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THE 


JOURNAL 


OP   THE 


Bombay  Natural  History  Socieh 


EDITED   BY 


•XXIPBOBT,    C.M.Z.a., 


Honorary    Secretary. 


VOLUME    V. 
1890. 


ceN^i^TiNS  0K  FOUR  ]5ajaBER]S  wo  oeNT^iNiNfi 

17    ILLUJSJFI^H^ieNJS. 


FEIKIEB  AT  THE 

EDUCATION    SOCIETY'S    PRESS,  BYOULLA. 

1890. 


4 
^ 


■»  •»  - 


THE 


JOU  RNAL 


OP   THE 


Bombay  Natural  History  Socieh 


EDITED   BY 


»HlPSOSr,    CBA.Z.Bm 


Honorary    Secretary . 


VOLUME    V. 
1890. 


17  mitujs'FKTi'FieNjs, 


PaiNTED  AT  THE 

EDUCATION    SOCIETY'S    PRESS,  BYOULLA. 

1890. 


CONTENTS    OF    VOL.    V. 

^ 

PAGE 

Nesting  in    Western    India.     By   Lieut.   H.   E.   Barnes,    F.Z.S. 

{With  3  Plates)    ...1,97,  315 

The    Butterflies     of    the     Central     Provinces.      By  J.   A. 

Betham  19,152,279 

A  Preliminary  List  of  the  Butterflies  of  Mysore.     By  E.  Y. 

Watson 28 

Notes  on  Indian  Ants.     By  George  Alexander  J.  Rothney,  F.E.S.     41 
The  Venomous  Snakes  of  North  Kanara.    By  G.  W.  Yidal,  C.S.     64 

Indian  Cattle.     By  J.  H.  Steel,  A.  V.  D 71 

List  of  Bombay  Grasses.     By  Dr.  J.  C.  Lisboa,  F.  L.  S..  116,  226,  3:57 
Description  of  a  new  Morphid  Butterfly  from  North -Eastern 
India.     By  Lionel  de   NiccviUe,  F.E.S.  C.M.Z.S.,  &c.     (JHVA 

a  Plate  C) 131 

Prehistoric  Bombay.     By  W.  E.  Hai-t 132 

Description  of  a  new  Fungus  ^Ecidium  Esculentum,  nov.  sp. 
ON  Acacia  Eburnea,  Willd.     By  A.  Barclay,   M.B.,  Bengal 

Medical  Service  {With  a  Plate) \ 161 

Note  added  to  Dr.  Barclay's  Paper.     By  Dr.  D.  Prain.  {With 

a  Plate) 165 

Some  new  Books  of  Indian  Zoology.     By  W.  F.  Sinclair,  C.S....  176 
On  New    ^vnd    Little -known    Butterflies    from    the    Indian 
Kegion,   with  Descriptions  of  three  new  Genera  of  Hes- 
PERiiD^.     By  Lionel  de  NiceviUe,  F.E.S.     C.M.Z.S.,  &c.   {With 

Plates  D  and  E)    199 

On  New  and  Little -known  Hymenoptera  from  India,  Burma 
AND  Ceylon.  By  Major  C.  T.  Bingham,  F.Z.S. ,  Forest  Depart- 
ment, Burma.     {With  two  Plates)  233 

Mules.     By  J.   H.   Steel,   A.V.D.,   Principal,   Bombay    Veterinary 

CoUege  252 

Notes  on  the  Larvae  and  PuPiE  of  some  of  the  Butterflies  of 
the    Bombay    Presidency.     By  J.   Davidson,    Bo.   C.S.,   and 

E.  H.  Aitken.     {With  6  Plates)   260  k  349 

Notes    on    the    Economic    Botany    of    the    Cucurbitace^    of 

Western  India.     By  Dr.  W.  Dymock 286 

List  of  Chin-Lushai  BuIterflies.     By  Lionel  de  Niceville 295,  382 

List  of  Ferns  Gathered  in  North  Kanara.     By  Major  T.  R.  M. 

Macpherson 375 

The  Physical  Geography  of  the    Neighbourhood  of  Bombay, 

By  W.  F.  Sinclair,  C.S 377 


^2342G 


I 


2  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Wounded  Bear  Charging  up  a  Tree.    ( With  a  Plate.)  By  J.  D. 

Inverarity , • 380 

JEnictus-Typhlatta    and    Some    New    Genera  of   Formicid^. 

By  Auguste  Forel,   Professor  at  the  Zurich  University 388 

Bombay  Gardens.     By  G.   Carstensen,   Superintendent  of  Municipal 

Gardens,  Bombay  ;  Gr.  Hort.  K.  D.  Agr.  Coll.  (Copenhagen)    ...  397 

Correspondence — 

The  Echts  Conwa/a  and  its  Alleged  Antidote  82 

Book  Notices — 

''  The  Butterflies  of  India,  Burma  and  Ceylon"    ,..  298 

Notes  on  "Gates'  Birds  of  India."   ., .167,  300 

Miscellaneous — 

Branching  Tree  Ferns  ....    .^ , , 86 

Snipe  Sitting  in  the  Open    86, 191 

Notes  on  Locusts  in  India 86,  184 

A  Manual  of  Forestiy  ...., , 188 

Mr.  Giles'  Dragon-Fly , , 190 

Measurements  of  a  Boar  •.»...., 191 

Tiger  Cubs , ,•.; 191 

Panthers  Tree'd  by  Wild  Dogs   191 

Painted  Sand  Grouse  near  Baroda ,^ ^ 305 

The  Gadwall  and  the  Blue-beaked  Booby. 305 

A  Trait  of  Heredity     ,...,...., 306 

Egg-laying  Animals , 306 

A  P^bfeher  chasing  a  Nilghai , ,....  307 

The  Protective  Colouring  of  Chrysalidee    , , 309 

Tigress's  Milk  as  a  Medicine  416 

The   Bengal  Water    Cock   {Gallicrex  crittatus)    first  observed 

in  Guzerat , , ,,•••••.  416 

Proposed  Introduction   of  the   Black  Partridge  and  other  Game 

into  the  Neighbourhood  of  Bombay    ...., 417 

Periodical   Flowering  of   Strobilanthes,  Spp.,  and  ^chmanth^ra 

lornentosttj  Nees  ,^ 417 

Markhor  Shooting  in  East  Afghanistan , 418 

Parasitic  Flies  ,, 420 

Dissemination  of  Larvae  ., , 421 

Red  Ants' Nests  , , ^... 422 

A  *  ^  Malabar  Crow  Pheasant' '  Taking  to  the  water 422 

Bees  Destroyed  by  Lapindus  emarginatus      423 

Prooeedings  92,  192,  309,  342 


JOURNAL 


OF   THE 


s  o  D^^d:  B -A.  3r 


Batol 


(V3^ 


No.  1.] 


BOMBAY,  1890. 


[Vol.  V. 


NESTING  IN  WESTERN  INDIA. 
By  Lieut.  H.  E.  Barnes. 

(Continued  from  page  255,    Vol.  IV,) 

475.— THE  MAGPIE  ROBIN. 

Copsychus  saularisy  Lin. 

The  Magpie  Robin  is  another  species  that  appears  to  be  rare,  if 
not  altogether  absent  from  Sind;  it  occurs  sparingly  in  Guzerat, 
becomes  much  more  common  in  the  Deccan,  and  is  most  abundant  in 
Ratnagiri  and  the  Southern  parts  of  the  district  generally. 

As  a  rule  they  are  permanent  residents  where  they  occur,  but 
I  never  succeeded  in  finding  a  nest  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Deesa, 
but  Mr.  Littledale  has  found  several  at  and  near  Baroda.  In  all  the 
other  parts  of  Western  India  it  is  a  common  breeder. 

The  breeding  season  lasts  from  early  in  May  to  about  the  middle 
of  July,  but  nests  may  be  found  both  earlier  and  later  than  this. 

The  nests  are  generally  placed  in  holes  in  trees,  occasionally  in 
holes  in  walls,  &c.,  and  are  composed  of  grass  roots,  vegetable  fibres, 
moss,  &c.  It  is  a  shallow  saucer  in  shape,  often  a  mere  pad,  and 
the  eggs,  five  in  number,  sometimes  only  four,  much  more  rarely  six, 
are  as  a  rule  oval  in  shape  and  pale  greenish-white  in  colour,  but 
are  subject  to  much  variation  both  in  shape  and  colour;  they  are 
1 


2         JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

streaked,  spotted,  speckled,  and  blotched  with  various  shades  of 
brownish-red.  One  clutch  I  have  is  a  pale  sea-green,  sparingly  but 
beautifully  blotched  with  reddish-brown,  and  having  smudges  of 
faint  inky  purple  at  the  larger  end.  In  another  clutch  the  ground- 
colour is  a  bluish-green.  The  markings  are  usually  much  more 
numerous  at  the  larger  end,  where  they  often  form  an  imperfect  zone 
or  cap.  Often  the  markings  are  so  thick  as  to  leave  little  of  the 
ground  colour  visible. 

They  vary  much  in  size,  but  the  average  is  0*87  inches  in  length 
by  rather  more  than  0*66  in  breadth. 

Mr.  Davidson  tells  me  that,  according  to  his  experience,  this  bird 
seems  to  breed  only  in  the  West  part  of  the  Presidency ;  thus,  he 
has  taken  its  nest  in  Satara  and  the  western  talukas  of  Nassick,  never 
in  Khandeish,  Sholapur,  or  the  eastern  Nassick  talukas.  In  Kanara 
it  swarms,  breeding  from  the  middle  of  March  to  the  rains. 

After  the  eggs  are  hatched,  the  birds  are  very  quarrelsome,  boldly 
attacking  any  other  bird  or  animal  that  approaches  the  nest. 

The  young  are  easily  reared  by  placing  them  in  a  cage  accessible 
to  the  parent  birds,  who  will  attend  and  feed  them  in  the  same  way 
that  the  Golden  Oriole  does.  They  have  a  sweet  song,  which  is  heard 
to  most  advantage  in  the  early  morning  during  the  breeding  season. 

Pootitty  April  to  June,  B..  E.  Barnes, 
Bombay,  18th  March  to  June,  ,, 

Satara,  Middle  of  March  to  June,  J,  Davidson,  C,S, 

Western  Nassick,  „  „  „ 

Kanara,  „  „  „ 

Barodu,  ,,  „  H,  Littledak,  B.A, 

476.— THE  SHAMA. 
Cercotrichas  macrura,  Gm, 

The  Shama  only  occurs  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  Presidency, 
where  it  is  a  permanent  resident,*  but  I  can  find  no  record  of  a  nest 
having  actually  been  taken  there. 

Mr.  Davidson  notes — "Common  though  this  bird  is  in  the  above 
ghat  portion  of  Kanara,  from  March  to  May,  and  probably  all  the 
year,  I  not  only  never  got  a  nest  (the  birds  were  then  breeding),  but 
I  never  managed  to  shoot  a  hen-bird." 


NESTING  IN  WESTERN  INDIA.  S 

According  to  Mr.  Hume's  Nests  and  Eggs  of  Indian  Birds,  page  306, 
they  breed  during  April  and  May  in  holes  in  trees^  making  a  large 
nest  of  leaves  and  twigs,  lined  with  fine  twigs,  and  laying  three  eggs 
moderately  broad  oval  in  shape,  a  good  deal  pointed  at  one  end,  and 
exhibiting  a  sdight  pyriform  tendency.  The  shell,  which  has  a  slight 
gloss^  is  fine  and  compact.  The  ground  colour  is  dull  greenish-stone 
(but  very  little  of  it  is  visible),  and  it  is  everywhere  very  densely 
freckled,  in  some  rather  streakily,  with  a  rich,  almost  raw,  sienna- 
brown,  in  amongst  which  dull  purplish  markings  are,  when  the  egg  ia 
closely  looked  into,  found  to  be  thickly  mingled.  The  combined  effect, 
when  looked  into  at  a  little  distance,  is  of  a  dense  ruddy  purplish- 
brown  mottling. 

The  eggs  vary  from  0*87  to0*9  inches  in  length,  and  from  0*6  to  0*62 
in  breadth.  They  are  small  for  the  size  of  the  bird.  As  Mr.  Hume- 
remarks,  they  remind  one  ol  some  of  the  Lark's  eggs. 

479.— THE  INDIAN  BLACK  ROBIN. 

Thanmobia  ftilicatay  Lm* 

It  is  considered  doubtful  by  many  whether  the  Indian  Black 
Robin  is  distinct  from  the  Northern  Indian  Robin  (TJmmnobia  cam^ 
laiensis,  Lath,)  It  is  hard  at  times  to  distinguish  between  them :  typi- 
cal specimens  are  of  course  widely  different,  but  many  intermediate 
forms  occur  linking  them  together,  but  so  long  as  the  Black  and 
Painted  Partridges,  the  Dark  Ashy,  and  Stewards'  Wren  Warblers, 
and  many  others  are  considered  entitled  to  specific  distinction,  these 
also  must  be  retained.  I  cannot  attempt  to  define  the  limits  of  each, 
but  generally  speaking,  typical  fulicata  occurs  in  the  south  and  cam- 
haiensis  in  the  nc^h,  but  it  is  difficult,  in  fact  impossible,  to  draw 
any  hard  and  fast  line  between  them. 

They  breed  from  April  to  the  middle  ol  July.  The  nest  is  a  mere 
pad  composed  of  grass  stems  and  roots,  vegetable  fibres,  cotton,  moss, 
&c.,  lined  with  hair  and  feathers,  and  is  placed  in  a  hole  in  a  wall  or 
bank,  on  ledges  of  rock,  and  occasionally  between  the  roots  of  trees ; 
very  rarely  is  the  nest  jdaced  in  a  bush ;  in  this  latter  case  it  is  much 
more  neatly  and  compactly  made,  and  is  cup-shaped. 

The  eggs,  usually  three  in  number,  sometimes  four,  more  rarely 
only  two,  are  moderately  elongated  ovals  in  shape,,  pinched  in  a  little 


THE 


JOU  RNAL 


OF   THB 


Bombay  Natural  History  Socieh 


EDITED   BY    -..• 


H      BC.     PXClPSOBf,    CBC.Z.S., 


Jftmoranj    Secretary/ . 


VOLUME    V. 
1890. 


17  miiUsvi^H'PieNS. 


•XV  ^v  j'x/vy*vyx/>''v^v/ 


PRINTED  AT  THE 

EDUCATION    SOCIETY'S    PRESS,  BYOULLA. 

1890. 


10        JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

apparently  three  times  a  year,  viz.  March,  June  and  September.  I 
have  never  seen  a  nest,  but  they  are  well  described  by  Mr.  Hume 
in  his  "  Nests  and  Eggs  of  Indian  Birds."  He  says : — "  The  nest  is 
of  an  oval  shape,  very  obtuse  at  both  ends,  measuring  externally 
four  inches  in  length  and  about  two  and  three-quarters  in  diameter. 
The  aperture,  which  is  near  the  top  of  the  nest,  is  oval,  and  measures 
about  an  inch  by  one  and  a  half  inches.  The  nest  is  fixed  against 
the  side  of  two  or  three  leafy  twigs,  to  which  it  is  bound  tightly  in 
one  or  two  places  with  grass  and  vegetable  fibres,  and  two  or  three 
leafy  lateral  twigs  are  incorporated  into  the  sides  of  the  nest,  so  that 
when  fresh  it  must  have  been  entirely  hidden  by  leaves. 

«  The  nest  waa  in  an  upright  position,  the  major  axis  perpendicu- 
lar  to  the  horizon.  It  is  a  very  thin,  firm,  close,  basket-work  of  fine 
grass,  flower  stalks,  and  vegetable  fibres,  and  has  no  lining,  though 
the  interior  surface  is  more  closely  woven  and  of  still  finer  materials 
than  the  outside.  The  cavity  is  nearly  two  and  one  half  inches  in 
diameter."  This  is  a  description  of  a  nest  presented  to  Mr.  Hume  by 
Mr.  J.  C.  Parker,  who  took  it  from  the  swampy  banks  of  the  canals 
that  intersect  the  salt  water  lake,  Calcutta.  The  eggs,  four  in  number, 
are  broad  regular  ovals,  of  a  nearly  uniform  mahogany-red,  measuring 
0*56  inches  in  length  by  0*45  in  breadth. 

They  are  highly  glossy. 

A  nest  taken  by  Mr.  Doig  was  lined  with  horse  hair  and  fine 
grasses. 

Eastern  Narra,  8ind,    March,  June  and  September,       8.  B.  Doig. 

534.— THE  ASHY  WREN  WARBLER. 

Prinia  sodalis,  Sykes. 

Typical  specimens  of  the  Ashy  Wren  Warblers  (Prinia  socialis) 
and  Stewart's  Wren  Warbler  {Prinia  stewarti)  differ  only  in  size, 
and  many  birds  may  with  equal  justice  be  assigned  to  either  species. 
I  am  personally  of  opinion  that  there  is  only  one  species.  Captain 
(now  Colonel)  Butler  in  his  Birds  of  Guzerat,  identified  all  his  birds 
as  socialis ;  the  Deccan  birds  are  also  considered  to  be  socialis.  Mr. 
Davidson  considers  the  birds  he  found  in  Western  Khandeish  to  be 
stewarti  (these  birds  were  sent  to  Mr.  Hume,  and  he  alao  identified 
them  as  stewarti);  in  Neemuch  an  intermediate  type  prevails. 


NESTING  IN  WESTERN  INDIA.  11 

They  are  permanent  residents,  breeding  from  the  commencement 
to  the  end  of  the  rains. 

The  nests  differ  greatly,  some  of  them  are  placed  between  two 
or  more  leaves,  sewn  carefully  together,  tailor-bird  like,  but  as  a 
rule  not  so  neatly,  a  good  deal  of  fine  grass  being  used  in  addition  to 
the  cotton.  Occasionally  the  nest  is  placed  in  a  tuft  of  grass,  and 
is  then  composed  of  tightly  woven  grass,  and  is  dome-shaped,  having 
the  aperture  near  the  top.  Others  are  composed  of  vegetable  down 
affixed  to  leafy  twigs,  much  in  the  same  way  as  those  of  the  Yellow- 
bellied  Wren  Warbler  (Prinia  flaviventria). 

The  eggs,  four  or  five  in  number,  are  oval  in  shape,  and  are  of  a 
brilliantly  glossy-brick  or  mahogany-red  colour,  darker  as  a  rule  at 
one  end,  where  it  forms  an  indistinct  cloudy  cap. 

They  average  about  0-64  inches  in  length  by  0*47  in  breadth. 

535._STEWARrS  WREN  WARBLER. 

Pnnia  stewartiy  Blyth. 

The  eggs  of  Stewart's  Wren  Warbler  average  0*62  inches  in 
length  by  about  0'46  in  breadth,  or  rather  smaller  than  those  of  the 
Ashy  Wren  Warbler ;  in  all  other  respects  they  are  identical. 

538.— THE  MALABAR  WREN  WARBLER. 

Prinia  hodgsoni,  Blyth. 

It  is  now  admitted  by  most  ornithologists,  that  the  Malabar  and 
FrankKn's  Wren  Warblers  (Prinm  gracilis)  are  one  and  the  same 
species,  hodgsoni  being  nothing  more  than  gracilis  in  breeding 
plumage. 

The  Malabar  Wren  Warbler  is  more  or  less  common  in  suitable 
places  in  Western  India,  with  the  exception  of  Sind  and  perhaps 
Cutch,  where  it  is  not  known  to  occur. 

Mr.  Davidson,  who  has  had  excellent  opportunities  of  observing 
this  bird,  says  in  epis  :  "  As  far  as  I  know  I  have  never  seen  this 
bird  in  Sholapur,  Satara,  Poena  or  Kanara,  while  it  is  common  in 
S[haiidei8h  and  found  in  Nassick ;  I  therefore  suspect  it  is  a  Northern 
form  in  the  peninsula." 

They  are  permanent  residents,  breeding  during  the  rainy  season, 
making  a  somewhat  similar  nest  to  that  of  the  Tailor  Bird,  but 
much  smaller    it  is  composed  of  very  fine  grass,  placed  between  two 


10        JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

apparently  three  times  a  year,  viz,  March,  June  and  September.  I 
have  never  seen  a  nest,  but  they  are  well  described  by  Mr.  Hume 
in  his  "  Nests  and  Eggs  of  Indian  Birds.'*  He  says : — "  The  nest  is 
of  an  oval  shape,  very  obtuse  at  both  ends,  measuring  externally 
four  inches  in  length  and  about  two  and  three-quarters  in  diameter. 
The  aperture,  which  is  near  the  top  of  the  nest,  is  oval,  and  measures 
about  an  inch  by  one  and  a  half  inches.  The  nest  is  fixed  against 
the  side  of  two  or  three  leafy  twigs,  to  which  it  is  bound  tightly  in 
one  or  two  places  with  grass  and  vegetable  fibres,  and  two  or  three 
leafy  lateral  twigs  are  incorporated  into  the  sides  of  the  nest,  so  that 
when  fresh  it  must  have  been  entirely  hidden  by  leaves. 

"  The  nest  was  in  an  upright  position,  the  major  axis  perpendicu- 
lar to  the  horizon.  It  is  a  very  thin,  firm,  close,  basket-work  of  fine 
grass,  flower  stalks,  and  vegetable  fibres,  and  has  no  lining,  though 
the  interior  surface  is  more  closely  woven  and  of  still  finer  materials 
than  the  outside.  The  cavity  is  nearly  two  and  one  half  inches  in 
diameter."  This  is  a  description  of  a  nest  presented  to  Mr.  Hume  by 
Mr.  J.  C.  Parker,  who  took  it  from  the  swampy  banks  of  the  canals 
that  intersect  the  salt  water  lake,  Calcutta.  The  eggs,  four  in  number, 
are  broad  regular  ovals,  of  a  nearly  uniform  mahogany-red,  measuring 
0*56  inches  in  length  by  0*45  in  breadth. 

They  are  highly  glossy. 

A  nest  taken  by  Mr.  Doig  was  lined  with  horse  hair  and  fine 
grasses. 

Eastern  Narra,  Sind,    March,  June  and  September,       8.  B.  Doig. 

534.— THE  ASHY  WREN  WARBLER. 

Prinia  socialiSy  Sykes. 

Typical  specimens  of  the  Ashy  Wren  Warblers  ( Prinia  socialis) 
and  Stewart's  Wren  Warbler  (Prinia  stewarti)  differ  only  in  size, 
and  many  birds  may  with  equal  justice  be  assigned  to  either  species. 
I  am  personally  of  opinion  that  there  is  only  one  species.  Captain 
(now  Colonel)  Butler  in  his  Birds  of  Onzerat,  identified  all  his  birds 
as  socialis ;  the  Deccan  birds  are  also  considered  to  be  socialis,  Mr. 
Davidson  considers  the  birds  he  found  in  Western  Khandeish  to  be 
stewarti  (these  birds  were  sent  to  Mr.  Hume,  and  he  also  identified 
them  as  stewarti);  in  Neemuch  an  intermediate  type  prevails. 


NESTING  IN  WESTERN  INDIA,  11 

They  are  permanent  residents,  breeding  from  the  commencement 
to  the  end  of  the  rains. 

The  nests  differ  greatly,  some  of  them  are  placed  between  two 
or  more  leaves,  sewn  carefully  together,  tailor-bird  like,  but  as  a 
rule  not  so  neatly,  a  good  deal  of  fine  grass  being  used  in  addition  to 
the  cotton.  Occasionally  the  nest  is  placed  in  a  tuft  of  grass,  and 
is  then  composed  of  tightly  woven  grass,  and  is  dome-shaped,  having 
the  aperture  near  the  top.  Others  are  composed  of  vegetable  down 
affixed  to  leafy  twigs,  much  in  the  same  way  as  those  of  the  Yellow- 
bellied  Wren  Warbler  (Prinia  Jlaviventris), 

The  eggs,  four  or  five  in  number,  are  oval  in  shape,  and  are  of  a 
brilliantly  glossy-brick  or  mahogany-red  colour,  darker  as  a  rule  at 
one  end,  where  it  forms  an  indistinct  cloudy  cap. 

They  average  about  0  64  inches  in  length  by  0*47  in  breadth. 

535.— STEWART'S  WREN  WARBLER. 

Pnnia  stewartiy  Blyth, 

The  eggs  of  Stewart's  Wren  Warbler  average  0*62  inches  in 
length  by  about  0'46  in  breadth,  or  rather  smaller  than  those  of  the 
Ashy  Wren  Warbler ;  in  all  other  respects  they  are  identical. 

538.-THE  MALABAR  WREN  WARBLER. 

Prinia  hodgsoni,  Blyth. 

It  is  now  admitted  by  most  ornithologists,  that  the  Malabar  and 
Franklin's  Wren  Warblers  (Prinm  gracilis)  are  one  and  the  same 
species,  hodgsoni  being  nothing  more  than  gracilis  in  breeding 
plumage. 

The  Malabar  Wren  Warbler  is  more  or  less  common  in  suitable 
places  in  Western  India,  with  the  exception  of  Sind  and  perhaps 
Cutch,  where  it  is  not  known  to  occur. 

Mr.  Davidson,  who  has  had  excellent  opportunities  of  observing 
this  bird,  says  in  epis  :  "  As  far  as  I  know  I  have  never  seen  this 
bird  in  Sholapur,  Satara,  Poena  or  Kanara,  while  it  is  common  in 
Khandeish  and  found  in  Nassick ;  I  therefore  suspect  it  is  a  Northern 
form  in  the  peninsula." 

They  are  permanent  residents,  breeding  during  the  rainy  season, 
making  a  somewhat  similar  nest  to  that  of  the  Tailor  Bird,  but 
much  smaller    it  is  composed  of  very  fine  grass,  placed  between  two 


12       JOURNAL,  BOMBAY' NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

or  more  leaves,  carefully  sewn  together,  with  cobwebs,  cotton,  or 
wool,  and  is  almost  completely  hidden  by  leaves. 

The  eggs,  four  in  number,  are  of  an  oval  shape,  and  are  of  four 
distinct  types,  tiz.: — 

a.  Pure  unspotted  glossy  white. 

b.  White,  speckled  and  freckled  with  reddish-brown. 

c.  Pale  unspotted  greenish-blue. 

d.  Pale  blue,  spotted  and  freckled  with  reddish-brown. 

All  the  eggs  in  one  nest  are  of  one  type.  Some  of  the  spotted 
eggs  have  the  markings  thickest  at  one  end,  where  they  often  form 
an  imperfect  cap  or  zone. 

They  measure  0*57  inches  in  length  by  about  0*42  in  breadth. 
Baroda,  July  to  September.  H,  Littkdale,  B,A. 

Western  Khandeish,  July  to  October,  J  Davidson y  C,S* 

539.— THE  RUFOUS  GRASS  WARBLER. 

Cisticola  cursitanSy  FrankL 

With  the  exception  of  the  higher  ranges  of  hills  where  it  is  scarce, 
and  in  the  desert  tracks  where  it  is  altogether  absent,  the  Rufous 
Grass  Warbler  is  a  more  or  less  common  permanent  resident,  breed- 
ing during  the  rains,  making  a  long  purse-like  nest,  composed  of 
silky,  white,  vegetable  down,  which  is  placed  in  the  centre  of  a 
clump  of  grass,  at  a  short  distance  only  above  the  ground. 

The  blades  of  grass  around  the  nest  are  so  firmly  interwoven  with 
it,  that  it  cannot  be  removed  intact.  It  is  rather  larger  at  the  bottom 
than  at  the  top,  and  the  tacking  together  of  the  blades  of  grass  is 
continued  higher  on  one  side  than  the  other,  a  small  entrance  being 
left  on  the  opposite  side,  between  the  untacked  stems ;  the  inside  is 
well  lined  or  felted  with  soft  vegetable  down. 

The  eggs,  four  or  five  in  number,  are  broadish  ovals  in  shape,  nar- 
rowing somewhat  at  one  end ;  they  average  0'58  inches  in  length 
by  0*46  in  breadth. 

In  colour  they  are  white,  or  faint  greenish-white  suffused  with  a 
pinkish  tint  when  fresh  and  unblown,  and  are  thickly  speckled  with 
pale  reddish-brown.     These  specks  are  much  more  numerous  at  the 


NESTING  IN  WESTERN  INDIA.  13 

larger  end,  where   they  often  form  an  imperfect  zone  or  irregular 
cap. 

Hyderabad,  Sind,             July,  H.  E,  Barnes. 

Beesa,                               July  to  September.  Do. 

Khandeishy                        September.  J,  Davidson,  C.S, 

Barodu,                            June  to  August.  H.  Littkdale,  B.A, 

543.— THE  COMMON  WREN  WAEBLER. 

Drymceca  inornata,  Sykes, 

The  Warblers  belonging  to  the  Drymoeca  group,  seem  to  be  very 
much  mixed,  the  different  species  being  very  hard  to  discriminate. 
Personally  I  have  only  met  two  in  the  flesh  that  I  could  feel  sure 
about ;  these  are  the  present  species  and  Drymceca  sylcatica. 

I  strongly  suspect  that  specimens  of  this  last  often  do  duty  for 
rufescens  and  instgnis. 

The  Common  or  Earth-brown  Wren  Warbler  is  a  permanent  resi- 
dent throughout  Western  India,  breeding  from  the  middle  of  July  to 
the  end  of  September. 

It  usually  constructs  a  rather  pretty  nest,  composed  of  fine  strips 
torn  from  blades  of  green  grass,  which  are  plaited  together  like  those 
of  the  Baya,  but  the  strips  are  finer  and  the  nest  is  altogether  neater. 
It  is  usually  fastened  to  the  thorny  twigs  of  acacia  bushes,  at  no 
great  height  from  the  ground,  and  the  shape  depends  largely  on  the 
position  of  these  twigs. 

According  to  my  experience,  the  nests  are  never  lined,  but  Mr. 
Davidson  writes  that  he  has  taken  nests  lined  with  fine  fluff,  with 
similar  eggs,  apparently  belonging  to  this  bird,  but  he  has  never 
actually  shot  the  parents. 

Another  type  of  nest  is  composed  of  similar  material,  but  is  much 
coarser  and  is  more  loosely  woven. 

Nests  of  this  latter  description  are  built  in  clumps  of  sarpat, 
guinea,  or  other  coarse-growing  grass,  or  even  in  standing  com ;  they 
are  purse-shaped  with  the  aperture  on  one  side,  the  opposite  side 
being  prolonged  and  projecting  over  so  as  to  form  a  canopy. 

In  some  cases  the  nests  are  sewn  by  shreds  of  fine  grass,  to  the 
under  side  of  a  large  leaf  of  the  shrub  that  grows  so  commonly  in 
grass  jungle ;  this  leaf  forms  a  canopy  over  it,  and  effectually  protects 


14       JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

it  from  rain  ;  the  nest,  which  is  bag-shaped,  is  held  in  position  by 
long  stays  of  fine  grass  or  fibres  sewn  and  fastened  to  the  nearest 
leaves  and  stalks. 

The  eggs,  four  or  five  in  number  (usually  five),  are  moderately 
long  ovals  in  shape,  and  are  of  a  glossy  pale  greenish-blue  colour, 
boldly  spotted  and  blotched  with  chocolate  and  reddish-brown,  and 
having  a  delicate  tracery  of  interlaced  hair-like  lines  at  the  larger 
end,  but  occasionally  these  lines  are  absent ;  the  small  end  is  com- 
paratively unspotted. 

The  ground  colour  is  subject  to  variation,  eggs  having  been  taken 
of  a  dull  olive  tint,  and  still  more  rarely  of  a  clear  reddish-white. 

They  average  0*61  inches  in  length  by  about  0*45  in  breadth. 

544  bis.— TBE  GREAT  RUFOUS  WREN  WARBLER. 

Drymoeca  rufuscens^  Hume, 

Captain  (now  Colonel)  Butler,  in  his  Birds  of  the  Deccan  and 
South  Mahratta  Country,  says  that  the  Great  Rufous  Wren  Warbler 
is  probably  a  permanent  resident ;  it  is  also  not  uncommon  in  North- 
ern Guzerat  and  on  Mount  Aboo.  I  cannot  find  any  record  of  a 
nest  having  been  taken  in  Western  India,  but  Mr.  Hume  in  Nests 
and  Eggs  of  Indian  Birds  describes  the  nests  as  being  a  somewhat 
shallow,  flimsy,  watch-pocket,  loosely  put  together,  composed  of  coarse 
grass,  and  having  a  good  deal  of  wool  mixed  with  it ;  it  is  lined  with 
fine  grass. 

Captain  Cock,  who  took  the  eggs  at  Seetapore,  says  they  breed  in 
August,  and  that  the  eggs  are  facsimiles  of  those  of  Pratincola  ferrea^ 
i.e.,  of  a  pale  greenish-blue  colour,  minutely  speckled  with  rufous, 
principally  at  the  larger  end.     The  size  is  not  given. 

Mr.  Davidson  asks,  "  Is  this  a  good  species  P  ''  as  birds  which  he 
at  first  considered  to  be  this,  and  which  he  sent  to  Mr.  Hume,  were 
identified  by  Mr.  Sharp  as  specimens  of  Drymceca  sylvatica  in  sea- 
sonal  plumage. 

545.— THE  JUNGLE  WREN  WARBLER. 

Drymceca  sylmticay  Jerd. 

The  Jungle  Wren  Warbler  occurs  in  Central  India  and  Ehandeidli; 
it  has  not  been  recorded  from  the  Deccan,  Guzerat  or  from  Sind. 


NESTING  IN  IVESTBRN  INDIA,  15 

I  found  it  breeding  near  Neemuch  in  July  ;  the  nest  was  purse- 
shaped,  composed  of  rough  grass,  and  contained  three  fresh  eggs,  pale 
greenish-white  in  colour,  thickly  freckled  with  rusty-red  ;  the  specks 
were  much  more  numerous  at  the  larger  end.  Another  nest  taken  at 
the  same  place,  early  in  August,  contained  five  eggs,  similar  in  size 
and  shape,  but  having  the  ground  colour  very  pale   greenish-white. 

Mr.  Davidson  found  them  to  be  far  from  uncommon  in  Western 
Ehandeish,  and  he  informs  me  that  the  number  of  eggs  is  usually 
four,  occasionally  five  ;  he  remarks  that  the  eggs  vary  much,  from 
pale  bluish- white  imspotted,  to  pinkish  and  bluish-white  much  marked 
with  ru8ty-red. 

They  measure  0*69  inches  in  length  by  about  0*49  in  breadth. 
Neemuch,  July  to  August  H.  E,  Barnes, 

SaugoTy  July  to  September.  Do. 

Western  Khandeishy  July  to  September,  J.  Davidson,  C.S, 

5456W.-.THE  GREAT  WREN  WARBLER. 

Drymceca  insignis* 

Mr.  Littledale  foimd  many  nests,  which  he  considered  as  belong- 
ing to  this  species ;  he  describes  the  nests  as  domed,  composed  of  fine 
grass,  interwoven  with  growing  grass.  I  have  never  met  with  the 
bird. 

Baroda,  July  to  September,  H.  E,  Barnes, 

550.— THE  STREAKED  WREN  WARBLER. 

Bumesia  gracilis.  Hupp. 

The  Streaked  Wren  Warbler  is  a  common  permanent  resident  in 
Sind,  frequenting  the  dense  tamarisk  thickets  that  occur  so  com- 
monly on  the  dhunds.  It  is  somewhat  rare  in  Guzerat,  and  does  not 
occur  at  all  in  the  Deccan. 

It  breeds  from  May  to  September  ;  the  nest  is  built  in  a  low  dense 
tamarisk  bush,  and  is  of  an  oval  shape,  with  the  entrance  hole  at  one 
side  near  the  top,  and  is  composed  of  small  dry  tamarisk  twigs  and  fine 
gmsBj  well  lined  with  soft  vegetable  down.  The  eggs,  three  in  number, 
are  greenish- white  in  colour,  profusely  streaked,  speckled  and  spotted 
with  bright  brownish-red.  The  markings  are  usually  more  numer- 
ous at  the  larger  end^  where  they  not  unfrequently  form  an  imper- 


16        JOURNAL  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

feet  zone  or  cap.     In  shape  they  are  broad  ovals,  pointed  at  one  end, 
measuring  0*56  inches  in  length  by  about  0'42  in  bVeadth. 

Hydrabadi  Sind,  June  to  August.  H.  JE.  Barnes. 

550Jis.— THE  STREAKED  SCRUB  WARBLER. 

Scotocerca  tnquieta,  Rupp. 

-  The  Streaked  Scrub  Warbler  has  been  procured  on  the  hills  that 
divide  Sind  from  Khelat,  where  it  is  most  probably  a  permanent 
resident :  it  has  not  been  recorded  from  any  other  part  of  Western 
India. 

They  breed  freely  on  the  plain  between  Chaman  and  Gatai,  in 
Southern  Afghanistan,  and  also  in  the  Pishin  Valley,  and  I  have 
seen  the  birds  during  the  breeding  season  in  the  Bolan  Pass. 

The  nest  is  globular  in  shape,  not  unlike  that  of  the  Rufous- 
fronted  Wren  Warbler  {Franklinia  buchanani),  but  is  somewhat 
larger  ;  it  is  usually  built  in  a  stunted  bush  not  more  than  two  feet 
from  the  ground ;  it  is  well  lined  with  feathers  and  fine  grass,  the 
outer  portion  consisting  of  coarse  grass  and  fibres. 

The  maximum  number  of  eggs  is  six,  but  four  incubated  ones  are 
often  met  with ;  they  are  oval  in  shape,  white,  with  a  pinkish  tinge 
when  fresh,  very  minutely  spotted  and  freckled  with  bright  red. 
These  spots  are  usually  more  dense  at  the  larger  end,  but  frequently 
they  are  evenly  speckled  over  the  whole  surface. 

They  average  0*64  inches  in  length  by  0'49  in  breadth. 

Chaman,  South  Afghanistan,  March  to  April.  H.  S.  Barnes. 

Pishin  Valley,  „  March.  „ 

551.— THE  RUFOTJS-FRONTED  WREN  WARBLER. 

Franklinia  bucha^mni,  Bly. 

The  Rufous-fronted  Wren  Warbler  is  common  in  Sind,  and  is 
most  abundant  in  Ghizerat  and  Rajpootana,  and  Mr.  Davidson  found 
it  to  be  very  common  in  Western  Khandeish,  but  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Ahmednugger  (from  whence  it  has  been  recorded  by  Mr. 
Fairbank)  it  appears  to  be  absent  from  the  southern  portion  of  the 
Presidency. 

It  is  a  permanent  resident  where  found,  breeding  during  the 
monsoons.     The  nest  is  a  loose,  ragged   structure,  of  an  irregular 


NESTING  IN  WESTERN  INDIA.  17 

purse-like  shape,  ccasionally  almost  globular,  with  the  aperture  near 
the  top,  rarely  cup-shaped.  It  is  composed  of  fine  grass,  and  is  lined 
with  soft  vegetable  down.  It  is  generally  placed  in  a  low  thorny 
bush,  not  more  than  a  foot  or  so  from  the  ground. 

The  eggs,  four  or  five  in  number,  as  often  one  as  the  other,  are  of 
a  slightly  elongated  oval  shape,  and  are  white  in  colour,  thickly 
spotted  and  speckled  with  dingy  or  purplish-red.  In  most  eggs  the 
markings  are  densest  at  the  larger  end,  where  they  not  infrequently 
form  an  irregular  zone  or  cap. 

In  length  they  measure  about  0*62  inches  by  nearly  0*48  in  breadth. 

Deesa,  June  and  July.  H.  E,  Bm^nen. 

Hydrabad,  July  and  August, 

Neemuchf  July  to  September. 

Dhulia,  Khandetsh,  June  to  October.  J.  Davidson,  C,S. 

653.— SYKES'  TREE  WARBLER. 

Hypolais  rama,  Sykes, 

Sykes'  Tree  Warbler  occurs  more  or  less  commonly  throughout 
Western  India,  in  most  places  only  as  a  cold-weather  visitor,  but  in 
Sind  it  is  a  permanent  resident. 

Mr.  Doig  found  them  breeding  most  abimdantly  from  March  to 
July.     He  says  (Stray  Feathers,  Vol.  IX.,  p.  280) : — 

"  Locally  they  are  very  numerous,  as  I  collected  upwards  of  90  or 
100  eggs  in  one  field,  about  8  acres  in  size.  They  build  in  stunted 
tamarisk  bushes,  or  rather  in  bushes  of  this  kind,  which  were  origin- 
ally cut  down  to  admit  of  cultivation  being  carried  on  and  which 
afterwards  had  again  sprouted.  These  bushes  are  very  dense,  and  in 
their  centre  is  situated  the  nest,  composed  of  sedge,  with  a  little  soft 
grass  reed.  The  eggs  are  as  a  rule  four  in  number,  and  are  of  a 
dull  white  ground,  with  brown  spots,  the  large  end  having  as  a  rule 
a  ring  round  it  of  most  delicate,  fine,  hair-like  brown  lines,  some- 
thing similar  to  the  tracing  to  be  seen  on  eggs  of  the  Common  Wren 
Warbler  {DrymoBcainornata),** 

I  found  a  nest  containing  young  ones  just  hatched,  and  a  few 
fragments  of  shells,  which  I  carefully  preserved,  in  a  small  bush  at 
the  foot  of  the  Khojak,  near  Chaman,  South  Afghanistan.  I  did  not 
see  the  bird,  and  it  was  not  until  I  received  a  clutch  of  eggs  from 
Mr.  Doig,  that  I  was  able  to  fix  the  identity. 

3 


18        JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

I  have  also  received  eggs  taken  by  a  friend  close  to  Karachi. 
The  eggs  are  broad  oval  in  shape,  averaging  0*615  inches  in  lengfli 
by  0*495  in  breadth. 

Eastern  Narra,  Sind,  March  to  July.  S.  B.  Doig. 

Chamariy  South  Afghanistan,     May.  H.  E.  Barnes, 

5836/5.— THE  DESERT  WARBLER. 

Sylvia  nana^   Hemp,  and  Ehr. 

This  bird  occurs  in  the  Sind  deserts  and  also  in  the  Runn  of  Cutch* 
Mr.  Doig  found  young  birds  ju&t  able  t«  fly  at  the  latter  place. 
This  is  all  I  can  find  on  record  regarding  this  bird,  which   person- 
ally I  have  never  met  with. 

Runn  of  Cutch,  13th  Nov.    (young  only).  S.  B.  Doig. 

589.— THE  PIED  WAGTAIL. 

Motacilla  ?naderaspatensis,  Chn. 

The  Pied  Wagtail  is  very  generally  distributed  throughout  the 
Presidency ;  it  is  a  permanent  resident,  breeding  nearly  the  whole 
year  through. 

They  have  several  broods  during  the  season. 

One  pair,  that  frequented  a  small  tank  adjoining  my  compoimd  at 
Poena,  had  a  nest  with  two  yoimg  ones  and  an  addled  egg  on  the 
3rd  March  ;  on  the  23rd  April  I  took  three  incubated  eggs  from  the 
same  nest ;  they  made  another  nest  about  a  yard  away  from  the  first 
one,  which  contained  two  eggs  on  the  9th  May.  In  July  I  noticed 
them  feeding  a  pair  of  young  birds,  and  towards  the  end  of  August, 
they  were  making  preparations  for  another  brood ;  so  that  this  pair 
had  at  least  five  clutches  of  eggs  in  one  year.  They  were  the  only- 
Wagtails  on  the  tank  and  were  very  pugnacious,  and  would  allow  no 
other  bird  to  remain  on  the  tank  ;  their  own  young  ones,  as  soon  as 
they  were  able  to  forage  for  themselves,  were  even  driven  away. 

The  nest,  which  is  a  mere  pad,  composed  of  grass,  sedges,  fibres, 
&c.,  is  always  near  water,  and  is  built  upon  something  solid,  such  as 
the  ledge  of  a  rock,  a  niche  in  a  stone  bridge  or  wall,  a  hole  in  a 
bank  or  well,  or  any  such  similar  place. 

The  eggs,  three  or  four  in  number,  vary  much  both  in  size  and 
shape,  but  are  always  more  or  less  pointed  at  one  end.     The  general 


BUTTERFLIES  OF  THE  CENTRAL  PROVINCES.  19 

colour  is  greenish  or  earthy- white,  spotted,  speckled,  streaked,  clouded 
or  smudged  with  olive-,  purplish-,  or  ^earthy -brown. 

They  average  0*9  inches  in  length  by  about  0*65  in  breadth. 

600.— THE  INDIAN  TITLARK. 

Corydalla  nrfulUy   VieilL 

The  Indian  Titlark  appears  to  be  a  common  permanent  resident 
throughout  Western  India,  breeding  from  about  the  middle  of  March 
to  the  conmiencement  of  June.  I  think  they  have  at  least  two  broods 
during  the  season.  The  nest,  composed  of  grass  roots  and  stems,  is 
usually  placed  in  the  centre  of  a  clump  of  coarse  grass  (resting  on  the 
ground)>  occasionally  under  the  shelter  afforded  by  a  clod  of  earth. 
The  nest  is  practically  cup-shaped,  but  many,  especially  when  in  the 
first  named  situation,  have  a  small  quantity  of  grass  sprinkled  lightly 
Oiver  the  nest,  as  if  by  accident,  which  effectually  hides  it  from  all 
those  who  are  not  in  possession  of  the  secret. 

The  eggs,  from  two  to  four  in  number,  are  oval  in  shape  and  dingy 
brownish- white  in  colour,  profusely  speckled  and  spotted  with  brown- 
ish-red and  umber-brown,  more  densely  so  at  the  larger  end.  The 
eggs  are  liable  to  variation  both  in  size  and  colour,  but  the  average  is 
about  0*8  inche*  in  length  by  about  0*6  in  breadth. 


THE  BUTTERFLIES  OP  THE  CENTRAL  PROVINCES. 

By  J.  A.  B. 

The  Central  Provinces,  consisting  of  nineteen  districts,  are 
situated  almost  in  th&  centre  of  the  Indian  Peninsula.  Roughly 
speaking,  they  are  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Bengal  Presidency, 
on  the  north  by  the  North-West  Provinces  and  Central  Indian 
Native  States ;  on  the  west  by  the  Bombay  Presidency ;  and  on 
the  south  by  Berar,  the  Nizam^s  Territory  and  tho  Madras  Presi- 
dency.*    Most    of    the   country   which   borders   these   provinces, 

•■^^^^^— ^  ■  I    ■   I     I  11    I    ■    ^^^^i^^^^■■^^^^^— ^M^—^^-^^— ■  ■  ■■  ■  ■■■■■■■■»■■■—  i  —  ■■  ■     -  ■  ^  ■  ■ 

*  Their  length  is,  from  east  to  west,  about  600  miles,  and  their  breadth  from 
north  to  soath,  about  500  miles.  Their  area  is  about  113,000  square  miles,  of  which 
84,200  are  English,  and  28,800  Feudatory  territory. 


20        JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1S90. 

however,  does    not  belong  to  the  British  Government,  and,   as  a 
fact,  only  160  miles  of  the  borders  march  with  English  territory, 
ont  of  a  total  of  2,700  miles.     They  are  thus  almost  entirely  isolated 
from  other  purely   British   provinces.     They    are    geographically 
divided  into  two  parts  by  the  Satpura  range  of  mountains.     Com- 
mencing in   the   east  at   the   peak   of  Amarkantak,    3,500  high, 
these  mountains  stretch   away  till  they  meet   the  Western  Ghats, 
gradually  decreasing  in  height  as  they  trend  westwards,  although 
many    of  the  peaks  and  plateaux  have  a  higher  elevation  than  has 
Amarkantak.     The  highest  peak  is  Dhupgarh,  4,500  feet,  a  thou- 
sand higher  than  the  Pachmarti  plateau  and  sanitarium,  which   it 
overlooks.     The  hills  go  away  in  two  ranges,  between  which  there 
is  a  table  land,  and  on  which  are  situated  the  districts  of  Balaghat, 
Seoni,  Chindwara,  and  Betul.   The  table  land  is  broken  up  and  diver- 
sified by  numerous  ranges  and  peaks,  and  valleys  of  various  extent, 
height   and  depth,   each  range  bearing  a  local    name.     The  table- 
land closes  in   on  the   west,  and  the   two   main  ranges   run  north 
and   south   of    the    Tapti   Eiver,    joining    the   Bajpipla   Hills   in 
Khandesh,  and  another  tract  of  hilly  country,  till  the  Western  Ghats 
are  reached.     North  of  the   Satpura   Hills   lies  the  plain   of  the 
Narbada  Valley,  and  north  of  this  again  there  is  a  plateau  on  which 
are  situated  the  districts  of  Damoh  and  Saugor,  the  eastern  scarp 
of  which    is    bounded   by   the   Bhanrer    and   Kaimur   hills,  both 
offshoots   of  the   Vindhyan  range.     South   of  the  Satpuras  lie  the 
plains  of  Nagpur  and  Chhattisgarh,  and  to  the  east  of  Chhattisgarh 
is  the  plain  of  Sambalpur.    Chhattisgarh  and  Sambalpur  are  drained 
by  the  Mahanadi.     South  of  the  Nagpur  plains  flows  the  Godaveri. 
Both  these  rivers  flow  to  the  east  and  empty  themselves  into  the  Bay 
of  Bengal,  while  the  Tapti  and  Narbada  flow  to  the  west  into  the  Ara- 
bian Sea.     There  are  several  other  large  rivers   in  the  Provinces,  all 
tributaries  of  the  four  great  rivers  already  mentioned.     To  the  north 
of  the  Chhattisgarh  and  Sambalpur  plains  there  are  ranges  of  hills, 
a  continuation  of  the  Satpuras,  but  of  lower  elevation,  covered  for 
the  most  part  with  dense  jungle,  and  south  of  these  two  plains  lie 
the   forest-clad   hills   of  Jeypore   and  Bastar,  the  latter    country 
extending  away  to  the  Godavery,  south  of  the  Nagpur  plain,  where 
there  is  another  large  tract  of  forest  country. 


BUTTERFLIES  OF  THE  CENTRAL  PROVINCES.  21 

The  Central  Provinces,  it  will  thus  be  seen,  is  generally  a  moun- 
tainous country,  with  plateaux,  plains,  hills  and  valleys  breaking 
up  and  diversifying  its  surface,  and  giving  to  it  a  greater  variety  of 
scenery  than,  perhaps,  is  to  be  met  with  in  any  other  part  of  India. 
It  may  not  be  so  grand  as  in  many  other  districts,  but  for  variety 
and  charm  I  think  these  Provinces  hold  their  own  against  many 
more  celebrated  and  better  known. 

The  year  is    divided  into    three    seasons — the  cold  season,  the 
hot  season,    and  the  rainy  sason,  four  months  of  each.     On   the 
plateaux  the  climate  is  usually  cool,  even  during  the  hottest  part 
of  the  year,  and  during  the  winter  frost  is  not  uncommon.     In  the 
plains  the  cold  weather  is  the  pleasantest  time,  but  it  is  a  pity  that  it 
does  not  last  long  enough.     The  rains  are  moderate,  ranging  from 
thirty  to  sixty  inches  in  the  various  parts  of  the  Provinces,  the 
greater  rainfall,  of  course,  being  where  the  forests  are  thickest,  and 
the  lesser  where  the  open  country  predominates.     The  hot  weather 
in  the  plateaux  is  not  at  all  unpleasant,   the  nights  being  always 
cool ;  and  even  in  the  plains  this  is  usually  the  case.     During  the 
day,  however,  the  hot  weather  in  the  plains  is  burdensome,  for  a 
fierce  wind,  like  the  breath  from  a  furnace,  rages,  and  the  thermo- 
meter shows  a  high  register — one  hundred  degrees  being  about  the 
average.     To  protect  ourselves  we  have  to  resort  to  the  grateful 
and  fragrant  khas-khas  tattie,  the  gently  swinging  punka,  and  the 
softly  murmuring  thermantidote. 

As  we  have  three  seasons,  so  there  are  three  periods  of  the  year 
when  butterflies  do  most  prevail — these  times  being  at  the  change 
of  the  seasons  in  February,  June,  and  October.  The  butterflies 
that  have  two  seasonal  broods  only  come  out  in  June  and  October 
and  the  latter  brood  would  appear  to  hybernate  ;  for  in  February, 
when  numerous  other  species  appear  in  lovely  freshness,  the  *' seasonal 
brooded"  butterflies  appear,  but  none  of  these  double-brooded 
butterflies  have  I  seen  in  February  that  seem  fresh  and  new.  The 
best  times  for  procuring  these  in  their  different  forms  is  in  June  and 
October,  and  October  is  undoubtedly  the  best  month  in  all  the  year 
for  every  variety  of  butterfly. 

I   have   prepared  a  list    of  all  the  butterflies  that   have   been 
collected  by  myself  in  the   Central  Provinces,  together  with  a  few 


22        JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

notes  about  them.  From  Mr.  Lionel  de  Niceville,  the  author  of  "The 
Butterflies  of  India,  Burmah  and  Ceylon/'  I  have  received  much 
help  in  compiling  these  notes.  I  had  been  a  collector  of  butterflies 
and  other  Natural  History  ^*  curiosities''  off  and  on  since  I  was  a  boy 
at  school.  The  study  of  entomology,  and  particularly  of  Lepidop- 
tera,  was  fostered  in  our  young  minds  by  the  existence,  in  our 
midst,  of  a  scientific  master,  who  used  to  appropriate  all  our  best 
specimens :  but  at  the  same  time,  be  it  said  in  justice  to  him,  he 
always  gave  a  prize  for  the  best  classified  collection  of  butterflies 
and  moths  at  the  end  of  the  midsummer  term .  When  I  came  out 
to  India,  and  saw  the  immense  Variety  of  Nature's  works  around  me, 
I  set  about  collecting  those  which  could  most  easily  be  preserved. 
Birds,  a  specimen  or  so  of  each,  I  have  skinned  of  every  kind  that 
I  could  come  across;  snakes,  lizards,  eggs,  fossils,  &c.,  I  have 
collected,  and  last  but  not  least  (to  my  mind),  butterflies  and 
moths.  But  all  in  a  desultory  sort  of  way.  I  could  never  classify 
anything  except  perhaps  the  birds  (thanks  to  dear  old  Jerdon)  because 
I  had  no  books  to  refer  to.  In  the  mofussil,  where  my  lines  have 
been  chiefly  cast,  libraries  are  few  and  far  between,  while,  where 
these  do  exist,  works  of  reference  on  Natural  History  do  not  usually 
find  in  them  a  place,  I  made  several  collections  of  Butterflies,  all 
gone  to  rack  and  ruin,  alas  !  and  was  in  despair  of  ever  getting  my 
specimens  named  till  about  eight  years  ago,  when  Mr.  de  Niceville 
made  an  appeal  for  help  to  enable  him  to  get  together  materials  for 
the  publication  of  his  great  work.  I  at  once  responded  to  his  appeal, 
and  the  result  has  been  that  I  have  been  able  to  name  my  speci- 
mens through  his  kindness.  I  used  to  send  him  all  my  specimens 
till  1883,  when  I  had  to  go  home  on  sick  leave ;  but  on  coming  out 
again  in  the  following  year  I  thought  I  might  as  well  begin  a 
classified  collection  for  myself.  It  was  not,  however,  till  1886  that 
I  was  able  to  take  it  up  as  thoroughly  as  I  could  wish.  Much  of 
the  Central  Provinces  is  not  favorable  for  the  collector ;  but  the 
ground  was  then  quite  new,  for,  as  far  as  I  know,  no  one  else  had 
before  me  taken  up  this  branch  of  Natural  History  in  these  parts 
with  an  eye  to  working  it  up.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  Satpura 
Hills,  and  the  forests  all  over  the  Provinces,  would,  if  properly  worked, 
yield  many  rare  species.     There  may  still  be  some  new  to  sciencej 


BUTTERFLIES  OF  THE  CENTRAL  PROVINCES^  23 

and  I  think  that  almost  as  maoy  other  species  as  those  I  have 
obtained  may  eventually  be  found  to  exist.  One  species,  a  Melani- 
tisy  quite  new  to  science,  was  discovered  in  1886,  and  there  is  no 
reason  why  there  should  not  be  others  in  these  remote  hills  and 
forests  to  delight  the  hearts  of  collectors.  The  collection  and 
study  of  butterflies  in  this  country  is  a  most  fascinating  and 
delightful  way  of  improving  one's  leisure  hours.  In  the  first  place, 
their  variety  is  so  infinite,  their  colouring  so  exquisite  and  wonderful, 
and  each  day  may  reveal  a  prize.  It  is  splendid  exercise  also  and 
trains  one's  eyes  to  observe.  There  is  nothing  more  pleasant  than 
a  walk  in  the  jungle  with  a  net,  when  there  is  no  chance  of 
getting  any  larger  game,  and  consequently  useless  to  take  out  a 
gun.  Armed  with  a  net  one  can  get  as  much  exercise  as  one  wants, 
and  with  a  killing  bottle  for  other  insects,  the  Naturalist  returns 
to  his  tents  with  a  hearty  appetite  for  breakfast,  and  his  pockets 
full  of  treasures,  to  be  put  away,  examined,  and  set  up  at  some 
future  time.  The  habits  of  many  of  our  Indian  butterflies  are  of 
much  interest.  Each  has  a  difierent  style.  Old  gardens,  full  of 
ancient  orange,  lime,  custard-apple  and  mango  tree,  and  overgrown 
with  weeds  and  wild  flowers,  or  else  a  glade  at  the  head  of  a  moun- 
tain ravine,  are  about  as  good  places  as  there  are  to  observe  them. 
Come  along  to  such  a  spot  as  the  last  indicated,  and  let  us  watch 
and  study  them.  We  have  taken  a  long  walk  from  the  plateau,  and 
having  descended  a  winding  path,  by  the  side  of  which  hurries 
along  a  little  stream,  rushing  over  pebbles  and  boulders,  flinging 
itself  over  great  black  rocks  in  tiny  sparkling  cascades,  foaming 
at  one  moment  and  the  next  gliding  smoothly  under  huge  old 
mango  trees,  covered  with  many  an  orchid  and  tree  fern, -we  arrive 
at  a  small  plain.  The  plain  is  backed,  on  the  side  where  the  stream 
now  quietly  murmurs  along,  by  dark  crags;  on  the  other  it  goes 
away,  till  it  meets  the  opposite  hill  slope.  The  plain  is  covered  by 
rank  herbage,  most  noticeable  among  it  being  the  Khans  grass 
{Saccharum  spontaneum),  its  graceful  silken  plumes  rustling  and 
nodding  to  the  breeze  which  comes  whispering  through  the  trees 
on  the  margin  of  the  plain.  We  have  now  come  to  the  end  of  the 
plain,  which  closes  in  rather  abruptly,  and  have  to  cross  the  stream 
which  we  observe  is  beautifully  clear  and  limpid.     Shoals  of  tiny 


24       JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,nS90. 

silvery  iSsh  dart  away  in  terror  at  our  approach,  and  scores  of  exqui- 
sitely coloured  dragon-flies,  their  wings  and  bodies   glittering    like 
living  gems,  rise  from  the  weeds  and  rushes  at  the  edge  of  and  in  the 
water,  and  rustle  away  with  quivering  wings.  The  shores  of  the  stream 
are  sandy,  and  our  way  winds  along  it  under  the  shade  of  graceful 
forest  trees.     Our   favourite  hunting  ground  is  near.     The  stream 
tarns  at  a  sharp  angle  and  plunges  through  dark  rocks  into  chasms 
of  unknown  depth.     At  the  entrance  of  the  glen  we  are  now  explor- 
ing are   some  magnificent  old  mango  trees,    their  roots  entwined 
amongst  the  rocks,  their  boughs  overshadowing  the  stream  and  the 
path  along  which    we   are  wandering.     The    glen  is    full  of  small 
trees,   growing  between   boulders,  and    is    covered    with  various 
plants  bearing  flowers  of  sweet  odour,  and  of  every  imaginable  hue. 
Beyond  the  glen  or  glade   the  ground  goes  suddenly  away  to  a 
ravine,  running  towards  the  direction  of  the  setting  sun,  and  as  we 
approach  the  edge  we  are  aware  of  a  strong  breeze  coming  fresh 
over  the  hills  and  up  from  the  ravine,  bringing  from  its  depths  the 
sound  of  falling  waters  far  below  and  the  sweet  and  mellow  whistle 
of  the    Malabar   Whistling  Thrush  (Myiophonus  horsfieldi),  or  the 
'*  Schoolboy  "  as  it  is  popularly  called.     Under  the  mango  trees,  at 
the  entrance  of  the  glen,  where  the  air  is  still,  are  seen  floating 
along  those  very  common  but  most  exquisitely  graceful  of  all  butter- 
flies,    the   several  kinds  of  DanaincB,  Danais  limniacey  pale  blue, 
veined  with  black ;  B.  chrysippus,  tawny  red,  relieved  by  pure  white 
and  black  ;  D.  genutia  of  the  same  colouring,  with  the  addition  of 
hlack  veins  ;s,ud  Euploea  core,  velvety  black  embroidered  with  white. 
They  sail  and  float  along  in  the  most  aerial  yet  lazy  way,  as  much 
as  to  say,  ^*  Oh,  yes  !  we  know  we  are  handsome,  but  it^s  no  matter,* 
for  no  one  will  touch  us.'^     They  settle  in  scores  on  the  plants  around 
without  an  attempt  at  concealment;  they  seem  to  know  that  nothing 
will  dare  touch  them,   they  are  so  tough,  so  leathery  and  by  no 
means  savoury  morsels  to  judge  from  the  unpleasant  odour  they  all 
exhale — a  protection  afforded  them  by  Nature  to  keep  off  the  attacks 
of  all  enemies  of  the  Butterfly  tribe,  except  those  of  the  human  race, 
alack  !     This  natural  protection  seems  to  have  been  taken  advantage 
of  by  other  butterflies,  who  mimic  the  shape  and  color  of  the  com- 
moner kinds ;  but  of  this   more  in  its  proper  place.    Each  step  we 


BUTTERFLIES  OF  THE  CENTRAL  PROVINCES.  25 

now  take  through  the  trees  disturbs  scores  of  Nymphalidce.    The 
ScUyrince  are   represented   by   various  kinds  of  Lethe,  Melanitis^ 
MyccUesis  and  Ypthima,  while  nearly  all  the  Junoniee,  various  kinds 
of  Neptis,   Athyma,  Symphcpdra  and  Precis  iphita  represent  the 
Nymphalince.     *^  Skippers/'  too,  glance  away  from  many  a  leaf,  and 
''blues'*  and   "coppers"    twinkle  away  into   the  grass   and   up 
into  the  trees.  Absara  suffusa, ''  that  embodiment  of  vanity*'  (see  Mr. 
Aitken  in  our  Society^sJournal,*^)  jostles  and  challenges  every  other 
butterfly  that  passes  by.     Among  the  dead  leaves  it  is  hard  to  distin- 
guish Precis  iphitaithe  MelaniteSf  Mycaleses  and  Ypthima.  As  we  go 
deeper  into  the  shade,  close  up  to  the  rocks,  and  come  back  towards 
the  stream,  sudden  flashes  of  blue  and  gold  reveal  to  our  wondering 
eyes  the  existence  of  Kallima  inachis,  the  great  ''leaf  butterfly .'* 
As  sudden  as  was  its  appearance,  so  is  its  disappearance,  and  we 
cannot  for  the  life  of  us  make  out  what  has  become  of  it.     Surely 
we  saw  it  settle  under  that  bit  of  overhanging  rock^  or  was  it  on 
the  trunk  of  that  tree  that  is  close  to  the  path  ?     Where  is  the 
nymph  that  so  suddenly  disclosed  herself  and  as  suddenly  vanished. 
Look  closely  and  examine  every  square  inch  of  rock  and  tree-trunk 
Bur£BM3e.     Eere^s  an  old  and  withered   leaf— can  she  be  enclosed 
within  it  ?  Try !     The  net  is  dropped  over  the  leaf,  and  up  rises  our 
wild  and  wayward  nymph^  captive  and  struggling^  as  beautiful  a 
creation  as  was  ever  made  in  Nature^s  wonderful  workshop.     As  we 
go  on  the  sprightly  Symphcedra  nais,  with  various  species  of  the 
genus  Junonia,  equally  as  sprightly,  rise  rapidly  from  almost  beneath 
our  feet,  and  skim  along  to  other  spots  several  yards  ahead,  where 
they  settle    again  with   fanning  wings.     The  Neptes  and  Athyma 
perius-^so  hard  to  distinguish  the  one  from  the  other  when  on  the 
wing,    their  general    colouring    and  manner    of  flight  so  closely 
resembling   one    another — rise    with  a    graceful  spring  and  float 
along    on   expanded   wing,  settling  again   on   the  upper   surface 
of  the  leaves  not  very  far  ahead.    They  literally /oa^  along,  for  they 
expand  their    wings    and    seem   scarce    to  flutter  them,  so  that, 
when  on  a  level  with  the  eye,  they  disappear  and  re-appear  in  quite 
a  wonderful  way.     Many  species   of  Ypthima  flutter  feebly  out  of 
the  grass  and  dance  away  along  the  path  and  in  and  out  the  stems 

♦  Vol.  I.,  page  215  {A,fratema  and  A.  suffusa,  perhaps,  are  the  same  bntterflj). 

4 


26        JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

of  grass.  The  Catopsilice  come  witli  a  series  of  vigorous,  bounding 
sweeps  and  curves  ;  they  all  look  as  if  they  were  hurrying  to  catch 
the  last  train,  but  were  undecided  which  course  to  steer.  A  few 
**  swallow-tails  *'  are  seen  majestically  sailing  along,  P.  polymnestor 
flashing  out  in  its  livery  of  black  and  azure,  while  P.  nomiusy  with 
delicate  pale  green  wings,  *' zebra-marked,^^  flutters  in  and  out  the 
bushes.  Wherever  the  ground  is  slightly  moist  they  most  do  seem 
to  congregate,  and  on  some  chosen  spots,  apparently  not  different  to 
many  close  by,  they  cluster  literally  in  scores,  one  might  say  hun- 
dreds, presenting  a  most  lovely  and  animated  appearance,  as  they 
eagerly  suck  up  the  moisture  through  their  trunks.  Among  them 
we  may  see  a  Charaxes  or  two — these  are  grand  creatures  in 
their  manner  of  flight,  such  power,  such  ease,  such  swiftness  ! 
Disturbed,  they  are  off  like  lightning,  and  disappear  from  sight  like 
spirits ;  but  one  has  only  to  wait,  and  back  they  come  to  the  same 
spot,  so  that  by  a  stealthy  approach  and  one  swift  movement  of 
the  net  they  are  captured. 

Down  in  the  khuds  and  in  the  deepest  shade  we  come  across 
the  Eallima  and  Melanitis  again,  as  well  as  various  kinds  oiHes- 
peridcBy  that  are  crepuscular  in  their  habits. 

A  MelanitiSf  when  disturbed  during  the  day,  acts  for  all  the 
world  just  as  an  owl  does,  and  hurries  along  as  if  it  could  not  see 
properly-  in  irregular  waves  of  flight,  knocking  up  against  anything 
•that  happens  to  be  in  the  way.  But  only  wait  till  evening,  just 
-when  the  sun  has  set,  for — 

It  is  the  hour,  when  from  the  boughs 
The  nightingale's  high  note  is  heard ; 

It  is  the  hour  when  lovers*  vows 
Seem  sweet  in  every  whisper'd  word— 

And  gentle  winds  and  waters  near, 
Make  music  to  the  lonely  ear. 

Each  flower  the  dews  have  lightly  wet, 
And  in  the  sky  the  stars  are  met, 

And  on  the  wave  is  deeper  blue, 
And  on  the  leaf  a  browner  hue, 

And  in  the  heaven  that  clear  obscure. 
So  softly  dark,  and  darkly  pure, 
.'  Which  follows  the  decline  of  day, 

As  twilight  melts  beneath  the  moon  away— 


BUTTERFLIES  OF  THE  CENTRAL  PROVINCES.  27 

>nd  then  the  Melanites  come  out  and  dance  beneath  the  shade  of 
lofty  trees  like   so    many    elves.     They  ait  about  and  have  aeriia 
dnels,  or  perhaps  the  movement  gone  through  may  best  be  likened 
to  that  in  the  ''  Sir  Roger  de  Co verley,"  when  the  couples  come  out 
and  mancBuvre  singly  and  together.     The  other  Melanitea  sit  by  on 
the  lower  bushes,  and  watch  each  couple  or  trio  enjoying  themselves. 
They  are  so  engrossed  in  this  amusement,  that  by  gently  walking 
into  their  midst  one's  presence  does  not  disturb    them,   and  they 
will    come  and  settle  on  one's  head,   shoulders,  and  outstretched 
hands.     I,  too,  as  noted  by  Mr.  Aitkin,  have  seen  many  of  them  go 
straight  up   into  the  sky  and  clean  out  of  sight.     I  have  noticed 
this  in  the  early    morning  as  well  as  in  the   evening.     I  suppose 
the  reason  is   that   they  have  so   long   been  snugly  Ijring  hiddeii 
under  the  bushes  that  they  love  to  get  some  of  the  freshness  high 
up  in  the  air.     By  searching  closely  and  waving  one's  net  gently 
over  the  surface  of  the  rocks,  the  dusk-loving  " skippers''  are  put 
up.     Watch  where  they  settle,  and  go  gently  up  to  the  spot.     Drop 
the  net,  extended  by  being  held  at  the  bottom,    quietly  over  the 
place,  and  the  "  skipper  *'  rushes  out  only  to  be  captured. 

The  shades  of  evening  are  now   falling,  and  we  must  hasten  back 
to  our  camp,  otherwise  we  might  meet  a  panther  or  even  a  tiger  just 
about  to  commence  his   nightly  prowl.     The  jackals   are   already 
beginning  to  wake  the  echoes  with  their  unearthly  howls,  and  the 
ghastly   chuckle  of  the   homed  owl  comes  from  out  the  depths  of 
those  dark   old  trees.     The  Night- jar    repeats  monotonously    his 
notes  like  the  sound  of  a  stone  sent  skipping  along  the  ice,  and  the 
air  is  filled  with  the  whirr  and  buzz  of  beetles  and  the  chirp  and 
tinkle,  as  of  tiny  bells,  of  innumerable  crickets  and  grasshoppers.    As 
we  climb  to  the  top  of  the  ravine,  and  look  back  over  it  and  away  to 
the  west,  toward  the  setting  sun,  our  eyes  and  hearts  are  gladdened 
by  the  sight  of  a  lovely,  soft,  yet  exquisitely  beautiful  and  radiant  glow 
like  unto  the  colour  of  an  amethyst — a  glory  which  fills  the  air  and 
floods  hill  and  forest.     Above  in  the  sky  the  glow  is  red  like  rubies, 
fading  away   into    carmine,  and  higher  up,  into  the  clear  pale  blue 
of  an  Indian  evening  sky.    Below  in  the  valleys  the  shades  are  purpling 
and  deepening  into  the  grey  of  night,  and  the  mists  are  rising  and 
strike  cold  and  ghost-like.     'Tis  a  scene  of  enchantment  from  which 


28        JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

we  must  tear  ourselves  away — a  glory  which  cannot  be  seen  often  and 
which  will  live  in  our  memories  for  ever. 

As  we  get  up  on  the  high  level  and  catch  sight  of  our  tents^  the 
lights  from  which  shine  cheerily  out,  it  is  already  night  and  the 
glorious  array  of  "stars  come  rushing  out"  from  a  deep  still  bine  sky 
filling  the  air  with  a  pale  radiance  which  enables  us  to  see  our  way 
quite  plainly.  It  is  as  glorious  a  night  as  it  has  been  a  day,  and 
we  sit  down  with  enjoyment  to  our  dinners,  after  which  a  pipe  and 
a  mild  whisky  and  soda  send  us  happy  and  contented  to  bed. 

The  butterflies  given  in  the  accompanying  list,*  with  very  few 
exceptions  (which  will  be  noted),  have  all  been  actually  taken  by 
myself,  so  that  I  can  vouch  for  their  being  strictly  ^*  butterflies  of 
the  Central  Provinces.^'  The  few  that  I  have  not  taken  myself 
have  been  caught  by  natives  who  have  collected  for  me. 

To  be  continued. 


A  PREIilMINARY  LIST  OF  THE  BUTTERFLIES 

OF  MYSORE. 

By  E.  Y.  Watson. 

In   October,    1888,  an  opportunity  oflfering,  I  availed  myself  of 

it  to  send  my  native  collector  to  catch  butterflies  in  Mysore.     The 

opportunity  in  question  was,  that  the  late  Government  Geologist  of 

Madras,  Mr.   Bosworth   Smith,   was   going   on  a  prospecting  tour 

from  Kolar  in  the   east  to  Kathlekan  in  the  west  of  Mysore,  at 

which   latter  place  he   proposed   staying  for  about   a   couple   of 

months.     Collecting  was  carried  on  at  all  the  halts  en  route  between 

Kolar  and  Kathlekan,  and  Mr.  Bosworth  Smith  carefully  noted  on 

each  specimen  the  place  of  capture.     Between  Kolar  and  Banavar 

the  jungle  consisted  of  low  scrub,  and  here,  as  might  be  expected, 

the   prevailing  genus   was    Teracolusi   this  genus  almost  entirely 

disappears  after  Kadur,  where  the  jungle  changes  to  forest  more  or 

less   thick,   and   here  the    prevailing    genera   are    Melanitis    and 

Mycahsis*     Of  the  former  genus  many  very  curious  examples  were 

obtained,  some     of   which    appear    to  belong   to   an   undescribed 

genus.     Although  I  directed  my  collector's  attention  particularly  to 

Yphthimasj  of  which  he  obtained  a  very  large  number  of  specimens, 

*  The  list  will  be  published  in  the  next  part  of  this  paper. 


THE  BUTTERFLIES  OF  MYSORE.  29 

yet  only  the  two  generally  distributed  species  huebneri  and  philo- 
mela  were  represented.  The  species  most  worthy  of  notice  is 
Arhopala  bazalus,  of  which  a  single  specimen  was  obtained  at  the 
Gersoppa  Falls,  this  species  being  hitherto  only  recorded  from 
Assam  and  Sikkim.  With  the  exception  of  the  SesperUdce,  of  which 
very  few  species  were  obtained,  the  collection  will  be  found  to  be 
fairly  representative ;  though  without  doubt,  if  collecting  could 
have  been  carried  out  during  the  rains,  numerous  species  would 
have  been  added — the  months  October  to  February,  during  which 
the  collection  was  madey  practically  representing  the  dry  season. 
I  had  hopes  of  being  able  to  collect  personally  in  Mysore  during 
the  rainy  season  of  1889,  but  was  not  able  to  do  so ;  and  here  I 
am  in  Burmah  with  no  chance  of  visiting  Mysore  for  some  years 
to  come,  so  I  have  thought  it  best  to  publish  this  list,  incomplete 
as  it  is,  in  the  hopes  that  some  more  fortunate  person  may  be  able 
to  add  to  it  hereafter,  and  will  find  it  of  some  use  to  start  from. 

I  have  also  included  in  this  list  a  few  species  obtained  by  myself 
at  Nelamangala  and  Soldevanhalli,  two  villages  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Bangalore. 

The  following  is  a  complete  list  of  the  places  near  which  specimens 
were  obtained,  with  their  approximate  height : — 

Kolar,  Kolar  District 2,552  ft. 

Bangalore,  Bangalore  District 3,000  ft. 

Nelamangala      do.          do 3,000  ft. 

Soldevanhalli     do.          do 3,000  ft. 

Nittur,  Tumkur  do.          do 2,700  ft. 

Kippenhally        do.          do 2,734  ft. 

Arsikare,  Hassan             do.     ..., 2,666  ft. 

Banavar,  Kadur               do 2,550  ft. 

Kadur         do.                   do 2,550  ft. 

Tarikare     do.                  do 2,235  ft. 

Lukvalli     do.                  do 2,200  ft. 

*  Kathlekan  do.  do 2,000  to  4,000  ft. 

Sagar,  Shimoga  District 1,970ft. 

Gersoppa  Falls,  Shimoga  Di  strict    1, 6  70  ft. 

*  This  is  a  Coffee  estate,  where  the  bulk  of  the  collection  was  made. 


30        JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

Nymphalid^. 

[NoTK. — The  species  marked  thus*  haye  been  named  by  Mr.  de  Niceville.] 

*  !•     Hestia  lynceus,  Drury  {malabarica,  Moore). 

Kathlekan,  November.     Numerous  specimens. 
2.     Danais  limniace,  Cramer,  Bangalore,    October ;  Tarikare, 
November;    Sagar,   Kathlekan,  Nelamangala,  January* 
Numerous  specimens, 
8.     Danais  chrysippus,  Linnaeus.  Nelamangala,  January,  Com- 
mon. 

4.  Danais  genutia,  Cramer,   Nelamangala,  January.  Common. 

Tarikari,  November.     One  male. 

5.  Danais  aglea,  Cramer  (graynmica,  Boisduval). 

Kathlekan,  Lukvalli,  November.    Numerous  specimens. 

6.  Euploea   core,   Cramer.     Bangalore,    October;   Kathlekan, 

Arsikare,  Kadur,  Banavar,  Lukvalli,  November ;  Sagar, 
Gersoppa  Falls,  January.     Very  numerous  specimens. 

7.  Euploea  coreoides,  Moore.  Kadur,  November ;  Kathlekan, 

November  and  January.     A  few  specimens. 

8.  Mycalesis  anaxias,  Hewitson.     Kathlekan,  November.     A 

single  specimen. 

9.  Mycalesis  mandata,  Moore.   Typical,  Kathlekan,  November. 

A  few  specimens.     Transitional  to  Mandosa,  Kathlekan, 
November  and  December.     A  few  specimens. 

10.  Mycalesis   mandosa,   Butler.     Kathlekan,   November,  De- 

cember, and  January.     Very  numerous  specimens. 

11.  Mycalesis  mineus,  Linnaeus.     Kathlekan,   November,  De- 

cember, January.     Very   common,    but   only    the    dry 
weather  forms,  visala  and  indistans^  met  with. 

12.  Mycalesis  junonia,  Butler.     Lukvalli,   November ;  Kath- 

lekan, November,  December,  January.     Very  numerous. 

13.  Lethe  todara,  Moore.     Kathlekan,  November.     Numerous 

specimens. 

14.  Lethe  neilgheriiensis,  Guerin.     Kathlekan,   Lukvalli,  No- 

vember.    A  few  specimens. 

1 5.  Yphthima  philomela,  Johansen.  Lukvalli,  Kadur, November; 

Kathlekan,  November,  December,   January.     Very  nu- 
merous specimens. 


THE  BUTTERFLIES  OF  MYSORE.  31 

1 6.  Yphthima  huebneri,  Kirby.    Lukvalli,  Tarikare,  November ; 

Kathlekan,  November,  December,  January.  Very  nu- 
merous specimens  ;  the  great  majority  of  this  and  the 
preceding  being  and  marshallii  howra  respectively. 

17.  Melanitis  leda,  Linnaeus.     Typical :  Kolar,  October;  Luk- 
'  valli,  November.     Two  specimens.     Transitional;  Luk- 
valli,  November;  Kathlekan,    December.     Two    speci- 
mens.    Ismene ;   Lukvalli,   November ;  Kathlekan  No- 
vember, December.     Very  numerous  specimens. 

*18.  Melanitis  bela,  Moore.  Kathlekan,  November,  December, 
January.  Numerous  specimens,  presenting  some  very 
curious  varieties. 

*19.  Melanitis  gnophodes,  Butler.  Kathlekan,  November, 
December.  A  few  specimens.  The  underside  of  this 
species  does  not  seem  to  vary  very  much,  and  is  very 
similar  to  some  varieties  of  ismene. 

*20.  Melanitis  sp.  Kathlekan,  November,  December.  Four 
specimens ;  these  may  possibly  be  very  aberrant  forms 
of  if.  hela. 

*21.  Discophora  lepida,  Moore.  Kathlekan,  November.  A 
single  female. 

22.  Telchinia    violae,   Fabricius.      Kadur,    November;    Nela- 

mangala,  January.     Common. 

23.  Ergolis     ariadne,    Linnaeus.      Kolar,    October;   Banavar, 

Lukvalli,  Kathlekan,  November.     Common. 

24.  Byblia     ilithyia,      Drary.        Kolar,      October.       A    few 

specimens. 
.  25.     Cupha  erymanthis,  Drury.    Gersoppa  Falls,  January.    A 
few  specimens. 

26.  Atella    phalanta,    Drury.      Kolar,   Bangalore,    October; 

Tarikare,    November;     Nelamangala,    January.     Very 
common. 

27.  Cynthia  saloma,  Swinhoe.     Gersoppa  Falls,  January.     A 

single  male. 

28.  .  Precisiphita,     Cramer.    Lukvalli,  November ;    Kathlekan, 

November,  December,  January.     Common. 


32        JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

29.  Junonia  alraana,  Linnaeus.  Tarikare,  November;    Kathle- 

kan,  Lukvalli,  December.     Common. 

30.  Junonia    asterie,    Linnaeus.      Kathlekan,    November.     A 

single  worn  specimen. 

31.  Junonia  lemonias,  Linnaeus.     Bangalore,  October  ;  Kadur, 

Arsikari,  November ;  Nelamangala,  January. 
Common. 

32.  Junonia    hierta,    Fabricius.     Kolar,    October ;    Tarikare, 

Kadur,  November ;  Nelamangala,  January.     Common. 

33.  Junonia    orithya,     Linnaeus.      Kolar,    October;     Kadur, 

Banavar,  November;  Nelamangala,  January.     Common. 
*34.     Neptis    hordonia,    Stoll.     Lukvalli^    November;  Kathle- 
kan, November,  December.     A  few  specimens. 
*35.     Neptis    viraja,    Moore.      Kathlekan,    November.      Two 

specimens.  ^ 

*36.     Neptis  varmona,  Moore.     Lukvalli,  November;  Kathlekan. 

November,  December,  January.     Numerous  specimens. 
♦37.     Neptis  swiuhoei,  Butler.     Kathlekan,  December ;    Sagar, 

Gersoppa  Falls,  January.     A  few  specimens. 
*38.     Neptis  ^  kallaura,     Moore.       Kathlekan,   November.      A 

single  female. 
^39.     Neptis    nandina,     Moore,      Kathlekan,    November.      A 

single  female. 
*40.    Neptis    ophiana,  Moore.     Kadur,   November.     A  single 

male. 
*41.     Cirrhochroa  relata,  de  Niceville.     Gersoppa  Falls,  January. 

A  single  male. 

42.  Hypolimnas  bolina,   Linnaeus.     Nittur;  November  ;  Ger- 

soppa Falls,  January.     A  few  specimens. 

43.  Hypolimnas  misippus,  Linnaeus.     Kadur,  Banavar,  Novem- 

ber;  Gersoppa  Falls,  January.     Numerous  males. 

44.  Parthenos  virens,  Moore.     Gersoppa  Falls,  January  Two 

specimens. 

45.  Limenitis    procris,    Cramer.     Kathlekan,  November.    A 

single  specimen. 
*46.    Athyma  maheea,  Moore.    Gersoppa  Falls,  January.    Three 
males. 


THE  BUTTERFLIES  OF  MYSORE.  33 

*47.     Athyma   selenophora^   Kolar.     Gersoppa   Falls^    January. 

One  male. 
*48.     Athyma  inarina,   Butler.     Kathlekan,   November.      One 

male. 
*49.     Symphaedra  nais,   Forster.      Kolar,   October;   Nelaman- 

gala,   January.     Common.     Gersoppa   FallS}    January. 

A  single  specimen. 

50.  Euthalia   evelina,    Stoll.      Gersoppa    Falls,    January.    A 

single  male. 

51.  Euthalia  lepidea,  Butler.    Kathlekan,  November,  Decem- 

ber; Gersoppa  Falls,  January.     A  few  specimens. 

52.  Euthalia  garuda,  Moore.     Gersoppa   Falls,  December.     A 

few  specimens. 

53.  Pyrameis  cardui,  Linna3us.     Kadur,  November.     A  single 

specimen. 

54.  Vanessa  canace,  Linnasus.     Gersoppa  Falls,    January.     A 

single  worn  specimen. 

55.  Cyrestis    thyodamas,   Boisduval.     Kathlekan,    November; 

Gersoppa  Falls,  January.     Numerous  specimens. 

56.  Charaxes   athamas,   Drury.     Kathlekan,    November.      A 

single  specimen. 

57.  Charaxes  imna,   Butler.       Kathlekan,  November.       Two 

males. 

Lemoniidj:. 

58.  Abisara  sufTusa,  Moore.    Kathlekan,    November,  Decem- 

ber,  January;    Gersoppa    Falls,   January.     Numerous 
specimens. 

Lyc-eniike. 

■*^59.     Curetis  bulis  Doubleday,   Hewitson.     Kathlekan,  Novem- 
ber, December,  January.     Two  males,  one  female. 

60.  Curetis  thetys,    Drury.      Kathlekan,   November,  Decem- 

ber,  January;  Gersoppa  Falls,   January.     Two  males 
three  females. 

61.  Cyaniris  albidisca,  Moore.     Kathlekan,  November;    Ger- 

soppa Falls,  January.     A  few  males. 

62.  Cyaniris limbatus,  Moore.     Lukvalli,  November;  Gersoppa 

Falls,  January.     Numerous  specimens. 
5 


34        JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

63.  Cyanirls  akasa,  Horsfield.    Kathlekan,  November.   A  single 

specimeD. 

64.  Chilades     putli,     Kolar.      Nelamangala,   January.      One 

specimen. 

65.  Zizera  pygmaea,  Snellin.     Kolar,  October.     One  specimen. 

66.  Zizera  ossa,  Swinhoe.    Kolar,  October ;  Arsikari,  Kathlekan, 

November;  Nelamangala,  January.     A  few  specimens. 
*67.     Azanus    gamra,  Lederer.     Kolar,  October.     A  few  speci- 
mens. 

68.  Tarucus   plinius,   Fabricius.       Kolar,   October;    Kippen- 

hally,  Banavar,  November.     A  few  specimens. 

69.  Castalius  rosimon,    Fabricius.      Kolar,  October;    Kathle- 

kan,  Arsikari,  Lukvalli,  November.     Common. 

70.  Castalius  ethion,    Doubleday,    Hewitson.      Arsikari,   No- 

vember.    A  single  male. 

71.  Castalius     interruptus,    Moore.      Kathlekan,    November. 

One  specimen. 

72.  Everes     parrhasius,     Fabricius.        Lukvalli,    November ; 

Kathlekan,  November,  December,  January.     Numerous 
specimens. 

73.  Jamides  bochus,  Cramer.     Tarikari,  Arsikari,  November. 

Two  males. 

*74.  Lycaenesthes  lycaenina,  Felder.  Kathlekan,  November. 
One  specimen. 

*75.  Nacaduba  dana,  de  Niceville.  Kadur,  Kathlekan,  Novem- 
ber.    Numerous  specimens. 

76.  Nacaduba     hampsoni,   de  Niceville.     Kathlekan,  Novem- 

ber.    A  few  specimens. 

77.  Calochrysops   strabo,    Fabricius.      Kadur,    Arsikari,    No- 

vember; Kathlekan,  Sagar,  January.     Numerous  spe- 
cimens. 

78.  Calochrysops  onejus,  Fabricius.     Kolar,  October ;  Tarikari, 

Arsikari,    Kathlekan,   Lukvalli,    November ;    Gersoppa 
Palls,  January.     Numerous  specimens. 

79.  Polyommatus    boeticus,    Linnaeus.      Arsikari,   Kathlekan, 

November ;  Sagar,  Nelamangala,  January.     A  few  spe- 
cimens. 


THE  BUTTERFLIES  OF  MYSORE.  35 

80.  Lampides  ©lianas,  Fabricius.     Kolar,  Bangalore,  October ; 

Kathlekan,  December ;  Lukvalli,  Arsikari,  Kippenhally, 
November.  Numerous  specimens.  Var.  alexisf  Kolar, 
Bangalore,  October;  Arsikari,  November;  Gersoppa 
Falls,  January.     A  few  specimens, 

81.  Lampides  elpis,  Qodart.     Kathlekan,  November;  Gersoppa 

Falls,  January.     A  few  specimens. 

82.  Talicada    nyseus,    Gu6riu.      Kolar,    October ;  Kathlekan, 

November;  Sagar,  Nelamangala,  January.  A  few  speci- 
mens. 

83.  Virachola    isocrates,     Fabricius.       Kolar,     October.     A 

single  female. 
♦84.     Aphnaaus    elima,  Moore.    Kolar,  Bangalore,   October.     A 

few  specimens. 
*85.     Aphnsdus    vulcanus,  Fabricius.     Kolar,    October ;  Solde- 

vanhalli,  January.     Two  specimens. 
*86.    Aphn89us  lilaciaus,  Moore.    Bangalore,  October.     A  single 

specimen. 
*87.     Aphnaaus  sp.  Kathlekan,  November.     A  single  specimen. 
♦88.     Bindhara  sugriva,     Horsfield.     Gersoppa     Falls,  January. 

Two  males,  one  female. 
^^89.     Arhopala  canaraica,  Moore.    Gersoppa  Falls,  January.    A 

few  specimens. 
^90.    Arhopala    bazalas,    Hewitson.     Gersoppa  Falls,   January. 

A  single  specimen. 
91.     Arhopala    amantes,    Hewitson.     Gersoppa  Falls,     Sagar, 

January.     Numerous  specimens. 
V2.     Arhopala  centaurus    Fabricius.     Gersoppa   Falls,     Sagar, 

January.     A  few  specimens. 

PaPILIONIDJS. — PlBEIN-E. 

93.  Nychitona  xiphia,  Fabricius.     Lukvalli,  Tarikare,  Nittur, 

November.     A  few  specimens. 

94.  Terias    hecabe,    Linnaeus.     Kolar,    Bangalore,    October ; 

Kadur,  Nittur,  Banavar,  Kippenhally,  November.  Nu- 
merous specimens.  Form  excavata,  Moore.  Kolar, 
Bangalore,  October.    A  few  specimens. 


36        JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

95.  Terias    purreea,  Butler.     Kolar,    Bangalore,   October.     A 

few  specimens. 

96.  Terias    drona,  Horsfield.     Kolar,  October ;  Tarikari,  No- 

vember; Soldevanhalli,  January.     A  few  specimens. 

97.  Catopsilia     catilla,  Cramer.     Kolar,  Bangalore,    October; 

Kathlekan,  November.     Common. 

98.  Catopsilia    crocale,    Cramer.     Kolar,    October.       A    few 

specimens. 

99.  Catopsilia    pyranthe,  Pabricius.     Kolar,  October.     A  few 

specimens. 

100.  Catopsilia    gnoma,   Fabricius.     Kolar,  October;  Tarikari, 

November.     A  few  specimens. 

101.  Belenois    mesentina,    Cramer.     Nittur,    November.     Nu- 

merous specimens. 

102.  Ixias    marianne,     Cramer.     Kolar,  October;  Kippenhally, 

Tarikari,  November.     A  few  specimens. 

103.  Ixias  pyrene,  Linnaeus.     Kolar,  October ;  Tarikari,  Luk- 

valli,  November.    A  few  specimens. 

104.  Teracolus  etrida,   Boisduval.       Kolar,   October.     A    few 

specimens. 

105.  Teracolus   danse,  Fabricius.   Kolar,  October;  Kippenhally, 

Arsikari,     Banavar,      Nittur,     November.     Numerous 
specimens. 

106.  Teracolus  amata,   Pabricius.     Kolar,  Bangalore,  October ; 

Tarikari,     Arsikari,      Banavar,    Nittur,     Kippenhally. 
Very  numerous  specimens. 

*107.  Teracolus  eucharis,  Fabricius.  Kolar,  October  ;  Nittur, 
Banavar,  Kadur,  Arsikari,  Kippenhally,  November. 
Numerous  males  and  a  few  females. 

*108.  Catophaga  hippo,  Linnasus.  Kathlekan,  December.  One 
female. 

109.  Catophaga  sp.     (lankapura  ?)•     Kathlekan,  November.     A 

single  male. 

110.  Huphina   phryne,   Fabricius.    Kolar,  October ;    Tarikari, 

Nittur,   Banavar,   Kippenhally,    Kathlekan,  November. 
Numerous  specimens. 


THE  BUTTERFLIES  OF  MYSORE,  37 

111.  Nepheronea  sp.  (  gcea  ?).     Kathlekan,  November.     A  few 

specimens. 

112.  Delias    eucharis,     Drnry.     Arsikari,     Kadur,   Kathlekan, 

November  ;  Sagar^  January.     Numerous  specimens. 

Papilionin*. 

*113.     Ornithoptera  minos,   Cramer.     Kathlekan,  November,     A 
single  female. 

114.  Papilio  dissimilis,  Linnasus .  Kathlekan,  December,  January. 

Two  specimens, 

115.  Papilio  panope,  Linnaeus.     Kadur,  November ;  Kathlekan 

November,  December,  January.     A  few  specimens. 

116.  Papilio   hector,  Linnaeus.    Kolar,  October ;   Nelamangala, 

January.    Common. 

117.  Papilio  aristolochiae,  Fabricius.   Sagar,  Kathlekan,  January. 

A  few  specimens. 

118.  Papilio  erithronius,  Cramer.  Bangalore,  October;  Lukvalli, 

Kippenhally,  Tarikari,  November  ;  Kathlekan,  Novem- 
ber, December,  January  ;  Nelamangala,  January.  Very 
common. 

119.  Papilio  pammon,  Linnaeus.    Kathlekan,  December,  Janu- 

ary.   Two  specimens. 

HeSP£BIID£. 

120.  Astictopterus  salsala,  Moore.    Kathlekan  November.  Two 

specimens. 

121.  Chapra    mathias,    Fabricius.     Kolar,  October;    Lukvalli, 

November.     Numerous  specimens. 

122.  Tagiades  obscurus,    Mabille.     Gersoppa    Falls,    January. 

Several  specimens. 
*123.    Plesioneura    restricta,  Moore.    Gersoppa  Falls,  January; 

Lukvalli,  November.     Two  specimens. 
*124.     Coladenia  dau,  Fabricius.    Lukvalli,  November.     A  single 

specimen. 


38       JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HI8T0RY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

NOTES  ON  INDIAN  ANTS. 

By  George  At.exander  J.  Rothney,  F.E.S. 
{Read  before  the  Entmiwlogical  Society ,  London^  8rd  April  1889.) 

The  following  notes  (which  I  have  been  encouraged  to  ofEer  to 
the  Society  by  the  kind  assurance  of  my  friend  Mr.  Edward  Saun- 
ders that  they  might  be  of  some  interest  to  hymenopterists)  are 
confined  to  my  written  memoranda  of  a  few  only  of  the  more  con- 
spicuous or  interesting  of  the  Indian  species  which  have  been  con- 
stantly imder  my  observation  from  March  1872  to  March  1886. 

Now  that  I  have  left  India,  I  often  feel  sorry  I  did  not  turn  to 
better  account  such  a  splendid  field  for  the  study  of  these  most 
fascinating  insects,  but  the  calls  and  duties  of  a  business  life,  and  the 
necessity  of  spending  much  of  one's  spare  time  in  outdoor  sports, 
which  in  India  means  not  only  relaxation  but  health,  very  greatly 
reduce  the  leisure  available  for  steady  entomological  work,  and,  as 
these  notes  will  show,  almost  restrict  one's  observations  to  Sundays 
and  holidays ;  still  there  have  been  many  neglected  opportimities, 
and  I  shall  always  regret  having  failed  to  find  the  female  of  DoryhiSy 
and  to  dig  up  a  satisfactory  nest  of  Holcomyrmex  indicm. 

Looking  back  on  Indian  ants  generally,  it  is  strongly  impressed 
upon  my  mind  by  many  an  unrecorded  observation  that  not  only  do 
different  species  vary  as  widely  in  habits  and  character  as  do  the 
nimierous  and  distinct  nationalities  inhabiting  this  wonderful  coimtry , 
but  that  individuals  of  the  same  species  will  occasionally  exhibit, 
when  under  apparently  similar  conditions  and  circumstances,  different 
little  traits  and  dispositions,  so  that  if  you  attempt  to  fix  any  hard 
and  fast  lines  as  to  ant-conduct  you  are  apt  to  find  your  calculations 
and  theories  somewhat  upset. 

Mr.  Edward  Saunders  has  kindly  assisted  me  in  determining  some 
of  the  ant-puzzles,  and  I  am  happy  to  say  that  my  Indian  collections 
of  Hymenoptera  are  now  in  Mr.  Cameron's  able  hands  for  description. 

Camponotus  compressus,  Formica  compressa^  Fabr. 

The  Black  Ant  of  India. 
This  species  is  very  conunon  in  Bengal,  and  can  be  seen  in  numbers 
almost  everywhere,  but  it  becomes  comparatively  rare  as  you  get  up- 
country  to  Oudh,  the  North- West  Provinces,  and  the  Punjaub,  where 


NOTES  ON  INDIAN  ANTS.  39 

its  place  seems  to  be  taken  by  MynnecocystuH  riatictm ;  the  two 
species  can  be  taken  in  the  same  locality,  but  as  riatictis  becomes 
common,  oompressus  is  seen  less  frequently;  Benares,  Agra,  and 
Lahore  are  good  illustrations  of  this.  Cotnpressm  is  very  common  in 
Madras,  and  I  have  also  taken  it  in  Bombay.  The  nests  are  formed 
in  the  earth  at  a  depth  of  several  inches,  generally  under  the  shelter 
of  trees,  and  are  very  populous.  The  sexes  swarm  in  May  or  early 
June,  and  take  flight  as  soon  as  the  sim  goes  down.  Stray  specimens 
of  the  sexes,  however,  may  be  taken  at  light  from  the  commencement 
of  the  hot  weather  to  the  end  of  the  rains  (April  to  September). 
The  workers-major  are  very  fierce  and  strong,  and  attack  when 
disturbed  with  the  greatest  courage ;  if  you  allow  them  to  fasten  on 
your  hand  they  can  draw  blood  with  ease,  their  strong  mandibles 
cutting  like  a  pair  of  nail  scissors ;  when  once  they  get  a  good  hold, 
unless  you  unlock  their  jaws,  they  will  leave  their  heads  fixed  in  the 
wound  rather  than  loosen  their  bull-dog  grip. 

It  is  amusing  to  watch  the  havoc  these  big  workers  will  play  with 
the  whit«  ants  (Termites)  whenever  they  get  the  chance.  Very 
probably  the  trunk  of  the  tree  under  which  conipremm  has  formed 
its  colony  will  be  plastered  with  the  covered  ways  of  Termites  ;  take  a 
stick  and  uncover  these,  and  compressus  will  immediately  rush  in  and 
carry  off  the  soft  helpless  Termites  to  their  nest ;  but  they  never 
have  the  sense  or  industry  to  open  up  any  of  these  prolific  finds  for 
themselves,  even  when  the  key  or  start  is  given  them,  although  with 
their  immense  strength  they  could  very  easily  do  so. 

It  is  a  very  common  occurrence  to  find  evidence  of  deadly  family 
feuds  between  these  warriors,  such  as  two  lying  dead,  locked  together, 
and  another  walking  about  with  a  big  head  fixed  to  a  leg  or  antenna  : 
but  of  many  observations  of  a  similar  character,  I  will  relate  the 
details  of  a  particularly  desperate  fight  that  took  place  in  the 
verandah  of  my  bungalow  in  Barrackpore  between  a  worker-majbr 
(not  a  very  big  specimen)  and  a  nest  of  that  pungently  stinging  ant, 
Solmopm  gemminatm.  One  afternoon  in  May,  1880,  at  4-30  p.m., 
I  noticed  a  worker  of  compresms  very  busy  skirmishing  roimd  a 
column  of  the  verandah,  in  which  was  a  strong  colony  of  Solenopsts ; 
she  contented  herself  for  some  time  in  cutting  off  and  snipping  in 
two  the  stragglers  from  the  nest,  but  by-and-bye  she  became  bolder. 


40        JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

and  came  closer  to  the  nest,  seizing  and  cutting  away  with  the  most 
systematic  determination  ;  by  stooping  down  a  little  you  could  dis- 
distinctly  hear  the  snip,  snip  of  the  mandibles  as  they  severed  heads 
and  bodies  of  the  apparently  imoffending  gemminatus.  This  went  on 
till  5-30,  when  compressus  commenced  an  attack  on  the  main  entrance 
to  the  nest  itself ;  and  now  the  fight  became  more  general.  After 
a  rapid  dash  at  the  entrance  compressus  would  retreat,  covered  with 
these  little  red  ants  ;  some  would  be  jerked  off,  but  the  more  perti- 
nacious required  individual  clearing,  and  I  noticed  compresst^  adopted 
a  very  clever  plan  of  freeing  her  legs  from  the  enemy  :  say  one  or 
more  ants  were  holding  on  to  her  leg,  she  would  then  encircle  that 
limb  with  'her  mandibles  above  the  hold  of  the  red  ants,  and  then, 
instead  of  moving  the  jaws,  would  draw  the  leg  through,  a  process 
very  like  shredding  currants  ;  of  course  gemminatus  would  often  get 
a  hold  where  this  process  could  not  be  applied,  but  compressus  always 
managed  to  free  herself  at  last,  and  then  off  to  the  entrance  again  for 
a  fresh  attack.  Twice  while  watching,  compressus,  covered  with  red 
ants,  rolled  from  the  base  of  the  column  to  the  steps  below,  but  as 
soon  as  she  freed  herself,  up  she  mounted  again  and  renewed  the 
fight.  At  6  o'clock  I  went  for  the  usual  evening  drive,  and  left  my 
friend  hard  at  it.  On  my  return  at  8  the  fight  was  still  going  on, 
although  it  was  then  dark,  and  compressus  was  showing  evident  signs 
of  exhaustion.  At  9-30  I  went  out  again  to  see  how  matters  stood, 
and  found  compressus  still  alive,  but  covered  with  foes  and  almost 
done  to  death.  I  picked  her  up,  cleaned  off  the  red  ants,  brought 
her  indoors,  put  her  in  a  comfortable  open  box,  and  prepared  some 
syrup  of  sugar  and  sherry,  but  on  going  to  the  box  the  next  morning 
I  was  grieved  to  find  her  stiff  and  dead.  I  have  always  regretted 
I  did  not  mix  her  syrup  with  brandy  or  port  instead  of  sherry,  but 
I  fear  she  was  past  recovery.  After  bringing  her  in  the  night 
before,  I  went  back  with  a  light  and  gathered  up  some  of  the  dead 
from  the  battle-field,  and  of  the  odds  and  ends  of  heads  and  bodies.  I 
made  out  next  day  some  53  slain,  but  the  total  must  have  been  much 
greater,  as  I  did  not  succeed  in  picking  up  in  the  defective  light  of  a 
wall-lamp,  anything  like  the  whole  of  the  killed.  I  should  be  inclined 
to  estimate  the  total  as  near  150  to  200.  I  did  not  observe  any 
wounded ;  compressus  did  her  work  too  effectively  for  that. 


NOTES  ON  INDIAN  ANTS.  41 

Beyond  a  pure  love  of  a  good  scrimmage  I  can  offer  no  suggestion 
as  to  any  reason  or  cause  for  this  fight ;  gmiminatus  was  wholly  un- 
offending, and  compressus  might  have  left  the  battle-field  with  colours 
fljdng  any  time  from  4-30  up  to  8  p.m.  I  have  seen  many  instances 
of  compressm'  pugnacity  when  coming  across  other  ants,  or  crossing 
close  to  another  nest,  but  never  such  a  systematic  determined  affair 
as  the  one  described.  I  have  this  Hereward  of  ants  in  my  collection 
now,  with  a  few  odds  and  ends  of  the  slain.  I  have  examined  a  great 
many  nests  of  compressus,  but  have  never  succeeded  in  finding  in 
them  any  other  species  of  ants,  Coleoptera,  Aphidae,  or  indeed  insects 
of  any  kind. 

Mynnecocysias  viatica  (Fabr.). 

Cataglyphis  viatica. 

This  ant  is  common  in  the  North- West  Provinces,  Oudh,  and  the 
Punjaub.  I  have  also  taken  it  in  Tirhoot,  but  never  in  the  Calcutta 
district.  It  forms  its  nests  in  the  hard-baked  earth  in  the  most 
exposed  situations,  and  seems  to  revel  in  the  hot  dry  air  and  fierce 
sun  of  these  parts.  You  can  always  find  plenty  of  nests  in  the  broken 
ground  about  Agra,  and  also  in  the  pathways  of  the  gardens  at 
Benares.  The  workers,  which  vary  immensely  in  size,  can  be  found 
busy  and  active  all  the  year  roimd,*but  the  sexes  I  have  only  obtained 
in  May.  The  workers  have  a  strong  propensity  for  marching  about 
in  irregular  lines  of  a '  dozen  or  twenty  together ;  they  march  at  a 
great  pace,  but  I  have  never  been  able  to  detect  any  particular  object 
in  these  excursions,  and  have  never  seen  them  attacking  other  ants, 
or  bringing  home  any  plunder.  The  workers-major,  however,  arc 
very  fond  of  carrying  their  smaller  brethren  when  on  the  march, 
which  they  do  by  striding  over  and  holding  them  clear  of  the 
ground  with  their  mandibles ;  if  you  disturb  them  the  big  worker 
drops  the  little  one,  and  each  makes  off  on  its  own  account,  but  if  left 
alone,  and  you  watch  quietly  for  a  little  time,  you  may  see  the  big 
ant  pick  up  the  little  one  and  march  on  again  in  a  great  hurry,  and 
as  if  to  make  up  for  the  delay.  I  have  examined  many  of  the  nests 
of  this  species,  but  never  found  any  slave-ants  or  insects  of  any  kind 
in  them.  The  big  workers  are  powerful  ants,  but  do  not  possess  the 
immense  strength  of  the  giant  workers  of  the  conqyrci^ms. 
6 


42        JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

Cmyiponoim  sf/lcaticus,  Oliv. 

This  is  a  common  species  in  Bengal,  and  can  be  found  on  most 
tree-trunks ;  it  delights  in  shade,  and  forms  its  nests  (which  are 
never  populous)  in  the  ground  under  leaves.  The  workers  are  very 
active  and  extremely  fragile,  and  it  is  difficult  to  secure  perfect  spe- 
cimens. Specimens  even  from  the  same  nest  will  vary  greatly  in 
colour. 

Polyrhachis  loevissimus,  Sm. 

This  ant  forms  its  nests  in  the  decayed  wood  of  trees,  covering  the 
entrances  to  its  burrows  with  a  thick  papyraceous  material,  which 
might  be  best  described  as  a  "  small-hands ''  made  in  the  substance 
of  a  "  tissue*' ;  it  ts  by  no  means  a  common  ant,  and  I  have  hardly 
found  half-a-dozen  nests  during  my  residence  in  India,  and  these 
have  all  been  in  Bengal.  My  finest  nest  is  situated  in  a  tree  (a  species 
of  Acacia)  in  Barrackpore  Park,  on  the  south  side  of  the  tennis- 
ground,  close  to  the  Chirya  Khana  (aviary).  This  nest  has  a  web 
stretched  across  a  portion  of  the  decayed  trunk  fully  18  inches  broad 
by  2  feet  in  length,  and  is  very  populous  ;  this  nest  swarms  about  the 
commencement  of  the  rains,  June  15th  to  July  7th.  It  is  a  strikingly 
handsome  species,  with  its  shining  jet-black  head  and  body,  relieved 
and  set  off  by  the  red  legs.  It  often  reminded  me  of  our  English 
jP.  fiiliginosa  in  general  appearance  and  habits,  and  always  seemed 
like  an  old  friend,  but  though  I  spent  many  hours  for  many  years 
watching  this  nest,  I  never  detected  any  special  trait  or  character 
worth  recording.  I  never  found  any  other  species  in  the  nest  nor 
Aphidae,  and,  as  far  as  I  could  observe,  the  ants  derived  their  nourish- 
ment from  the  rich,  black,  moist  mould  of  the  decaying  wood.  They 
are  a  gentle  species  of  ant,  and  can  be  handled  without  inconvenience. 

Polyrhachls  Schrinax,  Roger. 

This  ant  forms  its  nest  by  binding  together  with  one  or  two  silky 
threads  a  couple  of  leaves  of  a  shrub  ;  it  only  contains  a  few  indivi- 
duals, and  is  decidedly  rare.  The  same  remarks  apply  to  Polyrhachis 
bicolor,  Smith. 

Polyrhachis  spinigcr,  Mayr. 

This  is  a  common  species  in  Bengal,  but  the  nests  are  not  easily 
found ;    they  are   formed  by  web-work  binding  together  a  few  twigs 


NOTES  ON  INDIAN  ANTS.  43 

of  a  spiny  shrub  like  a  dwarf  babool,  and  I  have  not  found  them  in 
any  other  plant.  This  species  was  described  from  specimens  taken 
in  the  Botanical  Gardens,  Calcutta. 

Pseudomyrma  bicohr,  Guer.,  Sm 

Sima  rufo-nigra  {nig)*um)y  Jerdon. 

This  species  (the  female  of  which  is  figured  and  described  by 
Frederick  Smith  in  the  Entomological  Transactions  for  March,  1875, 
from  my  specimens  taken  at  Barrackpore)  is  very  common  in  Bengal ; 
it  forms  its  nests  in  the  dead  (but  not  decayed)  wood  of  trees,  and  it 
can  always  be  met  with  scouring  over  the  trunks,  particularly  of 
fruit-trees,  like  the  mango  {Manfjifera  indicn)y  bacl  {Mgle  7)iarmelos), 
and  lychee  (NephcUam  Lichi).  Though  so  generally  common,  the 
nests  are  not  easy  to  find,  and  I  only  met  with  two  thoroughly  well- 
established  colonies  that  could  be  visited  and  watched  year  after  year 
(the  first  was  situated  in  a  tree  in  Barrackpore  Road,  opposite  the 
Park-gates,  just  where  the  trunk-road  turns  off  by  the  Club ;  the 
other  in  a  small  tree  in  the  Park,  in  some  waste  ground  by  the  viceregal 
kitchen- garden.  These  nests  I  have  spent  hours  in  watching  from 
1874  to  1886).  It  is  a  very  pugnacious  species,  and  attacks  almost 
any  insect  that  comes  in  its  way ;  I  say  almost,  for  I  have  seen  it 
distinctly  avoid  the  big  workers  of  comprcssus,  and  on  one  or  two 
occasions  also  the  workers  of  OScophj/lla  smaragdina,  when  placed  at 
a  slight  disadvantage  in  the  way  of  position  and  numbers  ;it  is  armed 
with  a  very  powerful  sting,  which  inflicts  by  far  the  most  painful 
and  lasting  wound  of  any  hymenopterous  insect  I  am  acquainted  with, 
and  I  have  had  experience  of  the  stings  of  most  Indian  bees,  wasps, 
and  ants.  It  is  very  possible  this  may  be  considered  by  many  who 
know  the  ant  as  too  high  an  estimate  of  its  stinging  powers,  but 
there  are  stings  and  stings.  I  have  had  hundreds  of  casual  ones,  and 
thought  no  more  of  them  than  of  the  stings  of  a  PoUstes  or  Pompi/ns ; 
but  once  allow  this  ant  to  get  a  firm  hold  with  its  mandibles,  and 
then,  doubling  its  body,  plunge  its  sting,  so  to  speak,  up  to  the  hilt, 
and  go  on  stinging,  and  the  result  is  an  entomological  experience 
that  few  would  care  to  try  again.  I  have  had  several  of  these  little 
experiences,  and  will  give  the  following  details  of  the  worst: — 

I  was  out  collecting  in  Barrackpore  Park,  and  one  of  these  ants 
got  on  my  left  hand  and  stung  me  just  under  a  heavy  snake-ring  I 


44        JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

was  wearing.  I  was  foolish  enougli  to  allow  it  to  operate  in  the 
above-mentioned  thorough  fashion  before  I  brushed  her  off,  and 
never  thought  of  removing  the  ring  until  the  finger  was  too  swollen 
to  do  so.  On  my  return  home  I  tried  to  reduce  the  swelling  with 
ice,  but  without  success ;  the  whole  hand  puffed  out,  the  inflammation 
extending  right  up  the  arm  to  the  shoulder ;  the  finger  itself  turned 
blue,  and  looked  and  felt  like  bursting.  1  spent  a  wretched  night, 
and  the  first  thing  in  the  morning  sent  to  the  bazaar  for  a  native 
jeweller  (tfohari),  who  cut  the  ring  off  for  me,  but  it  was  a  painful 
operation,  and  it  was  two  days  before  I  was  quite  right  again.  I 
was  in  perfect  health  at  the  time  and  in  the  football  training,  which 
will  give  some  idea  of  the  effect  of  the  poison  when  rufo-nigra  has 
sufficient  time  to  make  a  really  deliberate  and  well-sustained  sting. 

In  my  compound  at  No.  45  Cantonment,  Barrackpore,  I  had  a  very 
fine  bael-tree,  covered  every  year  with  fruit,  of  which  my  mali 
(native  gardener)  was  especially  fond ;  but  the  tree  was  much  fre- 
quented by  Pseudomi/rma,  and  little  "  Adjun-mali  *'  never  went  up  to 
pick  the  fruit  without  expressing  many  anathemas  on  this  particular 
species  of  ant, 

I  have  never  found  any  swarming  time  for  this  species,  but  have 
taken  specimens  of  the  winged  female  at  different  times  during  the 
hot  weather  and  rains,  but  generally  in  May ;  but  altogether  I  have 
not  captured  more  than  about  twenty  specimens.  From  May  20th 
to  24th,  in  1879  to  1882,  I  captured  each  year  a  single  female  sitting 
on  a  leaf  of  the  mussel-shell  creeper,  CUtoria  ternatea^  on  the  east 
side  of  the  Chirya  Khana  (aviary),  Barrackpore  Park,  and  in  almost 
the  same  position.  What  the  attraction  for  this  particular  spot  was 
1  could  never  make  out,  and  there  were  no  nests  in  the  immediate 
neighbourhood. 

Wherever  you  find  this  species  in  any  numbers,  if  you  watch  a 
few  moments,  you  will  see  a  mimicking  spider,  Salticus^  running 
about  amongst  the  ants,  which  it  very  closely  resembles  in  appear- 
ance, much  more  so  in  life  than  in  set  specimens  placed  side  by 
side;  in  my  two  favourite  nests  I  have  seen  numbers  on  the  most 
friendly  footing  with  the  ants,  though  I  have  never  seen  them  enter 
their  burrows.  I  have  never  seen  these  spiders  doing  anything,  or 
capturing  any  fly  or  other  insect,  though  they  are  always  very  busy 


NOTES  ON  INDIAN  ANTS.  46 

and  in  a  great  hurry ;  they  are  very  quick  in  their  movements,  and 
are  difficult  to  capture,  and,  being  very  fragile,  good  specimens  are 
not  very  easily  obtained.  I  have  at  times  fancied  I  have  seen  them 
imbibing  some  of  the  moisture  from  the  bark  where  it  has  been 
bruised  or  chafed,  but  I  cannot  be  certain  :  they  are  evidently  on  a 
special  footing  with  the  ants,  and  are,  I  should  say,  the  only  friends 
Pseudanvyrnia  has,  with  the  exception  of  a  sand-wasp,  a  new  species 
of  Rhin&psis  since  described  by  Mr.  Cameron,  which  also  very  closely 
mimics  rufo-nigray  and  which,  on  first  observing  amongst  the  workers, 
I  took  to  be  the  male.  It  is  very  active ;  I  have  seen  three  specimens 
(but  only  captured  one),  two  at  the  nest  in  the  Barrackpore  Road, 
and  one  at  the  nest  in  the  Park»* 

8.  rufchnigra  appears  to  be  fairly  omnivorous,  preying  on  live 
insects,  such  as  flies,  moths,  other  ants,  or  anything  it  can  capture ; 
it  is  also  very  fond  of  over-ripe  fruit,  and  there  is  a  species  of  fig  in 
the  Park,  the  fruit  of  which  (about  the  si^e  of  a  medlar)  is  always 
riddled  with  these  ants,  I  have  not,  however,  found  it  on  carrion,  as 
I  have  the  workers  of  Zhrt/lus  and  Soknopsis^ 

I  have  never  observed  the  workers  fighting  amongst  themselves  in 
the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  their  own  nest,  but  on  other  trees  it 
is  not  an  \incommon  occurrence  to  find  little  parties  of  six  or  eight 
engaged  in  deadly  battle.  In  May,  1883,  I  found  five  couples  locked 
in  a  death  struggle  on  the  trunk  of  a  casuarina-tree ;  I  secured  them, 
and  they  did  not  let  go  their  hold  on  being  put  in  the  collecting- 
bottle,  but  died  as  they  fought.  It  seems  probable  that  these  were 
workers  from  different  nests  engaged  in  hunting,  and  a  common 
object  had  brought  them  into  collision. 

8.  rufo'fUgra  and  (Ecophylla  snmragdina,  Fabr. — In  1883  smamg^ 
dintty  which  had  never  for  the  previous  ten  years  been  a  very  common 
ant  in  Barrackpore,  appeared  in  large  numbers,  and  advanced  from 
tree  to  tree  along  the  trunk-road ;  it  came  up  opposite  the  Club  and 
the  Park-gates,  where  the  road  turns  round  to  the  parade-ground  and 
Pulta.     I  watched  the  position   of  affairs  with  much  interest,  as 

*  It  is  perhaps  carious  and  worthy  of  remark  that  a  species  of  Ampulex  should  so 
exactly  mimic  this  ant  and  mix  with  it  on  friendly  terms,  whilst  another  species,  the 
handsome  compressunif  should  behave  towards  it  in  the  somewhat  overbearing  and 
rough  manner  I  have  elsewhere  described. 


46        JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

smaragditia  had  only  the  road  to  cross, — one  big  tree  and  one  tele- 
graph-post,— and  they  would  be  on  to  my  favourite  nest  of  mfo-nigra. 
This  was  in  March,  but  it  was  not  until  April  that  stnaragdina  cross- 
ed the  road,  and  I  observed  the  workers  gathering  in  numbers  about 
the  end  of  the  big  tree  and  the  telegraph-post,  but  my  tree  was  still  un- 
molested. On  Sunday,  April  29th,  however,  the  fight  commenced ; 
smaragdina  were  clustering  round  the  tree,  and  making  futile  efforts 
to  ascend,  for  rufo-nigra  mustered  in  strength  in  a  ring  round  the 
base  of  the  trunk,  and  successfully  repelled  every  effort  of  smaragdina 
to  effect  a  lodgment.  Ant  for  ant  rufo-nigra  was  far  more  than  a 
match  for  smaragdinay  and  the  yellow  ants  were  routed  by  the  red  and 
black.  There  were  (as  far  as  I  could  see)  no  killed  on  either  side, 
and  when  I  left,  after  watching  some  hours,  nifo-nigra  was  master 
of  the  situation,  and  smaragdina  retiring  to  the  big  tree  and  tele- 
graph-post. 

The  next  Sunday,  May  6th,  I  again  visited  the  tree,  and  to  my 
suprise  a  great  change  had  taken  place  in  the  position  of  the  two 
species.  There  were  no  yellow  ants  round  the  base  of  the  tree,  but 
smaragdina  appeared  in  great  numbers  high  up  on  the  trunk  on  the 
north  side,  and  were  descending  towards  the  7'ed  and  black  in  the 
shape  of  a  wedge,  the  base  spreading  almost  across  the  north  side  of 
the  trunk,  then  tapering  off  to  a  point,  the  apex  being  formed  by  a 
single  ant  supported  by  two,  the  two  by  a  line  of  three  or  four,  and  so 
on.  When  I  arrived  this  spear-head  of  ants  was  about  two  feet  above 
the  entrance  of  Pseudo7nt/rma*s  nest  (which  was  a  little  on  the  west 
side  of  the  tree) ;  it  was  not  advancing,  but  almost  stationary,  the 
only  movement  being  made  by  the  few  forming  the  apex :  rufo-nigra 
clustered  in  numbers  round  the  entrance  to  their  nest,  but  did  not 
attempt  any  counter  move  in  force  or  combined  effort ;  they  content- 
ed themselves  with  light  skirmishing  with  the  point  of  the  smarag- 
dina formation,  but  here,  though  they  tried  many  times,  they  could 
make  no  impression ;  rufo-nigra  invariably  engaged  yellow  ant  No.  1, 
the  apex;  No.  1  instantly  backed  on  Nos.  2  and  3  in  the  second  line, 
which  brought  an  enemy  on  either  flank,  which  was  too  great  odds, 
and  rufo-nigra  would  have  much  difficulty  in  disengaging  herself. 
This  went  on  for  some  hours,  till  I  had  to  leave.  I  never  saw  any 
killed,  but  the  apex  of  the  yellows  was  once  or  twice  relieved  from 


NOTES  ON  INDIAN  ANTS.  4? 

the  rear :  rufo-nigra  was  evidently  much  alanned,  crowding  round 
the  entrance  to  their  nest  with  a  restless  unmeaning  action  and 
generally  scared  look. 

I  could  never  make  out  how  smaragdina  arrived  at  the  upper  part 
of  my  tree ;  either  they  must  have  ascended  on  the  south-east  side 
(which  was  not  so  much  frequented),  when  rufo-nigra  was  not  on 
the  alert,  or  they  must  have  gone  up  the  telegraph-post  and  travel- 
led along  the  wires,  which  just  at  one  point  touched  a  few  of  the 
leaves  of  my  tree.  The  trees  on  the  right  and  left  of  my  tree  did 
not  touch. 

On  Sunday,  May  13th,  I  again  visited  my  tree,  expecting  to  find 
smaragdina  in  possession,  but  the  reverse  was  the  case  ;  there  was  not 
a  single  yellow  ant  on  it,  rufo-nigra  being  in  sole  charge,  and  the 
work  of  the  colony  going  on  as  usual.  What  had  happened  in  the 
meantime  I  had  no  means  of  telling,  but  I  think  smaragdtna  must 
have  left  the  tree  of  their  own  accord,  and  were  not  driven  off.* 

On  Sunday,  May  20th,  I  again  went  to  my  tree,  to  find  another 
invasion  of  sniaragdina,  and  the  wedge-shaped  column  of  yellow  ants 
advancing  as  on  May  6th ;  this  time  rufo-nigra  hardly  offered  any 
opposition,  and  there  was  a  very  apparent  diminution  in  their  numbers. 

On  Thursday,  May  24th,  stnaragdina  had  again  deserted  the  tree, 
and  nifo-nigra  was  to  the  fore. 

On  Sunday,  June  10th,  another  invasion  :  amaragdina  all  over  the 
tree,  some  workers  being  close  to  the  entrance  to  rufo-nigra*8  nest ; 
very  few  of  rufo-nigra  workers  about,  and  these  all  small-sized  speci- 
mens ;  the  red  and  black  ants  almost  suppressed. 

On  Simday,  June  24th,  smaragdtna  occupied  the  upper  portion  of 
the  tree,  rufo-nigra  the  lower,  and  had  regained  their  nest. 

On  Sunday,  July  22nd,  I  found  smaragdina  strongly  in  the  ascen- 
dant :  very  few  workers  of  rufo-nigra  about. 

After  this  date  I  left  off  taking  icritten  notes,   but  synaragdina 

*  It  is  possible  that  as  the  spear-head  formation  of  yellow  ants  advanced  to  a  level 
with  rufo-nigra*8  nest,  the  red  and  black  ants  may  have  retired  j  it  would  be  im- 
possible for  smaragdina  to  follow  them  np,  as  their  size  would  not  permit  them  to 
enter  the  burrows.  The  yellow  column  may  have  then  passed  on,  and  rufo-nigraf 
issuing  in  a  body,  taken  them  in  flank,  and  by  this  skilful  manGeuvre  snatched  a 
victory  from  defeat;  but  of  course  this  is  mere  conjecture,  though  more  unlikely 
things  do  happen  in  ant -life. 


48        JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

gradually  deserted  my  tree,  and  passed  on  to  others  ;  ntfo-nigra  was 
left  in  undisputed  possession,  but  the  colony  was  never  so  populous 
and  prosperous  again,  and  on  my  leaving  India,  in  1886,  had  not 
entirely  recovered  from  these  invasions  of  the  yellow  ants. 

In  the  *  Entomologist's  Monthly  Magazine'  for  1876,  pp.  87,  88, 
I  have  very  fully  described  a  curious  phase  in  the  history  of  this 
ant,  and  the  beautiful  sand-wasp,  Ampukx  compreasns ;  how,  on  the 
1st  June,  1876,  on  the  trunk  of  an  old  peepul-tree  {Flcus  religiosa), 
on  the  road  to  Pultah  and  Barrackpore,  I  found  a  number  of  these 
wasps  and  ants  engaged  in  a  series  of  battles,  or  what  really  describes 
it  more  accurately,  wrestling-matches,  the  wasps  jerking  the  ants 
clear  off  the  tree  one  after  the  other ;  there  would  be  a  little  fencing 
and  dodging  for  a  hold,  especially  when  two  ants  at  the  same  time 
faced  a  wasp,  but  Ampulex  always  succeeded  in  jerking  them  off  the 
tree.  The  ants  did  not  appear  to  be  hurt,  and  I  watched  several  re- 
ascend  the  tree  and  try  another  fall  with  their  too-powerful  oppo- 
nents. This  tree  was  always  much  frequented  by  both  Ampulex  and 
Pseudoniyrmay  but  I  have  never  seen  any  **  tumasha,'*  as  the  natives 
would  call  it,  of  this  sort  going  on  there,  either  before  or  since  ;  but 
on  May  20th,  1883,  on  a  peepul-tree  in  Barrackpore  Park,  I  ob- 
served a  single  specimen  of  Ampulex  jerking  ants  off  the  trunk, 
mostly  rufo-nigraSy  but  in  this  case  there  was  some  apparent  reason  ; 
both  ants  and  wasps  were  attracted  to  the  same  spot  by  some  sort  of 
sticky  secretion  exuding  from  the  bark,  and  ants  and  wasp  conse- 
quently collided,  with  the  result  that  the  former  were  jerked  off  as 
described ;  only  a  few  of  the  riifo-nigras  offered  any  opposition  or 
made  any  fight,  and  as  before,  none  of  the  ants  appeared  to  be  much 
the  worse  for  their  falls. 

Psetidomyrma  carbonana,  Smith. 
Sima  carhonarlay  Smith. 

This  species  is  not  uncommon  in  Bengal,  and  forms  its  nests  in 
trees,  as  with  rufo-nigra.  I  have  only  found  one  or  two  nests,  and 
these  were  not  populous ;  my  best  one  was  situated  in  an  india-rub- 
ber tree  [Ficus),  on  the  drive  from  Government  House  to  the  Outram 
Statue,  Calcutta.  I  have  only  taken  one  specimen  of  the  winged 
female.     The  sting   of  this   ant  is   sharp  and  pungent,  but  not  to  be 


NOTES  ON  INDIAN  ANTS.  49 

4 

compared  in  power  to  riifo-nigra.  There  is  a  species  of  Saltiais  which 
mimics  this  ant,  but  it  is  very  rare,  and  there  is  another  spider  which 
also  frequents  tree-trunks,  and  closely  mimics  a  Camponotus. 

CEcophylla  smaragdina,   Fabr. 

This  well-known  ant  is  common  in  Bengal,  and  forms  its  nests  in 
trees  by  drawing  together  the  living  leaves  with  a  fine  white  web,  as 
described  in  Jerdon's  '  Madras  Journal/     In  1883  immense  numbers 
of  this   ant  appeared   in  Barrackpore,    advancing  from   tree  to   tree 
along  the  trunk-road  from  Calcutta,  and  they  soon  took   up  a  strong 
position  in  the  Park  ;  some  of   the  trees  were  covered  with  nests, 
which  are  very  populous.     I  noticed  that  the  various  nedn  on  any  one 
tree  appeared  to  form  one  colony,   and    to   live   on    friendly    terms, 
whereas  the  ants  on  a  neighbouring  tree  would  be  inimical;  this  I 
proved  by  keeping  a  nest  in  my  verandah  for  several   weeks  at   a 
time,  and  trying  a   few     simple   experiments.     I   found   that   ants 
broiight  from  any  nest  from  the  same  tree  as  my  captive  nest  were 
immediately  recognised  as  friends,  and  received  with  evident  signs  of 
satisfaction ;  but  specimens  brought   from  nests  from  any  other  tree 
were  immediately  attacked,  and  unless  rescued  were  killed  in  the 
most  savage  manner.     The  longest  test  was  only  three  or  four  weeks, 
for  by  that  time  my  captive   ants   always   began   to   show   signs   of 
failing  health,   so  that  I  never  had  the  heart  to  keep  them  shut  up 
for  a  longer  period.     I  tried  to  keep  them  healthy  by  a  daily  supply 
of  fresh  leaves,  and  fed  them  with  sugar,  plantains,  and  other  fruits ; 
but  they  took  most  kindly  to   green   Geometra  larvae   taken  from 
newly-made  nests  of  Enmenes  conica,  which  were  generally  handy  in 
the  verandah,  but  either  captivity  did  not  agree  with  them,   or  I 
failed  in  my  mode  of  treatment,  for  after  the  third  week  my  captives 
invariably  became  more  or  less  feeble  and  sickly.     The  following  are 
extracts  from  my  diary  : — 

May  6th.  Brought  home  with  me  (with  considerable  difficulty)  a 
fine  strong  nest  of  CEcophylla  smaragduia,  and  arranged  a  comfortable 
home  for  it  in  a  large  open  box  in  my  verandah,  isolating  it  by 
standing  the  box  on  a  tin  pot  resting  on  a  large  brick,  the  brick 
standing  in  a  large  earthenwere  saucer  of  water. 

May  24th.     Introduced  four  ants  taken  from  another  nest,    but 
7 


50        JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

from  the  same  tree  ;  flicse  were  at  once  received  with  marked  signs 
of  pleasure,  were  caressed,  and  entered  the  nest  with  their  friends  as 
if  perfectly  at  home. 

May  27th.  Introduced  ten  specimens  taken  from  a  different  tree  ; 
these  at  once  showed  signs  of  alarm,  and  endeavoured  to  escape  ;  but 
most  of  them  were  seized,  and  would  have  been  pulled  to  pieces  had 
I  not  rescued  them. 

June  3rd.  Introduced  some  more  strangers,  who  showed  alarm 
and  immediately  made  off  till  stopped  by  the  water ;  the  captive 
smaragdina,  though  showing  signs  of  hostility,  were  too  feeble  to 
make  any  serious  attack. 

I  repeated  this  experiment  many  times,  varj'ing  the  intervals  of 
introducing  friends  and  strangers  from  a  few  days  up  to  the  three 
weeks,  but  always  with  the  same  result.  I  then  altered  the  conditions 
somewhat,  and  on  June  10th  cut  a  fine  populous  nest  from  a  tree  and 
placed  it  on  the  trunk  of  one  a  few  hundred  yards  distant,  inhabited 
by  another  colony.  The  ants  from  my  nest  immediately  took  posses- 
sion of  the  fork  where  I  had  placed  the  nest,  overpowering  the  few 
ants  that  happened  to  be  about ;  but  others  came  streaming  down  to 
repel  the  invaders.  My  nest  continued  to  pour  forth  its  swarms,  and 
soon  the  trunk  was  covered  with  masses  of  struggling  yellow  ants- 
It  was,  as  far  as  I  could  judge,  a  drawn  bajttle. 

I  then  withdrew  my  nest,  and  hung  it  up  to  the  trunk  of  a  tree 
frequented  by  Pseiidoinijnna  rufo-niffra.  Out  sallied  the  yellow  ants, 
and  rufo-nigra  in  alarm  made  off,  and  in  doing  so  showed  a  great 
amount  of  discretion  ;  they  had  not  the  numbers  to  make  a  stand-up 
fight,  but  their  superior  individual  strength  enabled  the  few  that 
were  attacked  to  deal  out  some  rapid  and  effective  strokes  with  man- 
dibles and  sting,  to  wrench  themselves  clear  and  escape  without 
injury.  I  then  took  the  nest  of  mnaragdina  back  to  the  tree  from 
which  I  cut  it,  and  the  ants  were  at  once  received  with  every  sign  of 
pleasure ;  and,  although  hundreds  must  have  been  left  behind 
on  the  two  trees,  the  nest  appeared  to  be  as  populous  as  ever. 

On  another  occasion  I  hung  a  nest  of  smaragdina  to  a  small 
Palmyra  palm  in  my  compound,  which  was  occupied  by  a  strong  nest 
of  the  yellow  wasp,  PoHstes  hehrmiSy  but  the  ants  and  wasps  did  not 
come  into  contact  in  any  way,  although  they  were  only  separated 


NOTES  ON  INDIANANTS.  51 

about  two  feet.  In  this  my  observations  did  not  agree  with  the  late 
Mr.  Chaa.  Home's,  who  found  that  (Ecophylla  had  a  great  antipathy 
to  Polisies;  and  in  his  paper  on  Hymenoptera  from  the  North-West 
Provinces  gives  a  very  interesting  accoimt  of  the  attacks  of  the 
yellow  ant  on  the  yellow  wasp  ;  but  in  my  case  the  ants  were  not  quite 
under  natural  conditions,  which  may  easily  account  for  their  leaving 
the  wasps  alone.  And  I  was  never  able  to  find  (Ecophylla  and 
Foliates  inhabiting  the  same  tree ;  but  I  think  the  observation  is  of 
interest  as  tending  to  show  that  ants  under  slightly  altered  condi- 
tions will  often  show  different  traits  of  character  or  instinct 

During  the  time  I  kept  CEcopht/lla  in  confinement  I  found  they 
were  very  stupid  in  any  efforts  they  made  at  escape ;  they  would 
occasionally  tumble  off  the  brick  island  into  the  water,  although 
within  an  inch  would  be  a  bridge  purposely  arranged  for  their  use. 
When  (Ecophylla  did  fall  in  the  water  they  collapsed  and  drowned  at 
once,  and  seemed  incapable  of  making  any  attempt  to  save  themselves 
by  swimming  an  inch  or  two.  Some  nests  I  kept  in  a  large  open  tin- 
lined  box,  which  held  them  securely  until  the  tin  lost  its  smooth 
surface  from  exposure,  and  allowed  the  ants  a  foothold,  but  even 
then  they  were  very  slow  to  escape- 

Diacamnia  vagam,  8m« 

This  species  is  very  common  in  Bengal.  You  never  find  it  in 
large  numbers,  but  generally  singly,  or  two  or  three  together ;  its 
nests,  which  are  never  populous,  are  usually  formed  under  bricks, 
stones,  or  in  brick-work,  and  always  in  shady  situations.  It  appears 
to  have  no  regular  time  for  swarming ;  its  sting  is  sharp,  but  the 
pain  does  not  last  more  than  a  few  seconds. 

In  the  verandah  of  my  bimgalow  at  Barrackpore  I  had  a  nice 
little  nest  in  the  brick-work,  which  I  watched  for  several  years,  and 
used  to  feed  the  workers  with  sugar  and  other  sweets.  I  arranged 
a  little  island  by  means  of  a  brick  placed  in  the  centre  of  a  large 
plate  filled  with  water,  covered  the  brick  with  sugar,  and  then  with 
a  piece  of  bamboo  made  a  bridge  from  the  floor  to  the  brick.  I  left 
this  the  whole  of  one  Sunday,  but  no  ants  found  out  the  treasure. 
The  following  Sunday  I  captured  a  vagans,  marked  her  with  paint, 
and  put  her  to  the  sugar  ;  she  imjnediately  seized  a  grain,  crossed 
the  bridge,  and  made  off  home  to  her  nest,  distant  about  35  ft,,  in  a 


62        JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

fairly  direct  line.  After  depositing  the  sugar  she  was  out  again  in  a 
few  seconds,  made  her  way  back  to  the  island,  took  another  grain  of 
sugar  (she  usually  selected  the  largest),  then  back  to  the  nest.  I 
watched  about  a  dozen  journeys,  and  after  the  first  two  her  track 
was  as  near  a  straight  line  to  the  sugar  as  could  be.  A  few  workers 
eame  out  from  her  nest  and  stood  about  the  entrance,  but  she  took 
no  notice  of  them.  I  do  not  know  how  many  journeys  she  made 
that  day,  as  I  had  to  leave  for  the  evening  drive. 

The  next  Sunday  I  arranged  the  sugar  island  in  the  same  place. 
There  were  a  good  many  ants  of  different  species  walking  about,  but 
none  found  the  way  to  the  sugar.  In  about  an  hour  out  came  my 
marked  ant,  and  after  a  little  wandering  about  found  the  bridge,  and 
then  followed  the  rapid  journeys  to  and  fro  with  the  sugar.  She 
never  appeared  to  eat  any  herself,  her  great  desire  being  to  get  all 
she  could  stored  in  her  nest. 

The  next  Sunday  the  same  process  went  on,  but  with  this  slight 
difference  :  this  time  some  of  her  own  fellow-workers  seemed  inclined 
to  follow  her  and  watch  her  movements,  and  my  marked  ant,  after 
going  one  or  two  direct  journeys,  then  altered  her  mode  of  travelling 
to  a  very  irregular  and  zigzag  course,  and  generally  assumed  a  casual 
and  uncertain  air.  I  watched  her  closely,  and  am  quite  certain  she 
wished  to  bamboozle  her  friends,  and  keep  all  the  credit  and  ^'  kudos" 
of  bringing  lu)me  the  treasure  to  herself.  She  kept  up  these  round- 
about journeys  to  and  from  the  island  until  I  left  for  the  usual  drive. 

T  carried  on  these  experiments  for  many  successive  Sundays,  but 
no  other  ants  from  this  nest  found  out  the  island.  A  small  species 
of  Tapinoma  did,  and  came  in  numbers  every  Sunday,  and  at  last  a 
worker  of  vagans  from  another  nest  at  the  other  end  of  my  verandah, 
distant  about  50  ft.,  found  out  the  bridge,  I  think  by  accident,  but 
had  the  enterprise  to  cross,  seize  a  piece  of  sugar,  and  off  to  her  nest. 
After  this  I  always  had  a  marked  ant  going  backwards  and  forwards 
with  sugar  on  the  left  side,  and  an  unmarked  ant  doing  the  same  on 
the  right  side,  and  little  Tajfinoma  swarming  all  over  the  place  with 
the  grains,  but  no  other  ants  f  oimd  ouft  the  sugar  island.  Sometimes 
the  two  workers  of  vagans  met  on  the  brick  or  bridge,  but  never  took 
any  notice  of  each  other ;  they  were  too  much  wrapt  up  in  their  work 
for  that. 


NOTES  ON  INDIAN  ANTS.  53 

I  should  mention  that  I  always  arranged  my  island  within  a  few 
feet  of  the  same  spot,  and  now  I  often  wonder  why  I  never  changed 
the  position  completely,  and  then  watched  the  result. 

After  reading  Sir  John  Lubbock's  most  charming  work  on  ants, 
I  thought  I  would  try  a  few  simple  experiments  to  see  if  I  could  in- 
fluence my  ants  by  means  of  colours.  I  first  scattered  sugar  about 
my  verandah  for  a  day  or  two,  by  which  means  I  attracted  consider- 
able numbers  of  ants  of  different  genera  and  species,  particularly 
Diaeamma,  Solenopm,  and  Tapinoma.  I  then  placed  sugar  on 
different  coloured  cards  (subsequently  substituting  the  intensely 
brilliant  colours  of  surface-papers  for  the  cards),  making  various 
changes  from  time  to  time  according  to  my  judgment.  These 
experiments  I  kept  up  for  a  good  many  weeks,  but  I  could  never 
find  that  colour  influenced  my  ants  in  any  way.  I  do  not  attach 
any  value  to  this,  as  my  experiments  were  very  crude,  and  generally 
interrupted  by  the  gaps  of  from  Sunday  to  Sunday,  and  I  only 
mention  the  circumstance  as  affording  some  traits  of  ant  character. 
Tapinoma  was  always  first  at  the  sugar,  and  swarmed  indiscriminately 
over  everything  alike. 

Diacamma  vagans  was  fairly  quick  at  the  sugar,  but  appeared  to 
be  influenced  chiefly  by  the  card  nearest  her  nest,  and  perhaps  in 
some  degree  by  the  one  with  the  finest  grains. 

Solenopsis  gemminatus  seemed  only  to  blunder  on  the  cards  by  acci- 
dent, and  without,  as  far  as  I  could  observe,  any  particular  signs  of 
intelligence.  Tapmoma  ate  sugar  on  the  spot,  and  also  carried  off 
grains.  Diacamtna  carried  off  the  sugar  as  fast  as  possible,  but  ate 
none.     Solenopsis  ate  sugar  on  the  spot,  but  did  not  carry  any  away. 

By  alarming  the  ants  by  striking  the  cards,  shaking  the  paper, 
or  dropping  fine  powdered  sugar  on  them,  Diacamma  vagam  and 
Tapinoma  would  give  a  little  start,  but,  recovering  themselves  in- 
stantly, would  seize  the  nearest  and  biggest  grain,  and  make  off  at 
express  speed.  Solenopsis  would  start,  sometimes  tumble  over  one 
another,  and  then  make  ofP  in  alarm  and  without  any  method  or 
precision.  According  to  my  idea,  Diacamma y  by  a  number  of  little 
traits  which  I  cannot  describe,  but  which  as  a  whole  made  a  great 
impression  on  me,  showed  the  most  intelligence,  Tapinoma  the  most 
audacity.     Solenopsis  I  do  not  like  to  judge  rashly  from  an  imperfect 


54        JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890; 

human  point  of  view,  so  will  only  say  I  was  disappointed  with  them 
generally.  I  never  succeeded  in  frightening  my  ants  by  noise  alone ; 
noise  had  always  to  be  accompanied  by  an  earth  tremor  or  wind. 

I  several  times  endeavoured  to  keep  workers  of  vagans  in  captivity 
but  never  with  any  success  ;  they  swarmed  up  the  sides  of  my  highly 
polished  tin-box  with  ease,  and  in  my  island  arrangement,  which 
kept  smaragdina  in  perfect  security,  they  found  their  way  with  won- 
derful rapidity  to  the  brick  surrounded  by  the  moat,  and  then  took 
to  the  water  without  a  moJment's  hesitation,  and  with  one  or  two 
strokes  with  their  legs  they  got  over  the  two  or  three  inches  of  water 
with  almost  the  ease  and  dexterity  of  a  water-boatman. 

On  one  occasion  I  put  two  workers  in  with  smaragdina.  One 
escaped  at  once ;  the  other  was  seized,  but  fought  her  way  clear,  and 
followed  her  companion  with  splendid  determination  and  quickness. 
It  would  require  much  ingenuity  to  make  a  receptacle  that  would 
safely  and  conveniently  confine  this  clever  ant. 

In  Barrackpore  Park,  on  the  river-drive  half-way  between  **  Scan- 
dal Point "  and  Tittaghur  Bridge,  at  one  of  the  prettiest  spots  in  the 
most  beautiful  park  in  Bengal, — I  might  almost  say  in  India, — is  a 
fine  old  banyan-tree  {Ficus  indica),  with  foliage  almost  touching  the 
ground;  it  stands  on  the  green  slope  below  the  drive,  and  the  breeze, 
blowing  straight  up  from  the  broad  Tittaghur  Reach,  makes  the 
shade  of  this  tree  delightfully  cool  in  even  the  heat  of  May  or  June. 
There  is  in  this  spot  a  stone  culvert  running  under  the  road,  the 
mouth  of  it  opening  in  the  deepest  shade  of  the  tree,  and  on  the 
stones  of  this  culvert  you  can  find  almost  all  the  year  round,  but 
particularly  in  the  hot  weather  and  rains,  numbers  of  the  workers  of 
Diacamma  vagans  congregated  together  in  couples,  and  engaged  in 
what  I  take  to  be  a  process  of  shampooing.  Two  ants  will  face  each 
other,  and  fence  about  and  caress  with  their  antennae,  now  advancing, 
now  retiring  a  little  ;  at  last  one  will  give  a  little  spring  on  to  the 
back  of  the  other,  and  gently  and  tenderly  hold  her  with  her  man- 
dibles ;  then  the  caressing  with  the  antenna)  is  renewed,  and  the  legs 
are  also  brought  into  play,  and  used  in  much  the  same  way ;  and 
lastly,  the  mandibles  will  be  run  gently  up  and  down  the  limbs. 
During  this  operation  the  ant  under  treatment  ^iM.  keep  time  with 
her  antennae,  and  stretch  out  her  limbs  with  evident   delight  and 


NOTES  ON  INDIAN  ANTS,  65 

pleasure :  there  can  be  no  doubt  they  thoroughly  enjoy  themselves. 
You  may  watch  couples  in  various  stages  of  this  process,  which  is 
varied  at  times  by  three  ants  taking  part,  or  by  one  affecting  a  kind 
of  coy  resistance. 

I  have  mentioned  that,  although  ragam  is  a  common  ant,  you  can- 
not find  it  in  large  numbers ;  neither  can  you  start  out  from  your 
bungalow  collecting  with  an  absolute  certainty  of  finding  it ;  but  for 
ten  years  a  visit  to  this  culvert  under  the  shade  of  this  banyan-tree 
on  the  river-bank  always  rewarded  you  with  an  interesting  group  of 
playing,  caressing,  shampooing  ants.  During  these  ten  years 
I  only  twice  found  nests  of  this  species  within  the  radius  of  this 
banyan's  shade  or  its  immediate  vicinitj',  so  that,  as  a  rule,  my  ants 
must  have  travelled  some  distance  in  order  to  enjoy  and  disport 
themselves  in  this  delightful  retreat.* 

I  must  leave  my  favourite  ragans  now,  for  I  have  no  more  icritten 
notes,  but  from  numbers  of  unrecorded  observations  extending  over 
the  years  from  March,  1872,  to  March,  1886,  I  always  look  back  on 
this  species  with  much  affection,  and  as  an  old  friend  who,  under  any 
circumstances  and  tests,  has  never  disappointed  me.  Judged  from  a 
human  point  of  view  (which,  however,  may  not  be  always  strictly 
fair),  I  certainly  place  D,  ragam  as  the  most  intelligent  ant  it  has 
been  my  pleasure  to  observe,  and  I  consider  Chlorion  lobatum  the 
most  intelligent  amongst  sand-wasps. 

Soknopais  gemminatus,  Fabr. 
Solenopsk  gemminata,  Fabr. 

This  species  is  one  of  the  very  commonest  in  Bengal ;  you  can 
come  across  it  everywhere.  It  is  the  red  ant  of  India,  as  cowpressus 
is  the  black,  and  smaragdhia  the  yelhic.  It  forms  its  nests,  which  are 
very  populous,  in  the  ground,  under  bricks  or  stones  in  brickwork, 
or  almost  anywhere.  It  appears  to  swarm  several  times  in  the  year 
from  March  to  October,  and  I  have  even  found  the  winged  sexes  in 

*  I  ooald  never  find  oat  if  the  ants  that  frequented  this  cnlvert  at  any  one  time 
were  all  from  the  same  nesti  bat  I  am  inclined  to  think,  from  their  numbers  and  the 
smallness  of  the  colonies  of  vagans,  that  sometimes  they  were  not.  I  have  observed 
this  shampooing  going  on  in  other  similar  sitaations,  bat  never  with  the  regularity 
and  certainty  of  this  favoured  spot. 


56       JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

the  cold  weather  from  November  to  February.  The  workers  vary 
greatly  in  size,  some  of  the  workers-major  having  immensely-deve- 
loped heads,  but  you  seldom  meet  these  big  fellows  walking  about ; 
they  seem  to  keep  to  the  nest  of  good  deal,  and  all  my  finest  speci- 
mens have  been  found  by  opening  up  a  nest.  These  ants  are  very 
fond  of  forming  covered  ways  from  one  point  of  a  colony  to  another, 
or  in  crossing  a  road,  and  they  both  tunnel  and  build  up  and  are 
very  clever  in  availing  themselves  of  any  little  irregularities  in  the 
ground,  by  which  they  can  save  themselves  labour.  For  instance,  on 
a  piece  of  smooth  even  groimd,  they  will  build  up  a  covered  way,  but 
if  their  track  comes  across  a  stone  they  will  tunnel  under  it ;  if  a  big 
brick  they  will  skirt  the  side  of  it.  They  do  not  completely  cover  in 
their  ways  along  the  whole  line ;  a  great  part  of  the  track  will  gene- 
rally consist  of  two  walls  only.  The  medium-sized  workers,  as  well 
as  the  small,  take  part  in  these  works,  but  the  giant-headed  fellows 
I  have  never  found  engaged. 

These  ants  will-  come  into  your  bungalows  and  clear  off  any  loot 
that  may  be  about,  and  they  seem  particularly  fond  of  meat,  or  any 
insect  you  may  kill.  Supposing  you  have  a  flight  of  cockroaches 
{B.  orientalis)  come  into  your  room  at  dinner-time,  and  in  self-defence 
and  to  preserve  say  your  soup  or  glass  from  being  used  as  a  bath  you 
kill  one  or  two,  and  leave  the  bodies  on  the  ground,  in  a  very  short 
time,  long  before  you  have  finished  your  meal,  you  will  see  these 
bodies  apparently  become  endued  with  a  new  life,  and  travelling  at  a 
quite  rapid  pace  across  the  floor ;  it  is  swarms  of  the  little  workers  of 
Solenopsis  carrying  off  the  booty  to  their  nest. 

In  one  bungalow  at  Barrackpore  I  had  a  colony  in  my  verandah 
formed  in  one  of  the  masonry  columns,  and  divided  into  two  parts, 
one  in  the  base  and  one  in  the  capital,  and  up  and  down  the  column 
between  was  a  continual  stream  of  ants  passing.  It  occurred  to  me 
one  day  to  cut  off  this  passage,  which  I  did  by  soaking  a  punkah-cord 
in  kerosine  oil,  and  tying  it  tightly  round  the  centre  of  the  column. 
The  ants  on  either  side  soon  surged  up  in  masses  to  within  an  inch  of 
the  cord,  but  none  could  cross  the  oily  barrier.  I  then  formed  a  little 
1)ridge  with  a  piece  of  bamboo,  and  fixed  it  in  the  brick- work,  making 
a  clear  span  over  the  cord,  and  the  ends  being  fixed  well  in  the  crowd 
of  ants.     I  then  watched  for  an  hour,  but  no  ants  found  their  way 


NOTES  OS  INDIAN  ANTS.  67 

acrofis.  1  then  conducted  two  or  three  over^  and  waited  an  hour ; 
one  of  the  led  ants  recrossed,  but  no  others  availed  themselves  of  the 
bridge.  I  then  went  for  the  usual  evening  drive,  and  on  my  return 
after  a  couple  of  hours  I  found  the  ants  crossing  the  bridge  in  num* 
bers.  I  repeated  this  experiment  many  times  with  exactly  the  same 
result.  Say  barrier  fixed  at  3  p.m.,  bridge  erected  at  4  p.m.,  and  a 
few  ants  led  over ;  at  6»  p.m.  no  ants  had  availed  themselves  of  the 
bridge,  but  at  8  p.m»,  on  my  return  from  my  drive  or  tennis,  the 
bridge  would  be  in  general  use  ;  but  never  while  looking  on  did  the 
ants  avail  themselves  of  the  passage,  except  as  mentioned  by  a  led 
ant  recrossing. 

On  one  or  two  occasions  I  captured  a  worker  of  Diamtmna  vagans, 
and  placed  her  above  the  kerosine  cord ;  without  a  moment's  hesitation 
she  ran  up  the  column  to  the  capital)  made  her  way  rapidly  through 
the  red  ants,  then  along  a  beam  to  the  next  column,  then  down  to  the 
floor  of  the  verandah,  and  off  to  her  nest  without  a  pause. 

Splenopais  offer  many  strange  contrasts  of  character ;  they  arc  very 
clever  in  making  their  covered  ways>  and  in  finding  their  own  booty, 
such  as  described,  but  when  you  apply  artificial  tests  of  intelligence 
they  altogether  fail,  and  seem  to  be  strangely  slow  and  disappointing, 

Hokomyi*ni€x  indicusy  Mayr, 
This  ant  does  not  appear  to  bo  generally  common  in  Bengal.  I 
have  taken  it  at  Nischindipore  Nuddea,  and  in  Barrackpore  Park, 
but  never  in  Calcutta  or  its  immediate  neighbourhood*  It  is  very 
plentiful  in  Barrackpore  Park,  in  the  private  grounds  close  to  Govern- 
ment House,  where  it  delights  in  making  its  nests  in  the  red  kunka 
(ballast)  roads,  or  on  any  hard  dry  patch  of  ground  that  can  be  found 
amongst  the  grass.  The  ants  swarm  early  in  June,  and  during  the 
hot  months  from  middle  of  March  to  the  middle  of  June  you  can 
easily  find  the  nests  by  the  great  mounds  heaped  up  round  the  en- 
trance of  empty  seed-vessels  or  husks  of  grass-seed,  I  may  call  it 
chaff ;  these  mounds  will  more  than  fill  a  pint  measure,  and  I  have 
seen  some  which  I  thinjt  would  fill  a  quart.  If  you  watch  you  will 
see  a  continuous  but  straggling  stream  of  ants  disappearing  down  one 
of  the  small  round  entrances  to  their  nests,  each  carrying  a  grass-seed, 
i^rhich  they  bring  from  the  neighbouring  grass,  and  another  stream 
will  be  seen  emerging  with  the  chaff,  which  they  heap  up  round  the 
8 


68        JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

entrance  in  irregular  mounds :  when  these  mounds  begin  to  assume 
any  dimensions  the  labour  of  piling  up  the  husks  is  divided ;  the 
ant  that  brings  one  out  will  throw  it  down  just  outside,  or  will  moimt 
a  short  distance  up  the  mound,  when  another  will  meet  and  take  on 
the  husk  and  add  it  to  the  top,  or  when  the  mound  is  a  certain  height, 
will  shoot  it  down  on  the  far  side  to  prevent  its  tumbling  back  on  the 
entrance  of  the  nest.  Sometimes  three  or  four  ants  will  be  engaged 
in  this  process,  bringing  out,  passing  on,  piling  up,  and  shooting  down. 
The  ants  bringing  in  the  full  seeds  collect  them  amongst  the  grass, 
which  at  this  time  of  the  year  is  dry  and  ripe,  and  consequently  much 
of  the  seed  is  on  the  groimd.  I  have  never  observed  them  ascending 
the  grass-stems  to  collect  the  seed.  As  soon  as  the  rains  commence — 
about  June  15th — the  ants  seem  to  disappear,  and  although  you  can 
find  specimens  about  up  to  October,  they  are  decidedly  scarce. 

I  have  tried  very  many  times  to  unearth  one  of  these  nests,  but 
never  (except  in  one  instance)  with  any  success.  Directly  you  dig  down 
a  few  inches  in  the  hard  bricky  soil  you  seem  to  lose  all  trace  of  ants 
and  nest.  I  have  tried  various  instruments — a  garden-knife,  a  long 
bodkin,  andakourpi  (a  very  handy  native  tool) — but  have  always 
failed ;  the  way  the  ants  disappear  is  almost  like  magic.  No  doubt 
I  ought  to  have  tried  a  kodali  (native  spade),  but  extei^sive  excavations 
where  these  ants  formed  their  nests  were  hardly  practicable  without 
obtaining  the  permission  of  the  Park  authorities,  which  I  never  took 
the  trouble  to  do  at  the  time,  though  now  I  have  left  India  1  never 
cease  to  regret  that  I  did  not  dig  down  several  feet  deep  and  a  yard 
or  two  square. 

The  one  exception  I  have  alluded  to  was  a  very  small  nest,  situated 
in  the  Viceregal  kitchen-garden  part  of  the  Park,  and  where  the  soil 
was  a  sort  of  stiff  clay  instead  of  brick- rubble  ;  the  tunnels  were  very 
small  and  fine,  and  there  was  nothing  peculiar  about  their  formation, 
but  in  the  centre,  a  few  inches  from  the  surface,  was  a  small  oval 
chamber,  perfectly  smooth  and  dome- shaped  ;  in  this  were  arranged 
a  number  of  little  round  seeds,  set  out  like  cheese-cakes  on  a  baker's 
tray.  From  the  habits  of  this  species  I  should  be  inclined  to  call  it 
the  "harvesting  ant  of  Bengal."  It  was  described  by  Dr.  Mayr  from 
my  first  specimens,  which  were  taken  at  Nischindipore,  having  been 
kindly  forwarded  by  my  old  friend,  the  late  Mr.  Frederick  Smith. 


NOTES  ON  INDIAN  ANTS.  £9 

Pheidologetmi  laborioaus,  Smith. 
This  species  can  generally  be  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Calcutta  or  Barrackpore,  but  it  requires  a  little  searching,  and  I  do 
not  think  it  would  attract  the  notice  of  any  one  but  an  entomologist. 
The  workers  vary  most  inmiensely  in  size,  the  workers-major  nmning 
through  seyeral  distinct  grades,  and  no  one  who  had  not  observed 
the  nest  itself  could  suspect  any  connection  between  the  noble,  hand- 
some, rich  red-brown  giants  of  the  first  grade  with  the  little  insigni- 
ficant yellow  workers-minor.  These  ants  form  their  nests  under  bricks, 
stones,  flower-pots,  rock-work  or  any  spot  offering  shelter  and  shade 
of  this  nature.  You  occasionaly  meet  with  them  on  the  march, 
probably  changing  their  head-quarters,  and  when  doing  so  they 
invariably  form  elaborate  and  carefully  constructed  covered  ways. 
The  little  yellow  workers-minor  and  the  smaller  grades  of  the 
workers-major  you  may  meet  with  in  the  open,  but  the  giant 
workers  I  have  never  foimd  except  by  opening  up  a  nest  or  covered 
way.  All  the  workers  are  pugnacious,  and  when  handled  attack  you 
freely,  and  the  small  yellow  workers  and  the  smaller  grades  of  the 
workers-major  with  some  effect,  but  the  giants  are  perfectly  harm- 
less, and  it  makes  one  feel  quite  sorry  to  watch  these  huge,  brave, 
conscientious,  handsome  fellows  doing  their  very  utmost  to  grip  you 
with  their  mandibles,  and  doubling  in  their  body,  as  if  with  the 
intention  to  sting,  but  with  absolutely  no  residt. 

In  forming  their  covered  ways  the  workers-minor  and  the  smaller 
grades  of  workers-major  work  together  most  industriously,  carrying 
and  piling  up  the  little  pieces  of  soil  with  great  quickness  and 
dexterity,  but  I  have  never  observed  the  giants  of  the  first  grade  so 
engaged  ;  they,  I  think,  have  a  special  work  to  perform,  which  I  will 

describe. 

On  the  river-drive  in  Barrackpore  Park  between  Scandal  Point 
and  Titaghur  Bridge,  and  close  to  the  latter,  I  found,  in  the  first 
week  of  the  "  rains  '^  in  1883,  a  splendid  covered  way  in  course  of 
construction  across  the  road,  which  at  this  point  is  about  20  ft.  wide. 
There  were  a  large  number  of  ants  at  work  piling  up  the  little  red 
pieces  of  soorki— (ballast ;  the  soil  anywhere  about  Calcutta  or  Bar- 
rackpore seems  to  be  largely  composed  of  brick  and  ballast)— and  I 
noticed  several  of  the  giant  worker*  also  very  busy,   not  carrying  or 


62        JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

curious  is  that  they  usually  appear  at  the  end  of  the  cold  weather  or 
the  commencement  of  the  hot,  that  is,  from  middle  of  February  to 
middle  of  March,  when  winged  ants  of  other  genera  can  hardly  be 
found. 

My  last  nest  of  Dorylus  was  found  on  the  Esplanade,  Bombay,  on. 
January  29th,  1886 ;  it  was  my  last  visit  to  India,  and  I  was  starting 
for  an  evening  walk,  when  not  a  hundred  yards  from  the  clock-tower 
of  the  University  I  noticed  a  strong  body  of  the  workers  very  busy 
round  the  entrance  to  a  burrow  just  at  the  edge  of  the  tuft,  and  a 
second  glance  showed  me  they  had  some  object  in  this  burrow  that 
they  were  particularly  anxious  and  jealous  about,  and,  stooping  down, 
I  pulled  out  what  from  the  colouring  of  the  head,  legs,  and  antennae  (so 
exactly  like  the  workers  of  Dorylus),  if  I  did  not  actually  believe,  I 
at  least  fondly  hoped  was  the  female,  which  I  had  been  looking  for 
for  so  many  years.  I  rushed  back  tvO  the  Esplanade  Hotel,  got  my 
collecting-bottle  and  a  knife,  returned  to  the  spot,  and  this  time  dug 
up  the  nest  without  waiting.  I  found  two  more  of  these  suspicious- 
looking  insects,  and  from  the  curious,  fussy,  jealous,  and  at  the  same 
time  half-respectful,  behaviour  of  the  workers,  my  hopes  as  to  the 
genuineness  of  my  find  considerably  rose.  I  got  three  nice  little 
bottles  filled  with  rum,  and  by  the  next  mail  sent  them  off  to  Professor 
Westwood  and  Mr.  Edward  Saunders,  who  kindly  wrote  me  by  return 
of  post  that  my  capture  was  only  the  "  larva  of  some  Lamellicorn  beetle*^ 
What  Doi^ylus  does  with  these  larvae  I  should  much  like  to  know  ;  but 
my  fondest  hopes  were  dashed  to  the  ground,  and  after  fourteen 
years  of  careful  search  I  left  India,  I  fear  for  good,  without  finding 
ihe  female  of  Dorylus, 

Lobopelta  diminuta,  Smith. 
This  ant  is  common  enough  in  Bengal,  but  I  have  never  found  any 
nest ;  it  is  always  on  the  march,  and  moves  in  lines  two  deep,  and 
from  a  few  feet  to  many  yards  long.  The  longest  column  I  have 
met  with  was  in  the  Botanical  Gardens,  Calcutta,  and  measured  a 
little  over  thirty  yards.  It  marches  at  a  great  pace,  and  seems  to 
prefer  shady  and  damp  situations ;  a  number  of  the  workers  will 
always  be  seen  carrying  their  pupae  with  them,  which  they  do  by 
holding  them  imder  their  bodies,  and  walking  as  it  were  over 
them. 


NOTES  ON  INDIAN  ANTS.  63 

Lobopelto  chinensisy  Mayr. 

A  common  ant  in  Bengal,  but  only  found  in  small  numbers  at  a 
time,  sometimes  only  single  specimens,  and  generally  crawling  about 
drains  or  damp  shady  ground. 

Meranoplua  hicolovy  Smith. 

This  pretty  little  species  is  common  in  Bengal,  although  you  only 
find  it  sparingly  as  to  numbers;  it  forms  its  nests  in  the  earth  at  a 
depth  of  a  few  inches,  and  these  seldom  contain  more  than  twenty  to 
thirty  individuals.  I  have  only  once  found  the  winged  sexes  in  the 
nest,  mz,y  in  May,  1873,  in  the  Eden  Gardens,  Calcutta,  when  I  took 
one  female  and  several  males  (as  described  and  figured  in  Frederick 
Smith's  paper  in  the  *  Entomological  Transactions '  of  March,  1875). 
I  have  since  taken  one  or  two  specimens  of  the  female,  but  always 
singly.  The  workers  walk  about  singly  or  a  few  together,  and  very 
much  resemble,  both  in  appearance  and  habits,  the  females  of  some 
of  the  small  species  of  Mutllla ;  indeed,  I  have  at  times  captured  a 
worker  of  rather  above  the  average  size,  thinking  I  had  something 
new  in  that  genus. 

Plagiokjm  gracilipesy  Smith. 

Query  also  Hypoclinva  f/raci/ipesy  Mayr. 

This  ant  is  common  in  Bengal,  and  can  generally  be  found  run- 
ning about  between  the  stems  of  the  smaller  species  of  bamboo,  or 
behind  jaffri  (trellis- work),  and  similar  shady  situations.  The  workers 
are  very  active,  and  always  seem  busy  carrj^ng  about  various  species 
of  insects.  I  have  some  specimens  before  me  taken  with  a  species  of 
Pediopais  (Homopteron)  and  Nyaiua  (Hemipteron),  which  appear  to 
form  a  very  favourite  form  of  capture. 

AphcB^iogafiter. 

There  are  two  species  of  this  ant,  which  arc  not  uncommon  in 
Barrackpore  Park  in  the  hot  weather ;  they  form  their  nests  in  the 
dried-up  grass-covered  ground  of  the  open  and  most  exposed  positions. 
One  species  covers  the  entrances  to  its  nest  with  the  fallen  leaves 
of  the  tamarind,  acacia,  and  a  thorny  shrub  like  the  babool.  The 
«ther  makes  tiny  mounds  of  the  little  pink  and  blue  flowers  of  a  weed 
that  grows  amongst  the  grass ;  these  little  mounds,  about  the  diameter 


64        JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

of  a  rupee,  and  perhaps  from  one-eighth  to  one- fourth  inch  high,  are 
very  pretty   objects,   and  from  their  bright  colour  easily   catch  .the 

eye. 

Creifiastogaster  Hothnei/i,  Mayr. 

This  pretty  little  species,  which  was  described  from  specimens 
taken  in  the  Eden  Gardens,  Calcutta,  also  occurs  in  Barrackpore  Park, 
but  does  not  appear  to  be  generally  common  in  Bengal ;  it  frequents 
the  trunks  of  trees,  but  I  never  succeeded  in  finding  the  nest. 

The  Mushroom  Ant, 

There  is  a  species,  one  of  the  Ponerldce,  the  males  of  which  come 
in  numbers  to  light,  and  settle  on  the  white  cloth  at  dinner-time, 
or  fly  about  the  lamps  ;  it  is  common  from  the  beginning  of  the  hot 

■  weather  in  March  to  the  beginning  of  the  cold  season  in  November, 
!  but  I  have  never  been  able  to  find  either  the  workers  or  females  to 
i  which  it  belongs, — that  is  knowlnghj.     Prom  the   very  strong   smell 

■  which  it  has  when  handled,  and  which  exactly  resembles  mushrooms* 
!  I  have  given  it  the  above  MS.  name. 


A    LIST   OF    THE    VENOMOUS    SNAKES    OF    NORTH 

KANAKA;  WITH  REMARKS  AS  TO  THE 

IMPERFECTIONS  OF  EXISTING  RECORDS  OP  THE 

DISTRIBUTION  OF   SNAKES,  AND  FACTS   AND 

STATISTICS  SHOWING  THE  INFLUENCE  OF 

ECHI8  CARINATA  ON  THE  DEATH-RATE 

OF  THE  BOMBAY  PRESIDENCY. 

By  Mb.  G.  W.  Vidal,  C.S. 

{Read  at  the  Society's  Meeting  on  9th  January  1890.) 

The  recent  contribution  to  the  Society* s  Museum  of  a  specimen 
of  Trimeresurtis  trigonocephalus  from  North  Kanara  adds  another 
species  to  the  comparatively  long  list  of  venomous  land  snakes^ 
of  whose  occurrence  in  that  district  there  is  already  an  authentic 
record. 


THS  VENOMOUS  SNAKES  OF  NORTH  KANAKA. 


65 


The  list  now  comprises  9  species^  as  under  :— 


No. 


Name  of  Speoxes. 


By  whom  recorded  and  where  deposited. 


1 
2 


3 


4 

5 
6 

7 


8 
9 


Naja  tyipudiana^  the  Cobra    

Ophiophagus  elaps,   the    Hama- 
dryad. 


Bimgarus  cceruleus,  the  Krait   ... 


Cnllophii  nigrescens    

Trimiresv/rus  strigatus    

Trimiresurus  trigonoceplialua 
Hypnale  nepOf  the  Carawala. 


Dahoia  RussdUif  the  Chaiu  Viper 
Echis  ca/rinata 


Specimens  deposited  in  the  Earwar  Museum. 

(1)  Live  specimen  sent  to  the  Society's 
Booms  by  Mr.  H.  T.  Omma'nney,  Q.S. ;  (2) 
skins  contributed  by  Ool.  Peyton  deposited 
in  Society's  Museum. 

(1)  Preserved  specimen  deposited  in  the 
Karwar  Museum  ;  (2)  specimen  con- 
tributed to  the  Society's  Collection  by 
Mr.  H.  S.  Wise. 

Preserved  specimen  deposited  in  Society's 
Museum  by  Mr.  G.  Vidal,  C.S. 

One  specimen  contributed  to  the  Society's 
Collection  by  Mr.  H.  S.  Wise. 

One  specimen  contributed  to  the  Society's 
Collection  by  Mr  E.  H.  Aitken. 

(1)  Specimen  contributed  to  the  Society's 
Collection  by  Mr.  G.  Vidal,  C.S.  ;  (2) 
specimen  contributed  to  the  Society's 
Collection  by  Mr.  H.  S.  Wise. 

Specimens  deposited  in  the  Karwar  Mu- 
seum. 

Specimens  deposited  in  the  Karwar  Mu- 
seum. 


As  regards  the  n amber  of  species  found,  Kanara  is  decidedly, 
ahead  of  any  other  Bombay  district.  It  is  a  sort  of  border  land 
where  the  fauna  of  the  densely-wooded  and  humid  Malabar  Coast  is 
found  side  by  side  with  the  fauna  of  the  dry  and  bare  Deccan 
plains.  The  above  list,  moreover,  is  probably  by  no  means  exhaustive. 
Sooner  or  later  other  tree  vipers,  specially  T*  anamallenaisj  which 
has  strayed  from  the  Anamallay  Hills  to  the  Mahim  Woods  near 
Bombay,  may  be  found  in  Kanara,  t  >gether  with  other  representatives 
of  the  genua  Callophis. 

But  although  Kanara  shows  a  large  variety  of  venomous  snakes 
the  mortality  from  snake-bite  in  that  district  is  comparatively  low. 
As  will  be  seen  from  the  statistics  given  further  on,  the  deaths  from 
snake-bite  only  average  0"037  per  mille  per  annum.  The  reason  for 
this  comparative  immunity  is  that  dangerous  snakes,  and,  in  parti- 
cular, the  echis,  which — as  I  shall  endeavour  to  show  later  on — is  the 
chief  instrument  of  destruction  in  Western  India  generally,  are  not 
found  in  inconveniently  large  numbers,  while  the  Hamadryad  and 
the  Krait  are  decidedly  rare. 

As  our  collections  increase  it  is  useful  to  take  stock    from  time 
9 


6C        JOURNALy  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

to  time,  however  limited  may  be  the  field  of  inquiry  selected,  to  see 
what  additions  have  been  made  to  our  knowledge  of  the  distribution 
of  species.  In  no  branch  perhaps  of  Natural  History  has  the  distri- 
bution of  species  been  so  incompletely  worked  out,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  Ophidia.  A  glance  at  the  existing  works  of  reference  will 
show  how  very  little  is  known  of  the  habitat  of  the  great  majority 
of  the  species  described. 

Take  the  case  of  this  particular  Tree  Viper  now  received  from 
Kanara.  Gfinther  says  it  is  peculiar  to  Ceylon,  and  Theobald  and 
Nicholson  mention  no  other  locality  in  which  it  is  found.  According 
to  the  same  authorities,  T.  an  am  aliens  is,iiiiot\ieT  'J'ree  Viper,  of  which 
several  specimens,  live  and  pickled,  have  been  procured  by  members 
of  our  Society  at  Khandalla  and  the  Mahim  Woods,  occurs  only  in 
the  AnamaUays  and  the  Wynaad.  A  third  tree  viper,  T,  strigatus, 
obtained  in  North  Kanara  by  Mr^  H,  S.  Wise,  has  previously  been 
found  only  in  the  Nilghiris  and  the  Deccan.  Similarly,  Callophis 
nigrescenS}  of  which  we  have  specimens  both  from  North  Kanara  and 
Mahabieshwar,  occurs,  according  to  the  books,  only  in  the  Nilghiris, 
the  Shevaroy  Hills,  the  Wynaad  and  the  AnamaUays.  Another 
Callophis,  C  trimaculatuSi  whose  habitat,  according  to  the  same 
authorities,  is  Tennaserim,  and  possibly  Bengal,  has  lately  beeu 
received  in  the  Society's  Museum  from  Colaba  (Bombay)  and 
Bandora. 

In  these  and  scores  of  similar  instances  the  incompleteness  of  the 
record  is  not  without  some  excuse.  But  the  meagre  account  of  the 
*^  Phursa^'  [Echis  carinata),  to  be  found  in  all  works  on  Indian 
snakes,  is  less  excusable.  Giinther  says  it  is  common  in  many  parts 
of  the  peninsula  of  India,  in  the  Anamallay  mountains,  and  in  the 
vicinity  of  Madras.  Fayrer  says  it  is  absent  from  Bengal,  common  in 
the  North- Western  Provinces,  the  Central  Provinces,  Punjab,  and 
generally  in  the  south  of  India.  Theobald  says  it  inhabits  North- 
Western  and  Central  India,  the  Punjab,  and  Southern  India,  while 
Nicholson  merely  remarks  that  is  not  common  but  widely  spread. 
No  mention  is  made  by  any  of  these  authorities  of  the  extraordinary 
abundance  in  which  this  viper  is  found  in  Sind  and  the  KonkaD, 
The  remarkable  facts  disclosed  by  the  annual  official  returns  showing 
the  results  of  the  measures  taken  for  the  extermination  of  venomous 


THS  VENOMOUS  SNAKES  OF  NORTH  KANAKA 


65 


The  list  now  comprises  9  species^  as  under : — 


No. 


Name  of  Species. 


By  whom  recorded  and  where  deposited. 


1 
2 


3 


4 

6 
6 

7 


8 
9 


Naja  tyipudiana^  the  Cobra    

Ophiophagus  elaps,  the    Uama< 
dryad. 


Bungarus  coeruleus,  the  Krait   ... 


Callophit  nigrescens    , 

Trimiresurua  strigatus    

Trim%re»uru8  trigonocepliahui    ... 
TJypnale  nepa,  the  Carawala 


Dahoia  RussdUif  the  Chaiu  Viper 
Echis  ca/rinata 


Specimens  deposited  in  the  Earwar  Museum. 

(1)  Live  specimen  sent  to  the  Society's 
Booms  by  Mr.  H.  T.  Omma'nney,  Q.S. ;  (2) 
skins  contributed  by  Ool.  Peyton  deposited 
in  Society's  Museum. 

(1)  Preserved  specimen  deposited  in  the 
Karwar  Museum  ;  (2)  specimen  con- 
tributed to  the  Society's  Collection  by 
Mr.  H.  S.  Wise. 

Preserved  specimen  deposited  in  Society's 
Museum  by  Mr.  G.  Vidal,  C.S. 

One  specimen  contributed  to  the  Society's 
Collection  by  Mr.  H.  S.  Wise. 

One  specimen  contributed  to  the  Society's 
Collection  by  Mr  E.  H.  Aitken. 

(1)  Specimen  contributed  to  the  Society's 
Collection  by  Mr.  G.  Vidal,  C.S.  ;  (2) 
specimen  contributed  to  the  Society's 
Collection  by  Mr.  H.  S.  Wise. 

Specimens  deposited  in  the  Karwar  Mu- 
seum. 

Specimens  deposited  in  the  Karwar  Mu- 
seum. 


As  regards  the  number  of  species  found,  Kanara  is  decidedly, 
abead  of  any  other  Bombay  district.  It  is  a  sort  of  border  land 
where  the  favna  of  the  densely-wooded  and  humid  Malabar  Coast  is 
found  side  by  side  with  the  fauna  of  the  dry  and  bare  Deccan 
plains.  The  above  list,  moreover,  is  probably  by  no  means  exhaustive. 
Sooner  or  later  other  tree  vipers,  specially  T.  anamallenaisj  which 
has  strayed  from  the  Anamallay  Hills  to  the  Mahim  Woods  near 
Bombay,  may  be  found  in  Kanara,  t  >gether  with  other  representatives 
of  the  genus  Calluphis, 

But  although  Kanara  shows  a  large  variety  of  venomous  snakes 
the  mortality  from  snake-bite  in  that  district  is  comparatively  low. 
As  will  be  seen  from  the  statistics  given  further  on,  the  deaths  from 
snake-bite  only  average  0"037  per  mille  per  annum.  The  reason  for 
this  comparative  immunity  is  that  dangerous  snakes,  and,  in  parti- 
cular, the  echis,  which — as  I  shall  endeavour  to  show  later  on — is  the 
chief  instrument  of  destruction  in  Western  India  generally,  are  not 
found  in  inconveniently  large  numbers,  while  the  Hamadryad  and 
the  Krait  are  decidedly  rare. 

As  our  collections  increase  it  is  useful  to  take  stock    from  time 
9 


6C        JOURNALy  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

to  time,  however  limited  may  be  the  field  of  inquiry  selected,  to  see 
what  additions  have  been  made  to  our  knowledge  of  the  distribution 
of  species.  In  no  branch  perhaps  of  Natural  History  has  the  distri- 
bution of  species  been  so  incompletely  worked  out,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  Ophidia.  A  glance  at  the  existing  works  of  reference  will 
show  how  very  little  is  known  of  the  habitat  of  the  great  majority 
of  the  species  described. 

Take  the  case  of  this  particular  Tree  Viper  now  received  from 
Kanara.  Giinther  says  it  is  peculiar  to  Ceylon,  and  Theobald  and 
Nicholson  mention  no  other  locality  in  which  it  is  found.  According 
to  the  same  authorities,  T.  awarw  aZZew«i5,  another  "Jree  Viper,  of  which 
several  specimens,  live  and  pickled,  have  been  procured  by  members 
of  our  Society  at  Khandalla  and  the  Mahim  Woods,  occurs  only  in 
the  Anamallays  and  the  Wynaad.  A  third  tree  viper,  T.  strigatus, 
obtained  in  North  Kanara  by  Mr^  H,  S.  Wise,  has  previously  been 
found  only  in  the  Nilghiris  and  the  Deccan.  Similarly,  Callophis 
nigrescens,  of  which  we  have  specimens  both  from  North  Kanara  and 
Mahabieshwar,  occurs,  according  to  the  books,  only  in  the  Nilghiris, 
the  Shevaroy  Hills,  the  Wynaad  and  the  Anamallays,  Another 
Callophis,  C.  trimaculatuSi  whose  habitat,  according  to  the  same 
authorities,  is  Tennaserim,  and  possibly  Bengal,  has  lately  been 
received  in  the  Society's  Museum  from  Colaba  (Bombay)  and 
Bandora. 

In  these  and  scores  of  similar  instances  the  incompleteness  of  the 
record  is  not  without  some  excuse.  But  the  meagre  account  of  the 
'^Phursa^'  {Echis  carinata),  to  be  found  in  all  works  on  Indian 
snakes,  is  less  excusable.  Giinther  says  it  is  common  in  many  parts 
of  the  peninsula  of  India,  in  the  Anamallay  mountains,  and  in  the 
vicinity  of  Madras.  Fayrer  says  it  is  absent  from  Bengal,  common  in 
the  North- Western  Provinces,  the  Central  Provinces,  Punjab,  and 
generally  in  the  south  of  India.  Theobald  says  it  inhabits  North- 
Western  and  Central  India,  the  Punjab,  and  Southern  India,  while 
Nicholson  merely  remarks  that  is  not  common  but  widely  spread. 
No  mention  is  made  by  any  of  these  authorities  of  the  extraordinarv 
abundance  in  which  this  viper  is  found  in  Sind  and  the  Konkan. 
The  remarkable  facts  disclosed  by  the  annual  official  returns  showing 
the  results  of  the  measures  taken  for  the  extermination  of  venomous 


THE  VENOiMOUS  SNAKES  OF  NORTH  KANAKA. 


e7 


snakes,  have  been  completely  ignored.  To  show  the  abundance  of 
the  echis  in  the  Ratnagiri  District  alone,  I  give  below  the  number 
of  these  snakes  killed  and  brought  in  for  rewards  during  the  six 
years,  1882-87,  in  that  district,  as  compared  with  the  total  number 
destroyed  in  the  Bombay  Presidency  the  same  period  : — 


Number  of  Snakes  (Echis  carinata) 
destroyed  in  Batnagiri. 


I 


Year. 


Number. 


1882 
1883 
1884 
18S5 
1886 
1887 


238,981 
243,675 
167,603 
240,158 
208,535 
255,378 


Number  of  Snakes  destroyed  in  the 
Bombay  Presidency. 


Year. 


Number. 


Total    ... 


1.354,330 


A  verage  of  G  years . . . 


225,721 


1882  

1883  ...  

188t  

1885  

1886  

ISo/    


Total    ... 


Average  of  6  years. 


262,348 
293,230 
221,506 
283,579 
266,921 
311,476 


1,039,120 


273,186 


I  have  not  at  hand  the  figures  for  the  whole  of  British  India  for 
all  the  above  years.  But  I  find  that  in  1885  and  1886,  the  total 
number  of  snakes  killed  in  all  India  is  recorded  as  420,044,  417,596, 
respectively.  Thus  it  may  safely  be  concluded  that  of  the  whole 
number  of  snakes  annually  destroyed  throughout  British  India, 
considerably  more  than  one-half,  consisting  almost  exclusively  of 
individuals  of  the  Echis  species,  are  killed  in  Ratnagiri  alone ! 
These  figures  convey  a  very  fair  idea  of  the  strength  of  the  "  Philrsa^' 
community  in  this  locality,  though  they  by  no  means  represent  the 
maximum  possible  number  of  "  Phursas^'  which  might  be  destroyed, 
if  more  vigorous  measure  were  adopted.  But  one  looks  in  vain  for 
any  mention  of  the  occurrence  of  the  Echln  in  Ratnagiri  in  all  the 
books  dealing  with  Indian  snakes.  It  is  not  indeed  very  many  years 
since  the  then  head  of  the  Bombay  Medical  Department,  in  a  list  of 
the   poisonous   snakes   of  India,    with   vernacular  names  attached, 


68  JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

published  for  the  guidance  of  District  oflScers  under  the  authority 
of  Government,  omitted  all  mention  of  the  Echis  carinatay  and 
declared  the  "  Phdrsa'^  of  Western  India  to  be  identical  with  Halys 
Himalayanus  ! 

I  have  assumed  above  that  all  or  nearly  all  the  snakes  destroyed 
for  rewards  in  Ratnagiri  belong  to  the  Echis  species.  In  making 
this  assumption,  I  am  relying  on  past  personal  observation,  as  well 
as  arguing  from  the  natural  probabilities  of  the  case.  The  totals 
may  include  a  few  Cobras  and  Daboias,  and  possibly  a  few  harmless 
snakes  sometimes  find  their  way  into  the  bags.  But  the  number 
of  snakes  other  than  ^Philrsas'  brought  in  for  rewards  in  Ratnagiri 
is  so  insignificant  that  for  all  practical  purposes  it  may  be  treated 
as  a  quantite  negligeable.  The  truth  is  that  no  other  snakes  but 
the  Echis  are,  or  can  be,  systematically  hunted  and  found  in  great 
numbers.  A  band  of  professional  snake-charmers  would  think 
themselves  lucky  if  they  bagged  a  pair  of  cobras  after  a  day's  search 
in  likely  places.  A  party  of  Ratnagiri  ^  Phiirsa^  catchers  would 
curse  their  luck  considerably,  if  their  take  of  ^  Phiirsas*  averaged 
less  than  50  a  day.  It  is  on  record  that  in  1862,  when  the  reward 
for  Thursas^  was  tentatively  increased  from  six  pies  to  two  annas  a 
snake,  115,921  ^  Philrsas^  were  killed  and  brought  in  for  rewards  in 
Ratnagiri  within  eight  days  (December  2nd  to  10th)  !  At  the  same 
rate,  had  the  reward  been  continued  without  limit  as  to  total 
expenditure,  five  millions  of  *  Phdrsas^  would  have  been  destroyed  in 
one  year.  But  after  this  alarming  display  of  zeal,  the  rate  of  reward 
was  promptly  rednced  to  its  former  level.  The  real  truth  is  that 
notwithstanding  the  enormous  number  annually  destroyed  in  Ratna- 
giri for  years  and  years  past,  no  really  serious  impression  has  as  yet 
been  made  on  the  ^  Phursas.'  This  is  clearly  shown  by  the  fact  that 
the  mortality  from  snake-bite  in  Ratnagiri  has  not  sensibly  dimi- 
nished in  the  last  ten  years.  The  reason  is  that  a  limit  is  fixed  on  the 
total  expenditure  on  rewards,^  The  rate  now  in  force — three  pies 
per  snake — is  suflSciently  high  to  make  *  Phdrsa'  hunting  a  profitable 
business.  But  as  no  rewards  are  paid,  after  the  limited  grant  for  the 
purpose  is  exhausted,  the  annual  campaign  is  incomplete  and  in- 
effective, and  the  enemy  is  left  in  possession  of  the  field  with   only 

*  The  limit  some  years  ago  was  Bs.  50  per  taluka  per  month. 


THE  VENOMOUS  SNAKES  OF  NORTH  KANAKA,  69 

snch  losses  as  can  easily  be  repaired  by  the  natural  fecundity  of  its 
species.  With  the  same  rate  of  reward  and  no  limit  of  expenditure, 
except  tbe  natural  limit,  when  ^  Phdrsas '  become  so  rare  as  to  make 
their  pnrsuit  a  waste  of  labour,  these  snakes,  if  not  quite  exter- 
minated, would  soon  be  so  reduced  in  numbers  as  to  be  no  -longer  a 
pest  and  a  constant  danger  to  the  population.  If  the  campaign  were 
vigorouily  conducted  it  would  not,  1  believe,  be  a  very  long  one. 
For  a  year  or  more  the  '  Phursas'  would  be  killed  by  millions, 
instead  of  as  now  by  lakhs,  but  the  total  expenditure  would  probably 
not  exceed  the  aggregate  and  comparatively  useless  expenditure 
of  the  past  fifteen  years  or  so. 

I  have  given  above  some  instances  showing  more  or  less  excusable 
omissions  in  the  record  of  distribution  of  species.  But  far  worse 
than  these  omissions  is  the  surprising  error  made  by  Dr.  Giinther 
himself,  when  he  gravely  states,  that  "  no  case  is  known  of  its  (the 
Bchift)  bite  having  proved  fatal."  At  the  present  day  this  state- 
ment can  hardly  need  refutation.  Even  as  far  back  as  1855-56, 
Dr.  Imlach,  then  Civil  Surgeon  of  Shikarpur,  in  a  description  of 
the  '  Kapar'  (Echis  carinata),  published  in  the  Transactions  of  the 
Bombay  Medical  and  Physical  Society  (Vvh  Vol.  III.,  New  Series, 
p  80),  wrote  that  ^'a  reference  to  police  returns  will  show  that  in  by 
far  the  greatest  majority  of  cases  serious  injury  and  death  have  been 
caused  by  the  bite  of  this  species.*'  The  records  of  the  Ratnagiri 
Civil  Hospital  for  the  last  thirty  years  will  tell  a  similar  tale.  But 
even  Sir  Joseph  Fayrer  does  not  seem  to  have  had  sufficient  infor- 
mation on  the  subject  to  enable  him  to  correct  the  error  when  he 
wrote  his  Thanatophidia.  He  merely  states  that  "it  {Echis  carinata) 
is  venomous,  but  Giinther  says  its  bite  is  not  known  to  have  proved 
fatal.  This,  I  think,  very  doubtful.  One  in  my  possession  killed  a 
fowl  in  four  minutes,  another  in  two  minutes,  and  a  dog  in  about 
four  hours.'* 

There  is  indeed  no  doubt  that  the  Echis  is  a  far  more  potent  factor 
than  any  other  venomous  species  in  swelling  the  mortality  of  the 
Bombay  Presidency,  and  it  is  important  that  this  fact  should  be 
more  generally  known  and  recognised  than  it  has  been  hitherto.  It 
is,  of  course,  impossible  to  show  the  exact  percentage  of  the  deaths 
from  snake-bite  for  which  the   Echis  is  responsible.     In  the  returns 


JO       JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 


no  attempt  is  made  to  discriminate  the  species  to  which  the  recorded 
deaths  are  attributable,  and  little  if  any   reliance    could   be   placed 
in  the  statistics,    even  if  such   an   attempt   were   made.     But   the 
conclusion  stated  above   may,   I   think,  be  fairly  drawn  from  the 
fact,  which   is  very  clear  from  the  returns  in  their  present  shape, 
that  in  all  those  districts  (e.g,  Sind  and  Eatnagiri),  where  the  Echis  is 
known  to  abound,  the  average  mortality  from  snake-bite  is  markedly 
high,   while    conversely,  the    mortality   is    insignificant    in    other 
districts   where  the  Echis  is  either  rare  or  absent.     The  following 
table,  which  I  have  compiled  with  some  care  and  labour  from  the 
official  returns  for  the  eight  years,  1878  —  85,  shows  the  population, 
the  actual  average  mortality,  and  the   mortality    fer  mille   of  each 
district  in  the  Bombay  Presidency: — 


District. 


Population 

by 

Censue  of  1881. 


Average  actual 
mortality  from 

snake-bite, 
1878  tol8b5. 


Average 
mortality  per 
mille,  1878  to 
1885. 


Hydrabad  

Tliar  and  Parkar  .... 

Karachi  

Racnagiri    

Thana  

Panch  Mahals    

IShikarpur  

Snrat   .■ 

Kaiia 

Broach 

Upper  Sind  Frontier 

Kulaba     

Ahmedabad    

iSattara 

Kanara    

Belgaum 

Poena  

Dharwar 

Khandeish  

Bijapur    

Nasik  < 

Ahmednagar 

Sholapor 


754.624 

203,344 

478,ei88 

997,090 

908,548 

255,479 

852,986 

614,198 

804,800 

32K,930 

124.181 

381,  (i49 

856,324 

1,062,350 
421,840 
864,014 
900,021 
882,907 

1,237,231 
638,493 
781 ,206 
751,228 
682,487 


181  7 

0-247 

48-7 

0-239 

87-2 

0  182 

154-5 

0155 

108-8 

0-119 

30-5 

0-119 

72-8 

0-085 

41-5 

0-067 

47-2 

0*0586 

19  1 

0-0584 

6-7 

0  053 

19-8 

0-052 

39-6 

0-046 

41-0 

0  038 

16-0 

0  037 

30-2 

0-034 

18-6 

0-020 

17-6 

0-019 

231 

0-018 

11-0 

0  017 

10-8 

0-0138 

10-3 

0  0137 

2-2 

0-008 

Thus  three  Sind  districts  and  Eatnagiri,  in  all  of  which  the  Echis 
swarms  in  suitable  localities,  stand  well  at  the  top  of  the  list  with 
an  average  mortality,  taking  the  four  districts  together,  of  '205  per 
1000,  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  last  four  districts  on  the  list,  viz,, 
Bijapur,  Nasik,  Ahmednagar  and  Sholapur,  the  combined  average 


INDIAN  CATTLE.  71 

mortality  per  mille  is  only  '0]  ]  8  In  other  words  only  one  man  dies 
of  snake-bite  in  about  100,000,  in  these  Deccan  districts,  while  in 
the  Echis^nAden  tracts  one  man  dies  in  every  5,000.  Daboias  and 
kraits  are  probably  nowhere  so  common  in  Western  India  as  to 
have  much  appreciable  effect  on  the  mortality.  But  cobras  are 
quite  as  common,  I  believe*  in  these  Deccan  districts  as  they  are  in 
Ratnagiri  or  Sind.  This  shows,  I  think,  pretty  conclusively  that  the 
Echis — and  not  the  cobra,  or  any  other  venomous  snake — is  chiefly 
responsible  for  deaths  from  snake-bite  in  Bombay. 

Enough  has  been  said  above  to  show  the  importance  of  having 
accurate  and  as  far  as  possible  exhaustive  records  of  the  distribution 
of  species,  and  this  applies  not  only  to  the  case  of  the  venomous 
snakes,  with  which  I  have  particularly  dealt,  but  to  all  branches  of 
Natural  History.  Our  Society  has  already  done  much  useful  work 
in  this  direction,  thanks  to  the  individual  as  well  as  collective  energy 
of  its  members.  But  a  great  field  is  still  open  to  collectors,  and 
much  still  remains  to  be  done  in  taking  stock,  and  preparing  cata- 
logues of  the  numerous  and  valuable  contributions  already  received. 


INDIAN  CATTLE. 
By  J.  II.  Steel,  A.V.D. 

(Read  at  the  Soviet f/s  Meeting  on  6th  Fehmary  7890.) 

Not  the  least  striking  feature  of  life  in  India  is  the  enormous 
importance  of  cattle,  and  the  manner  in  which  they  are  extensively 
concerned  in  trade,  agriculture,  traffic,  and  food  supply.  This  is 
fully  recognised  in  the  religions  of  those  peoples  who  are  more 
essentially  the  inhabitants  of  India.  Thus  sacrcdness  of  the  cow  as 
an  emblem  of  fruitfulness,  and  veneration  of  the  bull  as  a  symbol  of 
generative  power,  are  characteristic  features  of  the  Hindoo  religion, 
and  of  these  we  see  as  outward  and  visible  signs,  the  Nundec,  or 
Sacred  Bull,  occupying  an  honoured  place  in  the  shrines,  and  the  cow 
wandering  freely  through  the  streets,  sleek  and  fat  on  grain  appro- 
priated from  the  baskets  of  not  unwilling  merchants.  The  sacred 
injunctions  of  the  religion  of  the  Hindoos  seem  to  have  been  wisely 
designed  with  two  aims  ;  firstly,  the  preservation  of  cows  in  time  of 


72        JOURNAL,  BOMBA  Y  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

famine ;  secondly  the  devotion  of  the  best  bulls  to  service  as  sires  ;  in 
this  way  the  welfare  of  the  race  of  cattle  in  perpetuity  was  secured 
by  the  powerful  influences  of  custom  and  superstition.  The  sacred 
books  of  Hindoo  and  Buddhist,  the  noble  pillars  of  Asoka,  and 
even  the  statutes  of  various  conquerors  and  peaceful  invaders  of 
India  whose  fierce  or  rude  habits  have  been  tamed  from  time  to  time 
by  the  gentle  influences  of  Hinduism,  are  full  of  instruction  as  to  the 
care  to  be  taken  of  cattle,  and  of  aphorisms  in  honour  of  the  bovine 
race.  From  time  to  time  Hinduism  has  been  stirred  to  its  depths  at 
wanton  or  careless  affront  by  slaughter  of  cattle,  and  thus  the  wel- 
fare of  horned  beasts  has  at  times  had  an  influence  on  history. 

But  the  bullock,  though  less  reverenced  than  the  bull  and  cow,  is 
even  more  entitled  to  honour.  He  has  done  good  service  in  every 
war  which  has  been  carried  out  in  India,  drawing  heavy  guns,  siege 
trains,  baggage,  and  supplies,  and  to  European  armies  he  has  often 
been  nd  inconsiderable  food  supply.  In  trade  he  is  a  most  important 
factor ;  the  strings  of  bullock  carts,  which  pass  along  our  Bombay 
streets,  the  long  lines  and  large  herds  of  Brinjari  cattle  we  meet 
in  some  parts  of  the  country,  the  kind  of  conveyance  which  we 
have  to  adopt,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  directly  we  leave  the  line 
of  rail  in  out-of-the-way  places  up-country,  are  all  evidences  of  this. 
In  agriculture  the  plough  bullock,  the  ox  treading  out  the  corn, 
and  the  unfortunate  animals  engaged  at  the  useful  but  wearisome 
work  of  the  well  are  famiKar  objects.  In  food  supply  the  bullock 
of  India  has  little  concern  except  when  he  is  bought  up  by  the 
Commissariat  at  cantonments,  or  shipped  for  use  by  troops  on  active 
service.  The  cow,  however,  supplies  in  the  form  of  ghi,  curds,  and 
other  products  from  milk  the  staple  item  of  animal  food  consumed  by 
many  millions  in  this  country. 

Loss  of  stock  by  disease  or  other  catastrophe,  accordingly,  it  will 
be  seen,  dislocates  existence  in  India.  The  traveller  loses  his  means 
of  conveyance  ;  the  beneficent,  but  noisy,  operation  of  drawing  water 
for  irrigation  can  no  longer  be  efiiciently  performed,  the  ground 
cannot  be  tilled,  nor  the  corn  threshed ;  as  the  plough  lies  idle  so 
also  does  the  cart,  which  should  be  cheerily  conveying  produce  to  the 
line  of  rail  or  neighbouring  market.  Fairs  cannot  be  held ;  even 
religion  and  pleasure  are  suspended,  and  military  operations  are 


tM)IAN  CATTLE.  73 

hampered  and  sometiines  prevented  by  the  plague  which  carries  off 
cattle  80  frequently  in  times  of  war.  This  is  no  fanciful  picture,  but 
a  stem  reality  familiar  to  district  officers  and  veterinary  surgeons, 
and  painfully  evident  to  Government  in  its  effects  on  the  revenues 
which  are  reduced  to  a  minus  quantity  through  the  necessity  of 
supplying  grain  or  fresh  bullocks  to  the  cultivators. 

We  often  hear  surprise  expressed  that  in  India  care  is  bestowed  on 
cattle,  which  ought  to  first  be  given  to  man ;  but  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  in  supplying  to  cattle  adequate  medical  treatment^  suffi- 
ciency of  fodder,  legislative  protection  from  cruelty,  and  a  special 
Department  to  look  after  their  welfare,  the  public  and  its  Govern- 
ment are  but  following  the  dictates  of  necessity,  and  fulfilling  the 
requirements  of  human  existence  and  welfare  iu  this  country.  The 
Cow  Protection  Movement,  the  development  of  Pinjrapoles,  .and  the 
retention  alive  throughout  the  country  of  poor  brutes  suffering  from 
debility,  wounds,  or  disease  are  merely  exaggerated  expressions  of  a 
deep  current  of  religious  feeling  (and  of  the  sound  policy  which 
underlies  it)  with  regard  to  cattle.  In  this  land  of  ancient  and 
venerable  faiths,  various  rulers  have  from  time  to  time  shown  an 
enlightened  policy  as  regards  cattle  protection.  Even  the  i\Iogul 
Emperors  found  it  judicious  to  repress  any  tendency  of  their  fol- 
lowers to  woimd  the  susceptibilities  of  their  Hindoo  subjects,  and, 
among  Mussulman  sovereigns,  Hyder  Ali  and  his  son  Tippoo  Sahib 
of  Mysore  have  rendered  most  excellent  services  lasting  to  the  present 
day  in  their  fostering  care  of  the  Amrut  Mahal  breed  of  cattle,  one  of 
the  finest  in  India.  History  shows  that  the  Hindoo  princes,  as  in 
Eathiawar,  Malwar,  Nellore,  and  elsewhere,  also  have  succeeded  in 
development  of  fine  breeds  of  cattle,  and,  indeed,  the  Mysore  dates  its 
fame  and  origin  from  the  time  of  Hindoo  rule  before  Hyder. 

The  Governments  of  the  Honorable  Company  and  that  of  Her 
Imperial  Majesty  have  been  not  unmindful  of  this  important  matter. 
Thus,  there  is  at  Hissar  in  the  Punjab  a  large  and  important  cattle- 
breeding  farm,  the  influence  of  which  is  widely  spread  through 
northern  India.  In  Mysore  until  recently  the  Amrut- Mahal  estab- 
lishment at  Hoonsoor  was  under  the  Madras  Government,  but  a  few 
years  ago  it  was  transferred  to  the  Mysore  State,  and  now  attempts 
to    improve   breeding  operations    are  being  carried  out  more   less 

10 


74         JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  Ul^ORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

energetically  throughout  the  different  parts  of  the  Southem  Presi- 
dency by  distribution  of  stock  from  a  farm  under  the  Department  of 
Agriculture.  In  the  Bombay  Presidency  there  was  a  farm  at 
Aligaon,  near  Sirur,  but  now  a  pedigree  herd  is  being  raised  at  the 
Government  experimental  farm  at  Badgaon,  in  Khandesh,  under  the 
Agricidtural  Department. 

Although  this  important  matter  receives  a  certain  amount  of 
attention,  it  had  long  been  felt  that  more  was  needed,  and  that  spe- 
cial Cattle  Breeding  Operations  should  be  carried  out  by  Govern- 
ment similar  to  those  resorted  to  for  improvement  of  horse  stock. 
This  matter  is  a  subject  of  much  debate,  but  is  now  generally 
admitted  as  one  of  urgency  and  interest,  for  it  is  found  that  as  the 
rail  increases  road  traffic  lessens,  and  trade  bullocks,  being  less  in 
demand^  are  more  difficult  to  procure.  Further,  it  is  stated  that  the 
Brahmin  bull  of  to-day  is  inferior  to  his  predecessors,  and  less  reliable 
as  a  father  of  his  race,  since  in  the  course  of  time  it  has  become  a 
mere  matter  of  form  to  present  a  male  animal  to  the  temples,  care 
often  not  now  being  taken  that  the  animal  so  presented  is  free  from 
blemish,  and  the  best  of  the  herd.  Moreover,  it  is  thought  that  with 
multiplicity  of  responsibility  has  resulted  diminished  zeal  for  the 
welfare  of  cattle  ;  that  between  district  officers,  agricultural  officials, 
local  magnates,  and  so  on,  the  race  of  cattle  is  apt  to  fall  to  the 
ground.  Whether  these  suppositions  be  thoroughly  established  or 
not  in  detail,  it  seems  to  be  a  general  impression  that  the  cattle  of 
India  are  sadly  deteriorating,  that  old  methods  of  preservation  are 
falling  into  effeteness  through  time  and  superstition,  and  that  some- 
thing ought  to  be  done  to  arrest  the  decline  ere  it  be  too  late. 

Far  from  being  a  laudator  temporu  actiy  I  am  a  firm  believer  in 
modem  progress,  but  I  cannot  blind  myself  to  the  following  evidences 
of  deterioration :— (1)  Military  officers  have  in  recent  years  fre- 
quently reported  unfavourably  on  the  cattle  suppKed  to  them,  and  it 
is  especially  unsatisfactory  that  the  Amrut-Mahal  has  not  invariably 
sustained  its  old  reputation.  (2)  There  is  a  widespread  opinion 
among  agriculturists,  ryots  and  land-owners,  that  the  cattle  of  the 
present  day  are  inferior.  (3)  Inspecting  officers  not  imfrequently 
confirm  this  view.  (4)  Purchasing  committees  for  army  bullocks 
have  to  reject  extensively  for  want    of  stoutness  of  build  and  for 


INDIAN  CATTLE.  75 

unsoundness.  (5)  The  Cow  Protection  Movement  has  met  with  an 
extraordinary  degree  of  success  among  the  agricultural  classes,  who 
are  specially  likely  to  experience  the  need  for  something  to  be  done 
to  improve  or  prevent  deterioration  of  their  cattle.  The  movement 
is  a  sign  of  the  times,  even  though  Sriman  Swamy's  views  be 
extreme,  and  his  statements  and  statistics  erroneous. 

This  deterioration  is  perhaps  to  an  extent  to  be  traced  to  an 
imwillingness  on  the  part  of  the  powers  that  be  to  interfere  between 
the  Native  and  his  cattle  ;  there  is  a  lurking  idea  that  it  is  bad  policy 
and  unpopular  for  Europeans  to  have  anything  whatever  to  do  with 
Indian  cattle,  and  that,  moreover,  the  Natives  know  ver}*^  much  more 
about  the  cattle  of  India  than  Europeans  do.  Also  many  Europeans 
look  upon  cattle  as  below  their  notice,  for  it  is  only  the  district 
officials  who  fully  realise  their  importance.  But  it  is  bad  policy 
to  look  upon  anything  as  too  common  to  be  worth  our  notice  ;  on 
the  contrary,  the  mere  fact  of  the  ox  rendering  us  important 
services  entitles  him  to  our  best  aid  and  sympathy.  That  action  of 
the  authorities  in  regulating  cattle-breeding  would  be  unpopular  is  a 
purely  gratuitous  assumption,  and  is  disproved  apparently  by  the 
fact  that  in  many  parts  of  India  at  various  times  Native  Govern- 
ments have  regulated  cattle-breeding  with  vigour  and  success,  the 
best  breeds  of  the  present  day  having  thus  been  developed. 

That  Natives  know  very  much  more  about  cattle  than  Europeans 
is  a  fallacy ;  they  have  more  crude  empirical  knowledge  as  regards 
cattle  management  and  working,  but  the  sum  total  of  their  infor- 
mation is  very  small  and  local.  The  best  European  authorities  on 
Indian  cattle  are  much  better  acquainted  with  the  subject  than  are 
the  Natives,  but  this  is  not  saying  much,  for  a  very  great  deal 
has  yet  to  be  learned  !  Among  those  who  have  contributed  to  our 
knowledge  of  this  important  subject  are  Gilchrist,  a  surgeon  on  the 
Madras  Establishment,  long  serving  at  Hoonsoor,  who  wrote  a  book 
on  '^Diseases  of  Homed  Cattle  in  India";  the  late  lamented  Dr.  Shortt, 
whose  small  book  on  Indian  Cattle  gives  useful  information;  and 
Professor  Wallace,  in  whose  book  "  India  in  1887  "  are  accumulated 
and  arranged  photographs  of  various  kinds  of  cattle,  with  a  descrip- 
tion of  each  in  the  letterpress.  Smaller  contributions  have  been 
made  to  the  subject  but  altogether  our  information  is  very  inconsi- 


76        JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

derable,  and  will  well  admit  of  expansion  and  systematisation.  In 
the  Government  Records  are  numerous  Reports  of  Cattle  Diseases 
and  cognate  subjects  whicli  deserve  careful  study,  and  the  official 
cattle  statistics  of  trade,  population,  attendance  at  fairs,  imports  and 
exports  ought  to  be  carefully  worked  out  if  we  would  thoroughly 
realise  the  importance  of  cattle  to  India.  A  little  study  will  show 
that  although  Natives  know  how  to  feed  cattle  in  this  country  and 
can  select  them  for  work  with  much  skill,  their  knowledge  fails  most 
lamentably  when  it  comes  to  deal  with  injuries  and  disease,  so  that 
the  unfortonate  animals  when  most  they  need  scientific  care  and 
special  nursing,  are  subjected  to  barbarous  cruelty  of  treatment,  or  to 
ntter  neglect.  Fortunately  Government  and  the  public  now  recog- 
nise this  unsatisfactory  state  of  affairs,  and  are  taking  measures  to 
remedy  it. 

Much  confusion  exists  even  in  native  nomenclature  ;  for  example, 
we  often  find  a  nimiber  of  terms  used  in  description  of  cattle  which 
have  a  very  general  significance,  but  might  be  mistaken  to  be  the 
names  of  breeds;  thus  Hanimi  cattle  are  those  which  come  from 
"  down-south  "  and  might  be  taken  to  mean  Mysori  in  some  parts  of 
the  country.  In  reply  to  a  letter  asking  the  true  meaning  of  the 
term,  I  was  on  one  occasion  informed  it  was  applied  to  very  small 
but  beautifully-shaped  breed  of  cattle  of  the  Mysore  stamp,  and 
coming  from  the  western  part  of  that  State,  where  they  run  practi- 
cally wild.  Khilari  means  simply  "  herd  "  cattle  as  contrasted  with 
those  tended  individually,  and  Deshi  means  simply  common  country 
cattle.  Talabdai,  again,  is  the  term  appKed  in  Guzerat  to  local 
village  cattle  which  have  more  or  less  of  the  blood  which  we  know  as 
Guzerathi.  The  frequency  of  these  general  terms  is  apt  to  mislead 
a  casual  observer  into  multiplying  breeds  imnecessarily  and  errone- 
ously. 

The  ox  of  India  is  recognized  as  a  species  distinct  from  that  of 
Europe,  and  is  termed  by  Zoologists  the  Zebu  or  Brahmini  Ox.  The 
respects  in  which  he  differs  from  his  European  cousin  are — (1)  the 
presence  of  a  hump,  (2)  lightness  of  build  and  agility,  (3)  large  size 
of  the  dewlap,  (4)  certain  minor  differences  of  colour  and  shape. 
The  principal  characteristic  consists  in  the  presence  of  a  himip.  This 
is  similar  to  the  hump  of  the  camel,  and  consists  mainly   of  fat 


INDIAN  CATTLE.  77 

mixed  with  the  natural  fibrous  and  muscular  structure  of  the  withers. 
It  is  ornamental  and  a  sexual  mark,  being  much  larger  in  the  bull 
than  in  either  bullock  or  cow ;  it  varies  in  size  in  different  breeds, 
and  must  be  considered  as  a  storehouse  of  nutriment,  serving  to 
adapt  the  animal  to  periods  of  famine  exigency  which  occur  fre- 
quently in  the  course  of  Indian  life.  In  the  calf  it  is  not  seen, 
but  develops  as  the  animal  grows  older.  Its  firmness  is  a  good 
index  of  the  condition  of  the  animal  and  is  used  for  this  propose  by 
bullock-men  who  feel  it  critically  but  who  (with  many  Europeans) 
are  entirely  mistaken  in  imagining  that  the  presence  of  the  hump  is 
essential  to  working  bullocks.  Evidence  to  the  contrary  may  be 
seen  any  day  in  the  Bombay  streets,  where  numerous  half-starved 
bullocks  with  no  hump  work  under  the  yoke.  No  doubt  a  good  full 
hump  and  a  fat  yokerest,  well  suited  for  its  work  and  little  liable  to 
gall,  go  together,  but  the  bullock  is  in  no  way  dependent  on  his  hump 
for  ability  to  work  under  the  yoke.  (2)  The  lightness  and  agility 
is  due  to  the  animal  having  to  range  far  and  wide  to  pick  up  his 
living,  and  having  to  do  work  much  more  frequently  than  the  European 
ox.  Although  in  many  parts  of  the  world  cattle  are  commonly 
worked,  India  yields  to  none  in  the  value  of  her  draught  breeds,  as 
England  yields  to  none  in  her  rich  beeves.  Thus  we  arrive  at  an 
important  axiom  as  regards  cattle-breeding  in  India,  that /or  working 
breeds  we  need  not  go  outside  of  India  for  new  blood  though  if  we  icish  to 
breed  for  beef  and  milky  something  may  be  done  by  crossing  with  English 
and  foreign  breeds.  This  axiom  is  constantly  to  be  held  in  remem- 
brance,  and  neglect  of  it  may  lead  to  serious  ill-consequences.  (3) 
The  fine  full  dewlap  of  Indian  working  cattle  is  supposed  to  at  times 
attain  such  a  degree  of  development  as  to  interfere  mechanically 
with  the  animals  when  trotting.  This  idea  seems  very  widely 
accepted,  and  is  received  by  Professor  Wallace,  but  the  evidence 
of  its  truth  is  doubtful  and  inconclusive. 

The  Zebu  is  a  species  which  has  imdergone  much  modification,  so 
that  now  there  are  numerous  varieties  or  breeds.  In  the  south  of 
India  the  most  important  breed  is  the  Mysori,  which  attains  its 
highest  development  in  the  Hallikar  variety  of  the  celebrated  Amrut- 
Mahal  bullock  of  Hoonsoor.  These  are  excellent  animals  for  fast 
draughty  being  quick  and  light  in  action,  plucky  and  enduring  ;  they 


78        JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

are  generally  steel  grey  or  white  in  colour,  with  an  intelligent 
expression,  long  straight  sharp  horns  inclining  upwards  and  back- 
wards, and  often  running  parallel  from  swollen  longitudinal  ridges 
on  the  forehead.  They  are  not  very  large,  although  bullocks  of  this 
breed  of  considerable  size  are  sometimes  seen.  Besides  the  three 
varieties  of  the  Amrut-Mahal,  Hallikar,  Hagalwadi,  and  Chitaldroog, 
there  are  a  number  of  sub-breeds  of  local  varieties  of  Mysoris,  for 
^xample  the  Madesvaram  Betta  of  large  size,  and  the  Kankanhalli  of 
small  size.  In  the  Punganoor  zemindari  of  North  Arcot  good  cattle 
of  the  Mysore  stamp,  but  small,  are  bred.  The  influence  of  the 
Mysore  breed  extends  northwards  to  Bombay  on  the  "Western  Coast, 
and  to  beyond  Secunderabad  in  the  Nizam's  Dominions,  but  an 
intermingling  with  other  breeds  occurs  rather  extensively,  and  in 
some  of  the  countries  of  the  south,  as  also  along  the  Kistna,  Kaveri, 
and  Godaveri  Valleys,  and  in  the  Southern  Maharatta  Country,  the 
country  cattle  almost  attain  the  importance  of  distinct  breeds  on 
account  of  their  size,  strength,  and  special  shapes.  On  the  Coast, 
too,  is  foimd  a  small  breed  of  beautifully  agile  cattle  used  for  very 
light  and  fast  draught.  Wallace,  with  his  usual  zeal  for  creating 
breeds,  terms  them  Diminutiva.  But,  even  if  it  were  for  a  moment 
accepted  that  they  were  a  distinct  race,  some  more  suitable  name 
could  be  found  than  that. 

The  first  serious  competition  northwards  that  the  Mysoris  meet  is 
from  the  bullocks  of  Ongole  or  Nellore.  These  have  short  sharp 
horns,  long  pendulous  ears,  large  dewlap,  massive  frame,  and  large 
size.  They  are  grand  looking  animals,  very  useful  for  slow  work 
but  not  specially  active.  The  cows  are  good  milkers.  Animals  of 
this  variety  are  good-tempered  and  tractable.  The  sterling  qualities 
of  these  cattle  have  secured  them  a  very  wide  range,  which,  however, 
seems  to  be  gradually  becoming  restricted.  They  are  found  in  the 
Hyderabad  Contingent  Artillery,  and  as  gim  bullocks  are  most  impos- 
ing in  appearance,  but  slow.  In  the  Cuddapah  and  Bellary  districts 
they  are  used  extensively  under  the  plough.  The  breed  has  been 
tried  up  at  Hissar,  but  is  not  a  favourite  there  ;  still  it  is  doubtful 
if  it  is  well  represented  by  the  buUs  brought  north  as  typical, 
and  the  same  remark  applies  to  Mysoris.  Time  will  not  permit 
further  notice  of  Madras  cattle  ;  though  the  Salem  breed,  Trichengode 


INDIAN  CATTLE.  79 

milkers,  and  the  Kangayen  variety  (the  Coimbatore),  are  deserving 
of  mention. 

In  the  Bombay  Presidency  the  Guzeratis  first  demand  consi- 
deration. They  are  large,  slow,  good-tempered,  noble  in  appearance, 
and  good  workers  in  plough  or  along  coimtry  roads.  Their  form  of 
horn  is  characteristic  and  regular,  the  twist  is  outwards  then 
upwards,  and  having  a  final  turn  at  the  tip,  and  for  their  medium 
length  the  horns  are  stout.  They  are  justly  considered  by  Wallace  to 
be  "  decidedly  the  finest  of  all  large  cattle  of  the  North-West  of 
India,  and  only  equalled  by  the  Kistna  bullocks  of  the  South."  Nariad 
may  be  taken  as  the  centre  of  the  breed.  Cattle  of  this  kind  are 
constantly  seen  in  the  Bombay  streets  in  large  carts,  but  they  are 
slow  in  the  extreme,  are  considered  too  soft  of  foot  for  street  work, 
and  rather  more  frequently  unsound  than  the  Mysore  or  local 
coimtry  breed.  This  is  a  serious  matter  which  ought  to  be  care- 
fully looked  into  by  cattle  breeders.  The  idea  may  be  erroneous, 
but  there  is  somewhat  a  general  impression  that  the  breed  is  degene- 
rating. The  influence  of  the  Guzeratis  extends  into  Kathiawar, 
northwards  into  Eajputana,  and  eastwards  to  the  Ghauts.  Outlying 
sub-breeds  are  the  Kankreji  and  Malwi,  the  former  occurring  on 
the  N.-E.  of  Qnzerat,  the  latter  in  the  Satpuras.  I  observe  that  the 
Mhow  Heavy  Field  Battery  bullocks  are  recorded  as  principally 
Malwis.  In  Kathiawar  the  most  characteristic  animals  are  the  Gir 
or  Junagadh,  which  have  secured  such  a  reputation  for  milk-produc- 
ing powers,  that  they  are  the  principal  milch  cattle  of  Western  India. 
They  are  sometimes  called  Suratis,  but  were  originally  brought  from 
Kathiawar,  and  Wallace  has  recorded  a  tradition  that  even  thither 
they  were  imported  from  the  West.  He  deteils  arguments  in  sup- 
port of  this  view,  which  seems  feasible,  for  certainly  in  shape  of 
front  and  horns  the  Kathiawaris  are  remarkably  different  from  other 
Indian  cattle.  In  Sind  is  a  good  breed  of  working  cattle,  short- 
homed,  and  generally  of  a  white  colour ;  the  cows  are  said  to  be  good 
milkers ;  the  bullocks  are  good-tempered,  but  slow  in  work. 

In  some  part  of  the  Bombay  Presidency  the  cattle  have  attained 
a  fair  amount  of  definiteness  of  breed,  although  as  varieties  they  are 
not  so  well-known  as  the  Guzerati.  Thus  the  Dangis  or  Hill  breed 
seen  near  Igatpuri,   and  the   well-bred  race  of  cattle  developed  at 


80       JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

Bhadgaon,  by  the  efforts  of  Stormont,  ably  seconded  by  Mr.  P.  R. 
Mehta  are  worthy  of  mention.  Wallace  notices  the  Deccani,  as  a 
distinct  breed,  but  hardly  is  very  successful  in  defining  it.  Where 
cattle  are  well  cared  for  and  richly  fed  on  kurbi  and  grain  through- 
out the  year,  they  become  large  and  strong.  The  Berars  and  cer- 
tain parts  of  the  Central  Provinces  thus  show  us  beasts  of  a  most 
excellent  stamp.  On  the  other  hand,  wherever  in  the  hills  and  else- 
where cattle  are  left  to  pick  up  their  own  living  as  best  they  may,  to 
starve  all  simmier,  and  where  they  breed  promiscuously,  the  race 
becomes  stunted  and  degenerated. 

Northwards  through  Marwar  the  Gnzerati  gradually  become 
merged  in  the  cattle  of  the  Punjab,  especially  the  species  of  Wagad, 
Nagar,  or  Hissar  race,  which  has  its  centre  at  the  celebrated  Hissar 
Government  Farm.  At  the  farm  a  number  of  crosses  are  found,  but 
there  is  a  large,  long-horned,  strong  bullock  which  has  specially 
resulted  from  the  efforts  of  this  establishment  and  is  much  used  for 
army  purposes  in  Upper  India.  These  bullocks  are  excellent  for  cart 
purposes,  being  docile,  powerful,  and  of  fair  speed.  They  look 
rather  leggy,  however ;  and  it  is  open  to  question  whether  for  mili- 
tary purposes  they  equal  the  Mysori,  certainly  the  latter,  for  breed- 
ing, pluck,  speed,  and  endurance  ought  to  take  the  first  place  among 
Indian  cattle,  but  his  smaller  size  and  less  weight  render  him  less 
suitable  for  very  heavy  draught  than  either  Nellore,  Guzerat,  or  His- 
sar bullocks.  The  cows  in  and  about  Hissar,  known  as  the  Hansi 
breed,  have  attained  much  importance  in  North  India  as  milkers. 
Mainly  through  the  efforts  of  Syed  Mahomed  Hussein  some  of  the 
local  breeds  of  the  N.-W.  Provinces  and  Oudh  have  attained  a  place 
in  Wallace's  book,  the  Gorannea  of  Bundelkund  and  the  Bagondha 
of  Oudh  are  thus  entered  as  distinct  breeds,  but  are  probably  mere 
local  sub-varieties.  The  Santhal  cattle  from  the  Barakur  River, 
the  Purbi  or  local  Allahabad  breed,  and  the  small  neat  cattle  seen 
near  Jessore  (which  Wallace  considers  very  like  Channel  Island 
stock)  are  rightly  considered  purely  local.  The  bullocks  of  Burma 
are  stout,  thickset,  short-horned,. and  excellent  for  cart  work.  Those 
of  Ceylon  are  described  as  small,  light  in  build,  neat  in  appearance, 
and  remarkably  like  Adens.  These  latter  are  neat,  well-bred, 
short-homed   or    polled,     symmetrical,   and     they     are   constantly 


INDIAN  CATTLE.  81 

imported  into  India,  because  of  the  excellent  milking  qualities  of  the 
cow. 

Such  is  a  hasty  review  of  the  cattle  of  India.  The  general  im- 
pression one  will  gain  from  this  sunmiary  is,  perhaps,  that  India 
is  remarkably  well-off  for  cattle,  whether  for  slow  draught,  fust 
work,  or  milking  purposes.  Such  is  certainly  the  case.  Possibly 
some  good  in  the  future  may  be  effected  by  crossing  the  Indian 
breeds  more  frequently  than  now,  but  it  seems  e>ident  that  if  any 
gain  whatsoever  resulted  from  import  of  working  cattle,  say  from 
Italy  or  the  south  of  France,  this  would  be  more  than  counteracted 
by  loss  of  stamina  and  of  suitability  to  the  climate  on  the  part  of  the 
Indo-European  progeny.  As  regards  milk,  the  Short-horn  cross 
would  certainly  increase  the  yield  and  quality,  but  the  resulting 
animals  would  need  great  care,  and  could  only  thrive  in  cooler  parts 
of  the  country.  With  Kathiawar,  Sind,  Uunsi,  Nellorc,  and  Aden 
cows  we  need  hardly  resort  to  Europe  for  milking  breeds.  As 
regards  beef,  Indian  cattle  are,  undoubtedly,  very  inferior,  but  as  tlni 
demand  is  very  limited  it  would  probably  be  fully  met  by  the  Com- 
missariat establishing  a  central  beef  farm,  and  distributing  bullocks 
for  slaughter  to  the  *  large  stations  within  range.  It  would  not  cost 
much  to  attach  an  English  beef  herd  to  each  of  the  existing  public 
cattle  farms,  and  the  herds  might  possibly  be  made  self-supporting. 
In  such  a  country  as  India,  however,  improved  beef  can  hardly  be 
considered  a  crying  necessity,  as  the  beef-eating  population  is  in 
such  a  large  minority. 

Another  point  which  is  conspicuous  in  description  of  Indian 
cattle  is  the  absence  of  well  marked  differences  sufficient  for  popular 
description.  The  points  by  which  the  general  varieties  can  be  dis- 
tinguished from  one  another  are  simply  those  of  differences  in  sizi; 
and  shape  which  it  requires  a  practised  eye  to  detect,  althougli  at  a 
glance  in  the  case  of  any  special  animal  it  is  possible  for  an  oxi)cri- 
enced  man  to  form  a  correct  idea  of  his  breed.  This  is  strongly  con- 
firmatory of  the  view  that  the  zebu  is  a  true  species,  and  has  diverged 
far  in  the  line  of  development  from  the  ox  of  Europe.  Whether,  or 
no,  he  is  a  black  race  is  a  point  which  has  been  raised  by  Professor 
Wallace,  but  which  we  will  not  now  discuss,  for  it  is  at  piesent 
sub  judice. 
11 


84        JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

tlic  root.  Afber  some  show  of  reluctance  the  Brahman  was  induced  to  point  out 
the  shrub  from  which  it  was  obtained.  The  shrub  turned  out  to  be  a  very  common 
one,  locally  called  "Pangla,"  and  some  years  afterwards  I  procured  specimens 
which  established  its  identity  with  Pogostemon  purpuricaulis, 

A  supply  of  the  root  was  obtained  by  Mr.  Elphinston,  and  sent  to  the  Ratnagiri 
Civil  Hospital,  where  its  value  was  practically  tested  by  Dr.  Christopher  Joynt, 
then  Civil  Surgeon.  Dr.  Joynt  himself  treated  several  cases  of  echis  bite  with  it 
with  good  results,  post  hoc  or  propter  hoc,  as  the  case  may  have  been.  Subse. 
quently — about  1880, 1  think — he  contributed  a  paper,  giving  the  results  of  his 
experiments,  to  the  Bombay  3IedicaI  and  Physical  Society.  Most  unfortunately, 
this  Society  had  temporarily  stopped  the  publication  of  its  journals  just  about  the 
time  when  Dr.  Joynt's  paper  was  received,  and  as  I  ascertained  afterwards  from 
Dr.  Joynt,  the  original  paper  had  either  been  lost  or  mislaid,  while  he  himself  had 
kept  no  copy  of  it,  and  had  moreover  destroyed,  or  lost  the  notes  from  which  he 
wrote  it.  I  understood  from  him,  however,  that  he  was  pretty  confidently  of 
opinion  that  the  root  really  possessed  valuable  properties  as  a  styptic. 

I  am  not  aware  if  any  further  trials  of  the  root  have  since  been  made  at 
Batnagiri,  or  elsewhere.  Some  years  ago  I  remember  sending  pieces  of  the  root 
to  Mr.  A.  Bettington  (late  Bombay  C  S.)j  who  was  interested  in  the  matter,  and 
wished  to  have  the  root  chemically  analysed.  But  the  analysis,  if  any  was  made, 
revealed  nothing  useful. 

The  plant  is  not  included  in  the  Indian  Pharmacopoeia.  If,  as  there  is  some 
reason  to  believe,  it  has  the  property  ascribed  to  it,  it  would  be  a  very  useful 
addition.  This,  however,  is  a  question  for  doctors  rather  than  naturalists,  to 
take  up. 

The  shrub  is  called  "  Pangla "  I  believe,  only  in  the  Konkan.  Above  the 
Ghats,  in  Poona,  Nasik,  &c.,  it  is  known  as  **  Fangal."  It  grows  very  abundantly 
on  both  sides  of  the  Sahyadri  watershed,  where  the  rainfall  is  sufficiently  heavy  ; 
and  as  *'  F.  R."  observes,  its  strong  black  currant  smell  is  a  distinctive  feature. 
I  may  add  that  it  is  largely  consumed  about  Egtupura  for  rab,  that  is  for  burning 
on  the  seed  beds  prepared  for  rice  and  other  cultivation. 

Lastly,  to  refer  to  another  point  noted  by  "  F.  R.,"  ammonia  has  been  declared 
by  a  former  medical  officer  at  Ratnagiri,  who  had  a  large  experience  of  cases  of 
cchis  bites  to  aggravate  rather  than  otherwise  all  the  worst  symptoms.  The  bite 
of  this  viper  is  apparently  fatal  in  about  20  per  cent,  of  cases,  and  the  action  of 
the  poison  is  slow.  In  collecting  materials  for  an  account  of  the  snakes  of 
Ratnagiri  for  the  Bombay  Gazetteer,  I  found  (in  1878)  records  of  62  fatal  cases 
treated  at  the  civil  hospital.  These  cases  showed  that  death  occurred  on  an 
average  in  four  and  a  half  days,  though  in  some  instances  patients  had  lingered 
up  to  twenty  days. — Yours,  &c., 

G.  VIDAL. 

Camp  Gokhantar,  Northern  Frontier  Line,  January  30. 

[The  above  letters  appeared  in  the  Bombay  Gazette. — Ed.] 


CORRESPONDENCE.  85 

THE  ECmS  CARINATA  AND  ITS  DESTRUCTION. 

To  the  Editor,  *'  Bombay  Natural  History  Society." 

Dear  Sib, — I  have  read  with  much  interest  Mr.  Vidal's  paper  on  "  Mortality 
from  Snakes  in  the  Bombay  Presidency."  He  makes  special  reference  to  the 
snake  called  '*  Pbursa"  in  the  Ratnagiri  district.  It  may  interest  you  to  hear 
some  &cts  which  came  to  my  notice  when  Collector  of  Ratnagiri. 

Below  Ratnagiri  lies  the  large  taluka  of  Deogad,  which  extends  from  the  sea  to 
the  line  of  ghfits.  It  comprises  many  miles  of  waste  rocky  country,  and  here  more 
especially  it  is  that  the  Phursa  breeds.  I  made  particular  enquiry  and  ascertained 
that  in  April,  May  and  June  the  young  are  bom,  but  they  are  difficult  to  find. 
Although  I  offered  a  reward  of  half  an  anna  per  Phursa  in  these  early  months,  no 
one  would  take  the  trouble  to  look  for  them.  In  August  and  September  the  Mhars 
go  out  with  long  sticks,  to  which  forks  are  attached,  and  catch  them  in  thousands, 
bringing  them  into  Deogad  in  baskets,  and  exhibiting  them  at  the  Mamla  kacheri, 
where  three  piesGrovernment  reward  is  paid  for  each  Phursa,  whose  head  is  then  cut 
off  to  prevent  any  roguery  on  the  part  of  the  natives.  I  cannot  say  for  how  many 
mouths  longer  the  Mhars  would  or  could  have  gone  on  catching  these  Phursas,  for 
the  funds  placed  at  my  disposal  always  came  to  an  end  before  thecloso  of  November. 

I  remember  once  being  in  a  predicament  on  this  account.  I  was  encamped  at 
Deogad,  and  found  the  Kacheri  surrounded  by  angry  Mhars  demanding  the  Grovern- 
ment  reward,  and  insisting  on  placing  before  me  baskets  of  defunct  Phursas  which 
smelt  strongly.  My  funds  being  exhausted,  I,  of  course,  failed  to  satisfy  them.  I 
took  the  precaution  to  advise  the  Mamlatdar  to  go  home  warily  with  a  lantern 
lest  out  of  revenge  they  might  strew  his  path  with  still  living  Phursas. 

The  rate  of  mortality  is  small  when  we  consider  that  from  two  to  three  lakhs  of 
snakes  are  killed  during  only  four  months  in  the  year,  and  that  for  the  remaining 
eight  months  the  Phursas  are  unmolested.  This  may  account  for  the  fact  that 
the  Phursas  in  this  district  do  not  decrease,  and  that  the  6gure  of  death-rate  from 
snake  bites  differs  but  little  from  year  to  year.  As  a  matter  of  fact  there  is  but 
little  necessity  for  people  to  go  into  the  jungles  where  the  Phursas  are  mostly 
to  be  found,  otherwise  we  should  certainly  hear  of  many  more  deaths.  If  I 
remember  aright,  I  never  had  more  than  Rs.  3,000  a  year  placed  at  my  disposal 
for  the  whole  district  as  rewards  both  for  slaughter  of  wild  animals  and  of  snakes, 
and  I  could  very  easily  have  spent  double  this  sum  in  the  Deogad  taluka  alone. 
If  our  Society  takes  up  the  question  and  places  in  a  clear  light  the  necessity  for 
exterminating  the  Phursa,  it  might  be  urged  upon  Government  to  spare  Rs.  5,000 
for  the  purpose,  or  some  philanthropic  person  might  advance  the  money  as  a  work 
of  Dharm.  The  measures  taken  should  be  systematic  and  thorough,  under 
reliable  supervision,  and  the  work  of  extermination  should  last  from  August  to 
February  at  least.  It  will  then  be  a  matter  of  wonder  how  many  thousands  of 
Phursas  meet  their  death. — I  am,  &c., 

R.  E.  CANDY,  C.  S. 

Sholapur,  January  1890. 


72         JOURNAL,  BOMBA  Y  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

famine ;  secondly  the  devotion  of  the  best  bulls  to  service  as  sires  ;  in 
this  way  the  welfare  of  the  race  of  cattle  in  perpetuity  was  secured 
by  the  powerful  influences  of  custom  and  superstition.  The  sacred 
books  of  Hindoo  and  Buddhist,  the  noble  pillars  of  Asoka,  and 
even  the  statutes  of  various  conquerors  and  peaceful  invaders  of 
India  whose  fierce  or  rude  habits  have  been  tamed  from  time  to  time 
by  the  gentle  influences  of  Hinduism,  are  full  of  instruction  as  to  the 
care  to  be  taken  of  cattle,  and  of  aphorisms  in  honour  of  the  bovine 
race.  From  time  to  time  Hinduism  has  been  stirred  to  its  depths  at 
wanton  or  careless  affront  by  slaughter  of  cattle,  and  thus  the  wel- 
fare of  horned  beasts  has  at  times  had  an  influence  on  history. 

But  the  buUock,  though  less  reverenced  than  the  bull  and  cow,  is 
even  more  entitled  to  honour.  He  has  done  good  service  in  every 
war  which  has  been  carried  out  in  India,  drawing  heavy  guns,  siege 
trains,  baggage,  and  supplies,  and  to  European  armies  he  has  often 
been  ncT  inconsiderable  food  supply.  In  trade  he  is  a  most  important 
factor ;  the  strings  of  bullock  carts,  which  pass  along  our  Bombay 
streets,  the  long  lines  and  large  herds  of  Brinjari  cattle  we  meet 
in  some  parts  of  the  country,  the  kind  of  conveyance  which  we 
have  to  adopt,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  directly  we  leave  the  line 
of  rail  in  out-of-the-way  places  up-country,  are  all  evidences  of  this. 
In  agriculture  the  plough  bullock,  the  ox  treading  out  the  corn, 
and  the  unfortunate  animals  engaged  at  the  useful  but  wearisome 
work  of  the  well  are  familiar  objects.  In  food  supply  the  bullock 
of  India  has  little  concern  except  when  he  is  bought  up  by  the 
Commissariat  at  cantonments,  or  shipped  for  use  by  troops  on  active 
service.  The  cow,  however,  supplies  in  the  form  of  ghi,  curds,  and 
other  products  from  milk  the  staple  item  of  animal  food  consumed  by 
many  millions  in  this  country. 

Loss  of  stock  by  disease  or  other  catastrophe,  accordingly,  it  will 
be  seen,  dislocates  existence  in  India.  The  traveller  loses  his  means 
of  conveyance  ;  the  beneficent,  but  noisy,  operation  of  drawing  water 
for  irrigation  can  no  longer  be  efficiently  performed,  the  ground 
cannot  be  tilled,  nor  the  corn  threshed ;  as  the  plough  lies  idle  so 
also  does  the  cart,  which  should  be  cheerily  conveying  produce  to  the 
line  of  rail  or  neighbouring  market.  Fairs  cannot  be  held ;  even 
religion  and  pleasure  are  suspended,  and  military  operations  are 


ISDIAN  CATTLE.  73 

hampered  and  sometimes  prevented  by  the  plague  which  carries  off 
cattle  so  frequently  in  times  of  war.  This  is  no  fanciful  picture,  but 
a  stem  leaKty  familiar  to  district  officers  and  veterinary  surgeons, 
and  painfully  evident  to  Government  in  its  effects  on  the  revenues 
which  are  reduced  to  a  minus  quantity  through  the  necessity  of 
supplying  grain  or  fresh  bullocks  to  the  cultivators. 

We  often  hear  surprise  expressed  that  in  India  care  is  bestowed  on 
cattle,  which  ought  to  first  be  given  to  man ;  but  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  in  supplying  to  cattle  adequate  medical  treatment^  suffi- 
ciency of  fodder,  legislative  protection  from  cruelty,  and  a  special 
Department  to  look  after  their  welfare,  the  public  and  its  Govern- 
ment are  but  following  the  dictates  of  necessity,  and  fulfilling  the 
requirements  of  human  existence  and  welfare  in  this  country.  The 
Cow  Protection  Movement,  the  development  of  Pinjrapoles,  ,and  the 
retention  alive  throughout  the  country  of  poor  brutes  suffering  from 
debility,  wounds,  or  disease  are  merely  exaggerated  expressions  of  a 
deep  current  of  religious  feeling  (and  of  the  sound  policy  which 
underlies  it)  with  regard  to  cattle.  In  this  hind  of  uncient  and 
venerable  faiths,  various  rulers  have  from  time  to  time  shown  an 
enlightened  policy  as  regards  cattle  protection.  Even  the  Mogul 
Emperors  found  it  judicious  to  repress  any  tendency  of  their  fol- 
lowers to  wound  the  susceptibilities  of  their  Hindoo  subjects,  and, 
among  Mussulman  sovereigns,  Hyder  Ali  and  his  son  Tippoo  Sahib 
of  Mysore  have  rendered  most  excellent  services  lasting  to  the  present 
day  in  their  fostering  care  of  the  Amrut  Mahal  breed  of  cattle,  one  of 
the  finest  in  India.  History  shows  that  the  Hindoo  princes,  as  in 
Kathiawar,  Malwar,  Nellore,  and  elsewhere,  also  have  succeeded  in 
development  of  fine  breeds  of  cattle,  and,  indeed,  the  Mysore  dates  its 
fame  and  origin  from  the  time  of  Hindoo  rule  before  Hyder. 

The  Gt)vemments  of  the  Honorable  Company  and  that  of  Her 
Imperial  Majesty  have  been  not  unmindful  of  this  important  matter. 
Thus,  there  is  at  Hissar  in  the  Pimjab  a  large  and  important  cattle- 
breeding  farm,  the  influence  of  which  is  widely  spread  through 
northern  India.  In  Mysore  until  recently  the  Amrut-Mahal  estab- 
lishment at  Hoonsoor  was  under  the  Madras  Government,  but  a  few 
years  ago  it  was  transferred  to  the  Mysore  State,  and  now  attempts 
to    improve   breeding  operations    are  being  carried  out  more   less 

10 


74         JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

energetically  throughout  the  different  parts  of  the  Southetn  Presi- 
dency by  distribution  of  stock  from  a  farm  under  the  Department  of 
Agriculture.  In  the  Bombay  Presidency  there  was  a  farm  at 
Aligaon,  near  Sirur,  but  now  a  pedigree  herd  is  being  raised  at  the 
Government  experimental  farm  at  Badgaon,  in  Khandesh,  under  the 
Agricultural  Department. 

Although  this  important  matter  receives  a  certain  amount  of 
attention,  it  had  long  been  felt  that  more  was  needed,  and  that  spe- 
cial Cattle  Breeding  Operations  should  be  carried  out  by  Govern- 
ment similar  to  those  resorted  to  for  improvement  of  horse  stock. 
This  matter  is  a  subject  of  much  debate,  but  is  now  generally 
admitted  as  one  of  urgency  and  interest,  for  it  is  found  that  as  the 
rail  increases  road  traffic  lessens,  and  trade  bullocks,  being  less  in 
demand,*  are  more  difficult  to  procure.  Further,  it  is  stated  that  the 
Brahmin  bull  of  to-day  is  inferior  to  his  predecessors,  and  less  reliable 
as  a  father  of  his  race,  since  in  the  course  of  time  it  has  become  a 
mere  matter  of  form  to  present  a  male  animal  to  the  temples,  care 
often  not  now  being  taken  that  the  animal  so  presented  is  free  from 
blemish,  and  the  best  of  the  herd.  Moreover,  it  is  thought  that  with 
multiplicity  of  responsibility  has  resulted  diminished  zeal  for  the 
welfare  of  cattle  ;  that  between  district  officers,  agricultural  officials, 
local  magnates,  and  so  on,  the  race  of  cattle  is  apt  to  fall  to  the 
ground.  Whether  these  suppositions  be  thoroughly  established  or 
not  in  detail,  it  seems  to  be  a  general  impression  that  the  cattle  of 
India  are  sadly  deteriorating,  that  old  methods  of  preservation  are 
falling  into  effeteness  through  time  and  superstition,  and  that  some- 
thing ought  to  be  done  to  arrest  the  decline  ere  it  be  too  late. 

Far  from  being  a  laudator  temporis  adi,  I  am  a  firm  believer  in 
modem  progress,  but  I  cannot  blind  myself  to  the  following  evidences 
of  deterioration : — (1)  Military  officers  have  in  recent  years  fre- 
quently reported  unfavourably  on  the  cattle  supplied  to  them,  and  it 
is  especially  unsatisfactory  that  the  Amrut-Mahal  has  not  invariably 
sustained  its  old  reputation.  (2)  There  is  a  widespread  opinion 
among  agriculturists,  ryots  and  land-owners,  that  the  cattle  of  the 
present  day  are  inferior.  -(3)  Inspecting  officers  not  unfrequently 
confirm  this  view.  (4)  Purchasing  committees  for  army  bullocks 
have  to  reject  extensively  for  want    of  stoutness  of  build  and  for 


INDIAN  CATTLE,  75 

unsoundness.  (5)  The  Cow  Protection  Movement  lias  met  with  an 
extraordinary  degree  of  success  among  the  agricultural  classes,  who 
are  specially  likely  to  experience  the  need  for  something  to  be  done 
to  improve  or  prevent  deterioration  of  their  cattle.  The  movement 
is  a  sign  of  the  times,  even  though  Sriman  Swamy's  views  be 
extreme,  and  his  statements  and  statistics  erroneous. 

This  deterioration  is  perhaps  to  an  extent  to  be  traced  to  an 
imwillingness  on  the  part  of  the  powers  that  be  to  interfere  between 
the  Native  and  his  cattle  ;  there  is  a  lurking  idea  that  it  is  bad  policy 
and  impopular  for  Europeans  to  have  anything  whatever  to  do  with 
Indian  cattle,  and  that,  moreover,  the  Natives  know  very  much  more 
about  the  cattle  of  India  than  Europeans  do.  Also  many  Europeans 
look  upon  cattle  as  below  their  notice,  for  it  is  only  the  district 
officials  who  fully  realise  their  importance.  But  it  is  bad  policy 
to  look  upon  anything  as  too  common  to  be  worth  our  notice ;  on 
the  contrary,  the  mere  fact  of  the  ox  rendering  us  important 
services  entitles  him  to  our  best  aid  and  sympathy.  That  action  of 
the  authorities  in  regulating  cattle-breeding  would  be  unpopular  is  a 
purely  gratuitous  assumption,  and  is  disproved  apparently  by  the 
fact  that  in  many  parts  of  India  at  various  times  Native  Govern- 
ments have  regulated  cattle-breeding  with  vigour  and  success,  the 
best  breeds  of  the  present  day  having  thus  been  developed. 

That  Natives  know  very  much  more  about  cattle  than  Europeans 
is  a  fallacy ;  they  have  more  crude  empirical  knowledge  as  regards 
cattle  management  and  working,  but  the  sum  total  of  their  infor- 
mation is  very  small  and  local.  The  best  European  authorities  on 
Indian  cattle  are  much  better  acquainted  with  the  subject  than  are 
the  Natives,  but  this  is  not  saying  much,  for  a  very  great  deal 
has  yet  to  be  learned  !  Among  those  who  have  contributed  to  our 
knowledge  of  this  important  subject  are  Gilchrist,  a  surgeon  on  the 
Madras  Establishment,  long  serving  at  Hoonsoor,  who  wrote  a  book 
on  ^'Diseases  of  Homed  Cattle  in  India";  the  late  lamented  Dr.  Shortt, 
whose  small  book  on  Indian  Cattle  gives  useful  information;  and 
Professor  "Wallace,  in  whose  book  "  India  in  1887  "  are  accumulated 
and  arranged  photographs  of  various  kinds  of  cattle,  with  a  descrip- 
tion of  each  in  the  letterpress.  Smaller  contributions  have  been 
made  to  the  subject  but  altogether  our  information  is  very  inconsi- 


6G        JOURNALy  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890, 

to  time,  however  limited  may  be  the  field  of  inquiry  selected,  to  see 
what  additions  have  been  made  to  our  knowledge  of  the  distribution 
of  species.  In  no  branch  perhaps  of  Natural  History  has  the  distri- 
bution of  species  been  so  incompletely  worked  out,  as  in  the  case 
o{  the  Ophidia.  A  glance  at  the  existing  works  of  reference  will 
show  how  very  little  is  known  of  the  habitat  of  the  great  majority 
of  the  species  described. 

Take  the  case  of  this  particular  Tree  Viper  now  received  from 
Kanara.  Giiuther  says  it  is  peculiar  to  Ceylon,  and  Theobald  and 
Nicholson  mention  no  other  locality  in  which  it  is  found.  According 
to  the  same  authorities,  T,  anamallensis,Sbiiother  I'ree  Viper,  of  which 
several  specimens,  live  and  pickled,  have  been  procured  by  members 
of  our  Society  at  Khandalla  and  the  Mahim  Woods,  occurs  only  in 
the  Anamallays  and  the  Wynaad.  A  third  tree  viper,  T,  strigatus, 
obtained  in  North  Kanara  by  Mr,.  H.  S.  Wise,  has  previously  been 
found  only  in  the  Nilghiris  and  the  Deccan.  Similarly,  Callophis 
nigrescensy  of  which  we  have  specimens  both  from  North  Kanara  and 
Mahableshwar,  occurs,  according  to  the  books,  only  in  the  Nilghiris, 
the  Shevaroy  Hills,  the  Wynaad  and  the  Anamallays.  Another 
Callophis,  C.  trimaculatuSi  whose  halitat,  according  to  the  same 
authorities,  is  Tennaserim,  and  possibly  Bengal,  has  lately  been 
received  in  the  Society's  Museum  from  Colaba  (Bombay)  and 
Bandora. 

In  these  and  scores  of  similar  instances  the  incompleteness  of  the 
record  is  not  without  some  excuse.  But  the  meagre  account  of  the 
'^  Phursa^'  (Echis  carinata),  to  be  found  in  all  works  on  Indian 
snakes,  is  less  excusable.  Giinther  says  it  is  common  in  many  parts 
of  the  peninsula  of  India,  in  the  Anamallay  mountains,  and  in  the 
vicinity  of  Madras.  Fayrer  says  it  is  absent  from  Bengal,  common  in 
the  North- Western  Provinces,  the  Central  Provinces,  Punjab,  and 
generally  in  the  south  of  India.  Theobald  says  it  inhabits  North- 
Western  and  Central  India,  the  Punjab,  and  Southern  India,  while 
Nicholson  merely  remarks  that  is  not  common  but  widely  spread. 
No  mention  is  made  by  any  of  these  authorities  of  the  extraordinarv 
abundance  in  which  this  viper  is  found  in  Sind  and  the  Konkan. 
The  remarkable  facts  disclosed  by  the  annual  official  returns  showing 
the  results  of  the  measures  taken  for  the  extermination  of  venomous 


MISCELLANEOUS.  91 

covered  with  eartb  well  pressed  down.  When  not  above  a  week  old,  a  trench  of 
six  or  eight  inches  wide  and  deep,  such  as  two  men  could  form  in  a  few  minutes, 
sufficed  for  securing  the  insects  which  jumped  into  it  with  alacrity,  and  appeared 
wholly  unable  to  extricate  themselves.  In  some  districts  egg;s  were  purchased  by 
wei)2;ht  and  destroyed ;  but,  as  a  general  rule,  it  was  not  considered  advisable  that 
the  labours  of  the  population  in  destroying  the  pest  should  be  remunerated  by  the 
Government. 

In  1869,  in  the  Punjab,  the  destruction  of  eggs  was  discouraged,  as  being  a 
difficult  operation  and  by  no  means  certainly  successful ;  while  the  destruction  of 
the  young,  when  first  hatched  by  driving  them  into  trenches,  was  found  ^  to  be  an 
exceedingly  simple  operation  and  certain  and  effectual  in  its  results. 

No  general  account  has  been  found  of  the  measures  taken  in  Rajputana  in  18G9; 
but  at  least  in  one  case,  excellent  results  were  obtained  by  digging  a  series  of 
trenches  in  front  of  an  advancing  swarm  of  young  wingless  locusts ;  the  earth  being 
thrown  up  on  the  side  away  from  the  swarm,  and  each  trench  filled  in  as  it  became 
three  parts  full  of  the  insects,  which,  like  the  locusts  of  Cyprus,  were  found  to 
continue  to  advance  despite  the  annihilation  which  resulted  from  their  obstinacy 
in  doing  so.  This  makes  it  appear  probable  that  the  screen  system  which  has 
been  successfully  used  upon  a  large  scale  both  in  Cyprus  and  Algeria,  against  two 
distinct  species  of  locusts,  may  be  found  applicable  to  the  locust  of  Rajputana ; 
though  it  has  been  sho^n  to  be  quite  useless  against  the  locust  which  invaded  the 
Deccan  in  1882-83,  and  which  declined  to  advance  into  the  traps. 

The  Cyprus  screen  system  consists  of  a  series  of  cloth  screens,  from  2  to  3  feet 
high,  bound  along  the  upper  edge  with  a  strip  of  oil  cloth  to  prevent  the  locust 
from  climbing  over ;  a  long  line  of  these  screens  is  erected  in  front  of  an  advancing 
swarm  of  young  wingless  locusts,  so  as  to  form  an  imi)assable  barrier  for  them;  pits 
are  dug  at  intervals,  close  to  the  screens  and  at  right  angles  to  them,  on  the  side 
towards  the  advancing  swarm.  The  edges  of  the  pits  are  guarded  by  frames, 
made  of  cloth  and  wood,  with  overhanging  zinc  edges,  arranged  to  prevent  the 
escape  of  the  locusts  from  the  pits.  The  swarms  were  found,  both  in  Cyprus  and 
Algeria,  on  arriving  at  the  screen,  to  turn  to  the  right  and  left  along  it,  apparently 
endeavouring  to  go  round  it,  the  locusts  thus  poured  in  countless  numbers  into 
the  pits,  and  being  unable  to  escape,  could  be  destroyed  wholesale. 

Of  the  measures  adopted  in  the  Madras  Presidency  in  1878,  the  most  succ^sful 
seem  to  have  been  the  destruction  of  the  swarms  of  young  wingless  locusts  by 
driving  them  into  lines  of  burning  straw ;  the  preventing  the  flights  of  winged 
locusts  from  settling  in  the  fields,  by  lighting  fires,  beating  drums,  and  waving 
branches  and  clothes  in  the  air,  as  soon  as  a  flight  appeared ;  and  the  driving  of  the 
winged  locusts  out  of  the  fields,  when  they  had  already  alighted,  by  beating 
through  the  crops.  It  is  said  that  in  cases  where  winged  flights  were  driven 
persistently  through  a  number  of  villages,  without  being  allowed  to  settle,  the 
locusts  perished  without  doing  injury. 

In  the  Bombay  Presidency  in   1882-83,  various  methods  were  employed  on  a 


68  JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

published  for  the  guidance  of  District  oflBcers  under  the  authority 
of  Govern naent,  omitted  all  mention  of  the  Echis  carinata,  and 
declared  the  "Phdrsa*^  of  Western  India  to  be  identical  with  Halys 
Himalayanus  ! 

I  have  assumed  above  that  all  or  nearly  all  the  snakes  destroyed 
for  rewards  in  Ratnagiri  belong  to  the  Echis  species.  In  making 
this  assumption,  I  am  relying  on  past  personal  observation,  as  well 
as  arguing  from  the  natural  probabilities  of  the  case.  The  totals 
may  include  a  few  Cobras  and  Daboias,  and  possibly  a  few  harmless 
snakes  sometimes  find  their  way  into  the  bags.  But  the  number 
of  snakes  other  than  'Phdrsas'  brought  in  for  rewards  in  Ratnagiri 
is  so  insignificant  that  for  all  practical  purposes  it  may  be  treated 
as  a  quantiie  negligeable.  The  truth  is  that  no  other  snakes  but 
the  Echis  are,  or  can  be,  systematically  hunted  and  found  in  great 
numbers.  A  band  of  professional  snake-charmers  would  think 
themselves  lucky  if  they  bagged  a  pair  of  cobras  after  a  day's  search 
in  likely  places.  A  party  of  Ratnagiri  ^  Phdrsa^  catchers  would 
curse  their  luck  considerably,  if  their  take  of '  Philrsas*  averaged 
less  than  50  a  day.  It  is  on  record  that  in  1862,  when  the  reward 
for  'Phursas^  was  tentatively  increased  from  six  pies  to  two  annas  a 
snake,  115,921  ^Phdrsas^  were  killed  and  brought  in  for  rewards  in 
Ratnagiri  within  eight  days  (December  2nd  to  10th)  !  At  the  same 
rate,  had  the  reward  been  continued  without  limit  as  to  total 
expenditure,  five  millions  of  *  Phdrsas^  would  have  been  destroyed  in 
one  year.  But  after  this  alarming  display  of  zeal,  the  rate  of  reward 
was  promptly  reduced  to  its  former  level.  The  real  truth  is  that 
notwithstanding  the  enormous  number  annually  destroyed  in  Ratna- 
giri for  years  and  years  past,  no  really  serious  impression  has  as  yet 
been  made  on  the  '  Phursas.^  This  is  clearly  shown  by  the  fact  that 
the  mortality  from  snake-bite  in  Ratnagiri  has  not  sensibly  dimi- 
nished in  the  last  ten  years.  The  reason  is  that  a  limit  is  fixed  on  the 
total  expenditure  on  rewards."^  The  rate  now  in  force — three  pies 
per  snake — is  suiEciently  high  to  make '  Phdrsa'  hunting  a  profitable 
business.  But  as  no  rewards  are  paid,  after  the  limited  grant  for  the 
purpose  is  exhausted,  the  annual  campaign  is  incomplete  and  in- 
effective, and  the  enemy  is  left  in  possession  of  the  field  with   only 

*  The  limit  some  years  ago  was  Bs.  50  per  taluka  per  month. 


THE  VENOMOUS  SNAKES  OF  NORTH  KANAKA.  69 

8nch  losses  as  can  easily  be  repaired  by  the  natnral  fecurdity  of  its 
species.  With  the  same  rate  of  reward  and  no  limit  of  expenditure, 
except  the  natural  limit,  when  *  Phdrsas '  become  so  rare  as  to  make 
their  pursuit  a  waste  of  labour,  these  snakes,  if  not  quite  exter- 
minated, would  soon  be  so  reduced  in  numbers  as  to  be  no  -longer  a 
pest  and  a  constant  danger  to  the  population.  If  the  campaign  were 
vigorougly  conducted  it  would  not,  1  believe,  be  a  very  long  one. 
For  a  year  or  more  the  '  Phursas'  would  be  killed  by  millions, 
instead  of  as  now  by  lakhs,  but  the  total  expenditure  would  probably 
not  exceed  the  aggregate  and  comparatively  useless  expenditure 
of  the  past  fifteen  years  or  so. 

I  have  given  above  some  instances  showing  more  or  less  excusable 
omissions  in  the  record  of  distribution  of  8p(>cies.  But  far  worse 
than  these  omissions  is  the  surprising  error  mndo  by  Dr.  Glinther 
himself,  when  he  gravely  states,  that ''  no  case  is  known  of  its  (the 
Echis)  bite  having  proved  fatal."  At  the  present  day  this  state- 
ment can  hardly  need  refutation.  Even  ns  far  back  as  1855-56, 
Dr.  Imlach,  then  Civil  Surgeon  of  Shikarpur,  in  a  description  of 
the  '  Kapar'  (Eckis  carinata),  published  in  the  Transactions  of  tbo 
Bombay  Medical  and  Physical  Society  (Vvh'.  Vol.  III.,  New  Series, 
p  80),  wrote  that  ''a  reference  to  police  returns  will  show  that  in  by 
far  the  greatest  majority  of  cases  serious  injury  and  death  have  been 
caused  by  the  bite  of  this  species."  The  records  of  the  Ratnagiri 
Civil  Hospital  for  the  last  thirty  years  will  tell  a  similar  tale.  But 
even  Sir  Joseph  Payrer  does  not  seem  to  have  had  sufficient  infor- 
mation on  the  subject  to  enable  him  to  correct  the  error  when  ho 
wrote  his  Thanatophidia.  He  merely  states  that  **  it  {Echis  carinata) 
is  venomous,  but  Giinther  says  its  bite  is  not  known  to  have  proved 
fatal.  This,  I  think,  very  doubtful.  One  in  my  possession  killed  a 
fowl  in  four  minutes,  another  in  two  minutes,  and  a  dog  in  about 
four  hours.'' 

There  is  indeed  no  doubt  that  the  Echis  is  a  far  more  potent  factor 
than  any  other  venomous  species  in  swelling  the  mortality  of  the 
Bombay  Presidency,  and  it  is  important  that  this  fact  should  be 
more  generally  known  and  recognised  than  it  has  been  hitherto.  It 
is,  of  course,  impossible  to  show  the  exact  percentage  of  the  deaths 
from  snake-bite  for  which  the  Echia  is  responsible.     In  the  returns 


94        JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

specimens,  &o.f  which  he  had  brought  with  him  from  Anstralia.  The  first  part  of 
this  paper  appears  in  the  Society's  Joarnal  No.  3,  Vol.  4,  now  being  distributed 
amongst  the  members. 


PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  JANUARY  MEETING. 

The  usual  monthly  meeting  of  the  members  of  this  Society  took  place  on  Thursday, 
the  9th  January  1890,  when  Dr.  G.  A.  Maconachie  presided. 

The  following  new  members  were  elected : — Mr.  F.  M.  Flower,  Colonel  Kenneth 
Mackenzie,  Mr.  T.  H.  Middleton,  Mr.  J.  Sladen,  O.S.,  Mr.  F.  H.  Tod. 

Mr.  H.  M.  Phipson,  the  Honorary  Secretary,  then  acknowledged  the  following  con- 
tributions : — 

Contributions  during  December. 


Contributions. 

Description. 

Contributors. 

1  Sea  Cucumber 

From  Sinsranore 

Mr.  W.  D.  Graham. 

1  Painted  Bat    

Kerivoula  nicta   

Mr.  G.  Carroll. 

1  Head   of    Nilghiri  Wild 

Goat. 
1  Head  of  HvsQna 

Capra  hvlocrius  

Mr.  E.  L.  Butcher. 

Pierced   through  lips,   nose 
and  both  eyes  with  porcu- 
pine quills. 

Strix  lavanica 

Mr.  W  Home. 

1  OwHalive)  

Mrs.  Hojel. 
Mr.  E.  Giles. 

1  Smew  (female) 

Shot  in  Guzerat 

1  Orange  Minivet 

2  Eggs    of    Rock    Homed 
Owl. 

1  Koel 

Pericrocrotus  flam  mens 

Bubo  bensralensis    

Col.  Kemble. 
Do. 

End vn amis  honorata  

Oapt.  T.  Thorburn. 
Col.  Baddeley. 

Dr.  Weir. 

Two  pieces  of  Rhinoceros' 

Skin. 
1  Cobra 

Tanned  in  Cawnnore  

Naia  tripudians  

2  Silver  Pheasants  (alive). 
1  Golden  Pheasant  (alive) . 

1  Rail  (alive) 

A  quantity  of  Fossil  Bones. 

4  Jerboa  Rats  (alive)   

1  Antelooe's  head .««... 

From  China    

Capt.  Nantes. 

Mr.  H.  Grogan. 
Mr.  Cook. 
Mr.  F.  Otto. 

From  the  Gulf  of  Cam  bay... 

From  Bushire  

C  ur iousl  V  deformed    

1  OwHalive) 

Strix  iavanica 

Mr.  J.  Bristed. 

1  Head  of  Hosr-deer 

Axis  porcinus  

Mr.  H.  C.  V.  Hunter. 

1  Head  of  Swamp  Deer  ... 
A  quantity  of  Snakes  and 

Lizards. 

2  Phoorsas 

Rucervus  duvancelli  

From  Carwar   , 

Do. 
Mr.  E.  H.  Aitken. 

Echis  carinata 

Colonel  Hore. 

2  Jungle  Cats  (alive)    

Felis  chaus  

Mrs.  W.  B.  Hart. 

A  special  vote  of  thanks  was  passed  to  Colonel  Kenneth  Mackenzie  for  his  valu- 
able contribution  to  the  Society's  Library,  ctmsisting  of  an  interleaved  copy  of 
Zei'dorCs  Qame  Birds  of  India,  illustrated  by  means  of  photographs  taken  by  General 

H.  Watson. 

Exhibit. 

Mr.  Thomas  Drewet    sent   for    exhibition  a   full-grown  domestic   cock  with  an 

abnormal  leg,  growing  oat  at  right  angles  to  the  others,  uuder  the  tail. 


PROCEEDINGS.  95 

The  Zoological  Collection  at  the  Victoria  Gafdens. 

Mr.  Phipson  drew  the  special  attention  of  those  present  to  the  great  improvements 
which  were  being  carried  oat  at  the  Victoria  Gardens,  and  hoped  that  the  members 
of  the  Natural  History  Society  would  assist  Mr.  Ollivant  in  hia  efforts  to  make  the 
Zoological  Collection  a  credit  to  the  city.  Open-air  cages  for  the  large  camivora 
were  being  built  on  a  plan  suggested  by  the  Committee  of  the  Natural  History 
Society.  One  of  these  cages  was  now  finished,  and  a  pair  of  tigers  would  shortly 
be  transferred  to  it.  It  would  be  seen  that  the  cage  in  question  consisted  entirely 
of  iron  bars,  on  a  stone  plinth,  and  as  it  measured  40'  by  20'  the  animals  would  have 
far  more  space  for  exercise  than  in  ordinary  cages.  A  now  doer- park  was  being 
laid  out,  and  a  snake  pit  had  been  constructed.  A  supply  of  harmless  snakes,  such 
as  pythons,  dhamans,  checkered  water-snakes,  &c.,  was  now  much  wanted. 

Mr.  Phipson  also  stated  that  the  Society  had  already  sent  the  following  contribu- 
tions to  the  Victoria  Gardens  :— 

3  Bcuirs    Ur8it8  labiatus. 

4  Swans    ...«  From  England, 

2  Panther  Cubs  .« Felts  par dus. 

7  Crocodiles Crocodilus  pcUustriff, 

1  Porcupine    • • Byatrix  leucura, 

1  Monkey Macacus  radiatus. 

1  Monkey « Macacua  silenus, 

2  Grey  Jungle  Fowl Qallus  sonnerati. 

1  Mongoose    Herpestes  griseus, 

1  Indian  Palm  Civet     Viverra  maJaccensis. 

1  Malay  BearCab Urstis  inalayanus. 

1  Purple  Coot PorphyHs  polioccphclus. 

3  Tortoises Testudo  elegans. 

1  Lesser  Florican Syphcolides  aurita. 

2  Toddy  Cats Paradoxurus  musanga, 

3  Snake  Birds Plotiut  melanoijaster. 

3  Owls •• Strix  javanica. 

1   Slow  Paced  Loris  Nyeticehus  tardigradus. 

The  following  papers  were  then  read  : — 

Notes  on  a  Caterpillar  Farm,  by  Mrs.  W.  E.  Hart  j  a  List  of  the  Venomous  Snakes 
of  North  Kanara,  by  Mr.  G.  W.  Vidal,  C  S. 

PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  FEBRUARY  MEETING. 

The  usual  monthly  meeting  of  the  Members  of  this  Society  took  place  on  Thurs- 
day last,  6th  February  1890,  Dr.  D.  Macdonald  presiding. 

The  following  new  Members  were  elected: — Colonel  J.  Waterhouse,  Mr.  Fred. 
Wright,  Col.  0.  F.  Hughes,  B.S.C. ;  Mr.  P.  E.  Myer,  Mr.  Walter  Lang,  and  Mrs. 
McLaren. 


96       JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 


Mr,  H.  M.  Phipson,  the  Honorary  Secretary,  acknowledged  the  following  contriba- 
tions : — 

Contributions  during  January. 


Contributions. 


Description. 


Contributor. 


1  Slow- paced  Loris  

1  Snake 

2  Civet  Cat  (alive)   

2  Snakes 

A  quantity    of   Birds,    In- 
sects, &c. 

Head  of  Hornbill      

Red-crested  Wood-Quail. 


Nycticabus  tardigradus 

Simotes  russelli  

Viverra  malacoensis    

Lycodon  aulicus,  Echis  cari- 

nata. 
From  Ceylon    , 

Dechoceros  cavatus     

RoUulus  roulroul 


Gen.  C.  D.  LaTouche. 
Mr  C.  E.  Kane. 
Mr.  Pereira. 
Mr.  A.  C.  Walker. 

Gen.  C.  D.  LaTouche. 

Mr.  W.  F.  Sinclair,  C.S. 
Mr.  Dady  Maneckjeo  Lim- 
jee. 


Minor  Contributions. 
Dr.  Weir,  Mr.  J.  Stiven,  and  Mr.  I.  Benjamin. 

Contributions  to  the  Library, 

Presented  by 

Memoirs  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  India  In  Exchange. 

The  Birds  of  India,  VoL  I.  (E  W.  Gates)  The  Author. 

Hume's  Nests  and  Eggs  of  Indian  Birds  (2nd  Edn.)    ( .pj^    Author 
(E.  W.  Gates).  J 

Verhandlungen   der  Zoologiscb-botanischen   Gesells-  f  j'  EroTinntrA 
chaft  in  Wein,  XXXIX.  Band  III.  IV.  quartal.  S  ^°  JJiXcnange. 

PhysiologicalandPathologicalResearches,  by  Dr.T.  B.  ^The  Lewis    Memorial    Cora- 
Lewis,  S     mittee. 

The  Indian  Forester,  August,  89  In  Exchange. 

Classified  List  of  the  Plants  in  the  Botanical  Gardens>  I  Pnrehased 
Perddeniya,  Ceylon.  J 

Phdtograph. 

The  Honorary  Secretary  drew  the  attention  of  the  Members  present  to  the 
photograph  of  an  African  Lioness,  taken  by  Mr.  J.  D.  Inverarity,  and  enlarged 
and  presented  to  the  Society  by  the  Honorable  Mr.  Justice  Parsons. 

A  New  Butterfly. 

The  Honorary  Secretary  read  a  description  of  a  new  morphid  butterfly  Stick- 
Gpthalma  nurinissa,  n.  sp.,  by  Mr.  L,  de  Niceville,  of  Calcutta.  The  new  butterfly, 
drawings  of  which  were  exhibited,  differs  from  8.  Nourmahal  in  its  lighter  colora- 
tion on  the  upper  side  and  has  been  found  in  Bhutan. 

Mr.  J.  H.  Steel,  A.V.D.,  P.Z.S.,  then  read  an  interesting  appear  on  "  Indian 
Cattle,"  illustrating  his  remarks  with  specimens  of  skulls  of  the  principal  breeds  of 
India. 


•  •••  •, 


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JOURNAL 

OF  THE 


Jlatttpl  list0iiir 


No.  2.] 


BOMBAY,  1890. 


[Vol.  V. 


NESTING  IN  WESTERN  INDIA. 
By  LiEiT.  II.  E.  H.\knkn. 

(Coiifiillird  from  pidJC    19.) 

6;il.— THE  WHITE- EYED  TIT. 

ZoKferopx  piilpuhrom,   Tvm. 

The  Wliite-eyed  Tit  is  oxtvoincly  raro  iu  Hind,  but  occurs  more 
or  less  coinnionlv  throiigliout  tlie  rest  of  the  I'resideiurv.  Iu  luost 
places  Ihey  are,  I  Ix'lieve,  pennaneiit  residents,  but  are  often  over- 
looked, as  during  the  breeding  season  tliey  are  only  found  in  well- 
wooded  secluded  nullahs ;  but  in  Poona,  where  they  are  V(»ry  com- 
mon, I  have  found  nests  in  the  middle  of  cantonments.  The  breed- 
ing season  extends  from  the  end  of  April  to  about  the  commence- 
ment of  September,  but  June  is  the  moiith  in  which  most  nests  are 
found.  I  do  not  think  that  thev  have  more  than  one  brood  in  the 
season,  as  up  to  the  first  week  in  June  nests  are  few  and  far 
between,  but  after  this  date  they  become  very  common,  and  I  have 
found  as  many  as  twenty  nests  in  a  morning  in  a  single  nullah. 
After  the  second  week  in  July,  they  again  become  rare,  an  occa- 
sional nest  only  being  met  with,  and  this  probably  belongs  to  a  pair 
of  birds  whose  first  nest  has  been  robbed. 

13 


98        JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

Mr.  Davidson  differs  from  me  in  this.  He  says : — **  Judging 
from  the  numerous  empty  nests  one  sees,  from  which  young  hare  been 
hatched,  while  others  contain  eggs,  I  think  they  must  have  two 
broods." 

Guided  only  by  my  experience  in  Poona,  I  should  feel  inclined 
to  agree  with  him  in  this  conclusion,  as  there  I  found  nests  from 
April  to  September ;  but  in  Saugor,  Central  Provinces,  the  breeding 
season  is  much  shorter  :  in  fact,  except  during  the  last  two  weeks  in 
June  and  the  first  two  in  July,  only  an  occasional  nest  is  found. 
This  period  is  much  too  short  for  two  broods. 

The  principal  reason  that  induces  birds  to  breed  at  one  particular 
time  is,  I  suppose,  the  greater  abundance  of  food  suitable  for 
feeding  their  young  at  that  season,  and  in  a  district  where  these 
influences  exist  for  a  long  period,  birds  would  likely  enough  have 
two  broods ;  whereas  in  less  favourable  circumstances  they  would 
restrict  themselves  to  one. 

The  nest  is  cup- shaped,  more  or  less  deep.  It  is  suspended  as  a 
rule  between  two  twigs  forming  a  fork,  much  in  the  same  way  as 
that  of  the  Golden  Oriole,  to  which  it  bears  a  marked  resemblance, 
except  of  course  in  size.  Sometimes  the  nest  is  suspended  hammock- 
like  from  two  or  more  hanging  twigs,  a  leaf  or  two  of  which  is  often 
incorporated  in  the  nest. 

The  nests  vary  much,  but  are  always  soft  and  delicate,  although 
well  and  firmly  made.  The  materials  of  which  they  are  composed  are 
fine  grass,  rootlets,  tow,  moss,  &c.,  bound  together  with  cobwebs, 
thread,  vegetable  fibres,  &c.  Generally  it  is  unlined,  but  sometimes 
it  is  well  lined  with  silky  down. 

The  eggs,  three  or  four  in  number,  generally  four,  are  somewhat 
narrow  oval  in  shape,  pointed  at  one  end,  but  broader  varieties  are 
not  uncommon.  They  vary  much  in  size,  but  usually  they  measure 
about  0*62  inches  in  length  by  nearly  0  47  in  breadth.  As  Mr.  Hume 
remarks  in  Npsfs  and  Eggs  of  Indian  Birds ,  **  abnormally  large  and 
small  specimens  are  common ;"  they  vary  in  length  from  0*53  to  0*7, 
and  in  breadth  from  042  to  0*58. 

In  colour  they  are  pale,  unspotted,  glossless,  bluish-white.  Mr. 
Hume  gives  two  as  the  normal  number  of  eggs,  but  my  experience 
is  very  different,  as  the  following   details   will   show  : — During   the 


imSTlNG  IN  WESTERN  INDIA.  W 

present  season  I  liave  examined  63  nests ;  of  these  28  contained  four 
eggs  or  young ;  14  contained  three  eggs  only,  but  in  several  cases 
these  were  quite  fresh,  and  possibly  another  egg  would  have  been 
laid  had  I  not  interfered  with  the  nest ;  the  others  contained  one  or 
two  fresh  eggs  only.  In  Poona  I  never  found  more  than  three 
eggs  in  a  nest.  They  build  at  various  heights  from  the  ground,  in 
low  bushes  as  well  as  in  trees.  As  a  rule  they  will  desert  the  nest 
if  it  is  only  looked  at,  more  especially  if  it  is  unfinished. 

I  caught  one  of  these  Tits  with  a  butterfly  net,  at  Poona,  about 
the  middle  of  September,  as  I  wanted  a  specimen.  About  a  fortnight 
later,  I  saw  another  in  the  same  place,  feeding  a  young  one  and 
teaching  it  to  fly,  and  after  a  little  searching  I  found  a  nest  contain- 
ing two  others,  so  that  the  surviving  bird  must  have  hatched  out  and 
reared  the  nestlings  unaided.  I  left  them  unmolested,  but  watched 
carefully  to  see  if  there  was  more  than  one  adult  bird,  but  from  first 
to  last,  I  never  saw  more  than  one.     The  one  I  caught  was  a  female. 

Poona y    April  to  September,  II .    H,    Hiirnes, 

Barodtty  June  and  July,  II ,  Jj\itUihiU\  B.J. 

Khandeish   Ghats,  July  and  Angusf.  J.  Dinidsony  C.S. 

645.— THE  INDIAN  GREY  TIT. 

Parns  ntpairnm,  Iloftgs. 

The  Indian  Grey  Tit  occurs  sparingly  at  Mount  Aboo,  but  does 
not  appear  to  descend  to  the  plains  below.  It  is  altogether  absent 
from  Sind,  but  is  fairly  common  near  Mhow  and  Neemuch,  as  also 
in  Western  Ehandeish.     It  is  very  common  at  Poona. 

They  breed  from  May  to  August,  rearing  at  least  two  brood.i  in 
ihe  season.  The  nest  is  a  mere  pad,  composed  of  hair,  moss  and 
feathers,  and  is  placed  in  a  hole  in  a  tree,  wall,  or  bank.  I  once 
found  a  nest  in  the  muzzle  of  an  old  cannon,  and  another  in  a  hollow 
bamboo  used  as  a  rafter  in  the  roof  of  an  old  outhouse. 

The  eggs,  four  to  six  in  number,  are  broadish  ovals  in  shape,  mea- 
suring 0*71  inches  in  length  by  about  054  in  breadth. 

They  are  white  in  colour,  pinkish- white  when  fresh  and  unblown, 
with  an  irregular  ring  or  cap  of  red  spots  and  blotches  at  one  end 
(occasionally  this  ring  is  absent),  with  a  sprinkling  of  purplish  and 


100     JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

reddish   specks  scattered  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  egg,  princi- 
pally at  the  larger  end. 

Poona,  May  to  August.  H,  E.  Barnes, 

Mhow,  August.  Do. 

Nassick,  June  and  July.  J.  Davidson. 

646.— THE  WHITE-WINGED  BLACK  TIT. 

Paras  nuchalis,  Jerd. 

The  White- winged  Black  Tit  has  been  obtained  in  Cutch  and  the 
vicinity  of  Deesa.  It  appears  to  be  very  locally  distributed.  It  is 
probably  a  permanent  resident  where  it  occurs,  but  I  can  find  no 
record  of  its  breeding  either  in  Western  India  or  elsewhere. 

647.— THE  YELLOW-CHEEKED   TIT. 

Machlolophus  xanthoganys,  Vig* 

I  shot  a  Yellow-cheeked  Tit  on  the  Vindhian  Hills,  near  Mhow, 
which  I  identified  at  the  time  as  this  bird.  I  was  only  there  a  few 
weeks,  and  never  met  with  another  specimen,  so  that  I  do  not  feel 
quite  sure  that  my  identification  was  correct ;  the  skin  in  question  was 
sent  to  the  Frere  Hall  Museum,  and  my  label  was  never  called  in 
question.  The  differences  between  typical  specimens  of  this  bird  and 
the  Southern  Yellow-cheeked  Tit  are  slight,  and  they  are  bridged 
over  by  intermediate  specimens  that  might  with  equal  justice  be 
ascribed  to  either  of  them.  I  saw  other  specimens  at  Neemuch,  but 
as  at  that  time  I  entertained  no  doubt  in  regard  to  the  correctness  of 
my  identification,  I  did  not  shoot  any.     I  never  found  a  nest. 

648.— THE  SOUTHERN  YELLOW- CHEEKED  TIT. 

Machlolophus  aplonotus,  Bly. 

The  Southern  Yellow-cheeked  Tit  is  a  permanent  resident  on  the 
Sahyadri  Range  and  in  the  well- wooded  tracts  adjoining,  and  is 
very  common  at  Aboo,  and  in  the  jungle  at  foot,  but  does  not  appear 
to  extend  far  into  the  open  country.  I  can  find  no  accounts  of  its 
eggs  having  actually  been  taken  within  our  limits. 

I  found  a  nest  at  Aboo  on  the  15th  April,  in  a  small  natural  hole 
in  a  tree ;  this  I  cut  open,  but  the  eggs  had  not  been  laid,  although  the 
nest  seemed  very  complete.  The  Tits  did  not  desert  the  nest,  although 
I  cut  away  a  great  deal  of  wood  before  I  could  get  at  the  nest.     I 


NESTING  IN  tVESTERN  INDIA.  101 

had  to  leave  the  hill  a  couple  of  days  later,  so  that  I  did  not  succeed 
in  getting  the  eggs. 

At  Saugor  in  the  Central  Provinces,  where  the  birds  are  very 
plentiful,  I  have  taken  many  eggs. 

As  far  as  I  know,  the  nests  are  invariably  placed  in  holes  in  trees 
at  varying  heights  from  the  ground,  a  favourite  place  being  a  hole 
cut  by  a  Coppersmith  ( XantJioU^ma  hamacephala  ),  which  has 
already  served  the  makers'  purpose.  Quite  as  often  they  choose  a 
natural  hole,  which  is  always  small,  and  entails  a  great  deal  of 
chopping  and  cutting  before  the  contents  can  be  appropriated.  The 
nests  are  mere  pads,  composed  of  hair  and  wool,  differing  in  no  respect 
from  those  of  the  Indian  Grey  Tit. 

The  eggs,  from  four  to  six  in  number,  are  usually  broad  ovals  in 
shape,  averaging  0*675  inches  in  length  by  nearly  0*52  in  breadth, 
but  are  subject  to  much  variation,   both  in  size  and  shape,  as  the 

0 

following  measurement  of  three  eggs,  taken  at  random  from  three 
separate  clutches,  will  show :  0-67  by  05:3,  0G7  by  05, 002  by  0*53  ; 
this  last  appears  almost  spherical. 

All  the  eggs  in  a  clutch  are  of  the  same  type.  In  colour,  they  are 
a  glossless  white  (of  a  beautiful  rosy-pink  when  fresh  and  unblown), 
more  or  less  thickly  spotted  and  blotched  with  reddish  and  purplish 
brown.  These  markings  are  occasionally  more  numerous  at  the 
larger  end,  but  there  is  no  tendency  to  form  the  ring,  zone  or  cap, 
that  is  so  prominent  in  eggs  of  the  Indian  Grey  Tit. 

When  the  markings  consist  principally  of  blotches,  they  are  much 
redder  and  brighter  than  when  they  are  composed  of  spots  and 
specks. 

If  the  hole  is  cut  open  before  the  eggs  are  all  laid,  and  those 
already  laid  taken,  they  do  not  forsake  the  nest,  but  continue  to  lay 
until  the  full  complement  is  completed,  and  I  have  taken  an  e^^^ 
out  of  a  nest  on  four  successive  mornings. 

The  breeding  season  extends  from  April  to  August :  possibly  they 
have  two  broods,  but  I  found  more  nests  in  July  than  in  any  other 
month. 

Aboo,  April  (nest),  H.  E.  Barnes. 

Saugor,  C  P.,  April  to  August,  Do. 

Khandeishy  May  (nest),  J,  Davidson,  C>S, 


102    JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

660.— THE  INDIAN  CORBY. 

Corvm  macrorhyyichuSy   WagL 

The  Indian  or  Bow-billed  Corby  is  more  or  less  abundant  through- 
out the  Presidency,  with  the  exception  of  Sind,  where  it  does  not 
occur. 

It  is  somewhat  irregularly  distributed,  being  apparently  absent 
from  some  localities,  in  every  way  suited  to  it,  and  which  are 
colonized  exclusively  by  the  Ashy-necked  Crow  (Corvus  splendens), 
while  in  adjacent  ones,  the  Corbies  are  the  most  numerous ;  in 
others  again,  both  species  are  equally  common. 

They  are  permanent  residents  where  they  occur,  breeding  early  in 
the  year,  commencing  their  nests  in  February,  and  by  the  middle  of 
March  their  nesting  operations  are  in  full  swing,  all  their  eggs 
being  as  a  rule  hatched  out  long  before  the  Common  Crow  begins  to 
think  of  bunding. 

The  nest  is  of  the  usual  corvine  type,  composed  of  sticks  and  stout 
twigs  lined  with  hair,  vegetable  fibre,  tow,  &c.,  and  is  always  placed 
in  a  tree. 

The  eggs,  four  or  five  in  number,  are  moderately  broad  oval  in 
shape,  pinched  in  a  little  at  one  end,  but  both  spherical  and  elongated 
varieties  are  not  uncommon. 

They  vary  a  great  deal  in  size,  but  the  average  of  a  large  series 
was  1*73  inches  in  length  by  about  1*19  in  breadth.  In  colour  they 
are  greenish-blue  or  dull  sap-green,  much  spotted,  streaked,  blotched 
and  smudged  with  sepia,  blackish  and  olive-brown. 

663.— THE  COMMON  INDIAN  CEOW. 

Cortnis  splendens,  VieilL 

The  Common  Indian  or  Ashy-necked  Crow  occurs  abundantly 
throughout  Western  India,  except  on  the  higher  ranges,  where  as 
a  rule  the  Corby  alone  occurs.  They  breed  from  about  the  middle 
of  May  to  about  the  end  of  June,  making  a  ragged  stick  nest,  lined 
with  roots,  &c.,  which  is  placed  in  a  fork  in  a  tree ;  the  eggs,  four 
or  five  in  number,  rarely  six,  are  rather  smaller  than  those  of  the 
preceding,  which  they  greatly  resemble,  both  in  shape  and  colour. 
They  are  subject  to  much  variation.  It  is  in  the  nest  of  this  bird, 
that  the  Koel  {Eudynamys  honorata)  almost  always  deposits  its  eggs. 


NESTIKG  IN  IVESTERN  INDIA.  10J« 

It  is  not   unusual  to  find  nests   composed   more  or  less  of  wires 
taken  from  soda-water  bottles ;  Mr.  Blyth  speaks  of  finding  several, 
two  exclusively  so,  and  there  is  a  nest  made  of  the  same  materials 
in  the  collection  of  the  Bombay  Natural  History,  vide  Journal,  Vol. 
I.,  No.  IV.,  p.  231. 

Mr.  Vidal  m  his  **  Batttagiri  Birds,''  gives  the  breeding  season  as 
April  and  May,  and  again  in  November  and  December,  and  expresses 
his  conviction  that  they  breed  twice  a  year.  This  seems  to  be  an 
interesting  departure  from  the  usual  order,  and  I  have  not  noticed 
anything  like  it  in  any  other  portion  of  Western  India,  but  Mr, 
Davidson  got  numbers  of  nests  in  Eanara,  along  the  coast,  in 
October,  but  he  did  not  notice  any  there  in  the  early  part  of  the  • 
rains. 

664.— THE  COMMON  INDIAN  MAGPIE. 

Dendrodtta  nifa,  Scop, 

The  Indian  Magpie,  or  more  correctly  the  Indian  Tree  Pie, 
occurs  more  or  less  commonly  throughout  Western  India.  It  is  much 
more  abundant  in  well-wooded  tracts  than  in  others.  It  is  a  perma- 
nent resident,  breeding  from  the  middle  of  March  quite  up  to  the 
end  of  July,  but  May  and  June  are  the  months  in  which  most 
nests  are  to  be  found.  I  think  at  this  time  of  the  year,  they  to 
some  extent  leave  the  plains  and  retire  to  the  adjacent  woods  and 
nullahs,  as  many  more  nests  are  found  in  the  latter  situations,  and 
the  birds  themselves  seem  to  become  more  abundant,  but  as  Mr. 
Littledale  observes,  *'  they  are  shy  and  wary  birds  when  breeding, 
and  the  nests  in  the  thick  mango  foliage  are  hard  to  find,"  they 
may  in  consequence  often  be  overlooked.  The  nest  is  usually  placed 
in  a  stout  fork,  near  the  top  of  a  tree,  not  necessarily  a  high  one. 
Mr.  Davidson  says  that  almost  all  he  has  seen  have  been  on  small 
trees.  It  is  composed  of  twigs,  those  at  the  bottom  being  as  a  rule 
very  thorny,  and  forming  a  sort  of  foundation,  upon  which  the 
nest  proper  is  placed,  as  a  rule  it  is  well  lined  with  finer  twigs  and 
grass  roots. 

The  eggs,  four  in  number,  occasionally  five,  vary  most  astonish- 
ingly, in  both  the  ground  colour,  and  in  the  character  of  the 
markings.     Typically  they  are  longish  ovals,  a  good  deal  pointed 


104      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY,  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

at  one  end.  A  common  type  is  a  pale  salmon -white,  thickly  splashed 
and  streaked  with  bright  reddish-brown ;  another  type  is  pale 
greenish-white,  and  the  markings  are  olive  and  pale  purplish-brown ; 
others  are  intermediate  between  these  two  types ;  some  of  these  are 
exact  counterparts,  except  in  size,  of  eggs  of  the  Indian  Grey 
Shrike  (Lanius  lahtora).  In  length  they  measure  from  1*0  to  1*3 
inches,  and  in  breadth  from  0*78  to  0*95,  but  the  average  is  about 
117  inches  by  0-87. 

678.— THE  LONG-TAILED  MAGPIE. 

Dendrocitta  leiicogastra,  Gould, 

I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  Davidson  for  the  following  note.  I  do  not 
think  that  the  bird  has  previously  been  recorded  from  Western  India. 

'^  This  is,  I  think,  a  permanent  resident  in  the  Ghat  portion  of 
Kanara,  but  it  is  not  a  common  bird.  I  have  never  taken  the  eggs, 
but  I  have  seen  the  young  just  able  to  fly ;  the  nest  which  they  had 
left  was  on  a  small  tree,  about  sixteen  feet  from  the  ground,  in  a 
thick  clump,  and  was  a  very  slight  structure,  much  resembling  that 
of  Dendrocitta  rufa,^^ 

The  nest  and  eggs,  according  to  Mr.  Hume,  do  not  differ  from 
those  of  the  Common  Indian  Pie, 

68Uis.— THE  LESSER  STARLING. 

Sturnus  minor,  Htirm. 

The  Lesser  Starling  is  a  permanent  resident  in  some  parts  of  Sind. 

The  following  interesting  note  is  from  the  pen  of  Mr.  Doig,  who 
appears  to  be  the  only  oologist  who  has  succeeded  in  finding  the 
nest : — 

*  **  In  February  I  shot  one  of  these  birds,  and  on  dissection  found 
that  they  were  beginning  to  breed.  Later  on,  early  in  March,  I 
again  dissected  one,  and  found  that  there  was  no  doubt  on  the  sub- 
ject, and  so  began  to  look  for  their  nests. 

"  These  I  found  in  holes  in  Kundy  trees,  growing  along  the  banks 
of  the  Narra,  and  also  situated  in  the  middle  of  swamps.  The  eggs 
were  laid  on  a  pad  of  feathers  of  the  Spoon-bill  [Plataka  leiicorodia), 
and  the  Pelican  Ibis  (Tantalus  leucocephalus),  which  were  breeding  on 


*3tray  Feathers,  Vol.  VIII,,p,  374. 


NESTING  IN  WESTERN  INDIA.  105 

the  same  trees,  their  young  then  nearly  fledged.  The  greatest 
number  of  eggs  in  any  one  nest  was  five.  The  first  date  on  which 
I  took  eggs  was  the  13th  March,  and  the  last  on  the  15th  May. 

**  The  eggs  are  oval,  broad  at  one  end  and  elongated  at  the  other. 
The  texture  is  rather  waxy,  with  a  fine  gloss,  and  they  are  of  a  pale 
delicate  sea-green  colour. 

"  The  birds  during  the  breeding  time  confine  themselves  closely 
to  their  breeding-ground,  so  much  so  that  except  when  close  to  their 
haunts,  none  are  ever  seen. 

*^  The  size  of  the  eggs  varies  from  10  to  I'l  inch  in  length,  and 
from  0*7  to  0*8  in  breadth. 

**  The  average  of  12  eggs  measured  is  1*03  by  0*79." 

683.— THE  PIED  PASTOR. 

Sturnopastor  contra y  Lin, 

The  claims  of  this  species  to  be  includtHl  amongst  the  birds  of 
Western  India  are  very  doubtful,  Mr.  Hume  gives  Eastt^rn  Raj- 
pootana  as  one  of  the  localities  in  which  it  occurs,  and  1  saw  it 
once  near  Khundwa ;  further  oast  it  is  vory  common. 

They  breed  abundantly  in  tlio  Contrtil  Provinces  during  May  and 
June,  and  the  first  half  of  July,  making  huge  sliapi^Iess  nosts,  composed 
of  grass,  straw,  roots,  &c.,  which  are  placed  in  high  trees  of  various 
heights  from  the  ground. 

The  eggs,  six  in  number,  occasionally  only  four  or  five  (I  oneo  found 
seven),  are  moderately  broad  ovals  in  shape,  pointed  at  one  end. 
They  vary  enormously  in  size,  in  length  from  0*95  to  1*25,  and  in 
breadth  from  0*75  to  0*9,  the  average  is  11 1  inches  in  length  by 
nearly  0*82  in  breadth. 

In  colour  they  vary  from  pale  spotless  bluish -white  to  pale  blue, 
more  or  less  tinged  with  green. 

684.— THE   COMMON  JIYNA. 

Acridotheres   tn'stis,    Lin, 
The  Common  Myna  is  very  abundant  throughout  Western  India, 
except,  perhaps,   in  Ratnagiri  and  the  extreme  south,  where  it  is 
replaced  to  a  great  extent  by  the  Southern  Dusky  Myna. 

They  are  very  familiar  birds,  and  are  found  in  greater  numbers 
near  houses,   being  comparatively   scarce  in  unfrequented   jungle. 
U 


106     JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

They  are,  of  cotirse,  permanent  residents,  breeding  as  a  rule  from  the 
middle  of  May  to  about  the  end  of  July. 

In  Kanara  they  appear  to  breed  earlier,  as  Mr.  Davidson  has  taken 
eggs  there  as  early  as  the  middle  of  April. 

They  are  said  to  rear  two  broods  during  this  period,  but  I  am  not 
at  all  sure  about  this,  the  time  seems  much  too  short ;  of  course  if 
their  eggs  are  taken,  they  will  lay  again.  They  seem  to  breed 
almost  anywhere,  holes  in  trees,  in  walls,  or  in  old  masonry  wells ;  in 
the  roofs  of  houses,  on  the  tops  of  pillars  in  verandahs,  under  the 
thatch  of  hay  stacks  and  occasionally  in  deserted  kite  or  crow  nests. 

Almost  the  first  nest  I  found  was  of  a  compact  cup- shape,  and  was 
composed  of  fine  twigs  and  grass,  neatly  lined  with  grass  roots  and 
vegetable  fibres ;  it  was  built  in  a  fork  in  a  babool  tree  growing  in  a 
hedge  close  to  the  Parsee  Tower  of  Silence,  Deesa,  but  I  have  never 
met  with  a  similar  nest  since. 

The  nest  is,  as  a  rule,  a  most  untidy  shapeless  affair,  composed  of 
grass,  straw,  roots,  bits  of  rag,  feathers,  &c. 

The  eggs,  four  or  five  in  number,  generally  five,  are  longish  ovals 
in  shape,  pinched  in  at  one  end.  In  length  they  average  1*19  inches 
and  in  breadth  0*86,  but  they  vary  greatly,  some  eggs  measuring  as 
much  as  1*3  in  length,  while  others  again  are  little  more  than  an  inch. 

In  colour  they  vary  from  a  pale-blue  to  greenish-blue,  and  are 
usually  highly  glossy. 

685.— THE  BANK  MYNA. 

Acridotheres  ginginianuSy  Lath, 

The  Bank  Myna  is  very  common  throughout  the  province  of  Sind  ; 
it  is  equally  common  in  Guzerat  and  parts  of  Rajpootana.  Mr. 
Davidson  reports  it  from  Western  Khandeish  and  Nassick,  and  I  have 
seen  it  in  the  city  of  Bombay  busily  employed  in  excavating  holes 
in  the  embankment  of  the  Wodehouse  Bridge,  near  the  railway 
station  at  Colaba  ;  they  did  not,  however,  breed  there,  as  the  boys 
persecuted  them  too  much.  They  do  not  appear  to  occur  in  the 
Deccan  or  anywhere  south  of  Bombay.  They  are  omitted  from 
Captain  Butler's  list  of  the  Birds  of  the  Deccan  published  in  "Stray 
Feathers,'*  Vol.  IX.,  and  Mr.  Vidal  does  not  include  them  in  his 
**  Birds  of  Batnagiri/' 


NESTING  IN  WESTERN  INDIA.  107 

They  are  as  a  rule  permanent  residents  wherever  they  occar, 
breeding  from  about  the  end  of  May  to  the  beginning  of  July,  or 
perhaps  later." 

They  bore  holes  in  the  sandy  banks  of  riyers,  sides  of  railway 
cuttings,  embankments,  and  such  like  places,  showing  a  decided  pre- 
ference for  places  close  to  water.  These  holes  often  communicate 
with  each  other,  so  that  a  bird  entering  at  one  hole  can  easily 
escape  at  another,  but  this  is  not  always  the  case.  I  once  found  a 
small  colony  breeding  in  the  sides  of  a  well  in  company  with  a  few 
pairs  of  the  Common  Myna. 

The  end  of  the  hole,  which  is  slightly  enlarged,  is  lined  with  fine 
grass,  roots,  feathers,  &c. 

The  eggs,  four  (occasionally  five)  in  number,  are  pale  spotleAs 
greenish-blue  in  colour,  and  average  1*05  inches  in  length  by  about 
0*82  in  breadth ;  they  arc,  therefore,  somewhat  smaller  than  those  of 
the  Gonmion  Myna . 

DeeMy  May  to  July.  II,  E,  Barnes, 

Hyderahady  Sindy  „  „ 

Neermichy  ,r  „ 

Baroda,  May.  II,  LiWnMe,  B.A. 

N(W)apury  KhandeM,  March,  J.  DavidmUy  C.S. 

686  6w.— THE    SOUTTIERX    DUSKY    MYNA. 

AcridotheriH  mahrattenmy  Sykes, 

The  Southern  Dusky  Myna  is  coinmon  along  the  Sahyadri  range 
and  in  the  adjacent  forests.  Mr.  Davidson  says: — **  It  is  common 
in  Kanara  and  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Nassick  district  along  the 
ghats.  It  becomes  rare  in  the  north  of  the  Baglam  talooka  of  that 
district,  and  I  have  never  seen  even  an  odd  specimen  which  had 
crossed  the  small  range  dividing  Nassic  from  Khandeish.  I  do  not 
think  it  replaces  the  Common  Myna.  In  Kanara  the  other  is  quite 
as  common  everywhere,  and  even  on  the  line  of  ghats  in  Nassic,  both 
species  occur,  as  in  Tanna  and  Bombay." 

It  occurs  also  in  the  vicinity  of  Belgaura.  They  are  permanent 
residents  where  found,  breeding  during  the  hot  weather  from  April 
to  the  middle  of  June.  They  nest  in  holes,  in  trees,  stone  walls,  old 
buildings,  chimneys,  &c. 


98        JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

Mr.  Davidson  differs  from  me  in  this.  He  says : — **  Judging 
from  the  numerous  empty  nests  one  sees,  from  which  young  have  been 
hatched,  while  others  contain  eggs,  I  think  they  must  have  two 
broods." 

Guided  only  by  my  experience  in  Poona,  I  should  feel  inclined 
to  agree  with  him  in  this  conclusion,  as  there  I  found  nests  from 
April  to  September ;  but  in  Saugor,  Central  Provinces,  the  breeding 
season  is  much  shorter  :  in  fact,  except  during  the  last  two  weeks  in 
June  and  the  first  two  in  July,  only  an  occasional  nest  is  found. 
This  period  is  much  too  short  for  two  broods. 

The  principal  reason  that  induces  birds  to  breed  at  one  particular 
time  is,  I  suppose,  the  greater  abundance  of  food  suitable  for 
feeding  their  young  at  that  season,  and  in  a  district  where  these 
influences  exist  for  a  long  period,  birds  would  likely  enough  have 
two  broods ;  whereas  in  less  favourable  circumstances  they  would 
restrict  themselves  to  one. 

The  nest  is  cup-shaped,  more  or  less  deep.  It  is  suspended  as  a 
rule  between  two  twigs  forming  a  fork,  much  in  the  same  way  as 
that  of  the  Golden  Oriole,  to  which  it  bears  a  marked  resemblance, 
except  of  course  in  size.  Sometimes  the  nest  is  suspended  hammock- 
like from  two  or  more  hanging  twigs,  a  leaf  or  two  of  which  is  often 
incorporated  in  the  nest. 

The  nests  vary  much,  but  are  always  soft  and  delicate,  although 
well  and  firmly  made.  The  materials  of  which  they  are  composed  are 
fine  grass,  rootlets,  tow,  moss,  &c.,  bound  together  with  cobwebs, 
thread,  vegetable  fibres,  &c.  Generally  it  is  unlined,  but  sometimes 
it  is  well  lined  with  silky  down. 

The  eggs,  three  or  four  in  number,  generally  four,  are  somewhat 
narrow  oval  in  shape,  pointed  at  one  end,  but  broader  varieties  are 
not  uncommon.  They  vary  much  in  size,  but  usually  they  measure 
about  0*62  inches  in  length  by  nearly  0*47  in  breadth.  As  Mr.  Hume 
remarks  in  Nests  and  Eggs  of  Indian  Birds,  **  abnormally  large  and 
small  specimens  are  common ;"  they  vary  in  length  from  0*53  to  0'7, 
and  in  breadth  from  0*42  to  0*58. 

In  colour  they  are  pale,  imspotted,  glossless,  bluish-white.  Mr. 
Hume  gives  two  as  the  normal  number  of  eggs,  but  my  experience 
is  very  different,  as  the  following   details   will   show  : — During   the 


NESTING  IN  WESTERN  INDIA.  W 

present  season  I  have  examined  63  nests ;  of  these  28  contained  four 
eggs  or  young ;  14  contained  three  eggs  only,  but  in  several  cases 
these  were  quite  fresh,  and  possibly  another  egg  would  have  been 
laid  had  I  not  interfered  with  the  nest ;  the  others  contained  one  or 
two  fresh  eggs  only.  In  Poona  I  never  found  more  than  three 
eggs  in  a  nest.  They  build  at  various  heights  from  the  ground,  in 
low  bushes  as  well  as  in  trees.  As  a  rule  they  will  desert  the  nest 
if  it  is  only  looked  at,  more  especially  if  it  is  unfinished. 

I  caught  one  of  these  Tits  with  a  butterfly  net,  at  Poona,  about 
the  middle  of  September,  as  I  wanted  a  specimen.  About  a  fortnight 
later,  I  saw  another  in  the  same  place,  feeding  a  young  one  and 
teaching  it  to  fly,  and  after  a  little  searching  I  found  a  nost  contain- 
ing two  others,  so  that  the  surviving  bird  must  have  hutchod  out  and 
reared  the  nestlings  unaided.  I  left  them  unmolrstod,  but  watched 
carefully  to  see  if  there  was  more  than  one  adult  bird,  but  from  first 
to  last,  I  never  saw  more  than  one.     The  one  I  caught  was  a  female. 

Poona,    April  to  Spptfmbrr.  II .    E,    Btirnpn, 

Baroda,  June   and  July.  11.  l^iftUiUtle,  B.A, 

Khandeish   GhatSy  July  and  Angufit.  »/.  Iliruhon,  (\S. 

645.-.THE  INDIAN  GREY  TIT. 

Parns  nipalmm^  Ilodga, 

The  Indian  Grey  Tit  occurs  sparingly  at  Mount  Aboo,  but  does 
not  appear  to  descend  to  the  plains  below.  It  is  altogether  absent 
from  Sind,  but  is  fairly  common  near  Mhow  and  Neemuch,  as  also 
in  Western  Khandeish.     It  is  very  common  at  Poona. 

They  breed  from  May  to  August,  rearing  at  least,  two  brood.i  in 
ihe  season.  The  nest  is  a  mere  pad,  composed  of  hair,  moss  and 
feathers,  and  is  placed  in  a  hole  in  a  tree,  wall,  or  bank.  I  once 
found  a  nest  in  the  muzzle  of  an  old  cannon,  and  another  in  a  hollow 
bamboo  used  as  a  rafter  in  the  roof  of  an  old  outhouse. 

The  eggs,  four  to  six  in  number,  are  broadish  ovals  in  shape,  mea- 
suring 0*71  inches  in  length  by  about  0  54  in  breadth. 

They  are  white  in  colour,  pinkish- white  when  fresh  and  unblown, 
with  an  irregular  ring  or  cap  of  red  spots  and  blotches  at  one  end 
(occasionally  this  ring  is  absent),  with  a  sprinkling  of  purplish  and 


100     JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

reddish   specks  scattered  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  egg,  princi- 
pally at  the  larger  end. 

Poona,  May  to  August.  H,  E,  Barnes. 

Mhow,  August.  Do. 

Nassick,  June  and  July.  J.  Davidson. 

646.— THE  WHITE- WINGED  BLACK  TIT. 

Parus  nuchalis,  Jerd. 

The  White- winged  Black  Tit  has  been  obtained  in  Cutch  and  the 
vicinity  of  Deesa.  It  appears  to  be  very  locally  distributed.  It  is 
probably  a  permanent  resident  where  it  occurs,  but  I  can  find  no 
record  of  its  breeding  either  in  Western  India  or  elsewhere. 

647.— THE  YELLOW-CHEEKED   TIT. 

Machhlophus  xanthoganys,  Vig* 

I  shot  a  Yellow-cheeked  Tit  on  the  Vindhian  Hills,  near  Mhow, 
which  I  identified  at  the  time  as  this  bird.  I  was  only  there  a  few 
weeks,  and  never  met  with  another  specimen,  so  that  I  do  not  feel 
quite  sure  that  my  identification  was  correct ;  the  skin  in  question  was 
sent  to  the  Frere  Hall  Museum,  and  my  label  was  never  called  in 
question.  The  differences  between  typical  specimens  of  this  bird  and 
the  Southern  Yellow-cheeked  Tit  are  slight,  and  they  are  bridged 
over  by  intermediate  specimens  that  might  with  equal  justice  be 
ascribed  to  either  of  them.  I  saw  other  specimens  at  Neemuch,  but 
as  at  that  time  I  entertained  no  doubt  in  regard  to  the  correctness  of 
my  identification,  I  did  not  shoot  any.     I  never  found  a  nest. 

648.— THE  SOUTHERN  YELLOW-CHEEKED  TIT. 

Maehlolophus  aplonotiis,  Bly. 

The  Southern  Yellow-cheeked  Tit  is  a  permanent  resident  on  the 
Sahyadri  Range  and  in  the  well- wooded  tracts  adjoining,  and  is 
very  common  at  Aboo,  and  in  the  jungle  at  foot,  but  does  not  appear 
to  extend  far  into  the  open  country.  I  can  find  no  accounts  of  its 
eggs  having  actually  been  taken  within  our  limits. 

I  found  a  nest  at  Aboo  on  the  15th  April,  in  a  small  natural  hole 
in  a  tree ;  this  I  cut  open,  but  the  eggs  had  not  been  laid,  although  the 
nest  seemed  very  complete.  The  Tits  did  not  desert  the  nest,  although 
I  cut  away  a  great  deal  of  wood  before  I  could  get  at  the  nest.     I 


NESTING  IN  WEbHERN  INDIA.  101 

had  to  leave  the  hill  a  couple  of  dayn  latter,  so  that  I  did  not  succeed 
in  getting  the  eggs. 

At  Saugor  in  the  Central  Provinces,  where  the  birds  are  very 
plentiful,  I  have  taken  many  eggs. 

As  far  as  I  know,  the  nests  are  invariably  placed  in  holes  in  trees 
at  varying  heights  from  the  ground,  a  favourite  place  being  a  hole 
cut  by  a  Coppersmith  ( XanthoUsma  hamacephala  ),  which  has 
already  served  the  makers'  purpose.  Quite  as  often  they  choose  a 
natural  hole,  which  is  always  small,  and  entails  a  great  deal  of 
chopping  and  cutting  before  the  contents  can  be  appropriated.  The 
nests  are  mere  pads,  composed  of  hair  and  wool,  differing  in  no  respect 
from  those  of  the  Indian  Grey  Tit. 

The  eggs,  from  four  to  six  in  number,  are  usually  broad  ovals  in 
shape,  averaging  0'675  inches  in  length  by  nearly  0*52  in  breadth, 
but  are  subject  to  much  variation,  both  in  size  and  shape,  as  the 
following  measurement  of  three  eggs,  taken  at  random  from  three 
separate  clutches,  will  show :  0*67  by  0-53,  007  by  OO, 0G2  by  0-58  ; 
this  last  appears  almost  spherical. 

All  the  eggs  in  a  clutch  are  of  the  same  type.  In  colour,  they  are 
a  glossless  white  (of  a  beautiful  rosy-pink  when  fresh  and  unblown), 
more  or  less  thickly  spotted  and  blotched  with  reddish  and  purplish 
brown.  These  markings  arc  occasionally  more  numerous  at  the 
larger  end,  but  there  is  no  tendency  to  form  the  ring,  zone  or  cap, 
that  is  so  prominent  in  eggs  of  the  Indian  Grey  Tit. 

When  the  markings  consist  principally  of  blotches,  they  are  much 
redder  and  brighter  than  when  they  are  composed  of  spots  and 
specKS. 

If  the  hole  is  cut  open  before  the  eggs  are  all  laid,  and  those 
already  laid  taken,  they  do  not  forsake  the  nest,  but  continue  to  lay 
until  the  full  complement  is  completed,  and  I  have  taken  an  egg 
out  of  a  nest  on  four  successive  mornings. 

The  breeding  season  extends  from  April  to  August :  possibly  they 
have  two  broods,  but  I  foimd  more  nests  in  July  than  in  any  other 
month. 

AboOy  April  (nest),  H,  E.  Barms. 

Saugor^  C.  P.,  Apnl  to  August.  Bo. 

Khandeish,  Mag  (nest),  J,  Bavidson,  CS. 


102    JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

660.— THE  INDIAN  CORBY. 

Corvus  macrorhynchtiB,   WagL 

The  Indian  or  Bow-billed  Corby  is  more  or  less  abundant  through- 
out the  Presidency,  with  the  exception  of  Sind,  where  it  does  not 
occur. 

It  is  somewhat  irregularly  distributed,  being  apparently  absent 
from  some  localities,  in  every  way  suited  to  it,  and  which  are 
colonized  exclusively  by  the  Ashy-necked  Crow  (Corvm  splendens), 
while  in  adjacent  ones,  the  Corbies  are  the  most  numerous ;  in 
others  again,  both  species  are  equally  common. 

They  are  permanent  residents  where  they  occur,  breeding  early  in 
the  year,  commencing  their  nests  in  February,  and  by  the  middle  of 
March  their  nesting  operations  are  in  full  swing,  all  their  eggs 
being  as  a  rule  hatched  out  long  before  the  Common  Crow  begins  to 
think  of  building. 

The  nest  is  of  the  usual  corvine  type,  composed  of  sticks  and  stout 
twigs  Kned  with  hair,  vegetable  fibre,  tow,  &c.,  and  is  always  placed 
in  a  tree. 

The  eggs,  four  or  five  in  number,  are  moderately  broad  oval  in 
shape,  pinched  in  a  little  at  one  end,  but  both  spherical  and  elongated 
varieties  are  not  uncommon. 

They  vary  a  great  deal  in  size,  but  the  average  of  a  large  series 
was  1*73  inches  in  length  by  about  1'19  in  breadth.  In  colour  they 
are  greenish-blue  or  dull  sap-green,  much  spotted,  streaked,  blotched 
and  smudged  with  sepia,  blackish  and  olive-brown. 

663.-THE  COMMON  INDIAN  CROW. 

Corvus  splendens,  VieilL 

The  Common  Indian  or  Ashy-necked  Crow  occurs  abundantly 
throughout  Western  India,  except  on  the  higher  ranges,  where  as 
a  rule  the  Corby  alone  occurs.  They  breed  from  about  the  middle 
of  May  to  about  the  end  of  June,  making  a  ragged  stick  nest,  lined 
with  roots,  &c,,  which  is  placed  in  a  fork  in  a  tree ;  the  eggs,  four 
or  five  in  number,  rarely  six,  are  rather  smaller  than  those  of  the 
preceding,  which  they  greatly  resemble,  both  in  shape  and  colour. 
They  are  subject  to  much  variation.  It  is  in  the  nest  of  this  bird, 
that  the  Koel  (Eudynamys  honorata)  almost  always  deposits  its  eggs. 


NRSTIKG  IN  fV EST RRN  INDIA.  IW 

It  is  not  unusual  to  find  nest^t   composed   more  or  less  of  wires 
taken  from  soda-water  bottles ;  Mr.  Blyth  speaks  of  finding  seyeral, 
two  exclusiyely  so,  and  there  is  a  nest  made  of  the  same  materials 
in  the  collection  of  the  Bombay  Natural  History,  vide  Journal,  Vol. 
I.,  No.  IV.,  p.  231. 

Mr.  Vidal  in  his  "Bfl/wflr^iW  JBtrrfj,"  gives  the  breeding  season  as 
April  and  May,  and  again  in  November  and  December,  and  expresses 
his  conviction  that  they  breed  twice  a  year.  This  seems  to  be  an 
interesting  departure  from  the  usual  order,  and  I  have  not  noticed 
anything  like  it  in  any  other  portion  of  Western  India,  but  Mr. 
Davidson  got  numbers  of  nests  in  Eanara,  along  the  coast,  in 
October,  but  he  did  not  notice  any  there  in  the  early  part  of  the  • 
rains. 

664.— THE  COMMON  INDIAN  MAGPIE. 

Dendrocitta  ru/a,  Scop, 

The  Indian  Magpie,  or  more  correctly  the  Indian  Tree  Pie, 
occurs  more  or  less  commonly  throughout  Western  India.  It  is  much 
more  abundant  in  well- wooded  tracts  than  in  others.  It  is  a  perma- 
nent resident,  breeding  from  the  middle  of  March  quite  up  to  the 
end  of  July,  but  May  and  June  are  the  months  in  which  most 
nests  are  to  be  found.  I  think  at  this  time  of  the  year,  they  to 
some  extent  leave  the  plains  and  retire  to  the  adjacent  woods  and 
nullahs,  as  many  more  nests  are  found  in  the  latter  situations,  and 
the  birds  themselves  seem  to  become  more  abundant,  but  as  Mr. 
Littledale  observes,  **  they  are  shy  and  wary  birds  when  breeding, 
and  the  nests  in  the  thick  mango  foliage  are  hard  to  find,"  they 
may  in  consequence  often  be  overlooked.  The  nest  is  usually  placed 
in  a  stout  fork,  near  the  top  of  a  tree,  not  necessarily  a  high  one. 
Mr.  Davidson  says  that  almost  all  he  has  seen  have  been  on  small 
trees.  It  is  composed  of  twigs,  those  at  the  bottom  being  as  a  rule 
very  thorny,  and  forming  a  sort  of  foundation,  upon  which  the 
nest  proper  is  placed,  as  a  rule  it  is  well  lined  with  finer  twigs  and 
grass  roots. 

The  eggs,  four  in  number,  occasionally  five,  vary  most  astonish- 
ingly, in  both  the  ground  colour,  and  in  the  character  of  the 
markings.     Typically  they  are  longish  ovals,  a  good  deal  pointed 


104      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY,  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

at  one  end.  A  common  type  is  a  pale  salmon -white,  thickly  splashed 
and  streaked  with  bright  reddish- brown ;  another  type  is  pale 
greenish-white,  and  the  markings  are  olive  and  pale  purplish-brown ; 
others  are  intermediate  between  these  two  types ;  some  of  these  are 
exact  counterparts,  except  in  size,  of  eggs  of  the  Indian  Grey 
Shrike  (Lanius  lahtora).  In  length  they  measure  from  I'O  to  1*3 
inches^  and  in  breadth  from  0*78  to  0'95,  but  the  average  is  about 
117  inches  by  0*87. 

678.— THE  LONG-TAILED  MAGPIE. 

Dendrocitta  leucogastra,  Gould, 

1  am  indebted  to  Mr.  Davidson  for  the  following  note.  I  do  not 
think  that  the  bird  has  previously  been  recorded  from  Western  India. 

"  This  is,  I  think,  a  permanent  resident  in  the  Ghat  portion  of 
Kanara,  but  it  is  not  a  common  bird.  I  have  never  taken  the  eggs, 
but  I  have  seen  the  young  just  able  to  fly ;  the  nest  which  they  had 
left  was  on  a  small  tree,  about  sixteen  feet  from  the  ground,  in  a 
thick  clump,  and  was  a  very  slight  structure,  much  resembling  that 
of  Dendrocitta  rufar 

The  nest  and  eggs,  according  to  Mr.  Hume,  do  not  differ  from 
those  of  the  Common  Indian  Pie. 

68Uis.— THE  LESSER  STARLING. 

Sturnus  ininor,  Hunie. 

The  Lesser  Starling  is  a  permanent  resident  in  some  parts  of  Sind. 

The  following  interesting  note  is  from  the  pen  of  Mr.  Doig,  who 
appears  to  be  the  only  oologist  who  has  succeeded  in  finding  the 
nest : — 

*  "  In  February  I  shot  one  of  these  birds,  and  on  dissection  found 
that  they  were  beginning  to  breed.  Later  on,  early  in  March,  I 
again  dissected  one,  and  found  that  there  was  no  doubt  on  the  sub- 
ject, and  so  began  to  look  for  their  nests. 

"  These  I  found  in  holes  in  Kundy  trees,  growing  along  the  banks 
of  the  Narra,  and  also  situated  in  the  middle  of  swamps.  The  eggs 
were  laid  on  a  pad  of  feathers  of  the  Spoon-bill  [Platalea  leucorodia), 
and  the  Pelican  Ibis  (Tantalus  leucocephalus),  which  were  breeding  on 


*Stray  Feathers,  Vol.  VIIL,p.  374. 


NESTING  IN  WESTERN  INDIA.  105 

the  same  trees,  their  young  then  nearly  fledged.  The  greatest 
number  of  eggs  in  any  one  nest  was  five.  The  first  date  on  which 
I  took  eggs  was  the  13th  March,  and  the  last  on  the  15th  May. 

**  The  eggs  are  oyal,  broad  at  one  end  and  elongated  at  the  other. 
The  texture  is  rather  waxy,  with  a  fine  gloss,  and  they  are  of  a  pale 
delicate  sea-green  colour. 

**  The  birds  during  the  breeding  time  confine  themselves  closely 
to  their  breeding-ground,  so  much  so  that  except  when  close  to  their 
haunts,  none  are  ever  seen. 

*^  The  size  of  the  eggs  varies  from  1*0  to  I'l  inch  in  length,  and 
from  0*7  to  0*8  in  breadth. 

"  The  average  of  12  eggs  measured  is  1*03  by  0*79." 

683.— THE  PIED  PASTOR. 

Sturnopastor  contra,  Lin. 

The  claims  of  this  species  to  bo  included  amongst  the  birds  of 
Western  India  are  very  doubtful.  Mr.  Hume  gives  Eastern  Raj- 
pootana  as  one  of  the  localities  in  which  it  occurs,  and  I  saw  it 
once  near  Khundwa;  further  cast  it  is  very  common. 

They  breed  abundantly  in  tlie  Central  Provinces  during  May  and 
June,  and  the  first  half  of  July,  making  liuge  shapeless  nests,  composed 
of  grass,  straw,  roots,  &c.,  which  are  placed  in  high  trees  of  various 
heights  from  the  ground. 

The  eggs,  six  in  number,  occasionally  only  four  or  five  (I  once  found 
seven),  are  moderately  broad  ovals  in  shape,  pointed  at  one  end. 
They  vary  enormously  in  size,  in  length  from  0*95  to  1*25,  and  in 
breadth  from  0*75  to  0*9,  the  average  is  111  inches  in  length  by 
nearly  0*82  in  breadth. 

In  colour  they  vary  from  pale  spotless  bluish-white  to  pale  blue, 
more  or  less  tinged  with  green. 

684.— THE   COMMON  JIYNA. 

Acridotheres   in'stis,    Lin. 
The  Common  Myna  is  very  abundant  throughout  Western  India, 
except,  perhaps,   in  Ratnagiri  and  the  extreme  south,  where  it  is 
replaced  to  a  great  extent  by  the  Southern  Dusky  Myna. 

They  are  very  familiar  birds,  and  are  found  in  greater  numbers 
near  houses,   being  comparatively   scarce  in  unfrequented  jungle. 
U 


106     JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

They  are,  of  course,  permanent  residents,  breeding  as  a  rule  from  the 
middle  of  May  to  about  the  end  of  July. 

In  Kanara  they  appear  to  breed  earlier,  as  Mr.  Davidson  has  taken 
eggs  there  as  early  as  the  middle  of  April. 

They  are  said  to  rear  two  broods  during  this  period,  but  I  am  not 
at  all  sure  about  this,  the  time  seems  much  too  short ;  of  course  if 
their  eggs  are  taken,  they  will  lay  again.  They  seem  to  breed 
almost  anywhere,  holes  in  trees,  in  walls,  or  in  old  masonry  wells ;  in 
the  roofs  of  houses,  on  the  tops  of  pillars  in  verandahs,  under  the 
thatch  of  hay  stacks  and  occasionally  in  deserted  kite  or  crow  nests. 

Almost  the  first  nest  I  found  was  of  a  compact  cup- shape,  and  was 
composed  of  fine  twigs  and  grass,  neatly  lined  with  grass  roots  and 
vegetable  fibres ;  it  was  built  in  a  fork  in  a  babool  tree  growing  in  a 
hedge  close  to  the  Parsee  Tower  of  Silence,  Deesa,  but  I  have  never 
met  with  a  similar  nest  since. 

The  nest  is,  as  a  rule,  a  most  untidy  shapeless  affair,  composed  of 
grass,  straw,  roots,  bits  of  rag,  feathers,  &c. 

The  eggs,  four  or  five  in  number,  generally  five,  are  longish  ovals 
in  shape,  pinched  in  at  one  end.  In  length  they  average  1*19  inches 
and  in  breadth  0'86,  but  they  vary  greatly,  some  eggs  measuring  as 
much  as  1*3  in  length,  while  others  again  are  little  more  than  an  inch. 

In  colour  they  vary  from  a  pale-blue  to  greenish-blue,  and  are 
usually  highly  glossy, 

685.— THE  BANK  MYNA. 

Acridotheres  ginginianus,  Lath. 

The  Bank  Myna  is  very  common  throughout  the  province  of  Sind  ; 
it  is  equally  common  in  Guzerat  and  parts  of  Rajpootana.  Mr. 
Davidson  reports  it  from  Western  Khandeish  and  Nassick,  and  I  have 
seen  it  in  the  city  of  Bombay  busily  employed  in  excavating  holes 
in  the  embankment  of  the  Wodehouse  Bridge,  near  the  railway 
station  at  Colaba  ;  they  did  not,  however,  breed  there,  as  the  boys 
persecuted  them  too  much.  They  do  not  appear  to  occur  in  the 
Deccan  or  anywhere  south  of  Bombay.  They  are  omitted  from 
Captain  Butler's  list  of  the  Bird^  of  the  Deccan  published  in  "Stray 
Feathers,^*  Vol.  IX.,  and  Mr.  Vidal  does  not  include  them  in  his 
**  Birds  of  Batnagiri,*' 


NESTING  JN  WESTERN  INDIA.  107 

They  are  as  a  rule  permanent  residents  wherever  they  occur, 
breeding  from  about  the  end  of  May  to  the  beginning  of  July,  or 
perhaps  later." 

They  bore  holes  in  the  sandy  banks  of  riTers,  sides  of  railway 
cuttings,  embankments,  and  such  like  places,  showing  a  decided  pre- 
ference for  places  close  to  water.  These  holes  often  communicate 
with  each  other,  so  that  a  bird  entering  at  one  bole  can  easily 
escape  at  another,  but  this  is  not  always  the  case.  I  once  found  a 
small  colony  breeding  in  the  sides  of  a  well  in  company  with  a  few 
pairs  of  the  Common  Myna. 

The  end  of  the  hole,  which  is  slightly  enlarged,  is  lined  with  fine 
grass,  roots,  feathers,  &c. 

The  eggs,  four  (occasionally  five)  in  number,  are  pale  spotless 
greenish-blue  in  colour,  and  average  1*05  inches  in  length  by  about 
0*82  in  breadth ;  they  are,  therefore,  somewhat  smaller  than  those  of 
the  Common  Myna . 

Deesa,  May  to  July.  H,  E,  Barnes, 

Hyderahady  Sind,  >>  „ 

Neenmch,  yy  ,, 

Barodaj  May,  H,  Litthdaky  B.A, 

NowapuVy  KhandeM,  March.  J,  Davidson,  C.S. 

686  to.— THE    SOUTHERN    DUSKY    MYNA. 

Acridotheres  tnahrattensis,  Sykes. 

The  Southern  Dusky  Myna  is  common  along  the  Sahyadri  range 
and  in  the  adjacent  forests.  Mr.  Davidscm  says:—'*  It  is  common 
in  Kanara  and  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Nassick  district  along  the 
ghats.  It  becomes  rare  in  the  north  of  the  Baglam  talooka  of  that 
district,  and  I  have  never  seen  even  an  odd  specimen  which  had 
crossed  the  small  range  dividing  Nassic  from  Khandeish.  I  do  not 
think  it  replaces  the  Common  Myna.  In  Kanara  the  other  is  quite 
as  comnMm  everywhere,  and  even  on  the  line  of  ghats  in  Nassic,  both 
species  occur,  as  in  Tanna  and  Bombay." 

It  occurs  also  in  the  vicinity  of  Belgaum.  They  are  permanent 
residents  where  found,  breeding  during  the  hot  weather  from  April 
to  the  middle  of  June.  They  nest  in  holes,  in  trees,  stone  walls,  old 
buildings,  chimneys,  &c. 


108      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  18^. 

The  nest  is  a  shapeless  mass  of  all  sorts  of  material,  grass, 
roots,  fine  twigs,  dead  leaves,  moss,  and  lichens,  lined  with  fea- 
thers, wool,  &c. 

This  omnium  gatherum  is  stuffed  into  the  hole  without  any 
arrangement,  about  six  times  as  much  material  being  used  as  it  is 
necessary,  a  hollow  being  left  in  the  centre  for  the  eggs,  which  are  four 
or  five  (occasionally  six)  in  number ;  they  are  usually  longish  ovals  in 
shape,  pointed  at  one  end,  and  average  1*19  inches  in  length  by  0*83 
in  breadth. 

They  are  glossless,  pale,  spotless  blue  or  greenish-blue  in  colour. 

Individual  eggs  cannot  be  distinguished  with  any  certainty  from 
those  of  the  Common  Myna,  but  as  a  body  they  appear  narrower  and 
lighter  in  colour.  Mr.  Vidal,  C.S.,  in  his  Birds  of  Ratnagiri,  states 
that  the  Jimgle  or  Dusky  Myna  (Acridotheres  fuscus)  is  "  abundant 
throughout  that  district,  and  more  especially  in  the  well-wooded 
tracts,"  but  the  species  found  there  is  generally  accepted  as  mahrat- 
tensis.  The  two  birds  are  very  much  alike,  the  only  difference  is  that 
in  fuscus  the  iris  is  yellow  and  in  mahrattensis  it  is  pale-blue,  so  that 
skins  are  not  distinguishable. 

687.— THE   BLACK-HEADED  MYNA. 
Sturnia  pagodarum,  G^n. 

With  the  exception  of  Sind,  where  it  is  very  rare,  the  Black- 
headed  or  Pagoda  Myna  occurs  more  or  less  commonly  throughout 
Western  India. 

They  are  permanent  residents,  breeding  from  the  commencement 
of  May  to  the  end  of  July,  or  even  later.  They  appear  to  breed 
earlier  in  Kanara,  as  Mr.  Davidson  obtained  nests  with  young  on  the 
15th  May. 

As  a  rule  the  nest  is  placed  in  a  hole  in  a  tree,  but  I  have 
occasionally  found  them  in  holes  in  stone  walls  and  old  buildings. 

The  nest  consists  of  a  few  scraps  of  dead  leaves,  grass  roots,  &c., 
lined  with  feathers  or  other  soft  material.  The  eggs,  four  or  five  in 
number,  are  oval  in  shape,  measuring  0*97  inches  in  length,  by  about 
0*75  in  breadth.  They  vary  in  colour  from  bluish-white  to  greenish- 
blue.     They  are  spotless  and  fairly  glossy. 

Deesa,  July  and  August,  JST.  E,  Barnes, 

Neemuchy  June  to  August,  Bo, 


NESTim  IN  WESTERN  INDIA.  \09 

Baroda^  May  and  June.  H.  Littledale,  B,A. 

Ehmdeishy  June,  J.  Davidson^  C.8. 
Na89ick  OhaUy  May.  Do. 

Kanaray  May.  Do. 

688— THE  GREY-HEADED  MYNA. 

Stumia   malabaricay  Ghn. 

The  Grey-headed  Myna  is  much  less  common  than  the  preceding 
bird,  and  appears  to  bo  confined  to  the  more  hilly  and  better- wooded 
parts  of  the  Presidency.  It  has  been  recorded  from  Belgaum  and 
Batnagiri,  and  is  common  along  the  coast  in  Kanara  in  jungles,  and 
is  found  throughout  the  Satpooras  in  Ehandeish.  It  occurs  also  at 
Mount  Aboo. 

I  have  often  seen  birds  exposed  for  sale  in  the  Bombay  market, 
generally  in  company  with  the  Black-headed  Myna.  The  dealers 
assert  that  they  come  from  Khandalla.  I  foimd  a  nest  containing 
four  young  birds  at  Mount  Aboo  on  the  10th  Jime,  but  have  never 
met  with  another ;  the  bird  even  there  is  far  from  common. 

The  nests  and  eggs  do  not  differ  in  any  respect  from  those  of  the 
Pagoda  Myna. 

689.-THE  WHITE-HEADED  MYNA. 

Stumia  blythiy  Jerd, 

I  have  never  met  with  a  specimen  of  this  bird,  but  Mr.  Davidson, 
writing  from  Kanara,  has  kindly  furnished  me  with  the  following 
note: — 

"  Mr.  Himie  was  of  opinion  that  this  bird  and  Malabartca  were  one 
species.  I  am  hardly  convinced  of  it  yet,  though  in  the  cold  weather 
in  Kanara  a  specimen  or  two  of  Blythi  is  frequently  seen  in  a  flock 
of  Malabartca,  and  in  the  cold  weather  I  certainly  saw  once  two  birds 
flying  together,  one  of  each  kind.  On  the  other  hand,  in  April  and 
May,  when  Mynas  are  breeding,  all  the  pairs  I  have  noticed  above  the 
ghats  in  Kanara  were  this  species,  and  in  the  Satpooras  in  Khandeish, 
where  Malabartca  was  occasionally  seen,  I  never  saw  a  specimen  of 

Blythi. 

"  I  never  obtained  the  nest,  though  I  saw  one  fly  into  a  hole  in  a 
very  lofty  tree  in  April.  It  seemed  to  have  yoimg,  but  the  place 
was  quite  unapproachable.?' 


110      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HI8WRY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

692.— THE  SOUTHERN  HILL-MYNA. 

Eulabes  religiosa,  Linn. 

I  have  never  met  with  this  bird  except  in  a  state  of  capti\'ity,  but 
Mr.  Davidson^  who  has  been  more  fortunate,  has  kindly  supplied  me 
with  the  following  note  : — 

"  This  bird  is  not  at  all  imcommon  in  the  heavy  jungles,  both 
above  and  below  the  ghats  in  Kanara.  Its  nests  are,  however,  hard 
to  find,  and  I  only  obtained  three ;  one  containing  two  moderately  set 
eggs,  in  the  end  of  April ;  the  second  containing  three  small  young 
on  the  6th  May ;  and  the  third  containing  a  single  fresh  egg  on  the 
20th  May.  All  were  in  holes  in  dead  trees  or  branches,  pretty  near 
the  top,  one  being  in  a  dead  supari  tree,  a  most  difficult  place  for 
any  one  to  get  at. 

"  The  natives  told  me  that  the  bird  invariably  chooses  dead  branches 
to  build  in,  but  of  course  this  is  not  proved. 

"  The  eggs  are  very  handsome,  of  a  rich  blue,  marked  with  large 
blotches  of  rusty-red  towards  the  larger  end.  I  have  not  got  the 
measurement  now." 

Mr.  Hiune  says  the  only  two  eggs  he  has  measured  were  respec- 
tively 1-37  by  0-9  and  1-35  by  0-87. 

694.— THE  COMMON  WEAVER  BIRD. 

Ploceus  philippinuSy  Linn. 

This  well-known  bird  is  common  throughout  the  district,  on  the 
hills  as  well  as  in  the  plains. 

They  begin  to  make  their  nests  soon  after  the  monsoon  sets  in^  but 
it  is  not  until  the  middle  of  the  rains  that  many  eggs  are  laid.  They 
generally  breed  in  company,  but  occasionally  isolated  nests  may  be 
found ;  but  as  a  rule,  I  think  these  are  never  quite  finished ;  at  all 
events  I  have  never  found  either  eggs  or  young  in  them. 

A  colony  engaged  in  building  their  nests  affords  a  most  interested 
and  animated  sight ;  they  keep  up  an  incessant  chirping  and  chatter- 
ing all  the  time  they  are  working.  Nests  in  every  stage  of  construc- 
tion, sway  about  at  the  slightest  breeze,  some  scarcely  begun,  others 
so  far  advanced  as  to  have  eggs  in  them. 

The  nest,  when  finished,  has  been  aptly  described  as  retort-shape ; 
the   first  portion,  which   is   attached  to  the  extremity  of  a  twig,  is 


NESTING  IN  WESTERN  INDIA.  Ill 

solid :  this  opens  out  into  a  bulb-like  chamber,  which  is  rounded  off 
at  the  bottom  on  one  side  to  form  the  egg  compartment,  the  other 
side  being  continued  downwards  in  the  form  of  a  tube,  or  spout, 
which  forms  the  entrance.     At  the  commencement  the  birds  seem 
to  work  independently,  but  soon  after  the  solid  portion  is  finished 
the  pair  work  together ;  this  part  yaries  in  length  from  three  to  six 
inches,  or  even  more  in  length ;  one  bird  (I  think  as  a  rule  the  hen) 
remains  inside,   the  other  flies   to  the  nearest  clump  of  sarpat,  or 
other  coarse   grass,   and  returns  with  a  long  strip  in  his  beak  and 
alighting  on  the  outside  of  the  nest  thrusts  one  end  through ;  the 
other  bird  pulls  it  tight,   and  then  pushes  the  end  out,  which  is 
seized  by  the  bird  outside,  pulled  tight,  and  again  passed  through, 
and  80  on,  until  the  strip  is  used  up,  when  it  flies  off  for  another. 
The  method  of  obtaining  these  strips  of  grass  is  simple  but  inge- 
nious ;  the  bird  alights  upon  a  stem  of  coarse  grass,  bites  a  notch 
in  a  blade,  the  exact  depth  required,  and  then  catching  hold  firmly 
aboye  the  notch  flies  off,  tearing  the  strip  with  it ;  as  the  edge  is 
Tory  much  serrated,  the  bird   has    to  consider  which  end  to  pass 
through,  and  it  is  this  that  makes  it  it  so  difficult  to  pidl  a  nest  to 
pieces. 

The  nest,  when  half  finished,  presents  a  very  curious  appearance, 
because  when  the  birds  have  reached  the  part  where  the  egg  com- 
partment is  to  be,  they  make  a  strong  transverse  loop,  on  one  side  of 
which  the  entrance  tube  will  be  formed,  and  the  egg  chamber  on  the 
other. 

This  has  to  be  made  very  strong,  because  it  will  be  used  later  on 
by  the  young  brood  as  a  perch.  This  part  of  the  nest  takes  a  long 
time  to  make,  the  birds  being  very  careful  over  it,  many  nests  being 
abandoned  at  this  stage,  owing  to  some  imperfection  in  its  construc- 
tion. K  the  nest  is  not  properly  balanced,  and  perhaps  to  assist  in 
steadying  it,  they  stick  small  lumps  of  clay  on  the  inside.  I  have 
found  as  much  as  three  oimces  in  six  or  seven  pieces  in  a  nest,  but 
generally  much  less  than  this  suffices.  To  see  these  pieces  of  clay 
properly,  a  nest  should  be  cut  open,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  almost 
as  soon  as  the  bulb  is  commenced,  the  walls  on  two  opposite  sides 
are  thicker  than  usual,  forming  the  foimdation  of  the  transverse 
bar,  becoming  gradually  thicker  as  it  nears  the  bottom.     If  the  nest 


112      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

is  cut  down  at  this  stage  and  reversed,  it  will  look  like  a  basket  with 
a  strong  handle. 

As  soon  as  the  chamber  is  finished,  the  eggs  are  laid,  but  the  cock- 
bird  goes  oh  completing  the  tubular  entrance,  which  is  usually  about 
six  inches  long,  but  is  sometimes  much  longer  ;  one  that  I  presented 
to  the  Society's  collection  is  twenty-five  inches  and  another 
twenty-four ;  both  of  these  are  described  in  the  Society's  Journal, 
Vol.  II.,  Part  II.,  page  106. 

A  good  deal  of  nonsense  has  been  written  about  the  Baya's  nest  : 
one  writer  affirms  that  it  is  commenced  at  the  bottom,  which  is  rested 
on  a  leaf ;  another  recent  writer  describes  the  nest  as  non^pensile 
when,  as  every  griffin  knows,  it  is  a  perfect  type  of  a  pensile  nest. 

Opinions  differ  regarding  the  use  of  the  lumps  of  clay  previously 
alluded  to.  A  poetical  rather  than  a  practical  notion  prevalent 
amongst  the  natives  is  that  the  Baya  uses  them  to  stick  fireflies  to  on 
dark  nights  to  light  up  the  interior  of  the  nest ;  another  theory  is  that 
the  birds  use  them  to  sharpen  their  bills  upon. 

Regarding  the  normal  number  of  eggs,  much  difference  of  opinion 
exists,  but  I  went  carefully  into  this  question  before  (see  Vol,  II., 
page  105  of  the  Society's  Journal),  and  further  experience  has  only 
tended  to  confirm  me  in  my  opinion,  which  is  that  the  number  of  eggs 
is  indifferently  four  or  five,  as  often  one  as  the  other. 

The  eggs  are  pure,  dead,  glossless  white,  and  vary  a  great  deal  in 
shape  and  size,  but  usually  they  are  longish  ovals,  pointed  at  one 
end,  and  average  0*82  inches  in  length  by  about  0*59  in  breadth. 

I  have  myself  never  met  with  nests  made  of  any  other  material 
than  strips  of  green  grass ;  but  in  Ratnagiri  Mr.  Vidal  found  them 
made  of  coir,  and  in  this  case  the  nests  were  smaller  than  usual. 

Mr.  Hume  and  others  describe  nests  made  of  strips  torn  from 
banana  leaves  and  from  the  leaves  of  the  date  and  cocoanut  palms. 

695.— THE  STRIATED  WEAVER-BIRD. 

Ploceusmanyavy  Hors. 

The  Striated  Weaver  Bird,  although  very  locally  distributed, 
occurs  in  most  suitable  places  in  the  Presidency.  It  has  not  been 
recorded  from  Ratnagiri,  neither  did  Mr.  Davidson  meet  >vith  it  in 


NESTING  IN  WESTERN  INDIA.  113 

Khandeisli.  It  is  very  common  in  Sind  and  Northern  Gujerat,  and 
Captain  Butler  records  it  from  Belgaum. 

They  breed  towards  the  end  of  the  rains,  when  the  reeds  and 
rushes  have  attained  their  full  growth.  The  nest  is  somewhat  simi- 
lar to  that  of  the  Common  Weaver-Bird,  but  owing  to  its  being 
attached  to  the  tops  of  a  number  of  reeds,  instead  of  to  a  single 
twig,  the  upper  portion  is  much  thicker.  The  tubular  entrance  is 
much  shorter  as  a  rule.  All  the  nests  I  have  seen  have  been  comiwsod 
of  strips  of  grass-blades  ;  although  the  nest  is  typically  pendant,  yet 
the  leaves  of  the  reeds  and  rush  stems,  are  often  to  some  extent 
woven  into  the  body  of  the  nest,  affording  it  considerable  stability, 
but  this  is  I  believe  more  the  result  of  accident  than  design.  The 
eggs,  usually  three,  seldom  four  in  number,  are  exact  counterparts  in 
shape  and  colour  of  those  of  the  Common  Weaver- Bird,  but  average 
rather  smaller. 

Deesa  (Milana),     August  to  September,  II,  E,  Barnes 

Hyderabad,  Sind,  „  Do. 

Belgaum,  „  Captain  Batter, 

696.— THE  BLACK-THROATED  WEAYER-BIRD. 

Ploceus  bengalensis.  Lin, 

The  Black-throated  Weaver  Bird  seems  to  be  confined  to  the  more 
northern  portions  of  Western  India. 

I  met  with  it  at  Hyderabad  in  Sind  and  at  Deesa  in  Northern 
Qujerat. 

At  Hyderabad  I  found  what  I  thought  were  their  nests,  but  have 
now  reason  to  think  that  I  was  mistaken  ;  at  all  events,  as  I  had  no 
gun  with  me,  I  could  not  shoot  a  specimen. 

Captain  Butler  (now  Colonel)  in  Strai/  Feathers,  Vol.  VII.,  page 
184,  records  the  following  note : — 

"  Not  uncommon  about  Hyderabad  and  the  country  east,  and  I 
have  noticed  nests  of  all  three  species,  the  present,  philippensis,  manyar 
and  bengalensis  on  the  same  tree.''  I  feel  sure  that  he  has  made  a 
mistake. 

All  the  nests  of  Weaver  Birds  that  I  have  seen  on  trees  at  Hydera- 
bad were  undoubtedly  those  of  the  Common  Weaver  Bird,  and  all  the 
15 


114        JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  189Q, 

nests  of  the  Striated  Weaver-Bird  were  attached  to  the  tops  of  trees 
or  rushes,  on  the  banks  of  ponds  or  nullahs. 

697.— THE  BLACK-HEADED  MUNIA. 

Amadina  maldcca,  Lin 

The  Black-headed  Munia,  within  our  limits,  seems  confined  to  the 
extreme  south  of  the  district.  It  is  far  from  common  in  Ratnagiri, 
and  is  not  uncommon  among  the  rice  fields  along  the  coast  in 
Kanara.  About  Belgaum  it  is  a  common  seasonal  visitant,  breeding 
abundantly,  during  the  rains,  in  the  sugar-cane  fields  and  amongst 
the  reeds  and  rushes  that  fringe  the  border  of  the  tanks  and  jheels, 
and  along  the  banks  of  the  rivers  and  nullahs. 

The  nests,  composed  of  dry  blades  of  grass,  lined  with  finer  grass, 
are  globular  in  shape,  and  considering  the  size  of  the  birds,  are  very 
large. 

The  eggs,  four  to  six  in  number,  are  of  a  pure,  dead,  glossless 
white,  and  are  elongated  ovals  in  shape,  much  resembling  those  of 
the  Common  Munia  (Amadina  malaharica) ;  they  measure  0*64 
inches  in  length  by  about  0*47  in  breadth. 

Kanara,  August.  J.  Davidson, 

699.— THE  SPOTTED  MUNIA, 

Amadina  pundulata,  Lin. 

With  the  exception  of  Sind,  the  Spotted  Mimia  is  more  or  less 
common  throughout  Western  India,  but  is  as  a  rule  very  locally 
distributed. 

They  are  permanent  residents  wherever  they  occur,  breeding 
during  the  rains.  The  nest  is  very  large,  of  a  globular  shape,  and 
is  usually  placed  six  or  seven  feet  from  the  groimd,  in  an  acacia 
or  other  thorny  tree.  The  materials  consists  solely  of  broad  blades 
of  grass  or  bamboo  leaves,  and  it  is  well  lined  with  fine  grass. 

The  eggs,  from  four  to  eight  in  number,  occasionally  more,  are 
dead  white,  measuring  0*65  inches  in  length  by  about  0*45  in  breadth. 
As  is  usually  the  case  with  pure  white  eggs,  they  have  a  delicate 
tinge  of  rosy-pink  when  fresh  and  unblown. 

Khandeish,  Septei/iber  and  October,  J.  Davidson,  C,8. 


NESTING  IN  n'ESTERN  INDIA  116 

701.— THE  WHITE-BACKED  MUNIA. 

Afnadina  striata ^  Lin, 

The  Wliite-backed  Mimia  is  not  uucommon  at  Khandalla.  I  found 
three  nests  not  quite  finished  in  a  thick  foliaged  tree,  in  a  garden 
close  to  the  railway  station.  Mr.  Da\idson  found  this  to  be  the 
Common  Munia  in  Kanara,  both  above  and  below  the  ghats,  apparently 
building  every  month  in  the  year,  making  a  small  round  nest,  of 
the  type  of  malaharicay  composed  of  grass,  lined  with  materials  of 
various  kinds.  The  eggs  are  narrow  ovals,  and  arc  generally  four  in 
number,  occasionally  five.  The  nests  are  generally  placed  in  thorny 
bushes,  three  to  ten  feet  from  the  ground.  A  very  favourite  place  is 
also  among  the  thorns,  tied  six  or  seven  feet  from  the  groimd,  round 
cocoanut  trees,  to  prevent  people  climbing  them. 

703.— THE  PLAIN  BROWN  MUNIA. 

•       Ainadina  fnaiabarica,  Lin. 

The  Plain  Brown  Munia  is  very  common  throughout  Western 
India,  with  the  exception  perhaps  of  Eanara.  It  is  a  pci*manent 
resident,  and  seems  to  breed  the  whole  year  through.  The  nest  is  a 
rather  large  loosely  constructed  sphere,  made  of  fine  grass,  lined 
with  still  finer  grass  The  eggs,  from  four  to  ten  in  number,  are 
rather  broad  ovals  in  shape,  but  are  subject  to  much  variation ;  they 
are  of  the  usual  dead,  glossless  white  colour. 

They  measure  0*6  inches  in  length  by  about  0*47  in  breadth. 

I  have  often  found  nests  built  in  the  foundation  of  other  large 
nests,  such  as  that  of  the  Tawny  Eagle  and  Common  Kite. 

704.— THE  RED  WAXBILL. 

Estrelda  amandemy  Lin, 

The  Red  Waxbill  occurs  more  or  less  commonly,  in  suitable  places, 
throughout  the  Presidency.  It  is  common  in  some  parts  of  Sind 
and  in  Gujerat,  but  it  is  more  rare  in  the  Deccan.  They  are  per- 
manent residents,  breeding  I  think  twice  in  the  year,  once  in  Feb- 
ruary and  March,  and  again  in  October  and  November,  making  a 
rather  large  globular  nest  of  grass,  which  however  is  very  difficult 
to  find,  as  the  following  note  kindly  furnished  by  Mr.  Davidson  will 
show  : — 


116    JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

**  The  nests  I  have  generally,  found  on  the  ground,  among 
thick  tufts  of  grass  or  among  reeds.  It  is  composed  of  the  very 
finest  grass,  and  is  very  well  concealed,  and  the  hen  slips  away  very 
quietly ;  indeed  if  it  was  not  for  the  habit  the  cock  has  of  carrying 
long  pieces  of  grass  to  the  nest,  long  after  the  hen  has  laid  her  eggs, 
I  hardly  know  a  nest  that  would  be  more  difficult  to  find." 

Neemuchy  October.  H,  E.  Barnes. 

Khandeishy  March y  October  and  November.  J.  Davidson ,  C.S. 

Nassicky  February.  „ 

705.— THE  GREEN  WAXBILL. 

Estrelda  formosay  Lath. 

The  Green  Waxbill  is  very  common  on  the  Vindhian  hills  near 
Mhow,  also  on  the  Aravelli  range.  Mr.  Davidson  reports  it  from 
the  Satpooras  and  from  the  foot  of  the  ghats  in  Khandeish.  It 
occurs,  though  somewhat  rarely,  in  the  Deccah.  It  has  not  been 
reported  from  any  part  of  Sind. 

They  are  as  a  rule  permanent  residents  where  they  occur,  but 
wander  a  great  deal  in  search  of  food. 

They  are  generally  found  in  small  parties  even  during  the  breed- 
ing season.  I  found  them  breeding  at  Mount  Aboo  at  the  end  of 
the  rains,  but  I  did  not  take  any  eggs,  as  at  that  time  I  did  not 
collect  them. 

Mr.  Mortimer,  who  found  them  breeding  at  Saugor,  has  given  me 
several  of  their  eggs ;  they  are  broad  ovals  in  shape,  measuring  0*6 
inches  in  length  by  rather  more  than  0*48  in  breadth. 


LIST  OF  BOMBAY  GRASSES. 
By  Dr.  J.  C.  Lisboa,  F.L.S. 

PART  I. 

(Read  at  the  Society* s  Meeting  on  Slst  March  1890,) 

Graminece  is  an  Order  not  so  extensive  as  it  is  generally  believed 
to  be.  It  ranks  third  in  the  number  of  species,  but  its  individuals 
are  numberless.  The  study  of  grasses  is  a  subject  beset  with  many  diffi- 


BOMB  A  Y  GRASSES.  11 7 

culties,  the  spikdets  or  flowers,  being  small,  nay  often  minute,  and  the 
glmnes  or  floral  parts  of  the  same  colour.  Hence  to  distinguish  one 
genus  or  species  from  the  other  genera  or  species,  it  is  necessary  to 
examine  the  number  of  glumes,  their  relative  size,  their  position, 
their  conformation  and  hairiness,  and  other  minute  characters, 
.which  demand  constant  use  of  the  lens  and  microscope.  The  sub- 
ject is  so  diflicult  that,  in  his  Preface  to  the  Flora  AustraiiensiSy 
Mr.  Geo.  Bentham,one  of  the  most  eminent  English  botanists,  says  : — 
"  Oramtnece  have  been  the  object  of  special  studies  of  several  of  the 
most  eminent  botanists,  amongst  which  the  labours  of  BroWn,  of 
Kunth,  and  of  Trinius  have  been  the  most  important.  But  the 
only  general  enumeration  they  have  left  is  that  of  Eimth,  who  had 
not  at  that  time  the  materials  nor  yet  the  leisure  to  investigate  the 
synonymy,  which  had  already  become  exceedingly  confused. 
This  confusion  has  been  gradually  increasing  by  the  large  number 
of  species  described  in  partial  works,  without  that  general  compa- 
rison which  is  especially  needed  in  an  order  in  which  a  large 
proportion  of  the  species  have  a  very  wide  geogniphical  distribu- 
tion, and  it  has  become  more  especially  involved  through  Steuders 
more  recent  hasty  and  careless  compilation  (Synopsis  Plantarum 
Ghimacearum).  Nothing,  therefore,  is  now  more  needed  than  a 
careful  and  judicious  synoptical  revision  of  the  whole  Order. 
Such  a  one  is  now  in  progress  for  De  Candolle's  Monographs  by 
my  friend,  General  Munro,  who  has  for  a  number  of  years  made 
GraminecB  his  special  study,  as  well  on  living  plants  in  tropical 
and  temperate  countries,  as  on  dried  specimens  from  the  principal 
herbaria  of  the  day,  and  in  the  correctness  of  whose  views  all 
those  who  have  studied  the  partial  memoirs  he  has  published,  feel 
fully  convinced.  Without  his  kind  assistance  the  preparation  of 
this  part  of  my  Flora  would  have  been  doubly  laborious.  He  has, 
however,  guided  me  throughout,  and  although  I  am  far  from  hold- 
ing him  responsible  for  the  generic  and  specific  arrangement 
and  characters  here  given,  it  is  to  him  that  I  am  indebted  for  many 
of  them,  and  the  whole  have  been  the  subject  of  discussion 
between  us." 

Mr.   J.    F.    Duihie,    Director  of   the   Botanical    Department    of 
Northern  India,  who  has,  by   the  direction  of  Government,  devoted 


118     JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

special  attention  to  Indian  Botany,  and  particularly  to  the  fodder 
grasses,  in  the  preface  to  his  book  on  "Fodder  Grasses  of 
Northern  India,"  acknowledges  having  received  much  assistance  from 
Prof.  Hackel,  of  St.  Polten,  Hungary,  a  great  living  authority  on 
grasses. 

The  study  is  hampered  from  want  of  a  general  treatise  on  Grami- 
neae,  or  a  book  on  the  Indian  Grasses.  It  is  true  we  have  Steuders 
"  Synopsis  Plantarum  Glumacearum,"  published  in  1855  ;  but  of  this 
work,  Mr.  Bentham  says  the  following  in  the  Journal  of  the 
Linnean  Society : — *^  The  last  general  enumeration  of  GraminecB 
was  that  of  Steudel,  who  published  in  1855  the  first  volume  of  his 
*  Synopsis  Plantarum  Glumacearum/  the  worst  production  of  its  kind 
I  have  ever  met  with." 

We  have  also  Kunth's  Enumeratio  Plantarum.  The  first  two 
volumes  contain  a  description  of  grasses,  which  is,  according  to 
Mr.  Bentham,  far  too  hasty  a  compilation. 

We  have  books  describing  almost  all  the  flowering  plants  and  even 
ferns  growing  in  India  and  Ceylon,  with  their  drawings,  coloured, 
hand  and  nature-printed,  but  we  do  not  possess  a  good  treatise  on. 
Indian  grasses.  Roxburgh  and  Dalzell  and  Gibson  in  their  respective 
Floras  describe  many  Indian  grasses,  but  there  are  several  important 
omissions  in  them,  as  will  be  aj^arent  from  the  list  given  below. 
Mr.  Duthie's  book,  alluded  to  above,  is  a  valuable  contribution  to 
the  study  of  grasses,  but  he  confines  himself  to  the  fodder  grasses  of 
a  part  of  India  only,  and  his  descriptions  of  many  genera  and  species 
are  very  short.  He  has  given  illustrations  of  80  species,  drawn  by 
nature-printing  process ;  but  they  would  have  been  more  valuable 
had  they  furnished  dissections  of  the  spikelets  of  each  specimen. 

Another  difficulty  in  the  way  of  the  student  of  Botany  is  the  want 
of  a  good  herbarium,  as  in  Calcutta  and  in  various  parts  of  Europe, 
where  plants  are  well  mounted  and  named.  The  advantages  of  an 
herbarium  are  best  known  by  those  who  have  had  occasion  to  resort 
to  it.  Mr.  Duthie  in  his  abovementioned  book  thus  describes  in  a 
few  words  the  benefit  he  derived  from  the  Calcutta  Herbarium  : — 
**  My  annual  visits  to  the  Royal  Botanical  Gardens  near  Calcutta 
have  been  of  much  advantage,  more  particularly  in  connection 
with  the  strictly  botanical  portion  of   this  work.     In  addition  to  an 


BOMBA  Y  GRASSES.  119 

excellent  library  there  is  the  splendid  herbarium,  in  which  grasses 
from  all  parts  of  India  are  largely  represented." 

In  Enrope  investigators  receive  assistance  from  many  learned 
men,  but  liere  in  India  very  few  scientists  have  leisure  enough 
to  devote  themselves  to  the  study  of  grasses,  and  those  who  may 
have  formed  these  the  subject  of  their  study,  are  prevented  from  giving 
to  others  the  benefit  of  their  knowledge  by  their  being  frequently 
absent,  or  moving  from  place  to  place  in  the  districts.  In  Poena, 
Mr.  Woodrow,  Professor  of  Agriculture  and  Botany  in  the  College  of 
Science,  and  one  of  the  ablest  botanists  of  the  Presidency,  has  for  the 
last  four  or  five  years  endeavoured  to  secure  a  good  collection  of 
plants ;  but  his  collection  of  grasses  is  comparatively  very  small,  some 
of  which  were  examined  by  the  late  General  Munro.  Mr.  Woodrow 
has  not  been  able  to  identify  the  remaining  from  want  of  leisure. 
Now  that  Government  have  sanctioned  an  annual  grant  of  Rs.  5,000 
for  the  formation  of  an  herbarium,  I  trust  that  Mr.  Woodrow  will 
employ  skilful  collectors  to  complete  the  Poena  College  of  Science 
herbarium.  Dr.  T.  Cooke,  the  Principal  of  the  College  of  Science, 
who  takes  much  interest  in  the  welfare  and  progress  of  the  Establish- 
ment, will,  no  doubt,  give  his  valuable  support,  as  he  always  does. 

I  refer  to  these  difiiculties,  not  with  the  view  to  enhance 
the  value  of  my  labours,  but  because  the  very  mention 
of  them  will,  I  am  sure,  incite  ardent  lovers  of  nature  to  enter 
upon  the  field  of  investigation  better  armed  and  duly  pre- 
pared. I  may  state  here  that  those  who  wish  to  make  new 
discoveries  will  find  many  opportunities,  as  the  field  is  not  yet 
exhausted,  for,  whilst  this  list  was  being  drawn  up,  I  received 
new  grasses,  which  had  not  come  under  my  obsiTvation  before,  and 
from  those  very  places  from  which  specimens  were  formerly  sent  to 
me.  It  happens  very  often  that  peons  or  other  persons  sent  to  col- 
lect grasses,  not  being  themselves  trained,  gather  large  or  beautiful 
and  elegant  grasses,  not  heeding  the  smaller  ones,  which  probably 
grow  under  their  feet  or  alongside  the  bigger  specimens. 

I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  Wroughton,  of  the  Forest  Department,  Poena 
Division,  who,  not  being  satisfied  with  sending  me  a  good  collection 
of  grasses  made  by  his  assistants,  himself  succeeded  in  supplying 
me  with  many,  some  of  which  are  amongst  the  rarest.    When  out  in 


120    JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

the  districts  he  never  forgets  to  gather  for  me  such  plants  and  grasses  as 
present  an  unusual  aspect.  It  is  thus  that  he  obtained  for  me  Chloris 
tenella,  Roxb.,  stated  by  both  Roxburgh  and  Dalzell  and  Gibson  to  be 
rare  ;  the  authors  of  the  ^*  Bombay  Flora"  saw  it  only  at  Surat,  but 
Mr.  Wroughton  discovered  it  in  the  Poena  district.  In  a  letter  sent 
to  me,  he  writes  to  say : — "  I  have  founed  the  delicate  grass,  Chloris 
tenella,  specimens  of  which  were  sent  to  you,  in  the  Loni  Reserve 
on  the  banks  of  the  Mutha  Mulla  river,  but  it  is  extremely  local 
and  by  no  means  plentiful.  Since  I  have  found  it  on  the  banks 
of  the  Nira  river  in  great  abundance.  Here  it  grows  very  luxu- 
riantly. I  had  to  wade  through  patches  which  were  above  my  knees 
and  covered  a  considerable  area." 

Mr.  Madan,  Forest  Officer,  South  Thana  Division,  sent  me  a  valu- 
able collection  of  grasses  from  that  locality,  and  this  year  he  had  the 
goodness  to  forward  the  duplicates  with  a  packet  of  a  scented  grass 
named  podan,  gande,  and  pandk.  This  proves  to  be  Andropogon 
Hiigelii,  Hack.,  a  grass  not  mentioned  in  Roxburgh's  "Flora 
Indica,"  nor  in  Dalzell  and  Gibson's  "  Bombay  Flora."  When  in  the 
last  rainy  season,  Mr.  Madan  was  at  Satara,  acting  for  Mr.  Great- 
head,  he  took  the  trouble  of  supplying  me  with  a  great  number 
of  plants  from  that  district,  two  of  which  appear  to  be  new 
species. 

In  the  well-prepared  collection  sent  by  Mr.  Betham  of  Nassick  and 
by  Mr.  Vishnu  Mahadeo  Tiluk,  Range  Forest  Officer,  Haveli,  there 
are  many  interesting  and  rare  grasses,  such  as  Arthraxon  microphilus, 
Paspalum  brevifolium,  JEleusine  mucronata,  and  new  species  of  Tripogoriy 
Aristida,  Garnotia,  &c. 

The  collections  received  from  the  officers  in  charge  of  West 
and  East  Guzerat,  and  of  the  Panch  Mahals,  Sholapur,  Satara, 
and  also  from  Mr.  MacNaughten,  Principal,  Rajkumar  College, 
Rajkot,  and  from  Mr.  W.  A,  Talbot,  of  North  Canara,  are  equally 
interesting. 

My  thanks  are  due  to  all  of  these  gentlemen  and  to  Mr.  M.  M. 
de  Souza,  attached  to  H.  E.  the  Governor's  establishment,  and  to 
Mr.  J.  M.  de  Souza,  to  that  of  the  Superintendent  of  Mahableshwar, 
for  their  contributions  of  grasses  from  that  hill,  and  also  to  the  Rev. 
C.  X.  d'Abreu  for  a  few  plants  from  Goa. 


BOMBA  Y  GRASSES,  121 

These  collections  have  afforded  me  convmcing  proo&  that  there 
is  still  ample  field  for  research  and  exploration,  and  those  students  of 
Botany,  who  may  think  of  devoting  their  attention  to  the  study  of 
grasses,  will  certainly  reap  a  large  harvest.  The  examination  of 
these  contributions  has  also  enabled  me  to  form  a  general  idea  of  the 
grass  vegetations  of  this  Presidency,  excepting  Scinde,*  especially 
of  fodder  grosses,  and  to  furnish  a  reply  to  a  reference  received  by  me 
from  the  Director  of  the  Land  Record  and  Agriculture  on  the 
subject. 

I  am  also  much  indebted  to  Mr.  Duthie  for  valuable  notes  with 
which  he  has  favoured  me  regarding  some  specimens  of  grasses 
which  were  submitted  for  his  opinion  in  September  last.  Moreover 
he  generously  offered  to  send  doubtful  castas  to  Prof.  Huckel  for  his 
identification. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  list  I  am  much  indebted  to  Mr.  Shuttle- 
worth,  Conservator  of  Forests,  N.  C,  through  whose  kindness 
I  was  able  to  obtain  the  abovoniontioucd  very  useful  collections 
of  grasses  in  the  various  districts  under  his  charge.  I  am  grateful 
indeed  for  the  ready  assistance  he  kindly  gave  me,  and  for  the  trouble 
he  took  in  writing  to  all  of  his  assistants  and  recommending  them  to 
send  me  grasses. 

Not  being  acquainted  with  the  Conservator  of  Forests,  S.  C, 
I  refrained  from  writing  to  that  gentleman.  T  am  sure*  ho  would  have 
likewise  assisted  me  with  contributions  from  the  districts  under   his 

charge. 

I  have  to  convey  my  special  thanks  to  Mr.  J.  M.  Campbell,  C.S., 
Collector  of  Panch  Mahals,  who,  on  learning  from  me  that  I  had  taken 
up  the  subject  of  the  study  of  grasses,  encourage<l  mo  to  carry  it  out 
on  a  more  extensive  plan  than  I  had  intended,  and  wrote  to  Mr. 
Shuttleworth  to  obtain  for  me  through  his  assistants  materials  from  his 
,  Circle.  He  evinced  so  much  interest  in  my  endeavours  that  in  spite 
of  his  being  very  busy  with  his  own  arduous  duties,  he  carried  on  for  a 
short  time  a  correspondence  beween  himself  and  Mr.  Shuttleworth  on 
one  side  and  myself  on  the  other.  He  even  assisted  me  in  obtaining 
from  different  officials  of  Khandesh,  Rosha-grass  and  its  oil,  about  the 
quality  of  which  I  had  some   doubts.     Mr.  Campbell  has  done  this 

*  I  have  seeu  a  few  from  this  place. 
16 


V22      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

not  so  much  out  of  friendship  towards  me  as  one  might  suppose,  but 
with  the  view  of  rendering  me  assistance  in  my  study.  His  desire 
of  encouraging  scientific  and  Kterary  pursuits  generally  in  this 
country,  he  himself  being  an  ardent  worker,  is  well  known.* 

In  writing  this  Catalogue  I  have  arranged  the  genera  in  adcord- 
ance   with  the   Genera  Plcmtarum  of  Bentham  and    Hooker,    the 
iq)ecies  being  placed  imder  each  genus  according  to  their  affinities  as  I 
understand  them.    After  the  scientific  names  of  the  grasses  in  the  list, 
I  haye  copied  the  Vernacular  names  of  almost  all  the  grasses  which 
were  attached  to  the  collections  received  from  the  various  districts 
of  the  Presidency,  to  satisfy  the  curiosity  of  the   reader.    It  is  gene- 
rally thought  that  every  grass  should  have  a  name.    This  is  an  error, 
for  very  few  grasses  are  known  by  their  proper  Vernacular  names. 
As  in  European  countries,  so  also  in  India,  the  same  plant  has  dif- 
ferent names  in  different  provinces,  nay  even  four  or  five  in  the  same 
province  or  village,  and  the  same  name  is  not  unfrequently  given  to 
a  variety  of  plants  and  great  many  names  to  the  same  plant,  e,  ^.,  the 
Vernacular  name  of  Pay  en  is  given  to  Andropogon  intermedius,  A. 
odoratus,  A.pertums,  and  A.  anrmlatus,  probably  because  they  re- 
semble each  other,  and  have  all  their  several  spikes  congested  at  the  end 
of  their  culms.     Vernacular  names  are  often  invented  to  please  the 
Scihiby  or  to  impress  upon  him  the  informer's  knowledge :  thus   we 
have  Kali  kussal,  Panre  kmsal,  Jungli  kussal,  names  given  to   grasses 
belonging  to  various  tribes  and  genera,  without  any  affinity,  merely 
because  the  plants  named  are  endowed  with  long  awns.    The  fragrant 
roots  of  an  Andropogon  named  Khas-khas  are  known  all  over  India, 
but  the  plant   itself  has  different  names  in  different  provinces ;  of 
course,  rice,  nachni,  bajri,  jawari  and  kodra  are  well-known,  but  there 
are  several  varieties  of  other  cultivated  grain  plants,  such  as  Panicum 
miliacium  and  P.  miliare,  some  of  which  even   botanists  themselves 
find  it  often  difficult  to  distinguish  by  their  Vernacular  names. 


*  1  apologise  for  my  acknowledging  with  gratitude  the  kind  assistance  rendered 
me  by  the  gentlemen  above  mentioned,  as  it  is  not  osnal  to  do  so  in  a  paper  like 
this  I  deem  it  my  duty  to  convey  publicly  my  thanks  for  the  favours  received. 
Since  these  notes  were  written,  Government  has  passed  a  Resolution  directing  the 
three  Conservators  of  Forests  to  supply  me  with  specimens  of  grasses  from  their 
respective  circles . 


BOMBA  Y  GRASSES,  129 

Bamboos  are  well  known  to  people  who  work  and  deal  in  them 
in  different  districts,  but  even  here  the  names  vary  in  each 
province. 

The  names  given  are  often  fanciful  to  please  the  Sahib,  as  stated 
above.  If ,  after  the  lapse  of  some  time,  the  man  be  asked,  he  will 
give  yon  a  different  name  from  what  he  had  done  pre- 
vioudy.  The  names  of  some  of  the  grasses  written  in  the  dupli- 
cates received  this  year  are  not  the  same  as  those  which  were  assigneG^ 
to  the  same  plant  last  year.  For  these  reasons  I  set  very  little 
value  on  them.  For  there  is  no  certainty  that  these  names  before* 
being  attached  to  each  species  were  verified  by  an  intelligent  person. 
Mr.  H.  C.  Davidson,  of  the  Revenue  Survey  Department,  has  collected 
grasses  imd  herbs  which  grow  in  Alibagh  on  the  fields  amongst  the 
rice,  bajri  and  other  food  grain  crop.  After  drying  and  mounting 
them  properly,  he  attaches  to  each  specimen  a  paper  inscribing  in  a 
few  words  the  uses  and  the  Vernacular  names  after  due  enquiry.  It  is 
only  by  such  means  that  we  can  ascertain  the  true  Vernacular  names, 
and  render  them  useful  to  those  who  are  desirous  to  know,  and  thuA 
indirectly  promote  the  advancement  of  the  science  of  Botany.  It  is 
thus  that  their  value  in  tracing  the  history  of  the  plant  may  be 
enhanced.  By  the  method  adopted  by  Mr.  Davidson  we  have  before 
ns  a  specimen  of  a  plant  with  its  well  ascertained  Vernacular 
name. 

As  to  the  Sanscrit  names  they  are  not  more  reliable  than  the 
Vernacular  ones,  being  founded  on  less  ascertained  observation  and' 
description  of  the  essential  characters  of  the  plants. 

In  regard  to  the  uses  of  the  plants,  I  have  made  use  of  the 
short  statements  of  Mr.  Duthie  made  in  his  **  Fodder  Grasses  of 
N.-W.  India"  and  of  Mr.  Fergusson  in  his  **  Catalogue  of  Ceylon 
Grasses,"  especially  when  my  information  did  not  differ  from  those 
statements. 

Finally  I  submit  this  Catalogue,  which  for  obvious  reasons  cannot 
but  be  brought  out  in  parts,  to  the  kind  appreciation  of  this 
Society. 

Additions  and  corrections,  which  may  be  made,  and  advice  pre- 
ferred, will  be  received  with  thanks. 


124      JOURNALy  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

GRAMINEJE. 

TRiBB-PANICACEiE. 

Sub-Tribe — Paniceje. 

Genm — Paspalum, 

P.  Kora,  Willd.,  Roxb.  FL  Ind.  I.,  278,  279  ;  Dalz.  and  Gibe., 
Bomb.  Fl.y  SuppL  97. 

This  is  probably  the  wild  state  of  Paspalum  scrobculatum.  It 
grows  in  all  districts,  but  not  in  abundance. 

P.  scrobiculatum,  Linn. 

Vern» — Koda,  Kodra,  Sarik,  Pakodi,  Pakod.  Cultivated  all  over 
the  Presidency.  The  following  is  reproduced  from  my  work,  "  The 
Useful  Plants  of  the  Bombay  Presidency,"  which  forms  part  of  the 
25th  Vol.  of  the  Bombay  Gazetteer : —  "  Several  varieties  of  this  grain 
are  mentioned  by  the  natives,  the  differences  in  them  being  probably 
due  to  differences  in  the  soil,  method  of  cultivation,  &c.  Two  sorts 
are,  however,  well  known :  the  wholesome  and  the  unwholesome.  The 
former  is  smaller  and  paler  than  the  latter,  and  goes  by  the  name  of 
pakodi  OT  hank  in  the  Konkan.  In  Goa  it  is  called  Pakod,  The  unwhole- 
some variety  is  called  dhons  or  majariy  harik  in  the  Konkan,  and 
wawaAofl?ra  in  Gujarat.  In  Sanskrit  it  is  named  Kodrava  (injurious). 
The  grain  is  said  to  be  the  only  poisonous  part  of  the  plant.  Although 
the  two  principal  varieties  have  been  styled  respectively  wholesome 
and  unwholesome,  the  arrangement  is  only  one  of  convenience,  for 
all  the  varieties  are,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  more  or  less  poisonous,  and 
the  highly  poisonous  seed  of  one  locality,  when  sown  in  a  different 
soil  from  that  which  produced  it,  may  yield  a  grain  whose  properties 
have  become  either  modified  or  intensified,  according  to  the  peculia- 
rities of  the  localities.'* 

Kodra  grain  is  a  common  article  of  food  with  all  the  poor  people  in 
India.  They  prepare  it  by  macerating  it  for  three  or  four  hours  or  more 
in  a  watery  solution  of  cowdung,  when  the  scum  and  the  deteriorated 
grain  which  rise  to  the  surface  are  separated  and  the  good  grain 
removed  and  spread  out  in  the  sun  to  dry.  This  process  is  repeated 
so  long  as  any  poison  is  suspected  to  remain  in  the  grain.  Boiling 
does  not  entirely  destroy  the  poison,  but  if  the  grain   is  kept  for  a 


BOMBA  Y  GRASSES.  1 25 

niunber  of  years,  its  poisonous  propertien  are  found  to  diminish. 
When  required  for  use  it  is  ground  in  stone  mills,  and  then 
pounded  and  winnowed,  which  process  separates  the  different  layers 
of  the  testa,  and  leaves  the  grain  fit  for  use.  Kodra  is  more  readily 
cooked  than  conunon  rice,  and  it  is  very  extensively  used  in  the  Eon- 
kan  as  also  in  Ghijarat,  by  men  and  cattle,  mixed  with  whey,  the  latter 
being  supposed  to  have  the  power  of  neutralising  its  poison.  Not- 
withstanding all  precautions,  however,  cases  of  poisoning  do  occa- 
sionally occur,  though  they  seem  rarely  attended  with  fatal  conse- 
quences. Surgeon-Major  Pirie,  who  has  described  a  case  of  Eodra 
poisoning  (vide  "Transactions  of  the  Medical  and  Physical  Society  of 
Bombay,'*  1869,  No.  9,  New  Series,)  thus  enumerates  the  symptoms : — 

"  Unconsciousness,  delirium  with  violent  tremors  of  the  muscles, 
pupils  dilated,  pulse  small  and  weak,  skin  cold  and  covered  with 
profuse  perspiration,  and  difficulty  in  swallo^^^ng."  No  mention  is  here 
made  of  vomiting,  which  is  one  of  the  curliest  symptoms.  Fourteen 
persons  belonging  to  four  indigent  families  were  taken  to  him  suffer- 
ing from  the  above  symptoms,  which  liad  come  on  about  six  hours 
after  the  Eodra  had  been  eaten,  and  in  extreme  cases  had  lasted 
eighteen  hours*  All  the  persons  recovered  under  emetics,  stimulants, 
warm  clothing  and  heat  applied  to  the  surface. 

It  will  have  been  remarked  by  sueli  members  as  belong  to  the 
Medical  profession,  that  the  symptoms  ^ven  above  are  nmch  like 
those  of  poisoning  from  datura,  exempt  the  tremors,  which  are  not 
met  with  in  the  last. 

The  regular  use  of  Eodra  seems  to  establish  a  sort  of  toler- 
ance of  the  grain  ;  but  it  is  believed  by  ixjople  that  if  partaken  with 
black  pepper,  oven  by  habitual  consumers,  deleterious  effects  soon 
show  themselves. 

The  evil  effects  of  unwholesome  Eodra  are  far  more  severe  in 
cattle  than  in  man,  duo  no  doubt  to  their  eating  the  grain,  husk,  &c., 
also  to  the  asbencc  of  vomiting,  an  effect  that  almost  always  takes 
place  in  man.  It  proves  fatal  in  quantities  of  about  two  and  a  half 
ounces  to  such  large  quadrupeds  as  horses,  cows,  &c.  (more  so  to  the 
former),  and  has  also  been  known  to  kill  buffaloes,  goats,  and  asses. 
The  active  principle  that  produces  these  fearful  effects  has  not,  as 
far  as  I  am  aware,  been  yet    isolated.     Messrs.    Duthie   and  Fuller 


126      JOURNAL  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 


(Field  and  Garden  Crops)  attribute  them  to  a  ferment  supposed  to  be 
generated  in  the  grain,  Drs.  Pirie  (l.  c.)  and  Bonavia  of  Luck- 
now  [Ind.  Med.  Gaz.)  to  a  kind  of  fungus,  which  subsequent  observers 
failed  to  detect.  Dr.  Lyon  (Med.  Juriaprud.  for  India)  classes  Kodra 
along  with  Darnel  {Lolium  temulentum)  and  Laikyrus  satim^  as  a 
cerebral  poison,  and  does  not  mention  any  fungus  wshemg present  in 
the  grain. 

Natives  have  various  antidotes  for  Kodra  poisoning.  The  most 
usual  ones  are  gruel  made  of  the  flour  of  vrid  {Phaseolm  radiatus), 
the  stem  of  plantains,  which  is  rich  in  tannin  and  alkaline  salts,  the 
astringent  juice  of  the  leaves  of  Psidium  guava  or  the  leaves  of 
Nyctanthea  arbor  tristis.  Whey  has  been  mentioned  before.  It  is 
used  in  Damaim  and  the  neighbouring  villages. 

P.  minutiflorum,  Steud.  8yn, — Gram  1,.  17 ;  Benth.,  Fl.  Austr. 
7,  461.  All  over  tropical  Asia.  My  specimens  are  from  Poena,  Nas-^ 
sick  and  Thana,  where  it  is  very  common.  It  is  eaten  by  cattle, 
especially  when  green. 

P.  brevifolium,  Flugge;  Eunt.  Enum.  1,  48.  Panicum  tenuis 
florum,  R.  Br. 

Poena  and  Nassick,  not  common;  also  in  N.-W.  India  and  Austra- 
lia.   Uses  as  fodder  grass  unknown. 

P.  costatum,  Hochst. 

At  Mahableshwar  and  Lanowlie  :  at  the  latter  place  not  uncom- 
mon under  the  trees  in  the  place  known  as  Lanowlie  Woods,  It  is  an 
elegant  grass,  \ — 1  foot  high,  with  horizontal  secund  branches. 

Eriochloa,  Humb,  and  Kunt, 

E,  annulata,  Kunt.,  1,  73  ;  Paspalum  annulatum,  Trin.,  Sp.  Gram., 
t.  133.  It  is  rare,  but  is  found  at  Chowpatty  (Bombay),  North 
Sanara,  also  all  over  India,  Ceylon,  and  Australia. 

ISACHNE,  B,  Br. 

I.  australiSf  R.  Br.  Prodr.  196. 

Panicum  atrovirens,  Trin.,  Kunt.  Enum.  1, 127. 
P.  antipodum,  Spreng.  Syst.  1,  314. 
Yern, — Doaria  or  Daurra,  Mez  (Mount  Abu).  Common  in  Poena, 
Nassick,  the  Ghauts,  and  Qxizerat.     Also  in  other  parts   of   India, 
Ceylon,  and  Australia.     It  grows  in  fields  destroying  the  crops^ 


BOMBAY  GRASSES.  127 

/.  ekgans,  Dalz.  and  GKb.>  Bomb.  Fl.  291. 

Vem. — Doanda.    Not  aeen  by  me. 

L  Dispar,  Trin.,  Sp.  Gram.,  t.  86. 

Is  this  Dalzell's  /.  elegans  ?  Uses  not  known. 

Pamicum,  Linn. 

P.  sanguinaky  Linn.,  Eunt.  Enum.  1,  82. 

P.  JEgyptiacumy  Betz.  (A  variety  of  the  last).  Milium  sanguinale^ 
Eoxb.,  Fl.  Ind.  1,  315. 

Yem. — PflArn  and  Fakria.     It  is  common  all  over. 

P.  ciUarey  Betz.,  Eunt.  Enum.  1,  82. 

Vem, — Kurady  Sicka.  A  variety  of  P.  mnguitiale.  Common  in 
most  warm  countries. 

P.  commuiaium,  Nees  in  Linnea. 

Is  it  a  variety  of  P.  sanguinale  ? 

P.  confugatum.  Boxb.,  Fl.  Ind.  1, 282.  First  described  by  Roxb. 
as  a  distinct  species.  Dalz.  and  GKb.,  Bomb.  Fl.  291,  not  seen  by 
me.    Is  it  a  variety  of  P.  distachyum  ? 

P.  flavidumj  Retz.,  Obser.  IV.  15 ;  R.  Br.  198. ;  P.  brizoides,  Trin. 
Sp.  Gh^m.  t.  158  ;  Boxb.,  Fl.  Ind.  1, 293. 

Dalz.  and  GKb.,  Bomb.  Fl.  290.  It  occurs  in  Poena,  Surat  and 
throughout  India  and  tropical  Asia  in  general.  Common  on  the  plains 
and  even  on  low  elevations  on  the  hills.  It  is  reckoned  a  good 
fodder  for  cattle.  The  grain  of  this  species,  which  is  by  no  means 
scanty,  is  eaten  by  the  poorer  classes,  and  especially  in  famine  times. 
It  extends  to  Australia,  and  there  it  is  found  that  its  panicles 
lie  prostrate  from  the  weight  of  the  grain.  Prof.  Church  found  that 
the  fibre  of  this  species  is  much  more  indigestible  than  that  of  any 
other.    Its  chief  constituent  is  fat,  or  oil. 

P.  fluitansy  Retz.,  Obser.  III.  8  ;  Eunt.  Enum.  1, 78  ;  Roxb.,  Fl. 
Ind.  1, 294  ;  Dalz.  and  Gib.,  Bomb.  Fl.  290. 

P.  truncatumy  Trin.,  Sp.  Gram.   t.  68, 

Vem. — Pet-nar  (Bomb.) ;  Dossa  (Telling ;  name.) 

It  is  foimd  in  Poena  near  water-courses  and  in  moist  situations, 
also  all  over  India,  and  in  the  tropics  of  both  the  hemispheres,  but 
not  common. 

P.  emcaformcey  Sibth.,  Fl.  Grrceca.  t.  59  ;  Eunt.  Enum.  1, 78. 


128    JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HJ^ORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

P.  caticasicum,  Trin.,  Sp.  Gram.  t.  268. 

Vern. — Shimpi,  wag-hakt.  All  over  Bombay  but  not  common  ;  also 
in  other  parts  of  India.  Eaten  by  cattle  ;  considered  to  be  a  good 
fodder  grass,  but  it  is  rather  scanty. 

P.  prostratum,  Lamb  Illustr.  1,  171. ;  Trin.,  Sp.  Gram.  184, 
185 ;  Dalz.  and  Gib.,  Bomb.  Fl.  29a. 

Vern. — Sarpur,  Chaurila,  Common  in  Poona,  Guzerat,  Surat,  and 
throughout  India,  Africa,  the  West  Indies  and  Australia.  It  is  consi- 
dered as  a  good  fodder  grass,  and  produces  a  considerable  quantity 
of  grain  which  is  eaten  by  the  people  in  times  of  scarcity.  Cattle 
are  fond  of  it. 

P.  helopus,  Trin.  in  Spreng.  Neue.  Entad.,  11,  84 ;  Trin.,  s|). 
Gram.   183. 

Urochloa  pubescem,  Beauv.  Argost. 

Urochloa  panicoides,  Beauv.  52,  t.  11,  fig.  1.  Dalz.  and  Gib.,  Bomb. 
Fl.  29a. 

Vern. — Kuri,  Kuria.  It  is  reckoned  to  be  a  good  fodder  grass  for 
both  horses  and  cattle.  The  cultivated  parts  of  the  plains  abound 
with  it.     It  extends  even  to  about  5,000  feet  on  the  Himalayas. 

P.  dmicinumy  Retz.  Obsv.  III.  9. 

Milium  eimidnum.  Linn.,  Mant.  184. 

Urochloa  dmictna,  Kunt.  Gram.  1,  31 ;  Dalz.  and  Gib.,  Bomb.  Fl. 
289.     It  is  found  all  over  India. 

P.  distachyumy  Linn. ;  Kunt.  Enum.  1,  91. 

P.  subquadrifanum,  Trin.,  Sp.  Gram.  t.  186. 

Vern. — Motia.  It  is  found  in  Damaun,  Poona,  and  is  scattered  all 
over  India,  the  Malayan  Archipelego,  and  Australia,  but  rare.  It  is 
said  to  be  cultivated  in  Australia  for  fodder,  which  it  produces  in 
large  quantity. 

P.  colonum,  Linn.,  Trin.,  Sp.  Gram.  t.  160. 

OpUsmsnus  colonuSy  Kimt.,  Enum.,  1, 142 ;  Roxb.,  Fl.  Ind.  1,  296 ; 
Dalz.  and  Gib.,  Bomb.  Fl.  291. 

Vern. — Bovur,  Shama,  Sarvank,  Pacad,  Tor,  Todia,  Jiria.  Common 
all  over  India,  Australia  and  many  parts  of  America. 

It  is  highly  valued  as  an  excellent  fodder  grass.  It  is  even  found 
on  the  BKmalayas.  It  grows  on  well  cultivated  or  rich  soil.  It  is  muoh 
relished  by  cattle.     Its  nutritive  qualities  are  enhanced  by  its  grain. 


BOMBA  y  GRASSES.  129 

which  yields  in  abundance.  The  grain  is  said  to  be  sold  in  the 
bazaars  of  the  N.- W.  Provinces,  and  is  much  used  by  poor  Hindoos  on 
their  fast  days,  but  the  higher  classes  do  not  set  any  value  on  it,  and 
eliminate  it  from  ricCi  with  which  it  is  often  mixed  by  the  dealers. 
Its  succulent  stems  are  said  to  grow  from  2  to  8  feet  in  Australia. 

P.  CruS'OalUy  Linn.,  R.  Br.  Prod.  191.  Trin.,  Sp.  Gram., 
t.  161,162 ;  Oplismenus  crus-galliy  Eunt.  Enum.  143 ;  Dalz.  and  Gib., 
Bomb.  Fl.  292. 

Vern.-^Bovur,  Pacad.  Common  weed  in  most  hot  and  some 
temperate  countries.  It  is  similar  to  P.  coionum,  but  coarse. 
The  grain  is  not  considered  to  be  possessed  of  good  nu- 
tritive qualities  and  is  mostly  consumed  by  the  poorer  classes. 
It  is  sown  in  the  N.-W.  Provinces  for  its  grain,  and  in  Kajputana 
used  as  fodder.  It  thrives  well  in  Australia.  In  America  it  is  highly 
esteemed  under  the  name  of  "  Barn  Yard  Grass.*'  In  his  "  lie- 
port  on  the  Agricultural  Grasses  of  the  United  States,"  Dr.  Vjisey 
writes:  "It  is  greedily  eaten  (at  Mobillo,  U.  S.)  by  horses  and  cattle 
"and  makes  a  hay  of  good  quality.  It  is  justly  regarded  as  an 
**  excellent  grass,  particularly  before  it  ripens  its  seeds.  In  IjouiHiuna, 
'  Mississippi  and  other  States,  it  is  mowed  annually  and  yields  as 
"  much  as  four  or  five  tons  of  hay  per  acre.  Two  cuttings  are  procur- 
"able  each  season  when  mowed  as  soon  as  it  begins  to  bloom.  It 
**  re-seeds  the  ground,  and  requires  no  care  save  protection  from  live- 
"  stock.     Cows  and  horses  are  very  fond  of  it,  green  or  dry.^' 

P.  petiveriUj  Trin.,  spec.  Gram.     t.  17G.     In  Poena  and  plains  of 
Northern  India.     Bare.    Cattle  eat  it.     It  is  a  good  fodder. 

P.  myosuroides,  R.  B.  Prod.  189. 

P.  anguatumy  Trin.,  sp.  Gram.  t.  334. 

Vern. — (Kara-Lorn,),  Pokalia,  Bidhina,  musa-pHnc/ii,  auphetkar.  If 
grows  in  Alibagh  and  on  low  wet  ground.  It  is  eaten  by  cattle  with 
relish  ;  it  also  grows  in  Queensland  in  Australia. 

P.  myurm.  Lam. ;  P.  interuptum,  Willd.,  Kunt.  Ennm.  1,  86 ; 
Roxb.,  FL  Ind.  1,  286. 

•  Vem, — Pokelia.  Not  uncommon  in  Thana,  Konkan,  Ceylon,  in 
warm  wet  ground.  It  is  not  a  good  fodder  grass.  In  Australia,  how- 
ever, it  is  considered  to  be  nutritious  to  cattle. 

P.     antidotale.  Rctz.,  Kunt.  Enum.  1,  125. 
17 


130    JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

Vern, — GHtf  Sera,  Male,  Shamukha,  Gharam  Ghamar,  Girni,  Man- 
grur,  Baru,  Barwari,  Barigagli. 

It  is  a  coarse  grass,  not  generally  considered  to  be  a  fairly  good 
fodder  grass,  but  is  used  when  superior  qualities  fail.  Mr.  Cold- 
stream reporting  from  Hissar  states  that  it  is  grazed  only  when  green, 
as  it  afterwards  becomes  bitter  or  saltish,  and  poisonous  to  cattle. 
Its  smoke  has  the  reputation  of  a  disinfectant  in  small-pox  and  in 
healing  wounds.  In  Madras  it  is  used  in  throat  affections.  It 
extends  to  N.  Australia. 

P.  repenSy  Linn.,  Kunt.  Enum.  103;  Roxb.,  IL  Ind.  300. 
Vern, — Berod,  It  grows  all  over  Bombay  and  Northern  India,  and 
extends  to  Ceylon  and  Australia.  It  also  occurs  in  N.  Africa,  South 
Europe,  and  on  the  coast  of  Brazil.  Both  horses  and  cattle  relish 
it  as  a  good  fodder  grass.  Roxburgh  states  that  cattle  are  fond  of 
it.  Mr.  Ferguson  in  his  **  Grasses  of  Ceylon"  says: — "It  is 
indigenous  to  Europe,  Africa,  Asia  and  America,  and  in  Ceylon 
grows  equally  well  in  the  dry  sandy  soil,  as  it  does  in  marshes 
or  water,  its  long  creeping  underground  stems  enabling  it  to  endure 
the  hot  dry  weather.  It  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  plants  to  get  rid 
of  once  it  establishes  itself  in  any  locality,  and  in  this  respect 
resembles  the  Triticum  repens  of  Europe.  It  is  found  from  the  sea 
up  coast  to  Newera  Eliya,  and  is  a  common  weed  on  some  coffee 
estates.'* 

P,  Roxburghii,  Spr.  Steud.,  Syn.  Gram.  98. 
P.  tenellum,  Roxb.,  Fl.  Ind,  1,  309. 

I  am  unable  to  describe  it,  as  it  is  only  marked  in  my  note- 
book as  having  been  seen  on  Malabar  Hill  some  five  years  ago. 

P.  hennaphroditum,  Steud.,  Syn.  Gram.  1, 67 ;  Benth.,  Fl.  Austr. 
VII.,  485. 

Vem, — Pokelta,     Thana,  Konkan,  and  Poena.     Uses  not  known. 

P.  radicans,  Retz.  Obs.  IV.  18;  P.  accrescens,  Trin.,  Spec.  Glum, 
t,  88. ;  Steud.  Glum.  1,  87.  From  the  Collection  in  the  Poena  Science 
College. 

P.   decantpositum,  R.  Br.  Prodr.  191.,  Benth.,  Fl.  Austr.  VII.  489. 
P.  pahuiosum,  Roxb.,  FL  Ind.  I.  307. 

Fern. — Boruii  and  Kulua-nar,  Roxb.  Not  uncommon  in  Poona, 
IjutiowU  and  Salsette 


Di  NICEVILLE,  Jo-urn.  Bomb.  Mat  Hist.  Soc  1890.  Vnl  V, 


STICHOPHTHALMA    >IUR1N1S;;A. 


A  NEfV  MORPHJD  BUTTERFLY  131 

P.  plicattm,  Lam.  Enc.  IV.  736  ;  Trin.,  Spec.  Gram  t.  223. 

P.  Nepaleme.,   Spr.   Syst    1,    321,    Dalz.    and    Gib.,   Bomb. 
Fl.  291. 

P.  plicafiim,  P.  cmtatum,  P.  nercosum.  Roxb.,  P/.  /w(/.    1,  311. 
Parel  and  western  side  of  the  ghats  ;  also  in  Ceylon  up  to  an  eleva- 
tion of  2,000  feet. 

P.monfanum.     Roxb.,   F/.  Lid.   I.,  313  ;  Kunt.  Enum.,  Plant. 
1,  126. 

Ver.  Lalket, 

Thana,  place  named  Khardi.     Dispersed  all  over  India  as  far  as 
S.  China.  Uses  not  known. 

( To  be  continued. ) 


DESCRIPTION  OF  A  NEW  AIORPIIID  BUTTERFLY 
FROM  NORTH-EASTERN   INDIA. 

By  Lionel  or  Ni<  fcvii.i.K,  F.E.S.   C.il.Z.S.,  &«• 

Wifh  Plaie  C. 

Stichophthalma  xuRiMssA,  n.  sp. 

Habitat  :     Bhutan. 

Expanse:     S  ,  3 -t  <<>  4-0  ;  9  ,  4*5  t/)  50  inches. 

Description  :  Male.  Uppkrsidk,  hof/t  winyR  differ  from  those  of 
8.  nourmalialy  Westwood,  from  Native  Sikkim*  in  the  ground-colour 
being  of  a  much  brighter  shade,  red  chestnut  instt^ad  of   fuscous 
chestnut ;  in  the  broad  fulvous   outer   band  extending  uninterrupt- 
edly from  the  middle  of  thecosta  of  the  forewing  to  the  anal  angle  of 
the  hindwing,  being  twice  as  broad  on  the  hindwing,  and  not  in- 
wardly bounded  as  in   S,  fiaurnmhai  by  V-shaped  markings,  which 
are  obsolete,  being  reduced  to  obsolescent  small  rounded  dots  placed 
on  the  intemervular  folds.     Underside,   both  mtigs  also  with  the 
ground-colour  much  lighter  and  brighter,  the  subbasal  black    line 
inwardly,   and  the  discal    black  line  outwardly,  margined  by  pale 

*  Mr.  A.  V.  Rnyvett  has  obtained  three  malea  and  a  female   of  this   species   in 
Natiye  Sikkim  two  years  ranuing  in  Augast :  it  has  also  been  recorded  from  Borneo . 


132    JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

greenish  of  a  duller  and  less  rich  shade  than  in  8.  nourmahal. 
Female  differs  in  precisely  the  same  way  as  the  male,  and  in  addition 
has  the  white  spot  at  the  apex  of  the  forewing  on  the  upperside  more 
than  twice  as  large. 

Described  from  numerous  examples  captured  during  the  last  three 
or  four  years  in  Bhutan  by  the  native  collectors  of  the  late  Mr.  Otto 
MoUer  and  Mr.  A.  V.  Knyvett.  Having  lately  had  an  opportunity 
of  examining  the  true  8,  nourmahal  in  the  latter  gentleman's  col- 
lection, I  am  able  to  describe  the  Bhutan  species.  The  differencee 
given  above  in  the  coloration  and  markings  of  the  two  species 
appear  to  be  perfectly  constant. 

For  the  benefit  of  those  who  do  not  understand  Arabic,  I  may 
note  that  Nur-mahal  means  '*  Light  of  the  House*'  and  that  Nur-i- 
Nissa  is  "  Light  of  Women.  " 


PREHISTORIC  BOMBAY.* 

By  W.  E.  Hart. 

Those  who  have  walked  about  Bombay  with  their  eyes  open 
during  the  last  twenty  years  must  be  struck  with  the  changes  which 
have  taken  place  during  even  that  short  period,  and  which  are  tend- 
ing entirely  to  alter  the  physical  aspect  of  the  island.  As  more 
houses  are  built,  and  more  roads  constructed  in  a  space  limited  by 
the  waters  of  the  sea>  what  is  closest  at  hand  will  be  taken  to  furnish 
the  materials  of  which  they  are  to  be  made,  and  the  groimd  on  which 
they  are  to  stand.  So  it  is  that  we  now  see  on  all  sides  our  hills 
being  levelled,  our  hollows  raised,  and  our  foreshores  reclaimed,  till 


MiMM^^^ 


•  This  paper  Was  originally  read  by  Mr.  W.  E.  Hart,  as  a  popular  lecture,  at  the 
Sassoon  Mechanics'  Institute,  Bombay,  on  the  10th  March  1890.  It  is  republished, 
here,  as  it  is  likely  to  be  of  interest  to  many  members  of  the  Society,  inasmuch  as 
it  giveS)  in  a  convenient  form,  the  result  of  the  researched  of  such  men  as  Bnist, 
Clark,  Wynne,  Medlicott»  and  Blanford,  collected  from  a  large  number  of  technical 
and  scientific  publications. — Editor. 


PREHISTORIC  BOMBAY,  133 

the  whole  island  bids  fair  soon  to  be  a  flat  oval,  raised  only  a  few  feet 
above  the  sea.  Then,  when  Lord  Macaulay 's  New  Zealander,  educated 
into  a  cold-weather  globe-trotter,  arrives  from  the  ruins  of  London 
Bridge  at  those  of  the  Apollo  Bunder,  he  will  hear  with  wonder  of 
Malabar  Hill  and  Back  Bay,  and  ask  with  incredulous  surprise  how 
they  could  ever  have  existed,  or,  having  existed,  whither  they  have 
disappeared.  He  will  not  however  be  in  the  plight  of  the  traveller 
of  the  Eastern  fable,  who,  on  revisiting  the  same  spot  at  intervals  of 
a  thousand  years,  and  finding  it,  now  a  city,  then  a  lake,  and  again 
an  arid  waste,  was  informed  by  the  inhabitants  on  each  occasion  that 
it  had  always  been  as  he  then  saw  it.  For,  of  the  changes  now  in 
progress  round  us,  the  history  will  be  preserved  in  many  written 
records. 

But  I  am  to  speak  to  you  to-day  of  changes  far  greater  than  those 
now  in  progress,  e£Pected  in  the  ages  before  there  were  any  men  on 
earth  to  write  their  record.  How  then,  you  ask,  can  I  know  of 
them  ?  Well,  I  frankly  admit  I  cannot  knoic,  in  the  sense  of  abso- 
lute certainty.  But  what  is  there  we  can  so  know?  Even  in 
matters  of  history,  we  are  liable  to  be  misled  or  misinformed  through 
the  partiality  or  ignorance  of  the  human  historian.  This  risk  at 
least  we  escape  in  dealing  with  prehistoric  times.  For,  as  to  them, 
there  lies  at  our  feet  a  book,  written  by  the  liand  of  Nature,  in  letters 
that  cannot  lie.  True  it  is,  we  can  open  only  a  few  of  its  pages,  and 
possibly  may  misread  the  chanicters  we  find  traced  even  on  these. 
But  that  is  the  misfortune  of  the  reader,  not  the  fault  of  the  writer. 
The  whole  truth  is  there,  if  we  can  decipher  it,  and  one  or  two  of 
these  pages  I  ask  you  to  turn  with  me  to-day. 

But  before  we  do  so,  see  how  just  a  metaphor  is  that  of  the  book. 
You  all  know  that  this  globe  of  the  earth  which  we  inhabit  is  not  a 
homogeneous  mass  from  the  surface  to  the  antipodes,  nor  even  all 
over  its  surface.  The  solid  constituents  of  its  crust  are  composed  of 
different  rocks,  arranged  one  above  the  other  in  layers,  or  "strata," 
like  the  leaves  of  a  book,  and,  like  the  leaves  of  a  book,  always  in 
the  same  order.  In  some  places  some  of  the  strata  may  be  missing, 
as  sometimes  pages  from  a  book.  But  you  never  find  the  order 
of  the  strata  reversed.  You  never,  for  instance,  find  the  chalk  below 
the  coal,  nor  the  coal  below  the  old  red  sandstone,  any  more  than  in 


134      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

a  book  you  find  the  second  leaf  before  the  first,  or  the  third  before 
the  second.  Though,  digging  through  the  chalk,  you  may,  in  some 
places,  reach  at  once  the  old  red  sand- stone,  without  passing  through 
the  intervening  coal,  just  as,  in  turning  the  leaves  of  a  book,  you  may 
find  the  third  leaf  next  after  the  first,  if  the  second  has  been 
omitted  by  the  binder. 

Then,  you  know  that  from  beneath  this  solid  crust  a  mass  of 
molten  rock  here  and  there  finds  a  vent  in  volcanic  outbursts,  and 

streams  over  the  surface  in  lava  flows.     Of  these  we  shall  have  more 

» 

to  say  in  discussing  the  origin  of  Prehistoric  Bombay. 

But  first  I  will  ask  you  to  take  a  glance  at  Bombay  as  she  is. 
Standing  on  the  rocky  cliff,  near  the  flagstaff  where  the  English 
mails  are  signalled,  on  the  east  face  of  Cumballa  Hill,  near  the 
north  end  of  the  ridge,  you  get,  on  a  clear  day,  a  fine  view  of 
almost  the  whole  island,  and  see  that  it  is  roughly  not  unlike  my  left 
hand  held  towards  you  with  the  thumb  and  forefinger  extended,  and 
the  other  fingers  closed.  The  forefinger  is  then  the  eastern  side  of 
the  island,  ending  southward  in  the  longer  prominence  of  Colaba, 
while  the  shorter  ridge  to  the  west,  ending  southward  in  Malabar 
Point,  is  represented  by  the  thumb.  The  space  between  them  is 
Back  Bay,  while  the  Flats  extend  over  my  wrist  to  where  the  island 
ends  at  Sion  on  the  east  and  Worli  on  the  west,  about  a  third  of  the 
way  up  my  forearm. 

Now  look  back  along  the  ridge  near  the  north  end  of  which  you 
are  standing.  You  see  it  rises  precipitously  from  the  sea  at  the 
south  end  at  Malabar  Point,  whence  it  gradually  reaches  an  elevation 
of  about  200  feet,  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  depression  through 
which  the  road  passes  from  the  Gowalia  Tank  to  Breach  Candy,  it 
runs  almost  continuously  for  about  3  miles,  till  it  ends  precipitously 
to  the  north  at  Mahaluxumi.  On  the  other  side  of  the  Vellard,  it 
rises  again  at  Love  Grove,  but  is  again  breached  by  the  depression 
at  the  Pumping  Station,  through  which  the  main  drain  flows  out. 
On  the  other  side  of  this,  it  rises  again  in  the  Worli  ridge,  which 
ends  precipitously  to  the  north  in  the  inlet  of  the  sea  at  Mahim  Bay, 
the  south  shore  of  which  forms  the  sands,  so  well  known  to  eques- 
trians, marking  the  northern  limit  of  our  island  on  the  west. 

North  of  the  bay,  however,  the  rocky  ridge  rises  again  at  Bandora, 


PREHISTORIC  BOMBAY.  1:^5 

in  the  island  of  Salsette,  and  is  thence  continued^  with  similar 
intermptionsy  northward  along  the  coast,  past  Vcrsova,  Myr  Island, 
Dharayiy  and  Bassein,  to  Amalla. 

This  ridge  on  which  you  are  standing  then  is  part  of  a  great  sea  wall 
of  solid  rock,  here  some  half  mile  thick  through  from  cast  to  west, 
which  protects  some  35  miles  of  the  western  shores  of  India  from 
the  encroachments  of  the  sea.  Here  and  there,  we  have  seen,  it  has 
itself  suffered  from  the  inroads  of  the  waves.  But  how  well  it  is 
calculated  to  withstand  their  fur)',  even  during  the  onslaught  of  the 
S.-W.  monsoon,  to  which  it  stands  full  exposed,  you  can  see  if  you 
examine  the  rocks  around.  As  the  quarry-men  at  work  below  will 
tell  you,  they  are  so  hard  as  to  be  incapable  of  •*  dressing,"  and 
require  the  finest  steel-pointed  crowbars  for  the  making  of  the  holes 
in  which  to  put  the  blasting  charges  by  which  alone  they  can  be 
rent. 

Now,  look  again  at  the  ridge  on  which  you  arc  standing.  Through 
its  whole  length,  you  see,  it  rises  precipitously  on  the  eastern  side, 
but  slopes  gradually  to  the  west.  The  reason  for  this  you  will  find 
presently,  when  examining  more  attentively  the  strata  exposed  by 
the  operations  of  the  quarry-men  aforesaid.  You  will  then  see  that 
these  strata  are  not  laid  quite  horizontally,  but  are  tilted  at  an  angle 
of  some  15®  from  east  to  west.  Tot  they  arc  all  parallel  to  each  other, 
so  that  the  tilting  force  must  have  been  applied  to  all  alike,  after  they 
had  been  formed.  This  tilt,  or  **  dip,"  as  it  is  technically  called  by 
geologists,  by  unequally  exposing  the  strata  on  the  declivity  to  the 
action  of  the  weather,  has  caused  the  gradual  slope  to  the  west. 
But  before  proceeding  to  a  closer  investigation  of  the  struc- 
ture of  our  island,  let  us  look  over  its  surface  from  our  post 
of  vantage.  At  our  feet  lies  a  flat  expanse  of  low  ground,  some  of  it 
evidently  below  the  level  of  the  sea  outside,  which  is  excluded  by 
the  causeways  at  the  Mahaluxmi  VcUard,  Worli,  and  Sion.  It 
stretches  from  the  base  of  the  western  ridge  on  which  we  stand, 
eastward,  imbroken  by  any  eminence,  till  it  reaches  the  chain  of 
rocky  hills  that  mark  the  eastern  limit  of  the  island  at  its  northern 
end. 

This  level  plain,  between  the  two  lines  of  raised  rocky  ground  on 
its  west   and    east,    is    evidently     of    different     formations ;     for 


136      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  Hf-STORK  SOCIETY,  1890. 

you  see  the  southern  portion,  extending  a  short  distance  inward 
from  the  shore  of  Back  Bay,  over  the  quarters  of  Girgaum 
and  Khetwady,  is  covered  with  a  dense  growth  of  oocoanut  palms, 
indicating  a  sandy  soil ;  while  the  bare  treeless  rice-fields,  stretching 
away  northward,  show  that  we  here  have  clay,  till  a  patch  of  sand 
occurs  again  in  the  extreme  north,  as  shown  by  the  cocoanut  palm 
groves  that  follow  the  curve  of  the  Bay  at  Mahim. 

A  nearer  though  still  superficial  look  at  the  soil  in  these  places 
will  show  that  the  sandy  portions  are  full  of  remains  of  sea  shells, 
proving  their  marine  origin ;  while  remains  of  vegetation  and 
estuarine  shells  in  the  clay  portions  show  that  they  are  formed  of 
the  mud  deposited  by  tidal  creeks. 

But  before  descending  to  examine  the  Flats,  look  right  across  the 
island  at  the  chain  of  rocky  eminences  that  form  its  eastern  shore 
towards  its  northern  end.  These,  though  not  so  high  as  that  on 
which  we  stand,  nor  so  unbrokenly  continuous,  yet  seem  to  partake 
of  its  general  characteristics.  There  is  the  same  ridge  shape,  and 
the  ridges  lie  in  the  same  general  direction,  north  and  south. 
They  also,  like  the  western  ridge,  are  steep  on  the  eastern  face, 
but  decline  gradually  towards  the  west,  and  if  you  cross  the  island 
and  examine  the  quarries  there,  you  will  find  it  is  for  the  same 
reason.  You  see,  too,  regarding  the  eastern  line  of  eminence  as  a 
whole,  that,  like  the  western,  it  is,  generally  speaking,  higher 
towards  the  north  than  the  south,  where,  indeed,  on  the  Eastern 
coast,  the  rocky  shore  from  Nowroji  Hill  to  Colaba  Point  is  raised 
very  little  above  the  sea.  The  reason,  no  doubt,  is  the  same,  mz.^ 
that  the  portion  most  exposed  to  the  sea  and  weather,  especially 
during  the  S.-W.  monsoon,  is  most  worn  away. 

The  fact,  however,  that  the  lowest  part  of  the  eastern  ridge  at 
Colaba  has  been  worn  so  much  lower  than  the  lowest  part  of  the  western 
ridge  at  Malabar  Point,  while  the  eastern  ridge  is  neither  so  con- 
tinuous nor  so  high  as  the  western,  shows  that  the  rock  on  the 
east,  though  partaking  of  the  same  general  characteristics  as  that 
on  the  west,  is  of  a  texture  less  suited  to  resist  the  action  of  the 
weather.  This  our  friends  the  quarry -men  would  seem  to  say,  when 
they  tell  us  that  the  Sewri  stone  is  good  for  building,  as  it  can  be 
cut  to   what   form   they   please ;    while   the    Walkeshwar    stone   is 


PREHISTORIC  BOMBAY.  137 

useless  for  building,  as  it  is  so  hard  that  it  cannot  be  cut,  and  will 
only  break  in  such  direction  as  itself  chooses.* 

But  before  we  proceed  to  a  more  detailed  examination,  standing 
up  here  yet  another  moment,  let  us  try  to  picture  what  would  be  the 
scene,  were  water  spread  over  the  surface  now  occupied  by  the  flat 
plain  below  us.  It  requires  no  violent  effort  of  the  imagination  to 
see  that  if  the  artificial  dams  at  the  Vellard,  Worli,  and  Sion  cause- 
ways, and  the  natural  barriers  formed  by  the  heaping  of  sand-banks 
at  Mahim  and  Back  Bay  were  removed,  so  as  to  freely  admit  the 
sea,  only  the  higher  points  of  these  two  chains  of  rocky  eminences 
on  the  east  and  west  would  escape  submersion.  But  the  soil  that 
now  connects  them  is,  as  we  have  seen,  in  part  nothing  but  the  clay 
deposited  as  silt  by  tidal  creeks,  and  in  part  only  the  sea-sand 
heaped  up  by  the  waves  and  winds. 

Here,  then,  is  the  first  fact  recorded  on  the  first  page,  lying  open 
at  our  feet,  in  the  book  of  which  I  spoke.  Bombay  was  not  formerly 
one  island  as  now,  but  a  number  of  small  rocky  islets,  ranged  in 
two  nearly  parallel  rows  and  separated  by  the  waters  of  the  sea. 

That  this  was  to  some  extent  so  even  during  their  human  occu- 
pation, is  proved  both  by  recorded  facts  and  the  tradition  of  local 
names,  for  we  find  Mahim  mentioned  in  an  ancient  manuscript 
as  a  separate  island ;  and  from  Dr.  Fryer's  account  of  his  visit  just 
220  years  ago,  it  would  seem  that  Mahim,  Worli,  and  Love  Grove, 
were  then  all  three  separate  islands ;  while  Colaba  consisted  of  two 
separate  islands,  the  smaller  of  which,  then  called  "  Old  Woman's 
Island,"  he  describes  as  **a  dry  sandy  spot,  of  no  further  value  to  the 
Company  than  as  affording  grass  to  their  antelopes  and  other  beasts 
of  pleasure/'  Then  again  the  name  Umarkadi  shows  that,  when  it 
was  bestowed,  there  was  at  Mazagon  a  kadi,  or  salt  marshy  creek. 
That  it  was  shallow  with  a  muddy  bottom,  is  further  evidenced 
by     the    name    Paidhoni,  given    to    that     portion    of    the    main 


*  Even  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  island,  however,  a  very  hard  black  rock  is  found 
nnlike  either  the  Sewri  or  Walkeshwar  stone.  It  occurs  in  small  quantities 
and  in  isolated  spots,  which  all  He  in  the  same  straight  line  between  Sion 
•Hill  on  the  north  and  Cross  Island  to  the  south,  showing  apparently  that  it  was 
all  the  result  of  one  eruption  under  different  conditions  than  those  that  formed  the 
other  rooks  on  either  side  of  the  island. 
18 


138    JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

island  at  which  way-farers,  after  fording  the  last  creek,  washed 
the  mud  from  their  feet  before  entering  the  town. 

This  single  island  of  ours  then,  only  two  hundred  years  ago,  was 
a  group  of  at  least  seven  distinct  islets,  and  in  the  ages  before 
that,  ere  the  work  of  silting  up  had  progressed  so  far  as  it  had  then, 
must  have  been  an  archipelago  of  what  for  the  most  part  were  little 
more  than  mere  island  rocks. 

But  tbe  book  we  are  reading  carries  their  history  yet  further  back. 
You  remember  I  spoke  just  now  of  a  dip  in  the  strata  at  the 
quarry  below  Cumballa  Hill.  Now  the  same  dip  you  will  find,  not 
only  in  the  other  ridge  on  the  eastern  side  of  this  island,  but  in 
Salsette,  into  which  we  traced  this  very  rock  of  Cumballa  Hill  on 
which  we  stand.  Not  only  so,  but  it  is  observable  in  the  other  islands 
of  the  harbour,  which  together  make  up  the  Bombay  group.  These, 
with  Bombay,  would  seem  then  once  to  have  formed  one  continuous 
whole. 

But  the  book  does  not  stop  there.  If  you  cross  the  harbour,  you 
will  find  this  same  dip  on  the  main  land,  extending  from  some  hills 
near  Panwel,  about  9  miles  inland,  to  the  sea,  and  running  longi- 
tudinally up  and  down  the  coast,  a  distance  of  some  130  miles,  from 
some  way  south  of  Bombay  to  near  Damaun  in  the  north.  It  is 
especially  noticeable  here,  because,  with  the  exception  of  this  small 
area,  the  stratification  of  the  neighbouring  rocks  is  for  many  miles 
remarkably  level,  though  they  are  all  of  precisely  the  same  forma- 
tion as  those  that  partake  in  the  dip. 

Originally,  then,  it  would  seem,  this  island  of  ours  was  not  an 
island  at  all,  but  a  portion  of  the  main-land,  and  when  broken  off 
from  that  it  became  a  cluster  of  small  rocky  islets. 

What,  then,  was  the  force  that  broke  this  fragment  from  the  main- 
land ?  Probably  the  same  that  produced  the  dip.  That  evidently 
might  be  caused  either  by  an  elevation  at  the  eastern  end,  or  a 
depression  at  the  western.  In  the  former  case,  there  would  probably 
be  some  dislocation  of  the  strata  about  the  line  of  up-heaval.  But 
there  is  none  visible.  It  therefore  seems  probable  that  the  dip  was 
caused  by  a  subsidence  in  the  west.  But  the  general  subsidence 
of  a  line  of  country  near  the  coast  would,  of  course,  let  in  the  sea 
over  the  lower  portions  and  round  the  higher,  so  as  to  make  islands 


PREHISTORIC  BOMBA  V  1^9 

of  what  before  were  eminences  on  the  main-land.  These  would  be 
further  worn  down  by  the  action  of  the  weather  and  the  waves,  and 
thus  tend  to  be  united  into  one,  like  Bombay  in  her  present  form, 
by  the  deposit  about  their  shores  of  the  silt  and  sand  formed  by 
their  own  detrition. 

But  such  elevation  or  depression,  as  that  evidenced  by  the  dip,  of 
tracts  of  country,  is  effected  only  bv  volcanic  ajjfencv.  It  would  seem, 
then,  that  we  owe  our  insular  }X)sition  to  subterranean  volcanic 
forces.  How  energetic  thest*  have  boon  in  j)ast  tim(»s  we  have  abun- 
dant proof  about  us. 

If  we  proceed  now   to  a  more  nnnutc*  exiimi nation  of  the  r<K'k  at 
our  feet,  we  find  that  it  is  heavy,  hard,  dark,  crystulline,  and  on    the 
flat  upper  surface?  curiously  mai*ked  with  a  nt^t-work  of  whitish  veins 
into  irregular  hexagons.     This  points  to  a  ])rismatic  or  columnar 
structure  of  the  ro<'k,  which,  togi^tlier  witli  its  nihor  characteristics, 
enables  us  to   identify    it    with    tlie    class   known    to    yfcolom'sts   as 
**  basaltic,"  which   are  fonncxl   l)v  the  solidification    of  ancient  lava 
flows.     The  columnar  structure  is  not  here  so  marked  and  general,  nor 
so  regular,  as  at  the  well-known  (iiant's  Causeway  in  Ireland,  or  the 
Scotch   Islands  of  StatVa   and    ]t)na,   but    nnniistakeable   groups    of 
hexagonal   columns  do   occur.     Th(»  most  acccssibh-  just  now  is  that 
which  overhangs  the  west  side  of  tlu*  re<hh'r  lioad,  a   few   yards  to 
the  south   of  the  over-bridge   at  thr  Parsi  Towers  of  Silence.     But 
even  where  it  is  not  fully   dcveh)p(Ml   in  distinct  columns,   the  pris- 
matic  structure  can   easily  1k^  traced  in  many  ])laces  where  the  rock 
has  been  exposed  in  vertical  s(M*tion  by  tlic*  operations  of  the  quarry - 
men.     These  also  disclose   the  ellVct    of  de('om]>ositi()n  through   the 
action   of  the  weather,  and  tlie  percolation  of  water.     First  the  mass 
splits  into  huge  cubical   blocks   like   those  on    the   west   side  of  the 
Queen's  Iload,  just  below   the  ridge  of  ilalabar  Hill.     These  splits 
take  the  line  of  the  joints  indicated  ])y    tlie  network  of  white  lines  I 
have  mentioned,   which   are   ptn-haps  forrncMl   by   th(^  infiltration   of 
light  coloured  minerals  in  solution  into  the  cracks  caused  by  unequal 
shrinkage  of  the  mass  of  glowing  lava  while  it  contracts  in  cooling. 
Where  these  blocks  an^  allowed  to  lie  uudlsturl)ed,  in  such  a  position 
as  to  be  exposed  to  the  atniospluMv    but    slieltered   from   any  violent 
action   of   the  weather,   thev   are    found  to  be  surrounded  with  a  red 


140      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

earth,  the  first  result  of  their  decomposition.  As  you  go  lower,  this 
pales  through  orange  into  yellow,  and  the  rock,  further  disintegrated 
by  the  mechanical  action  of  the  water  filtering  through  the  soil,  as 
well  as  decomposed  by  the  chemical  action  of  such  salts  as  it  brings 
down  with  it  in  solution,  is  gradually  loosened  and  broken  up  till 
the  vertical  prismatic  columns  become  spheroidal  or  oval  nodules, 
consisting  of  friable  layers  of  a  yellowish  earthy  crust,  which  you 
can  peel  off,  like  the  coats  of  an  onion,  round  a  hard  dark  coloured 
nucleus,  like  the  rock  at  the  top.  Lower  still,  even  these  lose  their 
shape,  and  you  find  a  mass  of  rotten  brownish  *'moorum/' 

Now,  if  you  cross  the  island  to  the  quarries  on  the  east,  you  will 
find  the  rock,  as  I  have  said,  not  so  hard  as  that  on  the  western 
ridge,  nor  does  it  show  the  same  columnar  or  prismatic  structure. 
These  differences  may  have  been  caused  by  some  difference  in  the 
conditions  under  which  the  mass  of  molten  lava  cooled  at  the  different 
places.  In  other  respects,  the  rock  on  the  east  generally  resembles 
that  on  the  west,  both  mineralogically  and  in  the  manner  of  its 
weathering  into  red  earth,  and  finally  decomposing  through  yellow 
nodules  into  brownish  moorum.* 

The  rocky  eminences  of  our  island,  then,  would  seem  to  have  been 
originally  formed  by  outpourings  of  volcanic  lava,  and  their  shape 
to  have  been  determined  by  the  force  and  direction  of  the  flow. 
But  these  rocky  eminences  we  have  already  succeeded  in  connecting 
with  the  main-land.  You  will,  therefore,  not  be  surprised  to  find, 
on  crossing  the  harbour,  that  the  neighbouring  hills  of  the  Concan 
are  also  of  volcanic  origin. 

But  what  is  surprising  is  the  immense  area  and  depth  covered  by 
the  lava  flows  that  produced  them.  As  you  go  inland  from  the 
coast,  as  you  mount  the  western  ghauts,  as  you  cross  the  plateau  of 
the  Deccan,  as  you  scale  the  heights  of  Mabableshwar,  you  find  that 
the  country  for  miles  round,  on  all  sides  of  you,  is  one  great  mass  of 
volcanic  rock,  more  than  6,000  feet  thick,  and  covering  an  area  of 
about  200,000  square  miles  !  With  the  exception  of  that  which 
produced  the  great  basalt  plain  of  the   Snake  River  in  Western 

*But  below  this  again,  on  the  east  side,  in  the  excavations  for  the  extension  of 
the  Prince's  Dock,  at  a  level  which  has  not  been  reached  at  the  bottom  of  the  qnarries 
on  the  West,  recui's  massive  rock ;  apparently  identical  with  that  at  the  top. 


PREHISrORIC  BOMBA  Y.  U\ 

North  America,  covering  an  area  larger  than  France  and  Gi-eat 
Britain  together,  there  has  probably  never  been  in  the  historj'  of 
the  world  so  great  an  outpouring  of  lava  as  that  which  produced 
the  series  of  rocks  known  to  geologists  as  **the  Deccan  Traps/'  to 
which  those  of  Bombay  Island  belong. 

Besides  the  great  depth  and  area  occupied  by  tlieso  rocks,  another 
peculiar  feature  about  them  is  the  extreme  horizon tality  and  regula- 
rity of  their  strata.  With  the  exception  of  that  dip  in  which  the 
rocks  of  Bombay  Island  partake,  and  wliifh  \vc  have  seen  to  extend 
over  a  comparatively  small  areu,  the  Di*i*can  traps  are  found  to  lie 
in  almost  exactly  horizontal  bands,  varying  in  thi<'kn(»ss  from  8  to 
200  feet,  formed  bv  successive  flows  of  lava. 

This  would  seem  to  show  that  the  vents  through  which  the  lava 
was  ejected  were  raised  little  if  at  all  abov(»  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  and  that  the  lava  stn'ame<l  forth  in  a  very  liquid  state. 
possibly  as  molten  mud. 

Considering  the  great  area  covered  by  the  lava  Hows,  very  few  of 
their  vents  have  yet  been  found.  Those  which  are  known,  lie  princi- 
pally in  the  plain  of  the  (^oncan,  and  consist  for  the  most  part  of 
what  are  technically  known  t(^  geologists  as  ** dykes,"  that  is,  long 
lines  or  walls  of  basaltic  rock,  sliowing  that  tlu^  lava  of  which  it  is 
formed  was  ejected  from  longitudinal  cracks  or  lissures  in  the  earth's 
crust.  This,  and  the  fact  that  the  few  crater-like  vents  vet  discov- 
ered  are  little  more  than  low  hillocks,  would  seem  to  confinn  the 
view  that  the  lava  flows  forniiiig  the  si»ries  of  tlie  Deccan  traps  were 
poured  forth  from  but  slight  elevation. 

The  position  of  the  known  vents  would  seem  to  point  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  the  scene  of  the  eruptions  that  produced  the  Deccan  traps 
was  principally  in  the  line  of  country  between  the  foot  of  the  west- 
em  ghauts  and  the  stni.  There  ai-e,  however,  in  Bombay  several 
places  to  be  noticed  presently,  which  doubtless  were  the  foci  of 
volcanic  eruptions  later  than  those  which  formed  the  Deccan  traps. 
These,  as  marking  weak  spots  in  the  earth's  crust,  may  also  have 
been  vents  for  the  earlier  eruptions,  and  others,  by  subsidence  of  the 
land,  may  now  be  lying  beneath  the  waters  of  the  harbour  and  the 
sea  outside.  However  that  may  be,  it  seems  pretty  clear  that  much, 
if  not  all,  of  that  enormous  mass  of    volcanic  rock  which  we  know  as 


142       JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

the  Deccan  traps  was  ejected  in  our  immediate  neighbourhood  from 
a  number  of  orifices  in  the  surface  of  the  ground,  over  the  edges  of 
which  a  seething  mass  of  molten  mud  from  time  to  time  welled  forth 
from  below. 

Now  the  bottom  of  this  mass  of  volcanic  rock  is  found  to  rest  on 
certain  strata  geologically  known  as  "the  Bagh  beds/'  shown  by 
the  fossils  which  they  contain  to  be  of  marine  origin,  and  identified 
with  the  rocks  of  the  **  Cretaceous  Period ''  of  Europe. 

But  the  lava  flows  that  formed  the  bottom  of  the  Deccan  traps 
were  not  deposited  beneath  the  sea.  For  pent  between  successive 
flows,  '4nterstratified"  with  them,  as  geologists  say,  are  found  strata 
of  mud  containing /resA  water  fossils.  Moreover,  the  surface  of  the 
Bagh  beds,  on  which  the  Deccan  traps  rest,  is  not  all  smoothly 
spread  in  level  lines  of  horizontal  stratification,  as  we  should  expect 
the  bottom  of  the  sea  to  be,  but  worn  into  ridges  and  hollows,  as 
though  it  had  been  already  elevated  to  the  upper  air,  and  exposed  to 
the  action  of  the  weather  before  the  first  flows  of  lava  were  poured 
over  it. 

Again,  the  fresh  water  beds  interstratified  with  these  show  that 
the  first  lava  flows  did  not  follow  each  other  very  quickly,  for 
there  was  time  for  them  to  cool  and  harden,  and  by  exposure  to  the 
weather  to  be  worn  into  hollows,  where  were  collected  the  water  and 
mud  in  which  those  organisms,  both  animal  and  vegetable,  that  were 
killed  by  the  next  fiery  flow  passed  their  lives  and  were  preserved  in 
death. 

Here,  then,  is  another  important  fact  recorded  in  our  book.  The 
oldest  of  the  lava  flows  that  form  the  Deccan  traps  is  newer  than 
the  deposit  of  the  Bagh  beds,  and  was  itself  deposited  in  such 
manner  as  to  be  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  weather. 

But  after  the  formation  of  the  fresh  water  beds  interstratified  at 
the  bottom  of  the  Deccan  traps,  the  volcanoes  would  seem  to  have 
become  more  active,  and  the  flows  of  lava  to  have  followed  each 
other  in  quicker  succession.  For  through  a  great  area  and  depth 
we  find  no  more  fresh  water  beds,  and  the  bands  of  lava  are  found 
to  rest  on  each  other  "  conformably, '^  as  geologists  say,  that  is,  the 
upper  are  laid  continuously  and  without  disturbance  on  the  lower. 
These  facts  show  that  the  underlying    bands  had  not    been  exposed 


PREHISTORIC  BOMBAY.  143 

sufficiently  long  to  the  action  of  the  weather  to  be  worn  into  promi- 
nences and  depressions  before  the  deposit  of  those  lying  on  them. 

But  the  rocks  of  Bombay  do  not  belong  to  this  part  of  the  series. 
For  we  find  here  no  less  than  six  bands  of  fresh  water  beds  inter- 
stratified  with  the  volcanic  rock.  Nor  do  they  belong  to  the  older 
parts  in  which  the  other  fresh  water  beds  occur.  For  with  the 
exception  of  one  out  of  several  species  of  Cf/priSy  a  small  crustacean 
allied  to  the  "  water  flea/'  no  animal  organism  among  the  fossils  of 
the  two  sets  of  interstratified  fresh  water  beds  has  been  identified  as 
common  to  both. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  fossils  of  the  Bombav  fresh  water  beds 
belong,  apparently,  to  a  later  period  in  the  history  of  the  evolution 
of  life  on  the  earth  than  the  others.  We  find  among  them  the  wing- 
cases  of  beetles,  the  bones  of  a  fresh  water  tortoise,  and  the  skeletons 
of  a  small  frog  (Oxyglossus  ptmllus),  which  the  absence  of  certain 
teeth  shows  to  be  closely  allied  to  two  existing  species,  Oxt/glossus 
lima,  found  in  Siam,  China  and  Bengal,  and  Oxyglossus  IceviSy  found 
in  the  Philippines. 

Here,  then,  is  another  very  important  record  in  regard  to  the 
age  of  our  island,  showing  that  its  rocks  were  formed  towards  the 
end  of  the  series  of  the  Deccan  traps,  and  when  those  volcanic  out- 
bursts were  beginning  to  abate  in  frequency  and  violence. 

But  the  Bombay  fresh  water  beds  you  find  on  both  sides  of  the 
island,  and  they  run  out  into  the  sea  at  several  places.  Moreover, 
they  are  continued  in  Salsette,  and,  if  looked  for,  would  probably  be 
found  on  the  main-land.  Wherever  they  occur  they  partake  in 
the  westward  dip  we  have  noticed  in  the  volcanic  rocks,  the  top 
or  latest  flows,  of  which  they  underlie. 

All  this  tends  to  show  that  the  fresh  water  beds  were  deposited 
before  Bombay  was  so  broken  off  from  the  main-land  as  we  have  seen, 
and  that  they  originally  extended  beyond  the  present  limits  of  our 
island.  How  far  beyond,  we  cannot  say,  as  we  have  no  means  now 
of  knowing  how  much  land  has  been  lost  by  subsidence,  by  en- 
croachments of  the  sea,  and  by  the  action  of  the  weather. 

Now  the  fossils  which  we  find  in  the  Bombay  fresh  water  beds 
are  such  as  show  that  the  area  which  they  indicate  must  have 
been  covered  by  a  shallow  muddy   swamp   of  stagnant  fresh  water* 


U4      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

For  there  is  no  trace  of  any  fish,  and  besides  the  animal  remains  I 
have  mentioned  of  amphibians  and  reptiles,  minute  crustaceans  and 
insects,  there  are  two  species  of  fresh  water  molluscs  and  vegetable 
remains,  consisting  of  small  pieces  of  wood  and  numerous  traces  of 
marsh  aquatic  plants. 

It  seems,  then,  that  towards  the  close  of  the  geological  epoch 
known  as  the  Cretaceous  Period,  the  whole  of  Western  India  was 
devastated  by  such  an  outburst  of  volcanic  fury  as  the  world  has 
seldom  seen.  Of  course,  there  were  then  no  human  beings  on 
the  earth..  But,  with  this  exception,  the  effect  of  that  loosening  of 
the  infernal  fires  may  in  a  measure  be  realized  by  the  perusal  of  a 
very  graphic  account  of  a  late  volcanic  eruption  in  Japan  written 
for  the  Cornhill  Magazine,  and  lately  republished  in  the  Times  of 
India,  from  which  I  will  read  a  few  extracts : — 

*'  All  around  was  beautiful  on  that  bright  summer  morning,  when 
at  7-30  there  occurred  an  earthquake  shock  so  violent  as  to  leave 
no  room  for  doubt  that  some  mischief  was  brewing.  Fifteen 
minutes  later  this  was  followed  by  a  second  and  yet  more  severe  shock. 
Another  brief  interval  of  about  ten  minutes,  and  the  earth  began 
to  heave  like  a  tossing  sea,  rising  and  sinking,  so  that  houses 
collapsed,  totally  wrecked,  and  people  were  violently  thrown  down 
and  became  actively  sick  as  if  at  sea.  The  earthquake  was  imme- 
diately followed  by  an  appalling  and  unearthly  sound  as  of  the  roar 
of  a  thousand  thunder-claps,  blending  with  the  shriek  of  all  the 
steam- whistles  and  roaring  steam-boilers  of  earth,  and,  ere  the 
terrified  and  deafened  human  beings  could  recall  their  bewildered 
senses,  they  beheld  the  whole  mighty  cone  of  Sho-Bandaisan  blown 
bodily  into  the  air,  where  it  overspread  the  whole  heaven  with  a  vast 
dense  pall  of  ashes  and  mud- spray,  blotting  out  the  light  of  day  and 
turning  all  to  thick  darkness.  Ere  these  had  time  to  fall  back  to 
earth,  there  poured  forth  dark  clouds  of  vapour  and  such  stifling 
gases  as  well-nigh  choked  all  living  creatures.  Then  leaping  tongues 
of  infernal  flame,  crimson  and  purple,  seemed  to  flash  right  up  to 
the  heavens,  and  after  appalling  earth-throes  were  succeeded  by 
showers  of  red-hot  ashes,  sulphur,  and  boiling  water,  accompanied 
by  fearful  subterranean  roaring  and  rumbling,  and  by  a  rushing 
whirl-wind   of  hurricane -force   uprooting   great   trees   and  hurling 


PREHISTORIC  BOMBA  Y.  145 

them  afair.  Another  moment,  and  there  poured  forth  floods  of 
boiling  liquid  mud.  Evidently  the  earthquakes  must  have  rent 
some  subterranean  fissure,  through  which  a  great  volume  of  water 
suddenly  poured  into  the  internal  fires,  generating  a  stupendous 
volume  of  steam,  which  must  have  continued  to  increase,  and  so 
become  more  and  more  compressed  as  volcanic  fires  and  subterranean 
waters  continued  their  awful  struggle,  converting  the  foundation 
of  the  mountain  into  a  cyclopean  boiler,  which  finally  exploded, 
with  the  result,  a  million  times  magnified,  of  the  most  awful  boiler 
explosion  ever  known  above  grounds 

**  The  convulsions  of  the  mountain  rent  great  chasms,  from  which, 
uprose  jets  of  flame,  ashes,  and  boiling  water.    The  eruptions  continued 
for  about  two  hours.     By  10  a.m.  its  violence  was  spent,  though  for 
hours  afterwards  the  ground  trembled  and  quivered,  as  well  it  might 
after  so  appalling  a  fit  of  passion.  ,  But  in  those  two  hours  the  whole 
face  of  thirty  square  miles  of  country  (in   the   form   of  a   vast   fan 
extending  to  a  radius  five  miles  from  the  central  crater)  was  totally 
changed.     Of  the  mountain  cone  thus  suddenly  transformed  into  a 
steam-boiler,  there  remains  now  only  the  back — a   ragged  overhang- 
ing precipice,  rising  to  a  sheer  height,  variously  estimated  at  600  or 
1,000  feet  above  a  bottomless  crater  of  about  a  mile    in  diameter. 
Thence,  with  ceaseless  roar,  rise  dense  clouds  of  suffocating  sulphur- 
ous steam,    which  sometimes  clear  off  sufficiently  to  allow  adventur- 
ous climbers  a  momentary    glimpse    of    the    seething    mud  below. 
Those  who  have  ascended  that  remnant  of  the   mountain   from  the 
slope  behind  it,  and  so  have  reached  the  brink  of  that  precipice  have 
beheld  such  a  picture  of  desolation   as   seems   scarcely  to   belong  to 
this  earth.     All  that  was  Little  Bandai  now  lies  outspread  in  a  thick 
layer  of  horrid  mud,  varying  in  depth  from  10  to  150   feet — deep 
enough  to  efface  every  accustomed   feature  in  the  whole  area — and 
itself  partially  coated  with  layers  of  pale  grey  ash  and  black  stones 
and  rocks,  which  seem  to  have  been  ejected  to  such  a  height  as  not 
to  have  fallen  back  to  earth  until  the  awful  mud- wave  had  poured  itself 
out.     It  is  now  described  as  a  wild  chaos  of  earth,  rock,  and  mud, 
in  some  places  resembling  the  concrete  blocks  of  some  cyclopean 
break-water — in  others  rather  suggesting  a  raging  sea  whose  gigantic 
waves  have  suddenly  been  congealed     Of  all  that  made  the.  scene 
19 


146      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

so  beautiful  and  pleasant  not  a  vestige  remains — not  a  blade  of  grass 
where  lately  the  mountain  was  clothed  with  springy  turf,  not  a 
green  leaf,  not  a  sign  of  life,  nothing  but  desolation,  with  a  horrid 
smell  arising  from  stagnant  sulphur  pools.  Great  trees,  with  their 
trunks  twisted  and  split,  lie  uprooted  and  hurled  far  from  the  spot 
where  they  have  stood  perhaps  for  centuries,  while  of  the  villages 
on  the  mountain  not  a  trace  remains — they  and  their  inhabitants 
lie  buried  deep  beneath  this  hideous  sea  of  mud.  " 

If  such  was  the  scene  when  30  square  miles  of  land  were  whelmed 
beneath  a  stream  of  volcanic  mud  150  ft.  thick,  flowing  from  a 
single  crater,  try  to  imagine  what  it  must  have  been  when  with 
scores  of  lava  vents  in  full  operation,  the  same  calamity  occurred  over 
a  space  700  times  as  large,  not  once  or  twice  only,  but  at  intervals 
extending  over  many  years,  till  the  wide  territory  subjected  to  it  was 
buried  40  times  as  deep  as  the  fair  fields  of  Bandai. 

Even  when  the  land  began  in  a  measure  to  recover  from  the  effects 
of  these  outbursts  in  the  intermissions  of  their  fury,  and  plant  and 
animal  life  was  again  developed  on  its  surface,  again  and  yet  again 
the  deadly  torrent  burst  forth,  overwhelming  in  sudden  death  the 
young  beginnings  of  life  that  had  just  struggled  into  existence. 

In  this  way  were  piled  up  on  the  main-land  new  hills  of  lava  on  the 
site  of  the  swamps  that  filled  the  depressions  worn  by  the  weather 
in  the  surface  of  the  flow  that  last  preceded  them. 

But  even  when  these  were  cooled  and  solidified  into  rock,  volcanic 
fires  still  broke  forth  at  intervals.  For  we  find  at  several  places  in 
the  island,  notably  Sion,  Sewri,  and  Bhandarwara,  as  well  as  at  the 
hill  in  which  are  excavated  the  Kanheri  Caves  in  Salsette,  and  even 
at  the  bottom  of  the  harbour  in  the  tideway  outside  the  Prince's 
Dock,  masses  of  volcanic  ash  embedding  fragments  of  the  older 
volcanic  rock  torn  off  in  the  later  eruptions,  which  are  seen  in  places 
to  have  broken  through  the  strata  of  volcanic  rock  and  fresh  water 
beds  alike. 

Then  came  the  subsidence  of  a  whole  tract  of  country  that  plunged 
the  western  extremities  of  the  continent  beneath  the  waves,  and 
cast  her  hills  into  the  sea  to  become  a  cluster  of  island  rocks. 

Now  turn  another  page  of  the  record  at  our  feet.  You  remember 
we  saw  the  soil  of  the  Flats,  which  form  the  centre  of  our  island,  to 


PREHISTORIC  BOMBAY  H7 

consist  in  part  of  estuarine  clay,  and  in  ])art  of  marine  sand.  The 
former  must  have  been  depositwl  when  lionibay  wasa  gi-oup  of  ishmds 
separated  by  tidal  creeks,  such  as  we  see  to  this  day  in  abundance 
about  Salsette  and  the  coast  of  the  Coucan.  It  contains  numerous 
root«  of  mangrove  bushes  bored  by  a  species  of  teredo,  showing  that 
the  soil  in  which  they  grew  was  a  muddy  salt  marsh  half  way  l)e- 
tween  high  and  low  water  marks.  The  marine  sand,  in  places 
caked  together  into  compact  masses,  to  which  the  name  has  Inn^n 
given  of  "  littoral  concrcte/'  consists  almost  wholly  of  sea  shells  that 
lived  below  low  water  mark.  But,  wliere  l>otli  are  found  t<»g<^ther, 
the  low  tide  sand  is  found  abore  the  half  tide  clay,  and  in  this  order 
both  are  found  together  in  places  above  higli  water  mark. 

But  this  is  not  all.  At  a  spot  in  BycuUa,  20  feet  al)ove  the  level 
of  the  sea,  has  been  found  below  the  clav  that  underlies  the  littoral 
concrete,  a  band  of  brown  earth,  evidently  a  salt  water  deiK)sit,  for 
it  contains  nodules  of  lime  enclosing:  shells  of  the  thin  ovster,  wliieh 
from  its  position  must  be  older  than  the  blue  clay,  but  from  its 
appearance  must  have  been  exposed  to  atmospheric  weathering. 

Here,  then,  is  another  strange  fact  recorded  in  our  book.  After 
the  volcanoes  had  so  pilcxl  hills  as  we  have  seen  on  the  fresh  water 
swamp  on  the  main-land,  and  these  had  by  a  subsidence  of  the  coast 
l)een  broken  off  the  main-land  and  cast  into  the  sea  as  islands,  and 
had  there  lain  undisturlxnl  long  enough  to  allow  tlie  de^wsit  of  the 
silt  which  forms  this  band  of  brown  eartli,  tliere  came  an  upheaval 
of  the  land  that  raised  the  floor  of  tlie  st^a  above  high  water  mark 
and  exposed  it  to  the  action  of  the  weatlier.  This  was  followed  by 
another  subsidence  tliat  brouglit  tlie  band  of  brown  earth  beh)W  the 
level  of  half  tide  mark  long  enough  to  allow  the  dei)Osit  on  it  of 
the  mud  of  tidal  creeks  and  the  growth  of  mangrove  forests.  Then 
again  the  land  sank  down,  till  what  had  been  siilt.  marsh  became  deep 
BeHy  and  on  the  estuarine  clay  was  deposited  the  shelly  sand  of  tlie 
littoral  concrete.  Then  another  change,  this  time  an  ///)-heaval,  and 
lo  !  brown  earth,  blue  clay,  and  littoral  concrete,  are  together  pushed 
up  above  the  level  of  the  highest  tide ! 

This  change  in  the  level  of  the  Flats,  i'oi-  a  reason  T  shall  presently 
point  out,  probably  pushed  them  up  consi(h'i"al)ly  liigher  than  they 
now  are,  and  possibly  connected  all  the  rocky  islets  in  one.     If  so, 


146      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

so  beautiful  and  pleasant  not  a  vestige  remains — not  a  blade  of  grass 
where  lately  the  mountain  was  clothed  with  springy  turf,  not  a 
green  leaf,  not  a  sign  of  life,  nothing  but  desolation,  with  a  horrid 
smell  arising  from  stagnant  sulphur  pools.  Great  trees,  with  their 
trunks  twisted  and  split,  lie  uprooted  and  hurled  far  from  the  spot 
where  they  have  stood  perhaps  for  centuries,  while  of  the  villages 
on  the  mountain  not  a  trace  remains — they  and  their  inhabitants 
lie  buried  deep  beneath  this  hideous  sea  of  mud.  " 

If  such  was  the  scene  when  30  square  miles  of  land  were  whelmed 
beneath  a  stream  of  volcanic  mud  150  ft.  thick,  flowing  from  a 
single  crater,  try  to  imagine  what  it  must  have  been  when  with 
scores  of  lava  vents  in  full  operation,  the  same  calamity  occurred  over 
a  space  700  times  as  large,  not  once  or  twice  only,  but  at  intervals 
extending  over  many  years,  till  the  wide  territory  subjected  to  it  was 
buried  40  times  as  deep  as  the  fair  fields  of  Bandai. 

Even  when  the  land  began  in  a  measure  to  recover  from  the  effects 
of  these  outbursts  in  the  intermissions  of  their  fury,  and  plant  and 
animal  life  was  again  developed  on  its  surface,  again  and  yet  again 
the  deadly  torrent  burst  forth,  overwhelming  in  sudden  death  the 
young  beginnings  of  life  that  had  just  struggled  into  existence. 

In  this  way  were  piled  up  on  the  main-land  new  hills  of  lava  on  the 
site  of  the  swamps  that  filled  the  depressions  worn  by  the  weather 
in  the  surface  of  the  flow  that  last  preceded  them. 

But  even  when  these  were  cooled  and  solidified  into  rock,  volcanic 
fires  still  broke  forth  at  intervals.  For  we  find  at  several  places  in 
the  island,  notably  Sion,  Sewri,  and  Bhandarwara,  as  well  as  at  the 
hill  in  which  are  excavated  the  Kanheri  Caves  in  Salsette,  and  even 
at  the  bottom  of  the  harbour  in  the  tideway  outside  the  Prince's 
Dock,  masses  of  volcanic  ash  embedding  fragments  of  the  older 
volcanic  rock  torn  off  in  the  later  eruptions,  which  are  seen  in  places 
to  have  broken  through  the  strata  of  volcanic  rock  and  fresh  water 
beds  alike. 

Then  came  the  subsidence  of  a  whole  tract  of  country  that  plunged 
the  western  extremities  of  the  continent  beneath  the  waves,  and 
cast  her  hills  into  the  sea  to  become  a  cluster  of  island  rocks. 

Now  turn  another  page  of  the  record  at  our  feet.  You  remember 
we  saw  the  soil  of  the  Flats,  which  form  the  centre  of  our  island,  to 


PREHISTORIC  BOMBAY.  149 

acacia  {Acacia  Catechu),  known  to  the  natives  as  khaii\  It,  of  course, 
never  grows  at  any  spot  below  high  water  mark,  and  is  now  found 
in  great  quantities  in  the  jungles  about  Badlapur,  on  the  lower  spurs 
of  the  western  ghauts,  at  a  considerable  elevation  above  the  sea. 

Here,  then,  is  a  very  clear  record  of  a  decided  upheaval  and  subse- 
quent subsidence.  Judging  too  from  the  nature  of  the  trees  found  in 
it,  it  would  seem  that  the  brown  earth  deposited  by  the  sea  must  have 
been  pushed  up  considerably  higher  than  the  present  level  of  the 
littoral  concrete  which  overlies  the  blue  clay  above,  and  have  bet^n 
allowed  there  to  rest  undisturbed  for  a  time  sufficient  to  allow  the 
growth  of  these  trees,  the  largest  of  which  was  46  feet  long,  and  4 
feet  8  inches  in  girth. 

Then  followed  a  subsidence  sufficient  to  allow  of  the  trees  being 
completely  covered  by  the  muddy  silt  of  the  harbour.  This  was 
apparently  effected  rapidly,  but  without  any  great  or  sudden  rush 
of  water.  For  all  the  fine  twigs  were  found  preserved  in  position  in 
the  clay,  the  lower  portion  of  which  contained  no  shells,  as  the  upper 
did,*  while  the  borings  of  the  teredo  worms  that  had  perforated  the 
standing  trunks  were  found  to  extend  for  only  about  a  foot  down- 
wards, and  the  rat-holes  at  the  roots  of  the  trees,  though  filled  with 
mud  that  exactly  preserved  their  shapes,  yet  contained  no  remains  of 
drowned  or  smothered  rats. 

None  of  the  trees  bore  any  marks  of  having  been  felled  or  cut,  but 
among  them  was  a  log  certainly  charred  by  fire.  The  burnt  portion 
showed  by  its  shape  and  position  that  it  had  been  laid  with  its  centre 
across  the  fire.  What  the  makers  of  the  fire  were  doing  there  does 
not  appear.  Certainly  not  cutting  wood,  though  they  might  have 
been  gathering  the  pods  to  get  catechu,  if  its  properties  and  uses  were 
known  to  them.     Nor  do  they  seem  to  have  been  permanent  dwellers 


•This  shelly  upper  portion  is  also  much  darker  in  colour,  and  very  offensive  in 
smell,  so  much  so  indeed  that  on  being  first  dug  into,  both  at  the  time  of  the  first 
excavation  of  the  Prince's  Dock  and  of  its  subsequent  extension,  many  of  the  work- 
men  sickened,  and  fever  was  very  prevalent  among  them.  Apparently  the  upper  or 
later  part  of  this  clay  deposit  was  charged  with  the  sewage  of  the  city,  which,  since 
the  construction  of  the  raiJway  embankments  at  the  north  end  of  the  harbour,  has 
been  deposited  more  rapidly  and  in  greater  quantities  than  when  the  openings  there 
allowed  a  through  "  scour  "  in  a  free  passage  for  the  sweep  of  the  tide  and  the  creek 
currents  round  the  north  of  the   island 


148      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,   1890. 

there  must  have  been  another  subsidence.  For,  as  we  have  seen. 
Dr.  Fryer,  220  years  ago,  found  the  island  no  longer  one.  If  that 
subsidence  is  still  continuing,  as  seems  not  improbable,  we  would 
appear  to  be  on  the  way  to  being  slowly  submerged,  and  are  doing 
our  best  to  aid  the  efforts  of  nature  in  this  direction  by  cutting  down 
all  our  hills !  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  waters  around  us  are  not 
being  deepened  by  a  subsidence  of  their  floor,  we  are  in  danger  of  being 
silted  up  by  mud  and  sand,  if  not  lifted  bodily  back  on  to  the  main- 
land by  another  upheaval.  In  either  event  farewell  to  Bombay's 
greatness  as  a  maritime  port,  even  if  she  escapes  destruction  by 
another  eruption,  the  possibility  of  which  is  at  least  indicated  by  her 
past  history,  and  these  continual  upheavals  and  depressions,  which 
can  only  be  the  work  of  volcanic  forces ! 

But,  as  the  novelists  say,  I  anticipate.  Besides,  I  am  wandering 
away  from  my  subject,  which  is  connected  with  Bombay  only  in  the 
past  tense,  not  in  the  paulo-post-future. 

To  return  to  the  last  upheaval  that  brought  the  shelly  sand  of  the 
ocean's  floor  to  the  surface  of  the  dry  land,  that  it  occurred  in  what 
geologists  (whose  computation  of  time  is  not  by  years,  but  by  cycles 
of  ages)  call  "recent"  times,  is  shown  not  only  by  the  fact  that  the 
shells  of  the  littoral  concrete  are  such  as  we  find  on  our  shores 
to-day,  but  that  in  the  brown  earth  which  underlies  the  clay  below 
it  are  foimd  unmistakeable  traces  of  human  occupation.  This  brings 
us  to  the  last  page  that  has  yet  been  opened  of  our  unwritten  history, 
where  we  find  traced  in  clear  characters  the  word  *^Man,"  which 
makes  the  facts  recorded  on  it,  though  not  so  surprising  as  some  we 
have  already  learned,  yet,  perhaps,  of  more  personal  interest  to  us. 

Some  twelve  years  ago,  while  the  excavations  were  being  made  for 
the  Prince's  Dock,  Mr.  George  Ormiston  came  on  the  remains  of 
what  was  evidently  a  submerged  forest,  33  feet  below  high  water 
mark.  Nearly  400  trees  in  all  were  found,  of  which  223  were  still 
standing  erect,  and  159,  though  prostrate,  were  still  rooted  in  the 
soil.  This  was  a  shallow  band  of  brownish  earth,  apparently  identi- 
cal with  that  which  we  have  seen  to  exist  at  Byculla,  for  it  seemed 
to  be  of  marine  origin,  but  altered  by  atmospheric  weathering,  and 
immediately  underlay  the  blue  estuarine  clay  in  which  the  trees  were 
buried,  and  overlay  the  trap  rock.     The  trees   were   all  a   species  of 


PREHISTORIC  BOMBAY.  1^1 

occasional  visitors,  who,  on  going  away,  forgot  to  take  with  them  some 
of  the  utensils  they  had  brought.  These  bear  no  signs  of  fire,  and 
could  not,  therefore,  have  been  used  fpr  cooking.  Their  weight  is 
so  great  in  proportion  to  their  capacity,  that  I  doubt  if  they  were 
intended  to  be  used  as  receptacles  for  articles  to  be  carried  any  great 
distance,  and  they  are  too  small  to  have  been  used  for  storing. 
Moreover,  when  found,  they  contained  nothing  but  mud.  It 
seems  then  they  were  intended  to  hold  something  easy  of  consumption, 
or  difficult  of  preservation,  not  intended  to  be  carried  any  great  dis- 
tance. They  might,  therefore,  have  contained  the  food  or  drink  of 
some  person  paying  a  short  visit  to  the  uninhabited  island  from  some 
neighbouring  place.  That  no  traces  of  such  visits  are  found  else- 
where than  close  to  the  eastern  shore,  would  seem  to  show  that  the 
object  of  these  prehistoric  picnicers  was  the  capture  of  fish  or  the 
collection  of  oysters,  and  that  they  came  from  the  East. 

Shortly,  then,  to  sum  up  what  we  have  sfwllcd  out  from  the  pages 
of  our  ancient  book,  we  find  that  the  spot  on  which  we  stand,  and 
which  we  are  fond  of  speaking  of  as  *'  Prima  in  Imlia^*^  is  in  fact  one 
of  the  last  made,  and  last  inhabited.  For  we  have  seen  that  the 
rocks  immediately  around  us  were  the  latest  fashioned  on  these  coasts. 
We  have  seen  how  the  foundations  of  our  thriving  city,  now  so  pic- 
turesque and  pleasant,  were  laid  in  scenes  of  desolation  and  death, 
amid  the  horrors  of  heaving  earthquakes,  when  the  land  was  rent 
by  the  fury  of  volcanic  fires,  and  swept  of  life  by  glowing  lava  floods. 
We  have  seen  how  these  were  followed  by  brief  intervals  of  peace, 
in  which  the  earth,  all  scarred  and  shaken  as  she  was,  strove  once 
more  to  clothe  herself  in  her  mantle  of  green,  and  sustain  the  young 
life  of  her  new-bom  creatures  on  her  bounteous  bosom;  but  how 
these  were  again  and  again  engulphed  in  fiery  death,  and  buried  in 
successive  flows  of  molten  rock,  that  piled  rows  of  bare  arid  hills  on 
what  had  been  a  level  fresh-water  plain,  a  dreary  swamp  perhaps, 
yet  teeming  with  vegetation  and  life.  We  have  seen  that  when  the 
destroying  flood  abated,  volcanic  fires  here  and  there  yet  broke  forth 
anew,  and  that  the  subsidence  of  more  than  1,000  square  miles  of 
land  upon  the  coast,  perhaps  by  another  effort  of  the  Fire  Demon 
beneath  the  earth,  plunged  the  mountains  of  the  main-land  as  islands 
in  the  sea.     We  have  seen  how  this  archipelago  of  rocks,  though 


142       JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

the  Deccan  traps  was  ejected  in  our  immediate  neighbourhood  from 
a  number  of  orifices  in  the  surface  of  the  ground,  over  the  edges  of 
which  a  seething  mass  of  molten  mud  from  time  to  time  welled  forth 
from  below. 

Now  the  bottom  of  this  mass  of  volcanic  rock  is  found  to  rest  on 
certain  strata  geologically  known  as  "the  Bagh  beds/'  shown  by 
the  fossils  which  they  contain  to  be  of  marine  origin,  and  identified 
with  the  rocks  of  the  *^ Cretaceous  Period''  of  Europe. 

But  the  lava  flows  that  formed  the  bottom  of  the  Deccan  traps 
were  not  deposited  beneath  the  sea.  For  pent  between  successive 
flows,  *4nterstratified''  with  them,  as  geologists  say,  are  found  strata 
of  mud  containing /res^.  water  fossils.  Moreover,  the  surface  of  the 
Bagh  beds,  on  which  the  Deccan  traps  rest,  is  not  all  smoothly 
spread  in  level  lines  of  horizontal  stratification,  as  we  should  expect 
the  bottom  of  the  sea  to  be,  but  worn  into  ridges  and  hollows,  as 
though  it  had  been  already  elevated  to  the  upper  air,  and  exposed  to 
the  action  of  the  weather  before  the  first  flows  of  lava  were  poured 
over  'it. 

Again,  the  fresh  water  beds  interstratificd  with  these  show  that 
the  first  lava  flows  did  not  follow  each  other  very  quickly,  for 
there  was  time  for  them  to  cool  and  harden,  and  by  exposure  to  the 
weather  to  be  worn  into  hollows,  where  were  collected  the  water  and 
mud  in  which  those  organisms,  both  animal  and  vegetable,  that  were 
killed  by  the  next  fiery  flow  passed  their  lives  and  were  preserved  in 
death. 

Here,  then,  is  another  important  fact  recorded  in  our  book.  The 
oldest  of  the  lava  flows  that  form  the  Deccan  traps  is  newer  than 
the  deposit  of  the  Bagh  beds,  and  was  itself  deposited  in  such 
manner  as  to  be  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  weather. 

But  after  the  formation  of  the  fresh  water  beds  interstratificd  at 
the  bottom  of  the  Deccan  traps,  the  volcanoes  would  seem  to  have 
become  more  active,  and  the  flows  of  lava  to  have  followed  each 
other  in  quicker  succession.  For  through  a  great  area  and  depth 
we  find  no  more  fresh  water  beds,  and  the  bands  of  lava  are  found 
to  rest  on  each  other  "  conformably,"  as  geologists  say,  that  is,  the 
upper  are  laid  continuously  and  without  disturbance  on  the  lower. 
These  facts  show  that  the  underlying    bands  had  not    been  exposed 


BUTTERFLIES  OF  THE  CENTRAL  PROVINCES.  153 

with  notes  (in  most  cases)  as  to  its  habits,  &e.,  &c.,  will  be  found. 
The  few  notes  I  am  able  to  give  are  chiefly  from  personal  observa- 
tion of  those  butterflies  that  I  have  come  across. 

Sub-Order— RHOPALOCERA. 
Family — NymphaliDvE. 

■ 

Sub-Family — Danaintt, 

1.  Danais  melanoides,  Moore  (see  Danais  aglea,  Cramer  [  16  ]. — 
Of  this  butterfly  I  have  as  yet  only  one  specimen,  a  male,  taken  at 
Jagdalpur,  the  capital  of  the  Bastdr  Feudatory  State.  It  has  semi- 
transparent  wings,  very  pale  blue  with  black  veins. 

2.  Danais  Hmniacey  Cramer  [26.]. — This  butterfly,  with  D.  chry- 
sippus,  D.  genutia  and  Euplcea  core^  is  very  common,  is  found  every- 
where, and  can  be  taken  nearly  all  the  year  round.  It  has  pale  blue  * 
wings  with  black  veins.  The  wings  are  not  so  transparent  as  are 
those  of  the  last-named  species.  It  is  a  rather  large  insect,  and  has  a 
lazy,  sailing  flight.  The  male  has  a  pocket  or  scent-pouch  in  the 
hindwing,  and  protrudes  from  the  anal  extremity  of  the  body  two 
processes  of  a  greyish  colour  which  resemble  bottle-brushes  in 
miniature.  When  this  is  done  an  odour  is  perceptible.  No  doubt 
this  is  a  provision  of  Nature  to  protect  it  from  its  enemies.  It  is  a 
most  difficidt  insect  to  kill,  as  are  most  of  the  Danainas  and  Euplmnce ; 
a  squeeze,  such  as  would  crush  the  life  out  of  such  a  strong-bodied 
creature  as  a  Charaxes^  has  no  effect  on  it,  its  body  is  so  leathery  and 
tough.  The  best  way  of  killing  it,  as  far  as  I  have  had  experience, 
is  to  put  a  drop  or  two  of  benzine  on  its  body.  It  is  easily  captured, 
seemingly  having  very  little  fear  of  human  beings.  It  is  imitated 
more  or  less  closely  by  several  other  species  of  butterflies,  the  ones 
most  common  in  these  parts  being  Papilio  dissimilis  and  the  female 
of  Nepheronia  gcea, 

3.  Danais  chrysippus,  Linnaeus  [28]  with  varieties  D,  alcippust 
Cramer  [29]  and  D,  dorippus,  Klug  [30] . — The  typical  D.  chrysippus 
is  the  commonest  and  most  widely  spread  of  all  butterflies  in  India, 
or  at  any  rate,  the  one  that  strikes  the  eye  more  than  any  other.  D, 
alcippus  and  D.  dorippus  are,  I  believe,  only  forms  of  D,  chrysippus. 
During  the  time  I  have  been  in  the  Central  Provinces  (now  nearly 

20 


lo4      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

14  years)  I  have  only  procured  one  specimen  of  each  of  these  varie- 
ties ;  of  the  former  I  caught  one  in  the  public  gardens  at  Betul  in 
1886,  and  of  the  latter  one  at  the  Marble  Rocks  near  Jubbulpore,  in 
the  same  year.  I  have  a  few  specimens  of  what  are  undoubtedly  2). 
chrysippus,  in  which  the  black  coloration  at  the  apex  of  the  forewing 
is  more  or  less  obsolescent,  and  the  red  ground  shows  through  ;  the 
gradations  between  this  and  the  commoner  form  are  almost  complete, 
and  pass  from  the  deep  black  at  the  apex  of  the  wing  of  the  typical 
jD.  chrysippus  through  others  in  which  the  red  begins  to  show  through, 
till  in  some  forms  the  red  predominates  and  the  black  consists 
merely  of  a  border.  If  either  D.  alcippus  or  D.  dorijypus  were  a 
distinct  species,  it  would  be  found  more  generally  distributed,  and 
there  would  be,  no  gradation  from  the  type  to  the  variety,  the 
difEerence  would  be  sharply  marked  and  distinct.  It  may  be  that 
they  are  ** sports"  or  "aberrations,"  as  are  albinoes  or  melanoids 
among  human  beings  and  other  creatures.  I  hare  other  butterflies 
which  present  something  of  the  same  variation,  for  instance,  a  male 
Nepheronia  gcea,  in  which  the  black  border  to  the  wings  is  about  twice 
as  broad  as  it  is  in  an  ordinary  specimen,  and  a  female  Ixias  marianne 
in  which  the  black  border  of  the  hindwing  suffuses  nearly  the  whole 
of  the  wing,  nearly  obliterating  the  white,  although  the  same  wing 
on  the  left  side  has  the  border  of  the  normal  width.  2).  chrysippus  is 
the  common  tawny-red  butterfly  which  one  sees  almost  everywhere, 
and  almost  always,  with  a  black  apex  to  the  forewing,  behind  which 
is  a  white  band.  It  has  a  lazy  flight  and  is  easily  caught.  In  some 
favoured  spots  they  swarm  in  hundreds.  The  air  seems  full  of  them, 
and  they  can  be  seen  settled  holding  on  to  the  extreme  ends  of  twigs 
or  along  them,  thus  trying  to  make  one  believe  that  they  are  dead 
leaves.  These  places  are  generally  warm,  dry  spots  under  the  shade 
of  large  trees.  Various  other  butterflies  among  the  Danainoe  and 
Euplicenoe  have  the  same  habit.  They  are  as  difficult  to  kill  as  the 
last ;  a  drop  or  two  of  benzine  on  their  bodies,  however,  soon  stops  their 
struggles,  D.  chrysippus  is  more  or  less  closely  imitated  by  several 
other  butterflies,  the  most  wonderful  being  the  female  of  Hypolimnas 
misippus.  Col.  C.  Swinhoe,  in  one  of  the  former  numbers  of  our 
Journal  (Vol.  I.,  page  169,  etseq,),  has  given  some  interesting  remarks 
on  this  instance  of  mimicry. 


SUTTMRFUES  OF  THE  CEXTRAL  fROVtSCEf  U/r 

The  catnrpilLa  oi  ehii*  butterfly  fpetb  on.  thft  ^jtiikr  ( f.'ahtrnpw 
tftgamaa).  Ic  i»  well  deauribed  by  3Cn.  Ha^n  in  btir  "  3^nte»  in  a 
CaSBrpUta  W^auL,"  VoL  IV..  page  '23¥i,  ni  ouz  ■foomaL  TW  p»9i^- 
w&xck  s-  jsupemitid.  by  the  cail^  aflHinnAft  two  i>n(nnr«r  rtnmf:  iw.m^ 
»  AtliratB  greea.  ^uii£<)GEiir»aiL<!qnaIIy'i«li(!a&^ptnk,  a»i:£ina)fA<it(vx&.. 
^^  !tavi>  a  chin,  blank  and  ypUnw  rira.  xrmuui  nb«  cbir.fcwr.  porr^ 

■t  Dnsuas  jftnttui.  Cramer  '-Ml. — Thin  fincrerfly  » aJiniwf;  wKwm- 
jaam  as  tdu:  lasr:.  ;iiii£  ham-  tHib  iaiiiH  ^abtcit  tru  rmlnuriiu^  i*  wtiry^ 
•Bmilar.  only  liua:  cim  wins  ;irR  mnrfi  )ima«tly  amrktfii  wirii  litartte 
Tbft  inulijs  <il:  bnm  riiia  JJiit  tie  Uwa:  iiav«  »  ^f^iE-pnucii-  In  ^iirt  liimt- 
wimr  BJuTOwm  >i(uu£msarM  in  lai'srt  aumlmirt.  w  rtn*»/Ji  -Jf^fntpptut, 
*)tL  cim  awhusji  "iiit  jwef-.T;  i»  iaraRT,   iiui,  T  iiink.  nwiutunmpr.  iian.  ,l^^ 

■T,.  Sitpuen  miuet.  Siwiwt  Tri  . — Z  ;iaiv*  i.ni.\v  in«  rtW^Tmiwi  i^  -hi* 
^Hfi^n^  ;r  rniutt  nnm  Tiitfiialtiiir...  I^  k  ><nr^^  .nmtM  itiutiW  <\ian  it)w:- 
7I11H1&  tmni  .£t«<am.  mrf:  iinr  ;»  ul  .'  ^utiw.  ii'  f,  :j\c  T  >uhv»  iioivr  v^in 
iniiLiiP.  tad  "tui  ■nt*  T  [laiv*  rw  UM.-n  iv  i  imuv-  vilWtur  T.ipn' 
i»-4anut  itti«    Tiiniir  in«nr  twt    ifrn)«-  lamc  it^    "jiih- iij#T;mr    mri    i    jt 

rummlT^"  TBEBTIM  "ti    1ft-    3-    mulaiHUt.       'X:-      "iCinM"      fb'niitljr;      li*i      i,[fi-- 

^*Tiii  I.  dftiniT-  uiittTTh'  i«^i-mtif  n   '.'fum... 

rn-nttnmt.   sun    J    tt-mmia   n.  u- jpncrrj     (ufriitMtinM        i    i     ,    r.vrrt 

-niT*.    riiEKfllt    *i  .nil,    wrf   Im  ukU'  iw    lii*  twon-r-    .jr    iH^Hw«iri-j'    t*. 
ov^Jiiiw   »icitl*— Wuk;    ilk-    .aji'kiriiifciii^-fl-     noiw      l.j-     f^jf.     -r    )i,      i,i<-,j        J 


itBl-.n>i'      *,ix> 


166      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

fitage,  when  I  set  them  free.  This  must  be  their  real  food  plant,  as  it 
is  indigenous  and  the  Oleander  is  an  introduced  plant.  I  do  not  think 
this  has  been   recorded  before. 

Sub-Family — Satyrijice. 

7.  Mycalem  medus,  Fabricius  [92].— This  is  the  rains  form  of 
Jf.  runeka,  Moore  [93],  as  Mr.  de  Nic^ville  has  proved  by  breeding 
from  one  to  the  other  and  vice  versa,  M.  medus  differs  from  M, 
rmieka  in  having  the  white  streak  on  the  underside  less  prominent 
but  the  ocelli  much  more  so ;  in  M.  runeka  they  are  small  and 
obsolescent.  Their  colour  on  the  upperside  is  a  imiform  dark  brown, 
with  an  ocellus  on  the  forewing  in  some  specimens.  These  little 
butterflies  are  shade-lovers,  and  lie  hidden  under  the  trees  and 
bushes  during  the  day-time ;  they  are  active  and  restless  in  the 
morning  and  evening,  and  also  when  the  day  happens  to  be  dark 
and  cloudy.  They  possess  some  curious  and  distinctive  features. 
The  costal  nervure  is  dilated  at  the  base  of  the  forewing  in  both 
sexes.  This  nervure  does  not  touch  the  costal  or  upper  edge  of 
the  forewing,  but  lies  some  little  distance  behind  it.  The  males 
have  tufts  of  hair  on  the  hindwing.  They  have  a  skipping  kind 
of  flight  when  started  from  the  shades  they  love ;  they  are,  however, 
easily  caught  and  killed. 

8.  Mycalesis  blasius,  Fabricius  [96]. — This  is  the  rains  form  of 
itf.  perseus,  Fabricius  [99],  but  one  would  think  it  to  be  a  quite  differ- 
ent butterfly.  M.  blasius  has  well  marked  ocelli  and  a  distinct  white 
fascia  on  the  underside  of  both  wings,  whereas  in  M,  perseus  these 
are  almost  obsolete,  though  in  some  specimens  of  the  latter  there  are 
well  marked  spots  in  the  position  of  the  ocelli  which  are  on  the 
wings  of  the  former.  There  is  a  great  deal  more  variety  in  the 
markings  on  the  imderside  of  the  wings  of  M,  perseus  than  there  is 
in  M.  blasius.  The  apex  of  the  forewing  in  Jf.  blasius  is  a  uni- 
form dark  brown,  not  so  dark  as  in  the  last  described  species,  but  in 
M.  perseus  there  is  always  a  small  ocellus  on  the  forewing.  The 
veins  at  the  base  of  the  forewing  are  swollen  in  both  sexes  and  the 
eyes  are  hairy.  The  males  have  an  erectile  tuft  of  hair,  and  a 
glandular  patch  on  the  hindwing.  These  features  are  also  present 
in  the  two  next  described  species.     Its  habits  and  flight  are   very 


BUTTSRFLJSS  OF  THE  CENTRAL  PROVINCES,  157 

similar  to  those  of  the  last  described  species,  but  it  is  a  much  com- 
moner butterfly. 

9.  Mycaksis  mineus,  liimaeus  [97]. — This  is  the  rains  form  of  Jf. 
visala  [99a]  and  Jf.  indistans  [996.]  of  Moore.  It  is  larger  than  the 
last  species  and  is  not  so  common.  To  me  it  seems  a  paler  insect 
altogether,  and  with  a  sharper  angle  to  the  forewing  than  has  if.  pei'- 
9eu8.     Its  habits  and  flight  are  the  same  as  the  foregoing. 

10.  Mycalesia  tnalsara,  Moore  [108], — This  is  the  rains  form  of 
Jf.  rudis,  Moore  [110].  I  have  taken  very  few  specimens  of  these  two 
forms ;  in  fact,  I  do  not  think  I  have  yet  procured  Jf.  makara.  It  is 
also  a  dark  brown  insect ;  but  the  underside  has  a  redder  tinge  than 
those  described  before.  All  these  insects  love  the  shade,  and  the 
way  to  discover  them  is  to  beat  the  bushes  so  as  to  disturb  them. 

11.  Lethe  europa,  Fabricius  [135]. — This  is  also  a  shade-loving 
insect,  but  is  easily  procured  in  the  evening,  as  are  all  Mycaleaea  and 
Melanitea  at  sugar.  They  are  all  also  very  fond  of  mhowa  refuse 
after  the  spirit  has  been  extracted  from  the  flowers.  Mhowa  spirit  is 
made  from  the  flowers  of  the  Mhowa  tree,  Bassia  lati/olia.  The 
flowers  are  semi-transparent  globular  objects  when  fresh,  and  are 
eagerly  sought  after  by  many  kinds  of  birds  and  beasts.  They 
appear  in  February  and  March,  and  drop  off  in  the  early  morning, 
so  that,  if  you  are  encamped  under  a  mhowa  tree,  you  are  awakened  by 
a  continual  patter  on  the  top  of  the  tent  as  the  flowers  shower  down. 
The  people  who  collect  them  have  to  get  up  early,  as  one  has  to  do  at 
home  when  on  a  mushroom- gathering  expedition,  otherwise  the 
cattle,  jackals,  boars,  pigs  and  all  the  deer  tribe  would  not  leave  one 
behind.  The  flowers  are  collected  in  baskets,  taken  home,  dried,  and 
then  used  up  as  required  by  the  Kalars  (spirit  distillers).  Before 
the  spirit  has  been  extracted  the  flowers  do  not  seem  to  possess  such 
an  attractive  power  for  insects,  but  as  soon  as  this  is  done,  and  the 
refuse  cast  outside,  various  beetles  and  butterflies  are  attracted  to  it. 
I  suppose  the  fact  of  there  being  something  spirituous  about  it  is  the 
cause.  I  have  found  that  the  attractiveness  of  the  refuse  is  much 
increased  by  the  addition  of  "  gur "  or  **jaggri''  (coarse  country 
sugar),  melted  till  it  is  like  treacle,  and  of  a  little  nmi,  or  else  the 
mhowa  spirit  itself ;  a  small  quantity  of  this  put  out  proves  an 
irresistible  bait   for    Satyrin(B  as  well   as    various  specie^  of  the 


158     JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

NymphaliruE.  It  is  good  to  attract  other  insects  as  well,  and  I  advise 
entomologists  to  try  it.  L.  europa  is  a  beautiful  insect,  with  its 
lovely  mottlings  and  markings,  especially  on  the  underside.  It  is 
shy  and  easily  scared.  The  costal  nervure  is  swollen  at  the  base, 
and  the  eyes  are  hairy.  The  female  is  larger  and  more  conspicuous 
than  the  male,  owing  to  the  presence  of  a  white  band  across  the 
forewing. 

12.  Lethe  nilgheriemis,  Gu^rin  [104]. — This  looks  like  a  small 
edition  of  the  former,  but  lacks  the  white  band  across  the  forewing  in 
the  female.  This  is  replaced  by  three  oval  white  spots  ;  its  habits  and 
structure  are  the  same  as  those  of  L.  eurojia, 

13.  Ypthima  philomela,  Johanssen  [204]. — This  the  rains  form  of 
E.  marshalU,  Butler  [205]. — All  the  Ypthima 'are  small  obscurely 
coloured  brown  butterflies,  with  ocelli  on  both  sides  of  the  wings, 
and  striaB  on  the  underside.  They  are  generally  found  fluttering 
about  where  there  is  grass,  and  flying  in  and  out  amongst  the  stems ; 
they  are  feeble  little  things,  and  not  difficult  to  capture. 

14.  Ypthima  ariaspa,  Moore  [212]. 

15.  Ypthima  asterope,  Klug  [213]. 

16.  Ypthima  inica,  Hewitson  [214]. 

17.  Ypthima  singala,  Felder  [222]. 

18.  Malanitis  leda,  Linnaeus  [243]. — This  is  the  rains  form  of 
M.  ismene,  Cramer  [249.]  Both  varieties  are  very  common  under 
bushes  and  in  dark  places.  Where  there  is  shade  and  moisture 
you  sometimes  come  upon  scores,  and  the  bushes  have  only  to  be 
disturbed,  when  they  will  show  themselves.  They  rise  in  so  great  a 
hurry  that  they  knock  against  leaves,  bushes,  tree  trunks,  anything  in 
fact  until  they  rest  again,  and  then  it  is  a  difficult  matter  to  find  them. 
Their  colouring  is  a  subdued  yet  rich  brown,  with  a  black  mark  on 
the  forewing,  larger  in  M.  ismene  than  in  M.  leda.  There  are  two  or 
three  white  spots  on  these  black  marks,  which  former  are  bordered 
more  or  less  continuously  with  ferruginous.  M,  kda  has  beautiful 
ocelli  on  the  underside,  while  in  M.  ismene  these  can  hardly  be  seen  ;  all 
the  same,  when  once  settled  on  the  ground,  they  so  closely  resemble 
dead  leaves  that  the  sight  has  to  be  keen  to  detect  them.  M,  ismene 
is  altogether  a  larger  and  brighter  coloured  insect  than  M.  leda, 
and  the  underside  of  the  former  presents  the  most  varied  patterns  in 


BUTTERFLIES  OF  THE  CENTRAL  PROVINCES.  159 

russets,  browns,  subdued  yellows  and  greys.  No  two  that  I  have  seen 
are  exactly  alike.  Some  are  most  lovely  in  their  rich  variety  of  tints, 
while  others  are  pale  and  insignificant  looking.  They  are  crepuscular 
in  their  habits,  coming  out  in  the  evening  and  dancing  about  like 
elves,  as  has  often  been  described.  The  singular  habit  they  have  of 
mounting  into  the  air  until  lost  to  sight  has  some  reason  for  it  no 
doubt,  but  what  that  reason  may  be  has  not  been  discovered.  They 
are  gluttons  for  sweetened  mhowa  refuse,  and  can  be  caught  with 
the  fingers  while  feeding  on  it.  They,  as  well  as  Mycaleses  and 
Lethes,  are  fond  of  ripe  fruit :  a  guava  on  the  verge  of  rottenness 
has  a  great  fascination  for  them.  They  can  also  be  easily  caught 
when  drinking  toddy,  and  many  other  butterflies  share  this  taste. 
You  can  often  find  many  at  the  foot  of  the  palms  that  have  been 
tapped,  and  from  which  the  juice  drops  down  to  the  ground.  The 
shape  of  the  wing  in  M.  ismene  is  more  falcate  or  sickle-shaped  than 
in  M.  leda.  They  are  easily  caught  if  they  can  be  detected  on  the 
ground. 

M.  leda  is  a  smaller  butterfly  and  not  so  highly  coloured  as 
M,  ismene,  and  appears  during  the  rains ;  while  M.  ismme  comes 
out  during  the  dry  season.  One  would  suppose  them  to  be  different 
butterflies  altogether,  but  this  is  not  the  case ;  they  are  only  seasonal 
forms,  as  Mr.  de  Niceville  has  proved  by  breeding  one  form  from 
eggs  laid  by  the  other  form.  Various  other  genera  of  the  Satyrince 
present  the  same  phenomenon,  and  as  a  rule  those  that  appear  during 
the  rains  are  smaller,  with  more  even  wings,  and  the  ocelli  on  the 
underside  more  prominent ;  whereas  those  that  appear  during  the  dry 
season  are  larger,  with  the  outline  of  the  wing  more  varied,  and  the 
ocelli  obsolescent.  It  would  appear  the  reason  is  that  during  the  hot 
months  the  caterpillars  find  it  difficult  to  procure  sufficiently  rich 
proper  food,  and  so  the  result  is  a  smaller  and  less  highly-coloured 
butterfly,  while  in  the  rains  the  supply  of  food  is  ample,  and  the 
result  is  a  more  highly-coloured  and  larger  butterfly.  I  have  reared 
the  caterpillar  on  the  blades  of  green  rice  during  the  rains.  It  is 
green  with  a  longitudinal  yellow  stripe  and  a  curious  forked  tail. 
The  pupa  is  green  and  suspended  in  a  sort  of  slight  cradle  made  of 
the  blades  of  rice. 

19.     M.  hethaini,  de  Niceville. — A  description  of  both  the  dry  and 


IflO      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

rwny  season  form  of  this  butterfly  appeared  in  the  Proceedings  of  the 
Zoological  Society  of  London  for  1887,  pp.  451 — 453.  It  is  a  larger 
and  more  deeply-coloured  butterfly  than  the  last,  but  has  the  same 
habits.  It  has  only  been  found  about  Pachmarhi,  3,500  feet,  a 
sanitarium  in  the  Satpura  Hills,  where  it  is  fairly  abundant. 

Sub- Family — Elymniince, 

20.  Elymmas  undularis^  Drury  [256]. — This  is  also  a  shade-loving 
insoct  with  a  fooblo  flight.  The  differences  between  the  sexes  is  most 
markixl.  The  male  is  a  dark  brown  insect  with  blue  markings  on 
the  forowing,  and  a  reddish  tinge  on  the  hindwing,  while  the 
fomalo  imitatos  Datum  genufia^  being  of  a  reddish-brown  colour  with 
black  and  whito  markings.  The  undersides  of  both  sexes  are  the 
narno*  or  vory  nearly  so.  They  are  fond  of  settling  on  the  stems  of 
plaut4  and  on  troo  trunks. 

Sub-Family — AcnTinar. 

2L  T(fitMima  fioi<r^  Fabrioius  [298]. — A  small  reddish-coloured 
bxitt<^rtlv  with  btaok  veins  to  its  winirs,  like  a  miniature  Danais 
d<>rif^y^.  It  has  a  very  tough  and  leatherj-  body,  and  is  difficult  to 
kill  but  tVisy  to  captuK^,  It  is  very  common  in  many  places  in  the 
(Vninl  Fn>vince»»  and  seoms  to  delight  in  K^re,  arid  places,  although 
plentiful  l<K»  in  moistor  spots. 

The  cdit^>rpinar  is  a  blackish-coloured  ci>eatuT>?,  and  feeds  on  Cm- 
c*ff"N/^4Y!iV.     The  pupa  is  a  very  pale  pink  with  black  marks. 

Svb-Familt — X\'r:vhAiihuT . 

22.  Krfii-Jks  wKTiu-'v,  Oruner  r2i>i^^. — A  fairlv  comnKvi  Inineiflv 
in  many  pan*.  The  cjiterpiilar  feevis  on  ihe  casior-oil  plaai,  and  the 
*jqj  i*  coT>ftn^i  wiih  hairs  or  spines^  The  upperside  of  ihe  imago  is  a 
l»wnT*brown  witi  dcMcAie  Mack  markini^;.  and  lie  underside  ia 
mw^K  darktf^T,  appoarlr.^  qv.ite  b-Wk  whei:  The  burrcTfly  is  flying.  It 
iiKT^W  vith  it:^  vines  exna:>dea,  has  a  saow  ierkx  flii^ht^  and  is  doI 
^i^nilt  n>  oap55iT>^.     It  has  a  swoJlen  oo^tal  nejmre  to  tiie  icsreiriiig. 

dS*  J!>*^«AA*  4c:->aW,  Linniras  ':^01", — This  is  thv  Hke  i]ie  last. 
W)  is  saDMuW.  and  oan  W  di^^in^uisb^  by  ii^  havizu:  the  ed|>es  of 
it*  miv^  m.vr^  :5oa!V^pip<vi  s^r  "  ptnkw;/*  as  lie  iaiie?  vcflold  mit.  It 
kffefs  aW  tw  Af  lii^^  xysins  of  tlbe  hirii^ir*^  cc  :i)e   liTOK'aie  mUte 


152      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

I)eopled  by  no  human  inhabitants  of  its  own,  even  after  the  appear- 
ance of  man  upon  our  globe,  was  yet  trodden  at  times  by  the  chance 
steps  of  stray  visitors  from  other  shores.  Lastly,  we  have  seen  how, 
after  being  alternately  lifted  and  lowered  by  successive  upheavals  and 
subsidences  of  the  ocean's  bed,  a  group  of  islets  was  at  last  joined  in 
one  by  the  banks  of  soil  and  sand  furnished  by  their  own  waste,  and 
Bombay,  as  a  single  island,  rose  as  did  of  old  the  Goddess  of  Beauty, 
from  the  sea. 

Am  I  not  right  in  saying  that  a  book  in  which  we  can  read 
such  tales  as  these  is  one  whose  every  page  is  full  of  interest  for  us 
all  ?  And  does  not  a  tale  such  as  that  we  have  just  read  prove  how 
true  was  the  word  of  him  whose  every  word  is  truth,  when  he  spoke 
of  the  "  sermons  in  stones,  and  good  in  everything?" 

But  let  me  ask  you  to  remember  this.  Ours  is  a  book  that  he  who 
would  understand  it  aright  must  read  with  his  own  eyes,  and  ponder 
with  his  own  mind.  No  disquisition,  however  clear,  by  any  geolo- 
gist, however  able ;  no  picture  or  plan  by  any  draughtsman,  how- 
ever skilled ;  no  lecture  a  hundredfold  more  learned  and  eloquent 
than  this  of  mine  ;  can  teach  you  one  tithe  of  what  you  can  teach 
yourselves,  if  you  only  go  afield  with  a  humble  and  steadfast  purpose 
to  learn,  and  study  the  scenes  around  you  for  yourselves. 


THE  BUTTERFLIES  OF  THE  CENTRAL  PROVINCES. 

By  J.  a.  Betham. 

(Continued from  Vol,  V.,  page  28.) 

Before  enumerating  the  butterflies  found  in  the  Central  Provinces. 
I  would  here  state  that  the  number  in  brackets,  which  will  be 
found  after  the  name  of  each  butterfly,  is  that  given  to  those  which 
are  described  in  Mr.  de  Niceville's  book,  "  The  Butterflies  of  Indiay 
Burmah  and  Ceylon^  If  a  description  of  any  butterfly  is  required, 
all  that  has  to  be  done  is  to  turn  to  the  number  in  the  book,  and 
there  a   very  ample,  correct  and  lucid  description  of  the  butterfly, 


BUTTERFLIES  OF  THE  CENTRAL  PROVINCES.  153 

with  notes  (in  most  cases)  as  to  its  habits,  &c.,  &c.,  will  be  found. 
The  few  notes  I  am  able  to  give  are  chiefly  from  personal  observa- 
tion of  those  butterflies  that  I  have  come  across. 

Sub-Order— RHOPALOCERA. 
Family — NymphaliDvE. 

Sub- Family — Danainct, 

1.  Danais  melanoides,  Moore  (see  Danais  aglea,  Cramer  [  16  ]. — 
Of  this  butterfly  I  have  as  yet  only  one  specimen,  a  male,  taken  at 
Jagdalpur,  the  capital  of  the  Bastdr  Feudatory  State.  It  has  semi- 
transparent  wings,  very  pale  blue  with  black  veins. 

2.  Danais  Hmniace,  Cramer  [26.]. — This  butterfly,  with  D.  chry- 
stppuSy  D,  genutia  and  Euplcea  core,  is  very  common,  is  found  every- 
where, and  can  be  taken  nearly  all  the  year  round.  It  has  pale  blue ' 
wings  with  black  veins.  The  wings  are  not  so  transparent  as  are 
those  of  the  last-named  species.  It  is  a  rather  large  insect,  and  has  a 
lazy,  sailing  flight.  The  male  has  a  pocket  or  scent-pouch  in  the 
hindwing,  and  protrudes  from  the  anal  extremity  of  the  body  two 
processes  of  a  greyish  colour  which  resemble  bottle-brushes  in 
miniature.  When  this  is  done  an  odour  is  perceptible.  No  doubt 
this  is  a  provision  of  Nature  to  protect  it  from  its  enemies.  It  is  a 
most  difficult  insect  to  kill,  as  are  most  of  the  Danaince  and  Eupkeince ; 
a  squeeze,  such  as  would  crush  the  life  out  of  such  a  strong-bodied 
creature  as  a  Charaxes,  has  no  effect  on  it,  its  body  is  so  leathery  and 
tough.  The  best  way  of  killing  it,  as  far  as  I  have  had  experience, 
is  to  put  a  drop  or  two  of  benzine  on  its  body.  It  is  easily  captured, 
seemingly  having  very  little  fear  of  human  beings.  It  is  imitated 
more  or  less  closely  by  several  other  species  of  butterflies,  the  ones 
most  common  in  these  parts  being  Papilio  dissimilis  and  the  female 
of  Nepheronia  gcea. 

3.  Danais  chrysippuSy  Linnaeus  [28]  with  varieties  D,  alcippust 
Cramer  [29]  and  D.  dorippus,  Klug  [30 J. — The  typical  D.  chrysippus 
is  the  commonest  and  most  widely  spread  of  all  butterflies  in  India^ 
or  at  any  rate,  the  one  that  strikes  the  eye  more  than  any  other.  D, 
alcippu^  and  D.  dorippus  are,  I  believe,  only  forms  of  D.  chrysippus. 
During  the  time  I  have  been  in  the  Central  Provinces  (now  nearly 

20 


lr>4      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

14  years)  I  have  only  procured  one  specimen  of  each  of  these  varie- 
ties ;  of  the  former  I  caught  one  in  the  public  gardens  at  Betul  in 
1886,  and  of  the  latter  one  at  the  Marble  Rocks  near  Jubbulpore,  in 
the  same  year.  I  have  a  few  specimens  of  what  are  undoubtedly  D. 
chrysippuSy  in  which  the  black  coloration  at  the  apex  of  the  forewing 
is  more  or  less  obsolescent,  and  the  red  ground  shows  through  ;  the 
gradations  between  this  and  the  commoner  form  are  almost  complete, 
and  pass  from  the  deep  black  at  the  apex  of  the  wing  of  the  typical 
D.  chrysippus  through  others  in  which  the  red  begins  to  show  through, 
till  in  some  forms  the  red  predominates  and  the  black  consists 
merely  of  a  border.  If  either  B.  alcippus  or  D.  dorippiis  were  a 
distinct  species,  it  would  be  found  more  generally  distributed,  and 
there  would  ba  no  gradation  from  the  type  to  the  variety,  the 
difference  would  be  sharply  marked  and  distinct.  It  may  be  that 
they  are  "sports''  or  "aberrations,"  as  are  albinoes  or  melanoids 
among  human  beings  and  other  creatures.  I  hare  other  butterflies 
which  present  something  of  the  same  variation,  for  instance,  a  male 
Nepheronia  gcea,  in  which  the  black  border  to  the  wings  is  about  twice 
as  broad  as  it  is  in  an  ordinary  specimen,  and  a  female  Ixias  marianne 
in  which  the  black  border  of  the  hindwing  suffuses  nearly  the  whole 
of  the  wing,  nearly  obliterating  the  white,  although  the  same  wing 
on  the  left  side  has  the  border  of  the  normal  width.  D.  chrysippus  is 
the  common  tawny-red  butterfly  which  one  sees  almost  everywhere, 
and  almost  always,  with  a  black  apex  to  the  forewing,  behind  which 
is  a  white  band.  It  has  a  lazy  flight  and  is  easily  caught.  In  some 
favoured  spots  they  swarm  in  hundreds.  The  air  seems  full  of  them, 
and  they  can  be  seen  settled  holding  on  to  the  extreme  ends  of  twigs 
or  along  them,  thus  trying  to  make  one  believe  that  they  are  dead 
leaves.  These  places  are  generally  warm,  dry  spots  under  the  shade 
of  large  trees.  Various  other  butterflies  among  the  Danaince  and 
Euplicence  have  the  same  habit.  They  are  as  difficult  to  kill  as  the 
last ;  a  drop  or  two  of  benzine  on  their  bodies,  however,  soon  stops  their 
struggles,  D.  chrysippus  is  more  or  less  closely  imitated  by  several 
other  butterflies,  the  most  wonderful  being  the  female  of  Hypolimnas 
misippus.  Col.  C.  Swinhoe,  in  one  of  the  former  numbers  of  our 
Journal  (Vol.  I.,  page  169,  etseq,),  has  given  some  interesting  remarks 
on  this  instance  of  mimicry. 


BUTTERFLIES  OF  THE  CENTRAL  PROVINCES.  155 

The  caterpillar  of  this  butterfly  feeds  on  the  Mad&r  (Calotropis 
gigantea).  It  is  well  described  by  Mrs.  Hart  in  her  "  Notes  on  a 
Caterpillar  Farm/'  Vol.  IV.,  page  285,  of  our  Journal.  The  pupa, 
which  is  suspended  by  the  tail,  assumes  two  colours,  some  being 
a  delicate  green,  and  others  an  equally  delicate  pink,  as  if  made  of  wax ; 
they  have  a  thin  black  and  yellow  rim  around  the  thickest  part. 

4.  Danais  gemdia,  Cramer  [31]. — This  butterfly  is  almost  as  com- 
mon as  the  last,  and  has  the  same  habits.  Its  colouring  is  very 
similar,  only  that  the  veins  are  more  broadly  marked  with  black. 
The  males  of  both  this  and  the  last  have  a  scent-pouch  in  the  hind- 
wing.  It  Joves  to  congregate  in  large  numbers,  as  does  D,  chrysippus. 
On  the  average  this  insect  is  larger,  and,  I  think,  handsomer  than  its 
relative.     It  is  imitated  by  the  female  of  Elymnias  iindularis. 

5.  Euplcea  linrusi,  Moore  [56]. — I  have  only  one  specimen  of  this 
species,  a  male  from  Jagdalpur.  It  is  very  much  smaller  than  speci- 
mens from  Assam,  and  that  is  all  I  know  of  it,  for  I  have  never  seen 
it  in  life,  and  the  one  I  have  was  taken  by  a  native  collector.  There 
is  some  little  doubt  about  the  proper  name  of  this  species,  and  it  is 
usually  referred  to  as  H.  midarmis,  Mr.  Moore  identifies  the  latter 
with  a  distinct  butterfly  occurring  in  China. 

6.  Eupl<jea  cof^e,  Cramer  [61]. — This  rivals  Danim  limniace,  D, 
chrysippuSy  and  D.  genntia  in  its  general  distribution.  It  is  a  deep 
brown,  almost  black  in  colour,  with  a  white  border  to  its  wingi?.  Its 
flight  and  habits  are  very  much  the  same  as  the  butterflies  already 
described,  but  perhaps  it  loves  the  shade  more.  It  is  easy  to  cap- 
ture, difficult  to  kill,  and  the  male  has  the  power  of  protruding  two 
yellow  bottle-brush  like  appendages  from  the  end  of  its  bodv.  I 
have  specimens  without  the  spots  in  the  cell  of  the  wings,  and 
I  once  took  a  specimen  which  had  the  spots  in  the  cells  of  both 
fore  and  hindwing  on  one  side  but  not  on  the  other.  Several 
butterflies  resemble  E,  core  in  colouring,  among  which  may  be  men- 
tioned Papilio  panope  and  the  female  of  Hypolimnas  bolina. 

The  caterpillar  and  pupa  of  this  butterfly  are  also  described  in 
Mrs.  Hart's  paper,  Vol.  IV.,  pp.  284  and  285.  The  food  plant  is 
usually  the  Oleander  (Nerium  odorum),  but  last  year  I  found  four  of  the 
caterpillars  feeding  on  the  leaves  of  the  Pi  pal  tree  {Fictis  religiosa), 
I  was  successful  in  rearing  all  four  until  they  reached  the  imago. 


156      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

etage,  when  I  set  them  free.  This  must  be  their  real  food  plant,  as  it 
is  indigenous  and  the  Oleander  is  an  introduced  plant.  I  do  not  think 
this  has  been   recorded  before. 

Sub-Family — Satyrince, 

7.  Mycalesis  medus,  Fabricius  [92].-- -This  is  the  rains  form  of 
M,  runeka,  Moore  [93],  as  Mr.  de  Nic^ville  has  proved  by  breeding 
from  one  to  the  other  and  vice  versa,  M.  medus  differs  from  M. 
runeka  in  having  the  white  streak  on  the  underside  less  prominent 
but  the  ocelli  much  more  so ;  in  M,  runeka  they  are  small  and 
obsolescent.  Their  colour  on  the  upperside  is  a  imiform  dark  brown, 
with  an  ocellus  on  the  forewing  in  some  specimens.  These  little 
butterflies  are  shade-lovers,  and  lie  hidden  under  the  trees  and 
bushes  during  the  day-time ;  they  are  active  and  restless  in  the 
morning  and  evening,  and  also  when  the  day  happens  to  be  dark 
and  cloudy.  They  possess  some  curious  and  distinctive  features. 
The  costal  nervure  is  dilated  at  the  base  of  the  forewing  in  both 
sexes.  This  nervure  does  not  touch  the  costal  or  upper  edge  of 
the  forewing,  but  lies  some  little  distance  behind  it.  The  males 
have  tufts  of  hair  on  the  hindwing.  They  have  a  skipping  kind 
of  flight  when  started  from  the  shades  they  love ;  they  are,  however, 
easily  caught  and  killed. 

8.  Mycalesis  blasius,  Fabricius  [96]. — This  is  the  rains  form  of 
iff,  perseus,  Fabricius  [99],  but  one  would  think  it  to  be  a  quite  differ- 
ent butterfly.  M.  blasius  has  well  marked  ocelli  and  a  distinct  white 
fascia  on  the  underside  of  both  wings,  whereas  in  M,  perseus  these 
are  almost  obsolete,  though  in  some  specimens  of  the  latter  there  are 
well  marked  spots  in  the  position  of  the  ocelli  which  are  on  the 
wings  of  the  former.  There  is  a  great  deal  more  variety  in  the 
markings  on  the  underside  of  the  wings  of  M.  perseus  than  there  is 
in  M.  blasius.  The  apex  of  the  forewing  in  M,  blasius  is  a  uni- 
form dark  brown,  not  so  dark  as  in  the  last  described  species,  but  in 
M,  perseus  there  is  always  a  small  ocellus  on  the  forewing.  The 
veins  at  the  base  of  the  forewing  are  swollen  in  both  sexes  and  the 
eyes  are  hairy.  The  males  have  an  erectile  tuft  of  hair,  and  a 
glandular  patch  on  the  hindwing.  These  features  are  also  present 
in  the  two  next  described  species.     Its  habits  and  flight   are   very 


BUTTERFLIES  OF  THE  CENTRAL  PROVINCES,  157 

similar  to  those  of  the  last  described  species,  but  it  is  a  much  com- 
moner butterfly. 

9.  Mycalesis  mineus,  Linnaeus  [97].— This  is  the  rains  form  of  JV. 
visala  {99a]  and  M,  indistans  [996.]  of  Moore.  It  is  larger  than  the 
last  species  and  is  not  so  common.  To  me  it  seems  a  paler  insect 
altogether,  and  with  a  sharper  angle  to  the  forewing  than  has  M,  pei*- 
seus.    Its  habits  and  flight  are  the  same  as  the  foregoing. 

10.  Mycalesia  malsara,  Moore  [108]. — This  is  the  rains  form  of 
jjf.  rudWf  Moore  [110].  I  have  taken  very  few  specimens  of  these  two 
forms ;  in  fact,  I  do  not  think  I  have  yet  procured  M.  makara.  It  is 
also  a  dark  brown  insect ;  but  the  underside  has  a  redder  tinge  than 
those  described  before.  All  these  insects  love  the  shade,  and  the 
way  to  discover  them  is  to  beat  the  bushes  so  as  to  disturb  them. 

11.  Lethe  europa,  Fabricius  [135]. — This  is  also  a  shade-loving 
insect,  but  is  easily  procured  in  the  evening,  as  are  all  Mycakaes  and 
Melanites  at  sugar.  They  are  all  also  very  fond  of  mhowa  refuse 
after  the  spirit  has  been  extracted  from  the  flowers.  Mhowa  spirit  is 
made  from  the  flowers  of  the  Mhowa  tree,  Bassia  latifolia.  The 
flowers  are  semi-transparent  globular  objects  when  fresh,  and  are 
eagerly  sought  after  by  many  kinds  of  birds  and  beasts.  They 
appear  in  February  and  March,  and  drop  off  in  the  early  morning, 
so  that,  if  you  are  encamped  under  a  mhowa  tree,  you  are  awakened  by 
a  continual  patter  on  the  top  of  the  tent  as  the  flowers  shower  down. 
The  people  who  collect  them  have  to  get  up  early,  as  one  has  to  do  at 
home  when  on  a  mushroom- gathering  expedition,  otherwise  the 
cattle,  jackals,  bears,  pigs  and  all  the  deer  tribe  would  not  leave  one 
behind.  The  flowers  are  collected  in  baskets,  taken  home,  dried,  and 
then  used  up  as  required  by  the  Kalars  (spirit  distillers).  Before 
the  spirit  has  been  extracted  the  flowers  do  not  seem  to  possess  such 
an  attractive  power  for  insects,  but  as  soon  as  this  is  done,  and  the 
refuse  cast  outside,  various  beetles  and  butterflies  are  attracted  to  it. 
I  suppose  the  fact  of  there  being  something  spirituous  about  it  is  the 
cause.  I  have  found  that  the  attractiveness  of  the  refuse  is  much 
increased  by  the  addition  of  "  gur'' or  "jaggri"  (coarse  country 
sugar),  melted  till  it  is  like  treacle,  and  of  a  little  rum,  or  else  the 
mhowa  spirit  itself ;  a  small  quantity  of  this  put  out  proves  an 
irresistible  bait   for    Satyrince  as  well   as    various  specie^  of  the 


158      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

Nymphalince.  It  is  good  to  attract  other  insects  as  well,  and  I  advise 
entomologists  to  try  it.  L,  eiiropa  is  a  beautiful  insect,  with  its 
lovely  mottlings  and  markings,  especially  on  the  underside.  It  is 
shy  and  easily  scared.  The  costal  nervure  is  swollen  at  the  base, 
and  the  eyes  are  hairy.  The  female  is  larger  and  more  conspicuous 
than  the  male,  owing  to  the  presence  of  a  white  band  across  the 
forewing. 

12.  Lethe  nilgheriensiSy  Gu^rin  [104]. — This  looks  like  a  small 
edition  of  the  former,  but  lacks  the  white  band  across  the  forewing  in 
the  female.  This  is  replaced  by  three  oval  white  spots  ;  its  habits  and 
structure  are  the  same  as  those  of  L,  eurona, 

13.  Ypthima  philomela,  Johansson  [204]. — This  the  rains  form  of 
E.  marshalli,  Butler  [205]. — All  the  Ypthimer 'a,re  small  obscurely 
coloured  brown  butterflies,  with  ocelli  on  both  sides  of  the  wings, 
and  striaB  on  the  underside.  They  are  generally  found  fluttering 
about  where  there  is  grass,  and  flying  in  and  out  amongst  the  stems ; 
they  are  feeble  little  things,  and  not  difficult  to  capture. 

14.  Ypthima  ariaspa,  Moore  [212], 

15.  Ypthima  asterope,  Klug  [213]. 

16.  Ypthima  inicay  Hewitson  [214]. 

17.  Ypthima  singala,  Felder  [222]. 

18.  Malanitis  leda,  Linnaeus  [243]. — This  is  the  rains  form  of 
M.  ismene,  Oramer  [249.]  Both  varieties  are  very  common  under 
bushes  and  in  dark  places.  Where  there  is  shade  and  moisture 
you  sometimes  come  upon  scores,  and  the  bushes  have  only  to  be 
disturbed,  when  they  will  show  themselves.  They  rise  in  so  great  a 
hurry  that  they  knock  against  leaves,  bushes,  tree  trunks,  anything  in 
fact  until  they  rest  again,  and  then  it  is  a  difficult  matter  to  find  them. 
Their  colouring  is  a  subdued  yet  rich  brown,  with  a  black  mark  on 
the  forewing,  larger  in  Jf.  ismene  than  in  M,  leda.  There  are  two  or 
three  white  spots  on  these  black  marks,  which  former  are  bordered 
more  or  less  continuously  with  ferruginous.  M,  leda  has  beautiful 
ocelli  on  the  underside,  while  in  Jf .  ismene  these  can  hardly  be  seen ;  all 
the  same,  when  once  settled  on  the  ground,  they  so  closely  resemble 
dead  leaves  that  the  sight  has  to  be  keen  to  detect  them.  Jfcf.  ismene 
is  altogether  a  larger  and  brighter  coloured  insect  than  M.  leda, 
and  the  underside  of  the  former  presents  the  most  varied  patterns  in 


BUTTERFLIES  OF  THE  CENTRAL  PROVINCES.  159 

russets,  browns,  subdued  yellows  and  greys.  No  two  that  I  have  seen 
are  exactly  alike.  Some  are  most  lovely  in  their  rich  variety  of  tints, 
while  others  are  pale  and  insignificant  looking.  They  are  crepuscular 
in  their  habits,  coming  out  in  the  evening  and  dancing  about  like 
elves,  as  has  often  been  described.  The  singular  habit  they  have  of 
mounting  into  the  air  until  lost  to  sight  has  some  reason  for  it  no 
doubt,  but  what  that  reason  may  be  has  not  been  discovered.  They 
are  gluttons  for  sweetened  mhowa  refuse,  and  can  be  caught  with 
the  fingers  while  feeding  on  it.  They,  as  well  as  Mycaleses  and 
Lethes,  are  fond  of  ripe  fruit :  a  guava  on  the  verge  of  rottenness 
has  a  great  fascination  for  them.  They  can  also  be  easily  caught 
when  drinking  toddy,  and  many  other  butterflies  share  this  taste. 
You  can  often  find  many  at  the  foot  of  the  palms  that  have  been 
tapped,  and  from  which  the  juice  drops  down  to  the  ground.  The 
shape  of  the  wing  in  M,  ismene  is  more  falcate  or  sickle-shaped  than 
in  M.  leda.  They  are  easily  caught  if  they  can  be  detected  on  the 
ground. 

M,  kda  is  a  smaller  butterfly  and  not  so  highly  coloured  as 
M,  ismene,  and  appears  during  the  rains ;  while  M,  ismene  comes 
out  during  the  dry  season.  One  would  suppose  them  to  be  diflferent 
butterflies  altogether,  but  this  is  not  the  case  ;  they  are  only  seasonal 
forms,  as  Mr.  de  Niceville  has  proved  by  breeding  one  form  from 
eggs  laid  by  the  other  form.  Various  other  genera  of  the  Satyr ince 
present  the  same  phenomenon,  and  as  a  rule  those  that  appear  during 
the  rains  are  smaller,  with  more  even  wings,  and  the  ocelli  on  the 
underside  more  prominent ;  whereas  those  that  appear  during  the  dry 
season  are  larger,  with  the  outline  of  the  wing  more  varied,  and  the 
ocelli  obsolescent.  It  would  appear  the  reason  is  that  during  the  hot 
months  the  caterpillars  find  it  difficult  to  procure  sufficiently  rich 
proper  food,  and  so  the  result  is  a  smaller  and  less  highly-coloured 
butterfly,  while  in  the  rains  the  supply  of  food  is  ample,  and  the 
result  is  a  more  highly-coloured  and  larger  butterfly.  I  have  reared 
the  caterpillar  on  the  blades  of  green  rice  during  the  rains.  It  is 
green  with  a  longitudinal  yellow  stripe  and  a  curious  forked  tail. 
The  pupa  is  green  and  suspended  in  a  sort  of  slight  cradle  made  of 
the  blades  of  rice. 

19.     M.  hetha77ii,  de  Niceville. — A  description  of  both  the  dry  and 


160      JOURSAL,  BOMBAY  SATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

rainy  season  form  of  this  butterfly  appeared  in  the  Proceedings  of  the 
Zoological  Society  of  London  for  1887,  pp.  451 — 453.  It  is  a  larger 
and  more  deeply-coloured  butterfly  than  the  last,  but  has  the  same 
habits.  It  has  only  been  found  about  Pachmarhi,  3,500  feet,  a 
sanitarium  in  the  Satpura  Hills,  where  it  is  fairly  abundant. 

Sub- Family — Elymniince, 

20.  Elymniaa  unduiariSf  Drury  [256]. — This  is  also  a  shade-loving 
insect  with  a  feeble  flight.  The  differences  between  the  sexes  is  most 
marked.  The  male  is  a  dark  brown  insect  with  blue  markings  on 
the  forewing,  and  a  reddish  tinge  on  the  hindwing,  while  the 
female  imitates  Danais  genutia,  being  of  a  reddish-brown  colour  with 
black  and  white  markings.  The  undersides  of  both  sexes  are  the 
same,  or  very  nearly  so.  They  are  fond  of  settling  on  the  stems  of 
plants  and  on  tree  trunks. 

Sub-Family — Acrceince. 

21.  TelcMnia  tioi<Ey  Fabricius  [298]. — ^A  small  reddish-coloured 
butterfly  with  black  veins  to  its  wings,  like  a  miniature  Danais 
dorippus.  It  has  a  very  tough  and  leathery  body,  and  is  difficult  to 
kill  but  easy  to  capture.  It  is  very  common  in  many  places  in  the 
Central  Provinces,  and  seems  to  delight  in  bare,  arid  places,  although 
plentiful  too  in  moister  spots. 

The  caterpillar  is  a  blackish-coloured  creature,  and  feeds  on  Cu- 
curbit4Ut€e,     The  pupa  is  a  very  pale  pink  with  black  marks. 

Sub-Family — XymphnlincR . 

22.  Erg(Ms  merione,  Cramer  [299]. — A  fairly  common  butterfly 
in  many  parts.  The  caterpillar  feeds  on  the  castor-oil  plant,  and  the 
egg  is  covered  with  hairs  or  spines.  The  upperside  of  the  imago  is  a 
tawny-brown  with  delicate  black  markings,  and  the  underside  is 
much  darker,  appearing  quite  black  when  the  butterfly  is  flying.  It 
aetdes  with  its  wings  expanded,  has  a  slow  jerky  flight,  and  is  not 
difficult  to  capture.     It  has  a  swollen  costal  nervure  to  the  forewing. 

23.  Ergolu  ariadne^  LinnsBus  [301]. — ^This  is  very  like  the  last^ 
bat  is  smaller,  and  can  be  distinguished  by  its  having  the  edges  of 
its  wing  more  scallopped,  or  *'  pinked,"'  as  the  ladies  would  say.  It 
has  abo  two  of  the  veins  of  the  hindwing  on  the  upperside  white 


160      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

rainy  season  form  of  this  butterfly  appeared  in  the  Proceedings  of  the 
Zoological  Society  of  London  for  1887,  pp.  451 — 453.  It  is  a  larger 
and  more  deeply-coloured  butterfly  than  the  last,  but  has  the  same 
habits.  It  has  only  been  found  about  Pachmarhi,  3,500  feet,  a 
sanitarium  in  the  Satpura  Hills,  where  it  is  fairly  abundant. 

Sub-Family — ElymniincB, 

20.  Elymnias  undularis,  Drury  [256]. — This  is  also  a  shade-loving 
insect  with  a  feeble  flight.  The  differences  between  the  sexes  is  most 
marked.  The  male  is  a  dark  brown  insect  with  blue  markings  on 
the  forewing,  and  a  reddish  tinge  on  the  hindwing,  while  the 
female  imitates  Danais  genutia,  being  of  a  reddish-brown  colour  with 
black  and  white  markings.  The  undersides  of  both  sexes  are  the 
same,  or  very  nearly  so.  They  are  fond  of  settling  on  the  stems  of 
plants  and  on  tree  trunks. 

Sub-Family — Acroeince. 

21.  Telchinia  violce,  Fabricius  [298]. — A  small  reddish-coloured 
butterfly  with  black  veins  to  its  wings,  like  a  miniature  Danais 
dorippus.  It  has  a  very  tough  and  leathery  body,  and  is  difficult  to 
kill  but  easy  to  capture.  It  is  very  common  in  many  places  in  the 
Central  Provinces,  and  seems  to  delight  in  bare,  arid  places,  although 
plentiful  too  in  moister  spots. 

The  caterpillar  is  a  blackish-coloured  creature,  and  feeds  on  Cu- 
curbitacece.     The  pupa  is  a  very  pale  pink  with  black  marks. 

Sub-Family — Ifj/mphalince . 

22.  Ergolis  merione,  Cramer  [299]. — ^A  fairly  common  butterfly 
in  many  parts.  The  caterpillar  feeds  on  the  castor-oil  plant,  and  the 
egg  is  covered  with  hairs  or  spines.  The  upperside  of  the  imago  is  a 
tawny-brown  with  delicate  black  markings,  and  the  underside  is 
much  darker,  appearing  quite  black  when  the  butterfly  is  flying.  It 
settles  with  its  wings  expanded,  has  a  slow  jerky  flight,  and  is  not 
difficult  to  capture.     It  has  a  swollen  costal  nervure  to  the  forewing. 

23.  ErgolU  ariadne,  Linnseus  [301]. — This  is  very  like  the  last, 
but  is  smaller,  and  can  be  distinguished  by  its  having  the  edges  of 
its  wing  more  scallopped,  or  "  pinked,"  as  the  ladies  would  say.  It 
has  also  two  of  the  veins  of  the  hindwing  on  the  upperside  white 


DESCRIPTION  OF  A  NEIV  FUNGUS.  161 

and  shining.     Its  habits  and  manner  of  flight  are   verj^  much  the 
same  as  the  last. 

24.  Byhlia  ilithyia,  Drury  [303].  This  butterfly  is  a  brighter- 
coloured  one  than  the  last  two.  I  have  only  taken  it  in  the  Hoshang- 
abad  district,  where  it  is  fairiy  common.  The  costal  nervure  of  the 
forewing  in  this  genus  is  also  swollen,  as  in  JErgolis. 

25.  Atella  phalanthay  Drury  [314]. — A  very  common  but  beautiful 
little  butterfly.  It  is  wonderfully  sharp  and  active  in  its  movements. 
It  looks  for  all  the  world  like  a  fritillary  with  its  bright  rust-red 
wings,  and  black  markings.  Underneath,  when  fresh,  it  has  pearly 
iridescent  tints.  The  head  and  eyes  look  larger  in  proportion  to  its 
body  than  is  the  case  with  most  other  butterflies.  It  is  fond  of  the 
sunshine,  and  perches  in  exposed  situations,  sallying  out  to  fight  with 
any  other  butterfly  that  comes  along,  and  then  returning  to  its 
old  perch. 

26.  Precis  iphita,  Cramer  [343]. — A  glossy  looking  butterfly,  in 
shape  almost  the  same  as  the  Junonice  that  follows.  It  is  fond  of 
shady  woods,  but  has  the  habits  of  most  of  the  Junonice  in  its  quick 
manner  of  flight.  I  have  only  come  across  it  in  three  or  four  places 
in  the  Central  Provinces,  but  where  it  occurs  it  is  fairly  common. 
It  is  fond  of  settling  on  the  ground,  and  like  a  rnetanitis  is  difficult 
to  distinguish  from   faded  and  fallen  leaf. 


DESCRirTION    OF    A   NEW   FUNGUS,  ^CIDIUM 
ESCULENTUM,  NOV.   8P.    ON  ACACIA 

EBURNEA,    WILLD. 

By  A.  Barclay,  M.B.,  Bengal  Medical  Service. 

This  -fficidium  is  one  of  considerable  interest,  not  only  on  account 
of  the  largeness  of  its  effect  upon  the  host  bearing  it,  but  because 
it  is  only  the  second  species  of  Urediue  which,  so  far  as  I  am  aware, 
is  known  to  be  eaten  by  human  beings.  The  large  hypertrophies 
caused  by  ^cidium  TJrikcc,  Schura,  uir,  Himalayense,  on  the  com- 
mon  nettle   of  the  outer  Himalayas    ( Urtica  par vi flora,  Roxb.)  are 

21 


162      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAti  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

eaten  raw,  as  I  have  myself  seen,  by  the  poor  people  on  account 
of  the  large  amount  of  nutritious  material  stored  therein  by 
the  mycelium  of  the  fungus*;  but  in  the  present  case  the 
pure  fungus  itself  is  apparently  eaten,  and  after  some  ela- 
borate preparation,  as  I  am  informed  by  Mr.  Wroughton,  to  whom 
I  am  much  indebted  for  the  kind  trouble  he  has  taken  in  sending 
me  specimens.  I  first  received  a  small  specimen  of  the  fungus  from 
Dr.  Cunningham,  F.R.S.,  in  August,  to  whom  it  had  been  sent, 
through  Mr.  Cotes  of  the  Indian  Museum,  Calcutta,  by  Mr.  Wrough- 
ton. This  had  been  gathered  at  Poona,  but  as  the  specimen  was 
insuflBcient  in  many  respects  for  any  useful  description  I  addressed 
Mr.  Wroughton,  begging  him  to  send  me  other  specimens,  and  for 
any  general  information  he  might  be  able  to  gather  concerning  it. 
To  this  he  responded  most  generously,  and  all  the  information  this 
paper  contains,  other  than  the  more  diagnostic  characters  of  the 
fungus,  is  his. 

There  was  at  first  some  doubt  concerning  the  botanical  identity  of 
the  host,  but  Mr.  Wroughton  has  convinced  himself  that  it  is  un- 
doubtedly Acada  ehurnea,  Willd,  and  known  to  natives  as  Murmuti. 
In  certain  areas  of  the  Poona  district  the  fungus  is  most  common, 
every  tree  or  bush  being  covered  with  it ;  and  it  occasions  such  dis- 
tortion and  dwarfing  of  the  host  that  attacked  trees  may  be  recog- 
nised from  a  great  distance.  The  parasite  appears  to  distort  the 
stem  much  as  the  mistletoe  does  the  stem  on  which  it  grows.  As 
Mr.  Wroughton  says,  **  it  is  fortunate  that  A,  ehurnea  is  of  no  value 
as  a  timber  tree,"  as  otherwise  the  presence  of  the  parasite  would 
imdoubtedly  give  rise  to  much  loss. 

The  specimens  I  received  showed,  even  on  cursory  inspection,  that 
the  parasite  had  a  generally  pervading  and  probably  perennial 
mycelium,  and  that  the  presence  of  this  mycelium  caused  an  excess 
of  longitudinal  growth  in  shoots,  with  very  considerable  hypertrophy 
or  thickening.  Dr.  G.  King,  F.R.S.,  writes  of  specimens  he  received : — 
"  It  is  curious  to  notice  how  the  capitate  heads  of  the  Acacia  become 
elongated  when  attacked  by  that  curious  fungoid  growth.*  *  * 
Anybody  examining  such  diseased  heads  and  not  seeing  the  healthy 

*    So.  Memoirs  by  Medical  Officers  of  the  Army  of  India,  Part  II.,  1886. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  A  NEW  FUNGUS,  163 

ones  would  at  once  refer  them  to  some  of  the  set  with  spicate 
inflorescence."  The  fructification  of  the  fungus  is  always  found  at 
the  ends  of  flowering  shoots  and  not  generally  on  the  larger  shoots. 
This  consists  mainly  of  an  immense  number  of  cccidia  (peridia) 
dotted  thickly  over  the  younger  attacked  parts  of  the  host.  They 
are  bluntly  conical  bodies  about  1  m.m.  in  height  and  1  m.m.  in 
diameter. 

Before  proceeding  to  a  detailed  description  of  the  fungus.  I  may 
here  note  that  it  is  apparently  these  iEcidia  which  are  eaten.  They 
are  readily  scraped  o£E  the  host.  As  I  understand  it,  these  aecidia 
having  been  scraped  off  are  boiled  until  quite  soft,  and  when  cold 
are  rubbed  up  into  a  mess  with  spices  and  then  warmed  up  and 
eaten  as  a  relish.  Mr.  Wroughton  writes — "  I  find  all  the  ixjople  eat 
it  freely.*' 

The  first  specimen  I  got  through  Dr.  Cunningham ;  if  collected 
immediately  before  it  was  sent  to  him,  must  have  been  gathered  in 
July  or  early  August,  and  the  next  Rpocimeu  I  got  direct  from  Mr. 
Wroughton  was  gathered  on  the  11th  January.  Each  sixjcimcn  con- 
tained ripe  cecidia ;  but  I  have  no  definite  information  as  to  the 
seasons  during  which  the  ripe  tccidia  arc  found,  and  during  which 
they  are  absent.  From  the  last  siKJciinou  sent  to  mc  in  alcohol  it 
would  appear  that  the  cccidl  are  produced  during  the  time  the  host 
puts  forth  new  shoots ;  this  may  bo  once  or  twice  a  year.  With 
these  introductory  remarks  I  proceed  to  a  systematic  description  of 
the  fungus. 

The  mycelium  apparently  pervades  every  tissue  of  the  parts  attack- 
ed, and  gives  rise  to  considerable  hypertrophy  of  the  parenchy- 
matous cells.  From  this  it  may  be  conc^luded  that  the  mycelium 
is  perennial.  It  would,  however,  bo  interesting  to  know  whether 
the  parts  which  have  once  borne  cecidia  die  after  this,  new  shoots 
from  its  neighbourhood  only  being  attacked  in  the  next  season  of 
vegetative  activity,  or  whether  they  again  bear  another  crop  of  cecidia. 
It  is  in  the  highest  degree  probable  that  the  former  is  the  case. 
The  mycelium  itself  is  of  the  ordinary  kind  common  to  these  para- 
sites, but  is  characterised  by  the  formation  of  innumerable  hmistoria. 
These  are  either  button-like  intrusions  into  the  cell  cavity  (as  in  the 
PeronosporeaD    and   Ustilagineao)    or    simple    tubes.     Sometimes    a 


lU     JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

grape- like  mass  of  button-like  haustoria  may  be  seen  within  a  cell 
(fig.  1,  Plate  A). 

Before  the  cecidia  are  formed  numerous  spermogonia  cover  the 
surf  ace  of  attacked  parts.  These  are  remarkably  small  and  super- 
ficial (fig.  2  Plate  A.)  being  superficial  to  the  epidermis.  They  are 
flat,  circular  bodies,  measuring  from  100  to  120  m  in  diam.  and  30 
to  40  ft  in  height.  They  are  of  the  usual  structure  and  call  for 
no  special  description. 

The  cecedia  as  already  noted  are  bluntly  conical  bodies,  about  1  m.m. 
in  height  above  the  host's  surface,  and  1  mm.  in  diameter.  They  are 
very  deeply  set,  the  basidial  layer  being  about  0'378  mm.  below  the 
outer  surface  of  the  epidermis.  The  basidial  layer  is  very  regular 
and  flat,  and  beneath  it  is  a  large  mass  of  convoluted  hyphae  (fig.  3, 
Plate  A.) 

Theperidiufn  is  very  resistant  and  tough,  but  is  composed  of  a 
single  layer  of  flat  angular  cells  (fig.  4,  Plate  A),  Each  cell  is  bevelled 
both  above  and  below  like  the  edge  of  a  chisel ;  the  bevelled  edge 
of  the  upper  end  overlapping  the  cell  above  externally.  The  outer 
surface  of  each  cell  is  thickened.  The  thickness  of  the  peridial  layer 
is  20  M. 

The  acidiospores  are  extremely  numerous  within  each  peridium. 
They  are  given  off  in  very  long  rows,  the  lowermost  being  extremely 
small,  and  indeed  look  like  the  stalks  of  teleutospores  septated 
(fig.  3,  Plate  A).  Not  having  seen  any  fresh  specimens  I  am  not 
aware  of  the  colour  of  the  ripe  spores.  In  order  to  obtain  the  following 
characters  of  the  ripe  spores,  I  first  placed  fragments  of  the  host 
bearing  ripe  but  unopened  cecidia  which  had  been  hardened  in  alco- 
hol into  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  alcohol  and  glycerine  for  24 
hours,  and  then  into  pure  water  for  24  hours.  After  such  treatment 
the  spores  were  found  to  be  light  brown  in  colour,  irregidarly  oval, 
but  varying  in  size  and  shape,  and  tuberculated  or  slightly  spiny  on 
the  surface.  They  were  found  to  be  thickened  at  one  end,  with  usually 
a  small,  but  sometimes  unusually  long  (fig.  5,  Plate  A)  projection. 
These  projections  apparently  aid  in  keeping  some  spores  of  a  series 
together  (fig.  5,  Plate  A).  They  measured  28  to  40X16  to  19  /x. 
Each  spore  appears  to  have  two  germ  pores. 

Such  then  are  the  characters  of  one  stage  of  existence  of   a  verv 


JOURN.  BcME.  NAT.  HiST.  SOO.  VOL   V 


Acacia  Eburm£r  >N\tui. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  A  NE^V  FUNGUS  ir>5 

remarkable  j3£cidiutny  and  I  would  commoud  a  study  of  it«  life  his- 
tory to  the  members  of  the  Bombay  Natural  History  Society  as  a 
research  very  promising  in  yielding  fruitful  result.  So  far  it  will 
'be  observed  no  resting  spore  in  connection  with  it  is  known.  This 
must  be  sought  for  either  on  the  same  host,  or  some  other  widely 
different  from  it.  As  the  parasite  has  apparently  a  perennial  mycelium 
allowing  it  to  reproduce  the  stage  I  have  described,  year  after  year, 
it  is  possible  that  the  resting  spore  stage  may  be  rare,  but  reasoning 
from  analogy  this  other  still  undiscovered  stage  is  probably  abundant. 
This  apparently  is  a  new  species,  and  I  have  named  it  ^cidiam 
esmlentum  to  indicate  its  edibility,  a  rare  property  in  this  group  of 
fungi.  In  a  list  of  all  the  known  Uredimw  published  lately  by  Dr. 
P.  Dietel*  two  species  of  iEcidium  on  species  of  Acacia  are  noted, 
one  A.  irwrnatum,  Kalchbr.,  on  A.  horridctj  L.,  and  another  A.  orna- 
mentale,  Kalchbr.  on  A.  Farnemtna.  As  I  have  no  access  to  descrip- 
tions of  these,  I  cannot  definitely  state  that  the  species  I  have  just 
described  may  not  be  identical  with  one  or  other  of  these ;  but  the 
probability  is  that  it  is  distinct,  since  neither  of  these  hosts  exists 
in  India. 

Simla,  3rd  February  1890. 


•     Verzeichnisa  Saintlichor  Urcdincon,  Loii)zig,  188^. 


NOTE  AIJDEl)  TO  Du.  13AUCLAY^S  l^APEU. 

By  Dk.  D.  Pkain. 

Teratoloijical  Effwin. 

The  fungoid  growth  pi'odiices  considerable  general  hypertrophy 
and  some  distortion  of  the  parts  involved ;  it  causes  at  the  same  time 
the  occurrence  of  certiiiu  abuorinalities  of  structure. 

The  species  affected,  Acavia  vhurnea  of  Willdeiiow,  is  characterised 
by  having  its  florets  arranged  in  globose  heads.  These  heads  are 
borne  on  slender  stalks  lliat  arise  IVoni  tlio  axils  of  developed  leaves; 
the  stalks  are  near  their  middle  surrounded  by  a  ling  of  small  bracts. 
The  free  ends  of  the  stalks  are  slightly  thickened  and  it  is  to  this 


166      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

slightly  thickened  sub-globose  facetted  part  of  the  stalk  that  the 
florets  are  attached.  The  individual  florets  do  not  possess  special 
stalklets.  So  much  of  the  structure  of  the  normal  inflorescence  it  is 
necessary  to  detail  in  order  to  make  the  conditions  in  the  diseased 
flowers  intelligible. 

In  the  diseased  flowers  a  ring  of  florets  makes  its  appearance  in 
the  axils  of  the  bracts  near  the  middle  of  the  stalk  that  are  normally 
sterile.  The  thickened  end  parts  of  the  stalk  that  are  normally  short 
and  globose  become  elongated  in  such  a  manner  as  to  transform  the 
globular  flower  head  into  a  cylindric  spike  on  which  the  florets  in- 
stead of  being  crowded  together  are  arranged  at  short  intervals  from 
each  other.  At  the  same  time  each  of  the  florets  developes  a  short 
special  stalklet,  and  in  place  of  all  the  florets  opening  simultaneously 
as  they  do  in  the  normal  flower-heads,  those  florets  in  the  diseased 
spikes  that  are  nearest  to  their  apices  are  smaller  in  size  and  later 
of  growth  than  those  below  them.  It  ought  to  be  noticed  that  even 
in  fruit  there  is  no  tendency  in  undiseased  plants  to  elongation  of 
the  part  of  the  stalk  to  which  the  pods  are  attached,  and  no  disposi- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  pods  to  ripen  more  quickly  at  the  outside  of 
the  branch  than  in  the  centre.  At  the  same  time  it  has  to  be  repeat- 
ed that  it  is  entirely  owing  to  special  elongation  of  this  part  of  the 
stalk  in  diseased  flowers  that  the  flower-head  becomes  changed  from 
a  ball  into  a  spike,  because  the  interval  that  in  normal  flower-stalks 
exists  between  the  barren  bracts  and  the  flower-heads  themselves 
still  continues  to  exist,  destitute  of  florets,  between  the  circle  of  florets 
that  appears  abnormally  in  the  axils  of  the  bracts  and  the  basal 
florets  of  the  cylindric  spike.  This  interval  which  in  undiseased 
flowers  is  5 — 6  mm.  long,  measures  10 — 12  mm.  in  diseased  ones.  But 
the  increase  in  length  of  this  part  is  merely  due  to  the  general 
hypertrophy  produced  by  the  disease,  and  it  is  not  its  size  but  its 
existence  at  all  in  the  diseased  flower  that  is  of  interest. 

Expressed  in  technical  teratological  language  the  conditions  in- 
duced by  the  disease  are : — Increase  in  the  size  of  the  parts  affected 
by  general  hypertrophy,  with  some  alteration  of  shape  by  distortion 
combined  with  conversion  of  florets  from  sessile  to  pedicellate  by 
elongation,  conversion  of  a  capitate  inflorescence  into  a  spike  by 
apostasis,  change  of  a  simultaneous  and  therefore  at  least  sub-definite 


OATES*S  BIRDS  OF  INDIA.  167 

inflorescence  into  a  palpably  indefinite  one  by  heterotaxyy  and  the 
appearance  of  a  new  circle  of  florets  by  proUficatioii  of  flower-ends 
in  the  axils  of  the  median  peduncular  involucre. 
Explanation  of  figures  in  Plate  B  ;•— 

1.  Flower  head  with  opened  florets  and  head  with  florets 
unopened  in  axil  of  the  same  leaf  of  Acacia  eburnea,  Willd. 

2.  Young  infruitescence  shewing  that  even  in  fruit  there  is 
no  tendency  to  elongation  in  that  part  of  the  peduncle  to  which 
florets  and  subsequently  pods  are  attached ;  from  the  same  plant 
as  preceding. 

3.  Diseased  flower  (covered  with  the  granular  papillae 
indicative  of  the  disease)  shewing  distortion  of  leaf;  general 
hypertrophy  of  portion  of  branchlet,  stipular  spines  and  in- 
florescence ;  prolification  of  florets  in  the  axils  of  the  peduncular 
bracts ;  apostam,  and  at  the  same  time  hetewtaxy,  in  the  normally 
floret-bearing  portion  of  peduncle ;  with  pcdicellatiou  of  individual 
florets  that  are  normally  sessile. 


NOTES  ON  OATES'S  BIRDS  OF  INDIA. 

Thb  appearance  of  Mr.  Oates*s  volume  on  the  birds  which  forms  part  of 
the  "  Fauna  of  British  India,"  edited  by  Mr.  W.  T.  Blanford,  and  published  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Indian  Government,  is  an  event  of  great  importance  to 
ornithologists,  and  for  the  benefit  of  our  Indian  readers  we  have  strung  together 
a  few  notes  which  may  be  of  service  to  the  numerous  students  of  bird-life  in  India. 
Mr.  Eugene  Oates  is  a  Civil  Engineer  who  has  seen  long  service  in  the  East,  one  of 
those  officers  whose  work  it  has  been  to  open  up  British  Burma  to  the  influences 
of  civilisation.  Like  many  other  intelligent  officials,  Mr.  Oates  has  found  time 
during  the  intervals  of  road  and  canal-making,  bridge-building,  &c.,  to  study 
ornithology,  and  he  was  one  of  that  famous  band  of  contributors  who  rallied 
round  Mr.  Hume  and  his  ornithological  journal — **  Stray  Feathers*'  When  on 
furlough  in  England  in  1881—1883,  he  wrote  his  "  Hand-book  to  the  Birds  of 
British  Burma—"  a  book  which  at  once  placed  Mr.  Oates  in  the  front  rank  of  Bri- 
tish naturalists.  That  be  is  possessed  of  the  true  spirit  of  self-sacrifice  in  the 
cause  of  science  has  been  shown  by  his  willingness  to  come  to  England  on  half 
pay,  in  order  to  write  the  ornithological  portion  of  the  **  Fauna  of  British  India." 
We  hope  that  ample  leave  of  absence  will  be  granted  to  him  to  finish  with  his  own 
hands  the  task  which  he  has  commenced  with  so  much  credit.     Mr.  Oates  has 


168     JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY    SO  CI  ET  Y,IS90. 

undoubtedly  been  much  hampered  by  the  mode  of  publication  which  the  "  Fauna 
of  British  India  "  has  taken,  for  the  compressed  form  in  which  the  work  is  issued 
gives  the  author  no  scope  for  detail,  and  the  ornithological  volumes  will  be  but  the 
stepping-stones  to  a  more  elaborate  work  on  the  Avi-fauna  of  India,  which,  it  is  to 
be  hoped,  Mr.  Gates  will  have  time  to  publish.  When  we  think  of  what  a  real 
faunistic  work  is,  much,  for  instance,  as  Godman's  and  Salvin's  *'  Biologia 
Centrali  Americana,"  or  Grandidier's  "  Histoire  Naturelle  de  Madagascar,"  it 
seems  a  pity  that  the  more  modest  title  of  **  Hand-book "  was  not  retained 
for  the  series  of  volumes  on  the  Natural  History  of  British  India,  over 
which  Mr.  W.  T.  Blanford  presides.  Granting,  however,  the  restricted  space  which 
was  at  Mr.  Oates's  disposal,  his  work  of  condensation  could  not  have  been  more 
ably  performed,  and  he  stands  as  a  master  of  the  art  along  with  Mr.  Salvin,  Pro- 
fessor Newton,  and  Mr.  Howard  Saunders,  who  are  the  greatest  ornithological 
experts  in  the  compression  of  facts. 

With  the  pubhcation  of  the  present  volume  will  probably  commence  the  fourth 
era  in  the  history  of  Indian  ornithology.  The  first  we  should  call  the  "  Blythian 
Era"  (1846—1860).  To  the  previous  labours  of  Jerdon  (1840—1844)  came  the 
supplementary  labours  of  Blyth,  whose  residence  in  Calcutta  was  marked  by  that 
wonderful  series  of  papers  on  Indian  Biology,  which  gathered  up  the  threads  of 
information  from  all  corners  of  the  British  Asian  Empire,  but  which  were  never 
published  by  the  author  in  a  connected  form.  Then  came  the  "  Jerdonian  Era," 
from  1860 — 1872,  when  Jerdon  reduced  to  order  all  the  scattered  details  of  Indian 
ornithology,  and  paved  the  way  with  his  **  Birds  of  India  "  for  the  "  Humian 
Era"  (1870— 1882).  Around  the  name  of  Mr.  A.  O.  Hume  will  cluster  for  ever 
the  memories  of  some  of  the  best  ornithologists  which  England  has  ever  produced, 
and  the  work  which  was  done  under  his  leadership  was  truly  remarkable.  The 
collection  which  he  personally  made,  the  enthusiasm  which  he  created  in  his 
followers,  the  generalship  with  which  he  directed  the  studies  of  his  coadjutors, 
added  to  the  untiring  energy  which  he  himself  infused  into  every  detail  of  his 
ornithological  scheme,  have  all  combined  to  render  the  "  Humian  Era"  remarkable 
for  its  accomplishments  in  the  history  of  ornithology.  The  purloining  of  his 
MSS.  by  a  rascally  servant,  involving  the  annihilation  of  the  results  of  years  of 
patient  labour,  proved  such  a  great  disappointment  for  Mr.  Hume,  that  he  gave 
his  collection,  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  scientific  world,  to  the  British  Museum ; 
and  it  is  on  this  collection  that  the  labours  of  Mr.  Gates  have  mainly  been  based. 
The  Tweeddale  collection  of  birds,  and  the  unequalled  library  of  ornithological 
works,  presented  by  Major  Wardlaw  Ramsay  to  the  British  nation,  have,  added  to 
the  Hume  collection,  constituted  all  the  material  that  was  necessary  for  an  author 
in  the  production  of  his  book ;  and  the  facilities  rendered  by  the  authorities  of  the 
Natural  History  Museum  have  enabled  Mr.  Gates  to  write  his  work  with  such 
^  completeness  that  it  will  undoubtedly  be  considered  as  one  of  the  most  important 
of  contributions  to  ornithology  of  the  present  day,  and  with  the  year  1890  we 
may  look  forward  to  the  commencement  of  the  "  Gatesian  Era." 


OAT  EST  S  BIRDS  OF  JSDJA.  109 

We  hope  that  ornithologists  will  make,  if  necessary,  such  a  strong  representa- 
tion to  the  GoTernment  of  India,  that  there  may  he  no  question  about  the  grant  of 
special  leave  to  Mr.  Oates  to  enable  him  to  finish  his  work,  for  fear  that  the  con- 
clusion of  it  shouhl  fall  into  less  capable  hands. 

Now  for  the  work  itself.  The  first  volume  consists  of  the  •*  Preface,"  by  the 
editor  (pp.  1 — 10),  followed  by  a  diagram  of  the  contour  of  a  bird,  which  will  be 
useful  to  beginners  in  assisting  them  to  describe  a  specimen.  There  are  one  or 
two  slipE,  which  may  as  well  be  pointed  out  in  this  description  for  correction  iu  a 
susbsequenl  edition.  The  "  nape"  is  by  no  means  ifie  same  as  the  *' occiput;" 
witness  such  names  as  Parns  nuchalis  (p.  49)  and  Ixulus  occipitalis  (p.  217).  The 
8]Mice  allowed  for  the  **  abdomen  "  is  too  large,  seeing  that  the  "  breast''  is  gene- 
rally supposed  to  be  the  portion  of  the  body  overlyinjr  the  sternum,  and  the  **  fore- 
neck"  and  **  chest"  are  entirelv  omitted  in  Mr.  Gates's  vocabulary,  his  "  breast" 
being  occupied  by  what  we  ourselves  call  the  **  lower  throat,*'  *'  fore-neck,"  and 
"  chest."  Similarly,  the  portion  which  he  calls  the  **  back  "  we  should  divide 
into  the  "  mantle,"  or  **inter8capulary  region,"  "upper"  and  "lower"  hack. 
Mr.  Oates  fully  recognises  these  divisious  in  his  descriptions  [Cf.  Ifeinlrocifta 
frontalis,  p.  33,  &c.)  We  also  regret  to  see  that  he  once  more  introduces  the  term 
"  tertiarics"  instead  of  "  innermost  secondnries."  The  former  term  implies  that 
these  quills  spring  from  a  separate  bone  of  the  wing. 

Iu  his  primary  classification,  Mr.  Outes  has  adopted  the  main  divisions  recently 
proposed  by  Mr.  Seebohm  from  a  revision  which  the  latter  gentleman  has  been 
making  of  the  general   characters  of  the  class    Aves.     For  the  last   two   years 
Mr.  Seebohm  has  been  revising  and  collating  all  the  work  of  recent  ornithologists, 
and  has  by  the  most  careful  study,  discovered  many  new  points  which  l)ear  on  the 
classification  of  birds ;  so  that  of  all  the  schemes  for  the  arrangement  of  the  higher 
orders  of  birds,  this  new  one  of  Mr.  Soebohm's  seems  to  us  to  be  most  worthy  of 
general  acceptance.     Mr.    Oates   briefly   explains  the   leading   characters  of  the 
Passeres  (with  which  alone  this  volume  deals),  and  illustrates  the  leading  features 
of  the  order  with  a  capital  selection  of  wood-cuts,  the   skull   of  the    Raven  being 
figured  to  show  the  .E^ithognathous  palate.     This   figure  is  far  more  characteris- 
tic than   the   one   which    illustrates    Professor    Huxley's    determination    of  the 
iKgithognathous   palate   in  the  "  Proceedings"   for  1807.     Then    on    pp.  8,  9, 
Mr.  Oates  gives  a  "Scheme" — i.e.,  a  "Key" — for  the  determination  of  the  Families 
of  Passerine  Birds,  with  which  we  could  at  first  find  no  fault,  as   it   was  evidently 
an  artificial   or  student's  **  Key,'*  until  we  turned  over  the  pages  of  the  book  and 
found  that  the   author  had    conscientiously  followed   the   minor   details   of  the 
*•  Key,"  and  had  adopted  the  order  into  which  the  families  had  dropped  under  the 
artificial    arrangement   which    he    had    elaborated   for   their  identifieation.     The 
result  of  these  characterisations  is  that  the  Titmice  disappear  as  a  family.  Paridct 
altogether,  being  absorbed   in   the    Corvid(p ;    the    TimeHidiB,  the    "  waste-paper 
basket"  (test  Tristram)  of  ornithologist,  likewise  vani.sh,  and  are  replaced  by   the 
Crateropodidcp,  which  is,  as  a  friend  of    ours   would    say,   the   same    monkey   on 
2,1 


170      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890 

another  bough  ;  the  Dicuridce  appear  as  a  family  between  the  Sittid(B  and  the 
CerthiincR  ;  the  Regulidce  are  a  full-blown  family,  and  lead  from  the  Sylviida 
to  the  Laniid(B  and  OriolidcB,  which  in  turn  approach  the  Sturnidce  by  means 
of  a  new  family,  the  EulahetidcB,  This  arrangement  of  the  families  is  a  blemish 
on  the  book,  and  the  use  of  an  editor  should  have  here  been  apparent,  if  he  had 
suggested  to  the  author  that  this  arrangement  was  certain  to  be  accepted  literally, 
and  that  a  footnote  of  explanation  that  the  "  Key"  was  an  artificial,  and  not  a 
natural  one,  would  have  saved  the  necessity  of  the  above  remarks.  We  know 
from  our  own  experience  that  in  the  making  of  "  Keys,"  where  the  species  or 
genera  are  numerous,  it  is  often  impossible  to  fit  them  all  in  what  seems  a  natural 
order,  and  certain  **  keys"  must  of  necessity  be  more  or  less  artificial.  In  such 
cases  we  have  always  stated  that  fact,  and  in  the  arrangement  of  the  genera  or 
species  have  followed  what  we  conceived  to  be  the  more  natural  arrangement 
Cf.  also  Oounes's  Key  to  North  American  Birds  (p.  230)- 

The  chief  character  for  the  division  of  the  ten-primaried  Passeres  on  which 
Mr.  Oates  relies  is  to  be  met  with  in  the  plumage  of  the  young  birds. 
Mr.  Seebohm  was  the  first  ornithologist  to  recognise  this  as  a  fundamental  character, 
and  it  enabled  him  to  characterise  his  Thrushes  and  Warblers  in  a  philosophical 
and  satisfactory  manner.  Mr.  Oates  is  the  first  ornithologist  who  has  carried  it 
out  for  the  bulk  of  the  Passeres,  and  he  finds  that  five  types  of  nestling  plumages 
exist  in  these  birds. 

In  the^rs^  the  nestling  resembles  the  adult  female. 

In  the  5ecoRc{  the  nestling  resembles  the  adult  female,  but  is  more  brightly 
coloured,  and  generally  suffused  with  yellow. 

In  the  third  the  nestling  is  barred. 

In  t\iQ fourth  it  is  streaked. 

In  the^ifA  it  is  mottled  or  squamated. 

That  much  of  the  natural  affinity  of  birds  may  be  elucidated  by  the  colouring 
of  the  young  we  do  not  deny,  and  we  look  upon  the  nestling  plumage  as  an 
indication  of  the  ancestral  colouring  of  the  species,  but  whether  it  is  capable  of 
being  reckoned  as  a  primary  character  for  the  sub-division  of  the  Passeres  we  very 
much  doubt. 

We  would  not  have  the  reader  suppose  that  the  characters  given  by  Mr.  Oates 
in  his  **  scheme"  of  Passeres  are  the  only  ones  on  which  he  relies  for  the 
characterisations  of  these  birds.  On  the  contrary,  each  family  is  introduced  with 
a  carefully  detailed  account  of  its  characteristics  and  full  explanations  are  given. 
We  will  give  a  short  sketch  of  the  volume  with  its  principal  features.  The 
corvidae  have  three  sub-families — CorvincB,  or  Crows ;  Parin(B,  Titmice ;  and 
TaradoxornithincB,  or  Crow-tits.  Mr.  Oates  savsthat  the  affinities  of  the  Tits  with 
the  Crows  "  are  recognised  by  all  writers  on  ornithology."  The  present  writer 
at  least  begs  to  dissent  from  this  arrangement,  for  he  can  find  little  in  common 
with  such  a  bird  as  the  moss-nest  building  long- tailed  Titmouse  and  any  species 
of  ambulatorial,  carnivorous  Crow.     According  to  Mr.    Oates   the   Titmice    must 


GATES'S  BIRDS  OF  INDIA.  171 

be  divoi-ccd,  toto  aeloj  from  the    Shrikes,  but   then   bow   about    such   forms  as 
Folconculus,     The  difficulty  of  finding  appropriate  English  names  for  exotic  birds 
is  well  known  to  us,  but  Mr.  Oates  can  improve   on   his  trivial   nomenclature  in 
his  second  edition,  e.g.,  Lophophanes  means    '*  crested"   Titmouse  ;    but   we   find 
that  L.  csmodius  is  a  ''cole"  tit  and  L.  rufinuchalis  is  a  ''black"  tit.   Mr.  Oates's 
great  family  CrateropodidiB,  is  virtually  the  family  TimeliidcR  of  our  "  Catalogue 
of  Birds,"  and  we  greatly  prefer  the  latter  name,  for  the  typical  genus  Crateropus 
is  an  African  form,  feebly  represented  in  Asia,  and  its   adoption   leaves   a   wrong 
impression.     Six  sub-families  make  up  the  CraterapodidtBt  and  the  characters   for 
their  separation  are  most  ingeniously  contrasted.     In  the  next   edition    we   would 
advise  Mr.  Gates  to  bring  them  to  the  rank  of  "  families,"  and  the   arrangement 
will  be  at  once  simplified.     The  first   sub-family  of   the    Crateropodida  are    the 
Crater opodiwBy   or   Laughing  Thrushes ;  and   here   we   notice   that    Mr.    Oates 
has  changed  the  position  of  some  of  the  species   from  that  in   which   we   placed 
them  in  the  **  Catalogue  of  Birds  ;"  but  in  all  such  instances   we   expect  to    find 
that  he  is  right,  for  he  has  examined  the  characters  of  all  the  species   with   more 
detailed  application  than  we  were  able  to  give  in  the  "  Catalogue."     The  Cra- 
teropoditKB  are  a  natural  sub-family,  and  we  do  not  find   much   fault   with   his 
TimeliiniB.    Myiophoneus  seems   to  us  to  be   too   meruline   to   be   placed   so   far 
from  the  true  Thrushes ;  but  Mr.  Oates  makes  out  a  good  case  for   this   and   his 
other  BrachypterygincB.     The  Sibiints  are  not  nearly  so  natural  a  division,  in   our 
opinion,    and    may    possibly   have  to   be   annihilated,   Lioptila   and   its   allies 
going    with   the   Garrulaces,  and  Staphidia,  lora,    &c.,  following   Stachyris,  or 
becoming  merged  in  the  LiotrichincB.     Zosterops  is  surely  out  of  place  among   the 
Crater opodidce,  and    we  still  retain  our  conviction  that  its  affinities  are  Melipha- 
gine  as  may  be  seen  from  the   description  of  its   tongue  (p.    213).     Among     the 
LiotrichiruB  (p.  220)  are  some  incongruous  genera,  such  as  Pteruthius,   jEgithince, 
Chloropsis,  Irena,  Leptopacile,  Psaroglossa,  and   HypoeoUus.     If   Hemipus,   Peri- 
crocotuSt  &c.,  are  Laniine  (pp.  456,  457),  we   see    no   reason    why  Pteruthius   and 
Hypocolius  should  not  have  been  included. 

The  Bulbuls  or  BrachypodincB  are  a  satisfactory  and  natural  sub-family,  and 
we  suspect  that  Mr.  Oates's  allocation  of  some  of  the  species  is  more  correct  than 
that  of  our  sixth  volume  of  the  **  Catalogue."  We  notice,  however,  that  he  is 
inclined  to  reject  Hodgsonian  names,  when  they  happen  to  have  no  description  ; 
but  hitherto  the  titles  published  by  Hodgson  in  Gray's  *'  Zoological  Miscellany," 
founded  avowedly  on  his  unpublished  drawings  in  the  British  Museum,  have  been 
allowed  to  stand,  and  it  is  a  pity  that  this  antagonism  to  the  names  which  we  had 
established  in  the  **  Catalogue  of  Birds"  should  have  arisen,  e.g.,  Pellorneum 
mandellii  (Blanf.)  for  P.  Nipalense  (Hodgs.,)  p.  140,  Pycnnnotus  bengalensis 
(Blyth)  for  P.  pygatus.  (Hodgs,).  p.  271.  Although  we  shall  adopt  most  of 
Mr.  Oates's  amendments,  wc  do  not  feel  bound  to  follow  him  in  this  rigid 
adherence  to  nomenclatural  law.  Of  course,  he  will  be  bound  in  strict  consis- 
tency to  reject  Boddaerts*  names,  and    here    again    we    should  not    follow    him. 


172      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890 

Likewise  we  hope  that  he  has  some  stronj^er  reason  than  the  fact  tliat  Otocompsa 
emeria  is  by  Linna;us  *Mistinctly  stated  have  come  from  Bengal/^  for  his  upsetting 
of  the  nomenclature  of  O.  emeria  and  0.  jocosa.  The  locality  "  Bengal"  had  a 
wide  significance  with  writers  of  a  hundred    years  ago. 

The  author's  review  of  the  Dicrwrifl^ce  is  very   satisfactory   (pp.    310,    311),  but 
the  family  is  strangely  out  of  place  between  the  Sittidos.   and    Certhiidx.     In  his 
family  Sylviidce,  Mr.    Oates  unites  all  the  Grass-warblers   {Cisticol(x.\  with   the 
true  Warblers,  and  the  whole  of  this  portion   of  the  work  is  very  scientifically 
treated,  though  again  we  do  not  like  the    order  of  the  genera.     Lusciniola  with 
its  one  species,  L.  melanopogon,  is  placed  between  the  Tailor-birds  or  {Orthotomus) 
an<l  the  Fantail-warblers  {CisticolcE,)  and    Acanthoptila   finds    a  new   home   near 
Schcenicola  and  Chcetornis.     This  is  apparently  a  good  discovery  of  Mr.  O.ites,    as 
is  undoubtedly  the  separation  of  Abrornis  from    Cryptolopha,   by   reason  of  the 
hitherto  unsuspected  difference  in  the  number  of  the  tail-feathers.    Acanthopneuste 
is  separated  from  Phylloscopus,  and  to  the  latter  are  restored  many  of  the  species 
incongruously  placed  in  Lusciniola  by  Mr.  Seebohm  in  the   fifth    volume   of   the 
"Catalogue  of  Birds."    Although  we  have  hitherto  associated  the  Cuckoo-shrikes 
with  the  Flycatchers,  we  do  not  object  to  follow  Mr.  Oates  in  placing  them  among 
the  Shrikes,  and  Hemipus  and  Tqyhrodornis  may  also  go  into   the  Laniidce.    The 
family  PrionopidoR,  which  in  the  third  volume    of  the  "  Catalogue"  we   adopted 
from  Sundervall,  was  never  one  which  we    felt  much   enthusiasm   about,  and   it 
was  somewhat  of  a  **  waste-paper  basket,"  but  Mr.  Oates  is  the  first  ornithologist 
who  has  attempted  to  allocate  the  Prinopine  genera  in  other  families  in   anything 
like  a  satisfactory  way. 

Although  we  are  compelled  to  differ  from  Mr.  Oates  on  certain  questions,  these 
are  really  of  very  minor  importance,  and  in  no  wise  detract  from  our  admiration 
of  the  way  in  which  he  has  performed  his  task.  It  is  mainly  because  the  work 
is  so  good  that  we  have  analysed  it  so  minutely,  in  order  to  discuss  the  points  of 
difference  between  Mr.  Oates  and  ourselves  ;  and  we  give  below  a  list  of  the 
modifications  which  he  has  introduced  into  the  first  volume  of  the  "  Birds  of 
India,"  in  the  hope  that  they  may  be  of  service  to  ornithologists.  We  may  add 
that  the  whole  volume  is  profusely  illustrated  with  wood-cuts,  which  are  excellent 
examples  of  Mr.  Peter.  Smith's  work,  and  they  are  a  great  assistance  in  decipher- 
ing the  minor,  points  of  structure  which  Mr.  Oates  has  discovered  in  his  classi- 
fication of  the  Passeres. 

FAM.  CORVIDJC. 

Sub-family  Corvin.e. 

Corvits  corax. — Difference  between  Ravens   from   Sikkim    and    from  the   Punjab. 

Neck-hackles  figured.     E.  W.  Oates,  Faun.  Brit.  Ind.  Bnds,  p.  14. 
Corvus  sharpii,  sp.  n.,  h  the    Siberian    form    of   liooded-Crow  which   wmters   in 

N.-W.  India  :  id  ,  t.c,  p.  20. 


GATES'S  BIRDS  OF  INDIA,  173 

Corvus  collariSf  the  Jackdaw  of  Cashmere,  not  distinct   from   C.  monedula :    id., 

t.c,  p.  22. 
Urocissa  magnirostris  (Blyth). — Z7.  occipitallis  (Blyth),  and   U,  cucullata  (Gould) 

=  (/.  flavirostris  (Blyth).  id.,  t.c,  p.  27. 
Dendrocitta  assimilis  (Hume)  =  J),  himalayensis  (Blyth),  id.,  t.  c,  p.  Ii2. 

SuB-FAM.  Paring. 
Lophophanes  humii  (Brooks)=:L.  €emodius  :  id.,  t.  c,  p.  58. 

SUB-FAM.   Paradoxornituinm!;. 

SciBorhynchus,  gen.  n.     Type,  S.  ruficeps  (Blyth):  id.,  t.  c,  |>.  f)8. 

Paradoxornis  gularis  (Horsf.)  is  a  second  species  of  Scoeorhynchus .-  id.,  t.  c,  p.C9. 

Cleuasicus — Suthora:  id.,  t.  c,  pp.  66,  67- 

FAM.  CRATERPODIDiE. 

Sub-fam.  CrATEROPODIN/K. 

Garrulax  galbanus  (G.  A.)  is  a  Dryonastes :  id.,  t.  c,  ]).  7<^. 

Dryonastes  strepitans  (Blyth)  is  a  Garrulax :  id.,  t.  c,  p.  83. 

Trochaloptemm  cineraceum  ((},  A.),  T.  rufogulare  (Gould),  and  T,  ausieni  (Jerd.) 

are  all  referable  to  lanthocincla :  id.,  t.  c,  pp.  85-87. 
Trochalopteitim  ruficapillum  (Blyth)  is  the  true  T,  chrysopterum  (Gould),  from  the 

Khasi  Hills,  and  T,  chrysopterum^  auct.   (nee.   Gould)   is  renamed   T-  nigri- 

mentum  (Gates,  ex  Hodgson  MSS.) :  id.,  t.c,  pp.  90,  91. 
Trochalopterum  simile  reinstated  as  a  distinct  species  from  T.  variegatam  :  id.  t.c, 

p.  96. 

Grammatoptila  austenit  sp.  n.  Daphla  and  E.  Naga  Hills  :  id.,  t.c,  p.  lOi. 

Argya  AyperyMra  (Sharpe)  =  A  subrufa  (Jerd.) :  id.,  t.c,  p.  109. 

Pyctorhis  longirostris  (Moore)  is  an  Argya  :  id.,  tc,  p.  109. 

Layardia  rufescens  (Blyth)  and  Garrulax  cinereifrons  (Blyth)  must  be  placed  in 
Crateropus  :  id.,  t.c,  p.  114. 

Pomatorhinus  pinwilli  (Sharpe)  =  P.  schisticeps :  id.,  t.c,  p.  116.  P.  obacurus 
(Hume),  distinct  from  P.  Horsfieldiiy  id.,  t c,  p.  120.  P.  imberhis  (Salvad.) 
is  the  form  of  P.  erythrogenys  from  Karen-Nee  and  Tenasserim  :  id.,  t.c, 
p.  125,  note.     P.  inglisi  (nume)  =  P.  hypoleucus,  juv.  :  id.,  t.c,  p.  126. 

Sub-fam.  Timeliinse. 

Pellorneum  mandellii,  nom.  emend,  pro.  P.  nipalense  (Hodgson)  (now  nudum) :  id., 

t.c,  p.  140. 
P.  intermedium  (Sharpe)  =  P.  minus  (Hume).     Types  compared  :  id.,  t.c,  p.  141. 
Scotocichla  (Sharpe)  =  Pc//or »cm7/i  :  id.,  t  c.  p.   143. 
Drymocataphus  ignotus  (Hume),  apud    Sharpe,  is   a  true  Pellorneum  :   id.,    t.  c  , 

p.  144. 
Turdinus  magnirostris  (Moore),  apud  Sharpe  is  a  Mallacoptcrum :  id.,  t.c,  p.  151. 
Thingorhma,  gen.  n.     Type  Turdinus  yuttatus  :  (Bl}th),  id.,  t.c,  p.  155. 


174    JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,    1890. 

Actinodura  oglii,  g.  a.,  is  a  Thingorhina ;  id.,  t.c,  p.  156. 

Rhopocichla,  gen.  n.     Type  jR.  artriceps  (Jerd.)   with   jR.   nigrifriis  (Blyth)  and 

R.  bourdilloni  (Hume):  id.,  t.c,  pp.  159 — 161. 
Stachyridopsis  lays  spotted  eggs,   and  Stachyris  lays   white   eggs.     S.  rdgriceps, 

(Blyth),  S,  ckryscca  (Blyth),  and  S.  assimilis  (Wald.)  belong  to  Stachyris  and 

S.   ruficeps  (Blyth),   iS.   rufifrons   (Hume),  &  pyrrhops  (Blyth)   belong  to 

Stachyridopsis :  id.,  t.c,  pp.  162 — 166. 
Scheeniparus  distinct  from  Minla  which  is  placed  in  the  LiotrivhincB.     It  contains 

three  species :    iS.  dubius  (Hume),  S.   mandellii  (G.   A.),   and   S.  rufigularis 

(Mand.):  id.,  t.c,  pp.  168-171. 
Sittipartis,  gen.  n.  Type  S.  cinereus  (Blyth)  and  S.  castaneiceps  (Hodgs,):  id.,  tc  , 

pp.  171,  172. 
Lioparus,  gen.  n.  Type  L.  chryoesus  (Hodgs.):  id.,  t.c,  p.  174. 

Sub-family   BRA.cHYPTERYGiNiE. 

Callene  albiventris  (Blanf.)  and  C.  rufiventris  (Jerd.)  must   be  placed   in   Brachy- 

pteryx  :  id.,  t.c,  p.  185. 
Brachypteryx  hyperythrus  (Jerd.  and  Bl.),  B.  crissalis   (Blyth)  and    B.   nipalensis 

(Moore),  must  be  placed  in  Drymochares :  id.,  pp.  187 — 189. 

SUB-FAM.  SiBllNiE. 

Malacias  =  Lioptila:   id.,   t.c,   p.    196.     The   species   are   L.   eapistrata  (Vig), 

L.  gracilis  {9AcC\e\\.)yL.   melanoleuca  (Tick.),   L.  castanoptera  {^Rhuil),  L. 

annecteus  (Blyth),  L.  davisoni  (Hume),  and  I».  pulehella  (G.  A.) 
L.  divisoni  (Hume)  is  not  the  same  as  L.  saturata   (Wald).),  which  =  L.   annecteus 

(Blyth) :  id.,  t.  c,  pp.  199—200. 

Jxops  (Hodgson),  distinct  from  Actinodura  ,  id.,  t.  c,  p.  203. 

Actinodura  daplaensis  and  A.  waldeni  belong  to  Ixops.  :  id.  t.  c,  p.  204. 

SuB-FAM.    LlOTRICHlNiE. 

Melanochlora  sultanea  not  a  Titmouse  :  id.,  t.  c  ,  p  241. 

Hilarocichla,  gen.  n.  Type,  Pteruthius  rufiventer  (Blyth) :  id.,  t.  c,  p.  243. 

LeptopcBcile  not  a  Titmouse  or  a  Warbler  :  id.,  t.  c,  p.  246. 

SuB-FAM.  BpACHYpODINiE. 

Criniger  burmanicus,  sp.  n.  :  id.,  t.  c,  p.  286. 

Alophoixus,  gen.  n.     Type,  Txus  phcBocephalus  (Horsf.) :  id.,  t.  c,  p.  259. 
Hypsipetes  mocclellandi  (Horsf.)  and  H.  tickelli  (Blyth)  belong  to  Hemixus  :  id.,  t. 
c,  p.  265. 

Molpastes  (Hume),  reinstated  as  a  genus,  id.,  t.  c,  p.  267. 
M,  pygoBus  (auct.  ex  Hodgs.)— M.  bengalensis  (Blyth)  :  id.,  t.  c,  p.  271. 
Otocompsa  leucotis  (Gould)  is  a  Molpastes  :  id.,  t.  c,  p.  273. 
Molpastes  humii  sp.  n.  ,  id.,  t.  c,  p.  274. 
XaiUhixus,  gen.  n.,  Type,  X.flavesccns  (Blyth)  :  id.,  fe.  c,  p.  275. 


OATE»S  BIRDS  OF  INDIA.  175 

Otocompsajocosa  (L.)yVipud  Sharpe  =  0.   emeria   (L),  and  0.    emeria  (h),  apud 

Sh&rpe^  O.fuscicaudata  (Gould) ;  id.,  t.  c.  p.  277. 
Hemixus  malaccensis  {B\yih),  apud   Shaxpe;  Xenocichla  icterica  (Striekl.),  apud 

Sharpe  :  and  Hypsipetes  virescens  (Blyth),  apud  Sharpe,  are  all   referable  to 

lole :  id.,  t.  c,  pp.  283—285. 
Rubigula=Pyznonotu8  :  id.,  t.  c,  p.  286. 
Pycnonotus  pusillus  (Salvad.).  restored  as  the  name  for  P.   salvadorii  (Sharpe) : 

id.,  t.  c.,  p.  293. 

FAM.  DICRURID^. 

Buchanga,  not  distinct  from  Dicrurus ,  id.,  t.  c,  p.  310. 
Dicrurus  nigrescens,  sp.  n.,  Tenasserim  ,  id.,  t.  c,  p.  315. 
Dissemwulus,  gen.  n.,    Type,  D.  lophorhinus ,  id.,  t.  c.,  p.  322. 

FAM.  TROGLODYTIDiE. 

Elachura,  gen.  n.  Type,  Troglodytes  punctatus  (Blyth,  nee  Brehm),  T.formosus 
(Wald.) :  id.,  t.  c,  p.  339. 

FAM.  SYLVIID^. 

Cisticola  eryihrocephala  (Blyth),  C  tytleri  (Jerd.),  and  C.  vo/i/aTW  (Swinh.)  are 
distinct  and  not  identical  with  C.  exilis,  V.  and  H.  :  id.,  t.  c,  pp.  371—373. 

C.  granilis  (Frankl.),  C.  rufescens  (Blyth),  and  C.  cinereicapilla  (Moore)  belong  to 
Franklinia  :  id.,  t.  c,  pp.  376—379. 

Acanthopneuste^  distinct  from  Phylloscopus :  id.,  t.  c,  p.  411. 

A.  davisoni,  sp.  n.  :  id.,  t.  c,  p.  420. 

Abromis  has  ten  tail  feathers,  and  is  distinct  from  Cryptolopha,  which  has  twelve : 
id.,  t.  c,  p.  428. 

Cryptolopha  tephrocephcUa  (Anderson)  distinct  from  C  affinis  ;   id.,  t.  c,  p.  423. 

FAM.  LANlIDiE. 

Pericrocotus  elegans  (McClell)  (type  examined)  is  P.    speciosus  (Lath.),  so  that  P. 

elegans  (Sharpe  et  auct.  dec.  McClell.)  must  stand  as  P.  fraterculus  (Swinhoe) : 

id.,  t.  c,  p.  479. 
Lalage^Campophaga:  id.,  t.  c,  p.  491. 

FAM.  STURNIDiE. 

Stumius  humii  vice  S.  indicus  (Hodg.)  (nomen  nudum) :  id.,  t.  c,  p.  520. 
Agropsar,  gen.  n.  Type,  Sturnia  sturina  (Pall.) :  id.,  t.  c,  p.  530. 
Sturnia  burmanica  (Jerd.)  and  Acridotheres  leucocephalus  (Gigl.  and  Salvad.) 
referred  to  GracUlSpica  :  id.,  t.  c,  p.  536. 

R.  BOWDLER  SHARPE. 

(The  Field,  March  15,  1890.) 


'm      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

SOME  NEW  BOOKS  OF  INDIAN  ZOOLOGY.* 

In  the  early  years  of  Her  present  Majesty's  reign,  the  few  natu- 
ralists of  India  worked  almost  "  on  their  own  hook  ";  at  any  rate, 
with  Kttle  assistance.  A  handful  of  Madras  doctors  and  one  Madras 
Civilian,  a  Bombay  doctor  or  two,  and  scarce  any  one  else  in 
Bombay.  A  little  group  centreing  at  the  Bengal  Asiatic  Society, 
with  Blyth  and  Hodgson  as  leaders,  were  preparing  the  way.  Except 
Blyth  himself,  and  the  early  martyr  Heifer,  scarcely  one  was  what 
we  now  call  a  professional  nakiralist,  devoted  to  India,  though  some 
birds  of  passage  of  that  feather  had  come  and  gone. 

Meanwhile  the  flood  of  the  Victorian  age  was  setting  in  strong 
at  home.  The  late  Prince  Consort,  after  his  fashion,  was  aiding  and 
encouraging  every  science  and  art  ;  and  new  names  were  already 
beginning  to  be  known  in  scientific  circles  that  have  since  become 
known  to  the  world. 

The  outer  circles  of  the  wave  were  felt  even  in  the  somewhat 
Philistine  Secretariat  of  India,  and  Lord  Canning^  s  Government, 
casting  around  for  a  competent  man,  directed  Surgeon- Major 
T.  C.  Jerdon,  of  the  Madras  Army,  to  compile  a  set  of  manuals  of 
the  mammals,  birds,  fishes,  and  reptiles  of  India. 

No  better  man  could  have  been  found  in  the  Services.  Probably 
the  only  other  possible  man  was  the  lamented  Blyth,  Jerdon's  friend, 
and  perhaps  his  superior  as  a  naturalist,  but  probably  not  his  equal  for 
the  matter  in  hand.  At  any  rate,  the  acknowldgment  of  Jerdon 
himself,  couched  in  most  generous  terms,  leaves  little  room  for  doubt 
that  all  that  could  be  done  for  the  work  by  Blyth  was  done  by  him. 


***The  Fauna  of  British  India,  including  Ceylon  and  Burma." 
Published  under  the  authority  of  the  Secretary  of  State  for  India  in  Council. 
Edited  by  W.  T.  Blanford,  F.R.S.  London :  Taylor  and  Francis* 
Calcutta:  Thacker  and  Spink.     Bombay:  Thacker  &  Co. 

"Mammalia,"  Vol.  L,  Part  I.,  by  W.  T.  Blanford,  &c.  "Fishes." 
2  Vols,  (complete),  by  Francis  Day,  CLE.,  LL.D.,  Deputy  Surgeon- 
General.    "Birds,"  Vol.  L,  Eugene  W.  Oates. 

"The  Avifauna  of  British  India  and  its  Dependencies."  By 
James  A.  Murray,  Member  of  the  Bombay  N.  H.  Society,  &c.  London  : 
Triibner  &  Co.  Bombay  :  Education  Society's  Press. 


NEfV  BOOKS  OS  INDIAN  ZOOLOGY.  177 

The  dates  of  Lord  Camiing's  orders  on  the  subject  are  not  avail- 
able to  the  public,  but  probably  they  were  issued  in  the  early  days 
of  his  Viceroyalty,  and  the  starting  of  the  work  was  delayed  by  the 
outburst  of  the  Mutiny.  Jerdon  served  in  it  with  his  corps,  and  was 
one  of  those-whose  courage  and  endurance  left  India  to  future  natu- 
ralists. In  1862  he  dedicated  the  first  part  of  the  "  Birds  of  India  " 
to  Lord  Elgin,  and  the  latter  was  scarcely  cold  in  his  grave,  when  the 
volume  on  **  Mammals"  was  published.  The  writer  evidently  hoped 
to  live  to  pubUsh  those  on  Heptiles  and  Fishes,  but  the  hope  was  not 
fulfilled.  It  may  be  that  some  day  some  one  may  publish  a  memoir 
of  his  career.  There  is  a  certain  note  of  kindliness  and  modesty  in  his 
writings,  which  leads  the  reader  to  think  that  he  must  have  been  a 
most  charming  comrade  as  much  at  the  mess  table  as  in  the 
jungles  he  explored  so  well.  Both  the  "Birds"  and  the  **  Mam- 
mals," too,  are  books  of  high  literary  merit  in  their  way :  pure  Eng^ 
lish  expression,  untainted  by  slang,  pedantrj-,  or  jealousy. 

Jerdon's  work  was  resumed  when  the  Ray  Society  published 
Dr.  Gunther's  fine  monograph  on  the  "  Reptiles  of  India,"  and  was 
completed  when  his  friend  Dr.  Day  completed  his  great  work  on  the 
"  Fishes  of  India."  Both  of  these  were  works  on  a  far  grander  scale 
than  had  been  allowed  to  Jerdon.  The  former  was  soon  followed  by 
Dr.  Nicholson's  (another  Madras  doctor)  **  Indian  Snakes,"  and  the 
latter  was  published  almost  simultaneously  with  the  then  Lieutenant 
Beavan's  "  Freshwater  Fishes  of  India." 

Mr.  Murray  was  already  at  work  in  Sind  and  Mr.  Gates  in  Burma 
before  Dr.  Day's  magnum  opus  was  published.  Mr.  Hume  was  edit- 
ing Straf/  Feathers,  and  the  Indian  naturalist  had  a  chance  of  a 
library  at  last,  for  the  study  of  the  vertebrata. 

But  the  years  of  the  Crimean  and  Persian  wars,  the  Mutiny  and 
those  that  followed  them,  were  not  years  suitable  for  the  extension 
of  science  amongst  amateurs.  The  best  men  of  the  Services  were 
fully  occupied  in  the  giving  and  taking  of  hard  knocks,  and,  when 
that  was  over,  in  picking  up  the  pieces. 

The  great  American  war  turned  many  vigorous  minds  exclusively 
to  cotton  and  stock- jobbing,  and  the  lamp  that  burned  from  54  to 
64  got  but  little  new  oil  in  that  decade. 

The   doctors   and  the  Geological  Survey    men    were    they    who 
:i3 


178      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

chiefly  kept  it  aUght  when  Blyth  and  Jerdon  were  gone.  The  cul- 
ture of  the  early  competition- wallahs  was  chiefly  literary,  and  that  of 
their  military  contemporaries  was.  when  not  literary,  mostly  mathe- 
matical or  artistic.  Nothing  could  better  show  the  state  of  things 
than  the  fact  that  Jerdon's  volume  on  Mammals  was  only  repiHnted 
(not  edited)  in  1874,  the  "  Birds,"  I  believe,  not  until  1880  or 
thereabouts. 

The  latter  was  so  scarce  a  book  that  each  of  three  volumes  that  I 
possess  is  to  me  the  relic  of  a  separate  friend  that  got  it  for  me— 
one  dead,  one  gone,  and  one  serving  afar  off. 

But  the  ebb  was  over,  and  the  flood  had  set  in  again  ;  those  who 
were  really  capable  of  becoming  centres  of  inquiry  were  every 
day  finding  more  and  more  who  would  contribute  chance  facts  or 
specimens.  The  Bombay  Gazetteer  office  was  routing  out  every- 
body who  knew  anything  about  anything,  and  lent  a  great  impulse  to 
every  kind  of  inquiry  by  its  studious  and  honourable  acknowledg- 
ment of  every  contribution  of  fact. 

The  Indian  Antiquary  was  waking  up  other  branches  of  inves- 
tigation as  long  ago  as  1872,  and  it  could  not  do  so  without  the 
;echo  reaching  Natural  History. 

For,  as  any  one  familiar  with  Anglo-Indian  culture  cannot  help 
remarking,  in  every  science  the  leading  men  must  necessarily  be 
those  who  devote  themselves  chiefly  to  it ;  but  the  second  rank,  the 
observers  and  collectors  of  specimens,  are  generally  men  of  somewhat 
varied  tastes. 

Life  in  the  Mofuesil  is  generally  deadly  dull.  Shikar  is  not  every- 
where. A  chance  of  making  love  is  a  rare  luxury  and  the  "  flowing 
bowl  *'  apt  to  be  a  snare. 

Music,  except  for  the  favoured  few  who  can  play  the  fiddle,  is  not 
portable.  (I  decline  to  count  the  banjo.)  So  the  man  who  has  the 
best  chance  of  a  tolerable  existence  is  he  who  can  get  enjoyment 
equally  out  of  a  bird,  a  fish,  a  rat,  a  stone  in  its  natural  state,  or  the 
same  in  that  of  some  crumbKng  temple,  a  scrubby  bush  (any  fool 
can  appreciate  a  big  tree),  or,  in  short,  Omnis  res  sdhilis.  This  sort 
of  versatility  does  not  make  scientific  masters,  but  it  does  make  men 
who  can  bear  a  hand,  and  some  men  possessed  of  it  have  been  very 
valuable  to  more  than  one  science.     I  need  only  quote  such  names  as 


NBtV  BOOKS  ON  INDIAN  ZOOLOGY.  179 

those  of  Brian  Hodgson,  Sir  Walter  Elliot,  and  that  19th  century 
Elizabethan,  the  late  Colonel  Yule. 

On  men  of  this  sort  of  culture  the  last  few  years  have  acted  with 
great  force,  and  this  is  the  state  of  things  that  has,  for  instance,, 
filled  half  a  big  house  with  the  Anthropological  and  our  own  Society, 
neither  of  them  in  receipt  of  any  extraneous  aid,  nor  impelled  by 
any  power  but  the  free  will  of  their  members. 

A  society  in  this  condition  has  naturally  Ixxiu  clamorous  for  books 
of  reference,  and  a  good  deal  of  i)ublic  money  has  boon  spent  in 
answering  the  demand.  It  is  the  fashion  to  siiy  that  Government 
is  stingy,  but  the  truth  is  that  Governmont  has  done  a  good  deal  in 
this  way.  No  proWnce  of  any  nation  need  l)(^  ashamed  of  the 
Bombay  Arch8EK)logical  Survey  and  its  splendid  quartos,  nor  of  the 
Bombay  Gazetteer,  a  new  edition  of  which  is  already  under  dis- 
cussion. 

A  somewhat  meagre  Geological  manual  and  a  very  good  Meteoro- 
logical one  have  been  issued  within  the  decade,  and  what  we 
wanted  most  was  a  set  of  tolerably  cheap  zoological  manuals  for  all 
India. 

The  Secretary  of  State  has  undertaken  the  supply,  and  entrusted 
Mr.  W.  Blanford,  late  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  India,  with  the 
superintendence  of  it.  It  is  not  likely  that  he  could  have  chosen  a 
better  man  for  his  work. 

An  early  scientific  training,  natural  aptitude,  and  twenty  years 
of  the  East,  are  qualifications  that  may  well  bespeak  confidence  and 
respect  for  the  Editor  of  the  Fanmt  of  Brit i,sh  India 'y  and  if,  in 
examining  his  work,  we  find  reason  to  complain  of  parts  of  it,  he 
may  well  ask  us  if  we  could  have  done  better. 

It  is,  however,  the  duty  of  a  critic  to  speak  his  mind  without  fear 
or  favour,  and  so  we  hope  to  do  in  reviewing  the  works  noted  at  the 
head  of  this  article. 

Dr.  Day's  two  volumes  on  "  Fishes  '*  are  the  only  part  of  the  **  Fauna" 
yet  complete,  and  possess  a  melancholy  interest  as  the  last  work  on 
earth  of  their  author.  He  held  on,  under  considerable  difficulties, 
until  he  had  already  been  warned  to  *^make  his  soul''  for  the 
approaching  end,  and  the  present  writer  thinks  that  it  wanted  little 
making.     It  is  merely  a  cheap  and  portable  abridgment  of  his  great 


180      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HII^ORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

work,  with  a  few  additions  to  bring  it  up  to  date,  and  the  fine  engrav- 
ing left  out  for  economy's  sake.  It  is,  however,  worth  noting  that  in 
this  last  work  Dr.  Day  has  finally  abandoned  the  old  classification  in 
which  the  sharks,  saw-fishes,  and  skates  were  taken  as  the  lowest 
fishes,  and  has  put  them  at  the  top  of  his  list. 

The  ichthyology  of  India  gave  no  opportunity  for  discussing  the 
claims  oi  Lepidosiren  and  Cerflr^oc^ws  to  this  position,  because  we  have  not 
yet*  found  either  here.  And,  as  Dr.  Day  wrote  within  narrow  limits 
of  space,  and  the  Editor  admits  having  squeezed  his  literary  bones 
in  their  coffiuy  we  shall  not  soon  know  his  opinion  on  this  point. 

It  had  been  an  act  of  grace  in  Mr.  Blanford,  in  such  a  case,  to 
have  refrained  from  what  he  calls  "  additional  compression. " 
There  are  some  of  us  would  rather  he  had  put  the  screw  on  the 
Mammals.  He  has  no  excuse  for  referring  us  for  the  **  limits  of  the 
area  '*  to  the  half  volume  of  Mammals  already  published.  For  he 
had  three-quarters  of  a  page  to  give  them  in,  which  is  now  blank ; 
and  many  people  will  buy  a  whole  book  of  fishes  who  will  not  huy 
a  quarter  book  of  mammals. 

The  references  to  "Mr.  F.  Day,  C.  I.  E.,  Deputy  Surgeon-Gene- 
ral," are  in  a  rather  stupid  style  of  official  pedantry.  *' Dr.  Day"  died 
**  Dr.  Day"  not  merely  by  courteous  custom,  but  by  the  law  of  his 
country,  and  so  he  was  rightly  addressed  and  quoted,  in  speech 
and  in  black  and  white.  Requiescat  in  pace.  It  will  be  long  till  the 
Fishes  of  India  look  upon  his  like  again ; — and  vice-versa. 

The  man  who  has  these  two  volumes,  Lieut.  Beavan's  *^  Fresh 
Water  Fishes  of  India"  and  Mr.  Thomas's  *'Rod  in  India" — has 
the  Indian  fisherman's  library.  If  he  wants  more,  he  can  look  out 
for  the  second  (Dr.  Day's  own)  edition  of  his  great  work,  and 
these  four  books,  judiciously  interleaved  and  annotated,  will  last 
him  his  lifetime. 

These  two  volumes  on  Fishes  have  been  first  noticed  of  the 
"  Fauna,"  because  they  are  the  only  complete  part  of  it  yet  issued. 

The  Editor  himself  opened  the  ball  with  a  paper  bound  "  half 
volume  "  on  the  Mammals.  This  is  nearly  two  years  old  now,  and  as 
yet  there  is  no  sign  of  the  second  half  volume.  We  wish  people 
would  call  volumes  volumes,  and  not  "  half  volumes." 

The  instalment,  however,  has  conspicuous  merits.     To  begin  with 


NSfV  BOOKS  ON  INDIAN  ZOOLOGY.  181 

it  is  the  only  book  of  the  lot,  as  yet,  that  has  its  price  plainly 
marked  on  it ;  secondly,  it  is  the  only  one  which  has  not  been 
subjected  to  what  the  Editor  euphemistically  calls  "  compression." 
We  should  prefer  to  call  it  desiccation.  In  a  case  of  this  sort^  it  is 
better  to  be  the  compressor  than  the  compressed.  At  any  rate,  we 
have  here  a  complete  list  of  the  Mammals  of  India,  so  far  as  the 
half  volume  and  the  author  go,  and  probably  no  man  alive  could  have 
done  it  better. 

The  style,  compared  to  that  of  the  early  Victorians,  is  undignified 
and  meagre,  but  it  is  alive  in  its  way,  and  we  know  now  what  a 
most  competent  authority — probably  the  most  competent — thinks 
about  so  many  of  our  beasts  as  he  has  yet  found  time  to  give  us 
his  mind  about.  The  book  is  really  a  book,  and  not  a  catalogue 
of  flat  skins ;  and  the  sooner  we  have  the  rest  the  better.  We  shall 
then  lay  our  old  well-pencilled  volumes  of  Jerdon's  "  Mammals  of 
India"  aside  (with  a  sigh  no  doubt),  but  aside  for  all  that. 

Perhaps  the  point  most  interesting  to  sportsmen  in  this  half 
volume  is  that  Mr.  Blanford  finally  disposes  of  the  distinction 
between  "leopard"  and  "panther."  Many — the  present  writer 
amongst  them — had  long  clung  to  the  idea  that  these  wore  two,  but 
it  seems  impossible  not  to  admit  the  force  of  Mr.  Blanford\s  argu- 
ments for  their  identity ;  and  our  own  collection  of  skulls  bears  the 
same  way.  The  very  puzzling  Indian  Otters  are  here  for  the  first 
time  reduced  to  intelligible  order,  and  the  mysterious  "  Mumh  "  of 
Beluchistan  becomes  a  commonplace  black  bear,  which  we  are  to 
call  Ursii^  torquatus  instead  of  T/iibetanus  as  hitherto,  because 
although  found  on  the  Himalayas  and  even  in  China,  it  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  recorded  from  Thibet. 

Information  about  the  Hedgehogs  is  evidently  much  wanted ; 
Mr.  Blanford  seems  a  little  at  sea  about  their  distribution,  and  is 
clearly  unaware  that  they  are  common  in  the  north  of  British 
Gujarat.  There  seem  to  be  two  species,  probably  JErinaceus  pictus 
and  -E.  Jerdonia. 

One  curious  correction  our  own  records  enable  us  to  make, — for 
Mr.  Sterndale  has  here  recorded  that  the  White-browed  Gibbon 
does  not  "  drink  with  its  lips  putting  its  head  down  to  the  water, 
but  dips  its  hand  in  the  water  and  then  licks  the  back  of  it."    This  is 


182         JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY, 

probably  the  action  recorded  of  the  White-handed  Gibbon  by  Mr. 
Blanford  as  '*  scooping  up  water." 

Few  of  the  illustrations  are  original,  and  none  of  any  artistic 
merit,  but  the  anatomical  drawings  have  considerable  scientific 
value  apart  from  these  considerations. 

On  the  whole,  as  observed  above,  if  we  ever  get  the  rest  of  this 
book,  it  is  going  to  be  **  The  Mammals  of  India/' 

As  regards  the  Reptiles  and  Batrachia,  we  are  promised  a  volume 
or  so  from  Mr.  Boiilenger  of  the  British  Museum,  a  most  competent 
authority,  except  for  the  trifle  that  he  is  not  known  to  have 
ever  been  in  India  for  anything  worth  calling  a  residence.  It  will 
be  time  enough  to  criticize  Mr.  Boulenger's  work  when  we  see 
it;  and  he,  if  any  man,  deserves  kindly  criticism,  for  his  aid 
has  been  imsparingly  given  to  all  Indian  Naturalists  who  have 
sought  it. 

The  next  thing  to  consider  is  the  Ornithology. 

Of  this  we  have  as  yet  a  single  volume  devoted  to  the  Passerine 
Birds,  and  fathered  by  Mr.  Eugene  Oates,  whose  name  is  already 
favourably  known  to  this  Society.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the 
Editor  (not  Mr,  Oates  )  has  thought  fit  to  preface  it  with  the  remark 
that  "  the  classification  adopted  by  Jerdon  was  obsolete  even  when 
he  wrote,"  which  is  in  very  bad  taste  and  inaccurate. 

The  classification  in  question  is  hardly  obsolete  yet,  and  several 
observations  of  Jerdon's  show  that  he  adopted  it,  as  others  since  him 
have  done,  for  the  sake  of  his  readers.  The  result  has  justified  him. 
His  work  is  at  this  day  an  Indian  Classic.  Let  us  see  what  is  offered 
to  us  to  supersede  it. 

Any  modern  Indian  Ornithology  must  contain  nearly  50  per  cent, 
more  species  than  Jerdon's  work,  chiefly,  as  Mr.  Blanford  is  careful 
to  observe,  because  the  modem  area  is  nearly  double  of  Jerdon's, 
and  includes  countries  very  different  from  those  to  which  his  work 
was  restricted — b^  order.  He  did,  so  far  as  he  could,  remark  upon 
the  species  of  what  were,  to  him,  borderlands,  and  are  to  us  as 
naturally  parts  of  British  India  as  Madras  and  Bombay.  But  Ceylon, 
Burma,  the  Malay  Peninsula,  and  much  of  his  Afghanistan  and 
Beluchistan  are  now  parts  of  British  India. 

iHence,   rather  than  from  any  failure  of  his  or  his   predecessor's 


NEn'  BOOKS  ON  INDIAN  ZOOLOGY.  183 

and  colleagaeSy  arises  the  enormous  increase  in  number  of  species 
now  before  us. 

It  will  be  remarked  that  in  North-weatem  India  the  increase  is 
chiefly  in  migratory  Palaearctic  birds.  On  the  Malayan  side,  per 
contra,  it  is,  necessarily,  in  tropical  forms.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that 
this  work  is  by  no  means  calculated  to  take  the  place  of  Jerdon's. 
Mr.  Blanford's  ( or  perhaps  the  Secretary  of  State's )  compressing 
apparatus  has  been  at  work ;  and  the  present  volume  is  very  little 
more  than  a  Museum  Catalogue  of  dried  skins.  That  Mr.  Oates  and 
Mr.  Blanford  can  do  better  than  this  we  know  (  many  of  us  by 
personal  intercourse ),  and  the  waste  of  the  opportunity  now  offered 
is  the  more  to  be  regretted. 

The  classification  is  no  doubt  very  scientific ;  but  the  catalogues  of 
the  British  Museimi  are  good  enough  for  ours,  and  Mr.  Bowdler 
Sharpe,  of  the  same,  is  rather  "  down  *'  on  our  autlior  for  confusing 
a  "key"  with  a  "classification/'  and  wants  to  know  where  the 
editor  was  when  this  was  done  ?  ilr.  Sharpe,  indeed,  mingles 
blessings  with  his  objurgations,  and  thinks  that  the  present  period 
of  Indian  Ornithology  will  be  known  as  the  "  Oatesian  Era," 
wherein  Mr.  Sharpe  is  very  widely  astray.  The  period  when  one 
man  could  name  an  era  in  Indian  Ornithology  is  over. 

Messrs.  Blanford  and  Oatc^s  have  indeed  given  us  half  a  stone 
where  we  asked  for  bread.  But  they  have  not,  in  the  language  of 
the  turf,  given  us  "  a  stone  and  a  boating."  While  they  have  been 
pottering  over  their  list  of  the  skins  in  the  British  Museum,  the 
Bombay  Education  Society  has  brought  out  Mr.  James  Murray's 
Avifauna  of  British  India. 

It  is  first  in  the  field  to  replace  Jerdon's  admirable,  but  now 
obsolete  work.  In  the  important  matter  of  illustration,  it  is  far 
superior  to  what  we  have,  as  yet,  of  Mr.  Oates's  book.  Like  that, 
it  is  too  much  of  a  mere  catalogue  ;  but  the  fault  is  much  less  in  the 
Indian  work,  and,  upon  the  whole,  the  present  writer  considers  it 
much  the  fitter  book  of  the  two  for  district  use. 

It  may,  perhaps,  be  added  that  whereas  the  volumes,  as  yet 
apparent,  of  the  Secretary  of  State's  Fauna  have  been  published  under 
great  patronage,  the  Avifauna  of  India  has  been  carried  through  in 
spite  of  poverty  and  what  might  almost  be  called  persecution  ;   and 


184  JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY. 

its  appearance  in  print  at  all  is  the  work  of  this  Presidency  or  of 
some  people  in  it. 

It  may  now,  however,  on  merely  utilitarian  grounds,  be  recom- 
mended to  such  members  of  the  Society  as  may  want  a  modern 
Ornithology  of  India,  and  not  care  to  wait  for  Messrs.  Blanford  and 
Oates's  very  doubtful  next  issue. 

Kolaba,  May  1890.  W.  F.  SINCLAIR. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 

SECOND  NOTE  ON  LOCUSTS  IN  INDIA. 

In  November  last  a  short  preliminary  note  on  locusts  in  India  was  issued  with  a 
view  to  showing  briefly  what  was  known  on  the  subject,  and  indicating  the  points 
to  which  attention  should  be  directed  during  the  locust  invasion  which  had  then 
commenced  in  North- West  India.  In  response  to  this  appeal  a  considerable 
amount  of  information  has  reached  the  Indian  Museum  for  incorporation  in  the 
general  detailed  report  which  is  in  progress.  The  materials,  however,  for  anything 
like  a  complete  account  are  still  very  deficient,  and  as  there  seems  every  probabi- 
lity of  the  locust  invasion  continuing  through  another  season,  this  second  note  has 
been  written  with  a  view  of  indicating  what  has  already  been  ascertained,  and 
hence  of  showing  the  points  on  which  further  information  is  desired. 

The  locusts  have  novr  spread  themselves  over  Sind,  Bajputana,  the  Punjab, 
North- West  Provinces  and  Oudh,  besides  penetrating  sporadically  into  Guzerat, 
Ahmedabad,  Baroda,  Kandesh,  and  parts  of  Central  India,  and  appearing  in  the 
Kistna  district  of  the  Madras  Presidency.  They  have  done  a  considerable 
amount  of  injury  to  standing  crops,  especially  in  Rajputana  and  Sind.  Specimens 
have  been  forwarded  (*)  to  the  Indian  Museum,  from  Karachi,  Marwar,  Jeypore, 
Ajmere,  Merwara  Mooltan,  Naini  Tal,  Rawalpindi,  Kistna,  Etawah,  Muzaffargarb, 
Lahore,  and  Bahraich  ;  they  all  prove  to  belong  to  the  species -4  cnc^iMm/jere^Ti- 
num,  (t)  which  is  said  to  range  throughout  all  the  dry  country  extending  from  Algeria 

(*)  Through  the  kindness  of  Mr.  W.  0.  Gumming,  Surgeon-Major  Hendley,  Colonel 
G.  H.  Trevor,  Mr.  C.  F.  Elliot,  Dr.  William  King,  the  Deputy  Commissioner,  Rawal- 
pindi, the  Superintendent  of  the  Government  Central  Museum,  Madras,  the  Collector 
of  Etawah,  the  Director  of  Land  Records  and  Agriculture,  Punjab,  the  Superintendent, 
(?)  School  of  Art,  Lahore,  and  the  Deputy  Commissioner  of  Bahraich,  respectively. 

(t)  To  prevent  the  possibility  of  error  in  the  determination  of  the  species, 
specimens  have  been  submitted  to  the  two  well  known  Entomologists,  Dr.  Henri  de 
Saussure  and  Mr.  W.  F.  Kirby ;  these  two  gentlemen  have  most  kindly  examined 
them  and  agree  in  considering  that  they  belong  to  the  species  Acridiwn  peregrinum. 


MISCELLAXEOVS.  185 

on  the  west  to  North-We«t  Imlia  on  the  ea8t(*).  It  has  often  proved  nioiit  destmc* 
tive  in  Algeria  and  has  generally  beetf  supposed  to  be  the  locust  of  the  Bible ;  but  it 
must  not  be  confounded,  either  with  the  locust  which  has  appeared  in  Algeria 
during  the  past  three  years  (1887, 1888,  and  1889),  and  wliich  belongs  to  the  species 
Stawronottis  mffroccaaM,  or  with  the  locust  which  invaded  the  Dcccan  in  1882-83, 
though  the  latter  insect  was  often  erroneously  referred  to  as  Acridium  pere^ 
grinum(f). 

Flights  of  locusts  appeared  in  June  1889  in  Sind,  and  by  September  had  spread 
over  the  whole  province,  from  Shikarpur  to  Karachi.  In  the  beginning  of  August 
young  locusts  were  obser\*ed  by  Surgeon- Major  ilondloy  m  Marwar,  between 
Didwana  and  Sambhur;  these  had,  no  doubt,  hatched  from  eggs  laid  by  winged 
Sf^arms  about  the  end  of  June,  an<l  therefore  show  that  uitiged  swarm.s  were  present 
in  Marwar  about  the  same  time  that  they  appchred  in  Sinrl.  In  September 
flights  appeared  first  in  Mooltan  and  afterwards  in  Dehra  Ismail  Khan  ;  they  were 
also  found  in  Ulwar,  Kishengiirh,  Jeypore«  Sirohi,  and  in  Ahinedabad.  v^)  In 
October,  besides  maintaining  themselves  tliioughoiit  Sind,  Rajpiitana,  Mooltan, 
and  Ahmedabad)  they  penetrated  south  into  Karoda  and  Khandesh  In  November 
they  reached,  on  the  South- West  G'lncrat,  and  on  the  Nortli-Kast  Handn,  Jh-insi, 
Agrii>  Cawnpore,  Ktawah,  Bareilly,  anfl  Bahraicli.  During  Dereniber  the\  conti- 
nued to  spread  over  the  North-Wesl  Provinecij.  leHchiiig  Kae  Bareilly,  Fatohgarh, 
and  Naini  Tal;they  also  peaetratctl  southwardH  as  far  ;is  tho  (loonsi  Agenev  in 
Central  India,  besides  being  reported  fnmi  I\;i  jputaiia  as  before.  In  January 
1890,  flights  were    reported   from    Lahore,    Miizafrar^^arh,  Rawalpindi,  Feror.epur, 

(•)  Locusts  pa,SRed  over  tho  Britis)»  Iruli.T  Strain  Navi"::iti<>n  ship  ^r'^/rowr/a  on 
Noveinbcr  26th,  1889,  when  off  the  pjrea'  Hnnnsh  Island:?  in  r.onthovn  portion  of  the 
Red  Sea  {N<ihirf.).  Also  over  the  IVnirnr.Iai  aiMl  Oriental  ship  Ch/dr  about  the 
same  time.  They  were  noticed  to  In*  le^l'li^h  in  eoloiir,  and  ron.ser)iientlv  likely  to 
have  been  Arridium  pt^ir'jrtnum.  In  18(>y,  alsd,  t  hf' year  of  a -rrear  iiivaoion  iu  Rajpii- 
tana of  a  locust  which  was  probably  Arri-hum  [^  ,•'  n  mn w,  locusta  were  noticed  in 
great  numbers  in  the  lied  Sea  (Swiiihoo).  ll  would,  therefore,  he  intrrr.^tin^  to 
ascertain  to  what  extent,  188(»  and  18<>f^  were  year.^  of  locn-,L  invaoion  in  the  inter- 
vening countries  of  Arabia,  Persia,  BaIuchi•^^tan,  &c. 

(t)  It  is  particularly  neoesfiary  to  distinpjnish  carefully  between  the  Deccan  locnst 
of  1882-83  and  the  Eajputana  locust  of  1889.  as  there  aro  important  tiifteienoed  m 
habits  of  the  two  species  which  make  it  that  measures  applicabie  for  tho  deRtniction 
of  the  one  are  not  always  suited  to  the  other. 

(J)  Locusts  were  reported  from  Ahmedabad  as  early  a?.  J'.ily  ;  it  i.  doubtful,  how- 
ever,  whether  the  first  that  appeared  belong  to  the  migratory  pwarn^?  oi  At-ridium 
peregrinumi  no  specimens  have  been  obtained  tor  ex. luunat ion,  but  specimens  that 
were  forwarded,  as  the  lor.n.it  which  did  injury  to  cropr  in  Kathiawar  iu  August, 
proved  on  examination  to  belong  to  a  specie;)  which  has  hcc-n  determined  by  Dr. 
Henri  de  Saussnre  aa  HirrojJyi'hu,:  cnie.ufD.a  (de  oaur>3ure)  ;  ihi:-i  inflect  is  totallr 
distinct  from  Acridium  pcrr.imunu  and  i.s  thought  to  be  of  pu^el^  local  orjgm. 
24 


186  JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY. 

and  also  from  the  Kistna  district  in  the  Madras  Presidency.  Their  presence  was 
also  noticed  in  Sind,  but  no  mention  was  made  of  them  in  reports  from  Rajputana^ 
In  February  they  were  again  reported  from  different  parts  of  the  Punjab  (Lahore, 
Rawalpindi,  Dehra  Ismail  Khan)  and  also  from  Sind. 

The  above  sketch  of  the  spreading  of  the  locusts  seems  to  point  to  the  sandy 
tracts  of  Western  Rajputana  as  the  centre  from  which  they  radiated.  This  being 
the  tract  from  which  it  was  supposed  that  the  locusts  came  in  1869,  when  Rajpu- 
tana was  invaded  by  what  appears  likely  to  have  been  the  same  species  of  insect, 
and  the  fact  that  Acridium  peregrinum  periodically  invades  Algeria,  from  the  direc- 
tion  of  the  Sahara  desert,  increases  the  probability  of  the  supposition. 

Wingless  larva;  have  been  received  from  Marwar,  where  they  were  found  by 
Surgeon-Major  Hendley  in  the  beginning  of  August,  and  also  from  Jodhpore  and 
Karachi,  the  dates  of  their  capture  not  having  been  recorded  ;  a  specimen, 
however,  said  to  have  just  emerged  from  the  wingless  state  was  received  from 
Karachi,  where  it  had  been  found  by  Mr.  Gumming  on  2nd  November.  These 
data,  inconiplete  as  they  are,  point  to  the  invading  flights  of  locusts  having  reached, 
on  the  one  side  Sind  and  on  the  other  Jodhpore  and  Marwar,  before  depositing 
their  eggs  in  June  and  July.  Soon  after  this  latter  date  the  parent  locusts  no 
doubt  died  off,  according  to  the  known  habits  of  their  species,  leaving  the  young 
locusts  to  develop  ;  we  accordingly  find  a  lull  until  about  September,  in  which 
month  the  earliest  broods  appear  to  have  become  full  grown,  acquired  wings,  and 
commenced  to  spread  in  flights.  These  flights  seem  to  have  gradually  travelled 
northwards  into  the  Punjab,  and  eastwards  and  southwards,  across  the  Aravalli 
mountains  into  Eastern  Rajputana,  Central  India,  the  North- West  Provinces, 
Oudh,  Khandesh,  and  Baroda,  a  stray  flight  penetrating  even  as  far  as  the  Kistna 
district  in  the  Madras  Presidency.  They  have  flown  backwards  and  forwards 
over  this  vast  area  in  swarms  which  have  alighted  at  intervals  to  devour  the  crops 
which  they  generally  completely  destroy  where  they  alight,  though  their  numbers 
have  been  too  small  to  create  any  widespread  calamity. 

With  regard  to  the  future  history  of  the  locusts,  the  known  habits  of  these  interest- 
ing creatures  enables  us  to  predict  with  considerable  certainty  at  least  the  general 
lines  on  which  they  will  proceed.  The  flights  of  winged  insects,  now  present  in 
many  parts  of  India,  will  probably  continue  during  the  remainder  of  the  cold 
weather  flying  about  the  country  and  alighting  at  intervals  to  devour  crops.  They 
are,  however,  except  in  such  sandy  tracts  as  those  which  extend  from  the  Araval 
mountains  on  the  east  to  Sind  on  the  west,  under  unnatural  conditions,  and  may 
therefore,  be  expected  to  perish  in  great  numbers,  from  disease  and  the  attack  of 
their  innumerable  foes,  before  their  time  comes  in  the  spring  to  deposit  their 
eggs  and  die  of  old  age,  after  completing  the  natural  cycle  of  their  existence.  In 
their  desert  home  they  would  probably  not  commence  laying  their  eggs  before 
May  or  June  next,  wlien  their  instinct  told  them  that  the  time  for  vegetable 
growth  was  approaching;  but  under  the  damper  conditions  of  the  districts  they 


JliJSCE  LLA  NEO  US,  187 

hate  BOW  invaded,  there  is  every  probability  that  they  will  conuneDce  ovipositing 
very  much  earlier  than  this  date.  It  is  impossible  to  predict  the  date  with  any 
degree  of  certainty^  but  March  and  April  are  likely,  at  least  in  many  cases,  to  see 
a  large  number  of  eggs  are  deposited .  After  the  eggs  are  deposited  the  parent 
locusts  will  soon  die  off  and  the  fate  of  the  young  locusts  will,  to  a  great  extent* 
depend  on  the  atmospheric  conditions  that  obtain.  They  will  undoubtedly  be  less 
healthy  than  their  parents,  and  will  probably  be  afflicted  by  all  manner  of  diseases 
and  parasites,  whose  history  it  will  be  most  interesting  an<l  instructive  to  observe. 
if  the  year  is  an  exceptionally  dry  one.  they  may  succeed  in  passing  through  their 
various  stages  in  numbers  suffi'ciently  vast  to  do  an  indefinite  amount  of  injury 
both  in  their  larval,  and  winged  stages,  but  under  ordinary  condition  it  is  to  be 
expected  that  the  vast  bulk  of  them  will  die  off  before  acquiring  wings 
though  injury  may  be  done  by  them,  in  their  earlier  wingless  condition. 

An  am;ount  of  the  remedies  applicable  to  these  locusts  was  given  in  the  first 
note,  and  subseqiuent  enquiry  has  only  confirmed  the  statement  there  made  that 
the  best  time  to  attack  theuv  is  in  the  wingless  condition,  in  which  they  emerge 
from  the  eggSi.  and  long  before  they  have  acquired  wings.  They  arc  then  little 
black*  helpless  creatures  which  band  themselves  together  and.  can  readily  be  driven 
like  sheep — into  pits^or  any  other  kind  of  trap  prepared  to  receive  them.  The 
Cyprus  system.  o£  screens  and  pits  (described  in  the  first  note],  could  probably  be 
utilised  with  advantage,  but  the  prospects  of  serious  injury  from  the  locusts  axe 
not  sufficiently  alarming  to  make  it  probable  that  it  will  be  considered  advisable 
to  go  to  any  very  considerable  expense  in  introducing  apparatus  of  the  kind. 

Amongst  the  points  to  which  the  writer  would  now  direct  attention,  and  upon 
which  he  will  be  gratef^il  fbr  any  information,  are  the  following  : — 

(1)  the  ovipositing  which  is  likely  to  take  place  within  the  next  one  or  two 
months ; 

(2)  the  diseases,  parasites,  and.  other  foes,  to    whose  inroads  the  locusts  will 

now  be  especially  exposed  ; 

(3)  any  emigration  of  fresh     flights   from  Western  Rajputana,   or   Baluchis- 

tan  or   the  Suliman  range. 

With  regard  to  No.  2  very  little  is  at  present  known  in  India.  The  question  of 
disease  is  very  intimately  connected  with  climatic  conditions,  for  unfavourable,  and 
especially  wet,  weather  undoubtedly  tends  to  produce  an  unhealthy  condition  in 
the  locust.  lYi  the  Bombay  Presidency  in  1883,  however,  the  general  debility 
observed  in  the  locusts  would  seem  to  point  to  some  specific  disease,  and  the 
discoveries  made  of  late  years  concerning  contagious  diseases  amongst  insects,  due 
to  the  growth  of  low  vegetable  organisms  in  their  tissues,  render  it  extremely 
probable  that  the  excessive  mortality  amongst  the  locusts  will  be  due  largely  to 
some  such  cause.  In  support  of  this  theory,  besides  instancing  such  well  known 
Usect  diseases  as  pebrine,.and  muscardine,  which  are  often  most  fatal  to  silkworms 


188  JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY, 

it  may  be  useful  to  notice  the  fungi,  Isaria  destructor,  Mets.,  and  Isaria  ophio* 
glossoides,  Kras.,  whicli  are  stated  by  Kunckel  d'HereuIais  to  have  caused  the  total 
destruction  of  the  eggs  of  the  migratory  locust  Pachytylus  migratorius,  over  large 
areas  in  South  Russian  in  1884,  when  the  fungus  was  investigated  and  artiiicially 
cultivated  by  two  Russian  naturalists  Metschnikoff  and  Krassilstchick.  In  this 
connection,  it  should  be  observed  that  great  care  is  necessary  in  investigating  the 
subject  of  zymotic  diseases  amongst  insects ;  vegetable  organisms  found  in  the 
tissues  of  dead  insects  being  sometimes  of  purely  post  mortem  origin. 

With  regard  to  the  parasites  and  insectivorous  animals,  which  are  supposed  to 
account  for  much  of  the  mortality  amongst  locusts  in  India,  little  has  been 
ascertained  ;  but  the  observations  made  on  locusts  in  other  parts  of  the  world  leave 
small  doubt  as  to  the  nature  of  the  numerous  agencies  that  are  at  work.  In  the 
United  States,  according  to  Riley,  the  Rocky  Mountain  locust  {Caloptenus  spretus) 
is  largely  kept  down  by  insectivorous  animals  and  parnsites,  some  of  the  most 
effective  of  which  are  themselves  insects.  Riley  found  that  besides  being  devoured 
by  vertebrate  animals,  such  as  pigs,  poultry  and  other  birds,  toads,  frogs,  snakes, 
&c.,  and  by  the  larger  predaceous  insects,  such  as  Carab?d  and  Cicindelid  beetles, 
Asilid  flies,  some  species  of  Scutelleridae  (soldier  bugs),  and  Mantidee,  the  eggs  of 
the  locusts,  are  parasitized  by  a  Dipterous  insect  {Anthomyia  angustifrons),  which 
is  estimated  to  destroy  as  much  as  10  per  cent,  of  them,  by  a  little  scarlet  mite, 
and  by  an  Ichneumon  fly  ;  while,  after  the  locust  emerges  from  the  egg,  it  is 
parasitized  by  a  mite  {Astoma  gryllaria),  which  attaches  itself  to  its  body  and  sucks 
its  juices,  and  by  various  Tachinidse  and  lohneunionidse,  whose  grubs  develop  in 
its  tissues  and  thereby  cause  its  death.  Stoll  observed  that  the  locust  {Acridium 
pere'grinum)  in  Central  America,  was  much  infested  by  a  parasitic  Mermis  (hair 
worm),  which  was  present  in  six  out  of  the  ten  specimens  he  dissected.  While 
Kunckel  d'Herculais  states  that  in  Russia  it  has  been  observed  that  Nematode 
worms  pierce  the  locust  egg  cases  and  penetrate  into  the  eggs  which  they  destroy. 
In  India  little  has  been  recorded  beyond  the  fact  that  in  the  Bombay  invasion  of 
1882-83  kites  and  crows  fed  upon  the  locusts,  and  that  the  presence  was  observed 
of  two  species  of  parasites,  viz.,  "small  red  parasites,"  which  were  observed 
clinging  to  the  bodies  of  the  locusts,  and  which  are  likely  to  have  been  mites, 
allied  to  the  Astoma  gryllaria  of  America,  and  a  "  hair  worm,"  which  was  report- 
ed to  kill  the  locusts,  no  further  particulars  about  it  however  being  given,  though 
it  would  seem  likely  to  be  a  Nematode,  allied  to  those  observed  in  Russia  and 
Central  America. 

E.  C.  COTES, 
The  2\8t  February  1890.  Indian  Museum,  Calcutta. 

A  MANUAL  OP  FORESTRY.* 

Professor  Schlich's  new    Manual   of   Forestry    will  probably  form  the  standard 
work  for  the  instruction  of   Indian   Forest   Officers.     In  the  interest  of  science, 

*  This  letter  appeared  in  the  Bombay  Gazette  on  the  20th  March  1890. 


MISCELLANEOUS.  189 

I  therefore  beg  leave  to  point  out  a  few  errors  and  omissions  in  the  scientific 
part  of  the  first  vohime,  which  may  be  of  minor  importance  for  the  practical 
forester,  but  would  certainly  lead  to  a  serious  misconception  of  the  physio- 
logical facts  on  which  all  culture  of  plants  is  based  : — 

In  Part  II.,  Chapter  1,  under  "Atmospheric  Air,"  the  author  having  stated 
the  proportion  of  nitrogen  and  oxygen,  writes  : — **  No  chemical  process  is  required 
to  separate  one  constituent  from  another  ;  as  a  matter  of  fact,  all  porous  bodies 
possess  the  faculty  of  taking  oxygen  from  the  atmosphere,  without  entering  into 
a  chemical  combination  with  it.  Amongst  such  bodies  are  the  soil  and  the  leaves 
of  plants.  Whether  nitrogen  is  similarly  taken  up  has  not  yet  been  proved,  but 
further  investigation  may  lead  to  important  discoveries  in  this  respect,  as  it  is  un- 
likely that  the  large  store  of  nitrogen  should  only  serve  as  a  dilution  of  the  oxygen. 

This  statement  is  entirely  erroneous  :  as  a  matter  of  fact  the  two  gases,  though 
only  forming  a  mechanical  mixture,  cannot  be  entirely  separated,  except  by  m 
chemical  process,  and  only  to  a  very  small  extent  by  mechanical  means  as  by 
dilution  in  water,  which  is  capable  of  dissolving  proportionately  more  oxygen  than 
nitrogen,  or  by  allowing  air  to  pass  through  an  india-rubber  membrane,  in  which 
case  oxygen  passes  quicker  than  nitrogen,  owing  to  the  condensing  power  of 
mdia-ruhber,  which  is  greater  in  relation  to  oxygen  than  to  nitrogen.  Porous 
bodies  take  up  the  nitrogen  as  well  as  the  oxygen,  and  except  where  a  chemical 
process  or  combustion  takes  place  and  the  oxygen  combines  with  other  substances, 
as  in  the  case  of  leaves,  and  frequently  in  soil,  it  is  only  exceptional  if  ever  oxygen 
is  mechanically  absorbed  in  greater  proportion  than  nitrogen.  The  author  proceeds 
to  say  :  "  Although  the  leaves  of  plants  take  up  oxygen  during  the  night  and  in 
the  shade,  they  exhale  greater  quantities  of  it  under  the  effect  of  light,"  &c.  This  is 
but  partly  correct,  as  the  plants  constantly,  even  in  the  fullest  light,  inhale  oxygen, 
exhale  carbon  dioxide,  and  breathe  just  like  animals,  but  this  vital  action,  essen- 
tial for  the  preservation  of  life,  is,  during  the  day,  through  the  influence  of  light, 
partly  obscured  by  the  powerful  decomposition  of  carbon  dioxide,  by  which 
process  carbon  is  assimilated  and  oxygen  returned  to  the  air.  (Though  the  plants 
may  at  times  show  no  outward  sign  of  absorbing  oxygen,  there  is  now  no  longer 
any  doubt  that  a  sufficient  amount  of  free  oxygen  is  always  available  for  combustion 
between  the  molecules  of  the  cells,  which  enables  the  plants  to  live  a  certain  time 
without  the  access  of  oxygen,  just  as  it  has  been  proved  to  be  the  case  with  frogs,  &c.) 

Under  the  heading  **  Carbon  Dioxide,"  the  author  states ; — "  Plants  take  the 
great  bulk  of  the  carbon  dioxide,  which  they  require,  through  their  leaves,  from 
the  atmosphere,  only  a  comparatively  small  portion  is  taken  up  through  the  roots." 
The  fact  is  that  as  just  stated  the  green  plants  only  absorb  carbon  from  the  car- 
bon dioxide  and  return  the  oxygen.  The  oxygen  necessary  for  forming  car- 
bonates is  taken  partly  as  oxygen  from  the  air,  and  partly  from  water  and  mineral 
salt.  A  certain  amount  of  carbon  dioxide  is  taken  up  by  the  roots  in  water  and 
carbonates,  but  is  not  assimilated.  Parasities  and  fungi  only  take  up  previously 
assimilated  carbon  from  their  food-plants  or  from  decaying  organic  matter. 


190  JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY. 

Under  the  heading  "  Ammonia  and  Hydrogen  Nitrate,"  the  author  states  that 
it  has  not  yet  been  ascertained  how  the  necessary  quantity,  besides  the  contents  of 
the  annual  rainfall,  is  obtained.  There  is,  however,  no  doubt,  that  the  soil  always 
contains  a  sufficient  quantity  of  ammonia-salts  and  nitrates  to  account  for  the  ni- 
trogenous matter  found  in  plants,  and  it  has  been  proved  that  with  the  exception  of 
fungi  (and  perhaps  other  parasities)  no  plants  are  capable  of  assimilating  the 
atmospheric  nitrogen  or  ammonia.* 

It  might  have  been  desirable  in  a  book  of  this  scope,  to  give  a  short  outline  of 
the  movement  of  water  in  plants,  the  more  so  as  this  proeess  has  not  been  ascer- 
tained until  comparatively  recently  after  having  for  many  years  remained  an 
unsolved  and  much  disputed  problem. 

It  must  be  regretted  that  a  book  which  deals  with  its  subject  in  such  an  admir« 
ably  clear  and  demonstrative  way,  and  is  full  of  valuable  information,  should 
eontain  those  few,  but  scientifically  important  errors. 

Victoria  Gardens.  G.  CARSTENSEN. 

Mr.  GILES'  DRAGON-FLY. 

With  reference  to  a  note  by  E.  Giles  in  No.  3,  Vol.  IV.  of  the  Journal,  I  would 
point  out  that  Mr.  Giles  is  almost  certainly  wrong  in  calling  hijs  insect  a  ''  dragon- 
fly." I  do  not  know  much  of  the  neuroptera,  but  such  a  feat  as  he  ascribes  to 
a  "  dragon-fly'*  could  not,  I  think,  possibly  be  performed  by  one.  The  scene 
described,  however,  is  very  much  what  occurs  each  time  Chlorion  (a  genus  of  the 
Sphex  family  of  Fossorial  Hymenoptera)  has  occasion  to  lay  an  e^g.  The  cricket 
is  paralyzed  by  stinging,  and  then  buried  to  serve  as  food  for  the  larva  of  Chlorion, 
when  it  shall  hatch  from  the  egg  buried  with  the  cricket.  There  are  two  fairly 
common  species,  C.  splendidum  (Fabr.)  and  C.  lobatum  (Fabr.),  the  latter,  I  think,  is 
Mr.  Giles'  **  dragon-fly."  Dahlbora  describes  it  as  "  ct^aneo-viride  aut  veride-cyaneum 
splendidissimum ;  St.  Fargean  calls  it  "  verte  doree.^*  Smith,  however,  in  his 
Brit.  Mus.  Catalogue  writes:  "  An  examination  of  a  large  number  of  specimens 
from  various  parts  of  India  and  China  shows  that  this  insect  is  very  incon- 
stant in  colour,  varying  from  brassy  or  golden  green  to  dark  blue.  This 
satisfies  Mr.  Giles'  description,  and  Chlorion  has  certainly  a  far  '*  neater  figure"  than 
any  "  dragon-fly."  The  only  difficulty  is  the  size.  Unfortunately  none  of  the 
authors  quoted  give  the  size ;  but  1|  inches  is,  I  should  think,  the  average  for 
C.-  lobatum. 

Specimens  of  both  C.  splendidum  and  C .   lobatum  will  be  found  in  the  Society's 
eollection  of  Hymenoptera  (Sphegidae,  Nos.  16  and  17). 

Poona  Districts,  24/A  March  1890.  ROBT.  WROUGHTON. 


*  According  to  the  latest  researches,  it  seems  certain  that  some  Leguminous  plants 
chiefly  kinds  with  warted  roots,  assimilate  nitrogen  from  the  air,  probably  throngh 
the  agency  of  Bacteria. 


MI  Sl  ELLA  XEO  US.  191 

MEASUREMENTS  OF  A  BOAR. 

The  foUowinf^  measurements  of  a  boar  may  interest  the  readers  of  the  Journsl. 
The  animal  was  speared  (with  the  Nagpore  Hunt)  by  Mr.  Burlson,  of  the  2nd 
Madras  Lancers,  on  the  1st  January  1890  : — 

oOl^nt  •••  •••  •••  •••  •••           oo 

VTini]  •••  •••  •••  *••  ••*          *jo 

Length  •••  ••■  •••  ...  .••         C^(y 

Weight  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  350  lbs. 

1 U8KS  .••  ...  ••*  ...  ••.  ^'2 

The  weight  seems  immense. 

W.  Sr.  JOHN  RICHARDSOy, 

Bombay,  30M  Janmry  1890.  Captain,  B.  S.  C. 

TIGER  CUBS. 

It  may  perhaps  interest  the  renders  of  the  JournHl  to  know  that  on  the  21st 
instant,  1  took  from  inside  a  tigress,  which  I  shot,  five  tiilly- formed  young  oiieH. 
They  were  rather  smaller  than  newly-born  fox-terrier  puppies:  three  were  iuales« 
two  were  females. 

Mr.  C.  F.  Pinney,  of  the  Ritie  Brigade,  saw  them  at  the  time^  and  can  eorrobo« 

rate  what  I  write. 

W.St.  JOHN  RICllAROSON, 

Bombay,  2(yth  May  1890.  Capt.  B.  8.  C 

SNIPE  SITTING  IN  THE  OPEN. 
Mr.  Sinclair,  in  the  last  issue  of  the  Journal,  noted  an  instance  of  snipe  sifting 
in  the  open.  During  the  past  cold  weather  I  found  them  running  about  like 
sand-pipers  on  these  occasions.  Once  on  the  edge  of  a  jheel  where  they  had  plenty 
of  cover,  I  saw  6  or  8  on  the  ground,  and  twice  on  the  brink  of  village  ponds  I 
saw  single  birds  feeding.  In  1884<  I  witnessed  a  similar  departure  from  their 
usual  habits  near  Sialkote,  and  in  187G  near  Sccunderabad  I  came  across  a  large 
wisp  running  about  a  newly-ploughed  paddy-field.  The  latter  were,  if  I  remember 
right,  **  pintails" ;  all  those  seen  on  this  side  of  India  are  ''  fantails.'' 

G.J.  RAYMENT, 
Babugarh,  N.IV.  P.,  20th  May  WJO.  A.  V.  D. 

PANTHERS  TREE*D  BY  WILD  DOGS. 

On  the  morning  of  the  25th  March,  as  my  friend  C—  and  I  were  shooting  small 
game  along  the  bank  of  the  Gogra  river  in  the  Neelghal,  Berar,  a  native  shouted, 
"Bagh  hai,  Sahib;  Bagh  hai ;  "  so  we  went  up  to  him.  In  a  bend  of  the  river, 
in  a  tree  on  a  very  high  bank  on  the  opposite  side,  was  something  black,  and  there 
were  animals  moving  below. 

Binoculars  at  once  cleared  the  vision.  There  were  two  panthers  in  a  "  Sallai  '* 
tree,  one  above  the  other,  with  a  large  pack  of  10  or  12  couple  of  jungle  dogs 
moving  about  below. 

The  upper  panther  was  resting  across  a  branch,  and   the  lower  one  holding  on 


192 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HUSTORV  SOCIETY. 


perpenditularly.  The  ilifficulty  was  to  approach.  It  was  arranged  that  C —  should 
go  above  And  have  the  shot>  while  1  went  below.  After  a  bit  the  lower  panther 
made  a  jump,  pursued  by  the  pack  in  my  direction  on  the  bank,  but  he  broke  up 
a  ravine.  Just  then  C—  shot  the  other  panther  dead,  but  he  stuck  in  a  lower  fork 
when  he  fell.  Some  of  the  pack  immediately  came  back  and  could  be  seen 
standing  on  their  hind  legs  and  licking  tlie  blood  as  it  streamed  from  the  beast 
out  of  reach. 

My  friend  0 —  would  have  shot  two  dogs,  but  he  had  a  miss-fire.  I  only  got  two 
or  three  long  shots  at  the  dogs*  The  panther  shot  was  a  fine  male  about  7'  in 
length.    The  dogs  made  o(F»  ttnd  we  could  not  find  the  other  panther. 

Our  infbriMerR  said  they  snw  the  panthers  treed  at  sunrise,  and  it  was  about  8 
o*clock  when  we  got  there.  This  being  the  first  instance  I  have  known  such  a 
thing  occur,  1  record  it,  as  it  will  be  interesting  to  sportsmen. 

Ckickdldn,  Berars,  April  1890.  FRED.  WRIGHT. 


PROCEEDINGS. 

PnoCEEDlNG^  OP  THE  MEETING  HELD  ON  31ST  MARCH  1890. 

The  udiial  monthly  meeting  of  the  members  of  this  Society  took  place  on  Monday, 
the  31  st  March)  Dr.  D.  MacDonald  presiding. 

The  following  new  members  were  elected  t — Colonel  E.  Carrington  of  Poona, 
Raja  M'drli  Monohuf  Bahadurj  Mr.  Maiieckjee  Oilrsefcjee,  Mr.  Manekshah  Jehangirshah 
Taleyarkhan,  and  Mr.  Venakrao  Luxuinonjee. 

Mr.  H.  M.  Phipson,  the  honorary  Secretary)  then  acknowledged  the  following  con- 
tributionts  :— 

CoNTRlBOtlONS   DU&tNG   FRBUUARY   ANb   MaRcH. 


ContribtttionK. 

Description. 

Contributors. 

1  Snake 

1  Pallad' Shore  Pbverwith 

^eggs- 

1  Hodgson's  partridge 

with  12  eggs 

ttead  of  Thibetan  Gazelle... 

Dtpsaa  gokool 

C  moUffolicus  .ki. ••>.... 

Mr.  G.  Scaramanga. 
Major  J.  H.  Yttle,  R.A. 
Do. 

Perdix  hodsrsoniso 

G  a^ella  Dicticaudata  

Do. 

1  Cobra  f alive)  

Naera  triDUdians  

Rev.  Pr.  Dreckmann,  S.J. 

1  Phoorsa  (alive)  

2  Snakes  (alive) 

^chis  carinata 

Mr.  0.  Meyer. 
Do. 

Passerita  mycteriians    

Ptvas  mticostts... 

2  Dhamans (alive) 

Do. 

1  Mocking  Bird  (alive) 

1  Peacock  

Pavo  cristatus 

Mr.  C.  H.  Byrne. 
Mr.  Ameeriidin  Tyabji. 
Captain  Shopland. 
Mr.  H.  F.  Hatch. 

Eggs  of  painted  partridge... 
Nest  of  Palm  Swift  ......... 

Prancoliniis  Dictus 

Cy psellus  batassiensis    

Lvcodon    aulicus    

1  Snake  (alive) 

Mr.  M.  C.  Turner. 

1  Skimmer , 

RhvnchoDS  albicollis  

Mr.  E.  L.  Barton. 

Mineralogical  specimens  ... 
A  number   of  Snakes,   Liz- 
ards, Rats,  &c 

From  Worli 

Mr.  1.  Benjamin. 
Mr.  J.  A.  Beth  am. 

Prom  Rai pore,  C.P 

PROCEEDINGS.  193 

C0NTBIBUT10N8  TO  THE  Library. 

"  Bnlietin  de  ]&  Soei^t^  Zoologiqae  de  France,— poor  I'ann^e  1889-90/'  in  exchange. 
"New  Commercial  Plants"  (Christy *b)  Nog.  2  to  6,  presented  by  Mr.  T.  Lidbetter. 
"  The  Indian  Forester/'  Kos.  9  to  12,  in  exchange. 

**  Birds  of  India"  (Gates),  interleaved  copy,  Vol.  I,  presented  by  Mr  W.  F  Sinclair, 
C.S. 

**  Catalogne  of  the  Insecta,"  Part  II,  by  E.  T.  Atkinson,  presented  by  the  author. 

*'  Journal  of  Comparative  Medicine,"  Veil  XI,  No.  2.,  in  exchange. 

"  Monograph  of  Oriental  CicadidsB,"  by  W.  L.  Distant,  presented  by  the  author. 

"  Becords  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  India,"  Vol.  XXIII,  Part  I,  in  exchange. 

'*  Notes  on  the  Pearl  and  Ghank  Fisheries  of  the  Gulf  of  Manaar,"  presented  by 
Edgar  Thurston,  the  author. 

•*  The  proceedings  of  the  Linnsean  Society  of  New  South  Wales/*  Vol.  IV,  Part  III, 
in  exchange. 

Election  of  an  Honorary  Gorrespondiiio  Member. 

The  Honorary  Secretary  read'a  letter  from  Mr.  R.  G.  Wroughton  of  Poena,  in 
which  he  stated  that  professor  Forel,  of  Ziirich,  had  been  of  the  g^atest  use  to  this 
Society  in  identifying  the  specimens  of  ants  and  other  Hymenoptorous  insects  sent 
to  him  for  that  purposes.  It  was  proposed,  and  carried  unanimously,  that  Professor, 
Forel  be  elected  an  honorary  corresponding  member  of  this  Society. 

Accounts  for  1889. 

Mr.  E.  M.  Slater,  the  Honorary  Treasurer,  then  laid  before  the  meeting  a  Statement 
of  Accounts  for  the  year  ending  31st  of  December  last,  showing  that  the 
Society  had  a  cash  balance  on  that  date  of  Rs.  l,932-8-I0.  It  was  resolved  that  the 
accounts  be  accepted,  subject  to  the  audit  of  Mr.  John  Wallace. 

Branching  Tree  Ferns. 

The  Honorary  Secretary  read  a  note  by  Mr  L.  do  Nic^ville,  of  Calcutta,  giving  a 
description  of  a  curiously  bifurcated  tree  forn,  which  ho  had  seen  near  Darjeeling. 

Destruction  of  the  Phubsa. 

A  letter  was  also  read  from  Mr.  R.  E.  Candy,  G.S.,  Collector  of  Sholapore,  contain- 
ing an  interesting  account  of  his  experiences  when  Collector  of  Rutnagherry,  con- 
nected with  the  destruction  of  the  Phursa  (Echia  carinata)  in  that  district.  Mr. 
Candy  confirmed  Mr.  Vidal's  recent  statements  on  the  subject,  and  strongly  advised 
the  Society  to  represent  to  Government  the  importance  of  destroying  these  dangerous 
snakes  by  adopting  a  more  systematic  system  of  reward. 

Dr.  J.  G.  Lisboa  then  read  the  first  part  of  a  valuable  paper  on  Bombay  Grasses, 
which  appears  in  this  number. 

PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  MEETING  ON  21sT  APRIL  1890. 

The  usual  Monthly  Meeting  of  this  Society  took  place  on  Monday,  the  2Ist  April 
1890,  Mr.  E.  M.  Slater  presiding. 
25 


194  JOURNAL,  BOMBA  Y  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY. 

The  following  new  Members  were  elected : — 

Mr.  T.  H.  S.  Bidduiph,  Mr.  E.  A.  Bulkley,  Mr  E.  G.  Oliver,  Capt.  W.  F.  Biscoe,  CoL 
B.  M.  B.  Thomas,  and  Mr.  A  Cooper. 

Mr.  H.  M.  Phipson,  the  Honorary  Secretary,  then  acknowledged  the  following 
contributions  to  the  Society's  collections : — 

Contributions  during  April. 
1  Snake,  Lycodon  auUcus,  Mr.  C.  E.  Kane. 

1  Phoorsa  (alive),  Echia  ccvrinata,  Mr.  B.  W.  Blood. 
Corallines  from  Prince's  Dock,  Mr.  W.  F.  Lowe. 

2  Peacocks  (alive),  Pavo  cristatuSf  Mr.  W.  Hardie. 

8  Crocodile's  Eggs,  Orocodilus  palustris,  Mr.  R.  P.  W.  Strong. 

A  nnmber  of  snakes  and  reptiles,  from  Simla,  Mr.  A  Newnham. 

1   Scorpion,  ten  inches  in  length,  Col.  Thomas. 

1  Owl  (alive)  Strix  javanica,  Mr.  W.  A.  Menesse. 

1  Flying  sqnirrel,  Pteromys  oral,  Mr.  C.  B.  CoUings. 

1  Snake,  Simotes  russellii,  Mr.  F.  Otto. 

Some  geological  specimens  from  Karli,  Mr.  I.  Benjamin. 

1  Large  wasp's  nest  from  Gadawara,  C.  P.,  Mr.  F.  A.  G.  Simpson. 

Contributions  to  the  Library. 
•'  Silkworms  in  India,"  by  E.  C.  Cotes,  presented  by  the  author. 
A  list  of  Irish  birds  in  the  Dublin  Museum,  from  Mr.  W.  F.  Sinclair,  CS. 
The  Punjab  Magazine,  No.  23,  in  exchange. 
**  Atlas  of  Practical  Elementary  Biology,"  from  Mr.  T.  B.  Kirkham. 

•  A  New  Fungus. 

The  Honorary  Secretary  read  a  valuable  communication  from  Dr.  Barclay,  of  Simla, 
describing  a  new  species  of  fungus  {Accidium  Esculentum — Nov.  8p.)j  found  by  Mr. 
Robert  Wroughton,  of  Poona,  growing  on  Acacia  ehurnea,  Willd.  A  note  by  Dr.  Prain 
on  the  same  fungus  was  also  read,  and  it  was  decided  that  the  two  papers  should 
be  published  in  the  Society's  Journal  with  the  illustrations  furnished  by  these 
gentlemen.     Mr.  J.  H.  Steel,  A.  V.  D.,  then  read  the  following  paper  entitled 

POPULAR  LESSONS  PROM  THE  BOMBAY  HORSE  AND  CATTLE  SHOW,  1890. 

Now  that  the  rush  and  hurry  of  the  Show  itself  is  over  and  the  animals  have 
returned  to  their  homes,  it  may  not  come  amiss  if  we  review  the  events  of  the  Show 
and  examine  the  exhibits  with  a  view  to  determine  what  outcome,  if  any,  there  has 
been  of  the  trouble  and  exertions  necessary  for  carrying  out  such  a  Show. 

We  may  pass  by,  as  not  needing  further  notice  here,  the  satisfactory  fact  that  the 
Princes  and  Chiefs  of  Western  India  conspicuously  demonstrated  their  loyalty  to  the 
Queen-Empress  by  going  to  the  expense,  trouble,  and  risk  of  sending  valuable  animals 
to  be  exhibited  on  the  occasion  of  Prince  Albert  Victor's  visit ;  also  the  gratification 
which  the  Municipality  must  have  derived  from  the  undoubted  success  of  its  Victoria 
Gardens  entertainment  (which  success  we  may  fairly  claim  depended  largely  on  the 
Horse  and  Cattle  Show)  j  also  the  satisfaction  which  all  worthy  citizens  of  Bombay 
must  feel  at  what  was  practically  the  first  horse  and  cattle  show  of  this  city,  having 


PROCEEDINGS. 


195 


been  worthy  of  the  urha  prima^  What  we  want  now  is  to  examine  the  popnlar 
lessons  of  the  Show ;  to  see  what  benefit  of  a  permanent  nature  the  Bombay  people 
have  deriyed  from  it ;  the  respeots  in  whioh  it  has  proved  of  edacational  yalne,  and 
80  has  produced  more  inflaenoe  than  it  oonld  by  the  mere  passing  effect  of  pleasnr- 
able  excitement  and  interest  whioh  it  will  have  been  to  many. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  Bombay  public  had  never  seen  a  horse  show,  much  less 
a  cattle  show ;  another  proportion  had  never  seen  either  a  horse  or  cattle  show  in 
India;  a  few  had  seen  the  horse  shows  of  the  various  parts  of  this  Presidency,  especi- 
ally Poena  and  Ahmedabad ;  a  very  few  had  seen  horse  and  cattle  shows  held 
locally,  as  in  the  Southern  Mahratta  States  (Chinchli),  in  Guserat,  Kattywar,  and 
elsewhere*  Now  the  Bombay  Show  had  a  distinct  and  special  object — '*  to  collect 
as  many  of  the  best  animals  in  India,  horses  and  cattle,  as  may  be  procurable  for  the 
purpose  of  showing  them  to  the  Prince."  There  resulted  from  the  efforts  of  the 
committee  an  assemblage  of  animals  from  several  places,  the  outlying  poets  being 
Lus  Beyla  in  Beloochistan,  Bikanir  and  Kotah  in  Bajputana,  Hissar  in  the  Punjab, 
Bhadgaon  in  Khandeish,  Hyderabad  and  Sholapore  in  the  Deccan,  and  the  Southern 
Mahratta  States  down  south.  No  less  than  twenty  ruling  Princes  and  Chiefs  of 
Western  India  sent  animals  to  the  Show.  Though  the  Exhibition  was  thus  very  re- 
presentative of  Western  India>  the  committee  had  reason  to  believe  that,  had  more 
time  been  available,  the  whole  of  India  might  have  been  represented.  Practically 
efforts  were  limited  to  one  month  before  the  Show,  owing  to  uncertainty  as  to  the 
exact  form  the  reception  of  his  Royal  Highness  should  take*  Let  us  represent  in 
tabular  form  what  we  saw  at  the  Show  and  what  we  might  have  seen  : — 

H0B8B8. 


Source. 

Seen. 

Not  seen. 

European   •« 

Bnirlish  T.  B 

N.  T 

Cobs 

Hunters    

Imported 

Hungarian  and  Blunts  Arab.... 
Walers  and   New   Zealanders, 

Arabs    and   Persian    Kash- 

gans. 
Beluohi  ...••» 

Capes,  Northerns,  Cabulees. 

Punjabi. 
Kumaul  C.-B's. 

Inditrenous 

Cutchi   

Kattvwari 

Nizam's  C.-B's. 

Bhimaturres 

Mysore  C.-B's. 

Kolhanore  C.-B's 

S.  Mahratta  C.-B's 

Barmah 

CrosB-breds 

Arabs  out  of  Kattywarris 

Walers  

C-B's 

.  i 

N.  T.  B.  out  of  Cutchi    

Arab  out  of  Cutchi 

out  of  Deccani 

Kattywari  out  of  Deccani 

T.  B.  S  out  of  Cutchi    

Kattywari 

196 


JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY 


Cattle. 


Not  seeD. 


European 
Imported 
Indigenous 


English  polled  Angus  Bull    ... 
Austrian  Cow 


Cross-breds 


Belnchi 

Kankreji   

Gir  or  Kattywari 

Guzerathi 

Mysori  

Bhadgaon  Khilari    

Krishna  Valley    

Deccani 

Wadias 

Gaiuias • 

Hissar   

Guzerati  ont  of  Hnryan. 

English  by  Cntchi  

Mysore  by  Deccani 

Buffaloes  Jaffarabadi  ... 

Delhi 

Deccani > 

Soorti     

Deshi 


Short  horn  and  other  breeds. 

Cows  of  various  breeds. 

Other  European  breeds. 

Aden  Cows. 

Sindi. 

Nellore. 

Danghi. 

Punganur. 

Kuneverya(?) 

Goranea(?) 

Burmah. 

Malwar. 

Oauvery  Valley. 

C.  P.  Cattle. 

Berars  Cattle. 


Little  Fram,   Mr.  Adenwalla's  remarkable  pony,  which    was    commended  as   a 
curiosity,  was  said  to  have  come  from  Australia  and  to  have  arrived  there  from 
Shetland,  but  there  seemed  a  doubt  as  to  his  origin.     He  was  practically  full-grown, 
and  contrasted  remarkably  with  Mr.  Heeramaneck's  grey  walers,  for  example.     He 
was  more  probably  a  dwarf,  representative  of  the   ordinary  race   of  horses,  rather 
than  one  of  a  race  of  equine  pigmies.    His  measurements  were  found  to  be  fairly  in 
proportion,  though  to  a  horseman's  eye  he  was  not  handsome.    The  class  of  miscel- 
laneous  exhibits  was   improvised,   as  the   exhibition  of  saddlery,  harness,  &c.,  fell 
through  in  the  rush  of  organisation.     In  this  class  were  placed  the  Rajah  of  Bikanir's 
camels.  Little  Fram,  a  dumb  sheep,  and  a  few  other   things,  including  the  gorgeous 
horn-covers  and  trappings  of  a  superb  pair  of  bullocks  sent  up  by  H.  H.  the  Gaekwar 
of  Baroda.    The  educational  benefits  resulting  from  the  Show  have  not  been  confined 
to  those  obtained  by  the  general  public.    Exhibitors  and  their  servants  must  have 
benefited  by  comparison  of  their  animals  with  those  from  other  parts  of  the  country. 
Veterinary   students  have  had  a   most  valuable   experience,  and  details  have  been 
collected  which  will  be  embodied  in  a  scientific  record  of  the  Show.     It  will  be  seen 
that  the  breeds  represented  far  outnumber  those  unrepresented,  and  there  is   every 
reason  to  believe  that  with  a  little  more  time  many  of  the  blanks,   especially  as 
regards  cattle,  might  have  been  filled  up.     In  some  cases  the  sub-division  into  breeds 
went  further  than  above  indicated,  and  I  am  writing  to  our  active  coadjutor,  Colonel 
Nutt,  for  favour  of  information  concerning  the   terms  applied  in  Kattywar  and 
Northern  Guzerat  to  families  of  horses,  cattle,  and  buffaloes,  especially  as  regards 
the  meaning  of  some  terms  inserted  in  the  official  catalogue,  which  to  me  are  ob- 


PROCEEDINGS.  197 

Bonre.  Bombay  may  oongratalate  itielf  on  having  seen  a  most  exceptional  collection 
of  indigenoiiB  and  imported  horses  and  cattle,  also  of  cross-breeds,  and  on  an  oppor- 
tunity for  comparison  of  resalts  of  breeding  operations  in  Western  India,  snch  as 
has  not  oocorred  before  and  will  be  long  before  it  occurs  again.  People  who  talk  in 
a  light-hearted  manner  of  animal  shows  in  Bombay  are  hardly  aware  of  the  excep- 
tional oiroumstances  under  which  the  1890  Show  has  been  organized,  nor  of  the 
amount  of  work  and  responsibility  involved  in  it.  At  any  rate,  some  of  the  secretaries 
can  look  back  on  the  week  of  the  Show  as  the  busiest  in  their  lives. 

Consideration  of  the  awards  shows  that — 

1.  The  general  stamp  of  exhibits  was  of  high  class.  32  per  cent,  being  rewarded. 

2.  The  cattle  were,  as  a  whole,  considered  more  highly  than  the  horses,  38 
per  cent. 

3.  Of  the  horses  and  ponies,  Bombay  contributed  roughly  one-thinl ;  and  of  the 
cattle,  about  an  equal  proportion. 

4.  Bombay  exhibits  were  a  few  Walers,  a  good  show  of  Arab  horses  and  ponies, 
some  useful  draught  cattle,  and  some  valuable  buffiilo-cows. 

5.  The  Princes  and  Chiefs  mainly  exhibited  in  the  Raropeau  and  country -bred 
classes  of  the  horses  in  all  classes  of  cattle. 

6.  From  the  northern  parts  represented  in  the  Show,  the  horses  principally 
obtained  prizes. 

7»  From  the  southern  parts  represented  in  the  Show,  catrlo  principiilly  obtained 
prizes. 

8.  The  Government  of  India  (CommiHsariat  Departnuuit)  and  the  (iovornuituit, 
of  Bombay  took  prizes  for  cattle. 

^,     A  colt  by  a  Bombay  Government  HJro  took  first  prize  in  the  young  stock  class. 

10.  The  driving  classes  (cattle)  were  n  faiiuru 

11.  Bombay  was  well  reprexcntod  in  the  drivinj^,  jumping,  and  turn-out  classes, 
showing  that  as  regards  horsoinanship  the  Bombay  iH^opIo  make  the  most  of  the 
time,  space  and  climate  at  their  disposal. 

12.  The  Bombay  Municipality  was  well  represented  in  the  bullock  class. 

On  the  whole,  1  take  it,  the  Show  was  representative  of  Bombay  as  well  as  of 
the  west  of  India.  TheWaler  classes  were  weak,  the  Arab  classes,  country-bred, 
and  young  stock  classes  were  necessarily  dependent  on  supplies  from  up-country. 
As  regards  cattle,  bullocks,  buffaloes,  cows,  and  gainiss  came  from  Bombay,  breed- 
ing stock  and  agricultural  bullocks  from  up-country.  To  the  happy  combination  of 
classes  from  local  and  exterior  source,  must  be  attributed  the  general  success  of 
the  Show.  The  weakness  of  the  important  cattle  classes,  and  the  cattle  driving, 
were  more  than  compensated  for  by  the  fine  show  of  Arabs,  country-breds,  and 
ponies,  the  good  muster  of  indigenous  cows,  bulls,  bullocks,  and  buffaloes,  and  the 
enthusiasm  in  the  horse  driving  and  turn  oiit  classes— -possibly  a  larger  number  of 
tandems  and  of  jumping  ponies  might  have  turned  up,  but  on  the  whole  the  entries 
were  gratifying.  There  can  be  no  doubt  the  Bombay  public  fully  appreciated  the 
novel  sight  of  a  horse  and  cattle  show  in  the  island,  and  in  the  main  those  who  were 
concerned  in  its  organization  must  be  gratified  with  the  result. 
26 


198  JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY. 

An  Album  of  the  Prize  Animals. 

Mr.  Steel  mformed  those  present  that  all  the  animals  at  the  Show  had  been  photo- 
graphed, and  that  the  pictures  when  bound  together  in  an  album,  with  printed 
descriptions,  would  form  a  most  valuable  means  of  comparing  the  difEerent  breed 
of  horses  and  cattle. 

The  Chairman  proposed  a  vote  of  thanks  to  Mr.  Steel  for  his  paper,  and  compli- 
mented him  on  the  successful  manner  in  which  he  and  those  who  had  worked  with 
him  had  carried  out  the  organization  of  the  Show. 


LDxNIC^VILLE  Joum.Borat  "Nat.rtistSocieSO.Vd.V. 

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LlkNTCEVlLLE.  Journ  Bomb.  Htx  Hi8t  S«  1690.  Vol  V                                                                  Pl.K. 

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JOURNAL 


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No.  3.3  BOMBAY,  1890.  [Vol.  v. 


ON  NEW  AND  LITTLE-KNOWN  BUTTERFLIES  FROM 

THE  INDIAN  REGION.  WITH  DERCRIPTIONiS  OF 

THREE  NEW  GENERA  OF  HKSPERirD.E. 

By  LioNKi.  nK  Ni<fevii,i.K.   F\K.S.,  C.AI.Z.S.,  &c. 

(With  Platis  I>  .md  E.) 
Family  NYMFHALTD/E. 

ft 

Subfamilv  Satyrin-*:. 

ft 

1.  RAGADL\  CRITO,  n.  .sp.,  PI.  D.  Fi>s.  1,  *  ;  2,  9. 

Habitat  :  Bhutan. 

Expanse  :    $  ,   19  ;    9,2-0  inches. 

Description  :  Malk.  Upperside,  hofh  iringfi  rather  deep  powdery 
dead  black,  crossed  by  four  obBcure  much  sullied  whitish  bands ;  the 
first  near  the  base  of  the  wings  the  most  indistinct,  reaching  almost 
to  the  costa  of  the  fore  wing  about  the  middle  ;  the  second  is  rather 
more  prominent,  ending  on  the  fore  wing  at  the  costal  nervure 
about  one-fourth  of  the  length  of  the  wing  from  the  apex;  the 
third  the  broadest  and  most  distinct,  not  quite  reaching  the 
apex  of  the  fore  wing  ;  the  fourth  submarginal,  narrow  on  the  fore- 
wing,  broader  on  the  hindwing :  in  addition  to  these  four  bands 
there  is  a  very  indistinct  marginal  pale  line.  TTxderside,  both  wings 
27 


200    JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

with  all  the  bands  pure  white  and  very  prominent ;  the  portion  of  the 
black  ground-colour  between  the  third  and  the  fourth  white  bands 
of  the  upperside  bearing  a  series  of  more  or  less  conjoined  ocelli, 
black  with  large  silvery  pupils,  and  outwardly  defined  by  a  narrow 
yellow  line  ;  the  marginal  white  line  narrow,  regular,  and  very  pro- 
minent. Forewing  with  an  additional  short  white  band  at  the  base. 
Female,  both  uings  broader  and  more  rounded  than  in  the  male. 
XJppERSiDE,  both  wings  with  all  the  bands  broader  and  clearer  white, 
though  still  sprinkled  with  black  scales.  Underside,  both  wings  as 
in  the  male. 

Nearest  to  R.  crisilda,  Hewitson,  which  occurs  not  uncommonly 
in  several  parts  of  Assam  and  Burma.  Differs  from  that  species  in 
the  different  shade  of  the  black  coloration  of  the  upper  side,  and  in  all 
the  bands  being  strongly  sullied  (especially  in  the  male).  In  R,  cri- 
silda  the  third  band  from  the  base  of  the  wings  is  pure  white,  as  is 
the  fourth  band  on  the  hindwing,  which  latter  also  is  much  narrower. 
I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  Fritz  Moller  for  the  gift  of  a  pair  of  specimens 
of  this  species,  obtained  last  October  by  his  native  collectors  in 
Bhutan,  where  it  appears  to  be  by  no  means  uncommon. 

Ragadia  is  a  small  and  compact  Indo- Malayan  genus.     One  species 
occurs  in  Bhutan ;  a  second  in  Assam  and  Burma ;  R.  crista,  Hiibner, 
is  found  in  the  Malay  Peninsula,  Sumatra,  Bantam,  Java,  and  Bor- 
neo ;  Mr.  Grose  Smith  has  also  described  R.  annulata  from  the  Xina 
Balu  Mountain,  in  north  Borneo ;  while  Herr  George  Semper  in  his 
"  Schmett.  der  Philipp.   Inseln, "   gives  three  species  R.  crohonica, 
Semper,  and  R.  luzonia  and  melindena,  Felder,  from  the  Philippine 
group  of  islands. 

Subfamily  Morphine. 

2.  ELYMNIAS  CHELENSIS,  n.  sp,  PI.  D,  Fig.  3,  J . 

Habitat  :  Khasi  Hills. 

Expanse  :   t »  2*7  inches. 

Description  :  Male.  TJpperside,  both  wings  fuscous-brown.  Fore- 
wing  with  the  basal  half  of  the  costa  and  the  outer  margin  narrowly 
ferruginous,  the  rest  of  the  wing  strongly  glossed  with  rich  deep 
bluoj  becoming  obsolete  basally ;  two  large  conjoined  equal-sized 
oblong  pale  blue  spots  occupying  the  whole  middle  third  of  the  dis- 
coidal  interspaces  ;  two  similar  but  smaller  spots  in  the  median  inter- 


NEW  AND  LITTLE  KNOWN  BUTTERFLIES  201 

spaces   not  nearly  reaching  the  bounding'  nervules  of  the  interspaces 
they  occupy.     Hitidwing  entirely  uiiglossed  with  blue ;  the  fuscous- 
brown    ground-colour  becoming  lighter  towards  the  outer  margin  ; 
extreme  outer  margin  ferruginous.    Underside,  both  wings  castaneous, 
sprinkled  with  purplish  and  white.     Forewing  with  the  whitie  mott- 
lings  concentrated  into  an  oblique  discal  band,  which  commences  on« 
the  costa  at  a  short  distance  from  the  extreme  apex  of  the  wing  and 
ends  at  the  first  median  nervule,  where  the  speckles  are  more  scattered 
and   larger,  and  with  the   mottling  extended  one- fourth  along   the 
costa  from   the  apex;  inner  margin  dull  fuscous,  extending  on  to  the 
disc  beyond  the  oblique  discal  mottled  band  and  ending  in  a  point 
at  the  thii-d  median  nervule.     Hindering  divided  into  two  equal  well- 
d^ned  areas^  the  basal  area  rich  castanoouR  sparsely  sprinkled  with 
dull  purplish,  the  outer  area  so  tlnCkly  sprinkled  with  purplish  that 
the  cfistaneous  ground-colour  is  almost  obliterated;   a  large  oval  pale 
ochreous  spot  in  the  middle  of  the  upper  subcostal  interspace ,-  an 
outer-discal  or  submarginal  series  of  five  minute  black  dots  inwardly 
marked  with  a  minute  white  dot,  one  in  each  interspace. 

Closely  allied  to  E,  penangOy  Westwood,  from  the  Malay  Penin- 
sula, from  which  it  differs  in  the  apex  of  the  forewing  being  more 
produced,  the  outer  margin  less  scalloped,  the  aj>ex  of  the  hindwing 
also  more  produced,  the  outer  margin  considerably  truncated  and 
entire ;  in  the  markings  of  the  costa  of  the  forewing  and  of  the 
outer  margin  of  both  wings  on  the  upperside  being  ferruginous, 
instead  of  concolorous  with  the  rest  of  the  wings  as  in  E,  peumuja ;  in 
the  forewing  having  four  instead  of  five  spots,  owing  to  the  posterior 
one  being  absent ;  in  the  two  anterior  spots  being  shorter,  wider,, 
and  conjoined  instead  of  well  separated ;  in  the  hindwing  being 
entirely  imglossed  with  blue,  whereas  in  E.  pnianga  it  is  strongly 
blue-glossed ;  in  the  markings  of  the  underside  of  both  wings  being 
more  variegated,  and  in  the  presence  of  the  large  subcostal  spot  of 
the  hindwing  which   is  not  to  be   ioxnidim  E.  penanga* 


•  This  is  not  always  the  case,  as  Mr.  Distant  describes  and  figures  this  spot  in 
describing  E.  penanga,  vide  his  Rhop.  Malay.,  p.  88,  n.  5,  pi.  vii,  fig.  6,  male  (1882),  and 
it  is  •hewn  also  in  Mr.  Hewifcson's  fignre  of  the  species  (Melanitis  mehida,  Hewit- 
•OD,  Ex.  Butt.,  vol.  iii,  3f eianitis  pi.  i,  figs.  2,  3,  maZ^  (ISflS),  thongh  it  ia  entirely 
abient  in  the  three  specimens  of  this  species  I  possess  from  the  Malay  Peninsula. 


202      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

E,  chelensis  is  also  allied  to  E.  smnatrana,  Wallace,  from  Sumatra, 
and  to  E,  konga,  Grose  Smith,  from  the  Kina  Balu  Mountain, 
North  Borneo,  which  latter  is  said  to  have  a  rather  small  white  sub- 
costal spot  on  the  underside  of  the  hindwing  **  which  is  absent  in 
E,  penanga  and  E,  suynatrana, " 

Described  from  two  specimens  in  the  collection  of  the  Rev.  Walter 
A.  Hamilton,  by  whose  native  collectors  it  was  captured  at  Chela- 
pun  ji,  at  the  foot  of  the  Khasi  Hills,  on  the  Sylhet  side,  at  nearly 
sea-level,  whence  most  of  the  butterflies  recorded  from  the  Khasi 
Hills  are  obtained, 

3.  DYCTIS  DJED ALIGN,  n.  sp.,  PI  D,  Fig.  4,  9  • 
Habitat  :  Myitta,  Burma. 
Expanse  :   ?  ,  2*65  inches. 

Description  :  Female.   Upperside,  both  wings  dull  reddish-brown, 
almost  fuscous ;   crossed  by  a  broad  pure  white  band,  beyond  which 
the  ground-colour  is  somewhat  obscurely   striated  with  paler.     Fore- 
wing   with   the  costa    striated   with    white  ;    the  broad  white  band 
slightly  outwardly   curved,    commencing  on  the  costa  at  the  middle, 
of  even   width   as   far  as   the  third  median  nervule,   then    rapidly 
decreasing  in  width  to  the  anal  angle,  its  lower  portion  somewhat 
sullied,  especially  at  the  edges.    Hindwing  with  the  broad  white  band 
extending   from   the   costa   to  the  abdominal  margin,  widest  in  the 
middle,  rather  narrow  at  the  costa  ;  bearing  outwardly  a  series  of  five 
round  black  spots,  of  which  the  two  upper  ones  divided  by  the  dis- 
coidal   nervule.  and  the   one  in  the  submedian   interspace  are  the 
smallest,  and  those  divided  by  the  second  median  nervule  about  four 
times  as  large.     Underside,  both  wings  with  the  basal  half  dull  cas- 
taneous  coarsely  striated  with   whitish ;  the  outer  half    white,  very 
densely   and  coarsely   striated  with  dark   castaneous,    especially  on 
the  outer  margins  ;  the  broad  discal  white  band  as  on  the  upperside. 
Hindioing  with  an  additional  very  small  bluish  spot  outwardly  defined 
with  black  in  the  upper  subcostal  interspace  near  its  base, 

D.  dcedalion  belongs  to  the  group  of  which  D.,  panther  a ,  Fabricius, 
from  Java,  is  the  type,  and  of  which  D.  singhala,  Moore,  from 
Ceylon,  2).  lutescens,  Butler,  from  the  Malay  Peninsula,  Sumatra, 
and  Borneo,  D.   dolorosa,    Butler,    from  the    Island  of    Nias,   and 


NSIV  AND  LITTLE^KNOWN  BUTTERFLIES  205 

5.  EUTHALIA  ELICIUS,  n.  sp.,  PL  D,  Fig.  8,  6 . 
Habitat:   Burma. 

Expanse  :  $  ,  2*5  inches. 

Description  :  Male.Upperside,  bot/i  wings  rich  glossy  bronzy  brown. 
Foremng  with  a  narrow  black  line,  towards  the  base  of  the  discoidal 
cell,  a  double  line  across  the  middle  and  extending  just  below  it,  a 
similar  double  line  closing  the  cell ;  a  discal  waved  line,  and  a  very 
indistinct  submarginal  (outer  discal)  similar  line.  Hindwing  with  a 
doable  black  line  at  the  end  of  the  cell,  discal  and  submarginal  lines 
as  in  the  forewing,  the  abdominal  margin  pale.  Underside,  both 
wings  ochreous,  gradually  increasing  in  intensity  towards  the  outer 
margins  of  the  wings.  Forewing  with  the  markings  in  the  cell  as  on 
the  upperside,  the  two  discal  lines  very  faint.  Hindwing  marked  as 
above,  but  all  the  markings  partially  obliterated. 

E,  elicius  appears  to  be  nearest  to  E.  jahnUy  Moore  (the  male  de- 
scribed as  a  distinct  species  by  Moore  as  sananda) ,  with  which  it  agrees 
almost  exactly  in  the  markings  of  the  upperside  except  that  they 
are  rather  less  distinct ;  but  it  entirely  lacks  the  vinous  suffusion 
which  is  such  a  marked  and  peculiar  character  in  E,  jaknu.  On  the 
underside  also  the  markings  are  similar  though  much  less  prominent, 
but  the  ground-colour  is  of  a  much  less  ferruginous  shade  and  is 
altogether  paler.  E.  elicius  reminds  one  a  little  of  Distant's  figure* 
of  E.  parta,  Moore,  but  does  not  at  all  resemble  Moore's  original 
figure  of  that  species. 

A  single  example  taken  at  Myitta,  Burma,  in  February,  is  deposit- 
ed in  the  Phayre  Museum,  Rangoon. 

Family  LEMONIID^. 
Subfamily  Libythjein^. 

6.  LIBYTHEA  GEOFFROYI,  Godart,  PI.  D,  Fig.  5,  S . 

L.  geoffrovt  Godart,  Enc.  M^th.,  vol.  ix,  p.  813,  n.  5-6  (1828) ;  idem,  id.,  M^m. 
Soc.  Linn.  Par.,  vol.  ii,  L^p.,  pi.  ii  (1823)  ;  L.  geoffroyi^  Wallace,  Trans.  Bnt.  Soo. 
Lend.,  1869,  p.  335,  n.  4  j  id ,  Kirby,  Syn.  Oat.  Diurn.  Lep.,  p.  283,  n.  8  (1871). 

Habitat:  3  b,yq.  (Oodart),  Timor,  Flores   (Wallace)  \  Burma. 

Expanse  :    J  ,  9,2-4  inches. 

Description  :  Male.  Upperside,  forewing  brownish-fuscous ;  the 
posterior  two-thirds  of  the  discoidal  cell  and  the  basal  two-thirds 
of  the  wing  from  the  third  median  nervule  to   the  inner  margin 

*  Ahop.  Malay.,  p.  437,  n.  18,  pi.  xxxvii,  fig.  7 ^ male  (1886). 


204    JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATUUAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

Forewing  with  the  basal  half  of  the  costa  yellow,  beyond  which  is  a 
broad  band  of  castaneous  ground-colour ;  the  discoidal  streak  and 
the  white  spots  in  continuation  pure  white  but  much  broader 
than  on  the  upperside ;  the  four  small  spots  beyond  the  cell  much 
larger  than  above  and  pale  bluish ;  the  subapical  spots  as  above,  but 
their  edges  less  well  marked ;  a  yellow  patch  of  ground-colour  near 
the  apex  of  the  wing  ;  the  submarginal  line  anteriorly  yellow,  in  the 
middle  bluish,  posteriorly  white.  Hindtcing  with  a  subcostal  bluish 
streak  outwardly  broken  ;  the  discal  white  band  as  above,  followed 
by  a  broad  castaneous  band  bearing  a  narrow  yellow  line ;  the  sub- 
marginal  band  of  the  upperside  much  broader  and  bluish- white ; 
the  outer  margin  yellow  becoming  castaneous  at  the  apex.  Female. 
Upperside,  forewing  has  the  spot  in  the  second  median  interspace 
very  narrow,  touching  the  second  median  nervule,  and  well  separat- 
ed from  the  discoidal  streak,  of  exactly  the  same  length  as  the  spot 
below  it,  which  latter  is  bounded  above  and  below  by  the  second  and  first 
median  nervules,  the  two  spots  together  forming  a  perfectly  quad- 
rangular oblong  figure  ;  otherwise  as  in  the  male.  Hindtcing  with 
the  discal  band  narrower  than  in  the  male ;  the  submarginal  band 
wider,  pure  white  instead  of  sullied.  Underside,  both  wings  very 
much  paler  than  in  the  male,  the  castaneous  bands  almost  obliterated, 
the  ground-colour  mostly  very  pale  yellow. 

Nearly  allied  to  N.  narayana^  Moore,  from  the  Western  Himalayas, 
differing  in  the  male  on  the  upperside  of  the  forewing  in  the 
discoidal  streak  being  separated  from  the  spot  in  the  second  median 
interspace  only  by  the  black  vein,  and  in  the  spot  in  question  being 
consequently  much  larger ;  in  the  underside  being  much  more  richly 
variegated ;  and  in  the  presence  of  the  castaneous  and  black  patches 
of  ground-colour,  which  are  entirely  wanting  in  N,  narayana.  The 
female  differs  in  the  colour  of  the  ground  of  the  underside,  which  is 
mainly  pale  yellow  instead  of  **  glossy  ferruginous.'^ 

The  type  male  specimen  in  Mr.  G.  C.  Dudgeon's  collection  was 
taken  in  June ;  the  type  female  in  my  own  collection  was  taken 
in  July ;  and  a  second  female  specimen  in  Mr.  A.  V.  Knyvett's 
collection — were  all  taken  at  Tongloo  on  the  Singalelah  range  at  an 
elevation  of  about  12,000  feet. 


NEfV  AND  LITTLE-KNOWN  BUTTERFLIES.  207 

I  submitted  the  drawing  of  the  male  reproduced  here  to  Dr.  O. 
Staudinger  of  Dresden,  who  writes  that  it  agrees  exactly  with  a 
specimen  in  his  collection  from  Timor,  but  that  most  of  the  Timorean 
specimens  do  not  show  the  three  white  subapical  spots  of  the 
forewing,  nor  the  dull  orange  macular  band  of  the  hindwing 
on  the  upperside.  It  agrees  very  well  with  the  description  of  the 
species  by  Godart.  It  probably  more  or  less  mimics  one  of  the  blue 
Euploeas  when  flying ;  when  at  rest  its  mottled  imderside,  so  like  that 
of  a  dead  leaf,  proves  of  sufficient  protection.  All  Libytheas  rest  with 
closed  wings,  usually  at  the  end  of  a  dead  branch  or  stick,  when 
they  are  very  difficult  to  see,  unless  they  have  been  actually  observed 
to  settle.  The  occurrence  of  this  species  on  the  mainland  of  Asia 
is  most  interesting,  as  hitherto  L.  geoffroyi  and  several  named  and 
described  local  races  have  only  been  found  in  the  islands  of  the 
Malay  Archipelago. 

7.  LIBYTHEA  LIBERA,  n.  sp.,  PI.  D,  Fig.  6,  t . 

Habitat:  Burma. 

Expanse  :   t ,  2*2  inches. 

Description  :  Male.  Fpperside,  both  wings  rich  glossy  brown, 
rather  paler  towards  the  base.  Forewing  with  an  oblique  oval  whitish 
spot  outwardly  faintly  defined  with  ochreous  at  the  end  of  the 
discoidal  ceU ;  a  similar  round  spot  in  the  middle  of  the  first  median 
interspace;  a  tripartite  subcostal  white  spot  placed  about  midway 
between  the  end  of  the  cell  and  the  apex  of  the  wing,  its  uppermost 
portion  a  mere  dot,  its  middle  portion  twice  the  size,  its  lower- 
most portion  quadrate  and  very  much  larger;  two  rounded  spots 
placed  outwardly  and  below  the  subcostal  spot,  divided  by  the  lower 
discoidal  nervule.  Hindtoing  with  a  large  quadrate  whitish  spot  on  the 
middle  of  the  costa ;  an  oblique  discal  macular  ochreous  band  formed  of 
four  portions,  the  one  towards  the  apex  of  the  wing  the  largest. 
Underside,  forewing  fuscous-brown,  the  apex  paler  and  mottled  with 
whitish;  the  spots  as  above,  but  the  subcostal  spot  completely 
amalgamated ;  the  basal  half  of  the  cell  occupied  by  a  dull  ochreous 
band.  Hhidwing  glossy  purplish-brown,  heavily  striated  with  white  ; 
an  oblique  quadrate  white  spot  on  the  middle  of  the  costa  bounded 
posteriorly  by  the  first  subcostal  nervule ;  a  white  increasing  streak 
from  near  the  base  of  the  wing  extending  to  the  middle  of  the  wing 

28 


206      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

shining  violet,  bearing  at  the  end  of  the  cell  and  in  the  median  in- 
terspaces slightly  paler  spots,  caused  by  the  white  spots  of  the  under- 
side shewing  through  by  transparency ;  a  small  cordate  white  spot  in  the 
interspace  between  the  subcostal  nervure  and  upper  discoidal  nervule, 
beyond  and  below  which  are  two  similar  spots  placed  one  below  the  other 
divided  by  the  lower  discoidal  nervule.  Hindwing  pale  brown,  the  imme- 
diate base  glossed  with  pale  violet ;  a  discal  fascia  composed  of  three  dull 
orange  spots  from  the  second  median  to  the  lower  subcostal  nervule. 
Underside,  forewing  pale  brown,  dark  brown  on  the  disc,  the  costa  and 
apex  of  the  wing  widely  grey,  irrorated  with  fine  black  dots  ;  the  cell 
almost  entirely  occupied  by  a  broad  ochreous  streak ;  the  three  sub- 
apical  spots  as  on  the  upperside,  but  the  two  lower  of  these  spots  con- 
nected by  a  minute  spot  placed  between  them  ;  two  discal  white  spots 
outwardly  defined  by  pale  ochreous  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  median 
interspaces ;  the  upper  one  small  and  elongated;  the  lower  large  and 
quadrate,  fully  four  times  as  large  as  the  upper.  Hindwing  greyish- 
brown,  profusely  mottled  throughout  with  blackish ;  an  obscure 
oblique  paler  band  extending  from  about  the  middle  of  the  costa  to  the 
middle  of  the  cell,  its  outer  edge  marked  with  a  prominent  black  dot 
at  the  base  of  the  second  subcostal  nervule ;  a  somewhat  quadrate  similar 
spot  in  the  middle  of  the  subcostal  interspace ;  and  a  discal  band  coin- 
cident with  the  dull  orange  macular  band  of  the  upperside,  but  more 
extended,  nearly  reaching  the  outer  margin.  Female.  Upperside, 
forewing  with  the  violet  area  duller  and  confined  to  the  immediate 
b^rse  of  the  wing ;  a  quadrate  white  spot  at  the  end  of  the  discoidal 
cell ;  a  tripartite  subcostal  spot ;  another  elongated  spot  from  the 
third  median  to  the  upper  discoidal  nervule,  placed  outwardly  below 
it ;  a  large  quadrate  discal  spot  completely  filling  the  interspaces 
between  the  first  and  third  median  nervules.  Hindwing  with  no 
violet  gloss  at  the  base,  otherwise  as  in  the  male.  Underside, 
foremng  with  the  cell  orange  but  outwardly  terminated  by  a  large 
white  spot  the  other  spots  as  on  the  upperside.  Hindwing  as  in  the 
male,  but  all  the  markings  more  obscure. 

Described  from  three  males  and  one  female  from  Syinbyudine,  on 
the  Tavoy-Siam  frontier,  taken  in  December,  1888,  and  January 
and  March,  1889.  One  pair  is  deposited  in  the  Phayre  Museum, 
Rangoon,  two  males  are  in  my  own  collection. 


NSfV  AND  LITTLE'KNOWS  BUTTERFLIES  fi07 

I  submitted  the  drawing  of  tHe  male  reproduced  here  to  Dr.  O. 
Staudinger  of  Dresden,  who  writes  that  it  agrees  exactly  with  a 
specimen  in  his  collection  from  Timor,  but  that  most  of  the  Timorean 
specimens  do  not  show  the  three  white  subapical  spots  of  the 
forewing,  nor  the  dull  orange  macular  band  of  the  hindwing 
on  the  upperside.  It  agrees  very  well  with  the  description  of  the 
species  by  Godart.  It  probably  more  or  less  mimics  one  of  the  blue 
Eupkeas  when  flying ;  when  at  rest  its  mottled  underside,  so  like  that 
of  a  dead  leaf,  proves  of  sufficient  protection.  All  Libytheas  rest  with 
closed  wings,  usually  at  the  end  of  a  dead  branch  or  stick,  when 
they  are  very  difficult  to  see,  unless  they  have  been  actually  observed 
to  settle.  The  occurrence  of  this  species  on  the  mainland  of  Asia 
is  most  interesting,  as  hitherto  L,  geoffroyi  and  several  named  and 
described  local  races  have  only  been  found  in  the  islands  of  the 
Malay  Archipelago. 

7.  LIBYTHEA  LIBERA,  n.  sp.,  PL  D,  Fig.  6,  t . 

Habitat:  Burma. 

Expanse  :   S ,  2*2  inches. 

Description  :  Male.  Upperside,  both  wings  rich  glossy  brown, 
rather  paler  towards  the  base.  Forewing  with  an  oblique  oval  whitish 
spot  outwardly  faintly  defined  with  ochreous  at  the  end  of  the 
discoidal  cell ;  a  similar  round  spot  in  the  middle  of  the  first  median 
interspace;  a  tripartite  subcostal  white  spot  placed  about  midway 
between  the  end  of  the  cell  and  the  apex  of  the  wing,  its  uppermost 
portion  a  mere  dot,  its  middle  portion  twice  the  size,  its  lower- 
most portion  quadrate  and  very  much  larger;  two  rounded  spots 
placed  outwardly  and  below  the  subcostal  spot,  divided  by  the  lower 
discoidal  nervule.  Hhidmng  with  a  large  quadrate  whitish  spot  on  the 
middle  of  the  costa ;  an  oblique  discal  macular  ochreous  band  formed  of 
four  portions,  the  one  towards  the  apex  of  the  wing  the  largest. 
Underside,  forewing  fuscous-brown,  the  apex  paler  and  mottled  with 
whitish;  the  spots  as  above,  but  the  subcostal  spot  completely 
amalgamated ;  the  basal  half  of  the  cell  occupied  by  a  dull  ochreous 
band.  Hhidwing  glossy  purplish-brown,  heavily  striated  with  white  ; 
an  oblique  quadrate  white  spot  on  the  middle  of  the  costa  bounded 
posteriorly  by  the  first  subcostal  nervule ;  a  white  increasing  streak 
from  near  the  base  of  the  wing  extending  to  the  middle  of  the  wing 

28 


208       JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

placed  on  the  subcostal  nervure  ;  an  oblique  narrow  whitish  band 
extending  from  near  the  abdominal  margin  to  near  the  apex  of  the 
wing,  coincident  with  the  ochreous  macular  band  of  the  upperside. 

Very  near  to  L,  narina,  Godart,  from  Oeram,  Qilolo,  the  Philippines, 
and  the  Khasi  Hills  (=j&.  rohini,  Marshall),  differing  from  Indian 
specimens  of  that  species,  however,  in  its  considerably  larger  size, 
the  spot  in  the  cell  and  the  one  below  it  in  the  first  median  inter- 
space of  the  forewing  not  being  "pure  white"  but  outwardly  defined 
with  ochreous ;  the  discal  band  on  the  hindwing  ochreous  instead  of 
pure  white,  and  more  macular ;  and  the  cilia  throughout  concolorous 
with  the  wings  instead  of  whitish.  The  underside  is  darker,  the  white 
striations  much  less  numerous. 

Described  from  a  single  specimen  taken  at  Syinbyudine  on  the 
Tavoy-Siam  frontier  in  December,  and  now  deposited  in  the  Phayre 
Museum,  Rangoon. 

Family     LYC^NID^. 

8.  GERYDU8  GOPARA,  de  N.,  PI.  E,  Figs.  1,  6  ;  2,  9 . 

Q.  gopara,  de  Nic^ville,  Butt,  of  India,  vol.  iii,  p.  25  (1890). 

Habitat  :  Perak ;  Jelebu ;  Johore ;  Singapore — all  in  the  Malay 
Peninsula ;  Padas  River,  North  Borneo. 

Expanse  :    ? ,  1*4  inches. 

Description  :  Female.  Differs  from  the  male  in  the  apex  of  the 
forewing  being  much  less  produced,  thus  giving  the  wing  a  much 
blunter  and  squarer  appearance.  Upperside,  both  wings  marked  simi- 
larly to  the  male.  Underside,  forewing  with  all  the  spots  smaller, 
especially  the  subapical  series,  which  is  reduced  to  three  dots. 

Described  from  three  examples  kindly  sent  me  by  Mr.  W.  Davison, 
the  Curator  of  the  Raffles  Museum,  Singapore. 

9.  ZARONA  PHARYGOIDES,  n.  sp.,  PL  E,  Fig.  3,  t . 
Habitat  :  Malay  Peninsula. 

Expanse  :  S  ,  1*35  inches. 

Description  :  Male.  Upperside,  both  mngs  black,  with  a  large 
patch  of  rich  ultramarine-blue  turning  to  brilliant  emerald-green 
in  some  lights  on  each  wing.  Forewing  with  the  blue  patch  extend- 
ing from  the  median  nervure  to  the  inner  margin,  and  formed  of  the 
following  portions: — a  very  minute  portion  at  the  base  of  the  second 


NEW  AND  LITTLE-KNOWN  BUTTERFLIES.  211 

black.  Forewing  unmarked.  Hindmng  with  a  large  irrorated  white 
patch  on  the  anal  region  divided  by  the  dark  veins,  extending  from 
the  anar  angle  to  the  third  median  nervule,  bearing  outwardly  an 
oval  black  spot  in  the  first  median  and  submedian  interspaces,  and 
a  very  fine  black  anteciliary  line ;  tails  white,  medially  black.  Under- 
side, both  wings  white.  Forewing  with  the  apical  third  dull  ochreous- 
ferruginous,  with  the  following  fuscous  markings: — a  dot  at  the  ex- 
treme base  of  the  discoidal  cell,  a  large  quadrate  spot  beyond  reach- 
ing to  the  submedian  nervure,  a  third  narrower  spot  beyond 
again  also  extending  across  the  submedian  interspace,  a  narrow  streak 
on  the  disco-cellular  nervules,  a  short  macular  band  beyond  the  cell 
from  the  third  median  nervule  to  the  costa,  an  irregular  macular  discal 
band,  a  submarginal  waved  line,  and  some  spots  and  dots  along  the 
costa.  Hindmng  with  a  cluster  of  about  eight  spots  occupying  the 
basal  third  of  the  wing,  a  discal  fascia  composed  of  narrow  linea 
in  pairs  between  the  veins,  the  two  anterior  pairs  solid,  a  fine  sub- 
marginal  lunular  line  enclosing  a  series  of  spots  between  the  veins, 
the  one  in  the  first  median  interspace  very  large  and  intensely  black, 
inwardly  defined  by  a  line  of  metallic  pale  greenish-blue  scales. 
Which  are  continued  to  the  abdominal  margin  ;  the  anal  lobe  bear- 
ing a  small  black  spot,  a  very  fine  black  anteciliary  line.  Cilia  of  the 
forewing  black,  of  the  hindwing  white. 

Described  from  a  single  example  without  locality,  but  probably 
from  the  Malay  Peninsula. 

12.    BIDUANDA  CINESOIDES,  de  N.,  PI.  E,  Fig.  8,  $ . 

B.  cinesoides,  de  Nic^ville,   Joarn.  Bombay  Nat.  Hist.  Soc.,  vol.  iy,  p.  166,  n.  5,  pi. 
A,  fig.  7,  mode  (1889);  idem,  id.,  Butt,  of  India,  vol.  iii,  p.  428  (1890). 

Habitat  :  Selangore,  Jelebu,  both  in  the  Malay  Peninsula. 

Expanse  :  ? ,  1*6  inches. 

Description  :  Female.  Upperside,  both  tvings  dull  fuliginous- 
black.  Forewing  unmarked.  Hindwing  bearing  outwardly  a  large 
pure  white  band  from  the  submedian  nervure  almost  to  the 
outer  margin  reaching  just  beyond  the  third  median  nervule,  the 
band  on  both  edges  constricted  where  crossed  by  the  veins ;  followed 
by  an  almost  similar  band  of  the  ground-colour,  and  then  by  an  outer 
narrower  white  band.  Tails  pure  white.  Cilia  of  the  forewing  black, 
of  the' hindwing  anteriorly  black,  posteriorly  white,  inwardly  defined 


210       JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

Z.  pharygoides  possess  the  *^  oblique  dark  streak  in  the  green  in 
the  middle  of  the  intemo-median  interspace,  and  a  longer  one  along 
its  upper  edge/'  said  to  be  present  in  Z,  bradamante. 

Described  from  two  examples  from  Johore  in  the  Malay  Peninsula 
kindly  forwarded  to  me  by  Mr.  W.  Davison. 

10.    ZEPHYRUS  KHASIA,  de  N.,  PL  E,  Fig.  4,  S  . 

Z.  khasia,  de  Niceville,  Butt,  of  India,  vol.  iii,  p.  301,  n.  863  (1890). 

Habitat  :  Khasi  Hills. 

Expanse  :  5 ,  1'55  inches. 

Description  :  Male.  TJpperside,  both  unngs  rich  metallic  green, 
the  veins  black,  the  outer  margins  with  a  broad  regular  black  border. 
Foremng  with  the  costa  very  narrowly  black,  the  outer  black  border 
broadest  at  apex.  Hindwing  with  the  costal  margin  broadly  black, 
the  outer  margin  waved ;  no  tail,  but  the  termination  of  the  first 
median  nervule  sKghtly  produced  tooth-like.  Underside,  both  wings 
silvery-white.  Foremng  with  a  fuscous  bar  closing  the  discoidal  cell, 
a  discal  curved  and  waved  fuscous  band  from  the  costa  to  the 
first  median  nervule,  its  outer  edge  sharply  defined^  its  inner  edge 
somewhat  diffused ;  a  submarginal  increasing  macular  fuscous  band 
from  near  the  costa  to  the  submedian  nervure,  becoming  obsolete 
before  it  reaches  the  costa.  Hindwing  with  a  faint  darker  line  de- 
fining the  disco-cellular  nervules ;  a  discal  sinuous  macular  fascia 
composed  of  narrow  fuscous  fragments  outwardly  defined  with  whitish 
placed  between  the  veins;  a  submarginal  increasing  series  of  six 
fuscous  lunules  placed  between  the  veins;  an  anteciliary  fuscous 
line,  becoming  obsolete  towards  the  costa.  Cilia  white,  becoming 
f uscescent  towards  the  apex  of  the  forewing. 

Nearest  to  Z.  saphirina,  Staudinger,  from  Corea  and  Japan. 
Described  from  a  single  example  in   the  collection  of  the  Rev. 
Walter  A.  Hamilton. 

11.    BIDUANDA  SC^VA,  Hewitson,  PI.  E,  Fig.  7,  9 . 

Myrina  acasvay  Hewitson,  111.  Diam.  Lep.,  p.  30,  n.  11,  pi.   xv,   figs.   39,  40,  maU 
1863) ;  Biduanda  scoeva,  de  Niceville,  Butt,  of  India,  vol.  iii,  p.  428  (1890). 

Habitat:  Singapore. 

Expanse  :    9 ,  1*0  inch. 

Description  :     Female.     Upperside^   both  wings  dull  fuliginous- 


NBW  AND  LIITLBKNOfVN  BUTTERFLIES.  211 

black.  Forewing  unmarked.  Hindwing  with  a  large  irrorated  white 
patch  on  the  anal  region  divided  by  the  dark  veins,  extending  from 
the  anal  angle  to  the  third  median  nervule,  bearing  outwardly  an 
oval  black  spot  in  the  first  median  and  submedian  interspaces,  and 
a  very  fine  black  anteciliary  line ;  tails  white,  medially  black.  Under- 
sidE,  both  icings  white.  Forewing  with  the  apical  third  dull  ochreous- 
ferruginous,  with  the  following  fuscous  markings: — a  dot  at  the  ex- 
treme base  of  the  discoidal  cell,  a  large  quadrate  spot  beyond  reach- 
ing to  the  submedian  nervure,  a  third  narrower  spot  beyond 
again  also  extending  across  the  submedian  interspace,  a  narrow  streak 
on  the  disco-cellular  nervules,  a  short  macular  band  beyond  the  cell 
from  the  third  median  nervule  to  the  costa,  an  irregular  macidar  discal 
band,  a  submarginal  waved  line,  and  some  spots  and  dots  along  the 
costa.  Hindwing  with  a  cluster  of  about  eight  spots  occupying  the 
basal  third  of  the  wing,  a  discal  fascia  composed  of  narrow  lines 
in  pairs  between  the  veins,  the  two  anterior  pairs  solid,  a  fine  sub- 
marginal  lunular  line  enclosing  a  series  of  spots  between  the  veins, 
the  one  in  the  first  median  interspace  very  large  and  intensely  black, 
inwardly  defined  by  a  line  of  metallic  pale  greenish-blue  scales. 
Which  are  continued  to  the  abdominal  margin  ;  the  anal  lobe  bear- 
ing a  small  black  spot,  a  very  fine  black  anteciliary  line.  Cilia  of  the 
forewing  black,  of  the  hindwing  white. 

Described  from  a  single  example  without  locality,  but  probably 
from  the  Malay  Peninsula. 

12.    BIDUANDA  CINESOIDES,  de  N.,  PL  E,  Fig.  8,  $ . 

B.  cinetoidea,  de  Nic^ville,   Joarn.  Bombay  Nat.  Hist.  Soc.,  vol.  iy,  p.  166,  n.  5,  pi. 
A,  fig.  7,  male  (1889) ;  idem,  id.,  Butt,  of  India,  vol.  iii,  p.  428  (1890). 

Habitat  :  Selangore,  Jelebu,  both  in  the  Malay  Peninsula. 

Expanse  :  ? ,  1*6  inches. 

Description  :  Female.  TJpperside,  both  wings  dull  fuliginous- 
black.  Forewing  unmarked.  Hindwing  bearing  outwardly  a  large 
pure  white  band  from  the  submedian  nervure  almost  to  the 
outer  margin  reaching  just  beyond  the  third  median  nervule,  the 
band  on  both  edges  constricted  where  crossed  by  the  veins ;  followed 
by  an  almost  similar  band  of  the  ground-colour,  and  then  by  an  outer 
narrower  white  band.  Tails  pure  white.  Cilia  of  the  forewing  black, 
of  the  hindwing  anteriorly  black,  posteriorly  white,  inwardly  defined 


212    JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

by  a  narrow  black  line  from  the  base  of  the  short  tail  to  the  anal  angle. 
Underside,  both  wings  marked  as  in  the  male. 

Much  larger  than  the  same  sex  of  the  Bornean  B.  cinesia,  Hewit- 
son,  and  differing  altogether  in  the  character  of  the  white  markings 
on  the  upperside  of  the  hindwing. 

Described  from  a  single  specimen  from  Jelebu. 

13.  RAPALA  DELIOCHUS,  Hewitson,  PI.  E,  Fig.  6,  $  . 

Deudoria  deliochuSf  Hewifcson,  Trans.  Ent.  Soc.  Lond.,  1874,  p.  352  ;  idem,  id., 
tU.  Diam.  Lep.,  Sappl.,  p.  31,  n.  86,  pi.  va,  figs.  TiS,  69,  male  (1878) ;  Rapala 
deliochus,  de  Nic^rille,  Butt,  of  India,  vol.  iii,  p.  457,  n.  991  (1890). 

Habitat  :  Rangoon. 

Expanse  :  ?^  1*5  inches. 

Description:  Female.  Upperside,  both  icings  with  the  blue  color- 
ation of  a  duller  shade  than  in  the  male,  and  of  greater  extent. 
Foretoing  has  the  disco-cellular  nervules  marked  with  a  black  line. 
Sindwing,  the  blue  colour  does  not  nearly  reach  the  outer  margin  as 
it  does  in  the  male,  and  all  the  veins  are  black.  Underside,  both 
toings  marked  as  in  the  male. 

Described  from  two  female  specimens  obtained  in  June  and  August 
by  Mr.  B.  Noble,  Curator  of  the  Phayre  Museum,  Rangoon,  who 
^eiit  them  to  me  for  identification. 

14.  RAPALA  SCINTILLA,  de  N.,  PI.  E,  Fig.  5,  S  . 

'   R.  scintilla,  de  Nic^ville,  Butt,  of  India,  vol.  iii,  p.  461,  n.  997  (1890). 

Habitat:  Sikkim. 

Expanse  :  S  ,  1*4  to  1*6  inches. 

Description  :  Male.  Upperside,  both  wings  very  dark  indigo-blue. 
Hindmng  with  a  patch  of  most  magnificent  iridescent  blue  on  the 
disc  beyond  the  end  of  the  discoidal  cell  not  quite  reaching  the  outer 
margin,  bounded  posteriorly  by  the  first  median  nervule,  anteriorly 
extending  just  above  the  second  subcostal  nervule;  inner  margin  pale 
fuscous  heavily  clothed  with  long  fuscous  setae  ;  anal  lobe  bearing  a 
very  small  orange  spot.  Underside,  both  toings  greenish-grey ;  two 
fine  darker  grey  lines  defining  the  disco-cellular  nervules;  a  similar 
discal  line,  outwardly  bounded  by  a  fine  white  line,  slightly  outwardly 
curved  in  the  f orewing,  extending  from  the  costa  to  the  submedian 
fold,  more  curved  and  somewhat  irregular  in  the  hindwing,  recurved  to 
the  abdominal  margin;  an  obscure  submarginal  band.     Hindmng  with 


NEW  AND  LITTLE-KNOWN  BUTTERFLIES.  213 

a  large  black  spot  crowned  with  a  fine  white  line  on  the  anal  lobe,  a 
smaller  similar  spot  crowned  with  a  fine  orange  line  in  the  first  median 
interspace,  the  space  between  these  two  spots  sprinkled  with  black 
and  white  scales;  a  very  fine  anteciliary  black  line ;  dlia  grey ;  tail 
black,  tipped  with  white.     Fe^jale  unknown. 

B,  scintilla  in  the  male  may  at  once  be  distinguished  from 
22.  schistacea,  Moore,  by  the  absence  of  the  blue  gloss  on  the  f  orewine 
on  the  upperside  ;  from  JR.  orseia,  Hewitson,  it  may  be  known  by  the 
presence  of  the  blue  gloss  on  the  hindwing.  R.  scintilla  therefore 
appears  to  occupy  a  position  exactly  intermediate  between  these  two 
species.     The  greenish- grey  shade  of  the  imderside  is  also  distinctive. 

Described  from  six  examples  in  Mr.  A.  V.  Knyvett's  collection  and 
my  own. 

Family     HESPERIID^. 

15.     ISOTEINON  lAPIS,  n.  sp.,  PI.  E,  Fig.  9,  t  • 

Habitat  :  Burma,  Malay  Peninsula. 

Expanse  :    S  ,  1*5  inches. 

Description  :  Male.  Upperside,  both  wings  dark  shining  brown, 
becoming  of  a  deeper  shade  towards  the  outer  margins.  Foremng  with 
the  following  semi-transparent  lustrous  yellowish  spots : — two  towards 
the  end  of  the  discoidal  cell,  the  upper  one  a  round  dot,  the  lower 
larger,  elongated,  comma-shaped ;  a  pair  of  conjoined  subapical  dots 
divided  by  the  terminal  portion  of  the  subcostal  nervure  (which  in 
the  HesperiidcB  appears  always  to  end  on  the  outer  margin  some  little 
distance  below  the  apex),  the  lower  a  little  the  larger ;  three  discal 
spots  placed  obliquely,  the  upper  one  in  the  lower  discoidal  inter- 
space a  mere  dot,  equal  in  size  to  the  lower  subapical  dot,  the  middle 
spot  in  the  upper  median  interspace  about  four  times  as  large,  its 
outer  edge  concave,  its  inner  convex,  the  lowest  spot  about  four  times 
as  large  as  and  shaped  like  the  spot  above,  placed  in  the  first  median 
interspace.  Hindwing  unmarked,  but  the  abdominal  margin  and  espe- 
cially the  anal  angle  fringed  with  very  long  hairs.  Underside,  hotK 
wings  much  paler  than  above,  sprinkled  throughout  thickly  with  dull 
ochreous  scales.  Foremng  with  the  inner  margin  broadly  pale  yellow, 
a  tuft  of  long  black  hairs  attached  to  the  margin.  Hindtoing  with  a 
discoidal  and  four  or  five  discal  small  very  obscure  dark  spots,  which 


214      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

appear  to  be  formed  by  apportion  of  the  ground-colour  being  left  free 
from  the  dull  ochreous  scales.  Antennce  above  entirely  fuscous, 
heneath  with  an  increasing  yellowish  streak  towards  the  apex,  not 
extending' to  the  extreme  tip.  Cilia  of  the  forewing  concolorous,  of 
the  hindwing  cinereous. 

Apparently  nearest  to  /.  suhtestaceuSy  Moore,*  of  which  there 
is  one  of  the  original  specimens  from  Upper  Tenasserim  taken 
b^  Mr.  Ossian  Limborg  in  1876-77  in  the  collection  of  the  Indian 
Museum,  Calcutta.  Differs  therefrom  in  having  two  spots  instead  of 
one  in  the  discoidal  cell  of  the  forewing,  two  instead  of  three  sub- 
apical  dots,  three  instead  of  two  discal  spots,  which  latter  also  dif- 
fer widely  in  size,  shape,  and  position.  The  coloration  of  the  under- 
side is  also  quite  different. 

The  type  specimen  of  /.  iapis  is  from  Johore  in  the  Malay  Peninsula, 
and  was  kindly  forwarded  to  me  by  Mr.  W.  Davison.  In  the  Indian 
Museum,  Calcutta,  are  two  small  specimens  taken  by  Dr.  J.  Anderson 
in  the  Mergui  Archipelago  on  11th  December,  1881,  and  11th  April, 
1882,  respectively,  which  are  undoubtedly  the  same  species,  though 
too  worn  to  be  identified  by  Mr.  Moore  when  working  out  the  collec- 
tion of  which  these  specimens  formed  a  part.  On  one  of  them  Mr. 
Moore  placed  a  ticket  on  which  is  written  "not  moolata,"  which  is, 
however,  a  Parnaray  and  not  an  Isoteinon. 

Genus  AEROMACHXJS,  nov. 

Both  wings  very  small.  Forewing,  triangular,  costa  quite  straight,. 
apex  acute,  mter  margin  gently  convex,  inner  angle  rounded,  inner 
margin  straight,  longer  than  the  outer  margin  ;  costal  nervure  ending 
about  opposite  the  apex  of  the  discoidal  cell,  well  separated  from  the, 
costa,  bent  upwards  to  the  costa  towards  its  end  ;  base  of  second  sub' 
costal  nervule  nearer  to  base  of  first  than  to  base  of  third,  fourth  sub- 
costal arising  very  near  to  the  base  of  third,  reaching  the  apex  of 
the  wing ;  terminal  portion  of  subcostal  nervure  (often  called  a  fifth 
subcostal  nervule)  ending  on  the  outer  margin  considerably  below 
the  apex  of  the  wing ;  upper  disco-cellular  nervule  short,  stout,  out- 
wardly oblique,  straight ;  middle  disco-cellular  sinuous ;  lower  disco- 
cellular  shorter  than  the  middle,  straight,  in  the   same  straight  linc^ 

•  Proo.  Zool.  Soc.  Lond.,  1878,  p.  844. 


NEW  AND  LITTLE  KNOWN  BUTTERFLIES.  215 

with  the  middle,  inwardly  oblique ;  the  median  nervules  with  their 
bases  equi-distant,  given  off  very  near  to  the  end  of  the  cell,  the  third 
median  originating  at  the  point  where  the  lower  disco-cellular  nervule 
meets  the  median  nervure ;  the  median  nervure  strongly  bent  upwards 
from  the  base  of  the  second  median  nervule ;  siibmediqn  nervure  straight. 
Male  (in  the  type  species  only)  with  a  broad  oblique  stripe  of  modified 
scales  on  the  upperside  extending  from  the  middle  of  the  submedian 
nervure  to  the  base  of  the  second  median  nervule.  Hindwing,  much 
rounded  throughout ;  costa  short ;  costal  nervure  almost  straight,  first 
5Micos^a/wery«^  bent  upwards  at  base,  thence  straight  to  apex  of  wing; 
subcostal  nervure  strongly  bent  downwards  between  the  bases  of  the  sub- 
costal nervules,  giving  the  appearance  of  a  third  (or  upper)  disco- 
cellular  nervule,  the  subcostal  nervure  and  its  branches  together 
forming  a  figure  of  almost  the  exact  shape  of  a  tuning-fork  ;  disco- 
cellular  nervules  outwardly  oblique,  the  upper  concave,  the  loicer 
shorter  than  the  upper  ;  the  discoidal  nervule  curved,  and,  like 
the  disco- cellular  nervules,  very  fine  but  perfectly  distinct ;  second 
median  nervule  given  off  some  little  distance  before  the  lower 
end  of  the  discoidal  cell,  more  than  twice  as  far  from  the  base 
of  the  first  as  it  is  from  the  base  of  the  third  median,  all  three 
median  nervules,  however,  arising  near  to  the  lower  end  of  the  cell ; 
suhmedian  and  internal  nervures  straight.  Antennce  exactly  half  the 
length  of  the  costa  of  the  forewing,  with  a  well-formed  club,  the  tip 
slightly  hooked ;  thorax  rather  slender,  abdomen  very  slender.  Female 
differs  from  the  male  in  having  the  wings  broader  and  more  rounded, 
and  lacks  in  the  type  species  the  patch  of  androconia  on  the  upper- 
side  of  the  forewing.     Type,  **Thanaos"  stigmata,  Moore. 

The  type  of  the  genus  Thanaos  of  Boisduval  (1832-33),  in  which  all 
the  species  of  Aeromachus  have  hitherto  been  placed,  is  the  *^  Papi- 
lio^*  tages  of  Linnaeus,  which  occurs  in  Europe  and  Western  Asia 
( Amurland,  &c).  Thanaos  is  usually  ranked  as  a  synonym  of  Nisoniades, 
Hiibner  (1816),  of  which  the  type  is  bromius,  Stoll,  a  South  Ameri- 
can species,  which  is  probably  not  congeneric  with  tages,  Aeroma- 
chus differs  from  T.  tages  in  the  shape  of  the  wings,  especially  in 
the  hindwing,  which  in  that  species  is  altogether  much  larger,  and 
has  the  costa  almost  straight  and  very  much  longer,  thus  giving 
quite  a  different  outline  to  the    wing;  the  forewing  of  the  male    of 


^9 


^i 


>16        JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 


T.  tages  has  the  costa  folded  over  on  the  upperside ;  the  differences 
ill  uouration  too  are  considerable,  in  the  forcwing  of  T.  tages  the 
first  median  norvule  arises  near  the  base  of  the  wing,  in  Aerornachus 
near  the  lower  end  of  the  cell;  and  the  shape  of  the  discoidal 
cell  of  the  hindwing  is  quite  different,  in  T.  tages  being  square- 
ended,  the  disco-cellulars  being  perfectly  upright,  and  of  equal 
length. 

The  genus  Aeromachns  is,  as  far  as  I  know,  strictly  confined  to 
India,  where  it  occurs  all  along  the  Himalayas,  in  Assam,  Burma, 
and  again  in  the  hills  of  South  India.  They  rest  with  wings  closed 
over  the  back. 

(1.)     Aeromachus  stigmata,  Moore, 

Thanaoi  stigmata,  Mooro,  Proc  Zool.  Soc.  Lond.,  1878,  p.  694;  idem,  id,,l.  c,  1882, 
p.  262;  id.,  deNic^rille,  Journ.  A.  S.  B.,  vol.  li,  pt.  2,  p.  60,  n.  203  (1882) ;  idem, 
id.,1.  o.,  vol.  liv,  pt.  2,  p.  122,  pi.  ii,  fig.  2,  male  (1885)  ;  id.,  Doherty,  Journ.  A.  S.  B., 
vol.  Iv,  pt.  2,  p.  189,  n.  287  (1886) ;  id.,  Elwes,  Trans.  Ent.  Soc.  Lond.,  1888,  p. 
452,  n.  484. 

Habitat  :  Masuri,  N.-W.  Himalayas^  {Moore) ;  Bdgheswar,  Bal- 
wakot,  2-4,000  feet,  Kuniaon  (Doherty) ;  Sikkim  {de  Niceville  and 
Elices) ;  Simla  ;  Kotgarh ;  Kulu  Valley ;  Bhutan ;  Khasi  Hills. 

(2.)     Aeromachus  indistincta,  Moore. 

Thanaos  tndtjh'ncto,  Moore,  Proo.  Zool.  Soc.  Lond.,  1878,  p.  694 ;  idem,  id.,  Jonm. 
Linn.  Soo.  Lond.,  Zoology,  vol.  xxi,  p.  53  (1886);  id.,  Hampson,  Joorn.  A.  8.  B.,  vol. 
Ivii,  pt.  2,  p.  366,  n.  246  (1888). 

Habitat  :  Salween,  Moulmain,  Mergui — all  in  Burma  (Moore) ; 
Nilgiri  Hills,  3,000  feet  (Hampson) ;  Pulni  HiUs. 

(3.)     Aeromachus  OBSOLETA,  Moore. 

Tkanoo*  o6joUfa,  Moore,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  Lond.,  1878,  p.  694 ;  T.  ?  ohsoleta.  Wood. 
Mason  and  de  Niceville,  Jonm.  A.  S.  B.,  vol.  Iv,  pt  2,  p.  389,  n.  235  (1886). 

Habitat  :  CherraPunji,  Assam  (Moore) ;  P  Sileuri  and  Subong,  both 
iu  Cachar  {Wood-Mason  and  de  NiciviUe). 

(4.)     Aeromachus  jhora,  de  Niceville. 

Tfcanao*  ;\>ra,  de  Nic4ville,  Jonm.  A.  S.  B.,  vol.  liv,  pt.  2,  p.  4»  n.  313 ;  p.  1S8» 
pL  ii»  fig.  18,  malt  (1885) ;  id.,  Elwes,  Trans.  Snt.  Soc-  Lond ,  1888,  p.  453,  n.  486. 

Habitat  :  Sikkim  {de  NiceviUe  and  Eltces)  ;  ?  ShiUong,  Khasi  Hills 
{Xlu^s). 


NEfV  AND  LITTLE-KNOWN  BUTTERFLIES.  217 

(5.)     Aeromaghus  kali,  de  Niceville. 

Thanaos  Jcali,  de  Nicevflle,  Jburn.  A.  S.  B.,  vol.  liv,   pt.  2,  p.  4,  n.  31J! ;  p.  123,  pi.  ii, 
fig.  8,  male  (1885)  ;  id.,  Blwes,  Trans.  Ent.  Soc.  Lond.,  1888,  p.  463,  n.  486. 

Habitat  :  Sikkhn  {de  Niceville  and  Elwes), 

Note. — Mr.  H^  J.  Elwes  suggests  that  the  ^^Fyrgus^^  inachus  of 
Mfoetries  from  the  Amur,.  Shanghai,  and  Japan,  belongs  to  this 
genus,  and  may  indeed  be  conspecific  with  A.  jhora. 

Gtenus  OIXMTOPTILFM,  nov. 

FoREWiNG,,  elongated ;  costa  gently  arched ;  apex  acutfe  -^  outer  margin 
at  first  at  right  angles  to«  the  costa,  then  directed  strongly  obliquely 
inwardly ;  inner  wngle  rather  acute,  inner  7nargin  short,  sinuous>  of 
about  the  same  liength  as  the  outer  margin;  costal  nerinire  not  reach- 
ing tO"  opposite  the  apex  of  the- discoidal  cell;  all  four  sw^co5^/w^r- 
vules  with  their  bases  about  equally  distant  one  from  the  other;  the 
fourth  subcostal  reaching  the  apex  of  the  wing ;  the  terminal  portion 
of  the  subcostal  nervure  ending  on  the  outfer  margin  considerably 
below   the*  apex  of  the*  wing ;   upper '  disGo-cellular    nervule    stout,, 
straight,  short,  outwardly  oblique  ;  middle  disco-cellular  shorter  than. 
Ibwer;  lower  disco-cellular  straight,  in  the  same  straight  line  as- the 
middle,  both  strongly  inwardly  oblique ;.  7nedian  nervules  arising  very 
far  apart,  sccow^' median  arising  long  before  the  Ibwer  end  of  the  cell ; 
first  median  arising  one*- third  of  the  length  of  the  cell  from  the  base  of 
the  wing ;  suhmedian  nervure  sinuous ;   internal  nervure  short  and 
running  into  the  submedian  nervure,  both  as  usual.     Hindwing,  costa 
short}  much  produced  at  base^  then  straight  to  apex  ;  outer  margin 
strongly  excavated!  between  terminal  points  of  costal  nervure  and 
first  subcostal  nervule,  then  arched  to  anal  angle  ;  anal  angle  slightly 
produced  lobe-wise  ;  inner  margin  sinuous;  costal  nervure  gently  arched, 
ending  at  apex  ot  wing ;  first  subcostal  nervule  arising  some  distance 
before  the  apex  of  the  discoidal  cell ;  upper  disco-cellular  nervous 
straight,  slightly  outwardly  oblique,  in  the  same  straight  line  as  the 
lower ;  lower  disco-cellular  longer  than  the  upper ;  discoidal nerYvlc  fine 
but  quite  distinct ;  secofid  median  nervule  given  ofE  just  before  the 
lower  end  of  the  cell ;  first  median  given  off  slightly  nearer  to  the 
lower  end  of  the  cell  than  to  the  base  of  the  wing ;  submedian  and 
interyial  nervures  straight.  Antenncc  less  than  half  as  long  as  the  costa 


218       JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

of  the  forewing,  with  a  well-formed  eluhand  hooked  tip;  thorax  stouty 
abdomen  rather  stout,  not  nearly  as  long  as  the  abdominal  margin  of 
the  hindwing.  Sexes  alike,  male  with  no  secondary  sexual  characters 
on  the  wings,  but  the  fore  legs  are  furnished  with  a  very  thick  tuft  of 
hairs  attached  to  the  anterior  end  of  the  coxa,  the  hairs  being  slightly 
longer  than  that  joint.     Type,  "  Achlyodes  "  sura,  Moore. 

Mr.  Moore  placed  the  type  species  of  Odon  topi  Hum  in  the  genus 
Achlyodes y  Hiibner  (1816),  of  which  the  type  is  the  South  American 
fredericuSy  Hiibner,  with  which  0.  sura  will  probably  be  found  to 
have  but  slight  connection.  Mr.  Distant  placed  0.  sura  in  the  genus 
Abaratkay  Moore  (1881),  of  which  the  Ptenjgospidea  ransonnctii  of 
Folder  is  the  tj^pe.  In  that  genus  the  fore  legs  of  the  males  are 
furnished  with  a  tuft  of  long  setae*  which  are  also  found  in  0.  suray 
but  are  very  much  shorter  and  much  more  dense  in  the  latter.  The  type 
species  of  Abaratha  and  Odontoptilum  differ  also  in  the  shape  of  the 
discoidal  cell  of  both  wings ;  in  the  former  in  the  forewing  the  middle 
disco-cellular  nervule  is  upright,  and  therefore  forms  an  obtuse  angle 
with  the  inwardly  oblique  lower  disco-cellular ;  in  the  latter  the  two 
veins  are  in  one  straight  line;  in  the  hindwing  of  the  former  the 
lower  disco-cellular  is  quite  upright,  thus  forming  an  angle  with  the 
upper  outwardly  oblique  disco-cellular,  in  the  latter  both  are  in  one 
straight  line  and  are  outwardly  oblique.  Otherwise  there  does  not 
appear  to  be  much  difference,  between  the  two  genera  either  in  neura- 
tion  or  outline  of  the  wings.  Mr.  Kirby  places  0.  sura  in  the  genus 
Antigonus  of  Hubner  (1816),  of  which  the  nearchiis  of  Latrielle  from 
South  America  is  the  type.  It  is  very  improbable  that  this  species 
either  is  congeneric  with  sura. 

The  genus  Odontoptilum  occurs  all  along  the  outer  rauges  of  the 
Himalayas,  in  South  India,  in  Assam,  Burma,  the  Malay  Peninsula, 
Sumatra,  Borneo,  Celebes,  the  Philippine  Isles,  and  China.  They  rest 
with  wide  outspread  wings. 

(1.)     ODONToniLUM  SURA,  Moorc. 

Achlyodes?  sura,  Moorc,  Horsfield  and  Moore,  Cat.  Lop.  Mus.  E.  I.  C,  vol.  i,  p. 
251,  11.  569  (1857) ;  Achlyodes  sura,  Mooro,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  Loud.,  1865,  p.  786  ; 
Antigonus  sura,  id.,  Joiirn.  Linn.  Soc.  Lond.,  Zoology,  vol.  xxi,  p.  53  (1&8());  id., 
Elwos  and  de   Niceville,  Journ.  A.  S.   B.,   voI.lv,    pt.  2,  p.   441,    n.  165  (18S6)  ;  id., 

*Vide  Juaru.  Bomb,  Nat    llibt.  cjoc;  vol.  iv,  p.  175  (188^). 


NEfV  AND  LITTLE'KNOIVN  BUTTERFLIES.  219 

EIWGS,  Trans.  Ent.  Soc  Lond.,  1888,  p.  458,  n  511  ;  Aharatha  sura  VVood-Mason 
and  de  Nic6ville,  Journ.  A.  S.  B.,  vol.  Iv,  pt.  2,  p.  391,  n.  248  (I88G) ;  id.,  Distant, 
Bhop.  Malay.,  p.  390,  n.  1,  pi.  xxxiv,  fig.  V\  male  (1886);  Antigonus  angulala,  Moore 
{nee  Felder),  Proc  Zool.  Soc.  Lond.,  1882,  p.  203  ;  id.,  de  Nic§ville  Journ.  A  S.  B., 
vol.  lii,  pt.  2,  n.  100,  n.  283  (1883)  ;  id.,  Hampson,  Journ.  A.  S.  B.,  vol.  Ivii,  pt.  2,  p. 
368,  n.  273  (1888)  ;  Pterygospidea  helias,  Felder,  Roise  Novara,  Lep.,  vol.  iii,  p.  529, 
n.  936,  pi.  Ixxiii,  figs.  12,  13,  male  (1887)  ;  Tagiades  helias,  Plotz,  Jahr.  des  Nass. 
Ver.,  vol.  xxxvii,  p.  42,  n.  6  (1884). 

Habitat:  Darjeeling;  N.-E.  Bengal ;  Thaiiig,  King  Island,  Mergui 
Archipelago  ;  N.-W.  Himalayas  (Moore)  ;  Sikkim  ,{^hccs  and  de 
Niceville)  ;  Cachar  ( Wood-Mason  and  de  Niceville) ;  Pei-ak ;  Malacca 
(Distant);  Nilgiri  Hills,  S.  India,  2,000—4,000  feet  (Ilamjmn); 
Tavoy  and  V onsekai  (Ulwes  and  de  NicemUe);  Celebes  (Felder  txudi 
Plotz) ;  Assam ;  Wynaad. 

Note, — To  judge  from  Felder's  figure  of  0.  helias\  from  Celebes,  it 
appears  to  me  highly  probable  that  it  represents  a  species  distinct 
from  0.  sura, 

(2.)  Odontoptilum  .\ngulata,  Felder. 

Pterygospidea  annulatat  Folder,  Verb,  zool.-bot.  Gcsellsch.  Wien,  vol.  xii,  p.  488, 
n.  149  (1862)j  idem,  id.,  Reise  Novara,  Lep.,  vol.  iii,  p.  529,  n.  935,  pi.  Ixxiii,  figs.  10, 
11,  male  (1867);  Tagiades  angulaia  (part),  Plotz,  Jahr.  des  Nass.  Ver.,  vol.  xxxvii,  p.  41, 
n.  5  (1884) . 

Habitat  :  Hongkong,  South  China ;  Luzon  (Felder) ;  India  [?]  ; 
Sumatra  [?]  (Plotz). 

(3.)  Odontoptilum  pygela,  Hewitson. 

Pterygospidea  pygela,  Hewitson,  Dose.  Hcsperida.^  p.  53,  n.  6  (1868)  ;  idem,  id., 
Ex.  Butt.,  vol.  V,  Pterygospidea  pi.  i,  fig.  3  (1873)  ;  Antigonus  pygela,  Drucc,  Proc. 
Zool.  Soc.  Lond.,  1873,  p.  360,  n.  1 ;  Abaratha  pygela^  Distant,  Rhop.  Malay.,  p.  390, 
n.  2,  pi.  xxxiv,  fig.  18  (1886)j  Tagiades  pygela^  Plotz,  Jahr.  des  Nass.  Ver.,  vol. 
xxxvii,  p.  42,  n.  7  (1884). 

Habitat:  Borneo  and  Malacca  (Hewitson);  Borneo  (Vnice) ; 
Perak  (Distant);  Borneo;  Malacca (P/oi^;:) ;  Jelebu. 

Note, — The  outline  of  the  hindwing  of  0.  j^ygcla  differs  consider- 
ably from  that  of  0,  sura,  as  in  the  former  the  outer  margin  is  very 
deeply  excavated  between  the  terminal  points  of  the  second  subcostal 
and  third  median  nervules,  which  is  very  slightly  if  at  all  the  case 
in  0.  sura. 


220      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

Genus  CTENOPTILUM,  nov. 
FoREWiNG,  narrow,  elongated ;  costa  arched  a/t  base,  then  straight 
to  apex ;  apex  acute ;  outer  margin  at  right  angles^  to  costa  from  apex 
to   termination   of  third  median   nervule,   this   portion   also  being 
slightly  excavated,  from  third  median  nervule  to  iamer  angle  strongly 
inwardly  oblique,  also  slightly  concave ;  imicr  angle  rather  acute ; 
inner  margin  sinuous ;   costal  nervure  very  short,  not  nearly^  reaching 
opposite  to  the  apex  of  the  discoidal  cell ;  Jirst,  seeotid,  and  third  sub- 
costal nervules  also  very  short,  rapidly  reaching  the  gobX^l,  fourth  sub- 
costal long,  extending  to  apex  of  wing,  the  bases  of  all  the  subcostals 
nearly  equi-distant ;  terminal  portion  of  subcostal'  nervure   reaching 
outer  margin  below  apex  of  wing ;  discoidal  cell  long,  narrow,  reach- 
ing to  more  than  half  though  less  than  two-thirds  the  length  of  the 
wing;  upper  disco-cellular  nervule  skovi,  ^ivBi^i,  outwardly  oblique; 
middle  and  lower  disco-cellulars  straight,  slightly^  inwardly  obliquoi 
the  lower  a  little  longer  than  the  middle ;  second  median  nervule  aris^ 
ing  considerably  before  the  lower  end  of  the  cell ;  first  median  arising 
much  nearer  to  the  base  of  the  wing  than  to  the  lower  end  of  the 
cell;  submedian  nervure  sinuous,  following  the  outline  of  the  inner 
margin ;  internal  nervure  short,  running  into  the  submedian  nervure 
as  usual.     Hindwing,  with  the  base   of  the   costa  much  produced, 
thence  gently  curving  to  apex ;  outer  margin  slightly  produced  tooth- 
like at  apex  of  first  subcostal  nervule,  very  strongly  at  third  median 
nervule,  thence  inwardly  oblique  to  anal  angle  and  slightly  concave ; 
anal  angle  rounded ;    inner  margin  nearly   straight ;    costal  nei*vure 
curved,  reaching  the  apex  of  the  wing ;  first  subcostal  7iermle  origi- 
nating long  before  the   apex   of   the   discoidal   cell ;  disco-cellular 
nervules  of  equal  length,  almost  straight,  slightly  outwardly  oblique ; 
discoidal  nervule  fine  but  quite  distinct ;  second  median  nervule  given 
off  close  to  the  lower  end  of  the  cell ;  first  median  arising  nearer  ta 
lower  end  of  the  cell  than  to   the  base  of  the  wing ;  subtnedian  and 
internal  nervures  almost  straight.    Antemice  about  half  as  long  as  the 
costa  of  the  forewing,  with  a  well-formed  club ;  thorax  rather  stout ; 
abdomen  rather  slender,  not  quite  reaching  to  anal  angle  of  hindwing. 
Male  with  no  secondary  sexual  characters  on  the  wings,  but  with  a 
dense  tuft  of  hairs  attached  to  the  anterior  end  of  the  tibia  of  the 
hind   legs,   the   hairs   extending  to  the  apex   of    the   first  joint  of 


NEW  AND  LITTLE'KNOJVN  BUTTERFLIES.  221 

the  tarsus.  Female  like  the  male,  except  that  the  wings  are  rather 
larger  and  broader.   Type,  the  '^Achli/odes'*  vasava  of  Moore. 

Ctenoptihim  is  evidently  nearest  allied  to  Odontoptihim,  mihi,  but 
differs  considerably  in  the  outline  of  the  wings,  in  the  shortness  of 
the  costal  nervure  and  subcostal  nervules  of  the  forewing,  and  espe- 
cially in  the  setose  clothing  of  the  legs  of  the  male,  in  Ctenoptilum  the 
hairs  are  much  longer  and  do  not  form  such  a  large  and  dense  mass 
as  iij  Odontoptilum^  and  are  attached  to  the  tibia  of  the  hindlegs  instead 
of  to  the  coxa  of  the  forelegs. 

As  far  as  is  known  to  me,  the  genus  contains  but  two  species, 
which  occur  in  Sikkim,  Assam,  and  Burma.  They  probably  rest  with 
wide  outspread  wings. 

(1.)  Ctenoptilum  vasava,  Moore. 

AcUyodes  P  vasava^  Moore,  Horsfield  and  Moore,  Cat.  Lep.  Mus.  E.  I.C,  vol.  i,  p. 
252,  n.  570  (1857)  ;  Achlyodes  vasava^  Moore,  Proc.  Zool.  Soo.  Lond.,  1865,  p.  786 ; 
Anfigonus  vasava,  Elwes,  Trans.  Enfc.  Soc.  Lond.,  1888,  p.  458,  n.  512. 

Habitat  :  Darjeeling  (Moore);  Sikkim  {^Iwes);  Khasi  Hills. 

16.  (2.)  CTENOPTILUM  MULTIGUTTATA,  n.  sp.,  PL  E, 
Fig.  10,  6. 

Habitat:  Burma. 

Expanse:    Sj  9,  1*5  inches 

Description:  Male.  Upperside,  both  icings  reddish-ochreous, 
with  numerous  lustrous  semi-transparent  white  spots.  Foreming 
with  a  small  spot  in  the  discoidal  cell  towards  the  base,  with  an  elon- 
gated spot  below  it  in  the  submedian  interspace,  sometimes  divided 
into  two ;  a  very  large  spot  at  the  end  of  the  discoidal  cell,  outwardly 
anteriorly  deeply  incised ;  two  spots  above  it  just  below  the  costa 
divided  by  the  first  subcostal  nervule  ;  a  discal  curved  series  of  ten 
spots,  of  which  the  first  four  are  of  nearly  equal  size  (the  uppermost 
the  smallest),  divided  by  the  subcostal  nervules,  followed  by  a  rapidly 
increasing  series  of  four  spots,  one  in  each  interspace ;  then  by  two 
spots,  the  lower  three  times  as  large  as  the  upper,  in  the  submedian 
interspace  ;  a  submargipal  obscure  fuscous  band.  Hindmng  with  a 
clump  of  spots  shewing  great  diversity  in  shape  and  size  occupying 
the  middle  of  the  wing ;  a  submarginal  dark  fascia  as  in  the  forewing. 
Underside,  both  wings  coloured  and  marked  as  above,  but  all  except  the 


J  ■  J "  ^ 


222      JOURNAL.  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1^90. 

outer  margin  thickly  frosted  with  grey,  which  appearance  is  found 
on  examination  under  a  strong  lens  to  be  due  to  the  presence  of  long 
white  hair-like  scales  scattered  somewhat  sparsely  over  the  surface. 
Female  differs  from  the  male  only  in  being  rather  paler,  and  the 
submarginal  dark  fascia  above  more  prominent. 

Near  to  the  ^^Achlyodes'^  vasava  of  Moore*,  from  Sikkim  and 
Assam,  from  which  it  differs  in  its  more  reddish  less  ochreous  ground- 
colour, considerably  less  angulated  wings,  the  fore  wing  on  the  upper- 
side  on  the  disc  and  base  not  suffused  with  black,  the  third  spot  of 
the  discal  series  equal  in  length  to  the  spot  on  cither  side  of  it,, 
instead  of,  as  in  C,  vasava,  being  greatly  lengthened  out  and  ending  in 
a  point  just  below  the  costa ;  and  all  the  spots  on  the  hind  wing 
smaller,  especially  those  in  the  discoidal  cell,  the  middle  spot  of  O. 
vasava  being  divided  into  two  in  C.  ^multiguttata. 

Described  from  two  male  specimens  from  the  Meplay  Valley,  taken 
in  February,  another  from  the  Donat  Range,  taken  in  January,  and 
a  female  from  the  valley  of  the  Houngdarou  taken  in  March,  all  in 
Upper  Burma,  by  Majors  C.  T.  Bingham  and  C.  H.  E,  Adamson. 
This  is  probably  one  of  the  species  referred  to  by  Mr.  H.  J.  Elwes 
as  from  Akyab  and  Tenasserim  in  Trans.  Ent.  Soc.  Lond.,  1888,  p. 
458,  n.  512. 

i7.  CEL^NORRHINUSCONSEPtTUS,n.sp.,Pl.  E,  Fig.  12,  J. 

Habitat  :  Khasi  Hills. 

Expanse  :  $  ,  1*7  ;    9  ,  1*8  inches. 

Description  :  Male.  TJpperside,  both  tvings  dark  rich,  brown  ap- 
proaching to  fuscous,  the  base  of  the  forewii^g  and  the  entire  hind- 
wing  sprinkled  with  long  ochreous- ferruginous  hair-like  scales.  Fore- 
wing  with  three  conjoined  subapical  lustrous  white  dots,  the  poste- 
rior rather  nearer  to  the  outer  margin  of  the  wing  than  the  others  ; 
a  compact  discal  lustrous  white  patch,  anteriorly  bounded  by  the 
subcostal  nervure,  posteriorly  by  the  first  median  nervule,  its  inner 
edge  nearly  straight  and  even,  its  outer  edge  irregular  owing  to  that 
portion  of  the  patch  situated  at  the  base  of  the  second  median  inter- 
space being  projected  slightly  forwards  and  beyond  the  line  of  the 
outer  edge  of  the  patch.     Hindwing  with  a  large  rounded  discoidal 


»    Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  Lond.,  18G5,  p.  786. 


NEW  AND  LITTLE  ITNOfVN  BUTTERFLIES,  223 

spot,  with  a  similar  discal  series  beyond  formed  by  portions  of  the 
gromid-colour  being  free  from  the  ochreous-ferruginous  hair-like 
scales;  Cilia  coneolorous  with  the  wings  throughout.  Undkrsidk, 
foremng  entirely  dark  brown ;  the  lustrous  white  spots  as  above,  but 
the  discal  one  with  two  pale  yellow  dots  divided  by  the  first  subeotttel 
nervule  placed  anteriorly  against  it;  a  subanal  pale  yellow  patch 
divided  into  two  by  the  submedian  fold.  Hindmng  m\kc\i  2l%  on  th« 
upperside.  Antenna  black>  with  the  shaft  just  below  the  club  on 
the  underside  and  the  tip  of  the  club  beneath  ochreous.  Female. 
Upperside,  both  winga  exactly  as  in  the  male,  but  the  long  hair-like 
scales  less  numerous.     Undbrsidb,  (mIH  wings  as  in  the  male. 

Very  probably  near  to  ''Plesio»eura**  asmara,  Butler,  from  Malacca 
and  Java,  of  which  no  sufficient  description  exists,  but  which  Distant 
states  is  ''closely  allied  to  P.  algsos/'  Moore,  a  species  of  the  genus 
Noiocrypta,  in  which  I  have  provisionally  placed  "P.**  asmara. 

C.  consertus  has  been  described  from  two  pairs  obtained  by  th« 
Revd.  Walter  A.  Hamilton  in  the  Khasi  Hills. 

18.  CELJSNORRHINXTS  CACUS,  n.sp.,  Pi.  fi,  Fig.  11,  i . 
Habitat  ;  Rangoon^ 

Expanse  :  6  ,  1'6  inches. 

Description  :  Male^  Very  lieai*  to  fl,  ronsprfus,  mihi,  but  differing 
in  the  following  particulars :  — Smaller,  wings  narrower.  Upperside, 
both  wings  much  more  thickly  clothed  with  long  ochreous  hair-like 
scales  than  in  that  species,  giving  the  ground  a  much  more  yellow 
appearance.  Forewing  with  two  subapical  dots  only,  the  lower  most 
minute.  Underside,  both  mugs  present  the  same  differences  as  on 
the  upperside. 

Described  from  a  single  example  taken  at  Rangoon  in  January, 
and  deposited  in  the  Phayre  Museum, 

19.  PARNARA  WATSONIt,  n.  sp. 

Habitat  :    Upper  Burma. 

Expanse  :  J  ,    9  ,  1*9  to  2*0  inches. 

Description  :  Male.  Upperside,  both  wings  rich  dark  glossy 
vinaceous-brown.  Foreiving  with  three  subapical  rather  large  con- 
jugated dots ;  three  increasing  discal  spots  placed  obliquely,  the 
30 


324     JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

second  about  twice  as  large  as  the  first,  the  third  about  three  titnea  as 
large  as  the  second,  the  two  lower  spots  with  their  inner  ends  con- 
Vex,  their  outer  concave ;  all  these  spots  diaphanous  lustrous  white  ; 
a  somewhat  elongated  opaque  yellowish  spot  in  the  submedian  inter- 
space placed  against  the  middle  of  the  submedian  nervure  ;  the  base 
of  the  wing  clothed  with  long  dull  ochreous  hair-like  scales.  Cilia 
of  a  slightly  lighter  shade  of  colour  than  the  groimd.  Sindwing  with 
the  base  and  abdominal  margin  thickly  clothed  with  long  dull 
ochreous  setae,  the  disc  with  a  faint  whitish  discal  macular  band. 
Cilia  whitish.  Underside,  fore  wing  fuscous,  the  costa  and  apex 
widely  ochreous-ferruginous ;  the  diaphanous  spots  as  above ;  a 
broad  submarginal  whitish  patch  just  anterior  to  the  middle  of  the 
outer  margin  of  the  wing.  Sindvnng  ochreous-ferruginous  bearing 
a  large  triangular  patch  of  white,  which  occupies  all  the  surface 
except  the  costa  and  the  outer  margin  widely,  and  a  tripartite 
patch  of  the  ground-colour  divided  by  the  median  nervules  in  its 
middle ;  all  the  veins  that  reach  the  outer  margin  white.  Head, 
thorax  and  abdomen  fuscous  above,  white  beneath,  the  latter  striped 
with  white  at  the  sides.  Antennoi  black  throughout.  Female  almost 
as  in  the  male,  but  in  two  specimens  out  of  three  in  the  forewing, 
there  is  a  fourth  smaller  discal  spot  in  the  lower  discoidal  interspace, 
and  still  another  in  the  submedian  interspace  almost  touching  the 
first  median  nervule  and  very  small.  Hindmng  with  the  discal 
macular  white  patch  more  prominent  than  in  ihe  male. 

Nearly  allied  to  the  **  JSespena  "  semamora  of  Moore,*  originally 
described  from  Bengal,  but  occurring  in  Sikkim,  Assam  and 
Burma,  from  which  it  differs  in  all  the  diaphanous  spots  of  the 
forewing  being  larger,  the  opaque  spot  in  the  submedian  interspace 
always  present  (in  P.  semamora  it  is  found  in  the  females  only,  and 
is  very  small),  and  notably  in  the  large  pure  white  anal  patch  of 
P.  semamora  being  replaced  by  a  whitish  shade  only  in  the  males, 
rather  more  prominent  in  the  females  in  P.  watsonii.  On  the  underside 
of  the  hindwing  there  is  always  a  large  patch  of  the  ochreous-ferru- 
ginous ground-colour  in  the  middle  of  the  white  area,  this  is  only 
occasionally  present  in  P.  semamora,  and  is  when  present  very  small. 


♦  Proo.  Zool.  Soc.  Lond.,  1865,  p.  791. 


VltW  AND  LITTLE-KNOWN  BUTTERFLIES.  225 

The  markings  of  P.  semamova  are  by  no  means  constant^  but  the 
species  can  always  be  instantly  distinguished  from  P.  watsonii  by  the 
large  pure  white  area  on  the  upperside  of  the  hindwing.  In  Burma 
both  sexes  of  the  two  species  have  been  found  fiying  together,  so 
(Mie  cannot  be  a  seasonal  form  or  geographical  race  of  the  other. 

Described  from  seven  males  and  three  females  collected  at  Tilin 
Yaw,  Upper  Burma,  in  March,  1890,  by  Lieut^iant  E.  Y.  Watson, 
after  whom  I  have  much  pleasure  in  naming  it. 

EXPLANATION  OF  THE  PLATES. 

Plate  D. 

Fig.  1.     Ragadia  crito,  n.  sp.,  J  ,  p.  199. 
9  o 

yj  3.  Elymnias  chelensisy  n.  sp.,  <5  ,  p.  200. 

„  4.  Dt/ctts  dcedalioriy  „       9 ,  p.  202. 

„  5.  Lihijthea  geoffroyi,  Godart,  ft  ,  p.  205. 

„.  6.  „       liberay  n.  sp.,  ft  ,  p.  207. 

„  7.  Neptis  nt/ctem,  n.  sp.,  ft  ,  p.  203. 

„  8.  Euthalia  elicius^  n.  sp.,  ft  ,  p.  205. 

Plate  E. 
Fig.  1.     Oetydm  gopara,  de  Niceville,  ft  ,  p.  208. 

3.  Zarona  pharygoides,  n.  sp.,  ft  ,  p.  208. 

4.  Zephyrus  khasia,  de  Niceville,  ft  ,  p.  210. 

5.  Rapala  scintillay  „  ft  ,  p.  212. 

6.  „       deliochus,  Hewitson,  9  ,  p.  212. 

7.  Biduanda  sccBva,  Hewitson,  9  ,  p.  210. 

8.  „        cinesoidesy  de  Niceville,  9 ,  p-  211. 

9.  Isoteinon  iapis,  n.  sp.,  ft ,  p.  213. 

10.  Ctenopti/um  multigiUtata,  n.  vsp  ,  ft  ,  p.  221. 

11.  Celasiiorrhinus  cacusy  n.  sp.,  ft  ,  p.  223. 
12  „        consertus  „     ft ,  p.  222. 


if 

y> 

if 
i> 


* 

4 


226      JOUBNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

BOMBAY  GRASSES, 

By  D?i.  J.  C.  LisBOA,  F.L.S, 
Part  II. 
(Continued  from  VqL  V.^p.  131,) 

(Bead  at  the  Sodeti/s  Meeting  on  23rd  September  1890.) 

P.  jumentorunii  Pers. ;  P.  maximtim,  Jacq.  t.  13 ;  P.  attissinmm^ 
D.  C;  Dalz.  apd  Gibs.     Botr^b..  Fl.  Suppl.  98. 

Tlus  is  the  well-known  "  Guinea- grass.'*  Though  grown  to  a 
large  extei^t  in  the  West  Indies,  it  does  not,  according  to  the  authors 
of  the  ^*  Bombay  Plqra,"  "  fare  well  in  India  on  account  of  the  dry 
climate,  Hi^ess  grown  in  shady  places  and  well  irrigated."  This 
was  written  in  1861.  Since  then,  oarefuUy-conducted  experiments 
Jxave  been  made  in  various  parts  of  India  as  well  as  in  Ceylon.  I 
take  the  following  from  a  letter  written  to  me  some  time  ago  by 
Mr.  Woodrow,  Professor  of  Agriculture  and  Botany  in  the  Poona 
College  of  Science.  He  says :  "  Panicum  jurnentorum  is  cultivated  by 
•*  siO'Called  advanced  cultivators  throughout  India.  I  have  generally 
^*  about  two  acres  of  it.  At  Madras  I  l^ave  seen  ten  acres,  and  am  told 
^*  that  near  Ahniedabad  there  are  about  100  acres.  On  a  sandy 
"  soil  with  irrigation  it  is  found  to  be  a  profitable  crop  for  forage  to 
^<  be  put  green/' 

The  following  statement  was  furnished  m©  by  the  Director  of  I^and 
Becords  and  Agricnlture*: — 

"  It  l^as  been  grown  on  the  Hyderabad  Farm  (Sind)  since  1886-87, 
*'  and  has  now  almost  passed  the  experimental  stage.  At  present 
^*  its  cultivation  is  not  very  remunerative,  but  as  time  goes  on,  and 
^*  the  popular  prejudice  against  its  use  wears  out,  it  is  hoped  that  it 
"  will,  like  lucerne,   be  on©  of  the  principal  paying  crops  in  the 

"Farm, 

**  It  is  a  perennial  grass,  and,  when  first  planted,  it  frequently 
**  attains  a  height  of  9  feet  and  sometimes  even  of  10  feet  and  above; 
"  bnt  when  out  two  or  three  times  it   does   not  grow   so   high  but 

*  My  best  thanks  are  due  to  the  Aoi^^g  Director  of  Agriculture,  Mr.  Bhimbhai 
Kirparanii  iox  ^he  ready  assiBtauce  and  valuable  information  which  has  been  promptly 
placed  at  my  disposal  by  this  active  and  intelligent  Government  officer. 


BOMBAY  GRASSES. 


227 


*'  grows  thicker,  its  tussacks  varying  from  6  inches  to  a  foot  in 
^'  diameter.  It  penetrates  deep  into  the  soil,  and  on  account  of  its 
"  long  roots,  it  is  more  able  to  r^ist  drought  than  many  of  the 
^'  fodders  cultivated.  It  is  well  suited  for  the  edges  of  water 
''  channels  as  the  roots  spread  and  protect  the  earth  from  being 
'*  washed  away. 

**  The  following  statement  gives  the  results  for  the  last    three 


(f 


years: — 


Area. 


Tear. 


Onttam 
per  acre. 


Value  of 

produce 

per  acre. 


Oopt  of 

cultiva- 

tion  per 

acre. 


Bkmabks. 


AG. 

lbs. 

Be. 

Bs. 

0-20 

1886-87 

16,748 

128 

159 

Same. 

1887-88 

16,498 

116 

77 

Do. 

1888-89 

10,136 

67 

54 

213 

1887-88 

18,071 

101 

143 

Same. 

1888-89 

12,603 

86 

105 

Soil,  stiff  clay,  hard  to  work.  Sown  on 
18th  March.  Top  dreu«Kl  (1)  IStb 
Aofnist  1  ton  of  poadrette ;  (2)  8th 
September,  ton  of  poadrette;  (S)  9 
cwts.  goat  mannre.  Once  weeded  and 
21  times  manured. 

Last  year's  crop  ;  twice  top  dressed; 
18th  May  S|  tons  of  cow  manure ;  25th 
August  4}  tons  cowdung ;  twice 
ploughed  between  rows ;  45  time* 
watered. 

Third  year's  crop  once  weeded  and  19 
times  watered. 

Mostly  light  sandy  soil.  Sown  in  April. 
Manured  with  lOi  tons  of  cowdung  and 
H  tons  of  goat  mannre  per  acre. 
Once  top  dressed  with  8  tons  of  cow 
manure  and  2|  tons  of  goat  manure 
per  acre.  4  times  weeded  and  15 
times  watered. 

Second  year's  crop.  Twice  weeded  and 
once  ploughed.  Once  top  dressed 
with  10  tons  76  lb.  of  cow  mannre ;  19 
times  watered. 


"  In  the  first  year  it  does  not  pay  :  and  this  is  mainly  due  to  the 
"  first  cost  of  preparing  and  planting  the  field." 

As  the  subject  of  the  cultivation  of  this  exotic  grass  is  one  of 
considerable  interest,  I  have  embodied  in  this  paper  the  results  of 
experiments  made  elsewhere  in  the  hope  of  their  proving  of  some 
benefit  to  the  cultivator  and  others. 


€€ 


228      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

Mr.  Simmons  in  his  brochure  on  Indian  Grasses  gives  the  following 
history  of  the  experiments  made  in  Saidapet  (Madras)  :— 

"  Chiinea  Qrass — Has,  of  all  the  grasses  experimented  with,  been 
"  found  to  be  the  best ;  it  is  an  exotic,  but  perfectly  acclimatized,  grass, 
^'  which  is  most  easily  propagated  by  root-cuttings.  Its  culture  is 
"  very  simple,  for  if  planted  at  the  commencement  of  the  rains,  it 
'*  soon  strikes  root,  and  is  then  safe  and  out  of  danger  for  the  future. 
"  If  planted  in  rows  it  allows  of  interculture  by  cattle  power,  by 
"  which  means  the  land  on  which  it  grows  may  be  easily  cleansed ; 
"  thus  it  affords  an  excellent  crop  for  a  rotation.  It  has  been  found 
"  capable  of  withstanding  our  longest  and  severest  droughts  without 
"  the  aid  of  irrigation,  and  although  its  energies  remain  dormant 
during  such  a  time,  the  first  rain  makes  it  spring  up  again  most 
rapidly.  This  power  was  never  more  clear  than  in  a  field 
"  planted  in  September  1875,  measuring  about  two  acres,  which,  in 
"  May  1877,  after  the  great  drought,  was  as  brown  and  as  dry  as  if  it 
"  were  totally  devoid  of  life ;  the  heavy  rains  which  fell  during  that 
**  month,  however,  led  to  its  immediate  revival,  and  before  the  third 
'*  day  of  rain  was  over,  green  shoots  had  appeared  all  over  the  field 
**  which  grew  on  and  produced  a  good  crop  of  fodder  in  two  months, 
"  which  weighed  green  5,666  lbs. ;  this  was  followed  by  another 
**  cutting  of  4,564  lbs.  of  dry  fodder ;  two  months  after,  an  amount 
"  equal  to  about  12,000  lbs.,  green.  Not  one  per  cent,  of  the  tufts 
"  failed  to  throw  out  shoots  after  the  rain  referred  to. 

"  An  idea  still  prevails  that  Ghiinea  grass  must  be  irrigated  not 
"  only  at  the  time  planted,  but  regularly  at  stated  intervals  after- 
"  wards  ;  that  it  must  be  taken  up  and  be  replanted  on  new  ground 
"  at  the  end  of  every  two  years  at  the  furthest ;  and  that  the  fodder  is 
"  not  a  suitable  food  for  stock,  and  can  only  be  used  in  small  quan- 
*'  tities  for  such  a  purpose.  It  is  perfectly  true  that  if  Guinea  grass 
**  is  planted  in  the  hot  season,  or  during  dry  weather,  when  the  soil 
"  contains  scarcely  a  particle  of  moisture,  and  the  sky  is  clear  and 
"  bright,  that  the  plants  will  fail  completely  if  not  planting  under 
"  such  circumstances.  In  the  dryest  parts  of  the  country  there  is 
*'  always  a  time  when  the  sky  is  cloudy  and  the  weather  showery ; 
"  and  if  such  opportunities  are  properly  utilized  for  planting,  the 
"  roots  can  be  established  well  without  the  aid  of  irrigation.     Irriga- 


BOMB  A  YORA  SSES  229 

**  tion,  of  course,  enables  more  cuttings  to  be  obtained  in  the  year, 
"  but  it  is  never  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  the  crop.  It  is, 
**  however,  most  necessary  to  manure  land  well  for  Guinea  grass. 
"It  is  general  on  the  farm  to  plant  this  grass  (the  sets  being 
**  obtained  by  dividing  into  several  parts  old  tussacks  from  another 
"  field)  on  the  ridge  on  a  showery  day,  care  being  taken  that  they 
"  are  planted  uniformly  at  a  distance  of  2  feet  apart  in  each  direction, 
**  thus  admitting  the  use  of  the  plough  between  the  lines  of  plants 
**  and  across  these  lines  at  right  angles  ;  for  it  is  advisable  to  pass  a 
"  plough  or  cultivator  occasionally  through  and  across  the  crop  as 
'*  the  absorbtive  powers  of  the  soil  can,  in  this  Way,  be  kept  up. 
**  This  ploughing  or  cultivating  should  be  repeated  at  any  rate  once 
**  after  the  removal  of  each  cutting. 

"  Before  the  end  of  the  second  year  the  plants  from  frequent 
**  cutting  will  have  formed  large  tussacks ;  these  would  l)e  reduced 
"  by  simple  chopping  with  a  spade,  hoe,  or  man-vitti.  It  has  been 
**  found  best  to  make  two  cuts  across  the  tussacks  at  right  angles 
**  to  each  other,  thus  dividing  it  into  four  parts.  Of  these,  three  may 
"  be  removed  and  form  excellent  bedding  for  cattle  stalls,  the  fourth 
"  remaining  to  perpetuate  the  crop.  In  this  way  there  is  no  neces- 
**  sity  to  remove  the  plants  to  other  ground,  but  care  must  be  exer- 
"  cised  to  see  that  the  soil  is  properly  manured,  as  a  crop  which 
**  yields  such  large  returns  necessarily  makes  large  demands  on  the 
"  soil.  The  fodder  can  be  used  for  all  kinds  of  stock :  at  first  it 
"  seems  to  disturb  the  digestive  organs  of  some  animals,  but  this  is 
"  only  temporary ;  cattle  and  sheep  have  been  fed  on  it  exclusively 
"  for  months  not  only  without  any  ill  effects,  but  with  the  most  satis- 
"  factory  results.  A  Guinea  grass  field  is  a  capital  place  in  which  to 
"  graze  working  cattle  during  the  hot  season,  while  for  ewes  with 
**  young  lambs  better  pasture  could  scarcely  be  discovered.  It  pro- 
"  duces  an  abundant  flow  of  milk  in  the  ewes,  without,  what  is 
"  common  in  such  cases,  disturbing  the  health  of  either  mother  or 
"  lambs ;  care  must,  however,  be  always  observed  never  to  graze 
"  Guinea  grass  too  closely/' 

Equally  successful  experiments  have  been  made  in  Ceylon.     Here 
is  what  Mr.  Fergusson  says  in  his  Catalogue  of  Ceylon  Grasses : — 
"  It  is  the  Rata   (foreign)  Tana  of  the  Sinhalese.     When  and  by 


230    JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  ^OCI^TY,  1890. 

"  whom  It  Was  introduced  to  Ceylon  I  find  no  record^  though  it  is 
"  probable  there  may  be  one  in  the  Royal  Gardens  at  Peradeniya. 
"  It  was  grown  in  Ceylon  in  Moon's  time,  1824,  at  any  rate.  The 
**  late  Dr.  Qtirdner  introduced  what  he  supposteid  to  be  a  new  fodder 
"  ^rass  to  Ceylon,  but  in  1843  or  1844,  he  gave  a  full  description  of 
**  it  in  the  Ceylon  Obsen>er,  proving  that  it  Was  identical  with  Guinea 
**  grass.  It  was  introduced  to  Jamaica  about  1744  from  the  Coast 
"  of  Guinea*  The  following  is  an  extract  from  Lunan's  Hortus 
"  Jamaicensis  :— 

"  'This  most  valuable  grass  is  a  native  of  Africa,  and  Was  intro* 
"  duced  into  the  island  many  years  ago  by  the  merest  accident.  Mr. 
"  John  Ellis  got  some  birds  from  the  Coast  of  Guinea^  and  with 
"  them  some  seeds  for  their  support ;  the  birds  dying  soon  after,  the 
"  seeds  were  thrown  out  of  doors  as  useless.  I^rom  these  seeds  grew 
"  some  luxuriant  grass,  which  attracted  Mr.  Ellis's  notice,  and  he 
"  had  a  horse  and  a  cow  brought  where  it  Was,  When  both  of  them 
**  greedily  eat  of  it.  It  was  then  transplanted  into  a  garden  and 
**  gradually  cultivated,  until  it  has  become  one  of  the  most  lucrative 
**  and  useful  plants  in  Jamaica.  It  agrees  with  alnlost  every  soil  and 
"  situation,  and  has  rendered  many  rocky  and  otherwise  barren  spots 
"  of  Jamaica  very  valuable  as  affording  support  to  herds  of  cattle  and 
"  horses.  The  growth  of  this  grass  is  quick,  for  in  wet  weather, 
"  and  in  a  favourable  situation,  it  may  be  cut  once  in  a  fortnight. 
"  It  resists  dry  weather  for  a  considerable  time,  and  erven  when 
**  parched  up,  the  slightest  shower  will  revive  it.  It  rises  from  five 
**  to  eight  feet  high.  When  of  proper  strength  it  is  a  very  excellent 
"  food  for  horses  and  cattle,  which,  when  considerably  lean  and 
"  reduced,  will  be  restored  to  flesh  and  fatness  in  two  or  three 
"  months  by  feeding  upon  it. ' 
''There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  Guinea  grass,  and  what  is  most 
erroneously  called  in  Ceylon  Mauritim  grass,  are  the  two  most 
valuable  fodder  plants  growing  in  Ceylon.  I  have  seen  the  Guinea 
"  grass  grow  in  what  seems  to  be  the  pure  white  sand  of  the  C^nna^- 
"  mon  Gardens  near  Colombo  to  a  height  of  6  to  8  feet,  and  if  well 
"  manured  and  kept  free  of  weeds,  it  will,  in  rainy  weather,  give  a 
"  very  fair  crop  monthly.  It  grows  freely  up  to  an  elevation  of 
''  5,000  to  6,000  feet  on  the  Coffee  Estates,  but  though  a  valuable 


BOMBAY  GRASSES.  281 


it- 
it 


te 
tt 

« 
tt 
tt 


fodder  grass  at  these  elevations,  it  does  not  grow  to  such  a  height 
as  it  does  at  lower  elevations.  It  is  extensively  planted  along  the 
edges  of  foot  and  bridle-paths  on  Coffee  Estates ;  but  Mr.  Morris 
gave  his  opinion  against  this  practice,  as  the  grass  i»  supposed  to 
**  harbour  the  mycelium  of  the  Coffee  leaf  fungus/' 

Duthie,  at  p.  9  of  the  "Fodder  Grasses  of  Northern  India." 
states  that  "  this  is  the  '  Guinea  Grass,'  a  native  of  Tropical 
*'  Africa,  and  now  extensively  cultivated  in  most  tropical  countries. 
Although  it  seeds  freely  in  this  country,  it  is  nevertheless  found 
preferable  to  propagate  it  by  root  cuttings.  In  the  United  States 
it  is  usually  planted  in  this  way,  as  it  rarely  matures  seed  in  that 
country.  Manuring  is  beneficial  where  frosts  prevail.  Analysis 
shows  it  to  be  very  rich  in  nutritive  qualities,  and  as  it  appears  to 
thrive  well  in  the  plains  of  Northern  India,  its  extended  eultiva- 
"  tion  shoidd  be  encouraged." 

P.  miliaceum,  Linn. ;  P.  asperrimttm.  I^agasc ;  P.  pilosum,  Swartz. ; 
Fl.  Ind,,  Occ.y  141 ;  Dalz.  and  Gib.  Bomb.  FL  Suppl.  98  ;  Church's 
Food  Chmm  of  Ind.,  fig.  2. 

Vem.  VaragUy  Wiiree  Sawa,  Badke. 

There  are  several  varieties  cultivated  in  Guzerat  and  over  the 
Ghats,  named  Dangke,  Rale,  &c.  Duthie  gives  the  following 
vernacular  names,  Chena,  Chiiiera^  Worga.     (Roxb.) 

This  grass  is  a  native  of  Egypt  and  Arabia  cultivated  in  different 
parts  of  India  on  account  of  its  grain  which  is  considered  nutritious 
by  the  natives  and  used  by  them  as  a  kind  of  food  at  marriage 
ceremonies.  The  fodder  obtainable  from  it  is  of  very  superior 
quality,  but  it  is  seldom  made  use  of. 

P.  miliare.  Lam.  Ill  173 ;  Roxb.  Fl.  Ind.  1-311. 

Vern.  Poi,  Nella-Shanm  (Roxb.),  Kulfi,  Bagad,  Badi\  Burburi, 
(Duthie.) 

It  is  cultivated  in  Guzerat  and  other  parts  of  this  presidency,  and 
is  not  uncommon  on  the  Himalayas  at  moderate  altitudes.  The 
poorer  classes  of  natives  use  the  grain  as  an  article  of  diet.  The 
straw  is  readily  eaten  by  cattle. 

P.  pailopodium,  Trinn*  Diss.  II.,  217. 

This  grass  is  named  Mordanura  in  Khardi,  Thana,  where  it  is  said 

31 


282    JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

to  be  rare.     It  is  probably  a  wild  species  of  the  last-named  panicum, 
and  does  not  appear  to  be  used  at  all. 

P.  frumentaceum,  Roxb.  Fl.  Ind,,  I.,  137;  Oplismenus  frumentaceus 
Kunt.  Ennm,  I.,  146 ;  Dalz.  and  Gib.  Bom,  Fl.  Suppl.  98. 
Vem.  Shamoola,  Shama  (Roxb.),  Samuka,  Sawak  (Duthie.) 
Cultivated  principally  in  Northern  India  as  a  rain  crop.  It  is  of 
very  rapid  growth,  and  ripens  in  about  six  weeks  from  the  time  of 
sowing.  The  grain  which  is  of  poor  quality  is  used  by  the  natives 
in  preference  to  all  others  for  religious  purposes.  The  stalks  are 
used  as  cattle  fodder. 

Oplismenus,  Beau'C, 

0.  Burmanni,  Beauv.  Agrost.  t.  54 ;  Dalz.  and  Gib.  Bomb,  Fl. 
291. 

Vem.  Kadack,  Bel.  Yerwa. 

Common  everywhere,  especially  imder  the  shades  of  trees  and  on  . 
cultivated   ground.     In   the   West   Indies  it   goes  by  the  name  of 
Pagister  grass  or  Scotch  grass. 

The  following  allusion  to  it  appears  in  Loudon's  EncyclopcBdia 
of  Agriculiure. — "  The  island  (Jamaica)  abounds  also  with  dif- 
*'  ferent  kinds  of  grass  of  excellent  quality,  the  artificial  grass  called 
"  Scott's  Grass  {Panicum  hirtellum^  fig.  199,  a.  p.  195),  grows  spon- 
**  taneously  in  most  of  the  swamps  and  morasses  of  the  West  Indies, 
"  and  is  so  productive,  that  a  single  acre  of  it  will  maintain 
"  five  horses  for  a  whole  year."  According  to  Duthie — "  In  Oudh  it 
"  is  reported  that  cattle  eat  this  grass  with  relish,"  and  •  .  .  that  it 
"  makes  good  hay." 

In  Bombay  it  is  also  considered  a  good  fodder  for  cattle. 

0.  composituSf  Beauv.  Agrost.  54 ;  P.  sylvaticus.  R.  and  S.  ;  0. 
lanceolatiiSy   Kunt.  Enum.  1,  146;  Dalz.  and  Gib.  Bomb.  Fl.  292. 

Vem.  Turdia^  Shora. 

At  Lanowli,  Tanna,  up  to  the  foot  of  the  ghauts,  Roxburgh  says 
cattle  are  not  fond  of  it. 

0.  stagninus  of  Dalz.  and  Gib.  Bomb,  Fl,  is  the  Panicum  eras- 
gain  of  Linn. 

The  large  form  of  this  is  cultivated  in  some  parts  as  one  of  the 
nuUets  or  fine  grains.     Cattle  are  fond  of  this  grass.     (Ferguson)., 


!  . 


i;j 


»-- 


■  *%  '  «»•  • 


NEW  AND  LITTLE  KNOWN  HVMENOPTERA.  233 

I.— ON  NEW  AND  LITTLE  KNOWN  HYMENOPTERA 
FROM  INDLi,  BURMA  AND  CEYLON. 

By  C.  T.  Bingham,  F.Z.S.,  Forest  Department,  Burma. 

[Received,  3rd  June  1890.'] 

Tribe  FossoREs,  Latr. 

Family  Sooliad^,  Leach. 

The  genera  Scolia  and  Elis  of  Fabricius,  and  Liacos  of  Guerin, 
have  been  spKt  up  into  the  following  sub-genera  by  de  Saussure  and 
Sichel  in  their  "Catalogus  Specierum  Generis  Scolia." 

(a)  TriacoUa — Anterior    wings    with    three  cubital  cells  and  one 

recurrent  nervure. 
(h)  Discolia — Anterior  wings   with  two  cubital  cells  and  oyie  re- 
current nervure. 

(c)  Trielis — Anterior  wings  with  three  cubital  cells  and  two  re- 

current nervures. 

(d)  Dielis — Anterior  wings  with   two   cubital  cells    and    two   re- 

current nervures. 

{e)  Triliacos — ^Anterior  wings  with  three  cubital  cells,  the  third 
discoidal  cell  petiolated. 

(f)  Diliacos — Anterior  wings  with  tico  cubital  cells,  the  third 
discoidal  cell  petiolated. 

In  this  family  many  of  the  species  belonging  really  to  different 
sub-genera  bear  so  close  a  resemblance  one  to  the  other  that  a  careful 
examination  of  their  anterior  wings  is  absolutely  neccssarj-  for  their 
discrimination. 

1.     Triscolta  capitata,  Guer. 

Scolia  capitata,  Guer.  Voy.  Coq.,  p.  248,  J  ;  Burm.  Mon.  Scol., 
p.  20,  13;  Smith.  Cat.  Hym.  Ins.  Brit.  Mus.,  pt.  iii.,  p.  114,  137; 
Satiss.  &  Sich.,  Cat.  Spec.  Gen.  Scol.,  p.  47,  23  ;  Scolia  ruficeps, 
Smith,  Cat.  Hym.  Ins.  Brit.  Mus.,  pt.  iii.,  p.  Ill,  126. 

Habitat:  India,  Philippines,  Burma. 

Female  :  Length  12  lines ;  expanse  18  lines. 

Male  :  Length  7  lines ;  expanse  12  lines. 

Description  :  9  Head  brick  red,  the  anterior  margin  of  the  cly- 
peus,  and  tips  of  the  mandibles  black.     Thorax  and  abdomen  black, 


234      JOURNAL  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HI^ORY  SOCIETY,   1890. 

with  in  certain  lights,  and  especially  in  freshly-captured  specimens 
a  purple  gloss ;  wings  dark  fuscous  with  a  golden  bronze  effulgence  ; 
legs  black  with  black  spines  and  hairs,  those  of  the  tibisB  and  tarsi 
of  the  anterior  pair  tinged  slightly  with  rufous.  The  whole  head, 
thorax,  and  abdomen  are  closely  punctured,  the  pimctures  on  the 
head  coarse  and  shallow ;  a  space  round  the  oceUi  and  the  front 
between  the  antennae  are  smooth  and  shining,  and  the  occiput  behind 
is  fringed  with  a  little  rufous  pubescence. 

$  Differs  from  the  ?  only  in  being  smaller,  and  in  having  as  in 
all  Scoliadee  straight  instead  of  comute  antennae. 

I  have  only  procured  this  species  in  the  Pegu  hills,  and  in  the 
vicinity  of  Moulmein  in  Tenasserim,  where  it  is  rare ;  Smith  gives  it 
from  the  Philippine  Islands,  and  Guerin's  type  specimen  is,  according 
to  Saussure,  labelled  "  India  orientali.*' 

2.  DiscoLiA  MOLESTA,  Sauss.  and  Sich. 

Scolia  {Biscolia)  molesta,  Sauss.  and  Sich.,  Cat.  Spec.  Gen.  Scol. 
pp.  111,104. 

Habitat:  Pulo,  Penang,  Singapore,  Java,  Borneo,  Burma. 

Female  :  Length  11  lines  ;  expanse  18  lines. 

This  insect  so  closely  resembles  Tiiscolia  capitata,  that  for  some 
time  I  confounded  it  with  that  species.  The  neuration  of  the 
anterior  wings,  however,  shows  that  it  belongs  to  a  different  sub- 
genus. Other  slight  points  of  difference  are,  that  in  this  species  the 
mandibles  and  the  entire  clypeus  are  always,  and  a  portion  of  the 
antennae  is  sometimes,  fuscous  black:  the  wings,  as  a  rule,  also  have 
far  less  of  the  brilliant  coppery  effulgence  of  T.  capitata. 

In  Burma,  D.  molesta  is  a  fairly  common  insect.  In  August  and 
September  I  have  found  it  frequenting  the  flowers  of  a  thorny 
creeper  {Acacia  pennata), 

3.  DiELis  ANNULATA,  Fabr. 

Tiphia  annulata,FahT.  Ent.  Syst.  ii.,  225,  7,  $ ;  Syst.  Piez.  234, 11. 
Campsomeris  serviliii,  St.  Farg.  iii.,  501,  9,  $  (nee.  Guerin). 
Scolia  annulata,  Smith.  Cat.  Hym.  Ins.  Brit.  Mus.  iii.,  p.  100,  72. 
JElis  [Dielis)  annulata,  Sauss.  and  Sich.  Cat.  Spec.  Gen.  Scol.,  196, 
210. 
Habitat  :  India,  Burma,  Java,  China. 
Female  (var,) :  Length  12^  lines ;  expanse  20  lines. 


NEW  AND  LITTLE  KNOWN  HYMENOPTERA.  236 

Description  :  9  Head  black,  smootli,  or  but  slightly  punctured ; 
the  cljrpeuSf  the  front  between  the  antennaB,  the  cheeks,  and  the 
occiput  clothed  with  rather  coarse  orange  yellow  pubescence ;  the 
antennas  black  comute.  Thorax  black ;  the  prothorax,  the  mesothorax 
anteriorly,  the  postscutellum  and  the  metathorax  above  and  on  the 
sides  covered  densely  with  the  same  orange  yellow  pubescence ;  the 
disc  of  the  mesothorax  and  the  scutellum  naked  closely  and  coarsely 
punctured ;  the  metathorax  posteriorly  truncate,  slightly  concave, 
smooth  and  shining ;  wings  sub-hyaline,  of  a  light  yellowish  brown, 
and  brilliantly  iridescent;  a  dark  yellow  stain  spreads  from  the  apex 
of  the  medial,  through  the  1  st  cubital,  into  the  base  of  the  radial 
cell;  legs  black  with  hoary  bristles  and  hairs,  the  anterior  tibi» 
with  three  spines  outwardly  at  their  apex,  their  tarsi  as  well  as 
the  tibiae  and  tarsi  of  the  intermediate  and  posterior  legs  ciliated 
with  strong  black  spines ;  the  calcaria  of  the  posterior  pair  of  legs 
transparent  white.  Abdomen  black  and  shining,  sparsely  but  coarsely 
punctured,  the  segments  1 — 4  fringed  posteriorly  with  hoary  white 
hairs ;  this  jbinge  is  interrupted  on  the  under  surface  of  the  1st 
segment,  and  in  the  middle  on  the  dorsal  surface  of  the  4th,  the 
pubescence  here  as  well  as  that  clothing  the  dth  and  apical  segments 
being  black. 

This  very  fine  variety  of  one  of  the  commonest  of  the  8coHad<t 
was  kindly  sent  to  me  from  Kumaon  by  Miss  A.  Brooke,  and  for 
some  time  I  was  under  the  impression  that  I  had  got  hold  of  a  new 
and  undescribed  species,  as  in  a  series  of  over  a  hujidred  specimens 
of  D.  annulata,  though  there  was  considerable  variation  among  the 
individuals,  none  of  the  females  wanted,  as  this  specimen  does,  the 
conspicuous  dark  tippings  to  the  anterior  wings.  In  other  points, 
however,  this  Kumaon  specimen  so  closely  resembles  typical 
2).  annulata,  that  I  cannot  but  consider  it  as  an  extreme  variety  of 
that  species,  the  more  so  as  2).  annulata  is  well  known  to  be  protean 
in  its  variations. 

4.    Triliacos  DiMiniATA,  Guer. 

Scolia  dimidiata,  Gfuer.  Voy.  Coq.  ii.,  247,  t  ;  Burm.  Mon.  ScoL, 
p.  15,  2;  Smith.  Cat.  Hym.  Ins.  Brit.  Mus.,  iii.,  114,  138. 

Oampsameris  urvilii,  St.  Farg.  Hym.  iii.,  603,  12. 

Seolia  analis^  Fabr.  Syst.  Piez.,  p.  245,  37. 


236      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

Liacos  {Triliacoa)  analis,  Saus,  and  Sich.  Cat.  Spec.  Gen.  Scol., 
p.  38,  1.  • 

Scolia  penangemis,  Sauss.  Mel.  Hym.,  p.  39,  17,  9  var. 

Scolia  erythrosomay  Burm.  Mon.  Scol.,  p.  15,  1 ;  Smith.,  Cat.  Hym. 
Ins.  Brit.  Mus.  iii.,  113,  134. 

Liacos  {Triliacos)  erythrosoma,  Sauss.  and  Sich.,  Cat.  Spec.  Gen. 
Scol.,  p.  36,2. 

Habitat  :  India,  Burma,  Malay  Archipelago, 

Female  :  Length  10  lines ;  expanse  18  lines. 

Male  :  Length  9  lines  :  expan^  16  lines. 

This  species  is  an  almost  exact  miniature  of  Triscolia  rubiginasa^ 
which  apparently  is  common  all  over  India. 

Unlike  any  other  species  of  the  family  known  to  me,  T,  dimidiata 
is  often  found  swarming  in  considerable  numbers  round  the  stumps 
of  decayed  trees  from  December  to  February.  On  one  occasion  in 
the  end  of  February  I  caught  some  thirty  specimens  in  about  a  quarter 
of  an  hour.  They  were  circling  round  the  foot  of  an  old  stump 
in  a  field  by  the  side  of  the  road,  and  one  sweep  of  the  net  would 
take  in  three  or  foiir  specimens.  From  the  circumstance  that  all  I 
caught  were  males,  I  thought  it  possible  that  they  were  attracted, 
as  some  species  of  butterflies  are,  by  the  presence  of  a  concealed 
virgin  female,  but  a  diligent  digging  and  search  in  the  ground 
roiuid  the  stump  resulted  in  nothing  but  the  driving  away  of  the 
^warming  males. 

Family  Pompilid^,  Leach, 

6.   POMPILUS    BRACATUS,    U.  sp. 

Habitat:  Burma. 

Femals  :  Length  8  lines  ;  expanse  15  Hues. 

Hale  :  Length  8  lines ;  expanse  14  lines. 

Description  :  9  Head  dark  ferruginous  red,  tips  of  the  man' 
dibles,  a  small  patch  round  the  ocelli,  and  the  apex  of  the  antennsB 
dusky  black ;  the  clypeus  convex,  nearly  twice  as  broad  as  long,  its 
anterior  margin  fringed  with  ferruginous  hairs.  Thorax,  the  pro- 
thorax,  a  squiare  macula  on  the  posterior  portion  of  the  mesothorax;, 
the  posterior  margin  of  the  scutellum,  and  the  whole  of  the  post- 
scutellum  ferruginous  red,  the  rest  of  the  thorax  black  with  a  silky 


NEW  AND  LITTLE  KNOWN  HYMENOPTERA.  237 

lustre ;  the  scutelluiiiy  poetscatellum  and  metathorax  slightly  raised, 
the  last  convex  with  its  apical  margin  distinctly  recurved,  and  fine 
almoet  obsolete  transverse  striations ;  wings  dark  brown,  with  an 
ohliqae  sub-hyaline  yellow  band  crossing  the  middle ;  the  legs  have 
the  coxaB  trochanters,  basal  half  of  the  femora,  and  the  last  joint  of 
tiie  tarsi  with  the  claws  dark  brown,  the  apical  half  of  the  femora, 
the  tibiae  and  the  basal  joints  of  the  tarsi  bright  ferruginous  red,  the 
tibiae  and  tarsi  have  a  few  scattered  spines.  Abdomen  silky  black, 
smooth  and  shining. 

$  resembles  the  9 ,  but  the  ferruginous  red  of  the  head  and 
prothorax  is  of- a  lighter  tint,  inclining  to  yellowish,  the  mesothorax, 
scutellum,  postscutellimi  and  metathorax  are  silky  black,  the  last 
with  coarse  well  marked  transverse  striations,  the  wings  are  as  in 
the  9 ,  but  altogether  of  a  lighter  paler  shade,  and  there  is  a  dark 
brown  opaque  spot  in  the  centre  of  the  2nd  discoidal  cell ;  the  tibiae 
and  tarsi  very  slightly  spinose;  the  abdomen  slightly  flattened, 
vertically. 

This  species  was  common  in  March  and  April  in  the  Pegu  hills, 
hunting  about  among  the  fallen  leaves  at  the  bottom  of  dry  streams 
in  a  restless,  hurried  manner,  I  found  its  nest,  a  burrow  in  the 
ground  at  the  roots  of  a  large  fern,  and  watched  it  storing  the  same 
with  a  small  and  very  pretty  species  of  cockroach  brown  with  yellow 
markings.  The  conspicuous  and  brightly-coloured  tibiae  and  tarsi  of 
this  insect  are  very  remarkable,  giving  it  somewhat  an  appearance 
as  if  it  had  breeches  on. 

6.  Priocnemis  convbxus,  n.  sp. 

Habitat:  Ceylon. 

Female  :  Length  8  lines ;  expanse  14  lines. 

Description  :  $  Head  densely  clothed  with  short  silky  ferrugi- 
nous pubescence ;  the  tips  of  the  mandibles  dark  chestnut  brown ;  the 
cljrpeus  produced  anteriorly  and  fringed  with  bright  ferruginous 
hairs ;  the  antennae  ferruginous,  spirally  convoluted.  Thorax  dark 
brownish  black,  the  prothorax,  mesothorax,  scutellum  and  postscu- 
tellum  covered  with  a  short  dense  ferruginous  pubescence,  the  dark 
ground  colour  showing  through  along  the  anterior  margin  of  the 
mesothorax,  and  on  the  sides  of  the  scutellum  and  postscutellum  ; 
metathorax    black,    convex,    sloping    posteriorly   and  transversely 


236      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890, 

Liacos  (Triliacos)  analis,  Saus,  and  Sich.  Cat.  Spec.  Gen.  ScoL, 
p.  33^  1.  • 

Scolia  penangemis,  Sauss.  Mel.  Hym.,  p.  39,  17,   9  var. 

Scolia  erythrosomay  Burm.  Mon.  Seol.,  p.  15,  1 ;  Smith.,  Cat.  Hym. 
Ins.  Brit.  Mus.  iii.,  113,  134. 

Liacos  {Triliacos)  erythrosoma,  Sauss.  and  Sich.,  Cat.  Spec.  Gten. 
ScoL,  p.  35,  2. 

Habitat  :  India,  Burma,  Malay  Archipelago. 

Female  :  Length  10  lines ;  expanse  18  lines. 

Male  :  Length  9  lines  :  expanse  16  lines. 

This  species  is  an  almost  exact  miniature  of  Triscolia  rubiginosa^ 
which  apparently  is  common  aU  oyer  India. 

Unlike  any  other  species  of  the  family  known  to  me,  T.  dimidiata 
is  often  found  swarming  in  considerable  numbers  round  the  stumps 
of  decayed  trees  from  December  to  February.  On  one  occasion  in 
the  end  of  February  I  caught  some  thirty  specimens  in  about  a  quarter 
of  an  hour.  They  were  circling  round  the  foot  of  an  old  stump 
in  a  field  by  the  side  of  the  roadj  and  one  sweep  of  the  net  would 
take  in  three  or  four  specimens.  From  the  circumstance  that  all  I 
caught  were  males,  I  thought  it  possible  that  they  were  attracted, 
as  some  species  of  butterflies  are,  by  the  presence  of  a  concealed 
virgin  female,  but  a  diligent  digging  and  search  in  the  ground 
round  the  stump  resulted  in  nothing  but  the  driving  away  of  the 
^warming  males. 

Family  Pompilid^,  Leach. 

6.   POMPILUS   BRACATUS,    U.  Sp. 

Habitat:  Burma, 

Female  :  Length  8  lines  ;  expanse  15  Unes. 

]!i([ALE :  Length  8  lines ;  expanse  14  lines. 

Description  :  9  Head  dark  ferruginous  red,  tips  of  the  man' 
dibles,  a  small  patch  round  the  ocelli,  and  the  apex  of  the  antennsB 
dusky  black ;  the  clypeus  convex,  nearly  twice  as  broad  as  long,  its 
anterior  margin  fringed  with  ferruginous  hairs.  Thorax,  the  pro- 
thorax,  a  square  macula  on  the  posterior  portion  of  the  mesothorax^ 
the  posterior  margin  of  the  scuteUum,  and  the  whole  of  the  post- 
scutellum  ferruginous  red,  the  rest  of  the  thorax  black  with  a  silky 


NEW  AND  LITTLE  KNOWN  HYMENOPTERA.  287 

lustre;  the  Bcatelluiny  poetacatellum  and  metathorax  slightly  raised, 
the  last  convex  with  its  apical  margin  distinctly  recurved,  and  fine 
almost  obsolete  transverse  striations ;  wings  dark  brown,  with  an 
oblique  sub-hyaline  yellow  band  crossing  the  middle ;  the  legs  have 
the  coxaB  trochanters,  basal  half  of  the  femora,  and  the  last  joint  of 
the  tarsi  with  the  claws  dark  brown,  the  apical  half  of  the  femora, 
the  tibisB  and  the  basal  joints  of  the  tarsi  bright  ferruginous  red,  the 
tibiae  and  tarsi  have  a  few  scattered  spines.  Abdomen  silky  black, 
smooth  and  shining. 

$  resembles  the  $ ,  but  the  ferruginous  red  of  the  head  and 
prothorax  is  of* a  lighter  tint,  inclining  to  yellowish,  the  mesothorax, 
scutellum,  postscutellimi  and  metathorax  are  silky  black,  the  last 
with  coarse  well  marked  transverse  striations,  the  wings  are  as  in 
the  9 ,  but  altogether  of  a  lighter  paler  shade,  and  there  is  a  dark 
brown  opaque  spot  in  the  centre  of  the  2nd  disooidal  cell ;  the  tibias 
and  tarsi  very  slightly  spinose;  the  abdomen  slightly  flattened, 
vertically. 

This  species  was  common  in  March  and  April  in  the  Pegu  hills, 
hunting  about  among  the  fallen  leaves  at  the  bottom  of  dry  streams 
in  a  restless,  hurried  manner.  I  found  its  nest,  a  burrow  in  the 
ground  at  the  roots  of  a  large  fern,  and  watched  it  storing  the  same 
with  a  small  and  very  pretty  species  of  cockroach  brown  with  yellow 
markings.  The  conspicuous  and  brightly-coloured  tibiae  and  tarsi  of 
this  insect  are  very  remarkable,  giving  it  somewhat  an  appearance 
as  if  it  had  breeches  on. 

6.  Priocnemis  convbxus,  n.  sp. 

Habitat:  Ceylon. 

Female  :  Length  8  lines ;  expanse  14  lines. 

Description  :  $  Head  densely  clothed  with  short  silky  ferrugi- 
nous pubescence ;  the  tips  of  the  mandibles  dark  chestnut  brown ;  the 
cljrpeus  produced  anteriorly  and  fringed  with  bright  ferruginous 
hairs ;  the  antennae  ferruginous,  spirally  convoluted.  Thorax  dark 
brownish  black,  the  prothorax,  mesothorax,  scutellum  and  postscu- 
tellum  covered  with  a  short  dense  ferruginous  pubescence,  the  dark 
ground  colour  showing  through  along  the  anterior  margin  of  the 
mesothorax,  and  on  the  sides  of  the  scutellum  and  postscutellum ; 
metathorax    black,    convex,    sloping    posteriorly   and  transversely 


238      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

striated,  the  striatibns  regular  and  well  marked,  the  posterior  face  on 
each  side  ending  in  a  well  marked  shoulder  or  ridge,  anterior  to  which 
are  two  small  tubercles  ;  wings  bright  ferruginous,  with  an  obsolete 
narrow  fuscous  border ;  legs  ferruginous,  the  posterior  and  interme- 
diate tibiae  and  tarsi  well  serrated.  Abdomen  black,  with  a  silky  lustre, 
the  5th  and  apical  segments  with  bright  ferruginous  pubescence,  and 
their  posterior  margins  with  a  fringe  of  stiff  hairs  of  the  same  colour. 

7.  Priocnemis  crinttus,  n.  sp. 
Habitat:  Ceylon. 

Female  :  Length  8  lines ;  expanse  15  lines. 

Description  :  ?  .  Head  blacl^,  clothed  with  a  short  dense  golden 
pubescence  intermixed  with  long  silky  hairs  of  the  same  colour ;  man- 
dibles yellow,  the  tips  dark  brown ;  antennaB,  the  scape  and  two 
basal  joints  of  the  flagellum  golden  yellow,  the  remainder  of  the  latter 
fuscous  deepening  into  dark  brown  on  the  apical  joints.  Thorax 
black,  the  pro  and  mesothorax  having  long  silky  rather  scanty  golden 
pubescence,  the  scutellum,  postscutellum,  and  metathorax  clothed 
more  densely  with  the  same,  the  metathorax  convex,  with  a  central 
longitudinally  impressed  line;  wings  yellow  hyaline,  their  apical 
margins  faintly  bordered  with  dusky  black,  nervures  and  tegulsB 
yellow  ;  legs  golden  yellow,  the  cox8b  and  basal  portions  of  the  femora 
clothed  with  short  golden  pubescence,  the  apical  joints  of  the  tarsi 
and  the  claws  dusky  black ;  the  tibiae  and  tarsi  of  the  intermediate 
and  posterior  legs  strongly  serrated.  Abdomen  black,  covered  with 
a  thin  short  golden  pubescence,  and  scattered  long  hairs  of  the  same 
colour,  the  pubescence  is  more  dense,  forming  well  marked  bands  on 
the  apical  margins  of  the  1st,  2nd  and  3rd  segments;  the  4th  and 
following  segments  entirely  clothed  with  golden  pubescence. 

8,  Mygnimia  rubida,  n.  sp. 
Habitat  :  Ceylon. 

Female:  Length  10  lines;  expanse  17  lines. 

Male  :  Length  6  lines ;  expanse  12  J  lines. 

Description  :  $  and  $  alike,  of  a  rich  light  chestnut  red  colour  all 
over,  smooth  and  shining.  "Wings  bright  ferruginous  hyaline,  a  white 
transparent  oblong  spot  with  an  opaque  nucleus  or  centre  at  the  base 
of  the  2nd  discoidal  cell,  the  1st  recurrent  nervure  unites  with  the 
pecond  transverso-cubital  nervure ;  the  tibiae  and  tarsi  of  the  interme- 


NJ5FF  AND  LITTLE  KNOWN  HYMENOPTERA.  239 

diate  aaid  posterior  legs  strongly  serrated,  the  posterior  tibiae  flattened 
above  and  grooved  longitudinally. 

The  three  above  described  new   species  of  Pompilida  from  Ceylon 
were  kindly  sent  to  me  by  Mr.  E.  E.  Green  of  Eton,  Pundoloya. 

9.  Mygnimia  audax,  Smith. 

Mygnimia  dudax,  Smith.  Cat.  Ilym.  Ins.  Brit.  Mus.  iii.,p.  182,  4. 

Habitat:  Silhet,  Eumaon. 

Female  :  Length  15  lines ;  expanse  27  lines. 

Description  :  9  Head  clothed  with  ferruginous  pubescence,  very 
bright  on  the  clypeus  and  front,  darker  on  the  cheeks  and  vertex, 
mandibles  ferruginous  chestnut  brown  at  the  tips,  autenuae  convolute. 
Thorax  ferruginous  brown,  the  pubescence  on  the  prothorax, 
mesothorax  above,  and  the  scutellum  having  a  golden  tint;  the 
metathorax  dark  brown,  broadly  convex,  and  with  well-marked 
transverse  striations,  its  apex  terminating  in  a  conspicuous  recurved 
rim;  wings  bright  ferruginous,  the  outer  margins  pale  fuscous,  a 
transparent  ocellus  with  a  dark  nucleus  or  centre  at  the  base  of  the 
2nd  discoidal  cell ;  nervures  and  tegulte  ferruginous ;  legs,  the  coxae 
trochanters  and  upper  half  of  the  femora  brown  ;  the  apical  half  of 
the  femora,  the  tibiae  and  tarsi  ferruginous ;  the  tibiae  and  tarsi  of 
the  intermediate  and  posterior  logs  strongly  ciliated  and  spined  ;  the 
posterior  tibiae  flattened  and  longitudinally  grooved  above.  Abdo- 
men, the  Ist  segment  dark  brown  at  base,  its  dorsal  surface  turning 
to  bright  ferruginous  in  the  middle ;  the  2nd  to  the  4th  segments 
clothed  with  short  silky  ferruginous  pubescence  at  base,  the  posterior 
margins  with  broad  dark  brown  bands  which  are  continued  on  the 
under  surface,  the  apical  segments  ferruginous. 

This  very  handsome  species  was  originally  received  from  Silhet ; 
it  probably  occurs  throughout  the  Himalayas.  The  specimens  in  my 
collection  I  owe  to  the  kindness  of  Miss  A.  Brooke. 

10.  Ferreola  fenestrata.  Smith. 

FerreoUi fenestrata,  Smith.  Cat.  Hym.  Ins.  Brit.  Mus.,  Ill,,  1699. 
Habitat  :  India  (Madras) ;  Burma. 
Female  :  Length  7  lines :  expanse  12  lines. 
Male  :  Length  5  lines :  expanse  8  lines. 

Description:  ?  and  J  alike.  Head  black  with  a  silvery 
sericeous  pile  in  freshly-captured  specimens,  a  narrow  yellow  line 

32 


242        JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

recurved  rim,  mandibles  black  with  an  acute  tooth  on  the  inner 
margin,  antennae  opaque  black ;  thorax  black,  the  prothorax  notch- 
ed longitudinally,  the  mesothorax  clothed  with  a  short,  thick,  black 
velvetty  pubescence,  and  having  two  short  and  scarcely  perceptible 
impressed  lines  on  the  disc  ;  the  scutellum  and  postscutellum  black, 
the  former  with  a  shallow  longitudinal  groove  in  the  middle,  the 
latter  slightly  projecting  ;  the  metathorax  long,  rounded,  transversely 
striated  and  clothed  with  a  thick  velvetty  black  pubescence  inixed 
with  erect  black  hairs  ;  wings  dark  brown  with  a  conspicuous  broad 
fuscous  black  border  along  their  apical  margins,  the  basal  portion 
of  the  wings  are  shot  with  a  brilliant  purple  effulgence ;  legs  black, 
the  anterior  femora,  tibiae  and  tarsi,  and  the  intermediate  and  poste- 
rior tibiae  and  tarsi  studded  with  black  halirs  and  spines,  calcaria 
black,  claws  dark  chestnut  brown.  Abdomen  black,  smooth  and 
shining,  the  petiole  short. 

I  captured  two  specimens  of  this  insect  in  November  at  Mergui. 
It  is  remarkable  that  it  should  be  found  in  Burma,  as  Wallace  only 
procured  it  far  south  in  the  Malay  Archipelago. 

14.     Sphex  fulvo-hirta,  n.  sp. 

Habitat  :  Ceylon. 

Female:  Length  134  lines  :'  expanse  21  lines. 

Description  :  9  Head  a  little  wider  than  the  thorax  black, 
mandibles  armed  with  two  teeth  on  the  inner  margin,  their  base 
longitudinally  striated  and  grooved,  clypeus  convex  clothed  with 
black  pubescence  and  stiff  black  hairs,  antennae  black,  face,  vertex, 
and  cheeks  clothed  with  velvetty  black  pubescence  ;  thorax  black, 
the  prothorax,  the  mesothorax,  the  scutellum,  and  postscutellum 
covered  with  a  dense  short  velvetty  black  pile ;  the  scutellum  and 
postscutellum  raised,  and  notched  longitudinally  down  the  middle* 
the  latter  having  the  appearance  of  two  tubercles  side  by  side ; 
the  metathorax  long,  rounded,. clothed  above  and  on  the  sides  with 
dense  soft  fulvous  pubescence,  wings  hyaline,  brownish  yellow  at 
base,  fading  to  a  light  yellow  towards  the  apex,  and  having  a  broad 
apical  margin  to  both  anterior  and  posterior  wings  of  faint  dusky 
black,  tegulae  black,  nervures  yellow  ;  legs  black,  claws  dark  chestnut 
brown  with  their  tips  black.  Abdomen  black,  very  smooth  and 
glossy,  the  petiole  rather  short. 


NEVf  AND  LITTLE  KNOWN   HYMENOPTERA.  243 

Type  specimen  captured  by  Mr.  E.  E.  Green  and  kindly  sent  to  me. 

The  two  above  described  species  belong  to  the  IVth  Division 
of  the  Sphegidse  "  Tarsal  claws  tcith  two  teeth  {Sphex  semu  str.)  **  as 
laid  down  recently  by  Mr.  Cameron  in  his  brochure  **  Hymenoptera 
Orientalis  ;  or,  Contributions  to  a  Knowledge  of  the  Hymenoptera  of 
the  Oriental  Eegion. " 

Family  Bembecid-e,  Westw. 

15.     Bembex  fossorius,  Smith. 

Bemhex  fossorius,  Smith.  Jour.  As.  Soc.  Beng.,  Vol.  XLVII. 
(1878).  pt.  IL,  p.  168,  7. 

Habitat:  Burma  (Pegu  Hills),  Tenasaerim. 

Fbmalb  :  Length  8^  lines:  expanse  18  lines. 

Description  :  9  Head  about  as  wide  as  the  thorax ;  mandibles 
yellow,  their  tips  dark  chestnut  brown;  clypeus  yellow,  convex, 
roimded  above,  slightly  emarginate  anteriorly,  the  front  and  cheeks 
a  slightly  darker  yellow,  with  in  certain  lights  an  almost  obsolete 
silvery  pile  ;  antennae  black,  the  scape  in  front  washed  with  yellow, 
the  vertex  and  the  back  of  the  head  black  clothed  with  a  soft  silky 
grey  pubescence.  Thorax  black,  smooth  and  shining  above,  though 
very  finely  punctured,  the  posterior  margin  and  the  sides  of  the 
prothorax,  a  line  over  the  tegulae,  a  square  pareuthesis-shaped 
mark  on  the  posterior  margin  of  the  scutellum,  a  crescentic 
narrower  mark  on  the  postscutellum,  with  a  similar  mark  on  the 
posterior  face  of  the  metathorax  lacteous  yellow,  the  sides  of  the 
thorax  yellow ;  wings  clear  hyaline,  the  tegula)  black,  nervures 
brownish  yellow ;  the  legs  yellow,  the  coxae  femora  and  tibiae  of 
the  anterior  and  intermediate  legs  posteriorly,  and  the  coxae  femora, 
tibiae  and  tarsi  of  the  posterior  pair  of  legs  both  anteriorly  and 
posteriorly  striped  with  black,  the  last  joint  of  the  tarsi  and  the  claws 
chestnut  brown.  Abdomen  black,  shining,  very  finely  punctured, 
the  first  to  fifth  segments  with  broad  submarginal  bisinuate  bands 
on  the  dorsal  surface  not  continued  on  the  under  side  of  a  dull 
lacteous  yellow,  apical  segment  black. 

This  species  was  first  obtained  by  Mr.  Ossian  Limborg  in  Tenas- 
serim.  I  have  found  it  common  in  the  Pegu  Yoma  and  in  the 
hills  in  Tenasserim.     In  April  it  has  a  habit  of  swarming  in  great 


244    JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

niunbers  and  digging  into  the  sandy  banks  of  streams,  cuttings  on 
a  road,  &c.  I  watched  one  at  work,  a  female;  she  dug  rapidly 
somewhat  like  a  dog  with  her  fore  feet,  and  when  the  hole  was  deep 
enough  to  contain  her  whole  length,  pushed  out  the  loosened  sand 
with  her  hind  legs. 

Tribe  Diploptera,  Latr. 

Family  Eumenidje,   Westw. 

16  Zethus  cyanopterus,  de  Sauss. 

Zethus   cyanopterus^    de  Sauss.  Mon.  Guepes.    Sol,  Supp,   p.   116. 
Smith.  Cab.  Hym.  Ins.  Brit.  Mus.  V.  9.  1. 

Calligaster  cyanopteray  de  Saus.  Mon.  Guepes.  Sol.  23,  2,  ? . 

Habitat  :  Java,  Burma. 

Female  :  Length  9  lines ;  expanse  15  lines. 

Descrtptton  :  9  Head  black ;  mandibles  narrow,  their  base 
pubescent ;  the  clypeus  circular,  convex  and  pubescent,  a  small 
tubercle  on  the  front  between  the  antennae,  the  scape  of  the  latter 
shining  but  coarsely  punctured,  the  flagellum  opaque  black,  vertex 
and  cheeks  black,  shining  and  coarsely  punctured,  the  former 
slightly  pubescent.  Thorax  black ;  the  prothorax  coarsely  punctured, 
the  punctures  running  into  striae;  the  mesothorax  long,  flattened 
vertically,  smooth  and  shining,  the  disc  having  two  longitudinally 
impressed  lines  which  do  not  reach  its  anterior  margin ;  scutellum, 
postscutellum,  and  metathorax  in  one  plane  sloping  obliquely  back- 
wards, the  last  having  a  broad  shallow  groove  longitudinally  down 
the  middle,  the  edges  of  which  are  sharp;  wings  fuscous  brown, 
with  a  rich  purple  effulgence ;  legs  black,  claws  of  the  tarsi  bifid. 
Abdomen  black  and  shining,  finely  punctured  and  slightly  pubescent, 
the  first  segment  somewhat  flattened,  forming  a  petiole  as  long  nearly 
as  the  head  and  thorax  taken  together,  the  second  segment  with  a 
short  petiole,  its  apical  margin  with  a  recurved  rim,  the  remaining 
segments  telescopically  closing  into  the  second  segment. 

This  species  is  rare  in  Burma.  I  procured  it  in  the  Pegu  Hills,  and 
at  Tavoy  in  November,  frequenting  flowers. 

Family  Vespid^,  Steph, 

17  Ischnogaster  eximius,  n.  sp. 
Habitat  :  Ceylon. 


V  '  "-IF  J 


.  ■*" 


•  .     ' 


1         "■.»'■.• 


nb.  NM,  Hiat.  Boo.,  Vol.  V.,  1 


?■         Ken  of  licftnojr attar  eximiwi  (actnal  iIm). 
8.         Seat  of  Iichttoiailer  wljirifiront  (do.     do. ) 

S.        Front  view  of  head  of  Famoln  grtenii,  showing  remftifcabla  tnbercnlaited 

front  kbore  tha  oljpens. 


NEW  AND  LITTLE  KNOWN  HYMENOPTERA.  245 

Male:  Length  10}  lines;  expanse  15  lines. 

Description  :  6  Head  rather  broader  than  the  thorax  ;  mandibles 
light  brownish  yellow,  much  produced,  forming  a  long  beak  ;  clypeus 
lengthened  slightly  convex,  ending  in  an  acute  tooth,  from  which  a 
short  raised  carina  or  ridge  runs  vertically  up  ;  the  front  below  the 
antennae  and  the  clypeus,  dull  opaque  yellow,  clothed  with  a  fine  short 
silky  white  down ;  antennse,  the  scape,  and  the  basal  and  two  apical 
joints  of  the  flagellum  pale  brownish  yellow,  remainder  of  the 
flagellum  brown ;  vertex  and  cheeks  brown,  the  former  garnished  with 
a  few  long  silky  pale  hairs ;  ocelli  in  au  equilateral  triangle,  the 
anterior  ocellus  larger  than  either  of  the  two  posterior  ones.  Thorax 
dark  brown,  the  posterior  margin  of  the  prothorax  having  a  band  of 
yellow,  which  is  interrupted  in  the  middle,  but  widens  out  considerably 
on  the  lateral  angles  ;  the  tegulae,  two  spots  on  the  sides  below  the 
wings,  a  sub- triangular  spot  on  either  side  at  the  base  of  the  scutellum, 
the  anterior  margin  of  the  post  scutellum,  and  a  long  oval  macula 
on  the  posterior  angles  of  the  metathorax  opaque  yellow ;  wings 
hyaline,  of  a  light  yellowish  brown  colour,  somewhat  darker  along 
the  costal  margin;  the  nervures  testacous;  the  stigma  and  radial 
cells  lengthened,  three  complete  cubital  colls,  the  4th  almost 
complete,  the  2nd  cubital  cell  long,  its  sides  forming  a  paralle- 
logram, receiving  both  recurrent  nervures,  the  Ist  very  near  its  base, 
the  2nd  near  its  apex  ;  the  3rd  cubital  cell  almost  square ;  legs  testa- 
ceous yellow,  the  claws  of  the  tarsi  with  a  distinct  tooth,  the  inter- 
mediate and  posterior  tibia)  with  two  spines.  Abdomen,  the  Ist 
segment  forms  a  long  petiole,  distinctly  thickening  from  base  to  apex  ; 
2nd  segment  dark  brown,  its  base  clothed  with  a  fine  short  silky 
golden  pile ;  3rd  and  4th  segments  dark  brown,  with  broad  lateral 
fasciaD  of  golden  pile  ;  5th  and  apical  segments  testaceous  brown  at 
their  base,  with  like  lateral  fasciaB  of  golden  pile,  and  a  brown  spot 
beyond  them  on  each  side ;  below  the  abdomen  has  the  petiole  ferrugi- 
nous, the  2nd  and  following  segments  dark  brown,  the  2nd  segment 
with  a  spot  of  golden  pile  at  its  base,  the  remaining  segments  with 
broad  sub-interrupted  marginal  bands  of  the  same. 

This  very  beautiful  insect  was  kindly  sent  to  me  by  Mr.  E.  E. 
Green,  who  has  also  since  been  good  enough  to  forward  a  few  of  its 
nests  with  the  following  note : — **  I  am  now  sending  you  by  parcel 


246     JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

post  a  few  of  the  nests  of  the  insect.  I  do  not  think  it  is  a  social 
wasp.  Each  nest  seems  to  be  the  property  of  one  pair,  only.  It  is  a 
low  country  insect.  The  nests  were  sent  to  me  by  a  friend  who  was 
then  stationed  near  Galle.  The  wasp  I  sent  you  was  hatched  out 
of  the  cells  of  one  of  these  nests.  My  friend  (Mr.  John  Pole,  a 
very  accurate  observer,)  assures  me,  he  has  repeatedly  seen  this  same 
species  and  no  other  associated  with  these  nests.  The  nests  now 
sent  have  been  rather  damaged,  and  have  lost  the  perforated  vesti- 
bule which  they  have  when  complete.  Mr.  Pole  writes  of  the  wasps : 
*  their  habit  seems  to  be  to  remain  in  the  opening,  using  the  lace- 
work  at  the  bottom  as  spyholes.'  *' 

The  insects  belonging  to  the  genus  Ischnogaster  seem  to  be  the 
links  joining  the  solitary  and  social  tribes  of  the  Wasps,  They 
resemble  the  solitary  wasps  in  having  the  claws  of  their  tarsi  toothed 
below,  and  in  sometimes,  as  in  the  case  of  the  species  above  described, 
living  in  pairs,  constructing  a  solitary  nest.  Again  their  affinity  to 
the  social  wasps  is  seen  in  the  armature  of  the  tibiae  of  the  inter- 
mediate and  posterior  legs,  which,  as  in  the  true  Vespidce,  have  two 
spines  each,  and  /.  nigrifronSy  Smith,  which  is  common  here  in 
Burma,  does  to  my  certain  knowledge  construct  a  social  many-celled 
nest,  tier  above  tier,  as  the  alKed  /.  Mellyi  is  stated  to  do  by  de 
Saussure. 

Tribe  Anthophila,  Latr, 

Family  Andrenidje,  Leach, 

18.    Ctenoplectra  Chalybea,  Smith. 

Ctenoplectra  chalybia,  Smith,  Proc.  Linn.  Soc.  II.  45,  1,  2 . 

Habitat  :  Malacca ;  Celebes  ;  Burma  (Pegu  Yoma) ;  Tenasserim. 

Female  :  Length  4^  to  6  lines ;  expanse  7  to  9  lines. 

Description  :  ?  Head  black,  as  broad  as  the  thorax ;  the  clypeus 
large,  slightly  convex  and  sparsely  punctured,  the  face  on  each  side 
with  a  little  silky  white  pubescence ;  the  vertex  and  cheeks  finely 
but  densely  punctured ;  the  antennae  pitch  black.  Thorax  black, 
smooth  and  shining ;  the  scutellum  rather  coarsely  punctured ;  the 
metathorax  with  sparse  whitish  pubescence  fringing  its  sides ; 
wings  hyaline,  the  tegulae  and  nervures  black;  legs  black, 
densely  clothed,  especially  the  posterior  pair,  with  black  pubescence 


NEW  AND  LITTLE  KNOtVN  HYMENOPTERA,  247 

and  bristles  ;  tarsi  and  claws  testaceous  brown ;  the  tibiae  of  the  pos- 
terior pair  of  legs  flattened  and  broad,  the  calcaria  at  the  apex  of  the 
intermediate  tibiae  stout,  acute  and  bent  at  the  apex,  its  hinder 
margin  toothed  like  a  fine  comb,  the  inner  spine  of  the  posterior 
calcaria  also  toothed,  forming  a  comb*like  process  much  more 
conspicuous.  Abdomen  black,  with  in  certain  lights  a  steel-blue  lustre, 
its  under  surface  furnished  with  a  number  of  thread-like  bristles. 

This  remarkable  little  bee  I  have  procured  in  April  in  the  Pegu 
Hills,  and  in  August  in  Tenasserim.  Smith  says  it  is  closely  allied 
to  Macropis;  in  habits  it  resembles  Megachile;  I  have  watched  it  carry- 
ing a  fragment  of  a  leaf  to  a  hole  in  the  post  of  a  wooden  house. 

Familv  Apid^,  Aiict, 

19*  Megachile  atrXta,  Smith. 

Megachile  atrata,  Smith,  Cat.  Hym.  Ins.  Brit.  Mus.  I.  182,  112. 

Habitat  :  Philippine  Islands  ;  Tenasserim  ( Mergui ). 

Female  :  Length  9  lines ;   expanse  17  lines. 

Description  :  9  Head  black,  the  mandibles  porrect,  very  broad, 
armed  with  4  teeth,  and  clothed  with  a  short  rather  scanty  8ti£E  black 
pubescence,  the  disc  of  the  clypeus,  the  front  between  the  antenna), 
the  vertex  and  cheeks  finely  and  closely  punctured,  above  and  on  the 
sides  of  the  clypeus  a  little  tufty  black  pubescence ;  antennao  black, 
the  scape  shining,  the  fiagellum  opaque ;  thorax  broad,  closely  punc- 
tured, the  sides  of  the  thorax  and  the  metathorax  posteriorly  clothed 
with  dense  black  pubescence ;  the  mesothorax  has  a  longitudinally 
impressed  shallow  line  on  the  disc,  and  the  scutellum  is  roughly  sculp- 
tured ;  wings  f  ulvo-hyaline  with  a  broad  marginal  band  dusky  black ; 
the  legs  black,  clothed  with  black  bristly  hairs,  the  apex  of  the  last 
joint  of  the  tarsi  and  the  base  of  the  claws  chestnut  brown.  Abdomen 
black,  finely  pitted  and  rather  sparsely  covered  with  short  black 
pubescence,  the  1st  to  the  4th  segments  have  narrow  sub-marginal 
transverse  grooves,  the  margins  beyond  being  smooth  and  shining ; 
the  5th  and  apical  segments  clothed  with  dense  black  pubescence, 
the  pollen  brush  very  full  and  jet  black,  with  just  a  touch  of  reddish 
yellow  at  the  base  of  the  2nd  segment  below. 

I  think  there  is  little  doubt  that  this  is  Smith's  species  from  the 
Philippines,  the  remarkable  broad  porrect  mandibles  projecting  in  a 

33 


248      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

line  with  the  clypeus,  and  Smith's  note  that  the  wings  are  sometimes 
yellow  with  a  fuscous  margin  are  conclusive. 

I  found  this  species  very  common  at  Mergui  in  November,  frequent- 
ing in  great  numbers  the  flowers  of  the  Anatto  (Bixa  ore  liana),  I 
discovered  several  nests,  all  excavated  on  the  face  of  a  bare  hard 
plain  covered  with  short  grass.  The  tunnels  were  about  Jrd  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  and  ran  perpendicularly  down  for  from  4  to  7  inches,, 
and  then  diagonally  at  angle  of  50°  or  thereabouts  for  another  3  or  4 
inches.  In  all  the  nests  I  found  little  rolls  of  the  leaf  of  the  anatto 
plant  stuffed  full  of  pollen.  In  some  of  the  rolls  I  found  a  tiny 
opaque  white  egg,  in  others  a  transparent  grub  lying  head  down- 
wards. What  puzzled  me,  however,  was  that  in  a  nest  containing  a 
number  of  rolls  (seven  being  the  greatest  number  I  found  in  any 
one  nest)  it  was  always  the  top  rolls,  nearest  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  that  contained  the  grub ;  the  eggs  in  them  seemingly  being 
the  first  to  hatch  out  though  the  last  to  be  laid, 

20.     Megachile  badia,  n.  sp. 

HABrTAT :  Burma  (Pegu  Yoma). 

Female  :  Length  9  lines ;  expanse  15  lines. 

Description  :  9  Head  broad  as  the  thorax,  black ;  mandibles 
broad,  sculptured  with  delicate  longitudinal  striae ;  clypeus  broader 
than  long,  densely  punctured  and  having  a  T-shaped  raised  carina  on 
its  disc ;  face  above  up  to  the  antexior  ocellus  clothed  with  black 
pubescence ;  rest  of  the  head  black,  finely  and  closely  punctured. 
Thorax  black,  densely  punctured,  clothed  with  brownish  black  hair 
on  the  sides  and  on  the  posterior  face  of  the  metathorax;  wings 
fulvo-hyaline,  with  a  broad  fuscous  margin ;  legs  black,  the  claws 
and  calcaria  dark  chestnut  brown.  Abdomen  black,  very  closely  and 
finely  punctured,  and  clothed  rather  sparingly  with  black  pubescence ; 
the  1st  and  2nd  segments  have  besides  narrow  submarginal  bands  of 
deep  fulvous  red  pubescence ;  pollen  brush  black. 

This  species  closely  resembles  the  last,  but  is  abundantly  difEerent 
in  form,  and  conspicuous  in  having  the  two  fulvous  red  bands  on  the 
abdomen. 

I  took  the  type  specimen  on  the  Pegu  Yoma  in  December.  I 
have  not  as  yet  met  with  it  in  Tenasserim. 


Nj^W  and  little  known  HYMENOPTERA.  249 

21.  Megachile  tuberculata,  Smith. 

MegacMk  tuberculata^  Smitli.  Proc.  Liim.  Soc.  II  p.  46,  5. 

Habitat:  Borneo;  Singapore;  Burma  (Pegu  Yoma) ;  Tenasserim 
(Mergui). 

FEMALfe :  Length  10  to  12  lines  ;  expanse  18  lines. 

Description  :  ?  Head  as  broad  as  the  thorax,  black  ;  the  man- 
dibles long,  very  stout,  striated  longitudinally,  their  inner  margins 
furnished  with  a  prominent  tooth  close  to  the  base,  the  apex  ending 
in  three  large  teeth,  the  lowest  one  acute ;  clypeus  black,  covered 
rather  sparingly  with  black  pubescence,  the  upper  portion  project- 
ing obliquely  forward,  and  so  forming  a  large  and  very  prominent 
tubercle,  below  this  tubercle  the  plane  of  the  clypeus  is  bent  verti- 
cally down  at  an  angle  ;  the  front  between  the  antennae,  the  cheeks, 
and  back  of  the  head  clothed  with  black  pubescence,  the  vertex  and 
space  round  the  ocelli  closely  punctured.  Thorax  black,  rather 
coarsely  and  densely  punctured,  clothed  with  black  pubescence, 
which  on  the  lateral  angles  of  the  scutellum  and  on  the  face  of  the 
metathorax  fades  to  a  pitchy  brown ;  wings  fulvo-hyaline,  with  broad 
fuscous  margins;  legs  black,  clothed  with  black  pubescence,  the 
claws  dark  chestnut  brown.  Abdomen  black,  covered  with  short  stiff 
black  pubescence ;  the  pollen  brush  black. 

This,  one  of  the  largest  of  the  leaf -cutter  bees,  is  rare  in  Burma. 
It  is  easily  identified  by  its  remarkable  tuberculated  clypeus. 

22.  Megachile  luculenta,  n.  sp. 

Habitat  :  Tenasserim  (Thoungyeen  Valley  ;  Tavoy). 

Female  :  Length  11  lines  ;  expanse  18  lines. 

Description  :  9  Head  large,  broad  as  the  thorax ;  mandibles 
broad,  sparsely  punctured,  black,  their  outer  margins  fringed  with 
black  hairs,  the  apex  furnished  with  four  teeth,  the  two  lower  ones 
very  acute ;  clypeus  black  broader  than  long,  closely  punctured, 
vertical,  forming  a  marked  transverse  ridge  with  the  plane  of  the 
face,  which,  from  the  vertex  to  the  upper  margin  of  the  clypeus, 
slopes  obliquely  forward,  anterior  margin  of  the  clypeus  truncated 
and  bisinuate ;  the  antennae,  the  front  vertex  and  cheeks  black,  the 
face  has  a  little  black  pubescence  on  each  side,  the  vertex  and  cheeks 
closely  punctured  and  covered  sparsely  with  black  hairs  ;  the  ocelli 
arranged     in    a    curve.     Thorax    black,    coarsely    punctured,    the 


250    JOURNAL,  BOMBAl  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

prothorax,  the  postscutellum,  the  irietathorax  and  the  flanks  clothed 
with  black  pubescence  which  on  the  postscutellum  and  the  meta- 
thorax  is  tipped  with  hoary  white ;  the  pectus  black  sparsely  punc- 
tured and  clothed  rather  sparingly  with  scattered  black  hairs ;  the 
wings  at  base  fulvo-hyaline,  the  apical  margins  of  both  wings 
broadly  bordered  dusky ;  legs  black  with  black  pubescence,  the  cal- 
caria  and  claws  dark  chestnut  brown,  the  basal  joint  of  the  posterior 
tarsi  clothed  with  deep  ferruginous  red  pubescence.  Abdomen  black, 
covered  above  and  below  with  a  rich  dark  ferruginous  red  pubescence. 

This  species  is  closely  allied  to  M,  fraterna.  Smith,  from  which, 
however,  apart  from  its  considerably  larger  size,  it  differs  conspi- 
cuously in  the  colour  of  the  pollen  brush.  In  the  present  species  this  is 
of  a  rich  glistening  ferruginous  red ;  in  M,  fraterna  it  is  golden 
yellow. 

Minor  differences  are,  the  shape  of  the  clypeus  and  mandibles  and 
the  colour  of  the  posterior  pair  of  legs,  which  in  M,  fraterna  have 
the  femora  and  tibiae  inwardly  and  the  tarsi  fulvous. 

The  type  specimen  of  this  insect  I  captured  at  Tavoy  in  October. 
Subsequently  I  found  it  frequenting  with  other  hymenoptera  the 
wet  sandfic  on  the  banks  of  streams  in  the  Thauiigyeen  valley  along 
the  Siamese  frontier. 

23.      AnTHOPHORA   BROOKliE,  n.   sp. 

Habitat:  Kumaon, 

Female.  :  Length  7  lines :  expanse  13  lines. 

Description  :  9  Head  black  finely  punctured ;  mandibles  yellow- 
ish white,  their  tips  ferruginous  ;  labrum  produced  yellowish  white 
with  two  minute  spots  at  its  base  and  its  anterior  margin  narrowly 
black ;  clypeus  yellowish  white,  slightly  convex ;  a  raised  carina 
vertically  down  its  centre,  with  two  oblong  large  black  maculae,  one 
on  either  side ;  the  clypeus  and  labrum  studded  with  black  hairs ; 
antennae  pitch  black ;  the  vertex  cheeks  and  front  clothed  with  ful- 
vous pubescence.  Thorax  black,  densely  clothed  above  and  below 
with  rich  fulvous  pubescence ;  wings  hyaline,  tegulae  and  nervures 
testaceous ;  legs  black  clothed  inwardly  with  black,  and  outwardly 
with  fulvous  pubescence,  the  tarsi  of  a  testaceous  brown.  Abdomen 
black,  very  thinly  covered  above  with  fulvous  pubescence  fading  to 
bilky  white  along  the  margins  of  the  segments,  thus  forming  trans- 


NEIV  AND  LITTLE  KNOWN   HYMENOPTERA.  251 

verse  bands  of  white,  the  apical  segment  with  black  pubescence. 
Below  the  abdomen  is  black  finely  pitted,  with  the  margins  of  the 
segments  narrowly  testaceous. 

This  beautiful  little  bee  I  have  ventured  to  name  after  Miss  A. 
Brooke,  to  whose  kindness  I  owe  many  rare  and  beautiful  hymen- 
optera  collected  in  Kumaon. 

The  nearest  ally  to  it  is  Anthophora  fasciata  of  Fabricius,  which, 
however,  has  cinereous  and  not  fulvous  pubescence. 

24.  Xylocapa  ^stuans,  Linn. 

Apis  a^stuans,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  I.  961,  $;  Fabr.  Ent.  Syst. 
II.  323, 

Apis  Imcothorax,  De  Geer,  Mem.  III.  573.  pi.  28.  f.  7. 

Bombm  astuans,  Fabr.  Syst.  Piez.  351. 

Xylocapa  cestuans,  St  Farg.  II.  193,  J ,  $  ;  Smith,  Cat.  Hym. 
Ins.  Brit.  Mus.  II.  353. 

Xylocapa  verticaliSy  Smith,  Jour.  Linn.  Soc.  II.  48,  J ,  nee  St. 
Farg. 

Habitat:  India;  China;  Borneo;  Java;  Bali  Island ;  Sumatra ; 
Celebes  ;  Aru ;  Timor ;  Palestine  ;  Aden. 

Description  :  *'  The  female  is  black ;  the  pubescence  black  except 
that  on  the  thorax  above,  which  is  yellow,  and  does  not  extend 
beneath  the  wings;  the  wings  black-brown,  with  bright  purple 
iridescence  at  the  basal  portion,  beyond  which  it  has  a  greenish 
tinge.  The  male  is  clothed  with  yellow  pubescence ;  on  the  abdomen 
it  has  a  greenish  or  olivaceous  tinge ;  on  the  legs  it  is  greenish-yellow, 
on  the  intermediate  and  posterior  tarsi  it  is  black,  with  a  mixture  of 
yellow  outside;  the  abdomen  has  some  black  pubescence  at  the  sides 
towards  the  apex ;  the  wings  f usco-hyaline,  darkest  in  the  marginal 
cell,  with  a  purple  iridescence  in  certain  lights.  Female,  length 
eight  to  ten  lines;  of  the  male  eight  to  nine  lines. " 

25.  Xylocapa  bbyorum,  Fabr. 

Apis  hryorum^  Fabr.  Ent.  Syst.  II.  321,  $ . 
Bombus  bryorum,  Fabr.  Syst.  Piez.  348. 
Xylocapa  dimidiata,  St  Farg.  Hym.  II,  199,    $ . 
Habitat:  Australia. 

Description  :  "  This  species  very  closely  resembles  X.  CBstuanSy  in 
both    sexes;    the  female  differs  in  having  the  head  clothed  with 


252      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY    NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

cinereous  pubescence,  and  the  abdomen  has  sometimes^  but  rarely,  a 
little  yellow  pubescence  in  tbe  middle  of  the  base,  this  is  usually 
'  abraded  ;  the  wings  are  a  degree  lighter  than  in  X.  cestuans,  the  male 
scarcely  differs  from  it ;  it  is  usually  rather  larger  than  any  specimei} 
of  X.  oestuans  male,  the  posterior  tibias  are  more  incrassate,  and  the 
pubescence  on  the  tarsi  is  more  ferruginous ;  the  species  is  also  a 
degree  larger/' 

The  above  descriptions  of  two  very  closely  allied  species  of 
**  Carpenter  bees  "  are  taken  from  Smith's  Monograph  of  the  genus 
published  in  the  Trans.  Ent.  Soc.  Part  II.,  April  1874,  and  though 
not  full  and  detailed,  are  suficient  to  enable  one  to  note  the  difference 
between  the  two  species.  Both  occur  in  Burma,  but  whereas  in  Pegu 
and  Lower  Burma  generally  X.  cestuans  is  the  common  form^ 
from  Tenasserim  I  have  only  got  X.  bryorum. 


MITLES. 

By  J.  H.  Steel,  A.V.D., 

Principal,  Bombay  Veterinary  College* 

(Read  at  the  Society^ s  Meeting  on  11th  August  1890.) 
Among  animals  of  transport  the  hybrid  of  the  horse  and  the  afi» 
holds  an  honoured  place,  and  has  done  so  through  ages.  This  i» 
due  to  sterling  quaKties  which  have  enabled  him  to  overcome  pre- 
judice and  in  many  cases  force  his  way  by  proved  superiority  as  a 
baggage  animal,  by  hardihood,  strength,  independence  of  character, 
and  certain  other  good  qualities.  Thus,  he  has  now  become  an 
object  of  much  attention  from  Government  and  the  public  in  India, 
his  superiority  for  military  transport  having  been  fully  established 
in  many  a  hard-fought  campaign,  and  the  mule-breeding  industry 
is  a  lucrative  one  to  those  who  take  it  in  hand.  Several  small  books 
and  pamphlets  have  been  written  on  the  mule,  but  there  is  still  room 
for  a  larger  and  more  comprehensive  work  on  so  important  an  animal. 
The  first  point  we  have  to  decide  is,  what  is  a  ''  mule  ? "  The 
pre-eminence   among  hybrids   of  the   equine  has  caused  the  term 


MULES.  263 

*'  mule"  to  be  applied  in  a  general  as  well  as  a  special  manner. 
Thus  we  hear  of  mule  canaries — crosses  between  the  common  canary 
and  an  allied  species.  Crosses  are  not  so  uncommon  as  is  generally 
supposed.     Thus  : —       , 

(a)  The  one-humped  and  the  Bactrian  camel  are  crossed  in  Asia 
Minor^  and  the  result  is  a  hybrid  considered  most  useful  and  pre- 
ferred on  accoimt  of  vigour  of  constitution.  It  is  said  that  if  the 
dam  be  a  dromedary  and  the  sire  a  camel,  the  progeny  works  well  • 
but  if  the  dam  be  a  camel,  the  offspring  is  ill-tempered  and  in- 
tractable. 

(b)  The  Bos  taurus  and  Bos  Indicus  are  very  frequently  crossed  in 
this  country,  and  the  progeny  is  said  to  be  inferior  in  constitution  to 
the  indigenous  race,  so  it  has  not  made  much  progress.  However, 
we  have  as  yet  little  true  knowledge  concerning  this  cross. 

(c)  In  the  Himalaya  Bos  grunniens,  the  yak,  is  frequently 
crossed  with  the  common  ox  of  India  ;  and  Moorcroft,  after  telling 
us  to  use  mules  preferably  to  small  horses  for  mountain  journies, 
says :  "  For  the  Himalaya,  the  beast  that  excels  all  in  caution  and 
security  is  the  jabu  or  mule  from  the  yak  of  Tartary  and  the  cow." 
(Traveis,) 

Among  equines  we  have  the  following  recorded : — 

(a)     Ass  with  mare. 

(6)     Horse  with  female  ass. 

(c)  Zebra  with  ass  (Ann.  du  Mu8.,  VII.  245,  and  IX.   223;   F. 

Cuvier,    Hist.    Nat.   des   Mara.,   1820;    GeofFroy;  Gray's 
Ejiowsley  Gleanings). 

(d)  Zebra  with  horse.  (Ann.  du  Mus.,  XI.  237-240). 
{e)     Quagga  with  Arab  mare  (Phil.  Trans.  1821,  p.  00). 
(/)     Ass  with  Cutch  wild  ass  raare. 

{g)  Onager  with  Syrian  wild  ass  (Animals  in  Gardens  of 
Zoological  Society  of  London,  1883). 

(h)     Ass-zebra  with  mare  in  Zoological  Gardens,  London  (Darwin). 

(*)     She-mule  and  ass.     Zopyrus,  Herodotus  III.  153  long  151. 

Thus,  what  are  usually  described  as  species  are  very  commonly 
capable  of  crossing,  and  the  old  definition  of  species  does  not  hold,  or 
we  have  been  in  error  in  breaking  up  camels,  horses,  cattle,  and 
other  genera  into  various  species.     That  the  rigid  interpretation  of 


254.    JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

species  is  a  mistake  has  been  thoroughly  estabKshod  by  Darwin,  who 
has  shown  clearly  what  previously  had  been  known,  but  not  scienti- 
fically expressed,  that  the  animal  organism  ^is  'Aplastic  in  the  hand 
of  man/*  Nature  seldom  resorts  to  abrupt  changes  in  development ; 
usually  progress  is  gradual  in  the  extreme,  and  the  results  the  more 
sure.  One  of  the  essentials  to  organic  development  is  a  limitation 
of  the  power  of  inter-  crossing  ;  and  the  germ  of  the  physiological, 
anatomical,  and  other  characters  of  a  species  opposes  the  production 
of  distant  hybrids.  However,  no  two  individuals  are  alike  ;  variety- 
does  not  appreciably  impede  crossing ;  and  the  allied  species  of  a 
group  even  are  capable  of  producing  hybrids.  There  is  no  abrupt 
line  to  be  drawn  by  science  in  this  matter  of  crossing,  no  hard  and 
fast  boundary,  but  there  is  a  tide  mark  of  a  certain  range,  and 
within  the  limits  of  that  range  the  result  of  crossing  is  doubtful ; 
inside  the  range  crossing  is  certain ;  outside  it  is  impossible,  although, 
certain  most  extraordinary  "  yams"  of  crossing  most  diverse  species 
have  from  time  to  time  gained  acceptance  from  the  public,  and 
occasionally  from  scientific  workers.  Crosses  actually  occur  in 
nature.  For  example,  Prejevalsky  in  Thibet  saw  among  other  wild 
equines,  mules,  and  his  observations  agree  with  those  of  previous 
travellers,  and  should  permanently  dispel  the  view  that  mule-breeding* 
is  unnatural  and  contrary  to  divine  laws,  which  is  occasionally  an 
impediment  to  its  expansion  in  this  country  and  elsewhere. 

The  infertility  of  hybrids  is  well  exemplified  in  the  case  of  mules, 
for  it  is  almost  invariably  a  fact  with  them.  Although  a  few  cases  are 
on  record  in  which  the  he-mule  has  begotten  progeny  and  the 
female  has  come  in  foal,  I  know  of  no  authenticated  instance  of 
a  foal  being  born  with  a  mule  for  its  sire  and  another  mule  for  its 
dam.  "  When  mules  breed,"  was  the  favourite  expression  among  the 
Roman  soothsayers  to  indicate  hopelessness  as  to  the  issue  of  occur- 
rence of  events,  and  yet  in  history  there  have  been  occasions  when 
mules  did  breed.  These  are  for  the  most  part  pure  fables,  but 
they  indicate  a  general  impression  that  such  an  extraordinary  event 
does  occasionally  come  o£E,  now  and  again  in  a  long  lapse  of  ages. 

One  of  the  most  energetically  discussed  problems  of  the  present 
day  is  the  question  of  degrees  of  hereditary  transmission  from  the 
parents  respectively  and   from  other  ancestors.     It  is  a  matter  of 


UULES,  25  5 

general  obeervation  that  in  features  some  children  take  after  the 
father,  and  others  after  the  mother — and  statistics  have  been  drawn 
up  to  elucidate  the  rule  which  underlies  this  phenomenon.  Th** 
result  is  much  discussion  and  various  theories.  A  studv  of  mules 
promises  to  throw  a  great  deal  of  light  on  the  matter,  for  the  differ- 
ence in  species  of  the  parents  makes  their  Ri)ccitic  cliaracters  dintinc- 
tive.  We  know  there  is  a  markerl  difference  between  the  inte  mulr 
or  progeny  of  a  donkey  sire  and  a  mare  on  the  one  hand,  and  th«» 
'  ki)my  or  progeny  of  a  horse  and  a  femalo  donkey.  Botli  present  a 
mixture  of  cabaline  (/.<?.,  true  horse)  eharactc^rn  and  asinine — but 
the  mixture  is  in  different  proportions.  The  siz.e  of  the  femah* 
parent  is  followed,  and  as  a  rule  the  shape  of  the  male ;  yet  then' 
seems  a  specially  strong  determination  to  inherit  from  the  ass. 
Thus  the  large  ears,  tufted  tail,  donkey  marks,  colour,  narrow  hoofs, 
hog  mane,  obstinate  temper,  low  forehand,  big  head,  and  scanty  lieck. 
are  as  seen  in  the  ass.  These  characters  an»,  however,  diluted  as  it 
were  by  the  cross,  and  not  to  be  considered  as  entirely  uninfhien(^e<l, 
and  all  stages  of  transition  are,  in  different  (!ases,  thougli  not  in  the 
same  individual,  found  beween  cabaline  and  asinine?  characters  in 
the  mule.  We  need  some  exact  observations  and  measurements  of 
mules,  which  some  of  our  members  who  are  Transjx)rt  Officers  up- 
e^untry  could  very  readily  furnish  us  with,  and  which  would 
have  high  scientific  value.  Such  observations  have  to  a  limited  degree 
been  applied  to  the  skeleton,  and  it  is  remarkable  how  the  facts  just 
mentioned  apply  to  the  internal  as  well  as  the  external  stnu^tures. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  stronf?  influence  of  hcreditv  on  both 
sides  ;  but  it  is  the  relative  degree  of  the  respective  hercnlities  which 
we  wish  to  get  at. 

An  extraordinary  influence  is  exerted  on  the  system  of  the  man* 
by  becoming  the  mother  of  a  mule,  in  so  far  as  her  progeny  in  the 
future  is  liable  to  a  taint  indicated  by  asinine  characters  cropping  up. 
Thus  no  brood  mare  of  high  value  should  be  made  to  throw  a  mule — 
a  fact  well  established  by  the  experiment  made  by  Lord  Morton  of 
crossing  a  mare  of  pure  blood  with  a  quagga.  It  is  probably  not 
quite  realised  in  our  social  relations  that  one  may  naturally  resemble 
his  step-father,  yet  such  is  quite  possible  to  the  progeny  of  a  second 
marriage. 

34 


256    JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

Mules  have  an  extraordinary  number  of  peculiarities  wldeli 
may.  be  considered  distinctively  their  own.  These  are  a  matter 
of  common  experience  and  do  not  always  favourably  impress  people 
who  have  to  do  with  them,  as  is  shown  by  the  •  common  sayings, 
**  Vicious  as  a  mule,''  "Obstinate  as  a  mule,'*  and  so  on.  Among 
equines,  mules  are  characterised  by  a  peculiar  mental  distortion, 
"crankiness,"  as  it  may  be  termed,  which  sometimes  proves  very 
embarrassing  to  those  who,  accustomed  to  horses  or  even  donkeys, 
have  to  deal  with  mules,  for  the  first  time.  "Writers  on  travels  record 
some  of  these.     Galton,  for  example,  says : — 

"  Mules  require  men  who  know  their  habits  ;  they  are  powerful 
beasts,  and  can  only  be  mastered  with  skill  and  address.  A  savage 
usually  fears  their  heels,  and  will  not  assist  in  packing  them.  They 
have  odd  secret  ways,  strange  fancies,  and  lurking  vice.  When 
they  stray  they  go  immense  distances,  and  it  is  almost  beyond  the 
power  of  man  on  foot  to  tend  them  in  a  wild  country.  The  female 
is  in  most  breeds  the  most  docile.  They  suffer  from  African  distem- 
per, but  in  a  less  degree  than  horses."     And  again  : 

"  The  instincts  of  the  mulish  heart  form  an  interesting  study  to 
the  traveller  in  the  mountains.  I  would  liken  it  to  a  woman's,  for 
it  is  quite  as  uncertain  in  its  sympathies,  bestowing  its  affections 
when  least  expected,  and  when  bestowed  quite  as  constant,  so  long 
as  the  object  is  not  taken  away.^'  It  is  customary  to  have  a  horse  in 
the  mule  train  of  the  traders  of  Northern  Mexico,  as  a  sort  of  mag- 
net to  keep  together  the  separate  atoms  of  the  train,  for,  whatever  the 
temptation,  they  will  never  stray  from  him  (Taylor* s  Eldorado), 

From  personal  observation  I  quite  agree  that  mules  are  animals 
of  which  one  can  get  very  fond,  that  they  take  an  intelligent  intefrest 
in  what  is  going  on  around,  and  are  rarely  troublesome  when  they 
know  what  is  expected  of  them.  A  mule  must  not  be  handled  like  a 
horse,  his  long  ear  and  narrow  jaw  against  the  tushes  give  excellent 
hold  of  the  head.  He  strikes  cleverly  with  his  fore-feet.  Such,  then, 
are  some  of  the  questions  which  hinge  round  the  subject  of  mules. 
Let  us  next  proceed  to  consider  some  practical  matters  as  regards 
these  most  interesting  animals. 

Premature  birth  is  said  to  be  frequent  in  mule-breeding,  though 
the  mule,  as  a  rule,  is  carried  longer  than  an  ordinary  horse  foal  by 


MULES.  257 

the  mare.     Although  fecundation  of  the  hybrid  female  by  the  ass  or 
horse  is  not  rare,  abortion  generally  occurs. 

There  is  often  no  anatomical  or  physiological  reason  why  a  mule 
should  not  breed,  but  generally  there  is  a  very  imperfect  develop- 
ment of  the  requisite  parts. 

The  hinny  is  generally  much  inferior  in  useful  qualities  to  the 
true  mule,  its  tail  is  more  like  that  of  a  horse,  its  ears  shorter,  and 
its  shape  equine. 

The  voice  of  the  mule  is  neither  that  of  the  horse  nor  of  the  asSf 
but^  a  queer,  shrill,  feeble,  and  hoarse  sound ;  a  chorus  of  mules  wel- 
coming the  call  to  '^  feed''  is  most  comical. 

The  following  points  in  description  of  hybrids  are  interesting, 
often  as  indicating  tendency  to  reversion  to  original  type  :— • 

{a)  The  hybrid  ass  zebra  and  mare  when  young  had  shoulder, 
flank,  and  leg  stripes,  but  when  adult  hardly  any  stripes.  (Darwin's 
Variation  under  domestication  of  Plants  and  Animals,    ii.  p.  68,  note.) 

(b)  The  cross  of  the  zebra  with  the  ass  has  his  legs  very  striped. 

{c)  Lord  Morton's  celebrated  cross  of  a  quagga  with  an  Arab 
mare  had  the  legs  more  striped  than  the  quagga.  ( Philosophical 
Transactions 9  1821,  p.  20.) 

{d)  The  same  mare  threw  two  foals  by  a  black  Arab  sire^  which 
colts  had  striped  legs,  and  one  had  stripes  also  on  the  body. 

(e)  The  cross  of  a  wild  ass  of  Cutch  with  a  male  ass  had  all 
four  legs  transversely  and  conspicuously  striped,  three  short  stripes 
on  each  shoulder  and  zebra  stripes  on  the  face. 

(/)  A  second  specimen  of  the  same  breeding  was  similarly  marked. 

{g)  Mules  have  generally  their  legs  more  striped  than  horses  or 
asses. 

The  next  point  I  will  draw  attention  to  is  the  sources  of  supply. 
Mules  come  from  very  many  parts  of  the  world.  In  North  and 
South  America  they  are  bred  extensively,  those  of  Kentucky,  Minne- 
sota, and  Missouri  being  well  known.  The  Mexican  mules,  resulting 
from  the  ass  crossing  with  mustang  mares,  also  have  a  good  reputa- 
tion. In  Europe,  France,  Spain,  and  Italy  are  the  main  source  of 
supply,  those  derived  from  Poitou  being  especially  fine  ;  North  and 
South  Africa,  Asia  Minor,  Cyprus,  Syria,  and  Persia,  also  China, 
may  be  included  in  the  list  of  places  whence  mules  may  be  obtained. 


258      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

I  would  here  call  attention  to  the  most  significant  fact  that  the 
best  places  for  mules  are   those  \ohich  are  not  renotcned  for  good  horses. 
This  must  be  taken   as  a  note  of  warning  for  those  who  are  most 
anxious  to  expand  mule-breeding  operations  in   Beloochistan  and 
the  Punjab,  where  the  best  Indian  horses  come  from.   Mule-breeding 
pays  probably  better  than  horse-breeding,  for  [although  it  is  consid- 
ered less  certain  (2:3)]  the  (mule)    progeny  require  less  trouble  in 
rearing,  and  are  bought  at  high  price.  Every  mare  suitable  for  horse- 
breeding  but  told  off  to  produce  a  mule,  is  a  loss  to  the  country,  per- 
manently for  the  former  purpose,  but  only  temporarily  a  gain  for  the 
latter.    The  mule  is  a  working  animal  and  nothing  more,  the  foal  is  a 
possible  progenitor  of  future  horses.  And,  moreover,  we  have  seen  that 
the  offspring  is  liable  to  be  influenced  by  the  step  sire,  so  that  the  mare's 
value  for  horse-breeding  is  permanently  damaged.     We  infer,  then, 
that   the  use  of  sound  brood  mares  for  mule  production  is  to  be 
greatly  discountenanced  and  not  encouraged,  and  that  the  best  horse- 
breeding  districts  are  the  last  which  should  be  encouraged  to  breed 
mules.  The  latter   industry  is  altogether  secondary  to  the  former, 
and  should  occupy  only  rejected  mares.     And  yet  a  careful  perusal 
of  the  official  returns  on  the  subject  clearly  manifests  that,  finding 
mule-breeding  more  profitable,  owners  who  used  to  breed  horses  or 
ponies  are  now  breeding  mules,    and  possibly  in  the  near  future  it 
will  be  necessary  to  draw  a  leaf  out  of  the  records  of  the  French  Stud 
Department,  whichhad  to  adopt  measures  to  repress  mule-breeding. 
I  contend  that  mules  should  be  obtained,  when  possible,  by  import- 
ation and  that  there  is  no  objection  whatever  to  State  stud  operations 
for  this  industry,  if  it  can  be   made  worth  while ;  but,  far  from  it 
being  promoted  in  the  best  horse  and  pony-breeding    countries,   it 
ought  to  be  discouraged  there  as  much  as  possible,   and  only  mares 
rejected  absolutely  for  horse  sires  should  be  put  to  Government  ass 
stallions.     Experience  shows  that  there  is  ample  field  for  mule  pur- 
chasing abroad,  and  it  is  probable  this  would  be  found  less  expensive 
than  mule  production  in  this  country,   but  even  here  there  are  large 
tracts  of  country  which  might  be  exploited  for  mule-breeding.  Almost 
all  the  Madras  Presidency,  Lower  Bengal,  and  Burma,  which  supply 
no  horses  and  few  ponies,  might,  if  judged  worth  while,  be  exploited 
for  mules,  but  the  Punjab,    Kathiawar,    Beloochistan,   and  the  Shan 


MULES.  250 

States  are,  in  my  humble  opinion,  places  where  the  indigenous  and 
flourishing  horse-breeding  industry  should  be  encouraged  by  Govern- 
ment as  much  as  is  compatible  with  retention  of  private  zejil  in  this 
direction.  The  Government  Department  of  IIorse-Breeding  Opera- 
tions strives  to  develop  to  the  utmost  all  the  horse-producing  resources 
of  the  country,  recognises  that  the  ways  and  places  of  mule-breeding 
are  not  those  of  horse-breeding  in  the  majority  of  cases,  and  subor- 
dinates in  all  cases  mule-breeding  to  horse  and  pony-breeding  In 
many  places  donkeys  are  placed  for  use  where  the  mares  are  below 
the  horse  standard,  and  in  other  places  where  mares  are  of  low  class 
donkeys  only  are  placed  ;  a  man  must  have  his  mare  brande<l  as  f/ooti 
enough  if  he  wants  to  use  her  for  horse-breeding ;  but  there  is,  I 
believe,  no  regulation  under  wliich  a  mare  must  be  brandixl  as  fnn/ 
enough  for  mule-breeding,  surely  a  necessary  precauti(m  whiTc  mule 
foals  will  sell  for  more  than  horse  or  pony  foals  ! 

Fortunately,  many  a  mare  unsuitable  to  ordinary  horse  duties 
has  qualities  which  suit  her  well  for  mule-brooding.  Mulcts  are 
not  used  for  racing  or  other  fast  work,  not  mucli  for  lieavy  draught, 
and  never  to  draw  guns  or  mount  lioavy  cavalry.  l>ut  th(»y  are 
needed  for  light  draught  and  pack  purposes,  and  for  tliosi^ 
their  flat  sides,  sluggish  temperaments,  stolidity,  endunmce,  and 
power  of  resisting  diseases  well  suit  tlioni.  A  good  niulo  would  1k»  a 
very  bad  horse  in  the  mijority  of  cases.  Thus  many  very  ugly  maros 
are  well  suited  to  throw  mule  foals,  and  in  niulo-breodingtlic  (juostion 
of  unsoundness  is  not  so  important  as  in  horso-breoding  for  it  soonis 
that  unsoimdnesses  are  not  readily  transmitted  to  mule  olfspring,  and, 
further,  we  know  that  they  will  not,  even  if  they  reduce  the  value  of 
the  individual,  deteriorate  the  race. 

The  qualities  of  the  mule  admirably  adapt  him  for  his  place  in 
life.  The  French  in  Algeria,  found  liim  very  sure-footed,  strong  of 
limb,  hard  of  hoof  (which  does  not,  like  that  of  the  horse,  dry  up 
under  the  influence  of  heat),  with  step  even  and  as  long  as  that  of 
the  horse,  a  remarkable  power,  of  ascending  and  descending  steep 
places  and  of  cleverly  turning  sharp  corners,  sure  on  the  worst  of 
roads,  quiet,  easy  to  please  as  regards  food,  tolerant  of  heat  and 
thirst,  requiring  drink  less  often  and  less  in  amount  than  the  horse, 
more  intelligent  than  we  generally  consider,  and  quite  susceptible  of 


260      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

attachments  and  amenable  to  good  treatment,  they  conclude  that  he 
is  a  model  animal  of  transport.  He  can  be  ridden,  driven,  or  used 
for  pack  purposes ;  his  flesh  is  edible  and  not  unpleasant  to  the  taste  ; 
he  will  carry  small  guns  and  sick  men.  He  gives  little  trouble  over 
shoeing  and  may  be  left  unshod,  behind  especially,  for  a  long  time 
without  detriment.  He  is  rather  choice  in  his  selection  of  water, 
and  moist  cold  weather  is  unsuited  to  him ;  though  he  exhibits  a 
notable  freedom  from  disease,  he  suffers  severely  from  some  specific 
affections.  He  works  longer  than  the  horse  ( 5  years  of  age  to 
15-20  years),  but  takes  somewhat  longer  to  mature.  He  inherits  .the 
**  sobriety,  patience,  endurance,  and  sure-footedness  of  the  ass  and 
the  vigour,  strength,  and  courage  of  the  horse"  (Fleming).  Making 
allowance  for  size,  he  carries  a  weight  one-third  again  as  large  as 
that  of  the  horse,  so  he  is  essentially  a  pack  animal. 

Somewhat  of  the  unjust  opprobrium  which  hangs  in  "Western  coun- 
tries about  his  progenitor  the  ass  still  influences  the  popular  views 
on  the  mule.  In  this  age  of  utility,  however,  this  is  being  steadily 
"lived  down,"  and  any  man  who  has  been  on  a  campaign  with  a 
mixed  transport  of  mules,  camels,  cattle,  elephants,  and  carts  will 
not  hesitate  to  put  in  a  good  word  for  the  interesting  hybrid  to  which 
I  have  ventured  to  draw  your  attention  briefly  this  evening. 


NOTES  ON  THE  LAUYM  AND  VVPM  OP  SOME  OF 
THE  BUTTERFLIES  OF  THE  BOMBAY  PRESIDENCY. 

By  J.  Davidson,  Bo*  C.S.,  and  E.  H»  Aitken. 

{With  Plates  A,  B,  and  C.) 

Finding  ourselves  together  at  the  beginning  of  last  rains  in  a 
region  richer  entomologically  than  any  of  which  either  of  us  had 
had  any  experience  before,  we  determined  to  devote  the  monsoon 
months  to  the  study  of  butterflies,  inore  especially  in  their  infancy 
and  youth.  We  were  successful  beyond  our  wildest  hopes.  Forest- 
covered  hills  were  within  a  mile  of  our  doors,  the  climate  seemed 


Jourr.  Somb.K^t   ti-.A   .-ioc.  1S5C  .  Vol  'J. 


1. Bomb. Nat  Hi,-=t.So<^!BSJ  7r-l   V 


-'-'       1 


THE  LARVJS  AND  PUPjE  OF  BUTTERFLIES.  261 

unaccountably  favourable  to  bodily  exertion,  a  rainfall  of  nearly  200 
inches  distributed  itself  so  judiciously  that  it  offered  little  obstruction 
to  whole-day  excursions ;  and,  lastly,  the  season  was  apparently  an 
unusually  good  one  for  larvae  of  all  kinds.  We  also  had  an  advan- 
tage in  the  fact  that  catching  butterflies  has  been  for  many  years 
common  in  Karwar,  and  those  Europeans,  who  were  not  collectors 
themselves,  far  from  pointing  at  us  the  finger  of  scorn,  used  to  send 
us  all  sorts  of  flying  and  creeping  things  found  about  their  bungalows. 
Even  the  cultivators  around  were  accustomed  to  the  sight  of  "Saheb 
lok"  rushing  about  their  fields  and  gardens  flourishing  nets,  and  did  not 
at  once  warn  us  off  the  premises  as  has  been  our  experience  at  home  in 
bygone  years.  "We  can  never  forget  our  chase  after  about  the  first 
"  Clouded- Yellow  "  we  had  seen.  It  was  down  inSurrey,  and  after  a  long 
chase  along  the  edge  of  a  hay-field  we  had  just  got  within  reach,  when 
we  were  stopped  by  three  men,  the  leader  of  whom  promptly  stated  that 
he  had  seen  many  blank  fools  in  his  life,  but  never  such  a  blank  one 
as  our  unfortunate  selves,  and  that  such  blank  folly  should  at  any 
rate  not  go  on  in  his  fields.  We  humbly  apologized,  and  he  turned 
out  a  good  sort,  but  alas  !  that  Colias  ediisa  never  appeared  in  our 
collection.  Here  we  had  no  such  experiences,  and  except  one 
Brahman  who  deliberately  destroyed  a  creeper  in  his  hedge  to  prevent 
us  taking  leaves  to  feed  some  caterpillars  of  Parthenos  virens,  no 
instance  of  churlishness  has  at  any  time  come  to  our  notice.  We 
determined  at  first  to  paint  all  the  butterfly  caterpillars  we  could  get, 
but  had  very  soon  to  abandon  that  thought.  Finding,  feeding  and 
tending  took  up  all  our  leisure  time.  We  had  little  reason,  however, 
to  regret  this,  for  Mrs.  Blathwayt  came  to  our  aid  with  an  artistic 
skill  to  which  we  could  make  no  pretence  and  a  naturalist's  eye  for 
anatomy  and  attitude.  By  the  end  of  the  monsoon  we  found  that 
we  had  reared  nearly  seventy  species  of  butterfly  larva),  of  which 
more  than  half  were  new  to  us,  and  some,  as  far  as  we  know,  have 
not  hitherto  been  described.  We  had  written  careful  descriptions 
and  noted  peculiarities  of  habit,  and  in  nearly  every  case,  with  the 
kind  help  of  Mr.  W.  A.  Talbot  of  the  Forest  Department,  an  accom- 
plished botanist,  we  had  identified  the  food-plant.  In  the  hope  of 
helping  others  in  a  most  delightful  and  interesting  pursuit  and  per- 
haps encouraging  some  to  take  it  up  who  have  not  yet  done  so,  we 


m    JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

have  agreed  to  pubKsh  our  notes,  "We  are  fully  conselous  of  their 
leanness,  but  cannot  help  it.  Observations  begun  and  ended  in  one 
season  must  be  crude,  and  notes  jotted  down  in  the  midst  of  red-tape, 
fuchsine  and  foolscap  must  be  arid.  But  the  conditions  of  life  in 
India  are  such  that,  if  a  thing  is  not  done  now,  it  stands  little  chance 
of  being  done  at  all.  We  can  only  ask  our  readers  to  "  keep  kind." 
With  the  view,  however,  of  making  this  paper  as  complete  as  we 
can,  we  have  added  a  number  of  species  which  we  have,  at  some  time 
or  other,  reared  in  other  parts  of  India ;  but  we  have  inserted  nothing 
on  the  authority  of  others.  Of  course,  many  of  the  species  here 
described  have  been  described  before  ;  but  in  the  first  place  these 
descriptions  are  often  not  easily  available,  in  the  second  place 
caterpillars  vary  a  good  deal  in  different  localities  and  the  published 
descri{)tions  do  not  always  accord  with  our  observations,  and  in  the 
last  place,  Indian  entomology  has  not  yet  got  beyond  the  stage  at 
which  cumulative  and  corroborative  evidence  is  of  value. 

A  few  words  on  the  study  of  larvae.  We  wish  it  were  more  in 
favour  than  it  is.  It  need  scarcely  be  said  that  the  classification 
of  butterflies  can  never  be  put  on  a  sound  basis  without  a  knowledge 
of  them  in  all  their  stages.  There  are  also  many  curious  questions, 
which  puzzle  every  collector,  which  can  never  be  answered  except 
by  rearing  from  the  egg ;  the  imexplained  fact,  for  example,  that 
the  females  of  some  species  are  so  scarce  and  the  males  so  plentiful. 
In  some  cases  this  is  explained,  partially  at  least,  by  a  difference  in 
the  habits  of  the  two  sexes.  In  the  genera  Charaxes  and  Apatura 
the  males  bask  on  high  trees  during  the  hottest  hours  of  the  day, 
and  may  always  be  found  by  one  who  knows  where  to  look  for 
them :  the  females  do  not  bask,  and  the  one  who  knows  where  to  look 
for  them  is  yet  unborn.  But  other  cases  cannot  be  so  explained. 
Of  Papilio  tamilana  last  season  we  caught  fifty  males  and  one  broken 
female.  Our  observations  have  been  too  limited  to  allow  us  to 
generalise  with  safety,  but  we  are  inclined  to  think  that  in  some 
species  many  more  males  than  females  are  produced.  Out  of  a 
large  number  of  larvae  of  EuthaUa  lubentina  only  a  few  female 
butterflies  were  obtained :  in  U,  gai^da  there  was  no  such  disparity. 
In  the  case  of  P. polyrnnestor  about  two-thirds  were  males..  Experi- 
ments on  a  large  scale  with  one  or  two  species  would  clear  up  this 


THE  LARVjE  and  PUP^  OF  BUTTERFLIES,  263 

point.     Then  there  is  the  question  of  broods,  which  can  never  be 

cleared   up  without   rearing.     Here   again   we   have   not  collected 

sufficient  evidence  to  speak  with  confidence,  but  we  are  satisfied  that 

Mr.  Doherty's  theory  of  two  wet-season  and  two  dry-season  broods 

is  not  the  rule  in  this  district :  we  doubt  if  it  is  even  the  exception. 

In  the  case  of  a  great  many,  perhaps  the  majority,  of  species,  larvaa 

are  found  plentifully  in  June  or  July,  that  is,  a  short  time  after  the 

monsoon  bursts  and  vegetation  starts  into  growth.  These  become  pupae, 

and  for  a  time  not  a  larva  is  to  be  seen ;  then  the  butterflies  of  that 

brood  emerge  and  lay  their  eggs  and  larva  begin  to  appear  again, 

but  this   time  they  continue  for  two  or  three  months,  in  some  cases 

until  the  end  of  the  year.     Then  they  cease  and  the  butterflies  also 

disappear,  but  a   number  of  pupae,  and  perhaps  eggs,   remain,  to 

start  into  life  when  conditions  are  again  favourable,  which  will  be 

in  March  if  the  food-plant  sprouts  then,  otherwise  in  June.    Of  these 

dormant  pupa)  a  few  come  out  at  odd  times,  but  the  butterflies  thus 

sent  into  the  world  out  of  season  doubtless  perish  without  offspring. 

This  seems  to  be  something  like  the  order  of  events  with  many  of  the 

common  species  oiPapUio,  the IJffnainrv,  the  JuiioniaSy  and  others;  but 

there  are  many  species  which  do  not  follow  this  rule,  and  some  seem  to 

have  only  one  short  season  in  the  year.  Illustrations  will  be  found  in 

the  notes. 

A  few  hints  on  collecting  and  keeping  caterpillars  may  be  useful 

to  beginners.     Lepidopterous  larvae  are,  with  few  exceptions,  purely 

herbivorous,  and  there  is  scarcely  any  form  of  growing  vegetation 

which  does  not   support   one    species   or   another,    from    the  tough 

fronds  of  the  palm  to  the  lichen  or  moss  on  its  trunk;  but  one  who 

hunts  among  leaves   promiscuously  will  not  get  much  for  his  pains. 

There  are  several  indications  which  guide  the  experienced  hunter. 

The   first    is    "eating:"  a  freshly    eaten   leaf   soon   catches  the  eye. 

Unfortunately  many  things  besides  butterfly  caterpillars  eat  leaves, 

but  by  practice   one   soon   learns   to   diagnose   **eating"  with  some 

certainty.     For  instance,  if  half  a  leaf  has  been  eaten  in  one  place 

and  half  a  leaf  in  another,  it  may  safely  be  set  down  to  one  of  the 

locust  tribe,  to  which  it  is  a  light  matter  to  hop  from  one  branch  to 

another:  a  caterpillar  will  eat  in  one  place  and  will  generally  be 

found  not  far  away.     If  a  leaf  is  riddled  with  holes  we  may  conclude 
33 


264    JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

that  a  small  beetle  or  lady-bird  has  been  at  work:  a  caterpillar  usually 
eats  from  the  edge.  The  eating  of  a  full-grown  Sphynx  larva  may 
easily  be  mistaken  for  that  of  a  goat ;  but  when  hunting  for  butterfly 
larva)  we  are  not  liable  to  this  error.  When  the  eating  is  traced  to  a 
caterpillar  the  chances  are  that  it  is  that  of  a  moth ;  but  if  the 
depredator  is  found  there  is  not  much  difficulty  in  distinguishing  the 
two.  Another,  more  certain,  indication  of  the  whereabouts  of  a 
caterpillar  is  its  droppings,  but  these  will  only  be  seen  on  clean 
ground. 

The  caterpillars  of  most  butterflies  confine  themselves  to  one 
plant,  or  to  two  or  three  which  are  closely  allied,  and  even  when  two 
very  different  plants  are  commonly  eaten  by  the  same  species,  a 
caterpillar  taken  on  one  will  usually  refuse  any  of  the  others.  Allied 
butterflies  commonly  feed  on  plants  or  trees  of  the  same  order,  and 
a  knowledge  of  botany,  besides  guiding  the  lepidopterist's  search, 
adds  very  much  to  the  interest  of  his  pursuit.  A  knowledge  of 
habits  will  also  help  the  collector.  He  wiU  soon  learn  that  it  is 
useless  to  look  under  a  leaf  for  a  Papilio,  or  to  look  anywhere  else 
for  a  Eiiplcca,  He  will  also  acquire,  as  a  bird-nester  does,  an 
instinctive  knowledge  of  likely  situations.  A  butterfly,  for  instance, 
will  pass  over  a  dozen  trees  and  lay  its  eggs  on  a  young  shoot 
springing  up  in  the  middle  of  the  path.  The  most  valuable 
discoveries  are  often  made  by  seeing  a  butterfly  laying  its  eggs. 
Nearly  all  butterflies,  unlike  moths,  lay  their  eggs  singly,  on 
young  branches  with  tender  shoots ;  and  so,  when  you  see  a  butterfly 
persistently  hovering  round  a  tree  or  bush  without  flowers,  you 
may  guess  its  purpose.  After  a  time  it  will  alight  just  long  enough 
to  affix  one  egg,  and  then  fly  off  again,  and  if  you  mark  the  spot 
carefully,  you  may  secure  the  egg. 

"We  are  assuming  that  the  collector  hunts  in  person,  but  a  good 
deal  may  also  be  done  by  the  help  of  natives.  At  the  beginning 
of  last  season  we  used  to  be  accompanied  by  three  or  four  boys, 
who  carried  spare  nets,  caterpillar  boxes,  &c.  A  more  unpromising 
squad  can  scarcely  be  conceived — unclothed,  unwashed,  unintelligent, 
unambitious,  refusing  to  admit  that  they  coidd  recognise  a  single 
tree  lest  they  might  be  sent  to  fetch  leaves.  We  always  addressed 
them  endearingly  as  *'  pigs,"  and  they  seemed  proud  of  the  name 


THE  LARVM  AND  PUPM  OF  BUTTERFLIES.  26d 

and  tried  to  live  up  to  it.  By  degrees  intelligence  dawned,  Tkey 
began  to  recognise  not  only  leaves,  but  caterpillars^  and  to  hunt 
for  them.  Then  the  contagion  of  their  example  seized  the  other 
boys  of  the  town.  Droves  of  "wild  pigs*'  began  to  come  in  with 
insects  of  all  kinds,  arousing  the  jealousy  and  rage  of  our  own  tame 
pigs.  The  day&  were  spent  in  examining  and  throwing  away 
bushels  of  crawling  things,  but  in  this  way  we  got  some  of  our 
most  valuable  caterpillars. 

In  rearing  caterpillars  the  main  point  to  be  kept  in  mind  is  that 
they  must  have  a  constant  supply  of  fresh  food.  If  they  feed  on  a 
leaf  which  does  not  wither  soon,  the  task  is  easy.  Any  box  will  do, 
only  it  must  admit  light  if  the  caterpillar  is  one  of  those  kinds  which 
will  not  feed  in  the  dark.  We  reared  most  of  ours  in  cages  with  a 
frame-work  of  wood  and  gauze  sides.  But  most  leaves,  especially  in 
dry  weather,  must  be  kept  standing  in  water.  In  this  case,  the  bottle 
in  which  they  stand  must  be  carefully  plugged  with  cotton,  or  else 
your  intelligent  caterpillar  will  walk  straight  down  into  the  water, 
expecting  to  get  out  at  the  bottom,  and  then  stay  there  till  it  drowns. 
Many  caterpillars  wiU  wander  from  their  leaves  if  they  possibly  can, 
and  very  small  ones  are  easily  lost  in  this  way.  The  best  remedy 
is  to  keep  all  minute,  or  restless,  kinds  in  a  bottle,  tightly  corked. 
Give  up  all  old-fashioned  notions  about  fresh  air :  there  is  enough 
of  oxygen  in  a  2  oz.  phial  to  last  a  small  caterpillar  its  lifetime. 
Leaves  thus  corked  up  keep  fresh  for  many  days,  which  is  a  great 
advantage,  for  caterpillars  dislike  being  handled,  and  some  kinds, 
which  weave  a  carpet  of  silk  for  their  feet,  suffer  very  much  in 
being  moved  from  one  leaf  to  another.  The  chief  dangers  to  be 
guarded  against  in  a  bottle  are  damp,  dirt,  and  their  consequence, 
mould.  One  other  precept — caterpillars  must  on  no  account  bo 
touched  when  they  retire  to  cast  their  skins  or  to  change  into  the 
chrysalis  state.  For  the  rest,  the  caterpillar  fancier's  i?iotto  must 
be  "Experientia  does  it." 

NYMPHALIDiE. 

Subfamily  Danain^e. 

The  larvae  of  this  subfamily  usually  rest  on  the  underside  of  a 
leaf,  seeking  no  protection,  and  are  for  the  most  part  conspicuously 


266      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

coloured.     They  feed  generally,  if  not  always,  on  plants  having  a 
milky  juice,  such  as  those  of  the  orders  Asclepiadeacce  and  Apocynacece, 

1.     Danais  chri/sippus,  Linnaeus. 

This  familiar  larva  will  be  found  carefully  described  in  Mar- 
shall and  de  Niceville's  book.  In  Canara  it  is  comparatively  rare,  at 
least  on  the  coast ;  but  everywhere  else  in  the  Presidency  it  may 
be  found  at  almost  any  time  of  the  year  on  the  common  "  Madar  " 
(Callotropis)  :  we  have  got  it  on  nothing  else. 

2.     D,  aglcea,  Cramer. 

We  found  this  at  Lanowlie  in  October  feeding  on  Tylophora  car- 
nosa  and  met  with  it  again  in  the  same  month  at  Karwar.  It  is 
a  beautiful  larva,  of  the  usual  Danais  form,  with  only  two  pairs  of 
filaments,  of  a  rich  brown  or  claret  colour,  with  a  pair  of  round 
yellow  spots  on  each  segment,  and  between  these  numerous,  much 
smaller,  bluish- white  spots ;  on  the  sides  the  spots  are  gathered  into 
a  conspicuous  longitudinal  stripe  just  above  the  legs ;  the  under  parts 
are  black.  The  pupa  is  of  the  usual  form  and  of  a  greenish-yellow 
colour,  with  gold  spots  and  beaded  ring ;  but  probably  it  varies  much. 

Note. — In  Marshall  and  de  Nic^ville's  book  this  species  appears    under  the  name 
J),  grammica, 

3.  D.  limniace,  Cramer. 

This  also  was  found  at  Lanowlie  in  October,  feeding  on  a  wild 
species  of  wax-plant  {Hoi/a  viridiflora).  We  reared  it  in  Karwar 
on  a  different  plant  in  June.  It  was  very  abundant  in  that  month, 
then  seemed  to  disappear  for  two  months,  when  it  reappeared  in 
smaller  numbers.  The  larva  and  pupa  have  been  described  by 
Messrs.  Marshall  and  de  Nic^ville.  (Since  these  notes  were  written 
Mr.  de  Niceville  has  examined  some  of  our  specimens,  and  considers 
them  nearer  to  D.  septentrionis  than  D.  limniace.  Will  not  Mr. 
Moore  or  somebody  discriminate  the  Canara  form  ?  2).  limnittHonis 
would  be  a  good  name  ! ) 

4.  JSujyloea  core,  Cramer. 

This  larva  also  has  been  accurately  described  by  Messrs.  Marshall 
and  de  Niceville.  To  their  description  of  the  pupa  we  may  add  that 
its  colour  is  veiy  variable,  the  commonest  hue  in  this  Presidency 


THE  LARVJS  AND  PUPjE  OF  BUTTERFLIES.  267 

being  that  of  burnished  silver,  or  sometimes  gold,  with  or  without 
broad  black  lines  defining  the  wing-cases.  The  larva  may  be  found 
at  almost  any  season,  feeding  in  gardens  on  oleander  and  in  the  jungle 
on  different  species  of  Ficus  and  other  trees ;  but  never  have  we 
seen  it  in  such  numbers  as  in  Karwar  in  June  1889.  It  almost 
amounted  to  a  plague.  During  the  following  month  it  disappeared, 
but  was  found  again  from  August  onward. 

Subfamily  Satyrin.'e. 

5.     M//calesis  mmidatay  Moore.    Plate  A,  Figs.  1,  la. 

We  got  one  specimen,  feeding  on  grass,  in  September.  The 
larva  is  spindle-shaped,  transversely  rugose  and  rough,  owing  to 
the  sldn  being  clothed  with  minute  bristles.  There  are  two  long 
setose  spines  on  the  head,  pointed  forwards,  and  two  caudal  spines. 
The  colour  above  is  rosy  red,  with  a  blue  dorsal  line  and  a  white 
lateral  line,  below  which  the  under  parts  are  green.  The  pupa  is 
perpendicularly  suspended,  slender,  and  regular,  except  that  the 
head-case  is  produced  into  a  long  beak  formed  of  two  thin  processes 
like  split  straws.  In  colour  it  is  whitish -brown  with  faint  striae  of  a 
darker  shade.     It  has  very  much  the  look  of  a  large  grain  of  barley. 

6.     Mycalcsis  mineuSy  Linnaeus. 

Larva  spindle-shaped;  head  larger  than  neck  and  surmounted 
with  two  short  protuberances ;  last  segment  elongated  and  ending 
in  two  fine  points  :  colour  some  shade  of  brown  with  a  lateral  dark 
line,  sometimes  indistinct,  formed  by  a  chain  of  minute  cruciform 
marks.  This  colour  is  assumed  when  the  larva  is  half-grown :  at 
first  it  is  green  with  a  black  head.  Pupa  oval,  without  angle  or  irre- 
gularity of  any  kind,  very  like  that  of  Melanitis,  but  proportionally 
thicker ;  light  green  with  a  pale  line  across  the  wing  cases.  We  got 
one  specimen  on  rice,  in  July,  and  a  dozen  the  following  June  from 
eggs  laid  by  the  unocellatcd  form  in  captivity.  Mr.  de  Niceville  has 
described  and  figured  the  transformations  of  this  species. 

7.     Melanitis  leda,  Linnaeus. 

Larva  long,  slender,  spindle-shaped,  rough ;  two  short  caudal  pro- 
cesses ;  head  large  and  armed  with  two  erect,  straight  horns,  which 
are  thickly  set  wi(;h  minute  spines  or  bristles ;  colour  grass  green^ 


268    JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

with  a  yellow  lateral  line  and  many  rows  of  very  small  wliite  spots ; 
head  normally  green,  with  the  horns  and  a  continuing:  cheek-stripe 
red,  and  three  black  spots  on  the  face,  but  sometimes  the  head  and 
horns  are  dark  brown  with  three  white  spots  on  the  face.  The  pupa 
is  regular,  quite  smooth,  .and  of  a  pale  watery  green  colour  without 
markings. 

In  Guzerat  and  Bombay  we  have  reared  this  on  grass.  In  Kar- 
war  we  found  it  during  August  and  September  on  rice.  It  is  very 
shy,  resting  by  day  on  the  underside  of  a  blade  and  feeding 
by  night. 

Subfamily  ELYMNiiNiE. 

8.     Elymnias  caudaia,  Butler.     Plate  A,  Figs.  2,  2a. 

Larva  spindle-shaped,  slender,  transversely  rugose  and  clothed 
with  short,  stout  bristles,  just  visible  to  the  naked  eye  ;  head  large, 
surmounted  by  two  stout,  straight  horns,  sloping  backwards,  slightly 
branched  at  the  ends  ;  a  pair  of  long,  straight,  caudal  spines,  setose 
like  the  body  ;  colour  bright  green,  with  longitudinal  yellow  lines, 
more  or  less  distinct,  and  two  rows  of  large  yellow  spots  tinged 
with  pink  and  sometimes  tipped  with  black  on  the  back  ;  head 
dark  brown,  with  a  yellow  cheek-stripe  and  frontal  line.  Pupa  sus- 
pended by  the  tail  only,  but  in  a  rigidly  horizontal  position  ;  regular 
with  the  exception  of  two  small  pointed  processes  from  the  head 
and  an  acute  thoracic  projection  above  them ;  colour  bright  green, 
beautifully  ornamented  with  four  irregular  rows  of  large  yellow 
spots  bordered  with  red. 

"We  got  two  larvsD  and  several  pupao  on  the  cocoa-nut  and  betel-nut 
palms  in  October,  but  they  must  have  been  out  from  July  or  August. 

Subfamily  AcRjEiNiE. 

9,     Telchinia  violcBy  Fabricius. 

Larva  cylindrical,  slender,  with  six  longitudinal  rows  of  fine 
branched  spines ;  colour  reddish-brown  with  an  oily  gloss,  much 
paler  on  the  head,  second  and  last  segment ;  an  im wholesome  looking 
insect,  doubtless  protected  like  the  butterfly.  Pupa  perpendicularly 
himg,  long,  slender,  smooth ;  two  lateral  angles  on  the  thorax,  head 
quadrate,  colour  creamy- white  with  broad  longitudinal  bars  of  pur- 


THE  LAEVjE  and  PUP^  OF  BUTTEEFLIES.  269 

pHsh-black  spotted  with  orange.     We  found  this  plentifidly  in  July, 
August,  and  September  on  the  wild  Passion-flower  {Modecca palmata) , 

Subfamily   Nymphalinje. 

10.     ErgoUs  ariadne^  LinnaDus.     Plate  C. 

Larva  cylindrical,  slender  ;  two  dorsal  rows  of  sharp  spines  with 
three  or  four  fine  branch  spines  springing  from  a  point  in  the  mid- 
dle of  each ;  two  rows  of  similar  but  shorter  spines  on  each  side ; 
one  pair  of  long,  strong,  and  straight  spines  on  the  head  irregularly 
set  with  small  spines  which  cluster  at  the  end ;  colour  variable, 
sometimes  green  with  longitudinal  dark  brown  lines,  or  dark  brown 
with  an  interrupted,  broad,  dorsal  stripe  of  pure  white,  not  extend- 
ing to  either  end.  Pupa  slender,  wing-cases  somewhat  dilated,  a 
dorsal  protuberance,  and  two  small  cephalic  points ;  colour  variable ; 
rigidly  attached  by  the  tail,  so  that,  if  the  surface  is  vertical,  the 
pupa  stands  out  horizontally-  We  reared  this  in  Guzerat  on  Tragia 
c%nnahina  and  in  Karwar  on  Tragia  involucrata  in  June  and  August. 
Both  plants  sting  like  nettles.  The  larva  is  a  restless  little  creature 
and  moves  its  head  from  side  to  side  when  walking. 

11.     Ergoiis  faprobana,  Westwood. 

We  got  specimens  of  this  among  the  last,  but  could  not  distinguish 
either  the  larvae  or  the  pupao. 

12.     Byblia  ilMf/ia,  Drury. 

We  know  of  only  one  specimen  of  this  butterfly  having  been 
caught  in  Canara.  In  Khandeish  and  the  Deccan  we  have  reared 
the  larva  along  with  those  of  the  last  species  on  Tragia  cannabina. 
We  were  able  to  distinguish  them  only  by  the  fact  that  the  light 
dorsal  line  was  continued  the  whole  length  of  the  body  in  thiji 
species  and  was  comparatively  uninterrupted.  The  pupa  was  undis- 
tinguishable. 

13.     Atella  pkalantha,  Drury. 

We  have  reared  this  in  Guzerat,  Mahableshwar,  and  Karwar 
in  March,  May,  June  and  November.  The  description  of  the  larva 
quoted  from  Mr.  Moore  by  Messrs.  Marshall  and  de  Niceville  does 
not  correspond  with  the  8|)ecimens  we  have  reared.     It  is  cylindri- 


270      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

cal,  moderately  thick,  very  smooth,  with  an  oily  gloss,  and  bears  six 
longitudinal  rows  of  sharp  branched  spines.  The  head  is  unarmed. 
The  colour  varies  from  dark  brown  to  pale  yellowish- green,  with  a 
white  or  yellowish  spot  at  the  base  of  each  spine.  It  feeds  on  one 
or  more  species  of  Flacourtia.  The  beautiful  pupa  has  been  accu- 
rately described  by  Mr.  de  Niceville,  and  it  is  only  necessary  to  add 
that  the  colour  is  very  variable,  some  specimens  being  almost  white 
and  some  bright  grefti ;  the  markings  are  usually  silver-edged,  or 
tipped  with  red.     It  hangs  by  the  tail,  but  in  a  horizontal  position. 

^   14.     Ctipha  placida,  Moore. 

Among  the  larvae  of  Atella  phalantha  which  we  reared  in  June, 
several,  which  we  did  not  distinguish  until  they  became  pupae,  pro- 
duced this  butterfly.  It  is  not  improbable  that  we  should  have 
found  some  distinguishing  points  if  we  had  looked  for  them,  but  we 
are  disposed  to  think  that  the  diiferences  even  in  the  imago  of  the 
two  species  scarcely  justify  generic  separation.  The  pupa  can  be 
distinguished  at  once  by  a  double  row  of  long  and  slender  filaments 
springing  from  the  principal  tubercles. 

15.  Cethosia  mahrattay  Moore.     Plate  B,  Figs.  1,  la. 

Larva  cylindrical,  but  much  constricted  between  each  pair  of  seg- 
ments and  taperiDg  somewhat  towards  the  head.  Six  longitudinal 
rows  of  fine,  pointed  spines :  on  the  head  only  one  pair  of  longer, 
blunt  spines.  Colour  dark  brown,  with  bright  red  bands  encircling  all 
the  segments  except  the  1st,  2nd,  6th  and  8th ;  on  the  6th  and  8th  the 
red  is  replaced  by  broader  bands  of  lemon  yellow.  Pupa  hanging 
^vertically,  slender,  with  two  large,  f oliaceous  processes  springing  from 
the  middle  of  the  back  and  many  less  prominent  processes  and  tubercles 
on  the  head,  thorax  and  abdomen :  colour  purplish-brown,  much  mottled 
with  lighter  and  darker  shades :  six  dorsal  spots  of  bright  gold. 
We  got  this  first  in  June  and  July  and  then  very  plentifully  in  October, 
on  the  wild  Passion-flower  (Modecca  palmata).  The  caterpillar  is 
gregarious  all  through  its  life.  The  pupa>  when  touched,  vibrates 
in  a  manner  well  calculated  to  deter  the  hungriest  enemy. 

16.  Cynthia  salofna,  Swinhoe.     Plate  B,  Figs.  2,  2a. 
Larva  cylindrical,  head  armed  with  two  large,  curved,  spiny  horns. 


THE  LARVyi:  ASD  PVPM  OF  SUTTEtiFLIES.  271 

tlie  body  with  six  rows  of  well  branched  spines :  colour  pale  yellow, 
lightly  marbled  with  dark  brown  ;    Lead  black  with  an  inverted  V 
of  yellow ;  under  parts  black.     Pupa  very   grotesque ;   two   extra- 
ordinary expansions,  like  bat's  wings,  springing  from  the  basal  abdo- 
iDiinal  segment,  a  smaller  pair  on  the  penultimate  segment,  and  a  large- 
angular,   dorsal  prominence   above  the   head:  colour  light,  or  dark 
brown,  with  two  rows  of  subdorsal   silver  spots   on  the  thorax  and 
three  pairs  of  green  spots  on  the  abdominal   segments.     This   larva 
was   found   on  the   same  plant   as  the  last  species  about  the  end  of 
September,  but  must  havfe  Lcv3n  plentiful  earlier,   as  the  butterfly 
came  out  about  the  beginning  of  July,  and  was   common  enough  all 
through  the  rains.     It   is   a  night-feeder,  retiring  to  some  distance 
often  to  another  plant,  during  the  day. 

17.     ApatHva  atniiixt,  ^looi'e. 

Larva  long,  slender,  thickcsr  in  the  middle;  head  small,  ainied 
with  two  long,  straight,  much  branched  spines,  pointed  forward ; 
a  pair  of  smooth  caudal  spines.  Colour  pale  yellow  on  the  back, 
with  a  medial  row  of  green  spots  ;  green  on  the  sides  with  a  narrow 
yellow  line  ;  head  and  horns  black.  Pupa  compressed,  with  a  high, 
pointed,  dorsal  prominence  at  the  junction  of  thorax  and  abdomen, 
from  which  a  sharp  ridge  runs  to  the  tail ;  suspended  by  the  tail, 
but  curving  round  to  an  almost  horizontal  position ;  pale  green.  We 
got  this  in  September,  October  and  November  on  a  species  of  Celtis. 
It  has  much  the  aspect  of  the  caterpillars  of  the  Satyrinm  and 
appears  to  have  similar  habits,  resting  by  day  on  the  underside  of  a 
leaf,  and  feeding  by  night. 

18.     Precis  iphita,  Cramer. 

As  regards  the  form,  one  description  will  serve  for  the  larvae  of  the 
•whole  Junonia  group,  to  which  this  belongs.  They  are  cylindrical, 
slightly  pubescent,  and  armed  with  nine  longitudinal  rows  of  many 
branched  spines,  except  on  the  head,  which  is  clothed  with  short 
bristles.  They  feed,  as  a  rule,  on  Acanthacece,  The  pupa  is  regular, 
with  three,  or  five,  dorsal  rows  of  small  tubercular  points,  hung 
perpendicidarly. 

In  the  larva  of  P.  iphita  the  spines  seem  to  be  shorter  and  more 
closely  set  than  in  the  Junonias*     The  colour  is  dark,  dull  brown. 

36 


272      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

It  feeds  on  **Karvee'*  [Strohilanthm),  and  doubtless  occurs  more  or 
less  throughout  the  year.  We  found  few,  for  though  the  butterfly- 
is  the  commonest  in  Karwar,  the  plant  is  still  commoner,  an  unfavour- 
able condition  for  the  caterpillar  hunter.  The  pupa  is  smoky 
brown. 

19.     Jiinonia  aster ie,  Linnseus. 

Larva  reddish- brown,  with  the  spines  lighter.  Pupa  light  brown, 
marked  with  lighter  shades.  We  found  this  at  Karwar  in  June, 
July  and  October  without  ascertaining  its  food  plant.  In  Bombay 
we  have  reared  it  on  Lippia  nodiffora,  and  once,  in  company  with  the 
next,  on  Aateracantha  hngifolia, 

20.     Junonia  almana,  Linnaeus. 

We  have  reared  this  in  Bombay  on  Asteracantha  hngifolia,  a  prickly 
plant,  with  blue  or  purple  flowers,  which  grows  in  wet  ditches  every- 
where during  the  monsoon  and  withers  soon  after.  The  butterfly 
appears  in  October,  a  little  later  than  the  last.  We  kept  no  descrip- 
tion of  larva  or  pupa. 

21.  Junonia  leinonias,  Linnams. 

We  have  reared  this  in  Bombay  on  Barieria  prionitis,  a  prickly 
mud  plant,  like  A,  hngifolia,  but  with  yellow  flowers,  but  kept  na 
description.  We  have  found  it  also  in  many  parts  of  the  Deccan 
during  the  rains. 

22.  Junonia  hierta,  Fabricius. 

We  have  reared  this  in  the  Deccan  and  Khandeish,  and  found 
many  at  Karwar  last  October  on  a  plant  which  appeared  to  be  a 
species  of  Barieria,  The  ground-colour  was  usually  dark  brown,  or 
grey,  with  a  broad  dorsal  stripe  formed  by  minute  white  and  blue 
spots;  spines  black. 

23.  Junonia  orithyia,  Linnaeus. 

The  larva  is  minutely  described  in  Marshall  and  de  Nic^ville's 
book.  We  have  found  it  in  the  Deccan  at  the  end  of  the  rains 
climbing  up  tall  stems  of  grass  early  in  the  morning,  and  did  not 
ascertain  its  food. 

24.     Neptis  hordonia,  StoU. 

We  found  last  September  a  pupa  from  which  the  butterfly  h&d 


TUB  LARVJS  AND  PUPM  OF  BUTfEHFLIES.  273 

j>»l  that  moment  emerged.  It  was  inclosed  ia  a  cluster  of  the 
withered  leaves  of  Cceaalpinia  mimosioides,  and  the  circumstances  left 
little  doubt  that  that  was  the  food  plant* 

25x     Neptis  Jumbdky  Moore* 

The  larva  is  correctly  described  by  Moore,  as  quoted  by  Marshall 
and  de  Nic^ville.  It  is  a  most  promiscuous  feeder.  We  found  it 
on  Belicteres  tsora^  Qrevoia  microcos,  Zhyphtis  rugosa  and  several  other 
plants,  from  August  to  October. 

The  pupa  is  suspended  vertically,  slender  in  the  abdominal  part, 
with  a  sharp  dorsal  ridge,  much  stouter  and  broader  in  the  thoracic 
region,  with  wing-cases  expanded  laterally ;  two  sharp  points*  on  the 
head ;  colour  varying  from  dark  brown  to  dnll  white,  suffused-  and 
touched  at  points  with  gold. 

26.  ChThochi'm  fhais,  Fabricius* 
**  Larva  with  two  dorsal  series  of  long,  and  two  lateral  series  of 
shorter,  delicately  branched  spines,  also  a  similar  spine  projecting  on 
each  side  in  front  of  the  head  from  the  second  segmentr" — Marshall 
and  de  Nic6ville.  In  colour  the  many  we  found  were  uniformly 
black,  with  an  oily  gloss,  excepting  the  head  and  last  segment,  which 
were  light  brown.  The  p^ipa  was  almost  white  on  the  wing 
cases,  yellow  elsewhere,  with  mimerous  minute  black  spots,  suspended 
in  a  horia^ontal  position,  bearing  two  dorsal  series  of  recurved  spines 
and  pairs  of  similar,  but  longer,  spines  springing  from  the  margins  of 
the  wing-cases,  the  thorax  and  the  headr 

We  found  these  in  July,  August  and  September  on  a  common  tree, 
Hydrocarpus  wightlana.  Though  the  tree  was  usually  surrounded  by 
butterflies  laying  eggs,  it  was  often  difficult  to  get  larvae.  They 
appeared  to  resort  to  the  topmost,  tender  shoots,  and  dl'opped  to  the 
ground  on  the  least  alarm.  In  captivity  they  were  very  troublesome, 
running  about  incessantly  In  indecent  haste  and  often  refusing  to  eat^ 
Many,  moreover,  were  destroyed  by  a  small  ichneumon. 

Some  of  the  specimens  we  reared  have  been  identified  by  Mr.  de 
Nic^ville  as  his  own  C,  relata^  and  others  were  intermediate.  We 
are  satisfied  that  they  are  not  separable. 

27.     Hipohjmnas  holinay  Linnaeus. 
Larva  cylindrical,  armed   with     nine   longitudinal   rows   of    fine 


274     JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

branched  spines :  a  single  pair  of  longer  and  stouter  spines  on  tlie 
head.  Colour  very  dark,  rich  brown ;  head  light  brown.  Pupa  dark, 
earthy  brown,  mottled  with  a  lighter  shade  ;  somewhat  angular  about 
the  head  and  thorax ;  abdominal  segments  armed  with  dorsal  rows 
of  short,  sharp  tubercles. 

We  have  reared  this  in  Guzerat  in  October  and  in  Karwar  during 
July  and  August.  They  were  generally  found  on  the  ground,  so  the 
food  plant  was  not  ascertained ;  but  they  fed  readily  on  a  minute 
weed  called  by  botanists  Elatostenuna  cimeafum,  and  some  ate,  while 
others  refused,  Portulacca  oleracea,  the  ordinary  food  of  the  next 
species.  All  we  reared  were  of  the  small  dark  form.  The  large 
form  [avia  ov  jacintha)  was  common  enough,  but  we  did  not  get  it 
from  larvaD. 

28,     Hipohjmnas  misippus,  Linnaeus. 

Not  a  specimen  of  this  was  seen  in  Karwar  until  September,  when 
it  suddenly  became  very  common  ;  but  we  got  no  larvaD.  In  Bombay 
and  the  Deccan  we  have  often  found  it  at  the  end  of  the  rains  on 
Portulacca  oleracea,  commonly  cultivated  as  a  pot  herb  by  natives,  and 
known,  of  course,  as  Bhajee. 

29.     Parthenos  virenSy  Moore.     Plato  B,  Figs.  3,  3a. 

The  following  description  by  Moore  of  the  larva  of  the  nearly 
allied  P.  cyaneus  of  Ceylon  will  answer  for  the  form  of  this  species :  — 
"  Cylindrical,  head  and  anal  segment  spined,  other  segments  slightly 
hairy,  third  to  twelfth  segments  armed  with  branched  spines,  which 
are  longest  on  third,  fourth,  eleventh,  and  twelfth  segments.''  For 
the  colour  we  may  refer  readers  to  the  beautiful  drawing  by  Mrs. 
Blathwaite.  We  got  only  a  few  of  these  in  September  and  October, 
and  had  difficulty  in  rearing  them  owing  to  the  scarcity,  in  the. 
vicinity  of  Karwar,  of  its  food,  a  creeping  plant  with  large,  thick, 
elliptic  leaves.  The  pupa  is  boat-shaped  and  of  a  uniform  fine  brown 
colour,  suspended  perpendicularly. 

30.     Limenitis  prom^iSy  Cramer. 

We  found  this  from  July  to  October  on  Mussoencla  frondosay  a 
plant  easily  recognisable  by  the  white  leaves  at  the  ends  of  the 
flowering  branches,  which  make  it  a  most  conspicuous  ornament  of 
the  jungles.     Of  all  the  larvae  we  reared  this  is  in  every  respect  one 


TtlE  LATtVJE  AND  PUPM  OF  BUTTERFLIES.  276 

of  the  most  remarkable.  When  young  it  is  slender,  cylindrical, 
evenly  clothed  with  ^hort  spinous  tubercles  and  of  a  uniform  dark 
brown  colour.  It  remains  on  one  leaf,  eating  it  regularly  back  from 
the  point,  but  leaving  the  midrib,  and  as  it  eats  it  fringes  the  eaten 
margin  with  its  excrement,  held  together  by  silk,  among  which  it 
is  absolutely  undistinguishable.  After  the  last  moult  it  abandons 
these  strange  habits  and  lives  openly  on  the  upper  side  of  a  leaf, 
having  changed  its  form  for  one  in  which  it  is  able  apparently  to 
despise  concealment.  Its  head  is  now  very  large  and  closely  set  with 
short,  stout,  simple  spines  :  on  the  back  there  is  a  double  row  of 
strong  spines,  or  sharp  tubercles,  clustered  at  the  ends  of  short  stems  » 
on  the  third  segment  there  are  two  pairs,  more  laterally  situated,  of 
processes  similar  to  those  on  the  back,  but  three  times  as  long,  and  on 
the  fourth  segment  one  pair  longer  still.  The  colour  is  still  dark 
brown.  The  pupa  is  also  dark  brown,  suspended  vertically  ;  abdo- 
minal part  slender,  with  small  dorsal  tubercles,  thoracic  part  much 
stouter,  wing-cases  much  dilated  laterally ;  head  produced  into  two 
foliaceous,  hammer-shaped  processes,  which  meet  at  the  ends,  leaving 
a  circular  hole  in  the  middle.  The  pupa  easily  passes  for  a  small 
withered  and  twisted  leaf. 

31,  Athynia  periusy  Linnaeus. 

This  is  not  at  all  a  common  species  in  Kanara,  but  very  abundant 
everywhere  on  the  hills  further  north,  where  we  reared  it  in  March 
on  Olochidion  lanceolatum.  The  larva  and  pupa  are  described  and 
figured  by  Marshall  and  de  Niceville. 

32.  Euthalia  gamda,  Moore. 

This  is  by  far  the  commonest  Euthalia  in  this  Presidency  as 
elsewhere.  Its  strange  larva  has  so  often  been  described  and  figured, 
that  we  need  not  describe  it  again  ;  but  the  nature  of  the  protection 
which  its  curious  form  affords  it  seems  to  us  to  be  as  totally  mis- 
understood as  it  could  be  when  we  are  told  to  suppose  that  it  mimics 
some  species  of  the  Myinapoda,  One  who  has  reared  any  considerable 
number  of  E,  ga^nida,  lepidea,  or  especially  lubentina,  and  when 
changing  their  food,  morning  after  morning,  has  thrown  away  half 
his  stock  after  carefully  examining  every  leaf,  will  be  forced  to  find 
a  truer  explanation  than  that.     The  caterpillar,  which  eats  little  and 


276    JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NAWBAL  HtSTORY  SOCIETY,  1S90. 

grows  slowly,  spends  most  of  its  time  at  rest,  motionless,  on  the 
upper  side  of  a  leaf  of  precisely  the  same  tint  as  itself.  A  dorsal 
line,  or  row  of  spots,  however  it  may  look  on  paper,  succeeds  in 
keeping  up  the  continuity  of  the  midrib  of  the  leaf  in  a  way  which 
cheats  the  sharpest  eye,  while  the  long  interlaced  spines,  extending 
on  each  side,  fall  in  with  the  neuration.  In  E.  garuda  the  dorsal 
line  is  light  yellow,  touched  with  blue,  and  the  spines  are  fringed 
with  yellow.  The  pupa  hangs  by  the  tail  on  the  underside  of  a  leaf, 
often  the  very  one  on  which  it  spent  its  larval  life,  for  it  is  too- 
cautious  an  insect  to  eat  the  leaf  it  lives  on.  E,  garuda  commonly 
feeds  on  the  mango  and  the  cashewnut  tree,  but  we  have  found  it  on 
the  mulberry  and  the  rose,  and  on  Loranthus  along  with  the  next 
species.  The  first  brood  of  larvae  was  found  about  the  end  of  June, 
and  the  butterfly  swarmed  in  July.  About  a  month  later  larvae 
became  very  plentiful  again  and  so  continued  until  we  went  into 
camp  in  the  beginning  of  November,  and  had  to  give  up  keeping 
them.     They  certainly  lasted  till  December. 

83.     EuthaUa  luhenUna^  Cramer. 

This  was  found  in  August,  September  and  October  on  two  common 
species  of  the  so-called  *'  Mistletoe ''  (Loranthus).  It  probably  con- 
tinued till  the  end  of  the  year.  In  form  the  larva  resembles  the 
last;  in  colour  it  is  grass- green,  but  the  dorsal  area  of  most  of 
the  segments,  between  the  spines,  is  brown  or  claret-coloured,  with 
or  without  a  pure  white  diamond  in  the  middle.  The  spines  are 
tipped  with  the  same  shade  of  brown,  and  it  is  worthy  of  note  that 
the  leaves  of  Loranthus  are  often  disfigured  with  spots  or  patches  of 
this  tint.  The  pupa  is  green  with  a  small  brown  patch  on  each  side  v 
it  wants  the  gilt  edging  of  E,  garuda y  and  the  dorsal  triangle  is  more 
sharply  pointed.  For  lovers  of  the  marvellous  it  may  be  worth 
mentioning  that  the  caterpillar  of  E.  hibentina,  when  it  has  cast  its 
skin,  spines  and  all,  eats  it, 

34.     EuthaUa  lepideay  Butler. 

Larva  of  the  usual  Euthalia  form ;  colour  green,  with  a  dorsal  row 
of  light  red  ocelli  with  blue  centres;  spines  tipped  with  yellow.  Pupa 
more  narrowed  at  the  head  than  E.  garuda;  green,  all  the  points 
golden  yellow  tipped  with  black,  and  a  few  large  spots  of  gold  be- 


THE  LARVM  AND  PUP^  OF  BUTTBRFLJES.  277 

tween.  It  is  a  beautiful  pupa.  We  found  this  very  abundantly  all 
tbe  latter  half  of  the  monsoon  on  Melastoma  malabathricum,  a  shrub 
with  large  and  handsome  flowers,  sometimes  called  Rhododendron. 

35.     Euthalia  etelinay  Stoll. 
We  got  one  pupa  of  this.     It  was  green,  but  had  the  dorsal  trian- 
gle edged  with  silver,  and  silver  spots  on  the  sides  corresponding  to 
the  gold  markings  of  E,  lepidea. 

36.  Pyranieis  carduiy  Linnaeus. 

This  is  too  well  known  to  need  many  words.  An  interesting 
account  of  the  habits  of  the  larva  in  America,  quoted  by  Marshall 
and  de  Niceville,  holds  equally  true  in  this  country.  We  found  it  in 
Canara  in  November,  and  have  reared  it  often  in  Bombay  and  the 
Deccan,  always  on  the  same  thing,  a  kind  of  thistle  of  the  genus 
Blumea,  with  strongly  aromatic  leaves. 

37.  KaWnm  horsfieldii,  Kollar. 

Larva  cylindrical,  finely  pubescent,  armed  with  nine  longitudinal 
rows  of  fine  branched  spines ;  head  surmounted  with  two  long  straight 
horns  set  with  minute  spines;  colour  a  beautiful  golden  brown, 
spines  red,  head  black.  We  found  one  specimen  of  this  in  July  on 
Karvee  (Strobilanthtis),  and  after  careful  examination,  discovering 
nothing  except  its  colour  to  distinguish  it  from  H,  bolina,  decided 
that  it  must  be  a  larva  of  the  large  form  which  has  been  separated 
under  the  name  of  H,  avia.  The  likeness  of  the  pupa  to  that  of 
bolina  was  still  more  exact,  and  the  emergence  of  a  beautiful  Kallima 
took  us  completely  by  surprise. 

Note, — We  have  called  this  K*  horsfieldii  because  we  are  unable  to  believe  in  the 
■pecific  distinctness  of  K.  xcoArdi. 

38.  Charaxes  athafnas,  Drury. 

"  Larva  elongated,  thickest  in  the  middle,  dark  green ;  head  large, 
wide,  flattened  and  surmounted  by  four  spinous  processes;  last  seg- 
ment with  short,  naked  points  ;  the  segments  with  an  oblique  yellow- 
ish white  stripe,  most  prominent  on  the  7th,  9th,  and  11th  segments; 
beneath  these  a  lateral  series  of  small  white  spots."  This  is  Mr. 
Moore's  description  and  is  good,  but  we  have  found  difEerent  speci- 
mens to  vary  very  much  in  the  distinctness  and  colour  of  the  lateral 
fttripes:  they  are  always  present,  but  sometimes  very  faint  indeed. 
Another  more  importantpoint,  which  seems  hith  erto  to  have  escaped 


I 


i 


278         JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

notice,  is  that  the  last  pair  of  legs  are  almost  obsolete,  and  are  not 
used  in  walking. 

We  found  this  from  June  to  October  on  the  "Goolmohr"  (Toin- 
ciana regia) y  the  **Khairee"  {Cccsalpinia  mimosioides)  and  several  other 
trees.  The  larva,  like  those  of  most  wary  and  strong- winged  but- 
terflies, is  very  shy  and  cautious  in  its  habits,  feeding  by  night  and 
remaining  motionless  all  day ;  but  it  is  much  preyed  on  from  the 
time  it  leaves  the  egg,  and  only  a  small  proportion  seem  to  reach 
maturity.  The  pupa  is  almost  oval,  smooth,  and  without  irregular- 
ities ;  in  colour  green,  with  faint  white  lines  more  or  less  distinct. 

39.  Char  axes  fahiuSf  Linnaeus.  Plate  A,  Figs.  3-,  Za, 
We  found  a  few  in  Karwar  in  July  and  August,  and  have  also 
reared  it  in  Khandeish  and  the  Deccan,  always  on  the  tamarind  tree. 
The  larva  differs  from  that  of  C,  athamas  in  having  the  outer  pair  of 
horns  longer  than  the  inner,  while  in  C,  athamas  the  reverse  is  the 
case.  The  colour  is  bluish-green,  with  a  small  semicircle  of  white 
in  the  middle  of  the  back.  The  pupa  is  like  that  of  (7.  athamas^ 
but  uniformly  green. 

40.     Charaxes  imna,  Butler.  Plate  A,  Figs.  4,  4a. 

Larva  of  the  usual  form,  head  very  broad,  outer  pair  of  horns 
longest,  last  segment  flat,  square,  and  ending  in  two  points  ;  last  pair 
of  legs  almost  aborted ;  colour  ricb,  dark  green,  with  a  large  semi- 
circle of  pinkish-white  in  the  middle  of  the  back  and  a  yellow 
lateral  line ;  horns  and  sides  of  face  rusty  brown.  We  reared  three 
specimens  of  this  on  Aglaia  roxhurghianay  a  very  common  tree  in 
Canara,  belonging  to  the  order  Meliacece,  Among  butterflies  tbe 
length  of  the  larval  life  seems  to  be  generally  proportional  to  the 
robustness  of  the  insect  in  its  perfect  state,  and,  as  might  be  expected, 
C,  imna  is  a  Methuselah  among  butterflies.  One  found  on  the  6th  of 
October,  then  evidently  a  few  days  old,  became  a  pupa  on  the  25th 
of  November.     The  butterfly  emerged  on  the  9th  of  December. 

Like  most  smooth  caterpillars,  this  species  eats  its  skin  when  cast, 
but  not  the  head- case.  When  touched  it  appears  to  use  its  horns 
defensively,  as  does  also  C.  athamas. 

Note, — The  figure  represents  the  larva  and  pupa  of  a  fine  female,  exactly  natural 
size. 

(To  be  continued,) 


BUTTERFLIES  OF  THE  CENTRAL  PROVINCES.  279 

THE  BUTTERFLIES  OF  THE  CENTRAL  PROVINCES 

By  J,  A.  Betham. 

Part  III. 

{  Continued  from  Volume  F". ,  page  161,) 

^7,  Jmmivki  asierie,  Liiiiia3us  (344).  This  and  the  next  in  Mr.  de 
Nic^ville's  book  are,  I  am  persuaded,  one  and  the  same  butterfly.  It 
Leads  the  genus  Jumma  of  Hiibner,  all  of  which,  except  perhaps 
J,  aJtJites^  are  of  a  sprightly  nature  with  a  rapid  flight.  It  is  a 
bright  rust-red  butterfly  with  brilliant  peacock  spots  on  both  wings. 
It  looks  something  like  the  English  **  Peacock  "  butterfly,  paled  by  a 
residence  in  a  hot  cKmate !  It  is  found  in  glades  and  gardens  by  the 
mai^^s  of  streams  and  about  tanks,  and  looks  very  handsome  as  it 
sits  and  fans  its  wings  in  the  sunshine. 

28^  J^nofda  almana^  Linnaeus  (345).  There  is  very  little  differ- 
ence between  this  and  the  last  butterfly  on  a  casual  examination;  but 
if  looked  at  closer,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  shape  of  the  wings  is  some- 
what different,  the  hindwing  being  more  tailed  and  the  fore  wing  more 
falcate.  The  markings  on  the  underside  are  less  prominent,  the 
ocelli  have  almost  entirely  disappeared,  and  the  white  bar  or  fascia 
dcross  the  hindwing  of  J,  asterie  is  scarcely  perceptible.  J,  asterie 
is  commoner  in  the  wet  season,  while  J,  almana  predominates  in  the 
dry  season. 

9!9,  Junonia  atlites^  Linn?eu8'(346).  This  is  the  largest  species  of 
the  genus, — at  least  in  these  parts, — and  is  always  found  in  and  about 
mmrtshy  spots,  on  the  borders  of  streams  and  damp  places  generally. 
It  is  a  pale  grey  butterfly,  the  wings  appearing  somewhat  transpa- 
rent; it  has  some  small  '* peacock"  spots  on  both  wings.  The  flight 
is  distinctly  slower  than  any  of  its  relatives,  so  that  there  is  no 
difficulty  in  capturing  it. 

30.  Junonia  IcmoniaSy  Linnaeus  (347).  This  is  the  commonest 
species  of  the  genus,  and  is  found  almost  everywhere.  It  is  a  dusky- 
brown  insect  with  yellowish  and  black  markin^^s  and  similar  "  pea- 
cock "  spots  on  both  wings  as  has  J.  atlites,  Tlie  underside  varies 
considerably  in  many  specimens,  it  is  generally  of  a  pale  clay  colour, 
but  often  is  almost  brown  and  frequently  reddish  or  pink.  I  have  a 
specimen  in  which  the  ground-colour  of  the  hind-wing  is  clear  claret 
87 


280        JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

colour.     It  is  fond  of  hedges  and  ditches,  and  is  a  very  sprightly  and 
pugnacious  little  creature. 

31,  Junonia  kierta,  Fabricius  (349).  This  species  ha»  been 
known  as  e7.  cenone,  but  Mr.  de  Nic^ville  points  out  that  the  latter 
name  belongs  to  an  African  insect  which  was  kn<own!  a»  J,  elelia.  It 
is  a  beautiful  little  insect  with  its  bright  yellow  and  blue  markingsv 
The  female  lacks  the  blue,  and  is  somewhat  larger  than  the  male. 
This  butterfly  and  the  next  may  be  seen  resting  in  the  middle  of  the- 
most  exposed  parts  of  roads  and  paths,,  and  rising  in  front  of  one, 
it  skims  swif ty  along  and  settles  again  on  the  road  perhaps  after  a 
battle  in  the  air  with  one  of  its  own  kind  or  J.  lemoniaSy  J.  asterie  or 
J.  orithyia ;  all  of  which  have  the  same  habit  and  love  the  f uU  and 
hot  sunshine. 

82.  Jtmonia  orithyia^  Linnaeus  (350).  This  is  a  dark  blue  but- 
terfly of  similar  habits  to  the  two  last  mentioned.  They  all  love  the 
hot  sunshine,  and  this  and  the  last  are  to  be  found  in  the  most  open 
and  exposed  situations;  open  grass  plains  being  about  the  moat 
favourite  spots.  It  has  a  brilliant  blue  spot  like  the  last  on  the 
hindwing,  but  whereas  the  prevailing  colour  of  J",  hierta  is  yellow,  ia 
J,  orithyia  it  is  blue.  The  larva  of  all  the  Junonice  are  dark  in  colour 
with  numerous  branched  spines  all  over  them :  gruesome  creatures  to 
look  at,  but  perfectly  harmless.  The  females  lay  their  eggs  on  or 
near  the  ground. 

S3.  Neptis  hordonia,  Stoll  (352).  As  far  as  I  can  judge,  this,  and 
the  next  iV".  plagiosa,  Moore  (353),  are  one  and  the  same  species.  There 
is  very  little  difference  between  them,  and  the  gradations  from  the 
one  to  the  other  form  are  very  gradual.  The  markings  are  disposed 
in  bands,  which  are  black  alternating  with  tawny.  The  flight  of  the 
butterflies  of  this  genus  is  peculiar.  They  seem  to  float  and  sail  along^ 
so  that  when  on  a  level  with  the  eye  they  disappear  and  re-appear  ; 
when  settled  on  leaves  as  is  their  habit,  they  rest  with  wide  expanded 
wings. 

3Ji.  Neptis  varmonay  Moore  (379).  This  and  N,  kamarupa,  Moore 
(384),  with  iV".  eurymeney  Butler  (385),  are  only,  there  is  little 
doubt,  varieties,  or  better,  seasonal  forms,  of  one  and  the  same 
species.  The  chief  difference  is  in  the  depth  of  colour  in  the  yellow 
of  the  markings  of  the  underside,  which  varies  from  a  pale  yellow  to 


BUTTERFLIES  OF  THE  CENTRAL  PROVINCES.  ^1 

It  colour  that  is  almost  brown.  N,  stcinhoei^  Butler  (383),  of  wliich  I 
have  specimens,  is  merely  another  variety  of  N^  vamwna.  This  genus 
is  closely  imitated  by  many  of  the  genus  Atht/ma,  and  one  or  two  of 
the  genus  ApcUtira  in  the  disposition  of  the  black  and  white  band-b'ke 
markings  above,  in  the  similarly  disposed  yellow  or  brown  and  white 
markings  below,  and  in  the  manner  of  flight  and  habit.  N.  varmona 
and  its  varieties  are  very  common  and  easily  captured.  The  body, 
when  fresh,  has  a  beautiful  sheen,  especially  upon  the  thorax,  which 
appears  green  or  gold  as  the  light  happens  to  strike  it. 

35.  Neptia  nandma,  Moore  (397).  Easily  distinguished  from  the 
foregoing  by  the  chocolate  colour  of  the  markings  on  the  underside. 
It  is  perhaps  a  larger  insect,  but  has  the  same  habits  and  flight,  so 
that  it  is  not  easy  to  detect  the  diif erence  until  it  has  been  captured 
in  the  net. 

36.  Neptis  opkicuia,  Moore  (400).  This  is  a  much  larger  insect 
than  any  of  the  others  mentioned,  and  the  white  colour,  on  the  upper- 
side  of  the  wings  has  a  greenish  tinge,  especially  in  worn  specimens. 

37.  Neptk  jumhah,  Moore  (402).  Something  like  N.  nandina  in 
appearance,  but  the  markings  are  differently  disposed,  and  it  has  a 
small  brown  spot  near  the  base  on  the  underside  of  the  hindwing 
on  a  white  band,  so  that  once  caught,  it  can  be  easily  distinguished 
from  all  other  Neptis, 

88,  Hypolimnaa  bolina,  LinnaDus  (419).  This  is  a  lovely  insect, 
one  of  the  most  gorgeous  of  the  many  exquisite  living  gems  this  land 
of  India  produces.  The  ground  of  the  wings  on  the  upperside 
surpasses  the  texture  and  depth  of  the  finest  deep  blue  velvet,  while 
from  the  middle  of  each  wing  blazes  a  spot  which  is  white  surround- 
ed by  blue  in  some  specimens ;  while  in  others,  there  is  no  white 
visible,  and  the  deep  rich  blue  flashes  out  only  in  certain  lights  :  such 
is  the  colouring  of  the  male.  The  female  is  usually  larger  and  duller 
in  appearance,  resembling  Eupkea  core,  and  no  doubt  mimicing  that 
well-known  insect.  It  is  a  fairly  large  butterfly,  but  there  are  two 
seasonal  forms, — the  smaller  appearing  after  the  hot  weather  and  the 
beginning  of  the  rains,  the  larger  at  the  end  of  the  rains.  The  sight 
of  this  beautiful  creature,  as  it  opens  and  closes  its  wings  while  bask- 
ing in  the  sun,  affords  a  brilliant  spectacle,  especially,  as  is  very  often, 
the  case,  when  there  are  several  seated  within  reasonable  distance  of 


282    JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890'. 

one  another.  The  male  displays  itself  to  the  female  in  a  striking: 
manner.  The  latter,  while  flying  from  one  place  of  conceahiaeBt  to 
another  (for  it  is  a  shy  creature  as  compared  to  the  male ),  i»  usually 
pursued  by  one  or  two  males  who  fly  a  foot  or  so  below  heryquirering: 
their  wings  to  the  full  extent  of  their  powers.  This  i»  evidently 
done  with  the  object  of  displaying  their  loveKness  to  the  greatest 
advantage. 

39,  HypoUnmas  mmppus,  LinnaEnis  (420).  The  male  of  this  but- 
terfly resembles  that  form  of  the  nsale  of  the  last  species  whicL  ap- 
pears during  the  rains  or  at  the  close  of  the  hot  weather,  though,  as  a 
rule,  it  is  much  smaller.  It  is  a  pugnacious  little  insect,  and  has  a 
rapid  flight.  The  female  is  very  much  larger,  and  at  first  sight  ap- 
pears to  belong  to  quite  another  sub-family,  for  it  is  a  close  mimic  of 
that  common  butterfly  Danais  chrysippMs,  and  not  only  mimics  the 
common  form,  but  the  more  uncoanmon  ones  which  are  known  as 
2>.  akippus  and  D.  dorippus.  I),  alcippus,  has  a  patch  of  white  on  the 
hind- wing,  and  D.  dorippns  has  the  black  patch  at  the  apex  of  the  fore- 
wing,  and  the  white  macular  band  inside  it  more  or  less  obsolescent^ 
so  that  the  real  ground-colour  pervades  the  whole  wings  more  than  it 
does  in  typical  D.  chrysippm.  The  female  of  JT»  misippus  mimics  these 
two  uncommon  forms  exactly,  but  is  commoner  in  these  forms  than  the 
type  it  mimics  !  Both  the  common  form  which  mimics  D.  chrysippns 
and  the  less  common  form  which  mimics  Z>.  da)*%ppus,  I  have  reared 
from  eggs  laid  by  one  and  the  same  female,  which  was  herself  of 
the  D.  dofippus  type !  I  watched  her  as  she  laid  her  eggs  and  suc- 
ceeded in  securing  four,  three  of  which  hatched,  and  produced  spiny 
looking  black  caterpillars,  very  much  like  those  of  Junattia.  They  fed 
on  Portttlacca  qimdrifida,  a  common  weed,  fond  of  garden  paths.  One 
of  the  caterpillars  received  an  injury  just  when  it  was  turning  into 
a  chrysalis  from  the  boy  who  was  attending  them,  pulling  it  down 
from  where  it  hung  by  the  tail.  He  evidently  could  not  understand 
why  it  should  assume  such  an  uncomfortable  position.  Just  when  it 
should  have  emerged  and  the  colours  and  markings  (which  were  of 
a  female  of  the  common  type)  were  visible  it  succumbed.  The  other 
two  came  out  all  right  and  proved  to  be  also  females  ;  but  one  was 
of  the  common  or  I),  chryaippiis  type,  while  the  other  resembled  the 
D.  dorippus  type,  and  had  the  white  macular  band  faintly  visible. 


BUTTERFLIES  OF  THE  CENTRAL  PROVINCES,  283 

• 
They  were  sacrificed  to  the  cause  of  science  and  adorn  my  cabinet, — 

examples  of  a  most  interesting  case  in  which  two  different  typos 
were  produced  from  one  parent.  The  eggs  were  laid  on  the  16th 
October,  and  were  hatched  in  three  or  four  days.  The  larvae  turned 
to  chrysalides  on  the  7th  and  8th  Nov.  and  emerged  on  the  19th  and 
20th  November.  The  remarks  by  Colonel  Swinhoein  Vol.  I.,  page  169 
et  seq,  on  the  mimicry  displayed  by  this  butterfly,  are  most  interest- 
ing and  well  worth  perusal.  The  flight  of  the  female  of  H.  misippus 
very  much  resembles  that  of  D.  ckrf/sippus,  and,  indeed,  it  is  very 
difficult  to  tell  which  is  which  until  they  settle,  when  they  can 
readily  be  distinguished  by  the  black  spots  in  the  centre  of  the  hind 
wing.  jD.  chrysippus  has  three  small  black  spots  disposed  about  the 
cell,  whereas  the  female  of  H,  inkippus  has  only  one  large  one. 

40.  Argynnis  nip/ie,  Linnaeas  (421).  This  is  a  regular  "  Fritil- 
lary  "  as  regards  the  general  colouring  of  the  male,  but  the  female 
is  a  more  or  less  close  imitation  of  Danais  gcnutia,  and  in  flight  looks 
very  like  the  butterfly  it  mimics.  The  male  has  all  the  characteristics 
of  the  typical  "  Fritillary,"  dashing  about  in  flight,  and  fanning  its 
wings  when  settled  just  in  the  same  sharp  manner  as  do  the  "  Fritil- 
laries  *'  at  home.  It  has  some  blue  marks  on  the  margin  of  the  hind- 
wing,  upperside,  which  serve  to  distinguish  it  from  others  of  the 
same  genus.  Underneath,  the  base  of  the  wings  is  rosy,  and  it  has 
green  and  silvery  markings  like  its  English  relatives. 

41.  Limenitis  procris,  Cramer  (452).  This  is  a  very  beautiful 
creature  allied  to  the  "  White  Admiral,'*  and  has  an  elegant  sailing 
flight.  It  is  fond  of  forests,  and  settles  on  the  leaves  of  trees  with 
widely-expanded  wings.  The  colours  black,  brown,  and  white  are 
similarly  disposed  as  are  those  of  the  "  White  Admiral/'  Limenitis 
Sibylla,  Below  the  chief  colour  is  a  delicate  and  pale  grey.  Some 
specimens  are  very  much  paler  than  others,  and  the  black  markings 
are  replaced  by  brown  ;  those  markings  which  are  ordinarily  brown 
being  paler  in  these  instances. 

42.  Athyma  perius,  Linnaeus  (454).  This  also  resembles  the 
"White  Admiral,''  but  its  flight  is  not  quite  the  same.  In  this 
respect  it  is  almost  undistinguishable  from  the  black  and  white  Neptes^ 
which  it  also  closely  resembles  in  the  colour  and  disposition  of  its 
markings,  and  which  are  placed  in  broad  bands  of  black  and  white. 


-J 


284      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

« 

43 .  Symphtedra  nats,  Forster  (478).  This  sprightly  little  butterfly 
looks  something  like  a  '*  Fritillary  '*  in  colour,  but  the  red  is  deeper 
It  has  a  quick  and  jerky  flight,  something  like  that  of  the  JunonicR. 
Its  habits  are  very  much  the  same  as  J.  orithyia  and  J.  kmonias 
and  it  is  very  fond  of  "  sugar  "  and  mhowa  refuse. 

44.  Euthalia  lepidea,  Butler  (498).  I  have  only  met  with  this 
species  in  Kalahandi,  where  it  seems  fairly  common.  It  has  a,  very 
rapid  flight  and  is  very  wary,  though  it  can  be  caught  by  baiting 
with  Mhowa  refuse.  Its  colour  is  a  dark  brown  with  a  grey  border 
to  the  wings. 

45.  Euthalia  garuda,  Moore  (513).  This  is  a  dark  brown  butterfly 
with  a  few  darker  markings  and  whitish  spots  on  the  forewing  of  the 
male  and  some  larger  white  spots  on  the  forewing  of  the  female.  It 
is  a  very  pugnacious  creature,  but  readily  comes  to  Mhowa  refuse.  I 
have  caught  many  and  watched  more  on  the  margins  of  tanks  close  to 
the  water  where  they  descend  towards  the  middle  of  the  day  to  siick 
up  the  moisture.  The  caterpillar  is  a  most  extraordinary  looking 
creature,  and  bears  long  branching  interlacing  lateral  spines.  Though 
such  a  queer-looking  object  and  so  remarkable,  it  is  difficult  to  see 
when  seated  in  the  middle  of  a  leaf,  because  it  is  of  a  green  colour 
and  the  spines  look  just  like  the  veins  of  the  leaf.  It  is  a  common 
butterfly.     The  proboscis  or  haudellum  of  the  butterfly  is  green. 

46.  Euthalia  lubentina,  Cramer  (517).  A  darker  brown  butterflj'- 
than  the  last  which  it  resembles  in  shape.  The  underside  has 
numerous  markings  of  a  rich  scarlet,  and  it  can  easily  be  recognised 
by  this  feature.  It  is  fond  of  carrion,  and  a  friend  of  mine  inform- 
ed me  that  he  once  took  one  seated  on  a  piece  of  meat  in  the  Craw- 
ford Market,  Bombay  City. 

47.  Pyrameis  cardui,  Linnaeus  (520).  This  is  the  most  ubiquitous 
of  butterflies  being  found  all  over  the  globe  except  in  the  Arctic 
regions  and  S.  America — our  well-known  and  much-admired  friend 
the  "Painted  Lady," — and  surely  one  of  the  most  lovely  of  all 
butterflies,  with  its  rich  and  varied  hues  on  the  upper  and  tender 
greys,  browns,  and  rose  on  the  underside. 

48.  Kallima  inachisy  Hoisduval  (551).  This  is  the  great  "  leaf- 
butterfly,"— one  of  the  most  marvellous  instances  of  protective  resem- 
blance in  nature.     The  upperside  is  deep   rich  blue  with  an  orange 


BUTTERFLIES  OF  THE  CENTRAL  PROVINCES.  285 

patch  on  the  forewing,  the  underside  is  as  exact  an  imitation  of  a 
dead  leaf  as  could  be  made.  The  mid-rib,  the  yeins,  the  stem  formed 
by  the  lobe  of  the  hindwing,  and  the  point  of  the  leaf,  formed  by  the 
apex  of  the  forewing  being  produced,  are  all  there.  It  is  mottled  all 
over  with  blotches  and  little  splashes  just  as  if  the  leaf  was  covered 
with  lichen  or  decay.  In  the  forewing  there  are  two  clear  spots, 
in  each  wing,  which  coincide  when  the  wings  are  closed,  as  is  invari- 
ably the  case  when  the  insect  is  at  rest,  and  actually  represent  holes 
in  the  leaf  !  Each  butterfly  is  differently  coloured  on  the  underside, 
and  in  a  good  collection  you  come  across  every  variety  of  russets, 
browns,  greys,  and  faded  yellows  showing,  as  Mr.de  Niceville  remarks, 
'*  a  wonderful  series  of  autimmal  tints."  When  the  insect  is  seated 
on  the  groimd  or  on  a  tree,  it  is  very  difficult  to  suppose  that  it  can 
be  anything  than  a  leaf,  and  it  is  not  until  it  is  disturbed  that  one 
realises  that  it  is  endowed  with  active  life  and  powers  of  motion.  I 
have  never  tried  it  with  Mhowa,  but  fancy  it  would  come  to  it 
readily  enough.  I  came  across  it  in  Pachmarhi,  and  found  it 
fairly  common  down  in  the  khuds  and  ravines  about  that  charming 
little  sanitarium. 

49.  Charaxes  athamas^  Drury  (568).  The  fastest  flying  butterfly 
.1  have  come  across.  Its  colours  are  black  and  ycUow  or  pale  green, 
the  pale  colour  disposed  in  a  band  extending  from  the  point  of 
the  forewing  to  the  hinder  angle  of  the  hindwing.  The  colours 
underneath  are  exquisite,  with  a  sort  of  silvery  sheen  about  them.  It 
is,  in  common  with  C.  fahius  and  C,  imna,  a  very  foul  feeder. 

50.  Charaxes  fahius ,  Fabricius  (570).  The  colour  of  this  insect 
is  a  blackish-brown  with  yellow  spots  placed  in  a  band  across  both 
wings.  It  is  a  bold  creature  with  a  strong  flight,  but  sometimes 
falls  a  prey  to  curiosity.  One  settled  on  my  boot  once,  and  another 
time  another  wanted  to  see  what  my  tonga  was  and  flitted  round  it, 
as  it  went  along,  until  it  was  caught. 

51.  Gharaxes  imna,  Butler  (577).  This  is  truly  a  beautiful  crea- 
ture. The  colours  are  a  deep  rich  chestnut  with  a  velvetty  black 
border  in  the  male,  relieved  in  the  female  by  a  broad  white  band 
across  the  forewing.  It  has  the  most  powerful  flight  of  any  butterfly 
I  know,  (while  0,  athamas  has  the  fastest)  and  looks  like  a  bird  while 
on  the  wing.     The  female  is  larger  than  the   male  and  much  more 


286      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,    1890. 

conspicuous,   because  of  the   broad    white  band   aforesaid.     It  is, 

however,  a  very  foul   feeder  and  greedily  fond  of  mhowa,  so  muck 

so,  that  it  can  be  approached  and  taken  by  the  fingers  while  engaged 

in  its  meal.     One  year    I   took  several  of   these   and    C.  fahius    and 

a  few  (7.  athamas,  at  a  Sirris  tree,  Acacia  spec iosct,  which  had  a  bough 

injured  in  some  way,  and  from  which  a  juice  exuded.     Several  other 

kinds  of  insects,   chiefly  ants  and  flies,  were  attracted  by  this  juice, 

and  a  number  of  the  small  green  bee-eater,  Merops  viridis,  the  magpie 

robin,   Copsyckm   salaurts,    and   the   king  crow    or   drongo   shrike, 

Buchanga   atm,  were   attracted   by   the     insects.        The   wings   of 

several  of  the  Charaxes  that   I  took  had  bits  clipped  out  of  them  by 

the  beaks  of   the  birds.     Toddy  is   also  a   good  bait  for  butterflies, 

after  it  has  fermented  a  little.     I  was  induced  to   try  it  after  seeing 

the  attraction  the  Sirris  juice  had,  and  I  found  it  very  successful. 

FAMILY  2,    LEMONIID^. 

SUB-FAMILY  2,    NEMEOBIIN^. 
52.     Ahisara  suffma,   Moore   (614).     A  sprightly  little  creature, 
very  bold   and  not   easily   frightened.     It  hops  and  skips   about  the 
leaves  in  a  jerky,  merry  sort  of  way.     Its  colour  is  a  reddish-brown 
with  a  few  paler  bars  across  its  wings. 


NOTES    ON    THE    ECONOMIC    BOTANY    OF    THE 
CUCURBITACE^    OF    WESTERN    INDIA. 

By  Dr.  W.  Dymock. 

{Read  at  tJie  Societi/s  Meeting  on  7th  July  1890, ) 

Of  the  seventy-one  species  belonging  to  this  Order,  described  in 
the  "  Flora  of  British  India,"  thirtj^  are  found  in  Western  India  ; 
and  as  the  time  of  year  for  observing  these  plants  is  now  approaching, 
a  few  remarks  upon  their  properties  and  economic  uses  may  not  be 
without  interest.  The  genus  is  divided  by  botanists  into  three 
tribes,  viz.,  Cucu^nerinece,  Orthospermece  and  Zanonice ;  in  the  first,  the 
ovules  are  almost  always  horizontal  as  in  the  cucumber ;  in  the 
second,  they  are  erect ;  and  in  the  third,  pendulous.     All  the  plants 


ECONOMIC  BOTANY  OF  THE  CUCURBIT  ACE  jE.  287 

which  I  have  to  notice,  with  one  exception  {Zaaonia),  belong  to  the 
first  tribe. 

The  genus  Trichosanthes  {ihrix,  a  hair,  and  anthos,  a  flower)   are 
easily  distinguished  by  their  prettily -fringed  flowers.     Five  plants 
belonging  to  it  are  known  in  Western  India :    T.  palmata,  T,  diaieay 
T,  neruifolia,  T-  cucumerinaf  and  T.  anguina ;  the  last  is  the  well-known 
snake-gourd  {Parul,  Marathi ;  Padval,  Guzerathi),  so  much  used  as  a 
vegetable  by  Europeans  and  Natives.     It  may  be  cooked  in  various 
ways :  Europeans  usually  prefer  it  sliced  and  boiled,  so  as  to  resem- 
ble a  dish  of  French  beans ;  prepared  in  this  way  it  has  a  very 
delicate  flavour,  and  retains  its  bright  green  colour,  except  in  the 
cold  season,  when  the  addition  of  a  little  soda  to  the  water  is  neces- 
sary :  it  is  also  cut  in  short  lengths  and  stuffed  with  minced  meat. 
The  natives  usually  slice  it  and  prepare  it  with  onions  and  spices ; 
cooked  in  this  way  it  forms  a  very  tasty  dish,  to  which  meat   may 
be  added. 

T.  cucunieri)ia  (the  Ran-parul  or  Kadu-parul,  common  on  hedges 
on  Malabar  Hill),  appears  to  be  the  wild  form  of  the  snake-gourd  ; 
the  flowers  are  similar,  but  the  fruit  is  only  a  few  inches  in  length. 
The  whole  plant  is  extremely  bitter  and  purgative  like  colocynth ;  it 
is  collected,  dried,  and  sold  in  the  bazars  as  the  representative  of 
the  drug  called  in  Sanskrit  Patola,  The  Portuguese  have  named  it 
Sahina  (Savine),  and  the  Dutch  Knlpert, 

T.  dioica  is  not  a  native  of  the  Konkan,  but  in  Guzerat  it  occurs 
in  two  forms — the  wild  or  Kudva-padial  and  the  cultivated  or  sweet 
variety.     The  first  is  used  throughout  Northern  India,  Bengal,  and 
Guzerat  as  the   representative  of  the  Patola  or   Patolaka  of  Sans- 
krit writers,  which  is  so  named  from  its  fruit   having  the  shape   of 
a   "  mussel  shell."     This   resemblance  is  sufficiently    obvious,    the 
fruit  being  from  two  to  three   inches  long,  oblong,  acute,  and  fre- 
quently slightly  curved.   In  medicinal  properties  it  resembles  T.  cucu- 
merina.     The  cultivated  variety  is  a  favourite  vegetable  in  Bengal, 
Northern  India,  and  Guzerat ;  it  is  free  from  bitterness,  the  small 
fruits  are  stuffed  with  spices  and  fried  or  curried,  and  the  young 
shoots  are  dressed  as  greens.     I  have  tried  to  grow  the  plant  from 
Bengal  seed,  but  it  does   not  flourish  in  the   red  soil  of   Malabar 
Bill. 

38 


288  JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

T.  palmata  is  a  large  climbing  plant  with  woody  stems,  often  as 
thick  as  a  man's  arm,  which  grows  on  hilly  ground  in  the  Konkan, 
and  is  common  at  Mahableshwar ;  it  is  the  Mahakala  of  Sanskrit 
writers,  who  describe  it  as  a  kind  of  gourd  with  an  exterior  resem- 
bling an  orange,  but  with  pulp  like  cowdung.  Mahakala  is  also  a 
name  of  Ganesha,  the  god  of  wisdom,  the  causer  and  remover  of 
obstacles,  the  son  of  Siva  and  Parvati ;  and  this  gourd  is  used  as  an 
ear  ornament  (Kundala)  for  the  figure  of  Ganesha  or  Ganpati, 
which  is  dressed  up  and  seated  in  state  in  every  Hindoo  house  once 
a  year.  At  this  season  large  quantities  of  the  fruit  are  brought  for 
sale  to  Bombay.  The  fruit  is  also  medicinal,  and  is  smoked  as  a 
remedy  for  asthma ;  when  burnt  it  gives  off  large  quantities  of 
ammonia.  It  also  contains  a  bitter  purgative  principle  somewhat 
similar  to  that  of  colocynth.  The  Marathi  name  is  KavandaL  The 
green  pulp  in  the  interior  of  the  fruit  contains  a  colouring  matter, 
which  has  more  of  the  red  in  its  florescence  than  chlorophyll,  and 
its  «pectrum  shows  a  different  arrangement  of  bands  than  is  seen  in 
the  usual  green  colouring  matter  of  plants.  My  friend,  Mr.  Hooper 
of  Ootaeamund,  sent  some  of  it  to  Professor  Michie  Smith,  and  with 
several  other  colouring  matters  it  forms  the  subject  of  an  interesting 
paper  read  by  him  before  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh. 

T.  92£rvijbiia  is  a  large  climber  with  cordate  strongly-nerved  leaves 
and  ovate  fruit.  As  far  as  I  know,  it  is  not  used  in  any  way  in 
this  part  of  India. 

Lagenaria  vulgaris  is  the  bottle -gourd ;  it  occurs  in  two  forijis — 
wild  and  cultivated.  The  former  is  known  as  Alahu  in  Sanskrit, 
and  the  latter  as  Kadutumhi.  In  Bombay  we  call  the  cultivated 
variety  Safed  Dudhiya  or  Dudhiya  Bhopala,  It  is  a  much  esteemed 
vegetable,  and  is  best  cooked  as  a  curry,  cut  in  small  pieces  after 
the  country  fashion.  Served  like  vegetable  marrow  on  toast,  it  is 
insipid,  but  a  capital  imitation  of  mashed  turnips  may  be  made  from 
it  with  the  assistance  of  the  fruit  of  Momordwa  Charantia  {Karela  or 
Karala)  to  communicate  the  necessary  bitterness.  Both  of  these 
gourds  are  obtainable  at  all  seasons  of  the  year.  The  bitter  bottle- 
gourds  (in  Marathi  Kadutumhi)  has  the  purgative  properties  of  colo- 
cynth. It  grows  to  a  very  large  size,  and  may  be  seen  in  use  all 
over  India  as  a  bottle  or  jar  for  holding  fluids.     Very  large  gourds 


ECONOMIC  BOTASY  OF  THE  CCCURBITACEJE.  289 

of  this  species  are  imported  from  Zanzibar,  and  are  much  valued  for 
making  the  Indian  guitar  or  Tambu*'a ;  they  take  a  fine  polish  like 
close-grained  wood.  ^ 

Of  the  three  species  of  Luffa  found  in  Western  India,  L.  (ngyptiaca 
and  L.  acutangula  are  valuable  vegetables ;  the  vernacular  names 
Ghosali,  Turaiy  Sirola  and  Dorki  are  applied  to  both  plants,  but  the 
former  is  distinguished  as  Ghi-iarai,  Gikhi-dorkl,  Gilcki-ghosali  (on 
account  of  its  superior  richness),  and  Mattl^ghosali  in  the  south, 
on  account  of  its  habit  of  climbing  over  trees,  which  it  adorns  with 
its  large  yellow  flowers  far  into  the  cold  weather.  In  Sanskrit 
Koshataki  is  a  general  name  for  this  genus :  it  is  derived  from  Kosha 
^*the  cocoon  of  a  silk-worm,"  and  alludes  to  the  way  in  which  the 
seeds  are  enclosed  within  a  fibrous  network.  The  Sanskrit  names 
Ghoshaka  and  Dalika  appear  more  particularly  to  appertain  to 
L,  acutangula.  The  two  species  of  Turai  are  easily  distinguished; 
the  fruit  of  2/.  cegyptiaca  being  smooth  and  that  of  L,  aeutangula 
marked  with  ten  prominent,  sharp,  longitudinal  ridges.  As  vege- 
tables these  gourds  may  be  cooked  in  various  ways  like  the  snake- 
gourd,  which  has  been  already  noticed  ;  but  they  are  best  cut  in 
transverse  slices,  dipped  in  a  cream  composed  of  warm  spices  and 
gram  flour,  and  fried  in  butter  or  olive  oil. .  The  sliced  fruit  may 
also  be  added  with  advantage  to  fish  omelettes. 

The  fibrous  network  contained  in  the  ripe  fruit  of  L,  cegyptiaca  is 
used  in  India  as  a  strainer,  and  is  sold  by  European  chemists  and 
druggists  as  a  skin-rubber.  A  wild  form  of  L.  acutanguh  common 
on  hedges  has  been  named  /;.  amara ;  it  is  very  bitter,  and  has  medi- 
cinal properties  similar  to  those  of  colocynth.  It  is  known  as  Kadu- 
dorki  or  Kadn-ghosalL 

L.  echinafa,  in  Sanskrit  Demdall,  in  Marathi  Dfodangri  "  fairy's 
•gourd"  and  in  Guzerathi  Vapala-bij  (a  name  derived  from  the  Sans- 
krit Vapa,  **  weaving,"  in  allusion  to  the  cocoon-like  network  in 
which  the  seeds  are  enclosed),  is  used  medicinally.  It  contains  a 
highly  poisonous  principle  similar  to,  if  not  identical  with,  Cohcyn- 
thitin  '0296  grain  of  which  administered  to  a  cat  proved  fatal  in  four 
hours  and  twenty-five  minutes  ;  it  also  contains  Colocynthin  the  bitter, 
purgative  principle  of  colocynth.  The  dangerous  nature  of  this  gourd 
was  brought  to  notice  a  few  years  ago  by   Dr.   Kirtikar,   when  a 


290     JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

servant  of  his  died  with  symptoms  resembling  those  of  cholera  after 
taking  a  decoction  of  a  single  fruit  as  a  purgative.  The  fruit  is 
about  the  size  of  a  small  n^utmeg  and  thickly  set  with  long  soft 
spines. 

Benincasa  cerifera  (in  Sanskrit  Kushmmida,  in  Marathi  EoJiola), 
bears  a  large  pale  green  gourd,  which  has  a  great  reputation  among 
the  Hindus  ;  when  ripe  it  is  covered  with  a  waxy  white  bloom,  and 
is  thought  to  possess  valuable  medicinal  properties,  and  to  be  a  spe- 
cific for  spitting  of  blood  and  other  internal  haemorrhages.  The 
fruit  should  be  at  least  a  year  old  before  it  is  used  for  making  the 
medicinal  confection  known  as  Khanda  Kushmandaka.  The  pulp  is 
scraped  out  and  the  watery  juice,  which  exudes  during  the  process, 
is  preserved ;  the  pulp  is  then  boiled  in  its  own  juice,  strained  and 
dried  in  the  sun ;  it  is  then  fried  in  ghi  and  again  boiled  in  the  juice 
which  was  strained  from  it,  until  reduced  to  the  consistence  of  honey. 
Sugar,  spices  and  honey  are  now  added  over  a  gentle  fire,  and  the 
confection,  after  being  well  stirred,  is  fit  for  use.  The  dose  is  from 
one  to  two  tolas.  This  gourd  is  also  used  as  a  vegetable  like  Lage- 
nat%a,  and  the  pulp,  after  being  boiled,  is  mixed  with  flour  and 
molasses  and  made  into  small  lumps  (Vati,  Sanskrit;  Vadi,  Marathi) 
and  fried  in  ghi  or  oil ;  they  are  considered  to  be  highly  nutritive. 

Of  the  four  species  of  Momordica  which  occur  in  Western  India, 
none  are  used  by  Europeans,  but  M.  Charantia  and  M,  dioica  are  used 
as  vegetables  by  the  Natives.  The  first  is  the  muricated  fruit  like 
a  crocodile's  back  called  Karala  in  Marathi ;  it  is  very  bitter,  but 
wholesome,  and  requires  to  be  steeped  in  salt  and  water  before  it  is 
cooked.  It  tastes  best  when  cut  in  transverse  slices,  dipped  in  a  cream 
made  of  spices  and  gram  flour,  and  fried  in  butter.  The  Sanskrit 
name  is  Karavella,  and  the  gourd  bears  the  synonym  Kandira  or 
'*  armed  with  arrows. '*  I  have  already  shown  how  it  may  be  uti- 
lized in  combination  with  the  bottle-ggurd  in  European  cookery. 

The  softly  spinous  fruit  of  M,  dioica  (in  Marathi  Kartoli  or  Karan* 
toll]  and  in  Sanskrit  FaA«5a  or  ^rtrA^o^aA:a),  when  cultivated  loses  its 
bitterness,  and  is  in  common  use  as  a  vegetable ;  it  is  dressed  like 
M,  Charantia,  and  is  by  no  means  to  be  despised.  The  fruit  of  the 
wild  plant  is  bitter,  and  its  tuberous  roots,  which  are  not  bitter,  are 
used  medicinally  in  bowel  complaints;  and  in  the  Konkan  their  juice 


ECONOMIC  BOTANY  OF  THE  CUCURBITACE2E.  291 

is  a  domestic  remedy  for  the  inflammation  caused  by  contact  with 
the  house  lizard.  The  root  of  the  female  plant,  which  often  weighs 
a  pound  or  more,  is  of  a  yellowish  colour,  and  somewhat  Eke  a  tur- 
nip in  shape ;  it  contains  an  alkaloid  which  is  not  purgative. 

Jf.  cochinsinetms  occurs  in  the  Deccan  and  South  Eonkan ;  it  is 
called  in  Sanskrit  Karkataka  from  the  resemblance  of  the  sculptured 
seeds,  which  are  flat  and  rather  more  than  half  an  inch  in  diameter, 
to  the  shell  of  a  crab  {Karka).  In  the  vernaculars  it  is  known  as 
Kakrol.  The  seeds,  after  the  shell  has  been  removed,  are  fried  and 
eaten  alone  or  with  other  food ;  they  are  considered  to  be  good  for 
cough  and  pains  in  the  chest ;  powdered  they  form  one  of  the  ingre- 
dients of  the  hot  stufiE  known  as  Jhal  in  Bengal,  which,  mixed  with 
ghij  is  given  to  women  after  confinement  for  a  few  days,  and  is  sup- 
posed to  remove  phlegmatic  humours. 

M.  Ci/mbalaria,  in  Marathi  Kadavanchi,  is  a  small  deUcate  climb- 
ing plant  with  tuberous  roots  about  the  size  of  a  wallnut  or  less ;  these 
tubers  have  been  several  times  sent  to  the  Chemical  Analyser's  Office 
in  Bombay,  as  having  been  used  to  procure  abortion  ;  they  contain  a 
bitter  glucoside,  and  a  very  acrid  resin,  and  are  highly  poisonous. 

Cucumis  trigonus  occurs  in  two  forms ;  the  smooth-fruited  varietj' 
(in  Marathi  Katvel  or  Karit),  has  a  very  bitter  fruit  about  the  size  of 
a  small  egg.  At  the  time  of  the  Devili  large  quantities  of  this  fruit 
are  brought  for  sale  to  Bombay ;  they  are  crushed  beneath  the  foot 
after  the  ceremonial  bath  early  in  the  morning  on  the  Naraka 
Chaturdasi,  or  first  day  of  the  Devali,  and  the  bitter  juice  applied  to 
the  tongue, — a  practice  which  appears  to  resemble  that  of  eating 
Nimb  leaves  on  the  Varsha-pratipada  or  New  Year's  Day.  This 
custom  is  peculiar  to  the  Konkan,  and  I  am  informed  by  Dr.  Bhandar- 
kar,  is  unknown  in  the  Deccan.  The  fruit  is  considered  to  bo 
medicinal,  and,  when  pounded  or  boiled  with  cow's  milk  and  applied 
to  the  head,  is  supposed  to  prevent  insanity,  strengthen  the  memory, 
and  remove  vertigo ;  it  contains  the  same  purgative  principle  as 
colocynth.  The  other  form  of  C,  trigonus  appears  to  be  a  semi-culti- 
vated one ;  it  is  pubescent,  and  in  the  unripe  state  is  used  as  a 
vegetable,  when  quite  ripe  it  becomes  sweet  and  tastes  like  a  melon. 
This  gourd  is  called  Takmaki  in  Marathi,  and  is  common  towards  the 
end  of  the  rains  in  gardens  and  cultivated  fields. 


292    JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

Cucumis  Melo  is  the  true  melon ;  it  is  the  Batikh  of  Egypt  which 
was  so  much  regretted  by  the  Jews  in  the  wilderness ;  it  was  culti- 
vated by  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  The  melons  of  Bokhara  and 
Persia  are  famous  ;  the  Emperor  Baber  is  said  to  have  shed  tears 
over  a  melon  of  Turkistan  which  was  sent  to  him  in  India.  The 
Arabs,  who  also  call  it  Batikhy  believe  that  it  is  one  of  the  fruits  of 
Paradise.  We  do  not  meet  with  melons  of  this  quality  in  India,  but 
a  variety,  utilissimuSy  much  like  a  cucumber,  is  cultivated  all  over  the 
country,  it  is  called  Tavashi  in  Marathi. 

C  sativus  is  the  true  cucumber ;  as  this  fruit  is  so  well  known,  it  is 
hardly  necessary  to  say  more  about  it,  but  I  may  remark  that  the 
finest  flavored  cucumbers  in  the  Konkan  are  those  grown  upon  hilly 
ground ;  the  cucumbers  of  Malabar  Hill,  for  instance,  are  much 
esteemed  in  Bombay.  To  fully  appreciate  the  flavour  of  a  cucumber 
it  should  be  eaten  young  with  salt  and  pepper  only. 

The  genus  Citrullus  affords  us  the  bitter,  purgative  colocynth 
fruit,  so  common  on  the  plains  of  the  Deccan — in  Sanskrit  Indravaruni 
and  Vishala,  and  in  Marathi  Kururuttdavan ;  but  from  this  very 
unpromising  source  have  been  obtained  by  cultivation  the  water- 
melon, Citrullus  vulgaris  (in  Marathi  Kalingad),  and  the  excellent 
vegetable  known  as  Dilpasand,  which,  when  young  and  fresh,  is 
little  inferior  to  the  vegetable  marrow.  Of  the  water-melon  we  have 
a  sweet  and  a  bitter  kind ;  the  latter  is  the  Citrullus  amarus  of 
authors,  and  has  much  of  the  properties  of  the  parent  colocynth. 
There  are  many  cultivated  varieties  of  the  sweet  water-melon  •,  those 
grown  about  Bombay  are  much  inferior  to  the  produce  of  hot  and 
dry  climates,  such  as  the  coast  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  where  a  slice  of 
this  fruit,  after  a  few  minutes'  exposure  to  the  hot  air  of  the  Garma- 
sir,  is  a  luxury  equal  to  the  most  deKcious  water  ice.  This  melon 
is  the  Batikh-el-Hind  or  "  Indian  melon "  of  the  Arabs  and  the 
Hinduwanah  of  the  Persians. 

Gucurhita  maxima  is  the  common  gourd ;  C,  moschatay  the  musk 
melon  ;  and  C  Pepo,  the  pumpkin.  These  gourds  are  all  cultivated 
in  India.  C.  maxima  is  said  to  be  a  native  of  the  Levant,  and  often 
attains  to  an  enormous  size,  240  lbs.  are  on  record  ;  it  is  the  Potiron 
of  the  French  and  the  Lai  Dudkiya,  Tamarahhopala  or  Dhangar  of 
the  Marathis.     C,  Pepo,  which  bears  the  same  Indian  names,  is  said  to 


ECONOMIC  BOTANY  OF  THE  CUCURBIT  AC  E^E.  29^ 

be  a  native  of  Astrachan,  and  the  vegetable  marrow,  0.  ovifera^  is 
considered  by  some  to  be  a  variety  of  it  introduced  from  Persia. 
C.  moschata  is  our  Chibur  or  musk-melon.  • 

The  common  gourd  and  the  pumpkin  are  most  valuable  vegetables  ; 
the  latter  is  much  used  in  India  by  both  Europeans  and  Natives  :  it 
yields  an  excellent  soup,  and  mashed  with  milk  or  cream  a  vegetable 
dish  which  is  always  procurable.  Pies  are  also  made  with  it.  The 
natives  of  India  dress  gourds  in  various  ways  as  a  vegetable  curry  ; 
they  also  make  small  pellets  (vadi)  of  the  pulp  with  flour  and  mol^ses, 
which  they  fry  in  oil  or  butter,  and  use  the  young  shoots  of  C.  maxima 
as  greens.  This  use  of  the  shoots  is  mentioned  by  Pliny,  but  appears 
to  be  now  unknown  in  Europe ;  they  taste  much  like  turnip  tops. 
The  musk-meloD  is  very  inferior  as  a  fruit  to  the  true  melons. 

Amongst  the  Ancients,  pumpkins,  melons,  and  cucumbers  were 
considered  to  be  emblematic  of  abundance  and  fertility,  on  account  of 
the  numerous  seeds  contained  in  them,  and  from  their  having  the 
form  of  a  belly  without  head  or  limbs ;  they  were  also  thought  to 
represent  sensuality  and  stupidity.  In  Italy  a  fat  stupid  man  is  still 
called  **  zucca,  zuccone,  citrullo ;  and  the  French  are  fond  of  apply- 
ing the  terms  "concombre"  and  "melon"  to  such  people.  The 
Marathas  have  got  hold  of  the  same  notion,  as  they  use  the  term 
"  Bhopalasuti"  in  the  sense  of  gross,  stupid,  &c.;  again  "Bhopoladeota" 
signifies  a  tomboy  or  hoyden — and  '*  Bhopaliya-rog,"  Tony  Lumpkin's 
consumption — dying  of  fat. 

Cephalandra  indica,  in  its  wild  state,  grows  on  every  old  wall  on 
Malabar  Hill;  the  fruit  is  bitter,  oblong,  and  about  two  inches  in 
length.  When  ripe,  it  is  of  a  bright  scarlet  colour.  In  Sanskrit  it 
is  called  Vimba  and  Tundika,  and  in  Mahratti  Tondali.  Indian 
beauties  are  described  by  poets  and  story-tellers  as  Viraboshta,  '*  red 
or  cherry  lipped."  The  cultivated  plant  has  rather  larger  fruit, 
which  is  free  from  bitterness,  and  when  unripe,  is  a  favourite  vege- 
table with  the  natives.  The  leaves  afford  a  deep  green  and  perfectly 
harmless  colouring  matter,  and  the  root  is  used  medicinally. 

The  remaining  plants  belonging  to  this  order  are  all  medicinal, 
and  contain  principles  similar  to,  if  not  identical  with,  brt/onin,  a 
bitter  principle  found  in  the  European  Bryonys.  Bryonia  ladniosa 
is  the  Baja  of  Sanskrit  writers,  and  is  said  to  have  been  used  in 


25fc       JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890, 

Vedic  times  to  frighten  away  evil  spirits ;  it  is  still  known  in  Hindi 
as  Bajguriya  or  "  Baja  beads."  Another  name  for  it  is  Ohargunaru, 
which  signifies  a  string  of  ankle  bells,  such  as  are  worn  by  dancing 
girls.  These  bells  have  vertical  slits  in  them,  resembling  the  white 
verfcical  stripes  on  the  globular  fruit  of  this  plant.  In  Marathi  it  is 
called  Kavale'Che-doley  "  crow's  eyes."  Towards  the  end  of  the  rains 
it  is  common  on  hedges,  and  may  be  found  on  Malabar  Hill.  The 
fruit  is  about  the  size  of  a  marble,  red  when  ripe,  with  dead  white 
vertical  stripes.  The  Dutch,  according  to  Rheede,  call  it  SliUen,  and 
the  Portuguese  Nhola,  Mukia  scabrella  is  a  very  similar  plant,  but 
with  fruit  about  the  size  of  a  pea  and  marked  in  the  same  manner. 
It  is  called  Chirati  in  Marathi.  The  Sanskrit  name  GhantaU 
{Ohanta-dli,  a  row  of  bells)  appears  to  be  applied  to  both  of  these 
plants,  as  well  as  the  name  Ahilekhana,  "  marked  like  a  snake." 

Zehneria  umhellata  (in  Marathi  Oometta)  is  also  a  very  common 
plant  on  hedges,  with  oval  red  fruit  about  the  size  of  a  pigeon's  egg. 
The  tubers  are  used  medicinally  by  the  natives  as  an  ingredient  in 
Paushtiks,  "  strengthening  confections."  The  Dutch  call  this  gourd 
Karlingen,  and  the  Portuguese  Pepinho  do pata^  "  Goose's  cucumber.*' 
The  tubers  of  Rhyneocarpa  fcetida  are  used  in  the  same  way ;  it  may 
be  distinguished  by  its  ovoid,  rostrate  fruit. 

Corallocarpus  epigcea  and  G.  conocarpu  much  resemble  one  another, 
with  slender  climbing  stems,  lobed  leaves,  very  small  flowers,  and 
beaked  fruit.  The  root  is  an  enormous  tuber,  sometimes  weighing  as 
much  as  five  or  six  pounds,  and  shaped  like  a  turnip.  It  is  medicinal, 
and  is  sold  in  the  Bombay  bazars  under  the  Guzerathi  name  of 
Kadvi-nai,  These  plants  are  called  Sivalinga  and  Mahadeva  in 
Marathi,*  and  in  Sanskrit,  Chhilihinda,  Patala-garuda  and  Mahamulu 
or  "  great  root," 

Zanonia  indica  is  only  found  in  the  Southern  Konkan.  .  It  has  a 
curiously-shaped  fruit  like  a  candle  extinguisher,  which  the  Por- 
tuguese call  Fruita  bandoliera  from  its  resemblance  to  the  leather 
cases  called  bandoleers  each  containing  a  charge  of  powder  of  which 
every  musketeer  wore  twelve  suspended  by  a  shoulder  belt.  The 
Dutch  name  is  Naet-klim.  In  Sanskrit  and  Marathi  it  is  called 
Chirpota,  and  is  used  medicinally. 

*  In  allusion  to  the  form  of  the  fruit. 


ECONOMIC  BOTANY  OF  THE  CUCURBIT  ACE  AS.  295 

The  seeds  of  the  Cucurbitaceae,  when  freed  from  their  husks,  afford 
a  bland  edible  oil ;  even  those  of  the  colocynth  are  eaten  in  time  of 
scarcity.  They  contain  48  per  cent,  of  fatty  oil,  18  per  cent,  of 
albuminous  substances,  besides  a  small  quantity  of  sugar.  The  seeds 
of  the  cucumber,  melon,  water-melon,  and  bottle-gourd  or  pumpkin 
were  called  by  the  Ancients  "the  four  cold  cucurbitaceous  seeds," 
and  were  considered  to  be  cooling,  diuretic,  ard  strengthening 
These  four  cold  seeds  are  still  sold  in  Indian  bazars  decorticated 
ready  for  use. 

The  oleoresin  of  pumpkin  seeds  obtained  by  exhausting  the 
powdered  seeds  with  ether  is  a  thick  red  liquid,  which  is  given  in 
doses  of  one  to  three  table-spoonsful  as  an  anthelmintic ;  it  must  not 
be  confounded  with  the  expressed  oil,  which  is  inert. 


LIST  OF  CHIN-LUSHAI  BUTTERFLIES. 

By  Lionel  de  Niceville. 

Below  will  be  found  a  list  of  the  butterflies  collected  by  Lieut. 
D.  Thomson,  of  the  28th  Pioneers,  in  Chin-Lushai  country  during  the 
expedition  in  the  cold  weather  of  1 889-90.  The  specimens  have  been 
presented  to  the  Bombay  Natural  History  Society. 

Family  NYMPHALID^. 

Sub-family  Danain^.. 

1 .  Danais  tyfia,  Gray. 

2.  ,,       HeptentrioniSy  Butler. 

3.  „       chrysippus,  Linnaeus. 

4.  ,,       gemdia,  Cramer. 

5.  Euplcea  rkadamanfhus,  Fabricius. 

6.  ,,         midamus,  LinnaeuH. 

7.  „        alcatJioCy  Godart. 

Sub-familv  Satyrin^. 

ft 

8.  Mycalesis  sanatana,  Moore. 

9.  ,,  mineus,  Linnaeug. 

39 


296  JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

10.  Lethe  sinorix,  Hewitson. 

11.  „      dyria,  Felder. 

12.  „      vindhyay  Felder. 

13.  ,,     mekara,  Moore. 

14.  Ypthima  philomela,  Johanssen. 

Sub-family  Morphinje. 

15.  Enispe  isuthymius,  Doubleday. 

Sub-family  Nymphalin^. 

16.  Ergolis  merione,  Cramer. 

17.  Euripus  halUherses,  Doubleday  and  Hewitson. 

18.  Cethosia  cyane,  Drury. 

19.  „        hihlis,  Drury. 

20.  Cynthia  erota,  Fabriciu8. 

21.  Apatura  ndmouna,  Doubleday. 

22.  „      parysatis,  Westwood. 

23.  Hestina  nama,  Doubleday. 

24.  Precis  iphita,  Cramer. 

25.  Junonia  atlites,  Linnaous. 

26.  „         lemoniaSf  Linnaeus. 

27.  „        hierta,  Fabricius. 

28.  Neptis  kamarupa,  Moore. 

29.  „       soma,  Moore. 

30.  „       ophiana,  Moore. 

31.  „       nandina,  Moore. 

32.  Cirrhochroa  mithila,  Moore. 

33.  Pseudergolis  wedah,  Kollar. 

34.  Stibochiona  nicea,  Gray. 

35.  Parthenos  gambrisius,  Fabricius. 

36.  Limenitis  daraxa,  Doubleday  and  Hewitson, 

37.  „       procris,  Cramer. 

38.  Athyma  seknophora,  Kollar. 

39.  „       cama,  Moore. 

40.  Euthalia  frandcBy  Gray. 

41.  „  lepidea,  Butler. 

42.  „  appiades,  M^netries. 

43.  Symbrenthia  hippoclus,  Cramer, 


LIST  OF  CEIN-LUSHAI  BUTTERFLIES.  297 

44.  SymhreMhia   ht/pselis,  Godart. 

45.  Cyreatis  thyodamasy  Boisduval. 

46.  „        risa,  Doubleday  and  Hewitson. 

47.  Kallima  itiackis,  Boisduval. 

48.  Doleschallia  polihete^  Cramer. 

49.  Char  axes  athamas^  Drury. 

50.  „         aristogiton,  Felder. 

51.  „        pleistoanax,  Felder. 

Family  LEMONIID^. 
Sub-family  Libyth^in.«. 

62.  Libytliea  iepita,  Moore. 

Sub-family  Nemeobiin^. 

63.  Zemeros  flcgyas^  Cramer. 

64.  Abisara  neophron ,  Hewitson. 

Family  LYCiENID^.. 

55.  Pithecops  hylax,  Fabricius. 

56.  Gyamris  marginataj  deNiceville. 

57.  Curetis  btilis,  Doubleday  and  Hewitson. 

58.  Ilerda  epicles,  Godart. 

59.  Rapala  xenaphon,  Fabricius. 

60.  Polyommatus  bwttcus,  Linnaeus. 

Family  PAPILIONIDJ?. 

Sub-family  Pierin.b. 

61.  Hebonwia  glaucippCy  Linnaous. 

62.  Prioneris  thesfyliSf  Boisduval. 

63.  Appias  hippoides,  Moore. 

64.  Terim  hecabe,  Linnaeus. 

65.  Ixias  pyrene,  Linnaeus. 

66.  Hiposcritia  indray  Moore. 

67.  Caiopsilia  crocalCy  Cramer. 

68.  Huphina  nama,  Moore. 

69.  Maticipium  canidia,  Sparrman. 

Sub-family  Papilioxinje. 

70.  LeptocivcHs  meges,  Zinken-Sommer. 

71.  Papilio  dasarada,  Moore. 


298      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 


72. 

Pqpilio  ganesa,  Doubleday. 

73. 

» 

pariSy  Tiinnaeus. 

74. 

3 

J 

castor,  Westwood. 

75. 

1 

antiphates,  Cramer, 

76. 

dissimilis,  Linnaeus. 

77. 

protenor,  Cramer. 

78. 

) 

rhetenor,  Westwood. 

79. 

philoxeniis,  Gray. 

80. 

, 

sarpedon,  Linnaeus. 

81. 

aristohchicBy  Fabricius 

82. 

>> 

mahadeva,  Moore. 

83. 

ii 

macareus,  Godart. 

Family  HESPERIID^. 

84.     Badamia  exclamationis,  Fabricius. 


BOOK  NOTICES. 

THE  BUTTERFLIES  OF  INDIA,  BURMA  AND  CEYLON. 

The  third  volume  of  The  Butterflies  oflndiay  Burma  and  Ceylon,  dealing  with 
the  Lycaenidse,  hears  only  the  name  of  Mr.  de  Nieeville,  Major  G.  F.  L.  Marshall 
having  heen  forced,  by  official  work  and  bad  health,  to  retire  from  the  work.  This 
volume,  however,  fully  keeps  up  the  character  for  unsparing  thoroughness  estab- 
lished by  the  first.  It  is  difficult  to  recall  another  book  on  any  branch  of  Natural 
History  so  absolutely  complete.  Indeed,  if  there  is  any  fault  to  be  found  with  the 
book,  it  is  that  it  is  too  cumbrous.  It  might  have  been  reduced  in  volume,  without 
loss  of  usefulness,  by  leaving  out  much  that  has  been  inserted  about  the  numberless 
pseudo-species  which  have  been  made  out  of  every  butterfly  subject  to  much 
variation.  No  penalty  attaches  to  the  description  of  a  new  species,  and  it  is  an 
easy  road  to  a  kind  of  distinction  which  is  dear  to  some  men,  so  that  descriptions, 
under  new  names,  of  mere  casual,  or  seasonal,  varieties  are  rashly  given  to  the 
world,  and  the  lepidopterist  finds  his  time  less  occupied  with  exploring  the 
history  and  ways  of  butterflies  than  the  errors  and  absurdities  of  men.  That 
Mr.  de  Nieeville,  before  he  could  write  his  book,  should  have  to  work  his  way 
through  tons  of  rubbish  was  inevitable ;  but  it  scarcely  seems  necessary  that  he 
should  take  his  readers  with  him.  Take,  for  example,  the  genus  Curetis.  Agreeing 
with  Hewitson,  Mr.  de  Nieeville  believes  that  there  are  but  two  species,  bulis  and 
thetys,  nevertheless  he  describes  thirteen,  seven  of  which  have  Mr.  Moore  for 
their  godfather.    The  question  is  not  whether  Mr.  Moore  or  Mr.  de  Nieeville  is 


BOOK  NOTICES.  299 

right :  both  may  be  wrong.  But  Mr.  de  Niceville  is  an  author,  not  merely  an 
editor,  and  his  task  is  to  exercise  his  judgment  and  give  us  the  result.  If,  for  the 
sake  of  leaving  out  nothing,  he  felt  himself  obliged  to  notice  the  eleven  species  in 
which  he  did  not  believe,  he  might  have  relegated  them  to  the  region  of  small  type 
foot-notes,  or  dismissed  them  with  a  reference  to  the  journals  in  which  the  original 
descriptions  might  be  found.  However,  he  has  always  stated  his  own  opinion 
clearly,  and  the  fact  that  he  has,  in  deference  to  the  opinions  of  older  entomologists, 
given  a  place  to  descriptions  of  supposed  species,  in  the  distinctness  of  which  he 
could  not  himself  believe,  tends  to  disarm  criticism.  No  serious  attempt  can  be 
made,  in  this  brief  notice  of  the  book,  to  judge  between  Mr.  de  Niceville  and  those 
from  whom  he  differs ;  but  it  is  safe  to  say  that  a  great  many  even  of  the  species 
which  he  retains  must  go  sooner  or  later  (probably  sooner).  Under  the  genus 
Amhlypodia,  for  example,  he  gives  descriptions  of  seven  species,  himself  believing 
in  only  two ;  and  as  we  glance  over  these  seven  descriptions,  we  notice  that  in  every 
one  the  underside  is  described  definitely,  as  if  it  was  always  the  same  in  each  spe- 
cies. Now  any  one  who  has  lived  among  butterflies  of  this  genus  knows  that  they 
are  as  variable  on  the  underside  as  Kallima  :  no  two  are  alike.  It  is  charitable 
to  suppose  that  Mr.  Moore  and  Mr-  Grose  Smith  did  nob  know  this  when  they 
floated  new  species  on  the  strength  of  single  specimens  not  even  sexcd ;  but  those 
who  do  will  naturally  regard  the  seven  species  of  Ambly podia  with  suspicion. 

Next  to  its  completeness  its  accuracy  is  the  most  remarkable  feature  of  this 
book.  When  the  number  of  references  and  scientific  names,  and  the  opportunity 
which  these  afford  to  the  **  printer's  devil "  are  considered,  the  correctness  of  the 
text  seems  simply  marvellous.  It  is  matter  for  pride  that  such  printing  can  be 
done  in  India,  but  of  course  every  word  of  the  proofs  must  have  been  corrected  by 
Mr.  de  Niceville  himself,  or  some  competent  entomologist.  The  illustrations,  too^ 
are  as  good  as  any  we  have  seen,  the  coloured  plates  by  Messrs.  West,  Newman 
and  Co.  being  particularly  lifelike.  In  many  respects  this  volume  testifies  to  the 
advance  which  has  been  made  in  our  knowledge  of  Indian  butterflies  since  the 
former  volumes  appeared.  The  notes  on  habits,  distribution,  &c.,  seem  in  every 
respect  more  complete  and  trustworthy,  and  many  will  be  surprised  at  the  number 
of  species  of  which  Mr.  de  Niceville  is  able  to  give  a  complete  life  history.  Some 
of  these  histories  are  very  interesting  and  well  fitted  to  stimulate  further  research. 
The  LyccenicUe,  though  small,  are  in  many  respects  the  most  fascinating  of  all 
butterflies,  and  we  may  confidently  predict  that  this  volume  will  give  a  great 
impulse  to  the  study  of  them.  Much  remains  to  be  done.  Since  this  volume  was 
in  print,  Thaduka  multicaudatat  an  extremely  rare  species,  found  hitherto  only  in 
Burma,  has  been  caught  in  Ganara.  All  the  specimens  caught  before  were 
females,  and  the  Canara  specimen  was  of  the  same  sex,  so  the  male  remains  to  be 
discovered.  In  conclusion  we  note  that  Mr.  de  Niceville  hopes  to  bring  out  the 
next  volume  on  the  Pieridx,  in  much  less  time  than  was  needed  for  the  Lycanida. 
Then  the  Hesperida  only  will  remain,  and  to  that  family  those  who  wish  to  help 
in  the  work  should  turn  their  attention  betimes. 


300      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1  uo. 

NOTES  ON  OATES'  BIRDS  OF  INDIA. 

Part  U. 

The  interest  in  Mr.  Oates's  work  will  be  felt  beyond  tbe  limits  of  the  Avi- 
fauna on  which  be  writes,  for  he  has  put  forward  some  new  and  original  notions 
for  the  classification  of  the  Passerine  birds,  a  subject  which  will  attract  the  atten- 
tion of  Ornithologists  all  over  the  globe.  Of  this  new  attempt  to  re-arrange  the 
Passerine  birds,  we  feel  very  much  as  we  have  felt  with  regard  to  all  similar 
attempts  of  the  last  twenty  years.  Each  one  leans  too  much  on  a  single  character, 
but  each  adds  something  in  the  way  of  a  brick  or  two  of  information  towards  the 
building  up  of  a  natural  classification  of  Passeres.  We  are  beginning  to  doubt, 
however,  whether  we  shall  ever  arrive  at  a  really  natural  classification,  and  certainly 
we  shall  not  get  a  linear  one.  There  seems  to  have  been  too  much  endeavour 
to  thrust  odd  genera  into  families,  in  an  attempt  to  make  them  fit  in  somewhere, 
and  we  shall  really  only  be  able  to  generalise  when  we  know  everything  about  all 
the  leading  genera,  external  contour,  osteology,  myology,  nesting  habits,  colour  of 
eggs,  &c.  No  character  can  be  considered  too  unimportant,  all  must  be  weighed, 
and  then  we  may  hope  that,  by  a  combination  of  knowledge  on  every  minute  point, 
we  may  arrive  at  some  satisfactory  conclusion.  Nomenclature  now  troubles  the 
ornithological  world  much  less  than  classification,  and  it  is  time  that  a  detailed 
scheme  was  prepared  for  submission  to  a  competent  international  committee,  and 
discussed  at  a  Zoological  Congress.  The  imprimatur  which  is  given  by  the  annual 
meetings  of  the  American  Ornithologists'  Union  to  the  status  of  various  species 
in  the  list  of  North  American  birds  is  an  admirable  institution,  and  a  committee  of 
the  B.O.U.  might  do  useful  work  in  the  same  way. 

The  question  now  arising  is,  whether  systematists  are  not  walking  in  a  wrong 
direction,  when  they  feel  bound  to  place  their  genera  in  some  well-known  family  ; 
as,  for  instance,  Mr.  Oates  has  done  in  the  present  volume  with  Zosterops,  The 
liability  to  da  this  is  sure  to  be  stronger  when  the  writer  is  dealing  with  the  birds 
of  one  region  only.  Zosterops,  as  represented  in  the  Indian  region,  only  exhibits 
a  paltry  five  species  out  of  the  eighty  of  which  the  genus  is  composed.  Then,  again, 
has  not  too  much  stress  been  placed  on  single  characters,  such  as  the  number  of 
primary  quills,  the  shape  of  the  wing,  &c.?  The  concave  Timeliine  shape  of  the 
wing,  which  led  Mr.  Seebohm  to  discard  Cisticola  from  the  Warblers,  is  reckoned 
of  little  worth  by  Mr.  Oates  when  the  spring  moult  is  found  to  be  common  to  both 
groups  of  birds.  Not  that  we  are  disposed  to  quarrel  with  either  of  these  views  i 
they  are  merely  part  of  the  grouping  in  which  we  are  all  engaged  towards  the 
accomplishment  of  a  natural  system ;  but  let  us  see  what  result  follows  from  the 
adoption  of  Mr.  Oates's  characters.  First  of  all  he  recognises  the  two  great  groups, 
Acromyodi  and  Mesomyodi.  With  this  we  are  most  of  us  agreed.  Then  he  sepa- 
rates off  the  Larks  on  account  of  their  scutellated  planta  tarsi,  a  striking  character, 
and  the  Diceidae  follow  on  account  of  the  serrations  in  the  tomia.  Then  the  nine- 
primaried  birds  go  on  one  side — HirundinidtB  or  Swallows,  FringillidtB  or  Finches, 
and  MotacillidcB  or  Wagtails  and  Pipits.     Of  the  ten-primaried  Passeres,  the  Sun- 


BOOK  NOTICES.  301 

birds  (Nectariniida)  are  placed  on  one  side  because  of  their  tubular  and  extensile 
tongue ;  and  the  other  families  are  divided  according  to  the  character  of  the  nest- 
ling plumage.  Dr.  Shufeldt  has  recently  written  a  paper  on  the  osteology  of 
North  American  Passeres,  from  which  we  gather  very  few  crumbs  of  comfort ;  and 
we  doubt  whether  any  great  differences  of  structure  are  going  to  be  discovered  in 
the  families  of  Passeres,  all  of  which  seem  to  be  built  on  one  type.  The  study, 
however,  is  too  much  in  its  infancy  for  us  to  know  anything  yet  for  certain. 

With  regard  to  the  nine-primaried  birds,  all  of  which  we  have  described  in  the 
British  Museum  "  Catalogue,"  can  any  naturalist  venture  to  say  that  there  is  any 
real  natural  affinity  between  Swallows  and  Finches,  or  between  Finches  and  Pipits, 
or  between  Swallows  and  Wagtails  ?  They  seem  to  us  about  as  distinct  from  one 
another  as  any  families  of  birds  can  well  be,  and  if  their  proximity  in  the  system  is 
due  to  their  having  all  of  them  nine  primaries,  then  this  character  cannot  be  worth 
much  if  it  leads  to  such  a  result.  In  our  arrangement  of  Passeres  in  the  '^Catalogue" 
we  began  with  the  Corvida  as  the  highest  type  of  bird  in  our  opinion.  Since 
that  date  (1877)  our  knowledge  of  Passerine  birds  has  been  enormously  increased, 
and,  although  our  idea  of  the  high  position.of  the  Corvida  has  been  upheld  by  Pro- 
fessor Newton,  Dr.  Shufeldt,  and  other  naturalists,  it  is  for  the  very  reason  that  it 
is  a  perfect  type  of  Passerine  bird  that  the  Raven  ought  to  be  placed  in  the  middle 
of  the  system,  but  not  at  either  end. 

Thus,  supposing  that  the  Corvidte,  as  represented  principally  by  the  genus  Corvus, 
be  admitted,  for  the  sake  of  argument,  as  the  highest  type  of  Passerine  bird,  in 
what  relation  would  the  other  families  stand  towards  it,  if  we  try  to  illustrate 
their  natural  relationships  by  a  table  ? 

Accentoridae  Hirundinidse 

Turdidie— Sylviidae 
Cinclidae  Muscicapidae 

Troglodytiilae  Tinoeliidae 

Dicruridae 

Paradisiidae  Artamidse 

Corvidae  Oriolidse 

Ptilonorhynchidse  Eulabetidse 

Sturniiiae 


Ampelitlae  Diceidae — Meliphagidae— Nectariniidae 

Regulidae — Paridae 

Certhiidae        Laniidse 
Mniotiltidae  Vireonidae 


Caerebidae 

Tanagridae  Motacillidae 

Alaudidae 

Ploceidae 
Icteridae  Fringillidae 


302     JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  l^ATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

From  the  foregoing  table  it  will  be  seen  that  we  consider  that  there  are  three 
main  groups  of  families,  which  may  be  considered  as  really  related  more  or  less  sn^er 
se.  First,  the  Thrushes  or  Turdiformes.  That  the  Turdidm  and  Sylviidee  are 
closely  interwoven  no  one  will  deny,  and  we  must  place  the  Cinclidtc  near  the 
TurdidcB,  though  their  nest-building  habits  and  their  want  of  rictal  bristles  lead 
towards  the  Wrens.  Other  families  may  be  ultimately  added  to  this  Troglodytine 
group,  such  as  Mimid<B,  Myiadestida,  &c. ;  but  that  the  three  leading  forms  of 
Turdine  families,  viz..  Thrushes,  Warblers,  and  Flycatchers,  are  well  characterised 
seems  to  be  as  incontestable  as  the  fact  that  they  are  intimately  related. 

Another  group  of  birds  of  which  the  relationships  are  obrious  seems  to  us  to 
consist  of  the  Crows,  Starlings,  and  Paradise -birds.  Starlings  ought  not  to  be 
divorced  far  from,  the  Crows,  both  being  Ambulatores,  and  further  connected  by 
Heteralocha,  Podoces,  Pyrrhocorax,  and  another  genera.  Mr.  Oates's  family 
Eulabetidae  can  lead  from  the  Sturnida  to  the  Oriolidte. 

The  only  other  assemblage  of  birds  which  can  apparently  claim  united  aflftnities 
are  the  Finches,  which  coalesce  with  the  Tanagers  on  one  hand,  and  with  the 
Wearer  birds  on  the  other,  and  these  are  not  far  removed  from  the  Hangnests, 
lcterid<B» 

All  the  other  families  of  birds  seem  to  stand  more  or  less  isolated.  The 
Hirundinidce  are  decidedly  a  family  apart,  their  nearest  relatives  being  apparently 
MuscicapidtB  through  such  forms  as  Artomyias. 

The  Ampelida  have  no  very  near  relations,  as  far  as  we  can  judge,  but  Shufeldt 
places  them  between  the  Laniidts  and  Hirundinidts, 

The  LaniidcB  also  stand  by  themselves  as  the  centre  of  a  cluster  of  families,  which 
are,  however,  none  of  them  absolutely  connected  at  the  present  day.  The  Shrikes 
approach  the  Paridm  through  FalcunctUus,  and  on  the  other  hand  the  Vireonidte 
cannot  be  far  off,  though,  according  to  Shufeldt,  they  show  great  affinity  for  the 
Mniotiltidis, 

The  AtamidiB  have  apparently  no  close  relations.  Mr.  Gates  puts  them  as  a 
sub-family  of  the  Laniida. 

The  Paridce  are  intermediate  between  the  Laniida  and  the  Certhiidis,  and  we 
should  not  feel  inclined  to  separate  the  Nuthaches  as  a  distinct  family  from  the 
ParidiB ;  but  this  is  a  small  matter,  and  they  can  be  placed  as  a  family  between  the 
Creepers  and  the  Titmice  by  those  who  consider  them  worthy  of  a  distinct  posi- 
tion.   Dr.  Shufeldt  inclines  to  the  latter  view. 

The  ReguUdiB  are  a  tiny  family,  but  it  seems  convenient  to  keep  them  distinct, 
near  the  Parida,  with  inclinations  towards  the  Sylviidte, 

The  MniotiltidiB  occupy  the  same  position  in  the  New  World  that  the  Sylviida 
do  in  the  old,  but  beyond  this  they  do  not  seem  to  be  actually  related,  and  they 
are  more  nearly  connected  with  the  Certhiidts  through  Mniotilta, 

The  C<Brebid(B  appear  to  us  to  constitute  a  separate  family  somewhat  inter- 
mediate between  the  Certhiidce  and  the  Tangarida. 


BOOK  NOTICES. 


303 


Tbe  DieruridiB  are  ahother  rather  isolated  family,  somewhat  Muscicapine,  some- 
what Laniine,  and  yet  showing  IL  slight  affinity  towards  the  Orioles. 

There  remain,  therefore)  only  the  Larks  and  the  Wagtails,  hoih  families  standinj^ 
iBomewhat  apart,  but  we  believe  that  too  much  has  been  made  of  the  scutellate 
planta  tarsi  of  the  Larks,  and  that  they  are  really  closely  allied  to  the  Finche 
through  the  Buntings,  and  especially  connecited  by  PlectrophewUB  of  the  Em^ 
biriisida  and  Otocoris  of  the  Alaudida.  ^ 

The  MotdcillideB,  with  their  lark-shaped  wing  and  their  lark-like  nesting  habits, 
ought  not  to  be  very  far  from  the  Alaudidie,  though  with  affinities  pointing  to  the 
Sylviid€& 

t)r.  Shufeldt,  in  his  recently  published  *' Contributions  to  the  Comparative 
Osteology  of  the  Families  of  North  American  Passeres,''  has  arranged  the  latter  in 
the  following  order  :  — 

Order.  Sub-order.  Families. 

fClamatores 1.  Tyrannidas 

2.  LaniidsB 
'3.  Ampelids 

4.  Hirundinidas 

5.  Alaudidffi 

6.  Certhiid83 

7.  VireoniHao 

8.  Motacillidss 

9.  Sylviidsa 
10.  Caerebidac 

'  11.  Mniotiltidse 

12.  CinclidsB 

13.  Troglodytid» 

14.  Turdidas 

15.  Paridse 

16.  Tanagridaa 

17.  Fringillidae 

18.  Icteridao 

19.  SturnidsB 
120.  Corvidffi 

Now,  it  is  difficult  enough  at  ftny  time  to  arrange  families  of  birds  in  linear* 
sequence,  so  as  to  preserve  a  correct  notion  of  their  natural  affinities,  because,  how- 
ever easily  one  may  commence  the  order,  a  sudden  stop  must  ensue  when  the  limits 
of  natural  groups  are  reached,  and  a  fresh  start  must  be  made.  This  must  be  the 
case,  for  instance,  when  we  come  to  a  family  like  the  SylviidtB,  which  have  many 
close  allies,  and  cannot  stand  in  the  linear  system  between  more  than  two  of  them 

We  propose  the  following  linear  arrangement  of  the  families  of  Oscines,  as  the 
best  compromise  which  has  suggested  itself  to  us. 


Passe  res. 


<  Osci 


mbs 


1.  GorvidaB  (Crows). 

2.  Paradisiidae  (Birds  of  Paradise). 
Ptilonorhynchida;  (Bower  Birds). 

4.  SturnidsQ  (True  Starlings). 
6.  Eulabetidas  (Tree  Starlings). 
40 


6.  Artamidas  (Swallow  Shrikes). 

7.  Dicruridse  (Drongos). 

8.  Oriolidae  (Orioles). 

9.  Icteridae  (Hangnests). 
10.  PloceidaB  (Weaver  Birds). 


364      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890, 


24    Ampelidse  (Chatterers). 
^5.  Vireonidae  (Greenlets)- 

26.  SylviidBB  (Warblers^. 

27.  Turdidse  (Thrushes). 

28.  Cinclidae  (Dippers). 

29.  Troglodytidse  (Wrens). 

30.  AccentoridaB  (Accentors). 

31.  TimeliidaB  (Babblers). 

32.  PycnonotidsB  (Bulbuls). 

33.  Campophagidac  (Cuckoo-Shrilres). 

34.  Muscicapidae  (Flycatchers). 

35.  Hirundinidae  (Swallows). 


11.  Tanagridae  (Tanagers) 

12.  Caerehidae  (American  Creepers). 

13.  Fringillidaa  (Finches). 

14.  Alaudidse  (Larks). 

15.  Mota ci Hid ae  (Wagtails  and  Pipits). 

16.  Mniotiltidae  (American  Warblers). 

17.  Corthiidae  (Creepers). 

18.  Meliphagidae  (Honey-eaters). 
■19.  NectarinidsB  (Sun-birds). 

20.  Diceidae  (Flower-peckers). 

21.  Paridaa  (Titmice). 

22.  Regulidae  (Gold-crests). 

23.  Laniidae  (Shrikes). 
As  with  Dr.  Shufeldt's  arrangement,  so  with  oars,  there  are  one  or  two  awkwardly 

placed   families.     It  is  annoying  to  have  to  separate  the  Varidce  so  far  from  the 
Certhiidm  ;  but  we  do  not  see  where  else  to  put  the  Meliphagidx.     The  Sturnidos 
too,  are  further  from  the   Crows  than   we  should  prefer  to   see  them ;   but  if  we 
begin  with  the  CorvidcB,  which  we  think  it  is  desirable  to  do,  the  transition  to  the 
Paradise-birds  seems  natural,  and  thence  the  way  is  easy  through  Xmthomelus  to 
Amhlyorais.     Then  comes  a  break,  for   we  do   not   think  that   there  is  any  real 
affiuity  between  the  Orioles  and  the  Bower^birds,  and  the  Sturnidce  come  here  as 
the  nearest  position  available  in  the   vicinity  of  the   Corrida.     Recognising   the 
sense  of  Mr.   Oafces's  family   EulabetidcB,  we  can  pass  by   way  of   Calornis  to  the 
Oriolidm,  Sbiid  thence  to  the  Artamidcs  and  Dicruridoe.     It  would  not  surprise  us 
if,  when   the  osteology   and   anatomy  of  these  two  last   families   are  worked  out, 
•they  are  taken  completely  away  from  their  present  position,  and  placed  nearer  to 
the   Musc%capid(B  or  the  Laniidm.     At  present  we  do  not  know  any  better  place  to 
put  them.     That  the  Orioles  of  the  Old  World  and  the  Orioles  of  the  New  World 
should  come  somewhere  near  each  other  is  convenient,  and  then  the  passage  to  the 
Weavers,  Tanagers,  and  Finches  is  easy,  but  the  position  of  the  Carebida.  doe* 
not  quite  please  us.     The  latest  exponent  of  the  group,  Dr.  Sclater,  considers  that 
they  are   related  to  the    Tanagridce  on  one   hand  and  to  the   CerthiidtB  and  Mnio* 
tiltidoR  on  the  other.     Dr.  Shufeldt  places  them  next  to  the  latter  family,  and  it 
may  be  that  their  Mniotiltine  will  over-ride  their  Tanagrine  affinities.     We  have 
already  alluded  to  the  connection  between  the  Alaudidx  and  FringillidoB  by   means 
of  the  Horned  Larks  and  the   Snow  or   Lapland  Buntings,   and  by  placing  the 
MotacilUdos  next  in  order,  we  can  proceed  to  the  Midotiltidos  by  way  of   Siurus 
as  Dr.   Shufeldt   has  pointed   out.     From   Mniotilta  to    Certhia   seems    an  easy 
transition,  and    then,  no  doubt,  we  ought   to  go  the    Nuthatches   and   Titmic. 
But    we    can  find    no    more    convenient    position    than    this    for    placing    the 
MeliphagidcB  &nd  the  NectarirUidoB,  and  the  thi-ead  of  continuity  is  once  more  taken 
up  by  the  Diceida>.  which  form  a  good  connecting  link  with  the  PariioB  by  way  of 
Pnonochilus,  Pardahius,  but  above  all  by  Oreocharis,     From  Paridas,  to  LamidcE 


BOOK  NOTICES.  ^05 

the  road  is  bridgeil  by  Falcunculus,  and  probably  here  will  hnve  to  eome  some  of 
he  aberrant  Liotriches,  which  are  most  puzzHng  birds  to  locate.  We  follow  Mr. 
Oates  in  placing  them  as  Timeliinoe  birds,  but  both  our  family  Timeliida  of  the 
''Catalogue"  and  Mr.  Gates's  family  Crateropodida  have  too  ample  limits. 

The  Vireonida,  according  to  Dr.  Shiifeldt,  are  more  Mniotiltine  than  Laniine, 
and  the  importance  of  their  form  of  bill  has  been  exaggerated,  while  the  LanUdce 
have  got  such  remarkable  osteological  characters,  that  Dr.  Shufeldt  has  put  them  on 
the  boundary  of  Passeres.  Mr.  Oates,  for  quite  other  characters,  also  puts  tliem 
far  from. the  Paridce.  Whether  our  position  for  the  Shrikes  is  natural  is  a  fair  sub- 
ject for  discussion,  our  chief  objection  to  it  being  that  it  separates  the  Sylviidce  so 
far  from  the  Maiotiltidas  in  the  linear  series.  Once,  however,  that  we  have  passed 
this  break  in  the  natural  order,  and  we  arrive  at  the  SyloiidcRj  the  aflU'iities  of  the 
TardidiS,  Cincliixi  and  Trof/lodytidm  are  evident,  the  Accentors  are  probably  rightly 
placed  in  proximity,  and  the  Tinteliida  in  their  comprehensive  sense  follow.  The 
affinities  of  some  of  these  birds  with  the  3ftf5cica^t«ias  are  closer  than  would  be 
imagined,,  but  Mr.  Oates's  favourite  character  of  the  spotted  young  is  of  great  use 
in  determining  the  limits  of  these  trwo  families.. 

ft.  BOWOLEK  ShAJIPS. 

—The  Field,  12/A  Apnl  1890. 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES. 

I.  PAINTED  SANDGROUSE  NEAR  BARODA. 
On  July  Otli  I  got  a  pair  of  common  Sandgrouse  near  Sikandarpur  village, 
about  three  miles  east  of  Baroda,  and  shortly  afterwards  put  up  two  Sandgrouse, 
which  proved  to  be  painted,  not  common^  Sandgrouse.  Next  day  six  more  were 
seen  and  some  sliot  near  the  same  place.  This  is  the  first  time  T  have  met  the 
painted  Sandgrouse  west  of  Champanir.  It  is  common  at  the  foot  of  Pawagadh 
hilV  »ntl  i"  the  summer  may  be  seen  at  dusk — it  is  crepuscular — drinking  at  the 
Vada-talfto  beyond  Champanir.  The  birds. shot  on  the  6th  and  7th  at  Baroda  were 
on  an  open  plain  with  scattered  bushes. 

II.    LiTTLEDALE. 

Baroda,  July  1890. 


II.    THE  GADWALL  AND  BLUE-BEAKED  BOOBY. 

Yesterday,  15th  June  1890,  a  shikari  brought  me  a  yearling  female  Gadwal. 
freshly  shot.     It  had  apparently  suffered  some   injury   to  one  wing,    which   must 
have  prevented  its  migration,  but  was   quite   fat  and   in  excellent   condition    for 
the  table. 


806     JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

Ou  the  same  day  I  saw  a  storm-driven  speqimen  of  Sulc^  cyanops,  the  Blue- 
lieaked  Booby.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  these  birds  to  be  brought  up  here  by 
south-westerly  gal^s  and  caught  by  hand. 

yf.  F.  Sinclair,  Bo.  C.S. 

4libag,  16th  June  1890. 

3.    A  TRAIT  OF  HEREDITY. 

In  June  last,  at  Ghikalda,  I  took  three  young  bulbuls  of  the  common  kind 
two  or  three  days  after  they  were  hatched  out,  and  brought  them  up  by  hand. 
They  had  consequently  no  acquaintance  with  their  mother  or  her  ways.  Shortly 
after  these  three  birds  were  fqlly  fledged,  and  able  to  hop  and  fly  on  to  their 
perch,  two  of  the  young  of  the  white-throated  crested  bulbuls  were  brought  to  me, 
and  put  by  me  into  the  same  cage  as  the  other  three.  I  continued  to  hand-feed 
all.  Suddenly  one  day  a  female  of  the  earlier  lot,  after  her  own  appetite  was  satis- 
fied, and  before  I  had  attended  to  the  two  junior  ones,  who  were  vigorously 
attracting  my  attention,  taking  what  I  gav«  her,  fed  first  one  and  then  the  other, 
and  from  that  day  has  gone  on  feeding  them  just  as  their  natural  mother  would 
have  done,  and  as  if  ^he  herself  hacl  yes^rs  of  experience  and  had  brought  up 
numerous  families. 

The  trait  seems  to  me  sufficiently  curious  to  note  in  the  Jouri^al. 

Persoqally  I  am  not  aware  that  a  fact  of  the  kind  has  been  observed  before, 
though  I  dare  3ay  it  has,  for  there  is  little,  if  anything,  new  under  the  sun. 

ip^ENNBTH  MackBnzie,  Colonel. 
^mxaoti,  Berafj  July,  ^890. 

4.    EGG-LATING  ANIMALS. 

At  the  President's  Soiree  at  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  held  in  London 
on  27th  June,  by  far  the  most  interesting  exhibit,  so  far  as  zoologists  are  concerned, 
^as  that  of  Mr.  "W.  H.  Caldwell,  of  Cs^mbridge,  who,  it  will  be  remembered,  was 
sent  out  by  his  University  to  Avistralia  to  study  the  life  history  of  the  Ornithp- 
^hynchus  and  IJchidna,  and  t^ace  the  developpient  pf  the  young  through  all  stages 
from  the  egg, 

The  Ornithorhynchus  builds  a  nest  at  the  ^nd  of  one  pf  the  subterranean 
burrows  whiph  start  from  tl^e  water  hole  Jn  whiph  the  animal  fpeds.  The  eggs  are 
two  in  number,  and  are  sat  upoi^  until  hatched,  when  the  young,  measuring  bi^rely 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  length,  at  opce  bpgin  to  lap  the  milk  supplied  by  the 
mammary  glands  of  the  mother. 

Echidna  lays,  as  a  rule,  only  one  e^g^  and  carries  it  in  ^  pouch  fprmed  by  a 
fold  of  skin  surrounding  tihe  mammary  glands.  The  young  ^nynal  remnins  in  the 
pouch  for  many  wpeks. 

Mr.  CahlweH's  series,  showing  seven  stages  of  development,  include^  (1)  ^gg 
pf  Echidna,  taken  from  the  uterus,  showing  the  Rieroblastic  segmentation   at  the 


MISCELLANEOUS.  307 

stage  of  two  furrows,  witli  four  segmentation  nuclei,  the  small  circular  white  spot 
^ingthe  embryonic  area;  (2")  older  egg  of  Echidna,  from  the  uterus,  ahout  the 
stage  of  a  two-day  chick ;  (3)  still  older  egg  of  Echidna,  from  the  uterus,  ec^ual  to 
a  four-day  chicly ;  (2  and  3)  hare  increased  in  size  by  absorption  of  fluid  from  the 
uterine  glands,  as  in  the  higher  mammalia )  (4)  laid  eggs  of  Ornithorhynchus  and 
Echidna;  (5]  recently  hatched  young  Eqhidna,  with  remains  of  shell,  found 
together  in  the  mother's  pouch ;  and  (7)  older  stages  of  Echidna. 

The  adult  Ornithorhynchus  possess  a  duck-like  bill  which  is  destitute  of  teeth, 
although,  until  the  animal  is  half<<grown,  it  possesses  true  teeth  (twelve  in  number) 
which  disappear  as  development  proceeds.  They  are  lost  by  shedding,  their  place 
being  taken  by  horny  thickening  of  the  gum  which  precedes  the  shedding. — The 
Field,  bth  Jult/  1890. 

A  PANTHER  CHASING  A  NILGHAL 

The  following  is,  I  think,  worth  recording,  as  it  illustrates  an  exceptional  method 
of  hunting,  which  the  Panther  is  occasionally  forced  to  adopt. 

In  August  last,  I  was  asked  by  the  Patel  of  a  village  in  the  Amraoti  district  to 
accompany  him  one  evening  to  a  forest  nursery  of  young  bamboo  shoots,  to  assist 
in  killing  a  large  boar  which  nightly  visited  the  place  and  did  immense  damage. 
We  waited  for  some  time,  when  just  as  it  was  getting  dark,  we  heard  the  short 
guttural  sound  of  a  Panther  and  heavy  footfall  of  some  running  animal.  The 
noises  came  nearer  and  nearer,  until  a  Nilghai  and  a  Panther  could  be  distinctly 
seen  against  the  sky-line,  the  former  being  chased  by  the  latter.  The  Nilghai 
kept  moaning,  and  was  evidently   in  an  abject  state  of  fear. 

The  two  ran  round  in  a  circle  of  about  160  yards  diameter  within  30  yards  of 
where  we  were  standing,  and  passed  us  twice,  both  of  them  making  their  respective 
noises.  They  then  disappeared,  but  I  have  reason  to  believe  the  nilghai  gat 
away. 

I  was  so  interested  in  the  sight  that  I  did  not  think  of  firing,  but  it  would  have 
been  an  exceedingly  difficult  shot  in  the  dusk. 

J.  M.  COODE. 
NAgpur,  C.  P, 

August    1890. 


6.    THE  PROTECTIVE  COLOURING  OF  CHRYSALIDES. 

It  is  well  known  that  many  butterflies  and  moths  in  their  larval  and  imago 
states  imitate  and  assume  the  forms  and  colours  of  various  animals  and  things  for 
protective  purposes,  but  though  only  hinted  att  it  does  not  appear  to  be  known 
that  in  their  chrysalis  stage  also  an  AH- Wise  Providence  has  gifted  them  with 
the  means  of  eluding  discovery  and  escaping  detection,  thereby  completing  the 


SOS    JOURNAL,  WMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

chain  of  wonderful  similitude  from  beginning  to  end.  The  hint  above  referred 
to  will  be  found,  so  far  as  I  koow,  only  in  the  Butterfiies  of  India,  where  it  m 
stated  that  the  chrysalis  of  J),  cktysippus  assumes  two  forms,  the  one  being 
green,  its  normal  color,  and  the  other  a  delicate  pink,  from  which  it  is  inferred 
that  the  l»tter  colour  may  be  due  to  its  imitating  the  tint  of  the  buds  and  flowers 
of  the  food  plants  which  are  pink. 

Unless  there  be  two  well-marked  and  constant  varieties  of  these  pupae,  which 
I  doubt,  the  hypothesis  is  correct,  but  nowhere,  except  among  the  blossoms 
themselves  or  in  their  immediate  vicinity,  can  such  a  change  take  place,  as  certain 
conditions  seem  essential  for  perfecting  themselves  in  the  colour  of  theic  surround- 
ings. 

Fram  the  few  experiments  I  have  as  yet  made,  and  which  I  shall  now  record,  I 
believe  that  .the  faculty  for  protective  colouring  is  stroagly  developed  in  all 
chrysalides  (I  am  not  in  a  position  to  say,  however,  whether  it  is  effected  naturally 
or  wilfully,  but  believe  the  former  to  be  the  case),  and  that  they  possess  the  means 
of  toning  themselves  to  their  surroundings.  Perhaps  I  may  be  too  sweeping  in 
asserting  that  all  chrysalides  can  do  so^  as  in  the  present  early  stage  of  the 
investigation,  one  cannot  be  too  certain  of  results,  that  are  to  be  acquired  only  on 
patient  and  careful  research,  but  should  any  eventually  be  found  constant  to 
their   normal   colour,  I  feel  confident   they   will   not  prove   the  largest  number. 

Thus  far  I  have  experimented  on  only  two  species  of  butter%,  common  ones 
luckily,  but  belonging  at  the  same  time  to  quite  distinct  families  and  the  results 
have  interested  and  astonished  me  in  no  small  degree. 

Danais  chrysippus  was  one  of  my  ''subjects'*  and  as  stated  above  the  colours  of 
its  pu])8e  are  either  green  or  pink,  but  following  up  a  slight  change  of  colour  that 
acciilent  put  into  my  hand  I  succeeded  in  getting  them  pure  white,  red,  salmon^ 
black  and  blue.  The  two  last  colours,  hov\eve«,  were  not  quite  pronounced  like  the 
rest,  and  were  due,  no  doubt,  to  a  slight  error  in  operation,  which  I  shall  explain 
further  on. 

The  other  insect  was  P.  erithonius,  the  «ggs  and  larvas  of^ which  I  got  «ff  a  bael 
tree,  jEgle  marmelos.  (I  do  not  know  if  this  has  been  recorded  as  one  of  its  food 
plants,  as  writing  away  from  all  my  books  and  papers,  I  have  not  the  facility  of 
a  reference,  though  I  fancy  it  has  been  noted  as  such.)  The  pupae  of  this  butterfly 
also  are  green,  but  in  this  instance  even  I  succeeded  in  changing  them  to  red,  pink, 
salmon,  brown  and  other  colours.  Now  these  are  curious  and  interesting  results,  no 
doubt,  and  how  were  they  arrived  at  ?  Simply  by  following  certain  inles  that  would 
have  cdme  into  full  play  in  nature,  and  from  which  I  conclude  that  the  pupae  of 
butterflies  can  be  made  to  assume  any  tint,  as  it  is  a  provision  for  protective 
purposes.  The  subject,  however,  is  not  fully  investigated  as  yet,  and  I  therefore 
throw  out  these  few  hints  in  the  hope  that  other  members  of  the  Society  may 
follow  them  up,  and  place  us  in  possession  of  some  more  interesting  facts. 

A  few  hints  seem  necessary  to  carry  out  the  investigation  successfully,  barring 
which   the   experiments  will  result  in  failure.     A  strong  light  seems  an  indispen- 


PROCEEDINGS. 


30» 


sable  condition  in  securing  any  given  colour  in  a  chrysalis.  When  the  caterpillar  is 
fully  grown  and  ready  to  change  into  its  pupa  stage,  put  it  into  an  open  box — a 
soap  box  answers  the  purpose  admirably — and  fasten  round  it  thin  paper  of  the 
colour  you  wish,  and  submit  it  to  a  strong  light,  (mine  were  arranged  against  a  glast 
window,  where  the  sun  shone  in)  and  allow  to  remain  there  till  the  transformation 
i»  completed.  In  from  eighteen  to  twenty-four  hours  after  this  has  been 
accomplished,  the  paper  may  be  removed,  when  the  chrysalis  will  be  found  to  have 
assumed  the  desired  colour.  Thick  paper  does  not  seem  to  answer,  nor  yet  does 
covering  up  in  a  dark  place,  as  the  pupse  then  assume  their  normal  colour,  and  it  it 
to  this  cause  I  attribute  my  failure  in  securing  a  black  or  blue  chrysalsis,  the 
material  used  having  been  too  thick  for  the  purpose. 

A.  W.  MORRIS,  F.Z.S. 
"Both WELL  Castle," 

Bangalore,    August  21th  1890. 


PROCEEDING. 


PROCEEDINGS  OP  THE  MEETING  ON  7th  JULY  1890. 

The  usual  Monthly  Meeting  of  the  Members  was  held  on  Mondaj^,  the  7th  July, 
the  Hon'ble  Mr.  Justice  Birdwood  presiding 

The  following  new  Members  were  elected: — Mr.  H.  A.  Acworth,  Bombay  Civil 
Service,  Captain  J.  Bum -Murdoch,  R.E.,  Mr.  James  MacNabb  Campbell,  Bombay 
Civil  Service,  Colonel  H.  L.  Nutt,  H.  H.  Prince  Kumar  Shri  Bhaosinghji  of  Porebun- 
der,  Mr.  F.  Bernard  O'Shea,  Mr.  R.  Logan,  Bengal  Civil  Service,  Mr.  G.  Gilbert  White 
(Nagpore),  Major  C.  A.  R.  Sage,  S.  C.  (Dharamsala),  Mr.  C.  B.  Evatt  (Sogra),  Mr.  H. 
Monie,  Mr.  J.  H.  B.  Hallen,  A.  V.  D.  (Simla),  Mr.  J.  B.  F.  Bevan,  Mr.  J.  M.  Coode, 
Mr.  A.  Higgins  (Berars),  Mr.  Richard  Meredith,  Mrs.  Robinson,  Mr.  H.  Whitby 
Bmitb  (Bhownugger),  and  Mr.  H.  H.  Jones. 

Mr.  H.  M.  Phipson,  the  Honorary  Secretary,  then  acknowledged  the  following  con- 
inbutions  to  the  Society's  collections,  viz» : — 

CONTRIBUTIONS  DURING  MAY  AND  JUNE. 


Contribution. 


Description. 


Contributor. 


1  Owl  (alive) 

2  Gazelles  (alive) 

105  Birds'  Eggs 

3  Birds'  Nests    

2  Snakes 

2  Lizards  (alive)     

2  Young  Crocodiles  (alive) 

1  Snake  (alive)  

A  quantity  of  Butterflies  . 

1  Smaller  Sea  Tern  (alive) 

I  Sooty  Tern 

A  number  of  deep  sea  Corals 

and  other  Marine  speci 

mens. 


Strix  javanica .» 

From  Persia    

Prom  Saugor  (C.  P.) 

Do.  

Do.  

Uromastrix  hard wickii 

Crocodilus  palustris  

Ptyas  mucosus    

From      the       Chin-Lushai 
Country. 

Sterma  media    

Sterma  faliginosa 

From  the    Laccadive    Seas 
(1,000  Fathoms). 


Dr.  Kirtikar. 

Capt.  A.  S.  Houstoun. 

Lieut.  H.  E.  Barnes. 

Do. 

Do. 
Mr.  C.  M.  Sykes. 
Mr.  O.  Meyer. 

Do. 
Lieut.  D.  Thomson. 

Miss  Florence  Bapty. 

Do. 
Dr.  Alcock. 


310     JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890^ 


Contribution. 


Discription. 


Contributdr. 


1  Honey  Bagdeir   

A  quantity  of  Land  Crabs 
(alive). 

1  Grey  Pelican 

2  Porcupines  (alive) 

1  Brown  Tree  Snake 

1  Snake  (iilive)  

Several        Hippopotamus 

Tusks. 

Foetal  specimens   

Panther's  Skull 

Flustra 

Great  Hombill   

Foetus  of  Hare  

Dhaman  (alive) 

Sea  Snake  (alive) 

Hysdna's  Skull    

Screech  Owl  (alive) 
Lizards  (alive)    


3 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
8 
A  quantity  of  Butterflies... 

1  Scaly  Ant  Eater  (alive)  . 

1  Oobra  (alive)  t 

1  White  Booby  

1  Chameleon  (alive) 

1  Four-legged  Chicken 

(alive). 
1  Great  Hombill  (alive)  ... 
A  collection  of  Snakes  and 

other  B&ptildd. 


Melivora  indica 

From  Alibag 

Pelecanus  philippensis 

Hystric  leucura 

Dipsas  gokool 

Psammophis  leithii   . . ; 

From  Zanzibar  

Felis  pardua    

Do 

From  Goa  

Dichoceros  cavatti  s    

Lepus  nigricoUis    

Ptysis  mucosus    

Pelarois  bicolor 

Hystriz  striatua 

Strix  javanica 

Sitana  ponticeriaha  

From      the       Chin-Lushai 
Country. 

Manis  pentadaotylus 

Naga  tripudiangj 

Sala  cyanops 

Chameleo  vulgaris 

Dichoceros  cavatns   

From  Java  (thrdugh  Lieut. 
Pilleau.) 


Mr.  I*roctor  Sims. 
Mr.  G.  K.  Betham. 

M.  Obwasjee  Dady  Limjed^ 
Mr.  F.  L.  Goldsmid,  C.S. 
Mr.  G.  Ormiston. 
Mr;  B.  W.  Blood. 
Major  Radcliffe. 

Mr.  W.  F.Sinclair,  C.S* 

Do. 
Mrs.  Oliver. 
Mr.  P.  B.  Smith. 
Lieut.  Jas.  Devine. 
Mr.  G.  E.  Orinistom 

Do. 
Capt.  Hibbert. 
Mrs.  H.  G.  Kees. 
Mr.  H.  M.  Phipson. 
Mr.  F.  E.  Dempster. 

Mr.  E.  F.  Ansell. 
Mr.  G.  Carstensen. 
Dr.  D.  A.  D'  Monte, 
Mr.  J.  Wolfe. 
Dr.  D.  A.  D'  Mbnte,^ 

Mr.  Hiscock* 
Mr.  Kerkhoven. 


Minor  contributions  from  Dr.  Langley,  Mr.  F.  A.  Little,  Mr.  Q*  Ex  Ormiston,  Mr. 
Lauder,  Capt.  Thorburn,  Mr.  H.  Corke,  Mr.  0.  F.  G.  Lester,  Mr.  J.  Btlinger,  Mr*  ^* 
G.  Lynde,  Mr.  E.  A.  Corke,  and  Mr.  John  Keirsten. 


Contributions  to  the  Libbary. 

"  Journal  of  Comparative  Medicine,"  VoL  XI.,  Nos.  4  and  5 ;  in  exchange. 

*<  Etudes  Myrmedologiques  en  1886  "  (Auguste  Forel),  presented  by  the  author. 

**  Proceedings  of  the  Linnsaan  Society  of  N.  S.  Wales,"  Vol.  III.  Part  4,  in  ex- 
change. 

«'  The  Butterflies  of  India,  Bufmah,  and  Ceylon,"  Vol.  III.  (de  Niceville),  presented 
by  Mr.  Et.  Curwen. 

**  Memoir  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  India,'*  in  exchange. 

"  The  Fauna  of  British  India  (Mammalia)/'  interleaved  copy  presented  by  Mr.  W, 
F.  Sinclair,  C.S. 

**  The  Avi-Fauna  of  British  Iiidia  (Murray),**  interleaved  volumes,  presented  by 
Mr.  W.  J".  Sinclair,  O.S. 

"  Journal  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal,"  Vol,  LVIII.,  Ko.  14,  with  aupple- 
meuts,  in  exchange. 


PROCEEDINGS,  311 

"  Catalogue  of  the  Insects  of  the  Oriental  Region  "  (Atkinson),  presented  by  the 
author. 

"  Notes  on  Rhynchota"  (Atkinson),  presented  by  the  author. 
"  Flora  of  British  India,'*   Part  XVI.  (Hooker),   presented  by  the   Secretary  of 
State. 

*'  The  Indian  Forester,"  Nos.  4,  6,  in  exchange. 

Ghin-Lushai  Expedition. 

A  special  vote  of  thanks  was  passed  to  Lieutenant  D.  Thomson,  of  the  28th  Pioneers, 
and  Mr.  F.  E.  Dempster,  of  the  Telegraph  Department,  for  the  valuable  collections 
of  Butterflies  which  these  gentlemen  had  made  for  the  Bombay  Natural  History 
Society  during  the  Chin-Lushai  Expedition. 

Panthers  Tbei'd  by  Wild  Dogs. 

The  Honorary  Secretary  read  a  short  note  from  Mr.  Fred.  Wright,  of  Chickalda, 
giving  a  graphic  account  of  two  panthers  being  tree'd  by  wild  dogs  on-  the  banks  of 
the  Gogra  River.  The  Honorary  Secretary  stated  that  the  note  would  be  printed 
in  full  in  the  Society's  Journal  No.  II.,  which  was  now  being  struck  off. 

An  Appeal  fob  Help. 

The  Honorary  Secretary  stated  that  he  had  received  a  letter  from  Mr.  Robert  C. 
Wroughton,  of  Poena,  who  had  made  a  valuable  collection  of  ants  for  the  Society, 
asking  for  assistance  in  the  collection  and  observation  of  these  interesting  creatures, 
Mr.  Wroughton  stated  that  he  had  forwarded  to  Dr.  Forel  a  number  of  specimens 
collected  by  Mr.  F.  Gleadow,  ^hich  had  led  to  the  important  discovery  that  (Enictus 
and  Typhlatta  were  one  genus.  The  former  being  the  older,  the  genus  TypMatta 
would  be  now  given  up.  Several  specimens  of  the  male  of  Dorylus  were  exhibited, 
and  the  members  of  the  Society  were  earnestly  entreated  to  assist  in  the  discovery 
of  the  female  of  this  ant,  for  which  entomologists  had  been  searching  in  vain  for 
many  years.  A  number  of  the  males  had  recently  been  captured  by  a  gentleman  in 
Bombay,  issuing  from  the  foundations  of  his  bungalow.  Mr.  Wroughton  had  imme- 
diately suggested  that  the  house  should  be  pulled  down  in  order  that  the  nest  might 
be  excavated. 

Dr.  W.  Dymock  then  read  an  interesting  paper,  entitled — 

Notes  on  the  Economic  Botany  op  the  Cucubeitacj)  op  Western  India, 
which  will  be  found  on  page  286. 

The  Hon'ble  Mr.  Justice  Birdwood  proposed  a  vote  of  thanks  to  Dr.  Dymock  for 
his  interesting  paper^  which  contained  so  much  valuable  information.  He  also  drew 
the  attention  of  the  Members  to  the  great  importance  of  fruit  and  vegetable  cultiva- 
tion, and  expressed  his  regret  that  Europeans  in  this  country  did  not  interest  them- 
selves sufficiently  in  the  subject.  Mr.  Birdwood  pointed  out  that  the  Society's 
Herbarium  was  at  present  a  very  small  one,  and  hoped  that  members  who  had  the 
opportunities  would  assist  in  increasing  it,  as  the  want  of  a  good  representative 
oollection  of  plants  was  much  felt  by  all  botanical  students  in  Bombay. 
41 


312    JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL^  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

PROCEEDINGS  OP  THE  MEETING  ON  IITH  AUGUST  1890. 

The  usual  Monthly  Meeting  of  the  Members  of  this  Society  took  place  at  their 
Rooms,  in  Apollo  Street,  on  Monday,  the  11th  August,  Deputy  Surgeon-General 
\V.  E.  Gates,  presiding. 

The  following  new  members  were  elected :  —Major  E.  Buckle,  R.A,  (Eurrachee)  ; 
Major  D.  Robertson  (Rewa)  ;  and  Lieut.  D.  J.  Peart  (Sehore). 

Mr.  H.  M.  Phipson,  the  Honorary  Secretary,  then  acknowledged  the  following 
contributions : — 


OONTRIBUTIOXS   DURING    JuLY. 


Contributions. 


Description. 


Contributors. 


1  Young  Ostrich    ........... 

1  Persian  Gazelle 

2  Black  Buck's  Heads 

1  Great  Hombill  

A  number  of  Snake's  Eggs. 

1  Florican  

1  Panther's  Skull 

1  Snake  (alive) 

1  Monitor  (alive) 

1  Snake  (alive) 

2  Toddy  Cats  (alive)    

I  Tailor-Bird's  Nest 

1  Crow's  Nest   

2  Snakes  (alive) 

1  Monitor  (alive)  

4  Snakes  

1  Krait    

1  Tailor-Bird's  Nest 

1  Marmot's  Skull 

A  collection  of  Moths  

1  Comb  Duck  (alive)    

1  White  Booby 

1  Calculus 

* 


Bom  in  Bombay 

G  azella  subgutterosa  , 

Antelope  bezoartica    , 

Dichoceros  birostris 

From  Khandeish , 

Sypheotides  aurita , 

Felis  pardus 

Tropidonotus  stolatus 

Varanus  bengalensis  , 

Ptyas  mucosus , 

Paradoxurus  musanga 

Orthotomus  sutorius   , 

Made  of  metal-  , 

Tropidonotus  stolatus 

Varanus  bengalensis  

Halys  himalayanuB 

Bungarus  arcuatus 

Orthotomus  sutorius  

Arctorays  sp 

From  Rutnagiri   

Sarcidiornis  melanonotus  ... 

Sola  cyanops    

From  a  Bullock's  Kidney  ... 


Victoria  Gardens. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Mr.  Wm.  Rodgers. 
Oapt.  A.  Gwyn. 
Mr.  J.  M.  Coode. 
Mr.  B.  W.  Blood. 

Do. 
Mr.  T.  H.  Jolly. 
Mr.  J.  Wright. 
Mr.  B.  A.  Gupte. 
Col.  Riddell,  R.E. 
Mr.  O.  Meyer. 

Do. 
CoL  "Hore. 
Mr.  W.  O  Mosse. 
Mrs.  G.  Hepworth. 
Major  Buckle, R.  A. 
Mr.  B.  A.  Bulkley. 
Col.  H  L.  Nutt. 
Mr.  C.  M.  Stuart. 
Mr.  F.  Gleadow. 


Minor  contributions  were  also  acknowledged  from  Mr.  Robt.  Wroughton,  Mr.  A.  C. 
Walker,  Mr.  George  Ormiston,  Mr.  J.  Stiven,  and  Mr.  B.  W.  Blood. 


Contributions  to  the  Library. 


Proceedings  of  the  Linnsen  Society  of  N.  S.  Wales,  Vol.  V.,  Part  L,  in  exchange. 
The  Indian  Forester,  No.  7,  in  exchange.  Verhandlungen  der  Naturforschenden 
Gesellschaft  in  Basel,  Vol.  8,  in  exchange.  Transactions  of  the  New  Zealand  Insti- 
tute,  for  1889,  in  exchange.  Catalogue  of  Ants  in  the  British  Museum  (F.  Smith) 
from  Mr.  G.  A.  J.  Rothney,  Oriental  Hymenoptera,  Part  II.  (P.  Cameron),  from 
Mr.  G.  A.  J.  Rothney.    Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Victoria,  in  exchange. 


PROCEEDINGS,  313 

Miscellaneous  Notes. 

• 

A  note  was  read  from  Mr.  H.  Littledale,  of  Baroda,  recording  the  Painted  Sand- 
gronse  at  Sekandarpar,  on  the  6th  ult.  A  carious  instance  of  young  birds  feeding 
each  other  was  also  referred  to  in  a  note  from  Colonel  Kenneth  Mackenzie,  which 
appears  in  the  Journal  (vide  page  306.) 

Hooker's  Flora  of  British  India. 

The  Honorary  Secretary  drew  the  attention  of  the  members  to  an  extra  copy  of 
the  above  work,  Parts  Nos.  I.  to  XYI.,  complete  as  far  as  published,  which  was  for 
oale,  for  Bs.  85. 

Mr.  J.  H.  Steel,  A.y.D.,  then  read  an  interesting  paper  on  Mules,  which  will  be 
found  on  page  252  of  this  number. 


9  «  <*  •  • 


^  V  ■J  t  o  ^ 


V 


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if 

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1- 

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1/ 


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JOURNAL 

OF   THK 

B  O  Di»/£  B -A.  "2" 


llattipl 


No,  4J  BOMBAY,  1890.  [Vol.  v, 


*'j    mj  -I  t*  mil    „  .m 


Wil  rry-'T  ■  -um 


NESTING  IN  WESTERN  INDIA. 

By  LiiEUT.   H.  E.  Barnes,  F.Z.S. 

(Continued from  p.  116.) 

(With  a  Plate). 
m.-THE  COMMON  HOUSE  SPAUHOW. 

Pdsser  domesticus,  Lin. 

The  House  Sparrow  is  Commbn  everywhere,  on  the  hills  as  well  as 
bh  the  plains.  They  are  so  well  known  that  il  is  cj^uite  unnecessary 
to  say  much  about  them.  During  the  breeding  season,  which 
Iftonimences  in  February  and  continues  for  some  nionths,  they  are 
Jpositively  unbearable,  on  accoimt  of  the  litter  they  mak6  when 
icOnstruCting  their  nests.  No  amoiint  of  persecution  seems  to 
det^r  th^m  from  building  in  a  place  when  they  have  onc6  niade  uj) 
ilieir  minds  to  it. 

At  Decisaj  1  had  a  great  number  of  different  kinds  of  birds 
in  a  W^  dViary,  which  evidently  attracted  the  sparrows  and 
theybecdmea  positive  nuisance.  I  reftained  from  interfering  with 
them,  And  naturally  they  took  advantage  of  ihe.  I  have  since  acted 
towards  th^rd  in  a  much  less  forbearing  spirit.  There  seemed  to  be 
a  nest  in  every  spbt  where  it  was  possibly  to  put  one. 

4a 


316    JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

Alm(wt  every  pictiirie  hanging  at  an  angle  from  the  wall  bad  one. 
There  were  several  nests  in  the  ceiling,  for  wherever  they  found 
a  hole  in  the  cloth,  they  would  keep  pecking  at  it,  until  they  msde 
it  large  enough  to  admit  them,  and  as  they  used  the  same  places  for 
ftuccesave  broods,  adding  fresh  material  each  time,  they  soon  made 
the  ceiling  cloth  unsightly,  and  once  or  twice  they  canned  it  to  give 
way.  '••       '      •"' 

From  a  rolled  up  chick,  hanging  in  the  doorway,  I  thrice  took 
eggg,  Hud  ^vea  then  they,  would  '  not  forsake  the  ^est,  and  I  had 
t9  unroll  the  chick  and  keep  it  flown. 

A  pair  built  a  large  nest  in  the  antlers  of  a*-3ambur  in  the 
verandah. 

AnothcT  pS'i'*  made  a  nest  in  the  soap  box.  in  the  bath  room,  and 
although  the  nest  was  destroyed  several  times,  they  would  not  desist, 
and  at  last  from  sheer  pity,  I  had  to  leave  them  alone. 

The  most  peculiar  case  was  when  a  pair  hud  a  nest  in  a  bird  cage 
hanging  against  the  wall,  just  above  where  the  durzi  sat  all  day 
working,  and  close  to  ti  door,  where  people  were  passing  in  and  out 
continually ;  the  door  of  the  cage  had  been  left  open,  the  previous 
occupant  having  been  transferred  to  the  large  aviary ;  in  this  they 
not  only  laid  four  eggs,  but  actually  reafed  the  nestlings,  although 
the  cage  was  frequently  taken  down  to  show  visitors.  Once  they 
nearly  lost  their  egg^,  as  a  boy~  who  was  staying  in  the  house  with 
his  mother,  on  a  visit,  took  them  out  and  had  them  in  his  possession 
for  some  time,  before  he  was  found  out.  I  replaced  them  and  they 
were  duly  hatched.  The  fuss  the  birds  made,  when  their  eggs  were 
stolen,  led  to  their  recovery. 

A  large  punkah  in  the  sitting  room,  which  was  kept  swinging 
^most  the  whole  day  with  scarcely  any  intermission,  happened  to 
l^ftve  a.  small  hole  in  the  canvas,  just  large  enough  to  admit  a 
sparrow,  and  in  this  peculiar  place,  between  the  two  cloths,  a  pair 
decided  to  have  a  nest  j  they  reared  a  brood  in  safety,  and  commenced 
preparations  for  another,  when  they  were  interfered  with  by  a 
rival  pair,  and  after  a  severe  contest  which  lasted  several  days,  they 
had  to   relinquish  their   claim,  and   give  up  possession ;  strange  to 

-      •  ■  -  » 

say,  they   pecked  a  hole  in   the  canvas    at  the   other  end  of  the 
punkah,  and  there  they  reared  another  brood  in  safety. 


NESrJXG  IS  ^'ESfThMN  ISDIA.  31^ 

I  have  often  had  to  turn    the  face  of  a  looking  glass  to  the  wall, 
to  prevent  the  sparrows  from  injuring  themselves,  for  immediately ' 
one  of  them  catches  a  glimpse   of  himself  in  it,   he  commences  a/ 
furious  onslaught,   on  what,  he   imigines,    must  l>e  a  rival,  and  if 
not  prevented,    will  continue    fighting    the   whole  day,  only  leaving . 
off  when    darkness  sets    in,   recommencing'   the   battle  at  dawn  the  ■ 
next   day.     I  once  tried  to  see  how  long  it  would  he  before  the  bird 
gave  in,  but  atU^r  two  days,  seeing  no  likelihm»d  of  his  retiring  from 
the  unequal   contest,  I   took  pity  on  him  and  had  the  ghiss  covered 
up.     The  bird  did  not  seem  in  any  way  exhausted,  although  I  do  not 
think  that  he  had  a  morsel  of  food  f«>r  two  da  vs. 

The    nests  are  shapeless  masses  of  grass,  straw,  and  string ;  almost 
anything  they   can  tind  is  nuide  use  of ;  the  eg^i^,  four  in  number, 
occasionally  five,    an?  subject,  to  much    variation  in  size,  8ha}>e  and- 
colour. 

In  shape,  thej'  are  usually  a  longish  oval,  pinched  in  a  little  at 
one  end ;  in  colour  thoy  are  greenish-,  greyish-,  or  yellowish- 
white,  and  the  markings  consisting  of  spots,  streaks,  specks,  and 
blotches,  are  olive-,  ytllowinh-,  or  purplish-brown  ;  sometimes  the 
ground  colour  is  nlmost  pure  white,  but  gc^ierally  the  ecrg  is  dull 
and  dingy.  They  averag*^  al>out  0-8  inclies  in  h^ngth,  by  about  0*6 
in  breadth. 

70f>.— TJIE   TirFOrrS-BAOKEI)  SPARROW. 

After  a  lapse  of  forty  years,  this  bird  has  been  rodisoovered  by 
Mr.  Doig;  he  found  them  broeiiii'jf  in  a  swamp,  along  the  banks  of 
the  Eastern  Nurra  Oaniil  in  Sind. 

The  nests    were  exactly   similar  to   those  of  the  Common  House 
Sparrow  (Pamer  doiii".sficm)y  only  rather  smaller  ;  they  were  placed 
in  the   topmost  l)ranch(\s   of  some  small  acacia  trees,  growing  in  the 
water,  and  were    about    twelve   feet  above  the  water  line.     All  the  ' 
nests  had  5'oung  ones  more  or  loss  fully  fledged. 

711.— THF.    YELLOW-THROATED    SPARROW. 

GymnoriH  fiaricollky  Fraukl. 
^  The  Yellow-throated  Sparrow  occurs  tliroughont  Western  India ; 
in   some   districts  it    is   very  common.     It  is  a  permanent  resident. 


318     JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  mSWRX  SQCIJPTY,  1890. 

lireeding  during  the  hot  weather.  As  a  rule  the  nest  is  placed  in 
a  hole  In  a  tree,  generally  the  hole  is  a  very  small  one,  entailiii^g  a  great 
4e^l  of  Clotting  before  the  eggs  can  be  got  at.  They  sit  very  close ;  on 
Cine  Qooaeioi^  I  had  heen  cutting  and  chopping  for  over  half  tin  hour 
vhcAji  to  my  surprise,  the  old  bird  forced  h^or  way  out,  through  the 
-^hips  that  had  fallen  into  and  partly  blocked  i^p  the  hole ;  there 
were  three  partly  incubated  oggs  in  this  nest.  Qccasjonally  they 
nest  in  holes  in  stogie  walls  and  buildings. 

At  Hyderabad,  Sind,  their  favourite  nesting  place  is  in  the  bulb 
at  the  top  of  the  iron  lamp  posts  in  camp,  a  locality  I  sihould  never 
have  susipected,  had  it  not  been  for  Colonel  Butler's  remarks  to  the 
same  effect  in  Sh^a^  Feathers.  It  was  a  difficult  matter  to  get  at 
the  eggs,  but  by  means  of  an  old  crooked  spoOn,  I  used  to  manage  it  r 
^he  ne^ts  are  con^posed  of  grass  and  straw;  the  eggs,  three  iu 
number,  are  naoderately  elongated  ovals  in  shape,  pointed  a  little 
at  one  end,  and  are  much  smaller  than  those  of  the  common  spj^rpow, 
much  more  so  than  the  relative  sizse  of  the  biird^  \fOi\W  ^eem  ^ 
warrant. 

They  measure  0*73  inches  in  length  by  about  0*54  in  breadth, 
I  l^ave  not  noticed  any  great  variation  in  size.  They  are  greenish-? 
white  in  colour^  streaked  and  blotched  with  purplish -brown, 
sometimes  almost  black.  Occasionally  an  egg  may  be  found  that 
is  fairly  light,  hut  as  a  rule  they  are  dull,  dingy,  brownish-black, 
the  markings  being  so  thick  and  dense  that  very  little  of  the  ground 
colour  is  visible. 

72Q5fs.— THE   STRIOLATED  BUNTING. 
flmheriza  stnolaia,   Licht, 

I  have  only  once  n^et  with  this  bird^  and  that  wa^  on  a  bare  stony 
hill-side  about  fifteen  mileg  from  Neemuch.  The  bird  was  sitting  on 
an  en^pty  nest,  which  was  placed  under  the  shelter  afforded  by  a 
clod  of  earth,  It  was  compoeie4  ^t  the  bottom  of  ^m^ll  twigs  and 
grass  roots,  lined  with  fine  grass  and  a  few  feathers. 

I  had  the  spot  carefully  marked,  and  ^  week  later,  I  sent  a  native 
who  was  'vrith  me  when  I  found  it,  back  for  the  eggs,  but  he 
somehow  managed  to  smash  them  all,     They  were  three  in  number. 

lnjr.  Hume,  in '^  Nests  and  Eggs  of  Indian  Birds,  *^  page  463, 
gtve9  a  good  account  of  the  nesting  pf  this  b;rd;  which  is  top  long- 


mSTim  IN  WBSTERN  INDIA.  8rt 

to  quote  here  \  he  found  it  to  be  a  permanent  resident  of,  and. 
breeding  in,  the  h^re  atony  hills  of  Rajputana  and  Northern  and: 
Western  Punjab;  also  rarely  in  the  hills  dividing  Sind  from  Khelat.. 

He  describes  the  egg«  as  being  regular,  moderately  broad  ovalaa 
slightly  compressed  towards  one  end,  but  somewhat  obtuse  at  both. 
The  shells  were  very  delicate  and  had  a  slight  gloss.  The  ground 
colour  differed  somewhat  in  ^H  three  of  the  firat  ogg«  he  took^  in 
one  it  waa  pale  greeniali-',  in  another  pale  bluish-,  and  in  the  third 
faintly  brownish -white>  AH  were  spotted,  speckled,  and  minutely, 
but  net  very  densely,  freckled  with  brown ;  ^  sort  of  reddish-oliTe-! 
brown  in  two,  rather  more  of  umber  in  th^  third  j  amall  plQudSj, 
blotches,  and  streaks  of  the  same  colour  and  of  a  pale  purple  were 
intermixed  with  the  finer  markings.  lu  two  of  the  eggs  the 
markings  were  f^r  more  numerous  towards  the  large  end,  where  iiv 
one  they  are  p^rtit^Uy  confluent ;  on  the  third  they  are  pretty  evenly, 
distributed  over  the  whole  surface,  being  however  rather  densi^r  iUr 
A  broad  irregular  zone  round  the  middle  of  the  egg, 

N^**  N^emuch,  l^ih  October,  Nesi  only,  JI^  JS,  BarneSn 

T24,— TIJE  CRESTED  BLA.CK  BUNTING, 

Meiaphm  melanickV'Us,  Om^ 

The  Crested  Black  Bunting  is  conmion  on  the  AravelH  I(ange« 
and  aUo  on  the  I^handesh  Qhfits,  It  occurs  near  Baroda>  and  is  far 
from  uncommon  close  to  Boon  a. 

In  all  these  places  it  is  probably  a  permanent  resident,  breeding 
during  the  middle  and  latter  part  of  the  rains. 

Within  the  limits  of  the  Presidency,  I  have  only  found  the  nest  at 
Aboo,  but  as  I  met  with  the  bird  during  the  rains,  at  the  base  of  the 
hills  near  PoQna,  I  feel  sure  that  it  breeds  the^e  also, 

I  know  of  no  nest  that  is  better  concealed,  and  I  have  only  been 
able  to  find  it,  by  carefully  watching  the  birds  during  the  breeding; 
season.  I  have  often  followed  a  bird,  with  a  piece  of  gras*  in  his 
beak,  to  within  a  yard  or  two  of  the  nest,  and  even  then  it  was  only 
after  a  careful  and  painstal^ng  search  that  I  have  discovered  it. 

It  is  usually  placed  in  a  hole  or  recess  in  a  bank,  and  is,  I  believe, 
almost  always  well  hidden  by  tufts  of  grass,  clumps  of  ferns,  or  wild 
balsams.     The  nests  differ  a  good  deal ;  one  I  foundi  was  a  well- 


620    JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1S90. 

shaped  cup,  others  were  of  a  shallow  saucer-shape,  and  on^  I  found 
late  in  the  season,  was  a  mere  pad.  They  are  composed  of  grass  roots 
and  fibres,  lined  with  hair  and  fine  fern  roots. 

The  eggs,  three  or  four  in  number,  as  often  one  as  the  other,  are  of 
a  broadish  oval  shape,  measuring  0*79  inches  in  length  by  about  0*63" 
in  breadth,  but  they  vary  a  great  deal  in  si^e. 

In  colour,  they  are  greenish-,  greyish-,  or  brownish- white,  more 
or  less  densely  speckled,  spotted,  and  streaked  with  reddish-  or 
purplish'brown, 

I  took  a  nest  at  Aboo,  containing  three  unfledged  nestlings,  and 
caught  both  the  parent  birds  in  a  cage  trap  ;  I  had  to  leave  for  Deesa 
the  same  day,  as  my  leave  was  up,  and  two  of  the  nestlings  died  on 
the  journey  (there  was  no  railway  in  those  days),  but  the  third,  with 
the  oldl3ird8,  I  confined  in  a  cage,  and  fed  them  on  grasshoppers  and 
other  Insects,  well  pounded  grass  seeds,  mixed  with  sopped  bread  and 
the  yolks  of  eggs,  hard-boiled.  The  old  birds  paid  great  attention  to 
the  little  one,  and  they  all  soon  became  very  tame,  and  either  of  them 
would  take  a  grasshopper  from  my  hand,  and  after  bruising  it  a  little, 
would  give  it  to  the  nestling,  refusing  tq  eat  themselves  until  his 
wants  were  supplied.  After  a  time  I  transferred  them  all  to  the 
aviary,  and  when  I  left  the  station,  eighteen  months  later,  they  were 
bold  sprightly  birds,  the  cook  especially,  and  the  note  although  simple 
was  pleasant. 

Mount  AhoOy  Juhj  and  August.  H.  E.  Barnes, 

'    Khondeibhari  Ohaty  Khandesk,  August ,  J.  Davidsan,  C,S, 

756,— THE   RED-WINGED   BUSH  LARK. 

Mirafra  evythropfera^  Jerd^ 

■  The  Red-^wInged  Bush  Lark  is  rare  in  Sind,  having  only  been 
recorded  from  the  plains  at  the  foot  of  the  hills  that  separate  the 
province  from  Khelat.  It  appears  to  be  altogether  absent  from  the 
south-western  portion  of  the  Presidency,  including  Ratnagiri. 

Its  place  in  Kanara  is  taken  by  Mirafra  affinis,  but   the  latter  i* 

rare. 

In  all  other  parts  it  is  common,  but  ngt  ascending  the  hills  to  ^ny: 

great  height. 


»•  ^ 


They  are  pei-manent  residents  where  they  occur,  breeding  at  leas^; 
twice  in  the  year,  once  during  March  and  April,  and  again  during 
August  and  September. 

Some  few  nests  may  be  found  between  these  dates^  but  the  majority 
breed  at  the  times  stated. 

The  nest,  composed  of  grass  stems  and  roots^  is  usually  a  mere  pad, 
very  seldom  is  there  any  attempt  at  a  dome ;  it  is  usually  placed  under 
the  shelter  of  a  tussock  of  grass  or  clod  of  earth.  Sometimes  it,  is 
in  a  bare  open  plain,  at  others  in  grass  or  scattered  bush  jungle. 

The  eggs,  three  in  number,  often  only  two,  are  oval  in  sbape,  and 
are  of  a  greenish-,  Ol*  yellowish -white  ground  colour,  thickly  spotted 
aud  speckled  with  various  shades  of  reddish-,  and  yellowish-brown, 
and  pale  inky  purple. 

They  average  078  inches  in  length  by  about  0*56  in  breadtt. 

Beesa,  March  and  April,  Aug,  ami  September.     H.  E,  Barnesi 

Netmuchy     do.  do*  Do, 

Baroday  June.-  H.  Littleda/e,  B,A. 

K/nindes/t^  June  to  Octobert  J.  Davidson^  C.S* 

Natssick,  do*  Do* 

757.— THE  SINGING  BUSH  LAEK. 

Mira/ra  caniiUanSy  Jerd. 

The  Singing  Bush  Lark  has  been  recorded  from  Deesa,  Neemucli, 
and  Western  Khandesh  ;  it  doubtless  occurs  at  other  places  within 
the  Presidency,  but  it  is  very  locally  distributed  and  not  very  com- 
mon anywhere. 

So  far  as  I  know  they  are  permanent  residents  where  they  occur, 
breeding  like  the  preceding  twice  a  year.  The  nests  are  composed 
of  dry  roots  and  grass,  and  all  that  I  have  seen  have  been  domed, 
those  found  in  the  rains  more  perfectly  so.  They  are  usually  placed 
on  the  ground,  amongst  thin  scrubby  patches  of  Ber  bushes,  tbat 
form  80  special  a  feature  in  the  sandy  and  stony  plains  in  these 
districts. 

The  eggs,  from  two  to  four  in  number,  are  longish  ovals  in  shape, 
measuring  0*73  inches  in  length  by  0'68  in  breadth;  the  ground 
colour  is  greenish-,  greyish-,  or  yellowish-white,  thickly  sprinkled, 


322      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

specikldd,  and  spotted  with  yellowish  and  sepia  brown,  having  under- 
lying spots  of  faint  inky-purple, 

A  bii*d  i  snared  on  the  nest,  in  Deem,  laid  an  egg  in  the  cage  on 

the  following  morning;  she  did  not  get  used  to  confinement,  and  was 

as  wild  a  week  af tei*  t  caught  her  as  she  was  on  the  first  day,  so  I 

released  her. 

Deesa,  April  and  AugUst.  JSTi  Ei  BarneSk 

Neemuchy  Aitguafi  Do. 

758.— THE  RUJ^OtB-TAlLfil)  t^lNCH  LARK. 

Ammomanes  phcenicura,  FrankL 

The  Rufous-tailed  Finch. Lark  does  not  occur  in  Sindj  being  re- 
placed there  by  the  Pale  Rufous  Finch  Lark  {AMfUdfndne^  deserti). 
Mr.  Davidson  has  never  seen  this  bird  in  Kanara,  and  expects  it  to 
be  quite  absent  from  the  Konkah.  It  is  a  bird  of  the  plains  and  does 
not  frequent  the  higher  hills  or  better  wooded  districts  in  the  plains  ; 
in  all  Othei*  places  it  iS  a  domnion  pdi'nltoent  residdnti 

the  breeding  season  commences  about  March,  and  continues 
through  April  to  quite  the  middle  of  Mtty  j  the  nestS  dre  slight  padsj 
eompoised  of  gi*^S&  stems  and  roots,  scantily  lined  at  times  with  a  few 
httirsi  tt  is  pkded  on  the  gl*ound,  in  a  CaVity  uiidei*  a  clbd  of  earth 
bf  Stone }  the  iiest  is  usually  beloW  the  surface  of  the  gl-DUUd.  Th<^ 
eggSj  Usually  three,  bceasionally  four  (I  once  found  five) 3  are  mpde- 
fately  Ibng  oVals  in  shape,  pinched  iu  a  little  at  one  end,  aUdmeasutes 
0*85  iUbhes  ih  lehgtli  by  about  0*62  in  breadth;  tn  colbur  they  are 
usually  yellowish-  oi^  Creainy-White,  Spotted  and  frbckled  With  yel- 
lowish- or  reddish-hfbWn,  with  obcasiohally  a  few  pale  inky-purple' 
spots  intermixed  i  I'hey  ate  very  Variable  in  size,  shape,  and  colour. 
Mri  Hutne  gives  the  size  as  tailing  froln  0'77  to  0*95  inches  in 
length,  and  from  0-65  to  O'fS  in  breadth; 

One  cluteh  I  fbund  had  the  grbimd  coloUr  a  pUre  wtite^  with  just 
a  few  yelloWish-brbwn  specks  at  the  large  end* 

Deestti  March,  April  Und  May,,  H,  Ei,  Bdrn^s. 

jtfeemUch^  April  and  May.  Doi 

BholapUr,  Mdreh  and  April.  J.  Bdvidsdn,  C.  S. 

UTiandesh,  Februdfy  dnd  March.  Do. 

Nassick,  do.  Do. 


'  NESTING  IN  JVESTERN  INDIA.  S-2« 

759.— THE  PALE  RUFOCS  FINCH  LARK. 

Ammomanes  deseiiiy  Licht, 
The  Pale  Rufous  or  Desert  Fiach  Lark  is  ooiiimou  on  the  bare 
rooky  hills  of  Sind,  breeding  during  the  months  of  April,  May  and 
June.  I  have  never  met  with  a  nest  myself,  but  a  good  description 
of  both  nest  and  eggs  is  given  by  Mr.  Hume  in  his  NesU  and  Egg9 
of  Indian  Birds,  The  nests  are  said  to  resemble  those  of  the  Black- 
bellied  Pinch  Lark  (Pyrrhidaudci  griHca),  but  to  be  much  larger. 
The  eggs,  three  in  number,  are  very  regular  ovals;  they  have  a  faint 
gloss,  and  the  shell  is  fino  and  smooth.  **  The  ground  colour  is 
white,  with  a  scarcely  perceptible  brownish,  greyish,  or  greenish 
tint,  varying  in  different  eggs,  and  they  are  speckled  and  spotted 
with  pale  yellowish-brown,  more  thickly  so  at  the  larger  end,  where 
they  have  a  tendency  to  form  an  irregular  cap  or  zone  ;  w^here  the 
markings  are  most  dense,  there  are  usually  a  few  tiny  clouds  or  spots 
of  pale  lilac.  They  vary  a  great  deal  in  size,  but  the  average  appears 
to  be  rather  more  than  0*82  inches  in  length  by  0*6  in  breadth. 

7C0.— THE   BLACK-BELLIED  FINCH  LARK. 

Pi/rr/iu/atida  gtisea^  Scop, 
The  Black-bellied  Finch  Lark  is  common  throughout  the 
Presidency,  frequenting  the  bare  open  plains  but  eschewing  the 
forest  tracts.  Thoy  seem  to  breed  at  all  seasons,  as  I  have  taken 
eggs  in  each  month  of  the  year,  with  the  exception  of  July  and 
August,  but  February  and  March  are,  I  believe,  the  months  in  which 
most  nests  will  be  found.  They  are  small  and  saucer-shaped. 
Sometimes  it  is  a  mere  pad,  with  a  depression  in  the  centre  for  the 
eggs  ;  others  are  much  more  carefully  made,  and  are  tiny  cups,  small 
even  for  the  size  of  the  bird.  It  is  placed  on  the  ground,  usually 
on  the  side  of  a  small  stone,  clod  of  earth,  or  tuft  of  grass; 
sometimes  in  a  hoof  print  without  any  shelter  ;  should  the  depression 
in  which  it  is  placed  be  too  shallow,  they  arrange  a  small  row  of 
pebbles,  not  so  large  as  marbles,  round  the  edge,  to  increase  the 
depth.     The  nest  is  composed  of  fine  grass,  fibres,  and  goat's  hair. 

The  eggs,  two  in  number  (once  only  have  I  found  three),  are 
longish  ovals  in  shape,  pinched  in  at  one  end,  and  are  of  a  yellowish- 
or  greyish-white  ground  colour,  densely  marked  with  spots,  specks, 
and   streaks  of  earthy-  and  yellowish-brown.     They  average  about 

d3 


324,     JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  EISTORY  SOCIETVr  1S90. 

0*78  inches  in  length,  by  rather  less  than  0-55  in  breadth.  If 
confined  in  a  small  cage,  they  seem  very  restles*  and  unhappy, 
but  a  pair  I  kept  in  a  large  aviary  seemed  quite  contented,  and  soon 
became  fairlv  tame. 

760.-.THE  BLACK-CROWNED  FINCH  LARK, 

Pf/rr/ntlauda  melananc/ieiiy  Cab, 
Within  our  limits  the  Black -crowned  Finch  Lark  seems  confined 
to  Sind.  Mr.  Doig,  who  found  them  breeding  there,  says  : — *'  This 
bird,  wherever  there  are  sand  drifts,  is  very  common,  and  is  never, 
so  far  as  my  experience  goes^  found  in  company  with  Pyrrhulavda 
grisea ;  they  breed  at  the  end  of  Februar}'  and  beginning  of  March, 
at  the  end  of  May  and  commencement  of  June,  and  again  in  the 
end  of  August  and  beginning  of  September.  One  breeding  ground 
I  found  in  this  latter  month,  was  situated  away  from  the  Narra, 
some  ten  miles  out  in  the  desert,  near  some  salt  deposits,  and  where 
rain  had  evidently  fallen,  as  there  was  a  considerable  growth  of 
grass.  The  nests  were  very  similar  to  those  of  TyrvJmlaiida  grisea 
both  in  size  and  description,  and  were  invariably  placed  at  the  root 
of  some  tuft  of  grass,  on  the  north  side,  evidently  to  shelter  it  from 
the  hot  wind.  In  this  place  I  collected  over  forty  eggs.  They  are 
very  similar  to  those  of  P.  grisea,  perhaps  as  a  rule  more  boldly 
marked,  and  some  of  them  had  well-defined  rings  of  colour  round 
the  larger  end.     The  normal  number  of  eggs  is  two. 

761.— THE  SHORT-TOED  OR  SOCIAL  LARK. 

Calendrella  brachydactylay  Leisl. 
Mr.  J.  A.  Murray,  in  his  Handbook  to  the  Geology,  Botany,  and 
Zoology  of  Sind,  page  188,  says: — *' Common  everywhere  on  the 
plains  of  Sind,  breeding  in  April  and  May"  ;  and  again  in  his 
*'  Vertebrate  Zoology  of  Sind,'*  he  says  : — "  Breeds  in  April,  and 
May."  I  think  this  is  a  mistake.  I  feel  sure  that  the  Social  Lark 
breeds  nowhere  within  our  limits.  If  it  does,  it  is  strange  that  Mr. 
Doig,  Captain  (now  Colonel)  Butler,  or  myself,  never  found  a  nest. 

76225^r.— THE   INDUS  SAND  LARK. 

Alaudula  adamsi,   Hume, 
The  Indus    Sand   Lark   is   not  uncommon  along  the  banks  of  the 
ri^ver,    near   Hyderabad.     The  only   nest  (at   least  I   think  it  was 


NESTING  IK  WEI!<TER.\  INDIA.  325 

this,  but  I  cannot  be  sure  as  I  did  not  see  the  parent  birds),  was 
placed  at  the  side  of  a  small  bush  in  a  depression  in  the  sand  ;  it 
was  a  very  slight  structure,  composed  of  fine  grass,  and  contained 
a  single  addled  egg,  which  I  unfortunately  broke  in  trying  to 
clean  it. 

Mr.  Hume  describes  the  eggs  as  being  dull  white  in  colour,  spotted 
and  mottled  all  over,  but  more  thickly  at  the  larger  end,  with  pale 
greenish -brown ;  with  a  few  spots  of  grey  iiitormixod  with  the  brown 
ones  also  at  the  larger  end. 

Three  eggs  varied  from  0*78  to  0*8  incbo.s  in  length  and  from  0'55 
to  0*57  in  breadth.  , 

Hyderabad,  Sind^  April  5fh,  H,  E.  Barnes, 

765.— THE  SMALL  CROWN-CREST  LARK. 

Spizalauda   dcra,   Sf/kes. 

The  Small  Crown-crest  Lark  is  common  in  the  Deccan,  Khandeish, 
and  Rajputana  districts. 

They  are  permanent  residents,  breeding  during  the  rains,  in  July 
and  August, 

The  nest  is  placed  on  the  ground,  in  the  centre  of  or  under  the 
shelter  of  a  patch  of  scrubby  Ber  bushes,  crowning  a  small  mound ; 
this  prevents  it  from  getting  flooded  during  wot  weatlier,  sometimes 
the  nest  is  placed  under  a  tussock  of  grass  ;  it  is  composed  of  grass- 
stems,  roots,  and  vegetable  fibres,  and  is  of  a  shallow  saucor-shape. 

The  eggs,  two  or  three  in  number,  as  often  one  as  the  other,  are 
oval  in  shape,  pinched  in  a  good  deal  at  one  end,  and  measure  0*8 
inches  in  length  by  about  0*o5  in  breadth.  They  are  rather  glossy, 
and  are  dingy  white  in  col<nir,  profusely  spotted  and  sjx^ckled  with 
yellowish  and   earthy  brown. 

These   markinj:^s  are  as  a  rule  not  vorv  clear. 

NeeniHch,  July  to  Auynst.  II,  E,  Barttes. 

Saugory  do.  Do. 

Baroda,  August.  II,  LUtledale,  B.A. 

Sholapore^  July  to  September,  J.  Davidson^  U.S. 

Khandeish^        do,  Ih. 

Nas^iek,  do.  Do. 


326      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

7656t6-.— THE  LARGE  CROWN-CREST  LARK. 

Spizalauda  malaharica,  Scop, 

I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  Davidson,  C.S.,  for  the  following  note : — 

"  This  is  the  common  lark  in  Kanara^  being  found  in  abundance 
on  the  coast,  and  also  in  the  fields,  among  the  jungle  above  the 
gh&ts. 

**  In  Nassick  itself  I  noticed  it  occasionally  in  the  rains  and  in  the 
hot  weather  ;  it  was  fairly  common  on  the  plateau  of  the  Saptash- 
ring  line  of  hills  in  that  district,  but  I  never  noticed  it  at  that  season 
anywhere  else,  and  it  was  there  distinctly  local. 

"  It  makes  its  nest  on  the  bare  ground,  but  lines  it  generally  fairly 
well,  and  usually  lays  two,  rarely  three,  eggs  of  a  pale  greenish-grey, 
mottled  with  darker  shades  of  the  same ;  they  vary  considerably  in 
size,  but  are  much  larger  than  those  of  Spizalauda  deva,  and  are  also 
I  think  as  a  rule  much,  lighter  in  colour." 

The  eggs  in  my  collection,  given  to  me  by  Mr.  Davidson,  measure 
0*85  inches  in  length  by  rather  more  than  0*65  in  breadth. 

Saptashring,  Nassick,  1st  toeek  in  April,  J,  Davidson ,  C.S, 

Kanara,  February,  March,  April  and  Dece?nber,  Do. 

767.— THE  INDIAN  SKYLARK. 

Alauda  gulgiila,  Franke, 

The  Indian  Skylark  occurs  in  suitable  places,  throughout  Western 
India ;  it  is,  however,  very  locally  distributed,  and  I  believe  often 
overlooked.  It  is  a  permanent  resident,  commencing  to  breed  early 
in  May,  and  nests  are  to  be  found  up  to  the  end  of  July.  I  think 
they  have  at  least  two  broods  in  the  season,  but  do  not  lay  again  in 
the  same  nest. 

The  nest  is  not  very  elaborate  as  a  rule,  being  merely  a  depression 
in  the  ground,  scantily  lined  with  fine  grass,  under  the  shelter  of  a 
clod  of  earth,  or  a  tuft  of  grass ;  this  hole  is  usually  scratched  by 
the  birds  themselves. 

The  eggs,  two  or  three  in  number  (I  have  never  found  more,  but 
others  speak  of  finding  four  and  five),  are  of  two  different  types  ; 
one  is  a  dingy-  or  greyish-white,  sometimes  nearly  pure,  densely 
spotted  and  speckled  with  yellowish-  and  greyish-brownj   with  an 


NESTING  IN  WESTERN  INDIA,  3'J7 

occasional  speck  or  spot  of  pale  inky-purple  or  purplish-brown  ;  the 
other  has  a  creamy  white-coloured  ground,  and  the  markings  are 
not  so  dark  or  so  thickly  set ;  between  these  two  types  every  possible 
combination  occurs. 

^  As  a  rule  the  markings  consist  of  specks  and  tiny  spots  ;  occasion- 
ally an  egg  is  found  in  which  the  markings  are  larger  and  bolder. 
In  shape  the  eggs  are  moderately  broad  ovals,  pinched  in  a  little  at 
one  end^  and  average  about  0*8  inches  in  length,  by  rather  more 
than  0*6  in  breadth.     They  are  subject  to  much  variation. 

Deesa,  15ih  May  to  2Wi  June.  H.  E,  Barnes, 

Neemuch,  22nd  July,  Do. 

Baroda,  28rd  Apn'l  to  28ih  June.  H,  Litttedahy  B.  A. 

769.— THE  LARGE  CRESTED   LARK. 
Galerita  criHtata^  Lin. 

The  Large-crested  Lark  is  a  common  permanent  resident  in  Sind. 
It  occurs  not  uncommonly  in  Northern  Guzerat,  where,  however,  I  do 
not  think  it  remains  to  breed.  The  nesting  season  lasts  from  the 
middle  of  March  up  to  the  end  of  June.  The  nest,  which  is  usually 
cup-shaped  (occasionally  a  mere  pad),  is  placed  in  a  hollow  in  the 
ground,  much  in  the  same  way  as  those  of  other  larks,  under  the 
shelter  of  a  tussock  of  grass,  or  in  the  centre  of  a  small  scrubby 
patch  of  tamarisk  or  wild  caper  bush.  All  the  nests  I  have  seen  have 
been  more  or  less  well  lined  with  fine  grass,  the  outside  being  com- 
posed of  grass  somewhat  coarser.  The  eggs,  three  in  number,  are 
dingy-white  in  colour,  spotted,  speckled,  and  blotched  with  yellowish 
and  purplish  brown. 

These  markings  predominate  at  the  larger  end,  not  unfrequently 
forming  an  imperfect  cap,  or  zone.  They  vary  greatly  in  size. 
Mr.  Hume  gives  the  length  as  ranging  from  0*85  to  0*92,  and  the 
breadth  from  0-65  to  0G9. 

Hyderabad,  Sind,  March  to  June.  H.  E.  Barnes. 

Eastern  Narra,  Sind,  Ajpril  to  May.  S.  B.  Daig. 

770.— THE  DESERT  FINCH  LARK. 
Almnon  deaertorum,  Stan. 

The  Desert  Finch  Lark  occurs  in  the  broad  sandy  strip  of  desert 
at  the  foot  of  the  hills  that  divides  Sind  from  Khelat ;  even  here  it  is 
somewhat  rare. 


3i?d      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

Mr.  Doig  found  a  nest  between  Hyderabad  and  the  Narra.  He 
says,  Strai/  Feathers,  Vol.  IX.,  p.  280  : — '*  On  the  3rd  of  June  I 
found  a  nest  and  young  of  this  species,  on  a  large  open  plain,  on  the 
borders  between  the  Narra  and  Hyderabad  districts.  Since  then  I 
have  to  thank  my  friend,  Mr.  Ffinch,  for  an  egg  of  this  bird,  taken 
at  Jask ;  the  nest  I  found  was  similar  to  those  of  Pyrrhulauda  grisea, 
but  larger.  The  eg^  in  my  collection  is  in  markings  very  similar 
to  those  of  Pyrrhulauda  melanaiichen,  the  markings  being  bolder,  and 
the  egg  twice  the  size.** 

773.— THE  SOUTHERN  GEEEN  PIGEON. 

Crocopus  chlorigasterf  Blyth, 

The  Southern  Green  Pigeon  occurs  more  or  less  commonly 
throughout  Western  India,  with  the  exception  of  Sind,  where  it 
is  rare,  having  only  been  recorded  from  the  frontier  near  Jacobabad. 

I  think  they  have  two  broods  in  the  year,  the  first  in  the  early 
part  of  the  hot  weather  in  March,  and  the  other  in  May.  The  nests 
are,  as  a  rule,  placed  in  forks  in  trees,  at  heights  varying  from  ten  to 
twenty  feet  from  the  ground ;  they  are  mere  pads  composed  of  a 
few  sticks,  laid  cross  ways ;  the  eggs,  always  two  in  number,  are 
glossy  white  ovals,  measuring  from  1*12  to  1 '35  inches  in  length, 
and  from  0*9  to  1*0  inch  in  breadth,  the  average  being  1*25  by  0*95. 
These  measurements  are  taken  from  Mr. Hume's  "Nests  and  Eggs," 
those  in  my  collection  being  too  few  in  number  to  furnish  a  reliable 
average. 

The  birds  sit  very  close,  especially  when  the  eggs  are  much  in- 
cubated, so  close  that  I  caught  the  bird  on  the  first  nest  I  foimdt 

Anadra  (plains  near  Abu),  March  and  May,  H.  E.  Barnes. 

Neemuch,  June,  Do, . 

Khandeish,  March  to  May.  J,  Davidson,  C,S. 

Nassick  Jungles,  Do,  Do. 

Kanara  {above  the  Ohdts),  May,  Do. 

774,— THE  ORANGE-BREASTED  GREEN  PIGEON. 

Osmotreron  bicincta,  Jerd, 

This  and  the  three  following  notes  have  kindly  been  furnished 
to  me  by  Mr.  Davidson,  C.S, 


NESTING  IN  IVE STERN  INDIA.  329 

*'  This  is  a  very  comTaon  bird  below  ghd  ts  in  Kanara,  and  I  have 
noticed  it  from  November  t3  the  end  of  May,  so  it  must  breed  ia 
the  district.     I  have,  however,  never  been  able  to  find  its  nest.** 

775.— THE    ASHY-HEADED    GREEN   PIGEON. 

Osr/iotreron  malaharica,  Jerd. 
"  This  is  much  the  commonest  Green  Pigeon  in  Kanara,  and  indeed 
practically  one  sees  dozens  every  day,  both  above  and  below  the 
ghats,  the  red  back  of  the  male  being  very  easily  noticed.  I  have 
taken  numbers  of  the  nests,  which  are  slight  structures  generally 
placed  from  8  to  15  feet  from  the  ground,  and  mostly  in  small  trees. 
The  male  is  quite  as  commonly  seen  incubating  the  eggs  as  the 
female.  •   Eggs  taken  from  January  to  March.'* 

780.— THE   GREEN   IMPERIAL  PIGEON. 

Carpophaga   cenea^  Lin. 

^^Tliis  bird  is  fairly  common  in  all  the  evergreen  jungles  in  Kanara 
above  the  ghats,  though  I  do  not  recollect  to  have  soon  it  below  the 
ghHts  ;  these  Imperial  Pigeons  are  however  .shy  and  difficult  to  shoot, 
and  on  the  wing  they  are  barely  distinguishable  from  each  other ; 
their  notes  do  differ  considerably,  and  that  is  the  main  clue  as  to 
which  kind  is  about. 

"  The  only  nest  I  took  was  an  ordinary  dove*s  nest,  fairly  solid,  and 
contained  one  very  large  pure  white  egg.  It  was  taken  on  the  25th 
February,  but  I  shot  another  on  the  80th  April,  containing  an  egg 
which  would  have  been  laid  in  forty-eight  hours,  so  they  probablv 
breed  throughout  the  hot  weather/' 

781.— THE    BRONZE-BACKED  IMPERIAL  PIGEON. 

Carpophaga  insigms,  Hodgs. 
*'  This  is  a  permanent  resident  in  Kanara,  as  I  have  seen  it  at  all 
seasons.  It  is  fairly  distributed  throughout  all  the  thick  evergreen 
jungle  below  the  ghats,  also  on  the  ridge,  and  for  a  mile  or  two 
further  east.  It  may  be  found  elsewhere,  but  though  I  have  seen 
.  the  two  species  close  to  the  ridge  of  the  gh&ts,  I  have  never  noticed 
this  bird  further  east  below  the  ghats.  The  only  nest  I  took  was 
very  similar  to  the  last,  and  contained  a  single  fresh  egg ;  it  was 
taken  just  below  the  ridge  of  the  gMts  on  the  13th  February/' 


S30      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

788.— THE  BLUE  ROCK   PIGEON. 

Columba    intermedia,    StrickL 

The  Bine  Rock  Pigeon  is  a  common  permanent  resident  through- 
out the  Presidency,  breeding  from  November  to  May  (these  are  the 
only  months  in  which  I  have  taken  eggs),  a  favourite  nesting  place 
is  in  a  hole,  or  on  a  ledge  in  a  well. 

The  eggs,  two  in  number,  average  1*5  inches  in  length,  by  about 
115  in  breadth.     They  are  too  well  known  to  need  description. 

788.— THE  ROCK  DOVE. 

Columba  Itvia,  Bp. 

The  Rock  Dove  is  said  to  breed  on  the  rocky  hills  on  the  bordera 

of  Sind. 

792.— THE   ASHY  TURTLE   DOVE. 

Tiirtur  pulchratus,  Hodgs, 
793.— THE  RUFOUS   TURTLE   DOVE. 

Ttirtur  meena,  Si/kes.  ^ 

I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  Davidson  for  the  following  note  : — 
**  Ornithologists  seem  to  agree  that  these  species  are  distinct,  but 
perhaps  from  not  having  typical  specimens  to  compare  others  with,  I 
think  it  rather  doubtful.  The  distinction  relied  on  appears  to  be  the 
colour  of  the  under  tail  coverts ;  these  are  said  to  be  white  in 
pulehratm  and  grey  in  meena, 

"  Now  in  West  Khandeish  1  have  shot  right  and  left  specimens,  one 
of  which  had  white  under  tail  coverts  and  the  other  grey,  and  I  have 
seen  others  that  I  could  hardly  say  whether  the  coverts  were  pure 
white  or  greyish-white.  I  did  not  think  the  birds  bred  anywhere  in 
this  Presidency,  though  I  remember  natives  telling  me  years  ago 
they  did  in  the  Satara  ghats ;  but  a  few  days  ago,  I  startled  a  bird 
off  a  slight  nest  in  a  bamboo  clump,  or  within  a  foot  of  it  (for  I  did 
not  see  it  sitting  on  the  nest) ;  it  contained  one  egg  as  large  as  that 
of  Crocopus  chlorigaster,  and  a  good  deal  bigger  than  that  of  Osmotre- 
ron  malaharica  or  Turtur  suratensts,  the  only  other  resident  birds  it 
could  belong  to.  As  I  had  a  rifle  in  my  hand,  I  could  not  decida 
whether  its  owner  was  the  pulchratus  or  meena  form/* 

I  would  add  to  this  that  I  have  shot  moulting  birds,  with  the  new 
under  tail  coverts  white,  and  the  old  ones  grey. 


SESTINQ  IS  jy ESTERS  INDIA.  331 

794.-^THE   LITTLE   BROWN   DOVE. 

Tiirtnr  senega lensiSy  Lin. 

The  Brown  Dove  is  common  llirougbout  Western  India,  with  the 
exception  of  Ratnagiri  and  Kanara,*  where  it  appears  to  be  a  very 
rare  straggler.  They  are  pormaDent  residents,  breeding  all  through 
the  year.  I  find  from  my  notes  that  there  i;?  not  a  single  month  in 
which  I  have  not  taken  eggs,  in  one  district  or  the  other.  March 
and  September  are  months  in  which  most  eggs  are  to  be  found. 

The  nest  is  usually  placed  in  a  bush  or  small  acacia  tree,  in  a 
cactus  hedge,  young  date  palm,  and  occasionally  on  the  top  of  a  pillar 
in  a  verandah  ;  it  is  a  small  platform  of  twigs  and  dry  grass  stems, 
and  the  eggs,  two  in  number,  are  rather  broad  ovals  in  shape,  mea- 
suring an  inch  in  length  by  0*8G  in  breadth  ;  they  are  of  a  pure 
white  colour. 

If  the  eggs  are  taken,  they  will  lay  a  second,  or  even  a  third  time 
in  the  same  nest.  If  unmolested  thev  often  rear  a  second  brood  in 
the  same  nest , 

795.— THE   SPOTTED   DOVE. 

Turtur  sHratensi'^f  Gm, 

This  is  the  common  dove  of  Ratnagiri  and  Kanara,  being  equally 
abundant  both  above  and  below  the  ghlits,  where  it  appears  to  replace 
the  Little  Brown  Dove.  In  Sind  it  is  rare,  only  occurring  as  a  strag- 
gler, in  the  upper  portion  of  the  province.  In  all  other  parts  of  the 
Presidency  it  is  more  or  less  common  in  suitable  places,  but  it  is 
however  somewhat  locally  distributed.  It  avoids  dry  sandy  plains 
and  places  where  the  rainfall  is  scanty. 

They  breed  at  almost  all  seasons,  but  the  best  month  to  search  for 
eggs  are  August  and  Septeml>er.  The  nest  is  a  scanty  platform  of 
small  twigs  and  dry  grass  stems,  placed  on  a  cactus  or  other  low  bush  ; 
I  have  never  found  a  nest  at  any  great  height  from  the  ground. 
The  bird  is  a  very  close  sitter,  even  before  an  egg  is  laid. 

The  eggs,  two  in  number,  are  pure  glossy  white ;  in  shape  they 
are  broadish  ovals,  but  vary  greatly  in  size,  but  the  average  of  a  larg^ 
series  was  1*1  inches  in  length  by  0*82  in  breadth. 

*  Dayidflon  has  never  seen  a  Bperimen  in  Kanara,  either  above  or  below  the  gh&ts. 
44 


»2     JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  lU STORY  SOCIETY,  lai^. 

796.— THE   RING   DOVE. 

Turtur  nsorius,  Lin. 
This  dove  is  commou  ererywhore,  except  in  tlie  soiitli-west,  wlieVc? 
it  becomes  comparatively  rare.*  Like  the  other  doves  it  seems  to 
breed  at  all  seasons,  rearing  successive  broods  in  the  same  nest,  which 
is  usually  placed  on  a  bush  or  low  tree,  at  various  heights  from  ther 
ground.  The  nest  is  generally  a  frail  platform  of  &mall  twigs  and 
grass  stems,  and  the  eggs,  two  in  number,  are  broad  glossy  white 
ovals,  averaging  1*16  inches  in  length,  by  0*92  in  breadth. 

797.— THE  RUDDY   RING  DO  YE. 

Turtur  tranquebaricus,  Lin, 

.  This  is  the  most  locally  distributed  of  all  our  resident  doves ;  it 
occurs  throughout  Western  India,  but  is  decidedly^ rare  in  Ratnagiri, 
\n  some  places  it  is  very  common,  and  in  an  adjoining  district, 
apparently  equally  suitable,  not  one  will  be  seen. 

I  have  taken  nests  both  before  and  after  the  rains,  but  I  think  the- 
majority  of  them  breed  just  after  the  rains.  I  have  always  found 
the  nests,  in  small  trees,  well  in  the  jungle,  acacia  trees  for  preference. 
The  nest  io  very  frail,  and  the  eggs  are  usually  visible  from  beneath. 
I  have  taken  the  eggs  from  old  crow  nests,  and  once  found  a  nest 
built  in  the  foundation  of  a  Tawny  Eagle's  nest,  which  had  on  the 
opposite  side  a  nest  of  the  Common  Munia. 

The  eggs,  two  in  nmnber,  are  oval  in  shape,  measuring  about  an 
inch  in  length  by  nearly  0*79  in  breadth.  They  are  not  pure  white, 
but  have  a  distinct  ivory  tint. 

Mr.  Davidson  sends  me  the  following  interesting  note  : — 

**  This  bird  is  more  or  less  migratory.  About  Dhulia  it  was  very 
common  in  the  rains,  but  disappeared  after,  only  a  very  few  re- 
maining to  breed.  It  was  then  found  at  the  base  of  the  Sdtpuras,  in 
the  jungles,  all  the  hot  weather.     I  have  never  noticed  it  in  Kanara.*' 

798.— THE  BRONZE- WINGED  DOYE. 

Chalcophaps  indica,  Lin. 

Mr.  Davidson  says  : — ''This  lovely  little  bird  is  found  occasionally 
along  the   ghats,   at   all   events  as  far  north  as  Matheran.     It  is 

•  Mr.  Da?icl8on  has  only  met  with  one  bird  in  the  extreme  east  of  KanarJi. 


KESTISG  IS  IVESTERN  INDIA.  333 

common  in  Kanara,  both  abovD  and  below  the  ghats,  but  it  is  shy, 
and  hauuts  as  a  rule  thick  evergreen  jungles.  It,  however,  has  a 
habit  of  feeding  on  the  roads  passing  through  the  jungle,  and  on 
most  of  those,  a  pair  or  so  will  be  seen  every  half  mile.  It  is  a 
permanent  resident,  but  I  have  never  taken  the  nest,  though  one  bird 
I  shot  in  February  would  have  hud  in  a  couple  of  days.'^ 

799.— THE  LxlRGE  OR  BLACK-BELLIED  SAND  GLiOUSK. 

Fk'rtH:ks  aroiarim,  Pall, 

Daring  the  winter  months,  the  Large  Sand  Grouse  occurs  in  Sind, 
Guzerat  and  Rajputana.  Spouking  generally,  they  are  not  uncom- 
mon in  the  more  northern  portions  of  Western  India,  becoming  more 
and  more  rare  towards  the  central  parts,  and  quite  disappearing  irom 
the  south.  Xo  satisfactory  evidence  of  their  breeding  within  the 
Presidency  exists,  though  birds  have  occasionally  been  shot  as  late 
as  the  middle  of  May. 

One  I  procured  oit  the  plains  of  Meani,  nx?ar  Hydrabad,  Sind, 
on  the  20th  of  that  nxonth,  had  the  ovaries  much  developed,  and 
I  believe  that  the  ^\i;^^  would  liave  been  laid  in  ten  or  twelve  day«. 
I  saw  a  pair,  but  could  only  procure  the  female.  Further  north,  in 
Southern  Afghanistan,  on  the  plains  between  Chaman  and  Gatai,  T 
found  them  breeding  plentifully  during  May  and  June.  The  eggs, 
three  in  number,  were  placed  in  a  snudl  depression  in  the  soil, 
s^cratched  by  the  birds  themselves,  Tliey  are  of  a  long  cylindrical 
shape,  obtuse  at  eacli  end.  The  shell  is  compact,  firm,  and  glossy; 
The  ground  colour  is  n  very  pale  green  or  greenish- white  (those  in  my 
collection  have  now  fade(l  to  a  pale  drab  or  stone  colour);  they  are 
covered  more  or  less  thickly  with  f^pots  nuA  blotches  of  pale-yellowish 
and  purplish-grey. 

Mr.  Hume,  to  whom  I  sent  an  egg,  has  thus  described  it :— 

*'  The  egg  is  a  very  elongated,  cylindrical,  dumpy,  sausage-like  egg, 
the  shell  is  extremely  fine  and  compact,  and  has  a  fine  gloss.  The 
ground  colour  is  a  very  pale  green  or  greenish- white,  and  it  is  mode- 
rately thickly  studded  with  irregular  spots  and  small  blotches,  more 
or  less  streaky  in  shape,  of  a  rather  pale  yellowish -brown,  and  very 
pale,  slightly  purplish-grey.  It  measures  1'81  inches  in  length,  by 
rather  more  than  1*-J5  in  breadth. 


834      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

800. —THE  PAINTED  SAND  GROUSE. 

Pt erodes  fascuitiis,  Scoj), 

With  the  exception  of  Sind  in  the  north  and  Ratnagiri  in  the 
souths  the  Painted  Sand  Grouse  occurs,  more  or  less  rarely,  in  suitable 
localities  throughout  the  rest  of  the  Presidency.  It  affects  thin  scant 
jungle  at  the  foot  of  low  rocky  hills  ;  they  are,  I  believe,  permanent 
residents  where  they  occur,  breeding  as  a  rule  during  April  and 
May,  but  eggs  are  occasionally  found  during  the  cold  season. 

They  scratch  a  slight  depression  in  the  soil,  under  the  shelter  of  a 
tuft  of  grass,  and  in  this,  without  any  lining,  they  lay  two  or  three 
eggs,  of  an  elongated  shape,  rounded  at  both  ends,  measuring  1*4 
inches  in  length,  by  about  0*98  in  breadth  ;  they  are  of  a  glossy  pink- 
ish-fawn or  pale  salmon  colour,  speckled,  spotted,  and  streaked  with 
brownish-red  and  clouds  of  pale  inky-pui'ple  intermingled. 

To  this,  Mr.  Davidson  adds  the  following : — 

*^  I  would  hardly  call  this  bird  common  anywhere.  It  does  not, 
I  think,  occur  in  Kanara  or  the  Konkan.  It  is,  I  think,  a  very  local 
bird  everywhere,  restricted  to  low  scrub  jungle.  I  know  of  its  occur- 
rence in  one  or  two  places  in  the  Poona  district ;  I  have  met  with  it  at 
only  two  places  during  the  four  years  I  was  in  Sholapur.  In  West 
Khandeish  and  some  parts  of  the  north-east  of  Nassick  it  was  moder- 
ately common,  but  that  would  only  mean  that  perhaps  five  or  six  pairs 
would  be  seen  in  a  morning's  beating.  I  think  it  breeds  pretty  well 
at  all  seasons,  except  the  three  heavy  rain  months,  July,  August  and 
September,  and  out  of  some  fifteen  or  twenty  nests  I  must  have  seen, 
almost  all  contained  three  eggs.  I  have  taken  eggs  in  the  Khandeish 
and  Nassick  districts  in  October,  December,  January,  February, 
March  and  May,  up  to  the  very  end  of  the  month." 

801.— THE  LARGE  PIN-TAILED  GROUSE. 

Pte rocks  alchata,  Lin, 

The  Large  Pin -tailed  or  White-bellied  Sand  Grouse  is  confined  to 
Sind,  and  even  there  is  not  common.  I  have  only  met  with  it  at 
Jeempeer,  between  Hyderabad  and  Karachi. 

Further  north  in  Southern  Afghanistan  it  occurs  in  immense 
flocks. 


XESTING  IS  WESTERS  INDIA.  935 

An  egg,  said  to  belong  to  Vterocles  arenarius  (the  Black- bellied 
Sand  Grouse),  but  which  Mr.  Hume  believes  to  really  belong  to 
Pterocles  alchata,  wa^  found  at  this  phice.  He  says  : — **  It  is  decidedly 
a  shorter  ^%%^  it  has  much  Joss  gloss,  the  ground  colour  is  a  pale  Cdfe* 
aU'lait,  the  markings  are  of  the  same  <^olours  as  on  the  other  egg,  but 
they  are  more  thinly  ^et,  and  the  bulk  of  them  much  smaller  :  but 
then  there  are  a  couple  of  great  large  splashes  of  both  the  yellow- 
ish-brown and  the  purplish-grey,  wliicjli  far  excel  in  size  anything 
on  the  other  e<^(:^.     This  egg  measures  only  1*7  by  1*2. *' 

Undoubted  eggs  of  the  Wliite-bellied  Sand  Grouse,  which  have 
been  sent  me  from  Persia,  are  larger  than  any  1  have  sc^en  of  avenanm^ 
measuring  from  TD  (o  rather  jnure  tlum  20  inches  in  length,  and 
from  1  '2  to  1  '3  in  breadth ;  in  colour  they  are  glossy  pinkish-white, 
or  pale  salmon,  and  they  are  thickly  and  boldly  spotted  and  blotched 
with  bright  reddish-brown  and  faint  inky-f)urple. 

They  are  very  different  eggs  to  those  of  arenariiifij  which  are  of  the 
exHstus  type,  while  the  present  ones  assimilate  to  that  oifamatuH, 

801///6-.— THE  SPOTTED   SAXI)   GROUSE.  \ 

Plcrocks   icncjaius,  L'/i. 

The  Spotted  Sand  Grouse  is  not  very  (^onnnt)n  in  Sind,  andbeoome« 
more  rare  furllier  south,  and  is  only  a  mere  straggler  in  Guzerat 
and  Rajputana.  All  I  can  find  on  record  regarding  its  nidification 
is  contained  in  tlie  following  extract : — 

"liothing  has  ever  been  recorded  of  their  nidihcation,  but  some^ 
at  any  rat(%  do  breed  in  Sind,  as  I  possess  an  egg  taken  there. 

**  This  single  cg^^"^  I  owe  to  ]\[r.  William  Blaiiford,  who  extracted 
it  from  the  body  of  a  female,  which  he  shot  on  the  20th  March,  1875, 
in  the  desert  west  of  Shikarj^ur,  Upper  Sind.  In  shape  and  size 
the  egg  is  similar  to  that  of  exH.stus,  but  the  markings  are  much 
more  sparse  than  in  any  egg  of  that  species  I  have  ever  seen.  The 
egg  is,  of  course,  cylindro-ovoidal ;  the  ground  colour  is  pale 
yellowish-stone,  and  the  markings,  which  are  thinly  distributed 
over  the  surface  of  the  eggy  consist  of  olive-brown  spots  and  tiny 
blotches,  with   a  few  crooked  and  hooked  lines  :  besides  these  a  few 


•  This  egg  is  figured  in   the  third  plate  of  Eggs,  Vol.  III.,  Hume  and  Marshall's 
Qama  Birds  of  India. 


X\6      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

purplish -lilac  or   inky-grey   spots,    streaks,    and  smears     having   a 
sub-surface   appearance,    are  scattered  irregularly  about  the  surface 
of  the  egg.** 

"  Having  been  extracted  from  the  body  of  the  bird,  the  egg  ha«, 
of  course,  but  little  gloss.  It  measures  1"5  by  I'Oo/' — Hume*s  Game 
Birds,  Vol.  I.,  page  65. 

SOUer.—TllE  CORONETTED  SxlND  GROUSE. 

Pleroclcs   coronattis,  Licht. 

The  Coronet  ted  Sand  Grouse,  within  our  limits,  has  only  been 
procured  on  the  confines  of  Sind,  and  that  but  rarely.  It  is,  I  believe, 
only  a  cold-vreather  visitant,  but  further  north,  in  Southern  Afghan- 
istan,   I   was  so  fortunate  as  to  procure  two  batches  of  eggs. 

One  of  these  I  took  with  my  own  hands,  on  the  30th  April, 
shooting  the  female  bird  as  she  left  the  nest,  and  the  male  bird  in 
the  immediate  vicinity.*  The  eggs,  three  in  number,  were  placed  in 
a  depression  in  the  ground,  scratched  by  the  birds  themselves,  without 
any  attempt  at  concealment,  in  the  middle  of  an  open  plain.  They 
measured  To  inches  in  length  by  1*0G  in  breadth.  Another  clutch, 
taken  on  the  27th  May,  was  found  in  a  precisely  similar  situation, 
l)ut  the  eggs  are  somewhat  larger  ;  one  of  these  I  sent  to  Mr.  Hume, 
which  he  thus  describes  in   Game  Birds,  Vol.  III.,  page  426  : — 

**  One   of   these   eggs,  taken  on  the  27th  May     ♦  *  * 

has  a  fine  and  compact  shell,  and  a  moderate  amount  of  gloss ;  the 
ground  colour  is  a  pale  creamy- white,  the  markings,  spots,  moderate- 
sized  blotches  and  streaks,  are,  as  usual,  of  two  colours,  a  pale  rather 
washed-out  yellowish-brown,  and  a  very  pale  almost  sepla-grey. 
This  egg  measures  1-63  by  1'07.'' 

802.— THE  COMMON  SAND  GROUSE. 

rt erodes  exusttis,  Tern. 

The  Common  Sand  Grouse,  with  the  exception  of  Ratnagiri,  occurs 
abimdantly  in  suitable  places  throughout  Western  India.  It  does 
not  affect  hilly  or  rocky  districts,  nor  is  it  found  in  forest  or  swampy 
places.     It  is  very  partial  to  fallow  and  ploughed  land. 


•  Both  these  skins  were  sent  by  me  to  the  Frere  Hall  Museum,  Karachi. 


BOMB  A  Y  O  lU  SSLS.  :<:i7 

It  18  a  permanent  resident,  breeding  pretty  nearly  all  the  year 
through,  but  April  and  May  are  the  months  when  most  eggs  are  i>o 
be  found.  The  eggs,  three  in  number,  are  dej>osited  in  a  slight 
depression  on  the  gnjund ;  they  are  of  the  usual  shape  peculiar  to 
the  Grouse  family,  long  and  cylindrical,  equally  blunt  at  both  ends; 
in  colour  they  are  greenish  or  greyish- \vlii to.  or  even  light  olive- 
brown,  thickly  streaked,  blotched,  and  spotted,  equally  over  the 
whole  surface,  with  darker  or  lighter  shades  of  olive-brown,  and  with 
pale  underlying  clouds  of  very  pale   inky-purple. 

They  average  r45  inches  in  h'ngtli  by  abrmt  \'0']  in  breadth. 


BOMBAY  GRASSES. 

By  Pu.  J.  O.  LisBOA,    F.h.S. 

TART  III. 

[Continued  from  p.  2S2,    Vol,   V.) 
(B/ad  at  the  Society's  Meeting  on  ISfh  Fchrnanj  1890.) 

SETAPaA.  Bcauv. 

S.  glanca,  Beauv.,  Agrost.  51;  Kunth.  Knum.  1.149;  Dalz.  and 
Gibs.,   Bomb.  FL  293. 

Vern.  Bcrdi,  Gub,  Bandra,  Kaujni,  Pinfji-niftchi. 

Common  in  Guzerat,  Poena,  Nassick,  Tanna,andall  over  India.  Is 
a  fairly  good  fodder  grass,  th<'  seeds  of  which  were  used  as  food 
during  the  famine  time. 

A  slender  small  variety  is  found  all  over  Bombay,  with  yellow 
awn-Uke  hairs  surrounding  the  s-)ikelcts.  It  never  grows  large  like 
the  larger  A-^rin  of  tlio  typo  species.  It  is  named  at  Mahableshwar 
and  Poena  ''Kolara/'  Dalz.  and  Gib.  Bomb,  FL,  and  resembles 
Seiaria  purpurascens,  Ilumb.  and  Kimth. 

8.  verticillata,  Beauv. ^  51:  Kunth.  Enum.  I.  152;  Dalz.  and  Gibs., 
Bomb.  FL  294. 

Vern.  Lapti,  CJdrchira,  Bora  bynra  (Roxb.j 

Found  all  over  the  plains  and  ghats,  and  eaten  by  cattle  when 
young.   The  grain  is  used  by  the  poorer  classes  as  an  article  of  food. 

S.    intermedia,  R.  and  S.  Syst.  II.   489;   Kunth.  Enum.  I.  150. 

Vern,  Landgar,  Gliiriyn-chana, 


343        JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

Like  the  preceding  this  also  is  very  common,  and  is  met  with  all 
over  the  plains  and  ghats. 

8,  maerostachijay  11.  B.  and  K.,  Nov.   Gen.  et  Sp.  I.  110. 

This  is  rare.  It  was  to  be  seen  some  years  ago  on  the  right  of  the 
road  leading  to  ^Yalkeshwar.  The  place  has  now  been  converted 
into  a  garden. 

8.  Italica,  R.  Brown. 

Vern.  Kangni,  Kora-kangi. 

The  spikes  of  this  resemble  those  of  Panicum  frumentaceum. 

Though  believed  to  have  heating  properties,  this  millet  is  esteemed 
in  certain  parts  both  for  its  supposed  medicinal  properties  as  well 
as  for  eating,  being  used  in  the  form  of  cake  and  as  porridge.  Two 
varieties  of  it  seem  to  exist,  one  straw-yellow  and  the  other  of  a  red- 
dish-yellow colour.  The  straw  is  not  much  appreciated,  being 
considered  equal  to  rice  straw  as  fodder  for  cattle. 

Cenchrus,  Linn, 

C.  monfanus,  Nees  in  Royl.  111.;  C.  SchimpeHy  Steud.  Syn.  Glum, 
III.  ;  C,  tripsacoides,  Fres. 

Vern.  Anjan,  Dhamman  (Duthie). 

Common  in  the  sandy  plains  of  N.-W.  India,  and  also  found  in 
Nassick  and  Guzerat.  Duthie  speaks  of  it  as  **one  of  the  most  nutri- 
tious of  Indian  grasses,  and  considered  by  some  to  be  the  very  best." 
It  makes  hay  of  a  very  superior  quality. 

C  catharticus,  Del. 

The  seed  of  this  grass  mixed  with  other  kinds  is  used  as  food  by 
the  poorer  classes.  The  foliage  appears  early,  which  makes  it  very 
valuable  as  forage ;  it  is  however  unsuitable  for  stacking. 

Found  in  Guzerat  and  in  sandy  soil  in  the  N.-W.    Provinces  of 

India. 

Pennisetum. 

P.  Alopecuros,  Steud.  Syn.  Glum.  102;  Gymnothrix  Alopecurus, 
Nees. 

Vern.  Navaga. 

Met  with  at  Poena,  Lanowli,  Nassick  and  in  other  districts,  where  it 
is  not  uncommon.  In  Poena  brooms  are  said  to  be  made  of  it,  and  at 
Mount  Abu  it  is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  cordage. 

P.  cenchroides,  Rich  (in  Pers.  Syn.  I.  72)  ;  Steud.  Byn.  Glum.  105. 


BOMBA  Y  GRASSES  3.3^ 

• 

Found  in  Guzerat  and  the  Deccan.  Makes  excellent  fodder  for 
<;attle  and  horses,  and  is  believed  to  be  useful  in  increasing  the  milk 
of  cows.  In  certain  parts  of  India  it  is  credited  with  having  the 
property  of  giving  a  senii-intoxicating  effect  to  the  milk  of  buflfaloe* 
grazing  on  it. 

P.  l^nuginosiwf,  Hochst.  Rich.  F/.  Abij^n.  IF.  -^So. 

Found  in  the  Deccan  and  Guzerat. 

P,  auveum,  Link.  Hort.  I.  215;   Dalz.  and  (^ibs.  Bo.  Fl.  p.  294. 

Vern.     jUooItout, 

This  grass  lias  not  been  seen  by  nie,  though  the  authors  of  the 
Bombay  Flora  state  it  to  be  "conimon  all  over  tlie  Dc^ccan  and  almost 
unknown  to  botanists." 

P.  typhoidmniy  Rich,  in  Pers.  Syn.  72;  Pt-nnwUhiria  spicata,  Willd. ; 
Holcm  sjv'fiatus,  Linn.;  Ddz  ;jnd  Gii>.  Bf.  F/.,  Sunpl.  9!). 

V^ern.  Bajri. 

Figured  in  Church's  ''Food  (Trains  of  ludin''  and  in  '•  Fiold  and 
Garden  Crops  of  N.-W.  Pron'^frfs/' 

Bajri  is  too  well-known  a  grain  to  require  description.  It  forms 
the  staple  article  of  food  ot  the  poorer  classes  in  the  Deccan,  Khan- 
deish  and  Guzeral.  It  is  also  used  in  the  Koncau  on  account  of  its 
being  cheaper  than  ricp  whioli  i^  export '^d.  It  is  cultivated  in 
various  pnrts  of  Inliu  and  C'\vlon.  The  stalks  and  leaves  are  used 
as  fodder. 

*^PiMri:\.   Linn. 

iS.  sqffarrosffs,  Linn.,   Kunth.  Enum.,  Plant  1.  170. 

Vern,  Saranfo  (Goa  name). 

Commoji  alon<j^  the  Coast;  also  in  Ceylon  and  Hongkong.  Mr. 
Ferguson  says: — "This  is  one  of  our  most  remarkable  grasses,  form- 
ing in  some  places  belts  along  the  soa-shore  several  miles  in  length. 
it  is  a  truly  littoral  plant,  and  an  excellent  sand- binding  one. 
When  burnt  it  makes  a  crackling  noise  like  salt  thrown  in  the  fire. 
When  the  seed  is  ripe,  the  largo  spherical  head  of  the  seed-bearing 
plant  is  detached  and  blown  about  the  sands  by  the  wind,  and  is 
supposed  to  illustrate  in  a  remRrkable  manner  '  the  rolling  thing 
before  the  whirlwind'  of  Isaiah  xvii.  13,  and  *  the  wheel  before  the 
wind^  of  Psalm  Ixxxiii.  13." 
45 


340        JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISIVRV  SOCIETY,  1890. 

The  following  remarks  on  this  plant  occur  in   Emerson  Tennent's 
**  Hisfori/  of  Ceylon^  Vol.  I.,  pp.  48-9:— 

''Anotk^  plant  which  performs  an  important  function  in  the 
fertilisation  oi^tirese-Biind  formations,  is  the  Spinifex  sqtiarroms,  the 
** water- pink"  as  it  is  sometimes-ejuled  by  Europeans.  The  seeds  of 
this  plant  are  contained  in  a  circular  head,  composed  of  a  series  of 
spine-like  divisions  which  radiate  from  the  stalk  in  all  directions, 
making  the  diameter  of  the  whole  about  8  to  9  inches.  When  the 
seeds  are  mature  and  ready  for  dispersion,  these  heads  become  de- 
tached from  the  plant,  and  are  carried  by  the  wind  with  great  velo- 
city along  the  sands,  over  the  surface  of  which  they  are  impelled  on 
their  elastic  spines.  One  of  these  balls  may  be  followed  by  the  eye 
for  miles  as  it  hurries  along  the  level  shore,  dropping  its  seeds  as 
it  rolls,  which  speedily  germinate  and  strike  root  where  they  fall. 
The  globular  beads  are  so  buoyant  as  to  float  lightly  on  the  water, 
and  the  uppermost  spines  acting  as  sails,  they  are  thus  carried  across 
narrow  estuaries  to  continue  the  process  of  embanking  on  newly- 
formed  sand  bars.  Such  an  organisation  irresistibly  suggests  the 
wonderful  means  ordained  by  Providence  to  spread  this  valuable 
plant  along  the  barren  beach  to  which  no  soed^devouring  bird  ever 
resort«;  and  oven  the  unobservant  natives,  struck  by  its  singular 
utility  in  resisting  the  encroachments  of  the  sea,  have  recorded 
their  admiration  by  conferring  on  it  tho  name  of  Maha  Rawana 
Rewula,  *the  great  be^rd  of  Rawana  or  Rama/  " 

MAYDE^. 

Coix,  Limu 

C.  lachryyna,  Linn.,  Sp.  1374;  Dalz.  and  Gib.  Bo.  FL  289. 

Vern.  Rand-jondJiala,  Rand-makdy  Kamir,  Kasdla,  Gurgur  and 
Kunch  in  Bengal  {Eoxb.), 

Very  common.  Eaten  by  cattle.  The  pounded  seeds  are  used  as 
an  article  of  food  by  hill-tribes.  The  involucre,  which  is  known  here 
by  the  name  of  "Kassai-bijV  is  used  in  native  medicine  as  a  diuretic. 

C  gigantea,  Koenig.  MS.  Roxb.  FL  Ind.  III.  570. 

Vern.  Same  as  the  preceding.  Kemi,  Danga  gurgur,  Bengal 
[Eoxb.). 


nOMBAY  GRASSES.  Ul 

Chionachne,  R.  Br. 

C  harhnta^  R.  Br.  in  Bonn.  PL  Jav.  Rar.  18 ;  Coix  barbataj  Dalz. 
and  Gibs.  Bomb.  FL  289. 

Vern,  Variralf  Karang,  Kawdia-,  hQn^dXGurgnrCRoxh.).  Common 
on  wet  cjrounds.     Said  to  be  used  as  fodder  at  Balaghat. 

EuciiL^ENA,  Schrad. 

E.  luxurianfiy  Ascheron. 

Seen  in  gardens.  A  splendid  fodder  grass,  the  cultivation  of  which 
proves  costly,  as  it  requires  a  rich  soil  and  abundance  of  water. 
Highly  vahiod  in  cr^rfain  pirts  of  the  United  States. 

Zea>  Linn. 

This  genus  is  roproscnte  1  by  a  single  species.  In  a  paper  on  the 
"  GFencra  of  Grasses,"  published  In  the  Journal  of  the  Linnean 
Society,   Mr.  Bentham  says: — 

"This  most  important,  widely  difEused  and  most  striking  grass  ia 
only  known  in  a  cultivated  state,  or  perhaps  as  an  escape  from  culti- 
vation. With  most  of  the  general  characters  of  the  tribe  to  which 
it  gives  its  name,  it  is  exceptional  not  only  in  that  tribe,  but  in 
the  whole  order  by  the  manner  in  which  its  numerous  female  spike- 
lets  arc  densely  packed  in  several  vertical  rows  round  a  central 
spongy  or  corky  axis.  How  far  this  arrangement  may  have  gra* 
dually  arisen  after  so  many  centuries  of  cultivation  can  only  be  a 
matter  of  conjecture." 

Zra  ha^s  never  been  known  in  an  uncultivated  state,  and  has  long 
been  believed  to  bo  a  cultivated  form  of  the  last  species,  on  account 
of  the  close  resemblance  of  their  flowers  both  in  arrangement 
and  structure.  Indeed,  Mr.  Bentham  has  stated  that  this  affinity  of 
Zea  to  Euchlcena  appears  to  be  recognised  in  this  country,  for  speci- 
mens have  been  received  from  Schaffner,  purporting  to  be  known  as 
"wild  maize." 

Z.  MaySy  Linn.;  Dalz.  and  Gibs.  Bo.  FLy  Suppl.  100. 

Vern.  Boota,  Mocka,  Indian  Corn. 

Grown  extensively  in  the  early  part  of  the  rainy  season,  the  cobs 
suppljang  a  choice  grain,  which  is  seldom  reduced  to  flour,  being 
generally  baked  or  roasted  over  a  slow  fire  and  consumed  by  the  poor 
equally  with  the  rich.     It  appears  to  have  been  introduced  into  this 


t      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

>untry  from  America,  but  has  degenerated  considerably  in  size,  the 
argest  being  grown  in   Jaunpur  and  Azanigarh,   the  cobs   in  these 
districts  being   double  the  ordinary  size,   arul  the  plants  themselves^ 
taller  than  the  ordinary. 

Maize  is  grown  both  for  the  grain  as  well  as  for  fodder  ;'the  stalk>» 
being  rich  in  saccharine  matter  arc  gladly  eaten  by  cattle.  When 
required  for  fodder  the  sewing  is  VQiy  close  and  is  carried  on  about 
the  middle  of  March  or  April;  but  if  cultivated  for  the  sake  of  the 
grain,  the  sowing  does  not  commence  until  the  rains  break, 

OUYSEM.Liiuf, 
Orysa,    Limi. 
0.  sativcf,  Linn.,  Dalz.  and  Gibs.  Bo.  FL,  Suppl.  98 
Vern.  Ghawal,  Rice. 

The  daily  food  of  the  natives  of  India,  much  cultivated  in  the 
Concan  and  Ghat  districts  of  Guzerat.  One  to  two  crops  are  raised 
annually,  but  it  is  not  uncommon  in  Cauara  and  Malabar  to  raise 
three  crops  from  the  same  groimd. 

A  variety  of  wild  rice  is  said  to  grow  at  Mount  Abu,  where  it  is 
collected  for  food  by  the  natives. 
'  Rice  straw,   though   sometimes  given   to  cattle,  i?»  not  considered 

wholesome. 

Hygroryza,  Nees, 

H.  aristata,  Nees  in  Edin.,  Phil.  Journ, ;  Fotamchloa  nristata,  Gri 

in  Journ.  Asiat.  Soc.  and  Icones  Plant.  As.,  t.  140. 

Grows  in  the   Konkau,  and   North  Canara.    Cattle  are  said  to 

fond  of  this  grass. 

Leersia,  Swart. 

L,  hemndra.  Swart.  FL  Ind,  Occid.  I.  1^1  ;    Zizania  aristnta,  Q 
in  Journal  Asiatic  Soc,  Beng.,  V.  570,    t.  22. 

Found  in  North  Canara,  and  elsewhere  on  wet  ground.     Ac 
ing  to  Symmond  cattle  are  fond  of  it ;  and  in  Australia  it  is  saif 

much  relished  by  stock. 

TRISTEGINEiE. 

Aruxdinella,   Raddi. 

A.  stricta,  Xees,  Dalz.  and  Gibs.,  Bomb.  FL  293. 

*     *-  on  the  authority  of  the  authors  of  the  Bombo 


BOM BA  Y  a RA SSES.  343 

absence  of  the  origiDal  specimen??,  it  is  not  easy  to  disiiuguish  it  from 
A,  Nepalensis  or  A,  setosa. 

A,  Nepalensis,  Trin.,  Sp.  (fvani.  t.  *Jfi^5. 

Vem.  KotiVy  DhikIoc. 

Mahableshwar,  Lanowli,   Khandnla  and  North  Canara. 

In  the  specimen  before  7ne,  the  branches  of  the  panicle  are  distant 
from  each  other,  and  not  closelv  chistered,  «'is  stated  bv  ^Fr.  Benlham 
in  his  description  of  the  Australian  plant. 

It  is  not  eaten  by  cattle. 

.4.  (sp.nov.). 

Culm  3 — 4  ft.  long,  slender,  ^dabnjus;  leaves  1^  ft.  long,  pointed, 
rough  and  hairy  by  4  lin. ;  ligule  hairy;  sheath  glabrous,  4- 5  in. 
long;  panicle  narrow,  1  —  1  i  ft.  long,  dense  or  loose,  erect  or  nodding; 
branches  verticelled  or  semi-verticcUed;  spikelets  geminate  uupcpially 
pedicelled,  one  on  a  pedicel  4  lin.  and  tlu^  other  on  a  pedicel  2 — 2^  lin., 
very  narrow,  about  1^  in.  long.  Common  rachis  ridged  ;  partial  rachis 
and  pedicels  with  minute  stilf  hairs.  r.Mit'n*  glume  with  a  central  more 
or  less  distinct  nerve,  a  liltio  shorter  than  the  second,  both  pointed, 
and  covered  with  numerous  thin  soft  hairs;  second  glume  with  one 
central  nerve  and  two  lateral,  almost  indistinct;  tliird  glume  thinner, 
as  long  or  a  line  longer  than  the  tirst,  with  a  male  flower  in  the  axil, 
and  a  few  hairs  on  the  upper  part  of  its  back  on  the  mesial  line;  fourth 
glume  smaller,  hyaline,  with  a  fine  twisted  bent-back  awn  from  the 
top,  nearly  double  the  length  of  the  spikelet;  palea  small. 
Vern.   Turduf,  Koiir. 

Common  in  Poona,  (?)  at  Lanowli,  Khandalla  and  below  the  Ghats. 
This  is  probably  A.  f/i'ganfca,  Dalz  and  Gibs.  Bomb,  Fl. 
Not  eaten  by  cattle. 
A.  Ritcheiy  Munro,  MSS. 

A  tall  grass ;  culm  3 — 4  ft.  long,  glabrous  smooth  ;  nodes  with  or 
without  a  ring  of  short  hairs  ;  leaves  16  in.  long  by  5 — 6  lin.  at  the 
broadest  part,  pointed,  glabrous,  or  minutely  downy,  with  a  few  hairs 
at  the  inner  base ;  ligula  1  line  long,  hairy ;  sheath  longer  than  the 
nodes,  glabrous,  and  generally  about  8  in.  long;  spike  (panicle)  termi- 
nal, 1  ft.  long  or  morcj  rather  contracted ;  branches  numerous,  opposite 
or  sometimes  alternate,  arising  singly  or  2  and  3  together  ;  the  lower 
4-5  in.  long,  the  upper  shorter.     The  comnion  rachis  of  the  spike  and 


3U      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HH^TORY  SOCIETY,  1S90. 

of  the  branches  ridged  and  scabrous  from  minute  tubercles ;  spikelets 
mostly  2,  both  unequally  pedicellcd  ;  pedicels  not  hairy,  the^longest 
pedicle  3  lin.,  shortest  ]— 1^  lin;  spikelet  nearly  2  lin.,  broadly  ov^ate 
lanceolate;  outer  glume  1^  lin.  acute;  nerves  3,  the  central  more 
prominent  with  minute  murications ;  2nd  glume  2  lin.,  a  little  shorter 
pointed,  with  five  nerves,  3  more  distinct ;  third  glume  thinner,  broader 
and  a  little  longer  than  the  first,  but  shorter  than  the  second,  not  disr 
tinctly  nerved,  with  a  male  flower,  and  palea  in  the  axil ;  fourth  glume 
thin,  transparent,  smaller  than  the  first,  with  an  awn  2 — 2|  lin.  long, 
arising  from  the  undivided  top;  palia  small  and  transparent.  Her- 
maphrodite flower  well  formed. 

This  is  called  A.  Ritchei  from  a  specimen,  thus  named  by  Munro, 
kept  in  the  herbarium  of  the  Poena  College  of  Science.  The  above 
doscription  is  mine. 

Vern.  Kotir,  Turdia, 

Common  atThana,  Salsette  and Lanowli. 

It  is  not  used  as  a  fodder,  nor  is  it  of  much  use  for  grazing. 
When  young,,  mixed  with  Anthisterla  polystachia,  Roxb,,  and  A^ 
tremula,  Nees,  it  yields  good  r«6. 

A.  mutica,  Nees,  MS.  Steud  Syn.  PI.  Glum.  I.  116. 

All  over  Bombay. 

The  spikelets,  like  those  of  Pmiicufn  mi/osurus,  are  of  a  purple  colour, 

A,  nervosa,  Nees,  Steud.  Syn.  PL  Glum.  I.  115;  Hokus  nervoms^ 
Roxb.  FL  Ind.  I.  318. 

Poena,  Coromandel,  and  also  in  Ceylon. 
.    A,  tubercukUa,  Munro  MSS. 

Culm  simple,  erect,  or  slightly  decumbent  at  the  base,  1 — IJ  ft. 
long,  glabrous ;  sheaths,  leaves  and  spikelets  densely  clothed  with 
white  hairs,  1  lin.  long,  from  a  papilose  or  tuberculated  base ;  sheaths 
2—3  in.  long,  appressed,  longer  than  the  internodes ;  ligula  very 
small,  consisting  chiefly  of  hairs  ;  leaves  2^—2 J  in.  by  2  lin.  (lower 
shorter),  linear-lanceolate,  acuminate,  rounded  at  the  base,  scabrous; 
panicle  5 — 5i  in.  long ;  rachis  angular,  glabrous  or  minutely  pube- 
scent;  branches  or  racemes  alternate,  1  in.  long  or  a  little  longer,  the 
upper  shorter ;  spikelets  ovate-oblong,  geminate,  both  of  the  same  size, 
about  3i  lin.  long,  including  the  awn-like  point  of  the  second 
glume,  Mid  both  unequally   pedicelied,  one  on  a  very  short  pedicel  at 


BOMB  A  Y  U  RA  SSES.  S45- 

almost  sessile,  and  the  other  on  a  pedicel  1  lin.  long.  Outer 
glume  chartaceoua,  acute,  IJ  lin.  long,  3-nerved,  nerves  prominent 
and  hairy;  second  glume  chartaceous,  broader,  3^^  lin.,  5-nerved,  hairy, 
spe^iially  at  the  lower  jth  part;  3rd  glume  obtuse,  nearly  equal  to  the 
first  or  outer  glume,  but  broader  and  thinner ;  o  indistinct  nerves,  no 
hairs ;  paka  in  the  axil ;  fourth  or  flowering  glume,  a  little  smaller, 
thinner,  transparent,  with  an  awn  arising  from  the  top  between  twe 
transparent  bristles.    The  twisted  part  is  brown,  the  straight  whitish. 

Poona  and  Konkan. 

A  specimen  of  this  grass  kept  in  the  Herbarium  of  the   Poona 
College  of  Science  is  thus  named.     It  has  great   affinity  to  A.  pihsat 
Hockst.,  Steud.  Syn.  PL  Glum.  I.  116,  if  not  the  same. 
The  above  description  is  mine. 

A,  purpurea,  Hockst.,  Steud.  Syn.  PI.  Glum  I.  Ho. 

Received  a  specimen  from  the  Konkan 

A,  tenella,  Nees,  MSS.  Ualz.  and  Gibs.  Bomba?/  Fl.  292. 

One  of  the  commonest  grasses  at  Mahableshwar,  specially  under 
the  shade  of  the  trees  and  shrub.  Not  cared  for  by  cattle.  Used  as 
an  ornament  in  bouquets  in  the  dry  state. 

A,  puniilla,  Steud.  Syn.  PI.  Glum.  t.  114.  Rich,  FL  Abijss  II.  414. 

This  elegant  grass  continues  to  be  of  a  green  colour  even  when  dry. 

At  Lanowleo  and  Konkan  and  various  part  (^f  India.  Nothing  is 
known  about  its  uses. 

A,  avenacea,  MSS.,  Thwaitcs,  Enum.  PI.  Zeylan. 

A  small  elegant  grass.  Culms  glabrous,  slender,  branching  and 
rooting  from  the  base,  3 — 5  in.  long  ;  nodes  glabrous ;  sheath  about 
jth  in.  long,  appressed,  sparingly  pilose  along  the  margins;  ligula 
acuminated  by  a  line,  leaves  10 — 12  lin.  long,  ovate  lanceolate,  acute  or 
minate,  cordate  at  the  base,  amplexicaul,  sparingly  pilose,  with  rigid 
cilia  at  their  origin  from  the  sheath.  Panicle  erect;,  dense,  or  slightly 
spreading,  about  lin.  long,  consisting  of  very  short  racemes,  densely 
congested  on  the  top  of  1 — 2  in.  long  glabrous  peduncle ;  rachis  mi- 
nutely pubescent  or  sparingly  hairy  ;  spikelets  lanceolate,  3  lin.  long 
(exclusive  of  the  long  awn-like  point  of  the  2nd  glume),  geminate, 
equal  in  size,  but  unequally  pedicelled ;  outer  glume  2  lin  long,  lan- 
ceolate, pointed,  3-nerved,  with  long  hairs  on  the  nerves ;  2nd  glume 
3  lin.  (exclusive  of  the  point),  5  lin.  long  with  the  point,  3-^5^  nerved^ 


3t6     JounsAh,  Bombay  natural  history  society,  189o. 

with  liairfcs  on  the  uerves  ;  3r(l  glume  3  faiutly-iierved,  transparent, 
lanceolate,  pointcfl,  a  little  broader  and  longer  than  the  first,  with 
a  large  palea  in  the  axil,  no  hairs  ;  4th  glume  smaller,  half  size  of 
the  3rd,  thin,  transparent^  with  an  awn  10  lin.  long  arising  from  the 
top  between  two  thin  hair-like  processes,  the  lower  part  flat,  contorted 
and  dark-brown  up  to  the  knee,  the  npperbent  part  is  round,  whitish . 

At  the  Western  Ghats  and  at  Mahableshwar. 

The  above  description  is  mine. 

A.  Campbelliana*  (Sp.  no  v.) 

Culm  erect,  4-8  in.  long,  very  slender,  glabrous,  of  purplish  colour, 
nodes  glabrous ;  leaves  1^ — IJ  in.  long  by  2 — 3  lin.,  acute,  glabrous^ 
of  straw  colour  ;  sheath  glabrous,  of  purplish  colour,  striated, 
appressed,  as  long  as  the  nodes ;  ligula  email,  not  hairy.  Inflore- 
scence capitate,  and  consists  of  several  small  racemes,  densel}'^  and 
closely  congested  at  the  upper  part  of  the  peduncle,  and  slightly 
exerted,  (about  half  an  inch)  above  the  uppermost  leaves.  The 
general  racbis  is  ribbed,  about  J  inch  long,  glabrous,  partial  racbis 
about  2  lin.,  also  glabrous.  Each  raceme  is  about  one-tbird  in.  long ; 
and  consists  of  5  or  6  spikelets,  which  are  single  or  occasionally 
geminate  ;  first  glume  rigid,  2  lin.  long,  3 -ribbed,  glabrous,  with  a 
few  small  scattered  hairs  on  the  middle  rib  ;  the  second  glume  also 
rigid,  1-3  lin.  long,  including  the  point,  with  3  or  6  ribs,  3  distinct, 
with  very  small  murications ;  third  ::.  little  smaller  than  the  first,  but 
broader  than  it,  and  the  second,  thin,  rather  transparent,  with  a  few 
small  hairs  on  the  upper  half  of  the  middle  line,  the  end  is  jagged, 
not  drawn  into  a  point,  with  a  palea  or  occasionally  a  male  flower ; 
fourth  smaller  than  the  third,  hyaline,  with  a  slender  geniculate  awn, 
4i  lin.  long,  twisted  below  the  geniculation,  arising  between  2  fine 
setiform  processes  of  the  glume  ;  palea  smaller. 

A  small  grass  resembling  at  first  sight  Apocopis  fiUfolia,  or  a  variety 
of  Polypogon  Montpeliense.  Not  common.  Grows  at  Mahableshwar  : 
collected  at  the  end  of  the  rains  in  1889.     Uses  not  known. 

*  Arundinella  Campelliana  is  thus  named  in  honour  of  Mr.  J.  M.  CampbeU,  C.  S., 
C.I.B.,  the  editor  of  the  Bombay  Gazetteer^  for  his  eminent  services  to  the  literature 
and  archaBology  of  this  country,  and  in  recognition  of  the  favour  of  obtaining  for  me 
a  large  collection  of  grasses  through  the  Forest  Officers  of  various  districts  of  Guze- 
rat,  Konkan  and  the  Deccan,  before  the  Bombay  Government  had  passed  the 
Resolntion  No.  621  on  the  2l8t  January,  1891,  directing  the  three  Conservators  of 
Forests  to  supply  me  with  epeoimena  of  gvasses. 


BOMBA  Y  GRASiSES.  347 

A,  spicafa.  Dalz.  in  Dalz.  and  Gibs.  Bomb,  FL  293. 
Common  at  Mahablcshwar ;  also  in  Poona. 
The  inflorescence  resembles  that  of  Sefaria. 

Trichol.t:na,  Schnid. 

Trichohena     WujhtUy  Nees,  MSS.,  ramcitm    Megalanf/mm,  Stued. 
Syn.,  PI.  Glum  I.,  93. 

Culm  slender,  about  1^  ft.  high  or  more,  geniculate  at  the  first  or 
second  node,  hairy;  sheath  with  bulbous  hairs,  striated,  appressed 
up  to  about  one  inch  of  the  node  ;  nodes  also  hairy  ;  ligula  small, 
truncated,  ciliated ;  leaves  5^  in.  long,  2  lin.  broad  at  the  base,  nar- 
rower and  pointed  at  the  end,  the  central  line  on  the  back  broad  and 
prominent ;  panicle  3 — 4  in.  long,  rather  dense,  branched  at  the  lower 
part;  the  common  rachis  seldom  or  never  excerted  from  the  broad 
sheath  of  the  highest  leaf,  very  thin  and  glabrous ;  the  rachis  of  the 
branches  thinner  and  flexuose ;  peduncles  of  spikelets  thready,  glab- 
rous, of  various  lengtlis,  4 — 5  lines  long,  tortuous,  solitary  or  very 
seldom  geminate ;  spikelets  large,  nearly  4  lin.  long ;  the  lower 
glume  1  lin.  long,  hairy,  narrow,  oblong,  obtuse,  and  at  a  very  short 
distance  from  the  second  glume ;  second  glume  3  ribbed,  3 — 3 J  lin. 
long,  clothed  with  long  shining  silky,  lilac  hairs,  concoaling  a  thin, 
small  awn  which  arises  from  the  two-dentate  end ;  third  glume  similar 
to  the  second  in  every  respect,  except  that  it  bears  in  its  axil  a  male 
flower  and  palea ;  4th  glume  smaller,  broad,  destitute  of  hairs,  thin, 
opaque,  and  rather  stiff,  enclosing  a  hermaphrodite  flower. 

The  above  description  is  mine. 

This  beautiful  grass  with  dense  panicles  of  a  pink  or  lilac  colour 

grows  at  Mahableshwar,  Panchguniiy  and  the  Western  Ghats.     Also 

in  Rajputana  and  Jeypore,  where  it  is  known  by  the  name  of  Bard 

and  Girl,     Professor  Ilakel  names  it  Tricholrena  tuberculosa  and  3fr 

Duthie   now  adopts   this   name,   though  in  his  brochure,    ''Fodder 

Grasses  of  Northern  India/'  he  described  it  under  the  name  Rhyn- 

chelytrtim  Wiyhtii* 

Thysahol-T,xa,  Nees. 

This  genus  contains  the  following  single  species  : — 

T,  acarifera.  N.  act.  N.  C.  XVII.   Sup.  I.  180 ;  Steud  Syn.  Gram. 

*  This  grass   ought  to  have   come  at  the   end  of  tlie  (iescri])tioii  of  the   species  of 
46 


348      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

1.  119  ;  Paniciim  acariferum.  Trin.  Sp.  Gram.    t.  87  ;  Melica  lati/olia, 
Roxb.  Fl.  IncL  I.  328. 

Cespitose  ;  culm  erect,  simple,  smooth,  4 — 8  ft.  high,  enveloped  in 
the  sheaths  of  the  leaves  ;  sheaths  hairy  at  the  mouth ;  ligula  small, 
ciliate^  lacerated ;  leaves  lanceolate,  rather  attenuated  at  the  base  and 
pointed  at  the  end,  smooth,  glabrous,  rigid,  8 — 20  in.  long  by  1 — 4  in. ; 
panicle  terminal,  about  2  ft.  long,  supra-decompound ;  branches  and 
branchlets  numerous,  filiform,  bearing  subsessile  spikelets ;  pedicels 
scabrous ;  spikelets  lanceolate,  \  lin.  long,  solitary  and  geminate,  un- 
equally pedicillate ;  glumes  lanceolate,  acuminate,  greenish ;  1st  glume 
shorter  than  the  second,  half  the  length  or  a  little  more ;  third  glume 
longer  than  the  second,  acuminate,  membranous,  3 -nerved ;  fourth  or 
flowering  glume  shorter  and  thinner  than  the  third,  linear  lanceolate, 
ciliate ;  stamens  2 — 3  ;  stigmas  plumose. 

It  is  a  tall,  elegant  grass,  especially  when  in  flower.  Not  common. 
Grows  at  Thana,  Nassick,  East  Khandeish  and  other  parts  of  India ; 
also  in  China  and  the  Philippines.  A  specimen,  named  a  species  of 
bamboo,  was  received  from  Baroda.  Handsome  plants  are  seen  in  the 
Bombay  University  Gardens,  where  they  flower  in  the  months  of 
March- April.  They  were  introduced  by  the  Hon^ble  Mr.  Justice 
Birdwood.  Mr.  Duthie  says :  "  It  is  not  uncommon  on  the  plains  and 
on  low  elevations  on  the  hills,  usually  in  the  vicinity  of  water.  The 
grass  is  called  Kaisar  in  Chota  Nagpur.  A  decoction  of  the  root  is 
used  as  a  rinse  for  the  mouth  in  cases  of  fever." — (Rev.  A.  Campbell.) 
In  describing  the  leaves,  Roxb.  says :  ^*  they  are  much  like  the  leaves 
employed  by  the  Chinese  to  put  between  the  boxes  and  lead  canisters 
in  which  their  teas  are  packed." 

ZOYSICE^. 

Tragus,  HalL 

T.  racemosa,  Hall,  Stirp.  Helv.  II.,  203  ;  Beauv.  Agrost.  t.  6, 
fig.  13.  Lappago  racemosa,  Wildd;  L,  alienas,  Dalz.  and  Gib.  B^ 
Fl.  295;  Sibth.  FL  Grac.  t.  191  ;  L,  biflora,  Roxb.  FL  Ind.  I.,  281. 

A  small  nutritious  grass,  much  grazed  in  the  rains.  Its  small  size 
makes  it  unfit  for  stacking.  Considered  good  in  Australia  for  winter 
feeding.     Not  favourably  spoken  of  from  certain  parts  of  India. 

Found  in  Surat^  Domus,  Sind,  the  Poena  districts,  Neera,  &c. 


LARV^  AND  PUPyE  OF  BUTTERFLIES,  349 

Perotis,  Aif, 

P.  lafifoHa,  Ait.,  Kunth.  Enum.  I.,  470.  Dalz.  and  Gibs.  Bo,  FL 
296;  P,  patula  and  P.  hugiflom,  Ifces,  Steud.  S\ti.  Gram.  180  ;  P, 
hordeifornm,  Nees,  and  P,  (jlahraia^  Steud.  Syn.  Gram,  (sliort-flowered 
variety),  Anthoxanthnm  ImUanUy  Linn. 

Seen  by  me  at  Damaun,  Kanara  specimens  were  received  from 
Domus  and  Surat.  Widely  diffused  over  tropical  and  sub-tropical  Asia 
and  Africa,  China,  Japan,  tlie  Cape  of  Good  IloiJe  and  Teneriffe. 

ZOYSIA. 

Z^imngem^  Wildd.,  Kunth.  Enum.  t.  471 ;  Z,  tenuifolia,  "Wildd. 

Z,  JaponkGy  Steud.  Syn.  Gram.  414 ;  Z,  Griffithiana,  C.  Mull  in 
Bot.  Zeit. 

A  common  seaside  plant  growing  in  tropical  and  sub- tropical  Asia, 
Australia  and  Japan.      My  specimen  came  from  Damaun. 

It  is  a  small  plant  with  stiif  pungent  leaves  and  needle-like  sjnke  of 
flowers.  It  creeps  to  a  great  length,  and  serves  to  bind  the  sands 
along  the  coast. 


NOTES  ON  THE  LARV.E  AND  PUPil?  OF  SO]\rE  OF  THE 

BUTTERFLIES  OF  THE  BOMBAY  PRESIDENCY. 

By  J.  Davidson,  Bo.  C.  S.,  and  E.  II.  Ahken. 

( Continued  from  paije  27 S,) 
( inf/i  Plates  D,  E,  and  F,) 

The  publication  of  our  notes  has  been  delayed  by  various  causes, 
and  this  second  part  has  had  the  benefit  of  another  season's  experience. 
This  has  been  a  very  great  advantage.  Last  year's  observations  have 
been  verified,  or  corrected,  and  many  deficiencies  have  been  made  up, 
while  ten  new  species  have  been  added  to  the  list.  Great  efforts  were 
made  to  find  more  larvae  of  KalUnia  horfifieldUy  but  only  two  were 
obtained.  Comparison  of  these  with  the  larvtx)  of  Hipolymnas  bolina, 
for  which  we  mistook  our  first  specimen,  showed  some  differences  by 
which  it  is  not  difficult  to  distinguish  them  irrespective  of  colour. 
The  spines  on  the  head  of  KalJima  are  decidedly  longer,  while  those 
on  the  body  are  smaller  and  finer  than  those  of  Hipohjmnas.     The 


350     JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

pupa?  also  are  distinguishable  by  the  contour  of  the  thorax,  but  the 
difference  is  very  slight.  In  the  first  part  of  our  notes  we  said  that 
we  had  only  bred  the  small  form  of  H,  holuia,  and  had  not  ascertained 
its  food-plant.  During  the  past  season  we  obtained  many  larvae  on  a 
species  of  nettle  {Flcuri/a  interru2)ta),and  reared  both  forms  from  them. 
One  curious  fact  which  escaped  our  notice  till  this  season,  and  which 
we  have  not  seen  mentioned  elsewhere,  ought  to  be  noted  here.  It  is 
that  the  spines  of  Euthalia  are  epidermal  and  are  shed  at  each  moult, 
the  larvao  emerging  with  only  a  row  of  small,  blunt  processes,  which 
in  a  very  short  time  expand  into  spines.  We  will  now  resume  our 
notes,  but  first  we  must  express  our  grateful  thanks  to  Mr.  Lionel  de 
Niceville  for  naming  all  our  HesperiidiB  and  giving  us  much  assistance 
in  other  ways,  and  to  Mr.  T.  R.  Bell,  of  the  Forest  Department,  whose 
skill  in  finding  larvae  is  only  equalled  by  the  generosity  with  which  he 
lets  others  reap  the  fruits  of  his  labours. 

The  larvae  of  the  following  NymphaUdce  have  been  discovered  since 
the  first  part  of  our  paper  was  in  print. 

41.  Lethe  europa,  Fabricius. 

Larvae  somewhat  thicker  proportionally  than  those  of  Mycalesis  and 
Melanitis,  The  head  is  larger,  and  is  surmounted  by  a  single,  short, 
erect  horn;  the  body  is  rough,  thickest  in  the  middle,  suddenly 
attenuated  from  the  11th  segment,  and  terminated  by  along  caudal 
horn.  The  colour  is  green,  much  paler  on  the  under  parts.  The 
pupa  is  suspended  by  the  tail,  is  of  a  uniform  pale  green  colour,  stout, 
smooth,  and  quite  regular,  except  that  the  head-case,  which  is  semi- 
detached  from  the  thorax,  is  broad  and  angular,  with  two  sharp  points 
in  front.  We  found  a  single  specimen  of  this,  feeding  on  dwarf 
bamboo,  in  the  month  of  August.  Descriptions  from  single  specimens 
can  never  be  put  forward  with  confidence,  and  in  this  case  we  are  not 
at  all  sure  that  the  stunted  appearance  of  the  last  three  segments  was 
not  a  mere  deformity  resulting  from  an  accident. 

42.  Afhyma  maliem^  Moore. 

On  the  26th  of  September  a  female  of  this  species  was  noticed 
laying  eggs  on  Olea  dioica.  Only  one  ^^^  was  secured,  but  by  the 
most  affectionate  care  this  was  successfully  reared.  In  form  the  larva 
was  exactly  similar  to  that  of  Limen  ith  procrk — already  described  ; 


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LARVjE  and  PUP^  of  butterflies.  351 

in  colour  it  was  green,  witli  a  whitish  band  round  the  9th  segment. 

Its  habits  were  also  very  like  those  of  L.  procris,  but  not  quite  the 

same.     It  selected  one  of  the  side  nerves  of  a  leaf  and  ate  away  the 

soft  parts  on  each  side  till  the  bare  nerve  stood  out ;  then  having 

barricaded  the  approach  to  this  with  fragments  of  leaf  which  it  had 

contrived  to  cut  off  in   feeding,  mixed  with  excrement  and  silk,  it 

rested  motionless  on  the  very  point  of  the  rib,  unapproachable  by  ants 

or  spiders.     After  the  last  moult  it  gave  up  these  habits,  and  rested 

on  the  upper  side  of  a  leaf,  where  it  was  conspicuous  enough.    We  infer 

that  the  worst  enemies  of  this   species   are  not  birds,   or  parasites, 

but  small  spiders  and  predacious  insects.     The  pupa  is  of  the  most 

brilliant  silver  colour,  the  segments  and  parts  being  outlined  with 

brown.     It   is  suspended  perpendicularly,  the  abdominal  segments 

slender,  the  thoracic  region  larger  and  expanded  laterally ;  two  long, 

sharp  horns,  issuing  from  the  sides  of  the  head»  and  at  first  parallel, 

diverge  and  point  laterally ;  on  the  back  there  are  two  prominent 

processes,  curved  towards  each  other,  and  many  smaller  points,  or 

tubercles. 

43.     Nepfis  viraja,  Moore. 

This  was  discovered  by  Mr.  Bell  feeding  on  a  tree  with  pinnate 
leaves.  From  his  descrij^tion  it  appears  to  be  like  the  larva  of 
N.  jambahy  without  the  spines,  but  we  have  not  seen  it  ourselves  and 
only  notice  it  here  because  of  the  light  which  its  strange  habits  throw 
on  our  discovery  of  the  pupa  of  N,  hordonia  in  a  loose  cocoon  of  dead 
leaves.  The  larva  of  viraja,  Mr.  Bell  says,  cuts  through  a  leaf  stalk 
in  such  a  way  that  all  the  leaflets  beyond  the  cut  part  hang  over ; 
then  it  cuts  off  each  leaflet  of  the  pendent  part,  joins  it  to  the  stem 
with  silk,  and  lives  in  the  house  of  dead  leaves  thus  formed,  feeding 
on  the  dead  leaves. 

44.     Cf/resiis  thyodamas,  Boisduval. 

Mr.  T.  R.  Bell  noticed  a  female  on  the  10th  of  October  depositing 
its  eggs  on  the  tenderest  leaves  and  buds  of  a  ''banian"  tree  ( Ficm 
indica ),  and  secured  six,  of  which  two  were  reared.  The  eggs  were 
curious  and  beautiful,  high  dome -shaped,  or  almost  conical,  with  an 
aperture  at  the  top  fitted  with  a  deeply  dentate,  flat  cap,  like  a  cogged 
wheel.  The  larva  escaped  by  raising  this  and  did  not  eat  the  shell. 
The  larva  was  unlike  any  other  that  we  have  ever  seen,  slender, 


352      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

cylindrical  and  smooth ;  with  two,  long,  curved,  divergent  filaments, 
or  soft  horns  on  the  head,  a  single  stouter  sword-shaped  one  on  the 
back  at  the  5th  or  6th  segment,  curved  backwards  and  serrated  on  its 
inner  edge,  and  another  on  the  last  segment,  curved  forwards  and 
serrated  on  its  outer  edge.  The  colour  was  a  fine,  reddish-brown, 
with  a  broad  green  band  on  the  side  from  the  5th  to  the  last 
segment.  Pupa  suspended  by  the  tail,  very  much  compressed,  with 
a  dorsal  ridge  from  head  to  tail,  high  and  obtusely  pointed  in  the 
middle ;  the  palpi-cases  united  and  produced  into  a  long,  somewhat 
recurved,  snout ;  colour  brown,  with  fine  dark  striae. 

Family  LEMOMID-ZE.    . 
Subfamily  Nemeobiin^. 

45.  Ahisara  fratenia,  Moore. 

We  call  \An.^fratenia  because  we  have  been  accustomed  to  call  it  by 
that  name  in  other  parts  of  the  Bombay  Presidency,  *' without  pre- 
judice" to  sufficsa  or primosa,  or  any  othev  alias.  The  larva  is  flat^  very 
broad  in  the  middle,  tapering  to  both  ends,  clothed  sparsely  with  short 
hairs ;  head  small,  not  enclosed  in  the  second  segment ;  colour  light 
green.  The  pupa  is  also  clothed  with  hairs,  and  altogether  so  like  the 
larva  that  it  is  difficult  to  note  exactly  when  the  change  takes  place. 
It  is  closely  attached  to  a  leaf  by  the  tail  and  a  girdle.  "We  found 
this  very  abundantly  in  July,  1889,  and  occasionally  till  the  end  of  the 
rains,  on  Emhellia  rohusta.  This  year  it  was  scarce.  The  larva  rests 
on  the  underside  of  the  leaf,  which  is  of  the  same  tint  of  green  as 
itself. 

Family  LYO^NID^. 

46.  Lampides  ceUanus,  Fabricius. 

There  is  a  full  description  of  the  larva  and  pupa  in  Marshall  and 
de  Niceville,  which  we  need  not  repeat.  We  may  say,  however,  that 
all  the  larvae  we  have  seen  were  of  a  pure,  pale,  green  colour,  like 
young  leaves  of  the  tree  on  which  they  fed.  This  was  the  well-known 
**  Karanj  ''  {Pongamia  glabra).  In  Karwar,  in  the  month  of  March, 
we  saw  a  female  in  winter  dress  laying  her  eggs  on  the  leaf  buds  just 
opening.  We  did  not  attempt  to  rear  from  the  egg,  but  allowed  the 
larvae  to  grow  to  a  reasonable  size  and  then  took  them,  and  got  one 


LARVjE  and  PUPyE  OF  BUTTERFLIES  363 

butterfly  of  the  summer  form.  The  rest  came  to  grief.  There  were 
a  good  many  ants  on  the  tree,  which  seemed  to  take  the  same  interest 
in  the  larvae  as  they  take  in  Aphides  of  all  sorts,  and  also  on  the 
sacchariferous  glands  at  the  bases  of  leaves,  but  we  could  not  see  that 
the  larvae  were  in  any  way  helped  by  the  ants,  or  dependent  on  them. 

47.     Tarucus  theophrastus,  Fabricius. 

This  also  is  carefully  described  by  Mr.  de  Niceville.  We  have 
reared  it  in  Bombay  on  Zizyphnsjujubay  the  **  Bore  "  or  "  Bear"  tree. 

48.     Tarncus  plinius,  Fabricius. 

We  saw  this  species  in  Bombay  laying  its  eggs  on  a  leguminous 
plant  with  yellow  flowers,  which  shoots  up  during  the  rains  to  the 
height  of  six  or  seven  feet  and  dies  immediately  after,  and  which  we, 
with  such  skill  in  botany  as  was  at  our  command,  identified  as 
Sesbania  aculcata.  The  leaves  of  this  wretched  plant  wither  ten 
minutes  after  you  pluck  them,  but  we  succeeded  in  rearing  one  cater- 
pillar by  keeping  it  in  a  small,  air-tight  box.  It  is  described  in  our 
notes  as  green,  and  of  the  usual  wood-louse  form,  with  a  dorsal  ridge 
of  minute  protuberances.  The  pupa  wjjs  greenish,  smooth,  not  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  long,  and  closely  attached  to  the  bottom  of  the  box. 
The  pupa  state  lasted  seven  days.  Seven,  ten,  and  fourteen  days 
appear  to  be  the  commonest  pupal  periods, 

49.     Casta iins  decidea,  Hewitson. 

This  feeds  on  the  tender  leaves  of  the  "  Chorna"  {Zizf/p/ms  rugosa), 
and  we  reared  a  good  many  in  September  and  October.  The  larva 
is  pale  green,  and  of  the  usual  wood-louse  form,  with  the  head  concealed 
under  the  second  segment.  The  whole  body  is  more  or  less  pubescent, 
and  there  is  a  fringe  of  longer  hairs  on  each  side.  The  pupa  is  short 
and  stout,  constricted  between  the  thorax  and  abdomen,  clothed  with 
short  hair,  closely  attached  by  tail  and  band  to  any  convenient  surface ; 
colour  ochreous,  mottled  with  brown. 

50.     Iraota  timolcouy  StoU. 

We  got  five  or  six  of  these  in  September,  feeding  on  the  bark  of 
Ficiis  glonierata,  and  when  that  failed,  on  each  other,  for  they  are 
horrible  cannibals.  They  never  ate  a  leaf.  The  larva  is  very  stout, 
but  is  much  constricted  in  the  middle,  so  that  the  circumference  is 


354      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

greatest  about  the  3rd  or  4tli  and  9tli  or  10th  segments,  varying  a 
little  with  position.  It  moves  as  freely  backwards  as  forwards,  the 
whole  ventral  surface  adhering  closely  to  the  branch,  so  that  head  and 
legs  are  seldom  visible.  The  colour  is  clear  green,  with  or  without  a 
brown  bar  on  each  side  of  the  10th  segment.  The  pupa  is  thick  and 
short,  humped  on  the  thorax,  and  somewhat  constricted  behind ; 
light  brown  mottled  with  darker. 

There  were  no  ants  with  these  larvae  when  they  were  brought  to 
us,  but  after  they  became  pupao  they  were  discovered  by  a  nest  of 
common  house  ants,  and  were  immediately  put  under  a  guard  and 
carefully  watched.  But  we  shall  have  more  to  say  on  this  subject 
under  the  next  species. 

51.     Arhopala   centaunts,  Fabricius. 

The  larva  of  this  species,  which  we  found  from  June  to  October  on 
Tenninalia  paniculata,  one  of  the  commonest  jungle  trees  in  Canara, 
has  the  usual  wood-louse  form,  the  head  being  concealed  under  the 
2nd  segment,  and  the  sides  extending  beyond  the  legs,  but  it  is 
proportionally  longer  and  flatter  than  most  of  the  family,  and  the  last 
two  segments  are  much  depressed.  There  are  a  few  strong,  black 
bristles  about  each  spiracle,  and  below  these  a  fringe  of  similar 
bristles  skirting  the  whole  outline  of  the  insect  as  seen  from  above. 
There  is  a  honey  gland  on  the  11th  segment,  but  we  saw  no  signs 
of  erectile  organs  on  the  12th.  The  colour  varies  a  little,  but  is 
usually  green  below  and  on  the  sides,  the  whole  back  being  of  a 
fine,  reddish- brown,  very  prettily  marked  with  darker  and  lighter 
shades.  The  pupa  is  stout  and  broad,  with  the  thorax  humped,  and 
the  under-surf  ace  very  flat.  The  last  segment  is  peculiarly  prolonged 
and  expanded  :  to  describe  it  appropriately  a  Greek  word  is  required 
signifying, — ^having-the-form-of-a-horse's-hoof .  By  this  alone  the 
pupa  is  firmly  attached  to  a  strong  web  of  silk  in  a  loose,  half-open, 
leaf- cell. 

We  never  found  either  larva  or  pupa  of  this  butterfly  without  an 
attendant  guard  of  the  ferocious  red,  or  yellow,  tree  ant,  (Ecophylla 
snmragdmay  as  we  believe  the  fiend  is  called.  Half-a-dozen  of  them, 
kept  with  the  larva  in  a  bottle,  lived  quite  happily  for  a  week,  and 
seemed  to  require  no  food  besides  what  they  obtained  from  it  and 


LAHVyii:  AXT)  PUVJE  OF  BUTTERFLJES-  355 

from  the  leaves  with  wliicli  it  was  supplied.  Tlio  larva  was  in  no 
degree  dependent  on  th  nn,  as  we  proved  by  rearing;  sonic  from  a  very 
small  size  without  ants.  From  this  it  would  appear  that  the  fldvan- 
tage  which  the  larva  derives  from  tho  ulUanco  ia  protection  against 
enemies.  The  house  swarmed  with  a  small  brown  ant,  very  active 
in  killing  and  carrjang  off  sickly  larva),  or  butterflies  just  emerging 
from  the  pupa.  Wo  introduced  some  of  these  to  a  centaur  us,  and 
immediat<)ly  they  took  it  into  their  care  and  showed  that  they 
thoroughly  understood  the  management  of  it.  First  the  larva  was 
assiduously  caressed  all  over,  especially  about  the  head ;  then  the 
ant  went  to  the  11th  segment,  touched  tho  gland  gently  with  its 
antenna),  and  was  rewarded  with  a  drop  of  honey,  v/liich  it  licked 
up  at  once.  This  process  was  repeated  many  times.  Now,  supposing 
these  ants  to  be  nine  years  old,  like  some  of  Sir  John  Lubbock's,  it  is 
not  possible  they  ever  could  have  seen  a  coitaurm  larva  boforc,  for 
tho  house  in  the  walls  of  which  they  had  their  nest  stood  actually  on 
the  sand  of  tho  sea-boech,  a  mile  from  tho  nearest  spot  on  whicli  we 
ever  saw  this  butterfly,  or  found  its  larva.  How  did  they  understand 
it  so  well  ?  Perhaps  they  had^  had  some  practice  with  Lmnpidrs 
alianus,  the  larva>  of  which  we  sometimes  found  in  the  garden. 
Before  lea\'ing  tho  subject  wo  cannot  forbear  m<:)ralising  on  the  fact 
that,  when  the  larva  has  become  a  pupa  and  is  no  longer  of  any  use 
to  them,  tho  ants  guard  it  as  carefully  as  boloro.  How  remote  and 
contingent  is  any  advantage  they  will  derive  from  the  preservation 
of  the  butterfly  I  Alas  I  it  is  not  only  tho  sluggard  that  has  need 
to  go  to  the  ant  and  learn  her  ways  and  be  wise. 

62.     Zetius  chrt/somaUKs,  Ilubner. 

"We  found  this  on  tho  same  tree  as  the  last,  with  the  same  unfail- 
ing body-guard  of  red  ants.  The  larva  is  more  elongated  than  the 
last,  and  tho  second  segment,  which  is  not  depressed,  but  encases  the 
head  and  projects  beyond  it,  is  anteriorly  cleft  into  four  points,  like 
tho  teeth  of  a  saw :  the  last  two  segments  are  depressed.  There  is  a 
honey-gland,  but  apparently  no  erectile  organs,  a  subdorsal  and  a 
lateral  row  of  single  short  bristles,  one  to  each  segment,  and  below 
these,  at  the  bases  of  the  legs,  tufts  of  strong  bristles,  those  on  the 
2nd,  3rd  and  4tli  sogmc^nts  spviutring  from  warty  processes.  The 
47 


35G      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

colour  is  green,  with  more  or  less  of  a  reddish  tinge  on  the  back  at 
the  r^rd  and  4th  segments ;  but  young  larvae  show  more  brown  than 
gi'een,  and  there  is  doubtless  a  good  deal  of  variation.  The  pupa 
is  very  like  that  of  the  last,  perhaps  not  so  fiat  on  the  under- 
surface. 

From  this  species  we  learned  a  lesson  on  the  importance  of  assum- 
ing nothing  in  Natural  History  without  absolute  proof.  Early  in  the 
season  of  1880  we  made  up  our  minds,  from  observation  of  Arhopala 
amantes,  that  its  larva  would  be  found  on  Terminalia  panicidaia,  and 
when,  after  a  little  search,  Lyca)nid  larva>  were  found,  it  never 
occurred  to  us  to  question  what  they  were.  They  were  A,  cmiantcB  of 
course.  As  every  specimen  we  got  pined  and  died,  we  remained  in 
this  persuasion.  Early  in  the  following  season  fresh  search  was 
made,  many  larva)  were  found,  and  though  at  first  they  died  as 
before,  wo  eventually  succeeded  in  getting  the  butterfiy,  and  lo !  it 
was  ccntaunis.  This  was  a  surprise,  for  though  centaur  us  frequents 
the  TerminaUa  trees  as  well  as  amantes,  it  is  a  very  much  less  common 
species ;  but  in  the  meantime  we  had  found  that  there  were  two 
kinds  of  larva)  on  the  tree,  and  the  one  having  proved  to  ha  centaur  us  ^ 
the  other  of  course  was  aniantes.  But  this  other  we  could  not  rear : 
it  defied  us.  We  tried  it  with  ants  and  we  tried  it  without ;  we  tried 
.it  in  a  bottle  and  we  tried  it  in  the  open  air.  Sooner  or  later,  it  pined 
and  died.  At  last  we  got  one  which  was  very  nearly  full  grown, 
and  though  it  soon  sickened  and  seemed  on  the  point  of  dj^ing,  it 
saved  its  life  by  becoming  a  pupa,  and  in  duo  time  forth  came  Zezius 
chrysomallus !  The  emergence  of  a  Terias  Jiecahe  would  scarcely 
have  surprised  us  more.  We  still  believe,  however,  that  A,  amantcs 
feeds  on  TerminaUa  2^aniculafaj  and  if  we  have  another  season  in 
Canara,  will  storm  the  nests  of  the  red  ants.  In  the  innermost 
penetralia  of  those  we  shall  very  likely  find  it. 

53.      ViracJiola  isocratcs,  Fabricius. 

Mr.  de  Nicoville's  descriptions  of  this  and  the  next  species,  and 
his  accounts  of  their  strange  habits,  are  so  full  that  we  need  not 
waste  space  on  them  in  these  notes.  We  reared  this  species  in  Poena 
many  years  ago,  in  the  month  of  January  or  February,  on  the  fruit 
of  the  pomegranate.     It  is  rare  in  Canara,  at  least  on  the  coast. 


f^RVJi:  And  pupal  of  butterflies.  3r»7 

54.  Virachohi  j^'rsc,    ncw-itson.. 

At  Mathcran  and  Mahablotshwar  wc  have  bred  this  in  March  or 
Apiil.  In  Ganara  larvas  may  be  found  from  August,  or  September, 
to  April  at  least.  Wo  have  never  found  it  feeding  on  anything 
except  the  fruit  of  Mandui  dumeionoHf  called  by  natives  ''  Gliela^* 
(please  pronounce  Ghale)^  and  never  found  more  than  one  larva  in  a 
fruit.  Mr.  de  Niceville  notices  the  very  odd  shape  of  this  cater- 
pillar's hinder  end,  but  does  not  suggest  its  use.  It  is  obviously  a 
shovel  for  pushing  refuse  out  of  his  chamber.  Ants  often  frequent 
the  fruits  hollowed  out  by  these  larva>^  probably  for  the  sweet  juices 
of  the  fruit. 

Family  PAPILIONIDiE. 

Subfamily  Pierin^. 

55.  Ncp/wronia  jpjigasa,  Hooro. 

We  found  this  butterfly   laying  its  eggs  on  C'tppdria  JHynmna,  at 
the  very  top  of  Goodhally  hill,  1,850  feet  high.     We  could  not  find 
the  plant  in  any  more  accessible   place,  but  the  leaf  is  tough,   and 
when  kept  in  a  well-corked  bottle,  does  not  wither  for  a  week,  so  wo 
had  little  dilEculty  in  rearing   the  lurvco.     The  first  was  hatched  on 
the  30th  July  and  ate  up  the  shell  of  the  egg  at  once.     It  cast  its 
skin  on  tho  1st,  5th,  9th  and  1-ith  of  Auguiit,  and  changed  into  the 
pupa  state  on  tho  22nd.     This  pupa  met  with   an  accident,  but  we 
found  and   reared   a  good   many  during   August   and   September. 
Tho  larva  is   long,  cylindrical,  or  slightly  depressed,   and   tapering 
perceptibly  from  tho  head,  which  is  largo,  to  the  tail,  which  ends  in 
two  short,  strong,  spines  clothed  with  bristles.     The  body  is  clothed 
with  very  minute  hidrs ;  colour  green  with  a  lateral  row  of  conspicuous 
white  spots  from  the  5th  to  tho  12th  segment,  and  rows    of   smaller 
spots  on  tho  back.     Tho  chrysalis,  which  is  suspended  by  the  tail  and 
by  a  very  long  band,  is  a  curious  object,  the  thoracic  portion  being  bent 
back  almost  at  right  angles  to  tho  abdominal,  and  the  head   being 
produced  into  a  very  long,  sharp  snout,  while  the  wing-cases  form  a 
keel  nearly  half  an  inch  in  depth,  and  so  thin  as  to  be  almost  trans- 
parent.    The  colour  is  a  uniform,  pale,  watery  green.     A  peculiarity 
of  this  species  is  that  the  eggs  arc  laid  and  the  larva  feeds  from  tho 


358      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

begiuning  on  the  oldest  and  toughest  loaves,  like  pieces  of  dark-green 
morocco  leather. 

56.     Delias  etichariu,  Drury. 

Larva  long,  cylindrical  and  smooth,  with  an  oily  gloss.  Two 
subdorsal  rows  of  long  white  bristles  springing  from  minute  white 
tubercles;  head,  sides  and  back  sparsely  clothed  with  short  white 
bristles;  colour  brown,  head  and  feet  black.  It  may  be  found 
from  the  beginning  of  August  everywhere,  on  the  common 
"misletoe"  (Lorant/ms),  from  which  it  will  drop  and  hang  by  a 
thread  if  the  tree  is  shaken.  We  have  never  found  it  feeding  on 
anything  else.  Unlike  most  butterflies,  this  species  lays  as  many  as 
twenty  or  thirty  eggs  on  one  leaf,  in  parallel  rows,  with  equal  in- 
tervals, and  the  larva)  continue  in  some  measure  gregarious  to  the  last, 
so  that  a  large  number  of  pupa9  are  often  found^  at  little  distance  from 
each  other,  on  a  wall,  or  the  trunk  of  a  tree. 

The  pupa  is  closely  attached  by  the  tail  and  by  a  band,  generally  to 
a  vertical  surface,  with  the  head  upwards.  It  is  moderately  stout, 
with  a  short  snout,  two  small  tubercles  on  the  head,  a  sharp  but 
not  prominent,  dorsal  ridge  on  the  thorax,  continued  in  a  row  of 
tubercles  on  the  abdominal  segments.  Below  these  are  two  partial 
subdorsal  rows ;  colour  bright  yellow  ;  tubercles  and  a  row  of  spots 
defining  the  wing-cases  black. 

Largo  numbers  are  destroyed  by  a  dipterous  parasite,  very  like  a 
conatmon  house-fly. 

57,     Appias  Ubythea,  Fabricius. 

"We  did  not  get  this  in  Canara,  but  reared  a  good  many  in  Bombay 
during  April  and  May,  on  Capparis  horrida.  The  larva  is  long,  green, 
somewhat  depressed,  and  has  the  rough  surface  and  general  aspect  of 
a  TeriaSy  or  a  Catopsilia,  but  the  anal  extremity  tapers  a  little,  and  is 
slightly  but  distinctly  bifid.  The  pupa  is  of  quite  a  different 
type  from  Terias  or  Catopsilia.  It  is  closely  attached  to  a  leaf,  and 
the  wing-cases  do  not  form  a  keel,  but  there  is  an  acute  dorsal  promi- 
nence just  behind  the  head,  and  a  transverse  dorsal  ridge  in  the 
middle  connecting  two  angular,  lateral  processes.  The  head  ends  in 
a  short  snout.  The  colour  ib  variable,  and  probably  depends  on 
situation. 


LARVjE  and  FUPjE  of  butterflies.  359 

58.  Teracolus  etrhla,  Fabricius. 

Wc  reared  this  in  Bombay  in  the  month  of  December  on  Cadaha 
indlca.  From  the  very  meagre  note  we  made  at  the  time,  the  larva 
appears  to  have  been  like  that  of  Terias  liccahe,  but  perceptibly 
enlarged  near  the  posterior  extremity.  The  pupa  was  also  Kke  that 
of  Terias^  but  stouter,  and  the  snout  was  long  and  sharply  recurved. 
The  colour  was  pale  straw,  or  dirty  white. 

59.  Teracolus  ctjprcoa,  Fabricius. 

This  butterfly  follows  the  curious  distribution  of  its  food  plant,  a 
bush,  or  small  tree,  known  botanically  as  Salcadora  j^of'sica,  which 
grows  on  the  bands  of  salt-works  in  the  Konkan,  and  is  found  at 
isolated  places  inland  where  there  is  salt  in  the  soil.     In  the  imme- 
diate vicinity  of  this  tree  the  butterfly  swarms  :  elsewhere  it  is  rarely 
met  with.     We  have  reared  it  on  the  mainland,  opposite  Bombay,  in 
November  and  December,  and  on  the  coast  of  Canara,   at  one  place 
only,  in  May.     The  larva  is  very  like  that  of  Terias,  cylindrical,  or 
slightly  depressed,  with  a  rough  surface,  due  to  minute  tubercles, 
from  each  of  which  grows  a  very  small  bristle.     The  colour  is  a  uni- 
form grass  green,  with  a  blue  dorsal  line,  more  or  less  distinct,  and  a 
yellowish  lateral  line  dividing  the  colour  of  the  back  from  the  paler 
green  of  the  under   parts.     The  pupa  is  compressed,  and  has  the 
wing-cases  produced  into  a  keel,  Kke  that  of  Terias.     It  is  suspended 
in  the  same  manner  by  the  tail  and  a  moderately  long  band.     The 
colour  is  usually  some  shade  of  dingy,   whitish-brown,  or  dirty 
green. 

We  have  put  this  butterfly  down  as  T.  ej/prcea  with  much  misgiving. 
One  of  the  specimens  which  we  reared  in  Bombay  was  so  named  for 
us  by  a  friend  who  was  an  export  in  the  genus  Teracolus,  and  we 
have  not  a  doubt  he  was  right  as  to  that  particular  specimen  at  that 
time  ;  but  that  all,  or  any,  of  those  we  have  since  reared  would  receive 
the  same  name  at  the  British  Museum  to-day  is  more  than  we  dare 
assume. 

60.     Terias  hecabe,  Linnaeus. 

As  we  have  said,  the  larva  and  pupa  of  this  are  exceedingly  like 
those  of  the  last.  The  larva  is  long,  green,  rough,  cylindrical,  or 
slightly  depres^icd,  with  a  large  head.     The  pupa  is  suspended  by 


860      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

the  tail  and  by  a  moderately  long  band ;  the  abdominal  segments  are 
round,  but  the  thorax  is  much  compressed,  the  wing-cases  uniting  to 
form  a  deep,  sharp  keel.  The  head- case  terminates  in  a  short  pointed 
snout.  Ordinarily  the  pupa  is  solitary  and  green ;  but  about  the  end 
of  last  September  a  boy  brought  us  a  dry  twig,  with  fourteen  pupcc 
on  it  so  close  together  that  they  almost  touched  each  other,  and  quite 
black.  We  are  inclined  to  think  that  the  withering  of  their  food 
plant  had  caused  these  fourteen  larvoo,  which  would  ordinarily  have 
suspended  themselves  singly  among  the  leaves  on  which  they  were 
feeding,  to  migrate  in  a  body  in  search  of  a  place  where  they  might 
safely  pass  the  pupa  state.  Many  PierincK  and  other  larvao  seek  each 
other's  company  at  that  time.  Having  selected  a  dead  branch  of  some 
neighbouring  bush,  they  acquired  the  colour  of  their  surroundings, 
as  nearly  all  Plerince  and  Pajnllonince  pupoD  do  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent,  A  curious  circumstance  in  this  case  was  that  all  the 
butterjlies  which  emerged  from  those  fourteen  pupco  had  a  large, 
rust-coloured  patch  on  the  underside  of  the  apex  of  the  forewing. 
Tcrias  hecabe  was  very  common  at  that  time,  but  we  met  few  with 
this  mark  well  developed.  The  favourite  food  of  this  species  is 
Seshania  acideata,  a  monsoon  annual,  already  mentioned  as  the  food 
of  Tarucus  i^lmiua.     It  also  feeds  readily  on  Cassia  tora. 

61.  Catopsilia  pyranthe,  Linnoous. 
Larva  long,  somewhat  depressed,  rough,  green,  with  a  white  lateral 
line,  and  above  it  a  black  line,  more  or  less  conspicuous,  formed  by 
minute,  flat,  shining,  black  tubercles.  In  short,  this  larva  is  very 
like  a  big  specimen  of  the  last.  The  pupa  is  much  stouter,  and  the 
keel  formed  by  the  wing-cases  is  much  less  pronounced.  The 
normal  colour  is  pale  green,  with  a  yellow  lateral  line.  We  have 
never  found  it  on  any  plant  except  Cassia  occidentalism  It  habitually 
rests  on  the  upperside,  along  the  midrib,  like  almost  all  Picrinco 
larva). 

62.     Catopsilia   crocale,  Cramer. 

The  larva  is  not  easily  distinguishable  from  that  of  the  last ;  but 
in  their  choice  of  food  the  two  species  differ.  We  have  found  this  on 
several  species  of  Cassia,  all  arboreal,  such  as  fistula  and  Sumatra n a ; 
but  never  on  the  humble  and  ill-smelKne:  occiden talis.     The  larva  has 


LARV^  AND  TUPJR  OF  BUTTERFLIES.  361 

S0Tnetimc8  a  vciy  broad,  black,  lateral  stripo,  sometimes  Tvants  it 
entirely.  The  pupa  has  the  snout  longer  than  it  is  in  j^yranthc,  We 
have  found  this  abundantly  at  tlu;  b(.'<^innin^  and  end  of  the  rainy 
season,  and  also  in  April. 

63.     CafopsUia  caiiUay  Cramer. 

"We  have  found  this  with  the  last,  and  cannot  distinguish  either 

larva  or  pupa. 

Subfamily  PAPiLioxiNiE. 

It  will  save  mucb  repetition  and  facilitate  description  if  we  divide 
this  subfamily  into  groups  based  on  the  form  of  the  larva   and  pupa. 

The  Okxithopteua  Ghoup. 

The  three  species  of  this  group  feed  in  this  district  on  Arkiolochia 
iudica,  a  very  common  creeper,  with  bitter  leaves,  called  by  tho 
natives  Sarpan-hcl,  or  ba/i,  from  the  notion  that  it  is  a  cure  for 
snake-bites.  It  withers  soon  after  the  rains,  except  in  verj^  moist 
situations.  The  larva),  like  those  of  '* protected''  butterflies  generally, 
are  very  easy  to  rear,  eating  freely  in  any  situation  and  growing  fast. 
They  are  much  preyed  on  by  small  liymenopterous  parasites,  which 
emerge  from  the  living  larva)  and  form  white  cocoons  on  their  sides. 
We  counted  67  from  one  P.  hccfov.  Tho  larva  dies  soon  after. 
There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  forked  tentacle  which  all  Onrithop- 
tern  and  Papilio  larva)  extrude  from  tho  neck  when  annoyed,  is 
designed  for  defence  against  such  parfisites.  It  emits  a  reddish, 
possibly  corrosive,  fluid,  with  an  oirensive  smell,  and  we  have  noticed 
one  of  these  larva),  when  disturbed  by  ants,  drive  them  oif  by  swinging 
its  head  round  with  the  tentacle  extruded. 

64.     Ornif/ioptera    minosy  Cramer. 

This  butterfly  almost  disappears  from  the  end  of  tlie  year  until  tho 
beginning  of  June,  at  lt\ast  on  tlie  coast.  The  flrst  rain  brings  a  few 
out  at  the  beginning  of  June,  and  larva?  are  found  in  July,  becoming 
increasingly  common  till  October.  The  q^^,  which  we  have  often 
found,  is  of  a  reddish  colour,  and  under  a  strong  lens  looks  very  like 
a  rough  red  orange.  It  is  hatched  on  the  eighth  day.  The  larva  is 
roughly  cylindrical,  tapering  a  little  to  each  end,  and  carries  two 
dorsal  rows  of  flesliy  processes,  somewhat  curved  forwards,  and  a 


362      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

double  row  on  each  side  of  much  shorter  ones.  The  2nd,  3rd  and  4th 
Bcgments  have  each  an  additional  long  pair  between  the  dorsal  and 
lateral  rows.  The  head  is  smooth  and  black,  the  body  of  a  uniform, 
dark,  madder-brown,  prettily  lighted  by  a  tinge  of  pink  at  the  points 
of  some  of  the  fleshy  processes.  The  dorsal  processes  on  the  8th 
segment  and  a  lateral  pair  on  the  seventh  are  pinkish- white,  and  a  band 
of  the  same  colour  unites  them.  The  pupa  is  suspended  by  the  tail 
and  a  band,  which  encircles  it  much  nearer  the  head  than  is  usual 
with  Papilio  pupae.  In  form  it  is  stout,  flattened  and  dilated  in  the 
middle,  the  head  and  thorax  thrown  back.  The  head  is  somewhat 
angular  and  tuberculated,  and  two  of  the  abdominal  segments  carry 
each  a  prominent  dorsal  pair  of  pointed  tubercles.  In  colour  it  is 
usually  Kght  brown,  with  a  strongly  contrasting  saddle  of  *'old 
gold,'*  but  we  had  one  of  a  withered  green  hue  with  the  saddle  bright 
yellow.  The  pupa,  when  touched,  makes  a  husky,  squeaking  noise, 
produced  apparently  by  friction  of  the  abdominal  rings.  The  pupa 
state  lasts  nearly  four  weeks.  This  larva  is  a  cannibal  and,  if  not 
well  supplied  with  fresh  food,  will  devour  pupce  of  its  own  kind. 

65.     Pajnlio  hectoVy  Linnaeus. 

Larvae  were  found  throughout  the  monsoon,  and  once  in  April,  on  a 
plant  near  water,  which  had  retained  some  green  leaves.  In  June, 
when  they  first  appeared,  it  was  difficult  to  get  food  for  them,  as  the 
young  shoots  of  Aristolochia  had  scarcely  begun  to  sprout.  The  e^g 
must  have  been  laid  on  the  dry  stalks  of  last  season.  The  larva  is  so 
like  that  of  0.  minos  that  no  detailed  description  is  necessary,  but, 
apart  from  the  size,  it  may  be  readily  distinguished  by  the  absence 
of  the  pinkish  diagonal  bar,  and  by  the  fact  that  all  the  fleshy  pro- 
cesses, which  are  shorter  than  in  0.  mmos,  are  more  or  less  pink,  or 
red.  The  pupa  has  four  pairs  of  flattened  tubercles  on  the  abdominal 
segments,  and  is  altogether  more  angular  than  that  of  0.  minos.  In 
colour  it  is  a  light,  pinkish-brown,  mottled  and  streaked  with  a  darker 
shade. 

66,     Papilio  aristoiochice,  Fabricius. 

We  reared  this  in  Canara  during  the  rains,  along  with  the  last. 
In  the  Deccan,  where  it  is  much  commoner,  it  feeds  on  AriHtohehia 
bracteata,  a   feeble  plant,  with  bluish- green   leaves,  that  trails  on 


LARVAE  AND  PUP^  OF  BUTTERFLIES.  363 

black  soil.  The  larva  may  be  distinguished  from  both  the  last  by  a 
pinkish  band  encircling  the  body  at  the  seventh  segment,  in  which 
there  is  an  insular  patch  of  the  ground-colour  on  each  side.  The 
ground-colour  is  richer  than  in  0.  minos,  and  the  processes  are  all  red. 
The  pupa  is  scarcely  to  be  distinguished  from  that  of  P.  hector. 

The  Agamemnon  Group. 

In  these  the  form  of  the  larva  is  well  marked  and  easily  recognis- 
able. From  the  head,  which  is  moderately  large,  the  body  increases  in 
thickness  rapidly  to  the  fourth  or  fifth  segment,  and  then  tapers  more 
gradually  down  to  the  tail.  There  are  either  three  or  four  pairs  of 
short  sharp  spines,  one  on  the  second  and  one  on  the  4th  segment, 
sometimes  a  minute  pair  between  these  on  the  third,  and  a  pair  on  the 
last  segment.  These  spines  are  very  prominent  in  the  young  larvae, 
but  decrease  with  each  successive  moult.  There  are  no  other  irregu- 
larities^ and  the  whole  body  is  soft  and  very  sniooth.  The  pupa  is 
smooth  and  regular,  with  the  exception  of  a  single  frontal  horn,  or 
to  be  more  correct,  pointed  process,  rising  from  the  thorax  above  the 
head.  In  habits  these  larvae  are  very  different  from  those  of  the  last 
^roup.  They  are  extremely  shy  and  cautious,  resting  motionless 
most  of  the  day  on  the  upper  side  of  a  leaf,  along  the  midrib,  with 
their  heads  towards  the  stalk.  The  leaf  on  which  they  rest  is  usually 
carpeted  with  silk.  They  eat  little  and  grow  slowly,  whicli  appears 
to  be  generally  a  characteristic  of  the  larva)  of  those  butterflies  which 
have  a  stout  thorax  and  strong  flight. 

They  all  seem  to  feed  on  ti'ees  with   strongly  aromatic  leaves,  bo- 
longing  to  the  natural  orders  Anonacccc  and  Laiimceie, 

(j7^  Pajjiho  agamemnon,  Linnoous. 
Tlic  form  of  the  larva .  has  already  been  described.  It  has  four 
pairs  of  spines.  The  colour  is  at  first  smoky-black,  but  at  the  last 
moult  becomes  a  light,  clear,  green,  faintly  marked  with  wavy  lines 
of  a  darker  shade.  The  pupa  is  normally  of  a  pale  watery-green,  the 
horn  being  broadly  tipped  with  riist3'-brown,  which  continues  in  an 
irregular  line  along  the  outside  edge  of  the  wing-cases.  The  larva 
feeds  on  the  Custard  Aj)plc  {Anona  squamosa),  the  **  Ramphul"  {A. 
rciicuMa),  and  others  of  the  gcnu-s  and  also  on  the  "  Ashok''  (Gual- 
ieria  lo-iKjiJolia).  It  i^i  oi'tcn  dillicult  to  find,  and  must  be  looked  for 
48 


864     JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

on  the  less  exposed  leaves  of  trees  in  quiet,  shady  places.  The  sea- 
son is  from  July  till  November  :  we  do  not  recollect  having  found  it 
at  any  other  time. 

68.     Tapilio  sarpedon,  Linna3us. 

We  found  this  at  Karwar  from  July  till  October  on  Litscea  sebisera 
and  Aheodaphne  semicmpifolia.  The  larva  is  even  more  shy  and  re- 
tiring than  that  of  agnmcmnon^  and  we  got  very  few.  It  is  very  like 
that  of  agamemnony  but  prettier,  being  of  a  soft,  dark  green,  inclining 
to  emerald  and  passing  into  a  pale  bluish  on  the  last  segment  and 
the  under  parts.  The  pupa  is  easily  distinguished  from  that  of  aga- 
memnonhy  one  mark,  ns.,  the  horn  is  not  straight,  but  curves  slightly 

backwards. 

69.  Papilio  do8on,  Felder,  Plate  E.,  figs.  2,  2a. 

We  found  this  at  Karwar,  in  June  and  July,  feeding  on  two  trees 
of  the  order  Anonacecey  along  with  the  larvsD  of  P.  nomiiis  and  agamem- 
non.  Some  remained  in  the  pupa  state  for  nearly  two  montlis.  At 
first  sight  the  larva  is  very  like  that  of  P.  agamemnony  but  the  second 
pair  of  spines  is  entirely  wanting,  and  the  third  pair,  which  in  aga- 
memnon  is  rather  long,  curved  and  sharp,  is  reduced  in  this  species 
to  mere  knobs,  encircled  with  a  black  ring.  The  colour  is  generally 
black,  or  smoky,  until  the  last  moult,  and  then  dull  green,  inclining 
to  rusty  brown  on  the  sides ;  but  some  of  our  specimens  remained 
quite  black  to  the  end.  The  distinguishing  mark  of  the  pupaB  is 
again  in  the  frontal  horn,  which  is  straight,  as  in  agamemnony  but 
directed  forward,  instead  of  being  almost  erect.  Its  colour  is  nor- 
mally green,  but  varies  with  that  of  the  object  to  which  it  is 
attached.     One,  attached  to  white  cloth,  was  almost  pure  white. 

70.  Papilio  nomius,  Esper,  Plate  E.,/^5.  1,  la. 

This  butterfly  was  very  common  in  1 889  in  March,  June  and  July. 
It  frequented  one  particular  spot  about  half  way  up  the  Goodhally 
hill:  elsewhere  we  seldom  met  with  it.  On  the  23rd  of  June  we  dis- 
covered the  larva  on  a  jungle  tree  belonging  to  the  order  AnonaceoBy 
but  unhappily  not  identified,  and  literally  collected  hundreds.  By 
the  end  of  July  these  had  all  become  pupae,  and  we  got  no  more.  Of 
the  pupae  a  few  produced  butterflies  in  the  course  of  the  same  month, 
but  the  great  majority  remained  until  February  following,  when  a 


LARVjE  and  PUPjE  of  butterflies.  8«6 

Kttle  rain  fell  and  a  few  butterflies  emerged,  but  they  stuck  to  the 
pupa  ease,  or  else  their  wings  failed  to  expand,  for  want  of  moisture 
apparently.  We  took  the  hint  and  watered  about  twenty,  with  the 
result  that  the  butterflies  came  out  of  them  all  in  good  condition. 
We  had  lost  a  great  many  by  accidents  when  on  tour,  and  a  few  had 
hatched  at  odd  intervals ;  but  we  kept  what  remained  carefully  until 
June,  and  within  a  few  days  after  the  bursting  of  the  monsoon  they 
all  came  out.  From  this  it  would  appear  that  of  each  season's  pupae 
some  are  hatched  at  once,  some  are  brought  out  by  the  spring 
showers  or  heavy  dews  of  February  and  March,  and  the  rest  remain 
till  June.  Do  the  butterflies  which  come  out  in  August  and  March 
lay  eggs,  and,  if  so,  what  becomes  of  them  P 

The  larva  of  this  species  is  not  so  thick  proportionally  at  the  fourth 
segment  as  those  of  the  last  three,  and  is  somewhat  quadrangular.  It 
has  four  pairs  of  spines,  which  are  small,  but  sharp.  The  most  usual 
colour  is  that  shown  in  the  plate,  viz.,  black,  banded  on  the  sides 
with  narrow  white  stripes,  except  on  the  first  three  or  four  segments 
and  the  last,  on  which  there  is  more  or  less  rusty  red ;  but  the  shade 
varies  very  much,  and  in  some  the  ground-colour  is  green.  The  pupa 
has  the  usual  horn  which  characterises  this  group,  and  also  two 
short  process  on  the  head,  and  is  of  some  shade  of  earthy  brown. 
It  is  attached  by  the  tail  and  a  close  band  in  crevices,  or  under 
stones  and  roots.  We  furnished  our  cages  with  bits  of  broken  tildes, 
but  several  of  the  larvae  preferred  the.  old  clay  nest  of  a  wasp, 
into  the  empty  cells  of  which  they  crept.  This  curious  habit  is  of 
course  connected  with  the  long  hibernation  which  the  majority  of 
the  pupoD  undergo.  Along  with  our  P.  nomius  larvae  we  found  some 
of  P.  agamemnon  and  P.  dosoii,  and  it  is  remarkable  that,  while  very 
many  of  these  had  been  attacked  by  a  large  parasitic  fly,  the  grub  of 
which  ate  its  way  out  and  fell  to  the  ground  after  the  pupa  had  formed, 
P.  nomius,  so  much  more  conspicuous  and  feeding  on  the  same  tree, 
seemed  to  enjoy  entire  immunity  from  the  pest. 

The  Erithokius  Group. 
In  these  also  the  larva  is  thickest  at  the  fourth  segment,  but  it 
wants  the  spines.     On  the  second  and   last  segment  they  are   repre- 
sented by  blunt  fleshy  processes,   while   the  fourth   segment   is  sur* 
mounted  by  a  rough  transverse  ridge. 


Z66     JOUBNAL;  BOMBAY  NATVBAL  HISTOnY  SdCJ£TY,  1F90. 

In  habits  the  larva)  are  very  similar  to  those  of  the  last  group,  but 
they  usually  feed  on  the  HutacecB,  to  which  the  orange  and  lime 
belong.  The  pupa  is  more  or  less  crooked,  the  head  and  thorax  being 
thrown  back  as  in  the  OvnitJioptera  group,  and  two  blunt  processes 
project  from  the  head. 

71.     PajpiUo  enthonws,  Cramer. 

This  is  the  commonest  Papilio  in  the  Presidency,  and  we  have 
reared  it  abundantly  in  many  places  on  different  varieties  of  lime  or 
orange  trees,  and  also  sometimes  on  the  pomelo,  but  it  forsakes  all 
these  for  the  unpleasantly  odoriferous  garden  Rue.  On  the  band^  for 
salt  works  in  the  Konkan  we  once  found  it  literally  in  flocks,  feeding 
on  a  kguminuous  plant  with  aromatic  leaves.  The  form  of  the  larva 
has  already  been  described.  The  colour  at  first  is  a  very  dark  shade 
of  green,  almost  black,  with  two  broad,  diagonal,  cross-bands  of  yel- 
lowish-white. At  this  stage  the  whole  insect  has  an  oily  gloss,  and 
has  been  supposed  by  some  to  mimic  the  excrement  of  birds.  At  the 
last  moult  it  assumes  a  fine  green  colour,  with  certain  yellowish- 
white  markings,  which,  though  they  vary  in  extent,  are  characteris- 
tic of  the  whole  group.  These  are  the  ridge  on  the  forepart  of  the 
4th  segment,  a  line  or  band  behind  the  5th,  an  elongated  triangular 
patch  on  each  side,  with  its  ba;se  on  the  light  colour  of  the  under 
paris  at  the  8th  segment,  and  its  apex  sloping  into  the  9th,  a  similar, 
but  smaller  patch  on  the  10th,  and  nearly, the  whole  of  the  last  seg- 
ment. The  pupa  is  green  when  found  among  leaves,  brown  of 
various  shades  if  attached  to  a  trunk  or  dead  branch, 

72.     Fapilio  poIf/teSi  'Limi£evLS.- 

The  larva  of  this  is  not  easy  to  distinguish  with  certainty  from 
that  of  the  last,  though  of  course  it  grows  to  a  larger  size.  The 
pupa  also  is  similar,  but  can  be  recognised  at  once,  being  propor- 
tionally much  broader.  This  species  also  feeds  on  various  species  of 
orange  and  lime.     "We  have  never  got  it  on  rue, 

73.     Papilio  polymnestor,  Cramer. 

We  noticed  this  butterfly  at  Matheran,  in  the  month  of  Marcfr, 
laying  its  eggs  on  a  lime  tree  in  the  garden.  In  Karwar  we  reared 
a  great  many  in  September  and  October  on  a  common  ^ild  orang© 


larvjE  and  vltjE  of  butterflies.  mf 

(  Atalanfm  sp.  ?).  Another  favourite  food  appeared  to  be  Garcima 
xanthochynms.  In  form,  colour  and  markings  the  larva  is  very  simi- 
lar to  that  of  the  last  two,  but  the  enlargement  of  the  4th  and  5th 
[Segments  is  much  exaggerated,  especially  after  the  last  moult.  In 
the  pupa  the  head-case  and  its  two  projecting  points  are  more  elon- 
gated. 

74.     Papilio  helenus,  Linnncus. 

We  got  one  larva  of  this  on  the  ''Tirphal"  (ZantJwxyhun  rJidsn  ?) 
^  horribly  thorny  tree,  leafless  in  the  dry  season,  the  berries  of 
which  are  used  by  the  natives  in  curr}'.  The  4th  and  5th  segments 
were  even  more  tumid  than  in  P.  poif/mncstor,  forming  a  broad  and 
tigh  hump,  nearly  flat  on  the  top,  and  bounded  before  and  behind 
by  rugged  ridges  of  a  whitish,  or  pale  grey  colour,  chequered  with 
fine  brown  lines.  The  anterior  ridge  ended  in  a  large  black  and 
white  ocellus  on  each  side,  and  the  whole  aspect  of  the  creature 
from  the  front  had  a  strikingly  grim  likeness  to  the  head  of  somo 
beast  or  reptile,  with  heavy  brow  and  angry  eyes.  In  other  respects 
no  separate  description  of  this  larva  is  necessary.  The  pupa  wa9 
distinguishable  from  that  of  P.  jwlf/mnestor  chiefly  by  thg  two  pro- 
jecting points  on  the  head  being  somewhat  curved  upwards. 

75.     Papilio  liomcdon,  Moore,  Plate  D,  fys,  1,  2  and  3. 

We  do  not  know  whether  this  deserves  to  be  called  more  than  a 
variety  of  P.  liomedon,  the  larva  and  pupa  of  which  have  been 
figured  by  Horsfield.  The  figures  are  not  good,  but  recognisable; 
This  was  perhaps  of  all  our  discoveries  the  one  that  pleased  us  most. 
It  was  the  2nd  of  August  and  we  were  on  the  very  peak  of 
Goodhally  hill,  when  one  of  us  noticed  a  P.  Uomedon  flying  suspi- 
ciously round  a  tree  in  very  thick  jungle.  P.  liomedonwas  a  tempt* 
ing  butterfly,  but  with  a  painful  effort  of  self-control  the  •  net  was 
laid  down  and  the  butterfly  patiently  tracked  until,  after  wearisome 
vacillation,  it  settled  on  a  tender  shoot  of  Acronychia  laurifolia. 

It  remained  settled  for  a  long  time,  and  then  flew  o£E  altogether, 
leaving  ten  eggs,  laid  one  on  the  top  of  the  other,  as  shown  in  the 
plate.  On  the  7th  of  August  the  caterpillars  emerged,  and,  to  mini- 
mise risk,  were  divided  between  three  glass  tubes,  tightly  corked. 
On  the  10th  a  gust  of  wind  blew  one  of  the  tubes  off  the  table  and 


368     JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  18v»0. 

three  of  the  caterpillars  perished,  but  the  remaining  seven  throve 
and  were  in  due  time  transferred  to  a  branch  standing  in  a  bottle  of 
water.  The  mouth  of  the  bottle  was  plugged  with  cotton  wool,  but 
two  of  them  forced  their  way  in  and  <M)mmitted  suicide.  By  a 
prompt  use  of  the  means  recommended  by  the  Humane  Society  for 
the  restoration  of  persons  apparently  drowned,  one  was  revived,  but 
continued  weakly,  and  was  soon  after  killed  by  ants. 

Five  passed  successfully  through  all  dangers  and  became  beauti- 
ful specimens,  one  female  and  four  males.  (This  is  one  of  the  butter- 
flies of  which  we  rarely  find  females.)  All  through  their  lives  these 
larvae  continued  gregarious,  dispersing  occasionally  to  feed,  but 
always  returning  to  rest  side  by  side  on  the  upper  surface  of  a  leaf. 
The  following  dates  may  be  interesting.  Eggs  liaid,  2nd  August ; 
hatched,  7th  August;  skins  cast  (  and  eaten  ),  12th  August  ;  again, 
17th  August ;  again,  20th  to  22nd  August.  The  most  advanced  cast 
its  skin  again  on  the  28th  of  August,  became  a  pupa  on  the  2nd  of 
September,  and  emerged  on  the  15th  of  September.  The  others  fol- 
lowed within  two  days.  At  first  the  larvae  were  of  an  oily  yellow 
colour,  and  bore  many  pairs  of  spiny  points,  but  these  disappeared 
with  age,  and  after  the  last  moult  there  were  only  the  short  fleshy 
processes  on  the  2nd  and  last  segment  which  characterise  the  group, 
and  one  additional  curved  pair  on  the  ninth  segment. 

The  colour  after  the  last  moult  was  a  clear  slaty  blue,  changing 
eventually  to  a  greenish  tint,  with  light  brown  markings  very  much 
the  same  as  those  which  characterise  the  rest  of  the  group.  The  pupa 
was  more  abruptly  bent  back  from  the  middle  of  the  thorax  than  that 
of  P.  erithomus,  and  adorned  on  the  thorax  with  a  sword-shaped  horn, 
fully  f  of  an  inch  long,  and  always  bent  a  little  either  to  the  right 
or  left.  The  colour  was  brown,  or  green  and  yellow,  according  to 
situation. 

The  Dissimilis  Group. 

76.     Fafilio  dissimilis,  or  panope,  Linnaeus. 

These,  or  rather,  this  species  (for  there  is  no  question  now  of 
their  identity)  constitutes  a  group  by  itself.  The  larva  is  not  imlike 
those  oi  the  Orinthoptera  group  in  form,  having  similar  rows  of 
fleshy  processes  ;  but  it  is  by  far  the  handsomest  Papilio  larva  w© 


LARV^  AND  PUPyE  OF  BUTTERFLIES.  369 

know,  being  of  a  dark  brown  colour,  with  a  bright  red  spot  at  the 
base  of  each  process,  a  dorsal  row  of  large,  irregular,  yellow  patches, 
and  a  partial  lateral  row  ending  in  a  diagonal  band  which  connects 
the  two.  The  pupa  is  uniquci  exhibiting  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
instances  of  protective  resemblance  we  know.  It  exactly  resembles 
a  dead  twig  about  an  inch  long  and  less  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  broken  off  irregularly  at  one  end.  The  last  segment  is  so 
modified  that  the  pupa  is  not  attached  by  one  point,  but  appears  as  if  it 
had  grown  out  of  the  branch  to  which  it  affixes  itself.  We  found  this 
in  Bombay  on  Tetranthera  apetala,  and  in  Karwar  on  Ahcodaphne 
semicarpi/olia,  at  the  beginning  of  the  rains  and  again  in  September 
and  October.  Wo  got  both  sexes  of  each  fonn.  Some  of  our  pupae 
continued  in  that  state  for  a  month  or  two. 

Family  HESPERIID^. 

The  caterpillars  of  this  family  are  generally  easy  to  recognise. 
The  head  is  large,  the  body  smooth,  long  and  thickest  in  the  middle 
and  usually  green  in  colour.  The  majority  feed  on  grasses,  and 
the  habit  of  folding,  or  rolling  up,  a  leaf  to  form  a  cell  is  very 
general.  They  are  more  likely  to  be  mistaken  for  the  larvae  of 
moths  than  for  those  of  any  other  family  of  butterflies,  but  the 
observant  collector  will  notice  that  while  those  moth  larvae  which 
form  cells  generally  foul  them,  the  Hesperlidce  are  cleanly  in  their 
habits. 

77.      Gangara  thf/rsls,  Fabricius. 

Larva  cylindrical,  but  much  attenuated  towards  the  head,  which 
is  larger  than  the  nock  and  slightly  conical,  with  the  apex  upwards. 
The  whole  insect  is  covered  with  a  white  flutfy  secretion,  which  forms 
long  filaments  and  comes  off  on  everything  which  touches  it.  The 
colour  of  the  skin,  where  it  shows  itself  at  all,  appears  to  be  light 
green,  or  in  parts  bright  red.  We  got  this  in  June,  and  again  in 
September  and  October,  on  the  cocoanut  and  betelnut  palms. 

The  larva  lives  securely  in  a  strong  cell,  formed  either  by  firmly 
joining  the  edges  of  a  leaf  together,  or  else  by  rolling  it  spirally. 
When  about  to  turn  into  a  pupa  it  closes  the  end  of  the  cell  towards 
which  its  head  is  pointed.  The  pupa  is  smooth,  with  the  abdominal 
part  proportionally  very  long,  the  thoracic  part  short  and  stouter,  and 


370      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

the  wing-cases  produced  into  long  curled  filaments.  The  last  segment 
of  the  abdomen  is  broad  and  flat,  and  from  the  centre  of  it  there 
springs  a  horny  tail  like  the  telson  of  a  shrimp.  By  this  the  pupa 
is  attached  to  a  strong  cord  of  silk  stretched  across  the  cell.  Other- 
wise it  is  quite  free,  haying  no  encircling  band.  This  arrangement 
enables  it  to  vibrate  with  extraordinary  energy  when  its  cell  is 
touched,  making  a  sound  like  a  rattle. 
^   This  and  some  other  larvae  of  Hesperlldce  have  very  formidable  jaws. 

78.    Sumhis  gremiusy  Pabricius. 

We  got  this  in  June  and  October,  also  on  the  cocoanut  palm.  The 
larva,  like  the  last,  forms  a  tube-cell  by  joining  the  edges  of  a  leaf, 
and  never  leaves  it.  The  pupa  is  formed  in  the  same  shelter,  which 
is  first  lined  with  silk  and  closed  at  the  ends,  l^he  larva  is  elongated, 
smooth,  thickest  in  the  middle,  the  last  segment  flattened,  the  head 
pioderately  large,  oval,  obliquely  attached  ;  colour  pale  green,  with 
a  thin,  dark  blue,  dorsal  line  ;  head  light  green,  or  whitish,  with  a 
horse-shoe  mark  of  dark  brown.  The  pupa  is  like  a  moth  pupa  of 
the  most  normal  type  and  of  a  dirty  yellowish  colour.  The  head  is 
moderately  broad  without  a  snout.  The  wing-cases  are  produced  into 
a  short  double  filament. 

79.     Paniara  bevani,  Moore. 

Larva  smooth  (it  is  really  clothed  with  short  bristles  almost  in- 
visible to  the  naked  eye),  thickest  in  the  middle,  pale  green  ;  head 
large,  slightly  bilobed,  dark  brown,  or  pale  brown  variously  marked 
with  darker.  Pupa  like  that  of  S.  gremiics,  but  of  course  much 
smaller.  We  found  this  in  Canara  in  June,  August  and  September  on 
rice,  and  have  often  reared  it  in  Bombay  on  grass.  It  forms  a  tube 
Cell  which  it  never  leaves,  feeding  on  the  edges  of  it.  When  about  to 
become  a  pupa  it  lines  the  cell  with  white  silk,  to  which  the  pupa  is 
attached  by  the  tail  only.  In  every  respect  both  larva  and  pupa  show 
much  more  likeness  to  S.  grcmius  than  to  P.  humara, 

80.     Parmra  Jiunifira,  IMoore,  Plate  F,  Jigs.  4,  in. 

Larva  elongated,  thickest  in  the  middle,  tapering  to  the  head, 
smooth,  dull  green,  obsolctcly  banded  with  darker  green,  and  .showing 
a   dorsal   line   of    the  same     colour ;    head    larg^,    bilobed,    white. 


LARVjE  and  PUPjE  of  butterflies,  371 

edged  with  chocolate  and  divided  by  a  chocolate  line.  Pupa  pale 
green,  slender  and  smooth,  with  a  sharp  frontal  process  or  snout. 
We  got  this  in  September  on  rice.  It  forms  no  cell,  and  the 
pupa  is  attached  to  an  open  leaf  by  the  tail  and  a  band. 

In  the  figure  this  larva  is  represented  on  a  bamboo  leaf  by  mis- 
take, 

81.     Clifipm  matJdaSj  Fabricius. 

Larva  smooth,  thickest  in  the  middle,  pale  green  ;  head  large,  some- 
what triangular,  and  of  a  greenish -white  colour,  w4th  a  narrow  red 
border  line  on  each  side.  Pupa  very  like  that  of  the  last  species. 
This  also  feeds  on  rice,  forming  no  cell.  We  got  it  in  June,  August, 
and  September. 

82.     Chapm  prominem,  Moore. 

We  got  a  single  specimen  of  the  larva  of  this  on  what  seemed  to 
be  a  leaf  of  some  species  of  Arum.  It  became  a  pupa  the  same  day. 
The  larva  was  very  like  that  of  Udaspcs  folus,  described  further  on, 
but  the  head  was  whitish,  the  lobes  bordered  and  separated  by  a 
brown  line,  with  a  brown  spot  in  the  centre  of  each.  The  colour  of 
the  body  was  pale  green,  with  two  light  stripes  on  the  back.  The 
pupa  was  exactly  like  that  of  U.fo/ns^  and  similarly  attached,  colour 
pale  green,  with  two  dorsal  white  lines. 

83.     Baracm  septoitrionum,  Wood-Mason  and  de  Nicj6ville. 

Mr.  T.  R.  Bell  found  a  single  specimen  of  this  larva  in  August 
on  grass.  We  found  that  it  would  eat  two  or  three  species  of 
grasses.  We  noticed  nothing  by  which  this  could  be  distinguished 
from  the  larva  of  Farnara  hevani,  except  that  the  head  was  black. 
It  lived  after  the  same  manner  in  a  tube.  The  pupa  was  regular, 
slender,  with  the  head  broad  and,  like  P.  hcvani,  had  neither  a  snout 
iior  any  prolongation  of  the  wing-cases.  It  was  attached  by  the  tail 
only.  The  colour  was  semi-transparent,  impure  white,  with  two  black 
dots  behind  the  head. 

84.     Udaqies  folusy  Cramer. 

Larva  smooth,  long  and  much  attenuated  towards  the  head,  which 
18  large  and  well  bilobed ;  colour  pale    green,  with  a  bluish  tint  on 
the  back ;  head  dark  brown.     Pupa  greenish- white,  slender,  with  a 
49 


372       JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

sharp  snout ;  wing-cases  produced  into  a  long,  straight,  double  fila- 
ment. It  is  attached  by  the  tail  and  a  silken  band  to  a  leaf,  which 
is  partially  drawn  over  it.  We  found  this  from  July  to  October, 
feeding  on  the  wild  turmeric. 

85.     Matapa  aria,  Moore,  Plate  F.,  figs.  3,  Za, 

Larva  smooth^  tapering  somewhat  towards  the  head,  but  tumid 
and  flattened  at  the  anal  end,  greenish-  or  bluish-white,  with  a 
linear  black  collar,  and  a  lateral  row  of  minute  black  spots,  those  on 
the  tumid  penultimate  segment  larger  than  the  rest ;  head  light 
brown,  large,  and  slightly  bilobed.  Pupa  of  a  dirty  whitish  colour, 
the  abdominal  part  much  lengthened  and  slender,  the  thorax  thicker 
and  very  short,  constricted  just  behind  the  head,  no  snout,  wing-cases 
produced  into  a  short  united  filament.  "We  got  this  in  October, 
feeding  on  a  dwarf  species  of  bamboo.  It  forms  a  cell  by  rolling  the 
leaf  spirally.  The  pupa  is  attached  by  the  tail  only,  and  rattles  in  its 
cell  like  that  of  Qangara  thyrsis^ 

86.  Telicota  hamhiisce.^  Moore. 

Larva  smooth,  thickest  in  the  middle  ;  head  moderately  large  and 
slightly  bilobed  ;  last  segment  depressed ;  colour  greenish,  albescent 
on  the  last  segment.  Pupa  brown,  more  compact  than  in  the  last 
species,  abdomen  short,  constricted  behind  the  head,  wing-cases  not 
produced.  We  got  this  in  October  on  the  same  leaf  as  the  last,  with 
a  third  species  which  we  unfortimately  lost.  It  forms  a  cell  by 
joining  the  edges  of  a  leaf. 

87.  JParata  chromus,  Cramer. 

Larva  stouter  than  most  of  the  family,  sparsely  clothed  with 
short  hair,  the  head  a  little  larger  than  the  neck  and  scarcely  bilobed ; 
colour  variable,  most  commonly  pale  yellow,  with  a  dorsal  line  and 
two  subdorsal  rows  of  large,  brown  or  purplish  spots,  the  space 
between  being  clouded  with  the  same  ;  the  sides  and  under  parts 
light  green.  Pupa  quite  regular,  stout,  pale  green,  covered  with  a 
chalky  white  powder.  This  caterpillar,  which  may  very  easily  be 
mistaken  for  that  of  a  moth,  was  found  on  the  ^*  Karanj "  tree 
(Pongamia  glabra),  which  it  almost  denuded,  in  June  and  July.  It 
appeared  again,  not  in  such  numbers,  towards  the  end  of  the  rains. 


LARV^  AND  PUPjE  OF  BUTTERFLIES.  373 

It  forms  a  close  cell,  usually    by  joining  two  loaves  at  the  edges. 
The  pupa  is  formed  in  this. 

88.     Bihasis  sena,  Moore,  Plate  F.,/<75.  2,  2«. 

This  resembles  the  last,  but  is  proportionally  longer.  The  head 
is  very  large  and  rounded,  and  of  a  bright  red  colour,  chequered  with 
black.  The  centre  of  the  back  is  blue,  with  three  black,  longitudi- 
nal lines  ;  the  sides  are  yellow,  with  transverse  blue  and  black  mark- 
ings. The  pupa  is  regular  and  moderately  stout,  of  a  bluish-white 
colour,  with  four  rows  of  small  black  spots  on  the  abdominal  seg- 
ments, and  a  black  diamond  on  the  middle  of  the  back.  We  got 
several  of  these  in  September,  but  could  not  identify  the  food- plant, 
or  procure  any  more  of  it.  Consequently  they  all  perished  but  one, 
and  it  became  a  very  stunted  pupa.  The  figure  and  description 
were  taken  like  a  *'  dying  deposition,"  and  are  not  so  satisfactory  as 
we  could  have  wished, 

89.     Badamia  exclamationisy  Fabricius. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  rains  of  1889  we  found  great  numbers  of 
these  on  several  different  trees,  but  we  had  not  begun  to  make  these 
notes  at  that  time  and  kept  no  description,  and  this  year  we  have 
not  found  one.  All  we  can  say  from  memory  is  that  the  larva  bore 
a  general  resemblance  to  those  of  the  last  two,  being  variegated  in 
colour  and  variable.  The  pupa  was  stout  and  regular,  not  unlike 
that  of  P.  chromus,  but  attached  itself  to  the  sides  and  top  of  the 
cage, 

90.     Tapena  (hwaitesi,  Moore. 

We  found  a  single  specimen  of  this  in  August  on  Doris  scandcns, 
of  the  small  leaves  of  which  it  made  a  rough  cell  for  itself.  It  be- 
came a  pupa  before  we  could  write  a  description  of  it,  so  we  can 
only  say  that  it  was  of  a  uniform,  creamy- white  colour,  the  head 
being  large  and  white  also,  with  a  brown  border  line.  The  pupa 
was  slender,  but  regular,  with  head-case  pointed. 

91.     Tagiades  atticus,  Fabricius,  Plate  Yyfigs,  5,  5a, 

Larva  smooth,  slightly  depressed,  thickest  a  little  in  front   of  the 
middle,   neck   slender,   head  large,   bilobed,   lobes    diverging   and 


374      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

pointed  at  the  top  ;  colour  more  or  less  dark,  bluish-green,  darkest 
on  the  back,  collar  white,  head  che&tnut,  mandibles  large  and  black. 
Pupa  attached  by  the  tail  and  by  a  band,  regular,  with  short  snout,  or 
palpi-case,  colour  semi-transparent  green,  or  light  pinkiah-lxrown,  with 
darker  lines  defining  the  segments,  and  two  conspicuous,  triangular 
patches  of  porcelain -white  on  each  side.  Wc  found  this  occasionally 
from  the  end  of  June  till  October  feeding  on  several  species  of 
Dmcorea,  The  habits  of  the  larva  are  curious.  It  cuts  out  an  oval 
piece  of  a  leaf  with  the  margin  deeply  toothed,  or  scolloped  ;  this  is 
loft  attached  by  a  narrow  neck,  including  one  of  the  principal  veins 
of  the  leaf,  and  bent  over  so  as  to  form  a  cell  with  open  archways  all 
round.  In  this  the  larva  lives  and  rushes  at  intruders  with  its  black 
jaws  extended.     It  becomes  a  pupa  in  the  cell. 

92.     Tagiades  ohseumSy  Mabille. 

Wc  found  the  larva  of  this  on  the  same  leaf  as  the  last,  and  did 
not  notice  that  it  was  different,  having  our  hands  at  the  time  very 
full.  The  pupa  was  similar  in  form  to  that  of  T.  atticusy  but  of  an 
impure,  pinkish-white  colour,  sparsely  dotted  with  black  on  the 
thorax  and  wing-cases. 

93.     Celcenorrhiiius  fuscum,  Hampson. 

Larva  of  the  Tagiades  type,  smooth,  somewhat  flattened,  thickest 
in  the  middle,  dull  green,  darkest  on  the  back,  with  two  longitudinal 
pale  lines  ;  last  segment  paler  ;  head  large,  bilobed,  reddish-brown. 
Young  larvce  are  dark  brown,  and  some  retain  this  colour  to  the  end. 
The  pupa  is  also  like  that  of  Tagiades,  attached  by  the  tail  and  by  a 
band,  stout,  with  thorax  slightly  humped,  very  small  snout,  and  wing- 
cases  produced  into  a  long  double  filament ;  colour  semi-transparent 
green.  We  found  this  abundantly  in  September  and  October,  on 
^^Karwee'^  {Strohilanihus).  It  lives  on  the  upper  side  of  a  leaf, 
cutting  off  and  turning  over  a  portion  to  serve  as  a  roof.  It  is  fierce 
and  repels  intrusion.     Like  many  HespemdcB,  it  grows  very  slowly. 

94.     Ahamtha  ransonetti,  Felder,  Plate  F^figs.  1,  la. 

Thickest  about  the  middle,  somewhat  pointed  at  the  anal  end, 
transversely  rugose  and  clothed  w^ith  very  ^short  hair ;  head  thickly 
set  with  curved  bristles  ;  colour  pale  green,  with  a  yellow  collar  and 


LIST  OF  FERNS. 


a  black  demi-coUar  behind  it ;  head  black,  bristles  white  and  black. 
Pupa  attached  by  tail  and  band,  moderately  stout,  with  short  snout 
and  several  pairs  of  small  tubercles  on  the  head  and  thorax ;  colour 
pale  greenish-white,  tubercles  black  or  red.  This  was  found  in 
June  and  again  in  September  and  October  on  **  Kiunee  "  (IlcUctina 
isora).     It   sometimes  forms  a  loose  cell  by  bending  the  leaf  over. 


LIST  OP  FERNS  GATHERED  IN  NORTU  KANARA 
BY  MAJOR  T.  R.  M.  MACPIIERSON. 


9. 
10. 


17. 

18. 


Genus  and  Spocics. 


He  u  AUKS. 


1.  Gleicheiiia  linearis  (Burm.) 

2.  Cyatlica  spinulosa  (Wall.)  .... 

3.  Alsophila  glabra  (Ilook.)  .... 

4.  Trichomanes  kiirzii  (Bed J.)    . 

5.  ,,  intramar'2:iuulo 

(Hook  aiid  Grev.) 
f).     Microlepia  spelimcio  (Limi.) 
7.     Stenoloma  cliineiisis  (Swartz.) 
K.     Scliizoloma  loLata  (Puir.).  .  . . 

eusifolia  (Swartz.) 
heterophylla  (Dry.) 


11.  Adiantuin  Imiiilatimi  (lUirni.J 

12.  ,,         rothioinciim  (Liiiii.) 
1 .3 .  ClieilautL  os  teuuif  olia  ( Swartz . ) 

14.  ,,  fariuosa  (Kaulf.) 

15.  Pteris  lougifolia  (Limi.) 

16.  ,,       pellucida  (Prost.) 


quadriaurita  (Retz.) 

var.    Seti- 


»> 

>>  )> 

gera. 

19.  ,,       acquiliua  (Linn.) 

20.  Campteria  biaiirita  (Linn.) 

21.  Ceratopteris  thalictroides 

(Linn.) 

22.  Bleclinum  oriontale  (Linn.) 


A  tall  trui3  feni,  gi-owing  to  10  oi  l2  It. 
liigh  in  suitaMo  localities;  fouH<l  nnly 
abuvc  ghuts. 

A  tree  foni,  never  growing  to  any  ^real 
height.  Found  (^hicHy  uhovi'  ghiits,  but 
also  occasionally  behnv  gliats  iit  lie 
elevation. 

At  Godhali  anrl  on  tht;  Anshi  Gliaul. 

Found  at  Dcviiiumni. 


Rare  ;  only  foiuid  at  Jug. 

In  Kanara  the  tronds  arc  tiv(|uently 
tnpinnatiiid,  and  I  have  gathered  frundy 
at  Sirsi,  which  were  tripinnatc  as  lu 
LiiLdsuijii  lnUri)phyUn^  but  with  tlio  vein = 
anastomosing. 

Rare ;  found  only  near  Supa. 


A  variety  on  the  Anshi  Ghat  has  broad 
white  bands  down  the  centre  of  the  pinnie- 


876       JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890: 
LIST  OP  FERNS  GATHERED  IN  NORTH  KANARA— (c<m<rf.) 


Genus  and  Species. 


Bbmabks. 


23. 

24. 
25. 
26. 

27. 

28. 
29, 

30. 

31. 
32. 
33. 

34. 

35. 

36. 
37. 

38. 

39, 

40. 
41. 

42. 
43. 

44. 
45. 
46. 

47. 

48. 
49. 
50. 

51. 
52. 
53. 
54. 

55. 
56. 
67. 


>> 

>> 


>> 


>> 


>» 


Thamnopteris  nidus,  var,  phyl- 

litidis  (Don.^ 
Asplenium  lunulatum  ( Swartz. ) 
falcatum  (Lam.)  . . 
unilaterale,  var,  Ri- 
vale  (Bedd.) 
var,  Uduni 
(Atkinson.) 
laciniatum  (Don.) 
Athyrium   hohenackerianum 

(Kye.) 

macro  car pum 

(Blume.) 

Diplazium  aspenim  (Blume.) 

,,  latifolium  (Don.) 

Anisogonium   esculentum 

(Prest.) 
Aspidium  subtriphyllum 

(Hook.) 
„  polymorphum 

(WaU.j 
,,         cicutarium  (Swartz.) 
multicaudatum 
(WaU.) 

Pleocnemia  membranifolia 

(Prest.) 
Lastrea   calcarata,  var,  ciliata 

(WaU.) 
,,  syrmatica  (Willd.) .... 
,,        filix-mas,  var.  ooohle- 

ata  (Don.) 

,,         dissecta  (Forst.) 

„        tenericaulis  (Wallich.) 

Nephrodium  unitum  (liiin.) 
pteroides  (Betz.) 
extensum 
(Blume.) 
Pen  nigerum 
(Blume.) 
molle  (Desv.) 
crinipes  (Hook), 
truncatum 
(Prest.) 

Nephrolepis  cordifoHa  (Linn.) 
, ,  exaltata  ( Lion. ) . . 

,,  acuta  (Prest.) 

ramosa  (Beauv.) . . 


Fronds  frequently  3  inches  broad  and 
over  2  ft.  in  length, 
Found  at  Nilkund. 
Found  at  Yekambi. 

Found  at  Nilkund,  Yan  and  Malimani« 
Found  at  Anmode  and  Cooesi. 

Found  at  Ansbi  and  Yekambi, 


Found  at  MaUmani. 


Foxind  on  the  Nilkund  Ghat. 


>> 

>> 
>> 


Found  at  Anmode. 


Found  at  Bilgi  and  near  Menshi. 
Indusiumi  always  present  in  young  stage 
of  the  plant  in  Kanara. 


Found  near  Sirsi  and  Manchikeri. 


>) 


Goniopteris  prolifera  (Roxb.) 
Niphobolus  adnascens(  Swartz . ) 
Drynaria  quercifolia  (Linn.) 


Found  at  Jog  and  Katgal. 


Fronds  sometimes  6  ft.  long. 
Found  near  Supa. 

Foimd  at  Karwar  and  on  the  Anshi 
Ghat,  growing  on  trees. 


THE  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  BOMBAY. 


377 


LIST  OF  FERNS  GATHERED  IN  NORTU  KANARA— (Cwi/./). 


Qenns  and  Species. 


Bemabkb. 


58. 

Pleopeltis  linearis  (Thumb.) 

59. 

,,             lanceolata  (Linn.).. 

Found  at  Yan, 

60. 

, ,           membranacea  (Don. ) 

61. 

,,           punctata  (Linn.)    , . 

Found  at  Tvagli  and  Kansur. 

62. 

Vittfl-ria  elongata  (Swartz.)    . . 

Found  near  the  coast  at  no  elevation, 
and  also  above  ghats. 

63. 

Stenochloena  palustre  (lAnn.) 

64. 

Polybotrya  appendiculata,  var, 

aspleniifolia  (Bory.J 

Gynmopteris  variabilis  (Hook.) 

65. 

66. 

var. 
axillaris  (Cav.) 

67. 

,.               contaminans 

(WaU.) 

68. 

„               subcrenata 

(Hook.) 

69. 

, ,        presliana  (Hook. ). . 

Common  ovorywhei-e  in  river  heds. 

70. 

Acrostichum  aureuni  (Linn.)... 

Found  on  the  banks  of  salt-watiT  cnH»kfi. 

71. 

Osmunda  regalis  (linn.) 

Common  both  above  and  below  ghatrt. 

72. 

Lygodium    microphyllum 

(Roxb.) 

73. 

„             flexuosum 

(Swartz.) 

74. 

Angioptcris  evecta  (Hoffin.)  . . 

75. 

Ophioglossuui    nudicaulo 

(Linn.) 

THE  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  NEIGHBOURHOOD 

OF  BOMBAY. 

By  W.  F.  Sinclair,  C.S. 

(Bead  at  the  Societf/'s  Meeting  on  23rd  September  1890, ) 

The  perusal  of  Mr.  Hart's  interesting  paper  on  "  Prehistoric  Bom- 
bay/' suggests  the  following  remarks: — 

If  any  one  will  take  the  latest  and  best  chart  of  Bombay  harbour, 
he  will  find  that  the  meridian  of  the  Observatory — one  of  the  highest 
places  on  Kolaba  Point — is  that  (within  a  few  yards)  of  the  Flag- 
staff on  Kamballa  Hill,  the  highest  point  on  Bombay  Island  Proper, 
and  very  nearly  that  of  Worlee  Point,  and  so  on  to  Dharavi,  in 
the  north    of  the   Salsette  Islands,  whence  are  said  to  have  been 


378      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

brought  the  perfect  basaltic  columns  that  were  used  throughout  this 
region  by  the  wealthier  builders  of  the  15th  and  16th  centuries. 

I  have  not  been  at  Dharavi  itself,  so  I  cannot  speak  of  the  quarry. 
But  the  stones  can  be  seen  any  day  at  Kalyan  on  the  G.  I.  P., 
especially  in  the  revetment  of  what  is  called  the  Shenalla  tank,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  built  in  1505.  Here  they  are  used  as  bonds,  and 
are  quite  as  perfect  in  shape  as  any  at  the  Giant's  Causeway,  or  on 
the  Rhine,  though  not  of  any  great  size. 

Between  the  Observatory  and  Kamballa  Hill,  this  same  meridian 
passes  through  the  northernmost  point  of  what  was  once  "  Old 
Woman's  Island,"  now  a  part  of  Kolaba.  Continue  it  to  the  south- 
ward from  the  Observatory  and  it  leads  you  close  to  the  southernmost 
point  of  the  Prongs,  across  the  harbour's  mouth  to  the  outer  edge 
of  the  Thall  Reefs,  and  right  through  the  middle  of  Kenuery  Island, 
where  arc  some  of  the  finest  masses  of  basalt  in  the  Lower  Konkan. 

From  this  on  southward  the  meridian  lies  near  the  outer  edge  of 
the  *^  Kennery  Flats"  and  Alibag  Reefs,  preserving  for  a  distance  of 
about  14  statute  miles  (N.  and  S.  of  Kennery)  an  almost  uniform 
depth  of  17  feet  of  water. 

Due  west  of  Alibag  the  edge  of  this  basaltic  sea-floor  bends  to  the 
south,  south-east,  through  the  Chaul  Kadu  Beacon,  which  may  be 
said  to  mark  the  southern  end  of  the  great  Bombay  sea-wall. 

Malabar  Hill,  standing  well  to  the  west  of  the  Observatory,  marks 
a  projecting  point  or  bastion  of  the  main  rampart,  which  throughout 
its  length  points  to  the  poles  a  good  deal  more  accurately  than  the 
needle  can  be  always  trusted  to  do. 

Lay  aside  the  chart,  take  a  map,  and  you  will  find  that  the  hills 
of  Salsette  and  Trombay  Islands  and  the  Kankeshwar  and  Parsik 
hills  on  the  main  land,  are  similarly  "  polarized."  But  when  you 
come  to  the  next  range  eastward,  that  of  Matheran,  this  arrange- 
ment is  only  visible  in  single  hills,  and  not  in  the  outline  of  the 
whole  group ;  and  the  same  is  the  case  with  the  Sagargarh  and  Funnel 
Hill  Ranges  and  those  of  Manikgarh  and  Mira  Dongar  in  Pen. 

East  of  these,  again,  comes  in  one  of  the  most  curious  features  of 
the  region.  We  commonly  talk  of  these  ranges  as  "  spurs  of  the 
ghats,"  and  so  perhaps  thej^  originally  were.  But  now  the  "  gr^at 
break  off,"  so  graphically  described  by  Mr.  Hart,  has  separated  them 


THE  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  BOMBAY.  379 

from  the  central  mass  of  the  Deccan  trap  ;  and  every  one  of  them 
between  Mahuli  and  the  Raigarh  group  is  divided  from  the  gh&ts 
proper  by  a  deep  gap. 

'  From  the  hot  springs  of  the  Tansa,  behind  Tungar,  behind  Ma- 
theran,  behind  Mira  Dongar  and  Sagargarh,  a  man  could  drive  a 
bullock  cart  to  the  hot  springs  of  the  Savitri  at  So  (near  Mahad), 
passing  those  of  the  Amba,  at  Unhere,  on  the  way.  He  would  not 
have  to  cross  any  pass  500  feet  high.  If  he  was  ambitious  enough 
to  take  a  still  more  eastern  line  behind  Surgarh,  he  would  probably 
leave  the  wreck  of  his  cart  on  the  road ;  but  he  would  not  require  to 
climb  600  feet  at  any  point. 

It  is  an  unfortunate  peculiarity  of  our  topographical  surveyors 
that,  although  they  give  us  the  exact  height  of  all  the  important  peaks, 
and  of  a  great  many  very  unimportant  ones,  they  seem  never  to 
think  the  height  of  a  pass  Avorth  measuring.  Most  of  those,  whose 
height  is  given  in  their  maps,  have  been  measured  by  the  District 
Engineers,  and  even  the  information  obtainable  from  them  has  not 
always  been  utilized.  Where  they  have  not  been,  we  are  left  to 
mere  conjecture,  or  to  resurvey.  I  have  not  myself  found  time  to 
pass  through  the  gap  between  the  Surgarh  hills  and  the  main  wall 
of  the  ghats ;  but  from  the  outside  it  appears  to  be  quite  as  deep  as 
the  Umbre  pass  between  the  Pen  hills  and  the  Khanddla  ghats, 
which  is  a  natural  cart-road  leading  from  the  Amba  Valley  to 
Campoolee. 

The  next  great  gap  to  the  southward  is  that  between  the  Raigarh 
group  of  true  spurs  and  the  Janjira  plateau,  and  it  has  a  tidal  creek 
through  the  middle  of  it.  All  these  ranges  and  passes  lie  more  or 
less  north  and  south,  and  so  naturally  do  the  river  courses  and 
valleys.  And  every  here  and  there,  throughout  the  region  wherever 
the  basalt  is  exposed,  you  come  on  queer  long  straight  cracks  in  the 
rocky  mass,  still  lying  in  the  same  direction  inland ;  these  are 
naturally  appropriated  by  the  drainage  water,  which  has  in  the 
course  of  ages  modified  them  considerably.  On  the  coast  they  form 
channels  through  the  reefs,  and  landing  places,  where  these  would, 
if  entire,  forbid  all  landing. 

As  far  as  I  am  aware  the  whole  system   is  confined  to   a    very 
limited  area,  of  which  Bombay  Harbour  is  nearly  the  centre,  and 
5a 


380      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

the  comers  may  be  placed  roughly  at  the  Malsej  and  Fitzgerald 
ghats,  and  the  mouths  of  the  Savitri  and  Waitarna.  Future  survey, 
or  correspondence  from  gentlemen  who  know  more  than  I  of 
the  neighbouring  districts,  may  perhaps  extend  these  limits ;  but,  as 
far  as  I  can  find  out  at  present,  they  are  pretty  nearly  those  of  the 
great  break-off. 

The  main  external  interest  of  the  whole  subject  is  that  the  exist- 
ence of  modern  Bombay  is  due  to  this  forgotten  subsidence  of  the 
basalt  floor  of  the  land.  Without  it,  indeed,  there  would  doubtless 
have  been  ports  here,  as  there  were  in  different  ages  on  other  parts 
of  the  coast.  But  for  the  growth  of  modern  Bombay  were  wanted  an 
islet  and  a  harbour,  where  the  infant  settlement  and  its  weak  fleets 
were  secured  from  Mogul  and  Maratha  armies,  and  where  the  great 
ships  of  modern  commerce  can  get  shelter  in  deep  water  at  all 
seasons. 

The  subsidence  that  buried  Mr.  Ormiscon's  Khalr  forest  under 
what  is  now  the  Prince's  Dock  has  resulted,  in  due  course  of  time, 
in  the  growth  of  its  wood  of  masts  and  other  objects  less  picturesque, 

I  have  only  to  remark,  in  conclusion,  that  I  do  not  think  it  safe 
to  assume  that  this  event  was  witnessed  by  any  human  being.  The 
fact  that  burnt  logs  were  found  in  the  buried  forest  is  not  in  itself 
conclusive.  A  forest  fire  might  be  started  by  volcanic  agency,  or 
by  lightning,  or,  even  it  is  said,  by  the  rubbing  together  of  dead 
bamboos  in  the  wind. 

Now  Khair  forests  are  things  well  known  to  us  to-day,  and  we 
know  that  a  fire  will  pass  through  them,  consuming  the  dry  grass 
and  scanty  fallen  leaves,  and  igniting  dry  fallen  trees,  without 
seriously  injuring  those  still  "  a-growing  and  a-blowing.''  Such 
fallen  trees  once  alight  will  continue  to  smoulder,  until  the  fire  is 
extinguished  by  a  shower,  or  even  by  a  heavy  dew. 


WOUNDED  BEAR  CHARGING  UP  A  TREE. 

By  J.  D.  Inverarity. 

It  is  well  known  that  bears  are  good  climbers,  and  that  they  are 
in  the  habit  of  ascending  trees  after  bees'  nests  and  jungle  fruits. 


i         ■        > 


Journ  Bo-mb.Nat.Hlst.Soc. 


WOUNDED     BEAR     CHARGlNS   UP  A  TREE . 


WOumBD  BEAR  CHARGING  UP  A  TREE.  381 

That  they  charge  readily  enough  if  encountered  on  foot  is  familiar 
to  all  sportsmen.  The  incident  I  am  about  to  relate  of  a  bear  charg- 
ing up  a  tree  at  its  adversary  is,  I  think,  uncommon,  although  I 
remember  on  a  previous  occasion  seeing  a  wounded  bear  charge  to 
the  foot  of  the  tree  from  which  it  was  fired  at,  and  rear  itself  up 
against  a  ladder  on  the  top  rung  of  which  was  seated  Colonel  Bowie, 
now  Inspector- General  of  Police,  Central  Provinces, 

On  May  17th,  1800,  I  was  beating  a  rocky  hill  in  the  Central 
Provinces,  and  was  posted  in  a  Saj   tree  ( the  Black  Eque ),  when  a 
she-bear  galloped  by  at  a  few  yards'  distance.     I  shot  her,  and  she 
rolled  about  on  the  ground  after  the  manner  of  bears,  complaining 
bitterly.     I  fired  the  second  barrel  at  her  as  she  lay  on  her  back,  which 
appeared  to  act  like  a  tonic,  as  she  jumped  up,  charged  straight  at  the 
tree,  and  at  once  began  to  climb  it.     So  quickly  did  she  come,  that, 
although  I  never  reloaded  quicker  in  my  life,  she  redched  my  legs 
just  as  I  got  one  barrel  reloaded.     She  was  on  the  point  of  seizing 
my  leg  with  her  teeth  when  I  fired  and  dropped  her.     My  hat  fell 
off  in  the  scrimmage,  and  on  reaching  the  ground  she  tore  the  inside 
out.     She  then  made  off  at  a  slow  walk ;  I  reloaded  and  hit  her  with 
both  barrels,  knocking  her  down  once,  and,  though  all  the  shots  but 
one  she  had  received  were  well  forward,  she  was  still  able  to  walk, 
and  was  finished  by  a  shot  from  my  companion.   Captain  Burton, 
Royal  Fusiliers,  who  was  posted  about  100  yards  from  me.    This 
was  a  case  which  one  occasionally  meets  with  in  sporting  prints, 
appropriately  headed  "  Extraordinary  Tenacity  of  Life  in  a  Bear. "  The 
shot  in  the  tree  I  found  had  hit  her  inside  the  head  of  the  humerus, 
breaking  the  scapula,  and  so  close  was  she  that  the  hair  on  her  face 
and  chest  was  singed  with  the  flash,  and  the  wads  were  driven  into 
the  wound :  I  found  them  resting  against  the  head  of  the  humerus. 
The  express  bullet  had  split  up  on  the  scapula  and  only  a  small 
fragment  had  entered  the  cavity  of  the  chest.     My  mala  was  tied 
on  the  lowest  branch  of  the  tree,  and  I  was  sitting  13  feet  from   the 
orround.     The  stem  of  the  tree  was  3  feet  6  inches  in  circumference, 
two  feet  from  the  ground,  or  about  14  inches  in  diameter.     The  bole 
of  the  tree  was  perpendicular  with  only  one  small  shoot  at  a  distance 
of  5  feet  from  the  ground.     My  legs  hung  down  alongside  the  tree, 
so  that  my  feet  were  at  a  height  of  11  feet  6  inches.     The  highest 


382        JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

claw  marks  of  the  bear  were  11  feet  6  inches  high,  alongside  my 
right  foot.     The  above  details  are  given  from  actual  measurement. 

In  order  to  carry  away  with  me  an  accurate  record  of  the  incident, 
I  tied  the  defunct  bear  to  the  tree,  and  with  the  able  assistance  of 
Captain  Burton  took  a  photograph,  with  the  result  depicted  opposite. 
Although,  of  course,  the  bear  was  dead,  the  picture  gives  a  correct 
representation  of  the  tree.  The  bear,  however,  is  too  low,  as  her 
highest  claw  marks  were  at  the  point  my  right  foot  touches. 

As  I  had  other  things  to  think  of  I  am  not  sure  if  I  observed 
accurately  the  manner  of  climbing,  but  she  appeared  to  me  to  swarm 
up  with  her  belly  close  to  the  tree  and  her  legs  well  round  the  bole- 

A  man  I  had  as  a  stop  in  a  tree  100  yards  off  was  loud  in  his 
lamentations,  and  was  with  difficulty  convinced  I  was  unhurt.  He 
then  somewhat  inconsequently  remarked  that  I  was  his  father  and 
his  mother. 


SECOND  LIST  OF  CHIN-LUSHAI  BUTTERFLIES. 

By  Lionel  de  Nic£ville. 

This  list  is  a  little  larger  than  the  one  previously  given,  and  is  more 
interesting,  as  in  many  cases  the  exact  localities  where  the  speci- 
mens were  captured  and  the  dates  of  capture  are  given.  The  species 
enumerated  were  collected  by  Mr.  F.  E.  Dempster,  of  the  Telegraph 
Department,  during  the  Chin- Lush ai  Expedition  of  1889-90.  The 
species  recorded  are  deposited  in  the  Museum  of  the  Bombay 
Natural  History  Society. 

'*  Not?;. — The  specimens  for  which  the  dates  and  locality  of  capture  are  not  given 
were  found  generally  distributed  along  all  the  streams.  D.  chrysippus  was  found 
everywhere,  also  P.  genutia.  Noted  at  Bwetet  as  it  was  high  on  the  hills.  E.  godartii 
general.  M.  runeha  common  everywhere.  Ypthima  common  everywhere  Elyninias 
undularis  only  found  on  low  ground,  not  on  the  high  hills  at  all.  I  saw  no  specimens 
of  this  over  1,000  feet  above  sea  level." — (F.  E.  Detnpstei\) 

Family  NYMPH ALID^, 

Subfamily  Danatn^. 
] .     Danais  melanoideSj  Moore, 
Laivar  Stream,  27-3-90. 


CmS-LUSHAI  BITTERFLJES  ob.; 


2.     D(iK(HS  mehuieus,  Craniei'. 
Lamtok,  6-4-90, 

8,     Bcuiais  c/irt/sippus,  LiiiiiiOu>5. 

4.  Dana  is  geniUia,  Cramer. 

Bwetet,  8-2-90. 

5.  pAiphea  midaimis,  Liiiua3us. 

Lamtok,  6-4-90;  Kan,  8-1-90. 
0      Pffflfpa  (jodartii,  Lucas. 

Subfamily  Sai v k i n .>:. 

7.  Mi/valem  vunclxa,  Moore. 

9-12-89. 

8.  MijcaJesis  mineuH,  Liimaiiis. 
fK     Mi/cakm  perseus,  Fabriciiis. 

Maw  Valley,  2-1-90. 
^  10.     Mi/cakm  rudis,  Moo7*e. 

Yokwa,  3-2-90,  11-3-90;  Rawvaii,  27-^J-'"J. 

11.  Let/ie  curopa,  Fabricius. 

19.3-90. 

1 2.  Lfihc  dyrta,  Folder. 

Toungtek,  17-3-90. 
lo      Ldhe  rohrla,  Fabricius. 

Toungtek,  17-3-90;  Laivar,  27-3-90. 
14.      Ypihinia  huvhneri,  Kirby. 
1'").     Mehoiitia  kda,  Linntcus. 

Tliilin,  10-12-89;  Maw  Valley,  1-1-V»0. 
lo.     Mela  nit  is  hehy  Moore. 

17.  Melanitis  zitenius,  Herbst. 

Kan,  8-1-90,  19-3-90. 

Subfamily  Elymminvh. 

18.  Ehjinnias  undularis,  Drury. 

Loungliiit,  19-3-90. 

Subfamily  Xymphalin.^. 

19.  ErgoUs  ariadne,  Linnaeus. 

20.  Cupha  erymanthiSy  Drury. 

Choungkwa,  24-3-90,  25-3-90. 


3i5i     JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

2 1 .  Atella  sin  ha,  KoUar. 

Lamtok,  6-4-90 ;  Choungkwa,  24-3-90. 

22.  Atella  p/ialantha,  Drury. 

Bwetet,  8-2-90  ;  Lounghut,  1 9-3-90. 
2'K     Cethosia  cyane,  Drury, 

24.  Ajjatura  namouna,  Doubleday. 

Lamtok,  5-4-90. 

/      25.     Hestina  7iama,  Doubleday. 

Choungwa,  25-3-90  ;  Toungtek,  17-3-90;  Lai var,  27-3-90  ; 
Lamtok,  6-4-90, 

2i),     Precis  iphita,  Cramer. 

Mcnoo,  12-2-90;  Bwetet,  3-2-90. 

27.     Junonla  lemonias,  Liiina3us. 

25,  Junonia  hierta,  Fabricius.     This  specimen  noted,  as  Huka  is 

over  6,000  feet. 

Haka,  15-2-90, 
2).     Junonia  orithyiay  Linnaeus. 

Menoo,  12-2-90. 
30.     Neptis  hordoniay  Stoll, 

Laivar,  31-3-90. 

•U.     JVeptis  varmona,  Moore, 

Bwetet,  8-2-90 ;  Lamtok,  6-4-90. 
o2.     Neptis  op)Jiiana,  Moore, 

Lounghut,  19-3-90. 
y    -]-J.     Argi/nnls  niphe,  Linnaeus, 

Haka,  23-2-90. 

^   o4.     Lebadea  attenuata,  Moore. 

Kan,  8-1-90;  Lamtok,  6-4-90.     Found  in  same  localities 
and  not  elsewhere  as  E,  undularU. 

o5.     Athyma  periuSy  Linnaeus. 
Menoo,  12-2-90. 
f  36.     Atliyma  opalina,  KoUar. 
Eawvan,  27-3-90. 

37,  Atliyma  selenophora^  Kollar.  . 

25-3-90. 

38,  Symphcedra  dirtea,  Fabricius. 


CHIN-LUSHAI  BUTTERFLIES,  385 

39.  Enthalia  lepideay  Butler. 

Maw  Valley,  1-1-90,  2-1-90. 

40.  Vanessa  canace,  Linnaeus. 

Menoo,  12-2-90  ;  Yokwa,  3-2-90.    Over  3,000  feet  above  sea 
level. 

41.  Cyrcstis  thyodamasy  Boisduval. 

Lamtok,  6-4-90. 

42.  Kallima  inachiSy  BoisduvaL 

Laivar,  27-3-90  ;  Lamtok,  6-4-90. 

43.  Charaxes  athamaa,  Drury. 

25-3-90. 

44.  Charaxes  arja,  Feldcr. 

45.  Charaxes  fahius,  Fabricius. 

Lounghut,  19-3-90. 
40.     Charaxes  harpax,   Fclder.      Yokwa  3-90.  ],00(»   loot   below 

Yokwa. 
47.     Charaxes  hierax,  Felder. 

Yokwa,  25-3-90 ;  Choungkwa,  23-3-90. 
^  48.     Charaxes  endamippus,  Doubleday. 
Lamtok,  6-4-90. 

Family  LEMONIIDJi. 

Subfamily  Libyth-isinm':. 

?*     49.     Libythea  lepita,  Moore. 

Bwetet,  8-2-90  ;  Ilaka,  19-2-90. 

Subfamily  Nemeobiin^i:. 
>"    50.    Zemeros  flegyas,  Cramer. 

Menoo,  12-2-90. 
>    51.    Abisara  suff'usa, 'Moore. 

Bwetet,  8-2-90. 
^    52.     Dodona  ouida,  Moore. 

Menoo,  12-2-90  ;  Haka,  15-2-90. 

Family  LYC^NID.i]. 

"  The  majority  of  the  XyccenidcB  were  caught  on  the  Poungdaung  Kange  near  Paut, 
about  1,500  feet  above  sea  level."— (Dcmpater.) 

iS    53.     Chilades  trochilus,  Freyer. 
^;    54.     Zizera  otis,  Fabricius. 


3^r        JOUliXAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1?90. 

55.  Jam  ides  bochi(ii,  Cramer. 

ThiHu,  9-12-90  ;  Myittha  River  Rapids,  19-4-90. 

56.  Lampidcs  c/j)is,  Godart. 

57.  Lamp  ides  alianus,  Fj^bricius. 

Choungwa,  25-3-90  ;  Thilin,  9-12-89. 

58.  Catochrf/sops  straho,  Fabricius. 

59.  Cafochn/sops  pandava,  Horsfield. 

60.  Tarncus  pliniiis,  Fabricius. 

61.  CastaUus  rosimoHy  Fabricius. 

62.  CastaUus  ethion.  Doubleday  and  Hewitson. 
^    63.  Arhopala  dodowea,  Moore. 

Lamtok,  6-4-90. 
V     64.     Curetts  bulis,  Doubleday  and  Hewitson 
Lounghut,  19-3-90. 
65.     Ilerda  epicles,  Godart. 

Laivar,  27-3-90. 
^%.     AphncBUS  syama,  Ilorslield. 
^    67.     HypolyccBua  enjlas,  Godart. 

68.     Cheritra  freja,  Fabricius. 
n   69.     Catopoecilma  elegans,  Druce. 
Lounghut,  19-3-90. 

70.  Loxura  atymnus,  Cramer. 

71.  Rapala  melampus,  Cramer. 

Family  PAPILIONID  J^l 

Subfamily  Piekix^i^. 

72.  Nichitonia  xipJiia^  Fabricius.    Common  everywhere. 

73.  Mancipium  eanidia,  Sparrman. 

Boinu  River,  25-2-90. 

74.  Huphina  phryne,  Fabricius. 

Laivar,  31-3-90. 
^  75.     Appias  hippoideSy  Moore. 
76.     Appias  zelmira,  Cramer. 
19-4-90. 
>   77.     Prioneris  tkestylis,  BoisduvaL 
Yokwa,  3-2-90. 


CnlX'LUSHAJ  BUTTERFLIES.  387 

78.  Terias  hecahc,  LinniBus.     Coininon  everywhere. 

79.  Catopsilia  crocaJe^  Cramer. 

80.  Hehonioia  glaucippc,  Linnteiis.     Common  everywhere. 

81.  Nepheronia  giva,  Felder.    Common  everywhere. 

Kan,  8-1-90;  Maw  Valley,  2-1-90. 

82.  Delias  agoatina,  lie  wit  son 

Kvin,  30-12-89. 

83.  Delias  descombes,  Boisduval. 

Laivar  Stream,  27-3-90. 

84.  Delias  pasifhoe.  Linnaeus.       )  -» 

'  Kawvan, 

85.  Delais  pyramtiSy  Wallace.      3 

"  Thcso  were  the  only   spocies   of  Delias  I  saw,  and  I   only   saw    very    few  more 
specimeus." — (Demj^ster.) 

Subfamily   r\riLioM:x-T:. 

^  86.     Otyiifhoplera  pompeiis,  Cramer. 
Lamtok,  6-4-90. 

87.  Papilio  nomius,  Espor. 

Lounghut,  19-3-90.      , 

88.  Papilio  enn/pglus,  Lini}reus. 

25-3-90;  Lamtok,  6-4-90. 
^    89.     Papilio  phi lojren US,  Gray. 

Laivar,  27-3-90  ;  Boinu  River,  25-2-90 
§    90.     Papilio  pal f/fes,  Linmeus. 

8-3-90. 
>  91.     Papilio  mackaony  Lin  mens. 

Haka,  15-2-90. 

92.  Papilio  parts y  LinmiRus. 

Lamtok,  6-4-90;  Choungkwa;  18-3-90. 

93 .  Papilio  dissim  His,  Linn  aeus. 

Lounghut,  19-3-90;  Bwetet,  8-2-90,  25-3-90 

94.  Papilio  onpape,  Moore. 

LaiA^ar,  31.3-90  ;  Lounghut,  19-3-90. 
$   95.     Papilio  androgens^  Cramer. 
Maw  Valley,  2-1-90. 
51 


•'388      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1800. 

Family  HESPERIID^. 

*    96.     Chapra  promineus,  Moore. 

Bwetet,  8-2-90  ;  Yokwa,  3-2-90,  5  3-90. 

97.  Chapra  mathias,  Fabricius. 

Bwetet,  8-2-90. 

98.  Udaspes  foluf^y  Cramer. 

Laivar,  31-3-90  ;  Haka,  22-2-90. 
V  99.     Paclraona  mcesa,  Moore, 
liaivar,  31-3-90. 

100.  Pmmara  heraniy  Moore. 

Bwetet,  11-2-90. 

101.  Antigouns  sura^  Moore. 

Choimgkwa,  25-3-90. 

102.  Astictoptenis  sakala,  Moore. 


^NICTUS   {TYPHLATTA)  AND  SOME  NEW  GENERA  OF 

FORMICIDiE. 

By  Auguste  Forel^  Professor  at  the  Ziirich  University. 

(Translated  hy  R.  C,  Wroughton,  Poena,  from  the  Proceedings  of  the 
Societe  Entomologique  de^  Belgique,  7th  June,  1890.) 

Shuckard  first  advanced  the  theory  that  the  supposed  family  of 
DorylidcB  contained  the  males  only  of  certain  ants.  Shnckard  argued 
most  truly,  and  divined  the  truth  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  West- 
wood  and  others.  The  discoveries  of  Gerstaecker,  Trimen  and 
others  have  confirmed  the  fact  that  the  Typhhpone  ( West. )  are  only 
the  S  (workers)  of  Dorylus,  Further,  the  remarkable  observations 
of  Wilhelm  Miiller  at  Itajahy,  and  the  discovery  of  Hetschks  have 
confirmed  the  analogous  hypothesis  of  Sumichrast  and  Smith,  and 
have  shown  that  the  Lahidus  of  America  are  only  the  i  (male&)  of 
JSciton,  even  though  the  Lahidus  have  only  one  knot  in  the  pedicle, 
and  that  the  Eciton  with  their  pedicle  of  two  knots  had  till  then  been 
classed  as  Myrmecidce,  There  remain  the  genera  u^ni^tus  and 
Rhogmus  of  the  IDorylidxe,  of  wtich  the  5  has  so  far  remained 
unknown.     By  analogy  it  could  be  surmised  that  the  genus  Typhlatta 


SOME  GENERA  OF  FORMICIDJE,  ^9 

{ Smith)  must  i*epresent  the  $^  of  JEnidus.  ^nidus  and  Typhlatta 
inhabit  tropical  Asia,  and  have  affinities  analogous  to  tliose  between 
LahiduH  and  Eciton, 

Emery  {  Bulktin  de  la  Soc.  eutom,  ifaL,  1887  )  advanced  this 
hypothesis,  which  for  that  matter  was  self-evident  once  the  ?  of 
Dovylus  and  Lahidus  were  known. 

Mr.  R.  C.  AVroughton,  Divisional  Forast  Officer,  Poona,  having 
sent  me  last  year  JEnldm  ambiguus  (Shuck.)  and  a  new  ^ nidus,  I 
called  his  attention  to  the  interesting  problem  of  the    J  of  jEnidus, 

I  have  just  received  from  Mr.  Wroughton  a  third  species  of 
JEiiidus,  in  company  with  a  new  species  of  Tyjyhkitta  taken  together. 
The  problem  is  thei'efoi^  solved,  and  the  honour  belongs  to 
Mr.  Wroughton,  who  writes  laconically  and  prudently:- — '*  There  are 
some,  what  seem  to  me  to  be,  ^nldaSy  n.  sp.,  taken  by  Mr.  Gloadow  iu 
Thana.  Had  I  been  there  I  might  haA^e  settled  the  question  of 
the    ?  and   $  ,  but  I  have  failed  to  find  a  nest  so  far/' 

The  result  of  this  important  discovery  is  that  the  genus  Typhlatta^ 
Smith,  (1858,  Proc.  Liiuu  Soc,  ZooL  II.)  must  be  dro-pped  as 
a  s^'nonjm  of  the  genus  ^y/*c?^W6";  Shuckard  (Ami.  and  Mag,  Nat. 
JIlsL,  vol.  v.,  1840,  p.  26G  ). 

The  capture  of  the  ^ nidus  Wroughfonil,.  with  its  g  was  made  on 
31st   March,   1890.     This  date  is  most  important  as  giving  the  time 
of  the  year  at  which  there  is  a  likelihood  of  finding  tlie  winged  $   in 
the  nest.     As  in  the  genus  Edton  the   <^   has  one  knot  and  the  J 
two  knots  in  the  pedicle  [i.e.  of  the  abdomen). 

Genus  ^ENICTUS,  Shuchard  [Ann  and  Mag,  Nat  Hist,) 
=  TYPHLATTA,  Smith  [Proc,  Linn.  Soc,  Zool,  1858). 

Mnictus  Wroughtonii,  n.  sp. 

§  Length  2*5  mm.  Narrow  and  rather  elongate.  Head  narrow, 
elongate,  the  sides  rather  convex,  and  the  posterior  edge  short  and 
rather  rounded  as  in  JE,  laeviceps ;  but  the  head  is  much  narrower  and 
longer  than  in  that  species.  Anterior  edge  of  epistome  crenelate  or 
denticulate,  not  entirely  hidden  by  the  frontal  ridges.  No  distinct 
frontal  groove.  Terminal  edge  of  mandibles  rather  long,  micros- 
copically   denticulate,    with    one    stout    tooth,    at    the   extremity. 


390      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY   NATURAL  HISTORY  SO CtETV,  1890. 

Mandibles  smooth,  shining,  with  some  hair-bearing  pits.  The 
antennae  are  rather  long  ;  the  joints  of  the  ftmiculum  are  all  longer 
than  broad,  as  in  ^,  heviceps  (joints  3  and  4  twice  as  long  as  broad)* 
Thorax  long,  narrow,  strongly,  and,  for  some  distance,  constricted 
in  the  posterior  portion  of  the  mesonotum  ;  its  dorsal  profile  is 
strongly  hollowed  ;  the  depression  is  markedly  long,  and  divides 
the  thorax  exactly  in  two  parts.  Pro-mesonotal  suture  obsolete. 
Basal  area  of  the  metanotum  convex,  very  narrow,  compressed  ;  the 
small  sloping  area  entirely  surrounded  by  a  ridge.  First  knot  of 
pedicle  compressed,  rounded,  higher  behind  than  in  front,  nearly 
three  times  as  long  as  broad,  slightly  convex  beneath  but  not  toothed. 
Second  knot  rounded,  scarcely  longer  than  broad,  with  a  very  small 
tooth  beneath,  in  front.  Pygidiura  rather  overhung  by  the  penul- 
timate abdominal  segment. 

Whole  insect  smooth  and  very  shiny,  except  the  sloping  area  of 
the  metanotum,  which  has  some  veiy  fine  transverse  wrinkles. 
Half-erect,  rather  oblique,  pale  yellow,  short,  pointed  hairs  abundant 
on  the  legs  and  antenna},  less  so  on  the  body ;  almost  no  pubescence. 

Whole  insect  a  shiuing  yellow,  somewhat  transparent ;  faintly 
reddish  or  brownish. 

$  Length  5*3  mm.  The  joints  of  the  f  uniculum  of  the  antennae  are 
all  cylindrical  and  much  longer  than  broad,  except  the  1st  scapes, 
thighs,  and  femoral  rings  depressed  { flattened ),  but  nevertheless 
somewhat  elongate;  the  scapes  are  triangular  as  in  ^  Fece  (yerj 
broad  at  the  tip,  narrow  at  the  base);  tibiae  are  similarly  shaped,  but 
are  only  slightly  flattened  and  less  enlarged  at  the  tip.  The  thighs 
are  as  broad  and  flattened  at  the  base  as  at  the  tip  (in  ^,  Fece  they 
are  only  flattened  at  the  tip).  The  mandibles  are  rather  long  and 
broad,  nearly  as  broad  near  the  tip  as  at  the  base,  terminating  in  a  blunt 
point,  smooth,  shining,  hairy,  evenly  and  moderately  curved.  The 
head  is  not  much  broader  than  long  ;  the  eyes  only  occupy  the 
anterior  two- third  of  its  sides.  The  head  is  narrowed  behind  the  eyes, 
but  its  lateral  edge  is  there  distinct  from  the  occipital  edge.  Frontal 
rido-es  rather  close  together,  rather  closer  together  than  the  inner 
edge  of  the  mandibles.  The  ocelli  are  not  very  large,  and  are  not 
placed  on  a  special  eminence.  The  face  between  the  eyes  seen  from 
above  shows  as  a  verv  feeble  transverse  concavitv.     The  mesonotum 


SOME  GENERA  OF  FORMICW^E.  391 

does  not  overhang  the  pronotum,  but  is  strongly  convex  and  reaches 
to  the  anterior  limit  of  the  thorax.  Pedicle  with  only  one  knot, 
much  broader  than  long,  concave  beneath,  anterior  and  posterior 
edges  concave,  the  latter  much  broader  than  the  former;  sides 
convex,  converging  anteriorly.  The  two  halves  of  the  pedicle  forra 
as  it  were  two  wings  as  in  the  other  species  of  the  genus.  Beneath, 
the  pedicle  is  armed  with  a  largo  tooth,  very  long,  and  very  thick, 
and  ending  in  a  blunt  point ;  the  anterior  face  of  this  tooth  is 
oblique,  its  posterior  vertical  (  very  slightly  curved  backwards). 

The  whole  body  smooth  and  shining,  with  very  fine,  scattered 
hair-bearing  pits,  wanting  in  places. 

Pubescence  greyish-yellow,  rather  long,  more  or  less  all  over  the 
body.  On  the  pedicle  it  forms  a  greyish  nap,  on  the  thorax  the 
pubescence  is  much  less  close  and  permits  the  sculpture  to  be  seen. 
On  the  abdomen  the  pubescence  is  shorter  and  very  sparse,  while  on 
the  head  and  on  the  sloping  area  of  the  metanotum  it  is  almost 
absent.  On  the  face,  and  the  undurside  of  the  body  {  especially  of 
the  pedicle)  and  on  the  thighs  are  long  curved  hairs.  Tliere  are  some 
few  somewhat   scattered  erect   hairs  on  the  legs,  otherwise  there  are 

no  erect  hairs. 

Black  tintjfed  with  brown.     Extremitv  and  underside  of  the  abdo- 

men,  tooth  of  the  pedicle  and  antenna3  of  a  reddish-  or  yellowish -brown. 

Legs  and  pcriforal  half  of  mandibles  yellow-testaceous. 
Wings  faintly   tinged    with   brown,    finely  pubescent,   with   the 

marginal  spot  and  the  nervures    blackish-brown.     The   radial   cell 

closed.     The   transverse  nervure  is  long,  and  joins  the  outer  cubital 

branch  close  to  its  starting  point, 

Thana,  31st  March,  1890,    5  and  $  taken  together. 

This  species  is  distinguished  by  the  hollowed  thorax,  slender  and 

very  elongate  form,   and   smooth  and  shining   metanotum  of  its   8 . 

The  $  is  also  very  distinct  from  the  species  alreadj''  described. 

Genus  TEIGONOGASTER,  n.  gen. 

General  aspect  of  al^/ieidole  5  .  Antennae  11 -jointed  ;  club  three 
jointed,  the  club  is  as  long  as  the  rest  of  the  funiculum  ;  the  last 
joint  is  if  anything  longer  than  the  two  preceding  combined,  the 
penultimate  is  thicker,  but  barely  longer  than  the  antepenultimate, 


302      JOURNAL,  BO^MBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

which  is  twice  as  long  as  the  7th  joint.  Maxillary  palpi  5- jointed, 
labial  3-jointed.  Mandibles  armed  with  4  stout  teeth.  Epistome 
strongly  vaulted,  furnished  with  2  longitudinal  ridges,  it  forms 
posteriorly  a  boss  between  the  frontal  ridges,  which  are  short,  but 
fairly  high.  Frontal  area  narrow  and  deep ;  frontal  groove  short. 
Eyes  placed  rather  in  front  of  the  sides  of  the  head.  Thorax  con- 
stricted behind  the  mesonotum  ;  pronotum  and  mesonotum  moderately 
vaulted,  the  latter  rather  the  more  so ;  the  former  more  flattened 
and  narrower  than  in  P/ieidole,  Metanotum  armed  with  2  stout  spines, 
elegantly  curved  forward.  The  first  knot  of  pedicle  with  a  rather 
long  and  anteriorly  broad  petiole  ;  this  petiole,  somewhat  concave 
above  and  convex  beneath,  is  furnished  beneath,  anteriorly,  with  a 
small  tooth,  and  posteriorly  with  a  somewhat  small,"  conical,  squami- 
form  protuberance.  The  second  knot  is  very  low,  broader  than  long, 
rounded  anteriorly,  and  broadly  attached  posteriorly  to  the  abdomen. 
Abdomen  small;  seen  from  above  it  is  narrow  in  front,  and  feebly 
enlarged  to  the  end  of  the  first  segment.  The  other  segments  appear 
only  as  a  small  cone  projecting  beyond  the  first  segment.  Side  view, 
the  abdomen  is  triangular,  the  sides  of  the  triangle  are  somewhat 
convex.  The  profile  forms  an  isosceles  triangle,  of  which  the  base, 
formed  by  the  flattened  upper  surface  of  the  abdomen,  is  longer  than 
the  two  sides.  The  summit  of  the  triangle  (more  properly  of  the 
cone),  is  almost  in  the  middle  of  the  underside  of  the  first  segment, 
which  of  itself  constitutes  nearly  the  whole  ventral  (as  it  does  the 
dorsal)  surface.  Erect  hairs  of  the  body  toothed  and  blunt  as  in  the 
genus  Le'ptothorax. 

This  singular  ant  is  closely  allied  to  the  genus  Pheidole,  but  there 
was  no  "  soldier"  among  the  specimens  sent  me  by  Mr.  Wroughton. 
Otherwise  the  head  is  smaller,  and  the  club  of  the  antennae  recalls 
only  that  of  certain  aberrant  species.  The  species  of  Pheidole.  have 
1 2  -jointed  antennae,  except  Ph,  quadrkpinosa,  which  has  11.  However, 
the  singular  form  of  the  abdomen,  the  form  of  the  epistome,  and  the 
low  and  narrow  pronotum  isolate  this  insect  sufficiently  to  found  on  it 
a  genus.     All  the    g    seem  to  be  the  same  size. 

Trigonogaster  recurvisjwwsus,  n.  sp. 

g  Length  about  2  mm.     Characters  of   the  genus.     Head  nearly 
jgquare,   slightly   longer  than   broad,  hollowed  posteriorly,  the  sides 


SOME  GENERA  OF  FORMICWjE,  3^ 

faintly  convex.  The  scape  does  not  quite  reacli  the  posterior  edge 
of  the  head.  Mandibles  narrow,  crossed,  the  terminal  edge  short, 
armed  with  4  stout  teeth.  Epistome  truncate  anteriorly,  very  high 
and  vaulted  posteriorly.  The  eyes  have  rather  straight  lateral 
edges,  and  the  anterior  extremity  almost  pointed.  Mesonotum  small. 
Pro-mesonotal  suture  faint;  meso-metatlioracic  constriction  consider- 
able. Basal  area  of  the  metanotum  horizontal,  narrow,  much  longer 
than  broad,  longer  than  the  sloping  area.  Knot  of  first  joint  of 
pedicle  attenuate  at  its  summit. 

Mandibles  rugose,  rather  shiny.  The  whole  body,  from  one  end 
to  the  other,  including  the  sloping  area  of  the  metanotum,  densely 
and  finely  reticulate-punctate,  and  lustreless  or  almost  sub-opaque. 
Legs  and  scapes  reticulate.  Some  coarser  longitudinal  wrinkles  on 
the  cheeks. 

Pubescence  sparse,  short  on  the  whole  body,  slightly  more  abun- 
dant on  the  legs  and  scape ;  the  recumbent  hairs  are  curved.  The 
erect  hairs  very  sparse,  stiff,  blunt,  rather  short ;  the  erect  hairs 
(except  about  the  mouth  and  under  the  abdomen)  are  very  distinctly 
denticulate  under  the  microscope,  which  gives  them  a  somewhat 
ragged  look  under  a  magnifying  glass ;  they  are  identical  with  those 
of  the  genus  Leptofhorax, 

Reddish  yellow ;  legs,  mandibles,  antennae,  pedicle,  and  abdomen  a 
paler  yellow.  A  brownish  band  very  indistinct  and  interrupted  in 
the  middle  t)f  the  abdomen. 

Poena  (India),  collected  by  Mr.  R.  C.  Wroughton. 

Genus  EMERY  I  A,  n.  gen. 

5  Mandibles  very  long,  very  narrow,  without  a  terminal  edge, 
nearly  straight  for  the  basal  half,  curved  beyond,  terminating  in  a 
long  sharp  point,  slightly  broadened  and  flattened  about  the  middle, 
narrowed  near  the  base,  without  any  trace  of  teeth.  They  leave 
between  them  a  large  empty  space,  and  resemble  those  of  the  ^'soldier" 
of  Myrmecocystus  bofnbycinus.  Epistome  furnished  with  two  keels, 
hollowed  and  deeply  grooved  between.  This  groove  is  produced 
between  the  frontal  ridges,  and  as  a  frontal  groove  as  far  as  the 
middle  of  the  vertex.  No  ocelli.  Head  broadened  and  rounded  pos- 
teriorly, narrowed  anteriorly  ;  it  has  however  a  posterior  edge  ;   eyes 


394      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

rather  small,  situated  in  the  anterior  one-third  of  the  head.  Frontal 
ridges  rather  short.  Antennae  11- jointed;  the  last  joint,  very  large 
and  very  thick,  alone  forms  the  club.  The  scape  is  far  from  reaching 
the  posterior  edge  of  the  head.  The  pronotum  has  two  distinct 
shoulders,  and  forms  anteriorly  near  its  articulation  distinct  steps. 
Themesonotum  is  short  and  very  broad;  its  lateral  edge  forms  on  each 
side  a  triangular  protuberance  like  a  large  festoon.  Metanotum  armed 
with  two  short  spines.  Pedicle  as  in  the  genus  Cardiocondi/la.  The 
first  joint  is  petiolate  anteriorly,  and  has  a  flattened  knot,  longer  than 
broad.  The  second  joint  is  broad,  broader  than  long,  narrowed  and 
concave  anteriorly,  slightly  less  narrowed  and  concave  posteriorly, 
rounded  at  the  sides,  flattened  above,  furnished  beneath  with  a  blunt 
tooth.     Abdomen  truncate  anteriorly. 

By  its  mandibles  this  genus,  otherwise  closely  allied  to  Cardiocondf/la, 
differs  from  all  other  Myrmecidce.  It  differs  also  from  Cardiocondyla 
by  its  11- jointed  antennae  and  its  mesonotum. 

Emcryia   WrougJitonii,  n.  sp. 

5  Tjength  r7mm.  Characters  of  the  genus.  Mandibles  smooth 
and  shining.  Head,  for  the  most  part,  smooth  and  shining,  with  some 
large,  sparse,  hair-pearing  pits,  somewhat  effaced  and  somewhat 
rough  at  the  bottom.  These  pits  are  more  abundant  on  the  forehead, 
and  are  accompanied  by  a  few  very  short  and  fine  striations.  -Back 
of  thorax  bounded  by  a  faint  rim.  Pro-mesonotal  suture 
nearly  obsolete  ;  meso-metanotal  suture  very  deep,  but  without  any 
constriction  between  the  meso  and  meta- thorax.  Basal  area  of 
metanotum  more  or  less  horizontal,  much  longer  than  broad.  Spines 
rather  short  and  rather  blunt.  Thorax  irregularly  reticulate, 
punctate,  and  nearly  lustreless,  the  lateral  expansions  of  the  mesono- 
tum give  it  a  peculiar  aspect.  Abdomen  and  pedicle  rather  smooth, 
shining,  very  finely  and  very  sparsely  punctate. 

The  whole  body,  the  legs,  and  the  antennae  rather  abundantly  fur- 
nished with  pale  yellowish,  rather  long,  pubescence,  which,  however, 
does  not  form  a  nap.     Erect  hairs  almost  absolutely  absent. 

Pale  testaceous-yellow ;  mandibles  reddish  ;  abdomen  brownish- 
yellow. 

This  curious  ant  (a  single  g  )  was  found  by  Mr.  R.  C.  Wroughton, 


ISOME  GENERA  OF  FORMICiD.E.  305 

kt  Poona,  with  a  new  species  of  Gardiocondyla^  which  lives  in  blisters 
on  the  leaves  of  Bit^jcnia  jamholana  (blisters  probably  caused  by 
sfnall  grubs).  Is  it,  as  I  am  led  to  believe,  a  case  of  symbiosis, 
analogous  to  that  of  Sti^mjyhgnath.iii  ?  Is  it  a  lusus  naturae  ?  Or  is  it 
possible  that  Emergia  is  the  '  soldier '  of  GarrUocondyla  1  This  last 
supposition  seems  to  me  most  improbable ;  the  other  species  of  Car- 
diocondt/la  have  no  'soldiers/  and  antenna?  in  that  genus  are  12-jointed. 

Genus  TPJGLYPIIOTHRTX,  n  gen. 

8  short,  stoutly  built.  Antennae  12-jointcd;  club  composed  of  three 
unequal  joints.  Epistomc  a«  in  the  genus  Tetramovium ;  its  posterior 
eAge  raised  and  curved  backwards  forms  anteriorly,  as  a  ridge,  the 
boundary  of  the  antennal  groove.  Frontal  ridges  wide  apart,  nearer 
the  outer  edge  than  the  median  line  of  the  head ;  they  are  produced 
backwards  almost  to  the  posterior  angle  of  the  head.  Between  the 
eyes  is  a  wide  and  deei^  double  groove,  which  serves  to  lodge  both  the 
scape  and  funiculum  of  the  antennoe;  to  this  end,  this  groove  is 
bounded  laterally  bv  a  rid^i^e  which,  commencing  from  the  anterior 
angle  of  the  head,  touches  the  interior  edge  of  the  eye,  and  going 
backwards  in  a  curve  is  lost  in  the  posterior  extremity  of  the  pro- 
duced frontal  ridge.  The  double  groove  is  moreover  divided  longi- 
tudinally for  the  anterior  three-fourths  or  four-fifths  of  its  length  by 
a  ridge  which  separates  the  grooves  in  which  are  lodged  the  scape  and 
funiculum  respectively;  anteriorly  this  dividing  ridge  terminates  a  little 
to  one  side  of  the  posterior  recurved  edge  of  the  epistome.  The  back 
of  the  thorax  broad,  bounded  by  a  fai)it  ridge.  Sutures  obsolescent. 
Metanotum  two-sjiined.  Meta-sternum  bi-dentate.  Knots  of  the 
pedicle  verj^  broad ;  the  first  shortly  petiolate.  Abdomen  truncate 
and  notched  anteriorly,  almost  entirely  covered  by  its  1st  segment, 
which  is  bounded  by  a  very  faint  ridge,  especially  anteriorly. 

The  hairs  with  which  the  body  and  extremities  are  abundantly 
covered  have  a  peculiar  structure ;  from  the  bottom  of  each  hair 
bearing  pit  starts  the  stem  of  a  hair  which  almost  immediately 
divides  into  three  diverging  branches,  rarely  more  or  less.  This 
multiplicity  of  trifid  hairs  gives  a  general  woolly  aspect  to  the  insect. 

Otherwise  resembles  the  genus  Teiramcrium,  though  not  without  a 
certain  likeness  to  the  genus    M^'rartajduH,     The  genus  Triglyphothrir 
52 


2P6     JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  mSfORt  SOCIETY.  1890. 

is  ihn»  U>  some  extend  a  connectiiig  link  between  the  Myrmiexnee  and 
the  Cryptocerince,  The  workers  have  a  tendency  to  roll  themselves 
into-  a  ball.  From  this  fact;,  it  seems  to-  me;,  that  Merancyplvts^  i»  de- 
©cended  from  the-  Mynmcinw  through  the  type  Tetramarinm.  The 
genua  THghjjphoihrix  also  resembles  the  genu»  Cahjpiomyrmex  (Enaery ), 
9  like  the  ^  ^  snd  only  slightly  larger  than  it.  Wings  with  « 
single  open  mdial  celL  The  transverse  nervure  joins  the  cubital 
nervure  at  the  point  where  it  forks. 

TriglyjyfiotJiric  Wahhii,  n.  sp. 
5    Length  1*9  to  2*4  mm.     The  mandibles  armed   anteriorly  with 
three   distinct  teeth  and  posteriorly   with    three  others,  small  and 
indistinct,    shining,   with    some  coarse  punctures  and  a  few  short, 
coarse  striures.     Frontal  area  and  groove  absent.     Epistome  coarsely 
wrinkled.  The  whole  head  lusti-eless,  very  coarsely  and  deeply  reticulate 
(at  the  sides  and  beneath)  or  longitudinally  nigose-reticulate,  except 
the  bottom  of  the  double  anteimal  groove,  which  is  shining  and  finely 
Tugose-reticulate,     The  head  is  in  shape  a  trapeze,  with  only  slightly 
diverging   sides,  broader  behind  than  in  fi'ont,  broadly  and  feebly 
notched  posteriorly,  slightly  longer  than  broad.     Thorax  very  short 
and  very  stout,  rather  shorter  than  the  head,  its  buck  very  faintly 
edged,  but  with  two  well-marked  "shoulders"  anterioriy,  feebly  con- 
vex. Basal  area  of  the  metanotum  somewhat  sloping.     The  pronotum 
is  as  broad  as  two-thirds  the  length  of  the  thorax.  Metanotal  s{)ine» 
three-cornered,  broad  at  the  base,  shorter  than  the  distance  between 
them.  The  sloping  area  of  the  metanotum  shining,  with  two  or  three 
marked  transverse   wrinkles,  bounded  by  small  ridges  anteriorly  and 
laterally.  •  The  two  small   lamelliform  metasternal  teeth   are  conti" 
nuations  of  this  ridge.     All  the  rest  of  the  thorax  and  the  pedicle 
(except  the  petiole  of  the  first  knot)  deeply  and  coarsely  reticulated 
and  lustreless.     The  two  knot*  of  the  pedicle  are  of  the  same  length, 
breadth,  and  rounded  form;  they  ure  twice  as  broad  as  long;  the  first 
is  a  trifle  higher  than  the  second,  i^bdonien  a  short  ov^al;  the  anterior 
half   of  first  sjjj^incjit  is   lustreless,    densely   striate    longitudinally. 
The  striures  are  frequently  crossed  by  short  transverse  ridges,  which 
extend  from  one  side  to  the  other,  and  which  represent  a  hair-bearing 
reticulation^  of  which  the  posterior   side  has  disappeared.     The  re- 
mainder of  the  abdomen  and  the  feet  are  smooth  and  shining;  the 


BOMBAY  GARDENS,  39? 

scapes  are  rugose- reticulate.  The  bottom  of  the  coarse  reticulatious 
on  the  head,  thorax,  and  pedicle  cojitaiu  a  small  elevation,  from 
which  starts  a  tiifid  hair. 

The  characteristic  tiifid  hairs  are  somewhat  short,  yellowish- white, 
fairly  evenly  and  abundantly  scafctei'ed,  not  only  over  the  whole  body 
but  also  on  the  thiglis  and  tibiie.  The  tarsi  aiid  antennae  have  scarcely 
any  but  simple,  semi-recumbent  hairs. 

Brown,  Abdomen  dark  brown,  somewhat  blackish.  Feet,  antennao 
and  mandibles  yellowish-brown. 

$  Length  2*7  to  3*0  mm.  Basal  area  of  metanotum  nearly  verti- 
cal, shining,  longitudinally  wrinkled,  ilesonotum  rugo9e,  reticulate 
longitudinally.  Striate  •  portion  of  abdomen  shorter  than  in  5  ,  the 
I'emainder  of  the  abdomen  is  covered  with  a  fine,  sparse  hair-bearing 
punctuation,  more  distinct  than  in  the  J  ,  Thorax  a  little  narrower 
than  the  head,  short.  Abdomen  small.  Wings  almost  hyaline, 
faintly  tinted  with  yellow,  finely  pubescent.  Nervures  and  marginal 
spot  very  pale.     Otherwise  exactly  like  the   8  . 

Poori,  Bengal,  by  Dr.  Jul.  Walsh. 

Poona,  Bombay,  by  Mr.  R.  C.  Wroughton. 

Nests  underground.  Winged  ?  taken  by  Dr.  Walsh  in  second 
half  of  June. 

This  species  is  not  wanting  in  affinity  to  Tetramorinm  obesum 
(Andre),  but  notwithstanding  the  absence  of  mesonotal  spines,  it  is 
almost  as  closely  connected  with  Meranoplus  bicolor.  Among  the 
evidences  of  this  relationsliip  must  not  be  omitted  the  tendency  of 
the  basal  area  of  the  metanotum  to  assume  a  sloping  position,  nor 
the  form  of  the  pedicle  of  the  abdomen. 


BO]\rBAY  GARDENS. 

By  G.  Carstensen,  Superintendent  of  Municipal  Gardens,  Bombay  ; 

Gr.  Hort.  R.  D.  Agr.  Coll.  (Copenhagen). 

{Bead  at  the  Bombay  Natural  History  Society* s  Meeting  on 

Srd  December,  1890.) 
The   object   of    the  present   paper    is  to  give  a  general  outline  of 
gardens   in   Bombay,  to  point  out  the  features  by  which   they  aie 


SaS      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

principally  remarkable,  and  the  peculiar  circumstances  tinder  which 
they  have  been  formed  and  are  kept  up.  All  this  is  well-trodden 
ground  for  most  of  the  Bombay  inhabitants,  who,  I  hope,  will  forgive 
me  in  dealing  with  the  subject  in  a  way  more  calculated  to  be  of 
interest  for  those  to  whom  Bombay  gardens  are  not  yet  an  object  of 
daily  enjoyment,  than  for  those  who  are  already  familiar  with  their 
advantages  and  defects.  Every  European  arriving  in  this  country 
brings  with  him  the  memory  of  the  perfection  which  the  love  of 
plants  and  vegetation  has  caused  our  gardens  at  home  to  attain,  and 
with  the  natural  and  human  constant  desire  for,  and  belief  in,  some- 
thing better,  he  carries  with  him  illusions  of  the  beauty,  glory,  and 
wealth  o£  the  tropical  vegetation  in  which  he  often  believes  to  find 
a  paradise  on  earth.  He  may  be,  and  generally  is,  disappointed, 
or  rarely,  the  luxuriance  of  the  vegetation  may  appear  to  him  even 
greater  than  fuiticipated,  so  much  depends  on  the  season  at  which 
he  arrives,  or  on  the  locality  in  which  he  settles  down.  In  one 
respect,  however,  he  •  is  always  sure  to  be  disappointed — in  the 
expectation  of  a  wealth  of  flowers.  This  question  has  been  so  excel- 
lently dealt  w^ith  by  the  distinguished  writer  and  traveller,  A.  E. 
Wallace,  in  that  delightful  book,  '^  The  Malay  Archipelago,^' 
and  other  writings,  that  I  shall  not  tire  my  audience  by  a  mere 
repetition,  though  I  may  remark  that  this  observation  principally 
refers  to  the  indigenous  flora.  Gardening,  however,  here  comes 
to  our  resource ;  and  by  [[the  introduction  of  numerous  exotic 
plants,  chiefly  inhabitants  of  tropical  America  and  Madagascar, 
it  has  been  made  possible  to  ensure  a  constant  supply  of  flowering 
plants  in  Bombay  ;  and  with  care  it  is  feasible  to  grow  a  great  many 
plants »  whose  flowers  are  old  friends  from  home.  It  is  only  human 
and  natural  that  our  impressions  from  childhood  and  youth  should 
be  so  strong,  that  we  will  always  retain  a  preference  for  those  objects 
which  in  those  happy  periods  of  life  have  fixed  themselves  in  our 
memorv  ;  and  so  it  is  with  flowers.  Even  if  we  later  on  in  life  meet 
with  the  most  gorgeous  or  splendid  floral  beauties,  we  cannot  help 
admiring  them  ;  but  still  the  memory  of  our  homely  flowers,  which 
is  often  associated  with  thoughts  of  the  dearest  and  happiest  events 
of  our  life,  will  always  overshadow  the  splendour  of  even  the  most 
dazzling  flowers   we   come  across.     We   will   constantly    miss  the 


BOMB  A  y  GA  H  DENS,  399 

violets,  anemones,  primroses,  cow8lips,  bluebells,  lilies  of  the  valley, 
and  other  gems  from  meadow  and  wood,  the  roses,  rhododenrons, 
syringus,  laburnums,  hawthorn,  fniits,  trees,  from  the  gardens  ;  the 
Azaleas,  Primulas,  Ericas,  Fuchsias,  Pelargoniums,  and  numerous 
other  plants  from  our  green-house? ;  and  even  if  we  succeed  ia 
producing  some  of  these  here,  they  are  so  inferior  to  what  we  used 
to  see,  that  we  cannot  help  being  disappointed.  It  is  natural  but 
doubtfully  rccommcndable  for  all  Europeans  arriving  in  a  new,  even 
distant  country,  to  surround  themselves,  as  far  as  possible,  with  the 
same  moveable  objects,  which  in  their  home  were  their  daily  com^ 
panions,  to  retain  the  same  dress,  the  same  fashions,  the  same  distri- 
bution of  working  and  leisure-hours,  and  even  to  make  no  alteration 
in  their  diet.  This  may  be  a  sign  of  the  love  for  our  homes,  but 
may  perhaps  in  many  instances  bo  attributed  to  a  certain  amount 
of  pride,  an  unwillingness  to  submit  ourselves  to  tlie  influence  of 
other  customs,  or  even  to  the  dictates  of  nature,  a  feeling  which , 
when  strictly  adhered  to,  is  but  too  often  punished  by  ill-healthy 
uneasiness,  discomfort,  and  often  grave  disappointments,  which  iu 
many  cases  might  have  been  avoided.  As  is  the  case  with  ourselves,. 
so  it  is  with  the  plants  which  used  to  surround  us  at  home,  with  this 
difference,  ihuugh,  that  even  when  hailing  from  less  distant  coun- 
tries, they  are  much  more  tender  subjects,  and  have  far  greater 
struggles  to  contend  with  in  a  new  country.  Their  dependence  on 
temperature,  rainfall,  and  other  climatic  agencies  is  so  great,  that 
the  least  change  will,  in  many  instances,  seriously  affect  them ;  and 
we  are  to  a  certain  extent  ourselves  to  blame,  when  their  cultivation 
cause  us  disappointments,  which  we  by  a  bit  of  reasoning  might  have 
anticipated.  It  is,  however,  not  iny  intention  to  argue  against  the 
cultivation  of  such  plants,  but  only  to  warn  against  too  sanguine 
expectations ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  I  should  advise  everybody 
not  to  be  discouraged  by  unsuccessful  results,  but  to  persevere  in 
their  efforts,  guided  by  the  peculiar  local  conditions  more  than  by 
the  requirements  of  the  plants  at  home,  by  which  means  only  it  will 
be  possible  to  eventually  acclimatise  such  plants  and  obtain  better 
results  in  future.  I  have  already  dwelt  too  long  on  the  disappoint- 
ments of  gardening  in  Bombay  for  Europeans ;  it  is  therefore  only 
fair  to  notice  the  advantages.     Then  I  have  no  hesitation,  regardless. 


400      JOURNAL,    BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

of  home  associations,  to  pronounce  Bombay  as  one  of  the  most 
"*  highly-favoured"  localities  for  gardening.  It  is  not  only  possible  to 
have  a  magnificent  display  of  flowers  at  almost  all  seasons  of  the 
year,  but  the  luxuriance  of  an  enormous  variety  of  foliage  plants, 
peculiar  for  the  grandeur  or  gracefulness  of  their  features,  or  for  the 
brightness  and  variety  of  their  colour,  can  hardly  be  surpassed  in  any 
other  country  in  the  world.  The  origin  of  the  plants,  commonly  met 
with  in  Bombay  gardens,  speaks  vohimes  for  the  keen  interest  and 
enterprise  in  the  introduction  of  new  plants,  which  has,  for  year  after 
year,  distinguished  the  inhabitants  of  this  city,  and  to  whom  it  i» 
mainly  due  that  we  can  now  unflinchingly  protest  against  the  first 
statement  of  our  old  friend  '*  Firminger,*'  namely,  this :  ^^  Under  the 
most  favourable  point  of  view  it  can  hardly  be  said  that  horticulture 
has  as  yet  made  much  advancement  in  India.''  It  is  a  remarkable 
fact  that  comparatively  few  of  our  garden  plants  are  of  indigenous 
origin ;  but  that  by  far  the  greatest  and  most  effective  proportion  hail 
from  tropical  America,  Madagascar,  East  Africa,  the  Malay  Archipel- 
ago and  South  Sea  Islands,  a  number  from  Ceylon,  Northern  India, 
Japan,  and  China,  and  a  few  from  Australia,  South  Africa,  and 
Southern  Europe,  but  hardly  any  from  extra  tropical  America  or  even 
from  the  west  side  of  South  America.  But,  as  far  as  my  experience 
goes,  I  do  not  think  it  improbable  that  by  far  the  majority  of  plants 
indigenous  in  tropical  India,  British  Guiana,  Brazil,  Columbia, 
West  Indies,  Tropical  Africa,  South  Sea  Islands,  Java,  Phillipines, 
Ceylon,  Malay  Peninsula,  Buraiah,  and  the  Lower  Himalayas,  and 
perhaps  tropical  Australia,  will  have  a  good  chance  of  success  in 
Bombay.  If  this  should  hold  good  it  will  be  seen  what  a  wide  field 
there  is  still  left  for  the  future  introduction  of  plants,  of  which  but 
comparatively  few  have  hitherto  been  introduced  to  Europe.  If, 
therefore,  any  member  of  our  Society  should  happen  to  have  friends 
resident  in  any  of  these  countries,  they  would  do  a  most  valuable 
service  to  gardening  in  Bombay,  and  to  botany  generally,  by  request- 
ing them  to  send  them  seeds  of  indigenous  plants  from  such  places, 
outlying  districts  in  India  not  excepted.  The  peculiarities  of  the 
climate  of  Bombay  must  necessarily  be  known  in  order  to  enable  us 
to  form  a  judgment  of  the  probable  successful  cultivation  of  plants 
irom  different   countries.     I  shall  therefore  shortly    summarise  its 


BOM  BAY  a  A  BDENS.  401 

main  features^  though  they  must  be  lainiliar  to  inost  oi  those  present. 
It   will  then    first  be  observed  that  the  actual  temperature  is  not  so 
high   as    the    geographical   situation    of   Bombay   might    lead  us  to 
expect,    the    thermometer    showing  a  range  between  a  maximum  of 
93  degrees   and  a  minimum  of  63  degrees,  while  the  average  tem- 
perature of  the  year  is  79*7  degrees,  figures  that  as  nearly  as  possible 
coincide  with  the  temperature  generally  maintained  in  our  stoves 
or  hothouses  at  home.     The  humidity  of   the   atmosphere  is  at  all 
times  of  the  year  very  great,  owing  to  the  immediate  neighbourhood 
of   the  soa^  which,   on   the   other  hand,   causes  the  air  to  contain  a 
certain  amount  of  Siilt  or  sodium  chlorine,  which  for   certain  plant* 
is  undoubtedly  beneficial,  but  not  improbably  may  be  a  disadvantage 
for  other  plants.     Though  the  Bombay  climate   does  not   present 
such  distinct  variety  throughout  the  year,  as  that  of   our   northern 
homes,    which  c^m  easily  be  difjtingiii^hed  into  four  seasons,  it  is,  how- 
ever, usual  to  divide  it  into  three  seasons — the  cold,    the  hot^  and  the 
wet  season.     The  cold  season  generally  lasts  from  November  to  March, 
and  is  characterized  by  fine  bright  weather  with  gentle  N.,  N.N.AV.> 
N.  W.,  W.,  or  N.K.E.,    but  in   Bombay  rarely,  E.   breezes,  a  com- 
paratively low  night  temperature  (the  difference  between  night  and 
day  temperature  often  exceeding  20  degrees),  which,  as  a  contrast  to 
the  heat  in  the  sun,  which  is  often  as  much  as  50  degrees  higher  than 
the  temperature  in  the  shade,  will  often  prove  very  trying  for  plants. 
The  heavy  dew,  which  is  caused  by  this  great  difference  in  night  and 
day -temperature,  on  the  other  hand,   acts    as   a   natural   proteetToii 
against  the  sudden  changes  of  tempcniture,  by  checking  evaporation, 
and  at  the  same  time  supplying  a  certain  amount  of  moisture   to  the 
soil.     This   season   is   generally  considered  the  most  satisfactory  for 
our  gardens.      The    lower    temperature   makes  it    possible   to    raise 
seedlfngs  of  annuals  from  colder  climates,  and  to  produce  a  tolerablj 
good   fshow  of  flowering  plants.     A  great  many  tropical  plants,  trees, 
and    shrubs  produce  their  flowers  during  this  season,    while  ro8e8> 
geraniums,    and  other  extra-tropical   plants  produce  better  flowers 
at  this  season  than  at  any  other  time  of  the  year.     Many  plants  will 
grow   very   rapidly,  while  others  will  be  resting  during  this  period. 
In  March  the  weather  commences  to  get  hotter,  the  difference  between 
night  and  day-temperature  decreases,  the  dew  diminishes,  the  wind 


40!i      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  Ml  STORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

takes  a  more  easterly  direction,  and  the  hot  season  sets  in.  The 
humidity  of  the  atmosphere  is  rapidly  decreasing,  and  strong  winds 
assist  the  burning  rays  of  the  sun  in  preparing  the  rest  for  indigenous 
plants,  which  now  in  many  cases  shed  their  leaves^  but  often  only  a 
few  days  after  are  covered  with  brightly-coloured  flowers,  or  with 
new  light  green  foliage.  Though  our  gardens  are  least  attractive  dur- 
ing this  season,  they  are  yet  not  destitute  of  something  beautiful  to 
catch  the  eye^  and  even  if  many  of  our  cherished  plants  assume  a 
sickly  or  blighted  appearance,  this  is  not  necessarily  calculated  to  cause 
any  fear,  as  in  most  cases  the  faded  splendour  is  more  certainly  an 
indication  of  rest  than  a  sign  (/f  serious  injury.  In  the  course  of  May 
the  wind  loses  its  force,  the  air  becouies  sultry,  the  sky  clouded,  and 
the  atmosphere  intensely  moist,  until,  generally  preceded  by  a  few 
heavy  thunderstorms  with  heavy  rain^  the  wind  rises  again,  now  blow- 
ing from  the  S.  W.  with  slight  vacillations  to  S.  and  W.,  and  the 
monsoon  or  rainy  season  has  set  in,  as  a  rule,  in  the  first  or  second 
week  of  June,  and  continues  to  the  end  of  October.  The  average 
yearly  rainfall  of  Bombay  (Byculla)  is  82*7  inches,  or  n^'^i^^y  seven 
feet,  which  frequently  falls  very  irregularly.  Falls  of  6-6  inches  in 
a  day  are  not  at  all  unusual,  and  very  often  a  heavy  downpour  lasts 
for  several  days  in  succession,  while  at  other  times  the  weather  re- 
mains more  or  less  cloudy  with  occasional  heavy  showers,  or  a 
**  break"  of  fine  clear  weather,  which  at  times  may  last  for  a  week 
or  two,  sets  in.  This  season  is  the  period  in  which  the  tropical 
character  of  the  climate  is  most  fully  pronounced.  The  luxuriance 
and  formidable  growth  of  all  foliage  plants,  the  splendid  colours  of 
.their  leaves,  and  the  profusion  of  choice  and  deKghtfuUy  scented 
flowers  of  a  great  variety  of  plants,  all  combine  to  make  an  impression 
which,  once  experienced,  will  never  be  forgotten,  and  of  which  such 
common  features  as  walls  and  wells  covered  with  bright  emerald 
green  moss  and  graceful  maiden-hair  ferns  are  but  poor  examples. 
At  the  end  of  October  the  monsoon  generally  terminates  with  heavy 
thunderstorms,  the  clouds  gradually  clear  away,  and  the  temperature 
for  a  short  time  increases,  while  the  wind  is  gradually  resuming  a 
more  western  to  northern  direction,  the  humidity  of  the  atmosphere 
is  still  very  great,  owing  to  the  rapid  evaporation  from  the  ground, 
and  the  air  is  steamy,  until  the  cold  northern  winds  again  refresh  us. 


BOMBAY  GARDENS.  403 

The  soil  of  most  1  ombay  gardens  is  very  different  from  what  we  are 
used  to  see  at  home.     What  principally  strikes  the  new-comer  is  the 
prevalent  red  colour  of  the  soil  of  our  hills,  and  many  people  will,  no 
doubt,  at  the  first  sight,  think  the  colour  an  objection  to  its  fertility 
as  indicating  a  presence  of  iron.     I  have  not  been  able   to   find   any 
report  on  its  exact   chemical   contents,  but  though  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  ^'  red  earth  "  contains  a  considerable  percentage  of  iron 
salts,  it  is,  on  the  other  hand,  certain  that  these   must  be  compara- 
tively harmless  to  vegetation,  or  that  their  action  is  so  modified  by 
the  presence  of  other  valuable  matter  that  they  only  assist  in  form- 
ing a  most  valuable  and  fertile  soil,  which,  in  regard  to  its  physical 
qualities,  partakes  of  the  most  desirable  properties  of  tho  varieties 
of  soil  known  to  us  from  home.     It  is  porous  and  at  the  same  time 
retentive,   and  lias,  I  believe,  a  great  capacity  of  absorbing  power 
(a  property  upon  which  the  fertility  of  a  soil  principally  depends). 
In  the  lower  lying  districts  of  Bombay,  we  meet  clay,  humus  and  sand , 
only  slightly  diflEering  from  the   same  kinds   of  soil   at  home,  but 
which  it  is  not  possible,  even  by  artificial  means,  to  so  enrich  as  to 
compare  favourably  with  the  red  earth  of  the  hills,  at  least  in  respect 
to  producing  the  brilliant  colouring  of  shrubs,  &c.,  for  which  especially 
Malabar  Hill  is  justly  famed.     The  Public  Health  Department   has 
always  a  large  depot  of  most  valuable  manure,    by   which   means   it 
is  easy,   at   a  comparatively   small   cost,   to  enrich  the   soil   when 
required.     A  few  words  about  the  legal  aspects  of  gardens  in  Bombay 
may  perhaps  be  found  useful.     In  nine  cases  out  of  ten  the  occupant 
of  a  house  in  Bombay  is  a  tenant,  and  his  rights  to  the  garden,  out- 
houses, and  other  parts  of  the  property,  comprised  in  the  compound, 
are  to  a  certain  extent  restricted.     He  will,  as  a  rule,  bo  required 
to     employ     a    native    gardener,    or    a    mali,     to     maintain    the 
existing  garden.     He   may  not,  without  the  landlord's  permission, 
cut     down     any    trees    or    remove    any    plants    once    established 
in  the  garden,  nor   remove   any    part   of   the   ground,   be  it  rock, 
soil,  or  other  material.     In  regard   to  alterations   of   existing  roads, 
drains  or  water    service  pipes,   the  owner  must  also  be  consulted. 
On  the   other  hand,   he   is  at  liberty  to  plant  whatever  he  likes  in 
the  ground,  but  it  must   be   always   borne   in  mind  that,  however 
much  the   tenant  improves  the  garden,  or  enhances   its  value  by 
53 


404     JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

planting  rare  or  choice  plants  in  the  ground,  he  can  never  claim  any 
compensation  for  such  additions,  and  the  plants,  once  in  the  ground, 
will  for  ever  remain  the  property  of  the  landlord.  It  is  principally 
owing  to  these  causes  and  to  the  frequent  changes  of  residence,  that 
most  of  the  Bombay  flowering  and  foliage  plants  are  cultivated  in 
pots  or  tubs,  the  only  way  by  which  the  grower  can  secure  his  owner- 
ship to  the  plants.  In  some  compounds,  however,  the  rock  is  so 
near  the  surface,  that  the  available  depth  of  the  soil  will  not  allow 
of  any  other  mode  of  cultivation.  It  is,  therefore,  usually  by  a  change 
of  tenancy  that  the  stock  of  plants  is  either  sold  by  public  auction  or 
privately  bought  by  the  new  tenant,  who  will  often  experience  great 
difficulty  in  arriving  at  a  fair  valuation  of  such  plants,  especially 
when  a  new-comer  to  Bombay.  Another  difficulty  will  be  to  secure  a 
good  mail.  As  a  general  rule  one  fnali  will  be  found  sufficient  to 
maintain  a  well-kept  garden  averaging  from  5  to  10,000  square  feiet 
in  area ;  for  a  garden  of  greater  extent  an  assistant  will  be  required 
for  every  additional  10,000  square  feet,  while  for  very  extensive 
gardens  two  men  per  acre  will  be  found  sufficient.  The  duties  of -the 
mali  are: — (I)  To  do  all  kind  of  garden  work;  (2)  to  be  responsible 
for  plants,  flowers,  tools,  &c.,  belonging  to  the  garden  ;  (3)  to  arrange 
flowers  and  plants  in  the  bungalow,  besides  which,  he  is  often  required 
(4)  to  wash  the  verandahs;  (5)  to  carry  water  to  the  bungalow,  when 
water  is  not  laid  on ;  and  (6)  to  supply  flowers  daily,  regardless  from 
whence  they  come.  The  duties  of  4  and  5  should,  if  convenient,  be 
performed  by  other  servants,  as  they  but  too  frequently  give  the 
mail  a  valid  excuse  for  not  performing  his  special  work  satisfactorily. 
With  regard  to  section  6,  the  mali  should  be  strictly  scrutinised, 
as  there  is  no  doubt  that  considerable  abuse  exists,  by  the  fnalis 
disposing  of  the  superfluous  flowers  belonging  to  their  Sahebs.  The 
9nali  should  commence  work  at  6  a.m.  and  leave  work  at  6  p.m.,  but 
no  work  should  be  required  of  hiui  for  two  hours  in  the  middle  of  the 
day.  He  should  be  allowed  free  quarters  for  himself  and  family. 
The  pay  of  the  single-handed  7nali  varies  from  Es.  10  to  Rs.  16, 
and  for  assistant  malis  from  Es.  8  to  Es.  10.  Very  few  mails  are 
able  to  perform  their  work  satisfactorily  without  being  now^  and  then 
guided,  and  though  they  will  at  first  resent  such  guidance  and  be 
stubborn,  they  very  soon  will  leUrn  to  appreciate  it  when  they  find 


BOM  HA  V  GA  HDEXS,  40S 

that  the  Saheb  or  Me^n-Saheb  are  their  masters  in  more  than  name. 
Should  the  malt  be  left  entirely  to  himself,  he  will  soon  become 
careless  and  negligent,  and  continue  to  do  all  kinds  of  work  just  as 
his  father  did,  and  his  grandfather  before  him.  Unfortunately  the 
mail  is  not  a  gardener  in  the  right  sense  of  the  word,  and  he  has, 
as  a  rule,  no  interest  or  love  for  his  plants,  which  he  treats  quite 
mechanically,  without  ever  thinking  of  them  as  living  subjects.  He 
will  water  a  plant  whether  it  is  dry  or  not,  that  makes  no  difference 
to  him^  he  thinks  it  his  duty  to  water  every  pot,  regardless  of  its  con- 
tents, and  he  often  wastes  water  by  continuing  to  water  a  plant  that 
has  been  dead  for  a  long  time.  He  will  generally  know  when  and 
how  to  propagate  plants  or  to  transplant  or  repot  them,  how  to  .  clip 
the  lawn  or  grass  border  ;  but  it  is  far  from  safe  to  leave  him  alone 
in  any  kind  of  pruning,  or  he  is  sure  to  disfigure  the  plant.  He 
knows  something  about  weeding,  but  his  religious  superstitions  will 
rarely  allow  him  to  uproot  certain  plants,  as  the  sacred  "  tulsi^' 
(Ocymum  sanctum),  or  the  holy  "pecpul"  [Ficus  religiom)^  and  should 
a  plant,  which  he  knows  not  to  be  a  weed,  happen  to  have  found  its 
way  into  a  pot  or  tub,  containing  quite  a  different  plant,  he  will 
sooner  allow  the  former  to  kill  the  latter,  than  ever  think  of  uproot- 
ing it.  He  has  a  perfect  horror  for  caterpillars,  chiefly  the  hairy 
ones,  and  it  is  only  with  the  greatest  reluctance  that  he  consents  to 
pick  them  off,  when  told,  and  unless  closely  watched  he  will  not 
willingly  destroy  them.  He  will  seldom  of  his  own  accord  think  of 
supporting  a  plant  with  a  stick  or  trellis-work  before  actually  neces- 
sary, and  he  will  then  as  a  rule  choose  tlic  thickest  possible  pole  he 
can  find,  or  the  stoutest  rope  he  can  get  hold  of.  At  first  he  will 
probably,  if  you  understand  his  language — which,  by  the  way,  is 
Mahratti — meet  your  remonstrances  with  incredulity,  and  use  all 
his  eloquence,  which  principally  consists  in  varied  repetitions,  to 
persuade  you  that  such  and  such  a  thing  cannot  possibly  be  done  iu 
this  country,  that  this  plant  must  certainly  die  if  you  transplant  it, 
or  that  that  one  will  never  flower  any  more  if  you  prune  it,  and  so 
on,  until  he  discovers  that  you  are  firm  and  knows  more  than  himself. 
Then  you  will  find  that  your  labour  is  not  wasted,  and  that  he  is 
willing  to  learn,  and  be  taught,  and  that  in  reality  he  is  less 
of  a  blockhead  than  you  might  at  first  believe.     One  of  his  favourite 


4^      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATVBAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1800. 

games,  v,  hich  in  most  cases  is  but  a  kind  of  policy,  is  to  simulate  a 
perfect  ignorance  of  your  language,  even  if  you  talk  Maliratti,  but  if 
you  persevere  lie  will  soon  understand  you,  and  he  will  respect  you 
the  more,  the  less  knowledge  of  his  language  you  show  him.  His 
ideas  of  art  are  generally  limited  to  the  acquaintance  with  the  straight 
line,  and  its  use  or  abuse  in  forming  squares,  diamonds,  &c. ;  you  may 
find  him  able  to  draw  a  circle,  but  as  a  rule  he  i&  totally  incapable  of 
using  arcs  or  curves  in  laying  out  gardens  or  flower-beds.  As  regards 
the  arrangement  of  flowers  and  plants,  you  will  in  most  cases  find  it 
necessary  to  give  him  a  course  of  insti-uction,  and  he  may  occasionally 
attain  to  great  proficiency  in  this  art.  The  mali  is,  as  a  rule,  honest, 
sober,  and  very  clean,  his  religion  enforcing  two  or  three  ablutions 
daily. 

Having  shortly  reviewed  the  different  circumstances  under  which 
gardening  is  practised  in  Bombay,  I  shall  try  in  the  following  lines 
to  give  a  general  outline  of  the  most  frequent  aspect  of  Bombay 
gardens.     Large  gardens  are  but  few,  though  it  is  not  altogether 
rare  that  the  compound  is  extensive,  and  by  a  comparatively  small 
expenditure  could  be  made  sufiiciently  attractive  to  form  a  picturesque 
addition  to  the  garden,  without  exactly  requiring  the  constant  and, 
I  regret  to  say,  expensive  maintenance  necessary  for  a  well-kept 
garden.     I  allude  here  chiefly  to  such  compounds  where  large  rocks 
or  boulders  present  difiiculties  for  building  or  levelling,   or  where 
toddy  palms  are  retained  on  account  of  the  profit  they  yield  to  the 
owner,  or  where  the  soil  is  not  sufiiciently  deep  to  allow  of  cultivation. 
Though  it  is  not   uncommon   that   such   compounds   arc   naturally 
picturesque,  there  is  still  a  large  scope  left  here  for  the  assistance  of 
nature,   by   the  work   of   the  landscape   gardener.     Most   gardens 
consist  simply  of  a   lawn   surrounded   by   a   drive   leading   to   the 
bungalow,   and   shrubberies   concealing  the   fences  of  the  garden. 
This  simple  plan  is  often  carried  out  with  great  taste,  but  in  far  too 
many  instances  the  distribution  of  trees  and  shrubs  is  too  absurd  to 
please  the  eye,  in   which   respect   I   shall   only   mention   the   very 
common  practice  of  hiding  the  porch  of  the  bungalow  with  a  very 
dense  screen  of  shrubs  or  even  trees,  a  practice  that  may  have  certain 
advantages  as  securing  privacy,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  has  so  many 
disadvantages  that  are  quite  sufiicient  to  condemn  it.     In  the  first 


BOMB  A  y  GA  RDENS.  m 

instance,  the  circulation  of  air  through  the  house  is  prevented,  a  very 
important  couf^ifleration  for  the  healthiness  of  the  house;  secondly, 
the  view  of  the  garden  from  the  house  is  hidden,  and  part  of  the 
object  of  the  garden  consequently  useless;  and,  thirdly,  the  architec- 
tural features  of  the  house,  if  of  consequence,  are  entirely 
obscured  from  view.  Privacv  can  be  much  more  effectuallv  secured 
by  a  moveable  screen.  Other  gardens,  happily  now-a-days  but  few, 
are  laid  out  in  the  native  style  witli  ^uares,  diamonds,  &o.,  and 
numerous  pathways  crossing  eacli  other  at  acute  angles.  This  style, 
no  doubt,  cjn  ho  made  to  look  effective,  w]»en  })hmted  and  mafntained 
with  great  cai(»  and  attention;  but  I  must  admit  tliat  it  lias  not  been 
my  fortune  to  come  across  a  singk^  instautte  of  this  kind  of  ganlen 
in  Bombay,  in  whi(?li  the  choice  of  plants  corresponds  with  the  style. 
Another  stvle,  in  very  bad  taste,  where  statuary,  fountains,  parapets 
and  other  accessories  of  the  garden  are  the  ])rincipal  features,  is 
fortunately  very  rarely  met  witli  in  Bombay,  though  objection  may 
in  many  instances  be  taken  to  the  various  kinds  of  fountains,  which, 
on  the  other  hand,  when  tastefully  designed  and  appropriately 
embellished  with  plants,  are  often  very  effecjtive.  Tln^  lawn  is  now 
found  in  most  gardens  in  Bombay,  and  as  it  is  easily  kcjJt  ap  and  is 
delightfully  grc^en  throughout  the  whole  of  the  year,  there  are  very 
few  objects  that  serve  better  to  give  a  charming  relief  to  trees  and 
plants.  A  few  trees,  a  clump  of  shrubs,  an  ornamental  grass,  a 
palm  or  two  when  considenitely  placed,  greatly  add  to  the  beauty  of 
the  lawn,  and  many  good  examples  of  this  kind  are  found  in  Bom- 
bay gardens.  A  few  flower-beds  in  the  lawn  are  desirable,  when 
round  or  ov^al,  plain  in  shape,  but  too  often  the  beauty  of  the  lawn  is 
spoiled  by  the  too  great  number  of  flower-beds.  Shrubberies  are 
commonly  separated  from  the  roads  either  by  a  bit  of  lawn,  which  is 
undoubtedly  the  most  efiEective,  by  a  narrow  grass  border,  or  by  a  mixed 
border  of  flowering  or  foliage  plants,  edged  with  suitable  plants. 
The  above  description  refers  to  the  commoner  kinds  of  front  garden 
only ;  besides  this  generally  at  least  a  small  part  of  the  compound  is 
utilised  as  a  garden,  either  planted  with  fruit  trees,  or  laid  out  in  so 
many  different  fashions,  that  it  is  impossible  to  give  a  general  de- 
scription of  them.  Flower-beds,  clumps  of  hardy  ferns  or  various 
arrangements  of  plants  in  pots  and  tubs,  often  are  prominent  features 


i08      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  \B90, 

in  those  parts  of  the  garden.  It  is  also  here  the  feruery  will  gene- 
rally be  found.  The  Bombay  ferneries  are  a  peculiarity  which 
deserves  a  few  words.  The  fact  is  that  the  climate  is  so  congenial 
for  the  growth  of  ferns,  that  nothing  more  than  a  slight  protection 
from  the  sun  is  generally  wanted  to  make  them  succeed,  though 
naturally  an  increased  moisture  of  the  atmosphere  is  beneficial  and 
desirable.  A  simple  shed  constructed  of  rafters  and  roofed  with  a 
loose  wove  of  coir  matting  answers  all  purposes,  especially  if  the 
sides  are  covered  with  a  light  trellis- work  covered  with  creepers. 
Though  simple  in  construction,  comparatively  inexpensive,  and 
cheap  to  maintain,  such  sheds  can  be  made  extremely  picturesque, 
and  their  interior,  when  tastefully  laid  out,  occasionally  with  the 
assistance  of  bits  of  rockery,  old  roots  of  trees,  tanks  or  fountains, 
x)iten  bids  fair  to  rival  or  even  surpass  the  best  conservatories  at 
home.  It  is  not  a  bad  plan,  as  is  sometimes  seen,  to  leave  the  north- 
side  of  the  fernery  open ;  it  greatly  adds  to  the  attractions  of  the 
garden,  and  is  perfectly  safe  as  long  as  the  cold  north- wind  is  in 
some  way,  as  by  a  not  too  distant  shrubbery,  prevented  from  having 
direct  access  to  the  plants.  It  is  difficult  to  make  only  a  limited 
selection,  among  the  great  number  of  plants  common  to  Bombay 
gardens,  of  those  that  specially  deserve  to  be  pointed  out  as  chiefly 
contributing  to  the  peculiar  charms  of  our  gardens.  I  shall,  how- 
ever, seek  to  draw  the  line  so  as  not  to  tire  you  by  the  enumeration 
of  too  many  botanical  names.  The  most  striking  of  all  plants  in 
Bombay  are  perhaps  our  magnificent  creepers;  it  is  difficult  to 
conceive  an  idea  of  a  more  gorgeous  mass  of  colour  than  that  dis- 
played by  the  Bougainvilleas,  when  in  full  bloom,  and  how  many 
individual  objections  there  may  be  to  the  particular  colour  of  the 
commoner  kind,  nobody  can  seriously  deny  its  imposing  effect,  and 
all  will  agree  in  admiring  the  brick-coloured  variety.  Not  so  evident 
on  account  of  its  shorter  period  of  flowering,  but  perhaps  more 
brilliant  and  graceful  is  the  vivid  orange- coloured  Bignonia  venusta ; 
less  striking  but  graceful  and  charming  the  Antigonon,  with  its 
masses  of  rose-coloured  flowers.  In  the  Thiinbergia  grandiflora  and 
T,  laurifoUa,  the  handsome  large  pale  blue  flowers  are  beautifully  «et 
off  by  dense  and  elegant  foliage.  The  rare  white-flowered  variety  is 
specially    charming.     The   large   white-flowered   Beaumontia  must 


BOi\fBAY  GARDENS.  409 

be  eecD  in  flower  to  enable  anybody  to  conceive  its  great  beaiuty'. 
Among  the  many  Ipomfeas  or  Morning  Glory,  none  are  more  stiiking 
than  the  splendid  dark-blue-flowered  /.  Learii,  though  it  is  in 
certain  respects  surpassed  by  the  rather  straggling  pale  rose-coloured 
T.  Camea,  and  cannot  vie  in  beauty  with  the  splendid  dark  crimson 
flowered  T,  HorsfalHce,  which  is  still  very  rare  in  Bombay.  A 
creeper  which  has  flowered  for  the  first  time  in  Bombay  this  year, 
Odontadenia  speciosa  (wrongly  called  Blyiionia  regalis  in  Builds 
catalogue),  bids  fair  to  rank  next  to  Bignonia  venusta  in  beauty.  It 
bears  large  clusters  of  Allamanda-shaped  pale  salmon-coloured 
flowers  and  appears  to  be  of  a  free-flowering  habit.  Nowhere 
perhaps  is  a  greater  profusion  of  flowers  met  with  than  in  the  hand- 
some Rangoon  creeper,  Quisqnalw  indica,  a  common  inhabitant  of  our 
gardens.  Less  effective  but  still  attractive  are  the  different  kinds  of 
crimson  and  scarlet-flowered  Combretums  (Poivrea),  the  lovely  sky 
blue  Jacquemontia,  the  sweet-scented  May  creeper  (Vallaris  Hef/nii), 
the  snow-creeper  (Derris  scandens),  the  bridal- wreath  [Parana  voluhilis) 
all  with  masses  of  white  flowers,  the  well-known  Stephanotis,  the 
several  passion  flowers,  among  which  the  scarlet  Passiflora  vitifolia 
ought  to  be  more  commonly  grown,  the  quaint  but  handsome  mauve 
Petrea  voluhilis,  and  numerous  other  creepers.  It  must,  however,  be 
regretted  that  one  of  the  commonest  creepers  of  our  jungles,  the 
brilliant  Gloriosa  superha,  is  but  rarely  met  with  in  gardens — a  fact 
that  may  perhaps  be  chiefly  attributed  to  the  small  attention  paid  to 
caterpillars  by  the  malis,  as  no  plant  is  more  liable  to  the  ravages 
of  these  formidable  enemies  of  our  gardens.  Other  creepers  are 
equally  effective  by  the  grandeur  or  elegance  of  their  foliage,  and 
none  more  striking  or  common  than  the  magnificent  Po^^oMwr^a  with 
beautifidly  golden  variegated  leaves,  increasing  in  size  towards  the 
end  of  the  shoots,  or  the  beautiful  Mottstera  deliciosa,  with  its  large 
curiously  lobed  and  pierced  leaves,  none  more  graceful  than  the 
charming  Vitis  discolor,  with  the  dark  purple,  silver-blotched  leaves, 
or  the  beautiful  metallic  bluish-green  Selaginella  Iccvigata,  which, 
however,  only  succeeds  in  perfect  shelter  and  shade.  The  Ficus 
sHpulata,  which  is  a  good  substitute  for  our  English  ivy,  though 
having  much  smaller  leaves,  is  occasionally  met  with,  but  nothing  is 
in  fact  more  suitable  for  covering  the  far  too  often  unsightly  com- 


410      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

pound  walls.  The  graceful  Cane-palin,  Calamus  rotang — and  the 
glossy -leaved  apple-scented  Artahotri/s  odoratmima — must  also  be 
mentioned  as  favourite  creepers,  while  the  elephant  creeper  is  chiefly 
remarkable  for  its  rapid  growth.  Among  the  trees  in  our  gardens, 
the  Gold-mohur-tree  ( Polnciana  regia)  has  no  rival  as  to  gaudiness 
of  its  bright  red  flowers,  and  gracefulness  of  its  dense  foliage, 
though  no  tree  is  more  ugly  than  this  when  destitute  of  leaves.  The 
mango-tree,  which  rarely  in  Bombay  is  seen  to  assume  that  perfect 
shape  by  which  it  at  once  attracts  the  attention  in  the  jungle,  or 
along  the  country  roads,  is  still  very  attractive  by  the  beauty  and 
varying  colour  of  its  leaves,  in  which  tints  of  pink,  violet,  mauve, 
coppered,  and  all  shades  of  green  are  of  no  rare  occurrence,  while 
the  individually  inconspicuous  flowers  when  covering  the  tree  with 
their  masses  are  very  effective.  The  SjMtkodea  campanulata  with  its 
large  brilliant  scarlet  flowers  in  great  clusters  is  still  too  rare  in 
Bombay  gardens.  The  Indian  Laburnum  (Cassia  ^fistula)  with  its 
large  drooping  sprays  of  pure  yellow  flowers,  is  a  most  beautiful 
object,  far  surpassing  the  English  Laburnum  in  beauty.  The 
Lagerstrocmias  with  their  large  fringed  mauve,  pink,  or  white 
flowers,  are  universally  admired,  but  are  far  surpassed  in  gracefulness 
by  the  Lagevstrcemia  parviffora  of  our  hills,  which  I  hope  ere  long  to 
see  commonly  established  in  Bombay  gardens.  The  Sterculia  urens 
with  its  large  hand-shaped  leaves  is  not  a  bad  substitute  for  our 
Plane-trees  at  home.  The  Michella  champaca,  the  sacred  pila 
"  Champa,'*  is  famed  for  its  strong-scented  yellow  flowers,  which  are 
much  used  by  native  women  for  adornment  of  their  hair,  thus  occa- 
sionally serving  a  double  purpose,  that  of  ornament  and  that  of  a 
powerful  insecticide.  The  Plumieria  acuminata,  another  "  Champa/* 
with  its  handsome  strong-scented  white,  yellow,  and  often  pinkish- 
tinted  flowers,  is  a  general  favourite.  A  dark  red-flowered,  scentless 
kind  has  lately  been  introduced.  The  most  striking  tree  of  our 
gardens  is  perhaps  the  Lettuce-tree  (Pisonia  alba),  which  cannot  fail 
to  attract  attention  by  the  splendid  effect  of  its  bright  yellow  foliage, 
nowhere  I  believe  so  perfectly  developed  as  in  Bombay.  The 
Kurranj-tree  (Pongamia  glabra)  reminds  us  very  much  of  our  beech- 
trees  at  .home,  when  producing  its  light  green  new  foliage  in  the 
hot  weather.     Bombay  can  only  boast  of  a  few  handsome  specimens 


BOMBA  Y  GA  RDEXS.  411 

of  the  tamarind  tree,  which  grows  to  so  great  perfection  up-country. 
Some  fine  specimens  of  the  beautiful  jack  tree  (Artocarpus  integnfoUa), 
and  of  the  bread-fruit-tree,  A.  incisa,  which  perhaps  has  no  rival  in 
beauty  of  foliage,  are  occasionally  met   with,  as  also  of  the  wild 
Mangosteen  {Garcinia  xanthochymus)  distinguished  by  its  extremely 
handsome  pyramidal  growth,  and  the  Ptttranjiva  Eoxburghii,  to  which 
the  drooping  branches  covered  with  handsome  foliage  and  white  nuts 
lend  a  peculiar  charm.     Among  other  common  trees   the    country- 
almond,  TerminaUa  Catappa^  with  its  regularly  whorled branches  and 
large  handsome  leaves,  the  silk  cotton-tree  with  its  prickly  stem  and 
branches  and  dark  crimson  flowers,  the  Undi,  CalophyUiim  mophyl- 
him,  with   its   glossy   foliage   and   handsome    sweet-scented    white 
flowers  arc  sufficiently  common  to  be  noticed,  while  the  beautiful 
scarlet-flowered  Cordia  sebestana  is  perhaps  the  most  appreciated  tree 
of  all  in  Bombay,   and  the  MaLiyan  rose-apple  {Eugenia  moluccana), 
when  its  branches  are  loaded  with  bright  purple  flowers,  is  well  cal- 
culated to  attract  attention.     Of  trees  of  more  recent  introduction  I 
shall  but   mention  a  few  which  promise  to  become  favourite  inhabit- 
ants of  our  gardens.     The  rain  tree  {Pitlwcolobium  saman)  with  its 
handsome  glossy  foliage  and  pink  flower-clusters,  vying  in  beauty 
with   the  indigenous  "  Lulei'*    [Albizzia  stipulata) ,  di  treQ  ihdit  ought 
sooner  or  later  to  find  a  place  in  our  gardens,  the  Peltophorum  fernigi' 
nexun   of  perfect  shape,  with  dense  handsome  foliage,  and  beautiful 
yellow      flowers,     succeeded    by    shining    brown    pods;     Solamim 
maroniense,  the  potato-tree,  with  large  prickly  leaves,  and  handsome 
large,  dark  violet  flowers  changing  to  pale  lilac ;  the  Australian  Oak 
{GreriUea  robust  a)  with  silvery  grey  finely  cut  leaves;  the  Star-apple 
{Chrysophyllum  cainito)  of  graceful  drooi>ing  habit,  with  dark  green 
leaves,  which  are  golden  brown  beneath  ;  and  the  Austmlian  Bottle  - 
brush   flower,    CaUisteman    speciosus.     The  only  representative  of  the 
order  of  Coniferae,   which  to  such  a  great  extent  assist  in  the  adorn- 
ment of  our  gardens  at  home,  are  two  or  three   kinds   of   Araucaria, 
A.  Cunninghami,  A,  Cookii,  A,  Bldwillii,  and  a  few  kinds  of  Thuya 
and  Cupressus,  butn  either  of  them  succeed  well  enough    to   deserve 
general  cultivation.     The  allied  Casuarinas  are,  however,  common  in 
Bombay,  and  are  often  trimmed  into  quaint  pyramids  and  other 
ungainly  shapes.     The  palms  form  a  conspicuous  feature  in  Bombay 
54 


412      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

gardens.  Nothing  can  rival  the  beauty  of  a  young  healthy  eo(Joanut 
palm,  with  its  graceful  feathery  arched  leaves.  The  common  wild 
date  palm  with  its  spiny  greyish  densely  tufted  leaves  is  frequently 
very  effective,  specially  when  young,  and  the  magnificent  head  of 
large  fan-shaped  leaves  crowning  the  stems  of  the  common  "  Brab" 
or  Palmyra  Palm  is  very  picturesque.  The  fish-tail-palm,  Caryota 
livens y  is  at  once  graceful,  peculiar^  and  highly  ornamental.  Its  long 
drooping  clusters  of  flowers  and  fruits,  originating  from  the  stem,  arfe 
a  feature  that  strikes  all  strangers  with  wonder  and  surprise.  The 
betel-nut  palm  has  often  been  called  the  most  graceful  of  palms,  and 
is  when  loaded  with  its  bright  scarlet  fruits,  in  truth,  a  striking  object. 
The  Oreodoxa  regia,  the  PtychosjKrma  Cunninghamiana,  [Seafortkia 
elegam),  the  oil-palm  {Elais  guineensh),  Livktona  sinensis,  L.  australis, 
WasJdngtonia  fiUfera,  Cocos  j^lamosa,  Phcenix  rupieola,  Ryophorbe 
Verschaffelliiy  and  other  palms  occasionally  met  with  are  all  very 
graceful  and  desirable  objects  in  Bombay  gardens,  but  none  of  them 
surpass  in  grandeur  of  foliage  or  magnificence  of  flowering  the  Talipot 
palm  (Corypha  nnihracuHfem),  which,  however,  unfortunately  is  very 
rare  in  Bombay  gardens.  Though  not  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
of  palms,  Cycas,  commonly  called  sago-palms,  must  be  mentioned  here 
as  very  common  in  Bombay  gardens,  and  nothing  may  perhaps  be 
compared  to  the  beauty  of  the  light  green  feathery,  gracefully  arching 
crown  of  new  leaves,  contrasting  beautifully  with  the  spreading 
and  recurved  dark  green  leaves  of  the  Cycas  circinalis,  though  the 
much  smaller  C,  rcvohUa  is  not  without  effQct.  The  screw-palms 
(Pandanus)  form  other  most  picturesque  objects  of  our  gardens, 
while  the  allied  but  very  differently  shaped  Carludovica  palmata  is  a 
frequent  ornament.  The  Travellers'  Palm  [Ravenala  inadagascarcnsis) 
with  its  peculiar  flattened  crown  of  plantain-like  leaves  is  perhaps 
one  of  the  most  characteristic  of  tropical  plants.  Though  I  am 
conscious  of  a  great  many  omissions  among  characteristic  trees,  some 
of  which,  however,  are  intended,  because  those  particular  trees  grow 
to  far  greater  perfection  elsewhere  in  India,  it  will  be  still 
more  difficult  to  point  out  the  most  characteristic  shrubs, 
without  omitting  a  great  many.  Among  these  none  are,  or 
at  least  were,  more  common  than  Codisoums  or  Crotons, 
the   beautv   and  often   curious  shape  of  whose  brilliantly -coloured 


BOMBAY  GARJ)ENS.  413 

ioliage   needs  no  comment ;  while  it  is  well  known,  that  thev  succeed 
admirablv  here  ;  and  that  more  than  a  hundred  varieties  are  found  in 
our  gardens.     They  are,   however,  now-a-days  partly  giving  way  to 
<ji nicker  growing  and,  in  certain  respects,  more  effective  shrubs,  as 
the  brilliantly  coloured  Acalyphas,  the  leaves  of  which  vary  in  colour 
from   the  most  brilliant  metallic  blood-red  to  the  purest  yellowish 
green,  while  their  shape  and  size  offer  great  variety,  and  one  kind  is 
distinguished  by  its  long  drooping  blood- red  flower  spikes.     Among 
the  Eranthemums  we  have  similar  variations — golden  greyish,  violet, 
pinkish  flaked  and  dark-purple  narrow  or  broad,   metallic  shining 
leaves,  ^vhile  the  many  varieties  of  Graptophyllums,  with  broadly 
light  or  dark  blotched  leaves,   are  valuable  additions  to  the  great 
number  of  variegated  shrubs,  among  which  perhaps  few  are  more 
useful,  though  less  striking  in  colour,  than  the  white-blotched  Aralia 
Guilfoyleiy  or  none  more  elegant  and  graceful  than  the  finely  feather- 
leaved     Paiuu    Victoria^    or  the  snow    shrub,    Phi/IIanthHs   nicosus, 
which  form  a  beautiful  contrast  to  its  dark  puri)le  coloured  congener, 
Phyllanthus  atropurjmrem,  the  effect  of  which  is,  however,  far  sur- 
passed by  its  ally,  Exoecaria  hicolor.     Among  flowering  shrubs  none 
are  more  effective  than  the  brilliantly-coloured  Poinsettias,  of  which 
several   varieties  occur,  while  for  variety  of  colour,  size,  and  beauty 
of  the   individual   flgwers,    the   numerous  varieties   of  shoe  flowers 
(Hibiscus)   have  no  rivals.     The  Caesalpinias  {Poinciaria  jmlcherrima) 
are  most  of  the  year  covered  with  their  large  clusters  of  brilliant 
orange  or  pure  yellow    flowers,  and  the    charm  of  our  pure  white 
flowered  or  pale-lilac  Durantas  can  hardly  be  rivalled,  while  the 
masses  of  gigantic  bell-shaped  white  flowers  of  Datura  suaveolens  are 
Well  worth  admiration.     The  coral- stalked  flowers  of  Jatrophas,  the 
yellow-flowered  Allamandas,   Tec  mm  stans  and  Thevetia  neriifolia  and 
the  scarlet  Tecotna   cajyensis,  the  snowy-white  Tahernce-ynontanaSy  and 
the  almond-scented  Gardenia  { O,  lucida)  are  along  with  the  well-known 
crimson,  pink  or  white  Oleanders  frequent  inhabitants  of  our  gardens, 
and  assist  with  a  great  number  of  other  flowering  shrubs,  among 
which  perhaps  the  different  kinds  of  the  very  popular  jessamines,  the 
brilliantly  coloured  Ixoras,  the  white-bracted  Musssendas,  and  numer- 
ous  kinds  of  Clerodendrons  deserve  to  be  mentioned,  in  yielding  a 
continual  supply  of  choice  flowers.   Among  foliage  plants  other  than 


4U     JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

palms  the  many  varieties  of  Alocasias  witk  their  gigantic  leaves  are 
porhaps  the   most  effective,  but  a  pleasing  variety  is  afforded  by  the 
many  often  brilliantly-coloured  Dracaenas,  by  the  curiously  blotched 
Dieffenbachias,  by  the  picturesque  and  handsome  flowered  Heliconias, 
Alpinias,  Iledychiums,  and  Cannas,  of  which  at  present  most  magni- 
ficently-flowered varieties  may  be  met  with  in  Bombay.     Among  the 
very  great  number  of  other  foliage  plants,  several  hardy  varieties  of 
Caladiums,  with  brilliantly  blotched  and  dotted  leaves,  the  well-known 
Coleus,    and   the  splendid   varieties   of     Amrantus  tricolor  and  A, 
sanguineus  deserve  to   be  mentioned  as  very  effective.     Cactaceous 
plants  are  rare  in  Bombay.     Among   those  found  the  wonderfully 
large  white  flowers  of  Co  reus  triangularis   are  worth  sitting  up  for  at 
night,   the  only  time  they  expand.     Some  Cactus-like  Euphorbias, 
several    Agaves,    Yuccas,    and   similar   plants   are    fairly   common. 
The   selection  of   herbaceous   plants   in   the    open   ground  is  more 
restricted   and   almost    limited    to    bulbous    and    tuberous    plants, 
among  which  the  Eucharis,    Crinum,  Pancratiums,   Hymenocallis, 
seem  perfectly  at  home  in  Bombay,  and  the  splendid  varieties  of  Hip- 
peastrums  are  gradually  associating  themselves  to  the  fire -coloured 
H,  equestre,    an   old  favourite   of   Bombay   gardens.     The  beautiful 
white  or  pink  Zephyranthes  remind  us  by  the  shape  of  their  flowers 
of  our   homely  Crocus.     Single  Dahlias  and  Chrysanthemums  are 
friends  from   home,  which   are  gradually   improving  and  gaining 
ground  in  Bombay,  while  Achimenes  succeed  fairly  well,  and  nothing 
is  more  graceful  perhaps  than  the  scarlet- flowered  Rusellias.     Of 
ornamental  grasses  a  few  are  very  effective,  as  the  white- variegated 
Arimdo  versicolor,   while  the  ordinary  Arundo  Bonax,  when  allowed 
sufficient   room,  is  verv  picturesque,  especially  when  in   flower,   the 
Moonj -grasses     {Saccharuni  Sara)    is  not  a  bad  substitute  for  the 
Pampas-grass,   and  the  striking  foliage  and  graceful   flower   spikes 
of  Thysanolcena  acarifera  are  very  attractive.     For  table-decorations 
nothing   can  be   more   useful  than   the   copper-coloured     graceful 
flower  spikes    of  the  lately  introduced  Trichokena    rosea,     Panicum 
sulcatum  and  P.  plicatum  are  effective  plants,  when  grown  in  masses, 
and  Oplismenus  imhiciliSy  foL     var,   [Panicum  variegatum) ,  with  white 
and  pinkish  tinted  leaves,  a  most  useful  and  common  plant  for  cover- 
ing bare  ground.     Bamboos  are  not  very  common  in  Bombay,  and 


BOMBAY  GARDENS.  415 

succeed  pcrliaps  better  elsewhere.    Perhaps  nothing  adds  more  to  the 
peculiar  beauty  of  the  Bombay  gardens  than  the  luxuriance  which 
several  hardy  ferns  display  in  open  ground,  often  even  when  fully 
exposed  to  the  sun.     Of  those  the  different  kinds  of  Nephrolepis  are 
the  most  graceful,  while  the  light-coloured  Polypodiu7n  iriiodes,  and 
the  dark  glossy  P.  jyhymatodes   are  very  effective,  each  in  their  pecu- 
liar way.    The  flower-beds  are  generally  adorned  with  annuals,  among 
which  Zinnias,  Balsams,    the  small-flowered   sunflower    (Helinthus 
cucumeri/o/iics)  J  Galliardias,  Coriopsis  and  Coxcombs  may  be  met  with 
at  different  seasons  of  the  year,  but  arrive  to  the  greatest  perfection 
during  the  rains.     In  the  cold  weather  our  flower-beds  can  be  kept 
more  gay  by  annuals,  such  as  Phlox,  Poppies,  Nasturtiums,  Chinese 
Pinks,  Portulaccas,  Pansies,  Verbenas,   China  Aster,  Petunias,  &c., 
which  often  under  favourable  circumstances  succeed  admirably.   In 
many  cases  it  is  a  surprise  and  disappointment  to  new  comers  to  India 
to  see  our  flower-beds  embellished  with  plants  familiar  to  us  from 
home  ;  and  in  truth   it  is  to  be  regretted  that  so  very  few  plants  of 
less  ordinary  character  have  found  their  way  to  our  gardens,  and  as  a 
step  in  the  right  direction  it  must  be  appreciated  that  such  plants  as 
the  Zanzibar  balsam,  Impatiem  Siiltani,  with   its  beautiful  crimson 
flowers,  and  the   Neilgherry   violet,  Torenia  Foiirnieri,   to  which  a 
yellow -flowered  kind,    T.  BaiUoni,  has  now   been  also   added,  and  a 
white-flowered  variety   (White  Wings)  may  be  expected  to  flower  in 
this  cold  season,  are  rapidly  gaining  ground  in  our  gardens.    Edging 
plants   are  rather  an  important  feature  of  Bombay   gardens,  and  the 
old-fashioned  Justicia  gendancssa  is  now  almost  everywhere   replaced 
by  other  plants,    such  as  the   moss,   like   Pilea   muscosa,    the  neat 
dwarf  coleus,  which  when  covered  with  its  beautiful  sky-blue  flowers 
is  very  attractive,  the  Australian  daisy  ( Vittadenia   australis),   the 
bright  green  stone   crop    (Sedum  sarmentosum) ,  the   hairy  crimson- 
flowered  Purslane   {Portulacca  pilosa),   the   dark  olive   green,   and 
in  Bombay  rarely  variegated  Alternantheras,  the  dark  purple  Aerusa 
sangidnoknta,  the  metallic  grey  and  purplish  Hemigraphis  coloratay 
the  silvery   Tradescantia  zebrina,  and  several  others.     I  have  now,  I 
believe,  mentioned  the  most  important  and  peculiar  plants  grown  in 
Bombay  gardens,  but  I  am  afraid  I  have  already  tried  your  patience 
too  long,  and  shall  therefore  leave  another  important  feature — a  peep 


410      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

into  the  Bombay  ferneries — to  a  future  occasion.  I  may,  however, 
add  that  the  Committee  of  our  Society  intend  if  feasible  to  publish 
in  the  Journal  a  series  of  illustrations  of  Bombay  flowers,  an 
undertaking  that,  when  carried  out,  without  doubt  will  further 
increase  the  popularity  and  high  standard  of  the  Journal. 

The  Hon.  Mr.  Justice  Bird  wood  referred  to  the  difficulty  of 
rearing  the  seed  of  the  Gloriosa  siiperha  in  Bombay,  and  pointed 
out  that  when  they  were  sown  under  oleander  bushes  they  appeared 
to  be  protected  against  the  attack  of  the  caterpillars,  which  usually 
destroyed  them. 

A  vote  of  thanks  to  the  lecturer  was  then  passed,  and  the  Meeting 
ended. 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES. 

I.— TIGRESS'S  MILK  AS  A  MEDICINE. 

This  medicinal  preparation  is  believed  to  be  of  an  efficacy  proportionate  to 

the  difficulty  of  obtaining  it.     I  have  twice  heard  its  praises.     Once  a  Hospital 

Assistant  asked  me  to  get  some,  as  it  was  very  efficacious  for  sore-eyes.     I 

asked  how  it  was    usually  obtained.      He  said    that  when    the  tigress  was 

suckling  her  cubs,  some  of  the  milk  fell  on  a  stone,  and  was  afterwards  collected 

by  the  watchful  jungle- wallah.     Again  I  was  told  by  a  man,  that  if  I  could  get 

some  tigress's  milk  it  would   save  the  life  of  his  child,    who  was  suffering 

from  shortness  of  breath  !     He  gave  me  the   same  account  of  the  way   of 

collecting  it. 

H.  LITTLEDALE. 

Baroda,  Septemher,  1890. 


II.— THE  BENGAL  WATER  COCK,  (OALLICEEX  CRISTATUBJ 

FIRST  OBSERVED  IN  GUZERAT. 
I  HAVE  to  record,  for  the  first  time,  the  occurrence  of  the  Bengal  Water  Cock 
fGallicrex  cristatusj  in  Guzerat,  as  a  female  was  shot  on  25th  September  by 
Lieut.  Percy  Bell,  5th  Bombay  Light  Infantry,  in  my  presence,  on  a  small 
tank  amid  rice  fields,  at  Hami,  four  miles  north  of  Baroda.  It  measured  in  the 
flesh  :— BiU  from  gape,  1*25  ;  tail,  2*45  ;  wing,  6*95 ;  length  13-8  ;  tarsus  2*5  ; 
expanse  22.  The  colours  of  the  fleshy  parts  were  as  described  by  Jerdon, 
Barnes  and  Murray,  with  the  exception  that  no  red  was  visible  at  the  base  of  the 
bill,  which  was  a  dull  yellow.  The  bird  was  probably  young,  of  last  year's 
brood.  The  Bengal  Water  Cock  has  never  before  been  recorded  from  this 
Presidency,  except  from  Sind  ;  in  ten  years  shooting  it  is  the  first  I  have  noticed. 

Baroda,  Septemhery  1890.  H.  LITTLEDALE. 


MISCELLANEO  US.  417 

III._PROPOSED    INTRODUCTION    OF    THE   BLACK    PARTRIDGE 
AND  OTHER  GAME  INTO  THE  NEIGHBOURHOOD  OF  BOMBAY. 

I  BEG  to  suggest  that  an  attempt  should  be  made  to  introduce  the  Chukor 
into  this  pai-t  of  India.  Such  an  eifort  woidd  certainly  succeed  on  the 
AraveUis  and  Vindhyas,  along  the  big  rivers.  Again,  the  Painted  Partridge  is 
our  only  Southern-Bombay  bird  ;  the  Black  Partridge,  a  far  finer  bird,  ought 
to  take  advantage  of  the  R.-M.  Railway  and  settle  in  our  grass  hirs.  He 
flourishes  on  the  hot  grassy  plains  of  Rajputana,  amid  the  tamarisks  of  the 
Indus,  and  along  the  banks  of  the  Jhclum  in  Kashmir  ;  any  climate  seems  to 
suit  him,  wet  or  dry. 

The  Chukor  stretches  across  Asia,  Africa  and  Europe,  from  the  Chenab  to  the 
Rhone  ;  I  have  found  its  nest,  at  11,000  feet,  in  Baltistan,  and  it  ranges  through 
the  low  hot  levels  of  Mokran  and  Arabia.  It  is  a  very  gamey  bird,  and,  if  a 
fair  chance  were  given  it,  it  would  certainly  thrive  on  our  Gh^ts  everj'where. 

The  Bengal  Florican  also  might  be  tried.  Game  is  said  to  be  getting  scarcer: 
Shikaries  should  try  to  introduce  new  blood. 

Again  the  Markhor  might  flourish  on  the  Nilgiris  ;  it  lives  at  7  to  9  thousand 
feet  in  the  rainy  Pir  Panjal,  and  the  Nilgiri  climate  would  suit  it  perfectly. 
There  are  several  African  animals,  antelopes  and  so  forth,  that  would  thrive  in 
India,  and  might  be  easily  introduced. 

Let  our  Soctionjd  Committees  take  this  suggestion  up,  if  they  think  it  worth 
a(;ting  on.  Money  would  certainly  be  forthcoming  for  a  well-considered 
scheme  of  introducing  to  the  Bombjiy  side  animals  that  would  probably  thrive 
there,  and  give  good  sport  to  future  generations  of  sportsmen.  I  look  to  this, 
rather  than  to  vexatious  Game  laws,  to  provide  such  shikar  in  the  future  as  has 
been  enjoyed  in  the  X)ast. 

H.  LITTLEDALE. 

Baroda^  Svptemhcr,  1890. 


IV.— PERIODICAL  FLOWERING  OF  STROBTLANTIIKS,  SPP.,  AND 
OF  ^EdlMANTHERA    TOMENTOHA.   NEES. 

It  has  been  observed  that  certain  species  of  Strohihtnthes  become  periodically 
conspicuous  by  the  abundant  production  of  flowers  during  particular  years. 
Asa  notable  example,  Htrohilanthes  calhsns,  Nees,  may  be  mentioned.  This  is  a 
shrubby  species  common  on  the  Westcm  Ghats,  also  on  Mount  Abu  in  Rajpu- 
tana,  whore  it  thickly  covers  some  of  the  liighor  slopes  on  the  western  side  of 
the  range.  The  profuse  flowering  of  this  si)ocios  is  said  to  take  place  here  about 
every  8  or  9  years,  and  I  was  fortunate  in  finding  it  in  this  condition  when 
visiting  Abu  in  1887.  It  also  occurs  in  the  Nimar  district  on  the  range  of  hills 
between  the  Nerbudda  and  the  Tapti  valleys,  where  I  found  specimens  in  1888, 
which  had  not  flowered  in  that  year.     The  natives  there  call  it  Kara,  and  they 


418      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

say  that  it  flowers  every  three  years.  The  same  plant  is  called  Karviin  Thana, 
and  it  is  mentioned  in  the  Gazetteer  of  that  district  as  flowering  after  periods  of 
eight  years,  and  that  the  blossoms  exude  a  quantity  of  viscid  juice  called  Mel, 
which  appears  to  be  very  attractive  to  cattle.  In  Nasik  this  plant  flowered 
abundantly  in  1880. 

A  few  years  ago  the  Forest  Officer  in  Jaunsar  drew  attention  to  the  abundant 
blossoming  of  another  species  of  Strobilanthes,  which  forms  a  large  portion  of 
the  undergrowth  in  the  forests  above  Chakrata. 

During  a  tour  I  made  in  N.-E.  Kumaon  in  1886,  the  flowering  of  Strohilanthes 
WallicMi,  Nees,  was  remarked  as  constituting  a  very  striking  feature  of  the 
scenery  up  to  about  11,000  ft.  The  hillsides  for  miles  round  about  Budhi  village, 
in  the  Kali  Valley,  as  well  as  in  the  Dhauli  Valley  of  Darma,  were  tinged  with  a 
delicate  lilac  colour,  resembling  that  of  heather  at  a  distance.  This  particular 
tint  was  the  blend  of  every  shade  of  purple  mixed  with  pure  white.*  The 
flowers  have  a  strong  scent  of  musk,  and  are  very  sticky,  with  glandular  hairs. 

During  the  present  year,  ^chmanthera  tomentoaa,  Nees,  another  Acantha- 
ceous  plant,  and  closely  allied  to  Strohilanthes,  has  been  making  itself  florife- 
rously  conspicuous  on  the  rocky  slopes  below  Mussoorie.  Its  rich  purple  flowers 
and  silvery  pubescent  foliage  produce  a  beautiful  effect  as  seen  in  masses.  In 
regard  to  the  above-mentioned  examples,  the  gregarious  habit  of  growth  is  a 
great  aid  towards  observing  occuiTcnces  of  those  periodical  bursts  of  blossoming. 
The  final  reproductive  effort  exhibited  by  some  kinds  of  the  bamboo,  after  a 
certain  period  of  flowerless  condition,  frequently  results  in  the  death  of  all  the 
individual  plants  of  a  species,  even  of  those  which  developed  no  flowers.  The 
species  of  Strohilanthes  and  ^chmanthera  mentioned  above  do  not,  however, 
appear  to  be  affected  in  this  way. 

J.  F.  DUTHIE. 

Dejira,  4ih  Ocfoher,  1890. 


V.  -MARKHOR  SHOOTING  IN  EAST  AFGHANISTAN. 

Me.  Johx  E.  Pexton,  District  Supeiintendent  of  Police,  Jacobabad,  writes 

as  follows : — 

"  I  have  just  returned  from  East  Afghanistan,  where  I  have  been  shooting 
Markhor — the  straight-homed  variety — whose  habitat  Kinloch  gives  as  Yusuf- 
zaie,  the  Khaihar,  and  other  parts  of  Northern  Afghanistan)  and,  as  I  fancy  there  is 
not  much  on  record  about  this  particular  variety,  I  will  venture  to  give  you 
what  little  experience  I  have  gained  of  its  habits,  size,  &c. 

The  Markhor  found  in  Afghanistan  is  an  exceedingly  fine  animal,  an  old 
male  will  measure  from  36  to  40  inches  or  more  at  the  shoulder.     The  largest 


*  This  species  is  found  also  in  China,  and  the  flowers  are  said  to  vary  there  from 
white  to  pale  blue  and  purple.  (Forbes  and  Nemsley,  Index  FIovk  Sinensis,  in 
Journ.  Linn.  Sue,  xxvi.-  242.) 


MISCELLANEOUS.  419 

animal  shot  by  myself  measured  when  dead  on  the  ground  exactly  36  inches. 
This  however  was,  I  should  say,  considerably  under  his  real  height,  as  after 
death  the  muscles  relax.  The  length  of  the  body,  from  rump  to  chest,  was 
42  J  inches.  Horns  only  27  inches  long,  but  nearly'  12  inches  in  circumference 
at  the  base.  My  Pathan  shikaree  calculated  the  age  of  the  beast  by  the 
number  of  dark  rings  on  the  horns.  He  made  it  out  to  be  eight  years  old,  and 
there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  his  statement,  as  I  have  never  found  this  method 
lead  to  extravagant  results.  The  longest  Markhor  horns  which  I  have  ever 
come  across  in  Afghanistan,  I  do  not  think  would  have  measured  more  than 
36  inches,  and  as  a  rule  the  very  long  horns  are  not  so  massive  as  those  of 
medium  size.  The  pair  in  my  possession  are  about  as  massive  as  any  I  have 
ever  seen. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  Markhor  in  Afghanistan,  one  with  horns  diverging 
considerably  at  the  points,  and  the  other  with  horns  not  more  than  17  or 
18  inches  across  from  tip  to  tip.  The  former  is  called  by  the  Pathans  "  Nussel," 
and  the  latter '' Assel.'*  Those  horns  which  diverge  a  great  deal  are  longer, 
but  not  80  massive  as  the  others. 

The  general  colour  of  an  old  male  is  a  dirty  iron  grey.  His  beard  is  long  and 
flowing,  and  much  darker  than  the  rest  of  his  body.  In  summer  his  coat  is 
short,  but  long  in  winter.  From  April  to  November  there  is  a  reddish  tinge 
about  it,  while  during  the  remaining  months  it  loses  this  and  becomes  more 
grizzly.  The  females  are  less  than  half  the  size  of  the  males,  and  are  of  a 
dark  fawn  colour.  Stemdale  states  that  they  have  a  short,  black  beard.  I 
myself  have  never  seen  one  with  anything  more  than  the  merest  rudiments  of  a 
beard,  while  many  have  absolutely  no  signs  of  it.  They  have  short  twisted 
horns  about  8  to  10  inches  long. 

The  Markhor  frequent  the  loftiest  and  most  precipitous  mountains  of 
Afghanistan,  the  chief  ranges  in  British  territory  being  Zargungar,  terminating 
north-west  in  the  peak  of  Tak^too,  and  what  one  may  call  the  Kaliphtit  range, 
terminating  east,  in  the  mountains  of  Sham,  overlooking  the  Bori  valley. 
Zargungar  rises  to  an  elevation  of  11,700  feet,  and  Sham  to  about  11,200. 

Owing  to  the  difficult  nature  of  the  ground,  and  the  extreme  wariness  of  the 
old  males,  Markhor  shooting  in  Afghanistan  is,  I  believe,  the  most  trying  sport 
one  can  possibly  undertake.  The  best  months  are  November,  December  and 
January,  for. at  this  season  the  males  mix  with  the  females,  and  are  consequently 
much  easier  to  find  than  at  any  other  time  of  the  year.  The  largest  Markhor 
that  I  bagged,  was  shot  in  the  following  manner,  which  will  give  you  a  fair 
idea  of  what  this  kind  of  sport  really  is  : — For  nearly  six  weeks  I  lived  out  on 
the  hills  with  nothing  but  my  rifle  and  a  blanket,  accompanied  by  three 
Pathans,  and  although  I  worked  exceedingly  hard  the  whole  time,  I  never  was 
fortunate  enough  to  secure  a  really  good  head.  I  had  shot  in  all  seven 
Markhors,  but  the  heads  were  small,  and  I  was  not  altogether  satisfied.  Finally 
I  resolved  to  return  to  my  fixed  camp  and  take  a  rest,  as  all  of  us  were  more  or 
<l..  55 


420      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

less   knocked  up.     "While  actually    marching  back  to  our  head-quarters,  my 
^hikaree  espied   a   magnificent   old    Markhor  lying  in  a  hole  in  the    rocks 
immediately  above  us,  and  about  500  yards  off.     A  councU  of  war  was  at  once 
held,  but  the  matter  appeared  to  be  utterly  hopeless,  as  the  ground  seemed  to 
be  absolutely  impossible.   The  hole  ^hich  the  Markhor  had  chosen  was  actually 
on  the  face  of  a  precipice.     However,  I  dete^^nined  to  try  it,  and  accordingly 
started  off  with  the  shikaree,  leaving  a  man  below  to  watch  the  Markhor.     T-he 
wind  was  f  ortimately  in  our  favor,  and  we  commenced  the  climb.   How  I  managed 
to  get  within  50  yards  of  the  hole  I  never  quite  knew,  but  I  did  somehow,  and 
having  seated  myself  on  a  ledge,  about  18  inches  broad,  I  sent  the  shikaree 
round  to     drive    the  Markhor  from  his  position.     This  was  an  exceedingly 
difficult  job,  and  the  animal  when  disturbed  would,  I  felt  sure,  disappear  up  a 
t^hasm,  situated  just  above  the  hole,  without  giving  me  the  chance  of  a  shot. 
After  a  very  difficult  climb  my  shikaree  cleverly  managed  to  get  above  the 
Markhor  and  commenced  throwing  stones  into  the  hole.     At  first  the  w^ary 
old  goat  refused  to  move,   but  eventually    he  changed  his  mind,  and  came 
thundering  down  in  my  direction.     I  heard  him  coming,  but  I  could  not  see 
him ;  when  suddenly  he  sprang  on  to  a  projecting  rock  just  above  me,  and  as  he 
did  so,  I  covered  him  with  my  rifle  and  pressed  the  trigger.     There  was  a  ere  sh 
of  falling  rocks,  and  the  rushing  sound  of  a  heavy  body  falling  through  space. 
The  smoke  was  cleft  aside,  and  I  just  caught  a  glimpse  of  the  Markhor  as  he 
passed  hardly  five  feet  from  me  a  lifeless  mass.     Some  seconds  after  there  was 
a  dull  thud  tt  r  away  down  at  the  bottom  of  the  precipice.     Success  at  last. 
In  a  moment  I  had  forgotten  all  we  had  gone  through,  and,  calling  to  my 
shikaree  to  follow,  I  proceeded  to  descend  the  face  of  the  precipice.     I  found 
the  markhor  lying  dead  in  a  dry  water  course  with  hardly  an  unbroken  bone 
in  his  body,  but,  strange  to  say,  neither  his  skin  nor  his  horns  were  very  much 
damaged,  though  he  must  have  fallen  nearly  400  feet.     He  was  a  magnificent 
sight  as  he  lay  on  the  rocks  before    me  :    a  prize    which  any   sportsman 
Baight  well  be  proud  of.    My  shikaree  and  myself  could  only  just  manage  to  lift 
him  off  the  ground,  so  that  he  must  have  weighed  at  least  200  lbs." 


VI.— PARASITIC  FLIES. 

In  the  month  of  July  last,  I  noticed  a  large  moth  caterpillar  motionless  in 
the  middle  of  a  leaf,  and  two  large  flies  with  red  heads  standing  close  by.  The 
flies  had  a  felonious  look  which  I  thought  I  recognised,  so  I  put  them  under 
surveillance.  Presently  one  of  them  advanced  slowly  towards  the  caterpillar 
and  walked  cautiously  along  the  fringe  of  long  hairs  which  protected  its  sides. 
Suddenly  it  stopped,  and  going  as  near  as  the  hairs  would  allow,  till  its  head 
almost  pressed  against  them,  curved  its  abdomen  under  it  and  extended  an 
ovipositor  nearly  half  an  inch  in  length.  Passing  this  carefully  between  the 
tufts   of  hair   it   deposited   an   egg   (I   take  this  for  granted),  and  then,  with 


MI  SC  ELLA  NEO  US.  421 

extreme  caution,  baeked  a  few  paces.  This  operation  was  i-epeated  several 
times  on  one  side,  and  then  the  fly  went  to  the  other,  making  a  wide  detour 
round  the  caterpillar's  head.  This  scene  suggests  some  cuiious  reflections.  I 
have  long  believed  that  the  mimicries  and  other  protective  devices  so  common 
among  caterpillars  are  not  designed  for  protection  against  birds  so  much  as 
against  their  arch  enemy,  the  parasite,  dipterous  or  hymenopterous,  but  it 
never  struck  me  before  that  the  lateral  fringe  of  spines,  bristles  or  hair,  which 
we  find  in  Euthalia  among  butterflies,  and  in  many  genera  among  moths,  was 
meant  to  guard  the  soft  imderpai-ts,  to  which  apparently  the  qqq  must  be 
attached.  If  this  be  so,  then  we  must  suppose  that  a  keen  evolutionary  race 
is  going  on  now  between  the  growth  of  the  larva's  haii^  and  the  parasite's 
ovipositor.  They  were  pretty  evenly  matched  in  the  instance  I  have  quoted, 
and  the  fly  had  no  easy  task,  which  may  account  for  what  at  fii*st  puzzled  me, 
the  cat-like  caution  of  the  fly.  The  cateii)illar  could  not  hurt  it,  but  might,  if 
alarmed,  have  frustrated  its  i)urpose,  either  by  erecting  the  tufts  of  hair,  or 
simply  by  moving. 

E.  H.  AITKEN. 
Karwart  JVovtmber,  1890. 


VII.— DISSEMINATION  OF  LARV^. 

Some  time  ago  I  got  a  large  pupa,  and  throwing  it  into  a  cage  of  gauze, 
forgot  it.  One  morning  my  attention  was  attracted  by  a  cloud  of  small  moths 
fluttering  round  the  cage,  and  on  looking  in  I  found  that  a  groat  apterous 
female  moth  had  emerged  from  my  pupa.  I  let  in  one  or  two  of  the  males 
and  the  rest  very  soon  dispersed.  Next  day  the  female  produced  abnost  her 
own  weight  of  eggs,  and  then,  shrivelling  up  like  "  She'^  after  her  second  inuner- 
sion  in  the  flame  of  life,  died.  In  a  few  days  a  swarm  of  caterpillars  appeared 
clothed  with  hair  so  long  that  the  wind  blew  them  about  as  easily  as  the  seeds 
of  a  thistle.  They  did  not,  however,  trust  themselves  altogether  to  the  mercy 
of  the  wind,  but,  attached  very  fine  lines  of  silk  to  the  cage,  on  which  they 
floated  away  like  gossamer  spiders,  or  to  use  a  more  homely  simile,  paper  kites. 
The  silk  readily  caught  the  posts  of  the  verandah,  or  branches  of  trees,  and  so, 
in  a  short  time,  there  was  a  network  of  fine  lines,  extending  eight  or  ten  yards 
to  leeward,  with  caterpillars  crawling  along  them  in  all  directions,  or  letting 
themselves  be  blown  from  one  to  another.  The  resemblance  of  the  whole 
thing  to  the  dispersion  of  plumed  seeds  was  very  striking,  and  in  view  of  the 
fact  that  many  moths  make  no  attempt  to  seek  their  food  plant,  but  lay  their 
eggs  just  where  they  chance  to  be,  the  incident  suggests  an  interesting  subject 
for  investigation. 

E.  H.  AITKEN. 
Karwar,  November ^  1890. 


422      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATUAAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 

VIII.— RED  ANTS'  NESTS. 

Some  time  ago  I  gave  the  members  of  the  Society  some  accomit  of  the  ways 

of  the  red  ant  (or  yellow  ant,  as  some  prefer  to  call  it,)  known  to  formicologists 

as    CEcopylla  amaragdina.     I   did  not   then  know  how  it  constructs  its  curious 

leaf  nests,    so  bitterly  familiar  to  many  of  us.     How  I  covld  lire  so  long 

without  knowing  this,   I  cannot  now  explain,  but  in  case  there  are  others  as 

stupid  as  myself  I   will  describe  the  process.     I  first  saw  it  going  on  in  a  tree 

with  very  large,  leathery  leaves,  two  of  which  were  then  being  drawn  together. 

Beginning  at  the  point  where  the  leaves  were  nearest  each  other,  several  ants 

laid  hold  of  one  with   their  jaws,   and  of  the  other  with  their  hind  feet,  and 

began  to  pull  as  ants  can.     Further  on,  where  the  distance  was  greater,   one 

ant  seized  one  leaf  with  its  jaws,  then  a  second  seized  the  first  by  the   "  small 

of  the  back,"   grasped  the   other  leaf  with  its  hind  feet,  and  pulled,    f'urther 

on   still  a  chain   of  three,  four,  five,    or  even  six,  ants  united  the  two  leaves. 

As   every   member  of  the   community  which  could  find  room  for  jaw  or  foot 

joined  in,  the  space  between  the  leaves  was  spanned  by  a  web  of  ant  fabric,  in 

a  state  of  the  highest  tension,  very  like  the  elastic  in  a  **  springside"  boot.     In 

the  meantime  a  number  of  single  ants  were  busy  securing  the  labours  of  the  rest 

with   strong  cords  of  silk,  and  tightening  these  as  the  leaves  were  drawn  nearer 

and  nearer.    When  a  sufficient  number  of  leaves  have  thus  been  bound  together 

at  their  edges,  the  whole  is  made  weatherproof  with   sheet  silk,  and  divided 

into  chambers  and  passages  with  the  same  material. 

E.  H.  AITKEN. 
Karwar,  Zrd  November ^  1890. 


IX.— A  **  MALABAR  CROW  PHEASANT"  TAKING  TO  THE  WATER. 

On  Saturday  evening  last,  November  15,  I  was  playing  with  my  children  by 
the  Charlotte  Lake  at  Matheran,  when  our  tonjon- wallas  called  my  attention 
to  a  creature  which  was  slowly  and  awkwardly  swimming  towards  the  opposite 
bank.     Two   or  three  kites  were  wheeling  above  it ;   but  whether  they  had 
driven  it  into  the  water,  or  were  only  minded  to  take  advantage  of  its  difficul- 
ties, I  do  not  know.    Our  shouts  drove  them  away,  and  the  swimmer  reached  the 
bank  at  a  shelving  place,  and  we  recognised  it  as  a  *'  Malabar  Crow  Pheasant." 
It  disappeared  among  the  brushwood  for  perhaps  a  quarter  of  an  hour  or  twenty 
minutes,  and  then,   with  no  kites  or  other  visible  danger  in   sight,  we  were 
astonished  by  seeing  it  take  to  the  water  again,  and  swim  for   the   bank   from 
which  it  had  started.     As  it  was  making  for  a  place  where  the  edge  is  a   sheer 
wall,   we  went  along  to  meet  it.     It  swam  straight  for  us,  and  only  turned  off 
at  a  right  angle,    skirting  the   wall,  when   it  was  well  within  arm's  length. 
Then,  as  it  seemed  exhausted,  I  reached  out  and  lifted  it  from  the  water.    I  was 
able  to   observe  it   carefully  for  the  last  few  yards  of  its  curious  swim.     The 
whole  body  was  submerged,   and  only  the  head  and  neck,   and  the  extreme 
top  of  the  pinions  stood  out  of  the  water.     It  oared  itself  along  with  its  wings, 


PROCEEDINGflS. 


42: 


bringing  them  forward  and  striking  back  with  them.  The  legs  seemed  to  trail 
quite  motionless.  It  was  too  exhausted  to  struggle  at  first,  and  when  it  tried  to 
flap  away,  could  neither  raise  itself  from  the  ground  nor  even  hop,  without 
tumbling  over  constantly.  Seeing  it  so  helpless,  we  took  it  home  in  our  tiffin- 
basket  and  gave  it  food.  Next  morning,  on  being  given  its  liberty,  it  flew  away. 
It  seemed  a  very  young  bird,  though  fully-fledged.  The  incident  of  a  land- 
bird  taking  to  the  water  twice,  the  second  time  with  no  apparent  compulsion, 
seemed  to  me  curious  enough  to  be  worth  communicating. 

L.  P.  BOMBAY. 

Bamhayy  November  21«f,  1890. 

X.— BEES  DESTROYED  BY  LAPINDUS  EMARGINATUS. 

I  am  sending  you  a  box  of  dead  bees*  I  picked  up  under  a  tree  now  in  flower 
in  the  gardens,  Lapindus  emarginatus.  The  tree  begins  to  flower  about  the 
middle  of  October,  and  bears  a  profusion  of  smaU  whitish  inodorous  blossoms 
which  attract  the  bees.  It  seems  very  strange  that  insects  possessing  such  a 
wonderful  instinct  should  drink  the  nectar  from  the  flower  and  get  killed  in 
this  way,  for  I  found  them  dead  in  thousands  under  the  tree.  The  effect 
produced  appears  to  be  that  of  a  powerful  purgative,  stnd  there  are  now  numbers 
of  bees  buzzing  about  on  the  ground  unable  to  fly, 

THOS.  H.  STOREY. 

Oodeypore,  Decemhh',  1890. 


PROCEEDINGS. 

PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  SEPTEMBER  MEETING. 

The  usual  Monthly  Meetiug  of  the  Members  of  this  Society  took  place  at  their 
rooms  in  Apollo  Street  on  Tuesday,  the  23rd  September,  and  was  largely  attended. 
Dr.  Maconaohie  presiding. 

The  following  new  Members  were  elected  as  from  the  Ist  of  October  :— Mr.  J.  B. 
Fuller,  C.S.  (Nagpore),  Mr.  0.  S.  Spalding  (Bhownugger),  Mr.  D.  Knight,  Mr.  John 
E.  Penton  (Jacobabad),  and  Monsieur  H.  Levell^  (Pondicherry). 

Mr.  H.  M.  Phipson,  the  Honorary  Secretary,  then  acknowledged  the  following  con- 
tributions:— 

CONTRIBUTIONS  DURING  AUGUST  AND  SEPTEMBER. 


Contributions. 


Descriptions. 


1  Toddy  Cat  (alive)  

2  Snakes  (alivo) 

1  Indian  Monitor  (alive).., 
1  Collection  of  Butterflies. . 

1  GreenfDovo    

2  Sheer  Waters,  a  quantity 
of  fish  &  marine  animals. 


Contributors. 


Paradoxurus  musanga    

Tropidonotus    stolatus   and 

Zamenis  fasciolatus. 
Varanus  bengalensis  


^From  Alibag. 


Mr.  N.  M.  Patel. 
Mr.  J.  Mason. 

Mr.  G.  de  Saone. 
Mr.  W.  George* 

Mr.  W.  F.  Sinclair,  O.S. 


*  Ajpis  indica.— Editor. 


424      JOURNAL,  BOMBAY  NATURAL  HISTORY  SOCIETY,  1890. 


Contributions. 


Descriptions. 


Contributors. 


1   Tailor  Bird's  Nest 

1   Squirrel  (alive) 

1  Snake  (alive)      

8  Eggs  of  Large  Sea  Tern... 
6   Eggs  of  Lesser  Sea  Tern 

1  Cobra  (alive)  

J   Black      Rock      Scorpion 

(alive). 

1  Otter's  Skull .' 

A   number   of   Fishes,    In 

sects  and  Beptiles. 

1  Panther  (alive)  

18  Snakes    

2  Dolphins*  Heads    

1  Snake 

1  Bear's  Skin    ....  , , 

1         Do 


Orthotomus  sutorius  Maj.  W.  P.  Kennedy. 

From  Zanzibar    ^,     -.^    ^     .  ... 

Aspidura  brachyprocta  .... 

Sternia  bergil  

Sternia  media 

Naga  tripudians      ... 

With  young 


Lutra  vnlgans 

Prom  Baipur,  C.  P. 


I 


Felis  pardus     

From  Travancore    

Neomeris  karachiensis 

Chi*y8opelea  ornata 

Ursus  arctos     

Ursus  torquatus  


Mr.  X.  Oastelli. 
Mr.  O.  Meyer. 
Lieut.  H.  E.  Barnes. 

Do. 
Mr.  W.  Ballantyne. 
Mr.  Jas.  Dickson. 

Mr.  J.  F.  Snuggs. 
Mr.  J.  A,  Betham. 

Mr.  W.  Souter. 
Trevandrum  Museum. 
Mr.  W.F.Sinclair,  C.S. 
Dr.  Harold  Brown. 
Purchased. 
Do. 


Minor  contributions  from  Mr.  Thos.  Rogers,  Major  C.  R.  Sage,  Mr.  J.  Janni,  Mr.  A. 
0.  Walker,  Mr.  N.  Purbhoodas,  Mr.  J.  Counsell,  Mr.  H.  M.  Waller,  Mrs.  Meyer,  and 
Surg.-Major  Webb. 

The  Honorary  Secretary  stated  that  the  panther  received  from  Mr.  W.  Souter  had 

been  placed  in  one  of  the  new  open-air  cages  at  the  Victoria  Gardens.     He  also  drew 

attention  to  the  fact  that  contributions  of  cheetal  or  spotted  deer  would  be  most 

acceptable. 

Contributions  to  the  Library. 

The  following  joumala  were  received  in  exchange : — Journal  of  the  Elisha  Mitchell 

Scientific    Society,    July — December,    1889;    Bulletin  of   the  American  Museum  of 

Natural  History,  December,  188d,  to  February,  1890;  Proceedings  of  the  California 

Academy  of  Sciences,  Vol.  II.  ;  Journal  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal,  No.   1  of 

1890;    Oriental  Cicadidee  (Distant),   Part  III.;    Journal   of  Comparative   Medicine 

and  Veterinary  Archives;  and  Records  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  India,  Part  III. 

Vote  of  Thanks. 
A  vote  of  thanks  was  passed  to  Mr.  T.  B.  Fry,  of  Poona,  for  the  valuable  collection 
of  about  1,800  specimens  of  dipterous  insects  which  he  had  made  for  the  Society,  aud 
which  had  been  sent  to  England  for  classification. 

A  Panther  Chasing  a  Nilghai. 
The  Honorary  Secretary  read  a  note  from  Mr.  J.  M.  Ooode,  Nagpore,  C.P.,  in  which 
he  described  having  witnessed  a  panther  chasing  a  nilghai  for  a  long  distance.     It 
was  resolved  to  publish  the  notd  in  full  in  the  next  number  of  the  Society's  Journal, 
as  the  occurrence  seems  to  have  been  an  unusual  one. 

Protective  Colouring  op  Chrysalises. 
An  interesting  paper  was  also  read  from  Mr.  A,  W.  Morris,  of  Bangalore,  con- 
taining an  account  of  some  remarkable  results  of  his    experiments  with  the   larvas 
of  various  butterflies,  showing  that  the  chrysalis  can  be  made  to  adopt  almost  any 
colour  by  artificial  means.