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THE JOURNAL
OF THE r> -».
/'i' - '' -
BOMBAY BRANCH
OF THE
ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY.
£feitelr is tj^^ Sberretats*
VOL. IV.
ISomtias:
PRINTED AT THB
BOMBAY EDUCATION SOCIETY'S PRESS.
1853.
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CONTENTS OF VOL. IV.
No. XV.
Art. Page
I. — On the Villages and Towns named Hazar and Hasor in the Scrip-
tores, with the identification of the Hazor of Kedar. By
John Wilson, D.D., F.R.S., Honorary President of the
Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 1
II. — Observations on the Ghrammatical Structure of the Vernacular
Languages of India. No. 4.— The Pronoun. By the Revd.
J. Stbvbnson, D.D 15
III. — ^Memoir on the Geology of the South-East Coast of Arabia. By
H. J. Carter, Esq., Bombay Medical Service, formerly Sur-
geon of the H. C. Surveying Brig " Palinurus" 21
IV. — Observations on three Copperplate Charters, granted respectively
A. D. 933, A. D. 1261, and A. d. 1391, with Fac-similes, Tran-
scripts, and Translations. By Major Gborgb LbGrand
Jacob 97
V. — A Comparative Vocabulary of the Non-Sanscrit Vocables of the
Vernacular Languages of India. By the Revd. J. Stb vbnson,
D.D 117
VI. — Note on the Rock-Inscriptions in the Island of Salsette. By
the Revd. J. Stevenson, D.D 132
VIL — Extracts from the Proceedings of the Society for the year
1850-51 135 ^
No. XVI.
I. — Geology of the Island of Bombay ; with a Map and Plates. By
H. i. Carter, Esq., Assistant Surgeon, Bombay Establish- >/
ment 161
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ir CONTENTS.
Art. Page
II. — Recent Investigations in Zend Literature. By the Revd. J.
Murray Mitchell, A.M 216
III. — On the conflicting views of European Scholars as to the Races
inhabiting Polynesia, and the Indian Archipelago ; and as to
the Languages spoken by them. By the Hon'ble Sir Erskinb
Perry, President 242
IV.—The Theory of the Great Elephanta Cave. By the Revd. J.
Stevenson, D.D 261
V. — Brief Memorial of the Literary Researches of the late William
Erskinb, Esq. By the Revd. J. Wilson, D.D., Honorary
President of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. 2/6
VI. — The late Professor Eugene Burnoup, of Paris, and his Oriental
Publications 285
No. XVII.
I. — On the Geographical Distribution of the principal Languages of
India, and the feasibility of introducing English as a Lingua
Franca, By the Hon'ble Sir Erskine Perry, President .... 289
II. — Comparative Vocabulary of Non-Sanscrit Primitives in the Ver-
nacular Languages of India. Part II. By the Rev. J.
Stevenson, D.D 319
III. — Second Memoir on the Cave-Temples and Monasteries, and other
Ancient Buddhist, Brahmanical and Jaina Remains of Western
India. By John Wilson, D.D., F.R.S., Honorary Pre-
sident of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society . . 340
IV. — Notices of Cromlechs, Cairns, and other Ancient Scytho-Druidical
Remains in the Principality of Sorapdr. By Captain Mea-
dows Taylor 380
V. — On the Form and Structure of the Shell of Operctdina Arabica,
With a Plate. By. H. J. Carter, Esq., Assistant Surgeon,
Bombay Establishment 430
VI. — Note on the Phocene Deposits of the Shores of the Arabian Sea,
By H. J. Carter, Esq., Assistant Surgeon, Bombay Estab-
lishment 445
VII.— Extracts from the Proceedings of the Society for the year 1851-52 449
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CONTENTS.
LIST OF PLATES.
PnATK To FACB PaGB
I. — ^Marbat 52
'•^ II.— Fac-siimle of Charter dated Shaka 865, a. d. 933 110
III.— Table explanatory of the Plate-Character of ditto (to follow).. 110
^IV.— Fac-simile with Tranacript of Charter dated Shaka 1182, a. d.
1261 114
V. — Fac-siiniles of Rock-Inscriptions in the Island of Salsette 132
vVl.— Geological Map of the Island of Bombay 161
^VII. — ^Vegetable Remains from the Carboniferous Shale of the Island
of Bombay (Roots and Stems) 176
vVlIL— Ditto ditto (Impressions of Leaves, &c.) 177
^IX. — Ditto ditto (Seeds and Seed-pods), also casts of Cyprides,
Shells, &c 184
^.—Tc»/ti<io L«/Am, (dorsal view) 184
yXI.— Ditto (ventral view) 186
KXII.— The coffin-shaped Trough of Panduvaram D^wal 378
^XIII.— Kistvaensnear Rajan-Kolur 382
^'^XIV.— Large Kistvaens Rajftn-Kolur 384
V^V.— Tumulus of Rocks at ShahpObr 392
V'XVI.— Cairns at Jewfirgi 398
KX VII. — Bells, and Remains of Pottery, &c. from Cairns opened at Andol^,
Chik&nh&Ui, Aoula Alee and Naikarpalli 416
^VIII. — Diagrams illustrating the structure of the Shell of Operculina
Arabica 448
•'map showing the Geographical Distribution of the principal
Languages of India, to illustrate the Hon'ble Sir Erskine
Perry's paper 289
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JOURNAL
OP THE
BOMBAY BRANCH
OP THE
EOYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY.
JANUARY, 1852.
Art. I. — On the Villages and Towns named Hazar and Hazor in
the Scriptures J with the Identification of the Hazor of Kedar.
By John Wilson, D. D., F. R. S., Honorary President of
the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society.
Read, October S4th, 1850.
The Hebrew words "wn Hazar and nwn Hazor, literally signi-
fying an "enclosure," a "court," a "pasturage," and a "village," are
used as the names of various towns and villages which have often been
overlooked, confounded, and misplaced by writers on biblical geography
and prophecy.
Hazeroth was one of the stations of the Israehtes in the wilderness.
(Num. xi. 35 ; xii. 16 ; xxxiii. 17, 18.) It was doubtless situated in the
valley of el-Hadhar, north of Mount Sinai.* ,
A B.AZAR-Addar and HAZAR-i^na^t are spoken of in connection
with the borders of the Holy Land. (Num. xxxiv. 4, 10.) The
Canaanitish Avim are represented as dwelling in Hazerim. (Dent. ii.
23.) In the apportionments of their land which fell to the tribes
of Judah and Simeon we find several Hazors, mentioned in the fol-
lowing connections : — " And it [the south border of Judah] passed along
[from Kadesh-bamea] to Hezron, and went up to Jdar,"' [probably
the ISjiZOK'Addar of Num. ut sup.] (Josh. xv. 3.) "And the utter-
most cities of the tribe of the children of Judah, toward the coast of Edom
* See << Lands of the Bible,'' Vol. I. pp. 356<^260.
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2 THE HAZORS OP SCRIPTURE. [JaN.
southward, were Kabzeel, and Eder, and Jagur, and Kinah, andDimonah,
and Adadah, and Kedesb, and Hazor, and Ithnan, Ziph, and Telem,
and Bealoth, and 'H.AZOR-Hadattah [the " new Hazor," erroneously
given in our English version as two different places], and Kerioth, and
Hezron, which is Hazor,"' Amam, and Shenia, and Moladah, and
"RAZAR-Gaddah [village of the kid], and Heshmon, and Beth-
palet, and B-AZAK-Shual [the village of the jackal], and Beersheba,"
etc. (Josh. XV. 21 — 28.) "And they [the children of Simeon ac-
commodated in the tribe of Judah] had in their inheritance Beersheba,
Sheba, and Moladah, and HAZAR-iS^Aua/, [already mentioned,] and
Balah, and Azem, and Altolad, and Bethul, and Hormah, and Ziklag,
and Beth-marcaboth, and B,AZAK-Susah [the village of the horse]."
(Josh. xix. 2—5.) "And they [the descendants of Simeon] dwelt at
Beersheba, and Moladah, and 'RAZAR-Shual and at Beth-mar-
caboth, and HAZAK'Susim [the village of horses, given before in the
singular form] These were their cities unto the reign of David.'*
(1 Chron. iv. 28 — 31.) None of these Hazars, so far as I know, have
been identified in modem times, though the sites of some of the conti-
guous towns have been seen or visited by late travellers. This, how-
ever, is a matter of comparatively little consequence, as they are not
associated with any historical events or prophetical descriptions of much
consequence. 'H.AZOR'Gaddah was probably near Enpedi, the fountain
of the kid.f The designation of KAZOR-Susah or Susintt proves the
existence of the horse in the South of Canaan before the Israelites en-
tered it under Joshua, a circumstance which is often overlooked. This
animal was very scarce in the country till the time of Solomon. The
Jewish kings were forbidden to multiply to themselves horses, probably
to keep them, in their religious separation, from dependence on foreign
countries, their own rough and hilly province not being in general suit-
able for rearing that quadruped.
A Hazor, belonging to the tribe of Benjamin, is simply mentioned
in Neh. xi. 33. It was probably not far ^om Bethel, and was perhaps
identical with, or not far from, ^oaZ-HAZOR, near Ephraim, at which
Absalom's sheep-shearers were employed. (2 Sam. xiii. 23.)
B-AZAR-Hatticon, (or the middle Hazor or village,) by the coast of
Hauran^ and KAZOR-Enan, by the border of Damascus, are mentioned
by Ezekiel (xlvii. 16, 17,) in connection with the boundaries of the
restored Holy Land.
* Mentioned also in Josh. xv. 8.
t Jerome and Euaebios say of Gadda, " Est autem hodieque villa in extremis
flnibus DoromsB contra orientem, imminens Marl Mortuo.^Eclog, de Loc. Ueb.
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1852.] HAZORS OF JABIN AND KEDAR. 3
A more important place than those now referred to was the Hazor of
King Jabin, the capital of all the kingdoms adjoining the upper lake of
the Jordan, which was taken and destroyed by Joshua, (Josh. xi. 1 — 13,
&c,) ; which afterwards partially recovered its strength, and under
another king of the name of Jabin, oppressed the Israelites, and sent out
against them its armies under Sisera, when they were oTcrcome by
Deborah and Barak, its king being at the same time destroyed,
(Jud. iv. 1 — 24 ; 1 Sam. xii. 9) ; which was rebuilt, or enlarged, by
Solomon, (1 Kings ix. 15) ; and which was taken by the Assyrians, on
their invasion of Canaan under Tiglath-Pileser, (2 Kings xv. 29).
This strong and fenced city fell to the lot of the tribe of Naphtali, on
the division of the land among the tribes of Israel. It is thus mention-
ed in the enumeration of their fenced cities, seemingly made from
South to North : — " Ziddim, Zer, and Hammath [the warm baths
near Tiberias], Rakkath [Tiberias],* and Chinnereth, and Adamah, and
Bamah, and Hazor, and Kedesh, [now Kades,] and Edrei, and J^n-
Hazor, [the well of Hazor,] and Iron [or Ijon]," &c. (Josh. xix. 35,
36). In the notice of the Assyrian conquests, it is thus given in an
enumeration, probably proceeding from North to South : — " In the
days of Pekah, king of Israel, came Tiglath-Pileser king of Assyria,
and took Ijon, and Abel-beth-maachah, and Janoah, and Kedesh, and
ELazor, and Gilead, and Galilee, all the land of Naphtali, and carried
them captive to Assyria." (2 Kings xv. 29.) It woidd appear that
this Hazor lay to the South of Kedesh Naphtali, which is on the
heights overlooking the waters of Merom, now called the Lake Huleh.
Josephus (Antiq. v. 5, 1,) says that Hazor was situated above this
lake, to which he gives the name Semechonitis {avrrf dc virtpxtirai rrjf
^fux^piTiBos Xifunis). Eusebius and Jerome only allude to its situation
as in the tribe of Naphtali.f
There is still another Hazor mentioned in the Scriptures, and that
in an important portion of the prophecies of Jeremiah : —
" Concerning Kedar, and concerning the Kingdoms op
Hazor, which Nebuchadrezzar king of Babylon shall
SMITE, THUS SAITH THE LoRD :
Arise ye, go up to Kedar, and spoil the men of the East.
Their tents and their flocks shall they take away :
They shall take to themselves their curtains, and all their yessels and their camels ;
And they shall cry to them, Fear is on every side.
Flee, get you far off, dwell deep, O ye inhabitants of Hazor, saith the Lord ;
• Talmud. Cod. Megill. fol. 6, col. 2 ; " Lands of the Bible," Vol. 11. p. 117.
t Sub. voc. Aior:—** Asor, in tribu Nephtallm, quam rex Assyriorum populasse
scribitur."^Heron. Rdoga de Loc. Heb.
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4 THE HAZORS OF SCRIPTURE. [JaN.
For Nebachidreszar king of Babylon hath taken coansel against you.
And hath conceived a purpose against you.
Arise, get you up unto the wealthy nation that dweUeth without care, saith the
Lord,
Which have neither gates nor bars, which dwell alone ;
And their camels shall be a booty,
And the multitude of their cattle a spoil ;
And I will scatter unto all winds them that are in the utmost comers.
And I will bring their calamity from all sides thereof, saith the Lord,
And Hazor shall be a dwelling for dragons, and a desolation for ever :
There shall no man abide there, nor any son of man dwell in it."
(Jeremiah xlix. 2S— 38.)
Hazor is evidently mentioned here as the capital o/Kedar, in the
same way as in the context Heshbon and Ai are spoken of as principal
cities of Moab, and Bozrah as the capital of Edom. It is doomed by
the prophet, not as an actual possession of the Israelites, such as Hazor
in the neighbourhood of Kadesh Naphtali was, but as in a distant
and hostile nation, that of Kedar, analogous in this respect to £dom,
and Moab, and Elam, introduced to our notice in the same course of
prophecy. It is represented as a secluded place, in the " East," and
"in the utmost comers,** the wealth of the dependencies of which
principally consisted in flocks, and herds of camels, and in tents, and
their equipages. It is obviously such a place as is not to be sought in
a rough hilly country, where the latter description of animal would be
found nearly or wholly useless. I request the members of our Society
to mark these circumstances at the commencement of our inquiries as
to its locality.
Dr. Keith, in the thirty-sixth edition of his admirable work on the
" Evidence of the Truth of the Christian Religion, derived from the
literal Fulfilment of Prophecy,** says, with reference to the passage of
Jeremiah now referred to : — " In the previous editions of this treatise,
the author could not adduce any illustration of this prediction, after
having long sought in vain for any recognition or identification of the
city itself, either by historians or travellers, except the vague, and
therefore unsatisfactory notice by Burckhardt, who had heard of but not
seen ' the ruins of a city called Hazouri.' *' He then goes on to identify
the Hazor of Jeremiah with that of Jabin, repeating its history to the
time of Solomon, and thus proceeds :— " * At the end of an hour and a
half,' east by south from Paneas, on the route to Damascus, says
Burckhardt, * we came to Ain-el-Hazoun, a spring, with the tomb of
Sheikh Othman-el-Hazouri, just over it ; to the north of it one hour
are the ruins of a city called Hazouri. The mountain here is over-
grown with oaks, but contains good pasturage.* *[ ♦* The name Hazouri,"
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1852.] HAZORS OF JABIN AND KSDAR. 5
Dr. Keith adds, *' is well known at Paneas : it designates the ruins ;
Ain Hazour, the fountain of Hazour ; and Djehel-Hazour, the hill of
fiazor. The ruins are not, as stated to Burckhardt, an hour's distance
fmn the spring, hut comparativelj near it, on the opposite side of a
groTe of nohle oaks The name remains, hut the city is no more ;
and literally, as the word of the Lord revealed the existing fact,
though long unknown in other lands, no man abides there, nor does a
son of man dwell in it.'**
In this supposed identification, the excellent and learned author of
the most popular work which has yet heen published on the subject of
which it treats, falls into three errors of considerable magnitude.
1. The *' Hazour*' of the flanks of Jebel Heish, above the castle of
Banias, to which he here refers, cannot possibly be Hazor, the capital of
Jabin. This site is quite separated from the possessions of the tribe of
Naphtali, in which that town, as we have seen, was situated. It is
east of the territory formerly belonging to the Sidonians, and ultimately
taken possession of by the tribe of Dan. It lies to the east of the Jor-
dan, in the territories which, in the Land of Promise, we know
were allotted to the tribes of Reuben and Gad, and the half tribe
of Manasseh.
2. The Hazor of Jahin is not the Hazor mentioned by Jeremiah,
which, as we have already seen, is connected with Kedar and Arabia.
3. The Hazor of Jebel Heish, also, has no geographical connexion
with Kedar and Arabia, from which it is quite remote. In its lofty
position, among the roughnesses of the mountains, it is perhaps one of
the last places which could be thought of as the capital of a country
abounding with camels.f
Dr. Eadie, a countryman of Dr. Keith, in his convenient Biblical
Iddcyclopsedia lately published, has avoided confounding the Hazor
• Kdth on the Evidence of Prophecy, pp. 150--163.
t Since this paper was laid before the Society, the Journal of the Royal Asiatic
Society, Vol. XII. Part 2, has been received in India. At page 859, I find the
following statement in the late Capt. Newbold's paper '* On the Country between
T^re and Sidon and the Jordan" : — " My friend the Rev. Mr. Thomson, of Beiriit
soggeeted to me the examination of Hanin as the site of the great llazor, so
celebrated in the days of Joshua, and subsequently. I am, however, inclined to
think that Hazor lay further East, and that its site is pointed out by a mound in
the valley of the Jordan, between Hasbeiya and Banias, called by the Arabs Tel
Gh^zor." Mr. Thomson may be correct in his conjecture about the identity of
Hiinin and the Hazor of Jabin ; but as there is no similarity in the name, and
several ancient sites of Naphtali in this district remain yet undi8covei*ed, there is
yet no certainty about the matter. Captain Newbold has overlooked the fact that
thi^ Arabic correspondent of Hazor is Jladhor, and not Ohdzor.
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6 THE HAZORS OF SCRIPTURE. [JaN.
mentioned by Jeremiah with that of Jabin. ** There is a remarkable
prophecy," he says, " respecting a Hazor in Jer. xlix. 28 — 33. The
connection shows it to have been in Arabia, and the whole scope of the
prophecy denotes a place of great importance. It is, however, blotted
out, though some have conjectured that it is another name for Petra."
So many places mentioned in Scripture, which have for ages disap-
peared from the view of the civilized world, have been lately brought to
notice, that we have not despaired of the recovery of even this Hazor.
Before hazarding an opinion, however, on its situation, we have to seek
for the district of Kedar itself, with which, as we have seen, it is
associated by Jeremiah.
The country of Kedar derived its name from Kedar the son of
Ishmael. (Gren. xxv. 13.) In several passages of the sacred Scriptures
it is connected with Arabia. (Isaiah xxi. 13 — 16 ; £zek. xxvii. 21.) Its
people are alluded to as dwelling in tents, and, according to some in-
terpreters, with the sons of Kedemeh, settled in the "East,"* as in the
passage we have introduced from Jeremiah. (Song i. 5 ; Ps. cxx. 5.)
Plmy couples its people, the Cedrei, with the Nabatai,t the descendants
of Nebaioth, the eldest brother of Kedar. The Chaldsean paraphrast
identifies these people (£zek. xxvii. 21), and he translates the " flocks
of Kedar"' (Is. Ix. 7) the " flocks of the Arabs." J Jerome, in his
comment on Isaiah, says that Kedar was "an inhabited region
beyond Arabia of the Saracens" ; and in his Loc. Heb. that it was in
the " wilderness of the Saracens." Eusebius and Jerome, in the
Ecloga, or Onomasticon, place this wilderness of the Saracens " beyond
Arabia to the South," " opposite the coast of the Red Sea." Theo-
doretus, commenting on Psalm cxix., says : " Kedar was the second
son of Ishmael, and his posterity dwell to this day not far distant from
Babylon." Suidas in his Lexicon makes the same remark, adding that
Kedar b a place of obscurity, for in Hebrew it denotes what is dark.
It appears to me that according to these authorities Kedar, dis-
* Bochart thus writes : — *' Jacobas 6 fuucapiTriSf affinis meas, quern honoris
cau8& nomino, hone nodum ita conatur exsolvere in notis ad Genesin noudum
editis : Note posteritcu ah Armenus tnontibua progressafuei'at in earn regionem
qwB postea dicta eat Dip Kedem a Kedmd novimmo ItmaelU JUio. Oen.
XXV. 15. Secundum Ismaelu filius e8t Kedar. Hos duos fratre» vicinas habuUae
sedes colligimtts ex Jerem. xlix. 28. Ascendite Kedar ut vastentur Jilii Kedem,
Poetea vero cum inquit Mosee, Gen. xi. 2, egrederentur ex Kedemo invenerunt
vailem in terra Senaaria. Sic locum hunc interpretandum censemus" —
Phaleg.i. 7.
t Plin. lib. V. cap. 22.
t Reland Palest, p. 96.
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1852.] HA20R OP KEDAR IDENTIFIED WITH EL-HADHAR. 7
tinctiyelj so called, is to be sought in the Eastern portion of that part
of Arabia, according to the ancients, which is now called the Syrian
desert, or in the country contiguous to that wilderness ; and the question
arises. Is there any Hazor whose position and other circumstances suit
the description of Jeremiah to be found in that region of the world ?
That the Hazor of Jeremiah, — ^if without authority we extend the name
Kedar to the Arabian peninsula, — could not be in the south of Arabia,
will afterwards appear.
To the question now proposed I venture to reply in the affimative.
In a remarkable oasis of the desert and alluvial plains between the
Tigris and the Euphrates, lying to the S. W. of Mosul, there is a
town, the Arabic name of which y^^ or j^c^J \^ — Hadhavy or
el-Hadhar, given by the Arabic geographer Edrisi, — is the exact cor-
respondent of the Hebrew im Hazar or Hazor. He speaks
of this place as an "agreeable town on the banks of theTirthar."*
This place, though its coincidence with the Hazor of Jeremiah has not
yet been noticed, has been identified by Major Rennell and others as
the Hatra of Ammianus Marcellinus, (Ub. 25, cap. 8,) the Atra of Dion
Cassias, (lib. 24,) and the Hatria of the Peutingerian tables.
This place was visited a few years ago by Dr. Ross, of the Bombay
Medical Service, whose interesting memoir of it is published in the
Joomal of the Royal Geographical Society, and afterwards by Mr. W.
F. Ainsworth, who has given a full and interesting description of it in
his "Travels and Researches in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Chaldea,
and Armenia." From the narrative of the last-mentioned gentleman,
I take the hberty of introducing one or two important passages expla-
natory of its position and present appearances.
The following is a notice of the journey of Mr. Ainsworth and his
party to' Hadkar, from Kalah Sherkat : — " At Kalah Sherkat it was
my intention to quit the river's banks, and penetrate the wilderness to
Al-Hadhar, guided by the compass and Mr. Ross's map, for neither the
Khawas nor the Arabs knew aught about the position of the ruins. On
leaving Kalah Sherkat,. we kept a httle to the South of Wadi-el-
Meheih, in which there was now no running water We travelled
at a quick pace over a continuous prairie of grasses and flowering
plants, and, crossing the Ain-el-Thaleb, having still a little stagnant
water, we arrived at a ridge of rocks which rose above the surrounding
country. From a mound, upon which were a few graves, we obtained
a comprehensive view of that part of Mesopotamia which extended to
the West, but without being able to distinguish the valley of the Thar-
* Geog. d'Edrisi, par Jaubert, p. 147.
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8 THE HAZ0R8 OF SCRIPTURE. [JaN.
thar, a brook which traverses this part of Mesopotamia, or the ruins of
Al-Hadhar The sharp sight of the Bedwin Haji Ali was in
favour of some mounds which were visible in the extreme distance to
the South of West ; so, having much confidence in his acquaintance
with the appearance that niins would present on the desert at such a
distance, we followed these indications, but, as it turned out, falla-
ciously. After two hours and a quarter's quick travelling, still over
prairies and undulating country, we came to the supposed ruins, which
turned out to be bare hills of sandstone, the Southern termination of a
low ridge Changing our route, we started to the North- West,
in which direction we arrived, after an hour and a quarter's ride, at a
valley bounded in places by rock terraces of gypsum, which indicated a
wadi and a winter torrent, or actual water. To our joy, we found the
Tharthar flowing along the bottom of this vale, but only from^fifteen to
twenty feet in width, instead of the fifty we had been led to expect ;
and to our great comfort the waters were very potable. The stream,
though narrow, was deep, generally from five to seven feet, and hence
with difficulty fordable : on its banks were a few reeds and scattered
bushes of tamarisk. We proceeded up the stream, in a direction
North- West, in search of a ford, which we found after one hour's slow
and irregular journey, and we lost half an hour refreshing ourselves
with a bath. We afterwards followed the right bank of the stream,
being unwilling, as evening was coming on, to separate ourselves, unless
we actually saw Al-Hadhar, from the water so necessary for ourselves
and our horses We deemed it best to keep on up the river,
but to travel a little inwards on the heights. This plan was attended
with perfect success ; and we had ridden only one hour and a half,
when we perceived through the misty rain mounds still to the North-
West, which we felt convinced were the sought-for ruins. Mr. Ras-
sam and myself hurried on, but soon afterwards, perceiving a flock of
sheep in the distance, we became aware of the presence o£ Arabs, who
could be no other than the Shammar ; so we waited for our friends, and
rode all together into the kind of hollow in which Al-Hadhar is situated.
Here we perceived the tents of the Bedwins extending far and wide
within the ruins, and without the walls to the South-West. The
ruins themselves presented a magnificent appearance, and the distance
at which the tall bastions appeared to rise, as if by enchantment, out
of the wilderness, filled us with wonder and surprise, no doubt in
great part due not only to the splendour of the ruins, but also to the
strange place where the traveller meets with them — 'in mecUd
solitudine,^ as Animianus so briefly, but so correctly expresses it.'*
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1852.] HAZOR OE KEOAR IDBIH'IFIED WITH EL-HADHAR. 9
The rains of Hadluu*, Mr. Ainsworth goes on to inform us, present
the remains of a palace and temple, '* surpassing, in extent and perfec-
tioD, the arch of Chosroes at Ctesiphon, the residence of the Kings of
Persia, of the Arsaddan dynasty."*
" It consisted,'' he continues, " of a series of vaulted chambers,
or halls, of di£[erent sizes, all opening to the East, or towards the rising
sun and planets, and regularly succeeding one another from north to
south, and was divided into two parts by a wall ; while in front was
another row of edifices, guard-houses, &c. &c., at the southern end of
which was a great hall, with an ornamented vault and tall columns,
similar to what is observed in the chief edifice. The whole of these
buildings were enclosed within a wall about 1360 yards square, which
left a considerable space open in fVont, and this open square was in the
exact centre of the town, which is nearly a perfect circle, surrounded
by a rampart, about 3 miles 180 yards in circumference. Portions of
the curtain, which was 10 feet 3 inches in width, still remain on this
rampart ; and there are also the ruins of thirty-two bastions, placed at
unequal intervals. The space occupied by the town still contains
the ruins of tombs, and other edifices, and is everywhere covered by
mounds of ruined buildings. There is also a spring, and a channel for
water, not straight, but tortuous, which crosses the town ; and there
were apparently four gates, having straight roads leading from them to
the central edifice. Every stone, not only in the chief building, but in
the walls and bastions, and other public monuments, when not defaced
by time, is marked with a character, which is, for the most part, either
a Chaldaic letter or numeral The southerly hall, which is
small, has externally every stone in the arch sculptured in high relief,
with a human bust, some of which have very singular curling bag-
wigs, or, more probably, a peculiar mode of dressing hair, which we
know to be common in Persian sculptures, but those, I believe, only of
a modern date, or more particularly of the time of the Sassanian
dynasty .f The second hall is of greater dimensions, and the figures
on the arch were those of angels, or females, apparently in the air, with
feet crossed, and robes flying loose ; while in the interior, on both sides
of the hall, were three square pilasters, surmounted by full round faces,
in high relief, and executed with considerable fidehty and spirit.
While the style of these sculptures appears to be pretty nearly uniform,
it is impossible not to recognise costumes differing much from one
• TrareU in ApU Minor, &c. vol. ii. pp. 159—162.
t But the bag-wigs, as tliey are here called, have also been found iu the ancient
Assyrian mins near Mosul.
2
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10 THB HAZORS OF SCRIPTUBE. [JaN.
another. Indeed, it requires but little imagination to figure to <Hie-
self in these sculptures the representations of the successiye powers
who ruled the €ity of the Desert. The simple turban-Uke head-
dress represents the Chaldean ; the bearded physic^nomy and scatter*
ed hair, the Persian satrap ; the laurel-leaved band, supporting eagles'
wings, the Roman ; while the binding round the head, like a double
fold of rope, as it is also described by Mr. Ross, appears the original of
the present Arab headniress It may be advanced against this
view of the subject, that if the buildii^ is all of one style, this style
must also be carried through all its details, and that we cannot expect
that any of the decorations can be illustrative of different periods ; but
there is no reason why, if the Parthians or Persians borrowed their
style from the Romans, they still might not have introduced their
own sculpture, as at Persepolis ; or, if the Romans built the great
monument of Al-Hadhar, they might equally have been influenced by
a conquered people to introduce, as well as letters, forms sacred to
their religion, or gratifying to their pride and to their national remi-
niscences. On the face of the wall of this great hall, besides the signs
before mentioned, are two inscriptions, one in Chaldaic, the other in
Arabic, both cut in the stones, but which run along from one to anotiber,
and are evidently more modern than the building The Arabic
inscription was copied and translated by Mr. Rassam ; its purport is as
follows : — ' Mesud Ibn Maudud Ibn Tamanki, the just king, protector
of religion^ and defender of the faith, in humble service, and seeking
mercy from his Lord, caused this to be repaired in the year of the Hejira
586.' (A. D. 1190.) This evidences the fact that Al-Hadhar was
an inhabited town in the time of the Ata Beys of Mosul, for Azzud-din
Mesud Ibn Maudud reigned there from a. d. 1180 to 1193; yet it
is mentioned as deserted at the period of the retreat of Julian's army.
With the assistance of lights, we examined the subterranean rooms con-
nected with the first great hall, but did not find anything of interest.
In the rear of the same great hall is another apartment, surrounded by
a lofty vaulted passage. From its beautifully ornamented doorway,
and complete seclusion from the other parts of the edifice, it may be
conjectured to have been a religious sanctuary. Over the doorway is
the most beautifully sculptured relief in the whole building ; it repre-
sents griffins supporting heads, human and others, and in the centre is
the head of Apollo, or Mithra, supported by eagles, with scrolls in their
mouths ; beneath is some beautifully-sculptured foliage : it is evidently of
Roman execution At the first small hall of the Northern division,
the sculptures over the arch of the entrance are among the most perfect
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1852.] HAZOR OF KEDAR IDENTIFIED WITH EL-HADHAB. II
of the out-oMoor scalptoras. They appear to be alternations of male
and female heads, the first having the peculiar head-dress previously
noticed, while the latter present a remarkable similarity to the present
style of dress in Western Europe. Some of the ladies have dresses like
corsets, terminating in a point. Most of them wear tiaras of jewels ;
some have necklaces ; and the bust is neatly and only partially display-
ed. The hair falls on the shoulders of some in a profusion of ringlets ;
in others is trimmed up in large curls, and again in some puffed out
behind, as was once the case at the French court. On the wall is also
the sculpture of a monstrous animal. The walls were measured, in all
their details of bastions, &c., and were found to be 5460 yards round.
Within the circuit of the walls were many ruins of doubtful
character Some of these buildings are square, and they are of differ-
ent sizes. One, ornamented vnth pillars, had two interior vaulted
chambers, with an outer vaulted hall, and a stair leading to the top, as
if to sleep upon it, as k the custom at Mosul and Baghdad. The open-
ings to let in light are more like loopholes than windows, but this may
have been for coolness, and from want of glass, as is observed in the
cottages of the peasants in the East. A large square building, with one
Tanlted chamber, which appears to have been a small temple, or
mauscdeum, occurs on theNorthem side. It is built upon a handsome
basement, with a projecting but simple cornice. I ought not to omit
to mention that the pear-shaped cavities common in Syria are also met
with amid the ruins here.'"*"
Mr. Ainsworth has collected together some of the most important
historical notices of this long-overlooked city of the desert. He says :
" It is evident, from the character of the greater number of the letters
and signs inscribed on the hewn stones, that the original builders were
Chaldeans or Chaldees It is further evident that in the course
of the changes which befel all the great powers in the East, that this
city was ruled by Armenians, by Persians, and by Romans. According
to Dion Cassius, by Xiphilinus, Trajan, after his descent of the Tigris
and Euphrates, and having proclaimed Parthamaspates king at Gtesi-
phon, entered Arabia, against Atra, but want of water and provisions,
with great heats, drove him away. In the time of Arsaces (Ardawan),
Septimius Severus, who also returned by the Tigris from Ctesiphon,
besieged this city, upon which occasion his machines were burnt by the
* Greek fire,' which appears to have beai the bitumen so abundant in
the neighbourhood. His men also were slain; and for want of provi-
fdons, and after twenty days' siege, the Roman emperor was forced to
* Travels io A&ia Minor, Sec vol. iL pp. 163—17^.
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12 THE HAZOB8 OF SCRIPTUBB. [JaN.
retreat. Thus did this remarkable city, from the peculiarity of ita
position in the midst of a treeless desert, with one well of water and
the braddsh brook of the Tharthar flowing by, superadded to the skill,
science, and determination of its inhabitants, successfully resist the all-
conquering arms of the Romans. This period of the history of Hatra
is succeeded by another interval of impenetrable pbscurity. No sculp-
ture nor monuments of any kind indicate the existence of a Chris-
tian community within its walls, which is the more remarkable as
Nisibin became the seat of a patriarch, and Al Hadhar was in the
centre of a newly-converted and eminently Christian people."*
Dr. Layard, in his great work on " Ninevdi and its Remains," gives
a brief account of a journey which he paid to Hadhar. The following
is the interesting notice which he takes of the locality itself: —
*' A dark thunder cloud rose behind the time-worn ruins of Al-
Hather as we approached them. The sun, still throwing its rays upon
the walls and palace, lighted up the yellow stones until they shined Uke
gold.f Mr. Ross and myself, accompanied by an Arab, urged our
horses onwards, that we might escape the coming storm ; but it burst
upon us in its fury ere we reached the palace. The lightning
played through the vast buildings, the thunder re-echoed through its
deserted halls, and the hail compelled us to rein up our horses, and
turn our backs to the tempest. It was a fit moment to enter such
ruins as these. They rose in solitary grandeur in the midst of a desert,
' in medid solitudine po9ita* as they stood fifteen centuries before,
when described by the Roman historian. On my previous visit the
first view I obtained of Al-Hather was perhaps no less striking
At that time within the walls were the tents of some Shammar Arabs,
but now as we crossed the confused heaps of fragments, forming a circle
round the city, we saw that the place was tenantless. Flocks on a neigh-
bouring rising ground showed, however, that Arabs were not distant.
We pitched our tents in the great court-yard in fVont of the palace, and
near the entrance to the inner inclosure. During the three days we
remained amongst the ruins I had ample time to take accurate mea-
surements, and to make plans of the various buildings still partly
standing within the walls Suffice it to mention that the walls of the
city, flanked by numerous towers, form almost a complete circle, in the
• Travels in Asia Minor, &c, vol. it pp. 172—174.
t The rich golden tint of the lime-iitone, of which the great monuments of Syria
are built, is known to every traveller in that country. The ruins of Al-Hather
have the same bright colour : they look as if they had been steeped in the sun-
beams.
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1852.] HAZOR OF KBDAR IDENTIFIED WITH EL-HADHAR. 13
centre of which rises the palace, an edifice of great magnificence, solidly
constmcted of squared stones, and elaborately sculptured with figures and
ornaments. It dates probably from the reign of one of the Sassanian
kings of Persia^ certainly not prior to the Arsacian dynasty, although
the city itself was, I have little doubt, founded at a very early period.
The marks upon all the stones, which appear to be either a builder's
mgn, or to haye reference to some religious obserrance, are found in
most of the buildings of Sassanian origin in Persia, Babylonia, and
Soaana."'!'
It will be seen from this notice, that Dr. Layard agrees with Mr.
Ainsworth in ascribing a yery high antiquity to this city, though he
conaiders its most important architectural remains to be those of the
Sasanidan Persian dynasty, the epoch of which was from a. d. 202 to
the middle of the 6th century after Christ. Considering how early the
parts of the world, — ^including eyen the deserts, — in which it is situated
were peopled, we haye no difficulty in supposing that it had come to
its maturity long before the days of Jeremiah, about six hundred years
before Christ ; and that as an independent power, or as an ally of some
other state, it had placed, or was about to place, itself in an attitude of
hostility to the Israelites, either in their own land, or by the interruption
of their commerce, — to facilitate which Solomon had built, or rebuilt, the
neighbouring, and, it is to be noticed, analogous, Tadmor in the
wilderness, — or by the distress of their families during the exile, so
as thus to call forth the doom of the inspired prophet. Its situation is
placed in Arabia by Greek and Roman writers, as is well shown
in the subjoined note by Reimar, applied to the notice taken of it by
Dion Cassius.f
• Ltyard'8 Nineyeh, Vol. I. pp. 108—110. Dr. L. says in a note, " Many of
theM marks are given in Mr. Ainsworth's Memoir in the Journal of the Royal
Geographical Society. They are not letters of any one particular alphabet, but
they are signs of all kinds. I discovered similar marks at Bisuton, Isphahan,
Shoster, and other places in Persia where Sassanian buildings appear to have
existed."
t *Er Tffv 'Apo/Sedy ^Ot, k, r. X. Arabiam intelligo quao erat inter Euphratem
et llgrim poeita. Sic infra p. 854. D. Severus in transita per Mesopotamiam
Atra aggreditor, ubi Dio taraen earn nrbem Arabibus tiibult. p. 856. B. D.
StephttnuM Byz. ex Arriani lib. xvii. Parthicorum : "hrpcu itSKis fAtra^
EvfPparcv kcH TtyprfTos. Rorsus autem in Ai/3ayal, ex eodem Arriano : irSkis
2vpias ToWATpaig y€nvia(ov<nf. Sic et Abgarus Edessa regains r&v 'Apafiimv
▼ocatnr. Erat ergo Atra urbs Arabise, qua se ultra Euphratem in Mesopotamiam
porrigebat, quam Arabiam Mesopotamia sea Syiia describit, etiam Xenophon
de Exp. Cyri, p. 255, velut desertam. Hcrodiaruu* in Sevcro III. 0, 6. Atra
reiert ad cvdatftova ^Apa^icuf confundcns, credo, cum "Aypa Arabia; Felicis,
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14 THE HAZORS OF SCRIPTURE. [J AN.
This perfectly agrees with the indications to which we have already
referred connected with Kedar, the position of which is spoken of
either definitely in connection with the Eastern desert, or indefinitely,
as in ''Arahia." It suits, in a striking manner, the exigencies of the
passage in Jeremiah, as far as the pastoral wealth of Hazor in cattle
and camels is concerned ; for even at this day the Nomadic Arahs, parti-
cularly the Hadadin and Shamar, are ahundant in its neighbourhood^
with property of this character, as the nature of the country would
indicate some similar wandering tribes must have probably been from
time immemorial. Situated in a tolerably fertile oasis, and surrounded
by deserts on all sides, its people would of old, comparatively speaking,
** dwell without care," and, in many places, " have neither gates nor
bars," but ** dwell alone." It was within the reach of Nebuchadnezzar,
the appointed instrument of its punishment and its complete destruc-
tion, as far as its people who had called down the divine vengeance
are concerned, which can scarcely be said to be the case with any city
of Kedar, if the country be located, as some would have it, contrary to
all historical and geographical evidence, in the more remote or south-
em districts of Arabia. These circumstances, combined with the iden-
tity of its Arabic name, Hadhar, and the similarity of its Syro-Chal-
daic name, Hatra, with the Scripture Hazor, warrant us, I submit, to
come to the conclusion that the site of the Hazor of Kedar, so long
amissing, has now been found. The desolations of the locality, and its
want of a settled population for many ages, form an ultimate state for
the prophetic epoch corresponding with the language of Jeremiah : —
"And Hazor shall be a dwelling for dragons, and a desolation for ever,
There shall no man abide there, nor any son of man dwell in it."
On the extent of this prophetic epoch it is not necessary to say any-
thing in tibis place.
qnam ^lins Gallus oppagnaverat, teste Strabone XVI. p. 781. Certe, etiam si
ultra Euphratem excurrisset Severus, tamen longe a Felici Arabia aberat, pedem-
que potius in Desertam talisset. Hie apud Dionem scriptum qnidem erat
Totr 'Ayopi/yotf sed librariomm, pnto, confosione, ex Uteris nata. Nam retT
scpissime a librariis ]iermatarl multis exemplis constat, et observarit Salmasius
ad Solin. p. 498. b. F. Dio sane, sen Xiphilinus eandem se dicit urbem designare
quam Sevems frastra oppugnavit, cnjus marl partem diruit Soli dicatam, qua
Atra rectius hifra vocatur.-— Dion. Cass. Hist Roman, p. 1144, not. 190.
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1852-] 15
Art. II. — Observations on the Grammatical Structure of the
Vernacular Languages of India. By the Rev. J. Stevenson,
D. D.
No. 4. — The Pronoun.
Read August 1851.
The pronoun is said to be "a word used in place of a noun"; it may
be questioned, however, whether words can perform their duties by
deputy, and whether pronouns do nothing more than supply the place
of nouns. Without such words, ** designating the persons to whom
and ei whom we speak,** we should very soon become unintelligible ;
and even the rudest barbarians have found such words essential for
their unartificial vehicles of communication.
The pronouns, like the numerals of the vernacular languages of
India, may be pretty definitely distributed, according to their origin,
into the two great classes of Northern and Southern families ; those
of the former being mere corruptions of the Sanscrit, and those of
the latter of a peculiar type, more allied to the Turanian than to the
Sanscrit. The Singhalese is here also to be classed with the Northern
£unily.
The pronoun of the first person singular offers connections which
carry us over all the European and Asiatic continents. The Northern
famfly is connected with the Sanscrit, and the languages of the centre
and North West of Asia, and the whole of Europe. The Southern is
allied to the languages of Arabia and Syria, on the one hand, and on
the other with the Chinese family.
Each of these, again, is divided into two subdivisions, which, however,
seem rather to have been the result of accident than of any deep-seated
anal(^c8. The following tables will illustrate these positions : —
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16
VERNACULAR LANGUAGES OP INDIA.
[Jan.
s
Q
2
Pi
O
H
H
H
O
CO
O
H
o
I
I
II
^1
I?
V
IS
li
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1832.] THE PRONOUN. 17
From this table it appears —
1st, That the ancient aboriginal pronoun of the first person singu-
lar has been lost out of the Northern family nearly altogether, and
(irruptions of the Sanscrit substituted. One soUtary connection be-
tween the ancient Canarese and a Scindian dialect remains to attest any
relation between the Northern and Southern families.
2Qd, That the old pronoun in a modified form still keeps its place
in the dialects of several of the Hill tribes.
3rd, That it has a connection on the one hand with the Syro-
Arabic family, and on the other with the Tibetan and Chinese.
In taking a survey of the other pronouns, similar but less striking
coincidences occur. The Twam of the Sanscrit in the softened forms
of tu, tun, tuen, &c., pervades the Northern family, and the Ni of the
Tamil the Southern and Hill tribes, as the following table will show.
Forms of the singular of the pronoun of the 2nd person : —
Tamil. Malyalim. Teluga. Canarese. Kurgi. Todava. Urdon. Rajamdhali.
Ni Ni Nivu Ninu Nin Ni Nin Nin
In reference to the pronoun of the 3rd person, we may remark that
wah or wo of the Hindi comes nearer the awan of the Tamil, and some
other Southern languages, as well as the (^ ) hu of the Arabic,
the kho of the Tibetan, and the ( j and Jj ) o and ol of the Turkish,
than the (^ :) saA of the Sanscrit.
One of the striking peculiarities of the Indian pronouns is the class
of honorific pronouns, which pervades them all more or less.
In the Southern family, including the Singhalese, and in the
Beng^ and Uriya of the Northern family, we have a regular singular
form, honorific form, and plural form, for the personal pronouns. In
the rest of the Northern family, one word, the J*p of the Hindi, J'pun of
the Marathi, &c. stands for them all. These words, indeed, are trans-
lated sel/y yet they are not used like our word sel/y with other personal
pronouns, but as a substitute for them, and usually to denote honor or
respect, and cannot be translated by any one English word. They are
often used where we would say Four Majesty, Your Honor, &c. The
vrrnr Bkavdn of the Sanscrit is used much in the same way,
but it seems easier to derive the word ('•n^pr) Apan, the original in
the vernaculars, from the Tamil Avan, by the common change of v
into p, than from any other source. This system of using honorific
pronouns connects the Indian languages with the Tibetan, Chinese,
Japanase, Indo-Chinese languages, and the dialects of the Central
Indian Hill tribes, especially of the Sontab.
3
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18 VERNACULAR LANGUAGES OF INDIA. [Jan.
There is a most singular idiom mentioned in the Tamil, Malay^lim,
Telugu, MadLthi, and Gujardthi grammars, as pervading all those
languages, and I strongly suspect not confined to them. It is a double
pronoun, of the first person plural, the one form taking in the whole of
the persons present, and the other only one party, if there he more
parties than one. In these tongues the common plural is used to
designate the plurality of a party, and the honorific pronoun to include
the whole assembly. Thus, the Tamil Ndnggal means we of the one
party as opposed to you of the other, while the honorific Ndm takes in
all parties present. In the Gujarathi, Home is we of the one party, and
Apane is we including the whole company ; and so of the others above
mentioned. A rather laughable instance of the danger of neglecting
this distinction, (a mistake so frequently made by foreigners,) I once
witnessed in a European, who was addressing a company of natives in
their own language. He, while uttering some truths which he meant
to apply to mankind in general, used the wrong we, A native
immediately retorted, " True, that is your character ; but ours is very
different." This characteristic, be it noticed, we have traced by these
five languages in one continuous line from Cape Comorin to the Indus ;
and it is not likely such a singular idiom could have got into all these
tongues by accident, or have been borrowed from one by the others in
modem times ; and it is not a Sanscrit idiom.
Another singular coincidence between the Tamil and Gujarathi
exists in the use of the particle A' (^T) as a demonstrative pronoun.
This particle is also used in the same sense in some other of the
Southern tongues, and connected with it in other Northern languages,
we may reckon the Mardthi Hd, hi, hen ; the Singhalese and
Bengdli E ; the Sdndian He ; the Panjabi Eh, and even the Hindos-
tani Yih.
In the Northern family, relative pronouns generally follow the rule
of the Sanscrit, and are but corruptions of the Sanscrit (^:) YaA.
This pronoun would more accurately be translated by whoever, or in
Latin by quieunque, than by who and quiy or in other connections by
what. In the Southern tongues, again, there is no relative, and its
want is usually made up by the participial termination. Even in the
Northern family this is allowable ; and, moreover, the relative is rarely
supplied in familiar discourse, while the demonstrative pronoun, which
is sometimes called a co-relative, must never be omitted, whetiber the
relative be used or not. A common Hindu would rather say Chori
kiyi wuhi hat, than Jo chori, &c. although the latter be the form
generally used in books, and by the learned. No one, however, would
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1862.]
THE PRONOUN.
19
nse such a phrase as the following : '* The man who was here yesterday
is come again to^y." The demonstrative pronoun ke^ which we omit
before *' is come/' is essential to a Hindu ; while the who, which is
essential to us, is indifferent to him.
The cases of pronouns are formed much in the same way as those of
nouns, as will be seen from the example we give below of the declension
of the pronoun of the second person. There is, however, one striking
connection between the Northern and Southern families, which comes
out chiefly in the pronouns. It is the relation that subsists between
the re of the genitive in the Hindi and several of the other languages,
and rhe in the Maly&lim. This latter is evidently the original, as the
harsh rh used does not belong to the Sanscrit, or to any of the Northern
tongues. The Northern form, then, is evidently a softening of the
original Southern syllable. It may be worth while, also, in passing, to
notice the coincidences pointed out before between the termination of
the dative in so many of the Southern and Northern famihes, and those
of the accusative in a few of them ; all of which are entirely independent
of any Sanscrit influence.
I think, then, we have traced in several instances a thread of con-
nection, though often but a slender one, running through the Northern
and Southern families, and showing the influence on all, more or less,
of an ancient aboriginal tongue, entirely different from the language of
the Brahmans.
As illustrations of the subject in hand, the two following tables, the
former showing the inflexions of the pronoun of the second person in
some of the hill-tribe dialects, and the second the same in the languages
of the plains, will be found worthy of attention. The two first are
from Hodgson's papers, and the three last from Robinson's, in the
Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
Pronoun of the 2nd Person in the Dialects of the
Hill-Tribes.
SlNQULAR.
Nmn.
Gen,
Dat,
Ace.
Ins.
Loc.
Bodo
Nang
Nang-ni
-no
-kho
-Jang
-now
Dbimal
N&
Ndng-ko
NeDg
Neng
Nang-dong
Ndng-to
Garo
N44
Nangni
-na
-kho
-chl
-o
Kdchdri
Nang
-nl
-no
-kho
-Jang
-nido
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1852.] 21
Art. III. — Memoir on the Geology of the South-East Coast of
Arabia. By H. J. Carter, Esq., Bombay Medical Service,
formerly Surgeon of the H. C. Surveying Brig " Palinurus."
Presented October 1851.
The matter contained in this " Memoir" was chiefly collected during
the late Surveys of the South-east Coast of Arahia, by Captain Sanders*
and Lient. Grieve, I. N.; much has been contributed by Lieut. Grieve,
who latterly had sole charge of the Survey, through specimens and in-
formation of parts which I had not an opportunity of examining ; and
the geology of the Curiyah Muriyah Islands is extracted from the late
Dr. Hulton*s interesting account of them, taken during the time they
were surveyed by Capt. Haines, I. N., now Political Agent at Aden.
Previous to entering on the subject of this " Memoir," I shall pre-
mise a few general remarks on the ontline of the coasts about to come
before us more in detail : this will be followed by a running geological
description of them, made more particular where they were actually
examined ; and, finally, a short review of all the facts which have been
brought forward.
Although I have only mentioned the South-east Coast of Arabia, I
shall b^n from the Straits of the Persian Gulf, follow the South-eas-
tern Coast and its islands to the Straits of Bab el Mandeb, and then^
croBsingover to Berbera, pursue the African Coast from this point, with
its islands, to Socotra. I have not much to offer of the former or lat-
ter coasts, but what little I have will, I think, be found interesting, in
connection with the South-east Coast of Arabia.
Begmning, then, from Ras Mass&ndftm, which is the name of the
western promontory of the Straits of the Persian Gulf: the mountains
which form this have been fretted into innumerable irregularities, and
rapidly rise from 400 feet, which is the height of the small island call-*
ed Mftss&nd&m, at the extremity of the Cape, to 2000, then 3000, and
* It is bat dae to state, to the memory of this able surveyor and excellent officer,
who died at sea near Malta on the 14th August last, that I received the greatest
kindness from him daring the time I had the good fortune to be under his command.
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22 GEOLOGY OF THE SOUTH-EAST COAST OF ARABIA. [JaK,
subsequently, as they progress in a semi-circular direction, south-east-
ward, to 6000 feet above the level of the sea, which they are at a point
some miles inland opposite M&skat ; leaving in their course a compara-
tively flat country between their lower hills and the sea, which is called
Bat^n^. This flat country extends to within fourteen miles of M^kat,
after which the land, which is raised up into a confusion of ridges and
hills, with scarped precipices, presents an irregular sea-cliff* on to the
neighbourhood of the Devil's Grap ; and inland a succession of eleva-
tions, which end in the ridge just mentioned. This ridge, which ia
about forty miles from the sea opposite M^kat, is, as before stated,
about 6000 feet high, and goes by the name of Jibal Filllah. Proceed-
ing southwards, it gradually approaches the coast, and terminates at the
Devil's Gap, of which it forms the northern boundary : it b there 6228
feet high.* The Devil's Gap is the outlet of a great valley, which
ramifies up among the mountains of Oman. From its southern boundary
another ridge arises, which attains a height of 4400 feetf within eight
miles of the sea, and descends to the latter in two or three precipitous
cliff's. This ridge is continued on south-eastwards, to terminate in
Jibal Jallan, which is about 3900 feet high,^ and about twenty miles
inland from the south-eastern coast : it is the southern extremity of
the great mountainous chain of Eastern Arabia. From its eastern side
a group of mountains extend towards Ras el Hftd, or the eastern extre-
mity of Arabia, to which we shall come presently, and its subsidence
in the other directions will be mentioned by-and-bye.
The eastern extremity of Arabia, commonly called Ras el Had, is
truncated, and presents a coast facing due east, about twenty miles in.
extent. This is accompanied by a sea-cliff about one hundred feet
high, which is about the general level of the land here.
Turning this extremity to the south-west, we get no more sea^liff for
a great distance, and after passing opposite the termination of the great
chain to which I have alluded, the land soon subsides to a general level
of from 50 to 100 feet above that of the sea, without any mountains
interiorly, or towards the south-west, but presenting a continuity of
low undulating hills, of a sandy-looking aspect, and a light brown colour,
as far as the eye can reach. This continues on to opposite the island of
Masira, where the mainland sinks to the level of the sea, the only
place on the coast where this occurs unbacked by mountains.
The island of Masira, which is opposite this port, is rocky and
mountainous, and in its highest part not more than 600 feet above the
level of the sea.
• Chart; Lieut. Grieve. t Idem. t Idem.
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1852.] FORM OF THE LAND. 23
After Masira, the mainland begins to rise again, and a seaKiliff first
commences at a Cape called Ras K^bret, in 19° 57' N.lat. and 57^ 48'
E. long. The land, however, on the western side of the bay, called
Ghobat H^hish, which is a little to the north of Ras K&bret, is 80 feet
aboTC the sea,* and goes on increasing in height, until it attains an
altitude of 480 fectf at Ras Markas, which is close to Ras Jazirah.
On account of the coast here running north and south for 100 miles,
and therefore cutting its general direction, which is N. E. and S. W.,
at an angle of 4.5°, we not only see that the land rises towards the S* W.,
but that it rises also towards the south.
From Ras J^ir&h onwards, the coast gradually increases, in height
to 800 feet, which it is about the centre of Curiyah Muriyah Bay ;
and in its first part is, from its height and whiteness, very similar to
the cUffs between the North Foreland and Beachy Head. But as we
approach the south-western horn of Curiyah Muriyah Bay, its
outline and horizontality become dbturbed, and suddenly it attains a
height of 4000 feet, which it preserves, more or less, on to the Yaifai
mountains, at the Straits of Bab el Mandeb.
Opposite Curiyah Muriyah Bay are five small islands, which in point
of size are hardly more than the tops of so many mountains. They
are about twenty miles off shore, and the largest and highest, which is
H&lUlniyah, has a point 1645 feet above the level of the sea. There
are also two or three still smaller opposite Hisn Gborab, about sixty
miles south-west of Makalla.
The chief features of the land between Curiyah Muriyah Bay and
the Straits of Bab el Mandeb are, that here and there it is more or less
tabular in its outhne ; more or less broken into mountainous peaks ;
more or less interrupted by ravines ; five times by great valleys ; and
once (in the Bay of £1 K^uim&r) by an intervening tract of low
land forty to fifty miles in breadth, which, running S. W. and N. E.,
seems to cause a natural division into two parts of the mountainous
ridges of which this elevated tract is composed. Throughout, this
high land is more or less scarped upon the sea or the maritime plain,
which latter is seldom more than ten miles in breadth.
Its color is for the most part white, particularly where it is weather-
worn, and here and there black or brown, where it is confronted by, or
mixed with, rocks of an igneous origin.
Having thus given a brief outline of a part of the North-east and
the South-east Coasts of Arabia, let us now proceed to the composition
of their rocks.
• Lieut. Grieve. t Idem.
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24 GEOLOGY OF THE SOUTH-EAST COAST OF ARABIA. [JaN.
Returning to Ras ^fRs8ilndftm, which, as before stated, is the wes-
tern promontory of the Straits of the Persian Gulf, and the northern
extremity of the chain of mountains which extends along the North-
eastern Coast of Arabia from the Cape just mentioned to the neighbour-
hood of Ras el Ilild, we find this promontory, taken generally, to be
mountainous, and fretted out into innumerable irregularities, which
have given rise to the formation of as many coves, creeks, inlets, islands,
blets, and rocks. Ras M^sskndllm, the extremity of an island by the
same name, is 400 feet high, and the next portion of the Cape is about
1500 feet, and but a few miles further inland these mountains rise to
3000 feet. At first sight they no doubt appear like black basalt, from
their color, and hence have been described as such by Captains Well-
sted and Whitelock, and have always been considered igneous rocks.
Pliny calb them the Eblaetian mountains, probably from the Arabic
iblis, the devil ; but latterly this promontory and its islands have been
inspected by Lieut. Constable, of the Indian Navy, who has kindly-
shown me rock specimens from them, which prove that they are all com-
posed, not of black basalt, as before suspected, but of jet black and dark
black grey limestone, interstratified and veined with white and pinkish
brown calc-spar. The jet black limestone is of a fine compact structure,
and breaks with a smooth conchoidal fracture, like lithographic lime-
stone, but the lighter colored varieties are more coarse, and break with
a rough fracture. The calc-spar, which is in strata of eight to ten
feet thick, is columnar, or vertical, in its crystallization, and traversed
horizontally by wavy lines, like that from Gibraltar : some of it is of a
dazzling whiteness, and of a massive saccharoid crystalline structure. I
was informed by Lieut. Constable that the whole of these mountains here
are of a similar composition, and that they are horizontally stratified,
the strata in some places being thinner and more schistose than in others.
Proceeding southwards, this chain of mountains, as I have already
stated, curves inland, and leaves a low country in front of it, called
Bat^n^ which is without sea-cliif, on to a point fourteen miles north
of M^kat. It is from this point that my own observations commence.
To the north of it, as far as the eye can reach from an elevation of 600
feet, nothing is seen but a low shore, shelving up very gradually to the
mountains inland, each shelf presenting a scarped surface, possessing
a chalky appearance, which gives a general whiteness to the whole
district, and from which I inferred that it was but a continuation of
the same limestone formation as that of the sea-cliff on which I was
standing when I made these remarks.
This limestone formation, as it occurs in the vicinity of M^kat, I
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1852.] LIM£8T0NE FORMATION AT MA8KAT. 26
iuve already described in our Journal ;* but for the sake of not breaking
the continuity of the present description^ I will repeat a para^ph or two
of it here, leaving the reader to go to the paper itself for farther in-
formation on the subject, which it would be as well that he should do
at once, if possible, as he will there find, in the geolc^cal description of
the neighbourhood of M&skat, an account of the limestone formation in
this locality, and a description of the different igneous rocks which
have come to the earth's surface in this part of Arabia, all more or less
^r|Hcal of what we shall hereafter frequently meet with on the south-
eastern coast.
In summing up the few observations contained in the paper to
which I have alluded, it is stated, p. 125,
** That the limestone formation, limiting the group of igneous rocks
at Mitokat, both north and south, commences (from below upwards)
with a deposit of the same kind of pebbles (viz. coarse and fine-grained
diorites, basalts, petrosilex and quartzites), lying in both places on
the fundamental rock of the locality ; passing into a sandy grit ;
then into a silico-calcareous deposit ; then presenting the remains of
marine animals, (small ostreiform Gryphsea,) these increasing in num-
ber with the calcareous material (chiefly consisting of minute and small
Fcnraminifera) ; the increasing purity of the limestone, interrupted in
each instance by a pink-colored deposit, that at Ras Ghissa (south of
M&ikat) chiefly consisting of the remains of small Foraminifera, and
that of the formation at Darzit (north of M^kat) of a thin series of
gypseous, marly, and arenaceous strata ; then a compact yellowish or
£iwn-colored limestone (presenting a variety of shells and corals), ter-
TniiMiring the series at both places, and almost entirely composed of the
accumulated remains of polythalamous animals.''
The following are the fossOs which I found in this formation, and
which I shall insert here, as they are not mentioned in the paper to
which I have referred :—
FORAMINIFERA.
Nummularia. — N. obtusa. Sow. (PI. xidv. fig. 14, Grant's Geol.
Cutch. Geol. Trans. Vol. VI. 4to.) Loc. M^kat. Oba.— The spe-
cimen containing these nummulites was brought to me by the late Capt.
Newbold, who saw a bed of them in the limestone formation at M^kat.
I cannot say from what part of the series it came, but the fact is suffi-
cient to prove that this formation, if not the whole, is a part of the
•' Nammulitic Series*'*
• Vol. III. No. xiU. p. 118.
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26 GEOLOGY OF THB SOUTH-BAST COAST OF ABABIA. [J AN.
Opercalina, d'Orb. — Species T Test white, porcdainic, iub-circQUur,
equilateral. The largest about H inch in diameter. Consistiiig of three
whorls, each whorl thickened on the external edge ; spire irregular,
chambers numerous, increasing regularly from a central cell prelecting
on both sides ; the divisions of the chambers distinct externally. Loe.
M&skat. Ob9. — ^This species abounds in the siUco-calcareous sandy
part of the formation of M&skat, just before the latter passes into com-
pact timestone. It is now, even, common on the South-east Coast of
Arabia, fmd exists in a large bed, mixed with fine sand, in twenty-five
fathoms of water, opposite the village of Takah. Other fosnlixed
species of Opereulina oecur with it at M^kat, even so low down as the
grit where the first organic remains begin to appear.
£CHINODERMATA«
Spatangus. — Species? Subovate. Length l-iV inch, breadth I^V
inch, thickness ^ inch. Notched anteriorly, truncated and overhanging
posteriorly, with the vent in the upper part, from which a ridge extends
on to the genital pores. Ambulacra four, sunk in grooves, slightly
truncated, the two posterior shorter than the two anterior ones. Base
sub-carinated in the centre, mouth bilabiate, near the margin, Loe.
M&skat. Obe. — From the pink stratum which abounds with the Oper-
eulina abore mentioned.
ZOOPHYTA.
Caryophillia. — C. eomigera? Lam. Loe. Milskat. Ohe. — This
species is very like C. AnthophyUum, (Lam. et Ellis, Tab. 29,) but has
rounded extremities and contracted stellce at the ends of them.
Agarica, Meandrina, Astrea, and Scyphia (Goldf.).
CONCHIFBRA.
Gryphna. — Species? (Cast of lower valve, imperfect.) Length 1 TV-
inch, breadth 1-,^ inch- Deeply carinated ; irregular, wavy, or lobed
towards the circumference, and expanded, particularly towards the right
side. Loe. Lower sandy part of aqueous strata, M^kat.
2d Species ? (Lower valve, incomplete.) Length ItV hich,
breadth f inch. Deeply carinated, expanded, plane towards the circum-
ference ; smooth externally, presenting concentric striee ; undnated, Uke
O. Uncinata Desh. (Coq. For. Envir. de Paris, Tome 1, Tab. 18,
Figs. 7 — 11.) Loe. M&skat. Obs. — ^This and the foregoing species
abound together, and are more or less ostreiform.
Gasteropoda.
Natica. — Species? (Cast, incomplete.) About 2 inches long. First
and second whorls depressed. Loe. M&skat. Obs. — Imbedded in a
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1852.] IGNEOUS ROOKS AT MASKAT. 27
yeHow calctreooB stratum, or gramilar deposit, coDsisting of minate
Fonuniiufer**
The Umestone fbrming tbe wp/per part of this fonnation, north of
Hitekat, 18 much more pure and compact than any that I arrived at in
tracmg the strata from below upwards on the south side of this town ;
and, from the distance of the top of the formation from the fundamental
rode in the former situation being much greater than in the latter, I
am indined to think that the section I took on the south side of
Mtekat was incomplete wad that the upper compact strata had there
disappeared.
From the sandy nature of the deposits in which tbe small Foramini-
fera abound in this formatkm, and the sandy base of the genuine
specin^n of nummulitic rock which the late Captain Newbold found at
Mftskat, as wdl as fircmi the loose silico-calcareous or calcareous sand in
which an the nummuHtes I have ever seen, from Egypt, Sindh, and
Cutcfa, have been imbedded, I am of opinion that this is the part of
the Nummufitic Series in whidi their remains are to be sought, and not
so much in the compact and purer limestone above, where I had
ahvays fancied they were to be found ; and when, in connection with
thisi, I consider that the bed of Operculina alreaify mentioned, opposite
Takah, which contains the largest living specimens of Foraminifera I
have met with, is mixed with fine sand, and that I have always
observed their tests to be more numerous in sandy bottoms than in
more subtle and plastic deposits, I am not so surprised that these delicate
shells should not occur in the finer material of which the compact
limestone of the Nummulitic Series is more or less composed, and
where I had expected most to find them.
Passing on from the commencement of the sea-cliff at the end of
the plain o( Bati&o^ to the town of Mfiskat, we soon step from the
fimestone formation, here aB at once raised to 600 feet above the
sea, on to the bed of igneous rooks, in the midst of which Mfiskat is
aifcuated.
These are spread over an area of about ten miles long, and three
miks broad, and are chiefly composed of serpentine, which is limited
OD the coast, and inland by a yellow-colored limestone formation, (the
one just mentkmed). Their ridges and summits are sharp and peaked,
and sddom exceed 400 feet in height, and their sides and valleys soil-
less and barren.
" The serpentine is for the most part of a dark brown colour, and
fnterspeiaed with small laminated crystals of diallage ckatoyante.
When taken from a depth, it is toug^, and not easily broken ; but on
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28 GEOLOGY OP THE SOUTH-EAST COAST OP ARABIA. [JaN.
the surface cnimbles and breaks into rectangnlar fragments, the sides
of which are more or less coated with green and variegated serpentine,
steatite, or calcareoos spar. In some parts it is of a light brown color,
and earthy, while in others it is darker, more compact, and more waxy
or crystalline. It is exactly the same as that of the Lizard Point, in
Cornwall."
Here I must correct a misapplication of terms ; the ^' serpentine,'*
following Brongniart's ** Classification et Caractferes Min^ralogiques
des Roches,"* should have been termed" euphotide." It presents the
same varieties as that of St. Kevem, and the Lizard, in Cornwall, viz.
Euphodde felspathique, and E. ophiteux (Bt.), that is, a rock composed
of compact felspar, with isolated crystals of diallage, more or less ser-
pentiniferous, just as diorite (Bt.), with which we shall presently see
it is connected, is composed of two ingredients, viz. felspar and horn-
blende.
The northern extremity of these igneous rocks is composed of diorite,
and the Umestone formation rests upon it, while between the diorite
and the euphotide is a bed of green steatitic clay, out of which oil jars,
water jars, &c, are manufactured.
Passing over these igneous rocks to the limestone cape called Bas
Ghissa, which limits them to the south of Mfiskat, we follow the coast
from this point on to the cape called Basel H&d, at the eastern
extremity of Arabia, and of this part I know nothing further than
what I have frequently seen from the sea, and what Lieut. Grieve,
who surveyed it, has kindly communicated to me.
From Has Ghissa the limestone formation is continued on for thirty
or more miles in an extremely broken condition, being raised in ridges one
after another, having their white fractured surfaces towards the north-
east, and their original surfaces sloping in the opposite direction ; con-
sequently the sea-cliff which faces them is also extremely irregular.
After the distance mentioned, the formation loses its ridge-like character,
and passes into round and isolated hills, and the great inland ridge ap-
proaches the sea to form the northern boundary of the Devil's Gap, which,
as before stated, is 6223 feet above its level. There is here a break,
and no cliff for a few miles, until the ridge, which forms the oppo-
site or southern boundary of the opening of the valley, commences, and
this, attaining a height of 4400 feet not above eight miles from the sea,
presents, as may be conceived, an immense mural surface in this
direction.
From the summit of the ridge here» wfaidi is called Jibal Jabftr, tilie
* Sm Diet dM Sdencet NatureUet, Art '* Bocbes*"
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1852.] COAST BETWEEN MA8KAT AND RA8BLHAD. 29
land descends to the sea in two or three gigantic clifib, and is thus
scarped the whole way to the town of Soor, where the coast Mne,
turning still more to the east, leares the scarped ridge to pursue its
course southwards, and terminate in the mountains of Jallan. Lieut.
Griere stetes (Priv. MS.) that " the Jibal Beni Jabftr rise ahruptly
from the sea to a height of about 3000 feet,*' near a deep narrow raUey
called Wadi Shah, about thirty miles N. W. by W. of RaselHftd.
Specimens from this valley show that this mountainous ridge is com-
posed of limestone, like that of the other parts of the coast. Its
scarped bared surface presents a horizontal stratification, and a genial
hg^t brick-red color, which is the prevailing tint of the limestone
formation throughout the whole coast of Southern Arabia, and arises
from the presence of more or less red argillaceous earth, which is
found in the cavities of the rock, and about the organic remains.
When the rock weathers down to these cavities, the earth becomes
liberated, and, spreading over the white limestone, gives it the tint
mentioned. In some parts it has entered into the composition of the
rock itself, which then is of a cream color. Opposite the scarped
Bur&ce of Jibal Jab^ there are no soundings half a mile off shore, and
tills is invariably the case on this and the south-eastern coast, where
tiie land rises abruptly from the sea. Wherever it is highest the sound-
ings are deepest, and vice versd.
From the town of Soor to Ras el Hftd, the coast presents a sea-cliff
of about 70 feet high, with land rising in shore to 200 feet, but sinking
gradually towards the eastward to the level of the sea, which it attains
at Ras el Hftd ; also several great irregularities along the coast, which
have evidently been occasioned by subterraneous influence.
Lieutenant Grieve mentions a singular pit on the top of the cliffs two
miles east of Soor, which is 80 yards in diameter, and 60 feet deep ;
and it is only a few months since that an earthquake took place near
Soor, which shook down several houses there. After this pit, come two
other similar, but much more extensive depressions, viz. the Khors or
Lagoons of J&ramah and H&jar. The former, entering by a narrow
channel from the sea, is three miles long and two broad, with sides of
50 to 70 feet high^ and water ten fathoms deep, making in all a depth
of liO to 130 feet below the level of the surrounding land. Khor
Hftjar, which follows this, is not m<Nre than half the size, and much
more shallow, but of the same kind of depresdon.
Bodc-specimens from the top of the cliffs about two miles from Soor,
near the great pit, which were kindly sent me by Lieutenant Grieve,
allow that they are composad of a fine white saccharoid limestone, which
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30 GEOLOGY OF THE SOUTH-EAST CfOAST OP ARABIA. [JaK.
has undergone mhmte fracture, and has had its fissures filled up again
b J a red colored cement, probably of die same composition as the
parent rock. Such a brecciated state is frequently seen on the south-
eastern coast, and in all probability has been caused by the shock of
some subterraneous explosion or upheaval. At the same time, I have
noticed that such rodcs are more or less roagnesian : the one just men-
tioned, on a rough analysis, yields about 12.18 per cent, of magnesia,
and hardly efienresces at all with adds before it is pulyerized. Its Sp. Gr.
is 2.72. The specimens from the lower strata of die same cliffs show
that they have not been fractured in the same manner, though of the
same composition and structure. I think I have also noticed on this
coast that the upper strata are those which are most comminutely frac*
tured, while the lower ones are less so, or have escaped it altogether.
The rock-specimens from the sides of ELhor J&ramah are of a coarser
structure ; and when we arrive at Khor H^ar, where the cli£& sink to
the level of the sea, and are lost under the sand of the plain, there we
find them composed of a limestcme conglomerate, consisting of pebbles
of the older formations, and shells, cemented together l^ a red cal-
careous sand, in which diere are minute particles of ingneous rocks.
In some parts, this cement exists as a rock by itself, withovt die grosser
portions, and appears to belong to a loose miliohtic formation, which
we shall find by-and-bye to prevail on the south-eastern coast
At Ras el H&d, which is a sandy cape, we have a plain of two or
three miles square, connected on its western side with the Khor last
mentioned, and on its eastern side forming the northern point of that
short piece of coast which, running north and south for twenty miles,
terminates the eastern extremity of Arabia. This short eastern face pre-
sents a uniform limestone cliff 1 00 feet high, and of a light yellowish color,
with horixontal strata. Specimens from it show that it is eomposed
above of a compact yellow limestone, breaking with a sub-conchoidal,.
uneven fracture, almost identical with that from the ctiffs of Kurachi
opposite ; also of strata of the same kind of materud and structure, con-
taining abundance of small Foranunifera ; and a stratum of whitish
saccharoid limestone, like that mentioned at the base of the cliffs two
miles east of Soor; while another specimen from these chfis shows that
there is a stratum of the kind last alluded to, which contains a conn-
derable quantity of hyaline quartz, in minute grains, indeed an arenas
ceous limestone ; it resembles the fine silico-calcareous strata of die
limestone formation at Mftskat.
Turning Ras el Khubba, which is the south point of this short piece
of coast, we come upon the South-east Coast of Arabia, and lose all i
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1852.] FROM BASEL HAD TO LA8KHARA. 31
diff l<Mr upwards of 180 miles. The coast now generaUy runs N. E.
and S. W., and presents nodiing bat a sandy shore for the distance
I have m^itioiied, and which I will now more particularly describe.
Hie frst thing worthy of notice on proceeding along this coast is a
little cmpe called Bas Raes» which consists of a few hillocks about
twelve feet high ; this is about three miles from Ras el Khubba. These
biDoeksare composed of a recent conglomerate, the grosser parts of
whidi are held togedier by a dirty4ooking silico-calcareons sea-sand>
and though exceedingly insignificant in i^pearance, nevertheless they
are interesting in a geological point of view, inasmuch as they
coataio pebbles of all the rocks probably in the neighbourhood. These
pebbles omisist of diorites, basalt, quartaite, jasper, and portions of the
older limestone formation, all smoothly rounded by attrition.
After leaviiig this cape, and passing along the coast, we arrive
q>pottte the mountains of Jallan, which I have idready stated to be
the termination southward of the great chain on this side of Arabia.
They are about twenty miles inland from the south-east coast, and the
hig^iest is about 3900 feet above the sea. On every side, viz. towards
fiaselHftdon the east, and the desert of Akhaf on the west, as wdl as
towards the south-eastern coast, they, like other mountainous termina-
^am, subside more or less gradually, and more or less irregularly, to
the general level of the surrounding country. This, towards Basel
H^ or the eastern extremity of Arabia, is in cmn-shaped mountains*
whidi offer beautiful scarps for the geologist, and are easy of access ;
towards the south, in low conical or dome-shaped hills of a brown sandy
aq>ect, mixed with dark peaks, probably of igneous matter, such as
we shall see a little further on ; while towards the west the subsidence
is mora gradual and regular, to hills of about 200 feet high* Mr. Col^
of the Indian Navy, who travelled from Laskhara, a town on the coast
just here, to Mfiskat, along the western side of these mountains, kindly
lent me specimens from the hills near Blidiyah, which town is in the
same parallel of latitude as the highest of the Jallan mountains. These
spedmens show that the same kind of black limestone exists there as
that which Lieut. Constable showed me from Bas MftssJindftm ; also
pieces of fine compact gr^ lithographic limestone ; and of fine argilla*
ceous slate, of Uue and black colors. Hence we may infer that the
bhu^k limestone forms part of the mountains of Oman, both north and
south, hot whether continuous or isolated remains for future observa-
tion to determine.
Some distance afk^ the subsidence of the mountainous chain has
tAen plaec towards the eastern extremity of Arabia, and the bnd in
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32 GEOLOGY OF THE SOUTH-EAST COAST OF ARABIA. [J AN.
this direction has assumed a general level of from one to two hundred
feet ahove the sea, two mountains, close together, and of equal height,
being about 855 feet above the plain, make their appearance. These, which
are called Jibal S&ffao, are close to the cliff of the eastern extremity of
Arabia, and of course isolated for some distance from any other moun-
tains. They are, tkerofore, very remarkable, from their situation, and
being coin-shaped, presenting their fractured surfaces towards the west ;
they dso form a ^ne section, which is easily attainable, so far as it
goes, of the strata at this point; the sea-cliff, as I have before stated,
beiag only 100 feet high.
From Ras Rues onward we have no cliff, and nothing on the land
remarkable, beyond the low, brown, sandy-looking hills, and isolated
dark peaks, dispersed here and there among them, until we arrive at a
place called Ras Jibsh, which only differs from the rest of the coast
in presenting a few of these dark peaks, which are arranged in a ridge-
like formabo«t 100 feet high, made more evident by their being a little
above the surrounding country. There are now no longer any
mountains to be seen inland, and nothing more than a monotonous
extent of brown sandy-looldng mounds, from 50 to 100 feet above the
level of the sea, as far as the eye can reach in every direction.
The dark igneous peaks which form the cape called Ras Jibsh are
probably only a repetition of what we have before seen among the
aandy hills, and they are composed of euphotide and diorite, as those at
MiUkat. The diorite, however, presents larger crystals of hornblende^
which occurs here in a diversity of forms : sometimes it seems replaced
by the diallage of the dark euphotide, or by bronzite or hypersthene ;
while the felspar sometimes passes into labradorite, of a blueish grey
color, and presenting minute parallel lines or striee, which traverse the
plane of cleavage. One part of this ridge is composed of a very marked
rock, consisting of moderately-sized crystals of black hornblende and
grey felspar, in equal proportions, among which is disseminated a small
quantity of a beautiful grass-green hornblende : it is not improbable
that the black hornblende itself is but a deeper tint of this color.
There is also, close to these igneous rocks, but much lower than the
tops of them, a mound of dull red jasper, undergoing fragmental
disintegration : this is probably a chertified condition of some aqueous
strata, which have been brought up with the igneous rocks.
The immediate neighbourhood consists of the hills I have mentioned,
probably limestone, more or less obscured by drifi-sand.
Inside the ridge of rocks is a small bay, which now only offers a safe
landing for boats, but which is said to have formerly extended a long
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1852.] RAS JIBSH TO RAS ABU A8HRIN. 33
waj further inland behind the ridge mentioned, where there still exists
Ji dry lagoonal depression, about two miles square, and 12 feet
abore the level of the sea. There is also, on the inner side of the
rid^ a modem deposit, the upper margin of which is between 20 and
30 feet above the level of the sea. I have already mentioned one at
RaselH&d, which is raised at least 12 feet above the level of the
sea, also a littoral conglomerate at Ras Rues, the upper part of which
is about 12 feet above the sea; and here we have a similar deposit,
raised 30 feet above it. This Jcind of formation we shall find frequent-
ly on this coast.
From Ras Jibsh south-westwards, the coast presents a still more
desolate aspect, if possible, than it did to the eastward of this cape : not a
dark mound now appears to vary the color of the land, close to the sea,
or as far as the eye can reach interiorly ; but as we approach Ras Abu
Ashrin, which is in 20° 58' N. lat., and 58° 44' E. long., the light
brown color of the land ceases, and is succeeded by a tract of white
dome-Bhi^>ed sand-hills, from one to two hundred feet above the level of
the sea. These extend inland as far as the eye can reach, and are
scarped upon the sea, "where their structure is satisfactorily seen.
None of these scarps, which correspond to the hills forming part of
the Une of coast, are I think more than a hundred feet high. The
formation consists of a sandy, granular rock, which, when minutely
examined, is found to be chiefly composed of calcareous grains, with a
small quantity of hyaline quartz, and dark particles, probably hornblende,
from the igneous rocks. The latter character is deserving of notice,
becanse, as no dark particles of this kind appear in the older limestone,
they serve as a distinguishing mark for this formation when it approaches
the latter in appearance. So uniform is it in its granular structure that
there is hardly a fossil larger than the grains of which it is composed to be
seen throughout the whole deposit. It is more or less stratified, and,
though loose in structure, is sufficiently compact to form a good build-
ing stone. The thickness of this formation cannot be further ascer-
tained than that which can be learnt from its scarped parts, which at the
utmost do not exceed 1 00 feet. It is so loose on the surface that the
tipper and exposed part has become disintegrated for some depth, and,
assisted by irregular upheavals, the original formation has probably
thus been transformed into the dome-shaped mounds which it now
presents. In some parts the sand is so subtle that it yields to the
lightest weight, while in others it is so caked that it will bear that of a
man. At a little distance it has the appearance of mounds of snow.
Can these be the " winding sands'* which are alluded to in the Khorau
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34 GEOLOGY OF THE SOUTH EAST-COAST OF ARABIA. [JaN.
among which the tribe of Ad are said to have perished ? There can
be no donbt that they form the south-eastern part of the Desert of
Akhaf, and not far from the borders of it where this tribe is said to have
settled ; and could the golf of sand at the western extremity of this
desert, in which Baron Wrede found a plummet sink to the length of
the line attached to it, viz. 360 feet, be the disintegrated sand of this
formation, filling some Tolcanic depression there ? There is no doubt that
this deposit forms the lowest part of the seaward boundary of the Desert
of Akhaf, and it may do so throughout ; and that the desert itself extends
at first a little inland, and then to the westward, to within 300 miles of the
Red Sea, and about 150 miles from the south-eastern coast, where the
*' Sand-gulf mentioned is said to be situated. The desert itself is also said
to be impassable, and nothing would render it more so than an extension
of such sand-hills as those in the neighbourhood of Ras Abu Ashrin.
When subjected to a chemico- microscopic analysis, if it may be so
termed, the calcareous particles of which this deposit is composed are
found to be nothing more than the remains of minute Foraminifera,
the tests of which, having become partially dissolved and re-crystallized,
have cemented the whole together ; but this having taken place without
interfering with the form of their internal cavities, and the latter being
filled with the mineral called by Dr. Mantell moluskite (yellow silicate
of iron ?) allows of the latter being dissolved out by a weak acid, and
the origin of the calcareous grains thus ascertained : not only this, but
the extreme faithfulness with which the internal cavities are repre-
sented admits also of their species being determined.
I have been thus particular in describing this deposit, because we
shall find it so widely spread along this coast ; and not only here, but
extending to the peninsula called Khattyawar, on the coast of India,
from whence it is imported into Bombay in considerable quantify, for
building and flooring stone ; and supplies much the same place that
the freestone from Portland does on the southern coast of England. I
shall henceforth apply the terms miliolite or miliolitic to this deposit.
At Ras Abu Ashrin the coast sinks nearly to the level of the sea,
and continues so for thirty-nine miles, or on to the bay called Ghobat
H^hish, where the same kind of white sand-hills are again met with.
I do not think this flat portion extends very far inland before it is
stopped by the tract of sand-hills mentioned : indeed I could see that
it does not, from the high land of Masira opposite ; nevertheless it is
the lowest part of the South-eastern Coast of Arabia, unbacked by
mountains ; and the island of Masira, to which we will now pass over,
lies opposite it, about ten miles distant.
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1852.] ISLAND OF MA8IRA. 35
Maara is tbirty-fiye miles long, and varies from four to nme broad,
and a chain of mountains runs longitudinally through it, which
sends off spurs to the principal capes. This chain is chiefly composed
of igneous rocks, and its highest mountain, which is in the northern
half of the island, is not more than 600 feet above the level of the sea ;
while hardly any in ^e southern half of the island exceed 300 feet.
Here and there tracts of limestone present themselves, but these are
of small extent, and chiefly raised up upon peaks of the igneous rocks.
Besides the main chain, which through its spurs and ramifications
extends nearly all over the island, leaving only here and there, on its
inner side, some sandy plains, there are other small ridges and rocks,
which run more or less round the margin of the island, and others in
the southern part of the channel, between Masira and the main land,
which make their appearance in reefs and small rocky islets.
To the igneous rocks and the limestone there may be added a modem
formation, composed of sea-sand, in which are imbedded shells, corab,
and pieces of the older rocks. Let us now turn our attention to a more
particular description of these formations.
The igneous rocks are chiefly composed of euphotide and diorite,
such as we have before seen at Ras Jibsh and Mftskat, but, in addition
to these, there are more or less homogeneous green and black diorites,
also basaltic rocks, more or less scoriaceous, or cellular, and amygdaloid-
al trap, the cavities of which are filled with calc-spar.
The euphotide is seen as usual in conjunction with its companion
the diorite, though not, I think, so plentiful. They form the main chain
and principal masses in the island. This, which is the older diorite,
contains large crystals of hornblende, as at Jibsh, but of a greater va-
riety of colors, such as green, brown, deep dark red, and black, some-
times in equal quantity with the oompact felspar, at others preponde-
rating. At the northern extremity of the island, the diorite is of a newer
kind, and from its fine structure, homogeneous appearance, and black
color, almost resembles basalt : it is here 200 feet above the level of the
sea ; it forms the islets, too, and is seen in many parts, but as a less
{Jentifnl rock. The fine green diorites, and the trap, also form low
round hills, of considerable extent, and the cellular and phonolitic
basak much higher hills, with loose portions on their sides, the whole
weathering smooth, and of a dark red brown color.
The accessory minerals which I met with were epidote, with calc-
apar, and micaceous iron ore, tremolite, hornblende of different colors,
mad diallage, with its varieties, also copper. The latter mineral exists
in many parts of the island, chiefly, I think, among the fine-grained
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36 GEOLOGY OF THE SOUTH-EAST COAST OF ARABIA. [JaN.
green earthy diorites, and low trap hills. I found it in the form of
malachite, disseminated and in veins, in the parent rock, and following
veins of hyaline quartz which traversed it. In many parts it has heen
worked, as the excavations and remains of slags and smelting-places in
various parts indicate, but the weather-worn state of those I saw would
make the time at which they were worked very remote. I have given
a short account of these copper veins in this Journal (Vol. II. No ix.
p. 400).
From the igneous rocks, let us go to the tracts of limestone. These
are of small extent, and for the most part raised on the tops of the
older igneous rocks. Beginning at the northernmost end of the island,
we find a tract commencing just inside the group of black dioritic
rocks which forms this extremity, and from thence extending longi-
tudinally along it for about ^ve miles, making the central ridge or
highest elevation of this narrow part of the island. It is scarped towards
the west, and slopes into the sand of the sea shore on the eastern side,
at the same time that it rises towards the south-west, so that the dip
of its strata is towards the east, and that of its strike north-
east. For a long way the ridge or upper line of the scarp is not more
than 30 or 40 feet above the level of the sea, but at its southern ex-
remity it rises suddenly to about 100 feet. Here it presents a trifid rent,
giving rise to three great fissures, which run in different directions
towards the sea on each side of the island, respectively. The thickness
of the scarps here is from 60 to 80 feet, and their geological section is
as follows : —
Tlie upper part of compact Umestone, of a whitish yellow colour,
cleavable, but breaking with a rough fracture. This is more or less
filled with the remains of shells and corals, and extends downwards for
40 feet. It then passes into ten feet of coarse, loose, sandy, silico-
calcareous limestone, of a yellow colour, containing numerous shells, and
then 10 feet more of the same deposit, traversed by veins of gypsum,
after which follows a coarse arenaceous yellow limestone, more or less
shelly, which is lost beneath the bottom of the fissure.
Returning to the inner shore of the island, by one of these fissures,
I passed, after issuing from it, between the scarp of the limestone ridge
on my right hand and the igneous rocks of the island on my left, while
the part over which I walked was composed of loose gritty earth of
bright red and yellow colours, which seemed to be the finer parts of a
jaspidean conglomerate that lay beneath. This conglomerate I thought
might be an altered and lower deposit of the limestone formation, which
would then make the section of it correspond with that at Mftskat.
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1852.] ISLAND OP MA8IRA. » 37
The pebbles of this eoDglomerate have been so changed by the heat to
whieh they have been exposed, that it is impossible to say what they
were originally. In it, also, are disseminated here and there small
quantities of malachite, which is the case in the silicious conglome-
rate of the limestone formation that rests upon the diorite at the
Tillage of Darzit, north of Mftskat.
The second tract of limestone we come to, proceeding south-westward,
is raised on the top of the main chain of dioritic rocks, in the centre
of the northern half of the island. Its surface, which is horizontal, is
400 feet above the level of the sea, and its form very conspicuous from
a distance, on account of its horizontallty, and the contrast of its hght
yellow colour with the dark rocks around and beneath it. This tract is
of an irregular shape, and about two miles long, by a quarter of a mile
broad, and its longest diameter is parallel with the longitudinal axis
of the island. The southern extremity of its upper surface or plateau,
which is attenuated, and not more than 50 feet wide, is undermined
on each side for upwards of 15 feet, which leaves only a support of
about 20 feet wide in the centre ; other parts on this side of the pla-
teau are similarly worn, while there is nothing of the kind on the other
sides. This leads one to infer that these excavations were effected by
the waves when this limestone tract might have been rising from the
sea. The fact also of their being only on the south-western extremity
strengthens this, from the north-eastern part being sheltered by the
coast, and the opposite side being directly exposed to the south-west
monsoon. The surface of this plateau, which is perfectly horizontal,
and the strata of the whole mass parallel to it, is bestrewed with the
casts of bivalve shells (Conchacea) in the same manner as the hills
about Hydrabad in Sindh, and among these, the casts of large species
of the genus Lucina are by far the most prevalent in both localities.
The following is a geological section of this tract : —
B^;inning from above downwards, we have a compact limestone, of a
whitish colour, cleavable, and breaking with a rough fracture : this is
more or less filled with shells and microscopic Foraminifera, and extends
downwards for 100 feet. Then follows a coarse yellow Hmestone, more
or less sandy, which chiefly presents the remains of corals, and occupies
about 50 feet ; after which comes about 50 feet of loose yellow siUco-
cakareous sand, and red and green arenaceous clays : the upper two-
thirds, consisting of the former, are traversed by veins of gypsum, in all
its common crystalline forms ; and the latter, consisting of the days
mentioned, forms the base of the series, and rests upon the diorite. I
did not perceive a conglomerate here to bear out my inference respect-
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38 GEOLOGY 01^ THR SOUTH-EAST COAST OF ARABIA. [J AN.
ing its existence at the base of the last tract, which is not exposed.
The only fossils obtained were the following : —
Corbula ? — Species ? (Cast.) Trigonal, inequilateral, inequivalve.
Breadth 4^ inches, height Z\ inches, depth 1 tV inches. Thick posterior-
ly ; compressed anteriorly. Xoe. Masira, from the surface of the plateau.
Spondylus. — Species? (Cast.) Subovate, inequilateral. Breadth
li<r inch, height 1| inch, and depth 44 inch. Striae numerous, close
together, and thin, the largest bearing small spines. Loc, Masira, from
the second tract of limestone.
Although I could perceive traces of numberless fossils in this lime-
stone, the only ones that I saw weathered out were the bivales on the
plateau, and the one last mentioned.
Adjoining this tract of hmestone are two others, which are only sepa-
rated from it by a deep ravine : they are a little less in size, and slope
towards the east with the tops of the igneous rocks on which they are
supported. I had not time to visit them.
The next tract I shall describe is by far the most interesting of all,
on account of its fossils. Proceeding south-westwards, we come to this
about two miles from the plateau. But it is not similarly situated as
to height, for its base is barely raised above the level of the sea, from
which it is about a mile inland, among the igneous rocks. Like the
southwest extremity of the first tract, this has also been raised by a
force appUed from below, here in the centre of the mass, which has
produced a radiated fracture of the whole, and thrown its parts widely
asunder, so as to expose a floor beneath, now half a mile or more in
diameter. This floor happens to consist of a stratum of small num-
muUtes, which reveals the nature of the limestone tracts hitherto
examined, and establbhes the existence of the Nummuhtic Series on this
part of the South-eastern Coast of Arabia.
The hmestone, which rises about 100 feet above this floor, is of the
same kind as that already described, and the fossils obtained from
the inclosed area, which presents a vast variety, are as follows : —
FORAMINIFERA.
Nummulina. — 1st Species? Circular, slightly convex on both sides,
thin at the edge. Breadth -^ inch, thickness tV inch. Horizontal or
wavy ; surfaces smooth, sloping gradually towards the circumference ;
presenting when polished a reticulated structure. Splits into halves,
and shows a spire, consisting of a great number of whorls, which are
divided into small chambers ; the whole becoming more dense towards
the centre. Loc. Masira.
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1852.] ISLAND OF MA8IRA. • 39
Nommnlma. — 2nd Species ? Orbicular, doubly convex ; fireadth VV
incb, and thickness ^ inch. Surfaces smooth, sloping suddenly to a thin
drcmnference ; presenting a reticulated structure, like the foregoing
^ecies. Splits in halves horizontally, and exposes a spire, consisting of a
great number of whorls, divided into small chambers, the whole structure
beooming more dense towards the centre. Loc, Masira. Ohs. — The
entire stratum was nearly made up of this and the foregoing species.
ECBINODERMATA.
Spatan?U8. — Ist Species? Conical. Length 6^ inches, breadth 5|^
inches, and height 5 inches. Ambulacra four, not depressed, spreading
from the centre of the summit of the test, and extending nearly to the
marg^; grooved anteriorly in the place of the fifth ambulacrum.
Genital pores four. Month bilabiate, between the centre and anterior
extremity. Base oval ; carinated in the centre, from the mouth back-
wards, and covered with small tubercles ; bordered on each side by a
longitadinal area of smooth polygonal plates. Vent terminal supra
inarginal. Loc. Masira. Obs. — The remains of this large fossil were
^ery numerous, and partly filled with the nummulites mentioned.
2nd Species? (Incomplete.) Length 2 inches, breadth 1|
inch. Ambulacra five, petaloid, situated in deep furrows, spreading from
• point nearer the anal than the oral extremity ; the posterior two
shortest. Loc. Masira.
Cidaris. — Species ? (A portion only of the test, bearing two big
tubercles.) The largest ^ inch in diameter at the base, surrounded by
a ring of small tubercles, but none within the circle. Loc. Masira.
Crustacea.
Cancer. — Species ? Carapace sub-elliptical ; Diameter 5^^ inches
^'^iisversely, 4 inches antero-posteriorly. Spiniferous laterally ; spines five
M» number, alternately bifid, extending from the orbits backwards ; orbits
2} inches apart. Pinchers large, expanded, equal in size, concave on
the interior surface, and bordered on the posterior edge by eight tuber-
cles; tail consbting of six segments. Loc. Masira.
CONCHIFKRA.
* ^bicoU. — Species ? (See a description of the tube among the fossils
^^^ Hammar el Nafur, further on.) Ohs. — They abound among the
^inmrnulites in Masira, and are very common in Sindh.
^e deposit in which these fossils were imbedded bears little trace
^^ them when not weather-worn or disintegrated, so that this might
J^'y account for my having passed them over in the other limestone
^*^. Here they abounded all ready to my hand, but being alone
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40 GEOLOGY OP THE SOUTH-EAST COAST OF ARABIA. [JaN.
when I fell in with thero, and the sun having set, I could not examine
the place so much as I wished, nor hring away so many fossils as I de-
sired, and the next day we remored to a station several miles distant ;
so that I had not an opportunity of returning to this really garden of
fossils, much to my r^ret.
The last unmentioned tract of limestone in this island is that which
forms two mountains 500 feet high, at its south-western extremity. It
is a narrow portion, ahout a mile long, and raised, as usual, on peaks
of the diorite. There were no loose fossils about it, and the character
of the limestone I have already described. Its base is buried in the
debris of the superincumbent mass.
All these tracts are doubtless parts of the same limestone formation,
which was once continuous over the island of Masira, but has since
been broken up by the eruption of its igneous rocks, and more or less
carried away by the action of the waves, during the time that the island
has been gradually rising from the bottom of the sea to its present posi-
tion. The presence of the bed of nummulites, too, in one portion of it,
shows abo that the whole belong to the Nummulitic Series.
Having now described the two principal formations in the island of
Masira, viz. igneous and aqueous, let us turn our attention for a few
minutes, before returning to the main land again, to the more modern
formations to which I have alluded. These are two m number, one of
which, perhaps the latest of the two, is seen in the north-eastern part
of the island, where it is about 12 feet thick, and raised about 40 feet
above the level of the sea, about a mile from it. It is scarped on its
seaward side, and runs parallel to the north-eastern extremity of the
island, which is truncated, and on the other side thins off upon the
rocks on which it is supported. It is composed of shells, and pieces
of coral, from which the animal matter has disappeared, and portions
more or less rounded of the limestone and igneous rocks of the locality,
all of which are slightly held together by sea-sand, consisting of minute
grains of the same kind of material. It lies between the two groups
of igneous rocks which form the two angles of this truncated extremity
of the island, and is firmly adherent to their sides.
The other formation, which is but a finer deposit of the last men-
tioned, and perhaps a little older, is considerably elevated above the sea.
It may be seen close to the village of Gyren, on the inner side of the
south-western half of the island. It only differs from the miliolite of
the opposite coast in containing more particles from the igneous rocks,
and is raised on the top of some greenstone peaks, about 200 feet above
the level of the sea.
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1862.] GHOBAT HASHISH. 41
Before condudiiig m j remarks on Masira, I should mention that in
the north-east half of ^e island, a little inland of Ras Jazir^, there is
a small low mo«nd of aqneous strata, projecting from the plain of
igneous rocks which exists there. These strata, which have heen
rendered jaspidean by heat, are in a vertical position, and composed of an
extremely fine flinty material of a red or flesh colour, probably originally
a fine clay. They are undergoing fragmental disint^;ration, and the
pieces very much resemble leeUte. To what formation this belongs
I cannot say, but probably not to the limestone formation of Masira,
for that rests on the igneous rocks in which this appears to be enve-
loped. I have mentioned the existence of a similar mound, and simi-
larly situated, at Ras Jibsh.
Returning to the main land, to the bay called Ghobat Hashish,
whicb is opposite the south-western extremity of Masira, and to which
we have already brought on the low land behind this island, and the
sand-kills from Ras Abu Ashrin, we find the compact limestone again
ifpearing from beneath the miliolite. This is seen on the western
side of the bay, where it is about 80 feet high, after which it rises gra-
dually on to Ras Jazir&h, about 100 miles distant, where it is about
480 feet above the level of the sea ; and the direction of this part of
the coast, being due south, as I have before stated, shows also that the
strata gradually rise in this direction, as well as to the south-west,
which we shall see presently.
For the specimens and information I possess of this part of the coast
lam indebted to the kindness of Lieut. Grieve, who surveyed it in 1847.
Rock-specimens from the west side of the bay of Hashish, and from
Ras S&rab, about twenty-five miles south of it, show that the limestone
formation which here emerges from beneath the sand-hills, consists of a
fine compact rock, some of which is magnesian, heavy, and of a grey
color.
Next comes the little island called Hammar el Nafur, which is about
twenty-five miles south of Ras S&rab, and of all the information which
Lieut. Grieve has communicated to me, that from this little island and
another cape next to it, called Ras Rariat, with their specimens, are
by far the most interesting and important. It is extremely fortunate
that this little island should exist just here, at the commencement of
the rise of the cliff, which we shall find by-and-bye carried up 4000 feet
above the level of the sea far beyond our reach ; for from its form and
position, together with the cape mentioned, we obtain an unmistakeable
geological section of the chff for 320 feet down from its summit, which
is the height of Hammar el Nafur.
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42 GBOLOGY OF THB SOUTH-EAST COAST OP ARABIA. [J AN
This island is about 400 yards long by 300 broad, and its sommit^
thongh flat, is split in all directions. Rock-specimens from it show that
it is composed of compact white hmestone, and concretionary flints
aboTc, the former breaking with a more or less smooth fracture. This
is stated to extend down 150 feet, and to present no loose fossils.
Then comes 50 feet of white earthy or gritty calcareous deposit, more
or less mixed with argillaceous matter, of a greenish white color, in
which there are many fossils ; and the rest is stated to be greenish
white clay, without any ; the bottom of the sea everywhere in the
neighbourhood being composed of the latter material.
This clay, just stated to be of a greenish-white colour, is meagre to
the touch when dry ; breaks with an irregular rough fracture ; receives a
polish when scraped with the nail ; does not adhere to the tongue ;
does not effervesce with acids ; does not mix readily with water, but,
when once rubbed up with it, remains for many days suspended in it,
in an impalpable powder, fiefore the blow-pipe it dries up, becomes
red and porous, and then passes into a black slag. When in combina-
tion with more or less calcareous matj&rial, it forms an excellent soap.
Having described this clay, I will now add a list of the fossils
which Lieutenant Grieve sent roe, and with them include those which
came from Ras Kariat, nearly opposite, since the strata and fossils
of both places are said to be exactly the same, and the specimens con-
firm this. They are as follows ; —
FORAMINIFERA.
Nummulina. — Species? Circular, compressed, terminating at the
circumference in a thin edge. Breadth /^ inch, thickness V? "^c^ ; sur-
faces smooth, without any marking ; presenting a spire internally, with
many whorls, divided into small chambers. Loc. Hammar el Nafur and
Ras Kariat, in the gritty calcareous deposit below the compact lime-
stone.
Orbilolites? — (Impressions only). 1st Species? Oval. Length VV
inch, breadth Vr inch. — 2nd Species f Circular. Diameter tV inch. Loc.
idem. Obs, — Found in the marl passing from the gritty calcareous de-
posit into the clay.
ECHINODERMATA.
Echinocyamus.— E.pyrifarmu Ag. mihi. (Tab. 22, figs. 19—24, ct
EchinoneuM placenta Goldf.Tab. 42, fig. 12.) Sub-pentagonal. Oval.
Length 44 mch, breadth H, height ^. Subtruncated anteriorly, point-
ed posteriorly; mouth central; vent inferior, and situated a little distance
from the margin. Lor. idem.
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1852.] ISLAND OF HAMMAR EL NAFUR. 43
Echinocyaoras. — E. nculus Ag. mihl. Oval» depressed. Length VV
inch, breadth Vr incl^> height ^ inch. Mouth and vent the same as in
the foregoing species ; ambulacra five, petaloid, not depressed. Loc,
Himmar el Nafiir and Ras Kariat. Obs, — ^This, and the foregoing
species, are numerous in the earthy deposit below the compact limestone,
together with the nummulites, which, on the other hand, are scanty,
jndgmg from the specimens of the deposit sent to me, but they are
probably more numerous in other parts.
Clypeaster. — Specits ? Sub-pentagonal. Length 2tV inches, breadth
2tV incfaesy height l^V uich. Summit sub-central, anterior ; ambulacra
fire, petaloid, in furrows, each enclosing a raised area ; genital pores four ;
none posteriorly, mouth sub-central, depressed, surrounded by five tu-
bercles, or projections, with a groove between each, presenting ambula-
cra! pores ; vent sub-marginal. Loe, Ras Kariat.
CONCHIFERA.
Tubicola. — Species? Tube only. Circular. Diameter | to I inch ;
sh'ghtly increasing downwards. Straight or slightly crooked ; sometimes
bent at an obtuse angle ; length unknown. Wall of tube from the thin-
ness of a wafer to Vr inch ; composed of concentric layers, smooth and
round internally ; uneven, and presenting transverse striae or rugse ex-
temaHy. Filled with the material in which they are imbedded. Loc.
Hammar el Nafur, Ras Kariat, Masira.
Teredo Navalis. — Species ? Tube, sub-circular. Diameter above \
inch, increasing slightly downwards to a point, where it suddenly
dilates ; sub-flexuous ; length of specimen 7,\ inches, real length un-
known. Divided internally above by a transverse septum, which ends
bdow where the tube dilates, (probably close to the animal,) in the two
compartments becoming separate syphons, which are in contact in the
middle, and entirely separated from the rest of the tube. Wall of tube
tV inch thick ; external surface uneven ; irregular ; strise arranged longi-
tudinally, and becoming circular where the tube suddenly expands.
hoc. Hammar el Nafur and Ras Kariat. Obs, — ^The first of these
tubes abounds in the earthy limestone or marly deposit with the num-
mulites, both here and in the island of Masira. They are also very
common in Sindh. A specimen of one is figured in PI. xxi. fig. 1 of
Grant's Greology of Cutch, (loc. cit.) where it has been provisionally
called ** Serpula? rectal' by Mr. Sowerby.
CONCHACEA.
Lnciiia. — Species? (Cast, imperfect.) Circular, compressed, equivalve,
presenting little tubercles in circular depressions on both sides, which
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44 GEOLOGY OF THE SOUTH-EAST COAST OF ARABIA. [JaN.
appear to be impreflsions of the mantle, fireadth aboat 2 -iV indies,
and length 2 -iV inches. Loc. Hammar el Nafur. Ob*. — This is a fac-
simile of one of the species of Lucina found commonly about the hills at
Hydrabad in Sindh, and like those on the surfiu« of the plateau in
Masira. It is a characteristic fossil of the upper part of this series,
from which therefore it most probably came in the island of Hammar
el Nafur.
Gasteropoda.
Natica. — Species? (Cast, imperfect.) fireadth 4^ inches, and length
Si inches. Loe. Hammar el Nafur and Ras Kariat. Ob*. — There are
several imperfect casts of large Naticsefirom the softer limestone of these
locaUties. In Sindh, also, such casts are found, composed almost entire-
ly of large nummulites, together with minute and small Foraminifera.
They, therefore, in the absence of the larger nummulites, here serve
to establish the nature of the deposit in which they are found ; through-
out which the shells of Conchifera and Gasteropoda would seem to
have entirely disappeared, as in most other parts of the Nummulitic
Series with which I am acquainted.
Before proceeding further, it is worth while to compare the strata of
the island of Hammar el Nafur and Ras Kariat, on ^e main land,
with a section of the nummulitic strata forming the range of hills at
Sukkur, in Sindh. This section was kindly sent me by Dr. Mal-
colmson, of the Bombay Medical Service, who states in his letter as
follows : — " I have been over the Sukkur range of hills to their termi-
nation at Daji Kot. There is but little diversity in the whole range,
which in no place exceeds 400 feet in height. The whole is one mass
of nummulitic limestone, more or less disintegrating. It is, however,
strange that the upper strata are in many places very campaci, and eon^
tain but few/ouiU, but are very plentifully interspersed with fknts;
some of the flints contained large nummulites. The escarpment of the
whole range fiices the west. The strata are perfectly horizontal. Some
of the limestone is of a cream colour, and forms a good building ston^
which wears well, and does not seem to suffer from atmospheric exposure.
About twelve miles from Sukkur I found a bed of day underlying the
nummulitic limestone, filled with the impressions only of sheUs. [This
clay, of which Dr. Malcolroson sent me a specimen, is of the same
kind as that at Hammar el Nafur.] The hill is here 250 feet high,
and composed entirely, in the lower part, of nummulites, overlaid by
compact limestone, containing flints. I traced the out-cropping of ^e
clay for about half a mile.*'
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1852.] HAMMAB EL NAFUR AND RA8 KARIAT. 45
Here, then, we have neaily the same strata as at the island of Ham-
mar el Nafiir and Ras Kariat, aod that too about the same height>
▼is. 400 feet, composed of compact limestone above, then nummuUtes in
a loote dUmtegrtUing fgritty ?) deposit below, and ailerwards clay.
It is important to establish the exact nature of this series at Hammar
el Nalur and Bas Kariat, for the reasons I have before stated, viz.
that as the cliff rises towards the south-west we shall soon find these
strata elevated beyond our reach, so that when we come to the height
of 4000 feet we shall have to assume that they still form the summit
there, from their existence at Hammar el Nafur and Ras Kariat ; unless
we can prove this by the presence of the nummulites themselves, or some
other allied fosnl. The disintegration of the deposit in which the great
1 of nummulites are imbedded I have generally observed to be the
\ in dl the specimens I have seen from Egypt, Sindh, and Cutch.
I have not yet seen a compact hard Umestone charged with nummulites.
Passing back to the coast opposite the island of Hammar el Nafur,
lieut. Grieve states this to be " low, and to present a range of small dark
peaks, rising gradually from the beach." These are probably the tops of
low Igneous rocks, which we might expect to be near, from the break
in tbe cliff, and the upheaval of Hammar el Nafhr opposite it.
The next place from which I have specimens is Ras Kariat, already
mentioned. This cape is nine miles south of the island of Hammar el
Nafnr, and about forty north of Ras Jazirfth. From this point the
cliff, which is 280 feet high, and has hitherto been in detatched por-
tions, is extended on continuously to within a few miles of Ras Jazir&h.
The upper part of it, like that of Hammar el Nafur, is composed of
compact white limestone with concretionary flints, passing below into
an earthy gritty one, thence into a marly deposit, and lastly clay. The
fossils are the same as those of Hammar el Nafur, and have been de-
scribed under ^e Ust from that island. I received also large portions of
radiated and columnar crystallized carbonate of lime, pointed at the
circomferenee, translucent, and of a greenish white colour ; they are
crossed by transparent wavy Hnes, as if they had been formed by
successive additions, and appear to come from the earthy limestone
near the green day ; also specimens of gypsum, of which some of the
tubes of the Tubicolee were made up. The occurrence of gypsum here
should not be forgotten, for it exists in the same position at Masira and
M&skat, viz. below the compact limestone.
From Bas Sjuriat the chff, as before stated, extends on unintemipt-
edly to within a few miles of Ras Jazir^ or a little beyond Ras
Markas, which is nine miles from the former cape, where they are 480
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46 OBOLOGY OF THE SOUTH-BAST COAST OF ARABIA. [JaN.
feet aboTe the level of the sea. Rock-specimens from this show that
the base \b composed of a pinki^, compact, sub-saccharoid, magnesian
limestone, which slowly effervesces with acids ; also a rock of the same
kind, but filled with the cavities of small shells, vis. Cardium and Ceri-
thium, containing selenite. The Cardinm is oblique, inequilateral.
Length | inch, and breadth tV inch. We shall find a* rock almost
identical with this occurring at Makalla, about 600 miles S. W. of it ;
the proximity, however, of igneous rocks, which we shall find in both
localities, have probably influenced this resemblance, more than the
continuity of the stratum.
Lastly, we come to Ras Jazir&h, the end of this portion of the coast,
which now suddenly returns, from running N. and S., to its general
direction, viz. N. £. and S. W. ; and here we have another eruption of
igneous rocks. This is confined to the cape, and its immediate neigh-
bourhood, but it presents as complete a picture of such a disturbance as
can well be witnessed. The continuity of the cliff, which on either
side is uniform, and horixontal as far as the eye can reach, is here
entirely broken up by the igneous rocks, and the detached portions
of its strata thrown into all kinds of positions, and weathered into all
kinds of shapes ; while the dark rock appears between or below them,
or in separate peaks, among the general wreck. Where the white
strata overlie the igneous rock, they are discoloured for some distance^
red and black : this would seem to be the passage into the former, just
as we saw it in the base of the plateau at Masira, where these coloured
strata are composed of red and dark green days ; for the limestone here
probably rests on dioritic rocks, as at Masira, and the rupture has been
caused probably by their subsequent elevation, and by the effusion, per-
haps about the same time, of more igneous matter. Specimens from
the island which joins the cape at low water, and from which it takes
its name, show that it is formed of a rock belonging to the euphotide
and diorite before mentioned, and of which probably the igneous rocks
on shore are principally composed. These specimens consist of brown
compact felspar, in which there is an equal quantity of sparkling
laminated black hornblende, in small crystals ; and on ^e plane surfaces
of the specimens an ophiolitic or nephritic deposit, like that seen
about the euphotide hitherto met with. On either side of this eruption
the cliffis, as before stated, are continuous, and their strata horizontal, as
far as the eye can reach, but. their whiteness, which hitherto has made
them look so much like those on the south-east coast of England,
seems here to cease, and to give place to a light yellow tint.
From Bas Jaiinlh the diff is continued on» with the exception of a
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1852.] BAS JAZIRAH TO KURIYAH MURIYAH BAY. 47
break here and there, (where it fills back and gives place to a sandy
plain in front,) to Ras Shaherbataht, and Ras Gharau, which capes are
within a few miles of each other. Here the clifP is 800 feet above the
level of the sea, and has been gradually rising to this since leaving Ras
Jaarfth, a distance of 110 miles. Capt. Haines states that the upper
itnta here are composed of limestone, below which come " chalk" and
flints.* As we approach this cape, we obterve that the cliffs begin to
present large caverns, which appear to have been solely excavated by
the waves ; they are very similar to those seen on the Bill of Portland.
1 conld not help thinking that in this way most of the great caverns
wiudi we shall by-and^bye see in the mountains have been formed, and
which now serve for ^e habitations of most of the Bedouins who live
on the high land of Southern Arabia. At Ras Shaherbataht the same
Uod of uniformity and continuity of cliff meets the eye on either side,
as at Ras Jaziriih, only that it is nearly twice the height ; but as we
approach the centre of Kuriyah Muriyah Bay a totally different aspect
presents itself: here we observe at Ras Shuamiyah, which is about 135
miles from Ras Jazir&h, another and much more extended outbreak of
igneoQs rocks than at the latter point. The cape called Ras Shuamiyah
is formed by a dark black-looking igneous rock, and on either side of
it black dykes irregularly extend up through the white strata, in
some places raising them and running along between them, and in others
attaining the summit and flowing along the surface above the cliff, the
nniformity of which may well be conceived to have become totally des-
troyed by this eruption. In some parts it is raised higher than we have
hitherto seen it, in others more depressed, while the land interiorly ap-
pears to have participated in this, if not in a former more general dis-
turbance; and a few miles further south-west, its irregularities still
increasing, brings us to the high land before mentioned, which is 4000
feet above the level of the sea, with the white cliff we have been passing at
the upper part of it. This is the eastern limit of the elevated tract of
Southern Arabia, and the western limit, on the coast, of the low land or
Desert of Akhaf. The south-western part of Kuriyah Muriyah Bay is
bordered by the former, which, breaking down towards the extremity of
the horn, ends in a granite mountain, 1200 feet high, which forms the
cape itself, and is called Ras Nus.
The appearance of this granite mountain probably explains the grand
andsudden upheaval of the coast here. It is the first granite we have met
with, bat we shall soon find that we have come to an immense tract of it,
which not only extends along ^e coast south-westward for several miles,
• Joomal Royal Geograph. Soc, Vol. XV.
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48 GBOLOGY OF THE SOUTH-EAST COAST OF ARABIA. [JaK.
bat also eastwards^ where it forms the greater part of the Kurijah
Murijah islands, to which we will now direct oar attention.
They are five in namber, neither of which is more than tw^ity-fite
miles from the coast ; and the farthest apart are not more than thirty-
fiye miles from each other, while they are all in the same parallel of
latitude. The largest, called Hftll&niyah, is about seven and a half
miles long, and about three and a half broad. The next in size is Soda,
which is about three miles long, and two broad. Haski and Jibliyah
are each about a mile sqaare, and Gharzaut is hardly more than a
large rock.
H&lUiniyah is composed of about one-sixth limestone, and the rest of
igneous rocks. The limestone occupies the northern part, and forms a
cape 1645 feet above the level of the sea ; its colour generally is a light
yellow to the water's edge, and its strata, though tilted up and dis-
placed where they are in contact with the igneous rocks, are undisturbed
at the cape, any further than is caused by their elevation of about fifteen
degrees towards the north. The late Dr. Hulton, from whose descrip-
tion of these islands* the following remarks have been extracted, states :-^
" About the centre of the island [H&U&niyah] the hills rise into a
cluster of pointed spires, the highest of which was computed by trigono-
metrical "measurement at 1510 feet above the level of the sea ; and from
these, similar hills run in all directions, preserving in most cases ^e
form of interrupted ndges. At the eastern [northern ?] extreme, the
land assumes a different state ; a perpendicular headland, 1645 feet
in height, boldly projects into the ocean, and for some distance to the
westward appears a continued mass of table-land, accidentally heaved
up, as it were, at the end of the island. With the exception of this
high land the rest of the island is chiefly composed of granite, varying
somewhat in its structure, and the proportion of its fundamental
ingredients, upon which also depends a variety in its colours. The
most interesting feature of the granite is the manner in which
most of its ridges are surmounted by a dark-coloured rock, allied in its
characters to those of the trap order, more especially to greenstone.
[The latter is our diorite, and the dark-coloured rock probably
euphotide, which we have before seen to accompany it.] This is found
passing through the body of the hills in the form of dykes. The same
rock IB seen abundantly in the form of veins and seams, traversing the
granite in all directions. It would appear as though by some power-
ful internal impulse this substance had been injected into fissures in the
granite, produced by the same violent action. To a person viewing it
* Trans. Bombay G«ograph. Soc. 1839-40, p. ISO.
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1852.] RURITAB MURIYAH ISLANDS. 49
from a moderate distance, the dktribation gives rise to an appearance
of an unusually dark shade running along the summits of the hills, as
i&ost of our party at first fancied. These dykes and seams do not
Mow any general rule in regard to their direction, but are entirely influ-
enced in this respect hy the disposition of the granite, which follows no
partieolar coiirse. They vary from a fine vein of a few inches to a stra-
tum of eighteen or twenty feet in breadth. In mineral composition!,
too» they differ no less materially. Most of it I have stated to resem-
ble greenstone, in the compactness and nmplicity of its structure, and
bomblende appears to be the predominant ingredient ; but by the inter-
Dnxtare of felspar in greater or less quantity, rocks of a very different
Mtore result, still occupying the same relative situation. In some
pUces the felspar is disseminated in the form of distinct crystals, com-
muiictting a porphyritic structure; in others quartz is abundantly
mtenningled, giving it more of a granitic aspect. In the latter there
9 a tendency in the compound to diffuse itself more extensively through
the granite bed, losing its character as a stratum, and entering largdy
into the formation of the hill itself. In fact, it appears to undergo, by
this accession of felspar and quartz, a regular transition to granite itself,
and merely differs, as far as the eye can judge, in colour, which, from the
presence of hornblende as a subordinate mineral, becomes c^ a dark
speckled hue In both this and the prevailing kind of granite,
mica, if not altogether wanting, is a very scarce ingredient, and is found
elneiy in the light-coloured veins of granite intersecting the granite
mountains." There can be no doubt, I think, that this is an altered
state of the enphotide already described : the author knew greenstone
(diorite); he also knew granite, and trap ; and there is no other "dark
coloured rock," that I saw, in this part of Arabia, "allied" to green-
stone, but "euphotide."*
** The eastern end [northern ?] of the islmd is that which attains'
the highest point of elevation, and is composed of a secondary limestone
pretty r^;ularly stratified towards the sea. It contains in its substance
a few fossil shells, but is not remarkable for anything further than its
proximity to the granite^ its greater elevation above the sea, and its
• In my " Geological Observatloiw on the Igneons Rocks of Maakat, &c.,"
(lae this Jl. Vol. III. No. xiii. p. 128,) I have stated that Dr. Hulton had not
meotioiied either enphotide or diorite in bia account of the Kuriyah Muriyah
Islands, nor did I see any of these rocks at Marbat Bat I had not then begun to put
together this paper, and therefore had neither read Dr. Hulton's account, nor look-
ed over my specimens from Marbat^ with such attention as I have done since,
which will acconnt for any discrepancies that may appear in this and the paper
tlladed to regarding the rocks of these two localities.
7
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50 GEOLOGY OF THE SOUTH-EAST COAST OF ARABIA. [JaN.
insulated situation. It is nowhere intersected by veins of either granite
or greenstone."
I know nothing myself more of this island than that which I have
stated previous to quoting Dr. Hnlton's description, and have nothing
to remark fiirther respecting it than that I would direct attention
to the depth of the limestone strata here^ which we shall find useful by-
and-bye in determining its real depth throughout the neighbouring coast.
The small rocky island of Gharzaut, which is a httle N. N. £. of
H^&niyahy and 200 feet high, b composed '' exclusively of granite of
a reddish colour, and a fine crystalline structure."
Soda, which is six miles west of H^QUlniyah, presents a peak 1310
feet above the level of the sea. The composition of the hills is granitic,
with the same distribution of dark-coloured strata as that noticed
on H&Mniyah, though not quite so conspicuous. *' The granite on the
eastern end, and on the central part, is of a dark grey colour, with
extensive veins of a light colour, traversing it in various directions. That
on the western end is a mixture of red and grey granite, in varying pro-
portions, the red preponderating in most localities, and of a fine texture,
similar to that of Rodondo [Gharzaut]."
The geological structure of Jibliyah, the highest point of which
is about 500 feet, is stated to be " essentially primitive, but with a
greater variety in the appearance of the rocks than we found at
H&U^niyah. The outer detached rocks are of similar composition,
being formed of a species of dark-coloured granite, in which hornblende
appears to enter largely. The island itself is composed of porphyritic
syenite, the colours of some specimens affording a rich and diversified
appearance."
Haski, the most western of aU these islands, and the nearest the
shore, presents in its highest peaks an altitude of about 400 feet. ** In
its geological characters, too, it is nearly similar [to Jibliyah], though
the reddish-coloured granite, which is common in Soda, is here found to
constitute the greater portion of the island, the remainder being com-
posed of a species of variegated granite and porphyry."
Thus we see that these islands are, with the exception of H^Mniyah,
all composed of igneous rocks, and that, too, chiefly of granite ; and we
also see that they are all nearly in the same parallel of latitude as the
village of Hasek, which is only nine miles north of Has Nus, the south-
western extremity of Kuriyah Muriyah Bay, and which itself, as before
stated, is also formed of a granite mountain. Further, if we look at
Captain Haines's beautiful chart of Kuriyah Muriyah Bay, we shall
not find a sounding of 50 fathoms north of this little chain of islands
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^852.] BAS NUS TO RAS MARBAT. 61
and a line extending from them to Hasek, that is between them and the
main land to the north, while immediately south of them and this line
the soundings sink to 145 fathoms, and no bottom, showing that there
IS a great depression on this side^ which we also learn by the soundings
to be continued westward to Bas Nus, and along the coast as far as
Marbat, where the granitic tract ends.
Betuming again to the shore, we find ourselves opposite a very
different coast to that we have just passed : one now of 4000 feet
instead of 800 feet above the level of the sea ; and commencing from
Kas Nub, where we left off, which is the seaward point of demarcation
between the low and high land, we find the granitic tract on shore
to commence here, (though at sea it begins much farther eastwards, as
we have seen in the Kuriyah Muriyah islands,) and to extend on to Ras
Marbat, a distance of forty miles, where it ends. At first it is narrow,
and runs along the base of the broken-down table-land, but the latter,
soon falling back, gives place to an expansion of it into a low field of
igneous rocks, which is about ten miles wide, and terminates at the
cape mentioned. This field, which is backed by the precipitous
declivity of the table-land, presents an almost uninterrupted
uniformity in its lowness, except at one point, near the sea, where an
isolated pyramidal mountain of the main land remains, as a type of
what once existed over the whole area. This mountain or pyramid,
called Jibal Jinj&ri, which is 1300 feet high, is stated by Captain
Haines to present chalk and gypsum in its composition ; and so far
it is interesting, because we know that these two substances exist '
in a fixed part of the upper strata of the white limestone series, from
what we have seen at the island of Hammar el Nafur aud Ras Kariat,
where it is only 320 feet above the level of the sea, and from their
presence in similar situations in other parts. By chalk here is meant a soft
white earthy limestone, or gritty calcareous deposit ; there is no genuine
chalk on this coast that I have met with, though the former is a close
approach to it, and, in the absence of the latter for comparison, might
easily pass for chalk.
In the immediate vicinity of Ras Nus the limestone strata, capping the
detached and broken-down masses of the table-land, (which in this way
here reaches the sea,) are much and variously inclined, while a similar
disturbance is evinced by the older igneous rocks of the low plain
which follows, from the variety of coloured dykes with which they are '
veined. I explored about a dozen square miles of these rocks near
Marbat, and also ascended the precipice of the table-land at this point,
the particulars of which will now occupy our attention.
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52 GEOLOGY OP THE SOUTH-EAST COAST OF ARABU. [Jan.
The igneous rocks, as before stated^ terminate at Bpas Marbat in
a low plain, which shelters a little bay and village of the same name
on its inner side, that is between it and the main land. This plain is
about four miles square, and 30 feet above the level of the sea in its
centre, from which it gradually slopes on all its free sides to the sea. It
is more or less wavy, and here and there interrupted in its continuity
by irregular fissures running to the sea, and by projections a few feet
above the surface of the granite rocks of which it is composed, while
at the bottom of the bay is a group of granite hills, about 100 feet
high.
The igneous rocks of this plain and its neighbourhood consist of red
and grey granite, red protogine granite with black hornblende sparcely
mixed with the chlorite, syenite^ euphotide, and coarse and fine-grained
diorites, green chlorite brecciated with fine compact brown limestone,
and cemented together with calcareous matter ; to these may be added
gneiss, which appears in vertical strata in the midst of the groups of
red and grey granite rocks projecting from the plain.
The red protogine granite appears to be the most abundant ; and the
grey granite the oldest in appearance, though the line of demarcation
between the two is by no means evident, for they seem, so far as I saw,
to pass into each other.
The granite hills on the inner side of the plain at the bottom of the
bay have been thrown up through fine compact brown limestone strata,
which forms a part of them, and from its effervescing so slowly with
* acids, and its heaviness, is probably more or less magnesian. It also,
when minutely examined, presents laminee of mica, which in some way
or other have been transported into it.
I did not see the rich red granite, grey syenite, euphotide, diontes,
nor chlorite breccia in situ, and therefore only infer their existence here
from having picked up pieces of them in different parts of the plain ; but
there can be hardly any doubt of the fact» for I do not see how they
could have come there otherwise.
With these few observations on the igneous tract, which is about
ten miles broad, let us pass across to the base of the scarp of the table-
land ; and, fortunately for our examination of this, there is a dry bed of a
great torrent, which empties itself into the Bay of Marbat on the inner
side of the granite hills, and which, running along the base of the de-
clivity for two or three miles, completely separates it from the igneous
rocks, and exposes its strata unobscured by debris for several feet below
the surface of the immediate neighbourhood.
The precipitous face of this table-land here is scarped for about two-
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The
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1852.] MARBAT. 53
fifths of the way down, and then slopes outwards in ridges, like great
buttresses, which, parting from the base of the escarpment, in pointed
extremides, expand ont to a great extent as they reach the plain below.
Commencing, then, from the base of these opposite Marbat, where the
escarpment is 3400 feet high, and where the torrent bed before men-
tioned b 20 feet deep, we have firom below upwards the following geolo-
gical section, viz., coarse micaceous sandstone, of a yellowish brown
color, becoming finer as we ascend, for 1 700 feet ; then passing into ar-
gillaeeons strata of a red color, which continue for 300 feet ; and lastly
mto white limestone strata, which form the rest of the series, an extent
of 1400 feet.
These divisions I will now describe more in detail, and commencing
from below, we find the sandstone of a compact gritty structure, becom-
ing finer as we ascend ; massive at first, but becoming thinly laminated,
and in the upper part of all thicker again, and jointed ; breaking with
a rough earthy fracture throughout ; of an ochrish brown color, and
ferruginous aspect below, becoming^more yellow in ascending, and then
of a dirt-brown color at the top ; presenting mica throughout, but
more in some parts than in othevs, though diminishing generally in
quantity towards the upper part.
The dirt-brown colored fine deposit of this sandstone passes into the
argillaceous division, which presents strata of various colors, but chiefly
red. One, a dark red clay stratum, and of a soapy nature, presented
an excavation, which the Bedouins told us was made by their women,
who came there occasionally to eat the day ; whether from hunger or a
ritiated taste I could not discover, but probably the latter.
These red strata pass into white and grey compact limestone strata,
more or less thick, more or less fine in structure, more or less lithogra-
phic in appearance, above which comes a whitish yellow chalky deposit,
more or less argillaceous, from which the Bedouins cut their pipes, and
then a white compact limestone again. The latter lies in heaps of
bare rocks, weathered into rude architectural-looking piles, 300 or
400 feet high, and two or three miles inland from the summit of the
table-land, as seen from below, so that this much must be added to the
3400 feet, which height was obtained by triangulation from a base mea-
sured on Marbat plain, where, from what I have stated, the real sum-
mit could of course not be seen. We had no means of obtaining the
height of this scarp in any other way.
The soil on the summit of the table-land is of a brick-red color, and
more or less argillaceous; it seems to come from the cavities and
disintegration of the limestone, which, where it is bare, has been
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54 GEOLOGY OF THE SOUTH-EAST COAST OF ARABIA. [Jan.
weathered into sharp undulating ridges, as it is on some parts of the
coast, where the sea is washing it away without making any deposit.
The following are the fossils which were obtained from these lime--
stone strata : —
FORAMINIFERA.
Alveolina, (D'Orbigny.) — Species? Ovo-spheroidal or melanoid;
long diameter iV inch, short diameter -/g- inch. Sulcated longitudinally,
in sigmoid lines, which extend from apex to apex, marking the diyisions
of the chambers, which present transverse parallel striae, diyiding them
into compartments. Loe, Marbat, from the summit of the formation
inland downwards to an unknown extent. Obs, — ^This fossil varies in
size below the measurement given. It is a characteristic fossil, and
occurs also in great abundance in lower Sindh, netar Tatta, where it is
well known by the name of " Tomra," and forms the sacred strings of
beads worn round the neck by Hindu devotees, and others of
that religion. It differs from Fascicoiites (Parkinson) eUipiica, Sow.
(Grant's Geol. Cutch, pi. xxiv.fig. 17), which on the other hand abounds
in the hills of Hydrabad, in being more spheroidal, and exceeds a little
in size the largest of those I met with at Marbat.
Operculina, (D'Orbigny.) — Species ? Discoidal, nautiloid, very
thin. Width -^ inch. Surface presenting four whorls, divided into
many chambers, which are reflected, and increase regularly firom the
first to the last cell. Loc, White limestone, Marbat. Obs, — This httle
fossil frequently accompanies the foregoing.
Orbitolites. — Species ? Circular, concave, extremely thin in the
centre, abruptly expanding into a thickened rim at the circumference.
Breadth 1 inch, thickness at the rim Vr inch. Surfaces smooth,
presenting a series of concentric rings, alternately raised and depressed.
Internally composed of minute cells, arranged in concentric circles,
which are multiplied vertically to four or five tiers deep, as they extend
from the centre to the circumference. Loc, Marbat. Obs, — ^This fossil,
which is not present in the specimens I possess from the summit of the
white limestone strata, varies in size below the measurement given.
It is a characteristic fossil, and the species and specimens increase
in number as we approach the coloured division, where whole
strata are composed of them, as we shall see hereafter. The Alveolina
and Operculina above described are also found in company with this
large Orbitolite. It belongs to d'Orbigny*s genus Cyclolina, (Foram.
Fos. du Bas. Tert. Vienne, p. 139, Tab. xxi. figs. 22—25,)
and its structure has been beautifully figured by Carpenter, (Qnart.
Jl. Geol. Soc. Vol. VI. pi. vii. fig. 24.) It also occurs in great
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1852.] MARBAT. 55
abtuMkuce in the Hala Mountains, near the Buran River, in Sindh,
together with the spheroidal Alveolina called " Tomra" ahove mention-
ed, and an Operculina. All three appear to agree with the three as
^ thej are fonnd together in Arahia as to size and ontward appearance,
I but the internal structure of the first and last slightly differs. The cells
I W^^ larger in the Sindh Orhitolite, and the whorls more numerous in
the Sindh OpercuHna.
Corbis ? — Species 7 (Shell, imperfect.) Breadth 3^*7 inches, length
3iV inches. Cancellated ; resemhling Corbis pectunculus, (Lamarck
et Tab. 13, fig. 3—6 Paris Basin Deshayes.) Loc. Marbat. Obs.—
Found in a small block of fine white compact limestone, with indivi-
duals of the foregoing fossils.
Inoceramus?— Species 7 (Specimen imperfect.) Shell thin, suborbi-
cular. Length 2} inches, breadth 2 inches. Inequilateral, striated
ooncentricallj, cardinal edge of upper valve straight. Loc. Marbat.
Obs. — Found in the block of limestone just mentioned.
Qasteropoda.
Pileolus. — Species ? (Specimen imperfect.) Shell thin, suborbicular,
snbspiral, involute, with an ill-defined apex. Length 2\ inches, breadth
1 J inch, and thickness f inch. Xoc. Marbat. Ohs, — Found together
< with the foregoing fossils. Species of this genus are very common
m Sindh, and almost all that I have seen, which, like the present, are
chiefly reduced to their casts, have been more or less filled with Fascia
coUtes elliptica, and the spheroidal Alveolina before mentioned. They
range from one to four inches long, with a proportionate height, and
the border of the columella is denticulated.
Carinaria ? — Species ? Conical, reflected. Length \^ inch, breadth
at the base vV inch, sUghtly compressed laterally, striated horizontally,
with a ridge or raphe in front. Loc. Marbat. Obs. — Fonnd with the
forcing fossils.
Trochus. — Species ? (Cast, imperfect.) Height about 4 inches,
and breadth at the base 4 inches. Spire consisting of nine or ten
whorls. Loc. Marbat. Found with the foregoing fossils.
Bucdnum. — Species? (Cast, imperfect.) Length 2} inches, breadth
H inch. Loc. Marbat. Obs, — Found with the foregoing fossils, which
were also accompanied by casts of olives, but too imperfect for
description.
From the colored agillaceous strata I obtained nothing but a rock-
ipedmen of limestone of a lead blue color, almost entirely composed
of small orbitolites, but I did not preserve it, not knowing at the time
from whence it came.
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56 GEOLOGY OF THE SOUTH-EAST COAST OF ARABIA. [Jan.
Nor did I see anjthii^ in the micaceons sandstone worth noting,
except a tessehited arrangement of a stratum in the lower part, over which
the path passed, leading from Marbat to the base of the table-land. It is
on the short plain here which extends outwards from the base of the latter
to the border of the torrent bed, and is raised about 30 feet above the level
of the sea. At first I thought this was the tiled surface of a floor
belonging to some old building, but a few moments* reflection and
observation convinced me that it was the cracked surface of the stra-
tum, which must have been formed at the time of its deposit. The
cracks had been an inch wide, and had been filled up with a dark ferru-
ginous sand, which contrasted strongly in color with the white coarse-
grained quartziferous sand of the stratum generally, and therefore of
those parts which it surrounded. This ferruginous deposit or cement had
cracked again in its centre, and so the whole of the divisions had
become more or less loose and separable. They are of course of various
sizes, and of all kinds of polygonal shapes, and about three inches thick :
the ferruginous sand not only coats their sides, but their lower surfaces
as well, and it is probably owing to the presence of the iron that this
remarkable feature has been preserved. It shows us plainly that this part
in particular of the sandstone must have been deposited at the level of the
sea, where the tide now and then overflowed it (for no cracking could take
place under the sea), and that too before the 4000 feet of strata now above
it were deposited ; and, as the uppermost stratum of the latter contains the
remains of animals which must have been deposited in the sea, these
cracks farther show that this portion of the sandstone must have gone
down at least 4000 feet since they were formed, and have returned to a
position higher than that even in which it was first deposited. I took
particular care to ascertain the correctness of this by observations made
on the spot, and brought away some of the loosened divisions for closer
examination ; and the total absence of calcareous material in them, con-
nected with their containing particles of mica, and being of the same
composition as the sandstone in which they are found, at once places
beyond doubt the possibility of their being a subsequent formation*
Neither can these divisions, or the sandstone in which they exist,
be confounded with any other above it, because there is no other of
the kind ; and if it had been a portion of the same sandstone disinte-
grated and re-deposited, it must have contained more or less particles of
carbonate of lime, from the detritus of the older rocks, and the sea in
which it was re-deposited ; for every formation which has taken place
subsequently to, above or alongside this sandstone, does contain more
or less calcareous material.
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1852.] MARBAT. 67
I had not time to examine these sandstone strata much, or probably
I might have met with some fossils in them.
Having, then, seen the igneous tract at Marbat, and traced the strata
of the table-land to its summity let us now return for a few moments to
the granite plain, where we shall find a modem formation, well worthy
of oar attention, and which we shall have to trace on for some distance,
and indentify with similar ones which we have passed, for it will be
some way before we can again get a section of the table-land ; and in
the mean Ume we must occupy ourselves with the no less important
deposits which lie along its base.
Capping the plain of Marbat, the highest part of which I have before
stated is about 30 feet above the level of the sea, is a granular deposits
eomposed chiefly of particles of carbonate of lime, with which are mixed
more or leas grains of quartz and hornblende, from the igneous rocks
on which it reposes. It is about a yard in thickness, and extends in all
directions over the plain to within a mile of the sea. It contains a
great munber of organic remains, consisting chiefly of casts of small
Conchacea. This indeed is the fossil character of the deposit. The houses
at Marbat are built with it, and some of the headstones of the graves
there are made from slabs of it, which will show that it is of considerable
consistence. It fills the inland extremities and crevices of the fissures,
which I have stated to extend through this plain to the sea, and there
contains very large shells ; and adherent to the side of the group of
granite hills at the bottom of the bay is a large mass of it, the upper
part of which is 30 feet above the level of the sea. Here it presents a
vast quantity of corals, with gigantic shells of Hippopus, Ostrea, &c. All
these shells have lost their animal matter, and are more or less friable
and pulverulent. This formation in its more subtle material closely cor-
responds with the milioUtic deposit at Ras Abu Ashrin, and when we
have proceeded a Uttle onwards from the igneous rocks, we shall find
its composition and appearance to be almost identical with it, while at
Marbat it more resembles that part of the miliolitic deposit which we
have seen resting on the dioritic rocks, near the village of Gyren, in
the island of Masira.
Between this formation and the water's edge is a coarser deposit, which
overlaps the former, and is composed of rounded gravel from the granite
rocks, held t<^ther by a whiter matrix than that of the first deposit ;
and, still nearer the sea, a third, still more white, and apparently more
recent, the upper surface of which is about 12 feet above the level of
Ligh-water mark.
The fossils obtained from this and the foregoing deposits were : —
8
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68 GEOLOGY OF THB SOUTH-EAST COAST OF ARABIA. [JaN.
Lncina ? — (Cast.) Breadth 1 inch, height 1 inch. Loc. Marbat» in
the miliolitic deposit lying on the granite plain. Obt. — There were
many other biyalyes present, smaller than this, but none so numerous.
Venus. — F.puerpera vel eorbit (Lam.) mihi. (Specimen imperfect.)
Breadth 3 inches, height 3 inches. Cancellated, the lines projecting a
a httle at their points of decussation. Loe. Marbat, in the deposit
between the latter and the water's edge.
Ostrea.-^ Speeie^? Inferior valve oval. Length 8 inches, breadth
5 inches. Deep, patuleut ; muscular impression sub-central, lateral ;
straight posteriorly, convex anteriorly. Impression of hinge concave
rhomboidal, wavy, terminated by a straight border anteriorly, and by
an ill-defined one posteriorly. Margin crenulated for a short distance on
each side the hinge ; afterwards simple, wavy. Upper valve thin ante-
riorly, thickened posteriorly, with a deep angular longitudinal groove in
the centre. Loc, Marbat, from the miliolitic deposit at the end of a
fissure in the granite plain.
I should also mention another formation here, which is seen on the
inner side of the group of granite hills next the base of the table-land.
It forms part of a deposit prior to the miliolitic on the granite plain,
and is better seen a little further on, for here it only peeps above the
sand close to the sea at the part I have mentioned. It consists of a
coarse cellular limestone, in which are sparsely scattered rounded por-
tions of hyaline quartz, and particles of other minerals from the igneous
rocks, together with a few remnants of small fossilized shells. Its color,
which is of a dark brown, like that of moist brown sugar, as well as its
appearance, at once characterizes it among the other deposits, and not
less so the extreme craggedness into which it wears by the action of the
waves. It is sometimes saccharoid, and generally effervesces slowly
with acids.
Having described this rock, let us now proceed along the coast ; and,
leaving the granite hills of Marbat, we cross the bed of the torrent
mentioned to the base of the table-land, following which for four miles
over a narrow plain between it and the beach, partly obscured by drifl-
sand, we at length arrive at an abrupt elevation of this plain to 100
feet above the level of the sea, and presenting a sea-chff of the same
height. This cliff is continued on, broken through here and there by
a torrent bed, to the village of Takah, about twelve miles distant. Four
miles west of Marbat I examined it, and afterwards a rock, called the
island of Guena, which is of the same height, close to it, and the geolo-
gical section of both, from above downwards, is as follows : —
First, five feet of a granular calcareous sandy deposit, like the
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1862.] MARBAT TO TAKAH. 69
miHofite mentioned, in which are imhedded rounded pebbles of the
rfder limestone. Then a narrow stratum of compact, coarse, shelly,
impure limestone, of a light whitish color, resting on a httle thicker
stratum of dark brown limestone, of the kind stated to exist behind
the granite hills at Marbat, which, in its turn again, reposes on a com-
pact white limestone, breaking with a conchoidal fracture, and an eren
surface. The brown limestone here is more saocharoid in its structure
than at Marbat, and contains a little magnesia ; in its upper part is
sparingly scattered small rounded quartz gravel, from the igneous rocks,
and below it presents white spots, which are but large pebbles of compact
limestone, from the older formation, now almost indistinguishably
Mended with it.
When we approach the end of this sea-cliiF, which is at Takah, we
might expect, as it appears to be all of the same height, to find the same
strata again, but instead of this we find a complete absence of them,
and in their place an entirely different limestone, which extends to the
summit of the cliff. This limestone, which is more or less earthy, and
of a white pinkish color, is richly charged with Orbitoides of the
following description : —
Orbitoides. — Jst Speeiea? Flat, circular, coropresed, more or less
waiy. Breadth ^V inch, thickness in the centre tV ioch. Gradually
sloping to a thin circumference. External surfaces tuberculated towards
the middle? Presenting a horizontal plane of rectangular chambers,
passing through the centre, with laminiform cells on both sides. Loc.
diff at Takah.
2nd Species ? Circular, doubly convex, terminating
in a rim of unequal breadth. Convexities sub-central. Breadth -iVinch,
thickness -^ inch. External surfaces tubercled over the convexities.
Internally presenting a horizontal line of chambers, passing though
the centre, from which white lines of laminiform cells radiate to the
circumference. Loe. idem,
' 3rd Speciee ? A little larger than the foregoing, but
with the rim turned up, like that of a hat. Loc, idem.
4th Species ? The same kind, but one side only pre-
senting the hemispherical elevation. Loc, idem,
Operculina. — Species ? Sub-eUiptical, very thin. Length ^\ inch,
breadth ^ inch. Consisting of two whorls. Chambers apparent
externally, long, narrow, and much reflected, increasing in length sud-
denly after the first whorl. Externally presenting minute tubercles,
disposed over the commencement of the whorls, and then following the
lines of the chambers. Loc, cliff at Takah.
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60 GEOLOGY OF THE SOUTH-EAST COAST OF ARABIA. [JaN.
Q^g, — ^Xhe second species is Lycophris dispatuus, which abounds
at Lnkput, in Cutch. (Ghranf s Qeol. Cutch. pi. xxiv. fig. 16. Greol.
Trans, vol. vi. 4to.) What I hare described as several species may
be after all but varieties of one animal, for they appear to assmne all
kinds of shapes. They abound in Sindh, and one extraordinary form
of them there resembles two convexo-concave disks, joined together by
their convexities. The first species is not improbably a nummuUte, as
both Lycophria eU^atuut and large nummulites occur together in
Cutch, and appear to pass into each other, while my description is
chiefly taken from sections and half exposed specimens imbedded in the
parent rock. Dr. Carpenter, who has given some beautiful sections of
Orbitoides in the Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. vol. vi. Plates 4 — 8, considers,
page 36, these fossils to be allied *' rather to the nummulites than to the
orbitolites," and in his concluding paragraph states : " The Foraminife-
rous character of Orbitoides appears further to be indicated by the pre-
sence, in all the species I have examined by sections taken though the
centre, of the large globular cavity (i^. 35, a), resembling that which
is stated by M. D'Orbigny and Mr. Williamson to be the ordinary
form of the first segment of the Foraminifera, whatever may be the
form which the compound structure may subsequently present."
The character, however, on which I would place most reliance, in
pronouncing these fossils to belong to Foraminifera, is the spiral
arrangement of the central plane of cells, which I think not quite so
satisfactorily shown not to be the case in fig. 31 of the sections to which
I have referred, wherein Dr. Carpenter states, p. 32, the cells may be
seen '* arranged in regular concentric rows," as one could wish. No
doubt it is very difficult to hit upon the centre of this plane in speci-
mens where it is very thin, but until I can do this myself, or see that it
has been done by others, I shall not be satisfied that Orbitoides are
without this character, which the imperceptible gradations of nummu-
lites into them would ^ priori lead one so strongly to suspect.
Whatever the structure of these fossils may be, or however numerous
their varieties and species, their presence at Takah,not far from the centre
of the South-east Coast of Arabia, is sufficient proof of the existence of
the Nummulitic Series here ; though I am ignorant of the exact position
in the series which these fossils occupy. Hence we must regard the diff
at Takah, which has only an elevation of 90 feet above the level of the
sea, as a part of this formation, and, moreover, we must regard.it as
a part of the compact white limestone, breaking with a conchoidal
fractiire, on which some miles back in this cliff we saw the dark brown
limestone reposing. The end of the diff at Takah, that is the part
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1852.] TAKAH AND DOFAR. 61
imder confflderation, has undergone much disturbance, and, though
low, has fallen forward in great square blocks, which present a large
quantity of corals in their composition, while the rents in the plain
between the base of the table-land, here transformed into mountains,
and the sea, a distance of about two miles, bear ample testimony of the
distorting forces to which this locality has been subjected. It is op-
posite Takah, as before stated, that the bed of recent Operculina exists,
in twenty-five £Kthoms water, with a fine sandy bottom, which are
identical with that species which forms whole strata almost, in the
Nummulitic Series at M^kat. Hundreds of them came up on the
grease of the sounding-lead at each throw, and for several miles in
extent, when this part of the coast was surveyed.
At Takah, as just mentioned, the sea-cliff ends, and the maritime
plain between the base of the high land and the sea sinks from 100
to about 10 feet above the latter ; it also expands westward from this
point, for the mountains recede, and give place to a flat area, twenty-
two miles long, and firom ten to fifteen miles deep in the centre : this is
called Dofar, and is the most fertile district on the coast. Over this
phdn is spread a continuation of the miliolitic deposit, which we have
seen topping the plain at Marbat, and the low cliff just passed, but it
is more uniform in its composition, and more free from dark particles
of the igneous rocks ; hence it closely resembles the miliolite at Ras
Abu Ashrin. On it are the remains of several towns, one of which,
called £1 B&l&d, I have described, i" They were built of this freestone,
and they contain a vast number of columns, ornamented in arabesque,
which have nearly lost their figured surfaces where exposed to the
weather. This deposit seems to average about 10 or 12 feet in
depth. In many parts of it there are extensive cracks, or khora as
they are locally called, some close to the beach, which are always full to
the brim of firesh water ; that, for instance, at El BU^, is more than
two miles long, and in one part about 100 yards broad, and flows
over the beach, though no stream can be seen running into it. It is
the presence of these khora^ and the looseness of the soil, which renders
Dofar so fertile, in comparison with the rest of the coast.
Passing along the cord, or sea shore of this half-moon-shaped
plain, we at length arrive at its opposite or western extremity, where
the high land, as at Takah, comes out again to within nearly the
same distance of the sea ; we also find this end of the plain elevated
agun to about the same height as at Takah, and consequently a sea-cliff
* Journal Royal Geograph. Soc. Vol. VI. Trans. Bombay Geograph. Soc.
Vol. VII.
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62 OBOLOGY OP THB SOUTH-EAST COAST OF ARABIA. [JaN«
in front of it, which presents asimilar geological section to that examin-
ed four miles west of Marhat ; commencing from helow upwards, it
is as follows : —
At high-water-mark, or a little lower, is a white compact limestone,
of a fine structure, and breaking with a conchoidal fracture, on which
rests the dark brown limestone first seen beside the granite hills at
Marbat, close to the sea ; this is ten and a half feet thick here, and
presents, in its upper part, a stratum, two and half feet thick, of large
rounded pebbles; these pebbles are of compact white limestone, and are
from the older formations. On them lies a bed of large oysters, one
and a half feet thick, and with these the color of the limestone changes
from dark brown to a greenish reddish dirty white ; it also now becomes
shelly, and presents radiated masses of columnar coral, with a great
number of casts of smallish bivalve shells (Conchacea et Ostrea) ;
further it is rendered more or less impure, and derives its reddish color
from the presence of red argillaceous earth, disseminated here and
there throughout the whole mass ; this stratum, including the bed of
oysters, is seven and a half feet thick. Next above it comes seven feet
of still more impure limestone, composed chiefly of small rounded gra-
vel from the older limestone, mixed with an increased quantity of red
argillaceous earth, which gives the whole stratum a red color. And on
it again comes twenty feet of white shelly limestone, similar to that first
described. This forms the section of the cliff, and against the upper part
of the dark brown limestone and lower white shelly limestone rests the
miliolitic deposit of Dofar, six or eight feet above high-water-mark, filling
many holes in the former, which have been made by lithodomous ani-
mals, and containing oysters of the same kind as those of a bed close
by. Walking inland from the cliff, however, for about a mile, we come
to fifty feet of limestone gravel, and pieces of flint, imbedded in red
argillaceous earth, similar to that mentioned, and this is capped again by
five feet of limestone pebbles and flints of a large kind, with less red
earth. These deposits add to the thickness of the section, but will be
found by-and-bye to depend probably on local causes.
Hence we see that here, about the centre of the South-east Coaat of
Arabia, we not only have the miliolite, but we have, in addition, another
Uttoral deposit, viz. the compact brown limestone, with the whiter
shelly limestone above it, making in all about fifty feet in thickness of
a deposit totally different from, and lying inferior to the miliolite ; and
that it rests on a compact limestone, belonging to the older formation,
must be inferred from the presence of the nummulites? and orbitoides
in the cliff at Takah, on which a few miles back the brown lime«
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1852.] BAY OP RE8UT. 63
Stone 18 seen to repose, but this will become more evident as we pro-
ceed.
IhiTe stated that the mountains adrance towards the coast here, but
Ae coast-line also turns here from running east and west, to south,
and then south-east, a little way before it resumes its original direction ;
that is it is r^ected to form a little bay here, called the Bay of Resut ;
nd hence the maritime lowland, which is narrowed at this end of
I^ofar, is widened again, not in this instance by the mountains
Tccedbg from the shore, but by an advancement of the lowland upon
^ ses, and with this advancement the lowland also is bordered
externally by a ridge, which in one part is 700 feet high, and scarped
apoD the sea throughout. Thus, then, we have a valley between the
sea-cBff of this ridge and the mountains ; a small promontory formed
bj the end of the ridge, called Ras Resut, and inside it the bay
mentioned of the same name. Now into this bay we have the opening
of a torrent bed a mile wide, coming not only from the valley itself,
hnt from among the mountains, and the section of the difif just given
is taken frtnn the inner comer of the opening of this torrent bed upon
ike sea. This, then, accounts for the additional strata of red earth,
iints, and pebbles, before mentioned, and which we did not see in the
section taken four miles west of Marbat, where the cliff is vnthin two
Biiles of the base of the mountains, and on a straight part of the coast,
fiur removed ftom the influence of any great torrent deposit. We there-
fore must not include in this littoral deposit this 50 feet of red earth,
pebbles, &c., because it is evidently a local accumulation.
Passing across the sandy beach which lies in front, and in the dry
weather closes the mouth of this torrent bed, we arrive at its opposite
or external comer, which is close to the base of the ridge mentioned,
and that of the small promontory which shelters the bay. This comer,
like the other, presents a low cliff, consisting of little more than the dark
hrown limestone we saw on the other side, and which, running along the
base of the promontory parallel to the sea, and scarped upon it for about
eight feet, is washed by the waves into that extreme cragginess so charac-
teristic of the stratum in other parts. This deposit rises no higher,
while the height of the promontory is two or three hundred feet above
the aea at its base, and two hundred at its extremity. Here, then, we
have compact white limestone rising up to form the ridge of the promon-
tory, while we have the dark brown limestone remaining in a horizontal
line at its base. Nothing, therefore, can be more plain than that this
white compact limestone, which we have seen all along underlying the
dark brown limestone, is a part of another series, and the presence of
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64 GEOLOGY OP THE SOUTH-EAST COAST OF ARABIA. [J AN.
the nummulites ? and orbitoides at Takah, as before stated, shows that
this is the Nummuhtie Series.
Hence there are here, nearly in the centre of the South-east Coast of
Arabia, two distinct littoral formations, later than the white limestone
strata forming the tops of the mountains ; and as this part of the coast,
in which they are so evidently seen, is also circumscribed by natural
limits, I will briefly recapitulate what I have stated respecting it,
before preceding further.
We have just seen that there are two bays here, which look towards
each other, the one called Marbat, the other Resut ; and they are
separated by forty miles of coast, running £. and W., which is straight,
and backed by the table-land the whole way. At Marbat we have seen
a plain of igneous rocks, and the precipitous face of the table-land, which
hes behind them ; and in the bottom of the bay we have seen a dark
brown compact limestone formation peeping above the sand close to the
sea on the inner side of the granite hills, at the base of the table-land ;
a miholitic deposit capping the granitic plain, and a still more modem
deposit towards its circumference. We have also seen, four miles west
of Marbat, the cliff of the maritime plain there, narrow, raised 100 feet
above the sea, and presenting a dark brown, rough limestone, resting
on a compact white one breaking with a conchoidal fracture ; above
the brown limestone, a stratum of a lighter color, but still compact, and
then five feet of the miliolite, with rolled limestone pebbles of the older
formation. Following this cliff for a certain distance, we have found the
compact white limestone at the base rising to 90 feet high at Takah, and
denuded of the other strata, but giving us decided evidence of its num-
mulitic character, by the presence of nummulites 7 and orbitoides. Then
we have the miliolitic deposit spreading out over the district of Dofar ;
and at Besut the dark brown limestone again forming part of the
sea-cliff, and resting, as before, on the compact white limestone, which,
in the outer half of the bay, rises from below it to form the upper part
of the promontory of Resut. Above the dark brown hmestone here
also we have an impure white compact limestone, as in the cliffs between
Marbat and Takah ; and adhering to the side of the cliff, which is partly
formed by these two in the Bay of Resut, a portion of the miliolitic deposit.
Thus we have the same kind of littoral deposits throughout the straight
part of this portion of the coast, and the same at the bays of Resut and
Marbat, but with this difference, that the fundamental rock of the former
is limestone, and that of the latter granite. There is an entire absence
of igneous rocks at Resut, whereas at Marbat there are hardly anything
else.
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1852.] RESUT TO HAS SEJAR. 65
From Has Resut, which at its extremity is about 200 feet high, a
sea-cliff is coDtinued on for twenty-three miles, to the base of the great
promontory called Ras Sej£lr, which is formed by the advancement of
the momitainous tract upon the sea. This cliff I had not an oppor-
tunity of examining much, as it is perpendicular, and rises directly out
of the water. What I did observe, however, b interesting.
I have just stated that there is an entire absence of igneous rocks at
Resat, but, though this is the case, they are not far distant, one would
think, for not only the limestone of the cape is shivered into atoms,
and rendered pink by heat, but six miles further on the base of the cliff
is similarly fractured where it is 700 feet high. This point is called
Ras Hammar, and is the maximum altitude of the cliff. Ras Hammar
is composed of compact white limestone above, and of the comminutely
fractmred limestone mentioned below, but I am ignorant of what lies
between, further than that the whole is white calcareous strata, and that
among these there are some of a marly cretaceous nature, from which
the Bedouins cut their pipes, similar to that at Marbat. The brecciated
limestone, for such it is, from the crevices having been filled up by a
cement, and that too of the same material, is of a dense compact fine
structure, lithographic, but breaking with a splintery fracture, heavy
aud hard, and of a Hght grey color. By a rough analysis, it contains
from 12 to 15 per cent, of magnesia. Its specific gravity is 3.3. It
scarcely effervesces with acids until pulverized, and its great weight
and hardness appear to be owing to the presence of silex.
In this limestone is a cavern, similar to those which abound in the
mountains, and one of which I visited near Takah. Its base is just
above high-water-mark, and its roof is about 30 feet high, and hung
with stalactites, not of magnesian limestone, but of sulphate of lime.
From the face of the cliff presenting innumerable excavations of litho-
domous animals, on a parallel with the upper part of the roof, and the
brecciated state of the limestone, it is probable that this cavern com-
menced with the latter, and was subsequently washed out by the waves,
while the cliff was rising from the sea. That which I visited, near
Takah, is in the mountains, and I have given a description of it in this
Journal.* It was inhabited, and is about 150 feet span and 50 feet
high, (not yards, as stated from oversight in the description to which
I have referred,) and 30 yards deep. Its roof is also smoothed, and
hang with thick stalactites : another cavern, of equal dimensions, close
by, had fallen in. We saw some from the vessel in the elevated scarps
of the mountains in different localities, which, judging from the size
• Vol. III. >'o. xiv. p. 253.
9
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66 OEOLOOY OP THE SOUTH-EAST COAST OF ARABIA. [JaN.
they i4)peared at the distance we were from them, must be of
enormous dimensions. They form the principal habitations of the
Bedouins of these parts, and descend from father to son as hereditary
property.
From Ras Hammar we pass along the remaining part of this cliff to
the base of Ras Sej&r, which it joins after a distance of twenty-five
miles from Ras Resut ; diminishing gradually in height after Ras Ham-
mar, until it arrives at this point. Ras Sej&r is the largest and highest
promontory on this coast : it is an advancement upon the sea of the
great mountainous tract which from this point souUi-westwards, for a
distance of sixty miles, presents no maritime plain whatever, but des-
cends directly to the sea in long slopes or in precipitous steps. The
ridge of the promontory has been computed by trigonometrical mea-
surement to be 3380 feet above the level of the sea, and the bluff at its
extremity 2770 feet. The eastern side is scarped perpendiculariy
for 800 feet, and the strata, which are composed of white and grey
limestone, are disposed horizontally. At one part of the talus of this
cliff is a little island, on which exists the dark brown limestone and
miliolitic deposits seen in Dofar, but the latter is much finer in
structure. After this I did not recognise the brown limestone, though
doubtlessly it or its representative exists here and there throughout this
coast.
The south-eastern side of Ras Sej&r, which is parallel with the
coast, and its south-western extremity, the highest point of the ci^e,
present an almost vertical scarp, in which the strata are seen to dip
towards the north-east ; while on the south-western side, the same
horizontality is seen which we observed on the eastern side, but with a
scarp rising by high precipices and narrow shelves to the ridge of the pro-
montory, which I have before stated to be 3380 feet above the level of
the sea. At the point where the coast line turns from running N. £.
and S. W. to about N. W., for a short distance, is the great bluff oi
Ras Sej&r, and the following is its geological section, from below up-
wards:—
The first 25 feet above the sea is composed of a fine-grained mica-
ceous sandstone or quartzite, of a blueish grey color, thinly stratified,
and breaking with a rough fracture across the planes of stratification.
It is weathered into holes indicative of the presence of organic remains,
and in some parts is veined with white quartz. There is hardly
any difference, except in color, between it and the upper part of the
micaceous sandstone at Marbat. On this rests 175 feet of vari^;ated
argillaceous strata, principally of a red color, containing many fossils.
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1852.] RAS SBJAR. 67
and above all agfiin the white limestone strata, which, deducting the
thiclcDess of the sandstone and colored deposit from the total height of
the bluff, amounU to 2570 feet.
Having on the base of this section measured with my eye, as
carefully as I could, the height of the lower projection of the hluff
above the sea, for I had no means of obtaining it in any other way,
I find, when I come to multiply this on the outlines of the bluff,
vhich I made at different distances, that the latter does not amount to
more than 1950 feet ahove the sea, which m 820 feet less than it was
computed to be hy trigonometrical measurement : possibly, and not
improbably, from the place where the base was measured, the angle was
taken from a point much higher than the summit of the real bluff.
The height of the limestone bluff at the island of H&lULniyah being
1645 feet, and the estimated thickness of the limestone at Marbat about
1800 feet, together with the trigonometrical measurement of the scarp
of the next promontory we shall come to, which is limestone from the
water's edge to its summit, being 1900 feet, seems also to indicate, from
the thickness of the limestone at these places, that my measurement of
the blnff at Ras Sej&r is more correct than that obtained by triangnlation»
hot probably from the reason above mentioned.
I collected no fossik from Ras Sej^, beyond some small imperfect
specimens of the genus Turritells ? from the colored strata.
It is to the blue grey sandstone of this promontory that the late
Capt. Newbold alluded when hinting at the origin of the quartzite
pebbles in the conglomerate underlying the nummulitic strata at Mfiskat,
and resting on the euphotide and diorite of that locality.'*' A little
farther in from the extremity of Ras Sej^r on the south-west side»
where the precipitous part of the promontory is much higher than at
the cape, this sandstone is also raised to 300 feet above the level of the
sea ; and my impression is that here, as well as at Marbat, its strata
are not parallel with those immediately overlying them, but dip towards
the north ; still I am far from being certain that this is the case.
As on the other parts of the coast, so on the lower part of Ras Sej&r,
there is a thick line of the miliolitic deposit, adhering to the side of the
cKff, 1 50 to 200 feet above the level of the sea. On the south-western
nde of the promontory I think I also saw it again, reaching down
to the water, for there are dwellings excavated there in a yellowish
iriate deposit, which can only be this or micaceous sandstone, and
it is not likely to be the latter, from its hardness and dark color. At
all events, it exists again at Rakot, a little village at the mouth of a
• This Journal, Vol. III. Part ii. p. 27.
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68 GBOLOGY OF THE SOUTH-EAST COAST OF ARABIA. [JaN.
ravine-like valley, seven miles to the westward of Rus Sejilr. Here it
is of considerable height and thickness, and of a finer structure than
any on the coast. While I was knocking off some specimens, the Be-
douins who were with me asked me if I wanted any khat, which
means " white writing chalk," because, if I did, it was to be found
in the upper part of Ras Sejftr. From this it would appear that the chalky
stratum we have met with here and there from the island of Hammar el
Nafur onwards also exists on the top of this cape.
Betweeu the last named nllage and a town called Damkot, some
miles further on, are more dwellings, close to the sea, at the bottom of
the slope of the high land. These also appear to be cut out of the
miliolitic deposit : the place is called Jad&b. The high land also pre-
sents a more extended tabular outline here than hitherto met with, and
continues to do so on to the neighbourhood of Damkot, forty-five miles
from Ras Sejftr, where it becomes broken, and thrown up into
mountainous peaks again, the summits of which are about 3000 feet
above the sea. This form of the coast continues on for some distance,
viz. to the opening of a valley called Shagot, where the coast-line turns
to the south, and the scarped mountainous ridge, here precepitous upon
the sea, pursues its original course south-west, under the name of
the Fattak range. A lowland shore, therefore, commences at this point,
which, as the coast trends southward, is continued on till it meets the
lower hills of a mountainous ridge called the Fartak range, a distance
of forty miles. Between these two points, viz. the Fattak and the
Fartak ranges, it extends inland or south-westward as far as the eye
can reach, and is the only part of this coast where the mountain ridges
which face the south-east appear to be separatedby any great interval.
The sea-cliff of this lowland varies with the height of the lowland itself,
but seldom reaches 100 feet. I had an opportunity of examining it about
Its centre, where its cliff is 60 feet high, and the following is the
section from above downwards : —
First six feet of a coarse sub-cellular limestone, breaking with a
rough fracture, and of a light brown color, resembling in structure
the dark brown limestone of Resut. This becomes mottled with red
about its lower part, and passes into a red ai^illaceous chalky deposit,
which at the water's edge becomes of a greenish white color, uniform in
its dark appearance and structure, and of a moderate hardness. Here
also, 15 feet above high-water-mark, is a line of the miliolitic deposit,
adhering to the side of the cliff, and composed of the calcareous sandy
material before noticed, in which are imbedded a number of shells.
There is a pebbly beach at this jilace, composed of rounded pieces
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1852.] THE BAY OF EL KAMMAR. 69
of more or less compact limestone, and concretionary flints ; also here
and there a large piece of extremely fine limestone, of a lithographic
stracture, from one to three feet in diameter, probably the altered
remaim of fosaillized madrepore. I saw no pebbles or traces of igneous
rocks here ; indeed this part of the coast seems to have undergone less
disturbance than any other, although the Une of miliohtic deposit shows
that, like the rest, it is experiencing gradual elevation.
The cliff of which this is a section is more or less continuous from
this point on to the lower hills of the Fartak range, which commences
in an angle close to the sea. One side of it runs inland and south-west-
wards, which is the grand direction of the range, and the other south-
wards, to end in the cape called Has Fartak. This angle is about
fourteen miles from the cape. Here the strata of the lowland cliff
also become elevated, broken up, and confused, and thb confusion
extends to within six miles of the cape, where the irregularity ceases,
and the uppermost stratum of the white Umestone series can be seen
emerging from the water, and pursuing its course to the top of the
escarpment, which is 1900 feet above the level of the sea, after which it
assumes a horizontal direction, and continues on to the summit of the
cape : in this way stratum after stratum of this cliff may be seen rising
from beneath the water, until the lowest runs almost parallel with it ;
BO that no better place could be visited than this for examining deli-
berately and without interruption the strata of which this great lime-
stone formation is composed. I had only an opportunity of visiting
one part of it, and this was where the strata had become horizontal, and
where a portion of the face of the cliff, having fallen off, enabled me
to obtain from the talus thus formed a knowledge of a good extent of
the lower part of it. It consists of more or less compact, more or
less cavernous, and more or less saccharoid white limestone, which again
is more or less mottled, or rather veined with dark brown saccharoid
magnesian limestone. I saw no traces of fossils in it, except a few minute
species of Foraminifera, of the genus AlveoHna (d'Orbigny). In one
part the rock is entirely saccharoid, sparkling, uniform in structure,
and of a grey color, in fact dolomitic, and on a rough analysis yields
16.4 per cent, of magnesia, with a specific gravity of 3.07. It is an
interesting fact, bearing, perhaps, upon the formation of dolomite,
that the dark veined portions here are of magnesian limestone, efferves-
cing feebly vnth acids, while the whiter portions bubble up as usual
when touched with them.
As we approach this extremity of the Fartak range, which forms the
cape called Bas Fartak, and which is also the south-western limit of
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70 GEOLOGY OF THE SOUTH-BAST COAST OP ARABIA. [JaN.
the great bay of £1 Kammar, a reddish tiDt makes its appearance at
the base of the cliff, close to the water, and on turning the comer we
obsenre, by the truncated end of the cape, that this is the commence-
ment of the argillaceous strata, which, rising towards the west at an angle
of45^ reach an altitude of from 1000 to 1200 feet on the opposite
side of the cape. The base of the cape, I should state, is much in
advance of the upper portion, and this advanced part consists of the
series mentioned, to the geological section of which let us now turn our
attention, having considered that of the white limestone strata which
lie above and behind it, on the eastern side of the cape. Commencing
from the summit of this advanced portion, and proceeding downwards,
(though this section was obtained by following the base of the cape from
east to west, and noting the strata as they emerge successively from the
sea,) we have at first 300 feet of fine compact limestone, of a light
violet color, breaking with a smooth conchoidal fracture, and contain-
ing small Orhitolites, and other fossils. Then a wide stratum (say 50
feet thick) of a red argillaceous limestone, presenting the same kind of
fossils, but more numerous, with Echinodermata. Next follows 20
feet of greenish yellow argillo-calcareous strata, splitting into thin
laminse, on which are seen the remains of a few minute bivalve shells,
and marks similar to those made on mud by small crabs and annelides.
After this comes 10 feet of a red, ferruginous-looking, argillaceous
limestone, and, following it, a stratum of a blueish grey argillo-cal-
careous siliceous shale, exhibiting, where exposed to the atmosphere, a
jointed structure, and thick laminee. This is succeeded by 30 feet of
blue marl, compact above, and soft below, in which are remains of
Echinodermata, Ostracea of the genus Exogyra, and pyrites. Next
comes 300 feet of impure limestone, compact, and of a pinkish grey
color, the lowest hundred feet of which (the only part I examined)
is almost wholly composed of small Orhitolites, with the remains of a few
small Echinodermata. This is the last stratum towards the west which
emerges from the sea : it is opposite the little village of Khais^t. Aft;er
this, the remaining part of the extremity of the cape is confronted by
a narrow sandy beach, from beneath and behind which the colored
strata continue to rise in the same manner as from the sea, to the
extent of 500 feet in thickness : this 500 feet is composed of impure
limestone, compact, and of a dark red color, and ferruginous aspect ;
fossiliferous, and abounding in large cavities and fissures, which
appear to have been caused by some subterranean force, for the rock
has been shattered throughout, and cemented together again by its own
material. Among the more thinly stratified deposits of the upper part
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of these colored strata are bands of brighter colors, which hare not been
mentioned : these consist of much the same kind of material as that
with which they are in contact, or form a part, and give to the whole a
^negated appearance when near, but, when viewed at a distance, are
lost in the prevailing red color of this series.
The following are the fossils which I gathered from these strata here
And at Has SharwSn, the next large cape, which is sixty miles further
west, but a part of the same formation : —
ZOOPHYTA.
Astrea.— J. texiilu, Goldf. (Tab. 23, fig 3.) mihi. Hemispheric,
covered with conical projections, which are more prominent in the upper
P*rt than towards the base ; and marked vnth striae, which radiate from
^r summits. Horizontal diameter tV inch. Loc. Ras Fartak, from
'"* pinkish grey limestone.
Orbitolites. — Ist Species? Conical, obtuse, excavated. Breadth VV
^^j height -rV inch. External surface presenting striae in concentric
^^ \ internal surface presenting striae radiating from the centre to the
^^^'^mference. Structure solid, composed of minute cells. Loc,
^ Fartak, chiefly in the pinkish grey limestone.
2nd Species ? Conical^ acute^ deeply excavated.
Breadth \ inch, height Vw inch. External surface presenting striae in
concentric rings. Structure solid, composed of minute cells. Loc, idem,
3rd Species ? Flat, circular, wavy, thick ; diminish-
ing in thickness towards the circumference. Breadth iV inch, thickness
iV inch. Loc, idem,
4th Species? Discoidal, flat, and extremely thin.
Breadth VV inch. External surface presenting striae in concentric rings.
Loc, Upper red stratum. Has Fartak.
ECHINODKRMATA.
Spatangus. — 1st Species? (Spec, imperfect.) Oval. Length nearly
H inch* breadth anteriorly 1| inch. Truncated posteriorly, slightly
grooved anteriorly, ridged posteriorly. Ambulacra five, sub-petaloid, all
the same length, in deep furrows. Vent sub-dorsal. Base impecfect.
Loc. Bas Sharw^n.
2nd Species ? Thick, round, heartnshaped. Length
1} inch, breadth anteriorly l-iV inch, and height 1 inch. Grooved
antero-dorsally. Ambulacra five, two anterior shortest. Buccal orifice
snb-terminal, simple. Base not carinated. Vent sub-dorsal. Genital
pores four. Loc. idem. Obs. — There is another specimen similar to
thisy and from the same locality, \\ inch long.
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72 GEOLOGY OF THE SOUTH-EAST COAST OF ARABIA. [JaN.
Spatangiis. — 3rd Species ? Thick, round, heart-shaped, like
the foregoing, but much smaller. Length K inch, breadth anteriorly
\^ inch, and height -rV inch, hoc, idem.
Discoidea, (Or.) — Ist <Speet><.^ Sub-pentagonal, excavated. Breadth
2 inches, height 1 inch. Ambulacra extending to the buccal orifice,
vhich is median. Vent sub-marginal, pear-shaped, convex posteriorly.
Genital pores five. Loc, Ras Sharwen.
2nd Species ? Conical, circular, elongated to-
wards the apex, which is acute. Breadth I-tt inch, height A inch. Am-
bulacra, buccal orifice, vent, and genital pores the same as in the fore-
going. Loc, idem,
3rd Species ? Sub-pentagonal, conical. Breadth
1^ inch, height ^ inch. Buccal orifice, vent, &c. the same as in the
foregoing species. Loc, idem,
4th Species^ Sub-pentagonal, convex. Breadth
Itt inch, height -/^ inch. Buccal orifice, vent, &c. the same as in
the foregoing species. Loc, idem.
5th Species ? Conical. Breadth 1 \ inch, height
tV inch. Vent sub-marginal, longitudinal, pointed at each extremity.
Buccal orifice, pores, &c. as in the foregoing species. Loc, idem.
6th Species ? Circular, convex. Breadth ItV
inch, height A inch. Buccal orifice, vent, geuital pores, &c. the same
as in the last. Loc, idem,
7th Species ? Circular, depressed. Breadth l^V
inch, height iV inch. Buccal orifice, vent, genital pores &c. the same
as in the two last species. Loc. idem.
Pygaster, (Ag.) — Species? (Specimen imperfect.) Small, circular,
thick, convex. Breadth -rV inch, height -^ inch. Slightly excavated.
Ambulacra five, narrow, extending to the buccal orifice, each presenting
a double row of small tubercles. Inter-ambulacral spaces furnished with
a double row of large tubercles, each tubercle sunk within an elevated
ring, and the latter bordered on both sides by a small circle of tubercles.
Buccal orifice median. Vent pear-shaped, margino-dorsal, longitudinal,
round posteriorly. Genital pores five. Loc, Ras Fartak.
Echinus. — 1st Species ? Circular, depressed, slightly excavated.
Breadth 1-rV inch, height Vir inch. Tubercles small throughout. Ambu-
lacra narrow, and extending to the buccal orifice, which is median ;
their extremities widely separated at the vent, which is medio-dorsal.
Loc, idem,
2nd Species ? (Spec, imperfect.) Hemispheric, circular.
Breadth ItV inch, height \\ inch. Tubercles small throughout. Am-
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1852.] RAS FARTAK. 73
bulacra five, rather broad, bordered by four lines, or two double series
of pores, extending to the buccal orifice, which is median ; their ex-
tremities widely separated at the vent, which is medio-dorsal. Loc,
idem,
Diadema, (Grr.) — 1st Species? Circular, depressed, slightly ex-
cavated. Breadth \\ inch, height \ inch. Tubercles small, per-
forated. Ambulacra bordered on each side by four lines of pores, ex-
tending to the buccal orifice, which is large and median ; their extremi-
ties widely separated at the vent, which is raedio-dorsal. Vent broken.
Loe, idem,
' 2nd Species? Circular, depressed, slightly ex-
cavated. Breadth l^ inch, height tV inch. Tubercles large, perforated,
almost all of the same size, sub-equidistant, and in vertical lines. Am-
bulacra bordered by two luaes of pores, sinuous, extending to the buc-
cal orifice, which is large and median, and widely separated at the vent,
i^di is medio-dorsal. Vent broken. Loc, idem.
Salenia, (Gr. et Ag.) — 1st Species? Circular, thick, convex. Breadth
1 tV ii^ch, height iV inch. Two vertical Unes of large tubercles in each
inter-ambulacral space, four tubercles in each line, imperforate. Loc,
idem. Found in the pinkish grey limestone.
2nd Species? Circular, thick, convex. Breadth
-i^ inch, height i inch. Two vertical lines of large tubercles in each
ambulacral space, four tubercles in each line. Loc, idem, Obs, — The
only difference which I can distinguish between these two specimens,
exeeptmg in size, is, that the plate resting on the dorsal extremity
of the ambulacral space is concave in the centre in the latter species,
and pointed in the former one. For a further description of Salenia,
see Mongraphies d'Echinodermes, par Louis Agassiz, 1838 ; and for the
genital plates of these two species see Taliu 1, figs. 1 and 22, respective-
ly. The specimens above noticed are much worn and imperfect.
■ 3rd Species ? Smaller than the foregoing, cir-
cular, compressed. Breadth tV inch, height tV inch. Three large
tubercles in each line. Resembles the last specimen described in the
fi>rm of its genital plates. Loc. idem,
CONCHIFERA.
Tubicola. — Species? Tube cordiform, or subcircular, simple ; smooth
internally, crenulated externally ; dilating gradually from a small orifice
to ^ inch in diameter, and then expanding suddenly. Wall composed
of successive additions, imbricated ; internally presenting minute parallel
longitudinal lines, running throughout. Loc, Ras Fartak, in the dark
red ferruginous limestone. Obs. — A transverse section of the dilated part
10
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74 GEOLOGY OF THB SOUTH-EAST COAST OF ARABIA. [JaW
gives a deep creiialated margin, presenting angular costae and circular
intervals, within which are several layers of the same form, (10 — 12),
and white lines rading from the internal margin, which is even, to the
circumference. These are the lines which appear longitudinally on the
inner side of the tuhe. Tuhes 3 to 4 inches long.
Isocardium. — 1st Species ? (Cast.) Breadth 2/t inches, height 1\
inches, and depth 2iV inches. Umhos -iV inch apart. Zoc. Ras
SharwSn.
2nd Species? (Cast.) Breadth \\ inch, depth l^^
inch, height a little greater than the breadth. Presenting thin striae on
the surface. Loc. idem,
3rd Species ? (Cast.) Breadth 1 -^ inch, depth 1
inch. Smooth. Loc, idem.
4th Species T (Cast.) Breadth -j-f inch, height
4-1 inch. Loc. idem.
Cardium. — Species ? (Cast.) Breadth -f^ inch, height 4^ inch.
Costae few, and wide apart. Loc. idem.
Pecten quinquicostata, Sow. — mihi. (Inferior valve ?) Breadth -^
inch, height ^ inch, depth tV inch. Margin hexangular ; costae pro-
minent, formed by three narrow ridges, and the intervals by three
broader ones. Loc. idem.
2nd Species ? (Inferior valve). Breadth +^ mch,
height V7 inch, and depth -rV inch. Mai^n hexangular ; penticostate,
a single wide ridge forming the prominent ribs, and two smaller ones
occupying the intervals. Loc. idem.
3rd Species ? (Inferior valve.) Shell deep. Breadth
I inch, and height If inch. Margin sub-hexangular, sub-quinquicostate,
costae narrow, regular. Loc. idem.
Ostrea. — Species ? (Lower valve, imperfect.) Ovato-acnminated.
Plicated, plaits radiating from an indistinct sharp umbo; striated
concentrically, striae lamellose, and imbricated towards the border, the
latter crenulated. Length 3| inches, breadth 1^ inch. Loc. idem.
Exogyra.— E.flahellata, Goldf. (Tab. 87, Rg. 6.) mihi. Loc. Far-
tak. Obs. — These abound in the blue marly stratum, and are of
various sizes. The largest found is 2j inches long, and 2^ broad, and
the smallest 1 inch long, and of proportionate breadth.
Gasteropoda.
Solarium. — Species? Breadth iV inch. Loc. Eas Fartak, in
the deep red ferruginous limestone.
Turritella.— 1st Species? Slender. Length IJ inch. Whorls li^
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1852.] RAS FARTAK. 76
10—11 eostse in each whorl. Loc, Ras Fartak, red fermgiDons lime-
stone.
Turritella. — 2nd Species ? Slender. Length H inch. Whorls
IS— 20, three costK in each whorl. Loc, idem.
Ammonites. — Species ? A small pordon of the whorl, +4. inch wide ;
j^ enough to show that the suture is sinuous. Loc, Ras Sharw^n.
Thns we see that the advanced or lower half of Has Fartak is com-
posed of marls, clays, sandy shales, and impure limestone strata^
containing the ahore fossils, and of a Tariety of colors, hut principally
red, terminating ahove in Tiolet-colored and almost white limestone.
We have also seen, when facing this cape, that the strata of the range,
of which it is the extremity, dip from west to east, and that the upper-
most of the red or colored series, which is not more than 200 feet above
the level of the sea on the east, is 1000—1200 feet above it on the
west side of the cape. Passing on to the white limestone behind and
abo?e these strata, we find the latter denuded for some distance in from
their upper edge, both on their southern and western sides, and not
continnoos with the white strata, as at Ras Sejftr, and at Marbat. This
denudation of the upper part of the colored strata, and position of the
white limestone series, I could not understand, until, from my sketches
of the cape on different sides, I perceived that the strata, both white
«od red, of the range, dipped not only towards the east, but towards
the nortL We have already seen them at the extremity of the cape
dipping from west to east. Hence, when we come to connect the inclina-
tion of all these strata with the existence of an argillaceous deposit about
their centre, we cannot be surprised to find that the upper half has slid
towards the north-east, and left the whole of the lower or colored strata in
advance, which is the case; and this not only accounts for our not seeing
the red strata at the bottom of the great scarp which faces the eastern
side of the range, towards the Bay of £1 Kammar, but also for the pre-
lence of the sub-range of mountains which exists on its western side.
Difficult as it would have been to have joined these two series with
the absence of the micaceous sandstone, and to have accounted for their
rektive poation at this point, without having seen the inclination of the
strata, yet the existence of OrbitoUtes in the white limestone at Marbat,
and their abundance throughout the colored strata here, is sufficient to
connect the two ; and if any further proof be necessary, the finding of a
piece of blue limestone at Marbat, almost entirely composed of small
OrbitoUtes, and identical with the pinkish grey limestone of the same
kind here, at once identifies the colored strata of both places, and
establishes the position of the colored strata of Ras Fartak.
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76 GEOLOGY OF THE SOUTH-EAST COAST OP ARABIA. [JaN.
It is remarkable here, however, that the colored strata should be so
expanded, and that the micaceous sandstone should not appear.
Thus we see that there are 1900 feet of white limestone strata in the
cUff on the eastern side of the Fartak range, and from 1000 to 1200
feet of colored strata forming the advanced part of the cape, and that of
the western side of the range. The additional height, therefore, of the
main ridge, which has been computed by triangulation to be 2500 feet
above the sea, must be accounted for by the inclination of the strata ;
for although the base of the white limestone is about the level of the
sea on its eastern side, it must neverthless, from the dip of the strata
in this direction, be elevated for some hundreds of feet above the sea,
where it rests on the colored strata on the western side of the range.
Before leaving Has Fartak, I should state that the pinkbh grey
limestone, which is filled with small Orbitolites, and which rises from the
sea just opposite the little village of Khaiset, is perforated by the holes
of lithodomous animals 30 feet above the level of the sea, and adherent
to its side at the same height is a band of the miliolitic deposit
mentioned, containing shells, which are in a white pulverulent state, and
pieces of the adjoining rocks. This deposit, though not very compact,
is sufficiently tenacious to form a building stone, of which the little
tower now in ruins on the top of this limestone, which forms a conical
hill here, was composed.
From Ras Fartak south-westwards, the coast line forms an obtuse
angle with that just passed, and for some distance presents no cliff,
but a low sandy shore, reaching back to that part of the Fartak range
which I have before stated to run south-west. This sandy shore,
which reaches inland for about six miles, continues along the coast for
twenty-five miles, when it is limited by a tract of low rocky lime-
stone mountains, which extend outwards from the range just mentioned.
I should here state that the mountainous tract of this part of the coast,
commencing with the Fartak range, is continuous on to the Yaffai
mountains, at Bab el Mandeb, with the exception of three great valleys,
which here and there open upon the sea. The point which limits this
low shore is called Ras Darjah ; it is about 300 feet high, and composed
of limestone. The following is a brief description of the cliff close to it,
from above downwards, viz. pink, grey, white, and yellow compact Ume-
stone, in parallel strata from three to twelve feet thick, with here and there
large round concretionary fiints, peeling off in concentric layers. Some
of the strata are friable, loose, and gritty, not unlike those at Hammar el
Nafur and Bas Kariat, 432 miles off, and in like manner also contain
a great number of small Echinodermata of the following kinds : —
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1852.] RAS DARJAH. 77
Echmoeyamus Jnnonii, Mirian, mihi. (Tab. 27, figs. 37-— 40. Ag.
Mon. d'Echinodermes.) Length ^ inch, breadth -^ inch, and thickness
•/t inch. Vent a little distance from the margin. Loc. Ras Darjah.
R alpmus, Ag., mihi. (Tab. 27, figs. 41 — 43. Loc. cit.) Length 4^
mdi, breadth -^ inch, and thickness -gV inch. Zkic. tWem.
06t.— Of this fossil Agassiz states, p. 135 : " Mais ce qui rend surtout
cette esp^ int^ressante, c*est son gisement. Je n'en connais que deux
exemplaires qui font partie du Mus^ de Berne ; ils ont 4it6 recueillis dans
la cbaioe des Alpes Sdsses, k Burgenberg, pr^ Stanz (canton
d'Unterwalden), dans une sorte de conglom^rat fossilif^re noir apparte-
nuit au terrain cr^tace, et contenant une quantity de fossils tritur^,
entre antres une grande nummulite." This remark is not less interest-
ing here, where we find these Httle fossils in a similar deposit to that
which exists at Hammar el Nafur and Ras Kariat, and which contains
the same kind of fossils and nummulites ; from which we might infer, if
I am right in the identification of the species, that the cUff at Ras Darjah
is formed of the upper part of the white limestone series, and that the loose
snd gritty part is identical with that in which similar Echinodermata,
with nummulites, are found at Hammar el Nafur and Ras Kariat.
This group of rocks, and the sea-cliff which they present, do not
extend far from Ras Darjah before they diminish in height, and be-
come covered with a plain of yellow sand, of four or five miles in ex-
tent. The sand appears to be nothing more than a disintegrated part
of the miliolitic deposit before mentioned, which here has been raised
on the tops of the rocks, on which it was deposited, and, like that at
Ras Abu Ashrin, has become loose on the surface, and now forms a
smooth uneven tract, which, in its irregularities, correspond to those of
the harder rocks beneath. It presents a sea-scarp of about 30 to 40
feet high, and ends at the little plain of Kashn ; after crossing which
we arrive at the mountainous tract again, which now advances to form
the cape called Ras SharwSn.
This cape consists of a long narrow mountain, of a wedge-like shape,
sloping towards the point, and presenting on its upper end two pinnacles ;
it is about two miles long, and scarped on both sides, as well as at the
extremity ; the latter at its lowest point is about 200 feet above the
levd of the sea, and the pinnacles about 1800 feet. Its longitudinal
dhrection is about east and west, so that its inner face is opposite the
main land, and it shelters a little bay inside it, which is called the Bay of
Kashn. This mountain is composed of colored strata, identical with those
which form the advanced part of Ras Fartak, and in like manner seems
to have been denuded of the white limestone ; but what has become of
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78 GEOLOGY OF THE BOUTH'BAST COAST OF ARABIA. [Jan.
the latter the land above water does not indicate ; no doubt this wedge-
shaped mountain was covered by it, as the next mountain to it inland
presents the white Umestone in titu, I might here content myself with
referring the reader to the description of the colored strata at Ras
Fartak, for those of Has Sharw6n, as I have placed the list of fossib
from both places after the former, but it will be more satisfactory, per-
haps, to give the observations which were made on the spot respecting
their composition.
About a quarter of a mile inside the cape, where we landed, the
upper part, which is not very high here, is composed of fine compact
limestone, of a white or light grey color, presenting small Orbitolites,
and a few remains of Echinodermata. This, after some distance down»
passes into a violet, and then red colored argillaceous limestone, contain-
ing a great number of the same kind of fossils, together with bivalve and
univalve shells ; after which comes a yellow stratum, with blue and red
bands intermixed, and then a blue deposit, almost entirely composed of
small Orbitohtes, like the pinkish grey limestone at Ras Fartak. The
whole of these colored strata contain more or less argillaceous matter and
siliceous sand. A tittle further in, where the red colored ferruginous
strata emei^ from the water, the same shattered appearance of the time-
stone is seen as at Ras Fartak, with calc-spar coating, and mOTe or less
filting its cavities..
Here, too, on the inner side of the cape, as on the jHukish grey
limestone at Fartak, is seen a band of the mitiotitic deposit adhering to
the scarp 40 feet above the level of the sea, and containing in some
parts, as at Fartak, lai^ shells, aiid portions of the adjoining rock ;
while between it and the sea there is, as at other places, an interval of
some yards, where it either never existed, or has been washed off by
the waves.
Having finished with the inner side of Ras SharwSn, let us now go
to the outer side of the cape, and here, too, a mile or two west of the
latter, the red strata are again seen, but in the utmost confusion. This
is owing to a mass of black scoriaceous basalt, which has forced itself
up among them ; and although it has not managed to reach the
surface, yet, from being in the sea-ctiff, a good lateral view is seen of it.
It is about 300 or 400 yards long, and about 200 feet high. I had
hunted in vain for a disturbing agent of this kind at Ras Fartak, and
on the inner side of Ras Sharwen, but could see nothing in situ
at either, though, from the presence of pebbles of black basalt about the
base of the latter, I was led to infer that it could not be far distant.
This is the first place where we have seen an igneous rock since leaving
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1862.] RAS 8HABWEN TO RAS MAKA.LLA. 79
Marbat plain, a distance of 200 miles, and the first time we have met
with black basalt on the coast ; hut we shall soon see that we have come
to the commencement of a series of vents, which have poured forth
large tracts of this igneous rock.
As we saw a raised sandy plain of the miliolitic deposit covering the
low rocks east of Kashn, so we have a similar one west of Sharw^n. It is
coarser in structure than the miliolite of Has Abu Ashrin, hut otherwise
almost identical with it. It begins close to the western side of the black
basalt, which indeed it partly covers, and extends a short distance in-
land, and about ten miles along the sea, where it presents a clifF about
100 feet high. As before stated, it is raised, and, though smooth on
the surface, takes the form of the harder and older rocks which lie be-
neath, while the presence of particles of basalt in it would seen to indi-
cate that it has been formed since the eruption of that rock.
Leaving Ras SharwSn, and this tract of sand, the limestone formation
coQ&ues to rise abruptly from the sea for twenty miles, when it falls
^wk, and leaves a narrow strip of maritime plain, which is continued
^the way to Ras Makalla, a distance of 140 miles, backed from one
end to the other by the raised tract of limestone mentioned, — sometimes
in the shape of mountains, at others in that of long portions of table-
^d ; while extending along this narrow plain is the series of basaltic
effnaons to which I have alluded.
These commence immediately west of the opening of the great valley
^ed Wadi Masilah, and about twenty miles from the beginning of the
"»witime plain, or forty miles from Ras Sharw^. They are three in
number, and are called by the Arabs the ** harieq," or " burnt place,"
^ a superstition that they mark the sites of seven pagan cities, which
^We burnt down by the Imam Ali at the commencement of the M a-
nomedan iEra. They form the most remarkable objects of the kind
on this coast, and are continued on to a little beyond the village of
'^wdah, a distance of forty-five miles from their commencement. The
ttriking features of them are their intense black color, their flatness,
^ horizontal extent, defined borders, and the contrast they form
^th the white color of the plain, and that of the limestone moun-
*wns behind them. Each tract presents one or more cones in the
ttntre, which do not appear to be more than 200 feet above the basaltic
pltm immediately surrounding them.
The first cone is about four miles from Saihut, or about 50 miles
^^ of Ras SbarwSn, and the tract of basalt which surrounds it has
tttcnded nearly to Wadi Masilah on the east, and joins the following
tiaet en tiie west.
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80 GEOLOGY OF THE SOUTH-EAST COAST OF ARABIA. [JaN.
The next cone is opposite the opening of the valley called Wadi
Shikawi, about nine miles from the last, and about three miles inland :
its tract extends westward to Raidah, a distance of about eighteen
miles, and eastward joins that of the foregoing, as already mentioned. I
examined a part of this tract opposite the yalley of Shikawi, where it
extends into the sea, and its highest part, not including the cone, did
not appear to be more than 30 feet above the level of the sea. The
whole of the maritime plain here is covered with large and small boul-
ders of black and grey basalt, more or less compact, more or less
scoriaceous, breaking with a rough coarse fracture, and presenting
olivine in its cavities. Some pebbles which I picked up on the beach
were composed of fine compact basalt, in which distinct crystals of pink-
ish white felspar were imbedded. All the boulders were weathered
smooth, and more or less round.
The third tract begins west of Raidah, and here the maritime plain,
being raised from two to three hundred feet above the level of the sea,
the basalt has not only overflowed it, but found its way into the water-
courses, and appears in black rocks at their openings on the beach,
contrasting strongly with the whiteness of the low limestone cliffs on
each side of them. There are five cones in the centre of this effusion,
which are all higher I think than either of those mentioned.
Here also the maritime plain widens out to an extent of fifteen miles
between the base of the high land and the sea, and, being raised, presents
a cUff which at the cape called Has Bu Grashwa is 300 feet high,
hut diminishes gradually on either side for a few miles, until it
subsides to the level of the beach. There are several portions of this
part of the plain raised in isolated mounds 700 or 800 feet high, and
the whole seems to have undergone much disturbance from subterranean
causes : the district is called Hammam, from the number of hot spings
here. I had not an opportunity of going on shore, so I can say nothing
of the sea-cliff further than that above it is red, in the middle
white, and below yellow ; but we shall find it again at Makalla, and
perhaps may be able to infer its geological character from the compo-
sition of the cliff at that place.
I have before stated that this maritime plain ends at Ras MftVi^lla, to
which we now arrive, and on turning which we observe that it
consists of a ridge of igneous rocks, supporting limestone. This ridge
presents an irregular scarp of two and a half miles in extent on its
western side, and on its eastern side limits the maritime plain we
have just left.
When we examine it from withm outwards, that is from its base to
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1852.] MAKALLA. 81
its extremitj, we find that it is made up successively of granite, limestone,
and green serpentiniferous diorite.
The granite forms the hase of the cape, and is a part of a group of
Igneous rocks which extend a little further inland. It appears here in
the form of a mountain capped with limestone, the summit of which is
1300 feet above the level of the sea ; that of the granite appears to
be about 1000 feet. It is of a dark grey color, and uniform fine struc-
ture, and, from its amphibolitic admixture and freshness, seems more
allied to syenite or diorite than old grey granite. Be this as it may, it is
djked Tnth the green earthy diorite of the locality, and, suddenly sink-
ing towards the cape, disappears in low peaks beneath the limestone,
while the latter then forms the ridge for some distance, and is about 600
feet high. After this follows the green diorite in round topped hills,
which compose the outer third of the cape, still diminishing in height,
and supporting an isolated portion of the limestone between them, a
little distance from the extremity. The diorite presents an earthy
base of a greenish color, with crystals of dark green hornblende scattered
through it ; it is richly serpentiniferous, and sometimes appears like
green euphotide. Where it forms a breccia with the calcareous material
of the loccality, an amorphous thin layer of calc-spar, with grass green
serpentine, exists between the two ; indeed the serpentine appears to
tinge the former.
The limestone strata, which appear to be between 300 and 400 feet
thick, are, in the immediate vicinity of the granite, fractured- through-
out, and united again by their own material, so that all appearance of
continuity in their stratification has been destroyed ; but in the cliff
which they present in the central third of the cape, and which is about
250 feet high, they are entire, and composed as follows, viz. above of
compact cellular Umestone, of a pink color, presenting in one part a
stratum filled with the moulds of small shells, in which there is more
or less crytallized gypsum. This part also effervesces slowly with acids,
and is identical, as before stated, with the same kind of limestone sent
me by Lieut. Grieve from Ras Markas, near Has Jazir&h, that is as
far as structure and mineralogical characters are concerned. Beneath
this compact pink limestone comes a more siliceous one, filled with
large cavities, which are lined with hyaline quartz and calcedony. Then
follows a white stratum of more or less impure siliciferous limestone,
and beneath this a dark red-colored deposit, chiefly composed of fine
siliceous sand, which rests on the granite.
Though there are no separate fossils here, the upper strata abound in
traces of them, and in some parts they are almost entirely composed of
11
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82 GEOLOGY OF THE S0UTB-EA6T COAST OF ARABIA. [JaN.
small Foraminifera, allied to Nnmmnlina. In another part of the lime-
stone formation here, close to the granite rocks, but not in contact with
them, or forming part of the ridge of the cape, small Foraminifera also
abound, as at Mftskat, and particularly the Operculina of that locality.
I did not see any nummulites, but I think it will hereafter be found that
they are not more a character of the Nummulitic Series than the abundance
of small Foraminifera which exist in the limestone strata belonging to it,
and indeed of which many are, with the addition of microscopic species,
almost entirely composed.
Besides this limestone, we have here again the miHolitic deposit, form-
ing in one part a bank 30 feet above the level of the sea, and in another
adhering to the upper part of the scarp of the limestone cliff, extend-
ing to the cape from 60 to 100 feet above the level of the sea ; while
we have blocks of it on the shore on the inner side of Makalla, which
have fallen down from the limestone on the top of the granite, 1300 feet
above the level of the sea, slightly changed in structure, but still easily
recognizable, and of a delicate color, hke that of the pink or cream colored
limestone in the same situation. The coarseness of the structure of these
deposits at their three different heights, and the shells, pieces of coral,
and parts of the old limestone rock which they contain, together with
their modern appearance generally, indicate that they all belong to the
same formation ; but there is one difference, independent of the changes
produced by heat, in the pieces which have fallen from the limestone
on the top of the granite, viz. that it does not, hke the other two, pre-
sent portions of the green diorite. Thus it must have been raised up
with the other Umestone rocks before the eruption of the diorite took
place, or all traces of particles of the latter must have been subsequently
effaced. Still this does not interfere with the fact that this forma-
tion, which we have hitherto seen raised only 150 feet above the sea,
viz. at Ras Sej&r, is here in one part 30, in another from 60 to 100,
and in a third 1300 feet above its level, and in the last place so changed
in color, that however young it may be considered to be, it must have
preceded the eruption of the granite, and the elevation of the limestone
on which it rests.
About three miles inland, north-east of Makalla, just at the outskirts
of the group of igneous rocks which are continued into the formation
of the cape, and among the lower hills of the great limestone tract, is
a spring, from which the inhabitants of Makalla obtain their supply of
water. This issues from a ravine situated among the lower limestone
mountains of the table-land, which are fractured and fissured in all direc-
tions, and cemented together again by their own substance, except in some
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1852.] MAKALLA. 83
places, where there are holes and caverns which have not hcen so filled np,
and are more or less filled with water, hoth in the sides of, and leading
into the mterior of the mountains. The water of the spring men-
tioned is somewhat above the temperature of the air, but without taste
or smell : in its course along the ravine it passes through sand, which
has more or less accumulated on its sides, and in this sand is a quantity
of botiyodal magnesian limestone. The spheroids are of different sizes,
up to an inch in diameter, which is the measurement of tlie largest
obtained. They are of a coarse structure, formed of concentric layers,
and present a rough arenaceous exterior. Some appear as if they
had been formed in halves, from the two hemispheres not having been
applied to each other in complete apposition. They are more or less
adherent, and seem as if they were formed in the sand of the stream
in which they were found.
Among the igneous rocks at Makalla exists a porphyry, with a dark
red base, and lai^ tabular crystals and nodules, of greenish felspar ;
^ epidote with calc-spar, as at Masira. Mica prevails in some parts,
and various other earthy minerals, which are generally found in com-
PM»y with such rocks.
I^vmg Makalla, and proceeding south-westwards along the coast
">f about six miles, we meet with no sea-cliff whatever, but a sandy
shore, with scattered hills interiorly, and then sub-ranges of mountains;
behind which, and towering above all, is the brink of the table-land,
here about 6000 feet above the level of the sea.
At Bas Brum, however, which is at the termination of this sandy
shore, and which is opposite Ras Makalla, as the coast runs, igneous
rocks again make their appearance, and from thence are continued on
to Ras el ' Assidah, a distance of about fifty miles, after which they sub-
side gradually in dark peaks, scattered here and there among the sand-
hills of the coast.
This tract of igneous rocks fringes the shore for the distance mentioned,
and is continued inland for two or three successive ranges, mixed more
or less with limestone, to the base of the table-land, here fifteen miles
from the sea. From their brown color and peaked appearance they
closely resemble the granite of Makalla ; and about Ras Brum, before
stated to be opposite Ras Makalla, is the same kind of green-colored rock
as that forming the outer third of the latter cape, viz. green diorite : at Ras
Brum also it is in round-topped low hills like those of Ras Makalla,
and separates the brown peaked mountains behind, which are 1000
feet high l&om the sea. In all probabiUty these rocks are but a repe-
tition of those forming Bas Makalla, but at Makalla my actual exami-
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84 GEOLOGY OF THE SOUTH-EAST COAST OP ARABIA. [JaN.
nations cease, and I can only now state that which I have seen of this
part of the coast while saihng leisurely up and down it two or three
times, and from the sketches I then made of it.
I have observed that these rocks are more or less mixed up with
limestone, — the limestone no doubt through which they have been
forced, — so that here and there white ridges appear among the dark
brown rocks, and occasionally come to the sea, as at Ras R&ttle, which
is a conspicuous white mass of Hmestone five miles east of Ras
el* Assidah. The islands, too, off Hisn Ghorab, a little east of Ras Rattle,
viz. HftUani, Jibus, and Baragah, are all of white limestone. Jibus,
which is perhaps the largest, is five miles off shore, hardly a mile long,
and about 300 feet high.
A little west of Ras Brum there is a long low level piece of pink or
red-colored strata, bordering on the sea, and presenting a cliff similar
to that of the raised part of the maritime plain at Ras Bu Gashwa ; it
is probably an undisturbed part of the same formation.
The dark mound on shore, called Hisn Ghorab, famous for bearing
the longest Hamyaritic inscription that has been met with, is stated
(Wellsted's Trav. in Arab. vol. ii. p. 423) to be composed of a dark
greyish compact hmestone, 500 feet high ; and in further proof of the
general elevation of this coast, which from what I have stated must now,
however, be pretty apparent, it is also mentioned that " The action of
the sea might be plainly seen [at the foot of this mound] in the cavities
and hollows exhibited by a ridge of rocks now some distance from the
water, but which evidently at some not very remote period must have
been covered by it."
Between Ras el 'Assidah and Aden, the coast is almost wholly un-
known to me, except from a distance ; there is no sea-cUff there, and not
much on the maritime plain to interrupt the view from the sea to the base
of the mountains after leaving the neighbourhood of Ras el 'Assidah.
About sixty miles north-east of Aden the high land advances to within
a few hundred yards of the shore, and affords a grand view from
its rapid and almost uninterrupted descent from three, four, and six
thousand feet to the plain below. The sea, too, just here, is vastly
deep, and admits of close approach to the shore without danger.
Not more than twenty-five miles on from this, the seaward boundary
of the mountains recedes from the direction of the coast, and stretching
over to the Straits of Bab el Mandeb, ends in the south-western
extremity of the great elevated tract of Southern Arabia, while the
coast, continuing on in its original course some miles farther, before
it takes a nmilar torn, leaves a triangular plain, at the apex of which is
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1852.] ADEN. 85
the town of Aden, situated in the crater of an extinguished volcano, the
sides of which reach ahout 1700 feet above the level of the sea. This
crater opens towards the east, and presents a tail of peaks, ridges, and
low cones, in the opposite direction, the whole of which amount to
about six miles in extent.
I had not an opportunity of examining much of this mass of volca-
nic rocks, but I could see that they were principally composed of basalt,
pierced with dykes of the same material, in a more compact state. The
external side of the crater is more or less scarped, and separated from
the high peaks and ridges which flow from it, and in this scarped por-
tion may be seen lines of horizontal stratification : also some distance
ttp the side of the slope which descends towards Back Bay may be seen a
t small series of strata, consisting of pisolitic peperino, cemented together
with glassy crystallized gypsum, and from the manner in which the
pieces of pumice, basalt, and obsidian of which it is composed are
•fwnged, together with the fact of the cement being sulphate of
*^c» leares no doubt that it was deposited in the sea, and afterwards
""^ to its present position ; at one part it is at least 200 feet above
"*^ level of the sea, though it descends to the water's edge in another.
The stratification of the walls of the crater, which is very high
np, would also lead us to the conclusion that the greater part of this
igneous mass has been poured out under the sea, and has been gradually
raised to its present height.
Through the kindness of Dr. Malcolmson, whose name I have already
bad occasion to mention, and who resided at Aden for some time, I am in
possession of specimens of all the rocks and minerals which this gentle-
man after a long search was enabled to collect ; and, having been
permitted to inspect his valuable assortment when at Aden, I am enabled
to state that the igneous rocks of this peninsula consist of basalt in
ahnost all its forms, compact, black, grey, peridotic ; rough, cellular,
sooriaceonsy variolitic ; tephrine, with small crystals of glassy felspar,
which forms some of the high peaks in the interior of the crater ; leu-
costine, which forms part of the lavigenous eifusions in the north-west
part of the peninsula, where the last vents of the volcano appear to have
existed ; pumite and stigmite, simple, variolitic, and pisoHtic, which form
small deposits in various parts of the general mass, and semiopal
and caloedonies, which abound in the island of Sira, opposite the
opening of the crater.* To these may be added brown carbonate of Ume,
m colamnar stratified crystalline deposits, with transverse wavy lines ;
* For the, ebaraeten of the rocks here mentioned see Brongniart's classification ,
Art " Roehef ,*' Diet des Sden. Natur.
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86 GEOLOGY OP THE SOUTH-BAST COAST OF ARABIA. [JaN.
massive and fibrous gypsum ; and fluor spar, in minute crystals of an
amethystine color, on the surface of calcedonies.
The recent littoral deposit here, as elsewhere on this coast, appears in
several parts of the north-west part of the peninsula, raised fifteen or
more feet above the level of the sea.
About four miles west of Aden there is another group of volcanic
rocks, said to be partly composed of granite, and their peaked forms
would indicate this ; it is about the same size as Aden. Last of all
on this coast comes the small dark group, probably also of igneous origin,
which forms the eastern promontory of the Straits of Bab el Mandeb.
Having thus come to the termination of the South-east Coast of
Arabia, let us now pass over to the African Coast ; and, commencing
from Berbera, which bears nearly due south of Aden, see if the rocks
extending from this part eastward to Socotra have any resemblance to
those on the coast we have just left.
Personally 1 know nothing of this coast, but Lieutenant Grieve, who
surveyed a good part of it between Berbera and Guardafui, kindly
collected specimens for me from the principal headlands between
Berbera and B^ S&rai, and from all the islands excepting Socotra.
From these, and the observations which accompanied them, it appears
that the top of the bluff at Syara, which is 300 feet high, and about
eighteen miles east of Berbera, is composed of a coarse heavy
sub-saccbaroid magnesian limestone, effervescing very feebly with adds,
and of a reddish color, and ferruginous aspect ; while the base is composed
of the same kind of rock, but of a gre3d8h brown color : both are
without any appearance of fossils.
The top of a hill on the coast seven miles further on is composed of
a fine compact limestone, of a yellowish white color, breaking with a
smooth conchoidal fracture.
That of Hamarah bluff, which is 500 feet high, and twelve miles
further on, of a fine compact sub-cellular limestone, of a cream color,
mottled with spots of red and white, with frosted cavities of calc-spar ;
also effervescing slowly with acids.
The top of Ras Khanzir, about 200 feet high, and seven miles
further, of a fine compact limestone, of a yellowish color, hke that of
the hill on the coast seven miles from Syara. Some portions appear,
from their yeined structure, and opaque appearance, to have been exposed
to volcanic influence. There is another portion from this cape, too, which,
from its open structure and fossiliferous composition, is evidently of
a later formation, and resembles much the modem deposit at Makalla.
It has in like manner been exposed to heat, and its cavities and
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1862.] ADEN. 87
fottdls are more or less soldered together by an amorphoos white
aytaUization of carbonate of lime.
The next specimen is from the hills near Ras Shalla, fifty miles ftir-
ther OB. This is a compact limestone, of a pinkish color, and imiform
structaie, breaking with an even granular fracture.
Htis Bloif, 500 feet high, and fifteen miles further on, affords a
compact heavy limestone, of a granular sparkling structure, and a grey-
ish brown color. It is highly magnesian, scarcely effervesces with acids,
and closely resembles that of the base of the white limestone cliff on
the east side of the Fartak range. Hais Island, close to this bluff, is
300 feet high, and composed of a sparkling, black green amphibolite,
fissile, laminated, and very much resembling gneiss, but serpentiniferous
at the joints, and closely allied to the sparkling hornblende rock of Ras
Jazir^h, on the South-east Coast of Arabia.
Mejt or Burnt Island, about twenty-six miles further on, and seven
iniles off shore, yields a pegmatite in composition, but not graphic in
stroctare, and a compact Umestone of a fine uniform saccharoid struc-
^J*i and grey color, effervescing feebly with acids. This yields by a
i^Qgh analysis 15.32 per cent, of magnesia, and its specific gravity is
2.775 : it is a dolomite.
In the Museum of the Bombay Asiatic Society are specimens of
"^estone from M&rriyah, two hundred miles further east, and forty-five
^Ues west of Guardafui. They were presented by Lieut. Cruttenden,
*^f the Indian Navy, and are of a cream color, and compact fine struc-
^I'c, identical with the limestone on the top of the granite peaks at
MakaUa.
From this place we pass on to the islands between Cape Guardafui and
Socotra, the first of which is Abd el Kuri, from which Lieut. Grieve
sent me specimens, as well as from the islands called Kal Farun, and
"The Brothers," situated between it and Socotra.
The summit of Abd ul Kuri is 1600 feet high, and composed of a
fine white compact Umestone, breaking with a smooth conchoidal frac-
tore, dry, and opaque, as if it had been exposed to heat ; and the lower
hills, which are from 200 to 400 feet high, yield grey and red granite ;
fine and coarse-grained diorite, composed of black hornblende and
whitish semi-transparent felspar, ophiolitic diorite, and euphotide ; indeed
all the kinds of igneous rocks that we have seen on the Arabian coast
north of Marbat.
There is also a coarse, compact, sub-cellular, and sub-saccharoid lime-
stone, of a light cream color, which comes from the higher parts of this
island ; it probably overlies the igneous rocks, and owes its color to the
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88 GBOLOGY OP THR SOUTH-EAST COAST OF ARABIA. [J AN.
action of beat ; otherwise in structnre it is just like the upper stratum
of the low cliff in the Bay of £1 Kammar, and the dark brown Ume-
stdhe of the shores of Dofar.
The island of Kal Farun, fifteen miles north of Abd el Kuri, seems
to be entirely composed of sulphate of lime. One specimen^ coming
from a height of 400 feet, is massive, compact, sub-saccharoid, and of a
brown color ; the other, which comes from high-water-mark, is earthy,
white, and contains moulds of small shells, with particles of igneous
rocks.
Turning to " The Brothers," which lie between Abd el Kuri and
Socotra, we find the largest, or westernmost of these two islands, to
present pink granite rocks, 1000 feet high, with Hmestone above them,
reaching in all to 1600 feet ; also diorite, as at Abd el Kuri; and a
white compact limestone conglomerate, raised 300 feet high. The
latter consists of small rounded gravel, shells, and corals, which have
been firmly cemented together, and more or less opalized, probably by
heat ; while the same kind of conglomerate, with a few particles of
igneous rocks, exists at high-water-mark in the easternmost island, still
possessing its original loose, dull, and recently-formed appearance.
Of Socotra I know nothing more than can be gleaned firom the late
Captain Wellsted's account of this island, (Jour. Roy. Geograph. Soc.
vol. V. 1 835 . ) In the vicinity of Tamarinda, a town situated towards the
centre of the northern coast of the island, there are granite mountains,
.5000 feet high by measurement. " Connected with the granite range,
and extending form north to south, a lower range is found, averaging
in height about 1 900 feet, and composed of a compact cream-colored
primitive [?] limestone. From this the hills diverge in short ranges to
the sea-shore, their outline being mostly smooth, with table summits
and rounded sides, except those nearest the sea, which mostly present
a steep wall. The whole of the hills in the western part of the island
are similar in their appearance, elevation, and construction."
In the neighbourhood of Goobet Koorma the limestone appeared to
be borne up upon the granite, and the line of junction between the two
was seen 3000 feet above the place where Captain Wellsted stood.
Syenite, porphyry, and trap, were seen in different parts of the
island, and the soil of the mountains is clayey, stiff, and of a red cobr.
Returning to the Somali coast, it is stated, that after a short but variable
distance in-shore, the land from Berbera to Cape Guardafui is raised to a
height averaging between four and seven thousand feet, and attaining its
maximum elevation midway between these two places. It is composed of
limestone, and the specimens I have seen firom it have been more or
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1852.] SOMALI COAST. 89
less fine and compact in structure, and of grey and white colors, similar
in every respect to the limestone of the elevated tract on the South-east
Coast of Arabia ; while the cream-colored limestone in like manner
seems to come from the tops of the lower hills, where it is prohably in
doser proximity with the igneous rocks.
Thns we see that the same kind of igneous rocks, and the same kind
of limestones, exist on this part of the coast of Africa and its adjoining
islands, as are found on the South-eastern Coast of Arabia and its ad-
joining islaiids ; the same kinds of magnesian limestone, and a modem
formation, corresponding to our miliolitic deposit.
There is also a spheroidal concretion of magnesian limestone, about the
size of a walnut, which Lieutenant Grieve sent me from the coast of
Africa, similar in every respect to that which has already been describ-
ed as existing in the course of the hot spring near Makalla.
This concludes all that I have to offer on the geology of the North-
east Coast of Arabia without the Persian Gulf, the South-east Coast
and its adjoining islands, and the Somali or North-eastern Coast of
Africa and its adjoining islands. liet us now briefly review what has
been stated respecting the South-east Coast of Arabia.
Tbe first thing that strikes us here is the continuity of the white
limestone formation, which we may reasonably infer to be the same
frt>m one end to the other, a distance of 1 1 25 miles ; secondly, the
eruption of igneous rocks along the great line of fracture, or fault,
which forms the coast ; and, lastly, the elevation of the land from four
to six thousand feet above the level of the sea, which has brought into
riew other formations, lying beneath the white limestone.
Turning our attention first to the igneous rocks, we find that they
comprise all the principal kinds, and probably most of the varieties,
included under this denomination ; and that by far the greater part of
them are hypogene, (Lyell.) the rest volcanic. The presence of gneissic
strata in the granite at Marbat also shows that some of this rock is at
least secondary ; and being mixed up with limestone in the same neigh-
bourhood, identical but for the changes which such formations undergo
when similarly situated, with some of the white limestone series above,
further shows that there is granite here, which may be of still later
date even than that enveloping the gneiss. The gneiss itself in situ I
did not see.
We have also witnessed the dioritic and euphotide rocks, which pre-
vail on the north-eastern third of the coast, enveloping jaspideous strata
at Masira and Ras Jibsh ; at the same time we have seen nummulitic
strata resting on them at M&skat and Masira, but in no instance have
12
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90 GEOLOGY OP THE SOUTH-EAST COAST OP ARABIA. [JaN.
we observed either the granite or the dioritic rocks overlying the
vrhite limestone series ; while on the south-western third of the coast we
have seen a chain of volcanic vents up to Aden, inclusive, pierced
through everything, and an issue of black basalt and other volcanic
rocks from them, which have overflowed the maritime plain in diiferent
places to a great extent. What the nature of the igneous rock may
be at Ras Shuamiyah I know not, having only seen it from the sea.
Lastly, we have observed that the original localities of eruption of
igneous rocks on this coast appear to have been the principal ones of the
subsequent eruptions, with the exception of the volcanic rocks, which have
come to the earth's surface, where the older igneous rocks do not appear.
Let us now go to the aqueous formations, and these we may separate
into three Groups, viz., 1st, the strata of which the highest scarps are
composed ; 2nd, those of the compact Uttoral deposit on the shores
of Dofar ; and, 3rd, the loose, or miliolitic deposit.
1*^ Group. — This admits of three divisions.
The first or uppermost includes the white limestone series, which
extends from the summit of the table-land to the commencement of the
colored argillaceous strata. This consists, from above downwards, of
compact white Umestone, more or less composed of the remains of minute
and small Foraminifera, with here and there concretionary flints, ex. gr.
Maskat, Masira, Hammar el Nafur, Ras Kariat, and Ras Shaherbataht ;
and that the flints also occur in the summit of the table-land above
Marbat may be inferred from their presence in the talus beneath, sepa-
rate, or combined with pieces of the limestone in which they were
imbedded ; also generally throughout this coast, from their presence at
Resut, the beach in the Bay of El Kammar, and the cliff at Ras Darjah.
Below, this passes into a soft white Umestone, and then into a gritty loose
chalky or sandy deposit, becoming more or less argillaceous towards its
lower part, at M^kat, Masira, Hammar el Nafur, and Ras Kariat,
where it presents nummulites ; also at Ras Shaherbataht, Jibal Jinjftri,
Marbat, and Ras Hammar, (the argillaceous pipe-strata,) and Ras Sej&r,
(the ihat or chalk on the summit of the cape,) where the existence of
nummuhtes has not been determined. Then follows a deposit of clay
of a greenish white color, at Hammar el Nafur and Ras Kariat ; also at
Masira, where it is colored dark green and red, whQe at M&skat it is
replaced by a siliceous sandy conglomerate. (Mftskat is included here
for the sake of comparison.)
Here, then, we have a distinct, though little series, passing from
pure calcareous material above to pure clay below, with siUceous matter
between ; and in this series we have at Mftskat, Masira, Hammar el
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1862.] WHITE LIMESTONE SERIES. 91
Nafiir, and Ras Kariat, the presence of nummulites; while the existence
of the so-called chalky stratum and flints in the more elevated and in-
tccessible parts of this coast would lead us to infer that the same little
Beries existed there also, though as yet it has not heen explored for
munmnlites. The presence also of nummuHtes (?) and orhitoides in the
<^ at Takah, which is but an unraised portion of the great Hmestone
fbnnation, further favors the inference ; and with this evidence of the ex-
istence of this little series on the high land of Southern Arabia we must
be content until further observation can prove it more satisfactorily.
The presence of the clay here, too, not only serves to mark a sub-
^i^onin the white limestone series, but also seems to point out
the time in its formation when the dioritic and euphotide rocks were
^ted, as well as the origin of the clay itself; for from the strata in
^hich the nummuUtes are imbedded having been deposited afler the
Option of these rocks, as seen at M^kat and Masira, and also after
^ deposit of the clay, as seen in the wliite limestone series at Hammar
^ ^afor and Ras Kariat, taken in connection with the change in the
itttore of the sediment in the latter, just preceding the appearance of
the nummulites, it is plain that an eruption did take place about
this time, affording the material of which the clay is composed,
for had this not been the case the formation of the white limestone
strata would have gone on uninterruptedly to the pure deposit above
the nummulites. Hence we also see that this may actually be the
case in places to which the material composing the clay might not have
extended, and there the nummulites alone, or their allied fossils, must
mark the upper division of the white limestone series. That this erup-
tion was that of the dioritic and euphotide rocks may also be reasonably
inferred from the nummuHtes overlying the latter, as well as the clay of
the white limestone strata ; and from their having been deposited in both
places, just about the time the disturbance had become quieted, the
remains of marine animals had begun to accumulate, and the siliceous
material was beginning to disappear. The depth of this little series,
overlying both the Hmestone strataand the igneous rocks, also seems to cor-
respond, and .this led to my remarking in my observations on the igneous
rocks of M&skat, (loc. cit. p. 126,) that the NummuHtic Series appeared
much thinner at M^kat than in many parts of the South-east Coast of
Arabia. Let us now see whether there is anything to make us think
that this is a fact, and that the great mass of white Hmestone strata,
upwards of 1500 feet thick, which underHes the clay there, b but a con-
tinuation of the NummuHtic Series.
I have stated, p. 42, that impressions of OrbitoHtes exist in the marl
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92 GEOLOGY OF THE SOUTH-EAST COAST OF ARABIA. [JaN.
which passes into this clay at Hammar el Nafiir and Ras Kariat ; also
that a spheroidal Alveolina in company with large Orhitolites and an
Operculina abounds in the white limestone series at Marbat, and that
this is exactly the case in a part of the NummuUtic Series (?) in the Hala
range of mountains, near the Buran Biver, in Lower Sindh. Lieutenant
Grieve also sent me specimens of white limestone from the summit of the
table-land at Marbat, which contain numbers of Alveolina. Now the
presence in this marl of Orhitolites which we have seen to increase,
and that of the specimens of Alveolina with Foraminiferous tests gene-
rally which we have seen to decrease in number as we descend the
white limestone series, seems to point out, that where these fossils
commence to appear and the latter is most numerous, is the passage from
the nummulitiferous strata into the inferior sub-division of the white
limestone series, or orbitolitiferous strata ; more properly termed perhaps
alveolitiferous strata, for, plentiful as we have seen specimens of Al-
veolina in the white limestone strata at Marbat, they are probably
much more plentiful in it in other parts of the coast, since they are so
abundant in a part of the Nummulitic Series in Lower Sindh that there
whole strata almost are made up of them, while in Arabia we have also seen
them exist from the summit of the table-land (at Marbat) to the base
of the white limestone cliff (at Fartak), though probably largest and
most abundant between the two ; at the same time we have observed
the Orhitolites to reach their maximum density in the colored argilla-
ceous series, which therefore more particularly deserves the term of orbito-
litiferous strata. But, call these strata what we will, the point in question
here is whether or not the whole of the white limestone belongs to the
Nummuhtic Series, and this must be lefl for future exploration to det^-
miue : all that can be deduced from the previous observations is, that the
same kinds of fossils are to be found together in the talus of the great
limestone scarp at Marbat as are found in the nummuhtic limestone of
Lower Sindh, and that the presence of Orhitolites with them seems to
point out that they come from strata below the green clay, and therefore
from the lower division of the white limestone series. I regret that I can-
not state more of this sub-division than that the strata of which it is
composed chiefly consist of fine white compact limestone, breaking with
a smooth conchoidal fracture, more or less lithographic in structure, and
of different shades of white and grey colors ; it is generally scarped and
inaccessible. At Fartak, we have seen that the lowermost of these strata
are more or less magnesian, and in some parts dolomitic; but this,
which we have frequently observed in thi^ series on other parts of the
coast, seems to be owing to local causes.
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1852.] AROILLACBOUS STRATA, AND MICACEOUB SANDSTONE. 93
We now aniTe at the second division of the Group, which comprises
the colored argilkceous series, and this we have estimated at 300 feet
at Marhat, 1 75 feet at RasSej&r, and 1000—1200 feet at Ras Fartak.*
We have also ohserved it to consist of red, blue, green, and yellow argilla-
ceous strata, sandy shales, and impure limestones, in which a red color
is most predominant ; and to contain, in addition to Orbitohtes, through-
out, but most numerous in the lower part, species of Echinodermata,
Isocardium, Pecten, Exogyra, Ostrea and Ammonites, probably all of
the cretaceous age : hence, if we consider the whole of the foregoing
division as belonging to the Nummulitic Series, or Lower Eocene,
this division must here be considered as the upper member of the
Cretaceous period.
The third and last division of this group is the micaceous sandstone,
of which we have seen so little that ail that can be stated is that it is
of great thickness, and, though laminated in some places, is for the
most part massive throughout. As before observed, it fines upwards as
it passes into the argillaceous division, and becomes coarser towards the
bottom, where the gritty particles of which it is chiefly composed are
evident to the naked eye. At Marbat it is mostly of a ferruginous
yellow ochreous color, and at Ras Sej&r its upper part, which is the only
portion of it exposed, is of a hght greenish blue color, and veined with
white quartz.
2nd Group.
We now come to the 2nd Group, which we have seen best developed
between Marbat and Resut. It consists of two kinds of limestone, both
of which are more or less coarse and compact ; the upper one is also
more or less impure, shelly, and of a reddish white color, and the
under one of a dark brown color, containing here and there pebbles of
the older limestone formation, and particles of igneous rocks. Both
together do not occupy a thickness of more than 50 feet at the utmost,
and no part of this little group that I saw is raised more than 100 feet
above the level of the sea. It rests on the compact limestone of the Num-
mulitic Series, and is chiefly characterized by the dark brown color of
the lower stratum, and its extreme cragginess where exposed to the
action of the waves.
We must be content with the mineralogical characters alone of this
Group for its separation from the others, since the few fossils obtained
• Almost all the heights and thicknesses given, with the exception of those stated
to ha?e been computed by trigonometrical measnrement, have been assomed, or ob-
tained in a rongh way, for as these observations formed no part of the tarvey, the
means of making them accurately were of course very limited.
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94 OBOLOOY OF THE SOUTH-EAST COAST OP ARABIA. [JaN.
from it are too imperfect to be of any service in this respect. From the
1st Group it is easily distinguished by its superposition, and the presence
of pebbles of the older limestone ; and from the 3rd Group it is dis-
tinguished by its compactness, and the thoroughly fossilized state of its
organic remains, together with its inferior position. My impression is
that it belongs to the Older Pliocene age.
3rd Group.
Lastly comes the 3rd Group, or miliolitic deposit, which is chiefly
characterized by its loose structure. In its purest state, as at Ras Abu
Ashrin, that is where it is not mixed with coarse littoral debris of shells,
or aqueous or igneous rocks, we have seen it to be composed of minute
grains of calcareous matter, with whichis mixed a small quantity of hyaline
quartz ; the former being nothing more than the tests of microscopic Fora-
minifera, loosely cemented together by a partial dissolution and re-crystal-
lization of the external parts of their shells. The purity and whiteness
of this deposit is of course in proportion to the distance it has
been formed from the shore, or the neighbourhood of coarse loose
material ; hence, in addition to the locality mentioned, it is very pure
in the plain of Dofar, on the western side of Ras Sej^, and in the
sandy plains on each side the port of Kashn, while in most other parts
we have seen it mixed with large shells, pieces of coral, and rocks of the
neighbourhood. Perhaps 100 feet is about its average thickness. It
exists at various degrees of elevation, from 15 to 150 feet high,
throughout the coast, and the fact of its having been raised up at one
place, \}z, on Jibal Ghara, at Makalla, to the height of 1300 feet,
seems to point out that it does not belong to the Recent deposits,
though probably to the Post Pliocene formations. At Resut it is
found filling the lithodomous excavations in the coarse shelly limestone
of the 2nd Group, and there also it contains oyster shells of the same
species as those of a recent bed close by. At Marbat, where it fills
the fissures of the granite plain, it contains a number of shells and corals,
many of which are very large, Hippopus, Ostrea, &c. One species of the
latter is perhaps the largest known : it exceeds in size Ostrea latiasima,
(Desh.) We have also seen that it is not only met with throughout this
coast, but that it extends to the peninsula of Kattyawar, in India, from
whence it is imported at Bombay for building stone ; and from forming
the lower part of the Desert of Akhaf, opposite Masira, it may perhaps
be continued into the heart of Arabia. It is also this deposit which, firom
its modem appearance, and elevation above the sea at different places,
forces upon our attention the gradual elevation of the whole coast ;
not less so, however, than the recent deposit itself, which, though less
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TABLB OF AQUEOUS STRATA.
95
Striking, may be seen in many parts above higb-water-mark ; but tbese
limited elevations sink into insignificance wben considered witb tbe
extent of elevation and depression wbicb tbe cracked sandstone at
Marbat proves tbis coast to bave already undergone.
From tbe foregoing data, tben, and in tbe absence of more extended
and precise information, we obtain tbe following table of the aqueous
strata on tbe Soutb-east Coast of Arabia : —
Loose granular deposit of white calcareous particles,
chiefly consistiog of tbe remains of microscopic Fora-
minifera ; with which in mixed a variable quantity of
PosT-PuoCENB ? colored siliceous particles of igneous rocks, i^nd, in
MiHoUtie Deposit, some places, shells, corals, and rounded pebbles of the
100 feet ? neighbouring formations, &r exceeding in proportion
the finer material ; shells and corals more or less
loosely imbedded in the latter, and retaining, for the
most part, their original whiteness and structure.
Older Puocbnb ?
50 feet?
Coarse, compact, whitish Ihnestone, more or less
mixed with red argillaceous earth, containing shells
and corals, resting on a brown compact limestone,
imbedding pebbles of the older calcareous forma-
tions, and rounded gravel of igneous rocks in the
locality ; shells and corals more or less consolidated
with the rock, and for the most part deprived of their
original whiteness and structure.
LOWBR EOCBNB T
2000 feet?
Upper DwUion, — Consisting of fine compact white
limestone, with concretionary flints, the former more
or less composed of the remains of small and micro-
scopic Foraminifera ; a soft calcareous limestone or
grit, with Nummulites ; and a stratum of greenish
white marl and clay, with impressions of Orbitolites.
Lower Division, — Fine compact limestone strata,
more or lees lithographic in structure, of different
shades of grey and white, containing large Orbitolites
and Foraminifera of the genus Alveolina, together with
fossils of the Nummulitic Series.
Crbtacbous Period.
1000 feet ?
Argillaceous strata, composed of impure limestones,
clays, and shales, of different colors, principally red,
richly charged with small Orbitolites, and containing
Echinodermata of the genera Discoidea, Pygaster,
Diadema, and Salenia; Pecten,^ Ostrea, Exogyra
flaheUata, ^c. and Ammonites.
1700 feet?
Compact micaceous sandstone.
• Pot" Pecten quinquecostatus, Sow. mihi," p. 74, read " Pecten. — 1st Species V
and, in the same paragraph^ for '' three broader ones" read *' two hroader ones."
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96 GEOLOGY OF THE SOUTH-EAST COAST OP ARABIA. [JaN.
Such is a faint outline of the Geology of the South-east Coast of
Arabia ; the few fossils collected from whence will, I trust, sooner or
later reach the Geological Society of London, where they will meet
with that attention which they deserve. I have given some of their
characters here for local reference, but we must look for more useful
and authentic descriptions of them from a higher source.
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Art. IV. — Observations on three Copperplate Charters, granted
respectively a. d. 933, a. d. 1261, and a. d. 1391, tvith Fac-
similes, Transcripts^ and Translations. By Major George
LeGband Jacob.
Commanlcated by Goremment.
■^0. 1, of A. D. 933. — ^This records the grant, in the Shdlivahan
year 855, hy a Sovereign of the Yadu race, Govindrij, of the vilkge
I^hagrdm, in the district of R4mpur,* to Keshava Dikshit, son of a
Brahman fellow-student. The language is pure Sanskrit, hut inflated
^th gigantic hyperbole, puerile conceits, and far-fetched metaphors,
containing little matter to compensate the labor of digging out the
meaning.
The plates belong to a Brdhman family, residing near Sdngli, but to
what quarter the grant may pertain I know not. The seven places
recorded may help to fix this : 1st, Lohagram, the village given away ;
2nd, R^mpur, the ''Taluka," the four villages bounding the grant,
vii: —
Ghod^rdm,
Vajulf,
Vinchaviharabh,
Sonnahf,
and lastly, Pdndawarddhan, the birth-place of the grantee. From a
passage alluding to the Ganges and Jamnd as " watering his kingdom,''
the Yadu sovereignty at this era must have been more extensive than
is generally supposed.
The following genealogical tree is gathered from the plates, and it
will serve to clear up doubts left by previous inscriptions. It diifers
little from B&l Gangddhar Shdstrf s attempt to reconcile his and Mr.
Wathen's notices published in the Transactions of the Bombay Branch
Rl. As. Society, No. Y. April 1843, page 213. The Roman figures
give the order of succession : —
* Called Rdmpuri Sapta shat, or R&mpur of the seven hundred (villages pro-
bably).
13
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98
Not named.
COPPERPLATE CHARTERS.
Not named.
[Jan.
II.
K RISHN ARA'J.
I. III.
Dantiduro. Govindra'j.
V.
Jagattuno.
VI.
Amoghawarsh.
IV.
lDD,HAT£JAy
caUed also
NiRUPAMA.
This &mily intermarried
with the Sahasra'rjjun, or
Hachay race, as shown below.
KOKKAL.
VII.
AKA'i.AWARSH. MAnA'PBVT. Ranayiqrah. Arjjttn.
VIII.
Jagattuno 2nd. Lakshmi'.
Anoandbta.
IX.
Indrara'j
Dwija'mba'.
X.
Govindra'j 2nd.
Donor of the grant is called also Suwarnawarsh, and Wallab^b Na-
rendra Deva.
The senior name of the race, second in succession to the Gadf, is
described as having overthrown the Chalukyas, the reigning tribe
celebrated in the Nerur plates.* Supposing the ten reigns to average
fifteen years, which, as the fourth R4j was a first cousin to the first,
will be nearer the mark than the higher average generally assumed,
this would give the year a. d. 783 as the period of the overthrow of
the Chalukyd dynasty by the Yadu.
No. 2, of k, D. 1261 . — Thb inscription shows the Chalukyas again
in the ascendant, and reigning at " Kalydn,'* Kanudeva the King.f
His Minister, Keshava Mahajani, bestows the village Tereovatak, the
modem Terwan, in the Rajapur taluka, on certain Brahmans and
* See Vol. VI. of the Society's Journal, pp. 203, seq.
t Boastin}; also four other high-sounding names.
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the deity Vimaleshwar^ the latter said still to enjoy his portion. The
Sanskrit is not grammatical; the character approaches much nearer
to the modem type : the inscription is probably the same of which an
imperfect copy and translation are given in Vol. V. Rl. As. Soc. Journal,
page 177.
No. 3, q/' A. D. 1391 is an interesting relic of the Bijdnagar
dynasty, founded, according to Ferishta, in a. d, 1344, by Bildl Deu,
Baja of the Camatic, who named it after his son Bij4.* I regret
not having Wilks to refer to. Hamilton, quoting him and other autho-
rities, dates the commencement of this city a. d. 1336, and completion
A. D. 1343, by " Aka Huryhurand Burra Huryhur, and their Minister
^ learned Madhava Acharya." This inscription gives only the fol-
lowing genealogy : —
ACH Yu'T, married to Shri.
' bukkara'j.
Harihar.
The first named is not spoken of as a sovereign, but the second is.
The discrepancy between all three — Ferishta, Hamilton, and the plates
— renaains to be cleared up, but there would evidently seem an error in
attributing the foundation of Vijaya to the parties named ; for, suppos-
ing another and previous Harihar, there would scarcely have been ano-
ther and powerful Madhawa : this person is celebrated in Sanskrit writ-
ings as the Minister of the Bukkdnd race, which, supposing him to re-
tain office imder the son, agrees with this genealogy. His different
nanaes, according to the Shastri, who is my authority on this point,
are Madhava Acharya, and Chatur Vedacharya. Later in life he for-
sook mundane affairs, turned Sunyasl, and received the name of Vid-
y&ranya,t This inscription, alluding to Vijaya, says that Bukkaraj
here lived as an Indra, defying all his enemies ; and as no mention is
made of Achyut's deeds or residence, the inference is that Bukkaraj
was the first of the race who established himself in power in this quar-
ter. Harihar is described as ruling over the whole of the Indian pe-
ninsnla that is washed by the ocean, and it seems doubtful whether su-
premacy to the Indus be not claimed. His Prime Minister, the afore-
said Mddhava, whom he invested with the sovereignty of JayantipiSr,
• Properly Yijayanagar, the Ci^ of Victory, called In this inscription Wijayi
only.
t His works are said to be, Adhikarana V^ayd-Mala, K6Ia Madhawa, Par^hare
Hidhava, and several others much prized.
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100 COPPBBPLATB CHARTBRS. [J AN.
conquered Goa from the Turushkas (Turks), and re-established there
the worship of the ancient idols, which they had uprooted. This vic-
torious personage, before transferring control oyer the Goa country to
another Minister, named Narahari, granted to the parties named in the
plates the village of Kuchchar, called also Madhavapur : this village, the
modem Kochr^ ia not many miles from the present Goa frontier,
Sawint Wadi.
6. LeG. Jacob,
Political Superintendent, S^want Wadi.
I6th November 1849.
No. I.
Plate dated Sha'liwahana Shak 855, a. d. 933.
Free Translation, but as close to the Sanskrit as the language wiU
admit of.
The melodious Samved songs, in wbich Saraswati* takes delight,
sung by Brahmd, pleased with the creation of the universe, continue in
honor. From the moon, that swan sitting on the lotus of the cerulean
lake, surrounded by a numerous train of star-like lotuses — that silvery
parasol of the great king K&m,t whose unrivalled sway prevails through-
out the creation — that milky ocean in beauty — that silvery mountain
in resplendence — that ivory comb of the GroddessJ who rules over the
Eastern quarter — that mansion of universal beauty, there sprung a race
whence issued forth on earth an ocean-like branch of Yadus, the
abode of riches and fame, the theatre of policy, prosperity, and deep
meditation, beneficent, and renowned for protecting the poor. In this
cloudless heaven rose Dantidurg, skilled in arts,|| to whom his host
of enemies were submissive as the starry spheres to the moon, the
abundant and extensive rays of whose fame, Uke those of the moon's
white light, filled all quarters. § His illustrious son -like paternal
uncle, Krishna Bij, having ascended the heroes' ancient, Meru's crest-
like throne, dispelled the dark and insolent Chalukya race, and sent
forth as the sun does when first rising over the mountain tops, the
light of his power over other kings, If and diffused his glory through-
out the world. His son, Govindrdj, bom at Indubimbashildtal, oma-
♦ The Indian muse, t The Hindu Cupid. % Untranslatable.
II Here is an untranslatable play upon words, founded on the double meaning
of the adjective kalatoana, " possessed of digits," and " possessed of arts," the
former applicable to the moon and the latter to the king.
§ Also " gratified the hearts of mankind."
% The play upon the word ^^ atta, signifying both " light" and " command,"
admits of no exact translation in English.
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mented by a mark caused by the smoke of his burning enemies^ came
after him. He was succeeded by his illustrious younger brother,
Idd,hateja, also called Nimpam, who had a heroic and philanthropic
beurt, and whose dread made the progeny of his numerous enemies to
tremble^ and whose sway-tracing signet (Mudra) reached to the seas,
hence known by the name of Samudra (with signet), which they still
bear.* He was followed by his son Jagattung, whose rivals, bereft of
their authority, had become as sapless and impotent as the withered
breasts of old women. His son Amoghawarsh, who succeeded him,
was of incomparable power .f His spotless fame so wide, that, filling up
the whole uniyerse, and finding no outlet, it ultimately overflowed in
the form of water into the deep ocean of the world. Of him was born
•^g Akalawarsh, to whom experienced shieldsmen, terrified by his
prowess, instantly surrendered, throwing down their swords and buck-
^^' Mahddevi, an ornament of the Sahasrarjjun race, J the daughter
^ Kokkal, became his queen. Their son, king Jflgattung, resem-
baxig Dharm (Ajatashatru) by having no enemies, but glorious for
prowess, like Bhimasen and Arjjun,|| was married to Lakshm{,§ the
daughter of Kokkal's son Ranuvigraha, who was able to withstand his
rival kings, deep, and holding, like the ocean, precious things. From
the king Jagattung arose Lakshmi's son,^ like the sun from the Udaya-
cbaJ,** glorious, flourishing, called another sun amongst the kings, and
who truly deserved in this world the name of Indrar^jjff being one
entitled to continual homage,^^ exterminating all iniquitous kings and
their adherents by the thunderbolt of his prowess. |||| Dwijambd (whohke
• Here is a play on the word Samudra, signifying " seas" in one sense, and
" with signet (or power)" in the other.
t A few words following are unintelligible.
X Afterwards also called Hachayd.
I Dharm, Bhimasen, and Arjjun, are the first three of the brothers called the
" five Pandavas."
^ The metaphor is constructed by comparing this princess to Lakshmf, the
wife of Tishnu, the goddess of wealth, and also the first of the fourteen precious
thhigs produced by the ocean, when it was churned by the gods and giants.
% The play upon the words LahshmyAh nandanah signifies as above given in
one sense, and ** supporter of splendour" in the other.
** The name of the mountain behind which the heavenly bodies are supposed
to rise.
tt The metaphor is constructed by comparing this king with Indra, the chief
deity (quite a Jupiter Tonans), supposed to have punished the fiying mountains by
scorching up their wings with his thunderbolts.
U The play upon the term AnimUha'darthana'yogyah signifies as given above
in one sense, and '' fit for the visits of the divinities" in the other.
HI Here is another play upon the term sthiti-chaHta-sakala'bhubhritpakshack-
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102 COPPERPLATB CHABTER8. [JaN.
Lakshm( from the ocean, or like P^rwati from the Himdlayds, the lord
of the mountains, was bom from Angandeva, very strong in force, the
son of Arjjon, who became by his yirtues the senior son of the afore-
mentioned Kokkal, who was a descendant of the Haihaja race that
broke down the pride of Biwan) became Queen of Indrarij. Their
son Govindrij, who surpassed Edm in beauty, who never committed
wicked deeds, although with full opportunity, who never dishonored
the elders, nor brought disgrace on himself by perpetrating evil actions,
such as going with a brother's wife, &c., nor ever acted the coward's
part by assuming derangement to cloak misdeeds, who signalized him-
self in the world as adventurous only in charity and war, became the
next king. He poured forth bounties like rain upon his people, so
that he at last was said to have inundated the whole creation with gold.
The earth, finding herself rid of her wicked rulers at the height of his
triumph over the world, commenced to dance for joy, raising, as if to
gesticulate, her hands, the flapping banners of supremacy.^ The sun
and moon also, knowing that this victorious king does not bear with
any insolent and inimical ruler,f became terrified, and submissively ran
like heralds before him. Princes and authorities bowed themselves
down before his ever-victorious palace, shining with his lustre, having
its external gateway lofty, and shaped like the moon. Has it actually
happened that the Ganges and Yam un^ have poured themselves into and
watered his kingdom because of its superiority over all others in
virtue and genius? "While this victorious king has been peaceably
teigning, his virtuous kingdom has been freed from all enemies,
and the expression "Vimdna," an evil character, is understood only
as a celestial vehicle,J to the truth of which parrots even bear tes-
timony. The soot of the numerous fumes, rising from the fire of his
great valour in battle, produced another heaven of azure clouds, in which
the rays reflected whilst brandishing the glittering swords, are the
flashes of lightning and the pearls|| that drop in breaking the temples
of the stubborn and hostile elephants, shine like the stars. His
fame so pervades and saturates the universe, that the moon, the milky
clied'd'bhimukta'bhi^a'toajrahf signifying as given above in one sense, and also
" hurling out of his hand a thunderbolt to deprive all the flying mountains of
their wings."
* P&li, called also Padhi, in some of the previously-translated plates.
t The words Param mandalddhipam, signifying as above, and also " other
lord of circle (disk or system)," such as the sun and moon, a raja in his darbdr,
&c. ; hence the allusion to the sun and moon lost in the translation.
t An untranslatable play upon the double meaning of the word Vimdna,
II This metaphor is founded on the popular belief of the elephant's forehead
containing a pearl.
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ocean, and the thousand-headed snake^ are the produce of its super-
flnitj. It is no wonder that enemies succumbed to his authority
when he desired to search out and exterminate all such,* for even the
conscious lotu8,t being terrified, but knowing its concealment under
water still more dangerous, implored mercy, as it were, by offering
Lakshmi to him out of its bud.l The Pandanus odoratisntmu took,
as if through fear, shelter in a valley, under a mist of its own odori-
ferous particles, scattered by the wind ; but the jack-tree|| and caue§
saved their lives by becoming vassals, and standing at the doors^ of his
palace. The king by his beauty rivaUing that of Kdm, has become
another Nityakandarp,** thus deriding Mahddeva's third fiery eye, for
having in vain burned up and made Kdm "Anitya Kandarpa."tf He
has been so richly blessed with energy, nursed by counsel and valour,
the other two constituents of royal strength, that he thought little of
even Indra's happiness. He, a. second Brahmd amidst the Chanak-
Wtt a Nardyan,|||| on account of his being devoted to the welfare of
the world, subjugated by his unparalleled valour, became also a Trine-
tra,§§ living as it were within the inimical breasts^ ^ that he had him-
self torn open with his plough. This blessed kmg of kings (indepen-
^t, and ever most desirous of maintaining his supremacy, called Su-
^'wnawarsh, and also for universal popularity Wallah, h Narendra Deva,
^** constantly meditating on the feet of the prosperous and independent
Nityawarshadeva, and a great teacher and a king of kings) orders all
ministers, mankar(s,tff rulers of kingdoms and countries, principal
* Here is an untranslatable play upon the double meaning of the word Kan-
takOj which means " thorns'' as well as *' enemies."
t A particular species of red lotus, having thorns.
t Here is a play upon the word hnha, which means " a bud," and also '' trea-
sury"; Lakshmi dwells in both the lotus-bud and treasury.
I The jack-tree, though itself not thorny, bears a fruit covered with prickles.
S Porters and mace-bearers generally stand with their canes at the doors, hence
the aUusion.
T Door frames are generally of jack-wood.
•♦ That is, " everlasting or imperishable Kdm."
tt That is " transitory or perishable K&m."
it May be perhaps the descendants of Chdnakhya, the name of a sage, now
applied to a man of prudence.
II That is, Vishnu.
^ The Three-eyed, a title of Mah&deva.
f f One of Shiva's epithets is Snuuhanawd^, or " dweller in cemetery," hence
this far-fetched metaphor.
•♦• This, signifying " the darling of kings," is the king's sixth epithet.*
tn The persons entitled to certain honors and presents rendered at courts,
councils, festivals, village-assorablies, &c.
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104 COPPERPLATE CHARTERS. [JaN.
Tillagers, respectable men, and all who are tenacious of their dignity.
Be it well known unto you that the king, who with a view of promot-
ing his own and his parents' virtue and fame by a long continuance of
his capital, shielded b]^ wise counsellers, even restores bygone grants to
gods and Br&mans, and who daily issues by hundreds innumerable
edicts of village-grants, on Thursday, while the moon is in the mansion
Piirwabhddrapada,the 1 5th of Shrdwan [July, August], in the Samvatsar
of Vijaya 855 years having passed of that era, has given in Inam,
till the sun and moon endure, formally pouring water* from the
hand, the village Lohagr&m in R4ropunsaptashat, with all the trees
thereon, exempt from payment of grain or gold,t and from the ingress
of the military, to Keshava Dikshit, son of his fellow-student Deodar
Bhatta, bom in the city of Pudawardhan, a descendant of Kaushik
and a Kdnwa| sectary. The undisputed boundaries of the village so
granted as never to be coveted back> are Ghod^4m on the east;
Wajuli village on the south ; Yinchaviharabh village on the west ;
and Sonanhi village on the north. No one should ever interfere
with Keshava Dikshit, or his posterity, whilst they are cultivating or
enjoying, or suffering the village to be cultivated or enjoyed. Future
kings, either of my own or other lineage, who may know that wealth
is as transient as the waves undulated by a hurricane, life as the summer
clouds, and also that preserving an assignment of land is more merito-
rious than granting it, which is their common duty, should duly
observe and protect this our grant. Rdm has said " To give land,
and thus build a bridge, to pass, as it were, over an ocean of sin, is a
duty, common to rulers. But O ! you future kings, to protect this
bridge of charity from time to time is the repeated solicitation of your
suppliant Rdmchandra.'' It is also said that he who gives land abides
sixty thousand years in heaven, but a resumer and an abettor in its
resumption are doomed to pass the same number of years in hell. He
who takes back land given either by himself or others, becomes a worm,
and rots along with his ancestors in his own hell ; charity given by a
single handful, II or resumption of what is given, destroys the merit
of all former donations. He that gives land dwells myriads of years
in the heaven of Bramhd. Be there blessings throughout the creation.
Be our salutation to Shiva.
* A practice observed at the time of making a donation, to intimate relin-
qui«hment of right over it.
t A few words following are unintelligible.
t A particular section of the Yajurved.
II Giving with a double handful is held meritorious by the Sh^stras.
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1862.] COPPEBPULTE CHARTERS. 105
No. 11.
Translation op Plate, dated Shaka, 1182, a. d. 1261.
1 182 years haying passed of the hlessed Shdlivan era, Raudra being
the current year, Saturday, the 7th of the fortnight of the waning moon
of Paush (December, January).
He who has been honored with the title of the five great words, as
Ray, Dharani, Wardhardy, Batk^raripurdy, Sdhus Malha, and Shri
Kdnvadera Rdy, residing in the best city of Kalydn, a descendant of a
Kim* in the ELaliyug, a sun causing the bud of the lotus-like Chd-
lukya race to bloom, whose flag carries the golden boar, the ocean of
tmth,f a fulminating cage for sheltering refugees, a devout worshipper of
Maheshwar,^ lord of the empire gained by propitiating Mahideva by
deyotioD, a black bee sucking the melhfluous lotus-like feet of Shri
Kedirdeva, since the time of the accession to the throne of Kanvadeva,
Reshava, sumamed Mahajani, has been the Minister. This noble states-
man, who is pious, prudent, skilled in arts, whose advice is the head orna-
ment of all great councillors, during the merit-giving time of the sun's
entrance into Capricorn, has devoutly and spiritual-mindedly assigned
the village of Terawdtak,|| which he had obtained by the favor of the
Mjd, with trees, and other usually grant-accompanying things, to-
gether with all its produce, with power to punish crimes and correct
morals within its boundaries, to Keshava Prabhu, of the Bharadwdj
lineage, who is to supervise the eight sacerdotal duties, § and to the
following deity and other nineteen Brdhmans, pouring water on their
hands, and issuing this edict to Goi Raul, son of Jdlhun Rdul. The
land called Bhit Sfwdr,^ enjoyed by the Shtidras, is assigned to the
deity Yimaleshwar, and the land lying near the temple, to Mddhava
Deva, of the Bhdradwdj lineage, for the daily worship of, and offerings
to the Deity. The remaining Brdhmans are, — 3, N%de Kramait, of
the Bhdrgava lineage ; 4, Vithal Paishds, of the Kdshyap race ; 5,
* The name of the half brother to the P^Ddavas, foiued for munificoDce.
t Or " a mine of precious truth."
X MalUideva.
I Now called Terwan, near Rdjdpur Talukd, Vejedrug.
^ 1, sacrifices, &c; 2, consecration of gods, wells, gardens, &c. &c. ; 3, the cere-
monies closing and concluding long religioas observances ; 4, predicting eclipses,
interpreting them, telling auspicious seasons for undertaking any work ; 5, con-
talting the religious code of laws and institutes, and prescribing therefrom pen-
ances, &c.; 6, preaching the Purdns; 7, administering justice; 8, supervision of
the religion of the country.
Y Perhaps Bhat Siwur.
14
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106 COPPBRPLATB CHARTERS. [JaN.
Vithal PaisUs, of the Bh^rgava lineage ; 6, Ukal Paish&i, of the
BhAradw4j lineage, on whom is bestowed the Bramhatara ; 7, Govind
Bhat, of the Grdrgya lineage ; 8, Somde Bhat, of the Atri lineage ; 9,
Somde Kramait, of the Vasishth lineage ; 10, Keshara Bhat, of the Ya-
sishth lineage ; 11, M&dhava Bhat, of the Kdshyap lineage ; 12, Wa-
sudeva Bhat, of the Mudugal lineage ; 13, Paduman Bhat, of the
Vdsishth lineage; 14, M&dhaya Bhat, of the G&rgja lineage; 15,
Achyut Bhat, of the Atri lineage ; 16, Wdman Bhat, of the K­ap
lineage; 17> Nir4yan Bhat, of the Bhiradw^j lineage; 18, Ndr&jan
Th^kur, of the Bh^dwdj lineage (on whom the office of a Chan-
dharf, and of a protector of the Tillage is bestowed); 1 9, Harideva Bhat,
of the Bharadw^j lineage ; 20, Tikal Bhat, of the Bh^gava race. Four
orchards, called Karhdtak, are assigned to the holy purpose of perma-
nently supporting the Math,* which is provided with culinary copper
vessels, and situated near the temple. Kings, descended either from the
present or other ruling race of this country, must so piously preserve
this village grant, as to become enjoyers themselves too of beatitude.
Many kings, as Sagar and others, made land-grants, but whosoever is
the lord of the land, to him belongs the merit of preservation thereof.
The resumer of land given either by himself or others, passing sixty
thousand years as a worm in hell, is bom a wretched Chandal. He
that seizes one tola of gold, or a cow, or a bit of land, even of a
finger's breadth, is doomed to remain in hell till the annihilation of
the elements. It is recorded that no poison should be named equal
to the seizure of Br^manical property ; for the former destroys merely
the one that takes it, but the latter also one's posterity. To all future
rulers, either of my or other race, who will preserve this my grant, I
bow down. This is written by Govind, the auspicious Maheshwari.
• The aearett word for this is perhaps " convent"
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1852.] COPPBRPLATB CHABTBR8. 107
No. III.
Translation of Charter, dated Shaka, 1313, a. d. 1391.
Be our salatation to Mahddeya, oyer whom waves as a chowrie the
lofty head-kissmg moon, who is hke the Mdlastambha* for the ereo-
tion of the tmiyerse. Be glory to the boar Vishnu, who came into ex-
istence of his own will, and on whose tusk the globe of the earth looks
beautiful as a lotus flower on its tube-like pedicle. The gold mountain
Meru rests elegantly on the flower-like globe as the pericarp of the
lotus. Bh^t (India) and the other continental divisions form the
petals of the globe. The seven mountains KuUchal, &c. that surround
the pericarp (Meru) are the stamens, which add to the beauty of this
flower. India is one of the petals. In its southern half is situate the
country of Kam&tak, through which flows the well known and great
river thereof, Tungabhadrd. Even its sacred banks are so efficacious as
to bum up a forest of sins. On one of the banks is the place of the
great god Yirdp&ksha.f This place is supposed to have the same de-
gree of sacredness as the Ganges. In its vicinity stands the fortified
and impregnable capital city Vijayd, where the females have lotus
petal-like long eyes, and possess such exquisite beauty as to resuscitate
and rouse up even Kim, burnt up by Mahddeva4 ^ * divine incarna-
tion, in the &mily of Yadu, Bukkardj|| was bom of Shrf, wife of
Achyut. He was dreadAil in war ; he defied all his enemies, and lived
here as an Indra (god of gods). His son Harihar,§ powerful as Indra,
went forth to conquer the world. He is worthy of the name, for his
name and virtues are the same as those of Vishnu and Shiva. He,
whilst ruling the religion formed by the northem bank^ of a river,
heard of but not seen,** the Eastern sea, Rdma's pool, and the Westem
sea, the great Kings of all the world fall at his feet. By his order his
• The name of a particular stone oolamn, carved, and its capital with various
grotesque figures, erected before the undertaking of any structure.
t Now called HampiTirupdksha.
X The Indian Cupid, of whom it is related that one day when attempting to sub-
due Hah&deva, while absorbed in meditation, he was burnt up by the god's third
llcry eye.
I Also called Bukkana.
^ Yishnu and Shiva.
t The original appears to include the river.
•• Perhaps the river Indus, or Attak, which the Hindus are prohibited by their
religious code to cross.
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108 COPPBRPLATB CHARTERS. [JaN.
Prime Minister Mfidhava* b^an to rule Jayantipur, the effects of
whose sound policy are so admirable that his enemies, while living,
enjoy not a moment's rest. His name resounds in every quarter. He,
at the head of a large army, set out, with an intention of subduing coun-
tries. A capital, surrounded by a sea, in the Konkan, and bearing the
name Goa, was environed by an ocean of his forces. This heroic Minis-
ter banished all the numerous Turashkasf infesting the country, and
set up again Saptakotishwar, and the other ancient idols that had been
rooted up and thrown away by them. But Harihar, there consulting
vnth his Ministers, concluded that his empire would be of short duration
if the Prime Minister were not in his own territory. He therefore
recalled the Minister, and bestowed on him the throne of Jayantipur, of
which he was now the anointed ruler. Another Minister, Narahari, a
descendant of Attreya, and the son, by Amlika, of Bramharas, a BdLh-
man, well versed in the Yedas and Sh^tras, was sent out to Goapur in
his room. Narahari's younger brother, Bhaskar, is well known. Nara-
hari, a king-like personage, reared up by the rain of ambrosial satisfac-
tion, derived from the favor of benign knowledge, as it were a Shankar^
and thus becoming a Kalpataru|| to all the learned of his age. Fame, a
bride, previous to her wedding with the Minister, presented the renown
of all his enemies as the offering of Lahya (parched rice) to the sacred
fir^ of his prowess : she sat on the marriage slab,§ then stepped upon
the seven continents, and proceeded to the heavens, as if to visit and
receive personally a blessing from Vasishtha's -wife Arundhati.^ The
happy and wealthy M^havaraj, the chief of great ministers, and the
guide of spiritual worshippers, says : " On Wednesday, during the time
of the solar eclipse, when charitable deeds are highly meritorious, in the
month of Vaish^ha (April and May) of the Shdlivan current year
Prajdpati 1313, a. o. 1391, I assign, with the pouring of water into
which gold has been dropped, as a religious endowment, the village
* The Hindu author who wrote a commentary on the Yedas and works on the
laws and institutes of Menu, on theology, astronomy, physic, and other subjects,
which are extant, and held in great estimation.
t The Pandit asserts that a tribe of Mahomedans, who had established them-
selves at Goa, were so called. The flesh-eating Turashkas are mentioned in a plate
found near Attok, assigned to about the eighth century, in the collection published
in Vol. YI. Rl. As. Soc. Journal, the word being transUted " Turks."
i Name of Mahddeva, implying good doer.
II A fabulous tree, nourished by ambrosia, which yields whatever may be desired.
§ Or the crest of a mountain.
^ A goddess of chastity. This metaphor is throughout founded on the practice
of Yivahahoma, a ceremony essential at all weddings.
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185?.] COPPERPLATE CHARTERS. 109
Kucbchdr, called also Madhavapur, in the country of the same name,
Kuchchar, in twenty-five allotments, to twenty-four Brahmans, who
are well versed in the Vedas and Shastras. Their names and lineage are
as follows : Two of the allotments, the first and twenty-fifth, are given
to Damodar Bhat, sou of Anant Bhat, a descendant of Bhdradwaj ; the
latter is granted to him as supervisor over the other Brdhmans. 2nd,
to the grandson of Mahddeva Bhat, and the son of Anant Bhat, a
descendant of Vasishtha. 3rd, to Wasudeva Bhat, son of Narasinha
Bhat, a descendant of Attreya. 4th, to Khdn Bhat, son of Anant
Bhat, a descendant of Bh^radwdj. 5 th, to Ddmodar Bhat, son of
Wasudeva Bhat, a descendant of Attreya. 6th, to Mahddeva Bhat,
son of Naram Bhat, a descendant of Attreya. 7th, to Waman Bhat,
son of Mahddeva, a descendant of Jamadagni. 8th, to Rh&m Bhat,
son of Ddmodar Bhat, a descendant of Attreya. 9th, to K&n Bhat,
son of Anant Bhat, a descendant of Bh&radwdj. 10th, to Paumnideva
Bhat, son of Vithal Bhat, a descendant of Jamadagni Watsa. 11th,
to Anant Bhat, son of Mahddeva Bhat, a descendant of Kutsa. 12th,
to Anant Bhat, son of Keshava Bhat, a descendant of Jamadagni.
13th, to Jan&rdan Bhat, son of Govind Bhat, a descendant of Attreya.
14th, to Vishnu Bhat, son of R4mkrishna Bhat, a descendant of
Jamadagni. 15th, to Hari Bhat, son of D&modar, a descendant of
Attreya. 16th, to Govind Bhat, son of Mandeshi, a descendant of
Kaushik. 17th, to Wdsudeva Bhat, son of Vithal Bhat, a descendant
of Jamadagni. 18th, to Paumnideva Bhat, son of Govind Bhat, a
descendant of Kaushik. 19th, to Mah&deva Bhat, son of Hari Bhat,
a descendant of Jamadagni Vatsa. 20th, to Tdn Bhat, son of Ndrd-
yan Bhat, a descendant of Vasbhth. 21st, to Bhatam Bhat, son of
Mah&deva Bhat, a descendant of Jamadagni Vatsa. 22nd, to Vithal
Bhat, son of Ndmdeva Bhat, a descendant of Bh&radwdj. 23rd, to
Mahddeva Bhat, son of Wdmdeva Bhat, a descendant of Bh&radwdj.
24th, to Keshava Bhat, son of Govind Bhat, a descendant of Vasishtha.
The boundaries of the so-granted village Kuchchdr, hence called
M&dhavapur, are as follows : P&t lies to the East of it ; a Banian tree
and a stone, situate on the summit of the intervening hill, form the
Eastern boundary Hue. Mhdpan lies to the south ; a salt marsh, by
the name of Paragati,* in the jungle, forms the Southern boundary-line,
from which runs Westward the dam of a smaller marsh : near this is a
Tavinef on the breach of the sea ; the sea lies exactly to the West.
* Now called Paragalwi.
t Also ditch, pit, deep hole, chasm.
15
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110 COPPERPLATE CHARTERS.
Paraulya* lies to the North ; the Paulotf and the creek heneath it, that
runs to the sea, form the Northern houndarj line. The grant of this
Tillage, with all its appendages, trees, water, treasure, if found, and
everything thereon, is made by the consent of the king, his ministers,
the chief men of the village, exempt from all sorts of taxation and
oppression, to the above mentioned Brdhmans, who may undisturb-
edly enjoy it. To preserve what has been granted, a common duty
incumbent on all kings, is like a bridge for their safety, over an ocean
of sins. O you monarchs ! preserve this bridge at all times, is the
constant prayer of your supplicant R&machandra. He who removes
what is granted, either by hunself or others, is doomed to pass sixty
thousand years as a worm in hell.
• Now called Parule op Parole.
t We have no good English word for this useful term, signifying the line of any
ridge or portion of land from which the water turns in opposite directions.
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tf
^^edlr^OOfilC
iSl
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COPPERPLATE CHARTERS. Ill
Transcript of Charter, dated Shaka 855, a. d. 933.
l^Tke tuteriak * denotes the end of each line in the platee.'l
ft^HBT ^^wtfn «?*i^T^H^ vfj( ft'gfw^T^^irf I ^Pci^?rq^wii?s m
W Pl'i^f'nicil^Tf^^T * ^1 Tf^TT^' ^W5 f^H3I ^^^ ^'Pl^f^^T^'f ^
^ VI.- w^T ^J • ^m^T OT ^ H^^^T ^w *nn^^H^iij*ii«^w
16
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112 COPPBRPLATE CHARTERS. [J AN.
«r^#T ^J\ fTRT ^^in* Kif^f: I • ?R «f3r^ iii<^N<vn«ii«i: ?mT^
^Ti»rT ^^ fw^^fT^mi: • 5*T^Tr1^'iT Wm K^5^TO ^T ftWPf W m
infill i4i wipi?f^i nvyf ^ • inrPgw^v^i^iiiL^ii fiifiini.Oii^
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1852.] COPPERPLATE CHARTBfiS. 113
^«nfijH w^i^^jn w\iiMi*i ^i^v I ^ftiir^ f^wn^rfif '^"'J^ f%^wifT
wrtif Mi^i'H^i'T <T«Mfd ftitmfif irn?^^ b^^tc^ht im ^uRTTftwr *
fimro^ • iiT ^ifiific'' ^ rH<.^r*i*m4jiiijTiiirreinf'r inro? &iiii^<ii n
^iimii wili^i^ TOW? ^n^rs «?^ ^r^ •
•v
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114 COPPERPLATE CHARTERS.
^ I r«i ^5^11^ ill ^ • € ^jftr^nf ^i[TfiRi: I fkwii^^ ^«f •win i
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copperplatb charters. 115
Transcript of Chartrr, dated Shaka 1313, a.d. 1391.
[The P^UMimile of this Plate was not obtained.]
il «r^^w I iRffTiRT intrnfff^ 3iitT«rt#t yc^n^ ^^^ i ^rm^
» <K^i^i<»» iNflm f^np^^OT inft^^T ^r^r^fr: %T!ftqf?r ^
^ I ipn ^R^crf^ ^Ti^ 'ninfl^ *ngf^^i 'n^BT^ni f^^^^ kt
irt^^ ^ ^^^m^ ^rarmfir ^w?^ ^iniwT% w^or§ ^nn^TWirt
VIAlF^W ^"SlMil^ gwi*i# ^m ^41^"^ I li^^l" ^MftlS^lS 3|^^W
17
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116 COPPBRPLATE CHARTERS. [ J AK.
^xffi ?i^ iriio^ iW HT^'nTt m^'TTii f^^^PTi^i ?ffnTwirm
fir^iTT ^ « mxfim ir^ra l^v • BT*nr»5^ <.iSiff>*<^^ ^r^rfkr^fij:
ifTtj^ ^noftnhr^ irfTTw^i^ ^1inPi^^?:iit 1 ^iml f^^^ffi m^inmm^
lirt M^ finrf% ^^85 ^niTvp 1 ^fc^vr^ f^^ ^^vr in'r^ ^fw «t^
t:w I wTi?T^rt ^rt%w*mfrt ^n^ mi^ vim mm^JMw^^. wh^
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1852.] 117
Art. V. — A Cemparative Vocabulary of the Non-Sanscrit Voca-
bles of the Vermicular Languages of India. By the Rer. J.
Stevenson, D. D.
PreMnted December 11th 1861.
Part I.
Philol<^ and Ethnology are two branches of knowledge, which,
thoogh seemmgly independent, are yet intimately connected, and throw
mutual light on one another. No sojourner in India can have paid
any attention to the physiognomy of the higher and lower orders of
natiTea without being struck with the remarkable difference that exists
in the shape of the head, the build of the body, and the colour of the
skin, between the higher and lower castes, into which the Hindi! popu-
lation is divided. The high forehead, the stout build, and the light
copper colour of the Brahmans, and other castes allied to them, appear
in strong contrast with the somewhat low and wide heads, slight
make^ and dark bronze of the low castes. Every one feels, on contem-
plating these characteristic marks, that he has been brought in contact
with two distinct races of the human family. It is usually found that
difference of language characterizes difference of race, and therefore in
the present instance we should expect a difference in the speech of
these two classes of the inhabitants of India. In all nations, even
where the higher and lower orders are of the same race, such differences
do indeed exist, as in England ; and, on the other hand, where the races
are totally distinct, as in the West Indies, the same language is
usually spoken by both ; yet in the last mentioned instance there arc
usually to be found traces of the ancient tongue of the subject people,
mingled with the newly-adopted language of their masters. It is this
ancient language of the subject race in India that we are endeavouring
to trace through the different spoken dialects, by means of this Com-
parative Vocabulary.
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1 1 8 NON-SANSCRIT VOCABLES [ JaK.
The spoken languages of all the nations of India Proper, including
Ceylon and the adjacent islands, are mixtures in various proportions of
the Sanscrit, the original language of the Brahmans, and another lan-
guage of a different family, of which we find the most copious remains
in the dialects of the hill tribes, and in the Canarese and Tamil lan-
guages. There has indeed been introduced, in later times, a multitude
of terms of Arabic and Persian origin hj the Mahomedan conquerors
of India, relating to goyemment, law, and new phases of dyilization,
which now enter more or less into all the vernacular tongues. The
interest of this part of the Indian languages to the philologist and
ethnologist is not however so great as to induce us to enter upon it,
nor does it present any difficulties to any one moderately versed in
Urdd. The same remark also applies in a great measure to the San-
scrit element in the Indian languages. I was rather surprised at first,
when examining the Bengali, Tdmil, Malay4lim, and Singhalese dic-
tionaries, to find one half of them occupied with the explanation of the
very same Sanscrit words with which I was already familiar from meet-
ing them in the Hindi, Mar&thi, Gujardthi, and other allied tongues.
After collecting materials to some extent for a comparative list of San-
scrit derivations in the different vernaculars, I abandoned the work
from the perception that in the almost perfect sameness of the adopted
words there was nothing to compare, except a few terminations and
euphonic changes, which ten words could illustrate as well as ten thou-
sand. I found that as in the Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and
English, the Latin element common to all is derived from the Roman
language in a peculiar stage of its development, so it was with the
Indian vernaculars in reference to the Sanscrit. I may illustrate my
meaning thus : the term for a water-spring is not derived in the Euro-
pean vernacular tongues directly from /ons, but through the mediseval
/ontana, a word now found in the Italian, giving rise to the French
fontaine, and English fountain ; and in the same way certain comes
from certus, following with many other words a form which first in the
decline of classic literature showed itself in proper names, as Domi-
tianus from Domitius, and Justinianus from Justus, and then, from
a fancied superiority of sound, was forced upon common substantives
and adjectives. The Sanscrit of the Indian vernacular tongues also
is the Sanscrit of a certain age— of an age when the language had
been brought out of the simplicity and barbarism of the Vedic period
nearly into the state that it exists in the classic literature of the
Brahmans. What is most singular is that in the language of Ceylon
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1 852.] 09 INDIAN y BRNACULARS. 1 1 9
these words are the same as m the languages of continental India. In
Ceykm the Sanscrit element undoubtedly owes its origin to the Pali
introduced by the Buddhist priesthood ; nor is this PaU anything but a
modified Sanscrit, differing not more from the Brahmanical tongue than
the presettt Romaic from classic Greek. According to the most accu-
rate researches of Mr. Tumour, as corrected by himself, Buddhism was
introduced into Ceylon about the commencement of our era. We have
little reason to believe that with the exception of the Vedic hymns,
any portion of the Brahmanical literature extends beyond that period,
hut on the contrary, that much of it was composed after the decline of
Buddhism. Howerer this may be, the Sanscrit language since the
banning of our era can have undergone no important yariations. It
ceased before that period generally to be a spoken language, and was
thus remoyed from the influence of the usual sources of change. The
encouragement given by the Buddhists to the vernacular tongues tend-
ed to throw it a good deal into the shade, and left its cultivation to
the more rigid ritualists. There, is one change, however, which the
Sanscrit has undergone, which we must notice, as it bears particularly
on the subject we have in hand ; it is the introduction into it of words
from the vernacular languages of India. The question is. What words
are Sanscrit ? — Is every word found in a Sanscrit book or dictionary
radically Sanscrit? This is a question of no easy solution. If on the
one side we are obliged to take every word any Brahman has used in
writing Sanscrit as belonging strictly to that tongue, then we must
canonize as classical Latin all the Ghillicisms and Germanisms of the
writers of the middle ages. On the other hand, if we reject any portion^
there is danger of our reasoning in a circle, and setting up our own
fancies as the standard of truth. If we may reject what we like, and
retain what we like, our conclusions become useless for any philologi-
cal or ethnological purposes.
It is then a principle of language that the same men do not invent
numerous terms to express the same idea. Ask any one acquainted
with Latin what word in that tongue stands for water, he will without
the least hesitation answer aqua ; and if the corresponding Greek is
demanded he will reply vda>p ; if the Persian, *Ji {ih) ; if the Hindu-
Btani, qmt (p^) ; if Bengfli, W9 (j^l) ; if Canarese, ifH (nfru) ;
and so on in reference to other languages, giving only one word. True,
in En^ish we might vaejluid, or liquid, instead of water, and aqueous
JImd would be an exact counterpart expression ; but every one at a
glance perceiveB that these are either epithets, or derivatives from ano-
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120 NON-SANSCRIT VOCABLES [JaN.
ther language. Aqua vita, alcohol, MpiriU, barley bree, are all used
to denote the same liquid, but one of these words is taken firom the
Latin, another from the Arabic, and a third from the Scotch, and
there is but one pure English term among the four. It is thus we
judge of the numerous words used in the Arabic and Sanscrit to express
the same idea ; thej are either mere epithets, or foreign or proT^dal
words, adopted into the language. The Brahmans scattered through
all the different provinces of Hindostan must have learned the languages
of the tribes to whom they acted the part of astrologers and spiritual
guides, and no doubt adopted many of the words of-the languages of
the tribes among whom they resided, and introduced them into the
sacred tongue. In accordance with these principles, then, we would, if
asked what was the old and radical Sanscrit word for water, say it was
9n^: (4paA). wm (Jala) is an old Indian word used as the chief
provincial term in Bengal, Orissa, and Ceylon to this day, to denote the
substance in question. ^ifH (Nfra) is Canarese, and pervades most of the
languages of the South as well as that of the Todas, the primitive in-
habitants of the Nilgherry Hills. ^^IT (Udaka) means strictly only
a liquid ; thus the author of the commentary on the Kalpa Sutra, in
mentioning what things were most remarkable in their dass, cites
nectar as chief among liquids, V^9^ ^H^* Again ^rf%lf ^m its
derivation, may be rendered a fluid. Try in the same way to derive
the three first mentioned words from any radical ideal : ^THT: we are
told comes from btHT. to obtain, mwi from «nii, to hide or encompass,
and iftK from wt, to obtain. The Brahmans ought to be ashamed of
such absurdities. If the idea of water is to be derived from hiding or
obtaining, we need no more stickle about the stories contained in the
Purans. Such derivations and such transformations are equally probi^
ble. These are primitive words, and cannot be derived from verbal
roots; and all except the first must have been introduced into the
language by provincial writers, and then adopted by lexicographers.
In the present state of philological inquiries in India, however, I
shall not be able to derive much advantage from the principle here laid
down. Thoroughly convinced of its soundness as I am, if I were to
make much use of it, it might seem as if it were introduced merely to
serve a purpose. I shall not omit Sanscrit words that I decidedly
think borrowed from the vernaculars, but the Sanscrit will also in these
instances be given, and the reader left to form his own judgment. In
reference to the Sanscrit portion of the vernacular languages of India,
it is a singular fact that it is purer among the inhabitants of Malabar and
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1852.] OF INDIAN VERNACULARS. 121
Mjsore than among those of Bengal and Upper India. The reason of
this can be easCy given, though it be not at first obvious. In Upper
India, Bengal, and Gujarath, nine-tenths of the language is a corrupt-
ed Sanscrit. The Brahmans and higher classes there more easily fall
into the *^revaiUng pronunciation of Sanscrit words, whereas in the
South the Sanscrit vocables, being rarely used by any except Brahmans
or well-educated persons, the primitive forms, though with the nota-
ble exception of the dropping of the proper marks of the genders of
nouns, have been more carefully preserved. We may notice also that
the Beng^ and Marithi are strongly inclined to the use of the long
^ (^T) instead of the short (Bf) . They are the Doric dialects of India.
The Singhalese has almost as much Sanscrit as the Hindustani, more
at least considerably than the Tamil and Canarese, confirming the tra-
dition that derives the Buddhist colony from Orissa. These two last
mentioned tongues retain most of what I deem the speech of the abori-
ffial Indians.
In reference to the order in which the following vocables are arranged,
I have put the Canarese first, as containing the greatest number of
words not Sanscrit, if I may judge from the dictionary which I have,
viz. Garrett's Abridgement of Reeves. For the T&mil words I use
Bottler, for the Singhalese Clough, the Malayulim Bailey, the Bengali
Ram Comal Sen, the Mar^thi Molesworth, the Gujardthi Nowrojee
Furdoonjee, the Hindi Thompson and Taylor, the Tetinga Campbell, the
Oriya Sutton, the Sindhi Stack. The last two and the BengW are Eng-
lish and Indian, the others have the words in the Indian tongue
arranged alphabetically, as in Wilson's Sanscrit dictionary, of which I
use the second, and of the other works the first editions. For the
harsh r of the Southern languages I use in Devanagari ^, in Engtish
rr ; for the last letter in the word Timil in Devanagari 9^, in English
gh. The Canarese, Telinga, and Mardthi languages often require «r to
be pronounced, not^', but g, or dz, and the T&mil and Malay &lim have
a peculiar n. There are rules for these, however, which those acquaint-
ed with those languages know how to apply, and I have not thought it
needful to mark these changes of sound. The peculiar vowel of the
Singhalese I have written ^nv and a.
Before proceeding to the catalogue of aboriginal words we may exhi-
bit a specimen of the transformations the Sanscrit undergoes when
adopted into the vernacular tongues. Besides the forms here given, it
if not nnnsnal to meet with th^ pure Sanscrit word as well as the cor-
ruption in some of the dialects. The pure word will be heard from
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1 22 NON-SANSCRIT V OOABLBS OF INDIAN VERN ACULAB8. [ JaN.
the mouth of Brahmans, or be found written in the higher orders of
compositions, while the corrupted form will be that used by the com-
mon people.
It is no uncommon thing, also, for the pure word to occur in certain
senses, and the corrupted in certain others, thus enriching the language.
For example irif is a word that applies in some of the vernaculars to
religious, or irreligious acts, while its corruption, wm, means any conn
mon work or employment ; in the same way as rite, in English, is ''the
prescribed manner of conduqting religious services," while faskUm and
custom are used of things trivial and common.
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1852.] CORRUPTIONS OF SANSCRIT WORDS.
123
H
<
O
z
<
<
P
o
<
z
H
>
M
ta
h
O
0(
z
<
CO
o
w
z
o
g
p
o
luj ^
I i
I f i II is
i.
I
I
I
n
si
I
t
I I
I ! I s I
3 113 1
IT I
It' §
IT S
»^' i
4'
1^ I
u
u
1 1
ii ri- li
II r i- 1 1
I
I
If 2
Hi
;i
^iy
/& I
h
l3
i I
El
ll
»
W
I III t
t^ I :
t^I gill
h tl
I ll
► I li
.1 li
5 « i?»
I «
1^
"s
ft
li
o^
2*8
1!
i§
I?
Is
I!
P
li
o S
>?Q4
1?
ll t
18
r I
it I t
I 1 1
8n
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124 NON-BANSCRIT VOCABLES OF INDIAN VERNACULARS. [JaN.
A COMPARATIVE
Of the Non-Sanscrit Primitives of the chief
^o. Canarbsb.
Ta'mil.
Malaya'lix.
Tblinoa^
^That,IBMd
a,av
That, J/Zud
That, Illud
k a
That, lUud
Aga^u
Deceit
Fraus
^<»er^^^<i
2) Akatavikata
i ConfnatA
AkataTika^amu
Topsy turvy
Reversus
V TnToliitiis
AU VvlUliUO
i An Alder fdstAF
Akkai
An elder sistep
Soror migor natu
Aga^u
The inside
Pars interna
^n
Akka
An elder sister
^ Sorop migor natu
4 J Akkara, akkarti
i Love
vAmor
Soror major natu
Akku, akatika
The breast, mercy
Pectus, mlsericordia
Akat^r
The heart
Mens
b) Akka, dgu
i To be, to become
VEsae, fieri
A'grada
To be, to become
Esse, fieri
Akumm
To be, to become
Esse, fieri
Avu
To become
Fieri
Karravai
A milch cow
Vacca lactaria
Karrappi kunnu
To give milk
Lacprcebere
6/Alcaiu
iAcow
VVacca
Earn
The'railk bush
Euphorbia tirncalli
No. 1.—- Thelong and short vowels being frequently interchanged, the words will in
this Vocubulary be usually found arranged according to the sound, without considering
the length of the vowel, though care has been taken not to confound the two together in
writing. Instead of ^f^ in the Tamil, ^ only h written before a consonant, but the
consonant is doubled. To this list might be added the Scindian and Tibetan ^7, the
Bengal ^, the Turkish j\ Persian ^^1 Slavonian on, Burmese ^; and from the hill
tribes the Dhimal u, and Garo oa. In writing the Hindust&ni and Mar&thi in English char-
acters, %o is sometimes used as the substitute of -7, when that suits the pronunciation much
better.
No. 2. — The Latin terms are not here or elsewhere always exact synonymes, but some-
times further explain the idea given partially in the English. The root here is probably
the Canarese interjection o^ surprise, 3fq(7, dkata.
No. 8.—- The Sanscrit ^%\ means a mother. It is an uncommon word, and probably
iaken from the Mardthi 9T^, which, especially when coupled with i|X?fti ^^ ^T* ^® ^^^^
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1852.] COMPARATiy£ VOCABULARY.
VOCABULARY
125
Vernacular Languages of India.
81KGHALE8B.
At t
That, Ilhtd
Akatavikata
FooUsh pranks
Tripodia
«wrT
Akki
An elder siater
Soror major natu
Araiara
The heart
Put interna
Ktlkmna^va
A heitl, a company
Agmen
Maba'tbi'.
Ha
This, IsU
AkatTikat
Disorderly
Indigestua
Ak4
Elder sister
O soror m^jor natu
QUJARA'TBI'.
This, Istud
Hindi'.
That, lUud
A'wad
Love
JDesiderium
A'va
Show, power
Pompa, Tis
Kaiap
A hierd, a flock
Boom, Sec. agmen
Ealdp
An assemblage
Con?entu8
niption of ifT]^, means any elderly female. The Toda of the Neilgherries is okena, and
the Tulo of the Malabar Coast akke, and the Tungusian, according to Klaproth, oki, for an
elder sister. Among the Assamese tribes the Bhotia is azhinty the Changlo ano, the Garo
obij and the Keshdri anobau The Tamil is no doubt also connected with the Tibetan
ackke, and a truly aboriginal word.
No. 4. — ^This word has many words allied to it in the Sonthern tong^ues, but I cannot
tiace it in the Northern &mily further than the Mar&thi.
No. 5. — The remark made on the last word is even more applicable to this.
No. 6. — ^The Hindi word here given is pure Sanscrit. The trace of connection with the
Southern fiunily commences in the Mardthi. The word in Hindi and Sanscrit applies to
other kinds of collections, but never to those of cattle, where mi, or a corruption of it, is
generally used. It would seem, then, that the Mardthas have adopted and corrupted the
Sanscrit word, giving it also a new sense, derived partly from the ancient Indian, and
partly from the Brahmanical tongue.
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126
NON-SANSCRIT TOOABLES OF INDIAN TBRNACDLARS.
[Jan
No.
Canakbsb.
7/ Agachu
(To press down
Comprimere
Aga^lu
Fierce, antamed
Ferox
Ta'hil.
Kasanggu-grrada
To be sque^ed
compremi
A deceiyer
Fraudulentus
Maulta'lix.
Telinoa.
Gachchupichchagu
To be disordered
Inconditum esse
Agaiju
An accusation
Criminatio
8/AgaIa
i Broad
^ Latum
^) Again, agaH
\ To dig, a trenct]
V Fodere, fossa
s:
10/ Ajja
i Grand&ther
^Avus
Agalnm
Breadth
Latitudo
Agazhii, agil
A fort trench
Arcis fossa
A tan
Father
Pater
Akalam
Breadth
Latitudo
Achchhan
Father
Pater
Agalu
To burst asunder
Rumpere
Aga^u
A trench, a moat
Fossa
Avra
A grandmother
Avia
^.y Anche
\ A relay, the post
# Statio, veredorum
V statio
Asaidal
Motion, walking
Ambulatio
Ancbal
The post
Cursores public!
Anche
A relay, the post
Btatio, tabellariuB
N. B. The Hindi Bf^TV^TT, ^^ ^^ cramped or thrivelled up, to ttrtitj kt. ; the Canarese
BTI^fg^, *o contract f as the muticles of the itomach,from hunger, and all the allied
words in the other languages, are derived, it is conceived, from Bf^E^VT, putting, drawing,
kc,, and are therefore here omitted. It is poKsible, indeed, that they may have had an
independent origin in the ancient Indian vernacular tongue, but at any rate they are too
closely allied in form and sense with the Sanscrit to find a place in this Vocabnlary.
No. 8. — ^The Mardthi ^j|^ may I think be derived from the Canarese word for
broad. It is a very common word, with a negative for by no means, and some have mis-
taken this for the meaning of the simple word. The Tamil of this No. is marked as if it
were Sanscrit, whether supposed to be derived from B^gfjlf , or from what other word 1
can only conjecture. There is no probability in such a derivation ; if cannot pass into ^.
No. 9. — ^The Marithi term here forms a curious instance of the meeting of the two dia-
lectic waves. ^JToS* ^ ^^^ ^'^^ ^ ^^^f ^^ ^ corruption of the Sanscrit Bf 9f^, but as used
for a small pit, a meaning quite unknown to the Sanscrit, comes from the Canareae 9^113^,
$0 dig. But see further on this point in No. 32.
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1852.] COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY.
SiNGHALBBB. MABA'THI'. GuJARA'THI'.
127
HiNDr.
Gacbka, gach Gach
A jolt, tightly Tightly
Concusftio, strictim Arct^
Agadbaga4
Jabber, ti-ifles
Garrulitas
Agadi
In all its extent
ProrauB.
«T5pr¥^3r¥
A((a4b<^^
Tra«h, trifling
NugsB
Gachpach
Stuffed together
Compressum
Agadbagad
Jabber, trifles
NugSB
Agala
A ditch, a trench
Fossa
Agai
The little pit at mar-
bles, Sec.
Puteolas
A'tk A'dz&
A paternal grand&ther A grandfather
Anu patemus Avos patemus
B?raT
A'j4
A paternal grandfather
Atus
N. B. Probably 97^ y. a shop, is a corruption of ^fV ^ ; &°<i 9T^W^« assessment
ot^ land, in from Sans, BTC^TT, ^"H/ ff^o^in ; and many of the following words from Sans,
9)1^ pure, whence also the Hindi 9T^T 9^^*^* ^fl i^ ^ corruption of BTC^, a mould,
an axle-tree, and has the same meaning, and probably, when used as a verb in the same
f^BOte, paying unjustly, suffering loss, &c. it is from the same word in the sense of a die
for playing with at dice. The words for types, printing, &c. in the Southern tongues come
chiefly from ^«, as in the Northern — they are probably derived from ^q^ to pound,
giving US If fq &c.
No. 10. — The Burmese ^|^ (atse), an ancestor of the seventh degree upwards, may
here be added.
Va, 11. — Probably the Sanscrit roots ^f^ and ^f^ ^ . have received the sense of to go
from the Tamil, the root, which is properly 9)^ ^ . In the Tamil we have a large num-
ber of derivative words from this root, but I have not found one in the Sanscrit. The
compilers of the Dhatn-manjari then, I feel confident, have in this instance, as in many
others, given meanings to the roots which they have not in the pure Sanscrit.
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128
NON-SANSCRIT VOCABLES OP INDIAN VERNACULARS.
[Jan.
No.
CA.NABE8E.
12 / Ancba
i To fear
VTimere
13
Ta'mil.
Acbam, aujal
Fear
Timor
\ Ataku, atatati
Hiuderauce, obstacle Delay, bioderance
Halaya'lih.
Acbcbam
Fear
Metus
Ateppa
Obstacle
Impedimentum
Mora, impedimeDtam Impediinentnm
X4 y Ada«attu
i A conjecture
vAriolatio
JAttu
1^ ^ To abate, to be boUed
dry
.Desiccari
IQ y A^havane
i Remembrance
V Recordatio
\A(}agu
17^ To be hidden
f Abdi, later!
Adanggala Atanf(kal
A contract for work An estimate
Pactio .£titimatio
Adang-krradu Atangngunnu
To abate, to sink To be humbled, to
down
Diminui, residere
Adakam
abate
Deprimi, reprimi
Atay&lam
A siscn, a token
Signum, nota
Atakkik-kunnu
Concealing, sepulture To cover, to conceal
Occultatio, sepultura Teg^ere, celare
Tblinoa.
Anchena
An estimate
Census
Atakdvu
Prevention
Obstructio
A^
It is reported
Aiunt
Adangg^
To be depressed
Deprimi
A(Jiy41amu
A sign, a token
Signum, nota
^.
Ad(lu
That which conceals,
a cover
Celator, tegmen
18
I Adayu, adda- Adai-grradu A^utta
V To' have, bye- To have, to be near Near, belonging to
r Habere, sub- Habere, propinquum proximo, ill! pertinens
No. 12. — But for the Telinga, which joins the form of the Southern family with the
meaning of the Northern, which have derived the word from the Persian ^JmjLojT I should
not have ventured to trace here any connection. Yet as ^J^j^jf is also used in Persian,
the Tamil and Persian roots are to all intents the same, and the radical ideas of trying
and fearing are not irreconcileable.
No. 13. — ^The meaning in all the languages except the Singhalese is indentical. The
word 9^?K, or BfT^TT^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^ is to be found also in the Panj&bi, Scindian, Uriya
and Bengdli languages. Tbis root must be carefully distinguished from the Sanscrit root
;^7, to move, surpass, &c., whence ^f^ an upper room or attic, and some other words,
which also enter into the vernacular languages, are derived. It is also to be distinguished
from the next No., the root of which is in the Telinga a verbal particle ^z^i* ^ reported,
and therefore I haYO, for the connection^ brought forward the Canarese word out of its
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1852.]
COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY.
129
SlVOHALBSB.
Mara'thi'.
GUJABA'THi'.
Adzam&8 AzmAesh
Estimate, conjecture Trial
iBstimatio Experimeutum
AttuTa A(, atak Atak, atakdva
AglatlDoassQbstanee Ob«traction, hinder- Oustruction
ance
AHqoid glntinosom Impedimentam Impedimentum
AduTenavi
Todecreaae
Diminni
Adaydlama
A brand, a mark
Kota, dgDum
Adaya
A prop, a stopper
Adminicalum,
toramentum
A4uttn
Belonging to
Alicoi pertinens
ob-
Atakai
Conjecture, g^ees
Conjectatio
B^
Atne
To be dried up
Desiccari
Athavaii
Remembrance
Recordatio
Atakalo
Conjecture
Ariolatio
Hindi.
Azmdish
Trial, proof
Probatio
Atak, at^ava
Stop, hinderance
Cesaatio, obstructio
A^kal
Conjecture, estimate
Conjectatio
A'4 A'<J A'«J
A well, shelter, coyer, Protection, shelter Shelter, concealment
protection
Pnteus, mnnimen Mmiimen, refngiom Asylcmi, abditum
^nr — In composition ^9fTW — In comp.
A4- A'4-
Bye-, spare Less
Sub-, extra Minor
place. The Telinga word, however, is derived from 9fvr, ^^ ^eak, and in the Dhatu-
manjari we have the meaning to sound given to this root, though not one of the Sanscrit
derivatives has any connection with sound. Here again I suspect the author to have had
the vernaculars in his eye.
No. 15. — Here the Hindi B(^m follows entirely the Sanscrit sense of the root, and
means to be filled up, a sense also found in some of the other tongues occasionally.
No. 17. — This is one of the instances that beautifully illustrate the necessity of studying
the Southern languages to be able to see the derivation and full force of the words in the
Northern. The same root appears also in the Panjdbi ^^^f^ (adtal&) shelter, which
is also Hhidi, the Scindian ^ipf (a4)» and the Bengali Bf^TT^ (^&la) in the same sense.
No. 18. — ^The BfV ^^^^t ^ ^°>o of tlie languages, corresponds to the ^i^ of the Sans-
crity which in others has taken its place.
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130
NON-8AN8CRIT VOCABLES OF INDIAN TERNACULARS.
[Jan.
No.
Canarbsb:
20
J Adava
1^ \ A deposit, a pawo
fPignus
^arf^.
) Ailalu
i To tremble, to fear
vTremere, payers
Si < A foot, the bottom
vPes, solum
Ta'hil.
Adagu
A pawn, a pledge
Pignus
A stroke, a blow
Ictus
Adi
The foot, foondation
Malata'lim.
Atam&tiam
A pleds^e
Pignus
Ati
A blow, a stripe
Ictus, plaga
Ati
The foot, a footstep
Tblinga.
Pes, fundamentum Pes, vestigium
JAdda A^am, a^anai A^ukka
22 < Anything in a cross Across A row, a layer
^ direction
- Ecquid transversum Transversa Series
A(ldl
A deposit
Depositam
Again
Fear, terror
Timor, pavor
A^ugn
A foot, a footstep
Pes, vestigium
Ad.^amn
Anything transverse
Ecquid transversum
No. 20.— The Hindi ^f^ here is probably derived from the Sanscrit ^;^. The South-
em influence then is confined to the change of ^ to y.
No. 21. — This number also traces an uncommon word in the Northern tongaee to its
source in the Southern. The Beng&li is the same as the Hindi, and the Scindian has
9)f% for spurring.
No. 22.— This is a truly aboriginal root, which runs through most of the Indian Verna-
culars. The Scindian has for traiuverge ^^ij (^o), the Bengali i^ (e^o), the Uriya
N. B. I am not quite sure of the Malaydlim here, but as the Canarese ^mr ^i^
(adda^houka) oblongf is probably from this root, I t^iink it should be admitted. What if
the Sanscrit ^f^ (argala) a wooden bolt, of which no even plausible derivation can be
given from Sanscrit roots, be a mere corruption of the Canarese B^ J jJiM, (addakolu)
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1862.]
SuraHALBSB.
COMPARATIVB YOCABULART.
Maba'tbi'. GUJABA'tai'.
131
Hindi'.
A$ya
A Iboty bottom
Ptty toliini
HazthftTB
CroeswiM
Aijat
A'4at
AQat A'gat A()hat
Mercantile agency Agency, brokerage Agency, commiwion
Negotiorum procura- Procuratio
tio
Parka^e
To roar, to rave
Rugire, insanlre
Par
Fear, dread
Timor, pavor
A sparring with the The heel, sparring
heel
Calce stimolare Calx, stimalatlo
A'4aTa A^
Transrerse, advene Cross, crooked
Procaratio
Par
Fear
Timor
£(}i, Ed
The heel, sparring
Calx, calce stimalatio
Transrerse, obliqae
Transrersos, adyersuB Transvarsos, flexus Transversos, obliqaas
m emoss-ter of a door, derived from 9n['^ ^^ ^^ shoald tarn oat that many words have
been admitted into the Sanscrit which are derived from the vemacnlar languages of
Sonthem India, it will account for the prevalence of words, apparently Sanscrit, used
amoog classes of the population where Brahmanical influence has scarcely been felt.
When we remember, too, that Sankar Achirya, the great champion of modem Hinduism,
was bom in the Canarese country, this supposition appears the less improbable. In the
present instance the word nf in Canarese means '' that piece of wood which prqjecte
from the inner edge of the leaf of a door, fitting into a socket, and serving the purpose
ef hinges." Now, the radical idea of the word when used as a verb, as given in the
dictionary, is that of falling down ; and the cross-bar in question is actually let fibll down
into its place inside of a bent piece of wood, or iron, fixed in the door, projecting upwards,
and retaining it in its place.
19
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132 [Jan.
Art. VI. — Note on the Rock-Inscriptions in the Island of
Salsette, By the Rev. J. Stevenson, D.D.
Presented December 1851.
The Cave Commission having obtained, by way of experiment,
from Mr. Wilson, Paris-plaster Castes of the Inscriptions found on the
rocks at Salsette, four of which are in Pali and one in Sanscrit, I have
been examining the Pali ones, and here give the following transcript
in Devan^gari, and attempt at translation of two of them. They
seem to contain nothing of peculiar interest, yet, when the whole of the
Inscriptions on our rocks shall have been carefully examined, an interest
may be reflected on those which seem at present wholly unimportant.
For the sake, then, of future antiquarians, it is best to omit nothing,
but to endeavour to render all of them generally intelligible as far as
possible.
The first then is as follows* :—
Translating this into Sanscrit it will stand thus :
A Tank, the charitable gift of him who, devoted to Intellect, has
crossed over the Waters of Affliction.
In this rendering I have translated all the words, but perhaps
Samikshaprasakta— "Devoted to Intellect" is a proper name, and
not an epithet. The word $T*t is attended with much difliculty. A
word very like it m the Junfr Inscriptions, copied by Colonel Sykes,
by Prinsep (Journal As. Soc. Bengal, Vol VI., p. 1044) is made ^¥l, a
word which he derives from a rare Sanscrit term ^: water. Before
I noticed this, however, I had arrived at the reading I have given, and
on examining the inscription anew, I found that I could not change it.
Almost in despair about what to make of this word, I turned up the
Mardthee Dictionary, rather to be able to feel satisfied that I could
• For the Facglmile, lee PI. V. No. 1.
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Phj>. V.
An.
A'O'l.
bus vf,^ i ^ Vy^
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1852.] BOCK INSCRIPTIONS IN SAL6BTTE. 133
mriye at no satisfactory condusion, than firom any hope of finding a
due to a word I had never heard used, when I found hoth ^t€t and
^fVT. It is the sense given to the hitter> however, that of " a reeep*
tade for water/' which suits our context, and this, I have no doubt,
is the meaning of the term here, as the Inscription is over a tank.
In reference to the word ^ there b no doubt of the reading, but it
is interchanged with ^ in other Inscriptions, so that it may be taken
here as ^W — '* compassion,*' an attribute of the Buddhist religion, as it
is also of the Jain, since no offering can be presented to a superior being
that gives pain to any animal. The reason of such a designation is not
very evident at present, but must have been striking enough when the
Brahmans, following the ritual of the Y edas, were in the frequent habit
of offering horses, and other animals, even the sacred cow, to their
gods. I am rather of opinion still, however, that here it is to be taken
in the sense of 1^, as ^Hf , which means the same thing, is to this day
often coupled with if^ by the Marathas, in the way that ^ is here.
I think we shall find as we proceed in examining these Inscriptions that
we must look more to the provincial dialects of the different localities
than we are often inclined to do, and less to the Sanscrit.
The second Inscription* is—
In Sanscrit,
The charitable gift of a Svastika Temple by Sdlasadata, son of
Bohanimita, the goldsmith, whose eye is directed to prosperity.
In this Inscription there is not much difficulty. The first word in
the original, and last in the English, may be read so as to mean " who
is fiited to prosperity," for ^^w means a ** forehead" in Sanscrit, but
I prefer changing it into the more common word ^9, which the
analogy of the languages does not forbid. Rohinimitra is a name of
Chandra, the deified Moon. In the Concan it is customary to drop
the short X in the middle of words, and so it happens in this word.
The only difficult word is %T^, of which the reading can hardly be
doubtful. I have taken it as synonymous with Svastika, a particular
kind of temple. The fignre Svastika, which immediately follows the
Inscription, seems to indicate as much, although it is of frequent
occurrence in Inscriptions, and much stress cannot be laid upon it.
• For the Facsimile, see PI. V. No. 2.
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134 ROCK IH80RIPTION8 IN 8AL8BTTB. [J AN.
The word SvasHka itself implies rest and comfort of bod j tnd mind. %T¥
in Mardtbi, among other things, means " a causeway, or payed road,
made np a steep ascent.'' I shall haye to see, by a minnte personal
inspection, whether the Inscription is connected with a temple, or
near such a road, before I decide finally between the two.
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1862.] 135
Art. VII. — Extracts from the Proceedings of the Society for the
Year 1850-51.
MEMBERS ELECTED.
FROM 19TB DEGBMBBR 1850 to 25th NOVBMBBR 1851.
Lieut. Col. Blood. Captain M. Taylor.
A. Rimington, Esq. J. N. Rose, Esq.
Major Delhoste.
PRESENTS TO THE LIBRARY.
Donors.
Analyse der in Anquetil Duperron's ueberset-
zung enthaltenen Upanishad, (from Weber's
" Indische Studien") Professor Weber.
Bahlol (Munsbi), Geographical Description of
the Panjab, in Panjabi, translated from the
Persian Sir H. M. Elliot,
Bekb (C. F.), Enquiry into M. Antoine D'Ab- K. C. B.
badie's Journey to Kaffa, to discover the
Source of the Nile The Author.
Reasons for returning the Gold Medal of
the Geographical Society of France, and for
withdrawing from its Membership, in a
letter to M. De la Roquette
BvDHiTARDHAK HiNDu Sabha, in Guzcrati.... Gungadass Kessen-
Cassbls (W. R.), Eidolon, or the Course of a dass.
Soul, and other Poems C. Peel, Esq.
Cassim (Meer Abdool), Hoodee-kat-ool Aulum
(The Garden of the World) Seraj-ool-Moolk.
Cassin (H.), Official, Descriptive, and Dlus-
trated Catalogue of the Grand Exhibition,
ParULtoIV The Author.
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136 EXTRACTS FROM THE SOCIETY'S PROCEEDINGS. [J AN.
I Donors.
Chronological Tables, containing Corres-
ponding Dates of the different Eras nsed in
the Bombay Presidency Govt, of Bombay.
Church Missionary Record, No. II., for
1850, and Nos. II. V. VI. IX. X. for
1851 Rev. C. Isenberg.
Circular Orders of the Sudder Dewanee
Adawlut Govt, of Bombay.
"* Dalzbll (N. a.), Contributions to the Botany
of Western India, contained in Hooker's
Journal of Botany and Kew Garden Mis-
cellany, Nos. 13, 15, 16, and 18 to 32, in-
clusive The Author.
(P. M.), Monthly Statements of the Ex-
ternal Commerce of the Presidency of Bom-
bay, from December 1850 to August 1851. . '
DiCTIONNAIRE DE L'ACADEMIE FRAN9AISE, Hon'blc J. P. Wil-
Revu, Corrig^ et Augment^ 2 Vols loughby.
Dixon (Col.), Sketches of Mairwarra The Author.
Dyer (G.), History of the University and Col- Hon'ble J. P. Wil-
leges of Cambridge loughby.
GoviNDJi Narayn, Domestic Reform among the
Hindus. Evils of Debt. Treatise on Cleanli-
ness. In Mardthi The Author.
Grammar of the Panjabi Language Sir H. M. Elliot,
Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern K. C. B.
Asia, Nos. 9 to 12 of Vol. VI. for 1850,
and Nos. 1 to 8 of Vol. V. 1851 The Editors.
Nos. 9 to 12 of Vol. IV. for 1850, and
Nos. 1 to 4, 6 and 8 for 1851 Govt, of Bombay.
Khalid (U. F. M.), The Soorah, a Dictionary .
of Arabic Words explained in Persian .... J. S. Law, Esq.
Mackay (C. F.), Western World, or Travels
in the United States in 1846-47 The Author.
Map of Cutchee and the North Western Fron-
tier of Sindh, includiDg the Murree and Hon'bleJ. P. Wil-
Boogtee Hills loughby.
Map of Borneo Govt, of Bombay.
4 McClelland (J.), Report of the Geological
Survey of India for the Season of 1848-49. The Author.
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1862.] EXTRACTS FBOM THE SOCIETY'S PEOCBEDINOS. 137
Donors.
MooHUMMUDAN Law of Sale, according to the
Hunefeea Code, translated by N. B. £.
Baillie Govt, of Bombay.
Maury (Lieut. M. T.), Wind and Current
Charts The Author.
NowROZJi FuRDONJi, Tareekh-i-Zurtoshtec,
or Discussion on the Era of Zurtosht, or
Zoroaster, the Prophet of the Parsees The Author.
Observations made at the Magnetical and Me-
teorological Observatory at Hobart Town,
in Van Dieman's Land, under the Superin-
tendence of Lieut. Col. E. Sabyne Grovt. of Bombay.
y Observations made at the Magnetical and
Meteorological Observatory of Bombay, for
the year 1847> under the Superintendence of
C. W. Montriou, Commander I. N ■ *
Perry (Sir E., Kt.), Letter to Lord Camp-
bell, Lord Chief Justice of England, on Re-
form in the Common Law, with a letter to
the Grovernment of India on the same sub-
ject The Author.
PaiNSEP (J.), Modification of the Sanskrit
Alphabet, from 543 b. c. to 1200 a. d. '
Radicals of the Sanskrit Language Hon'ble J. P. Wil-
Re PORT of the Elphinstone Institution for the loughby.
year 1850 The Principal.
Report of the Civil Cases determined in the
Court of Sudder Dewanee Adawlut for 1848-
49, compiled by A. F. Bellasis, Esq., B.C.S. Govt, of Bombay.
• of the Bombay Engineers, for the Official
Year 1848-49
of the Board of Education, for the year
1849, No. YIII
^ ■ — ^of the Grant Medical College, Session
Fifth, 1851 Dr. Morehead.
of the Dekhan Vernacular Translation
Society The Society.
of Crime and PoHce Administration of the
Zillahs subject to the Bombay Presidency... Govt, of Bombay.
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138 BXTRA0T8 FROM THB SOCIBTT's PR0GBBDIN08. [JaN.
Donors.
Rig-Veda-Sanhita, the Sacred Hymns of the
Brahmans, together with the Commentary
of Syanacharya, Vol. h, edited hj Dr. Hon. the Court of
Max MuUer Directors. .
Society, Royal Astronomical^ Proceedings, No.
8 of Vol. X. for June 1850; Nos. 1 and 2
of Vol. XI. for 1850; Nos. 3, 4, 5, and 8
Vol. XI. for 1851 The Society.
Memoirs, Vol. XIX,, for 1849-
1850
American Oriental, Journal of, No. 4,
Vol.1
Ceylon Branch of Royal Asiatic, Journal
of, for November 1851 ■
Monthly Notices of, from Novem-
ber 1849 to June 1850, Vol, X
■Natural Phenomena. Translated into
Mardthi by Govindji Narayn Dec. Vemac. Soc.
WSykes (Lieut. Col.), Mortality and chief Diseases
of the Troops under the Madras Govern-
ment, European and Native, from the years
1842 to 1846, inclusive The Author.
Waenen (C. v.), Sententi Ali Ebn Ali Talebi
Arabice et Latine, annotationibus illustravit.
Vol. I. 4to Hon'ble J. P. Wil-
Weber (Dr. A.), IndischeStudien, Beitragefur loughby.
die kunde des Indischen Alterthums German Oriental
Wight (W.), Icones Planttfrum Indise Orien- Society,
talis, or Figures of Indian Plants, Part I.
Vol. V Govt, of Bombay.
Wilson (Revd. Dr.), Idiomatical Exercises, il-
lustrative of the Phraseology and Structure
of the English and Mar&thi languages The Author.
Zsitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen
GeseUschalfl. VierterBand. 1st III. and IV.,
Heft of 1850, and II. Heft of 1851 German Oriental
Society.
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1852.] BXTBACT8 FBOM THB SOOISTy's PROOBBDINGS. 139
TO THE MUSEUM.
Donors.
Antelope Cenricapra (male), skin of white variety. Capt. G. G. Malet.
Bombyz Paphia, with eggs and cocoon, from
Sawunt Warree Major LeG. Jacob.
Birds' Sldns, from the Neilgheny Hills. Genera
Temnurus, Dicrurus, and Oriolns Capt. Montriou.
Birds' Skins, from the Forests of Cannanore J. S. Law, Esq.
Boats, Native Models of, in use on the Biver In-
dos: No. 1, Jamptee; No. 2, Zoruck ; No.
3, Doondee. Built in the Flotilla-yard at
Kotrec Govt, of Bombay.
Bones, Teeth, &c., with Matrix, from a Conglo-
merate discovered by Dr. Wilson, abont two
miles from Gogha, on the road to Rajcote. . Rev. Dr. Wilson.
Bos Frontalis (male and female), skulls of .... Major LeG. Jacob.
Cephelopoda, Gasteropoda, Conchifera, Echino-
derma, Zoophyta, and Foraminifera, a collec-
tion of fossil remains of, from Lower Scinde. H. J. Carter, Esq.
Coin, Silver, (one,) called Shurree Lkuree H. B. Frere, Esq.
Crystalline Sulphur, from the Island of Ormuz. . Lt.C. G. Constable.
Encrustation, spedmeos of, which takes place
between the tubes in the boilers of Steam-
vessels plying in the Indian Ocean J. Ritchie, Esq.
Eschara and Balanus, specimens of, taken from the
keel of one of the Peninsular and Oriental
Company's Steamers
Gedc^^ical Specimens, coUection of, from the
Rocks of the South Concan N. A. Dalzell, Esq.
Gypsum, from the Persian Gulf. Capt. J. Estridge.
Ibex, Horns and Skull of, killed near Kalilah
Hill, in the vicinity of Bushire Capt. Montriou.
Images, Heathen, (four,) sculptured in Trap,
from Bajalcote and Oogurgole, in the Pu-
rutghur Talooka, and Purutkul, in the Hoo-
goond Talooka. W. E. Frere, Esq.
Lion, Lioness, and Wild Ass, skulls of, from
Kattyawar Capt. E. E. Malet.
LimaitoDe, black, and white Calc-spar, from Has
Massandam Lt. C.G^ Constable.
20
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140 EXTRACTS FROM THE SOCIBTy's PROCBBDINQS. [JaK.
Donors.
Marble, white, from Kattyawar Capt. H. Aston.
Minerals, collection of, from the neighbourhood
ofMalligaum Lt. A. Ajtoun.
Otis Houbara, and Gallns Sonneratii, skins of. . . Major LeG. Jacob.
Pholadine Tubes, casts of, from the Sandstone
near Kurrachee Dr. Don.
Shells, from a raised beach in the Island of
Kishim Lt. C.G. Constable.
Trap from Salsette, and from the Tunnel of
Sattara Capt. J. Estridge.
Zeolites and Calc-spar, from the Trap-rock of
BaboolaTank G. Buist, Esq.
ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.
Communicated
Bradley, (Dr. H.,) Rock-cut Caves of Aurung- by
abad. — \4ih August 1851. (a) General Fraser.
Carter, (II. J., Esq.,) Geographical Description
of certain parts of the South-east Coast of
Arabia, to which is appended a short Essay
on the Comparatire Geography of the whole
of this Coast.— 20/A March 1851. (b) The Author.
Memoir on the Geology of the South-east
Coast of Arabia.— 9M October 1851. (c). .
Gibson, (Dr. A.,) Notice of a Hot Sulphureous
Spring at the Lukkee Pass, and of a Saline
Spring under the Fort of Kal-Droog, in the
Mahim Talooka, with specimens of their
waters respectively. — 22nd May IS5\. (d), ■
Jacob, (Major LeG.,) Facsimiles,yith Interlinear
Balbodh Transcripts, and English Transla-
tions, of three Copper-plates, connected by a
Ring and Seal (Buddh). The Plates are ten
and a half inches broad, and half an inch
thick, and were obtained from a Jain in
Kharepatan, a Town on the river Viziadurg.
(n) To appear in the Creneral Abstract of the Cave-temple CommissioD.
(h) See last No. of Jl. p. 224. (c) This No. p. 21-
(d) See this Art. Proceed. Omc. Ut. and Sc
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f 1852. EXTRACTS PHOM THE SOCIETY'S PROCEEDINGS. 141
Communicated
BY
The Author.
The Inscriptions are dated Shak 910, equi-
Talentto A. d. 988.— 20M March 1851. (a).
Stevenson, (Revd. J., D.D.,) Observations on
the Grammatical Structure of the Vernacular
Langoagesof India,No. 3, The Adjective. —
20M February 1851. (b)
Ditto ditto No. 4,
The Pronoun.— 14M Juffust 1851. (ej,.,,
Taylor, (Captain M.,) Further Information on
the Kistvaens, Cromlechs, Cairns, &c., near
Ferosabad, on the Bhima, also Sketches of
the Groups at Rajan Koloor, Jewarjee, and
Yemmee Good.— 20M ifarcA 1851. (d).,
Twemlow, (Col.,) Notices on certain Ancient Caves
and Structural Buildings near Aurunga-
bad.— 20/A March 1851. (e) Govt, of Bombay.
PROCEEDINGS, OFFICIAL, LITERARY, AND SCIENTIFIC.
The Government letter No. 106, in reply to the Society's letter No.
183, dated 14 th December last, respecting a further search for Cave-
temples and monuments of antiquity, &c. in the territories under
the Bombay Government, and the employment of an artist to illustrate
those of Elephanta, authorises the Society to advertise in the Govern-
ment Gazette the offer of rewards of from Rs. 25 to Rs. 100 for infor-
mation respecting any set of Caves hitherto undescribed, the reward to
be proportioned to the value and importance of the discovery ; also
sanctions, at the request of the Society, rewards of Rs. 100 and Rs. 20
respectively to the parties who brought to notice the Excavations of
Kuda and Khondana, and those in the Garodi Hill.
The proposition for reducing the Subscription of Subscribers from
Rs. 1 00 to Rs. 50 was then brought forward, and, after a lengthened
discussion, lost, under Art. XVIII. of the Society's Regulations, which
requires a majority of two-thirds of the Members present to decide any
question for which they may not provide. — 23rd January 1851.
(a) To be inserted in next No. (h) See last No. p. 196.
(e) This No. p. 16. (d) Returned at the Author's request for additions.
(e) To appear in the General Abstract of the Cave-temple Commiseion.
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142 SXTRACTS FBOM THB BOCIBTy's PROCBEDINGS. [J AN.
Some beautiful specimeDS of Calo-iq>ar and Selenite were laid on the
table, which had been obtained during the eTcavation of a well in the
centre of the Native town. These had been formed in the cayities of
trap rock. They were sent for the inspection of the Society by Dr.
Buist, accompanied By a letter, containing a section of the well from
which they had been taken. Dr. Buist observes, that it would be a
great help to obtaining a knowledge of the Greology of Bombay, and a
great advantage to geological science generally, if the Grovemment and
the Board of Conservancy would call for geological sections of all ex-
cavations and tunnelling executed under their orders. — 20th /V-
hruary 1851.
With referenoe to Government letter No. 966, dated 6th instant, and
its accompaniments, consisting of a copy of a letter from H. B. £•
Frere, Esq., Commissioner in Scinde, and one also from Captam A. B.
Rathbome, forwarding a metallic cup, with silver and copper coins,
dug up at Hyderabad, it was resolved that the whole should be deli-
vered over to the Revd. Dr. Wilson, for examination.
It was moved by the Hon'ble J. P. Willoughby, President of the So-
ciety, and seconded by Major G. LeGrand Jacob, that a subscription
be again opened for reprinting in England, in an 8vo. form, with the
plates, on thin paper, the three volumes of the Transactions of the
Society ; and that the Members of the Society be invited to enter their
names as subscribers for one or two copies; these volumes, better known
as the ^' Transactions of the Literary Society of Bombay,'* being out of
print, and in much request. The motion was carried, and the Secre-
tary requested to act accordingly.
Dr. Wilson directed the attention of the Society to a critical edition
of the whole of the Zend Writings, at present preparing by one of its
Honorary Members, Professor N. L, Westergaard, of Copenhagen,
who a few years ago had visited this country and Persia, for the express
purpose of prosecuting Oriental research, and had gained the respect
and affection of all who had an opportunity of making his acquaintance
on that occasion. In forming his text, this learned gentleman, accord-
ing to the prospectus issued by him, had secured the use of the Zend
Manuscripts in the libraries of Copenhagen, Paris, London, and Ox-
ford ; those belonging to MM. Bumouf and Wilson, and those acquir-
ed by himself in his journeys in the East. His work is to appear in
three volumes, of which the first is to contain the text of all the Zend
writings; the second, a comparative Grammar of the two dialects in
which it has been ascertained they are composed, and a complete Con-
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1852.] EXTRACnS FBOM THB SOCIBTT's PBOOBSDING8. 143
oordance €i the Zendavesta ; and the third, a new translation in Eng-
lish of thf Zend text. Dr. Wilson added that he considered Mr.
Westergaard's researches in the Zend literature of the highest interest
and importance. Mr. Westergaard, on returning his manuscripts to
him, had said, " I hope that the shape of my types will meet with
your approhation. They are cut according to the oldest existing ma-
nuscripts. I have promised, in the French announcement, to give a
Grammar of the two dialects of the Zend language. It is not difficult
to distinguish hetween them, especially aided by the oldest manu-
scripts, as the difference is very strong, and observed not only in the
use of different words, or different forms of the same word, but even in
the grammatical structure. As the Zend language must be referred to
the Eastern parts of Iran, I hazard resting, among other facts, on the
authority of Straled about the difference of the dialects of Bactriana
and Sogdiana, to assign to our two dialects the names of Bactrian and
Sogdian, in such a way that I should call with the name of Sogdian
tiiat dialect in which the greater part of the Yacshna is composed, as it
is eridently more rude and unpolished than that of the other parts of
the Zendayesta." Of the differences in the dialects here referred to, Mr.
Westergaard in his communicatioo had fiimished many examples. He
had also submitted to Dr. Wilson his scheme for re-adjusting the Zend
alphabet, founded on a comparison of it with the Sanskrit and Greek
alphabets ; and had promised to notice in other letters (the substance
of which Dr. W. would be happy to communicate to the Society) the
general results of his researches.
With reference to the communication made by Dr. Wilson in behalf
of Professor Westergaard, it was moved by the Hon'ble Mr. Willoughby,
seconded by Major LeGrand Jacob, and unanimously resolved, that
the Society subscribe for five copies of Mr. Westergaard's forthcoming
work, in token of the interest which they feel in his important researches,
and their pleasing remembrance of his visit to India.
The Hsvd. Dr. Stevenson, Vice-President, moved, on behalf of the
Cave-temple Commission, ** That the attention of the Society having
often been drawn to the subject of the inscriptions engraved on the
rocks and in the Caves of Western India, and more especially lately
in a paper by our associate Sir Erskine Perry, the Government be
applied to for the purpose of appointing an Agent to copy accurately
and take impressions of all these inscriptions, under the superintendence
of the Cave-temple Commission.'* This proposition was adopted by
the Meeting.
A letter was read from Dr. Buist, containing a geological section of
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144 BXTRACTS FROM THE SOCIETY'S PROCEEDINGS. [JaN.
a well sunk at Cochin, on the sea shore, under the directions of General
CuUen. The excayations had heen carried to the depth of 40 feet, and
the strata passed through were successiyelj, from above downwards, —
1, ferruginous clay ; 2, a variety of laterite, or new red sandstone ?
3, lithomargic clay ; 4, blue clay ; 5, lignite ; 6, sandy clay ; 7,
calcareous clay, or marl ; 8, compact dolomite limestone, with
organic remains. Dr. Buist considers this " variety of laterite*' not
to be a part of the laterite formation, bat to be a bed of red indurated
sand, corresponding to the littoral concrete of Bombay ; and therefore
that the lignite, copalite, &c. found next it, does not, as before
supposed, lie under the laterite, but, probably, as General Cullen sug- *
gests, under " new red sandstone ?" — 20th March 1851.
A letter dated 17th March 1851 was read from Sir Henry Elliot,
Secretary to the Government of India, with the Governor General,
forwarding copy of one in which the Most Noble the Governor General
has been pleased to direct that Dr. Fiemming should be instructed to
furnish a series of specimens, illustrative of the mineral resources of the
Punjab, to the Asiatic Societies of Calcutta and Bombay.
The Gt)vernment letter No. 1520, dated r2th ultimo, forwards the
following copy of one (No. 14 of 1851) from Captain Meadows
Taylor, of the Nizam's Service : —
No. 14 of 1851.
From Captain Commandant M. Taylor,
On special duty, Shorapoor,
To C. J. Erskine, Esq.,
Deputy Secretary to Government, Bombay.
Sir, — I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of
the 9th ultimo. No. 136, together with the copy of Dr. Wilson's Me-
moir on the Cave-temples of Western India which accompanied it.
2. I beg you to do me the favor to communicate the expression of
my sincere thanks to the Right Hon'ble the Governor in Council, for
his courtesy in transmitting to me this interesting memoir ; and I have
only to regret that there are no Cave-temples in the district under my
authority to afford me the opportunity of obeying his Lordship's
wishes.
3. The most curious remains I have found in this district are those
which appear to be Druidical, or Scythic-Druidical, and which, whether
as Cromlechs, Kistvaens, Cairns, or Barrows, have the closest resem-
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1852.] EXTRACTS FROM THE SOCIETY'S PROCBEDIKQS. 145
blance to European Druidical remains. On this subject, I have recently
written to Dr. Wilson an account of such discoveries as I have been
able to make in the Shorapoor district, and included with them an
account of some similar remains at a village in the Kanakagheree dis-
tricts, near the Toombudra, which was visited at my request by a
friend, the Revd. G. Keis, of the (rerman Mission.
4. It is known that these remains exist in large numbers on the
Neilgherries, and in regard to which a valuable and interesting paper
by Captain Ck)ngreve, of the Madras Artillery, appeared in the *' Madras
Journal of Literature and Science," No. 32, and they have also been
noticed in some parts of Mysore. I have no knowledge of their ex-
tending northwards further than the Bheema in this district ; but as
they extend to the Toombudra to the South, it is desirable, perhaps, to
endeavour to trace them further, and 1 would recommend that the
Collectors of Dharwar, Belgaum, and Sholapoor^ the Officers of the
Kevenue Survey, if any, in those districts, the Political Agent in the
Southern Mahratta Country, and the Commissioner of Sattara, be re-
quested to institute inquiries as to the existence of any similar remains
in their several jurisdictions, and to examine their contents.
5. I will not enter upon a detailed description of these remains, hav-
ing so recently written to Dr. Wilson on the subject for the Asiatic
Society, but it may be fitting to mention that I find them of four kinds —
1st, Cromlechs. — Erections consisting of three large slabs of stone
set edgeways in the earth, with one large slab as a covering : one side,
usually the South, is open. These erections vary much in size ; the
largest slabs I have seen are about 12 feet long, 8 to 10 feet broad,
and 1^ thick. They do not contain any remains.
2nd, Kistvaensy or closed Cromlechs. — These are similar to the
others, only that all four sides are closed ; and usually in the South slab,
about the middle, is a round hole, from 6 to 9 inches in diameter.
These contain earthen vessels filled with earth, calcined human bones
and ashes, mixed with charcoal.
3rd, Cairns. — Circles of stones, double and single, surrounding
small tumult : when opened to a depth of 8 to 1 2 or 14 feet, stone chests,
composed of slabs of stones, are found, containing skeletons, accom-
panied by remains of spear-heads, and other weapons, earthen vessels,
&c. In others, larger vessels, containing human bones and ashes, with
charcoal, similar to the kistvaens, and no stone chests.
4th, Barrows. — ^These are larger than cairns, and consist usually
of several cairns, or one large one, surrounded by others, as at Shapoor.
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146 EXTRACTS FROM THE SOCIETY'S PROOBBDINOS. [J AN.
6. The yessels in these cairas &c. are all of the same character, —
stroDg earthenware, with a bright red glaze ; some have a hlack glaz-
ing also, some are half red and half black. It is worthy of remark
that vessels of the same colour are found in these remains in Europe,
and on the Neilgherries.
7. I have written privately on this subject to Bellary, and to a
friend in the Mysore Commission, whose district adjoins Bellary, and
shall hereafter do myself the pleasure to communicate any discoveries
which may be made.
8. As the subject is of considerable antiquarian interest, in conse-
quence of the coincidence of these remains and those of Europe, I trust
I may be excused for directing such particular attention to them ; but
it is very desirable that they should be traced as far as possible, with a
view to define the boundaries of the expeditions in India of this pro-
bably nomadic tribe.
9. It would also be curious to trace whether any of these remains
exist in Cutch, Guzerat, or Khandeish, as well as in the Northern part
oftheDekhan. Notice might also be given of the subject in Scinde,
and if remains exist there, they might possibly be traced onwards, though
this is a mere hypothesis.
10. The only other objects of antiquity in the Shorapoor district
are the inscriptions in old Cauarese which exist at Sirwal, Yeoor, Kem-
bhavee, and other places where ancient Singum temples exist. I have
understood that these have already been included in the collections of
Mr. Walter Elliott, of Madras, and I have referred to him for informa-
tion : should they have escaped him, I shaU do myself the honor of
transmitting them to the Society.
I have, &c.,
(Signed) Meadows Taylor, Captain,
On special duty, Shorapoor.
Shorapoor Districts, Camp Jourghee,
27th February \S5\.
The Secretary stated that a subscription list had been opened,
according to the request of the Society, for reprinting the *' Transac-
tions of the Literary Society of Bombajr" inanSvo. form, which Messrs.
Longman and Co. had agreed to do if one hundred subscribers at Rs.
20 each could be obtained, and that sixty-four copies had already been
subscribed for. The Society then requested that non-resident Mem-
bers should also be invited to subscribe, and the community generally.
Major LeGrand Jacob moved for discussion at the next Meetbg,
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1852.] EXTRACTS PROM THE SOCIETY'S PROCEEDINGS. 147
— "Tliat measures be taken by the Society for the recovery, if
possible, of the Inscriptions alleged to have been removed from the
Temples of the Sun and of Somnath, in the Guzerat Peninsula, by
communication to the parent Society, by notice in the papers, and in
other suitable modes." Major Jacob stated that as the local tradition
was prevalent that the slabs containing the Sais Inscriptions were taken
from the temple by gentlemen, they might probably be now deposited
in some public or private Museum, and every year that passes without
endeavouring to regain them only adds to the risk of again connecting
them with the history pf the country. — 24th April 1851.
The following letter from the Hon'ble J. P. Willoughby, Esq.,
late President of the Society, tendering his resignation, was read : —
" To H. J. Carter, Esq., Secy. B. B. R. A. S.
" Sir, — In consequence of my approaching return to Europe, I beg
that you will do me the favor of intimating to the Society my resigna-
tion of the office of President, and at the same time express to the
Society the deep and warm interest I shall always feel in its prosperity,
and in the success of its endeavours for the advancement of literature
and science in India.
" I have the honor to be, &c.
"Bombay, 25tk April 1851." (Signed) "J. P. Willoughby.
The Revd. Dr. Wilson, Honorary President of the Society, se-
conded by W. E. Frere, Esq., then proposed the following Resolu-
tion : —
** That the Society, on accepting the resignation of its President, the
Hon'ble J. P. Willoughby, Esq., beg to express to him their best
thanks for the ability and courtesy with which he has uniformly dis-
charged the duties of the chair ; the valuable assistance he has so
frequently rendered the Society ; and the great interest which, during
many years, he has taken in its various proceedings."
This resolution was carried unanimously, and the Secretary requested
to communicate the same to Mr. Willoughby by the following mail.
The letters Nos. 1808 and 18.30 of 1851, from J. G. Lumsden, Esq.,
Secretary to Government, General Department, — the former sanction-
ing the employment of Mr. Fallon, Portrait Painter, &c. for twelve
months, to illustrate the Caves of Elephanta, and the latter requesting
the Society to propose some one to copy and take impressions of the
Cave-temple and other ancient Inscriptions throughout the Presidency,
21
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148 EXTRACTS FROM THE SOCIETY'S PROCEEDINGS. [J AN.
haying been acted upon by the Cave-temple Commission, the Secretary
stated that Mr. Fallon had already been engaged a month at Elephuita
in the way mentioned, and that a party had been proposed by the Com-
mission to GoTemment for copying the Inscriptions, &c.
Letter No. 1832 of 1851, from J. G. Lumsden, Esq., forwards copy of
a letter No. 4, idem, from Captain Kittoe, (Architect, Benares College,
and Archseological Engineer, Bengal,) to the address of Government, in
reply to one received from the latter with a copy of Dr. "Wilson's " Me-
moir" on the Cave-temples, &c. ; also a printed copy of some articles
written by Captain Kittoe on the Caves of Gya, and other Antiquities
of the province of Behar ; together with an Address to the President
and Members of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,
from Captain Kittoe, respecting the necessity for all engaged in archaeo-
logical research to communicate regularly with each other, and to
interchange copies of Inscriptions as well as drawings, particularly of
Idols and of architectural features, as well as notes on the same.
The address, after having been read to the Society, was directed to
be handed over to the Cave-temple Commission ; and a copy of each
No. of the Society's Journal, as it is published, to be forwarded to
Captain Kittoe, that he might be informed of what the Society is
doing in this respect.
The Secretary having stated, with reference to reprinting the three vo-
lumes of the Literary Society's Transactions, that there were subscribers
for 65 copies, was requested to invite the non-resident Members to join
in the subscription, and the community generally ; — 100 subscribers
at Rs. 20 each being required to make up the cost of the reprint.
A letter was read from Mr. Fallon, dated Elephanta, 19th ultimo,
calHng the Society's attention to the flooding of a part of the Caves
which will follow the late removal of earth from the Eastern side,
and which will render the Caves most unhealthy during the fair season ;
also suggesting that it might be easily avoided by cutting a trench from
the part where the water will collect to the decHvity of the rock.
The Secretary was requested to forward a copy of Mr. Fallon's letter
to Government, stating the desirableness that these Caves, already
so notoriously malarious, should be rendered as healthy as possible,
not only for the sake of enabUng Mr. Fallon to complete bis
illustrations of them, but for the sake also of people who may hereafter
visit them as a matter of curiosity.
The following alterations in the Society's Rules, proposed by Captain
French, seconded by Captain H. Barr, were submitted for discussion at
the next meeting :—
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Ist. That in lieu of the words " One hundred Rupees" and " Thirty
Rupees" in Article XXI. of the Rules, "Rs. 50 and 12" he in-
sertcd, as the Annual Subscription of resident and non-resident Members
respectively in fnture.
2nd. That the above shall not affect the present Members of the
Society in the current year, but be applicable solely to the new Mem-
bers, and all Members for the year 1852.
3rd. That in consideration of the present wants of , the Society, and
the anticipated increase to its Members, should the first proposition be
carried, an Assistant Secretary, on a salary of 100 Rs. per mensem,
be sanctioned, he however always being an Ordinary Member of the
Society.
Dr. Gibson's communication (p. 140) was then read. The hot springs
at the Lukkee Pass, in Scinde, are stated to issue from Hmestone:
they are sulphureous, and the degree of their temperature varies.
That at Ral-Droog, in the Northern Concan, fiows from the trap ; its
temperature is 130^, and taste strongly saline. With the exception of
this one. Dr. Gibson has not met with any springs from Kandeish and
Surat southward to Rajpoor, impregnated with saline matter ; but has
heard of one in the vicinity of the last mentioned, viz., at Vehlolee, near
Dysar, in the Bassein talook, which he recommends visiting. The
Vaziriabhoy spring is not saline. He also alludes to the intermittent
cold springs *' at Rajapoor, in the Southern Concan; and to a hot spring
at Rajapoor, in the low valley which encloses the river ; the former are
situated on the slope of an adjacent hill, and are stated to be only active
during part of the year ; they are also said to burst out from May to
July, and to continue running from three to four months. — 22nd
May 1851.
Election of President.
The Hon'ble Sir Erskine Perry, Knight, Chief Justice of Bombay,
having been proposed by the Revd. Dr. Wilson, Honorary President,
seconded by Roderick Mackenzie, Esq., was unanimously chosen to fill
the vacant office of President, caused by the departure to Europe of
the Hon'ble J. P. Willoughby, Esq.
It was resolved that a deputation, consisting of the Revd. Dr.
Wilson, Professor Harkness, and the Secretary, should wait upon Sir
Erskine Perry, to request his Lordship to do the Society the honor to
accept its Presidentship. — \2th June 1851.
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160 BXTRACTS FROM THE SOCIBTt's PROCEBDINGS. [J AN.
The Hon'ble Sir Erskine Perry, hantig accepted the office of Pre-
sident, expressed his thanks to the Society for his election.
Captain French brought forward his propositions for redncing the
Subscriptions of resident and non-resident Members, recorded in the
Minutes of hist Meeting, which were not carried, 19 having voted for,
and 23 against them.
Professor Harkness, seconded by Captain Estridge, proposed, for
consideration at the next meeting, — "That no question once disposed
of by a vote shall be again brought forward for discussion within
twelve months."— 17/A July 1851.
Professor Harkness brought forward his motion, recorded in the Mi-
nutes of the last Meeting, and A. Malet, Esq., seconded by the Rev.
Dr. Wilson, Honorary President, moved as an amendment —
" That no alteration in the Rules of the Society be made, except at an
Anniversary Meeting, or at a Special Meeting, by a majority of the re-
sident Members."
Professor Harkness then withdrew his motion in favor of the amend-
ment, which, having been put to the Society, was carried by nearly all
present.
A. Malet, Esq., moved for consideration at the Anniversary
Meeting : —
" That Subscribers be admitted under direction of the Committee of
Management at Rs. 24 per annum, paid half-yearly in advance, which
shall entitle them to read in the Society's Library, and to take out one
work at a time, but not to have works circulated to them.
'* Should the work consist of more than three volumes, or should a
larger number of books be required by the Subscriber, the Committee
of Management to have the discretionary power of complying with
their request."
Captain French intimated his intention to move at the next meet-
ing—
•* That a printed Catalogue of the works added to the library, with
the cost of each, (if purchased,) since the last Annual Meeting, be
yearly laid on the table, and a copy sent to every Member, resident and
non-resident."
On the application of Dr. Wilson, the Society agreed to present to
the University of Leipzig, through Dr. Grant, who lately visited Bom-
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bay, one of the remaming copies of the lithographed edition of the
Yendidad and Liturgical works of the Parsis, with the Gujar&tf trans-
lation of Framjee Aspandiarji. The learned establishment at this place,
Dr. W. stated, had been overlooked, when copies of these works were
formerly, sent to Europe ; and it is entitled to the courtesy of a presen-
tation copy, not only from its own importance, but from the research
of its present Sanskrit Professor Brockhaus, who has lately published
an edition of the Vendidad, &c. in the Roman character, with a valua-
ble index, illustrative of the present state of the philological investiga-
tion of the Zend language.
Dr. Wilson also stated that an opportunity having offered itself of
directly forwarding a complete copy of the Society's Journal to the So-
ciety of German Orientalists, it had been embraced. The Society ap-
proved of what had been done in this matter, as it regularly receives
the Zeitschrifl of the German Society on its publication, and directed
its own Journal to be regularly forwarded in exchange in future.
The Secretary stated, with reference to the subscription list for re-
printing the " three volumes of the Transactions of the Literary So-
ciety of Bombay,*' that 11 copies had been subscribed for, and request-
ed that the reprint might now be ordered in octavo, &c. &c. as propos-
ed by the Hon'ble J. P. Willoughby, Esq., at the Society's Meeting
held on the 20th March last.
With reference to the letter from Government, No. 3261 of 18.51,
forwarding a number of lithographed copies of Captain Taylor's letter,
bearing date 27th February last, on the remains of Cairns, Cromlechs,
and Kistvaens, in the Shorapoor Districts, and the desirableness of as-
certaining if similar remains were to be found in other parts of this Pre-
sidency, it was resolved that copies should be handed over to the Cave-
temple Committee, for distribution in such a manner as would render
Captain Taylor's object most likely to be attained.
Dr. Bradley's paper (p. 140) on Rock-cut Caves of Aurungabad
was also handed over to the Cave-temple Committee, for their forth-
coming report. — Wth August 1851.
The Hon'ble the President, seconded by Captain French, proposed
the following resolution, viz : — *' That as no division took place on Mr.
Malet's motion, which was carried at the last Meeting, there is no
evidence on the Minutes to show that it was decided by two-thirds of
the Members then present, and therefore the resolution adopting the
motion is void under Art. XVIIL of the Society's Regulations."
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152 EXTRACTS FROM THE SOCIETY'S PROCEEDINGS. [J AN.
The Revd. Dr. Wilson, Honorary President, seconded by Captain
Forbes, then moved as an amendment: — '' That it is competent to this
Meeting to declare that the majority in favor of Mr. Malet's motion,
vf^hich was carried at the last Meeting, consisted of two-thirds of the
Members then present."
The amendment was submitted, and lost by a small minority, and the
original motion carried by the casting vote of the President, six having
voted for, and six against it.
The Hon'ble the President, seconded by Captain Forbes, in-
timated his intention to move at the next Meeting, — " That it be re-
ferred to a Select Committee to consider whether any change can be
made without injury to the Society in reducing the Annual Subscrip-
tion, in order to make it more accessible to scholars, and to promote
the further investigation of Oriental Arts and Sciences."
It was also proposed by the Hon'ble the President, seconded by the
Revd. Dr. Wilson, " That a Special Committee, composed of the Revd.
Dr. Stevenson, Captain French, H. Conybeare, Esq., and the Secre-
tary, be appointed, to report on the present state of the Society's Mu-
seum, and the arrangements that might be made for extending its uti-
lity." Agreed to.
Proposed by the Revd. Dr. Wilson, seconded by Dr. Don,— " That
Dr. Leith, Professor Harkness, and the Secretary, be appointed to
receive the books ordered for the Malcolmson Testimonial, and to carry
into effect the remaining part of the Society's resolution respecting
them.** Agreed to.
The letter from Dr. Buist having been read, forwarding copy of one
dated 10th March 1851, from M. F. Maury, Esq., intimating that a
box had been sent to Smith, Elder and Co., containing, among other
things, the following presents to the Bombay Asiatic Society from the
Nationid Observatory at Washington, viz. — 1 vol. Astronomical Obser-
vations, and a complete set of Charts, as far as published, the Secretary
was requested to acknowledge the intimation, vdth the Society's best
thanks, and to present a complete set of the Society's Journal in return
to the National Observatory of Washington, taking advantage of Dr.
Buist's kind offer to forward the parcel free of charge.
The letter from Captain Eckford, submitting a plan for the illustra-
tion of the monuments of antiquity in Western India, in accordance
with the views of the Hon'ble the Court of Directors, was handed over
for the consideration of the Cave-temple Committee.
Dr. Wilson, refening to a letter addressed to him by Assistant
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1852.] EXTRACTS PROM THE SOCIETY'S PROCEBDINQS. 163
Sargeon F. Broughton, dated Kolapore, the 25th ultimo, mentioned
that Beveral ancient excavations and temples had lately been discovered
by that gentleman, which would be duly brought to notice in the next
Memoir of the Cave Commission. — IIM September 1851.
Dr. "Wilson read an extract of a letter to his address from Professor
Westergaard, of Copenhagen, dated the 21st July last, thanking the
Society for its subscription to his critical edition of the Zend writings .
intimating his publication of an edition of the Pehlivi Bundehesh, and
his presentation to the Society of a copy ; and expressing his opinion,
founded on a critical examination of the so-called Pehlivi writings, that
they are not in any Sasanian language, but merely in a dialect (pro-
bably the Kirmanian) of the modern Persian, disguised by the use of
an imperfect alphabet, often now mis-read by the Parsls, the Shemitic
words introduced into it being merely corrupted Arabic. Dr. Wilson,
after illustratmg Mr. Westergaard's theory of the Pehlivi by a few
examples, expressed his entire concurrence in it, and stated that it
accorded with suspicions which he had now for some time entertained.
The Government letter No. 3837, forwarding a copy of one from
H. B. £. Frere, Esq., to the Government, with a communication
respecting the remains of Cromlechs, Cairns, Barrows, &c. in Scinde,
by Captain Preedy, Collector of Kurrachee, was handed over to the
Cave-temple Committee.
In accordance with the request of the Society at last Meeting, the
Committee then appointed to look into the state of the Museum, &c.
had assembled, but had not been able to procure all the estimates
necessary to accompany their report, of which that part alone was com-
plete which had reference to alterations necessary to protect the present
specimens from being destroyed by the dust. This having been read,
the Society sanctioned the disbursement necessary to defray the expense
of these alterations.
Captain French's motion respecting the printing of a list of the
works annually purchased by the Society, recorded in the Minutes of
the Meeting before last, was unanimously carried.
The Hon*ble the President's motion, proposed at the last Meeting,
respecting the reduction of the annual Subscription, was also carried,
with the exception of the words " the Committee" being substituted for
" a Select Committee," 14 having voted for, and 4 against this amend-
ment.
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154 EXTRACTS FROM THE SOCIETY'S PROCEEDINGS. [JaN.
A. Malet, Esq., C. S., then moved the following Resolutions : —
Ist. "That at a Meeting of the Society the perusal hy the Secre-
tary of the Proceedings of the previous Meeting is solely for the pur-
pose of verifying the correctness of the Secretary's record." This was
unanimously carried.
2nd. '* That it is not competent to a Meeting to decide on the
validity of the Proceedings of a former Meeting, in the absence of the
notice of intended discussion required by Art. XVIII. of the Rules."
To this Dr. Stevenson, Vice-President, seconded by Captain French,
moved as an amendment — " That this question be referred for the opinion
of the Committee of Management." The amendment was carried, 12
having voted for and 4 against it.
3rd. " That the Resolution of the last Meeting, by which, without
the notice of discussion required by Art. XVIII. of the Rules, a Re-
solution of the previous Meeting was annulled, be rescinded."
To this also Dr. Stevenson, seconded by Captain French, proposed
the foregoing amendment.
The Revd. Dr. Wilson then moved, "That in addition the Committee
be further requested to ascertain and report upon the facts connected
with the voting for the resolution referred to in the latter part of Mr.
Malet's third motion." This was submitted to the Meeting, and lost,
6 having voted for, and 9 against it.
Dr. Stevenson's amendment in its original state was then put and
carried unanimously. — 9th October 1851.
Government letter No. 4049 of 1851, forwarding a copy of further
communications from the Commissioner of Scinde, descriptive of certain
ancient remains in that province, was handed over to the Cave-temple
Commission.
With reference to Government letter No. 4004, offering to place the
returns of the last Census at the disposal of the Society, the Secretary
was requested to acknowledge the same with the Society's best thanks,
and to state that they will be very acceptable ; for, although not deem-
ed trustworthy, as stated by the Government, they might prove useful
in pointing out the practical difficulties with which Captain Baynes had
to contend, and which led to their incorrectness, and thereby perhaps
suggest some more effectual method of taking the Census of Bombay
on a future occamon.
The report of the Committee of Management was read, rejecting the
possibility of reducing the Society's Subscription, &c. without injury to
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1852.] BXTBACTS FROM THE SOCIETY'S PROCEEDINGS^ 155
the Society. The Committee had gone deeply into the subject, and
considered that it was impossible. There would be a great annual
deficit with the reduced Subscription,which must be supplied by reduction
in the establishment, and in the purchase of books, or by the addition
of many more new Members to the Society than could be anticipated ;
at the same time the Committee considered that the resources of the
Library and Museum might, under proper restrictions, be placed freely
and gratuitously at the service of persons engaged in literary or scienti-
fic pursuits, and that it might be as well to increase the powers of
Members in this respect, and to allow the Committee to give access to
anything under their charge.
The rest of the Report, which is lengthy, and accompanied by finan-
dal calculations, was received.
Captain French, seconded by the Revd. Dr. Stevenson, then propos-
ed for discussion at the next Monthly Meeting : —
*' That the Subscription is not intended to exclude learned students,
natives of Bombay, who find it inconvenient to pay the full Subscription,
from joining the Society as resident Members, and that it be referred
to the Committee to devise some feasible scheme for that end."
Bunjeebhoy Framjee, Esq., Member, having laid before the Society
for its approval a specimen of a Zend Dictionary in the English lan-
guage, read the following Prospectus concerning it : —
'* I have the pleasure to lay before the Society a specimen of a Zend
Dictionary in the English language, which I have been engaged in pre*
paring for several years, and I hope you will approve of it ; and 1 beg
leave to request the Members of the Society to suggest to me any im-
provement that may occur to them in regard to the execution of the
work.
** It is intended to supply a desideratum greatly felt by the Parsfs
both of India and their mother country, Persia, for more than two
thousand years, and to some extent by the Continental Orientalists.
*' I have undertaken to publish the work in the English language as
well as in the Guzerati, at the request of a few of my learned European
friends, who are willing to promote the general interests of Oriental
literature.
** A specimen of this work in the Guzerati language was kindly first
inspected by our learned Honorary President, the Revd. Dr. Wilson,
by direction of the Bombay Government, and I am indebted to him for
expressing his desire that I should make an English version of the work,
a suggestion which I considered it right to adopt.
22
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156 BXTRACTfl FROM THE SOCIETY'S PROCEBDINQS. [Jan.
** ThiB work will be published in the two languages in two separate
volumes^ tiz., volume Ist in English, and volume 2nd in Guzerati, with
the original Zend words, with their re^ective transcriptions, and sig-
nifications, and parts of speech.
^' In this work upwards of a thousand notes will be interspersed, with
philological and etymological explanations, for the purpose of a com-
parison of my humble opinion with those of the Parsf Priests and
Continental Orientalists.
** For specimens of these notes I beg to refer you to the papers
now laid before you.
" At the commencement of this work is a comparative table of the
Zend Alphabet with those of the Persian, Peblivi, Hebrew, Cuneiform
Sanskrit, Guzerati, Greek, aud Roman languages, in which their ar-
ticulation is pointed out in their respective classes.
** Plate second contains a comparison of the Zend Orthography,
according to the different systems of sixteen Asiatic and European
Orientalists.
"Part 1st. Preliminary Discourse on the origin and authenticity
of the Zend language and Zend Avesta.
" Part 2nd. Observations and Dissertations on the Zend Ortho-
graphy.
"Part 3rd. Rudiments of the Zend Grammar.
" Part 4th. Table of the Zend Alphabets, according to the different
Ravayats, and other manuscripts, &c.
" Part 5th. General remarks on the manuscripts and printed works
of the Zend Avesta, &c. &c.
"Part 6th. The Peblivi Alphabets, published with observations
on the Lapidary, Cursive, and Numismatic, according to the different
forms of their alphabets, to assist Pehlivian Scholars to decipher any
of the Peblivi writings of Tablets, Manuscripts, and Coins."
A letter was read from Dr. Crawford, descriptive of a large meteor
which he had seen from the deck of the Steam-frigate " Zenobia," on
the 7th September last, at 8 p. m., in Lat. 12° N. and Long. 46'
1 r 30*E. It first appeared 40° above the horizon, bearing E. an<^S.,
and then pursued a horizontal course northward, vanishing at a point
bearing NE. by E.— 13M November 1851.
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1852.] BxntACTs from the society's proceedings. 157
ANNIVERSARY MEETING.
Monday, 24th November 1851.
The Minutes of the last Meeting liaving been read and confirmed,
the following Gentlemen were elected for the Committee of Manage-
ment, Museum Committee, and Auditors for the ensuing year, viz : —
Commttee of Management*
S. S. Dickinson, Esq. Professor J. Patton, M.A.
Henry Young, Esq. A. H. Leith, Esq.
Lieut. Col. J. Holland. Revd. P. Anderson, M.A.
William Howard, Esq. Professor Harkness, M.A.
J. Smith, Esq. J. Don, Esq., M.D.
Museum Committee.
A. H. Leith, Esq. Professor J. Harkness, M.A.
J. Smith, Esq. Professor J. Patton, M.A.
H. Conybeare, Esq. H. J. Carter, Esq.
Auditors,
A. Spens, Esq. Captain J. G. Forbes.
Election of Vice-President.
Arthur Malet, Esq., Chief Secretary to Government, proposed by the
Bevd. Dr. Wilson, Honorary President, seconded by P. W. LeGeyt,
Esq., Vice-President, was chosen to fill the vacancy among the Vice-
Presidents, vacated by the late Colonel G. R. Jervis, of the Bombay
Engineers.
The Motion of Mr. Malet, recorded in the Minutes of the Society's
Monthly Meeting held on the 14th August last, was put as amended
in the following form, seconded by the Revd. Dr. Wilson, viz : —
** That the Committee be requested to take into their consideration
the expediency or otherwise of the formation of a class of Associate
Members, who may enjoy its literary fellowship, and a restricted use of
the Library, at a reduced rate of subscription, but without any inter-
ference with the Management of the Society by its constituent Mem-
bers." This was unanimously carried.
A list of the works ordered for the '^ Malcolmson Testimonial"
was laid before the Meeting. They are to be lettered on the backs
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158 EXTRACTS FROM THE SOCIBTt's PROCBBBINGS. [JaN.
" Bombay Asiatic Society,** and " Malcolmson Testimonial,"
and stamped inside with the same, and will be placed in an appropriate
part of the Library, headed also '' MalcoImson Testibionial.**
The following have been received : —
WORKS ON GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY.
Vols.
Naturalistb' Librabt. Edited by Sir W. Jiirdine, Bart •• •• 40
DicTioNiTAiBB Univbbsbl d'Histoibb Natubbllb, with Atlas. 8to.
Edited by C. D'Orbigny 16
Annalbs DBS SciBNCBB Natubbllbs. Ire S6rie. Svo 30
Table Gto^rale Alphabetiqne de 1
_ . 8me S6rie, Tomes 40 in 20. . . 20
— — . ■ dme S6rie, Tomes 26 in 14,
up to 1860 14
WORKS ON BOTANY.
HooKBB, (W. J.,) and Gbbvillb, (R. K.,) loonet Filicum. Folio •• 8
Alg€e.
AoABDH, (C. A.,) Icones Algamm EaropoBamm. 8to 1
Habsall, (A. H.,) History ofthe Freeh Water Alg»,&c. Svo 8
WORKS ON ZOOLOGY.
Zoophyta,
Lamouboux, (J. y. F.,) Histoire dee Polypiers ConJligtoes Flexiblee.
Svo 1
Lamouboux, (J.,) Exposition M6thodiqne des Genres de TOrdredea Poly-
piers. 4to 1
Ellib, (J.,) Natural History of many Curious and Uncommon Zoo-
phytes. 4to 1
Ellib, (J.,) Natural History of the Corallines, and other Marine Produc-
tions. 4to 1
Acalepha,
Lbsson, (R. p.,) Histoire Naturelle des Zoophytes Acal^phes. Svo. . . 1
JEniozoa,
Blanchabd, (M.,) Les Intestinauz (Le R^e Animal, distribu^ d'aprds
son Organization, par Cuvier, Ed. par une reunion, &c) Svo. . . 1
It\ftaoria,
DuJABDiN, (M. F.,) Histoire Naturelle des Zoophytes Infosoires, with
Atlas. Svo 2
Crustaeea.
EnwARsa, (M.,) Lea Cru8tac6s (Le Rdgne, kc» &c.), with Atlas. Syo. . . 2
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1852.] KXTBACT8 FROM THE SOCIETY'S PROCEEDINGS. 169
Inseeta,
Vols.
Fabbicii, (J. C.,) Entoinologia Systmnatica, with Supplement Syo. . . 6
Fa BRicii, (J. C.,) Mantissa Insectoram. Syo 2
DoNOTAN, (E.,) Natural History of the Insects of India. New Ed. by
Westwood. 4to 2
Drury, (D.,) ninstrations of Exotic Entomology. 4to 3
HoBSFisLD, (T.,) Descriptive Catalogue of the Insects in the Museum of
the East India Company. Parts 1 & 2. 4to 1
Pfbipfbr, (L.,) Monographia Helidomm Yiyentium. Svo 2
Molluica.
Ntst, (P. H.,) Description dee Coquillee et dee Polypiers Fossilea dee
Terrains Tertiares de la Belgique, with Atlas. 4to 2
Agasbiz, ^L.,) Monographie des CoquiUee Tertiares r^put^ identiques
avec les Bsp^ees Vivantes. 4to 1
Cephalopoda,
FBBU88AC et D'Obbiont, (A.,)Hi8toire Naturelle G^^raleet Particulidre
des C^phalopodee Ac^tabulif^res, Vivantes et Fossiles, with Atlas.
FoUo 2
Piscet.
CuYiBBy (Le Baron,) et Valencibbnb6, (M. A.,) Histoire Naturelle
des Poissons. Syo 32
ReptUia,
DuxBBiL et BiBRON, Erp^tologie G6n6rale, ou Histoire Naturelle com-
plete des Reptiles.. 7
Ava.
Gray, (G. R.,) The Genera of Birds. Folio 3
Latham, (J.,) A General History of Birds, with Index. 4to. 10 vols.
in 6 6
The Secretary haTing represented that more cases were required in
the Society's Museum for the preservation of Specimens which are now
lying exposed and loose ahout the Museum, as well as for the recep-
tion of others which might hereafter he presented, it was unanimously
resolved that cases, of a similar construction to those in the centre, he
placed round the walls of the Museum, for the purpose mentioned.
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JOUENAL
OP THE
BOMBAY BRANCH
OP THE
EOYAL AS^IATIC SOCIETY.
JULY, 1862.
Art. I. — Geology of tlie Island of Bombay ; with a Map and
Plates. By H. J. Carter, Esquire, Assistant Surgeon, Bom-
bay Establishment.
Presented December 1850.
Difficult as it may appear to unravel the geological history of a
tract of country which has been overflowed and ploughed up by succes-
sive volcanic effusions, and subsequently elevated, depressed, immersed,
or denuded, or all four put together, yet, by patient investigation and
search, such a knowledge of its structure and composition may be ob-
tained, as to enable the observer to bring back, in his imagination, to
their original state and position, the materials of which it was originally
composed, and to place before the reader a satisfactory account of the
changes which it has undergone during a given geological period, —
changes which to him would otherwise be incomprehensible.
The little island of Bombay, just peeping ahove the waters of a
muddy estuary, would seem to offer little or no novelty in this respect,
particularly when compared with the great mountainous masses which
surround it ; but, when observed carefully, it will be found that what it
lacks in size is compensated by amount of excavation, and that the latter
has in all probability disclosed the geological type of the whole neigh-
bourhood in its limited space.
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162 QEOLOOY OF THE ISLAND OF BOMBAT. [JuLY
Was the island of Bombay, as at first sight appears, composed of one
mass of the same kind of dark-looking trappean rock, its geology might
be told almost in as many words ; but when it is found to present in its
thickness the strata of an ancient lake, or river ; a coal-deposit in minia-
ture, filled with the fossillized debris of animal and vegetable remains,
some, if not most, belonging to species now wholly extinct; and that there
have been three or four successive effusions of volcanic matter over and
into these strata, forming ten times as many different rocks, it naturally
suggests the questions — How far did this lake extend ? Was it a lake,
or a river, or an estuary ? On what kind of rock were its strata
deposited ? Of what material are its strata composed ? To what extent
does its coal deposit extend ? What was its geological age ? When was it
destroyed and filled up ? What rock first covered it ? What kind of
rocks subsequently forced their way into it ? Has the island undergone
any elevation or depression, and have any other strata been deposited
on it since the period of active volcanic action ceased 7 Does the-
nature of its volcanic effusions, or their relative positions, bear any
analogy to similar effusions in the adjoining islands, and on the main
land itself? — are all questions which make the little island of Bombay
assume a geological importance as interesting as at first it appeared to
be unpromising. Let us now see if any of them can be answered.
From the following facts and observations, it veill be evident that
there have been three distinct periods in the formation of the island of
Bombay, viz : 1st, the deposit of the fresh-water strata ; 2nd, the vol-
canic effusions; and, 3rd, the deposit of the marine strata.
Of the Fresh-water Formation, which was of course the oldest, we
are unable to come to any conclusions beyond the following, viz., that
by the absence of marine fossils in it, and the presence of fresh-water ones,
it was deposited in a lake or river ; that its upper part is seen entire for
36 feet below the igneous rock which overlies it ; and that below this
again its strata have been intruded and broken up by other igneous
rocks ; so that, at present, we can neither tell its whole thickness, nor
the nature of the rock on which it was deposited. As to its limits
horizontally, it can only be at present stated that it extended all over
the island of Bombay, and that portions of it may be seen in the vol-
canic breccia at Ghora Bunder, a little village on the northern extremity
of the island of Salsette, thus giving it an extent north and south of at
least twenty miles. We shall see also, by the presence of oiganic remains
in this formation, that it must have been the depository of a large
quantity of wood, leaves, fruits, &c., and that these are generally in a
fragmental state, and jumbled together, as if they had been brought
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1852.] INTRODUCTION. 163
ftom ft distance ; also that plants^ haying conical bulbous roots, with
stems formed of concentric layers, as if made up of sheathing leaves,
like large bulrushes, grew in this lake ; that it swarmed with the little
entomostraco-crustacean animals called Cjpridse, and that an abundance
of small frogs and marsh-tortoises were also present. Moreover, that
the material of which its strata are composed seems from its color and
composition to be of volcanic origin, but deposited for the most part in
a subtle state, though occasionally granular and coarse-grained, but
never gravelly, and always argillaceous. This, from the thin layers of
which the formation is composed, must have been deposited very gently,
and would therefore come nearer to the sediments of a lake than those
of a swift stream. At what geological period these strata were formed
is not yet known, because there have been no fossils yet found in
them which can determine this; but a time arrived when the volcanic
material of which they are presumed to have been formed was no longer
transported through the agency of water, but came in a molten fluid,
and, filling up the lake, dried up or turned off its waters, and
changed the then sub-lacustrine plain of Bombay into one of dry black
igneous rock. This brings us to the second epoch. It is most pro-
bable that this lake was above the level of the sea at the time this
occurred, although the general level of its strata is now below it. One
other fact connected with the fresh-water formation is here worth
mentioning, viz. that within three inches of the igneous rock which
overlies it, there is a stratum three inches- in thickness, almost en-
tirely composed of the casts of Cypridee, — not of their valves singly,
which they are wont to shed annually, but their entire casts, shovring
that some sudden alteration of the water in which they were living took
place, by which they all as suddenly perished and fell to the bottom. After
this occurrence no organic remains are seen, and nothing but the three
inches mentioned of a kind of transitionary material between the fresh-
water formation and the basalt. The amount of coal in this formation
will be seen to be very trifling, and that nearly the whole of the wood
and other vegetable remains have been replaced by argillaceous material.
At the same time, it wiU also be seen that it is only at one place that the
highly carboniferous part has been exposed, and that, too, over an area
only of a few square yards, viz. in the cutting of the sluices, where the
main drain of the island empties itself into the sea.
2nd Period. — This period commences with the effusion of the ba-
salto-dioritic tract which caps the main ridges in Bombay, and which, it
may be presumed, was at first continuous all over the island. How far
this tract of lava extended it is not our present object to inquire ; it u
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164 GEOLOGY OP THE ISLAND OF BOMBAY. [JuLY
enough for ub to know tliat it extended over the then plain of Bombay :
originally it was probably mnch thicker than it is at present, but the
weathering of ages has of course much reduced it, though even now it
may be seen to measure 90 feet thick on the eastern, and 5 1 or more
on the western side of the island. Immediately after this effusion,
we may conceive the site of Bombay to have been part of a black
arid plain : how long this continued geobgically we have no proofs to
show, but after it had become hard, probably, and fixed, there was a
second effusion, which, coming up under the first, and not finding a
ready outlet, followed the course of the fresh-water strata below it, in-
tercallating them, and breaking them up into all-sized fragments. Thia
effusion was for the most part scoriaceous or cellular, and gave rise to the
amygdaloidal structure which is now its chief characteristic ; though in
Nowrojee Hill quarry it is compact, which might have arisen from the
superincumbent weight of diorite over it at this part. The amygdaloid
rock is found invading the fresh-water strata in every part of the
island, in one form or another, non-cellular or cellular ; the cavities
in the latter instance being filled with laumonite, green-earth, quartz, or
calc-spar, according to the locality. The part which this effusion took
in raising up the longitudinal ridges in the plain of the first effusion, and
which ridges, running about N. by £. and S. by W., now border the
eastern and western sides of the island, there is no evidence to show ;
but that this, or the third effusion, to which we now come, or both, were
active agents in this matter, there seems to be no reason to doubt, for
we find those parts of the ridges most elevated where these effusions are
thickest, and in the western ridge either one or the other is seen
filling up the internal angle of the roof-like elevation formed by the
firesh-water strata there. We have, then, a basalto-dioritic effusion, and
an amygdaloid effusion ; and now we arrive at another effusion, which
we shall term the volcanic breccia. How long an interval elapsed
between the amygdaloidal effusion and that which gave rise to the
volcanic breccia is as mconceivable as the duration of the interval which
existed between the first and second effusions, there being nothing
in the island of Bombay to give the slightest idea of either ; but, that the
volcanic breccia was formed subsequently to the amygdaloid, is proved
by the presence of fragments of the latter among the fragments of the
other rocks which form the heterogeneous compound of the former. The
principal characters of this effusion are that it is composed chiefly of
angular fragments of the fresh-water formation, varying in size from
particles which are invisible to the naked eye to pieces some tons in
weight; also that it contains fragments of various sizes of the two
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foregoing effbsions ; and, lastly, that it is of great extent, forming a
eontinuous tract from Camac Bunder all long the eastern shore of the
island to Sion, and there composing the plain and chain of hills which
form the north-eastern part of the island ; also, still further, the prin-
eipal part of the mountains in the island of Salsette. It is this effusion
which I think contemporaneous with the Laterite, and in some parts
identical with it in every respect ; hut this will he hetter understood
by a reference to the latter part of the detailed description of this effu-
sion,— ^we are chiefly concerned with it here as an agent in the changes
of form which the first plain of volcanic rock has undergone ; and no one
can witness the cropping out of this breccia all along the base of the
highest parts of the eastern ridge, and its free effusion at the north-east
part of the island, with wells extending into it 60 feet deep in Mazagon,
and veins and dykes of it bursting through the basalto-dioritic tract
in the same neighbourhood, without feeting satisfied, that to make
room for such an immense mass, the crusts of the previous rocks
must have given way, and have been forced ridge-Uke upwards, as we
now see them, to give vent to the volcanic torrent, which, breaking
through the fresh-water formation and igneous rocks that opposed its
progress, finally spread their fragments in the manner we have seen
them along the eastern shore of the island.
The protean forms assumed by this effusion and its decompositions,
passing through so many different rocks, may easily be conceived ; it is
therefore white at one part, blue at another, yellow at a third, brown
at a fourth, red at a fifth, and black at a sixth, with all the inter-
mediate shades ; composed, as before stated, of fragments of rocks in
Uie immediate vicinity, changed into all kinds of consistences, and more
than that indeed, fragments of large-grained diorice, which have come
up from a region much below any we are acquainted with in Bombay.
As to structure and hardness, it presents every stage, from the coarsest
and softest argillaceous breccia, which may be cut with a knife, to
the blackest and hardest homogeneous jasper, seen at the hills of Antop
and Sewree. Such a destructive agent, then, as this effusion must have
been, might be safely allowed to have been the one most active in the
upheaval of the longitudinal ridges in the island of Bombay, if not
the mountains in the island of Salsette also. Lastly, we have a fourth
effusion, and this is proved by the existence of dykes of volcanic breccia
through the last mentioned. Of their contents, Uttle can be made out,
and they prove nothing further, than that the third was not the last
effusion. In the detailed descriptions of the three latter effusions,
I may have mentioned some little tracts as pertaining to one which
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166 GEOLOGY OF THE ISLAND OF BOMBAY. [JuLY
may pertain to another ; but it is almost impossible to expect accuracy
in this respect with effusions which are all more or less alike, and errors
of such kind, after all, are of little importance, as they cannot affect the
grand facts, and, moreover, the observer may correct them as he best
likes himself. That there have been four successive effusions there
can be no doubt ; and that the three latter, pursuing a course in the
first instance under the basalto-dioritic tract, have all contributed
to destroy its horizontality, by raising up the ridges which now exist
upon it, is equally obvious. With the dykes, which have been last
mentioned, the period of active volcanic action in the island of Bombay
seems to have ended ; how far passively the island has since been affected
there is nothing to determine.
3rd Period. — Deposition of the Marine Formation, — There is no-
thing in this to make us think that it is of very ancient date geologi-
cally : it would seem to belong to the Post and Newer Pliocene For-
mations. The clay and lower part of the beach, as no remains of
human bones or arti6cial structures have I think been found in either,
perhaps belong to the former, while the shells consist of the same
species as those which are found on the shore at the present time.
That the island has undergone elevation since the period of volcanic
action ceased would seem to be proved by the remains of a portion
of sea-beach called Phipps' Oart, in the centre of the island, near
which no sea now comes ; but this elevation must be very trifling, for
the ridge of a beach is always higher than the sea, even at the highest
tides, and the summit of this is only eight or nine feet above high-
water mark, while the accumulation of detritus poured into the estuary
of Bombay from the neighbouring hills is as likely to have produced this,
and to have filled up the lagoonal depression in the centre of the island
to the level of the sea, as anything else.
At the same time, Bombay could never have been very deep, or long
under water, or the deposits on it would have been much thicker than
they are, and of more ancient date : as it is, the beaches hardly ex-
ceed 20, and the clay 10 feet in thickness. Where there is no clay,
as close to the shore, the beaches are thickest, and vice versd.
The analogy which the basalto-dioritic tract and amygdaloid effu-
sions bear to those on the main land are most striking, and may be
seen by a reference to Colonel Sykes' valuable paper on the Trappean
Region of the Dekkan and Konkan, immediately opposite,* — that of
the adjoining islands I hope at some future period to show myself.
* Trans. Geol. Soc., 4to, second series, vol. iv. p. 409.
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1852.] GEOGRAPHY. 167
Such is a short sammary of the geology of the island of Bomhay,
and I have premised instead of appended it, in hopes that the reader
may he induced to peruse the following descriptions in detail from which
these inferences have heen deduced ; let us hegin with a hrief outline of
its geography.
The island of Bombay is trapezoidal in figure, having its long axis
nearly N. by E., and S. by W., its short parallel side towards the 5ea»
and its long one towards the land. The outer side is six miles long,
and the inner one eleven miles ; both are bordered by ridges of hills,
scarped towards the east, while they slope gradually towards the west.
Between these ridges, which are about two miles apart, there is a
level plain, called the " Flats." The greatest width of the island
is a little more than three miles.
At the two short sides of the figure there are sandy beaches, which,
being above the level of the "Flats," prevent the sea from overflowing
them, but on the outer side of the island there is no beach, because the
whole is black basalt, probably extending a long distance into the
sea ; while on the inner side, which borders the harbour, there is an
accumulation of silt, deposited from the back-waters, and the rivers
which empty themselves into the estuary, in which the island of Bom-
bay is situated.
The southern extremity of the outer side of the island is called
Malabar Point, and the northern Worlee ; while the southern extremity
of the inner side is marked by the Light House, which stands on the
extreme end of a thin prolongation called Colaba ; and at the northern
extremity is a tower called Riva Fort. Between Malabar Hill and the
extremity of Colaba is a deep bay, called Back Bay, in which there is
a sandy beach, and on the opposite or corresponding side of the trape-
zoid is a similar excavation, in which there is also a beach, called
Mahim Sands. Both of these beaches are a few feet above high-water
mark, and they chiefly prevent the sea from overflowing the centre
of the island.
The highest point in the lateral ridges (which are interrupted more
or less by breaks here and there) does not exceed 180 feet, which is
the height of Malabar Hill just above the eastern corner of Back Bay.
The southern part of the eastern ridge, called Nowrojee Hill, is 117
feet ; Mazagon Hill, next to it, 162 feet ; Chinchpoogly Hill, 153 feet ;
Parell Flag-staff or Colongee Hill 163 feet, above high-water mark ; and
Antop Hill, which is in the centre of the little range bordering the
north-eastern part of the island, is 85 feet ; while another hill in the
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168 GEOLOGY OF THE ISLAND OF BOMBAY. [JuLY
8ame range, a little to the north of it, is about 127 feet aboTe high-
water mark, — ^the latter has been measured by oompariaon.
The Flats are but just above the level of Uie sea, which overflows a
small portion of them at the ** springs,'^ and the ridges of the beadiea
average about six feet above high-water mark.
From this description, it must be evident that a section of the island
of Bombay, either longitudinally or transversely, if proportionally given»
will have a very insignificant appearance. ( See Map.)
With respect to its relations with the main land, Bombay is separated
to the northward from the mountainous island of Salsette, which is six
or seven times larger, by a channel, narrowing to a point not more than
125 yards wide; while Salsette, again, in like manner, is separated
from the main land by a similar channel. To the south and east of
Bombay is its harbour, in which are also several mountainous islands
and islets, which lie scattered between it and the main land. The
harbour, or estuary, is about six miles across in its widest part.
This short geographical introduction will be sufficient to explain the
map of the island of Bombay hereto annexed ; let us now proceed to its
geology.
Insignificant as the elevation of Bombay is from its low hills and
general flatness, yet it is by no means so in geological composition,
for although its structure is not known for more than 60 feet here and
there below high-water mark, which, added to its highest point, gives
only a total thickness of 240 feet, yet in this thickness we have from 30
to 50 feet or more of fresh-water strata, covered by volcanic rock, which
has been thrown out over them, in some parts 90 feet thick, and
pierced by various subsequent effusions even still thicker ; together
with a marine formation, filling up the lagoonal depression of the
island, and consisting of mud, in some parts 10 feet, and in other parts
sandy beaches, 20 feet thick. Thus we have abundance in a geological
point of view to occupy our attention, although we have little geo-
graphically.
But, before proceeding further, it would be as well to consider the
general composition of the ridges of the island, and then their mineralo-
gical characters in detail, in order that we may arrive at a right under-
standing of the relative position of the rocks which compose them, and
the names by which we intend to designate their various forms.
The rocks of Bombay, which chiefly form its ridges, come under
the class volcanic, and all belong to the trappean sjstem : there are
no hypogene rocks, that is igneous rocks which have been formed
below the surface, and afterwards raised above it. Besides these, there
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is a series of aqueous strata, which comes under the head of fresh-water
formatioiiSy from the diaracter of its fossils ; and this, as before stated, is
OTerlaid, and intruded by, both the volcanic rocks.
The whole of the upper part of the eastern ridge, from Riva Fort
to the end of Colaba, is composed of fine-grained diorite, more or less
basaltic towards the summit, while the whole of the upper part of the
outer or western ridge is composed of fine compact black basalt. Both
of these rocks rest conformably on the fresh-water formation, which is
composed of argillaceous and bitumenous shale, broken up by sub-
sequent volcanic e£Pusions, assummg the forms of trappite, aphaiiite,
spilite, amygdaloid, &c.
Such is a brief outline of the general composition of the ridges, and
the relative position of the rocks which compose them ; the following
are the mineralogical characters of the latter. I should here premiBe,
also, that in nomenclature I shall chiefly follow Alexandre Brongniart's
classification and mineral characters of rocks, as given under the article
^* Roches,'* in the Dictionnaire des Sciences Naturelles.
DioritCy (syn. greenstone,) is essentially composed of felspar and horn-
blende, and is either coarse-grained or fine-grained — the former is ge-
nerally the oldest : that of Bombay is fine-grained, and hardly admits of
being recognized by the naked eye ; but, when magnified, the dark green
hornblende is easily distinguished from the less colored felspar. It is
this compound which forms the upper part of the eastern ridge, and
varies in color from green and blue to sometimes black. When it is
veiy compact, sparkling, and sub-granular, its binary compound and
crystallization almost undistinguishable, and its homogeneity almost
complete, then we shall call it basalt ; and in this state, possessed of
a blue black, or deep purple color, it forms the upper part of the west-
em ridge. Diorite, when forming part of a trappean effusion, may pass
into basalt ; hence we have the upper part of the eastern ridge in some
places very basaltic. When the binary compound of diorite has an in-
termixture of blue earthy matter, it becomes a semi-crystalline rock, and
this we shall call trappite ; while, when there is no longer any appearance
of the crystalline compound, viz. felspar and hornblende, and the whole
is an earthy substance, it is called aphanite, from d<l>apiCa>, to make
unseen, in allusion to the felspar. I shall not make use of the term
" trap" as a specific appellation here, as it confuses, and trappite
and aphanite will, I think, be found sufficient. In this way, then, the
distinguishable binary compound of diorite may pass into the undistin-
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170 GEOLOGY OP THE ISLAND OF BOMBAY. [JuLY
guishable one called basalt,* or into the semi-cryatalline one, trappite,
or earthy one, termed aphanite, in which all traces of both the febpar
and hornblende in a crystalline state have disappeared. Now, when
aphanite is cellular, its cayities being filled with calc-spar in particidar,
chlorite, zeolites, quartz, amethyst, or calcedony, it is called spilite, and
the other rocks, too, when cellular, and filled with such substances, are
termed amygdaloid, or yariolitic. Under the foregoing generic names,
then, we have all the trappean rocks in Bombay included. We next
come to the Aresh-water formation, in which we have argillaceous shale,
argiUo-calcareous shale, and argillo-bitumenous shale, with small quanti-
ties of coal ; also chert and jasper, arising from the exposure of the
argillaceous strata to great heat. Add to the foregoing a volcanic
breccia, composed of fragments of the other formations, bound together
by a base of aphanite, more or less fine, more or less coarse ; harder
or softer, and sometimes passing into a black jasper, as at Sewree, and
Antop Hill. Lastly, we have the blue and brown clay of the Flats,
containing the calcareous concretions called kunkur ; and the consoli-
dated sand and sea-shells of the beaches.
Having thus premised sufficient to prevent a misunderstanding in the
terms which will be used, and the kind of rocks they designate, let
us now trace the different formations mentioned throughout the island,
beginning with the diorite, which is the most prevalent, the most pro-
minent, and the most widely-spread of all.
Diorite. — ^This rock forms the summit of all the eastern ridges,
except that bordering the north-east part of the island, and will be
found to extend continuously from the extremity of Colaba to Riva
Fort, that is the whole length of the island. It is interrupted by
breaks or breaches here and there, and diminishes in height towards
both extremiti^ ; but between the fort and the village of Nagaum, a
distance of five miles, it presents points of variable heights, rising to
163 feet above the level of high-water mark. In some of the breaks it
appears to be so expended that its continuity is hardly traceable, as at
Nagaum, while in other places, as at Nowrojee Hill, where it has been
quarried, it is 90 feet thick. Again, the width of this tract varies, so
far as it is observed superficially : it forms the whole of Colaba, and
the eastern part of the Esplanade and Fort, and, of course, it extends into
the harbour on one side, and, obsciured by the beach which forms the
* Some basalts may of coarse be composed of felspar and angite, and^ when this
if the case, the rock is called " dolerlte."
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1852.] BASALTO-DIORITIC TRACT. 171
Esplanade, appears in Back Bay again on the other ; hut at present it will
only confuse us to trace it where it is concealed, and, therefore, we will
confine our ohsenrations to where it is exposed. It forms also the east-
em part of the Native Town, at the northern extremity of which is the
quarry of Nowrojee Hill, where, as before stated, it is seen to be 90 feet
thick ; here, also, its superficial area is greatly expanded, and, extends
continuously across the island from Mazagon Hill due west to the
Flats, a distance of one mile. This breadth is greater than at any other
part, and is prolonged from Nowrojee Hill due north to the Mount, a
distance of one mile and a quarter. At this part, also, it has been inter-
sected and pierced in all directions by a subsequent effusion, which we
shall come to hereafter. At the Mount, it narrows again, and spreads
out on Chinchpoogly Hill, and thence is continued on over Colongee or
Parell Flag-staff HiU to the village of Nagaum ; here it sinks to within
a few feet of the level of the Flats, and is continued on in the form of a
few boulders for half a mile, and then, rising again a few feet more or
less, ends at Riva Fort, the northern extremity of the ishind. The prin-
cipal feature of this ridge is, that it is more or less scarped towards the
east, while it slopes more or less suddenly towards the west ; a feature
which, however, it should be remembered, is common to every hill in
Bombay, without exception. Its summits and sides are also covered
with naked rocks and boulders, from the mode of desintegration of the
diorite, which follows the veins with which it is intersected ; hence they
are in cuboidal or polyhedral masses, and, when more minutely divided,
end in becoming spheroids, throwing off concentric crusts.
The mineralogical composition and structure of this rock varies.
Generally, its crystalline structure may be distinguished with a good
magnifying glass, but sometimes it becomes so minute, and compact,
and tough, that it almost takes on the form of basalt ; still we may
infer its composition by seeking out its structure in larger-grained
specimens. In these we shall find tabular crystals of white felspar ;
amorphous crystals of green hornblende ; a small quantity of green or
blue earth, (" green-earth,") with more or less olivine ; also small parti-
cles of peroxide of iron, or, probably, titanitic iron, or rutile, from its rich
brown red color in some parts ; all of which are caught up by the
magnetized needle in their natural state when the mass is pulverized, —
this, of course, can only be seen by manipulation under a high magnify-
ing power. The presence of the iron accounts for the decomposition
of the rock into greenish blue, then yellow, and lastly red earth,
these being the usual colors which iron assumes in passing from its
protoxide to its peroxidized state.
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172 GSOLOOT OF THB ISLAND OF BOMBAY. [JULT
Farther, it maj be observed of this rock, en moise, that the upper
part is tougher and more difficult to break than the lower part, while
the latter, on the contrary, is more deavable. Cayities are sparsely
scattered in it, which contain yarieties of scolezite or needlestone, the
latter name being derived from its spicuiar crystallization. In some
parts it is blacker than in others, while frequently it presents a spotted
appearance, on account of the black portions being circumscribed instead
of generally spread throughout the rock. I am unable to explain
the latter appearance, except that the hornblende is blacker in these
places than in others, probably from the greater quantity of protoxide
of iron which it contains ; in other words, that the distribution of the
iron throughout the rock has been unequal, or has become aggregated
in some parts of it more than in others during its crystallization or
ab origine. In the next ridge I am about to mention, this mottled
state prevails very much, and on weathering, the dark portions remain,
while the lighter parts wear away, giving the surface a botryodal appear-
ance, in which the spheroids are about the size of bullets. This form
seems to answer to that called " orbicular diorite'* (Bt.)
The next ridge we have to trace, and which is composed of the same
rock, is very low, scarcely rising at one or two points more than 50 feet
above the sea. It lies on the east side of the latter, and commences
close upon the sea opposite Mazagon Hill, from the base of which it is
separated by subsequent effusions of volcanic matter. Its rocks, which
appear just above the sea at its commencement at Mazagon, rise gra-
dually to Tank Bunder, where there is a high mound of it, after which
it sinks below the mud, and subsequently makes its appearance again
at Kandlee Battery : there, as at Tank Bunder, it rises to about 50 feet
above the sea, and again sinks gradually, as it pursues a direct line
northwards to within a hundred yards of the base of Colongee or Parell
Flag-staff Hill, where it ends ; being separated the whole way from the
first ridge by the subsequent e£Pusion to which I have alluded. It does
not differ in composition or structure from the diorite of the first ridge^
except that its surface in many places weathers into the botryodal form
mentioned, particularly a little south of Tank Bunder; this is its
great peculiarity. It is very insignificant in height, when compared
with the first ridge ; but is, in like manner, tilted up and scarped
towards the east.
Lastly, we have a third ridge of diorite on the east side of the island,
which b^ns at a point 400 yards N. £. of Kandlee Battery, called
Jackaryah's Bunder, and 600 yards east of the first ridge. It pursues
a course a little to the eastward of north, and, about a mile from its
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commenoement, attains a height of 78 feet, after which it gradually
gets bwer, and finally joins the first ridge about two and a half miles
aouth of Riva Fort, or about half a mile beyond Nagaum. In mineral
Gompontion, structure, and physical features, it corresponds with the
first ridge, being scarped on the eastern, and sloping more or less
aoddenly on the western side.
In addition to the main ridge, then, there are two other short ridges
of diorite on the eastern side of the island, and all these rest on the fresh-
water formation, as we shall see ; let us now go to the western side.
Basali. — ^The western ridge, which extends from Malabar Point to
Worlee Fort, is entirely of black, or blue-black basalt, interrupted by a
break or two. Its height, as before stated, in one part, exceeds that of
any other hill on the island, being 180 feet above high-water mark, just
over the western comer of Back Bay. Like the eastern ridge, it is
scarped on the eastern side, and slopes more or less suddenly on
the western one, passing off afterwards with a very slight inclination
into the sea. In its broadest part it is about 600 yards wide, that is
the distance between the scarped side and the sea, and everywhere
it appears stratified, the lines of stratification dipping suddenly, in
the ridged portion, towards the west. In its scarped portion it pre-
aents a columnar arrangement, consisting of large cuboidal masses,
arranged one above another ; while its surface in some parts presents
an hexagonal prismatic arrangement, to wit on the shore at Worlee,
and in Back Bay. It is fragile almost to brittleness a little beneath
the surface, but superficially, where it presents the hexagonal arrange-
ment, is exceedingly tough. Throughout it is minutely divided by
intersecting quartxiferous veins, the structure of which, where exposed,
is open and cellular, and of a rusty color, while the centre of the
polyhedral masses which they surround is firm, black, and compact*
Like the diorite of the eastern ridge, it decomposes into spheroids,
throwing off concentric crusts ; in some parts, however, beneath the
surfiuse, it appears to undergo an irregular jointed disintegration, the
surface of the firagments presenting a greenish-blue colored argiUaceous
earth, which afterwards becomes brown, yellow, or red. There is a
remarkable absence of cellular cavities in this rock, — I do not know that
I ever saw a trace even of any except here and there, where there was a
little olivine : its chief difference from the diorite of the eastern ridge lies
in its black color, and in its compact structure and minute texture, which
defies all attempts at analysis by optical examination ; also in its ap-
parent stratification and hexagonal prismatic arrangement on the sur-
face in some places, and in its more rectangular disintegration. Like
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174 QEOLOGT OF THE ISLAND OF BOMBAY. [JuLT
the diorite, however, of the eastern ridges, it rests on the Aresh-water
strata, but is nowhere pierced, to my knowledge, by any subsequent
effusion. Thus, with these little differences set apart, it so much re-
sembles the diorite of the eastern ridges that one can hardly connder it
otherwise than as a more compact part of one and the same formation,
which was once continuous across the Flats, but has been since separat-
ed by fracture, upheaval, and denudation. To this effusion, therefore,
we will give the name of Basalto-dioritic Tract.
Fresh-water Formation, — Next in succession below the basalto-
dioritic tract comes a series of aqueous strata, which, by their fossils, are
proved to have been deposited in fresh water. They consist of argilla-
ceous shale, which, so fur as it has been exposed, appears to have been
formed from the fine detritus of volcanic matter, with which is mixed
a quantity of organic remains, both vegetable and animal. In their
upper part they are of a light brown color, passing gradually down-
wards into a greenish or blueish deposit, and then into black bitumenous
shale. In no part do they, to my knowledge, present any gravel or
large detritus.
At their junction with the basalt, at the cut of the sluices at Love-
grove, — for we will, before tracing these strata over the island, study them
at this part, where they are least disturbed, and best seen, — the basalt
is decomposing for some distance up, and passing into spheroids, which
become more and more divided, until they disappear altogether, and
leave nothing but a few traces of their concentric crusts : at this point the
basalt rests upon the aqueous strata, and presents a number of vertical
tubes, filled with crystalline quartz. These tubes are about ^"9% or six
inches long, about half an inch broad at the base, and taper towards the
extremity : some rise immediately from the surface of the aqueous
strata, others a little above it. They are either sohd or hollow, and
occasionally bifurcated below, and were probably air-cavities in their
original state, perhaps produced by the evolution of gases from the
vegetable matter over which the fluid basalt had spread itself. These
tubes are best seen on the eastern side of Lovegrove Point, under the
tomb of Mama Hajanee, near high-water mark ; they exist also at the
sluices, but I have not eeen them anywhere else.
Lying immediately below this is the first stratum of the aqueous
deposit, which is only three inches thick, and presents nothing, ap-
parently, but the transitionary state of the volcanic into the aqueous
formation. Next it, however, comes a remarkable layer, though not
thicker than the^or^oing, which is compact and siliceous: the
peculiarity of this is that it is almost wholly composed of casts of the
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BheHs of the little entomostraceous crnstaceaQ animals called cyprides,
with which is mixed a variable quantity of vegetable remains, consisting
of small short fragments of plants, without any particular shape. It also
has another peculiarity, which is, that it is almost wholly composed of
silex, in the form of amorphous or crystalline quartz, which has either
wholly or partially filled the cavities of the shells, the forms of the shells
themselves having disappeared. Hence we find this stratum in preference
to all others chertified, jaspidified, or blackened and basaltified by
heat ; and thus we have in many places evidence of the existence of
the upper part of the fresh-water strata, where the rest have had their
stratification destroyed, or have had their structure almost wholly
transformed into something else. This stratum is well seen at Love-
grove Point, and on the northern side of the break through which the
sluices have been cut. It will be recognized by its whiteness, and its oolitic
structure, immediately underlying the black basalt. At the northern
side of the sluices it presents a remarkable fold upon itself, which,
before it is understood, is very confusing, insomuch that it gives the
appearance of two or three of these kinds of strata, instead of only one.
From this deposit downwards, for 36 feet, we have argillaceous
shale, which was deposited generally in very thin layers of impalpable
powder, but in some instances consisted of coarse grains, which from
their blueish, greenish grey, and white colors, seem to be heterogeneous
in composition, but are still all argillaceous. The color of these
strata throughout would also appear originally to be greenish or
blueish grey, which is deepest or blackest where there is most carbona-
ceous material, although in their upper part they are of a bright
brown, or yellow fawn color, which tints on both sides diminish in
intensity as the distance from the line of junction between the volcanic
and fresh-water formations increases. Throughout these strata there
is an abundance of fossilized vegetable remains ; and towards their
middle those of animals, to wit, tortoises, while at their lower
part are found the skeletons of frogs. The vegetable remains consist
chiefly of the fragments of plants, which at the upper part appear to
have been small, but towards the lower part were much larger. In
the upper part they have been nearly decarbonized, and replaced by
siliceous or argillaceous material of a white, grey, brown, or bright
yellow color, presenting under the microscope in many instances the
polygonal or fusiform shapes of their original cellular structures, while to-
wards the lower part they are black and carboniferous. Such as have been
found entire, or possessing a recognizable form, will be described heieafler.
The next stage of these strata presents an interhiminatiou of black
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176 GEOLOGY OF THB ISLAND OF BOMBAY. [JuLT
carbonaceons deposits ; this occupies about a foot and a half, when it is
followed by two and a half feet of shale, without black layers, imbed-
ding a great number of globular and conical nodules, like septaria,
which, on being fractured, generally exhibit the forms of bulbous
roots or stems in their interior. These strata, which are the lowest of
the undisturbed part of this portion, are harder and more compact in
their structure than the foregoing.
We have now an intrusion of blueish or greenish grey colored Tolcanic
matter, apparently composed of the ingredients of diorite, but all
heterogeneously mixed up together, and in the form of argillo-silioeous
material, imbedding large portions of carboniferous shale, and, from its
napthous odour, impregnated throughout with the remains of vegetable
matter. This extends down for twelve feet, or to the bottom of the
cut of the sluices. It is, of course, unstratified, and presents a venous
intersection, like volcanic rock. The upper six feet is of a lighter
color than the shale immediately above it, and, although richly charged
with small fragments of v^table remains, contains Uttle, when compared
vrith the six feet below, which are full of large pieces of black argillo-
bitumenous shale, bearing the remains of large flat long leaves, pieces of
dycotyledonous wood, seeds, seed-pods, and various other fragments of
the vegetable kingdom, all of a deep black color, and many sparkling
and slightly coal-bearing, though chiefly composed or replaced by argil-
laceous material.
The coal, which occurs here and there in small granular deposits on
the leaves, and about the argilliaeed wood, bums with a bright flame,
bubbles up, and leaves a shining black scoriaceous cinder, which
lightens a little in color under the blow-pipe. Also portions of mineral
resin, resembling '' hatchetine" or mineral tallow, are occasionally met
with ; and invariably calc-spar in company with both these substances.
The mineral resin is sub-granular, like bee's-wax, and breaks, but is too
waxy to be pulverized; it floats in water, but sinks m alcohol; is
translucent, of a weak pearly lustre, and of the colour of bee's-wax ;
feels greasy, and is inodorous ; dissolves readily in turpentine, but not
in ether or alcohol ; becomes soft at a temperature just below 212^
Fahr., but does not melt in boiling water ; when exposed to a greater
heat becomes very fluid, but does not take fire until the temperature
is raised, when it burns away with a bright flame, leaving no residue.
Besides vegetable remains, the little cyprides abound in all the masses of
this shale ; the elytra of insects have been found in it, and the remains
of shells something like Melanin, but all more or less blackened,
argillized, and in a carboniferous state.
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Fig.a
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1862.] FOSSILS. 177
In no other part of the island has this rich carboniferous portion of
the fresh-water strata been observed beyond the depth of a foot or two,
affording only a few thin layers of the uppermost argillo-bitumenous
deposits, viz. those in which the skeletons of the frogs are found.
All, therefore, that we know of it, is from what has been exposed by
the excavation of a few cubic feet at the cut of the sluices, where it has
been broken up into fragments by the intrusion of the igneous rock.
In no place has it yet been seen undisturbed, or resting on the forma-
tion on which it was deposited, and therefore no conception can be
formed of its depth, or the rock on which it rests conformably.
Let us now turn our attention to a description of the fossils which
have been found in this formation, beginning first with those of
plants.
Roots.
Fig. 1, a, 5, Plate vii., is bulbous, cormiform, ovoid, elongated ;
truncated above, pointed below; marked with transverse rows of
short vertical parallel striee, the rows extending more or less round the
body, each row tapering towards its extremities, and ending in a point
between that above and below it, in the manner of scaly imbrications.
Striee superficial, and sometimes continuous for some way longitudi-
nally. Truncated end presenting concentric lines, like the petiolations
of sheathing leaves ; pointed end, where fractured, presenting a succes-
sion of coats, concentrically disposed. Length of specimen 5 inches ;
widest transvers diameter 2\ inches. Loc, black shale.
Obs. — These roots are almost lapidified, from the compactness of the
argillaceous material by which they have been replaced. They are
black externally, where the striae present the only carboniferous part
about them ; and a little lighter colored within. The rows of striae
shine in the manner of vegetable impressions in clay generally, and the
petiolations in the truncated end are marked by delicate white hues of
calc-spar. A few cyprides are seen in the interior of these roots, which
shows that they must have been widely cellular, or hollow.
Fig. 2, a, PI. vii. — This specimen is of the same description as the
foregoing, but appears more globose. The oblique direction of the
striae from above downwards and outwards would also seem to indicate
this. Like the foregoing, the striae are in little bundles, hardly elevated
above the surface, and only prevented from being continuous longitudi-
nally by their being raised at one end more than the other. Loc,
lowest part of the undisturbed shale, and in the intruded igneous
matter.
25
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178 GEOLOGY OF THB ISLAND OF BOMBAY. [JuLY
O^.— These are found in great numbers in that part of the shale
just mentioned* and appear rery much like septaria. They are less
black than the foregoing, thus according more with the color of the
strata in which they are chiefly situated. When fractured, they deve-
lope a kind of stem or bulb internally, with its largest or rounded end
downwards, that is following the position in which they are found ; but
the accumulation of adventitious material around them makes it al-
most impossible to arive at their original size or shape.
Stems,
Fig. 3, a, 5, PI. vii., is a section only. Length 1^ inches, and diameter
ItV inches. Sub-round, slightly striated longitudinally. Truncated
end presenting circular lines indicative of the petiolations of sheathing
leaves, with the external one of the latter broken off towards the bottom
of the specimen. Loc. lowest part of the undisturbed shale.
Ob8. — This, or rather these pieces of stems, for there are many of
them, would appear to belong to the bulbous roots last mentioned.
There is very little appearance of a more consolidated portion having
existed at their circumference ; and internally the presence of cypridea
shows that they must have been widely cellular, like the so-called
roots ; also the lines of petiolations before mentioned, that they must
have been formed of sheathing leaves.
Under this head also comes fossil-woody of which there appears to
be a considerable quantity and of various kinds, chiefly dycotyledonous.
One specimen met with measured two feet long, and six inches
broad : it appeared to be a segment of a small trunk ; the bark is
on it, and, from the infiltration of a lighter substance between this
and the wood, and the latter being deficient towards the centre, the
whole was probably undergoing decay when immersed. The grain of
the latter is distinctly seen, but the soft argillaceous matter which has
replaced it, as in most other specimens of the kind, does not admit of
a suiEdently fine polish to examine it more minutely. The bark presents
externally a number of small projections, and is guttered into large
irregular lozenge-shaped divisions.
In one part of the bark was growing a fungus, or portion of
adventitious wood, which, on falling out, brought away a part of the
trunk -wood itself. It is of a compressed circular shape, about 1 \ inches
in diameter, and constricted at the base. Many of these kinds of
bodies occur in this black carboniferous deposit, and will probably be
found to have had the same origin.
No pieces of palm-wood have to my knowledge been found, with the
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exception of one unsatisfactory specimen ; but many small short frag-
ments of wood which possessed a tubular structure, and present a
segmental form, like pieces of the common .bamboo. The latter occur
here and there in almost every part of the fresh-water formation ; above,
where the vegetable remains are decarbonized, they are of a brown or
grey color, and lower down, where they are carboniferous, of an intense
black color. Besides these, the upper strata present innumerable frag-
ments of small plants, many of which appear to be portions of the
stems of grasses. They are all very nearly decarbonized, and replaced
by siliceous or argillaceous material, of a white, grey, brown, or yellow
color. Those which are grey present under the miscroscope a number of
polygonal grains or crystals, like the polygonal cells of vegetable struc-
tures, while those which are brown and yellow often present the fusi-
form cellular structure. The crystals representing the former average
^ inch in length, and t^t^ inch in breadth ; and the argillaceous
bodies representing the latter ^ inch in length, and —^ inch in breadth.
Amongst the thousands of little fragments that 1 have seen towards
the upper part of the strata, where they abound in layers, and seldom
exceed an inch in length, I have not been able to discover, with the
exception of a compressed stem and globular root of some wide grass
or bulrush, and two small roundish leaves, which will be presently
mentioned, one single fragment possessing a form that could be recog-
nized.
Leaves,
Figs. 4, 5, PI. viii., are the impressions of the two leaves last alluded
to. The largest is oblong and oval, length A inch, breadth -rV inch.
The smallest sub-round; length tV inch, breadth ^V inch. Loc.
upper part of brown shale.
Obs. — ^These leaves were found among the fragments just mentioned,
where there were thousands of other portions, possessing the parenchy-
matous form of cellular structure mentioned, and, as before stated, with-
out any recognizable form. They look more like leaflets of an accacia,
perhaps, than anything else.
Fig. 6, PL viii., is the compressed remains just mentioned of part of a
long narrow leaf or stem, cracked into fragments, with a tuberous
root at the end. Length of specimen 4 J inches, breadth 44. inch ; struc-
ture fibrous, parallel, longitudinal. Loc. brown shale.
Obs. — Three or four specimens of this stem or leaf were found to-
gether, but only one with the remains of the root. They are very
common, and their eracked state, as well as the cracks which are seen
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180 GEOLOGY OF THE ISLAND OF BOMBAY. [JuLY
in Che flat grey portions of the parenchy roatons structure in these remains
generally, seems to throw some light on the origin of the infinitude of
small formless fragments vhich pervade these strata, viz. that while
the plants from ^hich they were derived were undergoing decomposition,
either at the margin or the bottom of the fresh water in which they
were deposited, these cracks took place, and, when there was no superin-
cumbent material to keep them in their original position, they boated
off, or were otherwise scattered about, and at length finally became
stationary in the places where they are now found.
Fig. 7, PI. viii. — This is a carbonized impression of a scaly leaf or
stem in the black shale. It is very thin, and presents elliptical scales,
which have their long axes longitudinally ; also the transverse cracks
to which I have just alluded. Specimen about 4^ inches broad, and
1 foot long. The scale, (Fig. 7, a, ) or division, consists of an arched
elliptical projection, -^i inch long, and -/^ inch broad. It is striated
longitudinally, and seems to be surrounded with a very narrow flat rim
or base, by which it is united to that of the adjoining scales. Loc. black
argillo-carboniferous shale, in the intruded igneous rock.
Obs. — Only one specimen of this kind has been met with : it was
discovered by Dr. Leith, and presents a thin layer of sparkHng coal on
its surface.
There are many other fragmental impressions of flat long leaves, both
large and small, (Fig. 8, PI. viii.,) with longitudinal striae more of less
perceptible on them, and more or less coal-bearing, in the black argillo-
carboniferous shale or deposit; also impressions of large and small
cordate leaves, and an imperfect impression (Fig. 9, PI. viii.) of two lan-
ceolate leaves, like those of the bamboo, except that they appear to be
opposite instead of alternate. Dr. Leith, to whom I am indebted for
most of these specimens, also sent me an impression (No. 10, PI. viii.)
closely resembUng the stem and flower or seed of a cyperaceous plant,
something like scirjpits lacuatris.
In no instance, to my knowledge, has the impression of any fern
been discovered, though I thought at one time I had found the sorus of
one, which afterwards fell off the specimen, and was thus lost. This
was in a portion of the upper light brown-colored shale, from the tank
north of the Horticultural Gardens,
Seeds and Seed-pods.
Fig. 1 1, PI. ix., is a small flat capsule, circular, or horse-shoe shaped,
with a pedicle rising in the centre, and passing off by the incomplete
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portion of the ring. It presents a single row of seeds, arranged round
the circumference of the disk. Diameter -^yr inch. Loc. light hrown
shale.
Obs. — These little discoidal bodies, looking like the magnified ringed
capsules of a fern, are not uncommon among the accumulated frag-
ments of vegetable remwns in the upper part of the fresh-water strata.
Fig. 12, PI. ix. — Tliis seed, like that of Artahotrya odoratissimus,
presents the ruminated appearance of the albumen peculiar to the natu-
ral order Anonacese. Length 44 inch, and breadth ^V i»ch ; compressed,
elliptical, and slightly pointed at one end. The ruminated albumen is
in transverse lines across the seed, and in radiating ones towards the
circumference of the round end. Loc, upper brown shale.
Obs. — This specimen was found by Dr. Leith, who pointed out its
analogy to the seed mentioned.
Fig. 13, PI. ix., is a siliquose pod; length 3^ inches, and breadth tV
inch. It is long, sub-round, sUghtly enlarged towards the apex, which
is also round ; narrowed towards the stem. Loc. black argillo-car-
bonaceous shale.
Obs. — Close to it lay two other apparently one-seeded pods, of the
same description.
Fig. 14, PI. ix., is another siliquose pod, broken off towards the
stem. Length of specimen 3 inches, breadth f inch. Long, lanceolate,
narrowing a little backwards ; angular laterally, presenting a ridge on
each side, not opposite ; slightly concave on each side the lateral ridge ;
flat along the sutures. Loc. black argillo-carbonaceous shale.
Obs. — For both of these specimens, as well as others of the same
kind, I am indebted to Dr. Leith : a vertical section, parallel to the
line of suture, has been made in one, but it fails to show anything
definite in the interior.
There are a great number of large seed-like bodies throughout the
whole of these strata, particularly in their lower part ; but they are
two undefined to admit of description.
No G3rrogonites have yet been met with.
Insecta.
Fig. 15, PI. ix. — Cypris semimarginata. (h. j. c.) — Length ^
inch, breadth ^ inch. Ovoid, sub-reniform, compressed laterally at the
small end, dilated laterally at the large one ; presenting a wide rim round
the margin of the valves at the large end, which gives the cast an ex-
panded appearance. This rim is obliquely striated externally, the striae
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182 GEOLOGY OF THE IBLAND OF BOMBAY. [JulV
passing from the convex or posterior border of the shell downwards and
forwards. Loc, throughout the whole of the fresh-water strata.
Oha, — The obtiquely striated rim round the large end of this fossil
was pointed out to me by Dr. Leith ; and since that I have observed
that the prolongation of the valve in this direction is common to the
few recent specimens I have yet met with in Bombay. It is likewise
striated in them, but the striae are short, and radiate from the circum-
ference of the valve, instead of passing off obliquely from it, as in the
present instance. Neither is the prolongation of the shell in this
direction so wide, nor does it extend so much round the valve in the
recent as in the fossil specimens. If we look into the interior of the
valves of the former, (Figs. 18, 19, 20, PI. ix.,) we shall see that the
inner margin of the border is extended inwards more or less all round the
valve, but more particularly at either end, and, of the two, most at the
larger or posterior end, where there is left between it and the outer
margin a thin lunate expansion. Beyond this comes a prolongation of,
or appendix to the valve, in which there is a lunate fossa, or depression,
separated from the general cavity of the shell ; and this appears to be
the portion which is so extensively developed in the fossil species
under consideration, on the back or outer side of which are the obUque
striae mentioned. The segment enclosing the fossa or depression,
however, in the recent species, instead of being one of a larger, is one
of a smaller circle, while that of the fossil species is the contrary, the
latter extending round the whole of the posterior or larger half of the shell,
and expanding it dorso-ventrally. There does not appear to have been
any papillae on the surface of this fossil species, as is the case with most
recent cyprides, but these may have been very minute, and may have
disappeared during fossilization, or have been rendered imperceptible by
the opacity of the object. I have named this species Cypris semi-margi'
nata, from the character which I have just described.
Fig. 16, PI. ix. — Cypris cylindrica? (Sow.)— Length ^ inch; and
breadth ~ inch, sparsely papillated. Loc, lower part of undisturbed
shale, among the frogs* bones.
Obs. — This appears to be Cypria cylindrical which is also found
in the chertified lacustrine deposits of the basaltic district of India.
(See Malcolrason's Fossils of the Eastern Portion of the Great Basaltic
District of India. Geol. Trans. 2nd Series, 4to, vol. iv. PL xlvii.,
fig. 2.) It is a little more than twice as long as it Is broad.
Fig. 17, PI. VL.— Cypria ? Length ^ inch, and breadth
j55 inch. Loc. upper part of fresh-water strata.
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Ob9, — Of this specimen I have nerer seen the shell, but an appear-
ance in the inonld, as if its surface had been closely and minutely
papiUated. It is distinguished from the cast of Cypris semi-marginata
by not having the impression of the rim mentioned, and is therefore
not so expanded dorso-ventrally ; nor is it so prominent transversely,
towards the krge end, as Cypria semi-marginata.
The three fossil cyprides above described swarm throughout the
fresh-water formation. I have already stated that within three inches of
the overlying basalt there is a stratum of their casts three inches thick,
not of one valve only, but of the whole shell, and the probability that
this was occamoned by some sudden alteration of the water in which
they lived. When most abimdant, their shells are found in thin layers,
which, being frequently separated from each other, would seem to
point out that they had been deposited in great numbers at particular
periods. In the upper part of the strata they are always more or less
mixed up with small remnants of vegetable matter, while lower down
the fossil skeletons of frogs are sometimes found upon the flat surface
of the black carbonaceous shale on which they have been deposited.
They are also found abundantly throughout the woody deposits, and
entire in the interior of the roots and stems mentioned ; in short,
as I have stated, they almost swarm throughout the whole of this
formation.
They would appear to have their corresponding forms in the three
most common cyprides now found in the fresh-water accumulations
of Bombay to which I have just referred, but the latter are much
larger, as will be seen by comparing their relative sizes in the drawings,
all of which have been delineated upon the same scale. Fig. 18 is
sub-globular, tetraedral ; prominent laterally ; flat ventrally ; sub-
pyramidal dorsally; covered with minute papillse, supporting short
spines or hairs. Length ^ inch, breadth ^ inch. Fig. 19 is elongat-
ed ; cylindrical ; slightly incurvated ventrally ; sparsely covered with
large, and thickly beset with minute papillae. Length ^ inch, breadth
^ inch. In both these specimens the borders of the valves present a
substriated or milled appearance, particularly over the prolonged portion
of the posterior or large end. Fig. 20 is sub-reniform, and covered
with large papillae, almost touching each other. Length ^ inch,
breadth ^ inch . This has also the prolongation of the valve posteriorly.
Fig. 21, PI. ix., is the right wing of a small coleopterous insect, one
of two specimens found by Dr. Leith. It is tV inch long, and
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184 GEOLOGY OP THE ISLAND OP BOMBAY. [JuLY
presents parallel longitudinal ridges, with rows of puncta along their
course, and transverse wavy lines across the ridges. Loc, black shale.
Obs. — ^This fossil b carbonized, and under it was found a layer of
calc-spar, apparently the remains of the transparent wing; beneath
which again were the ridged impressions of the under part of the elytra.
Fig. 22, PI. ix. — This is the remains of a shell like l^elania, which
was conical, elongated, composed of five whorls, the latter costated
transversely. Length -H inch, and breadth ^ inch ; toUl length of
the impression ^4 inch ; the additional length does not appear to have
been caused by a part of the shell, though by something belonging to
it. Loc, black shale.
Obs, — The specimens of this fossil are very indistinct, and formed
of the same material as the black carboniferous shale in which they
are imbedded. There are other impressions of a smaller shell of
the same kind, but with a rounded apex, like that of Pupa : all were
found by Dr. Leith.
In the chert of the upper strata, containing an abundance of cypri-
des, with fragments of plants, the section of a roundish shell, some-
thing Uke Paludina, was found.
Reptiles.
Rana pusilla. — This is the name which has been given by Professor
Owen to the fossilized remains of the skeletons of the frogs to which I
have had occasion to allude. The following is Professor Owen's des-
cription of them, which will be found in the Quart. Jl. Geol. Soc,
vol. iii., p. 224, taken from specimens given to Mr. Clarke by Dr.
Leith, who was the first person that discovered them : —
" The portions of shale transmitted by Mr. Clarke contain delicate,
but for the most part distinct, traces of the generally entire skeleton of
small anourous Batrachiaj the osseous substance is blacky as if
charred.
" The number of vertebrse, atlas and sacrum inclusive, is nine ; the
caudal vertebrae are fused into a long, slender cylindrical style, as in
most anourous Batrachia,
" In the specimen (Fig. 1 ) which lies on its back, the posterior con-
vexity of the vertebral bodies is shown.
" The short, sub-cylindrical, and very slightly expanded lateral or
transverse process of the sacrum, and the absence of ribs or their rudi-
ments in the dorsal vertebrae, vri^h the proportional expanse of the
skull and length of the hind legs, show the specimens to belong to the
family of Frogs (Ttanu:^^.
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T4
Plate IX.
i i
H.I.C.
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1
1
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1852.] F088IL8. 185
'* There are seven abdominal vertebrae, with long and sub-equal trans-
verse processes, that of the second (third vertebrae including the atlas,)
being the longest. The hnmems is cjHndrical, not expanded, as in
Cystignathus. The head is a Uttle larger relatively than in Rana
iemporaria, Rana esculenta, or Hyla viridis ; and still larger there-
fore than in the Toads and Natterjacks, (Bu/onicke,) or than in the
Pipa : the expansion of the sacrnm removes the genus Pipa and the
Bombinatores from that of the present fossils. The following are
admeasurements of the more perfect specimens : —
Inches. lines.
Length from front part of head to S3rmphjsis pubis. 0 6i
„ ofthehead 0 2J
„ of the dorsal vertebral series 0 2f
»9 of 08 innominatum 0 2^
f, offemur 0 2J
», of anchjlosed tibia and fibula 0 2^
„ of tarsus 0 1^
„ of whole foot 0 4i
„ of whole anterior limb 0 4
** All the specimens belong to individuals which had completed their
metamorphosis, and they are similar to one another in sixe ; they may
have belonged either to a not quite full-grown broody or to an unusually
small species* of Rana.
'* They conform in all respects as closely to the typical organization
of the Frogs of the present day, as do the fossils discovered by Gold-
fuss in the tertiary lignites of the Siebengebirge, and referred by him to
Bona cUlumana ; but the Bombay batracholites differ not only in their
smaller size, but also in their proportionally larger skulls."
In most of these skeletons the teeth may be seen, and the bones are
found (as Professor Owen has stated) in a charred state, in the black
shale, which at the Sluices exists in separate layers, towards the lower
part of the undisturbed portion of the fresh-water formation. They
have not, however, yet been found in situ ; but their position is inferred
from the character of the shale in which they are imbedded. Generally
the skeleton is entire, with the extremities more or less flexed, as they
would be in a dead frog ; and they lie flat on the black mud on which
they have been deposited, alone, or amidst layers of cyprides. They
abound at the Sluices, and in black shale excavated from wells on
Malabar Hill, three miles off ; and appear to be confined to the part of
the fresh-water deposits mentioned ; but are there found in different
layers. In one specimen of black shale, which is tV inch thick, and
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186 GEOLOGY OF THB ISLAND OF BOMBAY. [JuLY
composed of six layers, they appear on every layer; in another 8pecimen»
belonging to Dr. Leith, they are on layers an inch apart, a deposit
of brown shale half an inch broad intervening between the black car-
boniferous layers ; and, in one instance, in and around a disturbed and
broken up portion of black shale, I have met with their bones scattered
with eypris eylindrica, in the heterogeneous-looking argillaceous deposit,
probably of igneous origin, iutercallating and surrounding that shale ;
while in the unbroken part of the shale itself the skeletons are entire,
and the disposition of the bones the same as that in parts where they
have been undisturbed. That the enveloping material here is of igneous
origin is proved by its bluish or greenish-grey color, its heterogeneous-
lookmg appearance, its argillaceous nature, its massive and unstratified
form, and effervescence with acids. Hence it seems probable that
in breaking up the black shale it swept off the loose bones of the
skeletons, and carried them into the positions mentioned. Had it been
otherwise, viz. that the igneous matter had flowed into the fresh water,
and killed these animals, then there would have been no broken up black
shale present, with the undisturbed skeletons entire in it ; for the
former would have overflowed the latter, and not have intercalated it.
But this will be better understood when we come to consider the igne-
ous effusion which has intruded these strata.
Testudo Leithii. (h. j. c.) — (Plates x. and xi.) — The remains of nine
specimens of this tortoise have been found by Dr. Leith, and the
following description has been taken from them : —
Carapace. (PI. x.) — The 1st dorsal plate is pentagonal, almost quadri-
lateral, with two irregular sides in front, meeting at an extremely
open angle, and behind a border slightly concave anteriorly; its
lateral boundaries are rectilinear and divergent. 2nd dorsal plate about
twice the size of the first ; hexagonal ; half as broad again transversely
as it is antero-posteriorly ; posterior border suddenly convex forwards
in the centre, and longer than the anterior border ; lateral borders
undulous, and meeting at an obtuse angle outwardly. 3rd dorsal plate
one-tenth less than the second; hexagonal; nearly twice as broad
transversely as it is antero-posteriorly ; posterior border abruptly
convex forwards in the centre ; much less in length than the anterior
border ; anterior lateral sides convex outwards ; posterior lateral sides
convex inwards, both meeting at an obtuse angle laterally. 4th
dorsal plate a little more than half the size of the third ; hexagonal ;
contracted posteriorly ; posterior border straight ; antero-lateral sides
also straight, and short ; postero-lateral convex outwards, both meeting
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1862.] FOSSILS. 187
in an obtuse angle. 5tb, or last dorsal plate, heptagonal, triangular,
with the apex truncated ; contracted in front ; presenting posteriorly
four sides, which unite with the two supra-caudal, and half the two first
femoro-marginal scales ; lateral sides rectilinear.
Antero-costal plate tetragonal, sub-triangular. 2nd costal pentago-
nal, its two inner sides forming an obtuse angle upwards. 3rd costal
quadrilateral. The last pair of the costal ranges are broader above
than below, and present six sides, by the three smaller of which they
articulate with the marginal plates which correspond to them.
Marginal scales 24. Marginal collar and first brachials sub-quadri-
lateral, longer than broad; second brachial pair trapezoidal; supra-caudal
sub-square, trapezoid ; first and third margino-femoral pairs pentagonal,
the latter longer than broad ; the intervening ones square ; fifth margino-
lateral oblong, broader behind than in front. Of the other margino-
lateral scales there are no specimens.
Plastron. (PI. xi.) — Plane, elliptical ; round anteriorly, and notched
in the centre posteriorly, but not deeply ; intergular plate four times
larger than the gular, and pentagonal, sub-triangular, the two posterior
sides meeting at an obtuse angle ; gular plates resemble isosceles tri-
angles, with their posterior edges a little bent outwards, towards the
apex. These three anterior plates are locked in between the brachials,
which resemble scalene triangles ; they are not so large as the intergu-
lar plate. The portions of the pectorals and abdominals which cover
the sternum present square figures. The femorals are quadrilateral,
having their internal lateral border less than their external lateral one,
which is slightly convex on the outer side. The anal plates are
triangular and rounded exteriorly, and cover that part of the sternum
to which the pelvis is soldered. (See plate.)
Where the axillary and inguinal scales might have existed the parts
are imperfect, but there do not appear to have been any.
The head appears to have been triangular and flattened, unless this
arises partly from pressure, and the nostrils obtuse ; there is a deep
gutter extending from the muzzle backwards, becoming superficial as it
approaches the superior occipital bone. The orbits themselves are
directed upwards.
The pelvis is soldered in front to the sternum, and the tail appears
to have been so short that it only just extended beyond the ilia.
Fortunately the point of it remains in one specimen in that position.
Dimennons. — Length of carapace 7i inches, breadth in its flattened
state 6 inches. Length of plastron 7 inches ; breadth at inguinal angles
about 2| inches, and breadth in the centre about 4l inches.
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188 GEOLOGY OF THE ISLAND OF BOMBAY. [JULY
Head. — From the Daaal extremity of the anterior frontals to iht
basilar bone 1 44 inch ; distance between the posterior angles of the
orbits 4-^ inch ; distance between the anterior angles of the orbits tV
inch ; distance between the posterior angle of the orbits and the ex-
tremity of the mastoid process, which is prolonged blackwards, I iV
inch ; width between the condyles of lower jaw 1^ inch. Loe, The
remains of these tortoises were found in the shale excavated from the
undisturbed part of the fresh-water formation at the Sluices. Dr.
Leith, however, is under the impression that one of the specimens came
from a pit in the eastern side of the Flats just opposite. They have
not been found in situ, but appear to have come from the middle of
the undisturbed strata.
Obs. — Thus, it will be seen, from the pelvis being soldered to the
plastron, that this tortoise belonged to the pleuroderal etodians of
Dumeril and Bibron, none of which are now found in Asia ; and from
the absence of the nuchal plate, that it belonged to one of their first ^ve
genera. Also from the form of its scales generally, as well as the short-
ness of the tail, that it came nearest to the genus called Stemoiherus,
and of the species of this genus nearest, in the form of its scales, to
S. eastaneui, (Dumeril et Bibron Erp^tologie G^n^rale, vol. ii. p. 401 .)
It differs, however, from the latter species in the anterior lines of the
pectoral scales of the plastron being parallel with those of the abdominal
scales, instead of meeting at an angle backwards. In size it agrees
exactly with the length of the carapace of Stemotherus niger; the plastron
is also very nearly as large as the carapace. In the specimen from which
the drawing has been chiefly taken, the plastron has been probably pushed
forwards out of its original position, by the pressure to which these
parts have been subjected during fossilixation : in all the specimens
both carapace and plastron are in contact. The horny parts of both,
marked externally with their intricate network of grooves, as well as
the outer layers of the bones themselves, are all charred, while the
cancellous structure of the internal parts, being filled with calc-spar,
presents its original appearance. Above are described all the parts of
this tortoise which admit of it i the remains of nine individuals, as
before stated, have been found, all very nearly of the same size, and all
by Dr. Leith, after whom I have named it, and to whose rare attain-
ments and acute perception we are indebted, not only for bringing to
light the existence of the remains of this animal in the fVesh-water
strata of Bombay, but for almost every other valuable specimen that
has been obtained from them, thus claiming, in fact, the merit of having
first directed the attention of the public to this interesting formation.
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1852.] FRESH-WATER FORMATION. 189
Haying described the tipper strata of the fresh-water formation where
they are best seen, and a few of the fossils which have been found in them,
let ns now trace them throughout the other parts of the island. I have
already stated that they are overlain by the basalto-dioritic tract, and
that this tract in the first instance was probably continuous all over
the island, but that it has since been broken up into the ridges already
described, and much of the parts which intervened carried away by
denudation. Hence, it may be conceived, that the same agent which
threw up these ridges also threw up at the same time more or less of
the fresh-water strata which lay beneath them, and that therefore
the latter will be found to be exposed on the scarped sides of, as well
as in the plains between, these ridges, where the basalto-dioritic tract
has been uplifted or removed. That such are the facts will presently
become evident.
Beginning with the ridge on the outer side of the island, called
Malabar Hill, we naturally look, in its scarped or eastern side, for the
strata in question, and there we find them overlaid by the basalt, which
in some parts is 50 feet thick ; while they are completely hid on the
other, or western side, where the basalt, which at first slopes suddenly
over them, afterwards, as before stated, extends outwards into the sea
at a very small angle of inclination. If we commence, then, from
Malabar Point, which has be^n stated to be the southern extremity of
the outer ridge of the island, we shall perceive these strata on its
eastern side appearing just above the water's edge about 50 yards in :
they are easily dbtinguished by their light brown or fawn color, which
contrasts strongly with the black basalt above them. Following them
northwards, we find that they gradually increase in thickness as the
ridge rises ; but after two-thirds of a mile suddenly become contorted
and twisted into all kinds of shapes, indicating that at this part, which
extends for about 300 yards, they have undergone more disturbance
than at any other, and a short search shows us that it has been caused
by the intrusion of an igneous rock. It was from the contents of a
well excavated at this spot that the specimen of black shale and igneous
matter, containing the bones of the frogs in a scattered state, was
obtained. After this disturbed portion, the strata again resume their
parallelism, and may be traced along the whole of the eastern side of
Malabar Hill to Mahaluximee, where there is a break in the ridge of
1000 yards, extending from the place last mentioned to Lovegrove
Point or Mama Hajanee, from whence the ridge is again continued on
to the Sluices, where there is a second break, about 250 yards wide, and
where the cut of the Sluices, which extends from the Flats to the sea.
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190 GEOLOGY OP THE ISLAND OP BOMBAY. [JULY
exposes the section from which the foregoing description of this forma-
tion has been chiefly taken ; and from which the principal part of the
fossils mentioned have been derived. From this break on to Worlee
Fort, or the northern extremity of the outer ridge, the fresh-water
strata may be again traced, cropping out from the scarped portion of
the basalt, and at the latter place may again be seen to be intruded by
igneous matter.
Throughout the whole of this ridge they present an anticlinal elevation,
one side of which dips more or less to the west, the other to the east,
becoming almost horizontal again at the base of the ridge, where they
extend, concealed under the basalt, into the sea on one side, and, exposed^
over the Flats on the other. At the Sluices the dip of most of the strata
on the west side of the anticlinal axis is more than 45^, and on the
east side would appear to be the same, but is obscured by the Sluices ;
while the intruded igneous matter is seen filling up the angle of the
arch thus formed, as if it had been the disturbing agent.
We now come to the Flats, and here the fresh-water strata are not
continuous any more than the basalto-dioritic tract, both hanng,
apparently, been broken up together, and suffered a like denudation : it is
only here and there that a portion of the fresh-water strata is seen
entire, being for the most part mixed up with intruded igneous matter,
or entirely transformed by decomposition ; but, on passing across the
Flats, we again find them here and there, overlaid by the diorite, and
hence we may expect to find them exposed again in the scarp of the
eastern ridge in a similar manner to that we have seen on the western
ridge, for, tracing them where they are yet entire on the eastern side of
the Flats, viz. at the end of the Grant Road, we find them 600 yards
further due east, viz. in Baboola Tank, underlying the diorite, as before
stated ; and again, 650 yards still further, in the scarp of the quarry on
the eastern side of Nowrojee Hill, but here in a thin line, either on
account of the intruded igneous rock having merely separated a foot or
two of the upper part of this formation from the rest, or from the
pressure of the incumbent basalto-dioritic tract, which b here very thick.
In Baboola Tank these strata, which are only five feet thick, are seen
to have only four feet of diorite left above them, while in Nowrojee's
quarry they have 90 feet. Again, after tracing this formation across
the Flats opposite Parell to the eastern side of Parell Tank, we find its
strata appearing in the wells there, also, with only a few feet of diorite
above them ; and, if we cross over the hill, we shall find them cropping
out again on its eastern side. Thus they are seen to pass across the
Flats, and to appeUr again on the scarped side of the eastern ridge.
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1852.] FRESH-WATER FORMATION. 191
proving that they have been everywhere superposed by the basalto-
dioritic tract.
Let us now go to the scarp of the eastern ridge, and follow these strata
northwards, from Nowrojee's quarry, where, as before stated, they are
reduced to a thin line. For some distance after this the state of the hills,
from being covered more or less with grass, does not permit of our seeing
them satisfactorily, but when we come to the southern extremity of
Chinchpoogly Hill, the thin stratum, composed of the casts of cyprides,
with fragments of plants, which I have before stated to mark the upper
boundary of this deposit, is again recognized, immediately underlying
the diorite, and not more than 30 feet above high-water mark. This
stratum, in a broken, black, basaltified state, may thence be traced for
900 yards, rising all the way, until it is elevated by a subsequent
Igneous eifiision to the crest of the hill itself. From this, we may
trace these strata on to Parell Flag-staff Hill, and thence to a tank
beyond the Gardens, where they exist in very thin layers, making in
all 16 feet thick ; wavy from disturbance, and dipping, as usual, greatly
towards the west. They are here richly charged with fragments of
plants, and the casts of cyprides, but do not present a single black
carboniferous lamina ; although immediately on the other side of the
ridge opposite Parell Tank there are portions of interlaminating black
bitumenous shale which have been excavated from the wells there, just
Uke those which are obtained from the wells at Malabar Hill and the
Sluices, in which the frog-skeletons are found.
From the former tank the fresh-water strata are continued northwards
through a valley, over an area of upwards of a mile long, and from
two to three hundred yards broad, uncovered by the diorite, as in the
Flats, and forming a horizontal plain between the first and third eastern
ridges, already described, until they reach the village of Nagaum, on
the road to Sion, where they join the strata on the Fiats, and the main
ridge of diorite is for a certain distance reduced almost to a few
boulders.
This formation may again be seen in the valley between Kandlee
Battery and Jackaryah's Bunder, that is between the second and third
eastern ridges, passing up to the tank at north of the Gardens, and in its
way exposed in a large excavation to the depth of 1 6 feet, dipping, as
usual, towards the west. Lastly, this formation may be seen again on the
eastern side of the third ridge, extending northwards from Jackaryah's
Bunder, more or less broken up, to Sion, at the northern end of the island.
From what has been stated, then, two facts are now evident, viz.,
that there is a fresh-water formation, and that it is partly overlaid by a
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192 QBOLOGT OF THB ISLAND OF BOMBAY. [JuLY
basalto-diorite tract, which was once continuous, and probably horizon*
tal. After this, a third fact becomes evident, viz. that there must have
been some subsequent cause to throw up these two formations, at first
parallel to each other, into their present ridges. The consideration of
this cause brings us to the description of the intruded igneous matter,
or second effusion.
Second EffuHon. — I have already alluded to the presence of igneous
rock among the contorted strata, a short distance in from Malabar
Point ; that it is seen again at the cut of the Sluices, and again at
Worlee, the northern extremity of this ridge ; also in different parts of
the Flats, &c. But as yet I have designated this effusion by no par-
ticular name ; and when we remember that it has flown in between the
aqueous strata, breaking them up into fragments, bruising them into
powder, and more or less amalgamating with them, we cannot wonder
that in one place this effnsion should have assumed one form and in
another another, depending upon the quantity of foreign material with
which it has become mixed. Hence it will be necessary to go to that
place, or places, where it is most pure, first, and ascertain its original
character. For this purpose, let us begin with it at Nawrojee Hill, where
it is 40 feet thick, and apparently as pure as when it first came from
the volcano. Here it underlies the thin tine of fresh-water strata
mentioned, and in the form of trappite ; differing so little from the
diorite above, that until we compare the two together, the points of
difference do not appear. When, however, this is done, we observe in
the trappite that there is a great addition of blue argillaceous earth to
the binary compound of felspar and hornblende of the diorite ; also that
the former is of a darker blue color, more earthy in structure, and more
soft and yielding to the hammer ; the color and breaking of this rock
alone will enable the experienced observer while in the quarry to say
directly from what part it came, still to the ordinary observer the two
are one and the same. This is the state of this effusion, I presume, where
it is seen intercallating the aqueous strata below Dr. Buist's house, or
nearly opposite Sewree, but the part exposed there is decomposing into
spheroids, and too far advanced to satisfactorily exhibit by fracture its
original state. In Baboola Tank, and at the tank north of the Horti-
cultural Gardens, it is an amygdaloid aphanite, with a greenish colored
base, the cavities being filled with laumonite, which is surrounded by
green-earth, and which substance in many places seems to become a
pseudomorph of laumonite. On the Chinch poogly part of the eastern
ridge, just behind the house called Lowjee Castle, where there has been
an outburst of a still later effusion, the cavities of the former, whidi
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is decomposed where it remains on the upper side of the latter, are
partially or wholly filled with quartz crystals ; large crystals of hyalin
and amethystine quartz from crushed geodes are also seen in it ; while
on the lower side of the dyke the cavities of the amygdaloid are filled
with green- earth in a fresh green, and decomposing brown, rock. They
are also filled with quartz in the neighbourhood of Sindu Para ; in an
area of about half a mile square, on the western side of Ghorpadevi,
towards the Flats, where the rock is brown colored ; and, further north
again, with green-earth, that is to say in the neighbourhood of the
house called Lowjee Castle. On the eastern part of the Flats, nearly
opposite Parell, the cells are filled with calc-spar, and for several feet
down the rock is a .brown spilite, (base aphanite, filled with crystals of
calc-spar,) imbedding pieces of the aqueous strata towards the surface,
which become less downwards, and the rock, becoming blue, at length
passes into trappite. In some parts this rock is veined with calc-spar,
and in others presents geodes or large cavities, filled with large lenticular
crystals of the same, resting on their edges. Still further north, again,
at Dharavee, this effusion is of a light yellow or fawn color, and is
commonly called **^hite Trap." There is a large tract of it here, and
in many parts, where it is amgydaloidal, the cavities are filled with a soft
fine white clay, like white green-earth, which seems to be an ultimate
psendomorph of laumonite here. In the museum of the Asiatic Society
there is a radiated mass of scolezite, passing into a fine flesh-colored
greasy pseudomorph, very like pagodite ; and also several massive
varieties, which have lost their crystalline appearance, and have assumed
a compact structure, which is opaque, white, and greasy to the nail ;
so that this passage of a zeolitic mineral into fine soft clay seems not to
be uncommon. Crossing to the western ridge of the island, we have this
effusion, as before stated, amidst the aqueous strata, apparently possess-
ing all the ingredients of the blue trappite seen in the quarry at Now-
rojee Hill, but without the semi-crystalline structure. The blue earth
b evident, but the rest of the ingredients have taken on an earthy,
argillaceous state, and have become more or less impregnated with calc-
spar, which causes this rock to effervesce when touched with nitric acid.
From the wells on Malabar Point it comes out partly in the form of a
clay rock of uniform fine structure, and blue color, still effervescing
with nitric acid. In some portions of this there are small angular
fragments of a white color, which seem to be parts of the fresh-water
strata, and thus identify this breccia with an effusion which by-and-bye
we shall find widely spread on the other side of the island. At Worlee,
where this rock is exposed, it is of a bright red brick color, and filled
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194 GEOLOGY OF THE ISLAND OF BOMBAY. [JuLT
with fragments of the preceding formation ; and at the Slaices it is of
a hluish color, and envelopes large masses of carboniferous shale, besides
being impregnated throughout with a naphthous odour ; while between
these two places it is found in a decomposed amygdaloidal state. Where
it appears on the sea shore, at Malabar Hill, pieces of open scoriae are
imbedded in it — the only instances of the kind I have met with in the
island of Bombay. At the cut in the Sluices the rock is seen filling
the internal angle of the anticlinal elevation of the aqueous strata ;
appearing, as before stated, to have been the agent by which the whole
of this ridge has been elevated. It is seen in many parts of the Flats
much in the same state as in the western ridge, having, in short,
intercallated and broken up the fresh-water strata more or less through-
out the island. North of a line extending from Parell to Worlee the
whole of the Flats under the clay is covered with the thin stratum,
composed of the casts of cyprides, which has been chertified, and
rendered more or less jaspideous by heat ; thus affording a serviceable
material for forming the surface of the railway in this part of the
island.
Hence we have seen, that the second effusion in its purest form at
Nowrojee Hill is a trappite, and that this trappite passes into aphanite,
— the latter may be seen taking place within a few yards, in some
small tanks and excavations on the eastern side of the railroad,
towards the middle of the island. We have also seen the trappite in
other places passing into an amygdaloid, the cavities of which are
filled either with laumonite, quartz, green-earth, calc-spar, or fine white
clay, (decomposed laumonite ?) according to the locality ; also that in
some places it contains more or less fragments of the aqueous strata ; ia
sometimes a blue compact hard clay ; sometimes a breccia ; and, last of
all, that it may have an earthy or semi-crystalline base, colored blue,
green, brown, yellow, or red.
We do not see the trappite or amygdaloid form of this effusion any-
where breaking through the basalto-dioritic tract ; at the same time we
see it iuterlan^uating to an extreme degree the fresh-water strata ; from
which it may be inferred that it was thrown out under a great weight,
and that this superincumbent weight was the basalto-dioritic tract.
But for this extreme interlamination, it might have been doubtful
whether it had not been thrown out while yet the aqueous strata were
in process of being deposited, and that there was then an interval
again, during which more aqueous strata were deposited,; and, last of all,
the basalto-dioritic tract poured forth over the whole. It is, however,
almost impossible that in such loose soft strata as those composing
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the fresh-water formation, an interlaminating intrusion of the igneous
rock should take place to such an extent as we see it, without the
presence of a superincumhent weight, such as the hasalto-dioritic tract
roust have formed ; it would rather have burst through the whole of
the thickness of these strata in the form of a great dyke, and then
have overflowed them. On the other hand, its amygdaloid form chiefly
distinguishes it from the basalt and diorite of the basalto-dioritic tract.
The late Capt. Newbold has observed (Jl. As. Soc. Bengal, vol. xiv.
p. 204) that in the Southern Mahrata Country, " both these rocks
[old and new geeenstones] are distinguished mineralogically from
the tertiary or overlying traps, by their rarely assuming an amygdaloid
character, and their freedom from agates, opals, calcedonies, zeolites,
green-earth, olivine, &c. so abundant in the latter."
Thus the third fact becomes evident, viz. that the second efl^usion was
one cause, if not the first and principal, of the displacement of the
fresh-water formation, and the basalto-dioritic tract.
Third Effunm, — We have now a fourth fact to establish, and that is
the occurrence of a third volcanic effusion, by which the strata of the
fresh-water formation and other rocks have been thoroughly broken up,
and converted into a volcanic breccia, forming a large tract. This tract
extends from Camac Bunder to Sion Causeway, and forms the entire of
the chain of hilb bordering the north-eastern end of the island, from the
Fort of Sewree to Sion, inclusive. It would be diflicult to prove that
it was a subsequent effusion to the last mentioned, were not large
portions of both the basalto-dioritic tract and the amgydaloidal effusion
mixed up with the fragments of the aqueous strata. But the presence
of the amgydaloid alone, places this beyond a doubt.
Let us now trace this volcanic breccia throughout its whole extent ;
but, before doing so, it would be as well to premise that the igneous
matter binding together its fragments is aphanitic, and for the most part
of a white color, speckled with brown, but passes from blue, which is
probably its origmal color, to green, yellow, brown, red, and, lastly,
black, varying according to its compactness, and extent of decomposition.
It is generally earthy, sometimes where decomposed sandy, and in some
parts hard or wholly jaspideous.
Commencing from Camac Bunder or its southern extremity, we
find this effusion for the most part white, and extended over a large
area, which is covered by the sea at high tides. Large fragments of the
fresh-water formation are here seen imbedded in it, as well as fragments
of the other rocks, some of the former six feet long, and still retaining
their thinly laminated appearance, and so plentiful that the whole mass
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196 GEOLOGY OF TUB ISLAND OF BOMBAY. [JULT
assumes a dark color from their presence, but this will be found to be
confined principally to the surface. Tracing this volcanic breccia north-
wards, we find it passing under Mazagon Hill, the base of which it
forms i and the wells in it on the northern side, extending downward
for 60 feet without passing through it» show how thick it is. Here,
also, we see that the brecciated part is chiefly confined to the surface.
The newly excavated contents of these wells also show that some way
down this effusion is extremely white, like lime, but it is chiefly
composed of silex : when I was examining them some people were taking
portions away to white-wash their houses. In some parts also it is
mottled blue and green, or red, and in structure is granulo-pastic. We
now find it bordered on the eastern side by the second dioritic ridge,
which probably overlies it; and in the neighbourhood of Tank Bunder
its brecciated form appears in perfection. All the rocks of which it is
composed are here seen in large masses, or in comminuted fragments,
varying in size with the locality, and with the coarseness of the breccia ;
but what is most remarkable is its separation in some parts into polygonal
or prismatic divisions, at once proving that it is of volcanic origin. From
Tank Bunder it may be traced on to Chinchpo<^ly Hill, keeping
principally to the shore, and thence to Jakaryah's Bunder, where it
assumes the form of sand of a yellow color, imbedding large fragments
of the aqueous strata in a red or black jaspideous state. From thence
to under Dr. Buisfs house, nearly opposite Sewree, it may be seen
passing in between the less disturbed aqueous strata which here lie
beneath the second effusion, and on arriving at Sewree itself we come
to the tract of it which extends uninterruptedly to the northern end
of the island, forming every hill and mound between Sewree and Sion ;
thus covering an area of about three and a half miles long, and in its
broadest part three-quarters of a mile wide. It will surprise the
observer at first to find that it assumes the appearance and structure
of a coarse black homogeneous jasper at Sewree ; but, if he examines
this carefully, he will see in parts of it which are washed by the waves,
large fragments of diorite and amygdaloid rock ; and when he comes to
approach Antop Hill from the west, which is still more homogeneous
and jaspideous, be will find that he walks over the light-colored
volcanic breccia first, and then over a blacker and blacker colored, until
the fragments of stratified rock become mingled more and more with
the igneous effusion, and at length disappear altogether, giving place to
the homogeneous composition mentioned. It was here, in the plain
between the village of Wadalla and Antop Hill, that Dr. Leith pointed
out to me, in a semi-jaspideous group of black rocks, a large piece of
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coarse-grained white crystalline diorite, looking at first sight like
granite or sjenite^ also other portions of diorite, all of which are larger
grained than any which is to he found on the surface of the island of
Bomhay. These, then, most have been brought up from a depth by the
igneons effusion, and it may be questionable whether they are not
portions of the rock on which the fresh- water formation rests. Striking
as the gradual passage just mentioned of volcanic breccia from one
state into another may appear, the sudden transition of the black jasper
of Antop Hill into the light colored breccia of the one adjoining it is
much more remarkable, for in the latter instance you may almost put
one foot on one and the other foot on the other, though they belong
to the same effusion. After Antop Hill all the others in this neigh-
bourhood, some upwards of 130 feet high, are composed of a-Hght
reddish-colored breccia, compact externally, that is where it is not
decomposing. In some parts the fragments composing it are all small,
and in others large and small, but all sharply angular. Ilere and there*
also, may be seen polygonal divisions on the surface, indicative of the
prismatic form common to basaltic rocks. I am led to believe that
this breccia forms a great part of the mountains in Salsette, and have
seen it myself there forming those both of the northern and southern
extremities of this island.
Let us now return to the neighbourhood of Mazagon, where the
diorite remains continuous over a larger area than in any other part of
the island ; and here we shall find that almost all the wells pass through
it into this white brecciated effusion. Where this is not the case, they
are more or less veined or dyked with it, and in several places we may
observe that it has broken through the diorite, and spread itself for a
short distance over its surface, showing clearly that it must have been
a subsequent effusion to the diorite at least. Indeed, when we come
to consider that the diorite overlies the aqueous strata, we can
easily conceive how it should be underlaid by the second and third
igneous effusions, which have followed the course of these strata ; but
it is only the latter effusion which seems to have burst through the
diorite.
We have now traced this effusion coming from imder the base of the
eastern ridges throughout its whole length ; and we have seen it forming
the plain and hills in the north-east part of the island ; we have also
seen it forming the lower part of the wells in the dioritic tract of
Mazagon, and we have seen it veining and dyking, and at last bursting
through this rock in the same locality ; but we have still another place
left to examine it, where it forms half the ridge between Chinchpoogly
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198 GEOLOGY OF THE ISLAND OF BOMBAY. [JuLY
and Parell Flag-stafF Hill. Here it begins to issue 600 yards south of
the latter from a dyke, which descends rapidly on the eastern side of the
ridge, separated from the diorite above by about six feet of amygdaloid,
belonging to the second effusion, to which I have already alluded,
(page 192,) and below by the same amygdaloid, partly in a fresh and
partly in a decomposed state. The volcanic breccia here is chiefly
composed of the white powdery aphanite before mentioned, with brown
specks, the former melting into a white porcelain globule with borax, the
latter attracted by the magnet after exposure to heat. It contains but
few fragments of the other rocks, and its chief peculiarity — that, indeed,
.which distinguishes it from all other efliisions of the island — is that it
is filled with cells which are elongated horizontally, as well as large and
smaH geodes, which contain crystals of hyalin or amethystine quartz,
calcedouy, or agate. The geodes are for the most part compressed
vertically, and some are a foot in length, and contain crystals an inch
long, and proportionally thick ; the rock b decomposing, and the cells
and geodes, which have been filled by infiltrated agate or calcedony,
are lying about the neighbourhood, affording a good example of the
way in which the so-called agate and cornelian mines are formed. This
rock, which issues at the point mentioned, is continued on, forming
the eastern side only of the ridge for some distance, when it crosses it
diagonally to attain the western decUrity of Parell Flag-staff Hill, down
which it extends for a short distance, and there ends. Just at this
part the road from the Horticultural Gardens to Parell passes over it.
One observation only remains for me to state respecting this effusion,
viz. there is a dyke of it seen passing up through the westernmost of
the hills at Sion, through the base of which the railway has been cut,
and by which its existence has been made evident. It contains portions
of the fawn-colored amygdaloid of the second effusion, (" White Trap,")
which, it will be remembered, exists close by in a large tract at the
village of Dharavee. The cellular cavities of the fragments are also
filled with the fine white greasy earth which I have stated to be a
pseudomorph, if not a decomposed form, of laumonite. This dyke,
which is 16 feet wide, and rises at an angle of 80°, is inclined toipi^urds
the south, but, from the red color of the breccia through which it
passes, it is fast becoming discolored, and in a short time will be undis-
tinguishable on the surface from the rest of the rock. There is another
dyke of it in a cut of the road towards Trombay, just on the other side
of the Causeway, in the island of Salsette, which is two and a half feet
wide : it has a nearly vertical direction, and passes between the diorite
on one side and the red breccia on the other. These dykes, then.
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coQstitote a Fourth Efhisimii from their passing through the third
effusion.
In all the effusions subsequent to the basalto-dioritic, calc-spar
abounds more or less, which is not the case with the latter, in which it is
rarely if ever seen. In the blue amygdaloid aphanite at Baboola Tank
it is common in large cavities, with laumonite, occurring massive or in
pyramidal crystals ; and in a fragment of the fresh-water strata about
a foot in thickness, and many yards square, which was cut through in
sinking a well at the south-eastern comer of the tank, the calc-spar
especially aboimded in the cavities following the line of the stratum.
This was the case, too, in a well which was excavated at Paidhonee, in
the centre of the Native Town . Throughout the more brecciated portion
of these effusions it is disseminated in small masses, or veins, or mixed
up with the rock generally, and, indeed, wherever there are portions
of the fresh-water strata present there is almost sure to be more or less
calc-spar, though the former are essentially argillaceous; while the
opposite is the case in the other parts of the igneous rock, which are not
mixed up with the fresh-water strata. With the exception of a little
pyrites here and there, calc-spar is the only accessory mineral worth
mentioning in these effusions.
The compactness of the volcanic breccia varies very much : in some
parts it is exceedingly hard and tough, as at Carnac and Tank Bunders,
especially towards the surface, where the mass is in polygonal divisions ;
but towards the interior it becomes soft. In a well which was excavated
into it through the dioritic ridge nearly Opposite Sewree, it cut like
cheese, and so similar in consistence was the whole, that but for the
fresh smooth section I could not have distinguished the angular frag-
ments. In other parts, again, where it is exposed, it is loose and
sandy, but, from the presence of argil, always of sufficient consistence
to keep together.
From the protean nature of these effusions, then, it is not unlikely
that some of them should resemble the rock called Laterite, which is so
widely spread throughout the basaltic district of Western India, and
such is the case. It may not be uninteresting, then, to compare the
two ; but, before doing so, let us shortly review the opinions and
descriptions that have been given respecting laterite, and for this purpose
I shall quote largely from Mr. Cole's interesting paper on this rock,
published in the Madras Journal of Literature and Science, vol. iv. 1836,
p. 105.
Characters of Laterite. — Dr. Buchanan, (Gleanings of Science, May
1831,) who first described and named this formation, states that ^<it is
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200 GEOLOGY OP THE ISLAND OP BOMBAY. [JuLY
full of cavities and pores, and contains a very large quantity of iron, in
the form of red and yellow ochres. In the mass, while excluded from the
air, it is so soft that any iron instrument readily cuts it,*' hut after
exposure becomes " as hard as brick." He never observed any " animal
or vegetable exuviae'* in it, but had heard of such having " been
found immersed in its substance" : it blackens externally on exposure,
and is found universally overlying granite. Dr. Buchanan nowhere
mentions its association with trappean rocks. But Dr. Christie (Mad.
Jl. vol. iv. p. 468) states that *' it is found resting in different situations,
on granite, transition rocks, trap, and sandstone." We see it at
Mahableshwar capping all the trappean mountains upwards of 100 feet
thick, as well as I can remember, and giving them flat tops; and I am
informed by Mr. N. A. Dalzell that in the cliffs on the Malabar Coast
about Rutnagherry it may be seen even overlain by basalt.
Mr. B. Babington considered laterite to be composed of the detritus
of syenitic rock, and to be alluvial, '^ formed from the washings of the
Ghaut mountains." He states that '* the hornblende uniformly decays
into a red oxide, [of iron ?] and the felspar into porcelain earth" ; that
it forms rounded hills below the Ghauts ; and, between Tellichery and
Madras, he accounts for its cellular structure by the rain washing away
its white parts, and leaving the red.
Dr. Voysey, who seems to have had the clearest conception on these
matters of any Indian Geologbt with whose writings I am acquainted,
made the following statement in a letter to General CuUen, dated .5th
November 1 820, copy of which appears in Mr. Cole's paper : — ** The
indurated clay you mention is very probably the result of those muddy
eruptions so common, and of such extensive occurrence, in South
America. Indeed; I am convinced that the greenstone, [diorite ?]
basalt, wacke, [aphanite ?] iron clay, or laterite, and the indurated clay,
have all a common origin, from the insensible degrees by which they
pass the one into the other ; and they only differ as to the degree of
pressure to which they have been subjected when under fusion."
Again he mentions, (Jl. As. Soc. Bengal, Aug. 1833, p. 400,) when
alluding to the passage of basalt into wacken, [aphanite ?] and then
into iron clay, [laterite?] that the Utter takes place *'in the space of
a few yards."
Dr. Christie (loc. eit.) calls the laterite of Buchanan a ''clay-stone
conglomerate," (pp. 462 and 468,) and states respecting its position in
the district of Dharwar that it is found " principally in its western
parts, and on the summits of the Ghauts."
Mr. Cole states of a specimen of laterite from Nellore, given htm
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1852.] VOIiCANIC BRECCIA A LATBRITIC FORMATION. 201
by the late Dr. Malcolmson, that '* it was fill^ with innumerable
mitinte pebbles of quartf, rarely larger than half the size of a pea,
sometimes pellucid, generally much rounded ; together with yellow and
ocfaraceous earths." These would seem to have been the miliary contents
of an amygdaloid, — whether in situ, or in a decomposed or altered rock,
* or forming foreign substances in a subsequent effusion, I cannot pretend
to decide, but I should think the former.
Mr. Cole also quotes Mr. Coulthard, (As. Res. vol. xviii.) whose
obseryations appear to favor this supposition, viz. that " the iron clay*'
about the Sagar district, and which is easy to be met with everywhere
there, *'is for the most part amygdaloidal."
Lastly, Mr. Cole himself states of the " Red Hills" at Madras, in the
banks (15 feet high) of the old channel, leading into what is termed
the lake, that " They are composed of a dark ferruginous stone, arranged
in a stratiform manner, presenting seams or partings, two or more feet
asunder, parallel to each other, and nearly horizontaL Vertical fissures
mtersect the seams at right angles, and thus produce prismatic masses
of rock." The rock is a " conglomerate," consisting of nodules of various
sizes^ imbedded in a *' clayey paste," which is hard and tenaceous : they
are " water-worn," but present a " considerable angularity of surface, yet
still sufficiently rounded to indicate their having undergone attrition";
in size they range from " a filbert to masses a foot or more in diameter.
Their fracture exhibits the structure of a coarse-grained sandstone, or
grit, of a deep chocolate or claret hue." ** Small masses of white
earth-like lithomarge and mica are sparingly scattered in the sand-
stone nodules." On ascending the hill on the side of the lake, the
conglomerate disappears, and changes into the more characteristic
laterite, red and cavernous, with " tortuous cavities" ; still, however,
containing fragments of the sandstone, seemingly united " by the debris
of the sandstone itself, of iron ores, and hthomargic earth." (Pp. 1 10
and 111, op. cit.)
How much, then, do all these descriptions approximate the subsequent
effusions in the island of Bombay to laterite! The external surface of
the hills at Sion, and the cuttings of the railway in them, show that they
are composed of a red argillaceous and ferruginous base, filled with
cavities, containing white or yellowish lithomargic earth, this Hthomargic
earth principally consisting of decomposed laumonite, or its pseudomorph
in the form of white green-earth; the masses hard superficially, and soft or
sectile internally ; with more or less fragments of the fresh-water strata,
diorite, and amygdaloidal rocks. Nor is it strange, if these subsequent
effusions should be identical with the laterite, that in the latter should,
28
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202 GEOLOGY OF THB I8LAND OF BOMBAY. [JuLY
under certain circumstances, be organic remains ; for in the former we
have masses of black shale, as at the Sluices, consisting almost entirely
of organic remains ; and a hundred other instances might be adduced in
the second and third effusions, where the organic remains are not only
in masses of shale, but entirely isolated from it, and alone in the
igneous rock, — to wit the scattered pieces of wood, &c. &c. found in it at -
the Sluices, and the frog-bones at Malabar Hill.
The late Captain Newbold has observed that at Pondicherry the
laterite ** occasionally possesses a distinctly stratified and conglomerate
character, and passes into a loose coarse sandstone, imbedding silicified
wood ; and at Beejpoor, on the Malabar Coast, it passes inta loose
sandstone, imbedding layers of lignite*': also that General Cullen had
discoTcred ** lignite and carbonized seeds in the laterite of Quilon and
Travancore." (Jl. As. Soc. Bengal, vol. xiv. p. 299.)
And the following description of the rock, which forms the upper
part of the hills in the '* Rajmahal Coal Formation,'* about 130 miles
N.W. of Calcutta — which would very nearly do for that of the subse-
quent effusions in the island of Bombay — ^is another illustration of it : —
^'151. The higher ridges of these mountains consist of scoriform
masses of red earthy vesicular conglomerate, (laterite,) containing
angular and other fragments of altered coal-measure shales, ferruginous
and micaceous sandstone, imbedded in a semi-vitrified and vesicular
matrix. These ridges are without any signs of stratification, except
where detached masses of altered coal formation occur ; while the upper
portion of their declivities, as well as all the lower and intermediate
ridges, are composed either entirely of amygdaloidal trap, containing
zeolites and calcedony, or altered coal-measure sandstone and shale,
the latter passing into the small isolated patches of coal-measures which
are found in some of the narrow valleys and ravines mentioned."
{Report of the Geological Survey of Indiay/or the Season of 1848-49,
by J. M'Clelland, Surgeon, Bengal Service, p. 45.)
Thus we have the lateritic effusion — for such Dr. M'Clelland evidently
conjectures that of the Rajmahal Mountains to be — at the three points
of the great triangle, formed by Madras in the south,"^ the Rajmahal
Hills in the east, and the island of Bombay in the west.
Again, we may see at Dharavee, in Bombay, the light fawn-colored
aphanitic rock, called "White Trap," and which I presume is equivalent
to Dr. yoyse/s wacke, decomposing, and passing, as he has described
the latter, within a few yards, into a mottled white and red decomposing
rock, with cellular cavities, filled with the soft greasy white clay
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mentioned, thus Confirming what this acute observer has so clearly
stated in his letter to General CuUen, viz. *Hhat the greenstone, [diorite?]
basalt, wacke, [aphanite ?] iron day or laterite, and the indurated claj»
have ail a common origin" ; and I need hardly now add that this is
Tolcanic, — to illustrate which by analogy, I might state, that as
a stream of water passing from a clear lake to the sea becomes
discolored by the kind of detritus which it takes up on its way, still
remaining pure at its source, so a volcanic stream, on its way to the
earth's surface, may, from the nature of the rocks through which it
passes, be converted into . the various forms met with in the laterite.
I do not mean to assert that such effusions are in the same state now
as when they were first poured forth ; for we know from every-day
experience that the most compact rocks, like all other things, have but
a stated time to go through their different phases ; that a re-arrange-
ment of particles is continually taking place in them ; that some are
carried away, and replaced by others ; that others are carried away, and
leave nothing but their empty cavities,— color, substance, form, all is
sooner or later changed and dissipated. But in the volcanic matter which
has become laterite, the presence of foreign material does seem to have
curtailed to a certain degree its vitality, so to speak, and to have caused
it to decay sooner than it otherwise would have done ; and I think,
when among the trappean rocks we do not observe the common formi
of structure and colors peculiar to them, both in their compact and
decomposing states, we may infer the presence of this foreign material,
though it is not demonstrable to our senses. Why the laterite should
be so impregnated with iron, and the red color so developed in it, seems
not less inexplicable than that of the New Red Sandstone, — the Rothlie-
gendes or Exeter Conglomerate of which it so closely resembles. Mr.
Logan's hypothesis, that when the red color has extended into other
rocks the agency of " volcanic steam, gases, or fluids chained with
iron," may be called into account for their red disintegration, seems very
tenable — that is where they have not enough iron in them otherwise.
Indeed, his hypothesis throughout will be found hardly less applicable
to the island of Singapore than it is to that of Bombay. (Jl. As. Soc.
Bengal, vol. xvi. part 1, p. 534.)
The very genuine pieces of laterite only differ from the rock of the
hills at Sion in being more - ferriferous, and in presenting a cavernous
structure, composed of sinuous instead of irregular spheroidal cavities ;
such differences bearing no comparison with those which exist between
the red brecciated hills at Sion and the black jaspideous hills of Antop
and Sewree, though they are both parts of the same formation.
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204 oEOLOcnr op the island of bohbay. [Jult
Thus the subsequent effusions in Bombay would appear to be
identical in origin, and almost so in structure and composition, with the
laterite, though the latter has been stated not to come further north
than the Banoote River, which is 60 miles south of Bombay. - And it
should be remembered that this breccia is not confined to the island of
Bombay — that, indeed, we only have a specimen of it here ; but that it
forms the principal part of the mountains in Salsette, and may be
seen at the northern extremity of that island, viz. at Ghora Bunder,
which is 1 8 miles from Bombay, containing there, as in Bombay, large
pieces of aqueous strata, apparently identical with those of the fresh-
water formation in Bombay. How far further north or south it may
extend is not yet known ; but if the masses of aqueous strata in it be
really indcntical with the fresh-water ones of Bombay, their existence
at Ghora Bunder not only proves that the volcanic breccia extends so
far, but that the lake or river in which these fresh-water strata were
deposited must have also extended this distance.
There is one fact more which I forgot to mention, and which is still
further confirmatory of Dr. Voysey's opinion respecting the common
origin of greenstone, basalt, wacke, and laterite, viz. that much of the
third effusion or volcanic breccia, which I think we must now regard
as lateritie, if not genuine laterite, is in the state of kaolin, and when
pieces of it are well washed with a brush in water, they present, in like
manner, the angular parts of the undecomposed grains, possessing the
same greenish tint and appearance as those of the fine-grained diorite
of the basal to- dioritic tract.
Having now gone over the fresh-water formation ; the first effusion,
or basalto^ioritie ; the second, or amygdaloidal effusion ; the third
effusion, or volcanic breccioy and the dykes of the same, which constitute
the fourth effusion, — indeed all the ancient formations, — let us now go
to the modem ones, viz. those of the PHocene Age, the geological age
of the others being as yet undeterminable.
Thb modern series merely consists of the clay which fills up the
central or lagoonal depression of the island, and the shell-beaehes which
overlay it in Back Bay, the nei^bourhood of Mahim, and at Sewree.
Clay, — ^This is a stiff plastic deposit, of a fine uniform structure, not
effervescing with acids : the color is brown above, blue below, and then
yellowish, where it rests upon or mingles with the decomposing igneous
rock, or the remains of the fresh-water strata. Its thickness of course
varies with the irregularities of the igneous rock beneath, but it
diminishes also gradually towards the sea, or where it passes under the
shell-beaches. Thus, at the southern part of the island, within three
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qoarters of a mile of Back Bay, it is 10 feet thick ; afler this it
diiniiiishes in thickness towards the sea in Back Bay, and 600 yards
from the latter, where it is yet oTcrlaid by the shell-beach, it is only
4^ feet thick, and of a bine color: still nearer the sea it seems to
disappear altogether, for it was not met with in a well 20 feet deep in
the Girgaum Road, about 300 yards from it.
The same thinning out probably takes place under the shell-beach of
Mahim, at the northern end of the island ; but there I have not had
the same opportunity of examining it.
This clay is also met with at Sewree, where Dr. Buist, who has paid
mach attention to the formation, pointed it out to me. There the sea
b exposing it, and scarping the shell-beach which overlies it, by which
one might infer that this portion of the island was undergoing elevation.
Like most argillaceous deposits, it contains very few organic remains :
the shells are almost all confined to the beaches which overlap it — still
here and there it does present a few scattered ones. At Sewree, at
Mahim, and under the beach at Back Bay, it contains a good deal of
wood, probably the stumps of mangrove trees, which originally grew in
it. This wood seems to be chiefly confined to the parts mentioned, and
presents a number of calcareous tubes, which are straight or undulous,
and from a half to three quarters of an inch in diameter. They are more
or less filled with calcareous infiltrations, and originally were formed round
the borings of some pholadine animal. The wood itself is in a spongy
expanded state, and contracts remarkably on drying ; assuming a
compact solid form, which breaks with a smooth or resinous fracture,
and presents a semi-carbonized appearance of a deep black brown color,
very much like coal. It bums, however, more like wood, readily, and
with a bright flame, emitting a great deal of smoke, and woody odour ;
also leaving a white ash. In different parts of the lower clay, oyster
shells are found, adhering to boulders i^nd loose stones, the same as
those now found on the shores. Pholadine tubes, infiltrated with
calcareous matter, also abound throughout the clay, and here and there
the remains of crab-shells, &c. I have not met with any remains of
man, or any other animals, in the clay, and no pottery, or anything
resembling an artificial construction, I believe, has been found m it.
There is a feature of this clay, however, which is very remarkable, viz.
the Kunkur formation. This, which consists of concretionary lime-
stone, occurs massive, or scattered throughout the clay in small isolated
portions. In its massive state it is found in large boulders, or in
continuous tracts, reposing on the fresh-water strata or igneous rock
beneath, and in this state is compact and cavernous, enclosing portions of
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206 GEOLOGY OP THE ISLAND OF BOMBAY. [JuLY
the clay id its cavities, &c. in which it has been formed, or as a
conglomerate with sandy or gravelly detritus from the igneous rocks,
and the remains of small shells, assimilating it to the sandy beaches.
Those portions which are scattered throughout the clay are more or
less round, Uke septaria ; very uniform in structure, and some so pure
that they wholly dissolve in nitric acid. They are generally of a blue
color, but sometimes quite white, and identical with chalk. Like
septaria also, they are irregular, and almost invariably envelope the
remains of some organic matter, such as pieces of reeds, wood, the
remnants of crab-shells, &c. &c. which are very frequently removed,
and leave nothing but their moulds in the centre of the concretions.
This substance also accumulates in the interior of shells, and almost
always fills the cavities of pholadine tubes which have been formed in
the clay. It does not always, however, envelope organic remains, but
may be seen appended to them in a globular form — to the pincher of a
crab-claw for instance. Occasionally it may be seen in a vertical
section of the clay, in the state of a number of isolated particles or
concretionary nuclei round a piece of wood, as if in process of forming a
nodule, not by successive layers, but by the increase of substance round
different centres. It will hardly be asked where this lime comes from,
when we have seen so much of it in the igneous rocks, and in the
laumonite filling their cellular cavities, which mineral contains twelve per
cent, of lime.
Beaches, — Lastly, we come to the sandy beaches, which are chiefly
found on the northern and southern sides of the island, and not on the
western or eastern sides: not on the western, because the whole
is composed of black basaltic rocks, extending probably for a long
distance into the sea ; and not on the eastern side, because there are
no waves to throw it up, since wave-action, combined with the presence
of sand, &c. is of course absolutely necessary for this purpose. Hence
it is at the mouths of estuaries such as these, emptying themselves into
the sea on the north and south of the island of Bombay, that we
chiefly find such beaches : the sand is brought down by them, and,
when flowing into the sea, is there turned back by the waves upon that
part of the shore which by its form and position is best adapted to
receive and retain it. Thus we see the chief accumulation of this sand
in Back Bay and. at Mahim, the former on the north, the latter on
the south side of the island ; and each of these beaches presenting
their concavities to the N.W. and S.W. respectively, from the inner
side of the island being so much longer than the outside. At Sewree,
also, which presents a short shore with a southerly aspect, there is a
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small beach-accumulation, which seems to have been thrown up by
the swell of the South-west Monsoon, as it falls almost point-blank
upon this bit of shore on its way up the harbour. Also, in tbe centre
of the island, there is a patch of beach six feet thick, called Phipps'
Oarty from which the railroad contractors have obtained sand for the
surface of the railroad. At first it appears thoroughly isolated, and
difficult to account for, but when we observe a breach in tbe eastern
and western ridges of the island immediately opposite it, and see the
remains of shells and sand, scattered over the surface of the clay in a
line between these two breaches, we no longer hesitate in applying the
same reasons for its occurrence here that we have in other places, viz.
that through the breach in the eastern ridge came sand from the
harb<Mur» and through the breach in the western ridge, viz. that at the
Vellard, came the waves from the sea which ponded it back, and formed
the mound mentioned. At that time the island must bave been divided
into two parts, and the cause of this being discontinued would seem
to be sought for in its subsequent elevation ; but the summit of the
mound of sand and shells called Phipps' Oart not being more than
about nine feet above the sea at high-water, and the latter kept from
overflowing a great part of the Flats by embankments, the drying up
of the island would seem to be more from the accumulation of detritus
l»ought down from the hills on the main land than from anything else.
At Mahim, the beach is two miles and a half long, and extends
1000 yards inland, and at Back Bay it is two miles and three quarters
Imig, and extends about 600 yards inland, forming segments of large
dreles at each place. The thickest part of the latter appears to be its
western end, where the South-west Monsoon swell beats most upon it,
for about its centre, viz. 300 yards from the sea, it is 20 feet thick,
18 feet on the Esplanade opposite the Sanatarium, and towards the
southern extremity of the Esplanade 15 feet thick, where it rests on the
igneous rocks, and large spheroidal masses of coral (Cellastrea Bh)
With the composition of these beach-accumulations we are perfectly
acquainted from the wells that have been dug through them. As
before stated, the clay thins outwards under them, and they, in return,
inland, thin out upon the day, but have of course always that ridge
above the day which is common to beach-accumulations.
Not having had the opportunities of examining the beach at Mahim
that 1 have of that in Back Bay, though they are both probably alike,
I must take my description from the latter. It is composed of beds of
yellow sand and small shells, resting on the clay, or on the igneous
rocka of the locality, according to that portion of it which is nearest
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208 GEOLOGY OF THB ISLAND OF BOMBAY. [JuLT
the sea, and tice versd. The sand is chiefly confined to the npper part,
hut a few feet down begins to present beds of small sea-shelb, for the
most part entire. These increase in quantity, and take the place of
the sand, while they become cemented together by calcareous matter,
and form a concrete mass, i4iich furnishes a rough building stone.
The shells for the most part chiefly consist of small bivalves, Cardium
and Tetlina; also of small univalves, Turbo, Cerithium, and Neriia ,- a
large trochus and turritella, and a thin pearly plaeuna; in short species
of all the genera which are now found on that part of the beach which is
in process of formation. As before stated, these materials rest on the
clay or the igneous rock, and probably in some places on the lacustrine
strata, where the latter have not been carried alway by denudation. I
haVe frequently looked among the portions which have been quarried
for bones of the human skeleton, and for remnants of pottery, but have
never met with either.
This concludes all that I have to offer on the Geology of the Island
of Bombay, vnth the exception of the few following ** practical observa-
tions."
Building Materials, — ^The most durable stone is that which caps the
basalto-dioritic tract, viz. at Nowrojee Hill, &c. but it is very tough ;
the next is a more crystalline form, which Ues below it ; this is much
more cleavable, and is found all along the eastern ridge. After this
comes a more earthy form, (trappite,) which is found at the base of
Nowrojee Hill Quarry ; also the so-called " white trap'* (aphanite) at
Dhiravee, a modification of which (spilite) is again met with on the
eastern side of the Flats, about the middle of the island, near the
railroad, made up partly of carbonate of lime, in the form of calc-spar, &c.
It is with this that the principal part of the stone-work of the railway
is built; and although not so durable as any of the foregoing, is
sufficiently so for economical purposes. Last of all comes the volcanic
breccia, in the neighbourhood of Sion, which furnishes a very rough stone,
but from its soft argillaceous nature when fresh hewn, and subsequent
hardening, it serves very well for troughs, for which it was formerly
much used.
Litne, — The concretionary limestone called knnkur, lying at the
bottom of the clay in the FIa^ in detached masses, or in continuous
tracts, together with the nodular forms in the clay itself, furnishes an
abundance of Ume, the purest coming from the nodules. Recent
shells, however, are collected and burnt for t^is purpose, from their
furnishing a still purer material.
Sand. — This comes from the shell-beaches, and, being chiefly oom-
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1852.] PRACTICAL 0B8BRVATI0NS. 209
posed of the detritus of small shells and argillaceous matter from
the disintegrated trappean rocks and fresh-water strata, hardly contains
may siliceous sand ; hence it makes very bad mortar : much of it being
taken from the sea shore also, it is more or less impr^nated with salt,
which after a while makes the mortar crumble, and, where this is covered
with plaster, the latter to fall off. It has always appeared to me a
great defect in the plastering of this part of India, not to mix hair, or
tow, or straw, with the material. All who have had anything to do
with new buildings in Bombay must have seen the plaster frequently
falling off from the circumstances I have mentioned, and that no second-
ary plaster ever stays long on such surfaces. Hence the necessity of
taking sand from parts which have been long exposed to the percolation
of fresh water, and which is free from salt, and mixing some fibrous
material with the plaster, to make both it and the mortar more durable.
It is no light matter this in the construction of a building, for without
it the expense of repairs will ever be as it is now, endless, and the
appearance of the buildings squalid and disgraceful, although an unlimited
amount of money may be expended upon them annually.
Wells, — ^The only rule that can be laid down for digging wells is
that the basalto-dioritic tract must be pierced through to the fresh-
water strata, and even then there may be no water : for a foot or two
below this there may be an intrusion of the igneous rock, and then this
must be pierced until arriving at another layer of the fresh-water strata,
and so on until water is reached. Sometimes the meeting with a
rent in boring through the basalto-dioritic tract, or a dyke of the subse-
quent igneous effusion, may, by communicating with water below,
yield the latter before it could otherwise be expected ; but from the
manner in which the fresh-water strata and superincumbent basalto-
dioritic tract have been broken up and intruded throughout the island,
by the subsequent igneous effusions, it is plain that none of these springs
can be inexhaustible. Last year proved it, for nearly all the weUs were
dry firom the scarcity of rain the year before. There is another fact,
viz. that many of these rents and dykes let in a spring of brackish
water : this is particularly the case an the neighbourhood of BycuUa.
Experience there has often exemplified the proverb, that *'you may go
further and fare worse." This was the case in a tank enlarged by
Sir Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy on the north side of the Grant College. In
sinking a well at the south-western comer of Baboola Tank last year,
too, the workmen came upon a thin line of the fresh-water strata,
accompanied by an oozing of saltish water, and of course were ordered
to cease further operations directly. How it comes to pass that this
29
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210 OBOLOGT OP THB ISLAND OP BOMBAY. [JuLY
water should be brackish I can only conjecture ; for it is not owing to
the presence of the white rock, (or subsequent efFhsions,) since at Mazagon
there is a well 60 feet deep, entirely excavated in the latter, and yet
yielding excellent water. Again, the tank mentioned, which was
enlarged by Sir Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy, does not extend into the white rock,
and yet the water in it is so brackish that it is hardly fit for anything
but watering the roads. Two tanks or wells shall be found within a
few yards of each other, the one containing drinkable the other undrink-
able water. As I have before stated, all that I can offer in explanation
of this is conjectural, tiz. that when the basalto-dioritic tract and
aqueous strata were broken up by the subsequent effusions, the sea
water may have run into the crevices, and there, becoming vapourized,
have left its salt behind it ; or, otherwise, the sea at the present time
may be sucked up by these rents and dykes, which by their inter-
communication may carry it here and there throughout that part of the
island where the brackish wells are most common. If the former opinion
were entertainable, then the constant emptying of these wells should at
last make them yield fresh water ; but this is not the case, for they
are emptied yearly for watering the gardens, and still continue to be salt.
At the same time, those which are never emptied are decidedly the most
bfackish. If, on the other hand, the latter be the explanation, then
there is no remedy for it.
CoaL — The quantities of this mineral found at the cutting of the
Sluices, where the fresh-water strata containing it have only been
excavated for a few cubic yards, is Tery trifling, although the fossilized
wood and debris of vegetable remains is very considerable. The nature
of the coal is described at page 1 76. It hardly ever occurs in grains
larger than a pea, and for the most part in layers over compressed
flat long leaves or stems ; although the whole of this part of the fresh-
water deposit is highly carboniferous. At the same time it should be
remembered that in the only place where these strata have been exposed
they have been broken up by the intrusion of the igneous rock, and
that although the wood and other vegetable remains in them here are
principally replaced by argil, yet that they may be more coal-
bearing in other parts. A further examination, then, of this part of the
fresh-water formation in different localities would be highly interesting,
if, even afler all, it should not prove useful.
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1852.] ROCK-8PEOIMBN9 AND F08SIL8. 3U
List of Rock'SpeeimenSj Minerals, and Fossils, Jram the Island of
Bombay, illustrative of the foregoing Paper.
PrM6Dted by Dr. Lbith, tnd ibe Autbor.
[Those marked witb a t were presented by tbe former, and tbose witb an * by the
latter; the t and * together denote that specimens of the same object have been
presented by both.]
No.
1 * Tough bluish-grey basaltic diorite, containing olivine, and gn4na of
magnetic iron ore, from the upper part of Nowrojee Hill.
2 * Fissile and more compact, from ditto lower down.
3 * Fine-grained crystalline diorite, from the ridge extending northwards from
Jakaryah's Bunder.
4 * Mottled blue and brownish g^rey diorite, from the ridge extending north-
wards from Khandlee Battery.
5 * Orbicular or botryoidal diorite, from the same ridge a little south of Tank
Bunder.
6 * Tough black fine granular basalt, from hexagonal prisms at Worlee.
7 * Fissile black or dark fine basalt, from beneath the surface Malabar Hill.
8 * Tubes, formed of crystalline quart9,from bottom of basalt Mama Higanee.
Fresh-water Strata.
9 . * Portions of the upper part of the f^esh-water strata, from different localities :
the light brown from the tank north of the Horticultural Gardens, and
opper part of 3abooIa TiMik ; the blue front the well (see p. 199) In
Baboola Tank ; the brown from the spilite on the eastern side of the
Flats, nearly opposite Parell ; the greenish or bluish gprey or brown from
the Sluices ; the blue and brown from a well on Malabar Hill.
- 10 * Portions of the stratum composed of the casts of cyprides, from the northern
side of the breach at the Sluices ; ditto from the northern end of Chinch-
]>oogly ridge.
11 * Greenish grey or brown shale, from the Sluices.
12 * Ditto, with interlaminated black shale, from ditto ; also firom a well on
Malabar HiU.
IS * Black bitumenous shale, from ditto, and from a well on Malabar Hill.
14 * Chertifled aqueous strata, bent.
15 * Basaltified ditto, with organic im][>reBsion8.
16 • Jaspidifled ribboned ditto.
17 * Chertifled portion of cypris-stratnm.
18 • Ditto Jaspideous ditto.
19 * Coal from the Sluices.
20 * Mineral resin firom ditto.
YSORTABLX |l9¥AZNt.
Boats.
81 t Cm7nS£HiQ,eonied roots? fh>m the 81aiis66,(8«Yerdq>edm«iia tad aec^
(p. 177).
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212 OEOLOOT OF THE ISLAND OF BOMBAY. [JULT
No.
9S t Cormifonn, globular, from the Sluices (eevertl flpeeimeoe and Mctiont).
Stems.
83 *t Cylindrical, (two specimene,) (p. 178).
84 *t Wood, dycotyledonous, seTeral specimens of, large and small, — and mono-
cotyledonous, (bamboo ?) (p. 178).
86 *t Ditto with bark, two specimens (p. 178).
86 *t Fungoid or adventitious woody excrescences ? in the baik (p. 178).
LettffM.
87 * Oval, small,— like leaflets of an acacia (p. 179).
88 *t Long, flat,— like bulrushes, large and small (p. 180).
89 t Scaly, long leaf, or surface of a stem ? (p. 180).
90 t Lanceolate leaves, like those of bamboo (p. 180), also cordate leavce.
31 t Impression of Cypems ?
Seeds.
38 *t Small, flat, lenticular capsule, with a ring of seeds arranged round the
internal margin (p. 180).
33 t Seed like artabotrys odoratissimus (p. 181).
34 t Siliquose seed-pod (p. 181), with sections (several specimens).
36 t Ditto, (p. 181).
Animal Rex ai its.
36 t Cypris semi'tnarginaia (h. j. c.) (p. 181).
37 * Cypris cylindrica (Sow.) (p. 188).
38 * Another species, C. ■? (p. 188).
39 t Lymnadia?
40 t Elytra of a small coleopterous insect, right wing (p. 183).
41 t Impressions of itesh-water shells, Melania?
43 • Do. do. do. Palndina?
43 t Do. do. do. Pupa?
44 Bona pusUla, (Owen,) Skeletons of, several specimens (p. 184).
46 Do. do. do. large and small. (In these specimens,
though one skeleton appears laiger
than the other, the thigh bones are all
of the same length.)
46 Do. do. do. in different layers an inch apart, (two
specimens,) (p. 186).
47 * Do. do. do. on a layer of cyprides.
48 * Do. do. do. bones of, scattered in intruded igneous
matter (p. 186).
49 t Tettudo LeithU. (b. j. o.)— a carapace and plastron ; b ditto with head ;
c head alone ; d left half of the carapace and plastron ; e fragment of
ditto ; / ventral part of pelvis and sternum opposite ; g fragment of
carapace, with nuu^o-coUar scales ; h fragments of marginal scales ;
i ditto; ft ditto; { right two-thirds of carapace and plastron.
8irD EFFUSION.
60 * Greenish blue and black trappite, ftt>m Nowrojae Hill, below the line of
aqueous strata.
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ROCK-8PBCIMBN8 AND F088IL8.
213
ITo.
51 •
59
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
eo
61
6S
68
64
65
66
67
68
66
70
71
78
78
74
75
76
77
78
79
Amygdaloid trappite, from Baboola Tank ; cells filled with crystals of
laomonite.
LaumoDite and dog's-tooth calc-spar, from a geode in ditto.
Rhomboidal ealc-spar in mass, from ditto ditto.
Ditto ditto following a line of aqueous strata; from do. do.
(p. 199).
Ditto ditto in a minate imbricated form, separate, and covering
dog's-tooth crystals, from ditto ditto.
Prehnite from ditto ditto.
Amygdaloid trappite, from a tank north of the^ Horticoltnral Qardens.
Black fine-grained crystalline diorite, from Baboola Tank.
Compact bine amygdaloid trappite, from Baboola Tank ; cells elongated,
and filled with massive lanmonite.
Greenish grey amygdaloid trappite, cells filled with green-earth, from the
neighboarhood of the hoase called Lowjee Ca«tle.
Ditto decomposing, cells filled with quartz crystals, from upper side of
dyke in Chinchpoogly ridge.
Hyalin and amethyst quartz crystals, from crushed geode in ditto.
Amygdaloid with brown earthy base, and cells filled with quartz crystals,
from neighbourhood of Sindu Para.
Brown aphanite, the so-called white trap, from Dharavee.
Ditto amygdaloid, from ditto; cells filled with fine white day-earth,
(decomposed green-earth or laumonite,) (p. 193).
The same decomposing into a mottled red and white material, like laterite,
of a granulo-plastic nature (pp. 196 k, 20*2).
More earthy aphanite, spilitic, with fragments of organic remains, and
calc-spar, from the eastern side of the Flats opposite Parell. Forms
a good stone for building, and is easily hewn.
Blue spilite, (aphanite and calc-spar,) calc-spar, disseminated, from
ditto.
Brown ditto, with calc-spar in small masses (amygdaloidal) frt>m ditto.
Brown ditto, with calc-spar in veins, from ditto.
Unsymmetrical, compressed, lenticular crystals of calc-spar, standing on
their edges in a geode of ditto, from ditto.
Blue spilite, with small crystals of calc-spar, passing downwards into
trappite, from ditto.
Rne blue clay aphanite, from a well on Malabiyr Hill.
Coarse aphanite, from ditto ditto.
Brecciated aphanite, from ditto.
Coarse aphanite, intruding fresh-water strata, from the eastern side of the
Flats.
Aphanite bearing fragments of vegetable remains, from ditto.
Ditto black ditto, from a well on Malabar Hill.
Ditto bitumenons ditto, frt>m the Sluices.
3kd Effusion.
80 * Coane breccia, from the ndgfaboorhood of Tank Bonder.
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214 OEOLOOT OF THE ISLAND OF BOMBAY. [JULT
No.
81 * Blue breccia, with white fragments, from a well on Malabar Hill : b ditto
from SioQ ; e ditto brown from ditto ; d ditto red from ditto ; e ditto
white and red decoropo«ing ;/ ditto red compact.
88 * Ditto black jaspideoos fr^m Antop Hill.
83 * Ditto Jaspideoos, black, from Sewree.
84 * Bine breccia, passing into red clay, fr^m Sewree.
85 t Ditto, containing a large fragment of large-grained diorite, near the village
of Wadalla (p. 196).
86 * Ditto, containing amygdaloid diorite; a ditto containing amygfdaloid
trappite or aphanito, from ditto and Sewree.
87 Ditto, containing portions of aqueous strata.
88 * White amygdaloid aphanite ; cells very much elongated, and filled with
calcedony or quartz crystallized, from Chinchpoogly ridge.
80 Oeode from ditto, containing crystals of quartz and amethyst
90 Ditto from ditto, containing agate.
4th Effusioit.
91 * Portion of amygdaloid aphanite, frt>m the 'dyke at Sewree; cells contain-
ing fine white day-earth.
Ohora Bundbr, in Salsbttb.
98 * Specimens of amygdaloid aphanite, and volcanic breccia ; also specimens of
aqueous strata from the latter.
Makivb Formation.
93 * Blue clay of the Flats.
94 * Massive kunkur, from lower part of ditto.
95 * Small kunkur-conglomerate, resembling transformed 8ea-beach| from ditto
ditto.
96 • Noduhir kunkur, from ditto.
97 • Charred wood, from ditto.
98 • Infiltrated pholadine tubes, from ditto.
99 * Concrete sea-beach, coarse.
100 * Concrete sea-t>each, fine.
101 • Shells from ditto.
102 * Spheroidal masses of calcareous coral (CelUutrea Bl.) beneath ditto,
Esplanade.
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
Platb VI.
Geological Map of the Island of Bombay,
Platb VII.
Fig. 1.— Cormiform root ai aqwOie plant f antvral aloe.
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1862.] PLATES. 215
a Upper end, truncated.
b Lower end, broken.
Fig. 2. — Globular root of aquatic plant ? natural size.
a Lateral view.
h Upper end, sbowing lines of petiolations ?
Fig. 3. — Lateral view of a portion of a stem, natural size.
a "Lower end, showing lines of petiolations ?
Plate VIII,
Fig. 4. — Oral leaf, natural size.
Rg. 5. — Round leaf, natural size.
Fig. 6. — Compreifsed stem or leaf of aquatic plant, with root, natural size.
a Magnified view of longitudinal striae on its surface.
F%. 7. — Scaly impression of leaf or stem, natural size.
a Two scales, well preserved.
Fig. 8. — Form of the end of a flat, long leaf, which is very common, natural size.
Fig. 9. — Impressions of leaves, like those of bamboo, natural size.
I^g. 10. — Impression of a cyperaceous plant ? natural size.
Platb IX.
Fig. 11. — Small lenticular seed, magnified.
a Natural size.
Fig. 12. — Oval, compressed seed, with apparently ruminate albumen, magnified.
a Natural size.
Fig. 18. — Seed-pod, broken off at one end, natural size.
Fig. 14. — Seed-pod, natural size.
Fig. 15. — Cypris iemi-marginata.
Fig. 16.— C cylindrica.
Fig. 17.— C. ?
Fig. 18, 19, 20.— Valves of recent cyprides, fh>m the fresh-water deposits of
Bombay.
Fig. 21. — Elytra of coleopterous insect, magnified.
Fig. 22. — Cast of shell, natural size.
Platb X.
Tettudo Xci^^ti.— Carapace, and upper part of head of, natural size, a Point
of tail.
Plate XI.
Te$tudo id/Wi.— Plastron, and inferior aspect of lower jaw of, natural size.
a Impressions of posterior extremities, b b Union of pelvic bones with poste-
rior part of sternum, c Point of tail.
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216 [July
Art. II. — Recent InveetigatwM in Zend Literature. By the Reyd.
J. Murray Mitchell, A.M.
Presented March 1840 and February 1852.
The first of the <wo following papers was read a considerable time
ago, soon after the appearance of the articles to which it refers, in the
Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenl&ndiachen GeselUcha/t ; but I have
hitherto declined to comply with the request of the Society that it
should appear in the Journal, in the hope that the important papers of
Spiegel and Roth might be given to the English public in extenio by
some student of Oriental antiquities at home. I see, howeyer, no
intimation of any intention to reproduce these papers ; the country of
Hyde not only seems to have abandoned original investigation into the
ancient religious system of Persia, but to be disincUned even to acquaint
itself with the progress of Continental scholars in this very interesting
field of inquiry. In the absence, then, of a full translation, the follow-
ing paper is now published, as containing a brief statement of some of
the most important conclusions to which the students of ISend literature
have at present arrived.
I.
The very rapid progress that has of late years ^leen made in the
opening up of the most ancient religious monuments of the Hindus is
well known to all who take an interest in Oriental investigation. The
Veda is no longer a mystic and unintelligible book. For a considerable
time after Colebrooke's Essay on the Vedas was publbhed, it seemed as
if the investigation could not advance beyond the point to which he
had brought it ; but recently the study has been prosecuted with
redoubled zeal, and with most satisfactory results.
There is, however, another religious monument of the ancient East,
scarcely less interesting than the Veda, on which comparatively little'
light has as yet been shed. The ISendavesta, the sacred book of the
ancient Persians, is still an unintelligible volume. The investigatioii
slumbered from the days of Anquetil du Perron until M. Bumoaf
took it up. He accomplished much ; but notwithstanding his zealous
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1862.] VEDA AND ZENDAVESTA. 217
and successful labours, a deep darkness still enveloped everjrthing
pertaining to the ancient books and ancient religious history of the
Persians. Light, however, is now breaking in, — we have at least the
promise of a dawn ; and it is an interesting thing to observe that a
considerable portion of the light which is now resting on the Zendavesta
is reflected upon it from the Veda.
That the ancient Hindu and ancient Persian races were not very
remotely descended from one common stock — now generally denominated
the Arian stock — ^is a fact with which doubtless all present are familiar.
A comparison of the languages used by the two races establishes the
point to a demonstration. A connexion somewhat similar, although not
capable of being traced out to the same extent, exists between the
religions of the two races. The points of resemblance here are not
merely those which aire common to all religions, nor those common
to all the religions of the great Indo-Germanic family : they cannot with
any show of reason be pronounced either accidental, or the result of
intercourse between the two races in later times ; but they appear to be
based on an original relationship, or rather identity, of the two systems.
Each of these throws light upon the other, and the Veda and the
Zendavesta — the ancient sacred book of the Hindus, and that of the
Persians — ought to be studied in their mutual connexions. The relation
of the two books is thus well stated by Dr. Roth : — " The Veda and
the Zendavesta are two rivers, flowing from one fountain-head : the
stream of the Veda is the fuller and purer, and has remained truer to
its original character ; that of the Zendavesta has been in various ways
polluted, has altered its course, and cannot, with certainty, be traced
np to its source."
The Veda aod the Zendavesta present two subjects of study that are
of very unequal difficulty. The study of the former is by far the easier
task. Not to mention that the Sanskrit language, in which it is
composed, is still a living language, although doubtless in a form
greatly altered from the " rustic dialect" (to use Colebrooke's epithet)
of the Veda, we possess admirable commentaries on the Veda written
in easy Sanskrit, grammars, lexicons, explanatory notes, &c. &c., which
were composed by accompUshed Hindus at a time when the study of
the Veda was. still prosecuted with zeal and success. On the other
hand, the Zend must be called a dead language ; and to aid us in the
study of the Zendavesta we possess a Sanskrit translation of a very
small part of the work, a Pehlivi translation, which is as enigmatical as
the Zend, the bare rudiments of a lexicon or vocabulary, but not even
the rudiments of a grammar. When we add to this Blender apparatus
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218 RECENT INVB8TIOATION8 IN ZEND LITERATURE. [JuLV
eriticua the traditionary exposition of their sacred hooks hy the
P^rsfsy as presented in their later yersions and commentaries, we have
exhausted the list of the aids at our command in the study of the
Zendavesta.
In that inyaluable repository of information on so many branches of
Oriental literature, the Journal of the German Oriental Society,
(ZeiUchrift der BeuUchen Morgenlandiachen GeselUcha/i,) two papers
have recently appeared, which are highly descrying of attention, as
important contributions to our knowledge of the Zendavesta. One, by
Dr. Friedrich Spiegel, is entitled "Studies on the Zendayesta***; the
other, entitled " The Legend of Feridun in India and Iran,"t ^ from
the pen of Dr. Rudolph Roth, whose important treatise on the Literature
and History of the Veda was formerly brought to the notice of the
Society. (See Journal, vol. ii. p. 404.) The latter more especially
demonstrates that light can be thrown on the Zendavesta by the Veda.
Dr. Spiegel's article is chiefly occupied with the consideration of the
aid which Pdrsi tradition affords us in the investigation of the Zenda-
vesta. He takes occasion to pronounce an opinion on the merits of
the celebrated French version, by Anquetil du Perron. The work of
Anquetil is so generally accessible, and so likely to be had recourse to
as an easy means of information on the subject of Pdrsiism, that it is of
importance for us to ponder the judgment which the German critic
passes on its merits, lest we be led astray by deceptive lights. "The
French version,*' says Spiegel, " was long held to be correct : it was
believed that a closer investigation of the languages of the ancient
books would be advantageous to philology, and might here and there
modify the translation in details ; but that substantially the conclusions
of Anquetil would be confirmed. Contrary, however, to all expecta-
tion, recent investigation has completely set aside the results which we
had deemed so certain, and has demonstrated that the whole inquiry
must be commenced de novo. It is no longer a secret, that Anquetil's
version is not trustworthy."
While employing this severe language, we must not forget — and Dr.
Spiegel does not forget — that our obligations to Anquetil are exceed-
^"g'y great. The zeal and unconquerable perseverance which he displayed
in his search for the ancient Persian books are worthy of all admiration ;
and whatever may be thought of him as a philologist, he was at all
• Zeitschrifk der Deutschen Morgenlandiscben Gesellschaft, I. Band, III. and
IV. Heft. p. «43.
t IWd, U. Band, II. Heft. p. 216.
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1852.] ANQUETIL DU PBRRON. — PBHLIVI VBB8I0N. 219
events a great discoverer. Even had his version heen a blunder from
banning to end, still the service he rendered in bringing the Zend
writings from India to Europe, and directing the attention of Europe to
them, would have entitled him to our gratitude and respect.
It has been usual, Dr. Spiegel remarks, to say that Anquetil was
misled by trusting to the traditionary interpretation of the Zendavesta
by the P&rsfs. Spiegel, however, doubts the correctness of this opinion.
Since the Sanskrit version of portions of the Zend by Neriosengh is on
the whole a close and correct rendering, it is scarcely credible that in
the course of a few centuries so complete a revolution in the interpreta-
tion of their ancient books can have taken place among the Pdrsis, a
people who cling with tenacity to what they believe to be their ancient
creed, and who have been, since their arrival in India, subjected to no
great national calamities.
Dr. Spiegel mentions that he is not acquainted with the modem
Gujardti versions of the Zendavesta. These will be referred to after-
wards ; but in the mean time we may remark that they confirm the
opimon he has expressed. Most certainly Anquetil deviates widely
from those versions that are at present accessible in Bombay ; nor is it
conceivable that in Surat, towards the end of last century, when he
was there, the Parsfs gave an interpretation of their sacred books
nearly resembling that presented in Anquetil' s work. Spiegel's opinion
that Anquetil must have guessed the meaning from the Persian render-
ings which his Pdrsi teacher supplied him of the Zend vocables, and
must deliberately have tortured the stubborn terms till they appeared
to yield some intelligible sense, is no doubt correct. Had Anquetil
confessed his ignorance, (for he must have been aware of it,) he would
have possessed a far stronger claim to our respect and gratitude than
as the case now stands.
Spiegel's paper is mainly occupied with the tradition of the Parsfs as
contained in the Huzvaresh or Pehlivi version of the Zendavesta. In
the entire absence of grammatical, and the almost entire absence of
lexicographical, works on the Zend language, we are necessarily depen-
dant on the translations that, happily, have come down to us ; and
pre-eminent among these is the oldest, or Pehlivi. From it, indeed, all
later versions have been drawn. Of the date and character of the
Pehlivi language a good deal is known from coins and inscriptions.
It belongs to the era of the earlier Sassanian kings of Persia, [from
A. D. 226 onwards,] and we may pretty safely refer the Pehlivi version
of the Zendavesta to the same age. It is of high importance in die
criticism of the Zend text. The fixing of a correct text is the first step
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220 RECBNT INVESTIGATIONS IN ZEND LITERATURE. [JuLT
we must take io an iayestigation of all records. Comparing the Veda
with the Zendavesta, we can rely on the readings of the former much
more confidently than those of the latter. The original Vedic text
appears to have been wonderfully well secured by the various safeguards
that were had recourse to ; but the case is far otherwise with the
Zendavesta. In particular, passages exist in the present Zeud which do
not appear in the PehUri version ; and these are so embarrassing to
the sense that they must be considered interpolations. As translated
from a more ancient Zend text than that which now exists, the Pehlivi
Version is of high value in all questions of this nature.
Equally important is the Pehlivi version in the interpretation of the
Zend. The Pehlivi is entirely a Persian dialect. A comparison of the
Zend with the Sanskrit furnishes most important elucidations ; but the
connexion between Zend and Pehlivi is still closer, and, were the latter
only as well understood as Sanskrit, it would be still more fruitful of
results.
Spiegel illustrates at some length the utility of the Pehlivi version as
throwing light on the state of the Persian rehgion in the time of the
Sassanian kings. Wholly apart from its use as a translation, as a relic
of the Sassanian dynasty it is possessed of much historical value. The
Sassanian epoch is one of the highest importance in the history of Asia —
and of Asiatic mtW; but unhappily it is involved in much obscurity.
The science of History may expect to receive interesting contributions
from the hght which will be shed on that epoch from the study of the
Pehlivi version of the Zendavesta, and the works connected with it.
At that period, Persia by no means secluded herself from intercourse
with foreign nations. Greek and Christian influences acted powerfully
on the Persian mind ; and Pdrsiism, again, largely contributed to the
opinions of the Gnostics and Manicheans. The western influence acted
on Persia in two modes ; the one, translations of Greek writers into
Persian, the other, direct contact between the Persians and the Syrian
Christians who were scattered in large numbers throughout the country.
The large number of Syriac words occurring in Pehhvi has long
attracted attention ; and Sir W. Jones expressed his " perfect conviction
that Pehlevee was a dialect of Chaldaic." The usual explanation of
this fact is that Pehlivi must have prevailed in the west of Persia, and
there come in contact with the neighbouring Syriac ; but the facts
above noted have suggested an ingenious explanation to Spiegel of a
diflerent kind. He thinks that instead of personal, it may have been
hterary, intercourse between the Syrians and Persians that occasioned
the similarity — the large circulation of Syriac books and ideas in Persia
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1852.] PROPER NAMES IN VEDA AND ZBNDAVESTA. 221
naturally leading to the transference of many words, just as the theo-
logical terms in modern Persian are to a large extent drawn from
Arabic, the sacred language of Muhammadanism.
Dr. Spiegel's paper contains a brief notice of the history of the Pdrsi
religion since the period of the Sassanian kings, which we pass over.
He has two or three pages on the subject of Pdrsi Eschatology, which
we hope afterwards to refer to. We shall doubtless soon see still
further results from the labours of this yery diligent investigator.
Id the mean time we proceed to notice the paper of Dr. Roth on
The Legend of Feridun in India and Iran.
It has been well known for a considerable time that many of the
technical religious terms occurring in the Veda are reproduced in the
Zendavesta. Thus, the Yedic Tajata, meaning worshipable, is an epithet
of the gods^ and corresponds with the Zend Yazata^ which denotes an
Izad^ or angel of the second class ; the Vedic %oma corresponds with
the Zend haoma, the hom plant ; the Vedic deva with the Zend da^o ;
and the first half of the Zend name of God, AhuraMazdd, (Hormazd,)
apparently with the word Asura, which is frequently applied as
a laudatory epithet to Vedic deities.* Thus, farther, Vivanghvat in
Zend corresponds with the Sanskrit Fivasvatf ; and the son of the
former, Jtmo, with Tama, the son of the latter. The identification of
proper names thus happily commenced by Bopp and Lassen has been
carried out by Dr. Roth, in the case of the word Feridun.
The name of Feridun, the sixth king of the Peshdadian dynasty, is
one of the most renowned in the whole compass of Persian history.
The epic genius of Firdausi has found a congenial theme in the mighty
achievements of "Feridun the Fortunate"; and later prose writers have
delighted to hold him forth as a pattern of every virtue. Amid the
confessedly inextricable confusion in which the primeval annals of
Persia are involved, it has been fondly imagined that with him at all
events we discern some traces of historic truth. The greatest exploit of
Feridun was the overthrow of the tyrant Zohak. Notwithstanding all
the wild fables recorded of the latter, — such as that the devil kissed his
shoulders, and made two fearful serpents spring from them, which
required to be daily fed on human brains, — it has been customary to
recognise in Zoh^k the representative of a Western invasion, Arabian
or Assyrian ; and the thousand years during which he is said to have
reigned have been held as the probable duration of the conquering
* Lassen's Indische Alterthamskunde, I. p. 522.
t Bopp's Nalas, 2nd Ed. p. 203. (1832.)
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222 RBCBNT INVBSTIGATIONl» IN ;EBN0 UTBEATURB. [JuLT
dynasty. Feridun is thus represented as the ddiverer of Persia from
a foreign joke ; and Sir John Malcolm is so far satisfied of the realitj
of his existence as to identify him with Arbaces the Mede, who is
stated by Greek historians to have overturned the Assyrian monarchy
under the effeminate Sardanapalus. There is a well-known passage of
Firdausi to this effect : —
" Feridan the fortunate was not an angel,
Neither was he formed of musk and ambergris;
He acquired his glory by justice and liberality :
Be thou just and liberal, and thou shaltbe a Feridan."
. Now, if the conclusions of the German critic be accordant with
truth, Feridun was certainly not formed of musk and ambergris, but
he was composed of materials still less earthly and substantial : Feridun,
in short, according to Roth, is no historic personage at all — ^he is
simply one of the deities acknowledged in remote times by the Arian
race ; and, without any figure of speech, we may say that the battles
which Firdausi celebrates with so much Homeric fire took place in the
region of the clouds.
The investigation of this point by Roth is full and minute ; but it
will be sufficient to mention the more important particulars in the
inquiry. The modern Persian word Feridun is derived from PhrSdibut,
a softened form of the Zend ThraStSna. In the Zendavesta he is said
to have slain the destructive serpent with three throats, three tails, six
eyes, and a thousand powers, which was created by Ahriman for the
destruction of the world. This slayiog of the serpent is in fact the
sum and substance of the history of Thraet6na in the Zend books. In
the poetical narrative of the Shah Nameh the name of the tyrant whom
Feridun slays is Zohak ; but Firdausi also writes the name tS^^J^ ash
dahdky which is almost exactly the Zend ashi dahdh^ i. e. destructive
serpent. Thra^t6na is the son o^ Athwya, which in Persian is written
Atbin, or, as changed by Firdausi, Ahtin,
Nearly the whole of this seems to occur in the Veda. In the Veda
Trita occurs, or, as it is at least once written, Traitana, which closely
resembles Thra^t6na. The Zend Thraetdna is the son of Athwya;
the patronymic of the Vedic Trita seems to be Aptya — an exact
coincidence, the interchange of t and p being frequent between these
languages. In Zend Athwya can hardly be etymologically significant ;
but the Sanskrit Aptya yields it a meaning, viz. " water-inhabiter,"
or "water-ruler."
But the resemblance goes beyond names — it extends to acts. Thra6-
t6na in the Zend books slays the " destructive serpent,*' and so does
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1852.] TRITA, THRAETONA, FBRIDUN. 223.
Trita m the Veda. The serpent in the Zend books is a horrid
monster, three-headed, three-tailed, and six-eyed : the Vedic serpent is
very similar. We read thus in one of the Vedic hymns (x. 1, 8, 8): —
''The Aptya ({. e. Trita) knew his father's arms to wield ;
Sent (or, encouraged) by Indra, strode he to combat :
The three-headed being, with seven tails, Trita slew,
And the might of Tw&shtri set the cattle free."
So far the resemblance is singularly exact. The champion, the
enemy, the battle, are almost identical in the Veda and the Zendavesta.
A difference exists between them as to the prize contended for.
In the Veda, Trita is a divine personage, who contends against the
serpent for the rescue of the cows. We have here an edition of the
old legend which occupies so prominent a place in the religion of the
Veda, viz. that demons seize on the waters, — the many-tinted clouds,
when, like cows going to pasture, they move across the sky, — carry
them off captive, and bind them in fetters beyond the horizon ; or, what
is another form of the same thought, the malignant being who dwells
in the mountains, locks up the springs in the dark recesses of his rocky
caverns. Then it is that the thunderbolt of Indra (or, the arrow of
Trita) cleaves the rocks, or rends asunder the dark mantle with which
the demon has enveloped the sky, and then the imprisoned waters leap
forth to liberty, and rush down to cheer and fertilize the earth. Such
is the famous battle — one perpetually recurring in the Vedas; and
such precisely is the battle between Trita and the serpent. Now in
the Zendavesta the scene shifts ; the battle is transferred from heaven
to earth. The champion is the mortal son of a mortal sire ; and the
serpent he slays is a creation of the evil power, which is furnished with
devilish might for the destruction of good in the world.
And then, lastly, comes the later Persian hero-legend, as presented
in the great poem of Firdausi, the Shah-Ndmeh. Here the attempt is
made to draw the whole representation into the province of actual
history. The battle is in Persia ; the three-headed serpent is ZohAk,
with a serpent springing up from each shoulder ; he is seated on the
usurped throne of Persia ; his wickedness is the tyranny which he
exercises ever his conquered subjects ; and the blessing for which the
noble Feridun contends is freedom to his country, and the restoration of
its ancient royal line.
Dr. Roth thinks he finds some evidence of the fact that Trita — who
certainly is not often mentioned in the Vedas, perhaps not oftener than
thkty times — was a £ur more important person in the period anterior
to the collecting of the Vedic hymns than he afterwards became. His
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224 RECENT INVESTIGATIONS IN ZEND LITERATURE. [Jui^Y
similaritj to Indra may have obscured his renown, as it certainly
rendered his services of less importance. Apparently he was the ruler
of the distant sky-waters, while Indra swayed over those in the visible
heavens immediately around us. Trita is removed to the farthest
point in space to which imagination can reach ; thus in the prayer
(viii. 6, 5, 13, &c.) —
*' Our sins, be they known, or be they secret, oh gods !
Remove all far away from us to Trita the Aptya."
The supposition that the Vedic Trita, a divine being, is changed in
the Zend and Persian books into a mortal hero of earthly mould,
although rather startling at first sight, may be divested of all antecedent
improbabiUty by analogous facts that do not admit of question. One
of the most renowned personages in the poem of Firdausi is Jamshid,
the fourth king of the Peshdadian dynasty, whose romantic tale of love
and sorrow is from first to last of the most earthly complexion. Yet it
has been demonstrated to the satisfaction of Orientalists that the
Jamshid of Firdausi, the Jam of other books, and the Yimo of the
Zenda vesta, are all one, and all identical with a deity in the Vedas, Yama.
The king Jamshid of Firdausi appears in the Zendavesta as Yimo, a
servant of Ahura Mazda, who ruled on earth during a golden age, in
the earliest period of the world's history. On the contrary, in the
Veda, Yama dwells in heaven as the ruler of the spirits of the departed*
who banquet with him. (x. 1, 14, 10.) Thus it is said of him (ix. 7,
10,7.8):—
" Where is the unextinguished light
In the world, where the sunbeam dwells,
Thither bring me, O Soma, into the immortal, inviolable world ;
Where the son of Vivasvat (Yama) ruleth as king,
Where the steps up to heaven are,*
Where those great waters dwell.
There let me immortally be !"
Dr. Roth concludes his interesting inquiry with the following senti-
ments, the truth and importance of which will be generally admitted.
The time is now come to answer all questions as to the historic value
of the accounts given by Firdausi and his innumerable followers
respecting the early Persian kmgs ; and we can do it by the assistance
of the long-concealed but now disclosed legends of ancient India, [as
contained in the Veda,] which must be connected with the statements
of the Zendavesta. No confidence can be placed in the representations
* Roth, in a later paper, translates this " in the innermost of heaven."—
Zeiischrtft, IV. 427.
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1852.] BROCRHAUS. LASSBN. ROTH.— LEOBND OF JAM8HID. 225
of the Musolman writers. Not from works later than the 2iendayesta»
but from earlier ones, must light be obtained, — ^light, before which
many figures which have been held as real flesh and blood will fade
away like spectral illusions. But it is better to confess the void, and
allow it to remain imtil we can gradually fill it with genuine forms,
than view it through the delusive glimmer of a cloudy mythology.
Instead of vainly toiling to extract historic truth from Firdausi's
fascinating song, better far to make at once the humiliating admission
that we are at this moment in total ignorance of the history of Persia
as far down as the days of Cyrus.
. II.
Since I last had the honour of bringing before the Society the chief
facts connected with the recent progress of investigation in Zend literature,
great advances have been made by some of the Continental Orientalists.
I cannot attempt at present to comment on the labours of all who are
doing good service in this important field of inquiry ; I shall in a
great degree confine this paper to a notice of the zealous and successful
studies of two, whose names are already familiar to you — Professor
Spiegel, of Erlangen, and Dr. Rudolph Roth.
Had time permitted, it would have been well to attend to the very
useful work of Professor Brockliaus, who has given us an edition of the
Zendavesta in Roman characters.* The index of this work is exceed-
ingly useful ; and the glossary is a valuable gift in the present state of
Zend lexicography.
I have not yet seen the work on the first five chapters of the Vendidad
that has been published within these few months by Lassen, but every-
thing that comes from his pen must be of the highest value.f
Dr. R. Roth, whose interesting paper on the Legend of Feridun in
India and Iran I have already brought to the notice of the Society,
has continued the same style of investigation in an article on the Legend
of Jamshid. (See Zeitachrift der Deutschen Morgenlanduchen Gesell-
* Vendidad Sade. Die Heiligen Schriften Zoroaster's : Ya<;na, Vispered, und
Vendidad. Nach den lithographerten Ausg^ben von Paris und Bombay, mit Index
nnd Glotfsar, herausgegeben von Dr. Hermann Brockbaus. (Vendidad Sade.
jTft^ Sacred Writings of Zoroaster : Yagna^ Vispered, and Vendidad. Edited after
the Uthographed editions of Paris and Bombay , tcith Index and Glossary, By
Dr.H. Brochhaus,)
t Lassbn (Chrlsyanus) Vendidadi Capita qiiinque priora.
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226 RECBNT INVESTIGATIONS IN ZBND LITERATUBB. [JuLT
achc^ft, IV. Bandy s. 417.) Roth is not the discoverer of the identity of
the A'^edic Yama, and the Zend Ftmo, or Yimo KhahaHoy i. e. Yimo the
Ruler, or, as the designation is softened in the later Persian and Gnja*
rkiiy Jamshid. His paper is interesting, as MIj unfolding the position
which Yimo holds in the Zendavesta, and that of Yama in the Veda —
positions very far from identical. In fact, amid the thousand fantastic
metamorphoses to which mythological beings are subject in the lapse
of centuries, we can scarcely discover a change more complete than
that which the original Vedic deity Yama has been made to undergo.
The word Yama, which it has been hitherto customary to translate
Tamer, Subduer, Roth contends can only mean Twin, (from the same
root as occurs in the Latin word Oeminus, Gemellus). Yama is the
twin-brother and Yamf the twin-sister ; and Roth believes that these
" twins" simply designate the first pair of the human race. But how
deduce from this the general Vedic idea of Yama 1 The first man, says
Roth, was the first stranger who found his way to the abode of the
immortals, and the natural head of those who are destined, each in his
order, to follow him thither^ — Yama is the leader (prince) of beatified
men. He dwells with the gods, and banquets with them. His dwell-
ing is a place of joy — even of revelry.
In the Zendavesta, Yimo is the head of a golden age. In his kingdom
there was " no frost, nor heat, nor darkness, nor death." We hear also
much of a blessed region — a garden, or paradise — into which vfere
collected chosen men, cattle, plants, &c. (See Vendidad, Farg^d 2nd ;
Ya^ua, Chap. 9th.)
He is also clearly pointed out in the Zendavesta as the receiver
from Hormazd, and imparter to men, of a law or religion. Of the
Bundeshne — a much later and most unsatisfactory work, abounding in
things unintelligible and absurd — we need not say much ; but it makes
one statement of some importance, viz. that Jem (Yimo) had a wife,
Jeme, or a sister, Jemake. Connect this with what was said of the
"twin-sister" Yami.
In the great poem of Firdausi, and the innumerable works that draw
from it as a store-house, Jamshid is a wise, magnificent, but finally
erring and most unfortunate prince, who is expelled by Zoh4k» and
dies in exile.
But, lastly, the later Hindu idea of Yama is exceedingly unlike the
Vedic one. Yama is still indeed the ** king of justice — the ruler of the
Pitris," or ancestors'*'; but he is also the king of hell. "These^ and
• See Vishnu Pur&na, (Wilson'a,) p. 162.
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1862.] YAMA. YIMO. JAM8HID. 227
many other fearfdl hells, are the awful provinces of the kingdom of
Y|ima, terrihle with instruments of torture, and with fire."*
Such are the magic transformations of mythology ! In the hooks of
the one country (Persia), we see the hlessed and honoured ruler of a
golden age, in whose kingdom evil and death are unknown, changed
into a fugitive and miserable prince, who dies by violence ; in those of
the other (India), the prince of the hlessed dead in heaven, in whose
realm only pleasure and rapture have place, is metamorphosed into the
gloomy and relentless judge of the dead. And all of these four concep-
tions are as widely as possible removed from the fundamental idea out of
which the whole has arisen, viz. that of Yama as the great ancestor of
the human race.
Should this identification of Yama and Yimo be permanently retained,
(and, startling as the divergencies become, there is little doubt that the
connexion traced by Dr. Roth is correct,) it is worth while to note that
the conception of Yimo in the Zendavesta and later Persian books
remains truer to the original idea than that which is presented in the
Vedas. Yimo, the ruler of a blessed period ; the teacher — ^himself
divinely taught — of men ; the inhabitant of a blessed region or paradise
on earth, — this description of the first man is singularly like that
contained in Genesis, and would seem no indistinct echo of the inspired
record. Various questions of course immediately suggest themselves as
to the age of the Zendavesta, and the purity of the text, before we can
base any very positive conclusions on this coincidence ; but the point
is eminently worthy of investigation. The further striking coincidences
with the record in Genesis which the poem of Firdausi supplies cannot
be urged as of very much importance, inasmuch as Biblical ideas,
derived from the Kodin, mingle themselves to a large extent with all
the representations of early Persian history by Persian Musulmans.f
The Orientalist, however, who has during the last three or four years
communicated to the public the largest amount of new information, is
Dr. F. Spiegel, of Erlangen, whose name is ahready familiar to this
Society. His contributions are numerous and valuable.
In the Zeitschrift der Deutachen Morgenlandischen GeselUehaft,
III. Band, s. 246, we have an article from his pen on "The L^end of
• See Vishnu Purdna, (Wilson's,) p. 207.
t The name Januhid is still in frequent use among the Parsis. We have it in
the first part of the name of our worthy Pdrsl Knight, which is, in Jonesian ortho-
graphy, JamMkid'Ju We have also in Bombay a newspaper called the Jdm-i"
Janukid, the Cup, or rather Mirror, ofJamskid.
With respect to the popular conception now prevalent in India regarding Yama,
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228 RECENT INVESTIQATIONS IN ZEND LITERATURE. [JuLY
S^m."* This we may pass over as not yerj important in its bearing
on Zend literature. Sam is the first of a line of heroes — S^, Zdl,
Rustam, — who are highly renowned in early Persian history. The
conclusion to which Spiegel comes is that the whole account of S^
is unhistorical — a purely poetic fiction. He thus adds another proof to
the assertion that the record of the Peshdadian period of the Persian
annals, in which the genius of Firdausi so luxuriates, is simply wild
mythology.
Directly connected with the Zendavesta, there are several important
papers of Dr. Spiegel's. Various articles of his, published in the Trans-
actions of the Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences, treat of the manu-
scripts of the Vendidad, and the purity of the text. We omit the
consideration of these at present ; when Spiegel gives us a collection
of various readings in the edition of the Zendavesta which he is now
happily carrying through the press, he will doubtless supply us with
his matured conclusions as to the state of the Zend text.
He has publbhed a separate paper on " Some Interpolated Passages
in the Vendidad.*' He applies the Pehlivi version to the Zend, and
finds numerous passages, some of them important, in which the Zend
readings have nothing corresponding to them in the translation. These
the following abhang, or Mardthi ode, will suffice. The translation is literal—the
abruptnesA of expression being retained from the original : —
" Worldly joy here seemeth sweet ;
Afterwards, hard are the pains of Yam a.
They strike, they cut, terribly they slash.
The servants of Yama, for many years.
The tree with sword-shaped leaves — Are of Khair —
Flames of burning oil burst forth.
They make them walk over burning ground ;
Pillars of Are with their arms they clasp.
Therefore is Tukd fiill of pitying sorrow —
Enough of coming and going, and being born !"
How infinitely unlike the realm of Yama, as pictured in these terrible words, from
the region where, '' in the innermost of heaven,*' the Vedic Yama banquets with
the divinities ! The transformation, as a historical fact, has been skilfully traced
by Roth. Bqually interesting, however, would be an inquiry into the causes that
produced the change. I do not know that the investigation would raise our esti-
mate of the Veda, morally considered. Its allusions to the unseen world of the
departed — to immortality and future blessedness, are exceedingly few. Allusions
to future punishment, in consequence of sin in this life — are there any such ? If
not, it seems to me that the conception of hell, even when so gross as the horrible
representations of the Pur&nas of the later Hindus, the ilrdai-Viraf-Nameh of
the Pirsis, and the Kordn of the Musolmans, exhibits a higher condition of the
moral consciousness than we can trace in the Veda.
• Die Sage wn SAm, und das S^m^ndme.
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1852.} ZARUAN AKARAN. TIME WITHOUT BOUNDS. 229
he deems interpolated. He has also pubUshed a treatise^ containing the
Zend text of the 19th Fargard of the Vendidad in Roman characters, a
translation^ and copious notes, critical and explanatory. This is an
important part of the Zendavesta, and Spiegers annotations touch on
some weighty questions. One of these is the P^rsi doctrine respecting
ZanUina Akarana, The question has often been discussed whether the
Pdrsls recognize a being called Zarudn Akaran as the supreme divinity,
or whether Ahura Mazda, the good principle, is so. In the treatise now
mider review, Spiegel strongly contends against the personality of Zarudn
Akaran. The Zend words occurring in the 33rd section — Bathat ^hito
mainyus dathat ZrvdnS Akarane, are highly important in the decision
of this question, as on them mainly has been based the view which
Spiegel combats. Anquetil renders the passage thus : — " L'^tre absorb^
dans Texcellence t'a donne, le tems sans homes t'a donn^' — that is :
" The being absorbed in excellence has given thee ; time without bounds
has given thee.*' Spiegel, on the other hand, thus translates : Cp^uto-
Mainyus (i. e, Ahura Mazdd) created it ; he created it in endless time."
In a note on the passage he says that AnquetiFs version, with all the
consequences which he and others have deduced from it, is certainly
false ; and that the opinion that endless time is in the Zendavesta exalted
over Hormazd is thus left entirely without support. The views of Spiegel
on this question agree with those of MuUer, Brockhaus, and Roth ; and
it is interesting in this connexion to observe that our modern Parsis in
India coincide with them. They have been attacked, however, by
Schlottman, in an article in Weber's Indische Studien,* and in a com-
mentary on the Book of Job. The latter work I have not seen, but
the paper in the Indische Studien is now before me. The writer con-
ceives tha£ Zarudn Akaran corresponds with the Semitic Xp6i/os — ^a
deity found under various names among the ancient Babylonians,
Phoenicians, and Arabians. Zaruan answers, according to Schlottman,
to the B^Xoff dpxaio9, Ahura Mazd^ to the Brjkos ^cvrcpos.f These two,
he conceives, are not necessarily difPerent : the first and second Bel are in
certain cases identified, and, in like manner, Ahura Mazdd, considered as
the absolute, the eternal, is Zarudn Akaran. Spiegel has written a
• Heftl.8. 304.
t This rigniflcation of the word Akaran has occasioned a good deal of discussion.
Spiegel accedes to the translation of Anquetil, without bounds, which corresponds
with the Pehlivi rendering, and is the prevalent one among the P&rsis now. The
objection to this rendering is that the word handr (boundary) is not known in Zend.
Roth, Brockhaus, and others, prefer the rendering causeless, uncreated.
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230 RECENT INVESTIGATIONS IN ZEND LITERATURE. [JuLY
full reply to the criticiflm by Schlottman.* He contends, with MuUer,
that in the proper P^l system there is no pkce for Zaruin as the
supreme deity, and that the duaUsm of the Persia is not absolate, a
superiority being still retained by Ahnra Mazd^. This coneeption of
Zaruan, then, must be later than the original system ; and the testimonies
of later Greek and Armenian writers on the point, however true regard-
ing the P^rsi system prevalent in their own day, do not apply to its
earlier form. The existence at a later period of the idea of Zanidn as
deified fate or destiny, Spiegel admits, as also the resemblance between
this conception and the Babylonian one. The question then arises — Did
the Parsis obtain the conception from their Babylonian neighbours f
Possibly so ; but we cannot pronounce positively, — the conception may
have occurred spontaneously to the Pdrsis. So Spiegel ; but, considering
the close connexion between the Pdrsis and their neighbours on the
west, — the Assyrians and Babylonians, — and considering the abundant
evidence of the religious influence exerted by the latter two nations on
the first, supplied by the recent discoveries of Layard and others, we
can hardly hesitate to pronounce the notion of Zaru&n not original, but
borrowed from Mesopotamia.f
Another point of great importance in the interpretation of the
Zendayesta is the doctrine of the resurrection. The doctrine of the
resurrection of the body is the general belief of the modem P^rsls^
unless, perhaps* where, in country districts, their intercourse with EUndus
has shaken their confidence in a tenet so much opposed to the prevalent
Indian notion. We find the doctrine, also, in the P^s( later book^
from the Bundeshne downwards. Anquetil thought he saw it also
distinctly enunciated in the Zend books ; and on his authority it was for a
long time considered an integral portion of the Zoroastrian theology.
A polemical use was eagerly made of the supposed fact by- various
Neologian critics ; for example Gesenius, in his commentary on Isaiah
xxvi. 9,t boldly asserts that the Jews adopted the dogma of the
• Zeltschrift der D. M. G. V. 221.
t A yery difficult word, which is generally connected with Zara&n Akaran, viz.
vayi, is rendered by Anquetil, although with some hesitation, (See on Vendidad,
Farg. xix. p. 415, note,) oiseau, or bird, but is translated by Spiegel $ky, Scblott-
man very pertinently refers to the winged figure in a circle that is often seen
suspended over the bead oif the king in Assyrian and Persian monuments. An-
qnetil's ** bird acting on high" certainly bears a remarkable resemblance to this
symbol of deity.
t ** Thy dead men shall live ; together with my dead body shall they arise.
Awake and sing, ye that dwell in the dust ; for thy dew is as the dew of herbe ;
and the earth shall cast out the de^d.^^^Authorised SngUah Translation,
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1852.] DOCTRINB OF THE RESURRECTION. 231
resurrection from the Zoroastrian theology.* M. Bumouf in 1840, in
the pages of the Journal Asiatique, has discussed with great fulness
and precision the meaning of the terms yavaicha yavatataScha, which
Anquetil renders until the resurrection^ and has proved that they have
no such signification, hut simply mean ybr ever, Spiegel, in his critical
examination of the 19th Fargard of the Yendidad, has occasion to dis-
cuss nearly all the terms in which Anquetil -finds the doctrine of the
resurrection ; and the conclusion at which he arrives is in accordance
with that of Bumouf. Except for the testimony which Theopompos
perhaps bears as to its existence, and the occurrence of certain Zend
quotations which Spiegel finds in the Bundeshne which seem to bear
on the subject, and which at least deserve investigation, we might safely
enough assert that the doctrine of the resurrection was unknown before
the Sassanian era.f
Spiegel unhappily does not quote the words of Theopompos, but
refers to Plutarch, Be Iside et Oeiride, Chap. 47. The edition of
Plutarch to which I have access is that of Reiske, (Lipsise, 1 777,) which
does not divide the treatise into chapters. I have carefully searched
for the sentiments which Spiegel refers to, but in vain. Theopompos
is quoted more than once ; but the nearest approximation to the senti-
ment attributed to him which I can find b the following. Speaking of
the final defeat of Ahriman, *Ap€ifuanos or "Afiifg, he says it is the opinion
of the Magi rhvs fuv Mpwnovg Mai/wvas co-fc^cu fxffTt rpo<l)iit d€OfuvovSf
fuiT€ o'Kiiof irowvvras — t. e, " Men will then be happy, neither requiring
food, nor making a shadow.'* This has nothing to do with the doc-
trine of a resurrection.
Immediately preceding the quotation from Theopompos, Plutarch
says that when Areimanios is destroyed it is believed " the earth will
be plain and level, one mode of life and government will prevail, and
men will be blessed, and all speak one language." This too is as wide
as possible of the doctrine.
With regard to Zend quotations on the subject in the Bundeshne, we
shall be happy to see Spiegel's comments upon them ; but unless they
* " Die Juden dieses dogma aus der Zoroastriscben tlieolog^e anfnahmen, and an
ihre Messianischen vorstellang^n anwanden, wofur unsere stelle classibch iat.'*
t The important term hakhshdnSy in the 10th Fargard, Sect. 86, which Anquetil
renders resusscUeff or lise again, Spiegel renders at^ordern, or call forth, sum"
man, — ^Theopompos was a contemporary of Alexander the Great. Should his
evidence seem to prove the doctrine of the resurrection to have prevailed among
the Pdrsfs in his time, we might infer that probably they obtained it from the
Jews in the sixth century b. jo. But we shall hope to have a foil examination of
this important matter from Spiegel or some other Continental scholar before long.
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232 RECENT INVESTIGATIONS IN ZEND LITERATURE. [JuLY
can be referred to the Zendayesta proper, tbeir appearance in such a
farrago as the Bundeshne will proTe little or nothmg on the point in
question. So far as evidence b at present available, the probability is
exceedingly strong that the doctrine of the resurrection is of com-
paratively recent introduction into the Zoroastrian system.
I may take this opportunity of expressing my conviction that our
Orientalists are not in general disposed to attribute so much influence
to Judaism in the development of the Pdrsi system as the historical
connexion between the Jews and Persians suggests as probable, and
even necessary. The wide dissemination of Jews and Jewish opinions
throughout the Roman Empire is an admitted fact, and in reference to
their influence on the Roman mind Seneca uses the strong language
victoribus vieti leges dederunt.* We have no reason to beheve the
influence of Judaism in Persia to have been less. Of its powerftil action
on the mind of Arabia I need not speak.
Another paper from the pen of Spiegel, entitled "The Second Part
of the Ya9na, a Contribution to the History of the Text of the Zenda-
vesta,''t is exceedingly interesting, as a vigorous attempt to form some '
judgment regarding the relative antiquity of the chief portions of the
Zend books. As yet we are wholly at a loss to fix anything like a date
connected with the Zendavesta. Shall we refer it bodily, with the P4r-
sis, to the age of the mythical Gushtasp ? Shall we, with some who still
adhere to Vans Kennedy's opinion, make out the whole to be an impu-
dent forgery, committed since the overthrow of the Persian kingdom by
the Muhammadans ? Or shall we refer the compilation of the Zendavesta
to the Sassanian epoch ? And, in that case, may not fragments at least
of books, composed some centuries earlier, have found a place in the
collection ? Such questions may be asked, but no satbfactory reply
has as yet been possible. In the paper we now refer to, Spiegel men-
tions that several years ago he pointed out the fact that in the Ya9na
we have two distinct dialects, which must be referred to two different
ages, or else localities. This opinion has been confirmed by his more
recent studies, and the paper now before us gives us the grounds of
his belief. We cannot in these pages enter into the grammatical details
which he investigates, but the general summary with which he con-
cludes his paper will be read with interest : —
"We are now prepared to attempt an arrangement of the different
portions of the Zendavesta in the order of their antiquity. First, we
place the second part of the Ya9na, as separated in respect to the
* De Soperstitione.
t IndiBche Studien, I. 308.
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1852.] THE "PARSl" LANGUAGE. 233
language of the Zendayesta, yet not composed by Zoroaster himself,
since he is named in the third person ; and indeed everything intimates
that neither he nor his disciple Gushtasp was aUve. The second place
must unquestionably be assigned to the Yendidad. I do not believe
that the book was originally composed as it now stands, — it has suffered
both earlier and later interpolations ; still, its present form may be
traced to a considerable antiquity. The antiquity of the work is proved
by its contents, which distinctly show that the sacred literature was not
yet completed.
'' The case is different with the writings of the last period, among
which I reckon the first part of the Ya9na, and the whole of the
Yeshts. Among these a theological character is unmistakeable, the
separate divioities having their attributes and titles dogmatically fixed.
" Altogether, it is interesting to trace the progress of religion in
these P&rsi writings. It is a significant fact that in the oldest, that is
to say the second part of the Ya9na, nothing is fixed in the doctrine
regarding God. In the writings of the second period, that is in the
Yendidad, we trace the advance to a theological, and, in its way, mild
and scientific system. Out of this, in the last place, there springs the
stern and intolerant religion of the Sassanian epoch.
" Closely related to the Persian system in its origin, yet how totally
different in its development, has been the religious system of India !
While the Parsis learned to venerate every syllable of their sacred
books, we find in India, as soon as theological exposition commenced,
an allegorizing spirit busily at work, to fashion anew the old materials
which were no longer in accordance with the spirit of the age. Thus,
in the course of generations, we find that the old nature-worship of the
Yedas has been succeeded by a fantastic system, so utterly unlike the
eartier that no one, looking at the later development, could possibly
have conjectured the original form."
Another important work of Spiegel's is a *' Grammar of the Parsi
Language."* By the term Parsi language Spiegel denotes a dialect
that has not hitherto received a name — one intermediate between the
Huzvaresh or proper Pehlivi, and the modem Persian. We pass over
all grammatical minutiae, and attend to some general characteristics of
the language. In an introduction of fifteen pages, our author enters into
a discussion of the term Pd-zend, which leads to some useful results.
There has been considerable doubt as to the real meaning of this fre-
quently-recurring term — some denoting by it a book, others a language.
• Graminatik der Parsi Sprache, nebst Spracbproben von Dr. F. Spiegel.
Leipzig : 1851.
32
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234 RECENT INVESTIGATIONS IN ZEND LITERATURE. [JULY
That Fk'Zend was the name of a hook was the view of Hyde, the
English scholar who first successfully cultiyated the study of the ancient
Persian religion. He adopted this opinion from the Arahic and Persian
writers with whom he was familiar, — such heing the uniform testimony
of the Persian lexicon the Burh^n-i-Q^ti, and other eastern authori-
ties. On the other hand, Anquetil, in his great work, and a special
treatise on the language of ancient Persia, denominates the oldest
language of Persia, and the language of the ancient sacred hooks, as
Zend. He knew that the term was used hy the Parsis themselves, and
various eastern writers, to designate a book ; but this he conceived to be
an error. Anquetil, says Spiegel, is mistaken. Recent investigators, such
as Bumouf and Muiler, hold that the terms Zend and P&-zend denote
books, not languages. Bumouf remarks that the term Zend does not
occur in the Zend text. He understands it to be derived from zaniUj
a town, and properly to signify the book of the people, or of the
towns, — ^a sense which he compares with the Indian name, devan&garit
of the Sanskrit character.
Spiegel is convinced that by the term Aveata are properly understood
the sacred writings ; by Zend the commentary, or rather the translation
of this ; and by the term Pd-zend the glosses or annotations on the
translation. The signification of Avesta is, as sho'wn by Muiler in his
essay on the Pehlivi, text. Spiegel has no etymology of the term Zend
which satisfies himself. The Sanskrit seems to afford little aid ; and, as
the word is of comparatively later origin, he deems it possible that
some of the Semitic tongues may yet supply the desideratum.
It may be doubted if the opinion expressed by Spiegel regarding the
meaning of the terms Zend and Pd zend will stand. The usage of our
modern P4rs(s is rather conflicting, and, perhaps, not much can be based
upon it. They certainly often apply the term Zend to the language of
their sacred books; but the more learned among them apply it primarily
to the character or writing of the sacred books, and hence, secondarily,
to the language. By Pd-zend the Pdrsis seem to understand the
translation of the sacred text, which is generally interlinear.
In the Zendavesta, or, as Spiegel would call it, the Avesta, there are
three languages: 1st, the so-called Zend; 2nd, the Huzvaresh,* or
proper Pehlivi ; and, 3rd, the language hitherto unnamed, which
Spiegel now analyses, and denominates Parsi. In the last language are
composed various translations and independent pieces, — the Aferins, the
Patets, the translation of Minokhired, &c. This dialect is intermediate
* Haz?are8h, «. «. Huzaoihra, bonum aacrificiunu
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1852.] Spiegel's edition of the avesta. 235
between the Pehlivi of the Sassanian epoch and modem Persian^ but
with nearer relationship to the latter. We may, with probability, refer
it to the time that intervened between the conquest of Persia, by the
Arabs, and the birth of Firdausi. It has been noted that Firdansi
writes in the Deri dialect of Persia ; and between the Deri and the
''Parsi" of Spiegel there is considerable resemblance. Mohl would
refer it to the eastern parts of Persia.
But the most important of all Spiegel's labours in Zend literature is
his edition of the Zendayesta which is now passing through the press.*
The first part, containing, in 1 12 pages, ten fargards of the Yendidad, is
now before me : it is most beautifully got up, — paper and printing do
great credit to the Imperial Press of Vienna, from which the work is
issued. The original text is to be followed by the Huzvaresh (Pehlivi)
translation, a copious list of various readings, and a German translation.
We shall be laid under the deepest obligations both to this zealous
scholar, and to our learned friend Mr. Westergaard, of Copenhagen,
who is also busy engaged in carrying an edition of the Zendavesta
through the press, accompanied by what will be a great recommendation
to it among our Indian Pdrsis, an English translation. The simul-
taneous appearance of two translations will be an advantage. So dark a
work as the Zendavesta cannot be fully elucidated by the labours of
one investigator, however learned and laborious ; and the Danish and
German critics will profitably be studied together.
Reference has been more than once made in the above pages to the
modem Gujar4tf translations of the Zendavesta. By far the best
known of these is that of Fr&mji Aspandidrji, an edition of which was
Uthographed by our Society in 1842 and 1843, and copies distributed to
the chief colleges and learned societies of Europe. It may be an inter-
esting thing to compare the versions of the 19th Fargard of the Vendidad
as given by Anquetil, Spiegel, and Frdmji. I shall here subjoin literal
English renderings of the three versions. In translating Frdmji's
almost untranslatable Gujar&ti, I have had the kind assistance of my
learned friend Mr. Dhanjfbhai Frdmjf, whose imwearied labours in
Zend and Pehlivi literature are well known to the Society, and whose
forthcoming work we hail as an important contribution to the elucida-
tion of the subject.
* Avesta ; die Heiligen Schriften der Parsen. Zum ersten Male im Grundtexte
sammt der Huzvareach uebersetzung heraosgegeben von Dr. Friedrich Spiegel, &c.
Leipzig: 1861. (Avesta; the Sacred Writings of the Pdrtis, Now fimt
edited in the original text, with the Huzvaresh version, by Br, Frederick
Spiegel, $-c. Leipzig: 1851.)
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236 RECENT INVESTIGATIONS IN ZEND LITERATURE. [Jui*Y
l.^SpiegeFB Tranalation of part of the 19 th Fargard of the
Fendidad.
1. From the northern region, from the northern regions, rushed Agra MainyuSy
be who is full of death, the Daeva of the Daevas.
2. Thus spoke this malevolent Agra Mainyus, who is full of death :
3. Drukhs ! run, kill the holy Zoroaster.
4. The Drukhs ran round him, the Daeva Baiti, the perishable, the deceiver of
mortals.
5. Zoroaster pronounced the prayer Ahuna-vairya, Yatha ahu vairyo, &c
May they praise the good waters of the good creation, and honour the
Mazdaya^nian law.
6. The Drukhs ran troubled from him, the Daeva Buiti, the perishable, the
deceiver of mortals.
7. The Drukhs answered him, [Ahriman,] Tormenting Ahriman !
8. I see not death on him, on the holy Zoroaster.
9. Full of splendour is the holy Zoroaster.
10. 2toroaster saw in spirit : the bad malevolent Daevas consult about my death.
11. Zoroaster raised himself, Zoroaster advanced ;
12. Not injured by Aka-mano's very tormenting questions.
13. Holding darts in his hand — ^which are of the size of a Kata — the holy
Zoroaster ;
14. Which he had received from the Creator, Ahura Mazdd.
15. To hold them on this earth, the wide, round, difficultly-traversed [earth],
in great strength, in the dwelling of Pourusluu^pa.
16. Zoroaster addressed Agra Mainyus : Malevolent Agra Mainyus !
17. I will slay the creation which has been made by the Daevas ; I will slay the
Na<;us whom the Daevas have made ;
18. I will slay the Paris to whom they pray (?) until Caoshyan^ [vis. the useful]
shall be bom, the victorious, out of the water Kan^aoya.
19. From the eastern region, from the eastern regions,
20. Him answered Agra Mainyus, who has made evil productions :
21 . Kill not my productions, oh ! holy Zoroaster !
22. Thou art the son of Pourusha<;pa, and hast life from a [mortal] mother.
23. Curse the good Mazdaya<;nian law, acquire happiness, as Vadhaghua, the
ruler of the regions, acquired it.
24. To him rejoined the holy Zoroabter :
25. I will not curse the good Mazdaya^nian law —
26. Not though bones, soul, and means of life shall bo separated from each
other.
27. To him rejoined Agra Mainyus, who has made bad productions :
28. Through whose word wilt thou slay ; through whose word wilt thou destroy ;
through whose good weapons, against the pi*oductions of me, Agra Mainyus ?
29. To him rejoined the holy Zoroaster :
30. Mortar, shells, homa, and the words which Ahura Mazdd has spoken—
31. These are my best weapons ;
32. Through this word will I slay ; through this word will I destroy ; through
these weapons are we victorious, oh ! wicked Agra Mainyus !
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1852.2
FBAMJI'S VBBSION. 237
S3.
34.
^^^Xmto Mainyus created it ; be created in endleis time.
^^*^^je Ameeha-spenta created it, the good rulers, the wise.
8.
II. — Frdmji AspandidrjVB Translation.
•^'^om the northern quarter, the northern quarter, ran fast the wicked Mino,
^ ^uU of death, Dev of Oevs.
I^litu said the malcTolent, the wicked Hino, full of death : Ban^ !
^^un quickly to injure the holy Zoroaster.
t*be Daruj ran upon him, named But Dev, death, he who walks in secret, the
^ deceiver.
^ Zoroaster loudly prayed the Ahunavar, the pure water was much praised
of the Veheddeti, [according to] the Masdiasniao religion, Farudrane.
"* The Daruj, distressed, ran away back, the Dev But, of death, he who walks in
secret, the deceiver.
^* The Daruj replied to the destroyer, the wicked Mino :
B. Not upon that death do I see Sapetmdn Zoroaster.
9. Full of light is holy the Zoroaster.
^0* Zoroaster saw in his mind that the Dev, the infidel and malevolent, was
asking for bis death.
1 1 . Zoroaster stood up— Zoroaster moved forward,
12. To distress the Akuman [by] hard questions.
13. The holy Zoroaster, holding in his hand the excellent [Instrument] , namely the
Noghere,* was in the house ;
14. Received from D4d&r Hormazd.
15. That [quaercy by which ?] he kept the earth [under his] protection, far away
[from the Dev] hard, hard gold,t in the house of Pouroshasp.
16. Zoroaster quickly reset [on] the wicked Mino, the malevolent, wicked Mino :
17. Let me kill the creation of the Dev, given, let me kill Nasas, given by the Dev ;
18. Let me kill the worshippers of the Paris, for [tliey are] idolaters, for soon
wilt be bom the beneficial, the successful, from the water Ke4ns.§
19. From the eastern quarter, from the eastern quarter,
20. Replied the malevolent, wicked Mino :
* A stick with nine knots.
t This seems nonsense. The commentary slurs over the difficulty, and says
nothing of ^o/(<.
X Thissense is so muchout of pUce, that perha^te there is an error of transcription.
^ <'Let me kill the respecters of the Paris, and the idoUter, tliat is, the worship-
per of images, and let my disciples also kill you, and afterwards the victorious and
beneficial will arrive from the river Kdnse : he too will kill you, that is my sons
Hoehedar, and Hoshedarmaha, and Sosioesh. These three sons will be bom from
the river K&nse, and they shall kill you for your own deeds, they shall kill you for
your actions."
The above is Fr&mji's commentary on Sects. 18, 19. The passage is important,
as connected with Pdrsi eschatology. The foolish and disgusting tale told in the
later books regarding the three sons of Zoroaster who are still unborn will be seen
in AnquetiFs Zendaveeta, Tom. I. Part 2, p. 46 ; and Tom. II. p. 420. Frdnyi
evidently refers to it in the above comment; but his literal version is pretty
correct, Anquetil's version (see below) is a commentary, not a translation.
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238 RECENT INVESTIGATIONS IN ZEND LITERATURE. [JULT
21 . Do not kill my crefttnret, holy Zoroaster.
82. Thou art son bom from Poarosbasp.
83. Abandon the excellent Masdiasnian religion, and attain virtae, like ZoU4k,
the king.
84. Said to him in reply Sapetmdn Zoroaster :
85. I will not abandon the excellent Masdiasnian religion ;
86. Not while I have body, and soul, and life, will I turn (apostetiae).
27. Said to him in reply the malevolent, wicked Mino :
28. By what word wilt thou destroy ; by what word wilt thou remove ; by what
excellent instrument [wilt thou destroy] the creation of me, wicked Mino ?
89. Replied to him Sapetm&n Zoroaster :
30. By havanim, tasto,* haom, and the word spoken by Hormazd.
31. My instrument is excellent, (high).
32. (By) this word I will throw off, by this word I will force [you] to retire, by
this instrument made holy, oh ! malevolent, wicked Mino !
33. Given by Sapena Mino; given byt boundless time, (Zamana Akandr).
34. Given by the excellent Amshaspands, pure masters, givers of purity.
III. — Anquetirs Translation.
I. It is from the north quarter, various places which are to the north, that Ahri-
man, full of death, that chief of the Dews, runs.
8. He runs continually, that Ahriman, full or death, master of the bad law.
3. That Dartg runs over the world, and ravages it, oh ! pure Zoroaster !
4. That Daruj goes everywhere : it is he that is the Dew, author of evils, who
ravages, tormento, and teaches the bad law.
5. (In the commencement) I pronounced the Honover, oh ! Zoroaster (saying) :
It is the desire of Ormusd, kc, I made izeshne to the pure water, which
has been given pure : I practised the law of tl^e Mazdeiesnans.
6. That Daruj, enfeebled and without force, (sansforcet,) returned behind, he
who is the Dew, author of evils, who ravages, and teaches the bad law.
7, 8. That Daruj, that proud Ahriman, wished to answer mo.
9. He had not seen, oh ! Sapetmdn Zoroaster, the holy Zoroaster full of glory.
10. That infernal Dew, author of the bad law, saw in thought Zoroaster, and was
annihilated by it
11, 12. (He saw) that Zoroaster would have the superiority, and wonld march
with a victorious pace ; he saw that cruel Akuman, the source of evils,
would be destroyed.
13. He who has long arms, and an extended body, oh ! holy Zoroaster !
14. Without having regard to the great Ormusd, the just judge,
15. (Traversed) the extended earth, ran over ito length and breadth, and after
having passed (like) a bridge which extends far along, he went Into the
strong place which Poroshasp (inhabited).
16. Zoroaster was stronger than Ahriman, that Ahriman, author of the bad law.
17. He struck the people given by that Dew, he struck (the Daruj) Neaosh, given
by that Dew.
* Figures of these sacrificial vessels will be found in Anquetil's Zendavesta, Tom.
II. p. 533 ; and the Rev. Dr. Wilson's '< Pdrsi Religion," p. 231.
t In his translation Frdo^i makes this to; iahu commentary by.
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1852.] MODERN PAR8I VBR8ION8. 239
18. Tbe Puia and their designs shall be destroyed by him who will spring from
the founbiin, by Sosioesh the conqueror, (who will arise) from the water
Kanse.
19. By Osheder (bami), and by Osheder (mah), who (will come) from the quarter
(where is the water Kans^).
80. Then Ahriman, master of the bad law, said :
31 . Destroy not my people, oh ! pure Zoroaster !
22. Yoo, son of Poroehasp, who art bom of her who has borne you.
23. Tbe pure law of the Mazdelesnans shall be practised (in the world) when the
pure chief of the provinces shall appear.
24. I answered him, oh ! Sapetmin Zoroaster :
25. If thou do not embrace the pure law of the Mazdelesnans,
26. Tbe bones, the soul, the members (of thy productions) shall not grow again.
27. Ahriman, that master of the bad law, said to me on that :
28. What is that word which is to give life to my people, which is to increase it,
if 1 regard it with respect, if I make vows with that word ?
29. I answered him, oh ! Sapetm&n Zoroaster :
30. Pronounce the word of Ormusd, with the h&van, with the salvers, and with
the horn.
31. It is I who (by that word) augment Behesht
32. It is in regarding that word with respect, in making vows with that word, that
thou shalt have life and happiness, AhrimBn,ma8ter of the bad law.
33. The being absorbed in excellence has given thee, time without bounds has
given thee.
34. He has also given with greatness the Amshaspands, who are pure productions
atd holy kings.
It vill be seen, from a comparison of the above three versions, that
the (xerman Professor and the Parsi Dastur, on the whole, well agree
with each other, while the French renderiog deviates so widely from
both, as seldom to present the same sense as theirs throughout a
single sentence. The explanation of the coincidence between Spiegel
and Frdmjf is that both are nearly correct in their understanding of
the Zend, and both attach much importance to the Pehlivi version.
Anquetil's deviations, on the other hand, are as inexplicable as they
are capricious.
These remarks are lengthening out more than I desired, and I shall
say less than I once intended on our modem Parsi versions.
1 . The one of greatest importance is that of Framji Aspandiaiji.
In the preface to the work it is mentioned that it was compiled at the
request of the late Frdmjf Cawasji, Esq., a roan whose name stands
honourably distinguished among the Parsis both for philanthropy and
enlightenment. The translation was commenced in 1823, and finished
in 1825. The translator followed chiefly the Pehlivi version. The
work contains the Zend text written in Gujardti characters, an inter-
linear literal version into Onjardti, and a freer rendering, more a com-
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240 RECENT INVESTIGATIONS IN ZEND UTERATURE. [JuLY
mentary than a version. When it was finished it was suhmitted for
revision to four learned P^rsf Dastars, viz. Mulla Firuz, (the well-known
Editor of the Desatir, and a man highly complimented hy Sir John
Malcolm,) Edalji Darabji Sanjdna, Jamshidji Edalji, and J&ai6s)i Edalji.
Meetings were held by three of the Dasturs now mentioned, for the
purpose of examining the work — Edalji D4rdbjf for some cause or
other absenting himself. The translation was revised, and, when approv-
ed, manuscript copies were made, and to some small extent circulated in
the Pdrsi community.
Disputes connected with the calculation of time have run high among
the Parsis ; and although Frdmji Aspandidrji personally belonged to
the Rasami party, his patron was the leader of the other ; and for this
reason, as many P&rsis say, his work has been violently attacked by
one party. When a proposal was recently submitted to our Society at
the request of Dr. Graul, of Leipsic, in which Dr. Brockhaus (of whose
valuable labours in Zend investigation we have spoken above) was
understood to concur, that Fr^mjCs version should be rendered into
English, strong remonstrances were made by some of the P&rsf com-
munity against the translating of ''an erroneous book." Unhappily,
while declaiming against its errors, they have substituted nothing better
in its place.
2 . It was indeed asserted that a translation of the Zendavesta had been
made by Edalji Dardbjf Sanjdna. A manuscript copy of this was actually
exhibited to the Society, which contained fourfargards of the Vendidad,
the whole very carefully written out, and containing the Zend original in
its own character, the Pehlivi version in its character, and a Gujar^ti
version, with occasional notes. If the entire Zendavesta, or even the
entire Vendidad, has been completed in the same style, the work would
be most valuable ; and the Pdrsi Panchayet, to whom it is understood
to belong, certainly owe it to their own character to render the book
accessible. Why should not some Pdrsi millionaire publish an edition
of it?
3. Edalji Ddrdbji Sanjdna published in 1811 an edition of the
Khurdah Avesta, the Zend in Gujar&ti characters, and accompanied by
a GujarAti version, 12mo. pp. 799. A second edition of this work,
enlarged, 8vo. pp. 338, appeared in 1845.
4. The Herbad Edalji Dastur DMbji As^ji published in 1833 the
Avd Yast, Zend in Gujariti characters, with a Gujardti version, 8vo.
pp. 234.
5. Aspandi^rji Frdmji, the son of Framjf Aspandidrji, published
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1852.] WB8TBROAABB AND SPIEGEL. 241
in 1849 an edition of the Ya9na, Zend in Gujaritf characters, with a
Oajar4t( yersion, quarto, pp. 383.
We shall, however, soon have the pleasure of receiving the English
translation of Professor Westergaard, and the German one hy Professor
Spi^d ; and the cause of Oriental investigation will not greatly suffer
even though the lahours of such learned men as Edalji B^hji should
by a most mistaken policy contmue to he withheld from the public.
The mystic oracle, long silent, will soon be vocal, and even intelli-
gible. Should such men as Westergaard and Spiegel read these lines,
they will accept of our thanks for the great w(Hrk they are performing.
Their labours have a far higher than an antiquarian, a philological^
or a philosophic value. In the present condition of the P&rsi com-
munity they will exert a practical influence of a most important
character ; they will powerfully tend to recall to consciousness the
akunbering mind of an interesting race, — the remnant of a once mighty
and influential people, — ^lead them to reflection on the most momentous
and arousing of all questions, and thus co-operate with still higher
agencies in giving freedom to intellectual and moral energies which have
been for ages enslaved.
33
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242 [July
Art* III. — On the conflicting views of European Scholars as to
the Races inhabiting Polynesia, and the Indian Archipelago ;
and as to the Languages spoken by them. By the Hon'ble
Sir Erskinb Perby^ President.
Presented IstMay 1852.
The receipt of a work from England by my relative Mr. Jobn
Crawfurd,* which has probably not been yet seen by my colleagues,
induces me to bring before the Society the state of a very interesting
question, which has been much battled by European Scholars, and on
which information may still be gathered in the East, viz. as to the
races of mankind, and the languages spoken, in Polynesia and the
Indian Archipelago. It is well known that over that vast region of
the earth's surface, extending from what may be called, generally, the
East Coast of Africa on the one hand, to the West Coast of America
on the other, but more definitely from Madagascar to Easter Island
in the Pacific Ocean, and from Formosa, on the coast of China, to New
Zealand, including the Indian Archipelago, the Nicobars and Anda-
manns in the Bay of Bengal, and the Maldives and Laccadives on the
Malabar Coast, two races of men, distinctly severed from each other by
a marked variance of colour, exist. In some of the innumerable islands
scattered over this vast region, the brown race is to be found exdusively,
in others the black race, while in certain localities the blacks are to be
found driven into the rugged and wild interior, and the brown race is
in occupation of the coast, and of the choicer parts of the territory.
An example very near at hand of this distribution may be seen in the
Nicobars and Andamanns, the formerf of which is occupied by the
brown, the latter by the black race exclusively, and also in the Malacca
peninsula, where the Negroes are to be found only in the mountainous
interior.
* Grammar and Dictionary of the Malay Language, wiUi a Preliminary Disser-
tation. 3 vols. 8vo. 1862.
t I saw a notice in a Calcutta newspaper within the last two or three years of a
black race as inhabiting the Nicobars also, but I have lost the reference.
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1862.] WILUAM VON HUMBOLDT ON THE MALAYS. 243
Amongst all these tribes a very well established connection between
their languages has been detected^ which the judicious Marsden was
the first to point out in detail^ and which he, as well as Crawfurd,
oonsidered to have originated in a great Polynesian language of some
extinct race. But since the publication of the remarkable posthumous
work of William von Humboldt on the Kawi language of Java,* the
generallj received opinion has been that the brown races at least, as
-well of the Archipelago as of the innumerable islands of the Pacific,
and the different languages they speak, are all identical in origin^ That
distinguished philologist gives such an interesting view of hb theory in
his preliminary dissertation *' On the Farieiie$ of Hummn Language^
and its Influence mt the Mental Development of Mankind" that I am
tempted to make a long extract from a translation I had j)repared for
an educational purpose ; but, as the matter is deeply interesting to
Indian scholars, and the work has not yet appeared in an English dress,
I trust that the Soeiety will not deem it unsuitable for this place :— -
• **The races of Malay origin, with respect to locality, gOTemment,
history, and, above all, language, are perhaps more singularly connected
with races of different cultivation than any other people in the world.
They inhabit only islands and island groups, but these extend over so
wide a range as to afford unmistakeable testimony to their early
acquaintance with navigation. Th^r settlement on the Continent at
Malacca scarcely deserves to be mentioned here, as it is of modem, dat^
and proceeded from Sumatra, and that <m the coasts of the China Sea,
and of the Gulf of Siam, at Champa, was a still later occurrence.
With these exceptions, we are unable to trace, with any certainty, even
in the most remote history, the existence of Malays on the mainland.
If from these races we separate those who in a strict sense deserve
the name of Malays, and who, according to undeniable grammatical
researches, speak closely allied tongues, easily intelligible to one another,
we shall find them settled (only mentioning those points where the inquiry
into languages has had sufficient materials to work on) in the Philip-
pines,— where the language is to be found in the richest development of
forms, and in its most original condition, — in Java, Sumatra, Malacca,
and Madagascar. A large number of words, however, of unquestionable
relationship, and even the names of a considerable number of islands,
betoken that the islands in the neighbourhood of the above localities
are peopled by a similar race, and that even the more strictly so-called
Malay language extends itself over all that portion of the South Pacific
* Ueber die Kawi-Spraebe aufder Inael Javanebtt einer EinMtnng, ke. 3
vols. 4to. BerUn: 1838-39.
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244 DIFFUSION OF MALAYS. [JuLT
which reaehes firom the Philippines southerly to the West Coast of
New Guinea, and, more westerly, to the diain of isknds which jokm
the eastern point of Java, and runs up between Jaya and Sumatra ta
the Straits of Malacca. It is a matter for regret that the large
islands of Borneo and Celebes, to which probably all that has been said
above may appfy, hare not yet had their languages sufficimtly ezannned
to allow ot any ccmclusion beii^ drawn on grammatical grounds.
"To the eastward of the sone here drawn of the pure Bfalay
hmgnage, from New Zealand to Easter Island, thence northerly to the
Sandwich Islands, and then back again westwards to the Philippines, a
race of islanders is to be found, who display most unquestionable
traces of an old connection in blood with the Malays. This is prored
by the num^jer of similar words, and essential coincidences of phyaicsl
structure, in the languages whose grammar we know intimately, such
IU9 those of New Zealand, Tahiti, the Sandwich Islands, and Tongu.
A like similarity is to be found in manners and customs, especially
where pure Malay customs are recognisable, unaltered by Indian usages.
Whether the races to the north-west in this part of the Pacific belong
wholly or in part to the latter division, or to the Malays in the strict
sense; or whether they form a oonnectiug link between the two,
cannot yet be decided with our present materials, as even the researches
which have been set on foot with respect to the language of the Mariana
Group have not yet been made public. The whole of these races
possess social institutions sufficiently complicated to make it impnqi^er
to exclude them wholly from the class of civilised nations. They have
a well-established, and by no means simple system of government, of
religious doctrines, and of usages, and some of them possess a species
ef spiritiud government ; they display skill in various arts, and are bold
and experienced seamen. We find amongst them in several spots the
remains of a sacred language, unintelligible even to themselves, and
their custom of recalling formally obsolete expressions into Cfe on
certain occasions speaks not only to the richness, age, md depth of the
language, but also to their powers of observation as to the efibct of
time in modifying circumstances. With all this they allowed, and still
partly allow, barbarous practises inconsutent with civilisation.* They
appear never to have acquired the art of writing, and, consequently, are
deprived of all that literature which is founded upon it, although they
are by no means wanting in fanciful legends, improve eloquence,
* Mr. Crawford mentioiis a somewhat cultivated raee in Sumatra, well acquainted
with letters, who appear to be the only literary oannibals reooided in history.—
E. P.
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1852.] DIFFUSION OF NEGRO RACB. 245
and poetry in defined rythmical cadence. Their langnages, howerer,
haye not sprung out of any corruption or change of the Mahiy
toogoe of the narrower zone^ but we may rather trace in them an
unformed and original condition of the latter.
'' Along with the race thus described in the two divisions of the
Great Southern Archipelago, we meet, on some of the islands, with
people who, from their appearanee, must be attributed to a wholly
different stock. Both the Malays in the stricter sense, and the more
east^n inhabitants of the South Sea, belong without doubt to the same
human £unily, and they form, if one makes an accurate division by
colours, the class passing from the light browns into white. The races
of wjiom we are now speaking approximate, by their black skim
occanonally by their woolly frizzled hair, and by their peculiar features
and build, to the African N^o, although, according to the most
trustworthy evidence, they are nevertheless essentially different, and can
by no means be considered as the same race. Writers on these countries*
in order to distinguish them from N^oes, call them either N^pitoes
or Anstral-N^oes, and but few of them exist. Both in the islandi
inhabited by the Malay races, and in the I^iilippines, they usually
occupy the middle of die island, and inaccessible hills, to which they
I4>pear to have been gradually driven by the more numerous andpowerful
white race. We must carefully, however, distinguish them from the
Haraforas, or Alfuris, the Turajos of Celebes, who are to be found in
Bcmieo, Celebes, the Moluccas, Mindouio, and some other islands.
These latter appear to have been driven out in a similar manner by
their neighbours, but belong to the light brown race ; and Marsden
attributes their disappearance from the coast to Mahomedan persecution.
In wildness they approximate to the black race, and they constitute a
population of uniformly low development. Other islands, amongst which
are some large ones, like New Guinea, New Britain, New Zealand,
and some of the Hebrides, contain these Negro races only, and the
inhabitants of the large continents of New Holland and Van Dieman's
Land, so £Eir as there has been hitherto opportunity of becoming
acquainted with them, belong to the same race. But although this
race in all the localities here indicated displays general marks of
similarity and relationship, it is by no means thoroughly established how
far essential differences of race exist among them, for their language has
not yet been investigated so as to satisfy the exigencies of a thorough
grammatical inquiry. We have only the materials collected by the
Missionary Trelkeld as to one race in New South Wales, by which
we are enabled to form any judgment as to its organic and grammatical
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246 CHARACTBRISTICS OF THB NEGRO RACE. [JuLY
itrnctnre. The race everywhere distinguishes itself hy a g;reater
wildness and harbarism than appears in the lighter races ; and the
differences herein relate solely to their greater or less intercourse with
the latter. The inhabitants of New Holland and Van Dieman's Land
appear to stand on the lowest grade of civilization which has ever yet
be^n occupied by mankind. It is a remarkable phenomenon to mee^
even on the peninsula of Malacca, the light and dark races in contact
with one another, for the Semangs, who occupy part of the mountain
range of that country; are by most unquestionable testimony a woolly-
haired Negrito race. As this is the only point of the mainland
of Asia where the fact occurs, it is unquestionable that immigration
must have taken place here at a comparatively recent period. "** Among
the lighter races, also, as the Malay expression orang benna (men of
the country) appears to prove, more than one immigration seems to
have occurred. Both occurrences only show, therefore, that the same
kind of connection between countries at different periods brings about
similar historical facts, and, consequently, to this extent there is
nothing remarkable in them. In reference to the state of culture of
the different races of mankind in this Archipelago, however, any
explanation by means of colonization becomes deceptive. To enterprising
nations, the sea offers rather a means of easy connection than of
distinct separation, and the general diffusion of bold active seamen, like
the Malays, explains itself in this way by short trips from island to
island, sometimes intentionally made, and sometimes by their being
driven away through the violence of the prevailing winds ; for activity,
expertness, and knowledge of sea-craft, are not characteristics of the
proper Malay only, but are to be found amongst the whole of the light
brown race. I need only mention here the Bugis of Celebes, and the
South Sea Islanders. But if this description of the Negritoes, and of
their diffusion from New Holland to the Philippines, and from New
Guinea to the Andamanns, is correct, these races must have deteriorated
more than is usually supposed from a more civilized condition, and have
become wild. Their present condition rather favours the hypothesis,
which is not in itself improbable, of revolutions of nature, old
traditions of. which still exist in Java, by which a populous continent
* Yet it is strange that HerodotuB records amongst the ranks of Xerxes' army a
Negro race from India, \7ho appear to have been brigaded with the Hindus, and
who, says the father of history, were only distinguished from the African Negro by
their language, and by not having woolly hair. See Lassen's Alterthnmskunde,
vol. 1. where he points out other evidence of an aboriginal black race in India ;
and the subject seems worth pursuing. — E. P.
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1852.] HINDU INFLUENCE ON THE MALAYS. 247
became broken up into the present island groups. Men, like ruins,
might, so far as mankind could survive such convulsions, have remained
on the scattered island tops. Both of these explanations, perhaps, if
united, so as to consider the dislocation by the powers of nature as
occurring during a lapse of centuries, and distinguished from the
connection through human colonization, might perhaps afford us some
sort of account of the various races which now appear.
" Tanna, one of the Hebrides, but a word of Malay origin. New
Caledonia, Timor, Ende, and some other islands, possess a population
which is left doubtful after inquiry whether we are to reckon it, with
Crawfurd, as a third race, or, with Marsden, as a mixture of the two
others ; for the inhabitants, in their physical make, wooUiness of hair,
and colour of skin, occupy a middle place between the light brown and
black races. If, at the same time, a similar affirmation can be made as
to their language, this circumstance would tell authoritatively for their
being a mixed race. There still remains an important question, but
one very difficult to decide from the materials at hand, viz. how far
older and more intimate mixtures of the white and black races have
occurred in these countries, and how far gradual changes may there-
upon have ensued in language, and even in colour and growth of
hair, the wooUiness of which, moreover, in some localities, is cultivated
as an ornament. To judge correctly of the Negro races in their pure
form, we must always commence with the inhabitants of the Great
Southern Continent, as between these and the brown races no direct
contact is conceivable, and according to their present condition it is
difficult to suppose any kind even of indirect connection. The remark-
able fact still remains, that many words in the languages of these races,
although we certainly possess only a few of them, bear an erident
likeness to the words of the South Sea Islands.
''Amid these geographical relations, in some instances amounting to
dose neighbourhood, certain Malay races adopted Indian civilization to
sudi an extent that perhaps no similar example is to be found of a
nation undergoing such a complete infusion of the national spirit of
another race, without losing its own independence. The phenomenon
as a whole is very intelligible. A large part of the Archipelago, and
the most attractive from its climate and fertility, lay at a very short
distance from the great continent of India— opportunities and points of
contact were consequently abundant. But where such occurred, the
preponderating influence of a civilization so ancient, and so diffused
through every branch of human activity as the Hindu, could not fail to
attract towardsit other nationsof active and impressionable temperaments.
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248 HINDU INTLUENCE ON THB MALAYS. [JULT
This was rather a moral than a political rerohition. We reoognise
it in its consequences in the Hinda elements, which undeniably
present themselves to view in a certain range of Malay races ; but
how did this mixture arise ? On Htm point, eren amongst the Malays;,
as we shall see, nothing but obscure and doubtful traditions exist. If
inroads of powerful races and extensiTe conquests had produced thk
state of things, clearer traces of such political events would have been
preserved. Intellectual and moral causes work, like natmre herself, in
silenee, and their (^>eration is similar to the growth of a seed, eluding
observation. The modus operandi in which Hinduism struck root
amongst the Malaj races proves that as a mental ^ring of action it
excited the imagination, and became powerful through the impresriona
of wonder which it produced in races susceptible of culture. In India
itself, so far as I know, we find no mention of the South-eastern
Archipelago in Hindu history or literature. Even if Lanka were perhaps
considered to extend further than the limits of Ceylon, this was only dark
and uncertain surmising, or mere poetical license. From the Archipeh^
itself, on the other hand, as we may well conceive, nothing proceeded
which could have any influence on the mainland. It was India
that exerted a substantial mfluence, and perhaps even by colonization,
which was not intended to keep the mother country in view as a home^
or to preserve relations with it. Reasons for establishing settlements
might be various. How fax Budhist persecution might have co-operated
I shall have to discuss hereafter.
'^But to explain properly the mixture of Malay and Hindu elements,
and the influence of India on the whole of the Indian Archipelago, we
must discriminate between its different modes of operation, and thereby
commence with that which, early as it may have began, has continued
to the latest times, and consequently has left the clearest and most
indelible traces. It is not only the influence of a spoken fbreign language
which in this case, as in ail mixtures of nations, operates powerfully,
but also the whole of the mental culture which springs out of it.
Thb phenomenon is unquestionably apparent in the introduction of
Indian language, literature, myths, and religious philosophy mto Java.
The whole purport of the following work is to discuss tbis question^
but principally with reference to language, — ^I therefore must content
myself here with this mere allusion. This species of influence affected
only the Indian Archipelago, properly so called, and the Malay zone in
its stricter sense ; but possibly not even the whole of the latter, and
certainly not to an equal ext^t. The focus was so nirfoubtedly
Java, that we may reasonably doubt whether that island was not the
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1652.] HINDU INFLUENCE ON MALAYS AND POLYNESIANS. 249
immedute source from which it extended itself over the rest of the
Archipelago. Independent of Java, we find, however, distinct and
oomplete proofs of Indian civilisation amongst the proper Malays and
Bugis of Celebes. A true literature, from the essential elements of the
formation of language, is only capable of existing contemporaneously
with a written character which is in daily use. It is an important fact,
therefore, for the mental development of the South-eastern Archipelago,
that just that portion of the island group which has been designated as
strictly Malay possesses an alphabetic character. A distinction not
lo be overlooked, however, here occurs. The alphabetic character in
this part of the world is Indian. This arose naturally from the intel«
lectual relations of these countries, and is visible in most of their
alphabets, with the exception perhaps of the Bugis, in the similarity
of the letters, nol^ to mention their arrangement to designate sounds,
which undoubtedly does not furnish any decisive proof, as it might
have been adopted subsequently to a foreign alphabet. Nevertheless, a
complete similarity, with merely an adaptation to the simpler phonetic
system of the indigenous tongues, occurs only in Java, and perhaps at
Sumatra. The character of the Tagalis and of the Bugis is so different,
that it may be regarded as an example of alphabetic invention. In
Madagascar the Arabic character has planted itself, as the Indian has
done in the centre of the Archipelago. At what period this occurred
is uncertain. And there does not appear to be any trace of an origbal
character which it displaced. The use of the Arabic character amongst
the Malays proper decides nothing as to their intellectual relations,
which we are now discussing, for it is notoriously a modem introduction.
I have already mentioned the total want of all writing in the South Sea
Islands, and amongst the woolly-haired races. The traces of Hinduism
which we have here in sight are so distinct that we may recognise
them everywhere without difficulty, and we can distinguish them as
foreign dements. No true intermixture or amalgamation is here
discernible, but a mere mosaic union of foreign and native. So far as
relates to manners and customs, we may clearly recognise in Indian
antiquity the foreign words in the Sanskrit descended to us, and which
have not entirely lost their grammatical forms : we may even discover
the laws which governed the transplantation of foreign elements of
speedi into a native soil. This is the foundation of the cultivated and
poetic language of Java, and is closely connected with the introduction
of literature and religion. All that has been said above undoubtedly
has not operated with the language of the people, and still less can it
be affirmed, that merely because Indian words are to be found. in it they
34
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260 MALAY CIVIUZATION ORIGINAL; [JuLY
were introduced in a similar manner. In thns tracing minatdj the
operations of the different modes of Indian influence, two deepljHseated
questions arise, suggested by actual phenomena, but which are extremely
difficult to answer accurately, viz. whether the whole of the ciyilization
of the Archipelago is traceable to an Indian origin ; and whether, from
a period anterior to the rise of literature, and to the last and most
complete development of the language, any connection existed between
the Malay and Sanskrit languages, which is still capable of being traced
in the social elements of speech ?
" I am inclined to answer the former of these questions in the
negative. It appears to me to be made out that the brown race had an
original dvilization of their own. It is still to be found in the Eaatera
portion, and is not altogether unrecognizable in Java. It may, indeed,
be said, that the population of the Archipelago principally issued from
its centre, where the influence of India was most powerful, and extended
itself thence towards the east, so that the distinct Hindu element becomes
more diluted at each extremity. This propoatiim, however, is supported,
less by any distinct similarity than by remarkable coincidences in
manners, which have nothing specially Indian to distinguish them,
amongst the races of the central and eastern parts of the Archipelago.
One sees also no reason why we should deny to a race like the Malay
a self-developed civilization, in whatever subsequent direction the march
of population, and their gradual culture may have been. A proof is
even afforded by the readiness of the different tribes belonging to the
race to adopt the Hinduism imported among them, and, still further,
by the manner in which they still retain the indigenous element, and
scarcely ever allow its peculiar form to mei^ in the Indian. The
contrary would have happened if these races had been wild, unculti-
vated savages, when Indian colonization first came in contact with
them. When I speak here of Hindus, I of course only mean people
speaking the Sanskrit language, and not the inhabitants of the continent
of India generaUy. How far the one race came in contact with, and
was, perhaps, driven out by the other, I do not now enter upon, as my
purpose is only to show the different elements of civilization by which
the Malay races were influenced.
"The second question, which alone relates to language, must, I
conceive, be answered in the affirmative. In this respect the limits of
Hindu influence have a wider range. Without mentioning the Tagali,
which contains a tolerable number of Sanskrit words, with completdy
diffSerent meanings, there are to be found, even in the languages of
Madagascar and the South Sea Islands, both words and sounds belonging
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1852.] BUT ACTED ON BY INDIA, CHINA, AND ARABIA. 251
to the Sanskrit, and in such an elementary part of speech as the pronoun ;
and eren the modes of change of sound, which may he looked upon as
a good comparative test of the period of introduction, are different
in the languages of the narrower Malay zone, in which, as in the
Javanese, it is notorious that the influences of Hindu literature and
language displayed themselves at a much later period. It hecomeS,
therefore, a matter of great difficulty to explain this phenomenon, and to
ascertain what reciprocal operation these two great families of languages
have on one another. At the end of this essay I will return to the
subject, as it is sufficient for me here to call attention to the influence of
Sanskrit on the Malay languages, which appears to be distinct from the
subsequently introduced mental cultivation and literature, and to belong
to a much earlier period, and to different connections between the two
races. I shall subsequently touch on the languages of the Negro races,
but must make the preliminary remark now, that if in some of these
tongues, as in the Papuan of New Guinea for example, similarities with
Sanskrit words are to be found, this does not at all prove any imme-
diate connection between India and those islands, as such common
words might have been introduced through the commerce of the Malays,
just as we see now with Arabic terms.
''On seeking, therefore, to take a general view of the state of the
civilization of the great Archipelago, we find the Malay populations to
be hemmed in, as it were, between influences and characteristics which
are strongly contrasted. On the same islands and island-groups, which
still contain races on the lowest level of civilization, or where at all
events such tribes once existed, we find a very ancient state of culture,
which had borne choice fruits, and which, derived from India, had
become indigenous. The Malay races have appropriated this culture,
in nearly all its parts, to themselves. Herein they may be perceived to
be connected in race with the inhabitants of the South Sea Islands,
who, compared to them, may be looked on as savages ; and it is even
doubtful whether their language is altogether strange to the Negro
races. The South Sea Islanders have kept themselves distinct from
those rude races by institutions peculiar to themselves, and by a
language which in its present form is quite their own. The population
of the Great Archipelago, which, according to our present knowledge^
cannot be traced to the continent of Asia, is found in places where aU
foreign influence must be left out of consideration, in a most rude and
savage state, or on the lowest step of civilization. This is especially
true if we regard only the Negro races and the South Sea Islanders,
and exclude the Malay races, strictly so called, although no very
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252 SUMMARY OF HUMBOLDT's VIEWS. [Jui*Y
sufficient ground presents itself for ascribing to these races a much
higher station in civilisation before Indian influences had operated upoa
them. We still find, even with the Battas of Sumatra, whose myths
and religion display unmistakeable traces of Hindu influence, the
barbarous custom of cannibalism on certain occasions. The Great
Archipelago, however, extends itself along the whole coast-line of Ana,
and connects itself with both its extremities, stopped only by Africa on
one side, and America on the other. Its centre lies at a considerable
distance, so far as navigation is concerned, from the nearest point of
the continent of Asia. At different times, therefore, it has been acted
upon from the three great focuses of the earliest awakening of the
human mind amongst mankind — China, India, and the seat of the
Semitic races. It has felt the different influences of all of them at
proportionately remote periods. To its earlier progress India alone
contributed anything of importance ; Arabia nothing, even if we except
Madagascar ; and China just as little of importance, notwithstanding
its early settlements."
It will be seen by the above extract, that William von Humboldt
arrived at the conclusion that the Malay language was the stem from
which the various dialects spoken by the brown races inhabiting this
vast portion of the globe had branched out. He also thought it an
indisputable fact that all these brown races belonged to one family of
nations, the Malay ;* and in his explanation of the phenomenon of one
race, and one universal language, being thus diffused over such a wide
surface of the globe, and throughout such distantly severed localities,
he appears to have supposed that a great convulsion of nature had
occurred, by which a mighty continent had been shattered and over-
whelmed, leaving only its mountain tops, with a few survivors clinging
to them, to constitute the innumerable isles and islets of what
has been so happily termed Polynesia. He also conceived that a
clear connection existed between the Sanskrit and Malay languages,
prior in time to the subsequent influence which Hinduism had impressed
on the Malay language and on Malay civilization through the joint
means of commerce and religion ; and therefore that in all probability
the Malayan tongue belonged to what has been latterly termed the
Indo-European family of languages. He would also seem to be of
opinion that when increasing knowledge made us more intimately
acquainted with the languages of the black races, they also would be
found to be closely connected with the Malay. His Editor, Buschmann,
carrying out the views of his author still further, announces that. he is
• Kawi Spraohe, vol. ii. p. 216.
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1852.] OPPOSITE VIEW6 OF CRAWFURD. 263
prepared to show in a forthcoming work, bjr analogous reiteoning, that
the varions languages of America, which eren Humboldt thought were
distinct, are all closely allied tongues.
The profound philological qualifications which William von Humboldt
brought to the inyestigation of these interesting phenomena are
too well known to require remark ; but they are well tested in the
present inquiry by his demonstration of the true character of the
mysterious Kawi language of Java, now obsolete in that island, but
still the language of religion and law in the neighbouring island of
Bali, where the Brahmanical faith has kept its footing. Sir Stamford
Raffles, in his work on Java, considered it to be a foreign language, of
unknown origin, imported into that island. Crawfurd, in his history
of the Indian Archipelago, perceived its connection with Javanese, but
deemed it to have been merely a written language of the priests.
William von Humboldt proved, however, by a thorough scientific
analysis, that the language is merely an archaic form of modem Javanese,
though plentifully interspersed with Sanskrit terms ; and subsequent
inquiries have arrived at exactly the same conclusion, though by
different premises.
Mr. Crawfurd, at an early period of his life, whilst in the Company's
service, spent twelve years in places where the Malayan and Javanese
languages are vernacular ; the former portion of the time in the island
of Java, under Sir S. Raffles, the latter at Singapore, of which he was
the first Resident. At these places he obtained that insight into the
vernacular tongues which active Indian administrators are so often seen
to acquire, and from his work on the Archipelago, and the rich collec-
tions which he made on the spot, it vnll be observed that Baron William
Humboldt derives the principal portion of the materials for the
conclusions he draws in the work published after his death in 1838.
Indeed, his illustrious brother. Baron Alexander Humboldt, in his
preface to the posthumous work I have before mentioned, admits, that
without the materials thus freely contributed by Mr. Crawfiird, the
work in question could not have been produced ; and the graceful terms
in which the gratitude of the two most diBtingnished scholars of Europe
is there expressed, must have been deemed an ample recompense for
years of literary toil by him to whom they were addressed.
Mr. Crawford now comes before the world, as he tells us, with a
work, which contains the result of labours, spread, though with various
interruptions, over more than forty years ; and I trust I am not misled
by partiality for the author when I state my conviction that the mass
of information, and originality of views, condensed in the thin octavo
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254 LAN0UA0B8 AND RACB8 OP POLYNESIA DISTINCT. [JuLY
Tolume which contains th^ preliminary dissertation, wiU awaken in no
slight degree the attention of that distinguished school who are prose-
cuting the study of comparative philology in Continental Europe with
an ardour little appreciated in India, and with results tending to throw
the greatest light on the most interesting questions connected with the
diffusion of the human race.
As the condusioi^ drawn hy Mr. Crawfurd are diametrically opposed
to those of William von Humholdt, it is well to recollect that the two
authors come in conflict in different characters — the one a profound
scholar, with all the information that the closet and devotion to the study
of comparative philology can confer ; the other a practical man, with
accurate personal knowledge of the localities and of the races, and
possessing, what the great Humboldt wanted, an intimate acquaintance
with the chief vernacular languages on which the inquiry turns.
Mr. Crawfurd holds — Ist. That there is no foundation for the
prevalent idea that, Negroes excepted, all the descriptions of men in the
limits I have above described belong to the same race — on the contrary,
there are several races.
2nd. He also contends that many of the nations belonging to the
same race, for example the Malays and Javanese, speak distinct
languages.
drd. He holds that the black race, the Austral-Negroes, or N^ritoes»
are not identical, and that their languages, like their races, are also
distinct.
4 th. He admits that the Polynesians speak one very largely diffused
language, with dialectic differences, but maintains that it is quite
distinct from the Malay.
In order to place the conflicting views of these two writers in closer
opposition, it will be well to recapitulate the leading facts, and these
are that in all the islands, from Madagascar to Easter Island, — a zone,
I may recall to mind, embracing much more than half the circumference
of the globe, — an infusion of the Malay language is to be found, with
more or less of foreign adjuncts from Sanskrit and Arabic sources.
Further, it ib indisputable that in many of the insular languages
considerable resemblances in grammatical construction and organic
formation of sounds may be discovered. According to Humboldt, the
Malay language (the purest form of which, he asserts, is now to be found
in the Tagala, one of the languages of the Philippines,) is the mother
language of this vast affiliation. But as in so widely a diffused family
of languages there will be synonymes for very many of the leading
ideas, one term being used by one nation, one by imother, it may turn
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1852.] TESTS FOB IDENTITY OF TWO LANQUAQES. 255
out on comparison of different languages that not very many words are
used by different groups in common. Humboldt, therefore, considers
that the grammatical construction, and, above all^ the accordance of
grammatical sounds in two languages, is the most convincing proof of
affinity. He lays down, accordingly, the following method, which he
prescribes to himself: —
** I therefore shall not confine myself to a comparison of words, but
especially address myself to the grammar. It will then appear that
these races not only express their ideas in the same manner, but follow
the same path in their forms of speech, form their words and construct
their sentences with the same sounds, and according to the same laws,
and therefore possess concrete grammatical forms, borrowed from one
another. A language cannot be looked on as a mere aggr^ate of
words. Every language is a system by which the mind embodies
an idea in audible expression. It is the business of a philologist to
discover the key to this system."
Mr. Crawfurd, on the other hand, objects to both of these tests, viz.
the essential identity of a few words, and the supposed similarity of
grammatical structure, the latter of which, when applied to languages
of remarkably simple forms, such as those under discussion^ affords
but few salient points for comparison.
"With respect to the test by the identity of words," Mr. Crawfurd
writes, " it has been imagined by some writers, that when the class of
words expressing the first and simplest ideas of mankind are the same
in two or more languages, such languages may be considered as derived
from the same stock. This certainly does not accord with my experience
of the Malayan and Polynesian languages, into which, from the
simplicity of their structure, I find that well-sounding foreign words
very readily gun admission. Instead of words expressing simple ideas
being excluded, I should, on the whole, owing to the familiar and
frequent use of the ideas, consider them the most amenable to adoption
of any class of words whatsoever. Accordingly, such words will be
found either to have supplanted native terms altogether, or to be used
as familiar terms along with them. Thus, to give some examples in
Malay : the most familiar words for the head, the shoulder, the face,
a Hmb, a hair, a pile, brother, house, elephant, the sun, the day, to
speak, to talk, are all Sanskrit.
" In Javanese we have from the same Sanskrit the head, the
shoulders, the throat, the hand, the face, father, brother, son, daughter,
woman, house, buffalo, elephant; with synonymes for the dog, and
hog, the sun, the moon, the aea, and a mountain. In the language of
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256 TRUE TEST FOR LANGUAGES. [JuLV
Bali, the name for the sun in most familiar use is Sanskrit, and a
word of the same language is the onlj one in use for the numeral ten»
It is on the same principle that I account for the existence of a similar
class of Malayan words in the Tagala of the Philippines, although ^e
whole number of Malayan words does not exceed one-fiftieth part of
the language." (The Tagala, it will he recollected, is the language
which William von Humboldt indicates as the purest form of Malay.)
" In the Maori, or New Zealand, the words forehead, sky, gnat, stone,
fruit, to drink, to die, are Malay or Javanese — ^yet of these two tongues
there are not a hundred words in the whole language. As to the
personal pronouns, which have often been referred to as evidence of a
common tongue, in as far as concerns the language under examination,
they are certainly the most interchangeable of words, and cannot
possibly be received as evidence. Some of them, for example, are
found in the Polynesian dialects, where, in a vocabulary of five thousand
words, a hundred Malayan terms do not exist. The numerals must
surely be considered as out of the catagory of early invented words, for
they imply a very considerable social advancement, and seem to be just
the class of words most likely to be adopted by any savages of tolerable
natural capacity. The Australians are not savages of such capacity,
and although with the opportunity of borrowing the Malayan numerals,
they have not done so, and in thdr own languages count only as far as
•two.' "
Mr. Crawfurd then proceeds to submit his ovm test of a common
language, and 1 subjoin it for the examination of the philologists
belonging to our Society, whether in India or on the banks of the
Tigris, who are engaged in kindred researches : —
''The words which appear to me most fit to test the unity of
languages are those indispensable to their structure ; which constitute^
as it were, their framework, and without which they cannot be spoken
or written. These are the prepositions, which represent the cases of
language of complex structure, and the auxiliaries which represent
times and moods. If a sentence can be constructed by words of the
same origin in two or more languages, such languages may be safely
considered as sister tongues — to be, in fact, dialects, or to have sprung
j&om one stock. In applying this test, it is not necessary that the
sentence so constructed should be grammatical, or that the parties
speaking sister tongues should be intelligible to each other. The
languages of the South of Europe can be written with words common
to them all, derived ^m the Latin without the assistance of any of the
foreign words which all of them contain. The common Btodc» therefore^
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1852.] MALAYAN AND JAVANfiSE DISTINCT. 257
from which they are derived is Latin, and they are sister tongues.
English can be written with great ease with words entirely Anglo-Saxon,
and without any French words, although French forms a sixth part
of the whole body of its words, but no sentence oan be constructed
consisting of French words only. The parent stock of our language
therefore is not French, nor Latin, but Anglo-Saxon. By this test the
Irish and Gaelic are shown to be^ virtually, the same language, and the
Welsh and Armorican to be sister diale<its ; but it will not prove that
the Welsh and Irbh, although they contain many words in common,
are the same language, and derived from the same source*
'' Applying this test to the Malayan languages, it will be found that a
sentence of Malay can be constructed without the assistance of Javanese
words, or of Javanese without the assistance of Malay words. Of course
either of these two languages can be written or spoken without the least
difficulty without a word of Sanskrit or Arabic. The Malay and
Javanese, then, although a large proportion of their words be in common,
are distinct languages, and as to their Sanskrit and Arabic elements, they
are extrinsic and unessential. When the test is applied to the Polynesian
languages we find an opposite result* A sentence in the Maori and
Tahitian can be written in words common to both, and without the
help of one word of the Malayan which they contain, just as a sentence
of Welsh or Irish can be constructed without the help of Latin, although
of this language they contain at least as large a proportion of words as
the Maori or Tahitian do of Malayan. The Maori and Tahitian are
therefore essentially the same language, and their Malayan ingredient
is extrinsic/'
According to Crawfurd's view, the Malayan races have diffused
themselves, and the civilization which they attained by self-derived
culture, from two distinct and independent centres. The Malayan-
i^)eaking Malays from the rich table-lands of the interior of Sumatra, —
Sumatra, which, from its physical gifts, and large proportion of coast-
line abutting on placid seas, would be at once seized on by the geographer
as a focus of civilization; and the Javanese-speaking Malays from
Java, an island not less richly endowed in physical advantages. The
mode in which these races were enabled to come into contact with
distant localities, such as Madagascar and the South Sea Islands, is
minutely explained by reference to existing facts, and the evidence on
this subject is not cUssimilar to that collected by Sir Charles Lyell in
support of his celebrated theory of geology.
The contact of the Malays with Hinduism is not less satisfactorily
explained, and some curious facts connected with the commerce of the
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258 SEAPARlNa HINDUS. [Jui*T
East are brought to light. There is no doubt that a portion of the
traont by which the much-prised products of the Spice Islands were
eonveyed to Rome was conducted by Hindus, and when the Europeans
first came in contact with the races of the Archipelago in their own
waters, they found an active commerce in existence between the Hindos
of the Coromandel Coast and the Malays. Barbosa, a highly intelligent
traveller, describing Malacca before its conquest by Albuquerque in
1511, says: "There are here many great merchants. Moors as
well as GentUe strangers, but chiefly of the Ghetis, who are of the
Coromandel Coast, and have large ships, which they call ginnchi*'
(junks). And again: '*The merchants of the Coromandel Coast,
called Chetisy who dwell among them, (the Malays,) are for the
most part corpulent, and go naked from the waist upwards." "*" Mr.
Crawfurd observes that ** the word here given as Chetis • there can
be little doubt is a misprint for Kling, or Chleng,t which is
the local name that would be given to the Hindu traders on the spot."
But, with deference to so accurate an observer as Mr. Crawfurd, it
would seem that Barbosa described the Hindu merchant by his own
Tamil name ; and his accurate description of the Coromandel Chitty, or
Banyan, is a picture to the life, such as he may be seen at the present
day, and with the same name, at Madras, or in the bland of Ceylon.^
Indeed, the similarity of the term Chitty, or Chetijs as Ramusio writes it,
to the word used by the Marathas in the Deccan, Shetti, to denote the
trading classes, points out the common origin of the word in the
Sanskrit word S*re9tin, a trader. I may further observe that a large body
of evidence will be found collected in Ritter, and which Crawfurd
seems to have overlooked, that tends to show Ceylon to have been the
spot, at the commencement of the Christian era and subsequently,
where the enterprising seafaring Hindus of Talinga, the Chinese with
their heavily-laden junks, and the Arabs from the African Coast, assem-
bled, in order to interchange the products of the East and We8t.§
* Ramusio, vol. L^dted by Crawford.
t From KaliDga, which is the term applied by the Malays to denote India,
being a corruption of Talinga, from whence the commercial Hindus issued to
drive their trade in the Archipelago and elsewhere.
t So also Paolini distinguishes the traders of the Coromandel Coast by their
native name from the Banyans of the Malabar Coast. Speaking of Cochin, he
Mys : ** Gli Ebrei i Baniani e li Cettis o Canarini vi hanno molti magaifni.**
Cited by Marsden, Travels of Marco Polo, p. 679.
§ For example, Sopater, the friend of Cosmas, found many Chinese junks at
Ceylon circa A. d. 660. So Ibn Batuta, ▲. d. 1340, found thirteen junks at
Calicut, waiting for the monsoon to return to China. See Ritter*s Asien, vol. iv.
p. 602; Tol. V. p. 28.
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1862.] GHAND AIM OF CIVILIZATION. 269
It would be tedious here to give the views of Mr. Crawfurd as to the
mode in which two limitrophic nations, speaking distinct languages of
simple structure, might be led to borrow a similar grammatical
structure from one another; but the theory will inevitably remind the
reader of the interesting essay of Adam Smith on the formation of
language. Nor can I condense the substantial portion of the evidence
on which the principal conclusions are founded. But with respect to
the Tagala language, on which fiumboldt has laid so much stress, as
the purest form of the Malay, Crawfurd, after a minute analysis of
its grammatical structure, denies wholly its alleged parentage, and gives
the following result of a close examination of the 16,482 words in
the Tagala Dictionary, published by Father Juan de Nouda :-^
Malay and Javanese words 399
Sanskrit 33
Arabic 7
Persian 2
Telinga I
This makes little more than one thirty-eighth part of the language.
I think that the sketch which I have given of the leading views of
the two works under discussion may possibly show that the brilliant
generalisatbns of Humboldt are scarcely reconcileable with the facts
which the industry of subsequent writers has brought to light. Baron
Humboldt, in a passage of noble eloquence in his Euay on the South
Sea Languages^ points out the causes which kept the nations of
antiquity and of the middle ages in gloomy isolation. '' But," he
continues, '' if there is any one idea which shines out conspicuously
throughout all history in ever-increasing brilliancy, — if there is any
idea which tends to prove the much-contested, and still more
misunderstood, perfectibility of the human race, — it is the idea of
HUMANITY. The endeavour to remove the boundaries which the
prejudices and mutually conflicting selfish views of mankind have set up
amongst one another, and to consider the whole of the human race,
without reference to religion, nation, or colour, as one great family — an
organic whole, bent on the attainment of a common end — the free
development of its mental powers, — this is the grand and ultimate aim
of society ; and, at the same time, it contains within itself the true
direction of man towards the indefinite development of his being. He
looks upon the earth as it lies extended before him ; the skies, so
far ar they are visible ; the stars, with their eternal fires ; and in his inner
mind he considers them as his own, bestowed on him for contemplation
and activity. Even as a child he sighs for heaven ; to cross the seas ; to
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260 OBJECT OP ETHNOGRAPHY. [JuLY
pass the limits of his naiTow homestead ; and then, again, like a plant,
pines for his native soil, — just as all that is animating and beautiful in
man, by directing his aspirations either to somethhig longed for, or to
something lost, prevents him from being bound up exclusively with the
present."
Grand and animating views like these led the illustrious author
to look upon general philology as one of the handmaids by vrhich the
nations of the earth might be brought into closer brotherhood, and he
gave to the elaboration of the science the better part of his existence.
If the generalizations thereby suggested have been too hasty, and
if the additional body of fkcts which have been brought to light by
Mr. Crawfurd and others* demonstrate that the time has not yet
arrived for such large and world-comprehensive theories, this conclusion
will only accord with the march of science in other departments
of knowledge, and will point out, which is the end I desired principally
to indicate in the present paper, that the field is still open for inquiry,
and that a rich harvest still awaits the patient student and attentive
observer amongst the countless tribes of the Indian and Pacific Oceans.
I may, perhaps, add, that I never arise fVom inquiries of this nature,
which, from their union of fkct and mystery are to many minds
indescribably interesting, without being deeply impressed that the same
great fact which the science of geology has indisputably established,
viz. the recent appearance of man on the surface of thr globe, is equally
clearly proved by the study of ethnography, with the addition tbat the
recency of the event becomes a cbronological date, not one of geology.
* The reader Ib referred to a very interesting series of papers on the " Ethnology
of the Indo-Paciflc Islands,'' now in the course of pablicatioQ in the Journal of
the Indian ArchipdagOy by its able editor, Dr, Logan.
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Art. IV. — Tlie Theory of the Great Elephanta Cave, By the
Reverend J. Stevenson, D.D.
Presented 13th May 1852.
Thb Caves of Elephanta have heen so often described^ and the last
description of them, by Mr. Erskine, in the first volume of the Trans-
actions of the Bombay Literary Society, is so excellent, that it may
seem unnecessary to add anything to what has been already written
with so much accuracy and detail. But the very excellence of Mr.
Erskine's description, especially the minuteness with which he dwells
on some particulars, has been one of the causes of my attempting to
furnish a sketch, which, taking for granted what he has proved, and
omitting what is of inferior moment, might better serve the purpose
of the noperous visitors to Elephanta, who are not deeply versed in
Hindu lore. At the same time, I am not without hopes of being able
to exhibit to the general reader the theory of those interesting excava-
tions, with a greater fulness and simplicity than has hitherto been done.
My literary readers will find in the notes appended some farther
observations on the subject, and proofs which could not well be intro-
duced into the narrative, and which will enable them better to judge of
the accuracy of the theory of the caves, which, following Mr. Erskine
in the general outlines, I have filled up, and illustrated from the Hindu
sacred literature.
THE NAME ELEPHANTA.
The name Elephanta has been derived from a stone elephant, having,
it wonld seem, originally a tiger on its shoulders, which stood near the
southern landing-place. That figure, after successively losing its
different members, crumbled down a few years ago into a mass of ruins,
now scarcely distinguishable from the surrounding stones. The name
Elephanta is still unknown to most of the uneducated natives, who call
the island Gdrapuri, (Gahrapooree,)* t. e. the Town of Excavations.
* The orthography of the text is the Jonesian ; that within parentheses is intended
to represent the soond better to the mere English reader.
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Q62 THEORY OP THE GREAT ELEPHANTA CAVE. [JuLY
The caves are called Lenen, (Laina,) a word used throughout India and
Ceylon for these artificial grottoes, most probably on account of the first
of them being intended for hermitages to Buddhist ascetics.
TIME OF CONSTRUCTION OF THE CAVES.
The time when these caves were excavated can only yet be guessed
at, but it is supposed that it muse have been some time between the
eighth and twelfth ceuturies of the Christian era. The main reason for
this supposition is, that from inscriptions and tablets found in various
parts of Southern India, and architectural structures whose age k
known, it seems that the religious system to which the carved images
and architectural embellishments belong, had not gained much currency
before the first mentioned of those eras ; and, ovnng to their conflicts
with the Mahomedans, the Hindu Rajas, it is surmised, would not be
able to give attention to such works after the last mentioned period.
The rock, also, out of which the caves are excavated, being ftill of
rents, the water penetrates through it, and detaches piece after piece
from the figures, so as to threaten to destroy them one day altogether.
This process, then, it is conjectured, if the caves had been of very
ancient date, would by this time have occasioned a greater d^ree of
damage than we find has actually taken plaee. This damage, since the
caves were first described by Niebuhr, has been very considerable, and
several Europeans in Bombay can testify that even during the last
quarter of a century it has been by no means immaterial.
THE LINGA CHAPEL.
The Great Cave at Elephanta is what the Hindus call a Sfva Linga
(Sheewa Ling) Temple, a class of sacred buildings very common in
Southern and Central India. Many of the Brahmans in Bombay will
not acknowledge its claim to this honor, and the place is now neariy
deserted. They, with other natives, maintain that this and all the rest
of the excavations around are the works of the sons of Pandu, who
constructed them while wandering about the country in banishment
from their native land. They imagine these excavations works far too
mighty for the degenerate mortals of our day, a misconception which
it is to be hoped the railway works, now in progress, vrill soon clear
away. The reason why this temple has been deserted may have been
the unhealthiness of the island, which, during certain seasons of the
year, is very prolific of ague ; or perhaps the first Europeans may
have desecrated the images, and led the Hindus to abandon them.
Although the current tradition that the Portuguese fired into the cave
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from the offing, and hauled guns up the hill to its mouth to destroy
the idols, is absurd, and could never, even if true, account for the
actual damage done, as every visitor may easily satisfy himself; still it
is not improbable that they desecrated the place, and that hence arose
those popular stories. The Great Cave is nevertheless still visited by
Hindus, especially of the Banyan caste, on the great festivals of Siva,
and the great Ling is worshipped on these occasions by crowds of
devotees.
After entering the Great Cave from the usual entrance on the north,
the popular object of worship, which more particularly attracts the
devotees above mentioned, is seen about half way up on the right hand,
or towards the west of the cave. It is a conical stone called the Ling,
and is enclosed in a square chapel with four doors, facing the four princi-
pal directions. The Ling is intended to represent Siva in his character
of the prolific power of nature. Around this chapel on the outside
are a number of large figures, representing door-keepers, who are
supposed to be high caste Hindus. They lean on dwarfs, intended
I suppose for low caste men, but called by the Hindus Pis' aches,
(Peeshachas,) or demons. This, then, is the principal object of popular
worship. All the other figures in this excavated temple are to be
considered merely as subsidiary to this, and might rather be compared
to our historical frescoes in Europe than to anything else. At most
they can but be considered analogous to the pictures in churches in
Southern Europe, additional to the altar-piece, which receive a degree
of homage far inferior to that reserved for the patron saint.
THREE-FACED BUST, OR TRIMURTI.
'Hie chief of the mural figures is the immense three-faced bust,
nineteen feet in height, which faces the northern entrance. It is the
representation of Siva (Sheewa) in his three-fold character of Brahm^,
Vishnu^ and Rudra, (Brnmma, Yishnoo, and Roodra). The Hindu
notion of the deity is, that God is essentially one, but that when the
time for the renewal of the world arrives, he causes to emanate from
his essence three impersonations of the divinity, one who creates, a
second who preserves, and a third who destroys. The three-faced
figure, then, called by the Hindus a Trimurti, (Treemoortee,) is
intended to represent these three gods, who emanate from the one
divinity, and still continue united in him. According to the system
of Hinduism followed in these sculptures, the eternal divinity is Siva,
in another system it b Vishnu, and in a third the principal goddess of
the Hindus. Siva is sometimes represented with five faces, and it has
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264 THEORY OF THE GREAT ELEPHANTA CAVE. [JcLY
been surmised that this three-faced bust is intended to represent him
in that form, one of the heads being hid behind, and another above. I
have seen representations of this fiye-foced Siva, but in those figures
part of all the five faces were yisible, four arranged round the head,
and one peeping out from the crown before the knot of twisted hair.
In the odier figures, especially that of Brahm^, as carved in these
caves, a portion of all the faces anj being is supposed to have are always
represented. We do not, then, need to go to the Greek and Roman
representations of the three-faced Hecate, as preserved in ancient sculp-
tures, for an illustration of the theory for which we contend, when we
find it universally adopted by Hindu artists, and even in these very
caves. The bust, then, represents a three-faced god.
The central face — ^the one that immediately fronts the spectator in
this triple bust — is intended for Siva in the character of Brahma the
Creator. Brahm^, again, I have little doubt, is the impersonation of
the Brahman caste, — the originator of all the sacred rites and
ceremonies of the Hindus. He is represented as an ascetic Brahman,
with his characteristic gourd in one hand, to serve for a drinking
vessel. The face to the spectator's right, and to the left of the bust,
is Siva in the form of Vishnu the Preserver ; he has here his unfiedling
mark, a full-blown lotus, in his right hand. To the right of the bust,
again, or to the spectator's left, Siva appears as Rudra, t. e. the Destroyer,
which is generally considered to be his proper character. He is
smiling on a cobra capella, whichjs twisted round his arm, and viith
expanded hood looking him full in the face. A swelling on his forehead
is his third eye, from which is to burst the flame that will consume at
last the world. Among the ornaments of his cap are a death's skull,
a leaf of the nirgudiy and a branch of the hilta tree, all peculiar
characteristics of this god. The large figures at the portak are Hindu
door-keepers, and they lean, as before, on dwarfs, called by the natives
pis' aches, or demons, probably caricatures of the rude aborigines or hill
tribes of the country. (See Note A.)
ARDHANARISHVAR, OR HALF MALE HALF FEMALE DIVINITY.
In the first compartment to the right of the central figure, or to the
spectator's left, there is an exhibition of Siva (Sheewa) in his character
of Ardhan^rishvar (Arddanahreeshwur). The right half of the figure
is intended to be that of a male, and the left that of a female, and thus
to represent Siva as uniting the two sexes in his one person. The first
European visitors supposed this figure to be intended for an Amazon,
transferring the traditions of Greece to India. No such being is known.
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however, to Indian mythology, while such a manifestation of Siva as
we have mentioned is described in the Purins, The bull on which two
of the. hands of the figure lean, and on which it is supposed to ride, is
called Nandi, (Nundee>) is a constant attendant on Siva. Brahmd, on
his lotus throne, supported by five swans, and with his four faces* is
exhibited on the right of the figure. He has a portion of all these
faces visible. On the left, Vishnu b seen riding on what is now a
headless Garuda, (Garoor,) a fabulous creature, half man half eagle.
Above and in the hack-ground are found a number of inferior gods, and
sages of the Hindus, which neither our plan nor their importance
will allow us to describe. We may mention, however, that Indra, king
of the oid gods, — those worshipped in ancient times, — appears there
ntousted on an elephant.
The porters will be found at the door of the compartment, as before.
(See Note B.)
SIVA AND PARVATI.
The visitor must now retrace his steps, and, passing the large image,
look to the first compartment on its left, or on the west side of the cave,
and he will there see two principal figures, intended to represent Siva and
Parvati, (Sheewa and Parwuttee>) the former to the right of the latter.
From the head of the male figure the Ganges is represented as flowing,
and from its centre three heads are seen to issue, representing Ganga,
Yamuna, and Sarasvati, the deified rivers, — Ganges proper, Jumna,
and Soorsatee of our maps, — which, when united, form the Ganges
of the Lower Provinces, and which is fabled by the Hindus to spring
from Siva's head. Siva is thus identified with the Himalaya Mountains,
whence the Ganges really flows into Hindostan. (See Note C.)
ANALOGIES SUGGESTED BY THESE THREE COMPARTMENTS.
Unusual as it has become in recent times to trace any connection
between the Hindu traditions and the Scripture records, I cannot
allow myself to proceed without asking how it is possible for any
unbiassed mind not to see in the triple figure an effort of the Hindu
intellect grasping at that great doctrine, so diffused throughout the
world, of an Unity and Trinity in the Deity. No one who studies the
subject carefully will maintain that the Hindu and Christian notions
on this subject are indentical ; and no one who judges without prejudice
can fail to see that there is an analogy between them, whicll is all that
any sound theologian would ever think of maintaining. My own idea
in respect to the derivation of this Hindu Triad is, that it had no wide-
36
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266 THEORY OF THE GREAT ELEPHANTA CAVE. [JuLY
spread currency in its present form till aboot the period above mentioned,
^-the eighth century of our era; that it was copied from the Buddhist
Triad of Buddha, Dharma, and Sanga (Intellect, Virtue and Union) ;
that this philosophical Trinity was derived from the ancient Vedic notion
of the three sacrificial fires forming one Agni, or God of Fire — a much
nearer approach to the Christian idea than the modem system ; and
that this, again, was connected with the l^yptian and other primeval
traditions.
The half-male half-female figure I consider to be the Hindu way of
representing the Adam whom God at first created, and from whose side
a rib was separated for the formation of Eve. The third compartment
under this notion will be an exhibition of Siva and Parvati as the
progenitors of mankind, as they are declared to be in some of the Hindu
mythological writings.
THE MARRIAGE OF SIVA AND PARVATI.
To the next compartment the visitor must proceed on in the same
direction, still farther to the west, till he has passed the chapel first
described, and he will see a group representing the marriage of Siva
and P&rvati ; for, following up the analogy above noticed, die Hindu
traditions represent Brahmd the Creator as performing the marriage
ceremony, and uniting by a solemn rite the primeval male and female —
thus giving a divine sanction to the institution of marriage. It is
strange that, aflter the right idea had been suggested both by Pike and
Moor, Mr. Erskine should have "perceived nothing to favour the
supposition," since in this compartment alone does the female stand to
the right of the male, a position a Hindu woman rarely occupies, except
at her marriage. Like dining with her husband, it is one of the
privileges of the wedding-day. Down in the comer, at the right of
the female, is Brahm&, known by his four faces, sitting on his hams,
and reading or reciting the sacred texts suited to the occasion. Among
the attendants on the same' side one is represented bearing a vessel,
probably supposed to be filled with sugar-plums, and other sweetmeats,
as is the custom still in Bombay, and exactly like one I accidentally
saw in the streets while writing this paper. Vishnu will be noticed on
his man-eagle conveyance on the other side, and in the back-ground a
numerous train of inferior gods and goddesses. (See Note D.)
THE BIRTH OF SIVa's FIRST BON.
The visitor must now retrace his steps a second time, and go to the
corresponding compartment in the eastern side of the cave from where
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he now is, near the place whence the rubbish was lately cleared away,
and the two lions brought to light. There he will again see Siva and
P&nrati in the fore-ground, and a little behind them, but somewhat
nearer to the latter than to the former, he will observe a female with a
child, borne astraddle upon her haunch, in the way little children are
nsually carried in India. The child is Vindyaka, or Ganesha, usually
in Bombay called Ganpati, (Gunputtee,) and is Siva's eldest son. The
legends about his birth and infancy greatly vary, and it must suffice us
here to say, that although at first possessed of a proper human form,
as here represented, he had soon the misfortune to lose his head, and»
no better substitute being forthcoming, an elephant's was clapped upon
his shoulders, which to this day he has been doomed to wear,' and with
which he is always represented in the compartments yet to be described.
Among the group of figures Bhringi, a special favourite and worshipper
of Siva, reduced almost to a skeleton, is conspicuous, as also P4rvati'a
tiger, on which she rides when she goes abroad. (See Note E.)
RAVANA UNDER KAILAS.
The visitor must npw turn round his face in the opposite direction,
and instead of looking southward, look northward, and, after advancing
a few paces, he will come directly in front of the sixth compartment.
There is here exhibited a group representing Bdvana, (Rahwun,) king
of Lanka or Ceylon, as well as of all India south of the Nerbudda,
under Kailis, the heavenly hill of Siva, while Siva and his attendants
are sitting above. Bivana, it will be observed, hks ten heads, and, as
the l^end goes, he had got under the hiU for the purpose of carrying it
off to Ceylon, and thus keeping Siva all to himself, and protectmg
himself against Rama, by whom he was at last slain. P^brvati, having
in alarm cried out that the hOl was shaking, Siva raises up his leg. as
here represented, and firmly fixes down R&vana between heaven and
earth, where he remains ten thousand years, till, taught by his grand-
&thei to propitiate the god, he is at last released $ and after which he
continues, notwithstanding all his crimes, a devoted worshipper of Siva.
Bivana I suppose to be the type of the rude aborigines who inhabited
India before the Brahmans and high caste Hindus from the north invaded
the country. The moral taught in this compartment, then, is Siva's
power over these rude aborigines, and their devotion to his worship.
DAKSHA's SACRIFICE DESTROYED.
To follow out the theory of the cave systematically, it is necessary
for the visitor once more to cross to the opposite side, and, passing die
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268 THEORY OF THB ORBAT ELBPHANTA CAVE. [JuL.T
Linga Chapel, place himself before the corresponding compartment on
the west. The l^nd referred to in this sculpture is one very famous
in Hindu mythology. It b represented at Ellora twice, and once or
twice in the caves near AmboK, in Salsette. Daksha, (Duksh,) the
patriarch of the high caste Hindus, had begun to perform a sacrifice,
according to the ancient Yedic ritual, and to which all the gods that
should be worshipped according to the Vedas were invited. Siva and
his wife did not belong to that number, and of course were not asked
to attend. At this the lady took sore offence, and excited her husband
to assume the form of Yira Bhadra, (Veer Buddra,) here occupying the
principal place in the tableaux, for the purpose of spoiling the sacrifice,
and dispersing the attendants. One of the hands of the god has seized
Daksha's coronal tuft of hair, another is holding a vessel to eatch his
blood, and a third is wielding an immense sword, with which he is
about to cut off his head. The head was hacked to pieces and burnt,
and when Siva's wrath was afterwards appeased, the goat or ram's
head that had been sacrificed was made to supply its place, thus
keeping him ever mindful of the might of Sfva, and of the offence he
had committed against it.
The rest of the gods, among whom Indra, sitting on his elephant, is
conspicuous; seem petrified with terror, but whether the word went
forth sauve qui pent, or whether they stood forward and manfully
fought it out, cannot from the variation in our authorities be determined.
All agree, howeyer, that in the end they were reconciled to Siva, and
worshipped him as the supreme god. There is a remarkable bottle-
shaped figure above the principal image, around which the sages are
seated in adoration. This is a Ling, the emblem of the worship of Siva,
at this time fully established. It has on it a circular figure, which
may perhaps be regarded as the mystic Om, the emblem of the Triad,
and compounded, as the Brahmans tell us, of A, U, and M, the
emblems of the three great gods respectively, and which the French
would pronounce exactly as the Hindus do, for Om is pronounced like
the French AUtne,
The legend referred to in this tableaux scarcely conceals that there was
at the time mentioned a contest between the followers of the ancient
Brahmanical ritual and the adherents of the new system, in which Siva, a
god borrowed from the superstition of the aboriginal Hindus, the worship
of the Ling, and other heterogeneous elements, were introduced, — a
system essentially the same • as the current Saiva Hinduism. This
group, theui marks the putting down of the Yedic Brahmanism, and
the substitution of Saivaism, and the worship of the Ling, in its roont.
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BHAIRAVA.
The visitor, proceeding outward towards the entrance of the cave,
arrives at another compartment, still on the same side. Siva is here
represented in his character of Bhairava, a form he took to put down
the extravagant pretensions of the sectaries of Vishnu. In Southern
India the Narsinha, (Nursing,) or man-Hon, of the same form nearly
as the Egyptian Sphynx, is one of the forms under which Vishnu is
worshipped. Bhairava was created to put down the boasting of this
incarnation of Vishnu, who maintained that he was superior to Siva.
Ganpati and other attendants are here sculptured, but there is no
appearance of actual warfare. This is, perhaps, intentional. The artist
thought it sufficient to exhibit the god in this form to assert his
supremacy, without irritating the numerous worshippers of Vishnu as
the supreme deity, by any humihating mark of inferiority. Such
caution was not necessary in the last described compartment, as all
natives on this side of India, and I believe everywhere else, maintain
the supremacy of either Vishnu or Siva.
SIVA AS A RELIGIOUS ASCETIC.
Turning round, and advancing a little, the visitor comes in front
of the last group, in which Siva is exhibited as a religious ascetic.
Asceticism is the highest form of all the different systems of Hinduism.
None of them promise union with deity to any, as a general rule, except
to ascetics. As such a one Siva is here represented, — as a Yogi, which
is the name the Brahmans give to a Saiva ascetic of the highest order.
The Gosains, who go about our streets covered with ashes, belong to
an inferior sect. This b the figure supposed to represent Buddha by
the earlier visitors, an explanation of it against which Mr. Erskine has
given very good reasons. Nevertheless, it is not improbable that the
Saiva asceticisnr, vrith its monastic establishments, and the yellow
garments of those that are clothed, has been borrowed from Buddhism.
Though this figure, then, were an image of Buddha, it would be Siva as
Buddha, Siva the sage, the possessor of every attribute that can inspire
reverential awe. Among the ten avatars of Vishnu there is one called the
Bauddha, evidently a caricature of Buddhism, and there is no reason why
Buddha might not have been made an avat&r of Siva the Mahayogi.
SUPPLEMENTARY EXCAVATIONS.
There b a small excavation in the face of the hill to the west, just
opposite to the Ling Chapel first described, dedicated to Ganesha,
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270 THEORY OF THE GREAT ELEPHANTA CAVB. [Jui*Y
(Gunputtee). He himself, easily recognized by his elephant head and
pot-belly, is seated at the southern extremity, and the company, of
\vhich he is the leader, is ranged along the western wall of the small
excavation. On going out by the eastern opening, the visitor finds a
stair with a few steps, on each side of which is a sculptured lion, leading
to a small Ling Chapel, on which are no figures. On going round the
hill a little way to the south, two other excavations close to one another
are found, fronting the east. They too are Ling Chapels, with a few
sculptures outside, representing door-keepers, &c. such as before describ-
ed. On the hill opposite to that out of which the Great Cave has been
excavated, an excavation has been commenced, but the work seems to
have been stopped before any material progress had been made.
CONCLUSION.
The Great Elephanta Cave, then, contains a representation of the
chief objects of Saiva worship, and of some of the great events that
took place on the establishment of that form of Hinduism. The five
tableaux on the southern wall, as we have shown, point to traditions
that are in a great measure common to all the ancient nations that
attained to any degree of civilization ; and the following three mark so
many great struggles that took place in the establishment of the
present system of Saiva Hinduism ; while the last points to the quiet
that succeeded these conflicts, by the supremacy of the system which
is fitly enough exhibited by representing Siva in the peaceful character
of a religious ascetic.
NOTES.
A.
The idea of the principal figure in the Elephanta Caves bdng Siva,
in the character of Brahma, Vishnu, and Rudra, is mentioned by Mr.
Erskine as having been suggested to him by a learned friend. Who
the learned antiquarian referred to was I do not know ; but though
this theory was set aside by Mr. Erskine, from erroneously supposing
it inconsistent with the unity of design manifested in the sculptures of
the cave, it is doubtless the true one, as the following considerations
will show.
In looking about for illustrations of the Elephanta Caves in the
existing body of Hindu sacred literature, I found that the legends sculp-
tured are all, vrith a single unimportant exception, to be met with in
the Lmga Purdna, and follow it, even when they are differently narrated,
in others of those compilations of Hindu traditions. This Purina
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advocates the Smartta theory, which Colonel Kennedy has explained
to differ from the Saiva in this — that whereas the latter allows of no
worship to he paid to Vishnu, the former, while maintaining the
supremacy of Siva ahove all the other gods, yet directs them also to he
worshipped in subordination to him ; just as the Bhdgavata ascribes
supremacy to Vishnu, while admitting other gods to a share in divine
honours, and thus differs from the exclusive Vaishnava theory. In
reference to the three-faced bust of Elephanta, the very first line in the
Linga Purana illustrates it. It is nm ^^\^ VC$ iwrrfr ^iTRir^.
** Adored be Rudra, Hari, and Bramhi, the Supreme Spirit." After
finishing the table of contents, we have, in the commencement of 1 1 th
Adhydya, a brief account of the manifestation of Siva as Purusha and
Prakriti (the former and thing formed) ; and then of the Linga as one,
seven, eight, and eleven ; and in the 6th Shloka we have the following
important statement : —
to: Tm^ ^Tirt ^^unSI fSprnwf i
'* After these the chief of all the gods, the Triad manifestation of
Siva, was produced. The world sprung from one of these three, by
another it is preserved, and by a third it is destroyed, and the whole
world is pervaded by this one Siva." Nothing can be plainer than this.
Besides, it is to be borne in mind that among the Mardthas of the
present day there is an object of adoration called Dattdtreya, affirmed by
all of multitudes of learned and unlearned Hindus I have asked, and these
are not a few, to be an incarnation of the three gods, Brahmd, Vishnu,
and Siva. In ordering whUe at Poona from a native artist a set of
all the . objects of divine worship in the place, without any particular
directions given, he brought me one of this god with three faces,
and one full length figure. I showed also the picture of the Elephanta
bust, given in the first volume of the Literary Transactions, the other
day, to a Poona Brahman, who had never seen the caves, nor heard
the sentiments of Europeans on the subject of them, and he said, after
looking at it, that it was a figure of Siva. I then replied, Siva in
what form, — ^has Siva not got five faces ? He seemed then a little
taken aback, and, after examining the figure more minutely, he said
it probably was Siva as an incarnation of the three principal gods,
Brahmd, Vishnu, and Rudra. The sentiments, then, of the natives on
this side of India, are quite in unison with the idea I have expressed,
whatever may be those entertained by the natives of Bengal and Upper
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272 THEORY OF THE GREAT ELEPHANTA CAVE. [JULY
India. What is especially to be noted in this theoiy is, that S(va is^
properly speaking, the eternal deity, — or, as he is termed in our Purana,
the Paramdtmd, — ^and that the three by whom the operations of the
world are carried on are Brahma, Vishnu, and Rudra — Rudra being
distinguished from Siva. Colonel Sykes, after examining carefully the
Trimurtis in the hill at Ellora, concludes that one member of the Triad
is a female. I do not think this can be the case with the Elephanta
Triad, but I see no necessity for those at Ellora being busts of the same
form of the divinity. The Ellora busts may represent Siva, PArvati, and
Vishnu, although in reference to this I speak only hypothetically, not
having found anything in the Pur^nas or popular traditions to support
such a theory. In appearance, they certainly differ considerably from
the figures at Elephanta. The union of which Pirvati is a member is
usually indeed a double one, such as is described in the next compart-
ment,— still such a union could subsist, theoretically at least, without
running in anything counter to the Smartta system of Hindubm.
B.
The Ardhandrishvar is well known to the students of Hindu antiquities,
and no illustration of it is needed ; yet the following passage from the
Linga Purana on the subject may be interesting — it is from the 5th
Adhydya of the first part : —
** Daksha, having produced his mental daughter Sati, adapted for Sfva,
applied her to the Lord Rudra. At the beginning of the multiplication
of creatures, (Brahmd,) sprung from the golden egg, said to this
(Ardhandrishvar) half-male half-female divinity — * Divide thyself :
then she sprang forth a fair female, and as portions of her all the
females in the three worlds have been produced in succession ; and from
the male sprang as portions of him the eleven Rudras, and so on. She
was entirely a female, and he entirely a male."
C.
The last portion of the above quotation illustrates the subject of the
third compartment, — the separated Siva and Parvati.
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1852.] N0Tfi8. 273
D.
The legend of the marriage of S{va is given in the 98th Adhyaya of
the Linga Parana. That Brahmi Deva was the officiating priest the
following words distinctly show : —
"Then bowing reverentially, and rejoicing in spirit, the great father
of Brahm jloka, the supreme lord, joined the hands of the god and
goddess." Daring some religious rites, as well as at marriages, the
wife appears on the husband's right, yet there can be no reasonable
donbt that this is the marriage I have mentioned.
•E.
The next Adhyaya, the 99th, contains the account of the production
of Vinayaka, or Ganesha, and this is the main reason that I have fixed
on him, rather than on Kdrtikeya, as the child here represented. He
afterwards also acts a more important part, and much more is said
about him than about his brother, who is not mentioned till afterwards.
The story generally current among the Hindus here, that Ganesha
was formed of the scurf of P&rvati's skin, is not adopted in thisPurdna;
he is brought forth at once by the power of Siva, or rather is a
manifestation of Siva, as the following line shows : —
The legend of R&vana's attempting to carry off Kail& is the only
one illustrative of the Elephanta sculptures that I have not met with in
the Linga Purana. It is so generally known, however, and the subject
so unquestionably refers to this mythological history, that the want is
of no consequence.
6.
The legend of Daksha, taken from the V^ya Pur&a, is translated
by Professor Wilson in his Vishnu Pur^uoui. The Linga is still more
severe upon the gods. There is, according to it, a regular stand-up
fight, and not even Vishnu escapes with his life. At the intercession
of Brahm^ however, who was not in the fray, and comes in at the end
as a mediator, Siva restores them to life, when they all become his
reverential worshippers. The account of this transaction is in the 95th
Adhyaya. This legend brings also before us the important fact that
37
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274 THEORY OF THE GREAT BLEPHANTA CAVE. [Jui<Y
Brahm4 was not a Yedic god» though, as the deified Prajapati, or
Brahman patriarch in after times, he is artfully supposed here to come
in and intercede for the other gods.
H.
Before meeting with the account of the production of BhairaTa»
contained in the 9 1st Adhydya of the Linga, I nerer understood rightly
the relation in which Vira Bhadra and Bhairava stood to one another,
or what were their peculiar offices. It appears, then, that the former
was a special manifestation of Siva, for the purpose ofhumhling the
followers of the ancient Yedic worship ; and the latter to hring down
the pride of the modem Yaishnaras, and their arat&rs of Yishnu. As
I have not seen this idea referred to hy Europeans, I give a portion of the
account as it stands in the original. The conflict is said to have heen
maintiuned with Narsinha, who, after his victory over Hiranyakasipu,
became quite oTerbearing, and insufferable in his insolence to gods and
men. The divinities, accordingly, with Brahmd at their head,
supplicated aid of Siva. The narrative then proceeds as follows :—
*' Being thus entreated by the gods, he mercifully formed his plan ;
and the supreme lord Rudra, that he might encircle himself with the
radiance necessary to slay him who is called the man-lion, meditated
upon the mighty YSra Bhadra, and caused to proceed from himself the
form of Bhairava, which will one day destroy the world. Smiling, he
sprang now, as formerly, to the front of the band of dotted-haired
grinning heroes, that were produced along with him."
We have, then, two or three speeches of defiance in the Homeric
style, when Bhairava assumes the form of the bird Sarabha, and over
and over again lifts the helpless Narsinha up in the air, and dashes him
down on a rock» till he cries peccavi, and ^\ ^ifTir*
In illustration of the compartment where Siva is represented as a
Mahayogf, the whole of the 22nd Adhy&ya of this Purdn is important.
It is a section, which describes prophetically the spiritual worship of
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1852.] NOTES. 276
Siya, and the ascetic forms he assumes in all the twenty-eight Manwan-
taras, when seated amid his four sons, forming a group like the five
Dhy&ni Buddhas, he spends his time in mental contemplation. Siva,
it is said, will in the ninth Manwantara be called Rishaba; — ^now
Rishaba was a Hindu ascetic king, whom the Jains claim as their first
Tirthankara. In the tenth, it is ^d, he will be a Muni, seated on the
top of the Himalayas. In the fourteenth,' it is said, he will be called
Grautuna, and sit in the Grautama Vana. Gautama is both the name of
a Hindu sage, and of the last Buddha, but the attitude and place lead
118 to think of the latter rather than of the former, though the author
probably wished his readers to understand the Brahman Gautama. In
the eighteenth, he will be called Sikhandi, t. e, '' feather-crested,"
whence a sect of Grosains derive their peculiar badge. In the twelfth,
he is to be called Atri, and cover himself with ashes, as a large sect of
Gosains do. In the seventeenth, he is to be called Guhav^si, t. e.
" inhabitant of the cave,'' and to sit in a cave of the Himalaya Moun-
tains. It might be hazardous to affirm that the sculptor had this last
form of Siva especially in his mind. I am rather inclined to beUeve
that he intended to give a general figure, which might stand for Siva
in any of the ascetic forms he had assumed in different eras ; but that
the intention was to represent Siva as a Yogi I think cannot admit of
even the shadow of a doubt. It agrees with the general conception
that runs throughout the wholes and I cannot conceive how any one
can seek an explanation different from that which the chapter of the
Pur&na referred to suggests.
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276 [July
Art. V. — Brief Memorial of the Literary Researches of the late
William Erskine, Esq. By John Wilson, D.D., F.R.S.,
Honorary President of the Bombay Branch Royal Asiatic
Society.
Presented, July 16, 1852.
Mr. Erskine came to Bombay with Sir James Mackintosh in
1 804. " I had the good fortune/' says that acute judge and exquisite
critic of human character and culture, " to bring out with me a young
Scotch gentleman, Mr. Erskine, who is one of the most amiable,
ingenious, and accurately informed men in the world.** *' My philoso*
phical friend Erskine," was the designation which he not unfrequently
gave him in his conversation and correspondence. In 1809, this
admired friend of Sir James became his respected son-in-law.
In 1808, Mr. Erskine was appointed Clerk to the Court of Small
Causes, a division of the Recorder's Court over which Sir James
Mackintosh presided. For many years he was one of the Magistrates of
the island. In 1 820, he was nominated Master in Equity by Sir W. D.
Evans. During the nineteen years he was in Bombay, he enjoyed the
highest character for ability, learning, integrity, and honour. When,
in consequence of the failure of his health, and his removal from his offices
in the Court, he left India in 1823, he was thus addressed by between
sixty and seventy gentlemen, forming the body of the European Society
of Bombay : — " Few of us have had the happiness of your acquaintance
during the whole period of nineteen years that you have resided here.
But early intimacy, or the report of our predecessors, impressed all of
us with such an estimation of your character, as inspired our respect
and esteem ; and which subsequent intercourse has to the last moment
increased and confirmed. In public life we have observed you perform
the arduous duties of various important situations vnth the most con-
ciliating address, the greatest ability, the strictest integrity, and the
most benevolent but impartial justice. In private life, we have been
delighted with the most engaging urbanity, the correctest feelings of a
gentleman, the nicest principles of honouri and the loftiest sentiments
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1^2.] MR. BR8RINE A POUNDER OP THE SOCIETY. 277
of di^nterestedness. In literary pursuits, your animating example
diffnsed a love of literature, and your intimate acquaintance with the
leaimng of the West and the East enabled you to communicate that
information which might have been elsewhere sought in vain, and to
coi^er, not only on many of us, but on others, the important benefit of
jour advice in the direction and amelioration of our pursuits and studies.''
Mr. Erskine took a large share in the management of some of the
philanthropic institutions of Bombay. Some of the early reports of our
Bible Society are from his pen. It is due to him to say, that he was the
first advocate of such charity schools as those of the Bombay Education
Society now in Byculla, as is evident from his correspondence in one
of the documents now referred to.
But it is principally in connexion with this Society that at present
we have to do with Mr. Erskine. He was one of its most distinguished
founders. He was present at the meeting of seventeen gentlemen held
in Gk>vemment House, Parell, on the 26th November 1804, when, on
the proposal of Sir James Mackintosh, it was constituted under its
original designation of The Literary Society of Bombay ; and he
was then appointed to the office of Secretary, on the efficient discharge
of the duties of which the prosperity and advancement of the institu-
tion was greatly dependent. He was the last survivor of the twenty^
eight members who were enrolled at its first meeting. He held the
office of Vice-President for some years before he left India. On that
occasion, a letter of thanks was, on the motion of the then President*
the Honorable Mountstuart Elphinstone, seconded hy Archdeacon
Barnes, addressed to him, which, as it has not yet appeared in any
of the publications of the Society, or its English consociate, tl^
Boyal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, may be here
introduced: —
"Sir, — Your unexpected return to your native country has pre-
vented the Literary Society of Bombay from expressing to you, previous
to your departure, the high sense that it entertains of the important
henefits which yon have conferred on it. One of the original memb^s
by whom it was instituted in 1804, you became the Secretary ; and it is
to your unremitting and judicious exertions in that situation to which
the formation and prosperity of the Society must be principally
attributed. The kindness^ also, with which you have assisted in prepar-
ing its Transactions for the press, and in contributing to them papers
Bo distii^ished by their learning, research, and elegance of style, have
given to that woi'k an interest and a value which it would not otherwise
have possessed. But not in these respects alone has your influence
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278 LIT£RART RESEARCHSB OF THE LATE W. BR8KINE. [Jui.Y
proved beneficial to literature ; for yonr intimate acqaaintance with
classical, modera, and Oriental literature, jour sound judgment, and
your correct and culttvated taste, have enabled you to afford to othera
that information which is bo often requisite in this country, and to
point out to them the studies and pursuits to which their attention
might be most advantageously direrted. The readiness, at the same
time, and indulgence with which such assistance has always been given,
ean be only equalled by the unassuming manner and the urbanity with'
which opinions the most instructive were invariably communicated.
'^ That the loss of a person possessed of such eminent qualifications
and abilities can ever be replaced is scarcely to be expected. But the
regret which the Society experiences on this occasion is diminished by
the hope that the interests of literature will be materially promoted
by your now being relieved from the interruptions of official business.
That your constitution may re-invigorate by your return to your native
country, and that you may enjoy undisturbed happiness for many
years in the bosom of your family, and in the solace of literary pursuits, .
are the sincere wishes of a Society by whom you will ever be remembered
with sentiments of the truest respect and esteem."
This letter was from the pen of Captain (afterwards Major-General)
Yans Kennedy, who well weighed his words in complimentary addresses.
The first paper laid before the Society by Mr. Erskine was entitled —
'* Observations on two Sepulchral Urns found at Bushire, in Persia."
It was read on the 6th July 1813. The antiquities of which it treats
had been forwarded to him in Bombay by Mr. Bruce, the Resident in
the Persian Gulf. They were of the cylindrical form, of which many
examples have since been found both in Persia and its confines. Mr.
Erskine, after showing by quotations from Herodotus, Strabo, and Sex-
tus Empiricus, that the ancient Persians did not universally follow the
mode of sepulture in dakhmas, or "towers of silence," as they have
been of late denominated, now in use among the Zoroastrians, came to
the following conclusion : — " It seems not improbable that the urns
found at Bushire contain the remains of two ancient Persian fire-wor-
shippers ; the bones were probably those of poor people, who used an
urn of baked clay, as a cheap and effectual method of excluding the
elements ; and the bones were not probably deposited in them till they
had been blanched and purified by the exposure of the corpse to the
air, and to birds and beasts of prey." Questions relative to the dis-
posal of the dead in olden times have their principal interest, and that
is frequently of no unimportant a character, in the light which they
throw on the ancient ethnography and religions of the world.
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1862.] HIS COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SOCIETY. 279
Mr. Erskine's second paper, laid before the Society also in 1813,
was that for which he is best known to the public in India — the
" Aecount of the Cave-Temple of Elephanta." It is one of a remarkably
interesting character. It is correct and minute, without being tedious ;
and its individual descriptions are associated with general and important
deductions, illustrative of the Hindu religion and mythology, the state
of the arts at the time the temple was excavated, and the manners and
customs of the inbabitimts of India. It bears ample evidence to the
accuracy and refinement of the author's taste and judgment, and to tha
caution of his research as an Oriental antiquarian. Like Niebuhr, and
some other writers who had preceded him, he associated the excavations
solely with the Shaiva form of the Hindu religion. No corrections of
any consequence have been made of his general or specific interpretations
of their varied arrangements and multitudinous figures, though the
theory which he mentions as that of one of his friends, that " the temple
might be dedicated to SMva [as in the case of the Trim^trti] with the.
attributes of Brahmd and Fishnu [superadded]," is that which will
now be assented to by all competent judges. All doubt on this subject
was set at rest by Professor H. H. Wilson, in the Quarterly Oriental
Magazine for 1824. Such of the Hindu FurdnaB, indeed, as are devoted
to j9A«tMi,— the Matey a^ Kaurma, Lainga, Shaiva, Skanda, and Agneya,
— all absorb the attributes of Brahmd and Fishnu in thdr favourite
deity ; while in the spirit of the violent sectarianism by which modem
Hinduism is characterized, those devoted to Fishnu, and partially those
devoted to Brahmd, make a similar usurpation for the objects of their -
admiration. In Shiva himself, independently of this circumstance,
several distinct gods have been combined by the Brdhmans, in deference
to him as the ** Great God," Mahddeva, a popular divinity, originally
unknown to their pantheon, as well shown by Professor Lassen in his
invaluable work on Indian archseology. His worship under the form
of the Linga, or Phallus, as hinted at by Mr. Erskine, originated in
the south of India. It is rather remarkable that Mr. Erskine's
estimate pf the age of the Elephanta temple, though founded on. more
restricted data than those now possessed, is likely to prove nearly
correct.
Mr. Erskine's third paper, ''On the Sacred Books and Religion of
the P^ursis," was laid before the Society in 1819. He takes a rapid
view in it of what was then known of the ancient languages of Persia ;
examines the comparative value and authenticity of the details of
ancient Persian history, as contained in the writers of Greece and Rome
on the one hand, and of Persia on the other ; gives a short sketch of
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260 LITBRART RBSBAKCHSS OF THB LATB W. BR8KINB. [JULY
the tenets of the modern P&rsis, and the irorks ascribed to Zoroaster,
on which they are founded ; and briefly indicates the prooft of the
antiquity of many of their particular doctrines And obserrances. The
contribution is an admirable one; and it must be admitted to be
extremely creditable to the research and observation of the author,
especially when the restricted nature of our, now excellent, Bombay
library at the time when it Was composed is taken into consideration.
It forms an important document in the history of the investigation of
the literature and religion of the ancient Ariana. According to the
views which it advocates, the Zend language is of Indian origin, and
the Persian liturgy of no higher antiquity than the age of the Sasinis*
But these views the philological labours of Bopp, Bumouf, Lassen,
and others, ultimately led him to change. In a letter, addressed to the
writer of this imperfect memorial, dated the 14th November 1843, he
expresses his strong approbation of the general views both of the Zend
language and religion which are contained in his larger work on ** The
P&rsi Religion,'^ remarking of the most important matters on which we
had differed, ** you are no doubt right." However, one of his most
important theses on the Zend language, that it is not the parent of the
present Persian, can easily now be established. The inscriptions of
the Achsemenian Kings at Besitun, so ably deciphered and interpreted
by Cdonel Rawlinson, and Professor Westergaard, reveal to us the
true parent of the Persian, which is not Zend, though a cognate
tongue. The Zend, as will soon be publicly shown by Westergaard,
was in its two dialects the language of Soghdia and Bactria. The
greater portion of its literary fragments transcend the times of the
Acheemenides, and are devoted to a rude and peculiar state of society,
bordering perhaps on the reign of Dejoces. Whether Zoroaster was
a historical, or merely a mythological personage, is not yet certainly
known. Mr. Erskine well shows the discrepancies which are to be
found respecting him in the Greek writers, as well as severely
comments on the incongruities which have found currency under his
name.
Mr. Erskine's fourth communication to the Society forms an accom-
paniment to the preceding. It is directed to the disproof of the
authenticity and genuineness of two works of high pretension — the
Desdtir and DabUtdn, brought into notice by some ingenious but
unfounded conjectures of the prince and pioneer of British Orientalists
in India, Sir William Jones ; and it is most thoroughly successful in
its adducement of facts and aiguments. It displays critical acumen of
a high order. It thus concludes : — *' From what I have already said.
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1852.] AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF BABBR. 281
y<m will be suffieieDtly aware what my opinion is regarding both the
DeMir and the DnHti&n : you will see that I am not sanguine enough
to hope diat any gleam of light can be oast from any such quaiters
over the early liistory of mankind. You will have discovered that,
hr from regarding the doctrines of the Des&Hr, and the historicid narra-
tive of the Dmbistin, as resting on unexeeptionable authority, and as
coBseqiiently believing that the learning and philosophy of Persia existed
some thousand years ago, and produced the science of the Greeks
and the Br&hmans ; I consider the whole of the peculiar doctrines
Ascribed to MuihAb&d and Hoshang as being borrowed from the mysti-
cal doctrines of the Persian Sufis, and from the ascetic tenets and
practices of the Yogis and S&nydshis of India,, who drew many of their
opinions from the Ved&nti school. I regard them as having had no
existence before the time of Azer-Keiwdn and his disciples, in the
reigns of Akhir and JeUmgir, and as having been devised and reduced
into form between 200 and 300 years ago, in the school of the Sip^
philos(^hers. The hmguage of the Dea&tir I regard as one fabricated,
with no great address, to support this religious or philosophical impos-
ture, and as at no time having belonged to any tribe or nation on the
face of the earth." Since these remarks were penned, no more has been
heard of the Desdtir, except as a cunningly devised, though clumsily
executed, literary forgery. The Dabistdn, as illustrativeof the professions
and speculations of its dreamy authors, has yet some relative interest.
Mr. Erskine's last communication to the Society is entitled " Obser-
vaUons on the Remains of the Buddhists in India." It treats of the
comparative antiquity of the Buddhists, Jainas, and Br&hmans,— justly
giving the palm to the latter, from whom the Buddhists are dissenters,
while the Jainas are dissenters from the Buddhists ; of the tests by
which their respective religious excavations may be distinguished ; and
oi the actual remains of the Buddhists in India, as far as they were
known in 1821. There is much condensation in it of information else-
where scattered over an extended surface. It conveyed to the reader,
too, much novel intelligence at the time it appeared. Like all that pro-
ceeded from the pen of the author, it is both sound and substantial.
In 1826, Mr. Erskine published the autobiography of the Emperor
Baber, translated by the late learned Dr. John Leyden and himself
from the Jaghatai Turki, so little known to Europeans, though one of
the most powerful and refined languages, as far as natural description
is concerned, which is spoken in Asia. Of the most valuable and ably
written historical and geographical introduction to this most curious
. and important work« as well of the numerous illustrative notes and
38
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282 LITERARY RB8BARCHE8 OF THE LATE W. ER6KINB. [JuLT
sup^ements which are attached to it, he was the sole author. It cost
hhn an immensity of labo«r in Bombay, where it was prepared, and
great editorial care, when he carried it through the press in Edinburgh.
It is one of the most precious literary contributions which the East
has given to the West in modem times. Baber united in his extra-
ordinary character the general, the statesman, the poet, and the
scholar, though with certain failings and faults, not much to be
wondered at when his religious education, his eventful times, the
depravity of many of the parties with whom he came in contact, and
the remarkable scenes of his varied actions, both as a fugitive and a
conqueror, are adverted to; and his journal, though it occasionally
notices matters neither of personal nor general interest, throws a flood
of light on the peculiar habits and conduct ** of the founder of a new
dynasty, in one of the richest and most powerful empires on earth,"
and the natural and social state of the various countries, particularly
India, which he visited in the progress of his extensive military opera-
tions and civil administration. *' Perhaps no work ever composed," as
remarked by Mr. Erskine himself, " introduces us so completely to
the Court and Council, the public and private life, of an Eastern Sultan."
It is not at all improbable that had not Mr. Erskine, with marvellous
zeal and application, followed up the labours on it of his early com-
panion in study Dr. Leyden, it would have remained to this day
unknown to Europeans. It is now so much and justly valued, that it
is with difficulty that a copy of it can be procured. The estimate
formed of Baber's character by Mr. Erskine, and which he sums up in
chaste and classical st^de, has been assented to by all subsequent writers
on Indian history.
Mr. Erskine joined the Boyal Asiatic Society, on its foundation, after
he had proceeded to Europe. He became, also, a member of the Com-
mittee of the Oriental Translation Fund. To these institutions, how-
ever, he made no contributions. Several articles on India, which
appeared in some of the home periodicals, were attributed to his pen.
Mr. Erskine spent the last years of his life principally in Edinburgh,
and at Bonn, on the Rhine. They were devoted to studies quite
congenial with his former literary occupations — to the elucidation, from
original sources, of the eariy Muhammadan history of India ; but
though he was on the verge of his eightieth year when he died, he
was not spared to lay the results of them before the public. The
intelligence of his death, on the 28th May, arrived in India by the last
mail. It may be safely said of him, without detracting from the meri-
torious services of others, that this Society owes as much to his exertions.
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1852.} MR. erskime's contemporaries. 283
as one of its most active office-bearers and learned contributors, as to
those of any other c^ its members. None of his early contemporaries
in India, known to the literary world, now remain. Many of them
were men of distinction, who wfll not soon be forgotten. Sir James
Mackintosh, though he never entered deeply into Oriental research, was,
perhaps, next to Jeffrey, the most accomplished critic of the day, a pro-
ficient in mental and ethical science, and one of the richest and most
eloquent of writers and speakers. Jonathan Duncan, the Governor of
Bombay, in spite of hb ** Brahmanized mind," — facetiously alluded to by
Sir James, — ^never lost the happy sympathies of the West, as well evinced
by his zealous exertions for the abolition of infanticide. He was an
excellent Persian and Hindustani scholar, intimately acquainted with the
manners and customs of the natives, and gave some short communica-
tions to the Bengal Asiatic Society before he came to our Presidency.
Lord Valentia and Mr. Salt established a high character for their
extensive travels, voyages, and researches in India, Abyssinia, and
Egypt ; and to them we ourselves are indebted for our first respectable
and trustworthy notices of the excavations of K&rl4 and Salsette. Dr.
Helenus Scott, a member of the Medical Board, is not unknown to
chemical science. Colonel Boden became the founder of the Sanskrit
Professorship in Oxford, which is so effectually revealing the ancient
literature and history of India to England. Dr. Robert Drummond
published grammars of the Malabar, and Mardthi and Gujar&ti lan-
guages, from which important gleanings may yet be made l^ the best
of our local philologists. Major Edward Moore published an interesting
history of Lieutenant Little's Detachment, a work on Hindu Infanticide,
Oriental Gleanings, and the well-known work on the Hindu Pantheon,
which, notwithstanding its " Duncanese style," — for so the compositions
of its author have been characterized, — can scarcely now be procured
for its original price of five guineas. Sir Jasper Nicholls was our first
writer on the meteorology of Bombay. Mr. Francis Wrede and Lieut.
Frissell were among the earliest contributors to the Society, the latter
famishing a curious article on Persian ethics. Mr. Robert Steuart, a
respectable antiquarian, was one of the first writers on the Saur&shtrian
coins. Colonel Alexander Walker's reports on Infanticide and the
various districts of K4thi^war, which were " settled" by him, are among
the most interesting documents connected with the public services in
India. Major David Price's works on Muhammadan history, and other
Oriental matters, are standard authorities. It was in the view of the
services rendered to Oriental literature by these distinguished men, that
the address was presented to Mr. Erskine on his leaving India which
has been already quoted. This may show to us, their successors of
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284 THE LATB PROFB880B BURMOUF. [Jui*Y
whaA, adTeriing to the cbtnges of Indian Society, may be denominated
the third generation, — for our MakohnSy and Kennedys, and Elphin-
stoneff, and Sykeses, and Rriggses, and Romero, interyene between their
day and ours, — ^the peculiar Talue of Mr. Erskine's services and labours.
Let us feel and do justice to the encouragement and stimulus of his
worthy example.
Abt. VI. — The late Professcr Eugenb Bubnouf, of Paris,
and his Oriental Publications.
This most distinguished Orientalist, an Honorary Member of oar
Society, a most yalued correspondent of most of our Eastern scholars,
and the instructor of them aB by his great and important works, died
at Paris, on the 29th of May last. Asia, as welt as Europe, mourns his
loss. We hare a melancholy satisfaction in transferring the following
notices of him and lus various publications to the pages of our Journal,
from Le Moniteur Ofieiel des BtaUisaemenis Francis d43tns Vlnde :—
" Monsieur le Redacteur, — Sous le titre de NScrologie et i la
date du 29 mai dernier, le num^ro du Sihcle du 30 du meme mois con-
tient ce qui suit :
" ' L'Acad^mie des inscripUoos et belles-lettres vient de faire one nonvelle ot
grande perte. M. Eugene Buraouf, que see colleg^oes avaient, il y a pea de jours,
appeI6 k remplacer dans les fonctions de secretaire perpetuel M. Walckenaer, mort
tout recemment, est d6c6d6 hier k la suite d'uno loDgue et cruelle maladie, &g6 de
50 ans 2i peine. Fils d'on philosophe Eminent que rAcad^mie a compt^ aussl par-
mi see membres, Eug^e Bumouf s'^tait depuis longtomps plac^, par de nombreux
travaux et de remarquables d^couvertes, au premier rang des orientalistes. 11 6tait
professeur de langue et de Utt^rature sanskrites au Collie de France, ct inspecteor
g6n6ral de Penseignement sup^rieur. Bo appronant la triste nonvelle de sa mort,
Hur la proposition de M. Ouizot, I'Acad^mie, qui tenait sa stance hebdomadaire,
s'est immMiatement s6par^.'
'* Le seul journal fran9ais public dans I'lnde, pays qui n'a cess^ d'etre,
pendant toute la vie de M. Eugene Bumouf, Tobjet de ses predilections
et de ses investigations devoudes, ne pouvait passer sous silence un si
douloureux ev^nement. Permettez-moi de le signaler comme ayant
sans doute dchapp^ h, votre connaissance, et d'ajouter quelques lignes &
celles que je riens de citer. M. Eug^e Bumouf, d'ailleurs, etait non
seulement, comme Silvestre de Sacy, ChampoUion le jeune, et Abel
Remusat,,une des gloires iutellectuelles de la France, une iUustration
unanimement salu& partout oil ont p^n^tr^ les Etudes philologiques et
asiatiques ; mais en outre, il n'^tait pas tout a fait un Stranger pour
Pondichery : plus d'un, parmi nous, a eu I'honneur, a diverses dpoques
et a differents titres, de Tapprocher et de le connaitre, et c'est Tun motif
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1852.] PBOFS680R BURNOUF's WORKS. 285
de plug ponr que son indigne Ahre ose Tenir appeler on instant stir sa
m^oire Tattention de yos lecteurs.
** Je ne sanrais mienz £ure connidtre la portde, Tespiit general et le
developpement successif des trauTaux considerables de M. Eugene Bur-
Roof qu'en reproduisanty de I'article Orientalistes ins^r^ en 1842 dans
VEneydopSdie nouvelie, les passages d-apr^ ecrits, j'ai tout lieu de
le croire, sur ses indications m^mes :
^ * Bldve de Ch^zy, il 6tadla le Sanskrit, et spr^ avoir apprU cette langue, il
▼oalat Miyoir oe qu'elle 6tait dam le temps et dans Pespaoe ; il ^tndia alors le pill,
•t ee convainquit que eet ididme, cultiv^ a Ceylan et dans I'Indo-Chlne, etait un
italien da Sanskrit, et qne par suite le pali avait 6t6 port6 de Tlnde dans I'lndo-
Chine, et cela lors de Tinyasion da Buddhisme dans ce pays. Puis, apr^ ayoir
constats Tant^riorit^ da Sanskrit sur les langoes parl^ a I'est de I'Hindoustan,
il rechercha si le Sanskrit etait ^galeroent posteriear ou bien anteriear aaz langues
parlte au nord-oaest de I'Hindoastan, dans oes yieilles contrto de PArie et de la
Bactriane. Le reeultat de ces recherches fat que le zend, la langue antique de
TAsie, est congen^re du Sanskrit classique, mais plus anden ; que le Sanskrit presente
d^ja de nombreuses traces d'une culture plus ayanc^ ', qne le zend lui-m6me pre-
sente aussi, en moins grande quantity, il est yrai, quelqnes alterations, que des lors
on doit les regarder comme deux langues deriyant d'une m^me source, Inconnue et
sans doute perdue k jamais. Un autre r6sultat de ces recherches philologiqnes fut
la publication da Commentaire sur le Yagna, et la creation de T^tude de la langue
zende. II deyint d^ lors constats que le plateau arien ayait M le point de depart
de deux courants : Pun arien-brahmanique, qui a conyert PInde et, par le Bud-
dhisme, PAsie oriental ; Pautre, arien-bactrien, qui a enfant^ les diyerses civilisations
de PAaie ocddentale et de PEurope. Continuant ses importantes recherches, aprte
avoir constats ce qu'^tait le Sanskrit dans Pespace, apr^s lui avoir fiz6 pour th^tre
PHindonstan, M. Bumouf a voulu savoir ce qu'6tait, dans le temps, la civilisation
dont la langue sanskrite 6tidt Pexpression. II a pabli^ alors le Bhdgavata Purd'
na, afin de faire connattre les genealogies (livre IX) qui, compar^es avec celles des
autres Furnas, et les traditions ^piques du Mah4bh&rata, donneront les seals ren-
eeignements historiqnes que Pon puisse vraisemblablement obtenir des livres Sans-
krits. Puis enfln, apr^ avoir precise la question sur le Sanskrit et le vrai r61e de
la civilisation hindone, venue du nord de PInde, conquerant le sud de la presqu'lle,
et d6bordant sur PIndo-Cbine, il a voulu completer see etudes sur le Buddhisme,
c'est It-dire sur le courant religieax de PAsie orieutale.
• • • • •
'' ' Nous ne craignons pas de dire k Pavance qae la publication que prepare en
ce moment M. Eugene Bumouf jettera Men des clartes sur cette importaote ques-
tion de lliistoire des religions. Cette publication se compose :
« « lo D'une tradoction du Lotus de la bonne loi, contenant jdusieors paraboles
d'un caractere presque evangeiiqua sur les priodpaux dogmes du Buddhisme ; on
y volt le Buddhisme triomphant et developpe ;
it € ^ D'une analyse des livres qui composent la collection des manuscrits en-
voyes du Nep&l ; plusieurs sont evidemment des premiers temps du Buddhisme,
ct sont d'autant plus curieux k connaitre qu'ils montrent bien Porigine toute brah-
manique du Buddhisme et son caractere de reforme ;
M < d^ Bnfln, d'une histoire du Buddhisme.'
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286 THB LATB PROFESSOR BTTRNOUF. [JULT
" En 1844 parut le premier volume de V Introduction h rhistoire
du BuddhUme indien : On j trovre Fexpose k plus compleC des
origtnes et des doctrines de oetle religion curieuse qu'tt soil possible
d'obtenir actuellement, en presence de Timmense dtendue des Ventures
sacr^ des Buddhists, compos&s de quelques centaines de volumes in
folio. Bient6t apr^ Fauteur, ne cessant de poursuivre la syntb^ de
ses sayantes rechercbeSy et voulant faire pour le Buddbisme du sud ce
qu'il avait fait pour celui du nord, reconnut la ndcessit^ d'entreprendre
IMtude de la langue barmane, qui devait lui permettre de contr61er Tan-
cien texte paK de Buddha par k version modeme. II aprobablement
laissd inachevd Fouvrage ou ce tour de force (il considerait ainsi son
projet) aurait eu sa place ; et, jusqu'^ ce que les connaissances si varices
et si larges qu'il reunissait se presentent de nouveau cbez un meme
homme, demeurera ajoumde une comparison digne du plus puissant
interet.
" Si la logique et Tesprit de suite qui guidaient les efforts progressifs
de I'infatigable professeur sont remarquables, Fimportance des resultats
obtenus par lui Test davantage encore. M. Burnouf a,^ pour ainsi dire>
ressuscit^ la langue zende, compl^tement perdue avant Anquetil Duper-
ron et a^ peine entrevue, sous les voiles s&^ulanes qui Tenveloppaient,
par le danois Rask, Fbomme qui a, dit-on, poss^d^ le plus grand nom-
bre de langues. II n'existait sur le zend que des ^bauches imparfaites
et des hypothecs basard^ : Eugene Burnouf le reconstruisity gram-
maticalement et analytiquement, an mojen de ses rapports avec le
Sanskrit et des pruicipes positifs de la philologie compart. II eut aussi
rhonneur d'etre le premier k determiner I'alpbabet cun^iforme, en
usage dans les inscriptions ind^biffr^es de la Perse et de I'Assyrie.
On se rendra compte des fruits r&erv& k cette nouvelle d^couverte, si
Ton songe aux grands ^v^nements dont les contr^ intermddiaires entre
la haute Asie, Tlnde, VArabie et FEgypte ont 6i6 le thdatre pendant
une longue p^riode de Thistoire ancienne, k la route qu'ont dd suivre
la plupart des migrations orientales, et k Tinfluence de ces ^v^nements
et de ces migrations sur la civilization du monde. M. Burnouf, k tra-
vers des difficultds qui pouvaient parfdtre insurmontables, a tracd la
voie oil Font suivi MM. Rawlinson, Botta, de Saulcy et autres ; il prd-
parait peut-Stre lul-mSme un ouvrage critique sur les inscriptions der-
ni^rement apport^s de Ninive.
" VEsmi sur lepali, publid en 1826, et auquel coUabora M. Lassen,
de Bonn, a ouvert F^tude des textes du Buddbisme ; Fimpression du
Fetididad Sade, commence en 1829, et celle du Commentaire sur le
Ta^a, en ] 835, Fdtude du zend et de la religion de Zoroastre ; le
MSmoire sur les inscriptions cunSiformes de TLamadaUi qui date de 1836»
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1852.] PBIVATE CHARACTER AND APPOINTMENTS. 287
rdtude de r&ritnre monnmentale de I'antiquit^ persane et assyrienne.
Trois dyilisations recul^ sont ainsi Tenues livrer ^ Fhumanit^ moderne
leurs premiers mjstires, providentieUement 3auv& des abimes du temps.
" Cette rapide esquisse, ces indications purement fondamentales
anxquelles je doia me bomer feront appr^er sufEsamment, j'en ai
Tassurance, la yaleur de M. Eugene Burnonf et de ses oeuvres, ainsi que
la perte irreparable faite en sa personne par la science orientale et le
corps de I'enseignement. Ses travaux resteront comme des modMes oii
la rapiditd du coup d'oeil, la rndtbode de rexamen> la nettet^ des conclu.
sions sont accompagndes d*une conscience pleine d'autorite. Les traduc-
tions, pens^ par une intelligence mfutresse a la fois d'elle-m^me et du
texte h interpreter, sont aussi belles par leur fid^te et leur transparence
que par le charme et la superiority du style. Toutes ces productions
sont frapp^es d'un cachet magistral.
*' M. £ug^ne Burnouf, k c6te de sa haute raison, de la profondeur
de ses connaissances, avait un esprit p^tillant et fin qui, dans le monde
et h, son cours, rendait sa parole extremement pittoresque et attachante.
Les arts, surtout la musique, avaient pour lui un grand attrait, et il
passait avec un ^al amour des meditations aust^res de son cabinet k
I'audition des symphonies de Beethoven exc^t^es au Conservatoire.
Cette souplesse de facultds harmonisees ensemble a souhait m'a souvent
pani phenomenale. La bienveillance du caract^re de M. Bumouf etait
parfaite : il a rendu k ses dlbves, k ses collogues, k tons, un nomhre de
services incalculables, et il se montrait toujours etonnd des temoignages
de reconnaissance des personnes que sa position ou son savoir lui avait
permis d'obliger.
" M. Eugene Bumouf avait d^butd dans Tenseignement par une
chaire de grammaire g^n^rale et compar^e fondde pour lui k FEcole
normale. II etait, depuis 1832, professeur de langue et de litterature
sanskrites au college de France, membre de I'Academie des inscriptions
et belles-lettres, et secretaire de la Societe asiatique de Paris ; il avait
remplace en 1837 M. Silvestre de Sacy comme inspecteur de la typo-
graphic orientale & rimprimerie nationale, et, charge k ce titre de la
direction scientifique du classement et de la fabrication des caract^res
orientaux et de la revision superieure des impressions etrang^res, il avait
fait introduire plusieurs perfectionnements dans nos superbes editions
qu'admire TEurope ; il etait officier de la Legion d'Hpnneur depuis
1844 ; nomme, en 1848, administrateur du Coll^ de France et mem-
bre de la Commission des hautes etudes, il ne put accepter la premiere
de ces fonctions. Plusieurs societes savantes etranglres s'honoraient
de le compter parmi leurs membres. Tout recemment le President de
la Republique Tavait appeie au rang d'Inspecteur general de TenBeigne-
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288 THE UlTE PROPBSSOB llTTRNOUF. [JuLY 1852*
ment 8uperieur> et, pendant la maladiek laqnelle il & soceomb^ ses col-
l^igues de TAcaddmie des infcriptiona Tavaient cboisi pour seer^aire
perpdtnel. Sur sa tombe sera gray^ ce titre inappr&bble, <pu rappelle
lea hantes traditions, lea grandes renomm^es de T^nidition fran9idse.
*' La science a d^vor^ les jours de celui dont elle avait de bonne
heure fait couronner le m^te. Le nom d' Eugene Bumouf ne perira
pas : puiss^ sa nombreuse famille y trouver une consolation.
" Agr^ etc. *• Ed. Aribl.
** P. S. — Un ami m'envoie, au moment oh. je termine, le num^ro du
Journal des Debats qui renferme le compte rendu des obs^ues de M.
Burnouf. L'hommage des regrets les mieux s^mis, de I'admiration la
plus vive, et de Taffection la plus yraie, a ^t^ d^pos^ au bord de la fosse,
au milieu d'un nombreux et imposant cort^e, qui montrait assez com-
bien la perte faite, ^tait considerable et justement comprise. M.
Natalis de Wailly, au nom de T Institute M. Bartbflemj Saint-
Hilaire^ au nom du Collie de France, et M. Guigniaut, au nom de
r University de la famille et des amis de M. Bumouf, out successive-
ment parl^. lis ont dit qu'^ ses demiers instants, il avait pn connaitre
le suffi*age unanime par lequel ' T Academic, soigneuse de sa propre
gloire,' lui avait d^m^ la dignity de secr^tidre perp^tuel et qu'il
' aurait abandonn^, pour cette dignity qui comblait toute son ambition,
les bautes fonctions dont il venait d'etre investi par le Gk)uvemement,
pr^ferant aiusi aux interSts de sa propre famille, qu'il aimait pourtant
d'un amour infini, la science, k laquelle depuis longtemps, et sans le
savoir peut-^tre, il avait sacrifi^ cbaque jour sa santd et sa vie ;'— que le
* pbilologue de genie,* comme I'appelait la voix respect^ de M.
Tillemain, vivrait * de cette immortality qui est promise aux grands
travaux de I'intelligence qui leur suffit ;' que 'la pbilologie fran^aise,
bonor^ d^^ par tant d'illustrations, n'aura rien produit de plus grand
que lui ;' — qu'il avait termini son Histaire du Buddhisme quand son
mal s'^tait d^lar^ il y avait trois mois, et que ses forces s'^taient * us^
dans la redaction et Timpression du second volume de ce grand ouvrage*
pbilologique, bistorique et pbilosopbique, oh. il lui fut donn^ de ' r^unir,
dans une barmonie supreme, ces trois caractferes de la veritable et
compile Erudition.'
'^ II est impossible de rien ajouter a ces doquens t^moignages.
"E, A."
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JOURNAL
OP THE
BOMBAY BRANCH
OF THE
ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY,
JANUARY 1853.
Art. I. — On the Geographical Distribution of the principal
Languages of India^ and the feasibility of introducing English
as a lAngwa Franca^ By the Hon'ble Sir Erskine Perry,
PresideDt.
Presented July 1852.
India, according to the most temperate authorities^* contuns about
one hundred and forty-one millions of inhabitants, who are distributed
by Native geographers over fifty-seven, or, as some write, eighty-four
provinces, all with peculiar languages. f Although this enumeration
of different languages is, as we shall presently see, grossly exaggerated,
there is no doubt that the diversity of tongues is very great ; and the
obstacle thereby interposed to free intercourse, and the diffusion of
ideas from any central authority, is too obvious to be pointed out. My
connection with the Board of Education at this Presidency having
frequently led me to observe the complete isolation by which the intel-
lectual movement of one province is separated from that of another, I
have been induced to consider whether any means were at hand for
encouraging the growth of a common medium of intercourse amongst
* ElphiDstone's India, vol. i. p. 5.
t See Colebrooke, in As. Res. vol. xxiii. p. 230; bat these are mythical numben.
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290 DISTRIBUTION OP THR LANGUAGES OF INDIA. [JaN.
the educated minds of India. But the subject is too literary to allow
of its being properly treated in a minute for a Government Board : * it
is, possibly, too political for discussion in a Society like this ; yet, as
the true object of the investigation of Oriental arts, sciences, and htera-
ture, for which this Society was established in 1 804, is identical with
that of pohtics, or wokiT€ui, in its large sense, t. e. the art or science of
increasing the happiness of man in civilized society ; and as party feel-
' ing, fortunately, does not interpose in India, to doud the judgment or
awaken angry passions, I trust I may be allowed, without impropriety,
to enter a field of inquiry, which» in some degree, touches upon the
province of good government.
I win first of all describe, as accurately as my means enable me, the
limits of the principal languages of India ; but, in our present state of
knowledge, no such sketch can be anything more than an approximation
to the truth, nor is it likely, for a long period to come, that an accurate
language-map of India can be constructed. For, first of all, the limits
of two neighbouring languages often occur in wild, unexplored, or un-
peopled, tracts of country, so as to prevent the tracing of a precise
boundary line ; and, secondly, there have been such frequent vicisa-
tudes among the governing Hindu races» each extending its language in
turn over the territory of its neighbour, as to have created in many
parts a complicated intermingling of languages, which would require
for their unravelment a more minute inquiry, and closer study of the
localities, than any European has yet been able to institute. Thus, in
the country called, in Hindu nomenclature, Kam&taka DSsa, or the
high table-land above the Western and Eastern Gh&ts of the peninsula,
— which the English call, with no very precise definition, the Deccan,*
the Southern Maratha Country, and Mysore, — Canarese and Maratha
dynasties have alternately succeeded each other, and both have been
broken in upon by invading powers from the Coromandel Coast in the
south, so that the Canarese, Mardthi, and Tamil languages, have pene-
trated, each with a deep indent, into the language-region of its neigh-
bours. Thus, on travelling through the S^t^ra districts last January,
I found Canarese spoken in villages much to the north of the
* The ancient Hindn geographers gave the name of Dakshina, or the South, to
the MThole of India soath of the Narbadda : the Mahoroedans confined this name to
the country south of the Krishna, while the English apply it in a diffisrent sense
from either, and seem to confine it to the table-land between Kand^h and the
Krishna.
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1853.] OLD BBAHMIKICAL DIVISION. 291
limits assigned to it by the best anthorities, reaching nearly up to
Pandarpur/ Madithi, on the other hand, extends far to the south of
Pandarpur, and Canarese and Mardtha villages will be found to alter-
nate throughout these districts, just as Johannes von MUller describes
Tillages in Switzerland, where French is spoken on one side of a crooked
street, and German on the other.
Notwithstanding, however, the numerous languages which have been
assigned by Brdhmans to India, it was perceived by them from a very
early period that a simple classification might be made ; and a two-fold
division was determined on, depending, mainly, on geographical con-
siderations, by which five northern languages were grouped in one class,
and five southern languages in another, under the denominations, so
fiimiliar to us in India, of Panch Gaur and Paneh Dravid.
According to the enumeration of the Brdhman pundits, whom Cole-
brooke cites,* the follovring is the distribution usually given ; and I
need scarcely mention, that whilst the name of Gitur, or Bengal, is
extended to the whole of Northern India, or Hindustan, the name of
that part of the Coromandel Coast between the twdfth and thirteenth
parallels of north latitude, called Dravida, is applied to the whole penin-
sula:—
The Jive " Oaur»r The five " Dravide.**
1, Saraswati (extinct). 1, Tamil.
2, Kanoji. 2, Mardthi.
3, Gaur, or Bengali. 3, Camatic.
4, Maithila, or Tirhuti. 4, Telinga, or Telugu.
5, Orissa, or Urya. 5, Gujardti.
Mr. Elphinstonef gives a somewhat different division, assigning
Gujardti to the northern, and Urya to the southern languages ; and
the Haiffq Brdhmans, in Canara, give a third list of the Dravids, exclud-
ing, strangely enough, the country on the Malabar Coast where they
themselves are domiciled. J
But it is unnecessary to examine these Brdhminical divisions further,
as they are founded on no scientific principle, and convey little accurate
information, although, by accident, the binary or mechanical division
which geography, or, perhaps, a fanciful notion of symmetry, seems to
have suggested, is the same which the increased knowledge of philology
in the present day enables us to adopt. It would be unjust, however,
* See Colebrooke, As. Res. vol. xxiii. p. 210.
t India, vol. i. p. 378.
t F. Btiehaiiaa's Mysore, vol* ill. p. 90.
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292 DISTRIBUTION OF THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA. [JaN.
not to add that the largeness of views, and the great amount of observa-
tion which raidered a generalization so nearly approaching to the tmtfa
possible, does infinite credit to Br^minical intellect at the early period
when these conclusions were drawn.
When European scholars first began to study the languages of India
with diligence, they were inclined to suppose that the southern lan-
guages, as well as the northern, were derived from the Sanskrit. Dr.
Cttry, Wilkins, and Colebrooke, were all of this opinion. Mr. Camp-
bell, in his Grammar of the Telugu or Telinga language, was the first to
dispute this affiliation, and he pointed out the mode in which the Brkh-
mans had made large importations from the sacred language of their
religion into all the southern tongues, so as to give the latter the appear-
ance of a derivation from the Sanskrit. Ellis, who is the great authority
on the southern languages, carried the investigation further ; and he
showed that the chief languages of the peninsula, — viz. (1) KAm^taca,
(2) Telugu, (3) Malaydlam, (4) Tulu, (5) Tamil,— -all belong to one
family,* of which the latter is the most cultivated ; and now, CampbeU,
Ellis, Rask, and Lassen, all seem to agree with the Revd. Mr. Taylor,
that the Tamil and Sanskrit languages belong to essentially distinct
Btocks.f Mr. Taylor further thinks that there was origmally one
simple, homogeneous dialect, spoken by rude aborigines, fix>m the
Himalayas to Cape Comorin, of which the Tamil is the cultivated
representative.
It scarcely, however, accords vdth the philologieal experience of other
parts of the world, that at a period when the Native of India was a
rude savage, one homogeneous tongue should prevail over the vast
limits comprehended between the Himalayas and the Equator —
for Ceylon, the Laccadives, and the Maldives equally fall within the
Tamiloid zone. It would rather seem, that, if such a wide extension of
one language or of closely allied languages can be demonstrated, its
diffusion must be owing to the operations of some race already arrived
at a considerable degree of culture. Undoubtedly the evidence of this
wide di£Pusion of what I term, (in order to avoid theorizing,) a Tamiloid
language, is very strong, and it is accumulating every day. Thus Mr.
Reeve points out, in the Preface to his Canarese Dictionary, that " the
affinity between the Teloogoo and Kam^taca is so great, that frequently
it is only necessary to change an initial or an inflection to make the
correspondence complete." But Ellis, as we have seen, shows both of
* See note in Campbeirs Telugu Grammar, p. 8.
t See P]:efiioe to Rotaer'a Tamil Dictionary.
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1863.] WIDE DIFFUSION OF A TAMILOID TONGUE. 293
these languages to be cognate with Tamil. Again : the Tamil-speaking
inhabitants of the Coromandel Coast can make themselves intelligible
when they get into the districts on the opposite side of the peninsula,
where Malaydlam is veraacular.* So "the language of Tulava, (on
the Coast of Canara,) has a strong resemblance to that of Malay^a/'f
though, as I gather from the Tulu-speaking Natives of the Malabar
Coast whom I have met in Bombay,^ they are unable to understand
their Malay 41am neighbours. But it is not only in the fertile lowlands
near the sea on either side of the peninsula, and on the easily-traversed
plains of the plateau, that the Tamil family of languages is to be found.
The valuable collection of manuscripts accumulated by Colonel Mac-
kenzie, and the inscriptions gathered at great expense and pains by Mr.
Walter Elliot, || afford us evidence of those wide provinces having been
reigned over by Tamil and Canarese dynasties within historical periods,
and hence the diffusion of these languages is explained. It is only
when we penetrate the more remote and wild localities of India, — that
singular language-group, or isle of languages (as Bitter terms it), the
Nil Giris, where, it is said, five distinct languages are vernacular, the
wilds of Grondwana, the hill tops of Central India and of Sindh, — and
listen to the evidence as to the traces there discoverable of a Tamiloid
tongue, that we become convinced of its wide and early diffusion.
Captain Harkness, who was the first scholar to examine closely the
language spoken by that remarkable race the Todas on the Nil Giris,
pronounces it to be closely allied to the Tamil, § and the subsequent
investigations of the Grerman Missionaries confirm this conclusion.^
The inhabitants of the mountains of Coorg, who in independent bearing,
good looks> and all the outward signs of well being, are by far the finest
race I have seen in India, speak a language called Kodaffu, which Mr.
* F. Buchanan's Mysore, vol. ii. p. 346.
t Ibid, vol. ili. p. 90.
t Handreds of these men (they call themselves two thousand) are to be found
hi Bombay as palanquhi bearers, and hamalls ; but the bearer caste generally in
Bombay, called Camatties, and the Bui above the Ghdts in the Deccan, who carry
palanquins, are from Telinghana. The Camatties in Bombay have been settled here
for a long period, but retain their Telugu language, and by the last census it
appears that the part of the native town where they are located contains above eleven
thousand souls.
I See article on Hhidu Inscriptions. Jl. Rl. As. Soc. ?ol. iv. p. 8.
§ Description of a singular aboriginal race, &c. by Captain Harkness. London :
1832.
f See paper by Dr. Stevenson in this Joornali vol. i. p. 155 ; and a note by Dr.
Scmid, ibid, vol. Ui. p. 84.
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294 DISTRIBUTION OF THE LAKGUAQBS OP INDIA. [Jan«
Ellis informs us is a dialect of Tolu."^ On the crest of that high and
romantic range, extending from Cochin to Cape Comorin, and reaching
to eight or nine thousand feet above the sea, Francis Buchanan found
that the rude tribes spoke ** a dialect differing only in accent from
Tamil."t Again : Mr. Ellis points out that the language of the moun-
taineers of Rajmahal, dividing Bengal from Bahar, abounds in terms
common to the Tamil and Telinga ; and Mr. Hodgson, who has paid
particular attention to this subject, after comparing the vocabularies of
seven languages now spoken by rude tribes in Centrial India, pronounces
all of them to belong to the Tamil \X ^^^ ^^^ Brahui, on the mountains
of Sindh, are said to have a language very like that of the Todas.
Indeed, the interesting inquiries which our colleague Dr. Stevenson
is now conducting in this Journal respecting the grammatical structure
of Indian languages, render it not impossible that a Tuniloid tongue
will be hereafter found to have constituted the original staple of all the
languages of India, although it has become obscured, and in some
instances, like Celtic by the Anglo-Saxon, completely effaced by the
preponderance of the intruding Arian element from the north.
However this may be, in the state of knowledge which we now
possess, we are able to determine that a closely allied family of languages
extends over the whole of Southern India, cropping out on the hiU tops
in Central India, and on the mountains of the West, and, perhaps, also
traceable on the southern slopes of the Himalayas. According to Rask,
who, with great lingual qualifications, -examined the language of Ceylon
on the spot, Cinghalese also, contrary to the received opinion, belongs
to this family ;|| and Lassen states that the languages of the Laccadives
and Maldives come within the same cat^ory.§
Advancing towards the north, we are met by the intruding languages
of a different family, of which Marathi, or its dialect Konkani, is the
southernmost representative; and, according to the evidence which
Lassen with great industry has collected, it would appear that a race
• CampbelPs Telugu Grammar; but I learn from the Rev. Mr. Mogling of Man-
galore that it is more closely allied to Tamil and Malaydlam than to Tain.
t Mysore, vol. ii. p. 338.
X Paper read before the Calcutta Asiatic Society, December 1848.
II Preface to Singalesisk SkriftUere. Colombo: 1821. Cited bj LaMen,
Indiache Alterthunuktmdef i. p. 199.
§ The Missionary Weigle attributes the language of these islands to the Malayan
fiimily, but apparently without reMon.^ZeU»chtift der J)tut$ehen Morgmlan-
dischen Oesellschqft, 1848, p. 268.
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1853.] BRAHMAN 8BTTLEMENTS TO THB SOUTH. 295
from Central Asia, entering India at the north-west,'" had diffused
themselves and their language, their religion and their Brahminical
distinctions, over the plains of India, at a period before true history
begins. We may even see traces on record of the mode by which,
within a comparatiyely recent period, the priestly race from the north
insinuated themselves into Southern India. In a maniiscript in the
Malaydlam language, written on palm leaves, and forming part of
Colonel Mackenzie's collection, an account is given of the introduction
of Brahmans from the north, which seems to contain some glimpses of
true history. After describing the elevation of the land on the Malabar
Coast by the power of Parasu Rama, — a tradition which, from its
recurrence in one shi^e or another along the whole coast, and from
geological evidence, may possibly shadow forth a true physical fact, the
gradual elevation of the sea-bord,— it is said "he made the ocean
withdraw, and Ker41a was created." Bama then ** brought Brdhmans
from many points, and placed them in Ker&lam, but they would not
stay there. Therefore, having considered, he brought the Arya Br&h-
mans from the Utara Bhumi, [Land of the North,] and settled them
there. The Arya Brahmans continued to reside with constancy in
Malay&lam. This being heard by those that went away at first, they
returned again, and these are called the Pattan Tulawar ; but having
originally come from different quarters, and of different tribes, the
Pattan Tulawar still use different langxtages. Afterwards numbers of
Tamuler came thither, and between the Tamuler Br&hmaus who came,
and the Brdhmanar who were already residing, there arose disputes
about the burning of a dead body, &c. &c. But how they became
Tamuler, and what the truth was, and how the Br&hma Uafya which
had been incurred was cleared from them, Iswar only knows."f
As a general conclusion, therefore, we may say that the whole of India
may be divided between two classes of language — the language of the
intruding Arians, or Sanskritoid, in the north, and the language of a
civilized race in the south of India, represented by its most cultivated
branch, the Tamil. Just as the greater and most civihzed part of Europe
may be divided between two distinct families of language, the Teutonic
and the Romanesque. According to this division, the principal languages
of India will be ranged as follows : —
• Indische Alterthumakunde, I. p. 400, et seq. Dr. Weber, however, contends^
that the Arians entered India from the north. See Indische StwUen^ p. 166.
Leipsic : 1849.
t Mackenzie Collection, toI. ii. p. 83.
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296
DISTRIBUTION OF THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA.
[Jan.
Arian, Sanakritoid^ or Northern
Family.
Turanian^ TamiUnd^ or
Southern Family,
1, Telugu, or Telinga.
2, Karndtaka.
3, Tamil.
4, Malaj&lam.
5, Tulu.
6> Gondwani?
Limits of Hindi.
1, Hindi. 2, Kaslnniri.f
a Hindustani, or 3, Beng&li.
Urdu. a Tirhuti.
b Brij B&sha. 4, Gujardti.
c Rangri Bdsha.'*' a Kachi.^
d Panj&bi. .5, Mar&thi.
e MulUni. 6, Konkani.
/ Jdtaki. 7, Urya.
ff Sindhi.
A Marwddi.
Speaking generally, the whole of Upper India, including the Panjab,
from the Himalayan to the Vindhyan range,
but exclusive of Bengal, may be »dd to be
possessed by one language, the Hindi. Nor is it only on the plains of
Hindustan that it is to be found. On the southern slope of the
Himalayas, in Kumaon and Gehrwal, Mr. Trail informs us the language
is pure Hindi ;|| and generally along the sub-Himalayan range as far as
the Gogra riyer, the impure Hindi dialect introduced by the Gorkhas
from the plains appears to be extirpating the yemacular Thibetan tongues
of the aboriginal mountaineers. § Even beyond the limits I have men-
tioned, the genius of the language seems to prevail, as Mr. Masson found
that with Hindi he could make himself intelligible throughout the
whole of Kohistan.^ It is not meant by the use of the word ** Hindi"
to denote a language of fixed characters, like French or Latin, or
even like Bengdli and Mardthi : the term is only used to compre-
hend under a common designation the various dialects of a language
essentially one, but which has receiyed no great cultivation in any
of its forms. According to the Brdhman pundits of Benares, " there
are hundreds of dialects equally entitled to the name."** The Brij
* Malcolm's Central India, vol. ii.
t In the language-map accompanying this article, Kashmiri ought to have been
denoted as a distinct language rather than as a branch of Hindi.
t Kachi, or the language of Cutch, might, probably, have been better classed
under Hindi.
II Official Reports on Kumaon, published by the orders of the Lieutenant
Governor. Agra : 1848.
§ Mr. Hodgson, As. Res. vol. xvi. p. 415.
% Masson's Journey, vol. i. p. 290 ; Ibid, vol. ii. p. 277.
** Report of Bombay Board of Education, 1848, p. 5.
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1863.] LIMITS OF HINDI. 297
B^ha, (or Bh^ha, as it is pronounced on the Ganges,) and the Pan-
jdbi, are the two most cultivated varieties of it,* but the Panjdbi passes
into Malt4ni, which a good philologist has shown in this journal to be
a corrupted form of Panj^bi ; whilst Jdtaki, again, further to the south,
is a corrupted form of Multdni^f and Sindhi and Hindi, in the opinion
of an excellent Hindi scholar, are only provincial varieties.^ But Sindhi,
according to Lieut. Burton, who has studied it carefully on the spot, is
** directly derived from Sanskrit, yet is a perfectly distinct dialect." ||
When the Mar^thas extended their conquests into Hindustan, they found
Hindi everywhere prevalent, from the limits of the desert to the frontiers
of Bundelcund; and, finding it different from their own tongue, they called
it, contemptuously, Rangri B^ha, quasi, barbarous jargon. § Sir John
Malcolm extends the Rangri Bhakha as far west as the Indus, and east
as far as the frontier of Bundelcund, where, according to Ritter,^ the
BengiUi tongue begins ; but this is an error, for in Bundelcund, as in all
the country to the Indus from the western frontier of Bengal, dialects of
Hindi prevail.** The Marwadi and other dialects of Rdjputdna are said
to be httle connected with one another, but it is clear that they are
varieties of Hindi, introduced by the intruding Rdjput races ; and, on
travelling through Rijputdna, it strikes the most cursory observer what
a small element in the population the dominant Rdjput constitutes.
Hindi, according to Mr. Colebrooke, and the Serampore translators
of the Bible, owes nine-tenths of its vocables to Sanskrit roots : when it is
spoken by Musalmans, and enriches itself from Persian or Arabic roots,
it becomes Urdu or Hindustani, in which form Garcin de Tassy observes
it is employed by all Hindu reformers, or religious innovators ; but
this remark seems rather to apply to Hindi proper than to Hindustani.
When Hindi is spoken by Hindus, and draws on Sanskrit for enrichment
or embellishment, it more appropriately deserves and bears the name
Hindi ; but the term is used so loosely all over India to denote the
vernacular tongue of the district, that it is not easy to attribute to it a
very precise signification.
. Bengali, from its well-marked geographical
limits towards the west, north, and east,
* Colebrooke, in As. Res. vol. vii. p. 230.
t Lieat. Barton. Bombay Journal, vol. iii. p. 84.
X James Prinsep. Beng. As. Jl. May 1837.
R Barton's Sindh, and the Races inhabiting it, p. 69. London : 1851.
i Malcolm's Central India, vol. ii. p. 101.
% Asien, vol. vi. p. 768.
** See Hamilton's Hindostan, vol. i. p. 218.
40
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298 DISTRIBUTION OF THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA. [JaN.
according with the province of Bengal,— from its heing the language of
at least thirty million souls, — and fix>m the cultivation which has heen
given to it, well deserves the name of a distinct language, though its
relation to Sanskrit is, perhaps, not other than that of so-called Hindi.
According to Colebrooke,* there are but few words in Bengali not
derived firom Sanskrit ; and the same writer observes of Tirhuti, on
its north-eastern border, that it has great affinity with Beng&li. It
may, perhaps, be observed at once, that, of all the languages belonging
to the Arian class, our present state of knowledge does not enable us
to determine whether they are developments of some tongue, of which
Sanskrit is the cultivated representative, and of which Magadhi or
Palii at the sera of As'oka and the introduction of Buddhism to
Ceylon, was a spoken form, or whether Sanskrit has been superinduced
upon some aboriginal tongue, as it has been demonstrably, though in
much smaller quantity, upon the Tamiloid languages of the south, and
as French has been introduced into Anglo-Saxon. Certain it is, that
in every Arian tongue, a considerable, and apparently primitive element
is found, (in Gujar&ti it is reckoned at one-third of the whole language,)
which is not traceable to Sanskrit.
On descending southwards, we find the GKijarati in a sufficiently
^ , ^^, ,, .^ compact and characteristic form to constitute
Gojarati Limits. ^
it a language, and owing its unity of character,
no doubt, like the Beng^ Urya, Mar&thi, Canarese, and Tamil, to an
early and powerful dynasty, extending over the country where it is
spoken, and of which we have ample traces in hbtory . The dialects of
Kachi and Sindhi are quite intelligible to our Gujardti interpreters in the
Supreme Court, but Kachi seems to be a transition dialect between Sindhi
and Gujardti,t and the intelligibility of these languages is probably
owing to the common relation of all of them to Hindi ; though, occa-
sionally, inhabitants of those countries use 9k patois that is quite incom-
prehensible to a Native of Gujarat. This, however, is no more than
occurs amongst inhabitants of different provinces of Europe, such as
Italy or France, where the language is but one. Gujardti is bounded
by the Marwddi a little to the north of Deesa, to the north* and east by
the Hindi or Rangri Bdsha of Malcolm^ in Rajput&na and Malwa
respectively, and in the south it dove-tails with Mar^thi in the valle3rs
of the Narbadda and Tapti, ending at Hdmp, on the former river, and
running into Nandobdr on the latter.
* As. Res. vol. xxiii. p. 234.
t See Lieut. Burton's Sindh, p. 60.
t Malcolm's Central India, vol. il. p. 101.
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1853.] LIMITS OF MARATHI. 299
The Mardthi, as I have before observed, extends farther to the
,. .. ,„ ,,. south than any other member of the northern
Limits of Mardthi. ^ ., .» i i . , , , ,
family of languages ; and it has one remarkable
peculiarity, — ^it is the only language on the west coast to which the natural
barrier of the Western Gh4ts has opposed no obstacle to its diffusion
on both sides of the range, the cause of which I apprehend to be that
the Mar&thas were originally a race of mountaineers, situated on the
crest of the Ghdts, it is said in Ba^ldn, and cultiyating the fertile
valleys, or MdwalSy running to the east, as well as the eligible depths in
the Ronkan on their western border. Being, moreover, a martial race,
the favourable isolated hills which present themselves for defence in
the latter rugged r^on would further tempt them to descend the
precipitous sides of the Saikddri range, and to occupy the Ronkan.
The country called MaMrAahtra, which is first mentioned in Indian
history in the MaMwdtiso, probably obtained its name, and received a
distmctive language from the existence of a Mardtha dynasty, at some
period not recorded in history. But at a comparatively recent date, I
think, it clearly appears from the inscriptions translated by Walter
Elliot^ that the Tddavas, who held Devagiri or Daulatah&d a. d. 1294,
when the Mussalmans first turned their arms against the south, were
MarAthas, and not Rijputs.*
The northern limits of Mar&thi on the sea coast are to be found in the
Kolwan Hills, or coimtry of the Roles, near the Portuguese settlement
of Daman, and it extends above the Gh&ts in a tiorth-easterly direction
along the Sdtpura range, parallel to the Narbadda.t About Nandobdr,
in the jungly valley of the Tapti, it intermingles with Gujardti. To
the eastward, its boundary has not been ascertained, but it is spoken
throughout Berdr, and in the open part of the territories of Ndgpur ;
and on the whole of its eastern border it abuts on the country and
language of the Gronds. From the Ndgpur territories, Mar^thi trends to
the south-west, ''touching in advance nearly on Bijapur and Shan"
kashwar/'X and thence trends south-westerly to the coast at Sidashaghur,
along the line marked out by Colonel Wilks and Mr. Walter Elliot as the
western boundary of Canarese. From Daman, in the Northern Ron-
kan, Mar^thi runs down the coast both below and above the Gh&ts to
the neighbourhood of Groa, where it meets the language which Lassen,
• See W. ElUot, in Jl, Royal As. Soc. vol. iv. p. 28—30 ; and Briggs* ForUhta,
vol. iii.
t Dr. Wilson, in Oriental Christian Spectator, 1848.
t Dr. Wilson, utfitp.
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300 DISTRIBUTION OF THB LANGUAGE8 OF INDIA. [JaN.
following his authorities Mackenzie and Ellis, calls Konkani,* and
which language runs, according to Mr. Walter Elliot, nearly as far as
Mangalore,t ^^^ ^^^ southern Umits of this mixed dialect, however, I
learn from Native travellers, and from the German Missionaries at
Mangalore, is a village four miles north of Upi, or Oodapee, near Coon-
dapore, where Tulu, or the language of Canara, hegins.
This Konkani dialect, however, appears to he no other than MadLthi,
,. ,, ^„ , . with a lanre infusion of Tulu and Canarese
Limits of Konkani. , , ^ i . i i. .i . j.
words, the former derived from the mdigenous
inhabitants of Tulava, or Canara, the latter from the long subjection
of this part of the Konkan to Canarese dynasties above the Ghats.
F. Buchanan found that at Carwar, fifty-five miles to the south of Goa,
" the dialect of Konkan is used, but, from having been long subject to
Beejapore, almost all the inhabitants can speak Mar^hi."^ The fiict
is undoubted ; but the reason given is wrong, as the vernacular language
of Bijapur is Canarese, and not Marathi. Konkani being the mother
tongue of many nimierous classes in Bombay, — amongst others of the
Shenvi Brdhmans, — I requested Mr. Murphy, Chief Interpreter of the
Supreme Court, to examine the language for me, and I subjoin a very
interesting note of his upon it.||
The subject, however, requires a closer philological investigation than
it has yet received, and I am informed by the B^vd. H. Mogling^ of
Mangalore, that the Konkani-speaking Brdhmans of that part of the
coast, where the language is vernacular, consider it quite distinct from,
though cognate with, Mardthi, and that it has an equally elaborate
grammar of its own. The hmits extend from Goa below the Gh^ts, to
the village before mentioned, north of Vpi,
• Inditehe AUerthumskunde, vol. i. p. 360.
t Jl. of As. 8oc. of Bengal, Nov. 1847.
t Cited in Hamilton, vol. U. p. 262.
II ^' An examination of the grammar of the Konkani proves it to be decidedly
that of the Mar&tbi language. The noons and verbs are inflected in the same
manner, with some slight modifications in the details. A general characteristic
which it shares with Gi^jardti and Marw&ri, is the adoption of o as the masculine
termination, instead of the d, used in Hindi and Mardthi The Konkani
explains some of the difficulties of the MarAthi : what are anomalies or defectife
in the latter are sometimes found normal and complete in the former. It bears the
stamp of a peculiar Brdhminical influence, many Sanskrit words being in common
popular use for natural objects which are not so, as far as I know, in any other part
of India. These are pronounced purely by the Shen?is, but by the common Chris-
tian population, (Natives of Goa,) are corrupted. Thus the common terms for
water, tree, and grase, are Sanskrit : pronounced by the Shenvis udak, vriksh,
trin ; by Native Christians udik, vukh, tan.^Note bp Mr, Murphy.
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1863.] LIMITS OP URYA. 301
From this part of the coast in northern Canara, a diagonal line,
nmning in a north-east direction^ towards Beder, marks the boundary
between Mardthi and Canarese,* — of the latter, at least, above the
Ghits. In the neighbourhood of Beder the three languages of
the Bala Gh&t or plateau — ^TeUnga, Mardthi, and Canarese — are said to
meet.f
The language of Orissa is the last member of the Arian or Hindi
, . . ^ ^ ^ family which requires to be mentioned. The
Limits of the Urya. . . , . ^ , ^ ^ ,
original site of the Or, or Odra tnbe appears
to have had very narrow limits, viz. along the coast-line from the
Rankulia river, near GAnjdm, northwards to the Barn Kans river, near
Soro, in latitude 21° IC^; but in the process of migration and conquest
under the Ke^dri, and more especially imder the Ganga Fansa line, the
limits of Orissa (Or-desa) were extended to Midnapore and Hooghly
on the north, and to Rajahmundry on the Godavery to the south.
Orissa is backed to the westward by a range of granite hills, from 300
to 2000 feet high, but attaining higher elevations in the wild and little
explored regions of Gondwana, further west. At the foot of these hills,
the Konkan, or plain between them and the sea, is divided into two dis-
tinct portions. On the first, beds of laterite of considerable depth run out
in easy undulations to the plains, on which not a stone of the size of
a pebble is to be found between the termination of the laterite and the
ocean. This district is, again, bounded by a marshy woodland tract along
the sea shore, varying in breadth from five to twenty miles, and resem-
bling the Sunderbuns of the Ganges in its innumerable winding streams,
swamps, tigers, and alligators. It is on the other comparatively fertile
lands of the central district called the Mogalhandi that the civilization
and aggrandizement of the Urya race has developed itself.
The language, according to Mr. Stirling, "is a tolerably pure Bdsha
(dialect) of Bengali." J In the direction of Bengal it follows the coast-
line as far as the Hijellee and Tumlook divisions on the Hooghly. On
the western side of the Midnapore district it intermingles with Beng41i«
near the river Suhanrekha, To the westward, the Gond and Urya
languages pass into each other ; the Rajah of Sonnapur informing Mr.
Stirling that half his people spoke the one language, half the other. ||
* Colonel Mackenzie, in Ab. Res. vol. vii. ; W. Elliot, in JI. of Royal As*
8oc. vol. iv. p. 30.
t Colonel Wilks*. Historical Researches in Mysore.
X Accoont of Orissa. As. Res. vol. xv.
nbw.
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302 DISTRIBUTION OF THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA. [JaN.
About Gdnjdm, on the coast, the first traces of Telinga occur. The
Urya still prevails, however, forty-five miles south of OdnjAm on the
low lands of the seashore, beyond which Telinga begins to predominate :
at Cicacole the ktter is the prevailing dialect, and in Yizagapatam
Telinga only is spoken in the open country, though Urya on the
mountains runs further down to the south.*
Of the Gond language. Professor Lassen, writing in 1843, says that
we know absolutely nothing.f Captain Blunt,
Limits of the Gond Ian- ^boseinterestmg journey in 1795, from Benares
^^^* to Rajahmundry, gives us almost all the inform-
ation we possess of many parts of the interior, observes of the language
that it differs wholly from all its neighbours, Telinga, Mardthi, Urya ;t
but as Ritter observes, this is the remark of a mere traveller, not a
philologist. The jet blackness attributed to many of the tribes, || and
pointed out both by Stirling and Blunt, is another example out of many
to be found of the dark colour of the aborigines of India. Since Lassen
wrote, however, the collation of the vocabulary of the Gronds with the
languages of the south would seem to leave little doubt that we may
safely classify Grondi as a member of the Tamiloid family. §
At present, however, the Grondwana highlands and jungles comprise
such a large district of unexplored country, that they form quite an oasis
in our maps ; and as the Beng&li, Mardthi, Urya, and Telinga lan-
guages all abut upon them, it is impossible to trace their respective
boundary lines with accuracy.
In dismissing the languages of the North, we may observe that their
distribution and acquisition of distinctive characters appear to be owing
to two causes— first, the geological features of the country over which
they are spread ; second, the accident of independent and powerful
dynasties erecting themselves in certain localities. Thus, if the Arian
race entered India at the north-west or north, and settled themselves,
as all tradition indicates, in the Panjdb, and towards the valley of the
Ganges, the wide plains of Hindustan, over which a buggy may be
driven in the dry season for a thousand miles in every direction without
a made road« would present no obstacle whatever to civilized races such
• Stirling. As. Rea. vol. xv. p. 206.
t IndUchB Alterthunukunde, vol. 1. p. 375.
X Narrative of a Tour from Chunarghur to Yertnagoodum, &c. Aa. Rea. vol. tU.
p. 67.
II Stirling, ut sup, p. 204. See as to Negroes of India, ante p. 246 (note).
§ See paper by Mr. Walter ElUot, in JI. of As. Soc of Bengal, Nov. 1847. Ditto
by Mr. Hodgson, on Seven Languages of Tribes in Central India. Ibid, Dec 1848.
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1853.] INFLUENCE OP SOIL ON LANGUAGE. 303
as Alexander encountered, and Megasthenes describes, who were tending
to diffuse their civilization and their language. The Arian conqueror or
adirenturer, whichever he might be, in descending to the south, would
find physical peculiarities in the country pitched upon that would either
wed him to the spot, or would offer obstacles to a speedy return.
Thus, those who surmounted the barren heights separating Bahar
from Bengal would feel too well pleased with the alluvial richness of the
well watered plains below them to seek to retrace their steps, and a
favourable combination of circumstances would soon raise Oaur into a
kingdom, and Bengali into a nationi^ tongue. The same train of
drcumstances operating on those who reached the fat lands of Gujar&t,
after quitting dreary Marwar, and shaking off the dust of its western
desert, would soon induce them to convert their tents into houses;
and the early existence of a Gujardti kingdom fully accounts for the
growth and distribution of its language. On the other hand, those
who ascended the plateau of Bundelcund, or penetrated the fastnesses
of Biljput^uia, might have been sufficiently pleased with the easy
dominion they obtained over the wild indigenous BhiU and Meinas, to
induce them to abandon the more fertile plains below ; but as such
localities gave no opportunity for extended empire, the Hindi they
brought with them never grew up into a distinct language, and is only
distinguishable as a patois from the Hindi of the plains. Whether the
Bhils of RdjputAna and of the Satpura range, the Kolis* of the Western
Ghits, and other hill tribes in this Presidency, have retained any
traces of an aboriginal language, I have never been able to ascertain ; but
the fact is stated broadly by Sir John Malcolm, and it is not unhkely
to be correct.
The Mardthas, like the Chtjara, were probably able, as I have suggest-
ed, to establish an extensive empire at an early period, although we
have no such authentic accounts of it as we have of the dynasty estab-
lished at Anhalw&ra Patau, in Gujardt ; but it is not improbable that
the city Tdgara, mentioned in the Periplus, was a Mardtha capital.
Now, as these two dynasties came into contact in the Gulf of Cambay,
it is instructive to observe the point at which the Gujarati and Mardthi
languages divide. On looking at the map, it is difficult to understand
why Gujardt should turn the comer of the Gulf of Cambay, or, at all
events, why it should descend the coast, and cross the rivers Narbadda
* The Ramosis of the Bombay Gh&tshave immigrated from Telingana within
a recent period, and though they hare adopted Mardthi, they preserve a few terms
of their original Telinga for porpoees of crime, &c. See Captain Madntoth's
Account of the Ramoosics. Bombay : 1883.
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304 DISTRIBUTION OF THE LANGUAGES OP INDIA. [JaN.
and Tapti. But, on visiting the country, the physical features of the
land, and the characters of the two races, explam the phenomenon at
once. The Crujart are excellent cultivators,* and the country they
inhabit is a fine plain of alluvial loam, in many parts forty feet deep,
and though composed of granites from the AravalU range, quartz from
the M^ar hills, and sandstone and trap from the Malwa plateau, so worn
down is the whole alluvium by the gradual descent from the highlands,
that, as in the Orissan Mogalhandi, not a pebble is left in the country
to scare a crow withal. The Mar^thas, on the other hand, are essentially
mountaineers, herdsmen, and soldiers, but bad farmers. As, then, the
black soil of Gujar&t descends the coast as far as Daman to the foot of
the Kolwan Hills, where Kole Rajahs still hold their rustic court, the
Ch^ara naturally followed the course of the soil they knew so well how
to till, whilst the Mardthas clung to their more congenial hills.
If we now approach the Tamiloid languages of the south, we shall
find that similar geological causes and dynastic influences have governed
their distribution.
On taking up the point at the east coast, where we left the Uiya-
speaking races extending themselves to the
^ ^ ^ southwards, the Telinga language begins some-
where about Gdnjdniy though Urya seems
extending itself southwards. At Yizagapatam, which is 1 20 miles further
south, Mr. Stirling states that Telinga is exclusively spoken. Formerly,
the limits of the language along the coast appear to have extended fur-
ther to the north, and in the south they reach to the neighbourhood of
the Pulicat lake, near Madras. On this coast, two Telinga monarchies
formerly existed, the Andhra and the Kalir^a,f both, apparently,
enterprising races, and, as I pointed out in our last number, sea-faring
people, although pious Hindus. The Hindu conqueror of Ceylon,
{Vijaya Wdta, the Conqueror,) who about 500 years b. c. invaded the
island, probably proceeded from this part of the coast, ^ as the Maha-
wanao makes mention of an Andhra princess, who, after living in the
jungles of Lada (?) intermarried with a lion, (Singh,) and was ultimately
* The race are no longer known by name in Gi\jar4t, bat they are well known
as the best cultivators in the N. W. Provinces. See ad vocem that most instractiTS
work for Indian customs — Sir Henry Elliot's Glossary of Indian Terms; and the
field of Gujardt on which the last battle with the Seikhs was fought points out the
wide diflfhsion of the race.
t Walter ElUot, in Jl. of Royal As. Soc. vol. iv.
t Lassen, however, thinks that Vijaya and his 700 followers proceeded from
Gtgardt. Indischs Alterthumskunde, vol. i. p. 190.
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1853.] LIMITS OF TAMIL. 305
the grandmother of Vijaya. The Kalinga dynasty appears suhsequently
to hare gained great possessions on the plateau above the Gh&ts, and» at
the period of the Mahomedan conquest, Warangol, seventy miles N£,
of Hydrabad, m& considered the capital of what the Musalmans call
Telingana* A great portion of the Nizam's Dominions, the districts of
Caddapah and Bellary, and the coast-line I have before described, are
occupied by Telugu-speaking people.* Towards the lower part of the
course of the Godavery, Capt. Blunt found that river to be the boundary*-
line between the Gond and Telinga languages.t
The Tamil language, according to HamLlton,^ is ** principally spoken
in the tract from the south of Telingana to
. ""^ "" Cape Comorin, and from the Coast of Coro-
mandel to the great range of hills, including
great part of the Baramahal, Salem, and the country to Coimbatore."
This, however, is a very indefinite description, as it does not appear
whether he means the eastern or western hills ; and from Colond
Mackenzie, and Mr. Elliot, who are the ^o best authorities on Canarese,
the latter language appears to be well rooted in Coimbatore* Tamil
was the language of three Hindu dynasties of whom we have records.
The Cholas of Tanjore and Combuconam, who were settled oa or near
the Civeri and Coleroon rivers, and who gave their name to the Coro-
mandel, or Cholamandel Coast, t| the Pandyans, whose capital is now
occupied by the inhabitants of Madura, and the Cherans, who ruled at
Ker&la on the Malabar Coast. According to Mr. Taylor, Tamil was
cultivated in its greatest purity in the ancient Pandyan kingdom, and,
in the opinion of that very competent judge, ** the result of a process,
not very dissimilar to that which the early Saxon has undergone, [viz.
copious infusions from a foreign tongue,] is to render the Tamil lan-
guage, like our native English, one of the most copious, refined, and
polished languages spoken by man."§ The examination of a good map
will explain the easy diffusion of Tamil over the rich delta of the CAveri,
and over the low lands at the foot of the peninsula as far as the spring
of the stupendous Western Ghats that end at Cape Comorin, and even
up to their very summit on the Ani-Malaya range, as we have seen
ante p. 294 ; and the gradual ascent of the Eastern Ghats from the
* Hamilton, voL ii. p. 121.
t As. Ret. Tol. Yli. p. 57.
X Hamilton's Hindustan, vol. ii. p. 248.
g Paolini the Carmelite explains Cliola-manclala tomeaatbe middle country,
but most scholars interpret it the country of the Cholas.
% Preface to Bottler's Tamil Dictionaiy.
41
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306 DISTRIBUTION OP THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA. [JaN.
Coromandel Coast explains readily how the Tamil-speaking down-
easters and conquerors from that coast surmounted the plateau, -where,
like their northern neighbours of Kalinga, they have permanently im-
planted both their race and language. The Tamulians are a pushing,
enterprizing race, and, as will be seen presently, the Tamil language
appears to be extirpating Malay 41am. The two languages dove-tail with-
out coalescing in the low lands at the great gap of the Western Gh^
and Tamil is also found to the westward of Cape Comorin on the coast,
for example at Travancore, the ancient capital of the BAJahs.
The limits of the Canarese are the most distmct in geological rela-
- tions of any we have yet spoken of. It is
essentially a plateau language. The ancient
Hmdu term Kamdtaka comprehended all the high table-land in the
south of India above the Eastern and Western Ghats, but, by a strange
fatality, as Hamilton observes,* this country has not only lost its proper
designation, but the latter has been transferred to the Camatic, on one
coast, and to Canara on the other, in neither of which is the Canarese
language strictly vernacular. So, also, the Camatic dynasties, so far as
we know from history, or rather from inscriptions, never held sway
below the Ghdts. Hamilton's general description of its limits seems
correct enough: — "The common Canara Kdm&taca character and
language are used by the natives of those countries from Coimbatore,
north to Balky, near Beeder, and within the parallels of the Eastern
Ghats to the Westem."t Mr. W. Elliot, who was for some years
stationed at Dharwar, draws its boundary-line W. and N. by a " line
from Sddashagur on the Malabar Coast to the westward of Dharwar,
Belgaoniy and Hukairi, through Kagal and Kurandwar, passing
between KeHngaon and Pandegaon, through Brahmapuri on the
Bhima, and Sholapur, and thence east to the neighbourhood of
Bider. From Sadashagur, following the southern boundary of Sunda
to the top of the Western Ghdts, it comprehends the whole of Mysore
as (far as) Coimbatiir, and the line of Eastern Ghdts — including much
of the Chola and BeUtla kingdoms, and even Dwara Samudra, the
capital of the latter, which was never captured by the Chalukyas"
(t. e. the Camatic dynasty of Kalyani).J I have before shown, however,
that Canarese extends much frirther to the north than Mr. EUiot's
boundary indicates : it was the language of business of the AdU^hahy
* Hindustan, vol. U. p. 247.
t Ibid.
X Journal Royal As. Soc. vol. iv. pp. 3, 4.
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1853.J LIMITS OF MALAYALAM. 307
dynasty at Bijapur, who introdacedity to the exclusion of the court Ian-
guage, Persian ;* and throughout the whole of the Belgaum and Dharwar
oollectorates it is the vernacular language, although, strangely enough,
on the establishment of schools by the Bombay Government in that
district in 1840, the Canarese population stoutly resisted instruction
being conveyed to their children in their mother tongue, and pleaded
for Marathi.f In the south, also, towards Coimbatore, I apprehend
that Tamil dove-tails intricately with Canarese, as Mar^thi does in the
north, and Telinga in the north-east. I find in a report of the Collec-
tor of Coimbatore to the Madras Government, that there are 846
schools in that coUectorate, " in which the children are taught Tamils
Teloogoo, Hindivee, (Canarese,) and other (?) native languages."J
Of the Malay^lam and Tulu languages I have Uttle to say, except
,. ,, .,, , ,. that they each of them appear to be in a
Limits of Malayalam. / _ , • . „«
course of gradual extmction. They are essen-
tially Konkany languages, if I may be permitted the use of such a word
(much wanted in geography) to describe a country lying at the foot of
a chain of mountains running parallel to the sea, and intercepted
betweeen the two, and of which the Bombay Konkan is a good type.
Malaydlam extends from Cape Comorin to the Chandagiri river, or,
more strictly, perhaps, to Nileshwar, {Nileswara,) where a Nair Rajah
conquered by Hyder formerly ruled. || We have seen that a rude
Tamil dialect is spoken on the tops of the Western Ghdts from the
great gap to Cape Comorin ; and the language seems gaining upon and
extirpating Malaydlam both to the north and south. For Tamil,
advancing from the west through that singular break in the mountains,
having no physical obstacles to encounter, is found pushing its way
onward to the west of Palghat, and Palghat itself is more a Tamil than
a Malayalam town. The Malaydli is said naturally to shrink from
♦ Briggs' Ferishta, vol. lii.
t This feeling might be accounted for amongst those who were training their
sons for Government offices, as Mardthi, under the Peshwa, was the language of
public business; but it was altered by the British Government in 1836 to Canarese :
the feeling, however, was equally strong amongst the Lingayat traders, who are
very numerous in those parts. Thus, the Superintendent of Schools, Assistant
Professor Bdl Shdstriy reported in 1845 of a school near Belgaum : — ^' Several of
the Lingfayat children, who understand not a word of Mardthi, would yet insist
upon learning nothing but reading and writing that language." Much evidence
on the subject is to be found in the Reports of the Board of Education.
X Madras Almanac for 1834, Appendix, p. 24.
I F. Bucbauan*s Mysore, vol. iii. p. 12.
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308 DISTRIBUTION OF THB LANQUA0B8 OF INDIA. [JaN.
contact with fordgnera»— -even from people of his own caste, — ^whilst die
TamnUan k the least scnipnlons of all Hindus. Hence the MalajiK
retreats from the great roads, from cities and hazars, as eagerly as the
Tamil flocks to them ; and the fbrmer race are to he found isolated with
their families in their high walled param^M even in parts where the
lines and centres of commmucation are entirelj occupied by their more
enterprizing eastern neighhours.*
Tulu is the language spoken in the very limited district extendi]^
Limiu of T 1 ^^ *^® northern limits of Malay ilam at the
NiUiwara river, Ut. 12® IC N., to the
BhahAvara river, four miles north of Upt, 13° 30'. It is hroken in
upon hy many languages, hoth north and south, and appears to he in a
state of progressive decay. To the humhler classes at Mangalore,
and within the limits described, the German Missionaries find it is the
only language in which they can make themselves intelligible, though
they preach in Canarese to the upper classes ; and it ascends, as we
have seen, in an archaic form, to the top of the mountains in Coorg,
6000 feet high. It is stated, also, that in many parts of Canara Cana-
rese is vernacular ;f and the Revd. H. Mogling, who, with his brethren
of the Basle Mission, has paid much attention to this language, informs
me that it may be considered vernacular from Cunderpore (Kundapura)
to Honore (Hanavera,) where Konkani begms. But I am inclined to
doubt whether Canarese is strictly vernacular anywhere along the coast,
except amongst immigrants. It is the mother tongue, for example, of
the Haiga Brflimans, whose principal station is at Kafydnapura, a
village four miles north of Upi, although by race they belong to the
northern, or Gmur Bdlhmans ; and so long back as 1803 F. Buchanan
found that all Natives of rank spoke it, from the country having been
subjected for centuries to princes above the 6hto4 Canarese is now,
also, the langui^ of the British Government in this province, and,
therefore, a still greater impetus is given to its diffVision, so that it may
be anticipated it will become vernacular at no very distant day.
In taking a parting glance at the Malabar Coast, — the Pirate Coast
— the Pepper Coast, — as it has been alternately called, — the country of
the Zamorin, — of the exploits of Yasco de Gama, and of the even more
heroic efforts of St. Francis Xavier, — a country where the richest gifts
of nature spontaneously present themselves, and primeval forests,
* MSS. information from German Missionaries,
t Paolini Viaggio alle Indie Oriental!, p. S62.
t Mysore, vol. iii. p. IDS.
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1863.] GROWTH OP LINGUA FRANCA. 309
tenanted by wild elephants, and almost equally wild races of men, still
cmnber the earth, — a land of singular physical formation, and peopled
by not less singular races, — Nairs, Bunts, Moplahs, Kolis, White Jews,
Nestorian Christians, — all affording so many points of European interest,
— ^we may note, as pertinent to the present inquiry, that from the Gulf
of Cambay to Cape Comorin, in the narrow strip between the moun-
tains and the sea, the following languages are vemacidar :-^6ujar6ti,
MahUhi, Hindustani, (amongst the Konkani Musalmans,) Konkani,
Canarese, Tulu, Malay^Uam, and Tamil. So much influence on Ian*
guage has the physical face of a country.
II.
After having thus taken what I trust will appear a sufficiently accu-
rate view of the lingual state of British India, the question naturally
arises, whether anything can be done, by the exertion of human fore-
thought and prevision, to facilitate a closer intercourse, and greater
diffusion of ideas, amongst our Indian fellow-subjects, who are now
immured in so many isolated and distinct language-groups. To solve
this problem, it is necessary to consult, carefully, the page of history ;
and, fortunately, the vicissitudes of race and of empire which have
occurred in Europe during the last two thousand years, and the accurate
records we possess of the events of this period, enable us to apply our
experience to the field of Asia with advantage.
On a cursory view, nothing would appear more immutable than lan-
guage ; and some of the phenomena connected with the subject which
first strike the eye would seem to warrant the same conclusion. The
mother tongue, learnt, not taught, in early infancy, though subject, like
a plant, to the -laws of growth and spontaneous development, would
seem, in its staple, to be proof against any invasion from without, either
by a foreign stranger, or even by a neighbour. We may see in this
Presidency, for example, Canarese and Mardthi villages lying grouped
together on the same plain, and co-existing for a thousand, perhaps
thousands of years, yet without any considerable intermixture of their
languages. Each village, strong in its own organization, with its three
estates of hereditary officers, established clergy, and faithful commons,
wants nothing from its neighbour ; and the only point of communication
on which they ever need to meet, is on some grazing-ground adjoining
their common border, which, so far from bringing them into amicable
intercourse, may give birth to differences, lasting, hke a German lawsuit,
for hundreds of years. So, also, in the Swiss villages, spoken of by
the historian of Switzerland, where the French and German races meet.
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310 INFLUENCE OF GOVERNMENT UPON LANGUAGE. [JaN.
if the stock of each is sufficiently large to enable the social business
of life to go on — the marrying and giving in marriage^ — the eating
and drinking, — the lessons of the school and the ministrations at the
altar — ^without dependence on the other, then the barriers interposed
by different tongues — the small differences, which in small minds and
small places create mutual repugnance — keep the languages and the
races distinct for countless generations. But if any cause, either potiti-
cal or commercial, occur to throw adjoining nations or races into a
state of fusion, it is remarkable to observe how speedily an instrument
of intercourse springs up, and what great and rapid changes of language
ensue. Frequently, by a mere spontaneous movement or tacit conven-
tion, nations with different tongues, who have common interests to
discuss, seize on some one language, which becomes the medium of
intercourse, and is subsequently employed by many different races.
Thus, the language spoken by the Genoese and Venetian traders, when
they were seeking the commerce of the East in the ports of the Levant
and the Black Sea, was soon learnt by the Asiatic inhabitants of diose
countries ; and other European merchants, speedily adopting the tongue
of their commercial rivals, a language of the Franks, or lingua Franca,
arose, which Asiatics and Europeans both made themselves masters of,
and which continues to this day. Hindustdni, as spoken in Bombay
amongst Persian, Mardthi, Gujarati, and other inhabitants of the island^
with distinct mother tongues, is another example. The use of Malay
among the many hundred languages of the Indian Archipelago, where,
we are told by a quaint old voyager, it is " epidemick,"* is a still more
striking instance of the same kind.
But it has been by the direct action of Government that the more
remarkable changes in the languages of different nations have been
effected. The historian Niebuhr, in commenting on the rapid process
by which the Etruscans succeeded in imposing their language on the
inhabitants of ancient Italy, which was then cut up into more distinct
tongues than those now spoken in the peninsula of India, supplies a
number of parallel cases from his historical stores, and the passage is
worth transcribing : —
" Under the rule of a conquering nation which imposes a heavy yoke
on the conquered, the language of the latter frequently becomes extinct :
in Asia and many other countries, it was the practice to forbid the use
of the vernacular tongue, in order to prevent treachery. The Moors
were, in many respects, mild rulers in Spain, and the country flourished
• Herbert's Travels, p. 366.
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1853.] EXTIRPATION OP CELTIC LANGUAGE. 311
under them ; but in Andalusia, one of their kings forbade the Christians
to use the Latin language, under penalty of death, the consequence of
which was, that a hundred years later not a trace of it occurs. The
whole Christian population of Caesarea spoke Greek down to the
eighteenth century, when a Pasha prohibited it, and, after the lapse of
thirty or forty years, when my father visited the place, not one of the
inhabitants understood Greek. When the Normans conquered Sicily,
the only languages spoken in the island were Greek and Arabic, and
the laws were written in Greek as late as the time of Frederick II., but
afterwards it disappears all at once. The same thing happens in Terra
di Leca and Terra di Otranto, where afterwards the names were Italian,
while the language of common life remained Greek, until 200 years
ago, in the fifteenth century, it died away. In Pomerania and Mecklen-
burg, the Wendic language disappeared within a few generations, and
that without an immigration of Germans, but merely because the princes
were partial to the Grerman language : the conquerors of Brandenburg
forbade the use of Wendic under penalty of death, and in a short time
nothing was spoken but low German. The Etruscans had quite an
aristocratic constitution, and lived in the midst of a large subject
country : under such circumstances, it must have been of great import-
ance to them to make their subjects adopt the Etruscan language." i"
But the subsequent success of the Romans in supplanting Etruscan,
and fixing the Latin language deep in the soil, not only of Italy, but
of Spain and France, is a more remarkable case than any recorded by
Neibuhr, and deserves, perhaps, a closer attention by scholars than has
yet been given to it. Take for example the case of France :— At the
time of Caesar* s conquest, the language was Gaehc, spoken in three
different dialects,t and the country that was able to hold that great
general at bay for nine years must have been tolerably thickly peopled.
How, then, was the Celtic tongue so thoroughly extirpated ? There is
no appearance that the Romans colonised France in any great numbers,
or that there was any temptation offered to them to settle. The ques-
tion becomes more difficult to answer when we recollect the subsequent
immigration and conquests of the Franks and other German races.
Meyer assures us, (though it appears to me doubtful as to any but the
dominant race,) that up to the end of the eighth century '' il est certain
que pendant tout ce temps et un bien plus long encore, le commun de
la nation ne parlait qu'une langue d'origine tudesque."^ Dr. Young,
* Lectures on the History of Rome, translated by Scbmitz. London : 1648.
t Sir James Stephen's Lectoree on the History of France. London : 1852.
t Institutions Jadiciaires de P Europe, vol. i. p. 203. Notwithstanding the high
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312 INFLUENCE OP GOVERNMENT UPON LANGUAGE. [JaN.
also, states that the inlutbitants spoke Craelic till the sixth or seTenth
century, when it was superseded by Rustic Roman. i" Here, then, if
Meyer is correct, we have the bulk of the nations changing their lan-
guage from Celtic to Teutonic, and from the latter to that modification
of the Roman which subsequently became French ; but certainly the
change from GaeUc to French was uniyersal.
Some authorities, quoted by Michelet,t would seem to show that it
was an established principle of policy with those great masters of politi-
cal gOTernment, the Romans, to introduce their language whenever they
could as an instrument of poUce. St. Augustine states that the
'< Imperial City" took pains to impose her language as well as her
authority on her conquered dependencies, for the sake of good order
(per pacem 9oci€tatis).X The Roman Digest laid down expressly that
the judges of the empire were to deliver their decrees in Latin, || and
Valerius Maximus points out both the fine statesmanlike policy which
dictated these ordinances, and the steady Roman consistency («ur^mi
pereeverantia) with which they were adhered to. It does not seem,
therefore, very hazardous to attribute the existence of the French, Span-
ish, and Italian languages, in their respective countries, to the direct
institutions of Roman policy, operating at a long period after the original
impulse given by government.
Another example of the influence of the governing authorities upon
the language of the people may be taken from England. I will pass
over the supplanting of Celtic by the tongue of the Anglo-Saxons,
authority due to M. Meyer, this statement is very doubtful. According to Slfmon-
di, (Histoire des Franqais, i. 52,) the three Celtic dialects spoken in the time of
Ceesar had given way to Latin by the fourth century after Chri«t; and, although
the conquests of the Pranks carried a Teutonic language all over Prance, and it
became the language of the army and of business, so that all men in office whose
mother tongue was Latin were compelled to learn it, (Sismondi, iii. 58,) still the
small number of Prankish nobles amongst whom the territories of France were
divided, and who in numbers have been compared to English squires of the present
day, forbids us to believe that the ** bulk of the people" ever spoke a Teutonic dia-
lect. Indeed, Tve know that Charlemagne, whose mother tongue was German,
used to avoid Paris as a residence expressly because the lang^iage was the to him
unintelligible patois of Latin, subsequently to become French. And it is remark-
able how very slight an impression the German language has made upon the
French, although the Franks In France were more numerous than the Normans in
England.
* Encyclopedia Britannica, Art. Language.
t Histoire de France, vol. i. p. 135.
t De Civ. Dei, Hb. xix. c. 7.
H Dig. xlii. i. 48 : Decreta a pratorWus latins interponi debent.
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1853.] OROWTH OF BN0LI6H L/LNGUAQB. 313
although that, also, is a very remarkable &ct, and not at all to be
explained by the usual hypothesis put forward. But on looking at
the language of England from the date of the Norman Conquest, it
would appear that during the first three centuries there were many
periods when it seemed quite uncertain whether Anglo-Saion or Norman
French would become the language of the country. So late as the
end of the fourteenth century^ the latter was the language of the
eourt, of the nobility— of every one who possessed or sought either
power or place. An old monldsh writer cited by Thierry* avers that
even peasants, in order to appear more respectable, (that conventional
respectability so dearly cherished by the English race,) afPected to talk
French with all their might and main (pmni nifu); and many circum-
stances seemed favourable for the introduction of the French language
during this epoch. The facility of that language to diffuse itself is
«een by the readiness with which the Normans abandoned their mother
tongue in so short a period as fifty years after they settled in France^f
and, further^ in its gradual extension over many countries on the French
border where tongues of German origin formeriy prevailed. But in
England other causes were at hand to render its extension more easy«
The numerous Teutonic races who had invaded England — the Angleq^
Saxons, Jutes, Picts, &c. — ^had all dialects — some distinct languages of
their own : with all these was incorporated the Celtic tongue of the
original occufHers of the soil ; and the resuH was such a diversity of
speech throughout the realm, that it was very difficult for the inhabi-
tant of one province to understand the dialect of another. Chaucer^
notwithstanding his bold and patriotic attempt to address his country-
men in English,seems to have been apprehensive that his volume would
not be understood out of London, for he thus apostrophizes it : —
^ Read where so thoa be or els sung.
That thou beest UDdersteod God I beseech.^'
Happily, the Teutonic element has maintained its supremacy in
the language of England, but the influence, and, I may add, beneficial
influence, of the Norman dynasty, over the speech of their subjects,
may be seen in this, that French still constitutes one-sixth part of the
language of the Anglo-Saxon race.
* Ck>nqaMe de l^Angleterre, vol. iv. p. 371, 4iiie ed.
i Within one century of the establishment of the Normans in France, the Danish
language had become extinct. " A Rouen mdme, et dans le palais des snccesseurs
de Ron, on ne parlait d'autre langue au commencement dn onzidme si^cle, que la
langue romane ou fran9ai8e." Thierry, Hist, du Conqu^te de I'Angleterre, voL i.
IL209.
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314 INFLUENCE OP GOVERNMENT UPON LANGUAGE. [J AN.
But the most remarkable example in history of the direct agency of
gOTemment in introducing a common tongue as an instrument of dvil-
ization^ is furnished from South America. Mr. Prescott, in relating the
policy of the Incas, writes as follows : —
" Another expedient was of a bolder and more original character.
This was nothing less than to revolutionize the language of the country.
South America, like North, was broken up into a great variety of dia-
lects, or rather languages, having little affinity with one another. This
circumstance occasioned great embarassment to the government in the
administration of the different provinces, with whose idioms they were
unacquainted. It was determined, therefore, to substitute one universal
language — the Quichua, — the language of the court, the capital, and the
surrounding country, — the richest and most comprehensive of the
South American dialects. Teachers were provided in the towns and
villages throughout the land, who were to give instruction to all, even
the humblest classes ; and it was intimated at the same time, that no
one should be raised to any office of dignity or profit who was unac-
quainted with this tongue. The Curacas, and other chiefs, who
attended at the capital, became familiar with this dialect in their inter-
course with the court, and, on their return home, set the example of
conversing in it among themselves.
" This example was imitated by their followers, and the Quichua
gradually became the language of elegance and fashion, in the same
manner as the Norman French was affected by all those who aspired
to any consideration in England after the conquest. By this means,
while each province retained its peculiar tongue, a beautiful medium of
commimication was introduced, which enabled the inhabitants of one
part of the country to hold intercourse with every other, and the Inca
and his deputies to communicate with all. This was the state of things
on the arrival of the Spaniards. It must be admitted, that history fur-
nishes few examples of more absolute authority than such a revolution
in the language of an empire, at the bidding of a master."'*'
III.
It was on considerations such as I have stated above, but the grounds
of which I have now set forth in detail, that I ventured some years ago
to throw out the following suggestion : — '^ It is obvious that India is
greatly in need of a lingua franca, such as French affords in Europe,
Italian in the Levant, and Malay amongst the hundreds of different
• Prescott's Conquest of Peru, vol. i. p. 73.
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1863.] ENGLISH LANGUAOB IN INDIA. 315
kngnages of the Indian Archipelago.* Hindustani gupplies the office
in many parts of India to the northward of a diagonal line between
Bombay and the Bay of Bengal, but even there imperfectly, as we find
the Urdu publications of the North West almost wholly unintelligible
in our Hindust&ni schools of Bombay ; and in the south of India a
language of a wholly different family, the Tamil, supplies the place of
Hindustani. The English language, therefore, with its uniform written
and printed character, and its rich and cheap literature, might gradu-
ally assume the beneficial office of a language of intercommunication
between different nations, such as we have seen has sprung up sponta-
neously in divers parts of the world.^f
The spontaneous movement in favour of English, which I there
alluded to, may even now be seen to be in operation in various parts of
India. It will be fiuniliar to most of those who hear me that the
Natives of Bombay who are acquainted with English rarely communicate
with one another in writing except in that language. The defective
nature of the Native cursive character, the mod or mor of the Mardthi —
indeed of most Native writing, in which the tendency to leave out
vowel points is so general,^ leads, no doubt from the dictates of
convenience, to the employment of the more distinct and uniform
English character. But, for speaking also, if an educated Native at the
present day arrives from Upper India, from Bengal, or from Madras,
there is no language in which he can make himself so readily intelligible
to an educated Native of Bombay as English, and it is the only language
which a Native would think of employing if he were writing to a Ben-
gW friend at Calcutta, or to a Tamil at Madras. In addition to this
use of English which mutual convenience dictates, something of the
same principle, which led the Anglo-Saxons to affect the French
language as a mark of education and refinement, may be seen largely
at work amongst our educated Native youth, both at Bombay and
in Bengal.
It is the observation of slight indications such as these that should
suggest to the legislator how far he may exert himself in his proper
province with effect. A saying is attributed to Augustus, that with all
the power of the Roman empire he could not succeed in introducing a
* See W. von Hamboldt's work on the Kawi language of Java.
t Minute on the State and Prospects of Education in Bombay.
t Lieut Burton, who is a wit as well as a philologist, thus describes the written
language of the Sindhian Banyans : — " A system of stenography which admits none
but initial vowels, and confounds the i^pearance of nearly a dozen distinct conso-
nants."—iSdiufe, or the Unhappy Valley, vol. i. p. 230.
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316 INFLUENCE OF GOYBBNMBNT UPON ULNGUACE. [JaIT,
new word into the Latm language ; and oar Indian experience may
teach us how futile the acts of legislation fireqnenthf are when they
clash with old-established habits and prejudices. But when the inter*
ests of mankind, or of a ki^ portion of mankmd, are concerned, then
the statesman who is able to discern the tendency of his age may be able
to introduce great changes without difficulty, and to make an indelible
impression on the character of the people oyer whom he is placed as a
ruler. No one, I presume, would imagine that an enaetment, eTen
under the penalty cf death, that Marwadi traders should keep their
accounts in English, and write to one another in round German tex^
would be anything but inoperatiye ; but a goyemment regulation that
eyery candidate for office should be able to pass an examination in
English would, in the course of a year or two^ fill eyery cntch^ry
throughout India with weU qualified candidates (umedw^rs), who
would cheerfully bring themselyes up to the required standard. Aboye
all, the language of public business in eyery country should be the lan-
guage of the goyeming authority. It ib a surrender of an instrument
of power to forego the use of the mother tongue on all solemn occasions,
when so much depends on the exact meaning of the words employed,
more especially in a country like India, where the languages are so
diyerse, and where eyerything is recorded. So well is this understood
in Europe, that the French language, which was formerly used by
conyention (in succession to Latin) as the language of diplomacy, is
now abandoned in all solemn memorials, and each nation expresses
itself in its own tongue. The Moguls in India maintained Persian as
the language of business, and the deep root which the study of that
language has thereupon struck in the habits and customs of the inha-
bitants of Upper India may be clearly seen in the statistical accounts
of the North-west Proyinces, published by the present Lieutenant
Goyemor, Mr. Thomason, and is another example of the great influence
exercised by government over speech. The Mardthas, in like manner,
introduced their own language as the language of business, and I have
above pointed out the tendency of this institution to attract attention
to the language amongst the Canarese-speaking subjects of the Mardtha
empire. The British Government has very wisely abandoned the
use of the Persian language, which is neither the mother tongue of the
governing body nor of the people, but in fiiiling to substitute English
as the language of record, they have voluntarily interposed an obstacle
to the introduction of good government, and have possibly benefitted no
one by the act.
But these are topics which it would be unsuitable to press furthw on
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]853.] ENOUSH LANGUAGE IN INDIA. 317
a literary Society. There are subjects, howeyer, in which the interests
of literature are so blended with political considerations, that it is
impossible to sever them ; and language, especially language in In(£a,
belongs to this class. In dealing with any question in which the inter-
ests of a hundred and forty millions of mankind are concerned, the
more attentiyely the state of present circnmstances is considered, so
much the more forcibly do visions of the future present themselyes.
At no previous period of the world's history was India ever held
together by such a unity of sway as at the present moment ; and at no
previous period were large views, embracing her future welfare, so
capable of being applied. To the British in India is committed the
task of communicating the civilization, the results of science, and the
mental energy continuaUy aiming at improvement, which distinguish
modem Europe ; and in a Society like this, composed of Englishmen,
and of men of letters, it may fairly be asked whether any such instru-
ment presents itself for accomplishing these noble ends, as the English
language? It is not given to man to penetrate deeply the misty
future, and it is impossible to predict what the connection of Europe
with Asia may be some centuries hence ; but as every Englishman who
18 jealous of the honour of his country must desire that the name of
England, as an enlightened benefactress, should be irrevocably blended
with that of India, a British monument, more useful, possibly more
permanent, than the pyramids, may be left in the country, but it shall
be altogether moral, and not composed of brick or marble.
** Her monument shall be (some) gentle verse,
And tongues to be (her) being shall rehearse,
When all the heathens of this world are dead."
And, not impossibly, this monument may be the very language,
deeply rooted in India, of our national poet, who continues : —
" (She) stai shall Uve, such virtue hath (the) pen.
Where breath most breathes, even in the mouths of men."
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1853.] 319
Art. II. — Comparative Vocabulary of Non-Sanscrit Primitives
in the Vernacular Languages of India. By the Rev. J.
Stevenson, D. D.
Presented August 1852.
Part II.
In presenting this second part of my vocabulaiy to the Society,
bringing it down to the end of the vowels, few remarks additional to
those I have already made are required. There are many roots, no
doubt, in the Southern family that cannot be traced into the Northern
languages ; but I trust I have succeeded in explaining the origin of many
Hindustani, and more Mardthi words from the Canarese and T&mil.
From Crawfurd's Malay Dictionary, kindly lent me by Sir Erskine Perry,
I have pointed out several Tdmil words that have found their way into
the Malay, if they be not originally common to the two languages.
There is, in the part before published, the following important
agreements : — Can, again, to dig : Mal, gali, to dig ; Can, a^ayu, to
he, to have; and Tam, adai, with the Mal, ada, to be, to have; Tam,
ati delay; Mal, anti, to cease.
In a few of the instances of agreement I have traced between the
Northern and Southern families, I scarcely feel satisfied on a revision ;
but as there anv even in those cases, some points otherwise philologi-
cally important, I have allowed them to stand. In the great majority
of instances, I feel persuaded that the analogies, when duly considered,
will be found real. I have frequently had occasion to remark the
difficulty on this subject that arises from the introduction of vernacular
words into the Sanskrit by poets, to meet the requirements of their
verse, and their embodiment in the dictionaries, through the industry
of the lexicographers. But I now find my way more easily in these
cases, by attending carefully to the connection of such words with
others. If there be a word wholly isolated in the Sanscrit, derivable
from no root, and having itself no derivatives, yet easily connected with
a T^mil or Canarese root, firom which a variety of words are found to
be derived in the Southern tongues, I set it down as a borrowed wprd. ^
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320
NON-8AN6CRIT PRIMiriVES OF INDIA.N YERNAGULABS.
[Jam.
COMPARATIVE
Of Non-Sanscrit Primitives of the chirf
Ifo.
Caivarbsb.
1
^N Obstaote
Obttractto
Ta^mil.
A^akam
Restraint, sabordlna-
tton
Contlnentia, subjectio
Malata'lim.
Atenchin
Otwtruction
Impedimentom
i Cfl
V Ca
«rnr4
'4uke
CaJuiDBy
Calnmnia
^<
ite
1W<
Alia; algal
It is not; deficiency
Nonestjdefectas
Ani, krhada
To embrace, to tie
Apaka
Private, oempact
Secretas, oompactua Amplectl, vincire
Atu; taital
A stitch ; sewiag
Ataku ; atuku
A patch ; to Join
Assomentnm ; oon-
Jungere
Atte
A mother-in-law, a
sister-in-law
Mariti mater, glos
Sutum
Attai
A mother-in-law,
an aunt
Mariti mater, amita
Aifkam
Falsehood
Mendaciam
A^imuga, knnna
Tonndei^gird
Sacdngere
Taippa
Sewing
Censntira
TBU5GA.
Opposition
impedimeotam
A}ikama
A fiUsehood
Mendadum
Ai>angga
To be pressed dowa
Deprimi
Atuku
To be Joined, apstek
Conjnngf,
turn
AtU
A mother-in-law, sa
aunt
Mariti Tel nxoris laa-
ter, aaita
No. S3 is«losely allied to No. 13, wMchsee. Perhaps originally this was the
transitive, and the other the intransitive form of the root, the former meaning
^obstruction without agency, and the latter implying it. The Malay adang, stopped ia
4he way, is here to be added.
No. 24. — Tbe HtndoostAni and three of the others here are Sanscrit words, if the
Sanscrit word itself, as I suspect in this instance, has not been borrowed from the ver-
naculars, and originally derived from the Tamil B^i, the negative verb of common
«6e in that and the MalayaUm language.
No. 26.— TheO^Jarathi word here is also MarAthi.
No. 26. — We have here a striking connection for the words nieaniag a patch ok A
<OARMBNT, running through all the languages but the Singhalese, where the cognate
word means patch in the sense of a spot. Sec, It is hardly necessary to say that the
49anscrit roots ^f^f and 7f% to bind, have not been considered sufficient to accounit
for these words. They are much more naturally derived from the Canarese ; and the
Sanscrit radical ^ is not that 1 have seen ever dropped in Hindi and MarAthi, so as
to allow of the derivation being made from the first; nor is the Sanscrit initial ;f
capable of becoming j^ Besides, no Sanscrit words in any such sense hii patching or
sewing are derived from either of these roots. The Canarese ^^ on the contrary, is
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18.53.]
COMPARATITE V0CAB(7LA.RT.
321
VOCABULARY
Vtmacular Languages of India.
SlICORALBSB.
Deficient
IiDperfectas
Alikt
A&lsehood
Mendadam
A^aDginra
Maba'thi'.
Acji
Obstruction
Impedlmentum
A}
Calumny
Calunmia
Adas
Humbled ; containing Tightly, compactly
Depreesns ; capax Arctd, compretfsd
fiw^. Tf\n fllJIol
TIk, tita Tbigai
A spot, a freckle A patch
Macula, lentigo Assumentnm
Gujbra'thi'.
H
Obstruction, obstina-
cy
Obstrnctio, pertinacia
^^
Al
Injury, harm
Ii^juria
A^chan
Confinednesa
Compressio
Thigalun
A patch (of cloth, kc)
Assomeatnm
Hindi'.
M
Contrariety
Contrarietaa
s ^^gtm
Alfk
Falsehood, unreal
Mendacium, falaus
A^tna
To be tightened, to be
contained
Comprimi, contineri
ThegaU
A patch (on a gar-
ment)
Assumentum
A'tt4
Maternal grand-
mother
Matema ayia
Ata
A paternal aunt
Amita
often dropped, and n easily passes into ^^ while the fgf is & common termination for
nouns. The English taek and the French attacker are no doubt connected with this
Canarese word ; and probably the Malay tampal^ a patch.
No. 27. — The Sanscrit BfHT, a mother, an elder siMter, a maternal aunt, would
sufficiently account for these words, if it were unquestionably Sanscrit ; but being
uncommon, except in theatrical compositions, which admit of great latitude in their
Yocabnlary, it is probably derived from the vernacular tongues. The wide diffusion of
the meanings a mother'tn^law and paternal aunt, which do not exist in the Sanscrit,
and the non-occurrence of the meanings mother and elder sister favour this idea. The
English aunt and German tante are no doubt connected with this number, as may
perhaps also the Hindi and Persian (dtd) bf^ a father, also perhaps 9fr^»
Offovemess,
N. B. 3f^ (atta) there, in Canarese, and the corresponding words in the other
languages, are too nearly allied in sound and sense to the Sanscrit ^ftl (^tro) here,
to suit our purpose, though they may be independent of it The same is the case
with 9f^^ and Bf ^[7 (adaehu and adavu) to press down or humble, which may be
derived from the Sanscrit 9^: (adhah) down, and possibly also 9)T (addu) to dip, to
dye. So likewise the pronoon 9f^ (adu) is almost the Sanscrit «f^ this or thqi^
43 ^
322 NON-SANSCRIT PRIBCITIYBS OF INDIAN YBRNACULARS. [JaN.
Maluta'lix. Tblinga.
No. CANARE8B. Ta'MIL.
Anu ; ane YAnai A'na
28 < To support; an ele- An elephant An elephant
phant
Snstinere; elephas Elephaa Blephaa
Ana
TorecUne, to bear
Inniti^ sustinere
) Appd
^ Father, sir
Pater, domine
Appa^
A fried cake
Laganum
Appan
Father, sire
Pater, domine
Appam
Broad
Panis
7 Abttku; bttkkani
^*N To press down;
I
powder
Deprimere ; pulvis
32
Abba
f O strange, ala
^ Papaeieheu
33/ Amma,avya
i Mother
V Mater
•TOT
Appa
Strange, alas
Papae, eheu
Ammai, ammd
Mother, mamma
Mater, mamma
Appan
Father, sir
Pater, domine
Appam
Bread
Panis
Appa, abba
Father, esqnire
Pater, eqnes
Appa^amn
A pancake
Laganum
Abaka;bukka
A ladle; a powder
Spatha; pul?is
^pm
«f^W
Appa
Ah, oh
Eheu, oh
Abbabba
Strange, alas
Papae,eheu
«rw
«TO
Amma
Mother, madam
Mater, domina
Amma
Mother, madam
Mater, domhia
No. 20.~^|)^ is also a Sdndlan word for father. In the Himalayim Boda the
word is dyd, in the Dhimal amtna. Among four Yeniseian tribes the word used is tan
or oma, according to Klaproth ; and this number is, too, evidently the same with the
Aramean abha^ to require attention being drawn to it. The Malay has dbang for our
sir, or sire. Among the Siberian Tartars ab and o6o, according to Klaproth, are used
for £ELther. The Coles use apai; the Himalayan Lepchos, o^m ; the Bhotiyas and
Murmis and Dhimals, aba; the Bodas, dpAa; while on the Malabar coast in Tulu,
appe means a mother ; and amoog the todas on the Nilgherry Hills apK This num-
ber then is an example of a decidedly aboriginal Indian word.
No. 30.— This number in the South seems a non-Sanscrit word for bread, but is, as
we come North, confounded with the Sanscrit Bf^n, which perhaps is derived from the
same source.
N. B. The Canarese BTxqir (appana) for tax, and other words in the Southern
tongues of the same sense, seem connected with the common Sanscrit root ^fm (dpa) to
obtain, and are therefore omitted.
No. 31.— wfj in Saoscritmeans to bark, to tpeai, to ffwepain. None of the deriva-
tives have any dose relation to the last sense. It is true that a blow with the fist will
generally give pain ; stiU no one would consider to give pain and to beat as synony-
mous expressions. But perhaps bmtittff is the true meaning of the wonL^om which the
noun ^ for the heart, is ulUmately derived. Digitized by GOOgt
1853.]
COMPARATIVB VOCABULARY.
323
SiMeHALBBB.
Ayata
An elephant
Elepfaas
MARA'THr. Gujaea'thp. Hxkdi'.
^nr^ , S 9rm
Anda ,
Andu
An elephant's chain
. • • . • A chain to tie an ele-
phant
catena
^HT^.^PIT ,
ciens catena
«n^;«Tnr
Pftter
An& &IWL • . . . .
Apa, ana .....
• • • • • -A^pa^ "P
• • . . • An aMat KistAV • h\A
honor
VQV ,
ApApT
Athinenke
Aptipa * • • . •
A pancake •••••.
Lagannm
LaffanQm ^ ^ . * •
<iwr: "VSt ••.. .
Buka : baki
• • • • • ^"^ ' % 9 ^^'
> . . . • Bnkni • hukka
A Dowdar * ablow with • • • • • i
■ • • • • Powdar * a handful
the fist
^T^M
• • • • • ^^
Ababa . . • • .
j^be
0 stntniPO •••>■■
Papae •••••<
» . . • • Imnrobe
^rar
^TT^ : vniT
^T^
Aoimd
A'yf ; kyk ,
A'y4
Mother
Mother : a drv nurse ......
> ■ . • • A drv nurse
Hater
Mater : nutriz ....•<
. • • . • Mutrix non lactescens
No. 32. — In the Canarese some nouns are derived from this inteijection.
No. dS.— This word Is probably the same as the Sanscrit 9fi(^r <> mother, bnt there
can be as little doubt that it is not an original Brahmanical word, but introduced from
the populace along with the bloody superstitions of Dnrga, whose name alone in Sans-
crit and Hindi it properly is. The proper Sanscrit is ^jn for mother. This word
then leads to the Arabic ^T a mother, CaxI a nurse, a word which in the form of amah
is common for a wet-nurse in India. Bfin ^^ Mar&thi nursery language means a
mother's breast. In Scindian both BfiTT ^^^ ^TT^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^'^^ mother; ama is also
used in Malay.
N. B. The Canarese Bff^fr foolishness, is most probably derived from the San»-
crit ^^ra on owl, in the same way as the Hindi ^fv which means an owl, and figu-
ratively, a fool. Also Bf^ir ^0 decoct, may be derived from ^i, essence obtained by
decoction, ^. ^fX9 to blossom, has no evident connection. The nearest word in the
Sanscrit is ^rh^ an eyelash, but it can hardly be derived from it. ^^C^ ^ ^^> ^>
I believe, nothing more than the Sanscrit KT^T; ^^ ^^^ ^ derived from the Tamil.
In that language wf becomes ^ as a general rule, and the prefixing of bt ^^ «lr««ly
occurred to us several times, and is a very common thing, as well as the shortening of
the vowels. It may still bo from the Canarese Bf TpC^ ^o choose. ^ t
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324
MON-SANSCRIT PRIMITIVES OF INDIAN VBRNAGULAR8.
[Jan.
VO. CAVABI8B. Ta'MIL.
. Ari;anha Arhighrada
^\ To know ; to inform To kuow
Notoere; namure Cognuttcere
Anichn, arusu Arattal, aravuni
To bawl, to call oat Clamour
Clamare VocHeratio
36
Arfai
LovOi fondness
Arliam, a)i
Virtue, compassion
Amor, blandimen- Virtns, benerolentia
torn
!^«3. •Tiff «T%V5
Alagn, aluku Alaipu
To shake, to quake Agitation, vexation
Vibrare, tremere Tremor, angor
8q7 Alijale
i To wander; a ware
Malata'lim. TBLixeA.
Arhiyunnn Arayu
To know, to oompre- To inquire
bend
Noseere, intelligere Bxquirere
Arhachu
To roar, to clamovir
Vocemedere
Aghka; alira Armili, arln
Beauty ; compassion Love, affection
Pulchritudo ; miseri- Amor, desidertom
cordia
Aravam
8onnd, noise
Vociferatio
Alai
The sea, a wave
if are, flnctus
Vagari; fluctus
•ray.; ^^fif ^Tfnr*'?,
Afanga; alati Alaogam
A rampart ; a mea- The wall of a fortress
sure
Vallum; mensura Agger
Alavunnu
To be agitated
Contremere
Ala; alaluitan
A wave ; the sea
Fluctus; mare
AUku
Fear, terror
Metus, tremor
Ala
A wave of the I
Fluctos
Alangamu
A rampart
Vallum
No. 34.— This word hardly travels into the Northern tongues, though with its deri-
vative so common in the Southern. Tlie harsh rh of the Tamil is, when doubled, pro-
nounced like tt, hence the comparison with the Hindi ; but see No. 27, where there is
given another connection.
No. 35. — This number is no doubt connected with the particle 9f ^ found in most
of the languages, and also in the Sanscrit dictionaries, and used as an inteijection in
calUng to or addressing inferiors. In Sanscrit it is all isolated and alone ; in the
Southern vernaculars it is connected with a large class of words, having the sense of
calling^ and the Malay arip, to scream. In Mar&thi XH^I evidently from the Sans-
crit ^^ir ^ o^ed in the sense of weeping ; but it is never interchanged with the words
of this number where the initial vowel is evidently radical.
No. 36.— This is a very satis&ctory Aeries. The first Singhalese, of which the meaning
it the most remote, is derived from a verb that means to lay hold of, and has a com-
pound meaning, cowrtskip ; it has also 9f Tf% i" ^^^ very same sense as the Hindi, and
there can be little doubt that this last word has found its way into Sanscrit books from
the vernaculars.
Nos. 37 and 38. — I am not sure that I ought to have separated these two nnmbers,
as vibratory motion is intimately allied with that of the waves of the sea. It glvea
me, however, the opportunity of bringing out the connection between all the diflbrent
vernaculars more thoroughly. There is to bo added to No. 37 the Bengili Idla and the
Uriya haUbdra, the Punjabi hilauna, and perhaps the Burmese Uok-the; at any rate
the Javanese and Malay alih, to move, to migrate. The nearest Sanscrit root is ^n||
Cchal), which means the same thinir. althnniyYi than^ mav Ka Ka«a mn^u • M/^nMAAfs^n nm
1863.]
COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY.
326
SiKGHALSftB.
Mara'thi'.
Oujbra'thi'.
Hindi'.
A'tu
A female teacher
InsUtutrix
Aragalaya
Noise, tamalt
Clamor, strepitas
AnM31.ora4
Bawling, noise
Vocifflratio
«?ra.^n1o5
•TToJ
^Tf%
AIU ; alai
If eamess ; desire
A'l, &li
A longing after
A'l
Fondness
All
A woman's female
fHend
Feminie amica
PiroiriiMiaitasjdeside-
rium
Desiderium
Blandimentnm
«TOT^
^^,f%f|iJ
^«t
V^^l
Allanafi
To pat in motion
Agitare
Hala^e, hila^e
To shake
Vibrare
Hdlayun
To shake
Vibrare
HdlanA
To shake
Vibrare
m^fvi 9|^
nelk&vA
A waTO
Fluctas
^vncT
Alanjara
Halord
An earthen water-pot
Vas fictile
A wave, billow
Fluctus
Alanga
A long building
Stabulnm, dec.
Alanga
A side, entrenchment
....<•• •■
may exist among languages of different families ; there can be no such thing as
derivation, for no example can be pointed out either of the dropping of an initial ^,
or of changing it into ^. The nearest Sanscrit for a wave is ^||^?c> ^^^ ^®^ *^ ^^
rivation is out of the question. The exceptional word ^|^pr , found in Wik^on's second
edition, with no other wordu in the least connected with it, and translated " rolling or
tossing as in sleep," has no doubt been adopted by some Sanscrit writer from the ver»
naculars ; but though No. 37 were on the ground of this word given up, the remarkable
agreement in No. 38 in the spoken tongues, without any corresponding Sanscrit word,
will still remain a remarkable coincidence, only explainable from the existence of a
non-Sanscrit basis. AHh in Malay means to move, to migrate. Compare also the
Greek 6Xot, the salt sea, with the Tamil.
Na 39. — Perhaps the Mar4thi points out the derivation from the Canarese of the
word for a rampart : it may thus be ultimately connected with the Latin longus, and
the Sanscrit ^(^^, but the sense of a rampart, which it bears in the South, and miUtary
intrenchment in the Hindustani, without any such meaning belonging to any derivative
of l^g^^ in Sanscrit, as may be supposed to take place from the Canareee 3f ^f^,
plainly shows an original and independent connection between the Northern and South-
em vernaculars. We may often find an original connection between words in languages
of dififerent families, owing to the influence of a primitive tongue Arom which all are
descended, if such a tongue there was, or from unknown circumstances. All we con-
tend against in such instances is, that the words have been borrowed on either tidpN^
The word alang in Javanese means a cross, in Malay a cross-beam and a 'sand-banlt^
326
NON-SANSCRIT PRIMITIVBS OF INDIAN VBRNACULARS.
[Jan.
No.
Camarbsb.
Ava ; avana
He, that ; hie
Illejsuus
Ta'mil.
ATan
He, that
Hie
41<
A'Ti ; dvige Av!
Steam ; a potter's Vapour, smoke
kiln
Vapor; fbmax Vapor^ fumus
48
1
) A'yu
< To choose
I Deligere
) A'm
' To be appeased
Malata'lim.
Tblimga.
^•rrr
^^w
Avan
He, that
lUe
Ayana
He, (honorific)
Ille (honorific^)
•nPf
•nPc; ^T^
Avi
Vapour
A'vi;&Tama
Vaponr; a kihi
Vapor
Vapor; fornax
A'Fu (Inteijec.)
How pleasant
Qnam lucund^
Placari
«n*
) A'le
**\ A press
/ Torcular, prelum
A'yanam; lival
Intimacy; longing
Familiaritas ; desi-
deriom
A'rhu, arhu-grhadu A'rhu, arhikkunnu A'rhu ; erhn
A river; to be appeased A river; to cool^ to To be appeased; a
appease river
Amnis ; placari Amnis ; restingnere Placari ; rivus
A'la£ Ala Allu
A press forsngar-canes A shed for an oil press To plait, to twist
Sacchar. exprim. tor- Mole tentorium Contorquere
cular
No. 40.— To this number add Bengdli ^ and Hindi v ihat^ihe Uriya Brnppf se{f,
the Sdndian i^VT ^/> the Dhim41 m he ; the Tibetan ^* thii, and %x that, are
perhaps more easily connected with the Sanscrit ^^ which in Uriya becomes % and
lf(^ gives rise to the Marathi jri ^^ Gi^ardthi ^, and is connected with the Burmese
tho, IC appears to me that the original form is the Hindustani 9f xq. The long
vowel in the vernaculars easily passes into the short, and non-initial ^ into iq*; thus
in Tamil xiJX( becomes ^^ as it does also in Mdgndhi^ see Kdlpa Sutra. In the
Mardthi and Gujar&thi BfYffvr becomes a comprehensive plural of the first person,
including all parties present The Malay atoahf self, is no doubt connected with this
number.
N. B. BfT'^^ 9IT7^ a term of the Canarese and Mardthi, being ultimately
derived from jujf^ a pair, is omitted ; as also 9f ffra, to be loose, as possibly in-
timately connected with fi(fl|f| loose.
No. 41.— Whether 9ff^, the word for vapour in the Southern tongues, be Sanscrit
or not, I cannot tell. In the Tamil dictionary wind and breath are among its mean-
ings, but the most discordant words there often obtain the same sound ; as for example,
there is ^f^ luck, a pure Sanscrit word, and under the same heading ^fHf a mother,
for which see No. 33. Hq^wever this may be, and whether the connection between
the two meanings we have given be intimate or not, the word for a potter*8 kiln seems
an unexceptionable instance of connection between the Southern and Northern families,
and would imply a certain stage of civilization before Brahmanical influence was
Digitized by
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1863.]
SlirOHALESB.
He
lUe
COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY.
Mara'thi'.
Apan ; apal&
8elf ; ours, (honor)
Nos; &c. noDtrum
(hon.)
A'va
A potter's kiln
Fornax flgulaH«
A'va4
Love, desire
Amor, deeiderinm
Gujara'tui'.
Apano
Ours, (honor)
Nostrum, (hon.)
327
Hindi.
A'p ; apna
Self; ours, (hon.)
Nos ; nostrum, (hon.)
AVd
A potter's kiln
Fornax figularis
A'rt
Astream
Rifos
A'la
Large
Virhd
A brook
Rivns
AOa
A tie, restraint
Ligamentum
Al
Injury
Danmum
Aruka
A par. cooling drug
Medicam. refrig.
exerted over the Indian Aborigines. The Malay and JaTaoese words abu and aum, for
ashet, are likely connected with this word.
No. 42. — Seems intimately connected with No. 36. The Javanese word affu
handsome, is no doubt also connected with Canarese.
^* B* ^nffTQ ^^ listen, Is not connected apparently with words in the other tongues.
No. 43. — Is perhaps ultimately connected with the Sanscrit 9fin^ water, though
I scarcely think it can be derived from it. In the Southern tongues ara, for a rwer,
Is a common word, and used by the vulgar in Ceylon, though quite unknown, even in
the highdr quarters of the Peninsula. The med, substance, found in the Hindi
dictionary, I derive from the Southern family, and suppose it a remnant of that family
which had lingered in the North. But what I want to be especially marked is, the
flguratiye sense that runs through the Southern tongues and extends to the Mardthl,
for the «7 and ^ are so frequently interchanged, that the use of the former is a matter
of no importance. The river, Arrw, in Italy, and the Latin uma, a water-pitcher, are
likely connected with the Sanscrit ^ffi(^ The Arar mentioned by Cessar seems
nearly the same as the South Indian word for a river. In Malay, arung means the
sea, and is nearer our word than the Sanscrit dmava, m^vHw,
So, 44. — ^Though the meanings of the words under Uiis number are rather diverse,
I suppose they may be derived from one radical.
N. B. The word ^y^ in Canarese and Telinga, with 9^j and 9^i| in Tamil,
meaning a cow, I cannot connect with the Northern fiunily, nor reduce to a Sanscrit
root, unless we sink the Sanskrit if.
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328
NON-SANSCBIT PRIMITIVES OF INDIAN VERNACULARS. [JaK.
No. Canarbsb.
1 Ikku.irisii
^\ To place, to put
Ta'mil.
Malata'lix.
(
Pouere
Ira
To be ; to remain
Emo : manere
-1
47 J Ir,e«
'i Both,
V. Ambo
)ra4u
two
Ambo, duo
48< ^^^^
i
60
Noz
Inggal
Live cools
Anthraces
Irutlu-gbradtt Iruttunnu
To place on, to press To place, to set
down
Ponere, deprlmei-e Deponere
Ini-krbada
To 1)0, to remain
Esse, manere
Iru, ira^^u
Both, two
Ambo, duo
Iru|
Darkness
Tenebrae
Iri-kunnu
To be, to remain
Esse, manere
Iru, ran^a
Both, two
Ambo, duo
tPccJ
Iriin
Darkness
Tenebne
Tnggdlam
Charcoal
Anthrax
I|i II, f|ai I^iyunna
To descend ; to halt Not to be ; consnmp- To fdll to pieces
Descendere
tion
; sistere Non esse; pthisis
polmonalis
HiKl,
A sickle
Tblivoa.
Irhnku
To press into
Interponere
Iru
Two, both
Duo, ambo
^^
Irulu
Darkness
Tenebrs
Inggalamu
Fire, charcoal
Ignis, anthrax
<^
IlttgU
To die
Mori
Urn PifJ
Villa Villa
A bow ; a steel spring A bow
Nos. 46 and 46 are intimately connected. ^ is in sense the ^^ of the Sanscrit,
and not the ^' the este or exittere of the Latin, and not the fieri; the be and not
become of the English. The latter of these senses belongs to the Soath Indian ^^n^
given above.
1^0. 47. Contains the common word for two in the Soatfaem tongues and an uncom-
mon word in the Singhalese. The Marathi word Mems evidently connected with the
others. The word ^ indeed is uncommon, and ^^^J ^'^^ **^® Sanscrit is used both
for other and eecond, I cannot think that ^^ is derived from ^^if^. The |f woald
not have been thus dropped.
No. 48.— The Mar&thi word means also roein^ the Sanscrit XX^i ^^ ^^ ^ ^^'^^
Digitized by VjOOQIC
1853.]
COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY.
SXKOHALB8B.
Maba'thi'.
Butane
To run into
Penelrare
Gujara'thi'
vOk^^q
^<t, ^T!^
IriyadvaTa
Eriy eravin
Existence ; position
Existeutia; situs
Spontaneously
Sponte, ultro
T'^wriT
^
Im^^^
Er
Two, double
Boo^ duplex
Other
AUus, alter
Kva
Ruined, disgraced
A live coal
Anthrax
Ilia
Consumption ; ex-
haustion
Inggard
Live coals
Anthraces
Consumpdo
XSSly ffoJT
Iia, viia
A sickle
329
Hindi'.
to derive the meaning given from night than from rosin, unless pitek be the common
idea^ and the Sanscrit xm» ^^ derived from the Southern tongues.
No. 49. — ^This word is put down in most of the dictionaries as derived from the
Sanscrit 9)|f .TT <* ^^^ ^^^* ^^^ ^ Mar&thi the pure Sanscrit word is quite common,
and not another instance can be given of such a conversion. The genius of the
language is to lengthen and not to shorten, and the corruption of nl^rPC ^ Bj{j|K.
f^.^ then is an aboriginal word. The Hindi follows the Sanscrit, and the Gujdrathi
as influenced by both. IngUj in Lowland Scotch, means a blazing Jir^
No. 51. — ^There is a Sanscrit word jfi^gf said to be a small stoord, but possibly
after all derived from the vernaculars, in which the leading idea is a bent in^
strument,
44
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330
NON-SANSCRIT PRIMITIVES OF INDIAN VERNACULARS.
[Jan.
No.
53
H
Canarbsb.
^.
Ukka
To boil, to seethe
Bnllire, ooqnere
Uppu ; appui
Salt ; quickiuid
Sal jsjiTtes
Ta'mil.
- Uppe ; 6ppa
Steaming in lye-
water ; pretty
Lixivia deall)are;
L nitios
Ukkam
Saltrinees
JEstaa
llALATA'LrM.
Ukhyam
Boiled
Coctum
Tbuvoa.
Uppu ; uppalam Uppa
SaH; a Bait marsh Salt
Sal ; nttoariam Sal
Marayuppii ; dppu 6ppam
Potash ; beauty Polishing
Sal liziyios ; splendor Politara
Ukka
Sultriness
iEstus
Uppu
Salt
Sal
6ppu
Beauty
Splendor
65^
66^
Ubba
To swell
Tnrgere
Ume
Mute, dumb
Mtttus
Upngrhadu
To swell
Turgere
Urhugal
Tightness
Constrictio
Urh&kkam
Sleep, rest
Sopor, quies
Ubba ; nbbu
Great moist heat; to
swell
JEstus; tumor
Uraka
Silently, quietly
Tacitd, placidd
Ho. 53.— The Malayalim and Singhalese words are both found in the Sanscrit, as
well as in several of the vernacular dictionaries. The proper corresponding Sanscrit
wordy however, is ^W% which though allied with, can hardly be called the root of our
words.
N. B. The Canarese ^f)r to spit out, may be derived from the Sanscrit ^ ^
to east off. The Canarese ^fvr% and Tamil ^Vl^ a ball of anything, the Mar&thi
5fff^ a lump of dough, are connected with the Sanscrit ^mji^ a ball of flour, and
are omitted though probably here also the Sanscrit is the derivative. The Canarese ^^iq to
eatf I derive from qip| as ^g^.W from vtlRi ^* ^^ Mar4thi and Canarese we have
a curious word, ^^|qn lifting goods on credit, probably from ^r^; also Canarese
\ a pair, or match, perhaps from ^ifif or m( and ^^ the lap,from ^^fif.
No. 69.^1 feel now doubtful of the connection between the two Canarese words in
the first column. I thought the Tamil word for a salt marsh might be the link, but
perhaps such a Sanscrit word as ^^V^fl'ir may be the original^ whence the MariUhi
and second Canarese are deduced. There is a Sanscrit word for condiments, ys^^^i,
which cannot have any connection with this word, as ^^ is the prepositive.
Digitized by
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1853.]
8INGHALB8B.
Ukba
Aaaneepan
Antbepsa
COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY.
Mara'thi'.
Uka^ane
To boil, to seethe
Coquere
Gujara'thi'.
Ukarava
To boil, to be hot
Ebulliro, fenrere
331
Hindi'.
Ukalana
To boil
Coquere
Upai
Marshy ground
Pnitum palttstre
opana-gavand
To polish
Polire
op
Polishing, bleaching
opai^
A burnisher
Politura, dealbatio Politor
op
Polish, lustre
Politura, nitor
V'b i ubha4 Ubharawin
Sultriness ; gushing To swell
out
iEstus ; profluvium Tumere
Ubh ; ubhum&
Bloist heat ; to swell
iEstus ; turgere
Uga
Silently, still
Tacit^, placid^
Ungga
Sleep, rest
Sopor, quies
U'nggh
Nodding, sleeping
Dormitans
No. 54. — ^The connection of the two words in the Canarese is presumed from the
ease with which the u aud short o pass into one another. The word ^m like our word
soltf is applicable to all saline bodies, and to potash among the rest Hence we
get the sense of bleaching cloth, and next of rendering other articles brilliant. This
is a widely diffused and important aboriginal word, extending even to the Malay,
which for polUh has upam. It is a defect in the Devandgari alphabet that it makes
no distinction between the long and short e and long and short o.
No. 55.^Perhaps the word for moist suffocating heat, which occurs in some of the
languages, may not be derived from the word to swell, though the heat meant is that
which makes seeds germinate, trees bud, &c The Malay aba, to glow, or to feel warm
is likely connected with this number.
No. 56. — The meanings in the members of this series are pretty close, but the forms
are not so close as usual.
N. B. The harsh r sometimes written rr will henceforward be written rA.
N. B. The Canarese ^f^ blaze, flame, &c. is probably continually connected with,
if not derived from iff) : in the sense of flre, flame, kc, and both with the Hebrew -mt
ur, fire.
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332
NON-SANBCBIT PBIMITITBB OF INDIAN VERNACULARS.
[Jan.
No.
i
Canarbsb.
Urala
To roll ; to die
Volyere ; mori
Ta'miu
Urakam ; urapa
Descent ; deeth
Descensus; mora
Malata'lim.
'^
U'runnu
To pull off
Extnihere
Tblihga.
U'raln
To roll; tofiUldoim
Volvere ; cadeie
\ Ultta Ufl
°^\ Topsytuiry Disgrace
V Inyersd Infamla
Ulti ; uli
To plough; a chisel
Arare ; scalper
Uzhu-grhadu ; uli
To plough ; a chisel
Arare; scalper
Ulayunna Ulugu
To move ; to be re- To die
duced
Movere; reduci Mori
Uzh&va;u|i Uli
Tillage; a chisel, A chisel
abarb
Agricnltura; scalper, 8calprum
spiculum
eo<
61 >
Uiiga
Service ; items
Labor ; articuli
Ekkataii
Mocking, jeering
Uiha-krhadu Uzhkalam
To suffer; to apply Retinue, insignia
the mind
Pati; studere Pompa, regis insignia Bonomm schedula
Ulaku
A mem. of goods
Ekkachdkkam ; ekkar Ekkanchakkam
At random; low Ian- Contention
guage
Ekkirinta
Making faces; deri-
sion
Nos. 57 and 68 seem intimately connected, though they appear still referable to two
distinct roots. The only Sanscrit words that seem nearly connected with them are
^X^ tossing, roUing, and ^%T^ a wave. The vernaculars, however, have all the ^
which the Sanscrit never has in those words, and if they had been derived from the
Sanscrit, how can we account for all taking the ^. The Singhalese word f^^ rael,
meaning a wave, is probably also derived from the same source. The commonness of
many of the words in the list, and the number of derivatives in use, show these to be
no exceptional or foreign vocables, but genuine members of the aboriginal Indian
tongue. The connection of the former number with our English word roll is not a
little remarkable ; as well of loll, for putting out the tongue, with the Sanscrit ^Tt^T
a tongue, and %r9 shaking. The Mar&thi has ^TWV^ ^^^ *^ polish, and ^|^uj^ for
a carpenter*s plane ; the Hindi '^^Jlf^ means a chisel.
N. B. The Canarese ^9^ sand, the Mardthi ;^T^ waste land, &c., have been
omitted, as nearly connected with the Sanscrit ^rw ^we earth, though which is the
original may still be questioned.
No. 69. — The Malayalim and Singhalese come near, both in sense and sound, to
the English awl. It is singular to notice how the Maratha's put a i|[ before the vowel,
in the word for a husbandman. They also frequently change the og into if. Husband-
men are called in Tamil ^9lo7TT^ uzhwor.
^* S* ^f% ^0 ^ ^^h In Canarese, and ^^v) in Marithi, can be derived from the
Sanscrit ^^f?C9r ; «l*o ^oSijSi possessing, from ^m definitive verb it is; both the
corresponding words in the Southern tongues have no derivative, as fiir as I know,
in those of the North. ^
1863.]
SlNGHALBBB.
Uleld ; rodala
Whirling ; a wheel
CircamagvnB ; rota
Alia
A waterfidl
Cataracta
^^
Ula
Tbe point of an
instrument
Tell cuapia
/ COMPARATIVB VOCABULARY,
Maba'thi'. Gujara'thi'.
R<i! ; rn{ane Rolavun
An anklet ; to jingle To roll, to polish
Annulus ; tinnire YolverO; polire
Ula^d Ula^un
Inverse, reyerse Reverse, opposite
Inversus, reversus Reversum, adversum
^^^ ; jrej^
Ulane ; ku{ambi
To crack ; to split ; a
husbandman
Rimas agere; agricola
333
Hindi'.
Roland
To roll, to smooth
Volvere, polire
Ultd
Reverse, contrary
Reversus, adversus
Ulanan&
To be laid on one side
Inclinare
Uliyama
Palanquin service
Sdle penailis por-
tatio
UUg
A return present
Remuneratio
U^hdwun
To entangle
ImpUcare
Venkawlyd, vench-
kulyd
Mimicry, grimaces
Uljhdw
Embroilment
Turbamentum
N. B. The letters W, ^, t^e purely Sanscrit, and do not exist in the ver-
nacular tongues. They are merely the semi-vowels ^ and ^ with the French u, a
vocal sound, which is only found in connection vrith those two liquids, and considered
by Sanscrit g^rammarians as vocalizing these two consonants. The Mardthi Brahmans,
who have retained the different shades of sound peculiar to Sanscrit letters, pronounce
as above described, or as the German u. The Devandgari has but one e and o, and
that long ; but the Southern vernacuhirs have a short e and o also. The words beginning
with the short e are often corruptions of Sanscrit words beginning with other vowels, as
"t^lW crumbs, from ^^|E in Mardthi ^^^ and ^nr eight, from b)>^. Sometimes a
gutteral is dropped, as from JHTfT calculation, we get ^^, unless this be from
9TV ^m. These words are accordingly all passed over. In the same way, by drop-
ping a dental, we get the Tamil ^o7^ ^°^ Canarese i^gg an oil seed ; and hence ^r^
aU, from the Sanscrit f^^ ; and ^ whence ^ in Hhidi and Mar&thi, for ail.
It is curious that in Mar&thi the ff is always dropped in compounds; thus we have
^[if^^ for autOT'Oil, from '^n^f^ and ^^ showing a Southern influence.
No. 61. — After two or three derivatives we have ^^ to card wool or clean cotton,
whether it is connected with this number or not, I do not pretend to say; perhaps it is
the root whence they all come, as the Telinga n means both to drfame, and to clean
cotton,
N. B. ^117 pufi^^f, is doubtless from 9TftrQ&itdfi3^^'*^<^^^>^°^9nT* ^
the same principle ^1|7^ warning, is derived from fn^[^ consideration, and so of
others that I need not particularize.^ ^ to shoot an arrow, may come from an ^^
^ , and possibly jjbkk a hole, from f%^. At any rate these have no correspondent
words in the Northern tongues.
334
NON-SANSCBIT PRIMITIVES OP INDIAN VERNACULARS.
[Jan.
No.
•1
Canarbsb.
Etta, etaku
To roach
Eda, edara
^^ Place, abode
Locus, domus
64<
E4a
The left
Sinistra manna
Ta'mil.
E^tu-grhada
To roach, to aim at
Assequi, moliri
Malata'lim.
E'tdkiitam
Hazard, difficulty
Tblihga.
E^keiii
With difficulty
Periculum, difficultas Vix, difficile
Adai ; a^apu Ata
Incubation; a hearth Incubation
Incubatio -, focus Incubatio
Place, interval
Locus, interrallom
Ena ; verhi Yerhiyan Edama ; verhadi
Poverty ; fury A madman, a beggar The left ; madness
Pauperias ; furor Insanus, pauper Sinistra ; insanies
05 < Edachadaka
/ Timidity
^ Metus
EUna
A deceiver
Fallax
J Edaru;idiru Edir
""\ The front ; presence The opposite, beforo
f Parsadversa; prce- Regio contraria, co-
sentia
Hatakan Hatakuxu^u
A coward A coward
Timidus Timidns
^^ ^
Etiro Edurhu
The opposite, beforo The front, opposite
Pars contraria, coram Prima acies, contnria
No. 62. — The Sanscrit vg^^z ^o surpass, will not account for this genuine abori-
ginal word, which does not go beyond but comes up to the mark with difficulty.
N. B. ^Y^ to stumble or strike against, is connected with the root 9fT^.
The Canarese ^^TT ^^^ Telinga ^^ipif obstinacy and severity, and these with the
Sanscrit ^j^ violence. Whether ^ proportion, is derived or not from jf^ I would
not decide. In Mardthi we have ^^vt to rise, and ^ttvT *^ '^''^^ ^Pf hoth originally
from the Sanscrit ; probably then, the Canarese ^^ to raise, and the allied words aro
from the same source, or at least intimately conuected with it.
No. 64. — ^Though for comparison some extraneous words have been added, I do not
think it likely that they aro all from the same root, though I think the roots nearly
connected that designate Irft^handedness or madness, or foUy or intoxication, all
which senses the second Tamil word bears.
No. 65. — It is not probable that words radically connected, yet with such various
forms, should have been derived from the Sanscrit, nor that ^n^ a coward, should
have been so transmogrified. It is rather to bo inferred that ^f^ itself is a mero
Digitized by
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1853.]
SI56HALS8B.
COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY.
. Marathi'.
A^pa^e
To reach, to accom-
plish
Pertingere, aasequl
Gujara'thi'.
Atapata
Difficult
DifflcUe
335
Hindi'.
A^a
To be filled up
Ropleri
A#i
A place where labour-
erK meet to be hired
Forum
A public place
Forom
Hatiya
Panting
Ediri
Against, adyerae
Advenosi bostilia
Ve^; ^va
A madman ; the left
Insanus; sinistra
Hadbadane
To tremble
Tremere
Ethe
Here
Hie
Hadiydhd
Timid, bashful
Pavidus, yerecundus
Jdhar
Here, hither
Hie, hue
formatioii from the Telinga or Malayalim than a derivative of the Sanscrit ^ir,
from whence it could not, according to the rules of etymology in that sense, be well
derived.
No. 66. — A glance at the Canarese word will show at once th&t we do not need to go
to the Sanscrit ^ipf to get the Hindi word, which by-the-bye is almost identical in
meaning and sound with the English Mtker. Suppose we endeavour to derive ^;i^
from the Sanscrit |;^|( this, we shall not even then get the ^ till we go to the Cana-
rese, the locative of which is l^^[^cfv ^^^ ^® genitive ^I7^. The Mardthi never
changes the Sanscrit Bf to ^, and therefore must have the same origin.
This number in the Canarese and other Southern tongues has many derivatives in
the sense of opposiiion.
N. B. ^ the breast or heart, is no doubt mw. This in Scindian assumes the
Praerit form of f^JjlH.^. JB'dUf a porcupine, is derived, according to the Telinga
dictionary y from ^ to protect, which itself is connected with No. 66, which like the
Gre^ atm has the double refttence, of protection and oppoeitian.
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NON-BANSCRIT PRIMITIVES OF INDIAN VERNACULARS. [Jan.
No. Canarbsb.
Ta'mil. MinuLTA'LiM. . Tblikoa.
I Enna ; endu EnRrhadu, enda Ennu Ana ; ani
67 J To say; to that effect To say; on purpose Therefore; to that To say; totbatefbd
j for '" '
I Dicere ; cujos tenor Dicere ; idcirco
^ est
Ella Ellam
The whole, thorough All, the whole
Universus, prorsus Omnis, universos
C8<^
Ezhuchi
E|u ; ^Hge
To rise ; growth, Elevation, haughti-
eleyation ness
Orlri ; incrementum Sublatio, superbia
70<
Ele
Thread
Filnm
Ezhini ; ellai
A curtain ; bounds
Auleum ; termini
71
Oga^esu, oyakkane Okk&lam
To yomit, to feel Qualm
nausea
Vomere, nauseare Nausea
I O^u ; o4u O^u
72^ To collect together ; A tile ; a skull
j aUle
j In plicas coUigere ; Tegula; calva
^ t^fula
efffect
Idcirco ; cnjus tenor
est
Dicere ; ci^us tenor
est
^WT«
m
Eildm
All, the whole
Omnis, universus
EUa
All
Omnia
Ezhu,
Produce, height
Iluku
To start
Fructos, altitude
Rxsilire
r^rs ; w
fH
Ezha ; ella
A trellis ; a boundary
Ella
A boundary
Cancelli; terminus
Limes
Okarinchu /
To 'retch
Okkanam
Squeamishness
Nausea
Nauseare
Ofitunna ; . ozhi 04i
Tile ; a hidhig-place The lap
Latebra
Sinus
No. 67. — I have given already a reason for not deriving this fW>m the Sanscrit ^TVT.
Instead of changing VT to Vf, the current of the vernaculars is quite in the opposite
direction ; and they all mean to say or ieU, but never to sound. The pluperfect par-
ticiple also, which becomes in all of them that have the verb, a particle meaning some-
times therrfore, and sometimes to that ^eet ; and in most instances, though there
was not space to note it both, is a very singular coincidence ; and it is scarcely less so
that the Singhalese and Malayalim which have not the verb should retain the particle,
while the Mardthi, which changes the form of the verb, should change also the particle
to make it assume the regular participial form. This singular idiom is scarcely capable
of a literal translation into English. Thus for the phrase he went qff, saying he
would return immediately, the Mardthaa would say igT^^lf ^T^ ^^^ «f TWfWt^
ir^X ; literally, *' I will instantly return," having said, 4{fisr saying, he went off.
Yet this strange idiom runs through all these languages.
N. B. If the Canarese ^rn to how, and ^^^ to sprinhle, have no eonaeetloa with
the Sanscrit f^farvf creeping, as a chUd, and K^pT P^^i^> ^^y ^^^ >^ ooxfespon-
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COMPARATIVB VOCABULARY.
337
SlUGRALBSK.
Maha'thi'..
Gujara'thi'.
UlKDI'.
fnrwT
Mha^a^e; mliandn
To say; to that effect
Direre; evjoa tenor
est
Alel
Arrant; thorough
Jfems; prorsus
Enisi
Od that aecoant
Iddreo
^
•ran
Alam
Bli
PobHe
The haman raee
Commonit
Genus humanom
«ri^^
«rai>
^ra^^T
^V^*l
Aliya
An elephant
Awe
To attain puberty
Albela
A coxcomb
Albela
A fop, a swell
Elephas
Adoleecere
Tumidas
Tricarum gloriosns
V^^^i
Elen
A t)iong fkatening the
cart to the yoke
Jngi loramentum
Eedenavi
To entwine
Convolvero
• •%
Okk^
Vomiting
III
Olcavun
To vomit
Okand
To vomit
Vomitas
Evomere
Yomere
Vomere
O^okkuva
A pocket in the folds
of the robe
Siana
Oti ; opti
A verandah ; the lap
Porticos ; sinna
Otalo; otavu
A verandah ; to hem
Vestibalum; preetex-
ere
Ot; ntta
A skreen ; plaits of
cloth
Velum ; plica
dents in the Northern ihmily. ^^ young, tender, is probably connected with the Mar.
^mi freeh, tender, from S. ^9 moisture.
No. 68. — It is singular how this word should come so near the English aU, and the
Arabic ^«JU used in the Urdu, There is here no approach to the Sanscrit, yet it is a
very common word in all the Southern tongues.
No. 69. — The Southern root here explains some singuhir words in the Singhalese
and Northern family.
N. B. I cannot find any traces of the Canarese 9|t^ and B^fiTT one, unue, in the
Northern £unily, unless in No. 77, though they run through all the Southern*
C.^TfSf *o bleach, may be connected with S.^TSf^ splendour. Also C.B^rSY to
tfo^A, and allied words; and Mar. ^jVin to draw, are from the Sans. ^iir( from the
root ^^ to bear, obtain. See. '^f^ to kick, impede. See, seems peculiar to the South.
Also ^HXrg *«/«W, to die. Again, C. ^TX.^ "<* M.^¥T « stream, are from ^^
toflow.
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338
N0N-SA.M9CRIT PBIMITIV88 OF INDIAN VBSNACULARS.
[jAjr.
No. Canarbbe.
Ta'mil.
Malata'lim.
Tblinga.
73< Oda
/ A boat
V Na?icula
(^^^^
74/ 04amTadu
i To convenant
V. Pactionem facere
04am
A boat, a ferry-boat
Cymba, ponto
Ottu
Conjunction ; a tow
Unio ; votum
^VSJ{
Otam
A boat, a wherry
Cymba, scapba
Otam
A bet, a wager
Pignus, spontio
Oddn
To bet or wager
Pignus opponoe
r W^
*til
^t
BhT
76< Ora
i Edge, margin
V Margo
Oram
Hem, margin
Fimbria, margo
Oram
Side, edge
Latus, margo
Ora
Side, edge
Latus, margo
(^I^<
<Tft
tiTKT
7«/ Oratu
^ i Coarse (as cloth)
V. Crassus
Koti
Unbleached (cloth)
Non dealbatufi
Kora
Unbleached
Non inaolatos
^T^^
i.1 \fu uccuuaiitia
77) Oi-alu [ed
i To become acquaint-
V Usum intercedere
Orumai
Singleness, concord
Unitas, concordia
Oruma
Unity, fellowship
Unitas, familiaritas
Orimika
Friendship, union
Amicitia, eoajunctio
78) Ore
i To rub
V Frlcare
\ Ola; oil
79 < UnwiUing;apledg€
V Nolens ; pignus
Orhgam
Restraint; poverty
Continentla; pauperti
bttPb
Orheyak, orayu
Rubbing, to rub
18 .«••.••.•
BTTH
^1*Pm ; ^Tf%
A pawn
Pignus
Olla
— Must not
Nequaquam
Olayl ; 611
Not consenting; a
dowry
Nolens ; dos
rBhfti
iho3 ;^3TTfoJ
^fcS
nw, ^sm\
on) ^"^
80< Good; well
Oi ; 00
Good ; light
OH
Light, splendour
Ba14, bhal4
Bravo
V. Bonus ; bene
Bonus ; lux
Lux
Euge
r ^^mK
^l«lc^|.
'SfT^H.
Bh^g
81 ) Olekdra
i An armed peon
V. Miles pedisequus
Ozhunggu
Orderly disposition
Dispositio
Bhfn
Orukkam Olayn
Preparation, readiness To be proper
Adaptatio Aptum esse
i ^HT9^
Bnre ; ^TRa^
^l^ll^
33} O'saru [oul
i A fountain, to ooze
V Fons, rimis effluere
t Otti
) Aside
Seorsum
Oli ; oliva
A pond ; fldwbg
LacuB ; fluens
Osarinchn
To move aside
Seipsum subducere
Ko. 74.— Gives us an instance of the prefixing the guttural^ in the Northern
tongues.
No. 75. — Furnishes us with a striking instance of the prefixing of the guttural i|[ in the
Northern tongues, of which we have seen some previous instances. See also the next
number.
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COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY.
339
SiKGBALBeE.
Oniva
A boat, a canoe
Cymba, acapha
Maha'thi'.
Ho^
A boat, a canoe
Navicula, linter
Gujbra'thi'.
Hodi
A boat
Navicula
Hindi'.
Hola
A flat bottomed boat
Navicula
Pignus
Hod
A wager, a bet
Pignus, sponsio
Hod
A wager
Sponsio
Ho4
A wager
Pignus
The side of the body
Corporis latus
Kor
Edge, verge
Margo, ora
Kor
Edge, border
Margo, limes
Kor, or
Edge, side
Margo, latus
«S, a^,
Kora
Unbleached (cloth)
Non dealbatus
Koro
Unbleached
Non dealbatas
Korados ; korus
Unripe (grain); rongh
Immatonim; scaber
Kora
Unbleached, See.
^on dealbatus
iEIensTa
To loTc, adhere to, &c.
Oiakh
Acquaintance
Familiaris usus
Olkhd?
Acquaintance
Familiaritas
Or£
A protector, a patron
Patronus
Orpane, orkhadane Valorio
To scratch, to lacerate Laceration, a scratch
Scabere, lacerare Laceratio
iEralanva
To escort
01
A hostage
Obses
Ola; bhala
Profitable ; good
Lucrosus ; bonus
Waldvd
An escort, a guard
01
A hostage, a bail
Obses, vas
Bhalo ; bhaldi
Good ; goodness, pros-
perity
Bonus; bonitas,feIicita8
01
A hostage
Obses
BhaU
Good, well
Bonus, bene
-Slalanavd
To open the sluices
Aqnam emittere
Osaravun
To subside, to recede
Subsidere, recedere
Or ; osara osree
Origin ; by turns
Origo ; vicissim
Osad ; osanjie
Desolate ; to subside
Desertus ; subsidere
No. 77. — Here the root is no doubt ^T^ one, the ^ being sometimes changed into
^ in the North.
J^o. 80. — We have here a curious process of transformation into the Hindustani from
the Tamil. The ;^\ easily becomes^, the i| becomes next ^, as in the Telinga, and
finally «f . In the next number the ^ of the Tamil stops in Marithi at the first stage
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340 [Jan.
Art. III. — Second Memoir ontfte Cave-TempUi and Monasterietf
and other Ancient Buddhist, Br&hmanical and Jaina Remaini
of Western India. By John Wilson, D.D., F.R.S., Honor-
ary President of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic
Society.
Presented September 1862.
Since the publication, about two years ago, of the Memoir on these
interesting antiquities, yarious additional discoreries have been made
concerning them, which, with a view to facilitating furUier research, it
may now be proper to bring before the notice of the Society. Our
narrative of these discoveries shall be of the simplest character ; and we
shall venture on no inferences connected with them which do not i^pear
to be of an obvious character.
We begin, as on the former occasion, with Rock^CUt TempleSf
and their Appendages for the accommodation of priests and
monks.
CAVES NEAR KONDATI, IN 8ALSETTE.
Some time ago, we had an opportunity of visidng the Buddhist
excavations about a mile and a half from the village of Kondati, in
Salsette. On that occasion we discovered four additional excavations
on the western side of the hill, making, with thofte found on the eastern
side, the number of sixteen. The settlement of monks there must,
then, have been considerable. On a former occasion we spoke of it
as an offset from the more extensive and well-known establishment at
Kdnheri. But of its comparative antiquity we shall not at present
venture to state an opinion. The form of the letters on the Kondatf
inscriptions certainly appears as ancient as that of most of the inscrip*
tions at Kdnheri. We recognized at once in it the word Gautamay a
name of Buddha ; and when a fac-simile is obtained of it, and it is
compared with others foimd elsewhere, there will be little difficulty
felt in its decipherment and translation. The cave inscriptions cannot,
to any considerable extent, we are persuaded, be successftilly dealt with
in an isolated form. For a successful decipherment of them, and the
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groaping of the Pali words, of which thej are principally composed,
and which are hut little known, however closely they approach the
Sanskrit, a general collation of them is ahsolutely necessary. The la-
bours of Lieutenant Brett, employed by Goyemment in takhig them all
in fto-simile, under the direction of our Cave Commission, when brought
to a dose, will give our Orientalists the fullest opportunity of doing
justice to them.*
On a former occasion we had an opportunity of exhibiting to the
Society some drawings of these cares at Kondati, made by a young man in
the employment of Mr. Law and Dr. Gibson. There is nothing very
remarkable either about their architecture or sculpture, though a group
of figures on the left of the entrance to the room containing the Dhdgob,
which is now considerably injured, appears to have been well executed.
It is a peculiarity of these excavations, that they are made at the very
top of the hill on which they are situated. The superincumbent
rock left above them is little more than sufficient to form for them an
adequate roof. We have seen no caves in any other part of India
corresponding with them in this respect.
CAVES OF ELEPHANTA.
Since the i^pearance of the Memoir on the Cave-temples, in 1850, a
large clearance has been made of the earth, stones, and rubbish accumu-
lated in front of the northern aisle of the Eleph anta Caves. This was
effected by a subscription of upwards of two thousand rupees by the
society of Bombay, raised principally by the zealous exertions of Captain
French. It has led to the discovery of two interesting objects of sculp-
ture, a pair of moveable leo-griffs hewn out of a compact porphyritic
basalt, remarkably well executed, which guard the staircase, which
has now been brought to light. The counterpart of these leo-gri£b,
made of the same material, and of the same form, we lately observed
in the BdUimanical excavations of the '' Dhumdr Ltfia** at Elora, as
* Since this paper was read to the Society, we have had the pleasure of receiTing
Professor H. H. Wilson's lecture on « The present state of the cultivation of Oriental
Literature." The following extractfrom it is quite in unison with these remarks : —
•< Translations of some of them [the cave inscriptions] have been attempted ;
hut it may be doubted if we can yet place much reliance on either the transcripts or
the translations. The former evidently require collation before they can be satis-
factorily interpreted. The services of a scholar, well acquainted with Sanskrit, and
with the modifications of the Ndgarf alphabet found in India, are required, who
may compare the transcripts with the originals on the spot, and verify or correct
them, at the same time that he takes careful copies of such as have not yet been
transcribed."
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342 ANCIENT REMAINS OF WESTERN INDIA. [JaM.
they are popularly called, which some years ago we had noted as remark-
ably like the caTes of Elephanta, both in their general plan and mytho-
logical figures and groups of figures. A new link of connexion between
the Shaiva temples of Elephanta and Elora has thus been unexpectedly
obtained. The reddish basaltic stone of which the leo-griffs are made
is not to be found in situ in the island of Elephanta. As far as we can
judge, it is from'the same quarry that has furnished the material for the
modem structural temple of AhilyA Bdi, of the Holkar family, at the
Tillage of Elora, which, we learn from a valuable communication of
Colonel Twemlow, lies a little to the northward of the Indra SahhA
at Elora. If this opinion be correct, it must have been brought to
Elephanta at considerable expense.
The commonly received theory of the Shaiva character of the great
Elephanta Cave has lately received additional illustrations from our
learned Vice-President, Dr. Stevenson, who, in his ingenious paper,
inserted in the last number of our journal, has given a notice of its
mythological figures, more condensed than that which is found in the
admirable paper of Mr. Erskine published in our Transactions.
CAVES IN THE KONKAN, AT CHIPALUN, PATAN, &C.
In the Memoir on the Caves we mentioned, under the heading of
** Caves in the Konkan unvisited by Europeans," the probable existence
of several series of religious excavations, of which we had received
native reports, especially from a well-known BdUiman antiquarian,
Vishnu Shdstrf. One of these series, at Chipalun, has been found by
Mr. Arthur West, C-E., at present engaged in the Engineer Department
under Government. It is about a quarter of a mile south of the town.
It consists of a tolerably large room, twenty-two feet long, fifteen broad,
and ten high, containing a Buddhist DhAgob at its farther end ; two or
three smaller caves, one of which is now filled up with earth, for the
accommodation of monks; and a deep tank for holding water, thirteen
feet square, on the surface. With a ground plan of these caves we
have been furnished by Mr. West.
Four miles north of Patan, near the road leading from Ckipalun to
Karhddy Mr. West has discovered another small series of Buddhist
caves. They consist of a room with a small round Dkdgob, six feet in
diameter, and of a Sh&ld, or hall, nineteen feet by eighteen, with an
elevated seat at one of its comers, and three recesses or closets at its
inner extremity, of which the middle one is the smallest.
Two small caves we lately noticed for the first time in a kkind,
or pass, between Revadanda and Ambepur. They have at present no
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distinctiye character ; but thej were probably originally places of repose
for Buddhist travellers passing from the ghdts to the coast.
We have received pretty distinct intelligence of the existence of
some important series of caves in the mountainous territory lately be-
longing to the Pant Sachiva, which has been very little explored*
or even visited^ by Europeans.
CAVES NEAR AURANGABAD AND ELORA.
Ck>nnected with the neighbourhood of Aurangabad and Elora,
Colonel Twemlow, whose antiquarian zeal and conciliatory dealings with
the natives in all his inquiries are so well known, has, through the
Bombay Government, brought to the notice of our Society several
excavations which have been hitherto overlooked. The following is'
<i. quotation from the Colonel's communication: —
" On an ancient fort, three miles SE. of Daulatdbdd, now in ruins,
but which must formerly have equalled, if not excelled Daulat^b^d in
strength and extent, are numerous cave -cisterns, some having pillars,
aptly elucidating the original object of the excavations to have been
accurmdating of water in high places. These cisterns of water, hke
those of Daulatdbdd, might have the front retaining wall cut down ;
and the excavations could then be formed into caves and dwellings.
" The hill is called * Chaman Tenkadi,^ or by some * Chamar
TukadA,^ It was visited lately by Dr. Bradley and myself, and the
dimensions of the caves were taken by Dr. Bradley, who will, no doubt,
describe these ancient excavations.
" The fortress had a tunnel entrance, but it has either fallen in, or
been purposely destroyed. There was an upper and a lower fort ; the
upper fort had a space of level interior about 300 yards by 50.
" There is a similar ancient fort, named (by the modems) Rohilld-
ghad, about twenty miles east of Aurangdbad, containing water-cisterns
and caves. They have been filled up, however, by the Natives of the
adjoining villages, as they gave refuge to tigers, and other beasts of
prey, which descended on any cattle straying near their lairs. This
hill or fort was ascended by me, in course of the search made (in the
month of May 1849) for RohilU plunderers, and has since been visited
by Dr. Bradley, with a view to descriptions being given of the caves
and cisterns.
" In addition to the * Caves of Aurangdbdd,' described as the north-
em series, there are several other caves £Eu:ing the east and north, in
the range of scarped trap hills, which probably formed the southern.
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344 ANCIENT REMAINS OF WESTERN INDIA. [JaN.
and part of the eastern outer fortifications of the ancient city of
' Bhadravat.' Thej hare been yisited bj Dr. Bradlej.
'< In a hill near the village of Sitdri, three mOes south-east of the
cantonment of Aurang&b^ there are two rude ezcaYations» the
commencement of caves.
*' On the western face of the hill immediately north of the Cayes of
Elora, called * MhaismalS,' there are some small caves. This hill is
much visited by the native Waidyas, or doctors, for medicinal herbs,
and has on it mounds' of stones, as if ruins of ancient buildings.
" There is at least one cave on the western scarp of the hill
immediately south of Rauzah, in the hill called the " Cavalry Rama'* :
it has no sculptures in it, and used formerly to be a hiding place of the
Bhfls."
Of the more important excavations now mentioned by Colonel
Twemlow, an extended and interesting account by Dr. W. H. Bradley
has been forwarded to the Cave Commission, by Ci^tain Cuthbert
Davidson, Assistant Resident at Haidardb^ at the request of the
Resident at the Court of his Highness the Niz^, Major Greneral
Fraser. Though this document has been already published in the
Madras Journal of Science and Literature, and communicated to the
Royal Asiatic Society, an analysis of it, with copious extracts, may be
here introduced, to complete our general notices of the Cave-temples
of Western India, as far as they have yet been brought to light : —
'' In the hill north of Aurangibad, and within half an hour's walk
of its walls," says Dr. Bradley, '' are seen some ruined Buddhist and
Jaina cave-temples, half concealed amongst fallen rocks and earth.
Much of the sculpture still remains in tolerable preservation, and gives
a pleasing idea of what the state of the arts was in this country, where
now nothing of the sort exists. The temples have been wrought in
the same table-land that contains the Caves of Elora." The hills in
which they are found are '* of amygdaloidal trap, of varying degrees of
induration, and rising at their highest points to about 700 feet above
the plains." A whitened mark, about two-thirds up the ascent,
indicates the level at which the first and principal series of them is to
be found. This mark is at a small Jaina cave, now devoted to the
Tirthankar Nemin&th by the present Jainas of Aurang&b&d. The
other excavations, however, are all manifestly of a Buddhist character.
Dr. Bradley divides these caves into three groups, which are scat-
tered over a space about a mile and a half in extent. His description
of them commences with those of them which are fiurthest to the
west.
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First Group. — ^fter alluding to three caves now filled with earth
and ruhbish. Dr. B. gives a particular account of those which are
accessible. Of these —
1 . The Jirst ** is a small cave, consisting of an anterior vestibule and
sanctuary, with a passage round it. The entrance into it is rendered
somewhat difficult by fallen rock and bushes." <' In the half-choked
ante-room, Buddhist figures are seen ranged right and left on the walls
in compartments, the seated figures of Buddha having the legs either de-
pendent or crossed, with the hands invariably placed in an attitude of
devotion. The vestibule fronting the sanctuary has the roof supported
by two square pillars and two pilasters, well sculptured. The sanc-
tuary is fourteen feet square and ten feet high, with the door towards the
south : a passage, three feet broad, passes the whole way round. In
front of the door is seated the image of Buddha, nine feet high as sitting.
The legs rest on the expanded calyx of the lotus, and the hands are
disposed in the usual attitude of contemplation — represented here by
the thumb of the right hand pressing the little finger of the left. A
thin drapery seems to cover a portion of the idol, the folds of which
become apparent round the neck, lap, waist, and across the thighs, the
ends being gathered and grasped in the left hand. Neither beard nor
mnstachios are visible. The hair of the head is arranged in small
conical curls, terminating in a round knot or bunch on the summit.
The ears hang low, with stretched lobes, pierced in the same manner as
seen in the Jog{s of the present day. No ornament appears upon the
figure, unless a small hemispherical protuberance upon the forehead,
about the size of a marble, deserves the name. The SinMsan, or lion-
throne, on which the figure is seated, has maned lions right and left,
supporting the bench. Behind are represented several animals. At
the base is an elephant crouching, with his trunk curled up beneath his
head. Immediately above him rests a four-legged animal in a rearing
attitude, carrying a human being on his back. He has a neck scaly
like a dragon, a goat-like head, with protruding eyes, and four short
horns, two curving backwards and two upright. His tail and claws are
like a hon's. This fabulous animal is constantly represented in old
Hindu temples, and at Elora is seen as one of the nondescript animals
supporting Mahideva's grand hall in Kailds,'* " At the top of
all, and on a level with the upper part of the throne, appear the
head and shoulders of some open-mouthed probiscidean monster."
" Winged praying figures kneel on either side of the head of the
idol, behind which appears a nimbus. Over the image in each comer
are seated figures of Buddha in high reUef ; and the walls right and
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346 ANCIENT REMAINS OF WB0TBEN INDIA. [JaN.
left have similar figures placed one above the othe^, in four rows, some
having the legs crossed, others hanging down. Each figure has sub-
ordinate attendants. The doorway is sipiple. Sockets are let into the
jambs for the doors, which turned on pivots, and were bivalved, fastening
by a bar across. A plain pillar-moulding forms the door-frame outside,
with a simple Untel, surmounted by ornamental carved work of
pagodas, having roofs approaching a bell shi^. Each pagoda
contains three niches, the centre one holding Buddha seated, and the
two on Ather side standing figures of Bodhisatvtu. On each side of
the door stand gigantic dwdrpdliy or doorkeepers, nine feet high, each
accompanied by a figure canopied under five heads of the hooded snake.
The colossal figures are generally present in Buddhist caves, either as
dwdrpdls, or within the sanctuary as attendants upon the idol, and
invariably represented as most opposite to each other in costume. It
is not so with the equally colossal chauriwdlds (fly-flappers), that gene-
rally accompany them in the sanctuary, who are always habited alike.
The doorkeeper on the right is richly ornamented : he wears a high
pointed jewelled cap, the most prominent decoration upon it being a
seated figure of Buddha, carved on a round ornament in front ; the
throat and neck are encircled by collars and necklaces ; and the arms
and wrists are adorned by armlets and bracelets richly cut. In the ears,
which are long lobed and spUt, are placed earrings, the right of which is
globular, and studded with elaborate representations of jewellery, whilst
the left is a disc of some two three inches in diameter." " A narrow
fillet confines the waist above the navel, falling down in front, in waving
cords. Around the loins three or four folds of a chain, arranged in
square links, are passed, whilst the ihelS^ or robe, crosses over the upper
part of the thigh from right to lefl, and is held in the left hand. The
right supports a long stalk of the lotus, on the calyx of which rests a
small cross-le^ed figure of Buddha. The attendant figure with the
snake canopy wears a diadem, jewelled necklace, and armlets. Both
hands grasp the lower portion of the lotus. Over the dwirpdl appears
a flying figure, bearing a necklace of flowers. The doorkeeper on the
left side has much the character of the Hindu penitential ascetics of
the present day. He is represented devoid of all ornaments : in lieu
of the jewelled cap, he wears his own hair twisted turban^fashion round
his head, elfin locks falling over either shoulder. Upon his left
shoulder hangs the skin of an antelope. Below the navel, a band passes
round the body, from which hangs a narrow fold of drapery. The right
hand holds a rosary, while the left supports a slender waving lotus stalk,
on which a seated figure of Buddha rests. The snake-cancqpied
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attendant and flying figure are counterparts of those on the opposite
side. The walls of the vestibule and passage passing round the sanc-
tuary are covered with compartments, holding high rehefs of Buddha
seated on a lotus, the stem of which is grasped by two figures wearing
wigs and tiaras, canopied by snakes. Two smaller stems, springing
from the principal stalk, support attendants on their flowers, who ap-
pear to be repetitions * en pettit* of the dwdrpAU of the sanctuary*
Buddha sometimes is represented vnth the legs crossed, as well as de-
pendent: the hands as seen in the sanctuary, vnth one exception,
where the back of the right hand rests upon the left palm."
2. The second is a ViMra cave, of fifty feet square, exclusive of side
cells and sanctuary, to a great extent filled with sandy mud. " The
wall of the outer veranda b pierced by three doorways, leading into the
hall, which is twelve feet high, and the roof is supported by twelve
pillars and four pilasters. These have rectangular plinths, with shafts
rising in a rectangular manner for about a fourth their height, and then
breaking into polygonal shapes, fluted or plain, encircled vnth richly
decorated bands and fillets of rosettes and beading, surmounted by a
capacious capital, either cushionnshaped, or that peculiar form known
as the vase and falHng leaf, where the capital is vase-like, vnth elegantly
carved leaves, drooping in spiral volutes from the points of the abacus.
The architrave resting on the pillars is enriched vrith sculpture, gener-
ally representing Buddha seated vnth females, surrounded by a profu-
sion of gracefully arranged and well-sculptured foliage. Medallions,
ornamented vnth lions, elephants, and nondescript animals, serve to
support the whole entablature. A medallion in demi-relievo occupies
the centre of the shafts in the side pilasters, of Buddha and females,
with very beautifully designed fillets and bands in bead-work surround-
ing it. The same medallions are frequently repeated upon the pillars
generally throughout. In several instances statuettes of females stand-
ing, or fat males seated, with chancellors' wigs, are placed at the comers
of the square pillars ; and as these pillars are arranged in pairs, no two
of which resemble each other, great variety of design is seen. The
frieze resting on the architrave fronting the entrance is covered by a
series of sculptured figures in demi-reUef, divided into thirteen com-
partments, evidently referring to Buddhist subjects. The sculpture is
nine inches high, and clearly and cleverly executed. The first com-
partment represents a naked male figure seated on a throne, with a
child upon his knee. He wears an ornamented high pointed cap, and
jewelled necklace. An aged female, seated on the ground in front, is
holding towards him another child, whilst behind, two naked male
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348 ANCIENT REMAINS OP Wl^TERN INDIA. [JaN.
figures are sitting, who, by the high caps, and wheel earrings they wear,
appear to hejoffis. One of them holds forth his hand, as though he
were exhorting. Behind the principal seated figures are wigged attend-
ants, a female chauriwdld on his right, and a male on his left, both
furnished with the least possible quantity of clothing. Another
attendant carries something Uke a book or box. The second compart-
ment represents a bear, wearing a jewelled collar, riding on the back of
a tiger. A male and female appear, offering presents in front. Musi-
cians, in niches above, are playing various mstruments, one of whom is
using the plectrum, instead of striking with the fingers. The third
group represents the same principal figure seated on a throne, with a
female, in a state of nudity, standing by his side, two male wigged
figures being in attendance. The fourth group is a subject not easily
reconciled with the mild tenets of Buddhism, which inculcated respect
to hfe. The impalement of a man is here represented : the executioner
is employed binding the victim to the stake, which has been thrust
through the body, passing out at the left side of the neck ; a dog stands
near the stake, and a little beyond is a female. A forest is supposed
to be represented, by the variety of foUage occupying the back-ground.
The fifth compartment shows an obese old man, seated, listening to a
female on her knees, playing some instrument. He wears a large wig.
Over-head appears suspended a range of bells. The sixth compartment
contains a naked male, with a female figure, seated on a throne, his
left hand holding hers. Various wigged figures are dispersed about,
one carrying a vessel, into which he dips his hand. Another in front
rests in a half kneeling and sitting attitude. This appears to represent
circumstances attending the celebration of marriage, judging by the
joined hands, and the attendant with the vessel for the hbation of
water, which is to be poured over the hands thus united, and may have
reference to Buddha's marriage with T/uhodhard JDevi, The next com-
partment shows an old man in a flowing wig, mounted on the back of
a person, who bends under the load he carries : an attendant in the
rear appears lending aid. Four other figures are in the back-ground,
two with flowing wigs, and two wearing bob-wigs. The eighth group
is a battle piece, in which bows and arrows, swords, and oblong shields
are used. The battle is continued on into the next compartment, where a
colossal figure is thrown down, to whom a wigged figure appears addresS'*
ing himself. Two men with snakes-hoods, and two naked females, fill up
the space beyond. The ninth group shows Buddha reclining on a bench
within a forest, entering into Nirvdna [ultimate repose] : a pig is
represented on the left of the bench, and a tiger on the right ; the
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1853.] CAVE-TEMPLES AND MONASTERIES. 349
heads of both being directed towards the prostrate figure. A man
mounted on a horse appears in the left comer. The horse is in
action, and wears a plumed crest between the ears. At the op-
posite comer a holy ascetic is seen seated under a palm-tree, with a
tiger on his right. Above him, in compartments, are half figures of
snake-hooded, and wigged attendants, both male and female. Two
horses' heads are observable amongst the foliage of the back-ground.
The tenth group appears divided into three portions. In the right
comer is an old man in an ample wig, seated on the shoulders of another
iqan. The centre represents the entrance of a natural cave, oversha-
dowed by trees, into which the two figures just noticed appear entering,
and the left corner is occupied by an assemblage of figures in all sorts
of wigs, large and small, the principal figure being the old man, who
appears in the act of teaching. A figure with a jogi^n cap, and wheel
earrings, is seated at his feet ; a canopy of foliage extends over-head.
The eleventh compartment represents a procession of figures mounted
on horses and elephants, preceded by two men, the one blowing the
ahinffhdrd, the other beating the dhoL The horsemen carry straight
swords by their sides, and wear wigs. A crested plume adorns each
horse's head, and an umbrella of state is carried over the rider's head.
One elephant is in motion, whilst the other is lying down, and thrusting
out his hind leg for the convenience of the rider to mount, who is in
the act of stepping on the elephant's foot for that purpose. An
umbrella is also held over this person. The last compartment represents
the same principal male and female figures seated on a couch, with
drapery. They appear to be listening to the sounds of the mn6^ played
by a male wigged figure on the right ; and a naked female on the left
is apparently accompanying it with her voice, judging by the attitude
she adopts. Round the frieze within the hall, a series of sculptured
pagodas in high relief are arranged, the alternate ones slightly project-
ing. Those most prominent contain a male and female figure in
amatory dalliance, with females in separate niches, right and left, as
attendants : in the niches of the receding pagodas, there are placed a
squab fat wigged man, with attendant females. Towards the north
and south are recesses in the wall, the roofs being supported by two
pillars and two pilasters, whose designs differ very much from those
before described. The pillars in the western recess are more exu-
berant in their decorations than the eastern ones. Cells occupy each
comer of the hall, whose dimensions are fifteen feet long, by ten broad.
The vestibule to the sanctuary is supported by two pillars and two
pilasters, of the same form as seen in the recess, but infinitely more
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350 ANCIENT REMAINS OF WESTERN INDIA. [JaN.
rich in their decorations. A richly cut moulding skirts the sides and
tops of the entrance, arranged in what heraldry terms imbattled lines.
The ornamental border represents chain and head-work, with rosettes ;
and in each compartment formed of this arrangement of the design,
appear figures of amatory couples. Round the cornice above are seen
flying figures, bearing necklaces of flowers, and heada of the homed
fabulous monster. The pillars and pilasters are of the most exuberant
style of decoration, and covered with sculpture from the base to the
summit of the capital, the shafts breaking from squares into eight,
sixteen, and thirty-two sides, braced round with broad bands, on
which amatory figures are shown in demi-relievo, or narrow fillets of
bead-work, bells, rosettes, drapery, lozenges, and leaves. A richer
effect is produced by the capital being divided into thirty-two sides. The
sanctuary contains a seated colossal figure of Buddha, on whose form
the light falls, leaving all around in gloom, which incident is not
without its mysterious influence. His position is similar to that of the
idol in the cave just described, and his lion-throne presents the same
decorative sculpture. Gigantic chauriwdlds stand on either side,
with flying figures above. In front, ranged along the sides, right and
left, are groups of kneeling figures, male and female. They nearly all
wear tiaras and richly ornamented jewelled dresses, the arrangement of
the hair being of the most elaborate description : the countenances, with
one or two exceptions, betray a Mongolo-Tartar origin, from the
breadth of the cheek bones, projecting shape of the lower jaw, and
thick Ups."
3. A few paces eastward brings us to the ruins of number threfy a
chatty a cave. Large portions of the face of the rock have here fallen,
carrying with it the whole front, and a great portion of the cave itself.
The dimensions are very insignificant in comparison with those of a
similar description at Karld and Elor4. No sculpture nor ornaments
appear upon the circular basement. Upon the pillars, and aisles,
remains of punted stucco may be observed.
4. The fourth cave, the last of this group, is of small dimensions,
being only about twelve feet long, by nine broad. It is the one which
is conspicuous at a distance, by its having been white-washed. It
contains the Jaina image of Nemin6th, the twenty-second Tirthankar,
Second Series. — This is situated about a mile to the east of that
now noticed, and in the same hill-side. It consists of four caves, two
of which are much hidden by bushes.
5. The fifth excavation, the first of this series, has a ruined external
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Teranda, inner v^tanda, restibule, sanctuary, with passage passing rounds
and lateral cells, leading off right and left, at either ei^tremity. « The
doorway of the sanctuary has two broad steps in front, guarded by
doorkeepers, bearing the snake-hooded canopy. Gigantic figures, ten feet
high, wearing the high conical cap with the Buddhist emblem, stand
at either extremity. On each side of them are a male and female figure,
carrying comucopise, and wreaths, hovering over their heads." " The
figure of Buddha is the same as those already referred to. His attendants
are two tall figures seven feet high, standing on each side of the throne.
Two rows of kneeling figures, three feet high, are ranged on either
tide, five in a row, the females being upon the left, and the males upon
the right. The passage running round the sanctuary has lateral cells,
whilst two chapels, containing seated figures of Buddha, are excavated
in the northern wall facing the side passages."
6. A few yards further east is number six, with an outer veranda,
a hall or inner veranda, with recesses and sanctuary, and a passage
surrounding it, pierced by cells. The outer veranda, as in the last cave,
has nearly disappeared. *' The inner veranda or hall has the entrance
supported by four handsome pillars and two pilasters. The shafts are rect-
angular, with sculptured scrolled medallions, containing the frequently
repeated group of amatory figures. The upper part of the shaft is encir-
cled by a band, on which elephants are cut. Passmg down into the hall,
or inner veranda, by one step, the doorway leading to the sanctuary is
seen immediately in firont. It is very richly sculptured." " The two
windows to the side passages are as elaborately finished as the doorway."
** Between the door and windows we find scuptured on the wall, in very
high relief, gigantic figures of two remarkable Buddhist attendants."
*' There is some remarkable sculpture associated with one of these
figures. It is arranged in eight groups on projecting ledges, four on
either side of the figure : the parties forming each group seem in the
attitude of prayer or supplication. All are looking towards the idol,
at the extremity of each ledge. A flying figure, with Buddhist emblems,
is interposed, as if forming the communication between the idol and
the suppliants. The first group upon the right, commencing from
above, is much mutilated. It represents a portion of two figures,
kneeling with closed hands. Behind them appears a mass of flaming
fire. The second ledge contains three male figures wearing wigs : the
outside one holds a sword in his right hand, and a standard in his
left ; the centre one carries an umbrella over the other, who is kneeling.
The third group represents three figures, bound hands and feet. The
fourth shows a ship in full sail, with main-nuist and mizen-mast, back
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352 ANCIENT REMAINS OF WESTERN INDIA. [JaN.
stays, streamers, and mat sails ; a person is steering the vessel with an
oar over the counter. Another stands amidships, holding a round
vessel in his hands, as does another person in the bows, who, by the
necklace and head-dress, appears to be a female. Commencing at the
top, on the left side, we have two figures kneeling — a male, with hands
joined in prayer, and a female, clasping him round the neck and waist.
A maned lion sits behind, holding up one paw. The second group has
a male and female praying. Behind them are Lindas (?) out of which
the heads of the cobra are protruding. The third group is a kneeling
figure, beside which stands a Buddhist ascetic praying. An elephant,
beneath a mango tree, is behind. The last group is much mutilated,
but appears to be a female, seated, bearing an infant in her arms. An
old hag with pendant breasts and streaming hair stands over her;
serpents are twined round her neck and arm. A Buddhist ascetic is
praying behind them. The stucco painting shows an old beldam
painted white, in the attitude of dancing. Her left hand holds a
snake, which passes round her throat in lieu of a necklace. Her right
hand, upraised, points with a forefinger towards a figure beside her.
She wears bands of blue beads round her wrists and ankles ; her hair
hangs in elfin locks over her flaccid breasts. A portion only of a
black figure is seen kneeUng before her. The richly dressed figure
occupies as conspicuous a position as the one just described. He wears
a conical ornamented cap, with the Buddhist emblem in front. In the
right ear is worn an earring of a wheel-shaped form, whilst in the
left he wears a ring-shaped necklace, bar armlets, bracelets, and
waist ornaments, as before described in the first cave. On each side are
placed male and female figures five feet high, who are, again, attended
by dwarfs. The western recess contains a series of figures ranged
against the wall, cut in such bold relief as to approach very nearly the
appearance of statues. They are eight in number, the first and last
representing the two classes of Buddhist religionists ; the intermediate
ones are all females. The northern figure is a BodkisatvOy holding his
robe in his left hand, in the attitude these figures generally are seen
adopting. The southern figure is apparently a sacred mendicant.
The six females all bear flowers and fruit in their hands, and each
have the hair very elaborately arranged. Females were permitted by
Sakya Muni (Buddha) to embrace a religious life, and thb cave may ^
probably have been a convent for nuns. In the opposite recess, two
figures are seen seated on cushioned seats with backs. One is a
ventricose old man, with a full-bosomed female seated by his side,
nursing a child upon her knee. The^ have attendants behind, and
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flying figures above* Standing on brackets at the comers to the
north are two well-sculptured females, the size of life. The gallery
passing round the sanctuary is ascended by three steps. The sanctuary
itself IB raised above these two stq)s again. From the galleries six
cells open ; and at the further extremity of the galleries are two chapels,
containing seated figures of Buddha. The sanctuary is a small
diamber, ten feet square, containing the usual seated figure of Buddha,
with a lion-throne more than usually ornamented. Out of the mouth
of the probiscidean monster is seen rising the gracefully curved neck
of the ibis ; snake-hooded figures kneel on the back of the throne ; and
figures bestriding the homed monster, attacking others resting on the
kneeling elephant's head beneath, are executed in the best possible
taste. Flying figures in pairs are perched above, whilst Buddhist
figures, arranged one above the other in three rows, are placed on
either side." " The wall on the right of the idol is occupied by a
group of females in demi-relievo, standing three and a half feet high.
The central figure is a dancing ^rl, very slightly attired ; the rest are
playing a variety of instruments, each adorned with an elaborate head-
dress." ** The opposite wall has some cleverly sculptured figures of
the same size." ** The doorway is very richly ornamented in the
mouldings of the frame-work, and guarded by snake-hooded dwdrpdfs.
Bight and left of the entrance to the sanctum are ranged along the
walls large female figures with attendants. On the right of the door
the sculptures are a female very profusely covered with jewelled attire,
and ornamented head-dress, her bosom extravagantly proportioned, and
holding the stalk of the lotus. Two female attendants, in scanty
habiliments, smaller in height, are on either side of her, bearing fruit
and flowers ; and beyond them stand dwarfs — one, leaning on a crooked
stick, seems to bend beneath the weight of the female's hand, resting on
his head ; above are flying figures. The cornice of the wall is formed of
the convex eaves of a temple, in which seated Buddhist figures are re-
presented. The wall on the left of the sanctum door is covered in
like manner with a buxom lady, and attendants, similarly attired ; but
in this cave no praying figures appear above, as on the opposite side^
by which we may infer some association between these two females, and
the simple and decorated attendants without. The appearance of
dwarfs is a common circumstance in eastern mythology, and has a
mystical allusion no doubt."
7. " The front of the next (or seventh) cave having fallen, no
access to it can be accomplished, but by help of a ladder. It mea-
sures 27 feet in breadth, by 20 in length, and is an unfinished Fih6ra,
47
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354 ANCIBNT REMAINS aF WESTERN INDIA. [JaN.
without pillars or sanctuary. There are six cells opening into it, with
a window. An opening in the wall towards the east leads to another
half-dug cave in the same unfinished condition, supplied with a
verandah, which is supported hj two pillars and two pilasters. A large
portion of the frontage has fallen. This second cave is 20 feet long."
8. " Ascending the hill, some few yards easterly, the eighth group of
caves is seen, which are not observed until close upon them. The
whole length of excavation is upwards of a hundred feet, extending to
a depth of sixty." " The arrangement appears to have been an outer
verandah, that has slid down the side of the mountain, nothing but a
very small portion remaining. The hall extended the whole length of
the excavation, from which four caves opened." ** The centre one is
the largest, having an inner verandah, vestibule, and sanctum."
" As you scramble over rocks and bushes into the cave, you have to
step across a misshapen mass of rock lying in your path, which, after
looking at a second time, you perceive to be the time-worn sculpture
of a recumbent figure of Buddha, fifteen feet in length." *' Passing
onward into the most westerly of the three northern caves, we note the
capitals of pillars adhering to the roof, occupied by Buddhist figures in
penitential attitudes. The sanctum contains a seated Buddhist idol."
" Doorkeepers, seven feet high, stand at the entrance." " A doorway
is broken through the wall of the vestibule into the adjoining cave,
which is the largest. The vestibule here, as in the last cave, has no
more remaining of its two pillars and two pilasters that supported the
roof. At each comer of this verandah are placed well-sculptured
figures of females in very high relief. This cave is buried in rubbish
up to the knees of the figures, from whence to the top of their head-
dresses they measure seven feet ; each figure is most exquisitely sculp-
tured, that is, the ornaments are with which they are covered, for
nothing can be more skilfully or cleverly carved than the jewelled gear
and flowers that adorn their head-dresses, or the sharp chiselling and
symmetry of chains and links and jewelled ornaments about their per-
sons." " The door of the vestibule has dw&rpAh of the same
colossal proportions, bearing Buddhist emblems in their head-dresses.
Flying figures appear above. Within are seated two obese old men,
wearing bar armlets ; and the door of the sanctum is guarded by
dw6rpdU six feet high, bearing the five-hooded snake canopy ; the left
one only is finished. The sanctum is in an unfinished condition."
"The other northern excavation is of small dimensions. The pillars of
the vestibule show the same ruined state as the two others." ** In
niches of the verandah are figures of Buddha ; in the hall, female figures
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]853.] CAVE-TEMPLES AND MONASTERIES. 355
similar to those remarked in the last cave are seen ; the floor is greatly
encumhered with fallen ruins. The sanctuary contains a seated figure
of Buddha in a meditative position. The side cave opening to the east
is choked up with mud and rubbish, leaving nothing visible but the
capitals of the pillars."
Third Series. — " About a mile to the eastward, in the curve of the
same range, two or three caves have been commenced, not one of which
was ever finished. The sight has more claims to the picturesque than
those we have just noticed, commanding a pleasing prospect towards
the adjoining hills."
9. " Number nine is the commencement of a cave, the front of which
is nearly buried, and measures 18 feet in length, and 9 feet in breadth.
10. " Number /en is a cave with outer verandah and hall, 28 feet in
length, broken off abruptly after excavating to 13 feet.
11. " Number eleven is a cave of large dimensions, consisting of out
verandah, hall, vestibule, sanctuary, and side crypts. The breadth of
the hall is 46 feet, with lateral cells extending to seven feet on either
side. The depth of the rock from the outer verandah to the further
wall of the sanctum ia 80 feet : all is left in the rough, as if abruptly
broken off, and nothing approaching to a finished state but the front
of the verandah. Though I have termed the excavations on either side
of the hall lateral cells, from the resemblance they now bear to such a
use, I am inclined to suppose these side cuttings to have been nothing
more than the preliminary steps for forming the side pillars and aisles,
which were intended to have surrounded the central hall.'*
The most important of these caves, now mentioned in detail by Dr.
Bradley, we had an opportunity of personally inspecting under the able
direction of Colonel Twemlow, in January 1852. Their sculpture, all
things considered, is, for India, of a superior character, and was pro-
bably executed by native workmen, acting imder the direction of Greek
or Bactrian artists, whose connexion with others of our caves we shall
afterwards have an opportimity of noticing. It appears to us very
desirable that the most important of them should be entirely cleared of
the earth and rubbish by which they are nearly filled ; and a recom-
mendation to this effect will be made by the Cave Commission to Go-
vernment. Almost all the larger groups of caves in the Maharashtra
have their peculiarities calculated to attract attention ; as, for instance,
those at Aurangdbdd are remarkable for their sculpture, those at Elora
for their extent and variety, those at Ajantd for their painted scenes,
and those at Elephanta for their unique image of the Hindu Triad. It
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356 ANOIBNT REMAINS OF WESTERN INDIA. [JaN.
is wonderAil that the Aurangdb^d cayes, most of whidi are so aocessibley
should hare heen hitherto so little regarded.
On a late incidental visit to the Caves of Elora, we had the
henefit of reviewing them under the able direction of Colonel Twemlow,
who is so familiar with themfrom his residence in their neighbourhood^
and his eagerness in antiquarian research. He is of opinion that the
Br&hmanical excavations and monolithic temples are merely Bud-
dhist works, accommodated by additional sculpture of an extended
kind to the views and conveniences of the followers of Shiva. For this
opinion the arguments are two : large portions of the architecture, as it
even now meets the eye, strongly resemble that of the Buddhists in its
neighbourhood ; and the centre of the hilly amphitheatre in which the
excavations occur would probably be that first occupied by the
Buddhists, the original possessors of the locality. In regard to a few of
the excavations, it may be correct. The others throughout are so
thoroughly characteristic of Br&hmanism, in their general plan as well as
in their individual details, that we consider them the product of that
system of faith, not, however, without a manifest imitation, in some res-
pects, of Buddhist, or its auxiliary Grecian art.
We have lately come to the conclusion that the Buddhist southern
excavations, which now bear the name of Dherwdd^, were originally
denominated Therawddd, or residence of the Therds, or monks. The
Vhers, or Dheds, as is well known, are a low and degraded tribe of
aborigines in Gujardt, and their name was probably given by the
Brahmans to the Buddhist monasteries in contempt.
It is now pretty well known that several of those monsters of iniquity,
the Thag$i when brought to trial in different parts of India, have urged
that their horrid profession has a divine sanction in the cave-temples of
Elora. When lately there, we observed a group of figures which may
have given rise to this idea. It does not, however, support the inter-
pretation which the Thags would wish to put upon it. It merely
represents a devotee of Shiva taking refuge with his lord from a Thag
about to strangle him in the usual manner of the craft. It proves
the existence of the Thags at the time of the first-formed Brahmanical
excavations.
To the probable date of the origin of the respective caves of Elora and
other places — Buddhist, Br^manical, and Jaina — ^we shall onwards
allude. Some additional helps to a judgment in this matter, of great his-
torical interest, we lately procured at Elora and other localities. We have
found none of them in the Sanskrit legend of £lora» which, through the
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help of Colonel Twemlow, we procured from the Br^mans of the
modem village of that name.
CAVES IN THE INDHYADRI RANGE.
In our first Memoir on the antiquities of Western India, we ex-
pressed our helief> with regard to the excavations at Ajanta, that " it is
extremely probable that other groups of caves remain to be discovered
in their neighbourhood, which, from representations made to the writer
of these notes when visiting it, appears to have been but little explored
by Europeans." Shortly after the Memoir appeared, a remark of Captain
French at one of our meetings led to inquiries by Capt. James Rose about
a cave in Kh&ndesh, which had been seen by Captain French. This cave
proved to be of an insignificant character ; but the search for it led to
the discovery by Captain Rose of an important Buddhist establishment
in the Indhyadri range in which Ajantd is situated, and not many
miles distant from the small station of Kanhar. The following is the
original account of his visit to it by Captain Rose, a portion of which,
but with a good many important typographical errors, has already
appeared in the Society's Journal. We add to it a few notes and observa-
tions : —
" On Saturday the 24th [of August 1851] I set out with the inten-
tion of visiting the cave with the door near the foot of Kanerd fort,
which I had never been nearer than the road which passes through the
valley below it through the deserted town of Patna, where an annual
yAtrd assembles. In my inquiries about this cave, and on my way
to it, I learnt that it is a very insignificant excavation, which would pass
unnoticed but for the conspicuous little door, which doubtless caught
your eye as it did mine, but that in a gorge of the hills near it there
were real caves, like those near Ajant^.
'* As these were to the east of the Ganesh Gh&ty and consequently
nearer Kanhar than the cave for which my trip was chiefly intended,
and as the sky looked threatening, I determined upon going to them first.
** The road is very difiicult, but when the Pipal-khorA (the name
of the ravine in which the caves are concealed) is gained, the scene of
grandeur passes any description I can give. It is awfully and fearfully
grand and beautiful.
** When within less than eighty yards of the caves, it was almost
impossible to believe the guide that the excavations he described were
so near, although he pointed to the exact spot. The ravine is much
grander, and the approach to the caves more difficult, than at Ajanti,
and there were evident marks of theur being frequented by wild beasts ;
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358 ANCIENT REMAINS OF WESTERN INDIA. [JaN.
but although I was quite prepared for all comers, not even a bear
showed itself.
" I have spoken of the caves ; but only one excavation deserving the
name is remaining. This exactly resembles some of those at Ajant4.
** The arched roof and pillars, covered with paintings of human figures,
etc. are just the same. The figures are very distinct in many instances,
and women and men seem to be mixed. There is nothing about them
unchaste, and in general they have circles, or what are sometimes called
' glories,' round their heads, similar to those given in the fancied repre-
sentations of our Saviour.
" One drawing struck me particularly, in which a female is repre-
sented with long ringlets, just as ladies sometimes dress their hair in
our own times. This figure was quite fair, and yet close to it was a
very dark female likeness, of the HabsAi caste of feature, with very
black curly hair.
'' The stone here was much more brittle than at Ajanta or Elora ;
and consequently some of the pillars are broken, and the excavators
failed in their attempt to represent arched rafters, as they succeeded in
doing at Ajantd, for the same reason.
" The other three caves here are, in fact, nearly blocked up, from the
rock falling down from above. One of them, however, on descend-
ing into it over the fragments of rock, is in tolerable preservation,
though none of them appear to have been quite completed, as is also the
case at Rozah and Ajanti. Where the rock had given way before the
chisel, the masons had neatly substituted stone, and this is the case at
Rozah, as I observed, or rather Colonel Twemlow did.
" In the painted cave, the paintings are done over a coating of
chunam.
" The only sculptures are two or three representations of elephants,
tigers, bullocks, and deer, or goats, cut out in small dimensions, back
to back, like our lion and unicorn.
" There may have been sculptures and inscriptions ; but if there ever
were, they have disappeared into the ravine below, as the rock is con-
stantly giving way.
" These caves the guide (an old man) said were never visited by a
S4hib before, though Mardthds and even Brahmans come to see them,
and bathe in the river below. While I was there, it began to thunder
and grow cloudy, and I got a ducking ; but I do not regret my visit
to the Pipal-khor&y and should like to repeat it. I am going to try if
there are any more caves in the hills, of which we have not heard. I
wonder how it is that none have been found in the Satpudd yet. No
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natires of this country could, I think, haye drawn the cave paintings —
the Greeks or Italians must have helped them ; and, indeed, at £lora»
there is a woman's figure cut out in stone, of such fair proportions as to
show it is the work of an artist, quite superior to those who executed
the hulk of the unwieldy figures there.
" In the new caves I am alluding to, there is an odd neatness in the
little sculptures I have mentioned."
These interesting notes of Captain Rose do not throw any light on
the comparative age of these Buddhist excavations. It would he well if
the paintings which they bring to Hght could be speedily copied.
The explanation of the peculiarities of the female figures which are
noticed is not difficult. As the Buddhist religion in the ages of its
glory prevailed not only throughout India, but throughout the countries
lying to the north of its boundaries, and beyond the Indian Caucasus,
and Tartary and Tibet, its Buddhas and Dhy&ni BuddhaSy and their
other metaphysical productions or associates, the Dhydnl-BodhU
satvas, are frequently represented as attended by devotees and servitors
of varied cUme and colour. Buddha himself, and the Bhy6m Buddhas,
and Bodhisatvas, in their typical form, as seen in India, Nepal,
Ceylon, Barmah, Pegu, Siam, China, and Tartary, are depicted and
sculptured with curly hair and rather large tips, which the Buddhists,
according to a strange taste, enumerate among the points of beauty.
Mr. Hodgson, of Nep^, when examining the learned priest whose
answers form the substance of his most interesting and highly valued
" Sketch of Buddhism," put to him the question — " What is the reason
for Buddha being represented with curled locks ?" and he received the
following answer : — " Adi-Buddha was never seen. He is merely
light. But in the pictures of Vairochana, and the other Buddhas, we
have the curled hair ; and since in the limbs and organs we discri-
minate thirty-two lakshanas (points of beauty), such as expansion of
forehead, blackness of the eyes, roundness of the head, elevation of the
nose, and archedness of the eyebrows ; so also the waving curled locks
is one of the points of beauty ; and there is no other reason for liuddha's
being represented with curled locks." Mr. Hodgson adds in a note —
" This is the true solution of a circumstance which has caused
much idle speculation, though the notion is no doubt an odd one for a
sect which insists on tonsure !" The colours of the five Dhydni Buddhas
are as follows : — " Vairochana* s appropriate colour is white ; Ak-
shohya's blue ; Ratna-Sambhava^s yellow or golden ; Amitdbha's red ;
and Amogha-Siddha's green. Those of their respective Bodhisatvas
are correspondent.
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360 ANCIENT REMAINS OF WESTERN INDTA. [JaN.
It is to be hoped that Captain Rose will be able, as we remarked at
the time of his discovery, to explore a considerable part of the Indhy6dri
and Satpudd ranges, which have been hitherto mnch neglected, and
in the latter of which no excavations have been yet found. The con-
nexion with them from time immemorial of the aboriginal BhUlas, the
Pkyllita of Ptolemy's geography, who have submitted neither to Brdh-
manism nor Buddhism, but who have so long preserved the Turanian
worship of ghosts and demons, is no reason why we should not expect to
find within it considerable numbers of Buddhist remains. The Buddhist
monks could as easily conciliate by their largesses the wild sons of
the Indian forest, as the monks of the eastern churches could conciliate
the roving sons of the Egyptian, Syrian, and Arabian deserts.*
Of other caves in the same locality now noticed lately brought to
light by Captain Rose, he kindly furnished us with the following
account, on our meeting him in his camp, the Kiblah of many of the
aborigines in Khandesh : —
" In a scarp of the hill near the Nizam's village of Jinjala, which
is inhabited by a few Mewadis, and distant three kos from the British
village of Mendhagaum, an image of Shesh^, the king of snakes, is
sculptured, the head and neck being all that is visible above ground,
with a cobra's hood extended behind the head, which has the face of a
man. The remaining portion of the figure is concealed by earth and
rubbish. Near this is the cave of Ghatotkachy^ fifty cubits long by
forty-nine broad, with a large [Buddhist] image and two small figures>
one on either side of it, at the inner extremity. The cave has one
principal entrance and four small ones, all facing the west. Outside
the doors there is a capacious verandah, with three small apartments at
either extremity. Inside the excavation there are a few small sculp-
tures in the right hand front comer, where there b also a r&njany or
vessel of peculiar form. There are twelve small rooms round the cave
inside, and twenty pillars are made to appear to support the roof along
the whole centre, of which there is a natural figure.
• For the identification of the BhUlas with the ^XXtrvu of Ptolemy, we are in-
debted to the invaluable work of Dr. Lassen, of Bonn, the IndtseheAUerthumskundef
now publishing. The learned professor, too, identifies the Kavdakoi of Ptolemy
with the ChanddU of the Brdhmans — an agreement which we have long noticed.
May their representatives not be found in the modem Oonds, who are still nume-
rous about the sources of the Tapt( and its affluent the Pam&, to the east of the
BhUlas ? The Utapovapoi of Ptolemy are undoubtedly our serviceable friends
the Pancdris or Mahdrs, scattered throughoat the Mahdrdshtra,
t The son of Bhimaj the second son of Pandu.
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*' A new excavation was discoyered near this one in August last ; it
also faces the west. As yet there is only an aperture sufficient to
admit a man, who can sit inside with his head touching the roof. There
«pe three doors and three small apartments heyond the large one, on its
east side or back ; their size could not be ascertained. The dimen-
sion of the principal room is ten cubits by six ; and no paintings of
sculptures are visible in it.
** Opposite the cave of Ghatotkaeh there are some excavations,
called those of ** Hidimbd."* The caves or entrances are said to be
seven in number, though from the jungle only three or four are visible.
No one has been into them for a number of years ; and there is a tra-
dition that out of ten men who venture there only nine return ! On
this account the R^rkun did not visit them. The Patel of Jinjdld had
never seen them, and did not soon know of a road to them.
** In a scarp near Wakri (Waisagad ?) fort there is a cave twenty
cubits by fourteen. It is devoted to Rudreshtoar MaMdeva, and con-
tains an image of Ganpati, with paintings or sculptures."
All these caves seem deserving of particular examination.
Connected with the same range of mountains, the Indhyidriy we heard
of several other series of undescribed caves, during a journey made at
the beginning of the present year. From natives we learnt the ex-
istence of a set much filled up with earth, near the village of Bokardan,
said to be about seven ko8 from the Nizdm's village of Sdwangf, and
about the same distance from Rahimabad. On the same authority we
got notice of the existence of another set, of no great consequence
however, at Vetal-Wadi, ("the abode of a devil, Vetdl,") transmogri-
fied in some of our maps into the Arabic Beitallah, (the house of
God ! ) a few miles west of Ajanta. These localities, though we were
near them, our professional duties did not permit us to visit. From
Major Gill we heard of another series of caves at Patur, about 80
miles east of Ajant^ and 44 NNE. of LunAr.
To the east of the town of Chandor, and on the western sweep of
the range now mentioned, and in the face of the hill on which the fort
of Chandor stands, we lately discovered and visited a Jaina excavated
temple, which has not hitherto been publicly noticed. On seeing
the entrance to it from a distance, we made inquiries about it of the
natives, who told us that it is only a small niche for KAlikd or Devi.
When we saw that they were by no means anxious that we should
* A Rdkahan celebrated in the Pur^nas, the sinter of Hidimba, a Edkshas
slain by Bhima,
48
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362 ANCIBNT BBMAINS OF WESTERN INDIA. [JaX.
proceed to it, our Buspicions were aroused, and we forthwith made the
ascent. On opening a door with which it was closed^ we found it to be
a small Jaina place of worship, dedicated either to Pdrasndth or
Nemin&th^ with about a hundred monolithic figures, great and small,
hewn out of the living rock, though from the door to the principal idol
on the interior wall the distance is only about twenty-one feet, while .
the height is only eight. The principal Ndtha is squatted in a not
unusual form, with the soles of his feet turned up, and his palms
placed in an accordant position, so emblematic of the abstract and
dreamy contemplation for which the Jaina and Buddhist devotees
take so much credit to themselves. His image is about four feet high,
and has the lion and ehakrOt or wheel, below. On one side he has
two male, and on the other two female attendants, standing. Else-
where he is honoured by the services of the brute animals, being
mounted both on an elephant and lion, tamed by his sanctity. Near
one of his figures the twenty-four T^rthankars are thus arranged : —
±
^^ ± Tirthankars.
J. ± J.
± J. ± ± N Ndtha (principal of the shrine).
j_j^j_j^j_j^j_ A Attendants*
A A nn A J.
The unequivocal Jaina character of the excavation is thus revealed.
One of its secondary Ndthas has his sex changed, having been
converted by the Brdhmans into a Ded by a liberal besmearment with
unguents and paint ; and as such he is venerated by the people. Det^,
indeed, is now the sovereign of the place. It was never intended, when
the shrine was thus transmogrified in her favour, that it should be visited
by Mlechcha antiquarians. The sculpture in this cave is not bad.
It may be about the same age as the Jaina temples at Elora.
FrQm this range we proceed south per saltum to the Sayhddri range,
near Kolhapur.
CAVES NEAR KOLHAPUR.
The following interesting communication from Dr. F. Broughton,
Civil Surgeon at Kolhapur, was addressed to us on the 10th of June
1851 :—
" My dear Dr. Wilson, — Since the receipt of your instructive
Memoir on the Temples of Western India, I have visited two series
of Buddhist caves, which have not, I believe, been before described, and
may not, I trust, be deemed by you devoid of interest. The first
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I will mention is situated in a hill called MhdlasA Paihar, a continuation
of the Panh^ld range, and distant from thence about six miles. The
nearest village is called Badawdrd, but the best mark for finding it
is a white temple, conspicuous on the western border of the hill, and
near which some curious marks in the rock, like the foot-prints of men
and animals, are described by the natives as being the impressions
made in a conflict there fought between the giants and demons. These
caves of Pandu Hari are also celebrated as being the favourite retreat of
the renowned robber chief (rishi ?) Jaimini, and their situation is well
suited to such a purpose, as, concealed in a small ravine, and hidden
by trees, none but the initiated are likely to be aware of their proximity.
The excavations are formed in a semicircular scarp of amygdaloid, in a
wooded ravine, the chord of the arc being 40 yards, and the aspect is
due east. Near the centre, and approached by a flight of rudely cut
steps, is a temple 30 feet wide and 40 feet long, by 7 in height, opening
into an inner chamber 10 feet square, in the centre of which is a ruined
block of uncut stone, the remains, I believe, of a dahgoh. The roof is,
or rather was, supported by six separate pillars, and six cut in half
relief at the comers and sides ; but the soft nature of the rock has been
broken up by the growth of the roots of the trees, and the action of
water, and the roof has given way, carrying with it many of the pillars,
and nearly the whole of the verandah, which once evidently protected
its front. To the right of this cave is another, 40 feet long, and 1 7
wide, being 7 feet 8 inches high, and supported by six pillars of uncut
rock. In this is also an inner chamber, containing a mutilated pillar,
on which a portion of squaring, and a cut line or edging are visible.
In the area formed by the pillars in the outer apartment of this cave is
a raised sort of chair, indicating a spot from which some .figure has been
removed. Much wanton mischief appears to have been committed in
these caves, and the linga now occupies situations created by the des-
truction of the original design. To the right and left of these caves,
cells about 6 feet square are found : two on the right are approached
by steps, and are above the level of the larger caves ; those on the left are
also two in number, and contain stone seats, and are approached by
doorways ; and between the cells and the centre cave is some carving on
the rock, indicating it as the posterior wall of a chamber which has fallen
in. Two half-relieved pillars are surmounted by the following figure : —
&
To the extreme left is a natural cavern, extending far into the hill, and
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364 ANCIENT REMAINS OF WESTERN INDIA. (JaK.
from which a stream of a remarkably pure water flows, thus com-
pleting the requisites of the recluse.
" The caves of Panhdld Dart are situated close to the village of
PanhAlAy in a hill about seven miles from KoiMpur, and close to
Jotibd*s dongar. Tliey are excavated near the upper part of the
hill, and the entrance is hidden by trees. They connst of a chaitya
in the shape of a horse-shoe, 27 feet long, 1 6 feet wide, and 1 1 high,
containing a dahgoh 8 feet high, and 21 in circumference, in the centre
of which some slight remains of carving are visible, aa forming a circle
round the pillar in this wise : —
a n
*^ This temple and pillar, distinctly monolithic, and attesting the
design of the excavator, corresponds exactly with the description you
give of the chaitya^ and will I hope authorise me in speaking so po-
sitively in my description. On the right of this cave is a spacious
viAdra, 44 feet by 41, but only 9 feet in height, supported by six
pillars on each side, and approached by a door 7 feet high and 5 wide,
and is lighted by two windows 4 feet square, on either side of the
doorway. From the three sides of this hall there are entrances by
narrow doorways into seven cells, so that there are altogether twenty-one
separate apartments about 7 feet by 6^, and 6 feet high. Some of
these cells contained seats, but are sadly dilapidated, as, in defiance of
a verandah running along the front, the caves facing the south are
filled with water during the monsoon.
" On either side of these caves are nests of cells, on the right hand
leading the one into the other, on the left separate. There are four
on the right, 6 feet by 4, and on the left three, and externally there are
two vinMst affording an abundant supply of water.
** These caves are fast going to decay, from the beforementioned
causes, and also from the rain finding its way through the roof, there
being only 15 feet of rock from the roof of the temple to the top of
the scarp.
*' There are some curious excavations also that have lately been
cleared out by Captain Graham, in the fort of PanMld : I do not
myself consider them as having been used for religious purposes, but
will describe them for your opinion. Descending by seven steps, and
following a subterraneous passage 5 yards long, 6 feet high, and 2^ feet
broad, the passage turns suddenly to the left, and after another couple
of yards, describes a semicircle again to the lefl, and opens into a
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chamber about 8 feet square, in which is an uncut seat. A doorway
leads into another similar apartment on the left, in which is also a seat
and a niche in the wall, for a lamp is found in both, which, from the
blackened appearance of the rock, would seem to have been used. On
the right is a similar sized room, in one comer of which is a deep pit, at
the mouth of which a groove is carefully cut in the rock, into which
stone of a different material is fitted, so as to close the entrance.
Above the centre of the middle chamber is a square well-cut aperture>
in fact a trap-door, on the two sides of which places have been cut to let
in a bar, by which the aperture could be closed. The impression on
my mind is that the staircase was cut to facilitate the formation of the
retreat, and afterwards filled up, and the trap-door only used as the
entrance. This subterranean abode could never have been a pleasant
habitation, particularly when the door was closed above. That this
door was closed is probable, by the blackened walls, where lamps have
been used, and which would not be necessary if the traps were left
open. From the evident design of concealment, both of the external
aperture and the pit's mouth below, I am disposed to think it was
contrived for the security of property, and sometimes probably as a
reftige for persons in times of danger. This excavation is situated on
the side of the Koti, and is now surrounded by villages. Its situation
does not indicate any wish for retirement, as it is in the midst of
buildings of all descriptions ; but the object appears to have been
concealment, and was, most probably, intended for treasure.
" I should be glad to hear your ideas on this point, and apologizing
for the length of my letter, may I beg of you to make any use you
think fit of the information it contains."
The Buddhist excavations here brought to notice by Dr. Broughton
are the most southern in the Western Ghdts with which we are ac-
quainted. We agree with Dr. Broughton in considering the last-
mentioned as not being of a religious character.
CAVES IN KATHIAWAR.
During a visit to Kathidwar, the peninsula of Gujarat, alias Sau-
rdaktra, in 1851, we heard of the existence of several sets of caves
hitherto publicly unnoticed. A list of these we received from Ha-
bib Rhdn, a Muhammadan gentleman of Junhgad^ to whom we have
been indebted for information on several occasions, and whom we then
met in the camp of the PoUtical Agent of the province, Lieutenant-
Colonel William Lang.
In the Datar mountain, part of the Gimar group, there is an
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366 ANCIENT REMAINS OF WESTERN INDIA. [JaN.
artificial cave, in which ten or twelve persons may he accommodated.
Like the vflidr caves called the Khaparakhodi, at Jun&gad^ in its
neighhourhood, and those of TalajA, in the same province, which we
noticed on a former occasion, and others now to he mentioned, it has
no images, a circumstance to which we shall afterwards advert. The
hardness of the primitive rock out of which it is hewn may account for
the smallness of its dimensions, as compared with those in the sand-
stone helow.
On the sacred Girnar itself there are two similar small excavations.
The localities of the others we simply mention according to Hahib
Khdn's notes : —
1 . In the OsAM hill, near the temples of Mahddeva and Khandoha.
2. In the Gopinath hill.
3. In the Dhank hill, one of considerable size, called the Kha-
PARAKHUDI.
4. In a hill near Setana,
5. In a hill near Khadia.
6. Near Pattan, (Somndth?) one called Hinglaj.
7. In the Sana hill, in the district of the Gir,
8. At GoRAKHMADHi and GoRAKHNATH, probably in the same
district.
9. In the Kala-Hadya hill, in the province of Bardd.
From Rdmj(, a Mehta in the service of Lieutenant Black, one of
Colonel Lang's Assistants, we received a memorandum of the existence
of caves at the following places : —
1. Between the villages of Khadati Khan and Khamardand, in
the province of Bardd,
2. Near the large tank at Sardhar.
Khachar Bhoj mentioned the following places as having excava^
tions : —
1 . In the Salemal hill.
2. At a place near Wadwan, called Rhemisa.
3. In the hill of Kakanda, called Mewarda.
4. In the hiU of Mandava, called Deveshwar.
5. At Devaghari, near the village of Bhctdali.
6. At Bhoera-Gad.
7. In the Jogi, near the village of Kdndmdtrd.
8. In the Palitana hill.
9. AtDwARKA.
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Most of the caves in these lists are but of small dimensions ; but this
may be owing to the difficulty of working in the hard rocks in which
most of them are constructed. It is hoped that particular accounts of
them may be soon received from competent obsenrers.
The number of caves which have lately been brought to notice in the
West of India is altogether remarkable. Many, however, there is reason
to believe, exist in various districts which have not yet been heard of
by Europeans. With a view to encourage efforts being made for their
being brought to light, the Bombay Government, vrith considerate
liberality, has authorized the Cave Commission to offer rewards, varying
from twenty-five to a hundred rupees, for the discovery of any series
hitherto overlooked, according to its importance. By the promise of
these rewards, European gentlemen interested in antiquarian research
may probably induce some of their native acquaintances to make
minute inquiries in the different districts to which they find access.
Lieutenant Brett is engaged by Government, under the direction of the
Cave Commission, in taking facsimiles of the cave inscriptions, which
he does by an ingenious process by the use of gutta percha. Mr.
G. S. Wilson has furnished the Cave Commission virith specimens of
fac-8imUe$ of some of them well executed in plaster of Paris.
AGE OF THE RELIGIOUS EXCAVATIONS.
Before leaving the religious excavations of Western India for the
present, we must advert to the question, perhaps of most interest
connected with them, — that of the time of their construction. On this
subject we formerly made the follovnng remarks : —
** Mr. Fergusson has made the important discovery that the Brdh-
manical Katl/is, which strikes the beholder as the most remarkable of
the whole [of the Elora groups], is formed after the type of some of
the structural temples of the south of India, particularly the great
pagoda at Tanjor ; and he says-—* I have no doubt in my own mind
that the Chola, or at least some of the Kamata Rijds were the
excavators of this temple, and the restorers [rather propagators] of
Sivite worship in the Dekhan ; my own impression is, that we must
ascribe this either to Bijd Rajendra or Keri Kala Cholan, and that
consequently the date given by Mir AH Khan to Sir Charles Malet is
very near the truth, if apphed to this excavation at least, and that it
was made in the first half of the ninth century of our era/ Works
of such magnitude as the Railas temples would require the wealth
and enterprize of such sovereigns as the Cholas were. The resources
of the local princes, the Chaluky4s of the Dekhan who preceded them.
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368 ANCIENT REMAINS OF WESTERN INDIA. [JaN.
and of the Devagiri Rdjds who followed them, were quite ioadequate
to their execution, and that of the Elephanta and other Shaiya temples
near Bombay. Somewhat posterior, in point of age, to Kailas, must
be those Brdhmanical temples of Elephanta and Salsette, in which
Tarious imitations of the Br^manical excavations of Elora appear.
Looking at them collectively, we have long, on mythological grounds,
been disposed to limit the age of the Brihmanical excavated temples
by the ei^th or ninth century after Christ. On several of their
figures the small box, containing the emblem of Shiva, worn by the
LinffMt9, is represented, and the Lingdits did not appear in the south
of India till considerable modifications were made in the course of time
in the peculiar forms of Shaivism introduced or supported by Shankar
A'charya. The Chola Raj^ were the patrons of the Lingdits, who,
to the worship of Mahddeva or Shiva, add the practice of the Yoga,
without reference to caste, with a view to final emancipation. Pro-
fessor Wilson notices the profession of the Yoga in the eighth century,
and he properly observes that the Br^manical temples in the subjects
of their sculptures, and the decorations of Shiva and his attendants,
belong to the same sect. It is remarkable that this form of the
Hindu religion has vanished from the Mardth^ country, which it is not
hkely it would have done had it enjoyed the continued patronage of
the Devagiri R4jas reigning over this locality, the last of whom was
overcome by the Muhammadans a. d. 1293.
" There are evidently imitations of parts of Kailas in the northern
group of Caves at Elora, commencing with the series nicknamed the
Indrasabhd. These, then, must be posterior, in point of execution, to
the first half of the ninth centurj'. We agree with Mr. Fergusson in
thinking that some of them, as stated in a passage which we have
quoted from him in connexion with the Nasik caves, belong to a period
of transition ; but others of them we hold, both from their figures and
emblems, to be decidedly the work of the Jainas, by whom at this day
some of them are claimed, as that called Parasnutha. These Jaina
excavations are probably the workmanship of the opulent Jaina minis-
ters of the Rajput, Elielipur, and Devagiri Rajiis. They are probably
not older than the eleventh or twelfth centuries, when the Jainas of
Western India made great efforts, as they are now doing, to extend
their faith."*
A remarkable corroboration of the general views here stated, but one
warranting a more definite adjustment of them, we obtained at Elora in
• Journal of Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Jan. 1850, pp. 83,84.
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January 1852. When examining the Jaina excayation of P6ra8c4th,
which is of the same workmanship as the krger Jaina excavations^ we
discovered an original inscription^ a small portion of which in an
incorrect form had heen furnished to Dr. Burd, giving the date of its
formation as Skaka 1156, equivalent to about a. d. 1234, which makes
the Jaina temples at Elora 618 years old at the present time.
In the inscription referred to, the name of the hiU in which all the Elora
excavations are made is the Firolla Parvai, or Mount of FiroUa. This
word, we have little doubt^ is formed from the name of Ftra-Chola, one of
the Chola Raj^, who flourished, according to one of the papers of the
Mackenzie Collection, quoted by Professor H. H. Wilson, who mentions
the extensive conquests of his race, about a. d. 91 7."" This gives an
antiquity to the most remarkable of the Brahmanical temples of
Elora and those of Elephanta, which are of the same type, of about
935 years ; or, to deal in round numbers, it makes them to fall at least
within the present millennium. As formerly, we are still of opinion
that the Jogeahwari Brahmanical temples of Salsette are considerably
more modem than those of Elephanta and Elord. The sculpture and
architecture of them, it struck us on a late visit to them, are not of the
Southern Indian type, Hke those of the great works now mentioned,
but of the Rajput or Gujarat types, as we see exemplified in various
districts to the northward, as in Kathi&wir, Pattan, and Mount Abu.
Of the same character is the remarkable structural Shaiva temple of
Amam4th, about six miles from Kaly^, which, though of hard black
basalt, shows a delicacy of workmanship which could be attained only
by artisans accustomed to work in softer stone, the marble of the north.
Whether this work is to be attributed to the Devagiri lUjds, or the
Rajput sovereigns of Anhalward Pattan, we shall not positively say.f
The age of the Buddhist excavations in the West of India remains to
* This theory of the hill receiving its name from Virh-Chola may explain the
fiict that it cannot be identified in the narratives of the Chinese travellers (written
previous to its receiving this denomination), so ably analyzed by Colonel Sykes.
t Before we had visited the temple of Amamdth, which, we would remark, is one
of the most interesting objects for inspection in our immediate neighbourhood, we
were inclined, from the drawings of it which we had seen, to reckon it of the same
era as the Blephanta caves. The Trimurti which is found at it, however, occupies
a very subordinate position. It Is in one of its external niches. It is certainly gro-
tesque enough, as formerly observed. But the supposed representation of clerical
or legal bands on the breast of the front figure is a conceit of our limner. Instead
of finding there the representation of a pinafore for a beard, we observed only
the veritable £Acial vegetation of Brahmd himself, as embodied, with YiahDO,
in the all-eogroisiDg Shiva,
49
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370 ANCIENT REMAINS OF WESTERN INDIA. [JaN.
be BOticed in our present connexion. We are not without data wiiich
may help us to an approximation to a satisfactory solution of this
question also. The death of Shakya Muni, or Buddha, has on the
most satisfactory grounds been fixed as occurring in the year 543 b. c.
As has been well shown by Hodgson, Bumouf, and Lassen, the use <^
images, and the veneration of relics, were adverse to his own system,
philosophically considered ; and we may venture to say that all the
excavations which have images and dahgobs as essentials of their
construction must have been so far posterior to his removal as to
leave time sufficient for the development of the veneration and
mythical regard for him as a distinguished teacher which they embody.
The excavations at Junagd^, at the base of the celebrated mountain
of Gim&r, and proximate to the rock on which are engraved the well-
known edicts of Ashoka, have no images ; and, as we have seen, the
want of images is a peculiarity, as far as known, of all the ancient
excavations of the peninsula of Scntrdshtra. None of the monasteries
or temples in Mahdrdahira can be older than the arrival in the
Madithd country of the first Buddhist missionaries mentioned in the
extract from the Mahavanso which we formerly adduced, and which
missionaries were dismissed to their work in the seventeenth year of
the reign of Ashoka, or 246 a. c*
An allowance, in fact, must be made for a season of continuous
* For an elaborate iovestigation of all the dates ooonected with the origin and
progreas of Buddhism, see Lassea's Indischs AUerthumikunde, vol. |i.
For the sake of connexion we may here repeat the extract from the MaJutvanso
to which we here refer : —
" The illuminator of the religion of the vanquisher, the there [patriarch], son of
MoggaH, having terminated the third convocation, was reflecting on futurity.
Perceiving (that the time had arrived) for the establishment of the religion of
Buddha in foreign countries, he despatched severally in the month of < Kattiko,*
the following theros to those foreign parts. He deputed the thero Majjhantico to
K&smira and Gandhdra [Kandah&r], and the thero Mahddevo to Mahisamandala
[Mysore]. He deputed the thero Rakkhito to Wanawdsi [in the north of the
Karnatic], and similarly the thero Yona-Dhammarakkhito to Aparantaka. He
depnted the thero Maha-Dhammarakkhito to Maharatta ; the thero Mah4-
rakkhito to the Yona [Bactrian] country. He deputed the thero Mnjjhimo to
the Himawanta country ; and to Sowanabh6mi the two theros Sono and Uttaro.
He deputed the thero Mahd-mahindo, together with his (Moggali's) disciples
Ittiyo, Uttiyo, Sambalo, Bhaddasdlo (to this island [Ceyloo]), saying unto these
five theros, * Establish ye in the delightful land of Lank& the delightful religion
of the Vanquisher.' — Tumour's Mahavanso, p. 71. According to the Maha'
vansoy these missionaries obtained most marvellous success. Of the missionary to
the Mar&thA territory it is said :— ' The sanctifled disciple Maha-Dbammarak-
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1853.] CAVE-TBMPLE8 AND MONABTBRIBS. 371
labour, before success was experienced by tbese missionaries. The
southern group of caves at Elora, as formerly remarked by us, may
be the oldest Buddhist establishment in the west of India. It is, com-
paratively speaking, in an open and easily approachable country, while
the other establishments are principally in mountain recesses, which
would likely not be penetrated till the Buddhist faith had made some
progress in the adjoining districts. It is of great extent, and of
khito, repairing to Mah&ratta, preached the Mahandradahusapo Jatako (of
Buddha). Eighty-four thousand persons attained the sanctiflcation of magga, and
thirteen thousand were ordained priests by him.'" — MahavansOf p. 74.
These Buddhist missions toolc place immediately after the tliird synod of the
Buddhists, in tlie reign of Athokaf the Dfiammawka of the Mahavanso, and the
Devdndm Prya Piyadasi R^'d of the Gimar roclc tablets, whom, per incuriam,
we inconsistently confounded in a portion of oar paper with the Devanan piatisso of
Ceylon, (his contemporary daring the latter part of his reign,) when we were
oflbring a few remarks on the difficulties felt by Professor H. H. Wilson, in his
able paper on these tablets, about the admission of their Buddhist character, which
we have maintained from our first acquaintance with them.
Professor Lassen will excuse us for introducing the following extract of an
interesting letter which we had the pleasure of receiving from him, under
date the 22nd April 1851, bearing on the matters here alluded to : —
** I agree with you in identifying the king Dewindm Prya Piyadasi of the
inscriptions at Qirn&r and in other places, with Ashoka, Besides the testimony
of the Mahttvanto, I adduce, as a proof of their identity, the repetition of that
title by his successor Da$haratha^ with the difference that he usually adds his
own name to distinguish himself from his predecessor. Another instance of a
title being used instead of a proper name by the Buddhists is the name Dharma*
wardhana giYen to Ashoka*s son Kundla, (Indisehe Alterthunukunde, IL 270.)
, As Ashoka*s authorship of the inscription found at Bhatra, in which he addressee
the convention of Afagadha, can hardly be doubted, it may be presumed that
the others also are to be ascribed to him. The chronological difficulty that Maya,
who died 256 b. c, is mentioned in an inscription dated 246, I am prepared to
obviate by the supposition that Ashoia, shortly after his accession, had sent
ambassadors to the Greek kings, and therefora recorded these names in his
inscriptions. {Indisehe Altsrihumskundf, ii. 242.) It is true that no allusions
to any of the names of Buddha occur in them. St&pas and Vihdras are, however,
spoken of in the inscriptions of Dhauli, and the Bo-tree appears with its sacred
character in them* (Indisehe Alterthumsktmde, ii. 256.) I may add that the
prominent place which Dharma occupies in the mind of the author of the
inscription (at Gimar) speaks for his having been a Buddhist, and that Professor
Wilson's hypothesis, that the shadow of a name should have been made use of
in order to give authority to the promulgation, appears to me highly improbable.''
Ashoka's claim to the inscriptions, on the readings of which much light has
been cast by Professor Wilson's revised translation, must now, we think, be
reckoned indubitable.
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372 ANOIBNT REMAINS OF WBSTBRN INDIA. [JaK.
general simplicity ; aad it is evidently the nodena aronnd which,
as an ancient undertaking, the other excayations-^Buddhisty Br4h-
manical, and Jaina— hare been aggregated. The excayations at Ajanta,
it appeared to ns on a late incidental Tint to them, show indubitable
tokens in their wondrons paintings — ^now being transferred to the view
of Europe by the accurate pencil of Major Gill — of the influence of
Grecian art, and were, in all probability, the work of limners from
Bactria, attracted to India after the spread of Buddhism in the
Trans-Indian provinces. Indigenous Indian art has at no period of
its history, as fiur as we are aware, shown an approximation to
them in point of propriety and excellence ; and certainly it did not
do so about the times immediately prior and posterior to the
Christian era, if we may be allowed to form a judgment from the
rude coins it then produced. On the lion-pillar fronting the great
Chaitya excavation of Kirli, we have found the name of the General
(Ndyaka) Agimit (Agnimitra) of the Skunga dynasty, which succeed-
ed the Maurya to which Ashoka belonged ;* and oUier traces of the
same dynasty, to which Mr. Prinsep, in his Tables, gives a reign of
110 or 112 years, from a. c. 178 to a. c. 66. That these excava-
tions were made about this period — when the Bactrian influence
over India must still have been considerable — we have obtained striking
proof in the discovery of the name of the Greek Theonikos, (probably
the architect of the whole work,) in an inscription on one of the interior
pillars.f Dr. Stevenson tells us that in the insoriptions at Kanherf,
with which he has been lately busy, he has found traces of the pos-
terior Andhra dynasty, which, according to the same authority, was
from A. c. 21 to a. d. 408. We have discovered, on the other hand, a
limit to the time of the power of the Buddhists, at least in most of the
districts to which we refer, by finding in the Bdjdwali, under the head oi
* The inscription marked I, in the accompanying lithograph (plate xii.) of this
WH inscripUon, in NAgarf letters is ^ni^^ mXW^ W^^H ^T^, ogimUa
ndkas sinhathamb ddnanty the lion-pillar, the gift of the general Agnimitra
t This inscription, as taken by us some years ago, and communicated to Dr.
Bird, will be foand in the accompanying lithograph, marked II, and collated
with the fae-simile of Lieut. Brett. When resolved into the Nagari letters, it
reads thus :-« ^HT^^I ^7W9 fa^HHFif ifw.'in'^ Dhandkkqj Yatoana$ «utAa-
dhydnam thamb ddnam, (in Sanskrit W^ifl[9r WWW9 fii^M^I^ ^H IH^ ^
lion-bearing pillar, the gift of the Greek dhanakkqf. DhanaXhttf is as near an
approximation to the Greek Tk$on%kot as could be expected. On the Kkt\k
Inscriptions we obeerve some valuable genealogical doeununia, probably embracing
also some hitherto unknown local dynasty.
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1853.] CAVE-TBMPLBS AND M0KA8TBRIE8. 373
Uffoyn, the name of Kkanderdo, (the RdnA Chandra of Prinsep,) by
whom, according to the legends of the Mhdlasd Mah^tmya (so called
from Khander&o's wife) of the Jejurf temple, in which he is deified,
they were driven from the MadLthA country, and massacred in the Kar«
natik to the incredible number of yelkot, (still the watchword of the
followers of KhandeHb or Khandobi,) seven crores. Khandedb)
flourished about the year 620 after Christ. Posterior to this overthrow
of the Buddhists are all the Hindu Puhbas, or legendary works,
which, by the comminglement of ancient traditions and modem
fables, are intended to form the reproduction of Br^hmanism. It is
probably from the share which the Mardthil Brdhmans had in the des-
truction of Buddhism, by urging on the exertions of their local princes,
that they began to exalt themselves so much as they have done among
the priesthood of India ; which is the more remarkable as the body
of them profess to be the followers of the Southern Shankar A'chdrya,
who did for Brihmanism by the pen what Khanderdo did for it by the
sword. It is curious to mark their pretensions and scrupulosities,, as
they are brought to notice in the Sahyddri Khand of the Skanda
Purdna : —
'^ The Brahmans are represented to be of ten classes ; the five Gaudoi
and five Drdvidat, Mention the origin of the whole of them in exten-
sion. Maldtdeva says : — The Dravidas, Tailingasy Karndias, Madhyd-
deahgda* and the Gufjaras, are reckoned the five Dravidas, The Triho-
iras, AgnavttUhaSy Kdnyakuhjaa, the Kanojas, and the Maitrdyanaa
are accounted the five Gaudaa. The ten classes of Brdhmans are
produced from the Rishis. The customs of these vary in different
countries, according to the extension of the earth. The Gayatri, Vedas^
and Karma (works) are the duty of all Brahmans. We have not
(at present) to inquire into the ordinances pertaining to the six
Karmaa. In the matter of eating and feeding, the Brdhmans are in
the place of all the Gods. The Karmd of marriage is regulated ac-
cording to descent and genealogy. The Desha-dosha (or district-fault)
of the Chifjaras is the using of water kept in skins. The great fault
of the people of the Dakshin (South) is cohabitation with slave-girls.
In the Kamdtik they don't rinse the teeth ; in Kashmir there is the
prostitution of the wives of Bhatttu ; in Tailinga there is riding on
bullocks ; in Dravida there is eating in the morning without ablution.
In these countries these are the faults which are to be reckoned*
* Dwellers in the Uadkya'detha, or middle coontry, which b said te extend
from Ndsik to Belgium.
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374 ANCIBNT REMAINS OP WESTERN INDIA. [JaN.
The Gufjara women are without the hreech-band, and the widows
among them wear spencers. The Trihoirtu and the Kanakas are
eaters of fleshy and deyourers of fish."* Here> it will be obsenred,
the Madhya^e8hg&9 have no fault whatever.
The period of the Buddhists in the West of India, we may
conclude, on pretty sure grounds, extended from the middle of
the third century before, to the middle of the seventh century after
Christ, when Br^manism, by the sword of ELhandeHb and its
other heroes, recovered its ancient power, and assumed the form in
which it now appears. A defendant of Buddhism overcome by
Khanderdo appears to have been a person named Mala, a Baitya
or Titan according to the legend, who was slain by Khanderao. To tiie
second and first centuries preceding the Christian era we are warranted
in ascribing the more remarkable Buddhist excavations in our neigh-
bourhood, though some of them may be of a somewhat posterior date.
Structural Temples.
The fruits of our research under this heading, since the publication
of our first Memoir, are but very scanty.
The remarkable Br^hmanical temple of AmhamAih, about six miles
from Kaly^n, probably coeval with the excavations at Jogeshwar, in
Salsette, we had an opportunity of visiting in March 1852, with Messrs.
* Tbe Sanskrit of this curious passage, from the first chapter of the Uttara
Bahasya of the Sahyddri Khanda, we subjoio, as the work from which it is
extracted is extremely rare : —
^^ 4wif TFtf^wr: ^ viirif I ^ I f^^TUT ^irW^ uri'Ji^w %wi«i^: i
W^wr^^^ir ij^iwT: 3r*tftf?n: i ^ i w.n^ ^inn^^ 'Ff^^^i^N^
^^trt^^FiraiTi ^%nr ^Tf%3riiif ^T^ ^w i?^^^ i^l w<it %vt
wr^ Hfwwr^ '^t^^ '?l[^«Rn.' i ^n^^^^n ^^nift ^ftKJTmarm i \ • i
Grant Duff, in his History of the Marath&s, (vol. i. p. II,) speaking of the
Chittpdtoan, or Konkanasth Brdhmans, says : — " They carefully suppress or
destroy all copies of the Sahyddri Khand, where their origin is mentioned, and a
respectable Br6hman of W4f was, a few years ago, disgraced by B^f R4o, for
having a copy of it." The work, there can be little donbt, was composed by the
Br&hmans of the Madhya-deiha,
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1863.] STRUCTURAL TBMPLBS — ANCIENT 8ITBS. 376
Smith and McCulloch ; and we were all greatly struck with the excellence
of its architecture. We have already noticed it incidentally in this
paper.* It is well worth the attention of visitors from Bombay, who
will soon find conveyance to its neighbourhood by our new railway.
It is about the discovery of the remains of structural Buddhist
temples throughout the country that we have felt the most interest.
Several such, we have been assured by Col. Twemlow, have been con-
verted into Muhammadan mosks at Bozah, above the caves of Elora.
For our satisfaction, when we were last there, the Brigadier caused con-
siderable excavations to be made in the Kdld Masjid, to which he found
access by persuasion, backed by golden arguments. Their result was
the discovery of the fact that that place of Muhammadan worship had
undoubtedly at one time been a temple of Shiva, probably taken from
the Buddhists, its original founders, by the Br^mans. At the neigh-
bouring village of Kadirabad two images of Bhawdnf, executed in the
exact style of the Br&hmanical figures at Elora, — one of which was
procured and presented to us by Colonel Twemlow, — were ploughed up
a short time before our visit. The diggings which were afterwards
effected at the place revealed indisputable traces of an ancient temple.
Some small images of Buddha, and other remains of one of his shrines,
we noticed built in the walls near the gate of the town of Phalmari,
about fourteen miles distant from Rozah, on the way to Ajanta.
Buddhism seems to have thoroughly pervaded the Mardthi country
during the days of its triumph in India.
Ancient Sites.
Colonel Twemlow directed our attention to various indications of a
very extensive town having existed in very remote times in the
neighbourhood of Rozah. The legends current among the natives
respecting its origin are very absurd. They attribute its foundation to
Tuvanaswoy one of the earliest kings of the Solar dynasty ; but in his
times, even if they are not entirely mythical, none of the Aryan kings
had settled in this part of India. A sovereign named PurchandRay is,
in their traditions, also connected with it. Some of the Musalmans
absurdly enough couple it with the Queen of Sheba, whose capital has
been identified "with the town now bearing the name of Mareb, in
Arabia Felix.
Of the extent of the ancient city of Rozah, Colonel Twemlow thus
writes, in a letter forwarded to the Bombay Government, on his receipt
of our first Memoir : — *' If a visitor to Rozah stands on the high
• See page 309.
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376 AMCIBNT RBMAINB OF WESTERN INDIA. ' [JaN.
mount east of the Saracenic gate of oitrance to Rozah from the north,
(on which mound there is one tree,) and thence looks east towards an
ancient kke or tank, called * Sult^ Tal&o/ he will observe the ruins
of the northern inner wall of the dtj, the ridge west of the Saracenic
arch being the prolongation west. If he passes his eye over the
modem town of Rozah (which occupies merely a small part of the
site of the vast old city), he will see in the distance the fortress of
Daulatdb^d : all the interTening plain for about six miles must have
been covered with buildings of the old city. The central b^Lz^, Cha-
butra, is on a mound, with a tree growing out of the terrace, about a
mile or so north of the village of Kdghaswdrd. Daulatibid, and the
scarped hills which run from the fortress towards Aurangabdd, proba-
bly constituted the outer defences on the south. The visitor should
then proceed through the modem town of Rozah to visit an ancient
reservoir of the city : he will be conducted to it if he asks for the
* Ganj Rdwan Sdlah* or the ' Pari TaUto* It is situated about two
miles south-west of Rozah. It has about fifty ranges of cut stone steps,
arranged in a semi-circle, and was fed by six lakes or tanks of supply,
formed in the hills west of it by successive handn across two valleys.
The site of this old city, and perhaps its traditional history, must have
pleased Mahmud Taghlak Shah, who twice attempted to force the
population of Delhi to remove to it. The mint or TaksM of this king
was close to the Pari Taldo. In this mint were coined the mohurs
and mpees (of copper gilded and silvered over) that formed the
fictitious currency which enabled the Taghlak kings to give away their
lakhs. When this dynasty declined, these copper coins became of
but little value. They are turned up by the plough of the modem
cultivator. I sent twenty-five of them to Sir John Malcolm when
Governor of Bombay, and some of them will in all probability be in the
Museum of the Society."
Among the ancient sites formerly pointed out by us as specially
worthy of notice is Walabhii>ur, in K^thi^wdr, or the peninsula of
Gujardt. Our wishes respecting an examination and description of
this remarkable place, generated by the allusions to it of Colonel Tod
and Dr. Alexander Bum, have been fully anticipated by the pub-
lication in part 1 of vol. xiii. of the Joumal of the Royal Amatic
Society of the interesting notes of B. A. R. Nicholson, Esq., of the
Bombay Medical Service. An incidental visit which we paid to the
place in January 1851 along with the Rev. James Wallace gave us an
opportunity of observing the accuracy of Dr. Nicholson's paper wh^i
it came into our hands. On the occasion here referred to, we had all
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1863.] ANCIBNT SEPULCHRES. 377
due assistance given us by the Gobel chief to whom it belongs. He
had neither seen nor heard of any of the copper-plate grants which
throw so much light on the dynasty which made it its capital after the
subversion of the Sah kings of Saurdshtra, and the names of the
members of which have been re-arranged on pretty sure grounds by
the Rev. P. Anderson in No. xiv. of our Journal.
About two stages to the southward of Walabhi lies the town of
SiHOR, also mentioned as a place of great antiquity by Colonel Tod.
Our visit to it convinced us that the Colonel has not formed a mistaken
judgment respecting it. The ancient name of the place was Sinhapur,
from which the modem name is obviously derived. We are disposed
to consider it the capital of the Sinhas who made the first Aryan
invasion of Ceylon — from which it, perhaps, received the name of
iSinhaldwip, — and the seat of whose authority, we concur with Professor
Lassen in thinking, must have been in Gujarat. We make another
conjecture respecting it. It was probably the capital of the Sah kings
(Sinha, as Mr. E. Thomas supposes,) of Saurdshtra, Their coins
we found wholly unknown in the locality. Though they have been
procured in many parts of India, from Each, — where they have again
been lately found by Major LeGrand Jacob, —to Elichpur and Ndgpur, —
from which places specimens have been forwarded to us by Brigadier
Mackenzie, N.A., and the Rev. Stephen Hislop, — it is remarkable
that none of them have been known to have been found in the
peninsula of Gujarat till a few months ago, when some were brought
to the notice of Colonel Lang, who has sent them to us for inspection.
These coins, which have been so ably dealt with by Mr. Thomas, bear
evident marks of Grecian influence. Of the Sah kings we may get
additional information when Professor H. H. Wilson publishes his
version of the latest of the Girnar tablets, which is looked for with
great interest.
Ancient Sepulchres.
Most able papers on the most interesting class of these remains
have been received from Captain Meadows Taylor, the continuation
of which will appear in this number of the Society's Journal. He
denominates them the " Druidical" or " Scytho-Druidical Remains."
They are found in several places in Southern India. There can be no
doubt of their great antiquity. With a rather striking illustration of
this fact we conclude this paper.
Some months ago certain Funereal Remains, which had been found
by Commander Jones, I. N., and Mr. Hall, in the mount of GehrAreh,
50
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378 ANCIENT RBMAIN8 OF WB8TBRN INDIA. [JaK.
near Bagd&d, were forwarded to tbe Society by the Bombay GrOTem*
ment. Having been asked to report on tbem, we expressed our desire^
in tbe first instance, to obtain some further information from Com«
mander Jones as to the situation in which they were found ; but on
further considering them> and comparing them with certain figures
illustrating an article in a late number of the Journal of the Royal
Asiatic Society, we made the following statement respecting them on
the 1 5th July last : —
''With reference to my note of the 10th of June on the Funereal
B<emains from Grehrareh forwarded to Government by Commander
J. F. Jones, I. N., I beg to direct the attention of the members of the
Society to the annexed drawing of these remains made by a Hungarian
friend, and the close resemblance in form of the coiHn-shaped trough
of clay to another of the same material and position, east and west,
found by the late Captain Newbold in a granite tomb, which had
been covered by a cromlech among the ancient sepulchres of Pandu-
varam D^wal (temple of the Pandavas) near Chittur, in North Arcot,
as described in a paper from his pen, pubUshed in the first part of
volume xiii. of the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society just received.
*' Speaking of this sarcophagus, Captain Newbold says : — ' It was a
coffin-shaped trough, rounded at the extremities, and deeply rimmed
at the edges, 6^ feet long, ten inches deep, and from 1 foot 10 inches
to 2 feet broad. It was filled with hard earth and human bones. At
A, which lay to the east, were the fragments of a skull and pieces of
pottery. It stood on eight terracotta legs, which rested on the floor-
slab of the tomb, 1 foot 3 inches long, and about 3^ inches in diame-
ter at top, tapering gradually at the bottom, which terminates in two
convex rims. Beneath the head of the sarcophagus, on the floor-slab,
stood a small elegantly-shaped vase of fine black clay, filled with ashes
and earth. Others, of common red terracotta, stood below, which
were filled with earth. The villagers state, they have found rice in
them.' The dimensions of the Gehrdreh coffin appear in the drawing
to which I have referred. The identity of the shape, and the corres-
pondence of materia], and of the breadth of the rim, with those of that
found by Captain Newbold are certainly very remarkable.'*' Captain
Newbold*s sepulchres are those of the series denominated the Scylbian,
which have been found in various parts of the South of India.
* Whose bones, then,* he asks, * do these huge blocks of granite
cover ? Throw down one of the side slabs, with its circular aperture,
* See accompanying lithograph. (Plate xii.)
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T?ve cojfflrL'S?uxp>eA 1
379
omlech or
re behold
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1853.] ANCIENT SEPULCHRES. 379
of the sepulchre of Panduvaram Dewal, and we have the cromlech or
dolmen. Clear away the cyclopean superstructure, and we behold
the Druidical circles and the cairn. If we turn our eyes northerly to
the mountains of Circassia, w^e there start with surprise on seeing an
absolute fac-simile of the mysterious tombs of Southern India, with
the circular aperture. (Vide Engraving in Bell's Circassia.) The Circas-
sian sepulchre is similarly beyond the reach of history. Nor is it difficult
to find a family resemblance to the Indian circles and mounds, with
their contents of human bones, spear heads, ashes and pottery, in
those which so thickly stud the vast steppes of Tartar^- and Northern
Europe. They appear to me to be the almost only tangible vestiges
remaining to us, except Holy Writ, of certain similarities in the
languages of nations now wide asunder, and the traditions which
prevail in almost every Eastern nation of an extensive migration, at a
period of high antiquity, of one family of the human race, radiating in
various directions from one given centre, at a time when the whole
earth was of one family and of one speech, which the Lord con-
founded, and from thence did scatter them abroad upon the face of all
the earth : in a word, they are the foot-marks of the builders of Babel —
witnesses of the truth of sacred history— all eloquent in their sOence,
similarity, and distinctness.'
** It is curious that in the neighborhood of Babylon itself here
referred to, a sarcophagus has been found exactly agreeing with that
procured in India. The fact I think well worthy of notice. With
the information which we have already elicited from Commander Jones,
it may aid us in coming to a conclusion respecting the remains for-
warded by him to India, and our finding a new proof of ethnogra-
phical connexion in remote times." — J. W.
Our learned member Dr. Buist has directed attention to the oriental
character of certain of the monumental antiquities of Northern Europe,
delineated by Mr. Chalmers of Auldbar.
It is in the elucidation of ethnographical relations, and national and
religions history, that our antiquarian researches have their highest value.
P. S. — 1^^ Fehrunry 18;'3. — Since this paper was put in tv-pe, we
have received some interesting notices from Dr. W. H. Bradley of the
caves near VetdiwMi and Bokardan, of the existence of which, as we
have elsewhere mentioned, we heard for the first time in February last.
A more detailed account of these discoveries we hope shortly to receive
from Dr. B.
Mr. Fallon, after painting the figures at Elephanta in a masterly
Btyle, has entered on the deUneation of those at Karla,
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380 [Jan.
Art. IV. — Notices of Cromlechs, Ccntms, and other Ancient
Scytho'Druidical Remains in the Principality of SorapUr,
By Captain Meadows Taylor.
Presented October 1852.
In a former communication I submitted to the Society some re-
marks upon the ancient Celtic-Scythian or Druidical Remains of the
SorAp^r District, and having understood from the Secretary that
f\irther details, accompanied, if possible, by plans of the varions
localities, would be acceptable, I have completed them as far as
practicable, firom time to time, and as I had opportunity during district
tours, and now b^ to transmit the result.
It has been very satisfactory to me to observe that the subject has
excited considerable interest among antiquarians ; and all the successive
investigations I have made have only the more strongly served to
impress me with the belief, not only that the remains I have discovered
here, and those that have been discovered by friends with whom I
have been in communication in other parts of the country, are identical
with those on the Nilgherris, but supply ample proof that they
belong to the same race of Celtic-Scythian people, who, at a very
early period in the history of man, penetrated westwards into Europe,
and of whom such peculiar and stiiking memorials exist. I need not
here recapitulate the grounds of this supposition — which are detailed
in my former communication— further than to state, that as in Europe,
the remains here are divided into three general classes : —
\st. — Cromlechs, or erections of large slabs of stones, generally open
at one side, and formed of three large slabs for walls, and one for a roof.
All the cromlechs I have seen are empty.
2nd. — Kistvaens, or erections smaller than the cromlechs, con-
structed on the same principle, but closed on all sides. In some
of them a circular hole, from six to nine inches in diameter, exists
in one of the sides ; and on removing one of the side-slabs, and
opening out the interior, it is found to contain earthen pots,
glazed with a red or black colour, which contain charcoal, earth,
and portions of human bones and ashes — evidently the remains of
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1853.] CROMLECHS, KI8TVAENS AND CAIRNS. 381
the dead, which were collected after cremation, and finally deposited
in these sepulchres. I may remark that these pots or urns are
found covered with fine earth, which was probahly placed over them
as they were successively deposited. Whether it may be attributed
to the greater age of the kistvaens over the cairns, or that more water
or damp has found its way into them, I cannot say ; but though I have
opened many kistvaens at Raj^-Kolur and H&gg&ritgi, I have not
succeeded in obtaining any perfect urns from them, those that were
found being so decayed and rotten that they could not be separated
whole from the earth in which they were imbedded.
3rd, — Cairns, or small tumuli, surrounded with single, double, and
treble circular rows of large stones or rocks ; of which, as regards
contents, there were two varieties. In some, as at Jiwargi, Anddla,
&c. bodies have been buried, the skeletons of which are dis-
coverable on excavation, accompanied by small and large urns, jars,
fragments of iron weapons, tripods of iron, arrow and spear-heads,
all the iron articles being very much decayed. Many of the
smaller earthen vessels have been recovered in a perfect state from '
cairns which I have opened, and are well finished specimens of
pottery, having a black or bright red glaze, or in some partially black
and red inside and out. These cairns are by no means confined to the
interment of one body : in some two, and in others remains of many
adults and children could be traced, by the pieces of skulls and bones ;
while it was evident, also, that the children had been burned, and their
bones and ashes interred in urns. In some cairns it was found that the
bodies had been placed upon the natural floor of the grave, and the
earth filled in ; but in the larger cairns there are cists or stone coffins,
formed by slabs of limestone, with upright sides, and slabs as covers
and for flooring, forming two and three coffins adjoining, in which were
skeletons resting upon the ground-slabs or floor. Above the covering
remains of other skeletons were found in some instances, particulars of
which will be more fully noticed in their proper places. These cists or
coffins were usually found at a depth of from twelve to fourteen feet
from the surface, and it is evident that great care and labour was
bestowed upon the construction of the graves. The other class of
cairns, which do not differ in outward appearance from the others,
contain large earthen pots or urns, of the same description of pottery,
red and black, which are filled with charcoal and human ashes, and por-
tions of bones and earth, evidently showing that afler the burning of the
dead the remains were collected and deposited in these cairns, as they
were deposited in the kistvaens. From the above result it may be
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382 8CYTH0-DRUIDICAL REMAINS IN 80RAPUR. [JaN.
assumed that there were two sects of the same people, one of which
buTDcd their dead, and deposited the remains in kistraens or cairns, and
the other which buried their dead, and with them the weapons of the
deceased, with probably funereal offerings of grain, &c. which were
placed in the urns or jars, which in some instances nearly surround
the stone cists in which the skeletons lie.
4th, — To these remains I am enabled from my inyestigatious to add
a fourth, which I haye nowhere seen noticed before. There are large
rocks, which have been placed regularly in diagonal lines, having open
squares between each four rocks, the spaces in the squares being, most
probably, and as will be explained more fully hereafter, intended for
cairns. These remains are in many respects most curious and interest-
ing : there might be doubts, perhaps, of their belonging to the same
race, whose places of sepulture are so remarkable, if there were not
cairns mingled with the rocks, showing, as will be seen by the plans,
that they were placed as they exist by the same people.
The remains hitherto discovered by me exist in seven talooks or
* pergunnas of the SorapAr State — Korikdl, Huns^, Malg&tti, RiU-
tapur, Mdddarki, JndSia, and Nellugi, These adjoin each other,
and reach from the SW. comer of the Sorapiir territory in an
irregular manner to the N. and NW., and from the Krishna river
to the Bhima. It is evident that some spots were more favoured
than others — whether as having been more sacred as burial-places, or
whether as being near the location of large and permanent encamp-
ments, it is difficult to state. In the large cemeteries, as at Raj&n-
Kolur and Jiwargi, the remains cover a large space of ground, and
are very numerous ; at the others, as will be seen by the plans, they are
of smaller extent. In all situations, however, and whether in large or
small groups, they perfectly preserve their several distinctive characters.
I shall commence with the Rorik&l talook, and take the others in order
as they occur.
PLAN I. — cairns and KISTVAENS AT HA6GARITGI.
These are situated on a waste piece of land of a dry and gravelly
character, about a mile and a half south of the village, near the bank of
the D6ne river : the ground slopes gently to the south, and is partially
covered with low trees and bushes. There is cultivation all round the
spot adjoining, and among the cairns, many of which have been disturbed
by the plough, but the kistvaens have been respected. There is no
cromlech at this place. Of the twenty-three kistvaens, some are of
large size, others much smaller. They are constructed of slabs of grey
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1853.]
AT HAGGARITGI AND RAJAN-KOLUR.
383
6 feet.
limestone, obtained from the eminences near, and these, in some
instances, are of considerable size, and must have been transported with
much difficulty and labour. Except in one instance, there is no
difference in the arrangement of the erections here and at Riijan-
Kolur I tliej are four large slabs of stone set upright in the earth,
and covered by a fifth, which projects over the walls, forming effectual
protection from the rains. One kistvaen is, however, as remarkable
for its size as for a pecuharity in the entrance, which I have not noticed
elsewhere, and which may be thus illustrated :
The front slabs form, as it w^re, an entrance enclosure
in front of the sepulchre : the dimensions of the side
slabs are very remarkable, being 15 feet 6 inches long,
by 6i feet high, and 4 inches thick. They are let into
the ground about 2 feet, so that the erection was about
5 feet high in appearance. It had ^labs laid down for
a floor. This kistvaen was the most finished of any,
and the most perfect. The sides appeared to fit closely,
and there was no appearance of damp or decay ; but
on examination it yielded nothing but the remains of
pots or urns, none of which could be got out entire,
with portions of bones, ashes, and charcoal, mixed together. I much
regretted afterwards that this fine specimen had been disturbed and
broken m the examination, not having been present when it was opened.
Two others were also examined, with the same result, but no cairns.
It is evident, however, from their being in the same locality, that all
belonged to the same tribe, and that it was of the sect which burned
their dead, and buried their ashes. No remains of weapons, beads,
arrow-heads, &c. were found in the kistvaens, and as the pots or urns
which contained ashes and bones were for the most part much broken,
It was almost impossible to discover how many had been deposited
m each erection. In the largest there were distinct traces of seven
large pots, with portions of others of smaller size, the number of which
could not be ascertained. Some of the other larger kistvaens have
sides measuring 13, 12, 10, and 9 feet respectively, by 4 to / feet broad
or high, and the top-slabs in proportion. I did not measure the
smaller ones, which are generally from 6 to 8 feet long, and 4 to 5
high.
PLAN II.— CROMLECHS AND KISTVAENS AT RAJAN-KOLUR.
This very remarkable group of remains was the first which I had
observed in this district ; and though I had passed it on several occasions.
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384 SCTTHO-DBUIDICAL RBMAINB IN 80RAPUR. [JaN.
each time with increased conyictioii that thej could be no other than
Celto-Dmidic, firom their exact resemblance to those in Wales,
I forbore to come to any conclusion. On visiting them, however, in
the latter end of 1850, in company with the late Dr. A. Walker,
during a geological excursion, I halted at the village, and devoted some
time to their examination. This convinced me that there was at least
a curiously strong analogy, if no more, between these cromlechs and
those of Wales, so strong that it amounted almost to conviction of
their identity ; and on Dr. Walker's return to Hyderabad he sent me
the number of the Madras Journal of Literature and Science (No. xxxii.)
in which Captain Congreve's able article on the Druidical Remains
on the Nilgherris is published. Perusal of this interesting narrative
and detail left no doubt whatever on my mind in regard to my previous
supposition. The style and plan of erection of these monuments —
their size and contents — the peculiarity of the round hole in one of the
end slabs of some of the kistvaens (for it is not universal) — the same
traditional belief that they were the houses of fairies or dwarfs a span
high, but endued with enormous strength, peculiar alike to Sorapiir,
the Nilgherris, Britain, France, &c., agreeing so minutely and
perfectly in every locality — all combined to induce me to make the
Society acquainted with the discovery of Druidic antiquities m the
Dekkan which had not before been noticed, or suspected to exist.
The dimensions of these remains are very various, in fact of all sizes,
firom the largest cromlech, of which the south side is open, to the
smallest possible enclosure, made by four slabs of stone, not exceeding
in some instances 2 feet square, if so much. The plan of the erectiona
is similar to those at H&gg&ritgi in all respects— that is, when open,
three large slabs let into the ground, with a top-slab ; and when dosed
perfect in its four sides and cover. The dimensions of the largest were —
Side-slabs 1 5 feet 3 inches long, each.
9 feet 4 inches high, of which 3 feet, more or less, arc
let into the earth.
8 to 10 inches thick.
Top 13 feet 9 inches long.
13 feet broad.
9 to 1 2 inches thick.
End-slab 6 feet broad.
9 feet high, including what is in the ground.
9 to 10 inches thick.
The Ulterior of this cromlech measures more in length and breadth
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1853.] AT HAGGARITGI AND RAJAN-KOLUR. 386
than the others, and is 6 feet by 9 ; but in others, and in the generality
of the largest closed cromlechs or kistvaens, the interior space is 6
feet long by 4 broad, in which, as before stated, the funeral urns are
deposited. A sketch of this cromlech is marked No. 1 . The dimen-
sions of two of the largest kistvaens are respectively : —
Side-slabs... 12 feet by 9.
Top 12 feet by 10 feet 6 inches.
9 to 1 2 inches thick.
Side-slabs... 12 feet 9 inches by 9 feet.
Top 13 feet 3 inches by 10 feet 9 inches.
1 foot to 9 inches thick.*
These two appear, one to the right and one to the left of Sketch
No. 2, and that in the centre is about the same dimensions. Sketch
No. 3 shows some of the smaller kistvaens in another part of the
ground, and No. 4 part of the group nearer the village of Rajlln-
Rolur. In this sketch the cromlech partly shown on the ri^t hand
is nearly, if not quite, as large as the largest of the main group, and
is higher, but it is not so neatly constructed. Some of the others
shown are partly open and broken, the Mdes and tops of some having
fallen in, or been removed.
It is impossible to view these numerous remains without being
impressed with a sense of the enormous labour required in their
construction, and in the transport of such huge masses of heavy stone.
The stone employed is a schistose grit or sandstone, which occurs in a bed
* NoTB. — Compare the above dimensions with those of two cromlechs in the
island of Anglesea, as quoted by Captain Congreve :^*
" In the woods behind P\m Newydd, near tho Menai Strait, are some
very remarkable Druidical antiquities. Amongst them are two vast cromlechs.
The upper stono of one is twelve feet seven inches long, twelve broad, and four
thick, supported by five tall stones. The other is but barely separated from the
first, and is almost a square of five feet and a half, and supported by four stones.
The number of supporters to cromlechs is merely accidental, and depends upon the
size or form of the incumbent stone. These are the most magnificent we have, for
a middle-sized horse may easily pass under the largest. In the woods of Llugwy,
indeed, there is a most stupendous one of a rhomboidal form. The greatest
diagonal is seventeen and a half feet, the lesser fifteen, and the thickness three feet
nine inches, but its height from the ground is only two feet. It was supported by
several stones. In the woods at this place are some Druidical circles nearly
contiguous to each other.''
The large Raj&n-Kolur cromlech would, therefore, appear to be a finer specimen
than either of these, which are, I believe, the largest in Great Britain ; tho
thickness of the upper slabs, in comparison with those of RajSn-Kolur, is tho only
superiority.
51
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386 8CYTH0-DBUIDICAL REMAINS IN SORAPUR. [J AN.
lying between the limestone bluffs above Ri^&n-Kolur and tbe
granite ranges to the S. and SW., from half a mile to a mile and a
half broad. The bed, when nearest the granite, is very hard in texture,
shows a strong lustre on fracture, as if it had been partially fused by
heat, or granitized, and it is from Uiese portions, which cannot be nearer
than a mile and a half from the spot where the erections have been
made, that the largest slabs have been raised and conveyed. The sand-
stone changes its quality when not in contact with the granite, and is
softer and more friable. It appears to resemble, if it be not identical
with, the Bunter Sandstone, and is traversed by coloured bands — pink,
grey, purple, and yellow.
To have removed these masses at all must have required peculiar
mechanical skill, as well as great application of force and labour ;
and their transport for so long a distance, and erection, particularly
in the placing of the covering slabs, is almost unaccountable, with the
means we may suppose a rude and pastoral people may have possessed.
All things considered, this group is by £ur more remarkable
that than of H&gg&ritgi, and in relation to the number and aze of
the cromlechs and kistvaens, may fairly take its place with the most
remarkable of any of these remains hitherto discovered, whether in
India or in Britain, France, Denmark, &c. None of the erections on
the Nilgherris appear to approach them in size, and those opened by
Captain Congreve agree with the dimensions of the middle and
smaller sizes of the Baj&n-Kolur and H&gg&ritgi groups. It will
be observed by the plan that several cairns are intermingled with the stone
erections, thus connecting the two as belonging to the same people.
Several of these have double circles of stones, and have been carefully
constructed ; others are with single rows, and are less complete. I have
not been able to examine any of these as yet, but I should presume,
from trials elsewhere, that they would be found to contain funereal
urns only ; and the ground on which they are is so hard, that as
excavation of it to any depth would have been impossible, the urns
have most likely been placed upon the rock, and covered with earth
and loose stones, and have, therefore, most probably become decayed
by the action of damp : it is only when they have been interred at a
considerable depth from the surface that I have found them perfect.
The whole of the ground covered by the erections is rock covered with
a shallow surface of moorum, into which the slabs have been fixed,
resting upon the rock ; and this may account for the entire preservation
of most of them. None of them, in the large group at least, appear
to have been disturbed or examined at any time, and they are respected
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1853.] AT BBL8ETTIHAL AND CHIKANHALU. 387
by the nativefl of the vicinity as the houses of the dwarfs, termed
Modls, who inhabited the country in former ages before man. Locally
they are known by the designation *'Mora Mannee" or Moras* houses,
but I have not heea able to obtain any definition of the term ** Mor4."
The main group stands on a slightly elevated spot with a gradual
slope to the south, about half a mile SW. of Raj&n-Kolur, and near
the high road to Korik&l. The smaller group is nearer to the village,
and adjoins the high road.
PLAN III. — CROMLECHS, &C. NEAR BBLSETTIHAL.
This village is situated about three miles N£. of Raj&n-Kolur, on the
high road to Soiapiir, and the remains are near the range of limestone
hills about half a mile WNW. of the village. There are very few of
them entire, portions having been broken down and carried away,
apparently for the slabs of' stone ; others have fallen in. Some of
them are small open cromlechs, and others kistvaens of the medium
size of those at Raj&n-Kolur, aiid none present any particular features
for remark. The erections have not been arranged upon any plan,
but are scattered over in a long irregular line near the hills, and at their
base. I did not think them of sufficient importance to have any opened
or examined, but in respect to construction and appearance there is no
difference between them and those at Rajftn-Kolur. If possible, from
their ruined condition, they may be more ancient than the others.
PLAN lY. — CAIRNS AT CHIKANHALLl.
In the month of October 1851, when taking levels and surveys for
the bund of a new tank near the village of Chik&nhiUli, which is
about nine miles from Sorapil^r, on the road to Talikota, vid Bohnal,
I came very unexpectedly on a considerable group of cairns, which
are situated on a small gravelly spur of a rock-granite range of hills
about half a mile NW. from Chik&nh&Ui. These cairns, large and
small, are twelve in number, and are for the most part carefully
constructed, with single and double rows of circle stones, and very
perfect. The largest, on the summit of the elevation, had a treble row
of stones round it, laid very regularly. The cairn was sixteen feet in
diameter of the inner ring of stones, and, as I had remarked at Jiwargi
and other places, the usual entrance stones at the SW. side were
regularly placed, as also two stones N£. and SW., on the top of the
tumulus. I had ihe large cairn on the summit of the knoll opened
and examined. After digging a trench through loose stones and earth
N£. and SW., in the direction of the top and entrance stones, beginning
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388 SCYTHO-DRUIDICAL REMAINS IN 80RAPUR. [JaN.
from the SW. entrance, to a level with the surroundiiig ground, or
probably three feet, the lower excavation was carefully commenced from
the same side. About four feet from the surface of the ground two large
stones, or rough or irregular slabs, similarly placed to those in the
cairns at Jiwargi, were met with, lying in the same direction as the
entrance stones, but sloping and directing downwards. Following
these, and at a depth of ten feet from the surface of the^ground, some
remains of pottery and bones were met with, and the excavation
was continued to the bottom and around very carefully. The floor of
the cairn consisted of slabs of stones, and was about five feet broad, and
six feet long. On these a number of earthen pots or jars had been
placed, of much larger size than any found at Jiwai^L Some of these
were broken ; some were too firmly inbedded in the earth and gravd
of the sides of the cairn to be got out whole ; but seven were re-
covered perfectly entire, or only slightly chipped, with their
contents. The whole of the interior of the cairn was cleared
out, until the natural gravelly walls of the excavation alone remained,
but no traces of iron weapons, utensils, or small cups and urns, as at
Jiwargi, were found. All the vessels got out whole had covers : they
are of sound glazed pottery, of the same bright red colour as is generally
met with, and, though not unlike the ordinary ghuras or chattees used
by natives, are yet of peculiar and more elegant forms, the bottoms
being more pointed. These pots contained portions of partly calcined
human bones, ashes, and pieces of charcoal, mixed with earth, as in the
kistvaens of HSigg&ritgi and RajSLn-Kolur. The sides of the excava-
tion were of strong moorum or gravel ; but the earth that had been
filled in was soft, and without stones, and of the kind called '* pandri
mutti" by the natives, and must have been brought from some
distance, as there is none anywhere near the spot. This earth had
evidently been filled in after the urns had been deposited. It was
impossible to ascertain how many had been originally deposited in the
cairn, as so many broke on the earth being moved ; but as well as I
could estimate, there must have been at last from fifteen to twenty of
various sizes, all having the same contents : those recovered were, how-
ever, the lai^st. I examined all the adjacent hiUs, in the hope of find-
ing cromlechs or kistvaens, but without success, and I cannot hear of
any other groups of cairns in this vicinity. I did not consider it
necessary to open ai»y more of the caim^, as it was evident that
they belonged to the sect which burned their dead and buried their
ashes only, without weapons, or smaller cups and utensils, and it is
probable, I think, these cairns, which contain urns with ashes in them.
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]8d3.] NEAR THB SHAHPUR HILLS. 389
belong to the same sect as those which used kistvaens for the same
purpose, wherever stones could be oonTeniently obtained for their
erection.
It is possible, also, that the cairns and kistvaens were family sepul-
chres, in which, as each member died in succession, his ashes were
collected and deposited in the cairn. At the same time, the labour of
opening out the whole, from top to bottom, on each successive occasion
of a death, would have been almost equal to the construction of a new
cairn ; and if this system had been followed, a greater mixture of gravel
of the soil of the spot with the soft whitish earth placed about the
urns might have taken place, which would have been observable now.
It is more probable, I think, that the cairns may have belonged to the
tribe collectively ; that as members died their ashes were preserved
by their families in urns, and when a sufficient number had accumulated
in the tribe they were deposited in a cairn, and finally closed up. This
hypothesis appears, perhaps, more reasonable than the other ; and may
account as well for the perfect condition of these um-caims as for the
manner in which the light earth was first placed, then covered by
gravel and moorum, and finally by stones and earth intermingled,
to the top of the cairn, around which the double or single circles of *
large stones were placed.
REMAINS NEAR THE SHAHPUR HILLS.
These are of a very varied and interesting character, and it is neces-
sary to describe them separately. The first met with, coming from
Sorapiir on the Shahpur road, about nine miles from Sorapiir and
three from Shahpur, is near the small village of Vaib&thiilli, and lies
immediately to the east of the high road, after passing the village in
the direction of Shahpur. The road passes through a portion of it,
so that the locality can easily be found. A plan of this curious spot is
numbered 5, and attached.
I presume it to have been ground regularly marked out for a
cemetery of cairns, and the labour bestowed upon it has been enor-
mous. The ground has been marked out in parallel or diagonal lines,
leaving a square of from eighteen to twenty-four feet between each'
four points, which would be enough for an ordinary cairn ; the points
of the squares and the lines being formed of large granite rocks,
which have evidently been rolled down the neighbouring hills, and
placed in the situations they now occupy — but at what expense of
labour, and with what patience ! These rocks are irregular in shape,
and of various sixes ; but the average of them is not less than six to
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390 8CYTH0-DRUIDICAL REMAINS IN 80RA.PUR. [JaN.
seven feet long, by three to four thick or high, and very many are at
least half as lai^ again. The sides of the square, as it very nearly is,
gave twenty rocks west, by twenty south, which, if the wh<^e were
complete, would amount to four hundred rocks ; but a portion on the
north-east comer and north side has not been completed, or the rocks
have been removed, and about fifty would be required to complete the
whole. Those laid down in the plan are from actual survey measure-,
ment, and the vacant spaces are as they exist. The whole of the
ground is usually cultivated, but the size of the rocks has defied any
attempt, if ever made, to remove any of them. I assume that the squares
marked out must have been for cairns, as there are five, — two with
double rows of stones, and three with single, —near the centre of the field,
as shown in the plan ; they are all very perfect, and have not been
disturbed. The tradition attached to the spot is, that a king had once
his encampment there, and the pieces of rocks were laid down for his
horses and elephants. The place, therefore, in Canarese and Hindu-
stani, is known by the name of " The King's Stables."
North of this field is another piece of cultivated ground, in which
there are twenty-eight cairns, large and small-— one with a triple circle
of stones, which forms a considerable tumulus, two others with double
circles, and the rest single. In one place four of the cairns are sur-
rounded by what appears to have been a low wall, but most of the stones
have been taken away, and as several of the cairns have evidently been
broken by the plough, and the circle stones disturbed* it is possible
that in the lapse of time, and constant cultivation of the field, many
others may have been disturbed. Enough, however, remain to render
the spot in connection with the rocks very remarkable and interesting.
I was not able to have any of these cairns examined, but shall not fiiil
to open the principal one and examine it the next time I am encamped
near the spot.
PLAN YI.
Is of a small group of cairns on a waste spot of ground below the
tank of Amraw&tti, on the lands of Vaibftth&Ui. There are five of
them, one with a double circle of stones, the others with single. This
group hes about a quarter of a mile W. or NW. of the preceding, and
presents no particular ie« tures for remark.
PLAN VII.
Is of a rather remarkable barrow or tumulus, and cairns, in a field
on the lands of RakhdrnfftrOf through which the high road from
Shahpur to S&g^ passes, and about a mile north of the last
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1858.] NEAR SHAHPUR AND SAQGI. 391
mentioned gronp. This tumulus has been fonned with much care and
labour, and though I tried to have a trench dug through it, in order
to ascertain its contents, the ground was so hard, and the moorum and
stones had united into so strong a mass of concrete, that I was obliged
to abandon, it at the time, and have not been able to resume it. One
of the cairns on the mound has a triple circle of stones, two double
circles, and one single, and the whole of the mound is evidently
artificial, the field around it being perfectly level. Originally there
was one or more rows of stones all round the base, but these for
the most part have been disturbed and removed. I have seen no
tumulus so marked in character as this, in the Sorapiir country, and
on this account it merits more particular examination than I have been
able to bestow upon it. In the same field are ten other cairns,
eight in one group NW. of the large tumulus, and two by themselves
SW. All these are insignificant in comparison with the others.
Not very far from the foregoing, perhaps a mile, and in the valley
into which the road from Shahpur to S&ggi turns, is a remarkably
large insulated granite rock, near a small rivulet which feeds the
Amraw&tti tank. This rock is about twenty feet high, and eight to
ten yards in diameter, of a round irregular form. When I first saw it,
it was surrounded by a double ring of large stones, very regularly
placed, with two larger rocks as entrance on the south side ; but the
W&ddiwars employed m the repair of the tank have, I find, removed
and displaced nearly all the circle stones. This rock, as I saw it first,
had a very remarkable appearance, and impressed me with the belief
that it must have been marked out as a place of worship or sacrifice.
Ci4>tain Congreve, m his article before referred to, gives several
instances of rocks on the Nilgherris as encircled by stones, and with
which the one I menUon exactly corresponded in all respects. I beheve
the same kind of Druidical remains is well kuown in Devonshire and
in Cornwall, so that it is at least satisfactory to have found among the
Sorapiir remains one striking corroboration of identity with those of the
Nilgherris and Britain, even in this particular.
PLAN VIII.
This, as will be observed by the plan, is a smaller collection of
rocks, in something the same plan as the larger one at Vaib&th^li.
It is close to the hills, and upon the high road from S&ggi to
Shahpur, near a small tank, and about a quarter of a mile from the
large barrow. The rocks have not been completed to form exact
squares in all instances^ and, with a few exceptions^ are not generally so
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392 8CYTHO-DRUIDICAL REMAINS IN 80RAPUR. [JAN*
large as those at YaiMth&lli. Among them are two cairns, but of no
remarkable size or construction.
Again, about a mile further north, and close to the eastern gate of
the town of Shahpur, there is another group of lines of rocks similar to
those already mentioned, which has once been as large, or nearly so, as
that at VaibSthJUli ; but the rocks placed here were, perhaps, for the
most part of smaller sizes, and many have been removed, or are at least
wanting ; so that the lines are only perfect where they were too large to
be stirred. Part of the space is a cultivated field, part is occupied by
the high road, and the remainder is on waste ground to the east. As
the lines of rocks were so imperfect, I did not survey the place, which is
remarkable only in connection with the two others already mentioned.
It could not, however, be overlooked by any one acquainted with
the characters of these antiquities, as the rocks which remain have
a very peculiar appearance in the ploughed ground, apparently so
regular, and where, except these, are no others of any description.
I could not find traces of cairns among these rocks ; if there were any
originally, they have been long ago obliterated by the cultivation of the
greater portion of the land in which they are, and which is of excellent
quality.
PLAN IX. — TUMULUS AND ROCKS NORTH OF THE SHAHPUR HILLS.
I consider this as by far the most remarkable of the remains about
Shahpur, if, indeed, it does not much exceed in interest even the
cromlechs, in the enormous labour with which the outer lines of rocks
have been placed as they are. I had no idea of its existence until one
day when encamped at Shahpur, in June last year, and having to
examine a well near a temple which required repair, I came upon the
tumulus quite by accident, as I was riding across the fields. It
transpired, however, that the place was well known to the people, who
have a legend regarding it, which was told me by my companion, the
Pujdri of the temple, to this effect : — Once upon a time a party
of Bedins had brought up a large spoil of cattle and goats from a
neighbouring district, and on their return quarrelled about the division
of the booty. As they happened at the time not to be far from the
temple of Amlapur H&ntoan, which is held very sacred among
these people, and it was near day, they agreed to stop and ask the
opinion of the god as to what they should do. The cattle, therefore,
were collected in a group, — the bullocks and buffEdoes outside, the
cows and calves next, and the sheep and goats in the centre, — and all
lay down to rest. When day dawned the thieves went to the temple,
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XV.
•^^ -_^"_-: j^— '^^^ J^ ^''^- ijy^ _^
V»r*
M.T.ael
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18630 NORTH OF THE 8HAHPUR HILLS. 393
which is hard bj, and alone in the plain ; and, having reminded the god
of sundry ofibrings to him before they set out on their raid, to which
and to his fitrour they were indebted for a successful foray, they stated
that, try as they would, they could not bring themselves to a conclusion
as to the disposal of the proceeds ; and, though loth to trouble him,
begged him to step down to where the cattle lay, and decide the
quarrel, or it would end in all of them fighting among themselves and
being slain, which would bring great discredit upon him. The
god was willing to be arbitrator, got off his pedestal, and proceeded
as he was to the place where the cattle stood, and, having selected
some good cows and buffaloes for the firahmins of the temple, proceeded
to divide the rest according to his notions of justice. This, however,
was by no means so easy as he supposed : he was accused by all the
thieves of favoritism, and that because such a man had made a sacrifice
on such a day, and another had not ; a third had a vow to fulfil, and
another had made none ; he was evidently prepossessed in favour of his
votaries, and could not be a judge at all— so the best way, as they had
at first proposed, was to settle the quarrel by the sword, and whoever
should be victorious in the end was to take all. Upon this the god fell
into great wrath, declared his reputation would be ruined for ever if
a parcel of roving Bedins came and fought in his holy precincts, under
his very nose ; and after (according to my informant) a liberal abuse of
the female relatives of the party, declared not a beast should
move. Gradually, then, and to the horror of the Bedins, the cattle
sunk down motionless, and became stone. The Pujari, when he had
got thus far in his story, triumphantly exclaimed — ** There ! you see
the truth of the story verified ; for see, the sheep are all black, and the
other cattle grey, and of all colours, stricken as they lay !" I ventured
to remark that some of the rocks were very tall for cows and buffaloes.
" Ah," said he, " that's true ; but you forget that men were giants in
those days, and so their cattle were large too ; we are pigmies now in
comparison ;" — and as he seemed quite satisfied with his own conclu-
sions, it was no use to gainsay them. The stones are therefore
considered as a proof of the miraculous power of the Amlapur
H&n&man, though the Bedins hint that it was a spiteful trick of the
god to turn so many good beasts into stone for such a trifle as a
few lives.
It was at once, however, very evident what the stones were, and a
very striking appearance have they in the wide plain when the ground
is clear of crops. A long and correctly formed parallelogram of 400
feet by 260, composed of huge masses of granite, encloses a smaller
52
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394 8CTTH0-DRUIDICAL REMAINS IN 80RAPUB. [JaK.
figure of smaller rocks, and these a tomulas rising about t«i feet aboye
the surrounding ground. The circle of stones at the summit was of
superior diameter to any I had seen : the sides of the tumulus were
CQTered with large black rocks of greenstone, and these surroimded on
three sides by a double row, and to the east by six rows of granite rock,
partly incomplete, and of smaller size. The tumulus measured sixty
feet in diameter between the circle of stones on the summit, which was
bare and level ; the slope southwards and eastwards from the west, as
the ground has a natural inclination to the south, was sixty feet ; and
that on the north and west, where the ground rose, was forty feet.
On the slopes of the SW. and N£. comers were two other smallef
circles of black stones, of smaller diameter ; and the rest of the green-
stone rocks had been placed, apparently without regular design, so as to
cover the whole of the slopes on all sides, the parallelogram enclosed
by them being 190 feet north and south, by 160 feet east and west.
The exact number of these black rocks it was impossible to ascertain
correctly, as also the positions of all ; and after several attempts to
have them corrected, and to lay them down correctly, I was obliged, for
want of time, to give the matter up, and to judge as far as possible by
my eyes, counting and measuring the outside lines, and counting and
filling up the rest by portions as they appeared to he. The inner
lines of granite rocks, and those of the main outer line of the parallel-
ogram, were carefully counted and measured, and laid down in the
plan by observation, in their proper positions, and with reference to the
scale of forty feet to an inch. I extract from my field-book the
measurements of some of the largest rocks of the outside lines. It
would be tedious and unnecessary, perhaps, to give the whole : —
Rock.
Length.
Breadth.
Height.
Girth.
ft. in.
ft.
in.
ft.
in.
ft. in.
. 10 5 ....
7
4
5
1
26 9
..9 0 ....
8
0
4
3
24 6
..10 1 .. .
. ... 9
7
.... 5
2
.... 27 9
.. 7 2 ...
. ... 4
3
4
0
24 3
.. 8 6 ...
. ... 8
2
6
8
. ... 26 3
,.. 9 0 ....
.... 5
6
7
3
. ... 25 6
... 9 0 ...
. ... 4
3
8
9
21 0
,.. 7 6 ...
.... 8
I
3
8J
24 9
.. 9 0 ...
. ... 7
6
.... 5
0
. ... 20 9
.. 9 5 ...
. ... 8
4
.... 5
8
. ... 27 2
The weight of each might be computed, but I have not attempted it.
The rest are but little short of these dimensions, varying from 8 feet
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1863.] NORTH OF THE SHAHPUR HILLS. 395
4 inches loDg, 6 feet broad, and 4 feet high, to 6 feet long, 5| feet
broad, and 3 feet 9 inches high, which is the smallest of any. How
these rocks were moyed, and placed as they are, so regularly, it is
impossible to conceive. The nearest granite rocks are those on the
hills of the Shahpur range, which, opposite to the tumulus, is quite a
mile and a half distant, and there are no others anywhere in the
plains for miles around. The geological character, indeed, of the
country, changes after leaving the hills, and the limestone formation
commences. I can, therefore, come to no conclusion but that the rocks,
which are identical in character with those of the Shahpur range,
were rolled down from them into the plain, and from thence rolled, or
otherwise conveyed onwards to their destination. The removal of
one of these masses of granite would be an almost impossible under-
taking with the means at present obtainable in the coimtry ; and yet
there are fifty-six placed here, all of which have been brought from
the hiUs across two nullas, one of which has rather steep banks, at
least fifteen feet deep, of soft earth — a serious obstacle. Great as
has been the labour to transport and erect the slabs of sandstone and
limestone of which the cromlechs and kistvaens of Raj^-Kolur and
Hl^gg&ritgi are constructed, the means employed there sink into
insignificance when compared with the transport of these great
rocks. How many men were employed in the undertaking — how much
time -^ what mechanical or other means — it is impossible to conjecture ;
but they stand, monuments of the faith of bygone ages, alike immoveable
and imperishable. Sketches Nos. 4, 5 and 6 will give, perhaps, a better
idea of them than any description. No. 6 shows the south side, and
No. 5 the east, in which the largest rocks are situated, and are as
correct as to shape and situation as I could make them. The
greenstone rocks in the slope of the tumulus are no less worthy of
remark, and their great weight for their size, and the distance from
which they have been brought, evince the patience and perseverance
of the people who transported them. Generally speaking, these are
from four to six feet long, and from two to three feet broad and high,
mostly of an irregular round figure. The nearest bed or dyke of
greenstone rocks among the granite hills is about five miles from the
tumulus, to the SW., and ^these rocks must, therefore, have been
brought' from thence, either upon carts, or rolled or carried by men.
The former supposition is, perhaps, the most probable, as these people
may have had rude cars, such as are now used by the W^diwars or
stone-workors of the country ; many of the rocks are, however, too large
to be transported by these means.
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396 8CYTH0-DRUIDICAL RBMAINS IN 80RAPUR. [JaN.
Having completed my survey, I proceeded to ascertain the oontentt
of the tumulus, and directed two trenches to be cut through themoond,
one north and south, A to B, the other east and west, C to D. Tliese
trenches were six feet wide, and were begun from the natural ground,
so that the contents of the mound would, I trusted, folly appear.
Nothing, however, was found in the shape of the remains of urns,
weapons, or cists, as in others. A few pieces of broken pottery were
fouod now and then, but nothing worth preserving. Where the
trenches crossed each other the excavation was continued to some
depth, but without success, the moorum being hard and compact, and
had evidently never been disturbed. The trenches ultimately gave
sufficient clue to the object and construction of the tumulus ; for layer
after layer of ashes, partially burnt bones, and bits of charcoal, and
earth and sand burned or run into slag, as it were by the action of fire,
proved that successive cremations had taken place in great numbers,
down to the floor of the ground. It was evident that as a body was
burned, the spot had been covered over with soft greyish earth, — pandri
mutti, — and the tumulus had risen by a succession of these layers,
which were in some places five and six in number, all of the same
character.
It is possible, therefore, that this spot was the place where all the
dead of the tribe were burned ; that their ashes were collected in part,
and removed to be buried in cairns, as at Chik&nh^ ; and that when
the tribe migrated the tumulus was completed, and finally sealed and
secured by its circle of stones on the slopes as I have described ; or it
may have been, that on the death of a great chief many persons were
sacrificed, their bodies burned, and the tumulus constructed at once.
The great number of indications of one body having been burned on
each spot, and the successive layers of fresh earth and ashes, with
burned earth and slag, incline me more to the former supposition than
the latter ; and, as far as I could ascertiun from the trenches, which
laid bare the whole of the interior by sections of nine feet deep at the
crest of the mound, and six broad, there seemed to be no portion of it,
including the slopes, which were free from the indications I have already
noticed. It is evident, not only from the labour bestowed upon the
tumulus, but from the remains at Vaib&thilli, Rakh&mgira, and Shahpur,
all on the east side of the hills, as well as those on the north, that there
must have been a large encampment or settlement of these people
about Shahpur. I have looked in vain, however, for any traces of an*
cient walls, or indications of habitations, if I may except at^ doubtfui
spot, not far from the rock which had circles of stones round it, and
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1863.] AT UEUl AND HANDBWALU. 397
wtdA nhowB Bome traces of old walls, as well as small pieces of red
grazed pottery. Tlie Shahpnr range is a mass of granite, 700 to 1,000
feet high ahore the plain, intersected by deep ravines, and yery rocky.
I thought it probable, perhaps, that cairns or cromlechs might be found
on the summit plateau, which is some miles in extent ; but the parties
I sent could find nothing, and I was not able to examine the hills
myself. I am not aware that there are any other remains in the vicinity
of Shahpur but those I hsuve described.
PLAN X.— ROCKS AND CAIRNS AT IJERI.
A group of trap rocks, which have been placed in the same manner^
and apparently with the same intention, as those near Shahpur, lies
upon a rising ground about a mile west of the village of Ij^ri, of
the Nellugi talook. A few rocks are wanting to complete the
squares, but the arrangement is obviously regular, and some of the rocks
are of large size, — ^eight to ten feet long, four to six feet broad, and three
to four feet thick, — and, from the nature of the stone, very heavy. The
rocks have been brought a mile and a half or two miles, from the
ravines to the north or west. There are two cairns among this group,
eadi occupying the area of a square, but they did not appear
of sufficient consequence to have opened. South-west of the same
village, about half a mOe on the road to B&lbatti, there are three
other cairns, one of large size, of which the circle of stones is double ;
the other two are of smaller dimensions, and have only single circles.
The village of Ij^ri is situated about eighteen miles to the NW. of
Shahpur. I have not been able to discover any of these or other
Drnidic antiquities in the intermediate line of villages, nor in any of
those immediately around it ; but it is evident that there was an
encampment here, and, as the ravines abound with grass and water»
large herds of cattle would have found ample sustenance.
PLAN XI. — CAIRNS AT MANDEWALLI.
This village belongs to the same talook as the preceding, and is
situated about the centre of it, about twelve miles N W. from Ij^ri. In
the month of February of the present year, as I was travelling from
Almella, in the British territory, to Ij^ri, I passed these remarkable
remains, which are situated about a mile NW. of M&ndewalli, on the
Jeritgi road, on a rising ground of hard moorum and rock, covered with
large trap rocks. Among these the four principal platforms are very
distinct, ai:^ have been constructed with immense labour and patience.
They consist of double and treble rows of large rocks, joining each
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398 SCYTHO-DRUIDICAL REMAINS IN SORAPUR. [JaN*
other, surrounded by a square of rocks of similar size, the intenrab
being filled up with smaller rocks, placed so as to touch each other in
most instances, and forming a complete and almost impenetrable covering
to the ground beneath, which rises to the apex of the cairn, where
from four to six rocks have been placed tc^ther as a seal to the whole.
Part of the largest cairn is incomplete, the cultivation having gradually
encroached upon it, and the rocks being scattered about. Between the
three large platforms and the single one to the north there are two
small cairns, no way remarkable, and to the right of the road to
M&ndewalli six other cairns in a group, on an open gravelly spot.
These present no particular features for remark, and seem in every
respect the same as those noticed in other places. I did not halt at
M&ndewalli, but as soon as possible sent a party of men with a
Karkoon to open one of these remarkable cairns ; but they returned
in a few days, saying that it was impossible to remove the masses of
rock, which, one over the other, were tightly jammed together. A few
pieces of pottery were found, broken urns, which showed the platforms
to be true cairns ; but whether pertaining to a tribe which buried or
burned its dead, complete investigation could alone determine. It is
probable that other cairns may be found on the lands of this village, and
in the purgunna, particularly on the slopes of, and among the grassy
ravines which descend from the high land about Ij^ri and other
villages on the plateau, and I purpose, if possible, to renew my exami-
nation this year.
PLAN XII. — cairns at JIWARGI.
I now return to the village, the remains at which were the subject of
my first communication to the Society. The plan sent will give an
exact idea of the situation of the cairns, and their number, the whole
having been carefully surveyed by me, and Sketch No. 7 of the
general appearance of the ground. There are 268 cairns in all, small
and large : the plan distinguishes those which have single and double
rows of stones round them, as well as those which I have opened, and
those which, composed of slabs of limestone placed parallel to each
other, are, as it were, square or oblong open cists, and in which, except
a few potsherds, every remnant of former deposit seems to have
disappeared. To the south of the cairns, near the bank of the
Jiwargi nulla, are the evident remains of a small village ; foundations
of walls built of stones and mud ; heaps of mounds ; and in every
direction portions, small and large, of the same red glazed pottery as is
dug out of the cairns, are lying about, as also in a field adjoining,
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1863.] CAIRN8 AT JIWAROI. 399
where they are turned up by the plough. I cannot, therefore, refuse
to consider that this may have been the Scythic village whose in-
habitants were, perhaps, with others from surroundmg camps, buried
in the cairns ; without, indeed, it was merely the place where pottery
was made, and which may have required roofed houses for drying and
manufacture. It would be desirable to have trenches dug through
some of the ruined mounds ; and should I visit Ji^^gi this year, I will
endeavour to have this done.
In April and May I was so severely indisposed that I could not
effect so much as I wished in the way of examination of cairns ; but in
all four large ones were opened, and several smaller cists, square and
oblong, and I proceed to detail what appears most remarkable in the
examination.
In one of the large cairns there were two regular cists, or stone
coffins, one of which, on the east side, contained one skeleton, the other,
on the west side, two, of which one skull only was in the cist. The
whole of these skeletons were perfect enough to have shown the mis-
sing skull if it had been placed anywhere in the cist, or had been on
the body ; and one of the two skeletons in the west cist had a head ;
the other had two of the neck vertebrae attached to the spine, which
may favour the supposition that the body — apparently that of a woman,
from the smallness of the bones— had been beheaded. Above the cist,
and met with as the excavation continued from above, were distinct
remains of four other bodies and skulls, with smaller bones, and portions
of a few skulls of children. The remains of the bodies were by no
means regularly disposed ; indeed, from the positions of the bones, they
seemed to have been pitched into the grave at random, one over another.
None of the skulls were found attached to the bodies, or in the places
they ought to have occupied in the earth if the bodies had been interred
whole, but were found confusedly here and there, without any reference
to the skeletons. This cairn contained comparatively few urns or pots,
and no remnants of weapons could be found, beyond a few undistin-
guishable portions of iron, completely corroded. The most perfect
skeleton in the cist to the east was five feet two inches long, and was
that of a male adult ; the others did not appear to me to be as much as
five feet, but they were so confused that I could not make any satis-
factory measurements.
The other large cairn, which indeed is a considerable tumulus, near
the centre of the group, was of the usual depth, — that is eleven feet from
the crest of the mound, — and contained a large cist four feet ten inches
long inside, by three feet broad, and was formed into two divisions by a
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slab of Umestone, lengthways ; the divisions being, respectively, to the
east two feet broad, and to the west one foot There were two skeletons
in the larger portion of the dst, laid over each other, the upper one
fact dowMoard9i the other and lower one on ita side, the heads of which
were properly attached to the spine ; but on the top of these heads, and
so discovered before the bodies below, a sknll was placed upright in
the middle by itself, with vertebrse attached it. This skull was nearly
whole when got out, but the dry hot vnnds caused it to crumble away
almost entirely in the course of the day, which I much r^;retted. The
cover of this cist was nearly perfect, only one slab, towards the feet of
the skeletons, having fallen in, so that it is impossible that any skaU
could have fallen down through the earth to the bodies below. In the
dst, therefore, were two skeletons, placed as I have described, with an
txtra skull, evidently placed where it was found after the bodies had
been deposited. The portion of the cist one foot broad contained
nms and pots filled vnth earth only, some of which-^the small ones
inside larger ones— were very perfect. Of the large ones none came
out entire, and the remains of an iron knife and a spear-head were
among the urns, some of which, with the spear-head, were sent to the
Society.
Now the excavation had been most carefully carried down in my
presence after the first bones were met vrith, for I wished much to have
further proof that persons had been beheaded and interred —in other
words that human sacrifices had been made. From time to time bones
were met vrith, but very irregularly, and much decayed. Two skolls
were found, but not with other bones, nor with spinal vertebrae. It
was impossible to judge exactly how many bodies were interred there,
but I should think five or six adults, independent of those in the cist
that I have now to make more particular mention of. The whole
of the upper earth had been taken up as far as the covering slabs of
the cist, and thrown out of the grave, except a portion over the
head of the cist. On breaking into this, bones were found, and the
earth then carefully picked away from them. Tracing and exposing
them, the result was the disclosure of a skeleton lying transversely,
that is east and west, on the lid of cist, and lying upon it. The
body was headless ; but after a little more search the skull, at the
time nearly perfect, was found, as it had evidently been placed, in the
centre of the body, and resting upon the pelvic bones. The skull was
upright, and looked to the south. It was so entire that I wished to
take it to my tent to draw it at leisure, but on attempting Tery gently
to remove it, it fell to pieces in my hands.
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1853.] ON THE LANDS OF ANDOLA. 401
I was too ill when the other two cairns were opened to examine
their contents as I had done these, hat my people, now accustomed to
ohsenre, told me that on the floor of one cairn (it had no cist) there were
three skeletons, lying north and south, and four skulls, and that hones
had heen met with confusedly, as the digging descended, with portions
of skulb ; and that there were only a few pots, none of which came
out whole. In the other, also without a cist, there was only one
skeleton on the floor of the grave, with a few pots to the west of it, at
the usual depth ; and that very few hones, and only one skull, had
heen met with as the excayation proceeded.
I have hefore stated that none of the open cists yielded anything,
though one was exceedingly promising in appearance. It was
composed of four large slahs of limestone let into the earth to within a
foot of the surface ; in fact, not unlike a large cromlech or kistvaen, let
down till nearly covered, hut without a top. The sides were eight feet
six inches long hy five feet eight inches hroad ; the ends five feet hroad
by five feet six inches high. The interior contained nothing whatever
that could be distinguished, beyond a few broken potsherds, and some
much decayed pieces of bone. None of the smaller dsts, of which
several were examined, yielded anything. In all these cairns precisely
the same method of construction as described in my last communica-
tion was found to exist ; \sty the circle of stones ; 2nd, the tumulus
within them, composed of loose stones and earth ; 3rd, the entrance
stones, laid N£. and SW. Then, on digging down from the entrance
stones, the two other large slabs were found, leading to the foot of the
dst ; next, the cist, at a depth of from eleven to fourteen feet from the
surface, and eight to ten feet from the bottom of the upper entrance
stones, the body of the grave being filled with fine earth, without stones.
No one passing from the Bhima at Ferozabad to Jiwiirgi by the high
road can possibly miss this interesting group of remains ; and it is well
worth the while of any traveller to turn aside from the road to examine
the spot. It is easily found by an old Mahomedan tomb and a single
tree by which the road passes, and on the left of the road as you go to
Jiw&rgi, and opposite to the tomb, are black trap circles of large
stones, which are the cairns.
PLAN XIII. — CAIRNS ON THE LANDS OF ANDOLA.
I had discovered this group of cairns the year before, but had not
been able to examine any of them. They occupy a small elevation
immediately to the right of the road leading from Ch&rmur to
And61a, about half way distant, or a mile and a half from each village.
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Thej are about five miles SB. of the Jiw&rgi cemetery. The eleratioa
they are upon is waste, and is composed of limestone shale, harder than
that at Jiw&rgi, slightly covered with dark coloured earth. In all
there are forty cairns and cists distinguishable, but the yiUagers in-
formed me that the ground had been formerly cultivated in parts,
and it is probable some of the smaller cairns may have been obliterated,
especially on the ground to the W. and NW., which is softer, and the
soil deeper than that on the crest of the ridge. In appearance these
cairns are precisely the same as those at Jiw&rgi, the circles of stones,
double and single, being carefully placed, with the entrance stones in
several above the ground : one cist, of slabs of limestone let inta the
earth, is eight feet long by four wide ; the rest are smaller, and appear
to be graves of children. I had two of these cairns opened with
considerable labour and trouble, for the surface stones and portions of
shale had become so hard, that it was with great difficulty that the
workmen could break through them with the pickaxe. Those selected
were the largest of the main group on the summit of the ridge, and
were eighteen feet in diameter inside the circles of stones, had large
entrance stones, and were in every respect complete and undisturbed.
I give in Plan xiv. sections of both of these graves.
No. I was the first opened at the entrance stones. As the excava-
tion proceeded, a great quantity of bones, large and small, were found
in the softer earth below the upper concrete, and several portions of
skulb. I was present at part of this examination, and nothing could
have been more confused than the appearance of the bones lying in
all possible directions. For the most part they were harder, and in
better preservation than the bones usually {ound, but very brittle ; and
as there was no apparent guide from their positions to the positions
of the skeletons, there were none found as perfect as I could hs? e
wished. I observed, however, here, as at Jiw&rgi, that there was no
apparent relation of the skulls when found to the bones of the skeletons,
except m one instance, where the bones led to the position of the skull,
and the body had evidently been laid down in the proper line of the
cist : this was immediately over the cist, and resting upon it. Above this,
some skulls were found towards the foot of the grave, to the S W., others
in the opposite direction, among the earth ; but with the exception of
the one I have mentioned above, not one in connection with the skeleton
bones. Remains of eight skulls were found in this portion of the
grave. The dst of this cairn was very perfect, and ky £N£. and
WSW. by compass, and was made of slabs of limestone, five placed
transversely as a fioor, neatly joined with single slabs for sides 5 feet
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1853.] ON THE LANDS OF ANDOLA. 403
6 inches long, and 1 foot 9 inches high. The slabs are 2 inches
thick. The head and foot slabs were 6 feet long by 1 foot 9 inches high,
and the whole was divided into two equal portions or cists 3 feet wide.
The covering slabs were all perfect, except one at the foot, which had
broken and fallen in. On removing these the cists were found to
contain two skeletons each, those to the east being of a larger size
than any I had yet seen, and fully filling the cist : they had been laid as
nearly as possible one over another, and were apparently perfect.
Those on the west side were smaller and more decayed, but the skulls
were in their proper places : from the smallness of the bones I supposed
them to be of women. Again, to the west of the cist, and between it
and the natural wall or side of the grave, were many remains of human
bones, for the most part small and delicate, apparently those of
children, with several remains of their skulls ; but it was impossible,
from the decay of all, to trace the skulls to the skeletons. A few pots
were found at the head and on the west side of the cist, large and small,
and some perfect, but in nowise different from those of the Jiwiirgi
cairns, either in shape or colour.
Cairn No. 2 (vide plan) was eighteen feet broad inside the circle.
The excavation proceeded as in the one preceding, but an attack of fever
prevented my seeing it. My people, however, reported it to be
exactly similar to the preceding one ; that bones were found lying in
ail directions, some transversely, some diagonally, and some direct, with
portions of skulls here and there confusedly. The remains of five
skulls, with portions of leg, thigh, and arm bones, and some vertebrse,
were brought to me, but all broken in removal.
I had directed the cist to be reserved for my own inspection, and as
soon as I could, went to see it. I found it entirely perfect, none of
the cover having fallen in. On removing the upper slabs, the cist
appeared divided into two portions; the one to the east being
5 feet 6 inches long, by 2 feet 2 inches broad. The other to the
west was 1 foot 2 inches broad by 5 feet 6 inches long, and
there were slabs for the floor. In the eastern, or larger cist, was
one skeleton only, which was very distinctly traceable from the feet
upwards, the smaller boDCS being distinguishable, though they crumbled
immediately, as also the pelvic bones and vertebrae. I trusted, there-
fore, to find the skull at least perfect, and attached to the skeleton, but
to my surprise, on reaching it, I found it separate from the body, and
lying with the face to the NE. comer of the dst, and the top of the
cranium to the SW. part of the skull rested upon the bone and
shoulder of the left arm. It is not very possible that the head could
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hare got into the position it was by the bodj haying been interred upon
its belly, which I have found the case in some instances, though not
many, as then the jaws would have been towards the body ; whereas
the whole was entirely reversed, and must have been placed separate
from the body. The plan of the cist (No. 17) gives the exact position
of the head as it lay, and Sketch No. 8 its size and shape, traced without
removing it. The measurements round the head were as follows : —
From feet of skeleton to SW. side of skull or top of cranium. 3 feet 6 in.
From head stone inside to N£. side of jaws and neck 1 „ 7 »,
From face to west side of dst or middle slab 1 ,» 1 „
From back of skull to east slab 0 „ 5 „
Some urns and pots were found, as usual, upon the west side of the
cist, most of which were broken in removal, and a few pieces of iron much
decayed. On a small shelf, however, of the side of the cairn, in a
hollow which had been made for it, an urn in perfect preservation
was found, which contained no earth, and only some light dust, with
some bones, very white and delicate, which I conjectured to be those of
a mungoose. These, with other bones, were sent by me to Dr. Carter,
the Secretary of the Society, with some specimens of pottery found in
the cairns. He informed me, in acknowledgment of the several articles,
that the small bones were those of a guana, and that a portion of the
jawbone of a canine animal, probably a dog, had been found with the
other bones. This was the only instance in which I had met with
such remains, and the pot or urn in which they had been placed had
evidently been put aside with care. I had purposed to open another of
these cairns, — that on the crest of the rise near the small nulla, which is
perfect, and had double rows of circle stones, — but I was obliged to leave
Jiw&rgi from continued illness, and the work was not commenced.
Enough, however, in relation to my former communication, has,
perhaps, been stated, to show the contents and construction of these
very ancient graves, and to establish their identity with other Celtio-
Scythian graves and cairns elsewhere examined in India, as well as in
Europe. Nor can there, I think, be any room to doubt that human
sacrifices, as I ventured to surest in my last paper, in reference to the
position of the skull, which was then described as found by itself
among the urns at the head of a cist, took place to a considerable
extent when a body or bodies were buried. The positions of
skeletons without heads, lying in all directions, as if confusedly flung
into the graves ; the positions of skulls found without reference to
skeletons ; the very remarl^able instances in the Jiw&rgi cairns of a
skull being found inside a perfect cist placed upright between those
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1853.] ON THE LANDS OF ANDOLA. 40&
id two skeletons ; and of a skeleton being found lying transversely
across the cover of the cist withoat a skull, the skull itself having
been placed upright, and upon the middle or pelvic bones, with the face
to the south — ^all serve to impress me with the conviction that the
bodies so found were those of human victims. Whether the skeletons
decapitated were those of women or men, I regret I have not
sufficient anatomical knowledge to determine. Captain Congreve, in
bis most valuable article, quoting from Herodotus in Melpomene, re*
counting the funeral of a Scythian king, states that ** after the body
has been transported through the various provinces of the kingdom,
it is placed on a couch set round by spears. His concubines are then
sacrificed, and a mound of earth is raised over the king and his
women."* Other works upon this subject might probably afford
details of Scythic or Celto-Druidic customs in this respect, and of
human sacrifices, probably of both men and women, slaves, captives,
and concubines ; but I regret I have none to refer to. Captain Congreve
mentions, however, the sacrifice of children by the Scythians, and'
Thautawars of the Nilgherris ; and in these cairns the bones of children
are found with the others interred in the graves, while in some they have
been burned and placed in urns. May we suppose, therefore, that chil-
dren, as well as men and women, were sacrificed in funeral ceremonies ?
In respect of the funeral urns or pottery, the forms of those which
I have recovered here are simpler, probably from their greater
antiquity, than those found on the Nilgherris, and are generally or for
the most part without ornament. The material appears to be the
same. I have no work to refer to by me in which I could compare
the shapes of the urns and cups found here with those of Europe ; but
I see that they are in some instances identical with several given in a
description of the "Kodey Kulls or Pandoo Koolies," at Chataperambah,
on the Beypoor river, in Malabar, by J. Babington, Esq., {Transac-
tions of the Literary Society of Bombay, vol. iii. 1820 ;) and that the
iron instruments— an iron tripod, a spoon lamp, spear-heads, &c. are also
identical with others found here in cairns, not of precisely the same
construction, but agreeing in general principles.
At the village of Kolur, of the And6la talook, about four miles
due north of JiwJirgi, there are the remains of six large cairns on an
elevation near the bank of the river Bhima, which are surrounded by
single and double circles of trap rocks, like those at Jiw&rgi. They are
in one line north and south, at the interval of a few yards from each
* Vide eztrtct from Rollin's Ancient History at conclusion.
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406 8CYTH0-DRUIDICAL REMAINS IN 80RAPUR. [JaK.
other, and, being of the same constraction, present no particnlar features
for remark. I was not able to have any of these opened. These are
the last cairns I had found to the northwards, and though I had
made repeated inquiries from the native authorities of the Grulbui^ah
district, I have not been able to discover any Scythic remains north of
the Bhima in this direction.
CHAPTER 11.
Having detailed all the remains I have as yet found in the Sorapiir
district, I now pass to notices of such remains in other districts, which
have been kindly supplied to me by friends who have observed them.
The first are from the letters of the Bevd. G. Keis, Grerman Missionaiy
at Bettigherri, in the Dharwar Collectorate, to whom I showed some
of the Sorapiir remains, cromlechs as well as cairns, and who thus
became familiar with their appearance.
PLAN XIY. — CROMLECHS, &C. NEAR K086I.
The town of Kosgi is situated about nine miles south of the
Tungbhuddra, and eighteen miles north of Adwani, in the Bellary
Collectorate. The cromlechs lie in a comer formed by three hills,
joining each other about one mile south of the town. Nos. 1 and 2
are closed erections (kistvaen) ; No. 1 has a circular opening in the
southern slab, as also has No. 2. The dimensions of the interior are
in both instances 6 feet high, 5 feet long, and 4 to 4^^ feet broad. Both
erections stand on the solid rock, without any covering of earth upon
them. No. 2 has a pavement slab, 4\ feet long and 3| feet broad, so
that an empty space of 6 inches broad remains on the eastern and
northern sides, filled up with fragments of stone and rubbish. This I
searched all through, but could find nothing, except small fragments of
red and black pottery, a small piece of kindled wood, and a piece of
bone, apparently of the skull of an animal, and not burned. No. 3 opens
to the south, is of somewhat larger dimensions, and stands also on the
solid naked rock. I searched in vain for anything in it.
No. 4 is a smaller erection, more than half buried in the earth. Its
dimensions within are 3 feet from north to south, 3^^ feet broad from
west to east, and 4 feet high. The southern slab is not pressed by the
side slabs, nor by the covering slab, so that it could easily be taken out
if the earth were removed. The inner space was filled up with
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earth, of which the upper third, that is so much as is ahove the ground
surrounding the erection, seems to have been filled up by ants. I
could not see any remains of pottery, or indeed of anything what-
erer. There are a number of similar erections round No. 4. Some of
them have still the covering slab on them, and others not. As a
characteristic distinction of these erections it appeared to me that the
nde-slabs are much thinner than those of Numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 ; that
two-thirds of them are buried in the ground, but they always present
the form <
u and never
and that their greatest
8
dimensions are not from one cross-slab to the other, as in Nos. 1, 2, 3,
but from one side-slab to the other.
No. 5 are remains of erections similar to Nos. 1, 2, 3, tumbled to
pieces. It does not appear to me that any of them ever contained any-
thing. No. 6 are s^pnents of single and double circular rows of stones, of
which the uppermost parts appear above the ground. It seemed to
me as if the different segments were not the fragments of one large
circle, but of several smaller ones. The space within these circles, and
around and along No. 4, and the fragments about it, is the only spot
where the sohd rock has a covering of earth, which in the middle may
be 5 to 6 feet in thickness.
The hypothesis which suggested itself to me in consideration of the
actual observation on the spot was, that Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 5, were small
houses of a nomadic tribe, whibt Nos. 4 and 6 were their burying-places —
No. 4, one-third above the ground, because it was not deep enough, and
No. 6, in the midst of those circles of tombs similar to No. 4, all
covered with earth where it was deep enough.
PLAN XY.^CROMLECHS NEAR YEMMI GUDA.
From H&mpi, (Beejanu^er) I crossed the Tungbhuddra opposite
Anagundi, from which place I went in the direction of Temmi
Guda (the hill of the bulfoloes), and arrived that evening at Mallapur,
about four miles north, or rather NNW. from Anagundi. I asked the
Patel for the '' dwarf houses'' at or near Temmi Guda : he told me
that there was a whole village of them on the top of a high hill just
midway between Mallapur and Temmi Guda, that is about four
miles north of Mallapur, and four to five miles SB. firom Temmi
Guda ; and that he had heard of dwarf houses in the immediate
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neigbboturhood of the latter place, while the dwarf houaes were known
to all the neighbouring villages. So I concluded this to be the settle-
ment of which you were told by the Kanacgiri man. Next morning
I went with the Patel and some other persons, and, after a good deal of
strolling about, we succeeded in finding the dwarf Tillage, and I
refer you to the sketch and description.
Near Mallapur itself, on the side of the yalley, is another settlement.
The remains of some twenty to thirty erections and graves are to be seen,
but none of them preserved wholly. Of a third settlement, with a number
of erections still standing, I heard, on the right bank of the Tung-
bhuddra, about five miles SW. from Anagundi. I have now not the
least doubt, that if properly searched, such settlements would be
found scattered here and there over the whole of the Deccan and
Southern India in all the hilly parts ; and equally certain it appears
to me, after having seen the settlements at Kosgi and Temmi Guda,
that the large erections, open and closed, were houses, and not tombs ;
but that the tombs are separate from them, and differ in size and
structure from the houses. I only beg you to re-examine the settle-
ment at Raj^-Kolur after you have read this, in order to find out
whether, on closer examination, it does not agree with my observations
and hypothesis.
Altogether in this place, including those that are stOl standing, and those
that are fallen, the remains may amount to nearly a hundred, and they he
about in the utmost irregularity between the granite rocks. The direction
from north to south predominates, but there are erections in every
direction, as the plan shows, the most part of which was sketched from
actual observation. The circular opening in the middle of one of the
slabs is irregular, and its comers in some of them are as irregularly
situated as possible. Preference seems to have been given to no particular
quarter of the heavens, as the plan shows, in which the dot indicates
the form and direction of the opening, taken by actual observation.
The dimensions of the erections differ considerably : Nos. 1, 2, and 3
were measured. Of No. 1, the side-slabs are 9 feet long, and 6 feet 5
inches high, and the cross-slab 7 feet broad by 9 feet long. No. 2 is also
an open house, almost of the same size. No. 3 is a closed one 8 feet 5
inches long, 8 feet 5 inches high, and 6 feet 5 inches broad. No. 1, as
well as many other erections, closed and open, has a circular wall
round it 2\ feet high, 4 feet broad, and 5 feet distant from the comers
of the erection. All closed erections have a slab for the pavement or
floor, and all are erected on the naked solid rock. In none of them
could I find any remains, as of pottery, &c.
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THE BURYING-GROUND.
On it I measured Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. No. 1 is a triple tomb, 7 feet
long within, and each space between the slabs 3 feet broad, exactly
corresponding with the size of a full-grown body, with some inches
lefl all around. No. 2 measures within 5 feet 5 inches long, and each
of the spaces 2 feet broad. No. 3 is evidently the tomb of a child,
3 feet long, and 1 foot broad. No. 4 a double tomb, 6 feet 5 inches
long, and 2 feet broad each. No. 5 a double tomb, 7 feet long, and
2 feet broad. Both spaces are covered by one large slab. On No. 1
are two separate slabs. I saw no circular sepulchral cairns like those
in the SorapAr country.
The whole settlement lies on the top of a granite hill about 500 to
600 feet high, and is situated on a kind of saddle between two heights.
Granite blocks and large fragments He scattered abroad over the whole
of the settlement. The houses he on a gentle slope, on the southern
or south-eastern side of which a small tank is to be seen, that is a
collection of water in a natural hollow of the rock. To the north of the
place below the slope, on a level spot covered with sandy soil, and
overgrown with grass and bushes, lies what I consider to be the burying-
place.
The Yemmi Guda cromlechs are all of granite. The soHd rock is of
such a structure that the uppermost strata may be easily lifled up by
a lever. In one instance I discovered a line of little holes made in the
rock by a small chisel, just in the same way as the Waddiwars do at the
present day, only that the instrument was much smaller than those now
used by them. This was the only trace of instruments I could discover.
It is not improbable that these tribes may have used fire for the purpose
of raising the necessary granite slabs, and for the erection of them
they had certainly some simple mechanical apparatus. Mr. Leonberger
told me of a case in which one of his relatives in a village near Stuttgardt,
in Wurtemberg, discovered a similar stone grave about ten feet below
the surface on a small hill. Mr. Leonberger's description of it corres-
ponds as nearly as possible with your description of those tombs at
Jiw^gi : the skulls also seem to have been distinguished by the same
pecuHarities ; for the villagers talked for many years of the enormous
and curiously-shaped teeth they found in that grave. Beside the
skeleton of a full-grown person, there were two smaller ones buried in it.
I have forgotten to state two observations, viz. that on the
SE. corner of this cromlech settlement the tank naturally formed
in the solid granite rock has the appearance of a well, and is from six to
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410 8CYTB0-DRUIDICAL REMAINS. [JaN.
eight feet deep. I mention this hecause it is striking that all the settle-
ments have water near to them, which seems to me in favour of the
theory that the large erections ahove the ground had been used as
habitations, and not as tombs, or depositories of urns with human ashes,
for which no doubt the lower and half-buried erections were used. The
second point which I forgot to state is, that in some parts of the path
by which we descended from the hill through the jungle on the southern
side towards Mallapur, there were rows of flat stones to be seen laid
down in the water-courses, so as to form an ascending path over them up
to £he settlement. I have no doubt that the occupiers of the settlement
laid down these stones, for no other persons could have had any
interest to do so in the midst of these jungles. As there is another
small settlement down in the valley on the SW. side of Mallapur, it
appears that the path between the two places was much frequented,
which circumstance would again favour my theory that the large
erections on the solid rock were used as habitations, whilst the lower
smaU sandy plain was used as a burying-ground, in which unmistakeable
tombs are to be seen.
When I was at Guli Guda, talook Badami, I found a cairn and
three cromlechs or kistvaens of the smaller size, 2\ by 3 feet, half
buried in the ground. This settlement is close under a tank, and I
have no doubt parts of it may have been covered by the bund. When I
was at Dharwar Mr. Young, one of the Assistant Surveyors, told me he
found a large settlement near the village of Giwalli, two koss east of
Guli Guda. I shall not fail to visit it on my return, and to give
you an account of it. — {Extracts from the letters of the Revd. G. Keis,)
REMARKS ON MR. KEIS' OBSERVATIONS.
As far as the Raj&n-Kolur and H&gg&ritgi remains are concerned,
I cannot agree with Mr. Keis* hypothesis that the erections were
houses. No open cromlechs exist at H&g^uritgi ; all are closed
kistvaens, both at the sides and top, and so closely that it would have been
impossible for anything larger than a rat or a lizard to have got inside.
Those opened had been deeply let into the earth, and it required a
great deal of labour to throw down one of the side-slabs, so as to expose
the interior. The contents I have already described as agreeing with
those noted by Captain Congreve. All the kistvaens have not the
circular aperture ; nor where it exists is it in any case large enough for
any human being except a mere child to pass through it. None of
these, therefore, by any possibility, could have been dwelling-houses
of full-grown adults ; for we see by the skeleton^, that though
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these people were not tall, yet they were thick-set and stout, and the
idea of anything but the largest cromlech containing a family is not
tenable.
At Raj&n-Kolur there are a few cromlechs open to the south, but
by far the greater number of the erections are kistyaens closely put
together, and all that I opened, whether with holes in the side, or without,
contained the same urns full of charcoal, earth, burnt bones, and
ashes, as at H&gg&ritgi. Many of these are upon the solid rock, and
others where the soil is a few inches only in depth ; but in these instances
earth had evidently been filled in. What the precise intention or use
of the cromlechs was seems to have puzzled many learned antiquaries,
and many theories have been advanced on the subject. My own
impression is, that they were temples in which the sacred fire was kept
burning, and where ceremonies for the dead — perhaps sacrifices — were
performed. They have no appearance, beyond their construction, of
dwelling-houses, and even the largest of them at Ri^&n-Kolur, — nearly
as large as any yet discovered in the world, — would afford very short
and scanty room for a family.
The circles of stones or walls round the cromlechs mark, even more
strongly than in the others, their Druidical character. Captain Congreve
states that " at Ter Dryn, in Anglesea, are also reUcs of a circle of
stones, with the cromlech in the nuddle, but all are imperfect.^' And
other instances are given of " temples with walb of rough stone about
them," not only on the Nilgherris, but in Wales, Anglesea, Dorset-
shire, &c.
Of the character of the remains at Yemmi Guda I have no doubt :
the only remarkable point about them is that so many should be
empty. Closer examination might help, perhaps, to correct this im-
pression as to all, and perhaps also to show that the tombs in the
sandy plain below the cromlechs were those of the tribe, or portion
of the tribe, which buried the dead ; though, from the fieu;t of there
being tops to some cists, this may be doubted ; and that the whole
belong to the same tribe at different periods. I much regret that
Yemmi Guda is too distant from my district to enable me to pay a
visit to this remarkable place, which is evidently worth minuter
examination than Mr. Keis had leisure to bestow upon it. The
situation of the remains on the summit of a high hill suggests that it
may have been one of the fortified camps of these tribes, and it is not
improbable that traces of circumvallation or entrenchment might be
discovered among the jungles, or on the tops of the hills. Yemmi
Guda is situated in H. H. the Nizam's Territory^ in the talook of
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412 SCTTHO-DRDIDICAL REMAINS. [JaN.
Kanacgiri» and would be easily accessible from Dharwar or Bellary.
It is evident to me that many remains not yet known exist in the Dooab
between the Krishna and the Tungbhuddra ; and if the Scythic tribes
spread along the Upper 6h4ts, — ^which I conjecture to have been the
place in the first instance of their irruption, — these remains, and those
which exist in the Sorapiir country, which I have traced as far as the
Bhima, are evidences of the journeys and locations of the tribes to the
•astwards, in the direction of the centre of the peninsula, where it will
be seen they abound.
That the Bellary district has many there can be no doubt, from the
subjoined list kindly supplied by Mr. Pelly, Collector of Bellary, who,
at my request, collected reports from the Tehseldars of the CoUectorate.
I expected, as a link between the Southern Dekhan and the Nilgherris,
that the Bellary district, and perhaps Mysore, would afford evidences of
the residence of Scythic tribes, but I was hardly prepared to find that
so many existed as are detailed in Mr. Felly's list, which amount in all
to 2, 1 29. All these he to the south and south-east of Bellary, and from
what Mr. Keis has stated, I am of opinion that others may be found to
the NW., and perhaps west also of Bellary. The remains appear to
consist principally of cromlechs, kistvaens, and open cists ; and it is
probable, in regard to the latter, as remarked of the remains at Dhavah-
doola-conda, that the top-slabs may have been removed by villagers
for their houses. Those at Mudheg^lar, which are the most
numerous, are evidently kistvaens, or closed cromlechs, having four
side-slabs, and one as a cover, one of the sides having an aperture in the
centre. None, or but few, of these erections appear to have been
examined by the Tehseldars, which is to be regretted, though there
can be no doubt, agreeing in form and construction as they do with
those in Sorap(br and elsewhere, that funeral urns would have been
found in them. Of the whole, 73 are returned as having walls round
them, probably as some at Yemmi Guda, but there is no mention
of cairns existing separately from the erections, nor are any
measurements recorded. In regard to the whole, there is the same
tradition as exists here, in Great Britain, France, &c., that the erec-
tions were constructed by dwarfs, and the same name, " Mohorie " or
" Mora," agrees with that of these districts. The term " Gujari" is
new to me, but appears to have the same local signification as the
other.
I was in hopes that some considerable remains might have been
discovered in the Dharwar and Belgaum Collectorates ; but with the
exception of those noted by Mr. Keis at Giwalli, in the Badami talook
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1863.] IN THE VICINITY OF HYDBRADAD (DBKHAN). 413
of Dharwar, I have heard of no others. It is not improbable, however,
that direct communications may have been made to Grovemment on the
subject by the Collectors, in pursuance of the circular issued.
REMAINS IN THE VICINITY OF HYDERABAD (dEKHAN).
From what I had heard from the late Dr. Walker, whose curiosity
and interest had been excited by what he saw of the Druidical remains
of this district, I supposed that several groups of cairns were to be met
with in the vicinity of Hyderabad ; but it was not until I had engaged
the co-operation of two zealous friends there that I was able to ascer-
tain any particulars of them. They prove to be entirely cairns, and in
far larger numbers than I had any conception of, or than exist in the
Sorapiir country. I have not been able to obtain plans or surveys of
the localities as I wished, nor even to have an account of the numbers
of the cairns in each, but am enabled by my friends Dr. Bell and
Captain Doria, to give some interesting particulars of cairns that have
been opened by them, and of their contents.
Ut. — The cantonment of Secunderabad is six miles north of the city
of Hyderabad. At the western extremity of it, beyond the horse artil-
lery lines, and those of a regiment of native infantry which adjoin them,
there is a large field of cairns on the slope of a rocky hiU, leading down
to the Hassain Sagor Tank. These are described to be of single and
double circles of stones ; the cairns to be placed irregularly as to posi-
tion— that is, not in lines or rows ; and of all sizes, from 12 to 24 feet in
diameter ; the area enclosed in the circle-stones being heaped up with
small stones and earth, forming a small tumulus. There are no
cromlechs or kistvaens. I am not aware that any of these have been
opened ; at least I have no particulars of any.
2nd. — Near the hill or rock of Moul Ali, about four or five miles
NE. of Secunderabad, and in an open elevated plain, part of which forms
the Hyderabad race-course, there is another large field of cairns, con-
taining, I understand, some hundreds similar to those noted above.
Some of these have been opened, and I subjoin an account of two
received from Dr. Bell : —
" We have again been at what calls the sinful occupation
of digging up men's bones, and with some success ; as in one or two
respects the cairns are different from those at Narkailpalli, although
not materially so. Hampton and I opened two at Moul Ali, where
they are in plenty. The same arrangement of the parallelogram
exists, and the same directions are taken as at NarkailpalU—the long
direction of the graves (N. and S.) ; and the peculiarity consists in the
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414 SCYTHO-DRUIDICAL REMATK8. [JaW.
tops not being covered by granite slabs. In one it was partiallj so,
but in both, the whole interior was filled up with loose stones and
earth, evidently not carelessly thrown in, but placed with care» This
made it tedious work for the cooUes, and destructive work to the
pottery, for scarcely any was got out entire. However, what was
recovered does not diifer in shape from the drawing of that which you
sent me. The hones are all mixed, so that I could trace no position
likely for a body to be placed in."* In one cairn the articles in the ac-
companying sketch (No. 9) were found. The bell is very perfect, and is
copper, with an iron tongue, which is still in situ, and moveable. The
other things I take to be links of a chain. There are several. The size
of the interior of the cairn was nearly the same, 6 feet long, 6 feet 6
inches deep, and 3 feet broad. Both the cairns here and at Narkailpalli
are near trap (greenstone ?) dykes, and at both places the circles are
formed with blocks of granite, and the central pile, of black stones from
the dyke.
3rd. — At a small village about midway between Moul Ali and the
cantonment of Bolarum there is another group of cairns, similar in all
respects to the others, but not so numerous : of these, one or two have
been opened, with similar results to those of Moul Ali.
4th, — The discovery of these groups led to investigations in other
quarters, and Captain Doria, who is employed in the construction and
repair of the high-roads to Masulipatam and Madras, found that the
high-road at Narkailpalli and H&itipamla passed through large
fields of them. Hearing of these. Dr. Bell, in whose division of statis-
tical investigation these villages are situated, visited the spot ; and I
copy his letter to me on the subject : —
" I have just returned from Narkailpalli, and certainly there are
cairns to be seen in abundance : a large patch to the south of the
travellers' bungalow, another to the west, and a third to the south of
the village, the shape of each being a parallelogram ; but I did not
observe that the circles were arranged in diagonal lines or straight ones,
and there were no upright stones to mark the regularity of the position,
as you described to me. The circles described by the stones were so
variable in diameter as to give me the idea that no regular arrange-
ment had been attempted, but the parallelograms extended from east to
west in all. The generality of these cairns have immense quantities
of small stones thrown upon them ; some a few only, and others none ;
and it was one of the latter that I opened. After clearing away the
• This agrees with the confusion observable in the Jiwlb^l and Anddla auras.
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1863,] IN THE VICINITY OF HYDERABAD (dEKHAN). 415
earth to the depth of 2 feet 6 inches, we came upon the covering slabs,
whick were three in number : these were raised, and the size of the
enclosing slabs measured. The side ones were 5 feet 10 inches by 5
feet 4 inches, the end ones 2 feet 4 inches by 5 feet 4 inches, the one
at the bottom 5 feet 10 inches by 2 feet 4 inches. The top was
closed hy three pieces. On clearing away the fallen earth, we came
upon a row of pots at both ends, and in the centre a skeleton, lying
in such a position as to leave no doubt but that the corpse had been
placed upon its belly. A piece of iron was found among the bones of
the left hand. In one of the urns were portions of the bones of a child
calcined ; the rest were empty, or partially filled with earth.
^* This no doubt was a small cairn ; for two others had been opened
hy natives, and the slabs in them (which they were unable to remove)
were double the size I have mentioned, and so also were the diameters
of the superficial circles. This was only 1 6 feet from east to west,
and 18 from north to south. In all three the graves extended north
and south, and my skeleton had its head to the north."
I enclose a sketch of two of the vessels. (Vide Nos. 4 and 5 of Sketch
No. 10.) Dr. Bell subsequently informed me that he had met with
patches of cairns in the Elgundal Sircar, near the Jaghir village of
Telghir, in latitude 18° 35', long. 77^ 16', six mUes from the large
town of Tarapilli : these differ in no. respect from those he had seen
before, and he regrets he had not time to examine them.
Captain Doria, who was encamped on the same spot, made several
excavations at Narkailpalli, and I subjoin his letter on the subject^
dated 12th April 1852, Camp at K&t^gur :—
" I received a few days ago your letter relative to the caums, about
which I shall be glad to give you any and every information in my
power. I opened ten or twelve of them at NarkailpaUi, and other
places, but they were so tremendous in size and depth that it is a work
of some considerable labour.
^* They present themselves in this part of the country in large
masses or numbers, never in any regular figure, but generally along and
around the base of some stony slope or hill, though they do occur on the
open plain and banks of the river. Whether the former positions have
been assumed from the facility of procuring the stones which fill up the
upper part of the mound which caps them, and of the large circles of
stones which encircle them, I know not ; but it is an observation I
have made, that they are always in a stony vicinity. They are innu-
merable about here, amounting to thousands : you can hardly move two
or three miles in any direction, without meeting some of them. From
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416 SCYTHO-DRUIDICAL REMAINS. [JaK.
tbe Musy mer, on both banks, in a SE. direction by AnapOly hill and
NarkailpalU, where they surround the hiU, (800 feet high oo the north
side,) and extend a little to the east ; there are none on the west, and only
a few on the south, but spme hundreds on the north, some very large.
At Haitipamla, and down to Davarconda, they abound. The high
road runs through a regular field of them at Haitipamla ; but, with
the exception of the stony vicinity, I do not see any peculiarity in
their construction or position in regard to one another.
" In size there is a difference, some being of gigantic dimensions,
and composed of blocks of stone, very difficult, nay impossible, to
remove without mechanical assistance, both as to the size of the stones
which compose the outer rings of the tumuli, and also the large slabs
which form the inner cell or tomb wherein the body or bones are
placed. The diameter of some of the large tumuli is from thirty to
forty feet ; others again are much smaller, and on them a much less
amount of labour has been bestowed. The depth of some of the large
ones is very considerable. You first dig through a mound of from
three to five feet deep, out-cropping, and bounded by these immense
circle-stones, and composed within of smaller stones and earth, which
brings you down to the level of the ground about. When you dig
down again some eight or ten feet, you reach the regular tomb, which is
composed of eight immense slabs of gneiss or granite, forming an
enclosure of eight to nine feet long and four to five feet broad, giving
a total depth from the top of the mound to the bottom of sixteen to
twenty feet. In digging through the mass of earth I have invariably
found earthen jars of various shapes, some with covers, some open like
saucers, and others much like the earthren chatties now used by
natives, except that some are beautifully glazed, and something in
shape like these figures, plaped at
the south comers or feet of the
tombs, and about half away be-
tween the slab and the top of the
ground. These jars sometimes ** *"• w >«». lo m.
contain calcined bones, but others are merely full of earth, as if they had
been placed there empty, or filled with something that has decayed,
(I conjecture rice or grain,) and given place to native earth.
" In the cell itself, which is always filled with white-ants' nests, I
have always found more jars similar to the first, and filled, like them,
with burnt bones and earth. I have generally found the skeleton
entire under white-ant earth, but the bones so decomposed that they
have fallen to pieces almost on the slightest touch. The celk are
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Fi.xvn.
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1853.] IN THE VICINITY OP HYDERABAD (DEKHAN). 417
always due north and south, and the skeleton placed in the same direction.
At the head, or north end, I have generally found a piece of iron,
which might have heen a knife or a sword, but abnost rusted away,
and also arrow-heads of the double-barb shape.
In one I found a mass of iron, which must,
when new, have weighed several pounds. I also found round the
neck of a skeleton a charm or ornament, composed of enamel,
and bored through, for suspension I imagine. In some of the
cells an upright stone slab, some two feet high, divides the cell
into two parts, always longitudinally, that is north and south. In
one cell I found a bell of copper, much corroded, about an eighth of
an inch thick, and six inches diameter, which I shall send you with
some of the pottery, and shall be glad to open more cairns for you
if you wish it.
" I do not think myself that these remains are so ancient as people
imagine, but I incline to the opinion that they belong to a wandering
race of people, Nomades, whose only habitations, except their tents or
huts, were those built for the dead ; for people who could build so
well and so substantially for the dead would surely have left some-
thing in the way of temples or other buildings for the living cotem-
porary with the tombs^ if they had existed as a settled people. The
bones found in the pots lead me to suppose, either that only one sex waa
burned, and the other buried, or that each tomb was not the resting
place of one individual, but that each belonged to a family ; and that
when a second body was buried, the bones of the first were taken up,
placed in a jar, and re-buried. In the tombs with a division two
bodies were in each, one on either side. I am not enough of an ana-
tomist, nor are the bones so strong as to bear the handling, necessary
to determine the sex of the owner." In a subsequent letter he
writes : — " I have not been idle about the cairns : we have found
several other masses or groups of them ; but as yet the ground is so
fearfully hard that I have not opened them. There is a village a few
coss from this, Nacracul, where the people tell me there is a coss of
land covered with them." Again, " Camp near Davarconda" : — " The
cairns are innumerable about here, and of immense size ; they are
composed inside of one enormous slab below, two sides, two ends, and
one or two slabs on the top, built in this fashion —
with a division about two feet high in the centre,
lengthways. The depth of the cairns about ten feet, all north and
south, with the skeleton laid north and south, on its face. No one
55
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418 SCYTHO-DBUIDICAL REMAINS. [JaN.
seems to care for the caimsy or to open them. The people say thej
were huilt by the Rajuses."
Captain Doria again wrote> 13th August, forwarding me the two
copper bells, one from Moul Ali, the other from Narkailpalli, and the
copper cylinders, arrow and spear-heads, pottery, &c., which I have drawn
from actual measurement (sketches numbered and attached) : all these
articles will be transmitted to the Society on the first opportunity.
Captain D. mentions that he has discovered another new place, where
there must be at least two thousand cairns, and is about to open several
of them for me. Should I hear anything of interest from him, it shall
be transmitted hereafter as a postscript to this communication.
CAIRNS NEAR GURMATKAL.
As I was proceeding by d&k last year to Hyderabad, I observed what
appeared to me a large field of cairns about two miles west of this town ;
the circle-stones were large blocks of chert. I had not time to examine
them closely, and, unfortunately, having been detained, I passed the
same place at night on my return, but I have marked the locality for
future investigation, as lying nearly midway between Sorapiir and
Hyderadad, on a high and fertile plateau, which breaks into deep grassy
and woody ravines to the south, while the country is amply supplied
with water ; it would in all probability have been a favourite resort of
the nomadic tribes, and would serve to prove that they had marched
off to the north-east from Sorapiir instead of north or north-west
to the Central Dekhan.
It will be evident to the Society that the whole of the Hydeftibad
cairns are of the same character as those in the SorapAr district, on the
Nilgherris, and in Europe. The same circles of stones, some gigantic ;
the same interior cists, differing only in the quality and size of the slabs
used ; the same vessels interred, having in them calcined bones, ashes,
and charcoal ; the skeletons in the cists ; the calcined bones of children
in urns ; the iron implements and weapons, beads, &c. ; the same laborious
and patient construction of the cists and graves ; above all, the discovery
of two bells, leave no doubt whatever in my mind of the identity of
the whole as Scytho-Celtic or Druidic monuments, and completes the
only link wanting in the chain of identity. The discovery of a bell
has been wanting in the Sorapiir cairns as yet opened, but it is
evidently a matter of entire chance where one may be found. Captain
Congreve mentions that he opened forty-six cairns in the Nilgherris,
but only found two i)ells ; Captain Doria ten or twelve, and only one ;
Dr. Bell three, in one of which one was found. It is probable.
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1663.] IKTBRMBNT OF BELLS. 419
perhaps, that these articles were sacred in the families of chiefs or
priests, as they are among the Thautawars of the N%herris at the
present day, and that the cairns in which they are found were those
of chiefs or priests. I subjoin a few extracts from Captain Congreve's
article, not only to prove the identity of these bells with those in cairns
«t the Nilgherris, but to substantiate the Celtic-Scythian character of
these and other articles.
Mr. Hough, in his Letters on the Nilgherris, says : — "A few of these
barrows have been opened ; in one were found iron heads of spears, about
four inches long, very well finished, and in a perfect state, but they
began to corrode soon after exposure to the air. The same barrow
contained one bell entire, and the broken fragments of another.
" Heame, who' is justly ranked with Leland, Ashmole, and
Anthony-a-Wood, as an eminent antiquary, tells us that on one of the
aUme monuments at Stanten being opened, it was found to contain a
spear, and a large bell, with a screw at the end of it.
" Douglas, in his Nenia Brittanica, recording the opening of the
barrows in Greenwich Park, states that among other articles found in
them were spear-heads, iron knives, and some cloth.
" The resemblance thus shown to subsist between the Thautawar
and Scythian barrows and their contents is too striking to be the result
of accident : the fact of so unusual an article of grave furniture as a
bell being found in both cases is very singular.
** In opening a cairn six miles to the north of Conoor, two bells were
found among a great number of other antiquities.
" I said lately that bells were frequently found in digging open the
cairns ; indeed I discovered two in a cairn at Conoor. With reference
to this fact, and in further proof of the cairns having belonged to the
ancestors of the Thautawars, I quote the subjoined passage from
Harkness' description of a singular aborginal race, inhabiting the
summits of the Nilgherri Hills : —
" * A bell, which is generally deposited in some niche within the temple,
is the only object to which they pay any reverence. To this they
pour out libations of milk, but merely as to a sacred implement. They
do not sacrifice or offer incense, or make any oblations to it, significant
of its having any latent or mystic properties.
" ' To each Teriri (priest) is attached a herd of milch buffaloes, part
of which are sacred, and from which the milk is never drawn, the whole
being allowed to go to the calves. One among these sacred animals is
the chief. Should it die, its calf, if a female one, succeeds to its
office. Should it have no female calf, the bell before mentioned is
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420 BCYTHO-DRUIDICAL RBMAIN8. [JaN.
attached to the neck of one of the other sacred ones, and being allowed to
remain so during that day, a legal succession is considered to be effected.
** * In the morning the Pol-Aul milks one portion of the herd,
carries the milk into the temple, leaves the bell with a small portion
of it, and of such portion of it as he may not require he makes ghee/
— Madras Journal, No. xxxii. pp. 95, 96.
" The bell was an object of superstitious regard among the Celto-
Scythians, who buried it in their graves. Speade, in his Chronicles,
represents an ancient Briton with a lance in his hand, to the end of which
was fastened a bell."
The foregoing will, perhaps, be deemed sufficient proof in regard to
the Celtic-Scythian character of the bell, as found in the cairns in the
Hyderabad country. In other respects, of pottery, burial of the dead,
&c., there is, as I have already stated, no difference worthy of notice.
The colour of the pottery also agrees with those of the Nilgherris, and
these again with those of England. Captain Congreve remarks on
this subject :-r** It is very remarkable that the resemblance between
the urns found in the English barrows and the nms of the Nilgherria
extends even to the material. In some of the Dorsetshire barrows
the urns are made of a highly finished and glazed red pottery. Many
of the Nilgherri urns have been admired for this rich red glazing,
particulariy one discovered by Mr. MoegUng. The zig-zag or arrow-
headed moulding, which is the usual ornament of the Celtic urns, is
conspicuous on all found on the Nilgherris. I have not as yet found
any entire urns with the zig-zag moulding, but I have seen it in several
instances on broken pieces of pottery, red and black, found in the cairns."
Need I trace the analogies further ? I think not ; as in what I have
detailed there must be ample proof, to the most sceptical, of the various
points of resemblance and identification on all the subjects I have
noticed : that the Celtic-Scythian tribes settled more numerously in the
direction of Hyderabad, or SE. from it, about Nalgundah and Davar-
conda, than they did in this, or even the Bellary district, there can be
no doubt. Those tracts, and for some distance along the north and
south banks of the Krishna river, are, even still, principally low grassy
jungle and forest, well supplied with water. They are the favourite
resorts of the Brinjaris, who carry grain and salt for the capital, and
were no doubt well fitted to the pastoral Scythians. Only a very small
portion of that district has been examined by Captain Doria, and it is
impossible to say in what numbers the cairns may not exist in other
localities of the centre of the peninsula than those he has mentioned.
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The late Captain Newl^old, it is known, had discovered great numhers of
ancient remains near Chittoor.
The remains of the Celtic -Scythians as yet discovered in the Dekhan
and Camatic may. he classed as follows : —
1 . Cromlechs without circular enclosures.
2. Ditto with ditto.
3. Kistvaens with and without circular apertures in one monolithe,
containing urns filled with earth, hones, ashes, and charcoal.
4. Open cists.
5. Barrows containing one or more cairns, as at Shahpur.
6. Cairns with single, double, and treble circles of stones.
7. Cairns with cists of stone below, containing skeletons, remnants
of weapons, bells, urns, cups, and other pottery. Sorapiir,
Moul Ali, Narkailpalli, Davarconda, &c.
8. Cairns containing no cists, but urns filled with ashes, bones, &c.,
as at Chik^nh^li.
9. Temple, or large altar rocks, surrounded by a double ring of large
stones and entrance, as at and near Shahpur.
10. Diagonal lines of stones or rocks, as at Yaibathalli, Shahpur,
Ijere, &c.
1 1 . Square platforms, enclosing cairns, as at Mandiwalli.
12. The large tumulus and rocks at Shahpur.
The three last have no representatives among the authorities quoted
by Captain Cougreve, nor among his own discoveries ; but who can
doubt that they belonged to the same people ? The links that are still
wanting are —
1 . Remains of circular forts, with trenches round them, as on the Nil-
gherris, Old Sarum, near Stonehenge, and Cserleb in Anglesea.
2. Barrows, with trenches round them.
3. Circular basins in beds of rivers.
4. Tolmen, or holes bored in rocks.
Tors and loggan-stones exist in thousands all over the rocky granite
hills of the Hyderabad country and Sorapiir ; and in many places
the granite rocks are piled on each other in most fantastic shapes,
with separate tors crowning them, and appearing as if a push would
throw them over. Many of these may have been sacred.
On all other points, I must consider the identity to be complete, and
I am assured that further investigation, wherever these ancient monu-
ments may be found, will only serve the more to confirm what I have
already detailed.
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422 SCTTHO-DBUIDICAL BEMAIN8. [JaN.
I am not sufficiently experienced in the antiquity of this subject to
presume to offer more than a few very general observations upon it ; but
I cannot believe that one of such general antiquarian and ethnological
interest can fail to excite attention and investigation, in proportion as the
actual monuments of Celto-Scythic tribes are found to exist in India,
and, being examined, are found to agree in all respects with those of
Europe. I cannot, with the ample proofs before me, admit the opinion
that such resemblances are merely accidental, as is suggested by the
Revd. Dr. Schmid in a notice of the subject in connection with the
papers of Captain Congreve and the Revd. W. Taylor. In no country
that I am aware of are the rites of burial of the ancient inhabitants
so marked and peculiar in character, and so entirely agreeing in detail
as those of the Celto-Scythic tribes in the east and west ; and if the
aborigines of India had been all of the same character and religion at the
period of these remains, it is only fair to suppose that these cairns and
cromlechs would not be found confined to particular locahties, but
would be universal all over the continent ; and their construction, defying
alike the hand of time and the changes of faith, would have preserved
them wherever they had existed. Further, that had this particular and
very peculiar mode of sepulture been universal among the ancient tribes
of the world, they would be found to exceed any that have been as yet
discovered, whether in Europe, or in Asia and India, and would also be
more generally diffused than they are found to be. Many parts of Africa
are well known, and have been carefully observed by antiquarians, ancient
and modem ; yet I am not aware that any traces of Celto-Scythic
occupation, as existing in these monuments, has ever been discovered.
Though Dr. Carter surmises them to exist in Southern Arabia, which
is far from improbable, America, South and North, has its ancient
graves and tumuli of a character peculiarly their own. In Europe
they are by no means universal, being confined to particular locahties,
where from authentic history it is indubitable that Celts of the Druidic
faith overran the country, and finally settled. In India, it is true, we
have no such confirmation by history, and the migrations of the tribes
from Scythia cannot be so distinctly traced south-eastwards by these
memorials as they can be to the west. The Romans and Greeks have
preserved historical records of the migrations of savage pastoral and
warlike tribes from Central Asia from time to time, and through many
ages, to the west, where they gradually settled, but there are none such
in India ; and reverting to those dark ages when India, before the Bud-
dhists and their successors the Hindus, was a country without civilization
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1863.] MIGRATIONS OF THE CBLTIC-SCTTHIANS. 423
of any kind, possibly inhabited by a Hameatic race, we may presume,
from the memorials we find to eidst corresponding with these general
migrations of the Celtic-Scythians, east and west, that other hordes of
the same people at a far earlier period of time may haTc directed their
course southwards, and gradually settled in those fertile spots in India
where we now find their remains. Mere distance appears to be no
objection to this hypothesis ; nor, in the nature of the country, nor its
climate from Central Asia to the Deccan and Southern India, is there
any physical obstruction to the gradual migration of hordes of pastoral
people, alike from their food and habits accustomed to rapid travel and
conquest. Afler settlements had been made, it is not, perhaps, probable
that the original stock of invaders was long reinforced from their native
country. Other outlets for emigration were found east or west, and
these were followed with greater perseverance, and up to a later
period of time, on account of the more temperate and bracing climate to
which they led, than those to warmer and more relaxing regions.
By what routes these tribes invaded India I will not presume to
assert ; but it is not improbable, I think, if public attention is
continued to the subject, and the Provinces of Scinde, Lahore, &c., or
those which, from geographical position, afford most presumption of
having been the routes of migration, are duly explored, that traces
may be found of the same memorials as exist in the Dekhan and Southern
India, which would amount to proof, or strong presumption, of the lines
of march. In the act of migration, the graves and stone erections would
necessarily be more incomplete than those constructed by a settled
people ; but it is not, perhaps, improbable, that evidences of settlements
would be found.
Assuming, then, from the ancient monuments in existence in the
districts I have already enumerated from my own observation, and from
those in more Southern India, on the Malabar Coast, (the Pandoo
CooUes)and especially on the Nilgherris, (all agreeing generally and parti-
cularly in construction and contents, not only with each other but with
those of Europe with which we are best acquainted,) that Celto-Scythic
tribes did inhabit these countries, — we have fortunately, in corro-
boration, the most interesting proof, perhaps, of all, that they were
such, in the roots of their ancient language being traceable in Tamul,
and from it to Canarese, Teloogoo, and Malyalum. Dr. Schmid's
knowledge of the present dialect of the Todawars or Thautawars
enables him to state that this, with the more modem languages
just mentioned, *^ are Unks of a closely connected and unbroken
chain of dialects of one original language ; and that the Todawar
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424 8CTTH0-DRUID1CAL REMAINS. [JaN.
dialect is bj far more closely connected with the Tamul than the
Canarese." He, in fact, assumes it to be more ancient than the Tamul,
which in its turn is more ancient than the others. Captain Congreve
gives some striking resemblances of words in use among the Todawars
with Celtic, Grothic, and ancient Tamul ; but the most striking and
interesting fact I have met with on this subject is that given by Dr.
Schmid, who states that Dr. Ruckert, Professor of Oriental Languages
in the University of BerUn, had discovered, and independently from his
own studies and investigations, that the Tamul language has a remarkable
analogy with Tartar dialects. Dr. Schmid is therefore confirmed in his
previous supposition and hypothesis, " that by comparing the genius of
the Tamul language with that of other tongues, the race or tribe which
afterwards split into Tamuhans, Malialis, Canarese, and Telingas, must
be a Caucasian or Himalayan race, and must have immigrated into the
plains of India very early." Nor, in connection with this, is it the
less remarkable, that the memorials which exist should only be found
in the districts in which one or other of these dialects of Tamul, or
Tamul itself, at present exist. That of Sorapiir is Canarese, of the
Hyderabad Country Teloogoo, of Mysore and Bellary Canarese, of
the Malabar Coast Malialum, while pure Tamul exists in Arcot,
&c., where these remains are found. I have no doubt, therefore*
that imder the encouragement for inquiry and identification which
presents itself in all forms, these eminent philologists and others
will continue their investigations on the subject, which cannot fail to
prove of the highest interest, and which, even beyond the fact of actual
remains, will establish the migrations and settlements of Celto-Scythic
tribes by the roots of their ancient language — the highest proof of all.
In the Revd. W. Taylor's paper (No. xxxiii. Madras Journal of
Literature and Science) I find the following speculations, which have
reference to the above, and may be quoted in illustration : —
" When the Pauranical accounts of the Hindus close, the ascendancy
of barbarous races is mentioned. Sir William Jones gives the names
Abhira, Gardabin, Cauca, Yavana, Turashcara, Bhurunda, Mania.
Wilford gives Abhiras, Sacas, Tushcaras, Yavanas, Maurundas,
Mannas, and Gardhabinas ; and Southern Tamil MSS. as stated by me
in Or. Hist, MSS. vol. i. p. 247, give Abiral, Gardhabiyal, Buva,
Phigal, Yavunal, Manmtiral, and Mavunal. Now of those names the
Abhiras are probably Aifghans, the Sacas are Scythians, i,e. Siberians ;
the Tushcaras, Parthians or Turcomans, and the Marundas or Maunas,
or Mavunal, most probably Huns. It is now some eleven years ago
since I read a little Tamil book prepared by the Revd. B. Schmid for
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1853.] MIGRATIONS OP THB 0ELTIC-8CTTHIANS. 426
a seminaiyy and I found him stating from Grennan authorities that the
Huns had ravaged India as well as other countries. I have yery
recently conyersed with Dr. Schmid on the subject ; and I believe that
there are many Grennan works that may throw light on the emigra-
tion of people from east to west. Wilford considers the Marundas or
Mannar to be Huns. The Tamul has no aspirate, and Mavunal may
be (without the Sandhi) M^Unal, the great Hun people. The
Abhiras are sometimes considered as equivalent to Ar-viral, or six-fin-
gered people ; and tribes so distinguished are said to have been known.
A wide field enough is certainly opened ; but if the Celtae were known
in Lesser Asia, by the names of Titans and Sacks, and as the Cymri in
Wales, that alone is almost sufficient to throw a light upon the existence
of cromlechs in the Camatic. For the Sacks were doubtless a branch
of the Sacse or Scythians (not descended from Gomer, but closely
related) ; then it may follow that the Danes, Cymri and Scythians
had customs in common — the use of the cromlech (I will add cairn
also) being one of them ; and that the Sacae or Scythians penetrated
through the length and breadth of India seems more than probable."
Of the existence of barbarous tribes in India before the establishment
of Hindu dominion, there is ample proof, which I need not enter into.
We see that under the irruption of Bhuddistic and Hindu tribes, that
the aborigines of India, for so these Celtic tribes must have been
in relation to them, were gradually absorbed ; that their language
was changed, and their mode of life ; that village communities were
established ; towns, cave and other temples gradually completed ; and
civilization, and the use of written language, and with it theology and
science, gradually introduced. It must needs have been in the outset
that these civilizing influences, carried forward by more powerful and
more warlike tribes than the Scythians or their rude descendants, who
probably encountered them, soon obliterated in Southern India all
traces of the ancient Druidic faith, and that the people who had held
it either mingled with the conquerors, or fled into impenetrable jungles,
or mountains inaccessible to them. Such a remnant we may well
presume the Todawars to be. Their almost European colour, and
Caucasian features ; their pastoral lives and social customs, food,
mode of burial, and sacrifice ; their great antiquity, as allowed by the
Buddagars, and traceable beyond the Pandawar dynasties — the me-
morials of whose victories over them are found upon the Druidic
cromlechs ; the great number of cromlechs, kistvaens, cairns, barrows,
circular forts, &c. &c., and their contents, agreeing with those of the
plains — probably the most ancient ; their even present freedom from
.56
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426 8CYTHO-DRUIDICAL REMAINS. [JaN.
idolatry, while surrounded for ages by Hindus ; their reverence for the
sun and fire ; even their mode of dress, all corresponding with Celtic
customs and usages ; above all their language, admit, I think, of no doubt
that they are the only true remnant in India of the most ancient of the
Scythian tribes, and that they were driven to the Nilgherris from the
plains, where I believe these memorials to be more ancient than those
on the Nilgherris, and more purely Scytho-Druidic. Captain Congreve
classes the remains on the Nilgherris into three kinds. The oldest are the
simplest. In the others are found traces (by figures, &c.) of Bhuddistic
or Jain corruption, which occurred probably when the Jains had
possession of the hills, and from which the Todawars are again become
free. The height of the mountains ; the coldness of the climate ; the
deep belt of almost impenetrable jungle which surrounded them on
all sides, and its extreme insalubrity — all combined to preserve them
from any serious molestation by the Jain or Hindu kings ; and the
salubrity of the climate above, suited to their originally hardy con-
stitutions, has preserved them hitherto in vigour, though reduced to
a comparatively small remnant.
I will not attempt to offer an opinion on the antiquity of these re-
mains. Druidism, or Druidic-Scythism, one of the most ancient religious
beliefs of the world, is here evident ; and while we find that all com-
paratively modem irruptions of Central Asiatic barbarians into Europe,
the Huns, the Getse or Goths, the Alani, &c. were idolaters, we are
carried back insensibly beyond them to the ages of a simple faith which
was held by their progenitors, and followed in those parts of Asia and
Europe in which the emigrant hordes gradually settled, where their
memorials are found to exist. The identity of these remains, however
widely separated from each other, I can see no reasonable ground to
doubt under the evidences before me, and trust that the Society
may be enabled to obtain such further information of Scythic monu-
ments, and their contents, as may lead to a more complete understand-
ing of the districts inhabited by the tribes. My impression, however,
is, that they will be found principally in, if not entirely confined to,
the central, southern, and western portions of the peninsula — in short,
to those districts in which the traces of their ancient language are
most apparent.
" But what the same historian, Herodotus, liv. c. 71, 72, relates
concerning the ceremonies observed at the funerals of their kings is still
more extraordinary. I shall only mention such of those ceremonies as
may serve to give us an idea of the cruel barbarity of this people.
When their king died, they embalmed his body, and wrapped it up in
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1853.] SCYTHIC FUNERAL CEREMONIES. 427
wax : this done, they put it into an open chariot, and carried it from
city to city, exposing it to the view of all the people under his domi-
nion. When this circuit was finished, they laid the body down in the
place appointed for the burial of it ; and there they mjade a large grave,
in which they interred the king, and with him one of his wives, his chief
cup-bearer, his great chamberlain, his master of the horse, his chancellor,
his secretary of state, who were all put to death for the purpose. To
these they added several horses, a great number of drinking vessels,
and a certain part of all the furniture belonging to their deceased
monarch, after which they filled up the grave, and covered it with
earth." — Rollings Ancient History, vol. ii. p. 467.
Extracts from Mr, J. Babington's " Description ofthePandoo Coolies
in MalabarJ" {Trans, Lit, Soc, Bombay, vol. iii. p. 324.)
" Like the Pandoo Coolies on the eastern side of the Ghauts, the
Kodey Kulls, Topic Kulls, or Pandoo Koolies, are generally to be
found on the tops of eminences, or on the sloping sides of such hills
in Malabar as are not wooded. They seem to vary in their shape
according to the nature of the soil or rock on which they are con-
structed." The Kodey Kull consists of a stone like a native umbrella
(from which it takes its name) placed over an excavation, and the Topie
Kull an erection shaped like a mushroom : in the former, urns, human
bones, arms, iron instruments of various shapes, and sometimes beads
of difierent shapes, colors, and materials, were found, but in the latter
nothing. " There are many places in Malabar where the Kodey Kulls
are found ; but in no situation do they exist in greater numbers and
preservation than on a hill named Chataperambah^ which is excavated
in every direction with caves of this description. It is singular that
the Malayalum or Malabar name of this place should give a complete
description of it ; being Uterally the field (compound, &c.) of death,
Chatum peramba. Whether this coincidence is accidental, or the
name was given to it originally, and handed down to the present race,
I know not ; but I am inclined to be of the latter opinion, as there are
several other places in the district with the same name, and I under-
stand also of the same description with this spot, which is situated
on a hill rising abruptly from the southern bank of the Beypoor river,
and about five miles to the eastward of the village of that name."
*' It is almost unnecessary to say that there is no record of these
antiquities, of the period of their construction, or the use for which
they were origmally intended."
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428
8CYTH0-DRUIDI0AL RBMAIII8*
[Jah.
Statement ekoming the particulars of DweUmge of Human BeuiffM
(Communicated by C.
Fattiealara of
Karnes
of
Talooks.
Karnes
of
Tillages.
Dlstaiioe
and
direction
flrom
Bellary.
&
^1*
Ill
1
in
la
Ko.
,
1
li
1
Koodilghee*...
HalflBgimm....
8.
45
300
••
• .
• •
••
S
HooTinhadgully
Rajahyalam ....
S.
56
33
. .
• •
• •
31
3
Raidroog
Mallapoornm....
8.
30
485
..
3
..
18
4
»
Addagoopah .. . .
8.
30
525
••
••
• •
17
6
f»
QollahnUy
8.
30
200
••
••
••
6
6
Kodecondah....
Kondapoomm...
SE.
..
1
..
..
••
1
7
„ • . . .
Poolair
SB.
••
1
. .
• •
• •
••
8
9
DhnrimiafarBm.
Moodhegulloor..
Dbavadboola-
condab
3E.
SE.
••
580
104
• •
104
580
. • .
. •
Total
2,120
104
583
••
73
N. B.^Four of tlie Sketches and the figures of the Bells, Potteiy,
lithographed, the rest, with the Plans, are unaToidably postponed for a
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1853.]
PARTICULARS OF DWELLINGS.
429
qfdimunitive stature, situated in the Bellary District,
Pelly, Esq., Madras C. S.)
BweUingk
1!
1
III
llll
Extracts of Ursees of Tehseldars on the subject
200
• •
48
51
85
2
132
243
81
• •
284
214
28
. •
1
Tradition sajs that fbrmer OoTemments caused dwellings
of the descriptions alluded to to be erected for %
species of human beings called Mohories, whose
dwarfish stature is said not to hare exceeded a spaa
when standing, and a fist high when in a sitting
posture, who were endowed with strength sufficient
to roll off large stones with the touch of their thumba.
beings called Mobories. It is not known wben and
by whom thej were erected for the Mohories, nor
is any descripdon given of them.
It is said that human beings of a diminutiTe siae, called
Mohories, occupied these dwellings.
It is said that these dweUings belonged to Oqjaris, by
whom they were anciently inhabited.
It is said that these dwellings belonged to Gqjaris, and
that they were anciently occupied by that cUmb of
creatures.
It is said to be a pagoda of the Pandwahs. On being dug
up, a smooth long stone was found therein.
It is said to be a pagoda of the Pandwahs. On being dug
up, some iron nails and plates were found therein.
It is said that human beings, dwarfs, called Oujarls,
resided in these dwelUngs; that they were erected
with no other material but flags of stone, from fear
of showers of fire, and that the beluga were under a
yard in stature. One or two of these buildings were
dug up, but nothing was found. The dwellings situated
by the merchanU of the village for their houses. It
appears that a being of the description above given
[No measurements of any of these remains have been
lorwarded.-.M. T.]
384
468
527
&c. which accompanied Captain Meadows Taylor's paper, have been
future opportunity. — Secretary.
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430 [Jan.
Art. V. — On the Form and Structure of the Shell of Operculina
Arabica. With a Plate. By H. J. Carter, Esq., Assistant
Surgeon, Bombay Establishment.
Presented May 1852.
The interest which attaches to the forms and structure of Forami-
nifera is naturally very great, for no one can have seen their beautiful
little shells, and the extensive tracts in the Nummulitic series, which
are almost entirely composed of their remains, without wishing to know
something of the animals by which they were constructed.
Fortunately many are now Uving to help us out in this respect, and
although for the most part very small, yet here and there are found
sufficiently large, as will hereafter be seen, to afford us almost all
the information we could expect to obtain, were the fossil species
living, even in their largest forms.
In the month of June 1847, I communicated a paper to the Society,
containing among other observations, a summary up to that time of
all that was known of the structure of Foraminifera ; and by way of
introduction, as well as for the purpose of rendering this paper more
complete and more useful, I will here insert the latter, adding what has
been done since, and then a description of the form and structure of the
shell of Operculina Arabica, which will, I think, elucidate all that has
hitherto been stated of, and leave httle to be added to, the general
structure of Foraminiferous shells, both recent and fossil.
" For ten years after D'Orbigny gave his description of the animal
of Foraminifera, no one appears to have taken much trouble to
question its accuracy, until Dujardin took up the subject in 1835, while
residing at Toulon (where he had ample opportunities of testing
the truth of D'Orbigny^s imaginary discovery), and after having
carried on his researches most perseveringly for some time, at length
came to the conclusion, communicated to the Academic Royale des
Sciences de Paris in the month of June of the year mentioned, that the
Foraminifera were not Mollusca, nor did they belong to any of the
established classes.
" In describing their organization, Dujardin stated that all their
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1853.] STRUCTURE OF FORAMINIFERA. 431
chambers were occupied by a red or orange coloured animal matter,
highly contractile, and possessed of the consistence of mucus ; that this
was susceptible of extending itself into threads which were filled with
irregular granulations, but without the presence of any organs. On
carefully observing these animals in their Hving state, he had seen,
with a high magnifying power, in Miliola a soft mass projecting from
its aperture (analogous to the substance of the interior), which slowly
underwent a change of form, and from which a tuft of minute filaments
radiated from a common centre of attachment ; these filaments
prolonged themselyes in ramifications to five times the diameter of the
specimen (Miliola) from which they proceeded, and at length became
of such extreme tenuity, as to be followed only by changing the
direction of the rays of light. Further, he observed in these filaments
a movement of reptation, by which the animal advanced from 5 to 6
millimetres per hour. The filaments appeared to be composed of a
primitive animal matter, which extended itself forward in the manner
of roots ; hence the name Rhizopoda which Dujardin proposed for
these animals. In Miliola and Gromia these filaments came from
their aperture ; in Crestellaria from the last chamber, and in Vorticialia
from different pores of the disk.
" As to their manner of reproduction, Dujardin had noticed during
the previous year, that in Troncatulina, the animal matter was grouped
together in certain cases in globular masses, as the green matter of
Zygnema.
** Finally, in concluding his communication he states, ' We see that
it is impossible to keep these animals among the microscopic Cephalo-
poda : what rank shall be assigned to them ? ' *
** The discovery then of the animal of Foraminifera appears to be
due to Dujardin.
" In November 1835, he exhibited at Paris several U\ing specimens
of Vorticialia and his genus Gromia, f and during that winter continued
his researches into their organization with a view to establishing the
relation that might exist between them and Infusoria.
" In comparing them with Inftisoria, he states, in a note addressed
to the Academic Royale des Sciences de ParisJ — ' I have always been
guided by an idea suggested by Bory St. Vincent, who, after having
seen the Uving Rhizopoda, was struck with the great analogy which
* Acad. Roy. des Sc. stance Juin 22, 1835.
t Ibid, stance Nov. 15, 18d5.
X Stance Fev. 1, 1836.
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432 OPERCULINA ARABICA. [JaN.
existed between the filamentous prolongations of these animalfl and the
expansions of the Amoeba or Proteus, and directed my attention to the
point.'
*' Lastly, Dujardin exhibited before the Acad. Roy. des Sc. at Paris
in 1836 * some animalcules, called by Ehrenberg Arcella acideata, but
which Dujardin regarded as freshwater Foraminifera, and through these
he imagined the series to be continued from the Amoeba to Miliola, —
that is, through Difflugia, a species of Amoeba, to Arcella, from the
latter to Gromia, and from Gromia to Creetellaria, and thence to
Miliola,
" After Dujardin, Ehrenberg took up the subject, and the result of
his researches is as opposed to D'Orbigny's description as it is confirm-
atory of Dujardin' s observations.
" In a memoir read at the Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin in
1 838, t Ehrenberg stated that the Foraminiferous shells were inhabited
by elegant little bodies which played an important part in nature, and
the fossilized remains of which might frequently be found to number
more than a million in a cubic inch of chalk ; also, that after a seiies of
observations made on recent species both Uving and dead in the Red
Sea and elsewhere, he had come to the conclusion that their place in the
animal kingdom should be among the Bryozoa.
" In the month of October 1839, % Ehrenberg also exhibited living
specimens of these animals to the Academy at Berlin, [two,] which were
taken at Cuxhaven, and in January 1 840 he exhibited ten other species
of these animals, § at the same time communicating the following
observations on their organization : —
'* * The first and largest cell of these animals, sometimes also the
second, and occasionally as far back as the fourth, contain only the
transparent part of the animal ; beyond this, the cells are filled with two
large organs differently coloured. One and the principal is an alimentary
canal, thick, gray, greenish, which, like the whole of the body, is arti-
culated ; this extends itself from chamber to chamber, and its divisions
are united by an oesophagus or siphon. When the shell is removed by
acid, the siliceous carapaces of Infusoria which the animal has swallowed
may be observed (in Nonionina and Geopanus) as far back even as the
last articulation of the alimentary canal. The structure of this canal,
• S6anceJuin 11,1836.
t Ibid, stance de 16 Janvier 1840. L'Institut, No. 350, Sept. 1840, p. 309.
t Acad. Roy. des 8c. Berlin, stance de 16 Janvier 1840. Vide PInstitat,
No. 360, Sept 1840, p. 309.
§ Ibid [and Taylor's Scientific Memoirs, vol. iu, p. 342].
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J653.] STRUCTURE OF FORAHINIPERA ORNERALLT. 433
is not polygastric but simple ; expanded in the articulations, and
possessed of a single aperture, which is situated anteriorly. In Noni-
cnhia the articulations are distinct, and connected by one siphon ; in
Geoponus they are multiple, and each set connected by its proper siphon.'
'* Independently of the alimentary canal, a homy brown yellowish
mass is seen in every articulation of the spine, the first excepted : this,
which is granular, £hrenberg considers to be the ovary.
" In searching for a purely negative character, Ehrenberg states that
it consists in the want of pulsatory vessels ; that while he has always
recognized pulsations in the Mollusca and the smallest aggregated or
compound Ascidia, he could never do so in Nonionina and Geoponus;
the two species of Polythalamia (Foraminifera) which he more parti-
cularly examined.*" — Jour. Bombay Br. As. Soc. vol. iii. pt. 1, p. 158.
This is all that had been discovered up to the time of my compiling
this paper. I had seen the filamentous prolongations myself, and, on
dissolving off the shell of a species of Robulina (D'Orbigny), had found
a brown mass occupying the chambers (as it then appeared to me) in
loops, in the largest or last formed ones, and dininishing posteriorly ; it
was also constricted at each end of the loop by the narrow aperture in
the septum, and thus beadded^ as it were, posteriorly, where there were
no longer any loops, but a simple dilatation of the substance of each
chamber. I will not now vouch for the complete accuracy of these
observations, for ^ey were made on board ship, with a simple lens and
under considerable disadvantages ; and other people have not since
described the internal substance of the chambers as occurring in loops,
nor have I since seen it in this form myself.
Abont the time I wrote this paper, MM. Joly and Lejrmerie were
engaged in the miscroscopical examination of Nummulites, and the
results of their investigations were made known through the ' Comptes
Rendus* on the 24th Oct. 1847. Meanwhile, too. Dr. . Carpenter
examined the fossilized remains of Foraminifera generally, and his com-
munication on the subject was read before the Geological Society of
London, 2nd May 1849, together with some extracts from Mr. Wil*
liamson*s description of the animal and sheU of Folystomella crispa
(Trans. Microscop. Soc. vol. ii. p. 159), which I shall here insert, with
Dr. Carpenter's remarks, as the whole appears in the * Quart. Joum.
Geol. Soc' vol. vi. pt. 1, p. 28, for I have not Mr. Williamson's paper
to refer to : —
"Of the contained animal itself, which he obtained by dissolving
* Acad. Roy. des Sc. BotUd, stance do 16 Janvier 1840, and Scientific Memoirs,
ParUX.andXI.
57
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434 OPERCUUNA ARABICA. [JaN.
away the calcareous matter of the shell with dilute acid, Mr. Williamson
says, that it consisted ' of a very thin external membrane filled with
gelatinous matter/ ' No trace of minute internal organization, such
as a specially located intestinal canal, or ovaries, could be detected by
Mr. Williamson' ; nor was he able in any instance * to discover with
certainty the presence of any foreign bodies in their interior/ The
several segments are described by him as connected by a series of
prolongations, which pass through the septa near their inner margins.
The segments at first formed have only single connecting necks ; but
the number of these soon increases, and the outer segments are
connected by ten or more such necks, which pass through as many
distinct orifices in the septa. If all these orifices were brought
together on the central plane, so as to coalesce into one, they would
exactly correspond vnth the single perforations in the septa of Num-
muhtes. The animal of Polyatomella is considered by Mr. Williamson
to derive its nutriment from pseudopodia, which are projected through
numerous minute apertures over the whole surface of the shell. He
has not clearly traced these pseudopodia, however, into connection with
the segments occupying the interior whorls, which, like those of
Nummulites, are invested by those of later formation ; but he mentions
(as Ehrenberg had done) that near the umbilicus they are projected in
fasciculi ; and he states that the surface of the central calcareoas
nucleus (which is formed by a thickening of the walls of the smallest
cells) is pitted by small but deep depressions, which may be designed
to facilitate the exit of the pseudopodia from the innermost convolu-
tions. Mr. Williamson goes on to point out, that to these pseudopodia
must be attributed the deposition of new matter upon that portion of
the central nucleus which is not covered by the investing whorls ; and
in this view he is in accordance with M. D'Orbigny, who, in his recent
work, ' Sur les Foraminifferes Fossiles du Bassin Tertiaire de Yienne,'
fully recognizes the power of the pseudopodia to secrete the calcareous
covering. I may remark, that I cannot see how the investing layers
covering the disk of NummuliteM complanata, and the other species of
the same group, can be formed in any other way ; since in these the
chambers are only marginal, the segments of the animal not extending
over the disk ; and we have no reason to believe in the existence of
any external mantle, spreading over the whole surface, whereby these
investing layers could be formed."
We now come to the structure of the shells, to which, of all others,
both in description and illu0tntioiui| Dr. Carpenter appears to me to
have contributed most.
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1853.] STRUCTURE OF FORAMINIFERA GENERALLY. 435
MM. Joly and Leymerie seem to have gone no further than to
have shown, that in fossil Nummulites exist hemispherical granulations
or little circular depressions, corresponding to granulations both on
the external and internal surface of the shell, and that these are
nothing more than perforations with which the shell was pierced
during the existence of ^e animal. Also, that there existed a similunar
hole in each septum arching over the margin of the preceding whorl,
and that the rest of the partition was imperforate. (M^m. sur les
Nummulites, Sect. B. p. 20.)
Dr. Carpenter, howeyer, whose investigations were carried on in-^
dependently of those of MM. Joly and Lejmerie, has gone much
further than this, and therefore it will be as well to give a short
summary of all that he has observed.
Commencing with the septa, he states (loc, eit.) that each consists
of two layers, by which every chamber has its own proper wall, and
thai the intervening portion, which he terms the " interseptal space,'*
'' must have been vacant in the recent shell, unless occupied by the
soft parts of the animal itself;" — ''that each septum is perforated by
an aperture, dose to its junction with the margin of the preceding
whorl" (as he beUeves was first observed by D*Orbigny, and figured
first by Mr. Sowerby) ; and, " that these perforations pass through
both layers of each septum, so as to establish a free communicatioii
between one chamber and ano^er." That this case is different,
however, " with regard to certain more minute apertures, which may
be seen by a careful examination, under a sufficient magnifying power,
to exist on the surface of every septum, though not consistent either
in number or position" ; " they penetrate that layer only of the septum
on whose surface they open," " and establish a communication between
each chamber and the adjoining interseptal spaces." *' Other apertures
of the same kind may be generally traced, on careful examination, in
the walb of the chambers that form the surface of the whorl ; and
these too appear to communicate with the interseptal spaces by duumek
burrowed into those walls."
'< Thus the cavity of each chamber commmiicates with that of the
one before and behind it in the same whorl, by the large aperture first
mentioned, which frequently appears as if made up by the coalescence
of a number of smaller perforations (fig. 7 6.)> s^^lg^^g ^^ ^^^ that
the animal substance which originally passed through it was not a single
large canal, but was composed of a bundle of minute tubes or threads.
This idea is confirmed by the circumstance, that the outer margin of
the included whorl (fig. 7 c.) frequently presents a series of furrows^
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436 OPERCULINA ARABICA. [JaN.
corresponding to the notches at the inner edge of the septum (b).
£ach cavity also communicates freely with the interseptal spaces on
either side hy the smaller apertures and passages last described ; and
from this space, as we shall presently see, there was a free passage to
the external surface of the shell.
" The texture of the shell itself differs remarkably from that of any
of the Mollusca with which I am acquainted, approaching that which I
have described in the common Crab (Reports of the British Association,
1847, p. 129). It is everywhere perforated by a series of tubes of
extreme minuteness which pass directly from one surface to another,
their openings being plainly visible on each (fig. 16). The diameter of
these tubes is about l-7,«^00th of an inch, and their distance from each
other about 1-1 5,000th. In a thin vertical section of the shell (fig. 15)
they are seen to run parallel to each other, and to be free from sinuo-
sities or interruptions. The whole of this portion of the shell, there-
fore, is minutely porous. The structure in question can be seldom
clearly distinguished in those Nummulites which have had their texture
altered by calcareous or siliceous infiltration ; but as the appearances
which these present correspond dosoly with those exhibited by sped,
mens of N. Uevigata which have been subjected to the same change, I
have no doubt that the tubular structure in question is common to the
whole group." " All the Nummuhtes which I have examined present
a remarkable departure from this structure in that portion of the shell
which forms the margin of each whorl. Here, instead of an assem-
blage of minute, closely-set, parallel tubuli, we have a much coarser
arrangement, the sohd substance being perforated with a smaller number
of tubes of two or three times the diameter of those last mentioned/
which pass in a radiating manner from the inner to the outer surface.
Some indications of this difiference are seen in fig. 4 ; but it is much
more clearly displayed at b, b, fig. 15, which represents a portion of a
very thin section taken in the same direction, and viewed by transmitted
light. The openings of these tubes on the outer margin of the whorl are
not readily discernible, partly in consequence of the somewhat obhque
direction of the orifices, and partly through these being usually
covered with a calcareous incrustation. When this has been removed
by the application of dilute acid they are easily seen when properly
looked for, as was first pointed out to me by Mr. J. Morris."
Lastly, Dr. Carpenter has observed, in addition to the tubes which
run from the punctations on the surface into the chambers of the
Nummulite, another " series of perforations of considerable size, which
pass directly downwards from the exterior, through the superposed
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1853.] DESCRIPTION. 437
investing layers of the successive whorls, however numerous, until
they reach the floor and chambers of the central plane, which they do
not penetrate." These, he feels satisfied, " always terminate over the
septa, and actually pass into the interseptal spaces."
Now let us see how far these statements are confirmed by the struc-
ture of the shells of Operculiaa Arabiea, These were obtained in the
following way : —
While medical officer on the survey of the south-east coast of Arabia,
I observed that Foraminifera were frequently brought up on the grease
of the ship's sounding lead, and afler this I obtained the loan of a lead,
which I used to cast for this particular purpose myself. They were
found to be most numerous in about 10 to 20 fathoms of water, rather
in sandy than in muddy bottoms, scanty in deep water, and never (by
the lead) among rocks and coral-ground. In one bed passed over,
which was several miles in diameter, in about 20 fathoms of water, and
about six miles off shore, the grease of the sounding-lead came up
covered with them at each throw ; they were the largest living speci-
mens I have ever seen, and principally consisted of the genus Oper-
culina (D'Orbig.), Discorbis (Lam.). Most measured from 2 to
3-12th8 of an inch in horizontal diameter, and one or two 3-lOths.
Some contained animals, and others were empty ; the latter were
readily distinguished from the former by their pearly whiteness ; while
those which contained animals were invariably covered with a thin
greenish cuticle like the deciduous epidermis of shells generally.
The following is a description of this Operculina, which, as it is
most probably a new species, I have designated by the specific name of
" Arabicar
Oper culina Arabiea (H. J. C).
Description. — Free, equilateral, oval or discoidal, thin, flat or wavy ;
formed of one spire increasing gradually, not embracing ; regular,
equally apparent on both sides ; consisting of 3-4 whorls, contiguous,
enlarged on the outer border. Chambers numerous, 1-75, narrow,
apparent on both sides, increasing gradually in length and breadth
from a semitransparent, prominent, central cell ; radiating, reflected
in their outer third to a point, particularly in the last-formed whorl ;
divided by semitransparent septa, and covered externally vrith a green
substance Hke the epidermis of shells generally. Intercameral com-
munications numerous in the septa of the last-formed whorl, the
largest long, narrow, and crescentic, arching over the margin of the
preceding whorl.
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438 OPERCULINA ARABICA. [JaH.
Dimensions, — 1-6th of an inch in horizontal, and l-96th in vertical
diameter ; widest part of last whorl l-24th of an inch (PL IV. fig. 1).
Observations, — This description is chiefly taken from one of the
largest and most regularly formed shells I possess. They are hy no
means always plane, hut, on the contrary, frequently wavy, like Num-
mulites ; and the chambers sometimes increase in size more rapidly
than at others, causing the shell to assume a more or less elongated or
oval form ; the chambers are also sometimes broader, sometimes nar-
rower ; and occasionally a septum only extends part of the way out
towards the margin of the whorl, when it suddenly bends backwards to
meet the preceding one, or it may stop short altogether, and then the
chamber behind and before it coalesce at their outer parts. Irregu-
larities of this kind in the formation of the chambers of Foraminifera
are not at all uncommon, and apparently so usual in NummuUtes
lamgatOi that they would seem to constitute a character. The imper-
fectly developed chamber extending from the margin of the forgoing
whorl outwards instead of in the opposite direction, seems to point out
the course in which the chambers are formed ; and if each chamber is
to be regarded only as the full development of a single imimal, the
imperfect one must be considered as an abortion, and those which have
coalesced as a monstrosity. Most frequently there is here and there a
large opening in the shell, over one or more of the chambers, whidi
leads into the latter ; they are more or less round, larger or smaller, and
the smoothness of their margin would seem to indicate that they had
been formed by the animal itself, if not by some other animal.
Microscopic Examination, — The chambers of the shell, after the
green cuticular substance has been removed, are found to be covered
externally with large and small papillae ; the former 1-2, 150th, the
latter l-8,600th of an inch in diameter (fig. 2). The former also are
about twice their own breadth apart, and the latter occupy the intervals
between them ; both are confined to the areae over the chambers ; they
do not appear over the septa nor on the margin of the shell. The
large papillae appear to be imperforate, while the small ones appear to
present each a pimcture in the centre. The septal spaces, as well as
the central cell, are semitransparent, and the former have a nngle,
beaded line of semitransparent papillae along their course.
The internal surface of the chambers merely presents the small
papillae with their puncta ; there are no large papillae on it, and their
cavities are otherwise complete, with the exception of the channels of
intercameral communication, and some minute vascular apertures which
will be presently mentioned.
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1863.] STRUCTURE OF THE SHELL. 439
The septa (fig. 5 h, b) occupy, transversely, about l-6th of the
breadth of the chambers, and each septum incloses within its walls two
calcareous tubes or vessels, one on each side, some Httle distance below
the contiguous surface of the shell (fig. 7 a, a) ; these we shall call
interseptal vesseU, They are irregular both in their size and course,
though generally about 1-1, 900th of an inch in diameter, in the last-
formed septa of a shell having the dimensions of the one described, and
diminish in calibre backwards or towards the first-formed whorls.
Each vessel commences in the centre of an intricate network of smaller
ones, spread over its own side of the margin of the preceding whorl,
and under the layers of the shell (/»/,/) ; these networks, which are
joined together, we shall call the marginal plexus. In its course each
interseptal vessel gives off two sets of ramuBculi, and the mai^nal
plexus one set. Of those coming from the interseptal vessel, one set
terminates on the surface of the shell, particularly about the borders of
the septum (d, d) ; the other goes into the walls of the shell, and
through the septum, to open probably on the inner surface of the
chamber (e, «, e) ; while the set from the marginal plexus opens on the
margin (y, ^, p). As this vascular system appears to extend through-
out every part of the shell, and must be for the circulation of some
fluid, we will call it the interseptal circulation. It would have been
more proper to have commenced with the ramusculi, as we shall see
hereafter that they appear to absorb the fluid which is subsequently
transmitted into the larger vessels, but at this period of our description
it would not have been so intelligible.
We have now to examine the internal structure of the shell, and com-
mencing with that part forming the walls of the chambers, we observe
that it is pierced by innumerable tubes, which pass directly downwards
from the small papiUse on the external, to the small papillae on the
internal, surface of the chambers (fig. 3 <f, cQ. I could see no tubes
passing down from the large papillae, which I have before stated to
appear imperforate, like those over the septal spaces. These tubes are
about I -9,000th of an inch in diameter, and about the same distance
apart ; they are vertical over the centre of the area of the chamber, and
slope outwards at its boundaries, but do not pass through or extend
over the margin of the shell, neither over the septal spaces, nor over the
central cell ; hence the semitransparency of the two latter, and the
fringy, beaded appearance which the tubes present at these parts,
particularly around the central cell, where they assume the form of rays.
Besides these tubes, a vertical section of the shell presents a series
of horizontal lines 7-8 or more in number, parallel to each other, but
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440 OPERCULINA ARABICA. [JaN.
not equidistant (fig. 3 c, c) ; these appear to be the lines of contact
of the layers of which the shell is composed.
Lastly, we come to the margin, which exhibits a very curious and
interesting structure. It is almost entirely composed of calcareous
apicula, arranged parallel to, but overlapping each other (fig. 4),
These spicula are l-237th inch long, and l-900th of an inch broad,
transparent, apparently hollow, and pointed at each extremity ; they
appear to be straight, although, from their position, one would be
inclined to think that they must be a httle curved. When a transverse
section is made of the margin, we observe that it consists of upwards
of 100 of these spicula, which form a triangular bundle or cord
(fig. 6 a), the apex of which is directed inwards or towards the
chambers, and the base (a) outwards to form the free, rounded margin
of the shell : while its sides are overlapped by an extension of the walls
of the chambers, which open as it were to receive it. Its base presents
a regularly wavy outline (when viewed in the transverse section) from
the longitudinal arrangement of the spicula, which do not i^pear to be
covered by a layer of the shell ; and parallel to its sides run the papillary
tubes of the chambers (5), becoming more vertical as they increase in
distance from this position ; while towards its apex appear the divided
large vessels of the marginal plexus (c). In the tnmsverse section
also, when reduced to a thin layer, transparent intervals appear in the
form of zigzag lines radiating from the apex to the circumference of
the cord, which would seem to indicate that the spicula were arranged
in it in more or less horizontal planes, dipping towards the apex.
It will naturally now be asked, how this spicular cord (fig. 5 A, k),
which commences with the first cell, terminates ; but I regret that
there is not a single specimen in my possession to afford the informa-
tion. This arises probably from the extreme thinness of the last-formed
chamber ; for with the two or three preceding ones, it is almost always
broken or absent. All I can state in connection with this is, that there
are always more or less vessels of the marginal plexus cut through or
broken in a transverse section or fracture of the spicular cord, and
frequently a large one close to its apex, which after the shell has been
filled with a solution of carmme, and then laid in pure water, purges
it almost completely from the colouring matter with which it had been
filled ; a broken interseptal vessel will also do this. Hence it is not
impossible, that a natural opening of the kind may exist at the termi-
nation of the spicular cord, for this purpose ; but, then, it has nothing
to do with the spicular cord itself, of the natural termination and uses
of which I am equally ignorant. It should here also be mentioned.
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1^53.] STRUCTURE OF THE SHELL. 441
that when a thoroughly empty shell, which may he known hy its
pearly whiteness, is gently laid on the surface of a solution of carmine,
so as to float there, the latter is seen, first to colour the margin, then
the interseptal vessels become filled, and lastly the walls of the cham-
bers ; none of the semitransparent parts of the shell become coloured.
This will take place sometimes in a few hours, but with some shells it
requires a day or two for its completion. By keeping one side of the
shell dry the air is enabled to pass out of it, while the solution enters
the depending side, and in this way the whole of the hollow structure
of the shell becomes coloured. When the shell is washed and dried in
this state, the carmine is seen to be chiefly in the interseptal vessels,
and this is perhaps the best way of tracing out the terminations, or
rather origins, of the ramusculi. On the other hand, when the shell
is placed in pure water, and watched with a magnifying glass, a stream
of carmine particles will be seen slowly issuing from the vessels of the
marginal plexus, at the broken end of the spicular cord, or from any
other part of the large whorls, where an interseptal vessel may have
been broken ; and after a time, according with that which the shell
has taken to imbibe the colouring matter, it will become perfectly
white again. Whether this be owing to the watery distension of the
gummy fluid suspending the carmine, or a natural consequence of the
structure of the shell itself, further observation must determine. The
fact of the carmine accumulating at the orifices of the ramusculi, as it
would in a filter, seems also, with what has just been stated, to point
out the course of circulation in them ; and if we may be allowed to
carry out the analogy still further, which is now seen to exist so
strikingly between Foraminifera and Porifera, we might compare the
interseptal circulation in the former to the aqueous circulation in the
latter, and thence might infer that the water entered by the ramusculi
or small pores, and came out by the larger ones, gathered together into
one vessel, opening in its natural state at the end of the spicular cord ;
but until a perfect specimen be obtained to determine this, all must
of course remain conjectural.
, Growth, — From what I have stated respecting the existence of a
substance, resembling the cuticle of shells, over the external surface of
Operculina Arabica, and the presence of innumerable puncta, which
appear to be connected by tubular communications with the chambers
beneath, it is not unreasonable to infer, that by this arrangement
successive additions may be made to the external surface of the shell,
and the laminated structure, which it presents on a vertical section,
thus formed ; while the addition of chambers would appear to com-»
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449 OPBROVIilNA ARABICA. [JaIT*
menoe from the opening in the septnm close to the preceding whorl,
and an interseptal yessel, arising, as before described, from its marginal
plexus, to extend outwards, on either side, pari pawn with the chamb^s
to the circumference, which it may fall short of or not, as already
stated. Again, it would appear that this addition does not take place
singly, but that there are always two or more chambers (fig.
8 6, 6, 6,) in process of formation, the last being the smallest,
and that, one after another, they gradually reach the margin. I
haTe come to this opinion, not from the recent specimens of OpercnUMm
in my possession, in which, as before stated, all the last-formed cham-
bers are broken, but from having observed the ochraceous casts of
microscopic nautiloid species of Foraminiferaiidiich have been fossilized^
to present this form, when dissolved out from their matrix.
Analogy to Por(/ffra.<— When Dujardin, guided by the suggestion
of Bory St. Vincent, was struck with the analogy which exists between
the filamentous prolongations of Foraminifera and those of Ihe Amceba
or Proteus, he could have Httle thought, that however nearly the latter
might be allied to the Sponges, the former would be found so similar
to them in their compact structures. Who, indeed, looking at the
nautiloid form of a foraminiferous shell, and an amorphus piece of
sponge, would say that they bore the least resemblance to each ol^r ?
Yet they are, as we have seen, most intimately allied, both in their
fleshy and their compact structures. It must be now generally allowed,
that the rhizopodous nature of Foraminifera is identical with that of
the Amceba or Proteus, and through the latter with the sponge-cell ; and
in addition to this, we have the former, at least the genus OperetUina,
still more nearly allying Foraminifera to the Sponges, by possesring a
spicular structure, if not a circulating system also, like that of sponges.
It is curious, too, that without any reference to the use of the pores in
these two orders of animals, they should have received names of the
same signification, as if the intimate relationship which is now found
to exist between them was instinctively anticipated before it was
proved by demonstration. The genus of Porifera to which Opereulina
comes nearest is, of course, the calci-sponges, that called OranHa^
after their distinguidied discoverer Dr. Grant ; and of this genus it
would seem to approach nearest to the tubular species, which have but
one vent.
Structure of the Shell of Opereulina compared with NummuUteB.--^
It will be very gratifying to those whose investigations of the structure
of Nummulites must have been attended with so much labour
difficulty, and doubti to see how satis&ctory the examination of a
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1853.] COMPARED WITH NITHMnLITBS. 443
recent foramimferovn shell, so nearly allied to NummuUiei as thi^ of
OpereuKnaf confirms and elucidates their observations. The Tcrtical
tnbes passing from the surfiice of the shell to the interior of ^e
chambers (see Dr. Carpenter's illustrations,, fig. 15, loe cit.) ; the
kitercameral commnnication {id. fig. 7 b) ; the linear markings or
grooves immediately under the latter {id, fig. 7 c), which appear tp
have been produced by the previous existence of a spicular cord in this
position ; and the radiating lines {id. fig. 15 h, 5), caused bj the
arrangement of the spicula ib horixontal layers inclined towards the
apex of the cord, with the sloping papillary tubes on each side of it.—
The ** minute apertures" {id. fig. 7 a), which only penetrate mu layer
of the septum, and others which open on the internal surface of the
walls, are probably the orifices of the ramu$culi of the interseptal
vessels which go in this direction. — And the " perforations of con-
siderable size, which pass directly downwards from the exterior through
the superposed investing layers of the successive whorls" " until they
reach the floor of the chambers of the central plane, which they do not
penetrate" {id. fig. 8 a) ; — the vertical interseptal vessels, or an enlarge-
ment and union into one tube of the ramuseuli, which pass upwards and
downwards from the horizontal interseptal vessels as seen in Operculina,
The latter, that is, the union of the vertical with the horizontal inter-
septal vessels, I have been able to make out in some specimens of JVWm-
mulites acuta. Sow. ((jeol. Trans. 2nd Ser. vol. v. pi. 24, fig. 15),
which have had their cavities thoroughly infiltrated with ochraceous
oxide of iron ; as well as everything else mentioned by Dr. Carpenter ;
and, with the exception of the spicula themselves, everything that I
have seen in Operculina. MM. Jolly and Leymerie seem to me to
have described one thing, and to have figured another. They describe
the papillary tubes, and seem, from the distance between them, to figure
the orifices of the vertical interseptal vessels (pL 1 1 op. ctV.), which
Dr. Carpenter has particularly described.
The columns represented by Sowerby in XycopAry« ephippium (Geol.
Trans, loe. cit. fig. 1 5), and to whidi Dr. Carpenter has alluded {loe.
cit. p. 26), appear to me to be made up of the papillary tubes which
descend from chamber to chamber (fig. 9 g, g), and which in purely
calcereous fossils are filled with a white opaque matter, but in tho9e
infiltrated with oxide of iron, with ochraceous matter ; while the
intervening parts are composed of the septal substance, through which
the interseptal vessels pass to the surface and margin in OrbUoidea as
well as in NummuUtea.
The same system of circulation would also appear to be carried on in
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444 OPERCULINA ARABICX. [JaW.
Orbitolife$, where the mass is made up of spheroid or oroidal cells : for
if the nearly flat Scindian species, which hasapiqpilhuy eminence in the
centre of the conTcx side, he rubbed down, the latter presents a ramifi-
cation of transparent substance like that filling the- septal spaces of
Nummulites and Orbitoides; whidi, radiating upwards and outwardft
from this eminence, passes into the general structure of the shelL
The transitionary forms of the chambers in Opereulhui,. through
Nummuliies and Orbitaidea, to Orbitolites, would, wheu viewed in a
yertical section, appear to be thus : — In Operculina there is a single
plane of spear-head shaped chambers ; in Nummulitea a central plane
of conical chambers, with layers of compressed ones above and below
it ; in Orbitoides, a central plane of quadrangular chambers,, with
numerous layers of compressed ones above and below it ; and in
Orbitolitet, a mass of circular or ovoidal cells more or less definitely
arranged. Hence, if these be their respective peculiarities, Orbiioid^
ManteUi will, from Dr. Carpenter'^s illustration (fig. 31, loc, cit,),
belong to the latter, and would therefore be now more properly named
Orbitolites ManteUi.
One other observation I would here make with reference to geology,,
viz. the natural union which now seems to be pointed out between the
Chalk and the Nummulitic series, by the great prevalence of the same
class of animal remains in each— that is to say, the abundance of flinta
which indicate the previous existence of nliceau^ tpoHffeg in the former,,
and the myriads of Foraminifera, which are closely allied to the caki-
9ponge9 in the latter.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVIIL
Fig, 1. Operculina Arabiea, natural size.
Fig, 2. Large and Bmall papillsB on the external surface of the shell, highly-
magnified.
Fig. 3. Vertical section of the shell over the chambers, highly magnified, show-
ing : — a, a, large papillse ; b, b, small ditto ; c, e, horizontal lines indi-
cative of the layers of the shell ; d, d, vertical tubes.
Fig. 4. Spicula in gitUf highly magnified.
Fig, 5. Diagram of horizontal section of three large chambers of the shell, show-
ing the interseptal vascular system and spicnlar cord : a, a, a, cham-
bers ; b, b, b, septa ; c, c, c, intei*8eptal vessels ; d, d, d, ramuscuU
coming to the surface of the shell ; e, «, e, ditto, going to the walls of the
shell, &c. through the septa, the dotted lines indicating those branching
out into the former ; /, /, /, marginal plexus ; g, g, g, ramuscuU of
margin ; h, h, spicularcord ; i, half-formed septum, with termination of
interseptal vesseL
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1853.] PLIOCBNE DEPOSITS OP WESTERN INDIA. 445
Fiff, 6. Diagram of vertical section of the shell to show the form of the spicalar
cord : a, margin or free sarfoce of spicular cord ; b, vertical or papilhiry
tubes, here sloping oatwards on each side the cord ; e, truncated vessels
of the marginal plexus ; d, d^ small channels of intercameral commu-
nication ; e, grand semilunar or crescentic channel of ditto ; /, septum.
Fig, 7. Diagram of vertical section to show the situation of the intersepUl vessels ;
a, a, interseptal vessels ; ft, septum ; r, grand channel of intercameral
communication ; d, part of spicalar cord.
Fig. 8. Enlarged view of first-formed chambers of OpereuHna Arabica : a, central
cell or chamber ; b, b, b, probable forms of last chambers in process of
devulopment.
Fig, 9. Diagram of vertical section of NummuUtesacutay Sow. : a, spicnlar cord ? ;
ft, truncated vessels of marginal plexus \ c, c, chambers of central plane ;
rf, d, vertical interseptal vessels (the " perforations/' kc, of Dr. Carpen-
ter) ; e, Cf horizontal intersepUl vessels ; /,/,/, chambers on each side
the central plane ; g, g, g, vertical tubes.
Art, VI. — Note on the Pliocene Deposits of the Shores of the
Arabian Sea. By H. J. Carter, Esq., Assistant Surgeon,
Bombay Establishment
Presented October 1^2.
This note had reference more particularly to Major Turner's speci-
mens of the strata from the neighbourhood of the harbour at Kurrachee.
The author stated that the geological interest which attached to them
arose from their similarity to other deposits which existed throughout
the whole Western Coast of India, and were found also, in part, on the
South-Eastem Coast of Arabia, and on the African coast and islands
opposite. These were the last raised portions of the shores of the Arabian
Sea, and seemed to be the only step on to the trap of Western India,
to the " tertiary" deposit in the southern part of Cutch mentioned by
Colonel Grant, (Geol. Trans. 4to, 2nd series, vol. v. p. 302,) and to that
mentioned by the author himself on the SB. Coast of Arabia. (This vol.
p. 93| Group 2nd.) General Cullen had presented to the Society, through
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446 PLIOCBNB DEPOSITS OF WB8TBBN INDIA. [3 AH,
Dr. Buist, specimens of blue clay and lignite which extend between
Cannanore and Cape Comorin. Major Fnlljames had witnessed the
same kind of clay with lignite in boring for water at Gogo, in the Gulf
of Cambay ; the Society's museum contained abundance of a similar
kind from the island of Bombay ; and now Major Turner had forwarded
the same from Kurrachee.
This clay was covered at each place by a variable conglomerate (" Mi-
Uolitic Deposit," see description of, this vol. p. 94, Group 3rd), formed of
the detritus of the surrounding rocks, together with sea-sand and shells.
Thus, while the clay, from the minuteness of its particles, appeared to
be the same throughout, it might reasonably be inferred to differ just as
much in mineralogical composition as the conglomerate which super-
posed it at the different locahties mentioned, both having been more or
less derived from the same sources. About Cannanore it appeared to
consist of the detritus of the laterite and trappean rocks ; at Kurrachee
of that from the older Hmestone rocks and sandstone of the neighbour-
hood, and at Bombay of the trap rocks ; while at Gogo it seemed, in addi-
tion, to have the remarkable ossiferous conglomerate, probably brought
down by the rivers emptying themselves into the Gulf of Cambay.
The conglomerate, or miUohtic deposit, was the one common on the
coasts of Arabia and Africa mentioned, existing in the former some-
times but a few feet above the sea, at others in portions on the scarps of
the cliffs some hundreds of feet above it, and at others in extended tracts,
reaching some miles inland. The author considered the Poorbunder
stone to be part of the same deposit, and the so-called " gold sand-
stone" found in the creeks along the coast of Cutch to be identical with
the latter. The golden lustre about the particles appeared to be yellow
ochre, interlaminated with the nacreous layers of the fossilized forami-
niferous shells, of which it is principally composed ; unless it might be
pyrites, ^iron, both in the state of an oxide and a sulphuret, having a
great tendency to locate itself in the cavities of these minute shells,
insomuch that on one part of the Southern Coast of Arabia, where the
formation of the coast was entirely composed of the milioUtic deposit,
in a fine state, and upwards of 200 (?) thick, with a chff upon the sca-
the beach beneath (composed of the detritus of the latter) in one part,
presented a black patch, consisting of hardly anything else but the
particles of oxide of iron, which had been washed out from the lighter
and more fragile parts of the foraminiferous shells in which they had
been deposited.
That this deposit extended a considerable distance inland in some
parts might be seen from its forming the south-eastern extremity of
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1853.] CONOLOMSRATB AND BLUE CLAY. 447
the great desert of Akhaf, on the South-east Coast of Arahia. (This vol.
pp. 33, 34.) It also existed in a ** creek nine miles north" of the town
of Bhooj in Cutch, from whence Major Le G. Jacoh had sent
portions of the so-called " gold-stone" to the Groyemment ; and there
were portions of miliolite* (red and yellow) in the Society's museum,
which had heen presented hy the late Lieutenant Blake, from the
town of Mandu, under the Vindhya Range, 140 miles up the valley of
the Nurhudda ; while Major Fulljames had just forwarded to the
Society specimens of orhitoliferous limestone from the western spurs of
the Rajpeepla Range, on the southern side of the Nurhudda, which
belonged either to the nummuUtic or tertiary formations (Grant) of
Cntch. The sea, therefore, extended much further up the Nurhudda
formerly than it does at the present time, and here, where these fossil*-
iferous rocks come in contact with the trap of India, the different
geological ages of the latter might, perhaps, receive some elucidation.
It was difficult to say to what geological age the lowest part of the
blue clay belonged. Major Fulljames states, in his interesting obser-
rations in the 1st volume of the Society's Journal, that after conglo-
merate and sand had been bored through to the extent of 35 feet at
Gogo, the blue clay was met with ; and although the boring was carried
on 360 feet, it was " never passed through." Major Turner mentions
a similar account of a bore at Kurrachee. Until, therefore, sufficient
fossils had been collected from these deposits, to ascertain how many of
their representatives now existed in a living state, their real geological
age could not be determined.
There was an interestmg fact also connected with the quantity of
mineral copal which is found with the lignite mentioned, on part of the
Malabar Coast, viz. that Dr. Yaughan had statedf upon good
authority, that the fine copal which is brought to Bombay from
AMca is dug up at a considerable distance below the surface of the
ground from the African coast opposite Zanzibar, by Sidis employed
by the Imaum of Muscat, who claims this produce. The co-existence
of the same kind of mineral resin on both sides of the Indian Ocean is
not less remarkable than that the beautiM copal, hitherto conjectured
* At first, this rock looks anythinfr but fossiliferons, and it is Dot nntil portions
of it have been polished, and exposed to the action of weak add and water, that its
real structure becomes efident. It is then found to abound, among other organic
remains, with a microscopic corai, which resembles FavosUe$ in miniature, in the
aection, and is sometimes branched. To what formation this milioUte belongs
future observation must determine.
t Trans. Hed. and Pbys. See, Bombaji No. I. New SerieSi Appendix f(o. 1.
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448 PLIOGBNB DEPOSITS OP WESTERN INDIA. [JaN.
to be the exudation of a living tree in Africa, should be dog out of
the ground, and perhaps from a blue mud or clay like that imbedding
a similar material on the Malabar Coast.
Another circumstance worthy of consideration was, whether this blue
clay or mud had not followed the effusions of trap, while the great sand-
stone formation of Cntch and India had been connected in like manner
with the decomposition of the granite rocks. . In this case the lowest part
of the clay woidd be coeval with the first effusions of trap, and vice versd.
The conglomerate or miliolitic deposit in some parts existed without
the clay, and sometimes below certain deposits of it. At Bombay
there was in some parts a calcareous sandstone under the blue day,
like the miliolite of Poorbunder, in Khattyawar. Thus some of
the conglomerate, or miliolitic deposit, might be older, and some
younger than the blue clay ; the former, when very fine, being almost
entirely composed of the calcareous remains of microscopic forami-
nifera, and therefore almost wholly marine in origin ; while the latter,
being chiefly the detritus of decomposing rocks on shore, brought
down by the rains, was almost wholly of terrestrial origin. Again, the
clay itself might be mixed with more or less calcareous matter from the
sea and elsewhere, so as to form an impure or argillaceous limestone,
like that of the Malabar Coast. In all the specimens of the clay that
the author had seen from the localities mentioned, the calcareous matter
of the shells was more or less white and pulverulent ; the animal matter
gone, and the lime beginning to assume a crystalline arrangement.
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MjyMi.
Digitized by VjOOQIC
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1863.] 449
Art. VII. — Extracts from the Proceedings of the Society for the
Year 185U62.
MEMBERS ELECTED.
FROM llTH DECEMBER 1851 to 29th NOVEMBER 1852.
J. Warden, Esq. Commodore Sir H. J. Leeke, I. N.
R. H. Barnett, Esq. Narrayen Dinnanathji, Esq.
Dr. P. Gray. Dr. rI G. Ballingall.
Lieut. Col. H. Lyons. G. J. Bowyer, Esq.
Lieut. C. Lloyd, I. N. The Revd. S. B. Fairbank.
Dr. Stocks. Major W. F. Whitlie, c. e.
Dr. H. Miller. Captain R. Wallace.
R. Strong, Esq. Dr. J. F. Watson.
Bhau Daji, Esq. Lieut. W. H. Grounds, I. N.
PRESENTS FOR THE LIBRARY.
Donors.
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manent Bridges for Indian riTers Bd. of Ed. Bom.
Acts of the Supreme Goremment for 18.34, 183.5,
1836, 1837, 1838, and 1839 (in EngUsh and
Urdu)
and Orders for the North-Westem Provinces,
for the years 1849-50
Adam (W.), Extract from Third Report on the
state of Education in Bengal and Behar — ^__.
Agra to Bomhay, route from ■
American Association, Proceedings of, for the
adrancement of Science, for 1850 The Association.
ANTiauARiSK Tidsskrifl udgivet af det Kongehge
Nordiske Oldskrift Selskab 1843-45 R. S. N. A.
Badarayana, Aphorisms of the Vedanta Philo- Copen.
sophy (Sanskrit and English) Bd. of Ed. Bom.
59
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450 EXTRACTS FROM THE SOCIETY'S PROCEEDINGS. [JaK*
I Donors.
Baker (Major W. E.), Memoranda on the Western
Jumna Canals of the Bengal Presidency Bd. of £d. Bom.
Bhatta (V. p.), Basha Parichchheda, and its Com"
mentaiy the Siddhanta Muktavali ■
Boetticher (P.), Rudimenta Mythologise Semi-
tics Supplementa Lexici Aramaici scripsit. . . The Author.
Brief notices of Persian, and of the language called
Zend. By J. R Rev. Dr. Wilson.
^ BuiST (G., LL.D.), Manual of Physical Research
for India, Part I., for 1852 Gort. of Bombay.
Burton (Lieut. R. F.), Sindh, and the Races that
inhabit the Valley of the Indus
Catalogue, Official, Descriptive and Illustrated, of
1 the Great Exhibition 1851. 3 volumes Govt, of Bombay.
^ Chart showing the Central Tracks of Gales and
Storms from Colonel Ried's work on the pro-
gress of the development of the Law of Storms. Dr. Buist.
Church Missionary Record, Nos. 11 and 12 of
Volume IV. for 1851 The Editor.
Clarke (R.), Regulations of the Government of
Bombay, to which are added the Acts of the
Government of India, with a classified List of
Titles, and copious Index Govt, of Bombay.
Coles (W. C, M.D.), Introductory Lecture de-
livered in the Grant Medical College at the
opening of the Session 1851-52 Dr. Morehead.
Cope (H.), Brief Account of the Silk Manu-
factures of Lahore The Author.
Court of the Sudder Dewanee Adawlut of Bombay,
Decisions of. Part II. 1848—1850 Govt, of Bombay.
Dalzell (P. M.), Monthly Statement of the Ex-
ternal Commerce of the Presidency of Bombay,
from September 1851 to September 1852 The Author.
— Y (N. A.), Contributions to the Botany of
Western India, contained in Hooker's Journal
of Botany and Kew Garden Miscellany, Nos.
34 and 35, for 1851
Deaths in Bombay during the years 1848-49 Medical Board.
Directions for the Revenue Officers in the North-
western Provinces of the Bengal Presidency. . Bd. of Ed. Bom.
Ikxos (Lieut. Col. C. J.), Sketch of Mairwara.. .
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1^3.] PRESENTS FOR THE LIBRARY. 451
Donors.
Documents regarding the Navigation of the
Granges from AUahabad to Ravulgonge^ at the
mouth of the Gogra Bd. of Ed. Bom.
Ellesmere (Right Hon'hle the Earl), Guide to
Northern Archseology, by the Royal Society of
Northern Antiquities of Copenhagen The Society.
Elliot (Sir H. M.), Biblic^raphical Index to the
/ Historians of Muhammedan India, Vol. I. . . Bd. of Ed. Bom.
Falconer and Cautle/s Fauna Antiqua SiTalensis,
being the Fossil Zoology of the Sewalik Hills,
in the North of India, in 9 Parts The Hon. Sir E.
Fin (J. E.), Address delivered by, at the opening Perry,
of the Jerusalem Literary Society, on the 12th
i December 1851 Rev. Dr. Wilson.
Ganges Canal Works, Estimate of, 1850 Bd. of Ed. Bom.
Gautama, Aphorisms of Nyaya Philosophy (Sans-
krit and English) ■
Goodwin (Lieut. Col. H.), Report on the Agra
and Bombay Road ■
Gospel according to St. Matthew, in English, Ma-
rdtha, Guzerathi, and Persian Bib. Soc. Bom.
Gould (B. A.), Report of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion on History of the Discovery of Neptune. Smithson. Inst.
Grammar, Sanskrit, First Lessons in
Griffith (W.), Notulee ad Plantas Asiaticas,
Monocotyledonous Plants, Part III Govt.of Bombay.
Icones Plantarum Asiaticarum, Part III.
Monocotyledonous Plants
GuBBiN (M. R.), Reports upon the Settlement
of Zillah Etawah Bd. of. Ed. Bom.
Jaimini, Aphorisms of the Mimansa Philosophy...
Jejeebhoy (S. J.), Tuqviuti-din-i-Mazdiasna, or a
Mezhur or Certificate granted by the Prophet
Mahomed, translated by, into Guzerathi, from
the Persian version of the original Arabic. . . . The Author.
Jewett's (C. C), Notices of Public Libraries in
the United States of America SmithsoB. Inst*
Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern
Asia, Nos. 9 to 12 of Vol. V. for 1851, and
Nos. 1 to 5 of Vol. VI. for 1852 The Editors.
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452 EXTRACTS PROM THE SOCIETY'S PROCEEDINGS. [JaN.
Donors.
Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern
Asia, Nos. 6, 7, 11, 12 of Vol. V. for 1851,
and Nos. 1 to 4 of Vol. VI. for 1852 Govt, of Bombay.
Lassen (M. C), Vendidadi capita quinque priora
emendarit. The Author.
Lecture on the Vedanta (Sanskrit and English).. Bd. of £d. Bom.
Mahomed (W.), Hukayut Oosalaheen, or Stories
of good men, written in Sindee Govt, of Bombay.
Mathematical Tables, comprehending Logarithms
of all numbers from I to 10,000 Bd. of Ed. Bom.
Maury (Lieut. M. F.), Wind, Current, and Pilot
Charts of the North and South Atlantic Ocean. The Author.
Notice to Mariners. . . . * '
Memoir on the Statistics of the North-Westem
Provinces of the Bengal Presidency, compiled
by A. Shakespeare, Esq Bd. of Ed. Bom.
of the Indigenous Education within the
North-Western Provinces of the Bengal
Presidency, compiled by R. Thornton, Esq. ...
Misra (Sankara), Aphorism of the Vaiseshika Phi-
losophy of Kanada —
Montgomery (R.)> Statistical Report of the Dis-
trict of Cawnpoor, June 1848 ■
Report of the arrangements made for Sup-
plies and Police of the Grand Trunk Road,
in the Cawnport District *
MooRER (G. F.), Ueber die Angebliche Abstam-
mung des Normannischen Ronigsgeschlechts
Siziliens The Author.
Narrayen Bhai and Basker Damother, Essays
on Native Education, and on Foreign Travels
by Hindus Hon. Sir E.Perry.
Nyaya Philosophy, Lectures on the (Sanskrit
and English) Bd. of Ed. Bom.
Observations, Magnetical and Meteorological,
made at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, in
the year 1850, iinder the direction of G. B.
Airy, Esq ., Hon- Court of
Directors.
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1853.] PRESENTS FOR THE LIBRARY. 463
Donors.
Observations, Astronomical, made during the year
1846, at the National Observatory, Washington,
under the direction 6f Lieut. M. F. Maury,
. Vol. II Lieutenant M. F.
'* Magnetical and Meteorological, Obser- Maury,
vatory at Hobart Town, in Van DiemaA's Land,
under the superintendence of Colonel Sabine. Govt, of Bombay.
^ ■ Meteorological, made at the Meteoro-
logical Bungalow on Dodabetta, for the years
1848 — 1850, under the directions of the late
Messrs. Taylor and Jacob Govt, of Madras.
Magnetical and Meteorological Obser-
vatory at the Cape of Good Hope, under the
superintendence of Lieut. Col. Sabine Govt, of Bombay.
* at the Bombay Observatory, in the
year 1848, under the superintendence of
Captain C. W. Montriou, I. N
Operations for the improvement of the Naviga-
tion of the Ganges from Ravulgunge to AUa-
/ habad, during the season 1849-50 Bd. of Ed. Bom.
O Shaughnessy (W. B.), Report on the Electric
Telegraph between Calcutta and Kedgeree... . Govt, of Bombay.
Pershad (Lalla Jottee), Trial of. Govt, of India.
Police, Returns of, showing the State of Crime in
the Town and Island of Bombay, during the
year 1850-51 Govt, of Bombay.
Proceedings regarding the settlement of a Vil-
lage, translation of Bd. of Ed. Bom.
of a Meeting of the Committee of
the Obstetric Institution, Bombay Dr. Morehead.
PuRGSTALL (Barrou Hammar), Literaturgeschichte
der Araber. Von ihrerm beginne bis zu Ende
des zwolflten Jahrhunderts der Hidschret, von.
2 Vols The Author.
Pyle (J. C), Abstract of Meteorological Observa-
tions made at Futtegurh, for the year 1850,
North-Western Provinces, Bengal Col. Sykes.
Raja (B.), Aphorisms of the Yoga Philosophy of
Patanjali (Sanskrit and English) Bd. of Ed. Bom.
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454 EXTRACTS FROM THE SOCIETY'S PROCBBDINOS. [JaN.
. Donors.
^ Renny (Dr. C), Medical Report on the Maha-
murree in Gurhwal, in 1849-50 Bd. of Ed. Bom.
Report of the Board of Education, No. X., for
1851-52 Govt, of Bombay.
Civil Judicial Administration of the Bom-
bay Presidency, for the year 1849-50
Fourth Annual, of the Board of Regents of
the Smithsonian Institution, for the year 1849. Smithson. Inst.
of the Bombay Engineers, for the years
1849-50-51 Govt, of Bombay.
■ Annual, of the Grant Medical College,
Bombay, Sixth Year Session, 1851-52 Dr. Morehead.
of Crime, and of the Police Administration of
the Zillahs subject to the Bombay Presidency,
for the year 1850 Govt, of Bombay,
on East India AflFairs, 10 Vols Hon.Sir E.Peny.
i - upon the Tea Plantations in the North-
western Provmces Bd. of Ed. Bom.
^ Half Yearly, relative to the management of
the Government Dispensaries in the Upper
Provinces, from 1st February to 31st July
1841
-of the Sudder Dewanee Adawlut, North-
western Provinces, on the administration of
Civil Justice, 1840-41-42
Nizamut Adawlut, North- Western Provinces,
on the administration of Criminal Justice,
1842—1844
on the settlement of the District of Seha-
runpore, 1839 .
of the Sudder Board of Revenue, on the
Revenue Administration, North-Westem Pro-
vinces, for the official years 1848-49-50 .
— on Projected Canals in the Delhi territory.
* Official, on the Provinces of Kumaon, with
a Medical Report on the Mahamurree in
Gurhwal, in 1 849-50. Edited by J. H. Butten.
Rig Veda Sanhita, the Sacred Hymns of the
Brahmans, together with the Commentary of
Sayanacharya, (edited by Max. Muller) VoJ. I. Col. Waddington.
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1863.] PRESENTS FOR THE LIBRARY. 455
Donors.
RoYLE (Professor J. F.), Lecture XI. on the Arts
and Manufactures of India Govt, of Bombay.
Rut ya Khuda ki purwardigari us ke talashion
ke haqq men Revd. J. Warren.
Sankhya Philosophy, Lectures on (Sanskrit and
English) Bd. of Ed. Bom.
Selections from the Public Correspondence, from
Part III. to XI
Small (J.), Index to the Acts passed by the Le-
gislative Council of India from their com-
mencement in 1834, to the end of the year
1849 Govt, of Bombay.
Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, Vol.
II., with Index Smithson. Inst.
Society, American, Oriental. Journal of, Vol. II. The Society.
—China Branch of the Royal Asiatic, Trans-
actions of. Part II., 1848—1850
Royal Asiatic, of Great Britain and
Ireland, Journal of. Part I. of Vol. XIII. and
of Vol. XIV
Syro-Egyptian, Original Papers of, read
before the Meeting, Part I. of Vol. I Revd. Dr. J.
Bombay Geographical, Transactions of, from Wilson.
. September 1850 to June 1852, Vol. X The Society.
^' Bombay Medical and Physical, Transactions
of. Vol. X. (with General Index from No. I.
toX.)
—Ditto ditto ditto Govt, of Bombay.
Royal Astronomical, Memoirs of. Vol. XX.,
for 1850-51 The Society.
Monthly Notices of Abstracts of Papers
and Reports of Proceedings, from November
1850 to June 1851, Vol. XI
Proceedings of, Nos. 1, 2 of Vol. XII. for
1851, and Nos. 3, 4, 5, of Vol. XII. for 1852,
with Supplement No. 9. Vol. XI ■
of Northern Antiquaries at Copenhagen,
Proceedings of, for 1852 ■
Statistical Report on the District of Goorgaon,
compHed by A. Fraser ^ , Bd, of Ed. Bom,
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456 EXTRACTS FROM THE SOCIETY'S PROCBBDING8. [JaH.
Donors.
Syllabi's of a Course of Lectures upon Ex-
perimental Philosophy. . . i Bd. of Ed. Bom.
Synopsis of Science (Sanskrit and English) — .
Taylor (W. C), Ancient and Modern India,
Vol. 1
Tremenheere (Capt. G. B.), Report on the
Tin and other Mineral Productions of the
Tenasserim Provinces Govt, of Bombay.
Tresham (D.), on Blasting under Water by means
of Galvanism .
Tare a Sangrahba of Annam Bhatta (Hindi and
English) -«^_^
Weber (Dr. A.), Indische Studien. Beitrage fur die
Kunde des Indischen Alterthums. Im vereine
mit mehrerm Gelehrten Heransge geben, von . . . The Author.
Westergaard (N. L.), Bundehesh, Liber Pehlvi-
cus, e vetustissimo codice Havniensi descripsit,
duas inscriptiones Regis Saporis primi adjecit. .
Wight (R.), Icones Plantarum Indice Orientalis,
Figures of Indian Plants, Part II. Vol. V Govt, of Bombay.
Wyatt (D.), Series of Illustrations of the choicest
specimens produced by every Nation at the
Great Exhibition of Works of Industry, 1851.
2 Vols, folio ■
Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen
Gesellschaft. Heft II. III. IV. fur 1851.
Heft I. IL fur 1852 The Ger. Or. Soc.
FOR THE MUSEUM.
Batrachian Reptile, large, (Rana ?) remains of,
from the carboniferous shale of Bombay Dr. A. H. Leith.
Butterflies, species of, (100) horn the neighbour-
hood of Bordeaux Dr. G. Buist.
Coal, from the freshwater strata near Love-grove,
in the Island of Bombay Dr. A. H. Leith.
Coal and fossils, specimens of, from the Salt Range
en the western side of the Upper Indus ; also
fossils from the NHmmuiitic formation m the
same neighbourhood Lt. Grounds,I.N.
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1853.] PRBSBNTS FOR THE MUSEUM. 457
Donors.
Calcareous conglomerate, loose sandstone, and blue
clay with lignite, shells, and septaria, specimens
of, obtained in boring for water near Minora
Point, Kurracbee Major H. B.
Coins, gold (two) called '' Huns," found among Turner.
the ruins of an old building near Punderpoor. Dr. Wiehe.
Ditto (one) ditto ditto Govt. ofBombay.
Copper Ore from Australia Major DelHoste.
Dycolytedonous wood silicified, specimens of, from
the neighbourhood of Saugor, Central India.. . Captain W. T.
Fishes, shells, corals, and rock-specimens, a large Nicolls.
collection of, from the Red Sea Lieut. G. F, Ro-
binson, I. N.
Fossil Nautili, specimens of, from Sindh Dr. A. H. Leith.
bone, portion of, from a nullah at Wansura,
near Poona
Impressions, yegetable, and fossil freshwater shells,
specimens of, from the chert and carbonifer-
ous shale in the neighbourhood of Kamptee... Dr. Jerdon.
Lycodon aulicus, snake, from Bombay Mr. Mendoza.
Palm-wood and freshwater shells, specimens of
fossilized, from the neighbourhood of Saugor,
Central India Captain W. T.
Physa Prinsepii, from a soapy, gritty, deposit near Nicolls.
Saugor, Central India ■
Nummulites and nummulitic limestones, specimens
of, from Sindh Major H. B.
Remains taken from a Cairn at the village of Jiwargi, Turner.
near Ferozabad, on the Bhima. These consist
of human bones, the bones of reptiles, those
of a canine animal, pottery, a spear-head, and
the remnants of an iron tripod, with other
pieces of articles formed of the same metal. . . Capt. M. Taylor.
Rock-specimens and Fossils, from the Island of Bom-
bay,illustrative of its Geology. (See list, p. 21 1 .) Drs. A. H. Leith
■ from the Southern Maratha Country, & H. J. Carter.
collected from the neighbourhood of Dharwar
and Belgaum— from the primitive rocks,
metamorphic strata and trappean effusions of
that locality Lieut. A.Aytoun.
60
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468 EXTRACTS FROM THE SOCIJBTy's PROCEEDINGS. [JaK.
Donors.
Rock-spedmens and Fossils (several hondred),
from the South-East Coast of Arabia H. J. Carter^ Esq.
' a collection of, from Aden Capt. Montriou»
Sculpture, specimen of, horn the ruins of a temple I. N.
on the Pownghur, about 28 miles from Baroda. Lieut. H. Berille.
Sculptured pieces of marble from the ruins in the
town of Chowl, in Angria's Colaba E. C. Jones, Esq.
Shell limestone, specimens of, from Bates Island, in
the Gidf of Cutch Lieut. Taylor,
Silurian fossils and minerals, a large collection of, I. N.
from Wales Captain C. W.
Cuneiform inscriptions on a slab of gypsum, and on Tremenheere.
a brick, from the ruins of Nineveh (fine speci-
mens) Parry Jones, Esq.
Telingi manuscript on palmyra leaves Govt, of Bombay.
ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.
Communicated
Barr, (Captain C.,) Report on the Condition, Cus- by
toms, and Pursuits of the Mangs of the
KolapoorTerritories. — 1 1 thNavember 1852.(a) Govt, of Bombay.
Carter, (H. J., Esq.,) Geology of the Island of
Bombay.— lUA December 1851. (6). The Author.
On the form and structure of the
Shell of Operculina Arabica (new species). —
13M May 1852. (c)
Note on the Pliocene Deposits
of the Shores of the Arabian Sea.— 14M
1 October 1852. (d) ■
On the larger forms of Fossilized
Foraminifera in Sindh (with a plate). — IIM
November 1852. (e) ■
McLeod, (J., Esq.,) Sketches and Descriptions of
some of the Cartilaginous Fishes inhabiting the
sea near Kurrachee.— lOM June 1852. (/). . H. B. E.
Mitchell, (Revd. J. M.,) Recent Investigations in Frere, Esq.
Zend Literature.— 12^A February 1852. (pr). . The Author.
Perry, (Hon'bleSir E.,) On the conflictmg views of
(a) See next No. (b) p. 161. (c) p. 480. (d) p. 446.
(e) See next No. (/ ) Ditto. (^) p. S16.
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1853.]
ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.
469
Communicated
European Scholars as to the Races inhabiting by
Polynesia and the Indian Archipelago ; and as
to the Languages spoken by them. — 13M May
1852. (h) The Author.
Perry, (Hon'ble Sir E.,) On the Geographical Limits
of the principal Languages of India, and the
feasibility of establishing English as a Lingua
Franca.'-lbth July 1852. (t)
Stevenson, ( Rcvd. J., D.D., ) Theory of the Great
Elephanta Cave.— 13M May 1852. (Jc)
Translation of a Sanskrit Inscrip-
tion in the Great Cave at Kenery, in the Island
of Salsette.— 15M July 1852. ( /)
Comparative Vocabulaiy of Non-
Sanskrit Primitives in the Yemacular Langua-
ges of India, Part II.— 12M August 1852. (m)
On the Historical Names and Facts
contained in the Kenery Inscriptions. — I4M
October 1852. (»)
Taylor, (Captain M.,) Notices of Cromlechs, Cairns,
and other Ancient Scytho-Druidical Remains
in the Principality of Sorapiir, with Plans and
Illustrations.— 14M October 1852. (o)
Wilson, (Revd. J., D.D.,) Brief Memorial of the
Literary Researches of the late William Erskine,
Esq.— 15M /u/y 1852. {p)
Second Memoir on the Cave-Tem-
ples, and other Ancient Buddhist, Brahmanical,
and Jaina Remains of Western India. — 9tk
September 1852. {q)
PROCEEDINGS, OFFICLiL, LITERARY, AND SCIENTIFIC.
The letter from Messrs. Longman and Co., having reference to the
reprinting of the Transactions of the Literary Society, stating that the
copper-plates had been destroyed, and proposing terms for replacing
{h) p. 24e. ( t ) p. 380. (k) p. 261. ( / ) See next .Vo.
(m) p. 319. (n) See next No. (o) p. 3B0. {p) p. 276. (q) p. 340.
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460 EXTRACTS FROM THE SOCIETY'S PROCEEDINGS. [Jan.
them with lithographs, &c., was handed oyer for the consideration
of the Committee of Management. It states as follows : —
" The cost of copying the engravings in lithography, independently
of the printing, would he about ^150 ; and the cost of printing 250
copies of the work, and plates, would be about ^350. In this
amount the binding is not included, but this would not amount to a
great sum." — Sth January 1852.
Government letter No. 91 of 1852 transmits copies of the Census of
the town and island of Bombay, taken by Captain Baynes on the Ist
February last, and of the correspondence which passed between Govern-
ment and the Police Authorities regarding this and the census taken on
the 1st May 1849. Also copies of the returns of the census which
was taken on the 26th August last. These records are for deposit
and reference in the Society's library, and not for publication, as they
are not considered trustworthy, but may furmsh much useful informa-
tion on a future occasion, when it may be deemed advisable by Grovem-
ment that another census should be attempted.
Government letter No. 196 of 1852, stating that the employment of
Ensign F. P. F. Brett, of the 1 1th Regiment N. I., to take fac-similes
and impressions of the cave-temple and rock inscriptions in Western
India, had been sanctioned by the Supreme Government of India, for
one year, and that instructions would be given from the MiUtary De-
partment for placing Mr. Brett's services at the disposal of the Cave-
Temple Commission, was handed over for the guidance of the latter.
Government letter No. 336 of 1852, forwarding copy of a commu-
nication dated the 1 1th December last, from W. EUiot, Esq., Madras
C. S., on the subject of cave-temples in India, was also delivered to
the Cave-Temple Commission, and will appear in their general abstract
of coiAmunications on these subjects, which will be published in the
next No. of the Society's Journal. It makes mention of some caves not
noticed in Dr. Wilson's Memoir, viz. at Badami ; Eiwally, a village
on the banks of the Malpurba ; and at the village of Undavalli, on the
banks of the Kistna ; also offers, for the use of the Society, sketches
of the figures contained in the cave at the place last mentioned.
The Secretary was directed to forward the best thanks of the
Society to Mr. Elliot, for his valuable communication, and to state that
the sketches mentioned therein would be most acceptable to the Society.
The letter from J. J. Loth, Esq., states in reply to the Society's,
proposing an interchange of journals with the Madras Society, that
the Committee of the latter assent most willingly to the proposal.
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1853.] OFFICIAL^ LITBRART, AND SCIENTIFIC. 461
snd have directed a copy of all the numbers published since 1840,
inclusiye (viz. those which are not in the Society's hbrary), to be trans-
mitted by the first favourable opportunity for presentation to the
Society.
The letter from £. Salisbury, Esq., Corresponding Secretary of the
American Oriental Society, is accompanied by a copy of the last
number of their Journal, and expresses their desire to keep up an
interchange with the Journal of the Bombay Society.
The Revd. J. M. Mitchell read his paper on Zend Literature, (see
p. 216,) being a continuation of one on the subject read about eighteen
months ago. He briefly referred to the continuation by Dr. Roth of
those .inyestigations connecting the mythology of the Veda and the
Zendavesta, which had been so skil^Uy commenced in his dissertation
on the legend of Feridun. Mr. Mitchell's paper was mainly occupied
with an explanation of the very important papers and works of Dr.
Spinel, Professor of Oriental languages at Erlangen, copies of which
he laid on the table. The most important of these are — Ut, Papers in
the Journal of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Munich, and in the
Journal of the German Oriental Society. These are chiefly occupied
with the discussion of the criticisms on the text of the Zendavesta ;
^nd, A new translation of the 19th Fargard of the Vendidad, with
copious notes, critical and explanatory ; Srd, A Grammar of what the
Professor calls the Parsi language ; 4^A, An edition of the Zendavesta
itself.
With regard to the new version by Spiegel of the 1 9th Fargard of
the Vendidad, Mr. Mitchell submitted a translation of the German
into English, and also an English version by Mr. Dhanjibhai Framji,
of the Gujarati translation by Dastur Framji Aspandiarji. Doubts
had often been expressed, and by none more loudly than some of the
Parsis themselves, as to the correctness of Framjee Aspandiarji's version,
and as no other translation into Gujarati is accessible, (the one executed
by the late chief Dastur Edulji Darabji being locked up, apparently,
in the archives of the Panchayet,) it is of importance to fix its value.
The result of a careful comparison of the three versions aforesaid is,
that while Anquetil is perpetually departing both from Spiegel and
Framji, the latter two agree in most things of importance. Spiegel
tells us that he has no acquaintance with Gujarati versions, so that this
coincidence between the Professor and the Dastur is a strong primd
facie evidence that they are both right.
With regard to the *' Grammar of the Parsi Language," the learned
Professor has found, in studying the multifarious writings included
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462 EXTRACTS FBOM THE SOCIETY'S PROCEEDINGS. [JaK.
in the Zendavesta, and the works therewith connected* that the
treatises included under what is temed Pehlivi are in fact in two di£ferent
languages ; and to one of these, for want of a better name, he has
affixed the name Parsi language, and has entered, in the work in ques-
tion, into a fnll examination of its character. He finds it intermediate
between the proper Pehlivi (Husvaresh) and the modem Persian.
Many things in the latter, otherwise unintelligible, are cleared up by it.
It seems related to the Deri dialect, to which, again, the idiom of the
great national epic of Persia, the Shah Nameh, approximates. Besides
this distinction in the works generally termed Pehlivi, the so-called
Zend also divides itself on careful examination into two languages, or
dialects. Spiegel finds that the 2nd Part of the Ta9na is written in
an idiom very considerably different from that of the 1st Part, and
apparently more ancient. He holds that the oldest part .of the
Avesta is the 2nd Part of the Ta9na, the next oldest the Yendidad,
and the next the 1st Part of the Ya9na. — See this subject fully
examined in a remarkable paper in Weber's IndUche Siudien, vol. L
pp. 303—315.
But the most important of all Spiegel's labours is his edition of the
Zendavesta itself, which is now in the press at Vienna. A copy of the
first part of the work was submitted to the Members present, and was
much admired for the beauty of the typography. The Oriental part
will consist of 3 vols. 8vo., and will contain the original text, the
Pehlivi version, a copious list of various readings, and, finally, a Grerman
translation of the whole. The only edition of the Zendavesta pro-
curable at present is a Bombay lithographed edition, a huge folio, which
sells very dear. On this the elegant edition of the Professor will be an
immense improvement.
The Society resolved to take two copies of the work, and to open a
subscription list, which will remain in the library, for Parsis, and others
interested in this matter, to put down their names for copies. The
Professor's letters report his work as both " cheap and el^ant," but
he has forgotten to state the exact price. The whole Zend and Pehliri
will probably be under Rs. 15.
Mr. Fallon having forwarded to the Cave-Temple Commission three
oil paintings, together with the plan and elevation of the Caves of
Elephants, they were laid before the Meeting, and gave great satisfaction.
The Secretary was requested to take charge of them until the re-
mainder were ready for transmission to Groveminent. — I2tk Feb-
ruary 1852.
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1863.] OFFICIAL^ LITERARY, AND SCIBNTIFIC. 463
A Copper-plate Charter was laid before the Society, respecting
which the Revd. P. Anderson stated as follows : — " I place upon the
table for inspection two copper-plates forwarded to me from Guzerat bj
A. Kinloch Forbes, Esq., who writes thus : —
" * I procured them from the aunt of the present Thakoor of Wulleh>
after unheard-of difficulties. The old ladj had shown them to several
wise men of the East, who, as they knew nothing about the contents,
merely returned them with the remark that the treasure alluded to in
them was not in her naseeb. She made me promise to return them
with my own hands, and let her know what the meaning of the inscrip-
tion is, — also she insisted that the Thakoor should pledge his word that
when the treasure was found she should have a fourth share ; all
which stipulations having been agreed to with due solemnity, she
remarked that she had four or five other such, which I might see when
the present was returned. They told me the plates were dug up with
the others in the middle of the ruins at Walleh many — fifteen or
twenty — years ago.'
'' It is to be hoped that this old lady is not anticipating her good
fortune, and living upon her great expectations. The letters on the
plates, it will be perceived, can nowhere be very distmctly traced, and in
many parts are quite illegible. However, I have ascertained that this
is a grant of land made by King SiUditya of Yalabhipura. A genealo-
gical list of kings is given as usual, and their names are distinctly trace-
able. They are follows : —
" ' 1 Guha Sena ; 2, His son Dhura Sena ; 3, His son Sfl&ditya ; 4, His
younger brother Isbara Graha ; 5, His son Dhara Sena ; 6, His younger
brother Dhara Sena ; 7, His son Dhara Sena ; 8, His son Dhruva Sena.'
** This list is precisely the same as that given in the Bengal Anatie
Society's Journal, vol. vii. page 96 7> and three-fourths of their plates
are similar to those of which an account is there given. The actual
grant contain^ in the latter part of the inscription now before the
Society is illegible, but perhaps some members of the Society may be
able to decypher more than I have succeeded in dec3rphering. Sila*
ditya is a family name, and probably the donor in this instance is
Dhruva Sena, but it appears to be impossible to ascertain this with any
degree of certainty."
The publication of No. xv. of the Society's Journal was announc-
ed.—IIM JtfarcA 1862.
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464 BXTRACTS FROM THE SOCIBTY's PROCEEDINGS. [JaN,
Letter No. 1138 of 1852 forwards copy of a Census of Bombay,
taken on the 20th August last, to be placed, as before directed, among
the records of the Society for reference, but not for publication.
Colonel Twemlow, in his letter dated 10th ultimo, calls the attention
of the Society to the remains, apparently of oyster shells, from their
form and nacreous lustre, which are seen adherent to the trappean rock
between Nagotna and Mhar, where the road is being widened, " just
before descending to the level of Dazgaun, and the sulphur (hot)
springs near that village." Colonel Twemlow considers the ridge cut
through in widening the road to be about 100 feet above the level of
the sea, and recommends a further examination of the spot, as he had
not time or instruments to effect this.
Several impressions of long inscriptions taken from the rock-cut caves
in the island of Salsette by Lieutenant Brett were laid on the table.
The manner in which these have been obtained is most satisfactory.
Mr. Brett uses Gutta Percha for this purpose. It is heated in water
until sufficiently softened to admit of being spread over the rock, and
pressed into the cavities of the letters. After this the letters, now in
relief, are carefully smoothed down to a common level with a hot iron ;
printers' ink is then passed over them, and they are impressed on cloth
or paper. As soon as a sufficient number of copies have been taken,
the Gutta Percha is again boiled down, and applied over the next
portion of the inscription, and so on until the whole is obtained. — Stk
April 1852.
The letter dated 14th ultimo, from H. B. E. Frere, Esq., Commis-
sioner in Sindh, accompanied by the communication mentioned, (p. 458,)
states that Mr. McLeod will be happy to send the Society specimens
and descriptions of all the cartilaginous fishes obtainable at Kurrachee,
for the Society's museum and Journal, should they be considered
acceptable for these purposes.
The Secretary was requested to present the best thanks of the Society
to Mr. Frere, and to state that the present would be highly acceptable,
and the publication of Mr. McLeod's sketches and descriptions of
universal interest, as well as any other contribution on objects of
natural history in Sindh or its neighbourhood.
With reference to the antiquities sent from the plains of Gehrareh in
Mesopotamia by Commander Jones, I. N., to the Government, and
which had been submitted to the Rev. Dr. Wilson for examination.
Dr. Wilson stated, that without further information respecting them,
it would be impossible to give a satisfactory opinion of their age or
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1853.] OFFICIAL^ LITERARY, AND SCIENTIFIC. 465
antiquarian yalue. That he did not think they were so old as had been
imagined by Commander Jones, though he spoke with much deference
on this point ; and requested that some observationSy which he had
prepared for the purpose, might be forwarded to Government, with a
suggestion that they should be submitted for Commander Jones'
consideration and reply, before the question of the final disposal of
these remains was settled.
The Secretary was directed to act in accordance with Dr. Wilson's
request.
The remains of the Batrachian reptile above mentioned, which is
another animal added to those already found by Dr. Leith in the car-
boniferous shale of Bombay, appear to consist of the tibur. of a frog,
much larger than Rana pusilla of this formation. Dr. Leith concludes
from measurement that they must have belonged to one at least three
inches long, but until other parts of the skeleton are found this cannot
of course be satisfactorily determined any more than the kind of reptile
to which they did belong ; although there can be very httle doubt of
the latter.— lOM June 1852.
With reference to the Government letter No. 2322 of 1852, request-
ing the Society to make known, as extensively as possible, the intention
of the Society of Arts in London to hold an exhibition of the arts and
manufactures of India in the spring of 1853, the Secretary was
requested to take steps for carrying into effect the wishes of Government
as soon as practicable.
The following letter was received from Barron Hammer- Purgstall,
with the 1st vol. of his Literaturgeschichte der Araber, &c.
To the Secretary of the Asiatic Society of Bombay.
Sir, — If the Asiatic Societies of India are the first who claim the
thanks of all OrientaHsts, for the spirit raised by them in Asia, Europe,
and America, for the edition and translation of Oriental texts, they are
also the first to whom I owe the honor of having been named their
member. They rank therefore the first in the line of the seven Asiatic
Societies, which are the object of the dedication of my history of
Arabic literature.
Presenting the two first volumes of it to the honorable Asiatic Society
of Bombay, in order to testify my respects and thanks, I have the honor
to remain, with the highest regard.
Sir,
Your most humble and most obedient Servant,
(Signed) Hammer-Purgstall.
61
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466 EXTRACTS FROM THE SOCIETY'S PROCEEDINGS. [JaN.
The Secretary was requested to acknowledge the receipt of this letter,
&c., with the Society's best thanks, and to forward for the acceptance of
the Author in return a copy of each of the numbers of the Society's
Journal which are not out of print. — 1 5th July 1852.
The Government letter No. 2653, dated 17th July last, stating that
the Supreme (xOTemment had been pleased to sanction the appoint-
ment of Mr. Fallon for a further period of twelve months, was handed
over tor the guidance of the Cave-Temple Commission.
With reference to Commander Jones' note, ofFiering to forward three
beautifully sculptured slabs found among the ruins of Nineveh for the
museum, if the Society would bear the expense of the water carriage
from Nineveh to Bombay, the Secretary was requested to accept Com-
mander Jones' kind offer, provided the expense was not very great, at
the same time soUciting the Government to allow the slabs to be brought
down by the H. C. vessels as far as might be practicable.
The Rev. Dr. Stevenson stated that he had examined the gold
coins from the Purundhur and Sewnere talookas, submitted with the
Government letters Nos. 4028 and 4201 of 1851, and was of opinion
that they belonged to some Hindu coinage, but he had not seen any
previous specimens of them. They are stamped on one side only, and
bear a star in the centre, with a conch on one side, and the rudiments of
rather ancient Hindu characters on the margin. Dr. Stevenson thinks
that they should be sent to England, for the examination of some able
antiquary.
No. xvi. of the Society's Journal was laid on the table. — 12M Au-
gu8t 1852.
The following propositions by the Honorable Sir E. Perry, Kt.,
President, which had been circulated for the opinions of the Committee
of Management, were submitted to the Meeting : —
Ist. — Members out of the Pre8idency shall pay only fifteen (15)
Rupees per annum, for which they shall be entitled to a copy of the
Journal.
2nd. — Officers of Regiments stationed in Bombay shall be allowed
free access to the Library, on a written order from the Colonel of their
Regiment, but shall not take out books to their private residence.
3rd. — Native students, in like manner, who desire to pursue their
studies, shall be allowed free access to the Hbrary, on a vmtten order
from any Member of the Society ; the order mentioned in this and the
last rule to last for a vear.
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1863.] OFFICIAL, LITERART, AND SCIENTIFIC. 467
These, after some discussion, having been modified, it was proposed
by the Honorable the President, seconded by the Rev. Dr. Stevenson,
and resolved unanimously —
That it is expedient to introduce alterations in the rules in accordance
with the principles expressed in the above propositions, and that
these be referred to the Committee of Management, with a request that
the Committee will draw up some new rules in accordance with the
spirit of them for consideration at the next Anniversary Meeting.
The letter from Lieutenant Brett was accompanied by a plan and fac-
similes of all the inscriptions in the Caves of Nasik. Mr. Brett stated
also that he was going on to the Caves of Ellora for a similar purpose.
Respecting the coins above mentioned, which were forwarded by Dr.
Wiehe, and which fortunately happen to be more perfect specimens
than those belonging to Government which were partly described in
the minutes of last meeting, the Rev. Dr. Stevenson stated as
follows : —
'* The coins from the Purundhur and Sewnere talookas are what are
called Huns, The Hun is the original coin from which the Madras pagoda,
so named from the figure of a Hindu temple on the reverse, is derived.
The Hun should be the third of a tola, or 60 grains ; the Madras pagoda
is only 4^.83, but according to Prinsep's usdful tables, page 39, most
of the older Huns weigh from 50 to 52.90 grains ; our coins weigh no
less than 59 grains, which is within one grain of the full standard itself.
I mention this, as it is of itself a considerable argument in favour of the
antiquity of these coins. The form of the coins is singular, being
somewhat like an oval shield, convex on the one side, and concave on
the other. The convex side is unstamped, and the concave has in its
centre a lotus (Kamal), which conventionally by the Hindus is figured
with eight leaves. On the margin the letters Shri Ramd are stamped in
rather anciaat characters, but not differing materially from the present
Devandgari type : on the opposite side is the conch (Shankha), one of
the emblems of Vishnu, with a bunch of pearls attached to it. To the
right of the letters is a figure, which I suppose to be the head of the
mace (Gada), another emblem of Vishnu ; on the margin opposite to
this, is the discus or quoit (Chakra), a third of Vishnu's emblems.
The coin, then, was probably struck by a worshipper of Ram, probably
of the sect of Rama Nuja, which some centuries ago prevailed greatly in
the Canarese country, on which Punderpoor borders. In looking over
the list of Vijayanagar sovereigns contained in the twentieth volumne
of the Asiatic Researches, and copied in Prinsep's useful tables.
Table XLVI., I find that the family of Bukka, raised to the throne by
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468 EXTRACTS FROM THE SOCIETt's PROCEEDINGS. [Jak.
the famous Vidjaranya, was superseded by that of Sri Ranga in 1450
A. D. The former of these families were worshippers of Siva, which
we know was the sect of their Gurus, but all the names of the latter
family show they were sectaries of Vishnu. Thus Sri Ranga's son was
named Ram Chandra, his Narshina, and so on ; Krishna Deva, one of the
family, extended his sway as far as Guj&rat, but his son Ram Raja was
killed daring a Mahomedan invasion, and the kingdom, though not
extinct till long after, was then shorn of its glory. Our coins, then, I
should suppose, must have been struck by some one of those monarchs,
in the palmy days of their sovereignty, when ruling over the best parts
of the Deccan, from between the middle of the 15th and middle of the
16th centuries of our era." — 9th September 1852.
Major Jacob's letter is accompanied by a translation of a Persian
MS. entitled a History of Bokhara, which, at the suggestion of Sir
Alexander Bumes, had been given to him in London in 1834, for this
purpose, but which Major Jacob, after having perused a little,
considered too puerile and inane to deserve further notice.
This having been represented to the Oriental Translation Committee,
they were of a different opinion, and requested Major Jacob at his
leisure to complete the translation : from various hindrances, Jiowever,
Major Jacob has not been able to fulfil his task until the present time,
and he has now forwarded the original with translation complete, for
transmission to the parent Society.
The Secretary was requested to inform Major Jacob that, at the re-
quest of its Oriental Translation Committee, his translation, &c.would be
forwarded to the Royal Asiatic Society by the earliest opportunity.
In reply to Dr. Buist's letter, calling the Society's attention to a
memorandum of the Mahratta literature published at the lithographic
presses of Bombay, which had been presented by R. X. Murphy, Esq.,
in November 1 843, but never printed ; and suggesting the desirable-
ness of a compilation of all information that could be obtained on the
subject as a test of the intellectual progress of the people. The Secre- ,
tary was requested to acknowledge Dr. Buist's communication with
thanks, and to state that the Society, having been informed that the
Rev. Dr. Wilson was engaged in drawing up a complete catalogue of
all the typographed and lithographed works which had yet been printed
for the " Deccan Vernacular Society," were desirous of leaving it in his
able hands for the present.
The following letter was received from the Rev. Murray Mitchell,
respecting the printing and translation of the Parsi religious books by
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1863.] OFFICIAL, LITERARY, AND SCIENTIFIC. 469
Professor Spiegel, and the Zend Dictionary under preparation by our
member Dhunjibbai Framji : —
My DEAR Sir, — As I cannot attend the meeting of the Asiatic
Society to-day, I shall be much obliged to you if you will kindly com-
municate to the Society the following extracts from a letter which I
have recently received from Professor Spiegel, of Erlangen. -It will be
seen that this zealous Orientalist is making rapid progress with the im-
portant works he is bringing out in connexion with Parsi archaeology.
In reference to his edition of the Zendavesta, the Professor writes as
follows : — " The printing of my work is going on without interruption.
The original text of the Vendidad is completed, the printing of the
various readings has proceeded to the 6th Fargard [chapter] of the
Vendidad ; also the first five Fargards of the Pehlivi Translation
are out of the press. In the course of the autumn of this year
the first volume will be ready. As to price, the complete edition of
the Zendavesta will cost at Leipsic six dollars (10 dollars=l5 rupees),
and will therefore at Bombay not come so high as 15 rupees. I think
you will find the price cheap enough, when you consider that my
edition will contain not only the Vendidad, Ya^na and Vispered, but
also the Pehlivi translation of these works ; also the yeshts, and the
smaller Hturgical pieces."
So far writes the Professor in reference to the Zendavesta in the
original languages. An equally important subject is the translation of
it which he is making. It was formerly intimated to the Society that
Professor Spiegel was busy with a translation of the Zendavesta into
German. He now mentions that the Grerman translation of the Ven-
didad is ready (that is apparently out of the press).
But a still more interesting fact is that the Professor intends to
furnish also a translation in English. He thus writes on the subject :
— ** As for the English translation, I shall gladly undertake it, and I
shall enlarge the introduction for the use of English readers who have
not the means of consulting the works referred to in the German
edition. The Imperial Press of Vienna is willing to print the work in
the same size as the edition on the original text."
Regarding Mr. Dhunjibhai Fraraji's Zend Dictionary, Professor
Spiegel says : — " I have read the prospectus of the dictionary with much
satisfaction, and I heartily wish the work may speedily be completed.
I have not yet had time to collect subscribers, but I shall have the pros-
pectus inserted in the next No. of the Zeitschri/t der Deutschen Mor-
genlandischen Gessellscha/t, [Journal of the Grerman Oriental Society,]
and I doubt not many copies will be subscribed for in Grermany."
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470 EXTRACTS FROM THB SOCIETY'S PROCEEDINGS. [JaN.
The Professor farther says in reference to his own work : — " Nothing
can he more gratifying to me than to have my work hrought to the
notice of the Parsis, not so much in the hope of selling many copies
(for as I have the patronage of hoth the Austrian and Bayarian Go-
vernments I have no pecuniary loss to fear), hut because I am conyinced
that we may still learn much from the Parsis ; and I wish to get out of
them what they do know as soon as possible, and before it vanishes
entirely."
I trust that the last extract, as well as the warm interest which Pro-
fessor Spiegel expresses in regard to Mr. Dhunjibhai Framji's Zend
Dictionary, will stimulate some of our Parsi fellow citizens to literary
investigation connected with their own ancient hterature. In particular
our zealous fellow member Mr. Dhunjibhai Framji must feel raoouraged
by the warm interest which the most learned Orientalists on the
Continent take in his forthcoming work.
(Signed) J. M. Mitchell.
The Rev. Dr. Stevenson V. P., read his paper on the Historical
Names and Facts contained in the Kenery Inscription. The first
name noticed was that of Chairakya, the celebrated minister of
Chandragupta, the Sandracottus of the Greeks, who has a Cave
dedicated to his memory under the name of Dramila. He then made
some remarks on the name Rohinimitra, found in one of the inscrip-
tions, which he endeavoured to connect with the royal family of which
Pushpamitras was the founder, and the name of whose descendant,
Deva Bhuti, written there Bhoti, appears at Carlee as the constructor
of the elegant cave-temple near that place, and the name of one of
whose sons is inscribed on the pillars in front of it ; leading us to infer
that the cave must have been constructed about b. c. 70, at which
time that sovereign reigned over Majadh, which he conceives received
about that time the name of Maharashtra, ''the great kingdom."
He next mentioned that the names of two of the kings near the end of
the Andhra dynasty, Gautamiputra and Yaduya and Sri-satkarni are
found both at Kenery and at Nasik. This is the d3masty of kings
mentioned by Pliny as powerful in his time, and which swayed the
sceptre for four hundred and fifty-six years.
The latter of the two abovementioned kings is mentioned in the
annals of China, where he is called Yuegnai, as having sent an embassy
there in a. d. 428. The great Satraps of Western India, first the
deputies of the Graeco-Bactrian sovereigns, and afterwards independent
monarchs, are also mentioned. A minister of one of them constructed
a cistern at Kenery, and the son of one of them excavated a cave at
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1853.] OFFICIAL, LITERARY, AND SCIENTIFIC. 471
Nasik, whose date Dr. Stevenson makes out to be a. d» 484. Bud-
dhaghosha, the Buddhist Apostle of Pegu and the Eastern Pemnsula^
who lefl India for Ceylon in a. d. 410, is also mentioned as having
been at Kener^i^ and having dedicated there an image to Buddha.
The caves, as mentioned in the inscriptions, were intended to be
some of them Buddhist temples, others convocation halls for the
priesthood to meet in, others lodging houses for monks, others refec-
tories and alms-houses. They were constructed by relations and
connections generally of the above mentioned persons, or by rich gold-
smiths of Calian and the neighbouring cities, or by devotees, who>
having abandoned secular pursuits, seem thus to have bestowed their
property ; the most curious fact, however, regarding the caves at Kenery
mentioned was, that in the great tope opened a few years ago by Dr.
Bird, there was originally deposited a Buddha tooth-relic. The date
on the copper-plate accompanying it is plainly stated in words to have
been the year two hundred and forty-five, which was a. d. 189. This
reUc is also mentioned in some of the rock inscriptions. The great
cave is mentioned as then in existence, though it was not probably
excavated long before that period.
Another curious fact in reference to the cave at Carlee is, that a
Greek is mentioned in two of the inscriptions, and though there it is
not expressly stated. Dr. Stevenson thinks it highly probable that he
was the designer and superintendent of that excavation^ which, as being
the first, served as a model for the rest of these curious and laborious
works.— 14M October 1852.
Parts of Captain Charles Barr's paper on the Mangs of Kolapoor
were read. It goes minutely into their mode of life at home and
abroad ; of the parts which they inhabit ; their superstitions and their
religion ; their forays, their precautions, and the distribution of their
spoil. Everything almost connected with them appears in this valuable
communication, but the vocabulary of their language, which the
Society trusted the author would furnish, if in his power ; and if
not, that some one in the Kolapoor district would kindly take up the
subject, as the origin and early history of these races receives more
elucidation from an inquiry of this kind, almost, than from any other
investigation. — llth November 1852.
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472 EXTRACTS FROM THE SOCIETY'S PROCEEDINGS. [JaK.
ANNIVERSARY MEETING.
Monday, 29th November 1852.
t
The Minutes of the last Meeting having been read and confirmed,
the following Report of the Committee of Management for the year
1851-52 was read by the Secretary : —
Mr. President and Gentlemen, — It is our pleasing duty to lay
before you a more favourable report of the state of the Society's library,
museum, and finances, than has fallen to the lot of your Committees
of Management for many years past.
2. During the year 1 6 resident and three non-resi<knt Members
have been elected, that is 13 more than during 1850-51.
3. One hundred and seventy-seven books and pamphlets have been
presented to the Society, and thirty donations to the museum.
4. The original communications have amounted to seventeen.
5. To the library 197 works, or 341 volumes, have been added to
the different classes, as per annexed list, that is 40 works or 180
volumes more than last year.
6. 502 volumes have been bound or re-bound, and 24 repaired.
7. The greater part of the newspaper files have been stitched and
roughly bound, while the rest are undergoing collation and the same
process, s6 that within the next two months the newspaper room, which
was in total confusion, and almost buried in dust, will have the whole of
its contents cleared and arranged, and made easily available. It will
require, however, the addition of a frame work round the walls, which
will not be expensive, and which your Committee feel assured you will
sanction.
8. The Alphabetical Catalogue is steadily progressing, and it is
hoped will be ready for issue by the middle of next year.
9. The old process of stamping the Society's Books, which had
been discontinued for long time, has been renewed, and nearly all the
most valuable works now bear, on different parts, the impression of
the Society's seal.
10. The Malcolmson Testimonial has been completed, the books
stamped and lettered, and the whole form a handsome and valuable
case, headed " Malcolmson Testimonial," in the Museum. The
subscriptions, with interest, amount to Rupees 2,732, 15 annas, 7 pies,
of which Rs. 2,535, 12 annas has been expended, and the rest is kept
for contingencies.
11. The museum has been almost entirely remodelled. The
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1863.] OFFICIAL, LlTBRABT, AND SCIENTIFIC. 473
additions and alterations in the eases sanctioned at the last Anniversary
Meeting have heen effected ; and the additional space which has thus
heen gained has enabled the Conservator to group into separate
departments, with room to spare, the different objects of natural
history and antiquities possessed by the Society. These, which were
for the most part strewed about the museum in confusion, have now
each their proper place assigned to them.
12. One case has been devoted to specimens of the primitive and
trap rocks with their minerals of Western India ; another to a complete
collection of the rocks of the island of Bombay, to which it is intended
to add, in process of time, specimens of all the shells found on its
shores, as well as specimens of the other objects of natural history which
may be common or peculiar to it. The fossilized bones from the
island of Perim have also been grouped into one case. Minor groups
of minerals, rocks, and fossils, illustrative of the geology of the basaltic
district of Western India, the primitive rocks of the Southern Mahratta
Country, Cutch, Sindh, Arabia, and Aden, have been placed together in
the tabular cases. Also collection of fossils from the older lakes of
Central India.
13. The large collection of earthy minerals occupying that half of
the tabular case next the Secretary's room has been re-arranged and
provided with trays, also the collection of metallic minerals in the
other half.
14. The shells occupy the upper part, or th^Js tabular surface of this
case, and are in process of arrangement. One case has been devoted to
corals, which have been collected from the neighbouring seas. And the
few other objects of natural history belonging to the classes of fishes,
reptiles, and mammaha have also their separate apartments. So that
everything now in the museum may be found in its proper place as far
as general grouping is concerned ; but they still require a most important
addition to make them frirther usefril ; for in their present state they
are Httle better than objects of mere curiosity — that is to say, they
require to be named, numbered, and catalogued, that they may be made
available for the purposes of instruction, and of greater interest to the
passing observer. But this your Committee consider a work of time
and labour, and one which can only be done under a person who is
thoroughly acquainted with the specimens. Your Committee, therefore,
cannot expect this to be frdfilled satisfactorily by any but a competent
and paid Conservator.
15. The Society has published the usual number of its Journal, viz.
62
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474 BXTRACTS PROM THE SOCIETT's PROCBBDIMOfi. [JaBT.
XT., for 1851, also a small number, yu. xri., for the present year, and
another is in the press, which will appear in January next.
16. The balance in favour of the Society is little less than that of
last year.
Dr. Buist, seconded by T. L. Jenkins, Esquire, proposed : —
1st. — ^That this Report be accepted, and that the Society express
their thanks to the Committee for the great care, labour, and ability
with which it has been prepared.
2nd. — That the Committee be recommended to proceed with as
little delay as possible with the Descriptiye Catalogue of the Museum,
without which it is impossible to attempt anything like a study of the
specimens ; and that this, being completed, be published in an Ap-
pendix to the new Library Catalogue, now in progress of preparation,
or in a separate form, as indispensable to make the Musemn of any
practical utility.
This was unanimously carried.
The following letter was read from the Hon'ble Sir E. Perry : —
" To the Secretary B. B. R. A. Society.
" Sir, — In consequence of my purpose to depart for Europe this
day, I beg to tender the resignation of the offices of Vice-Patron
and President, which I now fill by the favour of the Society ; and I
respectfully offer my best wishes for the prosperity and yearly increas*
ing usefulness of the institution.
" I am, sir, your most obedient Servant,
(Signed) " E. Perry."
It was then unanimously resolved, on the proposition of P. W.
LeGeyt, Esquire, V. P., seconded by G. Buist, Esquire, LL.D. :—
" That the Society record its deep sense of the valuable services
rendered to it by the Hon'ble Sir Erskine Perry, during his President-
ship, and its tegret that it should so soon have been deprived, by his
departure to Europe, of the great advantage of his literary talents and
acquirements."
Election of President.
P. W. LeGeyt, Esquire, seconded by A. Malet, Esquire, Vice-
Prendente, proposed in an appropriate speech relative to his numerous
and long continued labours in behalf of the Society, and his general
literary attainments, that the Rev. J. Stevenson, D.D., should be
elected President of the Society, in succession to the Hon'ble Sir
E. Perry ; which, having received the general consent of the meeting,
Dr. Stevenson returned thanks for the honor conferred on him, and
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1863.] OFFICIAL, LITEBARYy AND 8CIBNTIFIC. 475
expressed his desire to continae, as heretofore, to further the objects
of the Society to the best of his ability.
Election of Vice-President.
The election of the Rev. Dr. Stevenson to the Presidentship having
caused a vacancy among the Fice-Presidente, Colonel C. Waddington,
C. B., Chief Engineer, was, on the proposition of the Rev. Dr. Stevenson,
seconded by Colonel W. Wyllie, C. B., unanimously chosen for this
appointment.
The following Gentlemen were elected for the Committee of Ma-
nagement, Museum Committee, and Auditors for the ensuing year, viz : —
Committee of Management.
S. S. Dickinson, Esq. J. Harkness, Esq., A.M.
Lieut. Col. J. Holland. Captain J. 6. Forbes.
William Howard, Esq. Thomas L. Jenkins, Esq.
A. H. Leith, Esq. J. Ritchie, Esq.
Rev. P. Anderson, A.M. M. Stovell, Esq.
Museum Committee. -
A. H. Leith, Esq. J. Harkness, Esq., A.M.
H. Conybeare, Esq. J. F. Watson, Esq., M.D.
G. Buist, Esq., LL.D. H. J. Carter, Esq.
Auditors.
A. Spens, Esq. Captain J. G. Forbes.
In accordance with a resolution of the Society, passed at its meeting
held on the 9th September last, that the Committee should bring forward
propositions for the reduction of the subscription of non-resident Mem-
bers— the issuing to all members a copy of the Journal gratuitously ;
the admission of bond fide students gratuitously — and the admission of
Officers of regiments stationed at the Presidency on a certain amount
of subscription, it was resolved that —
1st. — Non-resident Members shall only pay fifteen rupees per annum.
2nd.— All Members of the Society shall be entitled to a copy of the
Journal.
3rd. — Any Member of the Society may introduce (subject to the
control of the Committee of Management) one individual, either Native
or European, to the advantages of the Hbrary while engaged in literary
or scientific pursuits ; the Member being held responsible for any books
taken out from the library by the person he has introduced, and the
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476 EXTRACTS FROM THE SOCIETY'S PROCEEDINGS. [J AN. 1853.]
introduction not to continue for more than twelve monthsy nor to be
given to any but bond fide students of science or literature whose cir-
cumstances prevent them from joining the Society as regular Members."
The proposition for the admission of Officers of regiments stationed
at the Presidency on a reduced amount of subscription was, after much
discussion, again referred to the Committee of Management for fiir-
ther consideration.
The following work has been added to the " Malcolmson Testi-
monial" : —
CuviER (le Baron Georges) Le9ons d' Anatomic Comparee, deu-
ziime ^ition. Paris, 1836 k 1846, 9 vols, in 8.
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