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^^■^ ■ 11 192? 



) 



The 7DURN7U. OF HEREDITY 



* • 



• • 



• • • 






• • 



A MONTHLY I^UHLICA'IMON DEVOTKD TO PLANT BREEDING, 

ANLMAL BREEDLNG AND EUGENICS 



ITHLISHKI) HY TIIK 

AMERICAN (JENETIC ASSOCIATION 



V()LI^:ME XI 



WASHINGTON. D. C. 
19)20 



V .- 



INDEX FOR VOL. XI 



Journal of Heredity, 1920 



• AlwiLU«,»K>r Hlni'trii^iBg th« Strut li»rc«fifirr.Arathcinn4Jt« o<» • 

• • * •iheMfuifianTieW-Tlas'ni. 1faft-yMr*LaugMift, f85. * 
A«Ihcrcnce un maizd, J. H. Kempton, 317. 

Alaska, Reinflcer Industry in. ti. J. Lonien, 243. 

Albino Cattle, .\ Herd of. J. A. Detlofsen, 378. 

Almosts, The (review). .^^,i. 

AmcricaJi Families, Better — IV. Wilhemine E. Key, 358. 

Andiilusian Hen Which Changed Color. William A. Lippin- 
cott,342. 

Anthroih^lojjy. .\n Intro«luction to (review), 214. 

Apple. .\ (iraft-Chimera in the. A It. Stout. 23S. 

"Applied Eugenics," and the Question of Heredity vs. En- 
vironment. A Discussion of Popenoc ami Johnson's. 
80. 

A.<similation, Race. 11. H. Lauehlin. 259. 

Aut'Kracy, Decline of, and ItsRcl;iti«>n to Warfare. Frederick 
.Adams Wo<xis, 33. 

Award of Honor to Walter Van Fleet, 95. 

B 

Beef ancl Dairy Breeds of Cattle, Inheritance in Crosses of. 

John W. Gowen, 300, 365. 
Better American Families. Wilhelmine E. Key, 358. 
Bell. Alexander Graham. Is Race Suicide Possible? 339. 
Biology, A Text Book of (review). 214. 
Birth Rate in Mixed Marriages, 96. 
Birth Rate. To Increase the, 64. 
Blackberry of Colombia. Wilson Popenoe, 195. 
Blackl)€rr>*— Dewberry Hybrid, A Mutating. L. R. Det jcn, 92. 
BUikeslee. Albert F. Mutations in Mucors, 278. 
Bluel»crr>', A New Hybrid. Frederick V. Coville, 338. 
Bowman. H. H. M. Deterioration in S*ime Horticultural 

Varieties Through Deficient .Artificial Selection, 38(J. 
Brachytic Culms. J. 11. Kempton, 111. 
Breeding and Environment as Factors Influencing Milk 

Prrnluction. .Andrew C. McCandlish, 20 ( . 
Breeding Earless Sheep. K. C. Ritxman, 238. 
BufTah), The Water — .A Tropical Source of Butter Fat. C. O. 

Levine, 51. 
Burch, D. S. Hereditv and Economical Production of Food. 

7. 
Bush-Brown, H. K. Heredity in Horses, 215 
Butter-I'at, .A Tropical Source of. C. O. Levine, 51. 
Butter-Fat Percentage, Transmission of. John W. Gowen, 

365. 



or Cvrtosi.s. 



CataljMi, Teas' Hvbri»l. D. F. Jcmesand W. (). Fillcv. U). 
Cattle. Albino, A Herd of. J. A. Detlefsen. 378. 
Cattle and Horses, Native, in the Orient. C. O. Levine, 147. 
Cattle, Inheritance in Crosses of Dairy and Beef Bree<ls of, 

John W. Gowen. 300, 3ti5. 
Cen-ms, Physical, in England an»l Its Les^^rin. F. .A. Wood.-., 

190. 
Children, Country, 86, 

Chimera, Graft, in the .Apple. A, B. Stout, 233. 
C!hina. ,A Dis.order of Cotton Plants in: Club-leaf 

O, F. C.x)k, 99. 
('hlorophyll Factors of Maize, E. W. Limlstrom, 269. 
Club-leaf, a Disorder of Cotton Plants in China. O. V. Cook, 

99. 
Citizenship, Development of Useful. Hilda H. Noyes, 88. 
Collins, G. N., and Kempton, J. II. Heritable Characters i)f 

Mai/e -Linneale lA'.tves. 3. 
Color, Meaning of Continuous Variation of, 84. 
(!ol<mibian Berry, or Giant Blarkberr>-. Wilson Poi.enoe. 195. 
C<»loration, Protective, .A R.indam Test in the Theory of. 

Frederick .Adams W»mk1s, 284. 
C«>«)k,(). F. .A Disofflcr of Cott«m Plants in China: Club-leaf 

or Cyrtosis, 99. 
Co«>k, O. F. Cotton a Community Crop, 174. 
Corn or Gre(;arious Animals, ,\ System for Breeding, A. N. 

Hume, 191. 
Cotton, A Community Crop, O. F. Cook, 174. 



(•ttt^on Nants, .A Disorder of in China: Club-leaf or Cyrtosis. 

• V. F. Cook, 99. 
('•\'il*e, b'rederick V., A Xew Blueberry Hybrid, 338. 
Crt)sse%.* Inheritance in, of Dairy and Beef Breeds of Cattle. 

John W. Gowen, 365. 
Culms, Br.ichytic — Heritable Characters of Maize. J. H. 

Kempton, 111. 
Culms, Zigzjig — Heritable Characters of Maize. William H. 

Eystcr, 349. 
Cyrtosis. or Club-leaf in Cotton. (). F. Co<^k, 99. 



D 

Dahlia, New, of Interest to Plant Breeders. 48. 

Dahlia. Tree, of Guatemala. Wilson Poijenoe, 265. 

Dairv and Beef Bree<ls of Cattle, Inheritance in Crosses of. 
John W. Gowen, 300, 365. 

Darrow, (ieorge M . Are Our Rasi)berries Derived from Amer- 
ican or European Sf>ecies? 179. 

Dasheen, Pioneer (irowers of, 46. 

Decline of Aut xracv and Its Relation to Warfare. Frederick 
Adams Woods, 33. 

Deterioration in Some Horticultural Varieties Through Defi- 
cient Artificial Selection. H. H. M, Bowman. 380, 

Detjen, L, R. .A Mutating Blackberry-Dewberry Hybrid, 92. 

Dcijen. L. R. The Herald — .A New TyiK? of Prune, 253. 

Detlefsen, J. A, .A Herd of Albino Cattle. 378. 

Development of Useful Citizenship. Hihla H. Noyes, 88. 

Dewl>erry- Black berry Hybri<l. L. R. Detjen, 92. 

Dogs, Piebald Slotting in. C. C. Little. 12. 



E 

Earless Sheep. E. G. Ritzman, 238. 

Educitional Tests, Standard (review), 232, 

Emerson, R. .A. Heritable Characters of Maize — II. Pistil- 
late F'lowered Maize Plants, 65. 

England. Phy.siail Census of. F. .A. Woods, 190. 

Envinmment. see Heredity. 

Environment an«i Breeding as Factors Influencing Milk 
Production. Andrew C. McC.andlish, 204. 

Eugenic Beiring of Taxation, 83. 

Eugenics, .Applied, 80. 

Eugenics and Moral Qualities, 189, 

Eugenics ami Other Scionces. Frederick .Adams Woods, 77. 

F'ugenic.'i and Patriotism. Henry* Fairfiehl ()slM)rn, 341. 

Eugenics Congress, Sw:ond International, 384. 

Eugenics in Ciermany, 110. 

F2ugenics in Scandinavia. 128. 

Eugenics Society in Hungary-, 41. 

Flvolution. and World-Power, revic\% of Huntington's book 
by Paul Popenoe, 137. 

Evst.er. Willi.im H. Heritable Char.icters of Maize. 349. 



Fairchild. David. Foreign Plant Intnnluction Medid, 169. 
Familio. Better .American. Wilhelmine E. Kev, 358. 
Filley. W, ().. and Jones, D. F. Teas' Hybrid latalpa. 16. 
Food, Heredity and Economical Production of, D. S, Burch, 

7. 
Fruit ProixTgation. The Im[>rovemcnt of Rfxtt-Stmks Used 

in. H.J. Webber, 291. 



(ialloway. Beverly T. Some Promising Xew Pear St<K'.ks, 25. 
(ienetic .Xssociation in Italy, 45. 
Geneticists. Interested in Agriculture, Meeting of. 384. 
Germ-Plasm, Human, Structure and Mathematics of. H. H. 

I.Miughlin, 185, 
Germany, Eugenics in. 110. 
Giant Blackberry of Colombia or The Ct»l«imbian Berry. 

Wilstm Pojienoe, 195. 
Goats. Swine antl Sheep in the Orient. ('. O. I-evine. 117. 
Gowen, John W. Inheritance in (Crosses of Dairv and Beef 

Breeds of Cattle, 300, 3fi5. 



11 



287493 



Index 



111 



Grafl-Cliimcra in the Ar>itU". A. B. St.^ut, 2.?.?. 

Gntliefruit, Origin of a. Variety Having Pink Col«»rc(l I'ruits. 

A. I). Shamel, 157. 
Gregarious AnimaN or Corn, A System for lirec<linK. A. N. 

Hume, IVI. 
Guatemala. Tree Dahlia of. Wilson Poiicn«»e. It^S. 

H 

Half-Man. The Menace of the. Seth K. Ilvimphn-y. 22S. 
Hen Which l?hanj:e(l Color. William A. Lii>|iineoit. .U2. 
••HeraM." A New; Tyi)e of Prune. L. R. Deljcn, 25.*. 
"Herwlit.is,"' .\ Xew Cienetits Journal, 227. 
Hcretlily an<l Kconomical Prixluction •)f Ko(k1. 1). S. liurch, 

Heredity an«l Knvironment. I)ibeu<.-.ion <»f, SO. 

Here<lity anil Knvironment in the I>«'veli'i»ment i>f Men 

J review). 01. 
Heredity and Sex, LetTture-i on frevic\\'». 21. 
Heredity in Hor.-es. H. K. Hush lirown, 21'^. 
Here.lily, The Physical Hasis of (review i. 144. 
Hereijitarv 'rraile>. iJy Anieriran Red Cni*.-^, ^<>.i. 
Heritable Vh.iraclers of .Ma i/.r. ?. (.1. Ill, U.l. n7, .U">. 
Ilol-itein-i. Were the Mlick anil-W hile Ori^iinallv Kcd-and- 

Whilf? l.v^ 
Htioker, JoMrph. The Herdiiy and Knvir4innM'nl •>!', (>. 
HorM** and Cattle, Native, in the Orient. C. (J. Levine. 147. 
-- Hor>«-i. Here«lity in. II. K. Hu»«h Hrown, 215. 
I Hi»rticullural Varietii"s, Deterioratiitn Thr<>iii:h Drfuient 

•Vrtiluial Sd«ition. H. \l. M. Uownian. Mi). 
Human derm- Pl:i*m. .\n .\l>acu>fiir lllu*.lr.ilii>« the structure 

and Matheni;itiv> I'f. IIarr\ fl. Lan^hlin. 1S5. 
Hume, A. N. .\ Sv^tem for Mrie«lin»: Corn i>r (irrK.iriou> 

Animals. 101. 
Humphrey. Seth K. 'Ihe .Nh-nace of the Half Man. 22S. 
Hungary. Kuuenics Society in. 41. 
Hurlin. Ralph (j. A Case of Inherited Svndactvlv in .Man. 

XU. 
Hybrid, Teas' Calalpa. I). F. Jones and W. O. l-'ille\, I'l. 
Hybriil. A Mutatinu HlacklH-rry-DewlK'rry. L. R. Detjen, 92. 
Hybrid. A New Bluel>crry. Frederick \'. Coville, .i.*8. 
Hybrids Natural Wheal- Rye of 1018. Clyde K. LeiK'hty. 120. 



ttion. 



Jones 



Immi^rtilion Pro! Icm ToiJay. Robert I)e C. Ward, 3L^. 
Improvement of RiH)t -Stocks Usjd in Fruit pDiKiuatit 

H.J. Webber. 201. 
Inbreeding and Outbreetlinu (a review of Kast and J< 

book by Paul Popenix*., 125. 
Inheritance (review), 91. 
Inheritance in Cn>ss<'s <if Dairv and Heef Hree«U of Cattle, 

John W. Ciowen, M)0, .*ft5. 
Inherited Syndacivlv in Man. .\ Case of. Ralph CI, Hurlin, 

Intelligence, Measuring, H6. 
Intelligence of the Negro, 45. 
Italy, (ienetic .Xssociatiim in, 45. 
Italy, Heretlitary J'rades in, >f».i. 



J 



Johnson and Popenoe. Discussion of "Applied Fugenics," 80. 
Jone>. I). F., and Filley. W. O. Teas' Hvbrid Catalpa. lo. 
Jones, I). F. Heritable Charaiter> of Mai/e — Defective 

Swils, 161. 
Journal of Hernlitv. Letter of Indor.^ement. Wm. .\. Tavlor, 

.^77. 

K 

Katharine. The. A New Hlueberrv Il\bri«l, Frederick \ . C;)- 

ville, 3.W. 
Kempton. J. H. Heritable Characters t»f Mai/^^— Adherence. 

317. 
Kempton, J. H. Heritable Characters i>f Mai/e — Krachylic 

Culms 111. 
Kempton. J. H . and Collins. (J. .V. Heritable Character.* of 

Maize — Linneate I.eave^. <. 
Key. Wilhemine K. Retter .American lamilies 1\ .. .^58. 



I^abontory Diri*(tion in Principles oi .Animal Hiol-iiry f re- 
view), 214. 

Lathrop. Barbour. Recipient of First Mever Memorial 
.Medal, U.O. 



Laughlin. Harry H. .\n Aliacus for Illustniting the Structure 
and Mathematics of the Human Germ -Plasm, 185. 

Laughlin, Harrv H. Race /Vssimilation by the Pure-Sire 
MethiMl, 259. 

Lee. If. .Vtherton and Scott, L. B. .Are Valencia Oranges from 
Chinas <29. 

Leighty, Clyde K. Natural Wheat -Rye Hybrids of 1918. 120. 

Levine, C. O. Native Horstrs ;ind Cattle in the Orient, 147. 

Levine, C. O. Swine. Sheep and ('mats in the Orient, 117. 

Levine. C. O. The Water ButTalo — \ Tropical Source of 
Butter Fat, 51. 

Lind-ilrom, K. W. ('hlorophyll Factors of Maize, 260. 

Linc;ite Leaves (heritable iharaclers of maize). G. N. Col- 
lins and J. H. Kemfiton, ^. 

Lippincutt, William A. A Hen Which Changed Color, 342. 

Little. C. C. Note on the Origin of Piebald SiM)iting in 
Diurs, 12. 

Lix:k's Last W«)rk — a review, 1 10. 

Loinen. (1. J. The Reindeer Induitry in .M.iski, 24.v 

M 

McCandlish. ('. Environment ami Breeding as Factors In- 

tlueiicin;; Milk Production. 204. 
Maize, Chlorojihyli Facti»rs of. F. W. Lin<lstrom, 260. 
Maize, Heritable Clur.jcters of. 

1. Lineate Leaves. (1. N. Collins and J. H. Kempton, 

.?. 

2. Pistillate Flowered M li/.ePlants, R. ,A. Kn-.ers.'>n,65. 
<. Brachyiic Culms. J. H. Kempton, 1 11. 

4. Lethal Factors — L>efective Seeds. D. I'. Jones. 161. 

5. .A«llierenre. J. H. Kempton, .M7. 

6. Zi^'Rig Culms. William II. Kyster. 310. 
Marjorie. The Bonk of (review '. .M6. 
Mi^rriages, Birth Rate in Mi\e«l, Oo, 
Measuring Intelliiience, 86. 

Medal, Foreign Plant Introduction. David Fairchihl, 1<»0. 

Medal, \ilvancement of Horticulture,' 05. 

Meelink'of Geneticists Interested in .Agriculture, ^84, 

Menace of the Half- Man. Seth K. Humi)hrey, 228. 

Mendelism — a review, 115. 

Mental Tests (review), 2J2. 

Mever Memorial Medal, -Da\id Fairchild, 169. 

Milk Proiluction, F.nvir(mment an*! Breetlinc as Factors In- 

Huencing. .Vndrew C. McCandlish. 204. 
Milk Yield, Transmission of. John W. Gtnvcn, .^00. 
Mixed Marriages, The Birth Rate in, 96. 
Moral Qualities ami Eugenics, 189. 
Mc»rtality, Racial Differences in, .U6. 
Mucors. Mutations in. .Albert F. Blakeslcc, 278. 
Mutating Blatklurrry-Dewberrv Hybriil. L. R. Detjen, 92. 
Mutations in Mucors. Allwrt V. BlakeMee, 278. 



N 

Nationality and Race Trcview), 192. 

Netrn». Intelligence of the, 45. 

No\es. Hilda H. The Develojjmentof Useful Citizenship, 88. 



Oranges. N'alencia. .\re They from China? H. Atherton Lee 

and L. B. Sc<itt, .^20. 
Osborn. Henry FairfieM. F^ugenic; and Patriotism, .Ul. 



Palm Wcrevil, \ariation of the, and The Meaninc of Contin- 
uous N'ariati'm in C!olor, 84. 

Parents" Mutual Protective I-eairiie iin '* Development oi 
C«icful Citizenship"). Ilild i 11. Noyi-s, 8X. 

Patri«»tism and Eugenics. Henry Fairtiehl OslK>rn. 141. 

Pear Mock.^, .^ome Promisim; New. Beverly T. Galloway, 25. 

I'orsonal Beauty and Racial Betterment. (.Review), 258. 

Ph>.sical Ba.-iis of Heredity (review). 144. 

Ph>sit il Census in Knglan<l and Its lArSMin. F. .A. WimhIs, 
100. 

Pie'.aM Sjn.ttingin D«i«< C. C. Little, 12. 

Pi-tillate Fli>vM-re<l .Maize Plants. R. A. Emersin, 6s. 

I'opL*ni»e and J.»hns«in's'.\pplieil Eugenics" and the (Question 
of Hereditv vs. Environment, .\ Diivussion of, 80. 

Poi»en.K-, Paul. Inbr^rnlinn and Outbreeding — a review, 125. 

Po|M*niH>, Piul World Power and Evolution a review. 1*7. 

PopemK', Wilson. The Ct>lombian Berry, or Giant Blac.k- 
InTrv of Colombia, 105 

PolK'no«-. Wilson. The Tree Dahlia of (ruatemali, 2^'. 



IV 



Index 



Protective Coloration, A Random Test in the Theory of. 

Fretkrick Adams \Voo<ls, 2S4. 
Prune, "The Herald." A New Type of. L. R. Dctjen, 253. 
Psychology Tests (Measurinj^ Intelligence), 86, 232. 
Pure-Sire Nlethod of Race Assimilation. Harry H. Laughlin, 

259. 



Race and Nationality (review), 192. 

Race .Assimilation by the Pure-Sire Method. Hurry H. 

Laughlin, 259. 
Race Suicide, Is It Possible? Alexander Graham liell, .^39. 
Racial Ilctterment and Personal Beauty. (Review), 258. 
Racial Differences in Mortality, 336. 
Racial Pn»si)ect, The (review). 237. 
Raspberries, .\re Ours Derived from .American or European 

Species? George M. Darrow, 179j 
Reindeer Industry in Alaska. G. J. Tx>men, 243. 
Ritzman, £. (r. Breeding Earless Sheep, 2.^8. 
Root-Stocks Used in Fruit Propagation. H. J. Webber, 291. 
Rye, Rosen, The Spread of. Frank .A. Spragg, 42. 



Scandinavia, Eugenics in, 128. 

Sclwllmayer, W., Death of, 155. 

Sciencfs, Eugenics and Other. Frederick Adams WihmIs, 77. 

Scott, L. K. and Lee, H. Atherton. Are Valencia Oranges 

from China? 329. 
Seeds, Defective. HeriUiblc Churactcrs of Mai^v. D. F. 

Jones, l6l. 
Selection, Deficient .Artificial, H. H. M. Bowman, 380. 
Semon, Richard, The Death of, 78. 
Sex and Heredity, Lectures on (rex-iew), 24. 
Sex .Attraction (review), 335. 
Sex Omtrol (review)j 24. 
Shamel, .A. D. Origin of a Grapefruit Variety Having Pink 

Colored Fruits, 157. 
Sheep, Breeding Earless. E. G. Ritzman, 238. 
Sheep, Swine and (foats in the Orient. C. O. Lcvine, 117. 
Spotting, Piebald, in Dop. C. C. Little, 12. 
Spragg, Frank .A. The Spread of Rosen Rye, 42. 
Standard Educational Tests (review), 232. 
Stocks. New Pear, Beverly T. Cialloway, 25. 
Stout, A. B. A (>raft-Chimera in the Apple, 233. 
Structure and Mathematics of Human (jerm-Plasm. H. H. 

laughlin, 185. 
Swine, Sheep and Goats in the Orient. C. O. Lcvine, 117. 



Syndactyly in Man, A Case of Inherited. Ralph G. Hurlin, 
334. 



Taxation, The Eugenic Bearing of, 83. 

Taylor, William A. Letter Regarding Journal of Heredity, 

377. 
Trades, Hereditary, by American Red Cross, 363. 
Tree Dahlia of Guatemala. Wilstm Poixrnoc. 265. 

u 

Useful Citizenship, The Development of. HiUla H. Noycs, 88. 



Valemia Oranges, .Arc They fr«im China? H, .Atherton Lee 

and L. B. Scott, 329. 
\"an Fleet, Walter, An .Award <»f Honor to, 95. 
Variation of the I'alm Weevil. 84. 
N'ariation, Meaning of Continuous Variation in Color, 84. 

w 

Ward, Robert De C. The Immigration Problem Ttxlay, 323. 
Warfare, Itb Relation to Decline of .Autocracy. Frederick 

Adams Woods, S3. 
Water Buffalo, The, — .A Tropical Source of Butter Fat, C. O. 

Levine, 51. 
Webber, H. J. The Improvement uf Root-Stocks I'svd in 

Fruit rroiKigution, 291. 
Weevil, Palm, Variation of. 84. 

Wheat-Rye Hybrids of 1918. .\jitural. Clyde K. Leighty, 129. 
White, George Robert. Meilal of Honor, 95. 
Woods. Frederick .Adams. .A Physical Census in England and 

Its Lessjn, 190. 
Woo<ls, Frederick Adams. Eugenics and Other Sciences, 77. 
Woods, Frederick .Adams. Tne Decline uf .Aut<K.Tacy and 

Its Relation to Warfare, 33. 
Woods, Frederick, .Adams. .A Random Test in the Theijry of 

Protective Coloration, 284. 
World Power and Evolution, a review of Huntington's I»ook 

by Paul Popcnoe, 137. 



Zigzag Culms, Heritable Chara ters of Maize, William H. 
Eyster, 349. 



The 

Journal of Heredity 

(Formerly the American Breeders* Magazine) 

Vol. XI, No. 1 Jumiarv, HHO 



CONTENTS 

Heritable* (lliaruoterK of ]\laizo Lineatc* l^^avrH, liv (». N. (!<»lliiis 

and J. II. Keinptoii 3 

Heredity and Eoonomieal Prodiietion of F(mn1« by I>. S. Iiiir<'li. . . 7 

Note on tbe Origin of Piebald Spotting in DogH, by C <!. IJltle. . 12 

Teas* Hybrid C^talpa, by D. F. Jonen and W. (). Filley 16 

Some Proniifting New Pear StoelcM, by Beverly T. (valloway 25 

The* Decline of Aut<K*raey and ItH Relation to Warfare, by Frederick 

AdaniH WcmmIh 33 

The Spread of Rosen Rye, by Frank A. Spragg 42 

Pion€?er Growers of the DaHheen 16 

A New Dahlia of interest to Plant Bre<»<lers 18 



The Journal of Heredity is published monthly by the American Genetic Associa- 
tion (formerly called the American Breeders' Association) for the benefit of its 
members. C^adian members who desire to receive it should send 25 cents a year, 
in addition to their regidar membership dues of $2, because of additional postage 
on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same reason. Sub- 
scription price to non-members, $2.00 a year, foreign postage extra; price of single 
copies, 25 cents. 

Entered as second-ciass matter February 24, 1915, at the postoffice at Washing- 
ton, D. C, under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1920 by the 
American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles per- 
mitted provided proper credit is given to author and to the Journal of Heredity 
(Organ of the Amencan Genetic Association), Washington, D. C. 

Date of issue of this number, February 10, 1920. 



m. 



v.. 






3 •• • 

' • • • 

• • . . . 
• •• • 



HERITABLE CHARACTERS OF MAIZE 

I. LINEATE LEAVES .^ 

Description and Classification of Lineate Plants — Value of Maize as Material 
for Investigation, and Economic Importance of Discovering Latent Variations 

G. N. Collins and J. H. Kempton 
Bureau of Plant Industry, Washington, D. C. 



THE practice of withholding the 
description of new characters 
until their genetic behavior has 
been thoroughly investigated, 
though sometimes desirable, is leading 
to much unnecessary duplication of 
work, and is delaying the progress of 
knowledge of inheritance in maize. 
The present article is the first of a 
series in which it is planned to describe 
and illustrate the heritable variations 
of maize as they arise or are discovered. 

In order to lessen as far as possible 
the number of places in which the new 
characters of this one species are 
published, and, with the idea of facilitat- 
ing reference, it is proposed to inaugu- 
rate a numbered series. The liberal 
policy of the Journal of Heredity 
toward the use of illustrations makes it 
an especially suitable medium for the 
publication of short articles of this 
kind in which photographs play an 
important part. It was, furthermore, 
in The American Breeders Magazine, 
the precursor of the present journal, 
that a number of new characters of 
maize were first published by R. A. 
Emerson. It is to be hoped that 
other workers with maize will find this 
a convenient place in which to publish 
illustrations and brief descriptions of 
their discoveries. 

Abnormalities in maize are of such 
frequent occurrence that it is of course 
impracticable and probably undesirable 
to attempt to describe individual varia- 
tions. As soon, however, as it has 
been demonstrated that a character is 
inherited and a stock of seed capable 
of reproducing the character has been 
secured, it seems desirable to have the 



variations brought to the attention of 
other workers. Once attention has 
been directed to a variation it is less 
likely to be overlooked, and the in- 
stances where the same variation occurs 
in unrelated stocks are sooner recognized. 

IMPORT.\NCE OF INVESTIGATIONS IN 

M.MZE 

Our knowledge of the interrelation 
of Mendelian characters should proceed 
with increasing rapidity as the number 
of such characters increases. If the 
linear arrangement of characters in 
inheritance should be found to hold for 
maize as for Drosophila, the proper 
location of a new character becomes 
easier as the number of characters 
whose location is known increases. 

Although a majority of the heritable 
differences in maize are of such a 
complex nature as to make Mendelian 
analysis difficult or impossible, alter- 
native characters are coming to light 
in such nimibers as to warrant the belief 
that maize will rival Drosophila as 
material for the investigation of the 
linear arrangement of factors and of 
chromosomes as the bearers of the 
determinats of characters. A knowl- 
edge of the variations latent in the 
commercial varieties of maize is further- 
more of great economic importance, 
since most of the variant forms are 
less productive than the normal forms, 
and they must be recognized to be 
eliminated. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE LINEATE PLANTS 

The character here described, which 
is designated "lineate leaves," consists 
of a very fine striping on the blades of 

3 



..%'rnci'Jour^ of Heredity 



- • ' 



the upper leave\'*;^he lower leaves of 
plants po'jisessvii)]^ * this character are 
normal, \the. striping first making its 
app€;^r^xice' on about the tenth leaf 
. 'ftroni <lie seed. From the tenth to the 
••. ifppermost, the blades are marked with 
' fine, narrow, nearly white stripes which 
are usually from 1/10 to 1/4 mm. in 
width and vary from a few millimeters 
to many centimeters in length. In 
pronounced cases the stripes are sepa- 
rated bv not more than their width. 
The general effect of the closely spaced 
fine stripes is to give the blade a grayish 
appearance that contrasts sharply with 
the uniform green of normal leaves. 
(See frontispiece.) 

Lineate plants first appeared, or at 
least w^ere first observed, in four prog- 
enies of a hvbrid sweet com that was 
being grown at L an ham, Md., in 1918. 
The sweet corn in which the lineate 
plants occurred was a hybrid between 
Stowells' Evergreen and a prolific variety 
of field com from Brownsville, Tex.^ 

The original cross was made in Texas 
in 1912. In 1913 the Fi population 
was grown in an isolated block at 
Victoria, Tex. In 1914 an Fa popula- 
tion was grown at Lanham, Md., and 
from the crossing of two plants the 
ear designated Phi 24 was secured. 

Plants from Phi 24 were grown in 
Chula Vista, Cal., in 1915, and again 
in Lanham, Md., in 1916 when one cross- 
pollinated ear, Phl24LI, was secured. 
In 1917 seeds of Phi 24 were again 



planted at Lanham, together with seeds 
of Phl24Ll. From these plantings 
there were secured 16 cross-pollinated 
cars of Phi 24, 31 cross-pollinated 
ears of Ph 124L1 and 8 crosses between 
Phl24 and Phl24Ll. 

In 1918 the 16 cross-pollinated ears 
of the Phi 24 progeny and 3 of the 
crosses between Phi 24 and Phl24Ll 
were planted. Lineate plants occurred 
in 3 of the 16 progenies of Phi 24 and 
in one of the crosses between Phl24 
and Phl24Ll. The ratio of lineate 
to green plants is shown in Table I. 

The ratios are ail reasonably close to 
the monohybrid 3 :1, and the results may 
be explained by assuming that one par- 
ent of Phi 24 was heterozygous for lin- 
eate, a simple Mcndelian character re- 
cessive to the normal green. If the 
lineate character was the result of a 
mutation in a single gamete this mu- 
tation must have occurred in 1913 in 
one of the grandparents of Phi 24. 

This follows from the fact that lineate 
plants have been confined to descend- 
ants of Phi 24, that approximately one- 
fourth of the cross-pollinated progenies 
of Phi 24 produced lineate plants (4 out 
of 19) and that in the progenies in 
which lineate appeared one-fourth of 
the plants exhibited this character. 

Six hand-pollinated ears were secured 
from the progenies shown in Tabic I. 
One of these six ears represented a 
cross between a normal green female 
plant and a lineate male, one was the 
result of crossing two lineate plants, a 



Table I. — Showing the Number of Lineate and the Number of Green Plants in Four Progenies Grown 

from II and- Pollinated Ears. 



Progeny designation 



No. of green plants No. of lineate plants ! Expected 3:1 



Phl24L2. 
Phl24L3. 
Phl24L5. 
Phl24L10 

Total . . 



15 


7 


16.5 


5.5 


1 20 


11 


23.3 


7.7 


18 


6 


18.0 


6.0 


24 


8 


24.0 


8.0 


77 

1 


32 


82 


27 



» The history of this cross is discussed in " Breeding Sweet Com Resistant to the Com Ear- 
womi," Collins, G. N.,and Kempton, J. H., Journ, Agri, Res., XI, No. 11, pp. 449-572, December 
10, 1917. 



Collins and Kempton: Lineate Leaves 



third resulted from crossing two normal 
green plants, and the remaining three 
ears were the result of self-pollinating 
lineate plants. 

DEGREE OF LINEATION VARIABLE 

Seeds from all six ears were planted 
in 1919, and all of the progenies pro- 
duced some lineate plants. The prog- 
enies, however, were not alike, and 
it was apparent that this character was 
extremely variable in expression. In 
classifying the plants an attempt w^as 
made to estimate the degree of linea- 
tion. A scale of ten grades was adopted. 



accord well with the expectation based 
on the assumption that lineate is a 
simple Mendelian character recessive 
to the normal form. The two green 
plants will be tested this coming 
season, and while it is within the realm 
of possibility that they are in reality 
lineate, the fact that thev occurred in 
the progeny which exhibited the most 
intense expression of lincation is an 
argument against this explanation. 

RESULTS FROM RELATED PROGENIES 

In addition to the six cars secured 
from ]jrogcnics which produced lineate 



Table II. — Proportion of Green to Lineate Plants, the Average Degree of Lineatton and the Average 

Leaf from the Seed on Which Linrations First Appeared. 



Designation of 
progeny 



Female 
parent 



Phl24L2Ll Lineate. 

Phl24L10L2 Lineate 

Phl24L10L3 Lineate 

Phl24L2L2. . Green. . 

Phl24L5Ll Lineate. 

Phl24LlOLl Green. . 



Male 
parent 



No. of 
green 
plants 



Self 

Self 

Self 2 

Lineate 15 

Lineate. • i 

Green ' 24 

I 



.\o. of 

lineate 

plants 



28 
41 
19 
14 
35 
3 



Degree of 
lineation 



5.37=*= 
2.74=i= 
5.84=fc 
4.00=»= 
5.78=t 
3.00=fc 



20 
28 
14 
49 
28 



i\ver. leaf on 
which linea- 

tions 
first appeared 



10.7 



11.8 
9.3 



10. 
9 
9. 



2 
5 




♦ Probable error not calculated, since only three plants are involved in this average. 



and although the classes were arbitrary 
it was found that independent observers 
were able to place the plants in es- 
sentially the same grades. The classi- 
fication of the plants secured from the 
progenies of the six ears is shown in 
Table II. 

With the exception of the two green 
plants, found in the progeny of a self- 
pollinated lineate plant, the results 



plants in 1918, there were twelve hand- 
pollinated ears from related progenies 
which produced no lineate plants in 
1918. All of these ears are directly 
descended from the car Phi 24. 

Seeds from the twelve ears were 
planted in 1919, and the progeny of 
five of these produced some lineated 
]Dlants. The five progenies are shown 
in Table III. 



T.\BLE III. — Proportion of Green to Lineate Plants in the Progeny of Five Iland-pollinated Ears. 



Designation of 
progeny 



Female parent 



Male parent 



Phl24ULl 

Phl24L12Ll 

Phl24L13Ll 

Phl24L20Ll 

Phl24L9Ll 

• 



Green 
Green 
Green 
Green 
Green 



Self. . 
Self. . 
Self. . 
Self. . 
Green 



69 

18 

7 

16 

124 



No. of green ! No. of lineate 



3 
7 
3 
9 
1 



The Journal of Heredity 



The fact that five of these twelve 
ears produced lineate ])lants, although 
the parental progenies were normal 
green, involves no genetic complexities. 
The progenies which produced these 
five ears were all the result of crossing 
sister plants, and it seems not un- 
reasonable to assume that one parent 
in each combination was heterozygous 
for lineate and the other homozygous 
for normal green. 

The ratio of green to lineate plants 
in three of the progenies shown in 
Table III is as close an approximation 
to the Mendelian monohybrid 3:1 as 
could be expected with the small 
numbers involved, but the remaining 
two progenies clearly do not conform. 

It may well be that in these two 
aberrant progenies we are witnessing 
a recurrence of the mutation which will 
behave subsequently as a Mendelian 
unit character in full accord with the 
progenies just discussed. An alterna- 
tive explanation lies in the wide varia- 



tion in the expression of this character, 
indicating the influence of a number of 
modifying factors which may obscure 
the true nature of most of the lineate 
plants. 

The variations in expression, how- 
ever, are no larger than is found in 
most strains of japonica or similar 
stripe patterns. Japonica forms of 
striping similarly occur in aberrant 
ratios, several instances having ap- 
peared in our breeding blocks where one 
or two plants in several hundred exhibit 
white striping. The same progenies 
produce a few striped plants in succes- 
sive plantings. This behavior has not 
interfered with analysis in progenies 
where the ratios are Mendelian and the 
segregation is sharp. There is, there- 
fore, little reason why lineate leaves 
should not take their place with the other 
chlorophyll variations in maize affording 
another character with which to test the 
lineal arrangement of factors. 



The Heredity and Environment of a Great Botanist 



The story of Joseph Hooker's life- 
work is, in one aspect, the histor>'^ of 
the share taken by botany in establish- 
ing the theory of evolution and the 
effect produced upon it by acceptance of 
that theory. He began with unrivalled 
opportunities and made unrivalled use 
of them. As a botanist, he was bom 
in the purple, for in the realm of 
botany his father, Sir William Hooker, 
was one of the chief princes, and he 
had at hand his father's splendid herba- 
rium and the botanic garden which he 
had made one of the scientific glories of 
Glasgow University. 

Joseph Hooker's earliest recollections 
are preserved in an autobiographical 
fragment, set down late in his life. 



Noteworthy among the events that 
emerge from childish forgetfulness, like 
hill-tops above a sea of mist, is the early 
love of natiu-e, and especially of plants, 
inborn in him and indeed inherited from 
both lines of his parentage. His father 
and his mother's father were both 
botanists, and singularly enough they 
both began their studies as such with 
the mosses, quite independently of one 
another; so that, being confessedly **a 
bom Muscologist," he playfully dubs 
himself *'the puppet of Natural Selec- 
tion." — From Life and Letters of Sir 
Joseph Dalton Hooker, by Leonard 
Huxlev; in 2 vols. London: John 
Murray, 1918. 



HEREDITY AND ECONOMICAL 

PRODUCTION OF FOOD 

D. S. BURCH 

Bureau of Animal Industry, I'. 5. Department of Agriculture 



WITHIN the last century, evolu- 
tion, used in a broad sense, has 
been unusually cons])icuous in 
the field of mechanics and 
en^aneerinj;. Just why that is true, 
while evolution amonj^ living creatures 
has proj^essed more slowly and has 
attracted less general attention, may 
be seen from a few well-known facts. 

EDUCATION HAS FOSTERED ENGINEERING 

PROGRESS 

Progress in any field, as a rule, is 
approximately in proportion to the 
amount of study ^ven that field by 
persons of progressive thought and 
action. With the gradual development 
of the United States, engineering long 
ago became the life study of thousands. 
Opportunities were ])lentiful. and well- 
trained men were ready to take them. 
The examples and the successes of the 
first spurred others to similar training. 
The result attained was inevitable, and 
today the United States has not only 
great systems of railroads, irrigation 
projects, highways and mechanical in- 
dustries, but in addition it has thousands 
of people who are expert in various 
branches of such work and can press on 
to still greater and wider engineering 
achievements. 

Even in the rather specialized field of 
agricultural machinery we must re- 
member that the progress made is due 
to the work of many minds. A few 
conspicuous names, it is true, loom up 
above the rest, but countless improve- 
ments and refinements rather than a 
few revolutionary ideas have contrib- 
uted to the present advancement in 
labor-saving farm machinery. 

I have in mind the experimental staff 
of a firm manufacturing farm tractors 



and im]:)lcmcnts livery fall the chief 
designer and one or more of his assistants 
pack their grips for a circuit of State 
fairs. Mingling with farmers at the 
machinery exhibits, these specialists 
seek for new ideas and suggestions. 
In addition they try to learn what new 
implements or machines would be 
likely to meet with favor. 

Such efTorts explain why American 
farmers are so well equipped with 
machinery that multiplies human labor 
in a way that has won the wonder of 
other nations. It explains also why 
with high-priced labor the United States 
can produce many kinds of food, es- 
pecially grains, hay, and other bulky 
crops, so cheaply. But in the field of 
meat food products, so important to 
the vigor of a nation, our progress, 
though noteworthy, appears capable of 
extensive developments. 

The drift of thought has been so 
gradual as to attract slight attention 
by persons interested especially in 
evolution in the organic sense. Yet the 
enormous preponderance of effort in 
mechanical development is seen in the 
enrollment of almost any college or 
university having a wide range in its 
curriculum. A graduating class in a 
middle western university a few years 
ago included 400 students. Approxi- 
matelv one-fourth were trained in 
engineering, while only sixteen — less 
than one-twentieth — were trained in 
agriculture, and only one of the sixteen 
had made a study of animal genetics. 
While such a striking ratio may not be 
typical today, especially in universities 
having strong agricultural courses, it 
indicates at least the subordinate place 
the study of genetics — from an agri- 
cultural angle — ^has occupied in the 
general fiela of education. 

7 



8 



The Journal of Heredity 



The study of heredity as it concerns 
the production of Hvestock in the 
United States has gone forward under 
the efforts and interest of competent 
and energetic investigators. There has 
been gratifying achievement. The 
champion dairy cow of today seldom 
retains her laurels, earned by a large 
yield, for more than a few years. 
Much the same is true in the show ring. 
In fact, with all stock, constant rivalry 
among breeders soon displaces the 
winners of one year with new champions. 
Yet in considering improvement in the 
average sense, we are forcibly reminded 
that the total number of exhibitors is 
rather small in proportion to the total 
number of livestock owners. In a 
similar way a. few high records of pro- 
duction have earned world-wide atten- 
tion. Such records are merely a few 
peaks in a statistical chart where the 
general average production is low. 

The average yields of milk per dairy 
cow in fourteen prominent countries 
show that the United State;S is in the 
sixth place, being excelled by the 
Netherlands, Switzerland, Denmark, 
Germany, and Canada. Our ability to 
produce scores of cows which yield more 
than 20,000 pounds of milk a year is 
ample proof that our national produc- 
tion of less than 4,000 pounds per year 
per cow, in the last analysis, is a reflec- 
tion of inattention and average lack of 
applied skill. The dairy cow is a good 
example — probably the best — because 
her production is so readily measured 
and because there is so much uniform 
evidence in various countries. Yet the 
same principle and similar facts apply 
to other lines of production. 

Even a superficial consideration of 
the facts mentioned points to the prog- 
gress which livestock raisers in the 
United States would make if next 
year 1,000 persons began thinking 
intelligently about animal breeding for 
every one person who thought about 
it this year. That would bring about 
a condition whereby combined human 
effort in studying and applying laws of 
heredity to livestock breeding would 
approximate the effort being devoted 
to mechanical progress. It would help 



to attain in livestock evolution a 
great average advance without in any 
way interfering with success in produc- 
ing individual world beaters. 

Without going into detail, the 
economical production of meat, dairy 
products, poultry products, and animal 
power is closely related to breeding. 
The well-bred steer is economical to 
raise because a relatively less proportion 
of feed goes into his maintenance and a 
greater proportion goes into his gain 
in weight. Besides, his quality is 
better and the period of growth to 
profitable market age is shorter. The 
same is true, with some qualifications, 
of swine, sheep, poultr>% and most 
other stock. In short, skillful breeding 
results in numerous benefits, including 
economy of production, a quicker turn- 
over of inv^estment, progressive im- 
provement of herds and flocks, and 
better meat food products for con- 
sumers. 

TEACHINC; HEREDITY TO MANY 

Notwithstanding the efforts of agri- 
cultural colleges and similar agencies 
in the United vStates, farmers are not 
as familiar with the basic laws of 
breeding as they are with the basic 
laws of mechanics. For every person 
who understands Mendel's law at least 
a score know the law of the lever. 
This comparison may seem odd because 
the law of the lever appears so much 
simpler, yet it is simpler chiefly because 
civilization has thought in mechanical 
terms. Man owned livestock long 
before he owned a wheeled cart. Bring- 
ing the compari.son to modem times we 
may safely assert that 1,000 persons 
understand a carburetor for every one 
who knows a chromosome. 

In the endeavor to stimulate interest 
in heredity and in the basic principles 
of breeding, the United States De- 
partment of Agriculture lately has 
directed attention to the use of pure- 
bred sires for all livestock. Of the 
various methods of animal improve- 
ment the principle of grading up through 
the use of pure-bred males is probably 
the most practical and economical. 
In June, 1919, the department proposed 



A HOLSTEIN BULL AND CALVES SIRED BY HIM 

An interesting study in confarmation and coat color. Note particularly the hea<1 and neck of 
the bull caltat the left. America should be better equipped with animals such as these to meet 
the increasing needs of the coming years. "Skillful hreMing results in numerous benefits, 
including economy of production, a quicker turnover of investment, progressive improvement 
of herds and flocks, and better meat food products for consumers." (Fig. L) 



10 



The Jotimal of Heredity 



to the extension directors of the various 
states the desirability of conducting a 
nation-wide effort to induce livestock 
owners to replace scrub and grade sires 
with pure-breds. More than that, the 
desirability of improving the quality 
of pure-bred sires themselves was pre- 
sented. In addition to consulting live- 
stock experts of the agricultural colleges, 
the Federal Department of Agriculture 
presented a tentative plan of the pro- 
posed campaign to others also, includ- 
ing county agents, agricultural editors, 
officers of livestock association^, secre- 
taries of boards of agriculture^ live- 
stock sanitary officials, prominent breed- 
ers, and others who might be interested . 
Of nearly 600 replies received, approxi- 
mately 97% favored such a campaign 
without qualifications. Most of the 
remaining 3% made specific suggestions 
for modifications of the plan, and a few 
either were skeptical or presented ad- 
verse opinions. The cream of the 
suggestions, after careful consideration, 
was embodied in the original plan, 
which was also altered to meet 
various local conditions discussed in a 
number of the letters received. The 
revised plan of the campaign was 
presented in August and has met with 
practically unanimous approval. The 
agricultural press has devoted space 
freely to the support of the work, and 
41 states already have made the cam- 
paign, popularly known as the "Better 
Sires-Better Stock" movement, a part 
of their extension activities. It was 
definitely inaugurated as a Federal- 
State enterprise on October 1, 1919. 
Since then more than 25,000 pieces of 
literature have been distributed to 
meet requests from the field. Two- 
thirds of this constituted enrollment 
blanks, which when properly filled out 
entitle the person using only pure- 
bred sires for all his livestock to official 
recognition by the United States De- 
partment of Agriculture and by the 
state in which he lives. The remaining 
one-third was miscellaneous literature, 
including a plan of the campaign, and 
also pointing out the policies imder 
which the campaign is conducted. 

As would be expected, the enrollment 
records of persons using pure-bred 



sires show that a majority of them like- 
wise have some pure-bred female stock. 
A considerable amount of grade stock 
is noted, also some cross-breds. This 
condition is true in a broad sense of all 
the kinds of animals included in the 
campaign, namely, cattle, horses, asses, 
swine, sheep, goats, and poultry. The 
records show that users of pure-bred 
sires keep only a few scrub females, 
the remnant probably of the first 
foundation stock. 

farmers' bulletin on breeding 
principles 

Reinforcing the Federal-State effort 
to encourage the use of better sires, 
Dr. Sewall Wright, of the Animal 
Husbandry Division of the Department 
of Agriculture, has prepared a manu- 
script on breeding principles for the 
Farmers* Bulletin series. This con- 
tribution is believed to fill an important 
gap in the agricultural literature of the 
United States, being of service not only 
to breeders directly but likewise to 
extension workers and others who 
address farmers* gatherings. The un- 
derlying thought in the better-sires 
movement is to create in the minds of 
thousands, and, if possible, millions. 
of livestock raisers an interest in the 
basic principles of animal breeding. 
The field of improvement in livestock 
is as vast as that of mechanics. It is 
believed also that thousands of farmers 
who have an inherent preference for 
working with living things rather than 
machinery will welcome the opportunity 
to replace their fragmentary and in- 
accurate knowledge of livestock breed- 
ing with the dependable information 
contained in the bulletin menticned. 

Thus heredity, in addition to being a 
study calling for keen effort by those 
who would solve its mvsteries, becomes 
an effective agency when presented and 
explained to those who as owners of 
livestock are expected to supply the 
food needs of the country. 

Members of the American Genetic 
Association may render wide public 
service by helping breeders assimilate 
and apply principles of heredity already 
known but not generally used. 



A PRODUCT OF SELFXn" BKEKDINi; 

To develop a fine type ol livestock is as noteworthy an ai-liicvement as to coniitlfte a fine 
piece of cnEinefring. The animal pictun-'i alxnv has In^cn pruduii'd iinly after careful 
s.-l.-ctitin and propiT mating of aTjestors. Hu;;c:;ss"iil brei'durs pav ripd attention to the 
laws of inhmtance. The study "f Jienftii-s, to make more nidtspread a knowledKe uf 
these laws, is worthy of more urominenL-e in civir tiluralional institutions. What would be 
the effect on livestock raising in the Uniti'd States "if next year I.IHH) persons bt-gan think- 
ing intelligently alxnit animal breeding for everyone person who thought jil>out it this year? 
That would bring about a enndition whereby combined human iffort in studying and 
applying laws of heredity to livestock breeding would approximate the I'ffort being devoted 
to mechanical progress." (Fig. 2.) 



A 



NOTE ON THE ORIGIN OF 

PIEBALD SPOTTING IN DOGS 

C. C. Little 
Carnegie Institution of Washington, Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y. 



SEVERAL varieties of dogs such as 
foxhounds, beagles, Boston terriers, 
St. Bernards, and collies, are char- 
acterized by the possession of a 
piebald coat pattern. In this pattern, 
large and relatively regular, and defi- 
nitely localized white spots occur on a 
colored ground. The extreme form of 
such spotting is seen in bull terriers. 
Here the entire skin and coat is com- 
monly unpigmented, the eyes alone 
being colored. The appearance of ex- 
ceptional individuals, however, in which 
small red or yellowish spots are found 
on the head, near the eyes or ears, 
shows that the pattern is really one of 
greatly reduced spotting and not of 
true albinism. 

On the other extreme of. the spotted 
series one finds, among breeds normally 
solid colored, certain animals in which 
one or more of the feet may be white, or 
which may possess a white spot or blaze 
on the chest. Data on Great Danes, 
collected from the American Kennel 
Club Stud Books indicate that such 
spots are hereditary and arc due to a 
factor which is hypostatic to solid 
colored coat. (Little and Jones, ^ 1919.) 
Such animals, which show a slight 
degree of white spotting, have, by some 
been considered as being forms from 
which, by rigid selection, spotted breeds 
have been developed. That this is also 
the case in rodents has been stated by 
Castle^ (1916, page 125) as follows: 
**. . . Rarely does it (the degree of 
spotting) go beyond these slight and 
inconspicuous markings. But under 
artificial selection in captivity it is 
possible rapidly to increase the extent 
of the white areas in the coat, which 
then takes on striking and often rather 



definite outlines, as in Dutch marked 
rabbits, English rabbits, hooded rats, 
and black-eyed white mice. . . . The 
production of white-spotted races from 
small beginnings observed in wild stocks 
has been accomplished in the laboratory 
by Castle and Phillips in the case of 
Peromyscus, and by Little in the case 
of the house mouse (tmpublished data)." 
Inasmuch as the inference from the 
above is that the writer, among others, 
has by selection developed from a wild 
race of rodents with a small amount of 
spotting, a race of heavily spotted 
animals, it should be stated that progress 
from the original degree of spotting 
observed, in the wild mouse used, was 
made only after a cross with a tame race 
and that following the cross progress was 
so rapid that the introduction of modifying 
factors by the unspotted race used un- 
doubtedly had occurred. 

EVIDENCE THAT SPOTTING IN DOGS MAY 
OCCUR BY MUTATION 

By this I do not mean to assert that 
some progress might not be made by 
selection alone within the race in which 
the spotting originated, but merely to 
point out that there is little or no ex- 
perimental evidence that the "Dutch" 
or *' English" rabbits or black-eyed 
white mice or hooded rats mentioned by 
Castle were developed by selection 
alone, within a wild race, showing a 
minute degree of spotting. It is pos- 
sible that this is the case, and will 
remain so until their origin de novo is 
demonstrated and analyzed; but in the 
meantime it is interesting to review two 
cases in dogs which give direct evidence 
as to the origin of spotted individuals 
and which suggest that a spotted race 



> Little, C. C, and Jones, E. E., Journal of Heredity, October, 1919, Vol. x. No 7. 
» Castle, W. E., "Genetics and Eugenics." Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. 

12 



Little: Piebald Spotting in Dogs 



13 



PIEBALD COAT PATTERNS 

Coat patterns, such as these, characterize 
of dogs, but similar 



spotting is occasionally found among 
breeds that are normally solid colored. 
Study of these cases indicates that such 



spotting is hereditary. Nos, 1 and 2 above 
represent Airedale terriers, and No. ' " 
Scottish terrier puppy- {Fig. 3.) 



may arise from a self race, by mutation, 
wi til out passint:; through a series of 
minule !;'radations directed by selection. 

The first case to be rc\'iewed is that 
of a s]>olted Scottish terrier puppy 
{Fig. 3, No. 3) bom in my father's 
kennels, January 22, 1909. This puppy, 
a bitch, was the only individual bom 
in the first litter oiitained from two 
younj; solid-colored, jicdigrecd, and 
rcf^stcred Scottish terriers, neither of 
which had been out of the kennels 
from the time at which they became 
sexualh' mature. The spotted puppy 
in question was bom dead, a fact not 
\'ery suprisinK in \-icw of the litter 
being the first produced by the bitch. 
The two ]jareiits are far from closely 
related as a glance at the pedigree 
(Tabic I) will show. If the spotted 
coat of the exceptional puppy is hy- 
postatic to .solid colored coat, it may be 
considered as introduced by the germ 
cells of both parents either by parallel 
mutations occurring in each of them, or 
by being contributed to each of them 
by a common ancestor. If the idea of 
the occtirrence of parallel mutations on 
each side of the pedigree is considered 
as far fetched, we must look on both 
sides of its pedigree for an ancestor or 
ancestors in common. In this connec- 
tion, Balmacron Prince occurring in the 
fourth generation on the male side and 
in the third generation on the female 
side appears to be the only possibility. 
If this dog was, in respect to hj-postatic 
j)iebald spotting, DR in formula, he 
might well have introduced this spotting 
into the cross. The result would have 
l>een that, after several generations, the 
proper DR x DR mating wotild have 
been made, and an RR or spotted 
individual would have resulted. 

The fad of particular interest from the 
viewpoint of the origin of spotting is 
that the puppy had white areas of con- 
siderable extent and could in no way be 
considered a product of selection of 
minute variations possessed by lightly 
spotted ancestors. 

The second case presents even more 
interesting feattires. It deals with the 
appearance of spotted individuals in 
two litters of Airedale terriers. The 



14 



The Journal of Heredity 



(Sire) 
Newcastle Carom 



Table l.—Pedigree of Spotted Scottish Terrier Puppy {Fig. 3. No. 3) 

Seafield 

Seafield Nora 

Camowen Laddie 

Glenhin Beauty 



Clan Bonnacord Jock 



Seafield Rascal 



Bonnacord Jewel 



f Balmacron Thistle 



f Nosegay Crimson Rambler 



, Nosegay Cornflower \ 



Baberton Lass 



[Balmacron Prince 
\ Balmacron Tib 

Balmacron Prince 

I 

Lauriston Lass 



Brynhir Barber 



(Dam) 
Newcastle Confidence 



IValdora Gem 

Undercliffe Sandy 

I 

IFoula 



Baberton Prince. 



Morachi . 



Snapshot , 



case was reported to me by Mr. 
Frederic Hood of Watertown, Mass., 
owner of the Boxwood Kennels. Mr. 
Hood has been most kind in placing 
the particulars of the case, as well as 
two of the puppies themselves, at my 
disposal. The interest which he has 
shown might well be taken as a model 
by all breeders and fanciers, who by 
adopting a similar attitude might do 
much to increase opportunities for 
cooperation with scientific institutions. 
The history of this case is briefly as 
follows: A pedigreed and registered 
bitch (No. 182), an excellent specimen 
of the breed, was bred to a typical 
dog (No. 216), pedigreed, registered, 
and a bench show-winner. In due 
time a litter of seven pups, one male 
and six females, was obtained. Of these 
two, the male and one female, were 
heavily spotted with white. They were, 
according to Mr. Hood's manager, very 
similar to, though of course not identical 
with, the two spotted pups figured in 
Fig. 3, Nos. 1 and 2. The five re- 
maining pups were all normal, and 
included among their number one which 
has developed into one of the best 
American bred Airedale bitches now 
being shown. This bitch (No. 228) 



Roxburgh 
Loyne Ginger 

Cairn Dhu 

> 

Corrie Linnhe 
'Kildee 
ZelU 

Balmacron Prince 
Baberton Beauty 
Guide 
Ayrshire Beauty 



was bred to a different dog (No. 294) 
and produced a litter of six puppies, 
three males and three females, all dead. 
Two of them, both males, were kindly 
sent to me in preservative by Mr. 
Hood and are figured in Fig. 3, Nos. 
1 and 2. In conformation and ground 
color they are typical Airedales, but in 
size No. 1 is larger and No. 2 a bit 
smaller than is the average Airedale 
pup at birth. The other fotir pups in 
the litter were entirely typical in color 
and conformation and were bom before 
the spotted pups which were the last 
two in the litter. One of the typical 
pups had, however, a cowl of his own 
skin which stretched bag-like over his 
shoulders and head. The head and 
neck were far from being properly 
developed. This puppy I did not see, 
but the description is taken from the 
personal observation of Mr. E. War- 
burton, the manager of the Boxwood 
Kennels, whose accuracy of description 
need not be doubted. 

The pedigrees of the two litters con- 
taining spotted pups are given herewith. 
It will be noticed that d* No. 135 occurs 
in both pedigrees and on both sides of 
each pedigre. 9N0. 140 also occurs 
on both sides of the second pedigree and 



Little: Piebald Spotting in Dogs 



15 



Tabic II. — Pedigree of Spotted Airedale Terriers. 



First litter 


lontaining s 


pottfd 


pups 






Srcond litUr containing s 


piifteJ 


/)M/»V 












f92 
















[135 








162 


\ 














[80 


1 








[103 












1 129 


i 


,140 






f208 


i 

I 

iu7 


f61 










218 


1 

[ 
i 


[57 
[79 








. 














lM7 


1 






f216 

i 


1 
[201 


fl35 

1 

il4Q 


ill 

[86 

154 








f294 


1 

221 


179 

'I 


[58 
[44 
[26 
[62 




♦5 typical; 2 spotted 


1 






163 












[90 


. 




puppies; 


1 






f80 


fl35 

• 
140 


4 typical: 
puppies; 


2 spotted 
Fig. 3. Nos. • 








;55 






1 




[98 


1 


1 and 2. 










[162 












[60 












[208 


1 






i 


fI(M 


76 


f56 

< 
[38 










216 


1 
{ 

1201 


[147 
[ 135 






1182 




[83 


[72 








228 1 






[149 


[80 






j 


i 














[98 


i 






[108 


{ 

1 


|..V, 












^104 

1 


[76 


[69 








^96 










182 


J 
1 














[149 














'83 




♦ Including 9 228 




















[108 


\ 


(135 



fl3S 

i 
[140 



on one side of the first. It seems very 
likely that if a mutation producing 
spotted coat color took place in the 
gametes of any one individual, that d^ 
No. 135 or one of its ancestors, was the 
animal in question. 

Examination of Fig. 3, Nos. 1 and 
2, shows that the amount of white on 
the coat of these puppies is considerable 
and that, like the Scottish terrier puppy 



[96 \ 

[149 

already described, there is no possibility 
of its having been developed by selection 
from minute beginnings. 

It is hoped that it will be possible to 
obtain certain of the animals from the 
spotted Airedale stock for breeding 
purposes and thus to ascertain more 
definitely the genetic nature of the 
variation. 



University Wants Photographs of Twin Calves 



The Department of Genetics at the 
University of Wisconsin is niaking a 
study of twins, particularly in cattle, 
and desires to secure photographs of 
twin calves. Those of spotted breeds 
are especially wanted. In this connec- 
tion, particular interest attaches to the 
degree of similarity of markinp^s on the 
duplicated parts of double monsters, 
such as those with two heads and a 
single body, or two bodies and a single 
head. These freaks are often "stuffed*' 
or otherwise preserved, and the college 
will appreciate receiving any informa- 



tion relating to the existence of such 
specimens in museums or elsewhere, 
and how photographs or accurate 
sketches might be obtained. It is be- 
lieved that a more accurate knowledge 
of the conditions in such cases will 
help toward an understanding of the 
larger problems of inheritance in cattle 
and other animals. Those who have 
any information that will assist in the 
above studies should write to the 
Department of Genetics, University of 
Wisconsin, Madison. 



TEAS' HYBRID CAT ALP A 



An Illustration of the Greater Vigor of Hybrids; Increased Growth and Hardiness 
as a Result of Crossing; Illustrating Definite Principles of Heredity 

D. F. Jones and W. O. Filley 
Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven. 



A LTHOUGH the number of artificial- 
/\ ly produced hybrid trees is small, 
I V compared to the nimiber of crosses 
among other species, several noteworthy 
trees have been described from time to 
time which do not conform to any 
known kinds, and they have been attrib- 
uted to an assumed hybrid ancestry. A 
good example is found in the James River 
walnut,^ considered to be the result of 
a natural cross-fertilization of Juglans 
regia by J. cinerea. A similar tree has 
been described by Sargent ^. Likewise 
the Lucombe oak,' the Carolina poplar,' 
the London plane' and the fir trees 
which originated at Bulgn^ville, France,^ 
have been rega?:d^, upon reasonably 
good evidence, as natiu^al hybrids. 
Lastly, Teas' hybrid catalpa so plainly 
exhibited characters of both Catalpa 
Kaempferi and C. hignonioides that 
Sargent ^ was convinced of its double 
lineage. 

This latter cross has since been made 
from known trees of the two suspected 
parents. It is of more interest than 
as a mere illustration of a hybrid tree, 
to note that this plant agrees in every 
particular with the tree which was 
attributed to the parentage deduced 
from the characters it possessed toge- 
ther with the circumstances attending 
its origin. 

ORIGIN OF THE HYBRID CATALPA 

The history of the original hybrid is 
as follows, quoting from Sargent: '*J. C. 
Teas of Carthage, Mo., while living in 
Indiana in 1864, purchased a seedling 



catalpa from Mahlon Moon of Morris- 
ville. Pa., who raised it from seed pro- 
cured from Japan by Hovey & Co., the 
Boston seedsmen. According to the 
statement of Mr. Teas, to whom I am 
indebted for the facts in the case, this 
tree, which proved to be C. Kaempferi, 
was planted in his nursery among or 
near plants of C. hignonioides and C. 
speciosa, the two North American 
species ; and it produced in due time one 
pod of seeds which were quite unlike 
those of any catalpa with which Mr. 
Teas was acquainted. The seeds were 
planted and gave rise to a tree almost 
intermediate in ^character between C. 
Kaempferi and one of the American 
species. The appearance of this seed- 
ling tree and its progeny suggests that 
the pollen from a flower of one of the 
American catalpas had fertilized a 
flower of the Japanese tree. The Ameri- 
can parent was probably C. hignonioides, 
although Mr. Teas is inclined to believe 
that it was C. speciosa. The latter 
flowers two or three weeks earlier than 
the Japanese spedes, whereas the 
former flowers contemporaneously with 
that species during the first week 
of July. 

*' Whatever may have^been its origin, 
the hybrid ... is an erect, vigorous, 
and rapid-growing tree, with the thin, 
scaly bark of the American species. 
The leaves arc sharjMy three-lobed, or 
rarely entire, and more or less cordate 
at the base ; they are slightly pubescent 
on the lower surface, and the mid-rib 
and primary veins are covered with 
scattered hairs; they are 12 to 15 inches 



• 

» Peter Bisset, "The James River Walnut." Journal of Heredity 1914 5-98-101 
2 C. S. Sargent, "A Hybrid Walnut Tree." Garden and Forest, 1894, 7-434^36 
» W. H. Lamb, "Hybrid Trees." Journal op Heredity, 1916. 7-311-319 
* Garden and Forest, 1890, 3 :308. ' » ' -^ ^ ^ ^ ^v . 

» C. S. Sargent, "A Hybrid Catalpa. ' ' Garden and Forest, 1889, 2 :303-305 . 
16 



C.OMPAHlN<; THE LEAVES OF DIFFERENT SPECIES OF CATALPA 

The leaves at thf top art' tl-.osc ni ('. bignoninidrs, cliaractiTizi-'O by thinr nvalc shapi', with 
entire rrargin and puliesctnce only on tin' lower surfaces. Tl-ose in the center row are of £'. 
Kaempftri which are generally tlirec-lol cii with velvety pul tsccnceonly on their upper sur- 
faces. The leaves of the hyhrid are shov n at thel ottom. Characters of Loth parents are ex- 
pressed in these leaves whicli art Kinirally three-lol ed and jjuhcsctnt on I oth sitrfai es. In 
iiiW irarkinfTs they n-ore nearly rcprcstnl the Japnmsi' spciits. <Fip. 4.) 



18 



The Journal of Heredity 



long and 10 to 12 inches broad. The 
inflorescence, which is 18 to 20 inches 
long by 10 inches wide, is composed of 
two or three hundred fragrant flowers 
about an inch long, the corolla slightly 
tinged with yellow in the throat, and 
handsomely marked with broad purple 
stripes. The fruit is from 12 to 15 
inches in length and not more than a 
quarter of an inch thick in the middle. 
The wings of the seed are half an inch in 
length and one-eighth of an inch in 
width, and, like the others of the genus, 
arc tufted with long, white hairs. 

"The leaves of this tree are much 
larger than those of either of its parents, 
having, when they first appear, the 
velvety character and purple color 
peculiar to those of the Japanese plant, 
and the reddish spot at the insertion of 
the petiole with the leaf-blade which 
characterizes that species. They more 
generally resemble those of the Japan- 
ese species in shape, color and texture, 
while the pubescence which covers the 
lower surface is almost intermediate in 
character between those of the American 
and of the Japanese species. The 
inflorescence is much larger than that of 
the American or of the Japanese plants, 
being fully twice as large as that of C. 
tngnonioides and more than three times 
the size of C. Kaempferi. The flowers 



are intermediate in size; in color and 
markings they most resemble those of 
the American species, although a tinge 
of yellow in the throat of the coroUa 
points to their Japanese descent. The 
fruit of tjie hybrid is almost intermediate 
in size between those of the two parents, 
as are the seeds, which are perfectly 
fertile and often reproduce the original 
form in every particular. When, how- 
ever, seedlings show a tendency to vary 
from the original form the variation is 
generally in the direction of the Japanese 
rather than of the American parent. 

EXCELS JAPANESE SPECIES AS 
ORNAMENTAL TREE 

"The hybrid is a more vigorous tree 
than either of the American or the 
Japanese species, and it grows rather 
more rapidly. It is too soon to speak 
of its value as a timber-tree, as the 
largest specimens in the western states 
where this tree has been much more 
generally planted than at the east, 
according to Mr. Teas, only 40 to 50 
feet high, with trunks which do not 
exceed yet a diameter of 18 inches. Of 
its value as an ornamental tree there 
can be no doubt. Its larger size and 
more rapid growth, its better habit and 
more showy inflorescence make it a far 
more valuable ornamental tree than the 



CATALPA SEEDS 



PODS OF THE inBKID CATALPA AND PABE^T SPI-X:iES 

"The fruit is from 12 tn 15 inihcs in length anil not more than a (|uarl(T nf nn inoli thick ir 
the middle," and thus interniuliatt- in fizv, Init the yvxis urc numerous and contiiin inan> 
seeds. The numl>er ot flower fhistiTS and total amiiunt of swd prodmwl jiff tree is muii 
greater on the hybrid than on either of the parent s[x.'i-ies. iFi^. (i.) 



Japanese species: it is more hardy tlinn 
either of the North American spceies. 
and. although the fiowers are Kmaller. 
the panicles and the number of indi- 
\-idual flowers arc much larger." 

In 1911 Dr. E. M. East, at the Con- 
necticut Exi)criment Station, entsscfl 
Calalpa bignonioides by C. Kaetupfcri. 
this being the recijiroeal combination 
of Teas' undoubted hyliritl. The actual 
pollination was made by Prof. H. K. 
Hayes. The trees were yrowii and 
measured by him for the first yciirs of 
the experiment and later came into the 
hands of the writers. Tlie cros.s was 
made by emasculating the flowers of the 
bignonioides parent, enclosing them in 
t>ags and later applying i)ollen by hand. 
Seed was collected from the same trees 
as used in making the cross which were 
well isolated from each other. The three 
lots of seed were sown in the spring of 



1912. l-HliT they were tnmsplantcd to 

their ijermimenl position, ten trees of 
each tidng set .'tl the station farm at 
Mt. Cannel. near New Haven, and 75 
of each on the ui)land near Portland in 
the central pari, of the same slate. With 
these, in each location, were set a like 
number of trees off", s/jct-j'flsu which were 
started one year later. It is imfortu- 
nate that these were not started at the 
same lime. 1ml they affonl some com- 
parison. 

VIC.OROrS GKOWTll OF THK HVBKIll 

As can lie seen in Table I. the plants 
grew vigorousK'. During the summer 
of 1915. the plants al Mt. Carmcl were 
severely damage<l by wind, the branches 
being badly bn)ken. particularly those 
of the crass, as it was growing the most 
rapidly. Consequently, in order to 
have them start even again, it was 



20 



The Journal of Heredity 



Table I. — Height of Catalpa Bignonioides, of C. Kaempferi, of Their Hybrid, and of C. speciosa 

{average, in feet, often trees grown, at Mt. Carmel). 



Year 



! Age 



I ... ! 

C. bignonioides ! ^c^^k^^^i '• ^' ^^^Pf^^^ C- speciosa 



1912 


1 


1913 


2 


1914 


3 


1915* 


4 


1916 


5 


1917 


6 


1918 


7 



0.2 


0.4 


0.2 


1.5 


2.3 


8 


3.7 


4.9 


2.6 


9.9 


8.7 


5.7 


7.4 


9.3 


5.8 


10.3 


11.3 


8.2 


11.4 


13.1 


9 1 



1913 


0.8 


1914 


2.2 


1915 


6.9 


1916 


9.2 


1917 


10.5 


1918 


11.2 




1 





♦ Trees severely damaged by wind breakage so that all plants were cut to the ground and only one sprout allowed 
to grow the following year. 



decided to cut the trees to the ground 
before the following growing season. 
It is the usual practice with catalpas, 
when they are grown for timber.to cut 
them back after one or two vears as the 
trunks are then straighter and the trees 
make fully as much growth in the end 
as when they are not cut back. After- 
wards the trees were limited to one 
sprout. 

The greater growth of the hybrid was 
easily apparent after the trees were well 
started, as shown by the figures in the 
table and the trees shown in Fig. 7. 
The increased vigor of the hybrid is even 
more than that indicated by the figures. 
The larger parent at Mt. Carmel. C. 
bignonioides, did not flower until 1918, 
and then produced only a few pods on 
one or two trees. The Japanese species 
flowered in 1915 and ever>' following 
year. The cross likewise flowered with 
it. In addition, therefore, to making a 
larger vegetative growth, the cross has 
expended energ>' each year upon seed 
formation, which the larger parent has 
not done to any appreciable extent. In 
the profusion of its bloom and the 
abundance of seed this cross is a re- 
markably fine illustration of the vigor 
frequently derived from species hybrids. 
In amount of seed produced, it is from 
five to ten times more productive than 
either parent, a notable instance of the 
temporary advantage given to some 
crosses in natural competition. 

As grown at Mt. Carmel, in the south- 
em part of the state, both parents and 
their offspring have proven to be per- 



fectly winter-hardy. At Portland, about 
30 rniles north, the bignonioides parent 
has suffered severely. During the latter 
years it has been killed to the ground 
every winter, growing from the base 
each spring in a mass of sprouts. The 
Japanese parent and the cross have so 
far been unharmed. Although the dis- 
tance is small between these two 
localities, it should be remembered that 
one passes from one biological zone to 
another (Upper Austral to Transitional) 
in going from Mt. Carmel to Portland, 
Conn. The advantage which the hy- 
brid has over both parents is conse- 
quently much accentuated as C, Kaemp- 
feri is naturally a small grower. The 
combination of the two species, possess- 
ing the larger growth of one parent 
together with the greater viability of the 
other, far surpassed either parent in 
this location. 

INHERITANCE OF PARENTAL 
CHARACTERISTICS 

The detailed characteristics of each 
parent, and the way they are expressed 
in the hybrid, are arranged in Table II. 
There is an intimate mingling of the 
features of both parents, so that this 
plant affords a good example of a species 
cross of the type studied with so much 
interest by the early hybridists such as 
Kolreuter, Gartner, Focke and others. 
It is not strange that investigators, 
working with such material as this, did 
not make much progress in arriving 
at any definite principles of heredity 
While some characters in this illustra- 



REPRESENTATIVE TREES AFTER SIX YEARS OF GROWTH 

A good illustration of vigor in a tree hybrid (second from left) combininj" features of both its 
parents — the small Japanese catalpa C. Kaempjeri and the native C. hignoniaiiUs on tither 
side. C. speciosaisshownat the extreme right for comparison. (Fig, 7.) 



tion arc expressed in an altem alive 
fashion, the hybrid is intermediate for 
the most part. In every part of the 
tree contributions from both parents 
can be made out. This is shown very 
clearly in the leaves. The oriental 
catalpa is finely pubescent on the upper 
surface, the leaves having a velvety 
feeling, but are entirely smtxjth on the 
lower surfaces. The native tree is the 
reverse of this, being glabrous on the 
upper surface and hairy on the lower 
side of the leaves, with rather coarse 
filiments, especially on the veins. The 
hybrid, however, resembles both parents 
in these respects, the leaves being vel- 
vety on the upper surface and hairy on 
the under sides, the latter, sparingly 
however, and only on the young leaves. 
In the same way, one can trace the 



other characters and find some influence 
of both jjarents on the hybrid in nearly 
every part of the tree. On the other 
hand, in the nature of the bark, the 
margin of the leaves, the coloring in cer- 
tain parts of the leaves and flowers, the 
inheritance is definitely alternate, the 
features of one parent in some parts and 
of the other parent m other parts being 
predominant u]»on the product of their 
union In dunen'^ion tl characters the 
hybnd is intennedaate except in those 
parts which are affetted by Mgorous 
development such as height of plant, 
diameter of trunk, size of leaves and 
inflorescences. In these the hybrid 
clearly excels its parents. It is inter- 
esting to note that the size of cells, as 
shown by tracheid length, at least, is 
the same in both parents and the cross 
21 



INDIVIDUAL FLOWERS OF THE CATALPA SPECIES 

The flowers of the hybrid are somewhat narrower than those of the larger ffowcrt'd parent but 
are similarly white in the ground color, while the other parent is yellow. Likewise in tlie orange 
color of the large stripes the hybrid resembles C. bignonioidts, as the small flowered parent 
has dark yellow stripes. (Fig. 9.) 



In addition to being resistant to low 
temperatures the combined plant is less 
affected by the leaf spot, Macro- 
sponum catalpae, E. & M., which attacks 
all catalpas, but, as observed, the 
spotting of the leaves has been much 
more severe on C. bignonioides than on 
the other parent and the cross. Per- 
haps there is some relation here to the 
pubescence of the leaves. 

PRACTICAL USES OF THIS TREE 

The value of the hybrid, in its more 
rapid growth, greater hardiness and 
profuse blooming, recommends itself to 
the landscape gardener. The flowers are 
not difficult to manipulate and each 
pod contains a large number of seeds, so 
that it is quite feasible to produce the 
first generation crossed trees fw use as 
ornamental plantings. As a timber tree. 



it is rather doubtful whether the hybrid 
has a sufficiently greater growth than 
C. speciosa. the tree usually grown, to 
warrant its production for that purpose. 
However, a catalpa grove is a fairly per- 
manent investment, the trees growing up 
from the stumps after each cutting, 
thereby extending the usefulness of 
one planting over a long period of time, 
so that considerable expense in obtaining 
the seed might well be justified. There- 
fore, it would be well worth while to 
try this hybrid in those localities where 
catalpas are more extensively grown for 
posts and ties. 

The seeds produced by the hybrid 
trees are well developed and are fertile. 
A sample tested in the incubator gave 51 
% viability. None of the second genera- 
tion plants have been grown from this 
23 



24 



The Journal of Heredity 



cross. Sargent sj^eaks of their reverting 
to Kaempfer's species in flowerxolor. 
It is of course to be expected that they 
will show segregation. It is quite 
possible that something in the way of a 
new catalpa of value can be fixed from 
this cross. It would be a matter of grow- 
ing a large number of seedlings and 
selecting for several generations. The 
trees flower young, so that this would 
not be as hopelessly slow a proposition 
as with most trees. Since the history of 
many valuable plants points clearly to 
their hybrid beginnings, it seems well 
worth continuing this hybrid into later 
generations. The likelihood of obtaining 
anything of value would depend largely 
upon the number of trees grown. For 
this reason the Connecticut Station 
would be glad to furnish almost any 
quantities of seed from the first crossed 
plants, which would give the segregating 
generation, to anyone who would be 
interested in growing them. The trees 
require little attention after they are 
once started, and in many places catalpa 
growing has proven to be a profitable 
commercial venture. The segregating 
generation would not give as uniform a 
tree as the pure species and probably 



would not be so profitable to grow, but 
might ultimately produce a new tree of 
real merit. In view of the results secured 
from this cross, other crosses of these 
two species with C. speciosa would be 
worth trying. 

Since the hybrid artificially produced 
from C. hignonioides and C. Kaentpferi 
coincides with the nattiral hybrid de- 
scribed under the name of "Teas' 
hybrid catalpa," and therefore confirms 
its assumed parentage, this fact lends 
considerable probability to other cases 
of hybrid trees whose ancestry can be 
no more than guessed at by a compari- 
son of the characters of the new form 
vdih its possible parent species. 

As an illustration of hybrid vigor, 
it is one more to be added to the long 
list of augmentations of growth imme- 
diately resulting from crossing. In 
this case it is particularly easy to see 
how many superficial features have 
been contributed by both parents, and 
this may be taken as one indication that 
the greater size and hardiness possessed 
by the hybrid is similarly due to the 
combined action of favorable growth 
factors contributed by compatible but 
diverse parents. 



LECTURES ON HEREDITY AND 
SEX (delivered in Glasgow, 1917- 
18), by F. O. Bower, ). Graham 
Kerr, and W. E. Agar.' Pp. 119, 
with 46 illustrations. London : Mac- 
millan & Co., Ltd., 1919. 

The authors announce that they have 
tried "to convey in as simple terms as 
possible the leading facts relating to 
Sex in Animals and Plants, together 
with suggestions bearing on the use and 
effect of sexual propagation." The 
evolution of sex is taken up at some 
length. Heredity is disposed of in a 
conventional manner with a brief ac- 
count of Mendelism and a more ex- 
tended discussion of correlations be- 
tween parent and offspring. The book 
contains many sound suggestions, but 
is probably too detailed and technical 
for the ordinary reader, while for the 
serious student the absence of refei- 
ences will be a drawback. — P. P. 



SEX CONTROL, by John William 
Conway. Pp. 118. Kansas: The 
Norton Champion, 1919. 

Mr. Conway, who is apparently not 
familiar with the large amount of care- 
ful work that has been done during 
recent years on the problem of sex 
control, has brought together a con- 
fused mass of information, which he 
first published in his local weekly news- 
paper. The two tangible theories 
which he espouses are the time-honored 
ones that (1) the offspring is of the 
sex of the weaker or less passionate 
parent, and (2) that the offspring is 
of the sex of that parent which is best 
nourished. Mr. Conw^ay makes no at- 
tempt to reconcile the contradictions of 
these two theories, and he also drags 
in prepotency, atavism, and various 
other more or less mystical ideas, to 
complicate the situation still further. 
No new evidence of value is included 
in support of his thesis. — P. P. 



SOME PROMISING NEW PEAR STOCKS 



Beverly T. Galloway 
Ojfice of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Washin^on, D. C. 



PRACTICALLY all of our im- 
portant cultivated fruit crops, 
the ajDple, pear, plum, cherry, 
peach, prime, apricot, and nec- 
tarine, are in a sense parasites, for 
they must get their life and sustenance 
from special roots selected and provided 
by man. These roots are known as 
stocks, and millions of them are im- 
ported ever\' year and used by nurser\'- 
men in the conduct of the largest busi- 
ness of its kind anywhere in the world. 
There are between five and six million 
acres of bearing apple, pear, and cherry 
trees in this country, and all but an 
insignificant portion are being fed and 
supported by roots having their origin 
in far-away France or Italy. 

We are interested at this time in 
pear stocks, stocks coming from free- 
seeding, stabilized species; stocks that 
will grow vigorously throughout our 
principal pear-growing sections; that 
may be economically and easily pro- 
duced by nurserymen; that will not 
leaf-blight; that are highly resistant 
to fire-blight; that will produce a large 
percentage of No. 1 trees in the nur- 
sery; that may be budded any time 
from June to September, and that will 
give a long-lived tree. 

WHY NEW TYPES ARE NEEDED 

During the past fifteen years the 
Office of Foreign Seed and Plant 
Introduction, in the United States 
Department of Agriculture, has in- 
troduced a good many pears — somewhat 
over 350, in fact. During the past 
two years special attention has been 
given to a restudy of these introductions 
with a view to ascertaining their value: 
(1) for stocks; (2) for breeding purposes, 
that is, their use as a means of securing, 
through breeding, new types of pears; 
and (3) their use and value as new or 



fmiting types just as they were in- 
troduced. 

The number of pear trees of all ages 
in this country is yjrobably not far 
from twenty-five million. The total 
acreage and production of i)ears lias 
remained more or less constant for the 
])ast eight or ten years. While the 
acreage and production have remained 
constant, this is only made possible by 
extensive new plantings each year. 
Fire-blight is the great bane of the pear 
in this country. From four to five 
million young trees must be raised 
each year to meet the losses caused b\' 
fire-biight and the normal increases of 
orchard extension. Fully 90% of all 
our pear trees are grown on French 
seedlings. The production of these 
seedlings from the common wild ])ear, 
Pyrus cmnmimis, has long been an 
important horticultural industry in 
France. 

Xo systematic attempt has been 
made, so far as we are aware, in this 
or any other country to secure new 
types of pear stocks suitable for special 
needs and particular places. Nor has 
any serious attempt been made to 
study the larger question of congeniality. 
We know that the same variety of pear 
behaves differently on different types 
of stocks. These differences are more 
marked in the case of different species, 
but they are also noticeable where 
seedlings of the same species are used. 
Much work, therefore, remains to be 
done to find the best stocks for particular 
varieties of our cultivated pears and 
stocks best suited to particular regions, 
soils and climates. 

china's abundant stock MATERIAL 

The Orient, and particularly China, 
seems to offer the most fruitful field 
for new pear stocks. China is pecu- 

25 



TIIK CHINESE S.\W-LEAVEI) PEAR. PVRUS SEKRl'LATA 

A very promising sloik. Tt isnslronKKrriwiTanil liiisj;'""! ffiliiijji', cciniiKiriiiBfaviiralilv n 
chc Kuan li. This ph<H<>Krapli IAur. 11, 19191 was maiii- of sumc disciirliil sixi- nu-ns, 
the Rooii plants luivinn liirn iiit nff to savt tin- l>ii<ls. iNt-j;. 25441.1 fFig. 12.) 



THE BIRCH-LEAVED PEAK, PYRUS BETULAEPOUA 

This is a viRorous grower anil frif from leaf blight. Cumpart- tiicst with Fig. 14 on paRe .^0, 
which shows somt- Japanese seedlings almost complettlv ilefoliated bv leaf blight. ]'lioto- 
graph Sept. 11, 1919. (Neg. 2.S48Z.) {Fig. 13. J 



28 



The Journal of Heredity 



liarly rich in distinct species of pears, 
and we should look to these wild species, 
rather than cultivated varieties, for our 
best stock material. The most exten- 
sive work on pears with particular 
reference to the securing of stocks, resist- 
ant or immune to fire-blight, has been 
done bv Mr. F. C. Reimer, of the 
Oregon Experiment Station. Mr. 
Reimer began his work five or six years 
ago and has assembled probably one 
of the largest collections of pears in the 
world. The special pear station located 
at Talent, Ore., where Mr. Reimer is 
conducting his investigations, is one 
of the great pear-grow4ng sections of the 
United States. This is in the Rogue 
River Valley. Fire-blight is very de- 
structive in this valley and at other 
places on or near the Pacific coast. The 
blight frequently attacks the bodies or 
trunks of the trees, and it was largely 
to meet that situation that Mr. Reimer 
inaugurated a line of work, having for 
its primary object the discovery of 
types that would give a blight-resistant 
root and body upon which the suscep- 
tible tops could be worked. It is be- 
lieved by Mr. Reimer that if blight- 
resistant or blight-immune trunks could 
be secured, the disease might be held 
in check among the branches by rigid 
attention to surgical and antiseptic 
methods. Air. Reimer's valuable work 
is still in progress, and he is now on a 
second trip to the Orient for the puq^osc 
of securing new facts and new pear 
material. 

THE WORK OF FOREIGN EXPLORERS 

Wc are indebted to two agricultural 
explorers for the larger number of 
pear species and varieties now at our dis- 
posal for study, testing and trial. The 
late Frank N. Aleyer, of the Office of 
Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, 
and Mr. E. H. Wilson, of the Arnold 
Arborettim, have rendered horticulture 
incalculable service in supplying material 
that has already proved very promising. 
Mr. Meyer's collections are quite ex- 
tensive and have been widely dis- 
seminated. Beginning in 1905 and 
continuing until his death in 1918. 
Mr. Meyer collected and sent in more 



than 125 separate and distinct lots of 
pears. This represents probably fifteen 
or twenty species and twenty-five to 
thirty varieties. A good many of 
Meyer's pears are assembled at the 
Chico, Calif., Field Station of the 
Office of Foreign Seed and Plant 
Introduction. Quite a large collection 
of Meyer's and other pear introductions 
have been brought together and are 
now being grown at the Yarrow Field 
Station near Washington, D. C. 

Mr. Wilson began his work on pears 
more than a dozen years ago and, under 
the direction of Dr. C. S. Sargent, of 
the Arnold Arboretum, has assembled a 
fine collection of oriental and other 
species at the Arboretum near Boston, 
Mass. The following notes are based 
chiefly on field studies and tests at our 
field stations and work in cooperation 
with nurser\inen and others: 

The Usuri Wild Pear, Pyrus usu- 
riensis, S. P. I. No. 44237 (see 
Fig. 10). — This wild pear, first found 
along the Usuri River, north of Korea, 
has been knowTi to botanists for more 
than fifty years. It has a wide range, 
having been found in numerous places 
in Korea, China, Manchuria and Siberia. 
Meyer reported it in great abundance 
from Chihli Province, north of Pekin, 
in 1907. In 1916 he revisited the 
region and found many of the trees 
of this wild pear had been cut down 
and Indian com or maize was being 
grown in their ])lace. Wilson found 
the pear growing abundantly in northern 
Korea. The experiments made by 
Reimer with seedlings of this pear gave 
much encouragement at first, for they 
proved to be very resistant to fire- 
blight. With us it has proved a very 
slow grower, rather subject to leaf- 
blight, and therefore unable to hold 
its leaves during the budding and 
propagating season. We can hardly 
class this pear as a promising new stock. 
Our object in introducing it here is. a 
precautionary one. The pear has been 
considerably exploited as a stock. Seed 
is being offered, and aside from the 
question of the authenticity of the 
seed, there is the broader problem of 
the actual value of the seedlings for 



Galloway: New Pear Stocks 



29 



stock purposes. Fig. 10 shows the habit 
of the seedlings in the nursery row. 
We have budded eight or ten of our 
principal varieties of pears on this 
stock. Not more than 30% of the 
buds took. The bark is tough and 
frequently refuses to "slip" easily. 
In striking contrast there is shown in 
Fig. 11 a cultivated form of the Usuri 
pear found by Meyer in 1917, in the 
Chihli Province, China. 

Kuan li or Chinese Water Pear, 
S. P. I. No. 44235 (see Fig. 11).— This 
pear unquestionably belongs to the 
Usiuricnsis group. Meyer reported it 
as having small fruits flattened soxne- 
what like an apple and of a rusty, 
greenish color. He sent in but 'one 
lot of seed of 17 ounces. From theS^ ^ 
seeds several thousand seedlings have 
been grown and tested as stocks at 
several places. Our first tests were 
with grafted stocks. All the pears 
worked on this stock, including Bartlett, 
Clapp's Favorite, Anjou, Dutchess, Law- 
rence, vSeckel, Sheldon, Howell, Clari- 
geau, and others, are doing ver>' well 
in the nurserv row. Unfortunatclv, 
the source of further seed supply from 
China is doubtful. In the maze of 
Chinese pears it is questionable if 
anyone except an expert could relocate 
the type from which Meyer obtained 
his original supply of seed. In order 
to preserve this valuable type of pear 
we have had top-worked, at the Chico, 
Cal., Station, a part of an old pear 
orchard to the Kuan li, and within a 
year or two we should be getting seed 
from this source. We shall also be 
prepared at an early date to furnish 
budwood of this pear to those who may 
desire to propagate it for seed produc- 
tion. We place the Kuan li as one of 
our most promising pear stocks. 

The Chinese Saw-leafed Pear, Pyrus 
serrulata, S. P. I. Nos. 34567 and 45832 
(see Fig. 12). — This pear, first collected 
by Wilson in 1907 in the Hupeh Prov- 
ince, 800 or 900 miles west and south 
of Shanghai, was again foimd by 
Reimer near Ichang, China, in 1917. 
Ichang is in Hupeh Province. Reimer 
found the pear about 15 miles northwest 
of Ichang at elevations from 3,000 to 



3,700 feet. Its growth in the nursery 
compares favorably with the Kuan li. 
It is affected but slightly with leaf- 
blight, holds its foliage well in our hot 
summers, and has a long budding season. 
Our plants are from seeds sent by Mr. 
Reimer. The species docs not appear 
to be common, and for this reason, if 
it should prove on further trial to be a 
useful stock, sources of supply should 
be established here. Authentic seed 
mav be obtained from the Arnold 
Arboretum, but the supply there is 
naturally limited. We shall be in 
position to supply budwood in limited 
quantities from our collection. Buds 
from our principal varieties of pears 
worked upon this stock took welL 
It is too earlv to determine the value 
of the stock in producing an ideal 
nursery tree. 

The Birch Leaf Chinese Pear, Pyrus 
beiulaefolia, S. P. I. No. 21982 and other 
S. P. I. Nos. (see Fig. 13).— This pear 
has come to the Office of Foreign Seed 
and Plant Introduction from a number 
of places and has been listed under 
several S. P. I. numbers. Mever col- 
lected it several times and Reimer 
sent in seeds of it. According to the 
late Jackson Dawson, it came to the 
Arnold Arboretum from the mountains 
near Pekin, China, in 1882. Fine speci- 
mens are now growing in the Arboretum. 
The tree occurs in many parts of China, 
and supplies of seeds for commerical 
purposes would not be difficult to get. 
Reimer reports it as being more or 
less susceptible to fire-blight. In the 
east we have never seen it blighted. 
No attacks of blight, so far as we are 
aware, have appeared on the trees at 
the Arnold Arboretiun, and these are 
now more than thirty years old. The 
tree has proved practically free from 
leaf blight. It is a vigorous grower 
and is capable of being budded any 
time from July to the middle of Sep- 
tember in the region around Wash- 
ington. According to Reimer it is 
extensively used in China as a stock, 
where it is readily grafted; making a 
good union and producing vigorous 
trees. The pear can be readily grown 
from cuttings. Fig. 13 shows the re- 



THE CHINESE CALLERYANA PEAR 

This is the most promising of all the Oriental species. It is a line grower and can be budded 
from July to September. Compare it with the French stocks (Fig. IJ). Cooperative 
planting of trees for seed purposes is now under way to assure a home-grown supplv ot this 
remarkable species. Photograph Aug. 14. 1919. (Neg, 25437.) IFig. 16.) 



USE OP THE CALLERYANA PEAR AS A STOCK 

Roots of this stock were grafted with a cultivated pear in the spring of 1919, and the above 
photograph was taken August !4, 1919. In three and a half months the growth was nearly 
six feet. The variety is a new pear supposed to be a cross between Keiffer and La Conte. 
(N^. 25426.) (Fig. 17.) 



32 



The Journal of Heredity 



markable manner in which this pear 
holds its foliage. The photograph was 
taken on September 11, 1919. At this 
time the leaves on the Japanese seed- 
lings (see Fig. 14) and the French seed- 
lings (see Fig. 15) were practically all 
off, largely as a result of the attacks of 
the leaf blight fimgus, Entosporhmt 
maculatum. 

The Chinese Calleryana Pear, Pyrus 
calleryana, S. P. I. No. 44044 and other 
S. P. I. Nos. (see Fig. 16).— Of all the 
pears tested and studied this remarkable 
Chinese species holds out the greatest 
promise as a stock. The tree has a 
very wide range in China, and several 
distinct types have already appeared. 
It has stood some very severe winters 
during the past twelve years at the 
Arnold Arboretum. It grows and 
thrives luxuriantly at our Field Station, 
Brooksville, Fla., where it is almost an 
evergreen. One of the last important 
pieces of work of the late Frank Meyer 
was the collection of more than 100 
pounds of the seed of this pear in the 
mountains in and around Ichang, China. 
After many trials and heart-breaking 
delays, Meyer got the seed to us, 
but before it could be put in the ground 
his body was floating in the great 
Yangtze River, that giant of waters 
which for centuries has taken its htmian 
toll. Alone for months, with many 
dangers around him, he wrote : 

*T am sitting now in a Chinese 
house, for the inn I lived in at first was 
too noisv and dark, and there was no 
room to dry seeds or specimens. Some 
mice are running about, mosquitos 
buzz, a cricket sings in an old wall, 
and the policeman who is stationed to 
spy upon me snores on the bench, for 
it is well into the night. Tomorrow 
we may go to see a lot of pear trees 
\5 miles from here." 

All who have tested the Calleryana 
pear as a stock, report favorably upon 



it. It is a vigorous grower under 
nearly all conditions. It holds its 
leaves well, and it can be budded any 
time from July 1 to September 1. All 
of our best kinds of pears so far tried 
take well upon it. The seedlings are 
easily grown and, when from pure 
types, run remarkably uniform. Com- 
mercial supplies of the seed are not 
yet available, but it is believed that 
considerable quantities can be obtained 
through one or two reliable sources in 
China. Meanwhile it is important to 
assure ourselves of a home-grown supply 
of this most promising species. To this 
end cooperative planting of trees for 
seed purposes, and cooperative efforts 
in top-working other trees with the 
Caller>'ana species are under way. 
Wood is now available for the latter 
object. The remarkable uniformity and 
vigor of the seedlings are shown in 
Fig. 16. This picture was taken August 
14, at which time most of the French 
seedlings (Fig. 15) were entirely de- 
foliated. Fig. 17 shows the growth of 
spring-made grafts on this stock. The 
variety is a new pear supposed to be 
a cross between Eaeffer and La Conte. 
The grafts were put out May 1 and the 
photographs taken August 14, three 
and a half months later. By October 
1 these grafts averaged 7 feet in height. 
Summarizing, it may be said that the. 
prospect of finding new and valuable 
pear stocks among the oriental wild 
species seems very good. What the 
ultimate life of our principal varieties 
of cultivated species on these stocks 
may be remains to be determined. 
This is a long-time problem. Already 
there is sufficient encouragement to go 
forward with the work in the hope that 
we shall eventually not only be able 
to produce all of our own stocks but 
produce them, having all the desirable 
characteristics set forth at the beginning 
of this paper. 



THE DECLINE OF AUTOCRACY 

AND ITS RELATION TO WARFARE 

A Look into the History of the Last Five Centuries — Autocracy Associated with 
Wars — ^Tendencies toward Democracy in Development of Modern Civilization 

Frederick Adams Woods 
Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology 



CAN war be abolished ? Will auto- 
crats disappear? Are democra- 
cies less prone to warfare than are 
other forms of government ? To 
what extent have the great tyrants of 
the past been responsible for the warfare 
that has been waged? These- are some 
questions to which we would like an 
answer. 

Without supposing that history can 
positively answer these questions, it is 
justifiable, considering the importance 
of the subject, to seek what light we 
may ; and so it is interesting to make an 
appeal to the extended records of the 
past and see if there is any evidence that 
autocrats have been long disappearing, 
or that they have been a predisposing 
cause of war. It will doubtless be of 
welcome interest to many persons to 
know that history's answer to both of 
these questions is in the affirmative. 
European autocrats have been decreas- 
ing numerically ever since the twelfth 
century — those of the more powerful 
sort since the sixteenth. 

In regard to their relation to war, 
it is highly probable that states of war- 
fare, whatever be their cause, are 
especially favorable to single-handed 
governance. Therefore we ought not 
to say that great autocrats are here 
shown to be a cause of war, though very 
likely to a considerable extent they may 
be; but at least we have evidence that 
the two are associated. This is proved 
by an analysis of the history of eleven 
European nations. The nations include 
Austria, Denmark, England, France, 
Holland (or the Netherlands), Poland, 
Prussia, Russia, Spain, Sweden, and 
Turkey. The period covered extends 



from the present day to as far into the 
past as records arc available. For most 
of these countries, however, it is not 
practicable to carry such a study back 
of the sixteenth century. For England 
and France the records enable us to 
extend the research to the beginning of 
the twelfth century. 

YEARS OF WAR 

It would of course be of added interest 
if something more than the mere years 
of war and years of peace could be dis- 
cussed, since it may be that great wars 
were more associated with autocrats 
than were small wars, but in the absence 
of sufficient data there can be no harm 
in first making the simple analysis and 
answering the question : Are autocracies 
especially associated with periods of 
war? Any book of dates concerning 
periods of war will conflict somewhat 
with any other book, since a certain 
amount of personal judgment necessar- 
ily enters into any compilation. Some- 
times it is hard to tell a war from a riot. 
More often it is hard to tell just when a 
war begins and ends. Mr. Alexander 
Baltzly compiled under my direction, 
and in association with the Department 
of Government in Harvard University, 
a complete list ot all European wars of 
modem times. This was published in 
1915. It was put together just prior to 
the late war with the hope of throwing 
light on the question whether there 
was any evidence that wars were tending 
to disappear. This book, "Is War Di- 
minishing?" is, as far as I know, the only 
source of appeal for a comprehensive 
study of European wars. Some special 
studies concerning the wars of single 

33 



34 



The Journal of Heredity 



nations have been published, but these 
are detailed and isolated — often mere 
propaganda. In Mr. Baltzly*s lists we 
have an excellent basis for making a 
first approximation in the study of the 
causes of war, since the greatest effort 
was made to cover the ground com- 
pletely, and, moreover, as the compila- 
tion was made without having the 
present research in mind, its errors 
should cause no bias. 

A LIST OF AUTOCRATS 

The next question is: Whom shall we 
include in a list of the great autocratic 
rulers of recent times? Here, again, it 
is necessary to be systematic and to 
overlook as few examples as possible. 
Some sort of a check-list is essential. 
Such a list is, as far as sovereign rules 
are concerned, already published, and 
is to be found in the appendix of my 
"Influence of Monarchs" (1913). It 
was formulated for another research, 
namely, to measure the magnitude of 
the personal influence of one recurring 
historical type, and the very fact that 
it was made for another purpose makes 
it all the better as a basis for the present 
discu.ssion. 

From this list of sovereigns I first 
picked out all those who undoubtedly 
should be rightly designated by the 
word autocrat: that is, those who were 
autocratic not only by nature, but also 
actually were able to act in an auto- 
cratic manner. To these I added a 
few doubtful names, — sovereigns who 
wished for personal control but who 
did not very well succeed in attaining 
their ends. 

Names taken from the history of 
these same European coimtries from 
the French Revolution to the present 
day, and also from the history of the 
old kingdom of Poland, were added to 
the list in order that the periods covered 
in **Is War Diminishing?" should be 
completely included here. This pro- 
duced a total of about 120. These 
were then roughly graded in an order of 
eminence and in the following manner: 
Mr. T. Lothrop Stoddard, Mr. Alleyne 
Ireland and myself each chose separately 
the names of: First, the ten seemingly 



greatest autocrats; second, the twenty 
greatest; and third, the sixty or leading 
half of the whole. I have now ex- 
tended this to 100 names and arranged 
the first sixty in the order of their auto- 
cratic greatness on the combined basis 
of oiu" separate ratings. In the lower 
portion of the list the order of position 
means but little, but in the upper part 
the differences are more clearly marked' 
and are also more important in leading 
to significant conclusions. Probably 
the first ten or twenty names are not 
very different from those that would, 
perforce, be chosen by anyone conver- 
sant with European history if the test 
were to be, as it here is, the grading of 
autocrats according to the vastness of 
their whilom rule and the extent of their 
individual domination, not necessarily 
according to their intellectual gifts. 

The following twenty monarchs are 
given in their order of eminence judged 
solely as great autocrats: Napoleon, 
Frederick the Great, Peter the Great, 
Selim I of Turkey, Stdeiman the Mag- 
nificent, Ivan the Terrible, Louis XI of 
France, Philip II of Spain, Louis XIV 
of France, Catherine II of Russia. 
Charles XII of Sweden, Charles V (the 
Emperor); Gustavus Adolphus, Philip 
Augustus, Louis IX of France, Henry 
VIII of England, Ivan III of Russia, 
Henry IV of France, William II (the late 
Kaiser), the Great Elector of Branden- 
burg. 

It must not be thought that the order 
within the group is important, or that 
there is any intention of conveying the 
idea that each one of these persons 
whose name appears ahead of some 
other person is known to be a greater 
autocrat. Every reader through per- 
sonal preference would rearrange this 
list; but any rearrangement within the 
first ten, or within the second ten, 
would make no difference. If many 
were transferred from high to low posi- 
tions, or if great changes of inclusion 
and exclusion were made, then im- 
portant differences in the conclusions 
might result. It seems xmlikely that 
such wholesale changes cotdd be jus- 
tified. 

A list is here given of the 62 sovereign 



HlSTOR'i' OF AUTOCRATS AND WARS AS TOLD BY A DIAGRAM 



. Showing the decline of all autocrats. 

. Showing the rise and decline of the twenty greatest 

. The dcitte'i line shows the decline in percentage of wi 



s per century. (Fig. 18.) 



rulers who have been selected as es- 
pecially representative of autocratic 
sway (see Table I). The first 30 are 
given ranking numbers, though, as 
befoix; stated, this must be considered 
only as tentative and approximate. 
That this arrangement in a series has 
a value seems to be interestingly illus- 
trated in this research, for, if the sover- 
eigns had not been individually graded. 



the discovery would not have been 
made that European history furnishes 
actual evidence that great autocrats are 
especially associated with periods of 
warfare. 

If wc consider only the evidence 
drawn from the entire 62 autocrats, we 
find 914.5 years of war out of a total 
of i,779 years of reign. This is 51.4% 
and is only slightly greater than the 
35 



32 



The Journal of Heredity 



markable manner in which this pear 
holds its foliage. The photograph was 
taken on September 11, 1919. At this 
time the leaves on the Japanese seed- 
lings (see Fig. 14) and the French seed- 
lings (see Fig. 15) were practically all 
off, largely as a result of the attacks of 
the leaf blight fungus, Entosporium 
maculatum. 

The Chinese Calleryana Pear, Pyrus 
callervana, S. P. I. No. 44044 and other 
S. P. 'I. Nos. (see Fig. 16).— Of all the 
pears tested and studied this remarkable 
Chinese species holds out the greatest 
promise as a stock. The tree has a 
very wide range in China, and several 
distinct types have already appeared. 
It has stood some vcw severe winters 
during the past twelve years at the 
Arnold Arboretum. It grows and 
thrives luxuriantly at our Field Station, 
Brooks ville, Fla., where it is almost an 
evergreen. One of the last important 
pieces of work of the late Frank Meyer 
was the collection of more than 100 
pounds of the seed of this pear in the 
mountains in and around Ichang, China. 
After many trials and heart-breaking 
delays, Meyer got the seed to us, 
but before it could be put in the ground 
his body was floating in the great 
Yangtze River, that giant of waters 
which for centuries has taken its human 
toll. Alone for months, with many 
dangers around him, he wrote: 

"I am sitting now in a Chinese 
house, for the inn I lived in at first was 
too noisy and dark, and there was no 
room to dry seeds or specimens. Some 
mice are running about, mosquitos 
buzz, a cricket sings in an old wall, 
and the policeman who is stationed to 
spy upon me snores on the bench, for 
it is well into the night. Tomorrow 
we may go to see a lot of pear trees 
LS miles from here." 

All who have tested the Calleryana 
pear as a stock, report favorably upon 



it. It is a vigorous grower under 
nearly all conditions. It holds its 
leaves well, and it can be budded any 
time from July 1 to September 1. All 
of our best kinds of pears so far tried 
take well upon it. The seedlings are 
easily grown and, when from pure 
types, run remarkably uniform. Com- 
mercial supplies of the seed arc not 
yet available, but it is believed that 
considerable quantities can be obtained 
through one or two reliable sources in 
China. Meanwhile it is important to 
assure ourselves of a home-grown supply 
of this most promising species. To this 
end cooperative planting of trees for 
seed purjjoses, and cooperative efforts 
in top-working other trees with the 
Calleryana species are under way. 
Wood is now available for the latter 
object. The remarkable uniformity and 
vigor of the seedlings are shown in 
Fig. 16. This picture was taken August 
14, at which time most of the French 
seedlings (Fig. 15) were entirely de- 
foliated. Fig. 17 shows the growth of 
spring-made grafts on this stock. The 
variety is a new pear supposed to be 
a cross between Kieffer and La Conte. 
The grafts were put out May 1 and the 
photographs taken August 14, three 
and a half months later. By October 
1 these grafts averaged 7 feet in height. 
Summarizing, it may be said that the. 
prospect of finding new and valuable 
pear stocks among the oriental wild 
species seems very good. What the 
ultimate life of our principal varieties 
of cultivated species on these stocks 
may be remains to be determined. 
This is a long-time problem. Already 
there is sufficient encouragement to go 
forward with the work in the hope that 
we shall eventually not only be able 
to produce all of our own stocks but 
produce them, having all the desirable 
characteristics set forth at the beginning 
of this paper. 



THE DECLINE OF AUTOCRACY 

AND ITS RELATION TO WARFARE 

A Look into the History of the Last Five Centuries — Autocracy Associated with 
Wars — ^Tendencies toward Democracy in Development of Modern Civilization 

Frederick Adams Woods 
Lecturer on Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology 



CAN war be abolished? Will auto- 
crats disappear? Are democra- 
cies less prone to warfare than are 
other forms of government ? To 
what extent have the great tyrants of 
the past been responsible for the warfare 
that has been waged? These- are some 
questions to w^hich we would like an 
answer. 

Without supposing that history can 
positively answer these questions, it is 
justifiable, considering the importance 
of the subject, to seek what light we 
may ; and so it is interesting to make an 
appeal to the extended records of the 
past and see if there is any evidence that 
autocrats have been long disappearing, 
or that they have been a predisposing 
cause of war. It will doubtless be of 
welcome interest to many persons to 
know that histor>'*s answer to both of 
these questions is in the affirmative. 
European autocrats have been decreas- 
ing numerically ever since the twelfth 
century— those of the more powerful 
sort since the sixteenth. 

In regard to their relation to war, 
it is highly probable that states of war- 
fare, whatever be their cause, are 
especially favorable to single-handed 
governance. Therefore we ought not 
to say that great autocrats are here 
shown to be a cause of war, though very 
likely to a considerable extent they may 
be; but at least we have evidence that 
the two are associated. This is proved 
by an analysis of the history of eleven 
European nations. The nations include 
Austria, Denmark, England, France, 
Holland (or the Netherlands), Poland, 
Prussia, Russia, Spain, Sweden, and 
Tiu-key. The period covered extends 



from the present day to as far into the 
past as records are available. For most 
of these countries, however, it is not 
practicable to carry such a study back 
of the sixteenth century. For England 
and France the records enable us to 
extend the research to the beginning of 
the twelfth century. 

YEARS OF WAR 

It would of course be of added interest 
if something more than the mere years 
of war and years of peace could be dis- 
cussed, since it may be that great wars 
were more associated with autocrats 
than were small wars, but in the absence 
of sufficient data there can be no harm 
in first making the simple analysis and 
answering the question : Are autocracies 
especially associated with periods of 
war? Any book of dates concerning 
periods of war will conflict somewhat 
with any other book, since a certain 
amount of personal judgment necessar- 
ily enters into any compilation. Some- 
times it is hard to tell a war from a riot 
More often it is hard to tell just when a 
war begins and ends. Mr. Alexander 
Baltzly compiled under my direction, 
and in association with the Department 
of Government in Harvard University, 
a complete list of all European wars of 
modem times. This was published in 
1915. It was put together just prior to 
the late war with the hope of throwing 
light on the question whether there 
was any evidence that wars were tending 
to disappear. This book, "Is War Dv- 
minishing?" is, as far as I know, the only 
source of appeal for a comprehensive 
study of European wars. Some special 
studies concerning the wars of single 

33 



34 



The Journal of Heredity 



nations have been published, but these 
are detailed and isolated — often mere 
propaganda. In Mr. Baltzly's lists we 
have an excellent basis for making a 
first approximation in the study of the 
causes of war, since the greatest effort 
was made to cover the ground com- 
pletely, and, moreover, as the compila- 
tion was made without having the 
present research in mind, its errors 
should cause no bias. 

A LIST OF AUTOCRATS 

The next question is : Whom shall we 
include in a list of the great autocratic 
rulers of recent times? Here, again, it 
is necessary to be systematic and to 
overlook as few examples as possible. 
Some sort of a check-list is essential. 
Such a list is, as far as sovereign rules 
are concerned, already published, and 
is to be found in the appendix of my 
"Influence of Monarchs" (1913). It 
was formulated for another research, 
namely, to measure the magnitude of 
the personal influence of one recurring 
historical type, and the very fact that 
it was made for another piupose makes 
it all the better as a basis for the present 
discussion. 

From this list of sovereigns I first 
picked out all those who undoubtedly 
should be rightly designated by the 
word autocrat: that is, those who were 
autocratic not only by nature, but also 
actually were able to act in an auto- 
cratic manner. To these I added a 
few doubtful names, — sovereigns who 
wished for personal control but who 
did not very well succeed in attaining 
their ends. 

Names taken from the history of 
these same European countries from 
the French Revolution to the present 
day, and also from the history of the 
old kingdom of Poland, were added to 
the list in order that the periods covered 
in **Is War Diminishing?" should be 
completely included here. This pro- 
duced a total of about 120. These 
were then roughly graded in an order of 
eminence and in the following manner: 
Mr. T. Lothrop Stoddard, Mr. Alleyne 
Ireland and myself each chose separately 
the names of: First, the ten seemingly 



greatest autocrats; second, the twenty 
greatest ; and third, the sixty or leading 
half of the whole. I have now ex- 
tended this to 100 names and arranged 
the first sixty in the order of their auto- 
cratic greatness on the combined basis 
of our separate ratings. In the lower 
portion of the list the order of position 
means but little, but in the upper part 
the differences are more clearly marked' 
and are also more important in leading 
to significant conclusions. Probably 
the first ten or twenty names are not 
very different from those that would, 
perforce, be chosen by anyone conver- 
sant with European history if the test 
were to be, as it here is, the grading of 
autocrats according to the vastness of 
their whilom rule and the extent of their 
individual domination, not necessarily 
according to their intellectual gifts. 

The following twenty monarchs are 
given in their order of eminence judged 
solely as great autocrats: Napoleon, 
Frederick the Great, Peter the Great, 
Selim I of Turkey, Suleiman the Mag- 
nificent, Ivan the Terrible, Louis XI of 
France, Philip II of Spain, Louis XIV 
of France, Catherine II of Russia. 
Charles XII of Sweden, Charles V (the 
Emperor); Gustavus Adolphus, Philip 
Augustus, Louis IX of France, Henry 
VIII of England, Ivan III of Russia, 
Henry IV of France, William II (the late 
Kaiser), the Great Elector of Branden- 
burg. 

It must not be thought that the order 
within the group is important, or that 
there is any intention of conveying the 
idea that each one of these persons 
whose name appears ahead of some 
other person is known to be a greater 
autocrat. Every reader through per- 
vSonal preference would rearrange this 
list; but any rearrangement within the 
first ten, or within the second ten, 
would make no difference. If many 
were transferred from high to low posi- 
tions, or if great changes of inclusion 
and exclusion were made, then im- 
portant differences in the conclusions 
might result. It seems unlikely that 
such wholesale changes could be jus- 
tified. 

A list is here given of the 62 sovereign 



HISTORY OF AUTOCRATS AND WARS AS TOLD BY A DIAGRAM 

A. Showing the decline of all autocrats. 

B. Showing the rise and decline of the twenty greatest 

C. The dotteti line shows the decline in percentage of v 



r-ycars per century. (Fig. 18.) 



rulers who have been selected as es- 
pecially representative of autocratic 
sway (sec Table I). The first 30 are 
given ranking numbers, though, as 
before slated, this must be considered 
only as tentative and approximate. 
That this arrangement in a series has 
a value seems to be interestingly illus- 
trated in this research, for, if the sover- 
eigns had not been individually graded. 



the discovery would not have been 
made that European history furnishes 
actual evidence that great autocrats are 
especially associated with periods of 
warfare. 

If we consider only the evidence 
drawn from the entire 62 autocrats, we 
find 914.5 years of war out of a total 
of 1,779 years of reign. This is 51.4% 
and is only slightly greater than the 
35 



36 



The Journal of Heredity 



Table I. — Leading Royal Autocrats of Europe 



Austria: 

26 Maximilian. . . 

12 Charles V 

22 Maria Theresa 
Francis Joseph 

Denmark • 

Christian II. . 
Christian IV . . 



War years 

17.0 

0.0 

16.0 

8.5 



England : 

Henry I 

Henry II 

Richard I 

25 Edward I 

Edward III 

Henry V 

Henry VII 

16 Henry VIII 

23 Elizabeth 

France: 

Louis VI 

14 Philip Augustus .... 

15 Louis IX 

Charles V 

7 Louis XI 

Anne, Regent 

Catherine de Medici 

18 Henry IV 

9 Louis XIV 

1 Napoleon 

Napoleon III 



Holland : 

27 William the Silent 

Maurice . :.^ 

Frederick Henry ... .' 

William II 

William III 

Poland:^ 

Casimir IV 

Sigismund I 

Stephen Bathory 

John III 

20 The Great Elector 

Frederick William I 

2 Frederick the Great 

19 William II 



30.5 



To*al 

26 

2 

40 

68 



151 



Years of reign 

1493-1519 
1519-1521 
1740-1780 
1848-1916 



41.5 


136 




6.0 


10 


1513-1523 


22.0 


52 


1596-1648 


28.0 


62 




25.0 


35 


1100-1135 


6.5 


35 


1154-1189 


7.0 


10 


1189-1199 


16.5 


35 


1272-1307 


33.0 


47 


1330-1377 


6.0 


9 


1413-1422 


5.5 


24 


1485-1509 


12.0 


38 


1509-1547 


39.0 


45 
278 


1558-1603 


150.5 




20.0 


29 


1108-1137 


25.0 


43 


1180-1223 


1L5 


34 


1236-1270 


12:0 


16 


1364-1380 


6.0 


- 22 


1461-1483 


1.0 


8 


1483-1491 


4 


11 


1560-1571 


10 


22 


1588-1610 


34.0 


54 


1661-1715 


10.0 


10 


1804-1814 


11.5 


18 


1852-1870 


145.0 


267 




9.0 


9 


1575-1584 


25.0 


41 


1584-1625 


22.0 


22 


1625-1647 


1.0 


3 


1647-1650 


17 5 


30 


1672-1702 


74 5 


105 




23 5 


45 


1447-1492 


20.5 


42 


1506-1548 


3.5 


11 


1575-1586 


14.0 


22 


1674-1696 


61.5 


120 




10 5 


48 


1640-1688 


5.0 


27 


1713-1740 


11.0 


46 


1740-1786 


4.0 


30 


1888-1918 



* Poland was not included in the Influence of Monarchs, nor was the history of any European country later than 
the Napoleonic period. Data from recent history have therefore been added. 



Woods: Decline of Aijitocracy 



37 



Russia : 

17 Ivan the Great. . . 
6 Ivan the Terrible. 
3 Peter the Great . 

10 Catherine II 

Alexander I 

29 Nicholas I 

Alexander III. . . . 



Spain : 

21 Ferdinand and Isabella 

Ferdinand 

Charles V 

8 Philip II 

Charles III 



Sweden : 

28 Gustavus V^asa 

Charles, Regent. . 

Charles IX 

13 Gustavus Adolphus 

Charles X 

Charles XI 

11 Charles XII 

Gustavus III 

Charies XIV 

Turkey : 

30 Mohammed II ... . 

4 Selim I 

5 Suleimani 

MuradIV 

Mahmud II 



24.0 


43 


1462-1505 


32.5 


37 


1547-1584 


23.0 


36 


1689-1725 


13 5 


34 


1762-1796 


4.5 


15 


1810-1825 


29.5 


30 


1825-1855 





13 
208 


1881-1894 


127.0 




17.5 


25 


1479-1504 


4.0 


12 


1504-1516 


25.0 


39 


1517-1556 


39.0 


42 


1556-1598 


2.5 


29 


1759-1788 



88.0 



147 



7.0 


37 


1523-1560 


0.5 


5 


1595-1600 


11.0 


11 


1600-1611 


13.0 


21 


1611-1632 


5.0 


6 


1654-1660 


4.0 


25 


1672-1697 


19.0 


21 


1697-1718 


2.0 


21 


1771-1792 





26 


1818-1844 


61.5 


173 




30.0 


30 


1451-1481 


7.0 


8 


1512-1520 


36.5 


46 


1520-1566 


17.0 


17 


1623-1640 


16.5 


31 


1808-1839 



107.0 



132 



average number of years of war per 
century, as revealed by the tables in 
**Is War Diminishing?" which is 48.5. 
But if we consider only the 30 leading 
autocrats, we find that the average 
rises to 57.5 war-years per century, 
or 565.5 out of 983. For the leading 
20 the average is 54.2, and for the ten 
greatest the average is 63.4 years of 
war per century^ The totals here are 
212.5 years out of 335. These figures 
are large enough to be significant. 
Here is shown a rise of roughly 50% 
for the most autocratic periods as 
against the comparatively non-auto- 
cratic periods, of which there are about 
300, and whose war record must have 
been a little less than 48.5 years per 
century. 

The true correlation between auto- 
crats and war must be somewhat higher 
than is here indicated, since oftimes 



democratic nations have been unwill- 
ingly drawn into conflicts against au- 
tocracy, as was the case in the Napo- 
leonic period and in the late World War. 
In this way non-autocratic periods 
must get more years of war than would 
have been the case if all countries had 
always been free from great autocrats. 

WAR-YEARS UNDER DEMOCRACIES 

If we turn to the other side of the 
question and study the democracies 
themselves, it appears that their periods 
occupied in warfare have been some- 
what less in total duration than the 
average. There have not been many 
eras of real democracy in European 
history, but there have been times when 
nations have been more democratic 
than at other times. England has, for 
instance, been largely governed by the 
voice of the people during recent 



38 



The Jotimal of Heredity 



generations. The same is true of many 
European nations dining the nine- 
teenth century. It is this century, and 
especially its la^ half, that shows the 
maximum years of peace. 

If we take out for study all periods in 
which no monarch or regent is recog- 
nized as ruling and the nation is theore- 
tically a ** republic," *' commonwealth," 
"consulate," or designated by some 
such word, we have a definite criterion 
for inclusion and can express our results 
numerically. 

If we omit the doubtful "stadholder- 
ship" in Holland, we have in England 
the Commonwealth, 1649-1660, with 10 
years of war out of 11. France had 
three republics and one consulate with 
21 years of war out of 63. Holland 
had two republics (1759-1766 and 1795- 
1805) and The States which lasted from 
1702 to 1747. During these eras it 
showed 35 war-years out of 84. /Spain 
had two years of republic from 1 873-1 875 . 
They were filled with internal war- 
fare. Russia, since the overthrow 
of the Czar, has been in an almost 
constant state of either warfare or 
anarchv. 

The total of all these years of demo- 
cratic control is 163. The total years 
of war are 72. This is 44.2%. It is 
somewhat less than the total for all 
autocratic regimes, which was 51.4%. 
It is considerably less than the average 
for the first ten which was found to be 
63.4. Furthermore, in the instances 
where the democratic forms of govern- 
ment have been associated with an 
extremely high percentage of warfare, 
these popular governments represent 
beginnings in this practice of political 
control. Also England during "The 
Commonwealth," with 10 years of war 
out of 11, was in reality under one of 
the greatest of autocrats, though a 
non-royal one. 

There is some additional argument 
that democracies may be associated 
with an increased amount of peace 
from the fact that the comparatively 
democratic nations, Denmark, Switzer- 
land, Sweden, and Holland, have been 
free from war during the last hundred 
years. 



It has not been possible to include 
in this research non-royal autocrats 
like Cromwell and Richelieu. The diffi- 
culty would be in knowing when to 
stop, since no comprehensive list of 
such statesmen has ever been formu- 
lated. But the logical conclusion is that, 
if royal autocrats predispose towards 
belligerency, non-royal ones also do, and 
therefore some of the fighting periods 
now credited to comparatively non- 
autocratic governments should in reality 
be taken as exhibiting a further proof 
of the truth of the theory here set 
forth. 

AUTOCRATS DIFFICULT TO ABOLISH 

There seems, then, to be no doubt 
that great autocrats are associated with 
wars probably as a contributory cause. 
If they are a cause of war, the question 
then becomes one of vital interest : How 
are they forever to be abolished? This 
is not likely to be an easy matter. 
Autocrats work insidiously and, until 
they have become strong, they are not 
autocrats. By the time they have 
become autocrats they are then strong, 
and consequently difficult to deal with. 
There is much that is permanent in 
human nature that makes easy the 
development of autocratic sway. Man 
is a very exploitable animal, and it is a 
long time before he realizes that he is 
being made into a machine. By the 
time he has been made into a machine 
and is part of a greater machine — that 
is, precisely what he is then willing to 
be or indeed wishes to be — so who is to 
stop the process ? It is only the outside 
and outlying nations that can do this 
by uniting for the common cause. This 
they do over and over again, and the 
force of numbers wins for a time until 
again in some unsuspected quarter 
another autocrat has welded together 
another machine. 

False and weak autocracies, like that 
of George III, Louis XVI, and Nicholas 
II, may break from within, but the 
genuine and strong, such as are under 
the personal control of some one great 
leader, require outside interference, 
which only becomes united after the 
autocracy has indeed been formed. 



Woods: Decline of Autocracy 



39 



All this may be in some measure' 
explanatory or not ; at any rate the fact 
is that, while European history has 
shown for the last eight centuries a 
tendency for 'autocrats to become less 
numerous, it has not shown the same 
tendency towards a disappearance of 
autocrats of the first magnitude, those 
whom we find especially predisposing 
towards war. 

In the history of England and France 
autocrats can be studied from the 
eleventh century onward. These are 
countries that have developed demo- 
cratic institutions. Let us see if there 
is evidence of a gradual decline in the 
numbers of autocratic sovereigns 
throughout the centuries. Adding the 
numbers from both these countries 
together, we get the series from the 
year 1000 to the year 1900 by centuries 
as follows: 2, 4, 4, 2, 3, 4, 2, 0, 2; that 
is, there were two autocrats in the 
eleventh century, four in the twelfth, 
etc. It can be seen that the left-hand 
half of this series is heavier than the 
right. The ratio of weight is 13.vS 
to 9.5. Here we have numerical proof 
that autocracy has declined in France 
and England. This is significant as 
far as it goes, though the numbers are 
small. 

If, on the other hand, we turn to 
Russia, Prussia, and Austria, we do not 
find the same tendency towards a de- 
cline in the number of autocrats. Fig- 
ures for the early history of these 
countries are not available, but the 
records from the beginning of the fif- 
teenth century are complete. The totals 
for each century are, according to our 
chart, 4, 2, 3, 5, 5. In these countries, 
then, just the opposite has taken place 
from what occurred in England and 
France. The right-hand, or modem 
portion of this series, weighs against 
the left in the ratio of 11.5 to 7.5. Are 
these figures significant? They are 
quite as likely to be as the reverse 
figures, 13.5 to 9.5, which suggested a 
decline in autocracy in France and 
England. 

Both numbers are necessarily small, 
as we are dealing with a matter where 
only a few examples can be cited; but 



the figures warn us against assuming 
that democratic tendencies are constant 
in their growth or that they are part of 
the development of modem civilization. 
Here are three great nations whose 
territories cover a large portion of 
Europe, whose vast populations, if 
judged by their achievements, have 
unquestionably, at least until recently, 
advanced, both intellectually and ma- 
terially, since the beginning of the 
fifteenth century, yet autocratic gover- 
nance has actually been growing. 

An answer, much more definite than 
this, to the whole question of the magni- 
tude and distribution of autocracies in 
European history is gained by an api^eal 
to all available instances from the 
eleventh century onward. A table con- 
taining such statistics is here given (see 
Table II). It shows two facts clearly. 
First, that as far as all autocrats are 
concerned there has been, in recent cen- 
turies, a decline in their nimibers, and, 
second, it shows that, as far as the 
greatest autocrats are concerned, the 
reverse process was in operation up to 
about the year 1600. Since that date, all 
autocrats, both great and small, have 
been losing ground. The figures form 
such a regular series that little doubt is 
left as to their significance. Compare the 
earlier and the later halves of the table. 
If the totals for the 100 greatest auto- 
crats be considered, the four centuries 
and a half prior to the year 1450 furnish, 
as compared with the subsequent 450 
years, autocrats in the ratio of 190.7 to 
96.4, or practically twice as many. 
From this the ratios change in an almost 
perfect gradation. For the first 50 auto- 
crats the ratios virtually balance, being 
63.5 to 62.8. For the first 40 we find 
more in the latter than in the earlier 
period. The ratios are 55.1 to 40.8. 
These rise for the first 30, being 44.4 to 
26.3, sink for the first 20, though they 
exceed the first 40, and in final con- 
firmation we find the highest ratio for 
the first 10 or greatest autocrats still on 
the same side of the balance, being 15.9 
to 8.6 in favor of the late period or right- 
hand half of the chart. In other words, 
compared with the 450 preceding years, 
the last 450 have produced nearly twice 



40 



The Journal of Heredity 



Tablk II. — Distribution of Royal Autocrats by Centuries. 



1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 



1st 10. 
2d 10 
3d 10 
4th 10 
5th 10 
6th 10 
7th 10 
8th 10 
9th 10 
10th 10 



1 




1 

1 

1 



1st 100 






1 
1 
1 
2 

1 
3 




2 
1 

2 


2 
1 
2 



10 






3 
2 
2 
2 
1 
5 
1 



16 



1 
2 
1 
1 
2 
2 
1 
5 
1 
2 



18 



4 
3 
4 

1 

1 

2 




15 



1 
1 
2 
1 

4 
2 
1 





12 



2 
2 
1 
1 
1 








1 

1 
3 
1 

2 


1 



Percentages of Autcx:rats among All Royal Rileks 



1st 10 7.7 

1st 20 7.7 

1st 30 7.7 

1st 40 7.7 

1st 50 7.7 

1st 100 30.8 



0.0 


0.0 


0.0 


1.8 


0.0 


10.0 


0.0 


5.4 


0.0 


15.0 





7.1 


5.9 


15.0 


7.7 


8.9 


11.7 


25.0 


12.8 


12.5 


52.9 


50.0 


41.0 


32.1 



7.0 
12.3 
19.3 
19.3 
21 1 
26.3 



1.9 
3.6 
7.3 
9.1 
9.1 
21.8 



4.1 
8.2 
10.2 
12.2 
14.3 
14.3 



2 

2 

4 

10 

12 

18 



as many autocrats of the first magni- 
tude. 

These are distinctively the autocrats 
who are associated with warfare, and so 
we see one reason perhaps why in 
recent centuries so much fighting has 
taken place. In our work, "Is War Di- 
minishing?" the conclusion reached by 
Mr. Baltzby and myself was that there is 
proof for a decline in the number of war 
years in the last two centuries, but 
that the evidence was not sufficient for 
a sound gencraUzation. That was for 
two reasons: First, because there was an 
increase from 1450 to 1600 and second, 
because the history of France and 
England, the only history that fur- 
nished data extending well into the past, 
did not sanction such a generalization. 
There was no general or constant de- 
cline in war-vears. The first four cen- 
turies showed no more war-years than 
the second. 

GRADUAL ELIMINATION OF AUTOCRACIES 

Although there has been no constant 
or gradual disappearance of war-years 
or of great autocrats as might be the 



case if these two dreaded things were 
being exterminated by the enlightening 
processes of education and civilization, 
there is nevertheless a way of looking 
at all the facts that presents an outlook 
not necessarily gloomy. The whole 
matter in a nutshell is this: There 
occurred during these nine hundred 
years one gigantic wave which reached 
its peak in the sixteenth century. The 
wave of autocracy corresponded with 
the wave of war, probably entirely, 
though a fragment of one of the curves 
is lacking or incomplete. We have no 
data for any early war periods (prior to 
1450) except for France and England, 
but the probability is that the other 
nations were not excessively engaged in 
war during the twelfth, thirteenth and 
fourteenth centuries. This is suggested 
from the fact that, although small auto- 
crats were niunerous in these various 
countries, very great autocrats were 
not, and furthermore it is known that the 
war-years in these countries increased 
from 1,450 to 1,600. Also the high 
average of French and English war-years 
culminated in the sixteenth century. 



Woods: Decline of Autocracy 



41 



Since this period, the downward slope 
of the wave has been marked for all 
degrees of autocracy. The reason why 
the second 450 vears shows more auto- 
crats of the greatest magnitude is 
because the sixteenth century falls in 
the second or modem portion. If we 
compare the last two centuries with 
the two preceding, we find the ratio- 
weights all heavier for the earlier period, 
as shown in the table 8.9 to 6.1 ; 15.9 to 
10.2 ; 26.6 to 14.2, and 28.4 to 22.2, as we 
descend from the ten greatest to the 
forty greatest of the dictators. This is 
substantiated by a comparison of the 
three recent centuries with the three pre- 
ceding, for again, the ratios are without 
exception heavier for the earlier period: 
8.8 to 8; 17.7 to 13.8; 26.4 to 21.5; 
35.9 to 31.3. Comparing these two 
sets of ratios, the conclusion is war- 
ranted that it is especially during the 
last two centimes that the decline in 
autocrats is noteworthy. 



These figures are much too consis- 
tent not to mean something very 
definite. Regard also the percentages 
for the distribution of all autocrats 
from the eleventh century to the nine- 
teenth. Omitting fractions, these per- 
centages run: 30, 52, 50, 41, 32, 26, 21, 
14, 18. From the twelfth century on- 
ward each figure is smaller than the 
one before, with a slight exception in 
that for the nineteenth century. 

Autocrats were proportionately most 
numerous in the twelfth and thirteenth 
centuries. Great autocrats reached the 
acme of their power in the sixteenth, as 
did also the gods of war. Perhaps it all 
may mean that we are at the bottom of 
a wave that will rise again, but if the 
records of recent generations are an indi- 
cation of forces that are destined to be 
continuous, then in a few generations 
to come, at least one of the concomitants 
of war, the great monarchical autocrats, 
will have ceased to function on this planet. 



New Eugenics Society in Hungary 



The Hungarian Commission for 
Race-Hygiene, founded in F'ebruary, 
1914, was reorganized in 1917 as the 
Hungarian Eugenics Society and is 
now publishing a bi-monthly journal 
called Ncmcctvcdclcm (Protection of 
the Race). A communication from its 
acting vice-president, Dr. Geza von 
Hoffmann, formerly Austro-Hungarian 
consul in Berlin and at one time a resi- 
dent of the United States, tells of the 
grpwing eugenic movement in Hungary. 



He states that the Hungarian govern- 
ment has been carrying on an active 
campaign for the increase of eugenic 
knowledge by means of pamphlets, pos- 
ters, placards, and popular lectures, 
both in civilian centers and in military 
establishments. 

"Much stress is laid upon the posi- 
tive side of the question," he observes, 
"i. c, the propagation of the fit. and 
no steps have yet been taken to cut off 
the propagation of the unfit." 




THE SPREAD OF ROSEN RYE' 

Frank A. Spragg 
Michigan Experiment Station, East Lansing 



IN 1909, the Michigan Agricultural 
College received a sample of pedi- 
greed rye from Russia. Since the 
Russian name of this rye was un- 
known, it was called Rosen rye, after 
J. A. Rosen, who sent it. Mr. Rosen 
was a Russian student who graduated 
from the Agricultural College in 1908. 

This sample was selected and tested 
by the Michigan Experiment Station, 
and 6 bushels of it were distributed in 
1912. As it was generally planted 
alongside of the common rye, only the 
offspring of one of these bushels could 
be continued as pedigreed rye, and this 
bushel was sent to Jackson County, 
Michigan. It was planted on an acre 
and yielded thirty-five bushels in 1913. 
Soon the whole countrvside aroimd 
Parma (in western Jackson County) 
and around Albion, in eastern Calhoun 
County, grew Rosen rye as a winter 
crop, and little or no wheat. Other 
counties took it up and, with the aid 
of an active cotmty agricultural agent, 
the new rye spread rapidly. St. Joseph 
County early became a prosperous 
Rosen rye center, having 3,500 acres 
in 1917, while Jackson County had 
2,000 acres, the whole state having 
about 15,000. 

It seemed to take three or four years 
for this new rye to attract the notice 
and the confidence that was needed for 
rapid advance. Since 1916, however, 
its spread in Michigan has been 
almost phenomenal. This has been 
due chiefly to the intrinsic merit of the 
grain, combined with the aid of the 
Michigan Crop Improvement Associa- 
tion in maintaining the quality and 
purity of the seed produced. 

Field inspection began in 1917 under 
the leadership of the association's 
secretary. Mr. J. W. Nicolson, East 



Lansing, Mich., and certified grain 
began to be sold to the farmers of other 
states as well as to Michigan farmers. 
As the result of this activity in war- 
time, when farmers were being urged 
to sow the best seed, approximately 
250,000 acres of Rosen rye were sown 
in Michigan in the fall of 1917. The 
trade also began to take notice of the 
new rye. It was quoted on the Detroit 
market that year, and carload lots 
began to be available for other states 
as well as in Michigan. 

HIGH YIELD AND INCREASED ACREAGE 

The inspectors of the Michigan Crop 
Improvement Association began work 
again in June, 1918, and during the 
following month passed about 1,000 
acres. This acreage produced 22.349 
bushels, a gcod yield when it is re- 
membered that most of it grew on 
sandy soil, and that a yield of 15 
bushels per acre was considered a high 
return before the Rosen rye was in- 
troduced. Again, under the stress of 
war conditions, the acreage was almost 
doubled in one year, as considerably 
over 400,000 acres in Michigan were 
sown to Rosen rye in the fall of 1918. 

Growing Rosen rye in Michigan is 
now so general that even the common 
rye is mixed with it. It is now difficult 
to find the old-fashioned common rye 
for class purposes, and the college 
may soon be compelled to grow common 
rye as a curiosity. About 85% of the 
rye acreage of Michigan is more or less 
pure Rosen. Of this, less than 1.5% 
is pedigreed. Much of it is nearly as 
good as the pedigreed, but lost to record 
under the association. 

The growing of Rosen rye in other 
states began commercially as early as 
there was a supply. It has gone from 



' A detailed account of Rosen rye by Mr. Spragg appeared in the Journal of Heredity for 
December. 1918 (Vol. ix, No. 8).— En. 

42 



1919. 




SHOWING NUMBER OP BUSHELS OF PEDIGREED ROSEN RYE SOLD AS SEED 
FROM MICHIGAN 

The upper map indicates thenumber of bushels sold in 1918. and the lower map shows the fig- 
ures for 1919. First introduced in Michigan in 1909, this rye had its first extension into other 
states in 1917. The rapid advance from 1918 indicates that its superiority over ' 
rye is quickly recognized. (Fig. 19.) 



44 



The Journal of Heredity 



farm to farm across the state line into 
Indiana and Ohio, until the upper 
two rows of counties in Indiana have as 
much Rosen rye as the southern row of 
counties in Michigan. When carloads 
began to be available in 1917. the trade 
grew rapidly, increasing steadily since 
that year, and now several elevators 
and seed firms in Michigan count their 
sales of Rosen rve for seed in dozens of 
carloads. Much of this seed is pur- 
chased in sections w^here the rye is 
resonably pure, but, unfortunately, 
comparatively few people seem to 
realize the fact that rye cross-fertilizes. 
A great deal of rye that is now sold 
as Rosen is very badly mixed. The 
results obtained with this commercial 
seed are frequently not equal to those 
obtained by the use of seed inspected 
in the field and bin by the Michigan 
Crop Improvement Association, which 
cooperates with the College in main- 
taining very high standards of purity. 

ALREADY COMMERCIALLY IMPORTANT 

The extension of pedigree Rosen 
rye into other states began in 1917, 
when the inspection work began, but 
the sales made by the members of 
the assodation were imperfectly re- 
ported that year. For that reason 
exact figures are unobtainable. How- 
ever, a fair proportion of these sales 
have been reported in 1918 and 1919. 
One outline map, Fig. 19, shows the 
sales by states in 1918, and another 
shows the corresponding figures for 
1919 as far as they are reported to 
date. But, as indicated above, this 



is a very small portion of the seed sold 
as Rosen, as the commercial trade has 
assumed vast proportions. The pedi- 
greed seed, however, is the only seed of 
guaranteed purity, and is therefore the 
basis upon which this or other states 
must base opinion regarding the value 
of Rosen rye. 

The figures on the two maps should 
be carefullv studied, so as not to be 
misinterpreted. In 1918 Illinois and 
Indiana were the largest purchasers of 
pedigreed Rosen rye outside of Michigan 
yet it is probable that Michigan bought 
more y^edigreed Rosen seed than all 
other states combined. In 1919, Michi- 
gan farmers bought less pedigreed Rosen 
seed than certain other states. The 
State of Washington, bought almost 
twice as much pedigreed Rosen seed 
as Michigan itself did. To explain 
these facts one must remember that 
pedigreed or high-grade Rosen is quite 
generally in the hands of Michigan 
farmers. They are simply planting 
their own seed. It is onlv the few who 
w4sh to replace their mixed seed with 
the pedigreed that are now buying 
the pedigreed seed in Michigan. 

Several states have obtained pedi- 
greed seed for two previous years and 
should be growing quantities of pure 
Rosen rye, but we have no record at 
present. A report comes from Minne- 
sota, w^here a man purchased the pedi- 
greed Rosen seed from Michigan in 
1918 and sold 3,000 bushels for seed in 
1919. Others can do likewise. It is 
the more distant states, where a smaller 
supply is available, that are purchasing 
increased amounts. 




A Genetic Association in Italy 



45 



A Genetic Association in Italy 



Leading Italian men of science have 
united in the **ItaHan Society of Ge- 
netics and Eugenics," whose object is 
**to promote and support all researches 
and movements tending to increasing 
knowledge of the laws of heredity and 
the improvement of races, with special 
regard to the human race." 

Dr. Ernest Pestalozza is president 
of the organization and Dr. Caesar 
Artom secretary. The headquarters 
are at the Municipal Zoological Garden, 
Villa Umherto I, Rome. 

Control of the society is placed by 
the by-laws in the hands of fifteen 
delegates, to he chosen equally from 
the biological, medical and social 
sciences. 

One of the society's hrst efforts is to 
prevent racial hybridization. It has 
sent out a letter to various organizations 
such as the American Genetic Associa- 
tion, which reads: 

**The directing council of the Italian 
Society of Genetics and Eugenics has 
adopted the following proposal of Pro- 
fessor Dr. V. Giuffrida-Ruggieri. pro- 



fessor of anthropology in the Royal 
University at Naples. 

" *With the victorious termination of 
the world war, the powers of the 
entente find themselves more closelv 
than in the past, in contact with the 
African world. It would therefore be 
opportune for the various eugenic 
societies to cooperate by bringing to the 
attention of the governments of their 
respective countries the desirability, 
where it has not alreadv been done, 
of securing legislation to prevent mar- 
riage between Europeans and members 
of the African races. Marriage should 
be permitted only with Africans of the 
Mediterranean race (Berbers, Egypt- 
ians) and Arabs who are not negroes. 
Such a prohibition ought to extend to 
all the half-breed populations scattered 
over the African continent.' 

"The intention of the proposal would 
be to prevent the .increase of a mixed 
European- African race, which appears 
to be undesirable from various points 
of view.'* 



The Intelligence of the Negro 



Applying a group scale of intelligence 
to the colored school children in two 
small Indiana cities, S. L. Pressey and 
G. F. Teter conclude that they show 
less intelligence than white children in 
the same cities. Their study is pub- 
lished in the Journal of Applied 
Psychology, Sept., 1919. 

Reviewing previous work in this field, 
the writers say: **Colored school chil- 
dren show a greater school retardation, 
less acceleration, and average older for 
a given grade, than do white children. 
There is some evidence to show that, 
grade for grade, they do poorer school 
work. Negro children give ratings, 
when tested by the Binet and Point 
scales, averaging below white children. 
Measurements of special abilities have 
shown the colored children to do well 
in tests of the more simple processes 
(as cancellation, rote memory) and 
most poorly with tests of the more com- 
plex abilities (as opposites, analogies, 
sentence completion). There is some 



evidence that colored children have 
more active imaginations and more 
ready associations of an uncontrolled 
type than do white children." 

.Discussing their own results, the 
writers point out that among the colored 
children "a poor average ability seems 
unmistakably indicated," which not 
only leads the colored children to be 
retarded in school, as compared with 
whites of the same age, but leads them 
even in the retarded classes to do poorer 
work than whites in the same classes. 

Is this not perhaps due to some 
special defect, rather than to general 
inferiority? Apparently not; "the 
colored children show poorer ability 
than the whites on every test." There 
is the definite suggestion "of a more 
elementary and less highly developed 
ability among colored children"; but 
the writers believe "that the important 
racial difference may be, after all. 
emotional and temperamental." 



A HILL OF DASHEENS WKIGHING ELEVEN POUNDS 

Each hill of dasheens yields one or more large corms, like the two shown above, and a number 
of connels, or lateral "tubers;" all are edible. The corms are espeeially delicious when baited 
and eaten immediately upon being taken from the oven. (Fig. 21.) 



DASHEEN EN CASSEROLE 

This is one of the many delicious dishes made from the dasheen. The vegetable is prepared, 
with slight modiiication, in all the ways in which potatoes are used, and some brides. It 
makes an especially excellent filling for fowl. (Fig. 22.) 



A NEW DAHLIA OF INTEREST 



TO PLANT BREEDERS 



W- K. S AFFORD, of the Bureau 
of IMant Industry, has pub- 
. lished ill a recent issue of the 
Journal of the Washington 
Academy of Sciences (July 19, 1919), 
descriptions of two new dahlias from 
Guatemala, one of which, D. popcnovii, ^ 
should be of more than ordinary in- 
terest to plant breeders who are work- 
ing with this genus. According to Mr. 
Safford, this species is probably an 
ancestor of the cactus-flowered dahlias, 
a group derived from Dahlia juarezii. 
The latter species is a hybrid, supposed 
to have originated naturally in Central 
America through the crossing of D. pop- 
enovii and some other species. 

Mr. Safford, who is at work on a 
revision of the cultivated dahlias with 
a view to determining their botanical 
relationships, w rites : 

"In nearly all the monographs on the 
genus Dahlia hitherto published, the 
different varieties have been grouped 
from the horticulturalist's point of view^ 
according to the forms of the flowers, 
under such headings as 'single, duplex, 
anemone-flow^ered, collarette, pompon, 
fancy, decorative, peony-flowered, and 
cactus dahlias,' without identifying the 
single-flowered forms with botanical 
species (except periiaps in Dahlia 
coccinea and Dahlia impcrialis) or at- 
tempting to connect the 'duplex' and 
double forms with their primitive single 
ancestors. It is very probable that the 
types upon which several species have 
been based were hybrid plants. Dahlia 
pinnata itself, the' type of the genus, 
was probably a hybrid. In the Index 



Kewensis its name is discarded as a 
synonym for the subsequently described 
D. vanabilis. In the same way the 
handsome Dahlia juarezii with large 
double heads composed of strap-shaped 
florets having their edges turning back- 
ward, in sharp distinction to the 
involute or quilled fleets of the artifi- 
cial-looking 'pompon dahlias' and the 
broad, flat-rayed heads of the *century' 
type of modern catalogues, is also to 
be regarded as a hybrid. Dahlias with 
flowers identical in form with the type 
of Dahlia juarezii, the ancestor from 
w^hich the 'cactus dahlias' of our gar- 
dens have sprung, are no longer called 
'cactus dahlias' by si)ecialists, but 
'cactus hybrids.' One of the ancestors 
of Dahlia juarezii must have been a 
single-flowered species, with eight 
revolute ray-florets. Such a plant has 
recently been discovered in the moun- 
tains of Guatemala." 

Mr. Saflford describes this species, 
D. popenovii, as a plant about one meter 
high, with slender, purplish stems, the 
leaves simply pinnate (except perhaps 
the lower ones), and the flower-heads 
about 3 inches broad with eight slender, 
revolute ray florets, bright scarlet or 
cardinal in color. It differs from the 
closely allied Dahlia coccinea in the 
shape of the ray florets and the scales, 
and in the character of its leaves. 

This new dahlia is being propagated 
by the Office of the Foreign Seed and 
Plant Introduction of the Bureau of 
Plant Industry, by which it was intro- 
duced from Guatemela. 



48 



The 



Journal of Heredity 

(Formerly tke American Breeders* Magazine) 



Vol. XI, No. 2 February, 1920 



( ONTKNTS 

The Water BufTalo — A Tropical Source of Butter Fat, by C. O. Levine 51 

Heritable Characters of Maia^e — II. PiatUlate Flowered Maize 

Plants, by R. A. Emerson 65 

Eugenics and Other Sciences, by Frederick Adams Woods 77 

The Death of Richard Semon 78 

A Discussion of Popenoe and Johnson's ^^Applied Eugenics," and 

the Question of Heredity vs. Environment 80 

Variation of the Palm Weevil, and The Meaning of Continuous Vari- 
ation in Color 84 

Measuring Intelligence 86 

The Development of Useful Citizenship, by Hilda H. Noyes 88 

A Mutating Blackberry-Dewberry Hybrid, by L. R. Detjen 92 

An Award of Honor to Walter Van Fleet 95 



The Journal of Heredity is published monthly by the American Genetic Associa- 
tion (formerly called the American Breeders' Association) for the benefit of *its 
members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should send 25 cents a year, 
in addition to their regular membership dues of $2.00, because of additional postage 
on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same reason. Sub- 
scription price to non-members, $2.00 a year, foreign postage extra; price of single 
copies, 25 cents. 

Entered as second-class matter February 24, 1915, at the postoffice at Washing- 
ton, D. C, imder the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1920 by the 
American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles per- 
mitted, upon request, for a proper purpose, and provided due credit is given to 
author and to the Journal of Heredity (Organ of the American Gertetic Associa- 
tion), Washington, D. C. 

Date of issue of this number, March 26, 1920. 



THE WATER BUFFALO -A 

TROPICAL SOURCE OF BUTTER FAT 

C. O. Levine 
dissociate Professor of Animal Husbandry, Canton Christian Collaic 



THE water bufTalo (Bubalus 
bubalis) is found in all parts of 
China as far north as Shan^jhai. 
It is most common in regions 
where lowland rice is the main crop 
grown by the farmers, where it ihids 
its chief use as a draught animal in the 
wet paddy fields. The estimated com- 
mon weight of the water bulYalo in 
China is about 800 to 1.200 pounds. 
Measurements, made by the writer, of 
twelve cows kept on the college farm 
have given an average height of 49 
inches at the withers. 

Like the pig, the water buffalo has 
few sweat glands in its skin, and for 
this reason cannot endure hard work 
in the sun for a long period, unless its 
l)ody is wet with water. This accounts 
for the desire of the buffalo to wallow 
in mud or water. The animals are 
^•asily overcome by heat if worked hard 
in the sun. and sometimes they go crazy 
and l)ecome very dangerous. Not in- 
frequentlv such an animal has to be 
killed. 

However, animals kept only for milk 
production, and not required for any 
work do not necessarily re(iuirc a wa- 
ter hole for comfort. This is cspe- 
ciallv true of the dairy breeds of 
buffalo of India. 

As a rule, the water buffalo is a gen- 
tle anim«il— toward Orientals. Imuo- 
peans usually find this animal difficult 
to manage, and all attempts by luuo- 
])eans to raise the buffalo have failed, 
except in Italy and some other places 
in southern Europe, where it has b(»en 
raised for centuries. The dairy water 
buffalo of northern India, however, 
although of immense size and fierce 
lr)oks, is very gentle and can be han- 



dled by Europeans as well as by na- 
tives of that region. 

The horns of the (Hiinese butTalo are 
peculiar in shape. They are large and 
much flattened, or somewhat triangular 
at the base, deeply grooved on the up- 
j)er surface, directed out and back from 
the head and linally curving inward. 
The length, measured on the outside 
curve of the horn, is usuallv a little 
more than two feet, in walking, the 
buffalo carries its head .so that the face 
is almo.st level with the back, its tail 
is short, reaching to the hocks. Its 
skin is a grey-black, very thinly cov- 
ered with grey-black hair, and has 
practically no oil or sweat glands. Dean 
l>ailey, in his Cyclopedia of Agricul- 
ture. Vol. HI, calls attention to the 
fact that the color of the water buf- 
falo is not unlike that of the elephant, 
and that their motions are similar The 
resemblance between these two animals 
is so similar that a casual view of a 
moving herd of buffalos suggests a 
roving band of elephants. 

OMSTRTS, GESTATION. WEIGHT OF CALVES 
AT lUKTIl, AND AGE OF USEFULNESS 

Oestrus in the female buffalo 
does not occur as a rule until the age 
of two vears. It occurs one month 
after parturition, and recurs regularly 
everv 28 to 30 davs until the animal 
again becomes pregnant. 

Definite records on the exact length 
of the gestation period have been 
secured only with two cows at Canton 
C'hristian College. In one case it was 
310 days, and in the other 314 days. 

Three calves, from cows in the col- 
lege dairy, weighed, soon after birth 

51 



54 



The Journal of Heredity 



and before they had taken any focxl, 
an average of 67 pounds. Their 
weights were 64. 70. and 67 pounds. 
In order to secure a long lactation 
period and the ♦ maximum amount of 
milk, buiTalo cows kept for milk are 
usually not bred until three or four 
months after freshening. Although 
the ordinary bufTalo of China gives but 
a small amount of milk, it is extremely 
rich in fat, and lactation periods of 
twelve months are common. The cows 
are considered profitable for dairy pur- 
poses until they are about 15 years old. 

TO TELL THE AGE OF BUFFALO 

The age of a buffalo is indicated quite 
accurately by the teeth, up to a certain 
number of years, similar to the way it is 
indicated in European cattle. Like 
other members of the bovine group, 
the buffalo has no teeth in the front of 
the upper jaw. The calf is usually born 



Note by David Fairchild: 

It may be interesting in this connection to 
quote here from a letter which I wrote in 
Poona, India, in 1901 to the Hon. James 
Wilson, then Secretary of Agriculture, re- 
garding the Indian breeds of milch wateir 
buffalos which are mentioned by Mr. Levine 
in this article. The possibilities of utilizing 
these milch breeds in the Philippines so 
appealed to Mr. Wilson that he ordered the 
letter published, together with others regard- 
ing plants, as Bulletin No. 21, Bureau of 
Plant Industry, 1902. In this letter the fol- 
lowing facts were reported : 

"The carabao or water buffalo (Bubalui 
buhalis, Lyd.) is a well-known object in 
Manila, and its use as a beast of burden 
thoroughly understood, but, so far as I am 
aware, little attention has been paid to it 
as a milk producer. 

"Unthinking prejudice, which prevents us 
from eating many excellent things, may play 
the same role in Manila that it does in 
Ceylon, and forbid the employment of buf- 
falo milk If this is so it is a great pity, 
for there is a race of water buffalos which 
come from Delhi, India, that gives over 30 
pounds of milk per day, while the best Sind 
cattle give only 18, and this buffalo milk is 
so rich in fat that 12 to 13 pounds of it 
make a pound of butter, whereas 20 pounds 
of milk of a Sind cow are required. 

"These Delhi buffalos are easier to keep, 
less expensive, and cleaner (having almost 
no hair) than ordinarv cattle. They sell for 
about 180 rupees, or $56 in gold, in Bombay, 



with six temporary teeth in the front 
of the lower jaw. Two more appear 
a few weeks later. At about three 
years of age the middle pair of the 
temporary teeth are replaced by two 
permanent teeth. When four years 
old. the ones on either side of the first 
pair are up and in use. At five the 
next teeth on either side of the fourth- 
year teeth are up, and at six the corner 
teeth are up and in wear. The age of 
animals more than six years old is 
roughly estimated by the appearance of 
the wearing surface of the teeth in the 
front of the lower jaw. In the younger 
animals the teeth have a sharp outer 
edge, the wearing surfaces slope in- 
ward, and the teeth are somewhat an- 
gular. As the animals grow older the 
sharp edges of the teeth wear down, the 
wearing surface becoming more flat and 
the teeth more round. After eight to 
ten years the enamel has worn away 



and can be bought at Dawans, the buffalo 
market, near Grant Road Station, but could 
be best secured by applying to Mr. Mollison. 
Director-General of Agriculture for India, 
at Poona, who could probably be prevailed 
upon to arrange to have good specimens 
picked out. 

"In general, the animals are priced accord- 
ing to the amount of milk they give, 10 
rupees being added to the price for every 
two additional pounds of milk given per 
day. 

"Another good variety of milch buffalo 
is that from Gujarat, called the Surti. It 
yields only about 20 pounds of milk per 
day, and is sold at from ^3 to $36 gold. 
The« cost of keeping this variety per day 
amounts at Poona to only 16 cents cold, and 
it is considered the most economical race by 
Mr. Kelkar. the foreman in charge of the 
college herd. According to him. a dairy 
should have both buffalos and Sind cattle. 
The buffalos arc better for butter produc- 
tion, and the cattle are superior for milk 
purposes, because the milk fetches a better 
price, being, in fact, much preferred to that 
of the buffalos, which has a bluish color and 
a slight, though not disagreeable, odor. 

"Both the buffalos from Delhi and Gujara* 
and the .Sind cattle are well worth introduc- 
ing into the Philippines. The buffalos should 
be tested for butter making, though they cost 
more to feed than the Sind cattle, which 
latter will prove, however, especially useful 
for milk." 



INDIAN AND CHINESE BUFFALO BULLS 

A "Ram's Horn" buffalo bull (the name coming from its spiral horns) is shown on the left. 
These buffalos arc from the region of Delhi, India, and are much larger than the Chinese 
animals. The percentage of fat in the cows' milk is about the same, however. The animal 
on the right is a Chinese buffalo bull. iFig. 3.) 



tt is called the JafTarabad breed, and is not one of the good milch breeds, being too large ir 
size and a poor milker. Photograph by David Fairchild, Feb., 1902. {Fig. 4.) 



56 



The Joiimal of Heredity 



and yellow centers show on the wear- 
ing surface of each tooth. 

USES OF THE WATER BUFFALO 

Although in the past the principal 
lise of the water buffalo in China has 
been for draught purposes in the rice 
fields, during recent years an increasing 
number are being used for dairy pur- 
poses. When the usefulness of the 
animals for work or dairy purposes is 
past, they are slaughtered for beef. 

CHARACTER OF BUFFALO MILK 

The milk of the water buffalo is pure 
white in color. Butter made from the 
milk is also pure white. It is whole- 
some and palatable when produced 
under sanitary conditions. Students 
and teachers (both Europeans and 
Chinese) at the Canton Christian 
College, prefer drinking buffalo milk to 
European cow's milk. The objection- 
able flavor often found associated with 
buffalo milk is usually due to the pro- 
duction of the milk under unsanitary 
conditions which generally prevail in 
most village dairies. 

MILK Analysis and records 

The following tables give the analy- 
sis of milk and production records of 
cows for which we have records ex- 
tending over a period of several months, 
or for entire lactation periods. 

Butter fat analyses of the ijiilk from 
each cow were made twice a month with 
a Babcock centrifugal tester. The milk 
for 24 hours was weighed twice a 
month. The average of the two tests 
was taken as the average test for the 
month. 

The total solids (consisting of the 
fat, sugar, proteids and ash) were 
found by evaporating a weighed sam- 
ple of milk in a steam bath until the 
weight became constant. The ash was 
determined by heating in a crucible 
over a gas flame until the weight be- 
came constant. The proteids were de- 
termined by the Kjeldahl method as 
described by Hawk in his "Practical 
and Physiological Chemistry," 4th 



edition, pages 438 and 401. The sugar 
was found by subtracting the sum of 
the ash, proteids, and fat from the total 
solids. The percentages in each case 
were found by dividing the weight of 
the final product by the weight of the 
sample of milk analyzed. Analyses and 
records of buffalo milk are all from 
cows in the college dairy. 

The buffalo cows were fed a grain 
ration consisting of two pounds wheat 
bran and one pound rice chop. Each 
cow was fed about a pound of this 
mixed feed a day for each pound of 
milk given daily. The rice chop was 
fed cooked (the Chinese always feed 
cooked rice cho[ to live stock, never un- 
cooked). The grain was fed sepa- 
rately to each cow twice a day. About 
one and one-half ounces of salt were 
fed daily to the cows. The salt was 
mixed with the grain. About 40 pounds 
of water * were mixed with the rice 
chop and bran at each feeding, making 
a very wet feed, the cows drinking it 
down rather than eating it. (This is 
the usual method of feeding grain to 
cattle by the Chinese.) The cows were 
fed all they could consume, four times a 
day, of a mixture of green cut grass, 
which amounted to from 40 to 60 
pounds a day per cow. 

COMMON DISEASES O^ CATTLE AND 

BUFFALO 

Rinderpest. — Among cattle and buf- 
falo the most common disease is rinder- 
pest, called by the farmers "ngau wan." 
It is contagious. This disease causes a 
loss of millions of dollars every year in 
China, as it did in the Philippines be.- 
fore compulsory vaccination of cattle 
with anti-rinderpest serum was adopted 
by the government of the Islands. The 
disease is somewhat like the chronic 
form of hog cholera, in that it is usually 
accompanied with fever and causes 
lesions on the inner lining of the in- 
testines. It is not as fatal, however, 
as cholera is among hogs. 

Tick Fever, — Tick fever, commonlv 
known in the United States as Texas 
fever, after the region in which it is 



A DELHI MILCH WATER BUFFALO 

This Indian buffalo tow has given over 30 pounds of milk [kt day. Thirteen pounds of buffalo 
milk yield one pound of butter, whereas it requires 25 pounds of ordinary cow s miik to yield the 
same amount. In Poona, India, these milch carabaos arc sold according to their milk yield, 10 
rupees being added for each two pounds of increase in yield of milk. Only eight pounds of 
milk of the Chinese water buffalo are necessary to produce one pound of butter fat. The Indian 
buffalo produces twice as much fat per pound as do ordinary cows, and the Chinese buffalo pro- 
duces over three times as much. Photograph bv David Fairchild, Poona, India, Feb., 1902. 
(Pig. 5.) 



till 

""a I 



Si 

m 



i 






ll!.t 



1lll 



1151 



■a.i s-fl 



FSIil 



AN INDIAN "RAM'S HORN" BUFFALO BULL 

The "Ram's Horn" buffalos come from the region of Delhi, India, and differfrom the Chinese 
buffalos. They are being imported in large numbers for dair>' purposes in the Philippine 
Islands. In milk and butter fat production they rank with the best breeds. (Fig. 6.) 



Stein cows. This dairy has from 600 to 
900 cows of dairy breeds, but no water 
bufFalo. 

INDIAN DAIRY BUFFALOS 

At Kowlooii, Hongkong, there 
is a herd of about 20 Indian 
buffalo cows managed by Indiana. 
The buffalos in this herd havft 
been imported from the region of Delhi, 
in the northern part of India. These 
buffalos arc different from the Chinese 
buffalos, being much larger, some of 
tliem 5 feet tall at the withers. They 
have large spiral horns, and for this 
reason they are known as the "Ram's 
Horn" buffalo in the Philippine Islands, 
where they are being imported in large 
numbers for dairy purposes. The 
milk, according to Dr. Gibson, the co- 
lonial veterinarian of Hongkong, con- 
tains about the same per cent of fat 
as the Chinese buffalo milk. They are 
said to give up to 60 pounds of milk 
a day in India when on good feed. 
At the Indian dairy in Kowloon, when 
visited by the writer in January, 1919, 
the average production for twenty 

60 



cows, then producing milk, was about 
15 pounds. The feed at that time con- 
sisted of dry rice straw for roughage, 
and a little cooked rice chop and wheat 
bran. The cows were crowded into a 
dark, poorly ventilated, and dirty barn, 
and were very filthy. It is the writer's 
opinion that with proper care and feed, 
the production of the cows in this herd 
could easily be doubled. The cows have 
a well developed mammary system with 
large teats. 

THE BUFFALO COW AS A DAIRY ANIMAL 

There are a number of com- 
mendable features in the use of the 
buffalo cow as a dairy animal. The 
amount of milk in the better buffalo 
cows of China (see production tables) 
is not insignificant when we consider 
that there has been no breeding for pro- 
duction. Ordinary cows give more than 
2.000 pounrl.s of milk and 260 pound'; 
of fat a year. The "Ram's Horn" 
buffalo from India rank with the best 
breeds of viodern dairy cattle in produc- 
tion of both milk and bull^ fat. The 
fact that the buffalo has practically no 



WATER BUFFALOS TAKING THEIR "TWICE-A-DA\" 

"Buffalo cows ntcd a bath twice a (iay in order to keep at llieir l>est," although animals 
which are kept for dairv purjioses only liave appeared to do equally well with less frequent 
bathing. Animals used for draught purposes cannot work long in the sun without having 
their todies frequently wet with water. This is due to the alsenee of sweat glands in the 
skin. (Fig. 7.) 



TWO CHINESE WATER BUFFALO COWS AND THEIR CALVES 

Not« that, while the n 



62 



The Journal of Heredity 



sweat or oil glands in the skin makes 
it an easy animal to feeep clean. The 
scant hair on the body affords a poor 
hiding place for lice, so that they can 
easily be detected and eradicated. The 
absence of tuberculosis among buffalos, 
and their resistance to the tick fever, 
adds much to their value as dairy cows. 
The breeding of the native buffalo of 
China for milk production, and the im- 
portation of Indian dairy buffalos 
should be encouraged in every way pos- 
sible, rather than the importation of 
European cows to China, because of 
the danger from tuberculosis in the 
latter. 

OBJECTIONS TO THE BUFFALO FOR 
DAIRY PURPOSES 

The chief reason why so few buffalo 
cows are used for dairy purposes in 
China is no doubt due to the fact that 



they give but little milk, and that, while 
the milk contains about three and one- 
half times as much fat and nearly twice 
as much total solids as does European 
cow's milk, it usually sells for the same 
price. However, as soon as the public 
knows the value of buffalo milk it 
should command a much higher price 
than it does at present. Cows which 
have not been especially bred for milk 
production, but were simply selected 
from ordinary buffalo cows, produce 
as much as 10 pounds of milk a day for 
several months. This fact indicates 
that individual cows, giving a much 
larger amount of milk, may be secured 
in a few generations of selection and 
breeding for dairy purposes. 

Some authorities claim that buffalo 
cows need a bath twice a day in order 
to be kept at their best. It is the cus- 
tom for animals to be driven to canals 



Table IV. — Analyses of Canton Buffalo Milk and European Cow's Milk Compared. 

(The per cent of fat represents the average of about 800 analyses, and the per cent of the other 
constituents represents the average of 10 analyses made by the writer.) 



Canton BuflPalo ^^F^P^?, ^^J^'^ 

milk, per cent "^^^^J^? ,^f °"' 
* *^ per cent 



Fat 

Proteids . 
Sugar. . . 
Ash 



Total solids (including the fat, ash, pro- 
teids and sugar) 

Water 



12.60 

6.03 

3.74 

.89 

23.11 
76.89 



3.80 

3.35 

5.63 

.82 

13.89 
86.11 



European cow's 
milk in America, 
per cent* 



3.69 

3.53 

4.88 

.73 

12.83 
87.17 



4 

Table V. — Analysis of Buffalo Milk in Southern China Compared with That in Other Countries 



Southern China 
per cent 



Fat.... 
Protein 
Sugar. . 
Ash.... 
Water. . 



India* 
per cent 



Philippine'^ 
Islands J* 
per cent 




Italy* 
per cent 



7.99 

4.13 

4.75 

.97 

82.16 



> From Wing: "Milk and Its Products." p. 17. 

', * from Bailey's Cyclopedia of Agriculture, Vol. iii, page 295. 

• Philippine Agriculturalist and Forester, Vol. vi, December, 1917, page 110. 



Levine: The Water Buffalo 



63 



or ponds, places which are not always 
clean, for this purpose. To overcome 
this objection, tanks might be con- 
structed in which clean water could l^e 
kept for their bath, or they may be 
washed by pouring clean water over 
them with buckets, or with a hose 
where w^ater pressure can be secured. 
However, animals kept for dairy pur- 
poses only, seem to do just as well on 
very infrequent bathing, or no bath- 
ing at all. 

FUTURE OF THE WATER BUFFALO IN 

DAIRYING 

In India the water buffalo is the 
chief source of milk, although it is com- 
peting not only with good native breeds 
of the "humped** variety, but also with 
all the modern breeds of European 
dairy cattle. 

It is the opinion of the writer that 
the water buffalo must become the lead- 
ing dairy animal in the southern half 
of China, and an important source of 
milk for the four hundred million 
people of that land. Unlike the In- 
dians, the Chinese in the past have not 
been users of milk, but are rapidly tak- 
ing up the use of this beverage through 
the example set by Europeans in China. 

With a few generations of intelligent 
selection and breeding among the water 
buffalos of China, there will be de- 
veloped a dairy breed of high produc- 
ing ability, especially in butter fat. 
The possibility of this is shown in the 
work at the Canton Christian College 
by the fact that with no breeding or 
selection whatever, cows from an or- 
dinary village herd, whose ancestors 
had never been milked, gave more than 
2,000 pounds of milk containing as 
much as 270 pounds of fat in less than 
a year. The Indian dairy breeds will 
also be imported into China 

The history of both the dairy and 
beef breeds of European cattle in most 
parts of the Philippine Islands has been 
but little more than keen disappoint- 
ment and failure. The climate and 
diseases of the islands are such that 
European cattle quickly succumb to 
diseases or degenerate from generation 



to generation. The last legislature of 
the Philippine Islands appropriated a 
large sum of money for the improve- 
ment of Hve-stock in the islands. Not 
any of this money is being used for the 
importation of breeding stock of Euro- 
pean breeds of cattle. On the other 
hand the sum of 200,000 pesos ($100,- 
000 U. S. currency) is being used for 
the importation of the Delhi dairy buf- 
falo from India. 

It is difficult to prophesy as to the 
future of the water buffalo in the 
United States — if it is to have a future 
in this country. There is no doubt that 
the buffalo will thrive in most parts of 
the South, as far north as the southern 
part of Oklahoma. Most region^ 
farther north will probably prove to be 
too cold. The swamps and marshes of 
Florida, Mississippi, and Louisiana 
should be especially adapted to water 
buffalo production. 

The fact that buffalo is free from 
tuberculosis, as well as an excellent pro- 
ducer of milk and butter fat, may 
result in an attempt at its introduction 
in the southern part of the United 
States. The development of dairy buf- 
falo production in this country will help 
meet the increasing shortage of milk 
and butter fat supply from animals 
absolutely free from tuberculosis. Also, 
large areas of swampy land which can- 
not be drained but which supply 
abundant grasses on which the wateV 
buffalo will no doubt thrive, will be 
rendered productive. However, ex- 
treme care will be necessary to prevent 
introducing with the animals the 
diseases which have not yet found a 
footing in this country. Further care- 
ful study of the water buffalo should 
be made in its native land in order that 
we may become more acquainted with 
this class of bovine before the attempt 
is made to raise buffalo in America. 

REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Levine and Cadbury: "A Study of Milk 
Produced in Kwangtung," Canton Christian 
College, Bui. No. 18, 1917. 

Levine: "Notes on Farm Animals and 
Animal Industries of China." Canton Chris- 
tian College Bui. No. 23, 1919, pp. 35-53. 



64 



The Journal of Heredity 



King: "Farmers of Forty Centuries." 
Pp. 145, 149, 150, 336. 

Baldrey: "Indigenous Catttle in Rajpu- 
tana." Pp. 9, 15, 22, 26, 29. 75. 80. 

Bailey: Cyclopedia of American Agricul- 
ture, Vol. iii, p. 292. 

Pease: "Breeds of Cattle Punjab." Pp. 
32, 73, 75, 80. 

Levine: "Dairying in South China." 
Hoard's Dairyman, July 14, 1917. 

Fairchild : Philippine Agricultural Reznew. 
Vol. iv, p. 486. 



Fairchild: "Breeds of Milch Cattle and 
Carabaos for the Philippine Islands." Bui. 
No. 27, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. 
De«partment of Agriculture, 1902. 

Pearson: "Notes on Dairymg in Cali- 
fornia, and Export of California Butter to 
the Orient." Annual Report Bureau of Ani- 
mal Industry, U. S. Dept. Agri., 1899. 

Mendoza: Philippine Agriculturalist and 
Forester, Vol. vi, December, 1917, p. 134. 

Logan : China Medical Journal, Vol. xxvi. 
p. 134. 

Wing: "Milk and Its Products," p. 17. 



To Increase the Birth Rate 



Changes in taxation, and an insur- 
ance plan for parents, as methods of 
increasing Germany's present low birth- 
rate, are discussed bv Wilhelm Schall- 
maver in Die Umscliau (Nos. 32 and 
33,' 1919). 

He properly condemns present income 
taxes that fail to make any allowance 
(as is apparently the case in Germany) 
or that make an inadequate allowance 
(as in the United States) for the pres- 
ence of children in a family. He cites 
with approval the proposal of Max von 
Grubin, the Munich hygienist, w-ho pro- 
poses that parents shall not be allowed 
to bequeath their entire estate to their 
children unless the latter number at 
least four. Schallmayer and von 
Grubin believe that many well-to-do 
parents restrain the size of their family 
in order that they may bequeath a com- 
petence to each child, and they would 
^e the parents an incentive to have at 
least four children. If they have only 
two or three, for instance, the proposed 
law would allow these to inherit only 
one-half or three- fourths of the estate, 
to all of which they are entitled under 
the present law. The undistributed 
surplus would be distributed, in von 
Grubin's plan, to collateral relatives in 
proportion to the size of their families ; 
and in Schallmayer's plan one-half to 



the collaterals and one-half to the state 
lor eugenic purix)ses. 

Moreover, says Dr. Schallmayer, the 
cost of the offspring should be borne by 
the state, through the establishment 
of a state parenthood insurance bureau, 
to which all persons of either sex would 
be admitted, premiums to be based on 
income. A stipulated benefit would be 
paid on the birth of each child, up to a 
limited number, this proviso apparently 
being to keep poor stock from prolifer- 
ating unduly in order to get tonuses. 

The author i>oints out that a large 
part of the excessive infant mortality is 
due to carelessness, and in order to dis- 
courage sudi carelessness he would re- 
fuse to pay for a child until it has 
passed its first birthday. 

He declares that steps must be taken 
to keep the racial contribution of each 
section of the population proportionate, 
in order to keep the inferiors from out- 
breeding the superiors. It is unfor- 
tunate that he fails to outline effective 
steps to this end, since this is in many 
ways the most important part of the 
plan and the point where most authors 
of similar plans have stopped short. 

In conclusion Dr. Schallmayer 
soundly says that the only real insur- 
ance of a properly distributed birth- 
rate is the spread of a "eugenic con- 
science" in the population. 



HERITABLE CHARACTERS OF MAIZE 



II.— PISTILLATE FLOWERED MAIZE PLANTS' 

R. A. Emerson 
Professor of Plant Breeding, Netv York State College of Agriculture. 



IN THE **freak^' class at the Annual 
Corn Show held at Lincoln, Ne- 
braska, in the winter of 1913-14, 
there was exhibited a corn tassel 
with a heavy setting of seeds. A few 
seeds are not infrequently found in the 
staminate inflorescence of maize, partic- 
ularly in pod corn, and tillers of various 
corn varieties often end in ears instead 
of in tassels or have tassels, the central 
spikes of which are ear like. The freak 
exhibited at the corn show, however, 
was a large, much branched affair, 
wholly tassel-like in form except for the 
fact that it bore a heavy crop of seed 
like a well-filled head of broom com 
or sorghum. It retained no indication 
of having had any staminate flowers. It 
was apparently a wholly pistillate in- 
florescence, though tassel-like in form. 

This freak specimen came into pos- 
session of the waiter, and seeds were 
planted at the Nebraska Experiment 
Station in the spring of 1914. All the 
resulting plants had normal tassels with 
no pistillate flowers and normal ears 
wholly pistillate, and were typical rep- 
resentatives of a large, rather late white 
dent variety commonly seen in the Mid- 
dle West. The fact that no abnormal 
plants appeared was not unexpected, 
for the parent plant, being pistillate 
flowered, must have been pollinated 
throughout by other plants, presumably 
normal ones. If the abnormality in 
question were recessive, it would not 
appear in the first generation from 
crosses with normal plants. 

One of the normal plants was self- 
pollinated. The progeny of this plant, 



grown at Ithaca, N. V., in 1915 and 
later seasons, consisted of both normal 
plants and plants with pistillate 
flowered tassels like the original tassel 
found at the corn show. Evidently the 
abnormal tassel is inherited as a reces- 
sive to normal. On account of the tassel- 
like form of this pistillate inflorescence 
and of its position at the top of the 
stalk, the abnormality is known as 
**tassel seed'* and is designated by the 
genetic symbol ts, its dominant normal 
allelomorph being Ts. 

Wholly pistillate flowered plants ap- 
peared also in an unrelated lot of maize 
grown in 1915. The parent plant was 
grown in 1914 along with others of the 
variety known as Pride of the North. 
All these plants were normal, were 
rather small and very early, and had 
red-cobbed yellow dent ears typical of 
the variety. The seed w^as from a 
bulk sample obtained from the Agron- 
omy Department of the Nebraska Ex- 
periment Station, the original stock 
having come from Mitchell, S. D. Sev- 
eral of the 1914 plants were self-polli- 
nated, but only one showed abnormal- 
ities in the 1915 progenies. The pro- 
geny of this one plant consisted of 
normal plants and plants that had wholly 
pistillate flowered tassels. Evidently this 
abnormality also is inherited as a reces- 
sive. At first it was assumed to be 
identical with the one first described, 
but this is now known not to be the 
case. To distinguish it from the tassel- 
seed type, and because of the more 
nearly ear-like form of the tassel, it is 
called "tassel ear" and designated by 



'This is the second in a series of papers on the heritable characters of maize, the first 
by G. N. Collins and J. H. Kempton, on "Lineate Leaves." having appeared in the January 
number of the Journal. The next will be a brief discussion of "Brachytic Culms.*'— Editor. 



65 



NORMAL AND "TASSEL EAR" TYPES OF MAIZE 

A pistillate floweret! maize plant, called "tassel seed" is shown on the right. That on the left 
is a normal plant froin the same pedigree culture. The silks of tassel seed push out of Uie 
uppci sheaths at about &iE same time that tassels appear on normal plants. (Fig, 9.) 



A L\TER STAGE OF THE TWO TYPES SHOWN IN FIG. 9 

A nonna.1 plant on the 1c:ft and a tassel -sitd plant o 
inflorescence of^thc tassel seed had been pollinated s> 
the silks of_the,true cars are still fresh. (Fig. 10.) 



68 



The Journal of Heredity 



the genetic symbol te, the dominant 
normal allelomorph of which is Te, 

DESCRIPTION OF TASSEL-SEED AND 
TASSEL-EAR TYPES 

The peculiarities of tassel seed and 
tassel ear are best appreciated by an 
examination of the illustrations accom- 
paying this account. In Fig. 9 atfe 
shown two nearly entire plants of the 
same pedigree culture at the time the 
terminal inflorescence is pushing out of 
the upper sheaths. At this stage, ear 
shoots have not appeared above the 
sheaths in either the normal or the 
tassel-seed plant. A latter stage in the 
growth of such plants is seen in Fig. 10. 
The tassels, both staminate (normal) 
and pistillate (tassel seed), appear at 
about the same time, before the plants 
have completed their height growth 
and before ear shoots have appeared 
from the sheaths. By the time the 
plants have reached their full height 
and when the pollen has been largely 
shed from normal plants (Fig. 10), the 
silks of the terminal inflorescence of 
the tassel-seed plants are usually with- 
ering on account of having been pol- 
linated. True ear shoots have by this 
lime appeared in the usual position, not 
only on the normal but also on the 
tassel-seed plants. Since the terminal 
silks of tassel-seed plants appear and 
are receptive before pollen is shed from 
normal plants of the same stage of de- 
velopment, they are pollinated at once 
from earlier maturing plants, in which 
case they soon wither, or if no early 
normal plants are near, the silks remain 
fresh and continue to grow until pollen 
is shed by the normal plants of their 
own stage of growth. The terminal 
silks of such plants are usually pol- 
linated before the silks of the true ears 
of the same plants have appeared. The 
latter are ultimately pollinated, how- 
ever, and soon wither, and seeds begin 
to develop. Whether or not the true 
ears continue to develop seems to 
depend upon how fully the tassel silks 
have been pollinated. When the tassels 
set a full crop of seed the true ears 



usually fail to develop far and ripen no 
seed, but when, from one cause or 
another, little or no seed forms in the 
tassels, the true ears develop normally. 

Full-grown tassel-seed plants are 
nearly as tall as normal plants of the 
same cultures (Fig. 10) and have about 
the same number of leaves. Tassel- 
ear plants, on the contrary, are much 
shorter than their normal sibs. As 
seen in Fig. 11, tassel-ear plants have 
nearly as many leaves as normal 
plants, but have considerably shorter 
intemodes. The terminal silks of 
tassel-ear plants appear at about the 
same stage of plant growth as do those 
of tassel-seed plants. True ears also 
appear in many cases, but much less 
frequently than with tassel-seed plants. 
If the tassel silks are removed at an 
early stage, true ears usually develop 
normally, except that they are often 
tardy in appearing. On the whole, 
tassel-ear planjs are considerably 
weaker than tassel-seed plants. 

The diflFerences between tassel seed 
and tassel ear with respect to the form 
of the terminal pistillate inflorescence 
are well shown in Figs. 12 to 16. In 
tassel seed the inflorescence is loose like 
that of most tassels, the individual 
spikelets being more or less separated. 
The tassels of normal plants of different 
strains diflfer much in the density of 
their spikes. It is not surprising, there- 
fore, to find variations in the density 
of tassel-seed inflorescence in somewhat 
unrelated cultures, such as the second 
and later generations from crosses 
with diverse sorts of normal plants. 
Just such diversities are seen in Figs. 
12 and 15. In some cases the tassel- 
seed inflorescence is fairly dense (Fig. 
15), though even here there is little re- 
semblance to an ordinary ear. Some are 
very loose (Fig. 12), and others in- 
termediate. In rare cases (Fig 12) 
staminate flowers develop with the pis- 
tillate ones throughout the greater part 
of the tassel. Whether or not these 
staminate flowers are functional has not 
been determined. The glumes and 
palae of such flowers are long, narrow, 



NORMAL AND "TASSEL SEED" TYPES OF MAIZE 

A'second type of pistillate flowered maize, called "tassel ear," is shown on the right, with 
a normal plant on the left. Tassel-car plants are much smaller and weaker than tassel- 
seed plants. They have about as many leaves as normal plants of the same families but 
their intcmodes are shorter. (Fig. 11.) 



70 



The Journal of Heredity 



and pointed as in normal tassels, while, 
in case of the pistillate flowers, these 
parts are shorter, broader, and more 
rounded. 

The terminal inflorescence in tassel 
ear, on the other hand, is always com- 
pact and distinctly ear-like (Fig. 16). 
The glumes and palae are short, broad, 
rounded, and in all respects much like 
those of true ears. This can be seen 
not only in immature tassel ears (Fig. 
14), but in mature ones as well, particu- 
larly when poorly pollinated (Fig. 16). 

The terminal inflorescences of both 
tassel seed and tassel ear are very sub- 
ject to attacks of smut, much more so 
than normal tassels. When attempts 
are made to guard these pistillate flow- 
ered tassels against foreign pollen in 
artificial pollination experiments, the 
smut fungus develops under the paper 
bags used in such work even more than 
when the inflorescences are exposed. 
Moreover, since the silks protrude from 
the sheaths while the upper leaves are 
still closely crowded together owing to 
the short upper internodes at this stage 
(Figs. 9 and 11), it is very difficult to 
protect the silks against accidental pol- 
lination. Either the upper leaves must 
be removed or enclosed w^ith the silks 
in large paper bags. Again, the weight 
of the tassels when the seed has begun 
to develop often causes the tassels to 
break off in storms. But, fortunately, 
it is not necessary to make use of the 
terminal inflorescence in artificial pol- 
linations. If the tassels are removed 
as soon as the silks appear, the true 
ears develop with little delay and can 
be pollinated just as in case of normal 
maize. 

IXHERITANCE OF TASSEL SEED AND 
TASSEL EAR 

Mention has been made above of the 
fact that these abnormalities are reces- 
sive in inheritance. The original open- 
pollinated tassel-seed specimen pro- 
duced ?8 normal plaots. Several tas- 
selrseed plants occurring as segregates 
in later generations were crossed with 
normals, resulting in 64 normal plants. 



Various Yo progenies were grown and 
gave a total of 238 normal to 67 tassel 
seed. This is a deviation of only 9.3 
■Jz 5.1 seeds from the 3 : 1 relation 
expected when parents differ in a sin- 
gle pair of factors. When Fj plants of 
some of these same crosses were back- 
crossed with the recessive tassel seed, 
there resulted 368 normals and 381 tas- 
sel seed, a deviation of only 6.5 =t 9.2 
seeds from the expected equality. T^our 
self-pollinated F. normals bred true in 
F.., giving a total of 128 normal plants, 
wliile 10 other Fg nonnals broke up 
again, throwing both normal and tassel 
seed in F3. Evidently, tassel seed is 
diflferentiated from normal by the single 
factor pair Ts ts. It is assumed that 
th^, recessive tassel-seed plants would 
breed true if it were possible to test 
them. But, owing to the lack of stami- 
nate flowers, they can neither be seli- 
pollinated nor crossed with other plants 
of the same type. 

Tassel-ear plants crossed with nor- 
mals gave 24 normal plants in Fj and 
total F2 progenies of 260 normal to 36 
tassel ear. This is too great a deviation 
from a 3 : 1 relation to be due to 
chance. The expected numbers on a 
3 : 1 basis with a total of 296 are 222 
and 74, and the deviation is a 38 di 5 
plants. Such a deviation could not be 
expected to occur by chance even once 
in some millions of trials. The possi- 
bility is at once suggested that normal 
and tassel ear difl'er by two factor 
pairs, and that the Fg progenies ap- 
proach a 15 : 1 instead of 3 : 1 ratio. 
But the numbers calculated on this ex- 
pectation are 277.5 and 18.5, a devia- 
tion of 17.5 zh 2.8. Even such a devia- 
tion as this would not occur by chance 
more than once in perhaps one hundred 
thousand trials. It is, of course, pos- 
sible that in some crosses the parents 
diflfer by one factor pair and in others 
by two pairs. But no Fo family with 
large numbers approached closely either 
a 3 : 1 or a 1 5 : 1 ratio. 
, Jl two factor pairs are concerned,* 
vabdtit half of the normal F, plants^ 
taken at random', should breed true nor- 
mal, while, in case a single factor pair 



MATURE INFLORESCENCE OF TASSEL SEEQ^' . 

a few wholly staminate 



Emerson: Pistillate Flowered Maize Plants 



73 



is involved, only one-third should do 
so. Of 17 Fj normals tested, 5 bred 
true and 12 broke up. This is certainly 
nearer the expectation for a single fac- 
tor pair than for two pairs, but the 
numbers are too small to allow a defi- 
nite decision. The Fg lots not breed- 
ing true consisted of 745 normal and 78 
tassel-seed plants. This is a deviation 
from a 3 : 1 ratio of 127.8 =t 8.4 and 
from a 15 : 1 ratio of 27.5 dz 4.7. 
While the observed nninhersfit a 15 : 1 
ratio much more closely than a 3 : 1 
ratio, the fit is too poor to be due to 
chance alone. Moreover, if the F. re- 
lation were really 15 : 1, in Fg some 
3 : 1 as well as 15 : 1 ratios should 
have appeared, but none of these Fo 
ratios were smaller than 6:1, and only 
3 of the 17 were smaller than 10 : 1. 

A bit of evidence favoring the as- 
sumption of two factor pairs differen- 
tiating tassel ear from normal is af- 
forded by back crosses of F/s with the 
recessive tassel seed. Four such back 
crosses g^ve 121 normal and 49 tassel 
ear. A 3 : 1 relation is expected from 
such crosses if two factor pairs are 
involved. The deviation from the 3 : 1 
ratio is 6.5 rb 3.8, not a very bad fit. 
Another back cross, in which the F, 
plant was not closely related to those 
concerned in the back crosses noted 
above, gave 53 normal and 43 tassel 
ear, a deviation from equality of 5 d= 
3.3. On the basis of the two-factor 
hypothesis, some normal plants are ex- 
pected to have one of the two reces- 
sive pairs. Such normals when crossed 
to tassel ear should, of course, give a 
3 : 1 ratio in Fg and a 1 : 1 ratio from 
a back cross. 

While the facts given above are fa- 
vorable in part to the idea that tassel 
ear is differentiated from some normal 
types by two factor pairs, itself being 
a double recessive, the evidence is far 
from convincing. The writer is much 
inclined to think that there is another 
way of accounting for the deficiency of 
tassel-ear plants below the 25% ex- 
pected on the basis of a single fs^ctor 
pair. Tassel ear is at best a small, ^eak 
type. In this respect it is not greatly 



different from "dwarf," a form de- 
scribed by the writer some years ago. 
Under ordinary field conditions, dwarf 
plants almost never appear in numbers 
approaching those theoretically ex- 
pected. It has been possible, however, 
by germinating Fj and back cross seeds 
in seed pans in the greenhouse, to show 
that dwarf is a simple Mendelian re- 
cessive. Carefully germinated seeds 
grown in large numbers have given al- 
most exactly the expected percentage 
of dwarfs. Dwarfs are apparently 
often unable to germinate under field 
conditions or die soon after germina- 
tion. This is so well known that 
progenies expected to contain dwarfs 
are almost always started in the green- 
house and later transplanted to the 
field. 

It is not known as yet whether tassel 
ear behaves in this respect like dwarf, 
but, since the plants are small and 
weak, it seems probable that the de- 
ficiency seen in the field may be due to 
a failure of tassel-ear plants to survive. 
In this connection it is important to note 
that most of the records presented 
above were made from progenies grown 
under unusually adverse conditions. 
The soil in which they were grown is 
a heavy clay. Even the normal plants 
of the same families showed by no 
means a perfect stand. Previous in- 
breeding, in case of the F^'s partiqu- 
larly, had greatly weakened the whole 
stock. A number of F4 progenies, 
grown from these weak F3 normal 
plants, were even less vigorous than the 
Fa's. Out of 15 such F4 lots, involving 
486 plants, in only three lots did any 
tassel-car plants appear, and here they 
numbered only 6 as against 80 normals. 
In two F.,, families, coming from a cross 
of tassel ear with a strong and quite 
unrelated normal stock, there appeared 
44 normal and 13 tassel-ear plants, 
very nearly a 3 : 1 relation. Now the 
field notes show that these lots were 
the most vigorous of all those grown 
that season. It seems likely, therefore, 
that observed deficiencies of tassel ear 
are to be explained just as similar de- 
ficiencies of dwarf are, but this cannot 



74 



The Journal of Heredity- 



be determined until seed-pan germina* 
tion is tried out. 

TASSEL SEED AND TASSEL EAR AS 
GENETICALLY DISTINCT TYPES 

It was Stated early in this account 
that tassel seed and tassel ear were at 
first supposed to be identical, but that 
they are now known to be distinct 
types. The only evidence so far given 
in support of this statement, however, 
is the fact that the terminal inflo- 
rescence of tassel seed is a loose pan- 
icle, while that of tassel ear is more 
compact, both the central spike and the 
branches being ear-like in appearance. 
It remains to be shown that these two 
abnormalities are genetically distinct. 

Crosses of Tassel Seed with Tassel 
Ear. — If tassel seed and tassel ear Avere 
fundamentally identical, differing only 
in density of the inflorescence, vigor of 
growth, and the like, somewhat as 
strains of normal corn differ, crosses 
between the two should give pistillate 
flowered plants. Of course it is im- 
possible to cross two wholly pistillate 
flowered types directly, but no mere 
fact of this kind need bother us long. 
Conclusive evidence can be obtained 
from crosses of normal plants, the one 
heterozygous for tassel seed and the 
other for tassel ear. Or, better still, 
a plant heterozygous for one recessive 
type may be crossed with the other 
recessive. 

If the two recessive types were the 
same, the cross of two heterozygotes 
should give 25% of pistillate flowered 
plants in the progeny. Or, on the same 
assumption, if an Fj plant heterozygous 
for tassel seed is crossed on to a tassel 
ear and a plant heterozygous for tassel 
ear is crossed on to a tassel seed, 50% 
of the progeny should be pistillate flow- 
ered. All these crosses have been made 
and progenies grown. The cross of the 
two heterozygotes yielded 69 normal 
plants. A normal plant heterozygous 
for tassel seed crossed on to a tassel ear 
gave 40 normals, and a normal plant 
heterozygous for tassel ear crossed dn 
to a tassel seed resulted in 33 liormals. 
Not a single 'pistillSite flowered plarit 



appeared among the 142 normals. This 
is regarded as conclusive evidence es- 
tablishing the genetic distinctness of the 
two pistillate flowered types. What the 
double recessive will be like cannot be 
told until another generation is grown. 

Distinct Linkage Relations of Tassel 
Seed and Tassel Ear. — The stor}' of the 
linkage relations of tassel seed and tas- 
sel ear is only partly known, but suffi- 
cient information is at hand to prove 
that the two abnormalities show dis- 
tinctly different linkage relations with 
certain other factors of the maize plant. 

A back cross involving tassel seed, 
Ts ts, and a factor pair for pericarp 
color, P p, gave 81 normal plants all 
with red pericarp and 77 tassel-seed 
plants all with colorless pericarp. The 
pair Ts ts is. therefore, very closely 
linked with P p or the two pairs are 
identical. In a similar back cross in- 
volving P p and tassel ear, Te te, there 
appeared normals with red and with 
colorless pericarp and tassel ears with 
red and with colorless pericarp. There 
were 50 plants of the parental combina- 
tions and 56 of the other two combina- 
tions of the two characters in question. 
This is a "crossover" percentage of 
52.8, or a deviation from 50 of 2.8 ±- 
3.3. Apparently, therefore, tassel ear 
is not linked with pericarp color. Cer- 
tainly it does not show the same linkage 
as tassel seed. 

It has long been known that a re- 
cessive leaf abnormality called ligule- 
less Lg, Ig, is linked with a dominant 
plant color called sun red, in which the 
factor pair B b h involved. The cross- 
over percentage commonly observed is 
about 30. A back cross involving B b. 
Lq Ig, and tassel ear, Te te, produced 
96 plants with all but one of the eight 
possible combinations of these three fac- 
tor pairs. The crossover percentage for 
B b and Lg Ig was 29.2, for B b and 
Te te 20.8, and for Lg lg and Te te 
45.8. The crossover percentage for 
liguleless tassel ear is so near 50, devia- 
tion 4.2 dz 3.4, that, standing alone, 
it affords no satisfactory evidence of 
linkage. There can Be little doiiibtvon 
the other hand, that B b and JV te are 



»s 



151 

I III 

I m 

s ii 

ilti 



ijfj 

•pi 
ill 

III 

is 



s. -J 









76 



The Journal of Heredity 



linked, the deviation from 50% (inde- 
pendent inheritance) of 29.2 ±: 3.4 be- 
ing of such a magnitude that it would 
not be expected to occur by chance 
more than once in millions of trials. 
Moreover, there was in this back cross 
no great deficiency of tassel ear to mask 
the results, since the normals were to 
the tassel ears as 53 to 43. Again, the 
numbers of all the several classes were 
very close to expectation on the basis 
of the crossover percentages noted. Of 
the 96 plants, 50 were non-crossovers, 
44 single crossovers, and 2 double 
crossovers. 

Unfortunately there are no data 
available at present with respect to the 
possible relations of Ts ts with B b and 
Lg Ig. There are, however, back cross 
data including no less than 3,700 plants 
involving P p and Lg lg, and 2,600 in- 
volving P p and B b, all without any 
indication of linkage. It follows, there- 
fore, that tassel seed and tassel ear are 
not only distinct genetically as well as 
morphologically, but that they belong 
to distinct linkage groups. 

Identifying the Double Recessive, 
Tassel Seed Tassel Ear. — It is not 
known what sort of plant the double 
recessive, tassel seed tassel ear, will be. 
There is available abundant material, 
in some of which ts ts te fe should ap- 
pear next season. If it should prove 
to be like one of the types described 
in this paper, tassel ear for instance, 
a 9 3 : 4 relation should be found to 
exist between the three phenotypes. 
Ordinarily, in such a case as ihis. it is 
necessary to conduct further breeding 
tests in order to distinguish the pheno- 
typically alike, but genetically different 
single and double recessives. But such 
tests might here encounter serious diffi- 
culties. The most likely procedure, in 



case the double recessive is not distin- 
guishable from one or other of the sin- 
gle recessives, is to cross random sam- 
ples of the recessive plants with both 
heterozygous tassel seed and hetero- 
zygous tassel ear. This would involve 
considerable difficulty unless two true 
ears or one ear and the terminal in- 
florescence develop on each plant, a 
thing hardly to be expected in plants 
so weak as tassel ear. Of course it 
would doubtless be possible to make up 
the two classes of heterozygotes so that 
they differ from each other and from 
the recessives bv dominant aleurone or 
endosperm characters. A single ear of 
each recessive could then be pollinated 
by both heterozygotes and the resulting 
seed separated into two lots corre- 
sponding to the two heterozygous par- 
ents. But all this would require much 
time and no little effort. 

Fortunately, no such tests should be 
necessary in the particular case under 
consideration. The known linkage rela- 
tions of tassel seed and tassel ear with 
other characters should make the solu- 
tion of the problem much less difficult. 
To emphasize the aid that some knowl- 
edge of linkage affords in such a prob- 
lem as this is the only excuse that the 
writer can plead for this attempt to 
cross an apparently difficult bridge be- 
fore he is sure that such exists. It 
will not be difficult to introduce both P p 
and B b into the cross of tassel seed and 
tassel ear. Any resulting pistillate 
flowered plant with colorless pericarp 
is almost certain to be ts ts, and there 
are about four chances in five that any 
pistillate flowered plant having the fac- 
tor of the pair B b present in the tassel- 
ear parent of the tassel-seed tassel-ear 
cross will also be te te. 



EUGENICS AND OTHER SCIENCES 

Some Comments by Frederick Adams Woods on an Article in the Eugenics Review 



THE Eugenics Review, which is 
the official organ of the Eugenics 
Education Society of London, 
contains a comprehensive and 
suggestive article on **The Relations of 
Eugenics to the Other Sciences/* by 
Harry H. Laughlin. 

In regard to genealogy the author 
says: "Genealogies and biographies 
have existed since civilization began. 
At present the genealogist strives to 
work out the family net-work, giving 
the names, dates, and connections. He 
is often content to stop there. The task 
of eugenics is to prevail upon all of 
these workers to provide a description 
of the natural, physical, mental, and 
temperamental qualities of each mem- 
ber listed in the net-work. When this 
is done, the genealogist supplies a 
record of practical pedigree-value, one 
which can be used in tracing the descent 
and re-combination of natural qualities 
within the family-tree." 

The author's remarks on the relation 
of eugenics to biography are open to 
some question. "The history of man- 
kind is equivalent to the biographies of 
all of its human units. The different 
weights that diflferent men have sup- 
plied in making history is so vast that 
we often shorten the statement by say- 
ing that 'the history of the race is the 
biographies of its great men.' " 

This is very likely true, but the rela- 
tions of great men to the ages in which 
they have lived are doubtless recipro- 
cals, and many writers contend that 
great men are largely the products of 
their times. There has been but little 
done in the way of systematic and 
quantitive study on this problem. What 
little re.search there is, points towards 
the view that great geniuses are born as 
such, and lead the way in creating new 
epochs. More investigations are much 
to be desired. 



The author's following statement we 
take exception to, simply because we 
do not believe that it is at present prac- 
tical : "The eugenicist has the task of 
convincing the writer of biographies 
that one of his principal duties in the 
description of the life of his subject is 
to resolve the factors of nature and 
nurture — to evaluate the effect of speci- 
fic hereditary traits in making the 
human machine that turned out the 
specific product which he is describing 
as a lifers contribution to history." 

It is not possible for a biographer, or 
historian, or indeed any writer, even if 
he be equipped with the utmost scien- 
tific knowledge, to resolve in any one in- 
dividual "the factors of nature and 
nurture" or to "evaluate the effect of 
specific hereditary traits." This can be 
done only when large statistical totals 
are available, and then only when 
special schemes have been devised. 
Any assertion that such and such a trait 
was inherited from such and such an 
ancestor, or that such and such a char- 
acteristic was "clearly the result of 
early influence," etc., etc., is not only 
pure dogmatism, but it is often pathet- 
ically naive. 

Some day we may know so much 
about the limits of heredity and en- 
vironment, in general, for all kinds of 
specific traits, both mental and moral, 
that we can rightly suppose that what 
is true in the general is probably true in 
the indiz'idual; but for the present it is 
idle for the biographer to do more than 
carefully trace the complete immediate 
pedigree of his subject in all its ramifi- 
cations and to record as many as pos- 
sible of the facts. These facts can be 
made the bases of statistical inquiries. 

In regard to sociology the author 
says : "There is a tendency on the part 
of sociologists to ascribe practically all 
of the factors of human destiny to 

77 



78 



The Journal of Heredity 



matters of environment. On the other 
extreme we cannot, of course, ascribe 
everything to heredity. The great 
problem now, as always, is to make a 
true analysis of human reactions, 
ascribing to environment its true forces, 
and to hereditary qualities which react 
to environment their due weight. No 
headway can be made in claiming 
undue weight, either by biology or 
eugenics, for heredity, or by sociology 
or euthenics, for environment." 

We should say that perhaps a certain 
amount of headway may be gained even 
if an undue weight be given to heredity 
on the one hand or environment on the 



other. But it will be only the headway 
that springs from controversy. The 
true and scientific headway should be 
the evaluation of changed environment 
when acting upon comparatively iden- 
tical germ plasms, and the evaluation of 
differing germ plasms when nourished 
in comparatively identical environ- 
ments. It should be insisted upon that 
we already know, from the confirma- 
tory results of a number of researches, 
that, as far as important human differ- 
ences are concerned, these differences 
are probably the result of differences in 
the chromosomes of the primary germ 
cells. 



THE DEATH OF RICHARD SEMON 



F.RTICULARS regarding the 
death of Richard Semon, author 
of the mnemic theory of hered- 
ity, arc given by his intimate 
friend, August Forel, in a recent issue 
of La Libre Pensee Internationale. 

Born in Berlin in August, 1859, 
Semon studied zoology with Ernst 
Haeckel at Jena and secured the de- 
grees of Ph.D. and M.D. Then, Dr. 
Forel recalls, "he made a trip to Africa, 
studied at the zoological station in Na- 
ples, became assistant to O. Hertwig, 
and finally privat docent in anatomy 
at Jena. 

"After being made professor extra- 
ordinary in 1891, he undertook, with 
some aid from P. de Ritter, but mainly 
at his own expense, a trip to Australia 
and the Malay archipelago, to study 
the most primitive mammals and the 
pulmonary fishes, their manner of life, 
their structure, and their development. 
It is enough to say (I cite Lubarsch) 
that in twenty years seventy-seven dif- 
ferent savants have published six huge 
volumes in folio with 343 plates and 
1,810 text illustrations, in 112 differ- 
ent lines of research, on the scientific 
results of Semon's voyage; one can 
thus understand the enormous amount 



of work he accomplished in the anti- 
podes. 

"He himself wrote in 1895 (second 
edition in 1903) a narrative of his 
journey entitled, *In the Australian 
Bush,' published by W. Engelmann, 
Leipzig. This narrative is captivating 
in the highest degree, as much from the 
scientific point of view as from that 
of human interest. In it Semon shows 
all the delicacy and depth of his feel- 
ings, as much as the clear, perspicacious 
and assimilative genius of his investi- 
gative spirit. I strongly recommend 
a perusal of this book to every person 
with a little education. 

"In 1897 Semon left Jena and his 
professorship to go to Munich. In 
working over his Australian material, 
he reflected on the great problems of 
biology, on the problem of life. Real- 
izing how idle the sophistic disputes be- 
tween 'vitalists' and 'mechanists' re- 
mained as long as the origin of heredity 
was not clearly understood, he gave 
himself up to a profound study of the 
latter and of its relation to the char- 
acteristics acquired during every in- 
dividual life, vegetative and cerebral. 

"With a flash of genius, Ewald Her- 
ing had remarked, 'Instinct is analogous 



The Death of Richard Semon 



79 



to a memory in the species.' But he 
was laughed at, and gave up instead 
of developing his idea. Taking up this 
suggestion from Hering, Semon tested 
the question by a study of the effect 
of irritations on living matter, and the 
persistence of this effect as an *engram/ 
either directly in the cells or indirectly 
through the nerves and the brain; not 
only in the individual, but, passing 
through the germ-plasm, in heredity. 

"Thus in 1904 he came to write his 
fundamental work on the 'mneme' as 
the conserving principle of organic 
life; and in 1909 followed a supplement 
on *mnemic sensations' in which the 
terms *engram/ *ecphory,' *homophony,' 
and the like were applied to the hered- 
ity of all living beings as well as to 
human mentality. 

"Persons as small as they are super- 
ficial, slaves of prejudices and phrases, 
have been unable to see in all this any- 
thing more than *new names for old 
ideas/ when as a fact their own lack 
of ideas — that is, the routine of their 
old psychology and biology — was over- 
thrown from top to bottom by Semon." 

"In addition," Dr. Forel continues, 
"Semon had clearly proved the inherit- 
ance of acquired characters (which 
amount to the 'mutations' ot de Vries) 
by his researches on the origin of the 
sole of the himian foot, etc. More- 
over, he prepared during recent years 
a book on the pathology of the mneme, 
which I would rejoice to see published. 
But he had suffered profoundly from 
the death of his wife, which occurred 
in 1918. lie cherished her the more be- 
cause, having no children, they worked 
together. In addition, Semon, a de- 
clared foe to all chauvinistic hatred 
between peoples, had suffered deeply 
from the war. 

"On December 27, 1918, the day on 
which he shot himself, he wrote me the 
following letter: 

" *My ver}' dear friend, it is to you 
that I write' my last letter. I strongly 
suspect that you will blame me for vol- 
untarily ending my life. I would not 



have done so — I would have sought 
and found in my work the needed 
strength, strength which I possess, to 
endure the atrocious isolation in which 
I was plunged by the death of my wife, 
the incomparable companion of my ex- 
istence. We lived together in the loft- 
iest mental intimacy. But work has 
become impossible to me, for my mind, 
especially its mneme, is failing more 
and more. In others, that begins only 
at the age of eighty; with me, twenty 
years sooner. In this domain I am 
marked by heredity. 

" 'Having tasted of the fruit of the 
Tree of Knowledge, and noticing in 
myself the first traces of evil, I do not 
wish to stain the work of my life by 
a termination of inferior value. On 
the other hand, I cannot exist with- 
out work. 

" 'Having no one to support, I leave 
no vacancy. Forgive me, then, in un- 
derstanding me. 

" 'I owe you much, dear friend — 
stimulation of ideas, great encourage- 
ment of my efforts and of my achieve- 
ments. I leave my last work, 'Self- 
consciousness and Brain,' half finished. 
But as it clearly contains, in my opin- 
ion, a useful nucleus in the first six 
chapters, already completed, I have ar- 
ranged for its publication, at least as 
a 'torso.' I regret that I shall no 
longer be able to have your counsels on 
this work. 

" 'Adieu ! May you and yours live 
happily. My heart remains full of es- 
teem and gratitude to you. 

" 'Your faithful 

"'R. Semon.'" 

In the early years of its appearance, 
Semon's theory attracted much atten- 
tion in the biological world. While it 
gained a number of eminent adherents, 
most geneticists considered it highly 
mystical in nature and attached little 
value to the experimental and other 
evidence which its author cited in its 
support. In redent years not much 
has been heard of it. 



A DISCUSSION OF POPENOE AND 
JOHNSON^S -APPLIED EUGENICS^^ 

AND THE QUESTION OF HEREDITY VS. ENVIRONMENT 



Mr. Paul Popenoe, 

Washington, D. C. 
Dear Sir: 

Your publishers have been kind 
enough to send me a copy of "Applied 
Eugenics,'* by yourself and Professor 
Johnson, and I have been reading it with 
a great deal of interest and satisfaction. 
I was a student of Galton many years 
ago, and have since, from time to time, 
read such works on eugenics as seemed 
most significant. I have always given 
the subject a large place in my teaching 
and have regarded it as of equal prac- 
tical importance with sociology proper. 

Your book I think much the best 
that has appeared for my purposes, and 
mmnly for two reasons. First, it con- 
tains a much larger body of well-con- 
sidered social applications, and, second, 
there is evident throughout a non- 
partisan spirit and a desire to come to 
an imderstanding with students of the 
social sciences. It is especially in this 
latter connection that I have felt 
inclined to write you. 

Without doubt eugenics has as yet 
made a far slighter impression upon 
students of the social sciences than its 
intrinsic importance entitles it to make. 
Why is this? While mere ignorance 
may largely account for it, I think that 
with intelligent people an equally im- 
portant factor has been the narrow and 
particularistic spirit in which eugenics 
has commonly been advocated. The 
eugenists have seemed not so much to 
be proposing a line of research and 
practice supplementary to history, eco- 
nomics, sociology, education and the 
like, as striving to depreciate and prac- 
tically to supplant these branches of 
learning. A specialist in one of them 



would take up a book or article on 
eugenics and, observing that the class 
of facts with which he was most familiar 
were ignored or scoffed at, would 
naturally conclude that the author was 
some kind of a crank whose ideas could 
have no serious interest for himself. 

There has been groimd for this im- 
pression, it seems to me, even in the case 
of the ablest eugenists. Take Galton, 
for example. I would not call anything 
that he wrote sociology, properly speak- 
ing, or admit that he saw anything from 
a sociological standpoint. He collected 
facts of individual and family biography 
to throw light on his biological theories, 
but I do not think he ever shows that 
conception of social organization and 
development as a living whole which, I 
should say, was the essential thing in 
sociology, or, for that matter, in history, 
economics, etc. Accordingly learned 
and open-minded men, like James, 
Bryce and many others, were unfavor- 
ably impressed with his views and 
perhaps did them less than justice. 

I take it that the misunderstanding 
between biological and social science is 
one that can hardly be healed by an 
appeal to specific facts, because it rests 
rather on a difference in the presupposi- 
tions, the points of view, hypotheses and 
problems which control the perception 
and interpretation of facts. I seldom 
quarrel with the facts put forth by a 
eugenist, but can very often see an 
entirely different interpretation of them. 

Now let me make one or two con- 
structive suggestions. I think one thing 
necessary is a clearer fundamental 
theory of the imderlying relation be- 
tween the social and biological processes, 
in which, perhaps, might be found a 



'"Applied Eugenics/' by Paul Popenoe, former editor of The Journal of HEKEDrrv now 
ticn'l Sec'y American Social Hygiene Assn., and Roswell H. Johnson, University of Pitts- 
irg. Pp. 459, wiUi illus., charts, etc. MacMillan & Co., New York, 1918. 

80 



Discussion of ** Applied Eugenics*' 



81 



basis upon which students of both might 
build. 

The oven\''orking of the "nature vs. 
nurture " antithesis has done incalculable 
harm in giving the discussion a partisan 
character. It should be supplanted, 
I think, by the conception that there are 
two parallel and interrelated processes, 
the biological and the social, equal in 
importance but quite different in charac- 
ter, supplementary to each other and 
not, properly speaking, in opposition 
to each other at all. The chief seat of 
the former is the germ-plasm; of the 
latter, the stream of psychical com- 
munication through which social organi- 
zation and development take place. 
Sociologists, economists, historians, 
jurists, political scientists, social workers 
and the like are primarily engaged with 
the latter, which (let biologists note) is 
a real system of organic life and not a 
mere ** environment " of the germ-plasm. 
But as their whole process, biologically 
speaking, is founded on the germ-plasm, 
they must study eugenics. 

In a similar sense the biological pro- 
cess is based upon the social, which in 
general determines the environment in 
which the germ-plasm lives and, more 
particularly, the conditions of selec- 
tion which favor some types and sup- 
press others. Eugenists, then, should 
study sociology. 

I think it should be recognized, also, 
that human heredity is, in general, far 
more plastic than that of the lower 
animals. I mean, not that the princi- 
ples of heredity are different, but that 
the characters inherited are themselves, 
for the most part, plastic — teachable 
instincts instead of rigid, for example. 
A recognition of this would abate many 
controversies, reconciling, largely, the 
sociologist's faith in education with the 
eugenist's conviction of the impossibility 
of changing inherited traits. This princi- 
ple is, of course, good Darwinism, and 
you recognize it on page 406, where you 
say ** All that man inherits is the capac- 
ity to develop along a certain line under 
the influence of proper stimuli . . .*' 

I may add that a book I have recently 
published (*' Social Process," Charles 
Scribner's Sons) contains four chapters 



dealing with Social Factors in Biological 
Survival which deal somewhat more 
ftdly, though inadequately, with this 
line of thought. If you care to review 
these chapters, or the whole book, in the 
Journal OF Heredity, I have no doubt 
the publishers will send you a copy for 
that purpose. 

Let me say again that I have read 
your book with profit and that i find 
myself agreeing with most of what you 
say relating to "the eugenic aspect of 
specific reforms." 

Sincerely yours, 

Charles H. Cooley. 



Journal of Heredity 

Washington, D. C, 
Professor Charles H. Cooley, 
Ann Arbor, Mich. 

Dear Professor Cooley: 

Mr. Popenoe, has forwarded to me 
your letter to him on the subject of his 
book, ** Applied Eugenics." If agree- 
able to him and to yourself, I should 
like to publish this letter in the Journal 
of Heredity, or perhaps the greater 
part of it, or perhaps you would make 
this the basis of a more extended re- 
view. I think it would be a fine idea 
to have the heredity environment prob- 
lem discussed from the sociological 
standpoint. 

For my part I have believed for a 
number of years that the tangle can 
only be unravelled by treating both 
factors as a problem of differences. 

This I had an inkling of, but no clear 
conception of at the time I published 
"Heredity in Royalty," 1906, for there 
I sometimes say that 90% is due to 
heredity. In another place I say that 
all the rough differences are due to 
differences in the germ-plasm, in spite 
of the considerable differences in the 
environment. This latter point of view 
is more elaborately worked out in an 
article published in the Journal of 
Heredity in 1917, called "Significant 
Evidence for Mental Heredity." 

I do not see that yoiu* "stream of 
psychical communication through which 
social organization and development 



82 



The Journal of Heredity 



take place*' is anything more than a 
part of what we understand as nurture, 
or environment. This has varying ef- 
fects on different fimctions, more effect 
on some than on others. It undoubt- 
edly has a great effect on one's modes of 
speech, and on manners. The question 
is, how much on each trait or fimction? 

All true scientists should aim, not at a 
partisan discussion, but at a more 
measured estimate as to what can be 
done, and what cannot be done by fur- 
nishing ameliorative environments. 

There have not been as yet more than 
about a half a dozen researches in this 
direction, but they imdoubtedly fore- 
shadow the future as far as the study of 
human heredity has a bearing on psy- 
chology, sociology, and history. 

I hope you may be brought to ponder 
on this point and see that, by the statis- 
tical method, sociologists can slowly but 
certainly measure the limits of chromo- 
some control. 

With pleasant remembrance of former 
correspondence that we had some years 
ago (I think it was on my **Laws of 
Diminishing Environmental Influence," 
believe me 

Sincerely yours, 
Frederick Adams Woods. 



Dr. Frederick Adams Woods, 

Washington, D. C. 
My Dear Dr. Woods: 

I shall be glad to participate in an 
informal discussion of the general rela- 
tion of social to hereditary process, so far 
as I have anything to contribute. I 
think that, in the lack of an understand- 
ing upon this, discussion of detailed 
questions is mostly futile. 

It is true, as you say, that the stream 
of psychical communication through 
which social organization and develop- 
ment take place is a part of what biolog- 
ists tmderstand as nurture or environ- 
ment. But they shotdd understand 
also that this, though true from their 
standpoint, is a wholly biological con- 
ception of the matter and not at all 
that of the social sciences. I mean that 



it looks upon the germ-plasm and the 
growth of biological individuals as the 
central interest and regards social life, 
so far as it regards it at all, as a surroimd- 
ing condition, or ** environment." 

Now for the sociologist the matter is 
quite turned aroimd. For him social 
process, social organization and develop- 
ment, is the center of interest. This is 
a distinct evolution of organic life, of 
the utmost complexity and hiunan 
interest, and not only one but many 
sciences are preoccupied by it. He sees 
the germ-plasm and other biological 
phenomena very much as the biologist 
sees society, as a sort of side-issue, an 
** environment" (although that word is 
not used, it might be, logically enough), 
a mere conditioning circtunstance of the 
evolution with which he is familiar. 
And he has just as good groimd for his 
attitude as the biologist has for his. 
One process is not more original and 
causative than the other. The biologi- 
cal controls the social in a certain sense, 
in another the social controls the bio- 
logical. 

I feel sure that no statistical studies 
from the merely heredity-environment 
standpoint will convince students of the 
social sciences, because such studies in- 
variably, or almost invariably, involve 
premises they do not accept. A classic 
example is Galton's **Hereditary Gen- 
ius," which seems to a sociologist to beg 
the whole question in a paragraph or two, 
in which he asserts that great and endur- 
ing reputation may be treated as iden- 
tical with natural genius. \ 

The only way I see, then, of making a 
start towards a rapproachement is by 
agreeing upon the parallel and coordi- 
nate nature of the two life-processes, 
each party endeavoring to get the 
general point of view of the other, and 
then proceeding to investigate the 
large class of questions in which they 
are both involved. But this will be verv 
difficult, becaase habits of thought are 
not likely to be changed by argiunent. 

I think, however, that the latter part 
of Popenoe and Johnson's "Applied 



^ Enduring reputation is certainly not identical with natural genius, but the two are to some 
extent correlated. To determine the approximate amount ot this correlation would make 
interesting subject for research. — ^F. A. W. 



Eugenic Bearing of Taxation 



83 



Eugenics*' is much more reconcilable 
with the sociological point of view than 
anything else I have seen, from biolo- 
gists, covering similar ground. 

I am quite willing that you should 
publish any part of my letters that you 
think may interest your readers. 

Sincerely yours, 
Charles H. Cooley. 



Note bv F. A. Woods. — By way of 
further discussion I should only like to 
make three further comments. 

1. I agree with Professor Cooley in 
his idea that a social group may be 
regarded and studied as if it were a 
biological organism, but this idea does 
not prevent us from measuring the 
differences between individuals who 
compose the group and attempting to 
devise means of studying the various 



reactions of the group or the individual. 

2. I do not agree at all with Professor 
Cooley 's statement that ** human hered- 
ity is far more plastic than that of the 
lower animals," as I have already 
shown the truth to be quite the contrary 
by an analysis of the degrees of arti- 
ficial modification obtainable in the or- 
ganic series of plants and animals. 
This is the above cited **Laws of Dim- 
inishing Environmental Influence. "^ 

3. I fully agree with Professor Cooley 
when he says that habits of thought are 
not like to be changed by argument. 
No, not by argument which in the past 
has been too much the method of the 
sociologist but by measurements and 
by inductive science which has only 
recently become the method of the 
biologist, the psychologist and the 
philosopher of history. 



The Eugenic Bearing of Taxation 



Assessment of an income tax by 
dividing the total income of a family 
among all the members, old or young, 
and taxing each separately, is recom- 
mended by a committee of the Eugenics 
Education Society (London), headed 
by the president, Leonard Darwin, 
which has been submitted to Parlia- 
ment. 

As a conclusion to the discussion, 
which is printed in the January, 1920, 
Eugenics Review, Major Darwin prints 
the following suniniar}^ : 

•'Taxation should fall on parents and 
on the childless in proportion to their 
ability to bear the strain. To make the 
incidence of the income tax just, the 
amount thus now obtained from the 
childless should be increased and that 
from parents decreased, the transfer of 
wealth thus affected should bear some 
relationship to the income taxed, and 
consideration should be given to the 
distinction between wealth which has 
been won by the individual taxed and 
wealth which he has inherited. Smaller 
incomes being less taxed, to allow the 



family income to count as several sepa- 
rate incomes would produce the desired 
differential result, though, in order not 
to diminish the revenue, the rate per 
pound would have to be raised in all 
grades. If such a reform cannot now 
be fully adopted, the principles involved 
should, we urge, Idc authoritatively 
sanctioned, and when in the future taxa- 
tion can be lowered, it should first be 
materially lowered on parents before 
any burden is taken off the childless. 
The winning of a moderate income by 
their own work, the saving and con- 
version into capital of some of this in- 
come, a saving needing care and self- 
sacrifice, the preservation of this cap- 
ital in succeeding generations in con- 
sequence of thrift, temperance, and 
perseverance — these have been different 
steps in the history of the creation of 
that part of the nation which would be 
affected by such a reform. Where any 
of these conditions exist, there the stock 
must generally be sound, and the nation 
demands a relatively more rapid multi- 
plication of its soundest stocks." 



*' Popular Science Monthly, April, 1910, pp. 313-331. 



84 



The Journal of Heredity 



Variation of the Palm Weevil 



While collecting in the vicinity of 
Daytona, Fla., April 5 to 9. 1919, I 
made two visits to a freshly cut cab- 
bage palmetto sttmip, the sap of which 
had started to ferment, and captured 
ninety-two specimens of the palm wee- 
vil {Rhynchophorus cruentus Fabr.). 
This large series was taken to show to 
what extent the species varies both in 
size and color. The males are readily 
recognized, regardless of size and color, 
by the noticeably thicker and roughened 
beaks or rostra. The following figures 
show that size and color are in no way 
sexual characteristics and that those 
referable to the two larger groups are 
remarkably uniform in nimibers, while 
those that might be termed strictly 
intermediate are comparatively few. 
The entirely black form is known as var- 
iety zimmermanni Fabr. 

TABLE OF COLORS 

Entirely black 38 specimens — 20 
males and 18 females. 

Red present to a greater or less ex- 
tent on the rostrum, thorax, eU^ra (wing 
cases), legs and the basal and anal 
segments of the abdomen, 42 specimens 
(21 males and 21 females). 

Thorax and elytra both slightly 
marked with red, legs entirely black, 6 
specimens (3 males and 3 females). 

Thorax only slightly marked with red, 
rostrum and tibiae reddish, 5 specimens 
(2 males and 3 females). 



Elytra only slightly marked with red, 
legs black (1 female). Total, 92. 

TABLE OF SIZES 

Smallest specimens, males and fe- 
males, 28 mm. 

Largest specimens, males and females, 
36 mm. 

Not exceeding 30 mm., 14 males and 
16 females; entirely black, 7 males and 
7 females; marked with red, 7 males and 
9 females. 

Exceeding 30 mm., 32 males and 30 
females; entirely black, 13 males and 
11 females; marked with red, 19 males 
and 19 females. Total, 92. 

EXPLANATION OF PLATE 

First row: 1, 2 and 3 males; 4 and 5 
females. 

Second row: 1, 2, 3 and 4 males; 5 
females. 

Third row: 1 and 2 females; 3, 4 and 
5 males. 

Fourth row: 1 female; 2 male; 3, 
4 and 5 females. 

This series shows practically a com- 
plete gradation between an almost red 
specimen (the first in the scries) and 
the pure black specimen at the end of 
the last row. 

Charles W. Johnson. 
Boston Society of Natural History, 
Boston, Massachusetts. 



The Meaning of Continuous Variation in Color 



It is rare to find in the animal world 
an example of perfectly continuous 
graduation in a color pattern, and all 
within a single species inhabitating a 
single locality. What is the meaning 
of the remarkable series? There seems 
to be a mystery here. Something for 
the mutationist and protective colora- 
tion experts to pay attention to. Are 
these beetles, {Rhynchophorus cruen- 
tus), in the process of acquiring a 
camoufUige or are they losing their red 
color pattern and becoming all black, 
like the last of the series ? Perhaps the 



color has nothing to do with survival 
value, and merely varies through some 
direct influence of the environment, to 
which surface pigmentation is usually 
extremely susceptible. If so, why 
should they differ so much although 
living in a presumably uniform environ- 
ment? 

It does not seem that Mendel's laws 
of heredity find a practical illustration 
here, since besides these 20 shown in 
the plate (Fig. 17), the other 72 in Mr. 
Johnson's collection are quite as impos- 
sible to place in any two categories, one 



COISTINUOUS VARIATION IN A SINGLE SPECIES 

Thesearespecimensof the palm weevil. The color pattern, which is dark red, has been here 

painted white. Such continuous v — ■"-'■ — ■ ' '--' ■' '" " — 

IS discussed on the opposite p^e. 



86 



The Journal of Heredity 



of which shall be a D and the other an 
R. It would at least require the postu- 
lation of so many determiners that 
Mendel's laws would fail to have a 
pragmatic value. Still, the series is not 
an example of unimodal variation since 
the most common types are not those of 
the two middle rows, with "entire 



black*' of rare occurrence. Nearly half 
of all the specimens are entirely black, 
38 out of 92 in Mr. Johnson's figures. 
It would seem that these beetles may be 
the result of a cross between a colored 
variety, similar to the first specimen, 
with a black variety as seen in the last 
specimen. — F. A. W. 



A Study of Country Children 



That children from a good farming 
district are more intelligent than chil- 
dren from a poor rural district in Indi- 
ana is the conclusion of S. L. Pressey 
and J. B. Thomas, who present their 
study in the Sept., 1919, issue of the 
Journal of Applied Psychology, 

"It is not infrequently asserted," 
they remark, "that in the country dis- 
tricts a constant selective process is 
going on, the poorer, less intelligent 
stock being pushed back more and more 
into the hill country where the land is 



poorest, while the more able, assertive 
elements of the population obtain the 
best land and the best opportunities. 
That is, on this assumption, there 
should, in an agricultural community, 
be a positive correlation between land 
values and intelligence." 

The assumption is definitely upheld 
by the results which the writers 
secured; but they also found that all 
the countrv children whether from 
prosperous or backward districts, aver- 
aged below city children in intelligence. 



Measuring Intelligence 



Next to physical fitness, intelligence 
is perhaps the most important single 
factor in a soldier's efficiency. So says 
a pamphlet entitled "Anny Mental 
Tests," published in November, 1918. 
Mental tests prepared by a committee 
of the American Psychological Asso- 
ciation and of the National Research 
Council were given to recruits during 
the two weeks immediately preceding 
their entrance into the Army. The rat- 
ings which these men earned furnished 
a fairly reliable index to their ability 
"to learn, to think quickly and accu- 
rately, to analyze a situation, to maintain 
a state of mental alertness and to com- 
prehend and follow instructions. The 
score is little influenced by schooling. 
Some of the highest records have been 
made by men who had not completed 
the eighth grade." 

The tests were not, however, the full 
measure of a man's value in the mili- 
tary service, nor did they prove that 



men of equal mental rating were neces- 
sarily of equal military worth. Such 
qualities as loyalty, bravery, power to 
command, and the other traits which go 
to make up a good soldier, could not be 
measured by this test of intelligence. 
In the long run, however, those traits 
are more likely to be found in men of 
supeior intelligence than in men who are 
intellectually inferior. That a man's 
value in the military service could not 
be judged by a test of intelligence alone 
has been shown by the fact that many 
of the men who earned only low mental 
ratings in the tests made good in actual 
practice in positions of responsibility. 
Nevertheless the intelligence rating was 
found to be one of the most important 
aids in the selection and assignment of 
men to the specialized tasks of the 
Army. The accompanying chart graph- 
ically illustrates the occupational intel- 
ligence standards based on data for ap- 
proximately 36,500 men. 



Mental tests were conducted by the Army to aid in the selection, classification and assign- 
ment of men to particular tasks requiring rapid adjustment. The tests of cottrse could not tell 
infallibly what kind of soldier a man would make, but they were very usefiil in indicating 
his probable value to the service. (Pig. 18.) 



THE DEVELOPMENT 

OF USEFUL CITIZENSHIP 

It Is Not Enough to Maintain the Standard of the Human Race at Its 
Present Level — Public Opinion Now Recognizes Need of Producing 

Better Racial Stocks 

Hilda H. Noyes, M.D., Kenwood, N. Y. 



IN order to bring about any real and 
lasting improvement in the quality 
of a given population, it is necessar}' 
to recognize not only the need for 
cutting off the defective lines of descent, 
but the positive side of the problem: 
that of increasing the production of the 
more worthy strains. 

There should be a judicious and nec- 
essary diminution of births among those 
who have the least physically, mentally, 
morally and economically with which 
to endow their children. Restrictions 
should be placed more stringently on 
those furthest removed from useful 
citizenship, so that the proportion of 
the unfit would tend to decrease in each 
succeeding generation. 

The need for cutting off the defective 
lines is coming to be understood and 
appreciated. Some practical steps to 
accomplish the desired result are being 
taken, which show the trend of public 
opinion and will lead to further accom- 
plishment in the same direction. 

But the cutting off of defective lines 
alone will only serve to maintain the 
standard at its present level. Conklin 
states in his "Heredity and Environ- 
ment," p. 425, 'Tf only the very worst 
are eliminated in each generation, the 
standard of a race is merely main- 
tained." In order to raise the standard 
it is necessary to greatly increase the 
birth and survival rates among those 
above mediocrity who are the useful 
citizens of today. 

The factors which have acted both 
directly and indirectly to reduce the pro- 
ductivity of our most gifted and pros- 
perous members of society, should be in- 

88 



vestigated that measures may be di- 
rected toward removing the cause. 

Some practical influences may be 
brought to bear, under present social 
conditions, which will help to bring 
about a differential fecundity in favor 
of the better stocks. 

Let us consider first, relief of the 
over-burdened mother with a further 
development of the creche or day 
nursery, and a possible extension serv- 
ice into the homes. The responsibilities 
of the mother might be sufficiently re- 
lieved so that no greater effort would 
be required for the care and up-bring- 
ing of three children than she now ex- 
pends on two. (See Note A.) 

In order to convince the well-to-do 
of their responsibility for the future 
development of the race, a great edu- 
cational compaign should be inaugu- 
rated. Recognition and the bestowal of 
honor upon the parents of superior 
children might tend to augment the 
birth rate in this group. 

HOPE IN THE GREAT MIDDLE CLASS 

However, it is neither extreme of the 
economic ladder which is the hope of 
the future, but that great mass of use- 
ful citizens between these extremes. 
Rational methods of increasing the fer- 
tility of the more worthy strains in the 
different income groups of this great 
middle class should be considered. 

As the economic aspect has the wid- 
est bearing, some form of prize or bonus 
for the greatest number or the best 
conditioned children has been among 
the first measures advocated, but the 
amount has usually been entirely in- 



Noyes: Development of Useful Citizenship 



89 



adequate and the method has been open 
to the objections raised against all 
forms of bribery. 

Dr. Saleeby, in his, ''Method of Race 
Regeneration/' mentions three precau- 
tions to be observed in giving financial 
aid to parents ; 

**First, the help is not to be a bribe. 

"Second, it is to be specific, definitely 
reaching the point toward which it is 
aimed, and 

'*Third, it is to be steady and con- 
tinuous like the child's needs.'' 

It might be possible to form a Par- 
ents' Mutual Protective League in such 
a manner as to comply with all three of 
Dr. Saleeby's requirements, w^ith a 
fourth stipulation added — that the ap- 
plicants be required to measure up to 
a certain standard as regards heredity 
as well as physical, mental and moral 
development. 

If 92 children are born annually per 
thousand women between 15-45 years, 
as was the case in 1913 for New York 
City, we may say roughly that one wo- 
man in ten between 15-45 years has a 
child each year. 

Let us suppose that the entire ten 
families should be willing to pay a 
small sum annually to form a protective 
fund so that the annual payment of all 
ten families would go as a benefit to 
the one family that was productive that 
year, to cover the unusual expenses at 
child-birth and during confinement, as 
well as smaller sums at stated intervals 
afterward. 

The increased expenses would thus 
be carried by a group instead of being 
met wholly by the productive parents 
concerned. 

The benefit payment could not be 
considered a bribe, or in the light of 
charity, because the beneficiary would 
also be one of the contributors. 

EXTENSION SERVICE IN THE HOME 

It would be specific, reaching the 
point toward which it was aimed, if 
administered carefully by the agent of 
the proposed society, especially if in 
connection with prenatal work and the 
follow-up visits of a nurse. 



It w^ould be reasonable to expect a 
reduction in the number of still births 
and in the loss of life in early infancy 
from accidents and compHcations which 
mav thus be avoided. Also maternal 
mortalitv should be influenced for the 
better. 

The benefit could be steady and con- 
tinuous or just to cover the lying-in 
period as arranged for and desired. 

Compliance with the fourth stipula- 
tion would give the plan eugenic value 
as it would open the way to increase the 
birth and survival rates among those 
now shaping the thought and controlling 
the affairs of the nation. It is well 
known that our captains of industry, 
statesmen, soldiers, writers, scientific 
and professional classes are not per- 
petuating their strains in sufficient num- 
bers to keep their stocks intact. 

A recent number of the Joi'RNAl of 
Heredity reported an investigation of 
the California Society of Mayflower 
Descendants showing the utterly inad- 
equate fecundity among its members. 

The somewhat spectacular statement 
was made that if the present rate of less 
than two children per family should 
continue for another three hundred 
years, it would be possible to put all 
of the descendants of that rare stock 
into a boat no larger than the May- 
flower without overcrowding. If this 
reproductive rate can be taken as a 
criterion of the superior stocks through- 
out the country, it is none too soon 
to sound the clarion note to awaken a 
widespread interest and consideration 
of what practical steps may be taken 
along constructive lines to prevent 
racial decay. 

In order to keep a stock from act- 
ual decline in numbers, Robert C. 
Sprague has shown that there must be 
an average of 3 7/10 children per fertile 
family to assure the raising of at least 
three children to marriageable age. 

EFFECT OF INCOME ON FAMILY LIFE 

The relation between the amount of 
income and the number of children in 
a family is definitely known. It is cer- 
tain that an inverse ratio exists in most 



90 



The Journal of Heredity- 



sections of our country today; in a gen- 
eral way statistics show the larger fam- 
ilies to be associated with the smaller in- 
come groups and vice versa. 

It is shown by the 1918 report of the 
Federal Children's Bureau that the 
deatli rate of infants under one year is 
very closely correlated with the earnings 
of the father. Where the father re- 
ceives less than $550 yearly, one baby 
in six does not reach its first birthdav, 
while onlv one in sixteen dies before 
reaching one year where the father 
earns as much as $1,250. The economic 
status of the family has a very impor- 
tant bearing upon the number of chil- 
dren surviving in any one group. 

The average amount that the family 
**budget" is increased by the advent and 
support of each additional chikl in the 
income groups between $800 and $2,000 
has been determined by the valuable 
research of Wm. F. Ogburn of the Bu- 
reau of Labor Statistics. The equations 
which he has formulated should prove 
very helpful in determining the average 
expenditure for different commodities 
for families of varying sizes within the 
stipulated incomes. (See Note B.) Fur- 
ther research may be required to deter- 
mine similar averages for the higher 
income groups. 

It seems reasonable to suppose that 
the expenses after the lying-in period 
for the first child, would not quite re- 
turn to the amount expended to support 
the parents alone ; and so, with the sec- 
ond, third and subsequent children, the 
total amount spent should be greater 
than when the family was one less in 
number, if the established standard of 
living is to be maintained. 

The dues to form the protective fund 
would have a certam definite relation 
to the economic status of the family ; the 
income group receiving from $500 to 
$1,000 yearly would have a low annual 
fee to pay; the next group receiving 
from $1,000 to $1,500 would contribute 
a slightly larger amount and so on. Or 
groups may be formed by bodies of 
people with like interests, such as teach- 
ers, college professors, various clubs and 
societies organized for other purposes. 



as well as young professional and busi- 
ness "men who might adapt this plan to 
meet their needs and thus enable them 
to enjoy a protected parenthood among 
their most worthy members. 

It Avould be possible to develop the 
plan on broader, more comprehensive 
lines, if eligibility for membership coukl 
be in several classes — associate, active, 
and supporting. 

Associate niembers would pay an 
annual fee of $2 and would receive bull- 
etins and other printed matter that was 
issued. 

Active members would pay an annual 
fee proportionate to income, and would 
be the only class of members to partici- 
pate in the benefit. 

Conceivably, many who are econom- 
ically independent and deeply interested 
in the advancement of the race, might 
become supporting members contribut- 
ing $1,000 or more. These could be 
known as ''Founders;" contributors of 
$500 could be "Patrons," and those pay- 
ing $100 "Benefactors," etc. 

If the income from the above sources 
permitted, a Foundation for the Pro- 
motion of Rational Parenthood could 
be developed with departments* for Re- 
search, Education of Public Opinion, 
and a magazine devoted to such sub- 
jects as Eugenics, Giild Welfare, Pub- 
lic Health, Sex Education, Voluntary 
Parenthood etc., all tending directly or 
indirectly to advance the cause of race 
betterment. 

What more fitting memorial to Roose- 
velt could be erected as a tribute to his 
ideals, than an institution of this sort? 

In order to safeguard earners against 
the disquietude caused by a rise in the 
cost of living, such as that through 
which w^e have just been passing, it is 
advisable to adopt measures, by means 
of which adjustment of wages to the 
cost of living is more or less automatic. 
(See Note C.) 

war's drain on worthy stocks 

The recent war, with the inevitable 
loss of many choice strains of younjr 
manhood, has shown the necessity of 
constructive effort to increase the fertil- 



Noyes: Development of Useful Citizenship 



91 



ity among the remaining worthy strains. 
It may and should do much to arouse 
pubHc opinion to support measures di- 
rected toward the building of a sounder, 
saner, more enlightened race. 

Note A 

A great step toward the solution of the 
problems of the care and training of chil- 
dren under school age would be taken, if 
there could be a development of the creche 
or day nursery as a department in our public 
school system, in such a way that young chil- 
dren could be cared for for an hour or for 
the day. 

A training school for trained mothers* as- 
sistants could be developed in connection 
with the creche, with a force of doctors, 
nurses, kindergartners and child psychologists 
to instruct in the care and feeding of infants 
as well as their physical and mental develop- 
ment, by games, exercises, stories etc. The 
trained mothers* assistant would not be a 
governess, trained nurse, or kindergartner, 
but would partake a little of all three, so as 
to be thoroughly competent to care for 
healthy children under school age. 

It would be an advantage if the course of 
study could be standardized by the Board of 
Regents and a diploma awarded. Thus a new 
and dignified profession for women would be 
developed. 

If this course should be given in an inter- 
mediate year between grammar and high 
school, every girl leaving school would have 
a legitimate means of earning a livelihood, 
and the plan would have a far-reaching effect, 
not only in better care of the babies of this 
and the next generations, but it might aid 
in the solution of social problems as well. 

Note B 

Sc€, "Financial Cost of Rearing a Child" 
by Wm. F. Ogburn, Bureau of Labor 
Statistics in the "Report of the Children's 



Bureau Conferences May and June 1919.*' 
Bureau Publication No. 60, p. 26. 

Note C 

One firm in Central Xevv York has insti- 
tuted what is called the High Cost of Living 
Wage Plan after considerable study and 
investigation. They put the following plan 
into effect in January 1917 after a liberal 
raise in wages had already taken place. 

They selected Bradstreet's Index Number 
as a basis for calculations, as that figure 
formed as it is from the average of 100 
commodity values, such as a ton of coal and 
a bushel of i)otatoes, corresponds closely to 
the actual changes in living expenses and 
does not make sudden, large fluctuations. 
The increase during the previous year was 
determined, and a 1 to 20 ratio adopted so 
that the percentage for the H. C. L. wage 
would increase or decrease 1% for each 
20-point change in the Bradstreet number, 
or J4% fc^r each 5-point change; the changes 
being made monthly and the Index Number 
for the preceding month being used through- 
out the month following. The extra wages 
were given in a separate envelope known as 
the High Cost of Living Envelope, the 
regular wages being given as usual in an- 
other. 

The percentage of extra wages received 
was 16% in Jan. 1917. From this point it 
gradually, but steadily rose until it reached 
Ay/i in August, 1918, which was the highest 
point for 1918. The fluctuations during 1919 
have been from 33^% in April to 4SVi% in 
December. 

The index number being determined by a 
firm entirely outside of the company is a 
factor to be considered from its psychologic 
bearing, as the company itself cannot be 
held responsible for the fluctuations. 

Although this plan, in its entirety, may 
not be adapted to all forms of business, still, 
it may be of interest to note that in practice 
it fully equalled anticipation, and its justice 
is unquestioned. 



Inheritanck, by Whitfield G. Howell. 
Pp. 190. Boston: The Roxburgh 
Publishing Co., Inc., 1919. 

It is difficult to say anything for Mr. 
Howell except that most damaging of 



all compliments, that **he meant well." 
He has written a novel to convey to 
the public the supposed truths of 
heredity. But almost everything he 
tells about heredity is incorrect. The 
book has, moreover, little literary merit. 



A MUTATING BLACKBERRY- 
DEWBERRY HYBRID 

L. R. Detjen 
N. C. Agricultural Experiment Station, ll'csl Raleigh. 



MUTATIONS among the black- 
berries and dewberries, with the 
exception of chimeras, havt 
been seldom reported. Riihti.t 
laciniatus Willd. is considered a cut- 
Icavcd form of the luiropeaii black- 
Iterry, R. fnicticosus L. Whether it 
originated from a seed or from a mutat- 
ing vegetative l)nd seems to have never 
iK'en recorded. A cnt-leaved variety of 
dewberrj' of distinctly trriiling liabits 
has also fonnd its way to the markel 
and is grown mostly for ornamental 
purposes. Ixil, like Riibii.t laciniatus. 
the origin of this dewberry is obscure 
and only a matter for speculation. 

It was the writer's good fortune to 
discover in the summer of 1915 a 
similarly cut-leaved plant arising as a 
bud mutation from what appears to l>e 
a wild, natural. hlackl)erry-dewberry 
hybrid. As this hybrid form is very 
common in the vicinitv of Raleigh. 
N. C„ no especial emphasis need be 
laid on the probable parental species. 
The plant was found growing on a high 
embankment on the railroad right-of- 
way of the spur that enters the Slate 
Fair Grounds at Wc^t Raleigh. N. C. 

The plant when discovered possessed 
two canes, one normal, t. e.. with entire 
leaflets, and one abnormal, i. c. with 
finely divided leaflets (see Figs. 19 and 
20). As the plant possessed all indica- 
tions of possible propagation by mean* 
of tip-layers, this method was at once 
resorted to and two new plants were 
Ihus secured. 

In the late fall of 1915 the mulating 
crown was taken up and planted in the 
station experimental vineyard. The 
two new plants that were secured by 
means of tip-layering were planted in 
the horticultural grounds among five 
varieties of blackl)errics and three 
varieties of dewberries. .Ml of the 
plants grew and reproduced the divided 



THE CUT-LEAVED MUTATION 




A CANE FKOM THE ORIGINAL PLANT 

This shows well Ihcj archcc] cane. Note also the self-rootcd tip-layer and the undivided leaf- 
lets. This plant produced the cut-leaved form by means of a mutatinK vegetative bud. Grcatlv 
reduced. (Fig. 20.) 



INTERMEDIATE ATAVISTIC TYPE 

This constitutes! the first visible atavistic 
step of the cut-leaved form. fFig. 21.) 



EXTRE.ME ATAVISTIC TYPE 

The leaflets on this eane are undivided like 
those on the original wild forms. (Pig. 22.) 



94 



The Journal of Heredity 



leaflets. The two tip-layered plants 
in succeeding years continued to repro- 
duce themselves naturally by means of 
suckers and tip-layers, and these also 
produced the divided leaflets of the 
original mutation. 

In the fall of 1919, two atavistic 
mutations were observed growing 
among the progeny of these plants. By 
careful study and root tracing, these 
atavistic forms were found associated 
only with those ])lants that had orig- 
inated as suckers from the roots of one 
of the original tip-layered plants. One 
of these atavistic mutations affects the 
four lower leaflets only, these being 
entire, while the upper leaflet is more 
or less divided (see Fig. 21). This 
form might be termed an intermediate 
type. 11ie other mutation consists of a 
complete reversion of all the leaflets to 
the original undivided form. This is 
the extreme type (se Fig. 22). All of 
the leaflets on these later atavistic 



plants are uniform, and none exhibit 
the tendency toward segmentation. 

From a horticultural viewpoint, these 
mutations are extremely interesting, 
and the finely divided leaf forms may 
even be termed ornamental. The canes 
normally grow arched, ascending about 
2 to 3 feet high with short, leafy 
flower clusters. The foliage on the 
young canes appears by far the more 
ornamental because of the beautifully 
five-pointed and much divided leaflets. 
On the fruiting canes the leaves are less 
divided and less graceful, and therefore 
such canes ought to be removed soon 
after the flowering season. Fruit on 
these mutating plants, especially the 
cut-leaved forms, is very seldom pro- 
duced, notwithstanding the abundance 
of pollen that is borne by the nine dif- 
ferent varieties of Rubus that grow in 
close proximity — in fact within the 
same row. 



Heredity and Environment in the 
Development of Men, by Edwin 
Grant Conklin, professor of biology 
in Princeton University. Princeton 
University Press, 1919. Third re- 
vised edition. Pp. 361, with 101 
illus. 

When Dr. Conklin*s book first ap- 
peared in 1914 it met with a warm wel- 
come, but much progress has been made 
since then in the study of eugenics, and 
an examination of this latest revision 
vshows that the book has hardly been 
brought lip to date. The principal 
changes have been made in the chapter 
on "The Cellular Basis of Heredity and 
Development,'* and Dr. Conklin's 
authority in this field makes what he 
has to say on the subject welcome. 
But the sections devoted to eugenics are 
inadequate at present, and any serious 
discussion of the application of eugenics 
is almost lacking. The book is still dis- 
figured by a number of old illustrations 



that ought not to be allowed to circulate 
in the present age of photography, 
though their oflFense is more esthetic 
than scientific. 

The inadequacy of Dr. Conklin's 
treatment of his subject is more or less 
inevitable, since he writes wholly as a 
biologist, and the study of heredity and 
environment of mem from a purely 
biological point of view is fraught with 
great diffkulties. A book on the sub- 
ject, toJi^ve much practical value, must 
be written largely from the biometric 
and sociological points of view. The 
author has perhaps made as much as 
possible out of the material available, 
but it will be a long while before the 
purely biological data available on man 
are sufficient to satisfy an inquisitive 
reader. Even of the material available, 
a more rigid selection should have been 
used, as in the enumeration of charac- 
ters in man that are sui>posed to be 
inherited in Mendelian fashion. — P. P. 



AN AWARD OF HONOR 

TO WALTER VAN FLEET 

For Ht8 Contributions to the Advancement of Horticulture, Especially Roses, 
He Is Given the George Robert White Medal of Honor 



THE presentation of certificates, 
diplomas and medals by societies 
as well as by national and inter- 
national expositions has been a 
recognized practice for many genera- 
tions. Usually such trophies arc given 
in lieu of a money premium in recog- 
nition of the excellence or the magni- 
tude of an exhibit. 

As early as 1871 the American 
Pomological Society decided to secure 
a die for a medal to be awarded as its 
premium in lieu of cash, and this 
medal has since been awarded to indi- 
viduals, firms and societies for speci- 
mens or collections of fruit exhibited. 
Such awards tend to stimulate coni;jc- 
tition among growers for the coveted 
prize, the excellence of the exhibit be- 
ing ganged by the character of the 
metal used (silver or bronze) in stii't- 
ing the medal. 

It remained for Mr. Geornc Robert 
White of Boston to make it pcs^ible 
for the Massachusetts Horticultural 



Society, through his gift to it in 1^X19 
of $7,500. to award to the man or 
woman, commercial firm or institution 
in the United States or i" some other 
country, doing the most iii recent ye^rs 
to advance the interests of horticulture 
ill its broadest .iense, the niedijl kiiov.n 
as the "George Robert While Medal 
of Honor." Every year since its foun- 
dation it has been given to worhers in 
the field of horticulture, not because 
they exhihitcd a plalc of fruit cr as- 
sembled a large and noteworthy collec- 
tion of varieties, hut rather for the 
contribution which they as individuals 
have made to the horticultcral world. 
So far. two well-defined motives 
have apparently dominated the ideas 
of the judges charged with awarding 
Ibe George Robert White Mc-'al of 
Honor. One evident motive is to en- 
courage and adequately honor proiluc- 
tive horticultural exploration: the 
other is to encourage the production 
of new plant fi>rms. [larticiilarly orna- 



THE GEORGE ROBERT WHITE MEDAL OP HONOR (FIG. 23) 



96 



The Journal of Heredity 



mentals, by means of hybridization. 
No less than five of the ten medals so 
far awarded have been given in recog- 
nition of achievement in the produc- 
tion of new plant products. 

The award of the medal in 1919 was 
made to Dr. Walter Van Fleet of the 
United States Department of Agricul- 
ture, Washington, D. C, "for advance 
in the hybridization of garden plants, 
especially of the rose." The name 
"Van Fleet" is synonymous with meri- 
torious climbing roses of American 
origin. In the work of producing 
roses, Dr. Van Fleet has not been sat- 
isfied with a plant that produced a 
flower of the quality, size and color 
desired ; the production was not com- 
plete or satisfactory from his point of 
view unless the plant possessed a high 
degree of vigor, hardiness, resistance 
to disease and abundant bloom. Jn 
Silver Moon, Dr. W. Van Fleet, Ameri- 
can Pillar, Magna frano, Rugosa Mag- 
nifica, Birdie Blye and Bess Lovett 
these characteristics are strikingly mani- 
fested. 

But the crowning achievement in 
the production of roses is yet to be 
introduced to the American public. 
This we believe will be accredited to 
Dr. Van Fleet when his new Multiflora 
Rugosa is given to rose lovers who 
find themselves situated in territory 
where native wild roses once carpeted 



the earth with a glory of bloom almost 
beyond comprehension in its beauty 
and abundance, but where the horticul- 
tural varieties of Europe and the 
eastern United States languish and die. 
In the great inland empire of the 
United States, frequently designated 
the "Great Plains," these new children 
of the hardy north European rugose 
promise to live, flourish and once more 
restore to the prairie the blush of the 
rose which it wore as a crown of glory 
each spring before the advent of the 
plow. These new forms are notable 
not only for their flowers but because 
they are, when not in bloom, shrubs of 
attractive form and foliage. 

No contribution of new plant forms 
to ornamental horticulture has added 
more than these new creations promise. 
They are ornamental shrubs with pleas- 
ing habit, abundant, glossy, attractive 
foliage of the rugosa type, and a wealth 
of bloom followed by large ornamental 
heps. The production of these rose 
shrubs is the tangible expression of a 
cherished horticultural ideal, and dem- 
onstrates dominance of mind over 
matter. 

The awarding of the George Robert 
White Medal of Honor to Dr. Van 
Fleet is the placing of an honor w^ell 
deserved. May he live to achieve a 
more complete fulfillment of his ideals ! 



The Birth Rate in Mixed Marriages 



An increased birth rate in marriages 
between Jews and Lutheran Germans 
in Hamburg is described by R. E. May 
(Ztschft. f. Sexualwissenschaft, April, 
1919). Taking several hundred mar- 
riages of each class, contracted in Ham- 
burg in 1900, he found the following 
results in the birth records of 1901 and 
1902 : Both partners Jewish, 9.0 births 
per 100 marriages; both partners Lu- 
therans, 11.7: husband Jewish, 14.0; 
wife Jewish, 19.6. 



It is of course questionable whether 
the numbers involved are large enough 
to have any real significance in relation 
to fecundity. Professor May thinks 
they are and that the explanation is 
economic, rather than biological, the 
mixed marriages in his opinion repre- 
senting cases where money was an im- 
portant factor, and these households 
therefore being better able to afford 
children. 



The 



Journal of Heredity 

(Formerly tke American Breeders* MagaEUie) 



Vol. XI. No. 3 



March, 1920 



CONTENTS 

A Disorder of Cotton Plants in China: Club-leaf or Cyrtosis, by 

O. F. Cook 99 

Eugenics in Germany 110 

liOck^B Last Work — a review 110 

Heritable Characters of Maize — III Brachytic Culms, by J. 11. 

Kempton Ill 

Mendelism — a review 115 

Swine, Sheep and Goats in the Orient, by C. O. Levine 117 

Inbreeding and Outbreeding — a review by Paul Popen«>e 125 

Eugenics in Scandinavia 128 

Natural Wheat-Rye Hybrids of 1918, by Clyde E. Leighty 129 

World Power and Evolution — a review by Paul Popenoe 137 

The Physical Basis of Heredity — a review Hi 



The Journal of Heredity is published monthly by the American Genetic Associa- 
tion (formerly called the American Breeders' Association) for the benefit of its 
members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should send 25 cents a year, 
in addition to their regular membership dues of $2.00, because of additional postage 
on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same reason. Sub- 
scription price to non-members, $2.00 a year, foreign postage extra; price of single 
copies, 25 cents. 

Entered as second-class matter February 24, 1915, at the postoffice at Washing- 
ton, D. C, under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1920 by the 
American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles per- 
mitted, upon request, for a proper purpose, and provided due credit is given to 
author and to the Journal of Heredity (Organ of the American (jenetic Associa- 
tion), Washington, D. C. 



Date of issue of this number. May 6, 1920, 



( 



COTTON DISEASE IN CHINA 

A branch of a Cliincsc cotlcin plant affct-tec] by tlie club-leaf (cjTtosis) disorder. 
In tht lowtr part the intomoiios art of normal Icnglh and the loaves of norma) 
size ami shape, but change abruptly in the upper part to the short intcmoties and 
distorted leaves that characterize the disorder. Photograph natural size. (No, 
81.) Nanking, China, Oct. 25, 1919. (Frontispiece.) 



A 



DISORDER OF COTTON PLANTS 

IN CHINA: CLUB-LEAF OR CYRTOSIS 

A Serious Limiting Factor of Production Not Hitherto Recognized, 
Resulting in Abnormal growth and Sterility 

O. F. Cook 
Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S. Department of Aijriculture 



WHY China does not produce 
more cotton is a question to be 
answered largely in terms of 
disease and insect injury. The 
total production undoubtedly could be 
increased greatly, and the quality im- 
proved, if selection and other precau- 
tions were applied, but the pests and 
diseases are not to be disregarded. In 
addition to direct damage by the pink 
boll-worm and other insects, there is a 
peculiar abnormality or disordered be- 
havior of the plants, which undoubtedly 
IS one of the principal limiting factors 
of cotton production in the central 
regions of the Yangtze Valley. Though 
not showing definitely diseased spots or 
other localized injuries that bacteria, 
fungi or insect parasites usually inflict, 
the plants are crippled, the leaves re- 
duced in size, discolored and distorted, 
the petioles and internodes shortened, 
and the branching habits changed. 
Badly affected plants become somewhat 
club-shaped, with a dense "witches'- 
broom" growth of dwarf branches and 
small crumpled leaves at the top, which 
has suggested "club-leaf" as a name for 
the disorder. 

OTHER NON-PARASITIC DISORDERS 

The word disorder has been applied 
to other forms of abnormal behavior of 
cotton plants in the United States, such 
as the leaf-cut or tomosis. which also 
occurs in China and often is associated 
with severe cases of club-leaf. The 
effect of tomosis is to kill irregular 
areas of leaf-tissue, giving a ragged 



appearance that may be mislaken for 
insect injury. The (lamage begins with 
dead oil-glands and spreads to the neigh- 
boring cells, sometimes destroying large 
portions of young leaves, which may 
regenerate partly to form even rounded 
margins, but in very abnormal shapes 
(see Fig. 4). 

Club-leaf shows a closer analogy, as 
well as more resemblance to the leaf- 
cnrl disorder caused by plant-lice. With 
both disorders the leaves are distorted, 
but in leaf-curl the base of the leaf 
is deeply crumpled, while in club-leaf 
the margins and lobes are more af- 
fected, rather than the base of the 
leaf. (Compare Fig. 3 with Fig. 4.) 
Leaf-curl affects the seedlings, is most 
prevalent in the spring months, and 
usually causes only slight and tempo- 
rary injury, whereas the Chinese dis- 
order does not come in the spring but 
is most injurious during hot weather, 
at the height of the fruiting season. 

Though such disorders may not Ik* 
directlv transmitted thev need to b? 
j-tudied from the standpoint of heredity. 
11ie different kinds of cotton show 
various reactions and degrees of sus- 
cei)tibility or immunity, which are con- 
stitutional in the plants, and undoubt- 
edly are inherited. The cause of club- 
leaf was not determined, but leaf -hop- 
pers were extremely abundant on cot- 
ton, soy beans, egg-plants and other 
croi)s that are planted together in 
China, and may be suspected of causing 
or transmitting the disorder.* 

'A leaf-curl disease of cotton in Kast Africa has been ascribed to "cicaden." See 
Kraenzlin, G., 1911. Beitraegc zur Kcnntnis dcr Kraeusel-Krankheit der Bauinwolle, Dor 
Pflanzer, 7:327. For descriptions of Icaf-ciit and leaf-curl see Circular 120, Bureau of 
Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. Agriculture, issued April 5, 1913. 

99 



EXTREMi; FORM OF THE CLIH-U-:AF DISORDER 

Branch of a Chinese cotlon plant showing very short intemodes, many abnormal 
branches and closely crumplnl leaves forming compact masses like the so-called 
"witches brooms." PhotoBraph natural size, Nanking, China, Oct. 25, 1919. (Fig. 1.) 



A LE.SS EXTHEMIi: l-'(>K.M OF TIIK DIS(>HDKH 

A lip of a Chinest- (i)tlon plant affiflii] liy Ihc club-k-af in a li'ss e^trtnie fonn 
than that ahoivn in thu priviiiing illustraliun. This shows almiirtiial lirancliing 
sitort intcmodps an'l ilislcTled li-avea liul thcsi' symptoms arc not ikvclcipfd tn 
the greatest extent anrl the pxiMh is less mmjiact llianinlht ivorst fasfs. Photo- 
craph natural size, XankltiK, Cliinn. Oct. JS, IQIO. (Fig, 2.) 



. • . • 



102 



• •• • • • 



• • 



• 






^^••••/•i vPhe Journal of Heredity 
* • • * 



RELATION/ XO*rtxtERNAL CONDITIONS 

/rte cJiib-Feaf disorder is manifested 
• iii.-many* different degrees, depending 
^ *iipb*n external conditions and partly 
•' upon the variety. Though all of the 
plants become more or less abnormal 
in an affected area, individuals that 
stand side by side may show different 
degrees of deformity or reduction of 
the leaves, especially in the Chinese 
cotton and other unselected stocks. 
(See Figs. 1 and 2.) In severe cases 
all of the floral buds are aborted 
so that no more fruit can be set, and the 
crop is limited to the early bolls. Late- 
planted cotton suffers worse than early 
plantings, because there is less time fo 
set a crop before the club-leaf begins. 
Plantings that fail to fruit early may 
remain completely sterile. With cooler 
weather in September or October, flow- 
ering and fruiting may be resumed, but 
the late bolls are not likely to open 
before frost. Hot weather in the spring 
is supposed to devek)p the di3order 
early in the season, and the injury is 
worse in some years than it was in 
1919, according to native growers near 
Nanking. 

Little injury is done by club-leaf in 
the coast districts around Shanghai, 
Hangchow and Nantungchow, but very 
severe injuries were found at Wusih, 
Nanking, Anking, W-uchang, Nan- 
chang, and Yochow. In districts to the 
north of Nanking, as at Chuchow and 
Nanhsuchow, and north of Hankow, at 
Chengchow and Changteho, the club- 
leaf is generally present, but appears 
rather late in the season, so that the 
damage is not serious, and cotton is 
the chief crop in many districts. The 
country around Changteho, visible from 
the tomb of Yuan Shi Kai, appeared 
as an almost continuous cotton field. 
Around Peking and Tientsin club-leaf 
apparently ceases to be a factor of 
practical imix)rtance, only the last 
growth of the season being discolored 
or distorted. 

The relative immunity of the more 
continuously humid rice country along 
the eastern coast may be explained by 



facts noted at Nanking University, 
where one comer of the experimental 
field was in lower ground and shaded 
from the morning sun by the wall of a 
compound and a row of trees. In this 
part of the field no symptoms of club- 
leaf disorder could be detected at the 
middle of August, though in other parts 
of the same field the disorder -was 
strongly developed, and by the end of 
August it had appeared also on the 
later growth of the plants in the pro- 
tected corner. In another protected and 
somewhat shaded planting at Nanchang, 
some of the very late growth of the 
Upland varieties seemed to be entirely 
normal, although somewhat older leaves 
of the same plants were discolored and 
distorted. 

ABNORMALITY OF BRANCHING 

A general symptom of club-leaf is the 
development of many branches from 
buds that in normal plants would re- 
main dormant. Although vegetative 
branches usually are produced only 
from the lower joints of the main stalk, 
each leaf-axil contains a bud that may 
grow into a vegetative branch, follow- 
ing an injury or under conditions of 
luxuriance. In severe cases of club- 
leaf most of the axillary buds develop 
into branches, and even adventitious 
buds produce branches, sometimes four 
or five from the same node, a condition 
that might be described as abnormal 
proliferation or polyclady. The forma- 
tion of extra branches goes farther with 
the Chinese cotton than with Upland 
varieties, and produces the densely club- 
like masses of foliage which suggested 
the name of the disease. (See Frontis- 
piece and Figs. 1 and 2.) Upland vari- 
eties do not not form such dense masses 
of foliage, but retain a more open habit 
of growth as shown in Fig. 9. 

SHORTENING OF INTERNODES AND 
PETIOLES 

Another element of the changed 
appearance of the affected plants is 
the shortening of the joints of the stalks 
and branches, and the petioles of the 



CHINESE COTTON LEAVES AFFECTED BY CLUB-LEAF 

Club-leaf or cyrtosis of Cliina somewhat reseml ties the plant-louse leaf-curl, but instead of the 
cnunpljii^ of the base of the leaf, the lobes are distorted and the man^ns rolled, with yellowing 
or reddening of tissue between the veins, shortening of petioles and intemodes, abnormal braneh- 
ing and abortion of buds an<l bolls. Natural size. (Fig. 3.) 



104 



The Journal "bf Heredity 



leaves. In this there is an analogy with 
the condition called "clustering" or 
"brachysm/* which is a feature of some 
varieties of Upland cotton in the United 
States. In some varieties brachysm is 
definitely hereditary, while in others the 
shortening of the joints has relation 
to external conditions. But in bra- 
chysm only the joints of the fruiting 
branches are shortened, whereas the 
club-leaf disorder also affects the inter- 
Tiodes of the main stalk and the vegeta- 
tive branches. The shortening, like the 
abnormal branching, is carried farthest 
in the Chinese cotton, not so far in the 
Upland, and is still less apparent in the 
Sea Island and Egyptian types. 

REDUCTION AND DISTORTION OF 
LEAVES " '*^^ 

In severe cases of club-leaf the leaves 
are greatly reduced, often to less than 
half the normal size, and are twisted 
and crumpled over the entire surface, 
with a general arching or bending back 
of the midrib and principal veins, so 
that the lobes and margins of the leaf 
are turned under. In the native Chin- 
ese cotton these symptoms are carried 
somewhat further than in the foreign 
varieties, though Upland cotton also is 
severely affected, and sometimes the 
margins and lobes are rolled under 
more abruptly and regularly than with 
the Chinese cotton. (Compare Figs. 
1 and 2 with Figs. 5 and 9.) 

DISCOLORATION OF LEAVES 

Though the discoloration differs in 
extent with varieties and conditions, an 
angular mottling of the web of the 
leaves is a regular feature of the club- 
leaf disorder, beginning along the 
margins and advancing into the thinner 
tissue between the lobes, though keep- 
ing away from the principal veins. At 
first the discoloration is only a paler 
and more yellowish-green, which con- 
tinues in the Chinese cotton to the end 
of the season, but in Upland cotton a 
reddish tinge soon becomes appreciable 
and gradually becomes more pro- 
nounced. Late in the season, a deep 



red color renders the fields of Upland 
cotton strikingly different from the 
native Chinese cotton, even at a dis- 
tance. 

Among the Upland varieties grown at 
Nanking University and at the Wu- 
chang Experiment Station, the Durango 
reacted most strongly in regard to dis- 
coloration and distortion of the leaves, 
and Columbia the least, but the Colum- 
bia seemed to be less mature than the 
other varieties, and maturity may be a 
factor in bringing the disorder into ex- 
pression. 

Connected, perhaps, with the more 
pronounced color reaction, is the fact 
that when affected plants of Upland 
cotton suffer from drought or other 
unfavorable conditions, the discolored 
portions of the leaves may dry out and 
die, the death of the tissue taking the 
same course as the discoloration, begin- 
ning at the margins, following back be- 
tween the principal veins, and leaving 
a band of tissue alive along the veins. 

The discoloration of the leaves, in 
connection with the other symptoms, 
suggests that the club-leaf may prove 
to be one of the so-called mosaic dis- 
eases, the causes of which are still 
obscure, though some of them, such as 
the sugar-beet disease of the United 
States and the sugar-cane disease of 
Hawaii, are supposed to be transmitted 
through the agency of insects. On the 
other hand, analogy with the leaf-curl 
caused by the plant-lice might account 
for club-leaf without supposing that a 
germ or parasitic organism is involved. 
Though the injuries are more serious 
than those of leaf-curl, there is a similar 
limitation to the growing tissues, with 
no appreciable effect upon the parts that 
have developed earlier in the season. 
The injury as a whole may be con- 
sidered as a generalized gall-formation 
modifying the growth of the plant while 
the insects are active, but not affecting 
the tissues that are formed before or 
after. The discoloration symptom is 
lacking in the plant-louse disorder, but 
some galls are highly colored and others 
not. The club-leaf is not transmitted 



IJiAF-ClT )>R TO.MOSIS 

I^iir-i'ut iniurii-i arc wriousimly in the iifiring iv)icn the plants arc iti [he smiliiij; 
Ma):i-. It liegin.^ ul the oil t-ktiil^ anil is caiisiil liy llic ilcnlli nf iint;ulur urcua 
of kaf-fi-siii-s, Ki>TfailinK to thi- ncinlit'Tini; li-af -tissues aiiil rniiilliiig in vitv 
tmf^liir miilitations, whii-h, wlicn vcrj- yunnK li'iivrs arc affcitnl, :iri' sonn-- 
ttniis l)oalc(l liy sciirs ur ri-KcniTalfil liy nuw ^'mwlh. Naiunil siic. (Fi;;. 4.) 



The Journal of Heredity 



portation with ornamentals, nursery 
stock or bulbs. 



A DURANGO COTTON PLANT 

This plant was in a somewhat protected 
situation at Nanclianj;. China, but shows 
the effect of the club-leat disorder, in a rather 
mild form, in its restricted growlh, distorted 
and discolored leaves, and tlie fruit aborted, 
'['here is however little reduction In size of 
leaves or shorteninB of petioles, (21761.) 
(Fig. 5.) 

tlirongh the seed, as may be inferred 
from the normal growth and fruiting of 
the plants early in the season, but if the 
disorder is caused by insects which live 
also on other plants, as seems not im- 
probable, there would be danger of im- 



Experiments with American varieties 
are being made in many places in China, 
in the hope that larger crops and better 
quality of fiber can be secured than 
from the native stock. The rapidly ex- 
panding textile industry of China needs 
more cotton, and efforts are now being 
made to increase production as rapidly 
as possible. The existence of such 
plantings made it possible in the season 
of 1919 to compare not only the normal 
behavior of the Chinese cotton and 
Amerifan varieties, but to observe the 
effects of the club-leaf disorder upon 
several kinds of colton growing under 
a wide range of climatic and cultural 
conditions, as already noted. 

The results of the comparison may be 
summarized by saying that the mor- 
phological reactions of the club-leaf 
disorder are most pronounced in the 
Chinese cotton, while in the American 
Upland varieties the jihysiological re- 
actions are more striking. The Chinese 
cotton shows more pronounced changes 
in its habits of growth, while the L' 
land cotton shows more discoloraion. 
Fruiting is .ijuspended in both types 
when the club-leaf disorder is severe, 
though it was noted at Wuchang that 
the Trice cotton continued to produce 
bolls on the club-leaf growth, which 
in the neighboring Chinese cotton was 
entirely barren. Trice had a general 
advantage on account of earliness. 
though Lone Star and Acala appeared 
promising in some of the drier dis- 
tricts, and especially at Peking. 



Several of the plantings included 
Egyptian and Sea Island cotton so that 
the club-leaf reactions could be com- 
pared. In general these types agree 
with the Chinese and contrast with the 
Upland in failing to develop a red dis- 
coloration of the leaves, but the rela- 



DISEASED LEAVES OF EGYPriAN COTTON 

Plant-louse leaf-turl or hybosis, on Egyptian cotton, causing different degrees of 
distortion through shortening of the principal veins andcrumplingorbucklingof the 
web of the leaves but without mutilation or perforation, none of the leaf-tissue 
being killed. The effect of leaf-eurl is to retard temporarily the growth of the 
plants, which recover completely when conditions become favorable (or rapid 
growth in warm weather. Natural size. (Fig. 6.) 



RUSSELL COTTON AT WLOIANG, CHINA 

The club-leaf disorder has affected the plant 
in its later growth as shown at the top 
contrasting with the older normal leaves 
below. (Fig. 7.i 

tions are reversed in respect to reduc- 
tion and distortion, which arc less than 
ill the Ui>Iand cotton, ami much k-^ 
than in Chinese. Another difference is 
that the margins of alTected Sea Island 
and Egyptian leaves usually curve up- 
ward, so that the lohes become tnore 
deeply channelled instead of being 
turned under. The Egyptian cotton at 
Nanking was nearly defoliated by the 
black-arm or angular leaf-spot disease, 
which also attacked the young involucral 
bracts, so that only a few bolls de- 
veloped. This was in striking contrast 
with the Sea Island cotton in the next 
row. which remained vigorous and leafy 
and developed a good crop of bolls, 
though only a few were open at the end 
of October when frOst was expected. 
The Upland cottons were less affected 
by angular leaf-spot than the Egyptian. 
though more than the Sea Island, 
while the Chinese cotton seemed not to 
be attacked. 



A disorder that cripples the plants 
and distorts the leaves undoubtedly 



A LOISE STAR COTTON PLANT 

This plant, at Nanking, China, shows club- 
leaf in its later growth in contrast with the 
normal leaves of older growth. fFig. 8.) 



must increase the difficulty of selection 
and roguing, which are necessary to 
develop and maintain pure stocks of 
seed, but a jKissibility of developing 
immune varieties of the Chinese cotton 
is indicated by individual differences 
of reaction to the disorder that were 
noted in many cases. At Nanking a 
Chinese variety with red leaves showed 
much less reduction and distortion of 
foliage and grew lo twice the size of 
the neighboring green-leaved plants. 
Another Chinese selection with very 
pale foliage and small white, unspotted 
flowers that did not open widely, 
showed a very extreme form of club- 
leaf injury. On the other hand a na- 
tive grower east of Nanking consi- 
dered a "purple-stem" strain of the 
narrow-leaved "chicken- foot" cotton 
more susceptible to the "wilt" than a 
"green-stem" form. At the Wuchang 
Experiment Station many plants of a 
slender, hairy, Indian variety di<l not 
appear to be affected at all by club- 
leaf, although the neighboring rows of 
Chinese cotton were very badty injured. 



CIX'B-I£.\K I.N 1H'KA>(;<> <:(>TTON AT .NAM:IIAN<;, <ill!SA 

This shoB-s that tlic ki'iht-jI (€11-1 of lEif dtsnnUT is the same in Upland lutton as 
in the Cliini'sc miton, iinKiucinj; ri'slrii'ttil growth, ahnonnal branchin);, shortenef! 
internodos ami jK-tifjlcs, and mllinjj "f the lolios, tilt- last usiinlly rnoiv |>ronoiini.'i,'ri 
than in Ihe t'hinvse (futun. Natural sizo. (Fij;. 0.) 



no 



The Journal of Heredity 



POSSIBILITIES OF CONTROL 

Though of a nature entirely different 
from boll-weevil injury, the club-leaf 
disorder may have a similarity in rela- 
tion to control measures, in that early 
setting of a crop may offer the best 
possibility of avoiding injury, supposing 
that insects are responsible for the 
transmission of the disorder. To be rid 
of insects in China may be as impos- 
sible as to exterminate the boll-weevil 
in the United States. Upland cotton 



may have an advantage over the 
Cliinese in the larger size of the bolls 
which may allow a larger crop to 
be set before the disease becomes in- 
jurious. Restricting the growth of the 
plants to insure early fruiting would 
be in order, but the usual Chinese meth- 
ods do not produce large plants. An 
advantage in early fniiting seemed to 
have been gained in the vicinity of 
Nanking by planting cotton on high 
beds, which is supposed to warm the 
ground earlier in the spring. 



Eugenics in Germany 



A prize of 1,000 marks is offered by 
the German Medical Society for Sexual 
Science and Eugenics to the writer of 
the best thesis on the question, '*IIas 
man two kinds of spermatozoa?" 

It is generally assumed by geneticists 
that the question is to be answered af- 
firmatively. This assumption is based 
on results of experimental breeding, 
which are most satisfactorily interpreted 
by such a hypothesis. Cytologists, how- 
ever, have not yet been able to offer 
satisfactory evidence from their micro- 
scopical studies to confirm the hypo- 
thesis. 



The German society, which is now in 
its eighth year, publishes the Archiv 
fiir Frauenkunde und Eugenetik, which 
is now in its fifth volume. 

At the meeting of January 16, 1920, 
Dr. Posner was elected president. The 
other officers chosen were : Dr. Franz, 
first vice-president; Dr. Iwan RIoch, 
second vice-president; Dr. Max Hirsch. 
first secretary; Dr. S. Placzek, second 
secretary; Dr. Otto Adler, treasurer; 
Dr. Blaschko, Dr. Grotjahn, Dr. IT. 
Koerber and Dr. Stabel, directors. 

The headquarters of the society are 
in Berlin W. 30, Motzstrasse 34. 



Lock's Last Work 



Recent Process in the Study of 
Variation, Heredity, and Evolu- 
tion, by R. H. Lock, Sc. D. New 
(4th) ed., revised by L. Doncaster, 
Sc. D., F. R. S. Pp. 336, with 
glossary and illus. New York : E. P. 
Dutton & Co., 1916. 
Dr. Lock published the first edition 
of his book in 1906. The second and 
third editions were his own revision; 
the fourth shows only slight changes, 
which are due to Dr. Doncaster. A 
sketch of Dr. Lock's life, by his wife, 



has been added to good advantage. The 
author gave up his life as a result of 
devotion to war service with the Board 
of Agriculture in England, in 1915, at 
the untimely age of 36. Most of his 
active years were spent at the Royal 
Botanic Gardens in Peradeniya, Ceylon, 
where he did useful work on rubber 
and rice particularly. The book is nec- 
essarily considerably out of date, yet it 
offers in many respects an excellent 
account for beginners in the study of 
organic evolution. — P. P. 



HERITABLE CHARACTERS OF MAIZE 

III. BRACHYTIC CULMS 

J. H. Kempton 
Bureau of Plant Industry, IVasliington, I). C. 



THIS variation consists of a short- 
ening of the internodes on the 
main culm and lateral branches 
without a corresponding^ reduc- 
tion in number or in the number and 
size of other organs. It arose in 1917 in 
the second generation of the Chinese- 
Algerian hybrid designated l)h416*. 
This second generation was being 
grown from self-pollinated seeds. A])- 
j)roximately one-cjuarter of the plants 
were brachvtic, the actual number 
being five brachytic and twenty-one 
normal. One of the five brachytic 
plants was self-pollinated, and the re- 
sulting progeny were all brachytic. The 
progeny of a normal sister plant were 
all of normal stature. Statistical data 
secured for several characters in both 
the normal and brachytic progenies 
are given in Table I. It will be seen 
from the table that the brachytic strain 
exceeds the normal in the diameter of 
the culm and the total number of nodes, 
w-hile the size of the leaves is about 
the same. The upper ear is somewdiat 
smaller in length, but this is apparently 
compensated for by the additional cars 
as the total ear length is approximately 
the same in the two strains. 

Eleven hand-pollinated ears were ob- 
tained from the brachytic ])lants that 
were the result either of self-pollina- 
tions or crosses between sister plants. 
The progenies of these eleven ears with- 
out exception produced nothing but 



brachytic plants. These plants differed 
only superficially in their general 
dimensions from the parental brachytic 
progeny, their mean height being 8.8 
decimeters. When crossed with plants 
of normal stature the first generation is 
as tall or taller than the normal parent, 
and in the second generation both nor- 
mal and brachytic plants were secured 
in the familiar 3 to 1 Mendclain propor- 
tion. 

I»rachylic variations are found in 
many agricultural species, as, for ex- 
ample, the "bush'* varieties of peas, 
beans, squashes and tomatoes, ancl are 
l)opularly known as dwarfs. Cook- 
has ix)inted out a distinction between 
dwarfs which have suffered a reduc- 
tion in the size and number of manv 
organs and those in which stature only 
is reduced. The designation brachytic 
has been suggested for the type wdiere 
the internodes have failed to elongate. 

Dwarfing involving brachysm and 
also true dwarfing or nanism is a varia- 
tion which recurs in maize in widely 
divergent and wholly independent 
slocks. The instances, however, where 
brachysm alone is involved are not 
numerous. Hartley'^ apparently pos- 
sessed a true breeding brachytic strain, 
although it would seem that the leaves 
w^ere somewhat shorter and broader than 
those of normal plants and Gernert* 
describes a single brachytic plant. 



*Kempton. J. H.. "Inheritance of Spotted Aleuronc Color in Hybrids of Chine e Maize" 
Genetics. Vol. 4. May. 1919. 

= Cook. O. F., "Brachysm— .A Heredity Deformity of Cotton and Other Plants." Journal 
of Research, Vol. 3, No. 5. February 15, 1915. 

•Hartley, C. P., "Improvement of Corn by Seed Selection." Year-book, U. S Dept 
Agric, 1912. 

*Gernert, W. B.. "The Analysis of Characters in Corn and their Behavior in Transmis- 
sion." Champaign, III., 1912. 

Ill 



BRACH^TIC AND NORMAL ^lAIZE PLANTS WITH LE.\VF^ HE>10VED 

Another view of the samt plants shown in Fig. 10. The leaves hove heen removal to 
Qcics. Brachytic plants an; unusually well adapted for 



Kempton: Brachytic Culms 



115 



Table I. — Measurements of Plants of Two Sister Progenies One of Which Was Brachytic, the 

Other Norma! in Stature. 



Brachytic 



Normal 



Height of plant in decimeters 8 . 66 =*=0 . 10 

Number of leaves above the ear 3 . 20 ±0 . 08 

Total number of leaves i 22. 90 ±0.19 

Husk leaves 0.06±0.02 

Numlx?r of branches in the tassel 15 .30 ±0.64 

Length of the upper ear in cm 14 . 20 ± . 27 

Total ear length cm '• 27.60±0.98 

Number of rows on upper ear 16 . 30 ± . 26 

Diameter of Culm in 16th inches I 20.50±0.35 

Length of fourth leaf ! 62 .60±6.20 

Width of fourth leaf 9 .20± 1 .40 



14.40 
3.37 
20.80 
0.58 
25.90 
16.40 
28.10 
21.20 
12.40 
64 . 40 
12.30 



±0.24 
±0.09 
±0.27 
±0.13 
±1.01 
±0.23 
±0.71 
±0.30 
±0.21 
±8.90 
±1.50 



In our experiments two other 
brachytic variations have appeared. 
One of these arose in a hybrid having 
as one [xirent the Chinese wax- 
variety, while the other arose in the 
progeny of the hairy Ksperanza 
variety.'* Both of these variations were 
similar in appearance to the brachytic 
type just discussed. In heredity, how- 
ever, they were very dissimilar. 

The brachytic Esperanza plant was 
not self -pollinated but was crossed with 
a normal plant of the Chinese waxy 
variety. The first generation plants 
exceeded in height the normal Esperanza 
plants and in the second generation 
showed only the normal frequency dis- 
tributions with respect to height. 



Mendelism. by Reginald Crundell 
Punnett, F. R. S. Pp. 219, Illus. 
Fifth ed. London: Macmillan & 
Co., Ltd., 1919. 

For nearly fifteen years Punnctt's 
Mendelism has enjoyed a well-deserved 
popularity, because of its simple and 
readable account of the elements of 
genetics. It has been translated into 
German. Swedish, Russian and Japan- 
ese; and it has now been is.sued with 
additions calculated to bring it up to 
date, the last English edition having 
been put out in 1912. 



The other brachytic variation, also 
contrary to the usual behavior, did not 
breed true when self -pollinated, but 
some brachytic i)lants were again 
secured. 

The strain breeding true for brachy- 
tic culms is of interest in that it is as- 
sociated with few or none of the un- 
desirable features which commonlv 
accompany such variations and may 
therefore be of some agricultural value. 
This strain would also seem to provide 
one more true breeding simple Men- 
delian character with which to test the 
linear arrangement of factors. A stock 
of seed has been obtained, and small 
samples will be furnished to those who 
may wish to experiment further with 
this variation. 



P>y American standards, however, it 
is far from up to date, for Professor 
Punnett is not willing to accept the 
conclu.sions which American geneticists 
draw from the work that has been 
done here during the last decade. He 
clings to a terminology that in the 
United States is confusing because 
obsolete, and to conceptions that in the 
United States were long ago discarded. 

English conservatism is doubtless 
useful in science; but in this case it 
has prevented a well-written book from 
being of much use to American stu- 
dents.— P. P. 



'Collins, G. N., •'Correlated Characters in Maize Breeding." Journal Agric. Research 
Vol. VI, No. 12, June 19, 1916. 



ill 



11 

IP. 
» n 

"it 
I -I 



till 



II! 



SWINE, SHEEP AND GOATS 

IN THE ORIENT 

Important Factors in the Animal Industries of China Which Show Need for the 

Application of Modern Principles of Animal Breeding — Average Village 

Farmer Knows Little About Proper Feeding and Selection of Best Types 

C\ O. Levine 
Associate Professor of Animal Hiishuidry, Canton Christian CoHeijc 



IN CHINA tlic swim* industry i> next 
in importance to that of raising poul- 
try. It is (lirtlcult to ascertain the 
number of pijijs raised eadi year in 
that country, and all estimates are little 
more than rou^h guesses. iVof. King, 
in his interesting book, ** Farmers of 
Forty Centuries," estimates the number 
of pigs in Shantung at 25,000,000, a 
number equal to one for each inhabitant 
in that province. A conservative esti- 
mate of pigs raised annually in China 
would be 100,000.000. At the low price 
of $12 (Mex.)* each, which is the 
amount received for the average ])ig 
sold on the market, the annual pig crop 
would have a value of $1,200,0(X).000 
(Mex.). During the years from 1^M5 
to 1917 the average annual exports of 
swine exceeded the imjKirts to the 
amount of 2,000,000 taels.- Most of the 
hogs exi>orted \vere sent to Kongkong 
and to Russia. A large number of 
those sent to Hongkong are butchered 
and converted into lard, which is then 
shipped to Liverpool. 

The exportation of bristles, a by- 
product of the swine industry, is of con- 
siderable importance, the amount of this 
product from Shantung province alone 
amounting to about 500,000 pounds a 
year. The prices paid by exporters for 
cleaned, sorted and dried bristles varie 
from $20 to $220 (Mex.) for 100 
pounds. 

DESCRIPTION OK CHINESE LARD [IOCS 

Hogs in different parts of China vary 
considerably in size and type. The com- 



mon lard hog is found in most places of 
the South. They range in color from 
nearly white to black, or black with 
while ])()inls. In some localities the 
I)igs' ears are large and pendulenl. while 
in others they are small and erect 
Then again, these two tyi)es may bj 
found in the same community. 

A peculiar characteristic of the lard 
hogs of China is their straight tails. 
They do not have the '*kink" which i^ 
characteristic of the tails in modern 
breeds. It is this hog that was largely 
used in the early develojmient of Euro- 
])ean breeds. The meat is of good qual- 
ity and cures fairly well. As a rule the 
hogs are fine-boned and smooth; those 
with wrinkled sides are seldom seen. 
They are slow in maturing. Twelve 
hogs at the Canton Christian College in 
1917 made an average i^iin, at six 
nv^nths of age. of about 0.65 of a pound 
a day on full feed. When one year 
old they usually weigh from 200 to 250 
|)ounds. The average dressing per cent 
of thirty-two hogs butchered at the Col- 
lege in 1017 and 1918 was 72.5*^/. The 
chief objecti(.)n to this hog is its low 
back, scant hams, large belly, low dress- 
ing ])ercentage, and weak j)asterns, 
which easily break down in the animal 
that is being fattened. 

CHINESE METHODS OF RAISINC. PICS 

Most farmers who raise hogs keep 
from one to 'twt or six brood sows. 
The litters are large. A sow is sup- 
posed to be able to nurse at least ten 
|)igs, which seems to be the average 



^$1.40 Mex. is equal to about $1 U. S. currency. 
*Wtth the present rate of exchange, one tael is equal to about $1 U. 



S. currency. 
117 



118 



The Journal of Heredity 



number in the Canton region, although 
as many as fifteen are frequently seen 
with one sow. 

During the day the sow and pigs 
roam at will in the narrow, stone streets 
of the villages, picking up what edible 
garbage they can find. Sometimes, 
however, the sow is muzzled when thus 
turned out with her family of pigs. 

Pigs are usually castrated and spayed 
when they are six to ten weeks old and 
still sucking, although animals weigh- 
ing as much as 100 pounds are some- 
times thus operated on. The Chinese 
consider it just as necessary to spay 
gilts as to castrate boars. Meat from 
un spayed gilts is somewhat coarser than 
that from spayed animals, and better 
growth is also obtained by spaying. 

l>oth operations are considered art ^ 
and practiced only by a few experts. 
Spaying is never attempted by the 
farmer himself, and castration only 
when the services of an expert cannot 
be secured. .A professional usually has 
an apprentice along to assist him. After 
a time the apprentice performs the op- 
erations himself and becomes an ex- 
pert provided he can work rapidly 
enough. The methods used are the same 
as those in western countries. Spaying, 
however, is somewhat diflFerent. 

No disinfectants are used, nor is the 
operator particular about the pig, or 
his own hands being clean. No doubt 
many of the few losses which do occur 
are due to this lack of sanitary precau- 
tion on the part of the operator, and 
because of the fact that feed is not re- 
duced either before or after the opera- 
tion. In the fall of 1918 the service of 
a local hog "veterinarian" — if he should 
be referred to by such an honorable 
title — was secured by the College, and 
four gilts- weighing about forty pounds 
each were spayed. The operator was 
allowed to use his own methods. No 
disinfectants were used, nor was the 
amount of feed reduced, either before 
or after the operation. The operations 
were successful in every case. Very 



little discomfort was shown by the pigs 
after the operation, and they did not get 
"oflF feed." 

HOG FEEDING PLANTS IN CONNECTION 
WITH DISTILLERIES 

Hog feeding plants, feeding from 100 
to 300 hogs at a time, are usually found 
in connection with rice wine distilleries. 
In Honam, south of Canton, there is a 
representative plant of this kind. This 
is a rice wine distillery, with a hog feed- 
ing plant run in connection. The writer 
last visited the plant on November '2, 
1918. At that time about 200 hogs 
were being fed, which was the full 
capacity of the plant. No brood sows 
are kept, but pigs weighing about 50 
catties'^ are purchased from the village 
farmers. Brewer's grains from the dis- 
tillery form the largest part of the ra- 
tion fed, although some rice chop and 
wheat bran is also fed. About 600 
catties of dry feed are required in this 
plant to make 100 catties of gain in 
weight. The hogs are fed for from 200 
to 250 days, and, when sold, weigh 
from 140 to 200 catties. The size of the 
hogs when sold and the length of the 
feeding period depend on the individual 
hogs and on the market prices and de- 
mands. 

The price paid for rice chop varies 
from $3.00 to $4.00 (local silver *) for 
100 catties. Brewer's grains sell for 
40 cents for 100 catties. Manure from 
the plant sells for 30 cents for 100 
catties. The price received for the 
hogs on the market is variable. The 
average price during the years from 
1916 to 1918 was $20.00 (loc^l silver) 
for 100 catties, varying from $16.00 to 
$24.00. The prices paid for market 
hogs depend on the size, condition, and 
the demand at diflferent seasons. Hogs 
weighing about 150 catties usually bring 
the best prices: and the prices are 
usually higher during the winter than 
at other times of the year. Stags and 
sows, even when fat and in good condi- 
tion sell for about three-fourths the 



^A catty, the common unit of weight in China, is equal to 1 1/3 pounds avoirdupois. 
^During past two years about $1.30 local silver has equalled $1 U. S. currency. 



A TYPKUL CHINESE LARD HOC; 



Chinese liogs vary a (jreat deal in type according lo 
come. The straight tail is one <tf' their pct-uliar c 
a year oM is frnm 200 to 250 jxiumis. (Fig. 14.) 



price of good barrows and spayed gilts. 
Unspayed gills also sell at a cut price. 

The hogs in the plant described above 
are kept in a brick building across the 
street from the brewery. They are all 
kept in one room, about 30 feet wide 
and 80 feet long. Pens are arranged 
along the sides of the room with an 
alley about 6 feet wide in the center. 
These pens are 12 feet square, and 
each contains from ton to fourteen 
hogs. A pen of hogs usually represents 
one litter. The floor of the entire room 
is paved with brick tile, sIo|)ing from 
the pens to'the alleyway, on cither side 
of which is a gutter. The floor is 
kept very clean, being washed twice a 
day. and the pigs themselves get washed 
in the process of washing out the pens. 
The .'iolid manure is cleaned from the 
pens before each washing and store<I in 



a brick and concrete tank at the end of 
the room where it remains until it is re- 
moved by buyers. 

THE FEED OF VILLAGE PIGS 

Three times a day the village sow and 
pigs are fed a mixture of a cheap grade 
of rice chop and rice bran, and some- 
times wheat bran, alwut the proportion 
of half and half. Wheat bran is con- 
sidered a l>eUer feed than rice bran, 
but it is usually higher in price. In 
the vicinity of breweries, brewer's grain, 
a by-product of the rice wine industry, 
forms a part of the ration. Vegetables 
and green cut grasses are fed. The rice 
is always fed cooked. Other kinds of 
feed are uncooked. In regions where 
corn is as available and cheap as rice, 
it furni.shes the main fattening part of 
the ration. At night the hogs are kept 



A CHINESE HOG ON ITS WAY TO MARKET (Fig. 15.) 



in a room, which is usually next to the 
owner's hving quarters. The floor is 
usually paved with tile or brick. Some- 
times a corner of the living rooms is 
fenced off for the sow and her family. 
The floor is usually kept very clean. 

From the time they begin to cat. the 
pigs are given all their feed in the form 
of a very wet swill. 'I'hree times a day 
they are allowed to drink all they can 
hold of this feed, which i>ernianently 
enlarges the belly and tends to pull ihc 
animals down in ihe back. Ily proper 
feeding and intelligent selection of 
breeding stock of the best type, these 
two undesirable characteristics, sway- 
back and i>ot-ljelly. could be remedied. 

'Jhc average hog in China is raised 
on as clean food as the hog in .'\merica 
is. It is not a scavenger like Ihe native 
hogs in India and the Philippine 
Islands, and it is fairly free from di;>- 
eases, e.xcei)t for hog cholera, which is 
very prevalent. 

FRESH MEAT AND "W.^TERED MEAt" 

About 1,000 hogs are killed every day 
in the small Canton butcher shops. The 



hogs are butchered early in the morn- 
ing in small slaughter iiouses and de- 
livered immediately to the retail shops. 
In some shops the hogs are butchered 
in the rear of the retail store, which 
opens directly on the street. 

Dishonest butchers who do not mind 
putting their reputation at stake have" 
an interesting method of injecting water 
into the hogs just after they have been 
killed and bled. The water is forced 
in through the vfina cava. The carcass 
of a hog may be increased in weight 
by several pounds by thus "watering"- 
the meal. It is difhcult to detect such 
meat until it is eaten. It has a |>o > " 
flavor compared with normal meat an 1 
will not cure well. This practice is so 
general that it is difficult to secure pork 
in Canton which has not l>een thus 
treated. 

nOC. CIIOI.EHA IS CHINA 

Among the diseases of swine, hog 
cholera, known in England as swine 
plague, and common in ail parts of the 
world where pigs are raised, is prevalent 
in all parts of China, where it is known 



I.N A (miNESE VILLACK STBKKT 

"DurintJ the liay tlic sow ami pij^s roam at wiU in the narrow stonf streets of the \'il!ages 
pickinR up what piiilile garlwige they i:an find. Some times, however, the sow is muzzleii 
when thus turntii out with her family of pi^-s." (Fig. 16.) 



as (.'hue Waaii. During ihe mnnths 
of March. April, and May. it is 
most prevalent in the south of China. 
In thu delta region of Canton abinit 40% 
of the -•'prinif piffs die t-ach vear or are 
marketed l>ecansc of this wide.-iiircaii 
disease. 'I'he fanners recofjnize llu- 
disease b> the iharacieristic deep red 
»ir re(ldi>h-]mrple spots on the abdomen, 
gummy eyes, spcitted kidneys, and in- 
flamed iiite.-tiiies. which are the loni- 
mon symptoms in this region. It i- 
nsuall> accijni|)anie(i by a high fever. 
The Chinese have learned by experi- 
ence that there is no cure for the 
disease, and kni>iv thai it is very in- 
fectious. It usually proves fatal. Ex- 
l>erienced velerinarians. ami lalioraturie- 
for thu prodnelion of vaccine f()r the 
preventiim of the ilisease, are liadiv 
needed. 

Keejjing brcMid sows to an e.xtrenie 
ohi age. or until they become sterile. i,i 
probably lliv salvation of the hog in- 
dustry in I. hinn. Such sows have either 
had ntild attacks ()f diokra when yoinig 



and have become imnnnie or are highly 
resistant li» Ihe disease, for, according 
to village farmers, very seldom does a 
sow more than .i years old get the dis- 
ease. iMirther stu'iy is neces.'iary to <le- 
termine the extent of this natural or 
ac(|uired immunity. Kvidcntly it is 
(piile common, as none of ihc old sows 
observe<l in ihf villages surrounding 
Canton, where cholera rages nearly 
every year, have any of the appearance . 
eonnuon lo hogs that have recoverefl 
from a severe case of di..lera. 

TtnKKCl'UWtS .VNU l-.\R.\a[TES 

Tultercidtisis, a disease (piite common 
among hog's and other livestwk in 
Anu-rica and l-lnrope, gives very little 
tronlile to native livestock of southern 
China. Acoirding lo Dr. .\. Gibson. 
who has been the Colonial Veterinarian 
of Hongkong for thirteen years, and 
who has examined the carcasses of 
thousands of hogs in the government 
slaughter house, tuberculosis in Chin- 
ese hogs is very rare; in cases that have 



A FAT-TAILED SHEEP 

This brccri of sheop is common in all parts of northern China. The large tail characteristic 
of this variety contains a very considerable amount of fat and thus the breed has been called 
the fat-tailed sheep. In arid regions, when food is not plentiful enough, the fat in the tail 



supply nourishment for the n 

been observed, they are invariably the 
animals that have been closely housed 
with the European hogs. This freedom 
from disease is indeed fortunate, for 
tuberculosis is one of the few diseases 
in animals which we dread, not only 
because of the effect of the disease on 
the animal itself, but because of the 
possibility of its being transmitted to 
man. 

Fewer internal parasites are common 
in the native hogs than one would ex- 
pect. A number of tapeworm cysts 
have been found in nearly every hog we 
have butchered at the college during 
the past three years, but, according to 
Prof. Howard of the Biology Depart- 
ment of the Canton Christian College. 
they are not the cysts of the tapeworm 
that is found in man. Dr. Gibson also 
reports he has not yet found the cyst of 
the human tapeworm in the native hog. 
Here again we are fortunate, and great 



tof the body. (Fig. 17.) 

care .should be taken not to introduce 
this parasite from other regions. 

Kidney worms and liver flukes, 
usually common in hogs, have not been 
found in the hogs of southern China, 
A skin disease in the form of a pox 
is very common. It, however, does not 
seem to be a serious disease. With the 
exception of cholera, the native hog in 
South China is, as a whole, a fairly 
healthy animal. 

YL^NNAN HOGS 

In the hilly and wooded regions of 
the western provinces of Yunnan and 
Szechwan the type of hog chiefly 
raised is the bacon hog. This type pro- 
duces a good meat for curing. Accord- 
ing to Dr. Gibson, attempts so far to 
raise this hog in Hongkong have 
shown that it cannot compete with the 
common lard hog in the efficiency of 
utilizing feed. However, if allowed to 



NATIVE GOATS IN SOUTH CHINA 



graze, as in Yunnan and Szecliwan, it 
might make a better showing in south- 
ern China. The Yunnan ham, found in 
the Canton and Hongkong shops, and in 
other parts of China, and exported to 
the Philippine Islands, is well known 
in all parts of China becanse of its ex- 
cellent qualities. 

BREKDING OF SWINE 

One has only to study the breeding 
stock in the villages about Canton to 
realize that the average village fanner 
knows very little aljout the breeding of 
animals. Some of the sows are fairly 
good, but the boars are usually very in- 
ferior. About the only good thing that 
can be said about the boars is that they 
are sure breeders, ami very prolific. 
The prevalent idea is that any animal is 
good enough for breeding- Often the 
poorest male is reserved for stud pur- 



poses. From the time he is weaned he 
is kept tied with a sort of rope harness 
fitted around his neck and chest. He 
is lead about from village to village by 
his owner. On Hondm Island, across 
the river from Canton, one boar is used 
for from 200 to 300 sows. The boars 
are always undersized, thin, gaunt and 
weak looking, but tliey are unusually 
gentle and do not have the vicious tem- 
l>erament so commonly seen in boars of 
improved modern breeds. 

MOllF.HN IIKKKUS OF IIOT.S IK CHINA 

Modern breeds of hogs have nol yet 
been introduced into China to any ex- 
tent. The Hongkong Dairy Farm has 
(lone considerable experimenting with 
difTercnt breeds, and now uses the 
Midyorkshire hog of England almost 
exchi.sively. both pure and in crossing 
with the native hogs. The farmer usually 
123 



124 



The Journal of Heredity 



has on hand from 600 to 900 of this 
breed of hogs. The Berkshire hog, an 
English breed whose early development 
was brought about largely through the 
use of Chinese and Siamese blooded 
stock, may prove a success in this 
climate, as it has done in the Philippine 
Islands, where most breeds up to the 
present have been little more than 
failures, due largely to the readiness 
with which they succumb to the kidney 
worm. The r>erkshire hogs seem to 
be able to resist the kidney worm better 
than anv other of the modern breeds. 
However, as the kidney worm does not 
seem to be common in China, other 
breeds may also prove a success. 

CHINESE SHEEP AND GOATS 

Sheep. — Sheep of the fat-tailed, horn- 
less variety which is supposed to have 
originated in Afghanistan, are found 
in nearly all parts of northern China, 
especially in the provinces of Shantung 
and Chihli. These sheep are so named 
because of their large tail which carries 
a large amount of fat. The tail is 
usually 8 to 10 inches long. 6 inches 
wide, and 3 inches thick. It serves as 
a store for food, and in seasons of 
drought and scarcity of feed the fat 
contained in the tail is used up in the 
body. It is said that after a few genera- 
tions of rich feeding in lands where 
nourishing feed is more available, the 
size of the tail gradually diminishes, 
approaching the size common to other 
breeds of sheep. 

The fat-tailed sheep produce fair wool, 
though it is inferior in both quantity 
and quality when compared with that of 
modern breeds of wool sheep. Accord- 
ing to the Japanese investigators in 1916 
the annual amount of wool produced in 
Shantung a m o u n t s to 39,000,000 
pounds. Most of the wool produced in 
this region is sold to Japan at about 20 



'^A picul equals 133 1/3 pounds. 



taels a picuK*, the annual sales amount- 
ing to 6,000,000 taels. The Japanese 
use most of the wool for making cloth- 
ing for the soldiers. It is estimated 
that each sheep will yield in lone year 
with two shearings four cattie| of wool. 
At this rate the total number of sheei) 
in Shantung must be at least 7,500,000. 
The customs authorities give a value of 
5 taels a head for sheep. Tile mature 
sheep alone in Shantung at this rate 
have an annual value of 35,000,000 
taels. 

Goats. — The native black and white 
goat of China is raised for meat 
only. In Shantung a Swiss breed of 
milk goats, known as the Saanen goat, 
has been introduced by the German^, 
and seems to thrive well in thjit region. 
Indians have brought with them to 
Hongkong an Indian breed of milk goat 
which is doing well in that region. 

SHEEP AND GOATS IN SOUTHEI^N CHINA 

Canton imports from the north 8,000 
fat-tail sheep, and 4,000 meat goats for 
slaughter each year, or at the rate of 
thirty a day. Hongkong also imports in 
large numbers from the north. Goats of 
the meat breed are raised to a small 
extent in South China, but no sheep 
are raised in the southern provinces. 
Dr. Adam Gibson, reports that attempts 
to raise sheep in the south have failed 
because of the readiness with which 
they become infested with the liver 
fluke. Goats butchered at the college in 
1917 by the writer were found to be 
badly infested with this parasite, but 
evidently the affect on goats is not as 
serious as with sheep. 

REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Chinese Customs Reports. 

King: "Farmers of Forty Centuries," pp. 
3, 51, 70, 135, 233 and 353. 

Report of Military Investigations in Tsing- 
tau, 1916, Shantung Province. 

n 1 



INBREEDING AND OUTBREEDING 

Review of the Evidence by East and Jones Shows that the Influence of these 
Factors Depends Wholly on the Inherited Traits Present 

Paul Popenoe 



FEW phases of genetics have in the 
past been surrounded with more 
superstition and ignorance than 
inbreeding, and few phases have 
been more thoroughly cleared up by 
experimental breeding during recent 
years. A comprehensive book on the 
subject is therefore timely, and Dr. 
East and Dr. Jones are well qualified 
to assemble and weigh the evidence on 
the subject, for they themselves have 
provided some of the l>est of it.^ 

The importance of an understanding 
of inbreeding and outbreeding is by no 
means limited to the plant-breeders and 
animal husbandmen. The authors 
suggest three questions which will show 
what important sociological bearings 
exist : 

1. Do marriages between near rela- 
tives, wholly by reason of their consan- 
guinity, regardless of the inheritance 
received, aflfect the ofTspring adversely? 

2. Are consanguineous marriages 
harmful through the operation of the 
laws of heredity? 

3. Are hereditary diflferences in the 
human nice transmitted in such a man- 
ner as to make matings between mark- 
edly diflfercnt peoples desirable or un- 
desirable, either from the standpoint 
of the civic worth of the individual, or 
of the stamina of the population as a 
whole ? 

After discussing briefly the question 
of reproduction and the mechanism of 
heredity, the authors turn to a consid- 
eration of the experiments on which 
modem ideas of inbreeding and out- 



breeding arc based. These experiments 
are well known to readers of the 
JorRNAL OK Heredity and need not be 
rehearsed. Some of them have lasted 
for nearly fifteen years of the closest 
possible inbreeding, the most valuable 
data being derived from maize, rats and 
guinea-pigs. 

IS IXUREEDING INJURIOUS? 

Vv.w students will differ from the 
authors when they conclude that "in- 
breeding has but one demonstrable 
effect on organisms subjected to its 
action — the isolation of homozygous 
types. The diversity of the resulting 
types depends directly upon the number 
of heterozygous hereditary factors pres- 
ent in the individuals with which the 
process is begun ; it is likely, therefore, 
to vary directly with the amount of 
cross-breeding experienced by their 
immediate ancestors. The rapidity of 
the isolation of homozygous types is a 
function of the intensity of the inbreed- 
mg. 

"Are. then, the immediate results of 
inbreeding sometimes injurious? In 
naturally cross-fertilized organisms they 
most emphatically are — nay, more, even 
disastrous — when we recall the reduc- 
tion to over one-half or one-third in 
production in grain and a corresponding 
decrease in size of plant and rate of 
growth in maize. But maize is prol>- 
ably an extreme case. With other 
organisms the results are not so bad. 
and in some cases, especially when 
selection has been made, no evil effects 



'"Inbreeding and Outbreeding: Their genetic and sociological significance." by Edward 
M. East, Ph.D., Harvard University. Biissey Institution, and Donald F. Jones, D.Sc, 
Connecticut Agricultural Experimental Station. Pp. 285, with 46 illus. Monographs on Ex- 
perimental Biology. J. R. Lippinrott Co.. Philadelphia and I^ndon. 1919. Price, $2.50 net. 

125 



126 



The Journal of Heredity 



are apparent. In fact, there may be an 
actual improvement. But the truth is, 
we did not set out to answer that ques- 
tion. It had already received a correct 
answer. What zve undertook to inquire 
was whether inbreeding is injurious 
merely by reason of the consanguinity. 
We answer, "No!" The only injury 
proceeding from inbreeding comes from 
the inheritance received. The constitu- 
tion of the individuals resulting from a 
process of inbreeding depends upon the 
chance allotment of characters pre-ex- 
isting in the stock before inbreeding 
was commenced. If undesirable char- 
acters are shown after inbreeding, it is 
only because they already existed in the 
stock and were able to persist for gen- 
erations under the protection of more 
favorable characters which dominated 
them and kept them from sight. The 
powerful hand of natural selection was 
thus stayed until inbreeding tore aside 
the mask and the unfavorable charac- 
ters were shown up in all their weak- 
ness, to stand or fall on their own 
merits. 

INBREEDING AS A MEANS OF IM- 
PROVEMENT 

"If evil is brought to light, inbreeding 
is no more to be blamed than the detec- 
tive who unearths a crime. Instead of 
being condemned it should be com- 
mended. After continued inbreeding 
a crossbred stock has been purified and 
rid of abnormalities, monstrosities, and 
serious weaknesses of all kinds. Only 
those characters can remain which 
either are favorable or at least are not 
definitely harmful to the organism. 
ITiose characters which have survived 
this *day of judgment' can now be esti- 
mated according to their true worth. 
As we shall see later, vigor can be 
restored immediately by crossing. Not 
only is the full vigor of the original 
stock restored, but it may even be in- 
creased, due to the elimination of many 
unfavorable characters. If this in- 
creased vigor can be utilized in the first 
generation, or if it can be fixed so that 
it is not lost in succeeding generations, 
then inbreeding is not only not inju- 



rious, but is highly beneficial. As an 
actual means of plant and animal im- 
provement, therefore, it should be given 
its rightful valuation." 

Heterosis or hybrid vigor has already 
been alhided to. What is its explana- 
tion? Evidently, since it is the reverse 
of inbreeding, it merely means a stimu- 
lation due to the presence and comple- 
mentary action of dominant factors. 

After a brief discussion of sterilitv, 
and of the role of inbreeding and out- 
breeding in evolution and in breed- 
improvement, the authors pass on to 
man — a subject with which they show 
less familiarity, although their general 
conclusions are for the most part 
sounder than their illustrations. 

After describing some of the strains 
of degenerates which have practiced 
inbreeding, and also mentioning the 
Athenians of the Golden Age, whose 
superiority they believe to have been 
largely due to inbreeding, they con- 
clude : 

"Owing to the existence of serious 
recessive traits there is objection to in- 
discriminate, irrational, intensive in- 
breeding in man; yet inbreeding is the 
surest means of establishing families 
which as a whole are of high value to 
the community. On the other hand, 
owing to the complex nature of the 
mental traits of the highest type, the 
brightest examples of inherent mental 
ability have come and will come from 
chance mating in the general popula- 
tion, the common people so called, be- 
cause of the variability there existent." 
The latter proposition is not supported 
by adequate evidence, and it is doubt- 
ful whether the authors could support 
it if they tried. 

POPULATION AND FOOD SUPPLY FORC- 
ING RACIAL COMBINATIONS 

Turning to cross-breeding, the 
authors discuss "the intermingling of 
races and national stamina." They look 
forward to a continual increase in the 
process of racial amalgamation. 

"The truth is," they declare, "that the 
world is approaching a population limit 



A Review: Inbreeding and Outbreeding 



127 



faster even than Malthus supposed, and 
the resuh of applying new nietho<ls to 
field culture is merely to exploit the 
natural fertility of the soil at a higher 
rate. The supposed increase in the 
amount of food is illusory. In the 
United States, naturally the richest 
country on the glohe, the per capita pro- 
duction of all the important meat ani- 
mals and some of the great agricultural 
crops is decreasing. 

"At present the situation is this: 
China, having reached the limit of her 
food supply, and having little or no 
foreign trade, has hecome stationary in 
population. Large ])ortions of Europe 
and the country of |ai)an have reached 
the limit of sustenance within them- 
selves, hut are increasing at a rate of 
from 10 to 15 per 1,000 annually he- 
cause their commerce is such as to per- 
nu't importation to sui)ply the deficit. 
Australia and Asia are increasing at a 
rate which neither their agriculture nor 
their commerce can sustain. The 
Americas and Africa are left as the 
great centers of colonization. Each will 
support a large additional number of 
people, but when they have reached 
their limit — and that limit will come 
within a very few centuries, three at 
most — each country, or at least each 
continent, must sup})ort its own popula- 
tion. 

"The world faces two types of racial 
combination : one in which the races 
are so far apart as to make hybridiza- 
tion a real breaking down of the in- 
herent characteristics of each ; the other, 
where fewer differences present only 
the possibility of a somewhat greater 
variability as a desirable basis for 
selection. Roughly, the former is the 
color-line problem ; the latter is that of 
the White Melting Pot, faced particu- 
larly by Europe, North America and 
Australia." 

The authors conclude that the first 
kind of crossing is undesirable, even if 
the two races are both superior, because 
it would tend "to break apart those 
compatible physical and mental qualities 
which have established a smoothly oper- 



ating whole in each race by hundreds of 
generations of natural selection." It is 
still more objectionable in a cross be- 
tween two races one of which (as the 
Negro) is genetically of inferior capac- 
ity to the other (as the white). 

Their "second thesis' is somewhat 
paradoxical. It asserts that the founda- 
tion stocks of races which have im- 
])ressed civilization most deeply have 
been produced by intermingling peoples 
who through one cause or another be- 
came genetically soinc7<'Jiat unlike." This 
thesis is supported by some very weak 
evidence, often little more than su])- 
lK)sition. Indeed, many of the anthro- 
pological data presented should be 
l)acked up by proof: what is the evi- 
dence, for example, which indicates that 
the mulatto shows "extraordinary 
nhysical vigor?" And the authors are 
likely to get a challenge from some son 
of Erin, for they state that the true 
Irish "are in the main descended from 
two savage tribes, the Iberian and the 
Turanian, both probably Mongolian ad- 
mixtures," and that their descendents 
"have hardly a single individual merit- 
ing a rank among the great names of 
history, or a contribution to literature, 
art. or science of first magnitude." 

A MORK CAREFUL SELICCTION OF IM- 
Mir.RAXTS IS NECE.SSARV 

"To produce greatness." the authors 
conclude, "a nation must have some 
wretchedness, for such is the law of 
Mendelian recombination : but the na- 
tion that produces wretchedness is not 
necessarily in the way of producing 
greatness. There nnist be racial mix- 
ture to induce variability, but these 
racial crosses must not be too wide, else 
the chances arc too few and the time 
required is too great for the proper re- 
combinations making for inherent 
capacity to occur. Eurther, there nuist 
be periods of more or less inbreeding 
following racial mixtures if there is to 
l>e any high probability of isolating 
desirable extremes. A third essential in 
the production of racial stamina is that 



128 



The Journal of Heredity 



the ingredients in the melting pot be 
sound at the beginning, for one does not 
improve the amalgam by putting in 
dross." 



They therefore hold that the indis- 
criminate admission of alien immigrants 
to the United States should be slowed 
up. 



Eugenics in Scandinavia 



**We are going to start this month a 
weekly or monthly review under the 
title Den Nordiske Race. The review, 
will be printed in Kjobenhavn and ed- 
ited from Winderen Laboratorium in 
Kristiania. The time has come to or- 
ganize a work for the Nordic race, 
especially based on applied race-biologie 
or race-hygiene. Some of the best 
scientists in our Scandinavian countries 
are my fellow-workers. The review will 
be printed in the Scandinavian lan- 
guages, but will contain short transla- 
tions of the original articles into English 
or German, so that the Scandinavian 
workers will be able to come in con- 
tact with fellow-workers all the world 
over." 

This is a portion of a letter written 
by Dr. Jon Alfred Mjoen of the Win- 
deren Laboratory, Christiana, Norway, 
to the chairman of the Eugenics Re- 
search Committee of the American 
Genetic Association, w^ho replied as 
follows : 

**The idea of founding a journal con- 
cerned with the Nordic race should 
meet with earnest and widespread en- 
couragement. It is particularly fitting 
that such a journal should emanate 
from Scandinavia, the original home of 
this dominant race, which many waves 
of migration have carried forth to all 
parts of the world. 

"Doubtless other races than the Nor- 
dic possess many desirable traits of 
emotion and imagination, but the far- 
flung Northern race is the only one 
that excels in practical administration 
and devotion to scientific discovery. The 



Normans were great administrators. 
They came from Scandinavia. Prob- 
ably the ruling and noble classes among 
the Greeks, northern Italians, Spanish 
and Portuguese came from the north, 
though somewhat mixed with southern 
blood. For a thousand years the royal 
families of Europe have exerted great 
influence and have acted and reacted on 
its history in an important way. The 
genealogies of these people can be 
traced through long generations, and 
these lineages lead almost without ex- 
ception directly back to the shores of 
the Baltic. 

"As regards science, both pure and 
applied, the history of science proves 
that, barring the work of the Greeks, 
original advances have been made al- 
most entirely by peoples of Nordic ori- 
gin. England, Scotland, France, Ger- 
many, Norway, Sweden, Denmark — 
all exceed their share in the production 
of men of scientific eminence. Russia, 
Ireland, Austria, Spain, Portugal, the 
Balkan countries and all Eastern lands 
fall short of non-Nordic countries. 
Switzerland alone exceeds its quota. 

"If one is interested in the develop- 
ment of the world in practical adminis- 
tration, or the advancement of pure or 
applied science, one should feel not 
only a devotion towards the Great Race, 
on account of its past achievements, but 
should never cease to realize the high 
obligation towards posterity, and the 
need for preserving and forwarding its 
traditions, by understanding its past 
and expanding its future." 



NATURAL WHEAT-RYE HYBRIDS OF 1918 

Ifineteen First Generation Hybrids Found Growing in Wheat Plots on the U. S. 
Government Experimental Farm at Arlington. Vigorous Second Genera- 
tion Plants are now Being Grown from a Portion of the Seed 

Clyde K. Leic.iitv 

U, S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D, C. 



IN a previous article^ 1 have described 
four natural wheat-rye hybrid plants 
found in 1914. 'Jlircc of these were 
found growing in the wheat plotN 
on the Arlington Experiment Farm, of 
the United States Department of Agri- 
culture, near Washington, I). C, and 
the fourth was sent me for identification 
from Tennessee. In each of the three 
following years, 1915, 1916, and 1917, 
one or two plants of this imusual hy- 
brid combination were found in the 
wheat plots on the Arlington Farm. 
All these plants found in the four years 
were of the F^ generation, and all were 
completely sieriie, with tiie exception oi 
one kernel on one of the plants found 
in 1915. 

In 1918, Mr. William C. Eldridge and 
I found nineteen natural wheat-rye hy- 
brid plants on the Arlington Farm, and 
three were found by mc in the wheat 
nursery at the Virginia Agricultural 
Experiment Station, Blacksburg, Va. 
A few other such hybrid plants may 
have escaped notice on the Arlington 
Farm, although all plots were carefully 
searched, and others possibly may have 
been destroyed by a laborer not familiar 
with their appearance who assisted in 
rogueing the wheat plots. 

The finding of so many of these hy- 
brids is believed to be a matter of suffi- 
cient interest to justify this record of 
their occurrence and this description of 
them. The plants are further note- 
worth v l)ecause such natural hvbrids 



of wheat and rye apparently have been 
observed very infrequently. So far 
as I am aware, no one else in this 
country has reix)rted in any pub- 
lication the finding of one of them, 
but Prof. R. R. Childs recently showed 
me such a hvbrid found bv him on the 
farm of the State College of Agricul- 
ture, Athens, (ja. One or more such 
natural hybrids had also been found by 
him at that place in both the years 1916 
and 1917. In my previous article I 
cited- a possible record of such a hybrid 
that had been found by Miczynski. 
Since then I have come across the bare 
statement by 11. Nilsson-Ehle' that he 
had twice seen a spontaneous occur- 
rence of the hybrid between wheat and 
rve in two varieties of winter wheat 
which had been pollinated by winter 
rye growing near by. 

WHEAT AND RVE TESTING METHODS 
AT ARLINGTON FARM 

It has been the custom for several 
years in the variety tests of wheat and 
rye at Arlington farm to sow the dif- 
ferent varieties of rj'c in plots, usually 
1 rod wide and 8 rods long (1/20 acre), 
separated 4 or 5 rods from each other. 
This method of sowing is followed in 
order to reduce the chances for cross- 
pollination between the diflFerent va- 
rieties. In the intervening spaces be- 
tween the rye plots different varieties 
of wheat are sown, usually in fortieth- 
acre plots, being separated from each 



^'-Natural Wheat-rye Hybrids." Journal Amer. Soc. Agron., 7: 209-216, 1915. 
2Fruwirth, C. Die Ziichtiing der landwirtschaftlichen Kiilturpflanzen, Band 4, pp. xvx 
+ 460. Berlin. 1910. 

3ln Beitragc ztir Pflanzenzucht, p. 59. Berlin, 1913. 

129 




I 



w 



\ 



V 



»'^. 



NATIRAL V^IIKAT-RYE IIYKRII) NO. 13 

Two heads of tlie parent wlu-at variety are shf.)\\rj on the outside witli two liyhrid heads 
on the inside, the views l>einy; tak<n airnss ami with the sfMkelets. When found in a 
plot of Uardless wheat the hyl'rid is beardless. Apprt)xiTnately natural size. (Fi^. 20.) 



132 



The Journal of Heredity 



other and from the rye by unsown bor- , 
ders 18 inches in width. The wheat and 
rye plants growing along the common 
borders between adjoining wheat and 
rye plots thus easily may come into 
actual contact at blooming time. A few 
rye plants also usually grow among the 
wheat plants, due to volunteering of the 
rye or accidental mixing of the seed. 
These are removed before harvest, but 
after they have bloomed. Rye pollen* 
is also carried by the wind for consid- 
erable distances. It is not an unusual 
sight to see such pollen being carried 
by the wind from a rye plot 
in a thin, dust-like cloud that can be 
followed by the eye for several hundred 
feet. There is little doubt that some of 
this rye pollen at some time or other 
may fall on every wheat plant in the ex- 
perimental plots. Many of the wheat 
and rye flowers bloom at the same time, 
the blooming periods of certain of the 
varieties of each coinciding to greater 
or less extent. There exists then, in the 
actual contact of wheat and rye plants 
and in the distribution of rye pollen by 
the wind, abundant opportunity for the 
pollination of wheat flowers by rye 
pollen. 

All of these natural wheat-rye hy- 
brids have been found growing in wheat 
plots and must have had wheat plants 
as the seed parents. No such hybrids 
have been found in rye plots, although 
I have often looked for them. Neither 
has any one, so far as I am aware, ever 
made a hybrid between these two species 
in which the rye was other than the 
pollen parent. Many hybrids have been 
made, how-ever, with rye as the pollen 
parent. 

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HYBRIDS 

The hybrid plants found in 1918 are 
taller than the surrounding wheat plants. 
Even the shortest culm of a hybrid plant 
is nearly always taller than the highest 
neighboring wheat culm. This greater 
height of the hybrids facilitates their 
discovery. But the height of the hybrids 
is less than that of rye plants, being 
about intermediate in height between 
wheat and rye. 

The hybrid heads are nearly always 



from 1 to 3 centimeters longer than even 
the longest nearby wheat head, and the 
number of rachis nodes of the hybrids 
is usually from a fifth to a half greater 
than in the longest wheat head. The 
hybrids here again in these two respects 
appear to be intermediate between 
wheat and rye. 

When the wheat in the plot where the 
hybrid is found is awned the hybrid is 
awned; when the wheat is awnless the 
hybrid is awnless or semi-awned. All 
rye varieties are awned, so the char- 
acters found are what would be ex- 
pected in F, hybrids between wheat and 
rve. 

The chaflf color of the hybrids is light 
brown in all cases where the wheat of 
the plot has brown chafT. In most cases 
it is white where that of the wheat is 
white, but in a few cases the hybrid 
heads are light brown where the wheat 
chaflF was either white or white with a 
mixture of brown or light brown heads. 
In these few cases the chaflF of either 
the wheat or rye parent may have been 
brov/n or brownish in color, as rye 
heads often have chaflF of a darker 
brown than that of any of the hybrids. 

The peduncle of the rye plant is usu- 
ally rough and pubescent or hairy 
for some distance, usually an inch 
or more, below its junction with 
the spike or head. It is also solid 
for about the same distance downward. 
Plants with entirely smooth peduncle 
are found occasionallv, in certain va- 
rietics rather frequently. 

Common w^heat has a smooth, hollow 
peduncle of greater diameter than that 
of rye. These hybrids, with the excep- 
tion of three, have the upper portions of 
the peduncles more or less roughened 
and hairy, but less so than is usual in 
rye. The three exceptions have smooth 
peduncles as in w^heat. The diameter of 
the hybrid peduncles is greater than rye 
and less than or equal to wheat, while 
usually they have thicker walls and re- 
duced cavity in comparison with wheat. 
In the smaller culms the peduncles may 
be solid near the head. There is usually 
strong evidence of both wheat and rye 
parentage in the peduncles of the hy- 
brids. 



NATiMAi. wiii:vr-KM: iiYimin .\o is 

Four hvl>riil licails an' slumn in tin- ii-ntcr «itli twn liwuls nf Ihi' [uiri'i 
si.lc Whi-n tlu- wlu-al v!iri.1\' luis raiiuT small lua.ls tlio livl.rL.i lu-a 
Crrtnpnri' lliis wnli hvlirii] No. I'J. Ki-.!ii,fl tn uii]inixiiiiati-lv 1h->- 
(Fig. 21.) 

Wlicat-ryi: liyhri.k are usually ui- 
tirdy stcrik-. .\s alrca<ly >iaieil. (Hily 
one kcriK-l was |)n"iuci.-il tiy ;ill llic 
iialiiral livhrids fmiiid at .Xrliiifjlmi pn-- 
vioiis Ut'l'MK. Of liio iiiHctii-ii planis 
fouiiil ii) lliat year seven pnniiii-ed one 
or more kernels. i'\iur of tlieiii pm- 
ihiccil only imc. tlio oilier tliree jini- 
(luccd five, nine, ami iwcniy-two res- 
pectively. Of the forty kernels 



|.ro.liu-e<!. 


si.s were ela 


s-.ed as w( 


■11- 


.levelo,H-l. 


seventeen a 


s fairlv w 


ell 


.leveloiH-d. 


and sevente 


en as poii 


rlv 


■ levelr-ped. 


shriveled . 


ir niissiiapeii. 


Trol.al.lv : 


most nf them 


will Krow. 1 


for 


out ..f til 


irleeii ].laiited 


ill the f-rei 


.•11- 


house twel 


[ve have jtrodueed i.lanl.s in 


;.w 


vigoroiislv 


gn.iviiiK. 






.Ml the? 


•V kernels are 


llie results 


(.f 


iijien pDllJtiaiions. Xo alteni]H was ni.i 


ide 



134 



The Journal of Heredity 



to pollinate or control the pollination of 
any of the flowers. It is not known 
whether the seeds formed are due to 
self-fertilization or to fertilization by 
wheat or rye ix)llcn from neighboring 
plants. 

The spikelets of the hybrid plants are 
from three to five flowered, as in wheat. 
Rye has two flowers, rarely .three, to a 
spikelet. The shape and size of glumes 
and lemmas, the several-nerved glume* 
with ciliate keel as found in the hybrids, 
all furnish evidence that these are in- 
deed first generation hybrids between 
wheat and rye. 

The conclusion is inevitable that the 
plants found and here described are first 
generation hybrids of wheat and rye^ 
the seeds from which they grew having 
been produced by the natural fertiliza- 
tion of wheat flowers with rye pollen. 

THE STERILITY OF WHEAT-RYE HYBRIDS 

The nineteen hybrid plants found on 
Arlington farm bore about 3,500 flowers 
while only forty seeds were produced. 
About 1% of the flowers on these 
plants set seed. Hybrid No. 14 pro- 
duced twenty-two seeds, a fertility of 
about 5% of the flowers. This percent- 
age of setting seed is considerably larger 
than in my previous natural and artifi- 
cial hybrids of wheat and rye. One ar- 
tificial and seven natural F^ hybrids pre- 
viously examined bore about 1,500 flow- 
ers, yet only two seeds were produced, 
or less than a tenth of 1% of the 
possible seed production. 

Several other experimenters have re- 
ported a small amount of fertility in 
the first generation hybrids of wheat 
and rye. Carman* secured nineteen 
seeds on ten heads of such a plant, from 
which he grew large numbers of plants' 



of later generations and finally intro- 
duced a wheat variety probably de- 
scended from this cross. Rimpau* har- 
vested several seeds from a first genera- 
tion, open-pollinated plant derived by 
crossing the red Saxony wheat and 
Schlanstedt rye, from which he grew 
plants of later generations. Wheat 
forms segregating out were distributed 
by him and were grown for several 
years by several persons and are prob- 
ably still grown at certain European 
experiment stations. 

Miczynski^ harvested some seed from 
a first generation plant, but apparently 
was not able to get beyond the third 
generation because of sterility. Jes- 
enko^ describes four generations de- 
scended from certain wheat-rye hybrids 
made by him. Nakao® states that a 
"few seeds, generally one seed to a few 
ears," were obtained from an Fj hybrid, 
but he could not be certain whether 
or not they were due to fertilization 
by the pollen of the hybrid. 

Love and Craig,* in their work at 
Cornell University, have secured two 
fertile wheat-rye hybrids that hare now 
been carried beyond the fourth genera- 
tion. 

McFadden^® also reports the produc- 
tion of three seeds on an F, wheat-rye 
hybriid plant with twenty-five heads, 
following the pollination of a few late 
spikes with wheat pollen. The plants 
of the F2 generation winterkilled. 

There are probably others who have 
secured viable seed from F, wheat-rye 
hybrids. Many others are known to 
have eflfected the hybrid between these 
species of cereals, but found the F^ en- 
tirely sterile. From these instances of 
partial fertility it is evident that seed 
is occasionally formed, but practically 



*For an account of Carman's wheat-rye hybrids see article by C. E. Leighty, in 
Journal of Heredity, Vol. 7: 420-427. 1916. 

^Reference to Rimpau's hybrid is made in Fruwirth, C, Die Ziichtung landwirtschaftli- 
Chen Kulturpflaiizen. Band 4. p. 183. Bcilin. 1910. 

^Miczynski : Kosmos r, xxx Lwow. 1905. Citation from Fruwirth loc. cit. 

TJesenko. F., Ober Getreide — Speziesbastarde (Weizen-Roggen) Zeit. fur Induk Abs. 
u. Vererbungslehre. 10: 311-326. 1910. 

•Nakao, M.. "Cytological Studies on the nuclear division of the pollen mother-cells of 
some cereals and their hybrids" Jour, of the Col of Affri. Sapporo, Japan, 4: 173-190. 1911. 

»Love, H. H.. and Craig, W. T., "Small Grain Investigations." Journal of Heredity, 
Vol. 9 : 67-76. 1918. 

"McFaddea E. A. "Wheat-rye hybrids. Journal of HEREDrrv, Vol. 8 : 335436, 1917. 



NATURAL WIIEAT-KYi: HYBRID NO. 19 

The two hylirid heads arc shom-n in Iho center und the wheat heads on the outside. When 
the wheat variety has large heacis the heads of the hyhrid are large. Reduced to thrw- 
fourths natural size. (Fig. 22.) 



136 



The Journal of Heredity 



always in very few of the flowers. 
Partial or entire sterility of such 
hybrids is the rule. The 1% fertility 
in the nineteen natural hybrids here 
reported, and especially the 5% fertility 
in hybrid No. 14, is believed to be un- 
usually hi^h. 

THE FREQUENCY OF HYBRID OCCUR- 
RENCE 

It is interesting to note here that eight 
of the nineteen hybrids here described 
were found in the practically identical 
varieties of wheat, Fulcaster and Dietz ; 
four others were found in selections 
from a hybrid wheat, Crimean x Spelt, 
and three others in the Purple Straw 
variety. In only three other varieties 
were such hybrids found, although sev- 
eral hundred other varieties and strains 
were growing on the farm No reason 
for this is known. It cannot be deter- 
mined from the location of the plots or 
time of blooming the previous year that 
greater facilities for crossing occurred 
in the case of varieties in which hybrids 
were found. The Purple Straw is one 
of the first wheat varieties to bloom, 
while the Fulcaster and Dietz are alx)ut 
average in blooming time. 

The season of 1917 at Arlington 
farm seemed to be uncommonly favor- 
able for cross pollination of cereal 
varieties. In addition to these wheat- 
rye hybrids a great many cross-pollina- 
tions occurred between different varie- 
ties of wheat growing in the cereal 
nursery, as was evidenced by the num- 
ber of such hybrids found in the 
nurserv there in 1918. Dr 11. V. Ilar- 
Ian, Agronomist in Charge of Barley 
Investigations, also reports the finding 
of a considerable number of 1^", barley 
hybrids in his 1918 Arlington nursery. 
These were especially noticeable in a 
plot of iK^ardless barley. 

Of the nineteen natural wheat-rye 
hybrids described in this paper eighteen 
were from seed that was grown the 
previous year on Arlington farm. 
Hybrid No. 18 was from seed that had 
been produced at the Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station, Stillwater, Okla. A 



head of the Malakov variety was sent 
to the Office of Cereal Investigations in 
the fall of 1917, and seeds from it were 
sown in a 5- foot row. In this row 
hybrid No. 18, shown in Fig. 21 was 
found. 

As stated above, three natural wheat- 
rye hybrids were found in the cereal 
nursery of, the Virginia Experiment 
Station at Hlacksburg, \^a., in 1918. 
No data were obtained on these, Mr. F. 
K. Wolfe rejx)rting that, on account of 
lodging, the hybrid plants could not he 
found at harvest time. 

Several natural wheat-rye hybrids 
have been found, as stated above, on 
the farm of the State College of Agri 
culture, Athens, Ga. 

In my previous article (loc. cit.) 1 
reported on a hybrid sent to me from 
I > rush Creek, Tenn. 

Natural wheat-r^e hybrids have 
occurred, then, in fwe different locali- 
ties of the United States. I examined 
a considerable number of wheat fields 
in which rye was mixed in New York 
State in 1918, and a few such fields in 
Kentucky, but did not find hybrids of 
wheat and rye. 

Siinniiary. — Nineteen natural wheat- 
rye hybrids were found on Arlingt<Mi 
farm in 1918, and three were found at 
the \^irginia Agricultural Experiment 
Station. From a study of the plants 
and comparison with wheat and rye and 
with known hybrids between these 
species, it is evident that these hybrids 
are all of the first generation (F)^ 
They must have developed from seeds 
formed by the natural fertilization of 
wheat flowers with rye pollen. 

I'orty seeds were produced by these 
plants, approximately 1% of the flow- 
ers setting seed. \'igorous plants of the 
second generation are being grown 
from a portion of this seed. 

The natural hybridization of wheat 
and rye is now known to have occurred 
in five different localities of the United 
States — in northern and southwestern 
\'irginia, in Tennessee, in Georgia, and 
in Oklahoma. 



WORLD-POWER AND EVOLUTION 

A Review of Dr. Ellsworth Huntington's Evidence of how Climate has Affected 
the Development of the Human Race and Determined the Periods of 

Greatest Achievement 

Paul Popenoe 



THE effect of changes of climate 
on human activity, not only 
physical but more particularly 
mental, is the tliesis of this^ as 
of several preceding books by Ells- 
worth Huntington. 

Beginning with present-day condi- 
tions, he shows that business cycles, as 
measured by bank clearings, financial 
depressions, periods of credit expan- 
sion, and the like, correlate with the 
general conditions of health in the 
eastern United States. He measures 
heahh, for this purpose, by fluctuations 
in the death-rate, and then proceeds to 
show that these fluctuations correlate 
positively with changes in temperature, 
so that even a small deviation from 
the optimum temperature in either 
direction causes an increase of deaths. 

The most favorable conditions under 
which human beings can live, he con- 
cludes, are a mean temperature of 
64T., for physical activity, with a good 
deal of humidity and frequent changes 
in temperature, while for mental 
activity he finds a mean of 40°F. better 
suited. 

These conclusions are l)ased on ex- 
tensive statistical data, partly analysed 
in the book under review and partly 
in previous volumes. The statistical 
methods used are somewhat crude, but 
probably the data available are not suf- 
ficiently precise to justify more refined 
treatment. Dr. Himtington has made 
out a plausible and interesting case for 
the importance of climatic changes in 
daily life; future and more exact in- 
vestigation will determine the limits. 

In his latest book. Dr. Huntington 



inquires why there is a difference be- 
tween the most favorable temperature 
for mental activity and that for physical 
activity. He explains by saying that 
these adaptations were made at differ- 
ent periods in the history of the race, 
when the air was different. 

THE IMPORTANCE OF AIR 

"Long before man's earliest ancestors 
had become different from the beasts 
the whole world of life had realized the 
necessity of air," he remarks. **Even 
the creatures that inhabit the water can 
live only by taking from it the dissolved 
air. Otherwise the chemical activities 
which are the basis of all life come 
promptly to an end. Before these 
primitive animals could give rise to 
higher forms, however, it was neces- 
sary that they should pass through a 
scries of crises. Each of these crises 
was a step forward in the estate of man. 
Each has left its impress not only upon 
the animal world but upon the human 
race. 

"A few of these crises, such as the 
development of vertebrates from in- 
vertebrates, were due to causes other 
than climate, but most arose directly 
from the conditions of the air which we 
call climate. Let us consider three of 
the chief crises. 

"The first was the emergence of the 
earliest vertebrates from the water. 
This was a most momentous step, for 
only in the highly varied environment 
of the land does brain power develop 
rapidly. Creatures like the seal, the 
whale, and the manatee, which have 
gone back to the water from the land. 



*"W >rId-PovVcr and Evolution," by Ellsworth Huntington, Ph. D., Research Associate 
in Geography, Yale University: author of "Civilization and Climate," etc. Pp. 287, with 
maps, etc. Price $2.50. New Haven, Conn. : Yale University Press, 1919. 

137 



138 



The Journal of Heredity 



fall behind in the mental race, for thev 
are not sufficiently stimulated. 

*The second great crisis was the 
change which caused certain forms of 
life to become warm-blooded. This not 
only enabled man's animal ancestors to 
continue their vital activities at all sea- 
sons and in almost all parts of the 
world, but it gave rise to the close bond 
between mother and child which has 
been the greatest of all factors in pro- 
moting the higher qualities of love and 
altruism. 

"The third great crisis was the sep- 
aration of man — the two-handed, two- 
footed, big-brained creature — from his 
four-handed and smaller-brained rela- 
tives. This was the time when mental 
qualities evolved most rapidly. There- 
fore it interests us most of all because 
the conditions which fostered the evo- 
lution of our minds are those which 
today stimulate them most strongly. 

"It is perhaps a misnomer to speak of 
these as crises, for each of these three 
steps in evolution required a long time 
for its consummation. Yet as we look 
backward into the dim vistas of the 
past, the steps are so foreshortened that 
they appear like genuine crises. They 
are, as it were, great slopes in a ter- 
raced plain. For long periods the life 
of the world was confined to the waters. 
Then during a relatively brief period, as 
geology counts time, there came a trans- 
formation. The highest forms that in- 
habited those ancient seas — that is, 
the fishes— gave rise to a stock which 
left the water and made its home on 
land. Then our ancestors, for such 
they were, moved on once more across 
the vast plain, rising here and there 
over smaller terraces, until at last they 
began to climb to the warm-blooded 
condition. Another vast stretch of 
plain and minor terraces brought them 
to the final steep upward slope. At its 
base our ancestors were animals; at its 
top they were men. 

MORE PROGRESS TO COME 

"But have we yet reached the top? 
More likely we are now upon the very 
steepest part of the terrace. Hitherto 



we have climbed upward because same 
unknown force kept driving us. Now 
we are conscious of ourselves, and are 
able to direct our movements. It is 
for us to say whether we will climb 
straight upward, or whether, like many 
of the creatures of the past, we will 
wander this way and that, and perhaps 
fail to be among the chosen few who 
finally emerge at the highest level." 

It was the aridity of the air during 
the Devonian period which caused the 
development of amphibians with legs 
and lungs. Dr. Huntington surmises; 
while a second long drought in the 
Mississippian period, millions of years 
later, caused all those to perish except 
the ones that could lay their eggs on 
land and did not have to return to the 
water. Thus the reptiles were estab- 
lished and the first crisis, the transi- 
tion from water to land, had been 
weathered. 

"Not till millions of years later did 
the next great step in evolution occur. 
That step was the rise of the warm- 
blooded mammals. We do not find 
their fossil record until the time known 
as the Upper Triassic, but they must 
have originated farther back, appar- 
ently in the Permian. The date of the 
Permian Period is estimated as any- 
where from 10,000.000 to 200,000,000 
years ago. The break between the types 
of life before and after this great crisis 
is the most profound anywhere in the 
history of evolution. It is therefore 
highly important to find that this was 
also the time of the greatest changes of 
climate. Vast glaciers descended to 
sea level within 30° of the equator. 
Perhaps at no other time during the 
evolution of man's ancestors has there 
been such a succession of cold, stormy, 
glacial epochs alternating sharply with 
mild, interglacial qx)chs. 

"Let us consider the effect of such 
climatic stress upon other forms of life 
as well as upon our ancestors. Previous 
to the Permian Period the vegetation 
of all parts of the earth's surface, in- 
cluding even the far north, was much 
alike. In general the lands were cov- 
ered with forests, averaging perhaps 



A Review: World-Power and Evolution 



139 



40 feet in height, but with some 
trees towering to 100 feet. Schuchcrt 
describes it as a forest of rapid growth, 
of soft and even spongy woods, in 
which evergreen trees with compara- 
tivelv small, needle-like leaves were 
prominent. Associated with these were 
thickets of rushes, also of very rapid 
growth, which in habit resembled 
modern cane-brakes and bamboo 
thickets. Here and there stood majestic 
tree-like ferns, while many smaller 
ferns and similar plants thrived in the 
shady places or climbed among the 
trees. Flowers of a certain sort were 
sparingly present, but of insignificant 
size and unattractive color. Spores 
took the place of seeds to such a degree 
that when the trees and ferns were 
liberating them the entire forest was 
covered with a greenish-yellow or 
brown dust. During the Permian 
Period the sharp transitions from cold 
to warm, or from moist to dry, caused 
these ancient foresfts to die out. Coni- 
fers much like those of today came into 
existence. Seeds largely took the place 
of spores. These changes were accom- 
panied by a general reduction in the 
size and variety of plants, and by a 
tendencv for them to become hardier 
and to have thicker and less ornate 
leaves. 

CHANGES IX ANIMAL LIFE 

"During the great climatic changes 
of the Permian, animal life suffered an 
even greater transformation than plant 
life. For example, previous to that 
time the insects had been of truly 
astonishing size. Out of the 400 forms 
known in the early and middle parts of 
the Pennsylvanian Period which pre- 
ceded the Permian, the smallest had 
wings over a third of an inch long. 
The wings of more than twenty species 
were 6 inches long, six attained to 
nearly 8 inches, and three were giants 
of 12 inches. Imagine a spore-dusted 
forest full of insects as large as crows ! 
The cold and changeable climate of 
Permian times apparently caused the 
extinction of all these forms. Their 
place was taken by small species re- 



sembling those of today. Moreover, 
the very nature of insects was pro- 
foundly modified by the introduction 
of metamorphosis. That is, w-here there 
had formerly been merely a gradual 
growth from the egg to the adult, there 
was now a growth from egg to maggot 
or caterpillar, then a resting period, 
and finally a transformation from 
maggot to fly or from caterpillar to 
butterflv. At the same time the insects 
acquired the power to become dormant 
and thus persist for months at a time. 
All these changes were ai)parently due 
to the necessity for adapting themselves 
to sudden periods of drought or cold 
during the time of growth in summer, 
or to the necessity for enduring long, 
severe winters. Thus the climatic varia- 
bilitv of the Permian Period not onlv 
caused a remodeling of the earth's gar- 
ment of vegetation, but introduced a 
unique stage into the life history of 
insects. 

"For our present purpose another 
change is far more im|X)rtant. At this 
time apparently there occurred one of 
the most vital steps in the evolution of 
our direct ancestors, the mammals. Ex- 
treme aridity and low temi)erature were 
both characteristic of certain epochs of 
the Permian Period. Among the more 
progressive types of land animals 
aridity has a tendency to accelerate de- 
velopment. It places a premium upon 
the power to travel, and especially upon 
speed. As Lull puts it: *Not only are 
food and water scarce and far 
between, but the strife between 
pursuer and i)ursued becomes intensi- 
fied — neither can afford to be outdis- 
tanced by the other. This means in- 
creased metabolism, which in turn gen- 
erally im|)lies not only greater motive 
f)owers but higher temperature. With 
increasing cold a premium w-ould be 
placed upon such creatures as could 
maintain their activity l)eyond the 
limits of shortening summers, and this 
could he accomplished only by the de- 
velopment of some mechanism whereby 
a relatively constant temperature could 
be maintained within the animal regard- 
less of outside conditions.* In other 



140 



The Journal of Heredity 



words, there arose warm-blooded ani- 
mals whose temperature was more or 
less independent of the surrounding air 
instead of varying with it as is the case 
in cold-blooded animals. Among 
mammals this led to the production of 
the young within the body of the 
mother, instead of from eggs in which 
the mother took little or no interest 
after they were laid. Among birds it 
forced the mother to care for the eggs 
if they were to be hatched. Thus the 
relation of mother and child became 
firmly established. The latter develop- 
ment of this relation has been the chief 
source of all that is best in mankind." 

THE AGE OF REPTILES 

All this, of course, was a slow de- 
velopment. Gigantic reptiles lorded it 
on the earth in those days, and the 
mammals were little beasts skulking 
in out-of-the-way corners, perhaps in 
the hills rather than on the lowland 
plains. 

'*Once more we must skip millions 
of years. The mammals have grown 
in size and variety until they range 
from the mouse to the mammoth. They 
have ousted the reptiles from the best 
parts of the earth. They have taken to 
the air with the wings of the bat, they 
have gone back to sea with the whale, 
they have learned to run like the ante- 
lope, to burrow like the mole, and to 
climb trees like the squirrel. Their 
limbs have become hoofs, claws, wings, 
flippers, and hands. The Age of Mam- 
mals has come to its epiphany. Then 
as in Permian times, there once more 
comes a widespread period of climatic 
stress, the last Glacial Period. A new 
element enters into its evolution, for 
at last man appears and intelligence be- 
comes dominant. 

"When the mammals had reached a 
condition of complete dominance they 
were suddenly wiped out wholesale. In 
North America tlie whole family of 
horses was destroyed; the elephant 
tribe, including the mammoth and 
mastodon, disappeared; the camel, 
which had formerly been abundant, 
passed away, leaving no trace save his 



bones. Still other great families such 
as the giant beaver, the sloth, the tapirs, 
and the so-called glyptodonts were like- 
wise exterminated. In Europe there 
was a similar appalling destruction of 
life. 

"Directly or indirectly all this de- 
struction arose from the severe climatic 
oscillations of the Glacial Period, for 
this one period included four great 
'epochs.' It was apparently the 
Glacial Period which chiefly stimulated 
man's mental development and caused 
his intelligence to dominate the earth. 
Previous to the Glacial Period the 
brain of man's animal ancestors had 
been evolving very slowly for hundreds 
of millions of years. During the half 
million years more or less of the Glacial 
Period previous to the time we have 
now reached, that is, previous to the 
last Interglacial Epoch, it had been in- 
creasing at a rate vastly faster than 
formerly. Yet at the time of the Pilt- 
down Man [100,000 to 150.000 B. C.?] 
the human animal, as we may perhaps 
still call him, had made almost no ad- 
vance in the use of material resources 
His weapons were probably nothing but 
stones, bones, and sticks that he broke 
with his hands. His most elaborate 
manufactured instruments were flints 
of the rudest sort. These were merely 
thick chips roughly flaked a little to in- 
crease their cutting power. So far as 
we yet know, man was still ignorant of 
the use of fire. 

THE NEANDERTHAL RACE 

"In those days the climate of Central 
Europe was apparently somewhat 
milder than at present. This mild 
climate continued for a long time, ap- 
proximately 50,000 years according to 
Osborn's chronology, which we are now 
following. During this time the region 
from northern Spain and Italy to south- 
ern England and western Austria, 
whence our knowledge of early man is 
chiefly derived, jwas peopled by the 
Neanderthal race. These people ap- 
pear to have been a little more ad- 
vanced than the Piltdown type, but 
their brains were distinctly smaller than 



A Review: World-Power and Evolutipn 



141 



those of the Europeans of today. Lit- 
tle by little their power and skill in- 
creased. Yet even at the end of the 
period of mild inteiig^lacial climate, they 
were still extremely primitive. They 
had no esthetic art so far as we know. 
ITieir greatest exhibition of skill was in 
'flaking' the edges of flints to produce 
sharp cutting edges. This they did with 
great skill, producing implements of 
beautiful symmetry and considerable 
utility. Doubtless they had other arts, 
such as the dressing of skins, the build- 
ing of huts, and the making of wooden 
clubs. Yet how little this represents in 
proportion to the hundreds of thou- 
sands of years since man first began to 
chip the flints that he picked up from 
the ground ! Only at the end of this 
last Interglacial Epoch do we find the 
first positive evidence that man had 
learned to use fire. 

**We now come to a strange and 
most significant fact. Man had lived 
through three great glacial epochs, but 
he had never been subjected to a really 
severe climate. Now for the first time 
he endured one, for the last epoch was 
much more rigorous than its predeces- 
sors. At the same time his evolution 
proceeded much more rapidly than ever 
before. 

"The approach of this severe climate 
was gradual. First there was a long 
period of relatively cool, dry conditions. 
Central France, for example, may have 
been something like what southeastern 
Russia now is. This caused the dis- 
appearance of two rather sensitive 
Asiatic mammals, the hippopotamus 
and the southern mammoth. Then, as 
the Scandinavian ice-sheet accumulated 
farther north, the climate became more 
severe. Men repaired to the shelter of 
grottos and caverns as they had not for 
tens of thousands of years. The hardy, 
broad-nosed rhinoceros and the straight- 
tusked elephant both disappeared, while 
animals of the cold Arctic tundra, such 
as the reindeer, the wooly mammoth, 
and the wooly rhinoceros, and the 
Arctic lemming, migrated all over 
southern Britain, Belgium, France, 
Germany and Austria. 



PROGRESS IS CHILLED 

I 

"This condition was too severe for 
early man. The stage of human de- 
velopment., which coincides with the 
beginning of refrigeration, *is seen to 
present the climax of a gradual and 
unbroken development* not only in in- 
dustries but in ideas. The next indus- 
trial stage, which certainly presents the 
closing workmanship of the same 
Neanderthal race, and which coincides 
with the main cold period of the Fourth 
Glaciation, *shows a marked retrogres- 
sion of technique in contrast to the 
steady progression which we have ob- 
served up to this time.' 

"The climatic conditions which were 
unfavorable to development in central 
Europe seem to have been highly fa- 
vorable in other places where they were 
not quite so severe. Thus somewhere 
in central Asia there appears to have 
developed during this period the great 
Cro-Magnon race. These highly gifted 
people had brains as larpe as those of 
modern Europeans. They invaded 
southern Europe after the most severe 
part of the fourth Glacial Epoch had 
passed away. 'After prolonged study 
of the works of the Cro-Magnons, one 
cannot avoid the conclusions that their 
capacity was nearly if not quite as high 
as our own ; that they were capable of 
advanced education; that they had a 
strongly developed esthetic as well as a 
religious sense; that their society was 
quite highly diflferentiated along the 
lines of talent for work of different 
kinds.' The civilization, such as it was, 
of the Cro-Magnons Svas very widely 
extended. This marks an important 
social characteristic, namely, the read- 
iness and willingness to take advantage 
of every step in human progress, where- 
ever it may have originated.' 

"These fine people lived in Europe 
from about 25,000 years ago until 7,- 
000 years ago. Their art was perhaps 
their greatest claim to fame, for their 
drawings and paintings on the walls 
and roofs of caverns were wonderful, 
considering the primitiveness of tiie 
tools they employed. Why they dis- 



142 



The Journal of Heredity 



appeared we do not know. They were 
not the ancestors of most of the modern 
Europeans. They may have been fair- 
haired like the Nordics, but they had 
peculiarly broad faces and relatively 
narrow heads unlike any of the present 
great races. 

THE GREAT MODERN RACES APPEAR 

"They were displaced by other races, 
the long-headed dark Mediterraneans, 
the broad-headed, brown-haired Alpine 
people, and the tall, fair-haired, blue- 
eyed, long-headed Nordics. These later 
races, which have carried civilization 
forward by leaps and bounds, appear 
to have risen to their present mental 
power during this same last Glacial 
Epoch. The place of their origin is not 
quite certain, but their common center 
was quite surely in Central Asia not 
far from where the Cro-Magnons de- 
veloped. In that same region dwelt the 
ancestors of the races that evolved the 
early civilizations of China, India, and 
Asia Minor, and at least a part of the 
Mesopotamian civilization. There, in 
an environment not quite so severe as 
that of central Europe, these early peo- 
ple developed the art of smoothing 
stone implements and evolved other 
capacities which enabled them to con- 
quer the artistic Cor-Magnons. There, 
too, or else in the not greatly dissimilar 
climate which then prevailed in North 
Africa, the art of copper smelting was 
invented. A little later, in essentially the 
same Asiatic regions, the far greater 
art of making iron tools was developed, 
and man took still another of the great 
steps which mark his advance toward 
civilization. 

"In view of these facts and many 
others it is hard to avoid the conclusion 
that the last Glacial Epoch and the 
succeeding period of less pronounced 
climatic changes were peculiarly stimu- 
lating to mental development. The cold- 
est places were not favorable, but on 
their borders where the climate was 
severe enough to be highly bracing, but 
not benumbing, there occurred an ex- 
traordinary development of brain 
power. As evolution counts the years 



we are still too near to see this develop- 
ment in its true light. Yet it can 
scarcely be mere chance that man rose 
above the animals during a great glacial 
period such as that which directed the 
wonderful evolutionary changes of the 
far earlier Permian Period. 

"Still less is it likely to be mere 
chance that the evolution of the powers 
of the human brain was relatively slow 
until the last of the four great epochs 
into which the Glacial Period is divided. 
That last epoch was colder and more 
severe than any of the others. Close 
to the ice-sheets it was apparently so 
severe that it caused retrogression, but 
farther away it apparently provided 
conditions such that man changed a 
thousand times faster than the animals 
had changed during the vast periods 
of relatively uniform climate in earlier 
geological times. . . . Clearly a severe 
climate is wonderfully potent in hasten- 
ing the course of evolution." 

SEEKING AN EXPLANATION 

This last conclusion would doubtless 
be accepted by all biologists, since a 
rigorous climate means an intensity of 
natural selection that perpetuates 
favorable variations. But Dr. Hunting- 
ton seeks a more direct intervention of 
climate in evolution and devotes a chap- 
ter to "New Types among Animals," 
in which he argues that the effect of 
climatic changes is to induce sudden, 
inheritable mutations. 

This, of course, is an old stamping- 
ground for biologists, and they will not 
consider that he has made out a strong 
case; nor does he claim that the evi- 
dence is now conclusive. He bases his 
hopes on a few well-known experi- 
ments such as: (1) the effects of 
changes of temperature on the pupae 
of butterflies; (2) W. L. Tower's 
work on potato-beetles; (3) experi- 
ments on drosophila under extremes of 
temperature; (4) P. Kammerer's work 
on toads; (5) F. B. Sumner's experi- 
ments with mice; and (6) A. H. 
Clark's observations on crinoids from 
different regions. Some of these ex- 



A Review: World-Power and Evolution 



143 



periments are not taken very seriously 
by biologists in general, while the good 
ones are susceptible of various explana- 
tions, and it is by no means evident 
that they are of a character to produce 
the great evolutionary effect that Dr. 
Huntington would ascribe to them. 

The long quotations that have been 
given are sufficiently illustrative of the 
manner in which Dr. Huntington inter- 
prets the facts, and it is impossible here 
to review the chapters in which he in- 
geniously applies his hypotheses to an- 
cient and modern history, taking up 
the Greeks, the Romans, the Jews, the 
Negroes, the Germans, the Turks, and 
indeed most of the races and nations 
of the earth, and seeking to show that 
their achievements coincide with favor- 
able climatic conditions, their failures 
correspond to unfavorable ones. The 
book must be read, and few will re- 
gret reading it. 

"Some readers," Dr. Huntington 
warns, "may feel that the importance 
of environment is exaggerated in this 
book. That will be largely because 
they do not attach as much weight as 
does the author to the qualifying 
phrases which he has used. A few gen- 
erations ago the emphasis was all upon 
the various agencies which combine to 
furnish training. In a broad sense these 
include the Church, the Home, the 
School, the State, and other institu- 
tions. Recently tremendous emphasis 
has justly been given to another factor, 
namely, heredity. We are told that 
heredity plays nine parts and training 
one in determining what a man's char- 
acter shall be. According to such an 
extreme view physical environment is 
scarcely worthy of mention. Yet train- 
ing, heredity, physical environment, are 
like food, drink, air. One or another 
of these may be placed first, according 
to the individual preferences, and one 
or another may demand more atten- 
tion according to the circumstances. It 
is idle, however, to say that one is any 
more important than the others. All are 
essential. Until the world learns this 
vital lesson, it will be necessary that 



some students should lay special stress 
upon heredity because its importance is 
not yet so fully recognized as is that of 
training. Other students must lay still 
greater stress upon physical environ- 
ment because its importance is still less 
appreciated. When the world realizes 
that the human race must be bred as 
carefully as race horses, and that even 
when people inherit perfect constitu- 
tions their health must receive as much 
care as does that of consumptives, it 
will be time for a book in which train- 
ing, heredity, and environment receive 
exactly equal emphasis." 

THE author's position 

Again, at the close of the book. Dr. 
Huntington makes a final effort to 
avoid misunderstanding. "Today the 
swing of evolutionary thought is all to- 
ward the side of heredity," he explains. 
"Therefore scores of biologists will feel 
that in placing so much emphasis upon 
the effect of environment I have com- 
mitted a cardinal sin. They will say 
with justice that there is far more 
proof of the importance of heredity 
in causing stability from generation to 
generation than of the importance of 
environment in creating mutations. 

"Undoubtedly the evidence as to the 
cause of mutations is still slight. That 
is inevitable when a subject first comes 
into the realm of scientific investiga- 
tion. On the basis of such scattered 
facts as are yet available we have 
framed the hypothesis that the com- 
monest cause of mutations and thus of 
the origin of species is germinal change 
due to the action of extremes of heat 
and cold upon the organism in its early 
stages of growth. If such an hypothe- 
sis is accepted, it will doubtless de- 
mand a readjustment of many old ideas, 
but there is nothing about it at all in- 
consistent with the strongest possible 
belief in the importance of heredity. 

"The scales have swung too far in 
one direction because one side has 
been weighted with some of the most 
important and interesting facts that 
have ever been discovered. Now we 



144 



The Journal of Heredity 



must find facts of other kinds and 
throw them into the scales. It hap- 
pens that the facts set forth in this 
book fall into the side of the scale 
marked environment. By and by we 
shall have more facts. As we dig them 
out we must carefully inspect them to 
see whether they belong in one scale 
or the other. It is easy to mistake the 
scale in which a given fact should fall, 
and sometimes we may have done so in 
this book. Yet even so there remain 
many facts which indicate that ex- 
tremes of heat and cold, moisture and 
dryness, are somehow associated with 
pronounced changes in the form and 
function of organs of the body. This 
single fact, if it be a fact, is more 
important than all else that we have 



here discussed. Part of its importance 
lies in that it opens up the possibility 
that some day mankind may learn not 
only how to select the best variations 
in a given plant or animal, but how to 
cause a great number of widely diverse 
mutations from which he may select. 
"In all this the human race is merely 
one among the species of animals. For 
aught we know, his migrations and the 
many new and artificial conditions to 
which he subjects himself may be alter- 
ing some of his most deep-seated quali- 
ties. We spend millions in the attempt 
to improve plants and animals. Is it 
not time that we learned how the high- 
est of all the animals is being changed 
and how his future evolution may be 
directed along the right path?" 



Morgan on Heredity 



The Physical Basis of Heredity, by 
Thomas Hunt Morgan, professor of 
experimental zoology in Columbia 
University. Monographs of Experi- 
mental Biology; the J. B. Lippin- 
cott Co., Philadelphia, 1919. Pp. 305, 
with 117 illus. Price, $2.50. 

During the past twenty years the na- 
ture of the process of inheritance has 
been demonstrated in detail to the satis- 
faction of nearly every one, and no man 
has had a larger part in this gre^ 
accomplishment than Dr. Morgan. The 
present book is the most complete ac- 
count extant of the mechanism of 
heredity, and it will therefore be indis- 
pensable to every serious student of the 
subject, even though in some respects 
it will not at once supplant "The Mech- 
anism of Mendelian Heredity," which 
Dr. Morgan and his associates published 
in 1915. 

All of the important or moot points 
of the subject are discussed, and diffi- 
culties are met squarely, except in a 
few instances, as in a discussion (p. 36) 



of the objection that Mendelism deals 
only with superficial characters, such as 
color. This is on its face a fundamen- 
tal objection, and the only answer Dr. 
Morgan makes is to cite the well-known 
lethal factors that destroy the individual 
when homozygous. "There can be no 
question as to the fundamental impor- 
tance of such factors," he truthfully 
states; but certainly this does not an- 
swer the attack, and it might as well be 
admitted that the characters whose in- 
heritance has so far been worked out 
satisfactorily are in general superficial 
characters. It is easy enough to see 
that any important structure or func- 
tion must be due to the interaction of a 
large number of factors, and it is no 
cause for apology that geneticists have 
not yet been able to isolate all the fac- 
tors that go to make such a character. 

The book contains a good bibli- 
ography, which brings a fresh realiza- 
tion of the great amount of work that 
has been done in genetics in the brief 
time that it has existed as a science. — 
P. P. 



The 



Journal of Heredity 






(Formerly tke American Breeders* Magazine) 



Vol. ^I, No. 4 April, 1920 



CONTENTS 

Special Notice to Members Inside front cover 

Native Horses and Cattle in ihe Orient, by C O. Levine 117 

Orifdn of a Grapefruit Variety Having Pink C€»lored Fruits, by A. D. 

Shamel 157 

Heritable Characters of Maize — Defective Seeds, by D. F. Jones 161 

Foreign Plant Introduction Medal, by David Fairchild 169 

Cotton a Community Crop, by O. F. Cook 174 

Are Our Raspberries Derivc^d from American or European Speries, by 

Geo. M. Darrow 179 

An Abacus for Illustrating the Structure and Mathematics of the 

Human Germ-Plasm, by Harry II. Laughlin 18& 

Moral Qualities and Eugenics 189 

A Physical Census in England and Its Lesson, by F. A. Woods 190 

A System for Breeding Corn or Gregarious .\nimals, by A. N^ Hume. 191 

Race and Nationality — a Review 192 



The Journal of Heredity is published monthly by the American Genetic As- 
sociation (formerly called the American Breeders' Association) for the benefit of its 
members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should send 25 cents a year, 
in addition to their regular membership dues of $2.00, because of additional postage 
on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same reason. Sub- 
scription price to non-members, $2.00 a year, foreign postage extra; price of single 
copies, 25 cents. 

Entered as second-class matter February 24, 1915, at the postoffice at Washing- 
ton, D. C, under the act of August 24, 1912. Contents copyrighted 1920 by the 
American Genetic Association. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles per- 
mitted, upon request, for a proper purpose, and provided due credit is given to 
author and to the Journal of Heredity (Organ of the American Genetic Associa- 
tion), Washington, D. C. 

Datp of issue of this number, June 6, 1920. 



NATIVE HORSES AND 

CATTLE IN THE ORIENT 

Future of the Livestock Industries of China Outlined — Possibilities for Development 
of Great Meat and Dairy Resources if Modem Methods of Care 

and Breeding Are Introduced 

C. O. Levine 

Associate Professor of Animal Husbandry. Canton Christian College 



HORSES, donkeys and mules have 
been little used in China, except 
in the northern and western 
provinces where they are used 
almost solely as pack animals and for 
riding. The southwest » and western 
border of China, and Tibet, is the native 
home of the Chinese ix)ny, which in 
literature is referred to as the Tibetan 
pony. Up to the present time no horses 
have been raised in Kwangtung. Horses 
from the western provinces are shipped 
to Kwangtung chiefly from Yunnan. 
The Chinese, or Tibetan pony, is an 
excellent pony for this region. It 
thrives well in this climate, and its size — 
it usually weighs about 500 pounds — 
is well suited to the narrow roads and 
**coffin-board'* bridges. It is a beauti- 
ful animal, and the better ones are 
intelligent and easily trained by one who 
understands horses, provided the horses 
have not been previously spoiled by 
improper handling. They have good 
enduring powers, and seem quite free 
from diseases and unsoundnesses. They 
have colors common among other 
horses — black, white, sorrel, bay, pie- 
bald, gray, white, iron gray, with bay 
predominating. 

THE MONGOLIAN HORSE 

The Mongolian horse is quite common 
in the north of China. It is considerably 
larger than the Chinese pony, weighing 
about 700 to 800 or more pounds. It is 
of interest to students of horse breeding 
because of the fact that it is supposed 
to be the ancestor of most of our modern 
breeds of horses. It is raised in Mon- 
golia in a semi-wild manner, much as 
the mustangs or Indian ponies were 



raised in the United States on the west- 
em plains up to recent years. It is a 
strong and swift horse, and is said to 
be fairly free from diseases, but does not 
do well in the south. As a rule those 
observed by the writer have not appeared 
as handsome as the Chinese ponies. 
It is the horse that is used in the annual 
races of Shanghai and Hongkong. It 
is not very popular in Canton, where 
there are only about 50 Mongolian 
horses as compared with about 250 
Chinese ponies. 

HORSES IN CANTON 

While the number of horses in Canton 
is at present small the demand for horses 
for riding and carriage use in Canton is 
rapidly increasing. Some of the livery 
bams recently have imported mares 
from the western part of China and have 
begun to raise ponies in Canton. There 
are few mares in Canton other than those 
recently imported for breeding purposes. 
The males are seldom castrated. 

As a rule the Cantonese take good 
care of their horses, keeping their animals 
in good condition. 

The usual concentrated feed for horses 
in Canton is com, rice chop, and wheat 
bran. Green grass and rice straw are fed 
as roughage. The grass and straw are 
usually cut into short lengths before 
feeding. Rice is always cooked for the 
horses, as well as for other classes of 
livestock. 

CHINESE CATTLE 

Shantung, Chihli, and Honan pro- 
vinces in the north, and Szechwan, 
Yunnan and Kwangsi provinces in the 
southwest, produce cattle in largest 

147 



148 



The Journal of Heredity 



numbers. Conservative estimates would 
place the number of native cattle at 
50,000,000. The total value of these at 
$30.00 (Mex.) a head would be $1,500,- 
000,000 (Mex.). The export of cattle 
from China to other countries is small 
but is increasing from year to year. 
According to the customs reports, ex- 
portation has increased from 1,000 to 
nearly 100,000 cattle a year during the 
past four years. 

Shantung is one of the biggest cattle 
producing provinces in China. The 
Japanese report referred to above has 
the following to say about the cattle in 
this region: 

"Generally speaking the Shantung 
cattle are large in build. As for the ox, 
it usually weighs from 600 catties (1.33 
pounds equal one catty) to 1,000 
catties, with well developed loins and 
legs which almost form a rectangle 
shape. According to a native, a Ger- 
man missionary once imported here 
cows of a foreign breed with which he 
undertook the improvement of cattle 
in this locality, and that was the founda- 
tion of our cattle of the present day. . . . 
Judging from the fact that the Shantung 
cattle have a comparatively thin hide 
and have a tendency to early growth 
and fattening, we can safely infer that 
they are not a pure breed but improved 
species. ' Most cattle now in Shantung 
were brought over from Honan. Al- 
though they are called Shantung cattle 
there is no doubt but that thcv arc the 
product of Central China. That is to 
say, they have gradually migrated east- 
ward from Honan, vShonsi, Shansi and 
Kansu which arc situated in the center 
of continental China. The Yellow River 
which passes through these territories 
makes the vicinity of its water course 
unfit for cultivation by the tremendous 
overflow of the river which takes 
place every year. In consequence the 
district forms one vast pastureland 
of thick weeds. Any person going 
through there will notice the thriving 
industry of cattle raising. As explained 
above the territories from which Shan- 
tung cattle come cover vast areas and 
naturally the ntunber of cattle available 
may be said to be almost limitless. 



*'The method of raising cattle is very 
simple. In the country districts it is 
not uncommon for one to find from 
thirty to sixty head in one small village. 
Every farmer usually keeps from five to 
six head which are usually taken care 
of by one coolie. When cattle are not 
employed they are turned loose on the 
fields where they feed as they like. 
The coolie usually is a young lad who is 
called 'Cattle watcher.* His wage is 
usually 5 to 6 sen per day. At night he 
sleeps in the cattle shed. Cattle are fed 
three times a day, morning, noon, and 
evening, during the busiest season of 
farming. In seasons when farming is 
not in full swdng they are fed twice a day 
— ^moming and evening. The feed then 
consists of about 16 catties of straw 
and 4 catties of mixed feed a day. The 
straw fed is mostly millet, but wheat 
straw is fed also. In some places dr\' 
peanut stems and sweet potato vines are 
fed. The mixed feed mentioned above 
is composed of kaoliang, beans and the 
like, mixed with cut straw or hay and 
water. i^._ 

"Although Shantung cattle may not 
be as good as Japanese cattle for beef, 
yet it is an established opinion that they 
are far better than Korean or Mongolian 
cattle. At the time of the German 
administration in Tsingtau efforts) were 
made to improve the cattle. They 
always kept cattle of foreign breeds in 
their slaughterhouse with which they 
undertook to better the Chinese cattle. 
Promising calves were purchased by the 
authorities. When they were one year 
old the German doctors brought them 
together and held an exhibition. Prizes 
were awarded for good cows, which were 
later bred to cattle of foreign breeds. 
By means of such encouragement and 
others, the improvement of cattle in 
this district was induced.** 

THE NATIVE "hUMPED** CATTLE 

The methods of caring for and feeding 
cattle in Shantung, described by the 
Japanese authorities, are the same as 
those generally followed by the Chinese. 
The feed, however, differs in the various 
localities. In the Canton region the 
grain fed is usually rice chop and wheat 






i:S 



lis 



150 



The Journal of Heredity 



bran. The cattle in the Canton region 
are not as large as the Shantung cattle, 
if the Japanese estimates are correct. 
The average cow in the south weighs 
500 catties, and the average bull 800 
catties, though some individual cattle 
have been noted that weigh as much as 
1,000 catties when fat. 

The native cattle of southern China 
are of the humped species com- 
mon in the Orient. In most of the 
natural histories they are called Zebus. 
The main difference between these 
cattle and the European cattle (Bos 
taurus) is in the enlargement or pro- 
tuberance on the top of the shoulders. 
This promineijpe in the bulls sometimes 
is as much as ten inches above the level 
of the back. The females of the variety 
common in China have, as a rule, only 
a small enlargement on the shoulders. 
The meat in the hump is said lo be of 
good quality. The breeds of a related 
species in India (Bos indicus) are char- 
acterized by a larger hump and by a 
heavy fold of skin which hangs like a 
curtain from the throat to the brisket 
of the animal. 

The color of the cattle in China is 
much like the color of Jerseys. It 
varies from a yellow red to a brown red 
and almost pure black. Spotted or 
white cattle are not common, chiefly 
because the meat of an animal with 
white color markings is considered 
inferior. Fawn is quite a common color. 
The nostrils are black with a grey or 
mealy colored ring around the muzzle 
just above the nostrils. The tongue is 
black. It is a peculiar coincidence that 
all of the above color characteristics of 
these cattle are also true of the Jerseys. 
While the amount of milk yielded is very 
small — so small that cows are seldom 
used for milking — the fat content is 
high, varying from 5 to 8 per cent. 

THE **HUMPED** CATTLE IN HONGKONG 

MARKETS 

Although the cattle from different dis- 
tricts of southern China, are much alike 
in color and conformation, there is some 
difference in types in different com- 
mimities. 

There are three distinct grades of 



cattle, for instance, that reach the Hong- 
kong market, coming from different 
regions. Those coming from the east 
coast of Kwangtung province, from the 
region south of Swatow, arc superior 
in size and beef characteristics to those 
raised in the region of Canton, and their 
dressed meat sells on the average for 27 
cents (Mex.) when Canton beef sells for 
24 cents. Cattle from the west river 
region, or above Wuchow, arc of a type 
just between the Canton and Swatow 
cattle. Thev are somewhat better than 
the Canton cattfe, but not as good as 
those from the Swatow region. Cattle 
are sold by the head, and not weighed. 
The usual price io: a fair individual 
weighing from 600 to 800 pounds is 
from S28.00 to $50.00 (Mex.). 

THE FUTURE FOR LIVESTOCK IN CHINA 

The production of better and more 
live stock in China must come as the 
country develops industrially and com- 
mercially. Good police protection, good 
roads and railways, a demand for export 
products and an increasing demand for 
milk, will all be incentives to expansion 
' of the livestock industries. There is 
enough grass on the hills of China, now 
not being utilized except for fuel, to 
produce at least twice as many cattle 
as are being produced today. Cattle 
sell for about one-half the price they sell 
for in America. Better prices offered 
for export beef, which will come with 
development, will stimulate the beef 
industry, and the demand for milk 
within China itself must be met. With 
the present prices received for milk 
(12 to 18 cents local currency per pound) 
and the price at which imported butter 
is sold, ($1.20 local currency per pound) 
there are few other industries that offer 
better opportunities for young men well 
trained in the principles of dairying and 
breeding and with a thorough knowledge 
of the methods of producing sanitary 
milk, butter, and other dairy products. 

IMPROVEMENT OF LIVESTOCK ' 

With the development of agricultural 
industries will come a demand for the 
improvement of the different classes of 
livestock now raised in China. Three 



Levine: Horses and Cattle in the Orient 



151 



methods of improvement suggest them- 
selves. ' ' 

The first; method, and no doubt the 
best, is that.' of improvement within 
the breed, without the introduction of 
foreign blood. A few generations of 
intelligent selection of individuals for 
breeding purposes should greatly im- 
prove the cattle for beef puq^oses. 
Because of the .small amount of milk 
given by native ; humped cows, draft 
and beef production \vi\\ probably 
always remain the function of this class 
of cattle. Breeding for improvement 
without the introduction of foreign 
blood should be followed with all classes 
of live stock, no matter how extensive 
the use of modem breeds may become. 

The buffalo in China has been chiefly 
a draft animal to be used for beef as 
soon as its usefulness for work is ended. 
In recent years some dairies in the south 
have begun to use tlie buffalo for milk, 
and now have cows that give more than 
12 pounds of milk a day, testing from 10 
per cent to IS per cent fat. Six buffalo 
cows at the Canton Christian College, 
for which records for complete lactation 
periods are available, have produced an 
average of more than 250 pounds of 
butter fat. 

A second method of improvement 
would be to introduce males of im- 
proved breeds for mating wi^h native 
cows. 

Crossing the native cattle with mod- 
em breeds of beef cattle should no doubt 
improve the native cattle for beef 
purposes. However, such crossing of 
native humped breeds of cattle with 
European breeds has not proven popu- 
lar in the Philippines and in India for 
the reason that while the cross produces 
better beef cattle, such cattle are of 
little use for draft. The chief reason 
why the native cattle are so well 
adapted for work is because of the hump 
against which the yoke fits so well. In 
animals containing foreign blood the 
hump is very small, or not present at all. 

A third method suggested for im- 
provement of native live stock is to 
secure pure bred animals of desirable 
breeds and continue to breed them pure. 

The first method suggested, that of 



selection within the native breed for 
improvement, is safest, but slow in 
bringing results. Introducing modern 
improved breeds will probably bring 
quicker results, pro\dded good, hcalthv 
individuals only are secured and intel- 
ligent breeding is practised. However, 
the disease common here, and not com- 
mon in regions from which imported 
cattle come, should be taken into con- 
sideration and guarded against, or the 
result to individual breeders is apt to 
prove disastrous financially. Great care 
should be taken not to introduce tuber- 
culosis with European breeds. 

NEED OF TRAINED LIVESTOCK MEN .WD 
VETERINARIANS 

Men trained in animal breeding and 
feeding, are much needed in China to 
improve the quality of livestock by 
intelligent feeding, care, selection and 
breeding, and by introduction of foreign 
breeds. Veterinarians are needed to 
take up a thorough study of diseases and 
their control, and to build laboratories 
for the production of anti-cholera and 
anti-rinderpest serums for the preven- 
tion of these two great plagues of the 
livestock industry. Canton, like all 
cities in China, is in need of government 
livestock sanitary inspectors with ade- 
quate laws to support them, to prevent 
the sale of diseased meat, and above all 
the sale of unwholesome milk; for while 
the danger of eating diseased meat is 
serious enough, the danger of con^* 
tracting typhoid fever, tuberculosis and 
other disease from contaminated milk 
is apparent to all. Every cow with 
European blood, whose milk is being sold 
to the pubUc, should be tested for 
tuberculosis and reacting animals be 
rejected for dairy purposes. Such work 
is the work of a veterinarian. It should 
not be necessary to test native cows or 
buffalos, as the native cows are highly 
resistant and the water buffalo appar- 
ently immune to tuberculosis. 

Some of the dairies have good bulls 
of modem dairy breeds, but cannot 
produce good milkers because of their 
methods of raising calves. From the 
time the calves of these European cows 
are bom they are kept tied up in a 



A NATIVE CIIINESK BUIX 

The native cattle of China i«isscss an cnlargi-'nicnl or "hump" on the shoulders whith is 
characteristic of cattle in thf Orient. That is their main (iiffcTenee from European liree<fs. 
In bulls, the enlari;emenl is sometimes ten inchi-s aliovc the level of the liaek, but in the 
females it is very mui'h smaller. (Fig. 3.) 



properly carc;d for ihcy mi};ht ^va 
from 20 to 30 pounds of };oo(l whole- 
some milk. 

STANDAkniZINC. MILK 

Mtuiy dairies ai present add water 
to the milk they sell in order to inerease 
their jirofits. The danger of disease 
germs from the tist- of impure water is 
apparent, to say nothing of the unfiHr- 
ness to honest dair\'men. Milk offered 
for Kile sh<juld be analyzed for fat 
with a Babcock tester and a check be 
kept on waterinf; milk. Buffalo milk 
containinK less than 10 per cent fat 
and European cows' milk containing 



less than 3 per cent fat is undoubtedly 
watered milk. Dairymen found guilty 
ul adding water should be hca\ily fined. 
Repetition of the offense should cancel 
the right of such a dairy to sell milk 
to the public. Buffalo milk should Ix' 
sold for at least twice as much as 
foreign cow's milk, in order to remove 
the temptation to water such milk. 
It wotild, at such a price, be no higher 
in prici- for the food value it contains 
than foreign cow's milk, and based on 
per cent of fat, would be far cheaper. 
It is hoped that modem methods can 
soon be applied to the dair>- and other 
animal industries of China, so that 
153 



Ancestors of the Holstein 



155 



there wilj be a more eflScient use of the 
country's wonderful resources. 

REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY 



i< 



Chinese Customs Reports." 

King: "Farmers of Forty Centuries." Pp. 
233, 353, 355, 403, 418, 801. 

Bailey: "Cyc. of Am. Agr." Vol. iii. p. 378. 

Hewlett: "Breeds of Indian Cattle." Bom- 
bay. 

Gunn: "Cattle of Southern India." 

Bradley: "Breeds of Indian Cattle." Pun- 
jab. Pp. 21, 28. 

Bradley: "Indigenous Cattle in Raiputana." 

Hue: "Travels in Tartary, Tibet and 
China." 



"Shantung Cattle." Report on Military 
Investigations in Tsingtau, 1916. 

Prettner: "The Resistance of the Water 
Buffalo against Experimental Tuberculosis." 
Centralblatt fiir Bactereologic u. Parasiten- 
kunde. 1 abt. Grig. Vol. xxxi, pp. 681-686. 

Levine and Cadbury: "A Study of Milk 
Produced in Kwangtung." Canton Christian 
College. Bui. No. 18, 1917. 

Levine: "Notes on Farm Animals and 
Animal Industries of China." Canton Chris- 
tian College (Canton, China) Bui. xxiii, 
1919, pp. 29-54. 

Levine: "The Water BuflFalo— A Tropical 
Source of Butterfat." Feb., 1920, pp. 51-64. 



Were the Black-and-White Holsteins Originally Red-and-White ? 



There was recently born on the Uni- 
versity of Idaho farm a pure-bred Hol- 
stein bull calf which was red-and-white 
in markings. This calf is the first calf 
of a heifer and it so happens that it is 
also inbred, that is, the sire of the calf 
is the sire of the dam. There is also 
evidence to the effect that this sire is 
the sire of another red-and-white calf 
out of a purebred Holstein cow. 
although this instance did not occur on 
the University of Idaho Farm. 

Instances have occurred of red-and- 
wh'.te calves having been dropped from 
pure-bred Holsteins in this country but, 
because they are ineligible to registry, 
usually no record is kept of them ; in 
fact, breeders are likely to conceal the 



fact, thinking that it will be a criticism 
of their herd. There is evidence to 
believe that the Holstein-Friesians in 
Holland have been crossed with a red- 
and-white stock; in fact, the ancestors 
of the Holstein were ver\^ likely red- 
and-white. 

We are interested in finding out as 
much data as we can regarding this 
inheritance of red-and-white color in 
Holsteins; consequently, we should be 
glad if any readers of the Journal can 
enlighten us further with reference to 
the problem. We should particularly 
like to get in touch with anyone having 
a red-and-white heifer. — H. P. Davis, 
College of Agriculture, Moscow, Idaho. 



Death of W. 

In the death of Wilhelm Schallmayer, 
recently announced, Germany has lost 
one of her most eminent eugenists, a 
man who had devoted most of the 
active years of his life to spreading the 



Schallmayer 

application of genetics to human society. 
In 1900 he published the first edition 
of his book, "Heredity and Selection," 
as a prize essay. The third edition, 
almost entirely rewritten, was issued in 
Jena in 1918. 



ORIGIN OF A GRAPEFRUIT VARIETY 

HAVING PINK-COLORED FRUITS 



A. D. SlIAMEL 

Riverside, Calif ornii 



AN INTERESTING illustration 
of the origin of citrus varieties 
from bud variations is found in 
the development of the Foster 
gfrapefruit. This variety was introduced 
by Reasoner Brothers of Oncco, Fla. 
As to its origin, Mr. E. M. Reasoner 
writes under the date of August 6, 
1915: "This is a sport from the old- 
fashioned variety Walters. The Wal- 
ters tree is growing in the At wood 
grove near us, and the one limb that 
has pink- fleshed fruit is of good 
size, say 4 or 5 inches jn diameter, and 
bears considerable fruit. About seven- 
eighths of the tree is Walters, the one 
limb only being Foster.'' 

In their catalog for 1919 the Reasoner 
Brothers state in their description of 
this variety that it is identical with the 
A\*alters variety, from a tree of which it 
is a sport, except in the color of flesh. 
A description of the fruit is quoted 
from Governmental Pomological Notes 
as follows : "Next to the skin the flesh 
is a light purplish-pink color which 
shades to a clear translucent color at the 
core ; there is very little pulp." In this 
same catalog Prof. Hume, the noted 
horticultural authoritv of Florida, is 
quoted as writing "my opinion of the 
Foster grapefruit is that it is a fine 
fruit. It is the best early grapefruit 
that I know of. It was in good eating 
condition at Winter Haven (Fla.) 
earlier than any other variety we have 
tested, and I think we have them nearlv 
all." 

The writer has not had the opportu- 
nity of studying this variety in Florida. 
He has observed young trees and fruits 
of this variety in Arizona in an orchard 
located near Phoenix during the month 
of December, 1918. The fruit from 



these trees, particularly the distribution 
of color in the flesh, resembled closely 
the above description of this condition 
in Florida grown fruits. The outside 
of the rind of the Foster grapefruit 
grown in Arizona, at the time they were 
examined, showed faint but unmistak- 
able traces of pink color. In a com- 
parison of the eating quality of this 
Foster fruit with that of other grape- 
fruit varieties, including the Marsh, the 
writer's notes indicate that it was infer- 
ior and less desirable than that of the 
Marsh or the other varieties tested. 

In Figs. 7 and 8, recent photographs 
are shown of Florida grown Foster 
grapefruit; these photographs were fur- 
nished to the writer by Mr. Walter T. 
Swingle. Some of the characteristics 
of the.se fruits and the leaves from a 
tree of this varietv can be identified in 
these illustrations. Fig. 6 shows a 
typical Foster grapefruit tree. 

The history of this variety furnishes 
another instance of the origin of a hor- 
ticultural variety from a bud sport. 

In July, 1919, the writer's attention 
was directed, by Mr. L. V. W. Brown, 
to a pink-flesh sport in a Marsh grape- 
fruit tree near Riverside. It was found 
that these - pink-flesh fruits were 
borne by a single large branch in a 
typical Marsh grapefruit tree. An in- 
spection of the pink-flesh fruits borne 
by the same tree revealed the fact that, 
aside from the color of the flesh and 
the rind, the two fruits were as nearly 
identical as any two Marsh grapefruits 
usually are when taken from different 
branches of the same tree. This 
branch has been known to produce pink- 
flesh grapefruit for at least three years. 
Buds have been taken for propagation 

157 



A FLORIDA GROWN POSTER GRAPEFRUIT TREE 



in an experimental way from this 
branch, but no trees grown from such 
buds have come into fruiting as yet. In 
this instance there was but faint trace 
of the pink color in the flesh anywhere 
except near the rind. On the outside of 
the rind the pink color was rather con- 
spicuous, so much so, in fact, as to un- 
mistakably mark the fruit. Fig. S 
shows a typical fruit of the California 
grown pink-flesh Marsh- grapefruit 
sport. 

Other instances of pink-ficsh ciirus 



fruit varieties originating from bud 
sports have been reported. Additional 
data concerning them is being collected 
as opportunity permits. The writer 
would appreciate any further facts con- 
cerning this phenomenon, for the pur- 
pose of completing the evidence as to 
the origin of other varieties of the 
citrus bearing pink-flesh, red, ruby or 
other strikingly different colored fruit 
from that of the established varieties 
bearing fruit possessing the norma] 
color of fie?h and rind. 



TYPICAL FLORIDA GROWN FOSTER GRAPEFRUIT 



CROSS-SECTION OF FLORIDA GROWN POSTER GRAPEFRUIT 



HERITABLE CHARACTERS OF MAIZE 



IV. A LETHAL FACTOR— DEFECTIVE SEEDS 

D. F. Jones 
Connecticut Agrictditiral Experiment Station, New Haven. 



LETHAL factors are familiar in 
com in the form of several dif- 
ferent kinds of chlorophyll defi- 
ciencies. White and virescent 
seedlings represent heritable characters 
which stop growth as soon as the food 
stored in the seed is exhausted. Golden 
plant color and many forms of striping 
permit growth and reproduction, but at 
a reduced rate. 

A new factor, which shows itself in 
the form of aborted seeds w4th either 
entirely empty pericaqjs or badly shriv- 
eled seeds, has been found, being com- 
pletely lethal in its action in some cases 
and partially so in others. Develop- 
ment of both the embryo and endo- 
sj>erm is stopped completely or greatly 
reduced shortly after fertilization. How- 
ever, the fertilization process is sufficient 
to start the pericarp, and this developes 
unchecked to very nearlv as full an 
extent as if the contents were present, 
although the empty hulls are greatly 
compressed by the crowding of the nor- 
mal seeds adjacent. Fortunately the 
growth of the pericarps makes the dis- 
tribution of the abnormal seeds easily 
apparent. The behavior of this char- 
acter indicates that it is recessive and 
due to a single factor difference. This 
gene is called defective seed and is desig- 
nated de, 

OCCURRENXE OF DEFECTIVE SEEDS 

Attention was first called to this 
condition by some cars of com grown 
on plants of ordinary field varieties 
which had been self-fertilized for the 
first time. A considerable number of 
plants of four varieties chosen as among 
the highest yielding sorts in this locality 
were raised. Two of these were dent 
and two flint varieties of rather distinct 
type and have been widely grown in the 
state. 



Altogether about 75 sclfed ears were 
obtained from the four varieties, and in 
three of these 8 ears were found which 
were definitely segregating into normal 
and defective seeds. After such a factor 
w^as once recognized it was noted in 
many other kinds of material from 
widely different sources. It has also 
been noted by others w^orking with corn. 
It has been detected in several different 
types of popcorn, in sweet com, and in 
locally grown varieties as well as in trop- 
ical sorts, so that unquestionably it is 
widely distributed and may occur in 
practically all kinds of com. In field- 
pollinated plants cross-fertilization tends 
to keep the character hidden from sight. 
Chance recombination allows a few seeds 
to appear on plants heterozygous for the 
abnormality, But since a few abortive 
seeds are common on nearly every ear 
of corn, due to various causes, such 
seeds pass without particular notice. 

When the plants are self-fertilized, 
then if the genetically defective seeds 
are present at all they appear in ap- 
proximately 25 per cent of the seeds and. 
because of their greater numbers and 
distribution over the entire ear, they 
show up plainly. The character is 
manifested in several different degrees 
and it is not yet certain that they arc all 
due to the same factor. This remains 
to be seen, but that there is a definitely 
inherited factor there can be no doubt. 
The difference between the recessive 
seeds and the normal seeds on the same 
cars is usually pronounced, and classifi- 
cation can be easily made. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE CHARACTER 

In its extreme manifestation the peri- 
carps develop but are completely 
empty. Such unfilled capsules are dis- 
tinct from partially developed ovules 
due to incompleted growth or ineffective 

161 






NORMAL AND DEFECTIVK SKKDS COIVIPARED 

Tilt defective seeds (rinlit) are from the same cars as the nnritial seeds (leftV In the 
sii(.'<:inicii shewn at the boilotti the pericarps of the defective seeds are nearly eiiiptj', as 
iiidieated l>y their transparency. In the siKcimcn at ihe top the deiectivc seeds are 
partially developed but badly shriveled and shrunken. (Fig. 10.) 



I'llE RESULT OF I.NCOMPLETE POLLINATION 

. llic Ifft, the unilovflo])cl ovules arc dearly diffeniit from Ihe (icfoitivc sufls i 
.11 L'ars. The midrtlt sijctimm shows the result of Ixith insiifficieiu pollen ai 
■■fi.-ieney. I'holoBraiih liy R. A. Emerson. (Kig. U.) 



The Journal of Heredity 



DKi 


i'K*; 


Il\K ^FKHS 


^^S 


C^ 


liim-siirc 


i-.!'^ with a f.'i 

sIllUMl. Til 


(Fig. 12 


■ i'h. 
.) 


,tr-(;ra|)h 1 


mlil Ihi' ialii' 
■y R. A. EmiT 



fcrtilinalidii (Fig. 11). Where the empty 
shells occur between normal seeds ilicy 
are flallcncd to a thin sheet and are in- 
conspicuous until the seeds arc removed 
from the cob. Then the iiborled seeds 
-Stand out plainly, scattered o\'er the 
raelits. as shown in Figure 12. In other 
sejjref^alinK cars (as in Fig. 13) the 
defective seeds contain some embryo 
and eiidosj^rm material. Such parliiilly 
developed seeds arc small and usunUy 
very much shriveled (Figs. 10 and 14i. 
In other cases the seeds are not shriveled 
but are smaller and have a dull ojiaqiie 
a]i[X'arance quite distinct from the 
Iranslusccncc of dent and flint seccis 
having corneous endosperm. 

Where there is considerable materia! 
in the defetlivc seeds they may germi- 
nate, but usually very poorly, and when 
they do, the seedlings are extremely 
weak, abnormal in appearance, anrl 
make a slow groivth. In a few cases 
the si'cds gemiinatc well and the seed- 
lings apjjcar normal. Generally the 
seedhngs are lacking in normal green 
chloropli\'ll color. 

IMIKRIT.WCI-: OF DEFECTIVE Si;i;i>S 

The normal seeds of the 8 segregating 
cars were i)lantc<l and again self-fer- 
tilized. In every case the same condi- 
tion ajiijcarwl in some of the cars of the 
])rogcn\', as shown in the Table. In 
addition. 5 ears which were not con- 
sidered to be segregating also gavcelc-irly 
segregating ears in the progeny. All the 
cars were examined for this character 
while they were lx?ing shelled olT, but 
no defective seeds in sufficient amounts 
on these jiarent ears were seen to classify 
these five ears at that time as segregat- 
ing. However, a photographic record 
of the original ears was made anil this 
shows that thrc-c of the s]x;cimens wcto 
probabl\- segregating. At least a few 
defective seeds can be seen, akhi-uyh 
the numl)ers are small. The remaining 
two cars show no signs of defecii\-e 
seeds and the ears are well develoiHrd, 
with about 500 seeds on each. Yet one 
clearly segregating ear was found in 
each of the two progenies in a total of 
five and six selfed cars in the two lots. 
This small number of segregating cars. 



Heritable Characters of Maize 



wlierc they should occur in the ratio of 
two segrcgatinj; plants to one normal, 
toj'ether with the fact that the parent 
cars were normal, indicates that a more 
complex situation may exist in this par- 
ticular material. 

The numbers obtained from alt the 
oars together show the recessive seeds 
to be fewer than the exi^ccted numbers 
based on a single factor difference. A 
number of non-scgregatinR oars in the 
same lots as the cars showing the de- 
fective seeds, as well as normal cars 
from unrelated sources, were examined, 
and from 1 to 5 per cent of jMirtially 
developed seeds were found on many 
ea'-s which migljt easih' be include<l in 
the defective class. Therefore if the 
reci'ssivc seeds were in excess as much 
as 30 f)cr cent instead of the expected 
25. this would not be thought unusual. 
But the deficiency in numbers is clearly 
due to some influence. It may be that a 
certain pro]>ortion of rcces.sivcs do not 
stimulate the perican> to develop suffi- 
ciently, or the active competition on 
!i crowded ear may prevent develop- 
ment enough so that all the defective 
seeds arc included in the count. 

In the original lots of self- fertilized 
cars the segregating individuals are gen- 
eniUy smaller and more jioorlv devel- 
oped than the normal ears. This may 
be e\"idencc that the same factor which 
prevents normal growth in the seeds in 
the homoz\'gous recessive condition also 
reduces the vigor of the plants when in 
the hybrid condition. Further investi- 
gation is nccessar}' to establish this, 
but the material all together indicates 
that this is the case. The defective 
seeds which will germinate have not 
iML'cn tested long enough to determine 
whether or not they are capable of 
completing their growth and reproducing 
themselves. 

In Fig. 15, which repre.ienls llic 
original lot of selfed ears uf one variety. 
specimen No. 12 shows partially de- 
fective seeds, while in the one num- 
bered 17 the recessive seeds arc com- 
pletely aborted. The empty shells of the 
pericarps only remain. In Fig. 9 some 
of the progeny ears of these two planes 



PARTIALLY UF.FK<rriVE SEKIKS 

Showing n ft'w seeds nimplc'ti^ly alxTli'ci 
The "partially develoiR''! seeils ari; small 
and usually very mmii shrivelcil." I'lm- 
tograph by R. A. Emcrain. (I'lJi. I.'. J 



Jones: Heritable Characters of Maize 167 

are shown, and it can be seen that the The character, defective seeds, is a 
e grade of defectiveness in the par- useful one in studies of linkage relations 



ents is reproduced in the offspring, in com. as it is a seed character and 

Whether this is due to other factors easily classified in most cases. It is also 

in the plant determining the degree of of interest because it is an illustration 

development of whether there exists an of defective germ-plasm, which is mdely 

allelomorphic series remains to be distributed in a cross-fertilized organism 

worked out, and has \'ital importance in Hfe processes. 



ORIGINAL LOT OF SELF-FERTILIZED EARS 

OriRinal ears of the variety number 110 self-fertilized for the first time. Nos. 8, 12, IS, 
17 and 18 are seRregating for the defective seeds. "Specimen No. 12 shows partially 
detective seeds, while in the one numbered 17 the recessive seeds are completely aborted. 
... In Fig. 9 some of the progeny ears of these two plants are shown, and tt can be 
5een that the sam^ grade of defectiveness in the parents is reproduced in the offspring." 
(Fig. 15.) 



THE FRANK N. MEYER MEMORIAL MEDAL 

Designed by Theodore Spicer-Simon, acid awarded to Barbour I-athrnp as a rccognilion 
of his services in the work of introducing foreign plants of economic value into America. 
A white-barked pine cone and a fruiting branch of the Chinese jujube form the theme 
on one face of the medal and the First Plant Introduction Expedition that on the other. 
See the text for translation of the Chinese poem (618 A. D.) and details of the Theban 
Queen's expedition (1S70 B. C). (Fig. 16.) 
I6S 



FOREIGN PLANT 

INTRODUCTION MEDAL' 

Memorial to the late Frank N. Meyer presented to Mr. Barbour Lathrop ^'for dis- 
tinguished service in the field of Foreign Plant Introduction" 

David Fairchild 

President of the American Genetic Association 



FRANK N. MEYER, Agricultural 
Explorer of the Office of Foreign 
Seed and Plant Introduction, who 
lost his life in the waters of the 
Yangtze River, left a bequest of a 
thousand dollars which was to be used 
by the staff of that office to defray 
the expenses of an outing or to be 
equally divided among them. This was 
Mr. Meyer*s touching tribute to the 
organization with which he was con- 
nected for thirteen years as its agricul- 
tural explorer in China, Turkestan 
and other parts of Asia. 

Rather than use the fund thus left 
by Mr. Meyer for the purj^ose which 
he designated in his will, the individuals 
of the Office preferred to put the 
bequest into a permanent tribute to 
his memor>' in the shape of a medal . 
which should be awarded for distinctive 
scr\dce in the field of foreign plant 
introduction. This has been done, 
and the awarding of it one or more 
times a year it is hoped will not only 
do honor to those who deserve recog- 
nition for their services in this im- 
portant field of research, but will 
arouse a wider and keener interest in 
what is surely one of the most im- 
portant fields now open for young 
scientific men — that of the introduction 



into this country of new f(X)d and 
otherwise useful plants. 

The medal, designed by the well known 
sculptor, Theodore Spicer-Simson, who 
designed the servdce medal given to 
Herbert Hoover by the National Acad- 
emy of Sciences, has on one side of it 
a facsimile of the bas-relief which 
Queeu Hatshepsut of the 18th Dynasty 
(1570 B. C.) had executed upon the 
wall of her palace at Thebes, to com- 
memorate the first introduction of 
a foreign plant — the incense tree from 
the land of Punt. This is the first 
recorded moniunent we have to the 
work of Foreign Plant Introduction. 
On the reverse side of the medal is the 
name of Frank N. Meyer, for thirteen 
years Agriculttu*al Explorer of the Office 
of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction 
through whose bequest the medal is 
made possible. The Chinese inscrip- 
tion is from a poem by Chi K'ang, a 
poet of the Tang Dynasty, 618 A. D., 
which, freely translated, carries the 
thought that, '*In the glorious luxiui- 
ance of the hundred plants he takes 
delight.'* To the right of this inscrip- 
tion is a fruiting branch of the Chinese 
tsao or jujube (Ziziphus jujuha), the 
cultivated forms of which constitute 
one of Mr. Meyer's contributions to 
the economic horticulture of America; 



* The first of the Frank N. Meyer memorial medals for distinctive work in the field of plant 
introduction, which the associates of Mr. Meyer have had struck in his memory, was presented 
in the presence of the staff of the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction and invited 
guests to Mr. Barbour Lathrop of San Francisco on the 3rd day of May, 1920, in the Homer 
Building, Washington, D. C. 

The associates of Mr. Meyer selected the American Genetic Association as the organization 
through which this msmorial mslal shall hen:;2forth be awardad. The address of presentation 
by the President of the Association is printed in full as it gives the details regarding the m^a 
and a brief account of the plant hunting expeditions of Mr. Lathrop whose work has contributed 
largely to the supplv of plant species with which the plant breeders of America are now working 
in the production of superior forms of food and ornamental or other useful plants. — Editor. 

169 



170 



The Journal of Heredity 



on the left the white barked pine 
(Pinus bungeana), of which Mr. Meyer 
sent to America thousands of seeds 
which are now growing in many places 
in this country, and which in the cen- 
turies to come will add to our American 
landscapes one of the most picturesque 
of all evergreen trees. 

AMERICAN GENETIC ASSOCIATION 
SELECTED AS TRUSTEE 

Since there were certain objections to 
the awarding by a government office 
of medals of this character, the asso- 
ciates of Mr. Meyer have - selected as 
their representative in the awarding of 
this medal the council of the American 
Genetic Association, an organization 
having in it as large a proportion of 
those interested in plant introduction 
as any organization in America. 

In presenting this medal, therefore, 
I am acting as the representative .of the 
American Genetic Association in the 
fulfillment of the trust imposed upon 
it by the associates of Mr. Mfeyer. 

In this capacity I have the honor to 
announce this afternoon that there will 
be awarded this year three Frank N. 
Meyer medals, the first of which it 
gives me peculiar pleasure to present to 
my old friend, Mr. Barbour Lathrop, 
of San Francisco, who has come to be 
known in the Office of Foreign Seed 
and Plant Introduction as its "patron 
saint.** I shall have to go back almost 
a quarter of a century in order to give 
you a clear idea of Mr. Lathrop's 
activities in the field of plant introduc- 
tion which entitle him to receive this 
distinguished service medal. 

BEGINNING OF FOREIGN PLANT 
INTRODUCTION AS A POLICY 

On a small steamer off the coast of 
Malacca, as the ship's bell struck in 
the new year of 1897, Mr. Lathrop and 
I finished a conversation which started 
us both into the field of plant intro- 
duction. Mr. Lathrop's many years of 
almost continuous travel in foreign 
countries had impressed upon his mind 
the significant fact that every cotmtry 
has its own particular foods and that 
these have their own particular excel- 



lence. He saw that a scientific system 
of plant introduction would be of the 
greatest benefit to his coimtry. Sitting 
there in the cabin of the steamer, he 
outlined his plans to me and convinced 
me that instead of continuing the 
researches which through his generosity, 
I was then occupied with on the 
fungus gardens of the termites, I 
should study the food and other useful 
plants of the coimtries he had planned 
to take me through as his guest. 
Through the following months which 
we spent in Siam, Australia and the 
South Sea Islands, the discussions on 
plant introduction continued, and when 
we reached Hawaii he investigated the 
possibilities of the establishment of a 
garden of plant introduction there but 
foimd them unsatisfactory. 

Arriving in San Francisco, we parted, 
and I came on to Washington, where, 
with the constructive advice and as- 
sistance of my old friends Messrs. 
Swingle, True and Femow and the 
willing cooperation of the then Secre- 
tary of Agriculture, Hon. James Wilson, 
whose convictions on the subject were 
as firm as were those of Mr. Lathrop, 
the first item was inserted in the 
appropriation bill which started the 
work of government plant introduc- 
tion as a recognized policy. 

STUDYING PLANTS IN THEIR OWN 
HABITAT NECESSARY 

After a year of organization work, 
into the midst of which had been 
dropped the responsibility for the care 
of the Hansen collections in Russia, 
Mr. Lathrop again appeared upon the 
scene, and with logical argtmicnts 
spread out over many nights, convinced 
me that I was no more fit to conduct 
a Section of Seed and Plant Introduc- 
tion than a man who had never seen 
a chicken was fitted to run a chicken 
coop. His argtunent was that a world 
plant collecting service required in it 
the presence of some one who had seen 
the whole world, and he offered to take 
me over its surface in a rapid trip of 
reconnaissance. While his plan was 
convincing to me, it failed to convince 
Mr. Wilson, and it was with reluctance 



Fairchild: Foreign Plant Introduction Medal 



171 



that he let me go. and it was not until 
years later that he admitted in a com- 
plimentary letter to me that the plans 
had finally worked out well and that he 
was satisfied. 

Leaving the office in charge of my 
friend Mr. O. F. Cook, who later was 
followed by Messrs. Jared Smith and 
A. J. Pieters, whose conduct of the 
office diuing tr>4ng times deserves the 
highest praise, we went through the 
West Indies, picking up an impression 
of the great value of the West Indian 
yam, the chayote, and the dasheen, 
all three of which are now promising 
cultures in this country. In Panama 
we picked up the Calamondine, estab- 
lished in Florida as a beautiful orna- 
mental and one of the best stocks for 
the orange. From Chile we sent a 
thousand seeds of a hardv avocado, 
trees from which seed I had the pleasure 
of seeing in California last October. 

SEARCHING THE WORLD FOR PLANTS OF 
ECONOMIC WORTH 

We crossed the Andes into the Argen- 
tine and sent from the Chaco a spineless 
cactus which later was exploited by 
Luther Burbank; also seeds of the Mate 
or Paraguayan tea, which has since 
become established in South Florida. 

Crossing to England, I first made the 
acquaintance, through Mr. Lathrop's 
friends, of the Windsor Broad bean — 
rival of our Lima bean, though not so 
well suited to our climate. We wandered 
through Europe to Egypt, stopping in 
Austria to get acquainted with the 
Hanna barley and to secure a new and 
valuable variety of horseradish. 

In the Nile Delta the remarkable 
character of the Egyptian clover or 
Berseem attracted our attention, and 
our studies led to a second trip there 
later, and to a bulletin, which has been 
translated into Italian and has helped 
in the introduction of this plant into 
Tripoli and Tunis but not into America 
because of the lack of a climate suf- 
ficiently like that of Egypt to make it 
possible. 

I can see Mr. Lathrop in my mind's 
eye today as we argued whether to 
send in a few seeds or a himdred pounds 



of seed of the valuable Egyptian cotton 
varieties. Mr. Lathrop prevailed, and 
we sent 100 pounds, out of which » 
through years of careful breeding and 
selection and wonderful team work, 
Messrs. Kearney, Cook, Swingle and 
Scofield have built up an industry for 
the farmers of Arizona worth to them 
820,000,000 a year. 

The Lebbek tree, which in honor of 
the Empress Eugenie and the opening 
of the Suez Canal was planted in a 
five-mile avenue to the great Pyramids, 
was written up and seeds were im- 
ported. It is now a landscape feature 
in parts of Florida. 

Back again to the Dutch East Indies 
wc traveled as far as New Guinea, 
sending collections of rices from Java, 
arranging for the sending of mango 
trees from Ceylon, eucalyptus trees 
from the Island of Timor — trees which 
are now sixty feet high and are scatter- 
ing seeds over South Florida — and 
gathering information in regard to a 
host of plants which later were imported 
into America. 

From the spice islands of Amboina 
and Banda, the coast of New Guinea, 
the Aru Islands, Ceram, Kisser and 
Letti, and the great mysterious Island 
of Celebes only a few things reached 
home alive, but a knowledge of that 
gigantic archipelago which stretches as 
far around the globe as New York is 
from San Francisco, served well to 
counterbalance the natural provincial- 
ism of my middle western education, 
which would make it appear that the 
agriculture of this globe is an agri- 
culture of com, wheat and hogs, and 
has made it possible to conduct the 
Office from a broader standpoint. 

Turning back toward Europe, we 
made a quick run into India, and there 
saw for the first time the Brahmin 
cattle and the milch breeds of water 
buffalos. This glimpse enabled us to 
write an account which was published 
by Secretary Wilson, and was of as- 
sistance, I am informed, in attracting 
attention to Mr. Bordsn's remarkable 
experiments which led to the importa- 
tion of the Brahmin stock into Texas 
and the restdting hybrid race of cattle 



172 



The Journal of Heredity 



which has proven more resistant to 
drouth there than any other breed. 
The Philippine Islands are now import- 
ing, I am told, the milch breeds of the 
water btiffalo which we discovered were 
of such value in British India. 

Sent by Mr. Lathrop to Sweden and 
Finland to recuperate from an attack 
of typhoid picked up in Ceylon, I was 
able to bring to the attention of the 
department the remarkable seed-breed- 
ing establishment of Svalof and inci- 
dentally to establish the Finnish Black 
oat and the Finnish turnip in Alaska, 
both of which have, according to Mr. 
Georgeson, added greatly to the food 
production of that country. 

GREAT WEALTH OF PLANT MATERIAL IN 

CHINA 

We returned to America in 1900, and 
Mr. Lathrop again disappeared for a 
year from active ser\ace for the cause 
of plant introduction, returning in the 
auttimn of 1901 with the proposal of 
an Oriental journey for the depart- 
ment, which was accepted, and which 
in returns exceeded any of the previous 
expeditions. It brought to the atten- 
tion of the Office the great wealth of 
plant material in China and through 
the acquaintance made of Dr. Augustine 
Henr>% the veteran plant student of 
that vast country, led ultimately to 
the exploration of it by our associate 
Frank N. Meyer, who spent nine years 
in its study. Our expedition resulted 
in the introduction of a collection of 
the East Indian and Cochin China 
mangos which are now fruiting as 
large trees in southern Florida, the 
first of the Persian Gulf date palms, 
from a single tree of which in southern 
California as much as seventy-five 
dollars* worth of fruit were sold this 
year by the owner. Mr. Lathrop sent 
me to the Persian Gulf while he made 
a trip to the east coast of Sumatra, 
where he secured a quantity of seed of 
the Sumatra wrapper tobacco in the 
face of the opposition of the Dutch 
planters there.' The plants from these 
seeds entered into the hvbrids which 
have made the Connecticut tobacco 
famous. 

From the rich plant field of Japan 



was sent in a collection of twenty-nine 
varieties of the flowering cherries, and 
those who see the cherries on the 
Speedway in Washington, or the older 
collection at my place ** In the Woods, " 
or the collection in the Golden Gate 
Park in San Francisco, must thank 
Mr. Lathrop for the inspiration and 
encouragement which this collection 
gave to the widespread cultivation of 
these glorious trees in America. 

GRASSES AND FRUITS SECURED IN AFRICA 

Returning again to America in the 
summer of 1902, Mr. Lathrop and I 
started out in the autumn of the 
same year to make a hurried survey 
of the Dark Continent and sailed down 
its east coast, stopping at the German 
colony of Dar Es Salaam and the 
British colonies of Natal and the Cape. 
The Rhodes grass, seeds of which 
were given us by the manager of the 
Cecil Rhodes estate near Cape Town 
and which today has become an im- 
portant hay crop in Florida, Texas 
and California, and the Carissa, finest 
of all evergreen hedge plants, which 
has now become an established thing 
in south Florida, were secured that 
year. The Spek-boom, a forage plant 
upon which the elephants feed, a 
remarkable small fruited pineapple from 
Natal, the Limoncella apple of Naples, 
the Kaffir orange and Kaffir plum of 
Natal and Cape Town and the Lathrop 
mango from the Island of Chiloane off 
the coast of Beira, have all become 
established in America as the result 
of this last expedition of Mr. Lathrop's, 
which ended in the summer of 1903. 

Although since then Mr. Lathrop has 
conducted no long expeditions, his in- 
terest in the work of plant introduction 
has continued. During his travels he 
has sent us many valuable things, in- 
cluding a most complete account, with 
])hotographs, of the soy-bean products 
of Japan, and during his last trip to 
that country he sent us what is known 
there as the most popular vegetable of 
the Japanese people — the mitsuba — a 
plant which, although common in our 
own woods, has never been domesti- 
cated, so to speak, by Americans, 
although in Japan it is grown as ex- 
tensively as celery is with us. 



Fairchild: Foreign Plant Introduction Medal 



173 



But of all the things about which 
Mr. Lathrop has been enthusiastic 
there is nothing to which he has devoted 
so much thought as to the subject of 
the introduction of the Japanese timber 
and • edible bamboos — nothing about 
which he is more convinced than of its 
great future importance to America. 
A collection of eighteen selected varie- 
ties and a bulletin on bamboo culture 
resulted from the expedition in 1902. 
Later Mr. Lathroj) has added a kit 
of Ja]Danese tools, a collection of baskets 
and valuable Ja])anese books on bamboo 
culture. During the past year he has 
crowned his work by the gift of a 
bamboo grove. This gift comprises 
46 acres of land near Savannah, 
Ga., on which is three-quarters of an 
acre of magnificent bamboo 50 to 60 
feet tall, planted years ago by Mrs. 
H. J. Miller, with plants introduced by 
Andrias Maynelo, of Savannah. This 
grove is to constitute the center for the 
propagation and study of this most 
important crop for the southern sates. 

MR. LATHROP'S VALUABLE SERVICES 

This is a meager account of the 
volunteer services which Mr. Lathrop 
has given for a quarter of a century 
at his own expense. The valuable 
advice and the moral support which 
he gave when they were needed the 
most and the assistance which he has 
given to the establishment of so many 
valuable new industries in our country 
merit a recognition which his own 
modesty has made it heretofore im- 
possible to give him, and it is therefore 
with pcailiar pleasure that I who owe 
so much to him j)ersonally as well as 
officially, present to him in the form of 
the Frank N. Meyor medal the recoi^ 
nition which I know all of us of the 
Bureau of Plant Industry who arc asso- 
ciated with the work of introducing new 
plants feel he so justly deserves. 

Mr. Lathroj). I ])resent to you the 
first Meyer memorial medal. 

WITH COMMISSIONER CAPEROX IX JAPAX 

Mr. Lathrop's remarks, upon receiv- 
ing the medal, carried the audience back 
half a century to the early days in 



Japan, when, as a young man visiting 
there, he met the former United States 
Commissioner of Agriculture, Mr. 
Caperon, who had been invited by the 
Japanese to come over and assist in the 
organization of Japanese agriculture. 

The speech was extemporaneous and 
it was not Mr. Lathrop's wish that it be 
])ublished . 

letter of presextatiox 

May 3, 1920. 
Barbour Lathrop, Esq., 
Bohemian Club, 

San Francisco, Cal. 
Sir: 

The Council of the American Genetic 
Association has been designated by the 
members of the force of the Office of 
Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction 
of the Bureau of Plant Industry of the 
United States Dei)artment of Agri- 
culture as the agency through which 
shall be presented the Frank N. Meyer 
medal for distinctive service in the field 
of foreign plant introduction. 

• Yonr broad, constnictive Interest in 
the subject of ])lant introduction in the 
days of its inception in Ihis country; 
your various expeditions to South 
America, South Africa, tlic Dutch East 
Indies, Japan, China, the Persian Gulf 
region, Australia, Siam, the South Sea 
Islands, and the principal countries of 
Europi* and the Alediterranean region 
in seirch of new and valuable plants, 
which not only out the office in touch 
wiih the plant collectors of the world, 
but which assisted most materially in 
the ultimate establishment in America 
of the Persian Gulf dates, the Egyptian 
cotton, the Rhodes grass, the East 
Indian mangos, the Oriental timber 
bamboos, the Japanese vegetables Udo 
and Mitsuba, and many other varieties 
of plants; your recont gift to the gov- 
ernment of an important field station — 
the Savannah Bamboo Grove — entitle 
you, in the opinion of the counc'l, to b:^ 
the first recipient of the Frank N. Meyer 
medal. 

It is with pleasure, therefore, that 
th? council unanimously awards you 
this medal. 



COTTON A COMMUNITY CROP 

One-Variety Communities Must be Recognized as the Basis of Production, in Order 

to Preserve and Utilize Superior Varieties of Cotton 

O. F. Cook 
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture 



ORGANIZATION may be desir- 
able with any crop, but cotton 
has a special community feature, 
the product of many farms going 
to the same gin. The cotton industry 
should have been placed on a community 
basis when public gins supplanted the 
former system of private or plantation 
gins, but methods changed gradually 
and consequences were not considered. 
Ginning is done with less labor by the 
modem high-power equipment, but the 
public gin system has made it very diffi- 
cult to keep seed pure, or to have su- 
perior varieties in general cultivation. 

CONSEQUENCES OF THE PUBLIC GIN 
SYSTEM 

Improvement of varieties was more 
feasible under the old system of private 
gins because the careful planter could 
maintain uniform strains of cotton, 
by selecting the best individual plants, 
isolating their progenies, keeping the 
seed separate, and furnishing pure seed 
to stock other plantations, as the aistom 
was. Present-day fanners very seldom 
practice individual plant selection, or 
maintain stocks of pure seed. Different 
kinds of cotton are grown in the same 
communities, the seed is mixed at the 
public gins, crossing takes place in the 
fields, and degeneration ensues. 

According to the general testimony 
of the cotton trade there has been a 
serious deterioration in the quality of 
the American cotton crop in recent 
decades, which can be understood when 
account is taken of the effects of mixing 
and crossing different varieties, and the 
general use of ordinary **gin-run*' seed 
for planting. The system of plantation 
gins survived longer in the Sea Island 
districts of the Southeastern States and 
the lower Mississippi Valley, so that the 

174 



long-staple branch of the industry re- 
mained on a somewhat better footing 
until recent years. But with the boll- 
weevil invasion the dominance of short 
staple varieties and of the public gin 
system became complete. 

Though it wotdd be considered foolish 
for a large grower having a private gin 
to plant several varieties and allow them 
to become mixed, this is essentially the 
procedure that is followed by members of 
cotton-growing communities. It is true 
that communities seldom own gins, but 
gins are supported by communities, and 
ginners as well as farmers would profit 
through improvement in yield, quality 
and market value of the crop. Better 
ginning cotdd be done, and with less 
difficulty, if only one variety were 
handled, instead of many kinds. 

DETERIORATION OF VARIETIES THROUGH 

CROSSING 

The idea formerly entertained, that 
cotton is not cross-pollinated, or that 
crossing is very infrequent and not of 
practical importance in relation to seed- 
supplios, has proved to be erroneous. 
Cotton pollen is not blown by the wind, 
because the grains are sticky and ad- 
herent, but is carried regularly by bees 
or other insects that visit the flowers, 
so that varieties growing in neigh- 
boring fields are cross-pollinated, in ad- 
dition to the general crossing that takes 
place in fields where mixed seed is 
planted. No matter how good the 
original varieties may have been, a 
mixed stock becomes, in a few genera- 
tions, thoroughly miscellaneous and 
mongrelized, with many abnormal and 
infertile plants, very inferior to the 
parental types. 

The degeneration that results from 
crossing no doubt is the basis of the 



Cook: Cotton a Community Crop 



175 



popular idea that cotton varieties *'run 
out*' in a few years, and that "fresh 
seed" must be brought in from other 
districts. But the fact is that locally 
selected seed of good varieties has 
proved better than imported seed, when 
careful comparisons have been made. 
Moreover, some of the best known 
varieties have been grown continuously 
in the same districts for manv years, 
with no indication of "running out," as 
long as isolation and selection are main- 
tained. 

A system like ours, that mixes differ- 
ent varieties together and uses inferior, 
mongrel seed as the basis of production, 
no doubt wotild be considered very 
backward if discovered in a foreign 
country. Chinese farmers might be 
excused on the ground of having no 
select varieties to plant, whereas Amer- 
ican farmers, although they have had 
superior varieties developed, have not 
learned how to maintain and utilize 
pure stocks of seed. In this respect our 
system must be considered defective and 
wasteful, not only to the farmer and the 
manufacturer, but to all who use cotton 
for any purpose that requires strong or 
durable fabrics. 

EXTENT OF PURE SEED REQUIREMENTS 

Full utilization of superior varieties is 
possible only in one-variety communi- 
ties, since it is only in such communities 
that select, uniform stocks can be main- 
tained and increased. The varieties are 
not fully utilized unless they serve as the 
basis of crop production over large 
areas, and for many years. Utilization 
does not begin until a variety is repre- 
sented by enough pure seed to plant a 
field of cotton, and the requirement of 
pure seed is still the same when the 
culture of the variety extends over 
millions of acres. It is not sufficient 
that an improved variety be adopted 
by many individual farmers scattered 
in mixed communities, because this does 
not provide an adequate and continued 
supply of pure seed. 

There is no prospect of centralizing 
the production of cotton seed in a few 
communities or districts for supplying 
the entire industry. A vast quantity 
of seed, more than 500,000 tons, is 



needed for planting the American cotton 
crop, whereas only about 30,000 tons 
are handled by seed-dealers. On ac- 
count of the relatively large size of the 
seeds, the limited number produced on a 
plant, the need of heavy seeding, and 
the holding of reserves for replanting, 
about ten per cent of the entire crop 
must be of planting quality to afford a 
general provision of good seed. The 
cost of transporting the entire volume 
of seed would be enormous, in addition 
to the danger to the whole industry 
through distributing insect pests or 
plant diseases, or through failures of 
crops in seed-supply districts. 

THE SOCIAL FACTOR IN UTILIZATION 
OF VARIETIES 

If the utilization of varieties de- 
pended upon finding a new chemical to 
treat the seed or to fertilize the soil, or 
upon devising a new machine for plant- 
ing, cultivating or harvesting the crop, 
the problem would appear normal, and a 
solution could be sought along the usual 
technical lines, but social factors enter 
the reckoning when it is understood that 
superior varieties of cotton can be utilized 
only as they are preserved in one-variety 
cofftmunities. Except through commu- 
nity action there seems to be no ap- 
proach to a general application of the 
science of heredity or the art of plant- 
breeding in the improvement of the 
cotton industrv. 

That pure seed problems should be 
considered by sociologists is as little 
to be expected as that plant breeders 
should study community organization, 
but a common ground is reached when 
the practical needs are recognized. 
Breeders should value community co- 
operation, while sociologists and econo- 
mists, as well as teachers and agricul- 
tural leaders generally, should take more 
account of the biological factors that 
determine the improvement or degener- 
ation of varieties. To devise effective 
methods of organizing and conducting 
the activities of one-variety communi- 
ties, in growing, handling and market- 
ing the crop, and in maintaining the 
purity and uniformity of the basic 
stocks, are problems of as much prac- 
tical importance as the original dis- 



176 



The Journal of Heredity 



covery or breeding of the varieties, and 
equally worthy of careful, scientific 
study. 

The problems of cooperation are the 
field of research that needs most to be 
cultivated at the present time, for the 
general welfare of the cotton industry. 
The technical problems, the breeding 
of superior varieties, and the spinning 
and weaving of cotton by machinery, 
are much farther advanced than the 
general commercial problems of hand- 
ling, transporting and distributing, 
which react directly upon production. 
On account of the present scarcity and 
acute demand for good fiber, the manu- 
facturing and commercial interests are 
recognizing the need of research, but 
without understanding that improved 
systems of buying and handling the 
crop are as necessary as improved 
varieties. Not only facts regarding 
varieties and textile qualities of different 
kinds of fiber, need to be investigated, 
but the whole field of activities that 
lies between the breeding of varieties 
and the manufacturing processes. 

ENORMOUS WASTE OF PRESENT SYSTEM 

The damage to the industry that 
results every year from the lack of 
good seed and the resulting failure to 
utilize fully the resources of production 
must be estimated in the hundreds of 
millions of dollars. Replacement of 
our present inferior, mixed stocks by 
superior, uniform varieties would give 
a direct gain of at least ten per cent in 
quality, and as much more in yield, 
while another ten per cent might be 
expected from the cultural improve- 
ments that become possible in one- 
variety communities. Advantages from 
community handling and marketing of 
a standardized product would not be 
less important than the other items, 
and pure seed can be sold above the 
oil-mill prices. In returns to the farmer, 
our present unorganized production 
may have only a fifty per cent efficiency 
as compared with what may be found 
possible in well organized one-variety 
communities. The general waste of 
labor and resources of production in 
the eastern cotton belt contrasts pain- 
fully with the one-variety communities 



of the Salt River Valley of Arizona 
where the Pima variety of Egyptian 
cotton is grown exclusively, and the 
advantages of community organization 
are beginning to be realized. 

ONE-VARIETY CO.MMUNITIES MORE PRO- 
GRESSIVE 

Cultural problems are simplified in 
one-variety communities. Effects of 
different conditions of soils, seasons, 
and cultural methods are learned, in- 
stead of being confused with differences 
in the characters of the varieties. Tlie 
most rapid progress in cotton culture is. 
now being made in the Salt River 
Valley of Arizona, where only the 
Pima variety is grown. Cotton pro- 
blems are discussed with interest and 
profit at farmers' meetings because 
everybody has had experience with the 
same variety of cotton. Such progress 
is not possible in communities where 
different kinds of cotton are planted 
and farmers ascribe their success or 
failure to the seed. 

With adequate understanding of the 
behavior of one variety, methods are 
adjusted more closely to differences of 
soil, season and time of planting, and 
labor is applied to the best advantage 
in farm operations, preparing the land, 
planting the seed, thinning and spacing 
of the plants in the rows, cultivating, 
irrigating, harvesting and handling the 
crop. In weevil-infested regions it is 
especially important that all the farmers 
of a community grow the same variety, 
plant as nearly as possible at the same 
tirrie, handle the crop together, and 
clear the fields early in the fall. One- 
variety communities develop skill, while 
mixed communities suffer from back- 
ward cultural methods as well as from 
deterioration of varieties. 

MARKETING A STANDARDIZED PRODUCT 

The final advantage of one- variety 
communities is in marketing the cro]3. 
In an unorganized community the 
farmer who raises better cotton than 
his neighbors usually is forced to sell 
it at the same price-to the local buyer. 
The manufacturer pays more for the 
high-quality fiber, but the difference is 
absorbed by the bu>4ng trade, instead 



Cook: Cotton a Community Crop 



177 



of being shared with the farmer. 
The more valuable bales contribute to 
the profit of buying and sorting over 
the miscellaneous "hog-round lots" 
accumulated by local buyers, many of 
whom do not know how to "class" 
the cotton. 

Failure to give the farmer practical 
encouragement in his effort to improve 
the crop is a serious defect of the 
present commercial system, but or- 
ganized communities have a standard- 
ized product, better than any of the 
"even-running lots" that can be made 
by sorting and matching the inferior 
fiber of mixed communities so that the 
commercial j^roblcms are simplified. 
Even in advance of formal organization 
of communities, a distinct advantage 
may be shown as the one-variety con- 
dition is approached. The general popu- 
larity of the big-boll type of cotton 
in Texas has kept the crop more uniform 
and given that State an appreciable 
market advantage in comparison with 
other parts of the cotton belt. Pre- 
miimis of $10 to $20 per bale, are being 
paid in Texas and Oklahoma com- 
munities because so many of the farmers 
grow the Lone Star or Acala varieties 
that buyers compete for the superior 
fiber. Active campaigns for commuhity 
standardization and marketing are in 
l^rogress in Texas, Oklahoma and North 
Carolina.^ 

COMMUNITY CHOICE OF ONE VARIETY 

No doubt it will be difficult and 
sometimes impossible to get farmers to 
agree upon one variety as the best foi 
their community, though too much 
mav be made of this obstacle. Even 
a poor variety will give better results 
with community handling than good 
varieties mixed together. An organized 
community can change promptly to a 



superior variety when a definite ad- 
vantage can be shown. The Pima 
variety was substituted for the Yirnia 
in the Salt River Valley in one season, 
after a sufficient stock of seed had been 
raised. Choice of varieties also is 
limited at present by the fact that stocks 
of pure seed are obtainable for only a 
few kinds. The first one-variety com- 
munities in each district will profit 
especially by selling seed to other com- 
mimities. Pure seed sells as readily in 
carload lots as in bushels or tons. 
Community organization iq the Salt 
River Valley has made possible a rapid 
extension of Pima cotton because a 
larger supply of pure seed is available 
than with any other variety. 

EGYPTIAN COTTON COMMUNITIES IN 

ARIZONA. 

It is appreciated in Arizona that the 
Pima cotton crop of the vSalt River 
Valley communities in 1919 returned 
about $20,000,000 or nearly twice the 
cost of the Salt River reclamation 
project, including the Roosevek dam, 
electric power-plants, and irrigation 
canals. The value of land suited to 
cotton has doubled or trebled in the last 
few years, some of it selling at $500 
per acre. With reduced production in 
Egypt and loss of the Sea Island crop 
through the boll-weevil, the automobile 
tire industr\^ becomes acutely dependent 
upon the Pima cotton raised by the 
Southwestern communities. In the 
spring of 1920 mantifacturers are offer- 
ing to guarantee a minimum price of 
60 cents per pound, or to make con- 
tracts at §0 cents a pound, so that a 
very rapid extension of Pima cotton 
may be expected, not only in the Salt 
River Valley, but in the Yuma, Im- 
perial, Coachella and San Joaquin 
Vallev.^ 



^Winters, R. Y., 1919, Community Cotton Improvement in North Carolina, Journal of the A mer- 
ica n Society of A gronomy, 2:121. 

2 See U. S. Dept. Agric. Bui. 533, "Extension of Cotton Production in California," and Bui. 
332, "Community Production of Egyptian Cotton in the United States." The community plan 
in relation to cotton production was outlined in the Yearbook of the U. S. Dept. of Agric. for 1911, 
pages 397-410, under the title "Cotton Improvement on a Community Basis." Other papers 
that discuss community features are U. S. Dept. Agric. Bui. 60, "Relation of Cotton Buying to 
Cotton Growing," U. S. Dept. Agric. Bui. 288, "Custom Ginning as a Factor in Cotton Seed 
Deterioration," U. S. Dept. Agric. Bui. 324, "Community Production of Durango Cotton in the 
Imperial Valley," U. S. Dept. Agric. Bal. 742, "Production of American Egyptian Cotton," and 
Bureau of Plant Industry Circulars "Cotton Selection on the Farm by the Characters of the 
Stalks, Leaves and Bolls" and "Tests of Pima Egyptian Cotton in the Salt River Valley, Arizona." 



ARE OUR RASPBERRIES DERIVED FROM 
AMERICAN OR EUROPEAN SPECIES ? 

Geo. M. Darrow 
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture 



IT HAS been the common supposition Foclie^ makes but one species of both, 
of pomologists that most of our classing R. strigosus as a variety of 
cultivated red raspberries are de- R. idaeus. His distinctions between the 
rived from American species. Va- two, however, are similar to those of 
rieties from the European species have Rydberg. but he emphasizes the fact 
been considered very susceptible to win- that while the upper part of the ma- 
ter injury while those from the Amer- ture plants of R. strigosus is densely, 
ican species have been considered very rarely sparsely bristly, the upper part 
hardy. Because varieties of red rasp- oi R. idaeus is without bristles, 
berries commonly grown in this coun- An examination of Rubus idaeus 
try have been moderately hardy they grown in this country under garden 
were, therefore, thought to be derived conditions show that these distinctions 
from the American species. are apparently correct. As Rydberg 

A brief review of the points of dif- states, the plants are not glandular- 

ference between the two species of red hispid, the stems, peduncles, and 

raspberries which are the parents of our sepals are tomentose, the fruit is dark 

cultivated varieties will show how er- red and thimble shaped. As Card 

roneous this view is. states, the canes are stouter, and less 

Rydberg^ gives the following distinc- free in habit of growth. The prickles 

tions between the European and Amer- are firm, recurved, and less numerous 

ican species : than the bristles of /?. strigosus. Some 

EUROPEAN SPECIES AMERICAN SPECIES 

Rubus idaeus Rubus strigosus 

(1) Plant not at all glandular — hispid Plant glandular — ^hispid, especially in the 

inflorescence. 

(2) Stems finely tomentose when young.. Stems not tomentose. 

(3) Peduncles and sepals tomentose Peduncles not tomentose, sepals slightly 

tomentose. 

(4) Fruit red Fruit light-red. 

(5) Fruit thimble shaped Fruit hemispherical. 

Card* states that Rubus idaeus *'is of the plants bear in the autumn, 
stouter and less free in its habit of though it may be that in the more 
growth, the leaves are a little whiter humid climate of northern Europe they 
beneath, thicker, and generally some- would bear still more in autumn. They 
what wrinkled and the canes are light are more susceptible also to winter in- 
colored, bearing purple prickles in some jury than R. strigosus. As Focke 
varieties. The prickles on the finer states, no bristles appear on the upper 
parts are firmer, recurved, and less part of the mature plants oi R. idaeus. 
numerous." He also states i?. idaeus Examinations of the cultivated va- 
bears more or less throughout the sum- rieties of raspberries known to have 
mer and that it is susceptible to winter been introduced from Europe confirm 
injury. this. (See Fig. 20.) Their fruit is of 

\Worth America Flora, Vol. 22, Part 5. 

' F. W. Card. "Bush Fruits," p. 167. 

• "Species Ruborum," W. C Focke, p. 209. 

179 • 



180 



The Journal of Heredity 

Table I. — Horticultural Varieties of Rubus Strigosus 



Variety 


Origin 


Hairs on peduncles 


Tomentum 


Leaves 


1 Crystal White. . . 


New York. . . . 

Delaware 

So. Dakota . . . 
New York. . . . 
New Jersey . . . 
Ohio 


Verv glandular .... 






2 MiUer 


Very glandular. . . . 
Very glandular. . . . 
Very glandular. . . . 
Very glandular . . . 
Very glandular. . . . 
Very glandular. . . . 

Very glandular 

Very glandular . . . 
Very glandular 

uhus Strigosus Which 
s in Their Parentage 


None 

None 

SUght 

None 

Slight 

None 

None 

None 

None 


Medium thick. 


3 Ohta 


Thin. 


*4 Perfection 

5 Rancocas 

6 Roval Church. . . 


Thin. 
Medium thick. 


7 Scarlet Gem .... 

8 Superb 


Kansas 

New Jersey. . . 
New York. . . . 
Illinois 




9 Thwack 

10 Turner 


Thin. 






Table ll.—Horticultur 


al Varieties of R 
tali 


May Have a Trace of Rubus Occident 


Variety 


Origin 

Kansas ^ 

Indiana 


Hairs on peduncles 

Glandular 

Glandular 

Glandular 

Glandular 

Glandular 

Glandular 

Glandular 


Tomentum 


Prickles 


1 Early Prolific . . . 

2 Eaton (Idaho).. . 
♦3 Kihg 


None 

None 

None 

Slight 

None 

None 

None 


Slightly recurved. . 
Slightly recurved. 
Recurved. 


*4 Minnesota No. 4. 

5 Minnetonka. . . . 
♦6 Ranere(St.Regis) 
*7 Sunbeam 


Minnesota. . . . 

Minnesota .... 
New Jersey. . . 
South Dakota 


Recurved (King X 

Loudon). 
Recurved. 
Recurved, 
Recurved( Wild red X 

Shaffer). 



a crimson color and not at all the light 
red of our common wild red raspberry. 
These varieties have been uniformly 
susceptible to winter injury. Two va- 
rieties only of all those known to have 
been introduced from Europe are raised 
to any extent — the Antwerp and the 
Superlative — both of which are grown 
in the mild climate of the Pacific Coast 
while only one other variety of R. 
idacits, the Surprise of southern Cali- 
fornia, is raised commercially. 

When our other red raspberry va- 
rieties are examined thev show marked 
differences in regard to the character^ 
distinguishing the two species. For ex- 
ample, the King is very glandular- 
hispid especially on the peduncles and 
sepals; the stems and peduncles are 
slightly or not at all tomentose; the 
sepals moderately so; and the fruit is 
bright red and hemispherical. On the 
other hand, the Cuthbert is rarely 
glandular-hispid, is somewhat tomen- 



tose, and the berry is crimson and 
thimble shaped. 

The King seems to be a garden va- 
riety of Rubus strigosus. When we 
examine the Cuthbert critically it does 
not seem to belong wholly to either 
species. On two occasions when plants 
of this variety were found producing 
autumn fruit, scattered glandular hairs 
were found on the penduncles and 
sepals. Otherwise they seem to be 
lacking. The stems, peduncles and 
sepals are more tomentose than R. 
strigosus though not as tomentose as 
R. idacHS while the fruit is thimble 
shaped and turns a dark red like that 
of the latter species. It seems to be a 
hybrid between the two species and this 
determination is supported by the ac- 
count of its origin given by Roe,* "This 
is a chance seedling, which the late 
Thomas Cuthbert found in his garden 
at Riverdale. N. Y. His son has kindly 
furnished the following facts: "The 



* E. P. Roe, "Success with Small Fruits," p. 16 



RED RASPBEBBV FLOWERS 

At tlio left in the upper row is shown a. bud starting to open. In breeding, I'raasculation 
should be done just before this stage as the tips of the pistils show through sepals and 
might receive pollen from other flowers. At the left in the lower row the calyx has 
opened and the ends of the pistils may Ije seen in the center. Below at the right the 
])etals ore opening but no anthers have opened. Above at the right the petals have 
dropped and the anthers arc shedding pollen. Because the stigmas are receptive long 
l>cforc the anthers open, cross-pollination is ver^' common in the raspberries. (Fig. 18.) 

raspberry in question was discovered 
by my father about eleven years ago 
(1865) in the garden of our county 
seat at Riverdale-On-the-Hudson. It is 
probably a seedling of the Hudson 
River Antwerp, as it was found grow- 
ing near the edge of a patch of that 
variety, but its great vigor of growth 
and the size and quality of the fruit 
marked it at once as a new and dis- 



tinct kind." Roe further states that 
though the Hudson River Antwerp is 
distinct from the Antwerp of England, 
"Mr. Downing says that its origin is 
known and that it was brought to this 
country by the late Mr. Briggs of 
Poughkeepsie, N. Y." It is therefore 
an European variety. 

Thus it seems likely that the Cuth- 
bert is a hybrid between R. idaeus and 



FRUIT CLUSTER OF THE COLUMBIAN PURPLE RASPBERRY 

This variety is supposed to be a hybrid between the Cuthbert red raspberry and the Gregg 
black raspberry and is therefore a t'ombination of the species Rubus {Idaetts x sirigosus) x 
occidentalis. (Fig. 19.) 



R. strigosus. The King is evidently 
a variety of R. strigosus, while Ant- 
werp, Superlative, and Surprise are 
varieties of R. idaetts introduced from 
Europe. 



In the following tables the deriva- 
tion of the varieties of our red rasp- 
berries is given as far as it is possible 
to do so at this time. The method 
used to determine their origin has been : 
III. — Horlicullural VarUlies of Rubus Idaeus 



Origin 






•I Antwerp European Dense. 

2 Buckeye Ohio (?) Dense, 

3 EasteiTi King Maine Dense. 

4 Fillbasket European Dense. 

5 Franconia European Dense. 

6 Hiram New York, . , . Dense, 

7 Ohio Everbearing Dense, 

8 Perfection of Wisconsin Wisconsin, , , , Dense, 

9 Red Merville European Dense Thick. 

10 La France (Cobb) European Dense Thick, fall fruit. 

11 Segrist Kansas None Thick. 

12 Sonchetti European Dense Thick. 

■13 Superlative European Cense Thick. 

•14 Surprise Dense Medium t 

15 Syracuse New York (?) Dense Thick. 

16 Wisbeck Perfection European. Dense Thick. 



FRUIT CLUSTER OF THE BUCKEYE RED RASPBERRY 



Table IV. — HorlicuUural Varieties of Rubus Idaeus X SIrigosus. 



Haire on peduncles I Tomenturn 



1 Crimson Beauty Kansas Not glandular. . . . 

■2 Cuthbert New York Very few glands. . 

"3 Empire New York I Not glandular. . , . 

4 Erskine (Park). .' Massachusetts. Not glandular. . , , 

*5 Golden Queen . , New Jersey. . . .1 Very few glands... 

6 Hansen. .,....., New Jersey, . . ,j Very few glands.. , 

•7 Herbert ' Canada No glands 

•8 June I New York \ No glands 

"9 Marlboro New York j Very few glands. . 



None Long. 

Fine ! Recurved. 

Fine ' (Ruby X Coutant) 

Fine Recurved. 

Slight Recurved. 

Fine Recurved. 

None I (LoudonXMarlboro). 

Pine (Highland Hardy X 

Seedling). 



—Horlicullural Varieties of Rubus Idaeus X Occidenlalis 

Origin , Tomentum L 



1 Abundance 

•2 Royal 

3 Shaffer 



Michigan Fine . . 

Indiana Pine . . 

New York Pine . . 



Medium to thick. 

Thick. 

Thick. 



184 



The Journal of Heredity 



First, an inspection of herbarium 
material supplemented where possible 
by observations of the varieties in the 
field. 

Second, a study of the history of 
the variety. 

While this method will be found 
satisfactory in determining the origin 
of most varieties, it cannot be ac- 
cepted as final for some sorts. The 
more accurate methods of the plant 
breeder must be used to settle the 
origin of doubtful ones. Hybrids be- 
tween varieties representing both spe- 
cies must be made; doubtful varieties 
must be selfed, and at least an F, gen- 
eration grown. For example, only the 
results of breeding work can determine 
just how the character of glandular 
hairs is inherited. On most of the va- 
rieties classed below as Riibus idacus X 
strigosus hybrids, few or no glandular 
hairs are present, yet in hybrids be- 
tween R. occidentalis and R. strigosus 
glandular hairs are abundant; also in 
blackberry hybrids between a species 
having glandular hairs and one without 
them, the Fj plants seem intermediate 
in this respect. It may be that many 
varieties are hvbrids betv/een R. idacus 
X strigosus crossed back on R. idacus 
or R. strigosus. Such hybrids may 
show but slight traces of one parent. 

It is easy to note from the appearance 
of fruit stems of typical members of 
each of the species and hybrids between 
the species, that the contrast between 
varieties belonging to the European and 
the American red raspberry species is 
very marked. 

The prominent commercial varieties 
have been marked with an asterisk (*) 
Of these it will be seen that five varie- 
ties (including those in Tables 1 and 2) 
belong to Rubus strigosus, three to 
Rubus idacus, six to Rubus idacus X 



strigosus, one to Rubus idcaus X occi- 
dentalis, one to Rubus (idacus X occi- 
dentalis) X strigosus and one to Rubus 
(idaeus X strigosus) X occidentalis. 
The black raspberries have not been 
listed, as there seems to be no reason 
to think that any of them are not hor- 
ticultural varieties of Rubus occi- 
dentalis. 

Certain questions will at once sug- 
gest themselves to breeders and pomolo- 
gists such as: 

1. Do the commercial varieties given 
in Table 2 actually hav€ Rubus occi- 
dentalis in their parentage? These va- 
rieties are known to be hardier than 
any commercial raspberries in the other 
groups except those in Table 1 and 
perhaps Herbert in the group of varie- 
ties derived from /?. Idacus X ^^'''- 
gosus. 

2. Should not varieties listed in Ta- 
ble 2 be used in breeding sorts for 
sections with severe climates? 

3. All our purple raspberries seem 
to have Rubus Idacus as one of the 
parents. Should not hardy varieties of 
Rubus strigosus be used as one parent 
in future breeding work and a hardy 
variety of Rubus occidentalis, such as 
Older, be used as the other parent? 

4. Why not try other European va- 
rieties in the milder parts of the Pa- 
cific Coast States as the varieties now 
jsrrown there are largely introduced 
from Europe? The Royal Horticul- 
tural Society of England recommended 
in their "Selected List of Hardy 
Fruits" the Devon, Wisbech Perfection, 
Baumforth, Hornet, and for autumn 
fruiting, Alexandra, and Surprise 
d' Automne. In addition Abundance. 
Bountiful, Norwich, Profusion, and 
Semper Fidelis (liked for jam making) 
might be tested. 



ILLUSTRATING THE STRUCTURE AND 

MATHEMATICS OF THE HUMAN GERM-PLASM 

Harry H. Laughlin, Sc. D. 
Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor, New York 



AN ABACUS is a very simple 
piece of apparatus, while the 
germ-plasm is very complex. 
Still it is possible by such an 
apparatus to illustrate the basic geog- 
raphy of the chromosome, and also to 
demonstrate the elementary mathemati- 
cal principles involved in the segrega- 
tion and recombination of genes. 

The germ-plasm abacus consists es- 
sentially in two rows of spools, so 
arranged that each spool has a definite 
and homologous companion. There 
should be as many spools in each string 
as there are chromosomes in the 
gametes of the particular species which 
the apparatus demonstrates. Until 
more is kpown in the case of man con- 
cerning the shapes and relative lengths 
of the individual chromosomes, it will 
not serve any useful purpose to differ- 
entiate spool-shapes in this simple 
apparatus. Later it may be possible 
to make each spool a model in shape 
and relative size of the particular 
chromosome which it represents, so 
that in such case we would have a 
much more perfect mechanical model 
of the human germ-plasm. 

The machine here pictured is built of 
one-half inch strips of wood; the sur- 
face of the frame, without the handle, 
measures 5^ by 18 inches. The spools, 
or chromosome-models, are made of 
1-inch cylinders 1 inch long and 
mounted on iron rods, so that they may 
be turned or spun with ease, but each 
has a catch which meshes into a notch 
in the rod so that the spool is much 
more apt to stop at an exact half -turn. 
This notch-and-catch contrivance is 



convenient but is not essential, for 
there are only twenty- four spools to be 
spun, and after brushing or raking them 
for the purpose of securing random or 
chance assortment, the few small ad- 
justments necessary to secure exact 
alignment require only a few moments. 
If there are twelve^ chromosomes in 

• 

each human gamete, then there are 
twelve linkage-groups of traits in man. 
The breaking-up of these groups would 
be proportional to the rate of crossing- 
over in gametogenesis. Whether the 
genes for the particular twelve traits 
indicated on this particular abacus lie 
in separate chromosomes we do not yet 
know. In future years the instructor 
in genetics, in manufacturing a germ- 
plasm abacus, will keep pace with the 
growth of knowledge of the linear 
geography of the human gene, just as 
he will of the shape and relative size 
of the several chromosomes. But it is 
useful and perfectly proper to present 
this tentative arrangement, because the 
traits indicated have been studied to a 
considerable extent, and, so far as 
known, none has been shown to be cor- 
related with another here listed. But 
by the laws of chance future knowl- 
edge will prove several cases in which 
more than one of this random list lie 
in the same chromosome, and conse- . 
quently other chromosomes will be 
blank so far as the present list is con- 
cerned, but by linkage and crossing- 
over studies the blanks will be readily 
filled by ojther genes properly located. 
When two or more human genes are 
demonstrated to lie in the same chro- 
mosome, and their relative positions in 



*CytoIogists have not yet agreed on the number of chromosomes in man. According to 
von Winiwarter (1912) the diploid number is 47 in the male and 48 in the female. Accord- 
ing to Wieman (1917) the diploid number is 24 in both sexes, but one pair of which are the 
idiochromosomes xy. (See also Guyer, Montgomery, Jordan, Stevens and Evans.) 

185 



AN ABACUS FOR ILLUSTRATING THE STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN GERM- 
PLASM. (Hi- 21.) 



Laughlin: Structure of Human Germ-Plasm 



187 



the chromosome are known, their sym- 
bols mav be inscribed in their trui* 
linear relationship upon the same spool 
in the germ-plasm abacus. Their 
genetic behavior will then be auto- 
matically demonstrated in manipulating 
the machine in the usual manner. With 
this understanding the tentative list 
may well stand, but the fact that the 
given assortment is arbitrary does not 
destroy its teaching value in demonstrat- 
ing the proven stnicture of the germ- 
plasm, the mechanical principles and 
mathematical possibilities in the segre- 
gation and recombination of traits. 

The following paragra])hs describe 
the features of this abacus and their 
analogies in the human germ-plasm: 

1. The curved surface of each spool 
is divided vertically by black marks 
into two equal areas, each of which 
represents one of the two possible 
chromosomes, either of which the par- 
ent manufacturing them may contribute 
to the Fi zygote. One of these chro- 
mosomes the said parent in turn 
received from his or her father, and 
the other from his or her mother. 

2. The front face of each chain of 
spools, in any combination, represents 
the number and genie composition of 
the chromosomes characteristic of the 
gamete contributed to the Fj zygote 
by the parent proliferating it. If de- 
sired one **chromosome-face" may be 
labeled cf to indicate its paternal 
origin and the other 5 to show its 
maternal origin. 

3. The two sets of spools are in par- 
allel and homologous position, as prob- 
ably is the case w^ith chromosomes just 
before the formation of the equatorial 
plate when the gametes fuse to make 
the fertilized eg'g or zygote. But still 
more definitely this parallel and 
homologous |K:)sition is exactly analo- 
gous to the chromosomal situation dur- 
ing para-synapsis, preceding the first 
maturation division. 

4. All of the potentialities of the two 
parents in reference to their chromo- 
somal combinations (barring crossing- 
over and other special phenomena) are 
here shown mechanically and may be 



mathematically demonstrated by turn- 
ing the spools into their several pos- 
sible combinations. 

5. With this apparatus one may give 
a mechanical demonstration of the 
three normal genetic types of parents, 
and the consequent six types of Men- 
delian matings in reference to a single 
trait. The student examining the 
abacus here shown soon finds that, so 
far as breeding potentialities are con- 
cerned, the F, male parent (the father") 
is positively homozygous, that is. du- 
plex in reference to traits C. H. T. and 
R; the mother in reference to traits 
X and H. The father is heterozyg(Jus, 
that is, simplex in reference to traits X, 
]\ S, I, K, D; the mother to traits P, 
(), I, K, R. The father is negatively 
homozygous, or nulliplex, in reference 
to traits g and o ; the mother to c, g. s, 
t, and d. 

6. Let us next consider the possible 
types of matings. The gene H for 
the trait here shown in chromosome 
g presents an example in Mendelian 
Case 1 (DD X DD = 100% DD. ) 
Genes X and R here listed in chromo- 
somes X and j, Case 2 (DD X Dr == 
50% DD and 50% Dr.) Genes C and 
T in chromosomes a and i. Case 3 ( DD 
X rr = 100% Dr.) Genes P. I, and 
K in chromosomes b, f and h. Case 
4 (Dr X Dr = 25% DD. 50% Dr 
and 25% rr.) Genes S. O and D in 
chromosomes d. e and k. Case 5 ( Dr 
X rr = 50%> Dr and 50%. rr.) Gene 
g in chromosome c, Case 6 (rr X rr 
= 100% rr.) 

7. In most bi-sexual species, the 
cause of sex, so far as it has been 
traced in the reverse order of onto- 
geny, is found to lie in a chromosomal 
difference in the zygote and gamete. 
Sex-difFerence for the most part is the 
principal somatic difTerence within a 
species. It is therefore logical to ex- 
pect a greater difference between the 
chromosomes of a male-producing afnd 
a female-producing zygote than will be 
found to accompany any other con- 
trasted traits within the same species. 
In man the male is heterozygous, the 
female positively homozygous. In the 



188 



The Journal of Heredity 



accompanying apparatus the spools pic- 
tured as representing the x-chromo- 
somes are labelled to show the funda- 
mental sex-plan, and other symbols are 
added representing the presence and 
absence of the gene for color-blind- 
ness, which is known to be a sex- 
linked trait. When the machine is 
manipulated, it presents a correct 
mathematical picture of the sex-ratio 
and of the distribution of sex-linked 
traits among the children of the par- 
ents described on the margin. 

This abacus does not demonstrate 
all of the phenomena of bi-sexual 
heredity, but it gives a correct struc- 
tural and mathematical picture of the 
basic properties of the human germ- 
plasm. The pedagogical value of the 
machine would be lessened if it were 
made more complex. Rather than com- 
pHcating this device, other machines 
should be contrived for illustrating such 
special phenomena, for example, as 
crossing over and non-disjunction. 

8. In manipulating the machine, the 
novice learns that in normal cases in 
each egg or spermatozoon there is al- 
ways a maternally or a paternally de- 
scended chromosome (one or the other 
of the two faces of a spool) represent- 
ing each definite chromosome charac- 
teristic of the gametes of the species. 
Then in reference to the descent-com- 
binations of two chromosomes, for ex- 
ample, a and b, a given parent is capable 
of producing four kinds of gametes. 
In general the total number of descent- 
combinations of chromosomes possible 
in the gametes of a given individual is 
equal to 2", in which n is the number 
of chromosomes characteristic of the 
gamete (that is the haploid number) 
of the particular species. He learns 
also that for each single pair of con- 
trasted traits there are four possible 



definite chromosomal combinations in a 
zygote organized from the gametes of 
two given parents. Thus barring cross- 
ing-over and other special phenomena, 
the number of possible chromosomal 
combinations in the zygote which may 
result from a particular human mating 
is 4". If the formula be generalized, 
then the number of different chromo- 
some-combinations possible among the 
full brothers and sisters of any bi- 
sexual organism, barring crossing-over 
and other special phenomena, is 4°, in 
which n is the number of chromosomes 
characteristic of the gametes of the 
species. 

9. If, when the machine is set for a 
given F, zygote, the examiner turns it 
over, he finds on the backs of the spools 
the genes reciprocal or allelomorphic 
to those found on their respective 
fronts. In the case of the paternally 
descended gamete, the reciprocal is an- 
other possible spermatozoon, which by 
chance was not used in making the F^ 
zygote organized as shown by the front 
of the spools. This reciprocal gamete 
has all of the genetic possibilities of the 
male parent other than those which are 
not contained in the spermatozoon 
which actually entered the particular 
F, zygote. 

10. The case of the reciprocal of the 
female gamete or ovum is somewhat 
different, so far as ability to function 
as an egg is concerned, but in the re- 
ciprocal or allelomorphic nature of the 
chromosomes and genes, the situation 
is exactly parallel to that found in the 
case of the male gametes. The cell 
reciprocal to the ovum is the second 
polar body,^ and having the chromatin 
composition in the nucleus required of 
a perfect egg, would perhaps so func- 
tion if its cytoplasmic composition were 
adequate. 



*In species in which the first maturation division consists in organizing two d3rads of 
exactly similar composition, the allelomorphs (that is the backs of the spools) of the 
female gametes shown by this abacus properly represent the second polar bodies. If. 
however, the first maturation division results in two dyads of dissimilar composition, that is 
one completely paternal and the other completely maternal in origin, the allelomorph of 
the ovum as shown on the back of the spools presents a gene-picture of one of the two cells 
resulting from the division of the first polar body. So far as this particular point is con- 
cerned, this machine, because the back is in the appropriate place labelled "Second Polar 
Body," rather than "Polar Cell," represents faithfully those forms in which the two dyads 
are exactly alike. 



Moral Qualities and Eugenics 



189 



11. Thus every parent, in reference 
to a single trait, may contribute one 
or the other of two genes, one of which 
came down unchanged (barring muta- 
tion) from his or her father, the other 
from his or her mother. Of course, if 
the blood is pure and these two genes 
are ahke, they cannot be distinguished 
in their working-out in the F, soma. 
This is the case with trait H in chromo- 
some g, and trait g in chromosome c, 
but this does not mean that the rules of 
segregation and recombination have not 
been just as active throughout as is 
so easily demonstrated with the highly 
contrasted genes and characters of 
mongrels. 

12. In order to represent the con- 
tinuity of the germ-plasm, let the F, 
zygote be thought of as a parent. 
Whereas the possibilities of the original 
Pj individuals of the abacus for a sin- 
gle trait are show^n by the two faces of 
a single spool, now the possibilities of 
the Fj individual as a parent are shown 
by the front faces of the two adjacent 
spools, which are now held stationary. 
Those genes whose symbols are indi- 
cated on the backs of the spools have 
been lost to the race in this particular 



case. Thus not only the principles of 
segregation, combination and continuity, 
but also of elimination, are mechanically 
shown. To every one of the descend- 
ants of the Fi zygote, one or the other 
of the two chromosomes or genes-radi- 
cal shown on the front faces of ad- 
jacent spools will pass. If two of these 
abaci are placed side by side, with the 
spools stationary in one abacus to rep- 
resent a parental male zygote, and in 
the other a parental female zygote, the 
situation may be used to demonstrate 
the inbreeding of the F, generation, bui: 
instead of spinning the spools the com- 
binations for the Fo offspring are made 
by chance selection of either the right 
or left (that is, either paternally or 
maternally descended) face of the 
front-turned spools in the tw'o abaci. 
By this process one may trace the 
chromosomes and their component 
genes from generation to generation. 

The manipulation of this machine 
gives not the whole story of human 
heredity, but a clean-cut demonstration 
of the geography' of the bi-sexual 
germ-plasm and of its normal basic 
mechanism and mathematics. 



Moral Qualities and Eugenics 



The Lancet (London, November 8, 
1919) says: "Dr. I. M. McCaillie has 
published certain results obtained by 
this method (psychological tests) in the 
American Army, and it is interesting to 
note that a majority of cases of absence 
without leave, desertion, confinement 
to barracks, and reduction in rank occur 
among men found to be below the 
average of intelligence, as shown by 
the tests employed, and the use of 
psychologists to investigate the men- 
tality of criminals might well have 
fruitful results." 

Any measurements of moral differences 
among adult human beings are so rare 
that notice should be taken by psycholo- 



gists and eugenists of the results ob- 
tained by Dr. McCaillie. They con- 
firm the correlation of mental and moral 
qualities found by Woods in rovalty 
(1903).* 

There have been some scattering 
figures obtained by persons who have 
made studies of school children and par- 
ticularly of delinquents in state institu- 
tions, all of which support the notion of 
mental and moral correlation.^ 

If morally superior persons are on the 
average more liberally endowed men- 
tally it means much encouragement for 
the eugenists in their ideas for the bet- 
terment of mankind. 



"See (a) "The Physical Basis of Heredity," by T. H. Morgan, (b) "Are Genes Linear 
or Non-Linear in Arrangement?" by W. E. Castle, Proceedings of the National Academy 
of Science, November 1919. 

<The correlation ratio was found to be r = .34* .04, "Heredity in Royalty," New York, 1906, 
p. 259. 

*See JouRN.\L OF Heredity, Feb., 1919, pp. 84-86. 



A PHYSICAL CENSUS IN 

ENGLAND AND ITS LESSON 

Two-thirds of the Population Not Healthy 



THE RESULTS of the physical 
examinations of drafted men in 
England for the first eight months 
of 1918, show that "between 
January 1 and August 31, 1918, the 
number of medical examinations con- 
ducted by National Service Medical 
Boards in Great Britain amounted to 
2,080,709. Of the two million men 
examined not more than 36 or 37 per 
cent were placed in Grade 1 — that is, 
approximately only one in every three 
has attained the normal standard of 
health and strength and was capable 
of enduring physical exertion suitable 
to his age; the remainder — ^more than 
a million and a quarter — did not reach 
this standard. The suggestion has 
been made that the low proportion 
of fit men among those examined 
during this period was due to the fact 
that only the leavings of the xx)pul- 
ation were under review. Analvsis of 
the records available, however, shows 
that this is not the case, and that as 
a fact the men examined constituted a 
fair example of the male population 
between the ages of 18 and 43 and a 
smaller proportion of the more fit 
between 43 and 5 1 . We are told further 
that the experience of the boards medi- 
cally examining women for national 
works corresponds broadly to that of 
the National Ser\'icc Medical Boards 
examining men. Such evidence points 
only too clearly to a deplorably low 
state of health." 

In comment on the above the Editor 
of the British Medical Journal makes the 
following remarks: 

** While it has not yet been possible 
to work out the details of this great 
mass of medical examinations, the pre- 
liminary results indicate that prevent- 
able disease is responsible for the bulk 
of the physical disabilities, and demon- 



strate the ravages which industrial life 
has made upon our real national capital 
— the health and vigor of the population. 
Too little food, too long hours of work, 
too little sleep, too little play, too little 
fresh air, too little comfort in the home 
are evidently the chief factors con- 
cerned in producing this mass of physical 
inefficiency with all its concomitant 
human misery and direct loss to the 
country. To take effective measures on 
the broadest lines to remedv this con- 
dition of things is a most urgent duty. 
Although real improvement can hardly 
be expected for one or two generations, 
the foundations of a better national 
physique can be laid at oncc^" 

It would seem that this editorial 
writer in the British Medical Journal 
does not see into the complexity of the 
I)roblem, or understand modem views 
on heredity. In so far as these disabil- 
ities are the result of a bad environ- 
ment, an improvement may be rightly 
expected to accrue, and this change for 
the better may be looked for at once, 
not, as the editor supposes, after one or 
two generations. Does this writer cling 
to a belief in the inheritance of acquired 
traits? But is it not conceivably pos- 
sible that this ])hysical deterioration is 
in part due to an adaptability of man- 
kind to a less brutal svstem of natural 
selection than took place among our 
primitive ancestors ? Indiscriminate 
charity and excessive altruism, to say 
nothing of the inevitable and com- 
mendable features of civilization, have 
doubtless enabled the congenitally weak 
to survive. Large portions of the popu- 
lation are not healthy (Grade I in the 
martial sense), but they are neverthe- 
less healthy in sense of being able to sur- 
vive and beget offspring. This feature 
of the problem cannot be either denied 
or ignored. — F. A W. 



» Edit., BHt, Mei, Journal, 1918, 348-9. 
190 



A SYSTEM FOR BREEDING CORN 

OR GREGARIOUS ANIMALS 

A. N. Hume 
South Dakota State College and Experunent Station 



DURING the past three years, the 
writer has attempted to con- 
duct a corn breeding system 
that should accomplish the three 
following requirements : 

(1) Insure continuous ear-to-row 
selection for high yield by using ears 
or remnants from tested rows. 

(2) Insure direct icross-pollenation 
between high yielding strains, thus 
avoiding the usual ill effects of 
in-breeding; with the use of a single 
ear in each quarter of the plot for ail 
sire rows and detasseling all even- 
numbered rows. 

(3) Annual introductions of strains 
from outside sources, through the even- 
numbered detasseled rows of the breed- 
ing plot. 

The first of these attempted require- 
ments is based upon the assumption 
that some sort of selection is bound to 
be the basis of progress in corn-breed- 
uig. The second is intended to recog- 
nize the principle that it is usually 
desirable to secure the crossing of 
strains that have previously been inbred 
or at least closely bred. (Hybridiza- 
tion Methods in Corn Breeding. Shull 
— American Breeders Magazine, April- 
June, 1910.) The third feature njimely, 
the introduction of outside ^trains, 
conforms to the idea that "selection 
is a sieve," or at least it may be. There 
can hardly be a practical reason why a 
corn breeder should start with a given 
number of mother ears, say ninety-six. 
and assume that all determinants of 
high yield are included \yithin the 
number originally selected. 

Furthermore, the plan of introduc- 
ing ears from outside the breeding plot 
into the even-numbered detasseled 
rows gives opportunity for testing the 



yielding power of such introductions 
before permitting them to mature pol- 
len, and consequently makes it possible 
to discard them entirely if they are 
found unworthy, without contaminat- 
ing the other **blood lines" of the 
breeding plot. Tliis idea conforms to 
the earlier suggestion of Williams of 
Ohio. The plan, or combination of 
plans employed here is described con- 
cretely in the South Dakota Experi- 
ment Station liulfletin No. 186. 

The writer would suggest that this 
idea of making introductions into corn 
breeding plots through the ''dam lines" 
ought to be extended. The chief rea- 
son for adhering to the plan of dividing 
the breeding plot into four squares of 
twenty- four rows each (adapted from 
Illinois Experiment Station Bulletin No. 
100) is to secure a greater number of 
relatively short rows and a relatively 
large number of introductions into these 
"dam rows." and also to enable one 
to plant all '*si re-rows" in each quarter 
with a single ear. 

It is arbitrary enough to make four 
quarters of a corn-breeding plot with 
all odd-numbered rows in each quarter 
planted from a single high-yielding ear, 
and with all the twelve even-numbered 
rows detasseled, with three new intro-. 
ductions among the twelve each year. 
It works out convenientlv. 

The essentials of the plan of this 
corn breeding plot might be adopted by 
poultry breeders, who have a sufficient 
number of birds to divide into four 
pens, each with its quota of hens and 
one male bird. The rule would be, 
that all birds in all four pens should 
be leg-banded and the hens faithfully 
trap-nested and their ^gg records kept. 

At the beginning of any given sea- 

191 



192 



The Journal of Heredity 



son, the cockerel for pen No. 1 would 
be selected from the brood of the hen 
with the highest egg record in pen No. 
4. The cockerel for pen 2 would, in 
like manner be the progeny of the hen 
with the highest egg record in pen 3. 
The cockerel for pen 3 would be select- 
ed from the progeny of the hen with 
the highest egg record in pen 1, and 
the cockerel for pen 4, would be selected 
from the progeny of the hen with the 
highest e^g record in pen 3. 

With such an arrangement, introduc- 
tions of new blood lines could be made 
by the addition of one or more hens 
to each or all of the four pens. Such 
hens would of course be carefully num- 
bered and their records kept, and in the 
event they failed to make a worthy 
record, they themselves and all their 
progeny could be eliminated from the 
flock by culling. 

It is worth oft repeating that the art 
of breeding will be most rapidly for- 
warded on a general basis of rigid 
selection with statistical records of 



performance. The device here out- 
lined, for corn, or poultry, may increase 
interest and intensity of selection; 
calling especial attention to the pos- 
sibility of making introductions of new 
blood lines in a systematic way through 
the female side. 

Another consideration in offering 
this 4-parted system for breeding corn 
or gregarious animals consists in its 
adaptability to cooperation in breed- 
ing work. For instance in poultry 
breeding it may prove impracticable for 
any given breeder to arrange four pens 
as suggested in the foregoing. In 
such a case it may be possible for four 
poultry breeders each to arrange one 
pen, and to so cooperate that all may 
get the benefit of a systematic unit. 
Such cooperation would inevitably be 
beneficial to corn, or poultry, or sheep, 
or what not ; it would be a community 
service along a specific line. 

As such it is worth consideration by 
various community advisers. 



Race and Nationality, an inquiry into 
the origin and growth of patriotism, 
by John Oakesmith, D. Lit., M.A. 
New York : Frederick A. Stokes Co., 
1919. Pp.300. Price. S4.00. 

Dr. Oakesmith begins by wiping up 
the earth with authors who have held 
racial differences to be the basis of dif- 
ferences in national feelings. On the 
whole, he makes a good job of this — but 
then, he has picked out the extremists, 
whose work was -most vulnerable, for 
his attack. He concludes that "race, 
as a constituent element in nationality is 



a purely subjective emotion," and then 
builds up his own theory, which explains 
nationality as "the common interests of 
a people developed through generations 
into a characteristic traditional culture." 
Few reasonable people will object to this 
definition, and they will find much of 
interest in the rest of the book, which 
is largely devoted to illustrating, by the 
case of England, the development of a 
feeling of national consciousness. The 
book is, however, marred throughout 
by the absolute lack of a biological view- 
point, and by a literary rather than 
scientific treatment of the facts. — P. P. 



The 



Journal of Heredity 

(Formerly the American Breeders* Magazine) 



Vol. XI. No. 5 May-Junr, 1920 



CONTENTS 

See Special Note Below. 

The Colombian Berry, or Giant Blackberry of Colombia, by Wilson Popenoe . . 195 

Environment and Breeding as Factors Influencing Milk Production, by An- 
drew C. McCandlish 204 

Heredity in Horses, by H. K. Bush-Brown 215 

A New Genetics Journal — "Hereditas" 227 

The Menace of the Half-Man, by Seth K. Humphrey 228 

A Graft-Chimera in the Apple, by A. B. Stout 233 

Breeding Earless Sheep, by E. G. Ritzman 238 



NOTE 

The Journal of Heredity at the original pre-war price of only $2.00 ran into a 
raise of fully 100^>c in the cost of its manufacture. The membership dues did not 
cover the costs, and support was difficult to arrange for, but the necessary financial 
assistance has been secured, and four bi-monthly numbers will now appear in quick 
succession to complete Volume eleven (1920). The Journal will then resume its 
regular schedule at the price of $3.00 determined upon by the Council last June. 

Canadian members pay $3.25 and foreign members $3.50, the extra amount 
being necessary to pay postage. Price of single copies 35 cents. 

The next numbers will contain illustrated accounts of some of the most impor- 
tant discovenes whidi have yet been made in this new field- of science,, and it is 
hoped will satisfy those members to whom the long wait for the Journal has been 
discouraging. 

The interest in the subject of heredity is growing rapidly, and if each member 
would nominate a few friends who are eligible Sie Association will be self-supporting 
next year. 



Application has been made for entry as second-class matter at the post office 
at Menasha, Wisconsin. Contents copyrighted 1920 by the American Genetic As- 
sociation. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles permitted only upon request, 
for a proper purpose, and provided due credit is given to author and to the Journal 
OF Heredity (Organ of the American Genetic Association), Washington, D. C. 

Date of issue of this number, January 20, 1921 



THE COLOMBIAN BERRY OR 
GIANT BLACKBERRY OF COLOMBIA 

Wilson Popenoe 
Agricultural Explorer, Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction 



THAT a fruit of such remarkable 
character as the Giant Blackberry 
of Colombia should have re- 
mained so long undiscovered to horti- 
culture can only be explained by the 
fact that it grows in a region remote 
from the established routes of travel — 
a region which has, until recently, 
remained horticulturally unexplored. 

So far as known, the species has 
never been called to the attention of 
the horticultural public. It was, how- 
ever, brought to the attention of the 
U. S. Department of Agriculture several 
years ago by Dr. Frank M. Chapman 
of the American Museum of Natural 
History, who had observed the plant 
during his travels in Colombia. The 
services of Frederick L. Rockwood were 
enlisted at Dr. Chapman's suggestion, 
and in 1914 a few plants were intro- 
duced into the United States through 
the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant 
Introduction. These plants were ob- 
tained by Mr. Rockwood at a spot 
called El Penon, on the road between 
Sibate and Fusagasuga, in the depart- 
ment of Cundinamarca. 

SEED AND PLANTS OBTAINED 

Soon after my arrival in Bogota I 
put myself in touch with Mr. Rock- 
wood, and by him was directed to the 
region in which the plant is found most 
abundantly. I have been on the watch 
for it in other parts of Cundinamarca 
as well, and have thus been able 
to gain some idea of its distribution. 
I have obtained numerous photographs 
of the plants, flowers and fruits; 
botanical specimens of foliage and 
flowers; and I have forwarded to 
Washington a quantity of seed and a 
limited number of strong young plants. 
With this material in hand, it should 
be possible to arouse the interest of 



North American horticulturists in the 
species, and to give it a fairly wide 
distribution in those portions of the 
United States where it seems to merit 
a trial. 

VALUABLE MATERL\L FOR PLANT 
BREEDERS 

While the plant grows in Colombia 
at elevations nearly ten thousand feet 
above the sea, it must be remembered 
that at four degrees from the Equator it 
is not cold, even at such an elevation: 
and there are no grounds for assuming 
that the plant will be sufficiently hardy 
for cultivation generally throughout 
the United States. It does seem 
reasonable to expect, however, that it 
will be successful in the milder portions 
of the South and West. The chief 
interest of the species probably lies, 
however, not in its value as a fruit for 
widespread cultivation in its present 
form, but in its possibilities when 
placed in the hands of plant breeders. 
A species of Rubus which produces, as 
a wild plant, fruits two and a half 
inches long by an inch and a half in 
thickness, and these of fairly good 
quality for eating, can not fail to 
possess great interest to North Ameri- 
can horticulturists! 

DISTRIBUTION AND NOMENCLATURE 

The species was reported by Dr. 
Chapman from a region on the road 
between Sibate and Fusagasuga. While 
it occurs elsewhere in Cundinamarca, 
I have found no other region, as yet, 
in which it is so abundant, nor in which 
the fruits reach such large size. 

Its distribution in the region between 
Sibate and Fusagasuga is limited to an 
area bounded on the north by the 
descent onto the sabana (plain) of 
Bogotd, and on the south by the abrupt 



Popenoe: The Colombian Blackberry 



197 



descent of the penon into the valley of 
the Rio Barroblanco. This leaves a 
zone about one mile in width, in which 
the plant is found — a zone on the upper 
edge of the escarpment, but not extend- 
ing across the mountain tops onto the 
slope toward the sabana. The region 
is one of peculiar climatic conditions: 
it is that upon which the clouds drifting 
up from the lowlands of the Magdalena 
valley impinge and frequently precipi- 
tate their moisture, and it is thus kept 
cool and wet throughout most of the 
year. It is a region characterized by 
tree-ferns, bamboo, begonias, several 
melastomaceous and ericaceous shrubs, 
Drimys granatensis, one or two species 
of Berberis, and several species of 
Rubus which sometimes cover the 
ground over areas an acre or more in 
extent. 

EXTENT OF RANGE NOT KNOWN 

Elsewhere in Cundinamarca I have 
seen the plant, or learned of its exis- 
tence, only on the western or south- 
western slope of the range which rises 
from the western edge of the sabana of 
Bogota and falls away toward the 
Magdalena valley. Mr. Rockwood has 
recently reported the plant from Dentel, 
north of F'acatativa. So far as I have 
observed, it is found only at elevations 
between 8,000 and 10,000 feet; further 
observations may, and probably will, 
extend this range. 

SPECIES PROBABLY Rubiis roseus 

Botanically I have not been able to 
determine the species. No one in 
Bogota with whom I have talked is 
familiar with the botany of this genus, 
and none of the local botanical works 
to which I have had access describe a 
plant which I can identify as this 
species. The characters of the plant 
seem to agree with those attributed to 
Rubus roseus in a key to the Central 
a^d South American species of Rubus 
which has been sent me by George M. 
Darrow. They also agree rather closely 
with those of Rubus macrocarpuSy 
except that the latter is many-flowered, 



and I do not think this can be said of 
the plant in question. Rubus roseus, 
on the other hand, is said to produce 
few flowers; its fruit is described as 
"purple," which is not exactly true of 
the Colombian Giant Blackberry; yet 
it would be easy for a slight mistake to 
be made in this matter, and it seems to 
me on the whole that the characters of 
Rubus roseus, as given in the key, are 
those of the plant under consideration. 

The popular nomenclature of the 
different species of Rubus in the 
Bogota region is limited to a few terms 
applied rather loosely. In general, all 
of the species which produce fruits of 
blackberry character are termed mora, 
the correct name in Spanish for the 
mulberry (Morus nigra) and also for 
the fruit of the cultivated blackberry. 
One or more species whose fruits have 
large, hard seeds are termed mora de 
poedra, or stone-blackberry, because 
(I take it) their seeds are like small 
stones (though one Colombian told me 
it was because they grow in stony 
places, which is not commonly a fact). 
Several species whose fruits are of good 
quality for eating, and are sold in the 
markets of Bogotd and other cities, are 
called mora de Castilla, or blackberry 
of Castile (Spain). The phrase de 
Castilla is applied in Cundinamarca to 
various products of the country; thus 
there is a curuba de Castilla {Tacsonia 
mollissima), no more a native of Spain 
than the various species of Rubus to 
which the term is applied. The phrase 
de Castilla may, in fact, be taken to 
mean that the product is one of the 
best of its class. It is undoubtedly a 
heritage from Colonial days, when the 
best of everything was supposed to 
come from the Mother Country. 

The Giant Blackberry is termed by 
natives of the Penon section mora, and 
mora alone; though when pressed for a 
more specific name they will sometimes 
say it is a mora de Castilla, i.e., a good 
mora. In Bogota the fruit is often 
termed mora de Castilla, but this name 
is applied to at least two other species 
which are more common in the market 
than the one under consideration. 



198 



The Journal of Heredity 



AN ENGLISH NAME FOR THE BERRY 

The species has, of course, no com- 
mon name in English as yet. On those 
few occasions when it has been men- 
tioned in the United States, it has 
usually been referred to as the Giant 
Blackberry of Colombia. Since the 
fruit is not black and the plant differs 
in habit from the cultivated black- 
berries of the North, I believe it would 
be appropriate to introduce the species 
into horticulture not as the Giant 
Blackberry, but as the Colombian 
Berry; thus doing honor to Colombia, 
and at the same time identifying the 
species permanently with its native 
home, and distinguishing it from nu- 
merous * 'giant" blackberries which 
have been and will be intrcxiuced into 
horticulture in the United States. 
The term "Colombian berry" is in 
conformity with the nomenclature used 
in this genus, in which we already have 
loganberry, salmon berry, Northey 
berry, and so on. 

DESCRIPTION OF PLANT 

The plant, which does not form a 
compact bush in most instances, but 
sends up scattered shoots from under- 
ground stems, is half-climbing in habit. 
By proper training it could probably 
be made to form a shapely bush, or at 
least the canes could be so pruned as 
not to require any support. In the 
wild state, many of the canes grow half 
erect, while others scramble over the 
nearby vegetation. 

The stems reach a maximum length 
of about nine or tea feet. Near the 
ground they are commonly half an inch 
thick, the diameter growing less toward 
the upf)er portion of the stem. They 
arc light green in color, covered with 
short glandular reddish hairs, and 
abundantly armed with short, stiff, 
very slightly recurv^ed thorns broad at 
the base. 

A pair of leaf-like, clasping stipules, 
about an inch in length and breadth, 
is found at the base of each of the 
leaves. The latter are normally tri- 
foliate, and up to more than a foot in 
length. The petiole is up to six inches 



long, slightly grooved above, thorny 
and hairy like the canes. The petiolules 
of the lateral pair of leaflets are one- 
fourth to one-half inch long, that of 
the central or terminal leaflet one to 
two inches long. The leaflets are 
commonly oblong-ovate, elliptic, or 
ovate in outline, subcrenate, three to 
six inches long, cordate at the base and 
acute to shortly acuminate at the apex, 
bright green and very finely hairy 
above, paler beneath, with fine hairs 
only on the nerves. The leaf-margin 
is dentateserrate. 

The small, axillary or terminal ra- 
cemes rarely carry more than five 
flowers. Frequently a leaf-axil gives 
rise to but one fruit, and clusters of 
more than two are rare, and usually 
terminal. The calyx is very prominent, 
the petals obovate in outline, nearly 
one-half inch long, and light rosy- 
purple in color. 

FRUITS OF REMARKABLE SIZE 

The fruits vary from slender oblong 
to broad oblong, ovoid, or cordiform in 
shape, and at maturity are one to two 
and a half inches long, by three 
quarters of an inch to an inch and a 
half in greatest breadth. In color they 
are light crimson, tending to become 
wine-colored when overripe. They 
are composed of a large number of 
relatively small drupelets surrounding 
a large fleshy, succulent torus which 
extends nearly to the apex of the 
aggregate fruit, and at maturity often 
separates from the drupelets, which 
cohere loosely inter se. In transverse 
outline the fruit is often four- or five- 
angled. At maturity it is rather firm 
in texture, not as juicy as most of the 
cultivated blackberries, and of a pleas- 
ant subacid flavor (quite acid until 
the fruit is fully ripe) perhaps suggest- 
ing that of the loganberry more than 
that of the cultivated blackberries. 

The receptacle or torus can be eaten 
along with the drupelets, but when it 
comes away readily it is often removed 
before the fruits are eaten (as in the 
raspberry), and fruits in this condition 
are often sold in the market. 



THE COLOMBIAN BERRY IM VARIOUS STAGES OF MATURITY 

This remarkable", Giant Blackberry first discovered by Dr. Frank M. Chapman of the 
American Museum of Natural History on the road between Sibatf and Fusagasugi at an 
elevation o( 10,000 feet in the mountains of Colombia is beyond doubt the largest black- 
berry yet discovered in the world. It will probably be tender throughout Che greater part 
of the blackberry growing regions of the United States but when the plant breeders of 
America combine it with the hardy species it may add size and other characters to our 
■ ' ' ieties. Actual size phott^aph by Wilson Popenoe, October 1920. (Fig. 2.) 



200 



The Journal of Heredity 



The ripening season is said to extend 
through practically the entire year 
but the principal crop matures in 
October, November and December. 
The fruits are perhaps more variable 
in form than those of the cultivated 
blackberries, and they also vary greatly 
in size, due probably to environmental 
conditions more than anything else. 
I have found the largest ones on soil 
that is very moist; on poor, dry land 
they are usually small. 

The impression of huge size which 
one receives when viewing these berries 
is due not so much to their length, as 
to the fact that they are broader in 
relation to their length than is common 
with cultivated blackberries. The 
largest specimens I have measured 
were about two and a quarter inches 
long, by an inch and a half in breadth. 
Specimens of such large size are not 
common, and indeed are rarely seen 
among the fruits brought into the 
Bogota market. I have, however, seen 
a number of such fruits on the wild 
plants at El Penon, produced by canes 
growing in what could almost be 
termed a peat-bog. 

FLAVOR RESEMBLES LOGANBERRIES 

Among Colombians, the fruit is not 
so popular for eating as that of some of 
the other wild species of Rubus which 
also grow in the vicinity of Bogota. 
This is due to the fact that there are 
other species whose fruits are more 
juicy and less seedy than those of the 
Giant Blackberry. The latter are, 
however, brought into the Bogota 
market in small quantities, and fetch 
a good price. They are perhaps better 
if eaten when fresh, with sugar and 
cream, than they are when stewed; 
but it is not common to see them served 
in this fashion. Usually they are 
stewed in syrup to form a duke which 
is served as a dessert. When boiled 
they become somewhat tough, but they 
have a rich, delicious flavor resembling 
that of stewed loganberries. 

CULTURAL REQUIREMENTS 

Brought into cultivation under favor- 
able climatic environment, it seems 



reasonable to believe that the Colom- 
bian berry will attain much greater 
size than that reached by fruits borne 
upon wild plants in the Andes. If it 
should attain a length of three inches 
or more, with its proportionate 
breadth, it would probably stand 
unique among cultivated species of 
Rubus so far as size is concerned. Its 
quality is sufficiently good so that I 
believe fruit produced by cultivated 
plants would find a sale in North 
American markets, where its huge bulk 
would be certain to attract attention. 
It will, however, be desirable to im- 
prove the species by selection or other 
methods of plant-breeding: the size of 
the drupelets in relation to that of the 
seed may well be increased, the flavor 
may perhaps be made richer and more 
aromatic, and the proportionately 
large size of the torus should certainly 
be reduced. These are all changes 
which can probably be eff^ected by 
means of selection alone. There is, 
also, the possibility of obtaining valu- 
able new fruits of large size by hybridiz- 
ing this species with some of the 
cultivated blackberries or allied species 
of the genus Rubus. It will be desir- 
able to improve the productiveness of 
the plant by some means, in order to 
make its cultivation commercially 
profitable. Likely, however, much 
can be done toward this end by proper 
pruning, an operation of much impor- 
tance with many members of this genus. 

PLANT PREFERS MOIST, COOL CLIMATE 

As to the climatic requirements of 
the plant, it would appear from its 
occurrence in Colombia in a limited 
area of particular climatic conditions, 
that it is exacting in this respect. It 
is entirely possible, however, that it 
can be made to succeed under natural 
conditions considerably different from 
those of its native home, if given the 
proper cultural treatment. This can 
only be determined by experiment. 
Judging by conditions in the Penon 
section, and in general throughout the 
territory in Cundinamarca in which 
the plant occurs, one is perhaps 
justified in predicting that the Puget 



Si's .g = 






g = = £«;?■£«£ 
S i-Sg "S J 



Slilil 



202 



The Journal of Heredity 



Sound region is the most likely place 
for it in the United States. Perhaps, 
however, the frosts will be too severe 
for it in that region: temperatures as 
low as the freezing-point probably 
never are experienced in the native 
home of the species. But this does 
not, of course, prove that it can not 
withstand any frost. All such matters 
can be determined only by trial. 

It may be taken as evident, I think, 
that the plant wants a moist soil, and 
that it prefers a moist, cool climate. 
It should be tried on the sandy loams 
of the Gulf States, where it has perhaps 



a good chance of success, though the 
climate is hotter in summer and colder 
in winter than that of its native region. 
It should be mentioned, though the 
inference will already have been made 
from these notes, that the plant is 
never cultivated in Colombia, hence 
no information is available here re- 
garding cultural methods. In the 
Giant Blackberry of Colombia we 
have, in fact, a species taken directly 
from the wild, and possessing, in this 
condition, far greater economic value 
than the wild prototypes of many of 
our cultivated fruits. 



NOTE 

I cannot refrain from adding this note to Mr. Popenoe's most interesting account of the 
Colombian berry, for should it or its hybrids ever become valuable fruits in America, the circum- 
stances of its introduction may be of interest to many people. 

Upon the return of Colonel Roosevelt's expedition to South America in 1914, the National 
Geographic Society entertained him in Washington at a dinner party. I was a guest at the dinner 
and was seated between Dr. Frank M. Chapman and Mr. George K. Cherrie, both of whom had 
been in Colombia. I affected in my conversation with these explorers to be greatly disappointed 
over the fact that the Expedition had brought back no seeds or plants of any kind which could be 
grown in America and become later a living tribute to the sacrifices which the men who formed it 
had undergone — something which would last long after the stuflFed animals had crumbled into 
dust. In defense of their, to me, indefensible position or for the purpose of making me still 
more "excited" over the situation, Mr. Cherrie reached across the table and, picking up a small 
glass, remarked that he and Chapman had seen a blackberry in Colombia, years before, a single 
fruit of which would fill it. The standing of these scientific men was such that I could not be incred- 
ulous, and I proceeded to try to get seeds and photographs of it through correspondence with Dr. 
Chapman's friend, Mr. Frederick L. Rockwood. Through one cause or another his attempts failed 
to reveal any blackberry quite large enough to substantiate their stories. 

In March, 1918, I met Dr. Chapman and somewhat skeptically asked him to give me again 
the dimensions of the Giant Blackberr>'. Dr. Fuertes happened to be present, and, as he had seen 
the fruit, as well as eaten it. Chapman referred me to him, and immediately he drew for me a pencil 
sketch from memory of this remarkable blackberry. It was so large that I must confess it taxed 
my credulity a good deal, and every time I met Chapman I mentioned its incredible size. In 
June of 1918, Cherrie and I happened to meet again, and to defend himself against my attacks of 
incredulity, he also drew an outline of his remembrance of the berry. While there is room for 
discussion still in regard to the actual size of the largest specimen which is to be discovered in 
Colombia, I think these actual size photographs of Popenoe's, which correspond closely with 
Cherrie's sketch, but are somewhat under the dimensions given by Chapman and Fuertes, so 
vindicate the correctness of the Giant Colombian Berry as told by these three eminent scientific 
explorers as to deserve special mention in connection with this, the first publication of a horticul- 
tural account of the species. 

David Fairchild 
Agricultural Explorer in Charge, 
Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction. 



ENVIRONMENT AND BREEDING 

AS FACTORS INFLUENCING 

MILK PRODUCTION 

Andrew C. McCaxdlish 
Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Ames, Iowa 



MILK is the one indispensable 
human food and its consump- 
tion has a direct bearing on the 
welfare of the nation. The problem 
of the dairy farmer is to furnish milk 
to meet the needs of the people and at 
the same time realize a fair profit from 
it. The demand for milk and dairy 
products is increasing as the population 
of this country is increasing more 
rapidly than is the number of dairy 
cattle. More dairy cattle are needed, 
but, what is of even greater impor- 
tance, better cows are needed. Cows 
of higher producing ability will not only 
increase the available supplies of dairy 
products but they will give more 
economical production. 

EXPERIMKNTS WITH SCRUB COWS 

In an effort to demonstrate the 
possibilities of improving a herd of 
poor cows, work with a scrub herd was 
undertaken at the Iowa Agricultural 
Experiment Station in 1907 and is still 
being pursued. A number of scrub 
cows were purchased in an isolated 
region of Arkansas and brought to 
Iowa. 

These animals were very inferior, 
being as far removed from the ideal 
dairy type as it is possible to get and 
were apparently of very low produc- 
ing capacity. So far as was known no 
purebred bulls had previously been 
used in the section from which the 
animals came. The experimental ani- 
mals had always been allowed to rustle 
for a living, being forced to subsist on 
the rather scant supply of grass and 
hay available. Nothing was known 
of their previous milk production as 
their sole function had been to supply 
a little milk for familv use and to raise 



their calves until they were able to 
forage for themselves. 

PLAN OF INVESTIGATION' 

These scrub cows and their heifer 
calves were put in the Iowa Experi- 
ment Station herd and given the same 
feed and care as the purebred dairy 
cattle maintained there. The condi- 
tions under which the animals have 
been kept have remained fairly uniform 
during the twelve years' work. 

Accurate records of the milk and 
butterfat production of these animals 
have been kept and with their aid the 
animals have been fed according to 
their production. The keeping of these 
records throughout the lifetime of the 
original animals of the experimental 
herd gave a basis for the determination 
of the influence of environment on the 
production of milk and butterfat. 

The scrub cows were mated to pure- 
bred sires of the Holstein, Guernsey, 
and Jersey breeds and the heifer calves 
resulting from such matings were 
maintained under the same conditions 
as the other animals. The heifers by 
purebred sires were bred to other 
purebred sires of the same breed and 
the heifer calves resulting from such 
matings were also kept for dairy pur- 
poses. Records are now available on 
two generations of grades descended 
from the scrub cows and one animal 
of the next generation has just entered 
the milking herd. 

In comparing the records made by 
cows at different ages it is necessary 
that an age allowance be made as the 
maturing of a cow has a considerable 
influence on her producing ability. 
For this reason all records of the scrub 
cows and their descendants have to be 



212 



The Journal of Heredity 



The cows that had reached maturity 
before coming to the station all de- 
clined in production after their first 
year even though getting better feed 
and care than they had been accus- 
tomed to previously. It can not be 
stated, however, that good feed made 
no improvement in their case as it is 
undoubtedly true that their records 
at the station were better than any 
they previously made under adverse 
conditions, but they were unable to 
increase in production during their 
later years at the station as advancing 
age brought about a decrease that could 
not be prevented by good feed and care. 

When the scrub cows that came to 
the station after reaching maturity 
are compared with those coming at 
four years of age and those coming 
before first freshening, it is noticed 
that those arriving at four years of age 
produced 14% more milk and 8% 
more fat, while those coming as heifers 
produced 27% more milk and 24% 
more fat than did the older animals. 
This shows that the younger an animal 
is when subjected to good treatment 
the greater is its response. 

In other words environmental con- 
ditions, or feeding and general care, 
have a considerable influence on the 
milk and butterfat production of cows, 
and the younger animals are when 
subjected to a certain set of conditions 
the more readily will they respond. 

USE OF SCRUB SIRE 

Records are available for three cows 
and their daughters by a scrub bull, 
and though this is too limited a number 



upon which to base definite assertions, 
certain inferences are justified. Two 
of the dams were mature on reaching 
the station while the other was a four 
year old. Consequently, though the 
calves received good feed and care from 
birth, the dams were under favorable 
conditions for only a limited period of 
their lives. 

The heifers by the scrub bull pro- 
duced on the average 10% more milk 
and 13% more fat than did their dams, 
and considering that these heifers were 
grown out amid surroundings much 
more favorable than those which their 
dams were subjected to at a similar 
age, it must be assumed that the in- 
crease obtained was due, not to the 
scrub bull but to the feed and care the 
heifers received. 

A scrub bull will sire scrub offspring 
and no improvement in the production 
of a herd of milking cows can be 
obtained where such a sire is at the 
head of it. 

USE OF PURE BRED SIRES 

A number of grade animals sired by 
purebred bulls and descended from 
the scrub cows have now completed 
records. These will be studied in two 
groups — the first generation grades, or 
those carrying 50% of the blood of one 
of the recognized dairy breeds, and the 
second generation grades, or those 
carrying 75% of the blood of one of 
those breeds. The only way to deter- 
mine correctly the value of a bull is to 
compare the records of his daughters 
with those of their dams though there 
are difficulties connected even with 





Fable VI: A 


verage for First Generation Grades and Their Scrub Dams 




Group 


Dams 


Daughters 


Increase in 
Production 


No. of 
Cows 


No. of 
Lacta- 
tions 


Milk 
lbs. 


Fat 
lbs. 


No. of 
Cows 


No. of 
Lacta- 
tions 


Milk 
lbs. 


Fat 
lbs. 


Milk 

/o 


Fat 


Hoist ein 

Guernsey 

Jersey 


4 
6 
3 


19 
35 
20 


3406.2 
4186.0 
4046.7 


168.74 
189.39 
194.11 


4 
7 
3 


18 

20 

9 


6444.4 
4899.8 
4833.4 


265.92 
240.96 
265.88 


89 
17 
22 


58 
27 
34 


Average 


9 


47 


3968.6 


185.66 


14 


47 


5497 . 8 


255.32 


39 


37 



McCandlish: Environment and Breeding 



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213 

this method as will be shown later. 
This method can not be used for the 
purposes of comparing breeds as all 
bulls were not given equal opportuni- 
ties to demonstrate their abilities as 
sires of producers. 

FIRST GENERATION GR.\DES 

All the first generation of grades 
sired by a purebred Holstein bull 
showed an increase over their dams in 
milk and butterfat production. The 
increase varied from 38% in fat and 
79% in milk to 68% in fat and 121% 
in milk while on the 
increase of 89%, in mi 8*'^ in fat. 

In the case of the first 
of Guernsey grades an 
variation was noticed. It 3 

a decrease of 31% in milk and 23% in 
fat, due to the use o an 

increase of 107% ' 2% in 

fat yield. The grade 

p contained animals that showed 
increase and also the 
in fat 
The average in- 
crease in yield was 17% in milk and 
27% in butterfat. 

The first erseys showed varia- 

tions in as compared with 

their dams that varied from a decrease 
of 19% in milk and 3% in fat to an 
increase of ^5% in milk and 96% in 
butterfat. The average increase in 
their case was 22% in milk and 34% in 
fat production. 

.^1! of the first generation grades 
when taken as a group showed an 
increase of 39% in milk and 37% in 
fat production as compared with their 
I lams. 

SECOND GENliRATION GRADKS 

The grades of the second generation 
ranked high in production, producing 
on the average 375.81 lbs. of fat per 
vear as compared with a 
261.93 lbs. by their firs 
and 182.40 lbs. by their 
clams. 5 IM 

of the 

least than that of their 

scrub 

ncrease in production 
for the second generation Holstein 



214 



The Journal of Heredity 



grades as compared to their scrub 
grand-dams was 174% in milk and 
130% in fat; the increase was 72% in 
milk and 94% in fat in the case of the 
Guernsey grades; and for the Jersey 
second grades it was 59% in milk and 
64% in fat production. 

The average increase in production 
for the second generation of grades, 
when all breeds are combined, was 
116% in milk and 106% in fat pro- 
duction — a real tribute to the value of 
the purebred dairy sire. 

In the work that has so far been 
completed at the Iowa Station on the 
grading up of a scrub herd of milking 
cows it has been shown that environ- 
ment and breeding are very important 
factors in determining the production 
of dairy cattle. Good feed and care 
will increase the yields of milk and 

A Text Book 

Laboratory Direction in Principlks 
OF Animal Biology, by A. Franklin 
Shull, with the collaboration of 
George R. Larue, Alexander G. 
Ruthven, Peter O. Okkelberg, and 
others. Pp. 81. New York, Mc- 
Graw-Hill Book Co., 1919. 

Shull's biology is welcome because it 
treats of the general principles of 
biology, rather than merely with de- 
tails of morphology, — although an ade- 
quate amount of the latter is included. 
No text-book can be letter-perfect, but 
this one includes a large amount of 
valuable material, with little that is 
objectionable. Not all geneticists will 



butterfat but in order that the best 
results may be obtained from these 
factors the cattle must be subjected to 
good treatment early in life. Animals 
that are poorly fed and stunted during 
the period of their development will 
not respond to good feeding when they 
reach maturity as readily as will 
individuals which have been liberally 
fed during the formative period of 
their lives. The fact that a high aver- 
age increase in production was obtained 
in the case of first generation grades 
and that the second generation of 
grades produced more than twice as 
much milk and butterfat as did their 
scrub grand-dams thoroughly vindi- 
cates the use of the purebred dairy sire 
for the development of high producing 
cows. 



of Biology 

accept the definition of genetics (p. 239) 
as a science dealing with the production 
of minor features of the organism and 
the laws that govern their occurrence. 
Heredity is defined (p. 256) as *'the 
occurrence, in the offspring, of the same 
genes that were in the parents,'* — a 
definition that some will consider 
narrow. But the general outlines of 
the book are so good that it is unneces- 
sar>- to criticise details, which the 
teacher will deal with according to his 
own ideas. The text-book is accom- 
panied by a laboratory manual, which 
ignores genetics as a subject for 
experimental study. — P. P. 



A Conventional View of Anthropology 



Ak Introduction to Anthropology: 
a general survey of the early history 
of the human race. By the Rev. 
E. O. James, B. Litt., F'.C.S., vicar 
of St. Peter's, Limehouse. Pp. 259, 
price 7 6. London, Macmillan & 
Co., Ltd., 1919. 

All of the conventional ground is 
covered by Mr. James in this volume. 
He presents no new points of view% 
but has been content to gather together 
time-tried material, mixing it with 



some rather tenuous speculation about 
the daily life of our remote ancestors, 
and coloring it with numerous refer- 
ences to the tenets of orthodox Chris- 
tianity. The book is not a notable one, 
but gives in convenient form a lot of 
material with which the reader or 
student taking up anthropology must 
become familiar. It will perhaps be a 
good introduction to more detailed 
study, or an interesting piece of reading 
for one who desires merely a general 
survey of the field. — P. P. 



HEREDITY IN HORSES 

Why the Arab Horse Has Shown Such Conspicuous Ability for Endurance in the 

Recent Long Distance Tests^ 

H. K. Bush-Brown 
Washington, D. C. 



THE recent success of the Arab 
horse in long distiince tests calls 
the attention of the public, ami 
especially breeders, to the genetic value 
of the thoroughbred blood. 

I use the word here in a general 
meaning and not as applicable solely 
to the group of registered race horses 
known as the "English Thoroughbred." 
In order to be specific let us state the 
anatomical differences of recognized 
types of hors'js, which perhaps will 
explain why the Arab is such a good 
weight carrier and capable of endurance 
under hardship. 

To begin with, the Arab's head is 
smaller and broader, his nose finer, his 
eye larger and more prominent and 
alert. His head is articulated onto the 
neck at a more obtuse angle than other 
horses. (See Fig. 16.) 

His chest is broad, giving plenty of 
space for heart and lungs, and his ribs 
are well set out from the spine, giving 
a relatively large space for carrying the 
viscera. 

The bones of his legs are clean and 
very dense as compared with other 
horses and less liable to defects from 
hard usage. He stands with all his 
four feet under him, and with straight 
hind legs. The osselets are small and 
the dewlap usually wanting or vestigial. 

THE Arab's short back 

These differences are sufficient to 
mark the Arab as a separate family 
among horses, but the five lumbar 
vert: brae instead of the six common to 
all other horses seem to place him in a 
separate species. As this difference is 
now recognized by leading anatomists, 
it may be of importance to those 



interested to see some illustrations 
demonstrating these differences. This 
shortness in the back is usually in the 
lumbar vertebrae ^\e instead of six, 
but it occasionally appears in the dorsal 
instead. 

F'igure 1 7 is a photograph of the five 
lumbar vertebrae of the pure Arab 
Stallion Nim • whos2 sire and dam were 
only one generation from the desert 
and whose skeleton is in the Museum 
of Natural History in New York. 

Figure 18 shows the six lumbar ver- 
tebrae of the famous thoroughbred 
horse Lexington whose skeleton is in 
the National Museum in Washington. 

There is here a peculiar atavistic 
tendency shown in the angle of the 
spine of the one next to the sacral 
group, it being thrown backward 
instead of forward as though it would 
be one of the sacral vertebrae and thus 
leave only five in lumbar like the Arab 
ancestors. This, however, would have 
made too many sacral. 

I have already published- a long 
series of these to show that all other 
types of horses have twenty-four verte- 
brae in the back except the Arab which 
has twenty-three, but it is no longer 
necessary to convince any one of a fact 
so well established. 

VARIATIONS IX SOME TYPES 

The skeleton of the imported Arab 
stallion Haleb in the National Museum, 
Washington (not yet mounted), has six 
lumbar vertebrae but only seventeen 
dorsal vertebrae, so the shortness of 
his back is maintained although it is 
found in the forward section instead of 
in the lumbar, the usual place for it. 



> The writer is indebted to Mr. A. H. Chubb of the Museum of Natural History of New York 
for many courtesies and cooperation. Also to Mr. Warren Delano for his research breeding of 
Arabs and Norway ponies. 

2 Horses and Horse Breeding, by H. K. Bush- Brown, American Breeders Magazine, Vol. U, 

Nos. 2 and 3. 



Bush-Brown: Heredity in Horses 



LUMBAR VERTEBRAE OF "LEXINGTOB," THE FAMOUS THOROUGHBRED 

The Thoroughbred is a breed of horses descended from the Arab. The skeleton of Lexington, in 
the National Museum at VVasliington, shows six lumbar vortcbrae. The sixth vertebra inclines 
backward instead of forward and is reduce<l in size, and has intermediate characteristics— partly 
lumbar and partly sacral. This shows an atavistic tendency toward the five vertebrae of thcAra(> 
(Fig. 18.) 



SALVATOR, AH IMPORTED THOROUGHBRED 
This racer has a longer back than the Arab. "Hogarth's line of beauty" is shown well in 
(Fig. 19.) 



Bush-Brown: Heredity in Horses 



SKELETOK OF "OBED" 

md tiam of Olieil (Hoaz ("l;iy and Riith Clay) were each from a pure Arab mare (Naomi) 
ing stallion (Voiiiie Jack Shfpnrill. Ulwd, however, had six instead of five lumliar 

■, (Fig. 21.1 



heritt-d the five lumbar vertebrae of the 
dam (see Fig. 20). The sire and <iam 
of Ol>ecl were each fnira a pure Arab 
mare and trotting staUion, and there 
seemed a chance th.it Oljed would have 
five lumbar vertebrae, but he had six 
(see Fig. 21) with the eighteen dorsals. 
This shows the recessive character of 
the short back. 

A curious case of atavism is illus- 
trated in the skeleton of McKinncy, a 
trotting stallion, registerwl number 
8818. whose skeleton is in the Museum 
of Natural History. He was grandson 
of George Wilkes, and therefore seven 
generations from the pure Arab (irand 
Bashaw, his nearest Arab : nccstor. 

He developed solid ribs on the 
lateral processes of his first lumbar 
vertebra. Fig. 22 shows the 17th or 
last dorsal vertebra, giving his short 
back of 23 in all, but his solid rib was 



his 18th. thus having the full 18 ribs. 
This is important as it explains a like 
tendency in a foal skeleton from a pure 
Arab mare and a Norway sire with 17 
dorsal and six lumbar vertebrae. {See 
Figure 2.?.) 

I f this foal had li\ed he would 
probably have developed two solid 
ribs like McKinney as he had one rib 
already attached to his first lumbar, 
and its mate was probably in process 
of formation. 

McKinney shows by the record that 
he was a great pnxlucer of speed, having 
sired 31 in the 2 :10 class and the dams 
of 15 in the 2:10 class, while his own 
record was 2:11J4- His dam was Rose 
Sprague by Governor Spraguc, another 
great producer. 

His anatomy shows he was ribbed up 
like an Arab with only the width of two 
fingers bet\veen the last rib and the hip 



The Journal of Heredity 



MCKOTNEY, A TROTTING STALLION 
McKinney was a registered trotting horse No. 8818, seven generations from the pure Arab Grand 
Bashaw. His skeleton (in the Museum of Natural History, New York) shows the ISth dorsal 
vertebra and lateral processes of the first lumbar vertebra developed into ribs. (Fig. 22.) 



bone. With a saddle on, I believe he 
could have carried weight and endured 
long distance. Whether such cases 
of atavism are common in the trotting 
horse family I do not know, but in those 
particular cases they ought to be able 
to do the work of the Arab. I believe 
they are very rare. "Nancy Hanks" 
was apparently of this build. 

WHY THE .^RAB CAN ENDVRE I.ONt; TESTS 

What do these facts mean to the 
breeders of horses? Refer to Figures 
20and23,andoneotherspecimen in the 
Museum of Natural History. These 
are three examples of a short back 
marc being bred to a stallion with 24 
vertebrae and the product in each case 
having the short back of the dam. 
This seems to indicate the dominance 
of the dam over the anatomy of the 
foal. 



I think most breeders believe that 
proportion and anatomy have a rela- 
tion to speed performance, and if it is 
so, the above dominance of the dam is 
borne out by the fact that the success- 
ful breeders have paid especial atten- 
tion to the quality of the dams, and 
those who ha\-e not shown such good 
judgment have not been successful. 

Just why the Arab horse is the best 
weight carrier among the equines is 
simply because the bridge of his back 
is shorter between supports and there- 
fore stronger. 

The other anatomical differences 
mentioned in the first part of this 
article enable him to carry relatively 
more food for a long journey and 
therefore he can endure privation 
better than a horse who has less "dinner 
basket" capacity. Consequently it is 
quite natural for an Arab Horse to win 



Bush-Brown: Heredity in Horses 



LUMBAR VERTEBRAE OF A FOAL 

A similar tendency to that shown in McKinney in Fig. 7 is illustratt-d ii 
from a pure Arab mare and a Norway sire. Here is shown the 17th dorsal 
developed rib. The gristle attachment would no doubt have ossified in a s 
floating rib may have been lost in dissecting. (Fig, 2J.) 

the tests for long distance under 
service conditions similar to those of 
the Army, for he is especially built for 
that purpose. 
Since the unit character of a short 



(his skeleton of a foal 
ertebra and one partly 
oft time, and the other 



Of course the power of transmission 
of inheritance is not confined to the 
anatomical structure alone. The Thor- 
oughbred is the best horse for a 
short distance for which he has been 



back seems to be recessive except in the especially developed, and he has cour- 

purcbred Arab, it quite completely 

explains why the thoroughbred horse 
is so different anatomically although 
he is a product of the Arab by long and 
intelligent breeding, chiefly from male 
Arab ancestry. 

As his name implies he is "thorough' 
bred" from the Arab and yet in no 
instance that I know of has he devel- 
oped the twenty-three vertebrae in the 
back. Therefore to maintain the Arab 
type, it must be kept scrupulously 
pure, and this justifies the custom 
among the Arabs in tracing their 
horses' pedigrees through the dam. 



age and intelligence perhaps equal to 
his Arab ancestry. 

L.AWS OF HIiREDlTY SHOULD BE CLOSELY 

STUDIED 

The facts here assembled seem to 
show that the laws of heredity can be 
pursued with great advantage by a 
more thorough study of variability in 
the anatomy of the horse, especially in 
outbreeding of the pure Arab with the 
kindred types of different anatomy — 
a real field for genetic research. This 
field needs a policy to be pursued by a 
group of men who can follow the 



226 



The Journal of Heredity 



everywhere in assembling more data 
covering a long period of time. 

This long distance test itself, perhaps 
some may contend, is not conclu- 
sive because the trotting horse was not 
represented and the thoroughbred rep- 
resented only by some grade animals. 
Then, let other tests be given and in- 
clude long backed horses. If they can 
stand conditions required for carrying 
weight long distances, we can change 
the conclusions after that fact has been 
established. 

The Diamond Ranch of Wyoming 
has for a generation been breeding the 
long distance thoroughbred horses and 
they are known very favorably in the 
army, but none of them have been in 
these long distance tests. Similarly 
the Mustang, or western pony, is 
known for his weight carrying ability 
and endurance. Can he make good in 
these tests, and to what extent has he 
the short back of his Arab ancestors 
who were brought to this country by 
the Spaniards? 

NATIONAL INTEREST IN HORSE CONTESTS 

Ever since the wild horse was do- 
mesticated, that is before man had a 
written history, the racing of horses 
was one of the sports of man. The 
trotting horse race was developed by 
the American people with its distinc- 
tive type of horse that has endeared 
himself to the heart of man and gone 
conquering all over the world. 

The Army Horse Association was 
organized for the purpose of making a 
national sport of the long distance 
horse test. The country has been 
divided into fifteen zones so as to have 
a "horse country*' with a 300 mile 
defined course in each zone. The New 
England horsemen have adopted zone 
No. 1 and have ridden it two successive 
years with marked results. 

The way to serve our country in 
time of peace is to make a national 
sport of the long distance weight 
carrying horse and to do it with a 
scientific spirit of finding out the best 
types without favor to any one type 
or man's prejudice. Only in this way 
can we collect the necessary informa- 



tion of what the type is and where and 
how to produce it. 

By making a sport of this kind of 
racing, the type will result just as the 
thoroughbred and the trotter are sepa- 
rate types to fill the needs of two kinds 
of racing. 

THE ARMY TEST OF 1920 

Since the preceding part of this 
article was written the endurance ride 
of 1920 has been concluded and the 
results seem to have more than justified 
what has here been said of the Arab 
horse. 

Five racing Thoroughbreds were 
carefully prepared at great expense for 
this ride. One was withdrawn the day 
before the race. Of the four entered, 
only one finished, and he was eighth, 
receiving no money reward and had a 
condition mark of only 25 out of a 
possible SO. Five grade Thoroughbreds 
were entered; two were army mounts, 
and they finished in first and third posi- 
tions getting 40 and 35 for condition. 

Of Arabs and their derivatives, ten 
started and five finished. Three were 
among the money winners, getting 
second, fourth and fifth places, and one 
was the only horse to have 50 on condi- 
tion — a perfect mark. Another tied 
with a Morgan at 45 on condition — the 
second highest mark. One purebred 
Arab made the best time for single days 
on the fourth and fifth days, namely 
60 miles in eight hours flat, and eight 
hours and a little over, not including a 
noon stop, beating all records for dis- 
tance and the weight carried. It was 
also an Arab that came in first on the 
last dav. 

TESTS A FIELD OF SPORTSMANSHIP 

It was these facts which justified 
one of the judges in saying that the 
Arabs could have taken the first place, 
if they had not been held back by their 
sportsman owner who, apparently, 
wished to give other horses a chance, by 
which means long distance rides will 
be encouraged as a national sport. 

There were two Standard bred horses 
in the race and they were dropped on 
the second and third days. 



Bush-Brown: Heredity in Horses 



227 



Of the Thoroughbreds that were out 
of it, there was one on first day, three 
on the third dav and one on the fourth 
day and one on the fifth day. 

The Morgans did a little better. Of 
the six entered, two finished in sixth 
and seventh places. Of those that 
were dropped for fatigue, one was on 
the third day and three on the fourth 
day. 

The summary is as follows: 

STARTING 

Thoroughbreds: vS registered and 5 

grades 
Arabs: 5 registered and 5 grades 
Morgans: 5 registered and 1 grade 
Standard bred trotters: 2 

FINISHING 

5 Arabs and derivatives. 50 percent 

of starters 
3 Thoroughbreds and derivatives, 

33 percent of starters 
2 Morgans, 33 percent of starters. 
Thus it may be seen, that of the 28 
to start, ten finished. 



This endurance test goes far to jus- 
tify the statement that breeding race 
horses for a fast mile does not produce 
horses for long distance. Endurance 
requires a type bred for endurance. 

One might as well ask a running 
horse to trot a fast mile or a trotting 
horse to run a fast mile as to put these 
horses in an endurance test to carry 
two hundred and fifty pounds on their 
backs sixty miles a day for i^vc days. 

Let us make a national sport of this 
type of endurance horse in the interest 
of better horses for the army and breed 
an endurance type. 

The first, second and third horses in 
this contest were of the Hunter type 
which is well recognized, but some 
breeders claim it is not a reproducing 
type. If these contests are continued 
and horses bred for the type demon- 
strated to be the best, it can be made 
reproducing just as the Standard trot- 
ters are now a reproducing type 
derived from Thoroughbred founda- 
tion. 



A NEW GENETICS JOURNAL 



HEREDITAS, a new journal for 
the publication of original re- 
searches in genetics, appears in 
its first issue under the auspices of the 
Mendelian Society in Lund, Sweden. 

H. Nilsson-Ehle, president of the 
society, has associated with him on the 
editorial committee Herman Lundborg, 
Nils Heribert-Nilsson, and Gustav 
Thulin. The editor of the journal is 
Robert Larsson, Adelgatan 7, Lund, 
Sweden. 

Papers will be published in either 
English, French, or German, and it is 
expected that three numbers of the 
journal will be issued yearly to make 
up a volume of 350 pp. The contents 
of the first issue follow: 

H. Nilssox-Ehle: tjber Resistenz 



gegen Heterodera Schachti bei gewissen 
Gerstensorten, ihre Vererbungsweise 
und Bedeutung fiir die Praxis. — H. 
Lundborg: Hereditary Transmission 
of Genotypical Deaf-Mutism. — Nils 
Heribert-Nilsson : Zuwachsgeschwin- 
digkeit der Pollenschlauche und gestorte 
Mendelzahlen bei Oenothera La- 
marckiana (With an English sum- 
mary). — Hans Tedin : The Inheritance 
of Flower Colour in Pisum. — Emanuel 
Bergman: A Family with Hereditary 
(Genotypical) Tremor. — Hans Ras- 
MUSON: tJber einige genetische Ver- 
suche mit Papaver Rhoeas und Pa- 
paver laev^igatum. — A. Akerman: 
Speltlike Bud-sports in Common 
Wheat. — J. Rasmusson: Mendelnde 
Chlorophyll-Faktoren bei Allium cepa. 



THE MENACE OF THE HALF-MAN 



Seth K. Humphrey 
Boston f Mass. 



WHO marries earliest and breeds 
fastest? Anyone gifted with 
eyesight and a fair habit of ob- 
servation knows that, in nine cases out 
of ten, it is those least capable of pro- 
viding their offspring with either a 
heritage of brains or a decent bringing 
up. The one big fact in the reproduc- 
tive habits of civilized man is that, in 
a very general way, the energetic, the 
brainy, the foreseeing — those who 
emerge from the commonplace to the 
level of achievement — have the fewest 
children, while the improvident and de- 
generate take as instinctively to repro- 
duction as a duck takes to w^ater, and 
have altogether too many. 

We are populating the earth from 
the wrong kind of stock. A high 
English authority asserts that more 
than half of England*s children are 
produced by the lowest one-sixth of the 
population; and certainly we in Amer- 
ica are doing no better. 

Now there is not an intelligent 
reader of this page who does not know 
that such a scheme of selection would 
wreck the quality of any other species 
of animal or plant. But the mystic 
teaching of the ages, and our own 
colossal self-esteem, set us up as a 
creation just outside the Big Plan. 
Most of us miss the eternal fact that 
man is a species, dependent like any 
other on what he inherits for the 
qualities which he develops. Mean- 
while, Dame Nature is dealing us just 
the kind of humans that we ought to 
expect from our manner of producing 
the most children from the poorer 
stocks. 

THESE FUTURE CITIZENS IN THE 
SCHOOLS 

Suppose we begin at the beginning 
and follow the output of this system. 
First, the children appear at the public 
schools. The public schools used to 
function badly — they do now in many 



respects, but they functioned worse 
before the authorities awoke to the drag 
imposed on the normal pupils by the 
growing numbers of the wcakminded. 
So they hit upon the clever scheme of 
gathering these feebleminded into 
special classes; experimentally at first, 
but soon the special class developed 
into a regular feature of public school 
work. Now, every sizeable city in the 
land has its rooms for dullards, in great 
numbers and rapidly multiplying. 
Boston alone has seventy-seven rooms 
in her public schools devoted exclu- 
sively to the backward. 

We complacently accept the special 
room as a beneficent device, simply 
because it permits the schools to run 
more smoothly. But the special room 
is mere camouflage thrown over a des- 
perate situation. W^hat sort of citizens 
can we hope to make of these incompe- 
tents? 

It seems a harsh thing to say of 
innocent little boys and girls, but to a 
ver>' great extent these are society's 
future jailbirds and prostitutes. Does 
this jar? An ugly truth usually jars 
when it crowds against a soothing 
popular misconception. Proof is to be 
had, many times over, in the investi- 
gations carried on in prisons, reforma- 
tories and rescue homes — everv one of 
which has shown from forty to sixty 
per cent of the inmates to be mentally 
subnormal. There is a verv direct 
connection between children who can- 
not develop and grown-ups who cannot 
behave. This connection is now being 
brought home with increasing force to 
every charitable organization which has 
substituted scientific inquiry for emo- 
tional philanthropy. 

THE *'UORDERLINERs" ESCAPE DETEC- 
TION 

But the special room is a very small 
measure of the total number of weak- 
minded children in the public schools. 



Humphrey: The Menace of the Half-Man 



oo 



229 



These youngsters have a way of getting 
on fairly well with their normal school- 
mates until they are near the limit of 
their mental growth; then they begin 
to show unmistakable signs of wobbling. 
A child, for instance, who will never 
get beyond the mental age of ten can 
usually manage to keep out of the 
special room until he is nearly ten years 
old; it follows, then, that children 
destined to go through life with men- 
talities of fourteen or fifteen, get 
through all the grades and leave school 
without disclosing their limitations — 
yet they couldn't have got by a year 
in the high school to save their lives. 

These less obvious of the feeble- 
minded are the *'borderliners," or 
**morons," as they are technically 
known — men and women in appalling 
numbers who stumble along through 
to old age with just enough wit to 
escape the foolish house and not enough 
to connect with the social order. Their 
shiftiness begins with their first job — 
they bulk large in the great labor * 'turn- 
over," so disastrous to industry; they 
qualify more readily for jails and 
institutions than for steady effort, and 
naturally take the easier way. Irre- 
sponsibility is their outstanding, lifelong 
characteristic. 



the growing danger of the half- 
man" in society 

Ignorance, as a disturber of social 
peace, is giving way to education; we 
are righting injustices which cause 
turmoil; but the Menace of the Half- 
man is growing almost unchecked. 
By instinct they follow any and every 
designing agitator who happens along. 
For them, life is one round of spiritless 
work, rebuffs, hardships, failures and 
futile beginnings over, such as would 
kill us normals within a few years. 
This world, as we now manage it, is 
run for full-made men and women — 
that's why it is such a difficult place 
for grown-up children. 

And these are essentially grown-up 
children. It is all very well to dub 
them facetiously, "I Won't Work"— 
some of them deserve it; but when will 
we learn to read the pathetic message 



stamped as a birthmark on the crooked 
features of so many more, "I Can't 
Work' ' ? Precious few humans are born 
with a distinct inclination for crime, 
but a sorry lot of them are born every 
day with too meagre brains to make a 
living in the paths of virtue. Then 
why be surprised at their readiness to 
take up with the forces of disorder? 
We merely expose our crass ignorance 
of human nature in one of its rapidly 
growing phases. 

And how they do multiply! Next 
to their irresponsibility, the chief 
characteristic of these half-equipped 
humans is their astonishing fecundity. 
Evidence of this is so thrust upon 
the senses of every man or woman who 
knows the improvident that it needs 
no further elucidation. The common 
acceptance is that this grade is increas- 
ing at about twice the rate of the 
normal population; this probably is an 
underestimate. A western city, re- 
cently having rounded up nine hundred 
of its deserters of families — and habit- 
ual desertion of family is a common 
mark of the half-man— -discovered that 
they had abandoned forty-seven hun- 
dred children, not to mention those 
they had left along the trails of their 
wanderings. This is an average of 
more than five children each. From 
observ^ation of human nature in general 
it is safe to say that nine hundred of 
the most progressive families in that 
western city could not muster an 
average of tvvo children each. Five 
from the worst stocks, against two 
from the best — this is a condition that 
holds in a general way for our whole 
population. 

incompetents increase demand on 

CHARITY 

No wonder that we have had to 
develop such enormous corrective and 
philanthropic machinery everywhere. 
This sort of people is doubling on our 
hands with every generation. The 
number of charitable organizations in 
New York City runs into four figures; 
they are counted by hundreds in 
every other large center of population. 
Charities originally were supposed to 



230 



The Journal of Heredity 



look after the worthy unfortunate, but 
now, nine-tenths of their effort is with 
born incompetents. And that is why 
something like eight-tenths of their 
effort is practically futile, so far as any 
permanent reconstruction of these in- 
dividuals is concerned. With im- 
possible human beings, nothing is 
possible. Social workers habitually 
wonder at the proverty of results; if 
they knew the fundamentals of hered- 
ity they would cease to wonder. 

THE DETERMINING FORCE OF HEREDITY 

All this environmental work, and all 
education and training of youth, essen- 
tial as they are, do next to nothing 
toward eliminating hereditary defects. 
It is all development work — trimmings, 
as it were, with which we bedeck the 
individual for his journey through 
life — and the trimmings die with him. 
They do not aflfect our biological 
makeup. Education doesn't get into 
the blood. 

The only thing that descends through 
the generations is the capacity to 
respond to education and training. 
Heredity furnishes the mechanism — 
determines the physical and mental 
quality of the human material with 
which we have to work. Upon the 
inherited quality of the child depends 
the quality of the man we can make of 
him. A carpenter cannot make a 
mahogany table out of pine boards; 
and if we breed in greater numbers 
from the mentally inferior types, we 
arc going to have an ever increasing 
proportion of children incapable of 
being developed into upstanding men 
and women. 

How have we come so far on the way 
to racial degeneracy without any vis- 
ible attempt to check ourselves? 
Mainly because of a pious horrOr of 
any action that looks like interference 
with the right of parenthood. It is a 
hangover sentiment from the ages of 
Ignorance and superstition which we 
cannot shake off, in spite of our pres- 
ent clear knowledge that a vicious 
parenthood is flooding us with a 
vicious progeny. 



THE UNGUARDED SOURCE OF HUMAN 

MISFITS 

Our impotence in this respect looks 
the more ridiculous when we consider 
how keen we are to prevent any ill- 
favored specimens among our plants, 
pigs and cattle from reproducing their 
kind. We are up to the minute in 
guarding the heredity of every other 
useful species, and back with the Phar- 
aohs in protecting our own. 

So we sit helplessly by, with full 
knowledge of what is happening to us, 
while any two people not in jail or the 
lunatic asylum bring children into the 
world regardless of consequences. 

If their children prove to be hof^eless 
misfits, we guide them through the 
special room, and perhaps to the re- 
formatory. But do we look back to 
their source with a view to preventing 
more of their kind? Not at all. We 
supinely await the further product of 
their usually worthless parents. Or 
do we make the slightest attempt, 
later on, to restrain the fecundity of 
these children themselves? About one 
in ten, helplessly imbecile, are segre- 
gated in feebleminded institutions; the 
other nine- tenths are free — except for 
the periods spent in jails and prisons — 
to exercise the one sturdy function 
with which nature seems to have en- 
dowed them. 



BURDEN OF CORRECTIVE MACHINERY 

Of all the relics from the past, this 
superstitious notion of the inviolability 
of parenthood is the most cxF)ensive — 
in money, in human misery, in social 
maladjustments which wc must for- 
ever be combating. Is the burden of 
corrective and philanthropic enter- 
prises becoming heavy? It will grow 
vastly heavier with each succeeding 
generation. Special rooms, reforma- 
tories, asylums, prisons and the pres- 
ent swarm of charities will increase by 
leaps and bounds, because the sort of 
humans who cannot be taken care of 
in any other way is increasing by leaps 
and bounds. 



Humphrey: The Menace of the Half-Man 



231 



NEED FOR EDUCATION IN THE LAWS 

OF HEREDITY 

The one and only way to clear the 
race of its burden of hereditary unfit- 
ness is to cut off its reproduction at the 
source. The first step toward that 
end is to promote a general understand- 
ing that every ill-favored, shiftless, 
weak-minded delinquent is as unfit for 
perpetuating the race as is a scrubby, 
unintelligent, underbred horse to take 
its place in the breeding stable. Not 
that we shall ever come to methods ap- 
proaching those for perfecting domes- 
tic breeds; that is as unthinkable as it 
is unnecessary. Heaven forbid that 
we should have standardized human 
beings, even if such were possible. 
But we may entertain the worthy 
hope that, sometime, we shall have 
the courage to deny parenthood to 
those who are manifestly unfit to pro- 
duce American citizens. 

A GOOD ENVIRONMENT NECESSARY 

What determines unfitness for par- 
enthood? Eugenists are inclined to 
put the whole stress on heredity, and 
to seek too much exactness in apply- 
ing their scientific knowledge. But 
common experience should tell us that 
unfitness for parenthood is not by any 
means a matter wholly for biological 
determination. Next to being well 
born, a child needs a good environ- 
ment. When we see men and women 
who are perpetually at odds with the 
social order, incapable of all ordinary 
adjustments, we ought to know just as 
well that they will be wholly unfit to 
rear children as if we had studied their 
pedigrees for ten generations back. 
Control of unfit parenthood can never 
be reduced to an exact science. The 
problem demands a copious injection 
of common sense and every-day ex- 
perience into the knowledge which 
biology has given us; it should not be 
left to the faddist adherents of either 
heredity or environment. A good 
quality of both is equally essential. 

EXAMINE CHILDREN IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS 

But any system for restricting par- 
enthood, to be effective, must not wait 



for demonstrations of parental unfit- 
ness. Bear in mind that irresponsibles, 
incapable of self-restraint, begin their 
sex activities years earlier than normal 
people. The public school is the place 
for the scrutiny of the nation's future 
mothers and fathers. It is not too 
much to say that in the great majority 
of cases the final detennination should 
be made before the child leaves school, 
or as soon thereafter as its actions give 
the further necessary evidence. It is 
also a safe assertion that most mental 
defectives who attain their twentieth 
year unrestrained have added to the 
race's load of defective children. The 
need for early action cannot be too 
strongly emphasized. 

TO CHECK INCREASE OF THE UNFIT 

How shall we put denial of unfit 
parenthood into effect? Certainly not 
i)y legal enactment against marriage. 
That would mean nothing to the av- 
erage incompetent. 

Institutional care, perhaps in farm 
communities, might well be put upon 
at least five times as many of the ob- 
viously defective as are now segregated. 
But there would still be as many more, 
of the "borderline" types, for whom 
segregation would be an unnecessary 
deprivation of liberty. Sterilization is 
the usually proposed expedient for such 
cases. It is something to which the 
public has yet to be educated, but once 
it is understood it undoubtedly will 
have the leading part in any accepted 
scheme of race regeneration. 

Any proposal to suppress unfit par- 
enthood is bound to meet violent op- 
position. But it will meet none more 
blindly stubborn than those who hold 
that proper environment can overcome 
any adverse effects of heredity. They 
admit hereditary defects, but would 
camouflage them with more thorough 
training of the individual and a better- 
ing of social conditions. 

TO MAINTAIN QUALITY OF SPECIES IN 

WELL-ORDERED COUNTRY SHOULD 

BE AIM OF SOCIETY 

But suppose that, for the moment, 
we put aside the claims of heredity, and 



232 



The Journal of Heredity 



view our manner of rearing humans 
from the environmental standpoint 
alone. The first big fact that we meet 
— a fact easily demonstrable by any- 
one who will go from the silent streets 
of the thrifty to the swarming alleys of 
the thriftless — is that at least three- 
quarters of all children are born to liv- 
ing conditions well below those of the 
average, as measured, not by wealth, 
but by the quality of the parents, — 
while a scant one-quarter have the ad- 
vantage of homes above the average. 

Now what enthusiast for the power 
of environment would deliberately 
raise most of his flowers and chickens 
under adverse conditions? Yet this 
is exactly what we are doing with the 
human species. 

So from the viewpoint of either 
heredity or environment our method 
of perpetuating humankind is a com- 



plete reversal of nature's scheme for 
maintaining quality of species. We 
may be drifting slowly, but we are 
drifting — toward a depreciated race. 
The histories of Babylon, Eg>'pt, 
Greece and Rome show us that each, 
in its turn, went to its final blaze of 
glory with its population reduced to a 
vast mass of mediocrity — a huge, in- 
coherent proletariat, ridden by a hand- 
ful of plutocrats whose culture savors 
of a splendid degeneracy. 

Is such to be our end, generations 
hence? Nobody knows. All we really 
know is that we are following the 
beaten path of the ages. Yet we need 
not follow it a day longer than we 
choose. And the first move toward 
regenerating the race is to cut off unfit 
parenthood. Rid the race of the half- 
man, and human misery, in a well- 
ordered country like America, will be 
more than cut in half. 



Tests of Intelligence and Achievement 



Standard Educational Tests, ar- 
ranged and standardized by M. E. 
Haggerty, professor of Educational 
Psychology at the University of 
Minnesota. Yonkers-on-Hudson, the 
World Book Co., 1920. 

"With the extension of educational 
investigation it is becoming apparent," 
says Professor Haggerty in his Manual 
of Directions accompanying these tests, 
"that too little attention is being paid 
to the native intelligence of children. 
Attention was first directed to the 
matter through the presence in the 
schools of a considerable number of 
mentally defective and in some cases 
feebleminded children. These children 
presented serious problems to teachers 
and forced themselves upon the atten- 
tion of superintendents and others. 
The result was the organization of 



special classes for teaching them and 
the development of special testing 
methods for their proper classification. 

"More recently attention has been 
called to the presence in the school of a 
number of superior children. The num- 
ber of these is probably as great as that 
of the backward and feebleminded. 
The work of Terman, Whipple, and 
others shows that such pupils can be 
identified through the use of intelli- 
gence tests and that they can with 
profit to themselves and to others be 
separated from the regular classes and 
be taught as a special group." 

Professor Haggerty has followed the 
example of numerous other psycholo- 
gists in preparing tests suitable for the 
different grades in school. They are 
based largely on the army tests. — P. P. 



A GRAFT-CHIMERA IN THE APPLE 



Evidence That the Two Distinct Types of Fruits on the Same Tree Are Not 

Due to Bud Sporting or Top-Grafting 

A. B. Stout 
New York Botanical Garden, New York City 



THE accompanying plate illus- 
trates two distinct sorts of fruits 
borne on an apple tree that has 
evidently never been top-grafted. The 
fruit shown at the right is typical of 
the King variety; the other is nearly 
identical with the fruits of the Rock- 
bury Russet. The two types of fruit 
are quite distinct in respect to size, 
color, character of skin, flavor, and 
texture, and the leaves of the branches 
bearing them are noticeably different 
especially as to size. 

The tree which bears these two 
kinds of foliage and fruits stands in 
the vicinity of Geneva, N. Y., in an 
orchard owned by Mr. T. D. Whitney. 
Mr. Whitney helped plant the tree in 
1862, has resided on the place ever 
since, and has for many years observed 
the dual nature of the tree.^ 

At the present time the tree is large 
and well developed and is about 30 
feet in height and in spread. Most 
branches bear the Russet fruits. About 
20 of the smaller branches bear King 
fruits and these branches are well 
scattered, being found among the tip 
branches of all of the large main divi- 
sions of the trunk. 

EVIDENCE OF THIS AS A CHIMERA 

The occurrence of two more or less 
distinct kinds of fruit on the same tree 
may be due to any one of three causes, 
as follows: (1) vegetative variation or 
bud sporting, (2) the usual consequence 
of top-grafting, or (3) an unusual and 
somewhat indirect result of grafting, 
which gives a plant in which the two 
kinds of cells belonging to stock and 
scion become associated together in 
the same branches, giving what is now 
known as a chimera. 



Dr. U. P. Hedrick, of the Geneva 
Experiment Station, is convinced that 
bud sporting has not occurred in the 
tree in question. He does not consider 
it probable that these two types of 
fruit which differ so widely in several 
characters can be so closely related as 
to be parent stock and bud sport. 

Mr. Whitney is positive that the 
tree was never top-grafted. His con- 
tinuous association with the orchard 
from the time of its planting to date, 
his wide knowledge of apples, and his 
definite recollection of this particular 
tree make this point seem certain. The 
scattering branches which bear King 
fruits have not grown from King scions 
that were grafted to branches of a 
Russet tree. 

CHIMERAL FRUITS FOUND 

Very definite evidence that the King 
branches arc not simple top-grafts is 
also seen in the chimeral fruits which 
are sometimes found. Such fruits have 
a segment that is King while the rest 
are Russet. These show that the two 
cells of the King and Russet varieties 
are associated together in single twigs, 
leaves and fruits. Such a combination 
has thus far not been produced as a 
direct result of grafting but chimeras 
of this class or rank very frequently 
occur in bud sports, they have now 
been produced experimentally, and 
they have also arisen incidentally as 
indirect products of grafting, giving 
what has frequently been called "mixed 
plants." 

Several cases of "mixed plants" have 
long been known to horticulturists and 
for many years these plants aroused 
much discussion as to their origin and 
nature. One of these is the Bizzaria or- 



^ The writer recently had the pleasure of visiting this interesting tree together with Dr. U. P. 
Hedrick, Mr. O. M. Taylor, and Mr. W. O. Gloyer, of the staff of the New York Experiment 
Station, all of whom shared in the observations recorded here. 



Stout: A Graft-Chimera in the Apple 



235 



ange which appeared in Florence, Italy 
about 1644. On some of its branches 
oranges are produced, on others citrons 
develop, and on other branches the 
fruits are part orange and part citron 
as shown en page 522 of Vol. 5 of this 
Journal (December, 1914). Another 
plant known as Cytisus Adami origin- 
ated in 1825 as a branch of a plant 
grown from a graft between Cytisus 
purpureus and Laburnum vulgare. 
Some branches of this plant are pure 
Cytisus purpureus, others are pure 
Laburnum vulgare, others are various 
mixtures of the two, and others bear 
leaves that are intermediate in charac- 
ter. Several types of plants are known 
which appear to be mixtures of the two 
species Crataegus monogyna and Mespi- 
lus germanica. All of these have been 
propagated vegetatively and have been 
objects of more than usual interest. 
How these plants originated has been 
a matter of no little discussion and 
speculation among botanists and horti- 
culturists. 

GRAFTING TO PRODUCE CHIMERAS 

The experimental production of 
chimeras in rather recent years has 
shown very clearly how such plants can 
arise incidentally through the practice 
of grafting. By a simple but ingenious 
arise incidentally through practice of 
grafting. By a simple but ingenious 
method of experimentation Dr. Wink- 
ler, now Director of the Botanical 
Garden at Hamburg, produced such 
plants under observation and control. 
He used the tomato and nightshade, 
two distinct and well-known species 
with marked differences in leaves, 
flowers and fruit. He made grafts, 
and when the scions were well estab- 
lished he decapitated the branches by 
cutting through the points of contact 
between scion and stock, thus exposing 
on the cut surface the two kinds of 
tissue and the lines of contact between 
them. On this surface a callus formed 
from which buds arose. If a bud arose 
entirely from the part that was night- 
shade the branch was nightshade only; 
if from tomato tissue the branch was 
pure tomato. If, however, a branch 



arose over the line of juncture it was 
composed partly of tomato and partly 
of nightshade tissue. 

TWO KINDS OF CELLS IN SAME BRANCH 

Such branches were called **chime- 
ras." The simpler of these show 
vertical lines of differentiation; one 
sector bears the leaves, flowers, and 
fruits of the tomato while the rest of 
the branch bears those of the night- 
shade. Such branches and the plants 
grown from them by vegetative propa- 
gation are called "sectoral chimeras.'* 
In such an association of two kinds of 
cells, each sort retains its own character 
and the leaves, flowers, and fruits of 
the two sectors are readily to be 
identified. 

Occasionally, however, branches 
arose which produced leaves, flowers 
and fruits that were intermediate or 
mixed in character. One of these 
(named Solanum tubingense) bears 
simple leaves like the nightshade but 
the leaves are more or less lobed and 
are hairy as the tomato. Another 
{Solanum proteus) resembles the to- 
mato more than the nightshade; the 
stems and leaves are hairy but the 
fruits are smaller than those of the 
tomato. Several types of intermediates 
were produced and for a time it was 
believed that these were true graft- 
hybrids resulting from the actual 
fusion of certain vegetative cells of the 
tomato and the nightshade in the 
region of contact in the graft. Later, 
however, a study of the internal and 
minute structure of the cells in these 
plants revealed that the two kinds of 
cells characteristic of the tomato and 
the nightshade are both present, and 
that one kind exists as one or more 
continuous layers covering the other 
kind. It was found that Solanum 
tubingense has one outside or periclinal 
layer of tomato cells covering a core of 
nightshade tissue and that S. proteus 
has two such periclinal layers. Other 
types of the intermediates have one or 
more outermost layers of nightshade 
cells covering tissue of the tomato. 
The plants were thus found to be 
periclinal chimeras. A photo of four 



236 



The Journal of Heredity 



of these intermediates or periclinal 
chimeras is shown in The Journal of 
Heredity, Vol. 5, No. 12, and an excel- 
lent discussion of how such chimeras 
are produced is there given. 

Similar study of Cytisus Adami and 
the Crataegus- Mespilus so-called graft- 
hybrids showed that they are also 
periclinal chimeras with one or more 
cell-layers of one species covering a 
body of cells of the other species. 

INTKRACTION OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF 

CELLS 

The rather intimate association of 
the cells of two different species in the 
same stem, leaf, flower, and fruit is 
especially interesting in view of the 
mutual interactions, mechanical and 
physiological, that may occur. The 
evidence indicates that the two kinds 
of cells remain independent in respect 
to their own hereditary' characteristics, 
but in the periclinal chimera they 
interact producing organs that are 
intermediate in character. Slight dif- 
ferences in the arrangement of the 
same two kinds of cells also produces 
vegetative and floral s ructures and 
fruits that are quite different in 
appearance. 

While the investigations indicate 
that the supposed graft-hybrids arc 
in nature only periclinal chimeras, the 
production of true graft-hybrid through 
a fusion of vegetative cells is still to 
be considered possible. In fact Dr. 
Winkler has presented evidence that 
this is the case in one adventitious 
branch that arose from a decapitated 
graft between the tomato and the 
nightshade. 

The production of sectoral and peri- 
clinal chimeras by experimenal means 
readilv shows how such branches can 
arise incidentally on plants grafted by 
the ordinary methods. New and 
adventitious buds may arise from the 
region of union between stock and 
scion, especially if the upper part of 
the scion dies. If such a bud arises 
over the line of contact it may develop 
as a chimera. Dr. W'inkler*s studies 
show that sectoral associations develop 
more frequently than do the periclinal. 



CHIMERAS THROUGH BUD SPORTING 

It should be noted that intra-varietal 
sectoral and periclinal chimeras fre- 
quently arise through bud sporting. 
Such partial bud sports have been 
described frequently in the pages of 
this jour 1 1, especially for such 
conspicuous cases as the loss of green 
color which is carried on into various 
new branches. 

Some of the albomaiginate types of 
variegated plants (of Pelargonium for 
example) are clearly periclinal associa- 
tions of green and white cells all of 
which belong to the particular variety. 
In the original sport, most probably, a 
single cell lost the ability to produce the 
green pigment and this cell was so 
placed in the growing point that its 
multiplication by division gave one or 
more layers of white cells. Once 
established the relative position of the 
white and the green cells was main- 
tained rather uniformly in the subse- 
quent development of branches. 

It is also to be noted that, in many 
sorts of variegated plants, though the 
pattern strongly simulates a chimeral 
arrangement, it is really due to physio- 
logical conditions affecting develop- 
ment of color in the leaf as a whole. 
In these the colored and colorless 
areas often cut across cell 1 avers or 
histogens. Much remains to be 
learned regarding the development of 
such local areas of infectious chlorosis, 
as well as the development of various 
patterns of anthocyanin coloration in 
flowers and foliage. 

PROBABLE ORIGIN OF THIS CHIMERA 

Mr. Whitney's tree bearing Russet 
and King fruits is evidently a chimera 
that has grown from a bud that arose 
on the line of contact between scion 
and stock, and is hence to be considered 
as a graft-chimera. Presumably a 
scion of King w^as grafted to the root 
of a seedling of the Russet in the 
method of ordinary nursery practice. 
At any rate the tree is clearly an inter- 
varietal chimera: some branches are 
composed of sectors of tissue of two 
varieties; lateral branches arising from 



Stout: A Graft-Chimera in the Apple 



237 



the sector of King are pure for King; 
those arising from the part that is 
Russet are pure for that variety, and 
those that happen to arise from the 
line of contact continue to be sectoral 
chimeras. It is possible that in some 
of the branches the two kinds of tissue 



are in periclinal relationship and that 
some fruits possess a skin of one 
variety and a core or body of the other. 
Rather careful examination of a large 
number of fruits by one competent to 
judge the flavor would be necessary to 
determine this point. 



A French Student of the Birth-Rate 



La Natalite, par Gaston Rageot, 
professeur agrege de philosophie. 
Pp. 296, prix f. 5.75. Paris, Biblio- 
theque de philosophie scientifique, 
Ernest F'lammarion, editeur, 1918. 

After discussing with clarity and 
relentless logic the various conceptions 
of the population problem that are 
current, Professor Rageot outlines ways 
in which he believes the French birth- 
rate can be increased. They are mostly 



in the direction of making family life a 
more prized privilege, either by edu- 
cation (creation of public sentiment), 
economic changes (e.g., inheritance of 
land), or political changes (less military 
service for fathers, extension of suffrage 
to women), and the like. While the 
constructive proposals contain nothing 
particularly new, the book as a whole 
is one of the most brilliant and pene- 
trating studies of the birth-rate that 
has ever been published. — P. P. 



Eugenics Made Easy 



The Racial Prospfxt, by Seth K. 
Humphrey. Pp. 261, price S2. New 
York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1920. 

Mr. Humphrey has rewritten his 
book "Mankind," reviewed in the 
Journal of Heredity in November, 1917, 
and has made of it an unusually suc- 
cessful presentation of the essentials of 
eugenics in the simplest terms. He 
offers no statistics, no pedigree-charts; 
instead he gives his readers the elemen- 
tary, yet vigorous and epigrammatic 
kind of writing that one expects to find 
in a newspaper editorial. It is a diffi- 
cult job to do well, but on the whole 
Mr. Humphrey has done it well; and 
it is worth while to have the problems 
of eugenics stated, for once at least, in 
kindergarten form. 

The author realizes that mere state- 
ment of the problem will not solve it; 



but his own solution is not up to the 
level of the rest of the book. In the 
last chapter he takes a look forward to 
the time when the lower 5% of the 
population will be segregated or steril- 
ized, while the hundreds of thousands 
of superior celibate women will become 
mothers by virtue of a state-organized 
system of artificial insemination. This 
sort of patent-medicine cure for the ills 
of society is not what will make eugen- 
ics prevail, and it is a pity that Mr. 
Humphrey, realist as he is, can not 
appreciate that human progress does 
not come by such simple expedients. 
The eugenic welfare of a nation is 
bound up with almost every manifes- 
tation of the nation's activity; and by 
hurdling over this fact Mr. Humphrey 
has fallen short of producing a book 
that could be commended without 
reservations. — P. P. 



BREEDING EARLESS SHEEP 



E. G. RlTZMAN 

N. H, Agricultural Experiment Station^ Durham 



FOUR years ago the writer re- 
ported^ a rather clear cut case of 
a simple Mendelian unit character 
governing the transmission of ear 
lergth ii shjep. 

The following extract from that 
article will explain the traits differ- 
entiating the unlike parental ear types. 

Short ears as referred to here are of a 
distinctive type with nearly straight lines 
running from the base and forming an abrupt 
sharp point. They are also somewhat thicker 
than the ordinary type of ear. The longest of 
these ears so far observed in a mature animal 
measure 7 cm. (2^ inches). Since no inter- 
mediate types either as to length, shape, or 



thickness have so far appeared, length as 
a character forms quite a distinctive con- 
trast between this type and that of Ram- 
bouillet ears, which measure about 11.5 cm. 
(43^ inches); Southdowns, which measure 
about 9.5 cm. (3Ji inches); and Shropshires 
and native, which measure about 10 cm. (4 
inches). In fact, all ordinary ear lengths 
observed among various breeds and types 
seem to run close around 10 cm. (4 inches). 

The results of the matings as shown 
by diagram were such that the short 
ear trait was accepted as a gametically 
pure parental unit character. S indi- 
cates short ear; L, long ear; offspring 
grouped one above the other indicate 
twins: 



First Cross 
Recessive X Dominant or Simplex 6 3Lx 9 69S 

Fi Offspring 



Matings 



9 127S+ 9 2228+ 9 254S Offspring 

Back Cross 
Recessive X Simplex 6 3L X 9 127S 6 361L X 9 127S Matings 



38 



Offspring 



6 255L+9 313S 
9 256S9 314S 



9 459L 
9 460L 



Offspring 38-3 L 



Extracted Recessive X Simplex 



Back Cross 

6 255LX9 1278 Matings 



1 



Offspring 



Simplex X Simplex 



6 422S 
6 423L 



Offspring 



IS-IL 



FiXF, 
6 422SX9 256S 6 422SX9 127S Matings 3 



Offspring 



9 573S+9 461S 
9 462L 



9 572S 



Offspring 3S-1L 



Although but a few individuals 
possessing the short ear trait had been 
bred, the result of the matings was so 
clear cut that further breeding was 
discontinued. 

Incidentally, however, the short ear 
trait was reintroduced through a ram,* 
No. 632, who was a son of No. 422 by 



a long-eared ewe.^ This ram was 
secured for the purpose of introducing 
a high twin potency into a flock of 
seven long-eared ewes kept for a 
study of this problem. 

These matings and offspring are 
shown in the following diagram (S 
indicating short ear, L, long ear) : 



* Ritzman, E. G. Mendelism of Short Ears in Sheep; Journ. Agrl. Research, Vol. VI, No. 20, 
August 14, 1916. 

* No. 632 was bred by Dr. C. B. Davenport of the Station for Experimental Evolution. 



Ritzman: Breeding Earless Sheep 



(Fig. 29.) (Fig. 30,) 

ORDraARY LONG-EARED SHEEP AND SHORT-EARED VARUTION 

Theramattheleft (6 3L) has ears of the usual length. The ewe at the right (9 127) shows a short- 
eared type which appeared as a mutation. This variation has behaved as an imperfectly domi- 
nant unit character since lis appearance. The homoiygous form is illustrated by the wholly ear- 
less sheep shown below. 



EARLESS SHEEP, FRONT AND SIDE VIEWS 
This ram ( 6 698), which wholly lacks external ears, was produced by mating two of the short- 
eared shee[) at the N. H. Experiment Station. It Is believed that the absence of ears is due to 
homozygosis In a factor which is responsible for the short-eared type when heterozygous. (Fig. 



240 



The Journal of Heredity 



Simplex X Recessive 



Back Cross 
6 632SX( 9 106L-h 9 486L-f 9 501L+ 9 559L 



Offspring (1917 crop) 



6 650S+ 9 651S-f 6 652L-f 6 654L 

6 653L 



Simplex X Recessive 6 632SX( 9 611L-f 9 623L-f 9 624L 



Offspring (1917 crop) 6 655S+ 6 656S-f 9 657S 

The result of these matings was five 
short and three long-eared individuals, 
the former being simplex and the latter 
pure recessive since they were derived 
from a simplex x recessive back cross. 
The following year, ram No. 650, a 

Back Cross 
Simplex X Recessive 6 650SX( 9 486L-}- 9 501L-f 9 559L-f 9 611L 



>■ — . 



Matings 



Offspring 5S-3L 



simplex offspring, was bred to the same 
list of ewes with the exception that ewe 
No. 616 replaced ewe No. 106, both 
pure recessives, with the result shown 
diagrammatically as follows: 



Offspring (1918 crop) 



6 658S-f- 6 659L-I- 9 661L-|- 9 662S 
6 660S 9 663S 



y= 



Matings 



Simplex X Recessive 6 650Sx ( 9 623L4- 9 624L+ 9 616L 



Offspring (1918 crop) 



9 664L-I-6 665L+6 666L 

9 667L 



Offspring 4S-6L 



As the character of the matings 
again represented a back cross of 
simplex x recessive the result was 
quite similar as, in the preceding 
year, and in fact the two seasons* crop, 
gave exactly the theoretical propor- 
tion to be expected from such a cross, 
namely, 9S -f 9L. 

The following year, No. 650 was 
bred to four ewes only. Three of these 
(486, 501, and 550), being pure reces- 
sives, dropped four ofTspring, two 
short and two long eared lambs, which 
again maintained the proportions of a 
simplex x recessive cross. 

SIMPLEX CHARACTER ESTABLISHED 

Out of a total of 32 offspring (in- 
cluding two out of No. 127 not shown in 
diagram) derived from a simplex x 
recessive cross, 16 were short ear and 
16 long ear. This remarkable agree- 
ment of results obtained actually with 
results expected theoretically estab- 
lishes beyond doubt the simplex char- 
acter. 

The interesting feature, however, 
developed from the mating between 
this simplex ram and ewe No. 651 



which was also a simplex, correspond- 
ing, therefore, to a mating inter se of 
Fi the result being a ram lamb No. 
698 which had no ears. 

EARLESS TYPE A PURE DOMINAXT 

Only four offspring from simplex x 
simplex matings had been obtained 
before and these gave the proportion 
3S:1L. While the short ear was 
formerly accepted as the somatic 
expression of the pure dominant and of 
the heterozygote, assuming complete 
dominance, it now seems clear that the 
pure dominant is somatically earless 
and the heterozygote, showing only 
imperfect dominance, is short eared. 
In other words, if a single dose for 
repressing ear length is present the 
ear is approximately half normal 
length but if two such doses come 
together the ear is entirely eliminated. 

In this we have a clear-cut case of a 
heterozygous combination that can be 
easily distinguished from the homozy- 
gous dominants and recessives, and it 
forms a rather striking example of the 
"presence and absence hypothesis" 
of Correns,' Bateson,* and Hurst.* 



* Correns, C. 1912, Die Neuen Vererbungsgesetze. Gebruder Borntrae^, Berlin. 

* Bateson, W. 1909. Mendel's Law of Heredity. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 

* Hurst, C. C. Experiments with Poultry. Rep. Evol. Committee Roy. Soc. 1905, II. p. 131. 

* Hurst, C. C. Experimental Studies on Heredity in Rabbits. Linn. Soc. Journ. Zool. 1905, 
xxix. p. 283. 



The 



Journal of Heredity 

(Formerly the American Breeders* Magazine) 



Vol. XI, No. 6 July-August, 1920 



CONTENTS 

The Reindeer Industry in Alaska, by G. J. Lomen 243 

The Herald— A New Type of Prune, by L. R. Detjen 253 

Race Assimilation by the Pure-Sire Method, by Harry H. Laughlin 259 

The Tree Dahlia of Guatemala, by Wilson Popenoe 265 

Chlorophyll Factors of Maize, by E. W. Lindstrom 269 

Mutations in Mucors, by Albert F. Blakeslee 278 

A Random Test in the Theory of Protective Coloration, 

by Frederick Adams Woods 284 



The Journal of Heredity is published by the American Genetic Associa- 
tion for the benefit of its members. Canadian members who desire to receive it should 
send 25 cents a year, in addition to their regular membership dues of $3.00, because of 
additional postage on the magazine: foreign members pay 50 cents extra for the same 
reason. Subscription price to non-members, $3.00 a year, foreign postage extra; 
price of single copies, 25 cents. 

Application has been made for entry as second-class matter at the postoffice 
at Menasha, Wisconsin. Contents copyrighted 1920 by the American Genetic As- 
sociation. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles permitted only upon request, 
for a proper purpose, and provided due credit is given to author and to the Journal 
OF Heredity (Organ of the American Genetic Association), Washington, D. C. 

Date of issue of this number, February 5, 1921 



THE REINDEER INDUSTRY 

IN ALASKA 

In a Region Not Favorable to the Introduction of Cattle and Sheep, a Great 

Domestic Animal Industry is Being Built with Reindeer, Furnishing 

Food, Clothing and Labor to the People of the Far North 

G. J. Lomp:n, LL.B. 
Nome, Alaska 



OUR national holiday, July 4th. 
1892, auspiciously marked the 
beginning of the reindeer in- 
dustry in Alaska. On that day, and 
for ten years thereafter, domestic 
reindeer to the total number of 1280 
were imported by the Government, all 
of them from Siberia. Those imported 
from Norway were not breeders. The 
former were primarily imported for 
the relief and industrial education of 
the natives, the Eskimos; the latter 
were intended for the relief of starv^ing 
miners at Circle City. 

These imported reindeer have in- 
creased and multiplied most satisfac- 
torily. From the small beginning 
above mentioned, they now number 
at least 200,000, notwithstanding the 
fact that about 100,000 have been 
killed for food and skins. At the 
present ratio of increase Alaska should 
have 10,000,000 reindeer in less than 
twenty years. 

The ownership of the domestic 
reindeer of Alaska is held in the 
following proportions: About one thou- 
sand Eskimos own seventy percent; 
Lomen & Company (Inc.), ten percent; 
the Government, four percent; Mis- 
sions, Lapps and others, sixteen per- 
cent. The ownership is designated by 
various earmarks. The general super- 
vision of the industry, so far as the 
natives are concerned, lies with the 
Bureau of Education. 

the^reindeer's characteristics and 

HABITS 

A brief review of the present status 
of the industry and a descriptjbaof the 
species, the habits and characteristics 
of the animal will, it is hopedf 6e of 



interest to the readers of The Journal 
of Heredity. 

Until recently the reindeer industry 
has attracted but little attention, and 
little is known of the animal except in 
the far North; and yet the reindeer 
is the most widely distributed mammal 
in the world. Its habitat is circum- 
polar, embracing the tundras or bar- 
rens of the far North, and to a large 
extent the wooded districts farther 
south — a territory far exceeding in size 
all of Europ>e. Fossil remains show 
that the reindeer were once indigenous 
to latitudes farther south than at 
present. 

The reindeer is the only member of 
the deer family that has been domesti- 
cated. This domestication, however, 
is limited in degree as compared with 
that of our other domestic animals. 
The reindeer remain in a semi-wild 
state, except those that are especially 
and more thoroughly tamed and 
trained for sled, draft or lead deer. To 
catch the animal it is generally neces- 
sary to use the lasso. Corrals and 
shutes are also used for this purpose, 
especially in the ''marking season.*' 

The caribou, the wild reindeer of 
North America, was never domesti- 
cated. An effort to domesticate them 
will, no doubt, be made in the near 
future; at least an effort will be made 
to cross them with domestic reindeer. 

LITTLE care NECESSARY 

Unlike other domestic animals the 
reindeer does not depend on man for 
food or shelter. In winter the reindeer 
feeds almost exclusively on mosses, 
especially the reindeer moss, Cladonia 
rangiferina, the nutritive qualities of 



Lomen: The Reindeer Industry in Alaska 



A CROSS BETWEEN A REINDEER AND NATIVE CARSOU 

It if .1 plfjisiire for ihc njilivt'M to drive thf rt-imlecr. cspeiially iri rjiring. A span of thest animals 
is said to hmv made (fit miles in lwenty-eiKh( minutes. The animal here shown was photographi-d 
lit the start at a ten iiiilu Dire. It is fifteen years of age, antl is a cross littweeii a reindeer and an 
Alaskan raribuu -onvof the finest iipn'imvns to liciiecn in the mirth euuntry for sixr and syn1mct^^' 
lit NhIv. This illustrates the urcat |xissibilitics for iniprnvinit the uninmls liy crossing with the 
(-arilM)ii. Photograph by l.onien Dros. {t'lfi. 4.) 



antlors are full grown. Thuii it is that 
mating time — the rut — boKins. Tho 
rc-itHk-cr are unique in that the antlers 
are amimon to both sexes, though 
slightly smaller in the female. The ant- 
lers are shed annually, grtiwn up males 
shecldiiii; theirs before the fawning 
season, the females after that time, 
and then the fawns. This is providen- 
tial and enables the weaker to protert 
themselves against the stron[;er, during 
the nurture of the young. The antlers 
are a protection, also, to the eyes of 
if a net-work of the animaUluring tlieirdtiels, and when 
hich supply nutriment raring through underbrush. It 



not allogether round, but partially 
flattened; in pluies they are nearly 
three cornered. The Iwains curve 
upwarils and forwards and are sur- 
mounted with slightly palmated tines 
or pnmgs. They are supplied with 
brow as well as ln.-Kfinos. The antlers 
consist of nearly homogeneous ti.ssue, 
lighter and more porous than ordinarj- 
bone. During their growth the antlers 
are enclosed in a soft membrane, which 
is covered with a velvety fur; they are. 
then, siiid to be "in the vcl "" ' 

membrane cons 
blocKl vessels 



ii the antlers. The antlers are claimed 
to be secondary "sexual characters." 
When the velvet has jjeeled off, in the 
months_of &ptcmtwr and Octol)er, ihj 



ibtful if dehorning would 
advantageous, but exjXTinients are 
being made. The size, form and comli- 
tion of the antlers detemiine the 



250 



The Journal of Heredity 



and soft mossy tundras where it fre- 
quents. The hoofs proper, on account 
of the great spread of the toes, further 
assist to support it. 

The olfactory powers of the animal 
enable it to detect the mosses on which 
it feeds, however much buried under 
the snow; and its strong legs and sharp 
hoofs enable it to uncover the food. 

THE reindeer's HOMING INSTINCT 

The animal's power of orientation is 
remarkable. It i^w(?7f5 its pastures and i^s 
range, its home, and, like a homing pige- 
on, while it does not fly, "treks" back to 
its range when removed therefrom, 
unless restrained by watchful herding, 
or, until it becomes familiar with its 
new environments — acclimated, so to 
speak. The latter takes a year or more. 

When walking the reindeer produces 
a peculiar crackling sound, occasioned 
by sinews just above the fetlock. 
Many have ascribed this sound to the 
clicking of the toes of the animal; 
others, to a small bone above the quick 
of the hoof. This sound, as well as an 
oily substance that exudes from a gland 
between the toes of the animal, are 
thought to be a system of sound and 
scent signals. The Lapps claim that 
the reindeer "oils its horns" with the 
exudations of the gland and can "shape 
the antlers." It is indeed often seen to 
rub its horns with one of its hind hoofs. 
This is, however, probably due to a i 
itching sensation produced by develop- 
ing tines, and not an oiling or shaping 
process. 

The call of the reindeer is a peculiar 
grunt or bark, difficult to represent 
orthoepically; perhaps "uhrrr," pro- 
nounced gutturally and with a quick 
expulsion of the breath, would answer. 
This call is continually heard in a large 
herd while the fawrs are young — the 
mother calling the fawn or vice-versa. 
It is also heard when the buck is calling 
or belling the doe. 

The pelage of the reindeer is such as 
to protect the animal from freezing in 
the most inclement weather or cold. 
However, sudden and extreme cold, 
after a rain, or after a thaw, is a severe 
test, and is often disastrous, especially 



to the young animals. Such weather 
conditions often cause the starvation of 
large numbers, because of the icy 
coating and crust it produces, encasing 
or covering the mosses. 

WIDE NATURAL RANGE NECESSARY 

On account of the apparent neces- 
sity for a change- of food, and to avoid 
the fly and mosquito pests, the rein- 
deer, in summer, seek new pastures, 
preferably the sea shore, but also high 
altitudes. They also seek sheltered 
fawning places. In feeding they travel 
long distances, nibbling as they go. 
Thus, their natural range necessarily 
becomes extensive. Close herding, too, 
is detrimental to the animal and to the 
pasturage. 

SCIENTIFIC BREEDING EXPERIMENTS TO 
BE UNDERTAKEN 

The reindeer of Alaska have suffered 
somewhat from inbreeding, due to the 
difficulties of supplying new blood. 
Now, that Congress has appropriated 
funds for the establishment (by the 
Bureau of Biological Survey, Dr. E. W. 
Nelson, Chief) of an Experimental 
Station at or near Unalakleet, Alaska, it 
is hoped that this difficulty will, in part, 
be ov^ercome by the crossing of reindeer 
with caribou, importation of new stock 
and an interchange of bucks among the 
herds. It is also hoped that greater 
attention will be directed toward re- 
lieving the animals of disease and pests 
that afflict or infest them, and that 
measures will be taken to cause the ex- 
termination or control of predatory 
animals that kill or injure them. These 
are especially bears, wolves, lynx and 
eagles. Dr. Nelson's assistants. Dr. 
Seymour Hadwin and Mr. L. J. Palmer, 
are already on the ground, and find a 
large field for discovery and experi- 
ment. Their report will surely be 
interesting. 

The reindeer is used for food, cloth- 
ing and transportation. It has been 
said of the animal that "it is valuable to 
the last hair." It is rare sport to drive 
the animal. In racing, a span of rein- 
deer has made ten miles in twenty- 
seven to twenty-eight minutes. 




CLOTHING FOR THE NATIVES 
t intrcKluccH into Al.iska lo assist the niitivc-s lo beriimi.- self-supporting, and the 
pcuplt uf the far north with food, clothing an<l transportation. Trained 
veterinarians and animal huslKindmen are needi-d to study and adviso methods o( control o( 
reindeer diseases and to teach the Eskimos how lo maintain their herds and improve thequalily 
of the stock. I'holograjih !>>■ I.onien Bros, iKig, 9.) 



THE HERALD'— NEW TYPE OF PRUNE 

L. R. Detjen 
Delaware College and Agricultural Experiment Station, Newark 



THK commercial prune which is 
now grown so abundantly in the 
Pacific Northwest finds its origin 
in a group of European plums collec- 
tively known as Prunus domestica. 
No other species or group of plums, so 
far as the writer is aware, has ever b ?- 
fore produced fruit that might properly 
be termed a prune. A variety, however, 
has receitly been discovered which 
seems to disclaim all specific relation- 
ship with any of the European species. 
It presumably originated from one of 
the native American species, probably 
from that of Prunus munsoniana 
(Wight and Hedrick) and, notwith- 
standing this fact, it dries, cures and 
keeps indefinitely. Fresh specimens of 
fruit of this Herald prune, gathered on 
July 7, 1916, were laid away in the lab- 
oratory in cloth bags, and later, when 
air-dried, they were placed in a bottle 
with a tight-fitting cork stopper. Here 
they are today, after a period of three 
and one-half years, in as good condition 
as when first stored. The aroma from 
this fruit is pleasant and not unlike that 
of the common commercial product. 

The original tree of the Herald 
variety was discovered in 1916 growing 
in the garden of Mr. W. F". Marshall 
of Raleigh, N. C, under the name of 
Milton plum. That is the name under 
which the owner had purchased the 
tree five or six years earlier from the 
Stark Bros. Nursery, Louisiana, Miss. 
The tree apparently belongs to the 
Prunus munsoniana species, of which 
the Milton is said to be a variety. It 
was critically studied for signs of hy- 
bridity with Prunus domestica, but no 
such traces, outside of the prune 
character, were observed. The variety 
seems to have originated from the 
native American species without any 
trace of foreign blood; and this is the 
most interesting feature of its account. 



GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE 
VARIETY 

In habit of growth the tree is spread- 
ing and has all of the bark, leaf, bud 
and flower characteristics pertaining to 
the Wild Goose group of plums. The 
fruit taken from the original tree meas- 
ures from 30 to 35 mm. in length and 
28 mm. in width. In general, it might 
be said to be oblong in shape and bright 
red in color, with a light coat of blue 
bloom. The dots are large, white and 
very numerous. The flesh is yellow, 
soft, juicy, sweet, and clings tenaciously 
to the pit. The stem, unlike that of 
other native species, clings to both 
branch and fruit, which fact prevents 
the latter from dropping to the ground 
as soon as ripe. The fruits on the tree 
are not crowded but hang free in the 
sunshine and wind, where they shrivel 
and dry naturally, after which they can 
be easily gathered and thoroughly 
cured indoors. 

The pits from the original tree meas- 
ure about 20 mm. in length, 12 to 14 
mm. in width and 8 to 9 mm. in thick- 
ness. The surface is smooth and their 
shape is that of typical prune pits, that 
is, with one of the edges depressed and 
the other more rounded. All of the 
above measurements and descriptions 
are of the original tree and fruits. A 
remarkable diflference was noted in the 
fruit taken from scions top-grafted to 
another species of plum, Prunus angus- 
tifolia. 

COMPARISON OF HERALD PRUNE WITH 

MILTON PLUM 

In the spring of 1917, scions from the 
original Herald prune tree were pro- 
cured, and top-grafted 6 feet high to a 
Prunus angustifolia tree. Scions of the 
Milton variety of plum were also se- 
cured during the same year from the 



* This new variety I have named the "Herald" because, although utterly worthless in itself 
as a prune, it may be the forerunner heralding a new strain for eastern America. 



BRANCH OP HERALD PRUNE TREE IN PULL BLOOM 
The original tree of Ihis variety »as discovered in a garden in Raleigh, North Carolina, growing 
under [he name of Milton plum — thu name by uhirh the ou ner had purchased it in Louisiana six 
years before. Study of its prune characteristics gives evidence that it originated from native 
American species. (Photograph rmluced.l iFig. II,) 




%i 



« 



w 



• 



FRUITS OP THE HERALD PRUNE 
Nus. 1 untl .larcnitlo vkwsi>( Herald iiruncHlhri-uiinil unu-hnlf yc<irs old. No. 2 shows one <jS the 
pruncR rut Irngthwise to ircimjxin- thi- size of xhi- pii nith the amount of tifsh. Son. 4 iin<l 7 
show the halves uf the pnini' when cut Ir.iiiKiL'rsicly. Nus. 5 and 6 itrc two typkal pita of the 
HeraUl variety. No. N shows tht pit of n Hi-rald prune when liip-Braftetl to Primus aiiguilifoKa 
Mock, unil NiM. '' iinri It) ^ire tvpii-^il pits from the Prunu.t itngiisti folia stix'k, naturul >\t.v. Note 
the inlennediiiti; si/e Ivlwi'i-n Sus. .S ^ind (i and 9 u[ul II). \y\^, 12 j 



256 



The Journal of Heredity 



BRAKCH OF THE HERALD PRUNE WITH TWO DRIED FRUITS 

The fruits do not readily drop to the ground when 



This branch was taken from (he original trci 
ripe, but cling to the branches where they are 
Pholonraph reduced. (Fig. 1.'.) 

Indiana Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
tion, through the courtesy of Prof . H. J. 
Reed, and top-worked for the sake of 
comparison to the identical Prunus an- 
guslifolia tree. Ever>' graft of both 
varieties grew and later produced fruit. 
It was soon noticed that the Herald 
prune is a less vigorous grower, and 
this is verified hy numerous trees on 
similar stock root-grafted during the 
same season. The leaves are somewhat 
smaller both in length and width, the 
bark is more brown, even on the under 
or shady side of the branch, and the 
fruit buds develop more abundantly on 
the new wood. The flowers on Herald 
scions, which were forced in water in 
the greenhouse, as well as those that 
were produced in 1918 and 1919 on the 
top-worked tree, show quite a distinct 
difference from those of the Milton 
variety that were similarly forced and 
grown. The limb of the corolla of the 
Milton flower measures on the average 
about 13 mm. while that of the Herald 
flower measures 17 mm. The individ- 
ual petals of the latter also show cor- 
respondingly increased measurements. 
A heavy frost occurring on March 
10, 1918, destroyed most of the flowers 
of both varieties and, of those that 
escaped, many were destroyed by cur- 



I'ded, and they drj* n 



rally i 



lal 



culio injury. However, one 
prune and six normal plums were se- 
cured, and from these the following 
comparisons were made. Five of the 
Milton variety were ripe and had 
droppe<i on June 16, with their stems 
remaining attached to the tree, while 
the last of sixth fruit ripened and 
dropped as late as June 29. The Herald 
variety ripened its fruit with the fruit 
of the Milton plums, but clung to the 
tree and had begun to shrivel when the 
last of the Milton variety dropped, and 
then it actually had to be detached. 
The plums soon deteriorated in the lab- 
oratory while the prune shriveled and 
cured easily. The fruits of both varie- 
ties are practically the same in color 
and consistency. The plums are 

slightly longer than they are broad, 
while the prunes arc more oblong in 
shape. The dots on the plum are de- 
cidedly more numerous on the upper 
half, while on the prune they are 
distributed quite uniformly all over the 
fruit. Both varieties are of the cling- 
stone type, but the pit of the prune is 
larger in all dimensions than^that of 
the plum. The Herald prune scions 
seem to make an uncongenial union 
with Prunus angustifolia, for the entire 
lot of those that were top-worked — six 



FRUITS FKOM THE ORIGINAL HERALD PRUNE TREE 
t is ripe ;inil turttid like a plum in its |. 
nc. The two ctntral fniils show londil 



BRANCH FROM ORIGINAL HERALD PRUNE TREE 
The fruits arc scattered over the tree and hang free to dry naturally in the sunshine and wind. 
Note that the outermost fruit at the right is turgid and ripe while the two fruits to the left of it are 
beyond the phim stage and have begun to shrivel. (Fig. 15.) 



258 



The Journal of Heredity 



in all — had but a brief existence and 
died while blooming in the spring of 
1919. They died for no other apparent 
reason than that of uncongeniality of 
stock, while all of the Milton plum 
s ions, a!so six i i number, seems rs 
vigorous today as ever. Even this 
brief comparison would readily in- 
dicate the two samples of fruit are of 
distinctly different varieties. 

THE EFFECT OF STOCK ON SCIOX 

It will be of general interest to note 
at this time what effect a different 
stock, e. ^., Prunus angustifolia, exerts 
on the Herald variety of prune, and 
undoubtedly a similar effect might be 
observed on other varieties of plums 
and prunes when so united. The fruit 
from the top- worked tree measures 
5 mm. less in length and 4 mm. less 
in width than that from the original 
tree. Th * pit also lacks 3 mm. i i 
length, 1 mm. in width and a fractioi 
of a millimeter in thickness. Its sur- 
face is velvety, like that of the pits of 
the Prunus angustifolia sF>ecies, while 
the surface of the pits from fruits taken 
from the original tree is hard and less 
velvety. Again, the characteristic 
prune-shaped pit is much less pro- 
nounced; in fact, it greatly resembles 
those of the Primus angustifolia sp.cies. 

As the original Herald prune tree 
was purchased for the Milton variety of 
plum from a reliable nursery, and as no 
such prune variety had knowingly been 
propagated by that nurser>% one is led 



to believe that a mutation arising front 
the native Prunus monsoniana species 
has occurred. The tree is sup[X)sed to 
be budded stock, but whether this is 
true or whether the bud died in the 
nursery and a root mutation has actu- 
ally occurred — in other words, whether 
the tree is growing on its own roots or 
on those of another variety — cannot be 
determined at this time. The most 
interesting feature of this variety seems 
to be that a true prune, one that will 
dry on the tree and cure perfectly with- 
out removing the pit, although of no 
commercial value as a prune, has 
developed from one of our native 
American species of plums. 

Great as our interest may be in such 
a discovery, it must be remembered, of 
course, that this particular variety, be- 
cause of its soft texture and juicy flesh, 
cannot be expected to compete with 
any of those of the commercial prune, 
i. e., of the Prunus domestica species. 
Not until a great amount of work has 
been done in hybridizing this new 
Herald prune with the better com- 
mercial sorts can we hope to be re- 
warded by virtue of such a discovery'. 
In the south, where the Prunus domes- 
tica species cannot easily be grown 
because of climatic conditions and fun- 
gus diseases, this late blooming and 
apparently highly resistant native 
prune might be utilized in hybridization 
work to make possible the growing of a 
new strain of prune for eastern Amer- 
ica. 



A Contribution to Eugenics 



Personal Beauty and Racial 
Betterment, by Knight Dunlap. 
professor of experimental psychology 
in the Johns Hopkins Hospital, 
Baltimore. Pp. 95, price $1. St. 
Louis, C. V. Mosby Co., 1920. 

True personal beauty is the best 
single guide to sound sexual selection, 
according to Professor Dunlap; and he 
develops this point with plausible in- 
genuity, although without any statisti- 



cal basis. The second part of the book 
is an essay on applied eugenics. Dr. 
Dunlap does not favor sterilization^ 
does favor segregation, and believes 
much could be accomplished by proper 
propaganda of birth-control. 

The book is filled with interesting 
and penetrating ideas, with most of 
which eugenists will agree. It is written 
simply and readably, and is worth 
reading. It deserves to be very widely 
circulated. — P. P. 



RACE ASSIMILATION BY THE 

PURE-SIRE METHOD 

Harry H. Laughlix, Sc.D. 
Assistant Director, Eugenics Record Office 



WHILE it has been demonstrated 
to the satisfaction of students of 
pedigrees that in most species 
the ancestral contributions of the dam 
and the sire are about equal, still on 
account of physiological and social 
considerations the pure-sire method 
is much more potent than a possible 
pure-dam method would be in race 
improvement. The principal reason is 
that physiologically the reproductive 
capacities of the race are limited, not 
by the number of fertile sires, but by 
the number of fertile dams. But in the 
human race almost equally potent is 
this social or mate-selection factor 
whereby the wom n of the lower races 
usually show a preference for men of 
higher racial levels. Furthermore the 
mores of most states cast less social 
obloquy upon the fathers than upon 
the mothers of an illegitimate child, and 
similarly less reproach is directed 
toward a legitimate mating between a 
man belonging to a **high'* race and a 
woman of "inferior'* blood than toward 
the reverse type of marriage. 



RACE-xMIXTURE IX EARLY 

AMERICA 



SPANISH- 



In historic times we have interesting 
examples of race improvement or 
assimilation by a process which is 
quite analogous to the pure-sire method 
with which we are familiar in the 
animal kingdom. In the early days 
of Spanish America, there were many 
more men than women who came from 
the mother country and settled in the 
new world. The result was that there 
began almost immediately a process 
of race-mixture which was quite lacking- 
in the regions settled by the northern 
European colonists. In the latter case 
the immigration to the new world con- 
sisted largely of colonists and their 
families who came into a comparatively 
unsettled country in search of new 



homes, whereas in the case of Spain, 
the conquistadors — armies of men alone 
— came seeking wxalth, adventure and 
colonial possessions. 

From the social side, we find in the 
new world this situation: the average 
Spaniard, or man with considerable 
Spanish blood, would of necessity, on 
account of the scarcity of Spanish 
women, have to remain a bachelor or 
marry a wife with less Spanish blood 
()!i the average, than he himst^lf carried. 
The result was, from the standpoint of 
the Spaniard, that his offspring were of 
less pure Spanish descent, while from 
the standpoint of the native Indian or 
imported negro, the offspring were of a 
decidedly higher racial level. 

EFFICACY OF THE PURE-SIRE METHOD 

It appears that a man with "a touch'' 
of Indian or negro blood could return 
to Spain with his Spanish father and 
enter Spanish society much more 
readily than could a daughter with 
Indian or colored blood. The process 
of race assimilation by the pure-sire 
method became so common in Latin 
America that there developed a definite 
system of nomenclature^ for describing 
the products of each particular genera- 
tion of offspring. The accompanying 
pedigree-chart shows this process in 
detail, and attention is called to the 
sureness with which race assimilation 
is achieved by clinging to the pure-sire 
method, whereas in case this system is 
dropped, confusion results and a mixed 
race is the product. 

The efficacy of the pure-sire method 
is doubly assured when we remember 
that in man, as in other animals, the 
germ-plasm is not indefinitely dilut- 
able, but segregates into chromosomes 
which in their entirety (barring cross- 
ing-over) either do or do not pass from 
a given ancestor to the offspring. 
We shall not go into this matter here, 



» J. Deniker, The Races of Man, 1913, p. 542. 



<3 



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I 

I 



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93 



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Laughlin: Race Assimilation by the Pure-Sire Method 261 






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ar^i^. 



vw«t tlmi^i'^tt f m w hi 



birth) • 



M. 



Fig. 17 






J^fiojkw^n. 



Pedigree Chart from "four Morsemen of the /f/focalypseC by VincerOt Bkzco Ibaifez, 



but we know that on the average one 
out of every 4,096 human beings that 
we see has entirely eliminated the 
ancestral chromosomes of his or her 
mother's mother, and one out of 2,048 
his or her father's mother.- In such 
cases there is not even a *' touch" of 
that particular grandparent's * 'blood" 
remaining. It requires just as many 
generations of pure-sire assimilation to 
eliminate the **blood" of an ancestor 
of one race as of another; for example, 
it would take just as long for a mixed 
**pass-f or- English" family to "breed- 
out" its French or its German ancestry 
as it would to rid itself of its negro or 
Chinese **blood.'* But practically, be- 
cause of the many basic qualities 
common to closely related races, the 
apparent racial assimilation is, in such 
cases, often completed in one or two 
generations. In these cases some 
foreign **blood" persists, but it is **not 
so very foreign," so that if supported by 
social assimilation, the transfusion, for 
all practical purposes, is quite complete. 

A novelist's illustration 

Vicente Blasco Ibanez claims (and 
his claim is generally credited) that 
in his novels he portrays social and 
scientific facts in a much more reliable 
manner than the ordinary imaginative 



novelist uses. In "The Four Horsemen 
of the Apocalypse"' he gives the story 
of a Spanish-American family which, by 
the pure-sire method, "bred up" the 
desce:dants of a half-breed Indian 
woman ("The China"), first to Argen- 
tinians; then through one daughter, by 
marriage with a Frenchman, we find in 
one more generation children "passing- 
for-French," and through the second 
daughter, who married a German, von 
Hartrott, the children "pass-for-Ger- 
man." The pedigree-chart diagramming 
this family is given in this article not 
l)ecause it is a pedigree of an actual 
family, but because it is a type-pedigree 
on which history, sociology and an- 
thropology place the stamp of accu- 
racy. A writer with wild rather than a 
constructive imagination, and with less 
knowledge of history for a background, 
would not have built his story on a 
pedigree so typical of the true situa- 
tion. 

JEWS MIX WITH other RACES 

But whenever two races come into 
close contact for a long period of years, 
race-mixture is certain to result. Even 
the Jews,* who claim to have preserved 
a certain racial purity from ancient 
times, are found to mix with the people 
of each territory which they occupy. 



* Harry H. Laughlin, Calculating Ancestral Influence in Man: A Mathematical Measure of 
the Demonstrated Facts of Bi-Sexual Heredity. In press in "Genetics." 

' Vicente Blasco Ibanez, The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (Fiction). American trans- 
lation 1918. 

* Redcliffe N. Salaman, M. D., Heredity in the Jew. The Eugenics Review, pp. 187-200, Vol. 
Ill, 1911-12. 



The Journal of Heredity 




'^* BK- *M* «ye«. 
BL-OI-* '■/•%. 

X- SA<i* X^**" *>V*' 

"[n (he family-tree here plotted, 
Jewish blood, nnd two with no Je 



/f Jamaican- Jewish Rimify. 

(wo persons ol half-Jewish blood, Ihree of oi 
latall," (Fig. 18.1 



ish blood al 



Thus we s|x;ak of German-Jews, or 
even of Chinese-Jews.* In each case 
the so-called Jew presents a mixture of 
those traits which wc think of as 
typically Jewish with those of the race 
among which the particular Jewish 
strain is living. Thus we must think of 
the Jews as an institution and a society 
as well as a race. Their racial traits 
may constitute the principal back- 
ground of Judaism, but that is not the 
whole story. 

In the accompanying picture of a 
Jamaican family is found a case of 

' Maurice Fishberg, The Jews, 1911, p. 1,U. 



Negro-Jews. In the family-tree here 
plotted, there are two persons of half- 
Jewish blood, three of one-quarter 
Jewish blood, and two with no Jewish 
blood at all. The observer can, if he 
be keen, locate in the picture those 
with and those without Jewish blood. 
This particular family, due doubtless 
to the infusion of Jewish traits, was 
much more successful socially and 
economically than the average Jamai- 
can family with an equivalent propor- 
tion of other but less socially compe- 
tent white blood. 



Himtu Coolie 

a. w - 



A'Sajmba' 



ONE TYPE OF RACE MIXTURE IN JABfAICA. B. 
(School Children in (he Town of Moneagiie.l See Ihe lext below for ex 



BLENDING Ol" RACIAL TRAITS 

Another picture here shown is of 
three children from a school in a 
Jamaican town. The lK)y to the left 
is a Hindu* coolie with no negro blofxi 
in his veins, although his skin is as 
black as that of the average quarter- 
bkx^d negro. His features, howe\er, do 
not disclose any negroid traits. The 
boy to the right is a "Samtx),"' that is 
of three-quarters black and one-quarter 
white blood. The little girl in the 
centre is descended from a Hindu 
coolie father and a "Sambo" mother. 
Here we sec racial traits blending. 
This blend is especially noticeable in 
the hair, the nose and the lips. So 
potent is the pure-sire* method of race 
assimilation that should this girl, her 
daughters and her granddaughters 
marry Hindu co lies, doubtless the 
racial transformation would be com- 
plete in that direction; or if, on the 
other hand, she and her daughters and 



granddaughters were to marry "Jamai- 
cans," the assimilation of her descend- 
ants by the latter race would l)e equally 
complete. 

CONCLUSION 

The data given in this article are iso- 
lited but th y rre representative facts 
from the mass of anthropological evi- 
dence which demonstrates the general 
fact that whenever two races come into 
intimate contact the upper race tends 
to remain pure while the lower tends 
toward assimilation into the upper, by 
the pure-sire system. Thus the expres- 
sion "the salvation of a great nation is 
the virtue of its women" is true racially 
aswell as socially and morally. So long 
as the basic instincts and the social 
ideals of mankind remain as they are 
today, and have lieen since man first 
appeared, racial evolution and assimi- 
lation will tend toward the race-types 
of men which the woinen of the par- 
ticular nation choose as mates. 



' On March 31, 1918 there were 20,206 East India 
n principally to work on the sugar plantations. 
' Chas. B. Davenport, Heredity of Skin Color ii 



I immigrant 



rja, 



They are brought 



THE TREE DAHLIA OF GUATEMALA 

Wilson Popenoe 
Agricultural Explorer, United States Department of Agriculture 



RIDING through the Guatemalan 
highlands in the months of De- 
cember or January, the traveler 
is certain to be impressed with the 
beauty of the wild tree dahlia whose 
starry, lilac-pink flowers, in graceful 
clusters upon long slender stems, break 
the somber monotony of a dark green 
hillside in a most efTective manner. 
And as he enters one of the picturesque 
Indian villages of the highlands, particu- 
larly if he be so fortunate as to find him- 
self in the town of Tactic, he is sure to 
be enchanted by the flowering hedges 
of this plant which surround the di- 
minutive gardens of the people. 

SUITABLE FOR SUB-TROPICAL AREAS 

Why has not the Guatemalan tree 
dahlia become more widely known 
horticulturally? A plant at once so 
beautiful, so conspicuous in its native 
home, and so readily propagated should 
be one of the first to be carried to other 
lands; yet Dahlia tnaxoni (such is the 
n me under which the species is now 
known) seems never to have become 
widely distributed. Probably this is 
due to the fact that its climatic require- 
ments fit it for cultivation only in the 
mildest parts of the sub-tropics, or in 
the tropics at elevations sufficiently 
high to temper the heat. When planted 
in northern gardens, it is cut down by 
frost before it has had an opportunity 
to come into flower, though in favored 
situations in southern California it has 
occasionally bloomed gorgeously. In 
Florida, if the proper soil conditions 
can be provided, it should prove suc- 
cessful. And certainly there are many 
places in northern India, in southern 
Japan, in sub-tropical Brazil, and 
numerous other countries where it 
would find congenial surroundings, and 
where it would prove an excellent ad- 
dition to the list of garden plants. 

To the Kekchi Indians of northern 
Guatemala, this dahlia is known as 
tzolokh, while those who speak the 



Pokonchi language call it shikor. Span- 
ish-speaking Guatemalans usually term 
it Santa Catarina. Though extremely 
abundant, both wild and cultivated, in 
many parts of the Guatemalan high- 
lands (principally between 3,000 and 
7,000 feet elevation) it seems never to 
have received much attention from 
botanists; indeed, W. K. Safford, of the 
U. S. Department of Agriculture, last 
year found that it had not yet received 
even a name, hence he described it as 
Dahlia tnaxoni, in honor of William A. 
Maxon, of the U. S. National Her- 
barium. 

FOUR DISTINCT FORMS 

When I first saw this plant in Guate- 
mala during the wirtter of 1916-17, I 
felt immediately that it was worthy of 
horticultural attention. Still more was 
I impressed with its FK)ssibilities when 
I found what appeared to be four dis- 
tinct forms of the species; the type, 
which is single-flowered and lilac-pink 
in color; a single-flowered white vari- 
ety, identical with the type except in 
color; and two double-flowered vari- 
eties — one lilac-pink and one white. I 
sent cuttings of these double-flowered 
forms to Washington, where they were 
propagated but later lost by freezing, 
and I took home with me photographs 
of them. From my description of the 
plant, and from photographs, Mr. 
Safford thought the double-flowered 
form so distinct from the type that he 
did not include it in his description of 
Dahlia tnaxoni. 

Upon returning to Guatemala, and 
again seeing the tree dahlia in bloom, I 
have been able to satisfy myself that 
the double-flowered varieties have their 
origin in the single-flowered, typical 
form, and properly belong to the same 
sf)ecies. 

As a wild plant, upon the mountain- 
sides removed from cultivation, I have 
never seen any other than the typical 
form, with eight lilac-pink ray-florets 



Hi 



sss 






268 



The Journal of Heredity 



and a compact group of small yellow 
disk-florets. Sometimes the stems reach 
15 or even 18 feet in height, and 
become quite woody toward the base. 
They terminate in a number of slender 
branches, each bearing several flowers, 
not all of which open at one time. The 
flowers face outwards and upwards, one 
of the characteristics which distin- 
guishes this species from D. imperialis. 
The flowers of the latter are distinctly 
nodding. 

When brought into cultivation 
around the huts of the Indians the 
sjDecies seems to lose its stability. 
In place of single lilac-pink flowers 
other forms often appear, and since 
the plant is readily propagated by 
cuttings it is a simple matter to repro- 
duce these variations. The single 
white variety is relatively rare, and 
iis flowers are much in demand among 
the Indians for decorating the images 
of saints which all of them keep in 
their homes. The double white is 
somewhat more abundant, and the 
double lilac-pink is perhaps the com- 
monest of all the variations from the 
type. I have seen all of these forms 
both in northern Guatemala (Tactic 
and Coban) and in the central part of 
the country, near Antigua. 

WIDE RANGE OF FORM AND COLOR 

It is evident that the double-flowered 
forms originate as bud-sports from the 
single ones, for I hav^e found numerous 
plants, both in northern Guatemala 
and near Antigua, on which there were 
flowers of both types, as well as inter- 
mediate forms. Figure 22 shows three 
flowers from a single plant growing in 
a hedgerow at Tactic, Alta Verapaz. 
On the left is the typical flower with 
eight ray-florets, and numerous minute 
yellow disk- florets closely crowded to- 
gether. In the center flower many of 
the disk-florets are no longer small and 



yellow, but have become more like the 
ray-florets in character and similar in 
color — lilac-pink in this instance. In 
the flower on the right, the disk-florets 
are still larger, and the flower has 
become quite double. Even in the 
double-flowered form, however, the 
ray-florets can be distinguished from 
the altered disk-florets. In the flower 
shown in the photograph, the ray- 
florets appear in the rear, larger and 
broader than the rest. While the typi- 
cal, single-flowered form produces fer- 
tile seed in abundance, I have been 
unable to find any seed produced by 
the double-flowered varieties. 

The largest flowers, whether single or 
double, measure four or ^ye inches in 
diameter. In the double-flowered forms 
there are various shades of color. I 
have seen a bright lilac-pink — almost a 
pure pink; a deep lilac-pink; and a 
darker shade which could almost be 
called a mauve. 

The wide range of form and color 
which horticulturists have obtained 
from the several species of Dahlia culti- 
vated in the north is familiar to every- 
one. Varieties have been produced 
both by crossing, and through the vege- 
tative propagation of forms which 
originated as bud-sports. The only de- 
fect of Dahlia maxoni, from the north- 
ern horticulturist's point of view, is the 
long growing season which it requires 
in order to reach the flowering stage. 
But will it not be possible, by crossing 
this species with some of those now 
cultivated in the north, to produce 
interesting and valuable forms which 
will be successful under practically the 
same conditions as the cactus and other 
groups of cultivated dahlias? Certainly 
a species which grows to eighteen feet 
in height, and which exhibits a strong 
tendency to produce handsome double- 
flowered sports, will not be without 
interest to American dahlia breeders! 



CHLOROPHYLL FACTORS OF MAIZE 



Their Distribution on the Chromosomes and Relation to the Problem of 

Inbreeding.^ 



K. W. Li 
Department of Genetics, 

IT IS a significant fact that the great 
majority of heritable characters 
known in maize are recessive to the 
normal type in inheritance. Such 
characters as dwarjness, ramosa ear, 
liguleless leaf, chlorophyll characters 
such as white, vircscent-white, antl yel- 
low seedlings, golden, ^reen-striped, 
Japonica, fine-striped, and the lineate- 
leaved plants are all simple Mendelian 
recessives to the common or normal 
typ>e of maize. Disregarding aleurone, 
pericarp and endosperm characters, 
since one is not certain as to what is 
normal in those respects, only one 
character, pod-corn, has been definitely 
shown to be dominant. Strangely 
enough this dominant character, p<xi- 
corn, is almost completely sterile in 
the homozygous dominant condition. 
Most of these recessive characters 
influence the life and vigor of the maize 
plant directly. The presence of one 
of them often seriously affects the life 
and productivity of the plant. If any 
such abnormalities were dc^minant 
characters they would quickly perish 
in the struggle for existence without 
leaving a trace. Because they are re- 
cessive in inheritance they can Ikj car- 
ried along from one generation to the 
next in normal appearing plants, heter- 
ozygous for the abnormal factors. 
This is obviously the reason for the 
presence of so many recessive charac- 
ters and so few dominant ones in maize. 

INFLUENCE OF RECESSIVE CHARACTERS 

The relation between such recessive 
characters and the question of inbreed- 
ing is ver\* intimate. Continued in- 
breeding of maize is nearly always 



NDSTROM 

University of Wisconsin 

followed by a decrease in stature, yield 
and fertility. This, to^i'ther with the 
facts that the maize plant is normally 
in a heterozygous (M)n(lition because of 
its method of open-|)ollination and that 
recessive abnormalities are abundant, 
at once suggests that the artificial in- 
breeding of maize merely isolates the 
recessive characters which are rela- 
tively poor in stature, yield or fertility. 

Having once eliminated these poor 
characters by selective inbreeding, one 
might su))|)ose that the remaining 
plants, being relatively free from such 
abnormalities, would now possess only 
the better characters. This, however, 
is true only to a very limited extent, 
The actual results of maize inbreeding 
have not lK»en successful in pnMlucing 
such su|>erior stock. 

Apparently the reason for this is 
the influence of linkage on the distri- 
bution of characters. If one couU! 
eliminate most of the inferior charac- 
ters without disturbing the favorable 
complex, the problem would be solved. 
But it seems that when we i olale and 
eliminate the |j<K>rer tyjK's by inbreed- 
ing, at the same time we dis<:ard some 
of the iK'tler factors that are ciirrelated 
with the unfavorable ones in inheri- 
tance. Such a situation is ex|K*rted 
fnrni our present knowledge of the 
linkage relations of an organism. 

It seems safe to assume that such 
favorable factors as influence size, 
yield, g^xxi quality, and fertility are 
multiple in nature and undoubtedly 
are distributeci in all the ten pairs of 
chromosf/mes in maize, ('ertainly the 
facts of size inheritance api^ear to con- 
firm this. 



^ Papers from the Department of Genetics, Agrkuitural Exptsriment Station, UniverMty of 
Wisconsin, No. 22. Published mith the approv'al of the Director <A the Station. 

Some of the original crosses reported m this article were made at the New York BuUe 
of Agriculture at Cornell I'niversity, Department of Plant Breeding. 



Lindstrom: Chlorophyll Factors of Maize 



271 



KFFKCT OF UNFAVORABLK FACTORS 

But what of the distribution of the 
unfavorable factors in the chromo- 
somes? If we can demonstrate that 
many factors causing a reduction in 
the vigor of the maize plant are distrib- 
uted in manv different chromosomes, 
it would add positive evidence to the 
present theory on the effects of in- 
breeding. It is the purpose of this 
paper to point out the distribution of 
some such unfavorable factors, espe- 
cially those concerned with the devel- 
opment of chlorophyll. 

Chlorophyll abnormalities are very 
prevalent in all types of corn. They 
have been observed in dent, flint, 
sweet, pop and flour corn. These ab- 
normalities vary from a total absence 
of all pigment (shown in pure white or 
albino seedlings) to shades of light 
green that are almost indistinguishable 
from normal green. An intensive 
search for such chlorophyll defects sur- 
prises one by their frequent occurrence. 
The presence of any one of these reces- 
sive chlorophyll abnormalities in a 
commercial strain of corn is a serious 
factor in reducing yield. 

At least eight factors that influence 
the inheritance of chlorophyll have al- 
ready been reported. These are the 
seedling factors producing white, vir- 
^scent-white, and yellow seedlings and 
the mature plant factors producing 
golden, green-striped, Japonica (both 
green-white and green-yellow striped), 
fine-striped and lineate plants. In ad- 
dition there are three new factors, still 
under investigation, making a total of 
eleven factors governing the formation 
and expression of chlorophyll in maize. 

It must not be supposed that these 
eleven factors comprise most of the 
actual number concerned in chloro- 
phyll inheritance. They only repre- 
sent the ones that are most easily 
handled. There are certainly many 
others, especially those which produce 
the lighter shades of green so often ob- 
served in different types of maize. 
But these are very difficult to work 



with, since their expression is greatly 
modified by external conditions. Such 
factors also would influence the vigor 
and yield of the plant. It is to be con- 
fidently expected that their inheritance 
will prove to be similar to that of the 
eleven factors already known. 

In a previous publication- it has 
been shown that many of the chloro- 
phyll factors are inherited indepen- 
dently of each other. It has also been 
show^n that two of them (l, yellow seed- 
lings and g, golden plants) are linked in 
inheritance. 

Further evidence is now presented 
to show that some of thes? same chlo- 
rophyll factors are inherited indepen- 
dently of still other factors. 

RELATION OF WHITK (aLIHNO) SEED- 
LINdS TO ALEURONE AND ENDO- 
SPERM FACTORS 

A sweet corn with colored aleurone, 
of the composition HAACCPfPrRR 
Su Su WW, was pollinated by a plant 
with starchy, colorless endosperm, het- 
erozygous for albino seedlings (HAACC 
PrPr rr Su Su Ww). The F, endo- 
sperm was starchy and had purple 
aleurone color in all of the grains 
The Fi plants were all normal green. 

Ten F^j plants were self- pollinated. 
The Fs grains on all showed a distinct 
9:3:3:1 ratio of purple starchy, purple 
sugary, colorless starchy and colorless 
sugary grains, respectively. These 
four types of seed from each ear were 
planted separately. Among the ten 
¥2 seedling progenies, six produced 
nothing but green seedlings, while four 
showed a sharp segregation into green 
and white seedlings. The expectation 
in this respect was of course five and 
five. 

The four Fj progenies that showed 
segr gation are presented in Table I. 

It will be noted that three of the 
four seedling progenies are grouped 
together while the fourth (2959) has 
been segregated and totalled sepa- 
rately. This was done because 2959 
was a poorly developed ear that showed 



* Lindstrom, E. W. Chlorophyll inheritance in maize. Cornel! Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta, Memoir 
13:1-68. 1918. 



55- 
fl'! 



I'-l- 






His 



15 i 






Lindstrom: Chlorophyll Factors of Maize 



273 



indications of pollen contamination. 
It is included in the table only to pre- 
sent all the data in this experiment. 

The relations between the various 
factors involved in this cross can be 
studied best by taking two pairs of 
factors at a time. The interrelation 
between the Ww factor pair, govern- 
ing chlorophyll inheritance and the 
Su su pair, determining starchy and 
sugary endosperm, will be considered 
first. Using the data from the three 
ears (2955, 2956, 2969 ) that show no 
evidence of pollen contamination, the 
following results are obtained when the 
starchy seeds (indicated by 5m) are 
considered separately from the sugary 
{su) seeds: — 

Su W Su w su W su w 
Observed 507 161 155 46 
Calculated 489 163 163 54 
The actual or observed results approxi- 
mate a 9 :3 :3 :1 ratio very closely. The 
starchy seeds show a proportion of 3 
green seedlings to 1 white as do the 
sugary seeds. In fact, the closeness of 
fit, as measured by P is .53, which in- 
dicates that there is good agreement 
betw^een the facts and the hypothesis 
of independent Mendelian inheritance 
between the chlorophyll and endosperm 
factors. 

The numbers are sufficiently large 
and the approximation to the theoreti- 
cal expectancy is so close that we can 
be reasonably certain that w and su 
are not linked in inheritance. In 
other words, the albino chlorophyll 



factor is not on the same chromosome 
as the sugary endosperm factor. 

ALEURONE AND CHLOROPHYLL FACTORS 

If the relation between aleurone 
color and chlorophyll development is 
considered next, similar results obtain. 
In this case the purple aleurone grains 
(indicated by R) are classified sepa- 
rately from the colorless grains (r). The 
green and white seedlings resulting 
from these two types of seed are as 
follows: 

RW Rw r W rw 
Observed 482 155 180 52 
Calculated 489 163 163 54 
Both purple and colorless seeds give 
approximately 75% green and 25% 
white seedlings, resulting in a 9:3:3:1 
ratio. The calculated value for P is 
.51 which means good agreement be- 
tween actual and theoretical results. 

From such data we can draw the 
conclusion that w and r are not linked, 
but that the chlorophyll factor w is 
located in a different chromosome than 
is the aleurone factor r. 

From the data in Table I, it can be 
shown that the r and su factors also 
are independently inherited. When 
grouped according to these factors the 
data are as follows: 

R Su R su r Su r su 
Observed 489 148 179 53 
Calculated 489 163 163 54 
The agreement between the actual and 
the theoretical results is not as good as 
in the preceding cases since the value 



Table I: F2 Seedlings J 


rom Four Self- pollinated Fi Plants of the Composition i i Pr Pr 

Rr Su Su Ww* 


AACC 


Pedigree No. 


Purple Starchy 
Seed 


Purple Sugary 
Seed 


Colorless Starchy 
Seed 


Colorless Sugary 
Seed 




Green 


White 


Green 


White 


Green 


White 


Green 


White 


2955 
2956 
2969 


148 

74 

144 


58 
17 
48 


56 
18 
42 


12 

6 

14 


56 
20 
65 


16 
10 
12 


18 

6 

15 


7 
1 
6 


Total 
Theoretical 


366 
367 


123 
122 


116 
122 


32 
41 


141 
122 


38 
41 


39 
41 


14 
14 


2959 
Total 
Theoretical 


87 
453 
448 


18 
141 
149 


25 
141 
149 


5 
37 
50 


48 
189 
149 


2 
40 
50 


8 
47 
50 



14 
17 



•Original cross made by Mr. E. G. Anderson of the Department of Plant Breeding, New 
York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University. 



274 



The Journal of Heredity 



of P is .40. The odds are approxi- 
mately 1.5 to 1 against the observed 
deviations being due to chance only. 
Such odds are, however, not considered 
as seriously vitiating the hypothesis of 
independent inheritance of r and sii: 

The preceding facts demonstrate 
that the chlorophyll abnormality of 
albino seedlings is not linked with 
either the sugary character nor the 
aleurone factor r. Factors w, su and 
r are each on separate chromosomes. 

RELATION BETWEEN DWARFNESS AND 
VIRESCENT-WHITE SEEDLINGS 

Dwarf ness in maize is a simple Men- 
delian recessive to the tall normal type. 
The virescent-white character is also 
a simple recessive to normal green. 
Virescent-white seedlings contain very 
little chlorophyll at first, but under fav- 
orable conditions of light and tempera- 
ture, they gradually assume a light 
green color. It has been possible to 
bring some of them to maturity. 

T.ABLE II: Seedling Progenies from Self- 
pollinated Normal Green Plants Heterozy- 
gous for Tall-dwarf and Green- 
Virescent-white 







Tall 




Dwarf 






Vires- 




Vires- 


Pedigree 


Tall 


cent- 


Dwarf 


cent- 


No. 


Green 


white 


(jreen 


white 


2862 


63 


24 


27 


11 


2871 


52 


21 


20 


6 


2991 


57 


19 


16 


5 


2992 


52 


22 


20 


mm 

i 


3017 


178 


52 


52 


11 


Total 


402 


138 


135 


40 


Theoretical 


402 


134 


134 


45 


(9:3:3:1) 











Several green plants heterozygous 
for the virescent-white factor ( Vv) were 
pollinated by homozygous green, dwarf 
plants. The Fi progeny was all tall 
and dark green. When self -pollinated 
the Fi plants produced, as was to be 
expected, two sorts of seedling prog- 
enies. One sort consisted entirely of 
green seedlings, the other segregated 
into green and virescent-white. Both 
sorts segregated into tall and dwarf 
seedlings. The segregation into tall 
green, dwarf green, tall virescent-white 



and dwarf virescent-white which oc- 
curred in five of the progenies was dis- 
tinct, as can readily be seen in Fig. 23. 

Seedling counts were made of the 
five progenies that showed segregation 
into the four classes noted above. They 
are recorded in Table II. 

The data in this table conform 
closely to a 9:3:3:1 ratio and accord- 
ingly indicates that dwarfness and 
virescent-white chlorophyll are inher- 
ited independently of each other. 
Hence, the chlorophyll factor i^ is not 
in the same chromosome as the dwarf 
factor concerned in this cross. 

RELATION BETWEEN DWARFNESS AND 
XANTHOPHVLL PIGMENT 

In addition to the white and vires- 
cent-white chlorophyll types, there is 
a third type which also is recessive to 
normal green. This recessive char- 
acter is seen in maize seedlings that 
develop a distinct yellow color appar- 
ently due to the pigments xantho- 
phyll and carotin. 

A tall green plant, which produced 
75% green and 25% yellow seedlings 
when self-pollinated, was crossed by a 
dwarf plant. This dwarf was of the 
semi-tall type with anthers in the ear. 
It is also a simple recessive to the tall 
type, but is caused by a different gen- 
etic factor than the dwarf type used in 
the virescent-white cross. 

The Fi plants of this cross were all 
tall and normal green. Three of them 
were self- pollinated and their seedling 
progenies tested in the greenhouse. 
All three showed approximately 25% 
dwarf seedlings, which are easily dis- 
tinguished as can be seen from Fig. 24. 
Two of the progenies also segregated 
for the yellow seedling character, pro- 
ducing tall green, dwarf green, tall 
yellow and dwarf yellow in proportions 
indicated in Table III. 

An analysis of this table shows that 
the actual results obtained do not agree 
very closely with the theoretical ex- 
pectancy of a 9:3:3:1 ratio. The ex- 
treme classes (tall green and dwarf 
yellow) taken together are deficient 
while the middle classes (tall yellow 
and dwarf green) are slightly in excess 



® ^ 

V 

TWO SELF-POLLINATED EARS OP HAIZE 

Shou'ing appro\iiii;itL'ly tncnly-livi.- pencnt ill iibonivc itrninH. Ik-low Ihc NiIm'Is ^iri' ^liuun st 



ll-"i«. 1 



276 



The Journal of Heredity 



Table III: Seedling Progenies from Self- 
pollinated Normal Green Plants Heterozy- 
gous for Tall-dwarf and Green- 
Yellow Seedlings 



Pedigree 


Tall 


Tall 


Dwarf 


Dwarf 


No. 


Green 


Yellow 


Green 


Yellow 


3006 


180 


72 


87 


22 


3011 


32 


7 


11 


2 


Total 


212 


79 


98 


24 


Theoretical 


232 


78 


78 


26 


(9:3:3:1) 










Calculated 


225 


85 


85 


18 


on 1:1.4 










linkage 











of the theoretical on the basis of inde- 
pendent assortment. If this is a case 
of Hnkage, such a situation would be 
expected, since the tall and yellow 
characters came from one parent, while 
the dwarf and green characters entered 
from the other parent of the cross. 

If a linkage giving a gametic ratio 
of 1:1.4 is assumed, the calculated 
numbers agree more closely with the 
actual results. This indicates that 
the tall-yellow and dwarf-green gam- 
etes are produced approximately 1.4 
times more often than the tall-green 
and dwarf-yellow gametes. The num- 
bers are too small, however, for more 
than a suggestion of linkage. Further 
tests are being planned to determine 
this relation. 

It happens that the chlorophyll fac- 
tor involved in the dwarf-yellow cross 
is identical with the one in the dwarf- 
virescent-white cross discussed in the 
preceding section. In both cases it 
is the V factor (LLvv^ and llv\0. 

In the dwarf-virescent-white cross 
there was no indication of linkage be- 
tween the chlorophyll factor v and the 
type of dwarf involved. In the dwarf- 
yellow cross however, there is a sugges- 
tion of a linkage between this same v 
and the semi-tall dwarf used there. 
This can only mean that the two sorts 
of dwarfs are genetically different and 
that their respective factors are located 
on different chromosomes. 

INHERITANCE OF ABORTIVE GRAINS IN 

MAIZE 

In connection with the study of 
chlorophyll factors there occurred, 



among several self-pollinated ears of a 
certain cross, a single ear that showed 
an appreciable number of abortive 
grains. At first this was thought to 
be the result of poor pollen or imperfect 
pollination. But the recurrence of the 
phenomenon for two years dispelled 
this idea and suggested that some 
heritable factor was involved. 

Unfortunately no attempt was made 
in the earlier years to segregate and 
count the abortive grains. They were 
merely shelled off and planted with the 
normal grains. A marked deficiency 
in the percentage of germination was 
noted in these ears nevertheless. 

Last season, however, four self- 
pollinated ears and several crosses 
were produced. Three of the four 
selfed ears showed segregation into 
normal and abortive grains. The fourth 
was an entirely normal, well developed 
ear. Two ears (2208-4 and 2208-7) 
were photographed and appear in Fig. 
25. 

The abortive grains are sharply dis- 
tinguishable from the normal ones. 
They possess no trace of an embryo 
and no endosperm tissue has developed ; 
they are merely shells made up of peri- 
carp tissue. Silks are nevertheless 
produced on them. The abortive grains 
are scattered more or less evenly over 
the entire ear. Their distribution and 
their proportion to the normal grains 
strongly indicates that they are in- 
herited as a simple Mendelian recessive 
character. 

Counts were made on the three ears 
and the number of normal and abor- 
tive grains on each are recorded in 
Table IV. 

Table IV: Showing Segregation into Normal 

and Abortive Grains of Three Self- 

pollinated Ears 



Pedigree 
No. 


Normal 
Grains 


Abortive 
Grains 


Dev. 
P. E. 


2208-1 
2208-4 
2208-7 


229 
456 

288 


86 
161 
118 


1.3 
1.0 
2.7 


Total 
Theoretical 

(3:1) 


973 
1003 


365 
335 

• 


2.8 



Lindstrom: Chlorophyll Factors of Maize 



277 



Among a total of 1338 grains in 
Table IV, 365 or 27.3% are of the 
abortive type. Presumably, then, we 
are dealing with a recessive, Mendelian 
factor that inhibits the formation of 
both embryo and endosperm. 

The abortive grains occurred in a 
family of plants that were showing seg- 
regation into green and chlorophyll-free 
seedlings. It is to be expected that 
when the green plants of such a family 
are self-fertilized, a certain proportion 
of them will segregate in the next gen- 
eration. Only four green plants (2208 
(1), (2), (4), (7) ) were self-pollinated 
and they produced nothing but pure 
green progenies. Four is too small a 
number on which to base conclusions, 
but it does suggest the possibility of 
some relation between the abortive 
grains and the seedlings deficient in 
chlorophyll. 

This relation might be conceived of 
as a case of complete linkage between 
a lethal factor destroying both em- 
bryo and endosperm and another 
lethal factor inhibiting the formation 
of normal chlorophyll. Since the orig- 
inal F2 generation was segregating 
for both the white and virescent- white 
seedling factors, it is impossible to 
judge which of the two might be con- 
cerned in \such a linkage. Further 
tests are being planned to determine 
this. 

There is also a possibility that we 
are not dealing with a case of linkage at 
all, but that the abortive grains are 
due to some physiological interrelation 
of the chlorophyll factors. Since, how- 
ever, all the known chlorophyll ab- 
normalities have been tested against 
each other and have reacted and seg- 
regated as ordinary Mendelian factors, 
it does not seem re sonable to suppose 
that they would, in themselves, have 
any such radical effect as to destroy 
both embryo and endosp)erm. 

The relation between the abortive- 
grain character and inbreeding is 
similar to that of the other recessive 



characters mentioned in the first para- 
graph of this article. If present in a 
strain of maize, although they might 
be unsuspected, being hidden by the 
dominant, normal allelomorph, these 
abortive grains would begin to appear 
when the strain was inbred. This 
would decrease the yield of such a 
strain seriously. The abortive-grains 
could be eliminated, with some diffi- 
culty however, but if any favorable 
characters were closely linked with 
them, they too would be eliminated. 

SUMNfARV 

Certain striking chlorophyll abnor- 
malities are shown by breeding evi- 
dence to be distributed in several 
different chromosomes of maize. From 
this it is to be inferred that other less 
pronounced deficiencies of chlorophyll 
are distributed in a similar manner. 
The latter especially are common in 
commercial fields of corn and presum- 
ably are responsible for decreasing or 
limiting the productivity of the plant 
to some extent. They would naturally 
be isolated and removed in an intensive 
system of selective inbreeding, since 
they are recessive in nature. Being 
distributed on different chromosomes 
their elimination would tend also to 
remove some of the more favorable 
factors which, being on the same 
chromosomes, would naturally follow 
the defective factors in inheritance. 
In this manner, it is very likely that 
continuous inbreeding removes favor- 
able as well as unfavorable factors 
from the original stock. 

To succeed in a system of maize in- 
breeding then, it is essential to begin 
with the best source of material avail- 
able, a source that is as free of abnor- 
malities and defects as possible. It 
is probable that inbreeding of such 
stock might be carried out with very 
little loss of stature, yield or fertility 
and would at the same time improve 
the uniformity of the type. 



MUTATIONS IN MUCORS' 



Albert F. Blakeslee 
Station for Experimental Evolution j Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y, 



THE theory of mutations has 
played an increasing role in 
experimental evolution since its 
enunciation some twenty years ago. 
Sudden germinal changes, large or 
small in amount, have been the basis 
of perhaps the most fundamental work 
in modern genetics. It is natural that 
mutations should have been first sought 
for and found primarily in higher 
organisms, and in connection with the 
sexual reproduction which is charac- 
teristic of such fornis. It became 
evident later that mutations could not 
be confined to cells associated with 
sexual reproduction, but, as shown by 
the somatic mutations involved in 
bud sports in plants, and in similar less 
common phenomena in animals, they 
may occur in cells in which sexual 
processes are not involved. They have 
been found in lowly organized plants 
and animals in which nonsexual repro- 
duction is the rule or in which sexual 
reproduction is not known to occur. 

The mucors are a fungous group in 
which multiplication is brought about 
chiefly by nonsexual spores produced 
in sporangia. Sexually formed zygo- 
spores are rarely found in most forms. 
There are two main groups as regards 
their se.xual reproduction : — dioecious 
forms and heniiaphrodites. The sexual 
races of the dicK^cious forms are in the 
main similar in appearance, and the 
uniting sex cells or gametes are appar- 
ently morphologically equivalent. For 
this reason, the temis plus and minus 
have been applied to their opposite 
sexes instead of the terms male and 
female used in reference to the mor- 
phologically distinct sexes in higher 
forms. In many cases it has been 
IX)ssible to obtain a sexual reaction, 
called "imperfect hybridization,** be- 



tween plus and minus races of different 
si>ecies. This imperfect hybridization 
reaction has also been used in testing 
the sexual tendencies of hermaphro- 
dites and their mutants. 

It is in a species of the hermaphro- 
dites (Mucor genevensis) that the 
mutations discussed in the present 
paper have been found. Races of this 
species from three different sources 
have been kept running in vegetatively 
propagated pure lines for 19 years. 
The species was studied in 1913 with 
the hope of inducing germinal changes 
by subjecting its vegetative growth or 
mycelium to various physical and 
chemical stimuli. Before concluding 
that any variation found after sub- 
jecting the mycelium to a given stimu- 
lus was in fact brought about by this 
stimulus, it was necessary to discover 
what, if any, variations the fungus 
would produce under normal condi- 
tions. So many variants were dis- 
covered, however, in this preliminary 
study, where no special stimuli were 
applied, that extensive investigations 
have not yet been attempted as to the 
range of variations under abnomial 
conditions. 

METHOD OF GROWING MUCORS 

The method of growing these mucors 
is relatively simple. To be sure that 
there is no doubt as to the purity of the 
stock with which one starts, it is de- 
sirable to obtain a culture from a single 
vegetative spore. This single-spore 
culture is grown in a test tube and, in 
addition to slow-germinating zygo- 
spores, produces numerous sporangia 
containing thousands of nonsexual 
spores. These sporangiospores are 
mixed with water and the spore mixture 
diluted until a platinum loop will con- 



* A preliminaiy report of mutations in mucors was given in Year Book of the Carnegie Institu- 
tion of Washington XII, 104-105, 1913 and presented before the Amer. Soc. of Naturalists, 
Dec.. 1914. 



28o 



The Journal of Heredity 



number of other characters, but most 
commonly in the reduced size of the 
colonies. The aberrant colonies may 
be transferred uncontaminated to test 
tubes before the spores are produced 
or their spores may be used in making 
a new isolation in a second roll tube. 
In all, somewhat over 38,000 colonies 
from individual sporangiospores have 
been inspected and a relatively large 
number of variants of different degrees 
of distinctness have been obtained. 
The history of nearly all of these 
mutants is similar in that the mutants 
tend eventually to revert to the normal 
type. Two, however, have seemed 
more stable than the rest. 

A FIXED DWARF MUTANT FOUND 

A mutant which can conveniently 
be called the '* Dwarf" was found in 
March, 1913 in an isolation of spores 
from a single test tube culture of the 
normal stock. Among 1015 individ- 
uals, a single colony was noticeably 
smaller than the rest and different 
from its neighbors in the density of its 
mycelium and the ragged edges of its 
growth. Transfers of the mycelium to 
test tubes and continued cultivation 
for nearly seven years on a variety of 
media in gross and isolation cultures 
make it apparent that the mutant 
is fixed and constant. Its charac- 
teristic appearance, in an isolation 
culture, is shown in the right hand tube 
in Fig. 26. This is eleven days old, 
and its slowness of growth can be seen 
in comparison with the seven day old 
culture on the left, especially with the 
lower colony marked "X" which had 
more room for extension than its 
neighbors. Perhaps the most striking 
peculiarity of the Dwarf is its lack of 
definitely formed spores characteristic 
of the group and found in all our other 
mutants. The mycelium is granular 
and readily breaks up into bits of the 
mycelium, so that isolation cultures 
from these fragments can be made, but 
no sporangia have ever been observed. 
The difference in size of the colonies 
in the tube photographed may be due 
to a difference in the size of the frag- 
ments from which they gr^w. The 



granular nature of its vegetative 
growth is merely a more pronounced 
expression of a tendency already pres- 
ent in the parent stock especially when 
grown in sugar solutions. Like the 
normal stock, the Dwarf also is able to 
take active part in alcoholic fermenta- 
tion. 

Zygospores, normally characteristic 
of this hermaphroditic species, are also 
entirely lacking, as might be expected 
from so weak a growth. For the same 
reason perhaps, it fails to give any 
sexual reaction with plus and minus 
races of a test dioecious species. The 
inhibiting effect upon growth of adja- 
cent colonies may be noted in the photo- 
graph by their flattened outlines and 
the clear space between, where other- 
wise they would grow into contact. 
Instances where colonies seem to over- 
lap are due to colonies showing through 
from the other side of the tube. 

A MUTANT FROM A COLONY LACKING 
ZYGOSPORES 

The second mutant to be considered 
which appears to breed true was found 
February 22, 1913 in a two weeks old 
isolation culture of 265 colonies. This 
single colony, labelled Al, entirely 
lacked zygospores which thickly dotted 
all the other colonies in the series. It 
was freed from its zygosporic neighbors, 
with which its sporangia were inter- 
mingled, by streaking its spores on 
nutrient agar in a Petri dish culture. 
Some of the colonies produced zygo- 
spores and were considered to be from 
spores of other adjacent colonies. 
Some were entirely free from [zygo- 
spores. One of the latter was trans- 
ferred to a tube culture while young 
and labelled A2. From A2 an isolation 
culture was made on ^M arch 7, and pro- 
duced 4631 colonies, all of which 
lacked zygospores. One of these colo- 
nies (A3) was used in making another 
isolation culture and yielded 24 colonies 
again, all without zygospores. The 
mutatant race has been continued in 
test tube culture since 1913 and at the 
present writing has reached the 16th 
nonsexual generation. Tube A16is dis- 
tinctly different from other races of 



PETRI DISH CULTURE PHOTOGRAPHED BY TRANSMITTED LIGHT 

The small black dots are sexual spores (Zygospores); the large dark areas are places where innocL 
lations were made. The Iwo k-ft liand colonies are the normal rare » it h numerous hermaphroditi 
zygospores The central row of three colonies are nuitant "X" with large zygospores; the tw 
right hand colnnics are mutant "D" with only an occasional zygospore or none. Mutant "X 
ha- a plus sexual tendency and hence forms lines of zygospores m contact with mutant "D" an 
the normal race, both of which have a minus tendency. (Fig. 27.) 



CULTURE PHOTOGRAPHED BY REFLECTED LIGHT 
The same arrangement of races as in Fig, 27 above. (Fig. 28.) 



282 



The Journal of Heredity 



this species, primarily on account of the 
light appearance of growth due to the 
lack of zygospores. The ability to 
form hermaphroditic zygospores did 
not seem to have been entirely lost in 
1913, however, since on more suitable 
nutrient than is available in the thin 
layer in an isolation tube, zygospores 
were occasionally produced, although 
in very small numbers. At the present 
writing (February, 1920), it fails to 
produce zygospores on the nutrients 
tested. 

Tests made in 191v3 of the A3 genera- 
tion showed that the mutant had a 
minus sexual tendency since it gave 
good reactions w^ith the plus races 
of two different dioecious species. In 
addition, it formed a line of zygospores 
with the "X" mutant known to have a 
plus tendency. This will be discussed 
in a later paragraph. 

That it was not entirely lacking in 
the plus sex was further shown by its 
reaction, although weak, with a minus 
race of one of the dioecious test species. 
The mutant "A" therefore cannot 
be considered an example of complete 
transformation from a hermaphroditic 
into a dioecious species although it may 
show a tendency in this direction. It 
may be added that the "A" mutant 
has recently given rise to a striking new 
form "F" characterized by a L w, white, 
felted, aerial growth and a scanty 
production of zygospores. It has 
been carried to only a few generations 
but so far has remained constant. 

The "Dwarf" and Mutant "A" are 
the only examples of true-breeding 
mutations so far investigated in the 
species. Further study may show that 
even these have the power of reverting 
at times. Those discussed in the 
foUow^ing paragraphs are examples of 
the more common type of reverting 
mutations. 

MUTANTS WHICH HAVE NOT REMAINED 

CONSTANT 

In Figs. 27 and 28 are shown two mu- 
tant races, *'X" and "D," which have 
not remained constant under cultiva- 
tion. The two colonies at the left in 



each figure are the normal stock; the 
three colonies in the central row are the 
**X" mutant and the two colonies at the 
right are the **D" mutant. The photo- 
graph shown in Fig. 27 was taken by 
transmitted light and shows the her- 
maphroditic zygospores as small black 
dots ; the large dark areas are the places 
where the inoculations were made. 
The photograph in Fig. 28 was taken by 
reflected light and shows better than 
does Fig. 27 the differences in habit of 
growth between the three races. 

Mutant "X" has a lower, whiter 
growth than the normal race. Its 
sporangia, as well as its zygospores, are 
less abund nt and the latter are some- 
what larger than normal and tend to 
be arranged in groups, which often 
form dark sectors radiating from the 
point of inoculation. Its greatest 
interest lies in the fact that it forms a 
line of zygospores with the normal race 
on its left as well as with the **D'* 
mutant on the right, as shown in Fig. 27 
and less well in Fig. 26. It was this 
ability to form lines of zygospores with 
adjacent colonies that attracted our 
attention to its first appearance in an 
isolation culture of a strongly zygo- 
sporic mutant consisting of 41 colonies. 
Ordinarily, as mentioned under the 
Dwarf mutant, colonies exercise some 
inhibitory action toward one another 
which retards their growth on adjacent 
sides and prevents their meeting when 
the nutrient is thin, as in an isolation 
culture. The inhibitory action is 
absent and the colonies meet when 
they are of opposite sexual tendencies. 
This seems to be the case with mutant 
"X" and its parent race. The normal 
race (called **Y") gives a strong reac- 
tion with plus test races of dioecious 
species and is therefore a hermaphro- 
dite with a minus tendency, while 
mutant "X" gives a strong reaction 
with minus test races and is therefore 
a hermaphrodite with a plus tendency. 
In a similar way mutant "A" and 
mutant "D" have been shown to be 
hermaphrodites wMth a minus tendency. 
Mutant "D" formed at first a yellowish 
dense growth almost entirely devoid of 
zygospores. By continued cultivation 



Blakeslee: Mutations in Mucors 



283 



it seems to have lost its distinctive 
characteristics. 

The history of the mutant "X" is 
given in the Table on page 284. In 
a series of isolation cultures in 1914 the 
mutant bred practically true with only 
three possible reversions to normal out 
of nearly 1500 colonies. In the 17th 
generation in 1916 the mutant seemed 
to have entirely reverted. It was 
regained, however, from a culture of an 
earlier generation and by a series of 
isolations its ability to throw offspring 
likeitsclf was again increased. In 1917, 
after a few generations grown in test 
tube cultures, the mutant again ap- 
peared to have entirely reverted to the 
normal parental type and could not be 
regained. 

At two other times in this species 
have mutations been observed which 
form lines of zygospores with the nor- 
nal stock: once in an isolation culture 
in 1916 and once ten years earlier at 
the germination of the zygospores. 
Other mutants tested have shown 
a minus tendency like the parent stock. 

A STRIKING MUTANT FORM 

One of the most striking mutant 
forms appeared as a small warty colony 
in an isolation culture of 949 colonies. 
A microscopic examination showed that 
the colony was composed exclusively 
of a mass of yeast-like cells somewhat 
similar to those that are formed when 
the normal mycelium of this species is 
submerged in a sugar solution and 
takes part in alcoholic fermentation. 
An isolation made from this original 
colony gave predominatingly yeast- 
like colonies with only a few normal 
colonies. At first no filaments were 
found and the accumulation of yeast- 
like cells formed a warty mound above 
the surface of the agar. Often the 
drops of water exuding from the agar 
in running down the inside of the tube 
would carry with them the yeast-like 
cells of the mutant and form streaks 
of secondary "yeast" colonies. Later 
each colony gave rise to a few normal 
filaments, the further rapid growth of 
which filled the culture and covered 
over the warty mutants. During 



April, 1913, a series of four isolation 
cultures were made of the **y^^st" 
mutant, resulting in 721 "y^^^st" colo- 
nies to 423 early reverting colonies. 
The records were taken on the fourth 
or fifth day. Eventually even the 
typical *'y^^st" colonies reverted. Dur- 
ing August and September 1914, an 
attempt was made to regain the 
* 'yeast" condition from five test tube 
cultures which had originally contained 
''yeasts." A total of 5,995 colonies 
were examined from these tubes, but 
the "yeast" mutant could not be 
recovered. Reversion in this mutant 
takes place regularly in the mycelium. 
In other mutants reversion is appar- 
ently more common at the formal ion of 
spores. 

The "X" and the "A" mutants are 
of especial interest from the stand- 
point of sexual differentiation. On ac- 
count of its freedom from zygospores 
and its relatively strong reaction with 
plus test races, mutant "A," if found 
alone, would appear to be an unmated 
minus race of some dioecious species. 
Its very weak reaction with certain 
minus races might easily be missed. 
If mutant "X," which is a mutant in 
the plus direction, had been likewise 
devoid of zygospores and found to 
conjugate with mutant "A," as it 
actually did, one would have felt 
justified in considering "X" and "A" 
as the mated plus and minus races 
of a dioecious species. It is possible 
that in nature dioecious races may 
have arisen from hermaphrodites 
through mutations which have carried 
the sexual differentiation farther than 
w^as observed in our two mutants. 

Burgeff has obtained mutations in 
the dioecious mucor genus Phycomy- 
ces. The mucors are multinucleate, 
normally without cross walls in the 
vegetative mycelium. Mutations, he 
considers, affect only a part of the 
nuclei. The more rapid division of the 
normal nuclei in these mixo-chimeras, 
as he calls the variants, would account 
for the reversions which almost always 
take place. It is possible that our re- 
verting mutants in the hermaphro- 
ditic Mucor genevensis are in fact 



284 



The Journal of Heredity 



mixo-chimeras, and that it may be 
possible to obtain them in pure races 
as Burgcff has done in Phycomyces 
through the germination of the zygo- 
spores. 

The individual mutants considered 
in the present paper are representative 



of many variant fomis that have arisen 
by mutation in the nonsexually propa- 
gated races of Mucor genevensis. They 
add to the evidence, already obtained 
from other groups, that mutations are 
not restricted to processes involved in 
sexual reproduction. 



i( 



«( 



4< 



HISTORY OF "X" MUTANT 

(Y represents colonies normal to X) 
September, 1913 XI First colony of mutant X 

X2 Isolation culture 
" " X3 Test tube culture of an X colony from X2 

Aug.-Sept., 1914 X4 Isolation from X3 

Y5 Tube from a Y colony of X4 

Y6 Isolation from Y5 

X6 •• " X5 

X7 " " X6 

X8 " " X7 

X9-X13 Scries of test tube cultures 

X14 Isolation from X13 

X15 & X16 test tube cultures 

X17 Isolation from X16 

Xal2 '* •' Xll 

Xal3 " " Xal2 

Xal4 '* ^ " Xal3 

Xal5-Xal7 Test tube cultures 

Xa 1 8 I sola t ion from Xa 1 7 

Xal7 *• " Xal6 



(I 



<i 



44 



44 



44 



44 



44 



44 



44 



44 



44 



X and Y types present. 
96X : 119Y 



OX : 481Y 
512X : 3Y (? 



625X 
316X 



OY 
OY 



February, 1915 
Feb.-April, 1916 



44 



44 



4« 



44 



44 



41 



44 



44 



44 



July, 1917 
44 44 



115X :3Y 

OX : 204Y 
5X : 56Y 
16X : lY 
678X : 3Y 

OX : 207Y 
OX : 473Y 



A RANDOM TEST IN THE THEORY 

OF PROTECTIVE COLORATION 



Frederick Adams Woods 



UNTIL Abbott Thayer had devel- 
oped the theory, no one supposed 
that the bright and often daz- 
zling colors of birds and other animals 
were in manv instances a device to 
render these creatures not more but 
less conspicuous. Rem mbrance of the 
wide introduction of camouflage and 
dazzle-painting during the late war will 
doubtless do much to conv^ince the 
skeptical of the essential truths of 
Thayer's theories — discoveries which 
were in their essence optical, and did not 
necessarily involve learned discussions 
in natural history. 

In Thayer's elaborate and magnifi- 
cent book on the subject of protective 
coloration, a large number of black-and- 
white, and sometimes colored, pictures 
are presented by way of proof, but inas- 



much as the authors^ have been accused 
of being over-zealous in finding supp)ort 
for their theory, some impartially, and 
accidentally acquired evidence is not 
without interest. 

Such evidence can now be supplied 
by museum material. In the old days, 
natural history museums were dismal 
places to visit. Stuffed animals, usually 
moth-eaten, were kept in dark and 
dusty cases, scientifically labeled and 
seldom seen. Now we have in many of 
the larger museums beautifully and ac- 
curately constructed artificial back- 
grounds as suitable settings for the 
wild life exhibited (as if in nature) and 
surrounded by natural objects — leaves, 
twigs, stones, and sand. 

The four pictures, here presented, 
were taken in the Museum of the Bos- 



* Thayer, G. H. and A. H., "Concealing Coloration in the Animal Kingdom," 1909. 



Woods: A Test in the Theory of Protective Colorario 



285 



PIPING PLOVER ON SAND AND ROCKS 



Piping Ploverarewell concealed by their white a 
and are hard to recognize. The dark band on 
resembles the shadow on the adjoining rock. ( 
Natural History,) (Fig. 29.) 

ton Society of Natural History, as a 
confirmatory test — one that should be 
presumably impartial, since no re- 
arrangements were made. The birds 
were taken just as they were placed in 
the cabinets, except that the frames as 
a whole were tipped at an angle, in 
order to facilitate the photographic 
work. All of these except the Phoebe 
are also represented in Abbott Thayer's 
book. 



le grey coloration. The eggs resemble stones 
eck of the bird in the centre of the picture 
an exhibition case in the Boston Society of 



One of the birds, a whippoorwill. is 
artificially outlined against the white 
sheet used as a background. The head 
of a plover is easily detected for the 
same reason, but whenever the birds 
appear against their natural back- 
grounds their concealment is excellent 
and the test indicates that the Thayers 
did not strain a point by arranging their 
birds in especially favorable attitudes. 



A WELL CONCEALED BIRD 

This bird, a night hawk,' is exceedingly well ronccaled, its yellowish brown plumage mcr^ng with 
the dead leaves and twigs. The eggs are spotted and colored but are not invisible, (l-'roni an 
exhibition case in the Boston Society of Natural History.) (Fig. 30.) 



This bird is a good example of protective coloration. It builds its dark green nest among dark 
green rocks near the water and its color resembles its surroundings. (From an exhibition case in 
the Boston Society of Natural History.) (Kig. 31.) 



A WHIPPOORWILL 

The Female on ihe ground is almost invisible, its color closely resembling the dried leaves, [is 
t to those of the nighthawk. The white background here is artificial, 
n the Boston Society o( Natural History.) (Fig. 32.) 



The 



Journal of Heredity 

(Formerly the American Breeders* Magazine) 



Vol. XI, No. 7 September-October, 1920 



CONTENTS 

The Improvement of Root-Stocks Used in Fruit Propagation, by H. J. Webber . 291 

Inheritance in Crosses of Dairy and Beef Breeds of Cattle, by John W. Gowen 300 

Our Most Significant Crops— Our Boys and Girls 316 

Heritable Characters of Maize, by J. H. Kempton 317 

The Immigration Problem Today, by Robert De C. Ward 323 

Are Valencia Oranges from China? by H. Atherton Lee and L. B. Scott 329 

The Almosts (Review) 333 

A Case of Inherited Syndactyly in Man, by Ralph G. Hurlin 334 

Racial Differences in Mortality 336 



The Journal of Heredity is published monthly by the American Genetic Society, 

Publication ofRce, 450 Ahnaip Street, Menasha, Wis. 
Editorial and general offices. Washington, D. C. 

The Journal of Heredity is published by the American Genetic Associa- 
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Application has been made for entry as second-class matter at the postoffice at 
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sociation. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles permitted only upon request, 
for a proper purpose, and provided due credit is given to author and to the Journal 
OF Heredity (Organ of the American Genetic Association), Washington, D. C. 

Date of issue of this number, March 23, 1921 



THE IMPROVEMENT OF 
ROOT-STOCKS USED IN FRUIT 

PROPAGATION 

H. J. Webber 
Director, California Agricultural Experiment Station, Berkeley 



FOR many years it has been clearly 
recognized that the root-stock 
has an important influence on 
the scion and on the quantity and 
quality of the crop produced, yet 
very little experimentation has been 
devoted to root-stock problems or to 
the determination of the best stocks to 
use. 

It is true that these matters are dis- 
cussed at almost every convention of 
fruit growers and much information 
based on experience has been recorded. 
In general, the discussion and indeed 
all consideration has been limited to 
the effect on different varieties of cer- 
tain root-stocks which are themselves 
usually very variable species. In cit- 
rus fruits, for instaiice, all considera- 
tion has been limited to a discussion of 
whether one should use sour orange 
{Citrus aurantium), sweet orange {Cit- 
rus sinensis), grapefruit {Citrus gran- 
dis), lemon {Citrus limonia) or trifoliate 
orange {Poncirus trifoliata) . These spe- 
cies are not composed of stable, uni- 
form groups of individuals but are ex- 
ceedingly variable, each containing 
many hundreds of different types. No 
attention has been given, however, to 
the reactions that may be expected 
from the use of different types within 
the species. The same statement ap- 
plies equally well to the various stocks 
used for apples, peaches, pears and 
similar fruits. 

It seems clear to the writer that this 
is fundamentally wrong, and yet be- 
fore any generally accepted policy can 
be overthrown, evidence must be found 
definitely to show that it is wrong. The 

^Webber, H. J. Selection of- stocks in citrus propagation, California Agricultural Experiment 
Station Bulletin 317, January, 1920. 

'Batchelor, L. D. and Reed, H. S. Unpublished investigations. 

*Shame], A. D. et al. Citrus fruit improvement, U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin 623, 
July 22, 1918; Bulletin 624, July 25, 1918; Bulletin 697, Sept. 27, 1918 and Farmers' Bulletin 794. 

291 



writer for the last five years has been 
engaged in the study of this problem in 
connection with citrus fruits and the 
evidence obtained will probably apply 
just as definitely to other fruits as to 
citrus. The following is an outline of 
the experiments and results of a study 
of this problem with different varieties 
of citrus.^ 

VARIATIONS IN NURSERY AND ORCHARD 

TREES 

Citrus orchards show great variation 
in the yield of different trees in the 
same orchard. This variation is known 
to be universal even in orchards of the 
same variety that have been planted 
with the best obtainable trees. Some 
orchards are quite uniform, however, 
while others are exceedingly variable. 
Batchelor and Reed have shown^ that 
the trees in the most uniform groves 
will vary from 30 to 40 percent of the 
mean. 

Mr. A. D. Shamel and his associates 
of the U. S. Department of Agriculture 
have emphasized the relation of the 
character of the buds used in propaga- 
tion to this variability in the orchard 
and have rightly urged the importance 
of choosing buds for propagation from 
uniformly high yielding trees known to 
produce only fruits of standard type.' 
Is this the only fatctor involved? 

It is a well known fact that nursery 
trees as they are normally grown when 
two years old and ready for sale ex- 
hibit great diversity in size, the trunks 
frequently ranging from J^ inch to 1}/^ 
inches in diameter. Does this varia- 
tion in size of trees of the same age 



iii 

M it V 






a s-'5 

s m. 






Si 



Webber: The Improvement of Root-Stocks 



293 



mean anything or is it purely acciden- 
tal? All of these trees are ordinarily 
sold and planted. Probably these dif- 
ferences in size are due to the same or 
similar causes as those responsible for 
the differences in size in bearing or- 
chard trees. 

A nursery grown at the Citrus Ex- 
periment Station for experimental pur- 
poses was planned with the idea of 
producing as uniform trees as possible. 
The sweet seedling stock used was thus 
selected when it was planted in the 
nursery, many of the small trees being 
discarded. Through the kindness of 
Mr. Shamel, the buds used for propa- 
gation were taken from record trees of 
standard type in order to further in- 
sure uniformity. Valencia and Wash- 
ington Navel oranges, Marsh Seedless 
grape fruit and Eureka lemon were the 
varieties grown. When this nursery 
was two years old and ready for orchard 
planting the trees were found to show 
the same variations in size of buds that 
have been referred to as being univer- 
sally present in ordinary nurseries. 
Had buds been taken indiscriminately 
from ordinary trees this variation 
would have been passed by as normal. 
As it was, this fact lead to a test of the 
different sizes of trees to determine, if 
possible, whether these differences in a 
nursery were of any importance in 
growing an orchard. Eighteen large, 
eighteen small and eighteen interme- 
diate sized budded trees of each variety 
were selected and planted in compari- 
son rows in the variety orchard at the 
Citrus Experiment Station, Riverside, 
California. These trees were all dug 
'*bare root** to see that the roots were 
normal and not injured or diseased. 
All trees used in the experiment were 
normal and thoroughly healthy so far 
as could be determined. They were 
planted in the orchard in June, 1917. 
The severe heat coupled with ''bare 
root** planting injured so many of the 
Eureka lemons that this variety was 
eliminated from the experiment. The 
Navels, Valencias and Marsh Seedless 
grapefruit stood the transplanting very 
well. 



These trees have now been in the 
orchard three years and are five year 
old buds. They still retain the same 
comparative difference in size just as 
markedly as when they were transferred 
from the nursery. The large trees re- 
tain their lead and are still large. 
The intermediate are still intermediate 
in size and the small are still small. 
After two years in the orchard the 
small trees were about the same average 
diameter that the intermediate trees 
had when they were transplanted and 
the intermediate sized trees after two 
years in the orchard were about the 
same average diameter as the large 
trees when they were transplanted. 
Each grade is thus about two years be- 
hind the other in development. (Com- 
pare Frontispiece and Figs. 1 and 2.) 

To get some indication of the com- 
parative average size of the tops of the 
different groups, the top diameter of 
each tree was measured east and west, 
north and south and the height from 
the lowest branch to the top of the 
foliage. These measurements for each 
tree were multiplied together to give 
the volume of the cube that would en- 
close the top. The averages of these 
figures for each group in each variety 
are given in the following table. 

Average Comparative Size (in cubic inches) of 
Tree Tops, as Indicated by Product of East arid 
West Diameter x North and South Diameter x 
Height from First Branch to Top. 

Large Intermediate SmaU 

Navels 54,174 20,185 12,541 

Valencias 29,003 15.606 12,953 

Grapefruit 26,343 15,827 10,642 

While admittedly such figures are 
not exact measures of the top volume, 
they are believed to represent fairly 
accurately the comparative sizes of the 
trees in each group. 

FACTORS CAUSING VARIATION 

To what factors could this variation 
be due and is it of any importance in 
citrus propagation? A difference in 
the soil or in the nutrition available 
might cause variation in size but this 
cannot be the main cause of the varia- 



294 



The Journal of Heredity 



tion in size of these trees as they showed 
the difference in the nursery and con- 
tinue to show it three years after trans- 
planting into the orchard. In the 
orchard they are planted close together 
on uniform soil and are treated alike, 
so the diflference cannot be attributed 
to local soil condition or nutrition. 

Is the difference due to the character 
of the bud union? The buds seem to 
have healed nicely in all trees used and 
exhibit no characters indicating that 
the formation of a poor union could be 
considered as causing the difference. 

Is it due to the roots having been 
injured thus resulting in dwarfing the 
tree? The roots were all examined 
when the trees were transplanted and 
all were found to be healthy and 
uninjured. Any injury or disease con- 
tracted since the trees were trans- 
planted could not be limited to the 
small tree rows only. 

Is it due to the kinds of buds used? 
All that can be said regarding this is 
that the buds were carefully selected 
from trees of known record and stand- 
ard type. It does not seem that the 
difference is to be explained in this way 
although this possibility cannot be en- 
tirely eliminated. 

IMPORTANCE OF SEEDLING STOCKS 

The only other factor that is likely 
to be the cause of the variation is the 
influence of the stocks used. The 
sweet orange stock used was merely 
ordinary sweet orange seedlings grown 
from unselected seed, the only extra 
precaution taken being merely to dis- 
card the smallest seedlings when trans- 
planting from the seed bed. About 
15 percent of the total number of seed- 
lings were discarded at that time. The 
universal custom pursued at present is 
to use either sweet, sour, grapefruit, 
lemon or trifoliate orange stock without 
reference to any particular kind within 
these great groups. Are the variations 
within the ordinary lots of sweet and 
sour orange seedlings sufficiently great 
to be assumed to account for these 
variations in size of nursery trees? 
Fortunately some evidence has been 
secured bearing on this point. 



In 1915 the writer, with the help 
of Mr. W. M. Mertz and Mr. E. E. 
Thomas, made an examination of one 
sour orange nursery and selected sixteen 
seedlings that appeared to show differ- 
ent characters. At the same time in 
the same nursery four different types 
were selected in a bunch of sweet seed- 
lings. A more detailed examination 
would doubtless have revealed many 
more types but the only object in view 
at that time was merely to add **freaks" 
to our variety orchard. Buds were cut 
from each of these seedlings and two 
sour orange stocks were budded with 
each type. The trees from these buds 
are now five years old from the bud and 
have been set in the variety orchard 
for three years. All of the types se- 
lected present marked differences in size, 
foliage, character of branching and the 
like. The good vigorous types in the 
case of the sour orange selections are 
five times, or more, larger than the 
slow growing dwarf types. An indi- 
cation of this great difference can be 
obtained by comparing the photo- 
graphs of three typical trees shown in 
Figure 3, A, B and C. A represents a 
fine, vigorous, growing sour orange type 
while B and C represent slow growing, 
probably dwarf types. Similar dif- 
ferences in leaf size and shape are also 
exhibited. Compare for instance the 
size of leaves in A with those of C, 
which are both healthy trees. Two 
trees out of 16 of the sour orange types 
selected have lost the typical aroma of 
the sour orange, so far as the leaves are 
concerned. The four types of the 
sweet orange also differ in similar way 
in size and foliage characters. 

The great extent of this range of 
variation within the different species 
is shown equally as well by the large 
number and range of the named va- 
rieties that are grown. 

The sweet orange and sour orange 
seedlings grown for stock purposes are 
usually or at least frequently grown 
from seed, of unknown origin, and 
taken from different trees. We are not 
dealing with a homogeneous lot but 
with lots in which every individual 
differs from every other individual and 



Webber: The Improvement of Root-Stocks 



295 



T 



MARSH SEEDLESS GHAPEFHinT TREES 
Average- si zed trees chosen from the test rows of large and small nursery trees planted in the 
orchard June 1917 and photographed May 1919. These, too, have continued to show the same 
comparative difference in size as they had when in the nursery, (Fig, 2.) 



yet our policy has uniformly been to 
use all — good and bad alike — (or 
propagation. Is it any wonder under 
these conditions that our trees though 
grown from the best selected buds 
should be variable in the groves? 

The Eureka lemon on a trifoliate 
stock is very markedly dwarfed while 
Valencias grow to good sized trees. 
The Florida rough lemon is usually a 
good stock while the Chinese lemon is 
commonly recognized as a poor stock. 
Different reactions on the bud caused 
by the influence of different stocks are 
well known to exist. When therefore 
such marked differences are found to 
exist in the sour and sweet orange seed- 
lings that we are using as stocks, is it 
any wonder that the budded trees in 
the nursery, even when selected buda 
are used, should grow differently and 
produce large and small trees and that 
these differences should continue to 



exist when the same trees are grown 
in the orchard? 

The evidence now available very 
strongly points to the conclusion that 
the differences in size of nursery trees 
such as those taken for the experiment 
outlined are mainly to be attributed to 
the different nature of the seedling 
stocks used. If this is true, and it is 
entirely in line with the evidence as 
well as with common sense and judg- 
ment, it is certainly an element of 
fundamental importance in citrus 
propagation. 

I would be remiss in caution if I did 
not call attention to the fact that one 
very important link in the chain of 
evidence is yet lacking, that is, the 
growing of good buds on known stocks 
of these various types to prove that 
certain ones give better growth than 
others. This evidence, however, is 
partially supplied by our known ex- 



Webber: The Improvement of Root Stocks 



297 



perience of the reaction of buds on 
different stock such as referred to 
above. 

DIFFERENXES INHERENT IN STOCKS 

Will the small trees continue to re- 
main small? Certainly the evidence 
thus far indicates that this is very 
likely. The probabilities are that they 
will. Dr. Reed of the Citrus Experi- 
ment Station carried out a series of ex- 
periments^ with a considerable number 
of sunflower plants that has a bearing 
on this phase of the problem. In this 
group of sunflowers, exact measure- 
ments of height were made of each 
plant every week from the time it was 
a few inches high until it reached ma- 
turity. The analysis of the data of 
growth obtained showed a well marked 
tendency of the plants to retain their 
same relative rank as to size through- 
out the period of growth. Plants 
which were small at maturity were 
generally small in the beginning and 
those which were large at maturity 
had a well marked superiority from 
the start. The evidence indicated 
that height and vigor of growth were 
determined not by chance but by some 
definite inherent factor in the plant 
itself. The same is doubtless true with 
citrus seedlings of the various species 
such as those used for stocks and if the 
cause of the different sized nursery 
trees is to be attributed primarily to 
the influence of these stocks as seems 
probable, then it is also probable that 
the difference is due to causes inherent 
in the different stocks and that the 
same relative rate of growth and size 
will be maintained in the majority of 
the plants. 

While the evidence is yet incomplete, 
we are probably justified from what 
evidence we have in speculating some- 
what as to what this means in our fruit 
industries. Frequently, almost every 
tree in an orchard will be a fine good 
grower and fruiter, giving a uniform 
orchard. Again, an orchard equally 
well handled may be very ununiform 



having some good trees, some poor ones 
and some of intermediate character. 
This difference could be accounted for 
by assuming that the good orchard 
chanced to be from trees grown on stock 
that happened to come from seeds of 
good stock trees or that they had been 
taken from a nursery where in filling 
the order of size only the large trees had 
been dug, which would be the ones 
naturally on good vigorous stocks. 
The remaining slower growing trees 
from such a nursery would ultimately 
reach the required size and be sold and 
planted in another orchard which 
would likely give an uneven orchard 
with good and bad trees. 

Some growers will be inclined at first 
to think that their experience is con- 
trary to this and that the small tree is 
more likely to be fruitful while the 
largest trees are likely to spend their 
energy in vegetative growth. They 
must remember that this experience 
was gained before buds of selected type 
were used. Mr. Shamel has demon- 
strated that some types of our varieties 
tend to produce rapid growth and little 
fruit while others produce good growth 
and are fruitful. The results the writer 
is explaining, however, were obtained 
with the use of buds taken from the best 
fruiting types and it is not likely that 
this type will be changed materially by 
the stock other than in size of growth. 

NEW NURSERY METHODS SUGGESTED 

If the results of these experiments 
are correctly interpreted by the writer 
it means that our nursery methods in 
citrus propagation must be materially 
changed. 

(1) We must no longer grow merely 
sour stock or sweet stock and the like. 
The process must be carried farther and 
good stock varieties of sour orange and 
sweet orange must be discovered and 
named as stock varieties and every 
nurseryman should then use seeds from 
these varieties known to produce good 
stock seedlings. The trees of these 
varieties from which seeds are to be 



*Reed, H. S. Growth and variability in Helianthus. American Journal of Botany, Vol. 6, 1919, 
p. 252. 



298 



The Journal of Heredity 



TWO TYPES OF FRENCH CIDER APPLE TREES 

The tree at the left (Marechal) is a small, slow growing variety; the one at the right {Julien de 
Paulmier) is a large vigorous growing variety. Both of these trees are growing in the U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture's orchard at Arlington, V'a.. and they are ol the same age and on same stock, 
indicating that the same variation in size applies to other varieties than citrus. (Fig, 4.) 



taken to grow stocks must be planted 
in isolated places so they will not be 
crossed with other varieties. 

(2) Good policy will doubtless dic- 
tate that all small seedlings be dis- 
carded when transplanting from the 
seed bed into the nursery. Doubtless 
nearly 50 percent of the seedlings 
should be discarded at this time. The 
writer believes that a severe culling of 
the seedlings may unhesitatingly be 
recommended. 

(3) In budding a nursery no inferior 
seedlings found in the nursery should 
be budded. Doubtless we will here- 
after carefully inspect the seedlings 
just before budding and cut out all in- 



; the expense of bud- 



ferior ones ti 
ding them. 

(4) When the budded trees reach 
the age for transplanting Into the per- 
manent orchard only the good, vigor- 
ous, growing ones should be used. 

The writer assumes that hereafter 
only buds from trees of known good 
record and of standard type will be used 
in propagation. This is already rec- 
ognized as the only correct and safe 
policy. 

VARIATIONS IN APPLE STOCKS 

The evidence secured with citrus 
varieties discussed above doubtless 
applies equally well to other fruits such 



Webber: The Improvement of Root-Stocks 



299 



as the apple. In Australia and South 
Africa Northern Spy roots have been 
found to be resistant to the woolly aphis, 
and apple varieties are now largely 
propagated on this variety.^ Professor 
J. K. Shaw has recognized the im- 
portance of this problem and has con- 
ducted extensive experiments in the 
attempt to grow apple trees on their 
own roots.* 

Apple varieties are largely grafted 
on the French crab or cider apple 
stocks, the seeds or plants of which are 
obtained in large numbers from France. 
Several years ago a considerable num- 
ber of the different types of these cider 
apples were selected in France by 
Professor Alwood and two trees of each 
of these different types are now grow- 
ing in the variety orchard of the U. S. 
Department of Agriculture at the Ar- 
lington Farm near Washington, D. C. 
In November, 1919, the writer had the 
privilege of making observations on 
these different types in company with 
Professor L. C. Corbett and Dr. D. N. 
Shoemaker, horticulturists of the De- 
partment. The variations in the dif- 
ferent types are fully as extreme as 
those found by the writer to exist in 
citrus fruits. These trees are of the 
same age and planted on comparatively 
the same soil and yet some of them are 
dwarfs while others are giants. As an 
illustration the two trees of the Julien 
de Paulmier are much larger and more 
vigorous than those of the Marechal. 



Photographs, of the same comparative 
size, of trees of these two types were 
made at the writer's request by Dr. 
Shoemaker and are reproduced in Fig- 
ure 4. Seedlings grown from fruits 
of the Marechal could scarcely be ex- 
pected to give the same results when 
used as stocks as seedlings from the 
Julien de Paulmier. Yet if the writer 
is correctly informed the seed we use 
in growing apple stocks are likely to be 
taken from many different types which 
are probably as markedly different from 
each other as are these two. VVc may 
desire to use a dwarf stock in some 
cases and a giant stock in other cases 
but certainly we should know what we 
are using. 

In the propagation of grapes the 
specialization has been carried much 
farther and here a great fund of infor- 
mation has been obtained showing that 
with certain varieties only certain hy- 
brid stocks will give good results and 
that on some soils only certain stocks 
may be successfully employed. 

In fruit industries where the trees 
may grow for many years, possibly 
even for a century or more, and where 
continued success depends as much on 
the stock used as on any other single 
factor, is it too much to require that the 
stocks used should be of known quality? 
The writer maintains that all trees 
should be propagated on selected stock 
varieties of known origin and kind. 



*Cole, C. F., in Journal Agriculture Victoria, Vol. 9, 1911, p.'338. 
•Shaw, J. K. The propap^ation of apple trees on their own roots. 
Experiment Station, Bulletin 190, 1919. 



Massachusetts Agricultural 



FOR THE HARD-OF-HEARING 



It is estimated that one person in 
every 1500 population is deaf, and that 
out of this number one-third are of 
school age. Any hard-of-hearing per- 
son may secure literature that may 



prove helpful, by addressing the Volta 
Bureau, 1601 3Sth St., N. W., Washing- 
ton, D. C. The Bureau does not give 
medical advice, has no medicines or in- 
struments for sale, and does no teaching. 



INHERITANCE IN CROSSES OF DAIRY 
AND BEEF BREEDS OF CATTLE 

II. On the Transmission of Milk Yield to the First Generation.^ 

John W. Gowen 
Agricultural Experiment Station, Orono, Maine 



FOUR main problems are of par- 
ticular interest to those students 
of genetics who are interested in 
the economic aspects of inheritance in 
cattle. These four problems may be 
stated as: (1) the inheritance of milk 
yield, (2) the inheritance of the butter- 
fat concentration in the milk, (3) the 
inheritance of the duration of time 
during which the milk flow is main- 
tained, and (4) the inheritance of the 
degree and kind of fleshing. 

Two methods of approaching these 
problems are possible. The first con- 
sists in analyzing the more or less com- 
plete records which are in existence. 
The second consists of making definite 
controlled matings to determine the 
inheritance of the desired characters. 
The Biological Laboratory of the 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
tion is approaching these problems 
along both of these lines. The results 
herein described deal chiefly with the 
second mode of approach. 

The definite, controlled matings to 
produce the animals necessary for the 
analysis of these problems were begun 
in 1913 under the direction of Dr. Ray- 
mond Pearl. At the beginning of the 
war in 1917 the author took over the 
direction of the work and the analysis 
of the accumulating data. All the 
credit for the inception and organiza- 
tion of the breeding experiments con- 
sequently belongs to Dr. Pearl. The 
manner of approaching the solution of 
the data are the author's own and he 
alone is responsible for the conclusions 
drawn. 

In 1917 certain of the results of these 
matings on inheritance in milk produc- 



tion w^ere presented in the Journal of 
Agricultural Research^. The material 
given herein represents the accumu- 
lations of data since that date. 

MILK PRODUCTION AS MEASURED BY 

AGE 

It has been shown by the work of 
this laboratory that milk production 
for the four main dairy breeds changes 
in a definite manner with age. This 
change is described by Icgarithmic 
functions w^hose equation may be de- 
termined. When these logar thmic 
curves are compared it is found that 
the relative increase and decrease of the 
milk yield of the different ages is nearly 
the same for each of the three dairy 
breeds — Jersey, Guernsey and Hol- 
stein-Friesian. This consistency of the 
effect of age changes on the milk yields 
of the different breeds allows the cor- 
rection of their milk yields and those 
of their crossbred offspring by the same 
set of correction factors determined 
as the mean for the three breeds 
Jersey, Guernsey and Holstein-Friesian. 
Whether or not the milk production of 
the Aberdeen Angus follows the same 
law as the dairy breeds is not known al- 
though there is a large amount of pre- 
sumptive evidence that it does. In 
lack of final evidence all records for the 
milk yield of the Aberdeen Angus cows 
were corrected by the same set of cor- 
rections as those for the dairy breeds. 

The age of two years has been chosen 
as the basis on which the records have 
been corrected. Thus if the crossbred 
daughter has lactation records at say 
two years, three years four months; 
and four years six months; the record 



^ Papers from the Biological Laboratory of the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station, No. 
135. 

* Gowen, John W. 1918. Studies in Inheritance of certain characters of crosses between 
Dairy and Beef Breeds of Cattle. In Journal Agr. Research, vol. XV, No. 1, p. 1-57. 

300 



Gowen : Transmission of Milk Yield 



-^oi 



for three years four months is corrected 
to the expected record at two years, 
and the four years six months record to 
the expected record at tw^o years. 
These three records are then summed 
and the average taken. This average 
is the record used as the milk produc- 
tion of the crossbred. These average 
records have been used as the measure 
of the cow's milk production because 
the work of Gaven' on British Hol- 
steins and of this laboratory on the 
Jersey^ has shown that the mean of two 
or more lactations is a better measure 
of a cow's capacity as a milk producer 
than is the record of one lactation. 
These records have been brought up 
to the date of May 1, 1920. 

The milk yields for the dams of the 
crossbreds are obtained in a similar 
manner to those for their crossbred 
daughters. 

THE sires' potential MILK PRODUC- 
TION 

The records for the sires Taurus 
Creamelle Hengerveld and Lakeland's 
Poet are obtained as follows. The 
records of all daughters of these sires 
from dams of their own breeding are ob- 
tained in a similar manner to that de- 
scribed for the crossbred females. These 
records showing the milk production of 
each daughter of a given sire, other 
than crossbred, are then summed and 
the mean taken. This mean is used 
as the sire's potential transmitting 
ability. The measure used is conse- 
quently the progeny performance test 
for the hereditary composition of the 
sire for milk production. 

The composition for milk production 
transmission of the Holstein-Friesian 
bull, Delva's University De Kol, where 
no pure oflfspring are available is that 
of Taurus Creamelle Hengerveld. It 
is realized that the use of this milk 
production to describe the transmit- 
ting ability of Delva's University De 
Kol is open to serious criticism. No 
purebred offspring are available from 



which an accurate test of this bull's 
composition could be made. In view 
of this contingency two fairly strong 
arguments support the choice of Tau- 
rus Creamelle Hengerveld's transmit- 
ting ability to represent that of Delva's 
University De Kol. The bulls are of 
the same breed. The dam of Delva's 
University De Kol, Delva Johanna De 
Kol had a milk yield closely resembling 
that of Taurus Creamelle Hengerveld's 
potential yield, as may be seen by a 
comparison of the sire's curve in the 
second graph of Figure 14, with the 
dam's curves of the third graph for the 
same figure. 

Likewise the daughters of the sire 
of Delva's University De Kol, Johanna 
Lad Manor De Kol 41913 were simi- 
lar in milk production to those of Tau- 
rus Creamelle Hengerveld. These facts 
consequently make it seem altogether 
probable that the milk transmitting 
capacity of Delva's University De Kol 
is correctly represented. 

The transmitting qualities of Kayan, 
the Aberdeen Angus bull, were taken as 
the mean corrected two years old records 
of the purebred herd of Aberdeen An- 
gus cows. The use of this record for 
Kayan can only be defended on purely 
a priori grounds. Until such time as 
his daughters come in milk this pro- 
cedure will be subject to criticism. 
Kayan 's pedigree does lead to the be- 
lief that his milk transmitting record 
has been correctly represented in the 
diagrams illustrating these data. 

Figure 14, first graph, shows the milk 
record of Crossbred No. 1 on a monthly 
basis corrected to the age of two years. 
This record is shown by the solid line 
( ). The mating to pro- 
duce this crossbred was a Jersey bull, 
Lakeland's Poet 102603, bred to a 
Holstein-Friesian cow, Pauline Posch 
81048. The milk production of the 
dam Pauline Posch, on a monthly 
basis corrected to the two year age ex- 
pectation, is given by the dotted line 
( ....). The expected poten- 



' Gavin, William. 1913. Studies in Milk Records. On the Accuracy of Estimating a cow's 
milking capability by her First Lactation Yield. In Jour. Agr. Sci., vol. 5, pt. 4, pp. 377-390. 

* Gowen, John W. 1920. Studies in Milk Secretion. \^. On the Variation and Correlations 
of Milk Secretion with Age. In Genetics, vol. V, no. II, pp. 111-188. 



Gowen: Transmission of Milk Yield 



CROSSBRED NO. I 

This crossbred is from the Jersey and Holstein-Friesian parents sKown on the opposite page. It 
will be noted that the shape of the nose and body of the crossbred resemble the Hoist ein-Fnesian 
parent, while the size of body and udder re.semble the Jersey parent. In the top graph of Fig. 14, 
compare the records of milk production of the offspring with that o( her parents as explained in 
the text on page iOl. (Fig. J.) 



tial milk production of the Jersey sire 

is given as a dot and dash hne( ). 

The milk production of the crossbred 
clearly follows that for the sire's expec- 
tation. The milk production of the 
Holstein-Friesian dam follows a course 
much higher than does that of the 
crossbred daughter. The daughter may 
therefore be said to have only the in- 
heritance of the low milk producing 
breed. In view of what follows in 
these curves this result is somewhat 
surprising. The result cannot, how- 
ever, be a mistake, because the cross- 
bred daughter's milk production is 
based on four lactations; the milk pro- 
duction of the Holstein-Friesian dam 
is based on 11 lactations, and poten- 
tial milk production of the sire is based 
on four daughters having two lacta- 
tions each. These facts make it seem 
probable that the milk production for 



the ma tings are somatically as repre- 
sented in the top drawingof Figure 14. 
The photographs of the animals com- 
prising this mating are shown in Figs. 
5, 6 and 7. 

EIGHT MONTHS LACTATION PERIOD 

The duration of milk production for 
most cows of the leading dairy breeds 
depends largely on the will of the herds- 
man as to when the lactation will close. 
Such being the case it is desirable to 
have for the whole lactation a time inter- 
val over which to compare the milk 
yield of one cow with that of another. 
For convenience this time interval has 
been chosen as eight months. Such a 
duration of time will allow the inclusion 
of the records of the Aberdeen Angus 
cows and their crossbreds where one of 
the main causes of their low milk yield 



Gowen: Transmission of Milk Yield 



CROSSBRED NO. 12 

Offspring of the Hoist ein-Friesian and Guernsey parents shown on the opposite page. The general 
conformation of the body showa many points typical of the Guernsey mother; the size of the 
udder resembles the Holstein-hViesian parent. See the fourth graph in Fig. 14 for comparison 
of this crossbred's milk yielding quality with that of her parents. While this crosabred's milk 
record clearly follows the high milking parent, there is a tendency for the crossbred to be inter- 
mediate between the two lines. (Fig. 10.) 



may be duration of lactation as well as 
the daily quantity of milk yield. 

For the eight months lactation per- 
iod. Crossbred No. I produced on the 
average 4,161.3 pounds of milk. Her 
dam, Pauline Posch, produced 6026.3 
pounds of milk and her sire, Lakeland's 
Poet's, potential milk yield was 3919.0 
pounds. Comparatively speaking, 

therefore, the crossbred cow was in- 
termediate between the two parents 
being 1865.0 pounds of milk less than the 
high line and 24Z.3 pounds more than 
the low line. The crossbred was con- 
sequently 7.7 times as near the low line 
of production as she was the high line. 
If we analyze the graph for her monthly 
milk yields as shown in Figure 14 
it is found that the Crossbred's milk 
yield follows almost identically that 
of the low parent. Lakeland's Poet. 
Only in the tenth month does it show 



any appreciable deviation from this 
low production. In this deviation ex- 
traneous causes enter, as explained 
above, in that the lactations are not of 
equal duration and the record of a cow 
is determined for whole monthly rec- 
ords only where these are available. 
This, of course, has the effect of making 
the end of the lactation record less re- 
liable than its beginning. For the 
tenth and eleventh month, the record 
of Crossbred No. 1 resembles the high 
parent although probably the resem- 
blance is not significant. 

The second graph of Figure 14 shows 
the milk production of Crossbred No. 2 
on a monthly basis. The significance 
of the three different lines is the same 
as that for the first graph of Fig. 14. 
Crossbred No. 2's record is unfortu- 
nately based on "only one lactation rec- 
ord. The record for Canada's Creusa 



Gowen: Transmission of Milk Yield 



CROSSBRED NO. 16 
The product of the Angus and Jersey parents shown on the opposite page. The polled head and 
heavy fleshing of the (ore-quarters are characteristic features of such a cross. For the whole 
lactation period, this crosabred'a milk production was clearly intermediate between that of the 
high producing parent and the lower producing parent. Compare the records as shown by the 
last graph in Fig. 14 (Fig. 13.) 



is based on six lactation records. The 
record for the sire, Delva's University 
De Kol, is that of the Holstein-Friesian 
milk production for this herd at two 
years as previously described. The 
curve for the milk production of Cross- 
bred No. 2 clearly follows that of the 
Holstein-Friesian, or the high milk 
producing breed. The continuation 
of the lactation from the eighth month 
on for the Crossbred No. 2 would 
clearly follow the milk yield of the 
Holstein-Friesian parent. Unfortu- 
nately this record is not available as the 
cow on the tuberculin test showed a 
temperature, was judged tubercular 
and killed. Her autopsy did not how- 
ever show any lesions which were 
noticeable. Her record is therefore rep- 
resentative, so far as it goes. The 
photograph of this cow is shown in the 
following paper of this series, in the 
next issue of this Journal. 



PERIOD OF LOWEST MILK YIELD 

Considering the record of the differ- 
ent months individually it is seen that 
the milk yield of the first four months 
is more nearly intermediate than is the 
milk yield of the succeeding months. 
This more nearly intermediate condi- 
tion or approach of the crossbred cows 
to the tow line is somewhat typical of 
the other crosses. What explanation 
may be found for its occurrence is ob- 
scure in the light of our present knowl- 
edge. It is known that the time of 
year when a cow freshens may increase 
or reduce the milk yield somewhat. 
The times of year favoring the lowest 
milk yield are the months July, Au- 
gust, and September in this climate. 
As Crossbred No. 2 calved in August 
this may explain her not reaching the 
production of the high parent during 
these first four months. Before this 



3o8 



The Journal of Heredity 



explanation can be finally accepted, 
however, more work on the relation of 
the different monthly lactations needs 
to be done. 

The eight months milk production 
of Crossbred No. 2 was 5337.2 pounds. 
The milk yield of Canada's Creusa 
was 3608.5 pounds and that for Delva's 
University De Kol was 5548.9 pounds. 
In other words Crossbred No. 2 was 
within 221.7 pounds of milk of her 
high producing parent and was 1728.7 
pounds of milk more than her low 
producing parent. The Crossbred No. 
2 was, therefore, 7.8 times as close to 
the high line as she was to the low line. 
This fact in connection with the milk 
record of Crossbred No. 1 suggests 
that segregation of milk producing 
factors having dominance has taken 
place in these crosses. 

The milk production of Crossbred 
No. 11, shown as the third graph of 
Fig. 14, is clearly intermediate between 
that of her dam Delva Johanna De 
Kol 146774 and her sire Lakeland's 
Poet 102603 for the first four months 
of lactation. From this time on this 
cow follows closely the milk produc- 
tion of the high milking parent Delva 
Johanna De Kol. The crossbred rec- 
ord consisted of the average of three 
corrected records; that of the Holstein- 
Friesian dam consisted of the average 
of eight corrected records; that of the 
sire consists of the average of four pure 
bred daughters for two lactations each. 
The photographs of this mating are 
given in the succeeding paper of this 
series. 

The records of Crossbred No. 11 all 
commenced in the months of July and 
August. As previously pointed out 
the calving in these months is most 
unfavorable to a high record, so un- 
favorable as to make a difference of 
600 pounds of milk in the eight months 
milk record of Jersey cows. Whether 
this explanation will account for the 
milk yield of Crossbred No. 11 being 
intermediate between that of the high 
and low lines during the first four 
months of lactation is not known; al- 
though it is highly probable that the 
time of calving did have some effect 



toward reducing the yield. With the 
dam this time of calving effect on the 
milk yield of the lactation is approxi- 
mately averaged as she calved three 
times in the month of April, twice in 
the month of March, and once in the 
months July, June and May. Like- 
wise the record for Lakeland's Poet is 
approximately averaged although fa- 
voring somewhat the high side of the 
milk production as his daughters calved 
three times in April, twice in February 
and once in May, November and Jan- 
uary. 

The eight months milk yield of 
Crossbred No. 11 was 4984.8 pounds, 
that of Delva Johanna De Kol was 
5375.8 pounds, and that of Lakeland's 
Poet was 3919.0 pounds. Crossbred 
No. 11 ws consequently 391.0 pounds 
of milk below the milk yield of her 
high milk line, ancestrally speaking, 
and 1065.8 pounds of milk above the 
low milk line. The crossbred cow is 
consequently 2.7 times as near the high 
line of milk yield as she is near the low 
line of milk yield. 

The fourth graph of Fig. 14 shows the 
milk yield of Crossbred No. 12 and her 
two parents. The photographs of this 
crossbred and her purebred parents are 
seen in Figs. 8, 9 and 10. This cross- 
bred 's milk record clearly follows the 
high milking parent throughout most 
of the course of the lactation. As in 
the preceding cross there is some slight 
indication that the crossbred tends to 
be intermediate between the two lines 
for the first few months of lactation. 
Her calving dates were on the whole 
such as to neutralize any time of year 
effect on milk yield. Likewise the 
records of the sire and dam show little 
of this effect. 

The eight months lactation record of 
Crossbred No. 12 was 5367.3 pounds; 
the record of her Guernsey dam, Col- 
lege Gem was 2693.5 pounds; the po- 
tential record of her Holstein-Friesian 
sire, Taurus Creamelle Hengerveld, 
5548.9. Crossbred No. 12 is conse- 
quently 2693.5 pounds of milk more 
than her Guernsey dam and 181.6 
pounds of milk less than her Holstein- 
Friesian sire or her high parent. The 



Gowen: Transmission of Milk Yield 



309 



crossbred*s milk yield consequently re- 
sembles that of the high line 14.8 times 
as closely as it does the low line. 

The fifth graph in Fig. 14 represents 
the milk production of Crossbred ]^Io. 
15 and her parents, Lakeland's Poet, 
Jersey; and Hearthbloom, Aberdeen 
Angus. The photographs of the ani- 
mals composing this mating are shown 
in the succeeding paper of this series. 
The graph for Crossbred No. 15's milk 
production shows the same interme- 
diate yield as is shown in the first few 
months of lactation by the other pre- 
ceding crossbreds. 

The time of year for the commence- 
ment of the lactation has been favor- 
able to a medium to high yield for this 
crossbred as the months of calving were 
December (twice) and January (once). 
The total milk for the eight months 
period was 3493.0 pounds. The milk 
yield for the Aberdeen Angus mother 
was 1065.9 pounds and for the Jersey 
sire 3919.0 pounds. The crossbred 
cow was consequently 426.0 pounds of 
milk less than her high milk producing 
parent and 2427.1 pounds above her 
low milk producing parent. From 
these facts it is seen that this crossbred 
cow is 5.7 times as near the milk yield 
of her high milk yielding parent as she 
is her low yielding parent. 

The last graph in Fig. 14 gives the 
milk yields of Crossbred No. 16, her 
Jersey dam, College Ruth and her 
Aberdeen Angus sire, Kayan. The 
photographs cf the animals comprising 
this mating are shown in Figs. 11, 12 and 
13. This cow proved very difficult to 
settle for her second lactation. She has 
in fact lost nearly one year due to this 
cause. The milk production was some- 
what higher relatively for the second 
lactation than for the first lactation, 
although it did not continue longer in 
its duration. 

The milk production of Crossbred 
No. 16 is clearly intermediate between 
that of the high milk producing parent 
and the lower milk producing parent. 
The resemblance of the crossbred's 
milk yield to the high line is very close 
for the first six months of lactation. 
From the sixth month to the end of 



the lactation the crossbred cow de- 
clined rapidly in her milk flow. 

Considering the whole of the eight 
months lactation Crossbred No. 16 
gave 3264.1 pounds of milk. Her pure 
bred Jersey parent gave 3581.5 pounds 
for the same period. The potential 
milk production of the sire was 1661.5 
pounds. It is easily seen from the 
diagram that the duration of the milk 
flow plays some part in this cross- 
bred's milk yield. Thus up to the 
seventh month of lactation the cross- 
bred's milk production was 2746.1 
pounds as against the milk production 
of her high producing dam of 2822.7 
pounds and of the low producing line 
of 1312.2 pounds. The difference be- 
tween the high milk producing line and 
the crossbred's milk production for 
the eight months period was 317.4 
pounds. The difference of the milk 
production of the crossbred's milk 
yield and the low potential milk pro- 
duction of her sire is 1602.6 pounds for 
the eight months period. The cross- 
bred consequently resembles the high 
producing parent 5.1 times as closely 
in its milk yield as it does the low pro- 
ducing parent. If we compare the 
milk yields for the first six months of 
lactation we find that the resemblance 
of the crossbred to the high line milk 
yields becomes 18.7 times as close as to 
the low line milk yield. 

Fig. 15 represents the milk yield of 
six of the other later crossbred cows 
taken in the order of their birth. The 
milk yield for the first lactation is 
complete for the first five crossbreds. 
Four months of the second lactation are 
available for Crossbred No. 22; six 
months for Crossbred No. 26; a com- 
plete second lactation for Crossbred 
No. 27; two months for Crossbred No. 
29; and three months for Crossbred 
No. 37. In view of the fact mentioned 
at the beginning of this paper that the 
reliability of a cow's record increased 
as the number of lactations increases, 
it follows that without doubt the milk 
records of these crossbreds shown in 
Fig. 15 will be subject to some modifi- 
cation as the number of lactations in- 
crease. 



3IO 



The Journal of Heredity 






























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Month of Lactation. 

P * MILK PRODUCTION OF CROSSBRED COWS AND THEIR PARENTS 

These graphs represent the milk production, by months and pounds, of crossbred cows Nos. 1 
to 16 and their parents. The number of the crossbred is in the upper right hand corner of each 
set of graphs. The crossbred is represented by the solid line in each case, the dam by the dotted 
line, and the sire by the dot-and-dash line. (Fig. 14.) 



Gowen : Transmission of Milk Yield 



311 




1^ 4 € 7 3 9 JO 

Month ot Lactation. 

MILK PRODUCTION OF CROSSBRED COWS AND THEIR PARENTS 

Showing the records of Crossbreds Nos. 22 to 44. The solid lines represent the crossbreds, the 
dotted lines for the dams, and the dot-and-dash lines for the sires. (Fig. 15.) 



312 



The Journal of Heredity 



Crossbred No. 22 was the result of 
the mating of Kayan, Aberdeen Angus 
bull, to College Creusa, Guernsey cow. 
The corrected monthly milk yield for 
the sire, dam and resulting crossbred 
is shown in the first graph of Fig. 15. 
The milk record of this crossbred cow 
has had some difficulties. In her sec- 
ond lactation this cow gave birth to a 
calf at 245 days which did not live. 
At that time her udder had only just 
begun to make up to its coming lacta- 
tion. Consequently Crossbred No. 22 
produced no milk for this lactation. 
The lactations which have been per- 
fectly normal and which are used to 
determine her milk production are 
those commencing at two years and 
three months and at three years and ten 
months. The abortion which came in 
between these dates is thought to have 
come from an accident in the yard dur- 
ing the time the cows were out for 
exercise and not from contagious abor- 
tion of cattle. This supposition is 
made somewhat stronger by the fact 
that only rare cases of this kind have 
appeared in the herd and then were 
some time apart. 

From the upper graph of Fig. 15 it 
is clearly seen that the milk yield of 
Crossbred No. 22 is intermediate be- 
tween that of her high and her low 
producing line ancestrally speaking. 
The lactation for each month is how- 
ever nearer the milk yield of the high 
parent than it is near the low parent. 
Thus during the first eight months, 
the milk yield of Crossbred No. 22 was 
3320.8 pounds, her high producing 
dam. College Creusa produced 4057.9 
pounds and her low producing sire, 
Kayan's, potential production was 
1661.5 pounds. Crossbred No. 22 was 
consequently 737.1 pounds of milk less 
than her high producing parent and 
1659.3 pounds more in milk yield than 
her low producing parent or Crossbred 
No. 22 favored the milk yield of the 
high line 2.3 times as closely as she did 
the milk yield of the low line. 

The record for Crossbred No. 26 to- 
gether with that of her parent is shown 
in the second graph of Fig. 15. The 
mating which produced this cow was 



Kayan, Aberdeen Angus bull, bred to 
Creusa of Orono 3d, Guernsey cow. 
The milk yield of this crossbred cow is 
intermediate between that of her high 
and low parents for the first four 
months of lactation. After the fourth 
month the milk yield of the high parent 
is surpassed by that of the crossbred. 
As will be noted from the other pre- 
ceding graphs this is the first instance 
where the crossbred has actually sur- 
passed the milk yield of her two par- 
ents. The milk yield of Crossbred 
No. 26 for the eight months period is 
4303.5 pounds, that for Creusa of Orono 
3d is 4156.1 pounds and for Kayan 
1661.5 pounds. The crossbred cow 
produced 147.4 pounds more milk than 
her purebred Guernsey parent and 
2642.0 pounds more than her sire's 
potential milk yield. Crossbred No. 
26 consequently resembles the high 
line of production 17.9 times as closely 
as she does the low line of production. 
Crossbred No. 26 produced this 
amount of milk when calving at one of 
the most unfavorable times of the year, 
September, whereas the lactation of 
her parents came in months which 
were favorable to an average yield. 

Crossbred No. 27 was the result of 
a mating of the Jersey bull. Lakeland's 
Poet, to the Aberdeen Angus cow, 
Orono Madge. The milk yield of 
Crossbred No. 27 is shown in the third 
graph of Fig. 15. For the first four 
months of lactation tlie milk produc- 
tion of this cow is lower than that of 
the intermediate between the high and 
the low milk producing lines of her 
ancestry. From the fourth month of 
lactation this crossbred's milk pro- 
duction continues to constantly ap- 
proach the milk production of her high 
line ancestry. In describing the milk 
production of this cow it might be said 
it was the persistence with which this 
cow maintained her milk production 
month after month rather than the 
large quantity of her milk yield at any 
one time that causes her to be inter- 
mediate between the high and low lines 
of production. In this connection it 
should be said that this crossbred cow 
commenced her lactations in two 



Gowen : Transmission of Milk Yield 



3^3 



months quite unfavorable to a high 
milk flow for the subsequent eight 
months of production. 

The milk yield for the eight months 
period was 2995.7 pounds for Cross- 
bred No. 27; 3919.0 pounds for Lake- 
land's Poet, her purebred Jersey sire; 
and 1569.3 pounds for Orono Madge, 
her purebred Aberdeen Angus dam. 
The crossbred cow's milk production 
was consequently 923.3 pounds less 
than her high producing sire and 1426.4 
pounds more than her low producing 
dam. The crossbred cow resembled 
the high producing parent 1.5 times 
as closely for the eight months period 
as she did her low producing dam. 

The fourth graph of Fig. 15 shows the 
monthly milk yield of Crossbred No. 
29 and her purebred parents. Cross- 
bred No. 29 is the result of a cross 
between the Aberdeen Angus bull, 
Kayan, and the Guernsey cow, Creusa's 
Lady. The milk yield of the crossbred 
cow is intermediate between that of 
her high milk producing parent and 
her low milk producing parent for the 
first four months of lactation. After 
the fourth month Crossbred No. 29 
follows the high line of production 
quite closely until the last two months 
of her lactation when she approaches 
the intermediate again. 

For the eight months lactation period 
Crossbred No. 29 produced 2909.7 
pounds of milk; her purebred Guernsey 
parent produced 3271.5 pounds and 
her Aberdeen Angus sire s potential 
milk yield was 1661.5 pounds. The 
difference of the crossbred's milk yield 
and that of her Guernsey mother was 
361.8 pounds. The difference from 
the potential milk yield of her sire was 
1248.2 pounds. The crossbred cow 
consequently resembled her high pro- 
ducing line 3.4 times as closely as she 
did her low producing line. 

Crossbred No. 37 was the result of 
mating Kayan, Aberdeen Angus, to 
Dot Alaska, Ayrshire. The milk pro- 
duction of this crossbred exceeded that 
of her high line Ayrshire dam during 
the first four months of lactation. 
After that time the milk yield was ap- 
proximately equal. During the first 



eight months of lactation Crossbred 
No. 37 produced 3984.7 pounds of milk 
or 129.0 pounds more than the produc- 
tion of her purebred Ayrshire dam. 
The potential milk production of 
Kayan was 1661.5. pounds, or Crossbred 
No. 37, his offspring, produced 2323.2 
pounds more milk than this potential 
yield. The crossbred cow was conse- 
quently 18 times as close to the high 
line of production as she was to the low 
line of production. The time of calv- 
ing during the year was favorable to 
medium to high yield records. 

Crossbred No. 44 was the result of 
crossing the Holstein-Friesian bull, 
Taurus Creamelle Hengerveld on to 
the Aberdeen Angus cow, Orono 
Madge. The bottom graph of Fig. 15 
shows the milk production of the two 
parents and the crossbred. Too much 
weight should not be given this record 
as the first lactation record is as yet not 
even complete. It is to be expected 
that subsequent lactation records may 
modify considerably the record of this 
crossbred cow from what it is as it now 
stands. For the first four months of 
lactation the crossbred cow occupies a 
strictly intermediate position between 
the high and low lines of production. 
After the fourth month the lactation 
record approaches the high line of pro- 
duction. The milk yield for the eight 
months period was 4306.3 pounds for 
Crossbred No. 44; 5548.9 pounds for 
the potential milk yield of the pure bred 
Holstein-Friesian sire; and 1569.3 
pounds for the Aberdeen Angus dam. 
The crossbred cow was 2737.0 pounds 
more milk than its low producing dam 
and 1242.6 pounds less than its high 
line sire. The crossbred resembles the 
high line of production 2.2 times as 
closely as it does the low line of pro- 
duction. 

DOMINANCE OF MILK PRODUCING FAC- 
TORS 

If the substance of the preceding 
pages is recapitulated it is found that 
Crossbred No. 1 resembles her low 
producing parent 7.7 times as closely as 
she does the high producing parent. 
The other eleven crossbreds resemble 



3H 



The Journal of Heredity 



the high producing line of milk pro- 
duction from 1.5 to 18.0 times as closely 
as they do the low line of milk produc- 
tion. If this paralleling of the high 
line production is averaged, it is found 
that the crossbreds resemble the high 
line of production 4.76 times as closely 
as they do the low line. These facts 
argue for the transmission of milk 
production by factors which show par- 
tial dominance. It would not seem 
that they argued for increased vigor 
of heterosis only because of the case 
of Crossbred No. 1, where the low line 
milk yield was definitely transmitted 
instead of the high yield. In fact it 
would appear that this crossbred is 
more likely to be a segregate of low 
milking factors from the high milking 
factors carried by her dam. 

Three levels of milk production are 
crossed in these experiments. The 
Aberdeen Angus cattle constitute the 
lowest level, the Jersey, Guernsey and 
Ayrshire cattle averaging about the 
same in milk yield constitute the in- 
termediate level of production and the 
Holstein-Friesian cattle having the 
highest yield represent the highest level 
of production. It is of some interest to 
compare the results of crossing the differ- 
ent levels. If we omit the result of Cross- 
bred No. 1 it is found that the Holstein- 
Friesian cows or bulls mated to the 
second group of cows or bulls (Jersey, 
Guernsey, or Ayrshire) produced three 
offspring who are 8.43 times as near the 
milk production of the high level on the 
average as they were the low line of 
production. 

The only cross involving the Hol- 
stein-Friesian and Aberdeen Angus, 
Crossbred No. 44, was 2.2 times as 
close to the high line of production as 
she was close to the low line of her 
parent's milk yield. 

It is of interest to note in this con- 
nection that Crossbred No. 44's milk 
yield resembles closely the milk yield 
of the intermediate group (Jersey, 
Guernsey and Ayrshire) of these exper- 
iments. 



The crosses involving the second 
level of milk production (Jersey, Guern- 
sey and Ayrshire) mated to the third 
group Aberdeen Angus, had crossbred 
offspring resembling the high line 7.7 
times as closely as they did the low 
line of production. This figure com- 
pares favorably with that of the Hol- 
stein-Friesian X Jersey crosses. 

If the crosses are compared to de- 
termine what effect the high line on the 
sire's side of the cross may have in com- 
parison with the effect produced by the 
high line being on the dam's side of the 
cross it is found that the results in the 
three lines are contradictory. When 
the Holstein-Friesian sires were mated 
to second class dams. Guernseys, the 
offspring resembled the high line 11.3 
times as closely as she did the low line. 
When the Jersey sire, second class, was 
mated to the Holstein-Friesian cows, 
highest class, the milk production once 
resembled the high class 2.7 to 1, and 
once the low line 7.7 to 1. The crosses 
involving the highest milk line, Hol- 
stein-Friesian bull, to the lowest milk- 
ing line Aberdeen Angus cow produced 
an offspring resembling the high line 
2.2 times as closely as the low line. 
The crosses of the second level in milk 
production to the third level show that 
when the higher level is on the sire's 
side the daughters resembled the high 
line 3.6 times as closely as they do the 
low line. When the higher level is on 
the dam's side the daughters resembled 
the high line 9.34 times as closely as 
they did the low line. It seems doubt- 
ful from these results if there are modi- 
fying sex linked factors present. 

MENDELIAN TRANSMISSION OF MILK 

YIELD 

The literature on this subject is 
surprisingly meag r considering the 
economic importance of milk and its 
products. Of those studies which are 
available that made by- Wilson* is one 
of the earliest. This paper is devoted 
to showing that with such a breed as 
the red Dannish there may be wide 



•Wilson, James. 1911. The Inheritance of Milk Yield in Cattle. In Sci. Proc. Roy. 
Dublin Soc. Vol. 13, pp. 89-112. 



Gowen: Transmission of Milk Yield 



315 



difference between the milk yield of 
the daughter and the dam, — that is 
these differences do not always blend 
gradually, in fact as a rule they pro- 
gress by wide steps. Further it is at- 
tempted to show that the sires in the 
red Dannish breed appear to be differ- 
entiated into those whose daughters 
are all low producers; those whose 
daughters may be low producers, me- 
dium producers, and high producers; 
and thirdly those whose daughters are 
all high producers. The data to sup- 
port these conclusions are admittedly 
fragmentary and open to several criti- 
cisms. It is however held to show that 
milk yield is transmitted in mendelian 
fashion with the heterozygote inter- 
mediate between the pure forms. 

The manner of grouping the data 
and its correction for age, etc., would 
seem to more or less force this con- 
clusion. It does therefore offer no 
further critical information to differ- 
entiate between the transmission of 
milk yield by factors showing partial 
dominance as was apparently the case 
in our experiment and any other hy- 
pothesis. 

Two practical experiments carried 
on by breeders in England are of par- 
ticular interest as their crosses parallel 
some of those in these experiments. 
The object of the experiments was to 
cross the Jersey with the Aberdeen- 
Angus and to fix in the resulting off- 
spring the hardiness of the Angus with 
the milk yield of the Jersey. The 
original crosses were made Aberdeen- 
Angus bull to Jersey cows. Although 
records were kept, no figures are cited 
in the paper* on this herd. The quali- 
tative statement is, however, made 
that the Fi cows show a high yield of 



milk, ranking almost as high as their 
Jersey dams. 

In another section of England a 
similar cross was made by another 
breeder with the same objects in view. 
This breeder, Mr. Stevens,^ makes a 
similar statement in regard to the milk 
yield of the Fi cows. 

Kildee and McCandlish,^ record a 
similar experiment which incidentally 
furnishes some data on the transmission 
of milk yield. They crossed scrub 
cattle whose milk yield averaged be- 
tween 3300 and 3900 pounds to Hol- 
stein-Friesian sires. The resulting Fi 
offspring averaged 5561.6 pounds of 
milk. Crosses to Guernsey and to 
Jersey bulls did not increase the Fi 
average production over that of the 
scrubs, although one daughter of a 
Guernsey sire did nearly double her 
milk yield over that of her dam. No 
age correction was applied to these 
records. The length of lactation was 
also not strictly comparable between 
animals. Several bulls of each breed 
were used. Despite these handicaps 
the results indicate that there was a 
partial dominance for milk yield ex- 
pressed in the Fi offspring of the Hol- 
stein-Friesian sires. The case of the 
single exceptional offspring of one of the 
Guernsey sires can likewise be explained 
on this basis for it has been shown that 
within a breed wide differences be- 
tween sires in their ability to transmit 
milk yield may occur.® Such differ- 
ences of course argue for differences 
in the factors for transmitting milk 
yield within the breeds similar to those 
illustrated in the experiments previ- 
ously described. 

Another extensive experiment was 
begun for similar practical objects by 



« Parlour, W. Jersey-Angus Cattle. In Live Stock Jour. (London) 77 (1913) No. 2025, p. 85. 
Kuhlman, A. H. Jersey- Angus Cattle. In Jour. Heredity 5 (1915) No. 2, pp. 68-72. 

^ Stevens, H. D. E. Jersey-Angus Cattle. In Live Stock Jour. (London) 77 (1913) No. 2025, 
p. 132. 

* Kildee, H. H. and McCandlish, A. C. 1916. Influence of Environment and Breeding in 
Increasing Dairy Production. Bui. 165. Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station, pp. 383-402. 

* Pearl, Raymond, Gowen, John W., and Miner, John Rice. 1919. Studies in Milk Secretion. 
VII. Transmitting Qualities of Jersey Sires for Milk Yield, Butter-Fat Percentage and Butter- 
Fat. Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. Annual Report for 1919, pp. 89-205. 

Gowen, John W. 1919. Report of Progress on Animal Husbandry Investigations in 1919. 
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. Annual Report for 1919, pp. 249-284. 



3i6 



The Journal of Heredity 



Mr. Bowlker on the crossing of the 
Guernsey and Holstein-Friesian breeds 
of cattle. The results as analyzed by 
Castle^® show that the milk yield for 
31 Fi heifers resembled that of the 
Holstein-Friesian parents 1.88 times 
as closely as it did the Guernsey par- 
ents in the first lactation. In the sec- 
ond lactation the resemblance of the 
milk yield of the Fi crossbreds was 3.78 
times as close to the Holstein-Friesian 
parents as it was to the Guernsey par- 
ents. Unfortunately these records are 
subject to some criticism perhaps the 
most serious of which is the fact that 
all records of a given group, parents or 
crossbreds, are lumped together and 
the average used instead of being sub- 
ject to individual analysis. Such a 



lumping together would hide such re- 
sults as that of the mating for Cross- 
bred No. 1. Another criticism of more 
or less serious nature comes in the 
throwing together of milk records of 
animals of quite diflferent ages without 
applying age corrections. Considering 
these disturbing features the results are 
on the whole quite similar to those 
presented in this paper. 

In the light of these all too meager 
data the results of this paper would 
seem to be supported by those of the 
other investigations on this subject. 
Such being the case the conclusion 
seems sound that the inheritance of 
milk yield appears to show a partial 
dominance of the high milk yield to the 
low milk yield. 



'° Castle, W. E. 1919. Inheritance of Quantity and Quality of Milk Production in Dairy 
Cattle. In Proc. Nat. Acad., Vol. 5, pp. 428-434. 



OUR MOST SIGNIFICANT CROPS— OUR BOYS AND GIRLS 



"War throws a spotlight of convinc- 
ing clearness upon national defects. 
. . . We are beginning to suspect, if 
not to fully realize, that even more 
essential and fundamental to the integ- 
rity and permanency of a nation than 
scientific progress, political achieve- 
ment, industrial development and eco- 
nomic accomplishment, are biologic 
soundness and fitness, the health of the 
people. 

**This national asset, health, while 
the most essential, is at the present 
time the most endangered of all our 
natural resources. 

"Shall we not provide as thorough 
and effective health care and physical 
education for the children of our coun- 
try as we furnish for the young men 
in the army and navy?" 

"What about the basic needs of the 
great draft army of the nation's chil- 
dren who must supply the human 
units of the citizenry of the next genera- 
tion; who must bear the burden of 
civilization in peace and in war? What 



shall we do about the neglect of the 
children who hold the future of civili- 
zation in their immature lives?" 

"The children of our country deserve 
as effective physical care as the live- 
stock. 

"The children are entitled, even in 
war times, to as careful attention and 
cultivation as the crops." 

"Shall not the children, drafted by 
compulsory education into our schools, 
be assured of as skillful and satisfactory 
care as the soldiers in camp?" 

"I wish you appreciated the children 
and youth of this republic. They 
make up, in possibilities, the finest 
generation of human beings the world 
has ever seen. They make you feel 
that even more than the great museums 
and monuments, more than great indus- 
trial plants and ships, more than great 
skyscrapers and cathedrals, they should 
be guarded and protected, cultivated 
and developed for America — for the 
World." — From an address by Thomas 
D, Wood, M.D,y Columbia University, 
New York, 



HERITABLE CHARACTERS OF MAIZE 

V. ADHERENCE 

J. H. Kempton 
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Departmejit of Agriculture 



ADHERENCE is a variation in 
which the leaves, bracts and in- 
florescences coalesce. Any or 
all of these organs may adhere to one 
another to a varying extent. In ex- 
treme cases the upper leaves and ter- 
minal inflorescences are so firmly com- 
pacted into a hardened mass that the 
parts can not be separated. In less ex- 
treme cases the adhering organs sepa- 
rate naturally with the pressure of the 
growing parts. Frequently the leaves 
and even husks adhere so firmly to 
other organs that they are ruptured by 
the force of the elongating plant or 
shoot and such plants have a charac- 
teristic ragged appearance. 

In some cases the variation is exhib- 
ited in seedlings but unless the leaves 
of the young plants adhere so firmly as 
to prevent further growth, the plants 
recover and apparently grow normally 
until the ear bearing node is reached, 
at which stage their adherent nature 
is manifested again. (See Fig. 16.) 

The firm union of the upper leaves 
prevents proper elongation, causing 
startling contortions of the confined 
culms. (See Fig. 18.) When the ear 
is included in the adhering mass the 
enclosing husks also are united and 
unless they are opened artificially the 
silks cannot be exserted. 

In many cases the growing ear, held 
firmly at the upper end, is forced into 
contortions similar to those of the culm. 
(See Fig. 19.) This purely mechanical 
inhibition of elongation reduces the 
length of the affected internodes as well 
as the ear and where the variation is 
pronounced, seed rarely is obtained. 
The tassels of such plants are greatly 
altered, being compressed into a solid 
structure, never expanding into the fa- 
miliar branched panicle. In such an ad- 
herent inflorescence pollen is shed only 



from the spikelets of the lower or outer 
branches and not even from these un- 
less the inflorescence has been artifi- 
cially liberated from the confining mass 
of sheaths and blades. In less extreme 
cases the tip of the central spike will be 
exserted naturally, producing a small 
quantity of pollen and it is from such 
plants as these that the variation is 
propagated most readily. 

The glumes of the staminate spike- 
lets often are reduced greatly in length 
and altered in appearance resembling 
the hardened glumes of the ear. Not 
infrequently they have been so reduced 
in length that the anthers protrude 
from the unopened spikelets. The 
firmly compacted male inflorescence 
with the altered glumes strongly sug- 
gests the cob of ear, but when such an 
inflorescence is sectioned there is no 
evidence of fasciation and the interior 
branches and central spike are found 
to have developed spikelets. 

BREEDING MUST ELIMINATE ADHERENT 

PLANTS 

The undesirability and entire worth- 
lessness of adherent plants needs no 
emphasis and the variation takes its 
place with the ever increasing list of 
detrimental recessive abnormalities 
which breeding must eliminate. 

The adherent variation was found 
in the second generation of a hybrid 
between the Boone County white 
variety and brachytic.^ Two plants of 
a brachytic progeny were crossed with 
two plants of an inbred strain of Boone. 
In each cross brachytic plants were 
used as the female parents. The plants 
of the first generations were all normal 
and of grea.tly increased vigor. 

Several self-pollinated ears were ob- 
tained from both hybrids but only three 



» Kempton, J. H. A Brachytic Variation in Maize. U. S. Dept. of Agr. Bull. 925. Feb. 1921. 



Kempton: Heritable Characters of Maize 



cars which, as the illustrations show, 
are often greatly twisted. This fact 
must Iw borne in mind in considering 
the results obtained with the progeny 
of adherent plants. The classification 
of the plants of the progenies of the ad- 
herent variation is shown in Table li. 
Three progenies were grown from 
self -pollinated adherent plants, and 
two of them produced six apparently 
normal plants in a population of 68, 
the others being adherent. These may 
have resulted from faulty technique 
in pollinating or perhaps a failure to 
develop the character to a noticeable 
degree. This latter hypothesis would 
seem the more plausible in view of the 
large number of normal plants pro- 
duced by crosses between adherent 
plants, and the fact that the normal 
plants were no more vigorous than their 
adherent sisters. Self- pollinated ears 
have been obtained from these normal 
individuals, and they will be tested 
next season, 

ADHERENCE * 

Of the progenies grown from self- 
pollinated adherent plants, two pro- 
duced adherent plants of brachytic 
stature, disposing of the hypothesis 
that normal stature is closely linked 
with the adherent variation. (See 
Fig. 17.) Eight brachytic plants pro- 
duced by the progenies in which the 
adherent variation was found were self- 
pollinated. These eight plants were 
normal with respect to the adherent 
character but progenies of two of them 
segregated into normal, and adherent. 
The percentage of adherent plants in 
these two brachytic progenies is sur- 
prisingly large for a .simple Mende- 
lian character, but the populations 
were so small that the deviations may 
be due to chance. Plants combining 
the brachytic and adherent variations 
are extremely hard to propagate and 
no self -pollinated seed was obtained 
from them. 



PARTLY DISSECTED ADHERENT 
PLANT OF NORMAL STATURE 
Showing the twisted car anil the coalesced up- 
per sheaths. Photograph natural size. (Fig. 19) 



322 



The Journal of Heredity 



A normal brachytic plant was crossed 
with an adherent plant of normal stat- 
ure and the first generation segregated 
into equal number of brachytic and 
normal plants indicating that the ad- 
herent parent was heterozygous for 
brachysm, affording additional evi- 
dence that adherence is not linked with 
normal stature. 

Considering the possibihties for va- 



riability inexpression and the difficulty 
of propagating extreme plants it would 
seem not unreasonable to assume that 
adherence is a simple Mendelian char- 
acter recessive to the normal condition 
and its linkage relations to the other 
variations should be studied. Owing 
to the difficulty in obtaining seed only 
very small quantities can be furnished 
interested investigators. 



Designation 


Normal Stature 


Brachytic Stature 


Adherent % in 


% Adherent in 
plants of nor- 
mal stature 


Normal | Adherent 


Normal 


Adherent 




Dh436WlL19 

Dh436W2L19 


66 

58 


I 


18 
24 






16.8±2.49 
21.2±2.71 


20.S±2.98 
27.5±3.35 


Total 


124 


39 


42 





19.0±1.85 


23.9±2,25 



Table U—CtassiJUation o} the Plants o} the Progenies of the Adherent Variation 



THE IMMIGRATION PROBLEM 

TODAY 

Robert De C. Ward 
Harvard University, Cambridge , Mass. 



WE ARE facing the most serious 
crisis which has ever arisen in the 
history of immigration to the 
United States. The facts in the present 
situation should be widely known. 
Without an intelligent understanding 
of the problem, no sound and con- 
structive immigration legislation can 
be framed. The essential facts are as 
follows. They are not exaggerated, and 
are all based on authoritative sources 
of information. 

First: The Rising Tide of Iinmigration 

As was to be expected, immigration 
has shown a tremendous increase dur- 
ing the past few months. Since July 1, 
1920, the alien arrivals at the port of 
New York alone have averaged about 
3000 a day. During the present calen- 
dar year the total has come close to 
1,000,000, approximating pre-war 
figures. And, as Commissioner 
F. A. Wallis, New York, has put it, 
"All records are going to be shattered 
from January on.** **Whole races of 
Europe are preparing to remove to the 
United States. Never since the early 
days of barbarian Europe has there 
been such a wholesale migration of 
population as that which is now in 
contemplation, with the United States 
as the destination.*' Considerably 
more than 1,000,000 aliens will come 
in 1921 unless we erect a barrier to cut 
down their numbers. On Nov. 15 last, 
more than 16,600 aliens were either at 
Ellis Island, or on ships in New York 
harbor awaiting inspection. On Dec. 
19, 12,000 came in on eight steamships. 
These are not unique cases. Incoming 
steamers are crowded to their utmost 
capacity. A group of steamship agents 
not long ago told Commissioner Wallis 
that immigration to the United States 
had barely started; that 15,000,000 



men, women and children, representing 
every nationality in Europe, are "fight- 
ing for passage to the United States.** 
These estimates take no account of the 
German immigration which, in the 
opinion of every competent authority, 
will start to come here as soon as the 
existing technical state of war is ter- 
minated. This German immigration 
is estimated at from 2,000,000 to 
10,000,000, with the balance of proba- 
bility in favor of the larger figures. 
Surgeon-General H. S. Gumming, of 
the U. S. Public Health Service, has 
expressed it as his view that at least 
7,000,000 people are trying to get here 
from European and Asiatic countries 
where serious epidemic diseases are 
rampant. In the opinion of Commis- 
sioner Wallis, as stated before the 
Senate Immigration Committee on 
Jan. 5, 1921, Eastern Europe"is in the 
grip of four epidemics — typhus, ty- 
phoid, dysentery and tuberculosis." 
The war has undermined the health of 
the natives of those countries, and such 
immigrants are * 'dangerous to the public 
health of the United States.*' 

Such a situation has never before 
confronted us. This is not "normal** 
immigration. It is a frenzy, a panic, a 
stampede, a mob, without calculation, 
without sound judgment; a seething 
mass of humanity with but one idea — 
America. 

Second : The Undesirable Character of 
the Impending Immigration 

The most recent, unprejudiced and 
authoritative reports on the general 
conditions of the aliens who are plan- 
ning to come to this country are those 
received by the Consular Service of the 
Department of State, from officers of 
this Government who have personally 
visited the various countries abroad. 



3'^3 



324 



The Journal of Heredity 



This evidence is embodied, in a con- 
densed form, in Report No. 1109, 66th 
Congress, 3rd Session (Dec. 6, 1920), 
submitted from the Committee on 
Immigration and Naturalization, to 
accompany House Bill No. 14461. 
It is clear that a majority of these 
prospective immigrants are "physi- 
cally deficient"; "mentally deficient"; 
"economically undesirable"; "socially 
undesirable"; of low standards of 
living, "not of the most desirable 
class." 

In the light of these reports by 
United States Consular Officers, the 
House Immigration Committee is cer- 
tainly stating the case very mildly 
when it says in its own report: "The 
Committee is confirmed in the belief 
that the major portion of recent ar- 
rivals come without funds. It was 
apparent to the Committee that a 
large percentage of those arriving 
were incapable of earning a livelihood. 
.... A study of the new immigra- 
tion from Central Europe convinced 
many members of the Immigration 
Committee that the arriving immi- 
grants are not those who might go to 
farms; that they are not agricultur- 
ists, but mainly additional population 
for our principal coastal cities and 
congested industrial districts." 

On this same point, the following 
statement from a foreign correspondent 
of the Philadelphia Public Ledger^ in a 
cablegram dated Warsaw, Dec. 11, 
1920, may be quoted: 

"The most extraordinary, hopeless, 
destitute and pathetic emigration 
which the world has known now is 
making its way to America, the prom- 
ised land, through Poland from as 
far east as Kief, and from the Russian 
territory north and east of the Black 
Sea. Even from Georgia, masses of 
poor, disease-laden people are making 
their way to America. 

"Within three weeks, 150,000 have 
reached the Warsaw territory. This 
is only a beginning. Unfortunately, 
Bolshevist agitators and Communists 
are with the majority of the hordes and 
are confident that in the general con- 
fusion they will be able to get into 



America, where they propose to spread 
propaganda. 

"American citizens in Warsaw are 
distressed and alarmed over the char- 
acter of the immigration. . . . 

"The Warsaw government has pro- 
tested to the American consulate that 
the gathering of people in Warsaw is 
creating a dangerous health condition, 
asking that steps be taken to correct 
the conditions. The American officials 
have no power to check the Russian 
flood to Poland." 

A recent writer has said: "Ignorant 
of our language, of our laws and in- 
stitutions, of our industrial and agri- 
cultural methods, what would this 
seething mass of wretchedness do if 
dumped on our shores? What but 
add to its woes and our own? How 
could we make room for it? How 
educate it? How fit it for any part 
in our scheme?" 

Third: The Impossibility of Adequate 

Inspection 

At best, during slack immigration, 
our inspection of incoming aliens is 
none too effective. Now, with the 
flood of immigration, medical and 
general inspection is hopelessly inade- 
quate. Our laws for the exclusion of 
insane, idiotic, imbecile, feeble-minded 
and diseased immigrants are excellent, 
on paper. But when aliens file past 
the inspectors with more or less of the 
speed at which a line of people at a 
railroad station files by a ticket-window 
it is clear that most cases of mental and 
many of physical deficiency get by. 
The need of more "hands" to do our 
labor is constantly being urged. 
"Hands across the sea" are the cheap- 
est, so we import them. Let us not for- 
get that we are importing not "hands" 
alone but bodies and hereditary ten- 
dencies also. It is of vital consequence 
that the quality of these human beings 
who come to us from other lands 
should be of the best, so that they shall 
not injure but shall improve our stock. 
Every day that passes witnesses the 
landing on our shores of many aliens 
whose coming here is absolutely cer- 
tain to result in a deterioration of the 



Ward: The Immigration Problem Today 



325 



mental and physical standards of the 
American race of the future. This is 
not a chance sensational statement. 
It is the conviction of competent 
medical authorities who know the 
present conditions of immigration, and 
the wholly perfunctory and inade- 
quate medical inspection which passes 
the aliens without proper examination 
as to their physical and mental con- 
dition. 

Fourth: A Period of nnemplo3rment 

Has Begun, and Immigration is Not 

Needed to Supply Labor 

The enormous industrial demands 
during the war, and the later expansion 
of our export trade, naturally resulted 
in a great influx of workers from the 
country districts into the cities, and of 
a very considerable abandonment of 
domestic service for the better paid 
positions in industry. This change in 
the conditions of employment brought 
about a shortage of farm labor and also 
a shortage of domestic servants. But 
the tide has turned. There is a general 
slackening of industrial activity. Mills 
and shops are slowing down or closing. 
In many cases employees have been 
willing to accept a reduction in wages 
rather than have their jobs cease 
altogether for a time. We are facing 
a period of general unemployment. 
Already a flow of labor from the cities 
to the country is reported to be setting 
in, and farm labor will again be sup- 
plied by men who left the farms for the 
mills and machine shops. On the other 
hand, also, thousands of women who 
left domestic service for industrial work 
will soon be ready to go back to their 
old jobs, and at lower wages than they 
have been receiving in industry. In 
other words, the crisis in the labor 
situation has passed. Unemployment 
will increase. A wholesale immigra- 



tion is not needed, and will greatly 
aggravate the approaching economic 
situation. 

There is surely something radically 
wrong in the following situation: Hun- 
dreds of thousands of men and women 
already in the United States are out of 
work, and their number is increasing 
daily. Congress and State and munici- 
pal authorities are being urged to pro- 
vide work and support for these people 
at public expense. Yet every week 
there are being landed at our ports 
thousands of aliens, the large majority 
of whom are very close to the pauper 
line, and all of whom must, in some way 
dr other, be provided with work, or else 
be supported by public or private 
funds. Where is the logic, or the jus- 
tice, in such a condition of things? 
Canada, which handles its problem of 
alien immigration far more effectively 
and far more intelligently than we 
handle ours, has recently increased the 
individual financial entrance require- 
ment to $250 in order to improve the 
condition of unemployment now pre- 
vailing in the Dominion.^ 

Fifth: Present and Impending Immi- 
gration Will Not Furnish the Kind 
of Labor Needed on Farms 

This point has already been em- 
phasized in the Consular Reports and 
in the Report of the House Immigra- 
tion Committee above referred to. 
Only 2.8% of the immigrants of the 
past year purported to be "farmer.** 
Our past experience has shown that 
immigrants inevitably flock to centers 
where their compatriots are already 
congregated. This is happening now. 
The large majority of incoming aliens 
are going to our great cities, and to the 
congested districts. Delegations of 
representative citizens from certain 
Western cities have recently been to 



» "Paragraphs 1 to 3 of the former Order-in-Council, applicable to mechanics, artisans and 
laborers, have been suspended, and four others substituted, by which "no immigrant of the 
mechanic, artisan or laborer classes, whether skilled or unskilled, shall be allowed to land in Canada 
unless he possesses in his own rieht money to the amount of $250, and in addition transportation 
to his destination in Canada. If an immigrant in the classes mentioned is accompanied by his 
family, he must possess in addition to transportation for his family to their destination, a further 
sum of $125 for every member eighteen years old or over and $50 for each child to five years old 
and under eighteen years." 



326 



The Journal of Heredity 



Ellis Island, to urge upon the Commis- 
sioner of Immigration there the impor- 
tance of sending the new arrivals to the 
farming districts, in order that the 
cities from which these delegations 
came may not be further burdened with 
great numbers of new immigrants. 
The Federal authorities are said to be 
doing what they can to '^distribute" 
as many aliens as possible. But, as 
President Roosevelt well said in one 
of his messages to Congress, "distri- 
bution is a palliative, not a cure.** Even 
if many thousands of aliens were ac- 
tually "distributed** where there is a 
lack of farm laborers, the majority of 
them would not be effective. What our 
great farming districts need is highly 
intelligent labor. They want men who 
are skilled in American farming meth- 
ods. They want men who can manage 
modern agricultural machinery. They 
do not want ignorant, unskilled, non- 
English-speaking foreigners, who know 
little beyond the use of a primitive 
kind of hoe. The writer has talked 
with many men who own large farms 
in the Middle West, and he has found 
them of one mind on this matter. 

It is highly significant that at the 
40th Annual Session of the Farmers* 
National Congress, held at Columbus, 
Ohio, with delegates from over 30 
States in attendance, the following 
resolution was unanimously adopted 
(Nov. 19, 1920):"Resolved, That we 
are unalterably opposed to the pro- 
posed diversion and distribution of 
aliens over the farming districts until 
immigration is rigidly restricted, nu- 
merically or otherwise.** 

Sixth: A Large Immigration Vastly In- 
creases and Complicates Our Task 
of Americanization 

The sudden outburst of patriotic 
desire to Americanize our unassimi- 
lated alien population was a direct re- 
sult of the war. The nation came all 
at once to realize how vitally necessary 
it is to weld our heterogeneous popula- 
tion into a more homogeneous whole. 
The problem of illiteracy among our 
native-born, serious enough itself, has 
been very greatly complicated by 



allowing millions of aliens who cannot 
speak, or understand, or read English 
to land on our shores. The first stage 
in making Americans out of our for- 
eign-born population must be to give 
them a speaking and reading knowledge 
of English. There is a limit to our 
national power of assimilation. To 
allow immigration to continue in the 
years to come at its prewar rate, or at 
what will doubtless be an even higher 
rate, is like trying to keep a boat 
bailed out without stopping the leak. 
A further restriction of immigration 
is a necessary and logical part of the 
Americanization program. 

One of the most significant state- 
ments regarding the bearing of recent 
immigration upon the general problems 
of assimilation and of Americanization 
was that made by the November Grand 
Jury of King*s County, N. Y. This 
body, on Dec. 3, 1920, handed to 
County Judge May a presentment urg- 
ing legislation by Congress to "pro- 
hibit the immigration into this country 
of all who cannot read and write Eng- 
lish and who do not possess an intelli- 
gent understanding of the fundamental 
ideas of human liberty.** 

*'The stream of our national life,** the 
presentment continued, "cannot rise 
higher than its source. To permit any 
further pollution of this stream is to 
intensify both our foreign as well as our 
domestic problems. It will foster dis- 
union, instead of promoting union. 
Instead of continuing as a nation of 
high ideals, we shall degenerate into 
a mere medley of races, a hodgepodge 
of nationalities.*' 

These are strong words, but every- 
one who has studied our national and 
municipal problems knows that they 
are true. 

Seventh: The Ethics of Immigration 

Restriction 

When refugees from war-stricken 
Europe are mentioned, there naturally 
arises in our minds the thought, "Is it 
right for us to prevent any of these 
people from coming here? Is it not 
un-American; contrary to our 'tradi- 
tional* policy of providing *a refuge 



Ward: The Immigration Problem Today 



327 



for the oppressed?' *' Sentiment can 
never solve great national problems. 
The indiscriminate kindness which we 
may seem to be able to show to the 
coming millions of European and 
Asiatic immigrants can in no conceiv- 
able way counter-balance the harm 
that these people may do to our race, 
especially if large numbers of them are 
mentally and physically unfit. 

Indiscriminate hospitality to immi- 
grants is a supremely short-sighted, 
selfish, ungenerous, un-American pol- 
icy. It may give some of us, for 
the moment, a comfortable feeling that 
we are providing a "refuge for the 
oppressed." But that is as narrow a 
state of mind as that which indiscrimi- 
nately gives alms to any person on the 
street who asks for money. Such 
**charity" may, truly, produce a warm 
feeling of personal generosity in the 
giver himself. But alms-giving of this 
sort does more harm than good. It is 
likely to pauperize him who receives, 
and it inevitably increases the burden 
of pauperism which future generations 
will have to bear. We have no right to 
saddle any additional burdens upon the 
already overburdened coming genera- 
tions of Americans. It is in the highest 
degree un-American for us to permit 
any such influx of alien immigrants as 
will make the process of assimilation 
and amalgamation of our foreign popu- 
lation any more difficult than it already 
is. The situation is discouraging 
enough already. 

Our policy of admitting freely practi- 
cally all who have wished to come, and 
of encouraging them in every possible 
way to come, has not only tremen- 
dously complicated all our own national 
problems but has not helped the intro- 
duction of political, social, economic 
and educational reforms abroad. In- 
deed, it has rather delayed the progress 
of these very movements in which we, 
as Americans, are so vitally interested. 
Had the millions of immigrants who 
have come to us within the last quarter- 
century remained at home, they would 
have insisted on the introduction of 
reforms in their own countries which 
have been delayed, decade after decade. 



because the discontent of Europe found 
a safety-valve by flying to America. 
We are constantly told by our idealists 
that the * 'cream'* and the ''pick" of 
Europe has been coming here because 
it is discontented at home; because 
it wants political and religious and 
economic liberty; because it wants edu- 
cation, and better living conditions, 
and democratic institutions. Have we 
in any way really helped the progress 
of these reforms by keeping the safety- 
valve open? By allowing the dis- 
contented millions of Europe and of 
Asia to come here now, are we likely to 
hasten, or to delay, the coming of polit- 
ical and social reforms in Armenia, 
in Russia, in Turkey? Our duty as 
Americans, interested in the world-wide 
progress of education, of religious 
liberty, of democratic institutions, is 
to do everything in our power to pre- 
serve our own institutions intact, and 
at the same time to help the discon- 
tented millions of E urope and of Asia 
to stay in their own countries; to 
shoulder their own responsibilities; to 
work out there, for themselves, what 
our own forefathers worked out here, 
for us and for our children. 

Eighth: The Necessity for Further 
Restrictive Legislation 

Our existing general immigration law 
was never designed to meet the present 
emergency. It is a selective, rather 
than a restrictive, measure. When it 
was enacted it was thought sufficient. 
But now the whole situation has 
changed. From all sorts and condi- 
tions of people, the country over, 
comes a strong and increasingly vehe- 
ment demand for further legislation 
which shall eflFectively cut down the 
alien invasion which threatens us. 
Opposition to further legislation is 
limited to certain racial groups which 
are chiefly interested, not in the future 
of America but in the future of their 
race in America; to exploiters of * 'cheap 
labor," and to those who have been well 
termed "the incurable sentimentalists." 

The House of Representatives, in 
December, pa^ed a bill which has 
been widely, and most inaccurately, 



328 



The Journal of Heredity 



termed a one year total exclusion bill. 
The measure, known as the Johnson 
bill, does not suspend immigration. It 
would limit it, for a period of one year 
after enactment, to the near blood- 
relations of naturalized citizens of 
foreign birth, and of aliens who apply 
for naturalization. What the num- 
bers of these relatives may be, no one 
can tell, but it is perfectly safe to say 
that several hundreds of thousands of 
immigrants could be admitted if the 
bill became law. Further, there are 
provisions for the admission of un- 
skilled laborers, and of domestic ser- 
vants, and for the suspension of the 
illiteracy test in certain cases. The 
measure, then, while giving us more 
restriction than we have at present, is 
in no way drastic, and by no means 
meets the emergency. The Senate has, 
at present WTiting, taken no action. 

That additional legislation is needed, 
and needed at once, is the conviction 
of every competent and unprejudiced 
student of our immigration problems. 
Among the many suggestions which 
have been made is the proposal which 
rests on the conviction that one of the 
best evidences that our different groups 
of foreigners have been assimilated is 
that they have become naturalized. 
The plan is to limit the number of new 
alien arrivals who shall be admitted 
from a country in any one year to a 
certain percentage of our previous im- 
migrants from that country who have 
since become naturalized in the United 
States. According to the provisions of 
some of these bills, the exact percentage, 
within certain fixed limits, is to be deter- 
mined by the Secretary of Labor, or by a 
commission, with reference to the labor 
conditions which may exist at the time. 
Such a plan has the merit of being more 
than a temporary measure; of being 
simple, direct and logical, and also of 
being sufficiently elastic to respond to 
varying economic conditions. 

There is no subject before Congress 
of equal importance to that of immi- 
gration, which touches our National 
life in so many ways. Immigration has 
far-reaching economic and political 
effects, but its effects upon the char- 



acter of the race are the most important 
of all. Congress will act, and act wisely 
and quickly, if the will of the great mass 
of our people who believe in restriction 
makes itself felt. But if we do not 
bestir ourselves, the steamship com- 
panies, and the large employers of 
**cheap labor,'* and the societies of 
foreign-born hyphenates will carry the 
day, as they have so often done in the 
past. 

The economic aspects of immigration 
are those which are still given the most 
prominence, and which attract most 
public attention. Those of us who are 
concerned chiefly with problems of 
heredity and who demand a far more 
careful selection of the incoming aliens 
on the basis of their mental and physi- 
cal condition, are, however, entirely in 
accord with those who ask for a further 
numerical restriction for economic rea- 
sons. Two things are absolutely essen- 
tial. The first is a rigid and impartial 
enforcement of the existing law regard- 
ing the exclusion of mentally and physi- 
cally undesirable aliens. The second is 
a radical reduction in the numbers of 
aliens who shall be admitted to the 
United States in any year. It cannot 
be too often or too strongly empha- 
sized that, as Dr. T. W. Salmon pointed 
out several years ago, any measure 
which checks the flow of immigration 
in general must necessarily result in the 
admission of fewer mentally and physi- 
cally undesirable immigrants. Further, 
with a reduction in the numbers, medi- 
cal and general inspection can always 
be far more effective, and the aliens with 
mental and physical defects which 
render them highly undesirable as 
contributors to the blood of the 
American stock can be more often 
detected and debarred. Thus those 
who are primarily concerned about the 
character of the future American people 
have every reason for uniting with 
those who are chiefly interested in the 
purely economic aspects of alien immi- 
gration in demanding (1) a strict en- 
forcement of existing law, and (2) a 
radical reduction of the numbers of 
aliens who shall be permitted to enter 
the United States. Jan, i, 1921. 



ARE VALENCIA ORANGES FROM 

CHINA? 

The Occurrence in South China of Oranges Closely Resembling Strains 
of the Valencia Variety Suggests the Latter's Origin There 

H. Atherton Lee^ and L. B. Scott^.^ 
U. S, Department of Agriculture 



THE introduction of the Valencia 
orange into Florida and Cali- 
fornia is a subject which has been 
fully discussed and is a matter of 
definite record by Shamel, Scott and 
Pomeroy.* To briefly summarize their 
findings: The variety was introduced 
into California about 1876 by the 
Thomas Rivers Nurseries of London, 
England. The name of the variety 
having been lost, it was later identified 
by a Spanish orange grower visiting in 
California, as a variety grown in Spain 
called **La Naranja Tarde de Valen- 
cia." After that the name Valencia 
was adopted for the variety in Cali- 
fornia. Previous to 1876 the same 
variety had been introduced into 
Florida where it was known by the 
names ''Brown*' and **Hart's Late.** 
Trees of these introductions were later 
shipped to California and when they 
came into bearing the fruits and trees 
were found to be identical with those 
of the variety grown in that state under 
the name Valencia. 

TWELVE STRAINS OF THIS VARIETY 

No definite evidence is available 
concerning the history of the variety 
prior to its distribution by the Rivers 
Nurseries. The Valencia variety, as 
cultivated in the United States, does 
not represent one single strain ; investi- 
gations conducted by the Office of 
Horticultural and Pomological Investi- 
gations, U. S. Department of Agri- 
culture, have revealed that there are 



twelve important strains within this 
variety. 

In 1918 the senior writer visited 
southern China in continuance of citrus 
canker studies. At Sunwui, Kwang- 
tung Province, near Hong Kong, fruits 
were observed which very closely 
resembled one strain of the Valencia 
as grown in California, and fruits were 
collected as specimens for identifica- 
tion in Washington. At Kua Tscha 
near Swatow, Kwangtung Province, 
trees of the sweet orange were observed 
which also bore fruits resembling an- 
other strain of the Valencia orange. 
Fruits and foliage of these trees were 
collected but unfortunately the foliage 
specimens moulded and were dis- 
carded. The foliage was, however, of 
the same type as that which in general 
characterizes the Mediterranean varie- 
ties of the sweet orange {Citrus sinen- 
sis). Trees both at Sunwui and at Kua 
Tscha were photographed and one is 
shown in an accompanying figure. 
The trees were grafted upon a native 
mandarin orange {Citrus nobilis) stock, 
which apparently dwarfed them to 
some extent. At Sunwui, the growers, 
questioned as to where the bud wood 
was obtained, stated that they bought 
their trees already budded from a 
nearby locality. The nurserymen, ques- 
tioned as to where they had obtained 
these buds, stated that they had for 
many years obtained them from nearby 
trees. Apparently they did not recog- 



1 Now Mycologist and Plant Pathologist, Philippine Bureau of Science. 

) Now General Manager, California Nurserymen's Bud Selection Association, San Jose. 

« The writers express their thanks to Mr. T. Ralph Robinson of the Bureau of Plant Industry, 
U. S. Department ot Agriculture for assistance in connection with this paper. 

« Shamel, A. D., Scott, L. B., and Pomeroy, C. S. Citrus Fruit Improvement: A Study 'of 
Bud Variation in the Valencia Orange. U. S. Dept. of Agr. Bull. No. 624. 



Lee and Scott: Valencia Oranges 



333 



refrigeration; the fruits are shown in 
accompanying photographs. The de- 
scription of these fruits follows: 

The Soh Kaa from Kua Tscha : The 
trees of the strain from Kua Tscha 
have an upright, spreading habit of 
growth. The foliage and other tree 
characteristics are similar to those of 
trees of the Smooth strain. The fruits 
are smaller than the fruits of the 
Smooth strain, but have somewhat 
the same shape; texture of skin 
smooth; color reddish orange; rind 
very thin; rag tender; juice abundant, 
sweet; seeds averaging a few to each 
fruit. The fruits agree in description 
very closely with fruits of the Smooth 
strain. 

The Sunwui fruits: The habit of 
growth and foliage characteristics of 
the trees are similar to those of the 
Valencia and Long strains. The fruits 
are cylindrical and long; size, srhall to 
medium; texture somewhat rougher 
than Smooth strain; color bright 
orange; rag tender; juice abundant, 
sweet, of good quality; seeds averag- 
ing 1 to 2 per fruit. The fruits agree 
very closely in description with fruits 
of the Long strain. 

Chinese growers are not active along 
the lines of plant introduction and the 
adoption of methods and ideas from 
the Occident is slow. It is hardly 
probable therefore that we are dealing in 



China with introductions from America. 

Sunwui, the point at which one of 
these strains was discovered, is situated 
in the delta of the Canton River, and 
but four or five miles from the city of 
Kong Moon. Various histories of 
China record the activities of Spanish 
and Portuguese merchants at the port 
of Kong Moon in the early days of 
foreign trade with China. The interest 
of such traders in economic plant 
materials is shown by the many defi- 
nitely recorded plant introductions 
made to and from the Philippines. The 
Spanish, moreover, apparently were 
especially interested in orange culture, 
for wherever they colonized orange 
culture followed them. Thus a map 
showing where orange trees have be- 
come established would coincide very 
closely with a map showing the Spanish 
expansion in the 16th, 17th and 18th 
centuries. 

The finding of these strains of an 
orange in South China, similar to 
certain strains of the Valencia in the 
United States, is suggestive of the 
origin of the Valencia in China and that 
it was carried from there to Spain, Por- 
tugal, the Azores or other Mediterranean 
countries by the Spanish or Portu- 
guese traders. In one of these coun- 
tries it was found and subsequently 
went to Florida and California through 
the agency of the Rivers Nurseries. 



SCIENCE AT 

The Almosts: a study of the feeble- 
minded, by Helen MacMurchy. 
Pp. 178, price $1.50. Boston, 
Houghton Mifflin Co., 1920. 

Miss MacMurchy strikes her key- 
note in her first sentence: "Sometimes 
the poet sees more than the scientist, 
even when the scientific man is playing 
at his own game." If fiction had been 
more carefully studied, she avers that 
"we might have come sooner to some 
of the alleged discoveries of the twen- 
tieth century." One of these alleged 
discoveries is apparently the fact of 
feeblemindedness; and to atone for the 
neglect of past fiction readers, Miss 
MacMurchy has diligently studied 
Shakespeare, Bunyan, Scott, Dickens, 



second hand 
Bulwer Lytton, Charles Reade, and a 
dozen others down to Kate Douglas 
Wiggin and the Contributors Club of 
the Atlantic Monthly. 

"Touchstone is probably mentally 
defective, but it is quite possible that 
the fool in 'Lear' may have been in- 
sane, though certain of his words and 
actions remind one forcibly of a men- 
tally defective person." And so on. 
Those who like to study human nature 
thus far removed from reality will like 
the book. The last chapter is a senti- 
mental statement of "The Case for the 
Feebleminded" which, while contain- 
ing nothing new, is on the whole sound. 
The writer urges custodial care and 
every endeavor to make the feeble- 
minded "happy, safe, and useful." P. P. 



Hurlin: Inherited Syndactyly in Man 



335 





II 




III 








INHERITANCE OF WEBBED FEET IN THREE GENERATIONS 

The shaded symbols indicate the p3rsDn3 having W3 bbid digits. In ths first generation, the 
father transmitted the character to his only soi, who in turn transmitted it to three of his six 
children — two sons and a daughter. (Fig. 24.) 

the left than on the right foot. In the 
third generation, in child number 3 
the condition is that photographed ; in 
number 6 the web is somewhat less 
pronounced; and in number 4 it is re- 
ported as distinct but not especially 
noticeable. 

This inheritance occurs in a branch 
of an old New England family whose 
genealogy has been fully investigated 
and published. The grandfather here 
mentioned was one of ten children and 
his father one of six. Yet it has not 
been possible to discover that this sup- 
posedly dominant trait occurs in any 
of the collateral lines. The possibility 
is suggested that the trait may fre- 
quently exist, as happens in one mem- 
ber of this third generation, as a slight 
and not particularly noticeable web. 



yond the first joint by fleshy parts. 

The inheritance is represented in 
Figure 24, in which squares indicate 
males, circles females, and shading the 
presence of the web. The trait cannot 
be traced back of the paternal grand- 
father, who is represented by the shaded 
square in generation I in the diagram. 
He had transmitted it to his only child, a 
son, who passed it to half of his off- 
spring. Of the six children in genera- 
tion III, two sons and one daughter 
exhibit the web. The Mendelian ex- 
pectation happ>ens to have been ex- 
actly fulfilled. 

The web is known to have been well 
defined in the case of the grandfather. 
In the father the condition is described 
as similar to that shown in the photo- 
graph, with slightly greater extent on 



Sex Attraction, by Victor C. 
Vaughan, Sc.D., M.D., LL.D., pro- 
fessor of hygiene and physiological 
chemistry, and dean of the University 
of Michigan School of Medicine, 
Ann Arbor, Mich. Pp. 44, price SOc. 
St. Louis, C. V. Mosby Co.. 1920. 



In this lecture Dr. Vaughan de- 
scribes briefly the evoluton of sex and 
the basis of the physiological attraction 
between the sexes in the human species 
at the present time. The point of 
view is that of the eugenist. Empha- 
sis is laid on sex education, and proper 
sexual selection. 



RACIAL DIFFERENCES IN MORTALITY 



BY AN ANALYSIS of census figures, 
Louis L Dublin and Gladden W. 
Baker discover significant differ- 
ences in the mortality of various ra- 
cial stocks in Pennsylvania. Their 
study is reported in the Quarterly 
Publication of the American Statis- 
tical Association, March, 1920. 

Differences of this kind have an im- 
portant bearing on evolution, and on 
the future composition of the Amer- 
ican population. The conclusions which 
the authors reach are: 

1. Of the three main groups of the 
white population in Pennsylvania and 
in New York — (a) native born of na- 
tive parents, (b) native born of foreign 
or mixed parentage, and (c) foreign 
born — the first has the lowest mortal- 
ity. This is true for both sexes and for 
virtually every age period, but is most 
marked at the adult ages. 

2. The foreign born, and the native 
born of foreign or mixed parentage, 
agree much more closely with each 
other than with the native stock. An 
interesting exception presents itself 
however, at the ages from 25 to 44 
during which period the foreign born 
have a great advantage over the native 
born of foreign or mixed parentage. 
The reason for this is the predominance 
of the Irish, German and British stocks 
among the first generation Americans 
at this age period. After the age of 
45 these two groups of the foreign 
stock are of the same racial extraction 
and their death rates are in very close 
agreement. 

3. The death rates of the component 
groups among the foreign born vary 
considerably. The Austro-Hungarians, 
Russians and Italians present alto- 
gether favorable conditions, while the 



British, Germans and Irish show death 
rates very greatly in excess. This is 
especially true of the Irish whose mor- 
tality is about double that of the 
native stock. The death rates for the 
Germans, British and Irish are much 
higher in America than in their own 
countries. Pulmonary tuberculosis, 
pneumonia and the degenerative dis- 
eases, including heart disease, Bright's 
disease, and cancer, are largely respon- 
sible for this unfavorable mortality. 

4. The findings of the previous study 
for New York State are confirmed. 
The unfavorable conditions of life and 
work among foreign races to which 
attention was directed in the study for 
New York are found to prevail in 
Pennsylvania as well. The facts em- 
phasize the necessity for special public 
health work for the people of foreign 
origin. The much more favorable 
economic conditions under which they 
live in the United States than in their 
own countries should result in lower 
death rates. But in several instances 
we found that this does not prevail; 
the facts indicate, on the whole, de- 
terioration rather than improvement. 
Is it possible that our immigrants are 
not representative of the best in their 
native countries? It has often been 
supposed that the immigrants com- 
prised the most vigorous among their 
own people; the results however, do not 
confirm this impression, but suggest 
many questions for further inquiry. 

5. It is very important that a study 
similar to this one be carried out as soon 
as the final results of the 1920 census 
are available, to determine whether any 
differences of importance have ap- 
peared in the interval of ten years. 



Good Practical Eugenics 



The Book of Marjorie. Pp. 128. 
New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1920. 

This anonymous and charming book, 
apparently written by a New York 
newspaper man, is one of the best pieces 
of practical eugenics propaganda that 
has come to light for some time. It is 



the story of the author's love and 
marriage, and of the days when he and 
Marjorie awaited the birth of their 
first child. As a sane, interesting, 
modern, wholesome study of the psy- 
chology of married life, and of expect- 
ant parenthood, it is almost in a class by 
itself. The book is worth reading.— P. P. 



The 



Journal of Heredity 

(Formerly the American Breeders* Mai^azine) 



^ 



Vol. XI. No. 8 



November-December, 1920 



CONTENTS 

A New Hybrid — The Katharine Blueberry, by Frederick V. Coville . . Frontispiece 

Is Race Suicide Possible? by Alexander Graham Bell 339 

A Hen Which Changed Color, by William A. Lippincott 342 

Heritable Characters of Maize — Zigzag Culms, by William H. Eyster 349 

Better American Families — IV, by Wilhelmine E. Key 358 

Hereditary Trades, by American Red Cross 363 

Inheritance in Crosses of Dairy and Beef Breeds of Cattle, by John W. Gowen 365 

A Herd of Albino Cattle, by J. A. Detlefsen 378 

Deterioration in Some Horticultural Varieties Through Deficient Artificial 

Selection, by H. H. M. Bowman 380 

Meeting of Geneticists Interested in Agriculture 384 

Second International Eugenics Congress 384 



The Journal of Heredity is published monthly by the American Genetic Ass'n. 

Publication office, 450 Ahnaip Street, Menasha, Wb. 
Editorial and general offices, Washington, D. C. 

The Journal op Heredity is published by the American Genetic Associa- 
tion for the benefit of its members. Canadian members who desire to receive 
it should send 25 cents a year, in addition to their regular membership dues of $3.00, 
because of additional postage on the magazine; foreign members pay 50 cents extra 
for the same reason. Subscription price to non-members, $3 . 00 a year, foreign post- 
age extra; price of single copies, 35 cents. 

Application has been made for entry as second-class matter at the postoffice at 
Menasha, Wisconsin. Contents copyrighted 1921 by the American Genetic As- 
sociation. Reproduction of articles or parts of articles permitted only upon request, 
for a proper purpose, and provided due credit is given to author and to the Journal 
of Heredity (Organ of the American Genetic Association, Washington, D. C), 
Menasha, Wisconsin. 

Date of issue of this number, April 19, 1921. 



IS RACE SUICIDE POSSIBLE? 



Alexander Graham Bell 
Washington, D. C. 



ONE of the most interesting of the 
questions of today relates to the 
powerful influence exerted upon 
populations by what we might almost 
call negative selection. A selection 
that produces the very opposite of that 
expected. 

For example, no inheritable peculiar- 
ity associated with lack of offspring can 
be made to grow and flourish in a 
community. In spite of all efforts it 
will languish, and promote the growth 
of its very opposite. History is full of 
illustrations. 

CELIBACY 

After the fall of the Roman Empire 
there was a great religious revival 
among the nations. The Middle Ages 
saw Eurof>e filled with monasteries and 
nunneries, where enormous numbers of 
people took vows of celibacy, and re- 
nounced all home and family ties. 
Even outside of the religious houses the 
celibate life was everywhere held up as 
the ideal one to be followed by the best 
and purest elements of the population. 

Instead of helping the church this 
produced the very opposite effect, and 
actually paved the way for the Refor- 
mation! Large masses of the people who 
were most attached to the Church led 
celibate lives, and left no descend- 
ants, whereas the independently minded 
who were not so devoted to the Church 
were not limited in their reproduction. 

As to the more general effects it may 
be safely said that the worship of 
celibacy during several hundreds of 
years in the past has not tended to the 
improvement of humanity but the 
very reverse; for, where the best and 
noblest led celibate lives, they left no 
descendants behind them to inherit 
their virtues, whereas the worst ele- 
ments of the population continued to 
multiply without restriction. 

It is now felt that the interests of the 
race demand that the best should 



marry and have large families ; and that 
any restrictions upon reproduction 
should apply tovthe worst rather than 
to the best. 

It is of course useless to expect that 
the worst would take vows of celibacy 
or keep them; and the realization of 
this has led to all sorts of impracticable 
schemes to prevent or restrict their 
reproduction by compulsory means. 

The great trouble about all these 
schemes, apart from their impractica- 
bility, is that they aim simply to pre- 
vent degeneration. They aim to pre- 
vent the race from moving backwards, 
but do not help it to move forwards. 
The only hope of producing higher and 
better types of men and women lies 
in the multiplication of the better ele- 
ments of the population. 

There is one very promising feature 
about the present situation, and that 
is that the best are readily attracted 
by high ideals. Give them a new ideal, 
and many will follow it, especially if 
they believe that duty points in the 
same direction. Convince them that 
the interests of the race demand that the 
best should increase and multiply; 
convince them that it is therefore their 
duty to marry, rather than lead celi- 
bate lives. Depose "celibacy" from 
the high and commanding position 
she has occupied for so many hundred 
years, and put "marriage" there in- 
stead as the ideal to be held up before 
the best and noblest of the race. Mar- 
riage, with marriage vows as sacred as 
the former vows of celibacy. Nature 
demands this in the interests of the 
race. For the extreme helplessness of 
the human infant necessitates parental 
care for very prolonged periods of 
time — in fact at least from infancy to 
the beginning of adult life — and this 
involves the permanency of the marital 
tie on the part of the parents, especially 
where a number of children are pro- 
duced. 



339 



340 



The Journal of Heredity 



RACE SUICIDE 

At the present time considerable 
alarm has been expressed at the appar- 
ently growing disinclination of Ameri- 
can women to bear children, and a cry 
has been raised against what people call 
"Race Suicide." Whatever the cause 
— it is undoubtedly the fact that in 
America the children of foreign-born 
parents are increasing at a much 
greater rate than the children of native- 
born parents — and the position is suffi- 
ciently grave for serious consideration. 

The desire to avoid maternity is a 
characteristic associated with lack of 
offspring, and cannot therefore go on 
increasing indefinitely in a community. 
Its natural tendency is to die out 
through lack of offspring to inherit it, 
leaving the more fertile part of the com- 
munity alone to propagate the race. 

Reflection therefore leads to the 
somewhat startling conclusion that 
even wholesale abstention from chil- 
dren, so far from lessening the fertility 
of the community as a whole will even- 
tually increase it instead. Actual race 
suicide will not result from such a cause 
alone, so long as the race is left to itself 
to work out its own destiny. 

Just consider the case of a race of 
people in which the women show a 
disinclination for motherhood, sur- 
rounded by prolific immigrant races 
ready to take its place, then of course 
there would be serious danger of the 
native race being displaced by the im- 
migrants. The immigrants might ab- 
sorb the native race instead of the 
native race absorbing the immigrants; 
but such a result would be due to the 
presence of the competing races and 
not due directly to the operation of 
natural causes within the race itself. 

THE DESTINY OF AN ISLAND RACE 

In order to appreciate this, imagine 
our native race to be placed upon an 
island protected by suitable immigra- 
tion laws from competition with other 
races. Then it becomes obvious that 
the sentiment in favor of avoiding the 
production of offspring must neces- 
sarily diminish in process of time, on 



account of the lack of offspring to in- 
herit it; and that the opposite senti- 
ment of a desire to have children will 
grow, and ultimately become predomi- 
nant, because each succeeding genera- 
tion will be composed exclusively of 
the descendants of the people who had 
children. If the desire for offspring is 
an inheritable characteristic, and it 
certainly is, then of course the next 
generation will inherit it from their 
parents to a certain extent; whereas 
there will be no descendants at all to 
inherit the characteristics of those who 
abstained from offspring. 

We have placed the people upon an 
island, and protected them from inter- 
ference from other races, so as to leave 
them to themselves to carry on their 
lives in their own way, as they desire. 

Some of these people love little 
children, and desire to have children 
of their own. Others look upon chil- 
dren as nuisances, perhaps necessary 
evils for the continuance of the race — 
but why should they be bothered with 
them when they don't want them? Let 
others have them if they want them, 
but leave ihem alone. Well — let them 
have their desires. 

Let those who desire children have 
them, and those who don't, have none, 
and see how it will all work out. 

Now does it not become at once evi- 
dent that so long as any of the people 
desire offspring and have them, com- 
plete race suicide is impossible? Some 
offspring will be produced and a second 
generation will appear. 

Suppose for example the boom 
against maternity reaches such propor- 
tions that 99 per cent of the population 
decide to have no children — and surely 
this is an extreme case — ^will the race 
die out? No — not immediately at all 
events. There will be another genera- 
tion composed exclusively of the de- 
scendants of the one per cent who 
desire to have children. The whole of 
the next generation will be composed 
of their children ; and there will be no 
descendants at all of the other ninety- 
nine f)er cent. 

This is the critical time for our 
islanders. Only one f>er cent of the 



Bell: Is Race Suicide Possible? 



341 



population have had children, and of 
course the numbers in the next genera- 
tion will be so seriously reduced that 
immigration from outside would speed- 
ily swamp them — but we have agreed 
to protect them from this competition 
with other races, and leave them alone 
to work out their destiny to the bitter 
end. 

Well, let us revisit the island after 
the original population has passed 
away. We find the population now 
only a fraction of what it was before; 
and the question naturally arises: will 
the population continue to diminish at 
each successive generation until actual 
race suicide results? 

It is not to be supposed that the 
sentiment against maternity will dis- 
appear in one generation. The second 
generation will therefore undoubtedly 
continue to be divided upon the ques- 
tion of maternity ; some wishing to have 
children, others not; but the propot' 
/xowdesiringchildren will necessarily be 
greater, on account of heredity, than 
in the original population ; for the whole 
of this second generation are descended 
from the one per cent who desired off- 
spring, whereas the ninety-nine per 
cent who did not desire them left no 
descendants. 

There seems to be no escape from the 
conclusion that in this second genera- 
tion more than one per cent of the 
people will desire children, and less 
than ninety-nine per cent will abstain 
from their production. Therefore the 
proportion of the second generation 



who will have children will be greater 
than in the first, and the proportion 
opposed to maternity will be less. 

Thus in each succeeding generation 
the proportion who desire children and 
have them will increase, and the pro- 
portion avoiding maternity diminish, 
with the net result that each succeed- 
ing generation will be more fertile than 
the last. The desire to avoid maternity 
will die out to a great extent on account 
of the lack of oflFspring to inherit it. 
The spirit of race suicide will itself com- 
tnit suicide f and leave a more fertile race 
than before. 

The only thing that could prevent 
such a result would be: the admission 
of immigrants during the period of 
declining birthrate. 

This indeed is the critical period in 
the history not only of our hypo- 
thetical islanders, but of every nation 
similarly situated. When therefore a 
nation reaches a stage where it finds its 
own birthrate declining, and immi- 
grants with a much larger birthrate 
flocking into the country, the time has 
come for very serious consideration as 
to the means to be taken for self- 
preservation. 

The United States is today in this 
critical position. The birthrate of 
America is declining; the spirit of 
avoiding maternity is on the increase; 
and the immigrant races are increasing 
at a much greater rate than our own. 
The only hope for a truly American 
race lies in the restriction of immigra- 
tion. 



EUGENICS AND PATRIOTISM 



**Race has played a fa^ larger part 
than either language or nationality in 
moulding the destinies of men; race 
implies heredity, and heredity implies 
all the moral, social and intellectual 
characteristics and traits which are the 
springs of politics and government. . . 

**The moral tendency of the heredity 
interpretation of history is for our day 
and generation, and is in strong accord 



with the true spirit of the modem 
eugenics movement in relation to 
patriotism, namely, the conservation 
and multiplication for our country of 
the best spiritual, moral, intellectual 
and physical forces of heredity; 
thus only will the integrity of our 
institutions be maintained in the 
future.*' 

— Henry Fairfield Oshorn. 



A HEN WHICH CHANGED COLOR' 

A Note on the Hereditary Behavior of a Normal Blue Andalusian Hen Whose 

Feathers Changed to Snowy White 

William A. Lippincott 
Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station^ Manhattan^ Kansas 

CASTLE and PhillipsXlQll) studies 
on ovarian transplantation in 
guinea-pigs have been most useful 
as classroom illustrations of the sepa- 
rateness of the soma and germ-plasm. 
They have conveyed to the elementary 
student as no amount of explanation 
might, just what the underlying prin- 
ciple of Weismanns* (1893) great con- 
cept was. These results are too famil- 
iar to biologists to need review. 

In connection with a study of the in- 
heritance of blue in poultry, the writer 
has observed a marked somatic change 
in a blue Andalusian hen, which, as was 
to be expected, did not in any way 
change the gametes she produced. Be- 
cause the change was a rather striking 
one and might serve as an example of 
the independence of the body-plasm 
and germ-plasm from another point of 
view, it has seemed worth while to give 
a detailed account of the case. 

What appeared to be a normal blue 
Andalusian hen was turned over to the 
writer in the early spring of 1917 by 
Professor J. G. Halpin of the Univer- 
sity of Wisconsin. She came from the 
flock of the University Poultry Depart- 
ment and was then almost two years 
old. This hen was from a pedigreed 
family, among the members of which 
nothing unusual had been noted. She 
carried the University legband number 
C2032, and was, among others, used in 
breeding work carried on at the Univer- 
sity during that spring. 

In August 1917 she was taken to 
Kansas State Agricultural College at 
Manhattan where she has since been 
kept on the farm of the Department of 
Poultry Husbandry. 

In October 1917 it was observed that 
white feathers were appearing on her 



neck and a little later that her develop- 
ing primaries also were white. It was 
noted that new feathers were coming in 
in other regions of the body which were 
the normal blue, and by December 1st 
it was apparent that she had completed 
her molt for that season. 

Her appearance on December 20, 
1917, is shown in Fig. 1. There was no 
further noticeable change until the fol- 
lowing July when it was observed that 
she was again in full molt, her old 
feathers both blue and white being re- 
placed only by white. Photographs 
taken August 7, 1918, may be seen in 
Figs. 2, 3 and 4, which show her during 
the progress of her molt. Six weeks 
later she was snowy white throughout 
(Fig. 7). She has since never displayed 
a blue feather and is now (October 
1920) in apparent good health and lay- 
ing occasionally. 

CAUSES OF COLOR CHANGES 

Supposing that similar color changes 
among domestic birds were not un- 
common, a search of the literature was 
made. While it has not been exhaus- 
tive, the writer has been surprised not 
to find, in the journals at his disposal, 
accounts of similar changes. The ac- 
count of Finches' (1908) hen indicates 
that the color change was first due to 
loss of pigment from the feathers after 
growth and not to a failure of the 
pigment-manufacturing mechanism to 
function. The color change came 
after, and not as the accompaniment 
of, a molt. During a subsequent molt 
pigmented feathers were growTi which 
later turned white. Whether the pig- 
ment forming mechanism was some- 
what interfered with during this molt, 
or the bird passed through a partial 
molt only, is not clear. 

^ Contribution from the Department of Genetics, Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, 
No. 25 and from the Department of Poultry Husbandry, Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, 
No. 16. 



342 



B BLUE ANDALUSUH HEH (C2032) EIGHT UOHTHS LATER THAN FIG. 1 

"There was no further noticeable change (from 
the condition shown in Fig. 1) until the follow- 
ing July when it was observed that she was again 
in full molt, her old feathers, both blue and 
white, beinjj replaced by only white." These 
three views show the hen as she appeared Au' 
gust', 1918. No.3isafrontview. Acomparison 
of the t wo sides with regard to the order in which 
the blue feathers were dropped is a matter of 
considerable interest to poultrymen. Was the 
change in color due to loss of pigment from the 
feathers after growth or to a failure of the pig- 
ment-manufacturing mechanism to function? 
Photographs by James Machir. (Figs, 2 and 3.) 

for this is shown in the following rniss, 
IJlue Andalusian c" X Blue Andalusian 9 

PP(Re)(rE) PP (Re) (f£) 

f IPP(tE) (rE) bUck 

Offspring' 2PP(Re) frE) blue 

'.\PP{Re) (fl^) white-splashed 

The white-splashed individuals, as 
would be expecte<l if the symbolisni 
proposed is correct, are splashed with 
blue, and sometimes referred to as blue- 
splashed. 

RF.SULTS OF BLUE AND WHITE MATINGS 

During the spring of 1917 before 
C2032 had exhibited any tendency 
toward a'color change, she was mated 
to a blue Andalusian, cf S19, from the 



Lippincot't: A Hen Which Changed Color 



345 



LEFT SIDE VIEW TAKEN SAME TIME AS THOSE ON OPPOSITE PAGE 



The photographs o 



University of Wisconsin Hock. But five 
chicks here hatched, of which one was 
blue- splashed and four were blue, the 
theoretical expectation being 1.25 
splashed, 2.50 blue and 1.25 black. 

The following year, 1918, while in 
the condition, as regards color, shown 
in Figure 1, she was mated with white 
Wyandotte cTllSM from the Kansas 
State Agricultural College flock. As 
shown in an unpublished paper the gen- 
etic constitution of 118M was pp(rE) 
(f£), so far as the factors under con- 
sideration are concerned. The expec- 
tation from such a mating would be 
equal numbers of blues and blacks. 



lition which the hen has retained to the present 

Twenty eight chicks were hatched, of 
which thirteen were blue and fifteen 
were black. 

The next breeding season, 1919, after 
C2032 had become pure white, she was 
mated to a white Plymouth Rock cflSS 
M (see Fig. 5). Twenty five chicks 
were hatched, of which seven were blue 
and eighteen were black, the theoreti- 
cal expectation being 12.5 for each 
color. This deviation is probably not 

significant since g-p-" -3.2, A black 

and a blue chick, offspring of this mat- 
ing, are shown in Figure 6. 



Lippincott: A Hen Which Changed Color 



These two chicks 



A BLUE-BARRED AND A BLACK-BARKED CHICK 

e among the ofTspi 



the mating of white Plymouth Rock ISSM and 
"^■le barring (actor was brought in by the male. 

continuing to breed as a blue Andalusian." 



produced only white chicks, unless it 
was the kind of white peculiar to the 
Japanese Silky. A genetically domi- 
nant white female would also have pro- 
duced only white offspring, if she were 
homozygous. If she were heterozy- 
gous dominant white but homozygous 
for P, half her chicks by a white Ply- 
mouth Rock would have been white 
and half pigmented. Other possible 



combinations might be suggested, but 
none fits the case except the assump- 
tion that she is genetically a blue An- 
dalusian though abeautiful snowy white 
in appearance. A similar conclusion is 
reached from the results of her mating 
with white Wyandotte d" 206M. A 
photograph of the hen after she had 
becomfe completely white is shown on 
the following page. 



Bateson, W., and Punnett, R. C, 1906. Reports to the Evolution Committee of the Royal 

Society, III pp. 11-23. 
Castle, W. E., and Phillips, John C, 191 1. On germinal transplantation in vertebrates. Carnegie 

n partial leucosis in a hen. Biometrika 7:234- 

Lippincott, W. A., 1918. The case of the Blue Andalusian. Amer. Nat, 52:95-115. 
Weismann, A., 1893. The Kerm-plasm. Eng. trans, by W. N. Parker and Harriet Ronnfeldt, 
New York. 



HERITABLE CHARACTERS OF MAIZE 

VI. ZIGZAG CULMSi 

William H. Eyster 
New York Slate College oj Agriculture, Ithaca, TV. Y, 



THE plant abnormality known as 
**zigzag culm*' andd escribed in 
this paper, was first noted by Dr. 
R. A. Emerson in a number of F4 cul- 
tures of a cross between Tom Thumb 
pop corn and a Missouri dent corn. 

Some of the families in which zigzag 
culm was first found were breeding true 
for this peculiar type of stem so that it 
must have occurred in earlier genera- 
tions without being detected. At first 
it was thought probable that this is an- 
other example of a mutation having oc- 
curred in a pedigree culture but the 
fact that zigzag plants have been found 
in the progenies of two diflferent F2 
plants makes it much less likely. Dr. 
Emerson self-pollinated a number of 
plants and found that they breed true 
for the zigzag culm. He also found 
that when he crossed them with plants 
with normal culms the Fi plants are 
apparently perfectly normal. Because 
of the many other problems that were 
demanding his attention Dr. Emerson 
asked the writer to investigate further 
the inheritance of this culm abnor- 
mality. 

DESCRIPTION OF ZIGZAG CULM 

In the early life of the plant it is not 
possible, at least so far as external ap- 
pearances go, to identify the individuals 
which are destined to have zigzag 
culms. The character first becomes 
apparent about the time the plant 
comes into tassel. The first indication 
is^what seems to be a flattening and 
broadening of the culm in the ear shoot 
region. This apparent flattening is 
due to the pulling away of the leaf 
sheathes from the culm. Within a re- 
markably short time the character is 
fully expressed and the plants appear 



as shown in the accompanying illus- 
trations. 

In Figs. 8, 9, and 10 are shown zigzag 
plants. It will be seen that these 
plants are more or less dwarfed, with 
the culm in the ear shoot region strongly 
zigzag and consequently pulled out 
of the leaf sheathes. Fig. 8 shows an 
entire plant, while in Figs. 9 and 10 only 
a part of the plant is shown. As these 
photographs were all taken from the 
same positions it is evident that the 
first plant is more dwarfed than the 
other two plants. The amount of 
dwarfing depends upon the number of 
internodes affected and the degree of 
the modification. The leaves are ap- 
parently normal except that the sheaths 
are pushed apart so that they do not 
clasp the internodes as they do in nor- 
mal plants. A normal plant of the 
same pedigree culture is shown in Fig. 
11. 

In many zigzag plants the internodes 
affected are many times shorter than 
their leaf sheathes and often the sheath 
stands off at right angles to the inter- 
node, as shown in Figs. 9 and 10. The 
plant shown in Fig. 8 had a number of 
Its internodes so much shortened that 
the long leaf sheathes overlapped to an 
unusual extent in the region affected. 
In Fig. 13 is shown the same plant with 
the leaves cut away so as to expose the 
stem. The leaves of the normal plant 
shown in Fig. 1 1 were likewise removed 
and the culm photographed as shown 
in Fig. 12. The internodes of the zigzag 
plant are not only shortened but much 
thickened. Apparently there is more 
rapid growth on the side of the inter- 
node above the leaf attachment which 
causes the internode to arch away from 
the leaf sheath. As alternate inter- 



» Paper No. 84, Department of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. 
Photographs by I. W. Fisher, Department of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, Ithaca. 
New York. 



349 



AMOTHER PLANT WITH A ZIGZAG CULM 
The zigzag character does nol: appear in the early life of the plant, and only bocomes apparent 
about the time the plant comes into tassel. Then there is a pulling away of the leaf sheathes from 
the culm, but the leaves themselves are otherwise normal. This plant shows three internodes 
that are no longer clasped by the leaf sheathes. (Fig. 9.) 



Eyster: Heritable Characters of Maize 



A MAIZE PLANT WITH NORMAL CDLH 



SAME PLANT WITH LEAVES REMOVED 



ith the zigzag culiiis in the i 



Khich follow. (Figs. 



ment to the two factor hypothesis the 
questions arose as to whether the defi- 
ciency in zigzag plants might not be due 
either to my inability to identify some 
of them or to a high death rate because 
of inherent weakness. So far as I have 
observed zigzag plants are as vigorous 
under field conditions as normal plants 
except that they are more apt to break 
in the intemodes that are no longer 
clasped by the leaf sheathes. 

A number of Fi plants were back- 
crossed with the zigzag parental type, 



and there resulted 373 normals and 104 
zigzag plants, a deviation of 134.5 ± 7.4 
from the equality expected when par- 
ents differ in a single pair of factors, but 
a deviation of only 15.25 + 6.38 from 
a 3 :1 ratio expected when parents differ 
in two pairs of factors. 

These data indicate that zigzag culm 
comes into expression only when at 
least two factors are recessive, and is 
another case of plural genes. Crucial 
tests of the hypothesis are yet to be 
made. 



ZIGZAG CULMS APPROACHING NORMAL CULMS IN APPEARANCE 
These plants were sclet^ted to show how closely some zigziig planls approach normal plants in 
appearance. Their dwarfness is not very noticeable. Note ihc number of intcmudes that are 
arched away from the point of leaf attachment. Upon comparison with the normal culm shown 
in Fig. 12 the zigzag character which is here Icssdistmctly expressed becomes evident, (E'lg. 16.) 



BETTER AMERICAN FAMILIES— IV 

A Brief Story of Several American Families Which Have Contributed Note- 
worthy Leaders in the Development of Our 

National Life^ 

WiLHELMINE E. KeY 

Race Betterment Foundation, Battle Creek, Mich, 

of mechanical power, the furnace, 
steam and electricity. While the work- 
ers show capacity to manage these 
forces, the function of internal govern- 
ment has become the task of controlling 
these men, many of whom have re- 
mained as remote from a truly American 
spirit as though they had never touched 
our shores. If our present time of 
'^taking stock" brings us any vision of 
the forces that have made America, 
and the processes that should shape a 
nation, if it ever so slightly directs our 
wills to a conscious shaping of these 
processes, it will have been worth all 
the agonies it is costing us. 

It is perhaps not generally known 
that this nation passed through a simi- 
lar period of turbulence in the years 
following the Revolution, particularly 
in the period of French Terrorism. 
The Constitution was adopted and the 
present government put into operation 
at a time when there was not a gram- 
mar, a geography or a history of any 
kind in the schools, and when a teacher 
who could compute interest was con- 
sidered "great in figures." In thrifty 
New England, idle men loafed on street 
corners while women and children went 
in rags; the outposts of settlement were 
largely held by a nomad race, part 
farmer, but mostly hunter, who housed 
there numerous broods in filthy cabins, 
and held as the highest ideal, complete 
unrestraint from all social and govern- 
mental control. Franklin declared the 
press of the day was supported by 
human depravity, and Knox wrote 
Washington that in Massachusetts, 
those who opposed the Constitution 
acted "from deadly principle levelled 



MANY of us, as we look into the 
face of America today are won- 
dering what this face will be 
like a few generations hence. Such 
a confusion of prophecies strikes 
our ears, prophecies in which the cus- 
tomary optimistic note is discourag- 
ingly lacking! In the turmoil that has 
succeeded the war, ugly elements have 
come to the surface of our national life, 
menacing possibilities which never be- 
fore were suspected of existing here. 

Earnest people are everywhere ask- 
ing: "Is this, our boasted many-sided 
civilization, to prove a scandalous 
failure in the hour of its greatest suc- 
cess? How shall we bring harmony into 
warring ideals and unity into the di- 
vergent purposes of our multitudinous 
population? How are we to so solidify 
our national life as to present an im- 
movable bulwark to a foe that con- 
tinues to threaten now within as well 
as without our gates? For wc know 
that on our success in conferring a 
genuine naturalization on the alien, de- 
pends our success in the experiment of 
making democracy safe for ourselves 
and the world. 

WHAT FORCES ARE SHAPING 
THE NATION? 

The half centurv that succeeded the 
Civil W'ar marked a fabulous growth 
in national wealth and power; it wit- 
nessed an astounding march of settle- 
ment till a vast continent was subdued, 
and an extension of industry, through a 
rule of coal-barons and steel-kings over 
millions of aliens thrust full-grown into 
the fabric of our national life. This 
has meant, largely, progress by masses 



^This is the fourth in a series of five articles on this subject by the same author, the former papers 
having appeared respectively in the January, February and March 1919 numbers of the Jci rnal 
OF HtREDiTY. — Editor. 



358 



Key: Better American Families 



359 



at the existence of all government 
whatsoever.'* 

Yet at this time there were parts of 
the country where order and sobriety 
were the rule. New England, in its 
more thickly settled portions, was 
thrifty and industrious, New York and 
Pennsylvania had their prosperous, 
well-cultivated valleys, and farther 
south, worthy elements of the popula- 
tion gradually gained ascendency over 
the drinking law-denouncing settlers. 
In the pioneers who took up the farms 
abandoned by the first haters of civili- 
zation, we find representatives of our 
best colonial and old-world stock, who 
speedily displaced the improvidence 
and dissipation by piety, enterprise and 
thrift; also, they founded colleges and 
academies — off-shoots of the half- 
dozen which had held their own 
through a century in the East, 
where educated and devout men car- 
ried a lamp of learning and an inspira- 
tion to right living. 

GENETIC FACTORS I\ AMERICANIZATION 

In previous papers we have sought 
a genetic interpretation of the process 
of Americanization. We have found 
its essence to consist in an ever greater 
approximation to standards and ideals 
set by certain regnant personalities. 
The completeness of the approxima- 
tion is of necessity dependent on the 
native bent of the lesser families, thus 
having its foundation in the genetic 
constitution of the strains to which 
these families belong. These strains 
have not necessarily been derived from 
colonial stock. In the hordes of immi- 
grants which the steerage disgorged on 
our shores annually through a dozen 
decades, there have been those as surely 
predestined to become ''good Ameri- 
cans" as ever were fore-ordained to an 
apostolic succession. There have been 
Italians and Germans, Scandinavians, 
Jews and Serbians born in the American 
spirit and unquestioningly giving al- 
legiance to the best in American life. 
Added to these were others, less reso- 
lutely American, but who might never- 
theless have become so by contact with 



the best instead of the worst in our 
institutions. 

We have found, then, as a necessary 
fundamental in Americanization, cer- 
tain genetic factors conditioned through 
right marriages which insure the basis 
for the educative process. We have 
seen how social selection has brought 
together the fittest representatives of 
mixed strains through their migrations 
for a common purpose, and by their 
mating produced endowment above 
the average. In similar fashion the 
less able, left behind in the old environ- 
ment have all too often, mated and 
given rise to a variety of defective and 
degenerate conditions. 

In certain families which have been 
intensively studied, this process is seen 
extending over six and seven genera- 
tions, resulting in well-defined socially 
fit and socially unfit lines, and we are 
justified in holding that almost any 
family whose history is scrutinized for 
a number of generations will show a 
like breaking up into lines of varying 
social efficiency. 

While the need of cutting off defec- 
tive and degenerate lines is becoming 
widely recognized and is being met by 
legislative enactment, there is as yet 
little organized effort to direct the 
evolution of lines among our mediate 
and superior classes. In this vaster 
attempt, the enlightened individual 
conscience must be appealed to. The 
heightening of our sense of social re- 
sponsibility in marriage should be one 
of the beneficient effects of the world- 
war. The knowledge that a faulty 
heritage due to unwise matings played 
a major r6le in the production of the 
war-neuroses, thereby rendering the 
individual a liability rather than an 
asset in time of national stress, should 
bring home, as never before, individual 
responsibility to the state in the choice 
of marriage mates. F'urther, to see how 
a superior heritage due to fortunate al- 
liances has meant a finer endowment, 
which in the favoring environment of 
the better lines has flowered into vari- 
ous forms of pre-eminence, should give 
an incentive to increase social worth 



360 



The Journal of Heredity 



by this means as by the more univer- 
sally recognized means of education. 

INHERITANCE OF ABILITIES 

Concluding this article is a genetic 
classification of American strains. The 
families already considered in papers II 
and III of this series belong to classes 
having low and mediate social worth. It 
is now proposed to consider certain 
American families of superior and super- 
lative worth and the part which inheri- 
tance played in making such worth 
possible. 

If we take up the genealogy of any 
family whose name suggests eminence 
in some lines, we are struck by the re- 
currence in successive generations of 
similar abilities, or at least of occupa- 
tions which would imply similar abili- 
ties. While the majority of persons 
described are more or less obscure, 
still we are apt to find here and there 
what might be termed concentrations 
of various types of ability. Thus we 
find one line remaining tillers of the 
soil, another given to merchandizing, 
while still another shows several ex- 
amples of artistic gifts. In the latter 
case the artistic ability may in certain 
branches **shade oflf" into a well- 
marked artisan group. Again, we 
find a decided altruistic bent for sev- 
eral generations, this evincing itself 
in the selection of the ministry as a 
life-work and the preference for the 
teaching profession. Often the occur- 
rence of a name standing for pre-emi- 
nence of a particular kind is heralded by 
a number of lesser lights whose tastes 
and occupations give evidence of simi- 
larity of endowment. Many of the 
most interesting cases are where a gift 
which remained the avocation or pas- 
time in a father becomes in the son the 
supreme endowment. 

We have a fine example of this in the 
late E. A. Abbey. Asked how he got 
his first great commission, he gravely 
replied: "Through my grandfather." 
To the further question: '*You are go- 
ing to decorate the Capitol of Pennsyl- 
vania; did your grandfather get you 
that commission too?" he said: "If I 



do the work, he will be the cause." 
This grandfather was a wealthy mer- 
chant and type-founder of Philadel- 
phia, whose happiest days were spent 
at his easel. It is said his only brother 
had much artistic talent, though he was 
an artisan, a painter by trade, with a 
son who was likewise a painter. This 
merchant's cousins were artisans, too, 
with some artistic gifts — one, a jew- 
eler, was also a fine musician and intel- 
ligent florist, with a son who became 
a well-known dramatic manager. Ab- 
bey's father was, like his father, a mer- 
chant, though inheriting the gift for 
painting, while his brother was an artist 
and followed the profession of law. 

The Abbeys are described as a race 
of soldiers, path-finders and pioneer 
settlers. From their first homes in 
Connecticut, they pushed up the Con- 
necticut Valley, turning westward with 
the tide of exploration and settlement 
through New York, then into Ohio and 
Michigan and eventually across the 
continent. Nor were their most illus- 
trious examples of pioneering found in 
the West. Cleveland Abbe possessed 
pioneering instinct in abundance with 
daring imagination, courage and en- 
thusiastic urge in pursuit of a new idea. 
These abilities conceived and carried 
to success themultitudinousdaily obser- 
vations on which depend our National 
Weather Service, which has no parallel 
in similar undertakings. His brother 
was known for his original work in the 
application of radium to medicine, a 
line which is also followed by his son, 
while another son is a geographer con- 
tinuing in the same type of work as his 
father. 

Of the inheritance of mechanical and 
inventive skill, the Fairbanks and the 
Pomeroy families have long been 
known as splendid examples. James 
Fairbanks married Phoebe Paddock 
whose two brothers were iron-workers. 
Erastus Fairbanks, their son, manu- 
factured stoves and plows, while Thad- 
deus, his brother, invented the platform 
scales. Erastus married Lois Crosman 
and had two sons, the elder with much 
inventive ability and love of natural 



Better American Families 



361 



history, the younger with a genius for 
administration, who became Governor 
of Vermont. Henry, who was a son 
of Thaddeus, went into the ministry 
but his love of invention later drew 
him into manufacturing. 

Executive ability, the power of doing 
things, is also a salient trait in the Pom- 
eroy family. Eltweed, the founder of 
the family in America was given a 
grant of 1,000 acres of land by the 
province of Massachusetts on condi- 
tion of his establishing his business as 
gunsmith within its bounds. In each 
of the seven generations that succeeded 
him, there has been at least one follow- 
ing the same trade. In this family, the 
power of doing things easily is fre- 
quently carried so far as to exclude the 
tendency to think about them. The 
typical Pomeroy is said not to be a 
good teacher, and the reason as given 
is that they see through a process so 
quickly they lose sight of the inter- 
mediate steps and thus are unable to 
explain them to another. If we study 
their genealogy carefully, we find inter- 
esting instances of the coming of this 
power of abstraction and elucidation in 
later generations through their mar- 
riage into strains such as the Strongs 
and the Dwights which have this 
ability in abundance. 

Another instance of the inheritance 
of ability in construction is in the 
Herreshoflf family, designers and build- 
ers of the swiftest sailing boats in the 
world. The first representative in this 
country was Charles F. Herreshoff 
who, though an accomplished artist, 
had little practical business ability. 
He married Sarah Brown, proficient in 
music and mathematics, whose family 
had amassed fortunes in foreign and 
domestic trade, carrying their goods in 
ships of their own manufacture. Their 
son founded the Herreshoflf Manufac- 
turing Company and was associated 
with his three sons, all experts in naval 
architecture. In none of these exam- 
ples can we lay the signal success to 
tradition or merely opportunity, for 
plenty of their associates have had 
similar opportunities without once feel- 
ing the impulse toward construction of 
this type. 



The history of America gives many 
illustrations of signal ability in finance 
extending through three or more gener- 
ations. We have but to think of the 
names of Astor, Vanderbilt, Morgan 
and Rockefeller, Drexel and Palmer, 
all of whom stand for vast accumulated 
wealth. It is interesting to reflect what 
the scions of these houses would have 
been had they lived in an age which per- 
mitted a diflferent type of exploitation, 
the age of Raleigh and Frobisher. 
Most of them piled up their riches by 
conquest of virgin resources, though 
there are not lacking instances where 
the chief characteristic was the will and 
the power to over-ride all competitors. 
For the most part these American pro- 
jectors belong to lines of their respec- 
tive families which show great force 
and energy, an instinct for contrivance, 
acquisitiveness, and a spirit of emula- 
tion which would brook no opposition 
to the fulfillment of its schemes. How- 
ever our captains of industry are not all 
of the same type, just as they have 
sprung from stocks whose leading 
traits have not been by any manner 
the same. With determination, vital- 
ity, and the ability to evaluate correctly 
situations of all kinds in common, we 
find in one type love of adventure and 
exploration, a passion for taking great 
risks, the traits of the "dead game 
sport," while in another type, pains- 
taking calculation, careful policy and 
great economy are the salient charac- 
ters. 

The latter qualities were exemplified 
to a marked degree in John Jacob 
Astor, the founder of a line of our most 
noted financiers. In the sordid con- 
fines of a butcher's home in the remote 
village of Waldorf, we find his childish 
imagination aflame with legends of 
marching hosts of Romans, taking 
their triumphant way along the mili- 
tary road on which the hamlet lay. 
Later, under the inspiration of letters 
from America, the vision took the form 
of possible conquest for himself, so 
that he spurned the father's trade, and 
at sixteen, made his way to London 
and there by arduous unskilled labor 
earned his passage to America. Here, 
he was first a peddler of cakes, but with 



362 



The Journal of Heredity 



his first small investment in furs, under- 
took the hazardous foot and canoe 
journeys which gave him that knowl- 
edge of strategic positions for forts and 
trading posts which made possible the 
development of his colossal trading 
interests. At every step of the way 
he showed "a persevering industry, a 
rigid economy and strict integrity. To 
these were added an inspiring spirit 
that always looked upward; a genius 
bold, fertile and expansive; a sagacity, 
quick to grasp and convert every cir- 
cumstance to its advantage and a singu- 
lar and unwavering confidence of signal 
success." Like energy, optimism and 
practical sense are said to have dis- 



tinguished his niother, and she endowed 
similarly two other sons who signally 
prospered. John Jacob was the first 
of a line of which William B., his son, 
William and John Jacob 3rd, grand- 
sons, and John Jacob 4th and Williani 
Waldorf are the most noted. 

THE LEAD OF GREAT PERSONALITIES 

The study then of these family 
histories brings into relief lines noted 
for ability in art, business, mechanical 
construction and scientific investiga- 
tion, with the frequent occurrence of 
members who have achieved renown in 
the various lines. These leaders pos- 



(lENETic Classification of Amkrican Strains 



Aristogenic, 

Through segregation in su- 
perior stocks, producing 
trait-complexes of high ex- 
cellence, s 



I, 



Eugenic, 

Through segregation, con- 
tributing to classes of supe-. 
rioraswell as those of infe- 
rior worth. 



II, 



III, 



Cacogenic, 

Through segregation, pro- 
ducing recessive trait-com- 
plexes. 



IV 



Superlative worth. 

1. Jurisprudence — eg: Kent, Story, Marshall 

2. Statecraft — eg: Adams, Lowell, Livingston 

3. Metaphysics — eg: Edwards, Woolscy 

4. Education — eg: Mann, Dwight, Edwards 

5. Social Reform — eg: Beecher, Abbott 

6. Religion — eg: Ballou, Channing 

7. Military Leadership — eg: Washington, Lee 

8. Oratory — eg: Choate, Webster 

9. Literary Expression — eg: Prescott, Irving 
10. Histrionic Art — eg: Booth, Sothern 

IL Poetry — eg: Bryant, Longfellow 

12. Graphic Arts — eg: Abbey, Inman 

13. Music — eg: Hutchinson, Buck 

14. Natural Science — eg: Agassiz, Baird 

15. Mathematical Sciences — eg: Newcomb, Pickering 

16. Invention — eg: Morse, Bell 

17. Politics — eg: Hamilton, Randolph 

18. Pioneer Life — eg: Boone, Sinclair 

19. Engineering — eg: Pomeroy, Herrcshoff 

20. Exploration — eg: Peary, Greeley 

21. Finance — eg: Astor, Girard, Morgan 
Superior worth. 

Special skill, intelligence, enterprise, etc. 
Names occurring in "Who's Who in .America." 

Mediate social worth. 

Showing a great rangeofaptitudesandabilitiesin moder- 
ate degree. 

The so-called middle class, making up the run of 
mechanics, small farmers and trades- people, clerks, 
operators, general laborers, etc. 

Low social worth. 

Marked psychical or temperamental defects. 
1. Feeble-minded 



i 



2. Pauperous 

3. Neuropathic 

4. Criminalistic 

5. Insane 

6. Sex Perverts 



The "Jukes," "Kallikaks, 
"Ishmaelites." 



»» 



7. Crippled 

8. Psychopathic 

This classification is intended to be mainly suggestive. The classes are not sharply delim ited 
from one another, and the examples given for superlative worth are not necessarily of uniform 
value. They are such as would occur to the reader and serve to illustrate how certain lines of a 
given family name may come to bear a more or less distinctive character, depending primarily on 
fortunate trait-complexes and secondarily on the environal influence known under the term "so- 
cial heritage." 



Hereditary Trades 



363 



sessed in marked degree the daring 
pioneer spirit, which, exemplified to a 
lesser extent in so many of our country- 
men, has made the epic of conquest of 
the continent. 

What a story it has been, of fortitude 
and sacrifice and of courage surpassing 
that of a soldier! We should fitly 
celebrate this struggle with the wilder- 
ness, with scorching heat and biting 
cold, with flood and drought and fire. 
We should be grateful for the planting 
here of those families fitted to cope 
with adverse circumstance and turn 



mischance to victory, and for the best 
from many racial strains who followed 
acceptably where the greater personali- 
ties led. This is the story of "Amer- 
icanization" on its material side, though 
to it have been brought many of the 
finest qualities with which man is en- 
dowed. From one point of view, it is 
the story of chosen germ-plasms, that 
should lead every one who can even 
remotely appreciate it, to resolve that 
so far as possible his family shall be one 
of the chosen to lead further on the path 
of progress. 



HEREDITARY TRADES 



THE agricultural population of 
Italy furnishes a rather interest- 
ing example of the preservation of 
tribal occupational distinctions. F^or 
centuries the people of the Burino, 
Ciocare, Rieti, Abruzzi, or Ortanesi 
have followed their individual voca- 
tions of reapers, diggers, sowers, vine- 
trimmers, etc., in the fever-swept 
marshes of the Roman Campagna, and 
the names of these families who worked 
in the fertile though deadly plains 
have been adapted, in the common par- 
lance of the agricultural world of Italy, 
to mean any follower of that trade. 
So identified with the art of seed-plant- 
ing are, for example, the Rieti, that 
sowers throughout Italy are called 
"Rieti," regardless of their origin, and 
the threshers are known popularly as 
Ciocare. 

The really remarkable fact concern- 
ing the fidelity of each of these races 
to its vocation is that this adherence to 
tradition continues despite the un- 
healthy character of the region in 
which they have so long operated. 
Thev suffer no delusion as to the 
danger of working in the marshes, but 
the fertility of the soil, fr m which 
may be garnered three crops yearly — 
grain, grapes, and charcoal — has kept 
generation after generation following 
in the footsteps of the preceding one. 
Few breaks from the lineal tradition 
have taken place. The terrible death- 
rate in the community has orphaned 
hundreds of children, and the orphan- 
ages with industrial schools and agri- 
cultural colonies, which the Junior Red 



Cross of America has founded at 
Piperno and Sezze, are filled largely 
with these children, still known by their 
racial cognomen, as "children of the 
reapers, vine-trimmers, etc." 

These agricultural workers do not 
remain in the region throughout the 
vear. As the season fitted to the 
occupation of each comes around, each 
community gathers together its goods 
and implements and migrates to the 
malarial marshes of the coastal plain. 
First to come in the spring are the 
Abruzzi, tillers of the soil from Aquila 
in the mountains above Rome, next 
follow the Rieti, sowers from the Sabine 
mountains, the reapers of the Burino 
race from the Lapini hills above the 
marshes, and then the threshers who 
still wear the heavy sandal-like shoes 
which aid their leathern flails in thresh- 
ing out the grain. 

Interesting and picturesque though 
these farmers may be from the view- 
point of heredity, they do not satisfy 
the laws of modern hygiene in their 
choice cf territory. Many of the children 
of these races are now being taught 
trades in the Piperno and Sezze schools, 
which will doubtless take them away 
from the unhealthy plains, and the 
fate of the remainder depends largely 
upon the results of an Italian engineer- 
ing project, now on foot, which should 
succeed in making of the plague-ridden 
marshes a far more healthful neighbor- 
hood. A photograph of Italian orphans 
pruning vines is shown on the following 
page. 



INHERITANCE IN CROSSES OF DAIRY 
AND BEEF BREEDS OF CATTLE 

III. Transmission of Butter-Fat Percentage to the First Generation^ 

John W. Gowen 
Agricultural Experiment Station, Orono, Maiyie 

THE inheritance of milk yield in the 
first generation crosses of dairy and 
beef breeds of cattle was treated 
in the second paper of this series. ^ The 
inheritance of butterfat percentage for 
the same crosses will be analyzed here. 
Butter-fat percentage has been 
shown to have a considerable variation 
with age in the Ayrshire breed, some 
relation to age in the Jersey and Guern- 
sey breeds and no significant relation 
to age in the Holstein-Friesian breed. 
These relations necessitate the appli- 
cation of age correction factors to the 
Jersey, Guernsey and Ayrshire records 
for butter-fat percentage to make these 
records comparable. Without any pre- 
vious knowledge as to how age will 
effect the butter-fat percentage of the 
crosses between these breeds, it has 
been thought advisable to correct the 
crossbred records with the same set of 
correction factors which were used for 
the Jersey and Guernsey. When a 
butter-fat percentage record is men- 
tioned in any subsequent section of 
this paper it is to be understood that 
it is an age corrected record. 

HOW THE RECORDS ARE OBTAINED 

The butter-fat percentage record for 
any given crossbred cow or her dam is 
obtained by taking the mean butter- 
fat percentage of the different lacta- 
tions during the cow's life at the same 
corresponding month of lactation. The 
butter-fat percentage of the sires, Tau- 
rus Creamelle Hengerveld and Lake- 
land's Poet, are the mean of the butter- 
fat percentage of their daughters other 
than crossbred daughters. The record 
of Kayan, where no pure bred daugh- 



ters are available, is obtained by aver- 
aging the records of the Aberdeen- 
Angus cows in the herd. The record 
for Delva's University DeKol is the rec- 
ord of Taurus Creamelle Hengerveld. 
The records of the last two sires are 
subject to the same criticisms cited in 
the second paper of the series. 

The details of the number of lacta- 
tions which make up the record of the 
given cow are given in the second paper 
of this series and need not be repeated 
here. 

BUTTER-FAT PERCENTAGES 

The first graph in Figure 24 shows the 
monthly butter-fat percentage of Cross- 
bred No. 1, her pure bred Holstein- 
Friesian dam, Pauline Posch and the 
potential record of her Jersey sire, 
Lakeland's Poet. Photographs show- 
ing Crossbred No. 1 and her parents 
are shown in the previous paper of this 

series. The solid line ( ) 

represents the crossbred 's butter-fat 

p)ercentage, the dotted line( ) 

the butter-fat percentage of her dam 

and the dot and dash line ( ) 

the potential butter-fat percentage of 
her sire. The butter-fat percentage 
of this crossbred is clearly intermediate 
between that of her high butter-fat test 
sire and her low butter-fat percentage 
dam. The eight months' butter-fat per- 
centage for Crossbred No. 1 was 3 . 899. 
The butter-fat percentage for her Hol- 
stein-Friesian dam was 2.758 and for 
her Jersey sire was 4.705. The cross- 
bred cow was consequently 0.806 per 
cent less than her Jersey parent and 
1 . 141 j)er cent more than her low test- 
ing Holstein-Friesian parent. The 



' Papers from the Biological Laboratory of the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station, 
No. 136. 

* Gowen, John W., 1920. Inheritance in Crosses of Dairy and Beef Breeds of Cattle. II. On 
the Transmission of Milk Yield to the First Generation. Journal of Heredity, Vol. XI (1920), 
No. 7, pp. 300-316. 



3^6 



The Journal of Heredity 



Crossbred No. 1 is consequently nearer 
the high test parent than the low test 
parent. It is perhaps fair in this connec- 
tion to say that the butter-fat percent- 
age of Pauline Posch is low even for the 
Holstein-Friesian breed, the mean for 
the breed being nearly .5 per cent 
higher than her average. 

Crossbred No. 2 has her butter-fat 
percentage shown in the second graph 
in Figure 24. She is the result of a 
cross of the Holstein-Friesian sire, 
Delva's University De Kol, to the 
Guernsey cow, Canada's Creusa. The 
photograph of Crossbred No. 2 is 
shown in Fig. 18. The characteristics 
of the Holstein-Friesian parent are seen 
in the rump, the size of body and the 
profile of the nose. 

The butter-fat percentage of this 
crossbred clearly resembles that of her 
low testing Holstein-Friesian parent. 
The average butter-fat percentage of 
Crossbred No. 2 for the eight months' 
period was 3.241. The average but- 
ter-fat percentage for her Guernsey 
dam, Canada's Creusa, was 3.961,' 
and for the potential butter-fat test of 
her Holstein-Friesian sire, Delva's Uni- 
versity DeKol was 3.399. The butter- 
fat percentage of the crossbred cow is 
consequently slightly less than that for 
either parent. The difference from her 
Guernsey parent is 0.720 per cent and 
from her Holstein-Friesian parent 0.158 
per cent. Crossbred No. 2 resembles 
the low butter-fat percentage 4.5 times 
as closely as she does the high butter- 
fat percentage. 

The third graph in Figure 24 repre- 
sents the butter-fat percentage of the 
Crossbred No. 11 and that of her pure 
bred Jersey sire. Lakeland's Poet, and 
her pure bred Holstein-Friesian dam, 
Delva Johanna DeKol. 

Photographs of the animals used in 
this mating are shown in Figs. 19, 20 and 
21. The dark underline and fair Jer- 
sey conformation of Lakeland's Poet are 
clearly seen. Delva Johanna DeKol 
shows the typical conformation of her 
body and udder. Crossbred No. 11 
has an appearance of size in the fore 



quarters and a lack of these qualities 
in the hind quarters which is due largely 
to the position in which she is stand- 
ing. 

While the butter-fat percentage of 
Crossbred No. 11 is intermediate be- 
tween that of her high testing and her 
low testing parents throughout the en- 
tire lactation, it is equally clear that 
the butter- fat p)ercentage of the cross 
is much nearer that of her low testing 
parent than it is to that of the high 
testing parent. The mean butter-fat 
percentage of Crossbred No. 1 1 for the 
eight months* period is 3.403, that for the 
Holstein-Friesian dam 3.224, the px)- 
tential butter-fat percentage for the 
Jersey sire is 4.705. 1 he difference 
between the low testing dam and the 
crossbred cow is consequently 0.179. 
The difference between the crossbred 
and her high testing sire is 1.302, or 
Crossbred No. 1 1 resembles the butter- 
fat percentage of the low testing parent 
7.3 times as closely as she does the 
butter-fat percentage of the high test- 
ing parent. 

The butter-fat percentage of Cross- 
bred No. 12 and her Guernsey dam, 
College Gem, together with the poten- 
tial butter-fat percentage of her Hol- 
stein-Friesian sire is shown in the 
fourth graph of Figure. 24. Photo- 
graphs of the animals composing this 
mating are shown in the previous paper 
of this series. The butter-fat percent- 
age of College Gem, the mother to this 
crossbred cow, and that of Creusa's 
Lady, the dam of Crossbred No. 29, is 
considerably higher than that of other 
animals used in these crosses. A study 
of the butter-fat percentage of the 
breed to which these cows belong and 
also of the Jersey breed makes it appear 
quite possible that there are at least two 
levels of butter- fat percentage, speak- 
ing from the inheritance viewpoint, 
within these breeds. Should such prove 
to be the case the results of the crosses 
including these relatively high butter- 
fat testers might produce a different 
result than those including the lower 
testing cows. 



' The butter-fat percentage for Canada's Creusa is clearly very low for a Guernsey cow. In 
the advanced registry of this breed the average year test is 4.9 per cent of butter-fat. 



370 



The Journal of Heredity 



cow is consequently 0.045 higher in 
butter-fat j)ercentage than her dam and 
0.508 per cent higher than her sire. 

The top graph in Figure 25 represents 
the butter-fat percentage of Crossbred 
No. 22, her Guernsey dam, College 
Creusa and her Aberdeen- Angus sire, 
Kay an. As explained in the previous 
pap>er, the graphs in Figure 25 are less 
reliable than those of Figure 24, since 
they are composed of a less number of 
lactations for the crossbred cows. 
Little difference in the butter-fat per- 
centages of these three animals are 
shown by the graphs. The eight 
months butter-fat percentage of Cross- 
bred No. 22 was 4.526, the butter-fat 
percentage of her Guernsey dam 4.825 
and of her Aberdeen-Angus sire 4.386. 
Crossbred No. 22 is 0.299 per cent of 
butter-fat less than her dam and 0.140 
per cent more than her sire. 

The butter-fat percentages of Cross- 
bred No. 26 and her parents, Creusa of 
Orono 3d, Guernsey dam, and Kay an, 
Aberdeen-Angus sire, are shown in the 
second graph in Figure 25. Little dif- 
ference in the monthly butter-fat per- 
centage of the three animals is seen in 
the graphs. The mean eight months 
butter-fat percentage of Crossbred No. 
26 is 4.100, that for the Guernsey dam 
4,679 and for the Aberdeen-Angus sire 
4.386. Crossbred No. 26 has 0.579 per 
cent of butter-fat less than her dam and 
0.286 per cent less than her sire's po- 
tential butter-fat percentage. 

The butter-fat percentage of Cross- 
bred No. 27 is seen to vary irregularly 
over that of her two parents in the 
third graph of Figure 25. Crossbred 
No. 27 is the result of a cross between 
Orono Madge, Aberdeen-Angus cow, 
and Lakeland's Poet, Jersey bull. The 
average butter-fat percentage of Cross- 
bred No. 27 is 4.474, of her Aberdeen- 
Angus dam's 4.640, and of her Jersey 
sire 4.705. Crossbred No. 27 was 0.166 
per cent of butter-fat less than her dam 
and 0.231 per cent of butter-fat less 
than her sire. 

While Crossbred No. 29 is the result 
of a cross between Creusa's Lady, 
Guernsey dam and Kayan, Aberdeen- 
Angus sire, she is of some interest, since 



her dam, Creusa's Lady, is one of the 
higher butter-fat testing Guernsey 
cows. The fourth graph in Figure 25 
shows the monthly butter-fat percent- 
age for this mating. For the first 
month the butter-fat percentage of the 
crossbred is higher than that of either 
parent. After this time her butter-fat 
percentage follows the butter-fat per- 
centage of the relatively lower testing 
Aberdeen- Angus parent. The mean 
butter-fat percentage for the eight 
months period is 4.534 per cent for the 
crossbred cow, 5.346 for her pure bred 
dam and 4.386 j^er cent for her sire. 
The crossbred is 0.812 per cent less in 
her butter-fat test than her dam and 
0.148 per cent more than her sire. The 
crossbred cow resembles her low test- 
ing parent 5.5 times as closely as she 
does her high testing parent. 

The average butter-fat percentage 
of the Ayrshire breed is 3.68 per cent. 
This is about 1.0 per cent below the 
butter-fat percentage of the Aberdeen- 
Angus contained in this herd, and only 
0.4 per cent above the average of the 
Holstein-Friesian breed. Crossbred 
No. 37 is the result of a cross between 
the Ayrshire cow. Dot Alaska and the 
Aberdeen-Angus sire, Kayan. The 
fifth graph of Figure 25 gives the butter- 
fat percentage of Crossbred No. 37 and 
her parents. The crossbred's record is 
for only one complete lactaition and one 
half of the next. Considerable varia- 
tion would consequently be expected 
for this record. In the fifth month of 
lactation the butter-fat percentage of 
Crossbred No. 37 is slightly higher than 
that for the high testing parent, Kayan. 
Other than this record the butter-fat 
percentage of the crossbred closely ap- 
proximates that for the lower testing 
parent. Dot Alaska. The eight months 
butter-fat percentage for Crossbred 
No. 37 was 3.861 per cent, for Dot 
Alaska was3. 661 percent and for Kayan 
4.386 per cent. Crossbred No. 37 is 
0.200 per cent more in her butter-fat 
percentage than that of her dam, ajnd 
0.525 per cent less than her Aberdeen- 
Angus sire or the* ratio is 1 to 2.6. 

The last graph in Figure 25 is that for 
Crossbred No. 44. Crossbred No. 44 



372 



The Journal of Heredity 




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MONTHLY BUTTER-FAT PERCENTAGES 

Graphs showing the monthly butterfat percentages of six crossbred cows and their parents. The 

solid line ( ) represents the crossbred, thie dotted line ( ) represents the dam, and 

the dot-and-dash line ( : — ■ — ) the potential record of the sire. (Fig. 24.) 



Gowen: Transmission of Butter-fat Percentage 



373 



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Month of Lactation. 

MONTHLY BUTTER-FAT PERCENTAGES 

Graphs showing monthly butter-fat percentages of crossbred cows and their parents. The signifi« 
cance of the lines is the same as in Fig. 24 on the opposite page. (Fig. 25.) 



374 



The Journal of Heredity 



is the result of the mating of the Aber- 
deen-Angus cow Orono Madge to the 
Holstein-Friesi^ bull Taurus Cream- 
elle Hengerveld. The graph for Cross- 
bred No. 44 shows that her butter-fat 
percentage for her first lactation is in- 
termediate between that of her high 
and her low testing parents at the 
fourth, fifth and sixth months of lacta- 
tion. Other thain these months the 
crossbred cow clearly follows the low 
butter-fat percentage of her low testing 
sire. The eight months mean butter- 
fat percentage for Crossbred No. 44 
was 3.656 per cent, that for her Aber- 
deen-Angus dam 4.640 per cent, and for 
her Holstein-Friesian sire 3.399 per 
cent. The crossbred cow was conse- 
quently 0.984 per cent less in her but- 
ter-fat percentage than her high testing 
dam and 0.257 per cent more than her 
low testing sire. The crossbred cow 
consequently is 3.8 times as near to the 
low butter-fat percentage as she is to 
the higher butter-fat percentage line. 

These observations may be regrouped 
to show the changes brought about in 
the butter-fat percentage of the off- 
spring in accordance with the way the 
cross was made. For those crosses in 
which the Holstein-Friesian sire was 
used, the offspring in all cases resem- 
bled the low testing sire between 3.3 
aind 4.5 to 1 as closely as they did the 
high testing parent, the mean being 
3.9 to 1. For those crosses in which 
the dam was of the Holstein-Friesian 
breed, the results of the offspring were 
contradictory, one approaching the 
butter-fat percentage of the high test 
parent 1.4 to 1 and the other approach- 
ing the butter-fat test of the low Hol- 
stein-Friesian cow 7.3 to 1. The cross 
involving the Ayrshire dam resembled 
the low test 2.6 to 1. The high ^est 
Guernsey dam when crossed to the 
lower test Aberdeen-Angus sire had a 



daughter which resembled the low 
testing sire 5.5 times as closely as she 
did the high testing dam. ^ 

Considering every cross irrespective 
of their merit for this particular phase 
of the work the crosses resemble the 
low testing parental breed 2.23 times 
as closely as they do the high testing 
parental breed. 

Several experiments undertaken by 
the breeders cited in the previous pa- 
pers furnish data which incidentally 
bear on the inheritance of butter-fat 
percentage. The butter-fat tests given 
by Pairlour, KuhlmaB, and Strevens^ 
for the Fi cows from crosses of the Jer- 
sey and Aberdeen-Angus breeds show 
that the Fi differs little from either 
parent. This as indicated in a previous 
section of this paper would be expected 
since the Jersey and Aberdeen-Angus 
breeds have quite similar butter-fat 
tests. 

In crossing Holstein-Friesiati bulls to 
several scrub cows of rather high butter- 
fat test Kildee and McCandlish's'^ 
results show that the butter-fat percent- 
age for the Fi cows is intermediate 
between the two parents approaching 
if anything the butter-fat percentage 
of the lower testing Holstein-Friesian 
sires. The Fi crosses of the Guern- 
sey and Jersey sires to the scrubs show 
a slight improvement of the butter-fat 
percentage over that of their dams. 
The results for the Jersey and Guern- 
sey crosses are of no particular impor- 
tance to the discussion since the butter- 
fat tests of the animals crossed was 
nearly the same. The Fi crosses for 
the Holstein-Friesian sires and scrub 
cows are of interest and agree quite 
closely with the results of the con- 
trolled experiment herein described con- 
sidering that more than one sire may 
have been used, that age corrections 
were not made and that the progeny 



* Parlour, VV. 

1913. Jersey Angus Cattle. Live Stock Jour. (London) 77 (1913) No. 2025 p. 85. 

Kuhlman, A. H. 

1915. Jersey-Angus Cattle. Journal Heredity 6 (1915) No. 2, pp. 68-72. 
Strevens, H. D. E. 

1913. Jersey-Angus Cattle. Live Stock Jour. (London) 77 (1913) No. 2025, p. 132. 

' Kildee, H. H. and McCandlish, A. C. 

1916. Influence of Environment and Breeding in Increasing Dairy Production. Bui. 165. 
Iowa Agri. Expt. Sta., pp. 383-402. 



Gowen: Transmission of Butter-fat Percentage 



375 



performance test of the sires is not 
known. 

Dunne' quotes some Danish records 
to show that there are two types of 
cows in the red Danish breed. One of 
these types tests about 3.3|per cent. The 
other type tests about 4.00 with the 
cross between the two having a butter- 
fat percentage which is intermediate. 
These results are however open to con- 
siderable criticism when viewed as 
critical evidence. The results cannot 
therefore be accepted as proof. 

Ca3tle^ records an experiment com- 
menced by Mr. Bowlker on crosses be- 
tween the Guernsey and Holstein-Frie- 
sian breeds. Unfortunately only a 
very limited number of tests on the 
original pure bred cows were made. It 
is necessary therefore to use the aver- 
age butter-fat percentages of the breeds 
as the parents test for butter-fat. Such 
a procedure is open to error in that the 
breeds* average butter-fat concentra- 
tion may not represent the test of the 
parental animals used in these experi- 
ments. In fact the wide variation of 
either the Guernsey or Holstein-Frie- 
sian breeds in this respect make it en- 
tirely probable that such is the case. 
The experiments are interesting how- 
ever in that wide differences are repre- 
sented in butter-fat percentages of the 
two breeds. The average butter-fat 
percentage of the Holstein-Friesian 
parents was assumed to be 3.3 per cent. 
The average test of the Guernsey par- 
ents was 5.0 per cent. The Fi cross- 
bred cows had an average butter-fat 
percentage of 4.08 or were interme- 
diate between the two parental breeds 
s^proaching the lower testing Holstein 
Friesian parents more closely than the 
higher testing Guernsey parents. The 
outcome of these exj)eriments despite 
the matiy uncontrolled variables is in 
essential agreement with the experi- 
ments herein reported from the Maine 
Station. 



BUTTER-FAT PERCENTAGES COMPARED 
TO MILK YIELD 

It is of interest to examine the results 
of these experiments on butter-fat per- 
centage in the light of those for milk 
yield. It will be remembered that in 
the Fi crossbreds milk yield wafe inter- 
mediate between that of the high and 
the low parents but approached most 
nearly that of the high parent. In the 
genetics of many economic characters 
as yield of grain, size of the animal etc. 
the explanation used to account for 
such a phenomena is the heterozygous 
nature of the factors contained in the 
Fi animal as compared with the homozy- 
gous nature of the factors in the par- 
ental breeds or strains. Without ques- 
tion there may be something to this 
hypothesis for certain crosses. The 
results for milk yield and butter-fat 
percentage do present a paradoxical 
position when this hypothesis is applied 
to them. Thus milk yield is increased 
over what the true intermediate should 
be. This follows the expectation gen- 
erally agreed upon and accounted for 
by heterosis. But on these identically 
same animals the butter-fat per- 
centage is decreased below the inter- 
mediate. This is not the expectation 
generally considered as due to heterosis 
although it is by no means impossible 
to assume that increased vigor may re- 
duce rather than increase a character. 
The double nature of such a position 
does not appeal to the author, however, 
as furnishing more than a verbal ex- 
planation of the results having little 
parallel in the rest of genetics. The 
explanation which really seems most 
likely is that we have in these two cases 
the resultaiit of partially dominant fac- 
tors. Numerous similar cases can be 
cited in genetic literature. Perhaps 
the best known case is that of bla^ck in 
Drosophila where the factor for this is 
norma^lly classified as a recessive but 
where if occasion demands it may be 



• Dunne, J. J. 

1914. Hereditary Transmission of Fat Percentage. Hoard's Dairyman. VoL XLVII. 

No. 15, pp. 553. 

'Castle, W.E. 

1919. Inheritance of Quantity and Quality of Milk Production in Dairy Cattle. Proc. Nat. 

Acad. Vol. 5, pp. 428-434. 



3/6 



The Journal of Heredity 



used as a dominant; such a factor dif- 
fers quite distinctly from another like 
speck which is consistently recessive. 
Such a parallel will explain the inheri- 
tance for butter-fat percentage by con- 
sidering that the factors for low butter- 
fat percentage display more dominance 
in their expression than do the factors 
for high butter-fat percentage. 

The inheritance of butter-fat per- 
centage has occupied a prominent place 
in the discussions of breeding opera- 
tions by practical dairymen. These 
men have held the following views as to 
the mode of this inheritance. The first 
has claimed that the tendency for high 
or low butter-fat percentage is tra^is- 
mitted by the sire to his offspring; the 



second that the dam transmits the 
tendency for high or low butter-fat per- 
centage to the offspring; and the third 
that both parents contribute to the 
butter-fat percentage transmission. 
The results of these experiments show 
that the third of these claims is correct. 
Such being the case the dairyman who 
wishes his breeding operations to pro- 
gress successfully will find it desirable 
to examine both sides of his animals' 
pedigrees carefully. Thus, today, the 
Jersey breeder pays a good deal more 
attention to the sires' side of the pedigree 
than he does the dams' side of the 
pedigree when in truth both sides are 
equally important. 



REMARKABLE INDORSEMENT OF THE JOURNAL OF HEREDITY BY 
THE CHIEF OF THE BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY 



Dr. Wm. A Taylor is the Chief of the 
largest plant research organization in 
the world — the Bureau of Plant Indus- 
try of the U. S. Department of Agricul- 
ture. Its large staff of trained research 
workers, backed by an extensive cleri- 
cal organization, constitutes the most 
powerful creative force in the study 
of plants which the world has ever seen. 
It expends $2,800,000 a year, which 
would represent an endowment of 
more than twice that of the Carnegie 
Institution. 

This unrivalled body of research 
workers has gathered together thou- 
sands of invaluable photographs which 
tell the story of new discoveries better 
than words do. There has never been 
any adequate way to bring these illus- 
trations before the public, and this year 
the totally inadequate source of publi- 
cation has been cut in two. 

In a similar way, the large army of 
research workers all over the world 
who find that their mediums of publicity 
are being hampered by inadequate facil- 
ities, are looking to the Journal of 
Heredity as the means by which they 
may present their discoveries to the 
interested public. 

Dr. Taylor's indorsement, printed on 



the opposite page, should appeal to 
everyone interested in the building up 
of our plant and animal industries. The 
production through breeding and selec- 
tion which is actually going on is creat- 
ing for the country hundreds of millions 
in wealth. Increased production, more 
disease resistant plants, longer, tougher 
fibred, better flavored and otherwise 
more valuable tobaccos, cottons, rices, 
wheats, sorghums, corns, p)eanuts, 
watermelons, peaches, potatoes, oats, 
barleys, flax, blueberries, citrus fruits — 
in fact the whole range of agricultural 
and horticultural plants — are actually 
being effected by the workers in this 
new field of science, and when Dr. 
Taylor says that no other scientific 
journal in America equals the Jgurn.al 
OF Heredity in respect to its power to 
communicate and preserv^e the basic in- 
formation relating to plant and animal 
improvement, he speaks from a quarter 
of a century's intimate experience with 
the conditions as they are. 

The Journal of Heredity has an 
appeal to everyone who wants to see 
the photographs which show the prog- 
ress in this field which is easily and 
rapidly becoming one of the greatest of 
all in its ability to create wealth. 



Sfpartmntt of Agrirulturr. 

Sttrratt of Plant JtdittJBtrg, 

9aal|ingtim. 1. (S. 



November 6, 1920. 



Dear Dr. Fairchild : 

In yotir consideration of the future of the Journal of 
Heredity I hope you will not overlook the very important 
relation to practical agriculture which the Journal has 
developed. While its title hardly suggests it, and I am free 
to confess when its publication began I personally did not 
expect it, the Journal has become a very effective medium 
for the communication and preservation of much basic 
information relating to plant and animal improvement. 
No other scientific journal in America equals it in this 
respect, nor do the official channels of publication such as 
those of the Department of Agriculture and the State 
Agricultural Experiment Stations hold out any promise of 
meeting this need. 

The catholicity of its editorial policy, coupled with the 
quality of its illustrations, is rapidly making it the most 
important journal for plant and animal breeders in the 
country at a time when these basic activities in agricultural 
development need it most keenly. 

I sincerely hope that the Association will find it possible 
to continue the issue of the Journal without abridgment of 
quality or frequency of issue. 

Sincerely, 
(Signed) Wm. A. Taylor. 



Dr. David Fairchild, President, 
American Genetic Association, 
Washington, D. C. 



A HERD OF ALBINO CATTLE 



J. A. Detlefsen 
College of Agriculture, University of Illinois, Urbana 



ABOUT six years ago, Mr. Martin 
Kaslow of Mora, Minnesota, 
obtained two albinotic calves — 
a bull and a heifer. The calves were 
the result of mating a so-called full- 
blooded Holstein bull to grade Hol- 
stein cows. The parents were of 
normal coat color, black and white 
spotted. Unfortunately, the bull was 
killed before his offspring were born. 
Mr. Kaslow was attracted by the beau- 
tiful white coat and pink eyes of the 
calves and proceeded tomake matings 
for the purpose of increasing the 
number of albinos. He was entirely 
successful in his efforts and secured a 
score or more albinos in the course of 
a few years. 

My attention was drawn to this 
interesting herd through the courtesy 
of Professor H. K. Hayes, of the Col- 
lege of Agriculture, University of 
Minnesota, and I corresponded with 
the local county agent and Mr. Kaslow 
to obtain details of the case. Unfor- 
tunately, Mr. Kaslow's records were 
destroyed in a fire, and the following 
comments depend on his memory 
to a large extent, supplemented by 
such observations as I was able to 
make when opportunity was afforded 
to examine the herd. While not ques- 
tioning the correctness of the data, I 
can not vouch for their accurary, since 
they depend upon a memory of events 
which took place during the course of 
several years. However, since the 
herd is quite unique, at least a record 
of its existence should be made. 

UNUSUAL RECORD OF ALBINO BULL 

The original full-blooded Holstein 
bull was mated to about twenty unre- 
lated grade Holsteins producing a bull 
and a heifer albino, and the rest normal. 
In the absence of more data, the case 
would appear like other simple cases 
of albinism in which a heterozygous 
male was accidentally mated to similar 



females and naturally some albino 
segregates appeared. But the subse- 
quent matings, according to Mr. Kas- 
low*s statement, do not bear out such a 
simple hypothesis, for the young Fi 
albino bull was mated back to the 
grade Holstein cows and produced only 
albinos — about twenty in number. If 
Mr. Kaslow's observations are correct, 
the case is rather remarkable, for an 
original mating of normal-coated Hol- 
steins gave an apparent recessive 
segregate — an albino bull. And yet this 
bull acted like a homozygous dominant 
in matings with normally-coated Hol- 
stein cows. 

Mr. Kaslow states that the albinos, 
when mated inter se, have given only 
albinos and exhibited four young albino 
calves which were reported to have 
come from such a mating. Further- 
more, four albino females were mated 
to a registered Holstein bull and pro- 
duced three albinos and one normal 
Holstein. 

NOT CORRELATED WITH MILK 
PRODUCTION 

As far as I could determine by ex- 
amination, the albinos showed no pig- 
ment in the skin, eyes, horns, or hoofs, 
except in one case. One adult female had 
a small black spot about one centimeter 
square on one ear. Mr. Kaslow had not 
noted any similar appearances of pig- 
ment in other individuals and was 
somewhat surprised when this case was 
pointed out to him. The albinos were 
extremely sensitive to light and grazed 
in a listless manner during the daytime 
with their eyes partly closed and their 
pupils contracted. In the evening, the 
vision was apparently normal, and the 
albinos showed much more animation. 
The albino character seems to be un- 
correlated with milk production for this 
albino herd produces about the same 
amount of milk expected of similar 
grades. 



378 



DETERIORATION IN SOME HORTI- 
CULTURAL VARIETIES THROUGH 
DEFICIENT ARTIFICIAL SELECTION 



H. H. M. Bowman 
Biological Laboratory ^ Toledo University 



THE following data have been 
gathered during the summers 
of 1917, 1918 and 1919, and when 
analyzed would seem to indicate that 
these horticultural varieties of several 
decorative plants, chiefly annuals, have 
seriously deteriorated from their type 
standards. An attempt to inquire 
into the causes for this deterioration 
leads one to believe that the fault lies 
with the producers of the seed and 
their failure to maintain careful arti- 
ficial selection in breeding these varie- 
ties. It is assumed that the war and 
the consequent labor conditions are to 
account for the situation. The ob- 
servations here presented may also be 
of use to indicate the more labile char- 
acters in these particular varieties and 
possibly by thus analyzing their heredi- 
tary constitution, material may be se- 
cured in them for genetical studies. 

UNIFORM METHODS OF CULTIVATION 

For many years it has been the 
writer*s privilege to cultivate each 
summer at his home in eastern Penn- 
sylvania, a small garden containing 
many varieties of herbaceous and 
shrubby perennials and bulbous plants. 
In the more open borders are usually 
planted the common annuals and bi- 
ennials, such as asters, poppies, zinnias, 
marigolds, balsams, pansies, mignon- 
ette, delphiniums, etc. The seeds for 
these plants have annually been pur- 
chased from the largest and most re- 
liable seedsmen in the East and have 
always produced excellent results. In 
some instances Centaureas, Scabiosa, 
seedling Dahlias and Salpiglossis have 
been exhibited. The soil and ordinary 
cultural methods have been practically 
the same for a long period, and with 



good seed from reliable sources the 
conditions, so far as germination and 
growth are concerned, have been un- 
changed in the successive seasons. 
All these conditions, therefore, being 
so uniform, any extraordinary varia- 
tion in results good over a long period 
preceding would, naturally, not be 
due to the cultivation. The explana- 
tion must be sought in the seeds. 

The same varieties were grown in 
the two summers preceding that of 
1919, and the same deterioration was 
observed in these particular varieties, 
but even in a more marked degree was 
it noticed in the season mentioned. As 
the observations were more carefully 
taken this past summer, only the data 
for that period are here set forth. In 
the spring of 1919 seeds were purchased 
of named varieties of the China Aster, 
Callistephus chinensiSy Zinnia elegans; 
Tagetes erecta, the African marigold; 
Matthiola incana and the corn-flower, 
Centaurea cyanus, together with seeds 
of other decorative plants and garden 
vegetables. These named varieties had 
been bought of the same firm in the pre- 
ceding years and were planted under 
similar conditions in the same garden, 
and all germinated with excellent per- 
centages. 

Before proceeding in detail with the 
results of the plantings of the genera 
named above, it should be mentioned 
that the crops produced from vegetable 
and other seeds were in the highest 
degree satisfactory and that these seeds 
were evidently up to the standard of 
previous years. The need for propa- 
gating large quantities of food plants 
during the war period obviously was an 
incentive for breeders to maintain as 
high a standard of quality as possible. 



380 



Bowman: Deterioration in Horticultural Varieties 



381 



EVIDENCE OF DEGENERATION IN SEEDS 

The asters were of three varieties — 
white, pale pink and lavender in stand- 
ard named strains. The florets have 
long and slightly twisted rays or ligules 
of the type popularly called ''Chrysan- 
themum'* asters. The seed germinated 
in good time with 97 per cent viable 
plants when set out, and the plants 
immediately made good growth. 

The season was very favorable and 
the usual fungicides and insecticides 
applied prevented the attacks of pests, 
so that late in August the asters came 
into bud prolifically. So far these plants 
were identical with those of the same 
strains grown in other seasons. But 
first of all it was noted, when the heads 
began to expand, that, though equal 
plantings had been made of all three 
colors, only a scant proportion of the 
plants were of the pale pink color, 
indicating that, of the seeds so labeled, 
only a few really carried the factor for 
that color. This may have been an 
error originating in the packing of the 
seeds but on account of the presence of 
some of the desired color, and that in 
varying degree, it could be assumed 
that the strain was not carefully segre- 
gated in breeding at the seed farm 
and that the phenomenon was really 
genetic. 

A more striking evidence, however, 
of the deterioration of this stock was 
seen in the form of all three colors. The 
ray florets had much shorter ligules 
and with a less pronounced curl so that 
the flowers were scarcely recognized as 
being of that distinctive named variety. 
The plants were strong and well nour- 
ished, but these asters had degenerated 
in regard to length of the ligules and the 
amount of "curl" in them and were 
losing the character for "pinkness.** 

VARIATIONS IN ZINNIAS 

The Zinnia eiegans strain was of a type 
normally having tall-growing stems 
and full double flowers and character- 
ized especially by long peduncles. The 
latter feature is desirable in this type 
of Zinnia so that it may be used for 
cutting. The more dwarf bedding 



sorts have shorter internodes and 
shorter peduncles, thus giving a mass 
effect of bloom. Instead of these 
Zinnias coming true to their varietal 
characters, with long internodes and 
peduncles, there was a pronounced 
shortening in these axes, although the 
plants attained a good size and luxuri- 
ant growth and all signs of any de- 
pauperation were absent, both in the 
synthetic tissues and the inflorescences. 
There was a tendency also for these 
Zinnias to revert in color to the reddish 
magenta of the ancestral type in- 
digenous to Mexico, and in form to 
produce some disk florets in the center 
of the very large heads mainly com- 
posed of ray florets with very broad 
ligules, instead of the full double form 
with densely packed heads of ligules all 
of a uniform size. The Zinnia may 
then be said to deteriorate in the 
shortening of the internodes and pedun- 
cles and reversal to fewer rays and 
purple color. 

THE AFRICAN MARIGOLD 

Tagetes erecta, the African marigold, 
is an especially easy annual to grow. 
With ordinary good culture it will 
produce large full-double heads which 
frequently become too heavy for the 
peduncle and break under their own 
weight. The well grown plants of the 
1919 season set an abundance of buds 
but the lack of uniformity in the stature 
of the plants in the same plot presaged 
differences in inheritance of these 
various individuals. In one plot speci- 
men plants had been set out two feet 
apart, so the ample room for develop- 
ment was assured each plant, but here 
too the same variations in stature 
occurred. That the strain was contami- 
nated with a dwarf type, perhaps even 
mixed with another species, as T. 
patula or T, signata, would account for 
this variation. 

The two varieties selected for plant- 
ing were tall growing sorts of two 
shades, one a clear yellow and the other 
a deeper orange. The fact that as 
many plants of the lighter color reached 
maturity as of the darker color, in 



382 



The Journal of Heredity 



proportion to their occurrence in the 
population, indicated again that there 
was no adverse factor in the cultural 
methods, since the paler varieties are 
less hardy and succumb to hard condi- 
tions more quickly than the deeper 
tinted varieties in species having the 
normal types colored (as de Vries^ and 
others have pointed out) or in which 
the ancestral form is a deeply colored 
species. A survey, however, of the 
whole population of these marigolds 
showed that there was a far greater 
proportion of the orange tint. Since 
the germination percentage was very 
high, almost every seed having been 
viable, and no plants were lost in set- 
ting out, the conclusion is drawn that 
the paler type had been overcome in 
breeding and was masked by the more 
dominant or atavistic orange factor. 
This variation in stature and small 
proportion of clear yellow tints had 
already been observed in the plants 
grown in 1917 to a marked degree. 

In the named types of these mari- 
golds the peduncle is somewhat ex- 
panded at the inflorescence to form an 
urn-shaped cup and the ray florets sur- 
rounding the edge of this cup develop 
first, a capitulum, of course being an 
indeterminate inflorescence. The inner 
florets grow up from the more central 
part of this involucral urn and in the 
perfect type of these varieties there is a 
great elongation of the ligules of the 
central florets, so that the whole head 
represents a highly piled mound of 
rays with graduated lengths of ligule 
increasing from the circumference to 
the center. In the plants grown during 
the last three years, the central florets 
either reverted completely to the origi- 
nal species fojrm of disk florets, with 
tubular corollas, or if the ligules were 
retained they did not elongate, so that 
the peduncular urn bore only one or 
two rows of rays about its circumfer- 
ence, and the center was a descending 
hollow of undeveloped or partial ligules. 

Budding and additional food did not 
help matters or produce the large head 
of full ligulate florets. It illustrated 



the tendency in Tagetes to go back to a 
simple composite type with dimorphic 
corollas within two or three generations 
of deficient artificial selection. The 
special feature showing, perhaps, most 
deterioration was the failure of the 
central ligules to elongate, thus forming 
sort of funnel-shaped inflorescence or 
the complete reversal to the disk type. 
In passing, it may be remarked that 
the plants were most prolific in setting 
seed, which is only another evidence of 
deterioration in highly bred or hybrid 
stock. 

EARLY VARIATIONS IN THE STOCKS 

The stocks, MaUhiola incana, were 
sown early and set out under the most 
favorable conditions in an open bed 
with considerable space about each 
plant. By mid-summer each had 
become a sturdy tufted specimen-plant 
with a strong woody base. Later, when 
the inflorescences began to foi:m, these 
plants gave every promise of what 
should have been dense trusses of 
double blossoms in tints of pink, red, 
yellows, white, lavender and purple. 
An early indication of variation was 
noted, however, in these plants when 
the leaves of adjacent plants were com- 
pared. The foliage of the type is 
densely tomentose but in these individ- 
uals all stages were found — from heavy 
gray velvety tomentum to an almost 
completely glabrous condition. Con- 
siderable variation was also observed 
in the width of the leaves. When the 
rather loosely arranged spikes and the 
blossoms were fully developed, it was 
a surprise to find that the color range 
included only the white, lavender and 
purple. The more delicate rose, pink 
and yellow had all been submerged in 
the dominant purple. The petals were 
broad and most of the stamens per- 
fectly developed and the inflorescence 
bore flowers almost the entire length of 
its usual tetramerous form, but with 
very few petaloid stamens. In these 
Stocks, just as in the marigolds, the het- 
erozygous strains were very prolific and 
matured abundant seed. In MaUhiola, 



* de Vries: Mutationstheorie — Oenothera' Lam. var. albida. 



Bowman: Deterioration in Horticultural Varieties 



383 



then, we have evidence of considerable 
reversal to the simple cruciferous 
ancestral forms which were presumably 
purple, and signs of mixed heredity 
in high degree of fertility and the 
variations in the foliage. 

THE CENTAUREA 

In the Centaur ea the type was of a 
very deep blue color with at least three 
or more rows of false rays. Reversal 
was seen in over fifty percent of the 
plants in the population of this sowing, 
as the heads had only one, or at the 
most, two rows of false rays and an 
increase of functional disk florets. In 
color also there was evidence of con- 
tamination of the strain. Beside the 
deep blue of the type there were all 
shades of lighter blue, as well as white, 
pink and maroon, showing that this 
strain had not been carefully selected 
and segregated at the seed-farm. 

CARELESS SELECTION OF SEED-PARENTS 

In all these foregoing examples, it 
may be deducted that many standard 
horticultural varieties have consider- 
ably deviated from their types. In 
these particular cultures the fact that 
the growth conditions were uniform, 
and other factors which would have 
lowered the vitality of the generation, 
such as fungous and bacterial diseases, 
were absent, should be conclusive 
evidence that causes for this deviation 
have been inherently genetic, i.e. that 
the seed was of poor quality and con- 
taminated with other and dominant 
inferior strains, or that there was a 
general lowering, reverting and atavis- 
tic tendency due to unknown physio- 
logical conditions at the breeding 
farms, which has affected the germ- 
plasm of these varieties. 

In regard to careless selection by the 
breeders of the seed-parents having the 
desired characters, or perhaps the 



failure to keep up the nutrition or 
some other cultural condition on the 
farms, or the lack of careful and skilled 
pollination, much, or perhaps all, can 
be attributed to the war — directly due 
to the lack of labor on the seed-farms; 
but in all events this deterioration in 
stock has occurred and it may be several 
years until these strains are again 
recovered or are replaced by new ones. 

WHAT THESE OBSERVATIONS INDICATE 

Another and rather interesting fea- 
ture of these observations was the 
recognition of those hereditary factors 
in these particular varieties which are 
least fixed or stable in the constitution 
of these plants. Some of these have 
become conspicuous by their complete 
disappearance or modification. On 
the other hand those characters which 
are dominant and persist to the last 
may only mask or cover those more 
unstable characters which apparently 
have disappeared. 

Of course, from a purely genetical 
point of view, these horticultural 
varieties are far removed from the 
simple strains of known heredity which 
are usually chosen as material for 
genetical investigation and research. 
Most all horticultural varieties are 
sports or the results of very complex 
hybridizations and cross pollinations, 
and if actual inbreeding experiments 
should be carried on with them through 
four, five or more generations for the 
segregation of Mendelian characters, 
all sorts of peculiar results might be 
expected from these much mixed and 
heterozygous strains. 

In conclusion, then, it may be re- 
peated that these observations perhaps 
indicate some of the less firmly fixed 
characters in the heredity of these 
varieties which have undergone a 
deterioration from their standard 
types. 



384 



The Journal of Heredity 



MEETING OF GENETICISTS INTERESTED IN AGRICULTURE 



The place of genetics in the curricu- 
lum in agricultural colleges, and co- 
operation in genetic investigations, 
were among the several subjects dis- 
cussed in a special meeting of geneti- 
cists held in Chicago December 28th in 
conjunction with the meetings of the 
American Association for the Advance- 
ment of Science and affiliated societies. 

Among the speakers at the meeting 
were Professors L. J. Cole of Wisconsin, 
J. A. Detlefsen of Illinois, R. A. Emer- 
son of Cornell, E. B. Babcock of Cali- 
fornia, S. A. Beach of Iowa, M. J. 
Dorsey of Minnesota, and D. F. Jones 
of Connecticut. Fifteen Agricultural 
Colleges and Experiment Stations, 
besides the U. S. Department of Agri- 
culture and other institutions, were 
represented. 



A resolution was adopted favoring 
the establishment of a single depart- 
ment of genetics in agricultural colleges. 
Many institutions now have their in- 
struction and research in genetics scat- 
tered throughout many departments 
with no one department responsible for 
a fundamental course. To simplify 
administration and prevent duplica- 
tion, and give proper standing to the 
subject of genetics in the curriculum, it 
is recommended that each institution 
have a department of genetics to han- 
dle the courses of instruction and direct 
the investigational work, and cooperate 
with, but not control, investigational 
work in the specialized problems of 
genetics. 



SECOND INTERNATIONAL EUGENICS CONGRESS 



The Second International Eugenics 
Congress will convene in New York 
City September 22, 1921. It will be a 
conference on the results of research in 
race improvement. The First Inter- 
national Congress was held in London 
in 1912. Since then the world war has 
come and gone, leaving the economic, 
sociologic and biologic conditions 
everywhere greatly disturbed. Never 
before has the need of international 
cooperation and enlightenment been 
felt so keenly. The Second Eugenics 
Congress is therefore meeting at a time 
of exceptional interest. 

The conference will be divided into 
three sections. In the first, the results 



of genetic research in animals and 
plants will be presented, and also 
studies in human heredity. The second 
section will consider factors which in- 
fluence the human family, and their 
control, and the third will concern 
itself with the topic of human racial 
differences — the influence of racial 
characteristics on human history and 
their bearing on the policies of the 
future, modem immigration being es- 
pecially set forth. 

Representatives from nearly every 
country of the world are expected to be 
at this congress. The Secretary-General 
is Dr. C. C. Little, American Museum 
of Natural History, New York City.