J U E N A L
FIFTH VOLUME.
NEW YORK:
PUBLISHED FOR THE SOCIETY
BY
GEORGE P. PUTKAM & Co., 10 PARK PLACE.
MDOOOLVI.
F
A 6
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 185C, by the
AMERICAN ORIENTAL SOCIETY,
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Connecticut
PRINTED BY E. HAYES,
NKW HAVEN, CONN.
CONTENTS
FIFTH VOLUME
Page.
SELECT MINUTES OF MEETINGS OF THE SOCIETY ........... i-iii, xxxix-xliii
MEMBERS, ............................................. iv, xliii
LIST OF MEMBERS, Corrected to October, 1856, .................... xlv
ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRARY AND CABINET, Aug. 1854 Aug. 1855, . . . v-xxii
Sept. 1855 Oct. 1856, xxiii-xxxviii
ART. I. GRAMMAR OF THE MODERN SYRIAC LANGUAGE, AS SPOKEN IN
OROOMIAH, PERSIA, AND IN ZOORDISTAN, by Rev. D. T.
STODDABD, Missionary of the American Board in Persia, ... 1
MISCELLANIES :
L Letter from Rev. J. L. Porter of Damascus, containing Greek
Inscriptions, with Pres. Woolsey's Remarks on the same, .... 183
IL Armenian Traditions about Mt. Ararat, (by Rev. H. G. 0.
Dwight,) ............................................ 189
III. Remarks on two Assyrian Cylinders received from Mosul, (by
E. E. S.,) ............................................ 191
IV. Vestiges of Buddhism in Micronesia, (by J. "W. G.,) ........ 194
V. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES :
1. Bopp's Comparative Accentuation of the Greek and Sans-
krit Languages, (by W. D. W.,) ..................... 195
VI
Mft.
2. llernisz's Guide to Conversation in English and Chinese,
and Andrews's Discoveries in Chinese, (by M. C. White,) 218
3. Roth and Whitney's Edition of the Atharoa-Veda, (by
E. E. S.,) 226
VL Phoenician Inscription of Sidon, (by E. E. S.,) 227
VII. The Sidon Inscription, with a Translation and Notes, by Wil-
liam W. Turner, 243
VIII. EXTRACTS FROM CORRESPONDENCE :
1. From a Letter from Rev. D. T. Stoddard, of Orumiah, 259
2. From a Letter from Rev. D. B. McCartee, M. D., of Ninypo, 260
3. From, a Letter from Rev. A. H. Wright, M. D., of Orumiah, 262
4. From Letters from Rev. L. Grout, in S. Africa, 263
5. From a Letter from Rev. A. Bushnell, in Equatorial
Africa 264
6. From Letters from Rev. Dr. J. Perkins, of Orumiah, 265
7. From Letters from the late Rev. H. Lobdell, M. D., of
Mosul 267
8. From a Letter from Rev. E. Webb, of Dindigal, India, ... 271
9. From a Letter from Rev. Dr. E. Smith, of Beirut 272
10. From a Letter from Rev. F. Mason, Missionary in Bur-
mah, 273
. 11. From a Letter from Prof. C. Lassen, of Bonn, 273
SUPPLEMENTARY BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE, (by E. E. S.,) 274
ART. II. ON THE NESTORIAN TABLET OF SE-GAN Poo, by Mr. A.
WYLJE 275
ART. III. ON THE AVESTA, OR THE SACRED SCRIPTURES OF THE ZORO-
ASTRIAN RELIGION, by WILLIAM D. WHITNEY, Professor of
Sanskrit in Yale College, 337
ART. IV. CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE ATHARVA-VEDA TO THE THEORY OF
SANSKRIT VERBAL ACCENT, by WILLIAM D. WHITNEY, Pro-
fessor of Sanskrit in Yale College, 385
vn
MISCELLANIES :
Page.
L EXTRACTS FROM CORRESPONDENCE :
1. From a Letter from Rev. A. II. Wright, M. D., of Oriimiah, 423
2. From a Letter of Rev. W. M. Thomson to Dr. DeForext,. . 425
3. From a Letter from Prof. C. Lassen, of Bonn 425
4. From a Letter from Rev. D. T. Stoddard, of Orumiah, . . . 426
5. From a Letter from W. W. Turner, Esq '.'. . 426
II. Ideas respecting an Alphabet suited to the Languages of
Southern Africa, by Prof. C. A. Holmboe, of Christiania,
Norway 427
III. Notice of Die lonier vor der lonischen Wanderung von Ernst
Curtiut, (by J. H.,) 430
COMMITTEE OF PUBLICATION
FOR 18551856.
EDWARD E. SALISBURY,
JOSIAH W. GIBBS,
CHARLES BECK,
WILLIAM D. WHITNEY.
AETICLE I.
GRAMMAR
MODERN SYRIAC LANGUAGE,
AS SPOKEN IN
OROOMIAH, PERSIA,
KOORDISTAN.
. D. T. STODDARD,
MISSIONARY OF THE AMERICAN BOARD IN PERSIA.
VOL. V.
ERRATA.
Page 9 (note), for " or at the end of a syllable " read " when con-
nected with the preceding ; or as a medial, when connected
with the preceding and separate from the following letter."
" 193 for "siderian" read "sidereal."
" 228 " " ancient edifice " read " an ancient edifice."
" 231 " SX read *|X.
" 234 " " divinity of the Sidonians" read " gods of the Sidonians."
read
IN VOL. iv. No. 2.
Page 343. For " Edward " read Edmund."
" xvii. Supply the name of John R. Bartlett in the list of Corpo-
rate Members.
SELECT MINUTES OF MEETINGS OF THE SOCIETY.
A Semi- Annual Meeting was held in New Haven, on the 18th and
19th of October, 1854. The President of the Society, Rev. Dr. Rob-
inson, in the chair.
The following papers were communicated :
The Alchemy of Happiness by the Arabian Philosopher Mohammed
Al-Ghazaly, translated from the Turkish with Notes ; by Mr.
Henry A. Homes, of the State Library, Albany.
On the Identification of the Site of Ancient Pella, being a portion of
a forth-coming new volume of Biblical Researches ; by Rev. Dr.
Robinson, of New York.
On the Avesta, or the Zoroastrian Scriptures; by Prof. W. D. Whit-
ney, of New Haven.
On the Armenian Version of the History of Alexander the Great,
supplementary to a Paper on the Syrian Version;* by Rev. Pres.
Woolsey, of New Haven.
On the Armenian Tradition as to the Resting-Place of Noah's Ark;
by Rev. H. G. O. Dwight, Missionary in Turkey. With some re-
marks upon Mr. Dwight's paper, by Prof. J. W. Gibbs of New
Haven.
A Table of Scripture Proper-Names with their Equivalents in Perso-
Kurdish, with an accompanying letter on the character of the
language of the Assyrian inscriptions ; by Rev. H. Lobdell, M. D.,
Missionary at Mosul.
On the Alphabetic Representation of the Sandwich Island Languages;
by Rev. H. Bingham, of New Haven.
The Corr. Seer, also read extracts from a letter of Chevalier Khani-
koff, Russian Consul-General at Tabriz, to Baron von Humboldt, on
the variations of the level of the Caspian Sea.
* See Journ. Am. Or. Soc. vol. iv. pp. 357, ft
11
The subject of a change in the amount of the assessment, annually
levied upon members of the Society, being taken up, it was moved
by Rev. Pres. Woolsey, seconded, discussed, and unanimously re-
solved : " That the members of the Society pay henceforth the sum
of five dollars annually into its treasury, instead of two dollars as
hitherto ; and that the amount required to constitute a life-member,
be seventy-five dollars."
The condition of the library, and the expediency of its removal
from its present place of deposit, having been brought to the notice
of the Society by the Corr. Seer., the following resolution was offered
by Dr. Beck, debated, and unanimously voted : " That it is the opin-
ion of the meeting now assembled, that a removal of the library of
the Society from Boston to New Haven would be, under the present
circumstances, expedient and desirable ; and that the subject be re-
ferred, for further consideration and decision, to the next meeting to
be held in Boston."
An Annual Meeting was held in Boston, on the 23d and 24th of
May, 1855. The President of the Society in the ehair.
Prof. Whitney made a brief report in behalf of the committee on
the library ; and the subject of the removal of the* library to New
Haven was taken up. It was voted : " That the partial report made
by the committee on the library be accepted, and the committee dis-
charged." It was also voted, without dissent : " That the library of
the Society be removed to New Haven." The Librarian, together
with Professors Salisbury and Gibbs, were appointed to carry into
effect the vote respecting the removal of the library, and to prepare
rules for the use of the same, and a catalogue of the books ; with
authority to draw on the treasury for such funds as may be needed
for these purposes.
On motion of Dr. Beck, it was voted : " That the thanks of the
Society be communicated to Mr. Folsom for his faithful and useful
services as Librarian during the period in which the library has been
under his care in the Boston Athenaeum."
1U
The officers of the last year were re-elected, with the exception
that Prof. W. D. Whitney of New Haven was chosen Librarian in
the place of Mr. Folsom, in consequence of the vote of the Society
to remove the library.
The following papers were communicated :
A Report of what has been done in this country towards reading the
Phoenician Inscription discovered at Sidon in January, 1855 ; by
Prof. E. E. Salisbury, of New Haven.
Communications on the subject, received from Prof. W. H. Green
of Princeton, Rev. Dr. W. Jenks of Boston, and Mr. W. W. Turner
of Washington, were submitted to the Society. Rev. Dr. Murdock
of New Haven also expressed his views ; and some remarks bearing
on the date of the inscription were made by Dr. C. Pickering.
Letter from Rev. J. L. Porter of Damascus to Dr. Robinson, con-
taining Greek Inscriptions. With Remarks on the Inscriptions,
by Rev. Pres. Woolsey.
On the Topography and Antiquities of Ccele-Syria North of Baalbek,
being a portion of a forth-coming new volume of Biblical Re-
searches ; by Rev. Dr. Robinson, of New York.
On the Sanskrit Accent, being a review of a work recently published
by Prof. Bopp of Berlin on the Sanskrit accent as compared with,
the Greek ; by Prof. W. D. Whitney, of New Haven.
Observations on a Tour in Kurdistan; by the late Rev. H. Lobdell,.
M. D., Missionary at Mosul.
Remarks upon Two Assyrian Cylinders received from Dr. Lobdell
of Mosul; by Prof. E. E. Salisbury, of New Haven.
Review of a " Guide to Conversation in the English and Chinese
Languages" by Dr. Stanislas Hernisz ; by Rev. M. C. White, Mis-
sionary in China.
Additional Remarks on the Division of Zulu Discourse into Words;
by Rev. L. Grout, Missionary in S. Africa.
Some remarks were also made by Prof. Felton, of Cambridge, on the
Present State of the Modern Greek Language and Literature.
Rev. B. J. Bettelheim, M. D., Missionary in the island of Loo-Choo,
having been introduced to the Society, made some observations re-
specting the Japanese language and literature.
iv
NEW MEMBERS.
The following gentlemen have become members of the Society
since the publication of the last List of Members.
1. Corporate Members.
Rev. W. R. Alger, of Boston.
" A. N. Arnold, late Missionary in Greece.
" J. F. Clarke, of Roxbury, Mass.
Mr. S. F. Dunlap, of New York.
Prof. W. H. Green, of Princeton, N. J.
Rev. A. L. Holladay, of Charlottesville, Va.
" F. W. Holland, of East Cambridge, Mass.
Mr. H. A. Homes, of Albany.
Rev. J. W. Miles, of Charleston, S. C.
Prof. Schele de Vere, of Charlottesville, Va.
2. Corresponding Members.
Rev. J. W. Johnson, Missionary in China.
Chevalier Khanikoff, Russian Consul-General at Tabriz.
*Rev. H. Lobdell, M. D., Missionary at Mosul.
" D. J. Macgowan, M. D., Missionary in China.
Prof. Max Miiller, of Oxford.
ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY, 9-21
The alphabet, 9 ; vowels, 12; modification of vowel-sounds, 16 ;
some peculiarities of 2, Of, O, *, and X, 18; talkana, 20;
accent, 20 ; punctuation, 21 ; Nestorian manuscripts, 21.
ETYMOLOGY, 22-144
Pronouns, 22-27 : personal, 22 ; demonstrative, 22 ; relative, 23 ;
interrogative, 24 ; indefinite and distributive, 24 ; suffix, 25 ;
reciprocal, 27.
Verbs, 27-111 : conjugation of jLACf , 28 ; classes of regular verbs,
34 ; class first, conjugation of *fy*-^ , 35 ; verb with negative
particles, 43 ; list of verbs of class first, 45 ; class second, 51 ;
conjugation of hOXS, 52; list of verbs of class second, 57 ;
irregular verbs of class first : first radical 2 , 60 ; second radical
2 or * ; 63 ; second radical iw , 66 ; first or second radical * ,
66: third radical 2, 68; third radical X, 72; verbs doubly
irregular, 74 ; irregular verbs of class second : verbs of four
radicals, 78 ; list of such verbs, 80 ; causative verbs, 87 ; second
radical iw , 89 ; third radical 2 , 90 ; third radical iw , 91 ; irreg-
ular causatives, 92 ; synoptical table of irregular verbs, 94 ; pas-
sive voice, 97 ; verbs with suffixes, 102 ; relation of modern to
ancient verb, 10Y.
Article, 112.
Pagei.
Nouns, 112-127: gender, 112 : number, 114 ; case, construct and
emphatic state, 117 ; derivation of nouns : patrial, 118 ; diminu-
tive, 119 ; abstract, 119 ; verbal, 120 ; nouns from foreign lan-
guages, 125 ; composition of nouns, 127.
Adjectives, 127-131: gender, 127; number, 128; comparison,
128 ; derivation, 129.
Numerals, 131-134.
Adverbs, 134-140 : adverbs of place and order, 134 ; of time, 135 ;
of manner and quality, 136 ; general remarks, 138.
Prepositions, 141-143.
Conjunctions, 144.
Interjections, 144.
SYNTAX 145-176
Article, 145 ; relation of nouns to nouns, 147 ; adjectives, 149 ;
subject and verb, 150 ; predicate nominative, 152 ; substantive
verb, 152 ; object of the verb, 153 ; pronouns, 154 ; moods and
tenses of verbs : indicative, 158 ; subjunctive, 161 ; subjunctive
after particles, 165 ; infinitive, 167 ; participle, 170 ; substantive
verb, 170 ; adverbs, 171 ; prepositions, 171 ; conjunctions, 172 ;
phrases, 172 ; salutations, 175.
SPECIMENS of the language, in poetry and prose, 177-1 80
APPENDIX, 180a
CORRECTIONS, 180 f
I
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
IT is an interesting fact that, although the Nestorians of
Persia have for many centuries been conquered and out-
numbered, and have had very little share in civil affairs, and
their brethren in the Koordish Mountains have enjoyed only
a doubtful independence, they have preserved to the present
time a knowledge of their vernacular language. In Persia,
most of the Nestorians are indeed able to speak fluently
the rude Tatar (Turkish) dialect used by the Mohammedans
of this province, and those of the mountains are equally
familiar with the language of the Koords. Still, they have
a strong preference for their own tongue, and make it the
constant and only medium of intercourse with each other.
This is the more noticeable, as in modern times, until within
a short period, they had no current literature, and the spoken
dialect was not even reduced to writing. Their manuscript
copies of the Bible and other books were very scarce, and
were carefully hid out of sight, covered with dust and mil-
dew. Very few, if any, except the clergy, aspired to be
readers, and still fewer were able to read with any degree
of intelligence.
The first attempt worthy of record to reduce the Modern
Syriac to writing, was made by Eev. Justin Perkins, a Mis-
sionary of the American Board of Commissioners for For-
eign Missions, at Tabreez, in the winter of 1834-5, in con-
nection with the study of the language, under the instruction
of the Nestorian Bishop Mar Yohannan.
The first attempt to write it in a permanent and useful
form, was made by Dr. Perkins in the construction of school-
cards, in the winter of 1836, after he and Dr. Grant had settled
at Oroomiah. On the 18th of January of that year their first
school was commenced. Says Dr. Perkins: "Seven boys
from the city attended. They all took their stand in a semi-
circle around the manuscript card suspended on the wall,
which Priest Abraham with my assistance had prepared ;
and as they learned their letters and then began to repeat a
sentence of the Lord's prayer, for the first time, with a de-
light and satisfaction, beaming from their faces, equalled
only by the novelty of their employment, I could understand
something of the inspiration of Dr. Chalmers, when he pro-
nounced the Indian boy in the woods, first learning to read,
to be the sublimest object in the world." Residence in Persia,
p. 250.
In another connection, Dr. Perkins, speaking of the pre-
paration of the cards for that missionary school, says :
"There was no literary matter for its instruction and ali-
ment, save in the dead, obsolete language. I therefore im-
mediately commenced translating portions of the Scriptures
from the Ancient Syriac copies, by the assistance of some
of the best educated of the native clergy. We first trans-
lated the Lord's prayer. I well remember my own emotions
on that occesion. It seemed like the first handful of corn
to be cast upon the top of the naked mountains ; and the
Nestorian priests who were with me, were themselves inter-
ested above measure to see their spoken language in a writ-
ten form. They would read a line and then break out in
immoderate laughter, so amused were they, and so strange
did it appear to them, to hear the familiar sounds of their
own language read, as well as spoken. We copied this trans-
lation of the Lord's prayer on cards for our classes. Our
copies were few. We therefore hung up the card upon the
wall of the school-room, and a company of children would
assemble around it, at as great a distance from the card as
they could see, and thus they learned to read. We next
translated the ten commandments, and wrote them on cards
in the same way, and then other detached portions of the
Word of God ; and thus continued to prepare reading mat-
ter by the use of the pen, for our increasing number of
schools, until the arrival of our press in 1840. This event
was hailed with the utmost joy by the Nestorians, who had
long been waiting for the press, with an anxiety bordering
on impatience; and it was no less an object of interest and
wonder to the Mohammedans. They too soon urgently
pressed their suit, that we should print books for them also ;
and a very respectable young Meerza sought, with unyield-
ing importunity, a place among the Nestorian apprentices,
that he too might learn to print. The first book which we
printed in the modern language, was a small tract, made
up of passages from the Holy Scriptures. As I carried the
proof-sheets of it from the printing-office into my study for
correction, and laid them upon my table before our transla-
tors, Priests Abraham and Dunkha, they were struck with
mute rapture and astonishment, to see their language in
print : though they themselves had assisted me, a few days
before, in preparing the same matter for the press. As soon
as recovery from their first surprise allowed them utterance,
' It is time to give glory to God,' they each exclaimed, ' that
we behold the commencement of printing books for our peo-
ple ;' a sentiment to which I could give my hearty response."
The first printing in the Nestorian character was an edi-
tion of the four Gospels published by the British and Foreign
Bible Society in 1829, the type being prepared in London
from a manuscript copy of the Gospels obtained from Mar
Yohannan, by the eccentric traveller Dr. Wolff, several years
before, and taken by him to England for that purpose.
This volume is all that has ever been printed in the modern
language of the Nestorians, otherwise than by the agency
of our mission-press, with the exception of one or two small
Papal tracts, published a few years since at Constantinople,
with miserable type prepared under the supervision of the
Jesuits in that city.
Since the arrival of our press in 1840, it has been busily
employed in printing books for the Nestorians, in both their
ancient and modern language, mostly in the latter.
Dr. Perkins has furnished the following list of our more
important publications, arranged nearly in the order in which
they have been issued from the press.
THE PSALMS, as used in the Nestorian churches, with the
Eubrics, in Ancient Syriac. 196 pp. 4to.
INSTRUCTIONS FROM THE WORD OF GOD, in Modern Syr-
iac. (Extracts from the Bible.) 77 pp. 12mo.
. THE ACTS AND THE EPISTLES, in Ancient Syriac. 8vo.
THE GREAT SALVATION, a tract in Modern Syriac.
SIXTEEN SHORT SERMONS, in Modern Syriac.
A PRESERVATIVE FROM THE SINS AND FOLLIES OF CHILD-
HOOD AND YOUTH, by Dr. Watts, in Modern Syriac.
AIDS TO THE STUDY OF THE SCRIPTURES, in Modern
Syriac. 109 pp. 8vo.
6
SCRIPTURAL HISTORY OF JOSEPH AND THE GOSPEL OP
JOHN, in Modern Sjriac. 316 pp. 8vo.
THE GOSPEL OF MATTHEW, in Modern Syriac. 192 pp.
12mo.
Tracts on FAITH, EEPENTANCE, THE NEW BIRTH, DRUNK-
ENNESS, and THE SABBATH, by Mr. Stocking, in Modern
Syriac.
THE FAITH OF PROTESTANTS, in both Ancient and Mod-
ern Syriac, in separate volumes. 164 pp. 8vo.
SCRIPTURE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS, in Modern Syriac.
139 pp. 8vo.
First HYMN BOOK. 10 pp. 12mo.
THE DAIRYMAN'S DAUGHTER, in Modern Syriac. 136
pp. 8vo.
USEFUL INSTRUCTIONS, in Modern Syriac.
THE FOUR GOSPELS, in Modern Syriac. 637 pp. 8vo.
THE NEW TESTAMENT, in both Ancient and Modern Syr-
iac, the translation being made by Dr. Perkins from the Pe-
shito, with the Greek differences in the margin. 829 pp. 4to.
SCRIPTURE HELP OR MANUAL, in Modern Syriac. 192
pp. 8vo.
BUNYAN'S PILGRIM'S PROGRESS, in Modern Syriac. 712
pp. 8vo.
QUESTIONS ON BUNYAN'S PILGRIM'S PROGRESS, in Mod-
ern Syriac. 99 pp.
Second SCRIPTURE MANUAL, and a larger HYMN BOOK,
in Modern Syriac. 131 pp. 8vo.
THE SHEPHERD OF SALISBURY PLAIN, in Modern Syriac.
70 pp. 8vo.
THE YOUNG COTTAGER, in Modern Syriac. 98 pp. 8vo.
Smaller ARITHMETIC, in Modern Syriac. 24 pp. 8vo.
Larger ARITHMETIC, in Modern Syriac. 192 pp. 8vo. By
Mr. Stocking.
A GEOGRAPHY, in Modern Syriac. 302 pp. 8vo. By Dr.
Wright.
THE LORD'S PRAYER, TEN COMMANDMENTS and CATE-
CHISM FOR CHILDREN, in Modern Syriac. 78 pp. 8vo.
A SPELLING BOOK, in Modern Syriac. 64 pp. 8vo.
THE OLD TESTAMENT, in both Ancient and Modern Syriac,
the latter being translated from the Hebrew by Dr. Perkins.
1051 pp. large 4to.
SPELLING BOOK, with SCRIPTURE EEADINGS, in Modern
Syriac. 160 pp. 8vo.
THE RAYS OF LIGHT, a monthly periodical, devoted to
Religion, Education, Science and Miscellanies. Fourth vol-
ume now in progress.
In press, an edition of the NEW TESTAMENT in Modern
Syriac, and BAXTER'S SAINT'S REST.
Ready for the press, SCRIPTURE TRACTS, of the American
Tract Society, and G-REEN PASTURES, an English work, con-
sisting of a text of Scripture, with a practical exposition,
for each day in the year.
Our schools have been gradually increasing in number,
till the present year. We now have about eighty village-
schools and flourishing Male and Female Seminaries. Of
course, the number of intelligent readers is rapidly on the
increase, and the modern language is assuming a permanent
form. It should still, however, be considered as imperfect.
It is difficult to give in a precise manner either its orthogra-
phy, its etymology or its syntax, because the language is not
to-day just what it was yesterday, nor just what it will be
to-morrow. Until the publication of the Old and New Testa-
ments, there was no standard of usage. It was difficult to say
which dialect should have the preference. The same uncer-
tainty in a measure still remains. If we assume that the
dialect which is nearest to Ancient Syriac should be the
standard, this will necessarily be unintelligible to a large
portion of the people. We generally use the language in
our books which is spoken on the plain of Oroomiah, unless
there are obvious reasons for variation in a particular case.
Rev. Mr. Holladay, one of our missionary associates, pre-
pared a very brief, though excellent sketch of the grammar
of the Modern Syriac, about the year 1840. He also aided
much in translating works for the press. His health and
that of his family obliged him in 1845 to leave us for Amer-
ica, where he still resides, near Charlottesville, Va.*
Much time has been bestowed on the preparation of the
following grammar ; although, as it has been written with
indifferent health and amid the pressure of missionary duties
and cares, it has not been subjected to so thorough revision
as it would have been under other circumstances. The
Syriac has been written by Deacon Joseph, our translator,
* Mr. Holladay has kindly consented to superintend the printing of this
grammar. . COMM. OF PUBL.
8
who has had much experience in labor of this kind, and is
perfectly familiar with the grammar of the Ancient Syriac.
My design has been to trace up the language, as now-
spoken, to the Ancient Syriac, and I presume no reader will
complain of the frequent references made to Hoifman's large
and valuable grammar. As some may find occasionally
Ancient Syriac words written in a manner different from
that to which they are accustomed, it may be well to sug-
gest that the Syriac of the Jacobites, which has generally
been the Syriac of European grammars, differs somewhat
from the Syriac of old Nestorian books. The latter are of
course the standard with us.
It may seem unnecessary to some to link in the Hebrew
with the Modern Syriac, and I have had myself many doubts
about the expediency of doing it. But, considering how
many Hebrew scholars there are in America, who would
take pleasure in glancing over the following pages, and how
few of them are at home in Ancient Syriac, it seemed to me
not inappropriate to adopt the course I have. The refer-
ences to ISTordheimer's Hebrew Grammar certainly add little
to the size of the work, even if they do not at all increase
the interest of the reader.
Every thing serving to develop the Ancient Aramean of
these regions is worthy of investigation. And it has occur-
red to me, as not at all unlikely, that the Nestorians use
many words, and perhaps grammatical forms, in their daily
intercourse, which have never found their way into gram-
mars and lexicons, and yet are very ancient, and owe their
origin to the Aramean, which was once so extensively spo-
ken in Persia and made even the court-language.' Ezra 4 :
T Q
/, 8.
I at first designed to give in an appendix an outline of
the Jews' language as now spoken in this province. It is
nearly allied to the Modern Syriac, and Jews and Nestorians
can understand each other without great difficulty. But
whether these languages had a common origin, within the
last few centuries, or whether they are only related through
the Ancient Syriac and Ancient Chaldee, we have not yet
the means of determining. The discussion of this subject,
which is necessarily omitted now, may be resumed hereafter.
D. T. STODDAKD.
Oroomiah, Persia, July, 1853.
ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY.
THE ALPHABET.
The letters of the alphabet are the same in number and
bear the same names as in the Ancient Syriac, and generally
have the same power. New forms, however, have been
given to i^, f , A and X, as will appear by the following
table.
Initial
Medial.
Final. Initial.
?
Cf
o
9
*
f
4*
V
-
a
Medial.
Final.
, Before final 2 ;
1 sometimes <
&
JO
a
a
x
>,
x
$ Before final 2?
( sometimes $
The Estrangela is still employed by the Nestorians for the
title-pages of books and other occasional uses.
The letters 2, a. f , and a, are never united with the
succeeding letters, cf and o are occasionally written in
* 4 is used in some manuscripts as initial, medial, or final. The same may
be said of 2 : but % can only be used as a final letter, or at the end of a sylla-
ble ; never as an initial letter. ^ and 2 are used indifferently according to the
fancy of the writer. A. L. H.
10
connection with the next letter : cf with 2 and o ; o with 2,
A, *9, l and X.
3, ^,, a, A, , X, are susceptible of aspiration as in the
ancient language. A large point above the letter (daghesh
lene of the Hebrew) which is often omitted, especially at the
beginning of words, denotes that the letter is not aspirated
in pronunciation. A similar point below shows that it is
aspirated. It is to be noted, however, that , unaspirated,
is written without any point. When aspirated, it is writ-
ten 4.
NOTE. It would not be au easy matter to lay down the rules by
which these letters are aspirated in Modern Syriac. Nor is it neces-
sary to attempt it, as the aspiration is indicated in nearly every case
by the point below the letter. Wherever one of these letters is
unaspirated in a verbal root, it is unaspirated throughout the conju-
gation, and vice versA.
3, when aspirated, has nearly the sound of the English
w, sometimes inclining to v, and can hardly be distinguished
from O. The latter must, however, be regarded as the weaker
consonant. Cases will be mentioned farther on, in which
3 coalesces with the preceding vowel and loses its power as
a consonant.
^, when aspirated, has the sound of gh (the Persian ),
and is perhaps more deeply guttural than A, which seems to
a beginner to resemble it.
i^ has the sound of the English j. Until the last two or
P
three years, we used it also to express ch. See .
t,
The aspirated a is not much, if at all, used in the province
of Oroomiah. In the mountains of Koordistan, its proper
sound is that of th in these, but it is said in one or two cases
to have the sound of th in thin.
C7 has a more decided and full pronunciation than the
English h, without approaching in sound to * (hh). The
latter cannot be distinguished in pronunciation from A.
Their equivalent nearly is found in the German ch (Bach)'.
NOTE. The Nestorians pronounce **, A, ^,. etc., with much
stress of voice, in consequence of which the sound of their language
is at first unpleasant to an English ear. The Turkish of Northern
Persia in this respect resembles the Syriac, and is very unlike the
cultivated language of Constantinople. Whenever the Turkish is
11
referred to in the following pages, the reader will understand by it
the rude Tatar dialect of this province, which has not even been re-
duced to writing, and is therefore noted in the Syriac character.
O, used for connecting words and clauses (the Hebrew *l),
is pronounced nearly like oo in hood, but with a more rapid
enunciation.
f or X is equivalent to z in azure, or s in pleasure. These
characters are rarely used.
A, unaspirated, has often the sound of k in kind, as pro-
nounced by Walker, a y being quickly inserted after k.
A has the sound of ch in cherry and rich.
i is sometimes pronounced like !a, when it precedes 3 or
j&, e.g. aJ3U2, a store-room; i Vni fl, to stagger; uk3LlX,
lazy ; sJa&f, to swagger, etc. So in Persian. So in Eng-
// t
lish in the words imbitter, impatient. & is also occasionally
written instead of i, as ^3fcX, sound being regarded more
than derivation.
X, 2 and .*, are readily confounded by a foreigner in cer-
tain connections, but are at once distinguished by a native.
* *
We may take as an illustration 2x2, the hand, and 2aJLX, a
* * 4. ' ''
feast ; or 2i2X, a jig, and H*\r, mud. The difference in these
words may seem slight, but, unless the ear is trained to make
nice distinctions, a foreigner will be often misunderstood,
even if he does not fall into ludicrous blunders.
j| has been used more or less to represent the/ and ph of
other languages, but, as the Nestorians pronounce this sound
with difficulty, and it never occurs in words truly Syriac, we
have for some years past dropped it in our books. i| coa-
lesces with certain vowels, as hereafter stated.
. When this letter is used, the syllable fills the mouth,
as it were, more than when JB> is used.
JO. A very hard k, which can be represented by no anal-
ogy in English.
X, when unaspirated, is equivalent to the English t. ^
is a harder t, and sounded farther back in the mouth, x, if
aspirated, has the sound of th in thick. This aspiration, so
common in the ancient language, is quite lost on the plain
of Oroomiah, but is retained in Koordistan.
12
VOWELS.
Namet. Notation. Power.
P'tahha 4~ a in hat.
Zkapa a in father.
Zlama (long) - J betw * en f in . e
( and a in Aate
Zlama (short) t in
R'wahha o o in
R'wasa O oo in oar.
/
Hhwasa . e in me.
i
NOTE. The names of and in Ancient Syriac grammars are
just the reverse of those here given, but, as it seems more proper to
call hard, the Nestorians follow the usage noted above.
P'tahha has generally the sound of short and close a. In
the great majority of cases, when a consonant follows it
(excepting 2, Cf, X, and cases specified on pp. 10, 11), which
has a vowel of its own, that consonant is doubled in pro-
nunciation, e.g. ii, these; 2^A, a wave; &-,'*, true;
m > i i ' j A
where ft, ^ and ft are each doubled.
NOTE 1. There is no doubt that at least the Eastern Syrians for-
merly used the daghesh forte, though, as now, without any distin-
guishing mark. Compare Hoffman's Grammar of the Ancient Syriac,
17, Annot. 1. Assemann states that in many cases _*_ is followed
by a dagheshed letter, but this is not the usage now, except in
and tX&-, and then with questionable propriety.
NOTE 2. It is perhaps unnecessary to state that 2, 91 and X, are
letters too weak to receive the daghesh. The usage is the same in
the Hebrew. Unlike the Hebrew, however, the Modern Syriac may
double * and 9, and does so constantly, e. g. i3M*9, to envy; XM^O,
a i f i
to make alive; pronounced respectively bahh-hhul, mahh-hhee. So
V 4* * '
too utatX,. to wallow; 29bd, deaf; pronounced garril, karra.
13
^
NOTE 3. A few words, such as )^AX**, Uonl. ?X?v* (the
i * i it iii
'' * m '
first syllable) and 23u*3JC, derived from the ancient language, are
exceptions to the above rule. The sound of -j- in these words is like
that of 1-, and the following consonant is not doubled.
P'tahha is lengthened, when followed by 2, Of or ^ as in
* t* '
the second syllable of lAiAio, where -f- is to be pronounced
i * i* i i i*
like . So in 2ftCV3, light; ilXaa, an arm; TUXft, a serf.
Sometimes the sound of -r in a mixed syllable, beside the
cases hereafter specified, nearly approaches that of short u,
e. g. 2aX2, pronounced uthra or utra.
Zkapa has properly the sound of a in father, but, in order
to give uniformity to the spelling of like forms, occasional
deviations have been made from this rule. Thus, we have
$ m $
hQJ&3, I may heal ; ^Cf, I may be ; *&&, I may read or
^ " a u
call, although in the first -*- has nearly the sound of e in met,
in the second, the sound of a in father, and in the third, the
sound of a in ball.
NOTE 1. It will thus be seen that the Nestorians have what Hoff-
man (11, 3) properly calls the more elegant pronunciation of-*-.
So far as we know, this vowel is never pronounced by them as long o.
NOTE 2. It may here be remarked, once for all, that several seri-
ous difficulties are in the way of an orthography which shall per-
fectly represent the sound of each word. Many words, as, for in-
stance, OOT and Jcf, have a different sound from what they had
formerly; and yet, for the sake of etymology, it is considered impor-
tant to retain the original spelling. It is often a matter of much
doubt how far we are permitted to go in defacing the escutcheon of
words, and obliterating all traces of their ancestry. One who had
not fully considered the subject, might often think we were arbitrary,
where good reasons for a variation may be assigned ; e. g. Anc.
aXS. 13X0. Modern 9&9, *pJB.
i
The difficulty is still greater in regard to words which have been
transferred from other languages, the Turkish, the Persian, the
Koordish, and the Arabic. Even if we were thoroughly acquainted
with these languages, as we are not, the words derived from them in
Modern Syriac are often completely disguised, and years pass before
we successfully trace out their origin. Others are more or less cor-
rupted, though not properly made over; and still others retain very
much of their original form and sound. In the latter case, we intend
always to refer to the language from whence they came, to ascertain
the true spelling.
The varieties in dialect present another obstacle not easily sur-
mounted. As familiarity is acquired with the language spoken, in
all the dialects, reasons are often found for changing orthography
which was supposed to be definitely settled.
Long Zlama. The sound of -,- is not exactly that of long
e, nor of long a, but something between these sounds, ap-
proaching a little nearer to that of e than of o.
/Short Zlama. This vowel, though generally i, sometimes
approaches in sound to e. When followed by X, its sound
resembles , e. g. ^ffftVSftt,, hear.
The same rule which has been mentioned for the doubling
$
of a consonant after -f-, applies also to . Thus in 13ft, a
bear ; 2AMD, a hoof; JiX, smoke ; the 3, ba and &, are re-
spectively doubled in pronunciation. The fact that the
daghesh must always, as in Hebrew, be preceded by a short
vowel, needs no explanation.
It may be well to state, under this head, that Cf, ** and X
occasionally admit of daghesh forte in the Ancient Syriac,
after a short vowel, but not ft.
Rwahha. This is long o, but is often undistinguishable in
pronunciation from e, which has the sound of oo in poor,
i
but at times inclines also to the sound of long o. When -*-
precedes, o should follow ; when -7- precedes, o should
follow.
NOTE 1. As the Nestorians generally use O and O, especially in
i
the neighborhood of Mosul, there is no doubt that the former corres-
ponds to T in Hebrew, and the latter to sj.
NOTE 2. Unlike 1 in Hebrew, O is so far an essential part of the
vowel, that the latter cannot be written without it. The same re-
mark may be made of . in hhwasa.
NOTE 3. Hoffman, 13, 4, speaks of these vowels as sometimes
u, but the Nestorians know no such usage. In the examples he
' $***4 V ' A
adduces, % od ,%1&**1 ,VOA* ,^O\,iB etc., the sound is as
;
given above.
15
Hliwdsa. This is in sound like a very long e in English.
The - has sometimes belonging to it another vowel, in
which case it performs the double office of a consonant (y)
and a fulcrum for hhwasa, e. g. tj****, thought, pronounced
hheyal ; ^9, of us, pronounced deyan. The word X-2, in
which the etymology is preserved, is sounded thus : it. In
the perfect participle feminine, 1st Class, we have, for ex-
ample, 2frA*a^, braided, pronounced as if written 2'fc^aA,..
And so of similar cases.
NOTE 1. After , . is silent. This mode of spelling, adopted from
the ancient language, has been in a great measure dropped. Thus,
we now write ^X*OC7, you may be, for ^OTL*OCf ;
you may see, for ^X**-*, etc. But ut&OU&3 and some other
words transferred from Ancient Syriac, retain their original form.
NOTE 2. There is a sheva in common use, as in Hebrew, though
without any distinctive mark. Sometimes there are two attached to
two successive letters, e. g. wOfOJUk93, that in his heart, pro-
< //
nounced cFWlibboo. In a few cases the mark called in Ancient Syriac
^uLc&iO and placed above the line (Hoff. 19, 1), has been used
for this purpose, but it is now dropped, as it is of no practical use to
ourselves or the natives. The ear soon becomes so trained that it
instinctively gives the sheva where it is called for. No one who has
spoken Syriac two months would think of pronouncing JAXdL, fuel,
yakdana, but, as a matter of course, yetfdana. So iSOJOS^t, ya?-
. i
cobh. Compare the Hebrew Sp^" 1 .
The sheva was no doubt employed by the Nestorians of old,
though, so far as we can judge from the disposition of the vowels in
the ancient language, with less frequency than in the modern. Those
grammarians who, according to Hoffman ( 15, Annot.), wish to class
" inter absurdos" any who speak of a sheva in Ancient Syriac, should
properly themselves be classed there.
16
MODIFICATION OF V O W E L - S O U N D S.
The letters **, ^, X. and .0, and, to a considerable ex-
tent, also d, !0 and a, modify the sound of some of the vow-
els which are connected with them in the same syllable.
The general tendency of these letters is to make the vowels
joined with them somewhat like short u, though this is not
the uniform effect. As it is essential to a correct pronun-
ciation that this subject be understood, some examples will
here be given to illustrate it. The sounds of course cannot
"be perfectly represented in English. Observe that d=a in
hate; d=a in saw; a, without a mark over it, =a in father ;
a=a in hat; ee, at the end of words, = . In some cases
may more properly be represented by simple e. e=+.
1. These letters with -J-, uJttOU*, fifty, pronounced likum-
she ; frt^"* \> turtum, to murmur ; ^Ms umman, with us ;
m A. ' ' ^ '
vV^CttlO, mudtar, a ruler for parallel lines ; ZA&, nilkka, a
whale. Also with bo and a : Vwn, mumfe, let them cause
i ~ i
to reach ; 'pL*ai9, Huryam, Mary.
2. With --, Nax*, hhudrit, thou mayest walk about ;
u
4 - f f f f 9 m f
u^9, butna, she may conceive ; ^0>-, ewukh, we are ; i*99,
* *
Murya, the Lord ; JLV*XO, Jcur'yana, a reader.
These letters very often give -- the sound of a. Thus
we have ,7^ i'<, hhdtee, he may sin ; i*iy, tdshee, he may con-
ceal ; ,?Sft\S>, dloola, a street ; %&*, sdpee, he may strain ;
i 1 -^
^3J9, kdree, he may read ; !*>*, rdma, high.
i 1
3. With , no effect is generally produced.
4. With , the vowel sound is in most cases u : uVT,^,
hhushle, I went ; t^yVf^ ; pdlut, he may go out ; 2xtt^, usra,
ten ; ^*, Musreen, Egypt ; l^Xbl&, p'kudke, he com-
17
manded ; JjS9ft, rnmlee, he rose ; 2AMOO^V, toomumma, com-
pleted. But X following --, lengthens it into -,-.
5. O and O are affected rarely, if at all.
6. - is in many cases unchanged. When, however, these
letters are followed by + or * coalescing in the preceding
vowel -r (see next section under * -j-), the vowel-sound is
not generally a simple one, as in other cases, but resembles
the sound of ei in height, e. g. Vh*^, teira, a bird ;
f r '
eina, a fountain, an eye ; iJQSuS, Iceisa, a tree. So with
keimat, a price ; Z^V, teina, mud.
~
FUKTHER MODIFICATION OF SIMPLE VOWELS.
1. 3 -r. P'tahha followed by 3 has the sound of 5, e. g.
ivSff , zona, time ; IkS^, gora, a husband.
2.o-r. P'tahha followed by O does not often occur ;
never in our more recent books. But, wherever found, it has
/ i
nearly the sound of o, e. g. ^OJLXON, totishoon, search ye,
now written ^^xVl^X. See - .
3. * -7-. This has in general the sound of ey in they, e. g.
' ' * * '
eyga, then ; u*2, eyrie, which of the two ; V* 3 ; bey ta, a
i. 4.' * '
house ; ,7 i>\, leylee, the night ; lv*X ; sheyna, peace. Excep-
,. / i i i
tions, for the sake of etymology, are i5>w2, where, pronoun-
ced eka; *\*^ = lit, there is not; ^-2 = aJch, as. Vl**lU^,
a capital city, is pronounced nearly peitahht. Compare also
what is said above of M , ^, etc., followed by .*.
4. S& ', . P'tahha followed by ^ has a sound varying be-
tween ow in now, and o, e. g. u*C7OJt%fc3, b'nowshoo or J'no-
i ^ ' ' '
s/too, by himself ; uJTl^i, Nowtale, Naphtali.
18
5. 3-'-, O-*-. Zkapa before 9 or O has the sound of o, and
is not distinguishable in the modern from 3 -f , e. g.
o-de, they may do ; wflbStx, o-re, they may enter ;
Yosip, Joseph ; i-ftOf, hoya, she may be ; 2f ObV., goza, a wal-
i* *
nut ; 2&O&, dora, a generation.
6. . - 1 -. Zkapa before - has the sound of ey in ^Aey, and
often does not differ from * -7-, e. g. $X*OCf, weyta, being ;
^&UXO, kreyta, reading. In such cases, . may also have a
vowel of its own, and be sounded like our y, e. g. %><&>
i*
k'seyyatee, covers.
7. 3-,-) O , ^-r- Short zlama before 3, O, or J^, has a
sound nearly like that of ew in Lewis, e. g. i*3a, honey, not
exactly divsha nor doosha ; Zv3X, straw, not fo'una nor toona;
kA>av*Ao2, ^e ocean; Z*9UAOJ), a Cyrenian ; JQ>OX^ObO,
Cyprus; ^laflbO, quick, etc.
8. * -p. This has been alluded to in a preceding note.
See under Hhwasa.
9. 4 If is followed by ^, the latter has either no
i i
effect on the syllable, or the sound is nearly that of ui in
ruin, e. g. ^AJL^fta, a winnowing fan, pronounced rooshta
(nearly).
It may be stated as a general rule, that **, X and a, prefer
the vowel -f-, as in the ancient language and the Hebrew.
SOME PECULIARITIES OF 2, Cf, O, . AND X.
2.. It has already .been mentioned that 2 quiesces occasion-
ally in -T, and lengthens it. It quiesces far more frequently
in , as in the final syllable of 2ao^, great, and a multi-
tude of other words. 2 may also quiesce in , as in the
last syllable of plurals, and in o, -, . When it follows
the latter, it lengthens it into .' At times the 2 in such
cases falls out, as in the preterite of verbs of final 2, e. g.
t*Sa9 = uAlM, I poured.
i ,<* i n*
When 2 is preceded by a letter without a vowel, but has
one of its own, it has a tendency to give its vowel-sound to
the preceding letter, and rest in it ; e. g. *Z3, to be pro-
nounced not b'ennee, but bennee. So 2ofi3 = baha. So in
Hebrew (Nordheimer's Grammar, 88, 3). Compare also in
regard to 2, Hoff. 31, 3.
Of. In the suffix u*C7O, neither of nor . is sounded. At
the end of words OT is generally quiescent, as in the Hebrew ;
and we often feel at liberty, e. g. in words introduced from
other languages, to substitute 2 for it, as really a better rep-
resentative of the sound. This may account for our writing
the verb CP-*, 0P^, he is, she is i^*, JjL*.
,< i i ,11 i
O. This may be, and is rarely, the initial letter of a verbal
root. It is found often as the middle radical, and sometimes
at the end. Take, for example, ukOJto, to wail; iSOX., to
repent; and *V*, to reprove; in all which cases it retains its
ti \
full consonant power. In OOOf, which is thus written for
etymology's sake, the final o is not sounded, and the word
is to be pronounced as if 2 ft Of.
*. This letter, when following O, does not flow into the
vowel-sound, but has a sound of its own resembling short
e, e. g. 2x&Vt, a wall, pronounced gooeda. Compare Hoff.
12, 1, and ^23 and similar words in Hebrew.
X may in certain cases be treated as a quiescent, the Mod-
ern Syriac agreeing in this respect with the Ancient, though
in such cases it affects the vowel-sound, e. g. mVXaoJC, /
heard. Here, too, t admits a vowel which y cannot take in
Hebrew. So 2>a.Va, doing,
Some letters are otiant in Modern Syriac, being generally,
if not always, those retained for the sake of etymology, e. g.
n
\,aS>4, etc.
'
20
The representation given above of the sounds of the Syr-
iac language differs from that often made in grammars of
the Ancient Syriac, e. g. Hoff. 12, 3. There is, however,
reason to suppose that the Nestorians understand the pro-
nunciation of their language better than it is possible for
European scholars to understand it. The Ancient and the
Modern Syriac are now pronounced nearly according to the
same rules, and there has probably been no essential change
in these rules, especially in Koordistan, for a thousand years.
TALKANA.
An oblique mark drawn over a letter, not under, as in the
Jacobite Syriac, shows that a letter is not sounded, e. g.
L- */ **
^-f2, pronounced azin; fex9A), pronounced m'deta. Oc-
casionally, other diacritical marks are used, as in the words
^o, ^to, which are explained in grammars of the ancient
language,
ACCENT.
It is almost a universal rule, that the primary accent is on
the penult, and the secondary accent on the pre-antepenult.
So strong is the tendency in this direction that a beginner
in English will come and ask for the Pee-po'v-day, meaning
by this the little book called "Peep of Day." It is, however,
to be noted that, in the pronunciation of verbs, the auxiliary
%&GI is considered, in the subjunctive mood, an essential part
of the word, though written separately. Thus, in
m
he might come, iACf ^X3, I might WASS, the accent is respec-
tively on the syllables 2X and ^A. So too when the pro-
nouns 2-kl, etc., are suffixed, e. g. jLi2 2&L VlS, / will see ;
O^S bOL93 ^, if he seize him ; where the accent is respec-
tively on the syllables 2f and J0>3. Compare >u2 9o2 of An-
I* " t '
cient Syriac, which takes the accent on 9J. The auxiliaries
jb^, X\OM, etc., do not follow this rule, e. g.
21
I am ashamed, has the accent on the syllable X~ , as if
were not written.
PUNCTUATION.
Our system of punctuation is imperfect, compared with
that of the English. The only characters we have intro-
duced, which are not found in the Ancient Syriac (Hoff.
23, 1), are the Greek semicolon inverted, as the sign of a
question, the note of exclamation, and the parenthesis.
NESTORIAN MANUSCRIPTS.
Manuscript works among the Nestorians are sometimes
very beautifully written, and the best type can never ex-
ceed, and perhaps not even rival, them in elegance.
22
ETYMOLOGY.
PRONOUNS.
1. Separate Personal Pronouns.
U2, I (m. and f.). p~i or ui**2, We.
V\*2 or ^tl*2 f Thou (m.).
or ^OTU-2. You.
or U2, Thou (f.).
He>it -i, They.
h* Of, She, it.
NOTE. It will be observed that there is no distinction of gender
in the second and third persons plural. Not so in the ancient lan-
guage.
These personal pronouns, with the exception of oof,
and ual, are not used in the objective case. And these,
especially the first two, are generally accompanied by the
noun to which they refer. Compare the usage in the An-
cient Syriac with ^i2 and ^2 (Hoff. 41, 3), and in He-
brew (Nordh. 8.59, f note).
NOTE. O07 and h*Cf are sometimes spoken, both in the nominative
and objective cases, as if written O2 and ^*2.
2. Demonstrative Pronouns.
These are 2c/2, this (m. and f.), oof, that (m.), Jof, that(f.),
U2, these (m. and f.), and ***2, those (m. and f.).
23
Remarks.
i
1. It is probable that 111 is a corruption of the ancient
, and t*l2 of ^*Cf, MJ>Of. See, for the distinction made by
i V I'
the Maronites in these words, Hoff. 41, Ann. 4. It will be remem-
bered that some personal pronouns are also used for demonstratives
in the ancient language.
2. In Tekhoma, the people say iboC7 for this, and 2C7ioOCf for
that. On the plain of Oroomiah, the first of these is used for that,
f *
and the other for that yonder. In Bootan they say Z*&2 for these,
', 1 1
and JLOfOi2 for those. Whenever Bootan is referred to, it may be
i i
be remembered that it is at the western extremity of Koordistan, and
farther removed from us than any other district of the Nestorians.
The plural pronoun X&2 is also sometimes prolonged in Koordis-
'''** ** ' * *
tan, by the addition of iOf, 2oV, or A*CV> into lofri 2OM2 or
2, without a change of signification. 2cV*2 is heard at times
,' H I' t> I
in Oroomiah.
There seems to be a natural tendency in language to make demon-
stratives as emphatic as possible. Compare in Anc. Syriac jAOfOOf,
in Hebrew STTJt, &vi6f in Greek, derselbe in German, cet homme la
in French, and this ''ere, that ''ere in vulgar English.
3. It is Avorthy of note, that the ancient feminine
times heard corrupted into w&2, and that too on the plain of Oroo-
miah. We also sometimes hear uX2. Both u32 and wX2 are
' > *t * >
used with masculine as well as feminine nouns. 2 ACT is also used
in such expressions as M- 2 5 Of, it is so (it is this) ; 2 A Of 7VUX3, on
account of this, etc.
4. OOf is pronounced sometimes with the sound of ow in now,
and sometimes, and often er, simply as long o. h*Of is pronounced
sometimes with the sound of ay in aye, and oftener as a in fate.
They have always, however, the sounds of o and a when used as
demonstratives.
3. Relatives.
a is the only relative, and is of both genders and num-
bers. So it is in the ancient language. The use of this rela-
tive in grammatical construction will be explained in the
Syntax.
24
4. Interrogatives.
These are ^b or u9, who f (m. and f.) (ancient ^ib) ;
whose ? w&O&B what ? u&*i which of the two ? (m.
i* i it
* i j
and f.) (ancient Zv-2) ; and Z>B^, ACM; much, or how many ?
as in the ancient language.
NOTE 1. In one part of the plain of Oroomiah, in Salmas, in Ga-
war, and perhaps other districts, ud& is prononuced -**rr. u3O0
' 9 * ' '
is very generally contracted in vulgar usage into 300, TLO9 or
* " ' '
O0, especially when preceding a noun. ^**T t*L2, which of them?
I ail
is vulgarly contracted into iminey. We hear also rarely ft2 (m. and
f.) instead of ui-*2 ; compare the ancient feminine form 29u*2. In
Bootan, for which of the two, they say u4X*2, which is no doubt a
' '
contraction of **4^9 u&*i.
all
NOTE 2. ho in the ancient language is sometimes applied to
',
things. See Luke 8 : 30, ASait ^0. So in the Hebrew ^ttttj''53 ;
but we find no such usage in Modern Syriac.
NOTE 3. The ancient >bo, what, is retained in the common idiom
h\*y? qLlKS 2^O, what to thee from us ? i. e. what have we to do
^i // ^^<
with thee ? Of course we may substitute any other suffixes. So too
we have in daily use such expressions as 5^*3 w^ ZoOf >bo, what
to me a house? i. e. of what profit to me ? Z^MwO2 kj^ wOOf ISO
... t, i ^ i i
ZS'XX, what may be to us so many sheep ? In some parts of the moun-
'' " * * -, ',
tains, 2op9 is used to denote what, wdO9 perhaps = w&2 l*O.
* *
5. Indefinite and Distributive Pronouns.
These are tS*A, any one, every one (vulgar AOA, perhaps
derived from aJ^aV. ^9 or ^o ^A, any one, every one;
J^ tS^, each one. We often hear also iocfa Ao, whomever,
or whatever, you please, literally, any one that may.
NOTE. It may be hardly necessary to state that j^ ; as in the
kindred languages, is written defectively, and is to be pronounced kool,
25
6. Suffix Pronouns.
These are few in number and simple in their form, and
are in general the same for verbs, nouns and prepositions.
The following is a list of them.
a. Personal Pronouns of the Objective Case.
u* * '
, me. k*i-> , ( us.
4* thee(m.). ' , \
** ^ fe\ *^ you.
uA thee (f.).
Cf, wCTO him. , ,
them.
The suffixes ^O and ^Cf are confined to verbs. u>OU and
' * . ' <
are used only in Koordistan. ^OOV* is a common suffix in Bootan.
It will be seen that the suffix of the first person singular, having
a vowel, must always be sounded, unlike the corresponding suffix of
the ancient language. The modern differs from the ancient (Hoft'.
42, Annot. 1.) also in having verbal suffixes after the third person
' ' s
plural. Beside ^O , +$9f , we have what is equivalent to a suffix in
the forms given farther on, under the head of Verbs with Suffixes.
6. Possessive Pronouns.
These are the same in form with personal suffixes of the
objective case. Thus, for example, with 5^*3 a house :
My house W.TU3 Our house *^*3 j *
ii i i ) i
i ' less frequently.
Thy house (m.) <OIU3 , ., ,
/( f ; Y our house *>AOTU9
Thy house (f.) u^U3
His house u*CfO*USI ,
' ) Their house JTU3
Her house Of OIU3
26
In the same way the suffixes are applied to the plural, e. g.
wZUAZia my houses, ^aV&zia thy houses, etc. When the
noun, as in this case, terminates in a vowel -sound, final 2 is
dropped, to prevent the hiatus which would otherwise occur
in the pronunciation. When the noun terminates in a con-
sonant, no change is made by its reception of the suffixes.
NOTE. In our books we have often written 07 as a noun-suffix for
. ', ' |L I
3d pers. sing. masc., and 07 for 3d pers. sing, fern., e.g. 07*1*3
-Si. ' * '
his house, CT*\*3 her house. We now substitute for these, in all
nouns, uC7O and OfO , in accordance with Oroomiah usage. OV^2 >
4* ' ' ' '' "
OVjkA, etc., retain the other suffixes. 07 and t*O7O are botli used in
Gawar; the first only in Tekhoma and Tiary. In Nochea and
Teklioma, we find only Of' ; but, on the other hand, this is not used
at all in Gawar. In Tekhoma and Tiary, the suffix t*OV* is the
noun-suffix for 3d pers. plural. In Bootan, ^OOW (m.) and M0%/ (f.).
We, however, employ now only b*' as the noun-suffix of 3d pers.
plural. We have also, in such expressions as ZX&ld cUO3t3.
' >
dropped the suffix which is employed both in Ancient Syriac and in
Chaldee. (See Jalm's Grammar, 28.) It is not in accordance with
present usage, and we now substitute 1 for the Of. The expression
2^0 Oh* CP*ft will be referred to in the Syntax.
Emphatic Possessive.
Sometimes the suffix, for the sake of emphasis, is separa-
ted from its noun by a preposition, e. g. **-? JS3 the father
of me (and not of you\ fe&*3 2X3 the father ofthee, etc.
NOTE 1. Compare iA*9 in Ancient Syriac. This form, which is
always emphatical in the Modern, is by no means uniformly so in
the Ancient Syriac. (Hoff. 122, 6.)
NOTE 2. Such forms as .*Sw3 nTl^OA^SO, John 4 : 34, tjjl
*
, 2 Cor. 5:19, or O.icT 'ft>*1 ^-? ,^OOV3, Matt. 3 : 1,
cannot properly be admitted in the Modern Syriac. It may, how-
27
ever, be remarked here, once for all, that in the translation of the Old
Testament from the Hebrew, and of the New Testament from the
Ancient Syriac, idioms have been designedly more or less introduced
which are not in accordance with vulgar usage.
7. Reciprocal Personal Pronouns.
\Lf"*A* 'A*
myself. *J^*X, or ^i\ ourselves.
thyself (m.).
^ao.'i.V yourselves.
thyself (f.).
himself. t t , ,
J*liX, or >M^ themselves.
herself.
The word Zii^ soul (Persian o^?-), which is thus con-
nected with the suffixes, corresponds nearty to self in Eng-
lish. It may indeed have two different significations in the
same sentence ; e.g. t*&X iii^w?/ own soul, fefX&X^ i*V.
iky oion soul, etc.
i'x^* is also used in connection with the suffixes, but with
a different meaning. If we wish to express the ideas : "by
myself," " by thyself," etc., 1x5^4 receives the suffixes, and
has the preposition 3 prefixed. Thus, >*ac^v3 ly myself,
4* ''**'
declined like t*vX above. Compare the use of x$i and
2M&&J3 in the Ancient Syriac (Hoff. 127, 1), u;c3 and nn in
Hebrew (Nordh. 873), and uiD3, etc. in Chaldee (Jahn 15).
VERBS.
The roots of verbs in the Modern Syriac are in many cases
identical with those of the corresponding verbs in the an-
cient language; but the terminations and inflexions, and the
general scheme of conjugation, are different. Indeed, it is
interesting to observe how the Modern Syriac, like the Mod-
ern Greek, and other languages, has broken up the original
form of the verb, and employed new auxiliaries, both in the
28
active and passive voices. These changes will be discussed
hereafter. It is sufficient to remark, here, that they have
been so great that it is useless to keep up the old distinc-
tions of jtf 5, 35, etc. ; and that the object will be better
accomplished by classifying the verbs as now used, without
any reference to the scheme of the verb in the ancient lan-
guage.
Without attempting a complete analysis of the modern
verb, it is intended to give the paradigms of those classes
and forms of verbs which commonly occur, both on the
plain of Oroomiah and in the mountains of Koordistan.
As the verb in its simplest form is always found in the
third person singular masculine of the future, this will be
called the root or stem, and the other forms will be derived
from it. For greater convenience, however, we shall begin
with the present indicative, after giving the infinitive and
participles.
The auxiliary and neuter verb, the verb of existence Zoof
to be, is given below, inflected both positively and negatively.
INFINITIVE, iocf, jbcV to be.
Present Participle, XOOV3) Perfect Participle, Z-OC7, J
Being. ) Having been
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
I am (m.\ , , ,
4bOt h\djl We are.
Iam(f.).
Thou art (m.).
, " ' joi"- ^*V**^ You are.
J*XA- wTli<! Thou art (I 1 .).
i
DOT He is. > , -
u fc u They are.
wOT She is.
29
Present Tense, negatively.
fat I am not (m.). ,
f f <O- X-
Z*2 I am not (f.).
Thou art not (m.).
, * ' ',
JTLOJ Z-i JTUk2 Thou art not (f.).
<
OCf He is not
.
wCf She is not
We are not
You are not
They are not
NOTE. In these forms, .* has a vowel (hhwasa), whenever pre-
ceded by a consonant ; when preceded by a vowel, it receives talkana.
OOf is an exception, as it is followed by Z^-- Otherwise, the rule
seems to be universal. ' '
When . has talkana over it, it still comes in for its share in the
pronunciation, changing the character of the vowel which precedes it.
Thus, kjL* Z*2 is pronounced as if written tdOyAl, kdOu VT^-^**
* r * .4 " . * "
as if h.ftnflf \S^? ; etc., the . coalescing with the preceding -*-. (See
previous remarks on the sound of . -*-.) The auxiliary TLA Of is some-
* x Is
times written ZOOT, and sometimes Z^OVi and the same remarks
apply to this ^ also.
In some mountain-districts, iV.* is used for Zi^, and inBootan u_i,
through all the conjugation of the verbs. Thus, Zv
or **J> ?^> \> < V*1 they are going out ; Zv- Z-^N-ZS or
/Aey arc coming, etc.
Imperfect Tense.
Zii I was (m.).
* x ,
oOT ^ 14 I was (f.).
OO4BT
Thouwast(m.). f x
OOOf
Thou wast (f.).
O07 He was.
.
wOf She was.
We were.
You were.
OOOf t*&4 They were.
80
Imperfect Tense, negatively.
was not(f.).
t
odor
t
2 t OOf He was not
i) Thou wast
not (m.). * ^ 's- - , ^ '< ^ ,' You were
i " TT > / ^. *^ n ~ . v
^*' *-^^ ** ^* B " *^^^ ^**V rt*
. m L not
>> j 1 hou wast
, not (f.).
OOOT Z^ "A? They were not
She was not
There is generally an elision in the pronunciation of this
tense, which is so very prevalent that we can hardly call it
a vulgarity. The final 2 of the pronoun JA^, in the first per-
son singular, and the letters OM are not sounded. Thus, we
have the pronunciation anin wa, anan wa. So when any
other word which ends in a vowel precedes ^> for exam-
ple, iAOT ^ft- JiioX / was there, is pronounced tdmin wa.
This elision is not confined to the first person singular. In
the second person, the sound is atit wa, atdt wa, and in the
first person plural dhhndnukh wa.
Of the negative form, the first person singular is pro-
nounced (ana) ley in wa, leyan wa; the second person, ley it
wa, ley at wa; and the first person plural, kyukh wa.
Preterite Tense.
ut2tOOT X&4 I was (m. and f.). ^AOCJ tV.u? We were.
Thou wast (m.). , . , , ,
fr^AOJkOOf ^OTX**^ You were.
Thou wast (f.).
2^OOT OOT He was. , f
'' '' ^O^OCI wJ4 They were.
kf * i'
^OOT wOf She was.
H
31
Preterite Tense, negatively.
The negative is formed by inserting i-i (not i^) between
the pronoun and the verb, in all the persons and in both
numbers, e. g. i^ftOf !* OOf Ae was not.
I was be-
NOTE. "When uOOf is not used as an auxiliary, it has the sig-
nification I became, I was born (cornp. ylvofiai). A similar remark ap-
plies to the perfect and pluperfect tenses, iocf, thus employed, is
i*
conjugated as a verb with final I, having for its present,
I am becoming; and for its imperfect, ^JttO
coming.
Perfect Tense.
uOu XOCf Jii I have been (m.).
^ '
* x * **
^^* &-OCT W I have been (f.).
i
Thou hast
t been(m.). ^ y
Thou hast
been(f>>
OOT He has been.
-
wCT She has been.
You have
been.
They have
,^
Perfect Tense, negatively.
> is to be inserted before hOu, and tOCf comes last in
, ^ a i
order. We thus have XOCf taJ & %il. This is inflected
I ^ H ,<
regularly, except that there is some elision, which has been
spoken of under the Imperfect Tense. Pronounce leyin
weya, etc.
Pluperfect Tense.
Ihad
been(f.).
32
ZOO) Zocr OOT He had been. , , Th hfld
She had been.
been.
Pluperfect Tense, negatively.
is to be inserted before hA*, and Z-OC7 to be placed
* , * " x v '
last. We thus have Z-OC7 Zocf tuO^ ZV The direct form is
/ v a ,i
to be pronounced weyin wa, welan wa, weyit wa, wetdt iva, and
the first person plural weyukh wa. The negative form is to
be pronounced leyin wa weya, leyan wa wetd, etc.
NOTE. In Tekhoma, the people say ioc? i/ftOf, which, corre-
sponds in form nearly to the ancient pluperfect ; but they use it
rather as an imperfect.
Future Tense.
HOOT Vl3 jkj I shall be (in.). , ,
;" , " ^AOT X\3 fi ^ We shall be.
V; I shall be(f.).
Thou wilt '
Zocf Via OCf He will be. , . ,
t >' f " m btOCT *\3 Mkljl They will be.
Z-OO? Vl3 Jof She will be. '
a
Future Tense, negatively.
This is wftOf Z^ Zif, inflected as above in the different per-
sons and in both numbers.
NOTE. As this future in Syriac is rarely, if ever, used to express
determination, but denotes only simple futurity, "shall" is employed
to translate it in the first person, and "will" in the second and third.
/ will be, that is, / am determined to 6e, would be expressed by some
* * " '
intensive, as, e. g. ^ftCf *13 ft Of.
33
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
I may be (m.).
4) ACT We may be.
I may be (f.).
Thou mayest be (m.).
^jft^OCf You may be.
Thou mayest be (f.). '
He may be. f
w*OOf They may be.
She may be.
NOTE 1. The pronouns will hereafter be omitted before the dif-
ferent tenses, and in all the paradigms.
NOTE 2. This tense with Jj> and J^ is often very much clipped
in pronunciation. Thus we hear J0C7 Jj>, Joe/ J^, Z-OC7 Z^t,
,i |i ,i
etc.
Imperfect or Pluperfect Tense.
e or
have been (m.).
,, , ,, ,, OO07 ^*Cf We might be, etc.
Jo Of k*OC7 I might be, etc. (f.).
f JhJOCf Thoumightest, OCf f**V*f^ You might be, etc.
JOOT He might, etc. ? x ,
t '' t OOCf uOOf They might be, etc.
i-OOT She might, etc.
IMPEEATIVE MOOD.
i x
k* OOf Be thou (m. and f.). *^9OCjf Be ye or you.
i'
General Remarks.
The preceding verb not only may be an auxiliary to other verbs,
but is sometimes an auxiliary to itself, e. g. in the imperfect, signi-
VOL. v. 6
fying I was becoming i'ocT ^^L i-b<ft3. So too in the expression
1*O07 iJadf iOCT i!* ^ z/"/te should not be, or i/" Ae had not been,
born.
It may be difficult to account for the precise form of kjOu>,
^ /
etc. It seems, however, pretty clear that they are made up of O, the
principal letter in ioof , the old verb of existence, or, better, of 6 of
the pronoun OCf , which was used so much in the Anc. Syriac to ex-
press the idea of existence, having the talkana on it (H. 121,2, c.),
and fragments of the personal pronouns. See in this connection a very
interesting statement of the relation of the corresponding pronoun
KS.JI to the corresponding verb Srli in Heb. (N. 647), from which
it seems certain that they had a common origin. It is not so easy
to say whence comes the - which precedes. In Bootan, they use for
the second person plural present ^OiX-OCT. which gives us a *. It
can hardly be doubted that 1*** and ij-* are really c and CP*.
f i 1 i i , i' i >
As to Z'l->, it is probably a fragment of _Oi2. Compare the an-
cient *Qtl2 *-**0T w ith the modern Z>-> kt&i. The resemblance in
n i
sound is very striking, and the signification identical.
CLASSES OF VERBS.
There are two great classes of verbs in the Modern Syriac,
which are always distinguished from each other by their
mode of inflection, and sometimes by their general signifi-
cation. Each class embraces several varieties. These vari-
eties might indeed be designated as distinct classes ; but it
is thought best to enumerate only two classes, because the
general resemblance to these leading forms is discoverable
in all the other varieties.
CLASS I. REGULAR VERB.
The first and most numerous class of verbs has almost
invariably but three radical letters, as i^Vffr, tdxB, &UCD,
the verbs which respectively denote "to go out," "to finish,"
and "to support" or "prop." The peculiarity in the mode
of conjugating runs through nearly all the tenses. Verbs
of this class are usually, though by no means uniformly,
intransitive.
35
Let us take as a model, t0kS , which signifies to finish
(intransitive).
INFINITIVE, flb to finish.
Present Participle,%aa*a ) Perf. Participle, ,ljBLa..3, ^ ft ,a
Finishing. ) Having finished.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
I am finishing (m.).
*
am finishing (f.).
Thou art finishing (m.).
&C l 1&3 are
Thou art finishing (f.). * finishing.
He is finishing.
ou c \.-
She is finishing.
. * - JjjVdg We are
2JB*&9 I am finishin f.. finishing.
*' &*? SBC
The present tense of this class is always formed by prefix-
ing the present participle to the present tense of the verb
of existence, in its several numbers and persons. The pre-
sent participle is formed by prefixing short zlama with 3 to
the first radical, making zkapa the vowel of the second radi-
cal and also of the third, and adding the quiescent 2 to the
third radical.
The present tense of any other regular verb of this class
may be formed by precisely the same process.
NOTE 1. If the first radical be 3 or ^,the sound of the pre-
formative 3 in the present participle is scarcely heard, though always
written, and in vulgar pronunciation it is entirely omitted. Indeed, in
the rapid enunciation of the people, many other verbs, and especially
$ $
those beginning with 0. drop this 3. Thus we have ;Lj*nX^ft3
anointing, sounded m 'shahha, iThaifrftff becoming meek, sounded
m'kakha, ^X3Lk3 doing, sounded wada, etc.
NOTE 2. This tense is often vulgarly contracted into prakin, pra-
kan, etc., and the remark applies to any verb of this class.
36
Imperfect Tense.
- were
* was finish ~ ^* ^T finishing.
ing (f.).
Thou wast
. * x ' V" ,*^- A- You were
**^ ' finishing '
was fin "
" She was fin- OOr ^^^f finishing.
From the present tense is formed the imperfect, by add-
ing the auxiliary loC7. In the third person singular, 007
takes the place of J^*, i^**, instead of being added to them;
and in the third person plural, dCOT takes the place of fc.
NOTE 1. The elision spoken of in connection with the imperfect
tense of the verb iOCT to 6e, takes place here also. Thus, the
'
first person singular masculine is pronounced biprakin wa, or prakin
wa ; the first person feminine, biprakan wa, or prakan wa ; the sec-
ond person masculine, biprakit wa, or prakit wa; the second person
feminine biprakat wa, or prakat wa; and the first person plural,
biprakukh wa, otprakiukh wa.
NOTE 2. Instead of this form, we occasionally hear i^OCf
, in which case t*^O07 seems to he equivalent to 2OOT _9^.
/ i' a
may be thus used with the present participle of many verbs,
but it is not necessary to allude to it again as a regular tense.
Preterite Tense.
I finished (m. and f.). Bx We finished.
Thou finishedst (m.).
You finished.
Thou fiuishedst (f.).
He finished. , ,
>0.\.D XJ They finished.
She finished.
37
This tense has no preformative letter. A short zlama is
inserted between the second and third radicals, and the fol-
lowing terminations are subjoined: t*\, 1 sing. m. and f. ;
, 2 masc. sing. ; \\ , 2 fern. sing. ; 2-i , 3 masc. sing. ;
m i
, 3 fern. sing. ; , 1 plural; fc^ft, 2 plural;
plural.
NOTE 1. In Bootan, the third person plural (m. and f.) is
u&iflx ; and so in all verbs. This usage is not confined to that
" ' i '4
district. We also have sometimes O^Bx for ^^fcXDxS^.
NOTE 2. When the last radical is ft or a. the terminal Jt is
dropped. Thus, from t^rS t grind, we find the preterite
not A^.^V . fVoiu ajQii to saw, we have the preterite w9
i a i
When the final radical is ^ , this is not doubled in pronunciation.
Thus, from Ai^J3 to kill, Ave have the preterite uS^d. This
rule applies to the preterite of all verbs of both classes.
Perfect Tense.
&1A4 I have finished (m.). We ]iaye
I have finished (f.).
Thou ha^t finished (m.). fa ^^ You have
Thou hast finished (f.> *
l''ft >\ ^ He has finished.
iLT iA-aJ* T fi hey u ha / e
She has finished. fimshed '
This tense, like the present, is a compound tense, and is
formed by prefixing the perfect participle to the present
tense of the verb of existence, exactly as the present parti-
ciple is prefixed to it to form the present tense.
The perfect participle, in all regular verbs of this class, is
formed by inserting * after the second radical, and adding
1 to the last radical, if masculine, or 2N , if feminine. It
will be noticed that the participle takes 2 ( in the plural.
38
Pluperfect Tense.
I had finish-
I had finish- OO ^ &* 'V* f (> * finished.
Thou hadst
finished(m.). ' ^ 'S^ " . ^ - M You had
mu_.. u-oJ OOCT ^IU U<-^B finighed>
' She had fin- OC ^ ^f**t finished.
ished .
This tense is formed by adding the auxiliary JJacf to the
respective persons of the perfect tense; JjftCf taking the place
of Z-W^ and 2^ in the singular, and fa* in the plural, as in
the imperfect tense.
NOTE. In pronunciation, the same elision is made as in the im-
perfect tense. Thus, we have prekin wa, prektan wa, etc.
future Tense.
I shall or will perish (in.). ^3X^ Vl3 We, etc.
I shall or will perish (f.).
Thou, etc. (m.).
You,etc.
Thou, etc. (f.).
/ //
JB& Via He, etc.
She, etc. u,O jJ^ Vl3 They, etc.
To form this tense in regular verbs of this class, zkapa is
almost universally used with the first radical, and the sec-
ond radical is included in the first syllable; but the third
person singular masculine is an exception, as the first sylla-
ble in this case is a simple syllable, not including the second
radical. The terminations subjoined to the third radical are
; (
^ , 1 masc. ; ^ , 1 fern. ; X , 2 masc. ; *X , 2 fern. ; the
vowel between the second and third radicals of 3 sing.
masc.; ^', 1 pi. ; ^>N, 2 pi. ; and , 3 plural.
39
NOTE 1. In some parts of Oroomiah and Koordistan, \X2J is con-
tracted to 3. Instead of A", the termination ^ is often vulgarly
given to the first person plural, making it ^JEJ JL. Instead of the
termination ^*X*,we sometimes hear ^OIVO , making the second
person plural ^OJXA04hS. On the plain of Oroomiah, this person
is in some villages pronounced ^AiX*.DX9, which is probably a
contraction for
NOTE 2. Instead of the personal pronouns being prefixed to this
tense, we occasionally find them suffixed, thus :
Vl3 1st sing. masc.
t**2 4U3lS 1X9 1st plural.
a'& 1X3 1st sing. fern.
XflJtS *X3 2nd sing. masc.
t > a
2nd sing. fern. k *il uh0Jb& Vl3 3rd plural.
We have rarely, if ever, written any of these forms, except for the
first person singular. If **, as has been assumed, is a fragment of
uhll they, it is often very improperly joined by the ignorant villag-
ers to a verb in the singular, e. g. t*&2 J3'l*& *X3 he will finish.
The pronouns may in the same manner follow other tenses besides
the future. Thus, in the present, we hear 111 *&* }JB&3 I am
finishing, ^jCXil IXdOu* ]LQ\&3 thou art finishing. The accent
coming before , lengthens it. Pronounce biprakeyweena. The . in
uftJ gives the preceding -*- the sound of ey.
* //
These remarks apply to all verbs. The similarity between the an-
cient and modern language in respect to these forms is worthy of no-
tice. Thus, in the ancient, we have Z^ ^iX or i'i-SZX , i'i^ Z^9 ,
I m '' >' f f
kiu^ MXd, e.tc. The relationship, however, of the ancient to the
' (l
modern language in the inflection of the verb will be discussed far-
ther on.
40
Second Future Tense.
I shall have
finished (.nO
-OOT 1X3 1st fern.
2nd masc.
2nd fen,. * ** f pta*
3rd masc.
/ Iflw^B u*OCf X\3 3rd plural.
5j. A- ^ i-ftCT 1X9 3rd fem. " '
i a
This tense is formed in all verbs by prefixing the first future of the
substantive verb to the perfect participle.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
The Modern Syriac verb, as used in dependent clauses,
resembles sometimes the subjunctive of the Latin, French,
or German, and sometimes that of the English grammarian
Murray ; but for the sake of greater brevity, not to say sim-
plicity, these varieties will be considered together under the
common title of Subjunctive Mood.
The verb assumes the same form in the present tense of
this mood as in the future tense, the auxiliary *to3 being
generally dropped and %&VI being added to form the imper-
fect tense.
Present Tense.
I may finish (m.).
<J3'x3 1st plural.
1st fern.
2nd masc.
IUB\3 2nd plural.
2nd fern.
3rd masc.
OVS 3rd plural.
3rd fern.
Though this tense is properly used in dependent and hypo-
thetical clauses, by prefixing JA or **l to it, it becomes a
generic present. The particle ZA is used in Salmas and
Oroomiah, while wl is the common prefix in Koordistan.
"We thus have ^O*3 ia / am in the habit of finishing ;
^S3 i* I am in the habit of going out, etc. This iA or -2
is used with all the persons and in both numbers.
On the other hand, 'pLd, derived from the ancient ^^O,
prefixed to this tense makes it a preterite, equivalent to
k&JB*&, e. g. ^O*& 13LB I finished. This is but little used
out of Oroomiah, and is used there for the sake of euphony,
in cases where the regular preterite does not readily take the
suffixes. Thus, CUXiJCO ^3LO I supported him, would be pre-
ferred to d.^2 lAsbUD.
"When Z^ (not Z-*) is prefixed to this tense, it is also a
generic present, or a future, the idea being expressed nega-
tively, e. g. IxjiX, ^flJbS i\ / am not in the habit of finish-
ing quickly, or / shall not finish quickly. These statements
apply to verbs of both classes and all varieties.
NOTE 1. In telling a story we sometimes hear a native vulgarly
use the form %S almost exclusively, as his "narrative tense." It
seems then to have the force of our English present, " he goes," " he
tells," " he does so and so," and to tlie mind of a Nestorian gives a
sort of vividness to the story.
NOTE 2. Before verbs whose first radical is 2 or .*, %& has the
^ I 1
sound of A with a simple sheva, e. g. ^.2 iA , pronounced Matin.
Second Present.
_OOf I may be finishing (m.). , , , ,
." , OaJ&9 <%00f 1st plural.
1st fern.
2nd masc. ,,
XaJbAa ^OIUOCT 2nd plural.
2nd fern.
3rd masc. , ,.
%tt*AS wOOT 3rd plural.
Z-OCT 3rd fern.
42
This tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliary,
etc., to the present participle.
Imperfect Tense.
ZOOT ^JO XS I might finish (m.).
O'OCT &l'* 1st plural.
1st fern.
2nd masc. , r ^ ,,
OOC7 ^OYLhOaJa 2nd plural.
2nd fem.
3rd masc. ,
OOCT uhDatS 3rd plural.
3rd fem.
With ZA or k-1 prefixed, this tense denotes a past action
'' ' I A' * ' * *i
habitually performed, e. g. ISkAV^ iocf kdxa ia Tze was in
the habit of finishing quickly. So too with Z^, the idea being
expressed negatively.
Perfect Tense.
? ft >TbS ^OCf 1st plural.
1st fem. '' '
2nd masc. , . ,
? K .1^0 ^oxVrfOOf 2nd plural.
2nd fem.
ZOOT 3rd masc.
7 ft >\ ^ t* 007 3rd plural.
%,0 ,V^ Z-007 3rd fem.
This is formed by prefixing the auxiliary, fc-ocf, etc. to the
perfect participle.
Pluperfect Tense.
- ve
!* A-. '
2nd masc. , ,, ' 2d
8 dfe m . ^ 00er ** ' * P*"*
3rd masc. ., ,
xtJLa^ obor ocr D ;; r r d al
fler X^OOf 3rd fern. '' '
This tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliary,
etc. to the perfect participle.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Finish thou (masc.).
Finish ye.
Finish thou (fern.).
The imperative is formed by inserting o between the sec-
ond and third radicals, and giving the plural its appropriate
termination.
NOTE 1. Sometimes we have the following imperative : uOOT
XBJ&9 be finishing, and the plural lbj&3 ^ObBOOf; but this
a n |i
is not common.
NOTE 2. When the middle radical is 9, it is not ordinarily pro-
nounced in the imperative ; e.g. bOOAX, pronounced shook. When
the middle or final radical is O , to avoid the coming together of two
O's, one is omitted in writing, e. g. the imperative of hV^Ji^is kVj^V ;
t ', it *"***
of 0X1 it is oVl , etc.
v . >
VERB WITH THE NEGATIVE PARTICLE iS OR i^.
i 1
Only the first person singular of each tense will be given,
as the other persons can be easily supplied by the learner.
As every verb in the language makes its negative form pre-
44
cisely like tx, the subject need not be alluded to here-
after.
I am not finishing.
ZoCf _Qw Z-^ I was not finishing.
\ I did not finish.
>A.i 1^ I have not finished.
Z0C7 |ual lik I had not finished.
,<
^ I shall not finish.
i
I did not finish.
NOTE 1. For the pronunciation of the imperfect and pluperfect
tenses, see previous remarks on the elision of OM. Thus, the imper-
fect is pronounced leyin wa bipraka, and the pluperfect leyin wa
preka.
NOTE 2. It will he noticed that the future, in taking the negative,
drops its preformative &3. Sometimes, however, t<Bx "* ^
is used as an emphatic future, e. g. tXtt? 1X3 Z-^O ^^ T13 1\
neither will I come, nor will I eat.
NOTE 3. The proper negative of ^,0X3 ^3Ld is given above, hut
hOl^ 1^ pLd is allowable.
' 4$
NOTE 4. The subjunctive takes i^ before its different tenses,
which are not inverted. Vulgar usage sometimes employs i^ in-
1S, f
stead of j> with the subjunctive.
NOTE 5. Though the inversion of the present, imperfect, perfect,
and pluperfect indicative, as a general rule, takes place only with the
particle i\. sometimes the inversion takes place without that parti-
cle. For example, i / ?\\ < V''1 Vuo^ u30>aoJJ why are you going
out?
VERBS USED INTERROGATIVELY.
The verb (as in English and French) takes no new forms
in an interrogative sentence ; and the interrogation is known
only by the inflection of the voice or the sign i placed at
the end of the sentence,
45
PASSIVE VOICE.
This will be most advantageously considered, after we
finish the paradigms of the Active Voice.
VERBS OF THE FIRST CLASS CONJUGATED LIKE
ttk*.
It is to be understood that when a verb is marked "1 or
2," the verb is either of the first or second class, its signifi-
cation remaining unchanged. On the other hand, " 1 and 2"
denotes that the verb is conjugated in both methods, but
with a change of signification.
It is not to be presumed that all the regular verbs of the
first class are given here, or that any of the following lists
are complete. An effort has, however, been made to collect
as many of the verbs in common use as possible.
Although one meaning is placed opposite to each verbal
root, this is by no means a dictionary. Frequently a verb
is used in four or five or more significations. Only one, or
at the most two of these are noted down.
to become lean,
to thrive. 1 and 2.
A3b9 to be scattered. 1 and 2.
dO9O to scatter (seed). 1 or 2.
5 to be or become useless
I or idle. 1 and 2.
to conceive.
< to be pressed (with busi-
\ ness).
to bruise, crush.
to be defloured. 1 and 2.
to diminish (intr.). 1 and 2.
to dry (intr.).
to kneel.
to lighten (flash).
5 to be or become cooked.
) land 2.
to fashion ; mingle.
J '
to braid.
to blaspheme. 1 or 2.
to stack up.
to move (intr.).
46
f
to circumcise. k9f to buy.
(to laugh. The present is
] x % tA3f to struggle (in fight).
( generally tAw ?-^rti>^f.
to conquer. ^~* to PP ress -
to lose the bark. 1 and 2. \*9 to fil1 ( to & e brim )-
to full (cloth). ^?f to look sull en.
to grasp firmly, wring. **ff lo sin g-
to steal. *J3f to weave, knit
to snatch. f *f to become ready. 1 and 2.
4 *
to efface, scrape off. ^?* to scratch ( as a board )-
t0 S ' rip , ff ^ S leaves )' be ^f to scratch (with the nails).
stripped off. /
to slip. ^f to rise ( as the sun).
to grind (in a hand-mill). , , to mjXj confuse (fc and
^ to shovel off, sweep away v i mtr.).
(as a river). ^^ to COIlfine) shut up>
to slide. , '' ,
bjArf* to start (with fear).
to draw.
to walk (around).
to sacrifice. 30t>* to become white.
to seize or hold. 3tS,** to pound, to beat.
to lock, to bar. AJ>^^ to milk.
//
4. i. *
to thresh. i\y\* to err.
to lie down, to sleep. ^Ut** to dream.
d to leak (as a roof). 1 or 2. ti^* to change (intr.).
to be seared. 1 and 2. ^il \ *\ > t0 6SCa P e '
to touch. J3Lj^< to lock ; to set (as fruit).
to argue. >J.SOU to bear, to be patient
to
47
be or become sour. i*1 > Vi to ask for.
XV> X| to sink down. 1 and 2.
tXtttdL to dip (tr. and intr.).
to drive away,
to beat up (as eggs).
t0 andintrf OWn ' etC '
f XTM
\.
to prohibit, keep back.
to wean.
to be deficient.
to embrace.
to dig.
to reap.
to honor, praise.
to spoil (intr.).
to expend. 1 or 2.
to arrange in order.
to scoop out.
to be singed. 1 and 2.
to grin.
to be or become sharp.
to think.
to be worthy.
to thresh, pound up.
to seal.
to be boastful.
to crush, break in pieces,
to grind.
J_^
/
to grow fat.
to thrust in.
< to migrate, remove from
( place to place.
to anoint, to paint (as eyes).
to be or become faint
>^jA to seize by violence.
>iA.Vft to split
to be or become mature.
to sweep.
to prune (vines).
\&A to fold. See iSAk
to be or become hungry.
to deny (as one's religion).
to be or become angry.
9 XSk to thrust through.
to climb.
to be evident
to write.
to tie a knot
to flash.
to put on (clothes).
to be fitting.
to beckon, wink, etc.
to lick.
.y K^ S to P ec k up (food) ; to em-
l broider.
to mix (liquids).
to be found. 1 and 2.
to be or become meek.
to pluck.
to rub off skin, to be bald.
to be or become bitter.
to scour, to be polished.
'"*M to anoint
iriJiUO to stretch out.
to tell a parable. 1 or 2.
to bark (as a dog).
to reprove.
to hew.
to vow.
to pine away.
to shy (as a horse).
to abstain from meat, etc.
to sift.
to be or become ashamed.
A V[1 to drop (as water),
to keep,
to pull or root out.
to blow (with the mouth).
to fall.
^.Sa to shake (as clothes).
tSkfci to plant
XdLl to be slender or thin.
&CX& to peck.
i^tti to peck at
to drive (a nail).
to paint 1 or 2.
to skin.
to drain off (tr. and intr.).
to kiss.
to make an onset
a*tU to fall (as leaves).
to trust
to worship.
to fill up (tr. and intr.).
to be or become quiet
49
)SX3
,&&
to plunder.
to redden, blush.
XVJCD to support, prop.
to need.
to become empty. 1 and2.
to Wait
to be or become weary of. . . *d
to be beautiful, land 2.
to reproach.
to deny.
to bolt (as flour).
to scratch, trace.
to suck in.
to comb.
to undo, pull down.
to do.
to pass.
to spin.
See under
to be baptized.
to d we i|
to dig out
to flee.
A &
^i a
to reflect. 1 or 2.
to open out, become flat
to be or become crooked.
j to work " Present^ parti-
( ciple may be .HjujV!^.
to out - land2 -
to be crookedj deceitfuL
to fight
to exu i t
to command. 1 or 2.
to blosgom>
to flee (ag gleep>
to fly.
to tear, wear out
to TOb uge friction>
toburstout, tomake burst.
to cut
p. 63.
XdLi
n " m tr.).
to separate (tr. and intr.).
to rend. 1 or 2.
to stretch (out).
5 * ^ 2 r become sorr y-
^ to be or become straight
^1 and 2.
to melt (intr.). 1 and 2.
to open.
50
to wind (tr. and intr.).
to scorch, as food (intr.).
to squat
to be or become mad.
-.
M to string (as peppers).
to receive. 1 or 2.
\J3LB to complain.
//
. *
a>SlD to bury.
to joint together.
5 to be or become holy.
I 1 and 2.
$ to put on (the outer gar-
\ ment).
'V\n to km.
to gather (grapes),
to turn aside.
to lose tbe bark (as a tree),
1 and 2.
to tremble,
to stone,
to be numb.
M*O9k to be broad.
>^i.i<a> to run.
to have mercy on. I or 2.
to be far.
( to ride. Future some-
*
( times kAt33 P*3 .
^ //
to be or become soft,
to kick, stamp.
X03 to dance.
6
to delineate,
to boil.
to let, let go.
to C0 nfuse, to be confused.
3<XX to leap.
"
to be or become warm.
to spread out
to pluck.
to be crushed, to crush.
w
. *
\ *^ M to twist
to pinch.
to be wrinkled or puckered.
to fold. 1 or *
99J9 to partake of the sacrament AjJt to be dislocated. 1 and 2.
// "
A *-** to bite. hBLXX to be parboiled. 1 and 2.
^bXO to win ; to overlay. iJL, V\X to break.
//
MXO to sweep, rake. 1 and 2. MflJt to overflow (intr.). 1 and 2.
"T
\9
//
51
to be or become palsied. >fV\X to perish. 1 and 2.
to level. I or 2. t&JiX to perish, be lost 1 and 2.
to be pleasing to. u*^X to spill (intr.). 1 and 2.
to take. *&\ to mould or be mouldy.
^
^^ to meet '
TL^X to sneeze.
a
i '
JkBX to weigh (tr.).
uk^X to be reformed. 1 and 2.
33 X to crumb up.
^3X to be mended. 1 and 2.
to be buttoned. 1 and 2.
to sag down.
4h9Jt to partake. 1 or 2.
t,D\t to eat out
to transplant 1 or 2.
to be or become silent
to be or become numb.
to break.
" f
>(0>tiX to thrust
" ,
XftX to remember.
to fall down (as a wall).
to be or become thick.
to wither (intr.).
to press out (juice).
NOTE. Some verbs of four radicals are included in the above
list, as they are in every respect regular, except that the second
radical takes -J- in preference to (according to the analogy of
the ancient language) in the present participle. Thus we have
.^ % * 4 ^riri*T dreaming, ? % v tTi^i^f withering, ^V^^*** press-
i a t, i t. " * ' "
ing out.
CLASS II. REGULAR VERB.
Verbs of the first class are very often intransitive. On
the other hand, the majority of verbs of the second class
are transitive. A number of verbs, which, when conjugated
according to the first class, are intransitive, when conjugated
according to the second class, become transitive. For ex-
52
ample, >!^\fc , if it conform to the preceding paradigm, de-
notes to go out; but if it conform to the following paradigm,
to bring out or to cause to come out. The same is true of
J39L& : when conjugated as a verb of the second class, it
denotes to finish, in a transitive sense, or to save.
It is, however, to be remarked that a few verbs are used
indifferently as verbs of the first or second class, without
any change of signification. Thus XttL^ , following either
paradigm, is transitive, and means to command. More rarely
a verb is intransitive in either conjugation, as tA\3 to leak,
which is properly of the first class, but used in some dis-
tricts as if of the second class.
Verbs of the second class have regularly three radicals.
A to is prefixed to the root in all its inflections by the peo-
ple of Tiary, Tekhoma, Nochea, and the western slopes of
the Koordish mountains, but is not heard on the plain of
Oroomiah. It has been for a number of years omitted in
our books.
The rules for the formation of compound tenses being the
same in all verbs, it is unnecessary to repeat them. The
two conjugations do not differ in this respect, but in the
form of the infinitive, the participles, the preterite, and the
imperative.
To form the present participle from the root, the first
radical takes -^- when the root has -* , and - r when the
root has -J-. If -?- is the first vowel, O is inserted after the
the second radical ; and when -f- is the first vowel, * is in-
serted. The third radical takes with final i. We will
again take hOatS as the model.
INFINITIVE Ooa to save.
t
Present Participle. Perfect Participle.
saving. X0aa4, 3s-030b having saved.
53
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
I am saving (in.). , i f
*A^ iOOXS 1st plural.
1st fern.
2nd masc. f ,
^*V^ lO&a 2nd plural.
2nd fern.
3rd masc. . , ,
ti* XflOXS 3rd plural.
3rd fern.
Imperfect Tense.
OOCf Kjfi XdOX 1st plural.
I was saving (f.). '
2nd masc. x ^ , , ,
OOCT ^iC JJSOaJ^ 2nd plural.
2nd fern. ''
3rd masc. , , f
OOCT JJSOaJa 3rd plural.
3rd fern.
The same elision takes place which has been repeatedly
noticed. We are to pronounce parookin wa, etc. Notice
this in the pluperfect.
Preterite Tense.
I saved (m.). kX03a4 1st plural.
^ i a i
2nd masc.
+*** VOaO^ 2nd plural.
2nd fern. " '
3rd masc.
^ok03&^ 3rd plural.
3rd fern.
// i
This is formed like the corresponding tense in verbs of
the first class, except that o is inserted after the first radical.
$4
Perfect Tense.
* A.
>L030h9 I have saved (m.).
44^ Ufto4 1st plural.
1st fern. ' '
2nd masc. ,,
"* 2-OaoS 2nd plural.
2nd fern.
3rd masc.
l* UfeOJd 3rd plural.
3^03*4 3rd fern. '' '
n i
The perfect participle is formed by inserting o after the first
radical, and giving the last radical the vowel -*- with final 2 .
NOTE. In some cases, -JT is inserted between the second and
third radicals, as, for instance, ?V -**** having envied. This vowel
always appears in the feminine participle.
When the root takes ' instead of , the perfect participle,
with scarcely an exception, takes this between the second and
third radicals, and the same vowel appears also in the future ; as
^Vn*J *\3 / will envy. By inspecting the catalogue of verbs of
this class, it will be seen that this usage is founded on the principles
of euphony. For example, verbs whose second and third radicals are
the same, take this vowel ; and also verbs whose middle radical is O .
If it should be objected that J3OX to repent, and similar verbs, with
radical O, have -*- in the root and in the perfect participle, it
may replied, that, although -*- is written in accordance with the
rules of the ancient language (Hoff. 12, 1), the sound is that of
-;-. Thus 90^, tVof.
U II
Pluperfect Tense.
1 ^ 8 ^ ,
O O OT <-flJ Ufa 1st plural.
1st fern. '' '
2nd masc. , ,.
ObOT ^OIX- XflaOJS 2nd plural.
2nd fern. '' '
3rd masc.
OOOr XOaO^ 3rd plural.
3rd fern. " '
Future Tense.
I will save (m.). ^9X9 ^\3 1st plural.
This is inflected like the corresponding tense of the first
class. Those verbs, however, which have -,'- in the root, or
-- in the perfect participle, have the same vowels here also ;
e. g. 390 to return (tr.), cause to turn, has its perfect par-
ticiple 2a?0to, and its future Jfr *Xia.
Second Future Tense.
1st fern. ' ' 7
2nd masc.
Z
2nd fern.
3rd masc.
X
3rd fern. '' '
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
I may save (m.). AQ\& 1st plural.
This is inflected like the corresponding tense of the first
class, and takes -J-, as well as -, between the second and
third radicals, whenever the future takes them.
Second Present Tense.
' * ''A ''
A0OX3 uttCf I may be saving (m.).
' "
AAOT 1st plural.
1st fern.
2nd masc. , .
XOOXS ^ftlUftCT 2nd plural,
XBOX3 wlUOOf 2nd fern.
X00X9 JjftCT 3rd masc. , ,
'' ( , , '' , )LDokS MOOT 3rd plural.
2430X9 J-OCf 3rd fern. '' '
Imperfect Tense.
I might save (in. i. obc/ ^3X9 1st plural.
This is inflected like the corresponding tense of the first
class. Like the present tense, its vowels depend on the
vowels of the future, to which they always conform.
Perfect Tense.
Z0*04 fcOCT 1st plural.
3OS <-OCT 1st fern. ' '
2nd masc.
Ifl^Oja ^bn-OCf 2nd plural.
2nd fern. '' '
3rd masc.
UOZOA 4-OC7 3rd plural.
3rd fern.
Pluperfect Tense.
1st fern.
2nd masc.
T 2nd fern. "
3rd masc.
oooy MOOT
X^OOT 3rd fern. " '
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
M*\A save thou (m.). *.
'It i r . * I save y e '
> id 9^1? save thou (f.). ^OkMLOXS j
It is to be particularly noted that the verbs marked i in
the following table make the plural imperative by simply
adding *jO to the singular. Thus, ^\*3 envy ye, ^BftV.
57
answer ye, etc. The second form given above, ,oJ
may be used with other verbs, but is not so common, and
is now omitted in our books. iV*lt^ forms its imperative
plural thus : % j>V'tV^, .
VERBS OF THE SECOND CLASS CONJUGATED LIKE
NOTE. r, following a verb, shows that it conforms in every re-
spect to >fl^^ ; i, that it takes ' in the present participle, in
the perfect participle, etc. Verbs are not repeated in this table
which are used as verbs of either class, without a change of signifi-
cation, and which have been given already in the first table.
to strip off bark, r
to spy out. i
to tempt r
to wallow, i
to be dizzy, t
to cultivate, r
3X3 to scatter (tr.). r
m I
to glean, t
to envy, i
to search, r
\ V) *1 to render vain or idle, r J3LxX,to look, r
t
to heal, r
to deflour. r
to degrade (tr.). r
to ask a question, r
<?X3 to bless, r
to support, nourish, r
to lie. r
to sear, r
to cook, r
to do skilfully, r
to wrangle, r
to answer, t
to provoke, t
to make ready, r
to help, i
H I
to believe, i
to beget, r
68
to sell, r
to join, i
to disturb, be disturbed, i
to defile, or become defiled,
"* ^ with milk, etc., during fast, i
$
f 3f to prepare, r
to incite, r
to become cold, r
to ask after one's health, r
YIX** to renew, i
*
to rule, r
to wash, i
// i
h^M* to be or make strong, i
** >
to escape, r
to singe, r
to play, r and t
to indulge, i
to bury, r
to drive away, r
to hem ; to brush up. r
9hA to roll up. r
rto carry (away), r
i ^* 1 This root is also ^**^ ,
to blot t
to find time ; to supply, r
to return (tr.). i
to love, i
to heat (tr.). i
to find, r
to blacken (tr.). i
to cover, shut r
to bow (tr.).
to pay a debt i
to teach, r
to smell, i
to nurse, t
^AJBOiO to apply (attention), t
// /
2
hflUQMa to cause to ascend, r
to cool (tr.). i
to burn (tr.). r
to raise, i
to chisel out t
to cool (tr.). i
to cause to hit. t
to lift up. r
to kindle (tr.). i
to place, r
to raise (the dead), r
59
>ttL9jtP to empty (tr.). r
>j>iBUfP to ornament, r
to maim, i
to wonder, r
to vex or be vexed, i
to gape, i
to atone, r
to muse, r
to bring out r
Mid to cut out r
to gaze at r
to stretch out. r
to translate, r
S to chew the cud, to digest.
> ""C to be or become sober.
to refine, i
i>T>X to entice, r
\XX to be or become foolish, i
3 XX to send, r
to long for. i
to praise, r
to strip, despoil, r
to be or become quiet, z
to dislocate, r
to parboil, r
X to perform a burial service.r
to be or become peaceful, i
to make overflow, r
f XX to be acquainted with, i
iiLx }
7 /
r . . ' f to be partaker, r and z'
X0 to anticipate, r
to make holy, r
to promise, i
to happen, i
to look, r
to peel, r
to squeeze in. i
to glorify, r
to repent i
>fVi\X to cause to perish, r
to destroy, r
to finish. 7
to sigh, r
to prop, r
to spill, r
ul^X to abandon, r
j
M^X. to make, r
to button, r
60
A verb of four radicals may follow this paradigm, e. g.
? to shed tears ; X being regarded as a quiescent. A
few of the above roots beginning with to are really causa-
tives, a weak radical, as. for instance, 2 in the case of ASto ,
// i
having fallen out. The rules for the formation and conju-
gation of causatives will be considered hereafter.
IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE FIRST CLASS.
FIRST VARIETY. FIRST RADICAL i. Root tXftj to eat.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
$Z 3^313 I am eating (m.).
1st fern.
2nd masc.
2nd plural.
2nd fern. ' ''
3rd masc.
" U- iJOZS 3rd plural.
3rd fern. ' ''
f
The only irregularity here is owing to the 2 . This is
heard but faintly, if at all, and the is lengthened to .
Imperfect Tense.
2JBCT ^ J^aiS I was eating (m.). OOCT
. Preterite Tense.
I ate. M>^ We ate.
I !
Perfect Tense.
have eateru "* "^
The perfect participle, by the aid of which this tense is
formed, is regular ; but the first radical is silent, as well as
in the preterite.
61
Future Tense.
The future tense is regular, and the imperative also, ex-
cept that in the latter the 2 is not sounded. It is written
v * ' v ' "i
k^Odf eat Ihou, ^jLAAftj. eat ye.
NOTE. It will be understood, both in regard to this and the fol-
lowing varieties, that those tenses which are not mentioned are per-
fectly regular.
LIST OF VERBS WITH INITIAL 2.
to enter. t-f to go. kULflO to go up.
to say. 9JQ9? to bind. *X0 to cool (intr.).
n a a
The verbs SO? and 99J are entirely regular; i. e. they
conform to the preceding paradigm. The same is true of
Af 4! , except in the future, where \ is for the most part not
sounded (see Hoff. 27, 4, a), and in the imperative, which
is If in the singular, and *^af in the plural. Compare
the imperative of the same verb in the ancient language,
Af , uAf , etc. In the modern, we often hear <joA^f go
" J. ', L ' t ('
thou, just as ^Ut JSf in the ancient, and Tlp"^^! in the He-
brew. This suffix is used with the imperative of but few
verbs; e.g. AvV^, , *JbJL , ^ax etc. The idiom will be
referred to farther on, when the relation of the modern to
the ancient verb is discussed.
Future Tense of t-Skf?.
I will go (m.).
^>f?^ 1st plural.
1st fern.
2nd masc.
^OIlAf; 1X3 2nd plural.
2nd fern.
3rd masc.
ujf{ A3 3rd plural.
3rdfem.
62
NOTE 1. With a negative preceding, I is not sounded in com-
mon conversation (e. g. Mtf j i^), and three syllables are reduced
to two.
NOTE 2. In Bootan, we have the following form of the future,
which is well worthy of a place in our grammar, as it throws light
on the relation of the ancient to the modern language.
tAf I VlS 1 sing. (m. and f.). i*f I Vl3 1st plural.
f i a
2nd masc.
~ x . ^OAoAf ^ I\3 2nd plural.
f j 119 2nd fern.
//
f t Via 3rd masc. 4.54 "4.
, Af f Vl3 3rd plural.
3rd fern.
NOTE 3. On the plain of Oroomiah, the verb t&*!k is generally
4. 5 "
used instead of tJtf jl in all the tenses of the indicative, except the
" s *
future, and in the imperative. The present tense is ^Ou !?it*'X3
* * * X "
(in some villages u&* IX^l'ff ), the preterite jJt , the perfect
^oJZX>~ , and the imperative >3LOb . This is no doubt the an-
cient *X*ft to crawl, and, sometimes, to move one'* self. We occa-
sionally hear in the mountains the future bX**3 Via. It would
have been better to write the preterite j>X^a, and the perf. part.
>L&***3 , had the thing been originally understood. As to the drop-
' t * ^i *t '
ping of ft, compare ,7*\M with the ancient 2u, Su9 , and the
i 1 n i
corresponding words in Hebrew.
In regard to 9UQBJ , JtiJtt*} , and AJO} , there is some ques-
tion whether they should stand here, or be classed with the
second variety. If we regard the usage on the plain of
Oroomiah only, it would seem that they ought to be con-
sidered as verbs with medial 2. The present participle
is almost always spoken in this province as if written
;'aJj&3, 3AJM, and ixlfiia, I e. like 2X&9 ; and the
futures are often *iv*XD TL9 , ^flUHD T13, ^tn,6 Ad , i. e. like
63
^t >H 'fcva. On the other hand, the usage in Koordistan
makes them regular verbs with initial 2 , like t^a? . The
ancient root of xtti is also xfit)^ . We have therefore pre-
ferred to class them here. It should not be unnoticed that
when .JvJQO Via, etc. are not used in Oroomiah as the fu-
tures of these verbs, we have instead ^>ftu *13 , ^ttta > iia ,
etc.
SECOND VARIETY. MIDDLE RADICAL 2 or *.
The middle radical in this variety inclines sometimes to
2, and sometimes, especially in Koordistan, to the sound of
* . (See HoflF. 33, 3, 5.) Nordheimer is probably correct in
saying ( 397), in regard to such verbs, that the root prop-
erly consists of two strong immutable consonants, in which
the fundamental idea of the verb is contained; and that
between these a weak letter is inserted to complete the usual
form. This falls out often, as will be seen hereafter, in the
causative form, and always in the reduplicated form.
For the sake of uniformity the roots are now all written
with medial 2.
Take for example Jt>LS to
remain.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
X 2$. f x % $ .
Ou* ZX* I am remaining (m.). Aft, i ?3t*3J3 We are remaining.
n n ^ a
This is regular, if we consider * the middle radical.
Preterite Tense.
I remained (m. and i'.). >\3C^ We remained.
Whether the second radical here be called 2 or * , it is not
at all sounded, and instead of uS>af>^ or kAjtJ^, we write
Perfect Tense.
I have remained (m.). fijbu ?.X*^ We have remained.
64
The participle, which would regularly be 3JJ*^ or
is contracted into >Usu, the feminine of which is 5j
I w
Future Tense.
^tfc3 Via I shall remain (m.). f f
" , . <t>.fl A3 1st plural.
^t* Zia 1st fem.
V\xj Via 2nd masc. ,
^OTUX*^ Via 2nd plural.
2nd fem. '
3rd masc. ,
uti^ Z13 3rd plural.
3rd fem.
The vowel here forms a diphthong with the following
* , excepting in the third singular masculine.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
AAS remain thou. ^OJCJXa remain ye.
Here the middle radical falls out, and we write as above,
instead of tXjfli^ or
VERBS FOLLOWING THE ANALOGY OF
to make water. faJU* to sew.
* ~ i
4h>L to curry (a horse),
to judge. / " f
*&\+* to he or become hot
to make fine or small. "
. . * kS2* to hathe (of females).
3 f Sft to return.
to look.
to tread.
*
to venture.
9f to increase.
a2f to swell. aia to invite.
65
to scratch.
to measure.
to be or become black.
to bow.
to be alienated.
to be paid (an account).
to curse,
to blame,
to make dough.
to suck (the breast).
to die.
M}Jl to rest
<
to nod.
to sting, to bite.
to be or become old.
to ordain.
to weed.
to be or become narrow.
to be or become cool,
to lose the savor.
to dawn.
t hunt or fish.
to fast.
to drain off (intr.).
to listen to, to obey.
to fade (as grass).
to rise. (Imp. ^DObO .)
a i
M^O to bruise or become bruised.
3X0 to chisel out.
X.LO to hit
,.*
>f a to be high, to rise.
to sprinkle.
to spit
to go down (as a swelling).
to rub.
to long for.
to kindle -
to fasten ^ eyeg>
to finish (tr. and intr.).
to come to one's self.
a^> is almost always on the plain of Oroomiah pro-
nounced in the present as if written fcl*3. In some dis-
tricts it is regular.
66
to be worth, as spoken, is quite anomalous. The
present participle is Z*3t^3; the preterite, V*t^; the per-
fect participle, l*f\j ; the future, t^3\ *X\a , ^n^ 'ha ; the
imperative, tSojL.
/ '
has its future often, perhaps generally, irregular:
. In the third person singular masculine, it has
aX* *\3. Its present participle is 5uS.
hO2a has its present participle J-daia, and, were it not for
its etymology, might be classed with verbs with initial 2 . Its
future is also sometimes h
VEEBS WITH MEDIAL X.
Under this variety may properly come verbs with medial X .
They differ somewhat, but not essentially, from the preced-
ing. Take, for example, t*^*\i to thrust in. The present
participle is j^>Vi\,*t (a) or 3e^\i*1 (>). The preterite is
^j^^r ; the future, ^>*ASy ; the imperative, gfti^, .
Some of these verbs have two forms of the present participle,
marked (a & Z>), some only one. In Koordistan, the future
is not *jj3 T13 , but
Like ^>V, , inflect
a to sweat (a & 5). 9^3 to hew (a & b). i^Xa to tremble (&).
* HI, a
to taste (a & b). ^&JkA to shut (a). tXXa to rouse (b).
tobear(&i). JQX^ \ *[%$** * to cough (a & b).
to fold (a). *** to darn(a).
THIRD VARIETT.
This variety is characterized by the transposition of * ,
which is sometimes the first and sometimes the second
radical.
Example, i?VV> to kam.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
hdOu Vu^9 I am learning (in.). <jO- >Lau>J>S We are learning.
It will be seen that this tense is perfectly regular, except
that - becomes the second, instead of the first, radical.
Preterite Tense.
j>jSA>.T I learned (m.). AAjt.^ We learned.
i a ^ i a
Here - becomes again the first radical, and is silent.
Perfect Tense.
I have learned (m.). , ,
^Du ,7ft, >V . We have learned.
I have learned (f.).
i
The only irregularity is that the first - is not sounded.
Future Tense.
>AV, Vl3 I shall learn (mA <jVVi ^3 We shall learn.
^ a a ^> a
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Learn thou. ^OJOJk Learn ye.
It will be seen that the ^ is not sounded here.
NOTE. In some villages, and perhaps districts, the future is spoken
like the future of verbs with medial 2 or . : thus, h^fji nSt , etc.
^
If this were generally the case, we should with propriety call this
one of that class of verbs, its root being ^?^ , its present partici-
ple, preterite, and perfect participle, being written like the correspond-
ing forms of tXZ^ . Indeed, there is no special objection to writing
them so now, and considering the future irregular, as generally spo-
ken. We should then have the preterite tuVaul , and the perfect
k V "
participle au^. These remarks apply also to the verbs which
follow.
68
to bring forth (young). ^X* to lengthen or be long,
to hasten. *XX* to inherit
to be distressed. ITL to sit
to burn.
FOURTH VARIETY. THIRD RADICAL 2.
Example, Ja to pour.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
-** '' ' .**
2-99t9 I am pouring (m.). <OM >L3X9 We are pouring.
i> * a ' a
This tense is regular, with the exception that, two alephs
** 4m
coming together, as in 22a&9, according to the analogy of
the ancient language, 2 is changed into .. .
Preterite Tense.
u^ft9 I poured (m. and f.). t^3A We poured.
I !>' V I l>
The radical 2, when it becomes a medial instead of a final
letter, as in this tense, ought, according to the analogy of
the ancient language (see Hoff., paradigm of J^^), to be
changed into *. This, however, is not the case. The 2
serves merely to lengthen the preceding into , and,
being itself not heard, is not written. Thus, instead of
we have uAaa .
i f
Perfect Tense.
''*
I have poured (m.).
4^Ota* X*S? We have poured.
I have poured (f.). ' "'
Instead of the regular perfect participle, which would be
, the first and second radicals take and form one
syllable, the 2 being changed into * , as in the present par-
ticiple.
69
Future Tense.
* '' L-
^? *X3 I will pour (m.). m , s
<oa iXfl We will pour.
^39 Xia I will pour (f.).
The first syllable of this tense, in the masculine singular
and the plural, is simple, not including the second radical ;
and the third radical 2 is dropped, except in the third per-
f
son singular masculine, 2aa , where it appears as the final
letter. In the feminine, 2 is changed into - .
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
This is quite irregular, making hBX& the standard ; but
in the singular it is exactly like the ancient. In the singu-
lar, 2 becomes - ; and in the plural, it is dropped:
* I m
u*39 Pour thou. *^B3ft Pour ye.
'
VERBS FOLLOWING THE ANALOGY OF
As a number of these verbs are both of the first and sec-
ond class, they are noted here just as in the table of regular
verbs of the first class.
29J9 to rave, talk wildly. JoA^ to vomit.
"i* i 1
,? V*1 to weep. J^V. to flow (out).
i 1 i 1 t,
^3towear(out)(tr.andintr.). , c to be or become pure. 1
*7- I and 2.
to build, to count ,
to resemble. 1 and 2.
to create.
f
IflCT to become.
to foam up. 1 and 2. '' f
i*0 to be pleasant to.
to beg, be a beggar.
< to
C
to be or become naked. ^ iQ crack (ag glasg) (i
111 u &+ |i i
2
to lean (down). llf to commit adultery.
70
?
iiio
to rejoice.
to see.
to sin.
to be or become sweet
to keep (intr.). 1 and 2.
to be supported (by).
to incubate.
to go to stool
to broil (intr.). 1 and 2.
to sleep.
to drive (an animal).
Z&^fe to be or become hid. land 2. >' ^
' . m.
to be seared. 1 and 2.
to stop.
to go out (as fire).
4. 5 to be or become covered.
I land 2.
to be or become short
_, $ to be or become covered.
t I land.2.
?SLT to lap up.
to devour greedily,
to lap (reg.).'
to strike,
to arrive.
to fill (tr. and intr.).
^
same as ivS , to count
i 1
to wash (clothes).
to be able.
to wipe.
to leap.
to butt
to forget.
to bathe.
to dart
to be or become blind (reg.).
to hate.
to dip out (as water). 1 and 2.
to be or become bad.
to be difficult 1 and 2.
to rain. 1 and 2.
to search after.
to separate (inb-.). 1 and 2.
to be delivered. 1 aad 2.
to burst out
to be lukewarm.
to be or become broad.
71
to descend. 1 and 2. ioi to be or become drunk.
,
J.
to pour out, run out.
to rend. JL^a \ to be r become loose -
^T and 2.
'
to gather (tr. and intr.). iSUt to be like. 1 and 2.
$
to be or become hard. ?ftt to be spread. 1 and 2.
i 1
to parch (as corn) (intr.). jVj- to
1 and 2. ,!*'
to scorch (intr.). Zj>X to be or become quiet
i*
to gain. ZvX to faint 1 and 2.
' become loose '
to gripe.
to drink.
(bread).
to call, to read. v
Z-X to suspend.
>* 5 t be or become thick or '
hard - JX to repeat. 1 and 2.
to be or become weary. ifX to stick (intr.). 1 and 2.
i>
to be pleased with. ?AX to be or become wet
i>
Notes on the Preceding List.
is quite irregular, and, were it not for its derivation, might
perhaps better be written 2cU> . The present participle is i-OU3 ;
* ' x
the preterite, wJ^OU ; the perfect participle, XOJA ; and the future,
The future feminine of this verb is either t^V. *X3 or
,i it. ,- i i'
all of which have -'- in the root.
. This is sometimes, though vulgarly, pronounced in the
present JM*&3 , and in the preterite t>\>* , as if from ^ilSfl
72
to suck. The future, or rather the present subjunctive, with iA pre-
ceding (^&O ZA ), is generally pronounced kamsin.
Those of the preceding verbs which have medial A, make their
perfect participle irregularly, as X*O*d from 7.0>id , except
i i
the peculiarities of which were noted in the first paradigm.
FIFTH VARIETY. THIRD RADICAL X.
Root \*OA to hear.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
I am hearing (in.). {tOw ?V>>3t3 We are hearing,
'
The present participle is only irregular in this, that the
third radical, being a quiescent, coalesces with the preced-
ing vowel, and * is then inserted, which takes the final 1 '.
We, however, often hear >V^ftS3, and the infinitive ^aaXj>,
which should not be considered a vulgarity, as it is nearer
the ancient language than the ordinary form.
* Preterite Tense.
>AS.X I beard (m. and f.). \S.AT We heard.
I H ^ I H
Perfect Tense.
,? > VfHLX I have heard (m.).
^)0h* Z*^OkX We have heard.
I have heard (f.).
The perfect participle takes as the vowel of the first
syllable, which includes the second radical. The X is not
sounded, and the last syllable is 'jL.
Future Tense.
Afrit Via I shall hear (m.).
AJaflOL TL3 We shall hear,
^Vint 119 I shall hear (f.).
73
The peculiarity of the future consists in this, that the
second radical is pronounced as if doubled, the first & be-
longing to the first syllable and the second to the second
syllable. The X affects the adjacent vowels, but is not
sounded separately. This peculiarity is not found through-
out Koordistan.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
< .
Hear thou. ^MlXSflLX Hear ye.
Like kikMlX , conjugate
to bore (a hole). JkJXl to bubble up.
to swallow.
to be satiated.
to assemble (intr.). land 2. . ^
1,1 tJ*J>aj to step, march.
to shave. L
bV.BLa to crack (mtr.).
// /
it
to fear. tV'XS to recompense.
a i
to sow. ,
Wk9k* to dye.
"5 '
to ferment. . -
A\Lff to break off (tr. and intr.).
to sink (intr.). 1 and 2.
to adhere to.
to be sick. Of four radi- >
cals but regular, except ^^X to make a breach.
m the root. // ,
Notes on the Preceding List.
in the future feminine follows the paradigm of the fourth
variety, thus : ^.?f "3 , ^>^?f "3 . The masculine has not the
peculiarity of sound of w^MLX . All the preceding verbs except
AjJI , and even this in some districts of Koordistan, may in the
same way take + in the future feminine.
VOL. T. 10
74
The perfect participles of >VJU and A3UD have sometimes been
written 2*^904 and 3LjA*30JD , to express more exactly the sound ;
but there is not sufficient reason for this deviation.
Some of these verbs with final X are both of the first and second
class, and some of the first class only, as noted above.
VERBS OF THE FIRST CLASS DOUBLY IRREGULAR.
One who has made himself familiar with regular verbs of
the first class, and the different varieties already given, will
have little difficulty in learning the conjugation of those
verbs which are doubly irregular.
Some of these have both initial and final 2 .
'*
Root * 3J. to curdle.
Present Participle. u2 Preterite,
,.
, 2-32 Perfect Participle. . ". " V Future.
eft) to)
/ Imperative.
' ^ ' 4._
The future is sometimes w*a 3 masc., M *US fem.
\i i a ^ i a
^4v? to come, is inflected in the same way, except that the
imperative is ^X in the singular, and ^9N in the plural.
We also occasionally hear <?oA 2x for the imperative sin-
gular. The ancient language has the same imperative, the
initial 2 being dropped.
In Salmas, Gawar, and perhaps other districts, the root of
this word is corrupted into 2-*2 : present participle i**A3 ,
preterite uJkA, perfect participle %& or I*a2, imperative
. ' * ' tf
UA . In Tiary, & is substituted for X throughout the con-
jugation: we thus have iliiS, wJkXJ, etc. Indeed, the
'''''.
substitution of & is not confined to this word : e. g.
75
a house, for #fc*S . Moreover, in some places we hear
as the perfect participle, which is quite as near as any form
to the ancient.
Some verbs have initial * and final 2 .
Take for example ZiflL to swear.
f f " f Present Participle. V^*V Preterite.
Perfect Participle.
> Imperative.
Thus conjugate ij to lament, and iL* to 5&e. The pres-
ent participle of the former is like the first form given, i. e.
&*S>*f . that of the latter is like either the first or the second
form, i. e. It+^y or J*J^J3. In some parts of Koordis-
tan, 2do2 and X&? are the roots, instead of ^Ou and
Compare ZB^ and 2-** in the Ancient Syriac.
Somewhat different is the root t!X* to know.
Present Participle. J>^X< Preterite.
Per/ecf Participle. * , " {. Future.
u
, ' > Imperative.
*-*H-)
NOTE. The 3 of the future is pronounced as if double (see the
future of ki*SftX), and in Oroomiah is almost hardened into Xr.
t "
Many of the Nestorians lazily pronounce ^-X* fc-aOJ what do I
76
know, or how do I know ? mood-yan, there being little, if any, dif-
ference, whether the speaker is a man or a woman. This tense is
also habitually shortened in other connections by some of the people.
The verb i*.* to live, is perhaps more regular in the mod-
ern than in the ancient language (Hoff. 76, Ann. 1), but
has some peculiarities. It is thus inflected :
Present Participle.
Perfect Participle.
UM ]
Imperative.
$ i
Like the preceding, inflect 1+fB to make a fence; 2*0 to be
set on edge (as the teeth) ; the latter regular, except the -',-.
The verb )V^i to search after, has been generally written
in accordance with the usage in Koordistan, and is inflected
as follows :
Present Participle. S>S>V, Preterite.
i a '
Perfect Participle. " Future. -
> Imperative.
This, however, is very unlike the usage in Oroomiah.
As here spoken, it is an anomalous verb of the second
class, and is thus inflected : present participle ^flA^, (or
r) ; preterite SftSfty,; perf. participle >?iS>fl>V^ ,
future -&6jL ^Cia , ^ftSiVb, Via ; imperative
There are a few verbs of four radicals, besides those enu-
merated with regular verbs, which in general conform to
the verbs of the first class.
Take for example XCT^ to thirst.
' -T
Present Participle. u^Cf^ Preterite.
Perfect Participle. " \ Future.
}
> Imperative.
j
x x 4*
Like 2-Cffr*, inflect 2-*cj^ to /to;me.
i> -* i'
i
As another example take i*i*3 to ms/L
.' i
i
Present Participle. ujt^h9 Preterite.
Perfect Participle. ", ', " Future.
v Imperative.
)
A
Thus inflect Z*^J< to ^^^; ^*^*^ to become smooth, Z*^5o to
'* * i 1 / i 1
churn, i*Xa to graze, and Z*^Jt to plaster.
i' i i' i
In regard to i*^9 , it may be remarked that, while the
present participle, as used in Koordistan, conforms to the
preceding paradigm, on the plain of Oroomiah we generally
hear it thus :
As another example we may take 2-2 to be or become
i> >
iveary.
78
Present Participle. tr>S?V^ Preterite.
i ,< t,
^O\a)
, X*2-V. Perfect Participle. " '* "[Future.
' * Ja
v <
-)
> Imperative.
The root *A3of- to gwe, like its predecessor *30%* in the
Ancient Syriac (HofF. 73, Ann. 4, and 80), is singularly
irregular. Being in constant use, it should, however, be
made very familiar.
4
Present Participle. uuk3cV* Preterite.
Perfect Participle. ", ^ , " \ Future.
', V Imperative.
It should be remarked that the perfect participle resem-
bles the perfect participles of the second class rather than
those of the first, and the preterite is often pronounced as
if written >*j>3gfrOu. In some districts the preterite is
IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE SECOND CLASS.
FIRST VARIETY. FOUR RADICALS.
Verbs of four radicals are far more common in the Mod-
ern Syriac than in the Ancient or the Hebrew. Many of
these, however, are produced by a reduplication of biliteral
or triliteral roots, and are exceedingly expressive. The idea
is often that of repetition, as in iM^V^ to bruise in pieces,
to trample, tX&Utto to grope, X^xS to whirl,
79
to creep, and numerous others. Still ofteuer, per-
haps, the idea is that of repeated sound, as in acfSOT to roar
ivith laughter, AoAo to tya^, X*XM to snore, k&JB>&JQ to
cluck.
The second radical is included in the first syllable of the
root, as well as of all its inflections.
As an example, take /tfttocf to speak.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
1st masculine. , <' "j :
*flJ 2*0ft*90r 1st plural.
1st fern. ' ' '
2nd masc. , ^ (
^*\^ 2BO4bOC7 2nd plural.
2nd fern. ' '
3rd masc. f x ,
'* ' Z&* >LS0Att90T 3rd plural.
ZMOttOCT 3rd fern.
The present participle has -'- as the vowel of the first
syllable, with its corresponding A in the second.
Preterite.
ti
I spoke. kJk^94b9OC7 We spoke.
This differs from >*J>.daoJ^ only in having one consonant
more in the first syllable, rendering it a mixed syllable.
, Perfect.
w iJDtoDOC7 1 have spoken (m.). , x
^OM jMAiDOOf We have spoken,
I have spoken (f.).
/<
Future.
w te8 OT A3 I shall speak (m.). ^Ott90T A3 We shall speak.
^ a a i a ^ //
Imperative.
ii
Speak thou. ^O00CT Speak ye.
80
Like
a
to be bashful.
* f 3* to become cheap.
* // i
to delay (tr. and intr.).
n i
L jLi ' .
A.3A.3 to creep.
** " * '
^ to enlighten, to become
i light.
,
to prick.
, inflect
i
>dJLkX to foam up.
// ;
>TxV to be leprous.
^ a i
^TtA/YA to growl.
n i
JQ3kX9kV. to grow.
*
to whiz.
to
to en l ar s e or
larged.
^V to grow fat and be antic.
". ', \j*tS*<i S to make to wallow, to
>jJ3Lj>*1 to confuse or be confused. *(. wallow.
to twinkle.
iViift ** to dazzle or be dazzled.
^ // i
9b&3 to crown.
// i
m j
ktk9LbL3 to bubble up.
to scatter (tr. and intr.).
to roar.
to assail.
to stir up.
to make bud, to bud.
to tumble (tr. and intr.).
to hum, coo.
to abhor (with t9 ).
to rust (tr. and intr.).
to torment or be tor-
mented.
, C to make to sing (as quin-
tXAJUkx ine does a sick man's
" ' ( head), to sing.
$ to be two-sided, ride
I tlie fence.
to make trot, to trot.
^ to thin out, become
sparse.
to shelter, to find shelter.
to make or be bloody.
to make fine or small.
to wound or be wounded.
to pine away.
9 Odd to rock (tr. and intr.).
a "
L^li $ to make a clatter (of
;, -, \ words).
^B3A to apply (remedies).
< *'
kMdSI to become late.
' "
81
to demolish,
to neigh.
to laugh aloud.
a i
f Of O to buzz,
to wail.
to whisper (as the wind).
" ' \.--<
3 A3 6 to have a diarrhea.
i
JCPOJOO to make whine, to whine.
V M! S to make subject, become
k^^2J0 < i
vTV " ^ subject.
V il < to litter, be littered (as a
^",T I room, a field, etc.).
to become pale.
to make tinkle, to tinkle.
to tear off, be torn off.
to ring (tr. and intr.).
to swagger.
to batter.
to strut.
to breathe hard.
to make faint, be faint.
to push.
to clasp.
tf XM to push,
to gnaw.
$ to make to gnash, to
gnash.
to snore.
to reckon.
$ to make to rattle, to
) rattle.
to defile ceremonially or
be defiled.
h9>f to make mighty, be mighty.
^// i
*33f to make yellow, be yellow.
. .
3f 3f to bray.
H i
to injure,become injured.
( to wash away, be wash-
\ ed away.
^ to excite fever, have
\ fever.
11
to crush or be crushed.
VS'Sy to delay (tr, and intr.).
(\l\i to hum.
d V d V f to flicker or make to
^>M\i flicker.
to murmur.
to move (tr. and intr.).
to make heavy, be heavy.
L ( to sputter, to make sput-
//T, it, ( ter.
.^1 j to shiver in pieces (tr.
7**^ 1 and intr.).
to arm, to be armed.
^ j to tear in pieces, be torn
1 in pieces.
to throw.
82
Y**^ to parboil, be parboiled. ^ I? to gnaw.
to let down, to sink down.
to tear, be torn.
to chink (intr.).
to swi "g ( tr> and intr ')-
to roll (tr. and intr.).
to toss about
to tingle (as the ear).
to tear (tr. and intr.).
to clap.
to defile, be defiled.
to rattle (in speech).
to scream.
to have mercy.
r^of^gir* 6
to wither (tr. and intr.).
to gather up.
5 to wrap in a vail, to wrap
] one's self in a vail.
to scare away.
S* > >i ^ to crack open (as the
, 1 earth).
to make glitter, to glitter.
to snufT around.
to speak.
lo m ake lame, be lame.
to make appearj to appear.
to abstain from food.
to make glitter, to glitter.
to freeze (tr. and intr.).
i ^ to make gprout , to sprout.
\/T>
< 3SaJk>3 to take a fine.
^77T
to mock.
to forbear, be reluctant.
to blister.
to borrow or lend on usury.
,
\ffi| A.%* t o be lazy.
a i
to preach.
to make pant, to pant
XC. to constrain.
to make green, to green.
to make P or ' be P r '
to rest (tr. and intr.).
t0 re P rove '
to fix a price.
t0 build *
i to give one a start (on a
I journey).
to listen *
83
^
to be or become hushed. biOu>X to make cloudy, be cloudy.
to cry. wjJBLX to make wise, be wise.
^ H i
to wrangle. t^99bX |
* n i *
5 to cause chills, to have
I chills.
to make bold, be bold.
to defile.
to miscarry.
to arrange in order.
to sprinkle.
to growl.
to make ancient, be an-
cient
to whisper.
to feel after.
Xx, <j j to make stagger, to stag-
. ( ger.
to laugh out
( to lay waste, become
to proclaim the gospel.
j to make a Mohammedan
\ or become one.
to grope (after).
to whistle.
to make to sob, to sob.
to groan,
to be a stranger,
to hesitate.
| to reconcile, become re-
1 conciled.
to visit.
( waste.
to beseech.
to undo, destroy.
to whirl (tr. and intr.).
to crumb, be crumbed.
, A
< ma Ke to escape, to
\ escape.
to twist (tr. and intr.).
to
to gaze.
to pour or flow out.
to make to smart, to
smart.
A , ,,.
>>> g^ \ to come down (from
, ( f
to sob from pain.
//
father to son).
sA, 9UBD to make totter, to totter. i\)ihi\) IS to cut up, to be cut up.
* a i ~ // ~ i
^aLCPaJCD to stun, be stunned. i\,O^JO to make light, be light
H i H i
9JOOXC9 to scream. >5ittLaLP to cluck.
84
to wrinkle, be wrinkled. wflXtiJt, to empty out
//
* -n u n j n*n*^to make to clatter, to
to wrinkle, be wrinkled. h&XOLX j c j atter
unifjXO to buffet, be buffeted. 9OV3*VX to make proud, be proud.
a i n t
' mm'
4J3 Xd to make or be ready. 3>T3bX to make spout, to spout
n i n t
OmJOmtJO to caw. ,
" ', *\*H\JV to guide.
>3LOaJJ to gather up. " . ',
" J kJQ3U*.>X to pant for breath.
39hXD to venture (intr.). " , !
" \ 9bttUkX to disciple.
>X,dLXg to rattle (as rain). ' " ,'
to whine.
to make tardy, be tardy.
to make smoky, be smoky.
to sprinkle, be sprinkled.
to chas ti se .
to stamp the foot.
to search.
to make neatly.
to knock.
i- 1 j
C <
t0 Crawl>
to brood '
to make thin, be thin.
to tremble violently.
to alter (tr. and intr.).
to alter (tr. and intr.).
to blacken, become black.
to crush in pieces.
to soil, be soiled.
*.ii.X \ to shake about (tr " and
XT* ,1 mtr.).
to make faint, be faint
to sob.
to glide (as a snake).
to besmear with tallow,
be besmeared.
to trim a candle.
( to make stumble, to
j stumble.
to make pale, be pale.
to stitch together.
Notes on the Preceding List.
As ^OV9 lias a talkana over the Cf, it may be considered as a
verb of three radicals, following the paradigm of hBXS* , second class.
and 9Jk3aJ3, though having five radicals, differ so little
a i H i
from the preceding model, that they need no special illustration.
^3LS>\X may in some respects be considered as a verb of three
radicals, having its perfect participle ZSftJ>^OX, and its future
VERBS OF FOUR RADICALS WITH FINAL 2.
Take for example !? tex * to understand.
3<*O^?SiQ Present Participle.
i> i
In Koordistan, instead of the above, we have i-Oiox
As to the substitution of O or .* for 2 , see Hoff. 33, 3.
ui^OlO^ Preterite.
i ,i
The 2 is here dropped, but lengthens into .
Perfect Participle.
In this participle - is substituted for 2 , and takes, in ad-
dition to its own appropriate vowel, the vowel -- .
Future.
Here the 2 is dropped in the masculine singular and in the
plural, but . is substituted for it in the feminine singular,
just as in the perfect participle.
', \ Imperative.
aaJH
' I '
NOTE. This verb evidently has a relation to the ancient
but perhaps a still nearer relation to the Persian f& . In Bootan
we hear it thus : present participle, 2o2&3 ; preterite, inVilfti^ ;
perfect participle, ? < ML,^ ; future, *SQ>& \3 ; ^ having the sound
I ^ It H
off.
86
VERBS INFLECTED LIKE
i> /
t i i
7*t *1 to paw, dig into. t&V* to show favor (with
, i ft
to clean out,becomeclean. ,? VfiJiP to despise.
to howl. JJOOJCP to twitter, to peep.
i'
to paw into. ^9JkX to deceive.
* '
to go round, surround. ^f XS to cut up.
to switch, be switched. ^9tS to rinse.
i' i
I
to bedaub, be bedaubed. <"* to search.
j gutter! 11 K rdiStan ' to roll up or be rolled up.
to long after (with bO ). iBa^X to snap (tr. and intr.).
i 1
to plaster. iXaJL to fag out, tire out
i' i
m >
to forget >UCDAX to nourish, be nourished.
NOTE. ^3hfta , which is inserted in the above list, does not
f 7, I
differ in pronunciation from the others, which end in 2 instead of X;
but the X is retained in writing out the different tenses.
When o is the second radical, from a kind of necessity,
one o is dropped in the preterite and perfect participle.
Thus, if we take iiObi to beseech, the present participle is
3.00101 ; the preterite, j>aoa (instead of uJjaooi ) ; the
perfect participle, 2*iO& (for Z*iOa); the future masculine,
* v_ ' ' . ' * ' * \,
^104 T13 ; the future feminine, ^*iOi *V3 . From what has
been said in the Orthography, it will be evident why -*- is
here used in the present participle, instead of -'- .
Like 2&oi, inflect
to chirp. 2*0* | tocae t0
I 1
to acknowledge. S.'XteO to mew.
swpa to bleat
'
87
CAUSATIVE VERBS.
"We are now prepared to understand the formation of
Causative Verbs. Some of the simple verbs of three radi-
cals already given may be used in a causative sense, as ^**
to strengthen, or to cause to become strong. Verbs of four radi-
cals have still oftener a causative signification ; but the
ordinary method of forming causatives is by prefixing io to
the three radical letters, and then considering the verb as
one of four radicals, and inflecting it accordingly. Thus,
iVyiVf^, when of the first class, means to go out; when of the
second class, to put out or bring out; and iV^V'Vyi (which is
inflected like ^J*i9C7), to cause to come out.
The verbs which thus form causatives are very numerous,
and comprise the majority of those of three radicals in the
preceding lists. The mode of formation is quite regular,
with the exceptions hereafter to be specified ; and the mean-
ing bears in almost all cases a close relation to the meaning
of the first root. A few causatives have been placed in the
list of verbs conjugated like ^*SCT. These are either not
used in Oroomiah at all in their simple form, as A->!0 to
listen; or the signification of the simple form is much changed,
as iVyT'V'p to accompany, or, better, to give a start to (a trav-
eller), from >^yt& to stretch out ; or the causative form, as
generally used, is neuter : e. g. ^^9 to appear.
m i
NOTE. kXdbo was inserted in the list of verbs inflected like
t J /
, with the idea that it was not properly a causative of any
verb in the Modern Syriac. But it may be the causative of ~5JQ
s t -^ " '
(a verb of the second class) to squeeze in. Compare 4^X0 in the
Ancient Syriac, and V^p in the Hebrew, to tear asunder, "to bite
in malice."
When the last radical of the ground-form is 2 , the caus-
ative verb follows the conjugation of froa^ instead of
Thus, from Wh3 to weep, we have ?A3UB fo
* i< i
to weep ; and so of a great number of others.
Verbs with final X do not differ in the causative form
from verbs with final 2 , except that X is retained in those
tenses where 2 is dropped, and slightly modifies the sound.
# '
Thus from tih0k& we have ^aax&a , of which the present
a i a i ,
participle is lAAJO>3tio ; the preterite, uJk6k*aX60 ; the
perfect participle, *^X.O9 ; the future, ^.aootii Vl3
(masculine), j+^SAXia n.3 (feminine).
There has been perhaps an unnecessary irregularity in
regard to verbs with initial 2. Thus, from wkAJ and ao?,
we have >Ja,l!o and AOybo; while from J8UCPJ, AJO}, and
x2 , we have wtilfi39 , >Xflba , and x&bo . As 2 is heard
very feebly, if at all, it is best, for the sake of uniformity,
to drop it altogether, and treat these causatives as verbs of
three radicals, second class. The other verbs with initial 2
, i
have no causative form. The future of aoJLbB, though
spelled regularly, is often pronounced morin.
Yerbs with medial 2 of the first class sometimes drop the
2 entirely, as ftlba from ft^f , in which case the causative is
inflected like a verb of three radicals, second class. But it
is far more common, at least in Oroomiah, for + to be sub-
i
stituted for 2, throughout the conjugation : e.g. ^JtoB, of
which the present participle is jftOMttD. Here the verb is
regularly conformed to the paradigm of *p9Hoiff , and no-
thing more therefore need be said on the subject.
Verbs with medial X retain the X, and are conjugated
like *J*A.
Verbs with initial - , when used as causatives, are quite
irregular. AJ>->, XflL, and >3Xi, become respectively
> A. vf , xtt&, *9&o, and are conjugated like verbs of the
89
second class having three radicals. IAo (to place), however,
when it denotes to cause to sit, to locate, retains the * trans-
* * '
posed; thus, 3UAio. >XX* becomes >VVD and will be
noticed farther on. iiflu becomes i&9 JSO or 29Oo , the lat-
ii ii i
ter conforming nearly to the Ancient Syriac. See under
i*3hS. *J>xi, *J-*, fcA**> <aJ, *l5L, transpose the . and
ft H ii . M / H ii
become respectively i^!X*> , JU^kao , MM^S , 4*90 and
m , a i //<_> ^* H i
X*3bSo, and are regular in conjugation.
Z*>x to understand, has for its causative ^JxA^a , and is
distinguishable from ^tfVAStt to cause to cut, only by a slight
difference in pronunciation.
OTHER IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE SECOND
CLASS.
VERBS WITH MEDIAL X.
One of these, and perhaps more, is inflected as a verb of
the second class, viz. 5*X- to revile.
Present Participle. w30^At Preterite.
i n i 3
XX r Vl3 )
Perfect Participle. " 7 " I Future.
, " , } Imperative.
'
The causative of 9hX is aA^a to cause to revile.
P res. Participle. bXSk(*Ott Preterite.
i >
Per/. Participle. ^ ^T v _ " [ Future.
12
90
VERBS OF THREE RADICALS: THIRD RADICAL 2.
These are mostly inflected as verbs of the first class, but
not all of them. As an example of the second class, we
may take ?*Vfl> to deliver.
, Present Participle.
2*OJQ, Perfect Participle.
Preterite.
"
Future.
Imperative.
In Koordistan the present participle is t*oJ3u8) ; and it is
to be understood that in all verbs resembling this, * is there
substituted for o .
Like ).^JO, inflect
to select, collect 3ftA to cover.
(
to uncover. Z5aJ> to cover.
. i
to make pure.
to liken,
to winnow.
to meditate, to spell,
to narrate.
to keep (tr.).
to broil (tr.).
to conceal,
to aear.
to weary.
to make alive.
to prophesy>
to render difficult.
25bi to patch.
to divide (tr.).
to deliver (from).
Z^ ~ to pray.
.' -*
^ t
2-3 r to strain.
91
?
to parch (tr.). ZVX to depart.
to throw. 2 XX to begin.
ZflX to liken. ZiA to tell.
to spread. Z^A. to cause to adhere.
Notes on the Preceding List.
is a causative from Z-*ZV^ to become weary. ?nfr8 , a caus-
ative from Z** to fo'w, and Z Via are irregular by having * in
the perfect participle and the future feminine, thus :
; and in the future,
I
If we do not distinguish between Z**^0 in the future
i i' i
and subjunctive and ZJ*Q to s<rz'A:e, we shall be likely (in prayer,
for instance), when intending to say "0 Lord, revive (or quicken)
me !" to say " Lord, strike me !" i^3 in the perfect participle is
' ' ',+ m
often written as well as pronounced JLSO3.
VERBS OF THREE RADICALS : THIRD RADICAL X .
These verbs, when inflected as verbs of the second class,
do not differ essentially from the paradigm, of verbs with
.
final 2. For example, A&ftV^ to assemble (transitive).
Preterite.
r?( Participle. v * <
It will be noticed that X is retained throughout, and that
the perfect participle and future feminine singular (in one
form) take as the second vowel.
92
Like bka&\ inflect ^t&do, a causative from ^aL> to know;
I " t. "ml " '
Aa>SD to make smooth ; t90 to pasture, from i*Xft to qraze ;
"i, ' , ' > r > ,. , y
and >fr>t*B to cause to plaster, from 3L*^>X to plaster.
HI l> I
The irregular verb 2a2 to curdle, of the first class, has for
* ''
its causative 2aji , and is thus inflected :
Present Participle. uM^O^O Preterite.
*
Perfect Participle. ." ', " [Future.
J
j
Imperative.
^4 ' *
So inflect ZBJia from IS- to 5a&e. The verb ^Mu to swear,
i' i i> t
besides the causative BOO , already noticed, sometimes
i 1 i
makes its causative in the same way. Thus we have
i
inflected like
t
The anomalous verb XJi9 to cause to come, to bring, which
*' ' '
is doubtless derived from the ancient 2Au&9 , may also be
classed here. As used on the plain of Oroomiah, it is thus
inflected :
i* Present Participle. 7 V > ; 1.0Jtt Preterite.
Perfect Participle. " ', " \Future.
, \ Imperative.
]
As used in Koordistan, its root is %*^9 , which is evi-
dently from the Afel form of the ancient verb (Hoff. 78, 3).
It is thus inflected :
J V Present Participle. uJt*lA0 Preterite.
)
to <3
Perfect Participle. " ', " \ Future.
* /
, ' " J > Imperative.
)
The irregular verb 2-*O to flame, has 2op^9 for its caus-
ative, and is thus, inflected:
Pres. Participle. CfrJ>Oi9 Preterite.
i i> i
^etiteVia)
: " A it. " f Future.
' r Imperative.
}
The irregular verb iiJJ to t^/sA, has 3Vafr9 for its caus-
ative.
;.OVO.aao Present Participle. ^^30^9 Preterite.
> H i
Perfect Participle. , "',."} Future.
1^*3*0 1X3
K i H '
I V Imperative.
4%* \
^
NOTE. The verb of existence \*} there is, \* there is not, is
i i
used in the Modern Syriac differently from the idiom of the Ancient.
It will be referred to again in the Syntax.
94
c3
^a
CJ
to
OJ
I- 3
^^H
fe f->
^ o 1
O b*-
3*1 V 7f . * *)
A <$ *5 d
O D ~<J J -O
n ~ >1
a a
a a
a
a a
.i;
*1
1 15
.1
\"^- \"^
^1 " " .3, ^
5 "A . *^ * A
a a
I 4 1 1 ^T d'
W.**tflr
51
,3
^ : $
,1 1 -^ t
-2 .H ^ ^ A
>4. *^* . "!> -sii
xv *^i *^
ci
95
I
S~
PH
-
\7f J
4.5
A
mm
\>* \ t
.n - fj
3
-
* >
t~4J-~2 14
Il-Vi.
J'J'J
vf * A -fc
-* \
ih
*A *
J
-"4 *
t .
<i> ' -
CM
S 1 -3 j^3 S-^'I I 3-3.3
i't^.iH-1 1-iJll
1 A J * *** * "** -^ "*
J
-
3
Pret
1
^
11 -B--X5--J
a -i .3
a n- 5
3
-K--^i- w a
a. Is
a a
97
PASSIVE VOICE.
The Passive Voice, especially as formed by the first method
given below, is very little used in the colloquial dialect of
the people of Oroomiah. This results probably from the
warmth of their feelings, which instinctively prefers a direct
mode of expression. Where we should say "You will be
delivered," they say "(Such a person) will deliver you;"
for "You will be beaten," we generally hear the expression
" They will beat you ;" and so in a great number of cases.
In the mountains, the passive voice is freely used in conver-
sation ; and, as it is employed also in our preaching and our
books, it is desirable to become well acquainted with it.
This is, however, an easy task.
There are three methods of indicating the passive voice,
which will be in turn considered.
Method 1st.
The passive voice of any verb may be formed by prefix-
ing to its perfect participle the inflections of the root *! ,
in its different moods and tenses. This root properly means
to remain; but, when thus employed as an auxiliary, it is
equivalent to the verb of existence. Let us take for exam-
ample the passive voice of X*sb to strike, the perfect parti-
ciple of which is V**** ^***^ a and the infinitive passive
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
I am struck
( m -) ^ ^ -^A^ ^!d We are
1st fern. etruck "
2nd masc. ,. f f
i***S9 . pri- ,1Xi>i9 2nd plural.
2nd fern.
3rd masc. , ? f
^fciix^O X^* ?*"** 3rd plural.
3rd fern.
13
98
"We have been accustomed to drop the S of the present
participle of this auxiliary.
Imperfect Tense.
I was struck
** We were
stnlrk
^ 2 d
"
3rd
,^x 3rd
*B fem<
Preterite Tense.
I was struck (m.> ^^ We were
1st fern.
2nd masc. , ...
Z** ^.%AVa,a 2nd plural.
2nd fern. '' "
3rd maso. , .
U-.S9 ^aikX^ 3rd plural.
3rd fern. " "
Sometimes woof is used as the auxiliary, and we have
' ''
, etc.
Perfect Tense.
I have been
struck (m.). , ^ *, ,^ We have
-iir ^f**T 7 ^T"^ been struck.
1st fern.
2nd masc. ,. ,
i**fc *0- 5-3U= 2nd plural.
2nd fem - "
3rd masc.
3rd plural.
3rd fem. " "
99
Pluperfect Tense.
I had been
1st fern. ' " _, r t , >
We had been struck.
'2nd mnsc.
2nd fem .
3rd masc.
3rd fem. ' " , ' ' ,
3rd plural.
Future Tense.
&i
In this tense either the future of the verb kXiS or the
future of the verb ioof may be employed. The significa-
tion in either case is nearly or quite the same.
8ha 1 11 , be
7 struck (m.). ^^^ 4k Vg We shall
1st fem. S " be struck -
2nd masc. ,, s
Z<M^9 ^lU&iB 1X3 2nd plural.
2nd fem. '' "
3rd masc. , .
i*-* Jt*Bl\a 3rd plural.
3rd fem. '' " '
//
In the same way inflect
NOTE. There may possibly be, at times, a difference in the significa-
tion of these futures, arising from the signification, on the one hand,
of kXi^ to remain, and, on the other, of %AC1 to become. Thus :
<3 he will be or continue in a state of holiness.
2OC7 \S he will become sanctified.
f
100
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Here either ^t*9 or ^0f maybe used, as in the future tense.
Thus we have, for the present, ZM*^B ^X*a or ?><"o ^ftCT ;
for the imperfect, V<*! ioc7 ^Ca or 3>**o iacf ^0f , in
a perfectly regular manner.
It is to be particularly observed that, where a verb is
used in both the first and second classes, with the same sig-
nification, the shade of meaning in the passive will de-
pend on which perfect participle is used in its formation.
To illustrate : JS*3 , as a verb of either the first or second
class, means to scatter seed, to sow. But >LdL**3 Z**^ means
it was sowed or scattered, as if by itself; while J-df OJ3 jjJt^
means it was sowed (by some individual). The signification
is sometimes, however, such that this distinction cannot be
kept up ; e. g. jiBuat^ ?Wfl and TJKXSn^ ;\ar he was
i i< a i ,' a
grieved or sorry, there being in neither case reference to the
agent causing the sorrow. JJMJLB 3AA^ and Z3k30>B JJ*X^
he was received, on the other hand, must both of them indi-
rectly refer to the agent.
Where the same word is used in both the first and second
classes, with different meanings, of course there is a similar
distinction in the passive ; as, Xl**^X ?S>.t.fl he was lost,
i I* "
he was destroyed,
NOTE. It has been sometimes supposed that J% >\*1 in the ex-
pression j\ *\*1 3 Vt *i , is a perfect participle. But as <hX9 is
of the second class, and such a participle does not belong to verbs of
the second class, this expression should be translated, not, he was
made blessed, but, he was a blessed individual, ?^ -Si*T being an
adjective.
NOTE 2. Sometimes the verb &T& is used as almost or quite
equivalent to the verb of existence, although the perfect participle of
101
* X * ^
another verb is not joined with it. Thus, 4&9 f&* IJLtS I have
^>u > // <
remained in doubt, or / aw in doubt, may be employed wherever
I*OL* A.O3 would be allowable, and vice versa,
v ^ ^S,
Method 2nd.
There is a curious form of the passive, in daily use among
the people, in which the verb /!$ to come is employed as
an auxiliary, and the infinitive active of another verb is
joined with it in a passive sense. We will take for illustra-
tion as before the root ?-M.*O to strike.
i'
i->*\ J3 I am struck.
I was being struck.
I was struck.
kdOu 3-*\^ I have been struck.
^ a i
I had been struck.
I shall be struck.
The subjunctive so much resembles the indicative, that it
need not be written out.
Sometimes this form, especially in Koordistan, is a pas-
$ $ i 4
sive of capability, as, for example, >LVfc\ 2x2 ^ if it can
be struck, i. e. if it come into the position in which it may be
struck. This is perhaps the primitive idea of this form.
There is, however, another mode in Oroomiah of expressing
the sentiment, viz. : Z**lso %A91 ^ , where >?*^3 is used as
I* "
we should use strikable in English, if such a word were
L.% $ 5
allowed. So JJ^PLX ix>07 ^ if it be takdble.
i< //
Method Brd.
4 ^, 5 .
Instead of the form i*So kA^ ^36*a , the perfect active
H ^ a i
is often used in a passive sense. For the preceding, we thus
s t
have ^Ou i**io I have been struck. The explanation of this
102
probably is that the perfect participle is passive, as well as
active, in its meaning, while ^oJ is merely a verb of exist-
ence, / am .... having been struck. The pluperfect active
is also frequently used in the same way for the pluperfect
passive ; thus, JjftOf ^A^ X***o may signify / had struck, or
I had been struck.
VEEBS WITH SUFFIXES.
Although the suffix-pronouns of the Modern Syriac are
few and simple, it requires much practice to use them readily
and accurately in conversation. It will be desirable there-
fore to examine the subject carefully.
The verbal suffixes do not diifer, except in one or two
instances, from those used for nouns and prepositions. A
list of them has been already given. It will now be shown
how these pronouns are suffixed to the verb in its different
inflections.
Root ^BJQ*3 to heal.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
^ A .ix^Ajial I ( m ) arn nea l"
ingthee(m.).
am heahn "
oJ nf*ftvn>,m > i \ M m healing
^r* a \ hi
m
him.
When the person speaking is a female, we have the same
forms as above, except that ^* is throughout substituted
for ^*.
j Thou (m.) art , , , ,,
3 1 t, i ^ 1 hou art heal-
,M Thou art heal-
I iner him, , , ,,
, mu. n_ iV* *' ..kLZ.MJ Thouartheal-
ing them.
103
' x
Here, as before, if the nominative be feminine, uILQu is to
be substituted for
MOJQia$ Heisheal-
, ,, ~l ing us.
/l
thee(rn.).
f is l^ al
thee(f.).
him. y
Heishealin S ^ ing them.
If the agent is a female, iifc- is to be substituted for
-7^7- -Jingthee(rn). , ^a^QMa\ We are
L .^.X K<4 ) We are heal- ^C , *~^ 5 healing you.
a }\ngtiiee(f.).
L jwiL ( We are heal-
ing him. ^_^ ^^m^^Weareheal-
ing them.
croJS903<
ing her.
&
*. .^^ Ij.j.i \
^r^T
$ L ,
^ , ng t hee (f.).
\ They are heal- * /. ' _. * ( They are heal-
j ing me> U
\They are heal-
f They are heal-
u ! ing them.
ing her.
One who has familiarized himself with the preceding suf-
fixes of the present tense, will have no difficulty in using
the suffixes with the imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, and
second future tenses. In every case the suffix is to be
joined with the participle, and not with the auxiliary. Take
.
104
* X X ' *
as examples XftCT (A- t*C70OOJQ&3 / was healing him,
he has healed you, OOCf
i . ' , . ' i i
had healed me, 97OJOJCDO3 iocT 113 Ae n7Z Acwe healed her.
Preterite Tense.
The regular preterite, >>V.'<T)O3 > since its appropriate
terminations so much resemble the suffix-pronouns, does
not admit of their use except in a single case. In the third
person singular masculine we may have cjXiflJBMkS he healed
him, Cf being substituted for the terminal 2.
When it is desirable to employ suffixes with the preterite,
the form ^OttoS ^3Ld is much used in Oroomiah. While
the suffixes of this tense are, in the main, like those of the
present, imperfect, pluperfect, and second future, it takes
in many cases a sliding letter S, and uses for the suffixes of
the third person singular Cf , and Cf * , and of the third per-
son plural ^ and J&O1 . The future tense follows this form
of the preterite in every respect, and so too those tenses of
the subjunctive which resemble the future in their form,
except that, where ^ACf is used, the pronoun is placed after
it, and always takes the sliding letter ^ .
i.) healed
* 1. thee (m.). _ _ * .^ -_ i ^ L , , , ,
^L^i ^Li.3^LJ^^^j ^^L^9 I npn Pn vmi
' ' T healed *^T ir T^ ^T
\ l
( tt
thee (f.).
^OJO I healed him. % ^4JttU(&3
I V I healed them
^3LD I healed her. i>lVfcfl>*1 *pJB ) (more rarely).
I II I
When the verb has a feminine nominative of the first
person singular, we have, instead of the preceding form,
etc.
efahet * A.\aB>3 /BLO (more rarely).
105
When the agent is a female, the form is *^ w
i
etc.
He healed me. A ^LttkS *Ld { He n h a ealed
^ i a i ' U8<
urf M.M terf M He healed
A9 XO j thee K) . , , , He healed
, ^ ^^ , ,
'
^OLO ) (mote rarely).
, * a i '
The form is the same as the preceding, when the nomina-
tive is the third person singular feminine, >1iftfi>3 being sub-
stituted for ^3Lft>3 . "When the verb ia in the plural, whether
it be of the first, second, or third person, its suffixes are
similar to those of the second and third persons singular ;
tit' V' ' * '
e. g. Oj^t ASOJB&3 '/BLO we healed him, |A ^feOJ&a ^BLO
' ^ Li ' f I ' ' '
ye healed us, nAJA M&&A9 *pLO they healed thee (f.).
Where ^ is employed as a connecting letter, the suffix is
generally written separately from the verb, though this is
not essential.
There is a very common form of the preterite, in which
the pronoun, instead of being suffixed, as in the preceding
examples, to the verb, is embraced within it, and precedes
the terminal letters. The perfect participle of any verb
being known, the pronoun is to be suffixed to this, after the
final 1* has been dropped, and the terminations , feOA,
ma>\ , etc., added to form the different persons. After i~
we have simply **, <p*, etc.
The pronouns are as follows, and are evidently fragments
of the separable personal pronouns.
4,7- me. &! us.
X thee (m).
Nf- thee(f.).
*-- her. .-- them.
The pronouns for the third person singular masculine
and the second person plural are wanting ; but this gives
VOL. V. 14
106
rise to no practical difficulty, as the idea may always be ex-
pressed by ^AlSaa *ftJB with the appropriate suffixes. From
Zd&AXxa, its termination being dropped, we have OJDO9.
Adding to this the pronoun of the first person, with the
terminations given above, we then have :
c Thou (m.) healedst
I me.
Thou (f.) healedst *
I me.
He healed me.
She healed me.
By a similar process, we have :
,*j Z\OJCDOb9 I healed thee (m.).
i n i
Z-^ \ZQJCO&3 He healed thee.
She healed thee.
I healed thee (f.).
\aamnol He healed thee.
i i
She healed thee.
I healed her.
1 Thou (m.) heal-
l edst her.
< Thou (f.) heal- *
c edst her.
He healed her.
She healed her.
I < Thou (m.) heal-
( edst us. L
I J Thou (f.) heal- *"
< edst us.
\ You healed
c me.
J They healed
( me.
$ We healed
I thee.
, They healed
thee.
X^UfflOJ \
Vi <
ftl He healed us.
^lftL" 1 ^^ She healed us.
We healed
her.
You healed
hen
*> I w. *<** ^ They healed
^^^Yt*^^*? ^ You healed
us>
They healed
US<
107
I healed them. (.S^aftffloa j We healed
^ i (. them.
o^auoo3 J Thou (m ') hea1 '
7""^ ( edst them.
?> n^fllCt) Q,3 He healed them.
JA J.^-. j They healed
T^.VfcOal She healed them. ' * them -
GENERAL REMARKS ON THE SUFFIXES OF VERBS.
It should be understood that all the suffixes given above
may be used in precisely the same manner with verbs of
both classes, whether regular or irregular. Some of these
forms, however, are not in universal use among the peo-
ple. For instance, in Tekhoma, instead of the expressions
s ' * ' * ' *
OfOOOJQk9, we hear
Nor do any verbs there admit of the
suffixes w#OfO and CfO . The form >VfcQ>*1 ^OLd is never used
i i ^ a i
in the interior districts of Koordistan. In its place we may
hear the form of the preterite last given, which includes
the pronoun within itself; or, in case the idea could not
be expressed by that, as " I healed you (pi.)," expressions
such as .^xdoJ^ >j>aai,iB)aa would take its place.
a i a i
There are other local peculiarities in the use of the suf-
fixes, such as t*OfoAv they saw; him, on which it is unne-
cessary to dwell. The usage in our books has of late years
been quite uniform. It may, however, be remarked that
the suffixes u^i, ^flA^, etc., are found much oftener in
the written than in the spoken Syriac of Oroomiah.
RELATION OF THE MODE'RN TO THE ANCIENT
VERB.
Before dismissing the Yerb, it will be interesting to refer
briefly to the structure of the verb in the ancient language,
and trace, if possible, some of the changes it has undergone.
108
And, first of all, it is obvious that regular verbs of three
radicals of the first class bear a strong analogy in form and
signification to the conjugation Peal. The imperative is in
both precisely the same, except that in the modern *^ is
almost universally added to the plural. We do, however,
j
hear in one district, Nochea, oA>S6fcX hear ye, OX come ye.
The perfect participle of the modern is also the same with
the passive participle of the ancient, except that it always
takes the termination 2', in accordance with the general usage
of the modern. Sometimes the ancient participle is used in
an active sense ; e. g. >J>*BLX , >J>*3? , etc. So, much oftener,
i 1*1
the modern. Sometimes the ancient participle unites both
significations in the same verb, as in the case of ,>>?.
i i
So ordinarily the modern.
It also seems easy to see how the modern infinitive is de-
rived from the ancient, viz. iSVyl1Y , ^ being substituted
for to, or, rather, to being dropped, the usual 2'being added,
and the -'-, as a necessary consequence, being changed into
-*-. We thus have ]S
As to the preterite, when we find opt 'pLfl in the ancient,
meaning "he rose to himself," i. e. he rose, who can doubt
that this is nothing more nor less than >lS>toLO ? So
in the ancient is equivalent to iAf 1 in the modern,
to 3\^a , ov^ tx to i^OX^ , and so on. Our mode,
however, of spelling the preterite, more correctly represents
the present pronunciation. In regard to the general idiom,
see Hoff. 123, 6, and Nordh. 868.
As to the future, it is very plainly derived from the pres-
ent participle of the ancient language. Any one who will
examine Hoff. 57, 2, and compare the forms there given
with the modern, will be satisfied at once. The present sub-
junctive has of course the same origin. No trace remains
of the ancient future.
109
As to the particle Via, prefixed to the future of all verbs,
it is barely possible that it is identical with ^, bidi, which
is employed in the same way in the Armenian verb. But
it is far more probable that it is a fragment of ka to wish.
In some parts of Koordistan the people use J^S for *ha ;
e. g. Bf a i^*3 I wish to sing, literally, that I may sing.
But in Tal we find a mode of speaking which seems to be
decisive as to the origin of A3 , and also goes to show that
it should have been written 9b9 . Thus :
I will sing (m.). ff , ,
*?**? ^a 1st plural.
1st fern.
2nd masc. . O A--CBJ3 4U^3 2nd pi. masc.
i f
2nd fern. f*A~*f t^A^ka 2nd. pi. fern.
^ i< / v ,
3rd masc.
3rd plural.
3rd fern. ' '
In the same way the verb to wish is used as an auxiliary in
Persian, in forming the future, as <Axi f?|>J>. In English also,
will and wish are in many cases identical ; e. g. What will
you ? which may mean what do you wish f So will in other
languages: vouloir, volo, fiovl.oiLa,i, which mean either to
will or to wish. Compare also the modern Greek future
Atkuj yq&wei, $t'Aw area, etc., / will write, I will be. So
< ' i
too, from the ancient ?0k**i9 we have the modern aa**!B ,
ii t a i
and from the ancient *A\>~.*tt , the modern tMMmio .
a i a i
As to the present participle, the question may fairly be
raised, whether the prefix a is not really a preposition, the
present participle being in fact a verbal noun. If this idea
be correct, ^Ou ^d'a^t may be literally translated / am in
(the act of) finishing ; ^oL* 3J^Z3 / am in (the act of) eating.
The verb ^j*^ to laugh, which uses both forms ,7 Tv..^ *1 and
?S>^*1 in the present, the latter being clearly a noun, seems
to throw light on this point.
110
On examining the second class of verbs of three radicals,
we see a resemblance to the conjugation Pael. Take, for
example, the verb <*X9 (modern <^3) to Uess. In the an-
.."'.' " '
cient, the imperative is ^9*3, and the plural <kA9b9 ; in the
modern, 4>9J9 , ^^axa . The infinitive in the ancient is
aaaa ; in the modern, 2-&69J9o or jLaoaJS, the first form
being no doubt the more ancient one. Here the resem-
blance in sound is very striking, arid a transposition of the
o will make the written forms not dissimilar.
As to the present participle, e. g. ZAO9J3UB , this may be
derived from the infinitive of Pael, and can be from nothing
else. It is therefore to be considered primitively an infini-
tive, though now used as a participle. The perfect participle
is evidently from the participle of Pael. Thus, the ancient
is &ab3 , ^aLaaa ; the modern, Z^bofco , 2^2ato .
ml mil m I m II I
e has been inserted here, but the sound is not materially
changed. The same remark applies to the preterite, which
has a derivation similar to that of the preterite of the first
* '
class. Compare the ancient ^ ^9*3 with the modern
* / " '
k*X^aaa . As to the future, a single remark may be made.
Since - - is the distinguishing vowel of Pael, it is not strange
that this should be often preferred to -*- in the modern.
And so we find it, e. g. Aa^ and many other verbs of
the second class. The -^ is also naturally preferred in the
present participle.
Verbs of the second class often bear the same relation to
verbs of the first class that Pael does to Peal, neuter verbs
of the first class becoming transitive in the second class, as
has been already shown (Hoff. 59).
The causative verbs, formed by prefixing 'so to the root,
are evidently connected, if not identical, with the participle
of Afel, or, if any one prefers, with the conjugation of Mafel.
Thus, from the ancient h&9t9 , we have JSaJtto ; and from
. * ' ."'
the modern i-flaJS, we have also uOjXiUD . So too, from an-
cient a<x**!, modern aa**0; from ancient lAXmJto, mod-
ern Av,m.*o .
Ill
While the signification of any particular verb in the an-
cient may not correspond to that of the same verb in the
modern, the general usage in regard to Afel and the modern
causative verb is the same. For instance, the Nestorians
sometimes simply change the intransitive into a transitive.
Thus, in the modern, from the intransitive f 5^3 to dry, we
' "
have f 9t3&9 to dry, i. e. to make dry. Sometimes they change
the transitive verb into a causative, with an accusative of
the person and another of the thing; thus, from *X2&
to put on (clothes), we have JC3LJ>^9 to cause to put on:
ZJtoX^c^ kXKkto put clothes upon him. Sometimes these
i 1 *i' . ,
forms are used in an intransitive sense, as J^a^tt to freeze,
unnoiafl to rest; which, though they admit of a causative sig-
nification, are oflener intransitive. Compare Hoff. 60.
"We see also in the Modern Syriac traces of several of the
rarer conjugations. For example, the reduplication of a
single letter of the root ; as A-xX, from JjkS,; iV^, >x<l , from
\x** ; tX.V\V , from kXSkii^ ; or the falling away of one
a a i n
radical, and the reduplication of the other two ; as (Palpel)
h0aJ99,from <JOi*; AxAi, from biX; or the addition
// i n n i n ,
of 1 to the root (in the ancient w*) ; as (Pali) ZSoaJ^ , from
tJx3: 2av, from 9X*; 2aAJ*, from >^ ; or the addi-
tion of ^to the root; as (Palen) Jxdd (ancient
, from >%; Op, from ep; or the prefixing
, it, a i i '
of X ; as (Shafel) AJ>*X , from >M*^ ; or the prefixing
of tt; as (Safel) ^sM^i from &* 5 ia-JO, probably
from ixau,; or the prefixing of X; as (Tafel) xiik,X, prob-
" m ' t , ' st 1 V^ " '
ably from !X3\, (aauXjClj) ; or, in a few cases, verbs of
five radicals from verbs of three radicals, as in Hebrew, bv
i J
reduplication; as *SM3, from
112
ARTICLE.
The Modern Syriac has properly no definite article ; but
the demonstrative pronouns OCf masc., *-Cf fern., and **2
comm. pi. are often used as we use the definite article in
English. It need hardly be remarked that this is also the
usage of the ancient language. Compare the Hebrew arti-
cle H , which is no doubt a fragment of the pronoun jtfiri
(Nordh. 648). Ordinary usage prefixes these pronouns to
the noun, and hardly admits of their following it.
The numeral JU masc., }$* * fern., is also employed as an
indefinite article, in accordance with early usage. Compare
the Chaldee ""Jin and the occasional use in Hebrew of IflX
On the plain of Oroomiah, %* is prefixed to nouns of both
genders.
NOUNS.
The Nestorians formerly made no distinction between
nouns and adjectives ; but, as there are many and obvious
reasons for treating them separately, the general practice of
grammarians will be followed.
GENDER.
The noun is of two genders, masculine and feminine, often
not distinguishable by their termination. Thus, ,7i^| a
miller is masculine, and 2gbX ^ e is feminine, though both
have the same termination %i . Only one rule of much im-
portance can be given for the gender of nouns as distinguish-
ed by their form, viz. that those which receive the ending ^X
are feminine. This rule is nearly or quite a universal one.
/ 55 I
3^*9 a house, ]$JLA& a fist, 2&*A death, and fa**lageMiny f
which are masculine, are not to be considered as exceptions j
for in these words X is a part of the root, and not of the
113
termination. The final syllable of the masculine noun is
often changed into 2^ , or more rarely Js- , to form the fem-
inine ; e. g. jaMut* a donkey, jXMflU* a she-donlcey ; %XDQJSD
a horse, j^XDOJD a mare; ?SVX a fox, ^*j*XX a she-fox,
' ' '?
etc. i/ftft** a serpent has for its feminine 5>OOa**, some-
what irregularly.
In a few nouns, the vowels are modified in the feminine ;
e. g. la&a a dog, ^3^A a bitch ; i^a a tooth, ^AA a
little tooth, as of a watch-wheel, etc.
Some nouns ending in 2 are feminine ; e. g. i**i$ a mill,
in a hen-house, iv* a kind of cradle, ?3O a manqer.
i' i> ..,,''' i' '
a recess, f9QUk a ford. Also the names of females, as
**'''* *
JAi , Zv , }* * > etc. This rule has frequent exceptions, and
is given with some little hesitation.
A separate word is also used in some cases for the femin-
ine ; e. g. 3 VI J a male sparrow, ^XXSkXD a female sparrow ;
j(D plural (m. and f.); i3^a a male wolf, 5&AO? a she-
wolf ; >*ft V., 13 a male cat, rC q a she-cat ; Uo^. a c?ra^e,
'' t* ' ^^T^ p ' | i
a duck,' .l*ft a maZe buffalo, 5^JtV^ a female buffalo.
Gender distinguished by signification. The names of males,
of nations, as Israel, Judah, etc., of rivers, mountains, and
months, of artizans, traders, and professional persons, are
masculine. So too, as in Hebrew, a multitude of material-
nouns, beginning with a*V^ a body, such as those denoting
gold, silver, copper, and all the metals, excepting lead ; wood,
stone (sometimes feminine), wool, flesh, grass, dirt, glass,
cotton, fire, lime, paper, spice, gall-nuts, copperas ; also
chair, table, book, lock, key, bread, etc.
On the other hand, all names of females, whether belong-
ing to the human race, or not ; relations of woman, such as
mother, wife, etc. ; the names of villages, cities, provinces,
countries, and islands, are feminine. The names of trees
VOL. V. 15
114
and fruits are partly masculine and partly feminine. Nouns
of capacity are generally feminine, but exceptions are not
infrequent. Abstract nouns are also in the majority of cases
feminine, beginning with 2-* Oft spirit, and take for the most
part their appropriate termination $N or ;A. When
an article has two sizes, if the word denoting the larger is
masculine, that denoting the smaller or inferior is naturally
feminine ; e. g. the earthen vessels denoted respectively by
and ?VOft.u ; lloAx and
v *
^X ; the copper vessels K-*X and T
' s .*'*'
box, and JVlAfl a little box, etc. ivOJO and ^j>AJCP are
both feminine, but the latter does not necessarily denote a
small knife. The rule has, however, probably exceptions.
The rule in Hebrew that "members of the body by na-
ture double are feminine," has in Modern Syriac some ex-
ceptions, although the words used to express elbow, knee,
heel, ear, hand, foot, thigh, shoulder-blade, eye, cheek, etc.,
are evidence oi its existence.
Some nouns are used by the people of one district as mas-
culine, and by those of another as feminine: as iocf the air,
or the weather. In the plural, there is generally no distinc-
tion of genders.
The above rules and suggestions may be of some use to
the learner, and are the result, however unsatisfactory they
may be, of full and careful investigation. But it should be
understood that no foreigner can speak the language cor-
rectly, without a thorough study of the subject for himself.
NUMBER.
There are two numbers, as in English, the singular and
the plural. The plural, in the case of most nouns, is
formed by changing -^, which is ordinarily the vowel of
the last syllable, into , as iSfliKD a part, iiflUCD parts, and
placing over the word the two square dots now called 7 < n*.CP ,
but in the ancient language oftener hOt93 . In a similar
115
way, many nouns which do not in the singular terminate in
2 form their plural by adding 2 ; e. g. IXM9 a people, plu-
i ' * ** * "
ral 5&J*^> . These nouns are mostly of foreign origin.
Nouns ending in 2x form their plurals by changing that
termination into 2X- , and more rarely into 2XO or 2XX .
,i , J , ,i ,i
Thus, 5^0^^ fruit, V*AOV\, fruits; 3fr*^s caw,
2X*SJk Si '<//'.- / 2XA/P a lip, 2XO>SJD lips ; 2XA.3 a woman,
2XXJX9 women. In some cases, where the plural is formed
''"'.*
by adding 2XO , the original X. is retained, and especially
if it forms a part of the root. "We thus have, from ^3 a
face, 3sJauC\S , and not 2XA^ ; from V*-* a house, J^bVCs ;
' '- '* *'', ' >' '
from ib** a sister, 2XJaX*. Yet, in vulgar usage, X is
sometimes dropped from ^jaX0 ; the plural of IteQ a vil-
lage. 2xaa a yard, forms its plural irregularly, thus, 2X33 .
So 5^A a bride, 2&A ; ^JL& a week, 16OLS. 2X9bA a
burden, 2Xxa . 2&A an ear retains the X, and has for its
plural 5&""* The class forming the plural in 2X^ is very
numerous, and comprises the greater part of the feminine
nouns in 2x , and perhaps all in }jjjft . ^jftftoV*) testimony
has generally 2XA30VB , but admits a regular plural.
In Koordistan, the plural termination of nouns of which
the singular ends in 2X is ^5** , J^JB , or 2XX , in accordance
with the usage of the ancient language. We thus have
JMu,, -*3X.> etc.
The plural termination V* i g by no means confined to nouns
of which the singular ends in 2X . If a word terminate in
2 5 the 2 may be dropped and V* added ; e. g. 2& a heart,
2XOJI& : 230fA CL river, /nAdOfJk- If the word terminate
,i a i i> i
in 2 ( , the 2 is dropped as before, and is changed into ^- ;
116
e. g. 2ao2 a manger, /Snjaio2; JJ&QJCQ a horse, ^AUDQJtD .
A a recess has either 2XOOA or 2XAA . If the word
terminate in a consonant, this takes , and then the term-
ination is added ; e. g. AttX, a pool, fc.xiAftlV. ; Jk'V.mV an
t $ 2 ' '* ^_ ' IA ^
army, tefVV^fi*^ . But it is to be noted that *\A3-X a
* * * I s
mercy does not take this -?-, but makes its plural %jB&dJL& .
, i
A very prevalent, but vulgar, pronunciation of plurals in
iX* , 2XO, or 2XX, is to change the sound of 2X final into
that of long e. Thus, the plural of 3JPOJD is pronounced
P * * *' '
soosawae; of >b^9, mawae, etc.
A class of nouns by no means inconsiderable form the
plural by changing the final 2 ' of the singular into 2x'; e. g.
cloud, /nJbuX .
Another class change the singular termination 2' into !';
or, in case the singular does not end in 2 ', add i* to it.
Examples of the first are }jBL< a field. ,7i^kdu ; Jlot-* a
..'' . v' '' ' * .."
vision, Jib V : of the other, ^^Oo rea^ estate, JAaAa^Q ;
I* II if I * H
Still another small class is characterized by the doubling
in the plural of the consonant which precedes the final 2 ;
e. g. ,lSft^t a skirt, ?iS>Sa^,t ; 10o a nostril, jH.Dft^ ;
U l> H
Some few nouns are reducible to no rule ; e. g.
' * ' *
a daughter, j^3 ; >b^X a year, Jii ; ZlO9t9 a sor> r
i' ,i f H i f
an egg, }SJ3; 2'aJjX a husband, ZiX*aV. or 2aJtV,;
H . / |< i 1
* # *
a c%, j&ii >^Q ; 2XX^ a church, 2X!kX . Some
' . * ' * .* f
have Turkish plurals, with the Syriac termination added ;
e. g. 2&X an island, 2aiu&X. So sometimes iikj a master,
117
Some nouns have two or three plurals ; as, 3&^&0 a verb,
; Zioo- a c/ay, 200* , ivia~ , ^OObi .
It is noticeable, in regard to a number of these, that the sig-
nification changes with the form of the plural ; e. g. 5^*avX
.. ' . i mm I . ' ' '
a grape, iXiX grapes (by the quantity), %& M\ ^ individual
grapes ; fet^yi* a grain of wheat, l\j*t wheat (by the quan-
tity), !b'^y -- grains of wheat. So JjjJkO^ a shoe, i-^O^,
a bead, 2 !XlflL< , fcLakSau* ; %i>^X"> a boot,
,' II l> H t I It,
5^>*? a grain, U"? , ^ISaaa .
|' It, l> I It, HI l> l> II I
Some nouns are used only in the plural ; e. g. 3^9 water,
*'**> '
Z** life, /Ifrfc^a mercy, etc. Some, such as names of metals,
i> i i* i
do not admit of any plural.
The plurals of most nouns must be learned by practice,
as, with the exception of those in fejft , no certain rule can
be given for ascertaining what form the plural assumes.
The design has been in the preceding examples to give the
plurals in most common use ; but, as every native we con-
sult thinks, of course, the custom in his own village is the
prevalent one, it is difficult to arrive at certainty. In this,
and a great number of other cases, the forty pupils of our
Seminary, who are from places widely separated from each
other, have been questioned.
CASE. CONSTRUCT AND EMPHATIC STATE.
The termination of most nouns is not affected by a change
of case. Their different relations are generally expressed
by prepositions, as in English and many other languages.
The construct state, a remnant of the ancient language,
is also found in the Modern Syriac. Some forms, as, for
* /
instance, u09O2 uAS the sons, i. e. people, of Oroomiah, are
' ' if
in constant use. So, too, with the nouns ending in ii ,
in certain districts ; e. g. ZaflU>\ ^>TL a baker of bread, for
jj.j '
ZviA . Moreover, to a limited extent, the first
118
noun changes final 2 into * when in the construct
' * v_'
state. We thus have ^&9 JrUUS the bow of our Lord, the
' * * '* "v_ *
rainbow, for >^o? 5&* ; ^*X ** the ear of a goat, for
$ 1 $ ' " HI
2*X3 5^4 . The ideas also conveyed by a large number of
our adjectives are expressed by 2aa , in the construct state,
prefixed to a noun. Thus, 2'x*s 2ab lord 1 or possessor of
usefulness; faj&A^S* 2a9 lord of wonder, i. e. wonderful;
f m Z * !*% I*
7\fty, 2aJab lord of price, or valuabk. Compare the usage of
Anc. Syriac with 2 3J , A^3 , etc. 2aib is sometimes omit-
ted; e.g. iiL* 2^yaf XLao2 $e road w (lord of) fear;
$ Z * '
1** .7m>^, 2o?2 <Ais ts (fore? c/) price, i. e. dear.
As the emphatic state in Anc. Syriac gradually lost its
significance (Hoff. 109, 2), so in the Modern it has disap-
peared altogether ; or, rather, most nouns derived from the
Ancient have assumed the emphatic form as their only form,
thus virtually annihilating it. Thus, we have now only
i'iaf , k.OA-S.ao , etc. So, too, the plurals l&f and ^.OA.Vx) ,
* ' * * * ' ' ' '
the latter being in Koordistan feuxaAaa .
DERIVATION OF NOUNS.
The great majority of purely Syriac nouns in the modern
language are derived from the ancient form of the verb, and
have continued in use from early times, without any material
change. Such cases as the modern 2J>fx for the ancient
>LAf9J^, need no explanation. As this subject of deriva-
tion has been fully discussed by Hoffman, 87, 88, it will
be sumcient, here, to speak of it as affecting directly the
signification of nouns.
Derivation from Nouns and Adjectives.
1. Patrial Nouns. These are formed from names of dis-
tricts, countries, etc., by changing the termination into jli
or "]L ' ; or, in case the word ends in a consonant, by adding
119
one of these terminations ; Zli is the most common of them.
Examples are Juab,i^, an inhabitant of Grawar, from aftXj
ZkiioflkX an inhabitant ofTekhoma, from JloOu**X; Xti/BCO
' * *lf *4 ' '
a Russian, from JOOd ; X*^*^ an inhabitant of Tiary, from
latJy ; J-bgkiCf a Hindoo, from ftACf , or, better, the ancient
oaacf. See the same mode of formation in the ancient
language (Hoff. 89, 2).
2. Diminutive Nouns. These are formed by changing the
termination of the noun into i*o , as in the ancient language.
Thus, from 2-** a boy, we have feOA.* a little boy ; from JLX0
a priest, XiOJLB (a term of some disrespect) a priestling ;
from iSJCt) a?^ oZa 7 man, ViOACD a grandfather (literally, a lit-
* ft * ',!*'*
tie old man) ; from JA3 a father, Z&OA3 a little father. So
a fo'WZe swfer, 5^AO*Va3 a ZiwZe wi/e. iiOu<*2 and
, which in Anc. Syriac denote, respectively, a Zi^fe
brother, and a Z/^Ze son, have now lost their signification, and
are the most common terms for brother and son. The di-
minutive terminations JXBO , MOJDO , 2&&&O , seem now to
/ ii it
have become obsolete.
3. Abstract Nouns. These are formed in a great number
of cases from concrete nouns by changing the termination
into Jjjjft ; e. g. from 230J0 a witness, J^jftloJ/D testimony
an artificer, ^ftfkSjft/DOl mechanical skill ; from
', I '
a physician, J^AMuAOf s/a7Z m medicine, or the prac-
tice of medicine. Sometimes the termination is changed into
55flb* , or, where the word ends in a consonant, this is added.
Thus, from ^&&& an enemy, ^A*iiflkift enmity; from 2o4U
a relative, 2*Ou&JL relationship. ibaoJS forms its deriva-
' " . ' .'
tive in correspondence with P 13 ^* v i z -
x
120
NOTE. Sometimes these abstracts are derived from other parts of
' ?
speech ; e. g. from %SOA how much, fe <Vfraa ; from
opposite,
This general mode of deriving abstract nouns is probably
admissible in a much greater number of words in the Mod-
ern than in the Ancient Syriac, and is of great value for the
introduction of new terms.
In a very few cases, nouns of this termination are not
abstract. Thus, 5^AiJ* a loom. Compare the same word
in the ancient language, denoting a shop.
Adjectives are changed in a similar manner into abstract
nouns. Thus, from lAQA^great, we have xgMlQu^greatness ;
from 2999 courageous, ^A39t^B courage; from >bo3 high,
^dfrSoa hti'jhi, etc.
Verbal Nouns.
A noun expressing the agent is in many cases formed
from regular verbs of three radicals, whether of the first or
second class, transitive or intransitive, by giving the first
radical , or -'- when the root has -'- and adding J* * for
the termination. Take, for example, the transitive verb
httaa of the first class, meaning, to hold. From this we
have ZiA3i a holder, or one who holds. Take the transi-
tive verb *35J^ of the second class, denoting to tempt. By
" * * * 4*
the same mode of formation we have IvaaJk. a tempter.
T
When the verb is not transitive, the derived word partakes
rather of the nature of an adjective than of a noun ; e; g. from
9^.3 to be or become lean, we have M 3*^51 apt to become lean.
From 4^0? to sleep, comes 3v*V*oa one who sleeps. This may
^>i/ *
be used in construction with or without a noun ; e. g.
3i V"*f X**2 X sleeping man! or, without a noun to
* ' 4* * * * t
agree with it, 29AO <XX^ 7 1 Vlfla a sleeper in the grave.
121
When a noun is derived from a verb used in both the first
and second classes with different significations, the connec-
tion only can determine the meaning of the derivative. Thus,
***, when conjugated according to the first class, means
to squeeze, to escape ; and according to the second class, to save.
The derivative JA^JW* may mean either a squeezer, one who
escapes, or a deliverer.
In the ancient language, derivatives of this form and
* * *
termination have often an abstract signification, as M9t92
destruction; but this is rarely, if ever, the case in the modern.
Zi-a^X, from 2&X to rain, is, however, sometimes used as
equivalent to 2aJ^bo ram; e. g. &* 2cTl X*2 Z'i-x^. Z'aa
there is much rain this year. There may be other examples
of this kind.
When the verb is not a regular one, the derivative is in
some cases slightly different from the forms given above.
In verbs with medial I or .> , as Jti , we have * for the
second radical, and the derived noun is Z*JL* . a2a has
* * $ "*
Xa2 in Koordistan. In verbs with medial X , the deriva-
tive may be either regular, as Ziu^, from ^^\, or irreg-
ular, as %'u*Sq . In verbs with final 2 , - takes the place
of 2, and the derivative is the same in form, whether the
verb be of the first or of the second class. Thus from 2aa we
have &**?, and from l^JS), second class, Zl*Axo. Verbs
with final X are generally regular in forming the derivative,
when of the first class ; but when of the second class, as
.1
hS.^0^ to assemble, the derivative retains the . We thus
" '* ', * *' . t',
have ZuVaaV.. The derivative of the irregular verb 7^V
( n, ',','*',
or Xft^Vy may be regular, but as spoken is ?i>VftS^,.
and similar verbs are very regular; e. g. Zi*ttBC7.
and verbs which are inflected like it take - ; e. g.
i
. 16
122
& ; Ic&ao makes &0t*> , J-b makes
(' i i ,' i i
makes ioiao , t&flbo makes ZJXdba.
HI II I II I II I
It should be mentioned that these nouns, nearly or quite
all, form a feminine in 2x ; e. g. iL*xd , fea.>XB . The dis-
tinction may be kept up in the plural. For instance, ZsJSLb
males who read, V^aLD females who read. But this is not
the common usage.
Care must be taken not to confound &M>V a worker,
with ZW>>4 work ; JaaJSLJ^ o??e w/io commands, with Zi
a commandment; ^kd.V.S owe w;7io saves, with Xi3O salva-
5 % 4 ' <j 4. ' 2 ^
^b?j; ZiAV a learner, with Zva^CL learning ; M^JJL* a
burner, or one w/*o burns, with JAXflL y^eZ, etc.
The noun expressing the agent is occasionally formed by
giving -^- to each radical and adding a terminal 2 . Thus,
from 90f to sing, is formed 2aJf a singer; from t^a^X. to
i"
orazo 7 , ? \\!V\, a braider ; from ?e fo reap, 2?^-* a reaper;
from 9b^u* to ^, 2aJ3u* a digger. These nouns do not al-
low -',- with their first radical, as sometimes in the Ancient
Syriac (Hoff. 87, 11). They differ from those terminating
in i*' by denoting the habitual action or condition of the
agent. Thus AMk&o^ may mean, simply, one who sings on a
particular occasion ; while 290f denotes one who makes
singing to some extent his business. Many verbs allow
either form of derivative.
Sometimes the noun denoting the agent is formed by in-
serting o between the second and third radicals, and giving
the first and last radicals -^-, with a terminal 2 . Thus we
have, from iSiV^H to kill, ,7 \ft\yl1 a murderer ; KiftVy^ a
slapjack, from "*\>^ to be broad; XO*9^ a saviour, from
Xa to save; ZAOXd a crower, a cock, from 2x0 to call.
128
No one verb, so far as recollected, admits of both the
forms last given, although we find in Anc. Syriac 2'SkSbf and
laoJMf . This indeed is unnecessary, as, if both forms ex-
isted, each would be the synonym of the other.
These two kinds of derivatives in the modern language
never have an abstract signification, and Hoffman, 87, 12,
probably is mistaken in saying that they have in the ancient,
quoting TOAQX^ , etc., in proof of it We, however, translate
htOrOpoS? by CJOOjft^l in Acts 7 : 10, as there is here
little, if any, practical difference between distressers and dis-
tresses. The form with O does not, in the modern, take -f-
with its first radical ; nor is there any such distinction as in
the ancient between 2aoA a father, and 2aOu>>* a child.
Following the general analogy of the ancient language
(Hoff. 87, 3), the modern forms many abstracts, from regu-
lar verbs of the first class, by giving the second radical -?-
and adding 2 ' for the masculine and 2X for the feminine
termination. Thus, from AJ to split, we have XASLa ,
2^A&d splitting; from >0jM^ to cut > 2-*>*^> 5s^^ cutting ;
from UJQ> to plunder, JLSUJPO, fcJUJJCD , plundering. Some
verbs use either of these forms indifferently; as XflJtX,
3$JUtX perishing, destruction, from wtJL^X to perish; but one
or the other is generally preferred. Thus, from *&iJ4 to
fight, we have i*J fighting, but very rarely 2x*Jk ; from
abSlXt to marry, 2'aJsX. marrying, but not so often 2KadlV h .
It is to be noted that, while the signification of the mascu-
line and feminine forms, standing by themselves, is nearly or
quite the same, their construction with other words is some-
what different. Thus, 2?&L 2& Xd and i*a 3^*VX la
convey the same idea, viz., for drinking water ; and yet
J-Tli and 3^"*"* cannot be interchanged in these expres-
sions without doing violence to the idiom of the language.
124
In all cases the masculine form is the same with the infin-
itive after it has lost its prefix. Thus we have, from AJ.*
to learn, ZAiA ; from >Vfrai3C to hear, Z^aoCC, , etc. A care-
ful examination of the various uses of this derivative, which
will be explained in the Syntax, leads us to suppose that it
is properly the infinitive itself.
NOTE. This form is evidently traceable to the ancient infinitive.
Schultens and some other grammarians speak of the ancient infinitive
as taking this form (Hoff., p. 172, foot-note 2), which, if true, may
throw light on the question. Moreover, this form is used in trans-
lating such expressions as VljAa >VSaa (modern >u^a ?\A* ),
V i "'."..'" . "
where >i>*ift> is of course the infinitive. The infinitive is used in a
i it
way similar to the so-called verbal nouns in Turkish and Persian,
which languages may be supposed to have exerted some, though
perhaps slight, influence in moulding the Modern Syriac verb ; e. g.
^bA2 UMMA&2 for drinking (Turkish) ; ^S $ t^-} f or doing
business (Persian). This will be farther discussed in the Syntax.
From verbs of the second class, an abstract noun is formed,
which, when regular, takes -- (or -)- when the root has -J-)
on the first radical, and -7- on the second radical (unless * fol-
lows, when the vowel is -^-), with the termination 2x . The
derivative is of course feminine ; e. g. from tfl^X to de-
J A I tf
stroy is formed feBL^X the act of destroying ; while, as above,
fejJU^X , from bBL^X to perish, signifies the consequences of
the act, i. e. destruction. From wOxS to save, to complete, is
formed 2Nflx3 the act of completing or saving ; while
from JBlxS to finish, denotes simply the end. From
we have ^0fttt07 ; from 2iPXH , 2^axa ; from
,
from %&JD , ^*SJD ; from iV^fti^ to assemble (tr.Y
|i a IT,
; from la^e, Js-a^i); froini-^9, 3^i ; from
f I I I 1 I I
s-CJJ^a . iJ3o5-* also, in this, conforms to verbs
' ' ' "
of the second class, and makes
125
NOUNS FBOM FOREIGN LANGUAGES.
So many words have been introduced into Modern Syriac
from the Turkish and Persian, the latter being often intro-
duced through the Koordish, that at least an allusion should
be made to them. Among these are nouns with the Turk-
ish termination *A ( ^Y denoting the agent or worker; e.g.
* '**-*' m'*. t I
t*A3O99 a blacksmith, from ftOma iron; uhba&9 a shoe-
1 * f I ',m ', ' * ' ', ',
maker, from hftitaXSI a shoe; n>^3Jk a mediator, from i!XX
, 1 1. i
an interval; n>*X >O>!kft a combatant, from wQtXA a contest.
* * ' * * .. ' ' *
So, too, with the Persian termination a^ ( .IJsT) ; e. g. 9J
x- > '"*''<
a/i artificer, from d2\JQDO2 a master workman; Bb^>3
$ $ ' * * i
e'fewi, from Z3OX repentance ; ObdoUOJ^ a criminal, from U^
a crime. Both these classes are employed as if genuine
Syriac nouns, and may form abstracts in 5^B . Thus, we
have 2^0u&ao9& the business of a blacksmith ; fe.Oxa>3OX
repentance, etc.
We find also occasionally the Persian termination M ( b),
denoting the keeper or possessor ; e. g. abj.i*U a treasurer,
from JiiU* or ji-*-* treasure; a*Xj,dL^ a mse maw, from
V * '. '*'.'* " .'
>xflLX wisdom ; a%tea>i> a merciful man, from ^ixa mercy.
As in Persian and Turkish, the termination *^UC9 ((jbOw)
signifies joZace. Thus, % ^Lttd(9& Arabia; ^^UCDOaaof India;
* 4. ' 4 " i * a
^Cft^iTb.S Europe, or the place of the Franks.
So too we find the Persian termination \a ( n b), signify-
* i* S * ' ', $ I
mg a vessel; as ^'XSWD a pen-case, *fr+& a tea-pot, ?Xoc%O
'*
a coffee-pot, etc.
There are other terminations more rarely heard, as in
9kX.3f a goldsmith; S^iiOiSAoi a nc/i man; ^31^.3 a garden-
'L , i ' ' , * *" i
er ; a^X (Turkish) a native, from
Perhaps it is not strange that in some instances the pre-
ceding terminations should be connected with purely Syriac
126
words, as they are sufficiently numerous in the spoken lan-
guage to create a habit of annexing them without discrim-
ination. The following is an example : u'WuiV a miller,
* * 4* ' *
instead of >v**Jy .
The Persian words b not, and _j without, when prefixed
to nouns and adjectives derived from that language, retain
<
their original signification; e.g. JCdOn* M not well, unwell;
SO? J3 boundless.
i i'
NOTE 1. It will be seen that, in some of the preceding termina-
tions, 2 has been dropped, as not being sounded in Syriac. ^ has
also generally been written i3 rather than **3 .
J i
NOTE 2. While many words taken from the Persian, Turkish,
and perhaps other languages, have been barbarously mangled, some
changes are made in them in accordance with the genius of the
Syriac. Such are : 1st. The lengthening of the penult, which has
' i *
always the accent ; e. g. \^ML& grace, Syriac friBUaLX . 2nd. The
adding of 2 as a termination ; e. g. ^vStX a picture, from the Per-
sian JjCii . 3rd. The euphonic changes of a vowel in consequence
of this termination ; e. g. jA\JQSk3 a melon- field, instead of ,j\JtD<X3 .
4th. The substitution of ^ for the f- sound wherever it occurs.
NOTE 3. Notwithstanding the multitude of foreign v/ords intro-
duced into Modern Syriac (of which many more are nouns than
verbs, as is the case in the ancient language, and as we should
naturally expect), it is worthy of remark that the language has pre-
served in a good degree its identity, and its own grammatical struc-
ture. There are indeed cases where, for instance, the Turkish per-
fect participle is dragged bodily into a Syriac sentence. Thus,
2JkOC7 tXJO^ft^ he became injured. So, too, the Persian vi>w*o6
,i ,i i V _ //
there is not, which the Nestorians use to express annihilation ; e. g.
JL^OC? &J&*1 he became annihilated, or he vanished. These liber-
,i , /
ties, however, are not very common ; and it may safely be affirmed
that the Modem Syriac has in this respect fared better than the An-
cient did at one period, from the influx of Greek idioms. We never
find such a mingling of languages, to take an example from Sir
William Jones, as " The true lex is recta ratio, conformable naturae,
which, by commanding, vocet ad officium, by forbidding, a fraude
deterreat."
127
NOTE 4. We have been obliged to introduce a number of words
from the English. We, however, first draw on the Modern Syriac,
so far as in the current meaning of its words, or by accommodation,
it will serve our purpose. In case we meet with difficulty there, we
go to the Ancient, which has been very useful in furnishing us with
scientific and other terms ; next, to the Persian or Turkish, the
former having the preference, as being by far the more cultivated of
the two ; and, last of all, to our own language. If this is not always
the rule, it always ought to be.
COMPOSITION OF NOUNS.
The Modern Syriac, like the Ancient and the Hebrew,
does not favonthe extensive use of compound words. The
influence which the study of the Greek by the Nestorians
had on their language has long since passed away; and
though some of the compounds formed in imitation of the
Greek are still retained, there is no tendency to increase the
number. As examples of the compound nouns now in use
may be mentioned, 3 VhAsaaA^ ivory; Z&LdXixa an echo, lit-
erally the daughter of the voice ; /L^a^dC&J a thimble, literally
the daughter of 'the finger ; &&>&& black-faced, i.e. guilty;
3j^SaQb* white-faced, i. e. innocent. Compound nouns and
adjectives have also been introduced somewhat from other
i m m < > I , I
languages ; e. g. ^&3X9 bad color; 907&JD a boundary; and
a cellar; all of which are from the Persian.
ADJECTIVES.
Adjectives undergo a change of termination, correspond-
ing with, the change of gender and number.
GENDEE.
Adjectives which are purely Syriac, and indeed nearly all
which end in 2', form the feminine singular by changing this
termination into 2X ; e. g. 2 SwA* beautiful, the feminine of
which is IxSufLs, ; 2 a 0X9 small, feminine
128
A few adjectives ending in 2' form their feminine by
changing 2 ' into 2 ( . Thus, we have 2'xi , feminine
blind, feminine 29Od ; j^kiA dumb, feminine
bold, feminine 290 ; Z*CL~f energetic, fern.
( i i i i
See what is said of )La{ , etc., where the gender of nouns
is treated of.
The masculine and feminine plural are the same.
NUMBER.
The plural of adjectives is generally formed, like that of
regular nouns, by changing the vowel of the last syllable
into , and writing the two dots called s'amee above the
word.
There are some adjectives which do not admit of varia-
tion, either as regards gender or number; such as uuJ-
L* *' * 4 * '
good, *V&33 late, f Ol straight, AVo necessary or proper,
t t f/7,
etc. These are usually borrowed from other languages, and
do not end in 2 '.
CASE.
Adjectives in Modern Syriac undergo no change of case.
COM P ARISON.
Adjectives are not compared by a change of termination,
as in English, Persian, and many other languages. To ex-
press in Modern Syriac the idea: "This is larger than that,"
4. s ^ m A. * # ^
we use the phrase iX* IsPJ^OCfa ^0 2of2 this from that is
great. " That is smaller than this," is expressed by the words
Z^- IftOX f 2cua k!D OOf, the literal translation of which is
.
that from this is small; ^p being used like than in English,
as in other Shemitish languages.
A comparison is also frequently made by prefixing X3
or JLOb3 to the adjective, when the idea is that of excess; as
* 4* * t *
>7.\>iM it ft,*1 2*2 / am stronger than thou. So
129
r and a-X* in Anc. Syr., and Tn*1 n rarely in Hebrew.
The superlative degree is expressed in several different
methods :
1. By the article prefixed, when the connection shows
what is intended. Thus, in speaking of a family, we may
4 * ''* ' *
say i*--* OC7 larOtXf OC7 he is the small one. i. e. the small-
i
est. Compare the Hebrew (Nordh. 790). In the Ancient
Syriac, even the article or pronoun may be dispensed with.
See 1 Sam. 16 : 11, Gen. 42 : 13. So also rarely in the Mod-
ern, as Matt. 22 : 36.
2. By the use of kJA , M&* , or t*&^9 ; e. g. oof u&A ^a
>Likrf M*S he is the best of them, literally, from all of them he
is good. So for uAA we may substitute kA , or for *AA ^0 ,
5 L s ^ 5 *
\**! ; e. g. Z>N* uutdp OOf t*V& from them he id good. This,
it will be seen, is properly the comparative form. See an-
cient usage in Matt. 13 : 32.
8. The superlative is sometimes formed, as in the cognate
languages, when a word is repeated and put into what we
. >
may call the genitive plural ; e. g. ixsod iXoxtf Holy of
i i m ,i >' ' f .f , , . f ,
holies; 2*dftX i*MX heaven of heavens; ^OkV.AA ^XjA (anc.
M / i i i i
servant of servants; ? S> V'na ?!%!>*> (ancient
,. i * i ^
) King of kings.
4. A kind of superlative is formed by adding ^DLA or iaa>
* ' * ' '* *i "*
to the positive ; e. g. ZJ3U? "jata or tOLft 23 a very minute.
t //T, 9
Sometimes both are used together, to increase the intensity ;
$ t $ m$
e. g. XflL** Z2fi ^BLA exceedingly minute.
BEBIVATION OF ADJBG'TIVES.
1. Adjectives are formed by changing the final 2 'of nouns
into M', or, when they do not end in 2', by adding J* ;
* * ' j* ' '' * ', mm
e. g. iiaoWl bright, from 2.&CJ3 light; ZuiO watery, from Z*!&
* 4. 2 ' ' 45 * ' ^2 t * t '
poiverful, from JJk* power ; Zv9df might//,
17
130
from 3? might; Uf ok cfasfy, from fok cfosi!. This class
of adjectives is very numerous.
2. They are formed by changing the termination 2 into
2 or Zi ; e. g. from iv*X peace, ltl+3. peaceful; from ^>T
heaven, *&*&X& heavenly ; from ^Xd2 earfA, ?>l\a2 earthly.
3. They are formed by changing the termination of
adjectives into i'*i. Thus, from XdOkifltKD rec?, we have
from iSDOA ifacfr, ?ii*na^ blackish.
4. Diminutives, which are often terms of endearment, are
formed from adjectives in the same way as from nouns; e. g.
ZioaoXf , from 2aoXf small; MOaAx, used as a noun,
' ',m -4 * ' " '
/Me beauty, from 2au>3JC beautiful; JAOudL .a , from WX-?
minute, etc.
5. A great number of perfect participles, belonging to
intransitive verbs of the first class, are used as adjectives in
both genders and numbers : ?JteuSVcD decayed, from
to decay ; ^>VVP s<r&, from iXaibO to sicken, be sick ;
//,, , //
;, stubborn, from iXd to ie fAzcA:, stubborn ; i*A >wre, from
54 'i *
to Z>e or become pure ; %t\** sweet, from Jj>^ to ie or
become sweet. So is it in Anc. Syr. to a more limited extent
(Hoff.87, 10).
Sometimes the adjective is distinguished from the partici-
ple by taking - over its first radical ; e. g. 2 9b*^9 lean,
from a>^3 to be or become lean ; while the participle is 29w>^9 ;
?ifrffc>fl>'a pleasant, from frlflttJ to be pleasing to ; the parti-
ciple is ,lat>>ftL3 ; 2JX*aa>' soft, from ^2& to be or become soft;
participle ?aaa ; 7V\S idk or vain, from ^ V^ to ^ e
or become idle or vain; participle ?T>y,i*1. Compare, in
Anc. Syr., 2-M*^a and
131
In both these classes of verbal adjectives, the signification
sometimes differs from that of the root ; e. g. l^>a , which
$
often means slow, from MA& to rest, be quiet.
H
6. Adjectives denoting quality are formed from verbs,
just as one class of nouns denoting the agent, by inserting
o between the second and third radicals and giving to
the first and last ; e. g. iSaXi* apt to learn, from A^J to
,t > mi 4. '* * ' * "
learn; JVyft * sioijt, from >\ a to run ; J3Oxa passion-
m ' " ? '
te, from *axft to 5e or become angry ; I^OJttu* sowr, from
* " ? ' * *
wVlu* to 6e or become sour ; 1&O04 skittish, from 9O4 to 6e or
-V w
become skittish.
The same word is frequently used both as a noun and an
adjective; but this gives rise to no new forms, and it is easy
to know in a particular case whether the word is used as an
adjective, by the connection.
NUMERALS.
1. Cardinals. These are so nearly like the cardinals of
the ancient language, that they may be readily recognised.
A list of them is given below, as they are used in Oroo-
miah, and printed in our books.
I** one. !XCBLfrxJ eleven.
I II I
* ' ' 4. '
two. QkAUtdX twelve.
i a
three. 9JCAXX&X thirteen.
four.
five.
six.
seven.
eight.
nine.
ten.
fourteen.
iii
9bJCt3^X^OuL fifteen.
iii
9JQ&XTLX2 sixteen.
seventeen.
eighteen.
nineteen.
twenty.
twenty-one.
I H
-
h*Xfi&t twenty-two.
thirty.
forty.
fifty.
sixty.
J
seventy.
eighty.
ninety.
i, H
22d9 one hundred.
132
two hundred. 22*0*^3Ut seven hundred.
i
22*0 jS.^ three hundred. 22*0 2^*0^ eight hundred.
22*M*3a2 four hundred. 22*0 ?*- v nine hundred.
i i t, n
23*0u* five hundred. 2^2 one thousand.
i
six hundred.
XOTE. In the mountains of Koordistan the cardinals still more
closely resemble those anciently used. From one to ten inclusive
they have both the masculine and feminine genders; and in some of
them, the same apparent anomaly exists as in the Ancient Syriac
and the Hebrew (Hotf. 99, 1, and Nordh. 611), of masculine
numerals joined with feminine nouns, and feminine numerals with
masculine nouns. A few are given as a specimen :
Fern. Masc. Fern. Masc.
il
151 m 2m
^ t t # L$ A. Z 4 ' ?
The expressions u*ail3 U* , ,'?V\i*1 J , iJkaa23 Xw , etc.,
like k*aiX3x^, 5^Vl3aJ*, etc.. in Anc. Syr., denote, re-
v i' i / . <
spectively, double, triple, quadruple, etc. So we have also
2acf wSiX ^ice as much; 2dCf ? V^, /7^-fe ftmes as much.
*&\ k*o 2- , 2^X K*O ^L , 2^3a2 po ^ . etc., denote the
v ' v i v j.
fractions one ^a?/J one third, one fourth, etc. The words 5^^ ON ,
* '
i^joa , etc., seem to have become obsolete.
The Modern Syriac uses the Persian word 2oV^(Li') time,
to express once, twice, thrice, etc. Thus, 2o^X,.i*, 2c(Jk > b*ftN.,
2c^V. ? vV , just as we find ^3f in the Ancient Syriac.
'' & ' 4.* *' *
Sometimes the word L02 a j^o^, is used ; e. g. 2^Cl2 2-M ,
XL02 h-ax. So in Hebrew D n p5"l- So, too, T/'Vb ( j*)
133
a journey ; e. g. ujASaft MuJ& kuJBP 2of2 , this time (lite-
rally journey) I slept well The Persian word &JXA (o"^) is
sometimes used in the same way.
NOTE. It has been supposed that the ahove mentioned use of the
word foot in these languages is derived from the beat of the foot in
music. This is probably a mistake. It is applied to travelling, and
not to other things. Thus, we may say " I came two feet," i. e. two
times; but not "I read two feet." So in the Turkish, they say "I
came two roads," with the same signification. aJaJQD, as noted
above, is used in a more extended sense.
The cardinals also take suffixes; as, for example,
or !*UoaX both of us ; ^oiooax. .o^oVuobx both of
you; k-OiX, iniOaX both of them; U(V\\^ all three of
us; ^^AOTUOi VT^, all three of you; ua\A<VV^ all three of
them. Similar forms are used up to 29U(&bt , inclusive, and
are nearly the same in Oroomiah and Koordistan. It may
be remarked here that all of us is expressed by phA or
Jfcuo^a ; all of you, by jftaftSo , fc oooVuaAo , etc.
Distributives, as in Anc. Syr., are formed by a repetition
of the cardinal numbers ; e. g. u3N, w*SX two by two, etc.,
though they are now often connected with 3, as, tJft&a k-a'x.
So in Hebrew (Nordh. 947).
2. Ordinals. The original termination, which, added to
the cardinal, made it an ordinal, has been lost in Oroomiah,
with a single exception. This is %'*JAU masc., fe^ibxD fern.,
denoting first. Sometimes we use others, as in the gram.
term 2-TL*^X JLf^o^x^ third person; but they are taken
from the ancient rather than from the current usage. The
other ordinals are formed by prefixing 3 to the cardinal.
Thus, 1&\* 2^9 the third village; 23JQ&X? ji^SJ^//^ tenth
line. This was also used in the ancient language : Matt.
16: 21.
134
The names of the days of the week are as follows :
Sunday. jLai.Oilf Vfc '> Thursday.
ft
Monday. J^SoSbX Friday.
Tuesday. JjAX Saturday.
Wednesday.
In Koordistan, Tuesday is
the other days are the same.
The names of
ADVERBS.
The ancient termination
of adverbs is still occasion-
ally retained in our books, and is heard more or less in
Koordistan, but is not at all used in common conversation
in Oroomiah. Many of the adverbs and adverbial expres-
sions given below are identical with those in the Ancient
Syriac, while many others are of more recent origin, or
borrowed from other languages. An attempt is made to
classify them ; but such an attempt must always be some-
what unsatisfactory, as the same adverb in one connection
may be an adverb of place, in another, of time, etc.
M. signifies that the adverb is used only in the mountains ;
p., that it is of Persian, T., that it is of Turkish, and K., that
it is of Koordish, origin ; A., that it is from the Ancient Sy-
riac ; Ar., that it is from the Arabic. As might be expected,
many of these have been modified and corrupted.
1. Adverbs of Place and Order.
where ? where.
A. whither? whither.
whence ? whence.
here.
A. hither, here.
hence.
below, beneath.
A.
downwards.
A. behind.
B>*\*1\ A. backwards.
A. within.
A. this way.
135
A. that way.
A. without
up, above.
A.
upwards.
A. in the midst
A. near.
A. before.
A. forwards.
2. Adverbs of Time.
V^A>
now.
until now.
henceforth.
henceforth. 2acf ai\3
before now. 2aCT az\3
A. to-day,
then.
from that time.
* ( (t If a) then, there-
^* ' upon.
A. to-night
when? when,
how long ?
or
(a* vulgarly ipoken)
' x ; >A. at what time?
136
p. never, ever.
A. until.
P '\ n yei
first
p. always.
while, while
as yet
there he is.
1* ' 1
23 a little (time).
* ' -C'' i
*>> 9f\S presently.
t, i i J
Z-M I A. & p. sometimes.
M sometimes.
A. at last
A. | h( 7 often ' M ila2 *LO K before now.
( often. T* "
J^y^^k l^flL^^ A & T* i i Z^A^fl^Cf A B,t first
at first
u
before now.
^>x AJI 6 ?!!^'
(morning).
A. before.
before,
before.
jl j when, while,
A ' ( etc.
M. a little (while),
at dawn.
3. Adverbs of Manner and Quality.
A. especially.
i 1
?V O2 so much.
T. topsy-turvy.
A. also.
T. (hand by hand) quickly.
only.
p. finally, in a word.
A. more, again.
M. more, again.
A. as, like as.
137
T. only.
( wnen one ' IS ca ll e d)
here I am.
i then, now then,
'\ therefore.
AS , AA3 p. more.
P. doubtless.
T. scarcely.
p. perhaps.
K.M. freely.
i '
Z/&3 p. enough.
i
3*3*3
, , IP. together.
how ? like as.
>ft T. evenly, correctly.
*UQ9Oftft p. truly.
2 Of A. yes
p. in vain,
p. quietly, gently.
2 ft 0/1 so, thus,
so much,
so, thus.
so much,
certainly (vul-
f* garly^^Of).
/ i
p. at all, not at all.
VOL. r. 18
p. also.
K.M. so many.
P. easily.
K.M. in vain, freely.
ft OT P. exactly.
i
so, thus.
. f , ',
2 ft Of p. more.
K.M. certainly.
A. at last
A. at last
2ftt** I together.
.''.' >*-
Ijt^f^O I together.
i
T. freely, in vain.
a little.
a very little.
p. in short.
let it not be so.
let it not be so.
A. badly.
M. why?
A. would that.
( yes (to a question
, ( put negatively).
p. certainly, truly.
* i 7
j\ Vn> p. to wit, namely.
138
K. quite, completely,
not
quite, completely.
j how much, how
A ' | many ?
A. no, not
let it be so.
p. truly,
p. unless.
A. verily.
M. how ? how.
( together (vulgar
\vliv '
AT. hard.
M. quite.
i
*Vfl Ar. never, not at all.
peradventure.
A. much.
P. with ease,
p. perfectly,
p. A. after a sort
T. would that
truly.
A -
in truth.
p. about, nearly.
Remarks.
The preceding list of adverbs and adverbial expressions might no
doubt be extended, especially by noting down adjectives used in an
adverbial sense, such as .7 \0>Vd lightly, 2dObdL heavily, etc. On
the other hand, there are no doubt words in the preceding list which
are not adverbs, and which are classed here, partly for convenience,
and partly because other grammarians have placed them here. In-
deed, without a most careful attention to derivation, one can hardly
arrive at certainty on this point. We should not criticise a Latin
grammarian for calling utinam an adverb, but we should hardly
consider the corresponding would that as an adverb. The ancient
s
tftu* (Dnfi) is no doubt a verb, and yet, as at present used, partakes
more of the nature of an adverb. It is spoken, as given above,
quietly,
very quietly.
t 9 J
Zlxtt A. badly, ill.
K. well.
139
As to the derivation of these adverbs, it is by no means certain
that they are all referred to the right source, and it would occupy
much space if each one were to be discussed individually ; a few
only will be alluded to.
* ' * V * V
In the modern lang., we find iAl , 7 S7 \ ; in the ancient, ,?S>\ .
i i
In Koordistan, we often hear iiOf ?.3*\ just here; with which com-
', * i' * i
pare JiC? OCf (is ipae), etc., in the ancient (Hoft'. 45, Annot. 5).
Again, in the modern, we find tt%*t\ ; in the ancient, *X5K\ ; in
the modern, ^OAA^. ; in the ancient, tjA^ . i-?2 is in some
ii ', ', " '*
parts of Koordistan pronounced 2oj*?2, which probably throws
light on its derivation. Ow32, ? >oA 32 may be Jibo*!* t*22. etc.,
i i // i* i i
h~32 being used with masculine as well as feminine nouns, as stated
previously. ^h*^ i no doubt 2cVX.i-*C7, a mongrel word, although
ioVV, is now pretty well naturalized in Syriac. In the modern, we
find hdOU2 ; in the ancient, tJzXboI . In the modern we find ZXauSI ;
', . t i " ,<
in the ancient, Z&^O^ TX*3 . We also now hear occasionally
9 and 3-X^O might perhaps better be classed with verbs
than adverbs. ^bO3 is regularly inflected in all the persons
and in both numbers, like A- / am. Thus, A\A*03 here thou
*^ " ' * V . " '
art; ii*O? here they are. Sometimes ? S.l\ is joined with it ; e. g.
lalS Ow_O^ /,,,; he is. ZJ-Q . referring always to distant ob-
i ,< i * t> i* *
jects, can be used only in the third person ; e. g. A^wO there she is;
ii-*O there they are. 4>?Cf is probably a corruption of 2aC7, and
2acf in its turn of ->3>'2, 2iCf this. ibbo>J is probably from
* V ' " '"
^l^H to happen. t\JO , etymologically speaking, should be written
with ^ ; but as the t is aspirated in some districts, it seems most
proper to use X .
It will of course be understood that these adverbs may many of
them be combined to form a new adverbial expression. Thus, &O1
t i * ' v '
until, and i>*2 where, when combined ( X&*2 <J>C7), denote until
i i i
where, i. e. how far ?
140
The Nestorians have no adverbs for almost, too much, too far, etc.
Almost is expressed by a circumlocution. Thus, if we wish to say
"he almost died," we use the phrase JjOCf *\ZSD3 ? i3t S ?S > , lit-
erally, a little remained that he should die. So if we wish to say
" too much," we say UkO 2jL3 k!a IdOf more than is necessary
H%. i " v
or proper. Next, whether an adjective or adverb, is expressed indi-
rectly, some additional words being supplied to give definiteness to
the meaning. In hearing a class recite, if we wish to call on the
next, we say ^&ix*2 OOT that other. Next week is ii*\2a yfcXX
the coming week. Last week is 23*21X3 ^JLX the week that (just)
passed. In the same way we can express last month, last year, etc. ;
though for the latter there is the word il^O>3 .
i< i i
Some of these adverbs in common conversation are abbreviated,
as is the case with words in all languages. Thus, iX-> 7^> >2 where
is he? becomes iX- la . 2a*\3& X*?>bO henceforth (literally,
from now to after it) becomes 2a>rl3L^s2SO . So too, ?V ?**
LS * ^ '* '
29>*IT3L\ thenceforth (literally, from then to after it). These might
with propriety be written with final C7 .
A word of explanation is necessary in regard to the adverbial ex-
pressions aijfV3t\ and 'pLtX.^ . 9iXi9 and /BUB are properly prepo-
sitions, and have the suffix-pronouns connected with them. Thus,
to express the idea "I am going backwards," we should say
Lr yn4\. ^Q^ 22fjL9, literally, I am going towards after me, i. e.
I II l' , ^ ', If , Lf ',
backwards. So we say AftaI\3L^ ^^* Z^f Z3 / am going towards
^' " ' $
after you. The usage is the same in regard to ^3L0 . It is only
when the nominative and the suffix-pronoun refer to the same per-
son, that the expression can be called adverbial. Compare the use
-. *
of >^t0 and 9&JQ3L3 in the ancient language. (See John 18 : 6,
Lam. 1 : 8, Jer. 7 : 24, etc.). Instead of using the suffixes, we have
sometimes written ?1ftff\ and 23 jftAJk ; and these are heard more
or less among the people.
sometimes takes suffixes, as in the phrase
I l> '
he got wet until his here, i. e. up to a place indicated by
1*1 t i i
the hand. So does jlflatl ; e. g. feOJQ&S enough for you.
i ' i i
141
PREPOSITIONS.
It will be sufficient in this sketch of Modern Syriac gram-
mar to give a list of the most common prepositions, and
expressions equivalent to the prepositions of other lan-
guages. They are as follows :
2
(ft)
according to.
.
according to.
equivalent to ftJLbO,
not much used).
A. around.
A. in, by means of, etc.
in bv etc.
A. along by.
,,
i j yi- along by.
p. without.
(ft)
(ft)
(ft)
A. in the midst of.
M. beside.
ft A. of.
t^m. -^
A^ft A. witliout.
f
(ft)kft beside, by the side of.
A P \ a g amst > PP S -
' ed to '
j *, I from (pronounced
'
about, con-
' .A. cerning.
(ft)>\ M XA3J for the sake of.
, between, in the
A. I midst of, includ-
( ino-.
(ft) >
(ft)
3 (concerning.
T. among.
A. until.
A. around.
M. for.
A< to>
towards.
towards, up to, near.
towards, up to, near.
J away from (French
I (Tavec).
S<i *
ana ^aa
A. P. over against.
A * er "
P. except.
A " inside ofl
< to tjjg other sidei
A< from ^ vu]g ^.^
Ar> instead ,of.
P. except.
142
A. near.
A. instead of. '
before.
-
(9) A9UQ9 F. on account of. ^DLO ^SO j away from.
upon, etc. (9) JL9 A. about, in regard to.
j ' Soff from, away ^ jg^L except
J }from. v7
A. with. hbo BbAjl except
^ **
A. above. TLO^*X A. under.
ii
(d) 3^hJ>3^(3) A. in the middle of. jCLO^X ^5O A. away from under.
lh for.
Remarks.
. * '
9,9, and ^ never, as in the ancient language (e. g. iiflJLa ,
f ' Zf
^i^ftt \ , etc.), take a vowel. Several prepositions are frequently
joined together, especially if one of them is ^IB . These prepositions,
in accordance wjth the analogy of the ancient language, receive
suffixes, and are also followed by the separable pronouns, as in the
expression OOT9 kbO wXOOd / asked from (of) him.
A number of the prepositions, when joined with nouns, require 9 f
j> , or ^9 after them, and may be considered in such cases as hav-
ing a doubtful claim to a place among prepositions. When they
take suffixes, however, these are dispensed with ; e. g. ?^*^*f
k^A9aA /? rose against us; JxVfr>T3 ^0^999 "AiCXO / /( .
V I I I H * I * ,< II
rose against Simon. In the last example, 9 is required. Those
prepositions which occasionally thus employ 9, ^, or ^>9, have
one of these placed after them in a parenthesis in the above list.
is connected with its suffix by w9 as sliding letters ; e. g.
9 YL&9 on our account. So '*ft^ and *h' s ^ , by ^ : e. g.
V V
-frNflTi*-^ towards thee.
, etc., are often pronounced ullit, minit, etc. The
following is probably the explanation of it. The Ancient Syriac
143
idiom has been retained in the spoken language, though not intro-
duced into our books, by which the preposition takes a suffix and
S also ; e. g. ttxX3 eutt quickly pronounced will be minit umma;
i^AX.<ft 07 S113 will be barit eshoo, etc. These remarks apply to
/ " i 1
quite a number of the prepositions.
u>3 Z*3 and OVStl C^SSl are no doubt reduplications of the pre-
position k3 . Thus, we have in the ancient language, e. g.,
ova
Besides *9 Z*9, we have in the modern such expressions as
' > ' * 4 4 ' i* '
C?adO,X Z&ftX along with her, IXrf&X, JkX Zj>X along upon the
iii iii
A5' m'r it 2 ^
wall, 2*OO3 O.V.X&X. a^on^ in the valley. With these compare
the ancient AA3L< ^3LX CftSfllX along with Jesus : and similar ex-
i i ' i
pressions. Compare also Hoff. 123, 5, a, b.
jflA3 is possibly formed from 9 and 1 , as we still find in Koor-
' '
distan an ancient form 992X9 in regard to what he said, equiva-
lent to the form used in Oroomiah, laoZ XOJ3. If this supposi-
' "
tion be correct, *\A3 should be written A&9 .
i * i
\*3 in Ancient Syriac is >*Ao3 , IXi*3 , or l*9 . -^ ^ Ff*tL*T
ti< , i i* ' ' ' * ' * '' ' '
and t^ObOA!} , like i*-2 , may be partly Syriac and partly Persian,
' ".''' L-,
the prepositions 9J9 and a? being prefixed to jVlft.B of the An-
cient Syriac.
%JO takes its suffixes in so many ways, that they are worthy of
special notice. Thus, to express in Modern Syriac for me, we may
say hXd , MtaXB , uJkB , JlCVO and b*9h*sX0 . So, for thee,
^XB, ^A-?ZJ3. ^A^D, qtkui, ^OS^aXO. The same
peculiarity is found in all persons and both numbers. In Koor-
distan, the people say MAJM^ , ^0\V^ , etc. ; in Bootan,
; near Mosul, iJ
144
CONJUNCTIONS.
p. if.
-*OV3 A. in that, because. XttU*Ow
or.
A. also.
^ 2 i
>3^3 nevertheless. L*
either.
\i
i
A. as.
*A&3 p. then, therefore. ?^!Oi^
p. because.
' fit.
but
A. but(Aa.a).
("that, in order that; jL^w.
ft A. { (sometimes because, ^~f*^
[as John 4 : 22).
X*? A. that not, lest.
( yet, but
' ( yet
A. if.
* \*K*Hjy}
2ft T. also.
p. because.
A ( if not, un-
. i
' I less.
^tfOf p. also. ,-
T. although.
A. although.
i ',
O A. and.
< for that, in
I order that
Ar . T .jbut,but
2f K. also.
INTERJECTIONS.
It should be understood that these interjections are not
all classical, and that some of them may be called vulgar.
But they are most of them in every-day use, and it is well
to be acquainted with them.
12 why, pretty well! tXlhush! ^007 push on!
* * '
07 2 not I ! Oh ! CV3 well done ! bOM* tush !
_>! i t* ' .> ', (bless, God! . * ._
CT02 alas ! O^ka) ( Ar .) ; (vulgar- ^ O !
' ' ( \y, well done!).
-02woeisme! 2 JP U8h on!
f ' i away ! up ! rious inte r-
M 02 alas ! , *. , Wogative).
2Cf 2a away with you! ^^ well done ,
uw*o2 huzzah, hurrah ! ,* ' *
' hA0 ah me ! --, m M
' JBPOJCP silence !
-2 O! ,* '
' I* wonderful! #& poh ,
halloo! . *
2Cf behold!
Oh strange! , * ,
-icrho!
woe is me !
145
SYNTAX.
It is by no means proposed here to reduce to a complete
system the Syntax of the Modern Syriac ; but merely to
direct attention to some of its principal features. It may
be stated, in general, that the relations in which words stand
to each other are extremely simple, and present no serious
obstacle to the acquisition of the language. The Nestorians
rarely use long or involved sentences ; and, indeed, the de-
ficiency of their language in particles, compared with our
own, almost precludes their doing so. While the structure
of the language is thus unfitted for philosophical or mathe-
matical precision, it is in many respects an excellent lan-
guage for the business of every-day life, and we have no
reason to complain that, as spoken by educated natives, it
greatly lacks either dignity or force. It may also be added,
that, considering the scantiness of its vocabulary, we are
obliged to use circumlocutions less than would be expected.
THE ARTICLE.
It should be understood, as has been already intimated,
that there is no emphatic state of nouns in the Modern
Syriac, supplying in some degree the place of a definite
article. Indeed, multitudes of nouns have taken the em-
phatic state as their ordinary form, and there is a strong
tendency to suffix 2 ' to all nouns which are derived from
other languages ; e. g. Turkish [?] JJ', Modern Syriac JJA
a buffalo; Persian c^J-o, Modern Syriac V* 1 * 8 curdled
milk; Arabic ( .^^A ) Modern Syriac fa&Ao&o poor.
In general, the pronouns OCT , w*0f and li are used for
the definite article, but with far less latitude than H in He-
brew. They are also omitted in multitudes of cases where
the is employed in English ; e. g. * OOCf JioX &? Zxil
were (the) men of (the) village there? ,lhf)03 lo^X. wJX two
times in (the) day ; uAjJafaJ^iuoaa ^du2 when (the) world
VOL. V. 19
146
tempt me; I 4k4x2 i? 1 *) whence came you ? *V >1P kd9
^*i i' ; > v
from (the) c% ; S 2-B>OJQE> TLol u*OTftVy\O^ Aa^e T/OM brought
him out (the) Aorse F
Even in cases where the article in English denotes pre-
eminence, as the sun, the sky, the world., etc., the Syriac
omits it.
The definite article may be prefixed to an adjective, when
separated in construction from its noun, or referring to a
noun understood. This is quite a common idiom. For
example, Ob*^2 ^X2 ladV^OOf the great (man) came to-day.
In such cases the adjective is really used as a noun. In the
ordinary construction of a qualifying adjective, it never
takes the article, whether the noun it qualifies has one or
not. Such expressions as in Hebrew rDlS
could not be admitted.
NOTE. It need hardly perhaps be remarked that an adjective
used as a predicate never takes the article. This is of course founded
on the general principles of language, the predicate adjective being
abstract and in some degree indefinite. Thus, in Hebrew, Greek and
English it does not take the article ; in Anc. Syriac it does not take
the emphatic state (Hoff. 118, 2) ; in German, Greek, etc. it is not
necessarily inflected to agree with its noun. This is also true to some
extent in Modern Syriac. Thus, we may say, for " These men are
free," either & iS'tfi 2.X&2 U2 or J.L 3f 2 Z&2 U2 ; in the latter
i* i' i i i' i> i
case the adjective being in the singular.
The suffix-pronoun sometimes in a manner supplies the
place of the definite article in English ; e. g. 5^*3 OP^A all
f ' 1 ' '*
of it (the) house, the whole house, while 5^*3 *-A denotes any
house, every house. So in Anc. Syr. (Hoff. 123, 4). See both
constructions in Eom. 3 : 19, fcoo^ ^A and ?*n\V cr-^a .
i
The indefinite article 2-** , 2x* is prefixed less frequently
than our indefinite article, but more frequently than in the
ancient language (Hoff. 109, 4). Take the following as an
example of its use : Tl^aaV, 0^ iMOJA IXii ZJ a man rose
9^, i 1 "
in the meeting. In the following example it would naturally
147
be omitted : i i*io^3 <ojL* ixil cfo'c? yow see (a i. e. any)
i ' i i>
man on the way? Sometimes the employment or omission
of it is optional ; e. g. UoJ9f 2-O iJOaXD X^ ^-iAto he
brought a horse to sell, literally, for selling, or 2-GDOXD J.V.J
I m ', ', l> I l< l< >
Sometimes i-9t&9 a i!Am^ is annexed to another noun
//
with much the force of an indefinite article ; for example,
i <poAlU w3O*o Za^>A did you see a dog? We should sup-
pose this to mean did you see a dog or any thing of the kind ?
but the natives translate it as above.
In accordance with English usage, general nouns denot-
ing material, such as wood, silver, etc., abstract nouns, and
i
nouns with a suffix pronoun, as i*fc3 my house, do not take
the indefinite article.
RELATION OF NOUNS TO NOUNS.
The usages of the Modern Syriac in regard to apposition,
the government of one noun by another, etc., are so simple
that it is unnecessary to dwell on them. Two or three pe-
culiarities only will be noticed.
The noun V side sometimes follows another noun in
construction, to denote direction ; e. g. ?J*, -Skia.^ to the
city-side, i. e. in the direction of the city ; so i3^ &*-*? ki9 ^*
from the vicinity of the city. The word is also used figura-
tively ; e. g. V&^. ZftflUfcS ^0 in respect to bread.
There is an elliptical mode of speaking in common use,
which will be understood by one or two examples. Thus,
?\lt*rf ^Xi2 V*^> literally, a house, a man went, i. e. one
*' " 4. 5 42 * 4* #
from each house ; Ot-^ ^*^ ?.frftVO 22L* a boy, a pen he has,
i. e. each one has one.
It has been already mentioned that the construct state is
still employed to some extent, though the tendency is to
dispense with it altogether, and use a in its stead, as we use
148
the preposition of in English. This ft is omitted in expres-
sions such as iii2 aCT^V MftOSD what kind (of) man, not only
aC7X, but the general form, corresponding with the idiom
of the Persian and Turkish. Though educated Nestorians
generally speak with grammatical correctness, it may be
worth while to note as an exception the almost universal
*
use of wv3 as if it were the singular and not the plural ;
e. g. 3-^ 2JHN-a wkifl ftOf he is a son (i. e. inhabitant) of
Degala.
Nouns, as well as other words, are often repeated : (a.) to
denote distribution or variety; e. g. 2aC7X 2acfX kinds,
*' i mm< * '
kinds, i. e. different kinds ; ** ''T 1 * colors, colors, i. e. dif-
ferent colors ; so with numerals : loj^ i** X* one, one time,
i. e. now and then ; so adverbs: !tl>a 7<a slowly, slowly, i. e.
little by little ; (5.) to give intensity ; e. g. ,7\^*\n ,?S^\f1
fragments, fragments, i. e. ; as we should say, a thousand frag-
ments ; i3a }3* exceedingly, ,?%^< J\* very little indeed; (c.)
1> ' *' If* t t^
to supply the place of eac/i, eac/i one ; e. g. iXii &&2 maw,
wan, i. e. each man. This last usage is rather borrowed
from the ancient language than commonly heard, but we
allow it a place in our books. In regard to the general
idiom, compare the Ancient Syriac (Hoff. 112, 2), and the
Hebrew (Nordh. 823).
There is also a curious, though perhaps vulgar, repetition
of nouns, which is common to the Persian, Turkish, Arme-
nian, and perhaps other languages of the East. In the
repetition do is substituted for the first letter of the word,
if it begin with a consonant, or do is prefixed, if it begin
with a vowel. The idea is thus generalized ; e. g. from
$ t $
3s**X dirt, we have fc**do V**& dirt and every thing of that
" ', > " i - i
sort ,' from XBLi minute, %ti*Q 2-flLa every little thing,
e. g. JAX^X? XflUSo XBL3 JkX i*xXr **lfa!B & do not
i i , ' i i ~ H i
esteem, (literally, put a price on) the trifles of the world.
149
ADJECTIVES.
A qualifying adjective in Modern Syriac, in the great ma-
jority of instances, as in Ancient Syriac (Hoff. 118, 1), and
in Hebrew (Nordh. 770), follows its noun ; e. g. JJLKD ZXA!
old man, /&iat*Ax %j.iAS9 beautiful city. The same rule
holds where two or more epithets are joined to one noun :
$ $ ^ A ' ?
JSc^O 2aaV, V*^ ^ a large and high house. Also when the
noun has a suffix, as %-*OJS wCTOXXaJL his firm taw. So
, , ,
in the ancient language (Hoff. 122, 3).
A few adjectives more naturally precede their nouns;
e. g. i9a , M>S , I.M , etc., the latter being called an ad-
jective, though in reality a noun (Nord. 725, 1). Thus,
93 many horses, JsjL*2 M*SM a good tree. In
these cases 9ft ^AXOOJO and k^s- *2 would be also
i* . .1 ' j* *
allowable.
An adjective may be placed before its noun to give in-
creased emphasis ; e. g. %&}A I saV, i9* a very great stone.
Another mode of giving emphasis, is to place the adjective
at the head of the clause, and, after a brief pause, to repeat
it ; e. g. J J**3 : iJUS ;L2 : ^ 2&o\I : Z^oil quick
,>i i i ,>
to learn, he is quick to learn; but wicked, he is wicked.
A qualifying adjective in the modern language cannot be
separated, as in the ancient (Hoff. 118, Annot. 2), from its
noun by words such as A*ac7, w*9, etc.
,. \ ,
An adjective used as a predicate is also almost always
placed after the noun or pronoun to which it refers ; e. g.
2^ 9bV)VL^oa ZXi2 OCT that man is rich, 2^ 2~o*0u* liO*A
i< i * i i ' i> .V <
the bread is sour. The ancient language generally places the
adjective before its substantive in such a case (Hoff. 118, 2).
So the Hebrew (Nordh. 772). An inversion of the ordinary
150
construction may, however, be employed for emphasis ; e. g.
* L x $ $ ' L s $ m
OOf XJM l!AtJ&3 2^93 very agreeable {s he, <jO^\*3 Z^* ? ^> T>*1
blessed is your house.
In regard to the demonstrative adjective pronouns, when
used to qualify nouns, they are always placed before their
nouns; e. g. ZSUkA 2of2 this dog, 2Mflu 111 these donkeys,
f t Z ** $ ' I* I* '
iX*3 >LX&2 2c?i-^ to fl&w wicked man. When the construction
is different, we have followed the idiom of the Ancient
Syriac or the Hebrew (Hoff. 118, and Nordh. 884).
Cardinals also uniformly precede their nouns; in which
respect the. Modern Syriac is unlike the Ancient (Hoff. 117,
1). In the latter language they sometimes precede, some-
times follow. The Modern resembles more the Hebrew
(Nordh. 935) and English. In this also we have at times
changed the idiom, as Gen. 11 : 1. Such expressions as
',* A I ' / '
2 a^riV t&riw 9u* k*x3 in the ancient language would not now
*i i i
be at all allowable.
SUBJECT NOMINATIVE AND VERB.
In general, the verb agrees with its subject nominative in
number and person. There are, however, constructions ad
sensum, as in the Ancient Syriac and most other languages,
the mere grammatical form being neglected (Hoff. 137).
When the subject nominative is of different persons, the
rule found in Latin, Greek, and other languages, has place,
that the first person is preferred to the second, and the sec-
ond to the third. Thus, <^tf 2 Via liio **\42 you and I will
go, Q>J>O\X2 OC7O z\&2 you and he came.
Verbs are often used impersonally, and then the feminine
gender is employed, as a representative of the neuter gender
in other languages; e. g. >L.V&aA 2&4JO <*A\ it drew (i. e.
it occupied) two hours, jL Z33t** it is bad, i. e. a bad thing,
4. 4* * "
^A^ ^Jkkaf l&it is a fear to you, i. e. you are afraid (note,
that i^^?f is a vulgar and anomalous form of jlxaf ),
151
it was a fear to us, i. e. we were afraid. If the
origin of the preterite tense has been correctly explained in
the Etymology, we have in this example a curious redupli-
cation, as will be seen by spelling JJkXftf with final Cf ,
4? ^
A cv* *X?9 .
v i a
The feminine is in such cases always preferred ; and yet,
when translating from Anc. Syr., which uses the mascu-
line as well as the feminine verb impersonally (Hoff. 138,
3), we have sometimes followed that, rather than the spoken
language ; e. g. Matt. 13 : 40. See the same use of the fem-
inine verb as an impersonal in Hebrew (Nordh. 737, 2).
Indeed, this disrespectful use of the feminine gender for an
indefinite thing, results from the ideas of Orientals.
NOTE. 5 Jodf Z-t , in which case the verb is used impersonally
and in the masculine, is hardly an exception to the general rule, as
it has almost lost its power as a verb, like if=gif=give, in English.
In this connection may be mentioned such expressions
as Z2U* >*\ Z-^dCT there became to me a heart. ^ Zj>X.2
, v i i'
there came on us his pity, i. e. pity for him;
where the verb seems first to be used impersonally, and
then a masculine nominative to come in as an after-thought.
This change of construction is not without its force, and
may be at times preferable to the regular form.
The nominative absolute is very common in Modern
Syriac, sometimes used emphatically, and sometimes without
any such design ; e. g. V* 1&*~ OCf : 7lti*n Christ, he is
mighty, ^kA ISbA.X &3 wCfOa^2 :feQA9 your father, his
V * V * *i ' ' * *
hand will guide you, f 2 *13 fiOf Bo2 : &QJOS*t 2of2 this
Jacob, he also will go. In these cases, it is emphatic ; but it
can hardly be considered so in the following example :
ibof Z3\**X Mk^ao2 : 1*J3OV* the rivers, their course would
a i i <> i
change, which is simply saying, 'the course of the rivers
would change.' See the same idiom in Anc. Syr. (Hoff. 119),
in Hebrew (Nordh. 866, 1, b.), and in other languages.
152
On the other hand, the nominative is omitted altogether,
when regarded as indefinite ; as, for example, when Wtii or
Z&2 might be supplied. This usage, not uncommon in the
Ancient Syriac (Hoff. 188, 4), is far more common in the
Modern, and is a substitute, as mentioned in the Etymology,
for the passive verb ; e. g. J^ u&Sf 1& men oppress ws,
91 I*
i. e. we are oppressed.
PREDICATE NOMINATIVE.
The proper place for the predicate nominative, with its
qualifying words, is between the subject nominative and its
verb ; e. g. i^** ^olSOJL ^Ai^iX ^.XX^ba drunkenness is
great folly. The rule, however, is variable. "We may say,
with a kind of emphasis, ^SiaoX^ ^JXii^X Jj ^A-ba ;
i _ i i> i
the change of the usual construction, as in other cases, giv-
ing more force to the words.
VERB iOOf TO BE.
i>
This is rarely omitted, the Modern Syriac differing in this
respect from the Ancient Syriac (Hoff. 146, 3), and the
Hebrew (Nordh. 701, 1, b.). Yet we at times find such ex-
amples as the following, some of them perhaps transferred
by us from the ancient language, and others in universal
* ' ' * * ' * '
use : ZiVfc**1? tA9 our father that in heaven, l*JOJi *VA* Xa
' ' t 4* ^' t * '
that under heaven, Eph. 6 : 12, 2Ck-*Z^ fe >O,a36X (let there
be) glory to Gfod, ^A>*xflL3 OCf he (is) calling you, 2xd X>X,
(it is) necessary to read.
NOTE. The verb of existence is not omitted with the correspond-
ing words /SO and AV<* , nor always with tV.,9^ . A person,
" "* . i '
in assenting to a remark, often says <OaJ3L your word, for
' '
153
OBJECT OF THE VERB.
The objective is often denoted, as in the Anc. Syr., by ^
prefixed (vulgarly *^), and especially when intended to
be definite ; e. g. Z&&2 OCfgut >Jj> / saw (to) that man.
But in a sentence like the following : frO.w^a
,
did you find a purse? it is neither needed nor allowed. In
common conversation it is also often dropped, for the sake
of brevity, where we should expect to hear it. Like !"!>$ in
Hebrew (Nordh. 835), ^ does not seem to be so much a
sign of the accusative, as to be used for directing special
attention to any subject.
^ may also denote, as in Anc. Syr. (Hoff. 114, 1),
the same relation as the dative in Western languages;
e. g. f*S TUAJM* uAaA^w / did service to the Khan;
^ > n i n
* * * ^ t " '
Z2L&3U* ACT OJ-^ JkSOf give to him that apple. In this last
example, t-CffOTLd/or him would be perhaps more common.
The idea may also be expressed without any preposition, as
in Anc. Syr. (Hoff. 122, 1) : \&JtD \L 2*3^0 he gave me
a watch.
Some verbs, as e. g. those of naming, clothing, anoint-
ing, asking, commanding, feeding, teaching, telling, filling,
etc., are often followed by two objects, of which one gene-
rally, though not always, signifies a person. The noun denot-
ing a person may have ^ prefixed, but the other noun very
rarely takes it, if at all ; e. g. 1^'aV, 2& oo XUaiote
* ft * **
lie put clothes on that boy; >-O3 CT^XCf X13 u4O9h3 2072 this
my son I will call him David; iSoa^ 0JJ^ featSUk *13 3-kiBL*
the field ive will make it a vineyard. The ancient language
has very nearly the same usage (Hoff. 141, 4, 5).
It may be well to remark that in many cases, where in
English and other Western languages an object is viewed
as direct, in Syriac it is regarded as indirect, and vice versa.
VOL. V. 20
154
This leads to the employment or omission of prepositions, in
a way very different from the usages of our own language ;
e. g. Z*> jij^o frO>jM9 you filled the vessel (with) water;
' ' 5 ' * *
where the Syriac also admits of 3 or Kto ; ii^iX t9 2ao2
v , v m ,i
he entered from (by) the door; b*C70fcJ3f ^jiaox we told for him;
^*9 2x03 he touched on us ; <O>%*P V^ 2oVA2 ^ if God
show favor from (to) you ; ^ uJBJOi TUS they will ascend
(above) us; u*X*2 ^!0 3-^OJt* he kissed from my hand, i. e. he
kissed my hand. The modern language is, however, no
more unlike the English in these respects than the ancient.
PRONOUNS.
The nominatives Z*2, te2, etc., are not generally ex-
pressed before the verb, unless for the sake of specification
or emphasis, as the terminations of the verb prevent all
ambiguity in regard to number and person. When empha-
sis is required, these pronouns are oftener placed after the
verb than before it ; e. g. i &2 ^xat^ uaao what am I to
do, I? i te2 <y&MOX did you tell, you? Sometimes the pro-
noun both precedes and follows : &**i to2 <J$2 A3 t**2
v i i ^ ^ /
we will go, we too.
The pronoun, used as a subject nominative, and indeed
any nominative, is occasionally separated by an intermediate
clause from its verb ; e. g. jx^4L : <^oAx2d ^3L0 ^o : i*&2
they, before you came, saw. The Modern Syriac, however,
generally favors the simplest construction.
The pronoun is often employed as an absolute nomina-
tive, in the same manner as nouns ; e. g., with the imper-
sonal verb of existence, uA foA Jil or 2*2 uA xA I there
ii ii
is not to me, i. e. I have not : TU8>X^ M>A XO^f 7^ : *\i2 you,
i a ^>i , i 9
there will not be to you opportunity ; ixJiaa t*C7aauJd : OOT
155
he, his mercies are many ; uMu- Z& ' ^i-*2 %i*i but we,
they blame us. See Matt. 26 : 11, and compare the ancient
version. See also Hoff. 121, 1.
It is to be noted that the very common idiom of the an-
cient language and the Hebrew, by which the pronoun takes
the place of the substantive verb, finds no favor in the Mod-
ern Syr., in Oroomiah at least, though it is said to be heard
sometimes in Koordistan (Hoff. 121, 2). Nor is OC7 used
pleonastically in the modern as in the ancient language
(Hoff. 123, 1) ; e. g. Vlacr &tt^ ecr.X*jA? , 1 Tim. 5 : 9.
The governing noun in the modern as well as in the an-
cient language (Hoff. 122, 2), may take the suffix which
seems more properly to belong to the noun which it gov-
erns; e. g. 5^AX*3a ^&*ao2 your way of evil, or 2*ao2
^pVlA*> your death of the body, or
The latter forms are the more common.
It is a universal practice to use pleonastically the suffix
pronoun, followed immediately by the noun to which it
refers. Thus, feASI wC7 >**.>* / saw her, the woman;
mm'' ' * 4 ' * * ' ' "
lXi2 u42 hV Smfta we drove them away, the men. Com-
' ' ' if
pare the ancient OUjj" OP*.dLX , and many similar expres-
sions (Hoff. 123, 3). The idea seems to be the same,
whether the pronoun is used or not. In Hebrew, this has
been considered an emphatic suffix (Nordh. 866, 2, a), but
we do not so regard it as used by the Nestorians.
On the other hand, the suffix is entirely omitted when
the meaning is sufficiently plain without it ; e. g. J\X2
wXO 2\4OTLO he came and told (it) for me.
i ,< i \ '.
The suffixes are in some cases used as reflexives ; e. g.
%y f\A Z~ iQlV^ft ^f 2 1X3 I will go and ask for me (for
myself) a book. See an example in both Ancient and Mod-
ern Syriac, John 4 : 8.
156
As the relative particle 3 undergoes no inflection, many
ideas, which we express directly in English, must in Moa-
ern Syriac be expressed by a circumlocution. A few exam-
ples will be given below. Examples of the same kind may
be found in Hoff. 125, Nordh. Chap. ix. and Rosen. Arab.
Gramm. Syntax, xcvin.
1. WTtom.-tA
"I am Joseph your brother, that ye sold me," Gen. 45 : 4;
k-oroJCDla tAaofttooer? ii*2 Z^J 2cfl *//& w ^e ?nan to /
< i a i i<
spoke about him.
2. Which. XftOT er&SUgJ? JV^.:! J-- a ^arden that he
had planted it ; fc*C7A*3 VM\^a la 2^0 iAe spade tiiat I
worked with it.
3. Whose. irtUfl >JLJJP ^a Z^0\ ^JaOJO </ Je ^Ves-
II t ,< f I !> t
torians of the mountains, that (men) plunder their cattle.
4. Place where. CfOoX. uAaJLA &o a village that I un-
packed (encamped or halted) in it; iX iOV* &**? 1~
a place that he was there.
5. Whither. uoyoo^ ^oA>3f^a ^oxa the vineyard that
i ^*i i, i
you went into it.
6. Either. iaiS J^XOAia ^aoftfl jJ. an ore ^Aa< w?e
v i i< i
brought hither.
7. Whence. 91*l*O ?t i\V ^Sit^a ^Obd a well that
i a i> i H i
they were drawn from it.
8. When. ZAOT idOj ^ax 2^0 uCTa*3a Zioo- ^ a c?oy
v |i i i
that in it I was lord of business, i. e. busy.
In some of the preceding cases, a may express the idea
without the pronoun or adverb following. Thus, for "a
day," etc., we may say ZAC? ^Qu jSftT la^ba 7*Qft >L.
there being an ellipsis of
As in the ancient language (Hof 125, 1, Annot.), it may
denote the objective case of the relative. For instance r
2jLa b*9hi&9 JjkA every thing that he may see.
The relative a may often be rendered definite, as in
Ancient Syriac (Hoff. 125, 3) and Hebrew, by wXi^o a
* > * * * "
thing, ^OJttBCf a word, i*l2 a man, OOf he, etc., prefixed :
Vliiio tf cfo not forget the thing that he tells ;
J y '
c?o not know him
who is coming.
In Hebrew (Nordh. 907), as in English, and in Ancient
Syriac to a very limited extent (Hoff. 125, 4), the relative
may be omitted ; e. g. a house (which) he built two years ago.
But a seems to be never omitted in Modern Syriac, except
when used as a conjunction.
It may be well to give a few examples to illustrate the
use of the interrogative and indefinite pronouns, and the
position they occupy in the sentence. We may say either
2crl , or i 2cr2 ^J ^ao^s . what is this ?
or i ^A3 2orl ^L *s* , ^o is tin's
ml I
woman? i *Uo u^bTL&2, or, instead, iVlii^A^ u^b , or
n i i i u i
simply i^LoJ uoto , who art thou? i 5^ uitoa 2'aox 2cf2 ?
or i 2cr2 i^J uiioa fa ox, or i la ox 2cr2 ^ uAtoa ,
' ' i 1
whose ox is this ?
The interrogative pronouns may be used, as in Ancient
Syriac (Hoff. 45, 2, Annot. 4) and Hebrew (Nordh. 921),
as indefinite pronouns. For example, in the expressions :
VO >L*^a.*3 kdOu Z-* / do not know who he is,
t i i v H i>
'X^Q TL9 OOf Ae will inform you who went,
* I H ^
Ae dfo? no^ see t^AwA (of the two) it was.
< i
Very often JLX&2 without the article is used where we
should use, in English, any one, as in the Anc. Syr. (Hoff.
158
' A? $ %
1 127, 4) : 1 3^9 O\ ZXi2 A-2 w $ere any one in the village ?
Sometimes >L&2 may be omitted, and yet the idea be clearly
' i' * > ' if
and idiomatically expressed ; as OC7a ^2 XiA ZXDaa^a o.\
in ike school there is not like him (his like). iX*2 is also now
and then used to denote each one; as, Z&&2 .^L^aaaoa
wC7O\O^ $<?y scattered, man (each man) to Ais milage. So
in the ancient language (Hoff. 127, 3). But generally,
when thus used, it is repeated, as already mentioned.
MOODS AND TENSES OF VERBS.
Though the ordinary signification of the different moods
and tenses was given in the Etymology, some additional
remarks are necessary to illustrate their use.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense. This is sometimes used : 1. As a perfect ;
e. g. iii ?vV !?jfc,l JJk* XXt&3 he is reading here three
H ii i ii H
years. 2. As a future; e. g. ?*X> JL aO(\3 ^ftJ ^SfUl t&e
are going after a month. So in Gen. 6 : 17, where, in the
modern language, we have the present tense, and in the
ancient the active participle.
Imperfect Tense. This is sometimes used: 1. As a present;
e. g. iacj Xf 9tAo3 ZACT uuJ& r >3tA3 # %-as (is) eer that
II II t I I ,, , i s ^',
you should preach. 2. As a future; e. g. J^JJoayJJ >Lft07 2-^f i3
Ae i<;as going (intending to go) in the morning ; the implication
being that he is now prevented. 3. As an imperfect sub-
junc. ; e. g. JLacr VuL^ Jy.S'B : ZJOCT Vijocr IX&2 t*J^^ ^ z/
yow should be a good man, you were (would be) blessed. 4. As a
pluperf. subjunc. ; e. g. ZaL** ZAOT zloof ^ JJOCT ***j r >3tA3
f ii H t J* : . ~l
it was (would have been) better, if you had gone.
Preterite Tense. 1. Used as a present ; e. g., a man in dis-
tress says uA&! Idied, i.e. I am dead; >J.dLi I choked,
159
1. e. I am choked, or I am drowned. A boy in recitation, if
confused, will say uJ^ ,lV>tl\X it lost on me, i. e. I have
lost it. Ask a man how his business is to-day, and he may
reply JUXJ^ %sb\Vl SOT it remained (remains) just. so. Persons
^ J , - - ' J j? > <,
coming to make a petition will tell us ^o..xX *3C7 Add
'i i i ii > i ,i *
we poured (i. e. we now place) our hope on you. Compare
Anc. Syr. (Hoff. 129, 4, b, c). Compare also Ps. 1 : 1, in the
Ancient and the Modern. The expression in the Ancient,
' $ 4? *
w^ftX iocr X>3 ^a , Matt. 12 : 30, may be considered equiva-
lent either to a present indicative or to a present subjunctive.
So Deut. 1 : 89, tisa&Z ^f^ &* that did not (do not) know.
', '' L '
2. Used as a perfect; e. g. X*?2 2^X2 Ae came now, i.e. he has
just arrived. This is the common mode of speaking. So too,
iiukaaX /& $>C7? COJ i^ ,?S>VJ blessed is he that never
,i a 'a ,<!
heard (meaning, that has never heard). 3. Used as a pluper-
fect; e.g. fcpOttOCT t* i^Oa^? ^flu2 when he (had) finish-
ed from speaking (Hoff. 129, 3). 4. Used as a future ; e. g.
if you died to-morrow, you
J y ' y
perished (compare with the use of the first verb Hoff. 129,
8, c, and of the second verb, same section, 7) ; :*U5007 ^2
2 307 >Li>it^O if you believe. Christ just now,
i. e. at this moment, received (will receive) you. This is no
doubt an emphatic future. Compare Nordh. 966, 1, c. 5.
Used as a subjunctive present; e. g. i^oo) 2Jk ^2 if it did
not become, L e. if it does not meet the case, equivalent to
Z $ Lt
2-O07 >L2t ^ (see the ancient usage, Mark 12 : 25, as follows :
l^*aa t^o oXO a XkV, iio , in which case the translation might
have been literal) :
if you went out (set out) now, perhaps you will reach;
aao lam grop-
160
ing after God, if perhaps I found (him). Compare the ancient
usage in Ecc. 6 : 6, 2* 2- fe.'M^yft , where 2iL expresses
the idea of contingency. 6. Used as a subjunctive imper-
fect ; e. g. *f I ta : ZkdttBOX X* L^Oi iajO although
^
, i
the business did not finish (should not end), / shall go ;
.Loo? xldQu J3C7 ^(OkXdL^OX ^2 if you destroyed (should
destroy) us, you were (would be) just.
The preterite seems never to be used in the modern lan-
guage for an imperative, as in the ancient (Hoff. 129, 6). It"
will not be thought strange that it is employed in such a
variety of ways in the spoken Syriac, when we consider what
an important tense it was in the structure of the old verb.
Many of the idioms mentioned above give force and vivacity
to the language. We are thus allowed to speak of events
and actions which are present or future though definite, or
future and contingent, as if they had actually transpired and
were recorded in the past. On this account the preterite is
often used in Hebrew in the language of prophecy. See also
examples of its use in conditional clauses (Nordh. 991, 1).
The other forms of the preterite given in the Etymology,
kxs ^OLd , Z&-03OJ& , etc., have substantially the same
^11 I ,1 H I
meaning as the regular preterite, and may be used in the
same way. The first named of these is ordinarily employed
only when euphony requires it. See Etymology.
Perfect Tense. This is used : 1. for the present ; e. g.
Z^** Zau *C he has sat, i. e. is sitting ; A** LA3 he has wept,
i. e. (often) is weeping. This usage seems to be confined to a
small number of verbs. 2. for the preterite ; e. g. ^bj 2-X2
laAV^^O we have come (we came) long ago. This is the
usual mode of speaking. Compare what is said of the pre-
terite No. 2. 3. for the perfect passive. See Etymology,
Passive Voice. Ambiguity may sometimes arise, as to the
question whether the verb is used in an active or passive
sive sense ; but the context generally determines. We may
translate, e. g., Z^ ZA*i9a either he is asleep, he has slept, or
he has been asleep,' fa* l*X3f they have sown, or they are sown.
161
Pluperfect Tense. This is sometimes used : 1. for the im-
x 5 x 5 x
perfect ; e. g. ioof Jt'VI he was weeping, ZAC7 %3Lt\* he was
sitting. 2. for the passive imperfect. This is very common.
See Etymology.
Future Tense. Whatever is peculiar in the use of this tense
will be noticed under the Present Subjunctive. The second
future is not very much used, a form of expression being
chosen which renders it unnecessary ; e. g., where in English
we might say "before you come, I shall have arrived," a
Nestorian would be likely to say ^0^*? yELO (. ^&> ^3
I shall arrive before you.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present Tense. It should be distinctly borne in mind that
what has been called in the Etymology the present subjunc-
tive, is nothing more nor less than the ancient present par-
ticiple, with fragmentary pronouns suffixed. The old future
having disappeared, this present participle, with flS pre-
4. "
fixed, becomes a future in Mod. Syr. ; with X> prefixed,
it becomes a future, or a generic present, expressed nega-
$ $
tively; with ^3LO (ancient ^9^O) prefixed, it becomes a
preterite; with JA or w{ prefixed, it becomes a generic
present ; and without a prefix, it inclines to retain its
original present signification. Remembering these facts,
and the further fact that both in Ancient Syriac and in
Hebrew, the future was much used as a subjunctive or
conditional (Hoff. 130, 4 ; Nordh. 993), we shall not be
surprised to find these different meanings shading into each
other in the Modern Syriac. The following examples will
illustrate the very different uses of this tense. Question,
^Jtfl am I going? or may I go? Answer, *uf 2 : 2cf yes,
you are to go, or you may go. The question may thus be
either a simple interrogatory, or a permission asked ; and the
answer is to be understood accordingly. If the answer is
"you are to go," it is really a mild imperative. Compare
our English "you may go and do so and so;" when we
mean "you must go." This mode of speaking is very coin-
VOL. V. 21
162
mon, and in prayer is often interchanged with the imperative
in the same sentence ; e. g. t.S>fl>%\ V&aLa 2x : loOtl J-.
v < i
Lord, come and abide with us ! Compare in Anc. Syr.
1 Kings 8 : 30. Comp. also the interchange of the future
and imperative in Hebrew.
t**0 let him find, i. e. allow him to find, or he is to find.
"*
In this case, and very often to the third person, singular and
' *
plural, *3tiOu or JUOAX may be prefixed ; e. g. uxd >3tA*<
let them read, where as above we may have the idea of per-
mitting them to read, or of directing them, the circumstances
and the connection determining what is intended.
let me tell you; <<9hAX Oa what can we do? "
* i m< I ' " '
AU t^fdj* may I die a youth, it is true (may I die young,
if it be not true) compare the Latin " ne sim salvus," may
I perish !
The present subj unctive may be used to express a suppo-
sition, particularly if ^JJ&to a parable, a supposition, is pre-
fixed ; e. g. u*C70^OJt ^OLSOX : ^Vflalo supposition: he fin-
ishes his business, or let him finish, or grant that he finish, or
if he finish. Compare the Latin " vendat asdes vir bonus,"
suppose, etc. So, too, without the word ^ktttto ; e. g.
TL^pJk >LS : ^.OJCOaa *\Ajn ?Jt suppose you do not learn
your lesson, you will not go out. We may in this case say, if
we choose, that ^ is omitted, as in Hebrew (Nordh. 991,
3, a). The imperfect subjunctive allows the same idiom.
The present subjunctive is used in prohibition, where the
Ancient Syriac, the Hebrew, and the English would naturally
use the future ; e. g. VlStu^ & thou shalt not steal; jtlj^a 2Jt
thou shalt not lie. IXSlii^ i^ would mean thou wilt not steal,
or you are not in the habit of stealing, and *VSv^ Xia 1 would
be an emphatic way of saying the same thing. See in Ety-
1G3
mology a notice of this last form. This distinction it is im-
portant to observe ; otherwise we may be led into ludicrous
blunders. Thus, a man speaking to me about his son in
my employ, says ^a 2-^ kt him not be hungry ; to whom I
reply, ^* ^ he will not be hungry (I will do well for him)
or he does not go hungry.
NOTE. With the use of 2-* and J\ in this tense compare Kb
and bit of the Hebrew, oti and ft% of the Greek, and nan and ne of
the Latin. It is evident, however, that the resemblance is only a
general one, and in the indicative does not hold at all.
It is to be remarked that we are not limited to the sub-
junctive present for expressing prohibitions, as those using
the Ancient Syriac (Hoff. 130, 4, c.) and Hebrew (Nordh.
1006) were limited to the future. The imperative niay be
freely employed for that purpose, as 3O&X, iik do not steal,
** i do not go down, etc.
The present subjunctive may be used also in entreaty ;
e. g. *lj>V^ i-^ I beg you not to lie' *li3f 2- / beg you not
to sell, etc. Sometimes it is difficult to tell whether it is a
command or an entreaty, as, e. g., if I call to a man pursued
by a bull, VlVa )Jt do not stop.
In familiar conversation the *13 of the future is often
omitted, and then the form becomes that of the present sub-
junctive; e, g. ^fi : ^*f 2 Vulka if you wish (that) I go, I
(will) go. So Gen. 42 : 36, i ^oVl^SLX ^YUiJlio and (will)
you take JSenjamin ? So, too, iA or u*2 is often omitted ;
e. g. ^oefrS iiL i^ Xi-2 : JJMJ ^3 I wish (that) I may
read, but it is not happening (coming about). Here a general
desire is expressed to learn. With this we may compare
the ancient present participle, which is also used for a ge-
neric present (Hoff. 135, 3), as in Ecc. 2 : 14, where we must
translate the ancient Af I by Af 2 JJk . So fa^o2, Is. 3 : 2 ;
and many other cases. Moreover, the anc. present participle
164
is used for the future (Hoff. 135, 3), which will account for
A ^ ', 1 x $ I
such cases as that given above, viz. ^02 : ^f 2 X^3 _2.
<
%*S and perhaps some other verbs, in their ordinary use,
'.' ' ' * * '
retain the force of the ancient participle ; e. g. ^S>3 X*?2 SCf
exactly now I wish, where the idea is limited to the present
moment.
The present subjunctive is occasionally used for a preter-
ite indicative, as was the present participle (Hoff. 135, 3, b)
from which it sprung; e. g. teoi AdOJt.iO and Jesus saying
(said) ; w9d2 they said. In these cases, the modern usage is
almost a transcript of the ancient, 902 being written for
9o2, and **ol for M 92.
i i ^ i
It is not strange that these different idioms lead to ambi-
guity, which no acquaintance with the language will fully
'' m * 4.' i.** L 1 *''
remove ; e. g. 5^n Vr ^& Z*^~ ^k.0 may be translated
"our sweet voices let us all raise," or "we do all raise," or
"we will all raise." The perplexity thus caused, however,
is as nothing, compared with the puzzling expressions we
often find in Hebrew.
The usages are so simple in regard to what has been
called the second present subjunctive, that no remarks need
be made about them.
In a multitude of instances, the indicative or subjunctive
may either of them be used to express an idea ; but the
subjunctive will express it as more contingent, as is true of
the German and other languages; e. g. ZAC7? u>3h&o *X
every thing that there may be, for which we may substitute
zS^a u-xi ^ or Vu2a wxuaa ^a . So iocr ZaZ^ % J,
f i > H i i H i< i n
or i*^ ? "V? S ^2 if he be here, or if he is liere.
f i n
Imperfect Tense. This is often used as an imperfect in-
dicative, in accordance with the use of the ancient present
participle, joined with JjftOf , from which it took its origin ;
# x *' $ s * 4 '
e. g. JjftOT f >Ai9O Jjbcj &* \AX O and Jesus was walk-
it i H I
ing about and preaching.
165
It is also used, as the imperfect subjunctive in Latin, for
the pluperfect ; and this is the common idiom in regard to
a verb which follows a conditional clause, and which, in
our language, would be in the pluperfect. "We thus may say
xlAOf ^2 if you had told me, I
should not be (have been) angry ; '
>xk*>'V' * "
%AC1 ^Bl2 3s-SX^I if he had heard, certainly he would (would
i 1 i i
have) come ; implying that he did not hear nor come.
This tense is also used with a negative, to imply what ought
not to be ; e. g. 2xLX Xocr iaor i\a waoio 2-* VIA- lauAX
* > i< i> * /
you have done a thing that should not be done. See Lev. 4 : 13,
27, and compare the Ancient Syriac.
Perfect and Pluperfect Tenses. It is unnecessary to say any-
thing further of these tenses than that they are not much
used in common conversation, the Nestorians preferring to
state their idea in another and more simple form, which they
can in most cases readily do. When they are used, they
correspond in general to the same tenses in the Latin.
*13 has sometimes been prefixed to the tenses of the sub-
junctive in our books ; but this is not in accordance with
general usage in Oroomiah, and has of late been nearly or
quite dropped.
SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER PARTICLES.
Much that might be said under this head has been virtu-
ally anticipated in the numerous examples given in the pre-
ceding pages. The principal particles which may take the
subjunctive are: J , lik J , ftAJl , a , jLJkft , a la . a N*OU!,
a a i ^ i
?J , a ki2 , a laje , a Zao^ , a ii^x , a Acr , etc.
I ^ H I I I I
'' V_ ' # *
So that is expressed by ? ia*XOf ; when, by ft Zi>X wOT ,
as well as by ^JBu2 ; Zes^ b} r ft i^Of ZS , i. e. let it not be that.
As to the use of ^2 and ftA^i , the question whether they
are to be followed by the subjunctive or indicative present,
depends on the degree of contingency in each individual case,
1GG
in the speaker or writer's mind; e. g. Jao?OJJ JJxdi3 kAOf ^,
s '' m' I 1 ' " " "
or, instead, jLboaOtB ^Ou X*Xtl3 ^j if I am reading to-morrow.
^> , with the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive, implies
the non-existence of the action or state of the verb ; e. g.
%6&l TLXa^o ^ if you should sicken (implying that you are
ft I l f $ $ j, * ^
not sick now), Xfl^CD iacf *XjBC7 % 2 if you had come up (as
you have not).
As to the use of a , it is important to observe that, like
ut in Latin, it is employed in a multitude of cases to denote
the purpose, object, or result of the preceding clause, where
in English and Hebrew (Nordh. 1030) we should have the
infinitive : jJD&fO feAiaa uCfOJVd uiX tell for him that he
water the horse ; iACf 2*L*3 2LjJk he went that he might see;
I* ( i a
CV-^ UM*dt!09) *\ioC7f % j>S>t*i>\. they drew trouble that they
i> i T. it a
might find him (tried to find). Observe that it is immaterial,
in this last, and many similar cases, whether we use the pres-
ent or the imperfect subjunctive, each being alike contin-
gent. The present would, however, be generally preferred as
briefer and equally expressive. 9 is very often omitted after
^, etc. For example, iVlAjJ A>Va do you wish (that)
you may learn ? 2aAi^ *\3 Via )jLt ^3O ^ t!s necessary (that)
i' /T, // i //
7/0 M write quickly, uhdSkX uui9 Jx^XS 1X3 he will beg on (of)
them (that) they flee. Compare the omission of 9) in the an-
cient language (Hoff. 130, 4, y ; 149, 3, 5 ; 134, 3, a),
and also of ut in the Latin. The correspondence between the
signification of verbs in that language which dispense with
ut, and those in the Modern Syriac which are not followed
by 9 , is quite striking.
Sometimes a clause is interposed between 9> and the verb
to which it refers ; e. g. :
which literally reads / wish that those men that I
have spoken about them be poured into prison.
167
& %JO for that (Iva) is in general used like ft , but can only
denote the purpose or object, not the result. It is not com-
monly used in Koordistan, where 3 supplies its place.
There is the same distinction between the words
^ > ^flul and ^OL XooA^A ^Ou2 that there is in Eng-
lish between the expressions "when I pray" and "when I
am praying."
The remaining particles need no illustration. Z3O^ and
. ' ^
ZXdX are identical in meaning, the former being used more
in Koordistan, and the latter in Oroomiah. They corres-
pond to the ancient iddTLXl and uoA , as used with the
// i
future.
"Where several tenses of the same kind are connected by
the conjunction A, if the first is preceded by Vl3, the oth-
ers may omit it. So if JA is prefixed to the first, it is un-
derstood with all. The same is often, but not always, true
in regard to those tenses which terminate in %A91 ; e. g.
* * s v *
f X&JBO la Of Otf 2 ii he was in the habit of going and preach-
" i i ^ a i' m , i
ing, where %ACt need not be repeated after f X3>59 . So in
the ancient language. So in the English " I will go, and
(will) call them, and (will) have a talk."
INFINITIVE.
The absolute infinitive, joined with the finite verb, is used
in the Modern as well as in the Ancient Syriac (Hoff. 133),
and the Hebrew (Nbrdh. 1017), to give intensity to the
idea ; e. g. John 9 : 9, where the ancient is iSoa 7*0% 1fl , and
/ ^ % $ $ $ t 1 '/
the modern Jjf* Z*0>3 3iy>'>*n he is very much like, he
strongly resembles. Sometimes the infinitive is used in a man-
ner different from the preceding. For example, iZ-V^aoiXiiL
did he not hear ? To this, the answer may be as follows ;
168
/ ,.
&w coming he did not come. We have often prefixed !0 to
this infinitive, in accordance with early usage, and indeed
present usage among the mountains ; but it is not heard in
Oroomiah.
The infinitive with S is occasionally employed in the
Mod. Syr., though the subjunctive with and ft 10 is gene-
rally preferred. The following are examples of its use:
2&aa& M 3t&*0 VlA there is nothing to sell; i^f 5^ 2x-2 Aa?
i> i a i i> i ^ 1 1<
* ' v ^. '
we poured hand to go, i. e. we set out ; i ? > V*ilVC \ ^0^X2
did you come to hear f In these examples, a with the sub-
junctive may also be employed, according to usage in Oroo-
miah. In some parts of Koordistan, however, ^ is used
much more than here in Oroomiah, and especially when,
as in these cases, it has no object expressed after it. Thus,
* ' v v '
they say i JLAAfcit.^ <^Q^X2 , but, with an object folio wing,
\ ^nf 9hA9 Tl.VAXXa ^&\X2 , did you come to hear preaching?
In Oroomiah, in many cases, where we should expect ^ ,
some other preposition is used with the infinitive. For ex-
ample, in the sentences above we may substitute %h with
equal propriety.
As in the ancient lang., ^0 may be used before the infini-
tive for the purpose of comparison (Hoff. 134, 2) ; but in the
common usage without any ^ . Thus, for uA xUtfJB V*2
^ , in Euth 1 : 12, we may translate
V
or use, if we prefer, the subjunctive
^*OOfa ^o . So too, for the clause in Gen. 11 : 8,
va^Aa (0 OJtJ^ , \ vc may write
So we say feA^g ^AoA^ ^o ^S>Vti they ceased fr
ing; JlXauk^ *X590^f ^9 ^JixdSk^ we finished from trouble-draw-
ing, i. e. from being in trouble, or from taking pains ;
169
X^db 2Jt you cannot hinder me from
Jf! ii "
The infinitive is used in other connections without a pre-
position ; e. g. JaiSo jjJ^ he went to bring, where in Koor-
distan they would say ifliaaA .
Here may properly be classed such cases as the following:
,?iS^y> ) &91 while not yet arriving, i. e. while the person
had not yet arrived ; 3L*JL* & fcCf not at all seeing, the con-
text determining who did not see. So also with suffixes :
h*0fQbJL Z- &91 whik not seeing him. The place of these
may of course always be filled by the finite verb.
uJMbX A 91 1frAXi>a3 uJDOaJ^ &9 they will increase in
i it i a i a
wickedness until their perishing (Nordheimer, 1030, 3) ;
Zxdf 9t93 i*Xaf ^3Ld ^ before the sowing of the seed (Nordh.
1030, 4, a); < *L 1~ Ziooioc?O a^ laJXX are ma/cmy
thought (thinking) awe? speaking one (the same) ? (Nordh.
1013, I. 1). So t*9t ^ ZAONU90 fxk digging and
watering (fields) / do not understand (Nordh. 1013, II. 1) ;
Zda'f i!OOta*a liaJkJS ai ^e fowe of sun-rising (Nordh. 1030,
if ' * 4f
2, a); i*if ^i jTTbrt* w'XliO ^\*J^ fAere is nothing (so) JacZ as
committing adultery (N. 1030, 2, b); 2^O9X J|V>^5Lft VlA3
for the purpose of making bricks (Nordh. 1030, 6, a).
Some of the above may perhaps be regarded by others as
participles, the 3 of verbs of the first class being dropped ;
or simply as nouns. But it seems preferable, if etymology
alone, or the analogy of the Turkish and Persian, as previ-
ously noticed, is taken into account, to call them infinitives.
However, it matters little ; for what is the infinitive but a
noun, expressing the abstract idea of the verb, without ref-
erence to tense or number or person ? The references above
show that there is a striking similarity between these ex-
amples and those adduced by Nordh eimer to show the use of
the infinitive in Hebrew. They might be farther multiplied.
170
PABTICIPLE.
A participle, when repeated, sometimes denotes the repeti-
' *
tion of the action, or its continuance; e. g. laoajA laoao^
( i i i ,< i i
rolling, rolling, i. e. continuing to roll. Participles are often
thus used adverbially, to qualify a verb which follows ; e. g.
>3LObM 7\y M"fc*1 ,?Vy >>*1 running, running, go, i. e. as fast as
you can ; ZXl ^Sn^l 2JkJ^a laughing, laughing, he came,
i. e. full of glee.
Participles are sometimes used in the place of the infini-
tive, as in the ancient language (Hoff. 134, 3, b), after verbs
denoting to begin; e. g. Z^JJtJ ^^aaX they began plucking.
>
Xd is not commonly prefixed to the participle in the
Modern as in the Ancient Syriac (Hoff. 135, 5), and indeed
never in Oroomiah, although we occasionally employ it thus
in our books.
**' t. .* * * v* ' '**
For such expressions as JjJLJS wAAX , 2ot^*3 wXfLa ,
etc., the Mod. Syr. uses the nouns terminating in 2* ; e. g.
? 2&3LX , 2cfZ9 lia^Ji . We retain, however,
*
3 Aflu and its plural, for want of any suitable term in
the modern for hypocrite.
VERB OF EXISTENCE.
and AJ are both used, as in the Anc. Syr., to express
' 4.
the idea of possession, and that constantly ; e. g. u^ &*2 /
have, ^ftA X*2 thouhast, etc., literally, there is to me, "est
^^ i ' f ^
mihi." When we refer to indefinite past time, ioof is to be
V * " 4.'
inserted ; as ^ >LaC7 Xu^ there was not to us. In order to
v i i
express future possession, we employ the future of the verb
; e. g. <J^ wOCT^ifUS 2f Of 5J3i much money will be to
^** i
171
thee. So it is used for the conditional: OV* X**W ^2 if there
be to her, i. e. if she have.
It may be mentioned in this connection that such forms
as the ancient uX2 I am, w*C7O<\*^ it is not he, are not at
' ' ' K-
all allowable in the modern language. Nor are TU2 and
AuJ* joined with participles ; as
ADVERBS.
Adverbs in the Mod. Syr., as in the Ancient (Hoff. 147,
2), are often repeated, like other parts of speech, to denote
intensity. Examples have already been given.
Care should be taken not to confound ii5L*2 , used as an
adjective, with the same word used as an adverb. Thus,
jax*2 Jftaia k-.cv-^ <*2sio means bring the other girl, while
the expression >LiX**2 ^Siaia wCV^t wj means bring the girl
again.
Two negatives are very often used in Modern Syriac to
increase the force of the negative ; e. g. ^*-* & wXio fee?
we saw nothing ; A^aufl ^^* i^ & VI I do not at all know
tS^ 4p 07 there is none at all. This differs from ancient
usage (Hoff. 147, 4), but corresponds to that of the Turk-
ish and the Persian. As an example of the latter take
(ALo ^4J j^- ,?sAp he sees nothing.
When there are several negative propositions in the same
sentence, each verb should properly have its own negative ;
e. g. jvS>fryS>8 ZjfcO ^^uMOuB ?Jt they did not rise and go
out. Still, if the second verb be not at all emphatic, the
second 2Jk may be omitted.
PREPOSITIONS.
The most important peculiarities of these have been noted
in the Etymology. They are used very much like the cor-
responding prepositions in the ancient language.
172
The phrases >^^ S>*3 , ^fti^Ji ^0\>3 , etc., which
are in common use, deserve notice. We may literally trans-
late them : between me to myself, between thee to thyself, i. e. with-
out any advice or help from others. Compare the ancient
OVX*Vv\ w 0704*3 . The modern A*3 also conforms in
f i i > i f V ' '
other respects to the ancient a>3 ; e. g. ancient Ov^o ^v>3 ,
modern CJJ>2o ^oA3, between thee and him. A*3, how-
ever, in the modern lang. is more usually repeated ; thus,
5^fiJjk*3O tA3 between me and thee. See both construc-
tions with 'pSj in Hebrew (Nordh. 1041, 1, a, b). It may
also be remarked that A>*3 sometimes means including; e. g.
1*4 '' k -* ' .* ' 1
MjJJb Jk>!1 includinq all of them ; /aiUVXSO Z&i2 ij>*3 includ-
t *J / iii i
ing men and women.
CONJUNCTIONS.
In the Modern Syriac ^ is often omitted ; e. g.
Z&2 3>y, wa*l two (or) three men. So in Anc. Syr. (Hoff.
149, 1, b). So in the Turkish. On the other hand, it is often
$ f I *^ ^ i I
repeated at the head of successive clauses ; e. g. i2 - IU2 L*
. > v
either I or you. Compare o2 o2 in Ancient Syriac.
' ' L '
In the same way we repeat Jao2. Ouf o J&o2 jStVlfl J&ol
both the king and vizir (Hoff. 149, 2). So with >t*O7 , which
corresponds to tJ^o2 , and is more used by the people.
Sometimes O is omitted ; very often, indeed, in common
conversation, a is also vulgarly substituted for O in such
expressions as ***'2a f <X*X Iwaz and they, i. e. Iwaz and his
companions.
PHRASES.
It will be useful to learners, and not without interest to
those who would compare the Modern Syriac with its cog-
nate dialects, to give a small collection of the peculiar
173
idioms and phrases with which the language abounds.
Many have indeed already been given in the examples used
to illustrate the Syntax. Those which follow are noted
down as they occur, without any attempt at system.
jL9OZ9 tJtf'2 VlS toOfoAftt his business will go upon the
i " , , , ., , ' <
road, i. e. will prosper; uw*SO2 JkX OOOT X0OJ&V. they were
V ^ ^ ^. 4.' x
looking on my road, i. e. awaiting my arrival ; wXVd J3L> ^t9op
' 4. * V-.
we gave heart for them, i. e. comforted them ; IfQ+JB ASbl Y13 OC7
I i x '* ' " "
he will eat sticks, i. e. be beaten ; ^EL* t*Xft2 late care, i. e. took
pains, or had trouble; ? fl>T o"cV3 2a*-*2 ^^ X*aa^3 /am
< i a a
pouring (putting) Aand to #ia business, i. e. I am beginning.
This idiom is even used as follows : J4oo*iocp> 2ah*2 2^33
* < 'v_' ' ' '' ''
he poured hand to speak. ^>o 2x-2 X^i "3 he will throw off
hand from us, i. e. will withdraw countenance or support ;
the head of the nest, applied to the oldest child ;
they fell to the road, i. e. they set out;
iX Z39hX tXft every sheep on his own legs,
i. e. every man on his own responsibility; wOfO
it arrived to his hand, i. e. it reached him ; u*CfOX^>L3
i i a
it fell to his hand, at times used for what comes accidentally.
Sometimes we say u>-*3LA *xa ?Jk it will not fall to my
' ' " '' i* - 4 * ''
hand, i. e. I cannot (do so and so). j>laJk, Z3& it drew
much, i. e. it took much time ; i*- /&&&&& he is black-faced,
i. e. he is guilty or disgraced; iX^ ^i^ab**- he is white-faced,
i. e. he is innocent ; Jj- iloJS wOVObXa his head is hard,
f i i ,
i. e. he is obstinate; ,?><Vt ocja ^OJQ ao2 *\&8 ^ I can-
" -^> i*
wo enfer &e/ore iAa^ business, i. e. I cannot undertake it ;
qjiftitfr* ukSOf ^^ta* 2aJaUk9 /aw a 7 oiw7 Aoe ^*om you, i. e. I ex-
^*i a I i' H m ii m 4*4.
ercise hope in regard to you ; OOfft ^o >\yV^ 3A k*07O&a
Aeoo 7 o'oes not go out from that business, i. e. he does
174
not understand it, is unable to accomplish it ; uCfO*3
I cannot with Mm, i. e. cope with ; i-*^* ^V^*** >X*Mu the fruit
has arrived, i. e. is ripe ; wCToVlia 2xdLX >.bo jS^aX XaVlcr
> v I* >
Ae cfrc #iws yrora $e roo of his ear, i. e. from necessity ;
/tfxS ZJt u*Pf<XiOC7 Ais understanding does not cut, i. e. he
does not understand ; iXA2 O*o%^ Z*&X uS? j9owr ^eoce orc
that man, i. e. salute him kindly ; i-ba .?S.y,S^ Ae wen* 0w2,
i. e. he turned out, a drunkard ; ]^**3LJO,3 !*+ ^o Vl9 /
will strike back on Christ, i. e. I will take refuge in, I will go to
for support ; Jj^* 5^jft*V>fr your pleasure it is, i. e. let it be
as you please ; 2i>AXf >A07 2a>o^ ^e from great to small,
i.e. all; 2aL*i ^*H*IPL\ to strike /lattery, i.e. to flatter;
jwOfoVvS Okik s ^UObYMLiB you rose in his face, i. e. rose against,
were opposed to him ; lj^\ 3 v\)fr* it reached my soul, i. e. I
was driven to extremity ; i^L* 4AX\**i4tt >nxfl the cold has
' *L V ' '
smitten you, i. e. you have taken cold ; ^J> uV*J>fl sweeten us,
i. e. forgive us; ixi2 OOfA ^9 ^Sy!\X Z-^ Jcfo not break from
that man, i. e. I do not cower before him ; Z^*~ft^ ^3U> our
heart opened, i. e. we became happy ; 2j*j^ ^ftJL^ your
heart remained, i. e. you were not hearty (in the business),
or you were displeased ; ?J^* 2a^2 ^9Ld it is before the hand,
i. e. at hand ; i^W J&JUAa bC70JQ*2a his breath is ridden,
i. e. is quick, as of a dying man ; 3. Vyft"! nCyqaS his heart
l> H I II
burned, often in the sense of compassionating another, as,
my heart burned for him. So the Nestorians speak of the
heart as boiling, cooling, freezing, etc. The meaning of
these figures is obvious. &* ZJ> yoyA>*1 his knees
,i H i i,
it X LJt ^ ' $ L
are stopped, i. e. he is wearied out ; ZA* ;roOhdL craxoi
175
her foot is heavy, i. e. she is pregnant ; *UO0jLJt ?V&i it fell to
my understanding, i. e. I comprehended; <UViaoSocT TLAJS.3
/ ii |i //
cook your words, i. e. speak with deliberation ; W-* M*3UJ Z*BO*B
i/ie Aorse is cooJced, i. e. he is hardened to heat and cold, etc. ;
Zi2 these how many years, i. e. these many years ;
2x&w Z~ a ten days, i. e. ten days ; AA >P AX
r // ^^ / 9
on your neck, i. e. the responsibility is on you. So the phrase
" on your head." *4l3a Za->4U a seer of face, i. e. a time-
/ / * v V
server ; Zlita Z^w 2aL*o2 he has entered upon years, i. e. he is
growing or has grown old ; ZA*.fl) Zs- Z***^
irz^ swimming, i. e. they are swimming ; 2xo~
* A^
ft/y ^Ae to&Ze, i. e. ask a blessing ; ^0O07 ^9 *Lfl
yow Aave ^one out from your mind, i. e. as we say, you are out
of your head ; uCtfoaoc^ *3Tlo Z-^ ^XiOOlf ?/Mr under-
I W > ^*
standing do not put on his understanding, i. e. do not compare
yours with his.
SALUTATIONS.
A few of the more common will be given below. It will
be seen that some of them are rather Oriental than peculiar
to the Nestorians.
One who first speaks to another says 4^& ?T**T peace
to thee, to which the reply is 4&J&Jt "2 ?.iu.l*1 in peace thou hast
$ i ^* i 1 >
come, or, simply, ZWtB. On taking leave, one says
fci!Bi>JQ>3 4^A^aft (of uncertain derivation), equivalent to
good-bye. Instead of this, we also hear Zv*X3 >XA^ remain
in peace. At evening, a common salutation is ?'*V^ 5MBJtboa
(may) your evening (be) blessed. After a death or some
calamity has befallen a house, a visitor says to the inmate
?fftiJQ>3 ZAC? ^BJta may your head be comfortable, or com-
forted. When a man puts on a new coat, his friend says to
176
him /aiia>a^1 X*OCf may it lie blessed. On receiving a favor,
' * t 4._ { j j
one replies iiauJQia xlACf , where ?aftftL3 seems to be
nearly equivalent to ,?SVl may you be happy or blessed.
* ' A ' 5 45 '
After dinner, the guest says to his host ^ft\ Xftto io&l
may God increase you. If one enters a field, he says to the
laborer *VAAd ^ftj>3gp lc^2 way GW give you strength.
At the commencement of a feast or a wedding, the invited
person says Za>.*^3 10C7 5^pa?X may your feast (or wed-
ding) be blessed. If a host wishes to be specially polite, he
4. V "* mm '
says to his guest ^A-V*\2 l>\ *X9 ike head of my eyes,
you have come. If one inquires about another's circumstan-
ces, the reply often is M* wuJ&^ uAbo72 4^Ail\OA ^ofrom,
your wealth (or bounty) my condition is good. Sometimes he
says " from the bounty of God and yours." An inferior,
when asked by a superior about his health, often gives no
reply except 5H Bb V? your servant. A person wishing to
^"' *' * *
abase himself before another, says ^fti*1>ftiB ^C7 may /
be your sacrifice. One, on seeing something wonderful, often
exclaims 2cfrVl\ /Si**OJ3Ut*X glory to God! When he wishes
to commend another, he says ^AsV. ?..*ftfl>?3 may your soul
be sound, equivalent to bravo.
POETRY.
We have made some attempts, and, as we think, not un-
successfully, to introduce sacred poetry into the Modern
Syriac. The language is sufficiently flexible and sufficiently
imaginative, and we have already quite a collection of
hymns, both original and translated. The following is a
translation of 'Cowper's beautiful hymn, " There is a foun-
tain filled with blood," which seems to have lost none of its
beauty in this strange dress.
177
oral a
II
a
Zicr
cro&aoo
: f X .'.. XO
H
U
i 1 1
iadua *-
23
178
cf
iia &*** lib a- oV?
:<Ai..nT3 zaA uA lAoc?
>>*i
a
JOHN CHAPTER VII.
As some who may read the preceding grammar will have
no access to our books, it is not out of place to transcribe a
few verses from the seventh Chapter of John. They are a
simple and familiar translation of the corresponding verses
in the Ancient Syriac.
2
c-A Zacr
OUBCT
.Z-?oc5-? ZtJaxaa laZX Zocr Z^ai
' ' '
If o :
9oM aoula Zxai ViAa aaJo a
I I II
179
OOCT
III ml I II II I ,1 II I
I 1
VtAS ^jttOMB NO-' Z30U3 Zi2? AaUO : ZxJO
I v // I 1
29492 1&2 .
oof
,> a
oocy u^jL Z-?O
i> 'i'>
ol Zocr Vu2 Zaa ^YnV^SCn i o'er Z^,- Zawi 0007
' ~ H
ooc?
Zi-2 .
ooor Z&l^ao
2or'2
29Jia
180
Z-f"a
a^Lba o* < < ?*<a*ia
II * H |1
// II I I I
ocf a laJSU i*^sa o'er
?,>V3L3
t ixoaiai
J3C7 bA-a z'i-2 :
t * t
.
> >
Z-xx
APPENDIX.
IT is stated on page 45 of this Grammar, that some effort
had been made to note down as many verbal roots in com-
mon use as possible, but that most, if not every one, of the
lists of verbs given were probably still incomplete. Daring
the past year more than a hundred new verbs have been
collected, which will be found classified below. Many of
these verbs we have hitherto been unacquainted with, and
every succeeding year will of course add to their number.
We may thus hope to approximate in time to a complete
catalogue of the verbal roots in the Modern Syriac.
It would be a very interesting and profitable study to
trace the roots already written down to their primitive
source, so far as it can be ascertained, and I had intended
to make such an examination. But want of leisure com-
pels me to relinquish the idea. This I regret the less, as
every oriental scholar has the means of making the examin-
ation for himself. No doubt many of these roots have been
employed in daily intercourse from remote antiquity, and
yet, as intimated on page 8, may perhaps now be written
down for the first time.
An opportunity has been afforded me of reading eighty-
eight printed pages of the Grammar and furnishing for them
a table of errata. The printing is beautiful, and much ad-
mired by us, as well as by the Nestorians, and the errors of
the press are in general unimportant. The wonder is that,
under the circumstances, they are not of a more serious
character.
It should have been stated in the "INTRODUCTORY EE-
MARKS," that the matrices for the Syriac types with which
the Grammar is printed were prepared by Mr. Breath, one
of my missionary associates, who has from the first superin-
tended our press, and cut with great taste and skill all our
fonts of Syriac type, except in a single instance.*
D. T. STODDARD.
Oroomiah, Persia, May, 1855.
* See note at the end of this Appendix. COMM. OF PUBL.
VOL. v. 23 A
180b
VERBS INFLECTED LIKE fcO9hS, 1ST CLASS.
t M ^
J
.la * 5 e q uivalent to
< Seep.82.
to come to nought, fade
away (as stars before the
sun ) t
^ to reduce to pulp, become umn V
""^ ^ pulp. "
to abrade.
^ to cave in, as a roof of
earth (also causative).
to split (tr. and intr.).
to starve (intr.).
$ to stop one's mouth (intr.),
l to become silent
to cement(cracked vessels).
to floor (an antagonist).
* 5 equivalent to
i See p. 81.
to invert.
to reduce to ruins, to be-
come a ruin.
to reduce to pulp. See
.
tojjs courageous, to as-
to be <l uiet to be famt
to prick, to pierce.
to make to squint, to squint.
to slip out of place, to dis-
charge a gun, to tear.
to suck in (as a leech).
to blow.
to 8]lt te and
to fade, bleach (intr.).
r to stick, adhere. Like
, p.71.
VEEBS INFLECTED LIKE
, 2ND CLASS.
to hiccup.
equivalent to
See p. 80.
.. u A -n
to be still.
to incite (to a contest).
,,-, o
' j equivalentto*A*a. See
") _ Q1 "* '*
to reprove.
courageous.
to touch, feel of.
< equivalent to
< See p. 82.
C to make damp, be damp.
,
i V x u
>,Tl > to be
v
. *
VxiC9 to saddle.
^
to go on foot.
{ , f , ,
\ forsake (as a bird for-
t sakes her nest).
..*
jbO A! ? make clean, become
. , ) clean.
180c
VERBS INFLECTED LIKE t&2&, p. 64.
to fill to the brim.
to dissolve (tr.).
# *
ft to perceive (by the eye). JJQJ to stand on end (as the hair).
"
* fo be Qr become
"
to snap make to roll (as
a marble).
-al i > to thrust See JQ3U*X,
***'* \ ll
" * C p. 51.
to roost.
$ to repent. See
^ p. 59.
LIKE
p. 66.
A to go out, be extinguished.
VERBS INFLECTED LIKE ia, p. 69.
.^4* , . , . k S to be rooted out; when of
>X. to indent, make a depression. ZU < 2 n ^ class to root out
^WM to castrate. ^9^ to bound back (as a ball).
Jy i> i,
to groan. iX to stray, run away.
< i 1
VERBS INFLECTED LIKE ^CMbaCT , p. 80.
a i
'
to benumb, be benumbed. *^*CT to be pleased or gratified.
/
tfl>S> V*1 to chew.
to make small, to make
round, to become small
or round.
to cause to cave in (as
a mine), to cave in.
to trample.
to in . clte ' to mortlf y ( as
a diseased part).
AOT 5 to make to hesitate, to
fi.l hesitate.
to button, be buttoned.
'o-keorbeco m e m uddy.
' < equivalent to UPOJPO.
S < See p. 81. " '
to bark ' to croak -
to embolden, be bold.
S t tear (cloth) (tr. and
> intr.).
to laugh immoderately.
180 d
to dazzle.
' < to put out (leaves) ; to
**** * \ break out (as sores).
to spill (tr. and intr.).
< to dig into, to pick the
( teeth.
< to mix up in confusion,
I be mixed.
( to tick (as a clock), to ring
< (as metals). Also used
(in a causative sense,
to mix up, etc., as
k&aaJ*.
// i
to beat with a switch, to
smart (as if from such a
blow).
to pant from heat, to sob.
H i
\^A& to be curved or bent
<> IT,
to clank (as chains),
to make a hedge.
to tickle, be tickled.
$ to interweave, be inter-
) woven.
A VV SL to ijcjj up<
^ " ^ '
$ to loosen (as a pin in its
> socket) (tr. and intr.).
to trample down.
to make firm, confirm.
to gather (as pus).
S to reconcile, unite in
\ friendship.
\..TV> to be a wanderer.
." '/
to prick up (the ears).
to make to pant, to pant
( to make damp, become
\ damp.
< to graft, to be or become
\ grafted.
< to dam up and swell (as
\ water).
5 to breathe hard (through
^ the nose).
to wedge in. be wedged.
to snort
I to be or become consoli-
( dated.
to pave (with stone, etc.).
^ jt ' ( to cause fair weather, to
S ( become fair.
to have darting pains.
' ( to place upright, to stand
' >(
to cackle.
JjA^ j to arch, bow down (with
77 ^ ( age) (tr. and intr.).
B i,l j to reduce to powder, be
age) (tr. and intr.).
o reduce to powder,
reduced to powder.
to have colic.
to heave with emotion.
to shiver with cold.
,
%% ^ j to make musty, become
*(
musty.
( to beautify, become
beautiful. "
<i '
>5LOaJ6 to crack (as an egg) (intr.).
t0 Sag ' hang d Wn '
LSbSv -I * 8nrm ^ U P' Cri
, 1 (tr. and intr.)
l 5 to be boiled to pieces.
1 fall to pieces. '
180 e
VERBS INFLECTED LIKE JiOXS . p. 86.
to soil, be soiled.
c to snap (as a board when
] broken ). See JLdXX,
< P- 86. " '
to run mad.
to be bold, to dare.
iijg ( to advance (in age and
PI stature).
^3^=09^ to starve.
i" it
. - '
If 3f to be affected or moved.
VERBS INFLECTED LIKE i*Oi , p. 86.
, See p. 86. ^Bft.d to howl, as f Of , p. 86.
i' i 1
[JVbte. To Mr. Stoddard's acknowledgments to Mr. Breath, with
which we are happy to unite our own, it is proper to add a word of re-
cognition of the labor and skill bestowed by Mr. S. S. Kilburn, type-
cutter attached to the Type and Stereotype Foundry of Messrs. J. K.
Rogers & Co., Boston, in recutting several of the letters and points, and
making some important additions to the font.
COMM. OF PUBL.]
180 f
CORRECTIONS.
Page 5, lines 21-22,ybr modern language, read written character.
" 7, " 6, for SCRIPTURE TRACTS " SCRIPTURE FACTS.
" 12, " 15, " pp. 10, 11 " p. 13, Note 3.
( u j~ (i
" " last line,
/ i
" 13, line 1, " ilOXl " jlox2.
" 17, " 9,
13,
18, 8,
u 15>
21, 1,
" 23, 14,
" 24, lines 20-21, for what to me, " what may be, etc.
" " line 23, place a period after what
" gg^ j Qr ^3^ m ay, rcorf that may be.
" 25, " 6, " ^ " ^1.
" 10, cf cr .
" 27, " 11,
29, 24,
" 32, " 12, " weta " " weta. ''
35, 3,4,
39, " 17,
* The vowel should never be placed on final 2 , and wherever printed
thus in the Grammar, it must be understood to be a slip, and the _*_ must be
placed on the preceding consonant
180g
Page 39, line 22, for coming before read coming upon.
48, " 19,
49, ' 20, "
" 50, " 5, " to string, as peppers, read to sting (as pepper
does the mouth).
" 54, " 25, " may replied, read may be replied.
" 55, " 16, " MOO/ " uaC7.
i >
" " " 22, erase the comma after as well as .
" 58, " 15, for iVnS^, read \t^ .
" 61, " 15, " If " 2f.
a <
" 63, " 20, " JtX^ " O.2&.
" 64, " 19, " " "
# i''
" " near the bottom, after 9 JL , insert *9Z*fe to be worth.
II ^
" 67, line 1, for A^J read
75, 7, '
" 16,
" 76, near the middle, for 7>\\.*t read ,?\
<' i
" 78, line 3, /or , read
" 79, " 26, "
" 81, " 18, "
" " last line but one, for <\iVA read
^*'> t, i
" 82, line 16, for >.>..S.Y
^ // i
" 83, " 3, " tiyBaJk - \fi\\ .
~ // ~
* In a number of cases ft appears without its point, it having been broken
of probably, in printing. This, however, is of little consequence, unless it
lead to a confusion of A and A . The former seems always to have its point
180 h
Page 84, line 6,' for X3tV> read
a i
11 85, " 22, " JfcWn>i "
I 1
" 86, " 4, " TJPOuCP
" " last line, "
' " " at the bottom, add to the list of verbs :
2f Of to howl.
A ^ j to howl ; also, as used in Koordistan,
3
to glitter
" 88, first line, for %*& read
" " line 17, " The future, " The 1st pers. future.
MISCELLANIES
I. LETTER FROM REV. J. L. PORTER OF DAMASCUS, CONTAINING
GREEK INSCRIPTIONS, WITH PRES. WOOLSEY'S REMARKS ON THE
SAME.
Damascus, 27<A April, 1854.
Dear Sir : The following inscriptions were copied during a jour-
ney made in the Hauran by the Rev. Mr. Barnett and myself, in
February, 1853. We saw and copied many others; but as some of
them are unimportant, and others already printed, I do not consider
it necessary to trouble you with them. So far as I know, those
which I now send have never been taken, or at least have never been
published.
The following are from the village of Hiyat, on the north-western
slope of the Jebel Hauran. The ruins on which No. 2 is found
appear to be of an older date than the inscription.
1.
ABCBOCAT
MOTKAIATMOC
TIOICABAOT
eiOTTO
ONHOIHCAN
3.
nPOKAOCATMOT
NTMHAHNC^IAI
WNTIiePATMOT
TIOTAN0HKN
2.
MANOCQAIMOT
KAITIOIATTOTC
AWKANCKTHC
OIKOAOMK A
XVAACXIA
ACKATHNCT
PANCTC6BOTN
CKTOKTPIwN
From Hit, an ancient town about one mile in circumference, half
an hour S. E. of the former :
4.
AIAI DCMAZIM DCCnAPXOC
THIIATPIAleKTICeNAlAHPWAOr
HPWAOTIAIOYKAIAIA
*IAinnOTMAAXOTKAI
AAAOTAKPABANOT
CIIIMeAHlWN
184
6.
MAinilCAOTK
PJTA50>CAOT
KOCOCMNM ACTNHTAI (?)
C K C M N CO N C T I P A
AMf>PAYACOCTN
HAPAKOITIKAITC
NOIClelCKACOCA
N
INA
HAT
HN
CI
KAICAAAMANMC
The following are in Bathanyeh, a ruined and now deserted town
one hour N. 37 E. from Hit. This is the Arabic form of the Greek
Batanaea. The whole of the Jebel Hauran, from the plain on the
North to Sulkhad on the South, with the exception of a narrow strip
along the western base, is called Ardh el-Bathanyeh (x*iiJ5 (jaj\ ).
According to information received on the spot, I believe this district
is much more extensive than is represented in the Appendix to your
Biblical Researches. It is unquestionably the Batanaea of Josephus.
The ruins of Bathanyeh are about a mile in circumference, and con-
tain many large and substantial buildings, with massive stone doors.
I think it has never been visited.
6.
AVCOCIAVTOV0CO
pocn ACI vo VN e
IMOCABIBOVANA
MOCTAVTOVZOB6
AOCNATAMCAOVni
(?)
CTViANereiPAN
TOTVXIONCK
TOTH ~
7. 8.
A1PHA KCIIPICKOCC* CTATO
OCOM VKH<|<1P
AIMOT
AWPO
CT
OIN
N
AITOCKNCTa>PIC
ArAGHTVXH
AV2IABAno>
AAAAAHANHKAA
HTtoniCTwMAA
XOCKCOCHBeOVKe
NOV
KwMC
CNA
xo
T
At the ruined town of Suleim, 1 h. 35 m. S. by W. from Shuhba,
are the remains of a beautiful temple. The portico has fallen, but
on a large stone among its ruins we succeeded after much difficulty
in copying the following inscription. It appears from it that this is
the site of the ancient Neapolis mentioned in the Notit. Eccles. in
connexion with Canatha, Dionysias and others. (See C. a. S. Paulo,
Geogr. Sac. p. 295.) The letters are well cut, but are now much
defaced.
185
9.
MNHMAMEOPAIEIIEPIKAAAEEAOIAIMONAI
ENOAITAIEEOIAEMOTKOTIIEPBEIIEAEIAWN
AOHOEEnTEPOT*INOOAEHETET5E0E
OTAlOTHTITETArMAirHPAAEOTEAE^AI
HAIATAPNEONOTnOTEHANnANEIMlA
AATirOTATOEKAINTHPIIANTEEINETOIHOE
TIAElBTIwNOIETEIIOATIIPeoTirHPAEIOT
ENEAAOENEOnOAITHEOIKOAOMHEENETTYX
On the right side of the entrance-gate of the Castle of Sulkhad,
is the following inscription in rude characters, and now nearly
illegible.
10.
AFAeHTTXH BOPAOCCA
0AMOCNACM CIIKKOnOICKT
CA0AOCCIXMO WNTOT0COTCKTIOA
BACCOOOTAniOT TOTC PM
The large and very ancient town of Kurdyeh is situated in the
stony plain at the foot of the mountains, an hour and a half N. 84
E. of Busrah. Few cities in the Hauran are of greater extent, and
none of more remote antiquity. It is probably the Kerioth men-
tioned by Jeremiah, with Bozrah and Beth-gamul (Jer. 48 : 23 and
24). On an old tower I made out with much difficulty the follow-
ing inscription.
11.
I<J>A0HCAMIMCOC
CTMBIOtfANNACKCAF NOK + CAAANOM
TICATOM MAPIN CCArOA
The following inscription we found on a large stone at an ancient
temple, beside the village of Hebr&n. This village, or rather town,
is finely situated on the summit of a lofty hill, S. 1 8 W. of the
Kuleib, distant about an hour and a half. The stone now forms
part of the roof of a large chamber of comparatively recent con-
struction ; but wholly composed of the ruins of the temple. We
were informed by the old man who led us to the spot, that it was
only lately brought to light by the removal of the clay and lime
with which the roof had been covered. It is important as contain-
ing a well known date, and celebrated names.
VOL. v. 24
186
12.
1. rnEPEwTHPIAEKXPIOTKAIEAPOETITITAIAIOT
AAPIANOTANT(NEINT
2. EEBAETOTETEEBOTEONAOEEKTWNIEPATIKOJN
EKTIE0HETOTEOKTWKAI
3. AEKATOTANTWNEINOTKAIEAPOEnPONOHEAMENWN
APIETEIAOTOAIMTOAI0EAOT
4. EMMEnATEMMErANHXAMENOTErAKUN0AIMT
ABXopTENrMAEEXTEMMErANNAPTIEP<>TAMIUN
This is one of the most beautiful inscriptions I have ever seen in
this country. It is now as perfect as the day it was finished.
Believe me, dear Sir, yours very truly and respectfully,
J. L. PORTER.
Rev. Dr. ROBINSON, New York.
REV. DR. ROBINSON:
Dear Sir, None of the inscriptions copied by Mr. Porter in
the Hauran, are to be found in Boeckh's collection. Burckhardt
visited the places called by Mr. Porter Hit, Sulkhad, Kureiyeh, He-
bran, but did not notice these inscriptions. Most of them are intel-
ligible ; but there are two or three of which I can make nothing.
I send you back the letter of Mr. Porter, to be published, if you
think fit, in the Journal of the Oriental Society, together with copies
of the inscriptions, corrected to the best of my power. I am in-
debted to Prof. Hadley for valuable suggestions.
1. "Afiefiog AvfJLOv xal Avfiog vldtg 2afiuov &EIOV z6 [ftvijfiEllov
The name Abebus is found in No. 5, there spelt Abibus, and in
Bceckh's C. I., n. 4560, where it is Ababus. Aumus occurs in Xo.
3. I have written Safidov for ' Afi&ov, because the former is else-
where to be met with, and one of the sigmas may easily have been
overlooked. See No. 10.
2. Mavog 6at t uov xal viol aUrov UStaxav ex TTJJ olxoSo/^txr^; ? * *
Below I seem to read Xedlag, i. e. Xdiag, and then follows what
may be xal T^V Styav etiatfiovv . ixw xvguav suggests ex r&v twv
xvglwv. Comp. x jG>v TOV xvqlov, B. n. 4523. For Thaimus, see
No. 10.
3. Ugoxlo; Atyov TU 0ew ibv ravvfirfiijv % Idiwv tntf) Avpov vlov
187
In B. n. 4596 there is mention of a Theopliilus, who ibv ravv-
4. Aftiog Md&juog enugxog TTJ narQidi, HxTiaev Jtd 'Hgtidov c HQ(L5ov
idlov, xal 8iu (InklTinov M&.k%ov, xal ".Addov 'Axgafiuvov 7ii[ielr]T(av.
What does Idiov mean ?
5. With the necessary corrections in the text, this inscription runs
thus :
"Oifiie tivdytiv (Mkimre dovxrjvfyie TiH-ecag dovx6g, og ftv^ua aiiv
aii^T] (?) x tiefisl.lwv tyelgug, a/uptyei/jag oiiv ifisia. Ttagaxofri, xal
rexvoig elg xltog &el, xal 2aka[i<ivq$.
The word writen quit in the original may be a proper name. As
I read, the sense is that Philip, a ducenarius, reared the tomb with
a court or open place about it from the foundations, and roofed it
around together with his wife and children. The last words xal
^ala/ndvrjg seem to be added afterwards. Do they indicate that a
person of that name became owner or was buried in the tomb ?
Salamanes is the name of a Syrian deity in B. n. 4449, 4451.
After reading what Gothofred (Cod. Theodos.), Ducange (Gloss.
Med. et Inf. Grsec.), and Rein in Pauly's Real-Encycl. have said about
ducenarii, I cannot feel quite sure what the ducenarius cohortis duds
here spoken of was, and must leave the determination of the point
to persons better acquainted with the institutions of the later Roman
empire. The very rare word &fj-(fr^e^ag (if that be the true reading),
might easily be misspelt by the stone-cutter.
6. Avao; ravrov freugbg riaai&etvov, ]\ r vog 'Afilfiov, "Ava[ios
rafaov, Zofiedog NaxafA&ov 'eniox&iai, (?) ^.v^siqoiv TO rv/elov x
T&V TTJ[? yroAewg]. QeuQog may be a proper name, perhaps mis-
copied : if it is an official title we should read H&crig Qelvov.
Narufi&ov ought to be perhaps Nmavailov. ravrog occurs more
than once in Syrian inscriptions, and the same is true of Zufiedog,
spelt Zofi&dog. Comp. B. n. 4518, 4519, 4604, 4613, 4635 for the
former, and n. 4560, 4573 for the latter. The name Sanamus, as
read by Franz in B. n. 4567, 4658, must, I think, be identified with
Anamus of this inscription.
7. Al'Qrjdog ' Ofial^iov awgog IT&V te. (or e. simply ; N being for / or
repeated by mistake).
A name " Ovaivog is found in B. n. 4559, 4574, and is perhaps the
true reading here.
8. I can make next to nothing of this. At the top appears xal
Ilglaxog icflaraio, which is to be taken, perhaps, as following the
last words xaVAenog xal JVeaw>()tg. Below &^a&^ tv^rf the name of
some one ano xdfiyg may have been mentioned.
9. This interesting and well preserved inscription in hexameters,
with the necessary corrections, is as follows :
188
uotSiuov
KCTT* 8e (Uou xa&vTiEQfte neleiduav 86/uo? alnvg
Poiiquvog Si |U'Tv|e, -freov d'l6Tt]Ti ritaynai,
yrj()ateov; 8iaa&at,, diup viov ofcioTe nu^ma
elfil 8' cUuTttiraTOj xXtir^, n<ivT(Taiv trot/tog
vldat &' vltavolg ie Tioij) TTQOTI yrj^aj lovaiv.
Alviadog JVetmotiTJjs olxodopijaev.
In line 1, /" is unelided and oQatg is owing to the stone-cutter's
making the straight mark of E twice. In 1. 2, it seems necessary
to read ECTI for EOT, and in KOTIIEPBE, A must have been
overlooked by the copyist, and O and B read wrong for 0, which is
the easier mistake in the second instance, as its square form in the
rest of the inscription resembles B. For this form, the oldest speci-
mens of which belong to the century before our era, comp. Franz,
Elem. Epigraph. Grace, p. 281. For M in lines 3 and 6 resembling
H, see the same work, p. 245. EnT2, in 1. 2, is a common mis-
spelling of the stone-cutter for AIIIT2. So perhaps in the name
jtlvtado?, which is unique. IIPQTI in 1. 6 is another mistake of
the stone-cutter. In the same line 2IN must be supplied. JVco-
TiollTijg is singular.
Was the cote for wild pigeons built to keep them from tenanting
and defiling the tomb ? For the conceit expressive of a wish that all
the posterity of the proprietor may die old, comp. another Syrian
inscr. in B. n. 4598, where we read
8'
uulu 5e|o//at, EVT' &
noil atfiieQov ^tozrj? nengtafiivov
10. '^ya
Otilntov, Bdjxiog 2a\j3<iov ?1 inlaxonot, !x r5n>
I read S&fiuog for Sdd-aog. The former name is found in B. n.
4626, and may easily be derived from a Semitic root, while B can
with equal ease be confounded with . (See the last inscr.) A
Bassus son of Ulpius occurs in an inscription found by Burckhardt
at Kefr el-Loehha. Comp. B. n. 4585. It is strange that that dis-
tinguished traveller should have overlooked the present inscription
over the castle-gate of Sulkhad, which he visited, and where he
found the same name Bassus (B. n. 4641). The year, if of the
Pompeian era, answers to A. D. 178 ; if of the era of Bostra, to A. D.
243. See Franz, in the Addenda to B. vol. 3, p. 1182, who there
decides in the case of a neighboring town in favor of the latter era.
11. I make nothing out of this inscription. A few words, as
avftfiov, txuaa tt> ^tvr^ia and -itxvor, may be traced.
189
12. tinty ffWTijgla; xvgtov Kalaagos Tlwv Altiov 'Adgi&vov 'Avrco-
velvov Sefi&arov Etiffefiovg 6 vabg EX i5>v Isgcftixiov exrla&T] BTOVS tixiia.
xaidex&wv ' Avrtavslvov Kalact(x>g, nQovorjaa^,i.vMv 'AgiaTeldov, Qoti^uov,
' Ocet&ttov (?), 'E/ufitnlov, ' Efifis-favrfxa^ivov (?) txdixuv, Qatyov, ' ' A$-
xfyov, "Evov, Maatyov, 'Enfisyavv&Qov IsqorafJi&v.
This inscription belongs to A. D. 155 or 156. The fifth name is
so portentously long as to excite suspicion that two names may be
contained in it, as 'Efifie^avy&^ov Xa^iivov. The letters following
this name seem to belong to ixdlxuv, a word used by Cicero to de-
note the syndics or counsellors of towns in Asia Minor. (Epist. in
Fam. 13, 71.)
We find in these inscriptions a number of Syrian proper names
which are to be met with upon other monuments, and some nine-
teen which are new. To the former class belong Abebus, Sabaus,
Thaimus, Malchus, Salamanes, Gautus, Zobedus, Natanaelus, Onai-
nus. To the latter, so far as I have examined, belong Aumus, Ma-
nus, Addus, Acrabanus, Ausus, Pasitheinus (?), Ncnus, Anamus,
Airedus, Naemus, Sichmus, Bordus, Oaithelus (?), Emmeplus, Emme-
gannarus, Abchorus, Enus, Masechus. Some of these are readily
traceable to Semitic roots, and even have equivalents in the Scrip-
tures. Thus with Naemus we may compare Naam (1 Chron. 4:15),
from Qi>3 to be sweet; with Bordus, Bered (1 Chron. 7 : 20); with
Sichmus, Shechem (1 Chron. 7:19). Would it not repay some one
skilled in the Semitic dialects to make a collection of the Syrian
names found upon the monuments and trace them to their roots ?
T. D. WOOLSEY.
EL ARMENIAN TRADITIONS ABOUT MT. ARARAT.
WE have before us a communication from Rev. H. G. O. Dwight,
American Missionary at Constantinople, on Mount Masis, as the
resting-place of the ark after the deluge. We extract from it some
Armenian traditionary notices concerning places in the neighbour-
hood of that locality.
The mountain on which, according to ancient Armenian tradition,
and the general opinion of the learned in Europe, the ark of Noah
rested after the deluge, is called in Armenian \fuiu[iu t Masis, and
in Turkish cLL \ Aghur Dagh, i. e. Heavy Mountain. This moun-
tain is situated almost in the centre of ancient Armenia, in the valley
of the river Araxes, bearing North 57 East from Nakhichevan, and
South 25 West from Erivan.
COMM. OF PUBL.
190
On the eastern side of Mt. Ararat is the district of Arnoiodn
Y f n-bynu!b , which name is composed of three Armenian Avords,
namely, mn_ ar, at, "|,iy Noi, Noah, nwl odn, foot, i. e. " at Noah's
foot" or " feet," the singular being often put, in the Armenian, for
the plural. The tradition is, that Noah, in descending from the ark,
first planted his feet on the ground in this district.
Near by, in the same district, is a village called Argoori |^ini_^,
from uipli arg, the preterite third person singular of uifi^iuLlr^ arga-
nel, to plant, and nuiJfe oori, willow, i. e. "ho (Noah) planted the
willow."
Farther to the East, towards Tabriz, is the town of Marant
^'uiftuLi^.^ a name which the Armenians derive from two words, %//*
mair, mother, and utlij. ant, there, i. e. " the mother is there," the cur-
rent tradition being that the wife of Noah was interred in that place.
But the most singular of all these traditionary etymologies is that
of the well known town of Nakhchevan, or more properly Nakhi-
chevan. In the Armenian, this name is composed of two words,
"Luiki nakh, first, and fe^k-uib ichevan, descent, or resting-place, i. e.
" the first descent" or " the first resting place," which they say is the
first place of abode built by Noah and his sons after the flood.
Whatever may be the fact in regard to the other names men-
tioned, this one is known by other than Armenian authority to be
quite ancient. Nor can it be accounted for on the ground that the
Armenians devised this name in order to give strength to their tradi-
tion about Mt. Ararat and the ark ; for it is proved by ancient his-
torians of other nations, that both the name and the tradition existed
hundreds of years before the Armenians embraced Christianity, when
they were heathen idolaters, and knew nothing of Bible-history.
Josephus, as has already been mentioned, refers to this very place,
not giving its Armenian name, but the translation of it in Greek,
and also recording the tradition of the Armenians, then a heathen
people, in regard to its origin. His words are : " The Armenians
call this place the place of descent; for, the ark being saved in that
place, its remains are shown there by the inhabitants to this day."*
The geographer Ptolemy, writing about one hundred and fifty years
after Christ, speaks of the town of Nakhichevan, under the Greek
form of Naxuana, which he locates just in that part of Armenia
where the present town of that name is found.f Now, as the Arme-
nians were not converted to Christianity until after the beginning of
* Ajrofiarnjiov HI'VTOI TOV r6nov TSTOV 'Ajutvioi xaXSaiv ixT 70.? avacreo9-u'em TS Aaj
-vaxoi JJTVUV of iirixwfioi TO AinJ/ava iiriSjixvuscri. Jewish Antiq. B. 1, C. 3, 5.
f Ptolem. Geog. Bk. 6, Ch. 2, as quoted by St. Martin.
191
the fourth century, this traditionary etymology of the name Nakhi-
chevan derives a remarkable corroboration from these historic records.
I know it has been asserted that a number of Jews emigrated to
Armenia before the Christian era,* and established themselves chiefly
in the valley of the Araxes, and that they may have given to the
town in question the name of Nakhichevan, in order to give cur-
rency to a national tradition of theirs connecting Mt. Ararat with
the ark. In regard to this I would say :
1. That it is a highly improbable thing that a comparatively
small body of Jewish emigrants should have given an Armenian
name to an Armenian town, where they happened to be living, in
order to give currency to a mere tradition connected with their own
religion, and that diametrically opposed to the religion of the coun-
try. Probably a parallel case cannot be found in the world.
2. It is still more improbable that the Armenians, while still hea-
thens, should so generally have adopted this name, and connected
with it a belief that it commemorated the event referred to, and that
the remains of the ark were still preserved in the immediate neigh-
borhood (as Josephus says they did), merely on the dictum of a band
of stranger Jews that had come to settle among them.
3. And even if this very improbable supposition were true, then
it very naturally follows that the Jews in question really believed
that Mt. Ararat was the mountain upon which the ark rested, which
certainly must be regarded as a much earlier tradition than any that
can be brought in favor of Mt. Joodi, in Koordistan, the only other
locality which has any substantial claims.
III. REMARKS ON Two ASSYRIAN CYLINDERS RECEIVED FROM
MOSUL.
No. 1.
No. 2.
THESE cuts represent in full size the designs engraved upon two
Assyrian cylinders which were sent to this country by the late Dr.
Henry Lobdell, missionary at Mosul, and are now deposited in the
* See Faust. Byzant. Bk. 4, Ch. 55, as quoted by St. Martin.
192
Cabinet of the Oriental Society. Where they were found we have
no precise information.
No. 1. is engraved upon a cylinder of red jasper, with a hole
through the length of it of which the bore is imperfect. It must
have been cut with some instrument like a graver's style of the
present day.
No. 2. is engraved upon a cylinder of bluish chalcedony, which
has a well bored hole running through it lengthwise. This appears
to have been executed by drilling.
Both are very interesting, especially for the light which they seem
to throw upon a common representation on the gypsum-slabs of
Nineveh, hitherto not satisfactorily explained. The design No. 1. is
said by Dr. Lobdell to be " very rare," and it is not known that
either of the designs has been found before upon Assyrian or Baby-
lonian cylinders. The relation of the two to each other, also, adds
to their value. Taken together, they in a great measure explain
themselves. But the researches relative to the worship of the cypress
among the nations of antiquity, by M. Lajard, published in the
Memoires de Vlnstitut, t. xx. Paris: 1854, confirm and complete
the explanation which mere inspection and comparison of the two
very naturally suggests. The following is the explanation which we
venture to propose.
In No. 1. the centre of the scene is the pyramidal cypress, which
represents by its androgynous nature the supposed union of the male
and female principles in the supreme divinity of the Assyrians, or, as
here, the female principle alone, which was personified by Mylitta.
Over the cypress is the sun's disk, with wings, crowned by two
serpents united at the tail, which represents the male principle of
the Assyrians, which was personified by Belus. The explanation
thus far is corroborated by the two objects delineated on the right
and left, respectively, of the tree.* The human figures facing the
tree, with heads raised to the sun's disk, and attired with wings, are
priests. Their action is two-fold. They are evidently lighting cones
of the cypress in the rays of the sun, and at the same time receiving
an effluence or radiation from the great source of heat and light,
which they direct upon the tree, or upon the symbols on either side
of it. This two-fold action signifies the union of the male and female
principles of deity, supposed to be the origin of creation.
* Can the symbolic use of the device on the left of the tree have any con-
nection with the established import of Y and Y in the Khorsabad inscrip-
tions, the first of these signs being used as a determinative before names of
men, and the second as an ideograph for " son of" ? See what is said below,
on the forma of symbols of the male and female principles on No. 2.
193
The applicability of this explanation to the illustration of the very
similar device so common on the sculptured slabs of Nineveh, will
be apparent to any one Avho recalls the latter to mind. One point
of difference, however, deserves special notice. On those slabs, in-
stead of the hand of the priest directing the effluence from the sun
upon the tree, we have a basket held in his hand, which, as Layard
says, appeare to be of metal in the earlier sculptures, and may be so
in all.* This basket must be intended to denote the conveyance of
the sun's influence, represented by the lighted cone, to the tree. A
reason for the difference here pointed out is discoverable in the cir-
cumstance that on the slabs the sun's disk is not introduced ; so that
the union of the two principles could not be expressed without some
such expedient. For the same reason, this union is indicated on the
slabs, not by the action of lighting the cone, but by the action of
bringing it, after being lighted, into contact with the tree.
No. 2. is closely analogous to No. 1., but exhibits the same idea in
a form more fully siderian and probably more ancient. In this, the
centre of the principal scene is a fire-altar, with flames darting up-
wards from it ; above which appear seven disks, representing the
seven stellar orbs : the sun, moon and Mercury, Jupiter and Venus,
Saturn and Mars. On one side of the altar, and a little above it, is
seen a crescent moon. That the sacred fire and the moon, together,
here symbolize the male and female principles, is partly indicated by
the symbol beneath the moon, while the shape of the altar itself com-
pletes the expression of the idea. Of the human figures facing the
altar, one standing and the other seated, the one on the right hand
seems to be performing both actions, with reference to the sacred fire,
that the person on the corresponding side of No. 1. performs with
reference to the sun. Here the radiation of the sacred fire is plainly
directed upon the symbol beneath the moon. The action of the
figure on the left also includes the lighting of a cone by the fire on
the altar, but in its left hand seems to be held a basket. This accords
with the reason just proposed for the presence of the basket on the
slabs of Nineveh, for on the left of the fire-altar no representation of
the female principle is present. The actions of these two figures
exhibit, in forms not quite identical with each other, the same idea
which is conveyed by the two-fold action of the figures on No. 1.
Between the backs of these two figures the two principles are
again represented by symbols which may easily be recognized ; and
over which hovers the winged sun's disk, darting its rays upon them.
Between the sun's disk and the symbols of the two principles, and on
either side of one of the latter, appear five disks, signifying, proba-
bly, the five stellar orbs exclusive of the sun and moon. These
* Nineveh and its Remains, vol. ii. p. 305.
VOL. v. 25
194
symbols are themselves, too, each marked with a disk, connecting
their cosmological import with the sun and moon as rulers of the
heavens.
The symbolic forms of the two principles beneath the sun's disk
on No. 2. strike the eye, at once, as identical with the so-called arrow-
head and wedge of which the various characters of the cuneiform
inscriptions, in all their varieties, are made up. It seems evident
that the application of these forms to the expression of thought in
historical and other monuments had a sacred origin.
It would be rash to hazard any conjecture as to the absolute age
of these cylinders. But, while the design No. 2. is evidently more
primitive than No. 1., the presence of the sun's disk upon the latter,
whereby it differs, as is believed, from all the discovered slabs of
Nineveh, on which the other parts of the same scene are repre-
sented, would seem to show that both cylinders express the idea
intended to be conveyed by such representations, in an earlier form
than the slabs.
E. E. S.
IV. VESTIGES OF BUDDHISM IN MICRONESIA.
IN Horatio Hale's Ethnography and Philology, Philad. 1846, p.
78, is the following notice concerning Tobi, or Lord North's Island,
which forms the southwestern extremity of the Micronesian range.
"According to the native traditions, a personage, by name Pita-
kat (or Peeter Kart), of copper colour like themselves, came many
years ago from the island of Ternate (one of the Moluccas), and gave
them their religion, and such simple arts as they possessed. It is
probably to him that we are to attribute some peculiarities in their
mode of worship, such as their temple with rude images to represent
the divinity. In the centre, suspended from the roof, is a sort of
altar, into which they suppose their deity comes to hold converse
with the priest. The temple is called vere yam, or spirit-house."
There is evidently in this statement an allusion to Buddhism, al-
though the author seems not to have been aware of it, and although
the facts themselves are greatly corrupted.
Pita-kat, instead of being the name of a missionary, is the name
of the sacred books of the Buddhists, which are called Tri-pittaka
or Bedagat. The vere yaris are the vih&ras, or cloisters, of the
Buddhist monks. Both of these terms occur abundantly in the Me-
moir on the History of Buddhism in the first volume of this Journal.
This vestige of Buddhism in Micronesia is the more important, as
this portion of the Pacific Ocean is now visited by missionaries and
intelligent navigators.
j. w. a.
195
V. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.
1. Bopp's Comparative Accentuation of the Greek and Sanskrit
Languages.
(Read before the Society May 23, 1855.)
Vergleichendes Accentuationssystem, nebst einer gedrdngten Darstel-
lung der grammatischen Uebereinstimmungen, des Sanskrit und
Griechischen, von Franz Bopp. Berlin: Dummler, 1854. 8vo,
pp. viii. 304.
THE work of which the title is here given has been recently issued
from the press, in fulfilment of a promise already some time since
made by its learned and venerable author. It may be regarded as
in a certain sense a supplement to his great work, the Comparative
Grammar of the Indo-European Languages. Neither external cir-
cumstances, nor the nature of the case itself, permitted him to include
the department of accentuation along with those of phonology and
inflection, in the plan of the Grammar. When the publication of
the latter was commenced (in 1833), both the rules and the illustra-
tions of Sanskrit accent were still buried in the manuscripts, and it
was not until ten years later that Bohtlingk's most timely and wel-
come First Attempt respecting the Accent in Sanskrit, introduced
the subject to the attention of scholars, and initiated the investiga-
tions which soon placed it in great measure within their knowledge.
And even then there was no good reason for taking note of it in a
general comparative grammar. The ground of comparison was too
limited : the various sub-families, and even closely kindred dialects
had deviated too widely from their original and from one another
in respect to accent, to furnish matter for extended discussion and
statement. In the case of almost every one of them, some general
accentual law had spread its influence through the whole mass of
words and forms, modifying original variety into regulated similarity.
The phenomena which the different languages thus came to exhibit
are highly curious and interesting : they are in part stated by our
author in his Preface. Of the nearly related Latin and Greek, the
former had (not without retaining plain indications of an earlier dif-
ferent state of things ; see Dietrich in Kuhn's Zeitschrift, vol. i.) con-
fined its accent to two syllables, the penult and antepenult, and made
its choice between the two on strictly quantitative grounds : the
Greek allowed it upon one of three, the three last, and was but par-
tially limited by quantity in its selection among them. The Teutonic
languages have established in the main, and with but unimportant
variations among the single dialects, what is called the logical prin-
ciple, accenting the radical, or most significant syllable. Of the
19C
Slavic dialects, some, prominent among which is the Eussian, have
maintained down to the present time an entire freedom of place for
the accent : but the Polish accents invariably the penult, and the
Bohemian as invariably the initial syllable. The Lettish follows
likewise the latter method, of initial accent, while its nearest relation,
the Lithuanian, is unfettered, like the Russian. The Celtic dialects
skew an equal diversity when compared with one another, the Welsh
laying the stress of voice upon its penult, like the Polish, the Irish
upon its first syllable, like the Bohemian and Lettish. The Sanskrit
itself was found to allow its accent to rest upon any syllable of a
word, whatever might be the quantity of the former or the length of
the latter.
Not to inquire at present which of all these methods of accentua-
tion is most ancient, or whether it is possible to claim the honor of
primitiveness for any one of them, it is plain that any particular
comparative treatment of Indo-European accent is not practicable.
As between the Sanskrit and the Lithuanian and Russian, indeed,
ground for comparison might be supposed likely to be found ; yet
the two latter dialects stand so far removed in point of time, place,
and degree of development, from the former, that on the whole but
few interesting resemblances are to be traced out ; such as were still
discoverable have been carefully collected by our author, and are
presented in the course of his work. With the Sanskrit and the
Greek, however, the case is widely different : the remarkable analo-
gies existing between the systems of accentuation of these two lan-
guages Avere noticed from the first with much interest, and have
more than once been made the subject of treatment, although never
with anything like the fulness and completeness which the book be-
fore us aims at and attains. The laws to which the Greek accent
has been compelled to submit, limiting the stress of voice to the last
three, or, in case of a long final voAvel, the last two syllables of the
Avord, restrict, of course, to a certain extent, the parallelism ; yet so
numerous and comprehensive are the forms and classes of words on
Avhich these laAvs have exerted no modifying influence, that the
sphere of comparison is less narroAved by them than might be antici-
pated. It is rather in the case of the longer compounded verbal
forms, denominatives, secondary derivatives, compounds, and the
like, Avhich, being of 4ater groAvth and less regular formation, Avould
not at any rate be expected to exhibit so close resemblances, that the
probability of the latter is in advance greatly diminished by the re-
strictions imposed upon the freedom of the Greek accent.
The Avork before us then exhibits, Avith the clearness and distinct-
ness Avhich is Avont to characterize the productions of its author, the
phenomena of the agreement and disagreement of the Greek and
Sanskrit accentuation, throughout the departments of declension,
197
conjugation, and word-formation. And as the forms could not be
placed side by side for the purpose of a comparison of their accent,
without showing at the same time their other resemblances, the same
work serves also as an almost complete comparative grammar of the
two languages. Its interest and value are so evident, that we surely
do not need to spend time in recommending it to the attention of all
who give themselves to higher philological studies. We will there-
fore rather occupy ourselves here with the consideration of a few
points of which our author's treatment appears not to be entirely sat-
isfactory and successful. The chief strength of the work, it may be
remarked, lies in its industrious compilation and lucid presentation
of the external phenomena themselves which in the two languages
under discussion admit of comparison ; and, considering especially
how imperfectly those of the Sanskrit had as yet been examined and
systematized, and how much accordingly of that preliminary labor
which should fall rather to the share of one specially versed in a
language, and which a general philologist like our author may ex-
pect to find already performed for him, remained for himself to
accomplish, the success of his collection is worthy of all praise and
acknowledgment. His general views and explanatory theories, on
the other hand, are less happy, and seem to betray sometimes a lack
of the clearest insight into the character of the facts with which he
deals.
This is notably the case with his explanation of the Sanskrit ac-
cents (pp. 11-16). He fails to make a distinct exhibition of his
subject, and misses the opportunity of pointing out a striking corres-
pondence between the two languages which he wishes to compare.
It can hardly be said, indeed, that we receive any proper account of
the nature of the Sanskrit accents. We are simply informed that
they are two, called the udatta and the svarita, the former corres-
ponding to the Greek acute, while the latter is found much more
rarely, and only on syllables of a certain character ; what is the
physical relation of the two, and why the one is so limited in its
range, we do not learn ; the whole manner in which our author
speaks of the svarita, indeed, shows that it was to him a mysterious
something, of which he did not comprehend the properties. So he
says, for instance (p. 13), that " from the circumstance that in all cases
the svarita extends itself over two vowels at once, we must necessarily
conclude that it is a weaker accent than the udatta or acute, which
falls with its whole Aveight upon a single point, while the force of
the svarita is broken by its being drawn out over two vowels," etc. ;
surely a very unsatisfactory determination of the relations subsisting
between the two, particularly as it seems quite as natural to regard
that accent which brings two vowels under its sway as more power-
ful than that of which the authority is confined to a single vowel.
193
Let us inquire a little into what constitutes in general the accent
of a word. The answer is readily given, that it is a stress of voice
laid upon one of the syllables composing the word. But in what
consists the expression of this stress of voice ? is it simply a more
forcible utterance of the accented syllable, in the same musical tone
in which the others are uttered, or is it accompanied by a change of
pitch, an elevation of the voice ? The latter, certainly, as is allowed
by all who have treated of the accent, and as any one may readily
convince himself by experiment. It is indeed practicable to com-
municate the stress without at the same time raising the tone, but
one must watch himself narrowly, and exercise some constraint upon
the organs, in order to accomplish it. It is so easy and natural a
process : the vocal cords being stretched to a certain degree of ten-
sion, the special effort, which expels through them a fuller and more
rapid current of air, at once sets them vibrating on a higher key.
And this elevation of pitch is even the more prominent element of
the effect produced : especially may we suppose this to have been
the case in those ancient languages whose absolute accent, or tension
of voice, was so weak as to allow the quantity of syllables to remain
the guiding and controlling motive in the construction of verse :
there, at any rate, the accent will have consisted mainly in the alter-
ation of the tone. This is entirely in harmony with the descriptions
given us by the ancient grammarians ; so the usual Sanskrit accent
is called udatta " raised, elevated," and Panini and his predecessors
agree in defining it as the utterance of a syllable uccais " in a high
tone," in distinction from other syllables, which are spoken nicais
" in a low tone," and are called anudatta " not elevated :" the Greek
acute is similarly described ; and as we can find no ground, either in
theory or in the facts, for questioning the accuracy of these definitions,
we may unhesitatingly admit them as accurate, and regard the
equality of the principal and most frequent accent in the two lan-
guages as established beyond question.
How is it then farther as regards the circumflex and the svarita ?
And how are we, in the first place, to explain at all the existence of
another and different accent by the side of the one already treated
of? It is to be noted that the elevation of the voice, or its depres-
sion again to the ordinary level, may be not so instantaneously
effected as not to be perceptible in the process, and may take place
within the limits of the accented syllable, instead of between it and
its predecessor or successor. That is to say, the accented syllable
may be commenced upon the general pitch, and made to rise, so
that (to avail ourselves of the Indian terminology) its beginning is
anudatta, and its end udatta, or the process may be reversed, and
its commencement may be elevated, its final mora reverting to the
undistinguished level. Neither would be likely to be the case ex-
199
cepting in a syllable containing a long vowel or a diphthong, and
thus affording space and leisure tor making audible such a process ;
and this would be especially favored, it should seem, by an improper
diphthong, so called, of which the two component vowels retain still
so much unblended individuality that they are hardly less capable
of exhibiting a difference of accentuation, as regards one another,
than would be two distinct syllables. Now, for whatever reason, it
is found that in the actual usage of language only the latter of the
two cases, that in which the syllable commences upon the higher
key and is brought back to the lower, has been recognized as calling
for especial notice in designating the accentuation. Of such charac-
ter, namely, the Greek circumflex plainly appears to be ; a combina-
tion of acute and grave, uddtta and anudatta, within the limits of a
single syllable. It is not necessary to review here the evidence upon
which this account of its nature is founded : the writers on the theory
of the Greek accent, ancient and modern, so explain it, and without
doubt correctly : we pass to the Sanskrit svarita.
The svarita is said by Panini (i. 2. 31), to be a "conjunction" of
the other two (udatta and anudatta), and its commencing half-mora
is said to be udatta. Precisely the same description, in effect, is
given of it in the Pratic,akhyas (so that to the Atharva-Veda, i. 17,
says " half a mora at the beginning of a svarita is udatta"). Nothing
could be plainer or more intelligible than this definition, and we
shall not be justified in rejecting it unless the evidence afforded by
the phenomena of the language should be clearly and decisively
against it. That, however, is not the case ; they rather speak con-
clusively in its favor, as we shall perceive upon taking note of some
of the main circumstances connected with the occurrence of the
accent. The Sanskrit svarita is, upon the whole, not very frequently
met with : in the actual accented language laid before us in the texts
of the Vedas, it is in the majority of instances the product of the
euphonic rules, and we will accordingly first consider it as so origin-
ated. When a final i or u (short or long), comes to stand in the
sentence before a dissimilar initial vowel, the two syllables are com-
bined into one, the former vowel being converted into its correspond-
ing semivowel, y or v : if, now, the final vowel has been udatta
and the initial anudatta, the resulting syllable has the svarita : so
vi and agat, on being written together, form vyagat (to indicate, as
our author does, the svarita by the grave accent). Here there is, in
fact, no real change of accent : each constituent of the new syllable
retains its old tone : the vowel is anudatta as before ; the semivowel
still retains enough of the vowel quality in its pronunciation to be
capable of an elevated utterance, as udatta ; and the result is pre-
cisely the svarita which the grammarians describe. Or one may
prefer to say that the semivowel partially assimilates the vowel, and
200
that half a mora of the a itself is uttered in the higher key : the
effect is the same ; the combined syllable retains and represents the
accents of both its constituents. In the much more numerous cases
\vhere an accented final vowel coalesces with an unaccented initial
into a long vowel or diphthong, the same result, as regards the
accent, might be looked for : yet the general tendency of the lan-
guage is too strongly against the breaking down of the accent within
the limits of the accented syllable to allow of this : grammatical
theory does indeed permit the exhibition of the svarita in every such
instance, and in a single text, the Qatapatha Brahmana, that is made
the invariable rule ; but in ordinary Vedic usage, the accented por-
tion of the compound elevates the unaccented to its own level, and
the whole is udatta. A single exception is made : if a short accented
i coalesces with a short or long unaccented i, the long i which they
together form still retains the accentuation of both its elements, and
is svarita : the Atharva Pratigakhya expressly exempts from the
influence of the rule the case of a long accented ' uniting with the
unaccented vowel : the first element is there strong enough to assim-
ilate the other, and the result is an udatta. It is not easy to see
why a like coalescence of two w's should not be subject to the same
laws : perhaps the case is not provided for only because it so very
rarely, if ever, occurs : it never, at any rate, presents itself in the
Atharva, nor have we remarked it in such parts of the other Vedas
as have come under our examination. There is one more method in
which a svarita is originated : when a final 6 or e causes the elision
of a following initial a (unaccented), the former has its udatta con-
verted into svarita; so indro agat becomes indrb ''gat. The whole
phenomenon of this elision is not easily to be explained phonetically ;
it seems clear, however, that the vowel is regarded as in some man-
ner absorbed into the preceding diphthong and made a part of it,
and its accentuation is represented in the compound by the reduc-
tion of the voice to the general level before the close of the syllable.
Thus far we have had only cases of the production of the svarita by
the action of the rules of Sandhi : there are others, however, of not
frequent occurrence, in which a word, as written in the present state
of the language, has the svarita instead of the udatta resting upon
its accented syllable. All such cases belong 10 the class of those
first mentioned above, the syllable containing before its vowel a y or
v ; and this y or v is, no less than the other, a product of euphonic
rules from an original i or u : the accent points us back (as remarked
by Bohtlingk; Erster Versuch, etc. 4.) to a time when the syllable
was pronounced as two, of which the first was accented : it is well
known that in the Vedic language these syllables are often, even
generally, to be so divided in reading, in order to fill out the meas-
ure : so svar, kva are to be read su-ar, ku-a, to which the other
201
forms are equivalent (when Mr. Bopp, p. 13, says the contrary, he is
simply in error) ; in like manner acarya equals, and is to be pro-
nounced, dcdri-a, virya viri-a : had the accent been originally sv-dr,
ku-d, dcdri-d, viri-d, the syllables would, when combined into one,
have preserved the ud&tta belonging to the vowel which still re-
mained the vowel of the syllable. But besides these words, of which
the themes themselves have the svarita, there is a class which come
to exhibit the same accent upon some of their cases in the course of
declension. Mr. Bopp takes notice of the phenomenon (p. 14), but,
not comprehending the nature and value of the svarita, is able to
present but a lame and unsatisfactory explanation of it. It is, briefly
stated, this : nominal themes, ending in an accented i or u, long or
short (there are exceptions to the rule), which letters before a caae-
ending beginning with a vowel are converted into y or v, receive
upon the ending, in the so-called strong cases (Nona. Ace. Voc.)
svarita, in the weak udatta. So from nodi', vadhu', are formed in
the nom. dual and plural nady^du, vadhvds, in the dat. and gen. sin-
gular nadyd'i, vadhvd's. This, Mr. Bopp says, can. only be because
the strong cases have a right to a greater fullness of form than the
weak, and retain accordingly for the final vowel in such cases a more
properly vowel pronunciation : that is to say, that nadydu is really
rather nadi-du, while nadyai is and remains nadydi. But, in the first
place, there is an absence of all evidence that the semivowels were
really pronounced less like vowels in the weak than in the strong
cases ; the Vedas show them to be quite as frequently resolvable into
the vowels in the former as in the latter : and farther, it can in no
way be made to appear that a vowel is rendered less capable of bear-
ing the acute if preceded by another vowel ; that, for instance, sup-
posing the case-ending of nadydu to be entitled to the udatta, the
re-conversion of the y into i would have any tendency to take that
accent from it. The true explanation of the difference of accentua-
tion, as between the two classes of cases, is to be found in the differ-
ence of the point upon which the stress of voice really falls ; being
in the strong cases the final vowel of the theme, in the weak the
vowel of the ending. This change of accent from the theme to the
ending has extensive analogies in the language : so especially in the
classes of monosyllabic and participial themes. Let us compare, for
instance, the declension of nd'u and mahdnt : they form, in the cases
instanced above, nd'vdu, mahd'ntas, like nadi'-du (equivalent to
nady^au) vadhu'-as (to vadhvas) ; and on the other hand nave,
mahatds, like nadi-a'i (or nadyd i), vadhu-d's (vadhva's).
From this general statement of the circumstances attending the
occurrence of the svarita in Sanskrit, it can hardly fail to be clearly
apparent that that accent has been correctly described by the Indian
grammarians, that it is a compound of udatta and anudatta, exhib-
VOL. v. 26
202
iting both the elevated and the general tone of voice within the
compass of the same syllable. It is, then, identical in physical char-
acter Avith the Greek circumflex, and we have found a new parallel-
ism, unremarked by our author, between the systems of accentuation
of the two languages. There is, indeed, a grand difference between
them in regard to the use they make of this accent : the one show-
ing such an inclination for it as to make it the general rule for a
vowel or diphthong resulting from contraction, or for a penult of
long vowel quantity when not followed by a long final syllable ; the
other admitting it, with very rare exceptions, only upon syllables
properly disyllabic, and composed of two uncombinable vowel sounds.
But as the Greek circumflex is so named from its nature, and not
from its value or frequency as a phenomenon of the language, there
exists no reason whatever why, in a general treatise at least, we
should not transfer the names acute and circumflex to the Sanskrit
also, and avoid encumbering our terminology with new titles not
universally intelligible.
This comparison of the circumflex and the svarita has already
oftener than once been made with more or less fullness, and it is a
matter of surprise that Mr. Bopp should have so entirely overlooked
it Perhaps it is owing to the method in which the latest Sanskrit
grammarians (Boiler and Benfey) have treated the general subject
of the svarita. Neither of them has followed the guidance of his
Indian predecessors in explaining the physical character of the
accent : Boiler calls it simply a "clear-sound" (Hell-lauf), adopting
a title first proposed by Ewald (Zeitsch. f. d. K. d. Morgenlandes, v.
438 ff.), and founded upon an etymology of the Indian name which
is now acknowledged to be a mistaken one : Benfey describes it as a
tone midway between udatta and anudatta, instead of a combination
of the two ; both theories necessarily exclude any comparison with
the Greek circumflex. But while in this particular deserting the
native authority, and in some measure because they have done so,
they have, in our opinion, suffered it to mislead them in other re-
spects into giving an account of the phenomena of the svarita which
is insufficient and unphilosophical. In endeavoring to make this
apparent, we must first call attention to the complete later Indian
theory respecting the accent. It is held, namely, that the sphere of
influence of the accent is not limited to the syllable upon which the
stress of voice properly falls, but that it produces also a certain effect
upon the preceding and following syllables ; upon the former the
voice is said to fall a degree lower than the general level of pitch, in
preparation for its exaltation to the height of the udatta; while the
other, instead of being pronounced in its entirety upon the anudatta
pitch, retains at its commencement a remnant of the udatta tone, so
that the fall of the voice takes place in, and not before, it. Thus, in
203
the word sumanasydm&nas, only the first two and the last syllables
are allowed to be pronounced in the general tone, the na falling be-
low it, and the md being retained during its first half-mora at the
same pitch as the syd : it might be expressed to the eye in the fol-
sya
lowing manner : su ma & nas. Of these two subsidiary ac-
cents, the first, or proclitic, is generally styled the anuddttatara ; the
other, or enclitic, is known as the svarita. Now we certainly ought
to allow ourselves to be instructed by the native authorities on mat-
ters of such nicety as this connected with pronunciation : at the same
time, we know very well the tendency of the Indian grammarians to
over-refinement of analysis, and to pretty arbitrary theorization where
there is any occasion or excuse for it, and are justified in examining
with some jealousy their teachings even upon points like these.
And it appears that the proclitic accent, at any rate, is a compara-
tively late afterthought. So much is indicated even by the name
itself, which is a comparative of anuddtta, and is, strictly taken, an
absurdity, anuddtta being treated as if it had a positive meaning,
" depressed," instead of the merely negative one " unelevated :" such
a derivative could not have been formed from it until its own mean-
ing had become conventionally fixed by long usage. The Pratiga-
khyas, so far as known to us (we have not access to them all), neither
contain the name of this accent, nor any indication that its existence
had been recognized. With the enclitic svarita the case appears to
be different : neither the early grammarians (of the Pratigakhyas),
nor the later, regard it as in any manner distinct from the proper or
independent circumflex which we have spoken of above ; the two are
confounded together as quite identical, and have in common exer-
cised the ingenuity of the native theorists, which has amused itself
with dividing them into numerous sub-forms, having each its pecu-
liar designation. Their example is followed by the two German
grammarians, who describe the enclitic svarita as the main fact,
make it their starting point, and proceed to explain the other from it.
In the union, say they, of an udatta with its following syllable, the
latter having already through the influence of the former an enclitic
svarita, the first accent is entirely lost, and the other takes its place,
so that the result is a svarita syllable. But we must confess that
this loss of a principal in a subsidiary accent, this sacrificing of the
acute to its own shadow, this elevation to entire independence of a
tone possessed of so little inherent force that, if a second acute fol-
lows it, it disappears altogether, and is replaced by the anuddtta (as
is the case), does not strike us as very plausible. Are we to believe
that, when a fully accented e or 6 absorbs or elides a short a, the
tone of the former is utterly destroyed, and only that weak echo of
itself which it would have lent to the other vowel is left ? that, while
204
a long i' assimilates a short i, rendering the whole result acute, a
short i is allowed no representation at all in the accent of the com-
pound of which it forms a part ? that, where the method of the Qata-
patha Brahmana is followed, and an &', for instance, is combined
with an i, the tone of the stronger element is given up in favor of
that of the weaker ? In the more frequent case of the conversion of
the accented vowel into a semivowel, we might indeed sooner grant,
that if the semivowel itself be left out of account, and not allowed
any such vowel pronunciation as should qualify it to take part in
bearing the tone which originally belonged to it, the independent
and enclitic svarita Avould fall together, and have the same value :
that in the word s&ar, for instance, if the u were absolutely conso-
nantized, only that kind of tone would remain to the a, which the a
also of vl'ra, borrowing for itself a slight share in the higher tone of
the preceding syllable, might exhibit. The Indian theory would
then be consistent with itself, and would sacrifice together the vowel
quality and the accent of the converted vowel. Yet we, on the con-
trary, should be fully justified in maintaining, from the evidence fur-
nished by the Vedas, that it still retained a share in both ; that the
two vowels were pronounced together as an improper diphthong, and
that each contributed its part to the accentuation of the syllable.
It would evidently have a direct and important bearing upon the
question before us, if we could find any evidence that the independ-
ent circumflex had been first noted and named, and its designation
afterward transferred to the enclitic which a later theory had set up,
or a more acute analysis discovered. Nor do we despair of the pos-
sibility of doing so. The etymology of the word svarita does not
seem to be as yet fully ascertained. It is now generally derived from
svara " accent," and explained to mean " accented, having the stress of
voice." To this there are two weighty objections : first, that no reason
can be given why this accent should be chosen out to receive such a
name, as if it were the sole, the most frequent, the principal accent,
which it is far enough from being : second, that in the earliest gram-
matical language the word svara means very much more frequently
" vowel " than " accent," and it seems that the former must be the
original signification, from which the other is in some way derived.
We might then conjecture that svarita came from svara in this sense
of "vowel," and meant "vocalized, exhibiting the conversion into a
vowel," as applied to the syllables in which the re-vocalization of the
semivowel was necessary, in order to give its full enunciation to the
accent ; such syllables constituting probably nineteen-twentieths of
those which do receive the independent circumflex. We would not
put forward this etymology with too much confidence, but rather
reserve the point for farther examination and decision, when the
early grammatical phraseology shall be more fully and completely
205
understood. However the Indian grammarians may in their theories
assume the complete identity of the two kinds of svarita, there are
cases where they are compelled practically to acknowledge their
fundamentally different character. To illustrate this : if an acute is
followed by a circumflex, no difference, as regards the notation of the
accents, is made iii the texts, whether the latter be the independent
or the enclitic : the two phrases deva'c ca (ca being of itself destitute
of accent, but receiving in such a position the enclitic svarita), and
deva'h svar, are marked with precisely the same accent signs : but
let another accented word be appended, and the difference immedi-
ately appears; while the ca loses its circumflex and becomes anu-
ddtta (or anudattatara), as in deva'c ca te, the svar still maintains
its proper accent, and we read, for example, deva'h svar d'bharan
(Ath.V. iv. 23, 6).
We must regard ourselves, therefore, as authorized still to believe,
that the proper Sanskrit circumflex is a phenomenon of independent
origin, resulting from the coalescence of an accented with an unac-
cented syllable, and that it should, in a philosophical treatment of
the general subject, be held distinctly apart from those subordinate
and comparatively insignificant modifications of tone, which are
claimed to be the involuntary accompaniments of the accented
syllable.
Mr. Bopp claims that he has discovered the general law or princi-
ple which governs the accentuation of both Sanskrit and Greek,
although prevented from exhibiting itself so distinctly in the latter
language as in the former by the contrary influence of the phonetic
laws. It is this : " the farthest retraction of the accent (toward the
beginning of the word) is regarded as the accentuation of greatest
dignity and force :" that is to say, the Sanskrit and Greek accent is
a method of indicating the comparative rank of different words or
classes of words, and its place is determined by reference hereto ; the
stress of voice being laid in those words which are deemed of most
importance and dignity upon the first syllable, or one of the first.
Our author lays down this law, preparatory to making it the basis
of his comparative investigations, at the outset of his work (p. 16),
and proceeds at some length to establish and illustrate it from the
actual phenomena of the two languages in question.
It is in truth a matter of so much consequence to determine,
especially as regards the Sanskrit, whether any such general law has
exercised a modifying and altering influence upon an earlier accentu-
ation, that we shall be justified in inquiring somewhat particularly
whether the alleged principle is to be accepted as satisfactorily estab-
lished. The importance of the question grows directly out of the
part which the Sanskrit has played, and which we expect it still
206
farther to play, in illustrating the most ancient history of our family
of languages. It has aided so remarkably in accomplishing this,
chiefly in virtue of the freedom which it has always maintained from
general modifying influences of a later and secondary origin, of the
purity in which it has preserved its forms as originally constructed,
allowing us to look directly through them upon the formative pro-
cesses. Now we might hope to receive no insignificant aid in our
last analyses of forms from the accentuation, if that too had been
transmitted to us in unimpaired purity. What we may hold to have
been the character of the primitive accentuation of a language will
depend, of course, upon what is our theory as to the earliest growth
of the latter. If we belong to the school of philology of which Mr.
Bopp himself is to be regarded as the founder and head, we believe
that there was a time in the history of language when it consisted
only of roots, all independently significant, and that polysyllabic
words and forms first grew up by the subordination of some of these
significant syllables to others, their concretion, as it were, about a
nucleus : that the whole apparatus of suffixes and prefixes, which are
attached to a root, and express merely modifications of the central
idea conveyed by .that root, or its relations to others, had once a
separate existence and value of their own, and that the method in
which the combination into a new compound individuality was
effected, was in great part the yielding up of their own independent
accent on the part of some of these syllables : there was first a re-
duction of accented words to proclitics or enclitics, and then a closer
fusion of the aggregation into a unit. Of course, in the growing
together of such a compound unit, that syllable would retain its
accent, and become the nucleus of the new formation, which Avas
felt to be most prominent among them : the less significant atoms
would subordinate themselves to the more important. General laws
and tendencies, whether of a phonetic character, or such as Mr. Bopp
thinks he has found in the Sanskrit, could not arise and exercise
their influence until later, when the language consisted of words
already formed and developed. If, then, we are able to separate a
word into its root and the accretions thereto, and can be assured that
its accent has not been altered since it first grew into a word, we
have no unimportant hint given us respecting the nature and com-
parative value of its elements, as estimated at the moment of its
origination : a hint that may yet be of the utmost value to us in
accomplishing the very difficult task of thoroughly comprehending
and explaining the reduction to their present form and meaning of
the various formative syllables. It would doubtless be going alto-
gether too far to claim that the Sanskrit does actually offer to us the
original accentuation in primitive purity, yet the analogy of its other
qualities, and the general appearance of its phenomena, warrant us
207
at least in believing that it may have preserved more of that accentu-
ation than any other language of the family lias done. Perhaps
the time has not yet come when its system can be so thoroughly
examined as to settle the question in all points satisfactorily, but it
is clear that the subject is deserving of the most minute and search-
ing investigation, and that in the meantime we have to look with
distrust at alleged general laws, and see whether they are not put
forth on insufficient grounds.
Mr. Benfey, in his Sanskrit Grammar ( 4), makes the character-
istically bold and sweeping assertion, that the principle of the Sans-
krit system of accentuation is to lay the stress of voice upon the
modifying syllable, whether prefix or suffix, to the exclusion of the
root or theme itself. He adds, however, that this original principle
has been, in the progress of the development of language, supplanted
in some instances by other word-shaping influences. To this Mr.
Bopp remarks (note 35, p. 238) that he would have been nearer the
truth had he said " in most instances," inasmuch as in the great
majority of the phenomena as they lie before us the principle is vio-
lated. Mr. Benfey has not deigned, or has not ventured, to defend
and establish his theory, but is content barely to state it, with an
illustration or two, leaving it to the good pleasure of his readers to
accept or reject it : probably most of them will agree with Mr. Bopp
in disposing of it in the latter way, since it seems to find support
neither in the facts, as a general law of secondary origin, nor in
sound theory, as a primitive and original principle. For in the very
earliest concretion of syllables into words, the accentuation could
hardly be otherwise than a logical one, distinguishing the " radical "
syllable ; it would only be after a certain stock of words was already
constructed, that the comparison with them, or the conscious and
intentional farther modification of them, would lead to a laying of
the stress of voice upon the naturally less important formative sylla-
ble, and thus introduce the other principle ; after which the two
would subsist together, and the application of the one or the other
be made to depend upon the nature or degree of the modifying in-
fluence of the affix.
We have now, then, to examine Mr. Bopp's general law of Sans-
krit accentuation, and see whether it is entitled, in view of its own
intrinsic character, and of the evidence which he is able to adduce
in its support, to be accepted by us as satisfactorily established.
And it is not too much to say, in the first place, that the former, its
character, furnishes no presumption in its favor, but rather the con-
trary. Nothing analogous to it has been noted elsewhere : other
languages are found which have remodelled their accentuation upon
phonetic grounds, or which have singled out the most significant
syllable of each word to receive the distinguishing stress of voice,
208
but not one has been pointed out as attempting to mark the absolute
dignity and force of a word, as compared with other words, by dis-
tinguishing any one of its syllables above its fellows. Nor is there
anything plausible in the idea of attaining such an end by such
means : it seems next to impossible to understand, to make the mind
appreciate, how the drawing back of an accent toward the begin-
ning of a word should be able to give that word an added impor-
tance in the general sum of discourse. It might, for one reason, be
even easier to believe this of a throwing forward of the accent : it is
a familiar observation, namely, of which those especially who speak
the English language will not fail to appreciate the justice, that in a
polysyllabic word the syllables which precede the accent are uttered
with more force and distinctness than those which follow it : a full
and sonorous pronunciation, then, at any rate, would be assured to a
word rather by accenting its final than its initial syllable. Consider-
ing this absence of analogies or antecedent probabilities in its favor,
we have a right surely to demand that our author's law be supported
by evidence both full and unequivocal derived from the facts of the
language. Let us examine somewhat in detail that which he ad-
duces, and see whether it bears this character.
In the first place, he claims that a very striking proof of the dig-
nity and efficiency belonging to the accentuation of an initial sylla-
ble is furnished by the fact that monosyllabic nouns, in both Sanskrit
and Greek, lay the stress of voice in the nominative and accusative
of all numbers upon the theme, while in the other cases it rests upon
the ending : the former cases are thus, he says, indicated as the
most exalted and distinguished of the series. This seems to us to
mean just nothing at all. What is there in the nominative and ac-
cusative that entitles them to claim a superiority in rank over the
other cases, what appreciable tangible quality, which could furnish
ground for a distinction such as is here claimed to be made ? More
frequent of occurrence they are, indeed ; and they express simpler
and more direct relations of the theme to other words ; but herein,
surely, lies a reason much more plausible for the difference of accent,
that the endings which express the more complicated relations have
a greater significance, and relative importance to the theme, than the
others, and therefore receive the stress of voice. When the theory
of the nature of the case-endings, and of the manner in which they
became attached to the theme, is more thoroughly understood, we
may expect to comprehend better the cause also of the varying
accentuation ; but we are not called upon to accept in the meantime
any such explanation of it as Mr. Bopp gives.
The next argument offered is that verbs active and medial do in
general accent their first syllable, and that thus the energy of the
action residing in the word is emblematized by its energetic accentu-
209 l
ation. But so far is the Sanskrit from tending to lay any particu-
larly energetic stress of voice upon its verbs, that in most instances,
and unless some special circumstances interfere to prevent, it de-
prives them of all accent whatever. It would be strange if a class
of words should be left ordinarily unaccented, which had been chosen
out to bear an especially energetic accentuation. But the strength
of the argument was perhaps intended to lie rather in the compari-
son made between the active and middle verbs on the one hand, and
the passives on the other, which latter lay the stress of voice upon
their characteristic syllable ya, immediately following the root;
" because," says our author, " they lack the energy of self-action."
In reply to this it may be remarked, in the first place, that we seem
to have here only another instance of a classification made on insuf-
ficient grounds : that it is not easy to perceive a notable distinction
in respect to the quality of the action, as such, between the two
classes set up ; their differences residing rather in the different rela-
tions of the subject and the object to the action ; that it would be
quite as plausible to make other of these relations than the one
which has been chosen for the purpose, the ground of the division :
to draw the line, for instance, between the active verbs on the one
side, and the middles and passives on the other (particularly as the
whole history of language illustrates the near kindred of these two
forms of the verb), or between the transitives and intransitives. But
farther, if the verbal accent is intended to indicate the dignity and
efficiency of the verbal forms, how does it happen that so many
verbs active and middle, and those just the oldest and most original
which the language possesses, do still accent, in the majority of their
forms, the ending ? why, while the imperfect lays the stress of voice
upon its first syllable, does the perfect lay it upon its last, or its
penult ? why, if the passive accents its formative syllable from weak-
ness, does the causal, certainly the most energetic of the forms of the
verb, do the same? Evidently, a rule which is founded upon a
doubtful classification, applies to only a portion of the phenomena
which come within its sphere, and has the directest analogies against
it, is to be rejected without long hesitation : the real principle or
principles lying at the base of the varied system of verbal accentua-
tion have not been reached.
The accent of the vocative is another point adduced by our author
in support of his law. This case in Sanskrit has the stress of voice,
when it has it at all, upon its first syllable ; " plainly," we are told,
" in order to distinguish in a very impressive manner the name of
the person called upon." To this it is a sufficient answer to say,
that, excepting in certain exceptional situations, the Sanskrit vocative
receives no accent at all, and that it would be a remarkable incon-
sistency on the part of the language to deprive a class of words of
VOL. v. 2t
210
their accent in the majority of instances where they are found, and
in the rest to lay upon them a stress intended to be a particularly
powerful one.
Mr. Bopp next brings forward the accentuation of the first syllable
in all comparatives and superlatives formed by the suffixes iyas and
ishtha ; " which," he says, " is not easily to be explained except upon
the supposition that the language felt with reference to these forma-
tions the necessity of representing the intensifying of the idea by the
highest intensification of the accent likewise : therefore, e. g., from
the oxytone positive svadu come the comparative and superlative
sva'diyas, svd'dishtka" etc. This argument would at least seem to
be more to the point, if it were actually the case that sva'diyas,
svd'dishtha were formed from svadu, and that they in truth exhib-
ited a change, a retraction, of accent. But this is not so. It has,
indeed, been usual, following native Indian authority, to account
these comparatives and superlatives as secondary derivatives, and to
form them from nominal themes, but it is truly remarkable that a
theory so discordant with the facts should have been permitted so
long to pass unchallenged. We are accustomed to hold that the
individuality of a nominal theme, as distinguished from its root, is
constituted by its formative suffix, taken in connection with the par-
ticular form of the root presented therewith. What shall we think,
then, when called upon to derive tcshepiyas, for example, from
kshipra ; to accomplish which we have first to strip off from the
latter the suffix ra whose addition to the root kship first constituted
it a theme, and then farther to take a different form of the root
itself ? Is that a philosophical etymological process ? This is not
an unfair example of the class ; compare farther vdriyas from uru,
rdjishtha from rju, gdmishtha from gantdr ; a host of others as
striking might be adduced : notice also the numerous cases of such
comparatives and superlatives to which even Indian theory can as-
sign no corresponding positive ; as kdniyas, kdnishtha, jya'yas,
jyeshtha : remark, finally, the permission given in the Vedic lan-
guage to form at will such derivatives from any root, whether simple
or combined with a preposition. These indications are unambigu-
ous, and point, all of them, to the same conclusion, which cannot be
avoided ; that all these formations in iyas and ishtlia are primary
derivatives from the root itself, and stand upon an equality with,
instead of being subordinate to, the themes which occasionally bear
to them the relation of positives. In. the instance cited above, then,
of sva'diyas and sva'dishtha as compared with svddu, we have by
no means a case of retraction of an already located accent, but only
an example of the usual variety of accentuation shown in the forma-
tion of derivatives, the root retaining itself the stress of voice before
certain suffixes, and yielding it up to others. Our author might,
211
indeed, be inclined to claim that the ground of his argument was
only shifted, inasmuch as there was room still to allege the existence
of a tendency toward a more energetic accentuation of the intenser
forms among the primary derivatives themselves, and to cite this
case in evidence of it. The plea when reduced to this form is hardly
of force enough to demand an answer, considering how numerous
are the cases in which the root maintains its accent before the suffix,
while yet no such reason can be assigned for it. Very plain indica-
tions are not wanting, however, that the Sanskrit did not feel the
alleged need of representing the intensifying of the idea in compar-
ative and superlative formations by a modification, or at all events
not by a retraction, of the accent. There are other, and much more
usual, suffixes employed to form adjectives of comparison, namely
tara and tama, which are actually appended to nominal themes ;
and these, as a general rule, leave the accent of the theme just
where they find it : thus we have from makdt, mahdttara, mahdt-
tama ; from punya, punyatara, punyatama ; from bhdgavat, bhaga-
vattara ; from ratnadkd', ratnadhd' tama. The exceptions to this
rule occur chiefly in formations from pronominal and prepositional
roots and themes (the suffixes appearing in part in the briefer forms
ra and ma), and the variations of accent which they exhibit are
directly opposed to those which our author's principle would require :
so from yd come yatard and yatamd; from M, fcatard and katamd;
from adhds, the comparative ddhara, and the superlative adhamd;
from ut, dpa, upa, in like manner, uttara and uttamd, dpara and
apamd, upara and upamd; and from para, paramd.
One more argument is brought forward by Mr. Bopp in support
of his theory of Sanskrit accentuation. The abstracts, he tells us,
show an inclination to accent their first syllable, and the abstract is
in so far the highest potency of a word, as it presents the radical
idea without any limitation or foreign admixture ; to it therefore
belongs of right the most impressive mode of accentuation. But is
there really any ground for establishing such a distinction in favor
of the abstract above the other derivatives from a root ? It seems,
at any rate, not entirely consistent with the superior dignity which
had already before been claimed for the forms of the finite verb ;
they, surely, do not present the radical idea without limitation or
foreign admixture ; they allow its limitation by both subject and
object, and the intrusion into it of the foreign elements of modality
and time. And can one seriously compare the nomen abstractum
with the nomen agentis, for instance, or the nomen possessivum, and
appreciate the existence of any quality in the former which should
give it a claim to be clearly designated as superior to the latter ?
Surely we have here but another instance of an arbitrary determina-
tion of rank, upon grounds purely imaginary, between classes of
212
words, which needs only to be fairly stated and calmly considered to
be rejected without a formal refutation. But the argument is hardly
better founded in facts than in theory : of the two most frequent
secondary suffixes forming abstract nouns, tva and t&, the former
receives itself the accent, the latter draws it forward to the syllable
next preceding itself: and if it is true that ti forms numerous par-
oxytone feminine abstracts, it is true also that they are quite as fre-
quently oxytone.
It can hardly remain a matter of doubt, after this examination of
the arguments by which Mr. Bopp supports his theory of the prin-
ciple of Sanskrit accentuation, that it is unhesitatingly to be rejected,
as founded only upon doubtful, or arbitrary, or mistaken interpreta-
tions of certain phenomena, which, even did they speak unequivo-
cally in its favor, would not be sufficient to give it more than a
degree of plausibility as one of the general secondary tendencies of
the language. And it is especially unfortunate that our author
should have allowed a theory so insufficiently established to govern
and direct him to such an extent as is actually the case, in his
arrangement and comparison of the facts which he has so industri-
ously collected. He holds to it with much consistency, or persist-
ency, throughout the whole course of his work ; we have not re-
marked that he allows anywhere the possible existence of a principle
of accentuation more primitive than this, or inquires whether any of
the facts inconsistent with it which he is compelled to take notice of
may not be original, and find an explanation in the history of the
earliest growth of the language. We cannot attempt here to follow
him through all the points where we conceive him to have been
misled by this means into an erroneous explanation, estimation, or
comparison, of the phenomena presented by the two languages
which he primarily treats. We shall have accomplished all that we
desired, if we have shown the untenability of the theory which would
account for the Sanskrit accentuation by a general law of secondary
origin, and have preserved to the linguistic investigator the precious
possibility that under its apparent anomalies are hidden valuable
hints as to the first growth of language. We have not been solicit-
ous, when opposing the interpretation forced by Mr. Bopp upon his
facts, to substitute for it another of our own, as recognizing the
extreme difficulty of the subject, and the necessity of tracing every
point sought to be established carefully through the whole body of
phenomena of the language ; which has hardly been practicable
hitherto. The possibility of doing so, however, is greatly facilitated
by the work before us, which, as a careful collection and presentation
of all the phenomena of accent still admitting comparison in the vari-
ous Indo-European languages, is, for completeness and convenience,
far in advance of anything which had before been produced.
213
There is one highly interesting department of the subject of Sans-
krit accentuation which our author's plan has not allowed him to
discuss directly, or in full, because its phenomena are confined to the
Indian language alone, so far as has been remarked, and find nothing
analogous in the other dialects of our family. This is the loss on
the part of certain words in the sentence of their proper accent, un-
less under the operation of especial causes, which preserve it to them.
Other languages, to be sure, as for instance the Greek, have their
classes of properly accentless words, which attach themselves more
or less closely, as proclitics or enclitics, to some other more promi-
nent word in the sentence, and others which do or do not receive an
accent, according to the degree of significance which in different
cases may belong to them : such the Sanskrit has also : but it is not
to them that reference is now made ; there are, besides these, two
important and extensive categories which the Sanskrit alone deprives
of accent. These are the vocatives, and the forms of the finite verb.
Mr. Bopp briefly considers the subject in a note (note 37, p. 240),
and disposes of it very summarily by denying the facts, and accus-
ing the Indians of having in this respect misapprehended or misrep-
resented their language. He finds it so incredible that forms of the
length and fullness of vifvdmitra and abubodhishdmahi should have
no distinguishing stress of voice, that he prefers to believe that both
vocatives and verbs did in truth always retain their own proper ac-
cent, but that in the situations where this is allowed them by the
Indian grammarians, they were so much more strongly and impres-
sively accented, that the stress ordinarily laid upon them was not
noticed or noted at all. We cannot find this counter theory satis-
factory, or even plausible. Such a denial of the actuality of a phe-
nomenon of which the explanation seems difficult, is a confession of
weakness which science should not feel willing to make until after a
much more thorough investigation than this subject has yet received,
at the hands of our author or of any other person. And the chief
or only difficulty which our author puts forward seems, after all, to
be by no means the greatest of those which are to be contended
against : who would have thought of rejecting as impossible and
false the accentuation of a dvandva like unmocanapramocane, or of
a compound verb accented upon the preposition, like prdty abubo-
dhishdmahi ? the number of successive syllables which are left un-
accented in a sentence is certainly not the main thing : if a certain
category of words is to be stripped of its accent, it is of but inferior
consequence whether the individual words which come under it are
longer or shorter in respect of form : the true point which calls for
explanation is their reduction at all to a subordinate and enclitic
condition. But so far as concerns the vocatives, this too does not
appear to be a matter of so extreme difficulty. If there is any class
214
of words of which the character and relations to the sentence are so
peculiar as to authorize us to expect in different languages differences
in their treatment, it is that of the vocatives. We are taught that in
Sanskrit the vocative has its own peculiar accent (namely, upon the
first syllable) when it stands at the beginning of a sentence, but is
elsewhere left unaccented. And we can notice even in our own
usage, that a vocative, if preceded by anything addressed to the per-
son or thing which it indicates, is reduced to a position of decided
inferiority with respect to tone, which, if it do not amount to entire
encliticism, we may readily conceive to be by another language
pushed to that extent. This is illustrated not only by the example
which Mr. Bopp cites : " Come ! Frederick," as if the verb alone pos-
sessed the power of subordinating the vocative, but equally well by
" Thou then ! Frederick," or " Never ! Frederick, will I desert thee."
The attention of the person addressed is assumed to be already
gained, and the vocative is a mere parenthesis in the sentence,
uttered, like any other parenthesis, in an undertone and monotone :
if, on the other hand, his attention is sought, the name is first called,
and has a full tone given it.
With the other class the case is altogether different. That a form
of the finite verb, which we are wont to regard as the very life of
the sentence, as by itself capable of constituting a sentence complete
in all its parts, which so often combines into itself ideas and relations
that in another language, or in other parts of the same language,
appear as independent words or accessory clauses that this, of all
other words, should lose its independent tone, and be reduced to the
subordinate position of an enclitic in the sentence, is certainly strange
enough ; and one might, at first sight, almost feel justified in deny-
ing its truth. Nevertheless, we fully believe that the time is not yet
come for resorting to so extreme a measure : that we have first to
endeavor to comprehend more fully the nature of the phenomenon
as laid before us, in all its rules and all its exceptions, and to strive
faithfully to find some analogy or reasonable ground for it. It is
supported by far too weighty evidence, as an actual phenomenon, not
to require to be considered as such until all the arts of explanation
shall have been essayed upon it in vain. The possibility of its com-
plete comprehension has not yet been given. To expect to obtain
such from the rules of investigators and theorists so shallow and
unphilosophical as the Indian grammarians, would be the height of
unreason, and of accented texts, by the minute examination of which
our view might be filled up and corrected, too few have as yet been
published, nor have those few been studied with a special eye to this
matter. So much as this, at any rate, we can seem to see clearly ;
that it is a true linguistic phenomenon which we have here placed
before our eyes ; its outlines are not such as would have been laid
215
down by arbitrary theorizing ; and it has even been but partially
understood, and imperfectly described, by those who have been the
mediums of the transmission to us of its facts.
Such being the present condition of the investigation, it cannot
but be of interest and importance to establish new rules or principles,
or to reduce to a more exact and philosophical form of statement
such as have been already laid down, and this we shall accordingly
endeavor in a few points to do, without entering into anything like
a thorough discussion of the whole subject.
There are two general classes of exceptions to the rule which de-
prives the verb of its accent ; the one dependent upon the character
of the sentence in which the verb may be found, the other upon its
position in the sentence. For the former the following summary
statement may be given : the verb loses its accent in a primary or
independent, but retains it in an accessory or dependent clause. The
Indian grammarians, and their European followers, have described
the phenomenon in a different manner, keeping out of sight its true
efficient cause. They say merely that the verb retains its accent in
a clause which contains any forms, whether of inflection or deriva-
tion, coming from the relative pronominal root ya. But these forms
constitute, with few exceptions, the whole apparatus of words which
condition the dependency of a clause ; and we farther find that those
exceptions themselves are allowed by theory, and possess in practice,
the same influence upon the verbal accent : they are cet " if," which
is equal to yadi : net " lest," Latin we, equal to yan na : kimcit and
kindred forms, used interrogatively, containing an idea of " whether,"
German ob etwa : and even when the clause, without containing any
particular word which necessitates or indicates it, is to be understood
as dependent, its verb maintains its accent. This last is described as
" a clause containing ca with the signification ' if,' " but although
that particle is generally present, it has its own proper meaning
" and," and is by no means equivalent to yadi or cet.* Now by this
new statement of the phenomenon we seem to have advanced at
least a step toward the comprehension of it. We need go no farther
than to the German to find another language which exhibits a
marked difference in the manner of treating its verbs, according as
they stand in independent or in accessory clauses ; the verb in the
latter being removed from its natural place, and forced to take up a
position at the very end of the clause : and although the analogy be-
tween the two cases of a change of place and a change of accentuation
is not palpable, the fact that they are due to a common cause is suffi-
* So Atharva xi. 3. 56, for example : nd ca prdndm rundddhi, sarvajydnim
jiyate " and even is his breath not stopped, he suffers nevertheless a general
harming;" or xv. 13. 7, kdrshed enam, nd cdi 'nam kdrshet "does he invite him,
does he also not invite him :" i. e. "-whether he does or does not invite him."
ciently significant to call for an examination, and may perhaps lead
to the discovery of a common principle which shall account for both.
The second general class of exceptions depends, as already said,
Upon the position of the verb in the sentence. And under this head,
we are first taught that, if it stand at the commencement of the
sentence, the verb retains its accent. The word sentence, as here
Used, signifies not the logical sentence only, but also the metrical ;
the verse, namely, or the primary element of the full verse, thepdda
(of which, for instance, four compose the ordinary cjoka). This is a
rule which does not seem to call for any special explanation or de-
fense : it is in accordance with what is shown elsewhere, not only by
the Sanskrit itself, but by other languages also : so the Greek always
accents at the beginning of a sentence the words and forms which
in other situations are deprived of their independent stress of voice,
and appear as enclitics. But this rule also is, in the form as given,
only very imperfectly stated : it requires to be so extended as to read :
that the verb is always accented if it stand at the head of its own
particular clause in the sentence. We have here, evidently enough,
only such a development of the rule previously presented as is most
natural and plausible, and was even to have been in advance expected.
Nevertheless, as it has not hitherto, so far as we are aware, been re-
cognized and noted, it is incumbent upon us to support and illustrate
it by citing examples. In Rik, then, i. 79. 11, we read yo no ague
'bhidA'saty dnti dure padtshtd sdh " whoso, O Agni, near or far,
would do us harm, let him fall I" In x. 101. 8, again, mA' vah susroc
camaso dr'nkatA tarn " let not your bowl of offering spill, hold it
firm." In i. 31. 17, A' sAdaya barhishi yakshi ca priydm "cause
them to take seat upon the barhis, and make acceptable offering."
In i. 94. 4, bhdrAme 'dhmdm krndvAma kavi'nshi te " we will bring
fuel, we will make libations, to thee." In Atharva n. 35. 4, vipva-
karman ndmas te pAhy asma'n " O Vic.vakannan, homage to thee,
protect us." In vi. 3. 2, pA'tu gra'va pa'tu somo no Anhasah " pro-
tect us the grinding-stone, protect us Soma, against distress." Here
the several verbs padishtd, dr'nhata, yakshi, krndvAma, pAhi, pa'tu
(in the second case), retain their accent in virtue of this rule, and no
one can fail to see and acknowledge the propriety of their doing so,
if the general principle of the accentuation of a verb when it occu-
pies an initial position be allowed. In a note are given, for farther
consultation, the passages illustrating the rule which have been col-
lected in an examination, not very thorough, of the first and tenth
books of the Rik, as well as those which we have as yet found in
the text of the Atharva.* The only instance anywhere noted of a
*Eiki. 31.3; 32.12; 34.11; 48.3; 54.11; 58.7; 61.2; 62.3; 79.2;
80.3; 93.7; 94.3,12; 100.18; 103. 2 (twice); 118.2; 121.3; 157.4; 163. 3;
165. 12 ; 173. 3 ; 174. 1 ; 182. 1, 4. x. 28. 3 (twice) ; 31. 3 ; 34. 14 ; 40. 5,
217
violation of tlie principle is Rik 1. 134. 3, prd caTcshaya rodasl vdsai/o
'shdsah; where, if rodasi is to be connected with the preceding verb,
as the sense seems to demand, and as the commentator also under-
stands it, the following verb ought to be accented, vdsdya : that it
is not so accented is simply an error in the tradition, which v/e are
fully authorized to correct.
Another prominent rule under the same general head is wont to
be given in the following form : a verb retains its accent when im-
mediately preceded by another verb. Thus in pre 'to mrndta sdha-
dhvam, " go on, slay, overcome," or in teshdm pdhi crudhi' hdvam,
"of them drink, hear our cry," mrndta, sdhadhvam, frudhi are said
to be accented because of their standing in contact with the words
which severally precede them. But it will now be apparent to
every one, almost before we have time to point it out, that this is
merely a particular case under the general rule just established : a
verb under such circumstances must necessarily occupy the initial
position in its own clause ; and it is on that account, and not from
any mysterious influence which the contiguity of another kindred
form has upon it, that it retains its proper accent. Taking one of
the examples formerly given, and altering a little the arrangement
of it swords, so as to read idhmdm bhardma krndvdma havt'nshi te,
although the accent of krndvdma would seem to be brought
thereby under the action of this rule, we should not in fact change
the ground upon which the accent was already before preserved
to it. And in like manner, if we read in the instance last cited
pdhi teshdm frudhi' hdvam, we have taken away from frudhi
neither the reason for its accentuation, nor the accent itself ; that is
only to be effected by changing its place with regard to its own
object, as teshdm pdhi hdvam frudhi, in which case it would have
been brought into a position corresponding to that of pdhi, and
would, like the latter, lose its accent.
Once more, we are told that a verb between which and the begin-
ning of the sentence only vocatives intervene, is also suffered to re-
tain its accent. This, too, is evidently a case of a like character
with those already noticed. A vocative forms no part, properly
speaking, of the sentence or clause to which it is attached ; it does
not in any manner enter into its logical structure ; it is a mere ap-
pendage thereto, an interjection, a parenthesis. If, then, the verb
be preceded only by such a form, it still remains, in effect, at the
head of the sentence, and is accordingly accented. If we have the
9; 62.6: 64.2; 67.12; 70.10; 74.6; 76.4; 89.7; 91.6,13; 104.1,10;
106.11; 108.4; 111.5; 116.7; 133.2; 138. 2 (twice), 5 ; 147.5; 166.3;
161.5; 164.5. Atharva i. 8. 3 ; 17.2. n. 5.4; 10.7. iv. 5.6; 11.12; 21.1.
V. 2. 9. vi. 9. 1 ; 44. 1 ; 99. 3 ; 136. 2. vn. 48. 1. vm. 1.12; 2. 3 ; 4. 1, 13, 18.
rx. 1. 8 ; 6. 61. x. 4. 12 ; 8. 26. XH. 3. 31. xin. 4. 48, 55. xix. 45. 5 ; 49. 6.
VOL. v. 28
218
clause rdkshate ''mam " protect ye this person," in which rdkshata
has the stress of voice, its right to possess the latter is not affected
by the prefixing of a vocative, or of more than one ; and we have
equally vdsavo rdkshate 'mdm, and vicve devd vdsavo rdkshate 'mam.
The cases in which the verb is allowed to preserve its accent are
not thus exhausted. There are sundry particles (so particularly hi)
of which the presence in the same sentence gives it the power to do
so, and not infrequent instances of a more isolated character, and less
icducible to rule, are found to occur. The Indian grammarians, also,
give a whole series of rules for such cases, the arbitrary and unphilo-
sophical character of many of which is at the first glance apparent.
Enough, indeed, we believe, will have been already said, to show
that we cannot in any manner depend upon the presentation of the
facts which is to be found in the native grammars ; that their rules
can only be understood after they have been compared with the facts
themselves, as recorded for us in the accented texts. To these, then,
it becomes us to make our first and most assiduous application ;
when once the Vedas are made public in their entirety, and have
been thoroughly examined and excerpted for this particular purpose,
we may expect to be able to see much farther than at present into
the details of the system, to comprehend parts of it which are as yet
dark to us, and to recast into an intelligible form the teachings of
the native authorities. For that time we must perforce wait, with
what patience we may.
w. D. w.
2. Hernisz's Guide to Conversation in English and Chinese,
and Andrews's Discoveries in Chinese.
A Guide to Conversation in the English and Chinese Languages :
for the use of Americans and Chinese in California and elsewhere.
By STANISLAS HERNISZ, M. D., Attache of the U. S. Legation to
China, Member of the Am. Oriental Soc., etc. etc. Published by
John P. Jewett & Co. Boston, 1855.
THIS work was printed in Paris, with the beautiful Chinese type
of Marcellan Le Grand, and published by J. P. Jewett <fe Co., at the
moderate price of five dollars per copy. It contains one hundred
and seventy-nine oblong octavo pages, this form affording facilities
for placing the columns of English and Chinese side by side.
The author informs us in his preface that he has never had the
assistance of a native Chinese teacher, but that he has obtained his
knowledge of Chinese from the works of Gonalvez, Medhurst, Bridg-
man, and Williams, and from the Chinese Imperial Dictionary.
219
From these sources the author has compiled a series of progres-
sive elementary exercises in Chinese, somewhat in the style of the
modern progressive lessons employed for learning French and Ger-
man. With but limited experience in the practical use of the Chi-
nese language, it was not to be expected that the author could com-
pile a work of this kind free from errors. While therefore we ad-
mire the enterprise with which he has undertaken so difficult a task,
we feel at liberty to examine the work on its own intrinsic merits,
and point out whatever errors might otherwise mislead those who
use the volume for learning Chinese.
1st. The author states that he has adopted the orthography of
Morrison and Medhurst, as simplified in the more recent publica-
tions of American sinologues. It ought to be known that Morrison
and (after him) Medhurst, have represented Chinese sounds by or-
dinary English orthography, often employing combinations contain-
ing silent vowels ; while Dr. Bridgman, Dr. Williams, and other
American missionaries, have adopted what is commonly called the
continental orthography, which, when applied to the languages of
unenlightened nations, is known as the system of Sir William Jones,
which with slight variations has been followed in romanizing the
languages of India, of the islands of the Pacific, and of the native
tribes of North America. In this system every vowel-sound has a
separate letter to represent it, or, if one letter represents more than
one sound, they are distinguished by diacritical marks, and no ele-
mentary sound has more than one alphabetic representative. No
silent letters are admitted in the system. This gives definiteness to
all the combinations of letters used for writing the sounds of a for-
eign language. This should be called the system of Sir William
Jones adapted to the Chinese language, and not a modification of the
system employed by Morrison and Medhurst.
2nd. Few Chinese scholars would agree with the author in the
opinion that " a knowledge of the Chinese tones is not required in
order to speak the language intelligibly." Chinese tones consist es-
sentially of such qualities of enunciation as are known in English
by the designations monotone, rising, falling and circumflex inflections,
semitone or plaintive strain, tones of command, scorn and contempt,
forcible emphasis, and also an abrupt or suddenly interrupted tone
of voice. Each word must invariably be spoken in its appropriate
tone, or it becomes, essentially, another word, and conveys an
entirely different idea. The tone is an essential part of the word.
It is true that a person living among the Chinese may learn
many words and phrases, and pronounce them correctly by im-
itation, without any theoretical knowledge of the tones ; just as
every one who speaks the English language would ask a direct
question with a rising inflection at the close (just as the Chinese
220
themselves will often add a supernumerary word or syllable with
the rising inflection at the close of a question, when the sen-
tence properly ends with another tone). Yet hundreds of persons
who speak English or Chinese well, may have no clear idea of the
inflections of the voice as described by elocutionists. If these vari-
ous modifications of the voice are essential parts of Chinese words,
it may be asked : how are the various passions and emotions of the
speaker indicated ? We reply, by slowness or rapidity of utterance,
high or low pitch of voice, soft and plaintive or loud and gruft' enun-
ciation, and by appropriate tones on final particles destitute of mean-
ing. Such ideas, passions and emotions as require peculiar modifi-
cations of voice to give them their proper expression, are represented
by words to which are essentially and constantly attached those
peculiar modifications of the voice. With these remarks we are
prepared to say that an early and careful study of Chinese tones, is
of great importance to every one who would acquire a practical
acquaintance with the Chinese spoken language.
3d. In order to enable Chinese to learn English, the author has
selected characters which he thinks may be used as an alphabet, to
illustrate the sounds and use of the English alphabet, and has given
numerous examples of spelling English words with this Sinico-Eng-
lish alphabet. We are sorry to find that many indispensable ele-
ments of such an alphabet are wanting in the system of the author,
if indeed it may be called a system. The author has given for each
of our vowel-letters a Chinese character having a sound like one,
only, of the vowel-sounds represented by that letter, while for the
other vowel-sounds he has given no representative in his alphabet.
For each of our consonant-letters, he has given a Chinese character,
the pronunciation of which begins with the consonant sound (or one
of the sounds) represented by that letter, and ends generally with a
short vowel. He has given no intimation to his Chinese readers,
that the consonant-sound only is to be enunciated, while the final
vowel in the sound of the Chinese character is to be dropped. His
entire Sinico-English alphabet consists simply of very good names
for all the letters in the English alphabet, without enabling the Chi-
nese scholars to understand the sounds of the English letters when
used for spelling words. The consequence is, that a Chinese, study-
ing this book, would give to each word spelt with the author's
Chinese alphabet as many distinct syllables as there are letters used
in spelling the word, as in the following examples :
Rest would be pronounced Urh-e-sih teih.
Bush " " " Pih-wuh-sih-hae.
Help " Hae-e-lih-pei.
Local " " " Lih-o-kih-a-lih.
Pilfer " " " Pei-i-lih-fei-e-urh.
221
Thus the Chinese reader would pronounce the name of each letter
in the word, in succession, instead of pronouncing the word itself.
This is a difficulty experienced by every one who attempts to repre-
sent the sounds of proper names by Chinese characters. Where
combinations of consonants and vowels are used to form syllables
unknown to the Chinese, they make as many syllables in the pro-
nunciation as there are characters used to spell the word. In the
Treaty between the United States and China, made by the Embassy
to which Dr. Hernisz was attache, the word President, when pro-
nounced by the Chinese according to the sounds of the characters
used in the treaty, is Pi-li-si-tien-teh.
Had the author analyzed the sounds of a few common Chinese
words, showing to the Chinese readers of his book, first, specimens of
characters of which the pronunciation is a single vowel-sound ; then,
words with two vowels combined ; then, words formed of a conso-
nant followed by a single vowel ; then, a consonant with two vow-
els ; then, more complex combinations in Chinese words ; then, how
the Chinese themselves combine their initial consonants, for which
they have representatives in the " foreign dividers of sound " (as they
are called), which are found in native works, he might have ena-
bled his Chinese readers to understand the nature and use of alpha-
betic characters. After this, by an easy synthesis, he could have
shown that the English language has the same elementary sounds,
combined somewhat differently from what are found in Chinese
words ; and by proceeding from simple to more complex combina-
tions, he could have led on the Chinese scholars to pronounce Eng-
lish words, showing, of course, how words are composed of one,
two, or more syllables. This course would have required a disserta-
tion in the Chinese language itself, as an introduction to a Sinico-
English alphabet. In the construction of such an alphabet those
characters should be selected of which the common use in Chinese
pronouncing dictionaries, as representatives of initial consonants, has
already partially established their use as consonant-letters. The char-
acters to represent vowel-sounds in such an alphabet, should also be
those representatives of final sounds used in Chinese pronouncing dic-
tionaries, where they will answer the purpose ; and where others are
required, they should, if possible, be those characters of which the
pronunciation, in the court-dialect, consists of a single vowel-sound ;
or if the character is pronounced with the union of two or three ele-
mentary sounds, the description of its alphabetic use should point
out whether the first, second, or third elementary sound, of which
its common pronunciation consists, is to be employed when it is used
as an alphabetic symbol. A character should be selected to repre-
sent each vowel-sound, thus giving sometimes several characters as
the equivalent of a single letter in the English alphabet. Where
222
the sound of an English letter has no equivalent in Chinese, it should
be represented by a character of somewhat similar sound, and for a
diacritical mark have attached the ninth radical, which signifies man,
and which is commonly used in the formation of vulgar characters
having sounds different from the sounds attached by classical usage
to the character without this addition.
In the portion of the work which the author calls the Spelling-
Book, he pursues no uniform plan in spelling English words with his
Sinico-English alphabet. In the following examples we have merely
put in place of the Chinese characters the English letters for which the
author has given them as representatives. Leaf is spelt 1-e-f ; lead
(metal), 1-e-d ; copper, k-o-p-e-r ; brass, b-r-a-s ; pebbles, p-e-b-1-s ;
steel, s-t-e 1 ; quartz, q-a-r-t-z ; mine, m-i-n ; lime, 1-i-m ; marble,
m-a-r-b-1 ; while the final e is retained in ore, ape, table, and nine.
One is spelt o-a-n ; two, t-u ; three, t-r-e ; five, f-i-f ; although the
author has a Chinese character for v which he has used in the words
seven and eleven. But in seven all the letters are given, while eleven
is spelt e-1-e-v-n. Thirteen is spelt t-e-r-t-e-n ; while thirty is spelt
with all its letters ; and thousand is t-o-s-e-n-d. Thus it is evident
that the author neither follows the English orthography, nor the
natural sounds of the words, nor any other system consistent with
itself. No guide is given to show the Chinese reader how the words,
spelt with this alphabet, are to be divided into syllables ; no marks
are given to show which part of a word is accented ; nor has the
Chinese reader any means of determining whether a concatenation
of these new alphabetic characters is to be taken as a single word,
or several words. The corresponding Chinese characters, which give
the meaning, are not, in this respect, a correct guide.
For practical purposes, this Chinese alphabet and the spelling-book
are almost entirely useless. A revision that should adapt them to
the purpose of teaching the Chinese the use of the English alphabet,
and the practical method of spelling words, would be nearly equiva-
lent to a reconstruction de novo.
4th. Our views of the Progressive Exercises for learning Chinese
may be best expressed by first quoting the criticisms made by Re-
musat in 1822 upon the grammars of the Chinese language written
by missionaries before his time. He says that the Romish mission-
aries, in their grammars of the Chinese, had endeavored to give a
literal rendering into Chinese of all the shades of meaning expressed
by the various inflections of nouns, and moods and tenses of verbs,
given in Latin grammars. The absurdity of this proceeding, he
says, must be evident to any one who carefully considers the nature
of a language which admits of no inflections of nouns, and in which
the verbs have no forms equivalent to many of the moods and tenses,
<fec., found in Latin verbs.
223
Of Dr. Morrison's Chinese Grammar Remusat also says : " Dr.
Morrison has sought to give Chinese equivalents for the auxiliary
forms to which he had been accustomed in his mother tongue. He
has translated anglicisms, and phrases composed of the auxiliary
verbs, to have, to be, to do, can, &c., with all their combinations, moods
and tenses, ... he has given as pattern-phrases such forms as will
seldom or never be found in [Chinese] books." Somewhat similar
criticisms might be applied to this work of Dr. Hernisz. He has
taken the verb to have as a model for verbs, giving a great variety of
English forms with a Chinese translation : as, / have, I had, I shall
have ; let me have I have not, I had not, I shall not have I had
no bread ; I have no bread ; I shall have no bread ; have I? have I
not ? had I not ? shall I not have ? with other variations of number,
person, <fec., varying also the objects after the verb, &c., <fec. The
Chinese character used as a translation of to have signifies, primarily,
there is, and the form / have signifies, literally, there is to me, &c.
A Chinese word of such primitive signification, when carried through
all the English forms of the verb to have, appears in many situations
uncouth and inelegant in Chinese.
Some of the phrases are not idiomatic Chinese, while others are
such as would be seldom or never heard in conversation, or found
in Chinese books.
In the author's list of fractions, he has given the ordinals third,
fourth, fifth, &c., instead of one third, one fourth, one fifth, &c.
The list of nouns, adjectives, pronouns, verbs, and adverbs given
in the Progressive Exercises are generally correct, having been col-
lected from the authors quoted in the preface of the work. There
are, however, some errors which appear to be typographical, and
should be corrected in a table of errata.
We have thus freely noticed what we consider imperfections in
this work, yet no one but a student of Chinese can appreciate the
difficulties encountered in compiling such a work. The author has
evinced great patience and skill in compiling and carrying his work
through the press, and has succeeded as well as could have been
expected in a language so difficult as the Chinese, with no native
teacher at hand to aid him. The general plan of the Progressive
Exercises is good ; and for the class of persons for whom the book
was written, it will answer a good purpose. Indeed, it is almost the
only book in the market for the use of such. For thorough students
of the Chinese language, other and expensive books are desirable ;
but for those who merely wish a moderate practical knowledge of
Chinese, the work of Dr. Hernisz is at once cheap and available. A
good index to the work would add greatly to its value for practical
purposes.
224
The typographical execution of the work is far superior to that of
any similar work with which we are acquainted, and we trust it will
meet with such an extensive sale as to remunerate the author and the
enterprising publishers, and encourage the author, or other Chinese
scholars, to prepare other popular works on the Chinese language,
and thus facilitate intercourse with our oriental neighbors, both in
their own country, and on our western shores.
Discoveries in Chinese. By STEPHEN P. ANDREWS. Published by
Charles B. Norton. New York, 1854.
THIS author has advanced no theory, or principle, in regard to the
structure of Chinese characters, which has not been well known, and
acknowledged, by the great majority of European and American
sinologues, for at least thirty years.
It has long been well known that the simplest Chinese characters
are of hieroglyphic origin, and that many of the compound charac-
ters have been formed by the union of two or more hieroglyphic
symbols, the compound character deriving its meaning in part from
each of the hieroglyphic symbols of which it is composed. Chi-
nese philologists who wrote two thousand years ago tell us that other
characters are formed of two elements, one of which, dropping its
own signification, acts as a phonetic, to give sound to the new char-
acter, while the other hieroglyphic element drops its sound, or name,
and gives merely its signification, in whole, or in part, to the new
character. This is what is called the phonetic system. Mr. Gallery
has endeavored to show that most, if not all, compound characters,
have been formed on this phonetic plan, while Mr. Lay has advanced
the opinion, that even in those characters generally supposed to have
been formed on the phonetic plan, the phonetic or primitive gives a
shade of its own meaning to the complex character of which it
forms a part.
The only shade of novelty in Mr. Andrews's proposition, is the
opinion that all the phonetics, or primitives, as they are frequently
called, of which there are about fifteen hundred in common use,
many of which are themselves compound characters, derive their
own signification, when used as independent characters, from the sig-
nification or position of all the elementary symbols of which they
are composed ; or, in other words, that the phonetic principle has
had no influence in the construction of compound characters which
are themselves afterwards combined with radicals, or elementary sym-
bols, to form still more complex characters. Chinese scholars gen-
erally allow that the principle of combined symbolism applies to
many of the compound phonetics, or primitives, and to very many
combinations of radicals with primitives. Dr. Williams of Canton
225
has shown, in his " Easy Lessons in Chinese," that many of the com-
pound primitives agree in their construction with the phonetic the-
ory : and whoever will read his illustrations and his dissertation on
the structure of the Chinese language in the " Middle Kingdom,"
vol. i, chap. 10, will probably be better satisfied with Dr. Williams's
exposition than with that of the so called " Discoveries in Chinese."*
Mr. Andrews, after giving his views of the mode of analyzing one hun-
dred and forty-one characters, containing, as he thinks, the emblem
of a tree, says : " If the solutions which I have offered prove in any
good degree satisfactory to the learned, then I have to state that I
am certain I should be able to give an equally satisfactory account
of most of the remaining emblems of the language, throughout their
composition in the elementary characters." We would say that many
of his analyses are very unsatisfactory, while some of them are ex-
tremely fanciful and absurd ; e. g., the characters which he has num-
bered 110, 111, 112, and others where the same element occurs.
What he calls a wood-pile, if examined in ancient Chinese dictiona-
ries, is found to be a real picture of a bird, so plain that a child
would recognize it. The eighth character in his list is also easily ex-
plained by reference to ancient dictionaries, where the horizontal line
is replaced by three mouths, which the lexicographer says are the
roots (rootlets by which the tree takes its nourishment). These facts,
so obvious on inspection of ancient Chinese dictionaries, would have
been far more to the author's purpose than the analyses he has given.
The analysis which the author has given of many other characters is
very unsatisfactory, while their true analysis is not so obvious. The
system of symbolic analysis of Chinese characters might undoubt-
edly be prosecuted to much advantage in the study of Chinese, and
yet the book before us shows that the author has made little if any
advance upon the previous labors of others in the same department,
and his book is by no means worthy of the title which he gives to
it, of " Discoveries in Chinese."
M. C. WHITE.
* According to the analysis of Chinese characters adopted by Chinese phi-
lologists, as exhibited by Dr. Williams in the " Middle Kingdom," voL i, chap. 10,
there are 608 characters evidently pictorial in their origin ; 740 composed of
two or more pictorial symbols with significations derived from the combined
meaning of the elementary symbols ; 107 in which the idea is indicated by the
position or mode of combination of the elementary symbols ; 372 with significa-
tions derived by inverting or changing the original position of the elementary
symbols ; 598 with metaphorical meanings, as when a picture of the heart is
used for the mind; and 21810 characters formed on the phonetic system, i. e.,
by combining two more simple characters, using one merely to express sound,
and the other to convey an idea slightly modified from the original idea ex-
pressed by that part of the character when used alone.
VOL. v. 29
226
3. Roth and Whitney's Edition of the Aiharva- Veda.
Atkarva Veda Sanhita herausgegeben van R. Roth und W. D.
Whitney. ErsteAbth. Berlin, Ferd. Diiminler's Verlagsbuchhand-
lung: 1855. pp. 890, gr. 8vo.
WE welcome this edition of the so-called Fourth Veda with
peculiar pleasure. Each of the other Vedas had already found its
editor, and was being drawn upon for illustrations of Indian an-
tiquity, far in advance of what could be derived from the Sanskrit
literature of the epic age. But the Atharva remained unappropri-
ated, and its contents were almost wholly unknown to the learned
world, until our countryman Professor Whitney, at the suggestion of
Professor Roth of Tubingen, whose lectures he had been attending,
undertook, in conjunction with him, to edit it. The larger share of
the work done has thus far fallen to Mr. Whitney ; so that this edi-
tion of the Atharva, though enriched by the learning of one of the
first Sanskritists of Germany, may be regarded as in a great measure
the fruit of American scholarship. Nor need we refrain from ex-
pressing, in this connection, the hope that, when the work is com-
pleted, the nationality of one to whom it will certainly owe a large
part of its merit, may be distinctly recognized even on the title-page.
Editions of Sanskrit works by American scholars are not as yet so
numerous that our country can afford to lose any credit in this re-
spect which may properly fall to it.
It is unnecessary to repeat what is stated by Mr. Whitney himself,
in previous Numbers of this Journal, respecting the internal charac-
ter and the age of this Veda, and its relations to the other collections
of the same name.* The volume before us embraces the whole of
the Atharva-text, with the exception of the twentieth book, which,
being made up chiefly of extracts from the Rik, is regarded as an
appendage, and not as originally a part of it. Whatever is peculiar
in that book, however, will be included in the second fasciculus of
this edition. The nineteenth book, also, is considered to be of later
date than the previous eighteen, and has caused much labor to the
editors, on account of the corrupt state of the text found in all the
manuscripts. The reading of the manuscripts in all important places
in this book where corrections have been made, is given in the mar-
gin, in order to facilitate a judgment upon the emendations adopted.
Occasional emendations of the manuscript-readings, in other portions
of the text, are left, as we learn from Mr. Whitney, to be pointed
out in the notes. The number of manuscripts collated for this edi-
tion, either for the whole text, or for portions of it, is quite consider-
able : namely, seven in Berlin, all incomplete ; one in Paris, com-
* See Journ. Am. Or. Soc. voL iii. p. 305, f, vol. iv. p. 254, ff.
227
plete ; two in Oxford, complete or very nearly so ; and three in
London, one of them incomplete. The number of manuscripts relied
upon is, for each portion of the text, from six to eight, in general
seven. This is all the manuscript-material known to exist in the
European libraries, and is regarded as forming a sufficient foundation
for a satisfactory text, considering the well known minute agreement
of the Vedic MSS. The aid of other manuscripts would hardly be
of much value, unless they should be of another school, and present
a sensibly different text ; and of the existence of such even in India
there is as yet no evidence. For these statements respecting the
manuscript authority for a text of the Atharva, we are indebted to a
private communication from Mr. Whitney.
The second fasciculus will embrace an introduction to the Atharva,
a commentary on the text, consisting of critical and explanatory
notes, with citations from the pada-patha, or analyzed text, of this
Veda, from the pratif&khya, or grammatical explanations, belonging
to it, from its anukramani, or catalogue of authors, subjects and
metres, and from its sutra, or ritual, together with a concordance of
the Atharva with the other collections of Vedic hymns.
A brief notice of this very important publication must suffice for
the present. Even in its incomplete state, it will be appreciated by
all who apply themselves to the study of Vedic literature, as well as
confer honor upon its editors, and upon the enterprizing publisher.
May it also be happily completed !
VI. PHOENICIAN INSCRIPTION OF SIDON.
THE great work of Gesenius on the existing monuments of Phoe-
nician writing and language, published in 1837, embraces eighty-
one inscriptions, of various lengths, exclusive of legends on coins.
Since that time, many more have been brought to light. According
to a late writer,* there had been discovered, in 1852, thirty-five in-
scriptions not known to Gesenius. The most important of all these,
undoubtedly, is the monument of Marseilles, discovered in 1845,
which gives us what may be called the sacrificial code in force at a
temple of Baal in that city. But this is, much mutilated. For par-
ticulars in regard to many of these, the Etude Demonstr. de la Langue
Phen. et de la Langue Libyque, Paris, 1847, by Mons. A. C. Judas,
may be consulted. The present year has added to the number another
very valuable inscription, in twenty-two lines, each line containing on
* F. Hoefer in a volume of the series published at Paris under the title of
" L'Univers," as we are informed by Mr. Abbot of the Boston Athenseum.
228
an average forty-six letters, and the whole in perfect preservation.
No Phoenician monument which can compare with it in length and
condition, has ever before been discovered. It is also unique as re-
gards its locality, having been found at Sidon, in the very heart of
ancient Phoenicia. Nor is its intrinsic interest out of keeping with
these external circumstances which give it a peculiar value. This
discovery was made on the 19th of January last, in the course of
excavations undertaken with a view to finding treasure. For some
time past, it seems, there has been a vague tradition current at Sidon,
that treasure might be found by digging in the old grave-yards of
the city ; a tradition verified in 1853-54 by the discovery of three
copper pots, each containing eight hundred pieces of gold of the
coinage of Philip and Alexander of Macedon. Some of these gold-
pieces have been sent to this country, and two of them are in the
Cabinet of the Oriental Society. The search for gold being prosecu-
ted with renewed ardor, this inscription was disinterred. The fol-
lowing account of the circumstances is extracted from a letter to the
editor of the Journal of Commerce, dated Beirut, Feb. 11, 1855.
" On the 19th of January last, some men were digging for more
hid treasure in an ancient cemetery on the plain of Sidon, called
Mughorat Tubloon, when, at the depth of about twelve feet below
the surface, and near the walls of ancient edifice, they uncovered
a sarcophagus, upon the lid of which there is a long Phoenician
inscription. The lid is of a blue-black marble, intensely hard
and taking a very fine polish. The lid is about eight feet long by
four feet wide. The upper end is wrought into the figure of a
female [?] head and shoulders of almost a giant size. The features
are Egyptian, with large-full, almond-shaped eyes, the nose flattened
and lips remarkably thflp, and somewhat after the negro-mould.
The whole countenance is smiling, agreeable and expressive beyond
any thing I have ever seen in the disinterred monuments of Egypt
or Nineveh. The head-dress resembles that which appears in Egyp-
tian figures, while on each shoulder there is the head of some bird
a dove or pigeon and the bosom is covered by what appears to be
a sort of cape, with a deep fringe, as of lace. On the lid, below the
figure-head, is the inscription, consisting of twenty-two lines, closely
written.
" In the meantime a controversy has arisen in regard to the own-
ership of the discovered monument, between the English and French
consuls in this place The Turkish governor of Sidon, in
this state of the matter, has closed up the ground and protected it
by a guard of soldiers while the question is before the courts. Mr.
Thompson informs me that in the process of the diggings the men
opened large and elegant rooms cut out of the solid rock, one of
which he had entered and examined, and which could be hardly less
than thirty feet square by fifteen in height, the ornamental work of
which was of the highest finish."*
Not long after this discovery, the writer received from Dr. H. A.
DeForest, of the Syrian Mission of the American Board, a manu-
script copy of the inscription. Another copy was sent to the Albany
Institute, and was very promptly lithographed under the auspices of
that association. A copy of this lithograph, engraved on wood, was
published in the United States Magazine for April 15th. It is under-
stood to have been Dr. C. V. A. Van Dyck, a missionary of the
American Board in Syria, who made the copy from the original.
The plate attached to this paper is the Albany lithograph (copies of
which were obtained through the kind assistance of Mr. H. A. Homes
of the State Library at Albany), with some numbers added over cer-
tain letters, referring to the following variations found in the copy
received from Dr. DeForest :f
1. 6. 11. 16.
17.
7. 12.
Not found in DeF. MS.
ii.
;
18.
13.
r
19.
14.
9.
L r
20.
10. 15.
21.
* TJiere is reason to believe that further excavations on Phoenician soil
would lead to other important discoveries like this. A correspondent says :
" Cannot the Society induce some of your wealthy and generous Bostonians to
give the aid of their long purses to some American Layard, for exploring the
sites of ancient Tyre, Sidon, Citium, etc. There is every reason to believe
that such researches now undertaken would meet with the richest reward."
f A letter from Dr. Smith of Beirtit to Dr. Kobinson, dated May 15, 1855,
says that the inscription still remained " covered in the earth and inaccessi-
230
Several American scholars have interested themselves in the read-
ing of this inscription, and have communicated on the subject with
the writer. These are Prof. J. W. Gibhs of Yale College, Prof.
W. H. Green of Nassau Hall, Kev. Dr. J. Murdock of New Haven,
Rev. Dr. W. Jenks of Boston, Mr. W. W. Turner of Washington,
Mr. W. A. Miller of Albany, and Rev. Dr. C. F. Cruse of New York.
It is understood, also, that Rev. W. A. Thomson, and Rev. Dr. E.
Smith, well-known American missionaries in Syria, and accomplished
scholars, have succeeded in reading the greater part of the inscrip-
tion. From these gentlemen, however, no communication relative
to the particulars of their interpretation is known to have been re-
ceived, as yet, in this country. Here it is proper to observe that
portions of the inscription, of considerable length, present little or
no difficulty to one at all acquainted with the Hebrew ; while other
portions are quite difficult to be interpreted. It must also be re-
marked, that the similarity of some of the Phoenician letters to one
another (particularly of I and n, which differ only as to the length
of their lower limb ; and of d and r, which differ only in the direc-
tion in which they incline, while the b differs from either d or r
only in its lower limb being curved ; and the ts and t, some forms of
which also differ only in the direction in which they incline) gives
room to suppose that the copyist may not in all cases have distin-
guished the letters which make the correct reading; and there
is some reason to believe that the stone-cutter may have made
occasional mistakes in the original lettering. The obscure passages,
therefore, allow of some latitude of interpretation. The following
translation has been made by the writer in consultation with Pro-
fessor Gibbs, and with the valuable assistance of his suggestions and
criticisms. It is presented with diffidence, yet not without hope of
its contributing to the elucidation of the monument. In the Hebrew
transcript, some letters which are supposed to be superfluous in the
original, the stone-cutter, or the copyist having carelessly inscribed
the same letter twice, are enclosed in parentheses. A character
which it seems necessary to supply in the first line, is distinguished
by brackets.
ble ;" but refers to a re-examination of the original by Rev. Mis, Thomson,
after it was first copied, which led him to " correct a few letters," and adds
that Mr. Thomson had " sent his copy to Chevalier Bunsen, who has placed it
in the hands of Prof. Ditterich [Dieterici], who will publish it." But whether
either of the copies sent to this country embraces these corrections i not
known.
231
HEBREW TRANSCRIPT OF THE FOREGOING INSCRIPTION.
O
l-H
<N
CO
*i
W5
t~
00
o
^^
i i
_i
es
rt
d
c3
4
C8
n
n
n
n
55
i
XI
c;
M
n
E
53~
Pv
53
IX
j-
^rx
n
55
XI
n
H
Cj
^-
.xx
r
**
n
n
n
n
n
n
55
XI
IX
n
*~-5
XI
n
r
a
55
55
r
JP
55
1
cj
55
E
Pv
53
.XX
.*-
/x
53
n
4
Pv
^fx
M
n
XI
.XX
JP
r~
53
53
n
C.
*-
jr
r 1
Pv
i~
2s
n
Pv
*!
3
55
f
a
?
55
XI
XI
55
n
Jl-
53
n
Pv
53
n
53
XI
n
55
53
n
55
.XX
*-
JP
55
55
53
53
Jt
55
r
n
1~
53
.XX
!!
n
55
53
53
XI
53
rt
JP
J
55
55
J3
55
n
^
55
a
55
JP
j
r:
/x
a
JT
55
25
55
a
55
J^-
ja
1
55
Ci
w
T~
55
XX
a
55
55
XX
55
U
JP
.xx
53
.xx
S
R
f\
r\
55
P
'55
P
i~
n
f
55
55
jr
IX
n
r
53
53
^
53
jr
53
XI
j~
n
J3
55
jr
n
55
u
53
.xx
55
~i
55
\
n
XI
55
r:
rx
n
j&
n
53
55
55
R
M
3
n
r
m
fA
C.
55
^rx
C.
53
j~i
o
53
Pv
53
XI
n
Z
^rx
55
53
XI
n
55
jh
.xx
J3
f-
.XX
f
-
JT
XI
^Xx
^^3
55
n
C^
f
r?
U
*~'"~
-_l
55
j~
53
.Xx
r-
r
IX
n
r
53
jz
53
XI
55
1
53
'0
r-S
f
XI
n
F\
53
55
Pv
r
IX
55
55
a
a
P
53
53
53
r
P
.xx
_
XI
.
n
r-
53
232
n
53
Pv
.XX
n
n
a
c.
n
S
53
P
n
55
n
.XX
p\
c.
53
n
j
53
P
55
f"
J3
r
c
G
n
55
.XX
P
C
.XX JS
j^ Pv
*-
r*
p
rXX
M
j-
ri
13
n
03
P
.XX
n
P
,xx
J
M
3
n
*
n
*
p
K r-
r " P
r^
3
55
P
jr
55
P
Pv
P
cj
XI
E
Pv
n
53
rXX
n
n
P
55
P
S p
55
Pv
53
H
r*
rt
n
55
n
55
n
55
n
c;
55
r
n
55
P
r
a
p
55
r
J3
B
P
n
n
n
r
n
^rx
jr
rO
P
fl
53
r
a
55
n
n
00
c*
"55
c
n
a
n
n
KXX
55
P
n
P C
Pv ^^
" n
*~ -rXX
n
f.,
Pv
p
r
P
n
Pv
.XX
cj
Pv
55
p
.XX
n
n
cj
55
55
F
'/'
55
5*-
M
n
55
53
55
P
t\
n
XX
55
r
n
.xx
|f
-i
J3
^rv
Pv
.Xx
JP
P
n P
.P *^
r- *5
^ c
P
n
.xx
53
53
^fx
n
r,
PV w
M ^
P ^
55
P
a
^rx -rx
C O
r c
Pv
r
n c
n >5
Pv
P
n
.
55
55
n
P
P
n
n
cj
.XX
a
rt
55
Xx
n
a
n
r^"
P
a
M
n
p
P
n ^ x
P n
P C.
XI
n ^5
n
1- *
* fi
^rx n
55
1 .1-
J3
53
r:
53
c;
XI
J-
r
p\
a
Pv
.XX
P
233
TRANSLATION.
Linel. In the month Bui, in the year fourteen, 14, departed the
king's king Eshmuu'iyed, king of the Sidonians,
" 2. son of king Tabnith, king of the Sidonians. Speaks king Esh-
mun'iyed, king of the Sidonians, saying : I have been carried
away,
" 3. I have been swallowed up (by Sheol) within my covert ; there
is an end of burthens within my vestibule ; and I am repos-
ing in my enclosure and in my sepulchre,
" 4. in a place which I have built. My imprecatory prohibition
in conjunction with all the kingdoms (is as follows) : And
let no man open my place of repose,
" 5. nor scrutinize, within my place of sleep, how it is with men
within the place of sleep, nor take away the enclosure of my
place of repose, nor remove
" 6. the inner part of my place of repose. If thou enterest my
place of repose, although a man who judgest like El, mayest
thou hear a judgment by all the kingdoms.
" 7. And as for every man who shall open the entrance of my
place of repose, would that he who shall take away the en-
closure of my place of repose, would that he who shall
remove the inner part of my place of repose,
" 8. let there not be prepared for any one whomsoever a place of
repose in the society of the Rephaim, and let him not be
buried in a sepulchre, nor let there be prepared a son for any
one whomsoever, and let it be ill with him below.
" 9. Let whosoever is refractory have a judgment by the holy
gods in conjunction with the kingdom, through the head-rule
of the son of the king of the Sidonians over the kingdoms.
" 10. Would that that man who shall open the entrance of my
place of repose, would that he who shall take away my en-
closure,
"11. I pray that he may have experience of this saying. Would
that the man who kills, let there not be prepared for any
one whomsoever a field of sweet peace
" 12. in the midst of the high-places of the Light, among those
living under the sun, after the manner in which I am resting.
I have been carried away, I have been swallowed up (by
Sheol) within my covert ;
" 13. there is an end of burthens within my vestibule. As for me,
me Eshmun'iyed, king of the Sidonians, son of
" 14. king Tabnith, king of the Sidonians, grandson of king Esh-
mun'iyed, king of the Sidonians, and my mother Amashtoreth,
VOL. v. SO
234
L. 15. priestess of Ashtoreth our lady, the queen, daughter of king
Eshmun'iyed, king of the Sidonians, lo, we have built the
house of
" 16. the gods, the house of judgment, of the land of the sea ; and
we have established the (house of) Ashtoreth let the name
of the Light be exalted ! and it is we
" 17. who have built the house of my mother, wide spread, rich,
the light of the midst of the hill, and my abode let the
name of the Light be exalted ! and it is we who have built
the temples of
" 18. the divinity of the Sidonians, in Sidon, the land of the sea :
the temple of Baal-Sidon, and the temple of Ashtoreth the
name of Baal (be exalted) ! and until the Lord of kings shall
give to us
" 19. the delectableness and beauty of the land of Tyre, the garden
'-,*''' of the plain country, we have taken possession for Marathus
of the fortifications which she made, and we have added to
" 20, the citadels of the borders of the land, in order to protect all
the Sidonians forever. My imprecatory prohibition in con-
junction with all the kingdoms (is as follows) : And let no
man open my entrance,
"21. nor pall down my entrance, nor remove the inner part of my
place of repose, nor take away the enclosure of my place of
repose. Let whosoever is refractory have a judgment
" 22. by these holy gods, and let the kingdoms cut him off, him,
and the man who kills ; so that it may be ill with them
forever.
NOTES.
L. 1. a. mi ^sa'-iao ^D5> hTpa Via JTV. 3 . > i.e. "in the month
Bui, in the year fourteen, 14." On b^S, see 1 Kings 6 : 38.
In ^02) the D is a permutation for \U : see Gesenius, Monum.
p. 432. The date seems to be given in two forms, by words
as well as figures, for greater precision. Consequently, as the
words must control the figures, an additional unit-mark is to
be supplied. The numeral signs here used also mark the
dates of the autonomous coins of Sidon, Ptolemais, and Mara-
thus, and have been, hitherto, found only on coins, with one or
two exceptions.* The era dated from on these coins is B. C.
111. See Monum. pp. 86 ft'., 264.
* In the first line of Inscr. Cit. 1. some numerals may be plainly seen, after
the expression DD'ilis , and followed by ... ""jb/2 ?3 , as in the inscription be-
fore us. Gesenius 'has left this passage unexplained: see Monum. p. 125.
235
L. l.b. trsWS rjb n^satiN ryb^sbtt nb$ , i.e. "departed
the king's king Eshmun'iyed, king of the Sidonians." On
^5 tor J-rba , see Monum. p. 58. *]b h sb& must be an epithet.
It may be read so as to mean either "the king's king," or
" the reigning (as opposed to " titular") king," or " rex a rege
constitutus :" comp. the name 'frpib/3. = a rege (sc. Baal)
datus, in Monum. p. 134, Inscr. Cit. 4. A passage in line 18
of this inscription, beginning tT^btt pi "IN 13^ \F? ^51, fa-
vors an interpretation of the epithet as implying subordina-
tion, whether to Baal or to some superior human potentate.
Such an implication, if supposed, will account for the exclu-
sive use of the simpler title ^bft , in the same connection, in
all other parts of the inscription. On T* y 5 73 UJN = the Re-
stored by Eshmun, see Monum. p. 145, Inscr. Oit. 17.
[The frequent occurrence of this name in an inscription
purely Phoenician (see lines 1, 2, 13, 14, 15) is a voucher for
its Phoenician origin, and shows that Eshmun was a Pho?ni-
cian divinity: comp. Movers, Die Phosnizier, Th. i. p. 527 ft'.,
who combines Eshmun with the celestial sphere, or primum
mobile. j. w. o.]
L. 2. a. &->DTT>S rfbtt rpasn rjbr; "ja, i. e. " son of king Tabnith,
king of the Sidonians." Respecting rP35Fl, see Monum. pp.
115-118, and Die Phcen., i. p. 616 ft", it is probably iden-
tical with Tew^, the name given by Diodorus to a king of
Sidon in the time of Artaxerxes Ochus : see Bibl. Hist., xvi.
42 ff. The double v of this name is explained by rP3Sn .
The name n^D (n^ip) occurs in several Phoenician inscrip-
tions (Athen. 1. ; Carthag. 1, 2, 3, 5), as belonging to a female
divinity, and has been supposed to be identical with the Greek
Tivvrjg. In the application of this name to a man there
is an ellipsis of "DP, as in"" 'Aara^os derived from rniPKZJy
for rniPrtB3> "OP (like the ellipsis of rpa in niinuiy for
nl^nuJi' ZT'a, Deut. 1 : 4.), the name of a king of Tyre.
Gesenius supposed the divinity r>2n to be originally Egyptian ;
but Movers claims for her an Assyrian origin. The tablets
of Nineveh may decide the question, and fully identify nasn
with nan.
L. 2. b "ipfeua ^Kt*^ fi^TSt -fbXJ 13tt5{ Tjba W, i. e.
" speaks king Eshmun'iyed, king of the Sidonians, saying : I
have been carried away." On n5TJJ3 for 'Fibtia, see Monum.
p. 58 ; Prof. Green first suggested the possibility that the
character following the a of this word might be T , which gave
us our reading.
236
L. 3. a. Tja^lN "pa &rP tr-T^ft ^DOIE pa 'WV?, i. e. "I havo
been swallowed up (by Sheol) within my covert ; there is an
end of burthens within my vestibule." On "W23 , see Lex.
sub 3^33 , and Prov. 1 : 12. Respecting ^SDW and TiftVlN ,
see 2 Kings 16:18 and Ezek. 40 : 7 ; in the latter word, the
fern, form takes the place of the masc. of the Hebrew : see
Monum.-p. 440. For the meaning given to *pa, comp. 'pafc
before a sing, noun in Hebr., and the use of Arab. Q*J = in-
tra, in the same connection. Observe, in reference to this
passage, that the sarcophagus on which this inscription was
found, was disinterred " near the walls of an ancient edifice."
L. 3. b. "^JPSI ^yrjS "Obi* SSto'T, i. e. "and I am reposing in
my enclosure and in my sepulchre." On TiVln , see Lex.
sub b^rt '. the word Vft in Hebr. generally denotes a rampart
around an open space. With line 3 compare Is. 14 : 18.
L. 4. a. TpsaUJN ttpaa, i. e. "in a place which I have built."
1CN for Ttpit is explained by supposing an assimilation of ^
to the following consonant, before the dropping off of the
initial K .
L. 4. b. rrtb^J33a""V5> 1t riK ^SS^p, i.e. "my imprecatory prohibi-
tion in conjunction with all the kingdoms (is as follows)."
For the reading 1*231 p we are indebted to Mr. Turner : see
Buxtorf, Lex. Ckald.mb &Dp. By rrt 3^*353 "^3 is to be
- * t ; - T
understood the several kingdoms which at the period of the
inscription composed the Phoenician confederation. Movers
states (Die Phoen., u. i. p. 550) that, in the time of the Per-
sian supremacy, all the Phoanician cities were united in a
confederation, at the head of which stood the royal cities of
Sidon, Tyre, and Aradus ; and that the central power of the
union was a council, consisting of the kings of Sidon, Tyre,
and Aradus (Sidon taking the lead), and three hundred other
representatives o the three principal cities, together with the
high-priest of Ashtoreth. This council took cognizance of
affairs of peace and war, and doubtless of the interests of the
common religion. The disturbance of the repose of the dead
was viewed as a sacrilegious act : see line 9.
L. 4. c. "^3iptt-rPN fins" 1 Vi< tHN-bsi, i. e. "and let no man
open my place of repose." The full form rPN for n$ before
the object is peculiar, but admits of no question. In the
Punic passages of Plautus, this particle is yth; comp. also
Gesenius, Thes. sub voce.
237
L. 5. a. Matt fa tPUTNS TBtta fa iDjpa? bin, i.e. "nor scruti-
nize, within my place of sleep, how it is with men within the
place of sleep." The 1 of btfl comes from line 4.
L. 5. b. otoan biO ^3\p nyrrrPK Kto 1 ; bin, i.e. "nor take
away the enclosure of my place of repose, nor remove." The
of 072 S" 1 comes from line 6.
L. 6. a. ias>\p)a ab , i. e. " the inner part of my place of repose."
From line 3. b. and the parallelism in lines 5-6 between
"asuja nbTrrpK Kim bN and -a^uto & on?" 1 b, it
. f . . _ .. . T . - . T . . .. -.-
appears that by ab is meant the *iaj? within the riVn .
L. 6. b. bN3 fi a^ * tm EN P]N ""bra a3tt5E fife*, i- e. "if
thou enterest my place of repose, although a man who art
chief judge, like El." The change in this line to the form
of direct address adds force to the threatening. With "p a^
comp. ili^n a"i = architect, in Monum. p. 134, Inscr. Cit. 4 ;
the connection with line 6. c. indicates a play upon the word
p. Respecting Vtt, see Die Phoen., n. i. pp. 105, 106, and
i.'pp. 254 ff., 316 tf. If El was, as Movers says, the local
divinity of Byblus and Berytus, this reference to him implies
some connection between Sidon and Northern Phoenicia;
compare the mention made of Marathus in line 19.
L. 6. c. n ! obtttt~b3 'p'la 573U5r-i, i. e. "mayest thou hear a
judgment by all the kingdoms." -This clause imprecates a
judgment upon the supposed offender, on the part of the
Phoenician confederation : see note on line 4. b.
L. 7. a. rrstitt nVi> nns a u;N DlK-Vsi, i.e. "and as for every
,. : -- -::-: i r r :
man who shall open the entrance of my place of repose."
The } of Vial comes from line 6.
L. 7. b. ^asiptt n^rnrPN Nto"\p EN, i. e. " would that he who
shall take away the enclosure of my place of repose."
L. 7. c. ^asipft ab &725>*jpN M, i.e. "would that he who shall
remove the inner part of my place of repose." ia3ttJ of the
word ^asUJa comes from line 8.
L. 8',k. *iaga*^5|^ bin b'WB'T-nK asipa *xb 713^ b, i. e.
" let there not be prepared for any one whomsoever a place
of repose in the society of the Rephaim, and let him not be
buried in a sepulchre." On TJ<B"} , see Thes. sub voce.
L. 8. b. nnn SflTn J? ^ flS 1 ; bin ,'iie. " nor let there be pre-
pared a son 'for any one whomsoever, and let it be ill with
him below." The word rUnn comes from line 9. " Below "
a=in Sheol.
238
L. 9. a. K5b"nK & v ihj?rt CPSibNiia T^ ^^l ^b, i.e. "let
whosoever is refractory have a judgment by the holy gods in
conjunction with the kingdom." The 1 of TiD 1 ^ has the
force of a relative: see Nordheimer, Gr. Hebr. 1093, 2. a.
On tTDibit, see Monum. pp. 368, 369, Pun. ap. Plaut., and
compare the name Abdalonimus, given to a Phoenician king
by Quintus Curtius and Justin ; the, initial N of this word is
a permutation for y : see Judas, Etude Demonstr. p. 111.
The final K of fcobsa is a fern, sign : see Monum. p. 440.
L. 9. b. rfDVo/a-rrtt train" 1 :* pb fa buJE wfioa, i.e. "through
the head-rule of the son of the king of the Sidonians over the
kingdoms." The words n*i a'btDft ~rPi< trairpJt come from
line 10. The p of pbfc is a permutation for s ; and the n of
E'OirpX, the same for 1. With regard to the meaning of
this clause, see note on line 4. b., and comp. line 6. c. The
offender is threatened with a judgment by the protecting gods
of the kingdom of Sidon, through the headship of Eshmun-
'iyed's successor over the Phoenician confederation.
L. 10. a. ''lastta n?3> nnS'ipN anil tint* DN, i.e. "would that that
man who shall open the entrance of my place of repose."
L. 10. b. vibTi-rPN Xto'UJN t3K, i.e. " would that he who shall take
away my enclosure." The word Vib" 1 !! comes from line 11.
L. 11. a. tfij-j nVjatt S^n^-iM , i. e. "I pray that he may have
experience of this saying." On the grammatical form of
SnT^ , comp. Gr. Hebr. 358 ; and for the meaning given
to it,' see Id. 152.
L.n.b. aiu tfiVu) trito ijab ^^ ^ rpart % tm &x, i. e.
" would that the man who kills let there not be prepared for
any one whomsoever a field of sweet peace." The s of aia
comes from line 12. On it) for JTtt), comp. Monum. p. 58.
L. 12. a. rn ^bNs uiEiuJ nnn b'jna rtjit rfibsJa ^a, i.e. "in the
midst of the high-places of the Light, among those living un-
der the sun, after the manner in which I am resting." With
"liN rnVs>tt comp. b^a ni^tt, recognized in Monum. p. 424
as the original of Malethubalus, the name of a mountain in
Mauritania; comp. also ^3 nifta in Numb. 22 : 41, and
see 2 Kings 17 : 32. ^iN probably refers to Baal : comp.
E n 1 ^iNft fc'iJ in line 16. b., and see, on the sidereal signifi-
cance of Baal and Ashtoreth, Die Phcen., i. pp. 180 fl'., 605 ff.
L. 12. b. ) This passage is a repetition from line 2. b. line 3. a. as fol-
L. 13. a. j lows: 'n^ViN ^ 3 . &W ^^^^ >| SD ! i5a fti ""najVa "'riVTja,
i. e. " I have been carried away, I have been swallowed up
239
(by Sheol) within my covert ; there is an end of burthens
within my vestibule."
L. 13. b. fa traiT^ Tjbtt T'ajSfciBN rsbN "'SbN, i.e. "as for me,
me Eshmun'iyed, king of the Sidonians, son of." On the
repetition of ^pbN , see Gr. Hebr. 851.
L. 14. a. fa fa diaiTiS T\yn n^in ?jb)a, i.e. "king Tabnith,
king of the Sidoniaus, grandson of."
L. 14. b. rn'inuJy&K "^NI trs/cr^ ?jb!a ns'wa-tpjt ?]b:o, i. e.
"king Eshmun'iyed, king of the Sidonians, and my mother
Amashtoreth." The name of the king's mother is probably a
contraction from rninip3> ntttt = the handmaid of Ashto-
reth : see Monum. p. 132, Inscr. Cit. 2.
L. 15. a. roball lana'n rnitVtp? n:Jri3, i.e. " priestess of Ash-
toreth our lady, the queen." On the fern, sign n in npSTlS,
na"i and rob^rt , see Monum. p. 439. The title of n3"\ is
given to the goddess rP2n in several Phoenician inscriptions
of Carthage.
L. 15. b. S-oiTlS T\yn "PSittTN ?jba ra , i. e. " daughter of king
Eshmun'iyed, king of the Sidonians." The name T5>3/a7N is
undoubtedly identical with TSOfa'ipN , by a permutation of
T for ui , whether the king referred to is the grandfather of
Eshmun'iyed II. or not : it is quite possible that Tabnith
married his sister, especially if she had not the same mother
as himself.
L. 15. c. r^sprPN l^Sa btf, i. e. "lo, we have built the house of."
L.I 6. a. tP y-}i< fn rirzTTPN b^ibN, i- e - " the gods, the house
of judgment, of the land of the sea."
L.ie.b. siariMn tni -flaw bv n^in^'i-n^N la-rto^, i- e. "and
we have established the (house of) Ashtoreth let the name
of the Light be exalted! and it is we." The \l) of miD^
is a permutation for D. rniftiin is a contraction from
n^lPiUJS'' 1 ^ , there being an ellipsis of rra (see note on line
2. a.), 'and i being the gen. sign, borrowed from the Syriac :
see Monum. p. 144. Perhaps the building here spoken of was
the residence of the priestesses of Ashtoreth ; line 1 8 shows
that it was not a temple. For an ejaculation similar in form
to that supposed in this and the next line, see Monum. p. 215,
Inscr. Tripol. 1. Line 18. b. shows that "littft was a title of
Baal.
L. 17. a. ib aizj;ji nrt abb ^3 snti nT-w ^axb n^ narnuJK,
i. e. " who have built the house of my mother, wide spread,
rich, the light of the midst of the hill, and my abode."
240
L. 17. b. fiipfc W32113K 15ft2Jn ^ ^i**^ a ^' i>e< "!et the name of
the Light be exalted ! and it is we who have built the temples."
L. 18. a. f ITS bwb rpa tn y*jN ^vsa ITS'ITS ^V6, i.e.
" of the gods of the Sidonians, in Sid'on, the land of the sea :
the temple of Baal-Sidon." On pi^N for ^ibtf , see Monum.
p. 58. With p)-p2Z b3>3 comp. ^2 \V3. =Baal (tutelar god
of) Tyre, Monum. p. 96, Inscr. Melit. 1.
L. 18. b. "bs>3 tip rnintf5i>b rPSl, i.e. "and the temple of Ash-
toreth, the name of Baal (be exalted) !" There appears to
be an ellipsis, here, of QVi, which is easily supplied from the
context: see lines 16, 17.
L. 18. c. trrjba 'Jinx lab frP W, i.e. "and until the Lord of
kings shall give to us" fcriVtt filtf means either Baal, or
some superior human potentate : see the note on line 1. b.
" Us" = our dynasty.
L. 19. a. SntoaiBN ViNtt f5 1'S yn W) Yn-rPN, i.e. "the
v T : v -j I v T ' i v -. .
delectableness and beauty of the land of Tyre, the garden of
the plain country." The form of is in *\ and V"ltttl , as in
y-}N of 1. 16. a., differs from that found elsewhere in the in-
scription ; but the same form is used interchangeably with ^
in the names of Tyre and Sidon and the Sidonians, on the
coins of those cities: see Monum. Tab. 34. At the date of
this inscription, then, Tyre had separated itself from the
Phoenician confederacy. The Tyrians, we know, did not act
with the other states of Phoenicia in reference to submission
to Alexander : see Diodorus, Bibl. Hist., xvii. 40.
L. 19. b. V !)3DD' I 1 nVPSlDN niaSJ? mttb siSllti, i. e. "we have
: ; -T: - -: T - ; --- -- : ; -
taken possession for Marathus of the fortifications which she
made, and we have added to." From a very early period,
the city of Marathus and the island of Aradus lying opposite
to it, were politically united under the king of the latter. In
the time of the Seleucidse, Marathus was destroyed by the
Aradians. See Die Phoen., n. i. pp. 100-102.
L. 20. a. bVisV bW^-Vs bsV y\N Vina niVaa, i.e. "the
: _':".. j -s -
citadels of the borders of the land, in order to protect all
the Sidonians forever." The initial ft of rnb3>ft comes from
line 19. This word seems to have the same d'buble meaning
which nittS has in Hebr. : comp. -fitf nlb5>J3 in line 12. a.
and Ps. 18 : T 34 with 2 Kings 17 : 32. On a'^il^-'bs , see
Die Phoen., n. i. p. 92 : the name "Sidonians" is here applied
to the people of all the kingdoms of the Phoenician confede-
racy, Sidon being the political head.
241
L. 20.b. This passage is a repetition of line 4. b. as follows:
n15bJ3!D~te""riK "Wlp, i.e. " my imprecatory prohibition,
in conjunction with all the kingdoms (is as follows)."
L. 20. c. TVy rtr.SP btt tnK-'bS 1 ? , i. e. "and let no man open
T - - : - TT T .
my entrance."
L.21.a. ^3TC5a 5b ojaan bin 'n?? n 1 -)^ ViO , i. e. "nor pull
down my entrance, nor remove the inner part of my place of
repose." See the note on line 6. a.
L. 21. b. ^3 '^73 nyrrrrN Nil^ ^JO , i. e. "nor take away the
enclosure of my place of repose."
L. 21. c. fitf "iiDi ^ab , i.e. " let whosoever is refractory have a
judgment." Comp. line 9. a. We read ^O" 1 , here, by a
slight alteration of the Phoenician text, substituting ^ for /^ .
L.22.a. niabassi lais^i ttV mzftijprt tnVbNft , i.e. "by
these holy gods, and let the kingdoms cut him off." The
initial To of d^ibKft comes from line 21. fT?N, rather than
btf , is sanctioned by hily in Plaut. 1, 9 : see Monum. pp.
368, 438. On the agreement of rVobttteSl with ^ ispi (masc.
pi.) see Cfr. ffebr. Y57. 2 ; and on the grammatical form of
fsiXfn,Id. 82. 1.
L.22.b. &Vib b5>^ 13 n^lOrt ^ tniO Mil, i.e. "him, and the
man who kills ; so that it may be ill with them forever."
The repetition of the pronoun which is the object of the verb
, is emphatic : see Gr. Hebr. 865. 2. a.
To these notes may be properly appended some brief remarks on
the contents of the inscription. The substance of it, as will have
been seen from the translation given, is a series of direful impreca-
tions against any one who may in any way violate the repose of the
deceased king. But, what is of more importance, it incidentally
adds to our lists of kings of Sidon the names of three in succession,
of one dynasty ; mentions the public works of one of them, and of
his mother ; gives intimations of the mutual relations of the princi-
pal cities of Phoenicia, and of the position of Sidon, in reference to
the others, at the date of the inscription ; and indicates the sort of
government then wielded by the Phoenician kings, showing it to
have been theocratic. The particular gods who were the objects of
worship are also named : Baal and Ashtoreth, the gods of Sidon
and Tyre in the most ancient times of which we have any record
(see 1 Kings 16 : 31, 11 : 33), and Eshmun, a recognized divinity of
the Phoenicians. This inscription also presents a view of the state of
VOL. T. 81
242
the dead, which is of great interest for comparison with the repre-
sentation of Sheol in the Hebrew Scriptures, as, for example, in the
fourteenth chapter of Isaiah. It is important to add, in respect to
the language of the inscription, that it accords with the view now
generally entertained of the Phoenician langauge, that it was nearly
identical with the Hebrew in its words, inflections, and construction.
The connection of the dynasty referred to with personages of Si-
donian history already known, involving the date of the inscription,
is a point of the highest interest, as is apparent, not only in itself,
but because the value of the contents of the inscription depends, in
a great measure, upon its determination. We will, therefore, briefly
state some grounds for the opinion that this inscription belongs to
the latter half of the fourth century before Christ. It is to be ob-
served, that the only Sidonian era, hitherto known to us, is that used
on the autonomous coins of Sidon, which, as already stated, was
coincident with B. C. Ill; and it will be remembered that the nu-
meral signs for the dates on those coins, as also on the coins of
Ptolemais and Marathus which have been preserved, are identical
with the numerals found in the first line of this inscription. One
might be disposed, therefore, to count the year 14 of the inscription
from B.C. Ill, making its date to be B.C. 97. This conclusion,
however, does not force itself upon us, and there are reasons for
believing the inscription to be much more ancient ; so that its era
must be different from that of the coins referred to. A comparison of
this inscription with those collected by Pococke in Cyprus, to which
Gesenius assigns an age not long posterior to Alexander, at the
latest, shows it to be older, paleographically considered, certainly not
more recent, than those. To this is to be added, that one of those
very inscriptions of Cyprus reads 'ini>352UJ(!<'b = To Eshmun'iyed,
giving us the same name as that of the king on whose sarcophagus
the inscription of Sidon appears ; and, considering the well-known
intimate relations between Sidon and Cyprus, it seems not unlikely
that the same person is intended. But this identification is rendered
more plausible by what Diodorus tells us (Sibl. ffist., 42 ff.) of a
king of Sidon named Ttwyg, cotemporary with Artaxerxes Ochus,
and subordinate to him, who revolted from the Persian king about
B. C. 350. It has been already observed, that the name of the father
of Eshmun'iyed II. of the inscription, rp3in , serves to confirm the
supposed connection between that Greek name and the name of the
goddess nin (n^n). This, so far as it goes, would indicate an
identity between Tennes and the Tabnith of the inscription. Now
Diodorus says that Sidon, in consequence of the revolt under Tennes,
was besieged 'by Artaxerxes, and at length, having fallen into the
hands of the Persians, was set on fire and destroyed by the Sidonians
themselves ; and that Tennes, although he had betrayed his city, was
243
put to death by Artaxerxes. With these circumstances the tenor of
the inscription of Sidon coincides in two important particulars. In
the first place, several lines of this inscription are occupied with an
enumeration of buildings erected, and such buildings as could not
well have been wanting except in consequence of some casualty.
These public works evidently constituted a leading feature of the
reign of Eshmun'iyed II. But Sidon was rebuilt after its destruction
in the time of Artaxerxes, and before Alexander's conquest of Phoe-
nicia ; for the latter, about B. C. 320, found a king reigning there,
supported by Darius, and took the city (see Arrian, Exped. Alex.
ii. 15, 6 ; Q. Curtius, De Rebus Gestis Alex. iv. 1, 15 ft".). In the
next place, the mother of Eshmun'iyed II. is spoken of in the inscrip-
tion as a reigning queen, for it appears that the architectural works
commemorated were executed under her and her son's joint direc-
tion ; which implies that her husband was no longer living. These
coincidences render it quite probable that the father of Eshmun'iyed
II., called Tabuith in the inscription, was no other than the Tennes
of Diodorus. Another consideration, showing the inscription to be
not later than Alexander's conquest of Phoenicia, is its frequent ref-
erence to a confederacy of Phoenician kingdoms, which can scarcely
have existed after Alexander's system of administration over con-
quered countries had been established there.
The question remains, from what era is the inscription dated. In
view of the circumstances which have been alluded to, it seems most
probable that the era of this inscription is the re-building of Sidon
between B. C. 350 and 320 ; and, as it is dated in the year 14, it may
be set down as very near the truth, that it belongs to the latter half
of the generation intervening between the destruction of Sidon in
the time of Artaxerxes and its surrender to Alexander.
We now give place to an independent interpretation by our highly
esteemed co-laborer Mr. Turner.
E. E. 8.
VII. THE SIDON INSCRIPTION, WITH A TRANSLATION AND NOTES.
By WILLIAM W. TURNER.
THIS document is provocative of many remarks palseographical,
philological, historical, and mythological, with which scholars will
doubtless favor the world in due time. I however shall confine
myself almost wholly to contributing my mite towards the reading
and interpretation of the inscription itself, though taking occasion
to add such observations on the topics connected with it as shall
spontaneously suggest themselves.
TEXT.
rH
(N
CO
T&
10
CO
Jr-
00
OJ
i-t
rH
n
n
n
n
55
JO
jn
P
C
M
n
f~
M
*v
13
Xv
Xv
n
n
fc
^rx
n
.xx
13
.Xv
c.
n
55
n
lT
n
13
p
55
J^
jn
**
n
r
55
^rv
B
n
55
f
C.
*-
55
C
*~~~
j
*A
r
c*
f
n
n
j-*
n
fj
r
fj
J-<
P
13
JTI
j
r
r
f\
J .
13
f
c.
J~
E
13
f\
I.I
^Tv
JO
13
^rv
Pv
PV
r
13
.Xv
fi
13
13
J"
n
55
C
13
P
n
JP
P
P
n:
55
.Xv
n
JC.
55
13
13
.XX
55
r
n
P
JT
55
f*
13
f
55
XI
n
XI
n
13
P
s\
n
n
55
C.
S
n
JP
55
jr
JP
JC.
n
55
r
n
13
13
n
13
13
!
55
I5T
55
f-
55
r
55
P
JP
n
55
55
JP
55
^
2
n
JC
-
55
55
P
a
55
t.
55
P
J-
JP
13
.Xv
r\
55
!
R
13
XI
55
f
55
13
a
r
P
55
55
55
^rv
r
iT
13
13
.Xv
n
55
r
I.I
C
n
13
n:
13
c.
l
n
n
1J
55
n
r~
*~
r
n
Pv
.Xv
55
Xv
*L
n
r
C
^TV
_|"~*
13
jjj
55
1-.
j
n
55
jp
55
.xv
F-
*M
n
55
rT
i~
p
13
P
o
p
M
n
jQ
J3
13
n
.XV
S
I-
n
n
13
C
P
13
p
.Xv
P
.XV
p
a
f
r
13
a
.xv
55
c.
n
55
n
13
n
j~
n
55
r
XI
n
jn
^rv
55
JP
55
p
n
P
.Xv
.r
rT
13
^
S
1
J3
(^
P
.Xv
JJ
M
j-
r
XI
n
f
*-
Pv
n
55
P
n
r
P
55
a
a
*
13
13
f
Pv
13
r
55
f
13
JO
PV
n
,-
13
n
jr
53
Pv
.Xx
n
n
r
ja
n
53
n
y.
.XX
n
c.
a
53
55
jr
53
53
n
*-
55
.Xx
53
53
.xx
*-t 55
53
-i
Pv
*~
i~
53
53 i,
J^
2
n
53
.Xx
n
53
M
JT
JP
n
*-
n
j
53
53
*-
Pv
g-
r
53
55
53
f
55
53
Pv
n
Pi
9
r~
n
n
53
.XX
XI
C
n
53
55
jr
53
r-
Pv
j-
r~
53
.XX
M
r-
ri
a
55
55
.XX
JP
55
n
C
55
a
55
53
n
.XX
C.
p
S3
53
55
J~
r
a
n S
JM
n
JG
2 3
n
55
53
JP
i i
55
i i
JT
r
.XX
n
n
r-
n
n
j"
13
a
53
55
n
*
55
n
n
JP
55
r
JP
n
.xx
n
M
jr
c;
.XX
f\
u
n
p\
.XX
Pv
r
^rv
55
r*
53
JP
jr
5;
ir
c;
r
r
c.
55
53
n
n
53
r-
Pv
M
53
55
M
Pv
rx
jd ^
K "^
JP F
Pv
n
.XX
55
r
n
^o
M
j-
S3
rf\
Pv
fl
53
JT
55
f\
.XX
53
53
in
rx
55
jr
JP
55
Pv
J-
Pv
c;
.XX
53
n
n
13
55
n
.Xx
53
XI
n
JP
a
55
.XX
B
n
o
55
.Xx
Pv M
53 ^
S ^
53
^rv
XI
n
55
n
55
F
JP
53
n
53
C
ri
JT*
Pv
JP
.XX
Pv
^rx
JP
246
TRANSLATION.
1. In the month Bui, in the year fourteen, the 13th anniversary of
the king, King Ashmunyyer, king of the Sidonians,
2. son of King Tabnith, king of the Sidonians, spake King Ash-
munyyer, king of the Sidonians, saying :
3. I, son of the molten sea-god, have received a wound from the
hand of Mithumbenel ; I am dead, and am resting in my se-
pulchre and in my grave,
4. in the place which I built. My curse to every kingdom and
to every man : Let him not open my resting-place, and
5. let not a son of liars seek that I destroy a son of liars, and let
him not remove the sepulchre of my resting-place, and let
him not take
6. the fruit of my resting-place [or] the cover of the resting-place
where I sleep. Yea, if men speak to thee, hearken not to
thine enticer. Any kingdom or
7. any man who shall open the cover of my resting-place, or
who shall remove the sepulchre of my resting-place, or who
shall take the fruit of my
8. resting-place, let them not have a resting-place with the shades,
and let him not be buried in a grave, and let them not have
a child, and let it go ill
9. because of them, and let the holy gods terrify them, even the
kingdom with the ruling prince ; wholly cutting
10. them off, even the kingdom or that man who shall open the
cover of my resting-place, or who shall remove
11. my sepulchre. Neith shall know of that matter. Yea, a man
that slayeth they shall have no dwelling in peace. Good is
12. the judgment from on high ! Behold in life, as I was resting
beneath the sun, I, son of the molten sea-god, received a wound
13. from the hand of Mithumbenel ; I, the king, am dead. I Ash-
munyyer, king of the Sidonians, son
14. of King Tabnith, king of the Sidonians, grandson of King Ash-
munyyer, king of the Sidonians, and my mother Emashtoreth,
15. priestess of Ashtoreth, our lady the queen, daughter of King
Imanyyer, king of the Sidonians, behold we built the temple
16. of the gods, the temple of justice, by the sea and justice is the
support of the stars ! There shall they be worshipped ; and we
17. who have built a temple for the peoples, behold our guilt shall
be diminished thereby, and there shall my children worship.
And we who have built temples
18. to the god of the Sidonians, in Sidon, the land of the sea, a
temple to Baal-Sidon, and a temple to Ashtoreth the glory of
Baal, to us Lord Milcom giyeth a city
247
19. the desire and beauty of the earth, our glorious delight, which
is in the dwelling of our deity, to stretch out the fortresses
which I have made ; and they have been constructed
20. on the border of the land, to strengthen all the Sidonians for
ever. My curse to every kingdom and to every man : Let
him not open my cover,
21. and not remove my cover, and let him not take the fruit of
my resting-place, and not remove the sepulchre of my resting-
place. As for them, those
22. holy gods shall humble them ; and they shall cut off that
kingdom and the man that slayeth, that it may be ill with
them for ever.
NOTES.
Line 1.
bi FITS in the month Bui. What this means is shown in 1 Kings
6, 38, where it is said, irararr UHhn Nlfi Via JTV3 in the
7 . , . _ .. -: .
month Bui, that is, the eighth month. The occurrence of the
term Bui in this place seems a sufficient refutation of the idea
that this and some other ancient names applied to months in
the Bible were rather appellatives than ordinary names.
"I03> is the Aramaic form for the Heb. ^iU3> .
/\ /(( f~*. The curved longitudinal stroke signifies 10, and the per-
pendicular strokes are units (Gesen. Monn. Pho3n. p. 85, sqq.)
There are two coins published by Swinton (Philos. Trans. Vol.
4, PI. 31), but omitted by Gesenius, which bear the dates
////// A//V/>V (year CXXVI ) and W/W/NM |->V (year CXXVIII ).
Under both of them occurs the character A (whose alphabet-
itical value is that of a), of which Swinton offers no explana-
tion. Perhaps it may be a contraction for ^ = Heb. V3
circle, cycle, age, but employed in the sense of annual revolution',
year. In that case we may read "Obsab 5 III > the 13th anni-
versary, or year, of my Icing or the king. For this use of the
pronoun, comp. the Heb. ijnN , Syr. ^jio , Fr. monsieur.
Ashmunyyer. On No. lY of the inscriptions found by
Pococke at Citium is the name C^ Af Q 4 U/ V-* ^ ^
which Gesenius reads isSJ-fiattJN Eshmun-yyed (quern Aescu-
lapius restituit) (Monn. Phcen. p. 145). He remarks, however,
that it might also be read "pSSEUitt Eshmuriyyer (quern Aescu-
lapius suscitavif), which likewise yields a good sense ; and this
latter reading is adopted by Movers, who remarks that the
248
name is also found in another inscription of Citium since dis-
covered by the Grecian archaeologist L. Ross (Art. Phoenizier,
in Ersch u. Gruber's Encyclop. p. 424). In the Sidon inscrip-
tion the forms of i and *i are so confounded that, although the
name occurs in it no less than four times (lines 1, 2, 13, 14),
the proper reading cannot be determined from it. Supposing
that the inscription of Ross (which I have not been able to see)
is sufficiently clear to settle the question, I have followed the
reading of Movers. The name ^53T23fit ' Eafnovv, the Phoenician
u*Esculapius (Ges. Monn. Phoen., p. 136), occurs a number of
times alone and in composition on inscriptions of Citium, Car-
thage, Athens, and Marseilles (Ges. 1. c. p. 347, Movers 1. c. p.
396) ; but this is the first time it has been found in Phoenicia
proper.
a King Ashmunyyer. In the titles T^fciBJt ^E ,
ba , ^PSS&^i* "jVa, the appellative ^fift king is placed
before the name of the sovereign, in accordance with the best
Hebrew usage ; but it has not as in Hebrew the article.
Line 2.
i. Perhaps i. q. Heb. rpwin form, image, and hence to be
read Tabnith.
a- thrust, wound, from baa (whence Heb. ^522 a sickle) = Aiah.
to pierce. This and the following words appear again in
lines 12, 13.
Line 3.
I suppose to be employed, like the Pers. u^j^" > which also
means literally to swallow, in the sense of to receive, to suffer, as
Q^_j3- i-J^Xf to suffer torment, QV^JJ- *i to be afflicted; so
that Tisbs nVaa will mean / received (or had inflicted upon
me) a wound. It is difficult to reconcile this form of the 1st
pers. pret. with the Aramaean form n:3 (line 4), n^^D (1. 19),
unless we suppose it to be emphatic.
*7D?3 I at first proposed to read either d^SDQ slielterers, protectors
(Hiph. part, of -7DD), or perhaps better h"^3tt anointed ones
(Hoph. part, of rj03 ), in the sense of the passive of Kal, as in
Ps. 2, 6. So that the phrase ta^O/3 "p would signify the off-
spring or descendant of crowned heads or princes. Both these
readings are however untenable, as they suppose an anomaly
in the orthography of the plural termination, which elsewhere
throughout the inscription is written, in the Phoenician manner,
defectively. The reading adopted assumes 'pfa to be i. q. the
Heb. JiSOE and to mean a molten idol, a brazen god; and this
may be either Baal (see 2 Chron. 28, 2) or Molech (see Ges.
249
Lex. art. Tjbb). The king may be supposed to call himself the
son of his deity, either as his worshipper or as claiming descent
from him in the style of Oriental sovereigns. As a counterpart
to the expression idol or god of the sea, sea-god, to denote the
god of a people bordering on the sea, we have the term &> y^N
land of the sea, applied (1. 18) to the Sidonian territory.
At the beginning of line 1 3 in the lithograph is a mark which
resembles b . If it were this letter, it would indicate that here
probably are two nouns in the relation to each other of possessor
and possessed, which relation in the former instance is indicated
by their juxtaposition and in the latter by the prep. V . But
this does not appear to be the case ; for the character differs in
form from the other Lameds, and likewise projects somewhat
beyond the margin of the inscription, so that we are justified
in concluding that it is not a letter at all, but a mere scratch or
flaw in the marble. This conclusion is confirmed by the MS.
copy of the inscription received from Dr. DeForest, which pre-
sents no trace of the character in question.
Here -piS is supposed to be the word *p written with J<
p *
prosthetic, like Syr. \ t ji\ hand.
Perhaps the first part of the word is that of the Plau-
tinian name Muthumballes, which, however, Gesenius reads
b^Sintt , and Quatremere V^3 fntt May not its etymology
be ^r'fa-frp" jg ?
5ilJl act. part. Kal. In the same sense Is. 14, 18 : all the kings of
'the nations 'irpla UTN *VD3i TS^UJ lie in glory each in his own
house. Comp. too the oft recurring phrase vniitf fii> SStfJ'T
and he slept with his fathers. Gesenius remarks (Monn. Pncen.
p. 438), that the act. part, is always written defectively in Phoe-
nician. It should be observed, however, that both here and in
the plural termination the Phoen. vowel may be a, in which
case no mater lectionis is required.
in my sepulchre. The connexions in which the word nVrt
occurs besides the present instance (lines 5, 1, 11, 21) show
clearly that it signifies a coffin or sarcophagus. Accordingly
we may regard it as meaning literally a hollow vessel, and com-
pare Arab. c jo- a bee-hive, a ship ; B^Ls^ a horse's nose-bag, a
saddle-bag, wallet; from J^> to be empty. Or we may sup-
pose it to mean literally a polished vessel, from the root J-j^n to
polish; which last is singularly suitable to the description of
the sarcophagus by the correspondent of the New York Journal
of Commerce, who says : " The lid is a fine blue-black marble,
intensely hard, and taking a very fine polish."
. v. 32
250
Line 4.
/ built. Whether this is to be considered as written defectively
and pronounced banti, or whether it is to be read in the Ara-
maean manner beneth, it is not easy to say. The former opinion
would seem the most probable from the fact that the verb
"wbs above (if correctly interpreted) follows the Hebrew usage,
as does also the verb siccarthi or sicorathi of Plautus, were it
not that the omission of a sign for I at the end of a word is an
anomaly unknown to the Shemitish languages.
my prohibition or my curse. Buxtorf (Lex. Chald.) explains
the Talmudical word Q3ip as a vow of prohibition, and ^asip
as juramenta, vota cum execrationibus. True, he says tail?' is
corrupted from f i~ip , and if so, it could hardly be a Phoenician
word ; but it is difficult to see how this can be the case, as
"p"^p has a very different meaning.
kingdom. The word also occurs in this form in lines 6, 10,
20, 22, and only once (1. 9) in the form NDbttft ; and this agrees
with the conclusions arrived at by Gesenius and Movers, who
state that the fern, of Phoenician nouns is formed by far the
most frequently in n , seldom er in N , and never in in. Why the
form JO^aa should be used in line 9 I cannot say. rob/353
is probably the true reading on the coins of the two Jubas
(Gesen. Monn. Phcen. PI. 42).
"bi* let him not open. The negative particle "btf, correspond-
ing to the Greek ^ and Lat. ne, is found in Phoenician for the
first time in this inscription, where it occurs repeatedly, bi is
used in the same sense in line 15 of the Marseilles inscription,
sign of the accusative, i. q. Heb. ntt This form favors Hup-
feld's opinion that nx is from the Aram. rPK , rp i. q. UP . It
agrees too with the Plautinian pronunciation yth.
my resting-place, asuja is used in the sense of bier, coffin,
in Is. 57, 2. 2 Chron. lV, 14. and in the Oxford inscription
(Ges. Monn. Phcen. p. 130).
Line 5.
iatZTiOasaaa tUp^ VN . It is evident that this, however we
may read it, must make a complete sense. The following is
proposed : t33-fa tr^KS E5?3~f2 uip^" 1 VN let not a son of
liars seek that I destroy a son of liars. Here fa is considered
as the act. part, of f sja and i. q. Arab. ^Ls . The opprobrious
term Qia fi applied to whomsoever shall violate the defunct's
tomb is thus opposed to the honorable one of Q^ "p73 fs as-
sumed by himself. The threatened destruction will be through
the curses which follow.
251
S3 D!W b2O and let him not take the fruit of my resting-
place, i. e. my body contained within it. The verb occurs also
in the Marseilles inscription (1. 13), in the phrase (as read by
Movers) blsK DUD DQ2^ WN which one brings before the gods.
It seems that the verb OS3> , like Kto3 , means primarily to lift
or take up, and then to take, to bring. 53 i. q. Heb. 5^3 (3i3
Is. 57, 19 in Cheth.), which is used in a similar figurative man-
ner in Mai. 1, 12, where the food on the Lord's table is called
1^13 its fruit.
Line 6.
We may derive it from the Aram. bVi> to enter, and consider
it to mean an entrance, opening, door- or from Heb. Jib^ to go
up, to ascend, when it will signify the upper part, top, lid. Either
of these meanings will suit the context, as in each of the subse-
quent instances where it occurs it forms the complement of the
verb fir to open. On account of the close connexion of the
two languages it appears safer to adopt a Hebrew etymology
when one otters.
"my sleep, from f \D n , which is repeatedly used in Scripture of the
sleep of death, flence the phrase i3TD !l3tt5ft the resting-place
where I sleep (lit. my resting-place of sleep) is closely analogous
to the Tih3 SDUJft my quiet resting-place of the Oxford inscrip-
tion (Ges. Monn. Phoen. p. 130).
men. To avoid assuming a plural form of this noun, which
is unknown in Hebrew, I at first read "p *\y\ > Q*lN tJJt if any
man should say, Strike ! i. e. break open the tomb ; but the
objections to this are still greater.
ftlN bK ?]N yea, if men speak to thee, scil. urging thee to do
this. In the verb the final Nun of the fut. 3d pers. plur. is re-
tained, as occasionally in Hebrew and regularly in Aramaic ; and
so in bS'-nO-n (1. 9), b33DD^ (1. 19), tm30^ (1. 21), rtaxpl (1. 22).
The only illustration that presents itself of this word is the
Arab. *J^ to sing, which is applied also to the cooing of doves,
the stridulous noise of locusts, the twanging of a bow-string, &c.
It may be considered as the act. part, (with prep, and suff.)
signifying he who sings or mutters to thee, thine enticer. This
seems forced, but it is the best I can do with it.
Line 7.
or; and so in line 10. This use of t3N is found also in the Mar-
seilles inscription. See Movers, Phoen. Texte, H, 110.
Line 8.
ID" 1 ^N let them not have. So repeatedly in the Marseilles in-
scription ; comp. especially the phrase QSfisV 1^ ^5 the priests
252
shall not have (1.15). The verb 1>,3 is i. q. the Arab. Q!^,
which means originally to stand, and then to exist, to be, like
Ital. star and Span, estar. See Movers, Phcen. Texte II, 97 ;
Ewald, Jahrbb. der bibl. Wiss. 1, 198 ; and Blau in the Zeitschr.
der D. M. G. Ill, 441.
Line 9.
because of them, i. q. Heb. dJ-pnlin or Dnnp . The a may
be considered as the plural termination retained before a suffix
as in the verbs, or as the Nun demonstrative of the pronoun,
the so-called Nun epenthetic. Comp. Ewald on the &:"Ofi of
the Marseilles inscription, Jahrbb. der bibl. Wiss. p. 201.
and let them terrify them. T^D i. q. Syr. ")- t ss> to fear;
Pah., to terrify.
the gods. The Phosn. f^K appears to be the Arab. *Ji ilahon
with the He elided. We have here a gratifying confirmation
of the genuineness of the Plautinian Punic text, this being
clearly the alonim of the Poenulus, on which the scholiast
Sisenna remarks, " alon lingua Punica esse deum ;" although
nearly all interpreters have agreed in transcribing it tT3l1?3> or
fSV'by i. e. most high ones, superi. Comp. Abdalonimus (i53>
fi:bi<) the name of a king of Sidon under Alexander the Great
(Justin xi, 10). This word occurs again in lines 16 and 22,
and in the singular in 1. 18.
a ruling head, i.e. chief, prince; comp. ViZiiTa IB^N,
2 Chron. 7, 18.
with cutting off, abscission. Used to give emphasis to the
following verb.
tJ3nSJp cutting them off (shall be). Infin. of Si22p or fp with 3
demonstr. and suff., the verb governing the suffix and the follow-
ing nouns in the accusative. I at first assumed here a root
np , and supposed the pret. to be used emphatically for the
future.
Line 10.
Nfl SIN that man; and with a fern, noun, itJl ri^fift that thing (1. 11),
that kingdom (1. 22). We have here the primitive
demonstrative Nfl (see Hupfeld in Zeitschr. f. ~K. d. Morgenl. II,
147), which Gesenius finds in the fourth line of the Sardinian
inscription. Its plural ^N , which occurs several times in the
Pentateuch, appears in the expression bit ElCnptl tS^fit those
holy gods (1. 22).
Line 11.
So in the MS. copy of the inscription. The lithograph edi-
tion has viift .
. If it be correct to read this as a proper name, it is probably
that of the goddess Neith (JVr/ftf), the Egyptian Athene wor-
shipped at Sals. (See Plat. Tim., quoted by Parthey in his
Vocab. Copt. p. 567, and Plut. Isis et Osiris, cap. 9). The Egyp-
tian orthography of the name was "* or ^* or ^ , i. e. NeT
(Is. et Osir., Parthey's edit., p. 176). Gesenius thinks that he
finds the name in certain Athenian and Carthaginian inscrip-
tions under the form n3n Tanith or ta-Neith, the first letter being
the article, and that consequently JVrfid; Tavaing, and stvai'Tig
are but different forms of the same name (see Monn. Phoen.
pp. 115-118, 171, 172) ; but this is left for others to decide.
Whether we regard this as a pret., fut., or part., it is of the
masc. form ; so that the gender of the preceding noun (suppos-
ing it to be feminine) is neglected. Comp. Ges. Monn. Phoen.
p. 216, and Blau in Ztschr. der D. M. G. p. 442.
appears to be i. q. Syr. |l^iai), Chald. bbfcft , used like < n?ft
in the sense of thing.
that slayeth, part. Hi ph. of rvift to die, with the preformative
!l retained. Judas considers that he has found this form of the
Hiphil in the fut. Jpif!-P (Etude Demonstr. p. 135). The word
naSl occurs also with tntfft in line 22. This phrase blNii
n73l"I)a occurs in line 17 of the Marseilles inscription, which
unfortunately is a broken one, so that the sense is left doubtful.
Various explanations of the word FiJiFlft are proposed by Mo-
vers and Ewald ; but neither of them would suit the context of
our inscription.
to them. The change from the singular to the plural and vice
vers& in propositions of a general nature, where the subject is
indeterminate and may be regarded at the will of the writer as
consisting of one or many, is so common in Hebrew that we
feel no surprise at meeting with it here.
dwelling. Supposed to be formed by apocope from SIIT .
T 51B good is the judgment from on high, i. e. from the
places above, the sky, heaven, rfl!w being a fern, used as a neu-
ter. The allusion is to the punishments decreed and executed
by Heaven against the wicked for their misdeeds. We might
also read 11$ m^3>53 from above the sky, taking ^jjtf as i. q. Heb.
*jN vapor, and hence cloud, sky; like Heb. phttj , dust, cloud,
arid then sky, heaven, as in Ps. 89, 7. 38. It must be remarked
however that the MS. copy of the inscription, which in general
appears to be the most entitled to confidence, has bl instead of \i .
254
Line 12.
IN behold, like Arab. 3\ . The same word seems to have stood in
line 17, although the N has disappeared.
jTQ in life, or among the living, an expression found in several in-
scriptions of Athens and Citiuni (see Ges. Monn. Phoen. p. 349 6).
|H3 "f^iO as I was resting (sleeping?). }fi3 act. part, of tT)3 with
surf. 1 pers. sing, in the Aramaean manner (Hoffm. Gf. Syr. p.
177), which is also used in the Syriac with a preceding pro-
noun (Hoffm. p. 345).
Line 14.
rnnttJSttN Emashtorcth (i. e. mother of Astarte). In line 3 of the Ox-
ford inscription we have also the name of a woman n^niDyn&N
Amatashtoreth (handmaid of Astarte).
Line 15.
n3fO priestess. The masc. fSi3 priest and &3tl3 priests occur re-
peatedly in the Marseilles inscription. Movers shows (Die Phoe-
nizier, III, 512 sq. 547 sq.) that Astarte was the highest national
goddess of the Sidonians, and especially of their ruling race : so
that the high priest of the goddess was the high priest of the
land, and the office was the prerogative of the metropolis and
was filled by the nearest relative of the king.
our lady. The term n2*^ is found repeatedly in inscriptions
applied both to deities and to mortals. See Blau in Ztschr. der
D. M. G. Ill, 434.
Line 16.
i temple of justice. It would appear that among the Phoeni-
cians the temple of worship was used also as a hall of justice,
as among the Hebrews, whose bl"ttft fn rp5 or great court of
justice was held in the temple at Jerusalem.
. Supposed to be i. q. Heb. rrillN, and to mean around, about,
by. I at first read & ft 5 N2T rD temple of justice, a temple
of the sea, i. e. by the sea.
Supposed to be i. q. Heb. in 11 peg, and then used figura-
tively, as in Heb. and Arab., in the sense of support. See
Rosenmiiller on Zech. 10, 4, where it stands parallel with Jiss
corner-stone. As for the K prosth., comp. "pit (1. 3, 13) i. q".
Heb. T .
stars' We may suppose this word to be chosen by way of
allusion to the meaning of the name n"iniE3> .
magnified, honored, worshipped part. Pual of THN . The
Piel part, occurs in the following line.
255
1 . Here we are presented for the first time with the Phoen.
pron. of the 1st pers. plur., which agrees in its termination with
the frequently occurring suffix f . It is used in the nominative
absolute both here and in the following line.
Line 17.
a temple of the peoples. tPJaxb plur. of fc&b , in Hebrew
a poetical term. The meaning seems to be that this is a temple
to which the nations should come to worship (comp. 1 Kings 8,
41-43). Blau thinks that he has found this same noun in the
third line of the Eryx inscription in a contracted form in the
word PTTsbV to her people (Ztschr. der D. M. G. Ill, 441).
From Vb" to be thin, slight, small; like Syr. ^) .
thereby, in is here taken to be i. q. Chald. Nlirr , Heb. n-TSl.
T T **
Buxtorf shows (Lex. Chald. col. 489) that in corresponds in
the Targum to the Heb. nj<T , which is used absolutely without
reference to any particular noun. The meaning will then be
that those who worship in this temple shall in consequence
receive pardon for their sins. Comp^ 1 Kings 8, 30-53.
Line 18.
the land of the sea, i. e. lying on the sea-coast,
lit. the Lord of Sidon; like "ix b?3 the Lord of Tyre, in
the first Maltese inscription.
ni a temple to Ashtoreth. According to Movers (Die
Phoenizier I, 602, 605) a large temple of Astarte in Sidon is
spoken of both by Achilles Tatius and by Lucian.
QttJ the glory (lit. name, renown) of Baal. Baal is the sun, or
king of the heavens, and Astarte the moon, or queen of the
heavens ; hence it appears she is called his glory, his bright and
beautiful counterpart.
ftN Lord Milcom. So fan b#i "pit Lord Baal ffamman,
Numid. inscrr. 13. Milcom, or Moloch, in his character of the
Phoenician Mars, is here said to have given the Sidonians their
city ; meaning that they had obtained it originally, or (which is
more probable) that they had recently regained it, from other
possessors by force of arms.
Line 19.
desire, i. q. Heb. l"n . If the context would permit, we might
read ^-3 (in the 0. Test, also written *ypj) Dora, the southern-
most town of the Phoenicians ; and so we might find in this
and the following line the names ma Mara thus and bS3 Gebal.
"'SPI and beauty of the earth. So the Tynans applied to their
city the appellation 'D'' nWs perfect in beauty, or perfectly
beautiful, Ezek. 27, 3 ; comp. 27, 4. 11. 28, 12. 17.
256
f JHPI our glorious delight. We regard 5^n as an abstract
noun formed, by prefixing n, from the Aramaic root $$~\, and
corresponding to the Heb. i"ntt!"l lit. desire, delight] ! comp.
the phrase !"nfcft y"^i< Michaelis quotes the phrase
|.j}oo x ^.j. v r} |-i- i-r- pulchra et splendida cedificia (Lex. Syr.
p. 847). If the context permitted, we might translate Tarragon
the great.
- ttJN which is in the dwelling of our deity, i. e. which is
situated in the land of Phoanicia, the peculiar dwelling-place of
the national god j]Va or &3ba . The MS. copy has "i^Q or "iiaS .
^b to stretch out (or' stretching out) the fortresses, i. e.
enabling us to erect the long line of fortifications.
1DN which I have made, i. e. reared, constructed. So the MS.
copy. The form of the third letter in the lithograph edition
would allow us to read nb^l 1Z5N of which thou art Lord; but
the sense is not so good.
fii'DO'H and they have constructed them, the plur. used impersonally,
i. q. they have been constructed. }cS to cover with boards, and
hence to build, construct.
Line 20.
on, upon. Either a fern. sing, or plur. abstract noun, lit. top,
used as a preposition. See on mb^tJ 1. 12.
border, boundary, Heb. blSS .
to set firm, establish, strengthen, Polel infin. of ^3 . The de-
ceased king claims not only to have assisted in erecting temples
to secure to his people the favor of their gods, but also to have
constructed fortresses to defend them against the assaults of
their human enemies.
, Line 21.
IS^ btfl and let him not remove. li> H fut. apoc. Hiph. of JTi3> .
tb as for them, used absolutely. See Ges. Lex. under b 14. c.
bSIJO" 1 shall humble them ; taking the verb as the Piel or Hiphil of
*ttD to fall down, to prostrate oneself. Comp. JiniZJtl . I at
first read bDTiD' 1 , as in line 9, supposing that the copyist had
omitted a portion of the third letter, which made it resemble a
. 3 ; but as the reading of the MS. copy supports that of the litho-
graph, it is safer to yield to their joint authority.
Line 22.
Nil nsbtt>3 rtSiSp^l and they shall cut it off, that kingdom. This
pleonastic use of the pronominal suffix before the noun forming
the object of a verb is found in Hebrew (Nord. Heb. Gram. II,
109).
257
CONCLUSION.
The reader who has perused the foregoing attempt at explaining
the inscription will scarcely need to be reminded that in it some
things are certain, others doubtful, and others little better than
guesses. Error and imperfection are the usual fate of first essays of
the sort ; but a beginning must be made, and it will be compara-
tively easy for minds coming fresh to the subject and applied directly
to the doubtful passages to make a nearer approximation to the
truth.
Dr. Movers (Art. Pkonizien in Ersch. u. Gruber's Encyklopsedie, p.
425) divides Phoenician inscriptions, as respects the forms of their
letters, their language, and their age, into two classes. The older, to
which belong those of Marseilles, Carthage, Citium, Malta, Athens, and
most of the coins of Phoenicia and the neighboring regions to the
north, exhibit the old Phoenician type of letters, a regular orthogra-
phy, and a language still free from foreign influences and later de-
generacies. These advantages, especially the graphic ones, are found
in their greatest completeness in the inscription of Marseilles, which
is demonstrably the oldest, belonging to the first half of the 4th cen-
tury B. C., while the monuments of northern Phoenicia and Cilicia
belong to the latter half of this century. The second class of monu-
ments proceed from times and regions where the culture and the
language of the Phoenicians were considerably affected by foreign
elements : these are the so-called Numidian inscriptions, and also
those found in Sardinia and in other Liby-Phcenician countries,
together with the Punic coins, which belong to the Liby-Phcenician
cities on the coast of Africa, to the islands of Cossura and Ivica, and
to several Turditanian cities. In this latter class both the form of
the letters and the orthography are equally degenerate. There is
hardly one of these numerous inscriptions that does not present doubt-
ful characters, and the guttural and vowel letters are confounded
in them in a manner without parallel in the Shemitish languages.
It is to the former class, as was to be expected, that our inscrip-
tion belongs. Its interest is greater both on this account and as
being the first inscription properly so-called that has yet been found
in Phoenicia proper, which had previously furnished only some coins
and an inscribed gem. It is also the longest inscription hitherto
discovered, that of Marseilles which approaches it the nearest in
the form of its characters, the purity of its language, and its extent
consisting of but 21 lines and fragments of lines.
The corrupt orthography and style of many of the inscriptions
found in Africa and elsewhere which first attracted the attention of
scholars, together with the inaccurate manner in which they were
copied, and which enhanced the difficulty of reading them correctly,
VOL. v. 33
258
naturally caused the Phoenician language to be regarded as differing
much more widely from the Hebrew than it does in reality ; but the
inscription before us confirms the opinion held since the discovery of
that of Marseilles, that the Phoenician language in its purity, besides
a slight tinge of Aramaism, differs but little from the Biblical He-
brew. This is a gratifying discovery for two reasons : first, becaiise
it facilitates the correct reading and interpretation of the inscriptions
themselves, and secondly because each document in it that is brought
to light will prove a direct contribution towards elucidating the lan-
guage of the Hebrew Scriptures.
The forms of the letters in the Sidon inscription and that of Mar-
seilles are very similar, the principal difference being that, as a general
rule, the characters of the former have a slightly more rounded and
consequently less antique contour. The Min, however, of the former
is always a complete circle ; whereas in the latter it has the modern
characteristic of an opening at the top. In the Sidon inscription the
Yod runs through many different forms, from the oldest to the most
recent ; and the forms of T and ^ , to which is sometimes to be added
U (which in that of Marseilles are accurately distinguished) are
utterly confounded together, so that there is no distinction that holds
between them, either in the form of the head, the degree of inclina-
tion from the perpendicular, or the length of the stem. Our copies
of it are certainly much better executed than those of the generality
of the inscriptions we possess ; yet under the circumstances nothing
but a plaster cast or other fac-simile can be regarded as a satisfactory
basis for a final interpretation of the monument.
The orthography of this as of other Phoenician inscriptions is
characterized by a more systematic omission of the matres lectionis
than is found even in the oldest Hebrew writings.
As for the language of the inscription it bears marks of antiquity
which are obsolescent in the Biblical Hebrew : such as the use in
plain prose of primitive words which in Hebrew are found not at all
or only as poetical archaisms ; the retention of the fern, affbrmative
D , of the 1 of the plural of verbs, and perhaps of the ft pretbrmative
of the Hiphil ; the non-employment of the definite article in repeated
instances where it would be used in Hebrew, &c.
As a contribution to Phoenician history we have the names of the
defunct ruler and his ancestors to the third degree both on the pater-
nal and maternal side, thus :
Ashmunyyer Imanyyer
!. I
Tabnith Emashtoreth
v /
Ashmunyyer.
259
Not only the father and paternal grandfather of the deceased king
are said to have been kings of Sidon, but also his maternal grand-
father. What was the order of succession between them, or indeed
where they are to be placed at all, we have not the means of decid-
ing ; but the ancient form of the characters and the purity of the
language of the inscription (as far as it can be made out with cer-
tainty), with the fact that Sidon appears to have been ruled by native
independent sovereigns (though their independence may be ques-
tioned), induce us to place it before the conquest of Alexander,
namely as early as the middle of the 4th century B. C.
It however by no means follows that because we are now without
the means of answering these questions definitively, we shall always
remain so. The fondness of the Phoenicians for commemorating in
this durable manner public and private events, the fact that no sys-
tematic exploration of the sites of towns in Phoenicia and most of
her colonies has ever been undertaken, the extensive ruins that are
known to exist (above all those of Tyre herself), and the number of
educated men now in northern Africa and the Levant, lead naturally
to the hope and expectation that many more extensive and more
interesting monuments of this people will ere long be discovered than
have yet been brought to light.
VIII. EXTRACTS FROM CORRESPONDENCE.
1. From a Letter from Rev. D. T. Stoddard, of Or&miah.
Seir, Oroomiah, Jan. 16, 1864.
Since writing you, I have made a pretty thorough examination of
the Jews' language, as spoken in this vicinity, and have now the
materials for drawing up a paper on that subject. When you see
Dr. Robinson, will you be good enough to consult with him as to
the question whether it is worth while to give the details of that lan-
guage, or only a few outlines of the grammar.
When I shall get time to attend to the subject again is quite un-
certain. Our missionary labors demand most of our strength and
thoughts.
260
2. From a Letter from Rev. D. B. Me Car tee, M. D., of Ningpo.
Ningpo, Feb. 6, 1854.
I had the honor, about a fortnight since, to forward to your care,
by ship, an impression of the "so-called Syrian monument" referred
to by my respected friend the Rev. E. C. Bridgman, D. D., and con-
cerning which certain inquiries were addressed last year by the Ori-
ental Society to missionaries in China. The existence of such a monu-
ment will not, I am sure, be doubted, Avhen one knows that it is well
known to Chinese amateurs in calligraphy, and that copies, or rather
impressions taken from the stone by a species of lithography pecu-
liar to the Chinese, are in ordinary times easily to be obtained from
dealers in copy-books, which are always printed by this method of
lithography. Owing to the disturbed state of the empire at the pres-
ent time, and the distance of Si-ngan-fu in the province of Shen-sl,
from this place, the visits of these travelling dealers in inscriptions,
etc., have been almost entirely prevented, and it was only after some
search and negotiation that I at length succeeded in obtaining two
copies from a Chinese gentleman, who had sent them to a shop in
this city, for the purpose of having them cut into strips and mounted
for binding into books. This has caused the long delay in my an-
swer to the circular of the Society addressed to the Mission of which
I am a member.
On the question as to whether the monument referred to is really
to be attributed to the Syrian or Nestorian Christians who had mis-
sions in China at the time when the inscription professes to have
been executed, viz. A. D. 635, very much has been already written,
as may be seen by reference to the Chinese Repository, vol. xiv. page
201, and the Land of Sinim, by the Rev. W. M. Lowrie, pp. 37-42.
I shall therefore be very brief in what I have to communicate on the
subject. In the first place, the impressions sold (one of which I
sent), and the testimony of the Chinese, would show conclusively that
such a monument is now in existence, even were we to reject the testi-
mony of the early Roman Catholic missionaries, quoted by Kircher
and others. Secondly, it was evidently not got up by the Chinese,
as they would have no object in trying to impose it as a monument
of antiquity upon others ; moreover, it uses terms and speaks of
doctrines with which even those Chinese who are familiar with the
inscription as a specimen of fine writing are unacquainted, and
which they cannot explain ; and finally, the Syriac characters which
compose part of the inscription seem conclusive. These characters
are mistaken by the Chinese for Man-chu or Mongolian characters,
which indeed they somewhat resemble (being written vertically,
instead of horizontally), although the monument dates back to a
261
period long anterior to the invasion of the Mongols who established
the Yuen dynasty (A. D. 1280). Thirdly, its antiquity, the reli-
gious terms employed, the Syriac letters, and the admissions of the
Jesuit missionaries themselves, forbid the idea that it was invented
by them, and indeed it is hard to see how any one would believe
them guilty of a fraud to commemorate the labors of a sect who
had anticipated them in China, and had been condemned and
anathematized by the Roman Church as heretical. I cannot therefore
resist the conviction that the monument in question does really exist
in the province of Shen-si, and that it is the work of the Nestorian
or Syrian Christians, whose churches and converts still survived in
no inconsiderable numbers in the time of the celebrated Venetian
traveller Marco Polo.
Accompanying the impression from the Syrian monument, I sent
also a copy of another and more modern specimen of Chinese
lithography, viz., a sheet containing a Chinese native tract, which
by a species of pious fraud is attributed to the philosopher Lau-tsz\
the founder of the sect of Tau or Reason. This is one of the
most celebrated religious tracts of the Chinese. To cause it to be
printed, distributed, or read to or by the people, is considered an
act of great merit, capable of atoning for a multitude of sins. The
accompanying impression is a fac-simile of the hand-writing of the
famous Commissioner Lin, who was so energetic in his endeavors to
put down the opium-traffic, and in his warlike measures against the
English. It is a very beautiful specimen of fine writing, and was
engraved from the original in the following manner. The paper
having been laid upon the stone (previously sized with a thin coat of
paste), with the blank side toward the stone and the letters upper-
most, was then smoothly and evenly applied by means of a hard
brush or broom (made of the fibres of the Chinese hemp-palm, Cha-
merops Excelsa). When dry and firmly attached, the letters were
carefully cut into the stone by a seal-engraver, the operation differ-
ing from the ordinary method in the letters being sunk instead of
raised, and not reversed. This allows the engraver to follow very
exactly the strokes, etc., of the writer, executing in fact a very accu-
rate fac-simile. In printing from the stone, the paper slightly
damped is first laid upon the stone, and smoothly applied by means
of the hard brush. The operator then taking a strip of felt in one
hand, and a small wooden hammer in the other, goes over the stone,
applying the felt to each part successively, and hammering upon it
briskly all the time. The paper is thus driven into the depressions
or sunken strokes of the characters, while in the blank spaces it pre-
sents a smooth and even surface. The ink (commonly called in the
U. States India-ink) being rubbed with water to the proper con-
sistence, the operater next proceeds to apply it by drawing or " wip-
262
ing" over the paper a brush made of strips of felt, rolled into the
form of a surgeon's roller (or bandage), ground smooth on one end.
Finally, a polish is given to the surface by stiiking on the ink with a
ball resembling those formerly used by printers in the U. States and
elsewhere, before the invention of elastic rollers. The operation is
done very skillfully, and is decidedly the most beautiful method of
printing practised by the Chinese. The stone used is of a very fine
grain and homogeneous structure, and gives out a clear ringing
sound upon being struck. The color of those that I have seen has
been, of some, greyish, and of others, almost black.
Lest by any accident the copies I sent last month should fail to
reach the Society, I take the opportunity to send duplicates.
It will be seen that the Chinese have only taken an impression of
such parts [of the monument] as were in Chinese characters, omit-
ting the cross, etc., and also the names of the priests, etc., mentioned
by Kircher. There are however two rows of Syriac letters in the
copies sent, one on each side of the Chinese, and near the bottom ;
which being in a line with the Chinese name of the author of the
inscription and of the copyist, could not be omitted, and were there-
fore preserved.* It is also to be observed that in the Chinese Re-
pository it is said that there are 26 characters in a column, which is
an evident typographical error for 62.
3. From a Letter from Rev. A. H. Wright, M.D., of Orumiah.
Oroomiah, July 22, 1854.
A few days ago, I returned from a journey across the mountains of
Koordistan. .... On the way, both in going and returning,
I visited that celebrated pillar, with cuneiform inscriptions, on the
top of the mountain between Ooshnu and Ravandooz. The stone is
about 2 yards long, 2 feet wide, and 1 foot thick, and is of a dark
green color. Hence its name in Koordish, Kel-e-Sheen, green stone.
It stands in an upright position, one end being inserted in a large
square stone, partly in the ground, and cut for the purpose. It faces
E. S. E. Both sides are covered with inscriptions, the most distinct
being on the southern face. I counted 40 lines on one side, and 42
on the other. My Koordish guides would not allow me to examine
this interesting relic of a former age but a few minutes, apprehend-
ing an attack of robbers, Avho infest that locality.
I visited another stone with similar inscriptions near the village of
Sidek, five or six hours South- West of the one above named. It is
* These Syriac lines, containing the date, are precisely the same as given by
Kircher on the Bides of his plate. The characters are evidently Estranghelo.
K. E. .
263
of smaller dimensions than the other, and is of a dark grey color.
It faces in the same direction. Dr. Grant supposed there were
inscriptions only on the South-East face of the stone, but it is my
impression that they existed originally on both sides, and that they
have been defaced from the northern side by the ravages of time.
I thought that I discovered traces of the letters on that side, though,
as I passed the spot at the early dawn, I ought not to be very confi-
dent. The stone appeared to be of a softer texture than the one on
the top of the mountain. These ancient relics carried me back in
thought thousands of years, and I felt an inexpressible desire to read
the lesson of history written upon them. An impression of Kel-e-
Sheen was taken two years ago by a learned Russian gentleman, Mr.
Khanikoff of Tiflis, now acting Consul at Tabreez, on porous paper.
This is now in the hands of Col. Rawlinson of Bagdad, who, it is
hoped, will be able to decipher its meaning.
P. S. Kel is used in Koordish for a stone set up on end, as in a
grave-yard. Hence Kel-e-Sheen means a green upright stone.
4. From Letters from Rev. L. Gfrout, S. Africa.
Umsunduzi, May 27, 1854.
From the S. African Auxiliary to the British and Foreign Bible
Society I have just received (as member of the Zulu Grammar and
Dictionary Commission), through the local Government, a copy of
the following queries respecting the difference between the Kafir and
Zulu dialects, etc., with a view to their ascertaining what means can
be devised for assisting the missionaries of different Societies in the
work of translating and circulating the Scriptures among the natives
of S. Africa.
"1. Is there that degree of affinity between the Kafir and Zulu, as
would warrant the hope that one standard version of the Scriptures,
with occasional dialectic variations, either to be introduced into the
text of two separate editions (one for the Kafirs and the other for the
Zulus), or to be inserted in the margin of one edition, would meet
both languages or dialects ?"
The preparation of a Zulu grammar, which I still have in hand,
progresses slowly, partly from sickness of late in my family, and
partly from want of assurance, as yet, from Government, that they
will provide the means for printing both that and the dictionary.
But I design to go on with the preparation of the grammar to
the best of my time and ability ; and I make the above remarks
264
partly to open the way for inquiring of you whether there is, proba-
bly, in your Society (A. 0. S.), or in any other in our country, as
the Smithsonian Institution, or elsewhere, any such interest in such
a thing as a Zulu grammar, as would induce them to publish one
at their own expense, if properly prepared and offered ?
Umsunduzi, Sept. 12, 1854.
I wrote you last May, among other things, in respect to a circular
from the S. Afr. Aux. Bible Soc., naming, I think, the queries then
proposed. After examining the subject, and discussing it with my
brethren of the Mission, and of the Zulu Grammar and Dictionary
Commission, our conclusion was that the plan of a uniform version
of the Scriptures for the Kafir and Zulu dialects is not, at present,
practicable.
In comparing a late edition of the Psalms in Kafir with our late
edition in Zulu, I found, on an average, one principal or notional
word to a verse in Kafir, not known in Zulu, or else known in a sense
quite different from what it has in Kafir, as appears from the trans-
lation. I also found, further, that about half the essential or notional
words actually used in the two editions the Kafir and Zulu differ,
while the other half are the same : that is, when the best words are
taken in the two dialects, respectively, about one half are naturally
the same, and the other half different.
I see by the last papers that a meeting " Alphabetical Confer-
ence " has been held in England, at the house of Chev. Bunsen, to
"devise a uniform system of expressing foreign alphabets by Roman
characters." I shall be interested to know the result A uniform
version can never be had in the Zulu and Kafir, without a uniform
alphabet ; but the latter may be had, and would be of much service,
without the former.
5. From a Letter from Rev. A. Bushnell^ in Equatorial Africa.
Nengengnge Olombo Mpolo, July 26, 1854.
I have commenced a new station on a small island at the junction
of the Nkarua and Bakwe, the two head-streams of the Gaboon,
about seventy-five miles from its mouth. There is but one town, with
a small population, on the island ; but within ten miles there are
more than thirty towns, inhabited by people of three different tribes,
viz : Shekanies, Bakeles and Pangwes. These tribes have descended
from the interior one after another, as they are named. The She-
kanies followed the Mpongwes, and rank next to them in civilization
265
and influence. The Bakeles followed the Shekanies, and are a
grade behind them ; and after them come the Pangwes, who have
but recently appeared. They are a very numerous and warlike peo-
ple, independent and fearless, and a terror to their more civilized
neighbors, with whom they are beginning to mingle. They are
larger in stature, and better formed, and of a shade lighter com-
plexion, than the other tribes. They wear but little clothing, but
cover their persons with a preparation of powdered red-wood and
oil, which gives them the appearance of red men at a short distance.
They manufacture, from their native ore, beautiful and well- tempered
instruments, such as knives, daggers, or two-edged swords, and spears ;
and in war they use them with great dexterity. They also use the
cross-bow and poisoned arrows. They are cannibals, but their appe-
tite for human flesh and blood is only gratified on prisoners taken
or killed in war, and persons accused of some crime. Their ideas of
spiritual things nearly resemble those of the other tribes, being ex-
ceedingly gross and indefinite. Superstition seems to be a part of
their mental constitution. They manufacture and wear on their per-
sons numerous charms, or fetiches, as a protection from evil, and to
secure them earthly good ; but none of them have any reference to
the soul, or to a future state.
Respecting their [the Pangwes] language, I can state nothing
definite. It differs materially from the other dialects used nearer the
sea, but, having a knowledge of them, we think it may be acquired
readily. At no distant day I hope to forward you specimens of it.
6. From Letters from, Rev. Dr. J. Perkins, of Orumiah.
Oroomiah, March 9, 1864.
You may be aware that, a few years ago, the king of Persia built
a college, the edifices costing about one hundred thousand dollars,
to be furnished with European professors. Of the six or seven Ger-
man professors connected with it, two have recently died another
loss to the cause of science and civilization in Persia. This college
has made a very hopeful beginning in the work of introducing
European light into this country. While the practical sciences occupy
a prominent place in its course of study, it also does much for the
advancement of literature and general intelligence.
Oroomiah, July 28, 1854
/ of other matter to commi
of my continued
In the paucity of other matter to communicate, and to assure you
r continued interest in your Society, I send you below an extract
34
266
from a letter which I recently received from Mr. Loftus, of whose
labors, among the Assyrian and Babylonian remains, you are of
course always glad to hear. The letter is dated Mosul, June 10, 1854.
" I have just returned from an expedition to Lower Chaldea, where
I have again visited Warka and the 'Ur of the Chaldees,' as well
as various adjoining mounds. The results are interesting, as records
have been obtained as early as the time of Abraham, or about 2000
B.C.
" This evening, I float down the Tigris to Nimroud, where we have
just discovered the first inscribed and sculptured slabs of the palace
of Phul of Scripture the husband of the once almost fabulous
Semiramis.
" Enclosed I send a circular of the Society, which may be inter-
esting to you and your circle."
I enclose the circular which Mr. Loftus sent to me, and which
possibly may not reach you from any other source.
[From this circular of the Society for Exploring the Ruins of As-
syria and Babylonia, we make the following extracts.
COMM. OF PUBL.]
" It would appear, from a statement by Mr. Layard, that, since the
publication of his second work, remains have been found of a much
earlier period than any previously taken from the Assyrian mounds.
From one inscription it would even seem that temples existed of the
19th or 20th century before Christ, ascending almost to the earliest
known Egyptian period. The annals of those Assyrian kings who
are mentioned in Scripture, and who are closely connected with the
Jewish people, have not yet been fully completed, and the chronicles
of the wars with Samaria and of the destruction of that city are, as
yet, unfortunately not entire, although reference to them has been
met with on several fragments. ....
"Besides the ruins of Assyria, enormous remains exist in Baby-
lonia which have scarcely been visited by Europeans, and which
there is every reason to conclude contain objects of the very highest
interest. .......
" A photographist will accompany the Expedition, and will take
copies of all objects of interest discovered. In England facsimiles
of all the drawings and inscriptions will be issued, as often as they
come to hand, together with explanatory letter-press, the publication
of which Mr. Layard has kindly undertaken to superintend.
" It will be less the object of the Expedition to obtain bulky sculp-
tures than to collect materials for completing the history of Assyria
and Babylonia, especially as connected with Scripture. These mate-
267
rials consist chiefly of inscribed tablets in stone and in clay, bronzes,
bricks and sculptured monuments of various kinds, all illustrating
the remarkable advancement of that ancient civilization. It is con-
fidently believed that the whole history of Assyria may be restored
to a very early period, and that discoveries of the most important
character will be made in connection with the literature and science
of the Assyrian people."
Oroomiah, March 8, 1856.
Dr. Wright, whose missionary duties lie more directly with the
Mohammedans of Persia than my own, is prosecuting inquiries re-
specting the Royal College at Tehran, and Persian schools there and
elsewhere ; and he will be happy to write you on these subjects,
when he shall have obtained the information desired. Such matters
are not to be accomplished with rail-road, nor electro-magnetic,
speed, in this truly oriental land.
I have just received a letter from Dr. Lobdell, of Mosul, who re-
cently visited Baghdad. In the absence of more interesting matter,
I will take the liberty to send you brief extracts from his letter.
The letter is dated Baghdad, Jan. 18, 1855, in which he says : "I
take pleasure in making application to you, in behalf of Prof. Peter-
mann, of the University of Berlin, for any historical Nestorian or
Armenian MSS. (or translations in these languages from the Greek
or other tongues), which it may be in your power to procure at
Oroomiah He has been in the South of Persia
the last summer, with Mr. Briihl, going from Bushire to Shiraz,
Isfahan, Hamadan and Yezd, and has procured some scores of MSS.,
a large lot of Parthian and Sassanian coins, and some two hundred
cylinders and seals a part of them bearing fine Babylonian inscrip-
tions. He will return to Europe, via Aleppo, in the spring.
7. From Letters from the late Rev. H. Lobdell, M.D., of Mosul.
Mostil, Mesopotamia, Sept. 25, 1854.
It gives me pleasure to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of
May 20th, informing me of my election as a corresponding member
of the Oriental Society. It will be my endeavor to furnish for your
Journal an occasional communication.
I have but just finished an account of my tour in Kurdistan, via
Arbeel, to the monument of Kel-i-sheen, which will probably be
longer in reaching you than this letter, as it will go from Constan-
tinople by ship.
268
If Prof. Gibbs has shown you my letter to him of January last,*
you are aware that the excavations in Koyunjik were prosecuted
vigorously, and with much success, at the beginning of the year.
It is hardly necessary that I should enter into further details in regard
to the palace discovered by Col. Rawlinson's agent, as he has given
some account of the discoveries to the Trustees of the British Mu-
seum, and a few extracts have appeared in the first Report of the
Excavation Fund of the Assyrian Society, which, I doubt not, you
have seen. Mr. Wm. Kennett Loftus, the superintendent of exca-
vations for that Society, has this morning shown me some sixty
drawings which he will send by to-day's post, through Lord Strat-
ford de Redcliffe, to London. They embrace views of most of the
discoveries made by him at and near Werka, an immense mound
about three days below Baghdad, formerly supposed, by Rawlinson
and some others, to be the site of Ur of the Chaldees. A cylinder
recently found by Mr. Taylor, British Vice-Consul at Busrah, at
Mugeir, a mound twenty-five miles West of the Euphrates, having
on it the name Hur, has shaken the faith of these antiquarians in
regard to the site of Ur ; and it seems, indeed, to upset many pre-
vious speculations about the ruins in that quarter. It remains to be
seen, however, whether the cylinder has been correctly interpreted !
The walls of little cones, the sarcophagi and their contents, rin 
