulsar
CLARKE
Christopher McAulay Powell
which is also an x-ray source, the optical
identification of the white dwarf companion of this
pulsar which led to its age determination, and the
study of supernova remnants. His group has
discovered a large number of pulsars and their work
is certainly astrophysically very important in areas
of fundamental physics and in areas relevant to the
establishment of a long-term standard of terrestrial
time.
Tributes from eminent colleagues in Australia
and overseas attest to Dr. Manchester's inspiration
to his research group, to his outstanding qualities
as a team leader, to his successful co-authorship
(with a Nobel Laureate) of the definitive textbook
on pulsars and to his key role in keeping Australia
at the forefront of pulsar research.
There is no doubt that Dr. Manchester's research
during the past six years is of the highest merit,
thereby fulfilling the conditions of the Award. He
is widely recognised in the world as one of the top
three in his field. It is fitting that the Royal
Society of New South Wales endorses Dr.
Manchester's excellent scientific work by the award
of the Walter Burfitt Prize. [D.J. Swaine]
MEDAL
In 1995 this medal is awarded for contributions
in the field of Geology.
Professor Powell is a graduate of the
Universities of Queensland and Tasmania. After a
post-doctoral fellowship in the USA he took up a
position at Macquarie University in 1970, where he
remained on the teaching staff until 1989. In 1990
he was appointed Professor of Geology at the
University of Western Australia.
His research began in Tasmania, where he
studied polyphase deformation of the Late
Proterozoic and Palaeozoic rocks, but it soon took
him into the Himalayas for similar studies.
While at Macquarie University he devoted a
considerable time to structural studies of the
|
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AWARDS
Lachlan Foldbelt, publishing controversial papers
on "kinking" and palaeogeography, much of which
was later incorporated as a long chapter in
Phanerozoic Earth History of Australia (edited J.J.
Veevers, 1984).
In the Himalayas Professor Powell also became
concerned with aspects of plate tectonics, work
which led to his revolutionary paper on collision
‘tectonics Continental underplating model for the
rise of the Tibetan Plateau (1986). This was
followed by a series of papers, with colleagues, on
the sea-floor spreading pattern of the Indian Ocean.
101
Recent work has dealt with the concept of
Rodinia - the Precambrian supercontinent, which
has involved palacomagnetic and tectonic studies in
Western Australia, and collaborative studies with
numerous overseas colleagues.
Professor Powell's enthusiasm and sustained
critical research has stimulated numerous students
who have taken up his ideas in a wide range of
topics related to many of the major large-scale
unsolved problems of the Earth.
Professor Powell can be rightly said to have "so
distinguished himself by original research" to be
worthy of the award of the Clarke Medal for 1995.
THE EDGEWORTH DAVID MEDAL FOR 1995
Anthony Bruce Murphy
Anthony Murphy has made significant
contributions to the advancement of Australian
science, and in particular to the understanding of
aspects of plasma physics. He graduated from the
University of Sydney with a PhD in 1986 with an
Outstanding academic record. During his
postgraduate studies he performed definitive
measurements of the propagation of Al’ven waves
in fusion plasmas. Al’ven waves can be used to
heat these plasmas to the temperatures required for
fusion reactions. He left Australia for three years to
- work at the Max-Planck -Institut for Plasmaphysics
in Germany and continued his work on the heating
of plasmas for application in fusion. On his return
to Australia in 1989 he joined CSIRO and was
recently promoted to the position of Principal
Research Scientist in the division of Applied
Physics. He is only the second scientist in the
Division's history to be promoted to this level by
the age of 35.
Anthony Murphy has made significant advances
in the theory of transport phenomena in plasma
gases by developing a combined fusion coefficient
formulation which simplifies the treatment of high-
temperature gas mixtures. This work was presented
to the Twelfth International Symposium on Plasma
chemistry in Minneapolis. He has derived the most
reliable set available of transport properties of the
main industrial plasma gases, with 50%
improvements in the accuracy of calculations of
parameters such as the thermal conductivity of gas
mixtures. He has developed plasma diagnostic
techniques using laser-scattering methods to
measure, for the first time, the full range of
temperatures present in thermal plasmas.
His work has major applications in waste
destruction, using thermal plasmas to destroy
noxious chemicals, in welding and in plasma
synthesis. An agreement has been signed with the
Commonwealth Government to construct a plant to
destroy Australia's stockpile of ozone-depleting
substances. The model he has developed will be
used to optimise the reactor geometry and other
102
process parameters to ensure destruction while
avoiding recombination reactions which produce
other undesirable products.
Anthony Murphy is a young scientist who has
built up an impressive track record in theoretical
ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL
and experimental research on the science and
application of gas plasmas. He is a worthy
recipient of the Edgeworth David Medal.
THE SOCIETY'S MEDAL
Gerhart C. Lowenthal
Dr. Gerhart Lowenthal graduated from the
University of Melbourne with the degrees of BA,
BSc and the Diploma of Public Administration.
His doctorate is from the University of New South
Wales, and he is a Fellow of the Australian
Institute of Physics. He is an Honorary Member of
the Australian and New Zealand Nuclear Medicine
Society which has instituted an annual lecture
entitled the Lowenthal Lecture.
After working as a physicist at the Department
of Supply, Dr. Lowenthal moved to the CSIRO
National Standards Laboratory, where he carried out
research on the International Temperature Scale at
liquid hydrogen temperatures. After being appointed
to the Australian Atomic Energy Commission, he
set up Australian Standards of Radioactivity which
were recognised internationally. Dr. Lowenthal was
also collaborating with International Committee for
Weights and Measures in Paris. This and other
work in connection with scientific co-operation
with France culminated with the prestigious award
of Chevalier del' Ordre National du Mérite. Dr.
Lowenthal's research, carried out in Australia and
Overseas, was primarily in various aspects of
radioactivity and nuclear science, especially in the
important matter of setting up standards. This work
is recognised internationally and is the basis of
Australia being represented on the Consultative
Committee for Ionising Radiations of the
International Committee for Weights and Measures
in Paris.
Dr. Lowenthal has been and still is an active
member of the Royal Society of New South Wales
as a member of Council and as a co-convener of
Summer Schools in Medicine. He has been the —
prime mover in arranging several successful joint
seminars with other scientific societies, the most
recent one being to mark the centenary of
R6ntgen's discovery of X-rays.
He has been on the editorial board of scientific
journals and is active in retirement as an Honorary
Visiting Fellow in the School of Mechanical and
Manufacturing Engineering at the University of
New South Wales, and as a consultant to the
Department of Nuclear Medicine, Royal Prince
Alfred Hospital.
In view of his noteworthy contributions to
science, especially in the fields of radioactivity and
nuclear science, and of his past and continuing
activities in the Royal Society of New South
Wales, it is surely fitting that Dr. Gerhart
Lowenthal should receive the Society's Medal.
ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL
103
ANNUAL DINNER ADDRESS
Royal Society of New South Wales, Wednesday, 13 March 1996
Emeritus Professor Richard Limon Stanton, AO
Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen
Thank you for having me as your guest and for
asking me to speak to you on this pleasant
occasion.
When, a week or so ago, I began to think what
I might say this evening, I was reminded of a little
tale I heard in Cambridge when I was there some
time ago. The story goes that a famous English
physicist was attending a late afternoon scientific
meeting in London. The meeting, which he had
thought would be quite short, turned out to be
rather long, but eventually, though somewhat
agitatedly, he managed to extricate himself, and he
hurried out onto the street where he hailed a cab for
the railway station. As they arrived at the station he
looked across and was relieved to see that the
Bristol train - it was the Bristol express, non-stop
to Bristol - was still at the platform. He quickly
paid off the cabbie, rushed over to the counter to
buy his ticket, and then half ran to the train, which
he boarded just as the whistle blew. As he walked
along the centre aisle of the carriage, and as the
train gathered speed through the inner suburbs of
London, he noticed that there was a window seat
still vacant. He was pleased about that; it was a
lovely, mellow early summer's evening, and he
thought how much he would enjoy the scenery as
they travelled along.
However, just as he was settling comfortably
and contentedly into his seat, he suddenly
remembered that he had left his position at the
University of Bristol some two and a half years
previously, and that he was now head of the
Department of Physics at Cambridge. Then he
recollected that he had driven up to London by
motor car. And finally he recalled that he had
brought his wife with him!
I have often thought that sort of happy state of
semi-oblivion was one of the great rewards of a life
devoted to Science - but I tell the story not just as
One more tale of an absent-minded old scientist lost
in his thoughts, but to introduce one of my present
concerns about science; that as scientific activity
becomes more and more public, many of our
policy-makers may be losing sight of the
importance of the individual scientist, often
working substantially on his own.
I suspect that there is now a widespread view in
government and among the general public that
science is substantially a matter of teams - of what
is now referred to as "team research". We read
almost every few days of large allocations and
grants for medical and various technological
investigations to be carried out by major research
institutions, of tax-concessions for large-scale
industrial research and development projects, of the
setting up of new co-operative research centres and
so on. I do not wish to denigrate team research, or
to deny the necessity of substantial funding for the
expensive items of equipment that many sciences
require these days, but I do worry that many of
those in power may sometimes lose sight of the
fact that scientists, like other creative intellects, are
highly individualistic, and that it is the ingenious,
highly perceptive, gently-obsessed individual who
is the ultimate vital element in the advancement of
science. I do not, of course, know whether the
invention of the wheel came from individual or
team research, but we all know that most of the
world's momentous advances in_ scientific
understanding have come from individual minds.
We may think of the years 1664-65 when, with
Cambridge closed because of the Great Plague,
Newton spent much of his time walking and
meditating in the Lincolnshire countryside: in those
two years of relative solitude and quiet
contemplation he invented the calculus, discovered
the law of universal gravitation, and recognised that
white light is composed of light of all the colours.
Or we may think of Fermat, the great early number
theorist and perhaps the first perceiver of the
calculus, in everyday life a French magistrate,
quietly and enjoyably pondering patterns of
numbers as he walked home in the evening after a
day presiding over his court; or of Darwin, busily
collecting in the South American jungle, his mind
full of the idea that organisms evolved and that
104
such evolution might be driven by natural
selection. And so it goes on: Copernicus, Galileo,
Leibniz, Linnaeus, Pasteur, Rutherford, Einstein,
Curie, Goldschmidt, Pauling and others - all great
individuals. Of course most scientists - all apart
from the most basic originators - are involved in a
sort of serial team research in so far as each small
contribution adds to those that have been made
earlier. As Newton said " If I have seen a little
farther than others, it is because I have stood on the
shoulders of giants". All of us have hoisted
ourselves onto the shoulders of our own particular
giants, but this is clearly not what I mean when I
refer to present-day large-scale team activity, which
all too many bureaucrats and administrators seem to
see aS constituting the major element of modern
scientific research.
Tied closely to this is what also seems to be
the widely held view in government and other
circles that increasing scientific productivity
involves little more in principle than the allocation
of greater amounts of money and employment of
more scientists: if there are more gas meters to be
read one employs more gas meter readers. On the
contrary scientists are artists: as deeply intellectual
beings they vary in their abilities and styles in the
same way as do writers, painters, composers and
other creative individuals. Indeed almost forty years
ago Sir Eric Ashby, a former Professor of Botany
at the University of Sydney, maintained that
Science was as much a cultural achievement as any
other of mankind - as great as any in the arts. It
was in the same vein that the great mathematician
Poincaré remarked " a scientist worthy of the name,
above all a mathematician, experiences in his work
the same impression as an artist; his pleasure is as
great, as of the same nature”. As in great art there
is, too, no place for egalitarianism in great science;
it is from the unusually perceptive individual that
the vital first insight comes, and I think that this
should never be lost sight of by those who organise
modern science.
The importance of the individual intellect
remains, of course, well-recognised by the scientific
community itself, and I am sure could never be lost
sight of by those who really know how science
works. I know of no more wonderful story of
appreciation of one scientist by another than that of
William Lilly written about the year 1640 - a story
probably well-known to the mathematicians present
this evening. Lilly records an amusing - and almost
ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL
incredible - account of the meeting between Lord
Napier of Merchiston, the inventor of logarithms,
and henry Briggs of Gresham College, London,
who computed the first table of common
logarithms.
"One John Marr", Lilly recounts, "an excellent
mathematician and geometrician", had gone "into
Scotland before Mr. Briggs, purposely to be there
when these two so learned persons should meet.
Mr. Briggs appoints a certain day when to meet in
Edinburgh; but failing thereof, the lord Napier was
doubtful he would not come. It happened one day as
John Marr and the lord Napier were speaking of Mr.
Briggs: Ah, John (said Napier), Mr. Briggs will not
now come.’ At the very moment one knocks at the
gate; John Marr hastens down, and it proved Mr.
Briggs to his great contentment. He brings Mr.
Briggs up into my lord's chamber, where almost
one quarter of an hour was spent, each beholding
each other with admiration, before one word was
spoke." there are all sorts of ways of recognising
individual talent and I suppose speechless
admiration is one of them.
Team research and vast funding are now with us
and are here to stay, and they are of course essential
for the huge technical investigations of modern
medicine, of extra-terrestrial space, particle physics,
marine geophysics, agriculture and so forth, and for
many other scientific activities. but I make a plea
that in all this we must not forget that great science
depends in the end on the remarkable, as I said
before, gently-obsessed individual - our old friend
on the Bristol train.
And what is it that this individual needs to
continue to do good work in the scientific world of
today? among his most important needs are time,
peace to contemplate, a good library, and the
opportunity to talk with fellow scientists of a
variety of interests. Much of the stimulus of
scientific intercourse comes from talking not only
with others of like mind but also from exchanges
with those of peripheral or even distant interests.
It is in this latter connection, of course, that
many of our more venerable and more general
societies play an important part, and in which, I am
sure, that our society has an important future.
On that note I should like to thank you again
for having me as your guest - and to invite you to
join me in a toast to the Society.
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CONTENTS
VOLUME 129, PARTS 1 AND 2
BRANAGAN, D.F.
Bricks, Brawn and Brains~Iwo centuries of Geology §
Engineering in the Sydney Region (Presidential Address 1996)
TAYLOR, S.R.
Recent Developments in Planetary Research,
(48th Clarke Memorial Lecture, 1995)
MILLS, DAVID R,.
Full Circle: The Resurgence of the Solar Economy,
(Pollock Memorial Lecture, 1996)
BENNETT, MAX R.
Consciousness and Quantum Mechanics
ABSTRACTS OF THESES
BISHOP, Andrew C.: Towards a Crop Growth, Development,
and Yield Model for Lupinus angustifoliu
(Narrow Leafed lupin) in Tasmania
BORER, Philippe: The Twenty-Four Caprices of Niccolo
Paganini: Their Significance for the
History of Violin playing and the Music
of the Romantic Era
LEUNG Sai-Wing: The Making of an alienated Generation
CLEMENTS, Mark Alwin: Reproductive Biology in Relation to
Phylogeny of the Orchidaceae, especially
the Tribe Diurideae
HAYATI, A.Majid: A Contrastive Analysis of English and
Persian intonation Patterns
COUNCIL REPORT: 1995+1996
Annual Report
Abstract of Proceedings
Financial Statement
Awards
Annual Dinner Address
ADDRESS: Royal Society of New South Wales P.O, Box 1525,
Macquarie Centre NSW 2113, Australia
DATE OF PUBLICATION Vol... 129 Parts: andy
June 1996
JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
ROYAL SOCIETY
OF
NEW SOUTH WALES
Volume 129, Parts 3 and 4
(Nos. 379-380)
1996
ISSN 0035-9173
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY
P.O. BOX 1525, MACQUARIE CENTRE, NSW 2113
Issued December 1996
THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES
OFFICE BEARERS FOR 1996-97
Patrons - His Excellency the Honourable Sir William Deane, AC, KBE, Governor-General of the
Commonwealth of Australia.
His Excellency the Honourable Gordon Samuels AC, Governor of New South Wales
President - Dr. K.L. Grose BA Syd, PhD Syd, Cert. Ed. Exeter
Vice Presidents - Dr. D.F. Branagan, MSc Syd, PhD Syd, FGS, MAusIMM
Mr. J.R. Hardie, BSc Syd, FGS, MACE
Prof. J.H. Loxton, MSc Melb, PhD Camb
Prof. W.E. Smith, MSc Syd, MSc Oxf, PhD NSW, MInstP, MAIP
Dr. D.J. Swaine, MSc Melb, PhD Aberd, FRACI
Hon Secretaries - Mr. G.W.K. Ford, MBE, MA Camb, FIE Aust.
Mrs M. Krysko von Tryst, BSc, Grad Dip Min Tech NSW, MAusIMM
Hon Treasurer - Dr. D.J. O'Connor, PhD Melb, MSc Melb, BSc Melb, MEc Syd, BEc Syd
Hon Librarian - Miss P.M. Callaghan, BSc Syd, MSc Macq, ALAA
Councillors - Dr. R.S. Bathal, CertEd, BSc, PhD, FSAAS
Dr. R.R. Conraads, BA (Hons.) Macq, MSc Brit. Columbia, PhD Macq.
Dr. M. Lake, BSc, PhD Syd
Dr. G.C. Lowenthal, Dip. Publ Admin Melb, BA Melb, MSc, PhD NSW
Dr. E.C. Potter, PhD Lond, FRSC, FACI
Mr. K.A. Rickard, MB BS Melb, FRACP FRCP Edin, FRCP Glasg, FRCPI, FRCPA
FRCP Path Lond
Dr. F.L. Sutherland, BSc Tasm, PhD James Cook
New England Rep. Professor S.C. Haydon MSc Oxf, PhD Wales, FinstP, FAIP
Southern Highlands Rep. Mr. H.R. Perry, BSc.
THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES
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ISSN 0035-9173
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JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS, ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES, VOL. 129, 105-122, 1996 105
ISSN 0035-9173/96/020105-18 $4.00/1
DEVONIAN GEOLOGY OF COPPER MINE RANGE, FAR WEST NEW
SOUTH WALES
G. NEEF AND R.S. BOTTRILL
Abstract: The NW-trending Copper Mine Range, 40 km WSW of White Cliffs in far west New
South Wales, is bounded in the west by the NW-trending Koonenberry Fault. Fluvial strata forming
the range comprise eight ?7Emsian-Eifelian (Devonian) units which together are ~3000m thick. They
unconformably overlie Precambrian strata, except near Cupala Creek where they unconformably
overlie Late Cambrian strata. South of the Copper Mine Range, and adjacent to the eastern margin of
the Koonenberry Fault, are brecciated quartzose arenites, which are probably coeval with Unit 2 of
Copper Mine Range. Unconformably above them are four units of lightly indurated, fluvial ?late Mid
Devonian-Late Devonian strata that are together >1200 m thick. The basal conglomeratic Unit A,
>600 m thick, is fault bounded. Unit B, >700 m thick, lies south of Unit A and comprises fine
sandstone, which contains a lenticular, 450 m thick sedimentary breccia (Unit C). Unit D is mapped in
the north and is younger than Units A, B and C.
Keywords: Mulga Downs Group, sedimentary petrology, fluvial sedimentology, basin analysis,
Tabberabberan Orogeny, Kanimblan Orogeny.
INTRODUCTION
The Copper Mine Range, 40 km WSW of
White Cliffs in far west New South Wales is a
triangular, 24 km long area of 110 km2 with a
maximum width of 8 km in the south, and is
composed mainly of well exposed Devonian Mulga
Downs Group strata (Fig.1). The central, 15 km
long part of the range forms a plateau that is 150
m higher in elevation than the Precambrian and
Palaeozoic strata which lie adjacent to the range .
The plateau, wnich is cliffed in the east and has
steep slopes towards the plain in the west, is
gently tilted to the SE and merges into plains
country 8 km SE of Spring Hill. Quartzose
sandstones of ?Emsian-Eifelian age underlie the
plateau whereas mudstone, shale and a kimberlitic
sill, which intrudes the basal Mulga Downs Group
2.5 km south of Spring Hill (Bottrill and Neef, in
prep.), form valleys. South of Copper Mine Range
the indurated ?Emsian-Eifelian strata form low
hills, whereas ?Late Devonian Mulga Downs
Group strata form low ground (Fig. 2). This paper
is concerned with the stratigraphy, sedimentology,
_ Structure and geological history of the Mulga
Downs Group both within and south of Copper
Mine Range.
PREVIOUS WORK
Kenny's (1934) pioneering studies of the
geology of far west NSW were followed by more
comprehensive work during the State's 1:250,000
geological mapping project in the 1960s (e.g.
Rose et al. 1964; Frenda 1965). Other earlier
workers were Warris (1967) and Wilson (1967).
There has been little interest in the geology of
Copper Mine Range since then.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
Copper Mine Range lies within the
Wonaminta Block and east of the major NNW-
trending Koonenberry Fault (Figs 1,2). East of the
fault are the Muckabunnya and Hummocks Faults.
In a description of the Wonaminta Block, Mills
(1992) recognised: Ponto Beds, coeval with the
Mid Proterozoic Willyama Supergroup of the
Broken Hill Block; Kara Beds, coeval with the Late
Precambrian Adelaide System of the Banier
106 G. NEEF AND R.S. BOTTRILL
BOURKE @
et
2. RNG
0%
POOPELLOE
TROUGH
COMPLEX
rN TAG
iam pe
age
eos
2
>
.
//, Lip 3 é
° . Se
os ., CO slik ae wet cr
$icy Soca .
wi ieles
CY) ere ae
© T/d00burra e \e 5 a # NUCKABUNNYA HS ?
oe White Cliffs : ws eng?
eBroken ° ele
Hill
7 aaa
=e FSS
7 ~ mt +
NSW Se f= SHOGES ear
Sat ‘OVERSHOT 52
Shedamos OF — S47,
JUNCTION
WELL
re, |
Figure 1. Geology of Copper Mine Range. Inset A shows the location of Broken Hill and Cobar. Inset B
shows the location of the study area and elements of the Darling Basin, (horsts stippled) and troughs (after
Evans 1977). Key in Figure 2. Note: continuation of the southern end of this map in Figure 2.
COPPER MINE RANGE 107
Alluvium
OLIGOCENE Cordillo Surface
EOCENE Eyre Formation
LATE DEVONIAN
(e)
°
a
>
[oie
(eo)
te)
a
ROWLANDS MID DEVONIAN
TANK (|
i
COOTAWUNDY
+
EARLY—MID
DEVONIAN
MULGA DOWNS GROUP
EMSIAN—
EIFELIAN
ike
LATE SILURIAN Mt DAUBENY FORMATION
—EARLY DEVONIAN
KANDI TANK LIMESTONE
CUPALA CREEK FORMATION S>
LATE PRECAMBRIAN—EARLY CAMBRIN 7777
TELTAWONGEE BEDS
MID PROTEROZOIC PONTO BEDS Fett o
CUPALA CREEK SILL Cea
Sample locality
Bedding
Fence
Meosured Section Abandoned Mine
i
LATE CAMBRIAN
\7
xx
Figure 2. Geology adjacent to the Koonenberry
Fault and south of Copper Mine Range and Key to
Figure 1-3,8,9, and 11.
AALAA
Mt DAUBENY
44 |
Ranges; and Early-Mid Cambrian Teltawongee
Beds. Ponto Beds crop out west of the
Koonenberry Fault whereas Teltawongee Beds
occur to the east of the fault.
?Emsian-Eifelian strata of the Mulga Downs
Group in the Copper Mine Range are
unconformable on Teltawongee Beds except near
Cupala Creek where they are unconformable on the
Late Cambrian Cupala Creek Formation (Powell et
al. 1982).
108 G. NEEF AND R.S. BOTTRILL
Koonenberry Fault
NE
Muckabunnya
Fault
Koonenberry Fault
Hodges Overshot
Muckabunnya
True scale
Muckabunnya B
Waterhole
True scale
Figure 3. Geologic cross sections, A-B, C-D (for location see Figure 1).
South of Copper Mine Range ?Emsian-Eifelian
Strata overlie unconformably the Late Silurian -
Early Devonian Mt Daubeny Formation, and Mid-
Late Devonian strata unconformably overlie,
?Emsian-Eifelian strata. The Darling Basin began
to form during the Late Silurian. Substantial
deformation in the late Mid Devonian structured
the basin into a number of sub-basins (troughs)
that lie adjacent to horsts (Evans 1977) (Fig. 1,
inset). The area mapped lies to the NW of the
Pondie Range Trough.
The Mulga Downs Group is_ overlain
unconformably by kaolinitic fine grained sandstone
of the Paleocene-Eocene Eyre Formation.
STRATIGRAPHY
The stratigraphy (Fig. 4) is described in terms
of two regions: a) Copper Mine Range to the north
of Hodges Overshot (Fig. 1), and b) a sector south
of Hodges Overshot as far as Mt Daubney (Fig. 2).
The typical constituent formations of the
Mulga Downs Group are identified on the eastern
flank of the Darling Basin, to the west and south
of Cobar (Glen 1979). No formally named
Subdivisions of the group are identified in the
Copper Mine Range area, although informal
‘Units’ are recognised.
The age of the Mulga Downs Group on the
western side of the Darling Basin is based on rare
fragments of fossil fish and (subsurface) a few
occurrences of microspores. Two faunas and rare
microspores, Emsian-Eifelian and _ Frasnian-
Fammenian in age, are known (Neef et al. 1995).
Unfortunately neither fossil fish nor microspores
have been located in the Copper Mine Range where
the age of strata assigned to the group is based on
COPPER MINE RANGE
Stratigraphy | Unconformities
of the and seismic
Stages Group Copper Mine | markers after
Range Evans (1977)
Fowlers Gap
/Nundooka
Mootwingee
Stations
Tournaisian
Famennian
Frasnian
Emsian
Pridolian
yw D~
active
Carboniferous
=e Upper =
Koonenberry Fault
Ravendale
Formation
Nundooka
Orogeny coeval with
the Taberrabberan wWwCnn ~*~
Orogeny
Devonian
Mulga Downs Group
Snake Cave
Sandstone
Coco Range
Sandstone
MWB
Orogeny and intrusion
of feldspar porphyrys
Mt Daubeny
Formation
Silurian ae
i yw Ann
Figure 4. Silurian-Devonian stratigraphic
succession of Copper Mine Range and south
of the range tentatively correlated with the
Devonian stages after Young (1989).
less certain criteria. Strata are much_brecciated
adjacent to the Koonenberry and Muckabunnya
Faults. South of the range identical brecciated
quartzose sandstones crop out in steeply dipping
strata adjacent to the Koonenberry Fault. East of
Gnalta Peak these brecciated strata are
unconformably overlain by lightly indurated beds
which are also referred to here as Mulga Downs
Group (and elsewhere called Ravendale Formation).
This relationship forms the basis for considering
the strata of Copper Mine Range to be Emsian-
Eifelian rather than Late Devonian in age. However
there is a probable correlation of basal strata of
Unit 2 of Copper Mine Range with Emsian-
Eifelian strata of Unit 1 from the Coco Range
i)
ro)
Sandstone
109
Formation at Nundooka Station (Neef et al. 1995).
This correlation follows from horizons of vertical
burrows ( ?Skolithus sp.) lying 320 m and 330 m
above the base of Mulga Downs Group at
Nundooka Station and in the study area
respectively.
A. COPPER MINE RANGE
Eight stratigraphic units are mapped within the
Mulga Downs Group of the Copper Mine Range
area (Fig. 5). They lack marker beds, have sheet-
like distributions, and usually have abrupt basal
contacts. An exception is Unit 1 which is
unknown in the north and the east, indicating that
the basal part of Unit 2 is diachronous, being older
in the north and east than where it overlies Unit 1.
On stereo pairs beds of Units 2, 3 and 7 have
considerable continuity, forming minor ridges and
depressions.
The sandstones, which show a gradual decrease
of feldspar and lithic fragments content with age
and lack plant fossils, are described using the
nomenclature of Miall (1977) and Heward (1989)
(i.e. Sh, laminated sandstone; St, trough cross
bedded sandstone; Sp, planar cross bedded
sandstone, Sr, rippled sandstone; Fl, overbank
fines, and sm. massive sandstone).
Except for Unit 2, much of the ?Emsian-
Eifelian succession is medium or coarse grained
and thus palaeocurrent trends are less common than
they are in Devonian strata at Fowlers Gap and
Nundooka Stations, where finer grained sandstones
are common (Neef, Bottrill and Cohen 1996). 107
palaeocurrent trends were measured in Units 1-8.
Most palaeocurrent trends were measured NE of the
Muckabunnya Fault; however 12 trends were
measured on the Coturaundee Range, and 10 were
measured near Hodges Overshot.
Unit 1 Basal massive sandstone: This unit
(max. thickness 150 m) forms the base of the
Mulga Downs Group in most of the cliffs along
the east side of Copper Mine Range. The
110 G. NEEF AND R.S. BOTTRILL
VT GIDL
eee ed see's) D>—=—— UNIT 5
LS EET UNIT 4
AG UNCONFORMITY
Figure 5. Emsian-Eifelian stratigraphic sequence
of Copper Mine Range. Thicknesses of Unita 1-3
of the Mulga Downs Group are from stratal
thicknesses east of the Muckabunnya Fault
whereas thicknesses of Units 4-8 are from west of
the fault.
unconformity underlying the unit is commonly 60
m higher in elevation than the adjacent plain.
The strata are commonly rusty weathering fine
grained and planar bedded (Fig. 6). Bedding is —
usually thick (max. bed spacing 10 m) and there
are minor conglomerate beds (max. thickness 2 m),
a 5 m thin bedded sequence, planar cross _ beds,
pebbles, and symmetrical ripple marks. Five
kilometres SE of Spring Hill a 2 m thick, pale
grey, lightly indurated, kaolinitic, very fine
sandstone crops out near the base of the unit.
Curved along the bedding are burrows, 5-10 mm
wide and 90 mm long, and laminae of fine and
coarse grains are quite common in basal beds east
of Cupala Creek. Two measured sections in the
basal beds have Sh-Sp lithofacies successions,
(Fig. 6).
The unit is a mature quartz arenite (Fig. 7),
well sorted, but with about 5-10% of clayey matrix
(illite, kaolinite and minor silt). There are 1-3% of
kaolinite aggregates, apparently pseudomorphous
after feldspars, and a few percent of lithics (ranging
from micaceous quartzite to schist, phyllite,
sandstone, chert and mudstone). The matrix appears
to originate in part from _ post-depositional
degradation of feldspars and lithics. Diagenesis and
low grade metamorphism has part recrystallised the
matrix and caused quartz overgrowths to form on
originally well rounded quartz. The overgrowths are
partly polygonal or terminated in empty and clay-
filled cavities, and there is evidence for at least two
Stages of overgrowth on some grains. This
indicates at least two periods of erosion, deposition
and lithification. Trace minerals include white
mica, tourmaline, zircon and leucoxene.
Absence of basal conglomerates is common in
the Mulga Downs Group (Neef et al. 1995) and the
Mt Daubeny Formation (Neef et al. 1989). The
implication is that deposition of the basal
sandstone beds followed a period of peneplanation
and that deposition was distal from the sediment
source. The thickly bedded massive cliff-forming
strata along the east side of Copper Mine Range
are fluvial; the Sh-Sp succession near Cupala —
Creek (Fig. 6) indicates minor sheet flood
deposition (as described by Neef, Bottrill and
COPPER MINE RANGE 111
Assymetrical ripple
strike at 082°
Aeolian
Fluvial
Trace fossil,symetrical ripple marks
trend 1268 at 136°
A Aeolian
Trace fossil—along—the—bedding
? Aeolian
Figure 6. Lithofacies sections I and II in Unit 1 in the headwaters of Cupala Creek, (for location see Fig.
1). Nomenclature after Miall (1977) and Heward (1989).
Cohen 1996). East of Cupala Creek laminae of
fine and coarse sandstone, worm burrows parallel
to bedding, low angle cross beds, and a thin-bedded
sequence indicate deposition in a part aeolian
environment. Fluvial palaeocurrent trends were
largely southwards (Fig. 8). Rarity of overbank
deposits suggest a braided stream system with
mobile channels (Friend 1983). Perhaps deposition
was partlyon a southward-trending distal alluvial
fan.
Unit 2. Fine laminated quarkose sandstone:
These strata form the base of the succession in the
northern and eastern parts of Copper Mine Range.
The unit is well developed on the Coturaundee
Plateau, north of Muckabunnya Waterhole, and
along Hummocks Fault at Spring Hill.
Characteristically it is very fine or fine grained,
medium sorted and quartz-rich. It is
petrographically similar to Unit 1, but contains a
little more feldspar (all kaolinised). Streaming
lineations are common whereas planar cross beds
are rare. Sheet flood successions described in the
northern Barrier Ranges (Neef et al. 1995) were not
seen. Indeed minor slumped strata overlie
unslumped laminated strata. Near the base of the
unit there are 5-10 m thick beds with common
vertical burrows of ?Skolithus sp. (0.3 m deep and
5mm in diameter) (first reported in the headwaters
of Cupala Creek by Rose 1974). From. this
locality the beds with burrows extend 8 km and 1.5
km to the north and south respectively. There are
beds with and without burrows at the latter
locality. ?Skolithus sp. is also known near the
base of the unit 2.5 km south of Spring Hill.
Northwest of Muckabunnya Waterhole are
three, 2-4 m thick, 1 km-long sequences of lightly
indurated pale-grey, kaolinitic, fine grained
sandstones. North and NW of the waterhole the
upper part of the unit is much slumped. East of
Muckabunnya Fault the unit is 500 m thick (Fig.
3, section A-B).
Abundant Sh _lithofacies and common
streaming lineations (46 palaeocurrent trends were
measured) indicate deposition main'y in a high
flow regime (Tunbridge 1981) and it is probable
that deposition was during flash floods of Bijou
Creek style (McKee et al. 1966). Such floods are
typical of ephemeral streams (Miall 1977) and the
unit probably represents distal braid plains with
flashy discharge (model 12 of Miall 1985). Also
present, but uncommon are 1 km-wide overbank
areas, which are now represented by the lightly
indurated kaolinitic fine grained sandstone. Absence
of sheet flood successions indicates that the braid
plains had lower gradients than the coeval alluvial
fan deposits of Nundooka Station (Neef, Bottrill
and Cohen 1996). Common slumping in the upper
part of the unit may follow drag caused by a
subsequent flash flood, or they may be due to
penecontemporaneous earthquakes on any one of
the nearby faults. The fine grained uniform
sandstone indicates sediment derivation was from
fine grained sandstone like the Cupala Creek
Formation, or was from distant regions.
Palaeocurrent trends indicate dominant ESE and
WSW flow (Fig. 8). Two planar cross beds in the
uppermost part of the unit indicate eastward flow
and one in the lower part indicates WSW flow. At
several localities one dimensional profiles indicate
an eastward flow component and it is considered
that ESE flow was dominant.
There is a marine component in the Emsian-
Eifelian fish fauna at Mt Jack (north of Wilcannia)
(Neef, Larsen and Ritchie 1996), andthe
?Skolithus horizon in Unit 2 may indicate a
marine influence.
Unit 3 Pebbly medium and coarse grained
sandstone: This unit crops out along the axis and
the east limb of Cootawundy Syncline and it is
well developed near Muckabunnya Waterhole. It
comprises well sorted, subrounded, medium and
coarse grained, rusty weathering sandstone.
Invariably bedding is difficult to determine and
channelling was noted at one locality only.
Scattered rounded and subangular vein quartz and
quarzite pebbles (max. clast length 80 mm) rarely
form more than 1% by volume of the unit.
Lithofacies sequences were unrecognised. Sets of
tabular cross beds have a maximum thickness of 2
m. The unit is at least 850 m thick east of
Muckabunnya Fault (the top part of the unit is
faulted out), whereas it is only 250 m thick west
of the fault.
G. NEEF AND R.S. BOTTRILL
e Unit1
O Unit 2
@ Unit 3
A Unit 4
x Unit 7
o UnitB
Sublitharenite
A 2]
Q80F20 Q80L20
= we wee fey a
ECE ac
Co
Tema [57 [oo | 3 | vo | 3
a
[esa | 96s [a | a
TIN TO CO sel
sacs [wr [aa | 29 | os | 4
[mo [oo [or | wef |
x7 [saa] [oo sea a
Figure 7. QFL diagrams of arenites from ?
Emsian strata of Coppper Mine Range and from
the Late Devonian strata south of Copper Mine
Range. QFL proportions of framework quartz,
feldspar and lithics normalised to 100%. 500
counts per section.
SBE
Oo
N
ie)
FREER
++}
QO
Ww
QO
aN
The arenites are petrographically similar to
Unit 1, but contain less feldspar (now ll
kaolinised). Some of the quartz is finely rutilated
and a grain of tourmalinite was observed. The latter
rock type is important in the Broken Hill area, as
is the rutilated quartz, indicating a sediment source
area including Willyama Complex. Recycled, well
rounded = quartz grains are common.
COPPER MINE RANGE 113
h TIA
o
4. fe
fe gue
oie ee “hres ae
Mal tee Cito g Stat Nodcy coerce
. et ee era curse 4 Ny ‘
TRIBUTARY \- OF 0% oes oy Ae
COOTAWUNDY \\ CREEK 0. V ae
Bet ea noel Beals eee las Naetlos @
Figure 8. Palaeocurrent trends, in Units 1, 2 and 3, near Muckabunnya Waterhole. Key: see Figure 2.
Absence of overbank deposits indicates
deposition within a low sinuosity stream system.
Fines were flushed through the system, suggesting
that deposition was on the bed of a high gradient
river (like the deposition of some very thick,
uniform, pebbly sandstones of the Devonian of
Greenland and Spitzbergen, P. Friend pers. comm.
1995). Difficulty in determining bedding suggests
that the beds of the braided streams that deposited
the unit were commonly floored by dunes and bars.
That is, the unit represents a sandy bed form (S.B.
of Miall 1985). Maximum cross-bedding thickness
of 2 m indicates that deposition was in very
Shallow streams/rivers. Uniformity of the coarse-
grained lithology suggests stability of climate and
sustained uniform uplift and erosion in_ the
hinterland. Tabular cross beds show _ that
palaeoflow trends had both north and ENE
components in the lower part of the unit (15
readings, Figs. 8 and 9). in contrast the middle and
upper parts of the unit indicate SE and SW flow
(15 readings). it is thought that the unit represents
a Platte type river style of deposition (Miall 1977).
Unit 4 Brown and red poorly sorted sandstone:
Pale red and pale brown poorly-sorted, lightly-
indurated, arkosic, micaceous sandstone, 50 m
thick, crops out along the axis and eastern limb of
Cootawundy Syncline. Lamination (Fsc, Méiall
1978) is well developed in many outcrops.
In composition this unit ranges from a
subarkose to a felspathic quartzwacke (Figure 7),
and it is petrographically quite distinct from other
114 G. NEEF AND R.S. BOTTRILL
units, containing much more feldspar (7 %), and
having a clay matrix (10-18 %) and up to 8 %
lithics (mostly schist, sandstone and mudstone).
The feldspar is_ relatively fresh, and is
predominantly orthoclase, with minor plagioclase
and microcline. Mica (mostly muscovite and some
green-brown, altered biotite) and opaques are
relatively abundant, and there is a trace of
tourmaline. Perhaps the feldspars have been
preserved due to the low permeability of the clay
matrix. Some of the quartz is rutilated, micaceous
or fibrolitic, and the Willyama and Wonaminta
Blocks are probable sources of the sediment.
Common lamination (Fsc) is of the low flow
regime style and much of the unit represents
overbank deposition on a broad alluvial plain.
CUPALA CREEK
Figure 9. Palaeocurrent trends, in Units 1, 2 and
3, on the Coturaundee Range. Key: see Figure 2.
Unit 5 QQuartzose sandstone: This _ unit,
petrographically similar to Unit 1, has a strike
length of 6.5 km along the north margin of
Cootawundy Valley. It comprises sheet-like, planar
bedded, coarse, medium and fine grained sandstone
with scattered pebbles (<1% by _ volume).
- Commonly the upper part of the unit is fine
grained and laminated and shows _ streaming
lineations. It is 71 m thick in the measured section
1.5 km north of Great Wertago Mine (Fig. 10),
where there are three pebble lag horizons, whereas
it is only 56 m thick 1.5 km to the SE.
Absence of overbank deposits indicate high
gradient, low sinuosity flow. Rarity of low flow
regime features such as cross bedding and ripple
marks and the presence of streaming lineations in
its upper part suggest much deposition in a high
flow regime (flood environment) . However, the
three pebble lags of the measured section indicate
deposition from perennial streams. A cross bed
indicates eastward flow whereas the streaming
lineations are consistent with a SE flow trend (Fig.
11). Deposition was probably on a distal braid
plain (Model 11 of Miall 1985).
Unit 6 Red brown and grey green very fine
sandstone and shale: This unit, 120 m thick, is
poorly exposed along the banks of Cootawundy
Creek. It is largely composed of moderate reddish-
brown, poorly sorted, slightly micaceous, very fine
sandstone and shale. Also present are poorly sorted,
coarse, Olive grey, slightly micaceous (max.
thickness 12 m) sandstone and shale.
The strata formed as a result of overbank
deposition upon a broad alluvial plain, the red-
brown mudstone being oxidized facies and the grey-
green mudstone the product of a _ reducing
environment. The sandstone successions have,
perhaps, a crevasse-splay origin.
Unit 7 Coarse, medium and fine grained pebbly
sandstone: This unit has a 1.5-2 km wide, 6 km
long outcrop north of Hodges Overshot. It is 870
m thick and best exposed in the gorge of
Gnaltaknoko Creek. It commonly forms 50 m
wide, 10 m high strike ridges which alternate with
50 m wide strike valleys. The strata are poorly
sorted, planar bedded, coarse, medium and fine
grained pebbly sandstones (pebbles have a
maximum length of 80 mm). Planar cross beds are
COPPER MINE RANGE 115
Pebble lag
vein quartz clasts
Pebble lag
eto oe” eh
Pebble lag
Scattered vein
quortz pebbles ~ 1%
Figure 10. Lithology log of Unit 5 in
Cootawundy Creek (for location see III in Figure
Ly
rare and trough cross beds and ripple marks are
absent. One desiccation structure was found. There
are minor coarse and fine grained laminae in the
basal part of the unit.
The unit is petrographically similar to Unit 1, but
contains less lithic grains. There is a little rutilated
JUNCTION
WELL oe
OVERSHOT _—
egenmpeiemeslh © res
Figure 11. Palaeocurrent trends, in Units 5, 7 &
8, near Hodges Overshot. Key: see Figure 2.
quartz and fibrolitic quartz, both characteristic of
the metamorphic rocks of the Willyama Complex.
Petrographic study indicates that some grains have
been recycled from older sedimentary strata.
Absence of overbank fines suggests deposition
in a high gradient river system. Well developed
bedding shows that deposition was on the beds of
streams that had little relief. Pebble lags indicate at
least some fully perennial flowing streams. The
coarse and fine grained laminae indicate minor
aeolian deposition. Palaeocurrent trends were
dominantly southeastwards (Fig. 11).
Unit 8 Coarse and fine laminated sand with
pebble lags: This unit, which crops out near
Hodges Overshot, is >550 m thick (its top is
Unconformity
ww
:
Figure 12. ?Late Mid Devonian-Late Devonian
stratigraphic units south of Copper Mine Range.
faulted out by Hodges Overshot Fault). it
comprises alternating coarse and fine unnppled
sandstone with pebble lags (max. Cast size 70
mm) that occur at 0.25 m intervals.
Some aeolian deposition is indicated by
laminae of fine and coarse grains and the presence
of gravel lags. This type of deposition is common
in areas where there is an abundant coarse grained
fraction, (Kocurek and Nielson 1986). Generally,
G. NEEF AND R.S. BOTTRILL
modern sand sheets are <10 m thick and they may
be rippled or unrippled; thus the substantial —
thickness of Unit 8 implies a dual fluvial/aeolian
deposition. Sand sheets are known to form upwind
of dune fields (Kocurek and Nielson 1986).
B. SOUTHERN SECTOR: K-LINE TO
HODGES OVERSHOT
Lightly indurated ?Late Devonian strata are
exposed in a 20 km long, 2.5 km wide belt east of
the Koonenberry FauH and north of the track
between Mt Daubeny Outstation and K-Line
Station (Fig. 2). The Late Devonian strata
unconformably overlie the Mt Daubeny Formation
and brecciated steeply dipping indurated ?Emsian-
Eifelian strata.
27EMSIAN-EIFELIAN
At the eastern margin of Koonenberry Fault
lies a north-trending, 300-500 m wide belt of
moderate to steeply dipping,indurated, brecciated,
commonly quartz net-veined, quartzose sandstone.
These strata are taken to represent Units 1 and 2 of
Copper Mine Range. East of Gnalta Peak they
form a 1.3 km wide outcrop that is bounded by the
Gnalta Peak and Gnalta Creek Faults. Locally
within the strata there are rare sedimentary breccias
and one pale red sandstone bed. North of Gnalta
Peak Fault lies a belt of steep eastward-dipping
quartzose sandstone with conglomerate lenses
(max. thickness 2 m). The clasts forming the
conglomerate lenses are of vein quartz and quartzite
(max. clast length 0.11 m). Similar strata crop out
in a 300 m-wide fault sliver along the Koonenbery
Fauit near Mt Daubeny Outstation - K-Line track.
?7MID-LATE DEVONIAN
Four fluvial units, A, B. C and D are mapped
(Figs. 2 & 12). on stereo pairs (June 1965) Unit B
has well developed strike ridges (like those of
Units 2, 3 and 7 of Copper Mine Range) whereas
the strike ridges of Unit D also show much lateral
continuity, but they are not as bold as the
?Emsian-Eifelian strike ridges.
COPPER MINE RANGE 117
Unit A Sandy conglomerate: Unit A _ lies
between the Gnalta Peak and Gnalta Creek Faults.
It is >450 m thick (top faulted out) and is
unconformable on folded ?Emsian-Eifelian strata.
Clasts, largely of quartzite, (max. length 0.2 m),
are subangular to subrounded. The strike of the
unit is northerly distant from Gnalta Peak whereas
near Gnalta Peak it is westerly.
Between Koonenberry and Hodges Overshot
Faults there is a 850 m-wide, 2.5 km-long, 600 m
thick belt of massive conglomerate (max. clast
length 0.25 m). A Cambrian age for this
conglomerate was previously preferred because
similar thick Cambrian conglomerate crops out
near Bilpa (100 km to the SSW) and Koonenberry
Mountain (60 km to the NW) (Neef et al. 1989).
However, this conglomerate, and a fault sliver of
conglomerate found 3.5 km north of Great Wertago
Mine, are now attributed to Unit A.
The conglomerate formed after the deformation
represented by seismic marker C of Evans (1977).
it may be Givetian and coeval with a coarse
conglomerate of the Cobar District (Powell 1984,
p.320).
Floods emanating from west of the
Koonenberry Fault carried small boulders, cobbles,
pebbles and sand eastwards to bury a hilly, late
Mid Devonian topography. Absence of boulders
>0.25 m indicates that the clasts were transported
at least a kilometre or two. The unit represents
alluvial fan deposition (Model 2 of Miall 1985).
Unit B Rusty weathering sandstone: Plane-
bedded, commonly fine grained sandstone crops out
adjacent to the track between Mt Daubeny
Outstation and K-Line Station, and extends 5 km
northwards from the track. Locally there are
medium and coarse grained sandstones, pebble lags
and rare tabular cross-bedding. Pebbles are
commonly of vein quartz and quartzite. In the
north, the beds contain scattered clasts derived from
Ponto Beds and there are rare 0.5 m_ thick
conglomerate beds (max. clast size 100 mm). The
unit is at least 700 m thick - its upper part being
faulted out by Gnalta Peak Fault.
The unit (a quartz arenite, Fig. 7) differs from
the ?Emsian-Eifelian strata in lacking feldspars or
kaolinite pseudomorphs after feldspars, and being
porous and weakly - silicified, with little
compaction. Quartz is well-rounded and quartz
overgrowths are present, but not to the extent of
those developed in the ?Emsian-Eifelian units. The
matrix is a network of illite coating, quartz and
pores. There are traces of phyllite, chert,
tourmaline, mica and zircon. The porosity is 10-
12%, indicating that the unit is a potential aquifer.
The unit is younger than Unit A and is thought
to be Frasnian-Fammenian in age.
In lithology and sedimentary features the unit
resembles Units 5 and 7 of Copper Mine Range
although pebble lags are not as prominent.
Palaeocurrent trends, indicated by two tabular cross
beds in the uppermost part of the unit, are easterly
(mean 083°) and a streaming lineation is consistent
with a flow direction of 070°.
Unit C Intraformational breccia: Plane-bedded,
matrix-supported breccia comprising subangular
clasts of lightly indurated sandstone (max. clast
length 0.3 m) crop out on a 0.75 km wide, 2.5
km-long, NE-trending belt within Unit B. The
unit, which has an abrupt basal contact, is 450 m
thick, and wedges out northwestwards. The clasts
lack imbrication and no tabular cross-beds were
found.
From its distribution adjacent to Koonenberry
Fault, and because some of the largest clasts are
found adjacent to the fault, the unit is considered to
be derived from lightly indurated sandstone
previously deposited west of the fault.
Unit D Fine grained sandstone: Unit D crops
out north of Gnalta Peak Fault. It is uniformly
inclined 20° to the northeast and >550 m thick.
The unit is largely a plane-bedded, fine grained
118 G. NEEF AND R.S. BOTTRILL
sandstone with minor tabular and trough cross-beds
and streaming lineations. There are rare clasts of
vein quartz and quartzite. The formation resembles
the Ravendale Formation found west of the
Koonenberry Fault.
Three palaeocurrent trends within the unit
indicate NE flow (mean 60°), suggesting that the
depocentre during the Late Devonian was to the NE
(near White Cliffs). Deposition was within a
widespread braided stream system.
From its outcrop distribution the unit probably
formed subsequent to the growth of the
Menamurtee Dome (i.e. it is younger than Units B
and C).
STRUCTURE
The study area has several faults (most trend
NNW, and two important folds. Minor faults are
virtually absent, except in areas adjacent to the
major faults, and minor folds are very rare.
KOONENBERRY FAULT
The major NNW-trending, 300 km-long
Koonenberry Fault (Wilson 1967; Brunker et al.
1971; McIntyre 1991) probably extends from
northem NSW south to the Barner Highway
(Wilson 1967). Mills (1992) thought the fault to
be a dip-slip fault (upthrown to the west) whereas
Evans (1977) considered that it was sinistral during
the Devonian. It is subvertical near the Great
Wertago Mine and it is distinctive on stereo pairs,
lying at a break in slope at the western margin of
the Coturaundee Range. North of the mine are
several fault slivers of Mt Daubeny Formation and
one of Unit A, indicating that the fault has had a
transtensional history. North of the mine, a sub-
parallel fault lies 200 m to its east and extends
northwards for 6.75 km.
HODGES OVERSHOT FAULT
The Hodges Overshot Fault diverges from the
Koonenberry Fault south of Hodges Overshot and
probably extends 12 km SSE as far as GnaHa
Creek.
GNALTA PEAK FAULT
The NE-trending Gnalta Peak Fault (first
mapped by Frenda 1965) separates Unit A strata
north of the fault from NW dipping strata of Unit
B south of the fault.
GNALTA CREEK FAULT
This fault trends subparallel to and lies 1.5 km
to the NW of the Gnalta Peak Fault. It became
inactive during the Late Devonian.
MUCKABUNNYA FAULT
The Muckabunnya Fault (Rose 1974) lies
subparallel to Koonenberry Falt and 2 km to its
east. Near Cupala Creek it has a 3 m-wide fault
zone comprising intensely brecciated quartzose
sandstone. Eight kilometres to the north the fault
zone it is 1.15 m wide, dips 82° to the west and
has slickenlines that dip 5S” to the north.
Slickensteps along its western margin show that
the last movement of the fault zone was sinistral.
Change of strike adjacent to the fault 2 km west of
Muckabunnya Waterhole in Units 2 and 3 also
indicates a sinistral displacement. The apparent
sinistral offset of the Unit 2-3 contact is 0.7 km.
HUMMOCKS FAULT
At Spring Hill the NW-trending Hummocks
Fault lies 4 km east of Muckabunnya Fault. At
this locality there is a 700 m long, 80 m wide
sliver of Unit 2 along its trace. The fault may die
out SE of Spring Hill.
COOTAWUNDY SYNCLINE
Cootawundy Syncline (Rose et al. 1964) lies
500 m east of Koonenberry Fault and its axis
extends 14.5 km along Coturaundee Range. In the
north the strike of the fold swings northeastwards
towards the Koonenberry Fault. East of Great
Wertago Mine strata of Unit 5 are overturned in the
west limb of the fold.
NORTHERN ANTICLINE
In the northern part of Copper Mine Range a
NW-trending anticline lies 2.5 km west of Bunker
Tank.
COPPER MINE RANGE 119
MENAMURTEE DOME
The NE-trending Menamurtee Dome is well
developed on Moona Vale Station (Frenda 1965,
Neef, Larsen and Ritchie 1996) and in the study
area abuts Gnalta Peak Fault.
UN-NAMED FOLD
A large-scale, gentle SW-plunging syncline is
apparent near Muckabunnya Waterhole.
GEOLOGICAL HISTORY
EMSIAN-EIFELIAN
Prior to the deposition of the Mulga Downs
Group there was some minor deformation within
the Darling Basin. Subsurface this deformation-
unconformity event is represented by seismic
horkon B (Evans 1977). Petrological studies
indicate sediment derivation of Units 1-8 partly
from lightly consolidated sandstones (perhaps strata
such as the Cupala Creek Formation) and partly
from metamorphic ?Wiilyama terrains. The grains
of ?Willyama origin may have hadprevious
residence in strata of the Wonaminta Block prior to
being recycled (K. Mills pers. comm. 1996).
Absence of pale red palaeosols in the thick
Emsian-Eifelian succession indicate almost
continuous deposition. The units lack sheet-flood
successions, clay pellets, and small spherical
bodies like those common in Emsian-Eifelian
strata of the northern Barrier Range (Neef, Bottrill
and Cohen 1996), indicating that the depositional
Site was distant from where the sediment was
derived. Unit 1, formed of mature quartz arenites,
probably represents deposition on a distal alluvial
fan, which grew southwards. Unit 2 formed from
ephemeral rivers, flowing largely SE on a braid
plain. An abrupt change to eastward and northward
flow in the lower part of Unit 3 may indicate a
bnef period of local uplift to the west of the
Muckabunnya Fault. Unit 3 represents a period of
bed load deposition, whereas the wash load was
carried SE to the Pondie Range and Blantyre
Troughs. The fine grained Units 4 and 6 suggest
more distal deposition with the development of
wide flood plains and the presence of meandering
streams and rivers. The sandstone-rich Units 5 and
7 formed from floods and they may indicate uplift
of the hinterland (or renewed basin subsidence).
The aeolian influence in Unit 8 may owe its origin
to the rise of the Wilcannia High to the south that
separates Pondie Range Trough from Blantyre
Trough. Rise of the Wilcannia High caused rapid
filling of Pondie Range Trough (where Late
Devonian strata are absent) and lower fluvial
gradients The presence of substantially thicker
strata of Unit 3 east of Muckabunnya Fault than to
its west suggests syndepositional activity on the
fault.
The Cupala Creek kimberlitic sill was
emplaced soon after the Emsian-Eifelian succession
was deposited and indurated, before the strata were
folded (Bottrill and Neef in Prep.).
?7LATE EIFELIAN - 7EARLY GIVETIAN
Coeval with the Tabberabberan Orogeny of
eastern New South Wales considerable uplift and
folding occurred in western New South Wales
(Powell 1984). The Cootawundy Syncline formed
at this time, indicating much NE-SW
compression, and there was much brecciation of
Emsian-Eifelian strata along the Koonenberry and
Muckabunnya Faults. Deformation at this time is
also known at Nundooka Station (Neef et al. 1995)
and at Mootwingee (Carroll 1982). Subsurface in
the Darling Basin this deformation event is
represented by seismic marker C (Evans 1977).
2GIVETIAN
Unit A _ represents substantial alluvial fan
deposition near a hilly or mountainous terrain (i.e.
like the Delamerian conglomerates of Bilpa - Neef
et al. 1989). Absence of large boulders and
uniformity of clast size indicates transport of at
least 1 km to the depositional site. The substantial
thickness of the conglomerate suggests much
syndepositional uplift of the source region.
FRASNIAN-FAMMENIAN
Most of the Mulga Downs Group east of the
Koonenberry Fault resembles the Late Devonian
Ravendale Formation near Mootwingee (Carroll
1982). Some of these Ravendale-like sandstones
120 G. NEEF AND R.S. BOTTRILL
deposited west of Koonenberry Fault were
subsequently eroded and redeposited east of the fault
to form sedimentary breccias (Unit C). Similar
breccias were discovered by Larsen near Moona
Vale Station (Neef, Larsen and Ritchie 1996, fig.
4). Sinistral transtension is consistent with the
distribution of Unit A conglomerate near Hodges
Overshot and north of the Great Wertago Mine, and
sinistral drag is recognised in Emsian-Eifelian
strata near Muckabunnya Waterhole.
Clasts derived from Ponto Beds in Unit C east
of Gnalta Creek indicate some sediment derivation
from the west. Palaeocurrent trends indicate
dominant NE fluvial flow towards a depocentre
near White Cliffs (i.e. within the Wonaminta
Block).
KANIMBLAN OROGENY
Late Devonian strata form part of Menamurtee
Dome, indicating that the dome was formed partly
during the Kanimblan Orogeny (340 Ma, Powell
1984). The sinistral slickensteps and -lines along
Muckabunnya Fault and the NW-trending fault that
lies between the Gnalta Peak and Gnalta Creek
faults may also have formed at this time.
CONCLUSIONS
1. During ?Emsian-Eifelian time a >3000 m
thick sequence of fluvial strata was deposited in the
area now represented by Copper Mine Range.
Sediment transport was dominantly to the SE. The
lower and upper parts of the sequence experienced
an aeolian influence during deposition.
2. An orogeny, coeval with the Tabberabberan
Orogeny of eastern Australia, deformed the
?Emsian-Eifelian sequence during ?late Eifelian -
?early Givetian time. Probable _ transtensional
faulting at this time facilitated the intrusion of a
kimberlitic sill near the base of the stratal
succession.
3. The orogeny caused uplift to form a hilly
terrain. Subsequently part of this terrain was buried
by small boulders, cobbles and sand (Unit A).
4. In the Late Devonian, fluvial strata were
deposited south of Copper Mine Range and there
was sinistral activity on the Koonenberry and
Muckabunnya Faults. Probable transtensional
faulting occurred near Hodges Overshot and Great
Wertago Mine, causing slivers of Mt Daubeny
formation and Unit A to be preserved there.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
B. Gall, N. Langford and L. Smith of
Nuntherungie and Wertago Stations and Mt
Daubeny Outstation respectively are thanked for
accommodation and hospitality. B. Stevens
provided a detailed draft geological map of the
northernmost part of the study area adjacent to the
Copper Mine Range (geology by B. Stevens and
N. Raphael, Oct. 1984). K. Mills discussed aspects
of Wonaminta petrology and N. Shepard and S.
Davey, N.S.W. Department of Parks and Wildlife
are thanked for co-operation. The referee is thanked
for his valuable suggestions for improvement of
the text. J. Vaughan assisted in the field and A.
Fisk drew the drawings. The University of New
South Wales provided financial assistance (faculty
grants) and P. Adams (Fowlers Gap Station) was
also supportive.
REFERENCES
Bottrill, R.S. and Neef, G. in prep. A Devonian
kimberlitic sill near White Cliffs, far west,
New South Wales.
Brunker, R.L., Offenberg, A. and Rose, G. 1971.
Koonenberry, 1:500,000 Geological Map
Series. Geological Survey of New South
Wales.
Carroll, N.F. 1982. Geology of Devonian rocks of
Mootwingee. MSc thesis, Univ. of N.S.W
(unpubl.).
Evans, P.R. 1977. Petroleum geology of western
New South Wales. Australian Petroleum
Exploration Association Journal, 17, 42-49.
COPPER MINE RANGE 121
Frenda, G.A. 1965. Wilcannia, 1:250,000
Geological Map Series (Ist Ed.). Geological
Survey of New South Wales.
Friend, P.F. 1983. Towards the field classification
of alluvial architecture or succession. In J.D.
Collinson and J. Lewin (Eds). Modern and
Ancient Fluvial Systems. Special Publication
of the International Association of
Sedimentologists, 6, 345-354.
Glen, R.A. 1979. The Mulga Downs Group and
its relation to the Amphitheatre Group,
southwest Cobar. New South Wales Geological
Survey Quarterly Notes, 36, 1-10.
Heward, A.P. 1989. Early Ordovician alluvial fan
deposits of the Marmul oil field, South Oman.
Journal of the Geological Society of London,
146, 557-565.
Kenny, E.J. 1934. West Darling District. A
geological reconnaissance with special reference
to the resources of subsurface water. Mineral
Resources NSW, 36.
Kocurek, G. and Nielson, J. 1986. Conditions
favourable for the formation of warm-climate
aeolian sand sheets. Sedimentology, 33, 795-
816.
McIntyre, J.I. 1991. Northwestern New South
Wales regional magnetics and gravity.
Exploration geophysics, 22, 261-264.
McKee, E.D., Crosby, E.J. and Berryhill, H.C.
1966. Flood deposits, Bijou Creek, Colorado,
June 1965. Journal of Sedimentary Petro/ogy,
37, 829-851.
Miall, A.D. 1977. A review of the braided-river
depositional environment. Earth Science
Reviews, 13, 1-62.
Miall, A.D. 1978. Lithofacies types and vertical
profile models in braided river deposits: a
summary. In FLUVIAL SEDIMENTOLOGY,
pp. 597-604 . A. D. Miall (Ed). Fluvial
Sedimentology. Memoir Society of Petroleum
Geologists of Canada, Calgary.
Miall, A.D.1985. Architectural-element analysis:
A new method of facies analysis applied to
fluvial deposits. Earth Science Reviews, 22,
261-308.
Mills, K.J.1992. Geological evolution of the
Wonominta Block. Tectonophysics, 214, 57-
68.
Neef, G., Bottrill, R.S. and Cohen, D.R.1996.
Mid and Late Devonian arenites deposited by
sheet-flood, braided streams and rivers in the
northern Barrier Ranges, far western New South
Wales, Australia. Sedimentary Geology, 103,
39-61.
Neef, G., Bottrill, R.S. and Ritchie, A. 1995.
Phanerozoic stratigraphy and structure of the
northern Barrier Ranges (far western New South
Wales ). Australian Journal of Earth Sciences,
42, 557-570.
Neef, G., Edwards, A.C., Bottrill, R.S., Hatty, J.,
Holzberger, I., Kelly, R. and Vaughan, J.1989.
The Mt. Daubeny Formation: arenite-rich ?
Late Silurian- Early Devonian (Gedinnian)
strata in far western New South Wales. Journal
and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New
South Wales, 122, 97-106.
Neef, G., Larsen, D.F. and Ritchie, A. 1996. Late
Silurian and Devonian fluvial strata in Western
Darling Basin, far west New South Wales.
Geological Society of Australia,
Sedimentologists Group Field Guide Series No.
10.
Powell, C. MacA. 1984. Silurian to mid-Devonian
- a dextral transtensional margin. pp. 309-324,
in PHANEROZOIC EARTH HISTORY OF
AUSTRALIA. J.J. Veevers (Ed). Clarendon
Press, Oxford.
Powell, C. MacA., Neef, G., Crane, D., Jell, P.,
and Percival, I.G., 1982. Significance of Late
Cambrian (Idamean) fossils in the Cupala
Creek Formation, northwestern New South
Wales. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of
New SouthWales, 106, 127-150.
122
Rose, G. 1974. Explanatory notes on the White
Cliffs 1:250,000 Geological Map Series.
Geological Survey of New South Wales, 48
pp.
Rose, G.L., Louden, A.G. and O'Connell, P. 1964
White Cliffs 1:250,000 Geological Map Series.
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Tunbridge, I.P. 1981. Sandy high-energy flood
sedimentation - some criteria for recognition
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G. Neef
Department of Applied Geology
University of New South Wales
New South Wales 2052.
R.S. Bottrill
Tasmanian Geological Survey
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PO Box 56
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Warris, B.J. 1967. The Palaeozoic stratigraphy and
palaeontology of northwestern New South
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Wilson, R.B. 1967. Geological appraisal of the
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1989/34 (unpubl.).
(Manuscript received 7-3-96)
(Manuscript received in final form 3-10-96)
JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS, ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES, VOL 129, 123-137, 1996 123
ISSN 0035-9173/020123-15 $4.00/1
A BIOGRAPHICAL REGISTER OF MEMBERS OF THE AUSTRALIAN
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY (1850-55) AND THE PHILOSOPHICAL
SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES (1856-66). PART II.
A. A. DAY AND J. A. F. DAY
INTRODUCTION
Part I of this paper was published in the Journal & Proceedings, vol. 117: 119-127 (1984). Our
objectives and methods for constructing the membership list were outlined in Part I. Briefly they were: to
rectify the lack of a comprehensive list in any source then known to us, and to endeavour to augment a
mere listing of names by adding such basic biographical details of the individuals as could be ascertained
from resources mainly in Australia. Part I included 162 men (for they were all men), and the present part
includes a further 166. The delay in presenting Part II for publication arose partly because about one
quarter of the people were exceedingly difficult to identify. As sometimes happens, after we had exhausted
all the then accessible sources of information, two events occurred which gave us new hope of progress.
Firstly, a membership list tumed up which from internal evidence could be dated precisely to September
1860. Secondly, a substantial improvement occurred in library collections of biographical resource
materials. The publication in 1987 of the "Biographical Register" and in 1992 of the "Dictionary of
Australian Artists" provided solutions to a few of our problems, but it was evident that the authors and
editors of the latter magnificent work had also discovered some people's lives were impossibly obscure.
Additional Notes: (1) The spelling of MAC and MC names in the mid-1800s was erratic. We have
adopted in the list the spelling most frequently used for an individual even though in the Philosophical
Society's records the spelling may diverge from that. (2) A few of the men in the list below proved
impossible to identify. We suspect that they were either country residents or transients, possibly visiting
Sydney to assess commercial possibilities. (3) Three people whom we missed in our previous list are
included below. (4) Under the protocols of the time, Governors Denison and Young, having agreed to act
as Patron of the Philosophical Society of NSW, were in turn appointed President. The principal executive
councillor was thus the Senior Vice-President (variously C. Nicholson, E. D. Thomson, W. B. Clarke).
Governor FitzRoy, although he took an active part in the Australian Society, appears to have been content
to act as Patron only, Thomson being President.
Haydon, Henry : delete birth and death dates;
CORRECTIONS TO OUR PREVIOUS
add grocer.
LIST
Leathes: second name Stanger, not Stranger
Beazley, Mr : delete Rev. Joseph; identified as (error in Maiden).
Alexander Beazeley from PSN1860 list; add D.
1.12.1905, Weymouth, Eng.
Broadhurst : exhibited photographs 9.12.1859
ABBREVIATIONS AND REFERENCES
The three societies, Australian Philosophical,
(not 1850).
Dyer, Joseph : add also company secretary. D.
1916, Granville, Sydney.
Philosophical and Royal are indicated by the
symbols APS, PSN and RSN. Similarly the
Linnean Society of NSW as LSN.
124 A. A. DAY AND J. A. F. DAY
ADB Biog Reg: "A_ Biographical Register
1788-1939" compiled by H. J. Gibbney and A. G.
Smith at the Australian Dictionary of Biography
office, Canberra (2 vols, 1987).
AHAS Australian Horticultural and
Agricultural Society, Sydney.
AMG : Australasian Medical Gazette.
AMM : "Australian Men of Mark" E. Digby,
ed. (Sydney, 1889).
Connolly, C. N. 1983. "Biographical register
of the New South Wales Parliament". (Canberra,
1983).
DAA : "Dictionary of Australian Artists" J..
Kerr, ed. (Melbourne, 1992).
JLCN : Journal of the Legislative Council of
NSW.
Keating, J. D. "Bells in Australia",
(Melbourne, 1979).
Maiden, J. H. A contribution to a history of
the Royal Society of New South Wales. J. ad
Proc. Roy. Soc. NSW., 52 : 215-361 (1918). The
principal printed source of information; a number
of errors and omissions are listed in our Part I.
MJA: Medical Journal of Australia.
SMSA : Sydney Magazine of Science and Art.
Only 2 volumes published.
Stokes, E. H. : "The Jubilee Book of the
Sydney Hospital Clinical School" (Sydney, 1960).
Strahan, R. : "Rare and Curious Specimens"
(Sydney: The Australian Museum, 1979).
Thomson, K., and Serle, G. : "Biographical
Register of the Victorian Parliament 1859-1900"
(Canberra, 1972).
Trans PSN 1862-5 : Transactions of th
Philosophical Society of New South Wales, 1862
65, published 1866.
The work "The Mechanical Eye in Australia
by Con Tanre (pseudonym) referred to in our firs
part has been republished in extended form with A
Davies and M. Stanbury as authors (Oxford UP
Melbourne, 1985).
3 2 2 2c ie 2 2 2 2c 2 2 2 2K 2 2 i 2K 2k 2K 2 2k ie 2k i ok 2k ok 2 ok 2 2k ok 2k 2K
EAGAR, N[icholas] H[enry]
PSN: in 1860 list. Accountant and
retailer. Treasurer of the Sydney Mechanics’
School of Arts, 1858-59. B. ca 1824, England; d.
24.8.1872, Ashfield, Sydney.
FAIRFAX, John
APS abt 1850; PSN: in 1860 list; RSN
1867-77. Newspaper proprietor. B. 25.1.1804,
Warwick, Eng.; d. 16.6.1877, Sydney. See ADB
4: 148-149.
IRVING, Clark
PSN: in 1860 list, to 1865. Merchant,
pastoralist and politician. B. 1808, Cumberland,
Eng.; d. 13.1.1865, Brighton, Sussex, Eng. See
ADB 4: 462.
LIDDINGTON, [John]
PSN visitor, exhibited coloured
photographs 19.12.1859. Photographer and
photographic colourist. B. ca 1823; d. 21.5.1873
buried at Inverell, NSW. See DAA, p. 472.
LIPPMAN, Julius
PSN 13.6.1856. Soap manufacturer,
contractor, broker. B. ca 1821; d. 14.1.1873,
Sydney.
LORD, Francis (Hon.) |
APS and PSN implied. RSN 1867-1892. —
Storekeeper, pastoralist, politician. A son of |
Simeon Lord. B. Apr 1812, Sydney; d.
30.8.1892, Rydal, NSW. See ADB 2: 131;
JRAHS 30: 191.
LOWE, Charles
APS 1850-?. Paper and exhibits re
Argonauta, 2.9.1850 (abstract in SMH 5.9.1850).
BIOGRAPHICAL REGISTER 125
Member of APS committee on fisheries. Probably
the Charles Lowe, solicitor and secretary
ofcompany, building society and Anglican church
bodies in Sydney; insolvent 18.8.1855.
‘Gentleman’, of Sydney in 1864. Possibly went to
S. Aust. abt 1866. Compare DAA, p. 480.
LUCAS, John
PSN 13.10.1858. Builder, company
director and politician. One of the early explorers
of the Jenolan Caves. B. 24.6.1818,
Camperdown, Sydney; d. 1.8.1902, London, Eng.
See ADB 5: 107.
MCARTHUR, Alexander
PSN 13.6.1856; continuing 1860.
Shipping and general merchant; politician. B.
10.3.1814, Ireland; d. 1.8.1909, London, Eng.
See ADB 5: 121.
MACARTHUR, George Fairfowl
PSN 8.7.1857. Anglican clergyman and
schoolmaster. B. 19.1.1825; d. 16.6.1890. See
ADB 5: 123.
MCCARTHY, William] G[odfrey]
PSN 16.11.1859; continuing 1860.
Solicitor. B. ca 1810; d. 12.4.1873, Paddington,
Sydney.
MACDONNELL, William
PSN 9.12.1857; continuing 1860.
Exhibited microscopes, stereographs and
photographs at PSN meetings in 1858, 1859,
1860. RSN 1867-1883. Jeweller and optician. B.
ca 1813; d. 12.7.1883, Sydney.
MCEWAN, Dr [Donald McIntosh]
PSN 13.6.1856. Physician, Phillip St,
Sydney; member, Board of Visitors to Lunatic
Asylums. Member of AHAS 1856-58. Died
9.5.1859.
MCFARLAND, Andrew
PSN 17.8.1864. Possibly grazier in Hay
district who died 14.7.1898.
MCGUIGAN, [?Alexander] J[ohn] B[ede]
PSN 13.6.1856 (not McGuyar, as in
Maiden 1918: 264); continuing 1860. Hotelier,
wine and spirit merchant in Bathurst. Active in
local public affairs.
MCKAY, Charles (Dr)
PSN 8.10.1856 ; continuing 1860;
microscopy committee. RSN 1876-1891. MD
(St And), LRCS(Edin). Medical practitioner and
author. B. ca 1822; d. 10.3.1898, Stanmore,
Sydney. See AMG 17: 136.
MACKAY, Hugh
PSN 10.9.1856. Possibly the Hugh
Mackay, gentleman, of Sydney, (and associate of J.
W. Buckland, merchant) who died 1.9.1858.
MCLEAN, A[lexander] G[rant]
PSN 19.10.1859; continuing 1860.
Survey draftsman and surveyor-general. The town
of Maclean, NSW, is named after him. B. 1824,
Scotland; d. 28.9.1862, Mulgoa, NSW.
MCLEAN, Hector
PSN 13.6.1856.
MACLEAY, William [John] (“William jnr") (Sir)
PSN 13.8.1856; continuing 1860.
Politician, biologist and patron of science. Joint
founder of the Entomological, and first president of
the Linnean Societies of NSW; promoter of the
"Chevert" expedition to New Guinea. Knighted
1889. B. 13.6.1820, Wick, Scotland; d.
7.12.1891, Elizabeth Bay, Sydney. See J&P 26:
5-6; ADB 5: 185-187.
MAITLAND, Edward
PSN 9.9.1857. Public servant and
novelist. B. 27.10.1824, England; d. 2.10.1897,
Kent, England. See ADB 5: 201.
MANN, Gother K [err]
PSN 13.6.1856; continuing 1860. Civil
engineer and railway administrator. B. 1809,
Ireland; d. 1.1.1899, Greenwich, Sydney. See
NSW Railway & Tramway Magazine, 3: 746
(1920); DAA p. 509.
MANNING, William Montagu (Sir)
APS 1850 (at inaugural meeting). PSN
transferred 1856; continuing 1860. Exhibit:
12.12.1861, photographs. RSN 1881-1895.
Barrister and politician. B. 20.6.1811, Devon,
126 A. A. DAY AND J. A. F. DAY
England; d. 27.2.1895, Edgecliff, Sydney. See
ADB 5: 207-9.
MANSFIELD, S[amuel] [Worthington] (not H.)
PSN 13.6.1856. Manager of Sydney
Benevolent Society; vice-president of the Sydney
Mechanics’ School of Arts committee. B. ca 1806;
d. 19.3.1881.
MARTENS, Conrad
PSN 13.6.1856. Artist. B. 1801,
London, England; d. 22.8.1878, North Sydney.
See ADB 2: 212; DAA pp 513-6: E. Ellis,
"Conrad Martens Life & Art" (Sydney, 1994).
MARTINDALE, Captain [Ben Hay]
PSN 12.8.1857; continuing 1860; council
1858. Engineer and public servant in NSW 1857-
61. B. 1.10.1824, London, Eng. ; d. 26.5.1904,
Surrey, England. See ADB 5: 220; DAA p. 518.
MAURICE, Solomon.
PSN 13.6.1856. Merchant, of Sydney.
MEREWETHER, Francis Lewis Shaw
APS 1850; council 1850. PSN ?date;
continuing 1860. Public servant and Chancellor of
Sydney University. B. 18.11.1811, Sussex, Eng.;
d. 27.12.1899, Essex, England. See ADB 5: 241-
Df
METHVEN, Capt. [Robert]
PSN visitor 17.10.1860; made valuable
comments on compass deviation in iron ships 1n
discussion following Rev. W. Scott's paper
thereon. Ship's master for the P&O company. B.
Cork, Ireland, 1816.
MILES, William A[ugustus]
APS 1850; secretary 1850.
Commissioner of police, police magistrate and
naturalist. B. 5.5.1798, Edinburgh, Scot.; d.
22.8.1851, Toowoomba, Moreton Bay Dist. of
NSW [Qld]. See ADB 2: 228; DAA p. 535.
MILLER, F[rancis] B[owyer]
PSN 16.11.1859; council 1862, 1863,
1866. Paper, 18.7.1860, "On the detection of
spurious gold". Exhibit, 17.12.1862, Minerals.
RSN 1867-1869; corresp. member 1880-1887.
FCSLond. Assayer, Sydney later Melbourne
Mints; inventor of chlorine process of refining
gold. B. ca 1829; d. 17.9.1887, Melbourne, Vic.
See J&P 22: 6-7.
MILSON, James jnr. |
PSN 13.7.1859; continuing 1860. RSN
1882-1903. Merchant. B. 25.11.1814, Sydney; d.
13.1.1903, Sydney. See ADB 2: 232-3.
MITCHELL, David S[cott]
PSN 13.6.1856; continuing in 1860.
RSN 1867-1872. BA (Syd, 1856). Scholar; book-
collector; founder of Mitchell Library, Sydney. B.
19.3.1836, Sydney; d. 24.7.1907, Sydney. See
ADB 5: 260-1.
MITCHELL, James (Dr)
PSN 13.6.1856; continuing in 1860.
RSN 1867 only. LRCS Edin. Medical
practitioner; industrialist and politician; trustee of
the Australian Museum 1853-69. B. 1792, Fife,
Scotland; d. 1.2.1869, Sydney. See ADB 2: 235-
8; Newcastle (NSW) History Monographs 1 & 6.
MITCHELL, Thomas Livingstone (Sir)
APS 1850 (committee 1850). Papers to
APS: 17.6.1850, "On the external structure and
undeveloped resources of the County of
Cumberland"; 2.9.1850, "On the natural fruits and
grasses of the Colony" (extended abstract in SMH,
8.9.1850); 3.12.1850, "The principle of the
aboriginal boomerang applied to the propeller of
steamships". Mr Charles Moore enquired at the
PSN meeting on 5.10.1864 whether Mitchell's
first paper specified above had been published, with
negative result. Surveyor-general of NSW. B.
15.6.1792; d. 5.10.1855, Sydney. See ADB 2:
238; DAA pp. 541-2; JHL Cumpston, "Thomas
Mitchell" (London, 1954); WC Foster, "Sir |
Thomas Livingstone Mitchell and his World 1792-
1855" (Sydney, 1985). |
MONTEFIORE, O[ctavius Levi]
PSN 8.7.1857. RSN 1878-1881. |
Exhibit to PSN, 19.12.1859, Six large imported
photographs and an album of photographs taken by
himself. Commission agent in Sydney, and for a
time Consul for Belgium. B. (as "Levi") ca 1835 __
in West Indies; d. Sydney 4.7.1893. See DAA p. |
545. |
BIOGRAPHICAL REGISTER 127
MOORE, Charles
APS 1850. PSN foundation member;
council 1861-63 and 1866; microscopy committee.
RSN 1867-1905; president 1880. Papers to PSN:
11.9.1861, "A brief notice of a few of the little
known scrub timbers of the Colony". "5.10.1864,
"On fibre-bearing plants indigenous to the
Colony". 7.11.1866, "Remarks concerning a new
species of Fagus". Botanist. Director of Botanic
Gardens, Sydney. Trustee of Australian Museum.
B. (as "Muir") 10.5.1820, Dundee, Scotland; d.
30.4.1905, Paddington, Sydney. See J&P 30: 18;
ADB 5: 274.
MOREHEAD, R[obert] A[rchibald] A[lison]
APS 1850-55 (treasurer). PSN 1855-66
(treasurer 1855-58; council 1864, 1865).
17.12.1862, he exhibited copper ores. RSN 1867-
1885. Businessman and mining promoter. B. ca
1814, Edinburgh, Scot.; d. 9.1.1885, Sydney. See
ADB 2: 257-8; PLSN 10: 855.
MOREING, Henry
PSN 14.10.1857. Pastoralist, Braidwood,
NSW. D. 15.5.1860, Sydney.
MORELL, G[ustavus] A[Iphonse]
PSN 1.11.1865. RSN 1867-1888. Paper
to PSN 6.9.1865: "On the defences of Port
Jackson". Civil engineer. D. 4.8.1888, Sydney.
MORESBY, M[atthew] Flortescue], RN.
PSN visitor 8.12.1858 and 19.12.1859;
exhibited photographs. Naval secretary and
paymaster; in Sydney with HMS 'Tris' 1856-60.
B. ca 1828. See DAA pp. 546-7.
MORIARTY, E[dward] O[rpen]
PSN 13.6.1856; continuing 1860 (council
1860-63). Papers: 8.10.1856, "On the Parramatta
waterworks" (published in SMSA 1: 76).
18.7.1860, "Memoranda referring to the
destruction of the dam at Liverpool". 14.8.1861,
"On the improvements in the navigation of the
Hunter River". 9.10.1861, "A short description of
the new works now being carried out for the
improvement of Wollongong harbour". Exhibit:
18.7.1860, Plans for a steam dredge. MA(Dub),
MInstCE. Civil engineer; public servant. B.
1825, Co. Kerry, Ireland; d. 18.9.1896, Southsea.
Hants., England. See ADB 5: 291.
MORT, Henry (Hon)
PSN 10.6.1857; continuing 1860.
Auctioneer; pastoralist; promoter of meat
preserving for export; politician. Brother of T. S.
Mort. B. 1818, Lancashire, Eng.; d. 6.9.1900,
Woollahra, Sydney. See ADB 5: 301; Connolly,
p. 240-1.
MORT, Thomas Sutcliffe
APS 1850. PSN continuing; in 1860
list. RSN 1867-69. Businessman with wide range
of activities. See ADB 5: 299; J & L Lane,
Hurstville Hist. Soc. (1983).
MOSES, Frederick
PSN visitor(?) 17.12.1862 and 6.7.1864;
exhibits. Engineer.
MOSS, Israel
PSN ?date; continuing1860. Soap
manufacturer in Sydney.
MOUNTCASTLE, B[enjamin Sutch]
PSN 13.6.1856. Hat manufacturer and
vendor, Sydney. B. ca 1807; d. 7.4.1891, St
Leonards, Sydney.
MULHOLLAND, T[homas]
PSN 13.6.1856. Possibly the grazier of
Wagga Wagga district, who died 27.8.1870.
MURIEL, Robert
PSN, exhibitor of imported photographs
16.5.1862. Warehouseman and auctioneer.
MURNIN, M{[ichael] E[gan]
PSN 7.6.1865-1866. RSN 1867-1894.
Merchant; stock broker; magistrate; a director of
Sydney Infirmary 1855-9. B. 1814, Ireland; d.
16.11.1894, Mittagong district, NSW. See ADB
5: 315;
MURRAY, T[erence] A[ubrey] (Hon.)
PSN 8.10.1862. RSN 1867-73.
Pastoralist and politician. B. 1810, Ireland; d.
22.6.1873, Sydney. See ADB 2: 274; Trans RSN
7: 1; Connolly p. 243-4.
128 A. A. DAY AND J. A. F. DAY
NAPER, Lieut. W[illiam] D[utton]
PSN 13.6.1856. Officer in the 11th
Regiment, Sydney. In 1856-7 AdeC to Governor
Sir William Denison (President of the Society).
NAPIER, Francis
PSN 14.10.1857; continuing in 1860.
Engineer. Possibly the Francis Napier, member of
Cadell expedition to Gulf of Carpentaria, 1867,
who died 23.12.1875.
NATHAN, Charles
PSN 13.8.1856; continuing 1860. RSN
1868-71. Surgeon (pioneer in ether anaesthesia
with J. Belisario). B. 1816, London; d.
20.9.1872, Sydney. See ADB 5: 327.
NEALDS, C[harles] J.
PSN 13.8.1856; continuing in 1860.
Railway manager.
NICHOLSON, Charles (Sir)
APS 1850 (chaired founding meeting;
subsequently vice-president). PSN 1855 to at least
1861 (vice-president 1855-7). MD (Edin 1833),
DCL (Oxf), LLD (Camb). Baronet (1859).
Physician, landowner, businessman, statesman,
scholar, collector of Egyptian antiquities, and vice-
provost and provost (later chancellor) of University
of Sydney. Regarded as one of the most cultivated
men in the colony in his time. He returned to
England permanently in 1862. B. 23.11.1808,
Cockermouth, England; d. 8.11.1903, London,
Eng. See ADB 2: 283-5.
NORRIE, James [Smith]
PSN 8.7.1857; continuing in 1860.
Pharmacist, photographer and inventor. Died 1883.
See DAA, p. 586.
NORTON, James (senr.) (Hon.)
APS 1850 (gave the address at the
founding meeting). PSN continuing in 1860.
Solicitor and politician. B. 27.7.1795, England; d.
31.8.1862, Sydney. See ADB 2: 289.
O'BRIEN, B[artholomew] (Dr)
APS 71850. PSN ?date; continuing
1860. RSN 1867-68. MD (Glas 1833). Medical
practitioner. B. ca 1811; d. 18.1.1870, Concord,
Sydney. See SMH 19.1.1870, p.4; Descent
(Sydney) 14: 31-2, 1984.
ONSLOW, A([rthur Alexander Walton]
PSN, visitor 19.12.1859, exhibited
stereographs from collodion negatives he took.
Naval officer and politician. Trustee of Australian
Museum 1872-80; member of "Chevert"
expedition to New Guinea. B. 22.8.1833, India; d.
3.1.1882, Camden Park, NSW. See ADB 5: 369-
370; DAA pp. 594-5.
OTTLEY, Osborn(e)
PSN 10.9.1856. Possibly lived on private
income; active in various Sydney clubs and
societies in the 1850s-60s. Possibly the Osbert
Ottley buried Gore Hill Cemetery, 1900.
PELL, Morris Birkbeck
APS ?date. PSN from 1855 (council
1855-60, 1866; secretary 1861, 1863; microscopy
committee). Papers: 11.7.1856, "Application of
certain principles of political economy to the
question of railways" (published SMH 14.7.1856,
pp 2-3; discussion SMH 23.7.1856, p 3 and
22.8.1856, p 4. Also in SMSA 1: 124).
13.10.1858, "On the construction of dams"
(published SMSA 2: 94). 7.12.1864, "On the
distribution of profits in mutual life assurance
societies" (published in Trans PSN, 1862-65, pp
267-308). RSN 1867-1875. BA (Camb 1849).
Mathematician, actuary, businessman, barrister.
Foundation professor of mathematics, University
of Sydney. B. 31.3.1827, Illinois, USA; d.
7.5.1879, Glebe, Sydney. See J&P 13: 25-6:
ADB 5: 428-9.
PENNINGTON, W[illiam] G[eorge]
PSN 13.6.1856. Paper, 11.7.1856,
"Means of constructing railways, financially
considered" (published SMH 14.7.1856, p 2;
abstract in SMSA 1: 75). Solicitor, journalist and
politician. D. 10.10.1875, Sydney. See Connolly
pp 265-6.
PEPPERCORNE, Frederick S[eptimus]
PSN 1.6.1857. Paper: 12.8.1857, "On
railways, with reference chiefly to the motive
power" (published SMSA 2: 78). CE, LS.
BIOGRAPHICAL REGISTER 129
Surveyor and civil engineer. B. ca 1814; d.
3.5.1882, Sydney.
PERCEVAL, Lieut-col. [John Maxwell], C. B.
PSN 8.12.1858; member of microscopy
committee. Commanding officer of 12th Regiment
and of H. M. Forces in New South Wales.
PERRY, C[harles] J[ames Clowes]
PSN: visitor, paper and exhibit:
19.9.1860, "On a dial to prevent collisions at sea"
(published in Melbourne). Master mariner;
politician (Victoria). B. ca 1816, London, Eng.; d.
20.8.1893, Williamstown, Vic. See Thomson &
Serle 1972: 163.
PHILLIPS, Henry
PSN 13.6.1856; continuing 1860. RSN
1867-1884. Accountant. B. ca 1830; d.
30.3.1884, Surry Hills, Sydney.
PHILLIPS, Louis (sometimes Lewis)
PSN 3.7.1859; continuing 1860. With
Moss, Moses and Co, merchants. Died 1873,
Sydney.
PITTARD, Simon [Rood]
PSN 18.7.1860. MRCS(Lond). Curator
of the Australian Museum, Sydney, 1860-61. B.
1821, Somerset, Eng.; d. 19.8.1861, Enfield,
Sydney. See ADB Biog Reg 2: 181; SMH
21.8.1861 p. 9.
PLEWS, Henry [Taylor]
PSN 13.6.1856. Civil and mining
engineer. Published pioneer work on NS W
coalfields. Died 1885.
PLOMLEY, Jenner (Dr)
PSN 19.12.1859, exhibited numerous
photographs including stereographs. Physician; of
Hunter's Hill, Sydney. B. ca 1815; d. 1869,
Balmain, Sydney.
PORTER, Henry John (according to Maiden),
possibly Henry & John
PSN 11.7.1856. Commercial
photographer(s), "Porter Brothers".
PRINCE, Henry
PSN 11.6.1862. RSN 1867-1881.
Merchant, pastoralist and politician. B. ca 1818;
d. 15.2.1882, Darlinghurst, Sydney. See
Connolly pp 272-3.
PROESCHEL, [F]
PSN : visitor. 19.9.1860, Exhibited his
map of Victoria and part of New South Wales.
17.10.1860, paper on Ozone. Geographer and map
compiler; in Victoria from at least 1852; published
an atlas of Australia in London, 1863.
RAE, John
PSN 9.9.1857. MA (Aberd 1832).
Public servant, author and painter. B. 9.1.1813,
Aberdeen, Scot.; d. 15.7.1900, Darlinghurst,
Sydney. See DAA pp. 652-4.
RALPH, Dr [Thomas Shearman]
PSN 9.12.1857; continuing 1860.
MRCS Eng, LSA Lond. Medical practitioner in
New Zealand, briefly Sydney, then in Victoria.
Founder of Microscopical Society of Victoria. B.
ca 1812; d. 22.12.1891, Carlton, Vic. See AMG
11: 117.
RAMSAY, Edward Pierson
PSN 7.6.1865. Papers: 5.7.1865, "On the
oology of Australia" with exhibits (published in
Trans PSN 1862-5, pp 309-329); 4.7.1866, "On
the ornithology of Lake George". RSN 1867-
1916. LLD (St And 1866). CMZSLond, FLS,
FRSE, FRGS, MRIA. Ornithologist and general
zoologist; curator of Australian Museum, Sydney,
(1874)1876-1893. B. 3.12.1842, Ashfield,
Sydney; d. 16.12.1916, Croydon Park, Sydney.
See ADB 6: 3-4; Strahan 1979: 37-46.
RANDLE (sometimes RANDELL, RANDAL),
William
PSN 13.6.1856. Railway contractor in
England and Australia. B. 1826; d. 17.11.1884,
London, Eng. See ADB Biog Reg 2: 200.
RANKEN, Thomas
PSN 13.5.1856. Possibly the Thomas
Ranken born 20.10.1830, who died Marulan
16.6.1860.
RATTRAY, Dr [Alexander], MD.
PSN ?correspondent only: Paper,
8.11.1865, on Cape York peninsula. Naval
surgeon, traveller and writer.
130 A. A. DAY AND J. A. F. DAY
RAYNER, F[rederic] M[athew]
PSN: visitor. 14.7.1858: Exhibited live
marsupials from Western Australia. Naval
surgeon, HMS "Herald".
ROBERTS, Alfred (Dr) (Sir)
PSN 13.6.1856 (councillor 1858-61,
secretary 1862; microscopy committee). Papers:
14.10.1857, "On the poison apparatus of
venomous snakes" (published in SMSA 1: 130 and
2: 50). 14.7.1858, "On the poison apparatus of
venomous snakes, part 2, with a description of
some of the species found in this colony"
(published in SMSA 2: 58). 13.7.1859, "On a
new mode of using Canada balsam and other
adhesive fluids in mounting microscopic objects".
14.8.1861, "On a new species of foraminiferous
shell from Ovalau, Feegee". MRCS Eng, LSA
Lond. Knighted 1883. Surgeon, hospital founder
and naturalist. B. 1823, London, Eng.; d.
19.12.1898, Wentworth Falls, NSW. See J&P
33: 2; ADB 6: 34-5.
ROBERTS, John
PSN 13.6.1856; continuing in 1860.
RSN 1867-1888. Watchmaker and jeweller; partner
in Flavelle Bros. & Co., Sydney.
ROBERTS, William
PSN 13.6.1856; continuing 1860.
Probably the solicitor and politician (MLA for
Goulburn 1859-60) who was b. ca 1821; d.
1.7.1900. See Connolly p 283.
ROBERTSON, James (Dr)
PSN 13.6.1856; continuing 1860. MB
(Lond), MD (St And), FRCS. Medical
practitioner; founder of Australian Medical
Association, 1859. B. ca 1822; d. 1862,
Parramatta, NSW. See MJA 1951(1): 533.
ROBERTSON, T. W.
PSN membership list, 1860, of East
Maitland. Almost certainly an error for J. W.
Robinson, q.v.
ROBEY, James
PSN 11.8.1858. Sugar manufacturer;
brother of R. M. Robey. B. ca 1807; d. 1872,
Sydney.
ROBIE, Thomas Battaby
PSN 13.6.1856.
ROBINSON, J[ames] W[ilkie]
PSN 10.9.1856; continuing 1860, of East
Maitland (listed as Robertson). School teacher;
arrived NSW 1837; returned to Scotland in 1860s.
B. Glasgow; d. 1875, E. Maitland.
RODD, J{ohn] S[avery] (not J. J. as in Maiden)
PSN 10.9.1856; continuing 1860.
Assistant surveyor; pastoralist at Bathurst,
Capertee and South Creek, NSW. B. ca 1807,
Devon, England; d. 26.1.1870, Potts Point,
Sydney.
ROLLESTON, Christopher
PSN 12.11.1856 (treasurer 1859-63).
Papers: 10.12.1856, "The science of statistics"
(SMSA 1: 254-8). 10.6.1857, "On the sanitary
condition of Sydney" (SMSA 1: 37-41).
11.8.1858, "On the mortality of Sydney" (SMSA
2: 81). 3.7.1859, "On the means of deodorizing
and utilizing the sewage of towns" (SMSA 2: 235-
240). 19.6.1861, "On the census of 1861".
12.12.1866, "On the condition and resources of the
Colony". RSN 1867-88. Statistician, registrar-
general, auditor-general, non-resident pastoralist
and company director. B. 27.7.1817,
Nottinghamshire, Eng.; d. 9.4.1888, Milson's
Point, Sydney. See J&P 22: 3; ADB 6: 55-56.
ROSS, [Joseph] Grafton
PSN 6.12.1865. RSN 1867-97. Sugar
company manager. B. 9.6.1834, Kidderminster,
Eng.; d. 4.7.1906, Bournemouth, Eng. See ADB
6: 62.
ROTHERY, Frederick [John]
PSN 10.9.1856. Pastoralist and mining
promoter. B. 1804, Hampshire, Eng.; d.
19.3.1860, Double Bay, Sydney. See JRAHS 17:
274 (date of death incorrect).
ROWLEY, George
PSN 19.6.1861. Solicitor. B. ca 1822; d. —
10.10.1866, Newtown, Sydney. |
RUSSELL, George
PSN 13.5.1857. Probably the George
BIOGRAPHICAL REGISTER 131
Russell, engineer, who at this tume was a partner
of P. N. Russell & Co, engineers.
RUSSELL, Henry Chamberlain
PSN 7.9.1864. RSN 1867-1907.
Astronomer and meteorologist. Joint founder of the
Australasian Association for the Advancement of
Science. B. 17.3.1836, West Maitland, NSW; d.
22.2.1907, Sydney Observatory. See J&P 41: 23;
ADB 6: 74-5; R. Bhathal 1991, J&P 124: 1-21.
SAGE, Alex[ander]
PSN 10.9.1856. Stock and station agent
in Parramatta, and Sydney in early 1860s.
SALOMONS, Julian E[manuel] (Sir)
PSN 13.6.1856. Barrister and politician.
B. 4.11.1835, Birmingham, Eng.; d. 6.4.1909,
Woollahra, Sydney. See ADB 6: 81-83; Connolly
p. 294-5; Bennett, 1977: 26-29.
SALTER, John Leslie (Dr)
PSN 10.12.1856; continuing 1860.
Medical practitioner. B. ca 1804; d. 1869, Berrima,
NSW.
SAMUEL, Saul
PSN 13.6.1856; continuing 1860. RSN
1876-81. Merchant and politician. B. 2.11.1820,
London, Eng.; d. 29.8.1900, London, Eng. See
ADB 6: 84-5; Connolly p. 295-6.
SAMUELS, B. S.
PSN exhibitor, 17.12. 1862, of copper
ores and ingots from Ophir and Cadiangullong,
NSW.
SCOTT, Captain D[avid Charles Frederick]
PSN 3.6.1856; continuing 1860. Police
magistrate, Sydney. B. 1804, Bombay, India; d.
16.5.1881, Paddington, Sydney. See ADB 2: 428;
DAA pp. 703-4.
SCOTT, J[ames] H[oughton] L[angston]
PSN 11.5.1859, continuing 1860. Gold
commissioner, police magistrate, NSW. D. 1878.
SCOTT, Captain [Lawrence Hartshorne]
PSN 10.6.1857, continuing 1860.
Officer, 11th Regiment; AdeC to Governor
Denison (President of the Society). D. 1879.
SCOTT, William (Rev.)
PSN 10.9.1856 (council 1857-61).
Papers: 14.10.1857, "On the meteorology of New
South Wales" (SMSA 2:128). 11.8.1858, "On the
meteorology of New South Wales, No. 2" (not
published). 10.11.1858, "On the plurality of
worlds" (SMSA 2: 131). 10.8.1859, "On the
observatories of the southern hemisphere".
19.10.1859, "On the Sydney Observatory", with
exhibits. 20.6.1860, "On the Sydney
Observatory". 17.10.1860, "On compass deviation
in iron ships". 17.7.1861, "On the Sydney
Observtory and Tebbutt's comet". RSN 1867-
1917. BA (Camb 1848), MA (Camb 1851).
Anglican clergyman, NSW Government
astronomer (1856-62), school headmaster (1863-5),
college warden (1865-78), minister in Goulburn
diocese (1879-88). B. 8.10.1825, Devonshire,
Eng.; d. 29.3.1917, Chatswood, Sydney. See J&P
51: 6; ADB 6:97.
SEVERN, Henry A[ugustus]
PSN 13.7.1859; member of microscopy
committee. Clerk (1853-61), later assistant
assayer (1861-64), in Sydney mint; also a painter
and photographer. Paper: 8.6.1859, "On the
construction of specula for reflecting telescopes".
Exhibit: 19.12.1860, family etchings and
watercolours. Noted in DAA, p. 715.
SEYMOUR, Commodore [Frederick Beauchamp
Paget]
PSN (no date of election). Commodore of
the Australia Station, Royal Navy. Paper:
13.8.1862, "On the performance of the ASN Co's
steamer ‘Diamantina’ between Sydney and Brisbane
and return to Sydney". B. 1821.
SHADLER, A[dolph]
PSN visitor 17.7.1861, announced his
invention of an oven thermometer. Baker, Sydney.
D. 19.5.1901, Germany.
SHANKS, Archibald (Dr)
APS 1850; committee 1850. Principal
army medical officer. MD (Edin 1813). D.
28.8.1853, Hobart. See Peterkin & Johnston
1968, 1: 247.
132 A. A. DAY AND J. A. F. DAY
SMALLEY, George Robarts
PSN 7.9.1864 (council 1865, secretary
1866). Papers: 2.8.1865, "On the theory of
Encke's comet" (Trans 1862-5, pp. 330-8).
11.10.1865, "On certain possible relations between
geological changes and astronomical observations"
(Trans 1862-5, pp. 338-346). 6.12.1865, "On the
present state of astronomical, magnetical and
meteorological science, and the practical bearings
of those subjects" (Trans 1862-5, pp 347-356).
1.8.1866, "Preliminary remarks on the magnetical
survey of New South Wales" with exhibits.
Played a major role in conversion of PSN into
RSN, 1865-6. RSN 1867-70. BA (Camb 1845).
Astronomer and mathematician; initiated magnetic
and tidal studies. B. April 1822, Banbury,
Oxfordshire, Eng.; d. 11.7.1870, Sydney. See
Trans RSN 4: 47-48, and 5: 1-2; ADB 6: 136.
SMITH, James
PSN 14.10.1857; continuing in 1860.
Surgeon. Apparently in Liverpool, NSW, 1857-
74.
SMITH, John (Hon)
APS 1852. PSN foundation member
(secretary, 1855-60, 1862; council 1864-66;
microscopy committee). Papers: 13.8.1856, "On
the action of Sydney water upon lead" (SMSA 1:
104-6). 16.11.1859, "On the separation of gold
from mundic quartz". 15.8.1860, "On the quartz
reefs of lower Adelong" with exhibits (JLCN
1860: 204-5) [Title recorded as "upper Adelong" by
Maiden]. 11.11.1863, On ancient flint
implements found near Abbeville" [omitted by
Maiden]. 11.8.1864, "On the probable reasons
that led Fahrenheit to the adoption of his peculiar
thermometric scale". Played a substantial role in
conversion of PSN into RSN, 1865-6. RSN
1867-1885. MA, MD, HonLLD (Aberd 1843,
1844, 1876 resp). CMG (1878). Professor of
chemistry and experimental physics, also
photographer, University of Sydney; company
director and politician; tireless worker for
philanthropic causes. B. 12.12.1821, Peterculter,
Aberdeenshire, Scot.; d. 12.10.1885, Sydney. See
J&P 20: 1-6; ADB 6: 148-150; R. MacLeod
(ed.), "University and Community in Nineteenth
Century Sydney Professor John Smith 1821-1885
(Sydney, 1988).
SPARKES, J{ohn] S[ay] ("Captain")
PSN 11.7.1856. Shipping company
representative in Sydney; deputy chmn of Fitzroy
Iron Co., 1855.
SPYER, [? Lawrence Joseph]
PSN: on 17. 12. 1862 Spyer & Co.
exhibited specimens of DeLaRue's new parchment
paper for chemical and documentary purposes.
Presumably this was Lawrence Joseph Spyer, whc
conducted in Sydney the firm of L & S Spyer &
Co., merchants and commission agents, with head
office in London. The Sydney firm was insolvent
by 1866.
SQUIRE,
PSN 13.7.1859; in 1860 list ‘of Wid
Bay' [Queensland].
STACK, William (Rev.)
PSN 5.7.1865. Anglican clergyman,
Balmain, Sydney. B. ca 1810, Ireland; d.
13.6.1871, near Willow Tree, NSW. See ADB
Biog Reg 2: 276; Heaton p. 188.
STAFFORD, Charles
PSN 12.11.1856; continuing 1860.
Solicitor. B. ca 1824; d. 13.11.1865, Double Bay
Sydney.
STAFFORD, John
PSN 12.8.1857; continuing 1860.
Architect. D. 30.12.1887, Sydney.
STANLEY, G[eorge] H[eape] [B.] (Rev.)
PSN 13.6.1856. Unitarian clergyman an:
school teacher. BA (Lond); MA (Syd 1861); LLD
(Syd 1866). B. ca 1817; d. 12.3.1891, Coogee,
Sydney.
STEPHEN, Alfred (Sir)
APS 1850. PSN continuing in 1860.
Chief justice and politician. B. 20.8.1802, West
Indies; d. 15.10.1894, Sydney. See ADB 6: 180-
187; Bennett, 1977: 18-21.
STEPHENS, William John |
PSN 9.9.1857; continuing 1860; (counci |
1862-63, secretary 1864-66). RSN 1867-90.
BIOGRAPHICAL REGISTER 133
Headmaster of Sydney Grammar School 1856-66;
Professor of natural history, later geology,
University of Sydney 1882-90; trustee of the
Australian Museum 1862-73, 1879, 1883-90. B.
16.7.1829, Westmoreland, Eng.; d. 22.11.1890,
Darlinghurst, Sydney. See J&P 25: 6; PLSN Sns:
900-2; ADB 6: 197.
STUTCHBURY, Samuel
APS 1850 (council 1850). FGS.
Naturalist and geological and mineralogical
surveyor. B. 15.1.1798, London, Eng.; d. 12.2.
1859, Bristol, Eng. See ADB 6: 216-7; DAA p.
772; DF Branagan, Bull. Roy. Soc. N. Z., 21: 7-
15 (1984) and "Science in a Sea of Commerce"
(Sydney, 1996).
TAYLOR, John.
PSN _13.6.1856, of Barrack Street,
Sydney; in 1860 list, of Margaret Street, Sydney.
Possibly the engineer and contractor, see ADB.BR
2:295.
TEBBUTT, John jnr
PSN 14.8.1861. Papers: 13.8.1862, "On
the desirability of a systematic search for, and
observation of, variable stars in the southern
hemisphere" (Trans 1862-5, pp 126-139).
8.10.1862, "On the comet of September, 1862,
No. 1" (Trans 1862-5, pp 140-146). 12.11.1862,
"On the comet of August and September 1862"
[2nd paper] (Trans 1862-5, pp 146-153).
7.9.1864, "On Australian storms" (Trans 1862-5,
pp 153-164, with commentary by W. B. Clarke,
pp. 165-177). RSN 1867-1916. FRAS 1873.
Farmer; private astronomer of international fame.
B. 25.5.1834, Windsor, NSW; d. 29.11. 1916,
Windsor, NSW. See J&P 51: 6; ADB 6: 251; R.
Bhathal, "Australian Astronomer John Tebbutt".
(Kenthurst, NSW, 1993).
TERRY, Frederick Casemero]
PSN 13.6.1856. Artist and engraver. B.
1825, Great Marlow, Eng.; d. 10.8.1869, Sydney.
See ADB 6: 256-7; DAA pp.784-786.
TERRY, Samuel Henry
PSN 8.10.1856; continuing 1860. Land
— Owner and politician. B. 9.4.1833, Pitt Town,
NSW; d. 21.9.1887, Ashfield, Sydney. See
Connolly, pp 329-330; ADB 6: 258-9.
THERRY, Roger (Sir)
APS 1850. Judge (in NSW 1829-1859).
B. 1800, Cork, Ire.; d. May 1874, Bath, Eng. See
ADB 2: 512-4.
THOMAS, James Henry
PSN 13.6.1856, of Cockatoo Island.
Paper 13.8.1856: "On the iron-making resources of
N. S. Wales", printed in SMSA 1: 101. Engineer
(C.E.) in NSW govt. service, initially railways,
later roads.
THOMPSON, Henry Alderson
PSN, date of election unclear. RSN 1870-
1885. Papers: 11.8.1858, "On the Clunes mine,
Victoria"; "Outline of a plan for the formation and
working of a mining company to open out the
quartz fields of N. S. Wales". 8.6.1859,
"Specification of twelve-head stamping mill for
crushing quartz" (SMSA 2: 231-235). 1871,
"Notes on the auriferous slate and granite veins of
New South Wales". Mining engineer. B. ca 1820;
d. 4.1.1886, Launceston Tas.
THOMPSON, John
~ APS, ?date. PSN, foundation member;
committee 1855-57. Papers: 10.9.1856, "Electric
telegraphs and railways between Sydney and
London not impossible". 10.2.1856, "On the
necessity for further exploration of the interior of
the Australian continent" (SMSA 1: 232 and SMH
13.12.1856 p. 5). Deputy surveyor-general for
NSW, 1854-61. B. 1800, England; d. 9.5.1861,
Sydney.
THOMPSON, J[ohn] Malbon
PSN 13.6.1856. Solicitor and politician.
B. 24.12.1830, Sydney; d. 30.5.1908, Sydney.
See ADB 6: 265-6.
THOMPSON, Richard.
PSN 13.6.1856., of Macquarie Street,
Sydney. Possibly the journalist and editor of that
name.
THOMPSON, R[ichard] Windeyer
PSN 13.6.1856. Solicitor, in Sydney to
1865 then West Maitland. MLA for West
134 A. A. DAY AND J. A. F. DAY
Maitland, 1885-91. B. 1831, son of John
Thompson, Deputy S-G, above; d. 19.11.1906,
West Maitland.
THOMSON, Edward Deas (Sir)
APS 1850 (founding President). PSN
1855-66 (founding joint vice-president -1866).
Papers: 13.6.1856, "On steam communication
with England: 1. On the application of auxiliary
steam power to passenger ships in the Australian
trade; 2. Proposal for combining a system of
postal communication with immigration" (SMH
14.6.1856, p.3). RSN 1867-72. Skilled and
effective senior administrator in NSW colonial
government prior to responsible government.
C.B. B. 1.6.1800, Edinburgh, Scot.; d.
16.7.1879, Sydney. See ADB 2: 523-7; SG
Foster, "Colonial Improver" (Melbourne, 1978).
THOMSON, Robert
PSN 13.6.1856; continuing 1860.
Actuary. Brother of Lord Kelvin. B. 25.2.1829,
Belfast, Ire.; d. 5.9.1905, Prahran, Vic. See ADB
6: 269-270.
TORNAGHI, A[ngelo]
PSN 19.6.1861; RSN 1867-69. At PSN
meeting 19.10.1859 Rev. W. Scott exhibited an
astronomical azimuth scale made by him. At PSN
microscopy committee meeting 5.9.1860 Sir Wm.
Denison exhibited a set of scales for weighing
microscopic objects, made by him. Watch, clock
and mathematical instrument maker & inventor;
mayor of Hunter's Hill. B. 1831, Milan, Italy; d.
1906, Sydney. See AMM 2: 226-230 (port);
Keating p. 57.
TRICKETT, Joseph
PSN 13.6.1856; microscopy committee;
continuing 1860. Engineer, Sydney Branch Mint,
1854-73. D. 3.1.1878, London, Eng. See ADB
6: 302.
TUCKER, James C.
PSN 13.6.1856; continuing 1860. Wine
merchant, Sydney.
TURNER, George E[dward Weaver] (Rev)
APS 1850 (council 1850). PSN 1855;
continuing 1860 (council 1856). Anglican
clergyman; botanist. Trustee of the Australian
Museum 1847-69. B. ca 1811; d. 10.1.1869,
Ryde, Sydney. See SMH 12.1.1869 p.4.
UHR, William C.
PSN 9.9.1857. Clerk in Sheriff's Dept.,
Sydney. D. 1896, Sydney.
VIGORS, Lieut. [Phillip Doyne]
PSN 13.6.1856. Paper: 10.6.1857, "On
pavements and street surfaces" (SMSA 2: 11-15,
26-31). Officer, 11th Regiment, Sydney; AdeC to
Governor Denison, President of the Society, 1855-
56. B. 23.12.1825, Ireland; d. 30.12.1903, county
Carlow, Ireland. See Burke's Irish Family
Records, 1976: 1169.
WADE, W([illiam] Burton
PSN 13.6.1856; continuing in 1860.
Civil and railways engineer. B. ca 1833; d.
12.7.1886, Ashfield. See SMH 13.7.1886 p. 7.
WALKER, George (Dr)
PSN 14.10.1857; continuing 1860.
Medical practitioner. B. ca 1831, England; d.
18.9.1870, Sydney. See NSW Med Gaz 1: 58.
WALKER, William
PSN 5.10.1864. RSN 1868-71.
Solicitor and politician. B. 26.2.1828, Glasgow,
Scot.; d. 12.6.1908, Windsor, NSW. See ADB 6:
344.
WALL, [William] Sheridan
PSN 13.6.1856. Curator, Australian
Museum, Sydney, 1840-1858; natural history
artist. B. 1815, Dublin, Ireland; d. 1876, Sydney.
See ADB Biog Reg 2: 325; DAA p. 831.
WANT, Randolph John
APS 1850 (council 1850; committee on
fish). PSN 1856-69? (council 1856-7, 1859-61).
Solicitor, company director and politician. Trustee |
of Australian Museum 1856-7, 1859-69. B. 1811, |
London, Eng.; d. 28.6.1869, Sydney. See ADB 6: |
349-350; DAA p. 836.
WANT, R[andolph] C[harles]
PSN 13.6.1856; continuing 1860. |
Solicitor. BA (Syd 1858); MA (Syd 1861). D.
20.2.1895, Theole, France.
BIOGRAPHICAL REGISTER
WARD, Edward Wolstenholme (Capt.)
PSN 1855-64? (joint secretary 1855-61,
63; member microscopy committee). Papers:
12.5.1858, "On the strength and elasticity of
woods of New South Wales and New Zealand"
(SMSA 1: 258-263). 10.8.1859, "Analyses of
Warriora coal and Bellambi coke, together with the
results of rough experiments on the heating power
of colonial coal". 7.12.1864, "On the prospects of
the civil service of New South Wales under the
Superannuation Act of 1864" (Trans 1862-5, pp
215-222). Exhibit: 7.9.1859, photomicrographs of
wood taken by himself. RSN: Corresponding
member 1880-90. KCMG 1879. Captain of Royal
Engineers; Deputy Master of Royal Mint and head
of Sydney Branch Mint, 1854-66; head of
Melbourne Branch Mint 1869-76. See J&P 24:
10-11; ADB 6: 352-3; DAA p. 836.
WATT, Charles
PSN 13.7.1859 (council 1862;
microscopy committee). RSN 1867-99.
Analytical chemist; soap manufacturer and oil
shale distiller; government analyst 1880-5. D.
19.7.1899, Parramatta. See J&P 34: 2-3.
WAUGH, [James William]
PSN 10.6.1857. Bookseller and
publisher. B. (as James only) 16.12.1819,
Edinburgh, Scot.; d. 22.10.1867, Kiama, NSW.
See DAA p. 843.
WAYMOUTH, H[enry]
PSN 13.8.1856. Private school master in
Sydney 1854-56. Possibly related to the
Waymouth family of Devon, England, prominent
in education and the church.
WEAVER, William
PSN 13.6.1856; continuing 1860.
Architect and civil engineer.
WEST, John (Rev.)
PSN 13.6.1856. Congregational
clergyman, newspaper editor and author. B. 1808,
England; d. 11.12.1873, Woollahra, Sydney. See
ADB 2: 590-2.
WILLIAMS, J. P. [? John only]
PSN 1862-66. RSN 1869-77, of New
135
Pitt St., Sydney. Fits John Williams, J.P.,
cooper, of that address.
WILLIAMS, William] J (Dr)
PSN 8.7.1857; continuing 1860 (council
1862; microscopy committee). Paper: 10.8.1859,
"On the adulteration of milk in Sydney" (report by
the members of the Microscopy Committee).
MRCS Eng 1847; LSA 1848; MD (St And 1848).
Medical practitioner. B. ca 1825, Liverpool, Eng.;
d. 27.9.1873, Sydney. See NSW Med Gaz 4: 26-
Diese:
WILLIAMSON, James
PSN 13.8.1856. Pastoralist and
politician. B. 1811, Edinburgh, Scot.; d.
8.3.1881, Burwood, Sydney. See Connolly pp.
361-2.
WILLIS, Joseph Scaife
PSN 10.11.1858. Merchant. B.
10.5.1808. Scotland; d. 15.7.1897, Mosman,
Sydney. See ADB 6: 408.
WINGATE, Major [Thomas]
PSN 12.5.1858; member of microscopy
committee; continuing 1860. Army officer and
artist. B. ca 1807; d. 1869, Potts Point, Sydney.
See DAA p. 870.
WINNINGTON, J{ohn T.]
PSN 6.12.1865. Ensign, 12th Regiment,
Sydney.
WISE, Edward (Hon.)
PSN 13.6.1856; continuing 1860.
Barrister, politician and judge. B. 13.8.1818, Isle
of Wight, Eng.; d. 28.9.1865, Sydney. See ADB
6: 427-8.
WOOLLEY, Rev. John
APS, 71852; PSN, continuing from APS;
PSN council 1855-59; continuing 1860.
Clergyman, teacher, professor of classics and
principal, University of Sydney. DCL (Oxf 1844).
B. 28.2.1816, Hampshire, Eng.; d. 11.1.1866,
Aulantic Ocean off Bay of Biscay. See ADB 6:
435-437; KJ Cable 1968, "John Woolley. ", Arts
5: 47-64.
136 A. A. DAY AND J. A. F. DAY
WOOLLEY, Thomas
PSN 10.9.1856. Ironmonger, Sydney.
D. 18.2.1858.
WOORE, Thomas
PSN 13.8.1856. Papers: 10.12.1856,
"On a new grate for buming wood" (SMSA 2: 32-
35). 11.9.1861, "On a new mode of constructing
timber bridges" and "On a new method of giving
support to railway bars". CE. Naval officer,
engineer and pastoralist. B. 29.1.1804, Ireland; d.
21.6.1878, Double Bay, Sydney. See ADB 6:
439; DAA pp. 882-3.
APPENDIX 1. FOUNDATION
MEMBERS OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL
SOCIETY OF NSW
Professor John Smith, reviewing _ the
inauguration of the Philosophical Society of NSW
in 1855-6, states: "It seems that twenty-two
members passed over from the [Australian
Philosophical] Society to the new" (1881,J&P vol
15: 3). From the foregoing it is possible to
formulate a reasonably accuraie list containing
twenty-eight names. The discrepancy between
Smith's figure and ours could have various origins
which, in the absence of detailed membership
records are not worth pursuing:-
A'Beckett, Dr A. M.
Allen, George
Allen, Wigram
Barney, Colonel George
Bland, Dr William
Cape, W. T.
Clarke, Rev. W. B.
Douglass, Dr H. G. (Hon. Sec.)
Fairfax, J.
Holden, G. K.
Holroyd, A. T.
WRIGHT, Adam
PSN 13.6.1856. Possibly the Hunter
River railway contractor.
WYATT, Rev. A[rthur] H[aute]
PSN 6.12.1865; RSN 1867. Anglican
clergyman (deacon), Berrima and Sutton Forest,
NSW. B. 1830; d. 1871.
YOUNG, His Excellency Sir John
PSN 15.5.1861; president 1861-67; RSN
1867, president 1867. Governor of New South
Wales, 1861-67. B. 1807, Bombay, India; d. (as
Baron Lisgar, 1870) 6.10.1876, Ireland. See ADB
6: 455-457. |
Lord, F.
Manning, W. M.
Moore, C.
Merewether, F. L. S.
Morehead, R. A. . (Hon. Treas.)
Mort, T. S.
Nicholson, C.
Norton, J. senr.
O'Brien, Dr B.
Pell, Prof. M. B.
Thompson, J.
Smith, Prof. J.
Stephen, A.
Woolley, Prof. J.
Thomson, E. Deas (absent overseas)
Tumer, Rev. G. E. W.
Want, R. J.
APPENDIX 2. OCCUPATIONS AND
INTERESTS OF THE SOCIETY
MEMBERS
It is interesting to gain some impression of the
types of occupation § represented by _ the
membership, recognising that in the 1850s and
BIOGRAPHICAL REGISTER 137
1860s men with specialised qualifications in
science, technology or engineering were rare in the
colony. Also, the boundaries between technical
occupations were not so sharply defined as they are
now. Those men who joined appear, from the fact
that most did not have technical backgrounds, to
have had at least a superficial interest in such
matters. There can be no doubt, at least in the
mind of a cynical modern oberver, that some who
joined did so for the social cachet attached to a
Society headed by the Governor who was an active
participant, not merely a decorative Patron. It is
interesting that a sizeable number of men involved
in primary production joined when there was
available the specialised forum provided by the
Australian Horticultural and Agricultural Society.
Again, it would be nice to think that some of the
politicians joined in order to appreciate better some
of the public policy issues affected by scientific
considerations; this was certainly true in relation to
railway development, for example. Medicos appear
to have joined partly for the natural history
interest, partly in connection with the serious
public health issues which needed to be publicised
and discussed. Certainly the small number of real
Scientists must have felt encouraged by a
constructive atmosphere much different from
today's politicised and financially _ rationalist
environment.
The statistics given in the table give unit
weight to each of the members' known occupations
and serious interests. To have attempted fractional
weighting we felt would have involved too much
guesswork. The grand total therefore substantially
exceeds the number of members (328).
A. A. Day and J. A. F. Day
9 Highfield Rd.,
Lindfield, NSW 2070.
OCCUPATION OR INTEREST
Politician 51
Engineer, builder, contractor, surveyor,
architect, draftsman 45
Legal 41
Medical practitioner, dentist 39
Merchant, retailer, auctioneer 36
Farmer, pastoralist, settler, vigneron 33
Public servant 32
Company director, secretary, manager 20
Clergyman 19
Navy and army 18
Author, journalist, printer, publisher,
bookseller 17
Artist, engraver, photographer 17
Manufacturer 15
Schoolteacher 12
Biologist, botanist, naturalist, museum
curator 12
Mine’ engineer, promoter, geologist,
geographer 12
Assayer, Chemist, pharmacist 10
Accountant, banker 8
Academic, scholar, book collector 8
Gentleman, financier 6
Astronomer, meteorologist 6
Actuary, mathematician, statistician 5
Shipping manager, captain ~
Inventor l
TOTAL 457
(Manuscript received 23 May 1996; revised version
28 October 1996.)
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JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS, ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES, VOL 129, 139-148, 1996 139
ISSN 003 5-9173/020139-10
$4.00/1
TRACE ELEMENTS IN COAL SCIENCE
D.J. Swaine
ABSTRACT. Trace elements are relevant to several aspects of coal science. Five topics are dealt
with in detail, namely, the occurrence of trace elements, boron as an indicator of marine influence,
boiler deposits, fluorine in coal, and the deposition of trace elements from the atmosphere. There is an
increasing interest in the fate of trace elements from the combustion of coal for power production,
especially environmental aspects of trace elements from the atmosphere and from ash disposal areas.
Several suggestions for future work are outlined.
INTRODUCTION
It is a pleasure to thank the Royal Society of
New South Wales for the invitation to give the
Liversidge Research Lecture and the Sydney
University Chemical Society for arranging the
joint meeting for the presentation. Professor
Liversidge directed in his Will that the lecture
should cover the results of the lecturer's recent
research. Some of Liversidge's early work dealt
with coal, for example, gold in the coal measures
and coal from the Wallerawang area. Hence, my
topic is relevant. In 1872 Liversidge left England
to fill the position of Reader in Geology and
Demonstrator in Practical Chemistry at The
University of Sydney. In 1882 he was appointed
Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy. He was a
pioneer in setting up courses in chemistry and
influenced greatly the progress of science, in
particular, encouraging women to study science.
Relevant information on Liversidge's activities at
The University of Sydney and in The Royal
Society of New South Wales is given by LeFevre
(1968) and by Branagan and Holland (1985).
Liversidge was primarily a chemical mineralogist
whom I regard as Australia's first geochemist.
There are several aspects of trace elements in
coal science that are noteworthy, for example,
During coalification
Occurrence (speciation), especially with mineral
matter
Effects of marine influence
Changes during mining
Use for seam correlation
During beneficiation (coal cleaning)
Boiler deposits
Analytical methodology, especially at trace and
ultratrace levels
Redistribution during combustion for power
production
Association with flyash
In stack emissions from power stations
In deposition from the atmosphere around power
Stations
Rehabilitation after mining
Possible health effects
As a source of metals and non-metals.
Five of the above topics which are part of my
research will be discussed.
Nowadays the stress is on environmental
aspects of coal usage. This gives trace elements a
major role which is generating a mass of applied
and basic research, notably in the USA (Swaine
and Goodarzi, 1995).
OCCURRENCE OF TRACE ELEMENTS
As well as knowing the concentrations of trace
elements in coal, it is important to ascertain how
they occur (speciation). Much work has been and
is being done on speciation which is difficult
because so many elements are present in different
forms and at parts per million (ppm) and sub-parts
per million levels. The total content of a trace
element in coal is made up of two main
components, namely, organic and mineral, each
having several possible forms. For example, the
organic may be intrinsic (derived from the early
140 D.J. SWAINE
280
240
200
160
120
MANGANESE (ug/g)
80
40
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 68000
“CARBONATE” IRON (ug/g)
Figure 1. The correlation between manganese
in siderites, from the Lithgow seam, New
South Wales, and "carbonate" iron.
stages of coalification) and adsorbed (gained during
the later stages of coalification), the association
being with carboxylic acid and phenolic hydroxyl
groups and possibly with mercapto and imino
groups (Swaine, 1977). Trace element-organic
associations are prevalent at the early stages of
coalification but less so as the rank of coal
increases possibly because the increase in
aromaticity with rank lessens the binding power of
fundamental groups (Swaine, 1992a). There is
more information about the associations with
mineral (inorganic) matter, where trace elements
occur as discrete minerals, as replacement ions in
major minerals and adsorbed, for example on clays
(Swaine, 1990).
During my initial incursion into trace elements
in coal, it seemed sensible to apply Goldschmidt's
rules, based on the size and charge of ions, to some
coal minerals. Carbonate minerals, namely siderite
(FeCO3), calcite (CaCO3) and _§$ankerite
(Ca(Fe,Mg,Mn)(CO3)2) showed relatively high
concentrations of manganese (Brown and Swaine,
1964). Table 1 gives results for Mn in these
minerals, showing that 1% Mn or more occurs in
some samples. It is suggested that this is because
Mn2t replaces some Fe2+ in siderite and some
Ca2t in calcite. In ankerite, the question may be
posed is Mn replacing some Fe or Ca or both? A
study of 56 coal samples from the Lithgow seam,
New South Wales, gave indirect evidence for the
association of Mn with siderite from the good
linear correlation (r = 0.89) between Mn and
carbonate iron (that is, total iron less pyritic iron),
as shown in Figure 1. In low-rank coals, where
there are no carbonate minerals, for example,
Victorian Latrobe Valley coals, Mn, Sr, Zn- and
some other elements are associated with carboxylic
acid groups in the organic coaly matter (Swaine,
1992a). As coal matures, these carboxylic acid
groups disappear and hence also this cation-organic
matter association.
Table 1. Manganese in carbonate minerals in coal
(as ppm Mn).
Siderite-(FeCO3)
Tongarra 3000
Benley Tops 10000
Calcite-(CaCQ3)
Queensland 2240
Wallarah 10000
Hunter Valley 4650
Ankerite-(Ca [Fe,Mg,Mn)][CO3]2)
New South Wales 500-17700
(mean 7500)
BORON AS AN INDICATOR OF
MARINE INFLUENCE
Seawater contains 4.6 ppm B compared with
less than 0.1 ppm B in most terrestrial waters.
This is the basis for using boron to indicate the
extent of marine influence on sediments. Initially,
boron in clays, especially illite, was used. My
attempts to use boron in clays associated with
coals were only partially successful and hence
boron in coal was investigated. The ranges and
mean values for boron in coals from the Sydney
Basin are shown in Figure 2 (Swaine, 1962a).
TRACE ELEMENTS IN COAL SCIENCE 141
Clean-coal composites were used, that is, samples
prepared from subsamples having ash yields of less
than 35 per cent. The Illawarra coals are known to
have been exposed to freshwater conditions only,
whereas the Greta coals have been exposed to
marine influences. These effects probably occurred
during the early stages of coalification when the
organic matter could have retained boron probably
by chemical fixation or adsorption. On the basis
of boron values it was predicted that the Tomago
samples had been exposed to mildly brackish
conditions. This led to a detailed geological
examination which confirmed the boron-based
postulate. An extensive study of Queensland coals
indicated that most had only been exposed to
freshwater conditions, the exceptions being coals
from the Nipan-Theodore area of the Bowen Basin,
where it is suggested that they had been exposed to
mildly brackish to brackish conditions (Swaine,
1971). After a lapse of about 30 years, this use of
boron in coal to indicate marine incursions during
coalification was tested extensively on a wide range
of Canadian coals, in collaboration with F.
Goodarzi, Institute of Sedimentary and Petroleum
Geology in Calgary. The assessments were carried
out in conjunction with geological information on
conditions during coal formation, — especially
changes in the depositional environment (Goodarzi
and Swaine, 1994a). An exception was found by
Beaton, Goodarzi and Potter (1991) during research
on some lignites from Saskatchewan, where high
values for boron were not associated with seawater
incursions. High concentrations of boron in these
coals deposited under freshwater conditions
probably depend on secondary enrichments arising
from groundwaters leaching evaporites and
associated with extensive fault systems (Goodarzi
and Swaine, 1994a). This exception stresses the
need to confirm boron values by ascertaining the
relevant geological features.
In most coals boron is predominantly
associated with the coaly organic matter, clays and
sometimes tourmaline. The main evidence for
Organic boron comes from shortfalls in boron in
mineral matter and from the inverse relationship
between boron in ash and ash yield (Figure 3).
Any boron added to the coal swamp from seawater
is invariably diluted to brackish water and boron
taken up by the coal is considered to be organically
bound.
Coal measures
Southern
Illawarra
Clean-coal composites
X Mean values
*+—— Range for 90% of values
Northern
Newcastle
Tomago
Greta
0 100 200 300
Parts Per Million B
(on air-dried basis)
Figure 2. Contents of boron in coals from
the Sydney Basin, New South Wales
(based on Swaine, 1962a).
As a result of the studies of the Canadian coals,
the suggested ranges for freshwater, mildly
brackish and brackish influences were modified
slightly as follows:
original final
Freshwater <40ppm B <50ppm B
Mildly brackish 40-120ppmB 50-110ppm B
Brackish >120 ppm Bs +110 ppm B
The original values are based on studies of
Australian coals (Swaine, 1962a) and the final
values are based on a reappraisal of Australian and
Canadian coals (Goodarzi and Swaine, 1994b).
BOILER DEPOSITS
A study of several deposits from the fireside of
boilers, using spreader-stokers and chain-great
stokers, showed the presence of very high
concentrations of several elements, notably
phosphorus, boron and arsenic. Some results for
the inner layer (1-2 mm thick) and from the outer
layer of a deposit on a superheater tube are shown
in Figure 4 (based on Brown and Swaine, 1964).
There are marked enhancements above coal ash for
phosphorus, arsenic, boron, lead and thallium, but
not for vanadium. This was the first evidence for
142 D.J. SWAINE
the presence of thallium in an Australian coal.
Later, improved methods of analysis showed that
most Australian coals had up to about 3 ppm TI,
with a mean of less than 1 ppm (Swaine, 1990).
X-ray diffraction identified boron phosphate
(BPO4) in the sample from the inner layer.
Further work showed that some deposits contained
boron arsenate (BAsQO 4) in solid solution in boron
phosphate (Swaine and Taylor, 1970). These two
compounds have not been found in nature. As
predicted by Goldschmidt they are isostructural
with B-cristobalite. Phosphate-rich deposits are
not found in modern boilers using pulverised coal
burnt with excess oxygen. It seems that these
deposits are only formed under certain conditions
when lump coal is fired relatively slowly. During
combustion an initial reaction between quartz,
fluorapatite and coal could yield phosphoric acid
(P205) which could react with boron oxide (B203)
to produce boron phosphate.
2500
T
e
8
oo
S
S
—)
— —— i)
—) wn S
S S —
S —) i—)
T
e
e
ia)
S
i=)
i—)
T
T
e
e
e
Boron in Ash (ppm)
wm
[—)
Se
T
e
e
e
e@
e
iS)
oS
oS
[—)
T
NT
Pe
Og
a)
S
nm
_—
S
_
wm
i
—)
Ash Yield (%)
Figure 3. Boron contents in ash versus ash
yield for coals from the Theodore district,
Queensland (on the left) and from the northern
part of the Sydney Basin, New South Wales
(Goodarzi and Swaine, 1994a).
FLUORINE IN COAL
As I.P. Pavlov has aptly stated "No
matter how perfect a bird's wing may be, it
could never lift the bird to any _ height
without the support of air". Facts are the air
of science. In environmental science, facts,
that is , proper results, are paramount, and
hence much attention has been paid to the
sampling and analysis of coals for trace elements
mostly present at ppm or sub-ppm levels. As an
example of the vigilance required to ensure the
attainment of proper results, we found that the
standard method for determining fluorine in coal
(ASTM, 1979) gave low and sometimes very low
results for Australian and overseas bituminous
coals. This led to the development of a new
method (Godbeer and Swaine, 1987) in which the
coal sample is mixed with finely ground silica and
pyrolysed in a silica furnace at about 1200°C in an
atmosphere of oxygen and water vapour, the
resulting gases being passed into a sodium
hydroxide solution. The absorbed fluoride is
determined by an ion selective electrode or by ion
chromatography. This pyrohydrolysis method is
the basis of the current Australian Standard Method
(AS, 1989) and of the proposed International
Standards Organisation method.
Why does the ASTM method give low results?
In the ASTM method coal is combusted in an
oxygen-charged calorimeter bomb, so it seems that
not every’ fluorine-containing mineral is
decomposed. Certainly fluorapatite, which is the
main source of fluorine in most coals, and
probably clays release their fluorine in the bomb,
but resistant minerals, for example, fluorite,
tourmaline and topaz, may not be completely
Deposit
Wall of
superheater tube
260 000
10 000
50 000
10 000
800
Values are in ppm
Figure 4. Contents of some elements in a
deposit on a superheater tube (based on
Brown and Swaine, 1964).
TRACE ELEMENTS IN COAL SCIENCE 143
decomposed. However, these minerals would
release their fluorine in the pyrohydrolysis method
which is also used to determine fluorine in rocks.
The pyrohydrolysis method has been used to
determine fluorine in representative samples of
Australian (Godbeer and Swaine, 1987) and
Canadian coals (Godbeer, Swaine and Goodarzi,
1994). It is suggested that the range of values for
most coals is 20-500, with a mean of about 150,
ppm F (Swaine, 1990).
DEPOSITION FROM THE
ATMOSPHERE
Deposition refers to the amounts of elements
reaching the earth's surface from the atmosphere.
The most important aspect of trace elements in
coal is their relevance to environmental matters,
especially those connected with the combustion of
coal for power generation. Of the twenty five trace
elements regarded as being of environmental
interest, twelve are included in the list of hazardous
air pollutants under investigation by the US
Environmental Protection Agency. Hence, it is
necessary to measure the amount of trace elements
in deposition in the environs of power stations.
When coal is burnt in a pulverised-coal-fired power
Station most trace elements are released and then
redistributed into bottom ash, flyash (removed by
particle attenuation) and fine flyash. The
properties of flyash (formation, mineralogy and
composition) are reviewed by Swaine (1995). The
fine flyash particles, emitted with the stack gases,
are dispersed into the atmosphere where chemical
changes and agglomeration of the finest particles
take place. Deposition from the atmosphere occurs
by wet and dry processes. In the case of dry
deposition, turbulence and other effects complicate
the accession to the earth's surface. The overall
Situation is shown in Figure 5 (Swaine, 1994).
Measurements of the trace-element contents in
deposition from the environs of a modern coal-fired
power station were carried out for four years. The
power station is at Wallerawang, New South
Wales, situated in a mostly wooded area about 120
km northeast from Sydney. The total installed
capacity is 1240 MW produced by pulverised coal
firing. Particle attenuation is by electrostatic
precipitation. The bituminous feed-coal is from
the Lithgow seam with low total sulfur content
(0.6% S). The deposition was collected using
cleaned Sphagnum cristatum moss held in flat,
fine-mesh envelopes which were mounted in
aluminium frames attached to aluminium stakes so
that the frames were 2 m above ground. Locations
were chosen at different distances and aspects from
the power station. Full experimental details are
given by Swaine, Godbeer and Morgan (1989) and
by Godbeer and Swaine (1995).
Gases
Deposition
Dry
Cloud & Rain
Processes
Settling
Turbulence
Rocks, Soils, Plants, Water
RECEPTORS
Figure 5. Schematic of the fate of trace elements
in stack emissions (reprinted from Swaine (1994)
with kind permission from Elsevier Science,
Amsterdam).
An important property of flyash is that the
concentration of many trace elements increases
with decrease in particle size (Figure 6). Samples
of flyash removed by the electrostatic precipitators
at Wallerawang power station showed increases in
concentration for arsenic and germanium with
distance from the boiler with maxima at the outlet
to the stack (Figure 6; Swaine, 1994). The
maximum values are clearly because of the high
content of -2.3 tum particles. This means that
many trace elements in the stack emissions have
higher concentrations than in bulk flyash.
The results of the Wallerawang investigation
showed that
144 D.J. SWAINE
(a) The amounts of trace elements in
deposition samples decreased with distance from
the power station.
(b) The amounts of trace elements deposited
at different locations vary significantly with the
time of sampling, as shown in Figure 7 for lead at
Location A (1.8 km from the power station) and at
location P (27.4 km to the north). Location P is
taken as background, that is, virtually unaffected
by power station emissions. The patterns of
results depend on the distance and aspect from the
power station.
Trace Elements in Flyash
16- Arsenic %
ppm
Inlet Ist 2nd
Outlet
Centre Centre
Trace Elements in Flyash Size Fraction
is)
30- Arsenic
20
10 bd
®@
0
+45um
-45 +2.3um -2.3um
Figure 6. Contents of Arsenic and Germanium in
flyash size fractions and in samples from different
electrostatic precipitators. (Reprinted from Swaine
(1994) with kind permission from Elsevier
Science, Amsterdam.)
700
=i
500
3-month
LOCATION A
=e
300
ng cm
100 LOCATION P
FEB.80 AUG.80 FEB.81 AUG.81 FEB.82 AUG.82 FEB.83 AUG.83 NOV.83
TIME OF SAMPLING
Figure 7. Temporal variations in the
deposition of lead at Location A (1.8 km
from Wallerawang power station) and at
Location P (27.4 km to the north).
These results stress the importance of the time
of sampling at any location and that meaningful
results cannot be obtained by short-time sampling.
(c) Wind direction and strength, topography
and micrometeorological factors are probably the
main determinants for the different results at
various locations.
() The validity of the method was confirmed
by the close agreement between the sum of two 3-
month results and one 6-month result at particular
locations. This confirms the efficiency of moss as
a collector, the retention of trace elements by the
moss and the precision of the analytical results.
Although it was known that moss has a
definite cation exchange capacity, how it retains
fine particles had to be ascertained. This was
shown by scanning electron micrographs of moss
before and after exposure (Figure 8) where the
particles of flyash (spherical) and _ soil/rock
(angular) are sited in holes and folds in the moss
structure. It was pertinent to ask the question "can
we estimate the proportions of flyash and soil in
samples of deposition?" This was achieved by
using the concentration of germanium in_ the
samples of deposition, on the basis of the
difference in the concentrations of germanium in
emitted flyash (75 ppm Ge) and in_ soil/rock
particles (1-2 ppm Ge). Using this ratio as a
correction factor, the proportions of trace elements
in flyash in deposition samples were calculated and
TRACE ELEMENTS IN COAL SCIENCE 145
compared with the total deposition, for example,
for zinc (Figure 9; Godbeer and Swaine, 1995). It
was found that the proportions of flyash in
deposition varied greatly at any location. For
example, at 1.8 km from Wallerawang, flyash
varied from 7-80, with a mean of 40%, and at 5.3
km the proportions were <1-5, with a mean of
2.5% (Swaine, 1994).
The assessment of results and their relevance
are very important in environmental science.
Results for trace elements in samples of deposition
can be put into perspective by comparing them
with the amounts contributed by rock weathering
(Bowen, 1979), litter decay (Bowen, op. cit.) and
fertilisers (based on Swaine, 1962b). Data for
arsenic, cadmium, copper and selenium are given
in Table 2. For trace elements, atmospheric
deposition in the Wallerawang area is not the
major source, except for selenium. Selenium is
one of the few elements reaching the atmosphere
from coal burning in amounts that should be taken
into consideration in an environmental assessment.
Figure 8. Scanning electron micrographs of
the surface of moss before exposure (on the
left) and after exposure (on the right). Note
the spherical particles (flyash) and the angular
particles (soil/rock). Scale : 7 mm = 10 um.
(reprinted from Godbeer and Swaine (1995)
with kind permission from Kluwer Academic
Publishers, Dordrecht).
ZINC (mg/m2)
0 U
Feb May Aug Nov Feb May Aug Nov Feb May Aug Nov
1980 1981 1982
Figure 9. Temporal variations in the
deposition of zinc, showing the totals and the
proportions in flyash. (reprinted from Godbeer
and Swaine (1995) with kind permission from
Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht).
CONCLUDING REMARKS
It is clear that coal will be used increasingly as
a major source of power for at least the next decade
and hence more attention will be paid to
environmental and health aspects (Swaine, 1992b).
In this connection, the role of trace elements is
important especially in the areas of combustion
and waste disposal. In his Will, Liversidge stated
that the most important part of the Lecturer's duty
shall be to point out in which directions further
researches are necessary. Here are some
suggestions for future work:
1. Speciation of trace elements, especially
those of environmental significance, for example,
beryllium, boron, chromium, molybdenum and
vanadium.
2. The determination of the isotopic ratios of
Bio to B11, as a refinement of the use of boron in
coal as an indicator of marine influence.
146
D.J. SWAINE
Table 2. Annual deposition in area around Wallerawang power station compared with annual inputs from
rock weathering, litter decay and fertilisers (as mg/m).
Element Distance from Deposition
power station (km)
Arsenic 1.8 0.80
6.6 0.12
27 0.08
Cadmium 1.8 0.09
6.6 0.06
2) 0.04
Copper 1.8 6.4
6.6 23
27 0.7
Selenium 1.8 0.42
6.6 0.22
27 0.14
3. The associations of trace elements in
bottom ash and flyash in order to assess leaching
from power station wastes.
4. Speciation in flue gas amd _ stack
emissions, especially for arsenic, chromium,
mercury and selenium.
5. More data on trace elements in deposition
in the environs of power stations.
6. Investigations of the fate of trace elements
in bottom ash-flyash disposal areas in relation to
nearby underground and surface waters.
7. Possible health effects from trace elements
during the mining and usage of coal.
Although these matters are of great practical
interest, indeed concer, the answers will need good
research using sophisticated methodology. This is
the interface between basic science and technology,
the key to successful outcomes in_ practical
problems. It is clear that many tasks in geoscience
and environmental science need chemistry for
successful conclusions. Emotional statements
about possible health effects related to trace
elements should be avoided. It is pertinent to keep
in mind the sixteenth century dictum of Paracelsus
"All substances are poisons; there is none which is
Rock weathering Litter decay _ Fertilisers
0.04 0.20 2.4
0.003 0.15 0.02
3 8 0.16
0.00013 0.02 0.05
not a poison. The right dose differentiates a
poison and a remedy". The essentiality of many
elements is of paramount importance and must be
considered together with the possibility of toxicity.
It is clear that trace elements have, and will
continue to have, a prime niche in coal science and
technology, especially the environmental aspects.
If proper care is taken, then it seems most unlikely
that trace elements from coal mining and usage
should be harmful (Swaine 1989). This does not
mean that there should be any complacency.
Indeed, continued research is essential, especially
on new coals.
It seems fitting to finish with a statement from
Nikos Kazantzakis "True teachers use themselves
as bridges over which they invite their students to
cross; then having facilitated their crossing,
joyfully collapse, encouraging them to create
bridges of their own". A plea is made for there to
be some memorial to Liversidge in the School of
Chemistry at The University of Sydney.
Acknowledgements. It is a pleasure to
acknowledge the help of my coworkers the late
Marie Clark, Bill Godbeer, Ken Riley, Noel
Morgan, Professor Roy Bilby (Washington State
University), John Fardy and the late Ray Porritt.
TRACE ELEMENTS IN COAL SCIENCE 147
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trace elements - coal, coke and flyash -
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pyrohydrolysis method. Standards Association
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ASTM, 1979. Standard test method for total
fluorine in coal by the oxygen bomb
combustion/ion selective electrode method.
American Society for Testing and Materials,
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Beaton, A.P., Goodarzi, F. and Potter, J., 1991.
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266.
Swaine, D.J., 1962b. THE TRACE-ELEMENT
CONTENT OF FERTILIZERS.
Commonwealth Bureau of Soils, Harpenden,
306 pp.
, 1971. Boron in coals of the Bowen
Basin as an environmental indicator.
Geological Survey of Queensland, Report 62,
41-48.
, 1977. Trace elements in coal. Jn
TRACE SUBSTANCES IN
ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH - XI, pp. 107-
116. D.D. Hemphill (Ed), University of
Missouri, Columbia, .
, 1989. Environmental aspects of
trace elements in coal. Journal of Coal
Quality, 8, 67-71.
, 1990. TRACE ELEMENTS IN
COAL. Butterworths, London, 294 pp.
, 1992a. The organic association of
elements in coals. Organic Geochemistry, 18,
259-261.
148 D.J. SWAINE
, 1992b. Guest editorial: :
environmental aspects of trace elements in coal.
Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 14,
Di
, 1994. Trace elements in coal and
their dispersal during combustion. Fuel
Processing Technology, 39, 121-137.
, 1995. The formation, composition
and utilisation of flyash. Jn
ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF TRACE
ELEMENTS IN COAL, pp. 204-220. D.J.
Swaine and F. Goodarzi (Eds) Kluwer,
Dordrecht.
D.J. Swaine
1) CSIRO Division of Coal and Energy
Technology, North Ryde, NSW, Australia;
2) School of Chemistry The University of Sydney
NSW, Australia
Swaine, D.J. and Goodarzi, F., 1995 (editors).
ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF TRACE
ELEMENTS IN COAL. Kluwer, Dordrecht,
324 pp.
Swaine, D.J. and Taylor, G.F., 1970. Arsenic in
phosphatic boiler deposits. Journal of the
Institute of Fuel, 43, 261.
Swaine, D.J., Godbeer, W.C. and Morgan, N.M.,
1989. The deposition of trace elements from
the atmosphere. In TRACE ELEMENTS IN
NEW ZEALAND : ENVIRONMENTAL,
HUMAN AND ANIMAL, pp. 1-10. R.G.
McLaren, R.J. Haynes and G.P. Savage, (Eds).
New Zealand Trace Elements Group, Lincoln.
The 30th Liversidge Research Lecture, delivered
before the Royal Society of New South Wales,
12th June, 1996
(Manuscript received 10-10-96)
JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS, ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES, VOL 129, 149-150, 1996
ISSN 0035-9173/020149-2 $4.00/1
DOCTORAL THESIS ABSTRACT
European impact on Lake Sedimentation in Upland Eastern Australia:
Case Studies from the New England Tablelands of New South Wales
Robert J. Haworth
Analysis and dating of sediments from three
lake basins set in typical farming country of
upland northern New South Wales revealed
dramatic environmental changes triggered by the
19th century changeover from Aboriginal to
European land use.
European settlement set off processes in each
lake catchment that led to a relatively short period
of massive sedimentation, followed by a return to
low mineral sedimentation rates.
The sedimentation plugs from all three lakes
were characterised in the core dating profiles by an
unexpected inversion of the exponential decline of
the isotope Lead-210 (Figure 1).
This is interpreted as indicating rapid
deposition, following extreme catchment erosion,
of subsurficial material deficient in Lead -210.
Lead-210 is an atmospherically-derived isotope
which has a half-life of only 22.6 years, and
therefore a measurable life in soil and sediment
profiles of less than 200 years.
The uncharacteristic blip in the Lead-210
profiles marking subsoil deposition demonstrated
the use of the isotope as both a sediment tracer and
a dating device.
Both functions were tested and correlated with a
suite of other forms of sediment analysis,
including mineral magnetic measurements, loss on
igntion determinations and changes in_ the
frequency of native and exotic pollens.
Another consequence of settlement was greatly
increased inputs to the lakes of those chemicals
most associated with industrial-based agriculture,
lead and phosphorus. The combined effect of
siltation and nutrient enhancement boosted th e
primary productivity of the lakes and transformed
largely open water bodies to reed-choked swamps.
PRU eresae inna
oO
oO
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Oo ro) o
oO ro) ro) Oo pea
fo) — — _— —k — oO
oO ’
Age)
v0
<«— -—0.689+0.120
+— -0.33740.056
9°0
<+— -0.314+0.042
(Ww) yydeq
8°0
“+#— -0.504+0.132
<~— -0.08740.065
~— -0.16110.079
O'L
rag
—s
i
Figure 1. The marked crosses show the excess
Lead-210 profile of a representative lake core, with
a midcore break in the expected downcore decline of
excess Lead-210.
Despite a higher than expected pre-European
sedimentation rate from at least one site (Figure 2),
the impact of European settlement was enormous,
with over half the quantity of post-contact
sediment being washed into the basins in less than
25 years. The rapid movement of the material to
150 R.HAWORTH
the lake basins appears to have depleted all readily
available sediment sources in the catchments. The
lower sedimentation rates that followed the initial
infill seem to be more a reflection of this depletion
than any particular land use practice or climatic
pattern.
The preferred explanation for the change to
lower sedimentation rates after the periods of post-
contact disturbance is that deposition in the lakes
moved from a process-controlled regime. Despite
extensive changes in land use and settlement
pattern pattern in the last 100 years, as well as
some climatic variation, the rate of supply of
sediment to the lakes appears to be controlled
manily by the rate at which fresh regolith becomes
available on the cathchment slopes. Mobilisation
of fresh material is more likely to result from
poorly managed engineering works than the local
farming practice of grazing and small crop rotation.
Department of Geography and Planning
The University of New England
Armidale, N.S.W. 2351
Australia
Cumulative mass of mineral matter (kg m-2)
=- =< ne) PO
ol [@) oO oO On
oO (oe) (oe) oO oO (@)
3! <
oO il
2
wD
_ Te)
@ ~
(Sa)
4 oO I
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eee x
3 e
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om
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qn
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Figure 2. The minerogenic sedimentation rate
based on the dating profile (CRS model). Note the
general similarity between the pre-European and
post disturbance sedimentation rates, and the
overwhelming dominance of immediate post-
settlement (~1840-1860) sedimentation.
(Diagrams by S.J. Gale).
(Manuscript received 30-5-1996)
JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS, ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES, VOL 129, 151-152, 1996 151
ISSN 0035-9173/020152-2
$4.00/1
DOCTORAL THESIS ABSTRACT
Geometry and Structural Evolution of the Leichhardt River Fault Trough, Mount Isa
terrain, Australia.
Mark G. O’ Dea
The Leichhardt River Fault Trough of the
Mount Isa terrain comprises middle Proterozoic
sediments, bimodal volcanic rocks and plutons that
record processes of intracontinental rifting followed
by crustal shortening and metamorphism. It
displays superb examples of rift basin
development, basin inversion and _ strike-slip
faulting, and offers an opportunity to examine the
superposition of extensional and compressional
geometries within a _ spectacularly exposed
stratigraphic sequence. This thesis documents the
rifting history and resultant rift-basin geometries of
the Leichhardt River Fault Trough and incorporates
this rifting history in the interpretation of local and
regional geometries.
Between ca. 1800 and 1600 Ma, igneous and
sedimentary rocks were formed and deposited during
at least four episodes of superimposed rifting and
associated post-rift subsidence. This protracted
extensional history resulted in a succession of
stacked intraplate rift basins in which strata of
Cover Sequences 2, 3 and 4 accumulated.
Strata ranging from the of Mount Guide
Quartzite to Lena Quartzite (lower Cover Sequence
2) were deposited and extruded within the N-S
oriented Leichhardt Rift, during a period of regional
E-W extension. Thereafter, a period of N-S
extension resulted in the development of N-tilted
half-graben comprising syn-rift strata ranging from
the Pickwick Metabasalt to the Whitworth
Quartzite (upper Cover Sequence 2). The Lochness
Formation and Quilalar Formation were deposited
during a period of regional post-rift subsidence.
Deposition of the Quilalar Formation was
terminated by a period of E-W extension, footwall
uplift and erosion, resulting in the development of
the Bigie Unconformity. This unconformity was
overlain at approximately 1709 Ma by the syn-rift
Bigie Formation and Fiery Creek Volcanics (Cover
Sequence 3). A subsequent period of E-W
extension, footwall uplift and erosion resulted in
the complete bevelling of Cover Sequences 2 and 3
and the development of the Surprise Creek
Unconformity. This erosional surface was overlain
by rift-related sheet sands of the Surprise Creek
Formation, and dolomitic sag-phase sediments of
the Mount Isa Group (Cover Sequence 4).
Reconstructed stratal geometries are asymmetric in
cross-section, indicating that rocks of Cover
Sequences 3 and 4 accumulated on_ the
hangingwalls of large E-dipping tilt blocks.
Following the deposition of Cover Sequence 4, a
subsequent N-S extension event resulted in the
development of numerous E-W trending synclines
in the hangingwalls of E-W striking normal faults.
Crustal extension was interrupted prior to the
formation of oceanic crust by the compressional
Isan Orogeny (ca. 1590 to 1500 Ma). The
inherited extensional fault architecture and the
depositional geometry of ift-sag sequences
strongly influenced the structural patterns during
shortening. Within the Crystal Creek Block,
buttressing against rigid footwall blocks of pre-
existing rift faults led to the inversion of an
underlying half-graben and the amplification of a
pre-existing E-W trending syncline. E-W trending
folds in the June Hill Block and Horse's Head
Block also formed as the result of drag against
normal faults during rifting and/or as the result of
buckling against competent blocks during basin
inversion.
In contrast to the Crystal Creek Block, the
Lake Julius Syncline may have formed as a
rotational strike-slip “popout’” during the waning
stages of the Isan Orogeny. Reverse faulting
occurred as a bend in the Lake Julius strike-slip
fault system was removed, causing an originally
152 M.O'DEA
N-S_ (?) trending syncline to be rotated
counterclockwise over a distance of several
kilometres, towards a WNW-ESE orientation. In
comparing results from the Lake Julius Syncline
with those within the Crystal Creek Block, it is
apparent that structures of similar orientation and
style may have radically different origins and
regional significance.
Solutions to some of the most perplexing
geometrical problems in the Leichhardt River Fault
Mark G. O'Dea
Department of Earth Sciences
Monash University
Trough can be found through an understanding of
the original rift basin geometry. Other solutions
require an appreciation of the interaction between
this rift basin geometry and regional shortening.
Recognising the interaction between extensional
fault architecture, stratigraphic geometry and
regional shortening is critical to interpreting the
structural evolution of the Leichhardt River Fault
Trough and the Mount Isa terrain.
(Manuscript received 5-9-96)
JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS, ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES, VOL 129, 153-153, 1996 153
ISSN 0035-9173/020153-1
$4.00/1
DOCTORAL THESIS ABSTRACT
The Effects of Chronic Cerebral Hypoperfusion in the Rat.
Lali H.S. Sekhon
It is the aim of this thesis to examine the
effects of chronic cerebral hypoperfusion on brain
parenchyma in the rat. This objective would be of
great clinical relevance since currently to date no
systematic studies have evaluated chronic cerebral
hyoperfusion. a rat arteriovenous fistula model was
utilised which effectively reduced global cerebral
blood flow (CBF) by 25-50% in the absence of
cerebral infarction, maintained for twenty-six
weeks.
Part One of this thesis is concerned primarily
with a review of the literature relating to
arteriovenous malformations (AVMs), — with
particular emphasis on_ the _ studies’ of
cerebrovascular steal and animal models of AVMs.
subsequent to this, select comments have been
made concerning cerebral ischaemia, both acute and
chronic.
Part Two presents studies on the pathological
effects of the chronic cerebral hypoperfusion in the
rat. Initially, the changes occurring as a result of
the systemic haemodynamic alterations are
examined, followed by a formal evaluation of
changes in neural tissue structure that may have
occurred as a result of the chronic cerebral
hypoperfusion. an initial light microscope survey
was followed by transmission electron microscopic
studies.
Part Tree evaluates alterations in neuronal
function that occur as a result of chronic cerebral
hypoperfusion and explores some of _ the
mechanisms involved using electrophysiological in
vitro hippocampal slice experiments.
Finally, Part Four of the thesis has attempted
to draw together the structural and functional in
vitro studies to look for changes in whole animal
in vitro behavioural functioning, with an array of
behaviousral experiments presented.
The conclusions made in Part Five are that
subtle structural, = electrophysiological and
behioural changes are induced in the rat undregoing
26 weeks of chronic cerebral hypoperfusion. This
has not been previously described, with reductions
inCBF of this magnitude thought previously to
have no effect on the brain.
This thesis represents the first formal
experimental assessment of chronic cerebral
hypoperfusion. The downfalls of previous studies
and strengths of this survey have been discussed. A
portfolio of varied experimental approaches have
provided a mosaic of the changes in
apparently'normal' brain that occur as a result of
chronic cerebral hypoperfusion, and have suggested
that established opinions on the thresholds of
cerebral ischaemia in the chronic state need
modification. a new subtype of chronic cerebral
ischaemia has been postulated to exist and is
described. Typical of any initial survey of this
magnitude, dealing with areas that were previously
ill-described, many controversial conclusions . have
been drawn and many questions have been raised.
The mechanisms responsible for the changes are
not known. Precise quantification of the
pathological changes is yet to be done. The effects
of revascularization are also unknown. It is hoped
that this thesis stimulates ongoning interest and
further work into the areas of chronic ischaemia
and AVM-induced hypoperfusion, so that these and
other questions may be answered in the not too
distant future.
Dr. Lali Sekhon
Department of Surgery, DO6
University of Sydney NSW 2006
(Manuscript received 12-9-96)
JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS, ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES, VOL 129, 154-154, 1996 154
ISSN 0035-9173/020154-1
$4.00/1
DOCTORAL THESIS ABSTRACT
Situating Style: an Ethnoarchaeological Study of Social and Material Context in an
Australian Aboriginal Artistic System.
Claire Smith
This is an ethnoarchaeological study of style in
the visual arts of Aboriginal people living in the
Barunga region of the Northern’ Territory,
Australia. The main concern is the development of
a practical framework for the analysis of style in
indigenous visual arts. This framework integrates
the notions of style, semiotics and social strategy
in an attempt to deal with the dynamics of image
creation and perception.
The principal result is that the morphological
characteristics of style are influenced systematically
by the historically situated positions of both
producer and interpreter, and by the differing
strengths, possibilities and constraints of different
raw materials. Moreover, each raw material has
inherent qualities that make it particularly suitable
C.E. Smith
Museum and Art Gallery of the
Northern Terntory
P.O. Box 4646
Darwin, 0801
Northem Territory, Australia
for specific social uses. Since different media
within an artistic system are likely to exhibit a
unique combination of stylisitic characteristics,
including differing degrees of diversity, it is
incorrect to assume that a single art form will be
indicative of an artistic system as a whole.
Research needs to be focussed clearly on the
contexts in which archaeological art occurs, and
comparative studies need to compare like with like.
Single explanations are unlikely to be sufficient
since it is most likely that they tell only part of
the story. In addition, seemingly anomalous
evidence should not be discounted, but should be
used as a basis for enquiry into the likelihood of
alternative scenarios that co-exist with the main
explanation.
Thesis submitted to Department of Archaeology
and Palaeoanthropology,
of New England, Armidale,
September, 1994
(Manuscript received 16-7-96)
JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS, ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES, VOL 129, 155-157, 1996 155
ISSN 0035-9173/020155-3
$4.00/1
"THE VOLCANIC EARTH" BY F. LIN SUTHERLAND
An Illustrated Volume on the
Dramatic Role of Volcanism in the Comprehensive
Geology of the Australasian Region as related to other Active World Phenomena
in the framework of Modern Scientific Knowledge.
REVIEWED by John C. Grover, O.B.E.
This is a remarkable book by the Principal
Research Scientist, Dr. Lin Sutherland FAIG of
the Australian Museum, Sydney. The thought
given to its structure and content does great credit
to the Author. It reflects a competent Scientist,
the extent of his travels to see ground truth and to
meet with those who shared his dedication to
understanding modern theories of geology,
geophysics and geochemistry. The cheerful leader,
his proficient local team, and the scientific
photographers in other countries, have been backed
by the Australian Museum Trust to produce a
volume of importance, different from the usual
text-book. Opposite a photograph of a lava
fountain eruption, its opening paragraph conveys
the simplicity and clarity of the text:
Volcanoes create vivid events. Fountains of
molten lava, bursts of gas and showers of rocky
debris explode from their vents. Glowing
avalanches or streams of lava pour down. their
Slopes. Eruptive clouds may rise to stratospheric
heights. Landscapes can be buried, rivers
disrupted, lakes overwhelmed and local people
endangered. Activity may last a few hours or
continue over a decade. Some volcanoes erupt
once only, others again and again. Vents may lie
dormant for long periods between eruptions and
eventually become extinct.
The quality end product is a source-book for
those interested in clearly-written explanations of
the many facets of geology, in which volcanoes
have and will continue to play a part. This book
will be as much for senior students in secondary
schools and for undergraduates as for graduate earth
scientists and the intelligent laypersons who need
to know about the local environment.
Unusual is the coverage of urban, suburban and
regional Eastern Australia, the updated knowledge
of very recent past eruptions promoting thoughts
of re-awakening volcanism where there has been
none at all for a very long time. Nor wiill it
happen tomorrow; but the evidence suggests that
this exemption of Australia from active volcanism
cannot last forever. The volcanism near Sydney,
Melbourne, Geelong, Mt Gambier, Brisbane, and
Atherton has not been ignored, nor that of the
populated north of Tasmania. There was a time
long ago when these areas were not immune from
dynamic volcanic events. So that people can see
the volcanic effects in their areas, these populated
parts are shown in maps in Appendix I. The well-
known underlying hotspots have been put into
perspective with additional information and mapped
(p.215). Of the volcanoes in populated Eastern
Australia, Dr Sutherland writes:
About thirty central volcanoes, with scenic
peaks of rhyolite and trachyte, rise from their
basaltic aprons. They extend from CAPE
HILLSBOROUGH VOLCANO in North
Queensland down through the eastern hinterlands to
the MACEDON VOLCANO in Victoria.. Apart
from the older central volcanoes around
Rockhampton, all show a common trend: _ they
become younger to the south, decreasing from 33-
44 million years old around Hillsborough to 6-8
million years old in central Victoria. This
migration was noticed by _ scientists from
Australian National University after they had dated
156 JOHN C. GROVER
many central volcanoes. They explained this
southward sweep by a simple plate tectonic model.
The Australian plate (lithosphere), drifting slowly
northwards from where the Southern Ocean opens,
passes over deep upwellings (hotspots) in the
underlying mantle (asthenosphere). In other words,
each volcano was formed over a hotspot, then
became carried away with Australia's movement.
This created an ever-lengthening chain of extinct
volcanoes (see p.91 onwards).
Shown is a photograph of Australia's only
active volcano -- Big Ben on Heard Island. Others
occur in the various Antarctic territories. Shown
also is Mount Erebus Volcano which daily
contributes about a thousand tonnes of chlorine gas
to the infamous ozone hole above it, according to
reports.
The contrasting active volcanic region of New
Zealand has been well covered, the rest of the
island festoon to our east and north-east rather
lightly, lest the book size be too great. However,
volcanic areas of Lord Howe Island and its nearby
volcanic neck, Ball's Pyramid, will interest
visitors, as will the photographs and brief
descriptions of Rabaul and its eruptions of 17
September 1994. Colour photographs and
descriptions of eruptions all over the world add to
the readers' comprehension of the Australasian and
South-East Asian scene. All of this is set within
the framework of the Plate Tectonic Theory and sea
floor spreading from mid-ocean ridges. Submarine
volcanoes and geographical implications, the
extinction of dinosaurs and the iridium anomaly
graph, comparisons with other planets, radio-
carbon and luminescence in dating, so-called
passenger minerals including diamonds in NSW —
and rock products of volcanoes have not been
forgotten. Dr Sutherland's knowledge of gems is
apparent. Of diamonds he writes:
Australian diamonds come from three general
regions. In the western region, the main area, —
Kimberley in Northwestern Australia fi contains
lamproite, and kimberlite pipes. Some _ carry
diamonds brought up from depths of 150 km.
The prolific Argyle pipe is the main producer.
The book's main headings are as follows:
1. Preliminary Eruption. 2. Main Eruption:
the Volcanoes. 3. Overall Eruption: Volcano
Distribution. 4. Post-Eruption: Dating
Volcanoes. 5. Epi-Eruption: Volcanic
Environments. 6. Future Eruption: Volcano
Watch. 7. Sub-Eruption: Plate Tectonics. 8.
Volcanic Forms around Australia. 9. Volcanic
Disruptions Around Australia. 10. Volcanic
Minerals and Rocks Around Australia. 11.
Dynamic Volcanoes Around Australia. 12. Future
Volcanoes Around Australia. 13. Trans-Tasman
Volcano Spotter's Guide. APPENDICES: _ I.
Maps of Australian and New Zealand Volcanic
Areas. li. Some Significant Eruptions (from
circa. 1620 to 1994). _ III. Typical Minerals of
Volcanic Rocks. BIBLIOGRAPHY.
GLOSSARY. INDEX.
The smaller print Bibliography is subdivided
into the various volcanic subjects, each in three
gradings, A, B and C related to readers’ interest
levels. The detailed Glossary of Terms, also in
smaller print, covers 6 pages of two columns. The
Index also is detailed and of a high standard.
More details might have been given of the
important catastrophic explosion of Mount
Lamington, whose glowing avalanches in Papua
Niugini in 1951 destroyed all life in an area of 98
square miles. It was, however, pleasing to see
mention of the Australian Volcanologist, Mr
G.A.M. (Tony) Taylor, who was awarded the
George Cross for courage in his investigation of
that eruption. Though it occurred before the days
of modern colour photography, the lessons were
great and many. The loss of life was most
unfortunate, to say the least, because lay officials
ignored obvious warming signs.
Those au fait with colour processes would
appreciate the amount of work involved. Superbly
illustrated by hundreds of explanatory photographs
BOOK REVIEW 157
in vivid colour and remarkable clarity, here is a
scholarly masterpiece covering a_ wide field,
embellished by modern publishing technology, in
itself a credit to the University of NSW Press.
Bound with hard cover, circa. A-4 in size, with a
vivid dust cover featuring a Japanese eruption, the
price is $Aust 49.95.
John C. Grover, O.B.E., M.Sc.
(Geol.&Geophys.),B.E.(Min. Met.)
Belrose, NSW
[Although Australia is free from volcanism,
the island festoons to the north and north-east of
Australia continue to suffer loss of life from
catastrophic volcanic eruptions and _— great
earthquakes. They require the services of trained
personnel in these fields]. The reviewer hopes to
publish an assessment of thirty years of research in
both subjects in the near future, in a volume which
has taken seven years to prepare.
(Manuscript received 23 May 1996)
JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS, ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES, VOL 129, 158-158, 1996 158
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BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR
STANLEY KEITH RUNCORN
19 NOVEMBER 1922-5 DECEMBER 1995
Keith Runcorn was elected Fellow of the Royal
Society in 1965, whilst he was director of the
School of Physics at Newcastle upon Tyne. As a
Fellow, he organised many Royal Society
Discussion Meetings particularly on _ topics
conceming magnetism, palaeomagnetism, lunar
magnetism and the Earthis dynamo. He also
organised the analysis of NASA lunar rock
samples in the UK. He wrote to each
palaeomagnetic laboratory in the UK, to suggest
that they should propose experiments to be camied
out on a gram of lunar rock sample. The result was
an outstanding submission to NASA on_ the
analysis of lunar rock samples, and a reward of
lunar rock samples for analysis for those
laboratories who took up his suggestion. The
samples attracted enormous public attention when
they were put on display in Newcastle upon Tyne.
One of Runcom's principal contributions was
the use rock magnetism to show that continental
drift was the only way to account for magnetic
results observed from sea-floor spreading and for
the different magnetic pole positions determined
from rocks in different continents. He gave a series
of special lectures at the University of New South
Wales on the subject of continental drift. The
lectures attracted very large audiences
(approximately 400 at each of three lectures).
Another major contribution was his remarkable
solution of the problem of lunar magnetism. The
problem is that the lunar rocks are strongly
magnetised, but yet there is virtually no ambient
magnetic field at the surface of the Moon. He
showed in an article in the scientific journal,
Nature, that when the lunar dynamo stopped, the
lunar rocks remain magnetised, but that the
distribution of the magnetisation, no matter how
strong, could not give rise to a magnetic field at
the surface.
He was outstanding at organising people and
getting things done. For example, he organised
readings of electric potential on abandoned undersea
cables between Sydney, Auckland, Suva and
Fanning island, which continued for over a decade.
The work was based on his idea that poloidal
electric fields from the Earth's magnetic dynamo
might produce differences in electric potential at
places which were widely separated. The work
showed conclusively that the ocean itself acted as a
dynamo, but never resolved the question
concerning the Earth's dynamo.
He was a very kindly person and he led a rather
unconventional life, preferring to travel
continually, and preferred to travel by train
wherever possible. He never owned a house, and
always stayed in college or hotel accommodation.
He also liked to visit his mother who lived in
Jersey, and who celebrated her 100th birthday in
1995.
His death at the hands of a burglar caught
ransacking his hotel room in the San Diego hotel
in December 1995 came as a shock to the scientific
community. A few days after his death, the regular
monthly meeting of the Royal Astronomical
Society was being held in London, and many
speakers took the opportunity to pay a tribute to
the magnificent contributions Keith made to the
geophysical sciences. (D.E.W.)
JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS, ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES, VOL 129, 159-160, 1996 159
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BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR
JOHN CRAIG CAMERON: 1921-1995
John Cameron died in England on 29 March
1995 at the age of 73 after a long illness. He had
been a Member and stalwart supporter of the
Society since 1957. He was the Society's Honorary
Secretary in 1969 and 1979, Vice-President in
1971, 1973 and 1974, and President in 1972.
John was born and raised with a sister and three
brothers in Shanghai, China, before the family
returned to Scotland in 1938. He attended George
Watson's Boy's college in Edinburgh, and
commenced studies at Edinburgh University in
1940. Like so many of his contemporaries, John's
education was interrupted by War. He enlisted in
the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders in 1941 and
was commissioned to the Royal Engineers. His
first posting was to the 82nd African division in
Nigeria, and he was subsequently transferred to
India, from whence as a Captain in the Royal
engineers, he participated in the Burma Campaign.
On demobilisation, John returned to studies at
Edinburgh University, graduating with an MA in
1948. He remained at Edinburgh to take a second
degree, a BSC with Ist Class Honours in Geology
and mineralogy (summa cum laude) in 1951.
During his undergraduate years John was a keen
sportsman, gaining a Blue for Hockey and Half-
Blue for Swimming.
On graduation John joined Royal Dutch Shell
and was posted to Shell Condor, in Columbia for
three years, before returning to The Hague. Buring
his time in Columbia John married Patricia. Their
son was born in Barranquilla.
In 1955 John resigned from Shell and in July
that year was appointed to a Lectureship in the
Department of Applied Geology at the University
of New South Wales, Sydney, a position he held
until his retirement.
John's interests and responsibilities at the
University were related to the broad field of
petroleum, and his research and writings were
directed to that end. He was a willing, cheerful, and
supportive member of the Department's staff, and
will be remembered particularly for his work with
First Year students, in both field and laboratory.
John continually sought opportunities to
update and expand his knowledge of petroleum
geology for the benefit of his students. On
sabbatical leave, in 1964, he obtained a Diploma
in Petroleum Reservoir Engineering at Imperial
College (DIC), and in australia attended courses in
well-log interpretation, hydrodynamics and
hydrogeology, petrofabric analysis, subsurface
Stratigraphy, exploration geophysics and natural
gas engineering.
John maintained a professional involvement in
a number of associations and societies, including
the American Association of Petroleum
Geologists, the Petroleum Exploration of
Australia, the Geological Society of Australia, the
Royal Society of New South Wales (serving terms
as Councillor and President), the Australian
Institute of Petroleum, and the Australasian
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. He was ever
willing to speak, as occasion required to
160 BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR
professional, government and community groups
on the problems of petroleum occurrence in
Australia.
John's interests outside his profession were no
less divers. He was an active member of the
University of New South Wales Hockey Club, and
a keen supporter of the Arts and Theatre.
On his retirement at the end of 1981 he moved
to Southampton, England, where he continued his
professional interests and broadened his academic
knowledge (and linguistic abilities) through studies
of Latin and Mathematics. John is survived by his
wife Patricia and son John.
Publications by J.C. Cameron
CAMERON, J.C., 1959. Hydrodynamics and
drape folding. Some considerations affecting oil
and gas accumulation in Australia. Queensland
Government Mining Journal, 60, 425-428.
1961. Some aspects of
sub-surface geology (with special reference to
Eastern Australia). Proceedings of the Australian
Petroleum Exploration Association Conference
Papers, 7-12.
DA a aa , 1961. Mining geology of
Cobar area, N.S.W., Mining and Chemical
Engineering Review, 54 (2), 46-49.
1962. Basement features
in relation to sedimentation in the Great Artesian
Basin. The APEA Journal, 2, 8-11.
PM acece hee a sciceweeuene , 1963. Development of an
oilfield. Oil and Gas Journal, 9, 26-32.
1964. Changing patterns
in oil exploration. Technology, 65-68.
1967. Australia's oil and
gas potential - a review of the main sedimentary
basins. Proceedings of the 7th World petroleum
Congress, 151-160, Mexico city, Mexico.
1974. Presidential
Address. Sedimentary basin tectonics and a
geological-energy reserve potential. Journal and
Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South
Wales, 107, 11-16.
(P.R.E.)
JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS, ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES, VOL 129, 161-162, 1996 161
ISSN 0035-9173/020161-2
$4.00/1
INDEX
Volume 129, Parts 1 and 2, Parts 3 and 4
Abstract of Proceedings, 1996 90
Abstracts of Theses
BISHOP, Andrew C.: 80
BORER, Philippe: 81
CLEMENTS, Mark Alwin: 83
HAWORTH, Robert J. 149
HAYATI, A. Majid: 85
LEUNG, Sai-Wing 82
O'DEA, Mark G. 151
SEKHON, Lali 153
SMITH, C.E. 154
Awards, citations 88, 100
ANNUAL DINNNER ADDRESS 1996 103
Australian Philosophical Society (1850-55) 123
BENNETT, MAX R.
Consciousness and Quantum Mechanics 69
BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS 158
Biographical Register of Members of the
Australian Philosophical Society (1850-55) and the
Philosophical Society of New South Wales (1856-
66) 123
BRANAGAN, D.F.
Bricks, Brawn and Brains-Two centuries of
Geology & Engineering in the Sydney region
(Presidential Address 1996) 1
Bricks, Brawn and Brains-Two centuries of
Geology & Engineering in the Sydney region
(Presidential Address 1996), Branagan, D.F. l
BURFITT, WALTER, PRIZE 88, 100
Consciousness and Quantum Mechanics, Bennett,
Max R. 69
CAMERON, J.C. Biographical Memoir 159
CLARKE MEDAL, 1995 88, 100
CLARKE MEMORIAL LECTURE, 1966 a5
COAL SCIENCE
Trace Elements 139
Council Report: 1995-1996 87
DAY, A.A. AND DAY, J.A.F.
A Biographical Register of Members of the
Australian Philosophical Society (1850-55) and
the_Philosophical Society of New South Wales
(1856-66). Part II 123
Devonian Geology of Copper Mine Range, far
west New South Wales, Neef, G and Bottrill,R.S.
105
EDGEWORTH DAVID MEDAL 1995 _ 88, 100
ENGINEERING
Geology and Engineering in the Sydney
Region, D.F. Branagan 1
Financial Statement 1995 93
Full Circle: The Resurgence of the Solar
Economy. (Pollock Memorial Lecture 1996),
Mills, David R. 45
GEOLOGY
Devonian Geology of Copper Mine Range 105
162 INDEX
Geology and Engineering in the Sydney Region 1
Planetary Research 33
GROVER, OBE, JOHN C.
Review of Book "The Volcanic Earth" by F.
Lin Sutherland 155
HISTORY
Biographical Register of Members of the
Australian Philosophical Society (1850-55) and the
Philosophicai Society of New South Wales (1856-
66) 123
Geology and Engineering in the Sydney Region 1
LIVERSIDGE. LECTURE 1996 139
MEDICINE
Consciousness and Quantum Mechanics 69
MILLS, DAVID R.
Full Circle: The Resurgence of the Solar
Economy (Pollock Memorial Lecture 1996) 45
NEEF, G AND BOTTRILL, R.S.
Devonian Geology of Copper Mine Range, far
west New South Wales 105
Philosophical Society of New South Wales (1856-
66) 123
PHYSICS
Solar Energy 45
Planetary Research (48th Clarke Memorial Lecture
1995), Taylor, S.R. Recent Developments in 33
POLLOCK MEMORIAL LECTURE 1996 = 45
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 1996 1
Quantum Mechanics. Bennett, Max R.
Consciousness and , 69
Recent Developments in Planetary Research. (48th
Clarke Memorial Lecture, 1995) Taylor, S.R. 33
ROY AL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES
MEDAL 1995 88, 100
RUNCORN, S.K. Biographical Memoir 158
SWAINE, D.J.
Trace Elements in Coal Science. (30th
Liversidge Research Lecture) 138
Solar Energy 45
Stanton, A.O; Emeritus Prof Richard, Annual
Dinner Address 103
TAYLOR, S.R
Recent Developments in Planetary Research
(48th Clarke Memorial Lecture 1995) 33
Trace Elements in coal. D.J. Swaine 139
WALTER BURFITT PRIZE 1995 88, 100
JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
ROYAL SOCIETY
OF
NEW SOUTH WALES
Volume 129, Parts 1 and 2
Parts 3 and 4
1996
ISSN 0035-9173
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY
P.O. BOX 1525, MACQUARIE CENTRE, NSW 2113
Issued June 1996
December 1996
ROYAL SOCIETY
OF NEW SOUTH WALES
President
K.L. GROSE
Vice Presidents
D.F. BRANAGAN J.R. HARDIE
J.H. LOXTON W.E. SMITH
D.J. SWAINE
Hon Secretaries
G.W.K. FORD M. KRYSKO VON TRYST
Hon Treasurer Hon Librarian
D.J. O'CONNOR P.M. CALLAGHAN
Councillors
R.S. BATHAL R.R. CONRAADS
M. LAKE G.C. LOWENTHAL
E.C. POTTER K.A. RICKARD
F.L. SUTHERLAND
Branch Representatives
New England Rep. S.C. HAYDON
Southern Highlands Rep. H.R. PERRY
CONTENTS
VOLUME 129, PARTS 1 AND 2
BRANAGAN, DF.
Bricks, Brawn and Brains-Two centuries of Geology & Engineering
in the Sydney region (Presidential Address 1996) 1
TAYLOR, S.R.
Recent Developments in Planetary Research (Clarke Memorial Lecture 1995) 33
MILLS, DAVID R.
Full Circle: The Resurgence of the Solar Economy
(Pollock Memorial Lecture 1996) 45
BENNETT, MAX R.
Consciousness and Quantum Mechanics 69
ABSTRACTS OF THESES
BISHOP, Andrew C.: Towards a Crop Growth, Development,
and Yield Model for Lupinus angustifolius
(Narrow Leafed lupin) in Tasmania 80
BORER, Philippe: The Twenty-Four Caprices of Niccolo Paganini:
Their significance for the history of violin
playing and the music of the Romantic era 81
LEUNGaking of an alienated Generation 82
CLEMENTS, Mark Alwin: Reproductive Biology in relation to phylogeny
of the Orchidaceae, especially the tribe
Diurideae 83
HAYATI, A. Majid: A contrasitive analysis of English and Persian
intonation patterns 85
COUNCIL REPORT: 1995-1996 87
Annual Report 87
Abstract of Proceedings 90
Financial Statement 93
Awards 100
Annual Dinnner Address 103
DATE OF PUBLICATION Vol. 129 Parts 1 and 2
June 1996
CONTENTS
VOLUME 129, PARTS 3 AND 4
NEEF, G AND BOTTRILL, R.S.
Devonian Geology of Copper Mine Range, far west New South
Wales
DAY, A.A. AND DAY, J.A-F.
A Biographical Register of Members of the Australian Philosophical
Society (1850-55) and the Philosophical Society of New South
Wales (1856-66). Part II
SWAINE, D.J.
Trace Elements in Coal Science. (30th Liversidge Research
Lecture, 1996)
ABSTRACTS OF THESES:-
HAWORTH, Robert J. European impact on Lake
Sedimentation in Upland Eastern
Australia: Case Studies from the New
England Tablelands of New South
Wales
O'DEA, Mark G. Geometry and Structural Evolution of
the Leichhardt River Fault Trough,
Mount Isa terrain, Australia
SEKHON, Lali: The Effects of Chronic Cerebral
Hypoperfusion in the Rat
SMITH, CE, Situating Style: an Ethnoarchaeological
Study of Social and Material Context in
an Australian Abonginal Artistic
System
GROVER, OBE, JOHN C.
Review of Book "The Volcanic Earth" by F. Lin Sutherland
BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
INDEX to VOLUME 129
DATE OF PUBLICATION:
Vol. 129 Parts 3 and 4: December 1996
105
123
139
149
151
153
154
135
158
161
&
21
Pe i ; ay
a | *- icin, heya
|
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CONTENTS
VOLUME 129, PARTS 3 AND 4
NEEF, G AND BOTTRILL, RS. 2.
Devonian Geology of Copper Mine Range, far west New South
DAY, A.A. AND DAY, J.A.F.
A Biographical Register of Members of the Australian Philosophical
Society (1850-55) and the Philosophical Society of New South
Wales (1856-66). Part II 123
SWAINE, D.J.
Trace Elements in Coal Science. (30th Liversidge Research
‘ Lecture, 1996) ~ ag tae 139
ABSTRACTS OF THESES:- a ci
HAWORTH, Robert J. European impact on Lake :
Sedimentation in Upland Eastern
Australia: Case Studies from the New
England Tablelands of, New ‘South
i
Wales 149
O'DEA, Mark G. Geometry and Structural Evolution of
the Leichhardt River Fault Trough,
Mount Isa terrain, Australia 151
SEKHON, Lali: The Effects of Chronic CE
Hypoperfusion in. the Rat” ag 153
SMITH, CE. Situating Stylé:. an Ethnoarchaeological
Study of Social and Material-Gontext in
an Australian Aboriginal Artistic a
System. See 154
GROVER, OBE, JOHN C.
Review of Book "The Volcanic Earth" by F. Lin Sutherland 155
BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS oe 158
INDEX to VOLUME 129 fi epee nt OMe a? 161
DATE OF PUBLICATION: ; es
Vol. 129 Parts 7 Pred December 1996
|
JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
ROYAL SOCIETY
OF
NEW SOUTH WALES
Volume 130 Parts 1 and 2
(Nos 383-384)
1997
_ ISSN 0035-9173
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Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of NSW , Vol. 130 Parts 1-2, 1-24, 1997 1
ISSN 0035-9173/97/010001-24 $4.00/1 -
Stratigraphy and structure of an outboard part of the
the Hikurangi Margin, North Wairarapa, New Zealand
G. NEEF
Abstract. The area studied lies inboard of the trench slope break in the forearc
part of the Hikurangi Margin in North Wairarapa, North Island, New Zealand. It
lies above a west-subducting Pacific plate. The geology of parts of two units of the
forearc (the Tawhero Basin and the forearc ridge) are described. The major NNE-
trending Tinui Fault separates the Tawhero Basin from the trench slope break,
which lies to its east - it resembles the Mentawai Fault of offshore Sumatra. The
NNE-trending Waihoki Fault separates the Tawhero Basin from the forearc ridge
which lies to its west. These faults were active during much of Miocene time
forming a graben between them. Associated with graben formation was dextral
transpression which was caused by oblique subduction of the underlying Pacific
plate. The Waihoki Fault has been inactive since 6 Ma.
Most of the strata of the study area comprise Owahanga Group (mid-late
Miocene), which are well developed in the northeast-trending Tanawa Syncline,
and the Hurupi and the Te Hoe Groups (late Miocene), which are well developed
west of the Waihoki Fault. Cretaceous strata (Mangapokia, Te Mai, and Whangai
Formations) crop out locally along the western margin of the area. The youngest
strata, Waihoki Formation (Te Hoe Group) of Kapitean (latest Miocene) age crop
out within the north-trending Tawhero Syncline in the centre of the mapped area.
Much of the development of the Tawhero Syncline near Tawhero Station has
occurred since early Pliocene time indicating increased compression since then.
Associated with this increased compression has been substantial uplift - as
demonstrated by the Holocene incision of the meander belts of rivers.
Keywords: Forearc basin, Hikurangi Margin, southern Tawhero Basin, forearc
ridge, structure, tectonics, stratigraphy, geological history.
INTRODUCTION
The area studied, ~ 250 km? and subrect-
angular in shape, comprises the southwestern
part of 1:50,000 metric topographic map
NZMS sheet U25 Pongaroa and an eight
kilometre wide north-trending belt adjacent
to the western margin of the sheet U25 (Fig.
1). (Grid references and New Zealand fossil
record numbers referred to in the text lie in
sheets U25 and T25). The southern margin
of the study area lies 120 km northeast of
Wellington in North Wairarapa, which is a
sparsely settled part of New Zealand where
the inhabitants are engaged in sheep-cattle
farming. Access to the southern part of the
2 NEEF
Is
RUAHINE RANGE /, “,
/
PALMERSTON _ ~
® GN
NORTH &< A",
rx e DANNEVIRKE
/\
Cape
Turnagain
Auckland
North
Island
Fig. 1. Map of the southern part of the North Island showing the location of the study area. Also
shown is the distribution of the forearc ridge, Tawhero Basin and the trench slope break in
North Wairarapa. Offshore the direction and the rate of motion for the Pacific plate relative
to the Australian plate is shown by the large arrow.
study area is possible by road, whereas ac-
cess to the northern part must be largely by
foot (especially the northeast). The area is
hilly (max. altitude 450 m) and flat land is
largely restricted to the valleys of the Tinui
and the Whareama Rivers. The strata are
well exposed along the banks of rivers and
streams and in road cuts. This work is a
record of field studies completed during 1982-
89 —mostly during the summer of 1982-83—
and is illustrated by a geological map (Fig. 2)
and a cross section (Fig. 3). The work is
largely a description of the early Neogene
development of part of a forearc basin lying
inboard of the trench slope break and the
late Miocene history of the forearc ridge,
which lies to its west. It provides and exam-
ple that is pertinent to the study of Palaeozoic
and Mesozoic forearcs of Australia.
HIKURANGI MARGIN 3
PREVIOUS WORK
Ongley (1935) pioneered geological mapping
in North Wairarapa and Kingma (1967)
mapped the structure and stratigraphy of
the area at 1:250,000 scale. More detailed
studies of the study area were by Johnston
(1975, 1980). Neef (1984; 1995; in press)
described the geology west, east and north of
the study area. Strata of the Early Creta-
ceous Pahaoa Group in Wairarapa were
described by Moore and Speden (1984) and
a clastic dike within theng, Mudstone Mem-
ber (Neef 1991a) and turbidites of Tanawa,
Pakowhai and Waihoki Formations (Neef
1992a) have also been studied previously.
STRUCTURE AND TECTONIC SETTING
The Pacific plate underlies the study area at
~ 14 km (Arabasz and Lowry 1980) (Fig. 4).
Subduction of the underlying plate is now
oblique, causing tectonics to be partly due to
subduction and partly due to dextral dis-
placement (Walcott 1978). Also important to
an understanding of Neogene tectonics of
the area is the clockwise rotation of the east
coast of the North Island during the last 40
m.y. (Walcott 1987). Six units of the forearc,
each bounded by a major fault, are known
(Neefin prep. ). Two of these units, the south-
ern part of the Tawhero Basin, and part of
the forearc ridge are described here (Figs. 2
and 4). Fast of the Tawhero Basin and east of
the bounding Tinui Fault Complexis the mid
slope break which acts as a back stop and is
composed of substantial Early Cretaceous to
Paleogene strata. The Tinui Fault Complex
has a similar location within the forearc as
does the Mentawai Fault which lies offshore
of Sumatra (Izart et al. 1994). The Waihoki
and the Tinui faults together formed a sim-
ple dextral shear couple during much of the
Miocene (Neef in press) but the amount of
dextral displacement along these faults is
unknown. Subduction controlled tectonics
caused a graben (the Tawhero Basin) toform
between the faults during the period 24 - 6
Ma. Because the Waihoki Fault and the
Tinui Fault Complex converge southwards,
the Tawhero Basin is only 3 km wide at the
southern margin of the study area.
The outboard part of the forearc was
tectonically active during most of the
Miocene (there is ample evidence of faulting .
along the Tinui Fault in the early Miocene,
Neef 1995) whereas during Late Quater-
nary time faulting was almost entirely in the
inboard part of the forearc. This explains
why the outboard part of the forearc has
been described as the fold and thrust zone
whereas the inboard part has been referred
to as the strike slip zone (Cape et al. 1990).
STRATIGRAPHY
Stratigraphic nomenclature of the study area
follows that of Ongley (1935), Johnston (1975),
Moore and Speden (1984) and Neef (1991b)
(Fig. 5). Because there is little structural
complexity and there is good biostratigraphic
control (especially from foraminifera exam-
ined by Hugh Morgans) in the Neogene of the
study area, the production of a geological
map was relatively straight forward.
Macrofossils in Cretaceous strata are very
rare and are chiefly species of the bathyal
bivalve Inoceramus (Ballance 1993) and
Cretaceous biostratigraphy is largely from
the occurrence of these bivalves and fossil
NEEF
AP
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AST
id dds SS
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Ere eS ae
Fa > e+
fF pe teeeeee
Pa 5
ow 4
NOILV LS S44
AAV EE os
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Fig. 2. Geological Map of the study area. See Fig. 3 for legend.
HIKURANGI MARGIN
Tiraumea Road
WAIHOKI
TAWHERO SYNCLINE
fe
—
<a)
< =
Raeere 5
» Sou se “ oo
2 og"s = Z Ss
2 £2 ee 25 eg o §
tr = te ie = Ewa
TANAWA SYNCLINE
a
iy,
G SS WANSTEAD S a Maunsell Member
= =e FORMATION i ES, TANAWA
- 5 nt FORMATION
< ARANAM
3)
Z
a s
B 5 WHANGAI e TAKARITINI
E6 FORMATION 3 FORMATION
EO z
SIFSFIVFU
>
5 COAST ROAD
FE MAI FORMATION
ats FORMATION
Ste)
25
: a
< MARINGI ee WHAKATAKI
= FORMATION = § tj FORMATION
‘) of
4
)
MANGAPOKIA : ‘| WEBER
PAHAOA
GROUP FORMATION Z WOO FORMATION
TE HOE GROUP
<i RE iG—$—
*” Face unknown
ALLUVIUM
Y Face defined at outcrop
Face inferred from
field relationships
WAITHOKI
RORMeTION », Overturned beds
x (face defined at outcrop)
7 Geological boundary,
Mudstone dashed if approximate
Turbidite Faults, dashed if approx.,
measured dip shown
FORMATION
Seismoturbidite
yee Anticline, showing plunge
HURUPI GROUP
B
< ng4 Mudstone ; ;
X Syncline, showing plunge
ng Tephra
H. ngg Sandstone & - Road
[| Mudstone /
ET I Ds ;
beet ; 2 ng, Sandstone ap Slip
a C.D. Clastic Dike
Fig. 3. Geological cross section A-B.
spores are alsoimportant (Neef 1995). Char-
acteristically the Cretaceous and Cenozoic
formations are uniform in lithology and
marker beds within formations are absent -
an exception is the ngg Tephra Member of
the Ngarata Formation. Unfortunately, the
Tephra Member is unknown east of the
Tawhero Syncline.
The depth of deposition of the Neogene
strata is estimated from the inferred depth
distribution of fossil foraminifera (Vella 1962;
Hayward 1986). Estimations of depth (e.g.
upper bathyal (400 - 1000 m) to mid bathyal
(1000 - 2000 m Hayward 1986), are most
useful in synthesis of the depositional envi-
ronment.
PAHAOA GROUP
(Moore and Speden, 1979)
MANGAPOKIA FORMATION
(Moore and Speden, 1979)
Distribution: The formation crops out in
the following areas: (1)in a7 km? area in the
southwestern part of the study area; (2)
adjacent to the Wairiri Fault ~ 1 km south-
east of Mokai Trig; (3) southeast of Ngarata
Station; and (4) in the southern part of the
Spring Hill Anticline.
6 NEEF
FOREARC RIDGE
SPRING HILL
ANTICLINE
GROWING
BASIN
WAIHOKI
TRUE SCALE
TAWHERO TRENCH B
SLOPE
BREAK
(BACK
ACTIVE STOP)
ESE
PACIFIC
ACCRETIONARY
PRISM
22.
LATE MIOCENE
ng , Sandstone Member
EARLY AND MIDDLE
MIOCENE (TAWHERO BASIN)
RSSSS) MIOCENE - RECENT (OFFSHORE)
PALEOGENE
E==3 LATE CRETACEOUS
veceee] EARLY CRETACEOUS
ACCRETIONARY PRISM
Fig. 4. Diagrammatic section of part of the forearc basin and part of the accretionary prism in
North Wairarapa at ~10 Ma (early Tongaporutuan) (partly after Lewis and Pettinga 1993, and
Neef in press). For location see Fig. 1.
Description and Thickness: The forma-
tion comprises indurated couplets of
sandstone and mudstone lacking fossils and
evidence of the direction of younging. At two
localities in Makirikiri Stream there are
float boulders of sandstone containing peb-
bles. In the north at T25/645541 there is a
jaspilite outcrop and a knoll of sandstone
crops out at T25/642524.
Age: The Pahaoa Group has a Urutawan? -
Motuan Age (Moore and Speden 1984).
Depositional Environment: Most of the
original sedimentary structures have been
obliterated, however, most of the couplets
probably represent facies C2.2 of Pickering
et al. (1989) which were deposited, perhaps,
in a submarine fan environment. Ballance
(1993) has proposed an accretionary prism
environment of deposition for the formation.
MANGAPURUPURU GROUP
(Johnston 1975)
MAKATOTE STREAM SUBGROUP
(Neef 1991b)
MARINGI FORMATION
(Johnston 1975)
Distribution and Description: The
Maringi Formation crops out as a 300 m-
wide southeast trending belt ~ 500 m south
of Manawa Trig. At T25/650407 the forma-
tion comprises pale grey siltstone with 1-2 m
long septarian concretions. South of the study
area Johnston (1980) discovered an
unconformity at the base of the formation.
Age: The Makatote Stream Subgroup of the
Mangapurupuru Group has a Motuan -
Arowhanan age range (Neef 1995).
Depositional Environment: From its
lithology and the absence of macrofossils the
HIKURANGI MARGIN 7
23
F °
ngeg Sst/ mdst
8
ng, Sandstone
Maunsell
B
Bo
<5
=
af
29
ie)
=]
<
5}
rar
5]
al
s
te |
[o)
N
5]
ran
°
o
u
5)
i=}
o
mo)
c
Zs
—]
=
°
a
u
<
oO
ad
—
>
oO
c
c
a
Q
os
_
=a
3
ws
3
o
[24
oO
ro)
c
oO
is
O
TAKARITINI
COAST
ROAD
WHAKATAK.
MANGATU
KIPIHANA*
MARINGI
MANGA-
Wot
Motuan [2
*Formations not found
in study area
— CRETACEOUS
Urutawan fies 5
Fig. 5. Stratigraphic column of strata in the
study area. TH = Te Hoe Group and P =
Pakowhai Formation.
formation is likely to have been deposited in
a bathyal environment.
WIG SUBGROUP
(Neef 1991b)
TE MAI FORMATION
(redefined, Neef 1991b)
Distribution: The formation crops out as a
70-75 m-wide, 0.8 km-long sliver between
MANGAPURUPURU
the Dalziell and Grassendale faults in the
headwaters of Makirikiri Stream.
Description and Thickness: The forma-
tion comprises two lithofacies, a basal
sandstone and an upper rudite. The sand-
stone, 60 m thick, is lightly indurated and
locally itis carbonaceous (Fig. 6). The rudite,
75 m thick, comprises angular, subangular
and subrounded clasts chiefly 10-20 mm
long (max. length 0.4 m) and itis part matrix
supported and part clast supported. Clasts
include dacite, rhyolite, granophyre, gran-
ite, and calcareous siltstone (Johnston and
Brown 1973, table 1). Also present are lightly
indurated clasts, and rare fragments of
Inoceramus sp. and a belemnite (Johnston
and Brown 1973). Rare, 0.1 m-thick, fine
sandstone beds are subvertical.
Age: Fossil spores/pollen indicate an early
Piripauan age for strata near the base of the
sandstone lithofacies (T25/f66, 633420). The
belemnite Dimotobelus lindsayi, reported
by Johnston and Brown (1973) is a Piripauan
index fossil (Stevens and Speden 1978, p.
290).
Depositional Environment: The sand-
stone lithofacies is possibly nonmarine
whereas the rudite, which contains marine
molluscs, is very shallow marine. Thatis, the
formation represents deposition at a Late
Cretaceous shoreline.
TINUI GROUP
(Johnston 1975)
WHANGAI FORMATION
Distribution: The formation crops out as a
250 m-wide, 2.5 km-long sliver between
Dalziell and Grassendale faults, and it is
mapped locally in the east adjacent to the
Tinui and Breakdown faults.
Description and Age: The formation, a
rusty weathering siltstone, is siliceous and
lacks macrofossils. It represents the
Rakauroa Member of Moore (1988).
Depositional Environment: The forma-
8 NEEF
Mostly fine-grained rudite (maximum clast size
mostly 70 mm) with some horizons with 0.4 m-
long clasts. Clasts are largely formed of
Mangapokia Formation. Some well polished and
well rounded clasts.
Massive rudite, most clasts are c. 130 mm in
length. (maximum clast size 0.5 m). Inoceramus
sp. present.
Fine rudite with minor sandstone horizons. Clasts
are subangular (max clast size 170 mm).
Coarse-grained rudite (max clast size 0.3 m)
Laminated very fine and coarse part carbonaceous
sandstone with minor rudite horizons
T25/f66,
663 420
Fig. 6. Stratigraphic column of the Te Mai Forma-
tion in the headwaters of Makirikiri Stream.
tion is of bathyal aspect indicating a phase of
Late Cretaceous downwarping in the Tinui
district. The formation’s uniformity and ab-
sence of coarse grained strata suggests a
sediment-drift mode of deposition to the east
of a landmass of low relief (Neef 1992b).
MANGATU GROUP
(Wellman 1959)
WANSTEAD FORMATION
(Moore et al. 1986)
Distribution: The formation crops out lo-
cally in the east and it is also exposed near
Manawa Trig in the southwest.
Description, Thickness and Age: Because
ofits bentonite content, which causes slips to
form, the formation is poorly exposed. Road
cuts near Te Mai Station show some graded
bedding. A foraminiferal sample from 600 m
NNE of Manawa Trig (T25/f9948, 645425)
has a Bortonian age (Johnston 1980), and
the formation has a Teurian to Bortonian
age range (Moore et al. 1986).
Environment of Deposition: The forma-
tion is bathyal (Neef 1995). The bentonite
within the formation may be detrital (Moore
1988) or due to the weathering of volcanics
(Ballance 1993).
\
HIKURANGI MARGIN 2)
WEBER FORMATION
(Johnston 1975)
Distribution: The formation crops out in
the eastern part of the study area adjacent to
the Tinui, Aberfoyle, and Breakdown faults.
Description and Thickness: The forma-
tion is a highly calcareous, pale grey
mudstone (the limestone facies of Moore et
al. 1986). It is at least 720 m thick (Neef
1995).
Age:The formation is Oligocene in age (Moore
et al. 1986).
Environment of Deposition: The forma-
tion represents a widespread bathyal, impure
calcareous ooze (Neef 1995) at a time when
the area lay within a passive margin envi-
ronment (Ballance 1993).
WHAKATAKT FORMATION
(Johnston 1975)
Distribution: The formation is mapped on
the eastern part of the study area. It is well
exposed near Te Mai Station and in the
banks of the Pakowhai River.
Description and Thickness: The forma-
tion, which is conformable on Weber
Formation, comprises well developed Bouma
sequences which at Te Mai Station are 10-30
cm thick (facies C2.2 of Pickering et al. 1989).
Age: A Waitakian age is favoured because
the overlying Coast Road Formation is Otaian
in age (Neef 1995).
Environment of Deposition: Deposition
was from southeast-flowing turbidity cur-
rents of normal density (Neef 1992a).
Syndepositional sliding of the formation on
Weber Formation near Te Mai Station sug-
gests that the Tinui Fault was active in the
Early Miocene (Neef 1995).
OWAHANGA GROUP
(Neef 1991b)
COAST ROAD FORMATION
(Neef 1991b)
Distribution: The formation is well ex-
posed along the Tinui River at the southern
margin of the study area.
Description: The formation largely com-
prises massive grey mudstone, and itcontains
a few sandstone beds, which dip moderately
steeply to the southeast.
Age: Foraminifera from just south of the
study area (U26/f12, 763394) are late
Waitakian-Otaian in age whereas U25/f115,
760400 has an Altonian age.
Depositional Environment: Foraminifera
from U25/f115 give outer shelf-upper bathyal
depths of deposition. The formation was
formed from hemipelagic mud.
TAKARITINI FORMATION
(Johnston 1975)
Distribution: The formation is mapped
southwest of Te Mai Station at Takaritini
Stream, in the Pakowhai River and the sce-
nic Three Kings Flat Irons. It is also present
but very incompletely developed between Te
Mai Station and the Pakowhai River.
Basal Contact: Because the Coast Road
Formation is largely absent, the formationis
generally unconformable on the Whakataki
Formation.
Description and Thickness: At the type
section at Takaritini Stream the formation is
only 140 m thick, having basal beds rich in
phosphatised pebbles, echinoids, Cucullaea
sp. and Lentipecten hochstetteri (Neef 1995).
The formation is massive in the Pakowhai
River, and ~ 350 m thick west of Rara Trig
where there are erosion-resistant beds ~6m
thick (Neef 1995, fig. 13).
Age: The formation is Altonian in age (Neef
1995).
Depositional Environment: The forma-
tion is shelf deposited perhaps in a storm
regime (Neef 1995).
TANAWA FORMATION
(redefined Neef 1991)
(Maunsell Formation, Johnston 1975)
10 NEEF
Nomenclature and Type Section: Most
of the formation comprises turbidite, mapped
as Tanawa Formation, whereas mudstone
(Maunsell Mudstone Member) is minor. The
type section lies along the Mataikona River
between U25/786446 and U25/775452.
Distribution: The formation crops out in a
1.5 - 2.5 km northeast-trending belt at the
eastern margin of the study area.
Basal Contact: South of the Rahiwi Fault,
and north of Pakowhai River the formation
is conformable on the Takaritini Formation.
Elsewhere the formation is unconformable
on Weber or Whakataki formations.
Description and Thickness: Near Te Mai
Station the 170 m-thick Packspur Conglom-
erate Member is basal (Neef 1992a, 1995).
The lower two thirds of the formation is
formed of sandstone-mudstone couplets of
medium thickness (C2.2 facies of Pickering
et al. 1989) (e.g. those exposed in the
Mataikona River; Fig. 7). Upwards the sand-
stone parts of the couplets decrease in
thickness (C2.3 facies of Pickering e¢ al.
1989; mud turbidites, Kinsele 1992, p. 215).
Thecouplets, which have abrupt bases, show
cut and fill structures and streaming
lineations, and locally at their base there are
invertebrate and plant fragments. Apart from
the sandstone-mudstone couplets there is a
sandstone-filled channel, with scattered
macrofossils (along Pakowhai River at U25/
778516, Neef 1992a). In anorth-flowing tribu-
tary of Pakowhai River at U25/765500 there
is a recumbent fold (soft sediment formed)
(Fig. 8) with thanatocoenotic Mollusca:
Glycymeris (?Manaia) sp.; Polinices cf.
intracrassus, Struthiolaria (Callusaria) cf.
(U25/f103, 765500). Nearby there is a pebbly
thanatocoenotic shell bed with Glycymeris
(Manaia) cf. hurupiensis, Polinices cf.
intracrassus, Struthiolaria (Callusaria) cf.
spinosa and Penion crawfordi (U25/f107,
764508).
Fig. 7. Uniform well developed C2.2 lithofacies
(turbidite) in the mid part of the Tanawa
Formation, at Mataikona River (U25/778450).
Backpack near bottom right gives scale.
The formation is 1.8 km thick along the
axis of the Tanawa Syncline (cross section A-
B, Fig. 3).
Maunsell Mudstone Member
(Neef 1991b)
Distribution: The member forms a ~ 800
m-wide, NNE-trending belt west of the Tinui
River.
Description and Thickness: The mem-
ber, 400 m thick near Rahui Station,
comprises massive mudstone with common
50 mm thick very fine sandstone beds.
HIKURANGI MARGIN
¢
Se
Fig. 8. Slumped C2.2 lithofacies
SE pre pint
11
* $c
(turbidites) in a tributary of the
Pakowhai River at U25/765500. Backpack near centre gives scale.
Age of the Formation: Foraminifera from
near the base of the Tanawa Formation (U25/
f117, 784468; U25/f128, 783468) give late
Lillburnian - Waiauan ages whereas the
Takaritini Formation, which lies not far be-
low, is Altonian in age. The base of the
Maunsell Member has a Waiauan age (U25/
f129, 772466) whereas its upper part has a
Waiauan - lower Tongaporutuan age (U25/
£88, 742422).
Depositional Environment: The forma-
tion was deposited largely from
south-southeast flowing, low-velocity tur-
bidity currents derived from west of the
Waioakura Horst which lies 4 km to the NNE
of the northern margin of the study area
(Neef 1992a, Neef in press). The Packspur
Conglomerate Member, however, was inter-
preted to represent the fill of a small
westward-trending submarine canyon (Neef
1992a). Foraminifera indicate that much of
the Tanawa Formation was deposited at
mid-upper bathyal depths (i.e. ~ 1000 m)
(U25/f117;025/f128).
The thanatocoenotic shell beds (U25/f103,
£107) lie close to the Mt York Fault and the
shells forming the shell bed may be derived
from a local submarine high along the fault
rather than from the Owahanga Block to the
east. Asymmetry of the slump folds indi-
cates a palaeoslope to the south (Fig. 8).
The Maunsell Mudstone Member was
also deposited at mid-upper bathyal depths
(U25/f129; U25/f76) whereas sample U25/
f88 has a mid bathyal depth of deposition.
Part of the member originated from distal
mud-transporting turbidity currents (from
the presence of thin sandstone beds), and
part originated from hemipelagic mud. Per-
haps syndepositional folding of the Tanawa
Syncline caused the limbs of the syncline
(especially the east limb) to rise relative to
the axis causing turbidity currents to be
channelled along the axis of the syncline.
South of Mt York the upper part of the forma-
tion wedges out into the Maunsell Member.
12 NEEF
?Poroleda sp.
Lentipecten hochstetteri
Anomia trigonopis
Eumarcia (Atmarcia) thomsoni
Kuia macdowelli
2K. macdowelli
Eucrassatella ?ampla
Dosinia (Kereia) cf. cottoni
"Pholadomya" cf. warreni
Zeacolpus (s.str.) taranakiensis
Struthiolaria (s. str.) praenuntia
S. (Callusaria) ¢spinosa
S. (C.) sp.
Zegalareus sp.
Polinices intracrassus
P. cf. intracrassus
P. sp.
Friginata vaughanti
@Cominella sp.
Alcithoe cf. dilatata
Austrotoma cf. nervosa
Dentalium cf. solidum
Sample Grid Ref.
T25/f50 125/658 455
T25/f51 T25/659 457
T25/f52 T25/665 452
T25/f53 T25/623 449
f50 f51 f52 f53
xX
Xx
xX
X
X
Xx
xX
xX
xX
Xx
Xx
Xx
X
Xx
xX
X
xX
DS
xX
x
x
X
Locality
Forestry Track
Forestry Track
Creek
Forestry Track
Table 1. Macrofossil list ng; Sandstone Member, Ngarata Formation. (Identifications by A.G.
Beu.)
HURUPIGROUP
(Johnston 1975)
NGARATA FORMATION
(Neef 1974)
The Ngarata Formation comprises the fol-
lowing members: ng; Sandstone, ngo
Conglomerate, ngg Siltstone, ng, Mudstone,
ngs Tephra (Neef 1974). Subsequently the
ngg Tephra and the ng7 Rudite have been
described in the northern part of the Tawhero
Basin (Neef in press) and the ngg Sand-
stone-Mudstone member is described here.
Distribution: The formation forms a 4.5 to
7.5 km wide, 15 km long, north-trending belt
at the western margin of the study area.
Mudstone developed west of the Waihoki
Fault in Makoura Stream is also attributed
to Ngarata Formation.
HIKURANGI MARGIN 13
Basal Contact: The formation is
unconformable on the Mangapokia Forma-
tion of the Pahaoa Group.
Description and Thickness:
ng; Sandstone Member
The member, pale grey N6 or N7 in colour,
comprises massive, moderately well sorted,
fine and very-fine grained sandstone. Sur-
prisingly, sedimentary structures including
bedding are rare and invariably it is difficult,
or impossible, to delineate bedding in the
field or on aerial photographs. Scattered
shells and cemented shell beds are present
locally, especially in the west (Table 1) and
Ophiomorpha sp. ichnofossils (commonly 15-
25 mm in diameter) arecommon. Pebbles are
rare but small mud clasts are more common.
Gas from the Annedale gas vents (Johnston
1980, p. 48) probably originates from organic
material trapped within the member and the
vent’s location, between two northeast-
trending faults, is like that of the Owahanga
gas vents (Neef 1995), indicating that they
hie along a NNW-trending joint parallel to a
thrust fault.
The member is ~ 600 m and 950 m thick
south of the Grassendale Fault and between
the Blue Gum and Manawa faults respec-
tively, whereas it is only 350 m thick in the
north (Section A-B, Fig. 3).
ng4 Mudstone Member
The massive, lightly indurated mudstone
(1.1 facies of Pickering et al. 1989) is grey
N6 or N7 in colour and it lacks macrofossils.
It contains rare greensand beds. One in the
uppermost part of the member has a strike
length of at least 300 m. In Woody Gully
Stream and at T25/695467 it contains peb-
bles. A clastic dike-sill complex crops out in
Woody Gully Stream (Neef 1991a). Another
clastic dike, having a similar strike to the one
in Woody Gully Stream, crops out in Blue
Gum Stream at T25/685462. It dips to the
northwest at 73° and it is 60 mm thick and
comprises shells and greensand.
In the north in a tributary of Makoura
Stream (between U25/721525 and U25/
723525) there is a 90 m thick sequence near
the top of the member that comprises, at its
base, macrofossil-rich coarse sandy debris-
flow deposits (max. thickness 0.3 m)
interbedded with mudstone beds 0.3 - 2 m
thick (Neef in prep.) At the top of the se-
quence there are five macrofossil-rich
bouldery debris-flow deposits 2-4 m thick
(max. boulder length 0.65 m), which alter-
nate with mudstone beds 6-10 m thick.
Macrofossils, displayed in the garden of
Waitawhiti Station, are from debris-flow
deposits near Island Trig (U25/723532).
The member, fully developed, is ~ 850 m
thick between Manawa and Blue Gum faults,
and ~ 270 m thick in Section A-B (Fig. 3).
ngg Tephra Member
The member crops out in the lower part of
the ng, Mudstone Member. It comprises six
tephra beds that alternate with mudstone
beds. The memberis best exposed at the type
section (a hillside south of Peninsula Station
at T'25/677404) (Fig. 9). The tephras are very
pale grey and fine-grained and together they
form a minor ridge in the southwest of the
study area. The tephra member is traced
northwards to Whareama River (T25/
674412), where a tephra bed is 2.2 m thick,
and then 1km tothe NNW tothe Grassendale
Fault. North of the fault a tephra bed overlies
several greensand beds. The member also
crops out in Blue Gum Stream (T25/671468)
where the ?lower tephra is 5 m thick and
very pale grey in colour, and 3 km to the
NNW at T25/668498 where it is 1 m thick.
ngg Sandstone and Mudstone Member
Couplets of sandstone-mudstone commonly
0.2-0.3 m thick (max. thickness 1 m) crop out
between the Grassendale and Manawa faults
14
NEEF
UPPER
ng, Mudstone TEPHRAS
Pe] Dune bedding amplitude 0.1 m
ng4 mudstone
4 Dune bedding at base of tephra
(amplitude 0.1 m)
Mudstone
eelete ce) Very fine
Mudstone
tiaencare tage: Very fine LOWER
PESOS gh TEPHRAS
CL LBL LILA
Very fine
1.5 - 9 m thick
Redeposited very fine-grained volcani-
7+] Clastic sandstone containing abundant
meas slightly altered colourless volcanic glass.
“221 There are a few grains of brown hornblende,
"255) and some glauconite-rich horizons.
(where the member is ~ 200 m thick) and
between Blue Gum and Wairiri faults where
the member is ~ 100 m thick. Locally the
sandstone parts are laminated at their bases.
Age: Macrofossils from the central part of
theng , Sandstone Member (T25/f52, 665452)
(Table 1) have an early Tongaporutuan age
and macrofossils from T25/f50, 658455 which
underlies T25/f52, are probably Tongapor-
utuan. A sample from the upper part of the
ng4 Mudstone Member T25/f49, 697476) also
has a Tongaporutuan age. Surprisingly a
Kapitean index fossil, Austrofusus
coerulescens (T25/f6434, 680481, found by
M. Ongley) (Johnston 1980, p. 36) was col-
lected ~ 150 m below the base of the Waihoki
Formation at a locality below where
Tongaporutuan microfaunas are known (e.g.
T25/f49). This anomalous occurrence could
be based on a misidentification, or, perhaps,
the fossil was not in place where it was
collected.
Depositional Environment: Absence of
the ngg Conglomerate Member indicates
that during the early part of the formation’s
deposition there was little local marine ero-
sion of the underlying Mangapokia
Formation and that the area was generally
one across which sand was being trans-
ported. Because of the rarity of sedimentary
structures it is unclear if the ng; Sandstone
Member was deposited within a tidal or a
storm dominated environment. Depth of
deposition was probably mid neritic and the
massive nature of the member was probably
due to substantial bioturbation (much of it
due to the activity of ghost shrimps). The
length of the ghost shrimps can be estimated
from the diameter of their burrows (15-20
mm) (Neef 1978). These data suggest that
the ghost shrimps that formed the burrows
Fig. 9. Composite section in the ngg Tephra
Member south of Peninsula Station at T25/
677404.
HIKURANGI MARGIN 15
were the ancestors of the present day, mid to
outer neritic-indicating Ctenocheles
maorianus or Axiopsis n. sp. (Neef 1978).
The thin development of ng; Sandstone be-
tween the Grassendale and Manawa faults
is due to syndepositional faulting causing
local uplift there. Absence of ngg Siltstone
Member indicates relatively sudden
downwarping. Foraminifera from basal part
of the ng, Mudstone Member were depos-
ited at outer shelf - upper bathyal depths and
the ngg Sandstone-Mudstone Memberis also
thought to have been deposited in this depth
range. Subsequently the mid-upper parts of
the ng, Mudstone Member were deposited
at mid - upper bathyal depths (e.g. T25/f105,
694471) from suspension. Dune bedding at
the base of the upper tephra of the ngg
Tephra Member indicates high flow regime
transport prior to the deposition of the tephra.
The associated greensand beds are also most
likely to have been redeposited.
The fossil-rich debris-flow deposits of
Makoura Stream, lying 200-400 m west of
the Waihoki Fault are like those described
from Tongaporutuan strata adjacent to the
fault at Huia Road (7.5 km to the NNE) (Neef
in prep.), and they also resemble Jurassic
debris-flow deposits near the Helmsdale
Fault of Scotland (Wignall and Pickering
1993). Like the deposits at Huia Road they
indicate that a Tongaporutuan fault sliver
lay along the Waihoki Fault and that it
reached the neritic zone, forming an envi-
ronment favourable to molluscs. Evidence of
Tongaporutuan dextral and thrust faulting
is from the clastic dikein Woody Gully Stream
which has vertical and horizontal slicklines
at its margin (Neef 1991a).
PAKOWHAI FORMATION
(Neef 1991b)
Distribution: The formation forms a 1-6
km wide north-trending belt east of Tawhero
Syncline.
Basal Contact: North of Pakowhai River
the formation is conformable on Tanawa
Formation whereas south of the river the
basal beds of the formation are faulted out by
the Mt York Fault. Near Tanawa Trig and to
its south the formation overlies the Maunsell
Member.
Description and Thickness: Commonly
at the base of the formation lies a massive 15
m-thick seismoturbidite bed (Neef 1992a).
The lower part of the formation is formed of
sandstone-mudstone couplets (turbidites)
whereas its upper part largely comprises
mudstone with minor sandstone beds (espe-
cially in Wingate Stream).
In the Pakowhai Gorge the lower turbidite
part of the formation (~ 600 m thick) com-
prises mudstone-sandstone couplets of C2.1
facies of Pickering et al. (1989). Overlying
strata, largely mudstone (see Section A-B),
are ~ 480 m thick. At the southern margin of
the area the turbidite part of the formation
wedges out. An 80 mm-thick tephra bed in
the lower part of the mudstone part of the
formation is exposed in acliff along Makoura
Stream at U25/743533.
Age: The upper part of the underlying
Tanawa Formation is early Tongaporutuan
in age (U25/f76, 746469) and the upper part
of the Pakowhai Formation is also
Tongaporutuan (U25/f41, 725502) showing
that the formation is entirely Tongaporutuan
in age.
Depositional Environment: The basal
seismoturbidite was deposited from a rap-
idly flowing, highly concentrated, tephra-rich
turbidity current (Neef 1992a). The overly-
ing turbidites have Bouma sequences which
indicate deposition from turbidity currents
of normal density that were deposited at
mid-upper bathyal depths (Neef 1992a).
Many flute and groove casts at the base of the
sequences indicate southward flow and an
origin from north of the Waihoki Fault near
Waihoki Settlement (Neef 1992a). That is
16 NEEF
the formation was deposited, proximally,
from a ramp environment (Neef 1992a)
rather than from a fan environment. Be-
cause turbidite flow was parallel to the axis
of the Waihoki Syncline it is likely that the
fold was forming in early Tongaporutuan
time (Neef 1992a). The lower turbidite part
of the formation wedges out at the southern
margin of the study area indicating that
turbidite flow there was up an incline, that
caused flows to decelerate. It is unclear why
turbidite deposition ceased suddenly. Per-
haps sediment derived from the Mangatuna
High (near Pongaroa, Ridd 1967) was
abruptly directed elsewhere.
The middle and upper parts of the forma-
tion are largely formed of mudstone deposited
from suspension at bathyal depths (e.g. mid-
upper bathyal, U25/f41). Common sandstone
beds in Wingate Stream and a virtual ab-
sence of sandstone bedsin Makoura Stream,
suggest that sand derivation was from the
east.
TE HOE GROUP
(Neef 1974)
WATHOKI FORMATION
(Johnston 1975)
Waihoki Series (Ongley 1935)
Type Section: The strata exposed at Gun-
powder in the headwaters of the Whareama
River between T25/696463 and U25/706463
represent the type section.
Distribution: The formation crops out as a
2.5-4.5km-wide, 15km-long, north-trending
belt in the centre of the area.
Basal Contact: Commonly the base of the
formation is poorly exposed; however in
Woody Gully Stream exposures show a con-
formable contact (Fig. 10).
Description and Thickness: Much of the
formation comprises thick sandstone-
mudstone couplets (Facies C2.1 of Pickering
et al. 1989). However, locally thinner cou-
fe ae cena a ee
Fig. 10. Stratigraphic contact between ngy
Mudstone Member and the Waihoki Forma-
tion in Woody Gully Stream at T25/694470.
The upper concretion ~ 2 m long lies at the
base of the Waihoki Formation and there is
some minor bedding in the ng4 Mudstone
Member.
aed
plets are present (Facies C2.2 of Pickering et
al. 1989). Near Middle Hill Trig the base of
the formation is marked by a 42 m-thick
sandstone bed, and a thick basal sandstone
is known south of the study area at Ekenui
Stream (Johnston 1980, p. 34). Surprisingly
the sandstone parts of the couplets along the
west limb of the syncline are much thinner
than those along the east limb (Johnston
HIKURANGI MARGIN 17
au
Fig. 11. Sixty metre exposure of Lower Waihoki Formation in the
southernmost part of the study ara at U25/701414. Note that turbidite
is generally C2.2 lithofacies. C2.1 lithofacies lies in the centre.
1980, p. 35). Johnston also found that the
basal part of the formation has a consider-
able reworked tephriccomponent. In Wingate
Stream the upper part of the underlying
Pakowhai Formation has several thick sand-
stone-mudstone couplets and the basal
contact of the formation is less certain there.
On the west limb of the Tawhero Syncline
the lower part of the formation is well ex-
posed at U25/701414 (Fig. 11), where the
thickest sandstone part of the coupletsis 2m
thick and has a very irregular base, above
which there are 100 mm-long mudstone
clasts. Most of the mudstone parts of the
couplets are pale grey (N7) whereas two
mudstone beds are slightly darker in colour.
The formation is excellently exposed at
Gunpowder (Neef 1992a, fig. 18) where ai-
ternating units, 5-15 m thick, have thick or
thin sandstone parts. Commonly the sand-
stone parts of the couplets are poorly graded,
massive and laminated (Fig. 12).
The formation, which is incompletely
developed because younger beds are absent,
is at least 425 m thick (see Section A-B).
Age: Foraminifera from Gunpowder U25/
£83, 706463 have a late Tongaporutuan -
early Kapitean age, and foraminifera from
north of the study area suggest that the base
of the formation is earliest Kapitean in age
(Neef in press).
Depositional Environment: Foraminifera
from U25/f83 indicate an outer shelf envi-
ronment of deposition. Many features of the
couplets such as their abrupt bases, how-
ever, indicate upper bathyal turbidite
deposition. Much of the sediment, partly
derived from redeposited tephras, originated
east of the Tinui Fault (Neef 1992, fig. 9). The
formation was deposited from highly con-
centrated flows like those described by
Pickering et al. (1989). The abrupt thinning
of the sandstone parts of the couplets west-
wards indicates deceleration of the turbidity
18 7 NEEF
ct
Fig. 12. Six metre exposure of C2.1 lithofacies in the upper part of the
Waihoki Formation in the headwaters of the Whareama River at U25/
701445. Note well developed lamination in the sandstone parts of the
couplets.
currents - presumably because they were
flowing up a slope.
QUATERNARY
At about 1.2 Mathe forearc rose out of the sea
(Neef in prep. and others) due to an under-
plating event of the forearc (Walcott 1987).
Quaternary erosion surfaces are recognised
at 600 m (the Puketoi Surface of Neef 1967)
which is probably 1.2 Ma and at 300 m (the
Hinemoa Surface of Neef 1967) which is
probably 0.6 Ma (Neef in prep.). In north-
west Wairarapa two fluvial styles are known
during the Late Quaternary. During cold
periods rivers aggraded their courses to build
terrace deposits (which invariably are capped
by loess and occasionally with airfalltephras)
whereas during warm periods rivers incised
their beds and removed part of the previ-
ously deposited gravel (Vella et al. 1988).
In some parts of the study area there is
evidence of substantial incision of the beds of
rivers. For example adjacent to the gorge of
the Pakowhai River there are narrow ter-
race remnants ~ 95 m higher in elevation
than the river bed. North of the gorge a
terrace at an elevation of 180-200 m grades
imperceptibly into adjacent hillsides indi-
cating formation during the last stadial of
the last glaciation, or ~ 10-12 k.yr., (Vella et
al. 1988). Locally, in the headwaters of the
Pakowhai River, terraces adjacent to the
river are a few tens of metres higher in
elevation than the bed of the river, indicat-
ing they are late Holocene in age and that
there has been rapid uplift there. Also there
are narrow terrace remnants, 40 to 50 m
higher than the bed of the Whareama River,
which grade into adjacent hillsides indicat-
ing that they too are 10 to 12 k.yr. in age.
Solifluction deposits
Solifluction deposits, commonly several
metres thick and comprising 50-150 mm-
HIKURANGI MARGIN 19
long fragments, mantle many of the steeper
hillsides. The deposits are also likely to have
formed ~ 10-12 K.yr. ago.
Slips
Six large slips are known on the outcrop of
the Waihoki Formation (Fig. 2). They are due
slip at the base of the sandstones after heavy
rain (Johnston 1980). Also important in slip
formation are the northerly- and southerly-
dipping normal faults (they form
discontinuities and thus enhance down-slope
sliding).
Taupo Pumice
Adjacent to a track a T25/624405, airfall
pumice 0.2 m thick, derived from the Lake
Taupo areain 186 AD (Walker 1980), overlies
a3m thick solifluction deposit and is overlain
by top soil ~ 0.5 m thick.
STRUCTURE
The structure of the study area is largely
represented by widely spaced NE- or NNE-
trending faults and folds. The Tinui Fault
Complex in the east and the Waihoki Fault
in the west are the most important struc-
tures. Between them lies the southern part
of the Tawhero Basin. Many of the north-
east-trending faults of the study area are
thought to be also inclined to the west at ~
70°. However the Waihoki and Tinui Faults
have histories of dextral movements and
they are thought to dip more steeply (~ 85° to
the west). Late Quaternary fault traces are
absent. There are three structurally com-
plex areas: on the forearc ridge in the
southwest corner of the study area near
Manawa Trig; in the Tawhero Basin near
Rahiwi Station; and in the southeast where
the Tinui Fault Complexis present. Asin the
northern Tawhero Basin much of the struc-
ture, especially the faults, is considered to
have formed before latest Tongaporutuan
time.
Southern Tawhero Basin
Structure is considered to be like that of the
northern Tawhero Basin which formed dur-
ing Miocene dextral transpression (Neef in
press) (term coined by Sanderson and
Marchini 1984). In the southeast the Tinui
Fault Complex comprises the Tinui,
Aberfoyle and Rahui faults. A small fault
subparallel to the Rahui Fault at U25/755423
dips 84° at 163 and displays almost horizon-
tal slickenlines which are consistent with
dextral movements on the Tinui Fault Com-
plex. About 5 km north of Te Mai Station the
Tinui Fault Complex diverges NE and the
eastern boundary of the study areais marked
by the Breakdown Fault. The western mar-
gin of the Tawhero Basin is delineated by the
Waihoki Fault, which became inactive in
latest Tongaporutuan time, and is covered
by the Waihoki Formation. South of the
study area the Marangi Fault of Johnston
(1975)1is probably an extension of the Wathoki
Fault.
Utilising the Sanderson and Marchini
(1984) model, the eastern part ofthe Mt York
Fault and the Tanawa Hutt Fault are dextral
synthetic faults, whereas the Rahiwi Fault
is a sinistral synthetic fault. It has a 0.12-
wide fault zone that dips 85° to southwest at
U25/739451. The Wingate, Breakdown and
southern part of the Mt York faults are
considered to be thrust faults —the over-
turned seismoturbidite bed of the Pakowhai
Formation (at U25/749498) (adjacent to the
Mt York Fault) is also consistent with a
thrust origin for the NNE-trending part of
the fault.
20 NEEF
Forearc ridge (lies west of the Waihoki
Fault)
The northeast-trending Grassendale,
Dalziel, Manawa, Blue Gum and Wairiri
faults are considered to be dextral synthetic
faults (deduced from the Sanderson and
Marchini 1984 model). The northwest
trending fault lying north of the Tiraumea
Road may be a sinistral synthetic fault
whereas the NNW-trending fault west of
Annedale Station is thought to be a thrust
fault. The Spring Hill Anticline was growing
during Tongaporutuan and Kapitean time
(Neef in press) (Fig. 4).
Tawero Syncline (Ongley 1935)
The north-trending gentle symmetrical
Tawhero Syncline is a major feature of the
area. It partly overlies an inactive Waihoki
Fault and formed during Plio-Pleistocene
time. Its eastern margin shows minor faults
(which trend SWS in the south and north-
east in the north). Exposures near the axis of
the syncline show common minor faults that
dip northerly or southerly at ~ 60°.
GEOLOGICAL HISTORY
The Mangapokia Formation of Early Creta-
ceous age was deposited in bathyal seas.
Shortly after deposition, it was deformed
during an inter-Motuan orogeny (Moore and
Speden 1984). Following the orogeny, bathyal
Maringi Formation of the Makatoke Stream
Subgroup was deposited. After a further
period of deformation the near shore con-
glomerate-sandstone beds of the Te Mai
Formation (lower Wig Subgroup) were de-
posited during Piripauan time when there
was continued uplift in the hinterland. The
deposition of the bathyal Whangai Forma-
tion, of Late Cretaceous age, indicates an
absence of mountains/hills in the hinterland
and the presence of an offshore boundary
current (Neef 1995).
The bentonitic Wanstead Formation is
calcareous (sourced from foraminifera and
nannofossils, Moore 1988), perhaps due to
the northwest drift of the Pacific plate
(Ballance 1993). The highly calcareous We-
ber Formation formed at a time when the
whole of New Zealand was submerged
(Ballance 1993). The Whakataki Formation,
partly sourced from Mesozoic greywacke
(Korsch et al. 1993), represents a period
when there was uplift in the west - perhaps
the Waihoki Fault represents the western
margin of the depositional area (Neef in
press). The area of the trench slope break,
however, had not begun to rise.
Owahanga Group
Bathyal mudstone of the Coast Road Forma-
tion crops out locally within the Tinui Fault
Complex but it is absent entirely west of the
complex (Neef 1995). This indicates that the
fault was active during Otaian time. At ~ 7.5
Ma, in late Altonian time, subduction of the
underlying Pacific plate became oblique,
causing, in the Tawhero Basin, alternating
periods of tectonics due to subduction or to
dextral transpression (Neefin press). At this
time the trench slope break and the forearc
ridge were progressively uplifted, Late Cre-
taceous and Paleogene strata on the ridge
were eroded and the derived sediment were
deposited in the growing Tawhero Basin.
Considerable activity along the Tinui Fault
complex during Altonian time is indicated
by the great variations of thickness of the
Takaritini Formation and locally its com-
plete absence. The Rahiwi Fault was active
HIKURANGI MARGIN 21
in early Lillburnian time because the fault
separates Takaritini and Whakataki forma-
tions south of the fault from areas north of
the fault where the Takarititi and Whakataki
formations are absent and the Tanawa For-
mation is unconformable on Weber
Formation (Neef 1995).
In Lillburnian and Waiauan time the
bathyal Tanawa Formation was deposited
largely from southward-flowing, low-veloc-
ity turbidity currents (Neef 1992a).
Syndepositional slumping near the Mt York
Fault suggests that the fault was active in
late Lillburnian time. In early Waiauan time
early growth of the Tanawa Syncline caused
turbidity currents to be channelled south-
wards along the synclinal axis and mud
(Maunsell Mudstone Member) to be depos-
ited on its eastern limb.
Hurupi Group
In early Tongaporutuan time there were
widespread unconformities in the northern
Tawhero Basin(Neefin press) and the forearc
ridge was downwarped more or less at the
same rate as downwarping in the Tawhero
Basin. Thus the Ngarata Formation is wide-
spread in northern Wairarapa (Fig. 4). The
ng Sandstone Member of the Ngarata For-
mation was deposited within a neritic
environment. Sand was generally trans-
ported northwards by longshore drift (Neef
in press). Especially thin sequences of the
member between the Grassendale and
Manawa faults indicate syndepositional
uplift of the intervening block. The ngg Sand-
stone-Mudstone Member may represent
deposition from shallow-water turbidity cur-
rents. The turbidite part of the bathyal
Pakowhai Formation was deposited by south-
flowing turbidity currents (Neef 1992a).
Almost as suddenly as it commenced, depo-
sition of thick turbidite ceased. The upper
part of the formation was formed of
hemipelagic mud. Some sandstone beds, es-
pecially those in Wingate Stream, were
probably derived from the east.
West of the Waihoki Fault the ng,
Mudstone Member was deposited from sus-
pension in bathyal seas (like the seas of
southern Wairarapa, Wells 1989). Tephras
in the ng, Mudstone Member are rare and
they were derived from volcanoes present in
the southern part of the Coromandel Penin-
sula (Kear 1994). The tephra in Blue Gum
Creek is not widespread, indicating that it
represents the fill of a slope gully. Associa-
tion of the ngg Tephra Member with
greensand beds (especially adjacent to the
Grassendale Fault) indicates the glauconite
of these greensand beds originated on nearby
submarine highs.
In the north, in the headwaters of
Makoura Stream, macrofossil-rich, debris-
flow deposits resemble debris-flow deposits
adjacent to the Helmsdale Fault of Scotland
(Wignall and Pickering 1993). They formed
due to syndepositional faulting along the
Waihoki Fault (like that described 7.5 km to
the NNE at Huia Road; Neef in prep.). It is
probable that the fault was active through-
out much of the Tongaporutuan. Vertical
and horizontal slickenlines at the margin of
the clastic dike near Annedale (Neef 1991a)
indicate that seismicity at ~6 Ma was asitis
today (~ 100 yr. long periods of dextral fault-
ing alternating with ~ 100 yr. long periods of
compression, due to the subduction process,
Walcott 1978).
Te Hoe Group
The bathyal Waihoki Formation formed from
high-density turbidity currents flowing west-
wards from east of the Tinui Fault (Neef
1992a). The turbidites of the formation were
ponded against a growing Spring Hill Anti-
cline (Neef 1992a) and they represent the
final fill of the Tawhero Basin.
22 NEEF
Plio-Pleistocene
Bedding in the Waihoki Formation in the
east limb of the Tawhero Syncline near
Tawhero Station is two-thirds of the value to
the bedding on the underlying Pakowhai
Formation indicating that tilt rates there
have doubled since the early Pliocene.
Holocene
In early Holocene time rivers were able to
incise their beds but there was little down-
stream migration of the meander belts. This
is consistent with accelerating uplift rate -
and local uplift rates of > 4 mm/yr.
SUMMARY
1. During the period 24 - 6 Ma the Tawhero
Basin was bounded by the active Tinui
Fault Complex and the Waihoki Fault.
The basin formed as a result of subduction
tectonics but it was also deformed after ~
17.5 Ma by syndepositional dextral
transpression.
2. During basin formation the bounding
forearc ridge and the trench slope break
were uplifted and eroded (especially the
Late Cretaceous and Paleogene stratal
cover of the forearc ridge). At 10.5 Mathe
forearc ridge was downwarped at about
the same rate as the Tawhero Basin and
sedimentation on the forearc was wide-
spread.
3. At 6 Ma the Tawhero Basin and the
forearc ridge were fused and there was
considerable uplift of the trench slope
break area from which the turbiditic
Waihoki Formation was derived.
4. There is an absence of Late Quaternary
faulting in the study area whereas Holo-
cene uplift rates are high (possibly ~ 4
mm/yr).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am grateful to Hugh Morgans and Alan
Beu for foraminiferal and mollusc identifi-
cations and reviewing an earlier draft of the
text. Doug Salisbury (Te Mai Station), Gavin
Henrickson, Pongaroa, A. Blundell, Waimea
Station and the owner of Spring Hill Station
are thanked for providing accommodation.
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Zealand: with notes on styles of deposition
at the margins of east coast bathyal basins.
Sedimentary Geology 78,111-136.
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(1:50 000) metric sheet U25 BD east), north-
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Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophys-
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Neef, G., 1995. Cretaceous and Cenozoic geol-
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ment on the Pongaroa Fault, Wairarapa,
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MoulladeandA.E. Nairn (Eds). Phanerozoic
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Vella, P., Kaewyana, W. and Vucetich, C.G.,
1988. Late Quaternary terraces and their
cover beds, north-western Wairarapa, New
Zealand, and their provisional correlations
with oxygen isotope stages. Journal of the
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of New Zealand during the Late Cainozoic.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
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Department of Applied Geology
University of New South Wales
Sydney, NSW 2052
Australia
(Manuscript received 25.2.97; in final form
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Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of NSW, Vol. 130, Parts 1-2, 25-34, 1997. 25
ISSN 0035-9173/97/010025 - 10 $4.00/1.
Nuclear Propulsion for Submarines and Surface Vessels
A Review
R.J. DUSSOL
Communicated by G.C. Lowenthal
NUCLEAR PROPULSION
Today more than three hundred ships are
propelled by nuclear plants. They all use
pressurised water reactors, and are either:
- Naval Surface Ships
- or Submarines
The first vessel of any kind to use nuclear
power was a submarine, the USN Nautilus.
At the time ofher launch, she was the world’s
largest submarine. Almost exactly one year
later she flashed an historic message from
Long Island Sound, a stretch of water off the
eastern coast of the USA: “Under way on
nuclear power”. In the years that followed,
Nautilus and her successors rapidly demon-
strated the tremendous advantages that
nuclear power gives a submarine. Forty years
later more than five hundred reactors are in
service around the world on board three
hundred and fifty American, British, Rus-
sian, Chinese and French vessels.
NUCLEAR PROPULSION FOR SURFACE SHIPS
In the sixties it looked that nuclear propul-
sion could also apply to merchant ships. The
10,000 tonne freighter Savannah in the US,
and a German ore ship the Otto Hahn of
equivalent capacity were commissioned in
1962 and 1968 respectively. Drawings for
their successors have since been kept in
their filing cabinets. Their main problem
was obtaining free access to harbours in a
number of countries but there were others,
such as flags of convenience.
A nuclear propulsion assembly is volumi-
nous and dense, partly on account of the
heavy radiological protection. On board a
submarine, this is acceptable because it is a
very compact vessel not designed to carry
any commercial freight. Its weight, sub-
merged, is equal to the lifting force with a
density of 1, which is about the same for the
nuclear reactor assembly proper. The weight
and width of the reactor determine the sub-
marine’s overall size and the diameter of the
hull.
It is far different for a surface ship with a
density three to five times less than when
unladen. Her size has therefore to take into
consideration the extra weight of the nu-
clear reactor and its heavy metal shielding
in order to make the ship commercially eco-
nomical.
Designed as the first frigate with nuclear
propulsion, the USS Longbeach was eventu-
ally commissioned as a cruiser. Since then
all surface ships in the US Navy, excluding
26 NUCLEAR SUBMARINES
aircraft carriers, are above 9,000 tonnes.
This impact of weight on size is reduced as
the size of the ship increases. This is the case
for aircraft carriers.
The cost of a conventional submarine is
approximately A$250,000/m:3. The cost of a
frigate with conventional propulsion is at
least three times less. The cost of the nuclear
plant alone is also A$250,000/m3, and there-
fore makes the cost ofa nuclear plant a heavy
burden on surface ships
Another factor increasing costs is the
high quality of parts and sophisticated fab-
rication procedures of all components of the
nuclear installation required to ensure ad-
equate safety. Costs are not so different for
a submarine because high technology com-
ponents are necessary throughout anyway.
A merchant ship is of much simpler design.
Finally the maintenance and logistic sup-
port required for a nuclear merchant ship
are out of proportion when compared with
the support required for a conventional one.
Where Navy ships are concerned, cost is
not always the dominant factor, especially
not when a country has the means to afford
them. Nuclear propulsion ensures a greater
mobility and endurance and this particu-
larly applies to an aircraft carrier and her
escort which often have to operate at high
speed when planes are taking off or landing.
These are more decisive factors than costs.
An often useful advantage of nuclear pro-
pulsion for aircraft carriers or cruisers is
that it eliminates the need for funnels that
induce air turbulence, which in turn affects
the operation of aeroplanes and helicopters.
A surface ship is, of course, more exposed
to missiles than a submarine. Nuclear pro-
pulsion greatly improves speed and mobility
for an aircraft carrier and her escort but it
does not eliminate vulnerability, far from it.
Above a certain size a surface ship has to be
designed and constructed to take blows and
survive. This requires very heavy protection
of the nuclear plant not only for major con-
flicts but also for intervention in any areas
likely to be hostile.
The US Navy has made a choice which
few other countries can afford. Its aircraft
carriers are the largest by far and most
expensive because they were designed to
carry aeroplanes of all types and aptitudes
whatever the flying condition. The cost of
nuclear propulsion is only one item among
many others of an extraordinarily high
budget.
Aircraft carriers are deployed with es-
corts well equipped with anti-aircraft,
anti-surface and anti-submarine warfare
weaponry and also with detection devices,
which make hostile aggression unlikely to
succeed. There remain the problems of de-
fence against ballistic missiles with or without
nuclear warheads. Carriers are sometimes
criticised in the USA because of their price
and their key importance which makes them
prime targets for hostile fleets.
In northern Russia, with its exceptional
winter conditions, nuclear propulsion looks
successful for ice-breakers which, thanks to
nuclear power, can survive isolated from the
rest of the world for long times. The costs are
then irrelevant. The Russians are also de-
signing cargo ships for use in ice fields.
Spending a winter in the Arctic certainly
justifies different considerations. As for their
navy the Russians envisage surface ships
with a relatively small reactor for cruising
and supplying power on board, and addi-
tional oil burners to boost the steam pressure
for higher speed.
A Japanese project to build a nuclear
powered commercial vessel about twenty
years ago had to be abandoned because of
strong anti-nuclear public opinion. Never-
theless the Japanese still maintain aresearch
and development programme for the use of
nuclear propulsion for surface ships.
DUSSOL 27
NUCLEAR SUBMARINES
Nuclear Submarines are in service in the
navies of the USA, the UK, Russia, China
and France, while India has one under con-
struction. There are two types of nuclear
submarines: the attack vessel known as SSN
(Submarine Ship Nuclear) (Fig. 1) and the
missile-carrying submarine or SSBN (Sub-
marine Ship Ballistic Nuclear) (Fig. 2). The
former is designed to attack and destroy
other submarines and enemy vessels. The
SSBN is a frightening weapon, its role being
to serve as a platform for nuclear missiles,
which is hidden in the depths of the ocean.
The world’s SSBN forces threaten retalia-
tion to any country that makes first use of
nuclear weapons, a threat designed to pre-
vent the outbreak of war. Threat of nuclear
retaliation very likely has prevented nu-
clear war for half a century.
Whenever a submarine is to operate far
from base and has to cover a vast patrol zone
for periods of months or longer, the nuclear
submarine is the only capable weapon. It has
almost total independence far away from
base, which is not the case for aconventional
submarine. No alternative means of propul-
sion can compete against nuclear propulsion
for oceanic submarines. Chemical, air inde-
pendent propulsion (AIP) fuel systems, eg.
using hydrogen gas, could be the means to
improving the acoustic discretion of coastal
patrol submarines which do not require great
mobility. However, this cannot apply to oce-
anic patrols, because of constraints imposed
by the storage requirements of the hydrogen
or other chemical fuels on board.
In 1958 Nautilus passed across the North
Pole, sailing deep beneath the extremely
thick ice cap in that hostile region, so demon-
strating that there was no ocean in the world
a nuclear submarine could not command.
Operating nuclear submarines isclaimed
to be excessively costly, particularly by de-
tractors. The investment is indeed substan-
tial but nuclear energy allows the production
of much larger, highly versatile and very fast
vessels. The cost is a consequence of high
performance requirements, and not exclu-
sively due to the cost of nuclear propulsion.
Performance levels possible with a nuclear
plant cannot be achieved by any other
method. No one can win the Grand Prix
without a Formula 1 design.
If a country has already invested in a
nuclear industry or received assistance from
a friendly country, it becomes possible to
develop a submarine fleet at an acceptable
cost. Whatever the choice, cost and effi-
ciency have to be compared over the whole
life of submarines. From this viewpoint, it is
definitely in favour of nuclear power be-
cause a conventional submarine equipped
with sophisticated weapon systems will never
have the mobility and invulnerability match-
ing such an investment. This means that the
choice of nuclear propulsion for oceanic mis-
sions cannot be contested, provided of course
that the country concerned can afford it.
Nuclear propulsion is the only technology
allowing a submarine to remain submerged
and silent for a long time. Conventional
submarines run on batteries which have to
be recharged using noisy diesel engines. At
a speed of 2 or 3 knots they can operate for
several days prior to recharging but at 20
knots batteries will not last more than one
hour. A nuclear submarine can run at more
than 25 knots for the whole mission. Some
American or Russian submarines are capa-
ble of a submerged speed of more than 50
knots at depths down to 600m.
Up to 1995, nuclear powered naval ships
had covered more than 100 million nautical
miles accumulating more than 4,600 reactor
years of operation and have never experi-
enced a reactor accident or any problem
28 NUCLEAR SUBMARINES
involving a reactor which has resulted in the
release of radioactivity. Since World War II
the US Navy has only lost two submarines:
one struck an underwater mountain, whilea
mechanical malfunction caused the second
submarine to plunge into the ocean depths
where the enormous pressure crushed its
hull. The Russian Navy has lost 12 subma-
rines due to problems with the reactors,
including outright failure. Itis careless about
the environmental aspects of its nuclear
programme and, according to its experts, it
faces enormous costs to restore the pro-
gramme’s health and safety margins.
Discretion - Silence
In order to perform any mission it is not
enough to be discreet, i.e. remain silent to
avoid trouble. It is also necessary to be able
to detect any potential aggressor.
The only efficient means known today for
discovering the position of asubmarine navi-
gating beneath the surface of the ocean isthe
acoustic method commonly known as sonar.
The electronic ears of a sonar system analyse
the frequencies of the sound waves trans-
mitted through the water and identify their
origin.
Once below the surface the crucial im-
perative for any submarine is to possess the
acoustic advantage over its potential aggres-
sor. Specifically this means having a quieter
propulsion system than the enemy vessel so
as to detect its position before it detects
yours. There are three main causes for the
noise produced by submarines: the turbu-
lence of the water along the hull, the noise
produced by the propulsion system and the
noise produced by the operation of various
types of equipment such as motors, pumps,
fans, valves and so on. Submarines are
equipped with a total of 75,000 parts con-
nected by 300 km of cables and 50 km of
pipes. Every piece of equipment has to be
fully independent from the hull and installed
on flexible mountings or cradles isolated
from the hull.
As for the reactor (Fig. 3), it produces
pressurised steam and the same type of
reactor is used in all American and Euro-
pean submarines. These reactors are
characterised by the position of the steam |
generation system which is located directly
above the reactor vessel. Water in the pri-
mary circuit is driven by convection between
the reactor vessel and the steam generator
unit, requiring no pumps under a wide range
of operating conditions. The advantage of
this design is the low level of noise as com-
pared to noise generated from pump driven
systems (Fig. 4).
The steam turbines drive two alterna-
tors: 1) the propulsion alternator produces
the necessary electricity for the main elec-
tric engine which drives the propeller directly
without an intervening noisy reduction gear-
box; 2) the power alternator provides the
electricity necessary to the ship’s services.
Instead of propellers, large submarines are
now using pump jets but details of the mecha-
nisms are jealously guarded military secrets.
For a speed greater than 10 to 12 knots,
noise from both nuclear and conventional
submarines is mostly of hydrodynamic ori-
gin. For speeds less than 10 to 12 knots most
noise comes from the reduction gear, the
reactor primary cooling pump (unless a con-
vection system is used) and the propeller. A
conventional submarine is silent when pa-
trolling at 3 knots unless the batteries are
being re-charged by noisy diesel generators.
Nuclear propulsion offers such a range of
operational possibilities that it is difficult to
imagine how submarines of the future could
be anything but nuclear, except for those
operating in small seas such as the Baltic or
those designed for coastal duties, in which
other AIP systems could be considered, such
as fuel cells, although they would then face
the difficulties of oxygen storage on board.
DUSSOL 29
The French Navy is developing a small 2
megawatt reactor which could be used as an
AIP propulsion system for 3000 tonne sub-
marines enabling them to cruise at 8 knots
indefinitely.
Conventional diesel-electric submarines
have become increasingly vulnerable to air-
borne and shipborne advanced radar capable
of detecting, at very long range, the snorkel
mast and periscope when they are raised
above the surface, and the wake created by
them. Detection by these methods may cause
the submarine to be lost even before reach-
ing its patrol area.
The submarine batteries supplying the
propulsion motors have to be charged regu-
larly. Modern conventional submarines will
spend 20% of their time at a snort station for
a speed of advance (SOA) of 10 knots, 15% for
an SOA of 8 knots, and 7% for an SOA of 5
knots. In the case of an Australian subma-
rine this indiscretion ratio is actually more
constraining than may appear because long
distances have to be cruised at 8 or 10 knots
before reaching the assigned patrol area.
The journey from Sydney to the Strait of
Lombok, for instance, lasts 20 days, of which
3 to 5 days are spent snorting. Nuclear pro-
pulsion would permit the same trip to be
made in 8 days, with no snorkel indiscretion
at all, the submarine remaining permanently
submerged.
A conventional submarine on patrol at 3
to 4 knots would be snorting 2 hours a day, 2
hours that may prove extremely hazardous
when a hostile aircraft has been ordered to
clear the area for the benefit of an incoming
task force, 2 hours that would be better spent
quietly submerged and undetectable, search-
ing for targets.
Mobility - Speed
Mobility in terms of submarine warfare
means that a pre-determined speed be sus-
tained for hours or days. When HMS
Conqueror was despatched by the British
Navy to the Falklands, she sailed 8000 nau-
tical miles at more than 20 knots, submerged
all the way, and could thus lock the Argen-
tinian fleet in its harbour before it could take
any action.
A modern submarine is equipped with
acoustic sensors that permit it to detect,
classify and track targets up to 100 km away.
But the torpedoes and other weapons car-
ried by the submarine have a strike range of
no more than 30-40 km, In many instances
the vessel has to get even closer to identify a
selected target. The submarine captain is for
most of the time in the position of a hunter
who has to manoeuvre quickly in order to get
into a firing position on a fast moving target,
whereas a vessel equipped with diesel-elec-
tric propulsion might not be able to catch up.
If engaged in modern warfare, a diesel-
electric submarine would soon be forced to a
standstill by the limited capacity of its bat-
teries, rather than be able to act as an
aggressive hunter. In this context, the great-
est advantage of nuclear propulsionisclearly
evident: a nuclear submarine could track a
fast running target for hours and days at a
time —whether the quarry be either surface
combatant or submarine — retaining the
capability of firing at selected times on se-
lected ships. A conventional submarine will
have the opportunity to act once, and once
only. The limitation imposed by its battery
capacity will prevent it from keeping up with
surface warships or merchant vessels, and
thus it cannot act as an escort. Furthermore
its range is limited by its fuel capacity.
The comparison of nuclear and conven-
tional propulsion in terms of mobility and
speed, is definitely in favour of nuclear pro-
pulsion. The validity of this assertion can be
put in a few words: the conventional subma-
rine can travel at a maximum speed of 20
knots for one hour only, approximately the
distance between Garden Island and Palm
30 NUCLEAR SUBMARINES
Beach, followed by several hours snorting
versus unlimited sustained speed in sub-
merged conditions for the nuclear submarine.
In other words, the greater the speed the
higher the chances for survival.
During World War II acoustic sensors
and radar capable of detecting submarines
at very long range were far from being as
efficient as they are today and satellites did
notexist. Nevertheless, 781 out of 842 or 93%
of diesel-electric U-boats that saw action at
the time were lost. Of the 38,000 German
submariners 28,000 died and 5,000 were
taken prisoners, i.e. there were 85% casual-
ties. Towards the end of the war only two out
of every ten U-boats that set out could expect
to return. Would any come back today?
Conventional Nuclear
Tonnage, Submerged 3000 tonnes 3000 tonnes
Maximum Speed 22 knots > 25 knots
(one hour only) (unlimited time)
Construction Cost nf 13
Annual Maintenance 1 135
Patrol 3600 mile from Base:
Transit Speed 10 knots 18 knots
Indiscretion Ratio
Transit Time
22% (snorting) 0%
15 days x 2
8.5 days x 2
Patrolling Time 40 days 53 days
Patrolling Speed 3.5 knots 10 knots
Indiscretion Ratio 5% (snorting) 0%
To permanently maintain 2 submarines over the patrolling area,
including maintenance and transit time:
Required Number of Submarines
8
Purchase Price 8
Maintenance cost
per annum 8
)
6.5
6.75
Advantage is in favour of nuclear propulsion. The price difference
will more than cover the cost of the infrastructure required for
supporting the nuclear fleet, which is estimated at approximately
75% of the total price of one unit.
Table 1
DUSSOL 31
COMPARING COSTS OF NUCLEAR AND CONVENTIONAL SUBMARINES
Comparison is valid if both submarines are
of similar capacity, with similar weapon sys-
tems and the same number of torpedoes and
missiles.
In this situation the price of one nuclear
propelled submarine is 30% higher than for
a conventional submarine, and its mainte-
nance costs 35% more, but the vessel is
capable of far superior performance, so
much so that the price comparison should
not be restricted to the number of units per
fleet.
As an example, in order to permanently
maintain two submarines patrolling over a
distant area, the respective requirements
are set out in Table 2:
whereas nuclear submarines are fast vehi-
cles of manoeuvre.
All advantages are on the side of nuclear
propulsion. The significantly lower operat-
ing costs of nuclear submarines, as stated in
the table, will more than cover the cost of the
infrastructure required for supporting the
nuclear fleet, which is estimated at approxi-
mately 75% of the total price of one unit. It is
also relevant that while a 3000 tonne con-
ventional submarine will require 25,000
tonnes of fuel during its operational life, not
forgetting handling problems, only one tonne
of nuclear fuel would be used over the same
period.
8 Conventional submarines costing 8x1 = 68
or
5 Nuclear submarines costing 5x 1.3 = 6.5.
Table 2
These figures apply to 2 equivalent 3000
tonne dived submarines with the following
salient features.
A nuclear submarine has a much higher
transit speed, not having to charge batteries
for 20% of the time at sea with noisy diesel-
generators broadcasting its position.
Furthermore, it will cruise at 10 to15 knots
over the patrolling area instead of only 3 to
4 knots for the diesel electric unit.
The area covered by the nuclear vessel is
3 to 4 times greater for the same number of
days at sea, with zero indiscretion ratio (Fig.
7). Thanks to its faster transit speed a nu-
clear submarine will spend 53 days
permanently submerged over the area con-
cerned, whereas a conventional vessel can
only remain 40 days, occasionally snorting.
Diesel submarines are warships of position,
In a nation where 96% of our imports and
exports depend on ships, conventional sub-
marines could not escort and protect any of
them. The use of conventional technology
would condemn our young sailors to over-
whelming inferiority should an emergency
occur. Would anyone like to be a sailor on
board what the German U-boat Commander
Herbert Werner called ‘iron coffins’, in the
event of a conflict in the Indian Ocean?
R.J. Dussol
Managing Director
Sofraco Pty Ltd
123 Kent St, Sydney NSW 2000
Australia
( Manuscript received 18.2.97
Manucript received in final form 15.6.97)
NUCLEAR SUBMARINES
————
32
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NNN NINE NNN NEN NNR AL NRRL NPR ORNL NNN NNN NNN RINT NEON ONE NENNEN NON ONIN NN 198 OOOO meme
34 NUCLEAR SUBMARINES
FEEDING
WATER
STEAM
GENERATOR
TOWARDS
PRESSURISER
AUXILIARY
PRIMARY
AUXILIARY CIRCUIT
PRIMARY
CIRCUIT
PRIMARY
PUMP
Fig. 3 (left). Nuclear boiler.
Fig. 4 (below). Propulsion: nuclear fuels 1
contained in reactor vessel 2 boils the
primary water 3. This water circulates by
natural convection into steam generator 4
and causes the evaporation of the secon-
dary water 5 to feed the turbines 6. The
secondary water is cooled in the condenser
7 before being returned to the steam
generator. Each turbine drives two alter-
nators 8 and 9. The propulsion alternator
9 produces the necessary electricity for the
main electric motor 10 that drives the
propeller 11. Power alternator 8 provides
the necessary electricity for the ship’s
services.
15 20 30 40
PATROL CONVENTIONAL
f-4,060,000sqkm
Lae: Ve Va a We os
4 Gp Le 6 PATROL NUCLEAR Lh jo pep
YOM fl f fC 4, 4,745,000 sq km “7 ly Yay.
Y ay /
LSE LM ETE
50 55 62
Fig. 5. Area covered during patrol.
Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of NSW, Vol.130 Parts 1-2, 35, 1997. 35
ISSN 0035-9173/97/010035-01 $4.00/1.
Theses Abstracts
THE EFFECT OF TENURE ON RANGE MANAGEMENT
A comparison of perpetual and pastoral leases in north-east South Australia
MICHAEL BRETT
Abstract of a Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Master of Science
at The University of Adelaide
South Australia has long had perpetual and
pastoral leases, used for grazing sheep on
arid native pastures, lying side by side. This
works undertakes a thoroughly structured
data collection and analysis to determine to
what degree the nature of each leasing sys-
tem has influenced vegetation resources in
the Lower North East
An initial study investigated the na-
ture of grazing effects on vegetation pat-
terns in three locations widely separated
along the tenure division. Influence analysis
showed that the small-scale variation of the
vegetation was appreciable, an observation
which enabled the design ofa regional study.
The broad-scale investigation formed
the greater part of this work. It detailed the
leasing histories of six pastoral and six per-
petual lease runs, and explored the degree to
which cross-tenure vegetation differences
were dependent on them. A multiple regres-
sion technique was used so that the influ-
ence of many environmental and manage-
rial factors could be taken into account
This research found that the perpetual
leases were more degraded than the pasto-
ral. Although the difference in range condi-
tion was small, it was significant and in-
volved the most dominant perennial species
(such as Maireana edifolia and Atriplex
- vesicaria) as wellasimportant features such
_ as the cover of scald and total bush.
The cross-tenure vegetation differ-
ences were most strongly and most often
correlated with the discontinuity of lease
ownership. The lighly significant differences
in ownership discontinuity between tenure
types was concluded to result from differen-
tial management attitudes engendered by
each type. It was argued that such attitudes
stemmed from the disparity between ten-
ures in controls on the intensity of resource
use. The difference between perpetual and
pastoral terms was seen to have little effect
on management.
On the basis of these results, the re-
cent changes to the pastoral tenure system
and the Soil Conservation Act must be seen
to be encouraging, if properly implemented.
However, the inequities which remain be-
tween the tenure systems are predicted to
continue to cause the rate of degradation on
perpetual leases to be greater than that on
pastogal.
[Note that legislative changes since
1991 are outside the scope of this thesis].
Michael Brett
Department of Botany
The University of Adelaide
Adelaide, SA 5005 Australia
(Manuscript received 11.2.97)
36
x aa | a Shy on
cee sites
Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of NSW, Vol. 130 Parts 1-2, 37-38, 1997. at
ISSN 0035-9173/97/010037-02 $4.00/1.
Theses Abstracts
THE ECOLOGY OF CEREAL RUST MITE ABACARUS HYSTRIX (NALEPA) IN
IRRIGATED PERENNIAL DAIRY PASTURES IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA
W.E. FROST
Abstract of a Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
at The University of Adelaide
The cereal rust mite Abacarus hystrix
(Acari: Eriophyidae), vector of ryegrass mo-
saic virus in temperate perennial pastures,
was initially recorded in Australia in 1989.
In South Australia, the mites were found to
be common in irrigated perennial pastures
in the South Mt Lofty Ranges and Lower
Murray Valley, and in dry land pastures of
the Fleurieu Peninsula. A. hystrix was nu-
merically dominant in mixed populations
with mites of the genera Aculodes and Aceria.
Examination of herbaria specimens of
Lolium spp. indicated that A. hystrix was
present in the South Mt Lofty Ranges in
1972, andin Victoriain 1982. The mites may
have been introduced into Australia in the
late 1960’s.
Study of the seasonal dynamics of A.
hystrix populations in South Australian irri-
gated perennial dairy pastures indicated
that numbers were highest in summer and
early autumn. The intensity. and frequency
of grazing had strong influence on the regu-
lation of eriophyid populations. Hard strip
grazing of pastures at infrequent intervals
retarded the recovery of mite populations
more than frequent, lax grazing rotations.
The rate of recovery of mite populations
following grazing was determined by the
size of the residual population, and shifts in
leaf age-structure and quality induced by
defoliation.
In a glasshouse pot trial, infection of
perennial ryegrass by the endophyte
Acremonium loli did not affect the rate of A.
hystrix population development orthe rate
of movement of mites between plants, al-
though the expression of RMV leafsymptoms
was reduced.
There was a degree of population stratifi-
cation vertically through pastures, with a
greater proportion of pre-reproductive
adults and deutonymphs occurring closest
to the base of the sward. High summer tem-
peratures may decrease mite numbers in
heavily grazed swards. In a field experi-
ment, the rate of mite population
development was correlated with the recov-
ery of perennial ryegrass following
defoliation. Population development was sig-
nificantly reduced after exposure to
temperatures >39°C and 744°C in plots
mown to 5 and 10 cm stubble height, respec-
tively.
Temperatures of 29°C, but not changes in
photoperiod, were found to accelerate the
rate of wax production inA. hystrix. Possible
functions of wax filaments in drag
maximisation and water conservation were
investigated. ‘Waxy’ mites were found to
have lower rates of desiccation-induced
mortality, and increased total drag relative
to cuticular surface area. The increased non-
cuticular surface area associated with the
38 THESES ABSTRACTS
development of wax filaments may increase
wind shear stress on mites within the wind
velocity gradient at the leaf margin, enhance
air-borne buoyancy and prolong the dura-
tion of air-borne survival during migration.
Polyphenically-derived wax production in
A. hystrix should, consequently, enhance
the fitness of ‘waxy’ individuals migrating
under summer conditions.
Large populations of Aceria were re-
cordedin Australian wheat cropsin 1993.
There is evidence that two forms of Aceria
may commonly occur on wheat in Aus-
tralia. Perennial pastures and volunteer
grasses may act as important over-sum-
mer refuge areas for the mites.
Higher numbers of mites did not re-
sult in a greater incidence of infection by
RMV in study pastures. Control of mite
populations in established pastures, in
particular, is unlikely to decrease pro-
duction losses due to RMV infection.
William E. Frost
Department of Crop Protection
The University of Adelaide
Adelaide, SA 5005 Australia
(Manuscript received 5.12.96)
Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of NSW, Vol. 130 Parts 1-2, 39-40, 1997. 39
ISSN 0035-9173/97/010039-02 $4.00/1.
Theses Abstracts
NEGOTIATING DIETARY KNOWLEDGE INSIDE AND OUTSIDE
LABORATORIES: THE CHOLESTEROL CONTROVERSY
KARIN GARRETY
Abstract of a Thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
at the University of New South Wales, Sydney
For more than forty years, doctors and scien-
tists have disagreed about the extent to
which dietary saturated fat and high serum
cholesterol levels contribute to the develop-
ment of coronary heart disease (CHD), and
whether or not the disease can be prevented
by dietary change. Although large amounts
of time, effort and money have been devoted
to research, experiments have often yielded
inconclusive and contradictory results.
This thesis analyses the development of
knowledge and policies relating to dietary
fat, cholesterol and CHD. It takes a sym-
metrical stance towards the knowledge
claims under investigation. That is, it does
not try to ascertain which particular version
of the ‘facts is true, or to argue for or against
the efficacy of dietary change. Instead it
seeks to explicate the social context in which
medical science and dietary policies devel-
oped. The central problem addressed by the
study may be summed up as follows: How
and why, in the midst of so much scientific
uncertainty, did so many people come to
believe that dietary change could prevent
heart disease?
The study takes a historical perspective.
It draws upon archival material from a vari-
ety of sources, including scientific articles,
food advertisements, business journals,
policy documents, newspapers, popular
magazines and the internee These sources
indicate that the development of knowledge
and policy relating to diet and CHD was a
complex interactive process which cannot be
divorced from the cultural, political andcom-
mercial contexts in which it occurred.
The putative links between diet and CHD
were first popularised by entrepreneurial
scientists in the affluent society of 1950s
America, at a time when the ‘facts’ were
meagre and tentative. These scientists were
motivated by therapeutic activism, adrive to
‘do something’ despite incomplete knowl-
edge. Advice to lower fat consumption struck
a receptive chord among sectors of the lay
public. Theirinterest in polyunsaturated fat
and cholesterol was further stimulated by
commercial interests, which used the new
claims to sell products. Cholesterol-lower-
ing diets soon became popular.
The first cautious endorsement of di-
etary change by an official medical
organisation (the American Heart Associa-
tion) appeared in 1960. It was provisional,
subject to the attainment of the definitive
proof. However, the changing social circum-
stances of the United States during
subsequent decades favoured the retention
and enhancement of policies advocating re-
ductions in fat and cholesterol intakes. As
scientists strove to provide Ode proof, food
activists, health policy-makers and advo-
cates of ‘healthy lifestyles’ adopted and
40 THESES ABSTRACTS
promoted dietary change as a progressive
cause. It provided a means of resisting the
undesirable side-effects of affluence. Dietary
self-denial and exercise, as preached by
Nathan Pritikin and others, promised
physical and almost spiritual renewal
and salvation.
There were only two groups of people
who questioned the wisdom of the dietary
recommendations - scientists who insisted
that policies be based on unequivocal evi-
dence of efficacy, and those sectors of the
food industry whose profits depended on the
sale of products containing saturated fats
and cholesterol. During the 1970s, these
industries mounted a number of campaigns
which highlighted the unstable and uncer-
tain aspects of the scientific knowledge
linking their products to disease.
Although they were able to recruit
sceptical scientists as allies, their challenges
were unsuccessful. They could not muster
sufficient authority to overturn the claims of
the many prestigious medical organisations
which supported dietary change. Indeed,
the sceptical scientists lost legitimacy be-
cause of their alliances with industry.
Although the definitive proof remained elu-
sive, policy statements in favour of dietary
change accumulated. The scientific, govern-
ment and medical organisations that issued
these statements found it difficult to turn
back. In the early 1980s, several large, ex-
pensive trials designed to test the effects of
cholesterol-lowering regimes produced
equivocal results. Scientists shaped these
results into endorsements for dietary change
and intensified their policies. A diverse range
of people had already decided that dietary
change was desirable and the scientific re-
sults were shaped to reinforce the policies
which preceded them.
The study draws on a range of theo-
retical perspectives within the sociologies of
science and medicine. The overall approach
is constructivist in nature and makes use of
actor-network theory, symbolic inter-
actionism, the ideas of Michel Foucault, and
recent work on lay understanding of scien-
tific knowledge.
Karin Garrety
School of Science and Technology Studies
University of New South Wales
Sydney, NSW 2052 Australia
(Manuscript received 25.5.97)
Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of NSW, Vol. 130 Parts 1-2, 41-42, 1997. 41
ISSN 0035-9173/97/010041-02 $4.00/1.
Theses Abstracts
EXPRESSIONS OF INNER FREEDOM
An Experimental Study of the Scattering and Fusion of Nuclei
at Energies Spanning the Coulomb Barrier
H. TIMMERS
Abstract of a Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
at The Australian National University, Canberra, June 1996
This study investigates the fusion and scat-
tering of nuclei at energies spanning the
Coulomb barrier. The coupling of the rela-
tive motion of the nuclei to internal degrees
of freedom can be thought to give rise to a
distribution of potential barriers.
Two new methods to extract representa-
tions of these potential barrier distributions
are suggested using the eigen-channel model.
The new techniques are based on measure-
ments of quasi-elastic and elastic
backscattering excitation functions, from
which the representations are extracted by
differentiation. A third method utilizing
transfer excitation functions is introduced
using qualitative arguments. The techniques
are investigated experimentally for the re-
actions 160 +92Zr, 144:154Sm_ 186W and 298Pb.
The results are compared with barrier dis-
tribution representations obtained from
fusion data. The methods are further ex-
plored using the systems 4°Ca + 9-°Zr and
825 + 208Ph, for which scattering and fusion
excitation functions have been measured.
The new barrier distribution representa-
tions are consistent with the one from fusion.
They are direct evidence of the effects of the
internal degrees of freedom on channels
other than the fusion channel.
The new representations are, however,
less sensitive to the barrier distribution com-
pared to their fusion counterpart. This
observation is investigated using coupled-
channels calculations. They suggest that
residual weak reaction channels, which are
not included in the coupling matrix, are
responsible for the reduction in sensitivity.
In the case of quasi-elastic scattering a dis-
tortion of the barrier structure above the
average barrier is observed. This effect ap-
pears to be due to the de-phasing of the
scattering amplitudes contributing to each
eigen-channel. Using the heaviest system,
325 + 208Pb, it is demonstrated that there is
no improvement in sensitivity to the barrier
distribution for systems with large
Sommerfeld parameters. This suggests that
diffraction effects are not likely to be the
cause of the sensitivity reduction.
The new techniques may be employed
successfully in systems with pronounced
barrier structure below the average barrier.
This is the case for the reactions “Ca +
90,9677 It is shown that for these systems the
quasi-elastic scattering and the fusion rep-
resentations of the barrier distribution
contain the same information. The extracted
barrier distributions for the two reactions
are distinctively different. They are com-
pared to assess the relative importance of
collective excitations and neutron transfer
in fusion. Exact coupled-channels calcula-
tions show that the distribution for Ca +
Zr arises from coupling of the relative
42 THESES ABSTRACTS
motion to double phonon excitations of 9°Zr.
Further calculations suggest that the reac-
tion Ca + °©Zr involves additional coupling
to sequential neutrontransfer, which is pro-
posed to be a precursor of neutron-neck
formation.
Double phonon excitations are also seen
to be important in the system °7S + 2°°Ph, for
which the barrier distribution representa-
tions show in addition signatures of one and
two neutron transfer.
Heiko Timmers
School of Nuclear Physics
Australian National University
Canberra, ACT 0200 Australia
(Manuscript received 1.5.97)
Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of NSW, Vol.130 Parts 1-2, 43-64, 1997. 43
ISSN 0035-9173/97/010043-21 $4.00/1.
Annual Report of Council
for the year ended 31st March 1997
PATRONS
The Council wishes to express its gratitude to
His Excellency the Honourable Sir William
Deane, AC, KBE, Governor General of the
Commonwealth of Australia, and His Excellency
the Honourable Gordon Samuels AC, Governor
of New South Walesfortheircontinuing support
as Patrons of the Society.
MEETINGS
Seven Ordinary Monthly Meetings andthe 129th
Annual General Meeting were held during the
year. The Annual General Meeting and five of
the Ordinary Monthly Meetings wereheldatthe
Australian Museum. One Ordinary Monthly
Meeting was held at the Bankstown Campus of
the University of Western Sydney.
Special Meeting and Events
June 12th 1996: The 30th Liversidge
Research Lecture in Chemistry (1996) was
delivered by Professor D.J. Swaine. His talk
was entitled, “Trace Elementsin Coal Science”
(see Journal & Proceedings vol. 129, pp. 139-
148). The lecture was delivered as a joint
meeting with the Sydney University
Chemical Society at the University of Sydney.
July 6th 1996: The regular July General
Monthly Meeting was substituted by a Field
Trip to Kurnell, celebrating the 175th
Anniversary of the formation of The
Philosophical Society of Australasia (founded
July 4th 1821), led by Dr. D. Branagan.
February 11th 1997: The Society was co-
sponsor with the Australian Institute ofEnergy
and the Australian Nuclear Association of a
meeting held at The Institute of Engineers,
Milson’s Point. Topic: “The Review of the
National Greenshouse Response Strategy
and the Commonwealth Greenhouse
Challenge”.
March 26th 1997: A very succesful Annual
Dinner was held at the University and Schools
Club. His Excellency The Honourable Gordon
Samuels AC, Governor of New South Wales
and joint Patron of the Society, Mrs Samuels
and 48 Members and guests were present. His
Excellency gave an Occasional Address (see
p. 65) and presented the Society’s Awards for
1996 to: Miss P.M. Callaghan (Royal Society
of New South Wales Medal), Profesor K.
Rohde (Clarke Medal - Zoology), and Dr P.
Robinson (Edeworth David Medal).
Meetings of Council
Eleven meetings of Council were held at the
Society’s Offices at North Ryde. Attendances
were as follows: Dr R.S. Bhathal (0), Dr D.F.
Branagan (6), Miss P.M. Callaghan (7), Dr R.R.
Coenraads (2), Mr G.W.K. Ford (3) [subst Dr
P.R. Evans (2)], Mr J.R. Hardie (7), Mrs
Krysko v. Tryst (9), Dr M. Lake (8), Dr G.C.
Lowenthal (7), Dr D.J. O’Connor (7), Dr
k.W.C. Potter (6), Dr K.A. Rickard (4), Prof.
D.J. Swaine (8), Prof. W.E. Smith (8), Dr F.L.
Sutherland (6), Dr K.L. Grose (10), Mr H.R.
Perry (7). Dr N.V.P. Kelvin (coopted - 2).
PUBLICATIONS
Volume 129, Parts 1,2,3, and 4 of the Journal
and Proceedings of the Royal Society were
published during the year. The volume
incorporated the Presidential Address for 1996,
the 48th Clarke Memorial Lecture (1995), the
Pollock Memorial Lecture (1996), the 30th
Liversidge Research Lecture (1996), three
research papers, including a Biographical
Register of Earlier Members (1850 to 1866),
and the Annual Report of Council for 1995-
44 ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL
96. Furthermore, nine Abstracts of higher
degree theses were published covering a
wide range of disciplines that included:
geology, medicine, Australian aboriginal
ethnoarchaeologic studies, music,
agriculture, botany and linguistics.
Council wishes to thank all the voluntary
referees who assessed the papers offered for
publication.
Seven issues of the Bulletin were published
during the year. Council’s thanks are extended
tothe various authors of short articles for their
contributions. Very sincere thanks are
expressed to Mr Ted O’Keeffe for all his efforts
in the preparation of the Bulletin throughout
the year.
Council received several applications from
Australian as well as overseas authors to
reproduce material from the Journal and
Proceedings.
AWARDS
The following awards were made for 1996:-
Royal Society of New South Wales Medal
(For achievements in science and service to
the Society) - Miss P.M. Callaghan.
Clarke Medal (in Zoology) - Professor Klaus
Rohde, Department of Zoology, The University
of New England.
Edgworth David Medal (For distinguished
contributions to Australian science by a young
scientist under 35 years of age) - Dr Peter
Alexander Robinson ofthe School of Physics,
The University of Sydney.
The James Cook Medal, the Walter Burfitt
Prize and the Archibald Olle Prize were not
awarded in 1996.
MEMBERSHIP
At 31sth March 1997 membership of the
Society was: Patrons 2: Honorary Members
16: Members and Life Members 280:
Associates and Spouse Members 23: Total
328
Twonew Honorary Members were elected:
Emeritus Professor Di. Yerbury and Dr K.G.
McCracken, AO.
The deaths of the following Members were
announced with regret: H.O. Fletcher and
N.Gray.
OFFICE
The Society continued during the year to
lease for its office and library a half-share of
Convocation House, 134 Herring Road, North
Ryde, on the southeastern edge of the
Macquarie University Campus. The Council
is grateful to the University for continuing
the lease. Council greatly appreciates the
secretarial assistance rendered by Mrs V.
Chandler during the past year.
LIBRARY REPORT
Acquisition of literature by gift and exchange
has been continued at North Ryde. Material
from overseas and some Australian literature
are sent tothe Dixson Library atthe University
of New England. The remaining Australian
materialis retainedin Sydney. A listof the latter
is compiled biannually and incorporated in
Council Minutes. It also appears in >
abbreviated form in the Bulletin. Members
are encouraged to consult these acquisitions
at Head Office. At the suggestion of Prof.
Loxton, Deputy Vice Chancellor (Academic),
Macquarie University, Council is exploring
the possibility ofa display of our literaturein
Macquarie University Library in 1998.
Council thanks Mr Karl Schmude and his
staff, particularly Mrs Helen Stokes for their
continuing efficient maintainance of the
processing and availability of the Society’s
collection in the Dixson Library. This
collection is now listed in the National Union
Catalogue of Serials with the rest of the
Dixson Library’s holdings and is thus
.
'
|
{
ANNUAL REPORTOF COUNCIL 45
available forinter-library loans (more exactly,
for photocopying of articles). [Material in
the Head Office library is not listed in the
Union catalogue].
Loan of Paintings
The Society agreed to lend free of charge two
paintings owned by the Society to the
National Gallery, Canberra, to be part of the
exhibition, “A Clever Country” (Scientists in
Australia) held in Canberra 21 June-3
November 1996:
1. Professor Sir T.W. Edgeworth David (1858-
1934);
2. Reverend W.B. Clarke FRS (1798-1878).
[Council gave the Mitchell Library,
permission to release the painting for the
duration of the exhibition].
A total of 22 or one third of the 71 portraits
exhibited were of Members of the Society.
Honorary Members
Sir Philip Baxter
Prof. Arthur Birch
Sir Macfarlane Burnett
Sir John Eccles
Lord Florey
Prof. Dorothy Hill
Baron Ferdinand von Muelller (1875)
Sir Gustav Nossel
Sir Mark Oliphant
Sir Baldwin Spenser (1894)
Dr J.P. Wild
Prof. J.T. Wilson (1922)
Sir Thomas Brisbane (Founder Member)
Members
_ Lawrence Hargrave
Rev. W.B. Clarke
Sir T.W. Edgeworth David
Prof. J.C. Jaeger
Prof. Abercrombie Lawson (1913)
Sir Douglas Mawson
John Tebbutt
Alexander McLeay
Sir George A. Julius (1911)
SOUTHERN HIGHLANDS BRANCH
REPORT
The Branch held eight well-attended
meetings, details of which are given in
ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, below.
NEW ENGLAND BRANCH REPORT
The New England Branch, basedin Armidale
NE, held two meetings during 1996, details
of which are given in ABSTRACT OF
PROCEEDINGS, below.
ABSTRACTS OF PROCEEDINGS
April 3rd 1996
The 129th Annual General Meeting and
1056th General Monthly Meeting was held
at the Australian Museum, Sydney. The
President, Dr D.F. Branagan was in the
Chair and 30 members and visitors were
present. The Annual Report of Council and
the Financial Report for 1995-96 were
adopted. Messrs Wyllie and Puttock were
elected auditors for 1996-97.
The following Awards for 1995 were
announced and presented by the President:
The Royal Society of New South Wales Medal
Dr G.C. Lowenthal
Clarke Medal (Geology)
Professor C. McA. Powell
Edgeworth David Medal
Dr. A.B.Murphy
Walter Burfitt Prize
Dr R.M. Manchester
The James Cook Medal and the Archibald
Olle Prize were not awarded in 1995.
The following Office-bearers and Council
Members were elected for 1996/97:
President Dr K.L. Grose
Vice Presidents Dr D.F. Branagan
Mr J.R. Hardie
Prof. J.H. Loxton
Dr E.C. Potter
46 ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL
Prof. W.E. Smith
Prof. D.J. Swaine
Hon. Secretaries
General
Editorial
Mr G.W.K. Ford
Mrs M. Krysko v. Tryst
Hon. Treasurer Dr D.J. O’Connor
Hon. Librarian Miss P.M. Callaghan
Members of Council
Dr R.S. Bhathal
Dr R.R. Coenraads
Dr M. Lake
Dr G.C. Lowethal
Mr K.A. Rickard
Dr F.L. Sutherland
New England Representative
Prof. S.C. Haydon
Southern Highland Representative
Mr H.R. Perry
At this point, the retiring President, Dr. D.F.
Branagan yielded the Chair to the incoming
President, Dr K.L. Grose. Dr Branagan then
presented his Presidential Address, “Bricks,
Brawn, and Brains - Two Centuries of Geology
and Engineering in the Sydney Region”. A
vote of thanks was proposed by Professor
D.J. Swaine.
May Ist 1996
The 1057th General Monthly Meeting was
held at the Australian Museum. Mr A.
McQueen presented a talk, “Ensign
Barrallier - square peg in a foreign land”.
August 7th 1996
The 1059th General Monthly Meeting was
held at the Australian Museum. The
President, Dr R.L. Grose was in the Chair
and 15 members and visitors were present.
Professor M. Wilson presented a talk, “New
Applications of solid state nuclear magnetic
resonance”.
September 4th 1996
The 1060th General Monthly Meeting was
held at The Australian Museum. The
President, Dr R.L. Grose was in the Chair
and 10 members and visitors were present.
Mr T.C.T. Hubble presented his talk, “River
Bank Erosion Project, Nepean River, NSW,
evaluating the relative contributions of long-
term geomorphic change and recent human
influence”. A vote of thanks was moved by
Mr J. Grover.
October 2nd 1996
The 1061st General Monthly Meeting was
held at The Bankstown Campus, University
of Western Sydney. Professor H.W. Marsh
gave his talk, “A multidimensional,
hierarchical, self-concept: theory,
measurement, research”.
November 6th 1996
The 1062nd General Monthly Meeting was
held at The Australian Museum. Dr G.
Holland delivered atalk entitled, “Something
attempted, something done: the useful author
of “Potter on Pigs””.
New England Branch
Thursday, 12th of September 1996:
Two organizations, the Royal Society of New
South Wales, New England Branch, and the
Australian Federation of University Women
(Armidale Branch) held acombined meeting
at the Somerville Lecture Theatre of the
University of New England. Professor S.C.
Hayden chaired the meeting, which was
attended by 63 members and friends.
Dr. Briggs, Senior Assistant Director
(Scientific) at the Royal Botanic Gardens in
Sydney, Corresponding Member of the
Botanical Society of America, and Clarke
Medallist of the Royal Society of New South
Wales, addressed the meeting on the recently
discovered and now widely-publicised
Wollemi Pine. The title of her talk was:
ANNUAL REPORTOF COUNCIL 47
“Research on the Wollemi Pine - studying a
living fossil”. Dr. Briggs supplied the following
notes:
Wollomia nobilis, the Wollemi Pine, is a most
handsome species, a tall tree, with very few
living individuals, not scientifically described
or named until 1996 and a survivor of an
evolutionary lineage that extends back in the
fossil record more than 100 million years. It
has captured world attention, rivalling the
Chinese “Dawn Redwood”. There has been
some excess of media enthusiasm in describing
it as the “Dinosaur Pine” and “the botanical
find of the century”. Studies on the Wollemi
Pine contribute to our understanding of the
plant family to which it belongs, the history of
Southern Hemisphere floras, and to the
interpretation of fossils from a range of south-
eastern Australian localities. Dr Briggs will
speak of the remarkable opportunity it has
presented to combine a range of scientific
approaches and to investigate the genetics
and survival of an extremely rare species.
The meeting was preceded by a dinner at
the University StaffClub. Dr Briggs attended
the dinner as a guest of the two Societies.
Thursday, 24th of October, 1996
The meeting was held at the Somerville
Lecture Theatre of the University of New
England. Professor John Milburn chaired
the meeting, which was attended by 42
members and friends. Professor D.A. Baker
of Wye College of the University of London
addressed the audience on “2020 Vision -
The Impact of Plant Molecular Genetics on
Crop Production”. The speaker supplied the
following notes:
As the carrying capacity of our planet is
predicted to be exceeded in the next thirty
years, what technologies: can be implemented
to avert malnutrition and famine of a global
scale? Only increased crop production can
provide the additional food and many
production systems have reached their
maximum achievable levels using current
technologies. The introduction of genetic
engineering allows for a possible expansion of
crop production in both quantitative and
qualitative terms. The possible economic
benefits and environmental hazards of
applying this technology will be presented.
Southern Branch
Thursday 7th March 1996
Following the Branch’s Annual General
Meeting, Dr Jennifer Nicholls of the Centre
for Theoretical Astrophysics at the
University of Sydney spoke to 30 members
and visitors on “The Riddle in the Middle of
the Galactic Centre”. Vote of thanks:
Commander David Robertson.
Thursday 2nd May 1996
Dr Garth Hogg, of ANSTO, Lucas Heights,
addressed members on “Nuclear Science and
Technology in Australia”.
Thursday 13th June 1996
Professor John Mulveney, of the Australian
Academy of the Humanities spoke to 36
members and visitors on ‘Macassan
Indonesians and the history of Arnhem Land
across 300 years”. Vote of thanks:
Commander David Robertson.
Thursday 8th August 1996
Dr John Harris, of the Environmental
Division of ANSTO spoke on “The disposal of
low level nuclear waste in Australia” and
“Acid mine drainage”. Vote of thanks: Dr
Garth Hogg. The lecture was attended by 30
members and visitors.
Thursday 5th September 1996
Dr Robert Coenraads, School of Earth
Sciences, Macquarie University, spoke to 30
members and visitors on “Diamonds and
bacterial gold in Venezuela”, and told of the
48 ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL
new insights gained when materials brought
back to Australia were examined in scanning
electron microphotographs. Vote of thanks:
Dr Kenneth McCracken.
Thursday 12th October 1996
Dr David Tranter spoke to 33 members and
visitors on, and gave homely demonstrations
of, “The Simple side of complexity: E1 Nifo
and other strange phenomena”. Vote of
thanks: Mr Roy Perry.
Thursday 7th November 1996
Following presentation by Dr Kenneth
McCracken of the Branch’s Science Awards*
to Year 11 science students Johanna
Rheinberger of Frensham School, and
Patrick Campbell of Chevalier College, Dr
Rhagbir Bhatal, a former President of the
Royal Society of NSW, addressed 37 members
and guests on the subject of “The search for
extra-terrestrial life forms”. Vote of thanks:
Mr Roy Perry.
Wednesday 22nd January 1997
Professor L.W. Davies, before 30 members
and visitors, traced the development of
wireless communications and electronics in
Australia from the formation of the
Australian company AWA Ltd in 1913 to
that of OTC (Australia) in 1946. Vote of
thanks: Dr Kenneth McCracken AO.
Thursday 6th March 1997
At the Branch’s Annual General Meeting
the following were elected to the Branch’s
committee for 1997/98.
Chairman Dr K.G. McCracken AO
Vice Chairmen Mr R.H. Perry
Ms C.M. Staubmer
Mr C.F. Wilmot
Mr M. Lemann
Cmdr D. Robinson.
Hon. Treasurer
Hon Secretary
Dr Lin Sutherland spoke after the election
on the subject, “Earthquakes and volcanoes
in the southern Sydney region”.
* The Southern Highlands Branch
Science Award, for the Most Outstanding
Science Student in Year 11, attracted
nominations from four of the six secondary
schools in the district. The prize this year
was increased to re-imburse the winners for
the first year of costs not covered by the
Commonwealth Higher Education Scheme
(HECS), namely books, and compulsory
University Union Fees, payable when the
winner commences a science oriented course
at a Tertiary education establishment in
1998.
49
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AWARDS
DD
CITATIONS FOR AWARDS
THE SOCIETY’S MEDAL FOR 1996
Patricia Mary Callaghan
Patricia Mary Callaghan graduated from
the University of Sydney with a Bachelor of
Science, majoring in Mathematics and
Physics. Later she was awarded a Master of
Science by Macquarie University, following
formal course work and a thesis on the
“Design, Implementation and Assessment
of Reader Education Courses for Chemistry
Students”. She is also an Associate of the
Australian Library association, and has a
continuing interest in studying philosophy.
After graduating from the University of
Sydney, Miss Callaghan gained industrial
experience in Australia and in England.
Later, she joined CSIRO as a librarian and
also spent some time working at the Ministry
of Aviation in London. Thereafter, she was
librarian at the Aeronautical Research
Laboratories in Melbourne and then joined
the staff ofthe Macquarie University Library.
Miss Callaghan has a wide experience of
several aspects of library work andin the use
of the Dewey Classification System, the
Universal Decimal System and the US
Library of Congress System. She hada special
interest in Reader Education and in
cooperation with the School of Chemistry at
Macquarie University she helped students
in the retrieval and interpretation of chemical
data, in the relevance of the literature of
analytical chemistry and in the use of the
literature of organic chemistry. The results
of these original studies were published in
three papers, one with the fascinating title of
“Beilstein without tears”. Her approach
stressed the importance of literature
reference work for introducing students to
the need for critically examining data.
Miss Callaghan has had wide experience
in most aspects of library work, including
computer searching of a wide range of data
bases and teaching the required procedures
to postgraduate students. Sheis the honorary
Librarian for the Royal Society of New South
wales, a position she has held for the past
decade, and is ipso facto a member of the
Council. She deals with all aspects of the
Society’s Collections including exchanges
and gifts, and prepares a biannual accession
list.
In view of her many achievements in
librarianship and of her contributions to the
Society, Patricia Callaghan is a very worthy
recipient of the Society’s Medal for 1996.
D6 ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL
THE CLARKE MEDAL (ZOOLOGY) FOR 1996
Professor Klaus Rohde,
ee AN A q
a a oa
na F
\ Hy, a = a4
N : :
Professor Klaus Rohde, is one of Australia’s
most distinguished zoologists. He has made
substantial contributionsin several zoological
fields after coming to Australia in 1970.
After taking his doctorate at University of
Munster, Germany, his research has been
honed at severalinstitutions including ASTA-
Werk A.G, Germany; University of Malaya,
Kuala Lumpur; Universitat Bochum,
Germany; University of Queensland,
Australia; University of Khartoum, Sudan
and more lately in Australia at the Heron
Island Research station, Queensland and
University of New England, Armidale, New
South Wales, where heis currently Professor
of Zoology.
He is a world leader in several zoological
fields, including parasite taxonomy and
ecology, zoogeography of parasites and the
ultrastructure and phylogeny of
Platyheminthes. His work hasbeen published
in over 300 scientific journals and has
achieved an exceptional citation rate. Major
works include his book on “Ecology of Marine
Parasites” (1993), alarge part of “Diseases of
Marine Mammals”, Vol. IV (1984) and large
reviews contributed to “Advances in
Parasitology”, Vol.10 (1972), Vol. 13 (1975)
and Vol.33 (1994). His work on a range of
animal groups and methods of investigation
has led to important new evolutionary and
ecological insights, related to niche theory
and latitudinal gradients in species diversity.
Professor Rohde has gained extensive
research grants for his work and has
supervised many students, who have also
made significant contributions to Zoology in
Australia. His work was recognised with the
first Vice Chancellor’s Award for Excellence
in Science at the University of New England,
in 1996. He is amost worthy recipient for the
Clarke Medal in Zoology for 1996.
AWARDS
Oo”
THE EDGEWORTH DAVID MEDAL FOR 1996
Dr Peter Alexander Robinson
The Edgeworth David Medal is awarded for
distinguished contributions to Australian
science by a scientist under the age of thirty
five.
Dr Peter Alexander Robinson graduated
from the University of Sydney with a Bachelor
of Science, First Class Honours and a
University Medal. After completing a Doctor
of Philosophy degree, he was a Research
Associate at the Department of
Astrophysical, Planetary and Atmospheric
sciences at the University of Colorado in
Boulder. In 1990, he returned to the
Department of Theoretical Physics at the
University of Sydney as a Queen Elizabeth
Research Fellow. He is Currently a Senior
Lecturer in this Department. Dr Robinson
has received many scholarships and awards,
including the Pawsey Medal, and has a very
high success rate in gaining grants for
research.
Amongst Dr _ Robinson’s’§ major
achievements are notable developments in
the theory and simulation of stochastic and
nonlinear processes in plasmas. He devised
the stochastic growth theory of type ITI solar-
radio bursts, and initiated the first detailed
statistical theory of strongly nonlinear
Langmuir turbulence. He has also carried
out research on applications of these two
theories, for example, to explain observations
of beam-plasma experiments and intense
electric fields in space. Animprimatur of the
importance of his research is the large
number and quality of his publications, and
the repeated invitations to lecture overseas.
Dr Robinson is a very good lecturer and
continues to develop innovative approaches
to undergraduate teaching. His research
supervisory skills can be assessed by the
high quality of his Honours, MSc and PhD
students. For example, all his Honours
students received First Class degrees and
three received University medals. Heclearly
sees a close relationship between research
and teaching and the importance of students
being taught by an active research worker.
He takes a very active part in what could
be termed the administrative aspects of
teaching and research. He also carries out
various professional activities in connection
with his Department, with refereeing for
journals and with assessing proposals for
research grants. aspects of teaching and
research.
It is clear that Dr Robinson is a scientist
of great distinction and his career shows a
commendable blend of research, teaching
and scientific administration. There is no
doubt that Peter Alexander Robinson is a
most worthy recipient of the Edgeworth
David Medal.
58 ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL
BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
HAROLD OSWALD FLETCHER
26 February 1903 - 3 August 1996
Harold Oswald Fletcher was born in Sydney
on 26 February, 1903. In 1918 he commenced
work at the Australian Museum, Sydney, as
an Office Assistant. He then had the
opportunity to transfer to the scientific staff
as a trainee in zoology in 1922. A few years
later a Department of Palaeontology was
formed at the Museum, and he opted for the
chance to become a Palaeontologist. He was
allowed to attend Geology lectures at the
Sydney University 1925-28 but, being
unmatriculated, did not graduate. Attending
these lectures put him in touch with W.S. Dun
from whom he got much practical advice, and
brought him into contact with other officers of
the New South Wales Geologic Survey of New
South Wales.
Harold Fletcher was appointed Curator of
Palaeontology in 1941, and in 1956 became
Deputy Director of the Australian Museum.
Many colleagues commented on his efficiency
as Deputy Director, and his amiability made
him many friends. He retired in 1967, after
forty-eight years service, and was made an
Honorary Research Associate of the Museum.
The Hall of Fossils, completed and opened
just a few months before his retirement, is a
fitting monument to his work, and at the time
was the first major gallery exhibit created at
the Museum in nearly fifty years. From 1937
to his retirement he was also Honorary
Palaeontologist to the Geological Survey of
New South Wales.
Fletcher’s acknowledged expertise resulted
in him being invited to give some lectures in
Palaeontology at the University of Sydney in
1938, and in 1945-46, during Ida Browne’s
leave, he gave the full course. He was seconded
from the Museum in 1929-31 tojoin the British,
Australian and New Zealand Antarctic
Research Expedition (BANZARE) under Sir
Douglas Mawson, as Assistant Zoologist. An
account of the two voyages of this expedition
in 1929-30 and 1930-31 is given by Harold
Fletcher in his book “Antarctic Days with
Mawson” (published by Angus and Robertson
in 1974), In 1933 he was awarded the King’s
Polar Medal.
In 1939 he was second-in-command and
field biologist in the first crossing of the
Simpson Desert, on camels, under the
leadership of Dr. C.T. Madigan. An account of
this expedition is given by Madigan in his
book ‘Crossing the Dead Heart’ (published by
Georgian House in 1946). A colour film ( of
surprisingly good quality) of this historic
expedition is held in the University of Sydney
Archives.
During World War II Fletcher servedin the
C.M.F. on the First Australian Anti-Aircraft
Battery, seeing some 476 days of active service.
From the early 1930s he made many
collecting and research excursions in New
South Wales and in outback parts of Australia.
In 1952 he organised and led an Australian
Museum Expedition to Central and North-
West Australia (to which Dr. Ted Rayner of
the Geological Survey of New South Wales
was seconded and acted as second-in-
command). Harold Fletcher also made a
collecting excursion in 1966 from Alice Springs
BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS 59
westward into Western Australia via the
“Gunbarrel Highway”.
One of his most important field trips (in
association with Rayner) involved the guarding
of the first large slab of fossil fish discovered
near Canowindra and excavated prior to its
removal to the Museum.
In 1956 he gained his MSc degree at the
University of New South Wales and waselected
a Fellow of ANZAAS about the same time. He
was also elected a Member of the Explorer’s
Club of New York.
Harold Fletcher was a keen motorist in the
early days of car touring, enjoyed both sail and
power boating watersports, and in later years
enjoyed lawn bowls, and particularly
gardening.
He married (Frances) Mollie Higgs, who
survives him with a son, lan, and a daughter,
Ann. Harold’s children inherited an interest
in the Antarctic, both having visited there.
Harold Fletcher joined the Royal Societyin
1933 and was a supporter of the geological
section beforeits demise. Most of his scientific
papers appeared in “Records of the Australian
Museum” andin “Australian Natural History”
published quarterly by the Australian
Museum. In his last years he was working on
the manuscript of a book about the Australian
Museum and his expeditions and excursions
within Australia.
Harold Fletcher’s demise was noted in the
official news of the 30th International
Geological Congress, held in Beijing at the
time of his death in August, 1996. His life
epitomises that of many young people of his
generation who seized the opportunity to
succeed by their own efforts, through hard
work, and yet maintained both th ecommon
touch and a zest for living a very full, and not
uneventful life.
(E.O.R & D.F.B.)
NOEL MACINTOSH GRAY
Noel Macintosh Gray was a Western Austral-
ian by birth. He developed an interest in
Geology during his undergraduate years at
the University of Western Australia and,
graduating BSc in early 1948, found that the
post-World War II push for National Develop-
ment had created numerous openings for
geologists, at the time mostly in government
surveys. He joined the Geological Survey of
Western Australia in February 1948 and for
the next four years was involved in geological
surveys in many, mostly remote locations in
that State. He had the good fortune to cooper-
ate with Joe Lord, who was later to become a
senior mining industry geologist and ulti-
mately Director of the Geological Survey of
Western Australia. His published reports from
this period included studies of manganese and
iron resources and especially the gold-bearing
region around Coolgardie.
In May 1952 Noel resigned from the Geo-
logical Survey to accept an appointment with
the Sydney Water Board, with which he was
to remain until retirement. The first several
years of his service for the Water Board were
spent dealing with the great variety of geologi-
cal problems arising from the construction of
the Warragamba Dam, not the least being the
monitoring of the quality of the aggregate
consumed in vast quantities for the massive
concrete dam wall and transported to the site
by a continuous bucket line from a gravel
island in the Nepean River 3 km downstream.
In this period he welcomed many geological
parties inspecting the project and gave in-
formative talks which were much appreciated
by students eager to witness the practical
application of geology.
As the Water Board developed plans for
future dams, tunnels and large local storage
reservoirs, Noel was deeply involved in the
assessment of the feasibility of the proposals.
He maintained a continuing interest in the
Warragamba storage, having persuaded the
Board of the wisdom of installing a set of
seismographs at suitable distance from it to
monitor whether the weight of Lake
Warragamba on the earth’s crust would stimu-
late additional tremors (as happened at other
large reservoirs) with the risk that their cu-
mulative vibrations might damage the concrete
wall or affect its foundation. By 1980 he was
60 ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL
able to state with some confidence that there
was no measurable added seismic activity.
Noel Gray was a noteworthy pioneer in the
practice of the then new field of Engineering
Geology. He joined the Royal Society of New
South Wales in 1952, and at his death on 21
January 1996 the Society lost a valued mem-
ber.
(A.A.D.)
DOROTHY HILL
1907-1997
Dorothy Hill was first and foremost an Aus-
tralian and a Queenslander. She had a fond-
ness for the U.K., after spending time in
Cambridge to study for a PhD, and being
elected to a Fellowship in Newnham College.
However she never lost her first love of Queens-
land, and she spent her life forwarding the
interests of the State, its University, its sport-
ing achievements, andits general educational
welfare.
Ofcourse, she was best known for her work
on Palaeozoic corals. For her work in this
area, she managed to attract the attention of
various local organisations which passed on
to fellow citizens the significance of what she
was doing for Queensland. My own family,
who had no interestin science, knew her name
quite well from articles in the newspaper.
Geology was a ‘natural’ for someone so inter-
ested in what was going on in such a diverse
State, and it was one of her main aims to
develop a broad regional picture ofits geologi-
cal structure. It was not surprising that one of
her main aims after WW II, was to prepare a
40-mile State map using whatever resources
were available. She convinced the Geological
Survey to help support a research worker to
draw un a map using the newly available
RAAF air photographs as a base, and pub-
lished works, survey reports, old field geolo-
gists note books, and even the memories of
trips by pensioned off geologists, as ‘ground
truth’. It was rarely possible to check the
interpretations directly, though visitors who
had been working in an area were called in to
check the interpretations.
As a result of these maps, she began to
develop a new interpretation of the State’s
Geology, and with A.K.Denmead she began to
outline a pattern of geological development.
She used people from government depart-
ments, from industry and from academe to
write specialist parts of the text, and fitted it
all into an outline that she herself developed.
The product of this work was issued as Vol-
ume 7(1), Geological Society of Australia.
Although she was primarily a palaeontolo-
gist, she also spent time in the field doing
basic mapping. Her Honours field work re-
quired her to understand the stratigraphy
and structure of Mesozoic sediments and
volcanics of the Brisbane Valley. This study
was published in the Royal Society of Queens-
land, and forms the basis of most later workin
the area. Her interest in corals also came from
some work she did at Mundubbera, where she
observed a relatively well-exposed Carbonif-
erous coral reef. This material was studied in
Cambridge, and it also was published in the
Royal Society of Queensland. This led her to
study European corals in detail, and provided
her with a basis for her life’s study when she
returned to Australia. Among her later Aus-
tralian coral work were seven papers pub-
lished in the Royal Society of NSW. This work
established her as a leader in the opening up
of Palaeozoic coral palaeontology in the wider
areaof Australia. For the breadth of this work
BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS 61
she was elected to give the Clarke Memorial
Lecture in 1971, and was made an Honorary
Member of the Royal Society of NSW in 1993.
For her, life was not all books and labora-
tory. While still an undergraduate she was
- interested in athletics, particularly hurdling
and hockey. She won a Blue for hockey. In
England she learned to fly, and gained an “A”
Class pilot’s licence. As a Professor she main-
tained her interest in student sports, and was
Vice-Patron of the Queensland Womens
Hockey Association.
She was not noted for her dress sense, and
indeed what she wore when giving a public
lecture was the last thing she thought about.
I remember her telling the story of how she
was getting dressed to speak at some impor-
tant occasion in another state, and then find-
ing that her skirt had no belt. This was an
important item with this particular structure,
and so she explained that it was difficult to
turn the pages of her notes while using her
other hand to maintain her dress standards.
It seemed unfortunate to her that to appear at
a public event required her to spend time on
appearances rather than on what she was
going to say.
In her profession she held many important
posts. She was a Research Professor and then
a Full Professor in Geology; Chairman of the
Professorial Board; Secretary of the Great
Barrier Reef Committee; President of Section
C of the ANZAAS; President of the Australian
Academy of Science; Fellow of the Royal Soci-
ety of London.
While she led the Professorial Board dur-
ing Sir Zelman Cowan’s Vice - Chancellorship,
some staff and students were actively oppos-
ing the administration. She found this process
very trying and felt that many problems could
be sorted out by more active measures by staff
who, after all, supposedly held their positions
because of their intellects. She adhered to the
view that a University was indeed a place of
Light and Learning, and nota place for groups
to try to exercise political powers. Light and
learning disappeared during revolutions, and
one of the main values of Universities was
lost. Her work during this period took a great
deal of effort and took away from her research
time - a dreadful blow to her.
As a teacher she excelled as a person-to-
person instructor. My own remembrance of
her in this regard relates to her supervision of
my honours projects. She had a small grant to
study Foraminifera from the Timor area. As I
had chosen to study forams for special work,
I did some preparation and sorting of the
material, as well as preliminary interpreta-
tions. Each day she would visit me and would
discuss the outcomes, with the result that my
rate of learning increased dramatically while
trying to keep up with the questions. Later on
I was working on Permian brachiopods, a field
in which she had no experience. She set about
-working on a Permian fauna from Cracow in
the Dawson Valley, andpublished a small
paper on it. She mentioned to me many years
later that she undertook that work to aquaint
herself with the literature and to see what
work needed to be done. As a result she would
always have useful enquiries of me during her
daily visits. She was a leader in research with
her students as well as with her own research.
During the WW II she joined the WRANS,
and served as a coding and cipher officer in
HMAS Moreton. In this work she gained a
capacity to work in authority over incoming
vessels. Brisbane was one of the main ports
for American support for their troops in Aus-
tralia. I think that she must have had arough
time with some American seamen, because
for many years afterwards she would have
little to do with Americans, be they in civil life
or in palaeontology. I recall her saying that
most useful work came from Europe, and
German and British work was almost invari-
ably outstanding. All this changed somewhat
when Prof. John Wells of Cornell, made ex-
tended visits while preparing the coral vol-
ume for the Treatise on Invertebrate
Paleontology. He was a man of interest and
charm, and he won her over to think more
charitably about American work. The Trea-
tise volume was a joint effort between the two
of them. Subsequently, she was asked to redo
the Paleozoic part of the work in the light of
recent developments. Much more work had
62 ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL
been done in the USSR and in China. She
published the revision in two volumes; they
stand as a model for subsequent work of this
kind. She also became interested in
Archaeocyathids when asked to work on the
Cambrian collections from Antartica. Amono-
graph on this group appeared, and she was
asked to prepare a further Volume of the
Treatise on that group. She remains the only
person who has contributed three volumes to
this international publication.
Her work won her several civilian hon-
ours. She was awarded a CBE and an AC for
her contribution to Australian education, re-
search, administration and sporting achieve-
ments,
Above all else, she was a woman of integ-
rity. She stood by her word under all circum-
stances, a trait that did not equip her to
handle the deviousness of political champions
in the University. Despite this she had a
strong beliefin human nature, some of which,
unfortunately, was wrongly placed. With all
her achievements and her stature in Queens-
land and Australia as a whole, she was always
approachable and friendly to all who came
into contact with her. She attracted students
by her kindly but serious attention, and was
able to bring students into her field of study
right up till the last years ofher teaching. She
has one of the great women scientists and
educators this country has produced.
(K.S.W.C)
ANNUAL DINNER ADDRESS
Royal Society of New South Wales,
Wednesday, 12 March 1997
His Excellency the Honourable Gordon
Samuels AC Governor of New South Wales.
Mr President, Ladies and Gentlemen. I am
delighted to have this opportunity of
addressing the Society, of which I have the
honour to be a Joint Patron.
The Society’s formal invitation touched, in
somewhat enigmatic terms, upon the topic
which I might select for my address this
evening. Your President pointed out that
Barron Field, a judge of the Supreme Court of
New South Wales, was one of the Society’s
three founders; and the letter went on to
observe that the Society went into a state of
dormancy during 1822, “being torn apart in
the maelstrom of politics” which James
Stephen Jnr termed “the Goulburnian
Controversy”. To someone such as myself,
regrettably languishing in a state of
substantial ignorance concerning the
antecedents of the Society, this was titillating
enough. But Dr. Grose then advised me not to
get involved “in this Sargasso Sea”, pointing
out that both the Society’s first President, Sir
Thomas Brisbane, and Major Goulburn “first
Colonial Secretary of New South Wales” and
presumably the eponymous protagonist of the
“Controversy” fell victim to it. To a former
historian this was powerful temptation.
However, the awful nature of the President’s
warning prevented my falling victim to it,
save, perhaps, to a minor degree. The French
literary critic, Roland Barthes, has coined a
rhetorical figure designated as ‘paralypse’
which “consists in stating what one is not
going to say.” This amounts to a solemn
covering of one’s flanks, a scholarly gesture
often adopted by academics in those learned
papers which describe, not a second coming
but asecond going - thatis to say, which do not
describe a subject matter initially encountered,
but rather one revisited!.
So I may say that I have not attempted to
analyse the origins of the “Goulburnian
Controversy’, or its effect upon the life of the
Society, save in the most general way, and
then only to indicate the extent of my
unsatisfied interest.
There appears to be evidence to suggest
that your President’s phrase “maelstrom of
politics” was, as one would of course expect,
well and accurately chosen. Emeritus
Professor Elkin in his Centenary Oration to
the Society? quotes the same Barron Field’s
observation that the Society “expired in the |
baneful atmosphere of distracted politics”. |
ANNUAL DINNER ADDRESS 63
But on the same page in Elkin’s paper there is
a reference to a statement by The Reverend
W.B. Clarke. He said,in his Inaugural Address
to the Society in 1867, “the fictitious, variable
value assigned to the dollar, the coin then
prevalent [in 1822], was the cause of the
breaking up of the little band who cultivated
science for the love of it”. This reference raises
a variety of conjectures which I cannot allow
myself to pursue.
The existence of political conflict of a
disruptive kind seems to be the theory adopted
by later historians. It is suggested that
Brisbane’s administration had proved
inadequate before his open dissension with
Goulburn provided a happy justification for
recalling them both, and brought about the
suspension of the Society as an unintended
consequence’. Incidentally, Melbourne (the
author) provides in this context an interesting
description of the source of the Governors
being equipped with both an Official Secretary
and a Private (and confidential) Secretary, a
practice which has only just been discontinued’.
The Edinburgh Review’, more sym-
pathetically and less condescendingly than I
would have thoughtlikely, attributes the fracas
to disagreement between the emancipists and
the exclusives in the early Colony. In the
course of treatment rather favourable to the
emancipists, the reporter attributes to this
struggle the dispersion of “even the
Philosophical Society of Australia” and Dr
Field’s apothegm is adopted.
I must confess that at this stage I had
begun to discount your President’s warning. I
contemplated pursuing what seemed to
represent an uncomplicated scholarly
adventure, with no more than the ordinary
ration of inconsistencies and contradictions.
The evidence seemed to support a comfortably
plausible explanation of the friction between
Brisbane and Goulburn leading inevitably to
the disruption of the body of scholars of which
they were leading figures. But hubris now
_Teceived its inevitable deserts. I discovered
_ the theory that attributed the cessation of the
_ Society’s activities in 1822 to a clash between
_the Society's Secretary, Dr Douglass, and
other gentlemen, over a female convict*.
This was a departure indeed from the
heady atmosphere of politics and power. It
was evident that, running the extreme risk of
a terminal mixture of metaphors, I had
stumbled into the seaweed. However, since I
never intended to discuss the early history of
the Society I can obliterate this mis-conceived
reconnaissance and shortly address my real
topic.
I had thought that there might have been
a suggestion in the President’s reference to
Judge Field that I should talk to you upon a
legal topic. And so, while trying not to speculate
about what was indeed the cause of the
Society’s early temporary collapse, I wondered
how a scientist on the one hand, and a lawyer
on the other, might set about investigating
the question.
Assume that the object of the exercise is to
find out why the Society ceased to exist in
1822. The question which I suppose one could
put to a scientist would be, “What was the
cause of the Society’s closure in 1822?” That
is, or at least it seems to me to be, an invitation
to an investigator to seek the truth of the
matter - to find out why indeed the event
happened. A lawyer, practising in our common
law adversarial system, on the other hand,
would be less than comfortable with an
approach of this kind. Indeed, I think that I
dare say that the lawyer would prefer not to be
invited to undertake an open ended inquiry.
The preference would be to find an issue of
some kind in which one party contended and
another party denied. Hence, to make the
lawyer most comfortable the inquiry would
need to be framed, for example, in this way:
“Was the conduct of Frederick Goulburn
responsible for the closure of the Society in
18222”
The precise formulation of that issue is not
relevant for present purposes. What is
important is to see that the kind of inquiry
with which the lawyer most often deals, and
the methodology adopted, is to determine
which of two adverse contentions is correct.
Hence, the lawyer would endeavour to amass
evidence which was capable of proving,
64 ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL
according to some measure or standard of
proof, that the assertion of the claimant, that
Goulburn did cause the fall of the Society, was
correct.
You will appreciate the manner in which
the two methods differ. You will no doubt
observe the basic dichotomy between them.
Scientific method entails an inquiry into the
truth; legal method seeks to produce a winner.
You will also, of course, have noticed that
the adoption of the legal rather than the
scientific method has another innocent
advantage. Legal method requires twolawyers,
one to assert and one to deny. However, you
need only one scientist to find the truth.
Thus I think it is true to say that scientific
inquiry is designed to ascertain the truth,
whereas legal inquiry is not. But that is not to
say thatscientificinquiry ascertains the truth,
whereas legal inquiry does not. Some scientists
would argue that it is impossible to advance
an affirmative scientific proposition which
one can call true. Karl Popper put the matter
thus’: “When we think we have found an
approximation to the truth in the form of a
scientific theory which has stood up to criticism
and to tests better than its competitors, we
shail, as realists, accept it as a basis for
practical action, simply because we have
nothing better (or nearer to the truth). But we
need not accept it as true: we need not believe
init (which would mean believing inits truth)”.
On the other hand, the classic adversarial
trial by dint of powerful statements on each
side of the question may very well ascertain
the truth. So the scientist seeks, but may not
find. The lawyer collects an unsought bonus.
I appreciate that matters of this kind are
generally regarded as pertaining more to the
sphere of medico-legal societies or societies
which are dedicated to the discussion of forensic
science and its problems. However, the
standards of scientific research and the
integrity of scientific method are matters of
great importance to our community, which
depends more and more upon the results (and
the accurate transmission) of scientific
investigation into the many problems which
threaten us.
May I add one thing more. The aims of the
Society described in its Rules® are “to
encourage studies in Science, Art, Literature
and Philosophy ...”’. It seems that the Society
has confined itself to Science”. I cannot myself
see any evidence to the contrary - until tonight
perhaps! Might it not be time to consider
relaxing this orthodoxy? I would not suggest
trafficking with lawyers - that would be too
latitudinarian a step! But, ifsuch an initiative
has not already been undertaken, con-
sideration might be given to the History and
Philosophy of Science.
I thank you for your patience. I hope that
Ihave not abused such privileges as patronage
confers.
REFERENCES
1 Updike, Hugging the Shore (Andre
Deutsch 1984) p 587.
2 Elkin, The Challenge to Science, 1866;
The Challenge of Science, 1966, Cent-
enary Oration to The Royal Society of
New South Wales, 28 October 1966 at pp
13,14.
Journal of the Royal Australian Hist-
orical Society 1977, Vol 61, pt. 3, p. 147;
Melbourne, Early Constitutional Dev-
elopment in Australia, 1963 pt. I Ch 1
pp 104-6.
4 Melbourne, ibid, p 104.
January, 1828, pp 94-7.
Branagan, Words, Actions, People: 150
Years of the Scientific Societies in Aust-
ralia, Journal & Proceedings, Royal
Society of New South Wales, 1972, Vol.
104, pp 123-141; Australian Dictionary
of Biography, Vol. 1, p 314).
7 Unended Quest, Fontana-Collins Ed.
1976, p 151.
8 Royal Society of New South Wales
Rules, (1968 Ed).
9 Ibid, Clause 1.
10 Elkin, loc cit p 28.
HD oi
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CONTENTS
VOL. 130 PARTS 1 AND 2
NEEF, G.
Stratigraphy and structure of an outboard part
of the forearc of the Hikurangi Margin, North Wairarapa,
New Zealand.
DUSSAL, R.
Nuclear Propulsion for Submarine and Surface Vessels
A Review
ABSTRACTS OF THESES
BRETT, M. The effect of tenure on range management
FROST, W.E. The ecology of cereal rust mite Abacarus hystrix
(Nalepa) in irrigated perennial dairy pastures
in South Australia
GARRETY, K. Negotiating dietary knowledge inside
and outside laboratories: the cholesterol
controversy
TIMMERS, H. Expressions of inner freedom: an experimental
study of the scattering and fusion of nuclei
at energies spanning the Coulomb barrier
COUNCIL REPORT
Annual Report of Council
Abstracts of Proceedings
Financial Statement
Citations for Awards
Society Medal - Miss P.M.Callaghan
Clarke Medal (Zoology) - Prof. K. Rohde
Edgeworth David Medal - Dr P.A. Robinson
Biographic Memoirs
H.O. Fletcher
N.M. Gray
D. Hill
Annual Dinner Address
ADDRESS - Royal Society of New South Wales,
PO Box 1525, Macquarie Centre, NSW 2113, Australia.
DATE OF PUBLICATION June 1997
25
35
39
39
Al
43
A5
49
50
58
62
JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
ROYAL SOCIETY
OF
NEW SOUTH WALES
Volume 130 Parts 3 and 4
(Nos 385-386)
1997
~ ISSN 0035-9173
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY
PO BOX 1525, MACQUARIE CENTRE, NSW 2113
Issued December 1997
THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES
OFFICE BEARERS FOR 1997-98
Patrons - His Excellency the Honourable Sir William Deane, AC, KBE, Governor-
General of the Commonwealth of Australia
His Excellency the Honourable Gordon Samuels, AC, Governor of New South
Wales
President Dr E.C. Potter, PhD Lond, FRSC, FRACI, DIC
Vice-Presidents - Dr D.F. Branagan, MSc Syd, PhD Syd, FGS, MAusIMM
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Mr J.R. Hardie, BSc, Syd, FGS, MACE
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Prof. W.E. Smith, MSc, Syd, MSc Oxf, PhD NSW, MInstP, MAIP
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Hon Librarian - Miss P.M. Callaghan, BSc Syd, MSc Macq, ALAA
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FRCPA, FRCP Path Lond
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Prof. D.J. Swaine, MSc, Melb, PhD Aberd, FRACI
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New England Rep. Mr B.B. Burns, OBE, MDS Syd, FICD
Southern Highlands
Rep. Mr H.R. Perry BSc
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\
Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of NSW, Vol.130 Parts 3-4, 65-78, 1997.
ISSN 0035-9173/97/020065-14 $4.00/1.
Heavy Metals in Ceiling Dust of Some Sydney Houses,
New South Wales, Australia
C.L. WHICKER, W.J. HAYES, C.S. KHOO & R.S. BHATHAL
ABSTRACT. The levels of selected heavy metals (Pb, Cu, Zn and Cd) in ceiling
dusts from buildings in south-western Sydney were determined. Concentrations
ranged from 165 to 2490 pg g', 57 to 517 pg g' and 97 to 3664 ng g' for lead, copper
and zinc respectively. Despite high variability, the levels regularly exceeded the
recommended guidelines for identification of contaminated soils. Cadmium was
not detected in any sample. Lead was significantly higher in older buildings (>15
years) located in heavily developed areas. This difference was expected for copper
and zinc as well, however, large variabilities made these comparisons less distinct.
All sites displayed remarkably similar particle size distribution. The patterns of
metal loading were also similar, with metal levels rising as particulate size
decreased. The fine particulate matter (<106 pm) was noticeably metal enriched,
especially in lead. Given that the fines may account for more than half the ceiling
dust mass, the atmosphere is thus a significant contributor of particulate matter
65
and associated heavy metals to domestic environments in this region.
Keywords: heavy metals, dust, fractionation, Sydney.
MAR 1 1 1998
LIBRARIES
Dust in and around the home has long been
identified as a major source of heavy metals
in humans (Charney et al., 1980; Rutter &
Jones, 1983; Fergusson et al., 1986;
Fishbein, 1989; Hunt et al., 1992). For ex-
ample, Charney e¢ al. (1980) identified a
strong correlation between the lead content
in household dusts and elevated blood lead
levels in children exposed to such dusts. In
a study of houses in Christchurch, New
Zealand, Fergusson et al. (1986) found en-
richment of lead, copper, arsenic, zinc, cad-
mium, cobalt, antimony and chromium in
dust samples compared with the levels in
INTRODUCTION
surrounding soils.
Metal-laden house dusts are derived from
contaminated soil, motor vehicle emissions
and the fine particulate matter resulting
from the degradation of paints and road
surfaces (Hunt et al., 1992). They are con-
veyed into dwellings by humans (or other
animals) and atmospheric deposition. While
no one particular source necessarily repre-
sents the principal contributor of metals, it
is clear that the type of surrounding envi-
ronment influences the overall content. For
instance, from a comparative study of dusts
sampled from houses located in rural, sub-
urban and industrial areas, Krause et al.
(1987) identified that the levels of lead
66 WHICKER ET AL.
increased from rural to suburban to indus-
trial, highlighting the significance of at-
mospheric sources. Duggan & Williams
(1977) reported similar results for street
dusts.
Previous studies have involved sampling
of the living spaces of residential buildings,
concentrating on carpet and floor areas.
Such areas would mainly contain dusts
originating from soil, paint fragments and
animal conveyed matter. The authors are
unaware of any publication specifically
investigating the metal levels in dusts taken
from ceilings. Such samples may better
reflect the contribution of metals by the
atmosphere, especially lead, given that
petrol combustion and evaporation accounts
for up to 90 percent of the dust lead in urban
areas (Waldron, 1980; Fergusson &
Schroeder, 1985). For Australian domestic
buildings, most are covered by terracotta or
concrete roof tiles which allow air flow
through the roof. This air flow is responsible
for the transportation of dust and other
foreign materials into the roof cavities.
This study examined the levels of four
common heavy metals (lead, copper, zinc
and cadmium) in ceiling dusts of buildings
in south-western Sydney. Samples were
collected by vacuum suction from eleven
residential locations in the Campbelltown
district, six of which are heavily developed
(here classified as ‘urban’ sites) and five
only moderately so (here classified as ‘sub-
urban’ sites).
The six urban sites (sites 3-8) are located
in the suburb of Campbelltown itself, all
being close to main roads (within 100 me-
tres). Two are houses (Lindesay Street (1)
and Hoddle Avenue; both 40-43 years old)
and four are separate buildings of a pri-
mary school (Lindesay Street (2)-(5); 80, 42,
35 and 25 years old, respectively). The five
sub-urban sites are located in the suburbs
of Raby (sites 1, 9-11) and Leumeah (site 2).
The Raby sites consist of four houses (Bris-
tol Avenue, Lockheed Street, Siddeley Place
and Skyhammer Place; 13,13,13 and 2 years
old, respectively). The Leumeah site
(Brudenell Avenue) is a 28 year old house.
Each building has tile roofing, except the
oldest two (sites 5 and 6), for which both
have a roof constructed of zinc-galvanised
corrugated iron. The total concentrations of
lead, copper, zinc and cadmium in the sam-
ples were determined by flame atomic ab-
sorption spectrophotometry. Fractionation
studies were also performed to establish
which particle sizes contained the highest
proportions of metal.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sampling
Despite there being no standard technique
for dust sampling (Sutton et al., 1995), the
recommended procedureis to collect by vacu-
uming, provided careful cleaning of the
apparatus is performed between each indi-
vidual sample (Mata et al., 1994). This was
the method employed here.
Dust was collected by vacuum suction
(using an Electrolux™ model Z335 700W
vacuum cleaner) through plastic tubing into
a specially constructed Perspex filter trap.
For each sample a horizontal area of
approximately 0.5m? was covered. The dust
was immediately transferred to a plastic
specimen container and the sampler was
thoroughly cleaned before next use. All
plasticware that came into contact with
dust was washed in dilute nitric acid.
Each site was sampled at three separate
areas of ceiling, one each from the front,
middle and back. Total metal analysis was
performed in duplicate on each sample,
enabling an assessment of within-site
variability, as well as between-site
HEAVY METALS IN CEILING DUST 67
variability. The three site replicates were
then combined prior to the fractionation
studies.
Heavy metal analysis
To an accurately weighed portion of dust
(approximatelv 0.5 g) were added 20 mL of
a 6:1 solution of concentrated nitric and
perchloric acids. The mixture was heated at
250°C to dryness, then dissolved in the
minimum quantity of 1% v/v hydrochloric
acid and diluted to 100 mL with Milli-Q (..e.
reverse osmosis purified) water. The sam-
ple solution was then filtered through a
Whatman 5B filter paper into an acid-
washed specimen container. Metal
concentrations (Pb, Cu, Zn, Cd) were deter-
mined using a Varian Techtron Spectra
AA-20 flame atomic absorption
spectrophotometer (Varian Australia, Vic-
toria, Australia).
Fractionation analysis
The entire site-composite dust was passed
through a set of seven Endecotts stainless
steel sieves using an Endecotts EFL2 mk3
Test Sieve Shaker (Endecotts Ltd, Lombard
Road, London SW19 3BR, England). Shak-
ing time was set at 15 minutes and the
resulting fraction size ranges were as fol-
lows:
Fraction 1 = >425 mm
Fraction2 = 250-425 um
Fraction3 = 180 - 250 pm
Fraction4 = 150-180 mm
Fraction5 = #£106- 150 pm
Fraction 6 = 75-106 wpm
Fraction7 = 53- 75 pm
Fraction 8 = < 53 wpm
Two accurately weighed sub-samples of
each fraction were then digested and ana-
lysed for their total heavy metal content as
described previously. The final filtration
step was not performed, however, since
tests with three randomly selected digests
indicated there was no difference in the
spectrophotometer reading between filtered
and unfiltered solutions. A Varian
SpectrAA-200 flame atomic absorption
spectrophot-ometer (Varian Australia, Vic-
toria, Australia) was used.
Quality Control
All reagents were analytical grade, or bet-
ter. Working standards for AAS were
prepared from 1000 ppm stock solutions,
made by dissolving BDH solid lead nitrate,
copper sulfate, zinc sulfate and cadmium
chloride reagents (BDH-Merck, Victoria,
Australia) in 10% nitric acid. Suitable num-
bers of sample blanks were analysed,
following the recommendations of Rothery
(1986), and analytes in these blanks were
consistently below 0.05 mg L*.
The USEPA certified RTC Baghouse
Dust CRM014-050 reference material (Re-
source Technology Corp., Laramie, Wyo-
ming; purchased from Graham B. Jackson
Pty Ltd, Dandenong, Victoria, Australia)
was co-analysed. This standard reference
material has certified levels for lead and
cadmium. The mean percentage recovery
results for seven replicates were 95.4 (with
12.5% RSD) and 92.9 (with 5.5% RSD),
respectively.
Statistical analysis
All statistical analyses were conducted us-
ing SYSTAT 5.2 (Wilkinson, 1992). Where
necessary, reference was made to the text of
Sokal and Rohlf (1969). Data were grouped
on the basis of sitetype (i.e. urban or sub-
urban) and building age (<15 years, 15-35
years and >35 years) to assess differences.
68 WHICKER ET AL.
Site Site Location Site type Lead Copper Zinc
(ug g°) (ug g”) (ug g*)
1 Bristol Avenue, Raby sub-urban 445 +141 106 + 23 1422 + 1195
(297 - 578) (80 - 120) (495 - 2771)
2 Brundall Avenue, Luemeah sub-urban 619 + 81 104+11 247 + 69
(529 - 685) (97 - 117) (176 - 313)
3 Hoddle Avenue, Campbelltown urban 602 + 30 387 + 108 692 + 150
(574 - 654) (258 - 517) (536 - 919)
4 lLindesay Street (1), Campbelltown urban 797 + 100 70 +0 1087 + 436
(712 - 907) (79 - 79) (673 - 1542)
5 Lindesay Street (2), Campbelltown urban 11763 + 845 90 +16 3044 + 527
(594 - 2490) (71-109) (2446 - 3664)
6 Lindesay Street (3), Campbelltown urban 1133 + 273 118 + 19 2561 + 1013
(868 - 1463) (95-136) (1216 - 3530)
7 Lindesay Street (4), Campbelltown urban 1061 + 647 180 + 58 351 + 93
(560 - 1894) (113-236) (263 - 483)
8 Lindesay Street (5), Campbelltown urban 1100 + 225 164 + 80 377 + 94
(776 - 1317) (58 - 264) (273 - 509)
9 Lockheed Street, Raby sub-urban 592 + 314 124 + 52 224 + 135
(214 - 1042) (57 - 159) (97 - 424)
10 Siddley Place, Raby sub-urban 583 + 89 98 + 32 170 + 23
(484 - 657) (78 - 135) (155 - 196)
11 Skyhammer Place, Raby sub-urban 524 + 622 91+ 33 535 + 242
(165 - 1768) (69 - 155) (214 - 828)
All sites 822 + 491 150 + 103 1027 + 1105
(165 - 2490) (57 - 517) (97 - 3664)
(ug g') = micrograms metal per gram of dust.
Values in brackets are the observed minima and maxima.
Table 1. Heavy metal means, standard deviations and ranges for ceiling dusts collected
from the eleven sites in the Campbelltown district.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Total heavy metal concentrations
Site means, standard deviations and ranges
for lead, copper and zinc are listed in Table
1. For all samples the concentration of cad-
pg g'). The means for all sites combined are
relatively similar to those from a study of
twelve houses in Christchurch, New Zea-
land (Fergusson e¢ al., 1986), in which the
mium was below the detectable limit (< 1
house dust lead, copper and zinc values
were 734+398 pg g!, 230+91.1 pg g! and
845+186 ng g', respectively.
Large standard deviations and ranges
HEAVY METALS IN CEILING DUST 69
Mean concentration
(micrograms/gram)
sub-urban urban
Sitetype
Fig.1. Mean heavy metal concentrations for the urban and sub-urban Campbelltown sites.
(Error bars are the standard errors; copper data for site 3, and zinc data for sites 5 and 6
omitted).
1200
1000
800
600 I
) Y
<15 years 15 - 35 years > 35 years
Mean concentration
(micrograms/gram)
Age
Fig. 2. Mean heavy metal concentrations for the Campbelltown sites, as grouped by building
age. (Error bars are standard errors; zinc data for sites 5 and 6 omitted).
70 WHICKER ET AL.
Site Fraction 1 Fraction2 Fraction3 Fraction4 FractionS Fraction6 Fraction? Fraction 8
>425 um = 250-425 wm 180-250 pm 150-180 pm 106-150nm 75-106um 53-75ym <53um
1 26.35 8.53 6.89 2.69 7.19 10.18 12.13 26.05
2 40.61 4.44 5.63 1.47 5.58 8.85 10.37 23.05
3 12.20 6.46 5.98 3.09 6.73 12.02 13.98 39.54
4 14.90 10.87 12.14 2.39 9.79 15.66 13.63 20.62
5 21:29 7.81 8.85 3.08 5.38 9.80 12.41 25.38
6 10.83 4.59 5.44 2.81 8.20 14.37 16.70 37.06
7 7:27 4.00 5:21 3.19 8.94 16.84 19.35 35.20
8 37.10 8.96 5.58 ool 7.30 LETS 9.80 17.40
9 11.88 7.31 7.31 2:35 4.96 8.49 11.62 46.08
10 19.50 7.09 7.98 Lon? 6.74 11.88 10.82 34.22
11 15.45 7.43 7.08 3.18 6.96 10.50 10.61 38.80
Mean 20.31 7.04 7.10 2.61 7.07 11.79 13.86 31.22
Se (api l09 2.09 2.03 0.57 1.48 2.75 2.93 9.15
Table 2. Relative percentages by weight following ceiling dust fractionation for the
eleven study sites.
were observed for the sampling sites, espe-
cially for lead and zinc, indicating consider-
able within-site metal heterogeneity. This
was consistent with the wide range of par-
ticle sizes and types present in each sam-
ple, clearly observable by eye. Despite such
variabilities, values were regularly greater
than the environmental soil quality guide-
lines suggested by the Australian and New
Zealand Environment and Conservation
Council / National Health and Medical Re-
search Council (1992). Some 89% of all lead
concentrations exceeded the 300 ng g! guide-
line, while for copper and zinc the propor-
tion of values in excess of the corresponding
60 pg g! and 200 ng g! guidelines were 94%
and 87%, respectively.
Mean lead levels in dusts from the four
primary school buildings (sites 5-8) were
particularly high, ranging from 1061 to
1163 pg g'. Mean zinc levels in the first two
of these sites were also elevated (3044 and
2561 ug g', respectively), probably a conse-
quence of the galvanised metal roofing (Kim
and Fergusson, 1993). Such high levels in
these school buildings highlights a possible
public concern, considering the regular in-
habitants are young children.
Upon grouping the raw data by sitetype,
lead concentrations were clearly higher in
ceiling dusts collected from the heavily de-
veloped (i.e. urban) sites, compared with
the less (and more recently) developed sites.
Analysis of variance detected a highly sig-
nificant probability value of 0.001. For cop-
per and zinc, differences were less distinct
due to non-homogeneous sample variances.
The mean copper level for the urban sites
(i) Lead
Site
So OmBrANI A a & WoO NY =
10
11
Fraction 1
HEAVY METALS IN CEILING DUST
>425 pm 250-425 pm 180-250 pm 150-180 pm 106-150nm 75-106nm
448+70
347455
409+7
875445
764+109
604+76
522+44
584474
461+199
336+10
6749
(ii) Copper
Site
Fraction 1
>425 pm
3542
5043
5474266
62+8
16+9
3443
74430
53210
2321
46+6
2045
288425
424431
3884112
$312:22
761423
1157479
41544
685+12
186463
216439
223+160
Fraction
250-425ym
40+4
60+1
13644616
64143
21+0
3327
7645
6848
2245
39+4
1543
333448
498+15
5934120
868+10
eee ke.
1094+352
546431
9074102
253474
5384147
100427
Fraction 3
180-250 pm
48+3
7048
1921+889
62+1
66+70
3849
102+3
151429
58+50
44+12
2521
405+14
31923
793+46
851457
7514128
1141+88
587430
1155424
240+38
403+41
3764293
Fraction 4
150-180 pm
7048
83417
LS 74227
7445
49+0
66+11
129+41
Peer |
59+6
7225
33416
462+41
558+6
578+5
81147
882+20
998+12
611+69
1204427
43728
507+86
174+21
Fraction 5
106-150 pm
ZS
7543
1123+581
72+4
63+9
S927
13535
140+0
8148
70+7
40+8
537410
613+0
876+75
782412
74848
663448
773+10
1360455
660+17
575+46
19543
Fraction 6
75-106 pm
66+6
87+8
742431
78+6
59+11
49+6
11248
149+6
109+4
VOLT
49+1
53-75 m
567+17
646+11
927426
789413
736+8
82543
914424
1371+69
725+43
682439
235424
Fraction 7
53-75 pm
82+9
94+1
417+21
8542
7441
72+6
108+1
13345
114+4
84+6
O53
(ple
Fraction 2 Fraction 3 Fraction 4 Fraction 5 Fraction 6 Fraction 7 Fraction 8
<S3 pm
562+1
616+3
9084127
906+5
746+5
918436
1349454
1875+104
844+18
678+2
41749
Fraction 8
<53 pm
91+0
115+1
309412
116+3
81+]
9143
135+0
15748
169+0
8812
1625+10
Table 3. Metal concentrations in the ceiling dust fractions for the eleven study sites
(values in pg metal per gram of fraction): (i) Lead, (ii) Copper, (iii) Zinc - next page.
72 WHICKER ET AL.
(iii) Zinc
Fraction 1 Fraction2 Fraction3 Fraction4 FractionS Fraction6 Fraction 7 Fraction 8
Site >425 wpm =. 250-425 pm _ 180-250 pm 150-180 wpm 106-150nm 75-106um 53-75um <53um
1 10214584 433843214 252741461 22624547 13964124 1074+72 937235 802+10
2 450+89 770+71 808426 755439 740435 734413 712+4 632+13
3 24414736 25134556 2566£702 3279433 287741017 2837451 25214347 2566+126
4 13954107 2280493 21774159 22664277 1454490 =1207440 1073417 1061414
5 39684535 84324779 71204880 928941924 1602547484 64744477 4845450 3719417
6 501741337 937941489 860042563 82884563 6074452 33834418 2932429 2506+67
7 389+8 362+16 431424 492+21 522+8 618435 656+20 721413
8 37548 9964132 10724269 1283+11 1099+74 886437 964449 93843
9 118+53 144+4 193428 187425 28146 38442 CBr =| 35527
10 270454 4734331 363+28 867+8 7744114 564454 595435 514+1
11 90+14 35343 5494196 9014192 8304125 661+90 560+35 786+8
Table 3. (cont.)
was heavily influenced by site 3, which
displayed an extreme level (387 pg g°),
probably arising from the recent installa-
tion of copper piping for a water heating
system. If this site were omitted from the
ANOVA, a probability value of 0.086 is
evident. The mean zinc level for the urban
sites was heavily influenced by sites 5 and
6. When the ANOVA for zinc was repeated
after omitting these corresponding data, a
probability value of 0.576 was generated.
Fig. ‘1 illustrates the observed sitetype
means (with copper and zinc data omitted
as indicated above).
Ifthe data were grouped by building age,
analysis of variance detected a significant
difference for lead (p=0.010), both the 15-35
years and >35 years sites displaying higher
levels than the <15 years sites. No signifi-
cant difference between these age groups
was detected for copper (p=0.067). For zinc,
significant probabilities were detected, how-
ever, the group variances were highly het-
erogeneous, even when the data for sites 5
and 6 were omitted (p=0.043) and log trans-
formations were performed (p=0.004). Nev-
ertheless, the mean for the >35 years sites
was largest, while mean for the 15-35 years
sites was lowest. Fig. 2 compares the ob-
served age group means.
Assessing the level of association be-
tween building age and mean lead concen-
tration, a Spearman correlation coefficient
of 0.828 was observed. This coefficient was
greater than the corresponding critical value
at the 0.005 level (0.800). Coefficients of
-0.000 and 0.602 were observed for copper
and zinc, respectively. No significant asso-
ciation was observed for these two metals
(although zinc came close at the 0.05 level,
the critical value being 0.618).
It is clear that lead concentrations will
be high in the ceiling dusts of older buildings
located in heavily developed urban areas.
These results reflect those of Sutton et al.
(1995) who analysed a large number of
HEAVY METALS IN CEILING DUST 73
house dusts from three urban communities
of California. Lead levels of up to 9537
pg g/ were detected and age of housing was
reported as the best indicator of lead
concentration.
In the present study, the factors of
sitetype and age cannot be completely re-
solved (i.e. they are confounded) as all the
sub-urban buildings are in the <15 year
category (except Site 2). Indeed it is difficult
to find recently (<15 years) constructed
buildings in heavily developed areas of
Campbelltown (or indeed in any major met-
ropolitan area). Sub-urban regions often
represent areas that are still undergoing
development.
Only data from the Lindesay Street sites
(i.e. sites 4-8) could be used to assess the
relative importance of these two factors.
ANOVA, after grouping on the basis of age,
generated a probability value of 0.990 for
lead, indicating no significant difference
between the sub-groups. This would sug-
gest siteype as being more important; how-
ever, this conclusion is weak since none of
these sites is less than 15 years old.
As there was no significant correlation
between the metals themselves, it is likely
they originated from different atmospheric
sources. Given the findings of Waldron
(1980), Fergusson & Schroeder (1985) and
Kim & Fergusson (1993), who all identified
petrol as a significant source of lead in
house dust (up to 90% in urban samples),
the lead in these southwestern Sydney sam-
ples should be principally derived from
automobile exhausts. Copper and zinc lev-
els, which were much less affected by the
location or age of the building, were prob-
ably a reflection of the particular construc-
tion materials present at a given site.
Fractionation studies
Considering the high level of compositional
heterogeneity in the house dust matrix,
Hunt et al. (1992) recommended separa-
tion and pre-concentration of size frac-
tions. Natusch e¢ al. (1974) and Gulson et
al. (1995) reinforced the importance of
analysing the finer, more respirable par-
ticles (i.e. <100 pm sizes) of soil and dust as
this fraction is likely to be highly concen-
trated in trace elements. Hence, for this
study fractionation was performed toiden-
tify which particle size ranges dominated
the bulk sample and/or contained the high-
est proportions of metal. Results of these
analyses are presented in Tables 2 and 3,
and Figs 3 and 4(i-iii).
Fractions 1 (>425 pm) and 8 (<53 pm)
were found to be major contributors to the
bulk masses of these ceiling dusts, both
being more than double any of the remain-
ing fractions. The mean total fines (i.e.
total solids <106 pm, given by the sum of
Fractions 6, 7 and 8; after consideration of
White (1979)) was found to be approxi-
mately 56%.
Fig. 3illustrates that each of the eleven
sites followed a similar trend in the rela-
tive weight fractionation. Fraction 4 (150-
180 ym) consistently contributed a low
amount of particulate matter and possi-
bly reflected the boundary between site-
specific debris (Fractions 1-4) and aggre-
gated aerosol matter that increased in
amount as particle size became smaller
(Fractions 4-8). The separate plots indi-
cate that within-sample distribution was
relatively reproducible, which was inter-
esting given the otherwise heterogeneous
nature of ceiling dust. Considering the
spatial distribution of the sampling sites,
this result would suggest that atmospheric
inputs are an important source of solid
materials in the roof cavity.
Despite repeatable within-site particle
size distribution, no real pattern emerged
amongst the individual metal levels, pre-
74 WHICKER ET AL.
—fr— Site1
—O— _ Site2
—O— Site3
weetiipeowes Site A
woonnn Site §
40 —f— Site6
T Site 7 [st
—tk— Sites fd
—t— Site 9 f a
307 --F - Site 10 fF ,
He i Site ll
Weight relative percentage
(% w/w)
fee
ree
ees \
Were NF
aiee,
e Ne: nS Z wt,
a we OP Ne
XN nee CPA ESP = ae
“
Sse B...”
ee ee
=a...
0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Fraction number
Fig. 3. Comparison of the weight relative percentages, following ceiling dust
fractionation for the eleven study sites.
500
—f-— = sub-urban sites
—@— urbansites
400
load
300
lead
(micrograms)
200
Mean
100
>425 250-425 150-250 75-150 <75
Fraction (micrometres)
Fig. 4(i). Mean heavy metal loadings (per gram of unfractionated dust) for the urban and
sub-urban Campbelltown sites - Lead. (Error bars are the standard errors).
HEAVY METALS IN CEILING DUST 75
—f£-— = sub-urban sites
70 —@— urbansites
Mean copper load
(micrograms)
>425 250-425 150-250 75-150 <75
Fraction (micrometres)
Fig. 4(ii). Mean heavy metal loadings (per gram of unfractionated dust) for the urban and
sub-urban Campbelltown sites - Copper. (Error bars are the standard errors; copper data
for sites 3 and 11 omitted).
1200
—f— = sub-urban sites
—@— urban sites
1000 :
800
600
Mean zinc load
(micrograms)
400
200
>425 250-425 150-250 75-150 <75
Fraction (micrometres)
Fig. 4(iii). Mean heavy metal loadings (per gram of unfractionated dust) for the urban and
sub-urban Campbelltown sites. 4(iii) Zinc (error bars are the standard errors).
76 WHICKER ET AL.
sented as micrograms metal per gram of
fraction (Table 3). In general terms, Frac-
tions 7 and 8 are high in lead and copper,
while zinc is usually high in the middle
fractions (i.e. Fractions 3 to 5). One notable
outlier occurred for Fraction 8 copper at site
11. Given that the house is approximately
two years old and located in a quite sub-
urban area, this anomaly may be due to
some unexpected source at the site.
Trends are difficult to depict in this table
since the fraction sizes are unequal and the
values are metal concentrations per gram
of fraction. Upon combining Fractions 3
and 4 (150-250 pm), Fractions 5 and 6 (75-
150 pm) and Fractions 7 and 8(<75 pm), and
calculating the metal loads per gram of
unfractionated dust, a clearer picture of
metal distribution was generated. Fig. 4(i-
iii) illustrates the mean load data for pooled
sub-urban and urban sites. For copper, sites
3 and 11 were omitted.
Each metal displayed a similar pattern
of decreasing load from the >425 pm to 250-
425 pm fractions, followed thereafter by a
steady rise as particle size decreased. Ac-
companying this rise was increased vari-
ability as measured by the standard errors.
An exception was the zinc loading in the
sub-urban sites, for which there was mini-
mal difference amongst particles greater
than 75 pm, and variability around the
means became less.
Each pair of plots reflected the ANOVA
results discussed earlier. For all fractions,
the lead levels are clearly higher in urban
samples and the two graphs are virtually
identical. Minimal difference occurs in the
case of copper and the plots are almost
superimposed. For zinc, the urban means
are much greater than the corresponding
sub-urban values, but they also display
much larger standard errors. Little change
resulted if the data for sites 5 and 6 were
omitted.
The fractionation results were consist-
ent with the findings of Fergusson & Ryan
(1984) and Gulson et al. (, 1995), who also
observed increased metal concentrations
with decreasing particle size. Given that
the fines (i.e. the <106 pm particles) of these
ceiling dusts are metal enriched and may
account for more than half the sample mass,
the atmosphere is thus a significant con-
tributor of heavy metals to domestic envi-
ronments in this region.
Human exposure to metals from dusts is
heavily influenced by the particle popula-
tion (Hunt e¢ al., 1992). Fine particulate
matter (i.e. <100 pm) tends to be the most
significant toxicologically, being highly re-
spirable and showing greater exchange-
ability from larger surface area (Natusch et
al., 1974; White, 1979; Dreisbach &
Robertson, 1987). Hence, ceiling dusts from
urbanised areas could pose a health risk
upon a major exposure.
CONCLUSIONS
High concentrations of lead, copper and
zinc were detected in the ceiling dusts of
eleven southwestern Sydney buildings, al-
though considerable within-site heteroge-
neity was apparent, both in terms of metal
levels and particle composition. Most of the
observed concentrations (>85% of samples)
exceeded the referenced soil quality guide-
lines. Lead, probably originating from au-
tomobile exhaust fumes, was significantly
higher in older buildings (>15 years) lo-
cated in heavily developed areas. This dif-
ference was expected for copper and zinc as
well, however, large variabilities made these
comparisons less distinct.
All eleven sites displayed remarkably
similar particle size distribution, with the
>425 pm and <53 pm fractions being major
contributors to the bulk masses (each
HEAVY METALS IN CEILING DUST 77
greater than 20%). The patterns of metal
loading were also similar, with metal levels
rising as particulate size decreased beyond
250 pm. The fine particulate maker (< 106
ym) was noticeably metal enriched, espe-
cially in lead. Given that the fines may
account for more than half the ceiling dust
mass, the atmosphere is thus a significant
contributor of particulate matter and asso-
ciated heavy metals to domestic environ-
ments in this region.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was supported by a University
of Western Sydney, Macarthur, 1995/96
Summer Student Research Scholarship.
The authors are also most grateful to Mr
Danny Cochrane for his assistance in the
design of the sampling apparatus.
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THE ASSESSMENT AND MANAGE-
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elemental composition of street dust from
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Fergusson, J.E., Forbes, E.A., Schroeder, R.J.
& Ryan, D.E., 1986. The elemental
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Gulson, B.L., Davis, J.J., Mizon, K.J., Korsch,
M.J. & Bawden-Smith, J., 1995. Sources of
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Hunt, A., Johnson, D.L. Watt, J.M. & Thornton,
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& Wolter, R., 1987. Metal concentrations
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Mata, P., Charpin, D., Kaytandjian, N.,
Birnbaum, J. & Vervloet, D., 1994.
Standardization of house-dust sampling.
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Identification of large reptilian teeth from Plio-Pleistocene
deposits of Australia
P.M.A.WILLIS & R. E. MOLNAR
Abstract. Problems of identifying isolated reptilian teeth from Australian Plio-
Pleistocene sites are discussed. There are problems of association because few
crocodilian taxa are known from specimens with teeth in situ. The full range of
variation in tooth form for these taxa is poorly understood. An attempt to assign
certain tooth morphologies to known taxa has meant some arbitrary decisions but
it is hoped that future material may clarify areas of uncertainty. Proposed
identification of isolated reptilian teeth is facilitated by a dichotomous key, written
descriptions and figured specimens.
INTRODUCTION
Numerous Plio-Pleistocene deposits from
Australia have produced isolated teeth from
crocodilians and the large varanid
Megalania. The identification of these teeth
has been difficult, inaccurate and confused
(eg. Anderson 1930). Recent work on Aus-
tralian Plio-Pleistocene crocodilians
(Molnar 1981, 1982; Willis & Archer 1990;
Willis & Molnar 1997) and on the large
varanid Megalania (Hecht 1975) permits a
more accurate identification of these teeth,
at least to the level of genus.
Most large reptilian teeth from Plio-Pleis-
tocene deposits in Australia represent three
genera; the crocodilians Pallimnarchus and
Quinkana and the varanid Megalania. The
occurrence of Crocodylus porosus and C.
jJohnstoni in Plio-Pleistocene deposits is rare
(Molnar 1979, 1981; Willis & Archer 1990)
but criteria are provided for the identifica-
tion of these two taxa based on isolated
teeth. While the intention here is to provide
suites of characters that will permit the
identification of isolated teeth, some crite-
ria used here have been selected arbitrarily
because of the unknown limits of individual
variation within species. This problem is
compounded by relatively small data sets
for some species and such criteria may re-
quire modification as new material becomes
available.
Abbreviations used for collections in-
clude AM F, Palaeontological collections of
the Australian Museum; QM F, Palaeonto-
logical collections of the Queensland Mu-
seum.
80 WILLIS & MOLNAR
LARGE REPTILIAN TEETH NOT
CONSIDERED IN THE KEY
While crocodilians are usually considered
to be homodont, there is some variation in
the shape of teeth from the front of the
dental arcade to the back. In extreme cases,
this can be referred to as pseudoheterodonty.
This identification process only deals with
teeth from the anterior portion of the dental
arcade. Teeth from the posterior of the
crocodilian dental arcade (sometimes called
pseudomolars) take on a similar, button-
like morphology. Low, rounded pseudo-
molars with strong lateral compression may
be attributed to Quinkana. Typical low,
rounded, button-like pseudomolars appear
to be similar in morphology for several taxa
(e.g. species of Crocodylus, Pallimnarchus
and Baru) and are thus excluded from this
analysis.
THE RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF
LARGE REPTILIAN TEETH
Crocodilians and Megalania have different
types of tooth replacement. Crocodilians
have a thecodont dentition where teeth are
regularly ejected and replaced throughout
the life of the individual (Edmund 1962,
1969) . Most crocodilians have around sev-
enty to eighty teeth in the mouth and each
tooth is replaced an average of five times
throughout the animals life. Thus, over
three hundred and fifty teeth will be pro-
duced during the life of a single crocodilian
(Edmund 1962, 1969). Megalania and other
varanids have pleurodont dentition in which
the teeth are not replaced as regularly as in
crocodilians (Hecht 1975). Varanids in gen-
eral and Megalania in particular have far
fewer teeth than crocodilians, probably
around fifty. Based on studies of tooth re-
placement rates in other species of Varanus,
Auffenberg (1982) suggests that Varanus
komodoensis, with 60 teeth, produced 200-
250 teeth annually. This is a replacement
rate of around 3.3 times per year and in two
years it will produce well over 350 teeth.
Thus, unless it had much lower rates of
tooth replacement than modern varanids,
an average individual of Megalania should
have produced far more isolated teeth dur-
ing a given period than a crocodilian such
as Pallimnarchus or Quinkana.
However, teeth of varanids are much
less common in Plio-Pleistocene deposits
than those of crocodilians. Crocodilians typi-
cally inhabit lacustrine or fluviatile envi-
ronments where fossilisation of isolated,
ejected teeth is more likely. Megalania is
assumed to have been exclusively terres-
trial and its ejected teeth are unlikely to be
fossilised in this environment. Perhaps this
accounts for the disparity between the ex-
pected number of teeth produced and the
numbers actually found and collected. In
addition, there seem to have been several
Pleistocene species of crocodilians (species
of Crocodylus, Pallimnarchus and
Quinkana) to only one species of Megalania
(M. prisca). However, since the numbers in
the Queensland Museum collections are in
the ratio of approximately 1 Megalania tooth
to 80 crocodilian teeth, further explanation
may be necessary. In any case itis clear that
crocodilian teeth are much more likely to be
found in Plio-Pleistocene deposits than those
of Megalania.
ASSOCIATION OF TEETH AND BONES
FOR LARGE REPTILIAN TAXA
Many maxillae and dentaries of Megalania
prisca with the teeth still attached have
been described and figured. De Vis (1900)
figured and briefly described a maxilla with
three teeth from Chinchilla, southeastern
REPTILIAN TEETH
Beesee hase
Fig. 1. Teeth of Megalania cf. M. prisca. Top, labial; Centre, mesial and; Bottom, lingual
views. A, QM F 10966; B, QM F872; C, QM F29365. Scale bar 10 mm.
81
82 WILLIS & MOLNAR
Fig. 2. Teeth of Crocodylus johnstoni (QM J45309). Top, distal (A, B) or mesial (C) and;
Bottom, labial views. A, right maxillary 2; B. right maxillary 5; C, left maxillary 9.
Serration-like plications may be seen on the carina in B (top). Scale bar 10 mm.
REPTILIAN TEETH 83
Fig 3. Teeth of Crocodylus porosus (QM J22550). Top, distal (A, B) or mesial (C) and Bottom,
labial views. A, right premaxillary 3; B, left maxillary 5; C, left maxillary 9. Scale bar 10 mm.
84 WILLIS & MOLNAR
HET
Fig. 4. Teeth attributed to Pallimnarchus cf. P. pollens. Top, labial and; Bottom, mesial views.
A, QM F29400; B, QM F29399; C, QM F3294 (note that this large tooth is curved both labio-
lingually and mesio-distally, unlike smaller crocodilian teeth). Scale bars 10 mm: A and B to
same scale.
—
REPTILIAN TEETH 85
Fig. 5. Teeth attributed to Quinkana cf. Q. fortirostrum. Top, labial or lingual and; Bottom,
mesial views. A, QM F10968; B, QM F32153; C, QM F1167. Scale bar 10 mm.
86 WILLIS & MOLNAR
Queensland in the collections of the Queens-
land Museum. He designated this speci-
men as Varanus dirus, which may be a
junior synonym of M. prisca (Hecht 1975).
Etheridge (1917) described a dentary of
Megalania prissa from the Condamine
River, southeastern Queensland, with a
partial tooth attached (AM F2212). While
undoubtedly M. prisca, this specimen rep-
resents a maxilla. Anderson (1930) identi-
fied five isolated teeth from Rosella Plains
near Cairns, Queensland (AM F25227-8) as
M. prisca. These teeth, according to the
identification scheme presented here, be-
long to Quinkana cf. Q. fortirostrum (cf.
Molnar 1981). Hecht (1975) described the
most comprehensive collection of material
referred to M. prisca, which included two
partial maxillae, an almost complete man-
dible, several dentary fragments and a
number of isolated teeth. One of the maxil-
lae (AM F2212) is that described by
Etheridge (1917) and the other (QM F14/
870) may be that described by De Vis (1900)
but, if this is the same specimen, two teeth
had become detached by the time Hecht
inspected it. More recently an almost com-
plete maxilla (QM F12370), with several
teeth attached, was collected near Water-
ford, southeastern Queensland. This mate-
rial permits accurate and confident descrip-
tions of the morphology of Megalania teeth.
Unfortunately the identification of
crocodilian teeth from Plio-Pleistocene de-
posits in Australia is complicated by the
paucity of specimens with the teeth still
implanted in their sockets. This creates
some ambiguity as to the correct identifica-
tion of isolated crocodilian teeth. At present
four crocodilian taxa have been described
from Plio-Pleistocene deposits in Australia;
Pallimnarchus pollens (De Vis 1886; Molnar
1981), Quinkana fortirostrum (Molnar
1982), Crocodylus porosus (Molnar 1979,
1981) and C. johnstoni (Willis & Archer
1990).
Several specimens of P. pollens (e.g. QM
F11612) are known with teeth in situ: they
are, however, recent replacement teeth.
They are conical, circular to subcircular in
cross-section, slightly curved lingually, with
distinct carina. None of the carinae in the
replacement teeth have serrations, but they
do show a serration-like pattern in their
enamel. The authors interpret this as a
stage in the development of serrations in
the growth of the tooth and thus, that the
adult teeth were serrate. This, in turn,
leads us to attribute to Pallimnarchus the
isolated large conical teeth with distinct
serrate carinae from the Plio-Pleistocene.
We also note that very large teeth, here
attributed to Pallimnarchus, are curved in
both the mesio-distal (approximately
parasaggital) and labio-lingual (approxi-
mately transverse) planes (Fig. 4C) unlike
the smaller teeth of crocodilians in general
that are curved only in the labio-lingual
plane.
Two specimens of Quinkana (QM F7898
and an unnumbered specimen from Bluff
Downs) are known that have teeth still in
place. On QM F7898 the tooth, a recent
replacement tooth, is small and broken.
However, it clearly shows lateral compres-
sion and a distinct, serrate anterior carina.
The unnumbered specimen from Bluff
Downs was recently excavated by Brian
Mackness and represents an anterior por-
tion of the right maxilla with the fifth tooth
in situ. The tooth is strongly compressed
laterally, with distinct carinae that do not
appear to be serrate. This is currently being
described as a new species of Quinkana
(Willis & Mackness 1996). The new Miocene
species of Quinkana, Q. timara also has
some teeth associated with the type mate-
rial and the morphology of these teeth is
similar to that of the Pleistocene species
(Megirian 1994).
The dental morphology of both C. porosus
and C. johnstoni is well known from extant
populations and over 50 individuals of both
species were examined for the present study.
REPTILIAN TEETH 87
In the anterior of the dental arcade the
teeth are conical, curved lingually with
slight carinae. The teeth of C. porosus are
more robust than those of C. johnstoni and
the teeth of C. johnstoni may have mild
fluting toward the base.
It is assumed here that all isolated
crocodilian teeth with serrate carinae or
strong lateral compression recovered from
Australian Plio-Pleistocene deposits relate
to either Pallimnarchus or Quinkana. Thus,
although consistent with the evidence, we
acknowledge that the identification of ser-
rate or compresssed teeth as Pallimnarchus
or Quinkana, and nonserrate and conical
teeth as Crocodylus, is somewhat arbitrary
and these hypotheses may require modifi-
cation once better material is recovered. A
specimen of C. porosus in the Northern
Territory Museum has been described as
having serrate carinae (Megirian pers.
comm.) and the several maxillary teeth ofa
C. porosus skull in the Queensland Mu-
seum (QM J22550) have a serrate-like pat-
tern in the carinae (Fig. 3B, top), like those
seen in the recent replacement teeth of P.
pollens. Both these cases of serrate carinae
in Crocodylus concern adult specimens.
However, these are the only two cases of
serrate carinae found in more than one
hundred specimens of species of Crocodylus
species examined for this study, and in both
cases the serrations were poorly developed
and not comparable to the true serrations
seen in Pallimnarchus or Quinkana. This
suggests that, although a few teeth of large
specimens of Crocodylus may be weakly
serrate, such occurrences are exceptional
and, for practical purposes, may be ignored.
The designation of isolated teeth with
distinct, usually serrate carinae to either
Pallimnarchus or Quinkana is based on the
degree of compression of the tooth. This
character is useful because of the difference
in degree of compression between, on one
hand, the teeth and the empty alveolion the
three Quinkana specimens and empty al-
veoli of numerous Pallimnarchus speci-
mens. Although no study has been done to
demonstrate a correlation, or otherwise,
between the tooth cross sectional shape to
the shape of the alveoli, ten teeth and their
respective alveoli have been measured from
three specimens of C. porosus (Table 1).
These data demonstrate a good correlation
between the cross sectional shape of the
tooth and the shape of the alveolus at the
anterior of the dental arcade but a poorer
correlation at the posterior (Fig 7). How-
ever, accepting that there is a strong corre-
lation between cross sectional shape of the
tooth and the shape of the alveolus at the
anterior of the dental arcade, it can be
inferred that there is a significant differ-
ence between the cross sectional shape of
the teeth of Pallimnarchus and Quinkana
(Table 2). In Quinkana the cross sectional
(mesio-distal) length of the tooth is greater
than 1.3 times the width of the tooth. In
Pallimnarchus, this ratio is less than 1.3.
The Bluff Downs Quinkana tooth has a
ratio of 1.72. This criterion may need to be
revised as more material becomes avail-
able.
The occurrence of Crocodylus porosus
and C. johnstoni in Australian Plio-Pleis-
tocene deposits is rare. The equally rare
occurrence of nonserrate crocodilian teeth
in these deposits is consistent with their
correct identification as Crocodylus teeth.
CONFIDENCE OF IDENTIFICATIONS
Because of the problems of associating teeth
with osteological material in Pallimnarchus
and Quinkana and because there may be
more than a single species in these two
genera and Megalania (Hecht 1975; Molnar
1981, 1982; Willis & Molnar 1997) it is
recommended that identification ofisolated
teeth as belonging to these taxa be restricted
to the generic level with possible affinities
to the currently recognised species (i.e.
88 WILLIS & MOLNAR
Maxillary Tooth Alveolus
Number Mesio-distal Width
A - Specimen QM J47474
1 13.8 13.0
2. 15.8 1524
3 16.7 1373
4 18.0 20.0
5 231 23.1
11 17.8 12.1
12 14.6 9.8
13 13.5 8.6
B- Specimen QM J39232
] 9.0 7.8
2 93 8.9
3 9.1 8.6
4 11.1 10.6
5 13.5 12.9
10 10.9 9.7
11 9.6 7.8
12 9.0 aA
13 9.1 6.5
14 8.8 6.1
C- Specimen QM J13443
l 9.2 8.2
2 10.7 10.4
3 11.5 11.0
4 17.0 16.7
> 18.9 18.0
10 122 12,2
11 13.7 1 ee
12 11.2 9.6
13 10.6 8.7
14 9.4 5.9
Mesio-distal
9.8
10.4
IZ
14.3
18.7
12:3
ony
8.4
6.2
6.3
6.7
8.4
10.3
8.0
TS
6.7
7
5.4
7.0
dan
8.5
i es
14.5
9.4
8.8
TRS)
6.1
5.4
Tooth
Width
7.4
10.5
10.0
13.8
18.3
9.6
7.3
6.1
5.6
6.0
6.4
8.4
10.2
6.6
Bee
5.3
5.0
4.3
6.3
6.9
8.1
11.4
14.2
TZ
8.0
6.3
339
4.2
Table 1. Alveolus and tooth measurements for three specimens of C. porosus.
All measurements in millimetres.
REPTILIAN TEETH 89
alveolus mesiodistal sectional ratio
Pallimarchus pollens (Flinders University P25502)
l 12:5 12.3 1.02
2 14.7 14.9 0.99
B, 18.3 17.6 1.04
4 26.7 232 1.15
> 271 24.7 1.10
Quinkana fortirostrum (Australian Museum F57844)
1 11.2 8.0 1.40
2 1235 9.0 1.39
3 13.1 8.9 1.47
4 14.2 9.3 153
5 11.6 8.4 1.38
Table 2. Cross sectional proportions of the first five maxilliary
alveoli in Pallimnarchus pollens and Qinkana fortirostrum.
Pallimnarchus cf. P. pollens, Quinkana cf.
Q. fortirostrum, Megalania cf. M. prisca).
Assuming only two species of Crocodylus,
identification of isolated teeth to either
Crocodylus porosus or C. johnstoni can be
made to the specific level based on the
characters provided here.
The authors would appreciate hearing
from anyone finding large Plio-Pleistocene
reptilian teeth that cannot be identified
with this key.
KEY TO THE IDENTIFICATION OF
ISOLATED LARGE REPTILIAN TEETH
FROM AUSTRALIAN PLIO-PLEIS-
TOCENE DEPOSITS
1. Crown of tooth strongly laterally
compressed with tear-drop-shaped cross-
section toward base; strong, narrow and
irregular, sometimes bifurcating, fluting
towards the base; serrate carinae;
anterior carina absent or extending no
more than one third the length of the
tooth from the tip; crown strongly
recurved and sickle-shaped in profile
(posterior edge strongly concave); often
showing occlusal wear; no indication of
smaller replacement teeth internally;
tooth is solid internally, without “cup” to
accommodate a replacement tooth (Figs
LO) Ge eee cere, hee eee Megalania
Crown of tooth may or may not be
laterally compressed; lenticular cross
section toward base; basal fluting (if
present) weak, relatively broad and
regular, not bifurcating; carinae either
serrate or nonserrate; anterior carina
usually extends to the base of the crown;
tooth never strongly recurved, i.e.
posterior edge never strongly concave;
rarely showing any occlusal wear; one or
more replacement teeth usually
preserved internally or, ifabsent, conical,
cup-like cavity present in base of tooth
A esessecoet crocodilian, 2
2. Carinae usually nonserrate, poorly
defined against the body of the tooth;
90 WILLIS & MOLNAR
*
x *&* © *
Megalania prisca
serrations on upper third of anterior
carina
posterior margin concave
strong, irregular fluting at base
tear-shapes cross section
no internal structures
Quinkana c.f. Q. fortirostrum
**
*
*
*
serrations to base of anterior carina
carina distinct from body of tooth
compressed, lenticular cross section
internal structure;
either an empty ‘cup’ or
with replacement teeth
no fluting
serrate carinae
robust, conical form
distinct carinae
ovoid cross section
Pallimnarchus c.f. P. pollens
no fluting
Ch Ne axle MC Re
(’ Crocodylus porosus
ee ee ea
internal ‘cups’
non-serrate carinae
robust, conical form
carinae poorly developed
no fluting
ovoid section
internal ‘cups’
Crocodylus johnstoni
*
*
*
*
| *
*
similar to C. porosus but more slender
no serrations
may have weak, regular fluting toward
base
ovoid section
carinae poorly developed
internal ‘cups’
Fig. 6. Schematic drawings of the five different types of teeth identified in the key showing
characteristic features. Teeth shown in profile and basal views (not to scale).
REPTILIAN TEETH 91
O QMJ47474
@ QM J39232
& QMJ13443
Maxillary alveoli
Alveolus mesio-distal
Alveolus width
Fig. 7. Correlation between tooth shape and alveolus shape. Data from Table 1 has
been analysed by the following formula:
Tooth mesio-distal
Tooth width
Values close to 0 indicate a good correlation between alveolus and tooth cross
sectional shape. Values marked with an asterix (*) are where the tooth is dam-
aged giving a poor representation of true tooth cross sectional shape.
tooth not strongly laterally compressed
be rceete Crocodylus, 3
Carinae may be serrate and well
defined against the body of the tooth;
tooth may be strongly compressed
. Tooth long and gracile; sometimes with
mild to moderate length-wise fluting
CEIGS 256) cssseToeceess. C. johnstoni
Tooth moderately long, robust;
lengthwise fluting rare and, at most, only
mildly developed (Figs 3, 6)
cueeehir ese eeses C. porosus
4. Crown of tooth conical, cross-sectional
width not much smaller than cross-
sectional length (medio-distal length/
width < 1.3); profile more or less
symmetric (Figs 4, 6)
sasbaterisss Pallimnarchus
Tooth blade like, cross sectional width
much smaller than cross-sectional length
(medio-distal length/width > 1.3); profile
strongly asymmetric (Figs. 5, 6)
idle aa Quinkana
92 WILLIS & MOLNAR
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank John Scanlon and
Mike Archer for reading early drafts and Dirk
Megirian for constructive comments. Thanks
to Brian Mackness and Judy Furbie and Rod
Wells who kindly provided access to new fossil
material and thanks to Ross Sadlier and Robert
Jones who provided access to the Australian
Museum’s herpetological and fossil collections.
One of us (P.W.) was supported by a Faculty
Scholarship from the Department of Biological
and Behavioural Sciences, University of New
South Wales during early work on this
manuscript.
REFERENCES
Anderson, C., 1930. Paleontological Notes No.
II: Miolania platyceps Owen and Varanus
(Megalania) prisca (Owen). Records of the
Australian Museum 27, 309-316.
Auffenberg, W., 1982. THE BEHAVIOURAL
ECOLOGY OF THE KOMODO DRAGON.
University Presses of Florida, Gainesville.
De Vis, C. W., 1886. On the remains of an
extinct saurian. Proceedings of the Royal
Society of Queensland 2, 181 - 191.
De Vis, C. W., 1900. A further trace of an
extinct lizard. Annals of the Queensland
Museum 5, 6.
Edmund, A.G., 1962. Sequence and rate of
tooth replacement in the Crocodilia. Royal
Ontario Museum; Life Sciences,
Contribution 56.
Edmund, A.G., 1969. Dentition in BIOLOGY
OF THE REPTILIA 1, MORPHOLOGY A.
C. Gans and T.S. Parsons (eds). Acad. Press.
London.
Etheridge, R., Jnr., 1917. Reptilian notes;
Megalania prisca, Owen, and Notiosaurus
dentatus, Owen, lacertilian dermal armour;
opalised remains from Lightning Ridge.
Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria
29, 127-133.
Hecht, M.K., 1975. The morphology and
relationships of the largest known
terrestrial lizard, Megalania prisca Owen,
from the Pleistocene of Australia.
Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria
87, 239-250.
Megirian, D., 1994. Anew species of Quinkana
Molnar (Eusuchia: Crocodylidae) from the
Miocene Camfield Beds of Northern
Australia. The Beagle, Records of the
Museum and Art Galleries of the Northern
Territory 11, 145-166.
Molnar, R.E., 1979. Crocodylus porosus from
the Pliocene Allingham Formation of north
Queensland. Memoirs of the Queensland
Museum 19, 357-365.
Molnar, R.E., 1981. Pleistocene ziphodont
crocodilians of Queensland. Records of the
Australian Museum 33, 803-834.
Molnar, R.E., 1982. Pallimnarchus and other
Cenozoic crocodiles of Queensland.
Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 20,
657-673.
Willis, P.M.A. & Archer, M., 1990. A Pleistocene
longirostrine crocodilian from Riversleigh:
first fossil occurrence of Crocodylus
Johnstoni Krefft. Memoirs of the Queensland
Museum 28(1), 159-163.
Willis, P.M.A. & Mackness, B., 1996. Quinkana
babarra, a new species of ziphodont
mekosuchine crocodile from the early
Pliocene Bluff Downs Local Fauna,
Northern Australia, with a revision of the
genus. Proceedings and Journal of the
Linnean Society of New South Wales 116,
143-151.
Willis, P.M.A. & Molnar, R.E., 1997. A review
of the Plio-Pleistocene crocodilian genus
Pallimnarchus. Proceedings and Journal
of the Linnean Society of New South Wales
117, 223-242.
P.M.A Willis
Quinkana Pty Ltd
3 Wanda Crescent
Berowra Height NSW 2082
Australia
R. E. Molnar
Queensland Museum
PO Box 3300
South Brisbane Qld 4101
Australia
(Manuscript received 4.8.94;
Manuscript received in final form 2.10.97)
Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of NSW, Vol.130 Parts 3-4, 93-108 1997.
ISSN 0035-9173/97/020093-16 $4.00/1.
Destruction of Ozone-depleting Substances
ina Thermal Plasma
A.B. MURPHY
Abstract. The destruction of ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) using the
PLASCON™ thermal plasma technology is discussed. An introduction to thermal
plasmas is presented, and their application to waste destruction is reviewed. The
PLASCON process is then described, and some examples of the experimental and
theoretical research that has contributed to its successful commercialisation are
presented. An important observation is that significant quantities of CFC-13
(CF,Cl), itself an ODS, are formed during the destruction of an input ODS. A
numerical model of the fluid dynamic and chemical kinetic processes occurring in
PLASCON has been used to elucidate the mechanism for the CFC-13 formation.
The predictions of the model are in fair agreement with measurements of exhaust
gas composition, and with laser-scattering measurements of temperatures in the
93
reaction tube.
INTRODUCTION
It is well established that the recent deple-
tion of stratospheric ozone is a result of the
release of man-made chemicals, such as
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons.
This was recognised in the award of the
1995 Nobel Prize for Chemistry to Paul
Crutzen, Mario Molino and F. Sherwood
Rowland for their work on the mechanisms
of the formation and decomposition of ozone
in the stratosphere.
The 1992 Copenhagen amendment to
the 1987 Montreal Protocol (United Na-
tions Environment Program 1992) speci-
fied that the use of halons and CFCs was to
be phased out by 1994 and 1996 respec-
tively. Further, it required that if stockpiles
of these substances were destroyed, the
destruction was to be at a level of greater
than 99.99%. Various means of reaching
this level have been proposed. These in-
clude conventional incineration, reaction
with sodium under ultraviolet light, cata-
lytic techniques, and hydrolysis using
supercritical water (Chemical Product
Council 1989; Cross & Hadfield 1992,
Sekiguchi, Honda & Kanzawa 1993).
The most promising and best-developed
approach to the destruction of ozone-de-
pleting substances (ODSs) is probably the
use of thermal plasmas to heat the ODSs to
very high temperatures. Such methods are
being investigated in Australia (Deametal.
1995; McAllister 1995), France (Pateyronet
al. 1995a,b), Japan (Sekiguchi, Honda &
Kanzawa 1993; Sekiguchi, Matsudera &
Kanzawa 1995; Takeuchi et al. 1995), and
the USA (Han, Heberlein & Pfender 1993).
In December 1996, a plant to destroy Aus-
tralia’s stockpile of halons, based on the
PLASCON thermal plasma technology
94 MURPHY
jointly developed by CSIRO and SRL
Plasma, a subsidiary of Siddons Ramset
Limited, was opened in Melbourne by the
Commonwealth Department of Adminis-
trative Services Centre for Environmental
Management (DASCEM).
In this paper, after outlining the princi-
ples of thermal plasma technology and its
applications, particularly to the treatment
of waste, I will introduce the PLASCON
process. I will then describe some of the
scientific research that was involved in the
development of the process to its current
status.
THERMAL PLASMAS
A plasma is a mixture of electrons, ions and
neutral species that is locally electrically
neutral. The presence of free electric charges
means that a plasma, unlike a non-ionised
(a)
Cathode Plasma
Ne gas
Anode
Insulator ws Leal
Anode Sf,
material to
e heated)
b)
Cathode
gas, has a high electrical conductivity.
Plasmas are typically produced by electric
discharges, and can be divided into two
broad categories, thermal or equilibrium
plasmas, and cold or non-equilibrium
plasmas. Cold plasmas are produced in
glow discharges, low-pressure radio-fre-
quency discharges and corona discharges,
and are used, for example, in the etching of
semiconductors and in fluorescent lights.
They are characterised by their relatively
low energy density, and by the large differ-
ence between the electron temperature and
the heavy particle temperature, which is
typically close to room temperature.
In contrast, the temperatures of the
heavy particles and the electrons in ther-
mal plasmas are similar, typically of the
order of 10 000 to 20 000 K. The much
higher heavy particle temperature means
that the energy density is much larger than
in cold plasmas. Thermal plasmas can be
Plasma Plasma
gas RF gas
| coil
O
O
O
O
O
/ O
Insulating
tube
ne Plasma
Ess Jet
jet
Fig. 1. Methods of generation of thermal plasmas. (a) DC electric arc, and example of the
transferred arc; (b) DC plasma torch, an example of a non-transferred arc; (c) radio-frequency
inductively-coupled plasma torch.
DESTRUCTION OF OZONE-DEPLETING SUBSTANCES 95
generated in a number of ways, such as by
DC or AC electric arcs between electrodes
separated by anything from a few millime-
tres to a metre; by DC plasma torches, in
which an arc is struck between a cathode
and a cylindrical anode, producing a jet of
plasma from the aperture of the anode; and
by radio-frequency inductively coupled
plasma torches, in which the plasma is
heated using the electromagnetic field of an
induction coil. Fig. 1 illustrates these gen-
eration methods, and also shows the differ-
ence between transferred arcs, in which
one electrode is the object to be heated, and
non-transferred arcs, in which the arc re-
mains within the plasma torch and is not
transferred externally. Further details of
these generation methods are given, for
example, by Boulos (1991) and Fauchais
(1992).
Thermal plasma technology has found a
wide range of industrial applications. Such
well-established processes as electric arc
welding and electric arc furnaces are plasma
technologies. More recent applications in-
clude plasma welding and plasma cutting
of metals, deposition of heat- and wear-
resistant coatings by plasma spraying, met-
allurgical applications such as melting and
remelting of metals and extraction of met-
als from ores, and the synthesis,
spheroidisation and densification of pow-
ders (Pfender 1988; MacRae 1989; Boulos
1991; Fauchais 1992).
WASTE DESTRUCTION USING THER-
MAL PLASMAS
Recently, much attention has been focussed
on the use of thermal plasmas to destroy
hazardous chemicals. The conventional
method for such destruction is high-tem-
perature incineration; however the use of
plasmas has advantages in many applica-
tions. These include the properties that the
generation of heat is independent of the
chemistry, being supplied electrically rather
than through combustion, and that higher
temperatures can be achieved, meaning
that a given level of destruction can be
attained more rapidly. Further, the size of
a plasma waste destruction plant can be
sufficiently small to allow it to be built on
the site of the waste repository, or even to be
mobile, so the need for transportation of
waste is circumvented. In some countries,
including Australia, the construction of
high-temperature incinerators is politically
unacceptable, so that there is a definite
need for alternatives.
A number of different approaches have
been taken to the design of plasma waste
treatment systems, mainly determined by
the type of waste to be treated or destroyed.
Solid wastes are often treated using a trans-
ferred arc system, in which an electric arcis
established between an electrode and the
waste to be treated, which, when molten,
conducts electrically. Retech, a division of
Lockheed Environmental Systems and
Technologies (LESAT), USA has developed
the Plasma Arc Centrifugal Treatment
(PACT) system, in which the waste is con-
tained in a spinning cupola (Eschenbach &
Haun 1995). Production size systems are
used by MGC Plasma, Switzerland in their
PLASMARC and PLASMOX process for
treatment of metallurgical, low-level radio-
active, and military wastes (Hoffelner &
Fiinfschilling 1995; Hoffelner et al. 1995).
Other such systems will be used by LESAT
to remediate a radioactively contaminated
pit in Idaho, USA, and smaller systems are
being used in treatability studies in France,
Switzerland and the USA.
LTEE, the research and development
laboratory of Hydro-Québec in Canada, has
developed an electric arc technology in which
the radiation from a transferred arc melts
96 MURPHY
Injection~ —
Mould_ —
Reaction
Tube
Liquid
Quench
NaOH
Scrubber
ere plasma gas
Feedstock
5 — + oxidising gas
i aaiaas os
Sampling line
=—» for exhaust
gas analysis
ia Scrubber liquid in
Scrubber liquid out
Fig. 2. Schematic of the PLASCON process
the metallic dust recovered from baghouses
on electric arc furnaces. The molten metal
is then collected for recycling. A similar arc
technology is used to vitrify incinerator fly
ash (Laflamme et al. 1995).
Ar¢ furnaces are being developed for
treatment of radioactive and mixed wastes
in soils at the Plasma Fusion Center, Mas-
sachusetts Institute of Technology, USA.
Other transferred arc systems are being
investigated by Plasma Energy Corpora-
tion and Phoenix Solutions Co. in the USA
(Paul 1995).
A different approach to the treatment of
solid waste involves the use of non-trans-
ferred DC plasma torches, heat being trans-
ferred to the waste indirectly through the
plasma gas. Such an approach has been
taken by Aerospatiale of France. Several
processes have been developed that use
plasma torches to treat solid waste streams;
the INERTAM process is a mobile asbestos
waste vitrification unit, the KUROPLASMA
process treats fly ash from municipal waste
incineration, and the INCIDIS process is
designed for highly-chlorinated toxic waste
(Valy & Guillet 1995). Another plasma-torch-
based system for solid waste destruction
has been developed by Electricité de France
(Guenard & Bourdil 1992). At Georgia In-
stitute of Technology, plasma-torch-based
systems are being developed for a range of
applications, including in situ vitrification
of contaminated soils (Paul 1995).
DESTRUCTION OF OZONE-DEPLETING SUBSTANCES 97
Other waste destruction technologies are
based on radio-frequency inductively cou-
pled discharges; for example, the PERC™
(Plasma Energy Recycle and Conversion)
treatment process developed by Plasma
Technology, Inc., USA is designed to de-
stroy a range of gaseous, liquid and solid
waste streams (Blutke, Vavruska & Serino
1995), and Tekna Plasma Systems Inc. of
Canada are developing similar technology
(Boulos 1995). Nippon Steel Corporation
use a steam plasma generated by a radio-
frequency discharge to destroy CFCs
(Takeuchi e¢ al. 1995).
Plasma torches are ideally suited to the
destruction of gaseous and liquid waste
streams, whichcan be injected into the high
temperature region of the plasma jet ema-
nating from the torch. An early example of
this approach was a system conceived at
the Royal Military College of Canada that
was tested on polychlorinated biphenyl
(PCB) solutions (Barton, 1984); this system
was further developed by Westinghouse
Environment Services (Heberlein et al.
1989). Further examples of plasma-torch-
based systems are the PLASCON technol-
ogy, described in the next section, the proc-
ess of Sekiguchiet al. (1995) from the Tokyo
Institute of Technology, in which a plasma
jet incident on a fluidised CaO bed is used
to destroy CH,Cl, a similar system tested
by Pateyron et al. (1995b) from the Univer-
sity of Limoges, France on CF’, destruction,
and a process developed by KAI
Plasmapyrolyse of Germany that has been
tested on chlorinated hydrocarbons
(Lachmann et al. 1993).
THE PLASMACON TECHNOLOGY
The PLASCON™ (PLASma CONversion)
waste destruction technology was jointly
developed by CSIRO and SRL Plasma. One
full-scale 150 kW system, and a smaller 50
kW system are operated at CSIRO Division
of Manufacturing Technology in Melbourne,
and a 50 kW system is installed at CSIRO
Telecommunications and Industrial Phys-
ics in Sydney. The first commercial instal-
lation was commissioned in 1992 at Nufarm
Ltd’s herbicide manufacturing facility in
Melbourne, where a second plant was com-
pleted in 1995. Together these plants de-
stroy the liquid waste stream of Nufarm’s
manufacture of 2,4-D (2,4 dichlorophenoxy
acetic acid), a selective agricultural herbi-
cide. In December 1996, a 150 kW plant
owned by SRL Plasma Ltd and designed to
destroy Australia’s stockpile of halons was
officially opened in Melbourne. The plant is
being operated by SRL Plasma under con-
tract to the Commonwealth Department of
Administrative Services. The destruction
of other wastes, including PCB transformer
oil (Vit, Deam & Mundy 1993; Western, Vit
& McAllister 1995), has also been experi-
mentally demonstrated.
The PLASCON process is shown
schematically in Fig. 2. The plasma is pro-
duced by a DC plasma torch, with argon as
the plasma gas. The liquid or gaseous
feedstock, together with an oxidising gas,
for example, oxygen, is injected through an
injection manifold into the argon plasma
jet, whose temperature exceeds 10 000 K at
this point. The oxidising gas prevents the
formation of carbon soot, which can be det-
rimental to the effectiveness of destruction,
and which can cause clogging in other parts
of the process. The resulting mixture of hot
gases passes through a reaction tube, andis
then rapidly cooled by a liquid spray quench
to prevent undesirable recombination reac-
tions. The cooled gases are next passed
through a scrubber to remove acid gases
and halogens, before being released to the
atmosphere. Both the spray quench and the
scrubber liquid are aqueous solutions of
98 MURPHY
sodium hydroxide. New solution is continu-
ally added, and spent solution is drained, in
order to keep the pH of the scrubber liquid
in the basic range.
A 150 kW PLASCON plant can process
between 1 and 5 t of feedstock per day,
depending on the type of waste being treated.
The capital cost is low relative to compara-
ble destruction technologies, a little over
$1 000 000, and the operating costs for
concentrated waste are typically in therange
$2000 to $2800/t. PLASCON is designed for
on-site operation, eliminating the need to
transport hazardous wastes to a large cen-
tral facility.
DESTRUCTION OF OZONE-DEPLETING
SUBSTANCE USING PLASCON
Laboratory tests of the destruction of a
range of ODSs have been performed in the
50 kW devices in both Sydney and Mel-
bourne. These were CFC-11 (CFCl,), CFC-
12(CF,Cl,), HCFC-22(CHF,Cl), Halon 1211
or BCF (CF,ClBr) and Halon 1301 or BTM
(CF,Br). The two halons were widely used
as fire extinguishers, while the CFCs were
used as refrigerants, in air-conditioning,
for foam production, as aerosol propellants,
etc. In parallel with the laboratory tests,a
programme of chemical and fluid dynamic
modelling of ODS destruction was carried
out. The experimental and the modelling
programmes are discussed in the following
two subsections.
Laboratory tests
The experimental programme had two main
aims; to establish the parameters for which
the input rate of a given ODS was maxim-
ised while maintaining the destruction rate
of 99.99% specified by the Montreal Con-
vention, and to determine materials and
configurations that gave adequate compo-
nent lifetimes. Here I will concentrate on
the first of these aims, since the results of
the second are largely commercial-in-confi-
dence.
Experiments were performed in the 50
kW PLASCON devices at CSIRO in Sydney
and Melbourne. A gas chromatograph fit-
ted either with a mass spectrometer, or
with a thermal conductivity detector and
an electron capture detector, was used to
analyse samples of the exhaust gases. In
the latter case, the thermal conductivity
detector was used to detect the bulk gases
(present in concentrations greater than
around 1 part in 10 000), while the electron
capture detector was particularly sensitive
to molecules containing chlorine and bro-
mine atoms, and was thus ideally suited to
measuring small concentrations of many
ODSs. In the course of the experiments,
parameters such as the argon plasma gas
flow rate, ODS input rate, input rate of the
co-injected oxidising gas, and the electrical
power were varied. Typical results are given
in Table 1 for three different ODSs: CFC-
11, CFC-12 and CFC-13. Results for the
concentrations of the ODSs in the exhaust
gas, and in one case for other gases, are
presented.
In all cases, substantial conversion of
the input ODS to a different ODS, CFC-13
is observed. CFC-11, CFC-12 and CFC-13
all have stratospheric ozone depletion
potentials of 1.0, and the rating of HCFC-22
is 0.055. (United Nations Environment Pro-
gram 1992). Hence, if only the concentra-
tion in the exhaust gas of the input ODS
were measured, then the ozone depletion
potential of the exhaust gas would be as-
sumed to be significantly smaller than is
actually the case. This effect, as noted by
Deam et al. (1995), indicates that perform-
ance of an ODS destruction technology
should be expressed in terms of the total
DESTRUCTION OF OZONE-DEPLETING SUBSTANCES 99
INPUT Input flow (1 min‘)
CFC |Power
aw [ar | crc | 0, |
30 | 45 31 34
22, |45 rae | 30
42 40 45
* Below detectable levels
t Not measured
CFCl, | CF,Cl, | CF,Cl |CHF,C1 CO,
60 ppm| lppm |34ppmj * it il
15 | 45 45 45 55
Concentrations in exhaust gas
4-5% | 1%
lppm |36ppmj12 ppm] ft t
Table 1. Measured concentrations of species in exhaust gas.
ODS concentration in the exhaust gas,
rather in terms of destruction of the input
ODS only. It is not apparent that other
groups working on ODS destruction have
taken note of this; for example Sekiguchi et
al. (1993) gave only the qualitative result
that no CFC-12 had been detected in their
plasma destruction of CFC-12, and did not
indicate whether they had tested for CFC-
13 or other ODSs.
The other gases emitted, argon (whose
concentration is unchanged throughout the
process), carbon dioxide, oxygen and car-
bon tetrafluoride (CFC-14), are all non-
toxic and have no ozone-depleting poten-
tial. Carbon dioxide is, of course, a green-
house gas, but it is emitted in miniscule
quantities compared to other sources; fur-
ther, CO, is a much weaker greenhouse gas
than the input ODSs.Carbon tetrafluoride,
however, is a stronger greenhouse gas than
the ODSs destroyed, so it is desirable that
its emission be avoided. It is known (e.g.
Takeuchi et al. 1993; Pateyron et al. 1995a)
that the introduction of steam or hydrogen
into the plasma greatly decreases the for-
mation of CF,, thereby solving this prob-
lem.
Other gases that may be produced, such
as HF, HCl, HBr, F,, C1, Br, COF, are all
dissolved in the caustic soda (NaOH) scrub-
ber, forming aqueous solutions of NaF, NaCl,
NaBr and Na,CO,. In summary, the output
products from the destruction of halons and
CFCs are argon, CO,, CF, trace quantities
of ODSs, and the aqueous solution of so-
dium salts (with NaBr present only in the
case of halons). The ODS present in the
greatest quantity is usually CFC-13. The
products can be safely discharged into the
environment, the gases to the atmosphere
and the aqueous solution to sea water.
It is found that as the input rate of the
ODS increases for a given electrical power,
the total ODS concentration in the exhaust
gas increases rapidly. While for the param-
eters listed in Table 1, the ODS concentra-
tion remains below the 1 part in 10 000
required, if the input rate is increased sig-
nificantly or the electrical power decreased,
this is no longer the case.
Modelling of ODS Destruction
A numerical model of the electromagnetic,
fluid dynamic and chemical kinetic proc-
100
esses occuring in the PLASCON plasma
torch, injection manifold and reaction tube
has been developed. The model is based on
the model of a plasma torch discharging
into the atmosphere that has been described
by Scott et al. (1989) and Murphy & Kovitya
(1993).
Cylindrical symmetry is assumed, so ra-
dial and axial variations of parameters are
taken into account, but not azimuthal vari-
ations. The coupled partial differential equa-
tions describing mass continuity, conserva-
tion of momentum in the axial, radial and
azimuthal directions, conservation of en-
ergy, conservation of mass of the individual
chemical species, electric charge continu-
ity, and the two equations of the K-e turbu-
lence model are solved numerically using
the control-volume method of Patankar
(1980), which is a finite-difference scheme.
The equation of state was included in the
model implicitly by calculating the thermo-
dynamic properties of the gas mixture for
any given temperature and composition
using a computer code developed by NASA
(Gordon & McBride 1971). Equilibrium com-
positions and transport coefficients (Svehla
& McBride 1973; Kovitya 1984) were also
calculated using this code.
The numerical model consists of two
stages which are run consecutively. The
first solves the fluid dynamic and electro-
magnetic equations to give temperatures,
flow fields and electric current densities. It
is assumed in this stage that the chemical
composition corresponds to that determined
MURPHY
by equilibrium calculations, except that a
one-step chemical kinetic scheme is used to
model the initial dissociation of the injected
ODS. In the second stage, a full chemical
kinetic scheme is solved to give concentra-
tion fields of all chemical species. The model
is not fully self-consistent, since the tem-
perature and flow fields are not recalcu-
lated to take into account the differences in
enthalpies and material properties that
occur when the full kinetic scheme is used.
The model has keen used to simulate the
destruction of CFC-12, injected together
with oxygen, for conditions typical of the 50
kW PLASCON device. A chemical kinetic
scheme involving 23 chemical species and
42 reactions, developed by McAllister (1995,
1996), was used. Representative results are
given in Fig. 3 for temperature and flow
fields, and for concentration fields of CFC-
12 and CFC-13. It can be seen that inside
the plasma torch, the temperature of the
argon plasma gas is predicted to reach over
27 000 K. At the entrance to the injection
manifold, the temperature on axis is just
over 13 000 K, the decrease being due mainly
to conduction to the body of the torch. The
influx of cold gas (CFC-12 and O,) into the
injection manifold region leads to a rapid
cooling, with much of the enthalpy of the
argon being used to break the molecular
bonds of the injected gas, so that the tem-
perature drops to 3000 K on axis 25 mm
downstream of the injection manifold. The
temperature is between 1000 K and 2000 K
in most of the reaction tube, falling to close
Fig. 3 (opposite). Isotherm, streamlines and isopleths of mass fraction of CFC-12 and
CFC-13 for 15.0 kW arc power, 42 L min" argon flow, and injection of a mixture of 40 L
min‘! CFC-12 and 40 L min" oxygen, calculated using the numerical model. The plasma
torch extend from axial position z = -100 to -16.4 mm, the injection manifold from z = -16.4
to 0 mm, and the reaction tube from z = 0 to 500 mm. Note that while the orientation of the
plots is horizontal, the components are in fact vertically oriented, as shown in Fig. 2.
Isotherms are labelled in units of 1000 K; the solid lines correspond to 1000 K, 2000 K, 3000
K, 5000 K, 7000 K, ... 27 000 K.
DESTRUCTION OF OZONE-DEPLETING SUBSTANCES 101
SEG En AA Aw BBRES SBS. Bw BOSE SlSlSEwBBWSsSBEESSBBBaBSSsSBSSaeasy
LS
|
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200 400
CFC-12 mass fraction
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BOE BES BBSBBESsBReBASBwWwSEBDSABSSBVSaSswWSE VBS BVWESESsBSEBRSESBSBaBesrw
0 200 400
axial position (mm)
102
to 300 K at the walls, which are water-
cooled.
The streamlines show that a large
recirculation region exists in the reaction
tube at radii greater than that of the injec-
tion manifold aperture, extending down-
stream about 350 mm from the injection
manifold exit. The presence ofa recirculation
region ensures that the direction of flow in
the reaction tube near the end of the injec-
tion manifold is towards the high-tempera-
ture region near the axis; similarly the flow
near the wall in the first half of the reaction
tube is directed backwards towards the
injection manifold. This ensures that very
little injected gas can escape from the reac-
tion tube after travelling only through the
cool regions near the end of the injection
manifold and the reaction tube wall. The
presence of the recirculation region is thus
an advantage in the destruction of the in-
jected gas.
The mass fraction of CFC-12 decreases
to 10° within 300 mm of the injection mani-
fold aperture. The mass fraction decreases
because of two effects; destruction of the
CFC-12, and dilution by the argon plasma
gas. For the flow rates of argon and injected
gas considered here, the mass fraction of
CFC-12 would be 0.62 if full mixing but no
destruction occurred, so the dilution effect
is relatively minor.
Rapid production of CFC-13 is calcu-
lated to occur in a small region within, and
up to about 10 mm downstream of, the
injection manifold. This occurs mainly
through a reaction scheme (Deam et al.
1995) that begins with the dissociation re-
actions:
CF,Cl,+M ——> CF,Cl+Cl+M (1)
and
CF,Cl+M —> CF, +Cl+M (2)
(M denotes any species). The dissociation of
MURPHY
oxygen molecules yields oxygen atoms,
which react to give chlorine and fluorine
atoms:
CF.Cl+O — > CF,0O+Cl, (3)
CF,+O —~> CO+ 2F. (4)
These in turn recombine with CF, to yield
CFC-13 through a series of three-body
reactions:
CF,+F+M—->.. CF, + .M; (5)
CF,+Cl +M —> CF,Cl+M. (6)
The rate of decomposition of CFC-13 is
less than that of CFC-12. Nevertheless, it is
slowly broken down in the reaction tube,
reaching a mass fraction of less than 10* at
the end of the tube for the conditions consid-
ered. As noted above, the model has indi-
cated that the CFC-13 is formed in a small
region within and near the injection mani-
fold. Itis hence unlikely that changes to the
geometry of the reaction tube, for example,
will greatly affect the amount of CFC-13
formed; numerical simulations using a dif-
ferent reaction tube diameter have sup-
ported this presumption. The most effec-
tive way to decrease the CFC-13 level at the
exit to the reaction tube is to increase the
temperature in the tube, thereby increas-
ing the rate of breakdown of the CFC-13
that is formed. This can be done by increas-
ing the arc power or decreasing the CFC-12
input flow. If, conversely, the arc power is
decreased significantly, or the input flow of
CFC-12 is increased, the CFC-13 concen-
tration at the end of the tube increases to
above the level specified by the Montreal
Protocol, which corresponds to a mass frac-
tion of just under 10~*.
In order to have confidence in the predic-
tions of anumerical model, itis necessary to
validate the results against experiment.
DESTRUCTION OF OZONE-DEPLETING SUBSTANCES
103
| Model
16.4 ppm | 36.8 ppm
* To facilitate comparison with the experimental data, these
calculated values have been corrected for the dissolution of
some gases in the scrubber liquid, by multiplication by the
ration of the total gas flow to the gas flow expected to pass
through the scrubber, which is 2.25. The gas concentrations
predicted by the model were used to determine this ratio.
Table 2. Measured and calulated species in the exhaust gas.
Two procedures have been carried out with
the model described here. The first is a
comparison with the measured concentra-
tions of species exiting the PLASCON de-
vice. Table 2 shows a comparison of the
predictions of the model with the experi-
mentally measured concentrations. Note
that since it was not possible to separate
oxygen from argon in the gas chromatograph
column used for the measurements pre-
sented here, no data are presented for the
concentrations of these gases. The experi-
mental parameters were 16 kW arc power,
42 L min" argon flow, and injection of 40 L
min’ CFC-12 mixed with 45 L min" O,,
which are similar to the parameters used in
the model. The measured concentrations
are typical, but it should be noted that
significant variations from run to run oc-
cur. Encouraging agreement with the pre-
dictions of the model is found when the
measured values are adjusted to take into
account the dissolution of many of the out-
put gases in the scrubber. It is correctly
predicted that the amount of CF,Cl, re-
maining will be below detectable levels.
CF,Cl and CF, production are predicted to
within a factor of two of the measured val-
ues. It should be noted that we would expect
much of the CO, in the output gas to be
dissolved in the scrubber liquid, so it is not
surprising that the measured mole fraction
is smaller than that predicted by the model.
With amore efficient scrubber, asis used on
the industrial scale 150 kW PLASCON
plant, the CO, concentration in the exhaust
gas is further reduced.
The other validation procedure that was
undertaken was measurement of the tem-
perature distribution within the reaction
tube using a laser-scattering technique. The
method chosen was a combined Rayleigh
and Thomson scattering technique that has
been previously used (Murphy & Farmer
104
MURPHY
4000
3000
<
2
=
a 2000
@®
Q.
=
£
1000
0
-40 - 20 0 20 40
radius (mm)
Fig. 4. Radial dependence of temperature at three axial positions in PLASCON for 10 kW arc
power, 42 L min” argon flow, and injection of 80 L min” oxygen. Lines show result calculated
using the numerical model, and symbols show the values measured by laser scattering. —, o:
axial position z= 10mm; ..
1992; Murphy, Farmer & Haidar 1992;
Murphy 1994) to measure temperature in
free-burning arcs. A scattering chamber
was designed to allow optical access to the
reaction tube while confining the hot gases
inside the tube. Because the technique re-
quires that all species present have similar
Rayleigh-scattering cross sections, it was
necessary to perform measurements for
argon-only operation of PLASCON, or, since
oxygen molecules and argon atoms have
very similar Rayleigh-scattering cross-sec-
tions, for injection of oxygen into an argon
plasma jet. The numerical model was run
.0: 2=110 mn; ---,x:2=410 mm.
for these conditions of operation in order to
provide a valid comparison.
Typical results are shown in Fig. 4 for
injection of oxygen into an argon plasma.
Fair agreement was found between the
measurements and the predictions of the
model, although the model predicts more
peaked radial temperature profiles than
are measured. The higher measured tem-
peratures near the tube wall are expected,
since the scattering chamber contained slots
in the walls to allow optical access to the full
diameter of the tube, allowing the tempera-
ture at the tube radius (38.5 mm) to be
DESTRUCTION OF OZONE-DEPLETING SUBSTANCES
significantly greater than the 300 K pre-
dicted by the model.
The validation procedures described
have given a reasonable level of confidence
in the predictions of the model. The model
has thus far proved valuable in increasing
the level of understanding of the physical
and chemical processes occurring in
PLASCON, in particular the conversion of
CFC-12 to CFC-13. The other main poten-
tial use of the model is as a predictive tool,
for example to estimate the influence on the
exhaust gas composition of changes in reac-
tion tube geometry, flow rates and other
parameters. Because reaction rates depend
sensitively on temperature, and also be-
cause of the significant uncertainties in
many of the reaction rate data used, it is
unlikely that exact values of the output gas
composition will be obtained. Nevertheless,
it should be possible to predict the influence
on this composition of changes in PLASCON
parameters.
CONCLUSIONS
Thermal plasmas have been applied to a
wide range of industrial processes. A re-
cent, but rapidly growing, application is to
the destruction of hazardous chemicals and
other wastes. The Australian-developed
PLASCON process has been successfully
applied to the destruction of ozone-deplet-
ing substances. Both experimental trials
and a combined electromagnetic, fluid dy-
namic and chemical kinetic model show
that significant conversion of the input CFC
to CFC-13 occurs in PLASCON, and that
CFC-13 is typically the ozone-depleting
substance that is present in the highest
concentration in the exhaust gas. The model
has been used to determine in which part of
the process the chemical reactions that lead
to the formation of CFC-13 occur. Tempera-
105
tures in the reaction tube and the exhaust
gas composition predicted by the model
have been confirmed by experiment.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author is grateful to Dr T. McAllister of
CSIRO Division of Manufacturing Technol-
ogy for providing the chemical kinetic scheme
used in the numerical model described here
and for many useful discussions. He also
thanks Mr R. E. Bentley, Dr A. J. D. Farmer
and Dr J. Haidar of CSIRO Telecommunica-
tions and Industrial Physics, with whom he
collaborated on the laser-scattering meas-
urements. The contributions of Dr Farmer,
Ms E. C. Horrigan and Dr L. M. Besley of
CSIRO Telecommunications and Industrial
Physics and Dr A. R. Dayal, Dr. R. T. Deam,
Mr R. J. Western and Mr A. E. Munday of
CSIRO Division of Manufacturing Technol-
ogy, who are responsible for the results of the
laboratory tests of destruction, are also ac-
knowledged. The financial support of SRL
Plasma for the PLASCON research is grate-
fully acknowledged.
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A.H. Murphy
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PO Box 218,
Lindfield NSW 2070,
Australia
(Manucript received 11.10.97)
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ISSN 0035-9173/97/020109-02 $4.00/1.
109
Theses Abstracts
THE FEASIBILITY OF USING MOLE DRAINAGE TO CONTROL WATERLOGGING
IN IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE
E.W. CHRISTEN
Abstract of a Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Cranfield
University, England September 1994.
The Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area (MIA) in
New South Wales has extensive shallow
watertables, <2m deep, and poorly structured
heavy clay soils, leading to soil waterlogging
and salinisation. This study investigated the
feasibility of using mole drainage to control
waterlogging in irrigated agriculture. The
standard moling technique used in the United
Kingdom in rainfed agriculture was adapted
to the flood irrigated conditions of the MIA.
Experiments were carried out on three
heavy clay soils, representative of the area
and with a range of inherent structural
stabilitiesin water. Preliminary experiments
identified mole channel failure mechanisms
similar to those already described in the
United Kingdom. Having identified these
mechanisms steps were taken to improve
mole stability.
Two relatively stable soils and one highly
swelling\dispersive soil were chosen.
Experiments to improve mole stability were
carried out under furrow irrigation, flood
irrigation of bays and sprinkler irrigation.
These experiments consisted of groups of 30-
50 moles, each 25-50 m long. Four main
experimental sites were monitored for
between 6 and 22 months.
In the stable soils the mole failure
mechanism was by roof/expander failure.
Using a mole plough with smaller geometry
than the standard United Kingdom design
resulted in acceptably stable mole channels
in these soils. The use of an angled mole leg
was found to have potential for increasing
mole stability but further development of this
equipment is required for reliable mole
formation.
In the unstable soil the mole failure
mechanism was by unconfined soil swelling.
To control this, gypsum was used above the
mole channel to improve the inherent soil
stability. The use ofsulphuricacid andcalcium
chloride sprayed onto the mole channel walls
proved unsuccessful. A mole filler of rice hulls
was found to be effective in preventing soil
swelling into the mole channel.
For stable mole formation adequate
confining stresses and uniformly plastic soil
conditions at moling depth were required.
Post rice harvest was found to be ideal.
Methods of achieving suitable conditions at
other periods in the farming calendar were
identified.
Mole discharge measurements revealed
that water loss through mole drains during
irrigations was high. Thus there was a
requirement to prevent this water loss whilst
still achieving waterlogging control.
To prevent water loss during irrigations
attempts were made to throttle the connection
between the soil surface and mole channel.
110
These were found to be largely unsuccessful.
By blocking the mole channels during
irrigation, discharge was prevented and mole
condition was notimpaired more greatly than
allowing moles to discharge freely.
Mole drainage was found to control
waterlogging but crop yield increases were
only around 10%. To achieve the optimum
benefit from mole drainage secondary soil
loosening toincrease soil porosity is required.
The salinity of mole drain discharge water
was measured. This revealed that mole
E.W. Christensen
CSIRO Land and Water,
Griffith, NSW 2680 Australia
(Manuscript received 14.8.97)
THESES ABSTRACTS
leached salts and that the leaching was more
efficient under rainfall or sprinkler irrigation
than flood irrigation. Themole drain discharge
water was usually of suitable quality for
refuse on farm.
The research showed that there is the
potential for using mole drainage to control
waterlogging and salinity in irrigated
agriculture, at a lower cost than with pipe
drains. Methods for incorporating mole
drainage into the farming system and
landscape of the MIA are proposed.
Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of NSW, Vol.130 Parts 3-4, 111, 1997.
ISSN 0035-9173/97/020111-01 $4.00/1.
111
Theses Abstracts
DYING IN PRISON: A STUDY OF DEATHS IN CORRECTIONAL CUSTODY
IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA 1980-1993
M. J. DAWES
Abstract of a Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy,
Flinders University, South Australia 1997.
This thesis examines the 38 deaths by acci-
dent, homicide, natural causes and suicide of
Aboriginal and white prisoners which oc-
curred in the South Australian prison system
from 1 January 1980 to the 31 March 1993.
The pattern of deaths in SA is compared with
the pattern of deaths found nationally by the
Royal Commission Into Aboriginal Deaths in
Custody (RCIADIC) and the differences be-
tween the SA and national populations are
discussed. Other variables which were not
included in the RCIADIC are considered in
this thesis such as the security rating of the
prison, the location of death, time of death,
month of the year and season.
Acase control study was designed to iden-
tify any combinations of personal and social
differences between the 37 male prisoners
who died and a control group of 195 prisoners
matched for gender and date of admission.
Most of the studies into deaths in custody fail
to compare their findings to a properly con-
structed control group and so the question
remains as to how many of the surviving
prisoners exhibited the same characteristics
and were exposed to the same environment
as those who died. The theoretical grounding
for the case control study is that deaths in
custody occur because of the interaction be-
tween personal factors (those characteristics
which the prisoner imports to the prison) and
situational factors causing distress which
occur while in prison. A review of the litera-
ture shows that much of the research work to
date has been to search for a statistically
based profile of the ‘at risk prisoner’, but this
thesis suggests that attempting to identify
vulnerability based on the interaction be-
tween personal and situational factors is a
more useful approach. The case control study
showed that there are statistically signifi-
cant differences between those who died and
the control group in terms of age, place of
birth, marital status (with prisoners who
were separated or divorced being more likely
to diein custody), number of times in custody,
time served, seriousness of offence including
use of violence, physical trauma, significant
illness, psychiatricillness, taking medication
while in custody and when security measures
were taken to protect, isolate or punish.
An analysis of the coronial verdicts in 36 of
the 38 deaths was undertaken to determine
the extent to which deprivational factors sub-
stantially contributed totheindividual deaths.
The findings of the thesis are discussed in
the context of the literature and the value of
the findings in assisting those who care for
prisoners considered. Finally, preventive
strategies are discussed and social work in-
terventions which might identify and assist
vulnerable prisoners and their families at
critical times are considered.
M.J. Dawes
2 Angove Road
Somerton Park SA 5004
Australia
(Manuscript received 11.11.97)
112 Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of NSW, Vol.130 Parts 3-4, 112, 1997.
ISSN 0035-9173/97/020112-01 $4.00/1.
THE INTERFACE BETWEEN SYNTAX AND DISCOURSE IN KORAFE, A PAPUAN
LANGUAGE OF PAPUA NEW GUINEA.
CYNTHIA J.M. FARR
Abstract of a Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Cranfield
University, England, September 1994.
This dissertation focuses on the structure
and function of three types of complex
constructions which are central to Korafe
discourse: (1)serial verbconstructions(SVCs),
(2) switch reference constructions (SRCs),
and (3)co-ranking constructions or sentences
(CRSs).
Each of the complex construction types
has as obligatory constituents trio or more
clauses or verbs.SVCs and SRCsare‘chaining’
constructions, which terminate with a verb,
more finitely inflected than the preceding
verbal constituents i.e. verb stems in SVCs
and medial verb forms in SRCs. Syntactic
constraints masked on or implicit in chaining
structures enable the speaker to monitor
subject reference from verb to verb without
using very many overt noun phrases. The
order of the verbs in these chains is non-
reversible and mirrors the order of the events
they represent in the real world. This makes
them choice vehicles for conveying the
foregrounded story linein narratives, legends,
and procedures. Utilising verbs without their
standard arguments to a) represent familiar
events (e.g. ghambudo ‘dig’ for ‘dig a hole’,
Jedo govedo ‘chop plant for ‘making a garden’)
and b) mark shifts in venue or temporal
seeing (aira buvudo ‘he went and arrived’,
ravara atetiri ‘they slept and it [day] dawned’)
enables the speaker to concentrate on the
specifics of the story in question, use noun
phrases to highlight dominant and/or
prominent participants and props.
In CRSs, all the constituents terminate
with verbs of the same rank, namely final
verbs, or in topic-comment constructions,
predicate complements. CRSs combine
clauses, SRCs, and/or other co-ranking
sentences by juxtaposing or conjoining them.
CRSs supply background information in
discourses that primarily present events in
iconic order. They are also extensively used in
more thematically oriented discourses, such
as encyclopaedic descriptions, explanations,
and hortatory speeches.
SRCs and CRSs may be segmented into
information chunks that are thematically
unified. These thematic clause chain units
(TCCUs) are defined by formal and semantic
criteria. They range from one to nine words,
comprising up to five clauses in an SRC and
averaging between one to four seconds in
length. They are uttered as a basically pause-
free unit.
Other features of the language relevant to
the account of these complex constructions
are also described.
Cynthia J.M. Farr
SIL, Box 38
Ukarumpa, EHP 444
Papua New Guinea
(Manuscript received 22.7.97)
Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of NSW, Vol.130 Parts 3-4, 113-14, 1997.
ISSN 0035-9173/97/020113-02 $4.00/1.
113
Theses Abstracts
THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF CLINICAL DIALYSIS: THE IMPORTANCE
OF SYMBOLISM IN SUCCESSFUL SCIENTIFIC ENDEAVOURS.
C.R.P. GEORGE
Abstract of Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Master of Science
at the University of Sydney
This thesis presents an account of the se-
ries of experiments performed into dialysis
by Thomas Graham in 1861; by his immedi-
ate successors; by Emil Abderhalden and
Fritz Pregl; by the Baltimore group of John
Jacob Abel and his Collaborators (1913-15);
and by others who were more peripherally
involved. Its primary purpose is to demon-
strate the roles that each of these investiga-
tors played in the development of clinical
dialysis. Its secondary purpose is to pro-
pose a novel theory of success in the scien-
tific endeavour, and to use dialysis as acase
study with which to test this.
An account is presented of Graham’s
experiments, his development of an idea,
and his invention of the word dialysis to
describe the observations and idea. He rec-
ognised that urea - an important uraemic
toxin - was dialysable. He established his
reputation by a forceful application of ob-
servation, conceptualisation, and symbol-
ism to the topics that he investigated.
Several minor figures followed Graham,
but were soon forgotten. Then Abderhalden
attempted to use dialysis in a test for preg-
nancy, but based the Abderhalden reaction
on false assumptions. His observations and
his ideation were flawed. Although he de-
veloped a symbolic name for his test, it did
not work. He lapsed into obscurity. Pregl,
however, applied dialysis successfully to
microanalysis of chemicals. His observa-
tions, ideas and symbolism succeeded; he
won a Nobel Prize for Chemistry and his
procedures entered all modern biochemical
laboratories.
Abel was far more complex. His personal
laboratory notebooks are held in the Johns
Hopkins Hospital archives. A reworking of
these is presented and demonstrates that
his private aims differed from his public
ones. His assistants’ intentions also were
hardly those of idealistic scientists. His
observations were flawed and his ideas con-
fused, but his reputation survived his own
misinterpretations because of adulation of
his work by a gullible lay and medical press.
Perhaps his misinterpretations were for-
tuitous, but probably they were not. Cer-
tainly, they implied clinical applications
far beyond those justifiable by the docu-
mented records claims which Abel never
really denied, and which his assistant
Rowntree, actively encouraged. Driven by
the publicity, Abel embarked upon a hope-
less - and apparently lethal - experiment on
a sick young woman. Uninformed about
that disaster, community acceptance - the
factor crucial to the judgement of experi-
ments as’successful’ - remained uncritically
positive. It idolised Abel (in truth, a some-
114
what hapless scientist) as a brilliant physi-
cian and the inventor of the artificial kidney
machine. His symbolism survived just long
enough to enable his successors to link
their more reliable observations and ideas
with it, to develop these to clinical fruition,
and thereby to secure for Abel his place as
an apostle of science.
The secondary purpose of this thesis is to
propose a trinitarian theory of scientific
success. Observations, ideas, and symbols
are three co-existent and necessary compo-
nents of a successful scientific enterprise.
None is sufficient without both of the oth-
ers. Observations alone are empty. An as-
tute observer can weld observations together
into ideas, but unanchored ideas will float
away. Society is most likely to judge an
C.R.P. George
Unit for the History & Philosophy of Science,
University of Sydney, NSW 2006,
Australia.
(Manuscript received 10.7.97)
THESES ABSTRACTS
observer as a successful contributor to sci-
ence if that observer creates appropriate
symbols (usually unique words or phrases),
with which to fix accurate observations and
good ideas - to epitomise their meaning to
the public.
An interesting application of this theory
relates to the public relations implications
of unsubstantiated symbolism. Reluctance
to admit this can then so readily promote
false observational claims and the tempta-
tion of scientific fraud.
Whilst a single case study can at best
merely support a hypothesis - it will never
prove it - the evidence from dialysis dove-
tails with the present contentions. Hence
their validity may be worth testing against
other cases.
Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of NSW, Vol.130 Parts 3-4, 115-16, 1997.
ISSN 0035-9173/97/020115-02 $4.00/1.
115
Theses Abstracts
CHEMICAL RELATIONSHIPS IN WATERS AND SEDIMENTS OF SOME URBAN
STREAMS, WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO HEAVY METALS
AND PHOSPHORUS.
WARWICK J. HAYES
Abstract of Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
University of Technology, Sydney
This thesis describes two studies of the
chemistry of freshwater streams in theSydney
basin.
The first was a survey of 86 waterways,
sampled under low flow conditions. Samples
were generally low in salinity, soft, of poor
buffering capacity and dominated by sodium
and chloride. Co-dominance by calcium, mag-
nesium and (bi-)carbonate occurred in a
number of particular cases. Multivariate
analyses indicated three groups, separated
primarily by levels of dissolved nutrients,
trace metals, turbidity and colour. Groupings
were associated strongly with the type of
catchment development. Streams in areas
relatively unaffected by human influence had
notable uniformity in chemistry, while those
from developed catchments were varied.
Heavy metal contamination was relatively
low, although a few of the samples displayed
inordinately large levels of one or more met-
als. In such cases the more extreme measure-
ments of phosphorus and nitrogen were also
seen. These findings were consistent with
occasional or localised elevation of contami-
nant levels.
The second study involved monitoring of
three Hawkesbury Sandstone streams. Sam-
pling of surface waters, interstitial waters
and sediments was performed at irregular
intervals over a two year period at three
stations within each site. The streams pre-
dominantly existed under low flow condi-
tions and showed similar major ion chemis-
tries to the majority of the survey samples.
Levels of calcium and total carbonate, plus
heavy metals and nutrients were generally
higher in the urbanised creeks, compared to
the reference stream. During a heavy storm,
high levels ofnutrients, suspended solids and
colour were detected in all surface waters at
peak-flow, as well as alkaline pH, oxidising
redox, and reduced conductivity, alkalinity
and hardness.
The sandy sediments were characterised
by very low levels of organic matter and
cation exchange capacity. Sequential extrac-
tions identified that the sums of secondary
phase lead, zinc and copper were over nine,
four and two times that of the corresponding
residual, respectively. Greatest proportions
of zinc and lead were associated with coatings
of iron and manganese oxides, or coarse waste
particles. Copper was preferentially associ-
ated with organic matter. Concentration
gradients between interstitial and surface
waters were rare and release of sedimentary
constituents should occur rapidly from the
upper-most particulates.
Poor water and sediment qualities were
often observed in the urban sites. Poor water
quality was also seen on occasion in the
116
reference stream. However, since poor sedi-
ment quality was not detected at those times
and interstitial waters for all sites displayed
high within-site variability, surface waters
were considered the most reliable short-term
indicator of condition for Hawkesbury Sand-
stone streams. Multidimensional scaling
showed that all streams had distinct water
Warwick J. Hayes
THESES ABSTRACTS
and sediment chemistries. High levels of tem-
poral and spatial variability were apparent
within the urbanised sites - particularly in
interstitial waters - mostly due to concentra-
tions of heavy metals, phosphorus and sus-
pended solids. Seasonal differences were de-
tected, but only in terms of the level of vari-
ability between summer and winter samples.
Department of Environmental Biology and Horticulture
University of Technology, Sydney
Gore Hill NSW 2065 Autralia
Current Address
Department of Chemistry
Faculty of Business and Technology
University of Western Sydney, Macarthur
P.O. Box 555 Campbelltown NSW 2560
(Manuscript received 2.9.97)
Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of NSW, Vol.130 Parts 3-4, 117-18, 1997.
ISSN 0035-9173/97/020117-01 $4.00/1.
117
Theses Abstracts
SOIL ACIDIFICATION IN THE HUNTER VALLEY
J.B. ROBINSON
Abstract of Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Master of Science
Charles Stuart University, Wagga Wagga NSW,1996
Soil acidification due to agriculture is a
widespread and significant problem in
Australia. Soil acidification from fossil fuel
use and deposition of resulting acids onto the
landscape may also be important in some
areas, but has received little study in
Australia. The latter phenomenon is known
colloquially as acid rain. This thesis examines
these problems in the Hunter Valley, an
important agricultural region with two large
coal-fired power stations.
Acid deposition from the power stations is
estimated from rainwater chemistry and
modelled atmospheric SO, concentrations.
Acid production from agricultureis estimated
from agricultural land suitability and climatic
information. Soils collected from 51 sites are
analysed. Four soil classes were defined,
differentiated by their parent materials; basalt
(I), shale, siltstone and felsic igneous rocks
(II), sandstone (III), and alluvium (usually
basaltic, IV). Surface soils at 7 of the 51 sites
are already strongly acidic (pH, 1:5 soil:0.01
MCaCl,, < 4.5), and have high concentrations
of exchangeable aluminium (A1°*).
pH buffer capacity () was measured in all
51 surface soils (0-10 cm), and in 59 samples
from various depths between 10 and 100 em.
Soil pH buffer capacity (0-10 em) between pH
4.5 and pH 6.5 ranged from 7 to 50 mmol H*+/
kg/pH, and this is highly correlated with
organic carbon concentration (OC, %). Buffer
capacity (pH 4.5 to 6.5) per unit OC is greater
at depth, as expected for more humified
organic matter. Weak organic acids are
therefore important substances buffering pH
in these soils.
The dissolution of basic soil minerals
increases soil pH. This was studied by
incubating several soils with acid at 60°C to
enhance otherwise slow dissolution. Basic
non-carbonate minerals dissolved in 1 basaltic
soil, and manganese oxides dissolved in all of
the soils. Soil pH was also affected during
incubation by the oxidation of organic C and
mineralisation of organic N.
Soils sensitivity to added acids was
calculated from the quantity of acid (kmol H*/
ha/year) necessary to reduce the surface pH
to a target value (4. 5) in 50 years. This
indicator is high in classes I and IV, variable
but mostly low in II, and very low in class III,
where the mean is less than 0.2 kmol H*/ha/
year. The most acid-sensitive soil types (II
and III) occur in 366,000 and 168,000 ha of
the study area (656,000 ha) respectively.
Agriculture poses a very high risk to ap-
proximately 10,000 ha of soil types IT and II,
and another 156,000 hectares is at a lower
risk. Acid deposition also poses a substantial
risk to sensitive soils. A small area of type III
soils and a large area of type II soils are
affected by high rates of acid deposition (> 0.4
kmol H*/ha, 3,000 and 91,000 ha, respec-
118 THESES ABSTRACTS
tively). The exact risk to type I soils is diffi-
cult to determine because basic mineral dis-
solution may buffer the pH in these soils.
Better understanding of mineral dissolution
in soil types IT and IIT is needed to accurately
assess their sensitivity to acids.
J. B. Robinson
APSRU,
PO Box 102,
Toowoomba Qld 4034 Australia
(Manuscript received 24.7.97)
119
Biographical Memoirs
JOHN ANTHONY MILBURN
1936-1997
Professor John Anthony Milbum died tragi-
cally in a light airplane crash on 9th June
1997 in Armidale, at the peak of his career.
John Milburn was born on 7th August
1936 in Carlisle, Cumbria, U.K.. He received
his education at Carlisle Grammar School,
Carlisle, U.K.(1947-1955), and then went on
to study at the University of Newcastle-upon-
Tyne (1955-1958) and the University of Aber-
deen (1961-1964). He was awarded the B.Sc.
(Hons., Botany), 2.1 at the University of New-
castle in 1958, and the Ph.D. in plant physi-
ology at the University of Aberdeen in 1964.
In 1986 he was elected Pellow of the Institute
of Biology (London).
From 1958 to 1960, he held the position of
Agronomist (Sugar Cane) with Dr. H.E.
Evans, Bookers Sugar Estates Ltd., Guyana,
and from 1964 to 1975 that of Lecturer, and
from 1975 to 1980 that of Senior Lecturer at
the University of Glasgow. In 1980 he was
appointed Reader at this University. He took
up the Chair of Botany at the University of
New England in January 1981. From 1981 to
1988 he was Head of the Department of
Botany, UNE, and from 1982 to 1984, he also
served as Dean of the Faculty of Science.
From 1990 to 1993 he was the external
examiner for Botany at the University of
Hong Kong. He won several fellowships. From
October to December 1972 he was an Overseas
Visiting Fellow of the British Council, from
1973-74 a Fulbright-Hays Scholar, and from
1973-74 a Charles Bullard Research Fellow
of Harvard University.
From an early age he was interested in the
flow of water in plants. He played a major role
in the elucidation of xylem and phloem
transport physiology, in particular the
detection of cavitation by acoustic detection.
His research interests were, however, very
broad and included such areas as the history
of plant sciences, ultrastructural studies on
moss and fern sporangia, physiology of latex
flow, life of cut flowers, and algal flora in
Annidale waters.
John Milburn has published several books
and book chapters of international standing
and close to 100 research publications. His
book ‘Water Flow in Plants’, published by
Longman in 1979, is widely used as a text. He
had such a profound impact on plant
physiology that every single current textbook
on the subject in the world, and indeed many
general botany texts, list his publications.
The Australian Society of Plant Physiologists
invited him to be a keynote speaker at its
forthcoming meeting in Melbourne. He is
considered as the father of the idea of
cavitation and embolism and I am told that
there is now a specialist Society of some 150
people working in this area in the free world.
He presented many oral papers and
seminars to learned societies and university
departments in Europe, America and Asia
including addresses tothe British Association
(Leeds 1967) and to the International
Botanical Congresses in Leningrad (1978)
and Sydney (1981). He organised and chaired
sessionsin plant physiology at the congresses.
At Glasgow John Milburn supervised six
research students, and at UNE 13 including
two who are now writing up their theses.
120
John was a member of the Society for
Experimental Biology, the Australian Society
of Plant Physiology, the Australian Society
for Biophysics, the Australian Academy of
Science (1985-1988), a Member of the National
Committee for Plant Sciences (1985-1988),
the International Society of Plant Physio-
logists, a Fellow of the Institute of Biology,
and a Member of the New York Academy of
SIR JOHN PROUD
1907-1997
On 7 October 1997, aged 90, JOHN
SEYMOUR PROUD passsed to the Great
Beyond.
Knight Bachelor, BachelorofEngineering,
Honorary Doctor of Engineering and Fellow
of the Senate from 1974 to 1983 in the
University of Sydney, Honorary Doctor of
Laws in the Australian National University;
Sir John Proud wasa Fellow ofthe Institution
of Mining and Metallurgy, Fellow of the
Australasian Institute of Mining and
Science and the American Association of
Science.
John Milburn joined the Royal Society of
New South Wales in 1986 as a full member.
He was a keen supporter of the Armidale
Branch of the Society and arranged several
outstanding evening talks.
John is survived by his wife, Anita, sons
Dirk and Erik, and daughter Hazel.
KR.
Metallurgy; Fellow of the Institute of
Marketing Management, Fellow of the
Institution of Engineers Australia, and Life
Member of the Royal Society of NSW.
We celebrate his adventurous and
productive life. We knew him for his
contributions to mining and his promotion of
excellencein advanced learning and research.
He was instrumental in establishing
Foundations in Electrical, Civil and Mining
Engineering as well as the privately-funded
environmental “Earthwatch Australia”. Also
a Trustee of the Australian Museum from
1971 to 1977, he was the Founder and
Chairman of Trustees of the Lizard Island
Reef Research Foundation from 1978-1987.
Successful as a Company Director and
Chairman, Consultant and Benefactor, the
sincerity and trust between John and his
team of first class colleagues was a feature of
that success.
From school John entered his Family's
business briefly, but without enthusiasm. He
studied to matriculate, and in due course
graduated as a Bachelor of Engineering in
Mining and Metallurgy at the University of
Sydney.
Early in 1937 hespent three weeks in New
Guinea and acquired malaria. He joined the
small Stinson Airliner’s daily flight from
Brisbane to Sydney, on 19 February 1937, six
months before his 30th birthday.
Approaching the precipitous, jungle-
covered McPherson Ranges, the plane met an
unreported cyclone with headwinds of about
BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
80 mph. It crashed in the rainforest and burst
into flames. Proud, Binstead and Westray
survived. But neither radio nor meals were
carried in those days. The fittest survivor was
Westray, who went for help, though his hands
were badly burned and he was hungry. John
Proud, immobile with his leg broken and
bone protruding, was settled alongside the
burnt wreckage. Binstead knew that John
would die if water were not brought to him
daily from the gorge. Each trip took hours of
agonised crawling with hands like raw meat.
For nine days both were without shelter or
food or warmth in the rainforest. John
scratched a daily diary on a fragment of torn
aircraft metal...
The failed air search was called off. But
the mountain man Bernard O’Rielly listened
to that still small voice. The plane must be out
there somewhere, not in the sea off Palm
Beach, as newspapers said. A week after the
crash, he began to search and miraculously
found the wreck, though it was invisible from
20 feet away. Realising that John might not
last another day without help, Bernard
O’Rielly gave Proud and Binstead his
remaining cooked potato and onion and set
outimmediately downhill tothe south, passing
Westray’s body propped against a boulder.
O’Rielly forced himself to take risks in a race
against approaching darkness. Exhausted,
he reached the first open ground in the valley
at nightfall. Picked up by a farmer, he was
driven nine miles to a telephone to give his
message to the world.
Grace Silcock spent all night on that phone,
organising the hundred men whoset out next
morning with sharpened axes to cut a track
up the mountain through the dense jungle.
The rest is history, written in Green
Mountains, O’Rielly’s book, and seen in the
Video made fifty years later in 1987 by John
Schindler.
John Proud owed much to many; not least
to Binstead for the life-giving daily water
ration; and to the swarming blowflies which
ate the rotting green flesh of his leg wound,
thus avoiding gangrene infection. It was a
method soon to be used widely in the jungles
121
of our generation’s Pacific War.
John Proud’s visit tomein theSOLOMON
ISLANDS late in 1950 influenced my life and
began a decade of mineral exploration for
nickel, cobalt and chromite, at no expense to
our Geological Survey. I must add that John
had another close shave when he nearly trod
on a very mature crocodile one morning
John succeeded Sid Sangster of PEKO
MINES and with George Lean’s help soon
merged that company with NEWCASTLE
WALLSEND COAL. Other mines followed:
Mount Morgan, King Island Scheelite, Rutile
Zircon Mines and other major beach-sands
properties. John became Chairman of PEKO-
WALLSEND LTD in 1960 until 1978, when
George Lean took over.
The need for success in mineral search
demanded the special role of Geopeko, which
became itself a story of successful discoveries
under Dr John Elliston.
The discovery of Ranger Uranium mine
was blighted by the hostility of bureaucracies
and asuccession of governments, one of which
tried confiscation. The mess cost Australians
untold jobs and billions of dollars. The mine
was shared by EZ. The story from the inside
has now been told by Keith Alder in his book,
Australia’s Uranium Opportunities: How her
Scientists and Engineers Tried to Bring Her
into the Nuclear Age but were Stymied by
Politics. It was strongly encouraged by Sir
John Proud so that the story could be known
to Australians from whom it has been
withheld.
Sir John was a director of CSR from 1974
to 1979, Chairman of Oil Search Ltd. from
1978 to 1982; Chairman of the Electrical
Equipment Ltd Group 1978 -1982, and
Chairman of Oil Company Australia N.L.
John’s rapid rise in business began in
1960.. He was Knighted in 1978.
This short summary would be incomplete
without acknowledging the role of Laurine,
Lady Proud, who supported him so fullyin his
varied activities since their marriage in 1964.
J.C.G.
Taare ee) Bay
Uae Hea
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Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of NSW, Vol.130 Parts 3-4, 123-24, 1997.
ISSN 0035-9173/97/020123-02 $4.00/1.
123
Index to Volume 130
Abstract of Proceedings 45
Abstracts of Theses
Brett, M. 35
Christen, E.W. 109
Dawes, M.JJ. 111
Farr, Cynthia J.M. 112
Frost, W.E. 37
Garrety, K, 39
George, C.R.P. 113
Hayes, Warwick J. 115
Robinson, B. 117
Timmers, H. 41
Agriculture
Thesis Abstracts 35, 37
Annual Dinner 12 March 1997 Address by
Patron of the Royal Society of NSW, His
Excellency the Honourable Gordon
Samuels AC, Governor of New South
Wales 62
Awards, citations 55
Bhathal, R.S. Heavy Metals in Ceiling Dust
of Sydney Homes. Whicker, C.L. Hayes
W.J., Khoo, C.S. & - 65
Bibliographical Memoirs 58, 119
Callaghan, Patricia Mary Society Medal for
1996 55
Chemistry
Heavy Metals 65
Citations for Awards 1996 55
Clarke Medal 1996 56
Contents Vol 130 1/2 and 3/4 127
Council Report 1996-1997 43
Dussal, R., Nuclear Propulsion for Subma-
rine and Surface Vessels. A review 25
Edgeworth David Medal, 1996 57
Financial Statement 1996 49
Fletcher, Oswald Harold, Obituary 58
Geology
Hikurangi Margin N.Z. 1
Palaeontology 79
Stratigraphy 1
Structure il
Governor of New South Wales, and Patron
of the Society, His Excellency, The Hon-
ourable Gordon Samuels, AC Annual
Dinner March 1997 62
Gray, Noel Macintosh, Obituary 59
Hayes, W.J., Khoo, C.S., and Bhathal, R.S.
Heavy Metals in Ceiling Dust of Sydney
Houses. Whicker, C.L., - 65
Heavy Metals in Ceiling Dust of Sydney
Houses. Whicker, C.L., Hayes, W.J. Khoo,
C.S. & Bhathal, R.S., 65
Hikurangi, Margin, North Wairarapa, New
Zealand. Stratigraphy and Structure of
an outboard part of the forearc of the - G.
Neef 1
Hill, Dorothy, Obituary 60
Khoo, C.S. & Bhathal, R.S. Heavy Metals in
Ceiling Dust of Sydney Houses. Whicker,
C.L. Hayes, W.ZJ., 65
Linguistics
Thesis Abstract 112
Medicine
Thesis Abstract 39
Thesis Abstract 113
Milburn, J.A. Obituary 119
Molnar, R. E., Identification of large reptil-
ian Teeth of Plio-Pleistocene Deposits in
Australia. Willis, P.M.A., & - 79
Murphy, Anthony B., Destruction of Ozone-
depleting substances in a thermal
Plasma 97
Neef, G., Stratigraphy and Structure of an
Outboard Part of the Forearc of the
Hikurangi Margin, North Wairarapa
New Zealand 1
New South Wales:-
Ceiling Dust in some Sydney Houses
65
Nuclear Propulsion for Submarine and Sur-
face Vessels. A Review. Dussol, R. 25
124
Obituaries 58, 119
Ozone-depleting Substances in a thermal
Plasma. Destruction of - , Murphy
Anthony B. 97
Physics
Thesis Abstract 41
Review: Nuclear Propulsion 25
Thermal Plasma 97
Proud, Sir John, A.B.C. Obituary 120
Review:- Dussol, R., Nuclear Propulsion
for Submarine and Surface Vessels 25
Reptilian Teeth from Phio-Pleistocene De-
posits in Australia. Identification oflarge
-, Willis, R.M.A. & Molnar, R. E. 79
Rhode, Klaus: Clarke Medal for 1996 56
Robinson, Peter Alexander: Edgeworth
David Medal 1996 57
Royal Society of New South Wales Medal
1996 55
Sociology
Thesis Abstract 111
Stratigraphy and Structure of an Outboard
part of the Forearc of the Hikurangi
Margin, North Wairarapa, New Zealand.
G. Neef. 1
Whicker, C.L. Hayes, W.J. Khoo, C.S., and
Bhathal, R.S., Heavy Metals in Ceiling
Dust of Sydney Houses 65
Willis, P.M.A. and Molnar, Ralph E., Iden-
tification of large reptilian Teeth from
Plio-Pleistocene Deposits in Australia
79
JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
ROYAL SOCIETY
OF
NEW SOUTH WALES
Volume 130 Parts 1 to 4
(Nos 383-386)
1997
ISSN 0035-9173
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY
PO BOX 1525, MACQUARIE CENTRE, NSW 2113
Issued (Parts 1-2) June, (Parts 3-4) December 1997
THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES
OFFICE BEARERS FOR 1997-98
Patrons
His Excellency the Honourable Sir William Deane, AC, KBE,
Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia
His Excellency the Honourable Gordon Samuels, AC
Governor of New South Wales
President
Dr E.C. Potter
Vice-Presidents
Dr D.F. Branagan Dr K.L. Grose
Mr J.R. Hardie Dr G.C. Lowenthal
Prof. W.E. Smith
Hon Secretaries
Dr P.R. Evans Mrs M. Krysko von Tryst
(General) (Editorial)
Hon Treasurer Hon Librarian
Dr D.J. O’Connor Miss P.M. Callaghan
Members of Council
Dr M.R. Lake Prof. D.J. Swaine
Mr K.A. Rickard Prof. M. Wilson
Dr F.L. Sutherland
New England Representative: Mr B.B. Burns
Southern Highlands Representative: Mr H.R. Perry
Contents
Vol. 130 Parts 1-2
NEEF, G. Stratigraphy and structure of an outboard part of the forearc of the Hikurangi
Margin, North Wairarapa, New Zealand.
DUSSOL, R. Nuclear Propulsion for Submarine and Surface Vessels A Review.
ABSTRACTS OF THESES
BRETT, M. The effect of tenure on range management.
FROST, W.E. The ecology of cereal rust mite Abacarus hystrix (Nalepa) in irrigated
perennial dairy pastures in South Australia.
GARRETY, K. Negotiating dietary knowledge inside and outside laboratories:
the cholesterol controversy.
TIMMERS, H. Expressions of inner freedom: an experimental study of the scattering
and fusion of nuclei at energies spanning the Coulomb barrier.
COUNCIL REPORT
Annual Report of Council
Abstracts of Proceedings
Financial Statement
Citations for Awards
Society Medal - Miss P.M.Callaghan
Clarke Medal (Zoology) - Prof. K. Rohde
Edgeworth David Medal - Dr P.A. Robinson
Biographic Memoirs:
H.O. Fletcher
N.M. Gray
D. Hill
Annual Dinner Address
Vol. 130 Parts 3-4
WHICKER, C.L., HAYES, W.J., KHOO, C.S. & BHATHAL R.S. Heavy Metals in
Ceiling Dust of Some Sydney Houses, New South Wales, Australia.
WILLIS , P.M.A.& MOLNAR, R.E. Identification of large reptilian teeth from Plio-
Pleistocene deposits of Australia.
MURPHY, A.B. Destruction of Ozone-depleting Substances in a Thermal Plasma
ABSTRACTS OF THESES
CHRISTEN, E.W. The feasibility of using mole drainage to control waterlogging in
irrigated agriculture.
DAWES M.: J. Dying in Prison: a Study of Deaths in Correctional Custody in South
Australia 1980-1993.
FARR Cynthia J.M., The interface between syntax and discourse in Korafe, a Papuan
language of Papua New Guinea.
GEORGE C.R.P. The Early development of clinical dialysis: the importance of
symbolism in successful scientific endeavours.
HAYES Warwick J. Chemical relationships in waters and sediment of some urban
streams, with particular reference to heavy metals and phosphorus.
ROBINSON J.B. Soil Acidification in the Hunter Valley.
_ BIOGRAPHIC MEMOIRS:
| J.A. Milburn
J. Proud
39
41
111
112
113
115
117
119
119
120
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CONTENTS
VOL. 130 PARTS 3 AND 4
WHICKER, C.L., HAYES, W.J., KHOO, C.S. & BATHAL, R.S.
Heavy metals in ceiling dust of some Sydney houses,
New SouthWales, Australia. 65
WILLIS, P.M.A..& MOLNAR, RALPH E.
Identification of large reptilian teeth from Plio-Pleistocene
deposits of Australia. 79
MURPHY, A.B.
Destruction of ozone-depleting substances in a thermal plasma. 93
ABSTRACTS OF THESES
CHRISTEN, E.W. The feasibility of using mole drainage to
DAWES, M.J.
FARR, C.J.M.
GEORGE, C.R.P.
control waterlogging in irrigated agriculture. 109
Dying in prison: a study of deaths in correctional
custody in South Australia 1980-1993. 111
The interface between syntax and discourse
in Korafe, a Papuan language of Papua
New Guinea. 112
The early development of clinical dialysis: the
importance of symbolism in successful scientific
endeavours. 113
HAYES, W.J. Chemical relationships in waters and sediments
of some urban streams, with particular reference
to heavy metals and phosphorus. 115
ROBINSON, J.B. Soil acidification in the Hunter Valley. 117
BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
John Anthony Milburn 119
Sir John Proud 120
INDEX TO VOLUME 130 123
ADDRESS - Royal Society of New South Wales,
PO Box 1525, Macquarie Centre, NSW 2113, Australia.
DATE OF PUBLICATION
December 1997
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