Skip to main content

Full text of "Journal of anatomy"

See other formats 


ms 
Spares 

ATeaetcti tet ey 

oe se 

1H iphoto es itis 
take 


sires 


DAT ed aa 


Subsets 


sabe . 


fad & 9 
harp a 


epely 
fas He 
. yy f he 
ahas ra ve an ii 4 r i ee “sree: a $i; if prt ;. 

: > 


ise Obs 


ui 


+ 

var 4 4 re 

Ake Ly ‘ chi nts 

i eeth “4 pee uieten? 


3 HEA tis Wi 
“USAT S78 debt 


Mee he 

: a} feet rei ha tee 

rh I nate aber 
ae 


cee 
je Babb ig hte : ot. ‘ vad anes o} iM 1 teu Aastt 
TI4E OT 404) pty Be ‘ “ ltr ¥ * Hy , ae bel 


‘ 
bas ett 
Tai eal hk 
a: Legastt 
en 


by 1 4 4 
x 
ot ‘ ; 
Seah Yi ‘ meats ace : 
+ intel As . p, SS me pela ms es 


Pirishys inst 

eaese ; Mdedets 
Raval hte 

sti Bt vue ‘ Ny ae yal aight! 


4 
Mov #8 a4) Hab ot) A Bday ad ia ; ti rant 
ree 


$09 
elgg dant byes ae ape 
easels 7 ? i oe Made parte tity 
( +s AR iy 
AAD eriey 4 eA, HAF enh } a hed odode is far Wiese tin enon 
brett ge § {yeni Hie AS mb pare f ans 30 Ghee aaa bade ' by sieesses 
3 ut ip vie ‘ 4 > ging i: i in bauer aide San tte ti dhey ye zi Reus opener 


¥ 


Can aot 
Prat re sida 


(Al maak 


Spit ead 


vivrates pi Gholbestsranny Httelig uss iyrnipare 
ti HEAR ryt he i Ry wel, nde aie ettporst roy 
Hh Neagle 


r : Bea) rt Wes 
uy {tare " arent 


res ay on 
rata aea 

b iz Wey PR 
¥ 


fe Peder 
Rhee s (uyy LPL bh 


ehinery arn i) 
bbs yeartalndy dye , : ‘ine Hove 


rt / 
Seen Ryan uta rate Haiidies 


Ossie rede redte sah 
: A ad ote 4 4G 
My Pra yaa 


othe 


ECU A™ 
iva te die 


HOES Ridiet ey iy Pishin wg srtet 
abe Hi Gepdieing 54> ‘ reo ane By pets 
pleted may iy, H ‘ f bere Ss, ey bs 
’ hie, 


est era 


a tide 
att af Hit $ M a 
pital: 18 ate 
Ruler ee t 
nie ie lhe 
; “ ree area 
ay oes ff his Aah f ; 3 Pah eaten i: ; ids Hine his 
WG Weta ; Tisarecaasen via | 1 HO 


Hs aie bord 


' 1g + 4 

pi oy 

Taga ' incl 

tthe grt el < : 

SM piad Wied Woredbey - Capteratt 

porary, Si rtag abe Ms syhen ce Weed 
. smiyte 44 Y EY ha) olhe 
¥ is anit 


et 
7 m9 ” - 4) Bie mike Ms 
ete ni bt Hy tA fie : , f weasaatess eye? 
fa 1g mn aay sets Wad ed b 4 ; 0 tara ae 725 
yaa Ry hs ‘ ugh env) sk ei 
waster tates aveceie i pea toa eah aT See Hi 
oh 


‘4: osc ag bathe 
ni ea “4 Mi tee! Ay batt Ms my iheayi ir 8 
dain " iets ratty i os ¥ Sanit a) tf Ey 


t ( Liteea bh! ne 4 Peon 
Peay i rrreren) a : Ys 
3 wyey Lj i} iy i 4 r ye be} hea) 


Pat Ne iy eh 
Fi pepe 


vu malian sa 


, pitts * 

iy et me ws 

gran enaet lined taf analy 
17 


we 
Me jue 


malas 
ay * he 
AA vad 


res 


ft 
r ye Logs 
Tet h z 
nae Poe ne 
traage is 


+ Sengelo am ay 


via dde ‘ 

mihi O Minty tet el og 
sae Cares 
* 


ves 
eyes 


4 4 
ara “ " ohlied 4 onde 


ih A: Bia Hitt 4 


Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2009 with funding from 
Ontario Council of University Libraries 


http://www. archive.org/details/journalofanatomyO08anatuoft 


THE 


JOURNAL 


OF 


ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 


CONDUCTED BY 


G. M. HUMPHRY, M.D. F.R.S. 
PROFESSOR OF ANATOMY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE, 
HONORARY FELLOW OF DOWNING COLLEGE; 


AND 


WM. TURNER, M.B. 


PROFESSOR OF ANATOMY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH, 


2 ie 


VOLUME VIII. 


(SECOND SERIES, VOL. VII.) 


MACMILLAN AND CoO. 


Cambridge, London and seo Work. 
1874. 


I ry > 


Cambridge: 
PRINTED BY C. J. CLAY, M.A. 
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS. 


‘———— 


CONTENTS. 


FIRST PART. NOVEMBER, 1873. 


Dr Ganasin, The Causes of the Secondary Waves in the Pulse (Addi- 
tional Note, p. 112). P - 

Mr A. Liversipcr, The Rite nemo ‘of the Eee 

Dr Turn, The Structure of Tactile Corpuscles 

Dr Marzin, The Structure of the Olfactory Mucous Reenitan 

Dr M. Fosrsr, The Effects of a rise of Temperature on Reflex Actions 
in the Frog : : - - : : : : 

Mr A. H. Garrop, The fiw hen regulates the frequency of the 
Pulse ‘ : 

Mr W. Kitcuen se Morpliolasieal! Bae ents of the Skutl 

Mr A, G. Dew-SuirH, Double Nerve Stimulation A 

“5 7” The Presence of an Insoluble sugar- A aii 

Substance in Penicillium : 

Dr M. Watson, Contributions to the Anatomy of iio Taian: mienhant 
Part Il. The Head : 

Dr Brouyron, The apparent production of a new “effect 7 ‘fie: join 
action of Drugs within the Animal Organism. : - 

Mr A. Davrpson, An Account of the Madagascar Ordeal Pelion : 

Dr SrrurHers, The Subdivision of the Scaphoid Carpal Bone 
- 35 Rudimentary Finger Muscles in a Whale . 

Dr Hotuxis, Tissue Metabolisn 

Mr C.J. F. Youur, The Mechanism of ppenae me Goats ‘he Musto 
chian Tube : 

Proressor Turner, Note on a sapidental Skull aks a Nagyhal: 

Dr Dwicut, Abnormal Ischio-Trochanteric Ligament : 

Proressorn Humpury, Depressions in the Parietal Bones of an Oring 
and in Man—Supernumerary Molars in Orang 

ProFessor Turner, The Relations of the Cerebrum to the ee Sur- 
face of the Skull and Head 

Mr J. A. Russzewt, Two cases of Beraiatent: Gonmditontion ert 
the Umbilical and Portal Veins : 5 - - : 

Mr 8. H. West, A Peculiar Digastric irae A Variety of the Oc- 
cipito-Hyoid : 

Dr Ferrier, Experimental deeanaise in ‘Cerebral Phy Sidley and 
Pathology . : 

Dr Curnow, Two ineteneo of Irregular Ophthalmic ia Middle Me- 
ningeal Arteries : ; : : : 2 : ; 

Notices of Books . 

Report on the Progress of henane by Deneadaon TURNER . 

Report on Physiology, by Dr Sriruine 

Report on Pharmacology, by Dr Fraser 


lv CONTENTS. 


SECOND PART. MAY, 1874. 


PAGE 
Prorressor Bryz, Some effects of Alcohol on Warm-blooded animals . 233 
Dr Buaxe, The Action of Inorganic Substances when introduced directly 
into the Blood : , 243 
Proressor Cienanp, Double- potted Monetenes aa the ‘Develagmeds A 
the Tongue. . 250 
Dr Reyuer, The Carnes. a Beant Womiheares of the es -, », 261 
Jas. Reocu, M.B., The Acidity of Gastric Juice . ‘ 274 
PRorEssor ieee Additional Observations on the heeiges of the 
Greenland Shark (Lemargus Borealis) . : 285 
Proressor Savory, The Use of the Ligamentum Teres of oo He 
joint F : 291 
Prorrssor TURNER, Further Be neantes of eens in the Arran 
of the Nerves of the Human Body : f . “397 
Dr Ravcurre, The Synthesis of Motion, Vital fl Physical : . 800 
Mr Lesniz Ocinyiz and Mr Cuartes W. Carucart, Dissection of a 
Lamb with Fissure of the Sternum and Transposition of the Origin 
of the Right Subclavian Artery P 321 
Proressor Crum Brown, The Sense of Rotation and FN Renters ana 
Physiology of the Semicircular Canals of the Internal Ear . - | Sat 
Dr Brunton, Effect of Warmth in preventing Death from Chloral . 332 
Mr F. Cuaupneys, The Septum Atriorum of the Frog and the 
Rabbit. : 340 
Mr J. C. Ewart, Ee yciereeree Note on an Epithelial ec eaeee in 
front of the Retina and on the External Surface of the Capsule of 
the Lens ; : ‘ . 853 
Dr O«txr, Note of an Tnkoreatiae Cae of Mialtgers nticn “ 358 
Proressor Turner, An Illustration of the Relations of thes Gare 
volutions of the Human Cerebrum to the Outer Surface of the 
Skull : 3 : : ; » aan 
Prorresson Turner, The ‘Piaventeten of the Sloths : : ; . 862 
ProrEessor Curnow, Notes on some Muscular Irregularities : 377 © 
Mr G. J. Mauconm Suite, Notes of a Dissection of an Excised 
Elbow : . 880 
Mr J. A. Russext, Note on an Unnsialiy ee Renal Caines . 882 
Mr Epwarp Beniamy, Singular Malformation of Wrist and Hand . 3883 
Notices of Books . : : . 884 
Report on the Progress of Annem ic Sea Caos : . 386 
Report on oo by Dr Sriguine ; j 2 : : Pees 3 15) 


5 6.00) 0): a = : : : é : F ; , ; >, 432 


EE 


Hournal of Anatomp and Phpstology. 


ON THE CAUSES OF THE SECONDARY WAVES 
SEEN IN THE SPHYGMOGRAPHIC TRACING OF 
THE PULSE. By A. L. GAvAsin, M.A., M.D., Fellow 
of Trinity College, Cambridge. 


Ir is a fortunate circumstance for the application of the 
Sphygmograph, as a means of clinical research, that a know- 
ledge of the cause of the several secondary waves of the pulse 
is not necessary for their practical interpretation. This may 
be learnt empirically by watching the association of the dif- 
ferent forms of pulse-curve with the known conditions of the 
patients from whom they are obtained. Thus we find that 
authors who differ totally from each other as to the causation 
of any particular form of pulse, and even as to the state of 
circulation which it implies, yet are quite in agreement as to 
its clinical import, and the prognosis to be derived from it. 
But it requires much experience of tracings to be able to draw 
these inferences, and those who have not this are apt to inter- 
pret what they see from theory, and thereby easily fall into 
error. For instance, it has often been supposed that a high 
sharp primary summit, followed by a sudden fall, is a sign of 
aortic regurgitation, but this may occur just as much in the 
pulse of simple excitement. Hence, from the practical point 
of view, the study of causes is useful, and it is essential for 
the arriving at general physiological conclusions, such as the 
determining what is the true state of the circulation in fever, 
or in Bright’s disease, or what is the effect on the vascular 
system of various drugs. 

It needs but little study of the literature of the subject 
to discover that scarcely any two authorities agree together 

VOL. VIII. 1 


2 DR GALABIN. 


as to the cause of the several waves, and of their variation. 
The question is one which must be settled by having regard 
both to the principles of mechanics, and to the results of 
observation. And it is impossible to avoid suspecting that 
some of those who have treated the subject experimentally, 
would have been assisted in the interpretation of their results, 
if they had possessed some theoretical knowledge of Hydro- 
dynamics. 

I have adopted an experimental mode of investigation by 
the use of a combination of bifurcating elastic tubes to repre- 
sent the arterial system. I have not attempted to imitate the 
individual arteries of the body, for although such an apparatus - 
looks well in a lecture-room, it does not any the more re- 
semble the actual complexity of the human circulation. To 
these tubes I have adapted, in some cases, the heart of a 
sheep, in others, an artificial heart of india-rubber, and the 
contraction of the heart has been imitated by manual com- 
pression. It will be seen that counterparts have thus been 
obtained of the most important types of pulse found in the 
human body. Tracings 1 to 4 were procured with the real 
heart, those from 5 to 9 with the artificial. In the case of the 
real heart, I have found it more convenient to use the right 
side, for the thick walls of the left ventricle form an obstacle 
to manual compression. The aortic, or pulmonary valves act 
efficiently after death, but it is not so with the mitral or 
tricuspid. It follows from this, that the real heart will only 
work against a low pressure, and the highest which can be 
obtained with it (fig. 3) corresponds to nearly the lowest ever 
found in the living body, while the tracings at lower pressures, 
such as fig. 1, represent a state of things which never occurs in 
arteries. Tracings from the real heart, at the higher pressure, 
resemble closely those obtained at a similar pressure from the 
artifical heart, thus showing that the action of the latter is 
sufficiently like that of the real heart for the purpose of these 
experiments (compare tracings 2 and 5). It has been con- 
sidered by Dr Burdon Sanderson impossible to make the con- 
traction of the hand sudden enough to imitate that of the 
living heart, but I have not found this difficulty at all insu- 
perable. 


SECONDARY WAVES IN PULSE, 3 


I had, in the first place, made use of a single elastic tube, 
corresponding to the schema constructed by Dr Burdon San- 
derson. In this case I found the tracings different at different 
parts of the tube, and the variation was such as to show the 
presence of retrograde waves due to reflection from the end of 
the tube. This reflection took place as much from an open as 
from a constricted orifice. In my final combination, I made 
the several tubes of very unequal lengths, and in using com- 
pression in order to vary the tension, I applied it to each of the 
smallest tubes, not at one, but at several points, so that no 
reflected waves might be called forth of a kind which could 
not occur in the body. Applying then the same test of taking 
tracings at different distances, their resemblance to each other 
showed, as it does in the case of the arteries of the body, that 
all the waves were direct and not retrograde. The effect of 
friction in the eapillary circulation was thus imitated by that of 
compression at several points of each small tube, and if it may 
be said that reflection might still possibly take place in the 
schema from the latter, so it has been held by many that it 
occurs in the body from the former. I shall refer to the several 
tracings obtained under different conditions as the points arise 
which they illustrate. 

It was shown so long ago as in 1833 by Weber, that the 
motion of the pulse is that of a wave. By this term is meant 
the transmission with a definite velocity, not of matter, but of 
a state of motion and of pressure. It follows from the theory 
of waves, that on the large wave other waves may be super- 
posed, which run each their own course almost exactly as if they 
existed alone, and which may be added together to form com- 
pound waves. ; 

Among those who have not given special attention to the 
Sphygmograph, almost exclusive regard has been paid to one of 
the secondary waves of the pulse, namely, the dicrotic wave, 
and no doubt this is, to a great extent, justified by its import- 
ance in the theory of the pulse, its constant occurrence, and its 
great development in fever. But there is another wave pre- 
ceding it, which sphygmographers find to be of quite as great 
clinical significance, and which varies as widely, for, while often 
absent, it may attain considerable dimensions. Being but 


1—2 


7 DR GALABIN, 


slightly marked in a healthy pulse (fig. 10), and often disap- 
pearing in that of a student (fig. 19), it forms a stronger feature 
in the pulse of an athlete, and shews itself also in that of ladies 
under the influence of excitement. Under another form again, 
with advancing years, it acquires a magnitude which is of 
ominous significance, but gains perhaps its greatest develop- 
ment in cases of chronic Bright’s disease (fig. 12). I believe 
this wave would be better known if it had a convenient name. 
“ First secondary wave” is too Jong, so is “systolic pressure- 
wave,” and, moreover, that asserts a theory. The only short 
name applied to it is that of “tidal-wave,” used by Mr Maho- 
med in his papers in the Medical Times. Although this also 
is intended to imply a theory, which I believe to be erroneous, 
yet, as it does not assert it so directly, I shall adopt it for its 
convenience. I propose, therefore, to discuss first the tidal, 
and afterwards the dicrotic wave, and in connection with the 
former it is necessary to consider the primary upstroke. 

I will notice first existing theories. Dr Burdon Sanderson, 
writing in 1866, says that the contraction of the heart pro- 
duces two waves, one of accelerated movement, and one of 
increased tension; that these, starting together, become sepa- 
rated in the distant arteries, because the former travels with a 
velocity of about 90 feet per second, and so is practically in- 
stantaneous. He compares the former to the communication 
of a blow along a line of ivory balls, but afterwards, accepting a 
correction on the ground that water is not elastic, admits that, 
but for the effect of the elastic receptacle, the resemblance 
would be rather to balls of clay. Now in the popular sense of 
the word elastic, that of compressible, water is almost inelastie, 
but in the more exact sense, in which elasticity is measured by 
the perfection of recoil to any force impressed, water is very 
elastic, as is shown by the fact that sound is conveyed much 
better in water than even in air. So far it is more like ivory 
than clay, but in truth the behaviour of neither has the 
slightest analogy to that of a fluid. It is the first principle 
of the mechanics of fluids, that at every point of a fluid, 
whether at rest or in motion, pressure is the same in all direc- 
tions. It follows from this that there can be no wave of 
forward pressure (and without that there can be no accelera- 


- 


SECONDARY WAVES IN PULSE. 9) 


tion), which is not at the same time a wave of lateral pressure, 
expanding the walls of the tube. 

The view of Dr Burdon Sanderson is therefore mechanically 
impossible: it is also contrary to observation. Jn the first 
place, the distinction of the two waves should, according to him, 
be most when tension is lowest. But, on the contrary, the tidal 
wave is most separated in pulses of high pressure, like that of 
Bright’s disease, altogether absent in the febrile pulse of low 
tension, and precisely the same relation was found in my expe- 
riments with tubes. Secondly, the tidal wave should be farther 
apart from the primary wave in the more distant arteries; but 
a comparison of tracings 15, 17, and 18 from the brachial, radial, 
and dorsalis pedis, shows that this is not the case. And thirdly, 
it is not the fact that the wave producing the first upstroke is 
practically instantaneous. In the case of elastic tubing the in- 
terval is very perceptible, if a length of 6 or 8 feet be taken. 
The velocity varies altogether according to the diameter of the 
tube, its material, and tension, but in one case I found it to be 
less than 20 feet per second. The same thing has been shown 
as regards the body, in this Journal, by Mr Garrod, who by his 
Cardio-Sphygmograph measured the interval between the heart’s 
contraction and the first upstroke of the pulse tracing. Weber, 
again, reckons the average velocity of the pulse wave to be 
about 28 feet per second. 

Dr Anstie, writing in conjunction with Dr Burdon Sander- 
son, yet differs somewhat, at least in expression, for he speaks 
of the tidal wave as an expansive wave, which is a movement 
in the arterial wall, and so slower in propagation. This would 
seem to be the same as the theory adopted by Volkman to ac- 
count, not for the tidal, but for the dicrotic wave, that one wave 
is transmitted in the fluid, another in the arterial wall. 

Dr Balthazar Foster, as represented by the article in the 
last edition of Dr Aitken’s Medicine, holds that the primary 
wave is a vibration of the blood column, travelling instanta- 
neously, and that the next is a wave of distension by blood. It 
is obvious that a wave of vibration is quite a different thing 
from a wave of forward motion, yet Dr Burdon Sanderson would 
seem to have combined this view with his own, for he says in 
1871, “The bursting open of the aortic valves produces a vibra- 


tv) DR GALABIN. 


tory movement of the blood transmitted instantaneously (that 
is, in about =, second).” Now one vibratory wave would indeed 
be transmitted, namely, that of sound, with a velocity due to 
the compressibility of water, not of 90, but of about 5000 feet 
per second, but this produces no motion in the lever. Tracing 
22 was obtained by giving blows to a rigid part of the tubing. 
It shows that even a coarse and violent vibration produces 
‘hardly any upstroke. Dr Burdon Sanderson has published 
some tracings of waves produced by percussion, but in that case 
the blows were applied to the elastic tube, which would of 
course give rise, not only to vibration, but to waves of forward 
motion and expansion. Most of the other objections to the 
views of Dr Burdon Sanderson will apply also to those of 
Dr Foster. 

Yet another theory of the tidal wave is maintained by Mr 
Garrod. Discarding the notion of an instantaneous wave due 
to the closure of the mitral valve, or the first impulse of the 
heart, he yet holds the tidal wave to be an instantaneous wave 
due to the closure of the aortic valves. I think this theory will 
commend itself to no one who has watched the variation of the 
tidal wave in many tracings; but, if any refutation be necessary, 
I would refer to tracing 8, showing its prolongation by a pro- 
tracted contraction of the heart. 

The view of Mr Mahomed, as far as I understand it, is the 
same as that of Dr Foster, except that he does not consider the 
first wave to be instantaneous. 

Proceeding next to my own explanation, I have to remark 
first, that, since the sphygmograph is possessed of inertia, and 
is itself subject to the laws of motion, its construction must 
necessarily have some influence, however small, on the tracing 
produced. In sphygmographs having a secondary spring to 
depress the long lever, the tidal wave is often broken into two 
waves (fig. 21), and if this spring has a short time of vibration, 
a jagged line may appear. In the instrument I have used, of 
the form devised by Mr Mahomed, this spring is, with advan- 
tage, omitted, and no such waves are then ever seen. Thus 
from many tracings published, an experienced person may draw 
inferences, not only about the patient, but about the form of 
sphygmograph used. In order, therefore, to determine how 


SECONDARY WAVES IN PULSE. i. 


much is due to the instrument, since inertia cannot be got rid 
of, I have adopted, what is called by Mill, the “ Method of Con- 
comitant Variations,” altering the moment of inertia of the 
lever about its axis of motion by a small sliding weight. The 
results are tracings 15 and 16. It will be seen that the rela- 
tion of the primary and tidal waves is altogether altered, while 
the position of the dicrotic wave remains unchanged, although 
its amplitude is diminished. The method of measuring the 
- position of these waves is first to draw a horizontal line of 
reference, then to place the tracing again on the moving plate 
of the sphygmograph, and draw curved lines with the writing 
point of the lever. It is obvious that if the tidal wave were a 
wave passing in the artery, its relative position could not be 
altered by weighting the lever of the sphygmograph; or, at any 
rate, if any effect at all were so produced, it could only be an 
apparent retardation, and not an acceleration of the wave. The 
separation of the primary and tidal waves is therefore due to 
an oscillation in the sphygmograph, caused by the inertia of 
the instrument, and the relation of the tracing to the true 
pulse wave is something like what I have drawn in fig. 23. In 
some cases the lever may be separated slightly from the knife- 
edge on which it rests, but generally the oscillation takes place 
in the instrument as a whole, and it may be followed by others 
in a descending series. Thus if the lever be moved, not by a 
knife edge, but by a rack and pinion adjustment, the tidal 
wave still occurs. Such an arrangement probably makes the 
tracing resemble the true pulse wave a little more closely, but 
for clinical purposes it is not so good. 

I may mention that in the pulse shewn in fig. 15, in which 
the tidal and dicrotic waves are both so marked, one secondary 
beat could be felt by the finger, but only one. Such pulses 
do indeed give at first to the finger the impression of several 
secondary waves on account of their thrilling quality. But the 
sphygmograph gives no record of a thrill, as is shown by its 
application to the heart in the case of mitral stenosis. If the 
stenosis be moderate, the prolonged auricular contraction is 
shown in the tracing; but if it be so close that a thrill is con- 
tinued throughout the whole period of rest, no record of it any 
longer appears. 


8 DR GALABIN. 


My general conclusion is confirmed by the application of the 
little instrument which has been called a sphygmoscope, whereby 
the motion of the pulse is displayed by the variation of a jet of 
gas. By this means the dicrotic wave may readily be seen, but 
not a single tidal wave. Its place, however, is supplied by a 
slight quivering motion, which is due to the vibration of the 
elastic diaphragm, upon which the pressure of the pulse is 
received. ‘This vibration varies with the size and tension of the 
diaphragm, and it might be possible so to adjust these that a 
wave should appear like the tidal wave of the sphygmographic 
tracing. 

Another argument may be drawn from the fact that the 
development of the tidal wave varies in some degree according 
to the pressure which is applied to the artery. Thus in the 
pulses in which, at ordinary pressures, no tidal wave can be 
seen, it may sometimes be made to appear by using an excess- 
ively low pressure. 

The explanation which I have applied to the whole tidal 
wave is adopted by Dr Burdon Sanderson, to account for the 
first of the two waves into which it is broken by the use of the 
secondary spring. But this must be entirely due to that spring, 
sinee it never occurs in its absence. 

The view of M. Marey is, up to a certain point, the same 
which I have taken, for he says that the first pointed summit is 
due to the acquired velocity of the long lever. But he regards 
the tidal wave in some of its forms as an instantaneous wave 
due to the closure of the aortic valves: the dicrotic wave he 
believes to have no connection with those valves. We have 
seen that Mr Garrod has adopted the same theory as far as 
concerns the tidal wave. 

Of all the diagrams in the work of M. Marey, one of the 
most interesting is that in which three simultaneous tracings 
are shown, of which the first represents the pressure within the 
right auricle, the second the pressure within the right ventricle, 
while the third is the tracing of the apex beat, obtained by 
means of an ampulla inserted within the thoracic wall. In all 
of these the primary summit is followed by two or more 
secondary eminences, much resembling the small waves which 
may be seen in the place of the tidal wave in the pulse tracing 


SECONDARY WAVES IN PULSE. 9 


as drawn by M. Marey’s sphygmograph (Vid. fig. 21). I believe 
that their origin is similar, and that they illustrate the mode in 
which eminences may be produced in consequence of the 
inertia of the instrument. By M. Marey himself, however, they 
are attributed, in the case of the first two tracings, to an 
oscillation in the tension of the auriculo-ventricular valves, 
occurring after their closure, and causing a corresponding rise 
and fall of pressure within the two cavities. Now it is evident 
that if the oscillation of the valves causes a rise of pressure in 
the ventricle, it must, at the same moment, cause a fall of 
pressure in the auricle, and conversely. Hence the elevations 
in the tracing of the one cavity, if due to this cause, ought to 
be synchronous with the depressions in the tracing of the other. 
But on referring to the diagram of M. Marey, it will be found 
that the elevations in the auricular curve correspond, not to 
depressions, but to elevations in the ventricular curve, and 
therefore the explanation given by him would seem to be 
inapplicable. 

While I thus believe that waves occur in the tracing, which 
have no separate existence in the pulse, I am yet of opinion that 
the instrument is more clinically useful than if it followed the 
artery more closely, for I think that slight differences in the 
form of the pulse wave, and in the suddenness of its commence- 
ment, are thus translated into a form much more manifest to the 
eye. The constancy of the form of the pulse tracing in the 
same person under similar circumstances, proves that it contains 
no casual oscillations, but that its form has, at least, a fixed and 
definite relation to that of the true pulse wave. My experi- 
ments with elastic tubes showed that the tidal wave could not 
be produced unless the pressure exceeded a certain point, and 
also the length of elastic tube were limited, or rigid tubing sub- 
stituted for a part of it (fig. 7), and it could then be prolonged 
to a great extent by increasing the length of the heart’s con- 
traction (fig. 8). Its development thus indicates three things, 
high tension, diminished elasticity, and long laborious action 
of the heart. This conclusion agrees entirely with clinical 
experience of the kinds of pulse in which it is most manifested. 

Passing on next to the dicrotic wave, it may be thought 
almost superfluous to consider its cause, since the common view, 


10 ; DR GALABIN, 


ascribing it to a recoil produced by the closure of the aortic 
valves, appears so probable and intelligible. Yet the case is 
not so simple as it seems. Thus we find that Dr Burdon San- 
derson, who, in 1866, appeared to adopt the common view, 
says in 1871, “The dicrotic wave has nothing whatever to do 
either with the closure of the aortic valves, or the cessation of 
the heart’s contraction.’ His present theory is a little difficult 
of comprehension. He says, “In the largest arteries the expan- 
sion is ebbing, while in the smallest it is still culminating: so 
that for an instant the pressure is greater in the latter than in 
the former. The restoration of the equilibrium must take place 
by increase of pressure towards the heart, and diminution to- 
wards the periphery. This restoration of equilibrium consti- 
tutes the second beat.” In another placehe says that owing to 
the cessation of the heart’s contraction the capillary arteries 
become relaxed, the capillary circulation retarded, and the aorta 
simultaneously distended in consequence of the increased resist- 
ance in front: and that this distension is in its turn propagated 
towards the periphery. These two accounts seem to me different, 
nor can I clearly gather whether or not Dr Burdon Sanderson 
considers the dicrotic wave to be retrograde. But such a trans- 
mission of influence from the periphery to the centre could only 
take place as a retrograde wave. To determine therefore 
whether this occurs I have compared two tracings from the same 
dicrotic pulse, one from the femoral artery just below Poupart’s 
ligament, the other from the posterior tibial below the ankle. 
These are 19 and 20. ‘The corresponding position of the dicrotic 
wave in the two shows that it is not retrograde but direct, and 
there is no retrograde wave at all present, for such a wave would 
be close to the primary wave in the posterior tibial, and farther 
from it in the femoral. The same tracings refute the theory 
that the dicrotic wave is due to reflection at the bifurcation of 
the aorta, for then it would be absent below that point. While 
I have thus opposed most of the views of Dr Burdon Sanderson, 
I should be the last to undervalue the service which he has done 
for the practical application of the sphygmograph, for I agree 
with his clinical inferences as completely as I differ from his 
mechanical explanations. 

Perhaps the oldest theory of the dicrotic wave is that of 


SECONDARY WAVES IN PULSE. 11 


Dr Barlow, who observed it before the invention of the sphyg- 
mograph, and held it to be a reflection from the periphery. He 
believed dicrotism to indicate an obstructed capillary circulation, 
and therefore high tension, and to imply a stage of irritation 
and contraction, which, in disease, preceded the stage of fever 
and relaxation. The sphygmograph, however, has shown that 
great dicrotism belongs especially to the state of fever itself, and 
is found neither in the preceding stage, nor in that of exhaustion 
which follows. M. Marey and Dr Carpenter likewise consider 
the dicrotic wave to be a reflection from the periphery. Now 
this reflection is exactly what occurs in a single elastic tube, but 
not in the body, as already shown by the comparison of tracings 
19 and 20. Duchek believes the dicrotic wave to be an oscilla- 
tion, not in the aorta, but in the peripheral arteries. Vivenot 
regards it as an oscillation, but does not explain how it arises. 
The view of Volkman has been already mentioned. 

Now, looking at tracing 1, from the elastic tube, and 14 
from the radial pulse, it would seem that a dicrotic wave, equal 
in magnitude to the primary, could hardly be due to the simple 
closing of a valve. Experiments with tubes show that the 
dicrotic wave is only the first of a series, and when pressure is 
very low the aortic valves, being in glass tubes, can be seen to 
open and close a second time, after their first closure. In that 
case therefore the closing of the valves is not so much the cause 
as the effect of the secondary waves. I have tried the effect, in 
the case of the real heart, of dividing one of the semilunar 
valves, in that of the artificial heart of removing them altogether. 
The results are shown in fig. 4 and fig. 9. In both the dicrotic 
wave is less than before the alteration, but still very consider- 
able. This fact of the occurrence of the dicrotic wave without 
any aortic valves has also been noted by Duchek, by Vivenot, 
and by Dr Burdon Sanderson. It agrees entirely with experi- 
ence of tracings in the case of aortic regurgitation, for although 
the dicrotic wave is diminished when regurgitation is free, it is 
yet never absent, and even in a splashing pulse often retains 
considerable size. The use of the sphygmograph is thus dis- 
appointing for the diagnosis of aortic disease, although, the fact 
of regurgitation once known, it is of service in determining its 
extent. 


12 DR GALABIN. 


My own view is, that, as the tidal wave is due to the inertia 
of the sphygmograph, so a wave occurs which is due to the 
inertia of the arterial walls. If it were not for this inertia, 
their distension would always be such as to be in equilibrium 
with the pressure of the fluid within at every moment. As it 
is, it takes a little time to reach this point of equilibrium, then 
by acquired velocity is carried a little beyond it, and so again 
passes within it as it recoils, and thus makes a series of oscilla- 
tions about the equilibrium point. Thus there occur oscilla- 
tions of expansion and contraction of the largest arteries, due 
to the effect of the inertia of the arterial walls on their lateral 
motion, but modified also by the inertia of the fluid. The first 
of these, the only one which commonly occurs, forms a part of 
the dicrotic wave. Be it especially observed that I attribute 
the oscillation to the inertia of the arterial wall and not to its 
elasticity, although that elasticity is of course necessary for 
this, as for every other part of the motion of the pulse wave, 
and its degree affects the period and extent of the oscillation. 
Nor, again, would any oscillation occur from the inertia of the 
fluid alone, so far as that affects its forward or backward motion; 
but such an oscillation being once set up, it is more ample the 
greater the momentum of the fluid, because the motion of the 
tube and of the contained fluid can only take place as a whole. 
It is thus that dicrotism is increased, as shown by M. Marey, 
if a denser fluid, as mercury, be taken instead of water. There 
is however another way also in which the inertia of the fluid 
may come into play, and that is by its effect on that slight 
lateral motion of the particles which must take place in conse- 
quence of the expansion of the tube. The effect of the-ac- 
quired lateral velocity of such particles would be to expand the 
tube a little beyond the point which it would otherwise have 
reached, and by that means set up an oscillation. The effect of 
such acquired lateral velocity is generally disregarded in mathe- 
matical investigations of similar waves, as being too minute to 
have any appreciable effect. It would be difficult to ascertain 
whether in this case the part it plays in the general result 
ought to be taken into account. The aortic valves would pro- 
duce a wave of their own without any oscillatory wave, and 
they also reinforce that wave by reflection. The second oscil- 


SECONDARY WAVES IN PULSE. 13 


latory wave I have found in but few pulses, of which one is 
shown in tracing 14. That pulse was in the highest degree 
compressible, and was taken only a few hours before death. 
The condition was just the opposite of that of the common 
tricrotic pulse (vid. figs. 11 and 15), in which the second wave 
is the tidal wave. 

I think an argument for my view may be drawn from the 
possibility of the occurrence of a monocrotic pulse. According 
to the common theory of the dicrotic wave, this would imply 
that the aortic valves never close at all, in which case we can 
hardly suppose that the circulation could continue; but upon 
the other view, it only means that the rate of the pulse is 
equal to the rate of oscillation in the aorta. The dicrotic wave 
seen in a tracing may thus be made up of three waves super- 
posed, the recoil from the aortic valves, the first oscillatory 
wave of the large arteries, and the second (or sometimes the 
first) oscillatory wave of the sphygmograph. 

An opinion has been expressed by one of the ablest mathe- 
maticians of the day, especially in relation to physical pro- 
blems, I mean Professor Maxwell, that no mathematical solution 
could be usefully applied to the theory of the pulse, and that 
for two reasons,—because the blood is not truly fluid, and 
because the motions of the arteries would be so much affected 
by their external attachments. These difficulties however 
would not apply to experimental elastic tubes, and since the 
principal forms of pulse can be imitated in them, I am led to 
the conclusion that blood is really fluid while contained in the 
arteries, and that their external connections are too loose greatly 
to modify their motion. 

The introduction of the inertia of the arterial wall makes 
the question very complex for mathematical treatment. Disre- 
garding that, a differential equation may be obtained of a fourm 
similar to that occurring in other kinds of wave motion. Its solu- 
tion gives a velocity for the wave, which involves the materi. 1 
an| diameter of the tube, and the pressure of the fluid, beirg 
greater when pressure is greater. This last result agrees with 
observation as to the retardation of the pulse, and is a much 
likelier explanation of that phenomenon than to suppose that 
what is felt by the finger is in some cases not the primary 


14 DR GALABIN. 


upstroke, but the tidal wave, which is only a convexity in the 
descending curve. I think it will be found that the retardation 
is most in dicrotic pulses, where tension is low, and therefore 
the wave velocity less, but in which the tidal wave is entirely 
absent. Calculation gives no indication of the existence of any 
other wave travelling with a different velocity, except the wave 
of sound, whose velocity is due to the compressibility of water, 
and is nearly 5000 feet per second. ; 

As a rule my experiments showed the dicrotic wave to be 
increased by diminution of pressure. This is the general view, 
and has been denied only by Mr Mahomed, on experimental 
grounds. But his schema differed from the arterial system by 
the introduction of a spherical elastic bag, which could hardly 
fail to introduce a set of oscillations of its own. It need hardly 
be said that it would be mechanically most unlikely, as well as 
for the sake of inference most unfortunate, that the same dicro- 
tism should at different times employ opposite conditions. 
There is however one limitation to be made. If tension be 
increased by compressing a tube at a single point, dicrotism is 
often not diminished but increased, because the oscillatory wave 
is then kept in and reflected. This explains why dicrotism is 
increased by placing a tourniquet upon the abdominal aorta. 

Theoretically both components of the dicrotic wave should 
be increased as pressure is lowered. The recoil from the aortic 
valves is not indeed greater, and could never produce such 
a dicrotic wave as that in fig. 1 and fig. 14, but it becomes more 
marked because preceded by a greater reflux, and consequent 
fall of pressure, when the valves close slowly. Oscillatory waves 
again are always more ample when tension is low. 

In my experiments I have found that besides the variation 
of pressure, one other condition increases dicrotism, provided 
pressure be also low, namely to make the action of the heart 
short and sudden. In that case, however, the tracing has a 
rather different aspect, for sharper points aré seen in the 
curve. This agrees with observations on the human pulse, for 
in that the rounding off of points is well known to be of bad 
prognosis. Ifthe action of the heart be jerky, but at the same 
time pressure not low, the result is the common tricrotic pulse, 
in which the second wave is the tidal wave, and the first sum- 


SECONDARY WAVES IN PULSE. 15 


mit high and sharp. This state of things occurs in the body in 
the case of muscular exertion, mental excitement, from the 
smoking of tobacco, and, with a greater proportionate develop- 
ment of the tidal wave, in acute nephritis. 

As an application of the foregoing principles, certain conclu- 
sions may be drawn as to the state of the circulation in fever. 
The degree of dicrotism together with the rounding off of sharp 
points indicates that arterial pressure is very low, and at the 
same time the action of the heart short and sudden, but that 
the former of these conditions preponderates. This would be 
explained by supposing a paralysis to occur of the nerves which 
cause contraction of the arterial walls. The rapidity of the 
heart would then be in part the direct consequence of low 
arterial pressure, according to the relation demonstrated by 
M. Marey, but its short and sudden action appears to indicate a 
disturbance of its own innervation in addition. he increased 
rate of circulation would however depend less on the action of 
the heart, than upon the arterial relaxation, which is therefore 
the most important element in the state of the vascular system 
existing in fever. 


Experimental tracings from schema of elastic tubing, combined 
with sheep’s heart. 


1. Lowest pressure. The dicrotic wave is about as high as 
the primary, and is followed by other oscillatory waves. 


16 DR GALABIN, 


2. Low pressure. The dicrotic wave is still large, and the 


tracing resembles the hyperdicrotic pulse of fever. 


3. Higher pressure. This tracing is less dicrotic, and resembles 
the pulse of slight fever, or of feeble health. 


4. One semilunar valve divided. The dicrotic wave is less 
than before the alteration (compare figs. 1 and 2), but still con- 
siderable. It is followed by a second oscillatory wave. 


Tracings from the same schema, combined with artificial heart. 


5. Low pressure. This tracing resembles 2, obtained with the 
sheep’s heart, and 13 the pulse of fever, but the rate being slower, 
a trace is seen of the second oscillatory wave. 


SECONDARY WAVES IN PULSE. 17 


6. High pressure. This tracing resembles one of the forms of 
healthy pulse. 


7. High pressure: rigid tubing. The tidal wave here for the 
first time makes its appearance, and the dicrotic wave becomes less 
in proportion. This tracing resembles the pulse of atheroma. 


8. High pressure: rigid tubing: long contraction. The tidal 


wave is here much prolonged. 


9. Aortic valves entirely removed : pressure low. The dicrotic 
wave is still considerable, the tidal wave absent. 


VOL. VIII, 2 


18 DR GALABIN. 


Pressure 23 ounces. 


10. Healthy pulse. The tidal wave is seen preceding the 
dicrotic wave, but only slightly marked. 


Pressure 3} ounces. 


11. Atheroma without kidney disease. The pressure is some- 
what greater than normal, the tidal wave large, and the dicrotic 
wave small in proportion. 


Tressure 5 ounces. 


12, Atheroma with granular kidney. The pressure and height 
of upstroke are both increased, and the tidal wave is very large. 


SECONDARY WAVES IN PULSE. 19 


Pressure 1 ounce. 


13. Dicrotic pulse of fever. Tidal wave absent; dicrotic wave 
large: pressure low. 


Pressure 3 ounce, 


14. The pulse of a case of Bronchitis with chronic Alcoholism 
taken a few hours before death. The pressure is excessively low : 
the tidal wave absent: the dicrotic wave almost equal to the 
primary, and followed by a second oscillatory wave, which is hardly 
ever seen in the human pulse. 


Pressure 5 ounces, 


15. G. L. aged 18. Granular kidney. Tracing of radial 
pulse. The pressure is very high, the tidal wave large and dis- 
tinctly separated: after it is seen the dicrotic wave, and after the 
dicrotic wave a third secondary wave, which is the third oscillatory 
wave of the sphygmograph, the second such wave being superposed on 
the dicrotic wave. 


2—2 


20 DR GALABIN. 


Pressure 5 ounces. 


=) 2¥6. Ga: Radial pulse. Lever of sphygmograph weighted. 
The tidal wave is thus brought nearer to the primary wave, while 
the dicrotic wave retains about the same relative position. 


Pressure 4 ounces. 


17. G. L. Tracing from brachial artery. 


Pressure 4 ounces. 


18. G. L. Tracing from dorsalis pedis. The tidal wave is 
not more widely separated from the primary wave than it is in 
the brachial or radial arteries, but, if anything, rather the reverse. 


SECONDARY. WAVES-IN PULSE. 21 


Pressure 3 ounces. 


19. Tracing of dicrotic pulse from the femoral artery just below 
Poupart’s ligament. 


Pressure 3 ounces. 
20. Tracing from the posterior tibial artery below the aukle 
of the same person. The dicrotic wave is not nearer in propor- 


tion to the primary wave, as it would be if it were a reflected or 
retrograde wave. 


21. Tracing copied from M. Marey, shewing how the tidal 
wave is broken into two small waves by the use of a secondary 
spring in the sphygmograph. 


22. Tracing shewing the effect of percussion on the exterior 


of a rigid part of the experimental tubing. 


22 DR GALABIN. SECONDARY WAVES IN PULSE. 


23. Diagram to illustrate the relation of the sphygmographic 
tracing to the true pulse-wave. The thick line is intended to 
represent the true pulse-wave, the thin line the sphygmographic 
tracing, the dotted line the tracing drawn by a sphygmograph having 
a secondary spring to keep down the lever. 


a. Tidal or “first secondary” wave. 

6. Dicrotic or “principal secondary” wave. 

c.d. Two small waves into which the tidal wave may be 
broken by the action of the secondary spring, as shewn in fig. 21. 


ON THE AMYLOLYTIC FERMENT OF THE PANCREAS. 
By ARCHIBALD LIVERSIDGE, F.C.S., late Scholar of Christ's 
College, Cambridge. 


(From the Physiological Laboratory in the Unversity of 
Cambridge.) 


THE (so-called) ferment of the pancreas was chosen as the 
object of the following study rather than that of the saliva, 
simply because it could be obtained much more readily in 
sufficiently large quantities. 


1. Mode of Preparation. 
The method of V. Wittich (Pfliiger’s Archiv, 11. p. 193) was 


selected as affording a means of obtaining the ferment in as 
pure a form as possible in quantities sufficiently large. 

Fresh pig’s pancreas having been freed from fat and 
finely minced, the pulpy minced mass was placed in a flask and 
covered with spirit; at first ordinary strong methylated spirit 
was employed, but afterwards, so as to render the proteids more 
completely insoluble, absolute alcohol wasused. After standing 
for a few days the spirit was removed by straining through fine 
muslin—the residue was next treated with pure strong glycerine 
for 24 or more hours (sometimes the glycerine was left on the 
pancreas for a month even). The glycerine extract was sepa- 
rated by squeezing the mass through muslin, and then clarified 
by allowing it to slowly filter through thick flannel bags (after 
many long and patient trials of other methods, with filters of 
various kinds and with the use of Bunsen’s aspirator, this plan 
was finally adopted, for it was the only one which gave a clear 
and transparent glycerine extract). The residue was again 
similarly treated with three or four additions of fresh glycerine 
until an appreciable quantity of the ferment was no longer 
extracted. The filtered clear glycerine extract thus ob- 
tained was then treated with many times its bulk of strong 
spirit in large glass cylinders; after standing for some time 
the clear supernatant fluid was syphoned off from the white 
flocculent precipitate. This precipitate, when the alcohol had 


24 MR LIVERSIDGE. 


been removed by careful filtration and drying at a low tempera- 
ture, was partly soluble in distilled water. The filtered aqueous 
solution thus obtained was extremely active in converting starch 
into sugar. But concentrated solutions (i.e. solutions obtained 
by treating large quantities of the precipitate with small quan- 
tities of distilled water) always gave most unmistakable proteid 
reactions (xanthoproteic reaction and colouration with Millon’s 
reagent). I never succeeded in getting this first glycerine 
extract free from proteids. 

To further purify the ferment thus prepared, the above 
precipitate was taken, washed with strong clean spirit, and after 
partial drying, by the spontaneous evaporation of the spirit, was 
again treated with glycerine, and this second glycerine extract 
was in turn precipitated by spirit. 

This second precipitate was far less in bulk than the first. 
Its aqueous solution had about the same activity in converting 
starch into sugar as that of the first extract, while, though the 
precipitate itself still gave some evidences of proteids being 
present, the solution gave hardly any appreciable reactions 
of them. 


2. The Composition of the Ferment. 


The ferment prepared as above by making two successive 
glycerine extracts was dried at 100°C. On boiling with KHo 
a small quantity of ammonia was evolved. 

Ash. Heated on platinum foil the ferment intumesced and 
evolved copiously a gas which burnt with a clear luminous flame, 
and emitted a slight nitrogenous odour. A bulky coke was left, 
but burnt off very readily and left a white very fusible ash. 

I was prevented by my departure for Australia from com- 
pleting, as I had intended to do, the analysis of the ferment thus 
prepared, but Mr Frank Clowes was kind enough to make for 
me the following determinations of the carbon, nitrogen, and 
ash. Two determinations of each were made, ‘05 gramme being 
used in each trial. 

I. Il. Mean. 

Carbon ‘017611 ‘017314 ‘017462 

Nitrogen 005521 ‘005499 005510 

Ash ‘1147 grm. gave ‘0174 ash. 


THE AMYLOLYTIC FERMENT OF THE PANCREAS. 25 


Taking the mean we have in percentage, 
Carbon 34925, Nitrogen 11-020, Ash’ 157070) 
A specimen of the ferment which had been prepared by a 
single glycerine extraction oniy, gave in ‘05 gramme, 
Carbon “022963, Nitrogen ‘006884, 
or in percentage, 
Carbon 45°926, Nitrogen 13:768. 
A quantity of pepsin prepared in an exactly similar manner 
by glycerine extraction from pig’s stomach gave, also in -05 
gramme in two trials, 


if Il. Mean. 
Carbon ‘019199 0205927 | ‘0198958 
Nitrogen ‘004995 0051115 0050532 


Ash ‘1177 grm. gave ‘0194 of ash, 
or in percentages, 
Carbon 39°792, Nitrogen 10°106, Ash 16°48. 


I do not think that any great importance can be attached to 
these analyses. The material was certainly, in spite of my 
care, mixed with some amount of foreign substance (filter frag- 
ments, &c.); and, independently of this, one would be very rash 
to infer that the substance obtained, even after a second treat- 
ment with glycerine, was ferment and nothing else. The large 
quantity of ash (principally potassic phosphate apparently) will 
alone serve to indicate this. Still it is not uninteresting to 
observe that the pepsin and pancreatic ferment have a very 
similar constitution, widely different from that of ordinary 
proteids. My own preliminary determinations had indicated a 
still lower percentage of nitrogen and of ash. 


3. Action of an aqueous solution of the ferment upon rodide 
of starch. 


Iodide of starch is almost immediately decolourized on 
adding an aqueous solution of pancreatin, and the same quan- 
tity of ferment will decompose successive quantities of iodide. 
This decomposition takes place in the presence of free starch ; 


26 MR LIVERSIDGE. 


for on adding more iodine to the decolourized solution it again 
acquires its blue colour. On adding potassium nitrite (KNO,) 
and a drop of sulphuric acid the iodine is set free and the blue 
restored. Hydroxyl’ also does this. But in neither case is the 
restored blue quite so intense as the original. Chlorine water 
does not answer well for this reaction. After standing for about 
30 minutes the restored blue disappeared again, shewing that 
the body, active in splitting up the iodide of starch, was still 
unchanged. 

There is then in the purified ferment solution a something 
which splits up iodide of starch and brings the iodine into a 
combined condition. V. Wittich is inclined to attribute impor- 
tance to this reaction as throwing light on the mode of action of 
the ferment. But I always obtained the same reaction with 
boiled ferment which had completely lost its power of transform- 
ing starch into sugar. Blood serum and other proteids, as is 
well known, also decompose the starch iodide, and I find that 
the action is quite similar to that of the ferment, being restored 
by potassium nitrite in presence of an acid, &c. 


4. Action of pancreatic ferment on other substances. 


The modus operandi of an amylolytic ferment being the 
adding on of a molecule of water, it seemed possible that the 
ferment might be induced to bring about not only the particular 
transformation of starch into glucose, but also other transforma- 
tions which consist in the addition of a molecule of water. The 
results were entirely negative, but are perhaps worth recording. 

Salicine was tried first because the statement that saliva 
and other amylolytic ferments will convert salicine into saliginin 
and glucose is often found in text-books. 

From a very large number of experiments it was found that 
an aqueous solution of pancreatic ferment did not decompose 
salicine into glucose and saliginin. A temperature of 40°C. 
was used, and the time allowed was from 24 to 48 hours. The 
pancreatic solution was always previously proved to be good by 
allowing it to act upon starch paste; while, on the other hand, 
if a solution of salicine was left for a longer period, even in a 


1 The com!. 103 solution. 


THE AMYLOLYTIC FERMENT OF THE PANCREAS. 27 


stoppered bottle, more or less saliginin and glucose were pro- 
duced from its so-called spontaneous decomposition. 

Large quantities of the ferment were tried, but with no 
‘result. Hence it seems probable that this spontaneous split- 
ting up of salicine has been referred to the action of amylolytic 
‘ferments. 

It was thought, however, possible that the action which did 
not take place in a mixture of the ferment and salicin alone, 
might be brought about if the ferment were first of all thrown, 
so to speak, into an active condition by the presence of starch ; 
that the action of the ferment on the starch might be carried 
on to the salicin. To a quantity of starch in active change 
under the influence of pancreatic ferment, salicin was added, 
but no saliginin was found at the end of 48 hours. On the 
third day a little was found, but by that time the whole mix- 
ture had become decomposed, and was covered with penicilium. 

The same negative results were met with in attempting to 
produce change in urea, tartaric, and oxalic acids, both alone 
and in the presence of starch in active change. 

The effect of the ferment on indigo blue was also tried with 
like negative results. 

The purified solution of pancreatic ferment, like all impure 
amylolytic and other ferments, decomposed hydric peroxide with 
evolution of oxygen; and the action was wholly absent when 
the solution of the ferment had been previously well boiled. 


5. Upon the regeneration of the ferment in the previously 
exhausted pancreas. 


Over some minced pancreas which had been twice extracted 
with glycerine a stream of water was passed for 12 hours in a 
tall glass. The washings still contained sufficient ferment to 
decompose starch paste; this was ascertained by allowing the 
washed residue to stand in a small portion of the washing 
water for 30 minutes and then trying its effect upon starch 
paste. But on continuing to wash for a longer period the whole 
of the ferment appeared to be removed, for the residue ceased 
to render a small quantity of water active. This washed and 
inactive residue was now transferred to a filter and allowed to 
remain on it exposed to the air for six hours: when on again 


298 ; LES MR LIVERSIDGE. 


treating it with a small quantity of distilled water it was found 
to render the water very active. One and the same portion of 
pancreas was in this manner deprived of its ferment four succes- 
sive times, and each time the ferment reappeared. This form 
of experiment was repeated on four different portions of 
pancreas. 

As a crucial experiment two quantities of pancreas were 
placed in April, 1871, in 40z. flasks and the flasks filled up 
with glycerine; after standing some time the glycerine was 
filtered off (i.e. squeezed through muslin) and fresh added; even 
after the seventh application of glycerine the pancreas still 
yielded ferment. Altogether, these two quantities of pancreas 
were treated with eleven successive doses of glycerine, and were 
not rendered free from ferment until June, 1872, i.e. after 
standing in comparatively large quantities of pure strong gly- 
cerine for fourteen months. 

Glycerine extract from flask No. 1, after standing on the 
pancreas for eight days from the time of last filtermg and 
washing (for it should be recorded that not only was the gly- 
cerine removed in each case by squeezing through muslin, 
but also the residue was well washed under the tap for some 
time, so as effectually to remove every trace of glycerine), was, 
on June 3, 1872, at last found to be inactive. Yet this same 
residue, after standing on the muslin filter for six hours, 
readily gave not only an active aqueous extract, but also yielded 
an active glycerine solution. 

On June 3rd the glycerine extract from flask No. 2 was 
slightly active, but the residue after one more washing became 
inactive, ie. did not yield any ferment to glycerine, and yet 
after six hours’ exposure to the air it readily did so. As the 
washed pancreas decomposes it evolves an odour of rotten cheese, 
and the aqueous extract is then very active upon starch paste. 
These experiments seem to shew pretty conclusively that the 
ferment is regenerated in the exhausted pancreas. 

The assertion of Bernard and others, that all decomposing 
proteids are amylolytic has been disproved by Dr M. Foster 
(see this Journal, 1, 1. 107); and we may fairly infer that there 
is in the pancreas some substance (or substances), not in itself 
active as a ferment, which in the processes of decomposition 


THE AMYLOLYTIC FERMENT OF THE PANCREAS. 29 


becomes converted into the ferment. It is worthy of note, that 
though the solid washed tissue of the pancreas thus readily gave 
rise to ferment, the aqueous solution of the ferment itself as 
obtained by the glycerine method, when once its amylolytic 
powers had been destroyed by boiling, never regained them 
afterwards, at any stage of the decomposition which subse- 
quently took place in it. 

It was my intention to have attempted the isolation of this 
antecedent (or antecedents) of the ferment, but my departure 
for Australia put an end to my studies in this direction. 


SyDNEY, Nov. 1872. 


ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE TACTILE CORPUS- 
CLES. By Grorce Tun, M.D. (Plates I, IL) 


THE structure of the tactile corpuscles of Wagner is a subject 
on which anatomists are not agreed. It is unanimously ad- 
mitted that one or more medullated nerve-fibres have a course 
through the corium to the corpuscle with which they come in 
contact, that the corpuscle itself presents a well-defined contour, 
that on its surface are to be observed a number of rounded or 
oval bodies—the so-called transverse elements (quer-elemente) 
of German authors—which by their more or less parallel ar- 
rangement and number contrast with the cellular elements in 
the contiguous tissue, and finally that, when subjected to the 
influence of the agents commonly employed to prepare the 
skin for microscopic examination, the substance of the corpuscle 
seems to be composed of waving fasciculi of fibrille. The points 
on which observers are not agreed are the fate of the nerve 
after it comes in contact with the corpuscle, the nature of the 
transverse elements, and of the substance of which the corpuscle 
is composed. 


Dr Allen Dalzell presented to the University of Edinburgh in 
1853 an “Inaugural Dissertation on the General Integuments of 
animals and their appendages’,” in which he records the results of 
his examination into the nature of the touch-corpuscles as follows :— 
“In very thin sections of integument, and when the knife had 
evidently been carried in the same perpendicular as the nerves, a 
power of 400 linear with acromatic light from a Ross condenser 
never shewed the division (either within or without the corpuscle) 
of the double contour nerve into pale filaments; an appearance often 
observed by Wagner, twice confirmed by Gerlach, but never de- 
tected by either Nuhn or Kélliker.” And again, “In touch-bodies 
with a hyaline centre no nervous structures had been seen in section, 
but repeatedly in those in which the so-called ‘cortical appearance’ 
was continuous throughout the touch-body, the appearance of two or 
more circular apertures had been detected which might be the cut 
ends of tubes.” 


1 This Thesis is a manuscript volume in the Library of the University. It 
has never been printed. 


tr etna 


DR THIN. STRUCTURE OF THE TACTILE CORPUSCLES. 31 


Tomsa (Wien. Med. Wochenschrift, 1865) experimented by 
boiling the skin in a mixture of alcohol and hydrochloric acid. The 
theory of this procedure is that it leaves intact the axis-cylinder, 
whilst the surrounding elements are dissolved. He states as the 
result of his researches, that the nerve-fibre gradually loses its 
medulla as it approaches the corpuscle, and making a number of 
spiral windings before entering it, “splits up into a varying number 
of branches whose section presents a polygonal contour.” The 
corpuscle itself is, he holds, formed by cellular elements more or 
less transversely disposed. “These flattened cells” are through 
their very short prolongations continuous with each other and with 
the fibrille of the axis-cylinders which enter the pedicle of the 
corpuscle.” To other corpuscles he assigns a different composition. 
“Other tactile corpuscles in the palmar surface of the hand are 
composed of a coil of thickened axis-cylinder, an aggregation of 
nerve-material, in which are embedded nuclei which are either 
transversely arranged at the periphery, or are irregularly distributed 
over the surface. The prolongations of the cells are here in the 
background, and the corpuscle consists entirely of a compact mass of 
nerve-substance formed by the confluence of the cell-protoplasma of 
the nerve.” He states emphatically that the cellular elements of 
the corpuscle do not belong to connective tissue elements. 

Kolliker’ describes the corpuscle as composed of a cortical layer, 
a nucleated capsule, and an interior of homogeneous clear connecting 
substance with fine granular elements. He cites the opinion of 
Krause that the transverse elements are nerves, and maintains, in 
opposition to him, that they are transversely disposed nuclei (querste- 
hende Kerne). In regard to their nature, he states that “ they perhaps 
all belong to cells similarly arranged, to which the value of connective 
tissue corpuscles might be assigned.” But he also adds—* that 
there are often also in addition transversely disposed nerve-fibres 
in considerable number is certain, but these are not the chief 
cause of the transverse linear appearances.” In regard to the nerve 
he believes that one to two, or even three to four, nerve-fibres run 
along with or surround the corpuscle, and then “apparently ” enter 
it, “ending in the superficial parts of the inner substance in pale 
terminal fibres.” He further states, ‘but it would seem that the 
nerves end in the superficial parts of the corpuscle and never pass 
through its centre.” 

Biesiadecki (in Stricker’s Handbook) refers briefly to these 
poiuts as follows: ‘The transverse lines have been differently 
explained as connective tissue, elastic, and nerve-fibres, the trans- 
verse nuclei sometimes as connective tissue cells, sometimes as the 
nuclei of the membrane of Schwann. According to some, after the 
disappearance of the medulla the sheath of the nerve enters a 
depression in the corpuscle, in which it has a free ending, analogous 
to the corpuscles of Krause in other situations. 

“Successful gold preparations decide some of these doubtful 


1 Handbuch, 5th Edition. 


ae DR THIN. 


points, as they shew the nerve-fibres coloured dark violet, whilst 
the remaining tissue appears of a pale reddish hue. The ,margin 
of the corpuscle is indicated by a faintly marked contour in which 
oblong nuclei lie. In fine sections 4—6 violet-coloured nerve- 
fibres can be seen which are sometimes obliquely, sometimes longi- 
tudinally arranged, and which are accompanied by more faintly 
coloured small nuclei. 

“But these fine sections teach nothing concerning the course 
of the nerve in the interior of the corpuscle; they give no explana- 
tion as to whether the fibres divide and as to how they end.” 

Virchow (Cellular pathologie, 1871, p. 284), after enumerating 
the various opinions held regarding the relations of the nerve to 
the corpuscle, and expressing his conviction that Meissner is in 
error in considering the corpuscle to be composed of nervous 
matter, remarks, ‘“‘ It seems to me to be a matter of doubt whether 
the nerve ends in the interior of the corpuscle or forms a loop in its 
circumference.” 


My investigations, most of which were conducted in the 
spring of this year, in Professor Stricker’s Laboratory for Ex- 
perimental Pathology in Vienna, have yielded me the results 
which I have now to describe ’. 

The methods I employed consisted chiefly in treating freshly 
amputated skin by Chloride of Gold, Osmic Acid, and Carmine 
and Acetic Acid. 

Osmic acid has the great advantage of not shrinking the 
tissues, and, when employed successfully, of giving remarkably 
distinct and perfect specimens. Tuctile corpuscles consist of two 
classes, Single and Compound. The greater number, inclusive 
of all the larger ones, belong to the latter category. 

A vertical section through the meridian of a corpuscle which 
has been properly treated by Osmic acid, shews either a simple 
homogeneous, more or less, rounded body, enclosed in a capsule, 
or two or more such simple capsulated bodies arranged in a 
row, parallel to the vertical axis of the papilla, and enclosed in 
a common oblong capsule. The former I propose to designate 
as Single, the latter as Compound Corpuscles. Compound 
Corpuscles may again be conveniently divided into twms and 
triplets, according as they are composed of two or three single 
corpuscles, and for convenience im description, each of these 
individuals may be termed a member of the Corpuscle. Exam- 


1 Many of these results I submitted to the Academy of Sciences in Vienna,— 
(Sitz.-Bericht. May, 1873.) 


STRUCTURE OF THE TACTILE CORPUSCLES. 33 


ples of Singles will be found in Plate L., Figures 3, 6, and 10, 
of Twins in Figures 7 and 8, of Triplets in Figures 9 and 
11. The space which separates the members of a compound 
corpuscle varies in breadth (Figures 7, 8, 9 and 11). The 
compound corpuscle is thus a conglomeration of Singles, and 
must be regarded not as one, but as consisting of several 
organs. 

The well-marked unmistakable separation between the 
members of compound corpuscles I have been able to demon- 
strate only in osmic acid preparations, and then only when 
the section happened to be through the meridian of the cor- 
puscle. If the section has laid bare the capsule of a compound 
corpuscle, the line of demarcation between its members can 
only, even in osmic acid preparations, be inferred from the 
depressions in the capsule (Figure 3). In gold preparations 
the depressions in the contour corresponding to the bounda- 
ries of the members are sometimes visible as in Figure 1, and 
sometimes not as in Figure 2, probably according as more or 
less shrinking has been produced in the preparation of the 
tissue for examination. In whatever way the skin is prepared 
the bulging of the members of compound corpuscles is often 
seen (Fig. 12). 

On account of the winding course of the nerve it is in the 
majority of sections only seen in detached portions. Occa- 
sionally no nerve is seen, which happens when the section has 
hit the external portion of the corpuscle. When the prepa- 
ration is successful, the nerve-fibre is seen with perfect dis- 
tinctness within the substance of the corpuscle, the extent 
to which it is visible depending on how far the direction 
of the section has been parallel to the course of the nerve. 

The result of the examination of a very large number of 
specimens has shewn me that each single corpuscle, and each 
member of a compound corpuscle, is penetrated by one, and 
never by more than one, nerve-fibre. 

I have never seen a nerve leave the substance of the cor- 
puscle after having penetrated it. 

Although a perpendicular course in the corium is the rule 
for the nerve-fibres that terminate in the tactile corpuscles 
it is not invariable. In triplets especially it is not rare to find 

VOL. VIII. 3 


34 DR THIN. 


that the nerve of the upper member approaches it by winding 
transversely from the summit of another papilla. 

That the nerve penetrates the substance of the corpuscle 
is demonstrable both in gold and in osmic acid preparations. 
Before piercing the capsule it sometimes describes a curve, or 
a complete spiral, or it may suddenly twist round itself and 
form a loop, or it may simply enter in a straight line. 

If the corpuscle is single, the nerve, as soon as it has tra- 
versed the capsule, at once penetrates into its interior (Fig. 10). 
If it is compound the nerve after it has penetrated the capsule 
either immediately enters the member opposite its point of 
entry, or takes an upward course within the common capsule 
towards the member to which it is destined, mostly parallel to 
the vertical axis of the papilla, but it may in its course cross 
the corpuscle once or even twice transversely, and generally in 
the grooves between the component members (Fig. 11). In its 
course towards the member in which it terminates it follows no 
fixed rule, sometimes running parallel to the long axis of the 
corpuscle inside, or outside the common capsule, and sometimes, 
as has been indicated above, approaching it in a line parallel to 
the transverse axis of the papilla and on a level with its point 
of entry to the capsule substance. 

In gold preparations it can be distinctly seen that in com- 
pound corpuscles a varying number of nerves enter at different 
altitudes, and in osmic acid preparations it is seen that the 
points of entry correspond to the relative position of the mem- 
bers of the corpuscle. 

When the nerve has entered the substance of the corpuscle 
it penetrates to a certain depth either in a straight line or in 
a curve, and then bends round and describes part of a circle. 
The largest curve I have seen has not exceeded an are of 270°. 
In this terminal course the nerve retains its medulla, and be- 
tween the medulla and the corpuscle substance there is a clear 
space visible in the osmic acid preparations (well seen in Fig. 
10) which exactly corresponds to the position of the sheath of 
Schwann. 

I have not once seen the nerve-fibre divide either external 
or internal to the capsule, and the number of preparations in 
which I have obtained a clear view of the nerve before and 


STRUCTURE OF THE TACTILE CORPUSCLES. 35 


after its entry through the capsule is so considerable that I 
do not hesitate to deny that the alleged division of the medul- 
lated nerve in the tactile corpuscle exists’. 

The inference from these facts 1s that each single corpuscle 
and each member of a compound corpuscle represents the termi- 
nation of a single medullated nerve-fibre. 

The transverse elements, seen with varying distinctness 
according to the manner in which the skin is prepared for ex- 
amination, are especially prominent in gold and in acetic acid 
preparations. They are best demonstrated by making a thin 
section from fresh skin, colouring it in carmine, and then 
allowing it to macerate in concentrated acetic acid for about 
48 hours. Fig. 12 is drawn from a section so prepared. 

By teasing gold and carmine and acetic acid preparations, 
I succeeded in isolating fragments of corpuscles, and was able 
to demonstrate the accuracy of the conviction I had acquired 
from examining macerated specimens, that the transverse ele- 
ments are the nuclei of oblong cells which anastomose with 
each other by means of prolongations of elastic tissue fibres. 
The distinction between the cell and the nucleus is not often 
accurately defined, but I have seen it repeatedly and unmis- 
takably both in gold and osmic acid preparations. ‘The cells 
colour dark.in gold, which, in conjunction with their elongated 
form, gives them an appearance which it is sometimes difficult © 
to distinguish from that of nerve-fibres. They are very abun- 
dant in every part of the corpuscle, which may be described as 
being in great part formed by a dense network of cells and 
elastic tissue. The cells and elastic fibres seem to be as nu- 
merous in the deeper as in the superficial parts, every change 
of focus in a suitably prepared section bringing a new layer 
into view. 


1 Appearances are often seen both in the corium and within the capsule that 
might easily be mistaken for the division of a nerve-fibre. For example, in 
Figure 2 three nerve-fibres are seen ascending towards a corpuscle, and in one 
part of their course one of the fibres lies so directly under another that only 
two fibres are then visible. If in such a case the section did not happen to 
include the deeper portion of the course of the fibres the illusory image might 
be presented of two nerves in the upper part of the corium apparently becom- 
ing three before entering the corpuscle. 

In Figure 5 a second nerve is seen emerging at the side of a corpuscle almost 
immediately under a first that is seen ascending through the corium, and so 
producing an appearance that might be mistaken for a division of the first 
nerve. 


3—2 


36 DR THIN. 


In a successful attempt to colour the skin with silver, I 
found the position of the corpuscles indicated by oval masses 
of beautifully distinct granulated nuclei, which changed by 
the slightest touch of the fine adjustment. 

The capsule of the corpuscle is formed by a circular layer of 
elastic tissue formed by the anastomosing continuations of cells. 

The network of elastic tissue in the corpuscle and the cells 
connected with it communicate in no way with the medullated 
nerve-fibres. 

The connecting matter of the corpuscle clears up with acetic 
acid, and is coloured by gold and osmic acid the same shade as 
the connective tissue of the surrounding corium. 

The division of the papille of the skin into vascular and 
nervous, I have not found borne out by wy investigations. 


Virchow (Cellular-pathologie, Berlin, 1871, p. 285) remarks’, 
“Tn the narrower papillae there is always a simple or dividing 
vascular loop but no nerve. This observation is in so far important 
as through it we have acquired the knowledge of a new nerve-less 
part. In the other kind of papille, on the contrary, very frequently 
no vessels but nerves and the peculiar structures designated as 
touch-corpuscles are found.” 

Again (Op. cit. p. 285) he remarks, ‘Setting aside the ana- 
tomical and physiological question, the instance of the skin papillae 
has a great value in explaining pathological appearances, because we 
find here in parts in themselves perfectly alike two conditions that 
are in absolute contrast”: one set of papille that have no nerves and 
are rich in vessels, and another set that have no vessels and are only 
provided with nerves.” 

Isidor Neumann, in his text-book of Skin-Diseases (Second 
Edition), in the Chapter on the Anatomy of the Skin, represents 
the general opinion of German anatomists when he remarks that 
“Compound papillae only, and these only rarely, contain both a 
touch-corpuscle and a vascular loop; with this exception papilke 
with corpuscles have no vessels.” 

Dr Dalzell had already in 1853, in the Thesis from which 
I have quoted, expressed himself in the following clear and decided 
terms —“ Wagner’s division of the papille into purely nervous 


+ In den schmalen findet man constant eine einfache, zuweilen eine 
verastelte Gefiiss-schlinge aber keinen Nerven. Es ist diese Beobachtung 
insofern wichtig, als wir durch sie zur Kenntniss eines neuen nervenlosen 
Theiles gekommen sind. In der anderen Art von Papillen findet man dagegen’ 
sehr haufig gar keiue Gefiisse, sondern Nerven und jene eigenthiimlichen. 
Bildungen, welehe man als Tastkérper bezeichnet hat. 

2 Emerseits nervenlose und gefissreiche, andererseits gefisslose nur mit 
Nerven versehene Papillen. 


STRUCTURE OF THE TACTILE CORPUSCLES. 37 


and vascular has no anatomical foundation either in man or the 
lower animals, and even those papillae in which his corpuscula tacti 
are placed very frequently contain one or more vessels.” 


T have satisfied myself that when skin from a finger that 
has been amputated whilst the capillary vessels are full of blood 
is treated with osmic acid, nerves, touch-corpuscles, and rows of 
blood corpuscles arranged in loops indicating the position of 
the capillary vessels, are distinctly seen in the same papille. 
(Plate IL, Figs. 13 and 14.) It is capable of easy demonstra- 
tion that in a majority of so-called nerve-papille a thin 
vertical section contains at the same time a section of the 
corpuscle and one or more capillary loops. In the smaller 
number in which nerve or touch-corpuscle is seen and no 
capillary loop, it is quite possible that in the wide papilla 
the vessel may not have been included in the section. What 
is certain is, that at least the majority of papillee which con- 
tain touch-corpuscles contain vessels also, and that the dis- 
tinction of papillae into nervous and vascular has no foundation 
in fact. Nerve-fibres are found in papille which have vessels 
and no touch-corpuscles, and in a proportion that seems to bear 
a relation to the number of fibres found approaching the rete 
from the corium in a given area. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 


Plate I. Figures 1 and 2 are compound corpuscles prepared by 
treatment with Chloride of Gold. The nerves are only visible to 
their point of entry. 

Figure 3 is part of a compound papilla prepared by Osmic Acid, 
showing two corpuscles with part of the course of the nerve in their 
interior, and with part of a capillary loop indicated by blood cor- 
puscles. 

Figures 4 and 5 are compound corpuscles prepared by Chloride 
of Gold, showing the course of the nerves in the interior of the 
corpuscles, 


Figure 6 is a single corpuscle prepared by Osmic Acid. 


Figure 7 is a twin corpuscle prepared by Osmic Acid. Two 
nerve-fibres are seen on one side of the corpuscle and a capillary 


38 DRTHIN. STRUCTURE OF THE TACTILE CORPUSCLES. 


vessel filled with blood corpuscles on the other. The nerve of the 
upper member is seen entering the corpuscle substance. 


Figure 8 is a twin corpuscle prepared by Osmic Acid. 


Figure 9 is a triplet corpuscle prepared by Osmic Acid, with 
sections of two nerve-fibres. 

Figure 10 is a single corpuscle prepared by Osmic Acid, with its 
nerve lying in its substance. 

Figure 11 is a compound corpuscle prepared by Osmic Acid. 
The nerve to the upper member is seen crossing in the grooves 
between the members under the common capsule before entering. 


Figure 12 is a compound corpusele which has been coloured with 
Carmine and macerated in Acetic Acid, showing the nuclei of the 
cells and the continuity of the latter with elastic fibres. (The relative 
position of the figure in the plate is inverted.) 


Plate II. Figures 13 and 14, from Osmie Acid preparations, 
illustrate the co-existence of touch-corpuscles and vessels in the 
same papillae. The figures represent vertical sections through the 
skin. c. ¢. capillary blood-vessels ; n. nerve-fibre, t. touch-corpusele. 


ns = ud 


ey 


NOTES ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE OLFACTORY 
MUCOUS MEMBRANE. By H. Newer. Marty, D. Sce., 
M.B. Lond., Scholar of Christ's College, Cambridge. (PI. III.) 


(From the Physiological Laboratory im the University of 
Cambridge.) 


I. THe EPITHELIAL CELLS. 


SincE Max Schultze first described two forms of epithelial cell 
as occurring in the olfactory region of the nasal mucous mem- 
brane, and divided them into the two classes of epithelial or 
supporting cells, and olfactory or special sensory cells, most sub- 
sequent observers have confirmed him on every essential point. 
Recently, however, Exner’ has denied the distinctness of the 
two forms of cell described by Max Schultze, and maintained 
that they gradually shade off into one another, numerous trans- 
itional forms being found between them. The following notes 
are based on observations which I have not been able as yet 
to carry on to a systematic conclusion, but which, so far as 
they go, lead me to confirm decidedly the anatomical distinct- 
ness of the two forms of cells described by Max Schultze, 
whilst, at the same time, they verify in very many points the 
accuracy of Exner’s descriptions. The animals with which I 
have principally worked are the newt and the dog, but I have 
also employed the frog, rabbit, guinea-pig, and rat. 


Olfactory Epithelium of the Newt. 


In this it is quite easy to make out two distinct kinds of 
cell, and I have never succeeded in discovering any intermediate 
forms. In the newt, indeed, the two forms of cell are more 
widely different than in any other of the animals mentioned 
above ; it affords therefore an excellent subject on which to begin 
the microscopical study of this tissue. 

If the olfactory mucous membrane of this animal be treated 
with Miiller’s fluid, and then teased carefully out in water, 


1 Sitz. der K. Acad. der Wissensch. Wien. I. Abth. Jinner-Heft, 1870, u. III. 
Abth, Janner-Heft, 1872. 


40 DR MARTIN. 


besides isolated cells floating about the field, there will be found, 
here and there, groups of cells, each group consisting of one of 
the so-called “epithelial” cells, surrounded by a number of 
“olfactory” cells (Fig. 1). This appearance is so frequent that I 
believe the whole epithelium in its natural state to be made up 
of groups of this kind; so that its surface might be divided into 
a great number of small areas, each of which would consist of a 
central “epithelial” cell, with a number of “olfactory” cells 
grouped round it. This arrangement is still more easily demon- 
strable in preparations made by hardening the membrane in 
alcohol, and then teasing it out in glycerine. The groups of 
cells thus obtained form much more coherent masses, the “ ol- 
factory” cells appearing imbedded in a uniting granular sub- 
stance, which is apparently dissolved away by Miiller’s fluid 
(Fig. 2). 

When the epithelial cells (Fig. 3) are obtained from Miiller’s 
fluid preparations, each possesses a large oval granular nucleus, 
which sometimes contains a few large particlés looking like oil 
globules. Around this nucleus les a homogeneous structureless 
layer, with well-defined inner and outer margins; from one end 
of this layer proceed, sometimes one, but usually several “ cen- 
tral processes,” which are also homogeneous and structureless. 
These processes often branch several times, presenting here and 
there little angular enlargements which, but for their angularity, 
might be called varicosities, and appear like prolongations of 
the layer round the nucleus, no line of demarcation being ob- 
servable between them and it. The “peripheral process,” 
arising from the opposite end of the cells, is, on the contrary, 
always single, and distinctly marked off from the layer sur- 
rounding the nucleus. It is much stouter than the central pro- 
cess, finely granular, and often obscurely longitudinally striated, 

By staining these cells with iodine after treatment with 
Miiller’s fluid, I have frequently been able to observe in the 
peripheral process a central stained part, surrounded by a deli- 
cate unstained loosely fitting outer membrane, as if the middle 
part had shrunk away from a cell-wall (Fig. 4). I have never 
succeeded in finding cilia on the peripheral process of the epi- 
thelial cells, as described by Exner; but I have several times 
met with the appearance shewn in Fig. 5, the central mass 


STRUCTURE OF THE OLFACTORY MUCOUS MEMBRANE, 41 


being produced at one side of its free end into a tolerably thick 
prolongation. 

The nucleus of these cells varies considerably in appearance 
with the reagent employed in preparing the membrane. In 
gold-chloride preparations it is granular, as in Miiller’s fluid; 
but in chromic acid it is hardly granular at all; and, judging 
from analogy with the dog, it probably appears non-granular in 
osmic acid preparations also. 

In some few cases (Fig. 4) it has seemed as if the central 
processes were replaced by a delicate crumpled membrane ; but 
I am inclined to believe that this is an optical illusion. Ba- 
buchin* has, however, described these cells as having such a 
membrane at their deep end, and says that he has stained it. 

The olfactory cells in Miiller’s fluid preparations exhibit a 
spherical nucleus very distinct from the oval one possessed by 
the “epithelial” cells. This nucleus has a peculiar appearance 
—it is not granular in the ordinary sense of the term—but 
looks as if some highly refracting body were wrinkled or broken 
into fragments so as to refract the light unequally and get a 
sort of pseudo-granular appearance (Fig. 1). It is surrounded 
by a hyaline transparent layer, exactly like that round the 
nucleus of the “epithelial” cells; and from this proceed in 
many cases a peripheral and a central process, both of which 
are hyaline and transparent. The peripheral one is rather the 
thicker of the two. The central one exhibits varicose enlarge- 
ments, but does not divide, like the central processes of the 
epithelial cells. 

Many cells are always to be found about the field resem- 
bling in most points those just described, but differing in having 
no process, or only one. They have usually been considered as 
mutilated olfactory cells; but the most careful examination so 
frequently fails in detecting any indication of a broken-short 
process, that I am inclined to believe that some of them may 
be normal, and lie naturally imbedded in the network formed 
by the deep processes of the “epithelial” cells. In some of 
them the nucleus is double (Fig. 6). Cells resembling the olfae- 
tory cells, but having their processes unusual in position or 
number, are also occasionally found (Fig. 7). 

1 Stricker, Handb. d. Lehre v. d. Geweben, Cap. xxxv. p. 969. 


42 DR MARTIN. 


Olfactory Epithelium of the Frog. 


In this animal the “epithelial” and “olfactory” cells are 
not so readily distinguished as in the newt. One chief cause 
of this is, that the nuclei of both are oval, instead of that of 
“olfactory” cells being round as in the newt. The peripheral 
processes of the “epithelial” cells also are not relatively so 
thick, compared with the corresponding processes of the olfac- 
tory cells, as in the newt; and the central processes are fewer 
(usually only one), and less branched. In these three points, 
then, the two forms of cell approximate to one another; but 
still, so far as I have seen, they can always be distinguished by 
the smaller amount of protoplasm around the nucleus of the 
olfactory cells, by the smaller diameter and less granular cha- 
racter of their peripheral, and by the greater fineness of their 
central processes. 

In some cases I have seen the deeper end of the central 
process of an “epithelial” cell ending in an enlargement, from 
which again several small processes arise. This may possibly 
be an indication of a less developed stage of that peculiar ar- 
rangement of the deep ends of the corresponding processes 
which is seen in the dog. (See Exner’s first paper, Taf. 1. 
Fig. 12.) 


Olfactory Epithelium of the Dog. 


In this animal also the two forms of cells have always 
appeared to me to be quite distinct; although both differ 
somewhat from the corresponding cells of the newt. 

In the “epithelial” cells the nucleus is smaller and rounder 
than in the newt; and in osmic acid preparations it is often 
very indistinct. The central process is comparatively thick, 
and has little angular prominences here and there upon it. It 
is always single, and never branches until towards its deeper 
end. There it swells out into a large knot, exactly as described 
by Exner in the rabbit; and from this a number of short thick 
processes arise, whose general direction is in the plane of the 
mucous membrane, and which appear to join those of neigh- 
bouring cells, thus forming close to the sub-epithelial tissue a 
sort of irregular network with small meshes and thick inter- 


STRUCTURE OF THE OLFACTORY MUCOUS MEMBRANE. 43 


secting trabecule. Just above its terminal enlargement each 
process contains a number of granules, which stain very deeply 
with osmic acid, forming a black patch; and the black patches 
of neighbouring cells being apposed, form, in vertical sections 
of the mucous membrane, a black line reaching all along it 
near its base. This is well shewn in Exner’s second paper, 
Taf. . Fig. 4. Similar stained granules are usually found in 
small numbers in the terminal enlargement, and here and 
there in the central process. 

The peripheral process of these cells is essentially like the 
corresponding process in the newt. 

The “olfactory cells” are proportionately less numerous 
than in the newt; and their central processes are finer. Their 
nuclei are rather smaller than those of the epithelial cells, and 
are oval, but rather pointed, at their poles. I have never 
succeeded in tracing out the deep process of one of these cells 
to its end, and cannot offer any opinion, as to whether it ends, 
as Exner has described it in the human infant and some other 
cases, in the network formed by the deep processes of the epi- 
thelial cells. The peripheral processes of these cells are very 
fine, but otherwise not peculiar. 

The conclusion to which I have been led is, that the two 
forms of cell met with in the olfactory region are anatomically 
quite distinct, as described by Max Schultze, and do not 
shade off into one another. I think the contrary opinion at 
which Exner arrived is due in great part to his having at first 
and chiefly worked with the frog, where the olfactory and epi- 
thelial cells certainly do approximate to one another in several 
points; although, even in the case of that animal, his own 
figures do not seem to me to support the view of the existence 
of such a transitional series of cells as he describes. With all 
his other statements, so far as I have followed them, I entirely 
agree. 

In my descriptions I have adhered to the names epithelial 
and olfactory as those by which these cells are best known, but 
I am very doubtful whether they possess any such difference of 
function as is thus implied. Under the best circumstances 
anatomical structure alone affords a very uncertain basis from 
which to deduce physiological function; and both these forms 


4c DR MARTIN. THE OLFACTORY MUCOUS MEMBRANE. 


of cell differ so much from those of any ordinary form of epi- 
thelium, that there appears to me no reason for ascribing special 
sensory functions to one more than to the other, and I am 
inclined to regard them both as concerned directly in the sense 
of smell. If both end, as Exner has described, in the same’ 
deep network, with which fibres of the olfactory nerve are con- 
tinuous, it would seem to settle decisively the similarity or 
intimate relationship of their functions. 


DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES. 


Fig. 1. Group of cells from olfactory mucous membrane of 
newt. Miiller’s fluid. 


Fig. 2. Cells from same hardened in alcohol. 


Fig. 3. Epithelial” cell from olfactory region of newt. Miil- 
ler’s fluid. 


Fig. 4. Ditto Ditto. Treated with iodine solution. 
Fig. 5. Ditto. Ditto. 


Fig. 6. “Olfactory” cells with only one apparent process from 
newt. Miiller’s fluid. 


Fig. 7. Unusual forms of cell from newt. Miiller’s fluid. 


Fig. 8. “Epithelial cells” from olfactory region of dog. Osmic 
acid preparation. 


Fig. 9. Ditto Ditto Miiller’s fluid. ° 


ON THE EFFECTS OF A GRADUAL RISE OF TEMPE- 
RATURE ON REFLEX ACTIONS IN THE FROG. 
By M. Foster, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., Prelector in Phy- 
siology in Trinity College, Cambridge. 


(From the Physiological Laboratory in the University of 
Cambridge.) 


Gotz’ observed that if a brainless frog be placed in a vessel of 
water, and the temperature of the water be very gradually 
raised to 40°C., no movements (beyond a few flickering spasms) 
take place; the frog becomes at last perfectly rigid and dies 
without any attempt at escape. 

An uninjured frog, on the other hand, becomes violent in 
its attempts to get away as soon as the temperature rises to 30°, 
or thereabouts. 

These observations I have verified repeatedly. They are 
justly urged by Goltz as a very striking instance of the differ- 
ence between the conditions of a frog with and without a 
brain; but they present a new difficulty :—why the brainless 
frog is not excited to reflex action by the stimulus of the hot 
water. This difficulty is increased by the following facts. 

Obs. 1. If a frog, from which the brain has been removed, 
be suspended by the jaw with the legs hanging freely down, and 
the toes dipping into a vessel of water, on gradually heating the 
water the toes are withdrawn by reflex action as soon as the 
temperature of the water reaches a little over 30°. The result 
does not essentially depend on the rapidity of the rise. How- 
ever slowly the water be heated, the feet are always withdrawn 
at a temperature of 35°, or earlier. Rapid heating may possibly 
lower the degree at which the feet are-withdrawn ; but to this I 
have not paid particular attention. Whether heated slowly or 
rapidly the feet are withdrawn at about 35°C. or at a lower 
temperature.—Obs. 2. If the whole body thus suspended be 
similarly immersed and heated, no movements (or only the very 
slightest spasms of the muscles of the legs) take place; and on 


1 Functicnen der Nerven-Centren des Frosches. 


46 DR FOSTER. 


still further raising the temperature the body becomes rigid 
(rigor caloris).—Obs. 3. If both legs be immersed up to the anus, 
and similarly treated, they also become rigid without move- 
ments either of the legs or of any part of the body, save only a 
few spasms.—Obs. 4. If one leg only be immersed and simi- 
larly treated, it also becomes rigid without movements, or with 
only slight movements.— Obs. 5. If both legs (or one leg) be 
immersed up to the knee, they are sometimes withdrawn ; but 
sometimes no movements take place, and the portion immersed 
becomes rigid. The results in this case are not so constant as 
when either more or less of the body is immersed.— Obs. 6. If 
the feet only be immersed, they are invariably withdrawn at 
35° C., or under.— Obs. 7. If a frog be suspended over a vessel 
divided by partition, with water at unequal levels on the two 
sides, so that one leg is wholly immersed and the foot only of the 
other leg, and the vessel be surrounded with water, the tempe- 
rature of which is gradually raised, neither the leg nor the foot 
will be withdrawn, if care be taken that the water on both sides 
of the partition be equally and uniformly raised in temperature. 
If in this last observation the water on both sides be reduced 
to the same level, both feet are withdrawn. This result shews 
that warm air and vapour have not the same effect as warm 
water, and that the absence of movements is not due to the 
unavoidable contact of the thighs of the animal with the top 
of the partition giving some support to the legs, and thus 
diminishing the tendency to the withdrawal of the feet. 

The above observations shew that when the toes (alone im- 
mersed in water) begin to be affected by the high temperature, 
say 30°C., the stimulus of the hot water causes a reflex action 
which results in the withdrawal of the foot. When the whole 
leg or body is immersed, the same stimulus is still at work, 
but no reflex action occurs. What is the reason that reflex 
action is absent? 

The following explanation is perhaps the first to offer itself. 
The warmth applied to the leg diminishes the irritability of the 
nerves or of the muscles, or of both; and thus the impulses 
generated by the warm water in the sensory terminations of the 
nerves of the foot are not carried up to the cord owing to the 
diminished irritability of the sciatic trunk, or, being so carried, 


a 


rrr 


EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON REFLEX ACTIONS IN THE FROG. 47 


the reflex process taking place in the cord cannot manifest itself 
on account of the diminished irritability of the muscles or motor 
nerves. 

But this view is clearly untenable. It requires that the 
nerves and muscles, covered and protected by the skin, should 
be affected before the sensory terminations in the skin itself. 
Moreover, no appreciable difference in the irritability of the 
nerves, trunks or muscles of a leg thus exposed to 35° C., could 
be detected. And it is directly contradicted by Obs. 7, where 
the immersion of one leg prevents movements in the other. 

Two other views then suggest themselves.——(1) The blood 
returning from the legs being warmer than the normal, raises 
the temperature of the spinal cord above the normal; this 
reduces the irritability of the cord, and hence reflex actions set 
going by a feeble stimulus, which in a normal cord would mani- 
fest themselves, are here absent—(2) From the stimulation of 
the whole leg as compared with that of the foot, a multitude 
of impulses, arising from all parts of the skin exposed to the 
warm water, reach the spinal cord. These produce such an 
effect upon the cord that the simpler reflex action resulting 
from the stimulation of the toes alone is prevented. 

At first sight it seems easy to separate these two different 
agencies. For if the reflex excitability of the cord be lowered by 
the heated blood, it will be lowered all over, and reflex actions 
will be lessened not only in the immersed legs but in the trunk 
and fore-legs above the water. Practically, however, in the case 
of the frog it is extremely difficult to.estimate excitability quan- 
titatively by means either of mechanical or of chemical stimuli, 
in any other part of the frog’s body than the legs, when only 
slight variations have to be accurately determined. With the 
legs one can estimate by the dilute sulphuric acid method (che- 
mical stimulus) with tolerable accuracy slight variations in exci- 
tability; though even here mechanical or electric stimuli are 
unsatisfactory. But one cannot easily apply the acid method to 
other parts than the feet, and hence the difficulty. or it is 
with slight variations that we have here to deal; the legs, which 
remain perfectly quiet in warm water, are at once drawn up 
when even slightly pinched or touched. 

I attempted to eliminate the effects of rise of temperature 


48 DR FOSTER, z 


by using some other form of gradually increasing and uniformly 
applied stimulus. . 

I tried to do this by using dilute sulphuric acid, the 
strength of which was steadily increased. The legs were sus- 
pended in a small beaker of water, into which water from 
a very large beaker was continually flowing at a very slow rate, 
the surplus being removed by a syphon at the same rate. Into 
the larger beaker dilute sulphuric acid was dropped, with con- 
tinual stirring. The frog’s legs were thus brought in contact 
in as uniform a manner as possible with dilute acid of gra- 
dually augmenting strength. I invariably found that when the 
acid reached a certain strength violent movements took place, 
whether the foot only were immersed or the whole legs. This 
result however is not conclusive, for the even slight movement 
in the fluid of the small beaker might be considered as suffi- 
cient to prevent uniform stimulation of the skin. For exactly 
the same results were obtained when warm water was applied 
in the same way as the acid. Instead of the legs remaining 
quiet, as when the water is still (v.e. moved only by the cur-- 
rents of heating), they were withdrawn, with violent movements, 
when a certain temperature was reached. I further attempted 
to eliminate the effects of heated blood by ligaturing the legs 
underneath the sciatic nerves so as to cut off all vascular con- 
nection between the legs and the trunk, while leaving the 
nervous connection intact, and immersing the legs of the animal 
so disposed in gradually heated water. The diminished irrita- 
bility however due to the lack of blood-supply and the expo- 
sure of the plexus of nerves directly to the vapour and elevated 
temperature, interfered with the course of events, and I could 
get no satisfactory results. 

Similar attempts were made to obtain analogous results 
with cold instead of heat; but they resulted in failure. In 
the first place it was found that (with winter frogs) immersion 
of the feet directly in water at 0°C. produced no reflex action ; 
a fortiori none was produced by the gradual cooling of the 
water in which the feet were immersed. Only when the feet 
became actually entangled in the forming ice which spread 
from the sides of the vessel towards the centre, was any move- 
ment visible. Here the stimulus was probably mechanical, due 


EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON REFLEX ACTIONS IN THE FROG. 49 


to traction from the fixed foot, as the animal swung to and fro 
in the fluid, from the vibrations of the room in which the obser- 
vation was carried on. 

An attempt was also made to use olive oil instead of water ; 
but this failed too, partly from the difficulty of reducing suffi- 
ciently and uniformly the temperature of the large body of oil 
needed for immersion, and partly because the legs were fre- 
quently withdrawn when immersed in the oil at the ordinary 
temperature. 

I took the trouble to make these observations because, I am 
free to confess, I had first leaned to the idea that the chief 
factor in the matter was the uniform stimulation of a large sur- 
face. I called to mind the fact that when we dip one foot into 
hot water we localize the sensation of heat as most intense in a 
ring round the ankle marking the level to which the hot water 
reaches. What we are really conscious of in this case is the 
contrast between the condition of the surface of the skin in the 
hot water, and that of the surface outside the water, and this 
contrast we feel most intensely at the junction of the two sur- 
faces. Normally we are not conscious of the condition of our 
whole skin when not affected in any particular spot; and yet 
we have as it were an unrecognized background of such a con- 
sciousness with which we compare any local affection. Thus we 
feel more acutely the temperature of a fluid when we plunge 
our hand or foot only into it than when we immerse our whole 
bodies in it. So also it is a matter of common experience that 
tickling is most effective when the stimulus is applied to a very 
small surface. The touch of the tip of a feather on the sole of 
the foot at once produces reflex movements; but the contact of 
a large pad of cotton wool applied with the same pressure as 
the feather over a large surface of the sole, may be borne 
without any uncomfortable sensations, though almost each point 
of the same surface stimulated separately would at once cause 
the sensation of tickling. The mutual effect of two neighbour- 
ing sensations may also be shewn in the following way. Esti- 
mate on any surface of skin by Weber’s method the distance at 
which the sensations of two points merge into one. Then sur- 
round the spot of skin so tested with a rim of metal, pressed 
down with sufficient force to be distinctly felt, but not more. 


VOL. VIII. 4 


50 DR FOSTER. 


Test again the power of localisation in the skin within the 
rim; the distance at which the two points first appear at one 
will be much increased. Remove the rim and test again. The 
distance will be found to have returned to its former limit. 
The simultaneous sensations of the rim have dulled (in some part 
or other of the nervous mechanism) the sensations arising 
within the rim. A similar explanation may be given of the 
fact that it is much more difficult to call forth a reflex action 
by applying a galvanic stimulus to the nerve-trunk of a frog 
than by applying the same stimulus to a portion of skin to 
which some of the fibres of that nerve-trunk are distributed. 
In the one case a multitude of sensory impulses reaches the 
cord, in the other a few only, yet movement is absent in the 
former, though present in the latter. The immersion of the 
whole leg or of the body in the observations described above 
may be taken as analogous to the stimulation of the whole 
nerve-trunk ; the immersion of the foot only as corresponding 
to the stimulation of a portion of skin. 

On the other hand, in all observations on the effect of a rise 
of temperature on living animal tissues, the state of exhaustion 
or depression which ultimately ensues is preceded by a stage of 
exaltation in which the functions of the tissue are raised above 
the normal. This is well shewn in the case of muscles, nerves, 
and the heart. In none of the observations recorded above was 
there any indication of such an initiative stage of increased 
action. Had there been it would naturally have led to the 
withdrawal of the feet in all cases. And the absence of this 
presented a great difficulty to considering the results obtained ~ 
as being merely due to a depression of the powers of the spinal 
cord by reason of the increased temperature. Some observations, 
however, made in the Laboratory here by Mr T. O. Harding, 
afforded a clue, by pointing out a distinction between simply 
and directly raising the temperature of an organ or a tissue, 
and indirectly heating it by supplying it with blood heated 
beyond the normal in some distant part of the economy. Thus 
the heart of a frog, either empty or filled with serum, when 


heated beats with a more frequent rhythm and, at first, with 


greater force. But the same heart when indirectly heated by 
the immersion of the legs of the frog in hot water (the heart 


EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON REFEX ACTIONS IN THE FROG, 51 


remaining in the body and the brain and spinal cord being 
destroyed) is lowered at once both in the force and frequency 
of its beat, by reason of the heated blood with which it is 
supplied. This result leads us to expect that in the same way 
the spinal cord, if heated by being supplied with blood heated 
beyond the normal, would be depressed without any preceding 
stage of exaltation, and thus reflex actions which otherwise 
would have occurred be prevented. 

The observation (Obs. 7) where the heating one leg prevents 
reflex action in the other, seems to point distinctly to such an 
explanation. But the following observation shews still more 
clearly that, whether or no the stimulation of a large surface 
may assist in producing the effects described, the main cause is 
the heating of the spinal cord. 

Obs. 8. A brainless frog was so placed in a vessel with a 
hole in the bottom, that the body and forearms could be ex- 
posed to the action of water the temperature of which was 
gradually raised, while the whole of both legs from the hips 
downwards hung freely from the vessel, and were not subject to 
the action of the heated water. Though in an unusual posi- 
tion the frog remained quiet in the absence of stimulation, and 
executed reflex movements when stimulated so long as the 
water in the vessel above remained at the ordinary tempera- 
ture ; thus when the toes were made to dip in water gradually 
warmed, the legs were drawn up after a while as usual. When 
however the temperature of water in the vessel above, and that 
in which the toes were dipped below, were both raised part 
passu, no movements at all took place, and ultimately, as the 
temperature continued to rise, the body above and the toes 
below became rigid from rigor caloris (the legs and thighs 
remaining supple), without any save the slightest spasm. 
Tested by the dilute sulphuric acid method (which was here 
practicable) the reflex excitability of the spinal cord diminished 
as the temperature in the vessel above rose, without any signs 
of an initiative stage of exaltation. 

The depressing éffect of a rise of temperature (especially up 
to or beyond 35°C.) on the energies of the spinal cord of frogs 
is well shewn in the case of tetanus. Two frogs A and B were 
each poisoned with a similar small dose of strychnia. To A 

4—2 


52 DR FOSTER. 


nothing further was done. B, as soon as the spasms manifested 
themselves, was immersed in water at 37°C.; the tetanic con- 
tractions almost immediately disappeared; and the animal 
when taken out was perfectly flaccid, neither tetanus nor ordi- 
nary reflex action being excited by stimulation. After a short 
while the tetanus returned, and was again removed by a second 
immersion. ‘This was repeated three times with a like result, 
the frog A all the while remaining im a state of complete 
rigidity, and ultimately dying long before B. 

We may conclude then that the absence of reflex action in 
Goltz’s experiment, and the other modifications of it, are due 
primarily and chiefly to the depressing influence of heated 
blood carried from the skin to the spinal cord. But this depress- 
ing influence comes into play by virtue of the gradual character 
of the stimulation. Dipping a frog either wholly or partially 
into water of 27°C. or above, at once produces violent move- 
ments. When the temperature however is raised gradually the 
effect on the sensory organs of the skin is much less, and a 
higher temperature has to be reached before a sensory impulse 
is generated strong enough to give rise to a reflex action. But 
by the time that higher temperature is reached the spinal cord 
has already begun to flag and needs a still stronger impulse, 
and therefore a still higher temperature in the water acting 
on the skin; when that still higher temperature is reached the 
energies of the spinal cord have sunk still lower, and so on 
stage by stage, until the frog is boiled without having made 
a sign. 

The absence of reflex action with a gradual rise of tempera- 
ture is still further insured by the stimulus being uniformly 
applied, @.e. by the water being kept as still as possible, and 
assisted, we may add, by the exposure to the stimulus of a large 
amount of sensory surface at the same time. Both these cir- 
cumstances tend to put off the reflex action till a higher tem- 
perature is reached, and thus assist in preventing it altogether. 

It would be interesting to inquire how far the distinction I 
have suggested above between directly heating an organ and 
indirectly heating it by supplying it with blood heated in the 
extremities is general; and if so, to what changes in the blood 
the effects are due. They would probably be best shewn in the 


EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON REFLEX ACTIONS IN THE FROG. 53 


frog, whose sensitiveness to elevated temperatures is unfor- 
tunately only too well known to physiologists working in the 
summer, ‘The effects of heating the blood of mammals has 
already been shewn to be peculiar (see Fick, Pfliiger’s Archiv. v. 
p. 38). 

There remains the question—why does the frog in posses- 
sion of a brain not behave in the same manner? Why are not 
his sensations and cerebral processes dulled in the same way by 
the heating of the blood? The answer simply is, that a less 
intense sensory impulse is needed to call forth a movement of 
volition, that is, a movement carried out by the encephalon, 
than an ordinary reflex action, that is, a movement carried out 
by the spinal cord alone. The water as it is being warmed 
suggests a movement to the intelligent frog long before it is 
able to call forth an unintelligent reflex action. The very first 
movement of the frog, the removal of any part of his body out 
of the water, increases the effect of the stimulus; for the return 
of the limb to the water already warm gives rise to a stronger 
stimulus than contact with water raised to the same tempera- 
ture while the limb is still in it; and thus one movement leads 
to another, and the frog speedily becomes violent. It is nearly 
the same with the brainless frog, when a movement has for 
some reason or other been started; only in the observations we 
have been dealing with this initial movement is wanting. 


ON THE LAW WHICH REGULATES THE FREQUENCY 
OF THE PULSE. By A. H. Garrop, B.A. Cantab. 


(Continued from Vol. vu. p. 219.) 


In a paper on Cardiograph tracings’ from the human chest 
wall, in the 5th Vol. of this Jowrnal, I have endeavoured to 
substantiate a law respecting the elements of the heart’s beat, 
which may be thus enunciated :— 

The heart’s beat consists of two parts, which for any given 
pulse-rate do not vary in their ratio to one another; but the 
length of the first part varies inversely as the square root of 
the rapidity of the pulse. 

A second series of measurements of the cardio-arterial inter- 
vals, published in the Proc. of the Royal Society, London, have 
further verified the law just stated, and in the rest of this paper 
it will be assumed as proved. No theory respecting the cir- 
culation throws light on its significance; but the one which 
it has been my endeavour to demonstrate above gives a very 
satisfactory explanation of it, which will now be considered in 
detail. 

First, the heart’s beat consists of two parts, which for any 
given pulse-rate do not vary in their ratio to one another. It 
having been proved previously that the pulse-rate does not 
depend on the blood-pressure, and, as shewn now, the length 
of the first part of the heart’s beat not varying when the pulse- 
length is constant, it is evident that the length of the first 
part of the pulse-beat does not depend on the blood-pressure in 
any way. 

Again, the first part of the pulse-beat is compound, for it is 
the interval between the commencement of the cardiac or ven- 

1 Since writing the paper referred to, a further comparison of tracings has 
shewn me that in the slow pulses taken while lying, I mistook the primary sys- 
tolic rise for the auricular, and was so led to the conclusion that the length of 
the cardiac intervals depended in some measure on the position of the body. 
This is incorrect, as subsequent measurements shew me, and the length of the 


first part does not vary with the position of the body; the proper equation for 
finding the cardiac first part under all circumstances being ry =204/z. 


LAW WHICH REGULATES THE FREQUENCY OF THE PULSE. 55 


tricular systole and the closure of the semilunar valves; there- 
fore it may be divided into the systole and the valve-closure 
interval. 

Physiologists have laid very little stress on this valve- 
closure interval, it generally being considered as instantaneous. 
But in the study of cardiograph tracings it is to be remem- 
bered that the distances between events occurring within one- 
fiftieth of a second of one another can be appreciated without 
much difficulty, and there is every a priorz reason for believing 
that this interval has a longer duration than that. In my 
paper on the Cardiograph trace, reasons have been given for 
the belief that in quick pulses the commencement and the end 
of this valve-closure interval are indicated by separate and 
distinct changes of direction in the curve, and its length as 
obtained by measuring from these points agrees entirely with 
that required from arguments to be mentioned further on. It 
may be called the diaspasis, that is, the period during which 
the heart is being opened out by the regurgitation of blood 
from the arteries. 

The length of the combined wen: and diaspasis not de- 
pending at all on the pressure, and it being constant for any 
pulse-rate, it is infinitely probable that the systole and dia- 
spasis separately are independent of the pressure; and this is 
extremely interesting, as it gives a further insight into the 
mechanism of the heart. For, in order that the duration of the 
diaspasis should not vary with different blood-pressures, it is 
evident that with higher pressures there must be greater ob- 
struction to the heartward flow of blood, otherwise the valves 
would then close more quickly. And this is exactly what 
would be expected from the combination of Mr Bryan’s obser- 
vations concerning the shape of the heart, and Briicke’s theory 
of the active diastole of the ventricles’, According to the 
latter author the cardiac muscular tissue has no inherent power 
of opening out the ventricles, but remains inactive after systole, 
during diaspasis in fact, until the regurgitation from the aorta 


1 Mr Bryan’s paper is in the Lancet, Feb. 8th, 1834. 

Briicke’s theory appeared in Sitzungsberichte der Wiener Akad. der Wiss. 
1854, Vol. x1v. p. 345. See also a paper on the same subject by myself in this 
Journal. May, 1869. 


BO MR GARROD. 


-has closed the aortic valves and so uncovered the orifices of the 
coronary arteries, immediately upon which, the resulting sud- 
den turgescence of the heart’s walls makes them open up. 
-Mr Bryan has shewn that during systole the whole heart alters 
its position as a result of its change in shape during contraction, 
and recovers it during diastole ; therefore the greater the force 
of contraction the more will it alter its shape, and the more 
difficult will it be for it to resume the original one, which has 
to be done partly by the regurgitating arterial blood; but 
the greater the blood-pressure, the greater will be the facility 
for overcoming this greater work, which two, as must be the 
case, vary together. This argument explains how the diaspasis 
need not vary in length with different blood-pressures. 

Next, with regard to the systole. As the first part of the 
heart’s beat varies as the square root of the length of the beat, 
and as the diaspasis, a part of that first part, does not vary 
with the blood-pressure, upon which, and the rapidity of ten- 
sion fall (which must be a comparatively insignificant force), it 
can alone depend, it is necessary that the other component of 
that interval must vary more than as the square root of the 
pulse-length. And to find how much more quickly, it is 
necessary to obtain the actual length of diaspasis in a par- 
ticular case, from which a close approximation can be arrived 
at as to its duration at all rapidities. Careful measurements 
of a cardiograph trace, beating 102 in a minute, give the ratio 
of the systole to the whole beat as 1 to 3:1915, and that of 
the first part to the whole beat as 1 to 2°0, which leaves the 
ratio of the diaspasis to the beat as ‘187 to 1, or the diaspasis 
length as (00183 of a minute. <A very similar length of dia- 
spasis is found from quicker pulses. 

The great interest attaching to these figures is that, when 
with the diaspasis equal to ‘00183 of a minute, the ratio of 
the systole to the diastole is enquired into, it is found that 
there is a very simple relation between them, and that after 
subtracting this diaspasis of nearly constant length, there re- 
mains the systolic varying as the square root of the diastolic 
period, and with no other diastolic length is so simple a ratio 
obtainable, which is all-important, because it will be seen that 
the systole must depend directly on the previous diastole. 


LAW WHICH REGULATES THE FREQUENCY OF THE PULSE. 57 


Next, considering the systole itself; the fact above demon- 
strated, that its length does not depend on the blood-pressure 
is extremely important, and can only be explained by assuming 
that when the pressure rises, the circulation through the coro- 
nary vessels increases to a sufficient extent to enable the heart 
to get through the extra work it has to perform without alter- 
ing the duration of its action, or in more precise terms, the 
nutrition of the walls of the heart must vary directly as the 
blood-pressure in the aorta. 

But the systolic length varies as the square root of the 
diastolic if the argument which is developed above is correct, 
in other words, the longer the time of nutrition of the heart, the 
longer is the systole. This at first sight seems an anomaly, 
but the theory that the pulse-rate depends on the fall in tension 
only, presents a most complete explanation, and so throws great 
light on cardiac action in general. 

Consider the heart as a pump working against a certain 
pressure, and filling an elastic reservoir with a certain resist- — 
ance to the outflow of its contents. Varying the pressure has 
been shewn to have no effect on the lengths of the different 
parts of the pulsation for the reasons given above; and it has 
next to be considered how it is that varying the resistance 
changes the lengths of the elements of the revolution. This 
pump, directly its muscular fibres begin to contract, exerts its 
full pressure, for there is nothing to prevent it doing so. But 
during the previous diastole it was supplied by blood at a cer- 
tain definite pressure and for a definite time, both of which 
factors limit the force of the systole. Consequently the ven- 
tricles produce directly their full systolic pressure, and main- 
tain that pressure until they are empty. But it is evident that 
the time necessary for emptying them of a definite amount of 
blood under these conditions must depend on the rapidity of 
the flow from the capillaries, for when the flow is halved the 
systolic time must be doubled, if no other force come into play ; 
in other words, the length of cardiac systole is a function of 
the arterial resistance ; and the pulse-rate has also been shewn 
to be a function of the same, upon the fall of tension theory. 

It has been proved that the systole varies as the square 
root of the diastole, not directly with it, as might be supposed. 


58 MR GARROD. 


This clearly shews that the time of diastole influences the 
length of the systole and shortens it, in other words, strengthens 
the heart, according to the law which may be stated thus, the 
nutrition of the heart varies as the square root of the time 
during which the coronary circulation is maintained. 

It will strike some as peculiar that no mention has yet been 
made of the influence of the nervous system on the heart. But 
it appears to me that the facts which have been brought for- 
ward have not called for any special reference to it. May not 
the law it has been my endeavour to prove, be but an expres- 
sion of that action in the healthy body? For it must depend 
on a somewhat complicated mechanism, as is shewn by the fact 
that it is almost impossible to contrive a self-acting engine 
which would pulsate in accordance with its requirements. 

As is well known, the effect on the kymographion trace, 
of slightly stimulating the pneumogastric nerves, is greatly to 
amplify the oscillations, and at the same time to lower the 
mean pressure ; while cutting them produces the reverse effects. 
The larger oscillations of the hemadynamometer column in the 
former case, shew that the proportionate tension-fall and the 
time of pulsation are both greatly increased, and from previous 
considerations it is evident that these are necessarily associated, 
when as now, no influence is being exerted on the peripheral 
vessels’. 

Further, these amplified oscillations must be attended with 
an abnormal enlargement of the ventricular cavities during 
diastole, for the time intervening between the beats being 
increased, the amount of blood which flows through all segments 
of the circulation between any two pulsations, must be also 
more considerable. Having arrived so far, it is extremely in- 
teresting to observe how an augmentation in the degree of 
cardiac dilatation during diastole, as a cause, will include and 
correlate all the peculiarities which are observed when the pneu- 
mogastric nerve is thus operated on; and it is not unreasonable 
therefore to suppose that this is the direct effect of its action. 
As the quantity of blood contained in the heart at the end 


1 In rabbits the normal fall of tension as judged by the hemadynamometer 
trace is about ,th of the whole, while when the pneumogastric is stimulated it 
may increase to ;',th or more. 


tei 


ee ee 


LAW WHICH REGULATES THE FREQUENCY OF THE PULSE. 59 


of diastole has been shewn to depend on the circulation through 
the coronary vessels, it is evident that the explanation of any 
variations in the capacity of the ventricles must be referred to 
changes in the cardiac walls themselves. Just as the degree 
of rigidity of an india-rubber tube through which a current of 
water is flowing, can be made to vary by changing the diameter 
of the orifice from which the fluid is allowed to escape, so the 
turgescence of the ventricular walls, or what is the same thing, 
the amount of active diastole of the heart, can be altered, by 
varying the diameter of the small arteries of the coronary sys- 
tem, their contraction producing a greater, and their dilatation, 
by facilitating the flow of blood through the capillaries, a less 
degree of diastolic enlargement of the ventricular cavities. 

From the above argument, therefore, the amplified range 
of pressure and time depending on change in heart-capacity, 
and the change in capacity being caused by modification in the 
calibre of the smaller coronary arteries, it 1s almost a logical 
necessity that the function of the pneumogastric nerve is to 
regulate the degree of tonicity of those vessels, and Dr Brown- 
Séquard, from entirely different facts, has also published it as 
his belief that the pneumogastrics contain fibres which contract 
the small coronary vessels’. 

It will be noticed that throughout this paper it has been 
assumed that the systole never recommences until the ventri- 
cular cavities are completely filled, that is, until a pressure 
equilibrium has been arrived at in the interior of the heart. 
Perhaps it is the absence of pressure which admits of the heart 
recontracting, but this is a doubtful point, and until more is 
known as to the mechanism of muscular action in general, it is 
probable that the question as to the reason why the heart re- 
commences to beat at a particular moment will remain unset- 
tled. Sir J. Paget’, when he pointed out the relation of 
rhythmic nutrition to rhythmic action of nerves and muscles, 
laid the foundation for a scientific treatment of the subject, 
and the law which it has been my endeavour to substantiate, is 
only a precise method of expressing that relation. 


1 See Principles of Human Physiology. By Dr. Carpenter, 1869, p. 219, 
foot-note. 


3 Croonian Lecture. Royal Society, 1857. 


60 MR GARROD. 


The following summary of the main features in the circula- 
tion, as they appear to me, may assist in explaining some of the 
previous arguments. 

The circulation of the blood is maintained by the repeated 
contraction of the heart. Each cardiac revolution is divided 
into three parts, the systole, the diaspasis, and the diastole. 
The following laws hold with regard to the length of these 
intervals. 

I. The systole together with the diaspasis, or in other 
words, the first cardiac interval varies as the square root of the 
whole revolution. 

II. The systole varies as the square root of the diastole. 

III. The diaspasis varies very slightly with different pulse- 
rates. 

The amount of work that the heart has to perform in main- 
taining the circulation depends on two sets of changes which 
may occur in the system; 1. Variations in the blood-pressure. 
2. Variations in the resistance to the outflow of that fluid from 
the arteries. 

As the capacity of the arteries including the ventricles, 
varies directly as the blood-pressure, and as the flow of blood 
from the capillaries does the same, the frequency of the heart’s 
beats is dependent on the resistance to the capillary outflow, 
and not at all on the blood-pressure; in other words, the 
heart always recommences to beat when the blood-pressure 
in the systemic arteries has fallen a certain invariable pro- 
portion. 
Variations in blood-pressure result from: 1. Absorption 
into, and excretion from, the vascular system, of fluids. 2. 
Changes in the capacity of the arterial system, which occur 
on the contraction or relaxation of the muscular arteries. 3. 
Changes in the amount of available blood, which result from 
the hemastatic dilatation of some of the yielding vessels on 
altering the position of the body. As changes in the first of 
these cannot be very sudden, and those in the latter are never 
very considerable, the mean blood-pressure in health varies but 
little during short intervals. 

Variations in peripheral resistance result from: 1. Different 
degrees of tonicity or patency of the muscular arteries. 2. Dif- 


LAW WHICH REGULATES THE FREQUENCY OF THE PULSE. 61 


ferent resistances in the venous system. The former may occur 
independently in one or other system of vessels, as the cuta- 
neous or the alimentary; also mechanically from pressure on a 
part of the body. The latter are insignificant in health. 

The heart depends for its power of doing work on chemical 
properties in the blood it pumps into the systemic vessels, and 
as the blood reaches it direct from those vessels, the cardiac 
intramural circulation varies with the changes in the former ; 
and the length of the systole varying only as the square root 
of the time of diastole, the degree of cardiac nutrition varies 
directly as the systemic blood-pressure, and as the square root 
of the diastolic time. The coronary arteries supplying the 
whole heart, the work done by the right ventricle is governed 
by that done in the left; thus the supply of blood in the left 
auricle is always rendered sufficient for the requirements of the 
systemic circulation ; though, as there is no reason for believing 
that the resistance in the pulmonary vessels varies with that 
of the systemic, there must be some peculiarities in the former 
circulation (which may explain the variations in the ratio of 
the number of pulse-beats to respirations, In some cases). 

The auricular contraction is a very small force, and its 
function is most probably to close the tricuspid and mitral 
valve. 

The heart commencing its systole as a whole, it is highly 
probable that the impulse for action is given by a force which 
affects both ventricles; such is found in the coronary circulation 
and the active diastole produced by means of it. 

In conclusion I have to present my best thanks to Dr 
Michael Foster, Professor Sanderson, and Professor Pritchard 
of the Royal Veterinary College, for the opportunities they have 
afforded me in trying the experiments above detailed; without 
their assistance it would have been impossible for me to have 
put the law of the relation of blood-pressure to pulse frequency 
on any satisfactory basis. 


MORPHOLOGICAL ELEMENTS OF THE SKULL. 
By W. KircHEen Parker, F.R.S. (Pl. IV.) 


THE skull, or cranio-facial skeleton, would be easily compre- 
hended as a morphological structure, were it no more complex 
than the skeleton of the trunk. 

In that part of the vertebrated animal we have merely a 
repetition of essentially similar segments, each, typically, form- 
ing a ring above and a hoop below. Over these hoops at two 
points at the most there are the paired fins or limbs, with 
their imbedded and free portion—limb-girdles and limbs proper 
—and in fishes the unpaired upper and lower fin-rays, with 
their imbedded cartilaginous or osseo-cartilaginous roots. 

But the essential, primary parts of the axial skeleton have a 
totally different “habit” in the region of the head, to what 
they have along the spine; the notochord, truly, is there, and 
the substance which invests it (“investing mass”), but this 
never shews the least tendency to break up into “somatomes,” 
and “metasomatomes,” as in the body. Moreover, although the 
cranium contains a continuation of the common neural axis, 
yet in this region, instead of a simple nervous tube, grey within, 
and white without, in the head the nervous mass always’ swells 
into three principal vesicles, which are grey without, and white 
within. 

Also let it be noted that it is only the medulla oblongata, 
an evident continuation of the spinal chord, and the cerebellum 


which are enclosed in the occipital ring, or that part of the 


cranium which is constructed out of the fore end of the 
notochord, and its undivided investing mass. 

The box, then, in which the cranial vesicles and their often 
immense and very complex outgrowths are enclosed, is a com- 
pound structure. Before it is treated of it will be necessary to 
describe and to classify the other skeletal parts of the head. 

1] purposely omit the Lancelet (Amphioxus), from all consideration, at 
present; I begin with the Suctorial Fishes (‘‘ Myxinoidei,” ‘‘ Marsipobranchii”), 


We get no proper series that can be considered through and through until we 
come to the Lamprey and its relations, 


MR PARKER. MORPHOLOGICAL ELEMENTS OF THE SKULL. 63 


I believe that the only truly cartilaginous parts of the 
Amphioxus or Lancelet are the “palpi” or “cirrhi:” these proto- 
skeletal parts re-appear in the higher fishes, and in some of the 
air-breathing types. 

Then besides these we have in the suctorial fishes a sub- 
cutaneous system of cartilages, immensely developed in the 
lips (“labial cartilages”), and in the pharynx; forming in the 
Lamprey the beautiful branchial basket. 

In these fishes, besides the outer cartilages, which I propose 
to call “ extra-visceral,” there is a cartilaginous skull, and also 
three pairs of what are called “visceral arches” by embryolo- 
gists. One pair of these bars is in front of the mouth, and 
two pairs behind; there is also the rudiment of a second pre- 
oral pair; in embryological works, the first post-oral, or mandi- 
bular arch, is called the first visceral arch. 

These “Marsipobranchs” also possess “sense-capsules,” which 
more or less modify the form of the cranium, the last pair, 
or auditory sacs, being compacted into the posterior part of 
the cranial side-wall. 

In the next group of fishes, the Sharks and Rays, or 
“ Elasmobranchii,” the cartilage, which is soft in the “Suctorii,” 
becomes calcified externally, and sometimes within; but the 
ossifications that occur in the cutaneous system with its aponeu- 
rotic enfoldings and its various strata, looser or more dense, 
do not become modified correlatively to the cartilaginous skele- 
ton. This first shews itself as a new morphological specializa- 
tion in the “Ganoid” fishes. 

The elements that go to form the skeletal parts of the 
head of a vertebrate, some height up in the scale, are as 
follows : 


Curhi. 

Extra-visceral cartilages. 
Sub-cutaneous bony plates. 

Visceral cartilages (arches). 
Sense-capsules (mostly cartilaginous). 
Cranium, proper; composed of 


Me QAeors 


1. Notochord and undivided part of “investing 
mass,” 


64 MR PARKER. 


2. General membranous coat, which is chondrified 
below and behind by the “investing mass;” 
below and above by the arch formed from 
that mass (occipital arch); and anteriorly by 
an independent growth of cartilage. 


3. Bony plates developed in subcutaneous tissue 
outside the chondrified external layer of the 
membranous cranium, such as the frontals and 
parietals. 


But the eye-balls are the only pair of sense-capsules that 
grow free of the cranial walls—they indeed modify the shape of 
the box, being nested in its sides. The other sense-organs 
are most intimately built up into the very structure of the 
cranium. 

This is not all, for certain segments that appear in the 
adult cranium in the higher types, notably in the mammalia, 
are formed by ossification of compound cartilaginous tracts, 
formed by early fusion of the first pre-oral (actual first) 
visceral arches. 

It is also to be remarked that the more the brain develops 
—as we ascend among the types—the less does it owe to the 
primordial cartilaginous thickening of the outer stratum of its 
membranous investment. The inner stratum (“dura mater”) 
always retains a fibrous character. 

So also as to the visceral arches: these are huge in fishes, 
especially when they are only partially calcified, as in Sharks 
and Rays; but as we ascend they become more and more 
liable to histological metamorphosis; becoming arrested, and 
often being replaced, functionally, by subcutaneous bones, or by 
these together, with “extra-visceral” cartilages. 

An instance of this is at hand in the Pig—which undoubt- 
edly represents a large group of mammals—where the primary 
mandibular bar is arrested above, absorbed below, and gives 
place functionally to the combination of a labial cartilage with 
a subcutaneous ossification. 

Both in the nasal sacs and in the organs of hearing the 
true cartilagimous investment of the sense-organ itself forms 
metamorphic combinations with contiguous visceral arches. 


MORPHOLOGICAL ELEMENTS OF THE SKULL. 65 


- With regard to the viseeral arches if we examine a series 
from the Chondrosteous Ganoids (Sturgeon, &c.) upwards, we 
shall find a very large amount of variation in the metamor- 
phosis of their substance. elow, a thin ectosteal plate may 
invest a permanent core of unchanged hyaline cartilage; but 
above, as in the hot-blooded classes, the arches may _ ossify, 
whilst as yet their substance is a soft granular mass of “ indif- 
ferent tissue.” 

Not only so, the arch, originally visible as a solidish grani- 
cular tract, may chondrify here and there; large tracts being 
arrested, and becoming lost in the general fibrous stroma 
amongst which it was developing. 


Segmentation of the “visceral arches.” 


The morphological observer notes especially in the skull 
how it is compacted together by that which each element 
supplies to it,—for we have just seen that this important box is 
formed of very diverse parts and structures. 

But whilst all tends to solidity in the cranium, in the face, 
in many instances, the parts are specialized in relation to the 
most varied movements: hence the large amount of segmenta- 
tion seen in the visceral bars. 

The first pair of visceral bars, the “trabecule cranii” of 
Rathke, are least mobile, and therefore least segmented; the 
most mobile are the parts that lie around the mouth and throat. 

Before describing the very uniform manner in which, on 
the whole, the visceral arches break up, it may be well to 
remind the reader that they must never be confounded with 
the costal arches that spring from the bodies of the vertebre. 
These oro-faucial bars are developed about the mouth and 
throat, at first as thickenings, whilst the face of the embryo is 
growing into a ridge-and-furrew structure: the ridges develop 
a pith, which is the visceral arch, and the furrows are the first 
sign of that dehiscence which takes place to form the “visceral 
clefts.” 

These visceral clefts are the doors and windows through 
which the vertebrate creature keeps up its necessary com- 
merce with the surrounding world for food, and drink, and 


~ 


VOL. VIII. D 


66 MR PARKER. 


air. As a rule the clefts are in distinct pairs, but the pair 
which form the mouth run into each other at the ventral line. 

The metamorphic changes of the visceral arches rise, as it 
were, one above another in the scale of life, the higher type 
having “nothing over,” no more change than its habits demand; 
and that which undergoes but little modification has “no 
lack ;” for though its parts suffer less change, yet they answer 
to the necessities of the creature as perfectly as in the nobler 
forms. 

We have seen that the true visceral arches are few in num- 
ber in the “Suctorial Fishes;” but amongst the “Placoids” or 
Sharks and Rays there are, normally, five pairs of “ branchial 
arches” behind the hyoid or arch of the tongue. In the embryo 
of the shark (e.g. Scyllium canicula) both the mandibular and 
hyoidean arches carry caducous (external) gills, and the hyoid 
carries a half-gill in the Placoids, generally, and in most of the 


“ Ganoids;” yet in the Teleostean or Osseous Fishes the gills 


are confined to the arches behind the hyoid. The last arch 
is abranchiate, and in Osseous Fishes forms the “nether mill- 
stone’? to the grinding apparatus, the upper stones of which 
are formed by the apical segment of the gill-arches in front of 
it: the papille on that, the “ pharyngo-branchial” segment, be- 
coming developed into teeth, and not into gill-plates. That the 
arches in front of the mouth are the equivalents of those be- 
hind is shewn by the development of the mouth itself, and also 


by the presence of a pre-oral cleft, the passage which in us 


conveys the tears into the nose by the lachrymal duct. 

Normally, in Fishes above the Suctorii there are seven post- 
oral arches: in the Anourous Amphibia only six. In the Shark 
and its congeners I find no pharyngo-palatine or second pre-oral 
arch ; and for the time of the greater part of the tadpole-life 
of the frog this arch is suppressed, or nearly so, and it is never a 
distinct bar. I am satisfied that it is also suppressed perma- 
nently in the Tailed Amphibia, and that it is only a rudiment, 
not free, in the Suctorii. These things are not, however, all 
quite certain at present. 

As a rule the segmentation of the visceral arches takes 
place some time anterior to ossification, that is in the Gill- 
bearing, or Ichthyopsidan types: in the higher forms, in some 


2 RY Or: Rie ee m8 i go 


{ 
: 


MORPHOLOGICAL ELEMENTS OF THE SKULL. 67 


of the arches, at least mostly those in front of the mouth, the 
osseous deposits determine the segmentation, and now and 
then in Birds a single bony part breaks up into two sepa- 
rate bones. 

In the “ Branchiata” segmentation is generally greatest in 
the hyoidean and branchial arches. In the latter it may be 
said to be typical; but the hyoid arch of a Shark is arrested as 
to its subdivisions. That arch in the Teleostei runs into parts 
beyond what is typical. 

Furthermore, whilst in the Branchiata the whole seven of the 
post-oral arches become converted into hyaline cartilage, at least, 
if not bone, in the Abranchiata only the first three of these 
are developed, the last of the three only partially. 

The form of each arch is sigmoid, much like the italic 
letter f, they generally turn both apex and distal end inwards 
and backwards; but sometimes the direction of the apex is for- 
wards, at others simply inwards. The arches about the mouth 
have a very regular habit of grafting themselves upon other 
parts, parts having a diverse morphological origin ; for instance, 
the trabecule thus seize upon the apices of the “investing 
mass,” the pterygopalatine seeks the fore edge of the mandi- 
bular pier, and that pier, the apex of the first post-oral arch, 
whilst the hyoid grows to and grafts itself upon the auditory cap- 
sule. As a rule, the proper branchial arches turn their apices 
over the pharynx; and in the Shark, especially, it may be seen 
that by stretching or contracting that large tube, these cartilages 
that enring it may be turned inwards and forwards from their 
normal backward direction. 

Passing suddenly from one type to another in my slow 
researches—a year on an average to a type is not an unusual 
period, so that I may say ten years have I consumed over as 
many skulls—I became conscious that the same essential thing 
was still before my eyes. Not troubling myself with the motto, 
“Nihil per saltum,” but passing at once from the Pig to the 
Shark, I became conscious of a nearness in nature of these two 
most diverse subjects, that was not a little startling. 

Filling-in this space, and looking this way and that for 
light, it has been gradually revealed to me that there is a 
marvellous uniformity in number, in the segments of a visceral 

5—2 


68 MR PARKER. 


arch, wherever found. At least the same number will turn up 
so frequently that there can be no doubt that there is some 
law to be discovered causing this uniformity. Not to lay too 
much stress upon this subject, it yet appears to me to promise as 
much fruit in morphology as the number of members in the 
whorls of a flower in various natural orders—three, four, or five, 
as the case may be. Running the eye over the branchial 
arches of those three great groups of Fishes called “ Elasmo- 
branchii,’ “Ganoidei,” and “ Teleostei,” we shall find that 
Professor Owen’s elegant nomenclature for these parts is appli- 
cable throughout, namely, from above downwards the segments 
are known as “ pharyngo-” “epi-” ‘‘cerato-” “hypo-” and “basi- 
branchial”—the latter element uniting the right and left 
moieties of the arch (fig. 9). 

The same prefixes may be made applicable to the segments 
and regions of all the visceral arches; and they may serve for 
the generic as well as specific names of these arches. 

Thus for the whole genus, “visceral arch,’ we have seg- 
ments or regions that may be called, throughout the series of 
arches and in all the types of the vertebrata, “ pharyngo-,” 
“ epi-” “cerato-” “hypo-” and “ basi-visceral.” These prefixes 
can as well also be made to fit on to the fore-front of such 
specific terms as “trabecular,” “palatal,” “mandibular,” and 
“hyoidean,” as well as “ branchial.” 

To apply this, the main segments in the much-divided 
hyoid arch of a mammal are as follows: namely, at the apex 
the “os orbiculare” next below the “incus;” then the “stylo- 
hyal,” below this the “cerato-hyal,” and, uniting the two sides, 
the “basi-hyal” (fig. 9). These all exactly correspond with 
the typical segments of those well-developed visceral arches, 
the “branchials” of the three largest orders of Fishes—the 
eroups in which these visceral arches have their fullest develop- 
ment, and are most typical, morphologically. It may be ob- 
jected that there is an additional piece in the hyoid arch of a 
mammal that I have not mentioned, namely the little “inter- 
hyal” segment which gets attached to the neck of the “stapes,” 
or auditory plug. 

There is this additional piece, and in the hyoid arch of the 
osseous Fish it is also present, but it is a secondary morpho- 


) 6 


MORPHOLOGICAL ELEMENTS OF THE SKULL. 69 


logical element, and is of the same value in morphology 
as a “meniscus” between two segments. The hyoid arch 
of the osseous Fish also goes beyond the typical visceral arch by 
having two centres of ossification for each of three of its seg- 
ments, namely for the so-called hyo-mandibular, the main bar, 
and the distal piece or “ hypo-hyal.” 

This tendency to further segmentation by the superaddition 
of fresh osseous centres, is conjoined in these fishes with the 
absence of the apical piece, which is so well developed in the 
branchial arches as the “ pharyngo-branchial” segment. 

For a long while the meaning of the hyoid arch of the Frog, 
after metamorphosis, was hidden from me, for, besides the chief 
segments of the osseous Fish, the Frog, and its congeners, the 
other “ Anoura,” have an additional segment above the hyoman- 
dibular (= 7ncus); which I saw long ago must be the counter- 
part of our little “os orbiculare,” wedged as it is between the 
incus and stapes. This part, therefore, seemed to be a new 
thing, a specialization not to be accounted for by any normal 
segmentation of visceral arches: it is, however, merely a “ pha- 
ryngo-hyal” segment, and is perfectly normal. 

The manner in which the “cornu-minor” of the mamma- 
lian “os hyoides,’—the hypohyal segment—turns backwards to 
articulate with the basal piece, is also quite normal (fig. 9) ; 
in like manner the hypo-trabecular region of the first arch is 
always hooked backwards, and the two diverging hooks are the 
“trabecular horns” (fig. 10). The manner in which the right and 
left moieties of these arches join each other, and the mode of 
junction of a bar with one in front of, or behind it, is very 
interesting, 

The junction of the right and left parts of the same arch 
at the mid-line below may be called the visceral “ commissure,” 
the yoking on of arch to arch a visceral “conjugation,” and 
such projections or parts as are developed may be termed con- 
jugational processes. The “basi-pterygoid processes” of the 
trabeculee, and the “orbital processes” of the palatals, are con- 
jugational processes: the “basi-visceral” elements are speciali- 
zations of “ visceral commissures.” 

Now the azygous, or commissural pieces, have been long 
known in the post-oral arches, as in the basi-hyal, and basi- 


70 MR PARKER. 


branchials, but basal elements have not hitherto been described 
in the pre-oral arches. In various papers on the bird’s skull 
I have made mention of a “ pre-nasal rostrum,” a cartilage 
that projects from the fore-end of the nasal septum, and is 
the model on which the very prognathous pree-maxillaries of 
the bird are formed. In the paper on the fowl’s skull (Phil. 
Trans. 1869, Plates 81—87), the reader will find the genesis of 
this cartilage, and it is one of great interest: it is, 1 now see, 
the “basi-trabecular” element (figs. 5—8). JI am now familiar 
with this part in rays, sharks, serpents, tortoises, birds, and 
mammals: the degree of modification and development this 
bar undergoes determines very largely the form of the face. 
In my first plate of the fowl’s skull (Plate 81, fig. 3, beginning 
of 2d stage) this cartilage (p. .) is a rounded bud, looking 
downwards and backwards. This is similar to what I have 
lately described in the embryo pig, 7} lines in length; in this 
latter animal it is arrested at this stage, and the pre-maxil- 
laries are formed beneath it. In the turtle, Chelone midas, it 
straightens down, and the pre-maxillaries are formed in front 
of it. In birds (as in sharks and rays) it straightens still fur- 
ther (Op. cit., Plate 81, fig. 4, Plate 82, figs. 1 and 2, and Plate 
83, figs. 1, 2, 4, 5, p. m.), and projecting in front of the face 
forms a most fit model for the pra-maxillary parostoses (figs. 
6—8). The least change in the direction of these two bones, 
whilst still growing upon the transitory cartilage, makes all the 
difference between the beak of a crow, a hawk, a hornbill, or in- 
deed any type of this beaked class. In the snake (fig. 3), as in 
the mammal, it is arrested, and keeps the backward position it 
has in common with the “hypo-trabecular horns.” It was a 
satisfaction to find a morphological “ pigeon-hole” for the pre- 
nasal cartilage, and at the same time a basal element for the 
newly-discovered trabecular visceral bars’; but my labours have 


1 JT had long satisfied myself that the old term inter-maxillary was better 
than Professor Owen’s new name premaxillary, and I had stated this to Pro- 
fessor Huxley, for I saw that the base of the nasal septum was with its “‘pre- 
nasal rostrum” the axis or primordial part of the foremost pre-oral arch. 
But it was Professor Huxley who shewed that the whole of each trabecular bar 
belonged to this part; it was suggested to his mind by the manner in which 
the nasal diverticulum of the Lamprey passes between the ethmo-vomerine 
cartilage (cornua trabeculz) and the skull-bone. But more than thirty years ago 
Johann Miller (in the Chapter on Generation in his Physiology of Man),shewed 


MORPHOLOGICAL ELEMENTS OF THE SKULL. 71 


been further cheered by the unveiling of a like part in the very 
variable pterygo-palatine bar. 

T have already stated that the second pre-oral arch is ossi- 
fied in the “ Abranchiata” whilst quite soft. This is true on 
the whole; but I had long ago noticed that in the higher birds 
certain parts of it were slow to ossify, and were developed into 
hyaline cartilage first. It then turned up that in the wood- 
peckers (“Picidze”) the contiguous edges of the palatines be- 
came cartilaginous, and that this “commissure” was afterwards 
formed into a dagger-shaped bone—a “basi-palatine.” The 
same thing takes place in Caprimulgus europeus; it has two 
bones in this part, and so also has Podargus; and I expect to 
find it in many others’. 

The “hypo-palatine” region is developed in the Salmon 
into a large knob of cartilage in front of the trabecular conjuga- 
tion. 

In no creature have I yet seen a distinct “ pharyngo-pala- 
tine” element in a separate state; but in most of the Lacertians 
the “‘epi-palatine” is more slowly ossified than the rest of the 
arch, which bifurcates behind, the upper becoming a sub-carti- 
laginous rod; this rod, ossifying, becomes the so-called “colu- 
mella”—my “epi-pterygoid.” This element also exists in the 
Chelonians, and becomes flattened and wedged-in between the 
descending parietal wall and the floor-shaped “pterygoid.” In 
birds this part is shewn as a “process,” and is a very elegant 
hook in Passerine birds, and in such forms as Scythrops, Podar- 
gus, Megalema. In mammals also it is a notable part, most 
elegant in Tragulus javanicus, but known long ago in man as 
the “hamular process of the internal pterygoid plate.” 

These instances of parts shewn to be classifiable must suf- 
fice at present; they can easily be referred to by the student, 
and I flatter myself that they will commend themselves to his 
judgment. 

An attempt to harmonize the “labials” and outer branchial 
cartilages as “ extra-viscerals,” will, perhaps, be made at further 
leisure; but it may not be thought out of place if I remark 


that the inter-maxillary apparatus was developed independently of the palato- 
maxillary. j 

2 A supplementary paper to the one just quoted on the Fowl is ready for pub- 
lication, in which these structures will be illustrated and described. 


"2 MR PARKER. 


upon the relation of the cephalic skeleton to that of the 
trunk. 

In the present state of our knowledge it is better for us to 
consider the morphology of the skull as quite distinct from that 

of the body. 
' Firstly. The formation of somatomes in that part of the 
“mesoblast,” which lies on each side of the notochord, takes 
place very early, and is never seen in the cephalic region. 

Secondly. The pituitary body, growing downwards and 
backwards from the first cerebral vesicle, beneath the second, 
effectually stops the notochord in its forward growth: the “ in- 
verting mass”’ ends in a pair of blunt, or even squared extremi- 
ties, opposite the end of the notochord. 

Thirdly. The three well-known basal pieces of the skull, 
which beguiled the older observers, who saw, or thought they 
saw, in them three more vertebral centrums, are very diverse, 
morphologically, and only the last contains any of the noto- 
chord. 

Fourthly. Ribs are direct down-growths from the sides of 
each vertebral “centrum:” nothing of the kind is developed 
in the head, where the basi-occipital represents several poten- 
tial centrums. 

Fifthly. Any arches in the head and embracing the throat- 
region, which should correspond to ribs, would enclose the 
heart: the visceral arches would lie inside such hoops, and the 
heart Jie outside (below) the visceral arches. 

Sixthly. The “extra-visceral” bars, outside the branchial 
arches of the shark, which lie close under the skin, like ribs, 
have no similarity in their origin to those arches of the trunk- 
vertebree. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE. 


Magnified figures of certain visceral arches of Vertebrata. 


1. Side view of third branchial arch of adult dog-fish (sey/lium 
canicula), p. or. pharyngo-branchial ; e. br, epi-branchial ; c. br, cerato- 
branchial ; h. br. hypo-branchial ; b. by. basi-branchial ; br. 7, branchial 
rays; ew. br, extra-branchial. 


MORPHOLOGICAL ELEMENTS OF THE SKULL, 73 


2. Under view of snout of the same; tr. trabecule; c. tr, cornua- 
trabecule ; b. t. basi-trabecular rostrum; J. labials. 


3. Under view of snout of embryo snake (natrix torquata) ; 
letters as above. 


4. Side view of the same. 


5. Side view of snout of passerine bird (“ Avis Aigithognatha”). 


lst Stage. 
6. Ditto 3 $5 Ditto 2nd Stage. 
12: Ditto a 3 Ditto 3rd Stage. 
8. The same as last; under view. 


9. Hyoid arch of embryo pig (sus scrofa); 0. 0. os-orbiculare 
(pharyngo-hyal) ; 7. incus (epi-hyal) ; st. h. stylo-hyal (cerato-hyal) ; 
¢. m. cornu minor (hypo-hyal) ; 6. h. basi-hyal; 2. h. inter-hyal. 


10. Side view of snout of embryo pig: lettering as in figs. 3—8. 


ON DOUBLE NERVE STIMULATION. By A. G. Dew- 
Smith, B.A., Zrinity College, Cambridge. Pl. V. 


(From the Physiological Laboratory in the University of 
Cambridge.) 


THE problem, the solution of which I have attempted, and 
which, as far as I know, has not hitherto engaged the attention 
of any observer, is as follows : 

If two pairs of electrodes be placed on a nerve, one pair 
being nearer the muscle than the other, what happens when a 
stimulus is sent through both pairs of electrodes at the same time? 
Taking the contraction of the muscle supplied by the nerve as 
a measure of what is going on in the nerve, is the contraction 
which results from a stimulus thrown through either pair of 
electrodes singly at all influenced, and if so in what mamner, by 
the simultaneous stimulation of the nerve at the other pair of 
electrodes ? 

The first observations were naturally made with a single 
induction shock and with the opening or breaking shock. It 
seemed desirable also to begin at least with an equal, and that 
a weak stimulus, or one below the maximum, at the two pairs of 
electrodes. But here four different cases presented themselves, 
according to the direction of the current; these cases would 
-need to be distinguished, as the results might be different in 
the different cases. Calling the electrodes farther away from 
the muscle A, and those nearer the muscle B, we have: 


Case I. where the current in A is descending, in B descending, 


ee ease 3 ES Sk B ascending, 
acre 6 ee ee A is ascending, in Bdescending, 
ENE at eee >: ny oes B ascending. 


In Case I. and LV. the currents have the same direction, in 
II. and III. opposite directions. 

The majority of my observations were made on Case I.; the 
other cases were examined afterwards for the purpose of ascer- 
taining any differences from that case. I first attempted to use 
a divided circuit, interposing both the A and B electrodes in 


’ 2S" 2eei@eere } 6.1 i el 


DOUBLE NERVE STIMULATION. rae 


the circuit of the secondary coil. The electrodes used were plati- 
num wires fixed in paraffin blocks ; the distance between the anode 
and kathode of each pair (about 3 mm.) was thus maintained per- 
fectly uniform. An observation was conducted as follows. The 
sciatic nerve of a frog was placed on the B electrodes alone, the 
upper part of the nerve resting on the clean paraffin block. On 
the electrodes A was placed a portion of the other sciatic nerve 
of the same frog, carefully selected, so as to correspond as exactly 
as possible to that portion of the nerve which would le on the 
electrodes A when both A and B had to be stimulated at the 
same time. The gastrocnemius muscle belonging to the nerve 
was attached to a simple lever writing on a smoked surface, 
the excursions of the muscle being magnified several-fold, 
in order to be able to use only a very slight stimulus, and 
yet measure successfully the variations which occurred. It 
was hoped that in this way the resistance at the electrodes A 
might be maintained the same, both when B only was stimu- 
lated, and when A and B were stimulated together, and that 
consequently the amount of stimulus reaching B would be 
the same, whether the nerve were stimulated at the same 
time at A or not. Similarly, when it was desired to stimulate 
A alone, a piece of the nerve of the other leg, corresponding 
to the piece which would lie on B when the nerve was placed 
on both electrodes, was carefully laid on B. 

After a few observations, however, it was soon evident that 
this method was impracticable. However carefully done, the 
shifting of the nerve on A caused marked variations in the 
resistance at the electrodes A, and consequently variations in 
the amount of stimulus sent into B. ~ 

An attempt so to increase the total amount of resistance in 
the circuit that variations at A might be neglected, introduced 
other elements of confusion, and I was consequently led to 
make use of two separate and independent induction machines, 
with independent primary circuits, the secondary coil of each 
machine being connected, of course, with its own electrodes 
alone. By means of two pairs of mercury cups, the two primary 
circuits could be made or broken, singly or together, at plea- 
sure; or by means of a key either secondary circuit could be 
short circuited off from the electrodes. By cither method A 


76 MR DEW-SMITH. 


and B might be stimulated together, or either of them apart. 
The two machines were placed at right angles to, and at some 
distance from, each other; and by placing a separate nerve 
and muscle on each pair of electrodes, I satisfied myself that 
the two machines had no influence on each other. 

In this way I made a large number of experiments, without 
however arriving at a result which I could consider thoroughly 
satisfactory. For instance, when the contraction resulting from 
the stimulation of A was about equal to that resulting from the 
stimulation of B, the contraction given by A and B together 
was in the majority of cases equal to that of B alone. A small 
number of exceptions, however, always occurred, in which the 
contraction of A + B was greater than B. Upon consideration 
it seemed probable that the cause of these exceptions was to 
be sought for in the want of exact simultaneity in the breaking 
of the primary circuits of A and B, and consequently in the 
stimulus arriving at the one ‘pair of electrodes a small fraction 
of a second sooner or later than at the other. That this cause 
was the true one became evident when, instead of employing an 
ordinary rotating cylinder for registering the contractions, I 
began to make use of the pendulum. myographion. 

In as much as the instrument in the Laboratory was fitted 
with a single contact-breaker only, I at first so arranged matters 
that the pendulum in its swing broke an independent current, 
which, by means of a steel slip and an electro-magnet, was 
keeping two platinum points dipping in two cups of mercury. 
-At the breaking of this current the steel was released from 
-the electro-magnet, the two platinum points raised from the 
mercury cups, and, consequently, the circuits of which they 
respectively formed part broken. By raising (or lowering) one 
or other of the platinum points, the moment at which contact 
was broken in the one cup was thrown in front or behind that 
in the other. 

This method, however, proved on trial inexact, and I 
consequently replaced the original single contact of the myo- 
graphion by a double contact-breaker, similar to the one 
employed by Helmholtz, so arranged that the one contact- 
breaker could be shifted in front of or behind the other, and 
thus the catch of the pendulum would break the two contacts 


DOUBLE NERVE STIMULATION. Vi i 


at an interval of time, varying according to the distance 
through which one had been moved. 

My results then became for the first time satisfactorily 
uniform. When contact is broken in both the A and B circuits 
simultaneously there is no increase of attraction; the resulting 
curve is the same as if the nerve had been stimulated at B 
only. Thus, in Fig. 1, which reproduces a photograph taken 
from the myographion plate, 1 represents the muscle-curve 
resulting from the stimulation of A alone, with a single open- 
ing induction shock derived from a single Daniell with the 
secondary coil of a Du Bois Reymond’s machine at 25. 2 is in 
like manner the muscle-curve resulting from the stimulation of 
B alone, also with an opening induction shock, derived from a 
single Daniell with the secondary coil of a second Du Bois 
Reymond’s machine at 30. The mark indicates the moment 
at which the primary currents were broken, being exactly the 
same in both A and B. In both cases the direction of the 
induced current was descending. It will be observed that, 
allowance being made for the difference in the base lines, 
the curves are very nearly of equal height. The curve 3 repre- 
sents the muscle-curve resulting from the simultaneous stimu- 
lation of A and B, « as before marking the breaking of both 
primary currents. Allowance being made for differences in 
the base line, the curve 3 is the almost exact duplicate of the 
curve 2. In other words, when the breaking of both primary 
currents is simultaneous, the contraction produced by the 
stimulation of B is in no way affected by the stimulation of A, 

Curve 4 represents the muscle-curve resulting from the 
stimulation of A and Bb, when the primary circuit of A is broken 
as before at z, and the primary circuit of B broken at y, the 
contact breaker of B having been shifted 5mm. in advance of 
its previous position. The tuning-fork-curve below the muscle- 
curves marks 180 double vibrations per second, the distance 
between x and y measured by this gives 5%, or =4, second, as 
the interval of time elapsing between the stimulation of B and 
that of A. The muscle-curve is, as will be observed, immensely 
increased, and at the same time altered in form, so that its 
maximum point is deferred, being very nearly identical in time 
with those of the previous curves. 


78 MR DEW-SMITH. 


Fig. 2 represents a series of curves obtained by increasing 
the interval between A and B, B being in all cases thrown in 
advance of A. Thus the curve 1 is the muscle-curve resulting 
from the simultaneous stimulation of A and B with the 
secondary coils in each case at 30 and a single Daniell’s to each, 
x as before marking the moment of breaking the primary cur- 
rents. Curve 2 is the curve resulting when B is thrown 
2°5 mm. (= ;5,sec.) in advance of A; the contraction is most 
distinctly greater than in 1. In curve 3 the interval between 
A and Bis 5 mm. or 4, second; there is still an increase of the 
curve. In curve 4 the interval is 10mm. or j4 second, the 
contraction produced by B has arrived at its maximum be- 
fore the contraction produced by A has begun, a division into 
two curves is already apparent, and the total contraction has 
reached its maximum. In 5 (15 mm.= , second) the analysis 
of the curve has proceeded further, while the total contraction 


= 


has diminished; and in curve 7 (25 mm.=-,second) we have 
simply two curves, the earlier one being that resulting from the 
contraction of B, the later one being due to A, and all but 


coinciding with the original curve of A and B. 


In all the above cases B was made earlier than A, but 


exactly similar results are obtained when dA is made earlier 
than B. 

With simultaneous stimulation at two different points of 
the nerve the contraction resulting is the same as when the 
near point only is stimulated; but when a small interval of 
time is allowed to elapse between the two stimulations, the con- 
traction increases, rising to a maximum as the interval is 
lengthened, and afterwards dividing gradually into two indepen- 
dent curves. 

What are the inferences which may be drawn from these 
results? At first sight they might seem to be mere variations 
of Helmholtz’s well-known researches on the summation of 
contractions. But there is a most important difference. Helm- 
holtz has shewn that when a maximum induction shock (i.e. an 
induction shock giving a maximum contraction) is made to 
follow. (fallmg upon the nerve at the same point) a preceding 
similar shock, no increase of contraction is observed when the 
interval between the two shocks is so small that by the time 


CO LRN PN. ee IR a 


EEO 


ee eee ee eee eee 


DOUBLE NERVE STIMULATION. 79 


the muscle has begun to contract in obedience to the second 
shock the contraction due to the first shock has not appreciably 
begun. This interval he puts at about =1,sec. But this is 
true of maximum shocks only. Whether applied simultane- 
ously, or with an interval of time between them of any suft- 
ciently small magnitude, two minimum (or at least not maxi- 
mum) shocks produce a contraction greater than that due to 
either of the shocks acting singly. In the above experiments 
the facts illustrated by Fig. 2 have to do with the summation 
of contractions in the muscle; and would come out exactly the 
same if a maximum stimulus were employed, the interval 
between curves 1 and 2 being greater than is necessary to obtain 
summation of the contractions. The same may also be said of 
the curve 4 in Fig. 1; the interval there also being considerable. 
But in such a case as that illustrated by curve 3, Fig. 1, we 
have to deal with something different. Here the stimulus of 
both A and & being below the maximum, we ought to have an 
increase of the contraction on double stimulation; whereas the 
curve is as nearly as possible of the same form. 

Similar considerations shew that the absence of increase of 
contraction in simultaneous contraction cannot be due to any 
action taking place at the electrodes of B. For example, we 
might suppose that the stimulation of 6 diminishes for a definite 
small fraction of time the conductivity or irritability of the 
nerve between the electrodes B in proportion as it excites it to 
action, that consequently from the nervous impulse originating 
in A there is taken away when it reaches B just so much as is 
required to give the contraction due to the excitation of B, and 
that therefore A and B being equal, the resulting contraction 
is the same as when B only is stimulated. 

This is in itself exceedingly unlikely when we remember that 
a maximum stimulus is not in question. Granted that B is ex- 
hausted (if we may use the phrase) in proportion to the stimulus, 
there remains, when the stimulus used is below the maximum, 
a surplus of irritability at B, of which the impulse at A can avail 
itself, and so produce an increase of the contraction just in the 
same way as increasing the stimulus at B itself would increase 
the contraction. Besides, this loss of conductivity or excitability, 
or this exhaustion, whatever it be called, is coincident with 


80 MR DEW-SMITH.’ 


the stimulation, or at least can last only an exceedingly short 
time afterwards, for the stimulus repeated at B after as short 
an interval as possible gives rise to an impulse which by sum- 
mation on the muscle increases the contraction. Hence if the 
results arrived at were in any way due to such a cause acting 
at B, they ought to be influenced by the distance between the 
two pairs of electrodes A and B. If when A and Bare near 
together no obvious increase of contraction makes its appear- 
ance on simultaneous stimulation, yet it ought to become more 
and more distinct the farther apart A and Bare placed. This 
however is not the case; the absence of increase of contraction 
in simultaneous double stimulation helds good at whatever dis- 
tance apart A and B are placed. 

The only explanation which I can offer is that we have here 
to deal with a block of nervous impulses. I avoid the word 
interference, as having already been appropriated by the phy- 
sicists in a more limited sense. When A or # is stimulated, a 
nervous impulse is originated and travels in two directions: 
downwards towards the muscle and upwards towards the central 
end of the nerve. The evidences of this double direction of 
impulses are, Ist, the fact that the negative variation does travel 
equally in both directions; 2nd, the experiments of Phil- 
lipeau, Vulpian, and others, on the mixing of sensory and motor 
nerves. 

When A and B are stimulated simultaneously the up- 
ward impulse from B meets the downward impulse from A, 
and the two block each other; i.e. the two impulses moving 
in opposite directions mutually antagonize each other, so that 
neither is carried on in its own direction beyond the point 
where they meet. Consequently, the impulse from A not reach- 
ing the muscle at all, the contraction in the muscle is caused by 
the impulse from B only. And naturally the effect is the same 
whatever be the distance between A and B. 

When however one of the two, for example, Bis stimulated a 
certain fraction of a second earlier than A, the upward impulse 
of B has passed beyond the electrodes A on its way to the cen- 
tral end of the nerve before A is itself stimulated. Hence the 
downward impulse from A meeting with no opposition reaches 
the muscle where the contraction it gives rise to is summed up 


oa ee ee 


DOUBLE NERVE STIMULATION. sl 


with the contraction due to the stimulation of B, and an 
increase of the curve is the result. 

In the same way, when 4 is stimulated before B, the down- 
ward impulse from A passes B before B is stimulated, and 
hence meets with no opposition. 

In both cases it is obvious that the result will be affected by 
the distance between A and B. When A and Bare near each 
other the time necessary for the upward impulse starting from 
B (when B is stimulated first) to have passed by A is less than 
when A and B are far apart. The difference however, with the 
extremest range possible on the sciatic nerve of a frog, is a very 
small fraction of a second; and the contact breaker which I 
used was not sufficiently delicate to appreciate this fraction in 
a satisfactorily accurate manner. I am obliged therefore to 
postpone the completion of these observations till a new con- 
tact-breaker has been constructed for me. I may add that this 
method evidently offers an opportunity of indirectly measuring 
the velocity of a nervous impulse. 

Until these further observations have been carried out, I 
cannot claim to have established satisfactorily the theory of a 
block. Meanwhile I may notice an objection which readily 
presents itself. If the sciatic nerve of a frog consisted of a 
single fibre, a block might be intelligible enough. But the 
nerve is composed of a multitude of fibres, each of which we 
have reason to think may act independently of the others; and 
one would imagine that while the upward impulses from B 
were passing along certain fibres, the downward impulses from 
A might pass independently along other fibres, without the one 
in any way interfering with the other. And one might further 
suppose, that in any position of a nerve on the electrodes some 
fibres are excited by a shock passing through the electrodes and 
others not. But this appears not to be the case. As far as we 
know, when a nerve is placed between a pair of electrodes 3 mm. 
apart, all the fibres in that part of the nerve are excited by 
a stimulus passing through the electrodes. This is shewn by 
the contraction of all the muscles supplied by that nerve, and 
not of any particular set or sets of muscles. 

I have used the phrase “block” rather than interference, 
because the latter has a special reference to wave-movements. 


VOL. VIII. 6 


82 MR DEW-SMITH. 


The phenomena which I have described are rather those of the 
mutual neutralisation of two opposing forces. They may be 
interpreted on either a ‘molecular mechanical’ theory, or a 
‘chemical’ theory of nervous action. One may imagine, by 
way of an exceedingly rough illustration, two movements start- 
ing from each pair of electrodes and clashing midway, or indeed 
the block may be felt at the very beginning of the movement 
and no actual movement affected at all, as when the two 
extreme members of a series of balls are struck at the same 
moment. One may equally imagine two chemical transforma- 
tions stopped at midpoint by a common want of material for 
the time being, each having exhausted half that of the other, 
just as the explosion of a train of gunpowder stops in the middle 
when lighted at both ends. I simply use the phrase, without 
committing myself to any special interpretation of it. 

All the above observations refer to what I have called 
Case I., where the momentary induced current had a descending 
direction in both A and B. 

I have also made observations on the other cases. Before 
making use of the pendulum myographion, I was inclined to 
believe that the direction of the currents (whether opposing or 
otherwise) affected the magnitude of the contraction. But 
careful observations with the pendulum have convinced me that 
such is not the case, that the direction of the current makes 
no difference whatever to the general result, that with simulta- 
neous double stimulation there is no increase of contraction. 
This is shewn by the figures 3, 4, 5, which illustrate Case IL, 
IIL, IV. respectively. 

I have also made observations using the make and break 
of a continuous current in place of a single induction shock, 
and likewise on tetanus, but they are as yet incomplete, and 
_ I must defer their publication for the present. 


NOTE ON THE PRESENCE OF AN INSOLUBLE 
SUGAR-FORMING SUBSTANCE IN PENICILLIUM. 
By A. G. Dew-Smitu, B.A., Trinity College, Cambridge. 


PENICILLIUM, grown in a solution of inorganic salts with am- 
monium tartrate and cane sugar, very rapidly manufactures 


SUGAR-FORMING SURSTANCE IN PENICILLIUM. 83 


considerable quantities of both protoplasm and cellulose, but no 
starch. It seemed to be a matter of interest to ascertain whe- 
ther any body at all analogous to starch or glycogen could be 
detected in the mould when grown in large quantities. For, on 
the one hand, the association of glycogen with living functional 
protoplasm is at least common, and may possibly be universal 
(the quantity of glycogen associated with any given quantity of 
protoplasm varying within wide limits). On the other hand, 
we have no direct evidence that penicillium growing in saccha- 
rine solutions obtains its cellulose by the immediate trans- 
formation of the sugar; on the contrary, analogy would rather 
point to the conclusion that the cellulose is a product of the 
changes going on in the protoplasm which itself feeds on the 
sugar. If such a view be correct, one would naturally expect 
to find in the plant small quantities of carbohydrates analogous 
to starch, either as stages in the transformation into cellulose 
or as by-products. 

With these views I grew large quantities of penicillium, 
making use of Mayer's (Untersuch. iiber d. alkohol. Gahrung) 
normal solution, Potassic Phosphate ‘1 grm., Calcic Phosphate 
‘01 grm., Magnesic Sulphate ‘1 grm., Ammonium Tartrate 
15 grm., Sugar, 20 cc of a 158 aqueous solution, Distilled Water 
1000 ce. 

The spores were sown in this fluid in shallow saucers. In 
a few days a thick crust of the mould appeared. This was 
removed before the gonidia had formed; in this way the 
mycelium was roughly separated from the fluid in which it 
was growing. 

The fluid after filtration and evaporation to a small bulk 
was treated with alcohol as long as any precipitate occurred. 
The precipitate was then washed with alcohol until free from 
sugar. The watery decoction of the precipitate thus freed from 
sugar gave no evidence of the presence of glycogen, or of sugar 
after being acted upon by ferment. The ferment used was 
pancreatic ferment purified by means of glycerine after Von 
Wittich’s method. 

The mycelium was thoroughly washed with alcohol until 
free from sugar. A watery decoction of this washed mycelium 
was filtered until a clear light yellow solution was obtained. 

6—2 


84 MR DEW-SMITH. SUGAR-FORMING SUBSTANCE IN PENICILLIUM. 


This decoction gave no evidence of glycogen. Evaporated down 
to a small bulk, it was treated with alcohol as long as any pre- 
cipitate occurred. The precipitate washed with spirit and 
redissolved in water, was also free from glycogen and from any 
body giving rise to the reactions for sugar after the action of 
ferment. 

The portions of mycelium left after aqueous decoction, and 
therefore insoluble in water, were treated with alcoholic potash, 
and afterwards thoroughly washed free from alkali. A quantity 
of this purified mycelium was boiled in water, and the aqueous 
filtrate again examined for glycogen or for sugar-forming sub- 
stances. But none were found. 

Up to this point my results were entirely negative. A 
quantity however of this purified mycelium which was insolu- 
ble in boiling water, gave none of the reactions for starch 
and was not coloured by iodine, was suspended simply in 
water, a small quantity of ferment perfectly free from sugar 
added, and the whole left at the temperature of 40°. In a short 
time the fluid contained considerable quantities of sugar, re- 
ducing the cupric solution with great readiness. 

There is present then in the mycelium of penicillium a 
substance which resembles glycogen in not being acted upon 
by alcoholic potash, and in becoming converted into sugar 
under the influence of amylolytic ferments, but which differs 
from glycogen in being insoluble in water, and gives neither 
the starch nor the glycogen reaction with iodine. In its in- 
solubility it resembles cellulose, but differs from that body in 
its behaviour towards ferment. An insoluble glycogen has 
been described as being present in the liver in company 
with the ordinary glycogen, but it is more than probable the 
insolubility in this case was due to the fact that the other 
solid substances protected the soluble glycogen from solution. 
In the case of the penicillium mycelium such an explanation 
is invalid. The mycelium was reduced to a fine powder and 
so thoroughly boiled that everything soluble in water must 
have passed into solution. 

I attempted to isolate this substance in various ways, but 
entirely failed. 


CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE ANATOMY OF THE IN- 
DIAN ELEPHANT (ELEPHAS INDICUS). Parr III. 
THE HEAD*. By M. Watson, M.D., Demonstrator of 
Anatomy in the University of Edinburgh. 


I HAVE no intention in this communication of writing a full 
description of the anatomy of the head of the Indian Elephant, 
but merely to direct attention to certain structures which have 
either been overlooked by previous anatomists, or have been 
described as possessing arrangements differing from those which 
I have met with in the course of my dissection, 


TEMPORAL VENOUS RETE MIRABILE. 


In Froriep’s Notizen, October, 1832, p. 39, the following 
passage occurs :—Otto “showed a drawing of a peculiar arterial 
network, which he found in the neighbourhood of the peculiar 
excretory gland of the head of the elephant, situated between 
the eye and the ear, and seemingly occupying the entire side of 
the head, and remarked that similar arterial retia and anasto- 
moses were to be found in several tardigrades, as well as in the 
extremities of many plantigrades.” The same author, in his 
Erléuterungs-Tafeln (Heft 6), gives a figure of this rete, but in 
the explanation appended to the plate does not state whether 
the rete is venous or arterial. As, however, the figure is 
‘coloured red, we must conclude that he believed it to be an 
arterial network, as in all the other figures blue is the colour 
used to distinguish the veins when present. Farther, Mayer 
in his paper (Nova Acta XxXIL) refers to this description; and 
although he had himself dissected the animal, does not disagree 
with it. In my own dissection I found, by means of injection, 
that this rete was not arterial but venous. It is formed by 
numerous anastomosing veins, which occupy the whole of the 
temporal fossa, lying superficial to the temporal muscle, but on 

1 PartI. On the Thoracic Viscera, appeared in this Journal, November, 1871 ; 


Part II. On the Urinary and Generative Organs, in November, 1872. This part 
was read as a communication at the Bradford meeting of the British Associa- 


tion, Sept. 22, 1873. 


86 DR WATSON. 


a plane deeper than that of the temporal arteries, or that of the 
peculiar temporal gland. These veins are small in size round 
the margins of the temporal fossa, and are formed by the junc- 
tion of numerous rootlets derived from the skin and superficial 
structures. Increasing in size as they are traced down to the 
temporal fossa, and communicating freely with one another to 
form the rete, they finally converge toward the root of the zy- 
goma to form three or four main trunks, which uniting together 
give rise to the temporal vein. By means of several branches a 
communication is opened up with the facial vein in front, but 
this latter trunk takes no part in the formation of the rete, 
which moreover receives several branches from the substance of 
the temporal gland. It is worthy of remark that there are no 
valves present in the veins forming this rete, as the entire net- 
work can be freely injected from the trunk of the temporal 
vein. This trunk finally unites with that of the internal maxil- 
lary vein, and both open into that of the zxternal jugular, the 
external jugular vein being absent in the elephant. 

The temporal artery, after crossing the zygoma, divides into 
two main trunks, from both of which numerous branches are 
given off to the surrounding parts, but they have no tendency 
to form a rete, as described by the authors before referred to. 
What may be the function of a venous rete in this situation it 
is difficult to determine. 


EYE. 


In the next place I wish to draw attention to some inter- 
esting points relating to the arrangements of parts within the 
orbit of the elephant. First, as regards the muscles of the 
orbit, Mayer (Nova Acta) states that there is a depressor of 
the lower eyelid in this animal, in addition to the other muscles 
usually contained within the orbit. So far as I can ascertain, 
he is the only author who has, up to this time, observed the 
muscle in question. It arises along with the recti and obliqui 
from the bony canal posterior to the orbit, passing forward 
beneath the globe of the eye in the same manner as the ele- 
vator of the upper lid passes forward above the eye, and is 
inserted into the cartilage of the lower eyelid. It evidently 


ANATOMY OF THE INDIAN ELEPHANT, 87 


depresses the lower eyelid. In addition to this muscle there is 
farther to be observed a very extensive and well developed 
pericsteal muscle, which has not hitherto been observed in this 
animal. It corresponds exactly in position to the similar muscle 
in the sheep and deer’. The orbit itself is completed poste- 
riorly and inferiorly by periosteum, and it is in relation with 
the orbital surface of this periosteum that the muscle referred 
to is situated. The fibres composing it, which are of the in- 
voluntary or non-striated description, form a large sheet cover- 
ing nearly the whole of the periosteum, and run from without 
obliquely forward and inward. The function of this muscle, 
although generally stated to be that of a protractor of the eye- 
ball, is, I think, difficult to determine with precision, Camper, 
Harrison, and Mayer, refer to two small but distinct muscles, 
which pass to be inserted into the cartilage of the third eyelid. 
Of these, one arises from the lower, and the other from the 
upper eyelid, and both pass inwards to be inserted into the 
cartilage just referred to. On careful dissection I have not 
found them to be distinct muscles, but formed by certain of 
the palpebral fibres of the orbicularis palpebrarum, which pass 
inward to be inserted into the third eyelid. According to 
Mayer, one of these museles acts by drawing the third eyelid 
outwards across the globe of the eye, whilst the other retracts 
it toward the inner canthus. That this is the action of these 
muscles seems to me extremely doubtful, as both being formed 
of prolongations of the orbicularis, it is difficult to imagine that 
two parts of the same muscle supplied by one nerve (the 7th) 
should have actions so opposed to one another. So far as a 
study of the anatomical arrangement of the parts would enable 
me to decide, I am inclined to think that both those muscles 
- will tend by their contraction to draw the third eyelid outwards 
across the eye, but by what agency this lid again regains its 
position is more difficult to determine. It would be interesting 
to learn from those who may have opportunities of watching the 
elephant during life, whether the third eyelid is drawn across 
the eye when the upper and lower eyelids are separated, or 


1 See Professor Turner’s papers on the Periosteal Muscle of the Orbit in Man, 
the Sheep and Deer, in Proc. Roy. Physical Soc. of Edinburgh, Dec. 19, 1861, and 
Natural History Review, Jan. 1862. 


88 DR WATSON. 


only when these are closed. If the latter supposition be cor- 
rect, it will establish the views I have advanced regarding the 
action of these little museles. 

Regarding now the lachrymal apparatus of the elephant, we 
find that various statements have been made by different au- 
thors. Camper and Harrison, on the one side, maintain that 
no portion of a lachrymal apparatus is present in the elephant, 
while, on the other hand, Mayer (the most recent writer on the 
subject) says, “The puncta lachrymalia are small, the lachrymal 
duct single and very narrow, the laechrymal gland of tolerable 
size. Its excretory duct is as large as a knitting needle, and 
opens on the external angle of the eyelids;” and he adds, “It 
is striking that Camper should neither have discovered this 
gland, its excretory duct, nor the lachrymal canal.” Perrault 
also mentions the presence of lachrymal glands in the elephant. 
My own observations agree with those of the authors who have 
not discovered any portion of a lachrymal apparatus, although 
each separate element was carefully looked for. It is difficult 
to explain the statements of those authors who maintain the 
existence of such an apparatus, more especially when it is borne 
in mind that the ethmoid bone in the elephant is quite imper- 
forate, and consequently affords no way of escape for the lachry- 
mal secretion. True, a Harderian gland, similar to that which 
exists in connection with the third eyelid in birds, is to be 
found in the elephant. It does not, however, occupy the usual 
position of the lachrymal gland at the outer angle of the orbit, 
but rests between the inner wall of that cavity and the internal 
rectus muscle. Its excretory duct, moreover, opens on the sur- 
face of the third eyelid, and not in the usual position of the 
ducts of the lachrymal gland. That this gland to some extent 
fulfils the function of the lachrymal gland is rendered probable 
by the statements of African travellers, one of whom (Cumming) 
describes an elephant, after suffering from the effect of several 
balls, as weeping profusely. The mode, however, in which the 
secretion of this gland is got rid of, under ordinary circum- 
stances, is difficult to determine in the absence of all trace of 
an excretory apparatus. 


ANATOMY OF THE INDIAN ELEPHANT. 89 


THROAT. 


I shall now direct attention briefly to certam peculiarities 
in the formation of the throat of the elephant, which up to this 
time have escaped notice, and which seem to be of importance, 
inasmuch as they afford an explanation of some of the creature’s 
functions which have not hitherto been explained. In my first 
communication I had occasion, when remarking on certain pecu- 
liarities in the thoracic viscera of the elephant, to refer to the 
following statement made by Sir Emerson Tennent in his work 
on Ceylon, to prove that the animal possesses the power of 
withdrawing water stored within the cavities of the stomach by 
means of the trunk inserted into the mouth. Sir E. Tennent 
says, with reference to the Indian elephant, “I have elsewhere 
described the occurrence to which I was myself a witness of 
elephants inserting their probosces into their mouths and with- 
drawing gallons of water, which could only have been contained 
in the receptacle figured by Camper and Home;” and he (Ten- 
nent) farther quotes from the author of the Ayeen Akberry as 
follows: “An elephant frequently with his trunk takes water 
from his stomach and sprinkles himself with it, and it is not in 
the least offensive.” 

That the same thing is true as regards the African elephant 
has been observed by Cumming, who, in his travels in South 
Africa, when speaking of these animals, says: “They seemed 
heated by the pace at which they had retreated, and were now 
refreshing themselves with large volumes of water which Nature 
enables them to discharge from their capacious stomachs and 
shower back upon their bodies with their extraordinary trunks.” 
This regurgitation of water from the stomach I showed in my 
first paper to depend not on any peculiarity of structure in the 
elephant as compared with that of other animals, but that it 
was a function similar to the physiological regurgitation of food 
in the ruminant, and performed by means of the combined 
actions of the diaphragm and other abdominal muscles. It now 
remains to show in what the peculiarity of construction of the 
throat of the elephant consists to enable the trunk when placed 
in the mouth to withdraw the water regurgitated from the sto- 
mach. For it is evident that were the throat of this animal 


90 DR WATSON. 


similar to that of other mammals, this could not be accom- 
plished, as the insertion of a body, such as the trunk, so far into 
the pharynx as to enable the constrictor muscles of that organ 
to grasp it, would at once give rise to a paroxysm of coughing, 
or were the trunk merely inserted into the mouth, it would be 
requisite that this cavity be kept constantly filled with water at 
the same time that the lips closely encircled the inserted trunk. 
The formation of the mouth of the elephant, however, is such 
as to prevent the trunk ever being grasped by the lips so as 
effectually to stop the entrance of air into the cavity, and thus 
at once, if I may so express it, the pump-action of the trunk is 
completely paralysed. We find therefore that it is to some 


Fig L 


Explanation to Figure 1. A, superior aperture of pharynx. B, root of 
tongue. C, soft palate with larynx projecting through the centre. D, pharynx. 


ANATOMY OF THE INDIAN ELEPHANT. 91 


modification of the throat that we must look for an explanation 
of the function in question, and this we find to be as follows :— 
The superior aperture of the pharynx, Fig. 1 A, is extremely 
narrow, so much so as to admit, with difficulty, of the passage 
of the closed fist. Immediately posterior to this narrow aperture 
the pharynx dilates into a pouch of large size, Fig. 2 E, capable 
of containing a considerable quantity of fluid. This pouch is pro- 
longed forward beneath the root of the tongue, and is bounded 
in the following manner. The floor extends from the epiglottis 
as far forward as the root of the tongue, being formed from be- 
hind forward by the thyroid cartilage, thyro-hyoid membrane, 
and hyoid bone. Its lateral walls are completed by the sides of 
the pharynx (that is, by the superior constrictor muscles, Fig. 2 F), 
in addition to the stylo- G, and hyo-glossi H, muscles. The root 
of the tongue forms the anterior boundary, whilst the posterior 
wall is completed by depression of the soft palate, or when the 
latter is elevated the pouch then communicates freely with the 
cesophagus. In connection with this pouch is to be observed the 
very peculiar form of the hyoid bone, which being deeply concave 
on its upper surface forms as it were the greater part of the floor 
of this pouch. Between the pouch and the concavity of the 
hyoid bone, moreover, there is placed a large quantity of loose 
and distensible connective tissue, which permits of the expan- 


Fig. 2. 


Explanation to Figure 2. E,E pharyngeal pouch. F, superior constrictor. 
G, stylo-glossus. HH, hyo-glossus. K, small muscle which diminishes the depth 
of the pharyngeal pouch. L, genio-glossus muscle. 


92 DR WATSON. 


sion of the pouch. The size of the latter is, moreover, liable to 
alteration by the actions of several muscles. These are more 
especially the hyo-glossi muscles, and two little additional 
muscles, Fig. 2 K, the homologies of which I have not yet 
been able to determine, which, springing from the middle line of 
the hyoid bone in front of the pouch, pass up, one on either 
side of the middle line, and blend with the other muscles form- 
ing the root of the tongue. By the action of these muscles the 
pouch may be diminished in depth ; but in consequence of the 
narrow interval existing between the hyoid cornua, the length 
of the pouch from before backwards cannot be altered, as the 
thyroid-cartilage is thereby prevented from being approximated 
to the hyoid bone. I have now to complete the anatomical 
description of this pharyngeal pouch by a reference to the 
formation of the soft palate. This, Fig. 1 C, which is of very 
large size, forms almost a complete muscular diaphragm, through 
the central aperture of whieh projects the superior extremity 
of the larynx, which thus in some respects approximates to 
the arrangement of the corresponding parts in certain cetacea 
as described by Dr James Murie’. With reference to the mus- 
cles entering into its formation, we find that the palato-glossus 
is entirely absent, its place being supplied by a wide and ex- 
tremely distensible fold of mucous‘membrane. The palato- 
pharyngeus, on the other hand, is of large size, and forms, in 
fact, the principal feature in the soft palate. There is neither 
a levator nor a tensor palati present. Such being a brief de- 
scription of the anatomical arrangements met with im connec- 
tion with this pharyngeal pouch, a few words may now be said 
on their physiological bearing. An elephant can, as the quo- 
tations sufficiently prove, withdraw water from his stomach in 
two ways; first, it may be regurgitated directly into the nasal 
passages by the action of the diaphragm and abdominal mus- 
cles, the soft palate being at the same time depressed so as to 
prevent the entrance of water into the mouth. Having, in this 
manner, filled the large nasal passages, communicating with 
the trunk, the water contained in them is then forced through 
_ the trunk by means of a powerful expiration ; or, in the second 
place, the water may be withdrawn from the cavity of the 


1 Trans. Zoolog. Soc. Lond. Vol. v1. 


ANATOMY OF THE INDIAN ELEPHANT. 93 


mouth by means of the trunk inserted into it. Now, in this 
case, it is manifestly impossible that the water can be contained 
within the cavity of the mouth itself, as | have already shown 
that the lips in the elephant are so formed as effectually to 
prevent this. The water regurgitated is, however, by means 
of the elevation of the soft palate, forced into the pharyn- 
geal pouch. The superior aperture of this pouch being much 
narrower than the diameter of the pouch itself, and being com- 
pletely surrounded by the muscular fibres of the stylo-glossus 
on each side and the root of the tongue in front, which is pro- 
longed backwards so as to form a free sharp margin, we have 
thus as it were a narrow aperture surrounded by a sphincter 
muscle, into which the trunk being inserted and grasped above 
its dilated extremity by the sphincter arrangement just referred 
to, air is thus effectually excluded, and the nasal passages 
being then exhausted by the act of inspiration, water is lodged 
within these passages to be used as the animal thinks fit, either 
by throwing over his body or again returning it into his mouth, 
as observed on one occasion by Cumming, who says: “'Through- 
out the chase this elephant repeatedly cooled his person with 
large quantities of water, which he ejected from his trunk, over 
his back and sides; and just as the pangs of death came over 
him, he kept pouring water into his bloody mouth until he died.” 
The increase in the size of this pouch is accomplished mainly 
by the depressor muscles of the hyoid bone, which, in conse- 
quence of the tongue being fixed and restrained in its move- 
ments by the muscles attaching it to the lower jaw, depress the 
hyoid bone and thyroid cartilage, which are both freely move- 
able, at the same time that the tongue itself is almost fixed, and 
in this manner the depth of the pouch is materially increased. 
Such is the explanation of a function which, so far as I am 
aware, has not up to the present time been satisfactorily ex- 
plained, and it will be of much interest to examine the corre- 
sponding region in the African elephant, to ascertain if arrange- 
ments similar to those I have described in the Indian species 
are to be found in that animal. If similarity of function im- 
plies similarity of structure, then I have little doubt that such 
will prove to be the case. The modifications in the throat of 
the elephant are not without interest from two points of view, 


94 DR WATSON. ANATOMY OF THE INDIAN ELEPHANT. 


In the first place, these modifications are such as show that, 
in respect of this portion of its structure as in several others, 
the elephant closely resembles certain forms of the cetacea, and 
are thus of importance inasmuch as they furnish one more item 
of evidence in favour of a relationship which has been long 
suspected to exist between those two groups, which when taken 
by themselves, although they seem sufficiently widely separated, 
are, nevertheless, connected by a number of intermediate forms: 
and, secondly, they are not without interest inasmuch as they 
afford food for reflection as to the origin of these modifications 
when compared with the corresponding parts of other mammals. 
Did they arise gradually in accordance with the law which 
tends ever to bring the organism into harmony with external 
conditions, and so to adapt the functions of such an organism 
as finally to give rise to that chain of circumstances which is 
formulated in the expression, “survival of the fittest”? Or are 
we to believe, with the teleologists of the previous century, that 
these modifications were occasioned by the direct intervention 
of a great First Cause ever attempting to remedy imperfections 
which he had at first created? Which of those alternatives is 
to be accepted must be left to the private judgment of each 
individual enquirer. 


oN THE APPARENT PRODUCTION ‘OF A NEW 
EFFECT BY THE JOINT ACTION OF DRUGS 
WITHIN THE ANIMAL ORGANISM. By T. LAupER 
Brunton, M.D., D. Sc. Edin., Lecturer on Materia 
Medica and Therapeutics at St Bartholomew's Hospital. 


THE admirable researches of CrumBrown and Fraser have 
demonstrated that the physiological action of several alkaloids 
may be completely altered by their union with such bodies 
as iodide of methyl. The compounds thus produced some- 
times act on organs which do not appear to be affected by 
either of the components separately, the ends of the motor 
nerves for example being paralyzed by iodide-of-methyl-strych- 
nia, though neither iodide of methyl alone, nor strychnia alone, 
seems to have much influence over them. Although chemical 
action outside the body alters in this way the action of alka- 
loids, Iam not aware that any instance has been noticed in 
which a similar modification appears to be produced by the 
joint action of two drugs after their introduction into the 
animal organism. I have lately observed an example of this 
sort in the case of strychnia and nitrite of amyl. The experi- 
ments which I made on this subject were performed in several 
ways, but I will only describe the two most important. In the 
first series of experiments a solution of strychnia was injected 
into the dorsal lymph sac of a frog, and as soon as tetanus 
came on the animal was put into a vessel filled with the 
vapour of nitrite of amyl. A second healthy frog was also 
introduced along with it for the purpose of comparison. They 
were left in the vessel till both were motionless, when they 
were removed and the sciatic nerves of both were exposed. 
On irritating these nerves by the application of a Faradic 
current, vigorous contractions occurred in the limbs of the frog 
poisoned by nitrite of amyl alone, but those of the animal 
poisoned by strychnia and nitrite of amyl together remained 
motionless. The skin was then removed from the legs of both 
and the muscles irritated by the application of the current 


96 DR BRUNTON. JOINT ACTION OF DRUGS. 


directly to them. In many instances, those of the frog poi- 
soned by the nitrite and the strychnia together contracted 
nearly as strongly and readily as those poisoned by the nitrite 
alone. It is therefore evident that their failure to contract 
when the nerves were stimulated must have been due to 
paralysis of the nerves themselves, just as it 1s In poisoning 
by woorara. The second series of experiments was made by 
ligaturing the artery supplying one leg of a frog before injecting 
strychnia into the lymph sac. The poison was thus carried 
by the blood to every part of the body except the leg whose 
artery had been tied. The animal was then placed in a vessel 
filled with the vapour of nitrite of amyl as before, and after 
motion had ceased the sciatic nerves were exposed and irri- 
tated. It was then found that the muscles of the ligatured 
leg which had been exposed to the nitrite of amyl, but pre- 
served from the strychnia, contracted vigorously when the 
corresponding sciatic was irritated, while those of the other 
leg did not respond at all. When the skin was stripped off, 
however, and the muscles irritated directly, in many instances 
no great difference could be noted between their irritability. 

The muscles of frogs which had been poisoned either with 
strychnia and nitrite of amyl, or with nitrite of amyl alone, 
passed more quickly than usual into a state of rigor mortis; 
and I therefore regard nitrite of amyl as a muscular poison. 
It is not improbable that the apparent paralysis of the motor 
nerves may be partly due to diminution of the irritability of 
the muscle itself, but the results of direct stimulation show that 
this is not sufficient to explain it entirely, and we must there- 
fore believe that the nerves themselves are also paralyzed. 
Besides nitrite of amyl, I have tried the nitrites of sodium, 
ethyl, butyl and capryl; but my researches on these are not yet 
completed. They seem however to show that the nitrites are 
muscular poisons, but their actions differ according to the bases 
which they contain. 


AN ACCOUNT, HISTORICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL, 
OF THE MADAGASCAR ORDEAL POISON, THE 
TANGHINIA VENENIFERA. By ANDREW Davipson, 
F.RC.P.E, Medical Missionary and Physician to the 
Court of Madagascar. 


ORDEALS of various kinds have been devised in certain stages 
of civilization as a means of testing the guilt or innocence of 
suspected persons. Records have come down to us of the 
widespread existence of this usage in remote antiquity, and 
in more recent times ordeals by fire, water, and wager of 
battle were prescribed by law and sanctioned by religion 
throughout the whole of Europe. Ordeal by pozson is, how- 
ever, peculiar to Africa, although philology renders it probable 
that the same practice may have prevailed among the progeni- 
tors of our own race in prehistoric times. 

It is to be observed that these ordeals are chiefly employed 
for the detection of witchcraft, by which African Jurists under- 
stand the use of poisonous drugs for evil purposes. It is in fact 
equivalent to the dapuaxeia of the Greeks; and as the terms 
gappaxos and veneficus were applied by the ancients to signify 
alike a physician, a sorcerer, and a poisoner, so in many of the 
African languages the same peculiarity obtains. This arises 
from the fact that amoxg these and other primitive races the 
physiological effects of drugs, whether poisonous or medicinal, 
are ascribed to some magical power, either inherent in the sub- 
stance itself, or imparted to it by sorcery. Medicines are thus 
employed as charms both for causing and curing disease. With 
such superstitious notions of the properties of poisons, it was 
only natural that they should ascribe the differences in the 
results observed to follow their administration to a sort of 
discriminative faculty or intelligence possessed by the sub- 
stance, and thus have come to employ poisons in the detection 
of occult crimes, such as witchcraft. 

Although we know that the custom of ordeal by poison 
prevails over a great part of the continent of Africa, we are 


-_ 


MOT aVAULIs ( 


98 MR DAVIDSON. 


as yet unfortunately ignorant, in most instances, of the poisons 
employed by the different tribes’; and, with the exception of 
the Calabar bean, none of them have been subjected to a 
satisfactory examination. This is to be regretted from a medi- 
cal as well as a scientific point of view, as remedial agents of 
high value will probably be found among these powerful ordeal 
poisons. 

As the advance of civilization has now abolished the use of 
one of the most celebrated of these ordeals—the ‘ Tangéna’ of 
Madagascar—it seems desirable to put on record the mode of 
administering it and its effects on man, while such information 
may still be obtained from those who were acquainted with its 
employment, and had witnessed or experienced its effects, 
Shortly before my arrival in the island, in 1862, the Tangéna 
ordeal was abolished, but as it happens that an officer, now 
attached to the hospital, was formerly from hereditary office an 
administrator of the poison, I have in this way had the oppor- 
tunity of obtaining trustworthy information upon this subject. 


Ffstorical—There is no certain evidence when or how the 
Tangéna first came to be used as an ordeal in Madagascar. We 
know that some such method of trial has long been practised in 
the Island. The testimony of Flacourt, who visited Madagascar 
in the middle of the 17th century, is conclusive upon this 
point; but if his statements are to be considered as strictly 
accurate, some other poison must at that time have been used 
in the district visited by him’. Ordeals of other kinds, such as 
that by plunging the hand into boiling water, were at one time 
practised in some parts of the country; and there seems reason 
to believe that the Tangéna was not generally or frequently 
employed until the beginning of the present century. 


1 Dr Livingstone observes that this custom ‘‘is common among all the 
Nezro nations north of the Zambesi.” The natives of that part of Africa 
employ a plant called the ‘Goho’ which is possessed of purgative and emetic 
properties. 

The poisonous juice of the Erythrophlaeum Guineense is employed for the 
same purpose on the coast of Guinea, and the Physostigma venenosum by 
the natives of Calabar. In the inland regions near the equator, according to 
Du Chaillu, the natives use as an ordeal the root of a plant or tree called 
‘‘Mboundou” conjectured by Prof. Torry of New York to be a species of 
strychnos, 

2 He says that the Malagasy administer for this purpose ‘‘ Manrechetsi, 
qui est de quelque sorte d’herbe ou de racine qui est poison et fait mourir celui 
quien mange.” Histoire de la grande tle de Madagascar, 


AN ACCOUNT OF THE MADAGASCAR ORDEAL POISON. 99 


It was seldom had recourse to in ordinary judicial cases in 
which more rational modes of trial were followed, but was 
reserved for the detection of those guilty of infamous crimes, 
for the discovery of whom ordinary evidence either could not 
be obtained or would not suffice. Such crimes were treason 
and witchcraft, and indeed the latter comprehended the 
former, and for the detection of these it was administered 
either by order or permission of the sovereign, and in presence 
of officers appointed by him. An experiment was, however, 
frequently enough made, in corpore vile, in the instance of 
individuals suspected of minor offences, or in order to decide 
which of two or more persons was guilty of a crime known or 
believed to have been committed by one or other of them. 

In the former case, a dog having been selected as a substi- 
tute for the suspected party, the Tangéna was given to the 
animal in the same way as when administered to a human 
being. When again it was given with a view to decide be- 
tween two or more accused persons, then dogs of similar size 
and condition were selected, and the party whose representative 
first succumbed to the poison was treated as guilty. 


Mode of administration.—The ordinary mode of administra- 
tion was as follows:—Two Tangéna almonds, or nuts as they are 
often styled, were taken, and the half of each rubbed down 
with water. This custom of taking the half of two different 
almonds was adopted in order to increase the probabilities 
that the poison administered should be only of the average 
strength. 

The suspected party now ate a little rice and was afterwards 
made to swallow three small pieces of fowl’s skin, and this was 
followed by the Tangéna emulsion. After a few minutes, vary- 
ing however according to the result desired by the adminis- 
trator, tepid water was given in considerable quantities, and 
violent, long-continued vomiting usually ensued. If the three 
pieces of skin were discharged the suspicion of guilt was dis- 
missed, as a rule, and the friends of the unfortunate were then 
left to do their best for his recovery. Not unfrequently, how- 


1 I say ‘‘as a rule” for some other omens of an unfavourable kind, which 
I do not require to detail here, occasionally affected the result. 


7—2 


£00 , ; MR DAVIDSON. 


ever, the poison operated more as a purgative than as an emetic, 
and then it often happened that with or without the stigma of 
crime (according as the pieces of skin were retained or rejected) 
the case terminated fatally. It can easily be understood that 
state policy readily attained its crooked ends by the administra- 
tion of the Tangéna. It was observed that those who might 
be called “the opposition members of the government” seldom 
recovered from the ordeal. So far as can be ascertained, it 
proved fatal in as many as one in ten cases when given with 
no hostile intention. As it was often administered to whole 
villages at once, it will be understood that the numbers 
destroyed by this poison were immense. 

The points especially affecting the result seem to have 
been:—(a) The colour of the kernel; the very red ones are said, 
and probably with truth, to be more poisonous than the less 
ripe ones, which are whiter in colour. (6) The amount admin- 
istered was in every case enough to prove fatal, if not speedily 
rejected. From what I have learned from the natives, as 
well as from the results of my own experiments, I have no 
doubt that the weight of one almond is amply sufficient to 
poison an adult, if not got rid of by vomiting. (¢) If admin- 
istered on an almost empty stomach, it was more dangerous 
than when a larger quantity of rice had been previously taken. 
(d) A great deal depended upon the seasonable and reasonable 
administration of diluents. Experience enabled the expert to 
judge the time when to give drink, and the amount required to 
effect his object, whether that might be the death or recovery of 
the victim. 


Symptoms.—As the result of a careful examination of seve- 
ral who have been themselves subjected to this ordeal, and of 
many who have witnessed its effects on others, I conclude that 
the symptoms produced by it when given in poisonous doses, in 
the manner just described, are as follows:—A peculiar numb 
tingling sensation is felt in the mouth and fauces, due to its 
topical action. Several of those who have undergone the 
ordeal have assured me that they experienced a similar feeling 
more or less over the whole body, but especially in the hands. 
This point is important, for my experiments on warm-blooded 


AN ACCOUNT OF THE MADAGASCAR ORDEAL POISON. 101 


animals have not indicated any noticeable disturbance of sensa- 
tion. Sickness ensues with vomiting, intense, distressing and 
repeated—first of the contents of the stomach—then of bile 
and mucus. The vomiting is attended by a feeling of great 
debility and anxiety. If the greater part of the poison has 
been thus ejected, the patient recovers perfectly within a short 
time. Where more of the poison has got into the circulation 
the sufferer is said to feel giddy. The Malagasy, however, use 
their word for vertigo in a loose sense. J am therefore inclined 
to think that partial paralysis of motion with unsteady gait 
may be the condition indicated. The patient, under the influ- 
ence of the Tangéna, staggers if he attempts to walk, is unable 
to support his own weight, and falls down helpless and para- 
lysed. Although the mind is usually clear, yet delirium occa- 
sionally occurs. Along with these nervous and cerebral symp- 
toms, purging and urination appear and are more or less urgent. 
The faecal discharges do not contain blood or mucus. Nothing 
abnormal has been observed by the natives in the appearance 
of the urine. The patient in cases tending to a fatal issue 
becomes unable to rise. In other instances, according to the 
testimony of observers, he lies as if asleep, and when roused 
answers like a drowsy man, then lapses back into his former 
condition. In other cases the patient remains conscious to the 
last, without either stupor or delirium. Death is preceded by 
spasmodic movements of the fingers and toes. Purging is a 
bad symptom and worse the more urgent it is. Almost none 
recover when the stage of stupor has been reached. 

The natives know of no antidote for this poison, but they 
think that the application of cold and draughts of lemon-juice 
are of service. 

I may remark upon the condition of sleepiness described 
above as of pretty frequent occurrence in the advanced stage of 
poisoning by this substance, that I do not believe that my 
informants were able to distinguish between narcotism and a 
state of prostration. I have however given their statements 
literally. 

Upon this point I may further observe that my experiments 
on the lower animals do not seem to countenance the opinion 
of some, that there is any narcotic property in the substance. 


102 MR DAVIDSON. 


There is only one exception to this statement of the result of 
my experiments. In two instances in which I administered the 
Tangéna to fowls, they appeared to be overcome by sleep. 

No post-mortem examination has been made of those who 
have died by Tangena. 


Botanical note.—The Tangéna, or Tanghin (J'anghinia Venent- 
Jera; Cerbera Tanghin, Hooker), is a large tree of the natural order 
Apocynaceae. The poisonous part of the plant is the fruit, which is 
a drupe, almost the size of an apple. The colour of the fruit is 
a greenish-yellow; the external pulp which surrounds the kernel 
is soft, somewhat grey in colour, destitute of smell, and possessed 
of a slightly bitter, disagreeable taste. The kernel is hard, ligneous, 
and brown, and elliptical in shape. Within this is the almond, 
which is divided into two cotyledons, of the consistence of a newly- 
plucked bean, varying in colour from a white to a brownish-red; 
and weighing from forty to seventy grains. For a minute botanical 
description of the tree and its fruit the reader may consult Hooker’s 
Botanical Miscellany, 11. 290. The Tangéna grows abundantly in 
the forests on the east coast of Madagascar, it is rare in the central 
provinces, and towards the south of the island. 


Chemistry.--Two crystalline principles are said to have been 
obtained from the Tangena: the one, the bitter principle Tanghinin ; 
the other, the poisonous principle which has been named Vanghicine, 
and is described as transparent plates obtained by ether, insoluble 
in water, bitter and poisonous. I have no access however to any 
account of the process followe:l in the separation of these; and I shall 
state in a few words what little I know upon this point. 

(a) ‘The kernel contains a large quantity of an inert, bland oil, 
and if rubbed up with water it forms a white emulsion. 

(b) Its active principle is insoluble, or at least nearly so, in 
water, readily soluble in alcohol, zther, and chloroform, as is proved 
by the activity of the extracts made by means of these solveuts. 

I have obtained by means of chloroform impure crystals, in the 
form of long, flattish needles, arranging themselves under the micro- 
scope as if branching out at acute angles from a centre. 

(c) By treating a carefully prepared alcoholic extract with water 
a white precipitate is obtained. 

In my experiments, I have used the simple emulsion, and extracts 
made with ether or alcohol, and in a few instances the impure 
crystals mentioned above’. 


1 T have given the above as it was written more than three years ago. As 
my object was not to investigate its chemical properties, but its physiological 
action, I had neglected to note down the steps of the process by which I 
obtained the crystals alluded to; and I cannot now add anything from memory. 
The recent work by Chatin (Recherches pour servir &@ Vhistoire botanique, 
chemique et physiologique du Tanguin de Madagascar. Par Joannes Chatin, 
Paris, 1873) upon this poison would render it prubable that the active principle 


AN ACCOUNT OF THE MADAGASCAR ORDEAL POISON. 103 


Physiological Action.—Results of experiments on the lower 
Animals. 


The Tangeéna proves fatal by absorption however introduced, 
whether into the alimentary canal, the serous membranes, or 
into the cellular tissue. It acts less actively if swallowed, 
because partly got rid of by vomiting. When a concentrated 
solution of the poison is applied to the frog’s foot it is slowly 
absorbed and causes death. Ligature of the blood-vessels pre- 
vents or delays its action. 


(A). Topical Effects. 


1. Its topical action on the mucous membranes is to alter 
and diminish the sensibility in the part. The same results 
follow its application to the skin. 

2. Its local action on muscular tissue is no less evident. 
Applied to the exposed heart of the frog it produces immediate 
paralysis. It acts with equal rapidity on the excised heart 
which is still pulsating. The electric contractility of the poi- 
soned muscle is diminished or destroyed. Applied for about 
thirty minutes to the leg of a frog, the part is paralysed, and if 
pricked or pinched, is insensible or nearly so; all the while the 
animal is lively, and the blood continues to circulate naturally 
in the web of the affected foot. After the lapse of about an 
hour, the other leg becomes paralysed, then the upper ex- 
tremities, and finally death occurs in an hour and a half, or 
two hours. 

3. When applied to the exposed sciatic nerve, paralysis 
followed by death has also been the result; but I am unwilling 
to deduce any conclusion from this, as, from the difficulty of 


is not a neutral body, but an alkaloid which he obtained thus :—Having first got 
rid of a considerable part of the oil by pressure, he made an etherial extract, 
which was treated by warm alcohol, and on evaporation left a residue which 
he thus describes: ‘‘la liqueur évaporée dans la vide laissa un résidu assez 
considérable, brundtre, légérement amer et comme granuleux en certains 
points; facilement fusible, ce produit, chauffé au contact de l’air, se comportait 
comme un corps gras. Le produit ainsi obtenu était toxique; je le traitai 
alors par de l’acide acétique étendu et j’obtins, par l’évyaporation des liqueurs, 
une petite quantité de poudre blanchatre, agsez soluble dans leau, beaucoup 
plus soluble dans l’alcool, Elle fut en conséquence traitée par ce dissolvant et, 
par l’éyaporation dans la vide, elle donna de petits crestaux, d’un blanc vitreux 
et appartenant au systéme diclinorhombique” (p. 30). This subject will still 
require further investigation. 


1040: MR DAVIDSON. 


localizing the poison, I am not quite satisfied that it did not 
come into contact with the exposed muscles. 
4. When applied to the conjunctiva it does not affect the 


pupil. 


(B). Action through the Circulation. (On warm-blooded 
Animals.) 


1. However introduced it produces violent vomiting and 
purging in all animals capable of these actions. As an emetic, 
Tangéna is even more violent, and operates sooner when intro- 
duced directly into the circulation than when swallowed. 

2. It produces marked paralysis of motion, apparently more 
intense at first in the lower extremities, and last of all affecting 
tbe muscles of the trunk and neck’. | 

3. When it acts through the circulation, sensation seems 
slightly if at all paralysed. Pinching the tail of a lemur makes 
it suddenly exhibit signs of pain, long after it is incapable of 
motion. Other facts seem to prove that sensation is altered, 
not abolished. 

4, The animal remains conscious and observant to the 
last; excepting in fowls, as already mentioned, I have never 
seen narcotism induced. 

5. The action of the heart is first somewhat increased (at 
least in some cases), then it becomes weak, irregular and slower, 
and finally stops a short time before the respiration. The heart's 
action is arrested in systole. The ventricles usually contain a 
little blood but are never distended. The blood is sometimes 
slightly coagulated, but more commonly fluid. The auricles and 
venee cavee are engorged. 

6. In one case I noticed peristaltic movements of the right 
auricle, continuing for half an hour, or longer, after death, 
excited by mechanical or chemical stimuli; and in another 
case, this peristaltic movement was observed to occur spon- 
taneously, twice a minute, producing a wave-like motion in the 
ven cave. 


1 It must be remarked, however, that in these experiments the poison was 
injected into the cellular tissue over the loins. This fact should be kept in view 
as it suggests an explanation of this observation. 


AN ACCOUNT OF THE MADAGASCAR ORDEAL POISON. 105° 


7. Idio-muscular twitchings of the pectoral muscles. are 
commonly observed if the body be examined soon after death. 

8. After death by Tangéna, I found the muscles to con- 
tract on applying strong magneto-electric stimulation, but. less 
perfectly and persistently than natural; but after the direct 
application of the poison to a muscle, its irritability by elec- 
tricity is much more distinctly diminished, or even destroyed. 

9. The liver is always much congested, and notwithstand- 
ing the urgent vomiting, the gall-bladder is sometimes full. 
There are usually no signs of irritation, or injection of the 
mucous membrane of the stomach or bowels. There is no con- 
gestion of the brain or cord. The lungs are always exsanguine 


and collapsed. 
(C). Action on Frogs. 


1. However introduced, Tangéna tetanizes the heart, with 
varying degrees of rapidity, according to the size of the frog, 
the amount of poison used, and the mode of administration. 

The pulsations usually first increase in number, then become 
less frequent, while from the first they tend to be irregular— 
afterwards this irregularity becomes more marked. After some 
time, tetanic contractions of distinct portions of the substance 
of the ventricle take place, the tetanized portions remaining 
pale; then complete tetanus of the organ ensues, preventing all 
further entrance of blood. The auricles continue to contract 
after the ventricle has ceased. The ventricle sometimes stops 
for a little and then begins to act again. After death the 
auricles are distended and the ventricle is contracted and pale. 
As already stated, the heart’s action is immediately arrested by 
the topical application of the poison to its substance. In this 
case it is paralyzed not tetanized. 

2. The heart ceases to beat before respiration and reflex 
action are abolished. The decapitated frog, whose heart has 
been arrested by Tangéna, will draw up its legs on being 
irritated, unless indeed the paralysis of the extremities has been 
very complete before the experiment has been tried. 

3. Destruction of the medulla, or decapitation, does not 
prevent, although it perhaps somewhat delays, the action of 
Tangéna on the heart. 


106 MR DAVIDSON. 


4. The pulsations of the posterior lymphatic hearts become 

rapid, irregular and excessively weak, and seem to cease at the 
same time that the heart’s action is arrested. 
5. The extremities are always more or less paralyzed. 
After a pretty large dose, the frog remains with its posterior 
extremities extended, and it requires strong stimulation to 
excite any movement. 

6. Reflex action is probably diminished, not immediately, 
but soon after the administration of the Tangéna. This I ascer- 
tained by suspending two frogs, of the same size, by the lower 
jaw. I gave one of them a small dose of Tangena (a grain of 
the semi-liquid spirituous extract), and then by the application 
of similar mechanical and chemical stimulants, observed the 
readiness with which in either case reflex movements fol- 
lowed. , 

7. The muscles can be made to contract by the magneto- 
electric current after the paralyzed limb has been amputated, 
but less actively and for a shorter time than in a healthy one. 
If a ligature be applied to the sciatic artery and vein, the limb 
below the ligature will be protected from the poison and will 
contract actively, if the magneto-electric current be applied ; 
while the poisoned limb remains motionless, or nearly so, 
whether the stimulus be applied through the nerve, or to the 
muscle. 


Experiments on warm-blooded Animals. 


Exp. 1. On a Lemur.—At 7.58 am. Ten grains of a liquid 
extract of Tanyhinia venenifera, mixed with one drachm of water, 
were injected into the cellular tissue in the lumbar region of a full- 
grown lemur. 8 a.m. The extremities are weak—scarcely able to 
walk. 8.7. Vomits frothy mucus. 8.15. Continues to vomit, and 
when it attempts to walk, its movements are slow and uncertain, 
it is unwilling to move; the heart’s pulsations are reduced in fre- 
quency, pupils normal. 8.17. Lying on its belly with its legs 
stretched out and flaccid, sensation perfect. 8.24. Limbs paralysed; 
pinching the tail makes it look round, and it makes vain attempts to 
change its position, pulsations of the heart less frequent and weaker, 
It is perfectly conscious, for although unable to move its limbs, it 
follows with its eyes the movements of any one approaching it. 8.30. 
Heart irregular, two pulsations and a pause; pupils a little con- 
tracted (7), sensation unaffected. The heart is now becoming slower 


AN ACCOUNT OF THE MADAGASCAR ORDEAL POISON. 107 


and slower, the respiration panting. 8.35. The heart only beats 
occasionally, sensation seems perfect, it is able to move its head a 
little, but the rest of the body is paralyzed. 8.40. Respiration 
panting, and forty per minute. 8.45. Paralysis complete, sensation 
unaffected, the pulsations of the heart very infrequent, after a con- 
siderable interval a few hurried beats succeed each other. Slight 
shivering movements in the tail, fingers and toes (spasmodic). 8.47. 
The heart has ceased to beat, the pupils are dilated, the lower jaw has 
fallen, a few gasping respirations. 8.47. Slight spasmodic move- 
ments in the feet. 8.48. Died. 

9.4. Opened the body and observed spontaneous twitchings of 
the pectoral muscles, which also were excitable by mechanical irrita- 
tion. Auricles and great veins very much congested; a little semi- 
coagulated blood in right ventricle; a drachm of fluid blood in left 
ventricle, which coagulated after removal. For half an hour after 
death the application of dilute sulphuric acid or mechanical irritation 
produced contractions, especially of the auricles, which from being 
dark red became temporarily pale and bloodless; pinching the 
substance of the ventricles made them contract, the contraction of 
the latter did not extend to the auricles; lungs collapsed and pale; 
liver congested, gall-bladder full, vena porta congested, stomach and 
alimentary canal healthy. 


Exp. II. On a Cat (nearly full-grown).— After applying a 
spirituous extract of Zanghinia v. to the conjunctiva in order to 
observe its action on the pupil, with a negative result, and having 
ascertained the pulsations of the heart to number nearly 120 per 
minute, at 12.15 p.m. we injected three grains of the same extract, 
mixed with one drachm of water, into the cellular tissue. 12.20. 
The animal is able to walk, but its legs seem weak. 12.31. Begins 
to vomit. 12.37. The action of the heart weak, pulsations about 
110 per minute, the vomiting urgent, bowels moved. 12.43. Vomiting 
still continues, great debility, the pulsations of the heart very much 
reduced in number and strength, the respirations fewer and panting, 
pupil normal. 12.50. The animal is now scarcely able to move 
about, it lays its head down upon the ground, and after a little 
changes it into a new position, without moving its body. How far 
this condition results from paralysis, and how far from pure debility, 
it is difficult to say. 12.52. Pulsations of the heart 20 per minute, 
and weak, 12.54. Clonic spasms of extremities, with trembling mo- 
tion of the skin of the back, expulsion of urine and feces, a sigh, the 
pupils dilated, the action of the heart has ceased, a few gasps, and the 
animal died at 12.57. 

Examination immediately. Lungs pale and collapsed, the coro- 
nary veins of the heart full, the substance of the heart congested, all 
the chambers contain blood, the auricles however are engorged, the 
left one full of bright red and watery blood, the vene cave full, 
The liver, vena porta and its branches, are very much congested, the 
whole intestinal canal abnormally pale. A mild magneto-electric cur- 


108 MR DAVIDSON. 


rent produces contractions of the muscles to which it is applied, the 
contractions are less powerful when the current is transmitted through 
the nerve, slight contractions cau be produced by connecting the two 
limbs, the heart does not respond to the magneto-electric stimulus. I 
have observed paralysis to be much less distinctly marked in the cat 
than in the lemur. 


Exp. III. On a species of Civet about the size of a small cat.— 
The poison mixed with a little water was injected into the cellular 
tissue at 9.24 am. At 9.25, makes violent efforts to vomit. 9.28. 
Restless, and vomiting. 9.37. Posterior extremities are paralyzed, 
sensation seems unaffected. 9.40. A slight shivering motion all over 
its skin; extremities paralyzed, but it is still able to move its head a 
little. 9.42. It is now quite unable to move any part of its body. 
Died at 9.45. 

Examination immediately. Great congestion of liver, kidney, 
portal vein, and substance of the heart. Right auricle engorged. 
The right auricle was seen to make about two slight contractions 
every minute, producing a wave in the blood, filling the vena 
cava descendens. These contractions were spontaneous; but after 
they ceased they could be excited again by mechanical irritation of 
the muscular substance for about half an hour after the organ was 
exposed. 


Haperiments on Frogs. 


The experiments made on frogs were very numerous, and _ 
every experiment repeated frequently by my assistant, Andri- 
analy. ‘l'wo species of frog were used, the one very consider- 
ably smaller than the common English frog, Rana Temporaria ; 
the other about one-third larger. I shall select a few experi- 
ments from my note-book to illustrate some of the points 
referred to in the preceding observations. 


Exp. IV. To ascertain the effect of the local application of the 
poison.—A little of the commen extract was applied to the right leg 
of a frog at 9.20 am. At 9.58, the right leg is observed to be pa- 
ralyzed, pinching it does not produce any sign of sensation, the left 
limb normal. 10.30. The left limb is now paralyzed. 10.40. The 
paralysis has extended to the whole body, and is gradually becoming 
more marked. The animal died about 11.15. 


The two following experiments illustrate the action of Tan- 
ghinia on the heart. 


Exp. V. At 9 A™M., exposed the heart of a large frog, the pul- 
sations were about 52 per minute. 9.5. Injected about one grain of 


AN ACCOUNT OF THE MADAGASCAR ORDEAL POISON. 109 


the extract of Zanghinia ven. into the peritoneum. 9.8. Pulsations 
52. 9.15. They became reduced to 39. At 9.20, the tetanized 
ventricle was seen to contract imperfectly, and at 9.21 the heart 
and respiration ceased almost simultaneously; but although the heart 
has ceased to beat, the animal made a few leaps. On looking at the 
posterior lymphatic hearts, we find they have ceased to beat. 9.28. 
The animal still continues to withdraw its legs if they are drawn 
out. 


Exp. VI. Having exposed the heart of a large frog, and found 
the pulsations 42 per minute, at 7.15 we administered one grain of 
the extract of Tanghinia v. by the mouth. The action of the poison 
on the heart was as follows :— 


7.20. The pulsations were 34. 

7.25. - F 29. 

7.30. 3 be 28. 

7.40. 5 as 26, and irregular. 

7.50 ss - 24. The ventricle contracts very im- 
perfectly. 

8. . rs 22. Slght vermicular motions of the 
ventricle. 


8.10. The ventricle has ceased to beat, the auricles however 
make 12 pulsations per minute. 8.20. The auricles have stopped ; 
but respiration has not quite ceased, and the animal is still able to 
move. The head was now removed, leaving the lower jaw connected 
with the body. Reflex movements could be induced by pinching, or 
by the application of electricity. The ventricle was contracted, and 
the auricles dilated. 


Exp. VII. We selected two large frogs of about the same size, 
and having exposed their hearts, we administered two grains of the 
extract of Tanghinia v. by the mouth to one of them; and in order 
to test the action of the poison on the reflex functions of the cord, 
suspended them by the lower jaw, and observed the length of time 
which elapsed between the application of dilute sulphuric acid and 
the appearance of the corresponding reflex movements. We found the 
reflex movements to be less energetic, and slower in appearing in the 
poisoned frog ; and after about an hour, scarcely any irritation could 
induce reflex movements ; yet after death we found the muscles to 
contract, when magneto-electricity was applied, although less actively, 
and for a shorter time than the muscles of the non-poisoned frog. We 
observed in this same experiment paralysis of the lower jaw, which 
appeared almost immediately after the acministration of the poison, 
and was probably owing to its topical action on the muscles and 
nerves. The pupils became much dilated within ten minutes after the 
poison was given, and continued at least double the size of the pupils 
of the non-poisoned frog. The posterior lymphatic hearts were also 
observed in this experiment, inasmuch as they receive their nervous 
supply from the cord. In the non-poisoned frog, the posterior lym- 


110 MR DAVIDSON, 


phatic hearts continued to beat throughout the experiment at from 
48 to 50 per minute, and the pulsations were distinct, strong, and 
- regular. In the poisoned frog, they very soon rose in number: ten 
minutes after the administration of the poison they had risen to 63 ; 
after half an hour they were 77, and weak, and they gradually be- 
came weaker and more irregular, and after the lapse of an hour were 
quite imperceptible. 


There is very great difficulty in deciding to what extent the 
conductivity of the motor nerves is affected, inasmuch as the 
poison affects the contractility of the muscles, and this compli- 
cates the matter very considerably. We constantly observe 
voluntary motion remarkably affected before the reflex functions 
of the cord are much diminished, but this loss of voluntary mo- 
tion may of course be due to other causes than the mere loss of 
motor conductivity. Although I do not consider it proved, I 
think it probable that the helplessness and dragging of the 
limbs are partly owing to poisoning of the muscular tissue, and 
partly to paralysis of the motor nerves. It seems impossible to 
doubt that the irritability of the nerves and contractility of the 
muscles are lessened, and they are thus less able to respond to 
the influence of volition, while, on the other hand, this manifes- 
tation of reflex movements in the decapitated animal poisoned 
by Tanghinia proves that the muscles nevertheless retain enough 
of irritability, and the nerves enough of conductivity, to make it 
impossible to ascribe the paralysis entirely to these two causes. 
Admitting then these conditions as existing, I am inclined to 
think that the anterior columns of the spinal cord are also 
implicated, and that the paralysis, as I have already said, is 
partly due to this cause. 


Exp. VIII. We decapitated a small frog in order to test the 
length of time that reflex movements may be excited by mechanical 
and chemical stimuli. 9.11. The frog was beheaded. 9.16. It 
draws up its hind legs if disturbed. 9.18. Makes attempts at leap- 
ing. 9.22. Pinching the foot produces movements in all the extre- 
mities. 9.31. Applied some dilute acid to the skin, and strong reflex 
movements followed. 9.40. Reflex movements cannot be any longer 
induced. In this experiment reflex movements persisted for nearly 
half an hour. A frog of similar size had its heart exposed, and a 
grain of Tanghinia injected beneath the skin of left leg. The pulsa- 
tions of the heart rose from 80 to 100, and in two minutes stopped. 
The posterior lymphatic hearts stopped at the same time as the blood. 
heart. We now cut off its head. Touching the eye induced pro- 


AN ACCOUNT OF THE MADAGASCAR ORDEAL POISON. I1] 


tective motions of the eyelids. Pinching the feet did not bring on 
any reflex motion, but acetic acid applied to the fore-legs did. Sia 
minutes after the heart ceased to beat, all reflex action ceased. 


In repeated experiments in which the amputated limbs of 
frogs have been immersed in a mixture of Tanghinia the con- 
tractility of the muscles has been lessened in a very few minutes, 
and after a somewhat longer time abolished. 


Exp. IX. We selected a large active frog, and tied the vessels of 
the left posterior extremity, and then poisoned it with extract of 
Tanghinia given by the mouth. The muscles of the limb so protected 
were found to contract much more energetically than those of the 
other, and that whether the stimulus was applied through the sciatic 
nerve or to the muscular substance itself. 


Several experiments were made to ascertain whether de- 
struction of the medulla would affect the action of the poison 
on the heart. In one case in which we decapitated a frog, and 
then injected one grain of the extract into the peritoneum, the 
heart continued to contract for twelve minutes after the injection 
of the poison, and dilute sulphuric acid induced reflex move- 
ments for some time after the heart was arrested. We may 
conclude that Tanghinia does not arrest the heart through any 
action on or through the vagus. 


General Conclusions. 


(a) The Tangena must be classed among the cardiac poisons. 
It uniformly causes death by arresting the action of the heart. 

(b) It does not act on the heart through the vagus nerve. 
When applied to the exposed heart its rapidity of action is re- 
markable. The fact that it arrests the pulsations of the ex- 
cised heart of the frog is conclusive proof that its influence, 
when topically applied, is direct, either on the muscular sub- 
stance, or the muscular substance and cardiac ganglia. 

(c) There is sufficient reason to believe that the Tangéna 
acts on the spinal cord, producing paralysis and diminishing 
reflex action. 

(dq) Voluntary motion is abolished, and the irritability of 
the motor nerves lessened by the poison, When it acts through 


112 . MR DAVIDSON. MADAGASCAR ORDEAL POISON. - 


the circulation in mammalia, sensation is not remarkably af- 
fected ; muscular contractility is very much diminished. More 
exact knowledge of the degree and order in which these various 
functions are affected, can only be obtained by carefully per- 
formed experiments made in Europe, where the more delicate 
electrical instruments can be had. 

(e) It is exceedingly fatal to man, in doses of thirty grains 
of the kernel, if not promptly ejected. 

(f) It causes a numb, tingling sensation in the part with 
which it comes into contact, and also throughout the body. 

(g) It is powerfwly emetic and purgative, produces great 
nausea and debility, paralysis of motion, occasionally delirium, 
narcotism, and perhaps vertigo. 

(hk) It may be inferred to cause death in man, as in all 
other animals, by tetanizing the heart. 


NOTE by Dr Gatasin, in continuation of his Paper (p. 22). 


Yet another has been added to the already numerous theories of 
the dicrotic wave by Mr Mahomed, in a paper lately published in the 
Medical Times. It is the more deserving of notice since it is to the 
able researches of its author that we owe the most recent contribu- 
tions to our knowledge as to the clinical use of the sphygmograph. 
Mr Mahomed then finds a sufficient cause for the dicrotic wave in 
the mere fact that the coat of the aorta is elastic, and considers that it 
originates from the contraction of this elastic coat during diastole. It 
appears to me that this theory involves a misconception of the nature 
of elasticity. If a surface is said to be elastic, nothing more is 
meant than that it is extensible in such a way that the degree of its 
extension has a definite relation to the forces extending it. Its con- 
traction is not an active proceeding, but is merely the effect of the 
diminution of tension. Thus the contraction of the aorta is the 
consequence of the diminished pressure within, and therefore the 
mere fact that it contracts cannot at the same time be a cause of an 
increase of that pressure originating a second wave. 


CASE OF SUBDIVISION OF THE SCAPHOID CAR- 
PAL BONE. By Jonny Srrutuers, M.D., Professor of 
Anatomy in the University of Aberdeen. 


THIS condition was found in the right hand of a male subject, 
aged 68. My attention was called to it just after the igaments 
of the first carpal row had been divided. The scaphoid is 
represented by two bones of nearly equal size. The lower or 
radial division carries about a fourth part, in length, of the 
articular surface for the radius, less than half of the articular 
hollow for the os magnum, and the whole of the surface for the 
trapezium and trapezoid bones. The direction of the articula- 
tion between the two bones is nearly at right angles to the 
general axis of the scaphoid. The surfaces are nearly flat from 
above downwards (i.e. in the direction between the surfaces for 
the radius and the magnum) allowing free gliding motion of the 
two bones on each other in that direction, but in the opposite 
direction motion is impeded by a little undulation of the sur- 
faces. This articulation between the two bones occupies the 
entire thickness of each, and is continuous across the whole 
breadth with the synovial cavities of the surfaces for the radius 
and magnum. 

So far the case looked like one of natural variation, but 
I was led to doubt this by the following considerations. The 
articular surfaces between the two bones, though polished and 
synovial looking, are hard, the knife turning up no articular 
cartilage till it reaches the edge of the other articular surfaces ; 
and there are irregular depressions on parts of the polished 
surface, more distinctly seen when examined with a magni- 
fying power. The trapezoid and os magnum, and the second 
and third metacarpals, where they meet at the carpo-metacarpal 
articulation, shew some bony excrescence on the dorsal aspect ; 
and the shafts of the second and third metacarpals, especially 
that of the second, are altered above their middle, being 
elevated on the dorsal surface where they begin to be left 
uncovered by the dorsal interossei muscles, and having an 


VOL. VIII. 8 


114 PROFESSOR STRUTHERS. 


unusually projecting border on the palmar aspect. These two 
metacarpals, and the carpus when they join it, appear to have 
suffered some injury and to have undergone subsequent change. 
The scaphoid bone is naturally so placed that it would receive 
the shock of an injury transmitted from these two metacarpals 
through the moving trapezoid and magnum, and would be most 
likely to give way about the middle where it presents a kind of 
constriction or neck. My inference is that this has happened 
here, and that this case is not one of natural variation, but one 
of fracture of the scaphoid followed by the formation of a false 
joint. It might, however, readily have been mistaken for a 
case of variation, especially if the carpus had been already 
macerated, and the attention of observers may be called to 
the importance of looking narrowly to see whether some of 
these cases of additional carpal or tarsal ossicle have not had 
their origin in fracture. It should be added, that in this sub- 
ject the left hand and both feet were normal and healthy. 


ACCOUNT OF RUDIMENTARY FINGER MUSCLES 
FOUND IN A TOOTHED WHALE (HYPEROODON 
BIDENS). By Joun Srrutuers, M.D., Professor of 
Anatomy in the University of Aberdeen. 


It has been supposed that muscles passing from the forearm to 
the hand do not exist in any of the Delphinoid Cetacea. In a 
foot-note on page 115 of my paper “On some points in the 
Anatomy of a Great Fin-Whale” (Balzenoptera musculus), pub- 
lished in this Journal for November 1871, I noticed briefly that 
I had found that such muscles are present in Hyperoodon 
bidens, a specimen of which had just been stranded on our coast. 
Having since dissected them more fully, and examined them 
also in the other paddle, I am now able to give an account of 
their arrangement. In order to save repetition, I shall take 
the muscles in the great Finner as a standard for comparison, 
and shall note the differences between them and the correspond- 


RUDIMENTARY FINGER MUSCLES IN A TOOTHED WHALE. 115 


ing muscles in Hyperoodon; and beg to refer to my detailed 
account, and to the drawings given, of these muscles in the 
paper above referred to. 

These finger muscles, so far from being absent, are nearly 
all better developed in this toothed whale than in the great 
Finner. 


(a) Internal, or palmar, aspect. 1. Flexor carpi ulnaris. 
The differences in this muscle are that implied in the different 
form of the cartilaginous olecranon, and that the tendon is flat 
and not placed so far from the shaft of the ulna. The cartila- 
ginous olecranon is long, tapering, and curved backwards, and 
the origin of the muscle is continued to the point, running 
along the concave edge and some way on the inner surface of 
the cartilage. The upper convex edge of the cartilage gives 
insertion to the greater head of the triceps, though not back to 
the point. A muscular expansion from the trunk is inserted 
into the cartilage at its point and for some way along the inner 
aspect of the insertion of the triceps. The cartilage is very 
flexible inwards and outwards, from its flatness, and will be 
raised a little by the action of the triceps and depressed a, little 
by the flexor carpi ulnaris. The insertion, as in the Finner, is 
entirely into the pisiform cartilage. This cartilage moves 
freely laterally, but has very little longitudinal mobility. It 
articulates distally with the fifth metacarpal bone as well as 
with the epiphysis of the ulna and the neighbouring carpal 
bone. The presence of this muscle cannot be satisfactorily 
accounted for on the theory of action upon its insertion or upon 
its origin. 

2. Flexor digitorum ulnaris. The chief differences in this 
muscle are, that it is considerably more developed than in the 
Finner, that it lies more upon the ulna without being sunk into 
the interosseous hollow, and that the tendon retains its thick- 
ness instead of expanding before it divides. The fleshy fibres 
of origin reach farther forwards on the humerus, as far as to 
touch and even to pass a little under cover of the teres major ; 
and further across the ulna so as to reach the flexor carpi 
ulnaris, the two bellies being in contact by their edges, the 
nerve disappearing between them, The belly lies upon the 

8—2 


116 PROFESSOR STRUTHERS. 


proximal half of the ulna, the tendon obliquely across the 
distal half. The breaking up is just as it is getting upon the 
first carpal row, and is into three tendons. The ulnar tendon, 
after a course of an inch, divides for digits Iv. and v.; the 
radial tendon, after nearly an inch, is joined by the tendon of 
the radial flexor. 

3. Flexor digitorum radialis. This muscle, though less 
developed in Hyperoodon compared with the last muscle, is as 
well developed in proportion to the limb as it is in the Finner. 
Its fibres arise not only from the radius and interosseous tissue, 
but from the ulna fully as much as from the radius. It is sunk 
in the interosseous space. The tendon throws itself entirely 
into the radial tendon of the flexor ulnaris. 

The tendons of these two muscles are disposed thus. The 
radial tendon, one-third of which is formed by the entire 
tendon of the radial flexor, is fully twice the size of the tendon 
of any other digit. It goes almost entirely to digit 11, a few 
fibres going off to blend with the terminal ligament which 
connects the end of digit I. to the edge of the second bone of 
digit 11. Its earliest insertion is into the metacarpo-phalangeal 
cartilage and broadly into the first phalanx, these insertions 
maintaining the previous obliquity of the tendon. Digit IL, 
though but little longer than digit I11.,is the most robust of the 
digits. The middle tendon goes straight on to digit m1. The 
radial subdivision of the ulnar tendon goes on to digit Iv., the 
ulnar subdivision, the larger of the two, goes very obliquely 
towards digit v., and is broadly inserted into the first phalanx, 
which is mainly cartilaginous. The obliquity is maintained by 
this earlier part of the insertion. 


(b) Hxtensor, or dorsal, aspect. In the Finner there is 
simply one common extensor, giving a tendon to each of the 
four digits. Here there is at least one other extensor, and, 
proportionately to the limb, a considerably greater bulk of 
muscle. There is the general division of the mass into a radial 
and an ulnar extensor, the latter somewhat complex. The 
fleshy fibres of both arise as high as the ligament of the elbow. 
The fleshy bellies occupy the proximal two-thirds of the fore- 
arm. That of the radial flexor reaches farthest back, is larger 


RUDIMENTARY FINGER MUSCLES IN A TOOTHED WHALE. 117 


by a third than the other, arises by its distal portion from the 
ulna as well as from the radius and interosseous tissue, and is 
mostly sunk into the interosseous hollow. The ulnar belly 
arises from the ulna and interosseous tissue, and both bellies 
have fibres from an intermuscular septum between them, and 
from a strong fascia over them. 

The tendon of the radial extensor divides opposite the first 
carpal row into two, one straight on to digit 11, the other, the 
larger, to digit 1. The latter gives from its radial side a slip as 
if for digit L, but it is inserted into the distal part of the first 
joint of digit 11, very nearly reaching the terminal ligament of 
digit I. 

The ulnar extensor divides above the middle of the forearm 
into two fleshy bundles, from which tendons soon proceed, the 
most ulnar tendon beginning first. So far, these might be 
looked on as representing separate muscles, if the tendons bore 
out that view. The tendon of the radial portion passes to 
digit Iv., adhering to the carpus on its way. The tendon of 
the ulnar portion after giving off a slip, one-third of its bulk, 
which joins the tendon of digit Iv., opposite the second carpal 
row, passes on to digit v., and is inserted into the distal end of 
the metacarpal bone and into the phalanx beyond. 

These details apply to both sides, but in the right paddle 
there is an intermediate fleshy slip, leaving the ulnar side of 
the radial flexor, soon ending in a tendon which divides at the 
carpus into two (adhering to the back of the carpus on its way), 
one joining the tendon of digit 111., the other joming that of 
digit Iv. The radial extensor thus, on this side, sends a tendon 
to digit Iv. as well as to 1. and 1. A farther want of sym- 
metry is seen in the presence, also on this side, of a small ten- 
dinous slip from the radial portion of the ulnar flexor to join 
the slip which the ulnar portion of that muscle gives to the 
tendon of digit Iv. 

Viewing these extensor muscles homologically, it might be 
held that the extensors of the carpus, at least on the ulnar 
side, are represented by the adhesions to the carpus and to the 
fifth metacarpal bone ; but it may be sufficiently comprehensive 
to regard them as representing, the radial, the internal common 
extensor of the quadruped, the extensor communis digitorum 


118 PROFESSOR STRUTHERS. 


of man; and the ulnar, as representing the external common 
extensor of the quadruped, the extensor minimi digiti of man. 
The difference on the two sides illustrates the tendency to va- 
riation in rudimentary structures. 

The extensors on the whole appear to be somewhat less 
powerful than the flexors, but the difference between the flexor 
and extensor powers is not so great as in the Finner. In ac- 
cordance with the greater development of these muscles in 
Hyperoodon, the finger-joints are more moveable than in the 
Finner, the cavity reaching completely across between the car- 
tilages, but the surfaces are quite flat. The same remark ap- 
plies to the carpo-metacarpal joints and to those of the carpal 
cartilages, but to a less extent, the mobility at the joints in- 
creasing distally. To the merely passive resistance which a 
purely ligamentous condition would afford, these muscles will 
add some activity; but, though somewhat stronger than in the 
Finner, they are small and feeble relatively to the size and 
condition of the parts on which they act; in striking contrast 
with their fully developed neighbours, the muscles of the 
shoulder. 


Rudimentary Brachial Muscles in Hyperoodon. In both 
paddles alike there is a short thick muscular and fibrous mass 
lying, like a cushion, along the lower border of the distal half 
of the humerus. It begins on the humerus just beyond the 
deltoid elevation, and terminates just beyond the elbow on the 
lower edge of the radius. It is about as thick as a fore-finger, 
flat next the humerus, rounded on the opposite aspect. It is 
largely mixed with fibrous tissue. There is some slight lateral 
mobility at the elbow, but none in the direction in which this 
muscle would act. Along the opposite border of the humerus 
lies a rudiment of the external short head of the triceps ex- 
tensor cubiti muscle, passing from the border of the humerus 
to the early part of the olecranon. It is about as thick as a 
finger, 1} inch in length, and very largely composed of fibrous 
tissue. The nerve and artery are seen to pass between it and 
the humerus, from the flexor aspect, and some tissue situated 
below this passage may be considered a remnant of the third 
head of the triceps. Under the microscope the reddish tissue 


aimee 


RUDIMENTARY FINGER MUSCLES IN A TOOTHED WHALE. 119 


contained in these rudimentary brachial muscles is seen to be 
composed of well-striped good-sized muscular fibre. 

The scapular head of the triceps is reinforced by a bundle 
from the teres, forming the distal part of the insertion into the 
olecranon. The limb having been removed from the trunk, it 
is now impossible to decide how far the latissimus dorsi may 
form part of what I have termed the teres major. 


Size, age, sex, &c. This Hyperoodon was stranded, alive, at 
Fraserburgh, on the Aberdeenshire coast, on August 17, 1871. 
Length, along the curve of the back, 20 feet 9 inches; along the 
side, in contact, 19 feet 9 in.; in a straight line, 19 feet 3 in. 
Measurements of the paddle, in inches—length, from tip to 
axilla, 15; froni tip to shoulder joint, 25, of which the humerus 
has 7}, the forearm 6}, the carpus 2, and the longest digit 9. 
Breadth, at axilla 64, at broadest part 7. Girth, at axilla 15, at 
broadest. part 15$. Compared with the great Finner (B. mus- 
culus), the paddle is shorter in Hyperoodon in proportion to the 
size of the animal; and comparing the segments of the respec- 
tive paddles, Hyperoodon has, in proportion, a longer humerus, 
a considerably shorter forearm, and fingers of very nearly the 
same length. It was believed, when lying on the beach, to be 
a male, but circumstances prevented me from seeing the viscera 
afterwards. The maxillary crests are about five inches apart at 
the middle, and about three inches thick. The epiphyses of 
the bodies of the moveable vertebre are all separate. The rudi- 
mentary teeth, one on each side, near the front of the lower 
jaw, are seen, in the preparation which I have preserved, to be 
buried half an inch below the surface of the dense gum. 


TISSUE METABOLISM, OR THE ARTIFICIAL INDUC- 
TION OF STRUCTURAL CHANGES IN LIVING 
ORGANISMS. By W. Arysiie Hotuts, M.D., Cantab., 
Part III, Annulata continued. 


In two previous papers I have given the results of some 
experiments made by me upon actinie and lumbrici; and I 
have there shewn that the tissues of such creatures are readily 
acted upon by caustic irritants (such as blistering fluid, strong 
acetic acid, &c.), and that a definite sequence of phenomena is 
thereby induced, which, in many respects, is similar for these 
two classes of animals. I shall in the following pages give a 
short résumé of some further experiments undertaken with a 


view to extend our knowledge of ‘tissue metabolism’ to other — 


branches of the animal kingdom than those mentioned above. 
The first observations were made by me upon the medicinal 
leech (H. medicinalis), and are detailed below. 


I. The action of certain irritants wpon leeches. 


Blistering fluid and acetic acid appear to act similarly 
when they are applied to the integuments of leeches. Either 
of these vesicants induces, immediately after its application, 
great swelling of the tissues, and a greater or less loss of the 
power of contraction at the injured part according to the 
extent of the injury. These phenomena are quickly followed 
by a copious secretion of mucus of a bluish white colour, and 
by the infiltration of the tissues with blood-plasma. In the 
course of an hour or less ecchymoses with intense congestion of 
the superficial blood-vessels are observable. The swelling of 
the parts with the vascular congestion usually lasts for twenty- 
four hours, subsequently contraction of the injured tissues 
takes place with puckering and the permanent loss of their 
contractility. During the second stage of symptoms detailed 
above, and before their fina] contraction, the tissues become 
softer than natural and are more easily torn. The mucous 
fluid exuded during the second stage consists of a viscid 


DR HOLLIS. TISSUE METABOLISM. TZ 


hyaline plasma with numerous corpuscular, granular and 
pigmentary elements intermingled with it. The first of these 
bodies are about the size of human leucocytes, of oval shape 
(occasionally almost fibrillar); and they possibly possess 
amceboid movements. In two experiments, wherein blistering 
fluid was used, a distinct bulla was produced at the point of 
vesication; in one case this blister was filled with a colourless 
serum, in the second with a fluid of a reddish colour, and 
containing the corpuscular elements above described. 

If we compare the above phenomena with those observable 
under like conditions in the structures of the actiniz and 
lumbrici, we shall find a considerable similarity in them all, a 
resemblance which leads me to conclude that the processes in 
each instance are almost identical. I shall not at this stage 
recapitulate the various phenomena noticeable in these different 
animals, as they have been elsewhere detailed, and I shall have 
occasion to refer to them again at a future period. 


II. The application of the actual cautery to a leech. 


When a part of the dorsal surface of a leech is placed 
momentarily in contact with the end of a glass rod heated to 
redness, the burn instantly becomes of a bluish white colour and 
its surface is depressed. About ten minutes after the injury is 
made, the surrounding parts begin to swell, and subsequently 
mucus to a small extent is exuded from them. Within twenty- 
four hours the burnt tissues are covered with a shreddy bluish 
white débris, easily detached, and leaving the surface much 
depressed. The surrounding tissues at the same time become 
puckered and drawn towards the seat of injury. No bulla 
appears to be formed in this case; nor is there apparently any 
great exudation of serous fluid. It is necessary to notice these 
particulars, as I shall hereafter refer again to them. 


ARTHROPODA AND MOLLUSGCA. 


My experiments upon several species of these two sub- 
kingdoms have been attended with no marked results. I have 
on various occasions tried the effect of irritants and the actual 
cautery upon members of the class arachnida; but, owing 
to the thickness of their chitinous integument, the ordinary 


122 DR HOLLIS. 


irritants appeared to have little effect upon them, whilst more 
- powerful corrosives or the actual cautery destroyed life without 
inducing any of the phenomena noticed in the other classes 
of animals. Like results have followed my attempts to induce 
metabolic processes in various insects. The larve of the 
lepidoptera (upon which most of my experiments were per- 
formed), although manifesting by their movements that blister- 
ing fluid, nitric acid and other irritants were local sources of 
uneasiness to them when applied to their chitinous investment, 
failed entirely to manifest any of those palpable changes of 
structure noticed by me in the annulata, although they 
sometimes rapidly died after the operation. 

Slugs, snails and other gasteropods, upon which I have 
experimented as in the preceding cases, appear to a great extent 
to be protected from such possible sources of injury by the 
rapidity with which a large quantity of mucus is evolved from 
the affected surface. This flow of mucus carries away with it 
the local source of irritation. When the actual cautery was 
applied for a moment to the foot of a snail a like evolution of 
mucus took place at the point of contact, and a whitish eschar 
was visible; but on the following day this local change had 
been removed with a large quantity of mucus, and was entirely 
separated from the animal, whilst the surface of the mollusc 
appeared in all respects natural. 


VERTEBRATA. AMPHIBIA. 


In dealing with the subject of ‘tissue metabolism’ among 
the higher animals, it will be necessary to encroach somewhat 
upon the labours of others in a similar direction, notably on 
those of Ryneck, Stricker and Cohnheim, in their researches 
upon the process of inflammation. I trust, however, that the 
importance of the subject, and a certain novelty in the method 
of performing the experiments, may plead an excuse for pur- 
suing a path already trodden by such able physiologists. 

The experiments I shall now detail were performed upon 
the common smooth newt (Lissotriton punctatus). 


I. The application of certain irritants to the abscised tail of 
a newt. When the tail of a newt is freshly removed from the 


4 


TISSUE METABOLISM. 123 


body it will under favourable conditions continue to give signs 
of life by occasional movements for eight-and-forty hours and 
upwards. It therefore appeared to me to be a favourable 
object upon which to pursue my experiments on ‘tissue meta- 
bolism.’ With this view I applied blistering fluid to the recently 
abscised tail from a decapitated newt, and set it aside in a small 
quantity of water for a few minutes. The part vesicated 
was then of a bluish white colour and covered with a copious 
exudation of mucus. In two hours time the portion of the 
tail untouched by the Liquor Epispasticus contracted readily 
on the application of a slight stimulus, while the rest of it 
remained uncontracted. Twenty-four hours subsequently several 
bullze were observable on the injured portion, and these con- 
tained a fluid and a minutely corpuscular plasma. The cutis 
was easily detached from the subjacent structures at the seat of 
injury, and these were found to be swollen and infiltrated 
with a watery plasma containing numerous granules and a few 
leucocytes. I have since repeated this experiment with similar 
results. If all movement has ceased in the tail before the 
application of the blistering fluid, beyond the whitening of 
the integument, no further phenomenon takes place. This I 
think clearly shews that the exudation of plasma and the other 
concurrent symptoms are due to the active vital properties of 
the tissues. Now the structures in a newt’s tail after its 
removal from the body appear to me to approach closely in 
their constitution to the whole body of those invertebrate 
annelids we have lately been considering, with this difference in 
favour of the greater heterogeneity of the latter, namely, that 
they possess a definite circulatory fluid driven through their 
tissues by appropriate pulsatile organs, whilst the detached 
caudal extremity of the newt has no such provision for its 
general tissue nutriment. In such cases the various phenomena 
observed after irritation must, in the first place, I think, be 
considered entirely due to the local action of the irritant on the 
individual living elements of a part; for it is difficult to sup- 
pose that either the nerves or blood-vessels, owing to the 
absence of the blood, can exert any more than a very slight 
influence over the tissue-changes that take place. If at the 
same time that an irritant is applied to the abscised tail of a 


124 DR HOLLIS. 


newt a similar injury is induced on the tail of a healthy newt, 
the various phenomena detailed above will correspond in each 
case—although in the latter the secondary effects on the 
blood-circulation will be evidenced in the well-known phe- 
nomena accompanying its stasis. 


Il. The effects of a burn on the abscised tail of a newt. 
When the end of a red-hot glass rod is momentarily applied 
to the integuments of a recently abscised tail the burn becomes 
depressed and whitish, while the adjacent tissues are rapidly 
elevated and covered with a bluish white débris—as a rule no 
bullae are formed in such a case—and this corresponds with 
what I have observed to take place in leeches. In twenty-four 
hours after the injury the burnt surface is covered with a ragged 
epithelial and granular débris and the surface is still much 
depressed ; the surrounding tissues have usually resumed their 
natural shape, and no further phenomena are observable. This 
cessation of further changes in the part is probably due to the 
greater shock of the cautery to the tissues themselves, and the 
more rapid death of the tail generally than is the case when 
the blistering fluid is used. 


Ill. The application of blistering fluid to the excised heart 
of a newt. Upon touching the ventricular apex of a heart still 
pulsating, and freshly removed from the body of a newt, with 
about ;4,th of a drop of Liquor Epispasticus, contained in a 
capillary tube, there was an immediate pallor and loss of con- 
tractility in the part, and subsequently a slight swelling. The 
loss of contractile power was very manifest in this case, as the 
seat of injury was sharply defined by the change in colour. The 
remainder of the organ continued its usually rhythmical pulsa- 
tions, whilst the pallid portion was uncontracted after the 


application of the vesicant. 


General Remarks. If we exclude the arthropoda, and in 
some cases the molluscs, from these observations for reasons 
elsewhere stated, these experiments tend to shew that there is 
a general correspondence throughout the animal kingdom in the 
sequence of phenomena observable after the application of an 
irritant to a living surface. These may be briefly summarised as 
below : 


TISSUE METABOLISM. 125 


1, Swelling and loss of contractility. 2. Exudation of fluid 
(muciform or serous). 3. Elevation of the external integument 
with the production of a bulla, containing corpuscular elements 
of various shapes. (This phenomenon is only observable where 
there is a distinct epiderm, and occasionally not then.) 4. In- 
filtration of the subjacent tissues with fluid plasma and their 
subsequent disintegration, when the cause of irritation is pro- 
longed. 5. Subsequent contraction of the subtegumentary 
tissues and permanent loss of their contractility, should the 
injury extend to them. 

What then do these phenomena imply?) Dr Ryneck* has 
shewn—by first removing the blood from the vessels in the web 
of a frog and “then subjecting their internal surfaces for a few 
moments to an agent, which, by virtue of its chemical action, 
might be expected to modify or destroy its vitality ; and finally, 
after replacing the injurious liquid by milk or defibrinated 
blood, observing the effects of local irritation”—that no stasis 
is produced in webs which were thus treated, while the pheno- 
mena of stasis occurred in vessels after local irritation, even 
when their natural contents were replaced by milk. Such 
“results seem to make it perfectly clear that the local changes 
which lead to the production of stasis must have their seat 
either in the walls of the vessels or in the tissues which im- 
mediately surround them.” 

Upwards of twenty years ago H. Weber® shewed that even 
after ligature of the thigh of a frog the blood gathers from all 
sides to the irritated part of the web, when ammonia is applied 
to it; and quite recently Cohnheim*® has shewn that the 
opinions of Hering and Schlarewsky, who ascribed “the phe- 
nomenon of extravasation to the slow filtration of a colloid 
substance through the walls of the vessels,” is incorrect, by 
placing an animal in the required conditions for physical 
transudation, when none of the phenomena which he (Cohn- 
heim) has described elsewhere will take place. “ Not a single 


1 Zur Kenntniss d. Stase des Blutes in d. Gefassen entziindeter Theile, in 
Rollett’s Unters. a. d. Instit. f. Phys. u. Hist. in Graz. 1870, p. 103, noticed in 
Holmes’ System of Surgery, 2 ed. vy. p. 757. (The process of inflammation by 
Sanderson.) 

2 Miiller’s Arch., 1852, p. 361. (Holmes, Op. Cit. v. p. 763.) 

3 See article in Brit. Med. Journ. Sept. 27, 1873, on Cohnheim’s paper, Neue 
Untersuch. ti, die Entziindung, Berlin, 1873. 


- 126 DR HOLLIS. TISSUE METABOLISM. 


red or white corpuscle passes through the walls of the vessels, 
in spite of the walls of the veins being lined with white cor- 
puscles, and of the increased blood-pressure in the capillaries.” 
In summing up the results of his observation, Cohnheim be- 
lieves that the essence of inflammation consists in some local 
change in the walls of the vessels of the affected part, by which - 
the extravasation of the corpuscular elements of the blood can 
take place. What this change is, he is however unable to say, 
as he has not succeeded in finding any structural alteration. 

The results of my own observations lead me to believe 
that the effect of irritants of all kinds on living structures is to 
diminish or destroy their vitality, and with this their tonicity; 
in the case of the epiderm, the destruction of tissue leads to its 
removal from the body as a dead substance, and its subsequent 
renewal by the subjacent structures without modification of its 
original form. When, however, the deeper structures are in- 
volved in the destructive process, they are never replaced, 
except as lowly organised cicatricial tissue. This tissue never 
inherits the voluntary contractile power of the muscle it fre- 
quently represents, nor does it actually equal in volume the 
original structures, for a permanent depression always marks 
the place of injury. 

It seems that we must look upon the “ essence of inflamma- 
tion” to be a weakening or loss of vitality in the tissue-web of 
a part, and that the changes which take place in the capillaries, 
their dilatation and the permeability of their coats, are due to 
this loss of tonicity in their walls, and herein their parietal 
elements only share with the muscles and the nerves (if any) 
the same general change in their conditions, which produces on 
the one hand loss of contractile power, on the other loss of 
sensation. 

If we enquire the prime cause of these functional changes, 
I think it will hereafter be found to be due to a molecular 
change in the tissue-elements induced by the modified con- 
ditions of their environment, whether such modifications be 
brought about by mechanical, chemical, or purely physical 
methods; but to this question we have at present no means of 
replying satisfactorily. 


ON THE MECHANISM OF OPENING AND CLOSING 
THE EUSTACHIAN TUBE. By C. J. F. Yuts, BA., 
Scholar of St John’s College, Cambridge, and Fellow elect 
of Magdalen College, Oxford. 


(From the Physiological Laboratory in the University of 
Cambridge.) 


Dr Toynbee was the first, I believe, to state the proposition 
that the Eustachian tube is normally closed, and that it is 
opened only during the action of swallowing. Up to his time 
the reverse was believed to be the case. The chief experiment 
which he adduced in support of his view was the old one of 
swallowing with the mouth and nostrils closed; this, as is 
easily felt, produces a distressed feeling in the ears, which he 
described as a “fulness or distension.” He proceeds to say, 
“this sensation arises from the air which is slightly compressed 
in the fauces, passing into and distending the tympanic cavities; 
upon removing the hand from the nose it will be observed that 
the feeling of pressure in the ears does not disappear, but 
remains until the act of deglutition is again performed while the 
nose is not closed.” This observation is very pertinent and 
valuable. Its value, moreover, is not lessened by the mistake 
into which Toynbee fell, as pointed out by Dr Jago, of sup- 
posing that in the experiment air was forced znto the tympanic 
cavity, while it is in reality sucked out. The fact remains the 
same, namely, that to cause any flow of air out of the tube 
considerable foree has to be used; and also that when an 
adequate effort is made, the action takes place suddenly, as 
if an obstacle to its flow had been burst open, and not gradually 
overcome, as would be the case if the tube were patent. Now 
the tympanic membrane is very sensitive to distension, as 
anybody may convince himself by blowing or sucking ever so 
slightly, while the Eustachian tube is kept patent with a cathe- 
ter adapted for the purpose. It cannot, therefore, be objected 
to Toynbee’s experiment that the air is all the time passing 
out through a patent tube, but that the unpleasant sensations 


128 MR YULE. 


are only felt when the pressure on the tympanic membrane 
reaches a certain maximum, and that the attainment of this 
maximum is mistaken for the opening of the tube. Toynbee 
also describes the inverse experiment, where the pressure on 
the outside of the tympanic membrane is greater than within 
it, as during a descent in a diving bell. In both these expe- 
riments the inequality of pressure is removed by swallowing, 
owing to the fact that the muscles which open the Eustachian 
tube are also implicated in swallowing; and, moreover, that 
after the effort of swallowing the closure of the tube takes 
place without effort. Ifa slight modification of the first expe- 
riment be adopted, and air be blown into the tympanum instead 
of sucked out, considerable pressure can be resisted by the 
Eustachian tube before the air finds a passage. The amount 
of this resistance I have endeavoured to ascertain by various 
methods—first, the injection of fluids; this was performed upon a 
patient suffering from a large perforation of the tympanic mem- 
brane, but possessing at the same time a healthy Eustachian 
tube. The apparatus used was an ordinary ear-syringe with 
T-piece and manometer with mercury in the bend, introduced 
before the nozzle. The results obtained were nearly valueless. 
A dilute solution of potassium carbonate passed freely at a 
pressure of four inches of mercury, while a solution of alum so 
acted upon the tube as to constrict it and prevent the passage 
of all fluids. After injecting the potassium carbonate solu- 
tion, blowing into the ear failed to force a passage, although the 
pressure was raised as high as seemed to be compatible with 
the safety of the fenestre. At the same time that I was 
blowing, air passed into my own tympanum from the guttural 
orifice; so that this experiment may shew either that there is 
a valvular action in some part of the tube, allowing passage to 
take place more freely from the throat to the tympanum than 
in the reverse direction; or that there was some unsuspected 
disease of the patient operated on. Of these two alternatives 
I think the former is the more probable, because I find it cer- 
tainly easier to distend than to exhaust the tympanum. 

Finally, as a crucial experiment, to convince myself of the 
closure of the tube, I had a catheter passed into my own 
Eustachian tube, in order to compare the sensations felt in the 


_— eS 7, 


OPENING AND SHUTTING OF THE EUSTACHIAN TUBE. 129 


normal ear with those in the catheterized one. This was 
kindly done for me by Mr Hinton, to whom, for his courtesy 
and patience, I desire to express my thanks. I then found, as 
Dr Jago has suggested, that sounds produced in the larynx 
were rendered very much louder, indeed, so much so, that on 
humming a note just loud enough to be heard by a person 
standing close to me, the noise produced appeared as powerful 
as the loudest notes of my own voice; while by singing loud 
the noise was painfully intense, and closely resembled the 
sounds heard when a person puts his mouth near the external 
meatus and sings. The catheter used was an ordinary Eusta- 
chian tube gum one, with a hole cut in the outer side of the 
knee. As it was impossible on account of this hole to percuss 
the tympanum in the usual manner, several failures resulted, 
the open end of the catheter becoming blocked by mucus, but 
by passing a catgut bougie along the catheter, and for about 
a quarter of an inch beyond its terminal orifice, this obstacle 
was removed. My attention was first directed to the question 
of the opening and closure of the Eustachian tube by a faculty 
of which I had been long aware, that while singing I could, by 
an effort of some faucial muscles, cause the sound to appear 
very much louder, in a manner which I have compared to the 
“swell” arrangement of an organ. The increase in apparent 
loudness was very marked indeed. It naturally occurred to me 
that this was due to the opening of the Eustachian tube, and 
this idea was afterwards confirmed by the following experi- 
ments :—First, when the tympanic cavity was blown full of air 
and the membrane sensibly distended, the air which was 
retained by the natural closure of the Eustachian tube, at once 
escaped on the contraction of these muscles. Second, the effect 
of passing a catheter of the form before described into the 
Eustachian tube, was to produce a modification of hearing 
exactly identical in every respect with that observed when the 
contraction of these faucial muscles takes place. 

That the Eustachian tube opens during the act of swallow- 
ing has been long admitted, but owing to the extreme compli- 
cation of the act, no observer has yet been able to ascertain 
clearly which the efficient salpyngeal muscles are. By a careful 
examination, however, of my own pharynx during the opening 

VOL, VIIL, ) 


130 ' MR. YULE. 


of the Eustachian tube, when not complicated by swallowing, 
their action is easily understood. In this matter Dr Durham 
of Guy’s Hospital has been good enough to assist me, and 
I wish to express my obligation to him for his kindness and 
material assistance during the laryngoscopic examinations ne- 
cessary. It is noticed during the contraction for opening 
the tube: First, that the velum palati does not change 
either its position or shape, in fact, that it remains unmoyed ; 
and further that it does not become tense, but hangs as soft 
and flaccid to the touch as at ordinary times of rest. Secondly, 
that the only parts which do move are the two posterior pillars 
of the pharynx; and their motion is ample and decided and 
altogether unmistakeable. They both move inwards simul- 
taneously towards the middle line, moving from their old posi- 
tion from one-half to three-fourths of an inch. This action is 
not spasmodic, but perfectly steady, and can be sustained for 
some considerable time at will, the pillars maintaining their 
new position all the while. 

Now I am quite satisfied and certain that during this 
period the Eustachian tube is open. It will be noted that 
from the flaccid condition of the velum, and also from the fact 
of its position and form remaining unaltered, the tensor and 
levator palati can have no participation in the opening of the 
tube, and that the muscles most evidently concerned are the 
palato-pharyngel. 

Another point to which I wish to call attention is the sound 
which accompanies the opening of the Eustachian tube. It is 
a sharp crackling sound, which is referred to some part of the 
tympanum, or perhaps to the membrane itself. This, I have no 
doubt whatever, is caused by the separation of the walls of the 
Eustachian tube; I have not succeeded in imitating it in the 
dead human subject, but it can be very readily done in the 
sheep. By taking hold of the fold of mucous membrane, which 
half covers the lumen, and drawing it gradually inwards, the 
tube is opened, and at the moment of separation of its walls a 
sound is heard closely resembling that which I have described. 
‘The sound can be heard by anybody at the commencement of 
the act of swallowing, and forms the prelude to a series of 
noises arising from the moving of mucus, &c. about the pos- 


ee = 


| 


OPENING AND SHUTTING OF THE EUSTACHIAN TUBE. 131 


terior nares and pharynx. I find it is most distinct when a 
bolus of tolerably dry food is swallowed. 


On examining the anatomy of the parts, the appearances 
presented during the opening of the tube will be readily under- 
stood. The cartilagmous continuation of the Eustachian tube, 
or salpynx, presents at its upper part a massive lobe, to this is 
attached the tendon of the salpyngo-pharyngeus. The direc- 
tion of this muscle from above is downwards and a little out- 
wards when the palato-pharyngeus is at rest, and its action in 
this state would be to press the internal lobe of the salpynx 
inwards towards the orifice; thus assisting by its tonicity the 
elasticity of the cartilage in keeping the tube closed. The two 
muscles upon which the opening of the Eustachian tube depends 
are the salpyngo-pharyngeus and the palato-pharyngeus. ‘The 
former muscle, as before explained, is attached above to the 
lobe of the salpynx by a tendon, and below its fibres mix with 
those of the palato-pharyngeus; it has a separate existence, 
however, for a distance of about an inch and a half. The 
palato-pharyngeus is divisible into two parts, a lower vertical 
and an upper curved one, arching inwards towards its fellow on 
the other side; when the muscle contracts it is evident. that 
the curved part becomes straighter, and that the straight part 
is drawn inwards; and as the salpyngo-pharyngeus arises from 
the lower part its origin is also carried inwards. The effect of 
this is to give the action of the salpyngo-pharyngeus a new 
direction, such as to pull the lobe of the salpynx towards the 
middle line and out of the orifice of the Eustachian tube, thus 
opening the cavity of the tube. This is the rationale of the 
approximation of the posterior pillars of the pharynx. 

Of the other muscles around this part of the pharynx nearly 
all have at various times been stated to have an opening or 
closing effect on the Eustachian tube. The tensor-palati passes 
backwards outwards and upwards past the inner edge of the 
salpynx, but does not seem to be attached to the salpynx, or to 
be attached in such a manner as to open the tube at all. Lower 
down lies the levator-palati. This muscle may perhaps have 
some little action in opening the tube when it contracts. 
Slightly above its middle point it is crossed by the salpyngo- 

eel 


132 MR YULE. MECHANISM OF THE EUSTACHIAN TUBE. 


pharyngeus; and it possibly may assist, when its diameter is 
increased by contraction, in giving to the salpyngo-pharyngeus 
its new direction; but that this action is very insignificant is 
shown by the fact, that during the opening of the Eustachian 
tube, the velum-palati remains flaccid. 

In the sheep the salpynx has a different form from that in 
man, the chief peculiarity being the absence of the bluff mass 
of cartilage on its inner edge. The free edge is composed of a 
thin flap or fold of connective tissue, covered by mucous mem- 
brane. On examining it from the inside, by making a longi- 
tudinal section of the head in the median plane, it will be seen 
that the free edge of the salpynx projects very little—scarcely 
at all above the surface of the mucous membrane. The orifice 
of the tube is closed, most distinctly so, and is covered by a 
layer of mucus. It is also to be noticed, that the free fold of 
mucous membrane passes directly downward to the posterior 
pillars of the fauces. Now the contraction of the palato- 
pharyngei draws this fold of mucous membrane inward and 
opens the tube. This action is easily imitated in the dead 
subject. 

For assistance in the dissections I am much indebted to 
Dr Wilson of the Cambridge University school of Anatomy. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE. 


Fig. 1. Cavity of the pharynx viewed from the right side in 
Man. A. Hard palate. B. Velum Palati. C. Azygos Uvule. 
D. Tensor Palati. E. Levator Palati. FF. Palato-pharyngeus. 
G. Salpyngo-pharyngeus uniting below with the palato-pharyngeus. 
K. Lateral cartilaginous lobe of the Salpynx. L. Tendinous inser- 
tion of the salpyngo-pharyngeus. 

Fig. 2. Anterior view of the pharynx during rest. A. Ante- 
rior pillars of the Fauces. B. Posterior pillars of the Fauces. 

Fig. 3. Anterior view of the pharynx during the opening of 
the Eustachian Tube. Letters as in Fig. 2 


Fig. 4. Anterior view of the Eustachian Tube in the Sheep 
when closed. 


Fig. 5. Ditto, when open. 


_— 
— c 


—— 


tees 


NOTE ON A BIDENTAL SKULL OF A NARWHAL. 
By PRoFressoR TURNER. 


Mr J. W. CLark of Cambridge, in his excellent notes* on skulls 
of the Narwhal, in which two developed tusks have been found, 
refers to a statement made by Dr R. Brown, in his account of 
the Cetaceans of the Greenland Seas (P. Z S. 1868, p. 353), 
who says, “ Among other double-horned skulls which have been 
preserved, there is a fine specimen, presented by Captain Gra- 
ville, in the Trinity House, Hull—one of the teeth is 3’ long, 
and the other 4’.”. Mr Clark, being desirous of obtaining fuller 
information respecting this specimen, wrote to the Curator of 
the Hull Literary and Philosophical Society, who replied that 
no skull of the Narwhal could be found in the Museum of the 
Trinity House, and on enquiring of a friend of the Gravilles, 
he could not hear that such a skull had been in their pos- 
session. 

As I had some recollection of hearing my former pupil, Mr 
Charles Edward Smith, who acted as Surgeon to the whaling 
ship “Diana” on her disastrous voyage, when Captain Graville and 
others of her seamen died of cold and hunger, speak of a two- 
horned skull of a Narwhal in the possession of Captain Graville, 
I took the opportunity, as he was passing through Edinburgh in 
the month of July last, of asking him to give me some account 
of the specimen. Mr Smith very kindly complied with my 
request, and furnished me with the following note :— 

“ July, 1866. I went ashore to the Esquimaux settlement 
at Button Point, on the north side of Pond’s Bay, to barter 
knives and ammunition for Narwhals’ horns. The Esquimaux 
brought out of a pool of water the skull of a Narwhal with the 
two tusks projecting from the upper jaw, one was 7 ft. 4 in. 
long, the other 7 ft. 1in., and the points were unbroken. The 
tusks were not parallel, but diverged from each other, so that 
a man could stand between them at their free ends. When 
Captain Graville saw this skull he claimed it as his perquisite; 


1 Proc, Zool. Soc, of London, Jan. 17, 1871. 


134 PROF. TURNER. BIDENTAL SKULL OF A NARWHAL. 


and in the month of September, about three months prior to 
his death on board the ‘ Diana’ from exhaustion, he cut the two 
tusks out of the skull. JI may add that I was much distressed 
at witnessing the destruction of this specimen, and interposed. 
in vain to save it.” 

There can, I think, be little doubt that two of the Narwhal 
tusks, which Mr Clark states were shown him by Mr Wareham, 
the dealer in curiosities, who had bought them out of the 
* Diana,” and who had been informed by the mate “ that two 
of them were taken out of the same skull,” were the teeth ob- 
tained from that particular cranium, the destruction of which 
Mr Smith has given me an account of. 


AN ABNORMAL ISCHIO-TROCHANTERIC LIGAMENT. 
By Tuomas Dwicut, Junr., M.D., of Boston, United 
States of America, Professor of Anatomy at the Medical 
School of Maine. (Plate VIL, Fig. 1.) 


THE anomaly was observed in February, 1873, on a male sub- 
ject of large size and of remarkable muscular development. 
In the left hip a smooth and glistening tendon (A in figure) 
arose, above the tuberosity of the ischium, from the outer edge 
of the cartilaginous surface over which the tendon of the obtu- 
rator internus plays, and ran outward to be inserted into the 
anterior part of the digital fossa. At its origin it was one- 
eighth of an inch distant from the capsule, and it remained dis- 
tinct from it for the first half of its course. After joining the 
capsule the tendon expanded laterally, but without at all losing 
its individuality. Below this there was another band (B in 
figure), closely connected with the capsule, from which it re- 
ceived in its lower border a broad band of circular fibres. B is, 
no doubt, an uncommonly well-marked instance of Barkow’s 
ischio-capsular ligament’; but the upper band (A), on account 


1 Vide Henle’s Banderlehre. 


DR DWIGHT. ABNORMAL ISCHIO-TROCHANTERIC LIGAMENT. 135 


of its denser structure, its slighter connection with the capsule, 
and its want of union with any of the circular fibres, cannot be 
considered a similar hypertrophy, and admits, moreover, of a 
more plausible explanation. As there can be little question 
that in many positions of the leg the obturator internus plays 
the part of a ligament restraining the great trochanter; as fur- 
ther, in human anatomy at least, the gemelli are practically 
parts of this muscle, their edges usually meeting under cover 
of its tendon; and as the anomalous band arose close beneath 
the gemelli, was inserted near the obturator internus, and must 
have had a perfectly similar limiting function, it appears most 
natural to consider it a repetition of that muscle. After the 
drawing had been made, the joint was opened through the wall 
of the pelvis for the examination of the round ligament, which 
was found larger than usual. 

The subject presented some other anomalies, all of which 
were on the side of excessive development. The clavicles 
were very strong and much curved; the sternal ends were pro- 
longed backward as strong processes, and each bone had a true 
synovial articulation with the first rib. The left semi-tendi- 
nosus gave off a strong tensor fasciee suralis. 


DEPRESSIONS IN THE PARIETAL BONES OF AN 
ORANG AND IN MAN—SUPERNUMERARY MO- 
LARS IN ORANG. By Prorressorn Humpury. (Plate 
VII. Figs. 2 to 6.) 


Fic. 2 represents the skull of an adult female Orang from 
Borneo, lately presented by Mr W. Vores, of Caius College, to 
the Anatomical Museum of the University of Cambridge, which 
shews depressions on the exterior of the parietal bones similar 
to those occasionally found in the human skull, and to which 
I have directed attention in my Muman Skeleton, p. 242. 
These depressions in the Orang are at the middle of the 
parietal bones, placed, almost symmetrically, on the sides and at 
a short distance from the sagittal suture. They look as if the 
bones had been indented when in a soft state by the pressure of 
two fingers; the deepest part, which is at the middle, is about 
a line below the level of the surrounding bone. The bone 
rises gradually to the circumference; and the whole surface is 
smooth lke that of the remainder of the skull. The depres- 
sion on the right side is irregularly oval, and is 14 inch in its 
longest diameter, which is parallel with the sagittal suture, and 
§ inch in its transverse diameter. That on the left side is 
more circular and about an inch in diameter. A quarter of an 
inch in front of this is another (a third) depression, more super- 
ficial and smaller, measuring 8 inch by 3, with the longest 
diameter antero-posterior, ‘There is no corresponding altera- 
tion in the contour of the interior of the skull; and there is no 
other peculiarity in the skull except the additional molar teeth, 
presently to be mentioned. 

Fig. 3 represents the calvarium of a human skull in the 
Cambridge Museum, in which the parietal depressions are very 
marked. They are ovoid, nearly symmetrical, slanting ob- 
liquely from the posterior and inner part of the parietals, a 
quarter of an inch from the sagittal suture and from its junction 
with the lambdoidal on the two sides, outwards and forwards, 
to about an inch from the coronal suture midway between the 
sagittal and the spheno-parietal sutures. That on the right 


PROFESSOR HUMPHRY. DEPRESSIONS IN PARIETAL BONES. 137 


side measures 32 inches in the longest or antero-posterior direc- 
tion and 2 inches in its greatest transverse diameter. That on 
the left side is 2% inches long and 14 inch in its greatest width. 
They are smooth, though finely pitted, and somewhat uneven 
both in surface and contour. The edges are bevelled; and the 
deepest parts, which are about the middle, extend almost through 
the skull, leaving only a thin semi-transparent plate of the 
inner table. They look as if a portion of the outer table and 
diploe had been sliced off, leaving the inner table, which pre- 
serves its proper level. At the middle of the sagittal suture is a 
similar depression or indentation,14 inch by é Grins of course 
both parietals. The interior of the skull presents. no alteration 
in its contour corresponding with these external depressions, 

Fig. 4 represents a transverse section through the parietal 
depressions and through the median sagittal depression. It 
does’ not indicate quite the thinnest part of the parietal bones. 
It shews that the inner table retains its proper contour. The 
bulging into the interior at the middle, which, it will be ob- 
served, does not quite correspond with the sagittal depression, 
has no relation to it, but is caused by the thickening of the 
skull in the vicinity of the median suture. 

I have met with similar depressions i in a few other instances 
in the human skull. They exist in the skull from an elderly 
woman in the museum of the College of Surgeons; and I 
recently found them in the parietal bones of a woman, et. 73’, 
who died suddenly of apoplexy, and in whom the skull, the 
calvarium especially and the frontal bones in particular, are 
thick and heavy from osseous deposit in the interior. The 
internal surface of the frontal bones is remarkably uneven or 
nodulated from this hard deposit, which would appear to have 
taken place recently, during the latter years at least of the 
patient’s life, and which was probably associated with, if not 
dependent on, shrinking of the brain. The deposit has occur- 
red upon the interior of the depressions as well as of other 
parts of the parietals, but does not appear to have taken place 


1 Dr Davis, in a note in the Crania Britannica, p. 6, mentions the skull of a 
very aged Chinese, in which the central area of the parietal bones is thinned 
and depressed, over an extent equal to four square inches, to about one-third of 
an inch deep in the central part. See also Paget’s Lectures on Pathology, drd 
Ed. by Turner, p. 101; and Rokitansky, Handbuch der Path. Anat. 11. 243. 


138 PROFESSOR HUMPHRY. 


upon the exterior of the skull. The specimen is in the Cam- 
bridge Museum. The depressions correspond generally with 
those in the specimen I have described; though the outline is 
‘rather more irregular, and the inner edge of each is 14 inch 
from the sagittal suture. There is also in this case a depres- 
sion at the middle of the sagittal suture, though smaller and 
shallower than in the specimen last described. 

I can offer no explanation of the occurrence of these parietal 
depressions or connect them with anything of embryological or 
morphological interest, and I have not met with them in any 
other animal besides this Orang and Man. They appear to be 
due to an imperfection in the ossifying processes in consequence 
of which this part of the skull is left thin, or, it may be, if the 
specimen of the Peruvian, presently to be mentioned, is an in- 
stance of the kind, perforated. They are not necessarily conge- 
nital. It may be that the thinness is due to a want of proper 
balance between the bone growth on the exterior of the skull 
and the bone absorption on the interior, which accompany and 
are caused by the enlargement of the brain, and which effect 
the requisite enlargement of the cranial cavity after the sutures 
are closed. But why the deficiency should especially mani- 
fest itself at this part, on either side, I cannot tell. Their po- 
sition is not at the parietal protuberances, where ossification 
commences, or at the sagittal suture, where it terminates, or at 
the parietal foramina, which are sometimes preternaturally 
large. As we have seen, it is, in some instances, associated with 
similar thinness in the course of the sagittal suture; and there 
may be an approach to the same thing in other parts of the 
calvarium, when it does not exist in this region of the parietal 
bones. Thus in a skull in the Cambridge Museum there is a 
wide shallow groove in the situation of the hinder part of the 
sagittal suture, which is continued, on either side, in the course 
of the lambdoidal suture; and in the skull of a South Austra- 
lian, in the same museum, there is a slight depression in the 
frontal bone, on either side of the median line, corresponding in 
position and appearance with those I have described in the pa- 
rietal bones, but much less marked. Indeed I should not have 
noticed it had I not been close questioning the skulls in our 
museum in reference to this point. 


DEPRESSIONS IN PARIETAL BONES OF ORANG AND MAN. 139. 


These parietal depressions commonly exist on the two sides? 
and are symmetrical in position, and more or less so in form, 
size, and depth. They do not present any indications of being 
the result of disease. ‘They are certainly not the result of acci- 
dent. They may be caused by absorption of the outer tables of 
the skull. It is however as difficult to know why absorption 
should attack this region as why deficiency of formation should 
be manifested here. Pressure, interfering with formation of 
the bone or inducing its absorption, would cause such depres- 
sions. But whence the pressure? Clearly not from wens or 
other cysts or morbid growths; and I am not acquainted with 
any ordinary or extraordinary influence that would be likely to 
produce the effect. 

The depressions have a practical bearing, forasmuch as they 
might lead to the supposition, after an accident, that there was 
depression of the bone, or they might be supposed to indicate 
that there had been loss of bone after accident or disease fol- 
lowed by imperfect reparation. This mistake seems to have 
been made in the case of the specimen in the museum of 
St Thomas’ Hospital, referred to by me (loc. cit. p. 243). In the 
skull of an ancient Peruvian, in the Cambridge Museum, there 
is a slight depression in the usual position in the right parietal 
bone; and in the corresponding situation of the left parietal 
bone there is a large circular, uneven, slightly depressed space 
in which at one part the depression is deeper; and at two other 
parts in the same area the depression extends quite through 
the skull, giving rise to two holes with sharp edges and bevelled 
outer margins. The interior of skull presents, so far as I can 
see through the foramen magnum, no alteration, except the 
perforations. Now, in this case, it is extremely difficult to de- 
cide whether or not the superficial and the deeper depressions 
and foramina on the left side are congenital, as is probably the 
depression in the corresponding situation on the opposite side, 
or whether they are the result of accident or disease. Gall ap- 
pears to have possessed “the skull of a full-grown man, whose 
exterior lamella of the os bregmatis on both sides had been 


1 Jn my treatise On the Human SkeletonI mention the case of an infant born 
with a depression in the right parietal bone, which I thought to be of the same 
nature es those I am describing; but the examination was made in the living 
child, and I could not therefore form any decided opinion respecting it. 


140 PROFESSOR HUMPHRY. 


broken by Levret’s forceps, and had not been replaced in its 
former situation. The whole form of the forceps is said to be 
distinctly seen on the outside, but on the inside of the lamella 
not the least impression is discernible, and consequently had 
been restored to its due form through the action of the brain’.” 
Doubtless, this was an instance of the depression in question ; 
and one cannot be surprised at the supposition being enter- 
tained, that the depression was caused by the pressure of the 
forceps, for the appearance of the exterior (in the instances I 
have, described) is suggestive of such a cause; though there is 
an absence of any corresponding projection in the interior of 
the skull. 

In a paper in Virchow’s Archiv, vil. 338, Dr Maier describes 
two specimens of this condition of the parietal bones, both from 
aged females, and regards it as the result of senile osteoporosis, 
the bone being yellowish, fatty, and porous, the porosity 
being, partly, due to enlargement and fusion of the Haversian 
canals. In neither of the specimens I have described is there 
any appearance of osteoporosis. The bone in the region of the 
depressions is as dense as it usually is, and as it is in other parts 
of the calvaria. And sections taken from the human specimen, 
represented in the figures, present, under the microscope, a 
normal appearance with corpuscles and Haversian canals of 
the usual size and appearance; and the bone structure shews 
nothing abnormal’. 


Another anomaly in this Orang’s skull is presented by the 
presence of an additional, or sixth, molar tooth situated behind 
the usual series on either side of the upper jaw and on the left 
side of the lower jaw. These teeth, though smaller than the 
other molars, are well formed, having each four cusps and the 
normal complement of fangs, viz. one in front and one behind 


1 Dr F. Gall’s System of the Functions of the Brain, extracted from C. A. 
Bode’s account of Gall’s lectures, p. 62. 


2 In Virchow’s Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur wissenschaftlichen Medicin, 


S. 1000, is a paper iiber die Involutions-Krankheit (malum senile) der platten 
Knochen, namentlich des Schiidels, in which specimens are described where the 
parietal depressions were accompanied with more or less porosity of the 
remainder of the roof of the skull and were associated, in one case, with thinning 
of the blades of the scapule and of the middle of the iliac bones, and, in one, 
with éhickening of the skull. The condition is regarded as the result of atrophy 
commencing on the exterior. 


DEPRESSIONS IN PARIETAL BONES OF ORANG AND MAN. 141 


in the lower jaw, and two on the outer and one on the inner side 
_in the upper jaw. On the right side of the lower jaw there is 
no trace of an additional or sixth molar, though there is nearly 
as much space for it as on the other side. Instances of such 
additional molars in these animals have been seen by others; 
though it has not happened to myself to meet with one 
before. They are of interest not only in connection with the 
fact of the presence of an extra molar (a third premolar) in 
the monkeys of the new world, but also with the fact that in 
some of the old world monkeys, as Macacus and Colobus, there 
is a tendency to occupy the space which the elongated alveolus 
of the jaw presents by the formation in the lower dental series 
of an additional or fifth cusp at the hinder part of the last 
molar, which is of large size. 


ON THE RELATIONS OF THE CONVOLUTIONS OF 
THE HUMAN CEREBRUM TO THE OUTER 
SURFACE OF THE SKULL AND HEAD. By 
PROFESSOR TURNER. 


SoME years ago I planned in connection with an investiga- 
tion into the arrangement of the convolutions of the human 
cerebrum, on which I was then engaged, a series of observations 
on the relations of the convolutions to the outer surface of the 
skull and of the scalp. Various circumstances have, however, 
combined to hinder me from carrying out this enquiry as fully 
as I should have desired. I have thought, however, that it 
might not be without interest to those engaged in the study of 
the anatomy and physiology of the human brain to record some 
of the leading facts, which I have up to this time ascertained, 
as a preliminary to a more extended memoir which I hope in 
due time to be ina position to publish. 

In this communication, I shall direct attention to -the 
general relations of the principal convolutions and sulci to the 
surface as I have observed them in the heads of adult men, 
and reserve to a subsequent memoir the relations of the corre- 
sponding structures in the female, and the variations in position, 
which to some extent occur in different individuals from 
variations in the configuration of the brain and skull. 

In conducting an investigation of this kind, it is in the first 
instance necessary to have a clear conception of certain well- 
defined landmarks, which can be seen or felt when the outer 
surface of the skull and head are examined. The external 
occipital protuberance, the parietal and frontal eminences, 
and the external angular process of the frontal bone, are easily 
recognised structures, the position of which can be determined 
by manipulating the scalp, and still more readily on the 
surface of the skull itself. The coronal and lambdoidal sutures 
ean also be felt through the scalp in most heads, and on the 
skull itself the position of the squamous, squamoso-sphenoid 
and parieto-sphenoid sutures, and the curved line of the 
temporal ridge can also without difficulty be determined. 


PROF. TURNER. CONVOLUTIONS OF THE HUMAN CEREBRUM. 1438 


‘With the aid of these structures, we may subdivide 
and map out each lateral half of the surface of the skull or 
scalp into ten well-defined regions or areas, and then localise 
within these areas the convolutions on the outer face of the 
hemisphere. The line of the coronal suture forms on each 
side the posterior boundary of the pree-coronal or frontal region. 
A vertical line drawn from the squamous suture upwards 
through the parietal eminence to the sagittal suture lies 
almost parallel to the coronal suture and subdivides the area of 
the parietal bone into a post-coronal or antero-parietal, and 
a pre-lambdoidal or post-parietal. The squamous part of the 
occipital bone between the lambdoidal suture and the occipital 
protuberance and superior curved line forms the post-lamb- 
doidal or occipital region. 

But these regions may be subdivided into smaller areas. 
The temporal ridge starting from the external frontal process 
curves backwards across the pre-coronal, post-coronal and pre- 
lambdoidal regions to the lateral angle of the occipital bone, 
and subdivides each of these regions into an upper and a lower 
area. The lower areas may be termed the inferior frontal or 
fronto-temporal, the lower antero-parietal, and the lower postero- 
parietal. ‘lhe fronto-temporal area is bounded above by the 
temporal ridge, behind by the coronal suture, below by the 
fronto-sphenoidal suture. The lower antero-parietal region is 
bounded above by the temporal ridge, in front by the coronal 
suture, below by the squamous and sphenoido-parietal sutures, 
and behind by the vertical parietal line already referred to as 
subdividing the parietal region into an anterior and a posterior 
area, The lower postero-parietal region is bounded above and 
behind by the temporai ridge, in front by the above-named 
vertical line, and below by the posterior part of the squamous 
suture, and the parieto-mastoid suture. The upper area of 
the pre-coronal region consists of the frontal bone above the 
temporal ridge, and may be subdivided into a mid-frontal and 
a superior frontal by an antero-posterior line drawn back- 
wards parallel to the frontal suture from the superior orbital 
border through the frontal eminence to the coronal suture. 
The upper areas of the post-coronal and pree-lambdoidal regions 
consist of the parietal bone above the temporal ridge, and are 


144 PROFESSOR TURNER. 


bounded below by that ridge, above by the sagittal suture, and 
are separated from each other by the vertical parietal line 
already referred to. They may conveniently be named the 
upper antero-parietal, and upper postero-parietal areas. Eight 
areas may thus be defined on each side of the head situated 
beneath that portion of the scalp, which is so thin as to allow 
their extent and boundaries to be ascertained on external 
manipulation with a fair amount of precision. 

That part of the side of the head, however, which les 
below the line of the squamoso-parietal, sphenoido-parietal and 
sphenoido-frontal sutures, is so covered over by the thick mass 
of the temporal muscle that the determination of its limits on 
the head itself is attended with more difficulty. On the skull, 
however, it can be readily marked out, and may naturally be 
subdivided by the lines of sutures into the squamoso-temporal 
and the sphenoidal areas, which form the ninth and tenth areas 
on the side of the head. 

Before I proceed to state the position of the convolutions 
within these different areas, it will be advisable to determine 
the regions in which the great fissures are situated, which 
subdivide the hemisphere into its five constituent lobes, frontal, 
parietal, occipital, temporo-sphenoidal and the Insula. 

The Sylvian fissure commences immediately behind the 
posterior border of the lesser wing of the sphenoid bone, and in 
its course backwards and upwards, is covered by the great wing 
of the sphenoid where it articulates with the anterior inferior 
angle of the parietal. It then passes obliquely under cover of 
the anterior superior part of the squamous plate of the tem- 
poral, and appears in the lower part of the antero-parietal 
region, through which either it, or one of the small branches 
into which it not unfrequently divides, may be continued into 
the lower postero-parietal region. 

The fissure of Rolando lies in the post-coronal region, 
through which it passes from below obliquely upwards and 
backwards, so that it traverses both its upper and lower 
subdivisions. The distance of this fissure from the coronal 
suture varies in different brains. I have seen its upper end as 
much as 2 inches behind the top of the suture, its lower end 
14 inch behind the inferior part of the suture, but I have 


RELATIONS OF CONVOLUTIONS TO SKULL AND SCALP. 145 


also seen the upper and lower ends not more than 14 and 13 
inch posterior to this suture. 

The parieto-occipital fissure lies in the upper area of the: 
pre-lambdoidal region close to its sagittal border. Its exact 
distance from the apex of the lambdoidal suture varies, partly 
from variations in the brain itself, and partly from the not 
unfrequent variations in the mode of ossification of the upper. 
squamous part of the occipital bone. About 0°7 or 0°8 of an inch 
will express its average distance from the apex of that suture. 

The relations of the parietal eminence to the surface of the 
hemisphere are apparently very constant. In the specimens I 
have examined, the hollow corresponding to the cerebral surface 
of this eminence was occupied by the supra-marginal convolu- 
tion, which from this circumstance may appropriately be named. 
the convolution of the parietal eminence. 

As the fissure of Rolando, which I regard as the line of 
demarcation between the frontal and parietal lobes, extends 
obliquely upwards and backwards, in the post-corenal region, the 
great central convolutions which bound it in front and behind, 
and which we now name ascending frontal and ascending pari- 
etal, necessarily occupy a considerable share of its two sub- 
divisions. To define their positions more exactly, I shall now 
state the contents of each subdivision. 

In the lower antero-parietal area the lower third of the 
ascending frontal and parietal gyri are found, and from the 
anterior frontal arises, somewhat less than an inch behind the 
lower end of the coronal suture, the inferior frontal gyrus. 
Behind the ascending parietal, but separated from it by the 
intra-parietal sulcus, lies a small part of the supra-marginal 
gyrus or convolution of the parietal eminence. Below the 
ascending gyri extends a short segment of the Sylvian fissure, 
and quite at the lower and posterior boundary of the area a 
little bit of the superior temporo-sphenoidal gyrus appears above 
the squamous suture. 

In the upper antero-parietal area the upper two-thirds of 
the ascending frontal and parietal gyri, which extend close up to 
the sagittal suture, are found. From the ascending frontal 
arise the superior and middle frontal gyri; the former arises 
1:2 or 1°3 of an inch behind the coronal suture, the latter about 

VOL, VIII. 10 


146 PROFESSOR TURNER. 


an inch behind the same line. Immediately behind the upper 
end of the ascending parietal gyrus, in the neighbourhood of the 
sagittal suture, a little bit of the postero-parietal lobule may 
or may not be seen; and below this a small portion of the con- 
volution of the parietal eminence may appear. 

The contents of the pra-lambdoidal region are as follows. 
In the lower postero-parietal area lies the hinder part of the 
convolution of the parietal eminence, behind which is the 
angular gyrus, and below this the posterior ends of the three 
convolutions of the temporo-sphenoidal lobe. In the upper 
postero-parietal area the postero-parietal lobule occupies the 
region close to the sagittal suture up to the parieto-occipital 
fissure ; below it lies the upper portion of the angular gyrus, and 
a part of the convolution of the parietal eminence; in the more 
posterior part of the region the annectent gyri blend with the 
three convolutions of the occipital lobe. 

In the post-lambdoidal region, which is comparatively smal], 
the three convolutions of the occipital lobe succeed each other 
from above downwards. 

The pre-coronal region is entirely occupied by the frontal 
lobe. In the inferior or temporo-frontal area is situated a large 
portion of the inferior frontal convolution, but a small bit of the 
middle gyrus may be seen at its posterior superior angle. The 
middle frontal area corresponds almost exactly to the middle 
frontal gyrus, and the superior frontal area to the superior 
gyrus. If the line of demarcation between the superior and 
mid-frontal areas were prolonged backwards for about an inch 
beyond the coronal suture into the upper antero-parietal area, 
the extent and position of the superior and middle frontal 
convolutions would be still more exactly defined. The frontal 
eminence may lie opposite the sulcus between the superior and 
middle frontal gyri, or if this sulcus, as is not unfrequent, is 
bridged across by a small tertiary convolution, this may corre- 
spond to the eminence. 

The squamoso-temporal and the sphenoidal regions contain 
the anterior two-thirds of the convolutions of the temporo- 
sphenoidal lobe. 

The lobes of the brain by no means precisely correspond to 
the areas of the cranial bones, after which four of them are 


F 
{ 


RELATIONS OF CONVOLUTIONS TO SKULL AND SCALP. 147 


named. The frontal lobe is not only covered over by the 
frontal bone, but extends backwards for a considerable distance 
under cover of the parietal bone. If we accept, as I have else- 
where described', the fissure of Rolando as the posterior limit 
of this lobe, then the larger part of the post-coronal region 
corresponds with the frontal lobe, for not only does it contain 
the origins of the superior, middle and inferior frontal gyri, but 
also the ascending frontal convolution. The distance at which 
the fissure of Rolando lies behind the coronal suture was pointed 
out some years ago by M. Broca’, was referred to by myself in 
my essay quoted above, and has subsequently been described 
by Prof. Bischoff*, although the last-named writer, with Gratiolet 
and some other anatomists, regards the convolution which I 
have named ascending frontal, and not the fissure of Rolando, as 
the posterior limit of the frontal lobe. But even if this mode 
of looking at the ascending frontal gyrus were accepted, the 
frontal lobe would still not be wholly localized under cover of 
the frontal bone, for the superior, middle and inferior frontal 
gyri all arise behind the line of the coronal suture. 

The occipital lobe also is not limited to the region covered 
by the squamous part of the occipital bone, but slightly over- 
lapping the lambdoidal suture, extends forwards for a short 
distance into the back part of the upper postero-parietal area, 
and through the superior annectent gyrus reaches the parieto- 
occipital fissure. 

The superior temporo-sphenoidal gyrus, though for the most 
part situated under cover of the squamous-temporal and great 
wing of the sphenoid, yet ascends into both the lower antero- 
and lower postero-parietal areas. 

The area covered by the parietal bone, so far then from 
being conterminous with the parietal lobe of the cerebrum, is 
trenched on anteriorly, posteriorly and inferiorly by three of 
the other lobes of the brain. The convolutions of the parietal 
lobe are especially grouped around the parietal eminence, and 
in the interval between that structure and the sagittal suture. 

The Insula or central lobe does not come to the surface, but 

1 Edinburgh Medical Journal, June, 1866, and separate publication ‘‘ The 
Convolutions of the Human Cerebrum, topographically considered.”’ 


2 Sur le Siége de la Faculté du Langage articulé, Paris, 1861. 
3 Die Grosshirnwindungen des Menschen. Munich, 1868, 


10—2 


148 PROF. TURNER. CONVOLUTIONS OF THE HUMAN CEREBRUM. 


lies deep in the Sylvian fissure, and is concealed by the convolu- 
tions which form the margin of that fissure anteriorly. It les 
opposite the upper part of the great wing of the sphenoid and 
its line of articulation with the antero-inferior angle of the 
parietal and the squamous part of the temporal. 

In conclusion I may again state that the above description is 
not intended to be exhaustive, but merely to afford a general 
conception of the chief relations of the convolutions to the 
surface, neither does it take into consideration the variations 
which may be occasioned by sex, race, or individual peculiarities. 
It may however help the physiologist and pathologist to map 
out on the surface of the living head, in a more precise manner 
than they have hitherto been able to do, the position of the 
convolutions, and in so far be of some use in the study of their 
functions and diseases. 


————— 


TWO CASES OF PERSISTENT COMMUNICATION BE- 
TWEEN THE UMBILICAL AND PORTAL VEINS IN 
THE HUMAN SUBJECT. By J. A. Russett, M.A., M.B., 
Demonstrator of Anatomy, University of Edinburgh. 


Mr Frank CuHampneys, in the sixth volume of this Journal, page 
417, records a case of communication between the external iliac and 
portal veins through the umbilical vein, and gives references to 
previously recorded cases of communication between the portal vein 
and various veins of the abdominal parietes. 

In connection with this subject, the occurrence in the dissecting- 
rooms of the University of Edinburgh last summer of two cases of 
persistent communication between the umbilical and portal veins 
where there was no obvious junction between the umbilical veins 
and any veins of the abdominal wall, may be worthy of record. In 
the first of those cases, that of a male, where there was a cirrhosed 
liver considerably enlarged by fatty degeneration, the canal of the 
umbilical vein, when traced towards the umbilicus, was found to end 
within the abdominal wall in a cul de sac, just opposite the navel? 
From this point to the suspensory ligament of the liver the vein was 
larger than a goose-quill, and thin walled. Just before joining the 
anterior edge of the falciform ligament it had a trilocular dilatation, 
also thin walled, of the size of a walnut, continuous with its wall and 
opening into it. An injection of melted lard failed to show any 
communication with parietal veins. Immediately upon passing from 
the dilatation and entering the suspensory ligament, which had much 
fat between its layers, the coats became greatly thickened and the 
vessel gradually enlarged, until, in the hepatic fissure for the umbili- 
cal vein, where it became continuous with the anterior division of the 
left branch of the portal vein, it was as big as the end of the fore- 
finger. Branches of varying size entered the liver substance on both 
sides of the fissure. 

Proceeding from the dilatation and surrounding the vein were 
three pairs of thin-walled, highly tortuous vessels, as large as crow- 
quills at their origin. These vessels distributed branches to the fat 
in the falciform ligament, and in the umbilical and part of the portal 
fissures, and being diminished in size finally entered the liver sub- 
stance in close contact with branches of the hepatic artery and 
portal vein. The ductus venosus was quite impervious. 

In the other case, also a male with a very slightly enlarged liver, 
the connection between the portal and umbilical veins was exactly 
similar to the above, but the pervious channel of the umbilical vein 
did not reach the wall of the abdomen and only extended about 
a couple of inches from the liver, where it was suddenly obliterated 
within the falciform ligament, so that it formed, as it were, a diver- 
ticulum on the portal system. 


150 MR RUSSELL. UMBILICAL AND PORTAL VEINS. 


In many of the cases to which Mr Champneys refers it is probable 
that the patency of the umbilical vein was caused by its fusion with 
Luschka’s Vena parumbilicalis, and that this channel was afterwards 
enlarged by the obstruction due to liver disease. This could hardly 
be the case in the subjects noted above, as the umbilical vein was 
joined by no parietal vessels of any appreciable size, and such vessels 
could not fail to have been distended by a force sufficient to enlarge 
the umbilical vein, supposing the enlargement to have been due to 
liver-obstruction. 

In connection with the communication between the portal and 
parietal veins, it may be interesting to note that Dr Monro’s prepara- 
tion, referred to by Mr Champneys, is still preserved in the Ana- 
tomical Museum of the University of Edinburgh (L 1 Old Catalogue, 
and 346 New Catalogue). The liver which Monro described as scir- 
rhous is, however, more probably cirrhosed. 


ON A PECULIAR DIGASTRIC MUSCLE—A VARIETY OF 
THE OCCIPITO-HYOID. By S. H. West, B.A., Junior 
Student of -Christ’s Church, Oxford. 


Tue muscle is of interest, as having been hitherto noticed, so far as 
Iam aware, by only one anatomist, Mr Perrin, who has given a 
description of it in this Journal, v. 251. 

I have now seen it in an aged male subject, symmetrically placed 
on both sides, digastric, slender, but of considerable length. On the 
left side it arose by a tendon, which expanded and blended with the 
fascia beneath the origin of the trapezius, below the superior curved 
line of the occipital bone, and was crossed, just beyond its origin, by 
the occipital nerve. From this origin it ran horizontally forwards 
about half an inch below the superior curved line, having swollen into 
a fleshy belly about one-fourth of an inch in diameter, as far as 
the sterno-mastoid muscle, upon the external surface of which it 
continued its course for about one-sixth of an inch. Here it 
suddenly bent downwards at an angle of about 120° to a point 
about one-fourth of an inch from the apex of the mastoid process, 
and three-fourths of an inch from the anterior border of the sterno- 
mastoid muscle, upon the external surface of which it lay throughout 
the whole of this part of its course. Here it became tendinous. 
Bending forwards to lie again parallel with its former course, 1.e. 
horizontal, it became once more muscular, and was crossed by the 
anterior jugular vein. It then turned directly inwards over the 
anterior border of the sterno-mastoid muscle, lying behind the tendon 
of the digastricus. Here it received a special artery, which arose 
from the occipital just before the sterno-mastoid branch. Its fur- 


2 


MR WEST. PECULIAR DIGASTRIC MUSCLE. 151 


ther course was downwards and inwards. It crossed the ascending 
pharyngeal artery (the occipital artery in this subject rising very 
high up), and passing immediately beneath the external and upon the 
internal carotid, came into relation with the stylo-pharyngeus muscle, 
lying parallel, but external to it. Continuing its course with this 
muscle, it passed between the superior and middle constrictors of the 
pharynx, and running under cover of the middle constrictor blended 
inferiorly with the inferior constrictor on its posterior aspect. Some 
of its fibres decussated with those of its fellow, and with those 
of the inferior constrictor of the opposite side. It was contained in 
all its superficial extent in a closely investing sheath of fascia, 
which bound it down to the parts beneath. 

The muscle of the right side pursued a similar course, and dif- 
fered only in the smaller size of its muscular bellies. 

I was unfortunately unable to make out its nerve supply. It 
received its blood, as stated above, from the occipital artery by a 
special branch. The stylo-hyoid muscle was present on both sides. 
This muscle differs from those described by Mr Perrin, (i) in its 
curved course, (ii) in not being attached to the hyoid bone, and (iii) 
in receiving no accessory slips. Mr Perrin regards it as a differen- 
tiation of the stylo-hyoid of birds; and Professor Humphry, who 
refers to these peculiar abnormalities in his lectures (Grit. Med. Journ. 
June 21st, 1873), considers it as ‘‘an appendage, a superficial append- 
age, to the stylo-hyoid and digastric muscles,” and explains its 
peculiar digastric condition as arising from causes similar to those 
to which he supposes the two bellies of the digastricus to be due. 
“The peculiarities of the digastric are in great measure due to the 
continued blending of parts of two of these layers” (the layers into 
which he states the primitive muscular sheet to be subsequently split), 
“the posterior belly being derived from the deep layer, the anterior 
belly from the superficial layer, and the intermediate tendon being 
a remnant of one of the transverse septa of the primitive unstratified 
muscle” (oc. cit.). For a more detailed account and for figures of 
this muscle, I may refer to Mr Perrin’s paper quoted above. 


EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES IN CEREBRAL PHY- 
SIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY*. By Davip Ferrizr, 
M.D., &e. Professor of Forensic Medicine in King’s College, 
London. 


(Abstract by the Author.) 


THE paper contains the chief results of a research commenced with 
a view to test the accuracy of the views entertained by Dr Hughlings 
Jackson on the pathology of Epilepsy and Chorea. As is well known, 
Dr Jackson regards localised and unilateral epilepsies as dependent 
on irritating or discharging lesions of the convolutions about the 
corpus striatum. 

In order to put this theory to the proof the author determined to 
expose the brain in various animals, and apply irritation to the 
surface. The method of irritation was suggested by the experiments 
of Fritsch and Hitzig, who had shown that contractions of definite 
groups of muscles could be caused in dogs by passing galvanic cur- 
rents through certain portions of the anterior regions of the brain. 

The progress of the research ultimately led to the endeavour to 
establish the localisation of cerebral function, not merely as regards 
motion, but also as regards sensation and the other faeulties of mind. 

The paper in the West Riding Reports gives the result of experi- 
ments on rabbits, cats, and dogs, and is confessedly only a preliminary 
instalment of a more extended research. 

Since this paper was written the author has been engaged in the 
further prosecution of his inquiries, and at the British Association at 
Bradford, on September 19th, he gave an account of his more recent 
researches, at the same time entering more fully into the psychologi- 
cal explanation of many of the phenomena which are partly described 
in the published account. He has performed experiments on nume- 
rous monkeys as well as other animals, but reserves a complete 
account of his researches for the Royal Society. 

The method of experimentation which the author has adopted is 
to place the animal under chloroform, and gradually expose the 
surface of the brain by successive trephinings and removal of the 
skull by means of the bone forceps. In this way he has been able 
to expose the whole hemisphere. After removal of the dura mater, 
the points of blunted electrodes in connection with Du Bois Rey- 
mond’s induction coil are applied to the surface of the brain without 
injury to the cortical substance. 

The first experiments recorded have special reference to the 
production of epileptic convulsions; and the mode in which the 


1 West Riding Lunatic Asylum Medical Reports, Vol. 111. 1873. London, 
Smith, Elder and Co. 15, Waterloo Place. 


PROF. FERRIER. RESEARCHES IN CEREBRAL PHYSIOLOGY, &c. 153 


attacks begin, and the march of the convulsive spasms, are accu- 
rately recorded. 

’ It was found that in rabbits, cats, and dogs the application of 
the electrodes for a few seconds induced almost immediately, on some 
occasions after the lapse of a distinct interval, violent unilateral 
epileptic convulsions. When the electrodes were applied, one at the 
anterior, and the other at the posterior part of the hemisphere, the 
convulsions were complete and violent in the whole of the opposite 
side of the body. Asarule they commenced in the face, spread to 
the neck and upper extremity, and then invaded the hind-leg and 
tail. Dilatation of the pupil, clonic spasms of the jaws, foaming at 
the mouth, and loss of consciousness were induced when the fits were 
at their greatest intensity. 

- Occasionally the spasmodic convulsions remained localised in one 
or other limb, or in some one muscle or group of muscles, and fre- 
quently, instead of a hasty epileptic attack, a series of choreic twitches 
alone were manifested, without any affection of sensibility or con- 
sciousness. 

The march of the spasms is shown to be quite in accordance 
with the clinical observations of Dr Hughlings Jackson in cases of 
unilateral epilepsy in man. Peculiar variations in the mode in which 
the attacks commenced, depending apparently on the position of the 
electrodes on the surface of the brain, led the author to approximate 
the electrodes and to apply very limited irritation, in order to 
discover whether the convulsive spasms were not due to over violent 
irritation of localised centres in the brain, whose special function 
is to govern and direct the action of these muscles for definite 
purposes, possibly such as might indicate volition and intelligence. 

The results were such as to indicate, with a beautiful degree of 
exactitude, the localisation in certain definite and easily defined regions 
the cerebral centres for various apparently purposive combined 
movements of the muscles of the limbs, as well as of the tail, the 
facial muscles, and the muscles of the jaws and tongue. These are 
all situated in the anterior parts of the brain in advance of the 
Fissure of Sylvius, and the individual centres are marked off in the 
various external convolutions, of which woodcuts are given. The 
general plan is, that in the superior external convolution anterior and 
posterior to the crucial sulcus the various movements of the paws, legs, 
and tail are centralised, and it is shown that the differentiation of 
these centres is to a great extent characteristic of the animal’s habits; 
the centre from the fore-paw in cats being much more highly differ- 
entiated than in dogs and rabbits. 

The middle external convolution governs movements of the eye- 
lids, face, and eyes, while the inferior and the Sylvian govern various 
movements of the whiskers, angle of the mouth, depressors of the 
lower jaw, and tongue. 

In the convolutions posterior to the Fissure of Sylvius certain 
movements are described as resulting from irritation, viz. of the ears, 
eyes, &c. In the paper as yet published no attempt is made to 
explain the signification of these; but the author, from his later 


154 PROFESSOR FERRIER. 


experiments, indicated at the Meeting of the British Association that 
he had been able to obtain indications of the situation in these regions 
of the centres of special sense, sight, hearing, and smell. These 
results and conclusions are however not as yet detailed fully. The 
author indicates, in a note in the paper published in the West Riding 
Reports, that he had at that time explored the brain of the monkey, 
and satisfactorily localised the regions and the homologues of the 
centres already discovered in the brain of the cat, rabbit, and dog. 

One of the more important conclusions drawn from the experi- 
ments is, that the region which governs the movements of the mouth 
and tongue in cats and dogs is the homologue of what is known as 
Broca’s convolution in man, viz. the posterior part of the inferior 
frontal. 

This, it may be stated, is further borne out by experiments on 
monkeys. 

The pathology of Aphasia is thus rendered comparatively simple. 
The memory of words is situated in that part of the brain which 
governs the movements of articulation. It is shown, however, by 
the experiments, that the brain is symmetrical, and that the corre- 
sponding part of each hemisphere produces exactly the same effects 
on opposite sides of the body. Generally the action is unilateral 
and crossed, but as regards the mouth the action is almost bilateral, 
and hence disease of one or other side alone does not cause paralysis 
of the articulating muscles, because the other side is able to govern 
as before. The occurrence of loss of speech with lesion of the left 
side is attributed to the fact that most people are left-brained, and 
that therefore a lesion of the left side causes such an interference 
- with the voluntary recalling of words that the person is speechless, 
not because memory of words is utterly lost, as this exists in the 
undamaged side, but because he is unable to lay hold of the word 
which he wishes to express. With the education of the other side 
however the individual recovers the power of speech. During the 
interval of recovery of speech only automatic expressions or inter- 
jections are uttered, which are evoked by a sort of reflex action, and 
unconnected with volition. Among other points discussed is the 
hypothesis advanced by Dr Broadbent, that associated movements of 
the body are bilaterally coordinated in each hemisphere. The author 
thinks the experiments which he gives indicate not an anatomical 
but a physiological coordination through the media of the lower 
ganglia. 

The results of experiments in the corpora striata, optic thalami, 
corpora quadrigemina, and cerebellum, are also detailed. 

The corpora striata are shown to be motor in function, and to 
govern all the muscles of the opposite side; representing all the 
muscles directed by the hemispheres, and having a physiological sub- 
ordination to these as higher centres. 

The optic thalami are shown to have no motor function, and the 
author attributes the interference with motion, which is sometimes 
described in connection with disease of these ganglia, to affection of 
the motor strands with which they are in close relation. 


RESEARCHES IN CEREBRAL PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY. 155 


The corpora quadrigemina have a special relation to the eyes and 
also to the extensor muscles. 

Trritation of the nates causes great dilatation of the pupils. The 
action is crossed, but powerful irritation easily acts on both sides of 
the body. Trismus and opisthotonus are induced when these ganglia 
are powerfully stimulated. 

The cerebellum is shown to have a function which has never been 
allotted to it, viz. to be a coordinating centre for the muscles of the 
eyeballs. The author has only given the results of his experiments 
on the cerebellum of rabbits, but he has since extended and confirmed 
them in cats, dogs, and monkeys. 

The various lobules of the rabbit’s cerebellum are shown to have 
the power of directing the eyes in certain definite directions. 

These cerebellar oculo-motorial centres are brought into relation 
with the cerebellum as a coordinating centre for the muscles con- 
cerned in the maintenance of the equilibrium, and these functions 
are indicated as mutually depending on each other. 

A more complete exposition of the facts of experiment, and an 
account of the results obtained from a further investigation of the 
brains of the various classes of the vertebrata, is in process of pub- 
lication. 


TWO INSTANCES OF IRREGULAR OPHTHALMIC AND 
MIDDLE MENINGEAL ARTERIES. By Joun Curnow, 
M.D. Lond., Professor of Anatomy in King’s College, London. 


I. In the summer session of 1872 I dissected an interesting 
irregularity affecting the right middle meningeal artery. The foramen 
spinosum was much smaller than usual, and through it passed a very 
slender artery from the internal maxillary, which after giving off a 
few small twigs to the Gasserian ganglion, entered the hiatus Fallopii. 
The foramen ovale transmitted the inferior maxillary nerve only. A 
large artery arose from the trunk of the ophthalmic soon after it had 
entered the orbit, and passing out through the sphenoidal fissure 
divided into two branches which were distributed as the normal 
branches of the middle meningeal, except that they ran backwards 
above the inferior border of the parietal bone, which was consequently 
smooth, and without its usual deep grooves. In addition, a large 
artery was given off from the internal carotid in the cranium, and 
coursed backwards over the basilar processes of the sphenoid and 
occipital bones almost to the foramen magnum. This recurrent branch 
was also present on the left side, but the left middle meningeal and 
ophthalmic arteries were quite regular, 


156 PROF. CURNOW. INSTANCES OF IRREGULAR ARTERIES.- 


A less complete instance than this is depicted by Barkow’ (Tab. 
xvu. figs. 1 and 2), in which the anterior portion of the middle 
meningeal comes from the ophthalmic through the sphenoidal fissure 
into the cranium; but the posterior branch is given off from the 
internal maxillary and enters through the foramen spinosum. 


II. During the past winter session I met with an arrangement 
almost the exact reverse of the preceding. 

Besides its ordinary branches, the left middle meningeal gave off 
a large artery, which entered the orbit through the sphenoidal fissure, 
and from which all the regular branches of the ophthalmic arose, with 
the single exception of the arteria centralis retine. It ended ina 
long dorsal artery on the nose, running downwards as far as the tip, 
and supplying angular and lateral nasal offsets. The ophthalmic from 
the internal carotid was a very small twig; it passed through the 
optic foramen, gave off the arteria centralis retine, and terminated by 
joiming the posterior ethmoidal branch of the irregular artery from 
the middle meningeal. The trunk of the left facial was smaller than 
usual and ended as the superior coronary, from which proceeded the 
septal branch as usual. On the right side, the ophthalmic, middle 
meningeal, and facial arteries were quite regular. 

Anastomotic twigs between the middle Meningeal artery and the 
lachrymal branch of the ophthalmic are always met with; and 
Cruveilhier mentions the occasional origin of the lachrymal from the 
middle meningeal. Barkow figures an example of this irregularity, 
and I have also seen it. 

These anomalies are obviously due to the suppression of the main 
trunk, and compensatory enlargement of the anastomosing branch, 
similar to the mode of formation of the abnormal obturator from the 
epigastric, the dorsal artery of the foot from the anterior peroneal, &c. 
I have failed to find any reference to a deviation from the regular 
origin so extensive in this direction as those which I have recorded 
above. The only irregular origin of the ophthalmic described. by 
Quain (Pl. x11. fig. 8) is of quite a different type. In this the place 
of an absent internal carotid artery is supplied by two branches of 
the internal maxillary, which enter the cranium through the foramen 
rotundum and foramen ovale respectively, and from their junction the 
ophthalmic is given off. 


1 Comparative Morphologie des Menschen und der menschendhnlichen Thiere. 
5ter Theil. 


_ Note sy Epitors.—Blandin (Anatomie Topographique, p. 147) 
mentions an accessory ophthalmic artery arising from the middle 
meningeal, which sometimes also gives origin to the lachrymal artery. 
C. Krause states (Handbuch der mensch. Anat. p. 892) that he once 
saw the ophthalmic artery arise from the middle meningeal and pass 
through the sphenoidal fissure. Tiedemann and Dubrueil have also 
recorded similar cases. 


REVIEWS AND NOTICES OF BOOKS. 


The Anatomist’s Vade Mecum. By Erasmus Witson, F.R.S. Edited 
by G. Bucnanan, M.D. 9th edition, London, 1873. 


THE new edition of this well-known Student's Manual has been pre- 
pared by Dr George Buchanan with the assistance of Mr Henry E. 
Clark. To bring it up to the present state of knowledge, many addi- 
tions have been made both to the text and wood-cuts, 


Handbuch der systematischen Anatomie des Menschen. Von Dr J. 
Hente. 3rd vol. 2nd division, 2nd part. Brunswick, 1873. 


Proressor HENLE has now completed his great work on Human 
Anatomy, by the publication of the descriptive anatomy of the cere- 
bral and spinal nerves and the sympathetic system. Like all the 
previous parts, it is very fully illustrated by original drawings from 
dissections. Not only are the more usual arrangements of the nerves 
described, but reference is made to the principal variations which 
have been recorded by other anatomists.. The work constitutes the 
most complete treatise on human anatomy in any language. It has 
lost somewhat in unity by its mode of publication, as do all scientific 
treatises published in parts, with long intervals between the appear- 
ance of the different parts; for the earlier volumes are necessarily 
not so well posted up to the present state of the subject as the one 
just finished. So great, however, has been the demand for the earlier 
numbers, that the one on the bones has reached a third edition, and 
second editions of those on the ligaments, muscles and viscera have 
been issued. We may congratulate Professor Henle on having lived 
to complete so enduring a memorial of his learning, industry, and 
power of description. 


The Comparative Anatomy of the Domesticated Animals. By Prof. 
CHAvvEAU. ‘Translated and edited by GEORGE NEEL, Vet. 
Surg. Royal Engineers. : 


Tue reviewer regrets that in the notice of this work in the last num- 
ber of the Journal, in consequence of an oversight, it was intimated 
that there is an omission of the mention of the sources from which 
the drawings, which are not original, are derived. This, however, is 
fully done in a table of illustrations which immediately follows the 
table of contents. 


158 REVIEWS AND NOTICES OF BOOKS. 


The Harveian Oration, 1873. By Grorce Roueston, M.D., F.R.S., 
Linacre Professor of Anatomy and Physiology, and Fellow of 
Merton College in the University of Oxford. London, 1873. 


In this very able and characteristic oration, full of humour and 
quotation, and full likewise of evidence of assiduity and acuteness of 
perception, Professor Rolleston first expounds certain advances re- 
cently made in the anatomy and physiology of the circulatory organs, 
and gives an account of the ‘moderator band’ found by him in the 
heart of a cassowary, pointing out the homologous band to be not 
unfrequently seen in the human heart. Secondly, he gives “the 
as yet unrecorded history of one of the many attempts to rob Harvey 
of his rightful rank in the noble army of discoverers, which were 
made in the latter half of the seventeenth century.” It is the claims 
which have been put forward on bebalf of Walter Warner, the editor 
in 1631 of WHarriott's Algebra, to the discovery of the circulation 
of the blood. Having by a circuitous route come upon Walter 
Warner’s original MS., the Professor gives some quotations from 
it which point out “the real merits of the claimant before us,” and 
show that Harvey might have truly said 
‘“We were the first that ever burst 
Into that silent sea.” 

The oration concludes with a glowing eulogium of the scientific 
character, mental culture and style of Harvey, based upon a perusal 
and re-perusal of his works. 


The Convolutions of the Human Brain. By Dr ALEXANDER EcKER. 
Translated by Joun C. Gatton, M.A. London, 1873. 


In our Half-yearly Report on the Progress of Anatomy, rv. p. 157, 
we directed attention to Prof. Ecker’s Monograph on tho Cerebral 
Convolutions, published in that year, and we briefly criticized some 
of the statements contained in it. A translation of this Monograph 
by Mr Galton has now appeared, and will be found useful to those 
members of the medical profession, happily an increasing number, 
who are studying the convolutions of the brain, with the object of 
obtaining a more exact knowledge of cerebral physiology and patho- 
logy. Mr Galton has done good service in compiling a more com- 
plete bibliography than the author had himself appended to his 
Monograph. 


REPORT ON THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY. 
By Proressor TuRNER’. 


OssEous System.—Wenzel Gruber has prepared a Monograph on 
the Os Zycomaticum BiparTITUM in men and mammals (pamphlet, 
Vienna, 1873). He gives in the first Instance an account of the 
cases observed by other anatomists, and then proceeds to describe 
ten cases of subdivision of the malar bone in the human subject, 
which have come under his own observation, nine of which were 
in male crania, and one in a female. In five specimens the sub- 
division was on both sides, in two on the right, in three on the left. 
The malar bone was subdivided into a superior or orbital, and an 
inferior or temporo-maxillary part; the latter of which was always 
smaller than the former, and sometimes so small as to be little more 
than the inferior border of the bone. In all the cases the zygomatic 
process of the temporal articulated with both the orbital and temporo- 
maxillary portions. Gruber then describes an example of bipartite 
malar bone in Phascolomys wombatus, and the arrangement of the 
malar in various mammals.——Gruber also describes VARIATIONS IN 
THE ForRAMEN MENTALE (Keichert u. du Bois Reymond’s Archiv, 1872, 
738), and to the same Archiv, 1873, p. 195, ¢.s., he contributes a 
number of other VARIATIONS IN THE ANATOMY OF THE CRANIAL 
Bones, viz. a special ossification at the junction of the malar and 
superior maxillary bones; an unusually deep depression of the 
incisive fossa of the upper jaw; an adult male skull in which the 
pre-maxillary element of the left upper jaw was marked off by a 
fissure which extended from the posterior internal end of the palatine 
foramen to the posterior internal angle of the lacuna incisiva; a 
skull showing accessory processes of the upper jaw prolonged back- 
wards to make good the posterior border of the hard palate, which, 
on account of imperfect development of the hard palate, would 
otherwise have been deficient; two additional ossifications in the 
hard palate of a young male skull. On p. 208, a supplementary 
memoir to that on the os zygomaticum bipartituwm, already referred 
to.——In the same Archiv, p. 649, H. V. Jhering gives an account 
of the DEVELOPMENT OF THE FRONTAL Bone. He states that this 
bone possesses, in addition to the two chief centres of ossification, 
Six accessory pieces; the two least important of which are for the 
nasal spine and for the inner wall of the orbit in the region of the 
fossa trochlearis, the two more important on the external lateral 
angles of the bone. ‘The last are for a time independent bones, but 
as a rule are blended with the frontal at the time of birth. 
J. Balandin discusses the question of the CURVATURES OF THE 
Human Spine (Virchow’s Archiv, vit. 481). After an historical 


1 To assist in making the Report complete Professor Turner will be glad 
ie receive separate copies of original memoirs and other contributions to Ana- 
omy. 


160 PROFESSOR TURNER. 


introduction, he details his own observations and experiments, and 
concludes as follows: The thoracic curve has been observed by him 
at the 2nd month of embryo-life. The first indication of consolida- 
tion appears in the 4th month. He believes that it is conditioned 
in the first instance by the laying down of the skeleton, and that it 
is perfected by the pressure of the growing and expanding thoracic 
viscera. The cervical curve commences in the 3rd month of extra- 
uterine life, and is consolidated in the 4th to the 5th month; 
that is at the time when the infant sitting in the arms of its nurse 
raises its head and removes the chin from the thorax. The lumbar 
curve appears at the end of the first, or the beginning of the 2nd 
year. It is not usually consolidated until growth is completed. 
It takes place, therefore, at the time when the child assumes the 
erect position by the extension of the lower limbs on the trunk. 
Both the cervical and lumbar curves are occasioned by the action of 
muscles on the spine. 


Muscutar System. — P. Lesshaft investigates (Reichert u. du 
Bois Reymond’s Archiv, 1873, No. 1) the arrangement of some of 
the MusciEes AND FASCI# IN THE REGION OF THE URETHRA. He has 
dissected the perineum in 210 subjects, and eighty specimens of 
perineal organs after removal. His conclusions are as follows: The 
M. constrictor urethre membranacee seu Wilsoni encircles the pars 
membranosa, arises from the walls of the venous plexus of Santorini, 
lies on both sides of the urethra, and ends in the superior process of 
the septum perineale. The upper part of the muscle reaches the 
sides of the prostate. It acts as a constrictor of the urethra, and, 
from its attachment to the walls of the veins, as a relaxator penis. 
It is separated from the inner layer of the levator ani by a definite 
membrane. Three Mm. transversi perinei are situated between the 
inner wall of the pelvis and the perineal septum ; the superficialis 
occurs only as a rare anomaly in 7°‘74 per cent. of the subjects 
examined; the medius is wanting only in exceptional cases, it is 
the superficial transverse muscle of authors; the profundus is the 
most constant. They tighten the perineal fascia, and the profundus 
acts indeed as a dilatator urethre and compressor of Cowper’s glands. 
The JL transversus urethre is placed in front of the urethra; it 
arises from the inner surface of the descending pubic ramus, and 
ends in front of the middle of the urethra: one fasciculus commonly 
passes above the vena dorsalis penis to the fascia penis. It acts as a 
dilatator urethra, and contributes, by compressing the dorsal vein, 
and by tightening the fascia penis, to erection. The caput acces- 
sorium M, bulbo-cavernosus is an anomalous head of the J. bulbo- 
cavernosus, which arises from the tuber or ramus ischil: it les in 
the same layer as the Jf. transv. perinet medius. The pelvic fascia 
stretched between the pelvic walls, the rectum and the bladder, gives 


off on each side two lateral descending processes, an internal and an- 


external, and a median process. The internal obturator muscle 
lies between the side wall of the pelvis and the external descending 


process. The ano-perineal fascia is a prolongation of the fascia. 


REPORT ON THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY. 161 


glutea: it subdivides behind the border of the m. transversus medius 
into a superficial Jamina, which passes forwards into the fascia penis, 
and a lamina profunda, which ends in the pubic arch. The pelvic 
fascia, the anterior part of its internal descending process, its median 
process, the lamina profunda of the perineal fascia, and the lower 
inner portion of the synchondrosis pubis, form a capsula prostato- 
urethralis, in which the prostate, the membranous part of the 
urethra, Cowper’s glands, the colliculus bulbi intermedius, the 
Mm. constrictores, the Mm. transversi perinei profundi, and trans- 
versi urethre, the internal pudendal nerves and vessels, the pro3- 
tatico-urethral, bulbous and bulbo-urethral veins, are enclosed. 
In the same Archiv, p. 126, A. v. Brunn describes a variety of the 
MM. interosseous dorsal. manus II, which possesses a third head 
arising from the dorsum of the unciform bone. Henry 8. Williams 
compares (Trans. Connecticut Acad. of Arts, and Se. II., Part 2 
1873) the Muscres or THE Human AND CHELONIAN SHOULDER- 
GIRDLES. His object has been to show the importance of the posi- 
tions and relations to each other and to the axes of the bones of the 
areas of origin and insertion of muscles. The teres major and 
scapular part of the latissimus in man he regards as homologous with 
the chelonian teres major; the teres minor with the m. scapulo- 
acromio-humeralis; the deltoid with a muscle arising from near the 
scapulo-acromial angle to near the medial extremity of the acromion ; 
the supra-spinatus with the M. acromio-humeralis secundus, and 
M. coraco-humeralis secundus; the coraco-brachialis with the M. 
coraco-humeralis primus; the biceps with the M. coraco-ulnaris and 
M. coraco-radialis; the subscapularis with the MM. scapulo-humeralis 
secundus and tertius: the long head of the triceps with the chelonian 
muscle which arises from the rim of the glenoid cavity on the outer 
side, and which, after joining a bundle which possesses a humeral 
origin, is inserted into the dorsal side of the proximal head of the 
ulna. An abstract of a Memoir on the MrecuanicaL ConpbiTIons 
OF THE ResprravoRY Movements in Man, by A. Ransome, is in 
Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., Noy. 21, 1872.——G. R. Wagener concludes, 
from his observations on the SrRUCTURE OF TRANSVERSELY STRIPED 
Muscie (Schultze’s Archiv, 1x. 712), that the fibrilla is the ultimate 
constituent of the fibre. That all the forms of transverse discs take 
their origin only out of the subdivision of the contractile substance 
in different parts of the fibrilla, and that the intermediate discs 
(Zwischenscheiben) are not definite structures——An_ elaborate 
memoir by Rudolf Arndt, on the ENDING or NERVES IN TRANSVERSELY 
STRIPED MUSCLE-FIBRES, occupies upwards of 100 pages of Schultze’s 
Archiv, 1x. 481, and is illustrated by three large plates. He believes 
that he can distinguish between the mode of termination of the motor 
and sensitive nerves in a muscle. The chief difference between them 
being this: the motor-nerves are broad, medullated fibres which ter- 
minate within the sarcolemma, and are therefore intra-muscular, 
whilst the sensory fibres are narrow fibres, poor in medulla, and in 
part pale and non-medullated, which end outside the sarcolemma 
either in sensitive ‘plaques, or in excessively delicate penicillated 


VOL. VIII. VE 


162 PROFESSOR TURNER. 


filaments. These are extra-muscular, and not unfrequently the 
sensitive nerves encircle the muscular fibre. 


ConNnECcTIVE TissuE.—Arnold Spina relates Observations on the 
structure of Tendons (Med. Jahrb. 11. Heft 1873). After referring to 
the more recent researches on the subject, he describes his method, 
and then proceeds to give an account of his own observations, which 
may be summarized as follows :—The development of tendon may be 
considered in three stages. First Stage. Tendon consists of three 
fibrillary fascicles, between which run rows of solid cells. The cells 
are embraced by a substance that does not swell with acids, and 
refracts light strongly. When teased it appears in the form of 
thorn-shaped processes. A transverse section shows it in the form 
of a ring, which surrounds the ce!l and sends out membrane-like 
processes which separate the connective-tissue fascicles from each 
other. Longitudinal sections show this substance as a ring which 
surrounds the ellipsoid cells. Second stage. The connective-tissue 
fascicles have become thicker, and the rows of cells have become 
longer. The cells have become flattened to a domino shape, and 
towards the ends of the row they are seen to be gradually narrower, 
so that the row is pointed in shape at its extremities. The substance 
enclosing the cells has acquired a ladder-shape, the sides of which, at 
the extremities of the cell-row, are continued in a single line. But, 
besides, threads of the same substance are seen stretching along the 
middle line of the cellxow. ‘These cannot be considered as being 
anything else than the thickened cell-wall. These terminal and 
median threads are to be identified as elastic fibres. The rows of 
cells are no longer perfectly parallel, but come into contact with 
each other; the threads of one cell-row often becoming continuous 
with those of another. The sheaths of the connective-tissue bundles, 
visible only in the transverse sections, appear in this stage also as 
membranous processes of the cell-wall. Third stage. The rows of 
cells have changed to flat bands, some of which are striated longi- 
tudinally and transversely; others are non-striated. The striated 
appearance is produced by elastic matter which persists in the 
above-mentioned ladder-form. ‘These threads can be traced a long 
way into the fibrillary tissue, and can be diagnosed as elastic fibres. 
They form a wide-meshed net which penetrates the connective tissue, 
the meshes being the cause of the known bulgings of the tendon 
fascicles. Hn résumé.—(1) The elastic tissue of tendon takes its origin 
on the surface of the cells. (2) The fine sheaths in tendon are formed 
by membrane-like processes of the cell-wall. (8) The cellrows 
become striated and non-striated bands. 


EriraeLium.—P. Langerhans communicates (Virchow’s Archiv, 
Lvl. 83) some observations on stratified epithelium, more especially 
with reference to the distribution of epithelial cells possessing den- 
ticulated processes. He figures various examples from the cornea, 
rete Malpighii, ceesophageal and vesical epithelium. 


Pracenta.—F. Winkler communicates observations on the Human 
Placenta (Archiv fiir Gynaekologie, tv. 238). He describes his methods 


REPORT ON THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY. 163 


of injecting and hardening the organ. He considers that the feetal 
part of the placenta is of no architektonic importance, and applies the 
term Netto-placenta to the ideal organ as it would appear after the 
elimination of the entire foetal portion, whilst to the complete organ 
he gives the name Brutto-placenta. The Netto-placenta has a cavern- 
ous structure, bounded on the uterine aspect by the Basa/platte, on 
the feetal aspect by the Schlussplatte, between which the wide-meshed 
cavernous trabecular structure is situated. The uterine basalplatte 
or serotina consists of two layers, an external small-celled and an 
internal large-celled. The small-celled layer consists of a preponde- 
rating portion of intercellular substance, mostly homogeneous, but 
here and there streaked. It is through this layer that the separation 
of the mature placenta takes place. The large-celled layer contains 
the well-known colossal decidual cells imbedded in a sparse intercel- 
lular tissue. The intercellular substance increases In importance on 
the feetal aspect of this layer, and the trabecule, which are formed of 
homogeneous intercellular substance, with small, round, spindle, rarely 
star-shaped, connective-tissue corpuscles scattered in it, are continuous 
with and derived from this layer. Except in the cotyledonary septa, 
in which for short distances the large cells penetrate, the whole of the 
rest of the Wetio-placenta consists of this kind of connective tissue. 
The Sch/ussplatte is a subchorionic layer, and bounds the blood-caverns 
on the feetal aspect of the placenta; like the inner layer of the Basal- 
platte, it consists of homogeneous intercellular substance with cells 
scattered in it. Vertical trabecule extend through the placenta 
from the basal to the schlussplatte, from these vertical bands trans- 
verse or oblique trabecles proceed, to trace which outwards is almost 
impossible on account of their delicacy. The basalplatte, the schluas- 
platte, and the trabecles, bound the maternal blood-spaces, which are 
every where, except where large villi have broken through the wall, lined 
by anendothelium. The placenta possesses in its basalplatte, especially 
at the places of intersection of the cotyledonary septa, apertures 
through which the cavernous spaces within the placenta communicate 
with the venous sinuses of the uterus, which apertures open either 
directly or by a sort of vascular tube three or four J/m. long into the 
blood-caverns. Winkler believes that the histological detail supports 
the opinion of Virchow, that all the vascular spaces of the Wetto-pla- 
centa consist of ectatic capillaries with consecutive cavernous for- 
mations. He believes that muscle-elements exist in the layer of 
colossal cells of the serotina. He distinguishes three kinds of chori- 
onic villi: a. those which become obliterated and end in the schluss- 
platte, without ever penetrating into the blood-caverns: 0b. short 
vascular villi which end directly in connection with the blood-caverns 
lying immediately under the schlussplatte; only that portion of these 
villi which hangs free in the blood-caverns possesses a recogniz- 
able epithelial envelope: c. long and many-branched vascular villi 
which penetrate deeply into the placenta, some reaching as far as the 
basalplatte. These villi are either imbedded in the maternal tissue of 
the placental trabecule, in which case they are without epithelium; 
or they lie free in the cavernous spaces, and then possess the well- 


11—2 


164 PROFESSOR TURNER. 


known epithelial investment. In their whole extent the stems of 
the villi are intimately connected with the placental trabecule. 
He believes that a system of juice-canals (Saftcandlchen) permeates 
the connective tissue of the chorion, the gelatine of Wharton, and even 
the amnion, the epithelial layer of which possesses apertures like the 
serous investment of the diaphragm. He finds these juice-canals to 
be connected with the blood-vessels, as Carter (see this Journal, 
Iv. p. 97) had experimentally shown in other tissues. Winkler 
opposes the statement of Reitz that the blood-vessels of the villi lie 
in perivascular spaces. From the examination of a nine-weeks old 
abortion he describes the maternal part as consisting of a small-celled 
tissue in which many spaces exist, lined by a single layer of epi- 
thelium, which is often cylindriform in shape. These spaces he 
regards as utricular glands, and into them villi, presenting the usual 
epithelial investment, project, though without filling the space. Other 
villi projected simply into the maternal tissue ‘without being con- 
tained in a space lined by epithelium; he considers that these villi 
have burst through the walls of the glands in the process of develop- 
ment and growth of their various branches. By a continuance of 
this process of growth they then press against the walls of the mater- 
nal blood-spaces, and parting asunder the endothelial cells, project into 
the blood-caverns. As the villi in the mature placenta which are 
invested by the maternal tissues are naked, the pressure of growth 
must have made to disappear both the epithelium proper to the villus, 
and that of the utricular glands. He entirely disagrees with Fried- 
linder’s view, that utricular glands exist in the placental area, and has 
never seen a trace of a gland either in the serotina or placental trabecule, 
neither has he seen the double layer of cells on the villi which Jassinsky 
(Report 111. p.- 203) has described. C. Hennig publishes’ researches 
on the Human Placenta (pamphlet, Leipzig, 1872). He makes a care- 
ful examination of a uterus in the third month of gestation, in which 
he found no sharp line of demarcation between the placental and 
non-placental part of the fatal membranes. The uterine mucous 
membrane has considerable thickness, and in addition to a cavernous 
venous reticulation possesses glands both in the decidua vera and 
serotina. They disappear from the reflexa in the earlier months, and 
in the later months they are no longer recognisable with certainty 
beyond the placental area, the only indications of their existence 
being the cribriform apertures of the decidua; their ciliated epithe- 
lium is much more difficult to be recognised than on the free surface 
of the mucous membrane, and appears to be converted both in the 
serotina and vera into tessellated scaly epithelium. The chorionic 
villi consist of a gelatinous connective tissue containing corpuscles, of 
the fcetal vessels, and of a foetal epithelium consisting of a nucleated 
pavement epithelium, which sometimes peels off like a glove from a 
finger: this epithelium is the internal cells of Goodsir, the inner epi- 
thelium of van der Kolk. Further, in many localities, though he 
admits not universally, one or two other coverings are found: a 
maternal epithelium of serotina cells, the outer cells of Goodsir and 
van der Kolk, the gland-organ of Ercolani; and the wall of the 


hee SA erway 6. 


. 


REPORT ON THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY. 165 


maternal vessel—the external membrane of Goodsir and van der 
Kolk. The villi of the chorion grow through the reflexa and vera, 
and penetrate in the later months of pregnancy into the serotina. 
At the end of pregnancy the serotina forms the thin layer which 
covers the placental spot and the covering of the uterine aspect of the 
placenta, from which latter proceed the processes which penetrate 
between the cotyledons. Although on the inner surface of a uterus 
from which the placenta has just been separated the blind ends of 
young utricular glands are situated, the tubes of these glands cannot 
be seen in the placental part of the serotina. For not only the glands 
themselves, but the interglandular tissue, are converted in the latter 
half of pregnancy into a framework of delicate columns and tubular 
spaces between, and in which epithelial-like and often nucleated 
colossal cells are situated. These columns and tubular spaces arise 
partly from the basis tissue (Grundgewebe) of the placenta, indeed 
from the connective tissue of the serotina and partly from new-formed 
glands, which cannot however be recognised as such, as they are 
imbedded in the growing cells, and their epithelium is completely 
modified. The serotina cells arise partly from the endothelium of 
the young glands, partly from the connective-tissue corpuscle of the 
intermediate tissue, and probably from cells which have migrated 
out of the blood-vessels. The largest of these cells have several nuclei, 
as many as nine have been seen, which nuclei are disposed like a 
cylindrical. epithelium: other modifications of these cells are also 
described. Hennig concludes his account of the structure of the 
placenta with the following statement: ‘The chorionic villi reach 
in the second and third months the decidua reflexa, through which 
they grow, then they penetrate the vera, as Spiegelberg had already 
shown, and in the last months pass through the most inferior 
parts of the serotina, not only into the mouths of the glands, but 
into spaces in the intermediate tissue: finally, they penetrate 
the blood-vessels as when they enter the marginal sinus of the 
placenta.” In consequence of the observations of W. Turner on 
the placenta of Orea gladiator (Abstract in Report, v. 383 and vi. 439), 
and of Winkler and Hennig on the human placenta (Abstracts as 
above), G. B. Ercolani has been led to re-investigate the structure of the 
Placenta in the Mammalia (Mem. dell’ Accad. d. Scienze di Bologna. 
T. 111. 1873), more especially with reference to the determination of the 
part which the utricular glands take in the formation of the maternal 
part of the placenta and in the nutrition of the fetus. In his pre- 
vious very elaborate memoirs (Abstract in Report, v1. 439), Ercolani 
had maintained that the utricular glands furnish materials for the 
nutrition of the embryo only in the early period of its development, 
and that the villi do not penetrate into their mouths; but that sub- 
sequently a new maternal glandular organ is formed, consisting of 
secreting follicles, lined by a pavement epithelium, into which the villi 
of the chorion fit, and from the secretion formed by which the foetus 
is nourished. In his new memoir he describes additional researches 
on the sow, and summarises the differences between the non-gravid 
and gravid uterus of that animal as follows:—Ist. A want in the 


166 PROFESSOR TURNER. 


gravid of the well-marked rug of mucous membrane with numerous 
folds such as are seen in the non-gravid. 2nd. A remarkable increase 
in the gravid of the muscular layer and of the blood-vessels, especially 
those of the mucosa. 3rd. A diminution in thickness in the 
gravid of the glandular layer. 4th. A change in the internal super- 
ficies of the mucosa, which is smooth in the non-gravid, uniformly 
subdivided into fine ridges and furrows in the gravid uterus. It is 
into these furrows, which constitute the new-formed glandular organ, 
that the villi of the chorion are lodged. 5th. The utricular glands 
are more developed in the gravid, which he attributes to being more 
distended with contents, and to an increased thickness of the epithe- 
lium. In the non-gravid the cylindrical epithelium of the glands is 
twice the thickness “of that covering the free surface of the mucosa. 
In the gravid uterus the epithelium covering the free surface of the 
mucosa “is pavement-like when seen on its free surface. The glandular 
organ in the sow is not so completely subdivided into distinct crypts 
as was described by Turner in Orca, for the dissepiments or ridges 
between the crypt-like furrows are less perfectly decekpad Scat- 
tered over the surface of the gravid mucosa are circular areas circum- 
scribed by a raised border formed by the rounded ends of the minute 
ridges of the mucosa: in the centre of each of these areas the mouth 
of an utricular gland opens; the cylindrical epithelium of the gland 
contrasts with the pavement-like epithelial covering of the area itself. 
He considers that the mouths of these glands are plugged up during 
the early period of pregnancy by rounded growths such as Eschricht 
had described, which are not villi, from the surface of that part of the 
chorion which lies opposite the mouths of the glands; whilst in the 
later periods the hyperplasy of the connective tissue of the mucosa 
around the mouths of the glands completely obliterates their apertures. 
Hence he concludes that natural obstacles exist to the flow of the 
secretion of these glands out of their mouths, so that it cannot be 
absorbed by the villi, and does not take a part in the nutrition of the 
foetus. He admits however that in the mare and ass the utricular 
glands do secrete freely during the whole period of pregnancy. He 
meets the objection raised by Turner to the secreting function of the 
follicles or crypts of the new-formed organ, because they are lined by 
a pavement epithelium, by the statement that the objection is “eli- 
minated by the fact of the constant and complete change in the physi- 
cal and anatomical qualities of the epithelium in the uterus of the 
sow, which, from being cylindrical as it is in the unimpregnated 
uterus, becomes pavement-like in pregnancy,” and by the further 
statement, that there are other instances in the vertebrata of secreting 
organs with pavement epithelium, as the sebaceous, sudoriparous and 
ceruminous glands. As an additional illustration that the utricular 
glands are not concerned in placental formation Ercolani adduces the 
structure and mode of growth of the cotyledons in the sheep, in which 
in the non-gravid state the position of the future cotyledons is mapped 
out on the mucosa by areas in which the utricular glands are absent, 
though they exist in abundance at the borders of these areas. In the 
changes which take place during pregnancy a new formed glandular 


REPORT ON THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY. 167 


organ .takes place in the cotyledon by an abundant cell-production, 
producing follicles into which the villi of the chorion fit. He states 
that his previous observations on the production of w new-formed 
maternal cellular organ in the early and later stages have been con- 
firmed by Romiti in the intermediate stages. In opposition to Leydig, 
who holds that utricular glands do not exist in the Muridz, he states 
that he has seen them, though few in number, in the uterine mucosa 
of Mus musculus. They are simple, slightly sinuous, not very long, 
and have a cylindrical epithelium. The epithelium is shed from the 
areas to which the ova are attached, and a rich new formation of cells 
takes place, by which the ova are embraced: this formation is not 
derived from the utricular glands, because in these localities they lose 
their internal epithelium during pregnancy, are augmented in volume, 
and show in their interior an amorphous transparent substance. In 
the non-placental parts of the mucosa the glands undergo no change. 
The Hydroperion in the human female possesses a nutritive function, 
and is secreted by the utricular glands in the earliest period of gesta- 
tion. The disappearance of the hydroperion, and the impossibility of 
demonstrating utricular glands in the later period, he considers as 
correlated conditions. He believes, in opposition to Hennig, that the 
utricular glands in the human female take no part in the formation of 
the placenta. A, H. Garrod notes (Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., Nov. 
19, 1872) some points on the Placenta of the Hippopotamus. The 
placenta is a strong cylindrical bag 34 feet long. The bag had rup- 
tured during parturition at the end opposite the os uteri. The outer 
surface of the bag is uniformly covered with villi of a bright red 
colour, at the closed end there is no reduction in their number, but 
at the ruptured end they are paler and more scattered. The umbili- 
cal cord is attached to the placenta about halfway between its two 
ends. Itis 1} foot long and 1} inch in diameter in the middle, and gets 
larger as it approaches its attachment, near which there are many 
spherical bodies, as big as peas, yellow in colour, supported on short 
amniotic pedicles. In the course of a description of an early Human 
Embryo in the vesicular stage of development, C. B. Reichert (Archiv, 
1873, 127) states some facts about the Decidua. The embryo was 
believed to be at the 12th or 13th day. The ovum is completely 
enclosed by the decidua reflexa. The decidua vera is developed from 
the decidua menstrualis by the formation of cotyledonary elevations 
or islands in the uterine mucous membrane, and by a remarkable 
growth of primary and secondary papillary processes on the surface of 
these islands. At the margin of these islands the uterine mucosa is 
smooth, and shows most distinctly the widened orifices of the uterine 
glands. The cotyledonary walls of the d. vera form an equilateral 
triangle with the apex at the cervix uteri, and are separated by a 
median cleft into two halves; and a bilaterally symmetrical arrange- 
ment is indicated in the other islands. In the posterior wall, which 
alone was preserved, eight islands, more or less irregularly polyhedral 
and separated by furrows, were seen. The embryo was imbedded in 
the parenchyma of one of the islands. On separating it several small 
villi were drawn out of the ducts of the utricular glands. The decidua 


168 PROFESSOR TURNER. 


reflexa possessed on its inner concave surface utricular glands, although 
the villi had especially grown from the marginal zone of the ovum; 
likewise a short cylindrical epithelium, free from cilia, was found 
here which passed into the epithelium of the utricular glands. -The 
reflexa has only one independent wall in which the scar indicative of 
the closing in of the ovigerous chamber could be recognised, but in it 
no utricular glands could be seen: the remaining part in which the 
mouths of the glands were seen could not be separated by any line of 
demarcation from the parenchyma of the islands. The wall of the 
chamber next the embryo he names the basilar wall, and although in 
it utricular glands open, yet here, in the region of the embryonal spot 
of M. Coste, no villi pass into them. The view generally entertained 
that the reflexa is formed around the ovum resting on the vera by the 
elevation of a circular wall is untenable. It would appear from this 
specimen that the spot on the island, to which the ovum attaches 
itself, does not increase at the same rate as the rest of the island, in 
consequence of which a cup-shaped depression is formed which con- 
stitutes the basilar wall and marginal zone of the reflexa; a general 
growth of the free edge of the cup over the free surface of the ovum 
then takes place, which closes in the chamber and forms the free 
wall of the reflexa. The paper concludes with some observations on the 
stage of development of the embryo itself. 


Evpryotocy.—F. M. Balfour has recently published three inte- 
resting embryological memoirs (Quart. Journ. Mic. Sc. July, 1873). 
In one he relates the DEVELOPMENT AND GROWTH OF THE LAYERS OF 
THE BLAsTODERM OF THE HeEn’s Kec. He first describes the unin- 
cubated blastoderm as consisting of two layers of cells; a superficial 
single row of nucleated columnar cells, and a deeper layer of several 
rows of rounded non-nucleated granular cells, varying from ;4,5 to 
2009 Wech in diameter ; whilst quite at the bottom of the segmenta- 
tion cavity “formative cells” ~*- inch in diameter, and containing 
highly refracting spherules, are situated. 6 to 8 hours after incubation 
a hypoblast and a mesoblast are formed, whilst the superficial 
columnar layer forms the epiblast. The hypoblast is formed by a 
metamorphosis of a number of the cells of the deeper layer from their 
originally spherical form into flattened nucleated cells. Enclosed 
between the epi- and hypoblast are found numerous cells of the 
originally deeper layer, together with the “ formative cells,” which, as 
Paremeschko, Oellacher and Klein had previously shown, begin to 
travel towards the circumference and then pass in between the epi- 
and hypoblast. Contrary to the opinion of the above observers, 
Balfour believes that the cells of the mesoblast are derived, not merely 
from the “formative cells,” but both from them and the enclosed cells 
of the deeper layer, by a process of conversion into new cells, though 
as to the exact manner of conversion he is not quite sure, but thinks 
that the spherules of the original cells develope into the nuclei, whilst 
the protoplasm of the new cells is formed from that of the original 
cells. The mesoblast in the chick is formed coincidentally with the 
hypoblast out of apparently similar segmentation cells, A kind of 


REPORT ON THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY. 169 


fusion, as development goes on, takes place between it and the epiblast 
along the line of the primitive streak, to form the axis-string of His. 
Its growth is effected by means of the “ formative cells,” which rapidly 
increase, probably by division, and act as carriers of food from the 
white yolk to the mesoblast, till the formation of the vascular area, 
when they are no longer necessary. The growth of the hypoblast is 
by direct conversion, cell for cell, of the white yolk spheres into hypo- 
blast cells. The epiblast cells increase entirely by division, and the 
new material is most probably derived directly from the white yolk. 
In his second memoir Balfour supports, in opposition to the opinion 
generally entertained by embryologists, the view originally propounded 
by Dursy (Der Primitivstreif des Hiihnchens, Lahr, 1866), that THe 
PRIMITIVE GROOVE Is A TEMPORARY STRUCTURE, and has no connection 
with the development of the neural canal, or indeed with any part of 
the future chick. This groove is distinguished in transverse sections 
by the epiblast and mesoblast being fused together beneath it, by the 
epiblast not becoming thinner where it lines the groove, and by the 
mesoblast beneath it never showing any sign of being differentiated 
into a chorda dorsalis or other organ. Near the time when the 
primitive groove has reached its full length, there appears at about 
the 16th hour, or a little later, altogether in front of, and non- 
continuous with it, a thickening of the mesoblast, which forms an 
opaque streak, the medullary streak ; and near the anterior extremity 
of the area pellucida arises a semicircular fold, against which the 
medullary streak ends abruptly. This fold is the head fold, and a 
groove which extends along the central line of the streak is the 
medullary groove, which subsequently forms the cavity of the neural 
canal. As the medullary groove increases in size, the primitive 
groove diminishes and is pushed backwards: at about 36 hours only 
a small and curved remnant is to be seen behind the sinus rhomboti- 
dalis, though Dursy has been able to distinguish it up to the 49th 
hour. The medullary groove widens and deepens, its margins, by a 
thickening of the mesoblast, are elevated into the medullary folds, 
which broaden and finally close in the neural canal. The epiblast 
becomes thinner where it lines the canal ; there is no fusion between 
it and the mesoblast as beneath the primitive groove; and the noto- 
chord begins to be differentiated out of the cells of the mesoblast. 
In his third memoir Balfour describes the DEVELOPMENT OF THE BLoop- 
VESSELS OF THE Cuick. He investigates the development of the 
blood-vessels in the area pellucida. He agrees with Klein in the 
fundamental fact that some of the cells of the mesoblast send out 
processes which unite with processes from other cells and form a 
network. The nuclei of the original cells divide, and at the points 
from which the processes start their division is especially rapid. Some 
nuclei acquire, especially at these points, a red colour and become red 
blood-corpuscles, others, together with that part of the protoplasm in 
which they are imbedded, become converted into an endothelium 
both for the processes and the masses of blood-corpuscles ; the remain- 
ing protoplasm becomes fluid, and thus the original network of cells 
is converted into a network of hollow vessels, filled with fluid, in 


170 PROFESSOR TURNER. 


which corpuscles float. From their mode of formation, the blood- 
corpuscles of the Sauropsida are, he believes, to be looked upon as 
nuclei containing nucleoli, rather than as cells containing nuclei, 
which would make them to be morphologically as well as functionally 
homologous with the mammalian red-corpuscles. This view of the 
formation of capillaries, by the hollowing out of an anastomosing cell 
network, agrees closely with the observations of Julius Arnold, of 
which the Reporter has given an abstract in Vol. vr. of this Journal, 
p. 437. Balfour also agrees with Klein in the mode of formation 
of.a secondary investment of the capillaries from cells of the meso- 
blast, situated in the meshes of the capillary system, which flatten 
and send out processes, and look spindle-shaped on section. The 
cavity of the heart is produced by a splitting or absorption of central 
cells of the thickened mesoblast of the splanchnopleure, while its 
muscular walls are formed from the remaining cells of this thickened 
portion. M. Balbiani communicates (Ann. des Se. Nat. 1873) an 
elaborate and beautifully illustrated memoir on the EmpryoLocy OF 
THE ARANEINA. E. Ray Lankester discusses (Ann. Nat. Hist., 
May, 1873) the Primitive CELL-LAYERS OF THE Empryo as the basis 
of a genealogical Classification of Animals. Regarded from the stand- 
point of their development, animal organisms may be grouped in 
three classes: A. the Homoblastica, in which there is no arrangement 
of the cell-units into definite layers. This class coincides with the 
Protozoa, the Sponges being excluded. B. the Diploblastica, in which 
two layers of cells forming the ectoderm and endoderm remain 
throughout life, as the basis of histological differentiation, To this 
class belong the Coelenterata, including the Sponges. C. the Triplo- 
blastica possess, like B, an ectoderm or epiblast, and an endoderm or 
hypoblast, but a third layer of cells, or mesoblast, appears between 
the two. This class comprises Vermes, Echinodermata, Mollusca, 
Vertebrata, Arthropoda. A. Gotte makes some contributions 
(Schultze’s Archiv, 1x. 679) to the DEVELOPMENT OF THE VERTEBRATA. 
This paper contains the results of his observations on the blastoderm 
of the trout’s egg. K. Slavjansky describes (Ludwiy’s Arbetten, 
1872) the RetrocressivE CHANGES which occur in the EPITHELIAL 
CELLS of the Serous Layer or THE Ovum oF THE Rassit. The 
protoplasm of the cells in the first instance begins to disappear, holes 
form in the cells which gradually enlarge, and what remains of the 
protoplasm forms a branched and anastomosing network within 
the cell, the branches seeming to radiate from a ceutral mass of 
protoplasm. The spaces between the meshes of the network are 
empty. Ina later stage the individuality of the cells is lost by the 
disappearance of their houndaries, and a protoplasmic network is 
formed by the junction of the meshes of adjacent cells with each 
other. He calls the degeneration reticular, and considers it to be a 
physiological prototype of the pathological changes in epithelium seen 
by Wagner in cases of croup and diphtheria, 


Matrormations.—M. Flesch describes (Virchow’s Archiv, Lvit. 
289) a malformation of the thorax, in which there is a depression 


REPORT ON THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY. 171 


of the sternal wall, and a diminution of the sterno-vertebral dia- 
meter of the chest, the transverse diameter is, however, increased. 
C. C. Th. Litzmann gives an account (Archiv fiir Gynackologie, 
Iv. 266) of a woman, aged 24, who died in child-bed, and in whom 
there was extroversio vesicae, and non-union of the pubic bones at the 
symphysis. P. Gervais in his Journal, u. 1873, gives an account 
of Polygnatic and Heterognathic Monsters. —— R. Hein describes 
(Virchow’s Archiv, Lv. 326) a foetus in which through defect of the 
anterior-wall of the abdomen there was ectopia viscerum and imperfect 
development of the extremities. R. Jaensch describes a specimen 
of pregnancy in a rudimentary uterine cornu (Virchow’s Archiv, 
Lyi. 185). The woman died about the 4th month from rupture 
and internal hemorrhage, and on post-mortem examination the left 
uterine cornu was found to be pregnant. In this case no communica- 
tion was found between the pregnant horn and the right uterus, 
so that it agrees closely with the two cases described by W. Turner in 
Edinburgh Med. Jowrn. May, 1866. The author adopts the hy- 
pothesis, supported by Turner, of the mode in which impregnation 


took place, viz. by an extra-uterine transmigration of the seminal 
fluid. 


Nervous System.—V. Butzke investigates (Archiv f. Psychiatrie, 
1872, ut.) the Minute Structure oF THE CEREBRAL CONVOLUTIONS. 
The nerve-cells possess a longitudinal striation, a character which 
the author considers to be distinctive of nerve-cells. The axile 
prolongation of Deiters either joins the cell directly, or through the 
intermediation of an offshoot from the base of the cell. He has 
never seen any of the other processes of the cell continued into 
nerve-fibres. He thinks that these processes divide, and form very fine 
fibrille, which constitute a terminal network. He also investigates 
the cell-forms of the Neuroglia.——Gerlach and E. Rindfleisch dis- 
cuss (Centralblatt, 1872, 273 and 277) the mode of TERMINATION of the 
NERVES in the THE GREY CorTEX OF THE CEREBRUM. Gerlach holds 
that the non-medullated nerve-fibres of the cortex, which possess a 
transverse direction, form a wide-meshed network along with the 
radiating fibres situated in the plane of the pyramidal cells. These 
meshes are occupied by an extremely fine secondary network of 
delicate non-medullated fibrille. In this network the protoplasmic 
prolongations of the nerve-cells also end; so that it forms the 
medium of connection between the nerve-fibres and ganglion cells. 
Rindfleisch does not admit the very fine network of fibrille which 
Gerlach describes, but considers that the nerve-fibres, after a series 
of dichotomous divisions, terminate in the granular amorphous 
material of the grey matter in a penicillated ramification of very 
minute fibrille. The ends of the branched processes of the pyramidal 
cells also terminate, he believes, in the same amorphous material, 
which acts therefore as the medium of communication between 
nerve-cells and nerve-fibres. Franz Boll has published (Archiv 
fiir Psychiatrie, tv. and separate pamphlet, Berlin, 1873) an elaborate 
memoir on the HistoLocy AND HIsToGENESIS OF THE CENTRAL 


172 PROFESSOR TURNER. 


OrGANS OF THE Nervous System. In his first chapter he discusses 
the nature of the connective tissue of these organs, and in succeeding 
chapters the minute structure of the nerve-elements in the spinal 
cord, the white substance of the brain, and the grey matter of the 
cerebrum and cerebellum. He examines also the perivascular and 
epicerebral spaces, and the development of the central organs of 
the nervous system. He considers that he has established two 
general conclusions as to the connective tissue: first, that the view 
propounded originally by Henle and supported by Rindfleisch of the 
nervous nature of the molecular material, in which the nerve-cells, 
fibres and blood-vessels are imbedded, cannot be substantiated; that 
the “granules” (Kérner) in that material are not, as Henle and 
Merkel contended, indifferent elements capable of being developed 
either into connective tissue or nerve-corpuscles, but are in the white 
substance distinct connective tissue-cells, and in the grey matter 
distinct nuclei, mostly with a characteristic double contour, Secondly, 
that there is a general unity of structure of the connective tissue in 
the different central organs of the nervous system. The apparent 
differences arise from this: that in the conversion of the protoplasm 
of the embryonic cells into connective tissue, a greater or less pro- 
portion of granular albuminous substance remains between the 
fibrille which arise out of the protoplasm. As there are differences 
in the relative proportion of the fibrillee and the granular albuminous 
material in various parts, so different appearances are occasioned. 
The cells of Deiters which occur in the white matter of the spinal 
marrow of the ox, &c., are obviously only embryonal cells, which 
in a preponderating manner are converted into connective-tissue 
fibrille, and very slightly into granular albuminous substance. In 
smaller animals again these substances occur in more eqnal propor- 
tions. The white substance of the cerebrum is very analogous to 
that of the spinal marrow. Cells of Deiters, however, occur in regions 
such as the grey matter of the cerebrum, where the connective tissue 
exhibits a preponderance of the granular albuminous substance. These 
cells in their distribution follow closely that of the blood-vessels. He 
believes that under the term perivascular lymph-spaces, observers 
have hitherto mingled together two different kinds of hollow spaces; 
one adventitious lymph-spaces which have a physiological import, 
and communicate with the lymph-vessels of the pia; the other, the 
perivascular spaces which are not lymph-vessels, but artificial produc- 
tions. He considers that one common anatomical principle regulates 
the connection of the nerve-fibres with the nerve-cells in the grey 
matter of the spinal cord, of the cerebral convolutions, and of the 
cerebellum. In each case a cell is connected with a well-marked 
medullated fibre, by the “ axis-cylinder process,” but in addition, 
the “ branched processes” break up into delicate threads, which be- 
come continuous with a very fine nervous network, from which 
medullated nerve-fibres spring. He has never seen an anastomosis 
between ganglion cells in the sense usually expressed, viz. by a direct 
junction between a strong process of one cell and a corresponding 
process of an adjacent cell——In Virchow’s Archiv, Lvmi. p. 259, 


REPORT ON THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY. 173 


M. Roth communicates observations On Varicose HyprertropHy 
OF THE NERVE-FIBRES OF THE BRAIN; on p. 323, O. Obermeier 
refers to VARICOSE AXIAL CYLINDERS in the central nervous system ; 
and on p. 310, T. Simon describes a NEw Formation or Brain- 
SuBSTANCE, in the form of tumours on the surface of the cerebral 
conyolutions—— W. Turner considers the CONVOLUTIONS OF THE 
Human Brain IN RELATION TO THE INTELLIGENCE (West Riding 
Asylum Reports, 1873). He arranges his remarks under the heads 
mass and weight, external configuration, internal structure, vascular 
supply, and concludes with some observations on the organology of 
the convolutions. In the same feports, p. 97, H. C. Major makes 
observations on the HistoLocy OF THE BRAIN IN THE INSANE, and on 
p- 285, W. C. 8. Clapham communicates the results of the WEIGHINGS 
OF THE Brain in 716 cases. L. Gerlach gives an account (Ludwig's 
Arbeiten, 1872) of the Myrenteric PLexus or AverRBAcH. He de- 
scribes ganglia in it as well as larger and smaller bands of nerve-fibres 
which form primary and secondary networks. From the secondary 
network very fine nerves arise, each of which ends in a corpuscle, 
which may give off one or two processes; these processes end between 
the smooth muscular fibres. The ganglia are very vascular. 
E. Klein contributes (Quart. Mic. Journ, Oct. 1873) a short paper 
on AUERBACH’S PiLeExus in the Jntestine of the Krog and Toad. In 
addition to the isolated groups of ganglion-cells, he describes other 
ganglion-cells between the circular and longitudinal muscular coats. 


Eyr-patt.—A. T. Norton investigates the anatomy of the 
Citiary Bopy, and the accommodation of the eye to vision (P. 
toy. Soc. L., June 19, 1873), His paper is to show that the increase 
in the convexity of the lens, when accommodated for near vision, is 
effected by compression of its equator by the ciliary processes 
turged with blood, the ciliary muscle being the motor agent: the iris 
aids accommodation by increasing its rapidity, but accommodation 
can be effected slowly without the aid of the iris. R. J. Lee 
communicates P. Roy. Soc. Z., Jan. 9, 1873, some further remarks 
on the Sense or Sicut 1x Birps.——A. V. Gruenhagen gives in 
Schultze’s Archiv, 1x. an account of the posterior surface of the Iris. 


Bioop Aynp Lympa VascuLar System.—Paul Langerhans con- 
tributes (Virchow’s Archiv, Lyi. 65) to the HistoLoGy OF THE 
Heart. He first describes the characters of the muscular fibre. 
He figures the branched muscle-cells from the heart of the Sala- 
mander, also the appearance of the transverse striation in Leu- 
ciscus, the frog and the human foetus. He points out also the 
relation of the nerves to the muscle-cells. George Rolleston in 
the Harveian Oration (Brit. Med. Journ. July 5 and 12, 1873, and 
separate pamphlet) describes a ‘ MoDERaTOR BanpD’ in the HEART of 
the Cassowary, which stretches across the cavity of the right ven- 
tricle from the septum to the moveable wall of the ventricle. He 
points out its morphological relations to a similar band in the 
heart of the sheep, and to a band in the human right ventricle, 


174 PROFESSOR TURNER. 


which when well developed extends from the base of the muse. 
papillaris arising from the outer or moveable wall of the ventricle 
towards the conus arteriosus. C. Giacomini communicates a 
memoir on the VEINS oF THE [INFERIOR Extremity (Giornale della 
Accad. di Med. di Torino, 1873). Not only does he consider the 
usual arrangement of the veins, but he also describes cases of 
variation from the normal mode of disposition. He refers also to 
their comparative anatomy, and describes the venous system in the 
hind-lmbs of Cercopitheci. He concludes with a chapter on some 
general deductions from his observations. F. Schmuziger figures 
and describes (Schulize’s Archiv, 1x. 709) the Micration of the Rep 
AND WuHiTE Bioop-corpuscLtres from the mesenteric vessels of the 
froy——A. Heller (Ludwig's Arbeiten, 1872) investigates the 
BLcop-VESSELS OF THE SMALL INTESTINE in man and several mam- 
mals. Each villus as a rule contains an unbranched artery extending 
to the tip of the villus. In man only does it begin to form a 
capillary network about the middle of the villus. The vein begins 
either at the tip of the villus (rabbit, man), or near the tip (rat), 
and passes as a rule without lateral twigs directly into the sub- 
mucosa; or it arises near the base of the villus and receives late- 
ral twigs out of the glandular layer (dog, cat, pig, hedgehog). In 
none of the animals examined was the plan usually described 
seen, of an ascending artery, a descending vein, and of a complex 
capillary network connecting together these vessels. In the 
same Arbeiten, J. Michel enquires into the BLoop anp LymMPH-CHAN- 
NELS of the CEREBRAL Dura Mater. The peculiarity of the anatomical 
arrangement of the blood-channels of the dura consists in this: that 
the arterial capillary net opens into two venous systems, of which 
the stronger is found on the outer surface, the feebler on the inner, 
but which communicate with each other by branches proceeding from 
the network on the inner surface which traverse the tissue of the 
dura. The space between the dura and arachnoid (arachnoid cavity) 
does not communicate with the vessels of the dura, specially not 
with the blood-vascular net on its inner surface. A system of 
inter-communicating spaces exists throughout the entire thickness 
of the dura which is in connection with the subdural space, as 
well as with a number of larger and smaller spaces situated between 
the dura and the bone, which may be called epidural; both on the 
inner and outer surfaces of the dura an endothelium exists, which 
forms the inner boundary of the epi-dural and the outer boundary 
of the sub-dural space, whilst the spaces within the dura are also 
clothed by an endothelium. This system of spaces he believes to 
be employed in the passage of lymph. To the same Arbeiten 
also Schwalbe communicates a short note on the LyMPH-CHANNELS 
of the Retina Anp Virreous Bopy. 


ReEsPrrATORY System.—Sam. Pozzi records (Revue d’Anthropolo- 
gie, 1872, 443) the case of a right human lung which possesses a 
lobus impar. It adheres to the inferior lobe of the lung by the 
inner part of its upper face, whilst the external part is free: its 


REPORT ON THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY. 175 


inferior face is moulded on the diaphragm. It is triangular in 
form, and its volume is about one quarter of that of the middle 
lobe. He regards this lobe as a true dobus impar such as is seen 
in the generality of mammals, and as exhibiting a tendency to 
reversion in man to a lower type. 


Skin anp AppenpAces. — P. Langerhans gives an account 
(Schulize’s Archiv, 1x. 730) of the Toucu-corpuscLes AND REeETE 
Mauricuit. He considers the touch-corpuscle to be composed of 
a number of individual cells, which are characterized by the deli- 
cacy and sparing quantity of cell-substance, and between these 
cells throughout the entire organ the nervous elements are ar- 
ranged. He disbelieves therefore in a central core, as distinguished 
from a peripheral substance, as well as in an investing membrane, 
for the cells of the periphery abut directly on the surrounding 
connective tissue. L. Stieda adversely criticises (Schultze’s 
Archiv, 1x. 795) Schobl’s researches on the NERVE-corLs AT THE Roots 
oF THE Hairs of certain animals (Report, vu. p. 331). Stieda re- 
gards the appearance as indicative merely of different stages which 
mark the changes of the hair. 


ALIMENTARY CanaL.—Hugo Crampe communicates (Reichert u. 
du Bois Reymond’s Archiv, 1872, 569) aseries of comparative obser- 
vations on the Leners oF THE INTESTINE and extent of its mu- 
cous surface in different animals. He does not consider that the 
nature, z.e. the chemical composition, of the food exercises much 
influence on the structure of the digestive apparatus, but that the 
form in which the food is administered, by causing the organs to 
accommodsute themselves to its volume, occasions modifications. 
Again, he finds variations in length even in animals born of the 
same mother; and that cats fed on vegetables have possessed rela- 
tively shorter intestines than cats fed exclusively on flesh. He does 
not believe that any constant relation exists between the weight of 
the body and the extent of the intestinal mucous surface. 


Kipyey.—Th. Egli gives a short account (Schultze’s Archiv, rx. 
653) of the GLANDs IN THE PELViIs oF THE KipNey. He was induced 
to examine into this subject owing to the discrepancies in the 
writings of anatomists, and has studied the pelvis of the kidney 
of the ox, pig, horse and man. The ox and pig have no glands. 
The mucous lining of the pelvis of the horse is studded with simple 
and compound tubular glands possessing a single layer of goblet 
and cylindrical cells. In man compound glands, intermediate in 
form between tubular and racemose, filled with cylinder and spindle- 
shaped cells, exist. The duct is very short. 


CoMPARATIVE ANATOMY. 


QuapRUMANA. —Jas. Maurie continues (P. Zool. Soc. June 18, 
1872) his observations on the Macaques, and gives an account of 
Bélanger’s Monkey (l/. arctoides), of the Formosan or round-faced 
monkey (J. cyclopis), and of the Japanese Monkey (J. speciosus). 


176 PROFESSOR TURNER. 


Carnivora.—A. H. Garrod notes (Proc. Zool. Soc. Feb. 18, 1873) 
certain points in the anatomy of Arctictis binturong. The alimentary 
canal, liver, lungs, genito-urinary organs and brain are described, and 
in some instances figured. J. Chatin in Ann. des Sc. Nat. 1873, 
Art. 12, describes the visceral anatomy of Viverra civetta. 


PiynepepiA.—B. Dybowski gives in Feichert. u. du Bois Rey- 
mond’s Archiv, 1873, 109, a detailed description with figures of the 
skull of Phoca baicalensis. 


PerissopactyLa.—A. H. Garrod gives an account (Proc. Zool. Soc. 
Jan. 21, 1873) of the visceral anatomy of the Sumatran Rhinoceros. 
He figures the tongue, stomach, colon and liver.——J. E. Gray 
records (Ann. Nat. Hist. May, 1873) observations on the Dentition 
of Rhinoceroses, and on the characters afforded by their skulls. 


PacuypErRMATA.—J. E. Gray (Ann. Nat. Hist. June, 1873) 
makes some observations on Pigs and their skulls, more especially in 
connection with the classification of these animals. An abstract 
of a memoir by W. K. Parker on the structure and development 
of the skull of Sus scrofa, is in P. Roy. Soc. L. June 19, 1873. 


CrTacea.—A catalogue of the Whales and Dolphins of the New 
Zealand Seas has recently been drawn up by Jas. Hector (Trans. 
New Zealand Inst. v. 1872). It is illustrated with six octavo plates. 
H. 8. Wilson describes in Cambridge Univ. Reporter, June 3, 
1873, the Rete mirabile of the Narwhal. He showed that the rete 
was divisible into halves, the vessels of which were derived from two 
sources, and presented the same calibre at their origin. He divided 
arterial retia into two classes, bilateral and axial, and subdivided the 
axial into terminal and mediate, and each of these into complete and 
incomplete. The axial system he regards as fulfilling the office of 
supplying a large amount of blood to parts, as a means of avoiding 
injury from compression of vessels, and to check sudden pressure on 
nerve centres, whilst he believes the bilateral to act not only as a 
storehouse for oxygenated blood, but as a diverticulum protective 
against over-pressure. J. E. Gray (Ann. Nat. Hist. Aug. 1873) 
notes some points in the anatomy of two skeletons of Kogia Mac- 
leaywt recently received at the British Museum from Australia. 
M. du Bus describes (Gervais’ Journ. de Zoologie, 11. 97, 1873) the 
remains of the Delphinide found in the Antwerp Crag. He refers 
them to the genera Hurhino-delphis, Prisco-delphinus, Platydelphis, 
Champso-delphis, Phocenopsis, Eudelphis, Hoplocetus, Paleo-delphis 
and Scaldicetus. P. J. Van Beneden gives in Acad. Roy. de Belgique, 
July, 1873, xxxv1., two coloured drawings of cetaceans from the Cape 
of Good Hope ; one he refers to the Orca capensis of Gray, the other 
he names Lagenorhynchus de Castelnau. Rt. Walker in Scottish 
Naturalist, Oct. 1873, figures the lower jaw of a common porpoise in 
which conical-shaped bodies 7; to }inch in height were attached to 
the gum alternately between the normal teeth. A similar arrange- 
ment exists in the upper jaw. He also states that he has examined 


REPORT ON THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY. VTE 


eight or nine specimens of the porpoise caught on the coast of Scotland, 
all of which had tubercles on the dorsal fin. He does not regard these 
tubercles as Dr Gray does as specific, but only as indicating possibly 
a variety of porpoise. 


Brrps.—Jas. Murie describes (Zbis, April, 1873) and illustrates 
with numerous figures the Upuprp# and their relationships. AOE 
Garrod (Proc. Zool. Soc. June 18, 1872) notes the CHARACTERS OF THE 
ToneuE of the psittacine genus WVestor. The peculiarity consists in 
the anterior edge of the unguis being prolonged forwards beyond the 
tip of the tongue for about one-tenth of an inch as a delicate crescentic 
fringe of hairs, which seem to result from the breaking up into fibres 
of the forward growing plate. The structure of the tongue leads to 
the placing of Nestor among the typical parrots and not with the 
Tricho-glossine. A. H. Garrod points out (Proc. Zool. Soc, Jan. 7, 
1873) the value in CuassiricaTion of a peculiarity in the ANTERIOR 
Marcin or tHE Nasau Bones of certain birds. In most birds the 
anterior margin of the nasal bone is concave with the two cornua 
directed forwards, which become continuous behind with the body of 
the bone and with one another. Birds possessing this form of nasal 
bone the author terms holorhinal. In other birds the posterior 
contour of the osseous external nares instead of being rounded, as in 
holorhinal birds, is apparently formed by the divergence of two 
straight bars of bone, which enclose an angular space between them. 
These birds he terms schizorhinal. Nearly all the schizorhinal birds 
are included among the Schizognathe of Huxley. M. G, Duchamp 
makes (Ann. des Se. Nat. 1873, Art. 11) some observations on the 
Awatomy or Dromaius Nov#-Hotianpim. He describes the diges- 
tive, respiratory, urinary and genital organs, also the spleen and 
thyroid body. M. Coughtrey notes (Ann. Nat. Hist. Sep. 1873) 
some peculiarities in the TRacHEAL Poucu or AN Emeu which he had 
dissected. V. Mihalkovics relates his investigations on the PECTEN 
IN THE EYE oF THE Brirp (Schultze’s Archiv, 1x. 591). Histologically 
it consists of a convoluted mass of capillaries, the spaces between 
which are filled with gelatinous material containing pigment. He 
considers that it plays an important part in the nutrition of the lens 
and partially of the retina. 


RepritiA.—F, Leydig describes (Schultze’s Archiv, 1x. 598) the 
GLANDS OF THE Heap in the following Opuipians: Z’ropidonotus 
natric and tessellatus, Coronella levis, Coluber viridiflavus, Vipera 
verus and ammodytes; and on p, 753 Leydig gives a description of 
the STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN of the same Ophidians. J. E. Gray 
makes additional notes on the rorm of the Bones in the STERNUM of 
Be Les Torroises and thei development (Ann. Nat. Hist. Oct. 

73). 


Ampuipians.—P. Langerhans describes (Schultze’s Archiv, 1x. 745) 
the Skin of the Larva or SALAMANDRA Macutosa. 


Fisnes.— P. Harting, by the invention of an instrument, which 
he calls a physometer, has been able to make observations on the 


VOL. VIII. 12 


178 PROF. TURNER. REPORT ON THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY. 


Functions OF THE Swimmine Biapper (Abstract in Gervais’ Journ. 
de Zool. 11. 116).° He discusses the various theories which have been 
propounded as to its use; as an accessory respiratory organ, or as a 
hydrostatic apparatus by which the fish preserves its equilibrium in 
the water, and refers to the experiments of Moreau, who esta- 
blished that the air contained in it possessed an excess of oxygen. By 
his instrument the dilatations and contractions of the air in the swim- 
ming bladder can be measured. G. Gulliver (Proc. Z. Soe. Nov. 
19, 1872) records measurements of the BLoop CorPUSCLES OF THE 
Satmonip#. The average sizes are as follows: Salmo Sn 
Long Bi sizz» Short Diam. zeeo3 ; Salmo sags i; D: 
Ss. D. Salmo te wo, L. D. 54; 8. D. oe i Salmo Sao, 
ia): sore nl sa00 3 dee vulgaris, L, Do ee ¥a00> 
_ Osmerus eperlanus, L. D. 53-,, 8. D. = 355. He compares their size 
with that of several other osseous fishes and states that amongst 
osseous fishes the Salmonide have the largest blood-dises. P. D. 
Handyside communicated to Roy. Soe. Edinburgh, Jan. 20, 1873, an 
account of the external characters of a new SPECIES OF PoLyopon 
from the river Yang-tsze-kiang, and on June 2nd a description of its 
nervous and muscular systems. 


Tea 


Crustacea.—E. T, Newton gives a description (Quart. Mic. Journ. 
Oct. 1873) of the EYE or THE Lopsrer. Tt is illustrated with two 
oct. plates. The Anatomy of the American King Crab (LiruLus 
POLYPHEMUS) is described by R. Owen in 7rans. Linn. Soc. XXVUI. 


Mo.tivsca.—R. Bergh describes (Jowrnal des Museum Godefroy, 
Heft 11.) several forms of Vudibranchs, and illustrates them by four 
large plates. The specimens belong to the genera Phyllidia, Plako- 
branchus, Llysia, Cyerce, Fiona and Cerberilla. 


REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. By Wituiam Sriruine, D. Sc, 
M.B., C.M., Demonstrator of Practical Natural History in the 
Tniversity of Edinburgh’. 


Nervous System. 


EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES IN CEREBRAL PHYSIOLOGY AND Pa- 
THOLOGY.—Dr Ferrier (rit. Med. Journ., April, 1873, West Riding 
Asylum Reports, 111.) has uncovered particular parts of the encepha- 
lar and Faradised them, observing the movements which follow, with 
a view to obtaining information regarding the source of the volun- 
tary movements in certain parts of the surface of the brain, The 
results of Hitzig, obtained in an almost similar manner, have already 
been noticed in this Jowrnal, vu. 175. Ferrier’s experiments were 
practised upon dogs, guinea-pigs, cats, and rabbits. For the results 
see paper by Dr Ferrier, p. 152. Nothnagel, vide this Jowrnal, vil. 
177, (Virchow’s Archiv, 1873, Lyi. 184,) finds that on making an 
injury, by injection of solution of chromic acid, of the diameter of 
2mm., and to the depth of 1—13mm. on the upper surface of the 
hemisphere 12—16 mm., according to the size of the animal, from the 
point of the hemisphere after removal of the olfactory lobes, and 2 mm. 
from the longitudinal fissure, one observes that the fore-leg of the 
opposite side, and less clearly the hind-limb, is extended forwards and 
outwards. This condition lasts 6—12 days, and then becomes less and 
less obvious, and ultimately disappears altogether. The author attri- 
butes it to a partial paralysis of the muscular sense. By irritating a 
particular point of the corpus striatum (nucleus caudatus), the animal 
begins without the least irritation from without to hop, then to rest, 
in a short time to hop again, always quicker, and with shorter inter- 
vals, and lastly to rush forward with great speed. The animal soon 
tires, and falls over, but still the legs continue to move violently. 
The animal could not be preserved more than eighteen hours. In 
Centralblatt, No. 35, 1873, the same author finds that in 23 cases 
by injuring the cortical portion of the brain with a fine needle 
(without injection of chromic acid), at a circumscribed spot lying near 
to the hinder end of the hemispheres, immediately there ensued 
violent spasmodic movements. The animal makes powerful jumps, 
and often rises 3—1 metre from the floor, tle extremities then be- 
come rigid, After 1, 2, 5 minutes this passes off, the animal sits 
still a minute, and then hops away as if nothing had happened. 
Fournié also communicates experimental researches (pampilet), 
Paris, 4 plates. A portion of the skull is removed and by means of 
a Pravaz syringe a small quantity of a saturated solution of chloride 
of zine coloured blue by aniline is injected into the brain substance. 
We must be careful not to confound the results of small extravasa- 


1 To assist in rendering this report more complete, authors are invited to 
send copies of their papers to Dr Stirling, Edinburgh University. 


12—2 


180 DR STIRLING. 


tions into the brain substance, caused by the needle of the syringe 
puncturing a vessel, with those of the injection. The dog was the 
animal operated upon. In 5 experiments out of 7 a complete abo- 
lition of the sense of touch was produced, which coincided with the 
complete destruction of the thalamus opticus. The author seeks to 
explain this by the relatively large commissure which unites the 
two thal. optici in the dog. ‘The thalamus opticus, the author thinks, 
furnishes the conditions for a ‘perception simple’ (he does not say 
‘avee connaissance’). With regard to lesions affecting motion, by far 
the most salient and pronounced is the ‘mouvement de galop,’ which 
is produced in one and the same animal incessantly till just before 
death, when, according to the intensity or seat of the lesion, these 
movements are followed by paralysis more or less complete. These 
movements the author attributes to the effect of the caustie upon 
the fibres which pass between the optic thalamus and the corpus 
striatum. The paralysis appears because the sensitive parts of the 
thalamus are destroyed by the injection, and, in consequence, cannot 
excite the motor cells of the corpus striatum. Lesion of the white 
substance below and to the imner side of the thalamus, and which 
connects it with the corpus striatum, is followed by paralysis of the 
hind extremities. The respiration is very peculiar, being rapid and. 
deep. Corpus striatum ; as in the thalamus, lesion of this organ on one 
side produces the same phenomena as if both had been injured. As 
a general rule, no affection of sensibility was observed, while para- 
lysis of motion had a constant occurrence. The tendency presented 
by the animal to move in a circle, or to turn to the injured side, 
the author observes, are not characteristic of lesion of the corpus 
striatum, for they also follow injury to the white substance of the 
brain, and of the convolutions. | Lesions of the cervical portion of the 
brain at the anterior, middle, or posterior parts, did not extinguish 
simple perceptions, while, on the contrary, the absence of intelligence 
(‘‘ connaissance”) and memory was constantly observed. Regarding 
motions, two periods were constantly observed, the one a period of 
excitation when the animal ran, or moved in a circle &c., and the 
other a period of prostration, and sometimes of paralysis. The first 
period the author thinks corresponds to the simple excitant action of 
the caustic, while the latter is referable to a destruction of the tissues 
by the same. Injury to the white matter of the brain was followed 
by the same phenomena which accompany lesion of the convolutions, 
optic thalamus, and corpus striatum, and this because the fibres 
which compose the white part of the brain serve to bind, on the one 
hand, the thalamus with the peripheral part of the brain, and on the 
other, the peripheral part of the brain with the corpus striatum. 
Lesion of the cerebellum produced phenomena of excitement ; the 
animals ran about wildly, assumed ridiculous positions, while the eye- 
balls were always turned from below upwards, &c. This state was suc- 
ceeded by a period of collapse, characterised by paralysis. More or 
less complete sensibility was profoundly affected in the greater number 
of these lesions. Then follow the results of a series of complex lesions, 
not referable distinctly to injury of any one part of the brain, be- 


REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 181i 


cause several parts of the brain had sustained injury. Injury of 
the cornu ammonis was followed by the same phenomena as lesion 
of the other convolutions, but, what was very peculiar, the 
animal without being paralysed was unable to stand upon its four 
feet, being only able to crawl along on its belly. It had lost the 
sense of equilibrium. See also a paper communicated by the author 
to the Académie de Médicine, of which an abstract is given in the 
Lond. Med. Rec., No. 35. 


CoMPOSITION OF THE GREY AND WHITE MATTER OF THE BRAIN.— 
Phliiger’s Archiv, 1873, vu. 367. Petrowsky, under Hoppe-Seyler’s 
direction, has investigated the chemical composition of the grey and 
white matter of the brain. The following represents the composition 
of the brain of the Ox. 

Water. Solids. 
100 grms. of grey substance contain 81:6042 18-3958 
100 grms. of white substance contain 68°3508 31°6492, 


100 grms. ef Solids. Gray. White. 
Albuminous compounds and Glutin 95°3733 24-7252 
Lecithin : : ; 5 : 17-2402 9-9045 
Cholestrine and Fats. ; : 18:°6845 51:9088 
Cerebrin : : ” , : 0:5331 9-5472 
Substances insoluble in pure ether 6:7135 3°3421 
Salts . P ¥ - 4 is 1:4552 O79: 


CuemicaAL Reaction oF THE CrnTRAL Nervous SysTem.— 
R. Gscheidlen (Pjliig. Archiv, vut, 171) experimented upon the 
brains of horses, dogs, rabbits, &c. An incision was made into the brain, 
and its reaction tested by means of Liebreich’s plates (Berichte d. 
Chem Gesell. zu Berlin, 1868, p. 48). The grey substance always _ 
showed an acid reaction, while the white reacted always neutral, 
er slightly alkaline. These results were constant in more than 
70 animals, and it was immaterial whether the animals were poisoned 
with morphia, or curara, or whether they had served for a longer 
or shorter time for experiments, or had been killed at once. These 
results are not due to post-mortem changes. The same results were 
obtained on the ganglia of the sympathetic, which exhibited an acid 
reaction, while the connecting nerve-fibres were neutral or slightly 
alkaline. The same also is true of the grey and white substance of 
the spinal cord. The author thinks that the ganglion cells contain 
as a constituent a free acid, which is in all probability lactic acid. 
After death the acid reaction of the grey substance increases to a 
certain degree, while in the white this reaction occurs quite as little 
as in peripheral nerves (vide Heidenhain’s observations). If the 
white substance shows an acid reaction, it is due to the passage of 
the acid into it from the grey matter, for if in a large animal the 
gray and white matter are kept apart, the reaction of the white 
remains alkaline or neutral, the grey of course acid. 


EmpryonaL DEVELOPMENT OF NervE-CeLLs.—Lubimoff (Central- 
dlatt, No. 41, 1873) has studied the development of the nerve-cells 


182 DR STIRLING. 


in the human embryo. He found that the cells of the sympathetic 
system reach perfection sooner than those of the central part of the 
cerebro-spinal nervous system. In the sympathetic system itself 
these cells, which are found in the branches of the cerebro-spinal 
nervous system, reach perfection sooner than those of the pre-verte- 
bral cords and the ganglion cceliacum. In the central cerebro-spinal 
system the cells of the spinal cord (earliest the nerve-cells of the 
anterior horn) are sooner perfected than those of the grey sub- 
stance of the cerebrum and cerebellum. 


TRANSMISSION OF REFLEX IMPRESSIONS IN THE SprnaL Corp.— 
Rosenthal (Bericht der K. Akad. der Wissensch. Berlin, February, 
1873. Abstract by Dr Brunton, in London Med. Record, No. 29) 
finds that a certain time is required for the transmission of a sensory 
impression to a motor nerve.’ This time (reflex time) depends on the 
strength of the irritation—the stronger the irritation the shorter the 
time required. A longer time is required for the transmission of a 
sensory impression made on one side of the body to the muscles of 
the other side, than to the muscles on the same side. This difference 
also depends upon the strength of the irritation—the stronger the 
irritation the shorter the time. In peripheral motor nerves no de- 
pendence of the rapidity of conduction on the strength of the irrita- 
tion can be observed. The nearer the irritated spot is to the spinal 
cord, the more easily is the reflex time diminished. The reflex time 
is altered by the exhaustion of the spinal cord. When an adequate 
irritation is applied to an exposed sensory nerve, at two points as far 
apart as possible, the reflex time for the point furthest away from the 
cord is greater than for the nearer one. 


ReEFLex RELATIONS OF THE StoMAcd To THE NERVE CENTRES OF 
THE CiRCULATION.—Sittz.-berich. der Wien Akad. der Wissensch, LXVI. 
1872. Centralblatt, No. 13, 1873. Mayer and Pribram have ex- 
perimented upon dogs and cats. The experiments of Goltz on irri- 
tating the walls of the stomach have shown that this is followed 
by slowing of the pulse, but these authors have found that there 
is an increase in the arterial pressure. The results were the same 
both by mechanical and electrical irritation, or by insufflation of the 
stomach by means of an india-rubber bag. In opposition to the 
experiments of Hermann and Ganz, these authors state that neither 
by injection of cold water, nor by pieces of ice introduced into the 
stomach, could they observe any effect. It seems, from these experi- 
ments, that irritation of the mucous membrane alone has no effect 
on the pulse or blood-pressure ; but the irritation to produce these 
effects must extend to the serous and muscular layers. 


ReFLex PARALYSIS OF VESSELS AND AFFECTIONS OF THE SPINAL 
CorRD AFTER SUPPRESSION OF THE PERSPIRATION BY VARNISHING 
ANIMALS.—Feinberg (Centralblatt, No. 35, 1873) finds that in ani- 
mals coated with varnish the greater part of the morbid phenomena 
ave spinal-cord affections. To be observed are tremor, hyperzsthesia, 


REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 183 


later partial anzesthesia, enacted reflex sensibility, reflex and tetanic 
spasms, rotation round the axis (observed three times), paralysis of 
the bladder, &e. Frequency of respiration decreased, action of the 
heart lessened, and the temperature diminished. AI] these phe- 
nomena are of different duration and different intensity. If the 
animal dies rapidly the period of irritation is very short, hyperzs- 
thesia and reflex irritability are not very pronounced, and merge 
quickly into partial anesthesia and paralysis. Spasms never fail. 
In fact, all the phenomena of depression are present. When death 
takes place more slowly, hyperesthesia and reflex irritability are so 
intense that the slightest contact with the skin, a stamp of the foot 
on the ground, is followed by a succession of powerful reflex spasms ; 
the other phenomena appear later, some time before death. The 
temperature depends upon the unhindered or hindered radiation of heat. 
In the first case it sinks quickly and progressively till 19 — 20°C. 
In the second case it exceeds or differs little from the normal, and 
then just before death it begins quickly or slowly to sink, then death 
quickly sets in. The post-mortem phenomena observed were: Dila- 
tation of the sub-cutaneous vessels, which were injected; large extra- 
vasations from the pulmonary capillaries, not seldom also under the 
pleura, heart-chambers over filled with blood, often extravasations in 
the heart-substance, distension of the roots of the portal veins, and 
extravasations in the liver-substance; the mucous membrane of the 
stomach constantly exhibited extravasations; strong injection of all 
the capillaries of the serous layer of the intestine, with catarrh of its 
mucous lining ; kidneys filled with blood, with commencing parenchy- 
matous inflammation, capillaries of the peripheral nerves strongly i in- 
jected, often with extravasations, the same in the voluntary muscles. 
Membranes of brain injected. Gray substance of the cervical spinal 
cord dark red, with small extravasations. Dorsal and lumbar 
regions of the cord less injected. Microscopical examination shows 
in the cervical part of the spinal cord numerous capillary extravasa- 
tions with partial destruction of its substance, proliferation of neuro- 
glia less obvious in those animals which died quickly, but strongly 
developed in those which died slowly. The nerve-fibres were com- 
pressed and atrophied. All these phenomena were more pronounced 
in the cervical part of the spinal cord than lower down, These phe- 
nomena can only be explained by a paralysis of all the vaso-motor 
nerves in the cervical part of the spinal cord or their centre in the 
med, oblongata. 


INFLUENCE DE L’ Activité REFLEXE DES Centres NERVEUX VASs- 
CULAIRES SUR LA DILATATION DES ARTERES PERIPHERIQUES ET SUR 
LA SECRETION DES GLANDES sous-MAXILLAIRESs.—Owsjannikow and 
Tschiriew (Lull. de [T Acad, Imp. des Se. de St Pétersbourg, Xvut. 
18, Mai 1872. Abst. in Arch. de Phys. 1873, No. 1, p. 90) find 
that irritation of the central end of the N. ischiadicus with in- 
tact chorda tympani is followed by secretion of saliva from the sub- 
maxillary gland. These authors explain this as due to the increased 
blood-pressure (from irritation of a sensory nerve) in the body gene- 


184 DR STIRLING. 


rally and in the gland. Irritation of the N. ischiadicus when the chorda 
is cut diminishes the secretion. Irritation of the ganglion sub-maxillare 
can diminish a rapid secretion, These authors suppose that there is in 
the chorda tympani fibres which widen the vessels (secretion fibres), 
and from the ganglion sub-maxillare proceed fibres which narrow the 
vessels (fibres which diminish the secretion). Irritation of the peri- 
pheral end of the N. splanchnicus (which is followed by increased 
blood-pressure) produced the same result on the secretion as irritation 
of the N. ischiadicus, Griitzner and Chtapowski (Pjliig. Arch. vu. 
p. 522) have repeated the above experiments, and find exactly as the 
previous authors, that on irritating the central end of the N. ischia- 
dieus the secretion from the canula fell drop for drop with a fre- 
quency scarcely inferior to that obtained by directly irritating the 
chorda. The saliva also was the so-called chorda saliva. On irri- 
tating the left N. ischiadicus and cutting the left chorda (canula in 
both ducts) the right sub-maxillary glands secreted in the old way, 
while the left yielded very little or almost no secretion. The blood- 
pressure was measured in the art. cruralis. These authors explain 
the fact why irritation of a sensory nerve, with cut chorda, produces 
now and again a small outflow of saliva thus. They say it is owing 
to the pressure of the contraction of the muscles which pass over 
these glands. These muscles can contract (in an animal not too 
powerfully poisoned with curara) quite as well as the other muscles 
of the body. Heidenhain has shown that atropia paralyses the 
secretory fibres of the chorda, while the inhibitory fibres are intact, 
and Ludwig has shown that the increase of blood-pressure and in- 
crease of secretion do not stand in the relation of cause and effect. To 
determine whether the increase of secretion observed on irritating the 
N. ischiadicus was really due to increase of the blood-pressure, or was 
only a reflex secretion, these authors injected atropia (0-001—0-005) 
into a vein in a-curarised dog, and found that on strong irritation of 
the N. ischiadicus no secretion was obtained from the canula, but red 
blood often at rhythmical intervals flowed from the vein of the gland, 
as ought to happen on peripheral irritation of the chorda. The 
vaso-motor nerves of this nerve were here reflexly stimulated, and 
their section brought the whole to an end, for then there is in- 
crease of blood-pressure in the vessels of the gland, and no secretion. 
The increased salivary secretion on irritation of the N. ischiadicus is 
therefore produced by a reflex action on the secreting fibres of the 
chorda. From these experiments these authors think that the fibres 
of the chorda, as well as of the sympathetic, have their origin in the 
medulla oblongata. 


INNERVATION OF THE Ear oF THE Raspit.—Moreau states in 
Arch. de Phys. 1v. 667, that section of the sympathetic alone pro- 
duces redness of the under half of the ear due to widening of the 
vessels; while section of the N. auriculus magnus (cervical plexus) 
produces a similar effect on the upper half. It is therefore obvious 
that both nerves are concerned in the innervation of the vessels of 
the ear, and that the contraction of the vessels of the under half of 


REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 185 


the ear depends upon the sympathetic, while that of the upper 
depends on the N, auriculus. “ Functions of the Lingual Nerve.” 
Prévost, in Arch. de Phys. v. 1873, 253 and 375. ‘“‘ Contributions 
to Physiology of the Vagus.” Arloing and Trissier in Arch. de 
Phys. Vv. 1873, p. 157. 


REASONS FOR THE PATHOLOGICAL CHANGES IN THE LUNGS AFTER 
SECTION OF BOTH VaGi.—AlIf. Genzmer in Pfliig. Archiv, vit. 101. 
The author concludes from his experiments (1) that the altered 
action of the heart produced by paralysis of the vagus is without 
influence on the lung-tissue. (2) Hindering of the supply of blood. 
(3) Forced passage of saliva does not produce disease, as was found 
after section of both vagi. (4) Paralysis of the vagus can remain 
without visible consequences on the condition of the lung-tissues, it 
however increases their tendency to disease, and that more so on the 
paralysed side. (5) Paralysis of both pulmonary vagi produces a 
neuro-paralytic hyperemia of the lungs. (6) If saliva is forced into 
the lungs, rendered hyperzemic (cedematous) through section of the 
vagus, it produces inflammation. 


INNERVATION OF THE SPLEEN AND ITS RELATION TO LeEucocy- 
THAMIA.—Tarchanoff in Pfliig. Archiv, vul. 97 says, that in a cura- 
rised dog with artificial respiration kept up and_ blood-pressure 
measured in carotid, he obtained the following results. (1) Inri- 
tation of the central end of the vagus (medium and strong) for 
a minute or more, produced, besides the increase of blood-pressure, 
a powerful contraction of the spleen, about 1—2 ¢.m., while irritation 
of the peripheral end produced a scarcely perceptible contraction, or 
no effect at all. (2) Irritation of the central end of the N. ischia- 
dicus produced, besides the increase of blood-pressure, a contraction 
of the spleen, but less than in the above case. (3) Irritation of the 
medulla produced a very powerful contraction of the spleen about 
2$cm., but this only when the N. splanchn. are intact, for these 
nerves contain the centrifugal nerves for the vessels of the spleen. 
This contraction does not disappear on cessation of the irritation, but 
the spleen returns gradually to its former size, whilst the blood- 
pressure has already returned to its original height. (4) Gradual 
section of the nerves of the spleen, as is known, is followed by 
swelling of the organ to one-and-half times the original size. After 
section of the nerves of the spleen the blood taken from the spleen in 
the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th days after the operation showed a quantity of 
white blood-corpuscles in the field of the microscope, varying from 
60 to 70, whilst the blood taken from the ear before the experiment 
showed only from 6 to 15. Leucocythzemia so produced however 
gradually disappears, and at the end of a week the number of white 
blood-corpuscles is normal. Parallel with this phenomenon is the 
diminution of the size of the spleen. Vide also “Physiology of 
the Spleen,” by Bochefontaine in Arch. de Phys. v. 558. “ Tnner- 
vation of Blood-Vessels,” by E. Pick in Reich. und Du Bois Rey, 
Arch. 1873, 1. Abstract in Centralblatt, No. 46, 1873. 


186 DR STIRLING. 


On THE CENTRE OF THE NerveES or Erection.—Goltz, Pflig. 
Archiv, vit. 582. Eckhard says that the nervi erigentes can be fol- 
lowed in the interior of the spinal cord to the pons varolii and 
cerebrum. The author, from experiments upon dogs, arrives at 
a different conclusion, viz. that the nearest centre from which the 
nervi erigentes spring is placed in the lumbar portion of the spinal 
cord. Upon section of the posterior part of the thoracic part of the 
spinal cord erection could be produced in a reflex manner. Further, 
that the condition of the reflex can be hindered by irritation of 
sensory nerves. He has observed peculiar reflex rhythmical contrac- 
tions of the sphincter ani in animals with divided spinal cord. The 
lumbar spinal cord is a more important centre for reflex movements 
and reflex inhibition than was formerly supposed. 

Hermann, “ Action of galvanic currents on Muscles and Nerves.” 
Phliig. Archiv, vi. 312 and 561. Abstract by Rosenthal, Centralblatt, 
Notas 1873: Griinhagen, “On the secondary Contractions in 
Muscle.” Pfliig. Archiv, v1. 119, 1872. Abstract in Centralblatt, No. 
LSP LS7 3: Griinhagen and Englemann, “ Intermittent Irritation 
of Nerves and Muscles.” Pfliig. Archiv, v1. 157, 1872. Abstract in 
Centralblatt, Nos. 19 and 20, 1873. Vulpian, “ Influence of trau- 
matic Lesions of Nerves on the physiological properties and the struc- 
ture of Muscles.” Arch. de Phys. tv. 245, Abstract in Centralblatt, 
No. 15, 1873. “Transverse Conduction in Frog’s Nerves.” Hitzig 
in Pfliig. Archiv, vu. 263. “On the Form of the Contraction in 
the so-called transverse Conduction in Frog’s Nerves.” Wm. Filehne 
in Pfliig. Archiv, vit. 71. “ Influence of Section of a Nerve on the 
nutrition and regeneration of the Tissues.” Schulz in Centralblatt, 
No. 45, 1873.——“ Alterations of the Spinal Cord after extraction of 
the Sciatic Nerve in the Rabbit.” G. Hayem in Arch. de Phys. v. 
504, “Union of the cut end of the Lingual and Hypoglossal 
Nerves.” Vulpianin Arch. de Phys. v. 597. “ Wlectrical Irritation 
of Nerves.” Fick in Arbeiten aus d. Physiol. Lab. d. Wurzbiirger 
Hochschule, Pt. 1. 65. Ranvier, “Degeneration of Nerves after 
Section” in. Comptes Rendus, txxv. 1831; and “ Researches on the 
Histology and Physiology of Nerves,’ in Archiv. de Phys. et Pathol. 
Iv. 427, 1872. “ Trritation of Nerves by electric currents.” Zeitsch. 
F. Biolog. vit. 71 and 100, Schiff, Fuchs. Englemann, Vederl. 
Arch. S.A. 5. Abstract in Centralblatt, No. 33, 1873. “« Action 
of very gradual thermal irritation on the sensibility of Nerves.” 
Heinzmann in Pfliig. Archiv, vi. 222. “‘ Regeneration of Nerves 
in Paraplegic Animals.” »Prévost and Waller in Gaz. Méd. de Paris, 
1873, No. 10. These authors find in rats and guinea-pigs, rendered 
paraplegic by section of the spinal cord, that degeneration and regene- 
ration of the cut or pinched sciatic nerve takes place just as in the 
sound animals. 


CoNDITION OF THE SKIN UNDER SLIGHT MECHANICAL IRRITATION. 
—Centralblatt, No. 26, 1873. Petrowsky remarks that the pheno- 
menon of white stripes in the skin, observed by Bouchert in Scarla- 
tina, and by Baumler in other febrile disorders, Exanthematic Typhus, 


REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 187 


Pneumonia, Traumatic fever (Centralblatt, No. 12, 1873), he has 
found also to take place in the normal skin. Make a line with the 
fingernail gently upon the skin, at first at the irritated spot nothing 
is observed, but after the lapse of }—} min. the irritated line begins 
by degrees to grow pale, the paleness rapidly reaches its maximum, 
persists for a short time, and then disappears by degrees. The dura- 
tion of the phenomenon, until it has completely disappeared, varies 
from 4—6 minutes, and depends upon the strength of the irritant 
employed, and also on the individual. This condition can be pro- 
duced on a dry skin as well as one wet with perspiration. The 
author believes that the phenomenon is probably due to contraction 
of the cutaneous capillaries, and that other histological elements of 
the skin are also active. 


Cuorpa Tympani.—Vulpian has continued his researches on this 
nerve, and has communicated his results to the Société de Biologie. 
The observation of Heidenhain is confirmed, that in a dog brought 
under the influence of atropia, excitation of this nerve is no longer 
followed by increased sub-maxillary secretion, but further dilatation 
of the vessels of the glands, and that in excitation of the lingual 
nerve the vessels dilated just as if no atropia had been administered. 


Vaso-MoTor ACTION OF THE Sprancunic Nerve.—Vulpian (Gaz. 
hebdom. 1873, No. 21). Section of this nerve 3 cm. above the left 
suprarenal body, as performed ona curarised dog. The volume of 
the kidney on the same side and the quantity of blood it contained 
was increased. The urine albuminous and diminished in quantity, 
but not containing blood or epithelial cells from the tubuli. By 
irritating the peripheral end of the nerve by an induced current 
the kidney became pale, the veins contracted and the secretion of 
urine ceased. 


Eyr.—‘ Keratitis after Section of the Trigeminus,” Eberth, in 
Centralblatt, No. 32, 1873.——“ Section of the Optic Nerve,” Berlin, 
in Centralblatt, No. 28, 1873. “Influence of the Sympathetic 


upon the Eye,” Eckhard in Centralblatt, No. 35, 1873. “ Visible 
Direction,” J. Jago, in Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. xxi. 213. “On the 


Physiological Action of Light,” by Jas. Dewar and J. G. M. Kendrick, 
in Journ. of Anat. and Phys. June, 1873. 


Eax.—< Sensibility to Sound,” Miiller, in Ludwig’s Arbeiten, vi. 
pel. H. Buck and Burnett, “ Experiments on the Mechanism of 
the Auditory Ossicles,’ in Centralblatt, No. 17, 1873. Rumbold, 
* On Functions of the Eustachian Tube,” in Lond. Med. Rec. No. 29. 
Riidinger, on “ Closure of the Eustachian Tube,” bid. No. 18. 
“ Perception of high Musical Notes,” in Boston Med. and Surg. 
Journ. 1872, x. 20. “ Accommodation of the Ear,’ Mach and 
Kessel, Abstract in Lond. Med. Rec. No. 37, 1873. “On the 
Movements following Section of the Semicircular Canals.” Bottcher 
(Dorpat. Med. Zeitschr. 1872, ut. 97. Abstract in Centralblatt, No. 
5, 1873) in his experiments has used frogs, because he found that by 


188 DR STIRLING. 


careful dissection he could expose these canals without loss of blood, 
and without injury or disturbance to any of the surrounding impor- 
tant parts. In opposition to the results of Flourens and Goltz, B. finds 
that no disturbance of equilibrium was produced by this injury, 
whether it was performed on one or both sides. These results are in 
direct opposition to those of Lowenberg (Arch. f. Augen- u. Ohrenheilk. 
1872, 11. Abstract in Centralblatt, No. 18, 1873), who operated upon 
pigeons, and by a modification in the method of operating, the author 
wisued to determine whether the movements were caused by pain as 
supposed by Flourens, and whether the presence of consciousness was 
necessary for these disturbed movements, and whether the cause 
consists in an irritation or paralysis of nerves. The results of his 
experiments are: (1) The disturbance of movement recurring after 
section of the semicircular canals of the ear depends only upon this 
injury and not from any injury to the brain. (2) The vomiting 
observed by Czermak in his experiments depends upon injury of the 
cerebellum. (3) The disturbance of movement is the consequence 
of irritation of the membranous canals and not of paralysis of the 
same. (4) The irritation of the canals produces the spasmodic move- 
ments in a reflex manner without the cooperation of consciousness. 
(5) The transference of this reflex irritation of the nerves of the 
membranous canals to the motor nerves takes place in the thalamus 
opticus. With regard to the statement of Brown-Séquard, that 
section of the N. acusticus produces these movements, the author, 
operating upon rabbits, finds that section of this nerve from the 
tympanum yields the same results, but in this case the semicircular 
canals are at the same time partly pinched and partly pierced. 


Shin. 


Excretion oF CO, By THE Skriv 1n Man.—Aubert (Pjliig. Archiv, 
vi. Hf. ii.) has determined by a special apparatus the amount of CO, 
excreted by the skin of a healthy man per diem. The subject 
experimented upon was made to sit in a box which fits tightly round 
the neck, and through which air is gently passed. In 24 hours a 
maximum amount of 63grms. and a minimum of 2-3 grms. was 
eliminated by the skin of the whole body minus the head. This 
gives a mean of 3°87 grms., while the quantity discharged by the 
lungs daily is 14,000 grms. 


Bacrerta IN Sweat.—Eberth (Cenéralblatt, No. 20, 1873) finds 
that in ordinary as well as in yellow sweat there are multitudes of 
bacteria. These bacteria are small, oval, united in strings of twos 
and threes and endowed with living movements. In spots covered 
with hair they attach themselves to the hair and even penetrate into 
the hair, which then splits and breaks. 


Circulatory System. 


“Circulation and its Disturbances in the Frog’s Lung.’”—Hiiter 
in Centralblatt, Nos. 5 and 6, 1873. “Physiological Action of 


REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 189 


Digitalis on the Circulation and Temperature.” Abstract in Cenéral- 
blatt, No. 13, also Brunton and Meyer, Journal of Anat. and Phys. 
vu. Nov. 134, 1872. “On the Physiology of the Circulation in 
Plants, in the Lower Animals and in Man.” Lectures by Pettigrew, 
Edinb. Med. Journ. 1872—73.——*“ Law which Regulates the Fre- 
quency of the Pulse.” Garrod in Journ. Anat. and Phys. vir. 219.—— 
“On the Work of the Frog’s Heart under varying Blood Pressure.” 
Blasius in Arb. aus d. Phys. Lab. d. Wiirzburger Hochschule, Pt. 1. p. 1 
and ‘On the Variation of the Blood Pressure in different parts of the 
Circulatory System,” by Fick, in cbed. Pt. 11. p. 183. 


PRESSURE IN THE PeRicaRDIUM.—Adam Kiewiez and Jacobson 
(Centralblatt, No. 31, 1873) have measured in living animals the 
intra-pericardial pressure by means of a small trocar with a short 
stiletto point introduced through the 4th intercostal space at the left 
margin of the sternum into the pericardium. On sheep, dogs and 
rabbits, when the experiment succeeded, i.e. when the pericardium 
was perforated with no loss of blood and no injury to the cardiac 
muscles, they found without exception a negative pressure within the 
pericardium. The negative pressure varied between — 3 and —5 mm. 
Hg. By gentle respiration they never saw this bound exceeded, but 
in the rabbit with artificially induced dyspneea, they observed it to 
fall to -9 mm. Hg. The force with which the venous blood is 
drawn to the heart is less important than is generally believed. 
Donders estimated it in the respiratory pause at about 7} m., after 
ordinary inspiration at least 9, after deepest 30 mm. Hg. These 
authors’ results are a half lower. 


CIRCULATION IN THE Coronary ARTERY.—Archives de Médicine, 
Feb. 1873. M. Rabatel has ascertained that in the horse the current 
of the blood in the coronary artery undergoes a double variation. 
The first increase strongly pronounced, and coincident with the 
ventricular systole, is due to the contraction of the ventricle; the 
second coincident with the diastole is explained by the facility with 
which the blood passes through the peripheral capillaries. 


On THE ConDITION OF THE Bioop STREAM AFTER LIGATURE OF 
THE VENA Porta#.—H. Tappeier (Ludwig’s Arbeiten, vu. p. 11). 
It has long been known that rabbits die very soon after ligature of 
the vena porte, and with a great decrease in the arterial pressure. 
The decrease of arterial pressure and the death of the animal have 
been explained by the previous authors (C. Ludwig and Thiry) upon 
this subject as due to the accumulation of such a large quantity of 
blood in the rootlets of the vena port so that there is not sufficient 
blood in the other vessels and parts of the body to carry on the 
circulation. F. Hofmann and the author have found that after ligature 
of the vena porte and death had resulted, in a rabbit the quantity of 
blood which had accumulated in the rootlets of the vena porte was 
only 0-8 per cent. of the weight of the animal. By performing 
experiments with blood-letting the author has found that the abstrac- 
tion of a quantity of blood equal to 1°3 per cent. of the weight of the 


190 DR STIRLING. 


body does not cause the death of the animal, and gives quite other 
changes in the arterial pressure. The author thus shows that the 
explanation of the previous authors is not tenable. Studying the 
curves of decreasing blood-pressure during the time of ligature of the 
vena porte, the author has found that the decrease takes place regularly 
in cases where the animal remains quite quiet. This decrease however 
is not regular when muscular contractions and irritation in the region 
of the vaso-motor nerves are present. The variations by which the 
heart-beats and respiration are represented in the arterial curves 
become after ligature of the vena porte at once flatter, and then 
disappear altogether when the arterial pressure has already clearly 
decreased. After removal of the ligature in some cases, the increase 
in arterial pressure begins and rises ‘until the tension that was present 
earlier is reached. In other cases the arterial pressure may remain 
low for some seconds or even minutes before it begins to rise, which 
it does at first gradually, then more quickly. ‘Active or passive 
movements during the ascent accelerate clearly the increase of the 
pressure already present. At other times removal of the ligature is 
not followed by a spontaneous increase in the arterial pressure. 
With regard to the pulse-beats, in all cases the initial diminished 
frequence increases with the duration of the experiment, so that when 
by the continued occlusion the animal is brought near to death, there 
is a period in the middle between the initial slowing and that induced 
later by dying, in which the pulse is accelerated. Section and irrita- 
tion of the spinal cord during ligature of the vena porte produces an 
increase of the arterial pressure, and the waves of the pulse are to be 
seen more clearly. Studying the rapidity of the movements of the 
blood in the carotid when the vena porte is ligatured, the author 
found that it is always decreased. For a description of the apparatus 
by which the above results were obtained, we must refer to the 
original. 


Unirormity or THE Hearts WoRK WHEN THE ORGAN IS NOT 
SUBJECT TO ANY Exterior Nervous InFrLuence.—Marey (Comptes 
ftendus, Aug. 4, 1873, p. 367) seeks to establish the theory that (the 
innervation remaining constant) the heart which never rests executes 
an amount of work sensibly uniform, its beats being rare when each 
of them has to overcome a considerable resistance ; they are frequent, 
on the contrary, when that resistance diminishes. The resistance to 
the effort of the heart is the pressure of the blood already contained 
in the arteries. He then cites a number of facts by which he supports 
his theory. With regard to the experiments of Cyon with the 
depressor nerve, the heart is in this case influenced by the nervous 
system. Irritation of the central end of this nerve produces a retar- 
dation of the heart’s beats and consecutive diminution of the arterial 
pressure. Certain facts, the author remarks, seem to stand in opposi- 
tion to his theory, viz. that even when in three rabbits Cyon had 
destroyed all the nerves which run along the vessels, so as to isolate 
the heart from all external nervous influence ; on the depressor nerve 
being excised under these conditions, retardation of the heart-beats 


REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY, 191 


followed. The author thinks that some nerve-fibres of the pneumo- 
gastric may not have escaped the scalpel. Ludwig has shown that 
the excised heart of a frog (and even the heart of a rabbit) when filled 
with serum, will continue its movements for a long time, and Bow- 
ditch, Coats and Cyon have measured with a manometer the energy 
of its movements. Such an excised heart (Tortoise), free from all 
external nervous influence, was fitted with an artificial circulatory 
apparatus formed of caoutchouc tubes, in which circulated fresh calf’s - 
blood. Blood was introduced into the veins and auricles from a 
raised reservoir by meaus of a syphon, passing from the ventricles to 
the arteries, the blood was forced into the elastic tubes, and was again 
poured into the reservoir. Jn spite of a high temperature, this circu- 
lation was maintained over five hours, and the following experiment 
was repeated a great number of times. Every time upon contracting 
the orifice of outflow of the arterial blood, only raising it to a greater 
or less height, the pressure in the arteries thereby being increased, 
the heart’s movements were retarded. Every time on the contrary on 
diminution of the pressure, the heart-beats were accelerated. In the 
absence of all communication with the nervous centre, the heart beats 
more quickly, in proportion as it performs less work in each of its 
beats. 


A Perriopic Function or THE IsoLatep Froe@’s HEart.— 
L. Luciani (Ludwig's Arbeiten, vu. 115). When the author ligatured 
the auricles of a frog’s heart, into whose ventricle a canula had been 
introduced through the sinus venosus, and thereafter the excised 
heart filled with serum and brought into connection with a small 
registering manometer, he observed, instead of the long pause in 
which the heart generally remains after the method of ligaturing of 
Stannius, that a long series of pulsations followed in a very charac- 
teristic, intermittent manner. To study more exactly this function 
the author employed the method of Bowditch (Ludwig’s Arbeiten, 
vi. 139), with certain modifications, for a description of which we 
must refer to the original. By means of a canula, which had at one 
end five small rings adjoining each other (each ring 2mm. broad), 
the author could ligature the ventricle at any height he wished. This 
intermittent pulse-rhythm shows itself in every frog’s heart filled 
with serum, by a paroxysm (“ Anfall”) of many frequent beats, 
which is then followed soon, or after a longer pause, by a series of 
slower beats. Then the groups (“Gruppen”) first appear, consisting 
of two and more seldom sixty contractions (when the serum contains 
many blood corpuscles), which are more frequent towards the middle 
of the group than at the beginning or end of the same. Pauses of 
from 20 seconds to 10 minutes separate the groups. In one and the 
same heart however there is often a remarkable regularity in the 
proportion of the groups and pauses. When such periodic work has 
lasted for a long time (often hours) the groups, which are already 
chiefly composed of lower beats, become dissolved, and merge into 
isolated contractions (“ Krisis”). The act of ligature produces often 
(especially on ligaturing near the sulcus) a very high and long 


192 DR STIRLING. 


(seldom more than 9 minutes) continued tonic contraction of the 
heart, upon whose curve often single beats are marked, sometimes 
arranged in groups separated by pauses. On loosening the ligature 
the tonus disappears immediately. Ligature of the places tied can- 
not again produce these results; the periods therefore following the 
tonic paroxysm are not to be regarded as phenomena of irritation, 
but as consequences of the separation of the centres regulating the 
- beats. The influence of the serum is shown in that upon its renewal 
it makes the beats in the groups higher and more frequent and the 
pauses shorter. Warming of the heart from 24° to 30° Cels. makes 
the groups and pauses shorter, the pulsation higher and much 
quicker, so that the rapidly widening heart causcs the mercurial 
column in the manometer to oscillate under the abscissa ; cooling 
to 3° Cels. produces an opposite effect. The single beat lasts often 
more than four seconds. The height of the beats following each 
other diminishes very gradually. The absolute number of beats 
in a given time under all the above conditions is smaller when the 
beats are arranged in groups than when they follow each other in 
the normal manner, but are equal (to those of the uninjured heart) 
with regard to height and duration. The pauses are longer in a heart 
beating in oil than in one filled and bathed with serum. One can 
therefore conclude that during the pause the irritation is actually 
absent, not, however, that its manifestation is only suppressed by the 
increased resistance. In the course of a normal pause, if contrac- 
tions are produced either by mechanical or electrical stimulation the 
pause is thereby increased. The easily changed rhythm of the 
periodic acting heart is easily affected by poisons. Nicotine and 
atropia make the groups longer, the pauses shorter. The latter, 
however, in small doses causes death of the heart without dissolution 
of the groups in the period of ‘ Krisis.” Large doses cause at first 
along series of frequent then more seldom beats, whilst nicotine 
makes the pauses shorter, and produces “ Krisis” more rapidly with- 
out disturbing the energy of the heart. Whilst new serum could 
not reproduce the periods after atropia poisoning, this happened in 
most instances after strong poisoning with nicotine. A heart poisoned 
with nicotine that had already passed through all the phases from 
“Anfall” to “Krisis” could be brought to a new periodic action 
when it was either filled with new serum or again poisoned with 
nicotine. After:a strong dose of extract of muscarin (5 milligr.) the 
heart remained motionless (as already known) after it had made 
‘a short group (sometimes peristaltic) of beats, but it reacted upon 
mechanical and electrical irritation. Careful washing out of the 
heart with fresh serum produced no spontaneous beats. A new 
ligature produced tetanus, upon whose curve single beats were 
marked, but immediately after the heart again relapsed into rest. 
Medium doses (2 milligr. ext. musc.) make the groups shorter, the 
beats more seldom and smaller, and the pauses longer. Minimum 
doses of muscarin (0-05 milligr. of the sulphate), after a stage of 
excitation, in which the height and frequency of the beats are in- 
creased, appear to produce the depressing effects of medium doses. 


REPORT ON PHYSICLOGY. 193 


Atrepin prodaced its effect regularly upon the muscarin poisoned 
heart as well as on the normal one. On the contrary, nicotine ean- 
not annul the action of muscarin. All the facts seem to the author 
to render the idea untenable, that there are present in the heart sepa- 
rate inhibitory and motor centres. 


CHEMICAL IRRITATION OF THE NERVES OF THE Herart.—Mosso 
(Lo Sperimentale Anno, xxiv. 1872. Abstract in Centralblatt, No. 14, 
1873) lends some confirmation to Schiff’s old view that the vagus is 
the probable or only motor nerve of the heart. He chemically irri- 
tated the cardiac nerves in dogs poisoned with atropine. In these 
animals the heart-beats were rendered independent of blood-pressure 
by the sub-cutaneous injection of atropine, and the nervi vagi recur- 
rentes were irritated by the careful application of a drop of solution 
of caustic potash. From his experiments he deduces the following 
conclusions: (1) Irritation of the vagi increases the frequency of the 
pulse in consequence of the excito-motor fibres running in the trunk 
of the vagus. (2) If the sheath of the vagi-sympathetic be opened, 
and the sympathetic be separated from the vagus, chemical irritation 
of the latter constantly produces an increase of the pulse frequency, 
whilst excitation of the sympathetic is without perceptible effect on 
the rhythm of the heart. (3) Mechanical irritation of the inferior 
laryngeal nerves by simple section is sufficient to increase the pulse 
frequency, and (4) this quite independent of an increase in the blood- 
pressure. 


AcTION OF THE VaGus ON THE Heart.—-Metschnikoff and 
Setschenow (Centralblatt, No. 11, 1873) from their experiments are 
led to the opposite conclusion from that of Mosso. When in a 
turtle (Emys Europea) the irritation of the vagus is carried beyond 
the bounds, which are known as the phenomena of exhaustion, a 
very striking picture of the periodicity of the inhibitory action of 
the vagus is obtained. The phenomena were much the same whether 
the animal had the brain destroyed or not (with intact vagus on the 
other side), as well as after section of the branch of the sympathetic 
from the vagus. They draw the two following provisional conclu- 
sions: (1) The inhibitory action of the vagus on the heart of the 
turtle is periodic. (2) In the periodicity of this action is a new 
proof that the inhibitory fibres of the heart end in a sort of nerve 
centre. In Centralblatt (No. 19, 1873) Setschenow finds also that in 
the heart of the frog with brain and spinal cord destroyed the action 
of the vagus is periodic. In frogs the pulse-frequence never rises 
during the negative phase over the normal. Repechoff investigated 
the reflex inhibition of the lymph heart by the vagus, and the cor- 
responding phenomena in the blood heart by the sympathetic. In 
both cases by a continued stimulation of the nerve the effect was 
certainly periodic. “ Cause of the retardation of the Pulse follow- 
ing artificial or voluntary closure of the nostrils in the Rabbit,” by 
W. Rutherford, in Journ. of Anat. and Phys. vu. 283. 


On THE INTERFERENCE OF THE RETARDING AND ACCELERATING 
Nerves or THE Heart.—H. P. Bowditch (Ludwig’s Arbeiten, vu. 


VOL. VIII. 13 


194 DR STIRLING. 


259). Ina short history of the N. accelerans cordis, whose discovery 
by the brothers Cyon and A. v. Bezold gave full confirmation to the 
idea of the latter, upon the necessary connection of the cardiac nerves 
with the spinal cord, the author gives the results of the researches of 
M. and E. Cyon upon this nerve in rabbits and dogs, and shows how 
A. v. Bezold, Beven and Schmiedeberg have increased our knowledge 
of its function. The latter showed that it is also present in the frog. 
The branches of the accelerans and those of the vagus are united into 
one stem before they reach the heart, so that it is possible to irritate 
both equally strongly, and at the same time. By doing so, we see at 
first only the inhibitory action of the vagus, and by continuing the 
irritation there is consequent exhaustion of the vagus, and its action 
becomes weaker and weaker. After interruption of the irritating 
stream, the complete action of the accelerating nerve appears. Simi- 
lar results are obtained when the isolated vagus of the one side, and 
the N. accelerans of the other, are irritated by currents of the same 
strength. 

It is now necessary to ascertain if both nerves acting oppositely, 
when these are irritated, yield a medium value of heart-beats, which 
each would have given if irritated by itself. For this purpose the 
author used dogs, poisoned with curara, and isolated the N. accelerans 
by the method of O. Schmiedeberg (Journal of Anat. and Phys. 
Vol. vir. 180). The pulse was written partly with a mercurial and 
partly with the spring manometer. For a special apparatus for 
recording the time, we must refer to the original. At first the effect 
of the maximum irritation of the carefully isolated N. accelerans was 
studied. No exact proportion could be made out between the form 
of the curve and the duration, strength, and consecutiveness of the 
irritation. But probably a nicer gradation of the irritation might 
yield some results. The latent period varied (from 1 to 22 sec.) in 
the same and different animals, and was independent of the strength 
of the induction stream. The only indication of regularity exhibited 
was that the latent period was shorter when a second irritation fol- 
lowed the previous one before the acceleration of the pulse which it 
had produced had disappeared. The maximum value which the num- 
ber of pulse-beats reaches in a given time in the same animal, within 
narrow limits, unmistakably depends upon the strength of the 
irritation. . 

This value, however, is very unequal in different animals. It is 
a rule without exception, that the time of the duration of the maxi- 
mum of heart-beats is proportionally short. It is of importance 
to know how many beats more the heart produces in a given time, 
when the N. accelerans is irritated, over the number obtained in the 
same time without irritation. The result is, that the increase of the 
pulse-beats is greater with the duration of the irritation, but not at 
all proportionally. In addition to acceleration of the pulse, the 
irritation of the nerves which are contained in the path of the N. 
accelerans often produces an increase of the mean arterial pressure. 
But even where the pressure and the pulse increase at the same time, 
there is a complete independence the one of the other. Without 


REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 195 


exception, after irritation the arterial pressure reaches earlier its 
maximum than the acceleration of the pulse, and still further, when 
the pulse-beats have reached their highest value they sink regularly 
to that which they had before the irritation. The arterial pressure, 
on the contrary, sinks with wave-like variations under its normal 
value, and without exception the waves of pressure become lower and 
shorter the further they are from the beginning of the irritation. 
The independence of the acceleration-wave, and of the variation in 
the pressure, are best explained by supposing that there are in the 
irritated stem two nerves of different functions, one of which acts 
upon the heart, the other upon blood-vessels elsewhere, in the same 
way as O. Schmiedeberg has demonstrated that, by irritating a branch 
proceeding from the ganglion stellatim only, the pressure-wave is 
produced without at the same time any acceleration of the heart’s 
beats. The author also observes that in some dogs, but not in all, 
as Fick has already shown, a dicrotic pulse is produced. In those 
animals in which it was observed it always disappeared when the 
pulse-beats reached from 210 to 220 in a minute. 

By observing the changes of the rhythm of the pulse following 
irritation of the N. accelerans, the author compares them with those 
that are obvious in a frog’s heart exhausted but warmed, or in the 
exhausted frog’s heart filled with fresh blood serum. The antagonism 
between the N. accelerans and N. retardans is at least not a complete 
one. Maximum induction currents, acting at different times upon 
the isolated accelerans, gave an approximately equal frequence of 
pulse-beats ; the regular tetanisation of the same part of the N. vagus 
yields not so satisfactor y results, e.g. the distance of the coils necessary 
to produce the slightest perceptible retardation of the pulse must be 
altered for consecutive irritations. The cause of this irregularity is 
very probably not to be sought for in exhaustion of the nerve-trunk, 
but in a changing susceptibility of the automatic apparatus to the 
irritations of the vagus. It is necessary to find the minimum irrita- 
-tion of the vagus, by which it does not lose its effect on the N. 
accelerans, to employ this by itself, and then at the same time 
to employ the maximum of the N. accelerans. From the curves 
figured at the end of the paper, it is shown that a very weak irrita- 
tion of the vagus is sufficient completely to overcome the effects 
of even a maximum iuritation of the N. accelerans. From the study 
of the curves obtained from different animals, it is possible that very 
weak degrees of irritation of the vagus may not be able to overcome 
the maximum irritation of the N. accelerans. The vagus has not the 
power to abolish the condition produced in the heart by the N. ac- 
celerans. When the pulse, rendered quicker by the accelerans, was 
rendered slower by the vagus, the increased pulse-beats returned 
when the vagus was removed from the induction circuit. 

By an increase of arterial pressure, causing irritation of the 
central ends of the vagus, the author made further investigations 
to see if this natural irritation would disappear under maximum 
irritation of the accelerans. For these experiments of course only 
those animals could be employed whose pulse is retarded by the 


13—2 


196 DR STIRLING, 


increased pressure. The result was, that the irritation of the vagus, 
effected by increased arterial pressure, was strong enough to overcome 
a maximum one of the N. accelerans. But, as it has been shown 
that irritation of the N. accelerans by itself alone can produce an 
increase of the arterial pressure, so it may happen that by increase 
of the arterial tension the effects of irritation of the accelerator nerve 
may be balanced. 

So in this manner it can be understood why sometimes in the 
course of an acceleration, caused by irritation of a very carefully iso- 
lated N. accelerans, there appear suddenly some heart-beats with 
long pauses. In curarised dogs, dying from asphyxia, and in which 
the blood had already become of a deep dark colour, the author found 
that the N. accelerans had not lost its irritability but was very 
active, and it seems to be an important fact for the condition 
produced in the heart by irritation of the N. accelerans, that oxyge- 
nated blood is not necessary for the same. 


VARIATIONS OF Ha2MOGLOBIN IN THE ZooLocicaAL SERIES.— 
Quinquand, Comptes Rendus, August 18th, 1873, p. 487. The 
method consists in determining by aid of a liquid triturated with 
hyposulphite, the maximum quantity of oxygen, absorbed by the 
blood,which ought to be effected in five minutes, using 2 ce. of blood 
(for details, Comptes Rendus, Lxxvi., 1489, or Lond. Med. Rec., No. 
30). (1) The progressive diminution of the quantity of hemoglobin 
contained in the same volume of blood follows in general the degrees 
in the animal scale. At the same time the blood of the primates 
is not that which contains most. (2) The blood of young animals 
is less rich in hemoglobin than that of adults; in many species the 
placental blood contains as much as the blood of the general circula- 
tion. In old age the quantity diminishes. The curve of variations 
would be represented by a slight fall at first corresponding to the 
first days of uterine life, the curve then rises in the infant, and 
remains horizontal during adult life (25 to 50 in man), after which 
it slowly falls in old age. 


EsTIMATION OF THE MrnERALS OF BiLoop-SeruM By Direct PRE- 
crpiraTion.—L, Gerlach (Ludwig's Arbeiten, vii. 99). Dr Pribram’s 
experiments showed that it is practicable to precipitate from fresh 
blood-serum all the lime and a part of the phosphoric acid which 
formerly could only be obtained from the ashes of the serum (Jowrn. 
of Anat. and Phys. vu. 190). Dr Pribram, however, in his ex- 
periments took no notice of the magnesia. The author, from his 
experiments, finds that magnesia as well as lime can be precipitated 
directly from the serum, but to obtain reliable results it is necessary 
to precipitate the lime in an acetic acid solution to prevent the 
contamination of the precipitate by ammoniaco-imagnesian phosphate. 


Wuat Constituents oF ASPHYXIATED BLOOD SERVE TO BIND THE 
DirFusisLE OxycEn!—Afonassiew (Ludwig's Arbeiten, vu. 71). 
Alex. Schmidt has shown that asphyxiated blood possesses the pro- 
perty of changing a portion of the oxygen which is added to it, and 


REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 197 


that the whole of the oxygen cannot be recovered from blood so 
treated. In place of an aliquot part of the oxygen, CO, is obtained. 
The author, under Ludwig's direction, wished to know “whether the 
stuff which holds this oxygen is contained in the serum or in the 
blood-corpuscles. He began with the investigation of the compo- 
sition of the serum. The serum was obtained free from blood- 
corpuscles by means of the centrifugal apparatus. He mixed equal 
volumes of this serum and asphyxiated blood (taken from an as- 
phyxiated animal nearly dead). The quantity of CO,, oxygen and 
nitrogen contained in the serum as well as in the blood added, was 
estimated so that the contents of the mixture in gases could be 
easily derived therefrom. The gases were pumped out of the mix- 
ture and analysed. In five experiments the quantity of CO,, oxygen 
and nitrogen obtained was so near the quantity calculated, that it 
is quite certain that the serum of asphyxiated blood does not con- 
tain any substance which could cause the formation of CO, from 
the oxygen of the blood-discs. In one experiment the quantity of 
CO, actually obtained was 32°23 per cent., while the quantity reck- 
oned was 32°40 per cent., and the actual quantity of oxygen obtained 
7°24 per cent., the calculated amount 7°31 per cent. ; small variations 
quite within the limits of analytical errors. The author now added 
a given quantity of oxygen to a known quantity of asphyxiated 
blood whose gaseous contents were known, and then ascertained the 
amount of gases in the same. Thus in one of the experiments the 
asphyxiated blood contained 1:48 volumes per cent. of oxygen, 11:12 
per cent. of oxygen was added, 11°86 per cent. of oxygen was ob- 
tained. So that 0-74 volumes per cent. of oxygen had disappeared 
and 0°37 per cent. of CO, more was obtained. The serum of the 
same blood, on the contrary, absorbed only 0:21 volumes per cent. 
of oxygen and yielded 0:16 volumes per cent. more of CO, Ina 
second experiment, after the addition of oxygen, 1:04 volumes of 
oxygen disappeared from the asphyxiated blood and oxygen, ‘93 
volumes CO, more was obtained. From this it appears that the 
substance in asphyxiated blood, which allows the finding of the 
oxygen and the formation of CO,, i is present in the floating ‘elements 
of the blood (red and white corpuscles). 


Expunsion oF Nirric Oxipe FRoM THE Broop.—Zmitz and 
Donders have shown that CO can be expelled by other gases, e.g. 
oxygen, from its hemoglobin compounds. Podolinski (Pfliig. 
Archiv, vi. 1872 , 953) has also succeeded in driving out completely 
CO from blood containing it, by means of oxygen (atmospheric air), 
and also by hydrogen, though hydrogen acts a little slower. Nitric 
oxide can also be expelled by hydrogen, though here also longer time 
is required than for the CO. 


EstiMATION OF THE ABSOLUTE QuaANTITY OF BLoop.—Steinberg 
(Phiig. Archiv, 1872, vit. 101) in his researches has adopted the 
method of Preyer, viz. the giving of a green light in the spectrum 
by a certain estimated solution of heemoglobin, which serves as a 
test object for the washings. The proportion of blood to the body 


198 DR STIRLING. 


weight in the rabbit was 1 : 12°3 to 13:3. In guinea-pig, 1 : 12 
to 12°3. Adult dog, 1:11:2 to 12°5. Young dog, 1: 16-2 to 
17°8. Adult cat, 1: 10-4 to 11:9. Young cat, 1:17°3 to 18-4. 
The colorimetric method of Welcker adopted by Bischoff, Heidenhain, 
Ranke, &e. yields very similar results. 


Minute Movine Particies as Constant Constituents oF Nor- 
MAL Bioop.—Nedsvetski (Centralblatt, 1873, No. 10) finds that in 
perfectly fresh human blood, examined with a power of not less than 
900 to 1000 diams., there is to be observed in addition to the red 
and white corpuscles very small spherical bodies without cilia of the 
size of the granules of the white blood-corpuscles, which exhibit move- 
ments of rotation round their axis, and move from place to place. 
No structure is to be observed in them, Nedsvetski has named these 
bodies harmo-cocci. They attach themselves to the filaments of fibrin 
when it is found under the microscope. Other bodies, whose source 
seems to be the white blood-corpuscles, are also described by this 
author. Still other granules are to be distinguished ; they resemble 
the white blood-corpuscles, and are to be distinguished from them 
by being more rounded, and by being devoid of movement. They 
remain longer without change than the other elements of the blood. 


BAcTERIA-FORMING MAssES PRESENT IN Bxroop.—Osler and 
Schifer (Centralblatt, 1873, No. 37). In many diseases there is 
present in the blood a greater or lesser number of colourless granular 
bodies, of the same size, or often larger than the white blood-cor- 
puscles, and consisting of small pale particles) When a drop of 
blood is diluted with solution of NaCl (2 per cent.) and kept at the 
temperature of the body, small fibres are observed to be pushed out 
from the surface of these masses which soon exhibit a violent vibra- 
tile movement, while at the last they separate themselves from the 
mass and float free in the fluid. Every fibre exhibits either in its 
middle or at one of its ends a swelling, which, according to the 
position of the fibre, appears either circular or linear. The swelling 
is not globular, but discoid. These masses are present sometimes in 
apparently normal human blood as well as in that of animals, but 
they do not exist previously as such in the blood-vessels. They are 
formed after extraction of the blood by the flowing together of the 
pale particles from which they are made up. 


Action oF Quinine on Buioop.—Binz (Arch. f. Expt. Path. 1.) 
pointed out some years ago that Quinine arrested the movements 
of the white blood-corpuscles, and this he explains by the drug di- 
minishing the oxydizing power of the red blood-corpuscles, for the 
white corpuscles are only active when supplied with oxygen, which 
is yielded up to them by the red corpuscles as they pass. Binz has 
further found that when oxygen is withheld from them they do not 
penetrate the walls of the blood-vessels, and his observation has been 
confirmed by Heller and Zahn. 


CoLourine Marrers or tHE Bioop.—H. Struve (Virchow’s 
Archiv, uv. 423) has succeeded in discovering two colouring mat- 


REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 199 


ters in the blood. The one, probably identical with Virchow’s heema- 
toidin, is crystalline, dark blue in colour, insoluble in water, alcohol, 
ether, chloroform, and acids, but dissolving in weak alkalies, giving 
the solution a brownish tinge. On heating it, ammoniacal fumes are 
evolved. The other is soluble in water and in alcohol, but with 
difficulty in ether, and is probably identical with Von Wittich’s 
heematin. 


ON THE SUGAR-PRODUCING FERMENT OF Bioop.—P. Plész and 
E. Tiegel (Pfliig. Archiv, 1873, vi. 391). When defibrinated blood 
is mixed with a weak solution of NaCl, and the blood-corpuscles 
allowed to separate, the supernatant fluid contains the ferment in 
large quantity, while the blood-corpuscles contain none, or only a 
very small quantity. The authors conclude that the Na Cl solution 
has extracted the ferment from the blood-corpuscles, and quote the 
analogous phenomenon that it is possible by a 3 per cent. solution 
of NaCl to extract from fibrin a sugar-producing ferment nearly 
allied to globulin. The authors, in repeating Bock-Hoffman’s experi- 
ments, found in the excreted urine a sugar-producing ferment ; also 
in diabetic urine a substance which, when freed from sugar, possessed 
the same property. The authors’ experiments render it probable 
that in the Bock-Hoffman experiments the formation of sugar takes 
place not in the kidneys, but in the blood or liver. With regard 
to V. Wittich’s experiments, by which he sought to prove the exis- 
tence of a special liver-ferment which changes glycogen into sugar, 
V. Wittich has stated (Pjliig. Archiv, 1873, 28, abstract in Lond. 
Med, Rec. 1873) that in a liver quite free from sugar and from which 
the blood has been completely washed out, after some time the sugar 
returns, and the sugar-producing ferment can be demonstrated. The 
authors think it more probable, however, that by the washing out of 
the liver with water, the ferment contained in the blood was dis- 
solved, and fixed in the coagulated liver-cells. 

“ Presence of Soluble Earths and Phosphoric Acid in Alkaline 
Blood,” Fokker, in Pfliig. Arch., 1873, vir. 274. “Absorption of 
Oxygen by Blood,” Gréhaut, in Comptes Rendus, txxv. 495, abstract 
in Lond. Med. Kec., No. 17, ‘ Physical Nature of the Coagulation 
of the Blood,” A. H. Smee, in Journ. of Anat. and Phys. vu. 210. 
“Observations on Welcker’s Method of Estimating the Quantity of 
Blood,” Gscheidlen, in Pfliig. Arch. vit. 530. 


Lymph. 


SzcreTIoN oF Lympn IN THE Fore-times or THE Doc.—(Lud- 
wig’s Arbeiten, v1. 198.) Paschutin has selected by preference the 
fore-limbs of the dog as the source of the lymph, because the roots of 
the brachial-lymph stem arise only in the skin and muscles, and the 
lymph is not mixed with that of other tissues, as would be the case 
if it were obtained from the truncus thoracicus, and, further, because 
the circulation in the limb is easily modified, and its nerves excited. 
On the living animal, after cutting the skin at the outer margin of 


200 DR STIRLING. 


the vena jugularis, all small arteries must be tied, and alt blood re- 
moved. The A. transversa colli is next sought for by aid of a blunt 
instrument, and two ligatures are placed upon it, and the artery cut 
between them. Immediately in the neighbourhood of this vessel, 
but nearer the spinal column, the lymph stem is to be found. By 
pressing the lymph from the limb upwards towards the head, the 
trunk is easily rendered visible. Place a ligature on the vessel as 
near as possible to its place of opening into the truncus colli; but 
before tying the ligature see that no small branches join the vessel 
from the scapular or pectoral regions, if so these must be ligatured. 
The brachial stem must be carefally isolated for 5 mm., a ligature 
placed round it, and a canula bound in it. The best material for 
making the canula is glass. The observations of Generisch and 
Lesser have shown that the lymph only flows regularly from the 
limbs, when these are actively or passively moved; and that further, 
the rapidity of the out-flow probably depends upon the intensity of 
the movements and the tact displayed. It was therefore necessary 
to have the limb moved regularly, and the method by which this was 
obtained, by means of a machine, is to be found in the original. In 
order to vary the experiments it was necessary to divide the plexus 
brachialis, the cervical spinal cord, or both. The plexus brachialis is 
easily reached through the original wound in the skin. In dividing 
the spinal cord in the neck, the best spot is at the lower margin of 
the second cervical vertebra; but the loss of a small quantity of 
blood causes the death of the animal. It is therefore better, in lay- 
ing bare the vertebra, to ligature the large branch of the A. profunda 
cervicis, which runs backwards on the middle layer of the cervical 
muscles. After section of the spinal cord artificial respiration is kept 
up, and the electrodes for irritation of the spinal cord applied. The 
blood-pressure was measured in the A. carotis. 


I. The medium rapidity of outflow of Lymph. 

1. ATI experiments show that with the duration of the experi- 
ment the out-flow of lymph is diminished, i.e. when the circumstances, 
under which the animal is operated on, remain the same. But it is 
different whether the animal is poisoned or not, or placed under the 
ordinary temperature of the air or if the temperature is higher, or 
whether the spinal cord is injured or remains intact. With regard 
to the source of the lymph it is easy to show that one has not to do 
merely with an emptying of the lymph vessels, for when the lymph 
is carefully pressed out of the limb with the hand, and this is 
again repeated immediately thereafter, employing very powerful pres- 
sure, no greater quantity will be obtained. The assumption that 
during the time of the experiment a store of tissue juice is expelled, 
the author cannot refute, considering the striking proofs which Ham- 
marsten has had, on account of the large quantity of lymph which 
he obtained. But not less important is the observation that in one 
experiment, after the weak movements of the limb caused by the 
machine had been followed by the powerful one caused by the hand, 
the rapidity of out-flow rose suddenly, and lasted 25 minutes, without, 


REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 201 


however, sinking to the small quantity which was obtained before 
the commencement of the powerful pumping. From this, and spe- 
cially from the composition of the lymph, every portion of which has 
a different value, it seems to the author very probable that the out- 
flowing lymph is actually secreted during the period of movement. 
And again, in several experiments the out-flow of lymph during the 
period of rest either ceased entirely, or only a very small quantity 
could be obtained on pressing the limbs; but as the pumping move- 
ment again increased, no more lymph flowed than was dropped by 
the same movement before the rest. It is to be observed that these 
results were obtained also on animals whose cervical spinal cord and 
plexus brachialis were cut. The observation that the secretion of 
lymph ceases during the period of rest is not valid for all cases. 

2. Action of Curara on the Secretion of Lymph.—The experi- 
ments of Lesser rendered it very probable that curara modified the 
secretion of lymph. The cervical spinal cord and plexus brachialis 
were cut, and then the lymph pumped out for a certain time; the 
animal was then rapidly poisoned with a sufficient quantity of curara, 
and the lymph obtained as before. After curara poisoning the ra- 
pidity of secretion increases, reaches its maximum in 40 to 50 minutes 
afterwards, and then by degrees gradually decreases. This accelera- 
tion takes place not only during the period of movement, but also 
during rest. The increase and decrease of the secretion does not run 
parallel with the arterial blood-pressure. Curara produces redness of 
the skin. It also modifies the composition of the secreted lymph. 

3. Change of Lymph Secretion in consequence of an increased 
supply of Blood.—The simplest method to produce arterial congestion 
in the fore-limb of a curarised dog is to lay bare carefully the brachial 
plexus, then pump out the lymph under these conditions, and 
then, after the section of the plexus, to proceed with gaining the 
lymph. After this the foot became warmer, and blood flowed from 
the foot, after puncture with a needle, much more freely than be- 
fore. Tables of the results so obtained show very clearly that in- 
creased supply of blood is without influence on the secretion of 
lymph, that its rapidity fell regularly after section of the nerves, not- 
withstanding that the blood-pressure after the same was higher than 
before, and notwithstanding that the foot and upper part of the ex- 
tremity was more richly supplied with blood. To be without doubt 
on this point, the cervical spinal cord was cut and electrodes applied, 
and at the same time the plexus brachialis was divided. One could 
therefore change, after irritation of the spinal cord, the lymph caught 
during high and during low blood-pressure, and therefore be sure 
that the change of the blood-pressure measured in the carotid also 
took place in the fore extremity, because the vaso-motor nerves of the 
same were paralysed. From numerous results it is impossible to 
doubt that in the dog increased blood-supply is without influence on 
the secretion of lymph. At no time was there produced by the ap- 
pointed irritation even a stoppage in the sinking of the rapidity of 
secretion, to say nothing of an increase of the latter. These results, 
therefore, stand in open contradiction to the idea of the dependence 


202 DR STIRLING. 


between the blood-pressure and the lymph secretion. Till now it 
was believed that the cause of the movement of fluid from the blood- 
vessels in the tissue spaces was founded in the difference of pressure 
which was active on both sides of the wall of the vessels. 

4. Change of the Secretion of Lymph by increased temperature of 
the body.—TYo test whether the cooling which the animal undergoes 
when it has lain for a long time on the operating table is the cause 
of the secretion becoming smaller and smaller with the duration of 
the time of observation, the animal was aliowed to cool at the ordi- 
nary temperature while the lymph was obtained, and whilst the 
lymph was being obtained the animal was warmed from without. 
For this purpose the double walled box (described at p. 203) was em- 
ployed. An increased temperature accelerated the out-flow of the 
lymph. 


II. Per-centage composition of Lymph Serum in fixed residue. 


1. To free the lymph serum from fibrin and corpuscles the lymph, 
which during the catching was shaken before evaporation, was placed 
in closed vessels in the centrifugal machine, until the clear serum 
could be poured off from the sediment. A weighed quantity of the 
latter was carefully dried. In 84 different examples of lymph, taken 
from different dogs or from the same dog at different times, the per- 
centage composition of lymph serum in fixed residue clearly changed. 
The variation was from 2-61 to 6:55 per cent. From numerous ex- 
periments it is shown that the per-centage increases with crease in 
the time of experiment. Similar results were obtained by Generisch 
when he collected the lymph from surviving limbs whilst an artificial 
blood stream was passed through the same. The formation of the 
lymph is not due merely to transudation, 

2. In the course of an experiment when the initial slowing of 
the rapidity of the lymph-secretion again increases, the per-centage of 
its serum very often decreases again, and this independent of the cause 
which produces the acceleration. The relation which exists between 
the lymph which flows out in a certain time, and its per-centage in 
fixed constituents, is here very obvious. For when the rapidity of 
secretion was accelerated by new means, in spite of the continuation 
of these means, the rapidity becomes by degrees less and less, the 
per-centage of the residue increases. 

3. In one experiment, in the course of which the animal was 
poisoned with curara, the contents in fixed constituents rose 1-2 per 
cent. It is therefore to be expected that all the animals narcotised with 
this poison before yielded a concentrated lymph. When in seven 
cases the animals were curarised before the beginning of the experi- 
ment, the per-centage of the first portion of lymph varied from 4-4 
and 6-5 per cent., i.e. it had already reached in the beginning of the 
experiment the worth which is only reached towards the end in 
unpoisoned animals. In short, when in the curarised animals, in 
consequence of a cause, the rapidity of out-flow of the lymph in- 
creases, exactly the same proportions in the per-centage of the lymph 
in fixed constituents occur as in the non-curarised animals, but not 


REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 203 


with the same regularity. In other experiments the rapidity of 
out-flow of lymph was increased by warming the animal. In these 
experiments the contents of the lymph in fixed stuffs decreased, 
although the rapidity of secretion had already begun to decrease. If 
these results are confirmed, there would be proved a specific action of 
increased temperature on the composition of lymph serum which was 
secreted in animals with uninjured spinal cord. With regard to the 
question whether the lymph is obtained by the passive movements of 
the limbs, or is formed from a previously prepared store during the 
period of the experiment, the different composition of the obtained 
fluid speaks in favour of the latter. And further, this remains 
scarcely doubtful when, the movement remaining the same, the com- 
position of the serum changes after this more or less rich out-flow. 
It further shows how insufficient it is to observe solely the volume 
of the fiuid, for its composition must also be investigated. 

It is not possible to explain the results obtained simply by the 
categories of a propelling force and a resistance, for two conditions 
which equally increase the out-flowing volume act quite in an 
exactly opposite manner on the quantity of albumen of the serum, 
as is the case with curara in opposition to the active movements of 
the limbs and the warming of an injured animal. 


Respiratory System. 


Quinquand, “ Respiration of Fishes,” in Lond. Med. Ree. No. 
22. Moin, “On Cubic Space and Volume of Air,” in Comptes 
Rtendus, Aug., 1873, Abstract in Lond. Med. Rec. No. 33. 
Schroetter, “‘ Movements of the Trachea.” Abstract in Lond. Med, 
tec. No. 27.——“ Graphic Representation of the Respiratory Move- 
ments,” Deutsch. Archiv f. Klin. Med., 1872, x. 124, and 1873, x1. 
379. “Erectile Action of the Blood-Pressure in Inspiration,” 
Hoggan, in Edinb. Med. Jour., 1872, ccvut. “ Functions of the 
Nerves and Muscles of the Larynx,” Schech, in Zeit. f. Biolog., 1x. 
Hft 2, 258. “Movements of Respiration,’ E. Lockenberg, in 
Arb. aus d. Phys. Lab. d. Wiirzburger Hochschule, Pt. 1. 199. 
“ Dyspnea from Warmth,” Goldstein, in ed. Pt. 1. 77. “On Res- 
piration,” Nussbaum, in Pfliger’s Archiv, vii. 296. 


Action oF InrercostaL Muscres.—From experiments on a 
guillotined criminal, Onimus (Gaz. Hebr. de Méd. et de Chir., Jan. 
24, 1873) has shown by means of electricity, that the external 
intercostals raise the ribs and are inspirators, while the internal 
ones depress them and are expirators, thus confirming Hamberger’s 
theory: muscular contractility was further observed- not to dis- 
appear in all the muscles at once. The diaphragm and muscles of the 
tongue are the first to lose their excitability, while the masseters 
retain theirs longer than any muscle of the face. (Abstract in Lond. 
Med. Ree., No. 9.) 


INFLUENCE OF ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION IN STRYCHNIA POISONING. 
Rossbach, Centralblatt, 1873, No. 24. The author concludes from 


204 DR STIRLING. 


his experiments on rabbits, that artificial respiration has no influence 
either upon the preservation of the life of the strychnia-poisoned 
animal or upon the intensity or duration of the spasms. 


Apnaa.—Ewald (Pjliiger’s Archiv, vu. 575) used always the same 
animals for comparing the oxygen contained in the blood. A quan- 
tity of blood was obtained during ordinary respiration, and its gases 
obtained. Apnoea was then produced by inflation, another quantity of 
blood was obtained when the animal had completely recovered, and 
so forth, and the quantity of oxygen was estimated at the different 
periods. The chief results of these experiments are in the condition 
of apneea ; the oxygen of the artificial blood is increased almost to 
complete saturation, that of the venous blood is diminished, while the 
CO, was clearly diminished in both cases. If the animal again 
breathed naturally, the quantity of oxygen of the arterial blood sank 
to the normal, the quantity of CO, also increased. By natural forced 
respiration almost complete saturation of the blood by oxygen can be 
produced. 

That the diminution of oxygen in venous blood is not produced 
by a diminution of temperature through the blood-lettings, whereby 
the tissues would have increased need for oxygen, is shown in the 
experiments where the animals were kept at a constant temperature. 
Withdrawal of air during apneea causes asphyxiation much later 
than during natural respiration. In apneea, after cessation of arti- 
ficial respiration, after a long time (40 seconds), at first a scarcely per- 
ceptible diminution of oxygen appeared, which, as well as the mentioned 
retardation of asphyxiation, speaks for a diminution of the consumption 
of oxygen. Experiments of Pfliiger, not yet published, however, speak 
against this ; he observes neither increase nor diminution in the con- 
sumption of oxygen in apneea. The author would explain the fact 
mentioned through a diminution of the rapidity of the blood stream, 
and he found that the blood-pressure during apneea was diminished 
about one-third of the normal. During natural respiration the 
oxygen contained in arterial blood was about 5-5 per cent. higher 
than that of venous, during apnea about 7:1 per cent. 


Alimentation. 


“ Physiological Studies on the Action of Flesh-broth, Extract of 
Meat, Alkaline Salts, and Kreatin.” Bogoslowsky in Arch. f. Anat. u. 
Phys. 1872, 347. Seegen and Nowak, “ Estimation of Nitrogen in 
Albumates,” Pyliig. Archiv, vit. 1873, 284. Pettenkofer and Voit, 
* Feeding with Flesh and Fat,” Zeitschr. f. Biolog. 1x. 1873, 1. 
Nasse, “Studies on Albumen,” Pjliig. Archiv, vi. and vi. 589. 
Wolffhiigel, “Digestion of Fibrin without Pepsin,” in Pfliig. Archiv, 
vir. 188. Sanson, “On a Mechanical Coefficient of Food,” in 
Comptes Rendus, No. 24, 1490—1873. Abstract in Lond. Med. Ree. 
No. 30. Mohlenfield, ““On Peptones,” Pjliig. Archiv, Vol. v. 
Abstract in Lond. Med. Rec. No. 27. Von Wittich, “ Action of 
Pepsin on Fibrin,” in did. “ Contribution to the Physiology of 


REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 205 


Water,” Falck in Zeitschr. f. Biolog. vit. 398.——“ Absorption of 
Fat,” Radziejewski in Virch. Archiv, 1872, v1. “On the import- 
ance of Chloride of Sodium and its relation to Potassium Salts in the 
human economy,” G. Bunge, Zeitschr. f. Biolog. 1x. Hft 1, 104. 


AssIMILATION OF Fats.—Hoffman, Zeitschr. f. Biolog. vi. Ab- 
stract in Lond. Med. Rec. No. 17, The animals were starved till all the 
fat was supposed to have disappeared, when they were fed on nearly 
pure fat, in order to determine whether fat is deposited in the tissues 
from the food or not, or whether it first undergoes conversion. On 
post-mortem examination it was found that the deposit is chiefly in 
the liver and mesentery. Upon analysis it was shown that a con- 
siderable quantity was assimilated and deposited in the tissues. 


Brunyer’s GLanps.—Krolow (Jnaug. Dissert. Berlin, 1872) finds 
that the fluid secreted by these glands has the power of converting 
starch into sugar, and completely dissolves raw fibrin, but has no 
effect upon fat and coagulated albumen. 


RESEARCHES ON THE FUNCTION OF THE GLANDS OF THE INTESTINAL 
Mucous Memprane.—Costa (abstract in Centralblatt, No. 20, 1873). 
The experiments were made upon horses, which were killed during 
digestion. The glands of Brunner and Lieberkiihn were specially 
prepared after Von Wittich’s method (extracted by glycerine), and 
with the fluid so obtained digestion experiments were made. His 
results are: (1) That the glands of Brunner possess strongly the power 
of converting starch into sugar, but have no effect on albumen or 
fat; thus confirming Krolow’s observations. (2) Extract of Lieber- 
kiihn’s glands of the small intestine immediately changes starch into 
sugar, but is also without effect on the albumen and fat. (3) The 
extract of Lieberkiihn’s glands of the great intestine has no diastatic 
effect, and is neutral with regard to albumen and fat. (4) The ex- 
tract of Brunner’s is in the horse, and especially in the dog, very 
thick and stringy, and on the addition of acetic acid deposits flakes 
of mucus. (5) The extract of Lieberkiihn’s glands is less thick and 
more fluid, but besides its diastatic function it also serves to keep the 
contents of the small intestine fluid. (6) The intestinal juice, the 
mixture of the separately observed secretions, has no other effect 
than its constituents. 


THE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF PEAS AND FLESH, AND THE QUANTITA- 
TIVE RELATION BETWEEN THE NITROGEN INGESTED AND THAT EX- 
CRETED IN THE Urine.—Woroschiloff in Berlin. Klin. Wochensch. 
1873, No.8. Abstract in Lond. Med. Rec. No. 18. The experiments 
were made upon himself. Both peas and flesh yielded complete 
nourishment when the requisite quantity of carbo-hydrates in the 
form of bread and sugar and a small quantity of NaCl were added. 
The power of assimilation for the albuminous constituents of flesh is 
higher than for those of peas, for the amount of nitrogen in the feces 
in the first case was only 6—10 per cent. of the ingested nitrogen, 
in the latter 10—17 per cent, During violent muscular exercise (lifting 


206 DR STIRLING. 


a heavy weight) the quantity of flesh and peas must be increased to 
keep the body-weight unchanged. The quantity of urea excreted 
under these circumstances was not increased. A quantity of the assimi- 
lated nitrogen was retained in the body to be employed for repairing 
the muscle substance. From this and other observations it seems 
probable that the source of muscular power is to be sought for in 
the non-nitrogenous constituents of muscle. 


ON THE FERMENTATIVE ACTION OF PANCREATIC JUICE AND 
PaROTIDEAN SALIVA OF NEWLY-BORN CHILDREN AND INFANTS UPON 
Srarcu.—Korowin, Centralblatt, No. 17, 1873. The pancreas was 
taken from children which had died of various affections, chiefly 
intestinal and pulmonary, and at different times after death. In all 
cases where possible the glucose was estimated quantitatively. The 
results obtained are: Pancreatic juice in the first month showed no 
effect in changing starch into sugar. In the second month it begins 
to exert the fermentative change, and at the end of the third month 
the action was so strong that in several cases the quantity of sugar 
could be estimated quantitatively. The complete effect is fully esta- 
blished at the end of the first year. The parotid secretion converts 
starch into sugar in the first day of life, and the action is so strong 
that the quantity can be easily ascertained. In Centralblatt, No. 20, 
1873, Korowin details his method of obtaining the saliva. The 
4 children are allowed to suck small pieces of meerschaum, from which 
the saliva is pressed out. It is possible to collect the saliva in the 
first minutes after birth. The results are corroborated by Schiffer 
(Arch. f. Anat. u. Phys. 1872, 464. “Effects of Stimuli on the 
secretion of the Parotid Gland,” by P. B. Stoney, in Journ. Anat. 
and Phys. vu. 161. 


PLACE OF DESTRUCTION OF ALBUMEN—THE ANIMAL ORGANISM.— 
Hoppe-Seyler, Pfltig. Archiv, vit. 1873, 399. This paper is of a cri- 
tical nature, and is partly directed against the idea of an organic and 
circulating albumen, introduced into physiology by Voit. Lehmann, 
Frerichs, and then Bidder and Schmidt, believed that from the great 
rapidity with which increased nitrogenous diet was followed by an 
increased excretion of urea, that this urea was produced directly from 
the albumen of the food without the food having previously become 
a constituent of the tissues of the body. Liebig imagined that occa- 
sionally a part of the nitrogenous material employed as nutriment 
might form urea without having previously been a constituent of the 
body. Then Voit from his observations concluded that there was an 
organic and a circulating albumen. According to his view only the 
albumen taken in as food, and which is flowing in the organs, is dis- 
posed to be broken up, while, on the contrary, the albumen which com- 
poses the organs of the body is so only when it is again rendered fluid 
and again returned to the general juice-stream. This view, however, 
is in opposition to a great number of facts. Shortly, the deductions 
of the author are that the blood and the lymph vessels possess neither 
a ferment nor the peculiarities for oxydation which would lead one 


to believe that the place of breaking-up of the nutriment is to be- 


REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 207 


sought for either in the blood or lymph; on the contrary, we know 
chemical changes in the composition of the glands and muscles, which 
show that the albuminous matter of the organ can be decomposed 
comparatively quickly by fermentation and oxydation. The idea 
that urea is formed in the blood directly from the surplus nutriment 
is untenable, but much more is the idea of Voit of an organic and 
circulating albumen to be rejected. 


STOMACH FERMENT OF CoLD-BLOODED ANIMALS.—A. Fick, Verh. 
d. Wiirzb. Phys. 1873, 1v. 120. The lowest temperature at which 
the stomach ferment of the mammalia is active was fixed by Schiff at 
+ 13°, and by Kiihne at + 5°. If digestion in the cold-blooded animals 
does not cease when the temperature sinks to 5°, then in this case 
we have to do with another ferment. The watery acid extract (HCl) 
of the mucous membrane of the stomach of the dog and pig exhibits 
digestive powers even under 10°, but at 0° never, while, on the con- 
trary, a similar extract prepared from the frog, trout, and pike digests 
fibrin at 0°, and at 40° was quite as active as that of the dog. The 
stomach ferment of cold-blooded animals is therefore not quite iden- 
tical with that of the warm-blooded. 


ForMATION OF PrEpsIN IN THE StromAcu.-—Ebstein and Griitzner, 
Pfliig. Archiv, vit. 122. This paper is a reply to that of Von Wittich 
(Pjliig. Archiv, vit. 19), in which he states that the pyloric glands 
have no pectic action. They find that an extract of the pyloric made 
with HCl possesses digestive action, but an extract of the same with 
glycerine does not possess this property, as Von Wittich found. They 
find that HCl alone does not dissolve so much albuminate as HCl 
with only the smallest trace of pepsin added to it. They conclude 
that the pyloric glands do possess digestive powers, and that they do 
not obtain their pepsin by infiltration from the fundus; and further, 
from their experiments, they think it in the highest degree probable 
that the chief-cells (“‘ Hauptzellen”) of the fundus and the glandular 
cells of the pylorus prepare a secretion, in which pepsin is present 
not yet free, or not completely developed. It is first freed or com- 
pletely developed by contact with NaCl, or HCl (or probably, in 
general, with all combinations of chlorine). 


METAMORPHOSIS OF Foop AND TissuE IN FLESH AND Fat Drer. 
—Pettenkofer and Voit (Zeitschrift f. Biolog. 1x. Heft 1), experi- 
menting on their famous dog, determined what becomes of fat when 
taken together with flesh. They give tables which show the effects 
of dieting with various proportions of fat and flesh. They find that 
fat is taken up in large quantities from the intestine. In one expe- 
riment, lasting over fifty days, the animal was fed with 500 grms. of 
flesh and 200 of fat; 14°7 grms. of dry feces were evacuated, con- 
taining 4°6 of fat, so that in every 24 hours 195-4 grms. of fat out 
of the 200 were absorbed. Although when a moderate amount of 
fat is given some part of it is discharged by the feces, yet this is not 
because it cannot be absorbed, for if larger quantities are given 
nearly all is taken up. Fat it seems splits up in the animal economy 


208 3 DR STIRLING. 


into simpler compounds with greater difficulty than albumen; indeed 
fat resulting from the decomposition of albumen is more easily oxy- 
dized than that in the food. 


PHYSIOLOGY @F THE MOVEMENTS OF THE IntTEstINES.— Horvath, 
Centralblatt, Nos. 38, 39, 40, 41, and 42. In 1869 the author showed 
that in artificially cooled animals the intestines became completely 
motionless at a certain degree of cooling, and did not contract when 
electrically stimulated, but that upon warming the same piece of 
imtestine resumed its normal movements and its sensibility to elec- 
trical irritation. When a piece of excised is changed from cold to 
warm water its movements decrease very obviously with the time, 
so that at the 3rd or 4th change from the cold to the warm water the 
movements are scarcely perceptible. Excised living intestine when 
placed in warm water always everts its edges, while the edges of 
dead intestine never show such an eversion. The abdomen of an 
animal was opened, and through a loop of its intestine well supplied 
with blood, and in connection with the general circulation, by means 
of the mesentery, water of different degrees of temperature was 
passed. For irritating it a Du Bois Reymond’s induction machine 
and one or two Daniell’s elements were employed. By the passage 
of cold water the loop of intestine remained motionless (10 to 15 mins. 
at most), till the cold was compensated by the heat, which produced 
the peristaltic movement. At all temperatures between + 19°C and 
0° C the intestines remained motionless and insensible, and that for 
a long time; but between + 19°C and + 41°C, above which no expe- 
riments were made, they exhibited spontaneous movements, and con- . 
tracted when stimulated electrically. The peristaltic movements (be- 
tween + 19°C and +41°C) rose somewhat proportionately with the 
increase of temperature. Similar results were obtained from the great 
intestine, coecum, and different parts of the small intestine in cats, 
dogs, guinea-pigs, and rabbits, and in the stomach of the frog. A 
pale-coloured piece of intestine, i.e. with little blood, in spite of the 
warming, contracts less energetically than a piece well supplied with 
blood. Heat is the only till now known means of producing peri- 
stalsis In a piece of intestine rendered for a long time motionless by 
cold. On warming a piece of cooled intestine a second before the 
movements begin it suddenly widens. For the movements of the 
intestines in addition to heat an ample supply of blood is necessary, 
without which the peristalsis is very weak, or ceases altogether. The 
author thinks that the diarrhcea of abdominal typhus is perhaps alone 
to be ascribed to the elevated temperature and the thereby increased 
peristalsis. The diarrhoea and constipation in different affections 
may be explained by a combination of the temperature and the 
addition of blood to the intestines. The intestines may remain 
motionless for weeks or months during hybernation, and they doubt- 
less play an important part in hybernating animals. From experi- 
ments upon artificially cooled animals the author is of opinion that 
there is a connection between the death of such a cooled animal and 
the absence of motion in its intestines. “ Peristaltic movements 


REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 209 


of the Stomach and Intestines.” Van Braam Honckgeest, Pfliig. 
Archiv, vi. 266. (Abstract in Cenéralblatt, No. 29, 1873, and 
vir. 163.) 

Liver. 

“Cholic Acid.” Baumstark in Berlin Klin. Wochensch. 1873, 
No. 4. “Source of Glycogen in the Liver.” Weiss in Sitz.-ber. d. 
Wien. Acad. d. Wiss. LXVIl. “On the Albuminous Substances of 
the Liver-cells,” in Pfliig. Archiv, 1873, vu. 371. “ Absorption 
Spectrum of Hydrobilirubin.” C. Vierordt in Zeit. f Biol. 1x. 160. 
“ Wistinghausen’s Endosmotic Experiment on the Action of the 
Bile in the Absorption of Neutral Fat.” Steiner in Reich. and Du Bois 
Rey. Arch. 1873, 137. “ Formation of Colouring Matter of Bile.” 
Steiner in ibid. -160. “Lectures on Diabetes and the Glycogenic 
Function of the Liver” (Translation of, from Revue des Cours Scienti- 
Jiques), Lond. Med. Rec. No. 40, 1873. 


Secretion or Bite.—Réhrig in Medicin. Jahrbiicher, Heft 11. 
1873. A bent glass tube was introduced into the duct. communis 
choledochus of a curarised rabbit, in which artificial respiration was 
kept up. At the outset of the experiment one drop of bile was 
obtained every 8 secs., but towards its close one drop in 17 secs., 
when the bile was more glutinous and deeply coloured. Compression 
of either the vena porte or the hepatic artery or both together caused 
a diminution of the quantity of bile, though after a time the liver 
recovered to some extent. In the dog ligature of the thoracic aorta 
above the diaphragm diminished the flow of bile largely from 1 drop 
in 7 to 1 in 50 secs. Ligature below the cceliac anis in the rabbit 
raised it from 1 in 8 tol in 3. Injection of water into the intestine 
and digestion always increased it. Section of the splanchnics in- 
creases it. Division of the spinal cord is followed at first by increase 
and then by diminution of the flow. Compare also I. Munk, “On 
the Excretion of Bile by irritation of Sensory Nerves.” Pjliig. 
Archi, vil. 151. 


ACTION OF THE BILE IN CONVERTING STARCH INTO SUGAR.— 
Pjliig. Archiv, v1. Von Wittich states in opposition to Ranke that abso- 
lutely fresh bile has the power of converting starch into sugar. Also 
Pjliig. Archiv, vu. Heft 1, 1873. Von Wittich from his experiments 
thinks that the liver, even when washed free from blood, contains 
a ferment capable of converting starch into sugar, and that there is 
good evidence to show that this ferment is generated in the liver- 
cells, 


Milk. 
“ Organic particles in Milk.” Béchamp in Comptes Rendus, 1873, 


x. 654. “Cause of Coagulation of Caseine by Rennet,” in Journ. 
SJ. Pract. Chem. 1872, vi. 174. 


Composition oF Human Mitx.—Th. Brunner, Pjliig. Archiv, 
vit. 440, The author undertook this investigation after seeing an 


VOL. VIII. 14 


210 ---> DR STIRLING. 


analysis by Sourdat (Comptes Rendus, Lxx1. 87, 1870), in which 
the milk from the right breast difiered in its composition from 
that of the left. The author estimated the albuminous substances 
together. These substances (casein and albumen) are easily and com- 
pletely separated on adding dilute acetic acid till the alkaline reaction 
disappears. The precipitate when washed, and so freed from any 
sulphate of soda that may be in it, was then dried and weighed, and 
represents the casein + albumen + fat. The fat was then estimated in 
another portion of milk by Trommer’s method. By subtraction the 
weight of the casein and albumen was easily obtained. The sugar 
was determined by suturation with Febling’s solution in the usual 
way. From a table containing 14 double analyses (milk from right 
and left breasts), with remarks upon the age of the woman, and 
number of children, the author gives the following as the mean 
composition of the collective analyses in 100 pts.: 0°63 albuminous 
bodies (casein and albumen), 1-73 fat, 6°23 sugar, 90-00 water, and 
1:41 soluble salts and extractives. The quantity of albumen in 
these analyses is far under that cited by Vernois and Becquerel, viz. 
3°92. The author thinks that this is to be accounted for in that 
these authors did not estimate the albumen directly, but all the other 
constituents, and regarded the remainder as casein, and that they did 
not completely dry the milk. The author further remarks that, 
while other experimenters have analysed milk soon after delivery, his 
analyses were made on milk obtained several mouths after delivery, 
when it seems that the milk becomes with the time poorer in albu- 
men and fat, whilst the other constituents remain tolerably un- 
changed. A table is then given showing the composition at different 
periods after delivery. The milk of the cow is poorer in water, 
sugar, soluble salts, and extractives, than human milk, but much 
richer in albuminous stuff and fat. From a table, indicating the 
composition of the milk taken from the right and left breasts at the 
same time, it is shown that the milk in each can have a different 
composition. 


Muscle. 


On THE FaticUE AND RECOVERY OF TRANSVERSELY STRIPED 
Muscrtes.—H. Kronecker, Ludwig's Arbeiten, v1. 177. This commu- 
nication is specially interesting in that the results from a very large 
number of carefully conducted experiments, seem to stand in oppo- 
sition to the generally accepted view of the influence of work upon 
the consumption of material. According to the laws of the change 
of material one would expect that excised muscles, which have only 
a distinct quantity of material at their disposal, would consume this 
by a corresponding quantity of work; thus, by a single great effort 
quickly, by a small one slowly. Heidenhain (Mechanische Leistung, 
Warmeentwicklung und Stoffumsatz bei der Muskelthdtigkeit, 1864) 
has found that the warming of a muscle is always greater during its 
contraction the greater the weight it lifts, and also that with the 
principal mechanical the secondary thermal expenditure increases. 


REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 211 


One has therefore more ground for the belief that a muscle when it 
raises a large weight must exhaust its foree much sooner than when 
it lifts none. The author has found that the fatigue is quite inde- 
pendent of the work, and follows very simple laws, and really depends 
upon the frequency with which the single acts follow each other. 

To estimate exactly by comparison the dependence of the fatigue 
on the period of rest, on the weight, on the strength of the irritation, 
and also the influence of substances circulating in the muscles, the 
author wished to irritate the muscles (triceps femoris) of a frog 
loaded or overloaded (‘‘belastet oder iiberlastet”) with selected weights, 
by opening and closing induction-strokes of selected intensity, in 
opposite directions and in easily changed intervals of time, and to 
have the height of the contractions written on paper in equal small 
(1mm.) distances. The following arrangement of apparatus was 
employed. 

The two corresponding muscles (triceps femoris) of a frog were 
placed by means of a string in connection with two levers for writing, 
which marked the height of the contractions (enlarged twice) upon 
the paper on the cylinder of a large kymographion. For irritating, 
opening, or shutting, induction-strokes, which affected directly both 
muscles (after the one pole was placed to the lower end of one muscle 
and the other pole to the lower end of the other), were employed. 
The irritation was increased till it produced maximum contractions 
before the proper experiment commenced. By means of a metro- 
nome, which closed the primary circuit of a du Bois Reymond’s 
induction-apparatus, induction-strokes were discharged in equal in- 
tervals of time (whose length could be easily changed within wide 
limits), one sort of the induction-strokes (opening or shutting stroke) 
could be rendered ineffective by a Pfliiger’s apparatus. Generally 
after every contraction the direction of the current was inverted. 
After every contraction the electro-magnet, indirectly dependent 
on the metronome, allowed the regulator of the clock-work of the 
myograph to make a haif-revolution, and therewith the cylinder 
rotated a short distance. The heights of the contractions were drawn 
about 1m.m. from each other. The course of the work of the 
muscles, which often wrote many hundred contractions before com- 
plete exhaustion, could thus be easily seen. 

Having arranged this apparatus, the muscle, in unchanged in- 
tervals of time (2—12 secs.) lifts a weight (which must not exceed 
that of an entire frog, 50 grms.) from a support (“ Ueberlastung”), 
then the difference between the heights of two contractions fol- 
lowing each other—the difference of fatigue (‘“‘Ermiidungsdifferenz”) 
—is constant, the line connecting ull the highest points of the equi- 
distant series of contractions is straight ( Ermiidungscurve”). The 
line of fatigue falls more rapidly towards the abscissa the smaller the 
interval between the irritations ( Ruhezeiten”), i.e. the difference 
of fatigue diminishes when the intervals between the irritations in- 
creases, A striking peculiarity of muscle is this, that the height 
of the contraction, observed at a given moment during the experi- 
ment, is quite independent of the quantity of work which it has 


14—2 


22 DR STIRLING. 


previously accomplished, only the nwmber of irritations (maximal) 
which the muscle has previously received regulates the height of 
its present work. When the interval between the irritations is 
changed, the fatigue progresses during this tempo of the contrac- 
tions, in the same manner as if all the contractions from the beginning 
onwards had been made with the same interval. 

Let the interval be constant, but change the weight (‘‘ Ueber- 
lastung”), the smaller weight is of course lifted higher than the larger 
one, but the terminal points of all the heights to which the muscle 
has raised the equal weights lie in a straight line, or, in other words, 
the difference of fatigue during unchanged intervals of irritation 
remains constant even when the overweightings (‘‘ Ueberlastungen”) 
of the working muscle are changed. 'he lines of fatigue of different 
overweights run parallel. 

If the weight is attached to the muscle so that it can stretch the 
muscle, even when the latter is at rest (“ Belastung”), the line of 
fatigue remains, with equal intervals and weight, a straight one only 
to the point where it cuts the abscissa drawn by the inactive non- 
weighted muscle. From this point onwards—where the shortening of 
the active muscle is equal to the elongation of the passive one carrying 
the same weight (“Dehnungslinge”)—the line of fatigue is a hyperbole 
in an algebraical formula: thus from where the shortening is equal to 
the above elongation (6) the difference of fatigue (D) becomes always 
smaller with the number (7) of contractions, and is represented thus: 
Dp’? in other words, the line of fatigue straight to this point 
becomes thence nearly a hyperbola whose asymptote is the abscissa of 
the passive weighted muscle. This relation is easily explained when 
one assumes that the elasticity of an active muscle is quite as great as 
that of a muscle at rest. For the confirmation of this we must refer 
to p. 239—245. It is obvious that the line of fatigue of a stretched 
muscle (“belastet”) cannot remain straight to the end of the work, 
because of the weight which is held in equilibrium by the elastic 
force of the passive stretched muscle, a smaller fraction requires to be 
lifted by the contractions, the smaller the shortenings are, so that the 
muscle in a manner contracts always with a smaller weight. There 
is thus explained the at first sight somewhat paradoxical phenomenon 
that a fatigued muscle (which can contract very little) can raise great 
weights the same relative height as light ones (the latter of course 
from an absolute higher position), the muscle being less stretched by a 
light weight. . 

We have not space to mention many other remarkable facts that 
are contained in the original, to which we must refer for further infor- 
mation. We can only remark that the author has found both im the 
muscles of dogs, and in those of living intact frogs, that the funda- 
mental law of the constant difference of fatigue is valid, and by means 
of transfusion of different liquids through the vessels of the muscles has 
shown, that not only arterial blood of the same or different classes 
(rabbits’ blood in frogs) can partly restore the fatigue of muscles 
without their requiring to rest, but that also a 0:5 per cent. solution 


REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 273 


of NaCl, which contains a very small quantity (0-01 per cent.) of 
permanganate of potash can produce the same effect. The author 
cites an experiment in which he weighted a very exhausted gastrocne- 
mius of a frog with 40 grms., and found after injection of this solution 
that 190 contractions were produced, which at the beginning were 
four times as high as those made by the muscle before the injection. 
There was at most in this case 0:018 milligr. of ozonized oxygen 
which the muscle could have extracted from the reduced outflowing 
fluid, an increase of work of 0°01176 kilogrammeter. 

Pure solution of common salt (0-5 per cent.) had little or no effect. 


Muscles. 


Post-Mortem Ricipiry or Muscies.—Michelsohn (Jnaug. Dissert., 
Dorpat, 1872) has arrived at the conclusion from experiments con- 
ducted under Schmidt’s direction, that the cougulation of myosin post- 
mortem is brought about by a ferment. 


CuemicaL Reaction of Active AND Inactive Muscie.—Griitz- 
ner (Pjliig. Archiv, 1873, vu. 254) tetanized the gastrocnemius 
muscle of a frog till it was exhausted, while the opposite muscle 
remained at rest under similar conditions with the active one. Hach 
of the muscles was now triturated with 5 cm. of a half per cent 
solution of pyrogallic acid, and the product filtered. The active 
muscle yielded a clear or yellowish filtrate, the inactive one a brown 
one. In the one purpurogallin was formed, in the other none, or 
only a trace. The latter had been able to oxydise the pyrogallic acid, 
the former not. The browning in the second case is not to be 
ascribed to the strong alkaline reaction of the inactive muscle. When 
a mixture of pyrogallic acid, and chloride of iron is used, which is a 
reducing as well as an oxydising mixture, itself of a brownish red 
colour—with the inactive muscle a red-brown colour is obtained, and 
with the active a bright violet. This change the author ascribes to 
the large quantity of lactate of an alkali present in the active muscle, 
which the author found yielded a violet colour when treated with 
the above mixture. 

“ Electrotonus,” Hermann, in Pfliig. Arch. vu. 301, 323 and 
497,——“The Conditions of Equilibrium for Stimulated and Non- 
stimulated Muscles,” Fuchs in ibid. 421. “Contraction of Muscu- 
lar Fibre,” Krause in Pfliig. Arch. vir. 508. “ Action of Veratria on 
Muscular Fibre,” Fick and Bohm in Arb. aus d. Phys. Lab. d. Wirz. 
Hochschule, u1. 142. ‘¢ Rlectrotonus,” Bernstein in Pyliig. Arch, 
vur. 40,——“ Action of Electricity on Muscle and Nerve,” Bernheim, 
in ibid. 60. 


Muscutar IRRITABILITY AFTER SysTEMIC DeEatTH.—Croonian 
Lecture. B. W. Richardson. (Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. 339.) The 
principal results obtained by the author are: 1, There are three 
degrees of muscular irritability—the active efficient, passive efficient, 
negative inefficient. The muscle after death may be suspended in 


214 DR STIRLING. 


any of these conditions for action ; but, as a rule, it is the last con- 
dition only that is maintained long after death. 2. Muscular irrita- 
bility may be suspended or stopped altogether under three different 
conditions, having reference to its connection with nervous activity :— 
(a) the nervous muscular activities may be suspended equally, on 
which there may follow spontaneous return of motion. (b) The 
muscular irritability may outlive the nervous function, on which 
the phenomenon of irritability may be induced by the application 
of the motor forces, but there is no return of spontaneous irritability, 
i.e. of irritability belonging to the animal as a distinct agent. 
(c) The nervous function may outlive the muscular irritability, under 
which circumstances irritability is invariably stopped by the pro- 
duction of persistent contractility of the muscular fibres. 3. Nervous 
activity exciting muscular action is identical with all the motor forces, 
and particular to none. It is equivalent to mechanical, calorific or 
electrical force, and equally susceptible of manifestation through 
either. 4. Muscular irritability is possible after death. Cold, in 
certain defined degrees, suspends without destroying it. The motor 
forces strike it into rest. Blood sustains it or stops it according to 
the balance of powers existing between the muscular and nervous 
systems. Some chemical agents suspend it independently, others 
suspend it together and equally, with suspension of the nervous 
function. When suspension is equal there may be spontaneous re- 
turn ; when it is unequal there is no return. 


ON THE SO-CALLED SHORTENING OF TenpDoNSs.—Hermann (Pjiiig. 
Arch, vu. 417) cites an experiment to show the connection between 
this condition and the coagulation of the albuminous substances 
contained in the tendon when a piece of tendon of a known length 
is placed in water; when the water is at 65° the length of the tendon 
is completely unchanged, but just at this point there begins a marked 
shortening, which is complete at 75°. This condition of the tendon 
‘takes place at exactly the same temperature at which ordinary al- 
bumen coagulates. (See reply to the above, Englemann in Pflig, 
Arch, vit. 95). 


Miscellanzous. 


RerLex Movements oF THE Urerus.—Schlesinger (Wien Med. 
Jahrb., 1873, 1. Hft. 4). Electrical irritation of the central end of 
a spinal nerve produces after 5—15 seconds powerful general move 
ments of the uterus. In a curarised rabbit, upon which tracheotomy 
has been performed and artificial respiration kept up, if the artificial 
respiration is suspended, the uterus exhibits energetic contractions. 
The same results when the central end of the median or crural 
nerve is electrically stimulated. The path of the reflex action 
is not through the spinal cord, for after section of the medulla, 
between the occipital bone and atlas, a continued irritation of the 
stump of a nerve for 40 seconds was without effect. So that the 
author believes that the path by which irritations going from the 


= 


REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 215 


brain reach the uterus, is at least partly through the nervous 
plexus of the aorta, but still this is not the only route by which the 
motor influence travels. 


Influence of Changes in the Barometric Pressure. 


On THE PuHeNomEeNA oF Lire.—Bert. (Comptes Rendus, No. 8, 
Aug. 25, 1873, p. 531.) Twelfth note on this subject :—Ist. When 
oxygen, reaches the proportion of 28 to 30 vols. for 100 vols. of 
arterial blood in a dog, the animal is seized with convulsions, while a 
proportion of about 35 vols. proves fatal. 2nd. All these convulsions, 
however varied their type, are due to direct irritation of the spinal 
cord. From the outset of the convulsive attack, the temperature falls 
several degrees. There is therefore a profound alteration in nutri- 
tion, which does not take place in poisoning by convulsive substances, 
e.g. strychnine. These convulsions are to be regarded as epipheno- 
mena manifestations of the spinal cord of general disturbance of the 
organism, such as happens in asphyxia or rapidly fatal hemorrhages. 
To what alterations in the blood are we to attribute these strange 
results ? Is it to be supposed that under a little more pressure oxygen 
forms with the blood-corpuscles a more stable combination than with 
ordinary hemoglobin? a combination from which the tissues are 
not able to remove the oxygen of which they have need? This is 
not so, for scarcely had the animal been placed under normal pressure, 
when the excess of oxygen disappeared from the blood, whilst the 
convulsions often continued many hours and the temperature con- 
tinued to fall. Nor is it likely that a substance so formed by the 
super-oxydation of the blood would persist after the return of air, 
the blood having thus become a toxic substance ; for the author has 
injected with impunity considerable quantities of blood, charged with 
oxygen to the fatal extent, into dogs rendered nearly bloodless. All 
tends to show that the blood is an intermediary, carrying the blood | 
to the tissues. The author believes that it is the excess of oxygen 
in the tissues themselves which alters the chemical phenomena of 
nutrition ; the central nervous system is the first part affected by the 
sudden change in nutrition, hence the epiphenomenon of convulsions, 
Fishes die with convulsions when the water contains more than 
10 vols. of oxygen. The toxic action appears also in the invertebrata. 
Insects die more rapidly in compressed oxygen than Arachnida and 
Myriapoda, and the latter more rapidly than Mollusca and Earth- 
worms. 

Regarding the general nature of the alteration of the nutritive 
phenomena, the most evident is a diminution in the intensity of the 
phenomena of oxydation, 1. If an animal is made to respire in a 
certain volume of air, in the normal state, and afterwards in air 
poisoned with oxygen, it is found to absorb much less oxygen in a 
given time during the second period than during the first. 2. On 
analysis of the arterial blood of a dog which had convulsions due 
to oxygen, and which had respired some time in open air, the 


216 DR STIRLING. REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 


quantity of CO, is very small (25, 20, 15 vols. for 100 vols. blood.). 
3. The proportion of urea falls considerably under the influence of 
compressed air. In one case it fell 12 grms. to 4 after seven 
hours, at 8 atmospheres. Similar results were obtained in Vitro. 
A fragment of muscle or other tissue separated from the body, 
absorbs in a given time less oxygen and forms less CO, in compressed 
air (the same is true of seeds), This diminution in oxydation is the 
cause and consequence of a retardation, and even remarkable arrest of 
the numerous chemical actions which are closely allied to those which 
take place in living beings. Fragments of muscle had not com- 
menced to putrefy after eight days in oxygen, compressed to twenty- 
four atmospheres, while putrefaction was complete in four days under 
identical conditions. Glucose added to blood is destroyed much more 
slowly in compressed oxygen than at normal pressure. The same, 
though less marked, is the case in the transformation of starch into 
glucose by the saliva. Milk undergoes the lactic fermentation more 
slowly. It is therefore not astonishing that the nutritive actions 
in animals and vegetables are similarly arrested and death ensues. 

But diminution in the intensity of the nutritive acts does not 
explain all. Slow asphyxia as well as low barometic pressure also 
diminish it, and yet do not give convulsions lasting for several hours, 
or disturbances that persist even when the quantity of oxygen 
absorbed in a given time is reduced to the normal. Seeds of barley 
arrested in their evolutions by a vacuum do not die, but they die in 
compressed air. There is then, in the physico-chemical acts of nu- 
trition, not only a diminution in quantity, but also a modification in 
. quality. 


REPORT ON PHARMACOLOGY. By Dr Tuomas R. Fraser. 


Puospuorus.—In a research on the action of phosphorus 
(Virchow’s Archiv, tv., June, 1872; and abstract, Glasgow Medical 
Journal, November, 1872), Wegner examined its effects on the 
stomach and liver, and on the osseous system. Moderate doses 
were found to produce in rabbits a catarrhal condition of the 
stomach, followed by great thickening and pigmentation of the mucous 
coat, and the formation of characteristic flat ulcers. By similar 
doses, the connective tissue of the liver was increased, and by its 
subsequent contraction the organ became cirrhotic. The observations 
on the effects of this substance on the osseous system are of great 
interest. It does not appear to have any selective influence on the 
bones of the jaws, for when the tibia was exposed to the action of 
phosphorus vapour, changes soon occurred in it. These changes 
appear to be the result of irritation of the periosteum, leading to 
increased formation of bone and to suppuration; and they are induced 
by administering phosphorus by the stomach as well as by bringing 
its vapour into direct contact with the periosteum. In growing 
animals to whom small doses of phosphorus were given by the 
stomach, its peculiar action on the osseous system was manifested 
by an unusual density and compactness of the bones. The cartilage 
of the young bones was quickly changed into true osseous tissue, 
and the periosteum formed new dense bone with unwonted rapidity. 
This action on the osseous system is not produced by phosphoric acid 
nor by the phosphates. 


SILVER-SALTS.—From several experiments on animals of many 
different classes, Rouget (Archives de Physiologie, No. 4, 1873, 
p- 333) finds that, without exception, the first symptoms produced 
by the absorption of silver are due to disturbances in the functions 
of the nervous and muscular systems, ranging from feebleness of the 
extremities, torpor, and somnolence, to complete loss of voluntary 
movement, convulsions, persistent spasm, and paralysis. The respi- 
ration is afterwards affected, its rate being gradually diminished 
until, in fatal cases, it ceases; and, at the same time, there occurs 
in many animals hyper-secretion of bronchial mucus, with an 
appearance after death of retraction, or diminution in the volume, 
of the lungs. The voluntary muscles are also directly affected, 
and in frogs and other animals their contractility may be destroyed 
before complete death. The circulatory system resists the action for 
the longest time, as the heart continues to contract after the function 
of the cerebro-spinal nervous system has been abolished, and even 
after the voluntary muscles are no longer contractile. In opposition 
to the opinion of Krahmer, Rabuteau and Mourier (and also to 
that of Bogolowsky, with whose elaborate research the author seems 


218 DR FRASER. 


unacquainted), Rouget maintains that silver does not alter either the 
composition or the properties of the blood. The greater number 
of the experiments were made with nitrate or chloride of silver 
dissolved in hyposulphite of soda. 


ARSENIC.—F. Schifer and Rudolf Boehm (Verhandlungen der 
Physikal.-Med. Gesellschaft in Wiirzburg, 11. 3) believe that previous 
experiments have established (1) that pure metallic arsenic is not 
poisonous; (2) that no compound is formed between arsenious acid 
and albumen; (3) that arsenious acid exists as such in the urine - 
and coagulum, not serum, of the blood of poisoned animals, in the 
latter case perhaps in combination with potash; and (4) that 
arsenic is able to prevent putrefaction. In order to determine if 
arsenic interferes with digestion, they compared the action upon 
white of egg of natural and artificial gastric juice to which no 
arsenious acid had been added, with portions of the same specimens 
of gastric juice to which small quantities of this poison had been 
added. They arrive at the important conclusion that arsenic is not 
able to prevent the digestion of albumen. From similar experi- 
ments, they arrive at the conclusion that the pancreatic digestion of 
albumen is also unchecked by this substance.—From an experiment 
on a dog to which arsenic was administered for several days, and 
chemical analysis made of the urime and feces previously to, coinci- 
dently with, and subsequently to the administration, H. Von Boeck 
(see Vew York Medical Journal, xvi. 1872, p. 301) concludes that 
the administration of arsenic exerts no essential influence upon the 
amount of nitrogen excreted, nor upon the decomposition of albu- 
minoid substances. 


Bismuta.—On undertaking a series of researches that have yielded 
many important results, on the presence of various metals in the 
tissues, Mayencon and Bergeret have found it necessary to plan a 
new method of procedure, those already existing being too tedious 
and difficult of application (Robin’s Journal del Anatomie et de la 
Physiologie, No. 3, 1873). They simply treat the substance or 
tissue with a strong acid, and insert into the product a voltaic pair, 
with platinum as one of its constituents. In this way, the metal 
is deposited on the platinum, from which it may be removed and 
tested by converting it into a chloride. Applying this electrolytic 
method to determine if bismuth is absorbed into the tissues of man 
and the lower animals to whom subnitrate was administered by the 
stomach, Mayengon and Bergeret conclude (1) that subnitrate of 
bismuth is promptly absorbed, and deeply impregnates the tissues ; 
(2) that it is slowly eliminated; and also (3) that it seems to increase 
the plasticity of the blood. 


CatciuM-Satts.— On numerous occasions, Rabutreau has enun- 
ciated the law, based on his own experiments and those of others, 
that the activity of metallic compounds increases according as the 
atomic weight of the metal is more elevated. He has recently made 
some experiments to determine if the calcium-salts adhere to this 


REPORT ON PHARMACOLOGY. 219 


law (Comptes Rendus, 10 Février, 1873). When the chloride in 
solution was injected into the circulation of a dog, it caused death 
if the dose was such that the calcium present in the salt was 
about the same in weight as the potassium in a dose of chloride of 
potassium previously found sufficient to cause the same effect. 
Calcium, therefore, forms no exception to the above law, its atomic 
weight being 40, while that of potassium is 39. When administered 
in this way, calcium causes death by arresting the heart’s contrac- 
tions in diastole, just as potassium does. Further, it resembles all 
other metallic substances, excepting sodium and lithium, in acting 
as a muscular poison. 


Mercury.—Adopting with mercury the method of research 
described in the abstract of their paper on bismuth (see ante), 
Mayengon and Bergeret (Robin’s Journal de l Anatomie et de la 
Physiologie, No. 1, 1873, p. 81, and No. 3, p. 233) have determined: 
—(1) That mercury and its saits are absorbed by the skin as well 
as by the stomach. (2) That of the absorbed mercury, the greater 
part is immediately eliminated, while only a small portion is deposited 
in the tissues, from which it is very slowly eliminated. (3) That 
elimination seems to occur through all the excretory fluids (urine, 
feeces, saliva, milk, spermatic fluid), but chiefly through the urine 
and intestinal juices. (4) That iodide of potassium has a marked 
action in freeing the system of deposited mercury. In the course 
of their research, they found that perchloride of mercury excites an 
abundant secretion of bile. In a case of acute poisoning by per- 
chloride of mercury, A. Olivier (Archives de Physiologie, No. 5, 
1873, p. 547) observed a remarkable lowering of temperature at the 
commencement of the poisoning, and the occurrence of albuminous 
nephritis indicated by the presence in the urine of albumen, tumefied 
renal cells, and granular, fatty, and hyaline cylinders. Contrary to 
the reported observations of Salkowsky and Bouchard, the urine 
was altogether free from sugar. 


Leap, Gotp.—Mayengon and Bergeret have applied with some 
modifications their method of analysis (see Bismuth) to a research 
on the absorption and elimination of lead, with the following results: 
—(1) Salts of lead are not absorbed by the skin. (2) They are 
absorbed slowly and in small quantity by the intestine. (3) Ab- 
sorbed lead seems to be deposited principally in the liver and 
spleen. (4) Sometimes, after long-continued administration, the 
kidneys and urine contain traces of this metal. (5) The elimination 
is prompt and complete, and is chiefly effected through the liver. 
A similar research on gold has yielded the same observers only 
doubtful results (Op. cit., p. 226). 


CuLoriDE oF Soprum.—Falck (Virchow’s Archiv, Vol. tvt. p. 315) 
finds that chloride of sodium is a more active poison for mammals than 
is generally supposed, from three to five parts to every thousand of 
the animal’s weight producing death in dogs, when injected into the 
veins. It is more rapidly eliminated when injected into a vein than 


220 DR FRASER. 


when introduced into the stomach, and during its elimination it 
greatly increases the quantity of urine and so probably causes thirst. 
In fatal doses, frothy liquid escapes from the mouth and nose, the 
heart’s contractions are weakened, and tremors and convulsions 
precede death. The most conspicuous post-mortem appearances are 
pallor of the muscles, dilatation of the heart, dark loosely coagulated 
blood, frothy liquid in the bronchi, edema of the lungs, congestion 
of the liver and spleen, and mucous fluid in the stomach. Sedium- 
phosphate was found to be less poisonous than chloride; it acts less 
powerfully on the heart, and does not produce exudation into the 
bronchi, nor edema of the lungs. 


ALCOHOL AND ABsINTH.—The comparative effects of alcohol and 
absinth have for some time been carefully studied in France. In a 
recent contribution, Magnan (Archives de Physiologie, No. 2, 1873, 
p. 145, and No. 3, p. 281) shows that the prolonged administration 
to dogs of somewhat large doses of alcohol produces symptoms closely 
resembling those of chronic alcoholism in man. On about the fifteenth 
day of intoxication, irritability and excitability occur; two days 
afterwards, there are illusions and hallucinations at night; and at 
the end of the month, delirium both day and night. Should the 
administration be prolonged into the second month, tremors make 
their appearance in the posterior extremities, and extend from them 
to the anterior extremities and then to all parts of the body. The 
animal finally succumbs to disorders of digestion and other complica- 
tions, which recall the accidents that terminate alcoholic poisoning 
in man. After death, dogs present, Im various degrees, steatosis of 
the liver, kidneys, and heart, and results of chronic irritation of the 
meninges, cord, and pericardium. Magnan finds that the symptoms 
of poisoning by absinth are quite distinguishable from those of 
poisoning by alcohol. Even in small single doses, the former sub- 
stance causes, in dogs, vertigo and muscular twitchings in the ante- 
rior parts of the body; while in large doses, it causes epilepsy and 
delirium. By anumber of careful experiments, he has determined 
that during the stage of tonic spasm in absinth-epilepsy, the pupils 
dilate, the retina becomes injected, and congestion occurs in the 
brain—phenomena that do not accord with the generally received 
theories of the mechanism of epilepsy.—Accepting the opinion of 
Beale, Binz, and others that alcohol checks the movements of white 
blood-corpuscles and other masses of protoplasm, Ross endeavours 
to show how on this opinion a theory of the action of alcohol may 
be founded, sufficient to explain its effects in health and disease 
(British Medical Journal, October 4 and 25, 1873). 


CuioraL.—Arndt (Archiv fiir Psych. und Nervenkrank, Bd. 111., 
Hft. 3, 1872) and Gubler (Journal de Pharmacie et de Chimie, July 
and August, 1873) refer the poisonous symptoms that have been 
observed in many cases of chloral-administration, to an injurious 
action on the vaso-motor nerves and the heart. Gubler also advances 
many arguments against Liebreich’s theory of the action of chloral 
being due to the production from it of chloroform in the blood. 


REPORT ON PHARMACOLOGY. 221 


Nitrous Oxipe.—The effects of nitrous oxide on plants and 
animals have been carefully studied by Jolyet and Blanche (Archives 
de Physiologie, No. 4, 1873, p. 364). They find that when chemically 
pure it prevents the germination of seeds, as those of barley and 
cress; and acts as an asphyxiating gas on animals, death being 
produced with all’the signs of asphyxia by strangulation or by the 
respiration of inert gases such as hydrogen or nitrogen, and in 
about the same time. If it produce anesthesia when respired pure, 
it is by bringing about an insufficiency of oxygen in the blood; and 
insensibility commences to show itself only when the arterial blood 
contains no more than 2 or 3 per cent. of oxygen. When this 
occurs, the arterial blood is very dark in colour, and it contains from 
30 to 40 per cent. of nitrous oxide. Animals may, however, live 
if they are made to respire a mixture of nitrous oxide and oxygen in 
the proportion of atmospheric air, the nitrogen being replaced by 
nitrous oxide: but they do not then exhibit any symptoms of dis- 
turbed sensibility, although the arterial blood may contain from 30 
to 35 per cent. of nitrous oxide. The absence of oxygen seems 
to be a necessary condition before anesthesia results, nitrous oxide 
being itself quite irrespirable. 


Nitrite or Amyu.—In a long paper on the action of nitrite of 
amyl (Archives de Physiologie, No. 5, 1873, p. 467), which contains an 
account of numerous experiments in which this substance was ad- 
ministered to various animals by inhalation, subcutaneous injection, 
and injection into veins, Amez-Droz arrives at conclusions that are 
generally in accordance with the opinions usually held. General 
uneasiness, great increase in the rate of the heart’s contractions, 
dilatation of blood-vessels with reduced blood-tension, irregularity 
of respiration, lowering of temperature, and paralysis, when the 
doses are comparatively small; with the addition of convulsive move- 
ments, passage of feces and urine, reduction following increase in 
the rate of the heart’s contractions, and finally, coma and death, 
when the doses are large—are the chief symptoms to which he draws 
attention. His experiments do not support Richardson’s statement 
that the paralysis results from an action on motor-nerves, but they 
lead him to refer this effect to a stupefying action on the nerve-centres. 
Amez-Droz also differs from Brunton in his explanation of the 
remarkable dilatation of blood-vessels produced by nitrate of amyl. 
He argues that it cannot be a result of paralysis of the muscles of 
the minute vessels, because after dilatation has been produced he 
has frequently observed that the vessels contract momentarily 
during movements of the animal, and again dilate when these 
movements have ceased—changes of calibre that could not occur 
were the muscular sheath of the blood-vessels paralysed. He be- 
lieves it to be more in accordance with observation to suppose 
that by increasing the quantity of carbonic acid in the blood, nitrite 
of amyl renders this fluid sufficiently irritating to enable it to 
stimulate the peripheral ramifications of the vaso-motor nerves, and 
thus to produce a reflex dilatation of the vessels. (No sufficient 


222 DR FRASER. 


experimental proof of this theory, however, is advanced, and, be- 
sides, it is well known that the changes in the minute blood- 
vessels during asphyxia are not similar to those produced by nitrite 
of amyl. Rep).——F. A. Hoffmann (Reichert und Du Bois Rey- 
mond’s Archiv, 1872, Heft 6, p. 746; and Centralblatt, 1873, No. 36, 
p- 374) has made an important addition to our knowledge of the 
effects of nitrite of amyl. He injected under the skin of rabbits 
doses varying from 0:45 to 0°66 gramme (7 to 10 grains). The 
quantity of urine voided was increased, and in 24 hours it was 
double the normal amount, and contained from 1:0 to 2°5 per 
cent. of sugar, which entirely disappeared in from 12 to 30 hours, 
Diabetes could be produced several times in the same animal, but 
if the injections followed each other too quickly, the animal died. 


Urea.—From experiments made on himself, Rabuteau (L’Union 
Médicale, Tom. xtv., 1872, p. 841) has found that when urea is intro- 
duced into the organism it is entirely eliminated by the urine, 
without undergoing any change, within twenty-four hours. It may 
also be detected in the saliva, which, however, normally contains 
a small quantity. Contrary to the usually held opinion, Rabuteau 
maintains that urea has only a very feeble diuretic action. 


BenzinE, Nirro-GLYCERINE, Nitric AND SuLtpHuric Acips.—In 
an interesting contribution to the toxicology of these substances, 
Starkow (Virchows Archiv, uu. No. 4) remarks that by replacing the 
hydrogen in carbo-hydrogens by the radicle NO,, their action is 
modified and their toxicity increased. At the same time, the nitrous 
products confer upon the blood a new modification which is not 
produced by the carbo-hydrogens. Thus, in all animals poisoned by 
binitro-benzine, the blood invariably exhibits, besides the two oxyhe- 
moglobine lines, an absorption line at the boundary of the orange 
and red of the spectrum, and corresponding to Frauenhofer’s line C. 
The same line is produced in acid hematine by nitro-benzine, nitro- 
aniline, and nitro-naphthaline, in all of which a single H is replaced 
by NO,, but not markedly in the blood of animals poisoned by these 
substances. Corresponding to these characters, the toxic action of 
the latter substances is much less powerful than that of binitro-ben- 
zine. Chloro-benzine and benzine are greatly exceeded in the in- 
tensity of their action by nitro benzine, and they have not the above 
action on the blood. They, however, are able to separate crystals of 
hemoglobine from the blood to which they are added, and as this 
property is especially possessed by chloro-benzine, it may be employed 
in place of ether to separate blood-crystals. Binitro-benzine presents 
the peculiarity of having a toxic power which is not related to its 
solubility. The action of nitro-glycerine on the blood-pigment is ana- 
logous to that of nitro-benzine, and the two substances are nearly 
equal in toxicity. Nitric and sulphuric acids have only partly this 
action on the blood. Spectrum-analysis of the blood of animals 
poisoned by them shows the line of acid hematine, which is not 
produced by hydro-chloric, phosphoric, and other acids. Absorbed 
by the stomach, they seriously modify the blood, and act as poisons 


REPORT ON PHARMACOLOGY. 223 


as much by this property as by their local caustic action. Starkow 
is inclined to disagree with Letheby’s opinion of the possibility of 
nitro-benzine becoming transformed in the organism into aniline, 
—The occurrence of this transformation is also denied by Lehmann 
(Journal de Pharmacie et de Chemie, Octobre, 1873, p. 335) in some 
observations appended to an account of a case of poisoning by nitro- 
benzine. The chief symptoms observed were cephalgia, vertigo, 
unsteady movements, cyanosis, and a strong odour of bitter almonds. 


AconiT1A.— Rudolf Boehm and L. Wartmann have published a 
valuable research on the physiological action of Merck’s amorphous 
aconitia (Verhandl. der Physikal-Medic. Gesellschaft in Wirzburg, 
mi., Hft. 1, 1872). They did not succeed in confirming Achscharu- 
mow’s statement, that aconitia paralyses the terminations of the 
motor nerves (see Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, Vol. 1., 1867, 
p. 154), nor the same statement in reference to crystalline aconitia more 
recently made by Gréhaut and Duquesnel (see Jowrnal of Anatomy and 
Physiology, Vol. v1., 1872, p. 496), On the contrary, their experiments 
have led them to conclude that paralysis is produced by this substance, 
by an action on the cord, whereby diminution in the activity of the 
sensory ganglia, with resulting impairment of reflex sensibility, is in 
the first place induced, and is succeeded by diminished excitability 
of the motor ganglia with total paralysis of voluntary movement. 
The only effect observed by them on the peripheral terminations 
of the motor nerves, was an irritative one, resulting in fibrillary 
muscular contractions. The muscles were otherwise unaffected. A 
large portion of their research is devoted to the action of aconitia on 
the circulation. They found that in large doses it diminished the 
frequence of the heart’s contractions, and finally caused complete 
stoppage of the heart’s action in diastole, before which, however, a 
temporary acceleration occurred in the rate of contraction. The 
mean pressure of the blood was a little increased at the commence- 
ment of the poisoning in rabbits, but it was always lessened in dogs 
and cats; and at a later stage, in all animals, it was progressively 
lessened. Their experiments lead them to conclude that the effects 
on the heart are due to the excitation of the inhibitory apparatus 
situated in the heart, and not of the central origin of the vagi as 
Achscharumow holds. The lowered blood-tension is due in the first 
instance to paralysis of the afferent vascular nerves, and afterwards 
to a further paralysis of the vaso-motor centre. 


ApomorPHiA.—Quehl (Ueber die Physioloyischen Wirkungen des 
Apomorphins. Inaug. Dissert., Halle, 1872; Abstract in Lond. 
Med. Rec., January 22, 1873, p. 44), under the direction of Kohler, 
confirms many of Siebert’s previous observations regarding the emetic 
action of apomorphia (see Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, 
November, 1872, p. 194). He differs from Siebert in stating that divi- 
sion of the vagi prevents this action. . During five weeks, he produced 
vomiting at least once a day in a dog, by the administration of 
apomorphia, and found that no tolerance occurred, and that the health 
was not injured, the dog having actually gained 23lbs. at the end 


224 DR FRASER. 


of that time. It would appear that only small doses produce vomiting 
in dogs, when it is administered subcutaneously. Somewhat large 
doses (3 grs. or more) do not produce vomiting, but symptoms of 
general poisoning such as staggering, weakness of the posterior ex- 
tremities, great salivation, and partial paralysis, during which the 
animal lies extended and executes natatory movements. After death 
from a fatal dose, no special appearances are seen. Quehl further 
states that apomorphia has no action on sensory or motor nerves, 
voluntary or involuntary muscles, nor on the blood-pressure. Chloro- 
form-narcosis prevents its emetic action. 


Hyprocorarnin.—Hydrocotarnin is one of the opium alkaloids 
discovered by O. Hesse (Ann. der Chem. u. Pharm., Supplbd. v111.), 
who assigned to it the formula C,, H,, NO,. A somewhat frag- 
mentary investigation on its action has been published by F. A. Falck 
(Viertel-Jahrschrift f. Gericht. Med., Januar., 1873, 49, and Jnau- 
gural Dissertation, Marburg, 1872). With the chlorhydrate, this 
observer has made two series of experiments ; one on frogs, and the 
other on rabbits. He defines the fatal dose for the latter as three 
grains per kilogramme of animal, and for the former, about ten times 
this dose per kilogramme. This alkaloid has therefore a toxic 
activity less than that of thebaia and codeia, and greater than that 
of morphia. It produces, like codeia and other opium alkaloids, two 
classes of symptoms in rabbits; a tetanic and a narcotic. In frogs, 
the symptoms belonging to the tetanic variety predominate, but be- 
fore death a stage occurs, in which the motor nerves are paralysed, 
and the heart alone remains active. Falck has made the interesting 
observation, that hydrocotarnin possesses, in common with atropia 
and codeia, the power of causing the heart in frogs to resume its 
contractions after it has been brought to rest in diastole by muscaria. 


Ruvus VENENATA AND R. Toxicopenpron.—J. C. White publishes 
a valuable paper on the action of Rhus Venenata and LR. Toxicodendron 
upon the human skin (Wew York Medical Journal, March 1873, 225). 
He describes minutely a number of cases, including his own, in which 
he observed the effects on the skin produced by contact with these 
plants. His opinion is, that the eruption is of an eczematous, and not 
of an erysipelatous nature, that it is not capable of being transferred 
by contact or otherwise from one person to another, and that it is pro- 
duced by a volatile poison (probably the toxicodendric acid of Maiseh), 
which may be conveyed to the skin by exhalations from the plant as 
well as by direct contact with it. 


Quin1a.—The numerous and valuable papers of Binz on the 
action of quinia have been increased by a recent important addition 
(Ueber Chinin und Blut: Archiv fiir eaperimentale Pathologie und 
Pharmakologie, Bd. 1., Heft 1., 1873, p. 18). This paper treats 
chiefly of the effects of the alkaloid upon the oxidation changes 
of the blood. It is shown to arrest the formation of acid in the 
blood-clot, to diminish the power of blood to carry ozone, and to 
lessen oxidation. The previous experiments of this observer had led 


REPORT ON PHARMACOLOGY. IOS 


him to conclude that quinia retards, and even prevents, the move- 
ments of white blood-corpuscles. In the present paper this is at- 
tributed to the diminished power of’ oxidation by the red corpuscles 
produced by the action of quinia on hemoglobin, a liberal supply of 
oxygen being necessary for the migratory movements of the white 
cells. The principal action of quinia would therefore appear to be a 
lessening cf oxidation ; in virtue of which the temperature is lowered, 
the quantity of nitrogen excreted diminished, and the movements of 
the colourless blood-corpuscles retarded or paralysed. Jt has besides 
a remarkable power in preventing putrefaction and destroying low 
forms of organism, regarding which Binz has made many valuable 
observations.—This parasiticide action of quinia is treated of in the 
first part of a paper by Rochefontaine (Archives de Physiologie, No. 4. 
1873, p. 389); but the report of this paper will be deferred until its 
publication is completed.—The absorption of quinia, and the trans- 
formation undergone by it in the system, are discussed by Guyochin 
(These de Paris, 1872; and Revue de Sciences Médicales, Tome 1., 
No. 1, 1873, p. 283). By means of the double iodide of potassium 
and mercury, he has discovered the presence of quinia not only 
in the urine, but also in the saliva, blood, and intestinal contents. 
He differs from Kerner’s opinion that this alkaloid is transformed in 
the blood into a new base, and maintains that it is easy to estab- 
lish, by applying suitable reactions, that the supposed new base is 
quinidine. 

THEIN, CAFFEIN, GUARANIN, Cocaiy, THEoBromin.—The action 
of these substances has been carefully investigated by numerous ex- 
periments on warm- and cold-blooded animals, by A. Bennett (Hdin- 
burgh Medical Journal, October, 1873, p. 323). His investigation 
was mainly directed to determine the symptoms produced by their 
administration, and the causation of their effects on the muscular and 
nervous systems. He finds that these five principles are to all 
appearance identical in their physiological action, They cause, in 
small doses, cerebral excitement, not succeeded by coma, with partial 
loss of sensibility ; and in large doses, cerebral excitement, complete 
paralysis of sensibility, and tetanic spasms and convulsions. The 
influence on sensibility is explained by an action on the posterior 
columns of the cord, and on the entire system of peripheral sensory 
nerves, both of which are paralysed by large doses. The anterior 
columns of the cord, the peripheral motor nerves, and the striped 
muscles do not seem to have their functional activity diminished ; 
but an irritant action is produced on the cord, which shows itself by 
the occurrence of spontaneous spasms. ‘The vaso-motor system is 
decidedly affected, contraction of the vessels being first produced, and 
afterwards dilatation with stasis of the blocd. Further, these substances 
contract the pupils, lower and then elevate the temperature, increase 
salivary secretion, and induce a peculiar form of tenesmus accom- 
panied with a copious discharge of clear mucus from the bowels. 


AtroriA.—From the results of several experiments in which 
atropia caused great increase of the pulse-rate, after the vagi had 


VOR. VL 15 


226 DR FRASER. 


been divided, H. C. Wood (American Journal of the Medical Sciences, 
April, 1873, p. 332) is inclined to think that it possesses a stimulant 
power upon either the accelerator nerves of the heart or their centres, 
and that the increase of the pulse-rate is not therefore entirely due 
to paralysis of the peripheral vagi. Ina subsequent part of the same 
communication, Wood states his decided conviction of the medical 
value of atropia in opium poisoning. Although its action is not 
completely antagonistic to that of morphia, still it exerts valuable 
counter-effects, and notably upon the respiration, which it directly 
and powerfully stimulates.—Schiff’s experiments (Za Nazione, No. 
235, Augosto, 1872) have established that the sensibility of the heart 
is lessened by doses of atropia, rather greater than are necessary to 
dilate the pupils, to such an extent, that the pulse-rate is neither 
accelerated nor diminished by increasing the blood-pressure to three 
or four times its normal amount, or by lowering it greatly. 


Nicotra, Topacco-Smoxe. — Basch and Oser (Wiener Med. 
Jahrbuch, 1872, p. 367) have investigated the effects of nicotia upon 
the intestinal movements, and the relations of these effects to the 
changes produced in the circulation, They find that nicotia produces 
movements of three kinds. The first two, already made known by 
Nasse, occur soon after the administration, consist at the commence- 
ment of only slight movements lasting a very short time, and then 
pass into tetanic contractions. Then occurs a period of repose ex- 
tending over four or seven minutes, after which the intestinal 
peristalsis becomes more and more powerful, but retains its normal 
characters. Coincidently with the first and second kinds of move- 
ment, the pulse-rate is slowed by excitation of the vagi, and the 
blood-pressure is lowered, and the vessels dilated. During the third 
kind of movement the vagi continue to be excited, but the vaso- 
motor system is stimulated, and the vessels of the intestines contracted 
and pale. These intestinal movements are followed by a period of 
repose, during which the excitation of the vagi is diminished, the 
pulse-rate increased, and the intestinal vessels again dilated. These 
effects on the intestinal movements were found to be caused by an 
action of nicotia on the walls of the intestines aided by the changes 
produced upon the circulation. The latter are the combined result 
of its influence on the vaso-motor centre, and on peripheral vaso-moter 
nerves. In a preliminary communication (Centralblatt, No. 41, 
1872, p. 641), E. Heubel describes the method followed, and some 
_ of the results obtained, in an investigation on the compocnran of 
tobacco-smoke, which he has carried on under the direction of 
Rosenthal. Since the researches of Vohl, Eulenburg and others, 
it has been generally supposed that tobacco-smoke is nearly or alto- 
gether devoid of nicotia, the temperature of the burning tobacco 
being sufficient te dissipate or decompose this alkaloid. Heubel 
imitated the process of smoking by drawing air through burning 
tobacco by means of an aspirator. Twenty-five cigars were employed 
in one experiment, and the smoke was passed through a Liebig’s 
condensor, and then through water, and dilute solutions of sulphuric 


REPORT ON PHARMACOLOGY. aE 


acid and caustic potash. The products were submitted to physio- 
logical and chemical examination, with the result that a large quan- 
tity of nicotia was proved to be present in them. ‘To explain the 
difference thus shown to occur between the results of submitting 
nicotia and tobacco to elevated temperatures, the author maintains 
that in the tobacco nicotia is present not in the free state but as a 
salt. This salt is able to be conveyed in tobacco-smoke without 
undergoing much change, although free nicotia is decomposed when 
subjected to an equally elevated temperature. 


Dieiratin.—The researches of numerous observers seem now to 
have established that digitalis and digitalin produce on the heart, 
first a slowing of its contractions, then an acceleration, and finall 
again a slowing terminating in paralysis of this organ if the dose 
be a sufficiently large one. Coincidently with these effects, there 
occurs an increase of blood-tension, which gives place to a diminution 
when, at the end of the last stage, the heart’s contractions are slow 
and irregular. These phenomena have received various interpretations. 
Traube refers the primary slowing of the heart to an excitation of 
the vagi nerves, and this view is supported in an elaborate paper by 
Ackermann (Deutsches Archiv fiir Klinische Medicin, Vol. Xt. 
December, 1872, p. 125), who shows that if the vagi be paralysed by 
atropia, digitalin no longer slows the pulse. This observer has also 
found that during the stage of cardiac acceleration following slowing 
under the action of digitalis, the vagi nerves have completely lost 
their inhibitory power over the heart, and in this respect also he 
supports Traube’s view that the acceleration produced by digitalis 
is a result of paralysis of the vagi nerves. He maintains, however, 
that it is likewise in all probability a result of a stimulation of the 
accelerating cardiac nerves. The slowing and arrest of the heart, 
which subsequently occur, are brought about by a totally different 
mechanism, namely, a direct action of digitalin on the muscular 
substance of the heart. In investigating the cause of the increase 
of blood-tension, Ackermann divided the spinal cord in the neck 
before administering digitalin, and found that the blood-pressure 
nevertheless increased. This substance, therefore, seems to produce 
contraction of the arteries independently of any influence on the 
vaso-motor centre, and the probabilities are that its action on the 
blood-vessels is due to excitation of the peripheral terminations of 
the vaso-motor nerves. It cannot be caused by an action on the 
heart, because blood-tension remains increased alike during accelera- 
tion and slowing of the contractions of that organ. Besides these 
effects, the temperature of the interior of the body falls, while 
that of the exterior rises, for a short time, coinciding with the 
increase of blood-tension. Ackermann suggests that this is due to 
the accelerated circulation causing an increase of temperature at the 
surface, and a cooling of the interior of the body. Ackermann’s 
views are opposed in a very ingenious and valuable paper by Boehm 
(Dorpater medicinische Zeitschrift, 1v.1, 1873) who maintains that the 
effects of digitalin on the circulation are the result of a direct para- 


928 DR FRASER. 


lysing action upon the heart, and a stimulating action upon the vaso- 
motor centre in the medulla. Mégevand (Action de la Digitale, 
Paris, 1872), among many other experiments, administered to a rab- 
bit a small dose of Nativelle’s crystalline digitalin, and then divided 
the vagi, and afterwards the right cervical sympathetic. Proof 
was thus obtained that after the administration of digitalin see- 
tion of the vagi greatly increases the cardiac pulsations without 
materially affecting the blood-tension, and that division of one cer- 
vical sympathetic causes a considerable diminution of blood-pressure, 
without influencing the heart’s contractions to any important extent. 
He, therefore, concludes that digitalin directly excites the central 
origin of the vaso-motor nerves, and affects the vagi nerve-centres. 
The acceleration of the heart’s beats and lowering of blood-tension, 
which follow large doses, are referred to paralysis of the vagi and 
vaso-motor nerves. In a subsequent portion of his paper, Mégevand 
advances evidence to show that digitalin diminishes the excretion 
of urea by lessening denutrition and organic combustion, and lowers 
the respiratory activity; and he believes that the diminution of 
temperature results from these two actions. 


VerATRIA. — Claus (Haperimentelle Studien ueber die Tempe- 
raturverhdlinisse bei einigen Intoxicationen, Marburg, 1872) finds 
that a toxic dose of veratria causes, first, a slight fall in the tem- 
perature, then a rise to about the normal point, and finally a fall 
immediately before death. Sabadillin, on the contrary, produced 
effects nearly opposite to these, and even at the moment of death 
the temperature was above the normal.——The report of a valuable 
paper by Fick and Boehm, on the action of veratria on muscle, must 
be postponed. 


Ercotin.—The researches of Holmes (see Journal of Anatomy 
and Physiology, Vol. v. 1871, p. 206) and others have established that 
ergotin contracts the minute vessels by a direct action on their 
walls; and it has been supposed by many pharmacologists that uterine 
contractions are merely the secondary result of the diminished calibre 
of the vessels of the uterus. A recent investigation by A. Wernich 
(Virchow’s Archiv, Vol. tv1. 1872, p. 505) throws considerable doubt 
on this supposition. Having injected ergotin into the veins of female 
cats and dogs, he found that the first effect was contraction of the 
arterial capillaries, accompanied with venous congestion of the skin, 
muscles, intestines, bladder, and vascular covering of the brain and 
cord. As this effect was not prevented by section of the sympa- 
thetics, Wernich’s experiments confirm the opinion of Holmes that it 
is the result of a direct action of ergotin on the blood-vessels. The 
blood-vessels of the uterus, however, were not observed to become 
contracted at the time when the other blood-vessels became so. 
Indeed, no change occurred in the uterus until the blood-vessels of 
other parts of the body were already diminished in calibre; it then 
itself began to contract, and coincidently with its contractions, 
anemia occurred in its substance, as a result of obliteration of 
the lumen of its vessels. Section of the spinal cord between the 


REPORT ON PHARMACOLOGY. 229 


third and fifth dorsal vertebree completely prevented the action of 
ergotin on the uterus. It is, therefore, probably due to stimulation 
(anaemic !) of the centre of uterine movement in the brain or upper 
part of the cord, and not to a direct action upon the nerves or 
vessels in the uterus, nor upon its muscular fibres.——In a later com- 
munication (Centralblatt, No. 15, 1873, p. 353), Wernich draws 
attention to a matter of considerable practical importance relative 
to the administration of ergot in labour. In the autopsies of indi- 
viduals who have perished under its influence, the bladder has 
habitually been found distended. This has been regarded as the 
result of retention caused by spasm of the sphincter, and the sup- 
position has supplied an indication for the use of .ergot in inconti- 
nence due to paralysis of this muscle. Wernich, however, finds 
that in animals poisoned by ergot the bladder quickly becomes re- 
filled after being emptied with the catheter. The secretion of urine 
is therefore augmented by this substance, doubtless on account 
of its action on blood-pressure. The distended bladder which is 
thereby caused has frequently been accountable for retarded parturi- 
tion. Wernich advises repeated catheterization in all cases where 
ergot is used during labour. 


INFLUENCE OF CERTAIN SUBSTANCES UPON REFLEX EXCITABILITY.— 
Meihwizeen (Pjliiger’s Archiv, Vol. vu. 1873, p. 201) has made some 
experiments on the above subject. The spinal cord was divided 
behind the ears in frogs, the animals were then suspended by the 
lower jaw, the reflex excitability was tested by measuring the time that 
elapsed between the dipping of one foot into 0.2 per cent. solution of 
sulphuric acid and the subsequent movement that occurred, the sub- 
stance to be tested was injected under the skin of the back, and the 
reflex excitability again tested at intervals. The results were as 
follows :—Bromide of potassium, in doses of from 5 to 10 milligrammes, 
lessened the excitability, and doses greater than 20 mgm. killed the 
animal. Bromide of sodium seemed to have no effect on spinal reflex 
excitability, even when given in doses of 60 mgm. Acetate of zine, 
in doses of from 10 to 20 mgm., almost always proved fatal, and its 
action was a central one. Chloral, in large doses, reduces reflex ex- 
citability, but in small doses, 0.0005 grm., it has no effect, or produced 
only a slight diminution, which was not seen to be preceded by any 
increase as Radziejewski affirms. Strychnia increases the reflex exci- 
tability for mechanical but not for chemical excitants. Caffein, in 
doses of from 5 to 10 mgm., reduces the excitability for chemical stimu- 
lation, Doses larger than the above produce death in a few hours. 
The reflex centres in the spinal cord are paralysed; but the author 
has not observed the tetanus of the extremities described by Loven. 
Morphia, in doses of from 5 to 8 mgm. at first. diminishes reflex 
excitability, which, after about three hours, returns to. its normal 
state; and afterwards it increases it so that it becomes markedly 
exaggerated during from 12 to 24 hours after the injection. This 
increase is rendered apparent by chemical but not by mechanical 
stimulation, and when it has become developed, spasms occur. On 


230 DR FRASER. 


the increase giving place to diminution, however, the spasms still 
continue, with unabated frequency and strength. Quinia seemed to 
affect reflex excitability through its influence on the circulation. 
Doses of from 4 to 6 mgm. slowed and weakened the heart in about 
ten minutes, and altogether stopped it a few minutes afterwards; but 
the reflex excitability was not modified until from fifteen to thirty 
minutes after the heart’s contractions had become feeble. Alcohol, 
in a dose of 1 ec. of a 10 per cent. solution, for a long period pro- 
duced great diminution of excitability, but afterwards great increase, 
by a central action. With digitalin, Meihwizeen observed the same 
phenomena as Weil (see Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, Vol. vt. 
1872, p. 500). In frogs, which the day previously had had the 
cerebral hemispheres removed, 1 mgm. of digitalin produced a marked 
decrease of reflex excitability, aud this before any obvious effect upon 
the circulation. After section of the cord behind the tympanum 
the excitability returns to its former state. In frogs, with both brain 
and medulla removed, no direct depression is produced, only an 
indirect one after the circulation is weakened. The author does not 
adhere to Weil’s explanation of the depression being produced by 
excitation of an inhibitory centre for reflex activity. He thinks it 
may be satisfactorily explained as a result of the action of digitalin 
on the circulation. 


AcTIon oF ConvuLsants.—Several substanees appear to combine 
a paralysing with a convulsant action. It occurred to H. C. Wood 
(An investigation into the Action of Convulsants, pamphlet) that the 
latter action may have a cerebral origin. Selecting aconite, prussic 
acid, veratrum viride, and impure veratria, as examples of such 
substances, he administered them to frogs and rabbits in which the 
spinal cord had been divided; and found that, with the exception of 
the impure veratria, they all failed to produce convulsions in the 
parts connected with the lower portion of the divided cord. Their 
convulsant action, therefore, is not of spinal origin. These various 
substances further are powerful modifiers of the circulation, and they 
probably diminish the quantity of blood in the brain, Wood describes 
several ingenious experiments which lead him to believe that the 
convulsant action is of brain origin, occurring only after the cireula- 
tion is profoundly affected, and probably resulting from deranged 
cerebral circulation. 


AcTION OF CERTAIN Emetics.—An interesting paper by A. E. 
D’Ornellas (Bulletin Général de Thérapeutique, 15 Mars 1873, p. 193) 
on the physiology of vomiting includes an examination of the emetic 
action of emetia and tartar emetic. The conclusion is arrived at 
that when these substances are injected under the skin, the vomiting 
they produce is consecutive to their elimination by the stomach. 
This is founded on the observations, that they require about three 
times longer time to produce vomiting when they are administered by 
. subcutaneous injection than by the stomach; that the time of vomiting 
coincides with that of elimination by the stomach; that such doses as 
cause vomiting when subcutaneously injected also cause inflammatory 


REPORT ON PHARMACOLOGY. 231 


lesions of the stomach and intestines, while such as are too small to 
cause vomiting produce no gastric nor intestinal lesions; and that, as 
determined by Kleiman and Simonowitsch, when tartar emetic is 
injected into a vein, vomiting is produced in a longer time than when 
it is introduced into the stomach, while in the former case antimony 
may be detected in the matters: first vomited. D’Ornellas further 
believes that, in general, the excitation to vomit caused by emetics is 
the result of a direct action upon the peripheral terminations of the 
vagi in the stomach. (However the last statement may accord with 
observations referring to emetia and tartar emetic, it cannot be ex- 
tended to the whole class of emetics, Of the other members of this 
class of which we have suthiicient knowledge, there are several, and 
notably apomorphia (see ante), regarding which statements cannot be 
advanced in harmony with those on which D’Ornellas’ last general 
conclusion is founded—Leporter.) 


Action oF Pureatives.—Moreau, in oppositien to Thiry and 
Radziejewski, was led by experiment to maintain (see Journal of 
‘Anatomy and Physiology, Vol. v. 1871, p. 201) that saline purgatives 
do not increase intestinal peristalsis, but modify osmosis in such a 
manner as to cause a great increase in the fluid contents of the intes- 
tines. This opinion is supported by Vulpian, who has experimented 
on curarised and morphised dogs, by injecting solutions of several 
purgative substances into the small intestine, and noting the changes 
during life and after death (Bulletin Général de Thérapeutique, No. 
11, Vol. txxxiv. 1873, p. 522). Sulphate of magnesia was found 
to rapidly increase the intestinal secretion, producing distension and 
redness of the gut, but no increased peristalsis; and after death, the 
production of a true intesinal catarrh was substantiated. A small 
portion of the injected sulphate was absorbed, and its presence could 
be detected in the urine soon after purgation occurred. Jalap pro- 
duced a more intense catarrhal condition, chiefly apparent, however, 
in the large intestine; but it alse slightly increased peristalsis. 


ANTAGONISM.—(Between Saponin and Digitalin.) From a pre- 
vious elaborate and valuable research (Die lokale Anaesthesirung 
durch Saponin, 1873) H. Koehler had been led to conclude that 
saponin, (@) paralyses the respiratory centre in the medulla, (6) pro- 
duces temporary stimulation followed by paralysis of the vaso-motor 
centre, and (c) paralyses completely the cardiac nerves and muscular 
substance. Before its muscular contractility is destroyed, the heart, 
under the influence of this substance, acts in the same way as after 
section of the cardiac branches of the vagi and the sympathetics, and 
cannot be excited except through its intracardiac nerves. In many 
respects, therefore, the action of saponin is opposite to that of digita- 
lin; and Koehler has been led, on this account, to make a special 
investigation on the antagonism between these two substances (Archiv 
fiir experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie, BA 1, Hft 2, 1873, 
p- 138). His paper contains many facts of the greatest interest and 
importance, but we must content ourselves by briefly mentioning a 
few of the more prominent results of his experiments. The animals 


pAS DR FRASER. REPORT ON PHARMACOLOGY. 


employed were frogs, rabbits, and dogs. It was found that digitalin 
increases ‘or reproduces the heart’s contractions after they have been 
retarded or suspended by saponin, and that, likewise, saponin in- 
creases or reproduces the heart’s contractions after they have been 
retarded or suspended by digitalin, Digitalin is able to prevent, for 
a considerable time, the paralysing action of saponin upon the regu- 
lator-nerves of the heart. It also prevents, for a somewhat longer. 
time, the action of saponin in reducing blood-pressure and paralysing 
the respiratory centre; but it does not seem to antagonise the lower- 
ing of temperature. As might have been expected from the identity, 
or at least similarity, of some of their important actions, the antago- 
nism between them is, however, incomplete. “Thus, although digitalin 
can retard for some time the paralysing action of saponin upon the 
regulating nerves of the heart, it afterwards aids the latter substance 
in paralysing these nerves, and it joims with it in destroying the 
contractility of the cardiac muscle. The one substance cannot there- 
fore act as an antidote to the other, and prevent death when a lethal 
dose of either has been administered.—( Between Atropia and Physo* 
stigmia.)) Qsler has made a number ef observations to determine if 
any antagonism exists between the actions of atropia and physostigmia 
upon the colourless blood-corpuscles of newts, frogs, and human beings 
(Lhe Monthly Microscopic Journal, August, 1873, p. 102). He 
employed one per cent. solutions ef sulphate of atropia and sulphate of 
physostigmia, dissolved im half per cent. solutien of common salt; 
- and applied them in the proportion of four times as much reagent as 
blood in the case of newt’s and frog’s blood, and in the proportion of 
five to one in the case of human blood. The observations were made 
on a Stricker’s stage, at a temperature of 39° Cent. Atropia caused 
all motion to cease in the corpuscles ; sooner in the blood of the newt 
and frog than in that of man, and sooner with strong than with weak 
solutions. At the same time, the blood of frogs and newts poisoned 
by the internal administration of atropia showed normal ameeboid 
movements, without any modification whatever. The action of phy- 
sostigmia was found to be somewhat different. A solution of the 
strength of 1 to 800 of water did not modify the movements of the 
white corpuscles; but a solution of 1 to 300 greatly impeded the 
formation of processes, and caused the movements to be of an undu- 
lating and heaving character; while a stronger solution produced the 
same changes as atropia. One or two per cent. solutions of either 
substance acted distinctly on the red corpuscles, producing irregulari- 
ties of surface from involutions and cuppings; but scarcely two 
corpuscles were affected alike. The result of applications of both 
substances was that no antagonism exists between atropia and phy- 
sostigmia, so far as their topical action on blood-corpuscles is concerned. 
The special changes produced by each substance could be recognised 
in blood to which the two had been together added. 


Hournal of Anatomp and Phpstology. 


ON SOME EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL ON WARM- 
BLOODED ANIMALS*. By C. Binz, M.D., Professor 
of Pharmacology at the Bonn University. 


In the medical world alcohol is considered by some a stimulant, 
and by others a narcotic. Both designations are correct under 
certain circumstances ; but they do not embrace the whole sub- 
ject. A precise experimental analysis is necessary in order to 
obtain a definite view. 

It seems to me that the question concerning the warmth of 
the body under the influence of alcohol is one of the most im- 
portant. As faras I know it was first touched upon by Professor 
Nasse, in Marburg, 1846’; then again in 1848 by Duméril and 
Demarquay in Paris’, and by Lichtenfels and Frohlich, 1852, in 
Vienna*. They all had proved, in contradiction to the old and 
still much received opinion, that the warmth of the body slightly 
decreases after alcohol. These results were forgotten. Ringer 
and Rickards published, 1866, similar observations* ; and Parkes 
and Wollowicz°® refuted the former prejudice, which, by the 
way, Shakspeare represents very merrily®. But still, in the 
very last year, the old assertion of alcohol elevating the com- 
bustion of our body, with apparently great precision turned up 
again in Germany’. 

Whilst with us almost every one was convinced of the cor- 
rectness of the view that using alcohol in fever. would only feed 
the flames, I was reminded of the question by reading the 
accounts of Todd and his school. His communications could 


* After a paper read in the Section of Biology of the British Association, 
Bradford, 1873. 


VOL. VIII. 16 


23 PROFESSOR BINZ. 


not be right, if alcohol heats ; his method must on the whole be 
called correct, if alcohol does not heat. 

The experiments which one of my scholars, Dr Bouvier, 
made turned out as I expected®. They proved on healthy men 
and animals what the majority of authors have said since 1846. 
I print here a curve belonging to a later series of experiments, 
because all precautions in this case were observed with especial 
precision®. It is taken from a strong healthy man of twenty 


Time P.M. 


“30 


37,0 - 


centigrades 


........ Normal curve, average of 7 observations. 
—— Curve under the action of alcohol, average of 7 observations 
in the case of the same healthy subject. 


years of age, who was suffering from a joint disease without in- 
flammation, and who had abstained from all use of alcohol for a 
long time. Those hours were chosen as the time of measuring, 
in which, according to experience, the heat of the body never 
decreases by itself, in which, on the contrary, there is a ten- 
dency to an increase. The experiment is thus rendered more 
difficult, but in case of success it is made more evident. The 
person was measured seven days without, and in the meantime 
seven days after the administration of alcohol. The quantity of 
alcohol changing from thirty to ninety cubic centimeters (pure 


\ 


alcohol mixed only with tepid water and some sugar) was 


SS ——— 


EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL ON WARM-BLOODED ANIMALS. 235 


always so regulated, that no trace of intoxication occurred. It 
is of course to be understood that all the outward circumstances 
during both series of days remained exactly the same. The 
comparison of each single curve of alcohol with the normal 
curves shows us clearly the difference. In order, however, to 
avoid every arbitrary explanation I have designed the average 
curve, and have drawn it in the graphic form. 

My opinion, based on such experiments, may be summed up 
as follows: The pretended heat of the organism does not exist. 
The subjective impression is, at least partially, the consequence 
of an irritation of the nerves of the stomach and of the en- 
largement of the vessels arising in the skin. When given in 
small doses the thermometer shows no extraordinary increase 
or decrease of the temperature of the blood. Moderate doses, 
which lead by no means to drunkenness, show a distinct de- 
crease of about half-an-hour’s duration or more; and strong 
inebriating quantities evince a still more decided lowering of 
3°5 to 5 F., which lasts several hours. The decrease in the 
temperature after moderate doses takes place most distinctly in 
warm-blooded animals, which have not for some time previously 
had alcohol administered. When inured to it, the organism 
does not answer to such doses by any measurable cooling or by 
the reverse *. 

This is the result of more than one hundred measurings, 
which lasted generally from three to five hours. Only the 
rectum was used on these occasions, as the axilla is perfectly 
impracticable for ascertaining small variations. Another of my 
scholars has proved, that even the entrance of the thermometer 
into the contents of the rectum may entirely disturb the ther- 
mometrical result and especially obscure the obtained decrease. 

Good results are yielded more easily by a feverish than by 
a healthy animal. I generally used for these experiments 
strong rabbits or dogs of the same origin and of the same 
quality, and injected under their skin some cubic centimeters of 
ichor or putrefying blood. As is well known, after thus pro- 


* As to the great influence of habit I need only refer to tobacco. People 
who have been habitual smokers, and who smoke again occasionally, resist 
the toxic effects of the nicotine, etc., perfectly well. I speak here from my 
own experience. 


16—2 


236 PROFESSOR BINZ. 


ceeding, the warmth of the animal rises several degrees, and 
all the symptoms appear which are to be observed in human 
beings suffering from putrid fever. Particularly the severe 
symptoms in the intestinal canal remind us distinctly of our 
enteric typhoid fever. If the quality of the poisonous sub- 
stance is right the animal expires in a few days. Not so, 
however, if simultaneously with the commencement of the ex- 
periment alcohol diluted with water is administered, either by 
means of the stomach or the skin. The temperature then 
remains lower from the beginning, the intestinal catarrh is 
slighter, the animal is more lively, and the one may be seen 
gradually to die, whilst the other takes its food kindly. The 
same effect takes place if we allow in both animals the fever 


iy, 
1 day. 2 day. 


post meridiem. : ante meridiem. 


aaa =) SS 
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 9 10 


40, 
39, 


WETANDDOHP NWR OOD 


39, 
38, 


AOnNwooo re bw 


A large dog. 
At 3.30, Injection of 3 cem. ichor under the skin; 
6 o’clock, 5 ecm. alcohol (96 per cent.) with some water; 
8.30, again 5 cem, alcohol, and the following day 
9 o'clock again 5 cem.—The dog untouched the next day 
died. 


(The injection of the ichor is marked by +, that of alcohol by *). 


EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL ON WARM-BLOODED ANIMALS. 237 


to make its way. I have drawn also the curve from such a 
case*, The analysis of this experiment shews me a threefold 
action produced by alcohol, (1) the diminution of the heat of 
the body, (2) reduction of the putrid processes, and (3) rising of 
the action of the heart. We here clearly see alcohol emerging 
from the small sphere allotted to it by many practitioners. It 
is much more than a simple stimulant in these circumstances, 
though it is no doubt sometimes a stimulant for the heart and 
the nerves. 

By poisoning animals with ichor one can see clearly that 
even strong doses of alcohol need not be a narcotic. On the 
contrary, the ichor-poisoned animal which cowered down, sleepy 
and exhausted, becomes, after alcohol, lively, and runs about. 
Todd and his followers made similar observations in man, 

Such experiments are easily repeated. It is only the ques- 
tion of procuring such ichor as will with certainty produce 
fever, two animals of the same quality, and then a careful in- 
jection of the pyretic matter; for it is clear, that if we go too 
far with the latter, the use of alcohol will not be able to save 
life. But in such cases it is always perceptible, even if the 
animal treated with alcohol dies, that there was some healing 
influence. The alcoholized animal either dies later or under 
less severe symptoms. 

Space does not permit me to enter into any farther details 
of these experiments. If we wish to gain the knowledge of 
their foundation and their rational use for hfe, it seemed sug- 
gestive to me, to search for the causes which lead us to the 
above-described results. It thus became a necessity to analyse 
the synthetic experiments in their separate parts. 

What are the causes of the decrease of the temperature 
after the reception of alcohol? How does it work in the ani- 
mal’s economy? At first one would think an increase in heat 
must take place. Alcohol becomes easily oxydised. In the 
tissues of the animal body alcohol burns, if not given in exces- 
sive quantities, into carbonic acid and water, and thus warmth 
is set free. But the same occurs to a far greater extent if we 
consume grease or oil, and yet in this case no rise of the ther- 


* For the sake of clearness I give only the curve of one animal, as it implies 
the other. 


238 PROFESSOR BINZ. 


mometer is caused. The regulation of our whole system works 
in sufficient perfection to retain the bodily heat on the same 
scale. There exist other causes which counterbalance the little 
warmth in the circulation produced by the burning alcohol. 

First of all one would search for these causes in the nervous 
system ; but that which has hitherto been discussed under the 
name of thermic nerves, is still up to the present day entirely 
without proof, and also the centre for moderating the heat is 
doubted by many. If one separates the spinal cord of large 
animals at a certain height, one finds under some circumstances 
an excessive increase in the heat of the body, as Sir B. Brodie 
has first described in a man, who in consequence of an accident 
was thus situated. However the case may be, I have found in 
a series of experiments, that alcohol has the effect of lessening 
the temperature also of such feverish animals. Its influence, 
therefore, is independent of all those nerves which, having their 
issue in the brain, traverse the spine’®. 

It can further be caused by the action on all the striped 
muscles of the body. According to Zuntz and Rohrig the mus- 
cles are the organs in which, with the assistance of the nerves, 
the greatest part of tissue metamorphosis, and especially oxyda- 
tion, occurs. As one knows that after the reception of alcohol 
a feeling of relaxation in the striped muscles appears, so the 
connection between the two factors seems quite probable. 
How far it goes, further experiments must decide. 

We have a clearer evidence of this from another point of 
view. The weaker the action of the heart the less quantity of 
blood is it able to throw to the periphery of the body, and 
therefore the cooling of the blood is diminished. Now, if we 
introduce, where the action of the heart is weak, an agent 
which drives more blood to the cool surface, the contrary oe- 
curs. The greater quantity of blood in the skin will irradiate 
a greater portion of warmth. In the same time the perceptible 
as well as the imperceptible perspiration becomes augmented. 
It is needless for me to explain, how, according to a simple 
physical law, a diminution of warmth must ensue. 

Finally, one of the chief causes is the direct impediment of 
the activity of our cells. The great many microscopical ele- 
ments of which our glands are composed, and through whose 


EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL ON WARM-BLOODED ANIMALS. 239 


action the albumen of food is decomposed, become slightly pa- 
ralysed by alcohol. We have a very clear example of this 
fact in the action of alcohol upon yeast. It can be asserted 
from all points of view that the cells of the organism answer 
on the whole in the same manner to the reagents, as those of 
the mykoderma vini. The higher the percentage of alcohol in 
a fluid the less able is the protoplasm of the cells to work and 
to produce warmth. And not only does common yeast show 
us this, but in every other form of fermentation, particularly in 
the oxydation, commonly called putrefaction, the impeding in- 
fluence on the protoplasm becomes most apparent; and even 
the highest and most complicated issue of the protoplasm— 
the hemoglabin—is affected by it, when it is about to pass 
over its oxygen to other substances. It imparts its oxygen to 
combustible substances in a slower manner when but a small 
quantity of alcohol is present”. 

Of all these described effects which alcohol produces upon 
the animal organism each single one may be very slight, but 
summed up they mark a decided decrease in the thermometer. 
I will here only briefly say, that another series of experiments 
has proved to me, that also the post-mortem temperature is 
lowered by previous injection of alcohol”. As is known, this 
warmth after the death of almost every warm-blooded animal 
not only lasts for a shorter or longer time, but even rises by 
several degrees Fahrenheit. The fact, that this warmth also is 
under the influence of alcohol, proves to us the direct action 
on the chemical processes of the animal body more than any- 
thing else. 

We thus see from all points that the pretended rise of tem- 
perature of the blood by means of alcohol exists as little as 
does the extraordinary cold in a fever patient whose bed is 
shaking under him. In both cases we are deceived by sub- 
jective impression, and only the instrumental observation gives 
us the truth. 

It is @ priori to be expected that alcohol will be not with- 
out influence on the metamorphosis of tissues. An agent that, 
consumed in somewhat larger doses, so clearly lowers the com- 
bustion, must also be supposed to decrease the urea and the 
carbonic acid, both the most important excretions of the organ- 


240 PROFESSOR BINZ. 


ism. And in fact the researches of several authors prove to 
us that this is the case”, although none of them has considered 
the great amount of CO,, formed by the consumed alcohol 
itself. The gradual accumulation of fat in the tissues of 
drinkers is thus most probably explained, and also other occur- 
rences are illustrated by these facts. 

We feel in winter or in damp cold weather the want of 
consuming alcohol in small quantities, and we see further, that 
the abuse of it, especially in hot climates, leads to serious dis- 
turbances of the health. 

Both of these occurrences can be explained by physiological 
facts. In a cold atmosphere our metamorphosis of tissues is 
accelerated, we consume more of them. This is agreed to by 
all physiologists, and proved by the experience of common life. 
The colder the climate the more substantial our food must be. 
Thus, when we imbibe a fluid which, without sensibly cooling 
our blood slowly, lowers the consumption of our tissues, we 
apply to the flaming furnace a kind of moderator. Exactly the 
contrary is to be remarked in India or in the Tropics. Here 
our tissue-metamorphosis is of itself sluggish. If we there con- 
tinue to consume the same amount of alcohol, as we are in the 
habit of taking in any stimulating atmosphere, the consequence 
will be that to the already existing inertness of transformation 
in tissues and blood an artificial increase of this inertness will 
be added, which can only result in an accumulation of delete- 
rious dross within our organism. The same, of course, is also 
observable when, in our moderate climates, we indulge freely in 
the use of alcohol ; though greater quantities are admissible here. 

With regard to the application of alcohol to fever patients we 
must not overlook, that its effect is not as strong and lasting as 
that of other antipyretic methods. Large and repeated doses 
are necessary to retain the lowering of the temperature. On 
the other hand, there are certain cases, for instance, where the 
heart is very weak, in which alcohol acts as an antipyretic, 
whilst quinine is powerless. Here alcohol revives the circula- 
tion, like subcutaneous injections of camphor, and thence arises 
the cooling at the periphery. Also camphor, as by me and 


one of my scholars has been proved, acts coolingly in putrid 
fevers”. 


EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL ON WARM-BLOODED ANIMALS. 241 


In the treatment of all feverish illnesses, the first thing 
wanted is to suppress high temperatures. We thus remove the 
greatest danger, moderate the process of the disease, and give 
to the organism the possibility of resisting with success the 
internal cause of the illness. Further thermometrical obser- 
vation is necessary in order to decide, in which cases alcohol 
may help to this effect, and in which other cases its administra- 
tion may be useless or even injurious. 

The question has been vehemently discussed, whether alco- 
hol is a food or not. The answer depends quite upon circum- 
stances. It is certain that we do not require alcohol under 
regular conditions to sustain life. Should, however, through 
any cause, such as cold air or feverish excitement, an increase 
of our tissue-metamorphosis arise, then the matter changes. 
Alcohol—according to the different basis—becomes a direct 
food; for burning without heating it yields to the body warmth 
and power of tension. It becomes an indirect food ; for acting 
as we saw before, it moderates the wasting of the body. 

As to the excretion of alcohol through the kidneys I agree, 
after repeated researches with Geisler’s vaporimeter, thoroughly 
with those who declare, that under ordinary circumstances 
especially in fever, only traces of alcohol appear in the urine. ; 

In speaking of alcohol I mean the absolutely pure prepa- 
ration of about 98 per cent., which I gave diluted with much 
water and a little sugar. All good alcoholic liquids, the per- 
centage of which one knows, may serve for common use. But 
I protest decidedly against all those bad artificial and unpuri- 
fied mixtures which are so generally given. The nauseous 
smell from the breath of the consumer indicates their injurious 
composition. Pure alcohol gives no taint to the breath, and 
good alcoholic liquids only leave that smell which belongs to 
their ethers. 

Science has to solve the problem as to what alcohol ean ac- 
complish on the healthy and on the diseased frame”, and in 
which form and way it ought to be administered. Such re- 
searches can be as little disturbed by the lamentable abuse of 
alcohol as by the somewhat immoderate reaction and agitation 
against that abuse. 


242 EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL ON WARM-BLOODED ANIMALS. 


LITERATURE. 


1H. Nasse, in Heller’s Archiv, 1846, p, 178. 

2 Duméril and Demarquay, Arch. gén. de médic. 1848, p. 189 and p. 332. 

% Lichtenfels and Frohlich, Denkschriften der Wiener Akademie, 1852, p. 131. 
Besides these: Jacobi in Germany (Marburg) 1857, Setschenoff, Sulzynski and 
Walther 1860—1865, in Russia (Cf. Manassein, p. xurx. and p. 59), Anstie and 
others in England. 

4 Ringer and Rickards, Lancet, 25 Aug. 1866, p. 208. 

5 Parkes and Wollowicz, Proceedings of the Roy. Soc. 1870, No. 120, p. 391. 
—No. 123, p. 89. 

6 Shakspeare, Henry IV. Part u. Act iv. Se. 3. 

7 8. Rabow (Strassburg), rep. in the Centralblatt, Berlin, 1873, No. 21, 
refuted by P. Daub (Bonn), in the same periodical 1873, No. 30. 

8 C, Bouvier, Pharmakologische Studien tiber den Alkohol. Berlin, A. Hirsch- 
wald, 1872,64 pp. (In this book the greater part of the former literature is 
indicated. ) 

9 C. Binz, Ueber die antipyretische Wirkung von Chinin und Alkohol. 
Virchow’s Archiv, Bd. 51, p. 6. On the antipyretic action of quinine and 
alcohol in paralytic fever. Practitioner, Voi. v. 1870, pp. 1—7. 

10 W. Manassein (St Petersburg), Ueber die Dimensionen der rothen Blut- 
korperchen unter verschiedenen LEinfliissen (Kélte, Chinin, Alkohol, etc.). 
Berlin, A. Hirschwald, 1872. A most valuable experimental and literary con- 
tribution to the knowledge of fever and its treatment. 

11 In Bouvier’s book, p. 20 to 31. 

12 KE. Berg, Ueber Ausscheidung der Kohlensiure durch die Lungen. Archiv 
fiir klin. Med. Bd. 6, p. 291. 

13 J. Baum, in the Centralblatt, Berlin, 1870, p. 467; and his doctor’s disser- 
tation, Bonn, 1872. 

14 F, Riegel, Ueber den Hinfiuss des Alkohols auf die Kérperwirme. Archiv 
fiir klin. Med. Bd. 12, p. 79 (August, 1873). An experimental paper with the 
same results as mine and those of my pupils. 


ON THE ACTION OF INORGANIC SUBSTANCES 
WHEN INTRODUCED DIRECTLY INTO THE 
BLOOD. By James Buaxeg, M.D., F.R.CS. San Fran- 
cisco, California. 


THE experiments I am about to describe will shew the action 
of the salts of Lime, Strontia, Baryta and Lead, when intro- 
duced directly into the blood of living animals. Since my last 
communication in connection with these researches the subject 
has been invested with additional interest from a discovery I 
have made of the connection between the atomic weight, and 
the physiological action of these salts of metallic bases. I find 
that in the same isomorphous group the intensity of physiolo- 
gical action increases as the atomic weight of the elements, 
shewing a new and important connection between physiological 
action and the molecular properties of these inorganic com- 
pounds. I have published a paper on this subject in the 
American Journal of Science for March, 1874. For the man- 
ner in which the following experiments were performed, I 
would refer to the May Number of the Journal of Anatomy 
and Physiology, for 1870. 


Salts of Lime. 


The experiment was made on a dog, weight 17lbs. The 
manometer was connected with the arteries. A solution con- 
taining 4egrs. of chloride of calcium was injected into the 
jugular. Action of the heart slightly quickened; expiration 
performed by two or three spasmodic efforts; inspiration nor- 
mal.—lInject 10grs., no effect on the circulation; expiration 
more spasmodic. Inject 30grs. In 12” the action of the 
heart was quickened; the pressure in the arteries not 
affected except by the struggles of the animal; respiration 
spasmodic. Inject 60 grs. In 12” the heart stopped beating : 
30”, violent spasmodic respiratory efforts; head drawn down 
forcibly towards the chest; rigidity of abdominal muscles: 2’ 
after the injection, all movements ceased with the exception 


244 DR BLAKE. 


of a strong quivering of the whole of the voluntary muscles 
which lasted 45”. On opening the thorax, auricles contracting, 
ventricles still: each cavity contained blood, right dark, left 
bright scarlet: blood coagulated firmly. The muscles that were 
exposed on opening the thorax contracted some time after death. 


Exp. 2. Injection of nitrate of lime into the veins ; animal 
not confined. Inject 3grs. into the jugular; no aponreciable 
effect. Inject 6 grs.; expression of pain as the injection was 
made. Inject 14grs.; same expression of pain; expiration 
spasmodic: animal jumped about apparently from uncontrollable 
action of the muscles. Inject 14grs.; 12” after injection, 
efforts to vomit; animal seems weaker. Inject 14 grs.; animal 
jumped about with involuntary action of the muscles: 45”, 
lay down apparently from weakness. Inject 20grs.; animal 
kicked about with irregular choreic movements; no expression 
of pain; after the general movements had stopped, the fore- 
legs were in continual motion. Inject 40 grs.; 10”, heart’s 
action arrested: 40”, respiration stopped in a general tonic 
spasm; this relaxed in 1’ 30”, and three or four respiratory 
movements took place. On opening the thorax, the heart was 


still; left cavities contained scarlet blood’. 


Salts of Strontva. 


Exp. 3. A solution containing 4 grs. of chloride of strontium 
was injected into the jugular: 10”, the pressure in the arteries 
diminished 1}in.; 15”, pressure again at its former height 6 to 


1 Tn the last number of this Journal (p. 218) there is a notice of a communica- 
tion made by Rabutreau to the Académie des Sciences, in which he states that the 
quantities of the salts of lime and of potash which, when introduced directly into 
the blood, destroy life, are about equal; and as the atomic weights of these sub- 
stances are nearly the same he adduces this fact in support of the statement he 
had made as to the connection between the atomic weight of metals and the 
intensity of their physiological action. The result of my own experiments with 
these two classes of salts is, that they afford the most striking proof against the 
existence of such a connection as he has stated. In the many experiments I 
have performed with the salts of potash I have found them six or eight times as 
poisonous as the salts of lime, ten or twelve grains of nitrate of potash being 
sufficient to arrest the action of the heart, while it requires about one hundred 
and twenty grains of nitrate of lime to produce the same effect. It is only 
between members of the same isomorphous group that the intensity of physio- 
logical action increases with atomic weight. 


ACTION OF INORGANIC SUBSTANCES IN THE BLOOD. 245 


8in., oscillation greater, action of the heart slower. Inject 
12 ers.: respiration affected in 10”, pressure diminished: 15”, 
pressure rising: 45”, 9 in., oscillations 3 to 3Lin., heart’s action 
slower. Inject 20grs.: 18”, the action of the heart arrested, 
respiration continued uninterruptedly a minute after the heart 
had stopped, it then became intermittent but full inspiratory 
movements took place three minutes after the arrest of the 
circulation. On opening the thorax the ventricles were still, 
nor did they contract on irritating them with the scalpel; 
auricles contracting rhythmically, and continued contracting for 
five minutes. Left cavities contained scarlet blood which 
coagulated firmly. Shortly after the thorax had been opened 
the whole of the muscles of the trunk began to contract, and 
contracted for more than a quarter of an hour. When the 
intercostals had been exposed in opening the thorax they con- 
tracted so as to move the ribs forty minutes after death, 
although the temperature of the room was 42”. 


Exp. 4. Injection of chloride of strontium into the arteries. 
Pressure in arteries, 4 to 7in. Inject 12 ers. of the salt into the 
axillary artery: 5”, action of the heart quickened, oscillation 
less: 45”, the action of the heart as before the injection. Inject 
24 ers.: the same action on the heart 5” after the injection ; no 
other marked symptoms. Inject 36 grs.: immediate expression 
of pain. The direct effect on the heart could not be ascertained 
on account of the movements of the animal: 20”, it was stopped, 
probably earlier: 30”, respiration suspended for 1’ 30"; the 
muscles of trachea and larynx then began to contract, and in 
a few seconds the movement extended to the whole of the 
respiratory muscles ; fourteen respiratory movements were made, 
they were short and spasmodic, lasting about 1’ 35’. On open- 
ing the thorax, the auricles were found contracting, ventricles 
still ; left cavities contained scarlet blood. Four minutes after 
respiration had ceased the whole of the voluntary muscles 
commenced contracting so as to produce general movement of 
the body. The muscles of the leg contracted with sufficient 
force to move the body on the table when a point d'appui was 
furnished to the feet. These contractions continued more than 


a quarter of an hour. 


246 DR BLAKE. 


Salts of Baryta. 


Exp. 5. A solution containing 0°25 grs. of chloride of barium 
was injected into the jugular: 12”, the arterial pressure slightly 
increased: 1’, action of the heart slower. Inject 0°50 grs.: 10”, 
slight diminution of the pressure, heart’s action fluttering: 14”, 
pressure increased lin. above the level before the injection. 
Inject 1 gr.: 11”, pressure diminishing with fluttering action 
of the heart: 14”, pressure again increased, heart’s action slower 
and very irregular, two or three quick beats and then a number 
of slow ones. Inject 2 grs.: 12”, action of heart arrested ; re- 
spiration continued irregular for 1’ 30”, it then became inter- 
mittent and ceased 2°45” after the heart had stopped. On 
opening the thorax, the auricles were contracting vigorously, 
and continued contracting for some minutes, The ventricles 
were still, and did not contract whenirritated. The left cavities 
contained scarlet blood. Five minutes after the thorax had 
been opened the muscles commenced contracting and continued 
in motion for fifteen minutes. When injected into the arteries, 
the salts of baryta are exactly analogous in their action to the 
salts of strontia. The quantity required to arrest the action of 
the heart is about 3grs. When the salts of baryta are injected 
into the veins and the animal is left at liberty, no marked 
effects are produced until a sufficient quantity has been used 
to arrest the action of the heart. 


Salts of Lead. 


Exp. 6. Pressure on arteries 5-5 to 6in. Inject a solution 
containing 3 grs. of acetate of lead into the jugular: 7”, pressure 
diminished: 11”, pressure increased to 74 74in. Inject 14 grs.: 
7”, pressure diminishing: 11”, pressure 5in.: 15”, pressure 34 10in. 
Inject 30 grs.: 7”, pressure diminishing; 14”, pressure, 3in., 
heart’s action slow, oscillations 1 to 14in. at each pulsation; 
violent struggles 20” after the injection.—Inject 60 grs.: 10”, 
the action of the heart apparently arrested, pressure fell to 1in., 
no oscillations: 1’, respiration stopped. The animal lay as if 
dead for two minutes, the heart then commenced beating and 
respiration was renewed; the pressure in the arteries increased, 
so that in two minutes it was up to 8 in.—Inject 60 grs.: 10”, 


ACTION OF INORGANIC SUBSTANCES IN THE BLOOD. 247 


heart stopped: 25”, respiration arrested in a violent spasm ; 
when this relaxed the animal lay as if dead for 2’ 30”, when 
respiration again commenced and continued about 1’; the heart 
could also be felt pulsating, but no effect was produced on the 
manometer. On opening the thorax the right auricle only was 
contracting. The trachea and bronchial tubes were filled with 
frothy fluid tinged with blood; lungs oedematous. The frothy 
fluid had escaped from the mouth before death in considerable 
quantities. Shortly after the thorax had been opened muscular 
movements took place over the whole body, and one of the fore 
legs was moved strongly for many minutes. 


Injection into Arteries. 


Exp. 7. Pressure 5 to Gin. A solution containing 6 grs. of 
acetate of lead was injected into the axillary artery: 4”, pressure 
rising: 80”, pressure 12 in. 1’: 15”, respiration arrested, pressure 
fallmg slowly; two minutes after respiration arrested, pressure 
10in.; three minutes pressure 6 in., heart’s action regular, oscil- 
lations 0°5in. At seven minutes after respiration had ceased 
the pressure had fallen to 2in., heart’s action weak. At this 
time one deep respiratory movement was made; its immediate 
effect was to increase the pressure to six inches, There was 
no other respiratory movement, and the action of the heart 
gradually became weaker as in asphyxia, apparently stopping 
in about three minutes. On opening the thorax the heart was 
found to be still contracting feebly, lungs natural. 

The above experiments shew that the more strictly iso- 
morphous members of this group Lime, Strontia and Baryta are 
essentially heart poisons, that is, they kill by arresting the action 
of the heart. Their apparently exclusive action on the heart is 
most evident when they are injected into the arteries, as then 
no marked effects are produced until they are introduced in 
such quantities as to reach the heart in a sufficiently concen- 
trated state to destroy its irritability, the quantities required 
being much larger than when introduced into the veins. ‘The 
action of these substances in paralysing the heart is owing to 
their direct contact with its tissues, although some action is 
exerted on the organ through the nervous system, as is shewn 


248 DR BLAKE. 


by the change caused in its movement five or six seconds after 
they are injected into the arteries, and before they have had 
time to reach the coronary arteries. The action of the salts of 
Lead differs in many respects from that of the other members of 
the group. In its action on the lungs, and on the muscular 
coats of the arteries, it agrees with the salts of silver, with which 
substance it has certain isomorphous relations; but in the pe- 
culiar action on the voluntary muscles, which. distinguishes the 
elements of the Baryta group from all other inorganic com- 
pounds with which I have experimented, the salts of lead agree 
with the other members of the group. This action on the 
muscles is most strongly marked after the injection of the salts 
of Strontia and Baryta, and shews itself sometimes in a curious 
manner. In one instance in an animal killed by chloride of 
strontium, there were no movements until ten minutes after 
death. The muscles of the ear then commenced contracting, so 
as to cause it to move; and from this point the muscular con- 
tractions spread until all the muscles of the trunk and limbs 
were in motion, and they continued contracting more than a 
quarter of an hour. The longest time after death m which I 
have observed these spontaneous contractions of muscles has 
been forty-five minutes; this was in the muscles of the penis and 
scrotum in a dog that had been killed by the injection of chlo- 
ride of barium into the veins. It is probable that the occurrence 
of respiratory movements so long after apparent death (im one 
instance seven minutes) is connected with the action of these 
substances on the muscles, as the contractions they cause are 
not simply contractions of individual muscles, but coordinated 
movements. This action on the voluntary muscles is curiously 
contrasted with their action on the muscular tissue of the heart, 
at least on the ventricles, as I believe the irritability of the 
auricles is not affected, the action of the Baryta group on the 
heart being in this respect the reverse of the action of the chlo- 
rine group, which, as I have already shewn, destroy the irrita- 
bility of the auricles, whilst increasing that of the ventricles. 
The salts of Lime, Strontia and Baryta exert but little action 
on the muscular coats of the arteries, either pulmonic or sys- 
temic; whilst the salts of Lead cause contraction in each set_of 
vessels, agreeing in this respect with the salts of silver. I shall 


ACTION OF INORGANIC SUBSTANCES IN THE BLOOD. 249 


not however at present discuss the connection of these facts 
with the general question of muscular irritability, or do more 
than allude to the pathological changes caused by lead in the 
muscular tissue, although they afford a new point of view from 
which to investigate these questions. I would state that my 
experiments prove that these muscular contractions are caused 
by the direct contact of the substance with the muscular fibre. 
The physiological action of these substances furnishes a well- 
marked example of the increase of the intensity of physiological 
action in the same isomorphous group as the atomic weight is 
greater. Thus we find: 


Atomic weight. Quantity required to kill. 
[DDC aps ae ae ROMS ene ce eee wars 100 grs. 
BSURUTECIA. ccs esness), s2 =o (aeeeeaters Sac Ae BOE 36 grs. 
1 3 UG ee i 6s gee OL EN ae ee 4 grs, 


With the salts of lead this connection between the atomic 
weight and intensity of physiological action does not exist, but, 
as has already been shewn, they also differ in their physiological 
action in many respects from the other members of the group. 
That this difference should be in the direction of assimilating 
their action to that of the salts of silver, with which they have 
isomorphous relations, is interesting, as when molecular physics 
shall be able to point out in what consist the differences and 
the resemblances of lead to the baryta and soda groups, we 
shall probably attain more definite notions as to the causes of 
the physiological phenomena to which it gives rise, 


1 The quantities of the different salts used in these experiments are undoubt- 
edly greater than would have been required had they been injected at one time. 
My object has been to ascertain the general physiological action of the substances, 
and not the smallest quantity that would arrest the vital reactions. As, how- 
ever, the experiments were all performed in the same manner the data they 
furnished are fairly comparable. 


VOL. VIIt. Li 


ON DOUBLE-BODIED MONSTERS, AND THE DEVE-— 
LOPMENT OF THE TONGUE. By PRoFEssoR CLE- 
LAND, M.D., F.R.S., Galway. (Pl. VIII. Figs. 3 and 4.) 


SoME time ago I received from my colleague, Dr Browne, a 
kitten with four additional limbs attached to its breast (Fig. 3). 
Otherwise it appeared to be normal; but when I opened its 
mouth I was much surprised to find that it had a cleft palate, 
and that the well-developed tongue lay completely in the nose, 
supported by the incomplete halves of the palate. This is the 
point which is most remarkable; but as the monstrosity is one 
which to my mind presents a considerable degree of interest, 
and is less easily explained in detail than most others, I shall 
shortly describe the more important peculiarities of the speci- 
men, before discussing further the position of the tongue. 

The mother of the little monster, instead of biting the um- 
bilical cord neatly away, appears to have been so discomposed 
as to have torn her unsightly offspring, and removed the whole 
intestine as far up as the middle of the stomach, and down as 
far as the rectum; but with this exception and the removal of 
part of the liver, there was little damage done. 

The appended hinder-limbs lay in the middle line, while 
the fore pair inclined to the right side. The left appended fore- 
limb had the head of its humerus placed between two portions 
of the right sterno-mastoid of the supporting foetus; and ex- 
tending upwards from this point was a lamina of tissue passing 
inwards in front of the prevertebral muscles, and contaiing a 
cord which was attached superiorly to the base of the skull in 
the sphenoidal region, in the middle line, in intimate connexion 
with the back of the pharynx (Fig. 4,q). The anterior division 
of the right sterno-mastoid muscle was partly attached to the 
head of the humerus of the right appended fore-limb, and 
partly to the end of the cartilaginous left half of the divided 
sternum, while its posterior division was attached to the right 
half of the sternum. The scapule of the two appended fore- 
limbs were directed towards one another, with their dorsal 


DOUBLE-BODIED MONSTERS. 251 


aspects toward the surface, and had their bases united together; 
and immediately beneath these scapule, united to them by 
fibrous tissue and muscle, was a pelvis reduced to the simplicity 
of the piscine form, composed of two bones, which met in the 
middle line and each supported on the superficial aspect the 
head of a femur. Thus the four appended limbs diverged from 
a central table formed by the union of scapule and pelvic 
bones. All of them were smaller than those which belonged 
to the developed kitten; and the left fore-limb had only three 
toes, while the others had the proper number. 

The sternum, as has been said, was in two parts, which had 
not begun to ossify. These were separated one from the other 
by the table of origin of the appended limbs, and, toward the 
hinder part of each, a long pointed process projected inwards 
towards its fellow on the deep side of the table referred to 
(s, s). At first, I thought that these were the elongated 
xiphoid extremities of the half sterna; but a more careful ex- 
amination showed that the xiphoid extremities were in their 
proper positions, and that these were separate elements. They 
are probably to be looked on as rudimentary half sterna be- 
longing to the appended embryo. 

A deeper dissection exhibited two trachee with one pharynx 
and cesophagus between them. The left trachea belonged to 
the developed kitten; the other was situated with the properly 
vertebral aspect foremost, that is to say, the incomplete parts 
of its rings looking forwards; and it was surmounted with a 
larynx smaller than the other, opening on the occipital wall of 
the pharynx, with its epiglottis next the skull, and without any 
tongue connected with it. 

The thorax contained two completely s2parate hearts; and 
in connection with each was a well-developed pair of lungs ; 
those, however, which lay in the middle of the cavity, between 
the two hearts, being more compressed than the others. The 
left heart was that of the developed kitten. It had two ven- 
tricles and two auricles: its aorta and pulmonary artery were 
normal, and its right auricle received an anterior and posterior 
vena cava normally. The left heart was slightly smaller; it 
had no pericardial sac, and had only one auricle and ventricle. 
Its auricle had two rudimentary appendages directed to the 


17—2 


JaZ - PROFESSOR CLELAND. 


vertebral aspect, and received a vein (t), formed by union of 
the azygos vein with an anterior trunk into which fell the left 
subclavian and a deep vein from the left side of the neck. 
The arterial trunk of this heart, springing from between the 
auricular appendages, formed an arch directed towards the 
left, and approaching the sternal wall of the thorax to be con- 
tinued into a descending aorta which supplied the appended 
limbs and gave off a hypogastric artery; but before coming to 
the surface it communicated by a large branch with the ante- 
rior end of the descending aorta of the developed kitten. 

On the visceral side of the appended pelvic bones was a 
little round body, apparently filled with meconium (n); and 
from this a structure extended to the damaged umbilicus. I 
believe that this was a vestige of intestine which had separated, 
near the umbilicus, from that of the developed kitten, and 
ended in a blind dilated rectum. 

Concerning monsters consisting of a perfect foetus, with an 
appendix which is “an acephalus with four extremities,’ Vrolik 
states that, in the instances described, genital organs existed in 
the appendix, but the anus was closed. Also, “in many cases 
the evacuation of urine has been observed; the appendix showed 
circulation of blood, it had its own temperature, and was de- 
pendent for nutrition on the chief or perfect body: in the inte- 
rior were found uropoietic organs, vessels connected with those 
of the chief body, and an imperfect intestinal canal (Otto, 
Serres). In the supporting foetus are sometimes found traces 
of double organs (Otto, Serres, Rosenstiel) }.” 

The nearest approach, which has come under my notice, to 
the monster now described, is one of those described by Serres’, 
and alluded to by Vrolik. It also was a kitten with the ap- 
pended extremities very similar to those in my case; but the 
hinder-limbs were about an inch anda half removed from the 
fore-limbs. The rectum of the appended foetus was prolonged, 
after a very short course, up to a cecum, whence an ileum was 
continued to join that of the developed kitten im its lower 
third. Thus, it will be perceived, an intestine, single above, 


1 Vrolik, article Teratology, in Cyclopedia of Anatomy and Physiology. 
2 Sur Vorganisation anatomique des monstres Andee Reprinted 
from the Mémoires du Muséum. 


DOUBLE-BODIED MONSTERS. 953 


was double below, in the fashion common among double mon- 
sters which have duplicity of the lower part of the trunk. 
Further, in Serres’ monster the appended foetus had a urachus 
and a pair of kidneys; and the representation of these latter 
enables me to pronounce as a renal rudiment, in my specimen, 
a small mass of substance near the lower end of the additional 
aorta, which could not otherwise have been recognised. The 
fore and hinder appended extremities were united by a thread, 
which Serres describes as nervous and ending at its extremities 
in ganglia to which converged the nerves of the limbs. There 
were two pairs of lungs, and two traches opening into a single 
gullet, exactly as in my specimen; but, curiously enough, there 
was one respect in which the appended foetus was less deve- 
loped than in my specimen; for in Serres’ kitten there was 
only one heart. The artery of the appended fcetus came off 
from the aorta in front of the trachez, and turned to the right, 
while the arch of the aorta turned to the left. 

Within my reach for consultation are the descriptions of 
two other monstrous kittens, in both of which there was a 
single head and two fully developed bodies. The first of these 
is by the second Monro’. In his specimen the cerebro-spinal 
axes were distinct; that of the right foetus presented a com- 
plete encephalon, while the other had a much smaller “sphe- 
rical body supplying the place of brain and cerebellum.” 
Unfortunately no description is given of the osseous surround- 
ings of this spherical body, and it is not apparent how it was 
related to the cranium. Jn this monster there was only one 
heart, from the left ventricle of which one aorta was sent out, 
which soon divided into right and left aortz proper to each 
body. There were, however, two pairs of lungs; one pair con- 
nected with a normal trachea, and the other opening by sepa- 
rate bronchi into the lower part of the cesophagus. Another 
monstrous kitten has been described by Dr M*Intosh in the 
pages of this Journal (May, 1868). In this specimen bifurcation 
began in the back part of the skull, and there was a single 
cerebrum continued into a double cerebellum, pons and me- 
dulla. Two trachesee were disposed in a manner evidently 


_ 1 Structure and Functions of the Nervous system, 1783. Table x11. 


254 _ PROFESSOR CLELAND. 


exactly similar to the disposition in my specimen; and there 
were two distinct hearts, one much larger than the other, and 
supplying both sides of the head. 

From a comparison of the different monstrosities referred to, 
it may, in the first place, be manifestly gathered that monsters 
with appended limbs have fundamentally the same origin as 
monsters with one head and two bodies. The nomenclature 
which speaks of the appended limbs as belonging to an “ace- 
phalus” is as misleading as could well be conceived. It is 
intended to convey the idea of a headless embryo being added 
to an otherwise normal foetus; whereas the real state of matters 
is, that the head is the common property of the developed and 
the appended body. This is evident from two considerations : 
first, the resemblance of monsters with appended lmbs to 
double-bodied monsters, and secondly, from double-bodied mon- 
sters being always the result of fissiparous division of a single 
embryo. In Dr M°Intosh’s specimen the fore-part of the head 
manifestly was the only undivided part of an embryo which 
had undergone fission from behind forwards at a period prior to 
the laying down of the primitive groove; and, if one of the bodies 
so produced had suffered arrest of development in the spimal 
region, a specimen like that of Serres or the one in my posses- 
sion would have been the result. 

Yet there is this to be said in favour of the term “acephalus” 
for the appended fcetus, that by far the most probable hypo- 
thesis to account for the production of completely separate 
acephali is that they have become, in process of early growth, 
detached by fissiparous division from the developed feetus which 
always accompanies such a monstrosity, and are therefore to be 
considered as a third variety of result from posterior fission of 
an embryo. In this view the head of the developed foetus is no 
doubt originally the common property of it and the acephalus, 
exactly as the head of a double-bodied monster is common to 
both bodies; but the acephalus may be said to have forfeited 
its claim to property in the head when it parted company com- 
pletely from it. It would be of the highest interest, when oppor- 
tunity occurs, to institute careful dissection of the body of the 
developed foetus born along with a separate acephalus. 

It, may be further suggested that, while in one set of in- 


DOUBLE-BODIED MONSTERS. 255 


stances of posterior fission, the two bodies resulting therefrom 
grow nearly equally, in the other set the degree of imperfection 
of the less developed body is dependent on the effects of being 
stretched out, set on the rack, by the more rapid growth of the 
other. It will doubtless be granted that the tough string ex- 
tending, in my specimen, from the base of the skull to the fore- 
part of the appendix, was really the vestige of the spinal column 
of the appended embryo. Thus, taking the view suggested, it 
might be said that the spinal column of the less developed body 
was reduced to the condition of a string, by being attached at 
one end to the skull, while a part beyond was, by its connexions 
with the fore-limbs of the more developed body, pulled out at a 
rate more rapid than that at which it had been able to grow; 
and that the continued existence of the string prevented the 
visceral parts from being as well developed as in the specimen 
described by Serres. So also an early rupture of the connexion 
with the head, and with the body of the perfect foetus, in the 
case of a completely separate acephalus, would give freedom for 
growth of the part separated. Reasoning in the same way, the 
continuity of the spinal column with the head is seen to be a 
reason why the column should be liable to suffer by stretching, 
while the limbs, appearing in disconnected portions of blastema, 
are only carried to unexpected positions, remaining uninjured 
and developing freely. 

In my specimen the appendix was the right division of the 
original embryo, and had been carried round to the front by the 
growth of the right thoracic parietes of the left or developed 
division. In fact, in all double monsters the divisions of the 
embryo lay originally side by side, and therefore, even in those 
in which two bodies most completely face one another, there is 
a ventral aspect originally turned towards the yelk, to be dis- 
tinguished from a dorsal aspect. In this connexion it is inter- 
~ esting to note that appendices, or so-called acephali, connected 
with the sacral end of the column, remain attached to the 
sacrum, while those adherent to the thorax are carried to the 
front; and it is not quite obvious whether this is to be explained 
by supposing that sacral appendices result from a later and less 
perfect fission, or whether the earlier and more perfect growth 
of thoracic parietes enables them better to carry to the front 


256 PROFESSOR CLELAND. 


appendices connected with them. 1 should incline to the first 
supposition. 

The presence of two pairs of lungs in all the four instances 
of monstrosity recited, with formation of two tracheze in three 
out of the four, while, on the other hand, in two cases there 
were two hearts, and in the other two only one heart, is very 
remarkable, and is even more so when it is considered that one 
of the bicardial monsters was double-bodied, and that the other, 
the one which had the smaller heart most nearly approaching 
In size to the larger, was. the kitten in my possession, which 
had the other parts belonging to the appended body less de- 
veloped than they were in Serres’ specimen. 

In trying to discover the explanation of these phenomena 
one is led to consider the mode in which fissiparous division in 
the embryo takes place. We have no evidence that complete 
fission of an impregnated ovum prior to the appearance of the 
embryo ever occurs; and the phenomenon which has been met 
with, and which explains the formation of double monstrosities, 
is fission more or less perfect, not of the ovum, but of the 
embryo placed thereon. The embryo and the ovum are two 
very different things; indeed to my mind it is obvious, as I 
have stated elsewhere’, that the development of the embryo 
from the ovum is a process of gemmation; and, especially when 
multiplication of the embryo by division is attempted, I can see 
no difference between the plan of reproduction in vertebrata 
and the alternate generation of meduse. But what interests 
us at present is that fissiparous division, when it occurs, being 
confined to the embryo, the remainder of the ovum presents the 
obstacle which most interferes with its completion, and the part 
most intimately connected with the yelk or cavity of the ovum 
exhibits least tendency to divide. That part is the alimentary 
tube, particularly the portion neighbouring to the umbilical 
vesicle. Indeed the tract of intestine usually found single in - 
double monsters extends from the duodenum to the place of 
connexion with the umbilical vesicle; but. the reason why it 
reaches so far up I judge to be connected with the very early 
appearance of the liver; having found in a dissection of a 


1 Animal Physiology, p. 276. 1874. 


DOUBLE-BODIED MONSTERS. 257 


double monster, made many years ago for Sir James Simpson, 
and still in the Edinburgh University Museum, a common 
duct, from two pancreases, and a liver with two gall-bladders, 
opening at the angle of junction of the two duodena. 

We see, then, that division of the embryo by fission, whether 
extending from before backwards or behind forwards, meets with 
least obstruction on the dorsal aspect; and the things which 
strike me as the interesting points to be learned from the du- 
plicity of the air-passages and occasional duplicity of the heart 
in double-bodied monsters with single head are, first, that in a 
part already separated from the ovum, the tendency to duplicity 
exhibits itself on the ventral as well as the dorsal aspect, while 
the gullet situated in the centre between the two aspeets remains 
single. Secondly, it is interesting to note that while the tend- 
ency to duplicity is interrupted on the ventral aspect by the 
connexion with the yelk, the direction in which the duplicity 
has travelled continues the same in front of the interruption as 
behind, the fore part of the head being in every case single, 
‘That the heart is in some cases single, when the trachea, which 
must be considered as a deeper structure, is double, is perhaps 
to be explained by the earliness of the heart’s first appear- 
ance; it may in one instance be already laid down as a single 
tube, and in another be not yet begun to form, at the time 
when the tendency to fission has travelled so far forwards on the 
ventral aspect. 

The still earlier period at which the gullet appears may also 
be taken into consideration in connexion with the singleness of 
that structure. But I confess that it is a subject of marvel tome 
to find, in my own specimen, as seems also to have been the case 
in that described by Dr M‘Intosh, the right trachea, the smaller 
of the two, turned completely round, and the larynx opening on 
the cranial side of the pharynx. That the right heart was so 
turned is easily understood: it was carried round with the body 
to which it belonged. But applying this explanation to the 
larynx and trachea, the axis of revolution must be considered 
as passing along the centre of the gullet; and it is simply im- 
possible to conceive a larynx and trachea, originally placed to 
the right, rotating to the left, and continuing their revolution 
till the larynx touched the vertebral column of the body to which 


258 PROFESSOR CLELAND. 


it was opposed, and the trachea regained its position on the right 
side. Therefore, either the larynx revolved toward the right side 
of the gullet after the body to which it belonged had revolved 
from right to left, which seems impossible, or the revolution of 
the body took place before the windpipe began to be developed. 
Even on that supposition it might well puzzle a metaphysician 
to apportion the parts of the gullet between the bedies to which 
the windpipes belong. Explain it as we may, there seems to be 
an interlocking of the arez in which the formative forces of the 
two bodies dominated. Matters are not made simpler by the 
consideration that in my specimen the vestiges of the spinal cord 
of the right body were adherent to the top of the gullet, close 
to where the larynx opened. 

These remarks have become much fuller than I had intended. 
Let us revert now to the peculiar position of the tongue in the 
cavity of the nose, folded round the vomer, and above the cleft 
palate. In all the three cases which I have cited to illustrate 
the kitten in my possession the palate was cleft, and apparently 
so widely, that nose and mouth made one cavity, and no in- 
formation was to be gained as to the relation of tongue to palate, 
But the circumstance which led me to think of writing this 
paper was, that a few weeks ago my colleague, Dr Doherty, 
placed in my hands a spirit preparation of a two-headed kitten, 
belonging to the Montgomery Museum, and, finding it neces- 
sary to change the spirit, I took the opportunity to examine the 
mouths of the two heads of the monster, and found a very re- 
markable state of matters. In the right head the palate was 
cleft, and the tongue folded round the vomer and placed com- 
pletely in the nose, exactly as in the double-bodied kitten. In 
the left head the palate was perfect, but the mouth contained 
no tongue; a pillar of substance, however, ascended in the back 
of the throat, completely filling the pharynx, so that at once’ 
it could be perceived without dissection that, in this head also, 
the tongue was impacted in the nose. The question however 
occurred, how is the tongue disposed? With the complete de- 
velopment of the palate there is ordinarily associated complete 
formation of the nasal septum; but in this instance there must 
needs be either deficient development of the septum, or 
deficient development of the tongue. To determine this point 


DOUBLE-BODIED. MONSTERS. 259 


I obtained permission from Dr Doherty, and laid open the nasal 
cavity on one side, so as to display the relations of parts. It 
was then found that the tongue was less than half its proper 
size; the vomer failed to pass so far backwards as it ought, and 
the tongue was rendered bifid at its extremity, by its attempt 
to grow forwards into the nasal fossze on each side of the vomer. 

Let us explain the matter as we may, it is certainly very 
remarkable that, in six heads of monstrous kittens, the only 
examples of monstrosity in those animals coming, by observa- 
tion or otherwise, under my notice, there should not be a 
normally developed mouth; that in five out of the six the 
palate should be cleft, and that in the three cases in which the 
palate existed, in whole or in part, the tongue lay above it. Nor 
does the matter seem less curious when it is considered that 
two of the heads were attached to a single body, while the 
other four were each in connexion with two bodies more or 
less completely developed. In all instances, however, the con- 
nexion of double structures with single was calculated to lead 
to crowding; and it is possible to imagine that this crowding led 
to the tongue being forced unduly upwards, and that the altered 
position of the tongue occasioned the cleft palate by interfering 
with the closure of that structure. 

This displacement of the tongue is particularly interesting 
as throwing light on a question of development which has not, 
so far as I know, been settled by direct observation. The mouth, 
as is well known, makes its appearance originally as a depres- 
sion of the integument; and afterwards, at a very early period, 
a cleft of communication takes place between this depression 
and the anterior extremity of the alimentary tube. The point 
to be determined is, whether the tongue is to be considered as 
connected with the integumentary depression, or with the mu- 
cous membrane. These monstrosities would seem to show that 
it belongs to the cul-de-sac of mucous membrane. The original 
roof of the integumentary depression is, indeed, a totally differ- 
ent thing from the ledges which, long after its rupture, appear 
and unite to form the palate; it is of similar nature to the 
membranes which originally occlude all the cervical clefts; and, 
as I have said, the position of the tongue above or below the 
palate might well depend on the amount of space left by the 


260 PROFESSOR CLELAND. DOUBLE-BODIED MONSTERS. 


growth of parts below. But while the normal tongue may be 
said to arise from the floor of the mouth forwards to the sym- 
physis of the jaw, the arrangement in these cases of monstrosity 
shows that the root of the tongue makes its appearance first 
behind and afterwards grows forwards, 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE. 


Fig. 3. Kitten with eight limbs described in the text; some- 
what reduced. Fig. 4. Dissection of the same; somewhat enlarged. 
a, cleft palate ; 6, tongue drawn aside from its position, grooved so 
as to fit round the vomer; c, c, lower jaw cut across; d, e, left. and 
right larynx, surmounting their trachee ; f, g, anterior and posterior 
vena cava of left heart; h, left heart; 7, aorta from the same; 
k, esophagus; /, aorta of right heart; m, hypogastric branch of the 
same; 7, rectum of appendix; o, kidney of the same; p, right heart; 
g, cord, cut across, which attached appendix to base of skull; 7, 
sterno-mastoid muscle; s, s, appendices to the two halves of the 
sternum; ¢, vein entering right heart; wu, symphysis of the pelvis of 
the appended limbs. 


ON THE CARTILAGES AND SYNOVIAL MEMBRANES 
OF THE JOINTS. By Cart Revuer, M.D., Privat- 
docent of Surgery in the University of Dorpat. (Plate IX.) 


IN a previous publication’ I have given the results of an 
experimental study, which I had undertaken, of the changes 
which the joints undergo under conditions of prolonged inac- 
tivity. It was there shewn that, both in the young and in 
the adult, beyond those parts of the articular surfaces which 
are habitually in contact, the large, flattened, round cartilage- 
cells pass, by the gradual acquisition of cell-processes, into the 
spindle-shaped or stellate connective tissue corpuscles of the 
synovial membrane. In the same communication also I drew 
attention to the great similarity observable between this tran- 
sition and that seen in the development of the so-called mar- 
ginal zone of the synovial membrane, or, in other words, the 
portion of that membrane which extends over those parts 
of the articular surfaces which are not ordinarily in contact, 
and started the question as to whether this marginal zone were 
really to be regarded as a growth from and production of the 
synovial membrane or not. The generally received opinion is, 
that at the time when the cartilages corresponding to the several 
bones that are to be formed become separated from one another 
by fissuring of the cartilaginous substance accompanied by 
increased growth of the cells and liquefaction of the inter- 
cellular substance, at the same time a corresponding portion 
of perichondrium developes into the capsule of the joint; and 
finally, that those parts of the cartilaginous ends which are not 
constantly subjected to mutual contact become covered with 
an ingrowth of the synovial membrane. Hiiter, in accordance 
with these views, conceives the marginal zone of the synovial 
membrane to be derived, not from the rapidly growing layer 
of embryonic cells by the dehiscence of which the cavity of the 
joint is formed, but, as a true ingrowth of the synovial mem- 
brane considered as a tissue the matrix of which is situated in 


1 Deutsch. Zeitsch. f. Chirurgie, Bd. 111. p. 189. 


262 DR REYHER. 


the innermost layer of the capsule, and from which it becomes 
infolded over those surfaces of the joint which are not habitually 
in contact. If this opinion be correct, immediately after the 
formation of the joint each cartilaginous end should possess the 
peculiar form seen in the future bone, e.g. in the hip, the one 
the concave form, the other the convex: the latter (the head) 
will then have portions of the surface in constant contact or not, 
according to the movement which is permitted to the limb in 
utero. This, however, is not in accordance with our ex- 
perience ; on the contrary, we are forced to consider that at first 
the joints are very simple and incompletely developed, possess- 
ing gliding and rotatory movements around one axis only; and 
it is only in the course of development, by aid of the constant 
attempts which are continually being made to move the limb 
around other axes, that the stereometric forms of the articular 
ends, which determine the typical movements of the limbs after 
birth, become developed. In accordance, also, with the manner 
in which subsequent movements take place, marked changes 
are found to occur’. 

Whichever view of the formation of the articular surfaces is 
the correct one the question of the origin of the “marginal zone” 
of the synovial membrane still remains open. The investiga- 
tion of foetal joints can alone definitely solve the problem: the 
results of observations on these form the basis of the present 
article. 

The investigation of the surfaces of embryonic joints presents 
considerable difficulty, the parts composing them being too 
small and soft to enable good sections to be made: the latter 
also are difficult to obtain on account of the sharp curves of 
the surfaces. For this reason I have not been able to subject 
the earliest stages to the microscope, but have been obliged to 
be contented with such as are to be found in embryo sheep of 
about two inches long; I hope, however, that the facts arrived 
at will appear sufficient to yield a correct notion of the develop- 


ment of the so-called “synovial processes*.” I have carried on 


1 Tn illustration of the same principle I need only refer to the physiological 
changes which occur in the bones (particularly in the head of the astragalus) in 
the different forms of club-foot. 

2 The synovial ingrowths or processes referred to in the text are not to be 
eonfounded with the well-known Hayersian fringes, which project freely in the 


CARTILAGES AND SYNOVIAL MEMBRANES OF THE JOINTS. 263 


similar investigations in the embryos of guinea-pigs and dogs, 
and in new-born puppies, rabbits, and cats; besides studying 
the structure of the parts in full-grown sheep, oxen, and 
dogs, and in the human joints at different ages, In order to 
demonstrate the structure of these synovial processes, I have 


employed, as was done by Hiiter, the method of treatment 
with nitrate of silver. 


Before, however, the observations are considered in detail, it 
may not be out of place to say a few words as to the value of the 
silver treatment in the investigation of the synovial membrane. As 
is well known, the usual interpretation of the images obtained by 
means of the silver treatment has been called in question by Schweig- 
ger-Seidel, and doubt has been thrown upon the cellular nature of 
the figures and appearances which are produced in the synovial mem- 
brane by means of this reagent. His objections have been fully 
disproved as regards other organs (e.g. the cornea), in which, with 
different methods of treatment, corresponding outlines are always ob- 
tainable. Whilst firmly convinced that the same holds good with 
regard to the synovial membrane (having looked upon it in this 
light in the work which I have before referred to), it must be remem- 
bered that so long as neither the treatment with chloride of gold nor 
combined methods had been employed in the investigation of this 
tissue, a gap was left in the evidence as to the nature of the siiver 
outlines. I anticipated that these would render service, more espe- 
cially in bringing to light the exact meaning of the large white 
stellate fields’, apparently belonging to the same category as those 
demonstrable in the cornea, butas to which it was uncertain whether 
they belonged to groups of cells or only to single ones. My in- 
vestigations with respect to this point have been principally made 
on the joints of full-grown sheep and oxen, the tarso-metatarsal 
joints of which, and especially of the last-named, yield marginal 
zones a finger’s-breadth wide. The sections were always made sub- 
sequently to the occurrence of the silver precipitation; in this way 
the clearest images are obtained, and there is no fear of cutting 
sections of cartilage from which the marginal zone has been acci- 
dentally rubbed off. 

I had so often attempted to combine the staining with other 
reagents, such as carmine and aniline, with that obtained by the 
silver method, but without any great measure of success, that I was 
extremely pleased to find that hematoxylin, which I made trial of at 
Prof. Sanderson’s suggestion, furnished a perfectly reliable means of 


articular cavity, and the microscopic structure of which has been carefully 
described by Rainey and others, but are, as already mentioned, merely those 
portions of the synovial membrane which lie over the borders of the cartilage, 
and the connective-tissue corpuscles of which pass by gradual transition into the 
cartilage-cells, 

? Comp. Hiiter, Virch. Arch. xxxvt. Plate 1. fig. 10, 


264 DR REYHER., 


staining the cell-nuclei. By the employment of sections which are 
sufticiently thin to obviate any sources of fallacy arising from the 
presence of the nuclei of the more deeply-seated cartilage-cells, it is 
not difficult to be convinced that the white fields on the brown 
ground of the silver preparation, from the more circular spaces of the 
cartilage to the stellate and epithelioid forms of the inner layer of 
the capsule, each contain either one or several (violet-coloured) nuclei. 
By this method then it is demonstrable that in each of the white 
fields of the silver preparation there lie, according to the size of the 
fields, one or several cellular elements. It is, however, impossible by 
this means to say whether the cells entirely fill the cavities, and by 
means of their processes extend into the lymphatic canaliculi, form- 
ing a complete anastomosing network, or not ; for the elucidation of 
these points the treatment with chloride of gold is necessary. With- 
out going farther into the description, I need only recommend a 
comparison of Figs. 3 and 4, which are taken from two prepara- 
tions of the tarso-metatarsal joint of the ox, the one representing 
a preparation treated by the combined silver and hematoxylin 
method, the other with gold. In both kinds of preparations appear- 
ances are to be met with, which, in general form and in mode of 
branching of their processes, are more or less similar. 

As the hematoxylin shews the presence in the silver prepara- 
tions of cell-nuclei corresponding to the white spaces, so the treat- 
ment with gold shews that these nuclei belong to protoplasmic 
bodies, which—the conclusion will hardly be assailed—correspond on 
the whole to the spaces in the silver preparations. It is quite 
another question whether these masses of protoplasm completely fill 
the spaces or not. Proof of this could only be obtained were it 
possible to produce both the gold and the silver appearances in the 
same preparation; as is well known, however, if a preparation be 
treated first with silver then with gold, the only effect is to produce 
a reduction of the latter in the parts impregnated with silver, whilst 
the converse mode of treatment altogether fails to yield the silver 
spaces. The question must, therefore, so far remain unsettled. All 
one can say is, that in both silver and gold preparations appearances 
are frequently obtained, which, as regards form, are precisely similar, 
apparently even to the minutest details, although it is not everywhere 
possible to trace the same exact resemblance. or instance, the pro- 
toplasmic masses of the one might be said to be smaller relatively 
than the spaces of the other: the sizes, however, in both are so 
varied that it is difficult to compare them. If the forms obtained by 
the gold treatment differ from those obtained by the silver treat- 
ment, in one point more than in another, it is in the diameter of the 
processes, which here and there appear somewhat smaller and more 
tapering than those proceeding from the spaces of the silver pre- 
paration. On the other hand, the appearances presented in silver 
preparations, which have been placed in spirit, are in favour of the 
idea that the spaces are completely filled by protoplasm. In these 
it may here and there be seen, although, it must be admitted, not as 
a rule, that both the nucleus and the protoplasm are to be made out, 


CARTILAGES AND SYNOVIAL MEMBRANES OF THE JOINTS. 265. 


_the latter appearing as a finely granular substance, which is separated ; 


from the brown intercellular substance by a crescentic, clear zone 
or space (perhaps caused by a shrinking of the protoplasm). 
We may conclude, therefore, that the white spaces and canaliculi 


-shewn to exist in the synovial membrane by treatment with nitrate 
of silver, correspond generally to a network of protoplasm (made 
evident by chloride of gold) consisting of connective-tissue corpuscles. 


A similar statement may be made with regard to the cartilage- 


‘cells of the surface, which appear after treatment with silver as 


round white spaces, in which hematoxylin brings the nuclei into view, 


_whilst on the other hand chloride of gold colours the protoplasm of 


the cells, 


The appearances produced by the silver method having 
been thus explained, we may proceed by its aid to investi- 
gate the structure of the joints. If the head of the femur 
of a sheep's embryo 1?inch long be brought under observa- 
tion, it is easy to satisfy oneself that the layer of cells described 
as an epithelium by Todd and Bowman, and by Reichert, does 
not exist. The appearances presented by the surface of the 


cartilage after treatment by this method are precisely similar 


to those seen within its substance. The cells at this early stage 


jie so close to one another, that there is no matrix apparent, 
and it is difficult even to make out their outline. All that is 
visible is an apparently homogeneous substance with nuclei 
imbedded in it of varying form, which might easily be taken 
for the cells themselves imbedded in an intercellular substance. 


Teazed preparations shew, however, that they are really nuclei 
surrounded with a variable amount of protoplasm. This obser- 
vation coincides in the main with that made by Toynbee, who 
found (p. 163) that in the calf foetus of 12 lines long there 


-was no difference between the cells on the surface and those in 


the substance of the cartilage. The small processes which 
Luschka describes as projecting into the articular cavity I have 
not succeeded in coming across, either in these young ones or 


in older embryos: I have however only investigated the larger 


jomts. The appearances seen in sections from embryos a 
little more advanced (sheep’s embryo about 24 inches long) are 
somewhat different. Besides places in which the above de- 
scribed condition obtains, others are also found in which the 
nuclei on the surface are rather more separated, brown lines 
appearing here and there between them. In some places the 


VOL. VIII. 18 


266 DR REYHER. 


irregular cartilage-cells are still closely juxtaposed, whilst in 
others they are somewhat larger and flatter, and fine brown 
lines shoot out between them, and in some parts completely 
bound the cells. Later on, the brown lines become more fre- 
quent and broader, and in certain places form an elegant net- 
work like that on the surfaces of the serous membranes, dif- 
fering only in the fact that the territories marked off are com- 
monly smaller and more irregular: the appearance is quite 
that of an epithelium (fig. 1, a). In older embryos this epi- 
thelioid appearance is still more common and complete, so that 
the larger part of the articular surfaces is covered with these 
flat epithelium-like cells. This is particularly well seen in the 
head and condyles of the femur of new-born rabbits and cats, 
and it is doubtless this that Todd and Bowman refer to in 
stating that (p. 127) “in the feetus it (the epithelium) is con- 
tinued over the whole cartilage.” In this, however, I cannot 
concur, for the transition is gradual from the parenchymatous 
€ondition (without matrix) of the surface-cartilage to the ap- 
pearance of a slight amount of intercellular substance, the 
latter becoming gradually more and more increased in amount, 
so that the white fields become separated from one another by 
broad bands of matrix, and assume an irregularly angular 
form; in fact, the appearances obtained are quite similar to 
these seen on the so-called “synovial process” of the adult’. 
In preparations taken from the shoulder-joint the surface-cells 
are roundish and connected here and there to one another ; in 
those from the patella, more spindle-shaped and trailing off into 
processes (fig. 2,¢, f), their long axis being parallel with that of the 
limb. These differences appear to me to be produced mechani- 
cally. The all-round movements of the shoulder-jomt would 
naturally not influence the growth of the cells in one direction 
more than in another, whilst the single to-and-fro movement of 
the knee-joint might be conceived to have the effect of pro- 
ducing elongation of them. But be that as it may, it is certain 
that with the growth of the cartilage the intercellular substance, 


- 1 These forms of cells have been termed by Hiiter epithelioid and keratoid, 
meaning thereby to imply a resemblance in form to pavement epithelium and to 
the connective tissue corpuscles of the cornea respectively. The term ‘tkeratoid” 
is however somewhat ambiguous, and has therefore not been adopted in this 


paper. 


CARTILAGES AND SYNOVIAL MEMBRANES OF THE JOINTS. 267 


as well on the surface as in its depth, increases in amount and 
causes the cells to become more separated from one another. 

To recapitulate:—The surface-cells in the earliest stages 
lie close together without intercellular substance ; later on, the 
latter becomes developed as fine lines between the cells, pro- 
ducing an epithelium-like appearance (fig. 1, a); stall later, by 
a further development of intercellular substance, the cells 
become more separated and irregular (as in fig. 1, 6). The 
intercellular substance (matrix) becomes increased over, as well 
as between, the cells, so that in the adult there is a distinct 
layer of hyaline matrix covering the surface of the cartilage. 
While this is occurring the irregular stellate and angular 
cells on the one hand, and the elongated cells with trailing 
processes (fig. 2, f) on the other hand, become gradually trans- 
formed, in parts where the articular surfaces are constantly in 
contact, with loss of their processes into the round scattered 
cells of ordinary cartilage (fig. 2, d). 

Thus much having been said as to the development of the 
parts of the surface which are constantly in contact, we have next 
to consider the condition of the articular surface in the neigh- 
bourhood of the capsule. At the time that the proper articular 
surface has the epithelium-like appearance before described, the 
same can be traced over its margin as far as the insertion of 
the capsule. The parts in which, in the adult, vessels and 
irregularly disposed cells are to be found, are covered in the 
foetus merely by an epithelioid layer of cells similar, as just 
remarked, to that on the remainder of the surface of the car- 
tilage ; and it is only in places which are more affected by the 
movements of the joint that other forms are to be found. In 
size the cells are quite similar to those covering the cartilage, but 
differ from them somewhat in shape, being less polygonal and 
separated by rather more intercellular substance, into which they 
send processes which are, however, very short and knobbed, not 
long and tapering, and extending far into the intercellular sub- 
stance, as is the case in the adult (figs. 3, 4). Fig. 1 is a correct 
representation of a portion of the peripheral surface of the 
glenoid cavity of the shoulder-joint from a sheep’s embryo five 
inches long. The larger part of the surface presented a beau- 
tiful epithelioid appearance. In the figure, which corresponds 

18—2 


268 - DR REYHER. 


to the outer raised margin bounding the glenoid hollow, two 
parts are to be discerned, a vascular (c) and a non-vascular (a, 6). 
The last-named must necessarily have been in contact with the 
head of the humerus, whilst the vascular part corresponds with 
the line of insertion of the capsule, and represents the circulus 
articuli vasculosus of W. Hunter. On the glenoid part (fig. 1, a) 
we see the regular epithelioid arrangement, on the synovial part 
(c) the irregularly disposed cells of the inner layer of the capsule, 
and between these every transition. The appearances seen 
give the impression of a change being produced in the pre- 
viously more regular cells by the tension to which the synovial 
membrane is subjected in the neighbourhood of its insertion. 
In the knee-joint we find the different stages we have described 
still earlier. In sections from the surface of the patella of an 
embryo sheep, four inches long, comprising both the cartilage 
surface and the synovial margin, I have been able to see in 
silvered preparations how the cartilage-cells, as we approach 
the synovial membrane, begin to exhibit processes which get con- 
tinually more numerous, and the cells more irregular, until they 
take on an appearance similar to those on the inner layer of 
the capsule, and indeed come into connection with them by 
freely anastomosing branches. Part of such a preparation is 
represented in fig. 2. At (d) the round white fields corresponding 
to the cartilage-cells are to be seen; at (e) these possess processes, 
at (f) they come to be still more branched and irregular. This 
part corresponds to the beginning of the capsule, the inner 
layer of which is to be seen in another part of the same prepa- 
ration as a beautiful layer of epithelioid spaces. . 

Whilst in fig. 1 the cells of the cartilage-surface (qa) still 
present an epithelioid arrangement, and those of the inner layer 
of the capsule may also be termed epithelium-like, in a further 
stage of development the appearances are quite the reverse. 
Over the cartilage the cells (fig. 2, e) are not only far apart, but 
present most irregular forms, whilst in the neighbourhood of, 
and upon the capsule they may be termed epithelioid. These 
differences get more and more marked as development proceeds. 
In full-grown animals the round spaces become so common, 
and the irregular ones so rare, that it is now no longer easy to 
find the latter, and it is only in particular localities that they 


CARTILAGES AND SYNOVIAL MEMBRANES OF THE JOINTS. 269 


present themselves, and then in no great amount. Instances of 
such places are to be found in man at the lower border of the 
patella and the anterior border of the tibial surface of the astra- 
galus (Hiiter). Larger animals would naturally be expected to 
shew this more markedly. In accordance with this in oxen, in 
sections of the articular surface, including the marginal zone, 
which had been treated with nitrate of silver, and subsequently 
with hematoxylin, 1 have observed almost every transition, 
from the irregularly stellate cells, ike those found in the cornea, 
to the round cell-spaces of the cartilage. 

It rarely but occasionally happens that a network of irregular 
cells is seen in the immediate neighbourhood of round ones: 
here also, however, some of the cartilage-cells are met with, pos- 
sessing a single process and representing rudimentary stellate 
cells, as pointed out already by Hiiter and Béhm. The meaning 
of these silver images needs but little further explanation. As- 
suming the white fields to represent masses of protoplasm with 
nuclei, and the round ones in the homogeneous ground-substance 
to correspond with the cartilage-cells, the rest, whether pos- 
sessing processes or arranged like an epithelium, must be looked 
upon as connective-tissue corpuscles. 

The Synovial Membrane—In spite of the difficulties pre- 
sented by the softness of the embryonic tissue to subjecting 
silvered portions of the synovial membrane uninjured to the 
microscope, I have nevertheless been so far successful, and I 
am able to confirm, in every respect, in the embryonic tissue, 
the observations of Hitter upon the adult; and I must distinctly 
deny the existence of an epithelium, or at least of a distinct 
layer of cells, such as Landzert and Albert have lately described 
as covering the vessels and the sublying cell-spaces. It is true 
that places are to be found on the inner surface of the capsule 
in which the cells are regularly arranged, like those upon the 
surface of the cartilage, represented in fig. 1, a: such patches 
are, however, never very extensive, and always shew at their 
margins a transition to the more separated cell-spaces. The 
layer is in reality characterised by the variety of the cell-forms, 
and the differences in width and regularity of the intercellular 
substance; and it is only upon the surface of the cartilage itself 
that, as before seen, any appearance similar to that of the serous 


270 DR REYHER. 


epithelium is observed: as we approach the capsule this dis- 
appears, and the irregular arrangement is seen (fig. 1, b, ¢, c’). 

As regards the relations of the vessels, also, 1 can confirm 
Hiiter. In the same manner as in the marginal zone they le 
between the epithelioid cells, so here on the inner surface of the 
capsule. It is true that they are very often seen covered by 
cell-spaces (Saftcandlchen); some, however, rise to the surface. 

As we have seen then, in the earliest stages of feetal life the 
form and arrangement of the cells on the surface of the cartilage 
are precisely similar to those in its substance. They then become 
flattened, and form a layer of cells somewhat similar to a serous 
epithelium. At the borders of the cartilage these become jagged, 
and pass into forms which are more and more like those of the 
“Saftcanilchen” of the serous membranes. This arrangement 
obtains throughout life on the inner surface of the capsule. A 
change, however, takes place in the cells on the surface of the 
cartilage, and this change depends, firstly, on the growth of the 
articular surfaces; secondly, on the varying conditions of contact 
and pressure to which they are exposed. 

With respect to the first cause it may be remarked that the 
cells become more or less evenly or unevenly disposed, accord- 
ing as the general articular surface becomes evenly developed 
or not. Thus on the concave articular surfaces, the growth of 
which is more or less uniform both near the centre and at the 
periphery, the cells, whether epithelioid, stellate or rounded, 
are more or less similar throughout both in form and dis- 
position, whereas on the convex surfaces such as the head of the 
humerus or femur, the superficial cells in the parts m the 
neighbourhood of the neck are far less separated than those 
nearer the centre of the articular surface, where growth and 
development are more rapid. 

With regard to the second, it is to be noticed that in parts 
of the surface which are always in contact, the epithelioid cells 
become, as development proceeds, irregularly stellate, finally 
losing their processes and becoming round, so that by the time 
of birth the epithelioid arrangement has in most animals dis- 
appeared at these parts. 

The fact of the conversion of the epithelioid layer on the 
articular surface of the foetal cartilages into the large and round 


CARTILAGES AND SYNOVIAL MEMBRANES OF THE JOINTS. 271 


cartilage-cells, met with on the surfaces of joints which are no 
longer embryonic, such conversion occurring not only on parts 
of the surface which are not constantly in contact, but also, 
although at an earlier stage, on parts which are, se not, I 
Hetiene! been previously pointed out. 

One is at first inclined to ascribe this conversion of the 
epithelioid cells into stellate corpuscles, and those again into 
round cartilage cells, to the rubbing together of the articular 
surfaces. JI am, however, rather disposed to believe most of it 
to be due to the mutual pressure of the opposed cartilages, and 
this I am led to think because new canal-systems become formed 
below the superficial network of protoplasm (fig. 4), long pro- 
cesses passing down from this into the substance of the cartilage, 
where, of course, there is no exposure to friction. Such a one is 
seen in fig. 3, g, the body of the cell being quite on the surface, 
the process, as may be seen by focussing the microscope, dipping 
down into the matrix. 

As the pressure and counter-pressure exercised on the dif- 
ferent parts of the articular surfaces vary with the direction and 
frequency of the movements of the joint, so we find correspond- 
ing differences in the cells, such as have already been more than 
once alluded to. The converse fact I had previously demonstrated 
experimentally in the most striking manner by keeping the 
joints of dogs at rest. Under circumstances such as these, in 
which all the effects of pressure and movement are removed, 
the cells on the articular surfaces again take a more or less 
epithelioid arrangement. This change is accompanied by an 
absorption of intercellular substance, and extends also to the 
deeper layers of the cartilage. 

These facts shew, I think, that the synovial process, so 
called, is not to be looked upon as an ingrowth of the synovial 
membrane, as some have asserted, but rather as being formed 
in situ as the development of the joint proceeds, its cells being 
intimately related both by the history of their development and 
by the presence of intermediate forms with the cartilage-cells 
of the articular surface. Whether it is derived from the 
dehiscing substance or not I am unable to say, not being suf- 
ficiently familiar with the changes which the newly-formed cells 
here undergo; but this at least is certain that, at a later period, 


Dia DR REYHER. 


both the cells on the inner surface of the capsule and those on 
the surface of the cartilage form a continuous layer, and the 
so-called synovial process—the marginal zone of later periods of 
development —is seen to be derived from part of this layer. 
The existence of vessels in the synovial process is not, in 
my opinion, any argument for its origin from the inner layer of 
the capsule, for, as Toynbee’s researches shew, these parts are 
at the time of the fissuring to form the joint all devoid of ves- 
sels, which only appear later, and may as readily be conceived 
to develope in one part as in another. But however that may 
be, the fact that the epithelioid layer of cells may be in ex- 
istence, and even disappear long before the appearance of 
vessels, and without any development of vessels occurring in it 
(e.g. on the concave surfaces), shews that the vessels are of no 
importance in deciding the question at issue. That they are con- 
tinuous with those of the synovial membrane, and play an im- 
portant part in the secreting and absorbing functions of the 
parts supplied by them, is however undoubted: and, as already 
remarked, at the margins of the articular surfaces the cells are 
of an irregular form, and, although derived from cartilage-cells, 
are similar in appearance to those on the inner surface of the 
capsule. The function also of the tissue here is doubtless similar 
to that, and for this reason possesses vessels.. So far, then, it 
may not altogether incorrectly be considered an offshoot of the 
synovial membrane. It is not, however, merely a membranous 
layer of cells spread like a carpet over the marginal surface of 
the cartilage, but is, on the contrary, to be considered an integral 
part of the latter, for, as already shewn, the processes of the rami- 
fied cells actually dip down into the matrix of the cartilage: 
this may be especially well’ seen near the inner margin of the 
“synovial processes,” where its cells are disposed in a single layer 
only. Nearer the synovial membrane the ramified cells are dis- 
posed in more than one layer, being placed one over the other, 
somewhat as in the cornea (fig. 4). The dipping down of the 
processes is represented in fig. 3: they are often 20 or 30 times 
as long as the diameter of the cell-body, and pass obliquely 
inwards into the intercellular substance of the cartilage. The 
cells, therefore, of the “synovial process” would seem to serve as 
a medium for the conveyance of fluid, not only between the 


CARTILAGES AND SYNOVIAL MEMBRANES OF THE JOINTS. 273 


blood-vessels and the articular cavities, but also, to some extent, 
between the vessels and the subjacent cartilage itself. 


The investigations which form the basis of this article have been 
mainly conducted in the Physiological Laboratory of University 
College, and I would take this opportunity of expressing my thanks 
to Professor Sanderson for the abundant materials placed at my 
disposal, as also to Professor Sharpey and Mr Schiifer, to the latter 
of whom I am indebted for the drawings from which the figures in 
the Plate have been executed. 


LITERATURE. 


Rathke, Lntwickelungsgeschichte der Natter, Konigsberg, 1839. 

Rainey, Proc. Roy. Soc., 1846. 

Luschka, MWiiller’s Archiv, 1855, p. 487. 

Toynbee, Philosophical Transactions, 1841, p. 163. 

Todd and Bowman, Physiological Anatomy and Physiology of 
Man, London, 1843, pp. 90, 93, 127. 

Henle, Handbuch der systematischen Anatomie, Biinderlehre, p. 11 
and p. 2. 

Reichert, Miiller’s Archiv, 1849, p. 16. 

Hiiter, Virchow’s Archiv, Bd 36, p. 65. 

—— Clinik der Gelenkkrankheiten, p. 49. 

Landzert, Centralblatt der med. Wissenschaft. 1867, p. 370. 

Albert, Stricker’s Handbuch der Gewebelehre, p. 1232. 

Bohm, Jnauguraldissertation, Wiirzburg, 1868. 

Schweigger-Seidel, Berichte der Kon, Scichsisch. Gesellschaft d. 
Wiss., Math. Phys. Klasse, 1866. 


DESCRIPTION OF PLATE IX. 


Ficure 1. Surface of peripheral part of glenoid cavity of 5 inch 
sheep’s embryo (silver preparation). 
a. Epithelioid arrangement of superficial cartilage-cells. 
b. Transitions from these to 
¢, ¢’. Saft-caniilchen of synovial membrane. Opposite ¢ the Cir- 
culus articuli vasculosus c is taken from the part of the 
membrane lining the capsule. 


Ficure 2. From the patella of 4 inch sheep’s embryo, shewing 
transitions of cartilage-cells into connective-tissue corpuscles of syno- 
vial membrane (silver preparation). 

d. Cartilage-cell-spaces. 

e. The same acquiring processes. 

J. Elongated and irregular spaces of the so-called synovial 

process. 

Ficures 3 and 4 are from preparations of the marginal zone of the 
tarso-metatarsal joint of the ox. In figure 3 (nitrate of silver pre- 
paration) the cell-spaces, in figure 4 (chloride of gold preparation) 
the cells themselves, are shewn. 


THE ACIDITY OF GASTRIC JUICE. By Jas. Reoca, 
M.A., M.B. (Edin.), Demonstrator of Practical Phystology, 
College of Medicine, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 


SomE time ago I began a series of experiments on the Sulpho- 
cyanide of Potassium, with a view of determining its use in the 
saliva. Commencing, then, with its reactions on the various 
Pharmacopeeial preparations of iron, I found that while the 
ordinary ferric salts, such as the Perchloride and Nitrate, gave 
the blood-red coloration of sulphoeyanide of iron readily, the 
compound iron salts with organic acids did-not do so at all; but 
when a drop of dilute hydrochloric acid was added, the reaction 
came out at once. There are three salts which in solution ex- 
hibit this peculiarity—Ferrum Tartaratum, Ferri et Ammonis 
Citras, and Ferri et Quiniz Citras; but as the two former are 
red themselves, while the latter is golden yellow, I did not con- 
sider the reaction so delicate or so free from suspicion of error 
in the former as in the latter, and therefore confined my experi- 
ments chiefly to the Ferr. et Quin. Citr., which for shortness I 
shall call Ferr. Citr. Now, when a solution of this salt, of the 
strength of 1 gr. or 2 grs. to the ounce, is mixed with a solution 
of the Sulphocyanide of Pot. of similar strength, no reaction 
takes place, but the addition of a single drop of dilute HCl 
develops the red colour of sulphocyanide of iron at once; and 
the delicacy of this reaction is so great that, conversely, when it 
is required to know if free HCl exists in a liquid, the addition 
of this mixed solution will detect it when it amounts to only 
sdsath part of the total liquid, and where the acid is only 54th 
part the red colour is so dark as to appear almost black by 
reflected light; as therefore the amount of HCl in the gastric 
juice is ordinarily estimated at ;4jth part, or ‘2 per cent., it is 
evident that this method might give valuable results, because 
by it an approximate analysis of the gastric juice, in regard to 
its free HCl, may be made in less than a minute, whereas for- 
merly, by estimating the amount of acid and base separately, 
and then calculating the excess of acid, the best part of a day 


THE ACIDITY OF GASTRIC JUICE. 275 


was spent over one analysis, and, after all, the results were not 
so satisfactory. 

But it must first be inquired whether any free acids other 
than HCl produce this reaction, and also if any substances can 
destroy or modify it. I found, then, that dilute Nitric, Sulphuric 
and Tartaric acids produced the reaction as well as HCl; that 
Carbonic, Lactic, Acetic, Citric, Benzoiec and Uric acids had no 
effect on it, while Phosphoric and Oxalic acids not only did not 
produce it, but destroyed it when produced. As for the alka- 
lies they, of course, destroy the reaction; but as it is impossible 
that they should exist in a solution containing free HCl, they 
may be dismissed at once. Now, the fact that Tartaric Acid 
produces this reaction, while Ferrum Tartaratum does not do 
so, seems to shew that what happens is, that the free tartaric 
acid unites with the potassium, and liberates the sulphocy- 
anogen which in its nascent state attacks the ferric citrate or 
potassic tartrate, and forms the sulphocyanide of iron; this 
appears also proved by the conduct of HCl, which, when added 
to a solution of Ferr. Citr., does not change the colour at all, as 
it should do if it formed perchloride of iron; and moreover it 
makes no difference to the reaction whether the Sulphocyanide of 
Pot. be added first or last; and yet it seems scarcely probable that, 
when added before the HCl, the latter should form perchloride of 
iron, and then change the iron for potassium, to enable the 
sulphocyanide of iron to be formed, I believe it, therefore, to 
be most probable that this reaction is caused by the liberation 
of nascent sulphocyanogen. In regard to phosphoric and ox- 
alice acids, which I have described as destroying this reaction, I 
think the word destroy is hardly applicable, but that the re- 
action is really produced, as I have satisfied myself by careful 
experiment, and then dissolved, probably by the neutral phos- 
phate and oxalate of Potassium formed from the Sulph., for, on 
adding strong HCl to the solution effected by oxalic acid, the 
colour is restored to a great extent. 

While, therefore, this method fails in distinguishing free 
HCl from free Nitric, Sulphuric and Tartaric Acids, and while 
phosphoric and oxalic acids in a free state negative the reaction, 
yet, as these acids are easily tested for separately, and elimi- 
nated from an inquiry, the value of this method is scarcely 


276 DR REOCH. 


diminished, more particularly as it holds in the very point in 
which it is most required, the distinction between free HCl and 
free lactic acid; for while it is not yet absolutely settled to 
which acid the gastric juice of man owes its acidity, it is gene- 
rally believed that in man it is due to free HCl, and in the dog 
to free lactic acid. Now, during my first experiments on this 
subject, I failed to find HCl, while I took especiai care to prove 
not only the absence of free HCl, but, by adding an equal 
quantity of a solution of HCl of the strength ‘2 per cent., and 
obtaining the reaction, I proved that there was nothing in the 
fluid to prevent the reaction coming out, and that therefore, if 
free HCl had been present in anything like the quantity *2 per 
cent., it could not fail to be detected. These experiments were, 
however, defective in that they were made on mice, cats, and 
vomited matter from the human subject; but on establishing a 
gastric fistula in a dog I obtained, by many scores of experi- 
ments, distinct evidences of free HCl. Before, however, de- 
scribing these later researches, I shall refer to some results which 
I obtained from the former class of experiments. It appeared 
to me at that time that a result so much at variance with com- 
mon opinions must be supported by irrefragable evidence, and 
therefore I undertook a series of experiments to ascertain if any 
foreign substance, such as albumen, &c., might interfere with 
the reaction in any way. It was not probable that such was the 
case, for 1 have already mentioned that the reaction came out 
at once on adding free HCl to the original liquid; but still ex- 
periments on that point required to be multiplied. Now, on 
adding my mixed solution to urine in a test-tube, I observed 
that no reaction took place, while, if two or three drops of dilute 
HCl had been previously added, the reaction at once developed 
itself. The conclusion appeared, therefore, that there is no free 
HCl in urine, and that if there was, it would shew itself; but 
on performing the experiment with the greatest care, I found 
that the reaction did not come out with urine to the same ex- 
tent as with distilled water if the same quantity of HCI had 
been added to each. If, for example, six test-tubes be arranged 
with 2 cc. urine in each, and six test-tubes with 2 cc. distilled 
water, and if 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 drops of dilute HCl be dropped _ 
into each series, it will be found that in the first test-tube of the 


THE ACIDITY OF GASTRIC JUICE. Qt 


urine series there will be no reaction developed on adding the 
mixed solution, while the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th will corre- 
spond in depth of reaction more or less with the Ist, 2nd, 3rd, 
4th and 5th of the water series, or perhaps the first two of the 
urine series will give no reaction, and the others correspond 
with the first four of the water series; obviously, therefore, there 
is nothing in urine to destroy the reaction, but there is some- 
thing which delays it and slightly dissolves it; and this some- 
thing varies within certain limits. The only explanation of this 
peculiarity seems to me to be that there is something in the 
urine which absorbs or combines with HCl, and that thus when 
free HCl is added to urine, though the already acid urine is ren- 
dered more acid, yet there is no free HCl till a certain point is 
reached ; now every one knows that when HCl is added to urine 
it precipitates uric acid by assuming to itself the sodium which 
the latter is united with; and it is evident, therefore, that when 
free HCl is added to urine there is formed chloride of sodium 
and uric acid, and to that extent, therefore, free HCl, when added 
to urine, will disappear; but it is evident that, the quantity of 
uric acid in the urine being only 8 grs. per diem, this is alto- 
gether insufficient to account for the disappearance of 1 or 2 
drops of dilute HCl in 2cc. urme. I therefore examined care- 
fully the relations of the alkaline and acid phosphates of soda 
to the sulphocyanide reaction, with the following results :— 
When a solution of the ordinary or neutral, or rather alkaline, 
phosphate of soda Na, H PO, is added to a mixed solution of 
the Ferr. Citr. and Sulph. of Pot., no reaction of sulphocyanide 
of iron takes place when HCl is dropped into the mixed solu- 
tion until a quantity of HCl is added, exactly sufficient to con- 
vert the alkaline into the acid phosphate, and then it comes out 
at once, allowing only for a slight solubility of the sulph. in the 
acid phosphate. 

I shall not trouble the reader with an account of the experi- 
ments by which I proved this important conclusion, that Na, 
H PO,+ HCl does not remain so, but becomes at once arranged 
as Na H, PO,+ Na Cl, because there is a fact known to every 
physiologist, which, had it been duly considered, might have 
proved this long ago. Neubauer and Vogel in their work on 
the urine say that when uric acid is heated with alkaline phos- 


278 DR REOCH. 


phate it assumes an atom of sodium, becomes urate of soda, and 
converts the alkaline into the acid phosphate: now every one 
knows that when HCl is added to urine it appropriates an-atom 
of sodium from the urate of soda, forms chloride of sodium, and 
precipitates the uric acid. If then such a feeble acid as uric 
acid can take sodium from the alkaline phosphate and convert 
it into acid phosphate, is it not probable (and to this I shall 
afterwards refer) that other acids can do the same, and is it not 
demonstrably certain that HCl will do so when it can make 
uric acid itself give up the sodium which it has taken from the 
phosphate? The dilution of the HCl makes no difference, for 
though it is added to urine in the concentrated form when uric 
acid is wanted, that is only because the urine itself dilutes it so 
much that a teaspoonful of strong HCl in twenty ounces of 
urine is not any stronger a solution of HCl than the gastric 
juice at ‘2 per cent. Moreover, every one knows that you never 
get as much uric acid as you add of HCl, simply because, as I 
maintain, a large quantity of the HCl is required to convert the 
alkaline phosphate which has not already been converted into 
acid phosphate. The same reasoning applies to phosphate of 
lime. The ordinary phosphate of calcium is Ca, P, O,, and this 
is usually said to be insoluble in water, but soluble in dilute 
acids; but, according to my experiments, it is not soluble in HCI 
except in so far as the latter is added in sufficient quantity to 
convert it into acid phosphate, which is then dissolved, and thus 
when HCl is added to Ca, P, O, the reaction is Ca, P, O,+ 
4HCl] = 2Ca Cl,+ Ca H, P, O,, therefore the HCl disappears 
until this point is reached, and accordingly I found that it gave 
no sulphocyanide reaction till this point, and beyond that it 
gave it in an increasing ratio with the amount of HCl added, 
excepting only for a very slight solubility of the colouring 
matter in the acid phosphate. When these facts are fully con- 
sidered it is evident that Schmidt’s results will not hold ina 
quantitative analysis of gastric juice; for unless you allow that 
any free HCl present in that juice converts the alkaline phos- 
phates present into the acid phosphates, you will infallibly 
make the quantity of free HCl much too large, and in Schmidt's 
analyses the relation of the phosphates to the free HCl is evi- 
dent, while no relation of the latter to the ehlorides is apparent. 


THE ACIDITY OF GASTRIC JUICE. 279 


Human G. J. Sheep’s G, J. Dog's G. J. 
HCl 20 1:50 2°70 
Chlorides 2°07 5:98 5:87 
Phosphates ‘12 2:09 273 


To return, however, to my first experiments: I examined more 
than a dozen mice, and found that the reaction of the stomach 
and its contents was generally acid, and even in some cases 
post-mortem digestion of the stomach itself was almost com- 
plete, and yet in every case I failed to find HCl, though on 
adding a drop of ‘2 per cent. solution to the contents of the 
stomach the reaction came out. It appears to me therefore a 
very doubtful matter whether these animals have free HCl in 
their gastric juice, and probably they have some acid analogous 
to that which gives them their peculiar smell. In regard to 
cats also I failed to find free HCl. In one cat I made a gastric 
fistula; the animal lived for ten days, and I examined its gastric 
juice several times without detecting HCl; as however it did 
not live long enough to leave its milk-diet perhaps that might 
have accounted for the failure. JI examined also several speci- 
mens of vomited matter from the human subject; after filtration 
the fluid was generally acid, though in one case neutral, and 
yet there was no evidence of free HCl; these however might be 
regarded as abnormal specimens, and I therefore made a gastric 
fistula in a dog*. I was unable to keep a tube in the opening, 
as the dog injured himself by constantly trying to get it out, 
and moreover it keeps the part in much better condition to 
allow the dog to lick the sore. If the opening be not too large 
the muscular movements of the stomach and abdomen will not 
allow the food to escape, while a director can be passed and the 


1 My first dog died in three days, and I am persuaded his death resulted 
from the operation being performed in the way generally recommended, by 
giving the animal a full meal to distend his stomach prior to the operation, 
and thus give facility in seizing it. I did so, and found when I opened the 
abdomen that his stomach was highly vascular. I attached it to the wall of 
the abdomen by silver sutures, and then opened it, and on his death three days 
afterwards I found the coats of the stomach highly inflamed, and almost gan- 
grenous. It appeared to me therefore that the danger of exposing the peri- 
toneum too much while searching for the stomach when empty, was imaginary 
compared with the danger of opening the latter when the coats were highly 
vascular, and in the full performance of the digestive process. Accordingly, in 
my second operation, I did not feed the animal for some hours previously, and 
the result was in every way satisfactory. 


280 DR REOCH. 


fluid: will flow along the curve in a much better way than by 
tickling the inside of the stomach with a feather; for by using 
the director you can apply it to any part of the stomach at 
once, and thus compare the results. I kept the dog for a week 
on milk and bread, and then gradually returned him to a mixed 
diet. The result of my experiments was that for the first fort- 
night no HCl was procurable from the juice. I did not examine 
the juice for a week after the operation to allow the animal 
time to recover, but during the next week I examined his juice 
frequently, and failed to find HCl; it then began to appear, 
and continued more or less during the whole period of my ex- 
arnination. 

I found, however, that Schmidt’s estimate was much too 
high for the free acid in the dog. I never found it to rise 
much above *2 per cent. under any circumstances, and I there- 
fore conclude that his analyses which gave 2 per cent. did not 
take sufficient account of the acidity of the phosphates. It 
appears, however, that free HCl is a nearly constant product 
in the gastric juice of the dog, varying, however, with the state 
of the animal; after long fasting it appears in greater quan- 
tity than after a limited fast, and its quantity varies also with 
the kind of food supplied. The question therefore arises, to 
what is the free HCl due? There can be only three sources 
of it, from the decomposition of chloride of sodium, chloride 
of potassium, or chloride of calcium. Many chemists say that 
it is caused by lactic acid decomposing calcic chloride, but that 
this is not so is evident, for calcic chloride exists neither in the 
food nor in the blood, which is a result of the food : to say there- 
fore that HCl arises from the decomposition of calcie chloride 
just removes the difficulty one step, for what causes the decom- 
position of sodic or potassic chloride to give rise to calcic chloride 
in the stomach? Moreover, according to my views the calcic 
ehloride in the gastric juice is easily explained, for it is a result 
of the free HCl and the phosphate of lime forming acid phos- 
phate and calcic chloride, and, finally, to upset this theory 
entirely, it is only necessary to deny that lactic acid can take 
calcium from calcic chloride, much less form HCl from sodie 
or potassic chloride. I have in my possession a bottle of so- 
called lactic acid, which undoubtedly decomposes calcic chloride, 


THE ACIDITY OF GASTRIC JUICE. 281 


but I have satisfied myself that this is from the presence of 
oxalic acid as an impurity, probably from higher oxidation of 
lactic acid by defect in the process of preparation, and that this 
is not a reaction of lactic acid itself. No doubt, this very fact 
that lactic acid may be oxidized to oxalic acid, may account for 
the presence of the latter in the urine as a frequent consti- 
tuent, but that this is the ordinary method of production of HCl 
is wholly improbable; and I may add, from numerous examina- 
tions of the gastric juice mieroscopically, that I. never detected 
the presence of oxalate of lime. And though oxalic acid were 
proved present, yet it cannot decompose sodic or potassic chlo- 
ride, to which I believe the presence of free HCl in the gastric 
juice is due. Tartaric acid as an agent in the production of 
HCl, by precipitating the potassium as tartrate of potash, is 
equally objectionable, for there is no evidence of the presence 
of tartaric acid in the gastric juice. There is another theory 
of the production of free HCl which seems to be more popular 
than the lactic acid theory I have referred to, and that attri- 
butes the decomposition to electrolysis; but this theory appears 
to me even more unsatisfactory than the other, for where is the 
source of the electricity? Who has proved its existence? and 
if it does exist, why does it decompose chloride of sodium in 
particular ? why not decompose every other. salt? The theory 
in fact is little better than attributing the origin of HCl toa 
vital principle. I have made numerous experiments on the 
effect of the introduction of sodic chloride into the stomach, 
and uniformly found that it greatly increased the flow of gastric 
juice, but did not increase the proportion of free HCl above 
"2 per cent. In fact it stimulated but did not alter the secre- 
tion. It is evident, therefore, that the sodic chloride introduced 
into the stomach is not decomposed in it by electrolysis, or at 
least this conclusion is nearly certain, for though I introduced 
the salt not into the blood, but into the cavity of the stomach, 
yet it must have passed by diffusion into the blood supplying 
the glands of the latter; and as I examined the fluid coming 
from the same part of the stomach, the quantity of HCl should 
have been increased. The only objection to these experiments 
is that while adding the electrolyte, I did not add additional 
electromotive force to decompose it, but still, that being im- 


VOL. VIII. 19 


282 DR REOCH. 


possible, I yet think it forms a strong argument against the 
theory of electrolysis. 

It appears to me that the true theory will best be found by 
recurring to elementary chemical facts. Albumen contains 
sulphur, and this is without doubt oxidized in the blood into 
sulphuric acid, for the nitrogen, &c. of albumen being removed 
as urea and uric acid, the sulphur is acknowledged by all to be 
removed by oxidation, conversion into sulphates, and excretion 
with the urine. Now sulphuric acid is almost the only acid 
which is able to decompose sodic chloride; and it appears to me 
therefore highly probable that the oxidation of the sulphur of 
the albumen takes place in the walls of the stomach during the 
production of its peculiar secretion, and that this in its nascent 
state seizes on the sodium of sodic chloride, and allows the free 
HCl to be eliminated in the gastric juice. It is no argument 
against this theory that sulphates are not found in the juice, 
for if the decomposition took place in the walls of the stomach, 
there is no more reason why sulphates should appear in that 
secretion than why sodic phosphate, which exists so largely in 
the blood, should appear in it also. This theory then fully 
accounts for the free HCl in the gastric juice, and the latter 
fully accounts for the presence of calcic chloride, as I have 
already explained*. In regard to the phosphate of lime so con- 
stantly present in the gastric juice, I do not think that it isa 
secretory product of the gastric glands themselves, unless in the 
upper part where they are lined by columnar epithelium, but 
rather that it is a product of those other glands which secrete 
the mucus of the stomach. Phosphate of lime is a very constant 


1 As a possible objection to my theory that there is not enough H,SO, 
in the urine to account for all the HCl in the gastric juice, I may reply, that 
allowing with Parkes the H,SO, in urine to be 31-11 grs., and only one-third of 
this to be derived from the food, then since 3—4 grs. of oxidized sulphur are 
excreted by the urine independently of sulphuric acid, it is evident that even 
supposing the sulphates produced in the stomach not to be again decomposed, 
there will be S oxidized equal to about 32 grs. of H,SO,, and this would be 
equal to 12 grs. of HCl, or to 14 ounces of -2 per cent. solution of HCl. Now 
though the gastric juice secreted is 10 or 20 times this amount, yet it must be 
remembered that it is only after long fasting that you can get even ‘2 per cent. 
solution of HCl; ordinarily, as I have remarked, in analyzing vomited matters 
the acid chyme shews no trace of HCl, which is only secreted for the purpose of 
digesting flesh-meat, or something similar, and therefore it is quite a mistake to 
estimate the gastric juice as if each drop of it contained ‘2 per cent. HCl. Eyen 
in the dog this is rarely the case, for it is not found while giving the animal 
milk, and little or none when giving it bread. 


THE ACIDITY OF GASTRIC JUICE. 283 


constituent of mucus, and I think therefore that this is its 
origin in the gastric juice, though no doubt it is largely in- 
creased from the peculiarly irritating nature of the gastric 
juice which contains so much free acid. But is not lactic acid 
present in the gastric juice of the dog? I believe it 1s. Ber- 
nard has found it to be so, and I have found in evaporating the 
filtered juice crystals analogous to those which Scherer describes 
as those of lactate of lime; but the very fact that I obtained 
these without adding any calcic carbonate to the solution, shews 
that lactic acid possesses the property in regard to phosphate 
of lime which uric acid is known to have with regard to phos- 
phate of soda. It forms lactate of lime and acid phosphate; 
and this appears to me to be the true function of lactic acid in 
the gastric juice, and also one reason why starchy matter 
such as potatoes is so agreeable a mouthful along with flesh- 
meat, for the starch is converted by the saliva into glucose, 
and that by the secretion or ferment of the stomach is converted 
into lactic acid, and thus the alkaline phosphates are converted 
into acid phosphates without using up HCl, which is so valuable 
in digestion, and the production of which must task the stomach 
so highly. But into this subject I will not enter, as experiment 
is here mixed with theory, and will therefore pass on to remark 
that numerous experiments which J made shew that the cardiac 
and not the pyloric end of the stomach is that in which the 
greatest secretion of HCl goes on; in the latter part, indeed, I 
scarcely found any HCl at all, but that might possibly be due 
to the fact that the fistula was near the pylorus, and therefore 
its presence and some slight inflammatory reaction might have 
vitiated results. I will add further, that the introduction of 
sapid substances stimulated the secretion of the juice much 
more than mere mechanical irritation, and that in such cases 
the amount of HCl was almost always kept up to nearly ‘2 per 
cent. along with the increased amount of juice, shewing evi- 
dently that true stimulation of the stomach is not effected by 
tickling its inside, but by the substance entering the walls of 
the stomach by diffusion and stimulating its glands, or perhaps 
the ultimate filaments of the vagus which control their secretion. 

The relation of these facts to the important question of why 
the stomach does not digest itself is evident. It is not simply 

19—2 


284 DR REOCH. THE ACIDITY OF GASTRIC JUICE. 


from the alkalinity of the blood, but from the fact that doubt- 
less the nervous system possesses a regulating power over the 
production of HCl, and that even if the latter were formed in 
greater excess, its force would be rapidly utilized by union with 
the alkali of the alkaline phosphate. What chance could HCl 
have to dissolve a stomach in whose walls alkaline phosphate of 
soda was constantly circulating? If it attempted to do so it 
would form simply sodic chloride and acid phosphate, and these 
would immediately be swept on by the current of blood and 
excreted by the urine. Under ordinary circumstances, indeed, 
there is no necessity for this, as the acid phosphate of lime 
intervening between the gastric juice and the proper coats of 
the stomach will form a sufficient protection ; but should this 
balance be destroyed there would still not be digestion of the 
stomach itself, for the reason I have indicated. 


Notre. In the foregoing paper I have constantly spoken of the free HCl in 
the gastric juice as ‘2 per cent. Properly speaking, I should have said ‘02 per 
cent., as thatis the proportion found by Schmidt, but though the ordinary books 
nominally give °02 per cent., they yet speak of -2 per cent. in relating experi- 
ments on artificial gastric juice, and admit that no less proportion than °2 or ‘1 
per cent. will digest fibrin. I therefore assumed that Schmidt’s results were 
wrongly referred to 1000 parts instead of 100, as I had no access to his original 
paper. If however it be correct to refer them to 1000, then it seems clear that 
the theory of the origin of the free HCl in the gastric juice which I have pro- 
posed by the production of H,SO, from oxidized sulphur will fully account for 
the free HCl of 7 pints of gastric juice at ‘02 per cent. 


ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE ANATOMY 
OF THE GREENLAND SHARK (LHZMARGUS 
BOREALIS). By PRoresson TURNER. 


In June, 1873, I published in this Journal some observations 
on the visceral anatomy of the Greenland Shark, based upon 
a dissection of two well-grown females, captured in the preced- 
ing February off the Bell Rock. Early in March of the present 
year a young male was hooked on a deep-sea-line off the Isle 
of May at the mouth of the Firth of Forth. I purchased the 
specimen from Mr Anderson the fishmonger, and am now able 
to render my description of the visceral anatomy of this shark 
more complete, not only by giving an account of the male 
sexual organs, but in some other particulars. 

As the published figures of this shark by Scoresby, Yarrell 
and Couch, are, in my opinion, unsatisfactory, I requested 
Mr C. Berjeau, whose skill as a draughtsman is so well known 
to anatomists, to prepare a drawing of the fish, which he has 
reproduced on wood to illustrate this paper. The figure is on 
the scale of one inch to the foot, and has been drawn under my 
supervision. The colour of the skin was, as in the former 
specimens, bluish-gray, but the sides were not, as in those fish, 
barred with faint stripes. 

Spiracle placed behind and above the eye, mouth on the 
ventral surface immediately below the eye. The base of the 
1st dorsal fin was a short distance in front of a point midway 
between the tip of the snout and the tip of the tail. The centre 
of the base of the 1st dorsal fin was about the mid-distance 
between the anterior borders of the pectoral and ventral fins. 
The 2nd dorsal fin was immediately posterior to a line drawn 
vertically from the cloaca. The 2nd dorsal fin was not only 
smaller but more pointed at its upper and posterior angle than 
the Ist dorsal. 

In my former specimens, owing to the liver having broken 
away by its great weight, I was not able to determine if a 


286 PROFESSOR TURNER. 


gall-bladder existed. In this specimen, which, on account of 
its smaller size, was much more manageable to dissect, I found 
a gall-bladder, about twice as large as the corresponding organ 
in man. It was lodged in a fossa in the liver, and its surface 
of attachment was overlapped by liver substance. Though it 
projected from the liver in a well-marked manner, it was not 
pyriform in shape; its sides were flattened, and it had no 
neck. Its duct lay for some distance in contact with that part 
of its wall which was next the liver-substance, and opened into 
the bladder by a wide orifice. Lying in the fold of peritoneum, 
which enclosed the bile-duct on its way to the duodenum, was 
an oval body about the size of a small almond. It had a red- 
dish colour, and possessed the general appearance of a lymphatic 
gland. 


The dimensions were as follows: 


From tip of snout to iip%of axis of tail <<... ..or<ssseeee Oil 
to back of base of 1st dorsal fin... 2 114 
to back of base of 2nd dorsal fin... 4 7 


to anterior border of root of pec- 


Gopal fi “westse .ssccceccoss sansa oe 
to anterior border of root of ven- 

Brel Tania eoe cee tens 2 cie05 sea eee 3 10 
Lo Spiraclet./...-0lr ase -oseseeoe eee 84 
LO CVO secaes Ger awe cosehcy 2-0 ne eee 54 

TO TOWED Saose ss cc sae see onc seat 6 
See aw, vane... DOM MOMDIM ES eth cas ocean ass seen 24 
From cloaca to tip of axis of tail .......0....--c...000e0e 1. ‘94 

Between upper and lower tips of tail .................. Eig iat 
Antero-post. diameter of base of Ist dorsal fin ...... 4h 
(EUS VS TMG) Geabhaatbrbanenn ay Adapbormtissci scm uo67 3t 

Antero-post. diameter of base of 2nd dorsal fin ...... 4 
Pets e Ole). .0c sete cae actncs oecasee eee 24 

Antero-post. diameter of pectoral fin .................. 8 
SOL Wembrealuliineen sestsemmnasre cs -/ae 64 


An injecting pipe was introduced into the conus arteriosus 
and some coloured gelatine was thrown into the branchial 
vessels. From the sides of the aorta three pairs of branchial 


ANATOMY OF THE GREENLAND SHARK, 287 


ne 
Ith 
Wide 


A specimen of the Lerneopoda 
ingall, 


ipl 
iV 


rH 


inch to a foot, 


), scale 1 
ight cornea. Engraved by Mr W, Ball 


4s 


elongata is attached to the r 


Profile yiew of a young male Greenland Shark (Lemargus boreal 


288 PROFESSOR TURNER. = 


arteries arose, and at its anterior end, immediately behind the 
basi-hyal, the aorta ended by bifurcating into a terminal pair, 
each of which, after a course of about an inch, again bifurcated, 
so that: five pairs of branchial arteries resulted. The first or 
most anterior pair extended outwards along the line of origin 
of the 1st gill from the hyoid cartilage; the 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 
5th pairs ran outwards to their respective gill-arches; each 
artery lay on the distal side (i.e. on the side furthest removed 
fromthe heart) of the cartilaginous styles which supported the 
more posterior of the two gill-lamine attached to a given 
branchial arch. A well-defined layer of striped muscle inter- 
vened between the trunk of the branchial artery and the 
more anterior of the two gill-lamine attached to a branchial 
arch. The 1st branchial vein at the dorsal angle of the gill- 
cleft bifurcated, one branch ran forward in a groove on the 
under surface of the palate, entered a foramen, and assisted in 
the supply of blood to the head, the other branch joined the 
more anterior of the two veins proceeding from the gill-lamina 
lying behind the 1st branchial cleft, and formed the first or 
most anterior of the roots of the dorsal aorta. The 2nd, 3rd 
and 4th roots of the aorta were formed in a similar manner by 
the junction at the dorsal angle of the gill-cleft of a vein from 
the gill-lamina in front of the cleft with a vein from the lamina 
behind. In addition to the transverse branches which arose 
from the dorsal aorta in this region, it gave off two branches at 
its anterior end, which, diverging from each other, entered fora- 
mina in the occipital cartilage. 

The testicles were two narrow elongated glands situated 
at the anterior part of the abdominal cavity. Each gland was 
connected by a mes-orchium to the ventral surface of the cor- 
responding kidney ; the two testicles were separated from each 
other by the meso-gastric fold of the peritoneum. Each testicle 
was between 10 and 11 inches in length, 3ths broad, and 4th 
inch in thickness. It terminated in a narrow pointed extremity 
at each end. The surface of the testicle was quite smooth, but 
a narrew band extended along that border which was opposite 
the line of attachment of the mes-orchium; sections through 
this band were made, but no trace of a tube was seen within it. 
From the immature growth of the fish it is probable that the 


ANATOMY OF THE GREENLAND SHARK. 289 


testicles were not sexually ripe. I carefully examined both the 
surface of each gland and its mes-orchial fold for an epididymis 
and a vas deferens. No trace of an excretory duct could be 
seen. The mes-orchium was so translucent that if a duct had 
been present I could not but have seen one; nothing indeed 
was visible between its two layers but a few thin-walled vessels 
and a little fat. When the mes-orchium was dissected off the 
kidney a large, long blood-vessel was opened into, the canal of 
which was subdivided by slender bands. _ 

In the next place I carefully examined the cloaca with the 
view of determining the number and relation of its openings. 
The rectum opened by a large orifice into its anterior part. At 
the bottom of a shallow fossa, immediately behind this orifice, 
was a small papilla, at the summit of which a minute opening 
was seen. Into this opening I introduced the fine nozzle of an 
injecting syringe and forced a coloured fluid into it. This fluid 
ran freely into two long ducts, one situated on the ventral 
surface of each kidney, and from the ducts into the kidney 
substance, but no injection passed into the testicles. The con- 
clusion I came to therefore was, that the minute orifice at the 
summit of the papilla was common to the two ureters. In this 
respect the male differs from the female fish previously de- 
scribed, in which each ureter opened independently into the 
back wall of the cloaca. Where the cloaca approached the 
surface of the integument two transversely elongated abdo- 
minal pores were situated, which freely communicated with 
the general peritoneal cavity. From this dissection, therefore, 
it would appear that in the male, as in the female Lemargus 
borealis, the genital ducts are not developed, so that the 
products of both the male and female genital glands are shed. 
directly into the general peritoneal cavity. As I discussed 
the importance of this arrangement in connection with the 
classification of this fish in my previous paper, I need not 
further refer to it on this occasion. 

A cleft 14inch in length was situated at the posterior border 
of the ventral fin. It separated the innermost style-shaped ap- 
pendage of the basal cartilage of the fin from the other append- 
ages of that structure. The innermost appendage, which was 
only 123 ths inch long, formed with its tegumentary covering a 


290 PROF. TURNER. ANATOMY OF THE GREENLAND SHARK. 


short rudimentary clasper. A longitudinal groove was situated 
on the dorsal surface of the clasper, which passed into a deep 
cleft lined by a prolongation of soft, smooth integument, No 
gland was found at the root of the clasper. 

As an illustration of the omnivorous character of this shark, 
I may state that its stomach contained a large haddock, the 
remains of several herring, a portion of a cuttle-fish, the shell 
of a dog-whelk containing a hermit crab, a partially digested 
biscuit, and a boy’s playing marble. 


ON THE USE OF THE LIGAMENTUM TERES OF THE 
HIP-JOINT. By W.S. Savory, F.R.S., Surgeon and 
Lecturer on Surgery, St Bartholomew's Hospital, late Pro- 
fessor of Comp. Anat. & Physiol., R.C.S.E. 


Wuaat is the function of the Ligamentum Teres? Many authors 
who describe this structure are silent on the question, while of 
those who answer it the general conclusion is that it has, for its 
chief function, to limit adduction of the thigh, or when the 
thigh is fixed, to limit lateral movement of the pelvis on the 
femur—to prevent the pelvis from rolling toward the opposite 
side. Authors, of course, are not fully agreed in explanation 
of its use, and other less prominent functions are by many 
assigned to it, such as to limit rotation of the thigh; but the 
conclusion substantially arrived at is the one given above. 
I cannot, and need not, here quote from the several authors 
who are entitled to speak with authority on the subject, but 
neither in them nor elsewhere can I find any allusion to what 
appears to me to be the prime purpose of this ligament’. Its 
strength is very great; its attachments are remarkable; its situ- 
ation is peculiar. I submit the following explanation of its use. 

When the person is erect the ligament is vertical and tight. 
This statement, although generally accepted, has been chal- 
lenged. I am satisfied of its accuracy. By removing the bottom 
of the acetabulum from the pelvis with a trephine the state of 


1 Since this paper has been in type I have learnt that Prof. Partridge in his lec- 
tures on anatomy at King’s College was accustomed to compare the Ligamentum 
Teres, in its function, to the leathern straps by which the body of a carriage is 
suspended on © springs; and my attention has been called to the following 
passages published by Prof. Turner in 1857 (Hwman Anatomy and Physiology, 
Edinburgh): ‘In the interior of the joint (hip) is a strong band of fibres called 
the inter-articular or suspensory ligament. When a person is standing erect or 
with the body slightly bent, a portion of the weight of the trunk is borne directly 
by the heads of both thigh-bones, or of one thigh-bone, according as he stands 
upon one or both legs, owing to the direct pressure of the acetabulum upon the 
heads of those bones. Now as the end of this ligament, which is connected to 
the lower margin of the acetabulum, is much lower than the end connected to 
the thigh-bone, it of necessity suspends that portion of the weight of the body 
which is thrown upon it. The effect of this is to distribute over the head of 
the thigh-bone that weight which, supposing the suspensory ligament had not 
been present, would have been sustained by that portion merely which is in 
direct contact with the upper part of the acetabulum.” (p. 42.) 


292 PROFESSOR SAVORY. 


the ligament may be demonstrated. But I think the discre- 
pancy of observation is due to the fact that the degree of tension 
of the ligament is dependent on the line of direction of the 
femur. The ligament is moderately tight when a person stands 
evenly upon both legs. It is tighter when the femur is slightly 
flexed as it more usually is. But when resting upon one leg, 
inasmuch as the pelvis is then raised on that side, which of 
course affects the ligament in the same way as adduction of the 
femur would do, then the hgament becomes extremely tense. 
In other words, it becomes tightest when the hip-joint has to 
sustain the greatest weight. 

When therefore the pelvis is borne down upon the femur, 
or when the femur is forced upwards—that is, when the pressure 
would be greatest between the upper part of the acetabulum 
and the opposite surface of the head of the femur—it is put 
directly on the stretch. More precisely, its great purpose is to 
prevent undue pressure between the upper portion of the aceta- 
bulum, just within the margin, and the corresponding part of 
the head of the femur. But for this ligament such undue pres- 
sure must inevitably occur. Suppose the Ligamentum Teres 
absent, and the person standing upright : owing to the obliquity 
of the acetabulum and the head of the femur—of the axis of the 
joint—pressure between the two could not be equally, or nearly 
equally, diffused over their opposing surfaces, but it would be 
concentrated on a spot in the upper part of the socket through. 
which a line drawn down the body, through the joint into the 
leg, would pass. When the thigh is straight, when the femur is 
in a line with the body, as when one stands upright, then is the 
Ligamentum Teres in the same line too, and consequently any 
force which drives the femur and pelvis together must tell at 
once upon the ligament, and be directly checked by it. 

Owing, therefore, to the shape and obliquity of the hip-joint, 
and the weight of the body, the Ligamentum Teres is neces- 
sary to prevent concentration of pressure at a particular point 
above it. 

The line through which the weight or force acts between the 
upper part of the acetabulum and the opposed surface of the 
head of the femur forms, with the line of weight or force which 
passes through the Ligamentum Teres, an obtuse angle; and the 


USE OF THE LIGAMENTUM TERES OF THE HIP-JOINT. 293 


resultant of these forces is in a line which passes through the 
long axis of the head of the femur. 

When the person is erect the body partly hangs upon the 
Ligamentum Teres. 

I submit that this is the prime function of the Ligamentum 
Teres. Other purposes I do not deny, but would maintain that 
they only occasionally come into play, and are altogether sub- 
ordinate to this one, which is especially called into action when- 
ever the weight of the body is thrown upon one leg. 

Now this view may be tested by the facts of comparative 
anatomy. 

It has often been remarked that the Ligamentum Teres is 
apparently distributed among animals in a very arbitrary 
manner. 

In most of the mammalia it is present, e.g. in ruminants, 
rodents, and terrestrial carnivora. In many other absent, e.g. 
in the elephant, sloth, seal, walrus, sea-otter, ornithorhynchus, 
and echidna. 

It exists in animals with the utmost diversity of form and 
habits. 

_ It is sometimes present in one animal, e.g. the chimpanzee, 
and absent in another very closely related to it, e.g. the ourang- 
outang’. 

Now is it possible to discern the conditions under which it 
is present or absent ? 

When the cavity of the acetabulum looks downward and the 
head of the femur upward, in other words, when the direction 
of the hip-joint is nearly vertical, and the weight of the body 
falls through the centre of the joint, then the Ligamentum Teres 
is absent, e.g. elephant. 

When the acetabulum looks outward and the head of the 
femur is inclined inward, in other words, when the hip-joint 
is placed obliquely, so that there would otherwise be undue 


1 There is great difference in the degree to which the Ligamentum Teres is 
developed in Birds. In some it hardly appears, while in many it is very strong. 
The great depth of the groove in the head of the femur of the Ostrich shews the 
size it occasionally attains. In several birds in which I have dissected this 
ligament I have always found its pelvic attachment to be, not to the border of 
the acetabulum, but to the lower margin of the large foramen or foramina which 
exist at the bottom; this, so far as its action is concerned, comes to the same 
thing. 


294 PROFESSOR SAVORY. 


pressure at a particular part, then the Ligamentum Teres is 
present, e.g. horse. 

The exceptions to this occur in those animals in whom, al- 
though it is an instrument of progression, the posterior ex- 
tremity does but little in supporting the weight of the body, 
e.g. seals, and the ourang-outang. : 

These facts, that while the Ligamentum Teres is found in 
the chimpanzee and other monkeys, it is almost or entirely 
wanting in the ourang-outang, at first sight apparently so 
capricious, are very suggestive. It is easy, I think, to under- 
stand why it is generally present in monkeys, inasmuch as 
in them the hip is placed obliquely, and the posterior extremity 
can support the trunk. But the hip-joint is oblique also in the 
ourang-outang. The conformation of the foot, however, is the 
key to the explanation of its absence here. It is clear that in 
the ourang-outang the posterior extremity cannot be such an 
instrument of support to the trunk raised upon it, as in the 
chimpanzee, and consequently the Ligamentum Teres is not 
needed to counteract undue pressure at a particular point. 

Again, it may be said that when an animal stands, in pro- 
portion as the long axis of the head of the femur approaches 
to a vertical line, so does the Ligamentum Teres become weak 
until it disappears. On the contrary, it is strongest where the 
head of the femur has a direction farthest from the vertical, 
and has to support the greatest weight. 

In conclusion, I should like to call attention, without at- 
tempting to lay too much stress on it, to a specimen (2. 43) in 
the pathological series of the museum of St Bartholomew’s 
Hospital, which is thus described in the catalogue. 

“Two hip-joints from the same person. In each joint the 
Ligamentum Teres is completely wanting. The capsule of each 
is perfect and exhibited no appearance of disease. In the usual 
situation of the attachment of the Ligamentum Teres there is a 
deep depression in the head of the femur, and just above this 
the cartilage of each femur is slightly absorbed.” 

It may be observed that the cartilaginous shell on the head’ 
of the femur is naturally thickest on the upper and inner 
aspect. 


USE OF THE LIGAMENTUM TERES OF THE HIP-JOINT. 295 


The above Paper was read at a Meeting of the Cambridge Philo- 
sophical Society, in April, 1874. 


In discussions which followed Professor Humphry, after express- 
ing his obligation to Mr Savory for affording the opportunity of 
discussing the subject with him, observed that the suggestions made 
with reference to the function of the ligament by Mr Savory rested 
entirely upon the view that the ligament is tight in the erect posture. 
Professor Humphry was one of those who had challenged this view, 
of the accuracy of which Mr Savory had expressed himself to be 
satisfied. He referred to his work On the Human Skeleton including 
the Joints, in which he had stated as the result of careful observation 
that the ligament is not tense and cannot be rendered tense in the 
erect posture. He had lately reconsidered the question and re-ex- 
amined the specimens, or some of them, upon which his statement 
had been based, as well as other recent specimens made for the 
purpose, and he was convinced that it was correct. In the first 
place, the dimple in the head of the femur for the ligament is more or 
less oblong or pear-shaped, and is directed from above downwards and 
backwards with such obliquity that the ligament can lie in it, as it 
must do when it is in astate of tension, only in the semiflexed position 
of the hip, the thigh being inclined from the vertical to an angle of 
about 45°. This can be seen in the dry bone, and still better in recent 
specimens in which the direction of the insertion of the fibres of the 
ligament are seen to correspond with this view. Secondly, the tre- 
phine hole through the bottom of the acetabulum shews clearly that 
it is at about this angle only, and when the thigh is adducted, that 
the ligament is really tense. In the erect posture, and by the erect 
posture he meant when the thigh descends vertically from the pelvis 
and the capsular ligament, more particularly the anterior part of it, 
is tight, neither adduction, nor rotation, nor any other movement 
will throw it into a state of full tension. If this is so, which the 
several specimens examined by the Professor proved to be the case, 
then it is quite certain that the body cannot hang upon the Ligamen- 
tum Teres when the person is erect, and the inferences based upon such 
a view fall to the ground. 

When resting upon one leg the body is tilted a little over to that 
side so as to throw the line of gravity more directly over that limb, 
the opposite side of the pelvis is slightly raised, the movement being 
equivalent to that of abduction of the limb wpon which the weight is 
borne, and the Ligamentum Teres is not stretched, but is still more 
relaxed than in the erect posture. Even in the position of ‘stand at 
ease,’ when the weight is borne upon one limb and the opposite side 
of the pelvis is lowered, the other limb being placed upon the ground 
slightly flexed, the movement now being equivalent to that of ad- 
duction of the weight-bearing limb, though the Ligamentum Teres is 
less relaxed than in the former position, and is also less relaxed than 
in the erect posture, still it is not tight; and the body is slung, not 


296 USE OF THE LIGAMENTUM TERES OF THE HIP-JOINT. 


upon the Ligamentum Teres, but upon the thick and strongly resisting 
upper portion of the anterior ligament of the hip. The use of the 
ligament the Professor believed to be, as he had stated in his work, to 
assist in bearing weight when the limb is placed upon the ground 
partially flexed and adducted, when the capsule of the hip is compa- 
ratively relaxed, and when, if the body be overweighted, dislocation 
is most likely to oceur. In estimating, however, its value, even in 
this position, it must not be forgotten that several instances have 
occurred, some of which are noted in Meckel’s Archiv, vi. 341, in 
which the ligament was wanting without its being known that any 
inconvenience had resulted from its absence. In dislocation, too, it 
must be severed, and it is highly improbable that it ever unites. It 
has been found indeed ununited. Still the loss of it does not appear 
to be much felt. 

With regard to other mammals the ligament as stated in the paper 
is commonly absent when the lower limbs do not bear much weight, 
and also when they descend vertically from the pelvis. The Pro- 
fessor had, however, pointed out in the Journal of Anatomy, Vol. 11. 
p. 312, that it is present in the Bats. In most mammals in which it 
exists the dimple or furrow or angular depression which it occupies 
in the head of the femur is oblique, as in Man, indicating its tension 
in them, as in him, to occur in the semiflexed position of the joint. 

There were other points to which the Professor took exception, 
but the important one was this of the position of the jot in which 
the tension of the ligament takes place. 

Mr Savory, in reply, remarked that he quite agreed with Pro- 
fessor Humphry that, if he were wrong as to the assumption of the 
tension of the ligament in the erect posture, his view fell to the ground, 
but he could not agree with the Professor as to what really is the 
erect posture. The skeletons In museums are commonly articu- 
lated wrong, and give too much inclination to the pelvis, and he 
thought Professor Humphry was in error on this point, and that if 
the ligament be examined in the strictly erect posture it will be 
found tight, or more nearly so than the Professor admitted. He 
added that by applying his view he had generally been able to judge 
from the direction of the limbs in well-articulated specimens of 
animals whether the ligament had been present during life or not. 
Still there were some exceptions, among the most notable of which 
was the difference between the ostrich and the emeu. In the former 
it is large, whereas in the emeu it is absent. Yet, though he had 
visited the latter animal in the Zoological Gardens, and examined its 
posture and movements with reference to this question, he had been 
unable to make out why it should thus differ from the ostrich. 


FURTHER EXAMPLES OF VARIATIONS IN THE 
ARRANGEMENT OF THE NERVES OF THE 
HUMAN BODY. By Pror. TURNER. 


SINCE my last paper in this Journal on variations in the 
arrangement of the nerves (November, 1871) some additional 
examples have come under my observation, and that of some 
of my pupils. 

Fourth cranial nerve-——In an adult male, Mr W. J. Dodds 
observed in the right orbit a well-marked branch to arise from 
this nerve close to the superior oblique muscle, which branch 
ran forward parallel to that muscle as far as the upper border of 
the orbit, where it branched, the branches entering the orbicu- 
laris palpebrarum. ‘This muscle was then dissected under 
spirit with needles, and the finer subdivisions of the nerve were 
traced into the fasciculi of the muscle, at the inner part of the 
upper eyelid. In the opposite orbit the fourth nerve was 
normal. 

In an adult female subject, Mr H. S. Stone dissected in the 
left orbit a small branch arising from the fourth nerve imme- 
diately after it had passed through the sphenoidal fissure. It 
ran forwards, clos¢ to the inner side of the superior oblique, 
-and about three-fourths of an inch from the upper orbital 
border formed a plexus with the infra-trochlear branch of the 
nasal: from this plexus branches arose, those most in line with 
the branch of the fourth passed to the orbicularis palpebrarum 
external to the trochlea, and immediately beneath the orbital 
arch, those most in line with the infra-trochlear were traced to 
the mucous membrane of the upper eye-lid. The nerve on the 
opposite side was normal. Murray, as quoted by Henle, had 
also seen one case in which a branch of the fourth communi- 
cated with the infra-trochlear. In another adult female, 
Mr Stone traced in the left orbit a branch from the fourth 
nerve, which ran forward parallel to the outer side of the su- 
perior oblique, and near the upper orbital border broke up into 
filaments which entered the periosteum ef the anterior part of 

VOL. VIII. 20 


. 


798): PROFESSOR TURNER. 


the roof of the orbit immediately to the outer side of the 
trochlea. 


Cervical Plecus—In my former paper in this Journal, I 
recorded a case in which the middle of the three supra-clavi- 
cular nerves passed through a hole in the left clavicle in its 
course to the integument covering the pectoralis major. I have 
since then seen two other cases, one on the left, the other on 
the right side, the hole in each case being about the middle 
of the clavicle. ‘This variation is obviously more common than 
is usually supposed. Henle mentions that Bock, Gruber, 
Luschka, Clason and Cruveilhier, have all recorded cases. The 
formation of bone around this nerve as it crosses the clavicle 
is due to the shaft of the clavicle being developed out of 
membrane, and in all probability to the extension of the ossifie 
process into the fibrous tissue, which surrounds this descending 
branch of the cervical plexus. 


Brachial Plerus.—Myr Stone has especially examined, during 
the past winter, the arrangement of the nerve to the subclavius. 
Commonly it gave a branch to the phrenic; most frequently, 
a small branch ran almost transversely to join the phrenic 
before that nerve entered the thorax. In one case, the nerve 
to the subclavius gave origin to a long branch which entered 
the cavity of the thorax a little in front of the phrenic and 
nearer the mesial plane ; it descended in front of the arch of the | 
aorta and root of the left lung, along the side of the pericardium, 
and joined the phrenic immediately above the diaphragm. In 
another case, two branches arose from the nerve to the subclavius, 
bath ef which entered the thorax, and joined the phrenic before 
it crossed the arch of the aorta. These cases examined by 
Mr Stone, conjoined with those previously described by my- 
self and by Mr Cunningham’, sufficiently establish that ac- 
cessory roots to the phrenic nerve are by no means uncommon. 
In another case the nerve to the subclavius gave off a branch 
which joined the external anterior thoracic, and a second branch 
which proceeded to the clavicular part of the sterno-mastoid 
muscle. 


1 This Journal, November 1871 and Noyember 1872. 


ARRANGEMENT OF THE NERVES OF THE HUMAN BODY. 299 


In the left upper arm of a subject, used in illustration of 
my lectures on the nervous system, I saw the ulnar nerve give 
origin to a slender branch about one inch below the tendon of 
the latissimus dorsi, which after a course downwards of about 
two inches joined a branch of the internal cutaneous nerve, and 
with it was distributed to the skin of the inner side of the 
upper arm, immediately above the elbow. In another subject, 
the internal cutaneous nerve for the back of the left fore-arm 
arose from the ulnar in the lower part of the axilla: about 
one inch above the elbow it received a very slender branch of 
communication from the internal cutaneous nerve. In the 
right arm of another subject, the digital nerve for the ulnar 
side of the ring-finger arose about the middle of the fore-arm 
from the ulnar nerve and passed as a long slender branch in 
front of the annular ligament to its distribution. 


Sacral Plexus. In the left leg of a male subject the mus- 
culo-cutaneous nerve gave off in the substance of the peroneus 
longus a long slender branch which descended in the substance 
of that muscle to about the lower third of the leg, then pierced 
the muscle, but continued under the fascia as far as the external 


malleolus, where it became superficial, and joined the external 
saphenous nerve. 


20— 


bo 


THE SYNTHESIS OF MOTION, VITAL AND PHY- 
SICAL. By C. B. Rapcuirre, M.D. 


INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 


More than five and twenty years ago my faith in all that 
I had been taught to believe about vital motion received a 
rude shock in this way. I had been watching the phenomena 
of fatal tetanus in a rabbit poisoned by strychnia: I saw the 
animal die: I expected to see its muscles relax at this time: 
I was unable to find the slightest evidence of such relaxation 
until the end of the fourth day after death, when putrefaction 
had evidently set in. Over and over again, by feeling them 
with my fingers, did I satisfy myself that the muscles remained 
rigid all this while; and I had also additional evidence to the 
same effect, in the fact that in dying the animal did not fall 
down from a position in which it had been held up by the 
spasms during life, and from which it must have fallen, as it 
fell finally when the muscles were unstrung by putrefaction, if 
death had been attended by muscular relaxation. Indeed, it 
was this latter fact which arrested my attention in the first 
instance, and made me use my fingers as I have said. For 
until the muscular texture gave way in actual decomposition, it 
so happened that the animal remained in the position in which 
it had been kept by the spasm during life, that is, half-standing 
on its hind legs, and half-leaning against the side of a box, 
with its forepaws pointing directly upwards, and with its neck 
and body bent backwards until the head almost rested upon 
the scut—a position which could not have been preserved for a 
single moment if the body had not been propped up by the 
box as well as rigid. And how was this? Could it be that 
the spasmodic rigidity which existed before death had passed 
without any interval of relaxation into the cadaveric ngidity 
which always comes on, sooner or later, after death, and which 
is only relaxed by the actual decomposition of the muscular 
tissue? Could it be that spasm had passed directly into rigor 
mortis? All my prejudices were against such a notion, and 


THE SYNTHESIS OF MOTION, VITAL AND PHYSICAL, 301 


yet I could not bring my mind to think otherwise. Indeed, the 
more I tried to do so, the more I felt constrained to assent: 
and, in short, almost before I knew what I was about, I 
came to believe that a radical change was necessary in the 
doctrine of vital motion—that the interpretation of spasm was 
to be sought, not on the side of life, but on that of death, even 
in rigor mortis—that spasm and rigor mortis were to be 
regarded, not as signs of vital action in certain vital proper- 
ties of contractility, but as physical phenomena akin to, if not 
identical with, the return of an elastic body from a previous 
state of extension—that muscular contraction in all its forms 
might be the simple consequence of the operation of the natural 
attractive force or forces inherent in the physical constitution of 
the muscular molecules—that life is concerned in antagonizing 
contraction rather than in causing it—that this antagonizing 
influence itself might have a physical basis—that, in short, a 
true doctrine of vital motion involved an actual synthesis of 
vital and physical motion. 

And yet more did this conviction grow in strength on the 
food supplied by two other facts to which my attention was 
called not long afterwards. 

Of these two facts the first was brought to light in an 
epileptic patient in whom it had been thought expedient to 
try and cut short a succession of most violent convulsions by 
taking blood from the temporal artery. The artery was divided 
when the fit was at its height, and the blood escaped by jets in 
the usual way, but not of the usual colour. Instead of being 
red, the blood was black: that is to say, instead of being 
arterial, it was venous. The state during the convulsion was 
evidently that of suffocation: and on this account, black, unaé- 
rated blood had found its way into the arteries, and was 
being driven through them at the time. The case was intelligible 
enough as regards the suffocation, for in this state the simple 
fact is, that black blood does for a time penetrate into and pass 
along the arteries; but it was not intelligible as regards 
convulsion, if convulsion was, as it is assumed to be, a sign of 
exalted vital action. I could connect such exaltation with 
increased supply of red blood to certain nerve-centres, but not 
with the utterly contrary state of things involved in the actual 


302 DR RADCLIFFE. 


circulation of black blood; and, do what I would, I could see no 
other conclusion open to me than that which had been already 
forced upon me by the history of the poisoned rabbit, namely 
this, that the convulsion pointed to a state of things which was 
the very reverse of vital stimulation, even devitalization—that, 
in short, the state of muscular contraction was due, not to the 
black blood having acted as a stimulus, but to the simple with- 
drawal of an inhibitory action which had served to keep up the 
state of muscular relaxation so long as the system was duly 
supplied with red blood. 

And so likewise with the second of the two facts to which I 
have alluded. I had the good fortune to be present on one 
occasion when Matteucci was experimenting with strychnia 
upon the electric ray of the Mediterranean, and to hear some of 
the reasons advanced by this excellent physiologist for suppos- 
ing that there was an intimate connection between the action of 
the electric organ and muscular action: and, being very much 
struck with the fact, that the discharge of the electric organ 
caused by the poison was always accompanied by spasm, I 
could not help but wonder whether muscular contraction might 
not agree with the action of the electric organ m being accom- 
panied by discharge—whether muscular relaxation was not 
accompanied and produced by charge—whether muscular con- 
traction did not hold the same relation to discharge, the dis- 
charge acting, not as a stimulus to a vital property of irrita- 
bility in nerve or muscle, but simply by allowing the play of 
the attractive force inherent in the physical constitution of the 
muscular molecules—a play which had been previously coun- 
teracted by the presence of the charge. I could, mdeed, bring 
myself to adopt no other conclusion than this: and thus it 
was that this experiment upon the Torpedo proved to be the 
means of adding not a little strength and definitiveness to the 
conviction at which I had already arrived respecting vital 
motion. 

The question at issue, however, was not to be disposed of so 
summarily; and, as I can now see plainly enough, I had long 
to wait before I had evidence upon which my own reason or 
that of any other person was entitled to rest with any feeling 
of real satisfaction. Indeed, it is only of late that I have had 


THE SYNTHESIS OF MOTION, VITAL AND PHYSICAL. 303 


such evidence in my possession, and that I could safely venture 
to challenge attention to it—that I could do what I propose to 
do so soon as I have prepared the way a little by glancing at 
certain historical points, which, as it seems to me, will make it 
somewhat more easy to abandon the view of vital motion which 
is at present in favour, and to adopt that which I would ven- 
ture to substitute for it. 

Very misty notions about vital motion prevailed in olden 
times, and if the subject be looked into historically it will be 
seen that much of this mistiness still clings about the notion at 
present in favour. 

In the beginning, as it would seem, all motion was looked 
upon as essentially vital. 

Thales talked about the world as being animated by a soul 
and actuated by demons, and looked upon motion as being 
brought about in one or other of these ways. 

Hippocrates believed in the universal presence of a living, 
intelligent, active principle, to which he gave the name of 
nature (pvows), and to him, as to many in the present day, it 
was enough to refer motion to nature—to regard it as natural. 
The power of motion, indeed, was one of the faculties (Suvapecs) 
with which the principle of nature was endowed. 

Plato says little to the point. With him all philosophy 
merged in theology: to him vital motion, and motion generally, 
resolved itself into a display of divine power. 

Aristotle, the great contemporary of Plato, recognized, not 
a Divine Being as Plato did, but a First Moving Cause, a 
primum mobile, one in essence, eternal, immaterial, immove- 
able, and yet the spring of all motion. According to him, this 
First Moving Cause worked in the living body (féov) through 
the instrumentality of a principle which was distinctive of this 
body, and to which he gave the name of soul (Wuyn)—a prin- 
ciple possessing various energies or faculties of its own, distinct 
from the organs in which it was manifested, and yet requiring 
these organs for its manifestations. To this soul, when most 
developed, belonged several faculties (Suvayers)—the faculty of 
receiving nourishment (dUvaputs Opertixy), the faculty of sensa- 
tion (6. aicOmrixn), the faculty of motion in place (8. kwyri«y), 
the faculty of impulse or desire (6. épeti«n), the faculty of intel- 


304 DR RADCLIFFE. 


ligence (8. Ssavoutixn). Vegetables even, by having the lowest 
of these faculties, the threptic, were supposed to have souls. 
And—chiefly by chancing to witness the action of the intercostal 
muscles under the transparent pleura in a living chameleon, 
which he had cut open—Aristotle was also able to connect the 
movement of animal bodies with the action of the muscles, and 
to indicate, not only the difference in function between the 
muscles and the nerves, but to define more clearly—a discovery 
hinted at by Praxagoras two hundred years before his time— 
the distinction between nerves of motion and nerves of sensation, 

After this time, for a thousand years and more, when any- 
thing was done in this direction it was little beyond a servile 
copying of what had been seen said by Hippocrates and Aris- 
totle. Even Galen made little progress in the matter of 
originality ; nor yet the schoolmen of the middle ages, with 
whom for the most part the notions chiefly in the ascendant 
were those of alchemy and magic and astrology. At the revival 
of letters, indeed, the only light of importance was that derived 
from the old Greek fathers in science; and at the end of this 
epoch no new light had arisen to dissipate the darkness. No 
new light, for instance, was shed by the doctrine of occult 
causes which found most favour in these times, for this doctrine 
was no more than a copy of the doctrines of Hippocrates or 
Aristotle, that various bodies had various powers (duvapess) by 
which they were able to act in the various ways natural to 
them. And still less did new light proceed from the notion of 
Paracelsus and his followers, which in too many instances was 
associated more or less closely with that of occult causes—the 
notion, that is to say, that there were elementary spirits, inter- 
mediate between material and immaterial beings, with special 
names, in the four elements of air, water, fire, and earth—syl- 
vans or fairies in the air; nymphs and undines in the water; sala- 
manders in the fire; gnomes, trolls, pigmies, spirits of the mine, 
little folks, little people, cobolds in the earth ;—that the human 
body had its double or demon, called Arehzeus, whose primary 
function was to superintend the work of the stomach, and who 
managed the various functions of the body, that of motion 
included, through the instrumentality of a legion of underling 
deputies undignified by any distinctive names, 


THE SYNTHESIS OF MOTION, VITAL AND PHYSICAL. 305 


Indeed it was not until Von Helmont, Stahl and Hoffmann 
appeared on the scene that the notions handed down from the 
ancients began to be materially modified, and to take the 
shapes belonging to modern times. 

With Paracelsus, Von Helmont held that the Archzeus and 
its underlings were the agents in all vital manifestations, and 
he also thought for himself a little, for to him belongs the 
credit, if credit it be, of being the first to maintain that the 
living body had powers of a specific character altogether different 
from those belonging to inanimate nature. 

Accepting the doctrine that there was one law for animate 
and another for inanimate nature, Stahl went further, and 
maintained that matter is essentially and necessarily passive 
and inert, and that all its active properties or powers are 
derived from a specific and immaterial animating principle 
imparted to it—a principle to which he gave the name of 
anima. ‘The body, he held, as body, has no power to move 
itself. All vital motion is a spiritual act. The physical powers 
of matter, which have only free play after death, are in every 
way opposed to, and counteracted by, the anima, of which he 
further says, as the followers of Hippocrates said of nature, 
that “it does without teaching what it ought to do,” and does 
it “without consideration ;’ a remark which makes it evident 
that the anima of Stahl is not to be confounded with the con- 
scious personal Archeus of Paracelsus and Von Helmont. 

What Stahl explained in this way, Hoffmann, who took 
the next noticeable step in advance, explained on the hypo- 
thesis of nervous influence or nerve-fluid, whatever that may 
mean. By this influence or fluid, according to him, the moving 
fibres have a certain power of action, or tone, which may be in- 
creased or diminished. If increased unduly, spasm is the result: 
if unduly decreased, atony. 

Next in order have to be named Glisson, Haller, and the 
Brown, known as the author of the Brunonian system of medi- 
cine, men whose speculations form the basis of the doctrine of 
vital movement now in favour. 

Glisson, an eminent professor at Cambridge in his day, was 
the first to advance the present doctrine of muscular irritability. 
He asserted that there was in muscle a specific vital property, 


306 DR RADCLIFFE. 


to which he gave this name, and that contraction was the act of 
this property. 

Haller expanded this idea, and drew for the first time a line 
of distinction between the special vital property of muscle and 
the special vital property of nerve. He retained the name of 
irritability for this property in muscle: he gave the name of 
sensibility to this property in nerve. Each property was essen- 
tially vital, something departing at death, and therefore in no 
wise akin to any power in inanimate nature. The property was 
a life of which muscular contraction or nervation were acts. 

Brown, starting from this point, added another idea—that 
of stimulation. Everything acting upon the vital property of 
irritability or sensibility (to which he gave the common name of 
excitability), according to him, acted as an excitant or stimulus. 
Action is caused by a process of stirring-up, as it were, the ca- 
pacity for action being asleep or at rest until it is so stirred-up. 
The idea would seem to be none other than that all vital move- 
ment in its nature is identical with that which is produced by 
teasing a sleeping man until’he wakes up and strikes about 
him in anger. 

And this doctrine of vital motion, which thus took form in 
the speculations of Glisson, Haller, and Brown, is, with little 
change, the doctrine at present in favour. | 

In point of fact, the position taken at present has but little 
shifted since the days of the schoolmen, when occult qualities of 
one kind or another were thought to be a sufficient explana- 
tion for everything—when, for example, terreity, aqueity, and 
sulphureity, the occult qualities of the three elements, earth, 
water, and sulphur, of which, in varying proportions, according 
to Paracelsus, all bodies were composed, were supposed to ac- 
count for all that was general in these bodies,—when Petreity 
was thought to bea sufficient explanation of the peculiarities 
distinguishing Peter from men with other names,—when the 
answer of Argan’ to the question, “quare op'um facit dormire,” 
in the mock examination for the diploma of physician, would 
have been listened to without a smile if it had been given in 
sober earnest before the examiners of a real faculty of medi- 
cine :— 


1 Molitre, La Malade Imaginaire: 3itme interméde. 


THE SYNTHESIS OF MOTION, VITAL AND PHYSICAL. 307 


Mihi a docto doctore 
Demandatur causam et rationem quare 

Opium facit dormire. 

Et ego respondeo 

Quia est in eo 

Virtus dormitiva 

Cujus est natura 

Sensus assoupire. 


For in referring vital motion to a property of irritability, what 
more is done than to say, that the moving body moves because 
it is actuated by an occult quality which is suspiciously akin 
to terreity, aqueity, or sulphureity, or to Petreity, or to the 
“virtus dormitiva” of opium in the comedy? ‘To tell us,” 
as Newton said, “that every species of thing is endowed with 
an occult specific quality, is to tell us nothing.” Even to say 
that the phenomenon is vwital, is, as Whewell remarks, “very 
prejudicial to the progress of knowledge by stopping enquiry 
by a mere word.’ Moreover, the very assumption upon which 
the doctrine in question is based—that vital motion is altogether 
distinct from physical motion—is itself not altogether satis- 
factory, “At the best,” as Coleridge says’, “it can only be 
regarded as a hasty deduction from the first superficial notions 
of the objects that surround us, sufficient, perhaps, for the 
purpose of ordinary discrimination, but far too indeterminate 
and diffluent to be taken unexamined by the philosophic 
enquirer. * * * * By a comprisal of the petitio principiw 
with the argumentum in circulo—in plain English, by an 
easy logic which begins by begging the question, and then, 
moving in a circle, comes round to the point where it begins— 
each of the two divisions has been made to define the other by 
a mere re-assertion of their assumed contrariety. The Physio- 
-logist has luminously explained y+x by informing us that it 
was a somewhat that is the antithesis of y—x, and if we ask 
what then is y—x, the answer is, the antithesis of y+x;—a 
reciprocation that may remind us of the twin sisters in the fable 
of the Lamiz, with one eye between them both, which each 


1 Tints towards the Formation of a more Comprehensive Theory of Life.. By 
8. T. Coleridge. Ed. by Dr Seth B. Watson. Churchill, 1848. 


308 DR RADCLIFFE. 


borrowed from the other as either happened to want it, but 
with this additional disadvantage, that in the present case-it is, 
after all, but an eye of glass.” 

But this glance at the history of vital motion is not yet 
ended. Up to the time of Von Helmont the idea of a well- 
defined gulph between animate and inanimate nature was not 
clearly defined: nor yet after this time did this idea gain uni- 
versal acceptance. 

At the time of Paracelsus the facts of chemistry began to 
occupy a large share of the attention of philosophers, and soon 
afterwards a school, called the Iatro-chemical school, propounded 
various physiological doctrines founded upon chemistry. The 
opposition of acid and alkali, and the workings of ferments of 
one kind or another, were supposed to supply the solution of 
many problems in vitality. Then came the hope, kindled na- 
turally by the splendid discoveries of Galileo and Newton in 
physical science, that the mechanical principles of the macro- 
cosm would supply the key to all requirimg interpretation m 
the microcosm—a hope which called into existence the so-called 
Jatro-mathematical or mechanical Physiologists. The question 
was of the cohesion, the attraction, the resistance, the gra- 
vity, which operate in inert matter, and of mechanical impulse 
and elasticity, not of powers of a higher order: it was believed 
that all the various bodily functions were problems to be solved, 
as so many hydraulic or hydrostatic problems chiefly, partly by 
gravitation and the laws of motion, and parily by chemistry, 
which itself, as far as its theory was concerned, was but a 
branch of mechanics, working exclusively by imaginary wedges, 
angles and spheres. The restoration of ancient geometry, aided 
by the modern invention of algebra, had placed the science of 
mechanism on the philosophical throne. It was thus, for ex- 
ample, that Borelli dealt with the problem of muscular motion, 
and after him Bellini. 

As far back also as the time of the great Bacon, Gilbert had 
struck out a new path in the same direction, the following out 
of which has led to more satisfactory results than any of those 
arrived at by the Iatro-mathematical School in their own par- 
ticular lines of enquiry. He had investigated the phenomena 
of magnetism with great success, and by continual poring 


THE SYNTHESIS OF MOTION, VITAL AND PHYSICAL. 309 


over this subject had come to believe that magnetism supplied 
the key to vital movement, and to vital and physical problems 
in general; but his speculations bore little or no fruit, and are 
chiefly of interest as being the first step in an enquiry which 
did not begin until two hundred years later, when an event 
occurred in a house in Bologna which marks the birth of a new 
epoch in the philosophy of vital motion, and on which it may 
be well to say a word or two. The house is in the Via Ugo 
Bassi, gia Strada Felice. The event is commemorated on a 
marble slab let into the front in these words:— 


LuIGI GALVANI 
in questa casa 
di sua temporaria dimora 
al primi di settembre 
dell’ anno MDCCLXXXVI 
scoperse dalla morte rane 
LA ELeTTRicITA ANIMALE 
Fonte di maravighe 
a tutti secolt. 


The actual event was this. Experimenting with an ordinary 
electrical machine at a short distance from a dish on which 
lay a number of frogs’ legs prepared for cooking, and noticing 
that these legs jumped whenever he drew a spark from 
the prime conductor of the machine, it occurred to Galvani 
that they might serve as very delicate electroscopes in some 
experiments on atmospheric electricity in which he was then 
engaged. Thereupon, he and his nephew Camillo Galvani, who 
was with him at the time, each of them taking with him a 
handful of the contents of the dish, mounted to a belvedere on 
the top of the house which served the purpose of an electrical 
observatory, and at once proceeded to put the idea in practice. 
It was expected that these limbs might jump in obedience to 
discharges of atmospheric electricity as they had been seen to 
jump in obedience to discharges of Franklinic electricity ; and 
in order to see whether they would do so or not, they were 
suspended, by means of small hooks of iron wire bent suitably 
upon certain iron bars or stays which stretched across the upper 
part of the arched openings with which three sides of the belve- 


310 DR RADCLIFFE. 


dere were pierced. The time was a clear and calm evening, 
without a gleam of either lightning or aurora; and yet the 
limbs were found to jump whenever the iron hooks by which 
they were suspended were pressed upon by the finger, and 
not unfrequently when they were left untoucied. Describing 
what happened, Galvani says, “Ranas itaque consueto more 
paratas uncino ferreo earum spinali medulla perforata atque 
appensa, septembris initio (1786) die vesperascente supra 
parapetto horizontaliter collocavimus. Uncinus ferream laminam 
tangebat: en motus in rana spontanei, varii, haud infrequentes. 
Si digito uncinulum adversus ferream superficiem premeretur, 
quiescentes excitabantur, et toties ferme quoties hujusmodi pres- 
sio adhiberetur’.” The house, the ricketty wooden flight of steps 
leading from the principal staircase to the belvedere, unmended, 
unpainted, almost unswept, the belvedere itself, the iron bars 
upon which the limbs were suspended, are still there, or were 
there the other day when I made a pilgrimage to the spot; 
and even the presence of Galvani himself may be recalled by 
the help of a portrait which hangs or hung in the open landing 
facing the locked door at the foot of the stairs leading to the 
belvedere. In this place, and in this way, was the discovery 
made which is commemorated on the slab on the front of the 
house as the well-spring of wonders for all ages “fonte di 
maraviglie a tutti secoli,” and of which a short time before 
the close of the last century the illustrious author of Cosmos 
wrote “le nom de Galvani ne perira point; les siécles futurs 
profiteront de sa découverte, et, comme le dit Brandes, ils 
reconnaitront que la physiologie doit & Galvani et & Harvey 
ses deux bases principales*.” At this time, then, and in this 
place, Galvani saw the contractions he describes, and dis- 
covered, or rather divined, in them the existence of animal 
electricity. How, he asked himself, were these contractions 
to be accounted for? They could not be due to discharges 
of atmospheric electricity, for the sky at the time presented 
no indications of electric disturbance: they could not be due 
to the discharges which gave rise to them within the house, 


1 De Viribus Electricitatis in motu musculari Commentarius, 1791. 

2 Expériences sur le galvanisme, et en général sur Virritation des fibres muscu- 
laires et nerveuses. F, A. Humboldt. Traduit par J. F. N. Jadelot. 8vo. Paris, 
1799, p. 361. 


THE SYNTHESIS OF MOTION, VITAL AND PHYSICAL. 311 


for the electric machine, which was also left behind, was not in 
action: they could not be due, that is to say, to discharges of 
either of the two kinds of electricity then known; and having 
arrived at this point, he jumped from it to the conclusion, that 
the limbs themselves must have an electricity of their own, and 
that the contractions were brought about by discharges of this 
electricity. It never occurred to him to doubt that electricity 
was the agent at work in causing those contractions: and, in 
short, he did not hesitate to conclude, not only that the contrac- 
tions were in themselves abundant proof of the existence of 
animal electricity, but also that the muscular fibres are charged 
during rest as Leyden jars are charged, that muscular contrac- 
tion is the sign and effect of the discharge of this charge, the 
discharge, in one way or another, being brought about by an 
electrical action of the nerves upon the muscles. 

From this time until the day of his death, Galvani went on 
performing experiment after experiment, sacrificing hecatombs 
of fregs, and never wavering in his belief in the existence of 
animal electricity, or in the conclusion he had come to respect- 
ing the action of this electricity in vital motion: but during 
his lifetime he was destined to be foiled in his hopes to bring 
others to the same mind with himself, and that too by a weapon 
which lay hid in one of his own experiments. The experiment 
in question was one in which a galvanoscopic frog was thrown 
into a state of momentary contraction by placing a conducting 
are, of which one half was silver and the other half copper, 
between the lumbar nerves and the crural muscles’. Galvani, 
as was his wont, explained these contractions by supposing that 
the conducting are had served to discharge animal electricity, 
and that the contractions were the result of the discharge. 
Volta, on the other hand, was of opinion that the electricity 
producing these contractions originated in certain reactions 
between the silver and copper portions of the conducting arc; 
and he was not shaken in this view by what he did afterwards, 
for, wishing to confirm it, he began a series of investigations 
which ended in the discovery of the voltaic pile and battery— 


1 The galvanoscopic frog was prepared from the hinder half of the animal, by 
stripping off the skin, and cutting away all the parts between the thighs and the 
fragment of the spine, except the principal nerves, 


312 DR RADCLIFFE. 


a discovery which filled all minds with wonder, and for a long 
time afterwards diverted attention altogether from the con- 
sideration of the claims of animal electricity. In the mean- 
time, however, while Volta was demonstrating the existence of 
that electricity which originates in the reaction of heteroge- 
neous bodies, and which is now known as voltaic electricity, 
Galvani continued his search after animal electricity, and made 
many important discoveries as he went along. He discovered, 
among other things, that a galvanoscopic frog would contract 
without the help of a conducting are composed of heterogeneous 
metals. He discovered not only that these contractions would 
happen when this arc was composed of a single metal, but also 
that an arc composed of muscle or nerve would answer the 
same purpose as the metallic are. He also discovered that the 
limb of a galvanoscopic frog, of which the nerve had been 
divided high up in the loins, would contract at the moment 
when the end of the nerve below the line of division was 
brought down and made to touch a part of the trunk of the 
same nerve. At last, indeed, he hit upon an experiment in 
which he seemed to have to do with an electricity other than 
that arising frem the reaction of heterogeneous bodies—an 
electricity which must belong to the animal tissues themselves. 
He did much, but he did not do enough to win the battle in 
which he was engaged, for Volta still kept his position, denying 
the existence of animal electricity, and maintaining that the 
electricity which produced the contractions in the galvanoscopic 
frogs was always due to electricity arising in the reaction of 
heterogeneous bodies of one kind or other—silver and copper, 
metal and organic tissue, muscle and nerve, nerve in one state 
with nerve in another, as the case might be’. 

In 1799, Humboldt took up the question at issue between 
Galvani and Volta, and published a work’ in which he shews 
by many new and curious experiments that there was error on 
both sides—that Volta was wrong in ignoring altogether the 
influence of animal electricity in Galvani’s experiments, and 
that Galvani was not less wrong in recognising nothing but 
this influence. He, himself, as is proved in the extract already 
given, was a firm believer in animal electricity; but he failed to 


1 Ann, de Chim., T. xxut. p. 276 and 301. aTOp err 


THE SYNTHESIS OF MOTION, VITAL AND PHYSICAL. 313 


supply reasons for this belief which can be regarded as thoroughly 
satisfactory at the present day. Still, he did something in this 
direction by making out—first, that the agent assumed to exist, 
and to be animal electricity, has this in common with elec- 
tricity, that its action is permitted by conductors and prevented 
by nonconductors; and, secondly, that it is not to be con- 
founded with voltaic electricity, because the action, which is 
permitted by conductors, is possible across a gap in the circuit 
which would allow the passage of frictional electricity, but 
which would altogether prevent that of voltaic electricity— 
that is to say, allow electricity of high tension to pass, but not 
electricity of low tension. What Humbolt did, in fact, was to 
increase the probabilities of the existence of animal electricity 
not a little, and at the same time to make it appear that this 
electricity would prove to be of higher tension than voltaic 
electricity under ordinary circumstances. 

In 1803, Aldini, Galvani’s nephew’, published an account of 
certain experiments which furnish further evidence in favour of 
the existence of animal electricity, by shewing that living 
animal tissues are capable of giving rise to attractions and 
repulsions which seem to be no other than electrical attractions 
and repulsions. “TI held,” he says, “the muscles of a prepared 
frog in one of my hands, moistened with salt and water, and 
brought a finger of the other hand, well moistened in the same 
way, near to the crural nerves. When the frog possessed a 
great deal of vitality, the crural nerves gradually approached 
my hand, and strong contractions took place at the moment of 
contact.” And again :—“ Being desirous to render this pheno- 
menon more evident, I formed the are by applying one of my 
hands to the spinal marrow of a warm-blooded animal, while 
I held the frog in such a manner that its crural nerves were 
brought very near to the abdominal muscle. By this arrange- 
ment the attraction of the nerves of the frog became very 
evident.” 

About this time, however, the discovery of the voltaic 
battery had given the victory to the opinions of Volta—a vic- 

1 “ Account of the late Improvements in Galvanism, with a series ‘of curious 
and interesting experiments performed before the Commissioners of the French 


National Institute, and repeated in the Anatomical Theatres of London, &c.”’ 
4to. London, 1803. 


VOL. VIII. Dil 


314 DR RADCLIFFE. 


tory so complete that nothing more was heard about animal 
electricity for the next thirty years. 

In 1827, Nobili* brought back the subject of animal elec- 
tricity to the thoughts of physiologists by discovering an 
electric current in the frog. He made this discovery by means 
of the very sensitive galvanometer which he himself had 
invented a short time previously—an instrument which, as 
perfected by M. Du Bois-Reymond and others, by Sir Wilham 
Thomson more especially, ought to be as prominent an object 
as the microscope in the laboratory of every physiologist. Im- 
mersing each end of the coil of the instrument in a vessel con- 
taining either simple water or brine, and completing the circuit 
between the two vessels with a galvanoscopic frog—the fragment 
of the spine being immersed in one vessel, and the paws in the 
other—he found that there was a current in the frog from the 
feet upwards, which current would cause a considerable perma- 
nent deflection of the needle—to 30° or more if brine were 
used, to 10°, or thereabouts, if water were substituted for brine. 
Nobili supposed that this current was peculiar to the frog, and 
in this he erred; but he did, nevertheless, a great thing, for, by 
this experiment, he furnished, perhaps, the first unequivocal 
proof of the real existence of animal electricity. 

Twelve or thirteen years later, Matteucci published an 
essay” which, as M. De la Rive says’, “ restored to animal elec- 
tricity the place which it ought to occupy in electrical and 
physiological phenomena.” This essay, moreover, had a great 
indirect influence upon the fortunes of animal electricity, for 
M. Du Bois-Reymond, as he himself tells us, was led to under- 
take the investigations which have made his name famous in 
this department of physiology by the inspiration arising from 
its perusal. : 

The joint labours of MM. Matteucci and Du Bois-Reymond 
have left no room for entertaining any doubt as to the reality 
of animal electricity. This will appear sufficiently in the 
sequel, when many of the experiments which furnish the 
demonstration will have to be referred to particularly. In the 


' Bibl. Univ., 1828, T. xxxvit., p. 10. 

2 Traité des Phénoménes Electro-physielogiques des Animaux. Paris. 1844. 

3 4 Treatise on Electricity, in theory and practice. Translated by C. V. 
Walker. 8yo. Longman. 1853-1858. 


THE SYNTHESIS OF MOTION, VITAL AND PHYSICAL. 315 


meantime, it may be said that Matteucci has demonstrated in 
the most unequivocal manner that animal electricity is capable 
of decomposing iodide of potassium, and of giving “signes de 
tension avec un condensateur délicat’,’ as well as of producing 
movement in the needle of the galvanometer; and not only so, 
but also—a fact, the discovery of which will always give Mat- 
teucci a place m the very foremost rank of physiological dis- 
coverers—that muscular contraction is accompanied by an 
electrical discharge analogous to that of the Torpedo. And as 
for M. Du Bois-Reymond? it may be said that he has demon- 
strated most conclusively that there are electrical currents in 
nerve—in brain, spinal cord, and other great nerve-centres, in 
sensory, motor, and mixed nerves, in the minutest fragment as 
well as in masses of considerable size,—that the electrical current 
of muscle, which had been already discovered by Matteucci, may 
be traced from the entire muscle to the single primitive fasci- 
eulus,—that Nobili’s “ frog-current,” instead of being peculiar 
to the frog, is nothing more than the outflowing of the currents 
from the muscles and nerves,—that the law of the current of 
the muscle im the frog is the same as that of the current of 
muscle in man, rabbits, guinea-pigs and mice, in pigeons and 
sparrows, in tortoises, lizards, adders, glow-worms, toads, tad- 
poles, and salamanders, in tench, in freshwater crabs, in earth- 
worms—in creatures belonging to every department of the 
animal kingdom,—that the law of the current in muscle agrees 
in every particular with the law of the current in nerve, and 
also with that of the feeble currents which are met with in 
tendon and other living tissues,—and that there are sundry 
changes in the current of muscle and nerve under certain 
circumstances, as during muscular contraction, during nervous 
action, under the influence of continuous and interrupted gal- 
vanic currents, and so on, which changes, as I shall hope to 
shew in the sequel, are of fundamental importance in clearing 
up much that would otherwise be impenetrable darkness in the 
physiology of muscular action and sensation. 

Before the discovery of the galvanometer the attention of 
those who cared to meddle in these matters was directed 


1 Cours @Electro-Physiologie. Paris. 1858. 
2 Untersuchungen iiber thierische Electricitiét. Berlin. 1849, 1853. 


21—2 


316 DR RADCLIFFE. 


exclusively to the static phenomena of animal electricity. Then 
the only definite electrical ideas were, charge on the one hand, 
and discharge on the other. After the discovery of the galvano- 
meter, the original point of view was abandoned altogether, or 
almost so, and the attention diverted from the static to the 
current phenomena of electricity. And herein, as I believe, 
was an unmixed misfortune. As I take it, indeed, it is neces- 
sary to go back to the standpoint occupied by Galvani and 
Humboldt, and to work with the electrometer rather than with 
the galvanometer ; and this conviction has now so much gained 
upon me, that I am disposed to regard the New Quadrant 
Electrometer of Sir Wiliam Thomson—the instrument which 
for the first time makes it possible to arrive at an accurate 
knowledge of the statical aspects of animal electricity—as an 
instrument which is, to say the least, quite as indispensable as 
the galvanometer itself to those who would do the work in 
question. Already, indeed, as it will appear in due time, this 
instrument has supplied proof of the existence of a definite 
charge of electricity in nerve and muscle during rest, and of the 
discharge of this charge when this state of rest is changed for 
that of action, as well as of other facts without which, as I 
believe, it would be impossible to gain any real insight into the 
mystery of vital motion. 

And thus, by the fact of the existence of animal lacie 
being now established beyond question, the way is more pre- 
pared than it was in the days of Galvani for the adoption of 
any view of vital motion in which animal electricity has to 
serve as the basis. 

At the commencement of these introductory remarks I have 
told how I came to doubt the truth of the view of vital motion 
at present in favour, and to adopt in its stead a view which is 
substantially that of Galvani. I did not then know that Galvani 
had anticipated me; neither did I know that others were in the 
same predicament, about whose labours it still remains for me 
to say a few words. 

The name to be mentioned first in order here is that of Dr 
West, of Alford, in Lincolnshire. As early as 1832’, in some 


1 “On the Influence of the Nerves over Muscular Contractility,” London 
Medical and eeeroeat Journal, edited by Michael Ryan, M.D. Vol. 1. 1832. 


THE SYNTHESIS OF MOTION, VITAL AND PHYSICAL. 317 


remarks upon the influence of the nerves upon muscular con- 
tractility, this writer maintains, “that the nervous influence 
which is present in relaxed muscular fibre is the only influence 
which the nerves of volition possess over that tissue; that its 
office there is to restrain or control the tendency to contract 
which is inherent in the muscle; and that contraction can only 
take place when by an act of the will this influence is sus- 
pended, the muscle being then left to act according to its own 
innate properties ;” . . . and again, “that nervous influence is 
imparted to muscular fibre for the purpose of restraining its 
‘contraction, and that the action of the will, and of all other 
disposers to contraction, is simply to withdraw for a while this 
influence, so as to allow this peculiar property of muscular fibre 
to shew itself.’ The co-existence of spasmodic action with 
nervous debility, the efficacy of stimulants as antispasmodics, 
and the postponement of rigor mortis until all traces of nervous 
action have disappeared, are the principal facts which are 
adduced in support of the probability of this theory. 

Very shortly after the publication of these remarks, a similar 
idea appears to have been hinted at by Sir Charles Bell in a 
lecture at the Royal College of Surgeons in London, for, after 
premising that the question could never be settled, the lecturer 
said, “that relaration might be the act, and not contraction, 
and that physiologists, in studying the subject, had too much 
neglected the consideration of the mode by which relaxation is 
effected.” This remark is preserved by Dr West in the essay 
to which reference has just been made. 

Six years later, in a chapter of his classical work on eom- 
parative anatomy’, Professor Dugés, of Montpellier, argues with 
much clearness that all organic tissues are the seat of two oppo- 
site movements—expansion and contraction, and that contrac- 
tion, which is in no sense peculiar to muscle, is nothing more 
than the cessation of expansion ”—“ la contraction musculaire ne 
consiste que dans l’annihilation de l'expansion.” The muscle is 
supposed to contract in virtue of its elasticity, just as a piece of 
caoutchoue might contract when set free from a previous state 
of extension; and an analogy is hinted at between the expanded 


1 Traité de Physiologie comparée de V Homme et des Animauz. 8yo. Mont- 
pellier and Paris. 1838. 


318 DR RADCLIFFE. 


state of the muscle and the fluid state of the fibrine of the blood, 
and between rigor mortis and the coagulated state of this 
fibrine. Analogous in its effects to electricity, the vital agent is 
supposed to accumulate in the muscles, and to produce expan- 
sion by causing the muscular molecules to repel each other ; 
and contraction is supposed to be brought about either by the 
sudden discharge (as in ordinary contraction) or by the gradual 
dying out (as in rigor mortis) of the vital agent. And, further, 
it is supposed that the rhythmical movements of muscle are 
caused by successive discharges of the vital agent, which dis- 
charges are brought about whenever this agent acquires a cer- 
tain degree of tension; and that the cramps of cholera, or the 
spasms of tetanus or hysteria, are consequent upon the develop- 
ment of the vital agent being for the time suspended. 

More recently still, namely in 1847, Professor Matteucci 
communicated a paper to the Parisian Academy of Sciences* 
upon the influence of the nervous fluid in muscular action, in 
which he writes :—‘“Ce fluide développé principalement dans 
les muscles, s’y répand, et, doué d’une force répulsive entre ses 
parties, comme le fluide électrique, il tient les éléments de la 
fibre musculaire dans un état de répulsion analogue a celui 
présenté par les corps électrisés. Quand ce fluide nerveux cesse 
d’étre libre dans le muscle, les éléments de la fibre musculaire 
sattirent entre eux, comme on le yoit arriver dans la roideur 
cadavérique. . . . . Suivant la quantité de ce fluide qui 
cesse d’étre libre dans le muscle, la contraction est plus ou moins 
forte.’ Professor Matteucci appears ta have framed this hypo- 
thesis, partly, in consequence of certain considerations which 
seemed to shew that the phenomenon of “induced contrae- 
tion” was owing to the discharge of electricity in the 
muscle in which the “inducing contraction” was mani- 
fested—an idea originating with M. Becquerel—and, partly, 
in consequence of the analogy which he himself had found 
to exist between the law of contraction in muscle and the 
law of the discharge in electrical fishes; but he does not appear 
to have attached much importance to the hypothesis. Indeed, 
his own comment at the time is—“j’ai presque honte d’avoir eu 
la hardiesse de communiquer 4 | Académie des idées si vagues, 

1 Comptes Rendus. March 17th, 1847. 


THE SYNTHESIS OF MOTION, VITAL AND PHYSICAL. 319 


et apparemment si peu fondées, et contre lesquelles on pourrait 
faire bien des objections, mais je pense que, parmi les théories 
physiques les mieux fondées aujourd’hui, il en existe qui ont 
débuté de cette manicre, et il est certain que des hypotheses, 
aussl peu fondées que celles-ci, ont quelquefois pu produire 
ensuite des découvertes remarquables.” 

Next in order, and almost contemporaneously with the date 
of my own first publication on the subject, Professor Engel, of 
Vienna, wrote’:—‘‘So hat der Nerve die Aufgabe, nicht die 
Zusammenziehungen des Muskels zu veranlassen, sondern den 
Zusammenziehungen bis auf einen geringen Grad entgegenzu- 
wirken. Im lebenden Organismus, in welchem Ruhe etwas 
unmogliches ist, ist auch ein ruhender Muskel eben so wohl 
wie ein ruhender Nerv undenkbar, der Muskel in seinem bestiin- 
digen Streben, sich zusammenzuziehen, wird vom Nerven daran 
verhindert, im Nerven macht sich das fortwaihrende Streben 
kund, die Zusammenziehung des Muskels auf ein gerechtes 
Mass zuriickzufiihren ; das Ergebniss dieser zwei einander ent- 
gegengesetzten Higenschaften des Nervens und des Muskels ist 
das, was man gemeinhin Zustand der Ruhe, Zustand des 
Gleichgewichtes, oder an Muskeln auch Tonicitat nennt. Das 
Verlassen dieses Gleichgewichts ist die Bewegung einerseits, 
die Lahmung andererseits. Die Bewegung wird aber erzeugt, 
indem entweder der Einfluss des Nervens auf den Muskel 
herabgesetzt wird, oder indem die Contractionskraft des Muskels 
unmittelbar gesteigert wird. Lahmung des Muskels findet sich 
gleichfalls entweder durch unmittelbare Vernichtung der Con- 
tractionskraft des Muskels oder durch eine iibermiissig gestei- 
gerte Einwirkung des motorischen Nervens auf den Muskel. 
Sollen daher abwechselnde Muskelcontractionen zu Stande 
kommen, so ist die Gegenwart des lebendigen Nervens im 
Muskel unerlisslich, und auch bei unmittelbaren Muskelreizen 
kénnen abwechselnde Zusammenziehungen nur erfolgen, so 
lange noch die Nerven lebensfihig sind ; hort letzteres auf, so 
zieht sich der Muskel ohne Hinderniss zusammen. Diesen 
Zustand nennen wir die Todtenstarre.” The chief grounds for 
this opinion are, first, certain original experiments, some of 


1 “Ueber Muskelreizbarkeit,” Zeitschrift der Kais. Kén. Gesellsch. der Aertze 
zu Wien, Exster Band, pp. 205—-219, and pp. 252—270, 1849. 


320 DR RADCLIFFE. THE SYNTHESIS OF MOTION. 


them very remarkable, which afford additional proof that the 
muscles of frogs are more prone to contract when they are cut 
off from the influence of the great nervous centres, secondly, 
the frequent spontaneous occurrence of cramps and other forms 
of excessive spasmodic contraction in paralysed parts, and, 
thirdly, the supervention of the permanent contraction of rigor 
mortis when all signs of nervous irritability are completely 
extinguished. 

And, last of all, I find Professor Stannius, of Rostock’, arriving 
at the conclusion:—“ dass es eine wesentliche Aufgabe der soge- 
nannten motorischen oder Muskelnerven sei, die natiirliche Elasti- 
citiitsgrdsse der Muskelfasern herabzusetzen und ihre Elasticitat 
vollkommener zu machen; dass anscheinende Ruhe des Muskels, 
zum Beispiele, wihrend des Schlafes, das Stadium solchen regen, 
den Muskel zu seinen Aufgaben wieder befahigenden Ner- 
veneinflusses anzeige; dass active Muskelzusammenziehung 
einen geregelten und begrenzten momentanen Nachlass des 
Nerveneinflusses auf den Muskel bezeichne; dass endlich die 
Nachweisung einer Muskelreizbarkeit, in der iiblichen Auffas- 
sungsweise, ein durchaus vergebliches Bemiihen sei.” M. Stannius 
was led to this conclusion by certain original experiments, in 
which he found blood to have the power of relaxing rigor mortis 
and restoring muscular irritability, and these experiments are 
advanced im evidence. Reference is also made to arguments, 
to be brought forward on another occasion, which will prove— 
“dass diese Anschauungsweise, so paradox sie immer auf den 
ersten Anblick sich anlassen mag, mit unserem thatsichlichen 
Wissen iiber Nerven- und Muskelthitigkeit keineswegs im 
Widerspruch steht.” The essay from which these quotations 
are taken was published towards the end of 1852—about two 
years after the date of my own first publication on the subject. 

I do not stand alone, then, in thinking that a great change 
is necessary in the theory of muscular motion—a change 
amounting to no less than a complete revolution; and I am glad 
that it is so, for thus supported, I am the more bold to challenge 
attention to the facts and arguments which will be advanced on 
a future occasion. 


1 “Untersuchungen iiber Leistungsfihigkeit der Muskeln und Todtenstarre,” 
Vierordt’s Archiv fiir Physiol. Heilkunde. Stuttgart, 1 Heft, p. 22, 1852. 


DISSECTION OF A LAMB WITH FISSURE OF THE 
STERNUM AND TRANSPOSITION OF THE ORIGIN 
OF THE RIGHT SUBCLAVIAN ARTERY. By LESLIE 
OaILviE and CHARLES W. CatTHoart, Students of Medi- 

_ cine, University of Edinburgh. 


WE owe to Professor Turner the opportunity of dissecting a 
ewe lamb, in which a median ventral fissure was conjoined with 
other malformations. The specimen was presented by Dr Mac 
Watt of Dunse. 

On the ventral surface of the body there existed a distinct 
mesial cleft, which extended from the root of the neck to 
the place of exit of the umbilical cord two and a half imches 
in front of the nipples. This cleft penetrated not only 
through the skin and immediately subjacent structures, but 
also through the sternum, which was divided into two parts, 
to each of which were attached the appertaining rib-cartilages. 
The linea alba in front of the place of exit of the cord was also 
divided, but behind the cord the anterior wall of the abdomen 
was complete. From this deficiency in the thoracic and abdo- 
minal walls, the heart enclosed in the pericardium, the liver, 
the stomach, the small intestine the ccecum and greater part of 
large intestine, were exposed. The apex of the heart, the 
greater part of the liver, the abomasum and psalterium, the small 
intestine, the czecum and greater part of the large intestine, pro- 
truded through the fissure. Owing to the longitudinal division 
of the sternum, and the increased space between the ribs of the 
two sides, a deep fissure, at the bottom of which could be seen 
the posterior vena cava, existed in the muscular and tendinous 
substance of the diaphragm. 

Tracing the peritoneal membrane forwards from the anterior 
surface of the liver, it was found that the falciform ligament 
passed to the free border of the left half of the diaphragm, 
where it split into two layers, one of which was prolonged over 
the posterior surface of that half, whilst the other passed to the 
posterior surface of the right half, covering in its course the 


322 MR OGILVIE AND MR CATHCART. 


posterior vena cava, and bridging across the fissure or interval 
between the two parts of the muscle. In bridging across this 
interval, just after leaving the margin of the left half of the 
diaphragm, the peritoneal membrane came in relation to the 
posterior part of the left pleura for about a quarter of an inch, 
but did not unite with it. It next united with the posterior 
surface of the pericardium, where this membrane would have 
covered the anterior surface of the diaphragm, had that muscle 
been complete. It then united with the posterior part of the 
right pleura, after which it passed to the posterior surface of 
the right half of the diaphragm, the pleura, as usual, covering 
its anterior surface. After lining what existed of the dia- 
phragm on each side, the peritoneum passed over the abdomi- 
nal walls, and ended in a defined margin at the border of the 
great cleft. 

The pericardium was torn on its ventral surface, so as to 
expose part of the heart, but it probably had formed a complete 
sac. Its posterior surface was blended with the inter-dia- 
phragmatic portion of the peritoneum which was not in relation 
to the pleure. Its sides were in apposition with the pleural 
membranes, but the ventral surface was free. The bag of the 
pericardium was very thin and transparent, smooth and serous 
on its inner surface, and was reflected on to the exterior of the 
heart in the usual manner. 

Each pleura existed as a shut sac attached below to the 
corresponding half of the sternum. Owing, however, to the 
fissure, the inter-pleural space was abnormally large. Upon 
opening into the pleural cavities the left lung was found col- 
lapsed, while the right was partially inflated. The posterior 
part of the right pleura was in relation to a greater extent of 
surface of the peritoneum than the left, for although the origin 
of the diaphragm on both sides reached as high as the eighth 
rib, on the left side it also had an attachment to the xiphoid 
cartilage. Thus the gap left in the posterior thoracic wall by 
the fissure in the diaphragm was occupied by a thin twofold 
membrane composed of peritoneum and pleura on each side, 
and of peritoneum and pericardium in the middle. 

Blood-vessels.—The aorta divided in the normal manner into 
anterior and posterior aorte, the latter of which arched over the 


ee 


DISSECTION OF A LAMB. 323 


root of the left lung. The anterior aorta passed forwards for 
about half an inch on the ventral aspect of the trachea and to its 
left side, and divided into two branches. One of these, which 
formed the common stem for the two carotids, was prolonged in 
the same direction for about half an inch before bifurcating. 
The other passed forwards and to the left, to be continued as 
the axillary artery, having first given off the vertebral, the pos- 
terior cervical and dorsal branches. The artery which corre- 
sponded to the right subclavian, instead of being a branch of 
the anterior aorta, arose from the posterior aorta to the left of 
the cesophagus, and half an inch in front of the root of the left 
lung. It then passed to the right side between the cesophagus 
and second dorsal vertebra, from which it was separated by the 
origins of the prevertebral muscles. It passed forwards out of 
the apex of the thoracic cavity, and was continued to the right 
anterior extremity in the normal manner. 

It will be seen that the arrangement of these vessels in this 
lamb differs from the normal arrangement in ruminants :— 
(1) in the right division of the anterior aorta not being con- 
tinued as the right axillary, but passing forwards to form a 
common stem for the two carotids; (2) in the right subclavian 
—or what corresponds to it—arising from the posterior aorta. 
An explanation of such deviations in the origins of the vessels 
is obtained by reference to the developmental changes which 
take place in the vascular arches of the embryo, as was de- 
scribed in a detailed manner, and with ample reference to 
illustrative cases, by Prof. Turner, in a memoir published 
in the Medico-Chirurgical Review for 1862. In this paper 
numerous instances are mentioned where, in the human 
subject, the right subclavian arose from the arch of the aorta 
to the left of the origins of the right carotid, left carotid and 
left subclavian, and passed, as in this lamb, behind the trachea 
and cesophagus to the right side. The explanation given is 
that the fourth right vascular arch becoming atrophied does 
not form the right subclavian, and consequently that the right 
aortic root, instead of disappearing, as is the case in the normal 
development of the vessels, remains pervious, so as to convey 
the blood to the right upper limb. The part of the artery, 
therefore, which, in this lamb, lay behind the cesophagus, was 


324 MR OGILVIE AND MR CATHCART. 


really the persistent pervious right aortic root, and its point of 
junction with the left aortic root, opposite the second dorsal 
vertebra, was, without doubt, the point at which the two aortic 
roots had united. 

Bones—The cervical vertebre displayed no peculiarity 
except that the. axis and third vertebrae were fused together. 
The fusion was more complete at the articular processes, and, 
on the ventral surface of the bodies, distinct traces of separation 
were seen between the neural arches, and above and below the 
articular processes. The two fused bones were displaced shghtly 
to the left side, and the right halves of the bodies were more 
closely pressed together than the left halves. The articular 
processes also on the right side were very feebly developed, 
while on the left they seemed normal. 

The dorsal vertebrae, thirteen m number, were the most 
irregular of the true vertebre. A well-marked lateral curva- 
ture of the spinal column to the right existed between the first 
and eleventh vertebre, and was greatest between the fourth 
and seventh. Moreover, this part of the spinal column was 
twisted on itself so as to depress the left sides of the bodies and 
raise the right. The centres of the inferior aspect of the bodies 
were displaced to the right side of the space between the ribs. 
The second, third, and fourth dorsal vertebre were fused 
together even more closely than the second and third cervical. 
Their spines were blended into one deep blade, the top of 
which preserved the same dorsal curvature as the other spines. 
The relative position of the three fused bones made it appear 
as if they had been fused while the spinal column was straight, 
and that after their union their posterior part had been dis- 
placed to the right, which had caused the vertebre behind to 
share in the curvature. The lumbar vertebree were seven in 
number and quite regular. 

The sacrum, somewhat more developed on the right side 
than on the left, was twisted at the coccygeal end so as slightly 
to raise the right border. 

There were thirteen pairs of ribs, of which eight were true 
and five false on each side. From the third to the eleventh 
they were more or less irregular on both sides, but more 
especially from the fourth to the seventh. The shafts of these 


DISSECTION OF A LAMB. 325 


ribs on the left side were straight instead of being curved out- 
wards, and this caused the thoracic cavity to be narrowed from 
side to side. The right ribs were all inclined backwards at a 
more acute angle to the axis of the spinal column than were the 
left. The latter however all projected to a lower level than the 
former owing to the twisting of the spine already referred to. 

The lateral curvature of the spine, the concavity of which 
was to the left and greatest between the fourth and seventh 
vertebrae, caused the heads of the corresponding ribs to be 
ap voximated, and the shafts to be thrust together so closely as 
to\ vent growth. Accordingly they were much thinner in 
their central parts. 

On the right side the articular processes of the vertebre, 
being placed on the circumference of part of a circle, were 
thrown further apart than usual. Hence a line drawn from 
the articular facet on any transverse process to the facet on the 
side of the vertebra next anterior was made to slope more 
acutely backwards than it would otherwise have done. From 
this arrangement three results followed. 1. The ribs of this 
side were brought closer to the spinal column than usual. 
2. The inclination of the shafts downwards was more acutely 
backwards than on the other side. 3. The broad surfaces of 
the ribs looked anteriorly and posteriorly as well as outwards 
and inwards. 

The two halves of the sternum were not absolutely sym- 
metrical. Owing to the difference in the obliquity of the ribs of 
the two sides, the right half was projected further forward than 
the left, and would have been on a lower plane, had it not 
been that the cartilages of the true ribs on the left side passed 
horizontally forwards and inwards, whilst those on the right 
passed forwards, downwards, and only very slightly inwards. 

The centres of ossification in each half of the sternum were 
the following :— 

On the left side six, all well developed. The first between 
the cartilages of the first and second ribs was normal in shape. 
The second was between the second and third costal cartilages. 
In common with the remaining four, it was of the shape of 
a quarter of a sphere with the two flat surfaces looking respec- 
tively inwards and downwards. The third was between the 


326 MR OGILVIE AND MR CATHCART. DISSECTION OF A LAMB, 


third and fourth costal cartilages. The fourth was between the 
fourth costal cartilage and a point above the level of the inser- 
tion of the fifth. The fifth, from the insertion of the fifth costal 
cartilage to above that of the sixth. The sixth from the inser- 
tion of the sixth costal cartilage to above that of the seventh 
and eighth conjoined. 

On the right side were five centres, all well developed except 
the first. The first between the first and second costal carti- 
lages was a mere speck of bony matter about the size of a pin’s 
head. The second was between the second and third costal 
cartilages, and with the three following was of the quarter 
sphere shape. The third was between the third and fourth 
costal cartilages. The fourth was between the fourth and fifth 
costal cartilages. The fifth, larger than the others, was placed 
below the fifth costal cartilage, opposite to the sixth, and 
anterior to the conjoined seventh and eighth. 

The halves of the xiphoid cartilage were well developed, and 
continuous with each half of the sternum. The left part was 
larger than the right, and had an elongated well-developed 
centre of ossification close to the posterior part of the sternum. 

According to Geoffrey St Hilaire* median fissures generally 
are to be accounted for by a want of development, t.e. by two 
halves, which should have been prolonged to meet each other, 
having been arrested in their growth so as to fall short of their 
line of junction, and the only reasonable explanation of the 
cleft in this lamb’s sternum that we can give is that at a 
very early period in its foetal life the ventral lamin had failed 
to unite along the mesial line. Why in this case a stoppage of 
the ventral union should have occurred we cannot say. That 
an abdominal cleft should be connected with the opening for 
the exit of the umbilical cord is only natural, but this gives us 
no clue to the persistence of the fissure anterior to the um- 
bilicus. It is possible that the curvature of the spine and 
consequent distortion of the ribs may have followed from the 
ventral lamine not having united; for the non-union of the 
ribs in a common sternum would render these bones less able 
to resist any distorting influences which may have been brought 
to bear upon them. 


1 Histoire des Anomalies, &c. 1832. Vol. 1, p. 596. 


ON THE SENSE OF ROTATION AND THE ANATOMY 
AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE SEMICIRCULAR CA- 
NALS OF THE INTERNAL EAR. By Pror. A. Crum 
Brown, M.D. University of Edinburgh. 


For some time I have been convinced that we possess a sense 
of Rotation quite distinct from all our other senses. By means 
of this sense we are able to determine—Ist, the axis about 
which rotation of the head takes place; 2nd, the direction of 
the rotation; and 38rd, its rate. 

In ordinary circumstances we do not wholly depend upon 
this sense for such information. Sight, hearing, touch, and the 
muscular sense assist us in determining the direction and 
amount of our motions of rotation, as well as of those of trans- 
lation; but if we purposely deprive ourselves of such aids we 
find that we can still determine with considerable accuracy the 
axis, the direction, and the rate of rotation. The experiments 
that I have made with the view of determining this point were 
conducted as follows: a stool was placed on the centre of a 
table capable of rotating smoothly about a vertical axis; upon 
this the experimenter sat, his eyes being closed and bandaged ; 
an assistant then turned the table as smoothly as possible 
through an angle of the sense and extent of which the experi- 
menter had not been informed. It was found that, with mode- 
rate speed, and when not more than one or two complete turns 
were made at once, the experimenter could form a tolerably 
accurate judgment of the angle through which he had been 
turned. By placing the head in various positions it was pos- 
sible to make the vertical axis coincide with any straight line 
in the head. It was found that the accuracy of the sense was 
not the same for each position of the axis in the head, and fur- 
ther, that the minimum perceptible angular rate of rotation 
varied also with the position of the axis. It was also found 
that considerable differences of accuracy exist in different indi- 
viduals. 


328 PROFESSOR CRUM BROWN. 


The sense of rotation is, like other senses, subject to illu- . 
sions, rotation being perceived where none takes place. Vertigo 
or giddiness 1 is a phenomenon of this kind. 

When, in the experiments just mentioned, rotation at a uni- 
form angular rate is kept up for some time, the rate appears to 
the experimenter to be gradually diminishing, and to cease 
altogether after a time, varying with the position of the head, 
and different with different individuals; if the rotation be 
then stopped, he experiences the sensation of rotation about 
the same axis in the opposite direction. If the position of the 
head be changed after the prolonged rotation has been made, 
the position of the axis of the apparent rotation is changed, re- 
taining always the same position relatively to the head as was 
occupied by the axis of the real rotation. The readiness with 
which this complementary apparent rotation is produced is not 
the same for each axis. In such experiments, as long as the 
eyes are shut, and the axis of rotation kept vertical, a sensa- 
tion of giddiness is not experienced. That sensation appears 
to be caused by the discordance between the testimony of the 
sense of rotation, and that of some other sense. Thus if I ex- 
perience a sensation of rotation, it makes no difference to my 
mind whether that sensation corresponds to a real rotation or 
not, as long as I have no means of ascertaining independently 
the existence or non-existence of the real rotation. I am in 
that position as long as my head is fixed and my eyes shut. 
But if, while the complementary apparent rotation is felt, I 
open my eyes, I still feel that I am being turned round, but 
at the same time I see that external bodies retain their po- 
sition relatively to me—if I am turning round so are they— 
and this produces at once a feeling of insecurity or giddiness. 
Similarly this giddy or insecure feeling is produced, if, while 
the complementary apparent rotation is felt, the head be moved 
so that the axis of this rotation is no longer vertical. _ 

The sense of Rotation, being a special sense, must neces- 
sarily have a special peripheral organ physically constituted so 
as to be affected by rotation, a sensory nerve, and a central 
organ. The structure of the semicircular canals of the internal 
ear is such as to fit them to act as such a peripheral organ, 
and the experiments of Flourens and of Goltz support this 


THE SEMICIRCULAR CANALS. 329 


view. The bony canals are filled with liquid, in which float 
loose connective tissue and the membranous canals with the 
contained endolymph. Rotation of the head about an axis at 
right angles to the plane of a canal will then produce, on ac- 
count of the inertia of the liquid, &c., motion of the contents 
relatively to the walls of the canal, and this may be expected 
to irritate the terminations of the nerves in the ampulla. If the 
rotation be continued at a uniform rate, fluid friction, friction 
of the endolymph against the membranous canal, and of the 
perilymph against the membranous canal and the periosteum, 
will gradually diminish this relative motion, which will at last 
cease. We should therefore expect, as we have seen to be the 
case, that continued uniform rotation should be perceived less 
and less strongly, and that the sensation should at last die away 
altogether. The time required for this equalisation of the mo- 
tion of the canal and its contents will depend upon the rate of 
rotation and upon the dimensions of the canal and the amount 
of attachment of the membranous canal to the periosteum. 
These latter conditions are not the same in the three canals, 
and therefore we ought to find, as we do, that the rate at 
which the sense of rotation dies away is not the same for dif- 
ferent positions of the head. Again, if the uniform rotation is 
stopped, the contents of the canal will continue to move on, 
thus causing an apparent rotation in a direction the reverse of 
that of the original rotation, and this also will die away owing 
to friction. 

As the three canals are in planes nearly at right angles to 
one another, rotation about any axis can be resolved into rota- 
tions, each of which will produce the effect described above 
upon one of the canals, and thus any rotation will have its 
appropriate sensation. 

So far then this view of the function of the semicircular 
eanals seems to explain the phenomena of the sense of rotation, 
and I find that an explanation almost identical with this was 
given by Professor Mach, of Prague, and by Dr Breuer, of’ 
Vienna, shortly before I communicated the substance of this 
paper, as a preliminary note, to the Royal Society of Edinburgh*. 


1 Proceedings, 19th January, 1874. 
VOL. VIII. 22 


330 PROFESSOR CRUM BROWN. © 


But this explanation is not sufficient. As far as we know, a 
nerve current can vary only in intensity and not in kind, so 
that, if irritated at all, whether by rnght-handed or by left- 
handed rotation, the nerve would convey the same message to 
the central organ. The solution of this difficulty which I pro- 
posed is as follows:—Each canal has an ampulla at one end 
only, and there is thus a physical difference between rotation 
with the ampulla first, and rotation with the ampulla last, and 
we can easily suppose the action to be such that only one of 
these rotations (say that with the ampulla first, in which case, 
of course, there is a flow from the ampulla into the eanal) will 
affect the nerve terminations at all’. One canal can therefore, 
on this supposition, be affected by, and transmit the sensation 
of rotation about one axis in one direction only, and for com- 
plete perception of rotation in any direction about any axis six 
semicircular canals are required, in three pairs, each pair having 
its two canals parallel (or in the same plane) and with their 
ampulle turned opposite ways. Each pair would thus be sensi- 
tive to any rotation about a line at right angles to its plane or 
planes, the one canal being influenced by rotation in the one 
direction, the other by rotation in the opposite direction. 

Now we have six semicircular canals, three in the one ear 
and three in the other, and I find im all the animals that I have 
examined that the exterior canal of one ear is very nearly in 
the same plane as that of the other; while the superior canal of 
one ear is nearly parallel to the posterior canal of the other. 

The three axes are therefore—Ist, a vertical’ axis at right 
angles to the plane of the exterior canals; 2nd, an axis which 
may be roughly defined as passing (in the human subject) 
through the left eye and the right mastoid process at right 
angles to the planes of the right superior and the left posterior 
canal, and 8rd, an axis passing through the right eye and the 
left mastoid process at right angles to the right posterior and 
left superior canals. 

In different animals there are great differences in relative 


1 In the preliminary note above referred to, I described a way in which this 
might be supposed to take place. 


2 In the human subject this axis is not quite vertical when the head is held 


jin its usual position; it becomes se when the face is inclined slightly down- 
avards, 


THE SEMICIRCULAR CANALS. sel 


size and position of the canals, but the relation just mentioned 
appears to exist in all cases. This relation may be most simply 
stated thus. In each ear there is one canal (the exterior) ina 
plane at right angles to the mesial plane, and two other canals 
(the superior and the posterior) in planes equally inclined to 
the mesial plane. In no other way is it possible to harmonize 
the bilateral symmetry of the two ears with the condition that 
each of the three axes shall have two oppositely turned canals 
in planes at right angles to it. 


EFFECT OF WARMTH IN PREVENTING DEATH 
FROM CHLORAL. By T. Lauper Brunton, M.D., 
Sc.D. Edin. Casualty Physician and Lecturer on Materia 
Medica at St Bartholomew's Hospital. 

SINCE chloral was first brought into notice, and its action inves- 

tigated by Liebreich, it has been made the subject of numerous 

experiments, and has not only proved a most useful medicine, 
but a valuable aid to physiological research. During the stay 
made in this country by Professor Stricker four years ago he 
used chloral frequently as an anesthetic while making some 
experiments with Dr Burdon Sanderson on the circulation in 
mammals. At his suggestion I made the following experi- 
ments as well as many others which it is quite unneces- 
sary to give at length, as they simply confirm the observations 
of Liebreich and others. The general results were that the 
subcutaneous injection of a solution of chloral induced sleep, 
which was light and readily broken if the dose were small, but 
passed into coma if the dose were large. In dogs considerable 
restlessness was observed before sleep came on. The power of 
muscular co-ordination was affected in dogs before sopor was 
induced, so that they staggered and fell when attempting to 
walk either of their own accord or in obedience to a call. A 
similar loss of co-ordination was observed in rabbits, but in 
general they and guinea-pigs sat quietly after the administra- 
tion of the chloral, and thus the moter affection was less percep- 
tible in them than in dogs. In dogs the respiration occasion- 
ally became very rapid immediately after the subcutaneous 
injection of chloral, but it became slow after the animal began 
to exhibit symptoms of drowsiness. In rabbits and guinea-pigs 
the number of respirations was also diminished, but a pre- 
liminary acceleration was not observed in them. The pulse 
was not affected to the same extent as the respiration, and the 
heart always continued to beat after the respiratory move- 
ments had ceased. One of the most important phenomena, 


EFFECT OF WARMTH IN PREVENTING DEATH FROM CHLORAL. 333 


and the one to which I wish to call particular attention at 
present, is the diminution of temperature which chloral in- 
duces, and the extraordinary effects of warmth in hastening 
recovery from its action, and preventing death from an over- 
dose. The fall of temperature has been noticed by Liebreich 
and most other writers, but the effect of warmth applied to 
the animal’s body has not, I think, received sufficient attention, 
although Dr Richardson has pointed out its usefulness in pre- 
venting death. The diminution of animal heat is partly due 
in all probability to greater loss from the surface caused by 
the vessels of the skin becoming much dilated under the in- 
fluence of the drug, and allowing the blood to be cooled more 
readily by a low external temperature. It is partly due also 
to the diminished production of heat which cessation of mus- 
cular action always causes, whether it be induced by simply 
tying down an animal so as to prevent motion, or by the ad- 
mninistration of curare or narcotics. 

Professor Stricker having noticed that the animals on which 
he experimented often required a second dose of chloral to 
maintain anesthesia, when they were wrapped in cotton wool 
so as to prevent loss of heat, and still more when they were 
laid in a warm place, I made the following experiments at his 
suggestion. They shew clearly that an animal wrapped in 
cotton wool may recover perfectly from a dose of chloral which 
is sufficient to kill it when exposed to the cooling action of the 
air (which in the laboratory was about 20° C.), and that recovery 
from the narcotic action is much quicker when the temperature 
is maintained in this way, and still more rapid when the animal 
is placed in a warm bath. If the temperature of the bath is 
too high the animal may die from excessive heat, as I have 
shewn in a former paper’. 

The bearing of these experiments on the treatment of 
persons suffering from an overdose of chloral is so obvious as 
hardly to require any observations from me. The patient 
should be put to bed, and the temperature of the body main- 
tained by warm blankets and hot-water bottles to various parts 
of the body, and especially the cardiac region, Warmth over the 


1 “On the Effect of Temperature on the Mammalian Heart and on the 
Action of the Vagus.” St Bartholomew’s Hospital Reports, Vol. vit, 1871. 


oot - DR BRUNTON. 


heart is an excellent stimulant to the circulation, which, like 
the respiration, is enfeebled by chloral, the heart according to 
Rajewsky being more or less paralyzed by the drug. If respi- 
ration threatens to fail it should be maintained artificially so as 
to allow time for the chloral to be excreted and the normal 
functions to be restored. 


Expt. I. Into two guinea-pigs of nearly equal size °6 
cubic centimetre of a 50 per cent. solution of chloral (equal to 
about 5 grains or ‘8 gramme of chloral) were injected sub- 
cutaneously. 


Temp. of animal. 


No. 1. 
103°8°F.| 104:6°F. 
No. 1 was almost motionless, and was 
rolled in cotton-wadding. 
No. 2 was left uncovered. 


Before injection 
After injection 
5 min. 


27 min. 
Lhr. 20 min. 
1 hr. 40 min. 
2hr. 33 min. 


95°2 Sale 

94:3 about 80° | The graduation of the thermometer 
did not extend so low as 80°, and 
the temperature was calculated ap- 
proximately, or guessed, by the 
height of the mercury. 


2 hr. 57 min 93°8 The legs of No. 2 are shivering. 
4 hr. 87°3 
4 hr. 42 min. 88:4 No. 1 was now deprived of its cover- 


ing. It shivered and grunted but 
lay in whatever position it was put, 
and was still completely narcotised. 
5 hr. 27 min. 88'8 
5 hr. 42 min. No. 1 awakened. 
No. 2 remained as before, motionless, 
except for the shivering. 
95°8 It did not recover, and died some 


little time afterwards. 


5 hr. 52 min. 


EFFECT OF WARMTH IN PREVENTING DEATH FROM CHLORAL, 335 


Expt. II. Into two guinea-pigs, No. 1 weighing 655 
grammes, and No. 2 weighing 670 grammes, 1‘1 cub. cent. of 
50 per cent. solution of chloral hydrate was injected. 


Femp.| Resp. | Temp.} Resp. 
102°4° 


After injection 
Tmin.|101:8 | 89 


101° Both animals nearly narco- 
tized. 

No. 1 put into a warm-air 
bath, 

No. 2 allowed to lie without 
cover, 


91°8 24 


Kicks vigorously when pinched. 
abt.87; 12 | Does not kick when pinched. 
13. | No. 1 is now awake. 
Temperature of No. 2 cannot 
be taken or estimated, as it 
is so low that the mercury 
does not rise from the bulb 
of the thermometer. No re- 
spiration is visible, but occa- 
sionally the animal opens 
its mouth convulsively. No 
reflex. It was put in the 
warm bath, but respiration 
did not become re-establish- 
ed, and all signs of life 
shortly disappeared. 


336 DR BRUNTON. 


Expt. III. Into a guinea-pig (No. 1) weighing 272 grammes 
was injected °65 cub. cent. of a 50 per cent. solution of hydrate 
of chloral. Into another (No. 2) weighing 330 grammes the 
same quantity of the solution was also injected. | 


No. 1. | No. 2. 


At injection 100°9 
After injection 
7 min. No. 1 fast asleep. It was put 
into a warm-air bath. No. 2 | 
not quite asleep. 

12 min. No. 2 nearly quite asleep. Lies 
asitis placed. Reflex move- | 
ments are slight. 

26 min. 


50 min. | 100°7 62 
ihr. 26 min. 


Shivers very much with ex- 
piration, so that the respira- 
tions are difficult to count. 
Grunts slightly when the 
thermometer is introduced 
into the rectum. 

about 

895° | 30 | Both animals are chewing. 

88:5 No. Lis awake. Though still 

somewhat sleepy it will no 
longer lie on its back. 
No. 2 eries when pinched. It 
was put into the warm bath. 
No. 2 is now awake. 


2hr. 4 min. 
2hr. 38 min. 


102° 104 
101°8 


In this Exp. (No. HT.) the dose was small and guinea-pig 
No. 2 recovered, although it was not kept warm, but not till an 
hour and a half after No. 1, although the latter was the smaller 
animal, and the dose it received was therefore much greater in 
proportion to its size. 


EFFECT OF WARMTH IN PREVENTING DEATH FROM CHLORAL. 337 


Into each of three guinea-pigs 1°I cubic centi- 


Expt. IV. 
metre of 50 per cent. solution of hydrate of chloral wa 


ted 


Ss injec 


No. 1 weighed 640 grammes, No. 2, 670 


rammes, and No. 3, 717 grammes. 
? Oo 


subcutaneously. 


“IOV OTITM y.10GS 
B pap 1 (Opis S8}L UO sory 
JE OTM Jooy S}T WyTM saved 
PUB IOMUVUL OAISTNAMOD B UT 
Ynoursytsuddo AT[VuUoTsvI9G_ 
‘au0 LOTJO oY} pus yt TOG 
SOAOUL OY JOOJ-PUIT, OO SUT 
-qoutd UO “eATTE TITS St § ‘ON 
W490} ST UL 
JSNVO SVM Y}Vq OY} SUTUIT 
JOOM-10}}09 9} Jo ouUrOS 
IOF ‘SUOTSTNATON pey aAvy OF 
poivodde 4[ ‘pwap st T ‘ON 
‘OMBAB OF SUIUUISAq ST 


*poyoutd wom 
XOPOI JO SUSIS MOS 0} SUISIG 


"{}NOUL WOT SUNT BATLVG 


"aqqe} Wo Bursy 4zoT 
SBA PUB ‘POsT}OOIVU SBA GE ‘ON 
*TOOM 
-10}}09 Ur poddvim sBa pus 
postjoorwu oymb svM Z ‘ON 
Oy 
~oalur of} 104ye TYVq ITB-Jo, 
8 OJUL 9OMO 4B ynd SUA T ‘ON 


OT 


06 


LT 


g8 


F-TOL 
‘dsay |‘durey, | ‘dsey |*duey, | ‘dsaxy | duty, 


-"e"ON 


9& 


°S “ON 


G-&6 
9L 
9-76 
OL 
§-96 
FL 
16 
G-G0T 


8-00T 


9-00T 


¢-S0T 


¥-FOL 


9-TOT 


Hicsuhat 


“BIT GG 


“UIUL OZ “IT g 
“UIUL OT “AT 8 
"UTE OG “AT ) 


“SIT 9 


“UTUT Og “Ig 
UIUE Og “AY g 


"SIT € 


“UTUT OG “IZ 
“TIO OF “IZ 
‘utUr OG “IY S 


“UIUL 6G 


“UTUT GT 
woroolur 109;V 


In this experiment the animal No, I died in consequence 


of too high a temperature of the bath, 


338 DR BRUNTON. - 


Expt. V. Into the flank of a guinea-pig (No. 1) weighing 
392 grammes was injected ‘75 cc. of a 50 per cent. solution of 
chloral, and into the axilla of another (No. 2) weighing 335 
grammes ‘9 cc. of the same solution. 


Temp. of animal. 


No.1, No; 2: 


After injection 
3-min. No. 1 lies quite quiet. No. 2 put into 
a warm-air bath at 98°6°. 


5 min. 98-2 98 
12 min. 98°3 No. 1is dead. The heart beat after 
the respiration stopped. 

The respirations of No. 2 became very 
rapid and deep after it was put in 
the air-bath. 

2hrs. 26 min, 111-4 No. 2 was heard to give a grunt, and 
on taking it out almost immediately 
after it was found to be dead. 


The dose was here either too large or the temperature of 
the bath rose too high, 


EFFECT OF WARMTH IN PREVENTING DEATH FROM CHLORAL. 339 


_ Expt. VI. Into each of three guinea-pigs, No. 1 weighing 
490 grammes, No. 2 weighing 425 grammes, and No. 3 weigh- 
ing 415 grammes, 1'1 cubic centimetres of a 50 per cent. solution 
of chloral hydrate were injected subcutaneously. 


. Ni. sa 1 2 [<>) : ™ Ss 2 m 
3 Coe Ao 2 Ra 
a od 8 = | oq 5) 
Ss LG ‘— -« © Ln ww ° _ J2 5) = 
9 3S He SEag < 2 2 3 ‘od = 
et eae) te KS Soeay SH irshiEae 45/0 
oH SeSee op a Ie ee 
rs) Sgzomear nm 2 wo oa Sf 
a= Ere. cS SH 6 a a sa mo Ss 
5B stds ao ee Foose 43 a 5 
ra) = we 72 ae ely ea eet vee ed 
© 9 age 8 a SS ope) Ba eee 
= Sa 8 get owe oO a awe no aae 
30 aeFqocget? mw & sam 3384 
PRS AIC ae A oe es ae Be 
a eto Pang 26 Garam a saa g 
e . . . . . nm ® - w« © . e i<?) . . 
Guolo gird os enol S O¢66 cBed66g 
4Z Aaa a & HH AZ2AZAZ w ZG 
roy 
= 
“ 2 rea) S = 
Ontiaet 
A = eG 
= Ye a co 
= 3 S So 
re ri S| re 


Resp. | Temp. 


Temp. 


roy oO © of 
whe 2/5 n @ + 
a am 
lg ; 
= 
8| 5 aldba 
x 3 
[o) ° . . . . ae . . . . qd 
beed d og sédddegea & 
a4 H df Sande geae 8 
lomo mono! ci oD ID 6 19 19. 6 © 19 <D . om 
0°92 oO re Bir cite at Bae a 
Brg Bk esis Aiea said | 
= ee SBS SSeS 5a sas a 
‘ga 3 ri AIA NH OM HOORN nN 
aH 
<< 


This experiment shews the effect of warmth in preventing 
death, and the rapidity of recovery when the animal is put in a 
warm bath, compared with that which it makes when encased 
in cotton-wool. 

All these experiments were made in August, 1870, in the 
laboratory of my friend Dr Burdon Sanderson, and I gladly 
take this opportunity of returning him my most hearty thanks 
for the facilities and aid he afforded, and the kindness which. 
he then and ever has shewn me. 


THE SEPTUM ATRIORUM OF THE FROG AND THE 
RABBIT. By F. CHampneys. 


For convenience sake, the heart, both of the frog and rabbit, is 
imagined with its long axis vertically placed, not in the obligue 
position which it has tn situ; and the relations of the various 
parts are given accordingly. 


Septum AtTrRIoRUM OF FROG. 


In order to learn thoroughly the structure of the septum, it was 
necessary to have recourse to various reagents. Of these three were 
found to furnish together all the necessary data, viz, gold chloride. 
solution, silver nitrate solution, and alcohol. In all cases injection | 
by means of a barometer-tube was found most effective. Some ex- 
perience was necessary to accomplish this satisfactorily; the two 
difficulties being, Ist, to avoid coagulation of blood on the septum, 
2nd, to avoid tearing the very delicate auricles by attempting too 
much preparation, or by trying to tie too many vessels. The heart 
should be injected while still beating if possible, at any rate as fresh’ 
as possible. It should never be removed from the body till after in- 
jection, partly to avoid the risk of tearing the auricles, partly to keep 
the pulmonary veins, which are much too small to be tied, intact, 
so as to be able to maintain the pressure. 

Ligatures were placed on the large veins, and all were secured 
except the cava inferior, into which a canula was tied. The right 
aortic root was tied close to its origin, and a ligature was placed 
round the left aortic root as far distally as possible, but not tied. 

Silver solution.—Silver nitrate solution of 1 per cent. was simply 
injected for fifteen minutes, the left aortic root being cut beyond the 
ligature so as to rapidly clear the heart of blood. When the solution 
had run through for some time this vessel was tied, and the pressure 
maintained by adding fresh solution. The heart was removed quickly 
and the septum at once dissected out under water, exposed to the 
light, and mounted in glycerim. This gave a beautiful picture of the 
endothelium and muscular fibres. 

Gold solution.—The heart was injected in the same manner with 
water acidulated with acetic acid for about four minutes, the left’ 
aortic root being left open; then with 3 per cent. solution of gold 
chloride for ten minutes, the left aortic root being tied soon after the 
beginning of the gold injection, but not at first, in order to remove 
the acidulated water. After ten minutes’ injection of gold solution 
acidulated water was again injected, the left aortic root was cut to 
allow the gold to be removed, and then tied again. The heart was 
then removed from the body, and allowed to hang in acidulated 
water exposed to the light till it had acquired the proper colour, the 
pressure of acidulated water being maintained. This gave a beautiful 
picture of the muscular and nervous structures. 


THE SEPTUM ATRIORUM OF FROG AND RABBIT. 341 


Alcohol was simply injected as above, except that the heart was first 
washed out with } per cent. Na Cl solution to clear it of blood, which 
otherwise would have coagulated on the septum. The Na Cl solution 
was removed in the way above described, the aortic root not being 
closed till the entrance of the alcohol was seen through the transparent 
wall of the auricle, to cause no disturbance by its mixture with the 
Na Cl solution, the latter being in fact removed. The pressure 
with alcohol was maintained for some hours, the heart being allowed 
to hang in a vessel of alcohol, and subsequently prepared under 
alcohol. This gave a beautiful picture of all the constituents of the 
septum except. the endothelium, but especially of the connective 
tissue and muscular striz. 

In dissecting out the septum It was always found convenient to 
cut off the apex of the ventricle and to blow a few air-bubbles into 
the auricles, especially the left. By this means the somewhat difficult 
relations of the very delicate septum are made plain. It should be 
prepared from the left auricle. 


General structure-—The septum atriorum of the frog is a 
complete partition’, as is that of the embryo of the bird and 
mammal. With regard to the description of Sindes and Roki- 
tansky, that the septum atriorum in an early embryonal stage 
is quite compiete, and begins then to form a network, one hole 
of which remains as foramen ovale—the question now is, 
whether the septum atriorum of the frog corresponds with the 
early stage, before the network (in which case the network 
never exists in the frog), or whether the network first exists 
and then disappears. 

There is no trace of a foramen ovale. Sabatier®?, in a work 
published in the last two or three months, takes the following 
position. The venous division of the heart, he says (pp. 187— 
190), is composed of two divisions, the sinus venosus and the 
auricle proper; these are quite separate in fish, and really so 
in Batrachia, but in the higher orders they generally become 
blended. The septum atriorum of Batrachia is the “septum 
auriculorum,” and not the “septum sinus venosi,” and the 
foramen ovale (foramen Botalli) is found in Batrachia in the 
sinus venosus. I have not been able, having so lately gained 
access to his book, to examine the sinus venosus’*. 

1 Ueber Defect der Scheidewand der Vorhéfe. Fragment yon Carl Roki- 
tansky, Wiener Med. Jahrbuch, 1871, p. 113. 
2 Etudes sur le Ceur dans la Série des Vertébrés. 1873. 


3 He says (p. 190), ‘‘Chez les Batraciens, dont les oreillettes sont uniquement 
constitués par les auricules, la cloison antérieure (septum auriculorum) forme 


342 MR CHAMPNEYS. 


Thus the septum atriorum of the frog corresponds only to 
the very restricted anterior portion of the septum atriorum of 


Fig. 1. 


Septum atriorum of the Frog (diagrammatic), : 


Anterior muscle, 
Posterior muscle 
1. Lower horizontal portion seen from the right. 
2. - Upper portion radiating vertically seen from the left. 
C. Place of insertion of muscle A. 
D. Free lower margin of the septum. 
E and F. Nerves. 
G. Cavity of the ventricle. 


pp 


entitrement la cloison des oreillettes. C’est naturellement au point de reneontre 
de ces deux cloisons qu’a du se trouver Vorifice de communication des deux 
systémes veineux, c’est & dire le trou de Botal (foramen ovale). Cetorifice setrouve 
done, chez le crapaud, la grenouille, la salamandre, et peut-étre chez tous les 
Batraciens, dans la partie antérieure et supérieure de la cavité du sinus, et ap- 
partient chez tous au sinus, et non aux auricules.” Each of the two divisions 
has its septum (p. 187). ‘A chacune des deux parties des oreillettes (sinus et 
auricule) correspond, chez les Vertébrés qui ont deux oreillettes, une cloison qui 
lui est propre; l’une antérieure, placée entre les auricules, ‘cloison des auri- 
cules,’ et autre postérieure, ‘cloison du sinus,’ partageant le sinus en deux 
compartiments plus ou moins inégaux; le sinus des veins caves, et le sinus 
des veines pulmonaires. La rencontre et la soudure de ces deux demi-cloisons, 
qui s’4vancent lune vers l’autre, donnent lieu & la séparation complete des deux 
oreillettes. L’intervalle plus ou moins grand qui existe entre ces deux demi- 
cloisons, avant lépoque de leur rencontre et de leur soudure, constitue précise- 
ment l’ouverture & laquelle chez les Vertébrés supérieures on a donné le nom 
“Trou de Botal.’” 


THE SEPTUM ATRIORUM OF FROG AND RABBIT. 343 


Mammals’, the whole of the rest being represented in the frog 
by the “septum sinus venosi.” 

The septum atriorum of the frog hangs with a thin free 
edge, Fig. 1 D, looking into the ventricular cavity. It shuts 
off a small room (the left auricle), since it lies much to the left 
of the middle line. It is very delicate and transparent; pos- 
sessing only im the boundary line between its upper and middle 
third any considerable amount of muscular fibres, though these 
spread from hence over the whole septum. It is formed of a 
ground substance, of muscular fibres, nerve-fibres, and nerve- 
cells, and of two layers of endothelium. 

The ground substance is immensely rich in connective tissue- 
cells, lying in very beautifully contoured wavy fibres; the 
whole having an aspect like that of the embryonal connective 
tissue of Mammalia. Sometimes the connective tissue-cells are 
granulated, at other times they are oblong, stellate or irregu- 
larly shaped. Sometimes there are wavy bundles, and between 
them fibres arranged like those in a teazed specimen. The 
connective tissue fills the interstices in the network of mus- 
eular fibres. 

The muscular fibres are most marked in the upper part of 
the septum. They are derived almost exclusively from two 
sources, ‘he greater part come originally from a well-marked 
muscular band, which runs in the horizontal furrow seen on 
the anterior aspect of the right auricle, and which curving to 
the left and then backwards, becomes united with the right 
aspect of the septum in a line at the junction of the upper 
with the middle third, and at some distance from its anterior 
edge, Fig.1,4,c. The triangular space, bounded in front by the 
anterior wall of the auricle, on the left by the anterior part of 
the septum, between its anterior edge and the insertion of this 


It is difficult to decide whether these two “ demi-cloisons”’ of Sabatier corre- 
spond with the “zwei Leisten” of Rokitansky (loc. cit. p, 112), for Sabatier 
makes no mention of the early embryonal Gitterwerk. The accounts of Roki- 
tansky and Sabatier as to the formation of the foramen ovale obviously differ in 
this way:—Sabatier considers it as a hole between the septum sinus venosi 
and septum auriculorum, Rokitansky as one persistent hole, remaining from the 
innumerable holes in the primitive Gitterwerk. 

The ‘‘cloison du sinus’ or posterior demi-cloison is the ‘‘valyule du trou 
ovale” (p. 189), and all that lies anterior to this in the mammalian heart corre- 
sponds to the ‘‘cloison des auricules” or anterior demi-cloison, the same pro- 
bably as the “eigentliches septum atriorum” of Henle. Gefésslehre, Fig. 6. 

1 Sabatier, Pl. xv. Fig, 6, 1. 


344 MR CHAMPNEYS. 


muscular bundle, A, c, and on the right by the muscular 
bundle itself, is filled with a very delicate membranous net- 
work, almost destitute of muscular fibres. Thus the muscular 
band forms the strong edge of an otherwise very delicate 
frenum. The second principal source of the muscular fibres 
ef the septum is a posterior band, also joining the septum 
at the junction of the upper with the middle third, and derived 
from the posterior wall of the auricle, Fig. 1,B. This, how- 
ever, joins the posterior edge of the septum at once, and forms 
no frenum. With it enter the nerves of the septum from 
behind. The disposition of these bundles is very similar. 
Some fibres run horizontally across from each to the bundle of 
the opposite side, some curve upwards, others downwards. The 
posterior bundle further requires remark, since the fibres, enter- 
ing in a flat bundle, are folded on themselves in the same 
way as the fibres of the tendon of the pectoralis major muscle 
of man. Viewed from the right side, the fibres.at first in- 
ferior, Fig. 1, B1, run superficially and quite horizontally and 
join those of the anterior bundle; those originally next above 
them cross under (to the left of) them and run forwards and 
downwards, while those originally most superior hie deepest 
(most to the left) of all. and have a nearly vertical course, 
Fig. 1, B2. This arrangement seems to denote a somewhat 
complicated development. It will be seen that the line of 
junction of the upper with the middle third is by far the most 
muscular part of the septum’. 

The arrangement of the muscular fibres resembles that in 
the frog’s urinary bladder, and im the best gold specimens one 
would believe that they are truly smooth fibres, since they are 
very thin, and have oblong nuclei like those of smooth mus- 
cular fibres. Sometimes the oblong nucleus represents the 


1 Sabatier, loc. cit., p. 149, says of the septum of Batrachia: “Une particula- 
rité digne de remarque de la cloison inter-auriculaire, c’est son indépendance & 
peu plus complete des faisceaux musculaires qui tapissent les parois. En effet, 
elle passe au dessus d’eux en y adhérant légérement, mais sans interrompre leurs 
parcours et sans influer en rien ‘sur leur direction et leur disposition de telle 
sorte que, la cloison enlevée, il ne reste, sur les parois auriculaires, pour ainsi 
dire, aucun temoin de sa presence.” 

I must differ from the latter part of this statement. The bands which I have 
described, always thick and well marked, especially the anterior, prevent this 
description from being correct; but, as I have said, the greatest number of 
muscular fibres in the septum are derived from these two bands, and apart from 
them the septum is almost independent of the auricular walls. 


THE SEPTUM ATRIORUM OF FROG AND RABBIT. 345 


thickest part in the fibres. But when we prepare a septum 
in alcohol, as above described, all the fibres appear striated. 
It is to be noticed that naturally isolated fibres of the thinnest 
possible diameter are striated like the fibrille in the muscles 
of a frog killed in an alcohol bath. The network of muscles is 
in some places so thick as to cover the whole microscopical 
field, and sometimes they have interstices nearly as extended 
as the field of vision in Hartnack, Oc. 3, obj. 8, 25 cent. The 
whole septum of the frog prepared in alcohol offers us one of 
the most beautiful combinations of the tissues we have men- 
tioned. 


Nerve-fibres and -cells. 


Through the complicated network of muscular fibres and 
connective tissue run nervous fibres, the course of which is 
marked by ganglion-cells. The physiologists recognise these 
ganglion-cells as the centra motoria of the frog’s heart ; compare 
especially the experiments of Stannius. Ludwig, Miiller’s 
Arch. 1848, p. 140, has described these nerves, as has also 
Bidder, Ib. 1852, p. 163°. 

To the observations of Bidder I have to add that there are 
to be found single medullated nerve-fibres, running a long 
solitary course, and furnished at intervals with single ganglion- 
cells, often set on alternate sides, like the buds on the twig of a 
tree. I have seen one of the two principal nerve-trunks divide 


l The latter says, ‘‘ Die beiden gleichstarken Herziste des Vagus an der Vor- 
hofswand zusammentreffend sich zu einem Knotenoder Plexus vereinigen, aus 
welchem zwei Fiiden von verschiedener Dicke hervorgehen, die divirgirend am 
vorderen und hinteren Rande der Scheidewand verlaufen. Der vordere ist 
diinner und linger, der hintere kiirzer und stirker, beide aber bilden, sobald 
sie mit dem Septum an dem Rande der Kammer gelangt sind, jedenfails eine 
starke sehr kenntliche Ausschwellung...... Auf ihrem Verlauf in der Scheidewand 
zeigen diese beiden Nerven wiederum reichliche Ganglien-formation, die aber in 
Einzelnen grosse Verschiedenheiten darbietet, indem die Kugeln entweder 
vereinzelt ligen und auf der ganzen Strecke ohne erhebliche Unterbrechung 
sich folgen, oder in gréssere und kleinere Gruppen mit dazwischen liegenden 
gangliosen Partheien gesammelt sind. Immer aber, welches auch vorher 
das Verhiltniss der Kugeln zu den Fasern gewesen sein mag, erscheint an 
beiden Nerven nahe yor ihrem Uebergang’in den Ventrikel ein microscopisches 
Ganglion yon welchem aus dieselben in einer kurzen Strecke ganglienlos zu dem 
ringformigen klappenartigen Wulst sich fortsetzen, der den Uebergang in den 
Ventrikel bezeichnet. Au fdiesem Wege geben beide Scheidewandnervstiamme 
mehrere feine, oft nur aus zwei Primitivfasern bestehende Aestchen ab, die ge- 
wohnlich bei ihrem Abgange am Hauptstamme, nicht aber in weiterem Verlaufe 
mit Nervenzellen versehen sind. Diese Aestchen endigen iibrigens nicht an dem 
Septum selbst, sondern setzen sich in die aiissere Wand der Atrien fort.” 


VOL. VIII., 23 


346 MR CHAMPNEYS. 


and then unite again. The longer (anterior) and somewhat 
thinner nerye-trunk (F) runs at first horizontally along the 
band of muscular fibres formed by the horizontally running 
fibres of the two principal muscular bundles, but near the 
insertion of the anterior bundle (c) it suddenly curves down 
and runs almost perpendicularly to the ventricle. With the 
exception of the first part of the course of this nerve, the 
nerves run generally independently of the muscular bundles. 
The posterior and somewhat thicker nerve-stem (E) runs almost 
immediately perpendicularly straight to the ventricle. I must 
differ from Bidder in the last sentence of his which I have 
quoted; in no case have I found even one single nervous 
fibre unconnected with nerve-cells in any part of its course. 
The best preparations for studying the nerves are certainly 
those with gold choride, and Bidder used no reagents. 

The nerve-cells are in some cases imbedded in the substance 
of the larger nerves, but often they are laterally placed, though 
in close apposition to the nerve. They are mostly pyriform and 
unipolar, with a maximum diameter about three times that 
of a red blood-corpuscle. Their arrangement and appearance 
on the larger trunks correspond with those figured by Mayer’ 
in “the Sympathetic of the Frog.” 

Endothelium.—The Endothelium has the usual character of 
large plates, varying in size and shape in different parts of the 
septum, and on directly opposite sides. Their shape is irre- 
gularly square or long and diamond-shaped, and between these 
all intermediate forms are found. The contours are tolerably 
straight or very wavy, and silver shews round dark balls in 
many places between adjacent cells. Sometimes we find among 
them pigment-cells. The endothelium covers both sides of the 
septum. 

Blood-vessels.—There are no blood-vessels in the septum of 
the frog as there are in that of the rabbit. Hyrtl has shewn 
that the whole of the frog’s heart is destitute of blood- 
vessels. 


1 Beobachtungen und Reflexionen tiber den Bau und die Verrichtungen des 
Sympathischen Nervensystemes. Fig. 10. 


THE SEPTUM ATRIORUM OF FROG AND RABBIT. 347 


Septum ATRIORUM OF THE RABBIT. 


Methods of Preparation. 


Injection of the heart with various reagents was tried, but fur- 
nished no good results. The method at last adopted with some suc- 
cess was to carefully cut out the septum from the heart, if possible 
still beating, to stretch it out on wax with glass pins, raising it a 
little from the wax so that the septum was nowhere in contact with 
the wax, then to plunge the whole into acidulated water for a few 
minutes, then to remove the superfluous water from beneath the 
septum by shaking it thoroughly ; then either to plunge the whole 
into 3 per cent. gold chloride solution, or to keep it constantly wet 
with this solution, by adding the solution continually in small quanti- 
ties from a drawn-out glass tube. It was exposed to this fluid for a 
time varying from five to ten minutes, according to the thickness of 
the septum, then left in acidulated water till it acquired the proper 
colour. After this it was removed and laid on a glass slide with 
glycerin and covered with a cover-glass. But only in thin septa did 
the glycerin make it transparent enough for examination ; in grown- 
up animals it was too thick. The best results were furnished by re- 
moving the septum, after it was coloured, from the acidulated water, 
laying it for some time in alcohol, pressing it gently with a glass rod 
to help the removal of the water; then a few minutes in oleum caryo- 
phyllorum, and mounting it in damar. This shewed the course of the 
nerves and the position of the cells better than any other method, 
but the specimens soon became too dark for use. 

To learn the course of the muscular fibres the fresh septum in 
glycerin, stretched out on the edges of a wax-cell mounted on a glass 
slide, furnished the best results ; hyperosmic acid furnished no good 
results. 

For sections the whole septum was treated as above with gold 
chloride, but it was exposed to the solution for fifteen minutes to 
penetrate the thicker parts, and only exposed to the light in acidu- 
lated water for a short time in order that the surface might not be too 
dark. It was then imbedded in a mixture of wax and oil and cut 
with free hand in the usual manner. 


Nerves.—There was often a considerable, though microsco- 
pic, nerve-trunk, which ran in general vertically downwards 
across the fossa-ovalis, and was apparently intended for distri- 
bution in the septum-ventriculorum, which destination its 
direction, its considerable size throughout, and the fact that it 
rarely gave off a single branch, seemed to denote. This nerve 
was sometimes accompanied by an artery of equal size. Some- 
times this nerve ran from the anterior and superior part of the 
limbus, near the foramen-ovale, curving backwards; oftener it 


23—2 


348 MR CHAMPNEYS. 


was found at the posterior part of the fossa-ovalis, sometimes 
even in the muscular bundle forming the posterior boundary of 
that fossa. In two cases I found two or three very minute 
ganglion-cells imbedded in this nerve as it crossed the fossa- 
ovalis. In addition to this there were sometimes one or two 
minute nerves having a similar direction, but not extending 
far, and ending in the septum. 

In the limbus and muscular boundaries of the fossa-ovalis 
there were sometimes many nerves to be seen, having in 
general the same direction as the above, and in certain cases a 
plexus, which was almost invariably in connection with the 
ganglion-mass, to be shortly described, and therefore in the 
posterior and superior part of the limbus, above and behind 
the fossa-ovalis. In one case where the ganglion was situated 
lower down than usual, viz. behind and below the fossa-ovalis, 
the plexus was there also, but in one case where no ganglion 
could be found in the usual place, the plexus was still there’. 

Nerve-cells—The nerve-cells in the septum atriorum of the 
rabbit are of very different sizes and kinds. I distinguish three 
varieties. (1) The first sort are very small, having a maximum 
diameter generally half that of a red blood-corpuscle. These 
I have found embedded deeply in the substance of the larger 
nerves, and are the only nerve-cells which I have found any 
distance removed from the muscular parts; I have for instance 
found two or three of these as above described, embedded in a 
large nerve as it crossed the fossa-ovalis. They form no gan- 
ghon-mass. (2) The second have a maximum diameter about 
twice that of a red blood-corpuscle, and are by far the most 
numerous. These constitute the principal ganglion masses. 
(3) The third are rare. They have a maximum diameter 
about five times as great as that of a red blood-corpuscle, and 
are found not thrust into the substance of nerves or forming 
considerable ganglion-masses, but I have found them connected 
with a single medullated fibre, as in the frog. These are 
pyriform and unipolar, and resemble those found in the septum 
of the frog, except that they are larger’. 


1 Scarpa in his work on the nerves of the heart mentions (Tabule Neurologi- 
c@, 1794, p. 2) nerves in the auricle, and figures them (Tab. vit. Fig. 2), but only 
on the exterior. 

2 Lee in his treatise on the nerves and ganglia of the heart (Phil. Trans. of 


THE SEPTUM ATRIORUM OF FROG AND RABBIT. 349 


With regard to the position of the ganglion-cells I can 
affirm that the first variety (1) are the only nerve-cells which 
I have found removed from muscular tissue. I have found 
these embedded in the substance of the principal nerve which 
I have described as crossing the septum, and also in other 
large nerves. JI have never found more than six of these 
together, and these not in close apposition. 

The second variety (2) form the principal ganglion masses. 
With regard to the position of these, I can affirm, that, in spite 
of some irregularities, I have found them in by far the greatest 
number of instances forming a well-marked mass, occupying 
a constant position, viz. in the muscular boundary of the fossa- 
ovalis at its posterior and superior part, between the openings 
of the right vena superior and cava inferior (Fig. 2c). Sec- 
tions shew that it les not embedded in the muscular substance, 
but on the right side of the septum and superficial to the mus- 
cular fibres. It is often in connection with a considerable 
plexus of fine nerves, as above stated. The number of cells 
varied with the age of the animal, as will be mentioned. 

As irregularities I have found this mass lower down than 
usual, viz. behind and below the fossa-ovalis, and in one soli- 
tary instance, where the place usually occupied by this ganglion 
was devoid of cells and of the usual plexus of nerve-fibres, 
I found a large mass of several hundred of these cells below 
and a little behind the foramen-ovale, but this mass lay on the 
left side of the septum. This was in an adult rabbit. I have 
also in one large rather old individual found nerve-cells in 
nearly the whole of the limbus, but as this was a lamellated 
preparation, I cannot give their exact position; I never subse- 


Royal Soc. of London, 1849, p. 47), treats, neither in the text nor figures, of the 
nerves or ganglia in the auricle, still less of those in the septum. His descrip- 
tions are quite general, as the following extract shews) (p. 47): ‘It can be 
clearly demonstrated that every artery distributed throughout the walls of 
the uterus and heart, and every muscular fasciculus of these organs, is supplied 
with nerves upon which ganglia are formed.” If this isso the innervation of the 
mammal’s heart must be essentially different from that of the Frog, according 
to Bidder’s investigations, for only in the neighbourhood of the septum auricu- 
lorum could he find ganglia or nerves. 

Neither Searpa nor Bidder mention the nerves or ganglia of the septum 
auriculorum in man or in any of the mammals which they have examined. : 

Krause, in his work on the anatomy of the rabbit, also says no word on this 
subject. 


350 MR CHAMPNEYS. 


quently found them so dispersed. These were, however, excep- 
tions to the vast majority of instances, 


Fig, 2. 


Diagram of a longitudinal section from the upper half of the septum 
atriorum of the rabbit. 


A. Muscles cut longitudinally, 
B. Muscles cut transversely. 
C. Ganglion. 


Differences in relation to age.—Two great differences may be 
noticed between the septum of young and adult rabbits; age 
increases the richness, first of muscular fibres, then of nerves 


THE SEPTUM ATRIORUM OF FROG AND RABBIT. 351 


and nerve-cells. In the young rabbit the floor of the fossa- 
ovalis is entirely composed of connective tissue, and has no 
muscular fibres. Sabatier makes the same remark (p. 189) of 
Birds as well as of Mammals, and he says that the addition of 
muscular fibres is most marked in the larger animals. I have 
not had time to study the genesis of the muscular fibres among 
the connective tissue of the septum, but as this takes place long 
after birth, and as the floor of the fossa-ovalis is very thin in 
young animals, there could hardly be found a better place for 
studying this most interesting process. I may state, however, 
that I have seen no signs of the process being one of gradual 
encroachment from the periphery, and imagine the genesis 
takes place immediately in situ and independently of the sur- 
rounding muscular masses, though these also grow. There is 
often a marked growth of muscular fibres, constituting the 
vertical band which sometimes divides the fossa-ovalis into two 
parts. This absence of all muscular fibres in the young animal 
in the floor of the fossa-ovalis is one of which any one may 
convince himself, the thinness of the septum favouring the 
examination. The muscular and nervous constituents seem to 
grow in dependence on one another, for both of these are far 
less plentiful in the young than in the old individual; and, 
moreover, with the single exception of the nerve which I have 
described, which seems destined for the septum ventriculorum, 
and the two or three nerve-cells which I have twice found 
embedded in it, nerve-fibres were, however small, hardly ever, 
nerve-cells never found, except in the close neighbourhood of 
muscular fibres. 


Anomalies.—The following anomalies have incidentally struck me 
in my work :— 


(1) In one young rabbit I found a small free band of fibres 
running from the anterior border of the septum, i.e. from the anterior 
part of the limbus, across the fossa ovalis, and joining the septum 
again at its posterior border. Henle (p. 8) says, ‘‘ Zuweilen spannt 
sich ein Gitterwerk feiner Fiden iiber die Oeffnung:” this of course 
refers to man. 


(2) I found, in both a young and an old rabbit, the foramen ovale 
entirely shut, but the “valvula foraminis ovalis” with a perfectly free 
anterior border. This apparently contradicts the usual account which 
says that the foramen ovale is closed by the forward growth of the 


352 MR CHAMPNEYS. SEPTUM ATRIORUM OF FROG, &c. 


left of the two falces (“ halbmondférmige Saiime,” Henle), or at any 
rate shews that this is not always the method. Indeed, from the 
observations of Rokitansky the septum is developed as a perfect parti- 
tion which afterwards, becomes perforated with innumerable holes 
forming “ Gitterwerk,” and the falces are a later growth’. 


(3) I have found two openings in the septum, which was very 
thin, in an adult rabbit. Neither of these occupied the position of 
the norma! foramen ovale, but were more posteriorly placed ; they were 
not surrounded by any rim of fibres, nor provided with any valve, 
but were simply formed by the divergence of the scanty fibres, in this 
case formed simply from the left falx or valvula foraminis ovalis. 
These were no doubt persistent holes in the original “‘ Gitterwerk” of 
Rokitansky *. 


In conclusion I may add, that in the course of my work 
I have many times coloured with gold and carefully examined 
the semilunar and atrio-ventricular valves for nerve-fibres and 
cells, as well as the papillee from both ventricles, but with the 
exception of one doubtful case, in which a mitral valve seemed 
to have a few cells which looked like nerve-cells close to its 
attached border, there was never any trace of either to be seen. 
The papille, however, must sometimes, or in some animals, 
possess nerve-cells, for Stricker has once seen the freshly 
excised papilla from one of the ventricles of a dog, independently 
and rhythmically contract. 


1 He says (loc. cit. p. 113), “Indem diese Courtine sich weiter herablasst, 
erreicht ihr unterer freier Rand endlich die oben beschriebene quere auriculo- 
ventricular-Spalte, iiberbriickt dieselbe, sich mit ihr rechtwinklig kreuzend, 
und verschmilzt mit deren Lippen, welche unter einem auch mit einander ver- 
wachsen. Hs ist der Vorhofsack hiemit in zwei Ratime gesondert,” and (p. 114), 
‘Der das urspriinglich edurchbrochene haiitige Septum—das Gitter—umfassende 
dickere Rahmen wiachst ringsum.”’ 

2 He says (p. 115, 3), “‘Dabei kommen seine Licher durch Wachsthum der sie 
umfassenden Balken in grosser Anzahl zum Verschlusse, wahrend andere 
bleiben und sich vergréssern.”’ 


PRELIMINARY NOTE ON AN EPITHELIAL ARRANGE- 
MENT IN FRONT OF THE RETINA AND ON THE 
EXTERNAL SURFACE OF THE CAPSULE OF THE 
LENS.—By J. C. Ewart, Student of Medicine, University 
of Edinburgh. 


Max ScHuLtzeE states that the membrana limitans interna of 
the retina immediately invests the vitreous humour to which it 
is often intimately connected, that it is partly formed by the 
supporting fibres which traverse the layer of the optic nerve 
fibres, these fibres being arranged serially and prolonged into 
conical flattened enlargements, or after undergoing division, 
like roots of a tree, are continuous with several such terminal 
dilatations that ultimately coalesce to form the smooth mem- 
brana limitans interna. 

Kolliker described this membrane as intimately connected 
with the retina, but differing from it in consistence; hence he 
ranked it amongst the vitreous membranes. Henle also con- 
sidered it an independent membrane, to the outer surface of 
which the radial-supporting fibres of the retina, with their 
expanded extremities, are applied, calling it the limitans hya- 
loidea, to shew its identity with the special membrane of the 
vitreous humour; but Max Schultze, though fully recognising 
the importance of the separability of the m. limitans, and 
the difference in resistance between it and the spongy subja- 
cent layer, considers it identical in structure with the supporting 
spongy connective tissue. That the internal limiting mem- 
brane is not composed of spongy connective tissue, or that, 
besides the limiting membrane already described, there is 
another epithelial membrane lying on the anterior surface of 
the retina, may be demonstrated by the following method. 

Take a fresh ox’s eye, divide it transversely into an anterior 
and posterior part. From the posterior half evacuate the vitre- 
ous humour, and pour in some half per cent. solution of nitrate 
of silver; in ten minutes wash this out with distilled water, and 
expose for a short time in a good light. On examining the 
surface of a retina, thus prepared, next the vitreous humour 


354 MR EWART. 


with a No. vil. objective and No. 4 eyepiece (Hartnack) a 
beautiful mosaic of epithelial cells is seen. The cells, varying 
from a faint yellow to a dark brown, are multiform, fitting 
closely into each other, constituting a continuous layer, which 
can be traced over the whole retina. Some of the cells (with 
No. vil. and 4) are nearly half an inch long, and from one to 
two lines in breadth. Filling up the small spaces between the 
larger cells are many small ones, sometimes only half the size of 
a blood-corpuscle, and more or less hexagonal, thus forming a 
centre, from which larger cells are often seen radiating. The 
edges of the cells are slightly irregular but not serrated, the 
surface next the vitreous humour is smooth, and if the eye has 
been quite fresh, even after the addition of nitrate of silver, 
well-marked nuclei may be seen, either as small round spots, or 
as irregular crescent-like bodies. When treated with hema- 
toxylin these. nuclei are brought well out, and have often the 
same irregular appearance. If after staining with silver the 
preparation is left some time in strong acetic acid the whole is 
rendered more transparent, and the nuclei of the cells, both of 
the epithelial layer and those of the vascular sheath, become 
visible. The retina being very vascular, at almost any part, on 
altering this focus, you see one or more of the vascular sheaths 
discovered by His. The sheaths are easily distinguished from 
the fine epithelium on the surface by the different arrangement 
of the cells, which are generally larger and often run at right 
angles to those of the epithelial layer. The epithelium cells of 
the epithelial layer over the smaller vessels and capillaries are 
long and narrow, bridging over the space like so many small 
arches. Over the large vessels sometimes there are two, or 
three, lengths of elongated narrow cells; sometimes they have 
their ordinary form, but with many small cells between the 
large ones, as is well seen where the vessel has ruptured, leaving 
the epithelium above entire. The sheaths of the small vessels 
and capillaries are chiefly composed of elongated cells similar 
to, but better marked than, those figured by Dr Thin in his 
paper on the “Lymphatic System of the Cornea’ In each 
cell an oval nucleus can be seen when hematoxylin and acetic 
acid are added to a silver preparation. Besides these long 
1 Laneet, Feb. 14, 1874. 


EPITHELIAL ARRANGEMENT IN FRONT OF RETINA, &c. 355 


pointed cells in the larger vessels numerous irregular cells run 
across the tube, seemingly on a deeper plane; these are best 
seen when the silver has entered the lumen of the tube through 
its probably staining the cells of the intima. The sheaths 
envelope all the vessels, and not only the small and medium- 
sized ones as formerly described. 

The epithelial layer above described extends over all the 
surface of the retina, but I have not been able to trace it be- 
yond the ora serrata on to the ciliary processes. Immediately 
under it the vessels and connective tissue can be seen, and 
between the bundles of connective tissue spaces are left which 
in the fresh state are filled with nerve-fibres. 

Lying on this layer of epithelium is the vitreous humour. 
The vitreous humour is described as having no distinct capsule, 
and the posterior three-fourths of it can easily be removed, but 
at and near the ora serrata some of the fibres of the outer layers 
of the vitreous humour dip into the substance of the retina 
through narrow spaces left in the epithelial lining, and thus the 
two firmly adhere. The vitreous humour is also adherent by 
some of its external and connective tissue-like fibres to the 
ciliary processes, but has no attachment to the posterior surface 
of the lens. 

In the sheep the epithelial layer is easily demonstrated, it 
only differs from that of the ox in that the majority of the epi- 
thelial cells are smaller. At some parts, especially over the 
vessels, there are groups of large cells; these however are not 
elongated, as in the ox, but are generally circular, and, when 
treated with acetic acid, present a distinct round nucleus with 
a nucleolus. The lymphatic sheaths are composed of long 
pointed cells with oval nuclei; at a deeper plane numerous 
nuclei run across the tube, corresponding to the cells already 
described running across the-vessel. On the surface of the retina 
next the choroid there is exactly the same appearance, as that 
figured by Professor Henle in the epithelial layer of the ol- 
factory region of the horse (Fig. 642, p. 834, vol. IL). 

In the cat the epithelial cells are nearly all of the same size, 
they are smaller but more regular than those of the ox. The 
sheaths round the capillaries are especially well marked, and as 
in the sheep, numerous nuclei are seen on some of the sheaths. 


356 MR EWART. 


In the common fowl the epithelial cells are exceedingly small 
—few being as large as a human blood-corpuscle. The greater 
number are nearly circular, others are four, five, or six-sided, 
all uniting to form what appears with a No. vi. a very fine 
network. Under this thin layer fine parallel bundles of connec- 
tive tissue are seen, which have a striated appearance like a 
muscular fibrilla. This striated appearance is due to clear 
spaces which, in the fresh state, are filled with fine nerve-fibres. 
On the surface next the choroid the inner segments of the cones 
—each ending in a bright red or yellow lenticular body—are 
seen passing through the round spaces of the external limiting 
membrane. 


LENS. 


On taking the anterior half of an ox’s eye, removing the 
vitreous humour from the posterior surface of the lens, and 
treating with silver, as before, a layer of epithelium is found-on 
the posterior surface of the capsule. 

Babuchin says that several authors have found epithelial 
cells on the posterior surface of the capsule of the lens, which 
probably resulted from the circumstance, that the inner surface 
of the anterior capsule has been described as covered with epi- 
thelial cells. He thinks it would be more natural to say that 
the epithelium which forms the anterior layer, and the direct. 
continuation of the posterior, as well as this last itself, is covered 
by the capsule. He thinks that the posterior extremities of the 
fibres of the lens, which directly abut against the capsule, or 
the spherical bodies which arise from the breaking up of these 
ends, have been taken for the epithelial cells. 

Whatever kind of epithelial cells may have been described, 
those seen by treating the capsule as above could not be any of 
the structures Professor Babuchin mentions. In the ox the cells 
are large, sometimes measuring half an inch each way with 
No. vu. Hartnack: they are polygonal: the nucleus is of a 
bright yellow colour, and sometimes under that objective seems 
as large as a small pea. The edges are irregular, and processes 
from one cell dovetail into those immediately in contact with it. 
The surface is smooth, and under the cells the outer fibres of the 
capsule of the lens are seen. At some parts spaces are left 


EPITHELIAL ARRANGEMENT IN FRONT OF RETINA, &. 357 


between the fibres which communicate with each other, thus 
corresponding to the spaces in the cornea which contain the 
branching cells. At a lower level the characteristic serrated 
fibres of the lens come into view. 

In the domestic fowl all the cells but a few round the 
margin are hexagonal—the sides of each being twice as long as 
the ends—there is a nucleus about half the size of the one in 
the ox, and, as in the ox, there is a nucleolus. These cells are 
arranged in parallel rows, and under each row is a large bundle 
of connective tissue ; between each bundle is a small lymphatic 
space, similar to those between the bundles of connective tissue 
of tendons; these spaces as well as the bundles of fibres are 
covered over by the epithelial cells—each row of cells fitting 
exactly into those on each side of it. 

Near the margin of the capsule the cells are nearly square, 
and not arranged in parallel rows as in the centre. Immediately 
behind this epithelial layer is the vitreous humour, which is seen 
to be in contact with epithelial cells nearly all round, but only 
adherent at the ora serrata and the ciliary processes. 

In a puppy-dog four days old well marked lymphatic sheaths 
are seen, similar to those of the retina, immediately under the 
posterior epithelium. The cells of the posterior epithelium are, 
except at the margins, hexagonal, and the edges are distinctly 
serrated. At the margin they are often irregular in shape, and 
sometimes not serrated. On the anterior surface of the capsule 
of the lens next the aqueous humour the epithelial layer of cells 
is similar to those on the posterior surface of the cornea. 


NOTE ON AN INTERESTING CASE OF MALFOR- 
MATION. By Joun W. Octe, M.D., Physician to St 
George's Hospital. (Pl. VIII. figs. 1 and 2.) 


THE following description of the case of a man who was born 
in the year 1845 without lower extremities was sent to me by 
a physician in Brazil, viz. Dr J. A. Alves Ribeiro of Ceara, a 
most able and intelligent physician. He is by trade a saddler, 
and has always had good health: his parents were quite healthy, 
and none of his relations were in any way malformed, and when 
he was of full age he had attained the height, as regards his 
trunk, of a fully grown person. The trunk and the upper ex- 
tremities present nothing whatever remarkable; and on exami- 
nation the bones of the pelvis appear to be well formed, and the 
penis, the scrotum, the testicles, the nates and anus are per- 
fectly natural and well formed: but on each side of the nates, 
where the legs ought, as it were, to be attached, masses or 
cushions of soft flesh exist without any appearance of a rudi- 
mentary limb: -on the left side this mass is simply rounded and 
rather small, whilst on the right side it is larger and peduncu- 
lated. The whole circumference of the surface corresponding to 
the pelvis terminating in a horizontal line surrounding the 
body at about two inches above the root of the penis is covered 
by hair. The man is of very active and energetic habits, and 
though he cannot read or write, has a clear intellect and quick 
perception. Huis powers of locomotion are peculiar. He can 
ride well on horseback, mounting and dismounting entirely 
without assistance. He progresses (or walks) quickly, lifting 
the trunk in a remarkable way upon his arms and propelling it 
forward: and he runs fast, resting first on one arm and then on 
the other, and throwing the trunk forward with a swing from 
right to left. 

Of the illustrations appended, No. I. shows the man sitting 
upright upon the nates; and No. II. shows him recumbent, 
thus exhibiting the rounded masses on each side of the nates, 
and the surface extensively covered with hair as above 


described. 


AN ILLUSTRATION OF THE RELATIONS OF THE 
CONVOLUTIONS OF THE HUMAN CEREBRUM 
TO THE OUTER SURFACE OF THE SKULL. 
By Proressor TURNER. 


In the last number of this Journal I gave a short account 
of the relations of the convolutions of the human cerebrum 
to the outer surface of the skull and head. At that time 
I had not had prepared a drawing in illustration of these rela- 
tions. During the early part of the winter I made a special 
dissection of the head of an adult man, and requested Mr C. 
Berjeau to prepare a careful drawing of the dissection, which 
drawing he has now reproduced on wood. M. Broca and Prof. 
Bischoff, the only authors who had, previously to the publi- 
cation of my paper, attempted the accurate localization of the 
cerebral lobes, determined their relations by drilling holes in 
the skull, inserting wooden pegs through them into the brain, 
and then, after removing the skull cap, ascertaining the part 
of the surface of the hemisphere into which the pegs had 
penetrated. This plan:of drilling holes through the skull and 
inserting pegs into the brain is one, which though it may 
conveniently be employed, when the object is merely to obtain 
an idea of the extent of the lobes of the cerebrum in relation 
to the surface of the head, requires the expenditure of too much 
time and labour, when the position of the individual convolu- 
tions is to be established. I adopted therefore another method 
in this dissection. With a fine saw I cut out definite pieces of 
bone along the sutures and other lines, which marked the 
boundaries of the different areas, into which, as I described in 
my previous communication, the surface of the skull may con- 
veniently be subdivided. As each piece was raised from its 
position, the particular portion of the surface of the brain 
which was covered by it was drawn, and in this manner a 
projection of the convolutions on the outer surface of the skull 
was obtained. 

Before describing the figure it may be convenient to restate 
the names of the regions into which I subdivided each lateral half 


360 PROFESSOR TURNER. 


of the skull. Taking the sutures as the guides to the primary 
divisions, I spoke of an occipital, or post-lambdoidal ; a frontal, 
or pre-coronal; a parietal, subdivided into an antero-parietal 
or post-coronal, and a postero-parietal or pre-lambdoidal, by a 
line drawn vertically through the parietal eminence from the 
squamous to the sagittal suture; and asquamoso-sphenoid, The 
frontal region was then sub-divided into a supero-frontal, a 
mid-frontal and an infero-frontal area: the antero-parietal into 
a supero- and an infero-antero-parietal: the postero-parietal into 
a supero- and an infero-postero-parietal: the squamoso-sphe- 
noid into a squamoso-temporal and an ali-sphenoid region. 
The occipital area was undivided. 


R. Fissure of Rolando, which separates the frontal from the parietal lobe. 
P.O. Parieto-occipital fissure between the parietal and occipital lobes. 


S.S. Fissure of Sylvius which separates the temporo-sphenoidal from the 
frontal and parietal lobes. 


SF, MF. IF. The supero, mid, and infero-frontal sub-divisions of the frontal 
area of the skull: the letters are placed on the superior, middle and inferior 
frontal convolutions. 


RELATIONS OF CEREBRAL CONVOLUTIONS TO THE SKULL. 361 


SAP the supero-antero-parietal area of the skull: S is placed on the 
ascending parietal convolution, AP on the ascending frontal convolution. 


TAP the infero-antero-parietal area of the skull: I is placed on the ascend- 
ing parietal, AP on the ascending frontal convolution. 


SPP the supero-postero-parietal area of the skull, the letters are placed on 
the angular convolution. ; 


IPP the infero-postero-parietal area of the skull, the letters are placed on 
‘the mid-temporo-sphenoidal convolution. 


X the convolution of the parietal eminence, or supra-marginal gyrus. 


O the occipital area of the skull, the letter is placed on the mid-occipital 
convolution, 


Sq the squamoso-temporal region of the skull, the letters are placed on the 
mid-temporo-sphenoidal convolution. 


AS the ali-sphenoid region of the skull, the letters are placed on the tip of 
the supero-temporo-sphenoidal convolution, 


VOL. VIII. 24 


ON THE PLACENTATION OF THE SLOTHS. 
By Proressor TuRNER. 


In this Journal, June, 1873, a short abstract was given of a memoir 
communicated to the Royal Society of Edinburgh on the Placenta- 
tion of the Sloths. This memoir has now been printed in eatenso 
and illustrated with four quarto plates, in Vol. xxvii. of the Trans- 
actions of that Society. The memoir opens with a short historical 
introduction, in which the meagre observations of Rudolphi and 
G. C. Carus on the placenta in Sradypus are referred to, and the 
comments thereon by Von Baer, H. Milne-Edwards, Owen, Huxley, 
and Rolleston. A detailed description of the gravid uterus’ of 
Cholopus Hofimanni and of the naked-eye and microscopic cha- 
racters of its placenta is then given. The characters of the fetus 
and of the remarkable envelope named by Welcker the Epitrichium 
are then described. The memoir concludes with a chapter entitled 
“General Observations on the Placentation of the Edentata ;” and as 
in this chapter the results arrived at by the dissection are summarised, 
it is reproduced here— 


General Observations on the Placentation of the Edentata. 


From the description given of the form and structure of the 
placenta in this specimen of Cholopus, and from the accurate inter- 
pretation which I am able to offer of Carus’s figure of the placenta 
in Bradypus, it is evident that in the Sloths the placenta is not 
cotyledonary, 7.e. if we use the term cotyledon, in the sense in which 
it is usually employed by zoologists, to express a particular form of 
non-deciduate placenta, subdivided into distinct and scattered masses 
as in the Ruminants. It can only be called cotyledonary, if the 
term be employed, as is sometimes done in speaking of the deciduate 
human placenta, as equivalent to lobes. To avoid confusion in the 
use of terms, it may be well to speak of the sloth’s placenta as a 
dome-like,- multilobate, aggregate placenta, the lobes of which are 
discoidal. It is a deciduate placenta in the fullest sense of the 
word; for not only is a decidua reflexa shed along with the feetal 
membranes, but if the plane at which I separated the placenta from 
the uterus be, as I think there can be no doubt it is, the natural 
plane of separation of these parts during parturition, then the feetal 
membranes carry away with them the deciduous serotina, the curling 
arteries, the utero-placental veins, and the intra-placental maternal 
vessels. I have been able, therefore, to put on the basis of an actual 
demonstration the deciduate structure of the placenta in the Sloth, 
which Rolleston, Owen, and Milne-Edwards, from the study of Carus’s 
drawing, had regarded as not improbable. 

The character of the placentation in the Sloths having now been 
determined, it will be interesting in the next place to compare it 


THE PLACENTATION OF THE SLOTHS. 363 


with what has been recorded respecting the placentation of the other 
mammals included in the order Edentata. Unfortunately, however, 
we are not provided with such detailed information relative to the 
placental characters of these animals as to enable one to make so 
complete and exact a comparison as could be desired. Any remarks, 
therefore, which may be based on this comparison must be regarded 
as provisional merely, and to be subject to revision when more precise 
knowledge is obtained. 

Of the placenta of the Armadillos nothing further has apparently 
been recorded than is contained in the brief statement made by Prof. 
Owen’, that it is a single, thin, oblong disc, with which the maternal 
deciduous substance is interblended. 

‘ Our information as to the placenta of Orycteropus is also equally 
brief, and is limited to the observation recorded by Prof. Huxley in 
his “Tatroduction to Classification’,” based on the examination of a 
Specimen in the stores of the Royal College of Surgeons, London, 
that in this genus the placenta is discoidal and deciduate. 

Of the Hairy Anteaters, A. F. J. C. Mayer states* that in 
Myrmecophaga (Cyclothurus) didactyla a single orificium uteri exists, 
and in the gravid state the uterus and vagina are blended into a 
common cavity, and form a round membranous sac. The foetus in 
the specimen he examined was well developed and strongly haired, 
with the head presenting. The placenta was a thick roundish cake 
(Kuchen), and lay to the right in a special pouch of the uterus. The 
chorion and amnion were distinct, but the erythrois and allantois could 
not be distinguished in the torn membranes. Prof. Welcker, in his 
Memoir*, incidentally mentions that in J. didactyla the amnion and 
chorion cireumscribe in the usual way the border of a fungiform (pilz- 
férmig) placenta. The elder Milne-Edwards°® states that he has found 
in IV. didactyla a discoid placenta, but composed at its borders of small 
branched tufts: it did not appear to be united to the uterus by 
a decidua. His son, M. Alphonse Milne-Edwards, deseribed only 
last year® a placenta of Tamandua tetradactyla, which had been 
hardened in spirit for some years before it came into his possession. 
It occupied the larger part of the surface of the ovum, and was not 
composed of simple villosities like the placenta of the Pachydermata, 
but of vascular very compact vegetations. Its central part was thick 
and spongy; its borders well defined, with a smooth chorion beyond 
them, The vascular vegetations, he says, do not apparently resemble 
the reticulated folds and alveoli seen by Dr Sharpey in Manis. Some 
débris of uterine tissue indicated the presence of a decidua, but he 
could not speak positively on the subject. The placenta is unilobed, 
dome-like in the mode in which it is set on the chorion, and is named 
by Milne-Edwards placenta discoidal envahissant. The surface of 


1 Anatomy of Vertebrates, 111. p. 731. 1868. 

2 P. 104. London, 1869. 

3 Analecten fiir Vergleich. Anatomie. Zweite Sammlung, p. 54. Bonn, 1839. 
4 Abhand. der Natur. Gesell. zu Halle, Bd. 1x. 1864. 

» Lecons sur la Physiologie, rx. part 2, p. 563, note. Paris, 1870. 

5 Annales des Sciences Naturelles, xv. 1872. 


24—2 


364 PROFESSOR TURNER. 


the placenta next the embryo did not possess the projections seen by 
Carus in Bradypus, or by myself in Cholopus, but was smooth. No 
trace of an allantois was found. 

From the above descriptions it is clear that in the hairy ant-eaters 
the placenta is not diffused over the whole surface of the ovum, but 
is localised in a particular area. From Milne-Edwards’ figure the 
proportion of chorion occupied by the placenta is about equal to what 
T have seen in Cholopus, but the organ is not, as in the latter animal 
and in Bradypus, subdivided into lobes. From the expressions Kuchen 
employed by Mayer, pilz-formig by Welcker, discoid and spongy by 
Milne-Edwards, pere et jils, it is also clear that the organ possessed 
considerable thickness; and although the younger Milne-Edwards 
could not, from the condition of his specimen, speak positively of the 
presence of a decidua, the thick spongy character of the organ with 
the compact arrangement of the villi points rather to a deciduate 
than a non-deciduate structure. 

In the Tardigrada, the Dasypodide, and the Orycteropodidee, we 
have evidence then that the placenta is deciduate, and composed of 
one or more dise-shaped lobes. In the Myrmecophagide the evidence 
is not so complete, though I think it inclines in favour of the 
deciduate nature of the placenta. 

But when we turn to the Scaly Anteaters we find a placenta of 
a very different character. Some years ago Dr Sharpey examined 
the gravid uterus of a Manis, which, from the size of the foetus, was 
presumably near the full time. He observed several most important 
features in the arrangement and structure of the placenta, which he 
communicated to Professor Huxley, who incorporated them in his 
“‘ Klements of Comparative Anatomy'.” ‘The surface of the chorion 
is covered with fine reticulating ridges, interrupted here and there 
by round bald spots, giving it an alveolar aspect, something like the 
inside of the human gall-bladder, but finer. The inner surface of 
the uterus exhibits fine low ridges or villi vot reticulating quite so 
much.. The chorion presents a band free from villi, running longi- 
tudinally along its concavity, and there is a corresponding bald space 
on the surface of the uterus. The ridges of the chorion start from 
the margins of the bald stripe, and run round the ovum. The 
umbilical vesicle is fusiform.” 

In a letter to me, in reply to a request for further information 
about this specimen, Dr Sharpey states that it had been in spirit be- 
fore coming into his possession, and that the substance of the uterus 
and the tissues of the embryo were brown and fragile. An injection, 
both of the uterus and membranes, was attempted, but, from the 
condition of the parts, was unsuccessful. The elevations on the 
chorion corresponded to the finely-corrugated inner surface of the 
uterus. “I turned off the chorion like an everted stocking, and got 
the arrangement of the allantois, fusiform umbilical vesicle, omphalo- 
mesenteric and umbilical vessels. The ramifications of the umbilical 
vessels extended generally over the inner surface of the chorion, and 


1 Pp, 112, London, 1864. 


a) 


THE PLACENTATION OF THE SLOTHS. 865 


were lifted off with it from the receptacular part of the allantois, 
which was very extensive, and passed into the diverticula of the 
chorion. The uterine glands were abundant and easily seen, but IE 
could never distinctly trace their orifices ; it seemed to me as if the 
ducts opened not abruptly, but gradually and funnel-like among the 
placental rugee. I think you found this condition in the whale.” 

1 have not only to express my thanks to Dr Sharpey for this 
additional information, but to state that with great liberality he has 
allowed me to examine the original drawings of the chorion and 
uterine glands, and the specimen itself as it had been dissected by 
him, and to supplement his description by the following particulars. 
Although the preparation had now been for many years in spirit of 
wine, yet I had no difficulty in recognising the diffused arrangement 
of the fine villi of the chorion and the elongated band free from villi, 
such as Dr Sharpey had described. In its general aspect the villous 
surface resembled the appearance which I had seen and described in 
Dalenoptera and Orca’, though the ridges, folds, and villi of the 
chorion were finer than those seen in the Cetacea. The condition 
and age of the specimen were such as to render it impossible to make 
a satisfactory microscopic examination of the structure of the villi. 
The two extremities of the elongated chorion were unequal in ca- 
pacity, and the non-villous band extended in closer proximity to the 
more dilated than to the narrower pdle of the chorion. In the more 
dilated end part of the foetus had, in all likelihood, been lodged ; and 
it is probable that the poles of the chorion had been contained in two 
pouch-like recesses about the size of walnuts, one situated at each 
lateral extremity of the transversely elongated uterus. Each com- 
municated freely with the general cavity of the uterus by an orifice 
somewhat less in diameter than that of the pouch itself, and was 
lined by a prolongation of the uterine mucosa. Into the outer end 
of each pouch the very fine orifice of the Fallopian tube opened. 
T examined carefully the poles of the chorion to ascertain if a spot 
bare of villi, similar to what I had seen in Orca and in the mare, 
existed. At the narrower end the chorion was torn, so that the 
examination was not satisfactory, but the more dilated pole was 
entire, and in it no bare non-villous spot was recognised, so that 
if, as I suppose, the chorion enters the pouch-like recesses of the 
uterus, the villi investing it would have a relation to the mucosa 
lining each pouch as the villi covering the body of the chorion have 
to the mucosa lining the general cavity of the uterus. I saw no 
stellate bare spot on the chorion corresponding to the orificium uteri 
similar to what I have described in Orca and in the mare. Branched, 
eylindriform utricular glands, as figured in one of Dr Sharpey’s 
drawings, closely resembling those T have figured in Orca, and con- 
taining plenty of epithelial cells, the form ‘of which was not very 
distinct, though apparently columnar, could be seen without difficulty 
in the uterine mucous membrane, but I could not precisely ascertain 


1 As described and figured in my memoirs in the Transactions of this Society, 
Vol. xxyi. pp. 207 and 467, 1871. 


366 : PROFESSOR TURNER. 


the mode in which they opened on the surface of the mucosa, which 
was thickly studded with minute pits or fosse ; it is probable, how- 
ever, that they opened obliquely into the bottom of these pits. The 
free surfaces, both of the chorion and uterine mucosa, presented, 
without doubt, the appearance which one recognises as characteristic 
of a diffused non-deciduate placenta. 

The placenta, therefore, in Manis, differs in several most im- 
portant particulars, both in arrangement and structure, from what 
I have described in Cholopus. Not only is it diffused and non-deci- 
duate,.but both the allantois and umbilical vesicle remain as distinct 
sacs, and the utricular glands persist throughout the gravid uterine 
mucosa. 

The demonstration, therefore, of the diffused, non-deciduate cha- 
racter of the placenta in Manis by Dr Sharpey, and of the multilo- 
bate, discoid, deciduate placenta in Cholopus by myself, will render it 
necessary for the systematic zoologist to reconsider either the value 
of the placenta as the basis of a system of classification, or the pro- 
priety of retaining the Sloths and the Scaly Anteaters in the same 
order. If the characters of the placenta are to be regarded as of 
More importance in classification than those furnished by any other 
organ or combination of organs, then it is clear that the non-decidu- 
ate Manis can no longer be placed in the same order as the deciduate 
Tardigrade, But if the charaeters of the other organic systems in 
the animals belonging to the order Edentata, as at present accepted, 
exhibit a series of affinities, which to the mind of the zoologist may 
seem to outweigh the differences in placental structure, not only 
between Manis on the one hand, and Cholopus, Dasypus, and Oryc- 
teropus on the other, but, if my inference as to the deciduate nature 
of the placenta in Myrmecophaga be correct, between Manis and 
Myrmecophaga also—aftinities which would render it advisable that 
they should be retained in the same order,—then the placental system 
of classification is obviously not universally applicable, and will have 
to be abandoned. It would be out of place in this communication to 
enter into the consideration of the anatomy of the other organic 
systems in Cholopus, and to discuss how far its various organs resem- 
ble, or differ from, those of the genera with which it is usually 
associated ; but I hope, from the materials in my possession, to sup- 
plement this memoir, and draw up, in the course of the next few 
months, a detailed account of the structure of this animal, and to 
compare it, as far as the materials at my disposal will allow, with the 
other animals usually grouped with it in the order Edentata. 

Before bringing this memoir to a conclusion, it may not be with- 
out interest briefly to compare the placentation of the Sloths with 
that of the other orders of Deciduate mammals. 

It may help to make this comparison more complete if I introduce 
here some observations which I have recently made on the structure 
of the unimpregnated uterus of the Sloth. Through the kind permis- 
sion of Dr Sclater I received from A. H. Garrod, Esq., Prosector to 
the Zoological Society, the fresh carcase of a female Hoffmann’s Sloth, 
which had died in the Gardens early in the month of November. 


i 


THE PLACENTATION OF THE SLOTHS. 367 


An injection of coloured gelatine was passed into the arterial system 
from the abdominal aorta, and the uterus was then removed from the 
abdomen. The uterus was 31 inches long by ;ths inch broad. 
The Fallopian tubes were slender, the ovaries the size of peas, and 
lodged in peritoneal pouches, The cavity of the uterus was remark- 
ably large for a non-gravid organ, and through its somewhat con- 
stricted orifice which opened into the vestibule, the finger could be 
introduced into the cavity, which shewed no subdivision into cervix 
and body. 

The mucous membrane both on the anterior and posterior walls 
was elevated into longitudinal ridges such as I have already described 
in the pregnant uterus, but these ridges terminated about $ths inca 
from the orificium uteri, leaving a smooth surface of mucosa, The 
mucous membrane was very vascular; the small arteries both in it 
and in the submucous coat presented a corkscrew-like twist, the coils 
of which were close together, so that there can be no doubt that the 
curling arteries of the placenta pre-exist in the mucosa, and merely 
grow larger during pregnancy contemporancously with the develop- 
ment of the placenta. The veins were larger than the arteries, and 
serpentine in their course. The surface of the mucous membrane of 
the fundus uteri, and both horizontal and vertical sections through 
its thickness, were examined with reference to the presence of tubular 
utricular glands. Distinct evidence of their existence was obtained, 
though they were much more difficult to see and much less numerous 
than in the pig, mare, cetacean or Manis; they were short tubes, and 
did not appear to give off more than one or two branches, which ter- 
minated in rounded closed ends. They did not lie perpendicular to 
the plane of the surface, for in vertical sections they were irregularly 
divided, and they were arranged in groups so that they were more 
numerous in some than in other portions of the fundus. Their orifices 
on the free surface of the mucosa, which were recognised with some 
difficulty, were nearly circular in form, and a somewhat elongated 
epithelium projected from the wall towards the centre, leaving, how- 
ever, a small lumen; the polygonal ends of the epithelial cells were 
seen through the walls of the glands as they lay horizontally in the 
mucosa. Capillary loops surrounded the glands in the deeper part 
of the mucosa. In the smooth part of the mucosa near the orificium, 
although a careful search was made, no glands were seen, and the 
arteries did not possess the corkscrew-like twist, so that from these 
structural differences this part of the mucosa did not present the same 
characters as that of the fundus uteri. The connective tissue of the 
mucous membrane contained numerous well-marked corpuscles, and 
its surface was covered by a layer of cells, only the ovoid nuclei of 
which could be defined with precision. 

The placenta of the Carnivora is at once distinguished from that 
of the Sloth by several striking characters. By its zonary form; by 
the presence not only in the unimpregnated uterus, but in the non- 
placental area of the gravid uterine mucosa, and in the maternal part 
of the fully developed placenta, of utricular glands; by the intra-pla- 


368: 3 PROFESSOR TURNER. 


cental maternal vessels retaining the form of a capillary net-work"; 
by the brevity of the umbilical cord and by the persistence both of the 
umbilical vesicle and allantois. 

In the Insectivora, Rodents, and Cheiroptera again, the placenta, 
though with some slight modifications in its shape, forms a single 
“discoid” organ, which in some cases at least shews a subdivision into 
lobes; the allantois and umbilical vesicle, the latter of which is of 
large size in many genera, persist as distinct sacs throughout intra- 
uterine life, and no evidence has been advanced that the intra-pla- 
cental maternal vessels are dilated into sinuses. Reichert has shewn* 
that in these orders a decidua reflexa, more or less complete, exists. 
The condition of the mucous membrane, as regards the utricular 
glands, exhibits some variations in different genera. Leydig has ob- 
served them in the mole*; Ercolani in the hedgehog*; Reichert in 
the guinea-pig’; Ercolani in Jus musculus* ; in which animal he says 
they are few in number, simple, and slightly sinuous. In the rabbit 
there is some difference of opinion as to the nature of the deep de- 
pressions which exist in its uterme mucosa, for though Reichert com- 
pares the windings and folds of that membrane to the appearance 
exhibited by the convolutions of the brain, and speaks (Miiller’s Archiv, 
1848, p. 80) of the involutions of the mucous membrane as short and 
wide, yet he evidently regarded them as essentially the same as the 
tubular utricular glands in the pig, guinea-pig, bitch, &e. Ercolani 
again states that the rabbit, instead of possessing utricular glands, has 
numerous very short glandular follicles, which are only inflexions of 
the epithelial layer, and represent in this animal the uterine mucosa. 
These follicles, he says (p. 146), develope largely during pregnancy, 
are transformed into a glandular organ, and appear destined to re- 
place, during pregnancy, the utricular glands which are wanting in 
these animals. I have had the opportunity of examining sections 
through not only the non-gravid uterine mucosa of the rabbit, but 
through the non-placental portions of the mucosa in the gravid uterus, 
which have been carefully prepared by Mr Stirling, and, from the 
appearances presented by these sections, there is, I think, good reason 
to regard these “glandular follicles” as only utricular glands some- 
what modified in their shape. For though the part which lies next 
the uterine cavity has not the cylindrical tubular form usually exhi- 


1 T am aware that Eschricht, in his important memoir (De Organis, &e., 
p. 24), speaks of the vessels in the feline placenta as exhibiting dilatations, and 
that Kolliker (Entwickelungsgeschichte, p. 163) states that in the biteh the 
maternal blood-vessels are very strongly developed, and appear as very thin- 
walled capillaries 2’ in breadth, but I have not seen in the placenta of this 
animal sinuses at all comparable with the sinuses in the sloth, which possess a 
transverse diameter of from ‘003 to 008 inch. 

2 Beitriige zur Entwickelungsgeschichte des Meerschweinchens in Abhand. der 
Konig. Akad. der Wissensch. zu Berlin, 1861. 

3 Lehrbuch der Histologie, p. 517. 1867. 

4 Sur les Glandes Utriculaires de V Uterus, p. 10. French translation. Al- 
giers, 1869. 
~ 9% Op. cit. plates i. ii., p. 117, and Miiller’s Archiv, p. 80. 1848. 
. ® Sulla le Glandole Otricolari dell’ Utero. Mem. del Acad, dell Sc. di 
Bologna, p. 26. 1873. / 


THE PLACENTATION OF THE SLOTHS. 369 


bited by the utricular glands, the deeper extremities of these follicles 
lying next the submucosa present, on transverse section, a circular or 
oval form, and on longitudinal section an elongated tubular form, 
such as the utricular glands themselves exhibit. Moreover, both the 
dilated and tubular portions of the so-called follicles are lined by a 
columnar epithelium which projects into their cavity, but leaves a 
central lumen. It is clear, therefore, that these follicles or glands 
exist in the uterine mucosa prior to impregnation, and are not occa- 
sioned by the gravid condition. 

The very important observations recently made by M. Alphonse 
Milne-Edwards’, on the placentation of the Lemurs, furnish some 
material for comparing this group of animals with the sloths. M. 
Edwards has examined specimens of the genera Propithecus, Lepi- 
lemur, Hapalemur, and Chirogaleus. He found the chorion almost 
entirely covered by dense compact villosities constituting a sort of 
vascular cushion, the result of the confluence of a multitude of irregu- 
lar cotyledons. The placenta had the appearance of a large sac which 
almost completely enclosed as in a hood the amnion. This form of 
placenta, he calls, bell-like (placenta en cloche), for the villi are most 
numerous at the upper and middle parts of the chorion, but almost 
entirely disappear towards the cephalic pole. The uterine mucosa 
corresponding to the villosities exhibited numerous irregular anfrac- 
tuosities, and had developed a caducous layer. An enormous sac-like 
allantois was situated between the chorion and amnion. In its general 
mode of disposition on the chorion, the placenta of the lemur is not 
unlike that of the sloth, but in the latter animal the lobes or coty- 
ledons are apparently less intimately blended than in the former, 
which has in addition a highly developed allantois; but as no infor- 
mation is given on the arrangement of the utricular glands or maternal 
blood-vessels, [ can make no comparison between the disposition of 
these important structures in the lemurs and sloths’. 

In the new-world Monkeys the placenta consists of a single dise- 
shaped organ, which is probably also the case in the anthropomor- 
phous apes, though in the tailed apes of the old world, as Hunter 


to) 
and Breschet’s observations have sufficiently shewn*, the placenta is 


1 Annales des Sciences Naturelles, xv., 1871. 

2 Since this Memoir has been put in type my attention has been directed by 
Prof. R. O. Cunningham, to a paper ‘‘On the Lemurs,” by Mr St George Mivart, 
in Proc. Zool. Soc. London, May 20th, 1873. Mr Mivart states that from a 
private communication made to him by M. Alphonse Milne-Edwards, that 
naturalist is now of opinion that the Lemurs have no decidua, and that the 
placenta is diffuse. In does not appear from Mr Mivart’s paper whether M. 
Milne-Edwards had received additional specimens since the publication of his 
Memoir quoted in the text, in which, when describing the uterine mucosa of 
Propithecus, he says, “Et la surface en est hypertrophée fagon & former un 
couche caduque, trés-analogue a celle qui, dans une tresfaible étendue, adhére 
au placenta discoide des Singes, des Insectivores et des Rongeurs.” From this 
extract it is clear that when his Memoir was written, M. Milne-Edwards had no 
doubt of the presence of a decidua. 

3 Figures of the placenta in the Quadrumana, or descriptions of its naked- 
eye characters, will be found in John Hunter’s Collected Works, tv. 71; Plates 
XXXY., XXXvi. and fig. 2, xxxiv.; in Rudolphi’s Memoir, ‘‘ Ueber den Embryo der 


370 PROFESSOR TURNER. 


subdivided into two large lobes by a greater or less interval, John 


Hunter has pomted out that each of these large lobes is made up of 
smaller ones, united closely at their edges—a feature which Breschet 
also has confirmed (op. cit. p. 445). The subdivision of the placenta 
in these monkeys into two parts is interesting in connection with the 
arrangement seen in the sloth’s placenta, where a partial separation 
into a right and left lateral half was found, each of which in its turn 
consisted of smaller lobes. But though the form of the placenta, the 
existence of a decidua, the absence of the sac of the allantois, the 
absence, or at least the rudimentary condition, of the umbilical vesicle’, 
the arrangement of the amnion, and the comparative length of the 
wmbilical cord, have all been determined in the quadrumana, and cor- 
respond in most particulars with what I have described in the sloth, 
yet there is, unfortunately, a want of precise information on the 
arrangement of the maternal blood-vessels, and the condition of the 
utricular glands in the fermer group of animals. John Hunter, in- 
-deed, says, veins or sinuses were placed in the fissures between the 
lobes which received the blood laterally from the lobes, and that the 
substance of the placenta seemed to be ‘cellular,’ as in the human 
subject." Dr Rolleston, from the examination of a spirit-preserved 
placenta of Macacus nemestrinus (op. cit. p. 301), obviously inclines 
to the view that in it intraplacental maternal sinuses existed, though 
he points out that, from the age of the specimen, the examination was 
not so satisfactory as he could have desired. Prof. Ercolani states’, 
from an examination of a specimen preserved in spirit, of the placenta 
of Cercopithecus sabaeus, that in this monkey the placenta in its micro- 
scopic characters, as well external as internal, does not present any 
difference from that of woman, so much alike are they, that as he had 
just described the human placenta, he did not think it necessary to 
go into the details of structure in the ape. He does mention, how- 
ever, that the intraplacental lacune in Cercopithecus, which contain 
the maternal blood, are smaller than in woman; and that on the 
uterine face of the placenta are manifest traces of serotina, which is 
continued on to the fetal villi forming the external membrane, or the 
walls of Ercolani’s glandular organ. As he had stated on p. 36 that 
he had never seen utricular glands in the human placenta, we must 
assume trom the similarity in structure that he had not observed 
them in this monkey. 

As I could find no record of observations on the utricular glands, 
even in the unimpregnated uterus in the quadrumana, I examined 
the mucosa of a non-gravid spider-monkey, apparently the Ateles gri- 
cescens, preserved in spirit. I found numerous short glands, dilated 


Affen,”’ already quoted; in Breschet’s important Essay in Memoires de U Institut, 
1845, xix.; and in Owen’s Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates, 11. 747, im 
which volume it is mentioned that the pregnant monkey, dissected by Hunter, 
the name of which that anatomist had omitted to give, was a specimen of 
Macacus rhesus. 

- 1 Compare Breschet’s description of Simia Sabaea with that of Simia nasua, 
pp. 444, 470. 

. * Mem. del Acad, di Bologna, 1870, p. 53. 


THE PLACENTATION OF THE SLOTHS. 371 


into pouch-like recesses, and containing an abundance of epithelium, 
opening into the uterme cavity by constricted mouths. Some few 
which possessed the form of short tubes were interspersed amidst 
these pouch-like glands. In this ape, as in the human female, the 
mucosa was in close relation to the subjacent muscular coat, and was 
not attached to it, as in the sloth and mammals generally, by a lax 
coat of submucous connective tissue. 

I owe to Dr Rolleston the opportunity of examining a slice of the 
placenta of the Macacus nemestrinus in the Oxford University 
Museum. Both to the naked eye and with a simple microscope, a 
section through the organ shewed a spongy character similar to that 
exhibited by the human placenta. The arborescent arrangement of 
the villi, and the processes of decidua, prolonged from the serotina 
into the interior of the placenta, corresponded to Dr Rolleston’s 
description. J examined the bud-like offshoots of the villi micro- 
scopally; the capillaries filled with a yellow injection were arranged, 
not in loops, but in networks. Between these vessels and the peri-. 
phery of the villus, a relatively thick layer of tissue intervened, 
which seemed to consist of two strata; one next the capillaries, which 
consisted of cells such as Ercolani regards as the glandular organ, 
continuous with the serotina; the other, and more external, was 
apparently composed of flattened cells which, on the supposition of an 
intra-placental circulation of maternal blood, and an involution of the 
utero-placental vessels, probably represents the wall of the maternal 
blood-vessels reflected on to the villus. A microscopic examination 
of the serotina displayed numerous large fusiform cells with ovoid 
nuclei, mingled with which were circular or spherical cells possessing 
granular contents and nuclei often of a globular form. The processes 
of the decidua contained fusiform cells smaller than those just de- 
scribed, and a nucleated protoplasm in which a differentiation into 
definite cell-forms was not clearly demonstrable. 

The great attention which has been paid by various eminent 
anatomists to the structure of the Human placenta, enables one to 
institute a closer comparison between it and that of the sloth than 
could be done with regard to the quadrumana. In man the lobes 
are more closely fused together into a single organ, though the 
original subdivision into separate lobes is not unfrequently shewn by 
deep fissures extending from the uterine surface deeply into its sub- 
stance, and in a case described by M. Breschet’ the outer face of the 
chorion is said to have exhibited, not a regular placenta, but a number 
of distinct cotyledons. But, further, cases have been seen® in which 
the human placenta was divided into two not quite equal parts, a 
condition which is normal in the tailed monkeys of the old world, and 
an approximation to which, as I have already stated, is seen in the 
placenta of the sloth. Some recent observations by Reichert’, on a 
young human embryo, at the twelfth or thirteenth day, have shewn 


1 Répertoire Général, p. 3, Paris, 1826. 

2 See Hecker, as quoted by Dr J. Matthews Duncan, in Edinburgh Medical 
Journal, Novy. 1873. 

3 Reichert und du Bois Reymond’s Archiv, p. 127. 1873. 


372 PROFESSOR TURNER. 


that, at this very early period, distinct, elevated islets or cotyledons 
had formed in the uterine mucosa, and a median cleft separated these 
islets into two halves, so as to give a bilaterally symmetrical arrange- 
ment. If, as is not improbable, these islets are the rudiments of the 
lobes of the future placenta, the human placenta approximates in its 
bilateral arrangement at this stage of development to what I have 
seen in the sloth. 

Both in the human and sloth’s placenta, curling arteries and utero- 
placental veins are present, though in the former their subdivision in 
the substace of the placenta into branches cannot be followed out as 
in the latter, in which animal, moreover, the dilatation of the veins 
into large sinuses within the muscular wall of the uterus and the 
serotina does not exist as in the human female. In both, intra- 
placental maternal sinuses, communicating on the one hand with the 
curling arteries, on the other with the utero-placental veins, are met 
with. In the sloth, however, these sinuses retain their individuality, 
their walls can be isolated from the adjacent villi, they have a tubu- 
lar form, and their arrangement as an anastomosing network is pre- 
served’. The mode in which they wind in and out between the 
villi bears a strong resemblance to the description and figures given? 
by Dr Priestley of the arrangement of the maternal vessels in a 
human embryo at the second month; only in his case the vessels, 
though described as “capacious capillaries,” were not dilated into 
large sinuses as in the sloth. In the fully formed human placenta, 
on the other hand, though the walls of the curling arteries and utero- 
placental veins are distinct structures, yet the intra-placental maternal 
blood-sinuses are not tubular, but consist of a system of irregularly 
formed and freely communicating spaces. Whether they possess 
delicate walls separating them from the tissue of the feetal villi, or 
whether the villi float naked in the mother’s blood, are questions 
which have been much debated amongst anatomists. Every one who 
has examined the villi of the human chorion is familiar with the 
layer of nucleated cells which invests the vill like a cap. It has 
been repeatedly figured, and is seen to lie immediately outside the 
single or double capillary loop, which the bud-like offshoots of the 
human villi contain. Opinions are divided whether this layer of cells 
belongs to the villus, or is a layer of cells derived from the decidua 
ser otina, which has become blended with the tissue of the villus ; but 
whether we regard these cells as proper to the villus, or as belonging 
to the serotina, no corresponding layer was seen in the sloth, In the 
course of observations made during the past two years on the minute 
structure of the human chorionic villi, I have more than once seen 
an appearance which led me to believe that outside this layer of well- 
defined cells, z.e. nearer, or rather next to the maternal blood, was a 
layer of squamous cells, which would represent, therefore, the endo- 
thelium of the maternal blood-vessels, blended with the villus owing 


1 The arrangement in the sloth is, indeed, not unlike what E. H. Weber 
conceived to be the arrangement in the human placenta. 

2 Lectures on the Development of the Gravid Uterus, p. 62, figs. 19, 20- 
London, 1860. 


THE PLACENTATION OF THE SLOTHS. 373 


to the great expansion of these vessels into the irregularly-shaped, 
freely-communicating blood-sinuses. In the sloth, again, as the intra- 
placental sinuses retain the individuality of their walls, their endothe- 
lum remains in its proper position as a layer of cells lining the 
maternal blood-tubes. In the sloth, therefore, the capillaries of the 
chorionic villi lie closer to the periphery of the villus than is the case 
in the human placenta; but, further, in the sloth these capillaries are 
arranged as a distinct network, whilst in man they form single or 
double loops. The branches which arise from the stems of the villi 
are move elongated, and have more of a laminated arrangement than 
is the case in the human placenta, 

The presence of a system of maternal sinuses within the placenta 
of the sloth, though, as I have just pointed out, it differs in several 
points from the corresponding arrangement in man, is of great ana- 
tomical interest. For it presents a transitional form between the 
simple maternal capillary plexus met with in a diffused, cotyledonary, 
or zonary placenta, and the irregularly formed blood-spaces which 
exist in the placenta of the human subject. Several obstetrical 
writers have, from time to time, denied the existence of intra-pla- 
cental maternal blood-sinuses in the human female, and the objection 
has been advanced that the presence of such sinuses receives no 
support from comparative anatomy. In a communication, read to 
this Society, May 20, 1872’, I adduced a number of facts, derived 
from the study of the human placenta, in support of the Hunterian 
doctrine of the intra-placental circulation of maternal blood, and 
I may now add to these facts the confirmatory evidence afforded by 
the structure of the placenta in the sloth. 

The condition of the utricular glands in the mucosa of the human 
and sloth’s uterus is also a feature of much interest. In both, in the 
quiescent, non-gravid state, the glands are short, comparatively simple 
in form, and are not demonstrable with the same readiness as in the 
uteri of animals, which, in the gravid state, possess a diffused, a 
cotyledonary or a zonary placenta. In the human uterus, at the 
commencement of gestation, the glands are well marked, but as 
pregnancy advances to its middle period they disappear, so that no 
traces can be seen of them, either in the decidua or in the fully 
formed placenta*. Of the condition of the glands, in the early period 
of gestation in the sloth, we have no information, but that they are 
absent in the later period I have little doubt, for the careful exami- 
nation to which I subjected both the placenta and the non-placental 
area of the mucosa would have disclosed them had they been present. 

Both in the sloth and in the human subject the decidua reflexa is 
well marked. The serotina is not, however, so strongly developed in 
the sloth, more especially is there a deficiency in the granular colossal 


1 Abstract in Proceedings of that date, and more fully in Journal of Anatomy 
and Physiology, November, 1872. 

* Dr Priestley states (p. 27), that he could see them distinctly in the parietal 
decidua near the seat of the placenta in the third month, but they were under- 
going granular degeneration, and, instead of being lined with epithelium, were 
filled with granules and molecules. 


374 PROFESSOR TURNER. 


cells, which in the human placenta not only lie on its uterine aspect, 
but pass into its substance in the decidual dissepiments. 

The great importance in feetal nutrition, which has been ascribed 
by Ercolani, in his several valuable and most instructive memoirs on 
placental structure, to a system of gland-follicles forming the maternal 
part of the placenta, which he believed to be new formed during 
pregnancy in all placental mammals, and in which the feetal villi are 
lodged, naturally led me to examine the sloth’s placenta with care, to 
ascertain if in it such gland-follicles could be recognised. I failed, 
however, to see any indications of follicular structure either in 
the defined form described by him to exist in the diffused, cotyle- 
donary or zonary placenta, or as a layer of cells, belonging to the 
decidua serotina, investing the fcetal villi as in the human female. 

I have already, in my memoir on the Placentation of the Cetacea’, 
criticised and advanced some objections to the general applicability of 
Ercolani’s theory, and from the study of the placenta in the sloth 
there appear to be additional reasons for doubting that anatomical 
unity in placental structure which he advocates. The presence of a 
gland-secretion as an osmotic medium in feetal nutrition, whether we 
regard it as produced by new-formed gland-follicles, as Ercolani sup- 
posed, or by the utricular glands themselves, as Eschricht argued, 
does not, I believe, necessarily occur in all forms of placente. That 
a white fluid, subsequently termed uterine milk, which serves as 
aliment for the feetus, is present in the cotyledons of the ruminants, 
was known to Harvey and the older school of physiologists, and it is 
very probable that a similar fluid is produced in all placente where 
uterine glands or follicles continue to secrete during the whole period 
of placental formation. But in those placente, as the sloth, the apes, 
and the human female, where an unusual development of the ma- 
ternal blood-vessels into large sinuses takes place, a modification in 
the anatomical structure is introduced, which seems to render the 
presence of such a secretion unnecessary; the utricular glands seen 
in the non-gravid uterus disappear, no new-formed follicles are pro- 
duced, and the nutritive changes, in all probability, take place directly 
between the fcetal and maternal blood. 

The amnion in the sloth is related to the chorion, placenta, and 
umbilical cord, as in the human female. The sac of the allantois 
and the urachus have disappeared, and I could see no trace of an 
umbilical vesicle. Further, I may state that the uterus is simple 
and uniparous, and that the mammez are two in number and pectoral 
in position. 

In classifying the Sloths and the other members of the Order 
Edentata it has been customary for zoologists to rank them with 
the lower orders of mammals. Professor Owen’, for example, directs 
attention to the supernumerary cervical vertebre supporting false 
ribs, and the convolution of the windpipe in the thorax of Brady- 
pus, as manifesting its affinity to the oviparous vertebrata, and to 


1 Trans. Roy. Soc., Edinburgh, Vol. xxvi. p. 467. 
2 Reade Lecture On the Classijication of the Mammalia, p. 31, 1859. 


THE PLACENTATION OF THE SLOTHS, . Bye) 


the unusual length of the dorsal and short lumbar spine in Cholopus 
as recalling a lacertine structure; whilst the abdominal testes, 
single cloacal outlet, low cerebral development, absence of medullary 
canals in the long bones in the sloths, and long-enduriug irritability 
of the muscular fibre in both the Sloths and Anteaters shew the 
same tendency to an inferior type. In his system of classification, 
based on the cerebral characters, he places them in the group 
Lissencephala, along with the Rodentia, Insectivora, and Cheiroptera. 
Professor H. Milne-Edwards, in his most recent defence of his 
placental system of classification’, whilst admitting the insufficiency 
of the information on the mode of development of the Edentata, 
considers that, from the structure of the teeth and the absence of 
incisors, these animals have affinities with the Cetacea more than 
with other mammals, though they appear to have some relations 
with the Monotremata, and he does not hesitate to form a separate 
phalanx for their reception. Professor Haeckel, whilst ranking them 
amongst the Indeciduata?, admits that the genealogy of the Edentata 
is very difficult. Perhaps, he says, they are nothing but a peculiarly 
developed offshoot of the Ungulata, but perhaps their root may lie in 
-a very different direction. 

The comparison which I have just made between the placenta 
of the sloth and that of the other deciduate mammals reveals a 
correspondence in important features, both of arrangement and 
structure, between the placenta of the sloth, that of the human 
female, and of the monkeys, greater than exists between it and 
the same organ in auy of the other orders of the Deciduata, so 
far as has yet been described. This correspondence in placental 
form and structure between mammals, which on general zoological 
grounds are so widely separated, affords room for much speculation 
and thought, and throws a new light, not only on the position of 
the sloths in the order Edentata, but on their relations generally to 
the placental mammals. 

Professor H. Milne-Edwards, in the Memoir above referred to, 
argues that similarity in the form of the placenta and in the 
arrangement of the membranes is associated with resemblances in 
other important structural characters, so that the classification of 
mammals founded upon the placenta rests on a natural basis. Thus 
Man, the Quadrumana, Cheiroptera, Insectivora, and Rodents, are 
grouped together by him in the Micrallantoid legion of the phalanx 
Hématogénetes, as they possess in common a discoid placenta, a small 
allantois, and a caduca uterina. But further, they are all markedly 
unguiculated, their teeth are provided with a covering of-enamel, and 
the dental series is continued around the front of the jaws. 

As regards their placental characters the Sloths would fall into 
this Micrallantoid legion, with which also they would be associated 


1 Considérations sur les affinités naturelles et la classification methodique des 
Mammiferes, being the first chapter in the Recherches pour servir @ Vhistoire 
naturelle des Mammiféres, now in course of publication by himself and his son 
M. Alphonse. Preface, dated 27th April, 1868. Paris. 

2 Natiirliche Schipfungsgeschichte, Berlin, 1868, p. 480. 


376 PROF. TURNER. THE PLACENTATION OF THE SLOTHS. 


by their long claws; but in the structural characters of their teeth 
and the absence of incisors, they are at once markedly distinguished 
from them, so that in these respects the correspondence between 
placental form and structure, and these other well pronounced natural 
characters, breaks down. 

Between Cholopus and Homo the divergence in most of thats 
organic systems is so great that it is difficult to find evidence of any 
affinity except in their placental characters. With the Prosimii 
and Apes, however, affinities may be found. De Blainville had 
indeed many years ago’ indicated correspondences in the skeleton 
of the Sloths and the Apes, more especially the Gibbons; I may 
here refer to the very remarkable vascular plexuses which exist in 
the limbs both of the Sloths and Lemurs; and now that I have 
called attention to the evidences of aflinity with these higher 
mammals it is not improbable that other features of resemblance 
may in time be recognised. From the point of view of those who 
hold the descent-hypothesis it is possible that between the Sloths 
and the Lemurs genealogical relations may exist. 

In conclusion, I may state that the study of the placenta in the 
Sloth has shewn how difficult it is to predicate, from the arrangement 
and structure of the other organic systems, what the character of 
the placenta may be, and how necessary it is, before a proper estimate 
can be formed of the nature of the placentation, not only that the 
form of the organ and the arrangement of the membranes in the 
different orders of mammals should be worked out, but the modi- 
fications in its minute structure should also be determined. Moreover, 
it would seem that affinities in placental form and structure may 
exist between mammals which in many other respects are widely 
separated, so that the placenta is not in itself sufficient to deter- 
mine the position of an animal in the mammalian series, and the 
use of this organ as a basis of classification, though in many 
instances it may be relied on, yet, from the complex cross-rela- 
tions which exist between the several organic systems in the pla- 
cental mammals, is not universally applicable, 


1 Ostéographie des Mammiféres. Paresseux, p. L. 


NOTES OF SOME MUSCULAR IRREGULARITIES. By 
Joun Curnow, M.D., London; Professor of Anatomy in King’s 
College, London. 


Since the publication of my paper in the June number of the Journal 
for last year, 42 bodies have been dissected at King’s College, and in 
every one, without an exception, some deviation from the normal ar- 
rangement of the muscles has been found. Although they were most 
frequent in the more muscular bodies, yet important abnormalities 
were observed in many very thin subjects, whilst in an excessively 
muscular male, they were quite insignificant. I am therefore inclined 
to attach less importance to the mere muscularity of the individual 
than many anatomists seem to do. I have selected from amongst my 
notes some of the rarer forms of irregularity in the muscles of the 
neck and trunk, reserving those of the limbs for a future opportunity. 

1. Cletdo-occipital. Besides several instances of the usual form 
of this muscle, it was twice. made up of a sternal as well as of a clavi- 
cular factor. Both were muscular throughout, and on the left side 
only, while the usual single variety was present on the right side. In 
the first case, the inner head arose from the anterior surface of the 
manubrium sterni, just internal to the first costo-sternal articulation, 
distinct from, and external to the sternal portion of the sterno-cleido- 
mastoid, and the outer head arose from its usual position on the 
clavicle a little external to the clavicular portion of that muscle. The 
inner fibres crossed the sterno-mastoid superficially, and joined the 
outer about the middle of the neck, forming a large muscle quite two 
inches in width. The sterno-cleido-mastoid was also very irregular, 
for its two parts were almost entirely separate, a few fibres only of 
the clavicular portion uniting with the sternal within an inch of the 
mastoid process. Its sternal origin was split into three divisions, for, 
in addition to the normal attachment, two slips passed down from its 
inner border over the manubrium—one to take origin from the lower 
half of that bone, and the other to become continuous with a well- 
marked rectus sternalis which was also present. 

In the second case, the sternal origin of the cleido-occipital was 
exactly similar, but its clavicular head was divided into two parts by 
an areolar interval one inch wide, and extending upwards fortwo inches. 
The sterno-cleido-mastoid in the middle third of the neck gave off a 
cross slip from its inner (sternal) portion to the cleido-occipital. 

Two doubled-headed specimens of this muscle are described by 
Prof. Wood (Phil. Trans. 1870), and its relations to similar forms in 
several animals is pointed out, while a third example is recorded by 
Mr Bradley in Vol. vi. of this Jowrnal. 

2. Rectus Sternalis, (Rectus thoracicus superficialis.) This muscle 
was seen in three subjects ; in one on both sides, and in the others 
on the right side only. The body in which it was double is the same 
as that in which the first cleido-occipital occurred. On both sides 


VOL. VIII. DAR) 


378 PROFESSOR CURNOW. 


the muscles were well developed, one inch wide, crossed the thin 
sternal fibres of the pectoralis major superficially,—the left extending 
from the above described tendinous prolongation of the mesial tendon 
of the sterno-mastoid, and from the adjoining surface of bone for a 
slight extent outwards, to the level of the seventh costal cartilage, 
where it became attached to the anterior lamina of the sheath of the 

‘rectus- abdominis. The other specimens were less complete, for 
neither of them passed upwards to the sterno-mastoid, and one only 
extended downwards as far as the upper margin of the fifth rib-carti- 
lage. There were no tendinous intersections. 

3. Supra-costalis. (Rectus thoracicus profundus.) A very 
singular form of this muscle was found on the leéft side of a male 
subject. It was attached to the upper border of the third rib, just 
internal to the origin of the serratus magnus, and passed upwards 
behind the pectorals and clavicle, over the upper two ribs, lying 
partly on the inner margins of the digitations of the serratus. It 
continued along the outer border of the scalenus medius, slightly 
overlapping it, and was crossed superficially by the subclavian vessels 
and the cords of the brachial plexus, while the external respiratory 
nerve of Bell appeared just behind it, It then crossed inwards over 
the scalenus medius, giving off a very few fibres thereto, and ended 
in a strong but thin tendon, which joined the scalenus anticus at its 
origin from the anterior tubercle of the fourth cervical vertebra. The 
scaleni were quite normal in every other respect. In most instances 
the supra-costalis either stops at the first rib, or is lost in the fascia 
over the lower part of the scaleni; but two cases in which it was 
blended with the middle scalenus are on record ; viz. one by Lawson 
Tait in this Jowrnal (Vol. Iv. p. 236), and another by Pye-Smith in 
Guy’s Hospital Reports for 1871. I have found no notice of such an 
intimate connexion with the anterior scalenus as is above described. 

4, Omo-hyoid. Although this muscle is so very variable, yet 
cases of complete duplicity are very infrequent. It occurred on the 
left side only of a thin, aged female. Both muscles were digastric, 
with an intervening tendon. The more anterior muscle was attached 
to the upper costa of the scapula, from half an inch behind the notch 
to the angle, and followed the usual course of the normal omo-hyoid 
to the hyoid bone. The other muscle was attached to the ligament 
over the supra-scapular notch and reached backwards a little behind 
the origin of the former. It passed forwards along the posterior 
border of, and then a little above the clavicle (to which the tendons 
of both were bound down by the cervical fascia), and the anterior 
belly joined the sterno-hyoid about its middle. The anterior bellies 
of both were of much the same size, and were larger than the 
posterior ; the difference being especially marked in the lower or 
supernumerary muscle. 

5. Sterno-thyroid. An additional sterno-thyroid is more common 
than the preceding, and I noticed it once also. It was half an inch 
wide, and lay internal to the usual muscle. . 

6. Crico-hyoid. On the left side of a male larynx, a bundle of 

‘muscular fibres, one-third of an inch in width, extended from the 


NOTES ON MUSCULAR IRREGULARITIES. 379 


upper border of the cricoid cartilage to the lower border of the body 
of the hyoid bone, just internal to the greater cornu. It arose 
internally to the crico-thyroid and ran up near the median line, being 
separated by a very distinct interval from the inner border of the 
thyro-hyoid, with which it was parallel. The only reference to this 
muscle is by Zagorsky, in 1806, who gave it the above name. In the 
case described by him it occurred on both sides, 

7. Digastric. From the junction of the posterior belly with 
the tendon, a muscular slip, two inches long and half an inch wide, 
passed downwards and inwards over the styloid muscles and the 
middle constrictor of the pharynx, and was blended with the upper 
edge of the inferior constrictor, a little external to the thyroid carti- 
lage. ‘The styloid muscles were quite normal. 

In another subject a thin digastric muscle (which I looked on as 
an abortive Occipito-hyoid), was attached behind to the fascia on the 
superficial surface of the splenius capitis near its insertion. It 
crossed the sterno-mastoid lying beneath the platysma and was lost 
on the deep cervical fascia between the carotid sheath and the hyoid 
bone. It was present on the right side only. Fasciculi somewhat 
similar to these are described by Perrin in Vol. v., and by West in 
the last number of this Journal. 

8. An additional small muscle, triangular in shape, was once 
seen in the sub-occipital triangle. It arose from the posterior tubercle 
of the atlas, close to the rectus capitis posticus minor, and crossing 
between the recti muscles was inserted into the occipital bone 
external to the greater rectus and under cover of the superior oblique. 

9. Rectus abdominis. On both sides of a moderately muscular 
male, the posterior division of the sheath of this muscle ceased 
abruptly about an inch below the umbilicus, and from this point to 
near the pubis, a large quantity of wnstriped muscular fibres lay on, 
and was intermixed with the fascia transversalis, which was less 
developed than usual. The fibres were principally transverse, but 
some crossed superficially in every direction, and their appearance 
forcibly reminded one of the bladder after its peritoneal investment 
has been stripped off. They became gradually indistinct externally, 
internally, and below, and did not reach the linea semilunaris, 
the linea alba, or Poupart’s ligament, but above a few fibres were 
continued behind the sheath for a very short distance. The deep 
epigastric artery was immediately superficial to the muscular layer, 
having pierced the fascia transversalis very low. The character of 
the fibres was determined microscopically. I can find no description 
of such an arrangement, and Prof. Wood tells me that he has never 
seen unstriped muscle in this situation. 


bo 
Or 
ho 


NOTES OF A DISSECTION OF AN EXCISED ELBOW. 
By G. J. Matcotm Situ, M.B., Demonstrator of Anatomy in 
the Unwwersity of Edinburgh. 


Ear.y in the present session a male subject, apparently about 65 
years of age, was brought into the Dissecting Room of the University. 
On examination, before dissection was commenced, it was found that 
the right elbow-joint had at some former period been excised by the 
H method; and the result evidently was a flail joint, and an almost 
useless arm, proved by the atrophy of the limb, and the conditions on 
dissection. 7 

As one seldom has a chance of examining the result of excision of 
this joint, I gladly availed myself of the opportunity afforded, and 
append the notes which I made of the dissection. 


Exanination before dissection.—The whole limb was atrophied, 
and presented a marked contrast to that of the opposite side. The 
cicatrix on the back of the elbow was in the form of the letter H, 
and apparently of considerable age. The forearm was shortened, the 
superior extremities of the radius and ulna resting on the front of the 
lower extremity of the humerus: it could not be flexed more than a 
degree or two past a right angle, but could be completely extended. 
There was very slight lateral motion. On rotating the forearm with 
one hand, with the fingers of the other hand manipulating the elbow- 
joint, it was found that both radius and ulna moved on the humerus, 
in fact that there was little or no independent motion of the head of 
the radius. Careful examination of the relative position and shape 
of the new joint was easy, on account of the atrophy and thinness of 
the limb, and of the absence of any new bone round the articulation. 
The humerus ended in two sharp projections, the outer extending 
one and a half inches lower down than the inner. The inner of these 
projections was posterior, inferior, and external to the upper end of the 
ulna. The breadth of the humerus at its lower extremity was one 
inch and a half. The upper end of the radius lay in front of the 
inner projection of the humerus, and behind the ulna. The ulna ter- 
minated superiorly in a process which ended in a sharp projection, 
and which lay in front of the outer projection of the humerus, sepa- 
rated from it by about half an inch of soft parts. The forearm was 
shortened and the upper ends of its bones were one inch and three 
quarters above the lower end of the humerus. 

On reflecting the skin and fascia of the limb the biceps was found 
much atrophied (as were all the other muscles) ; its surfaces looked 
outwards and inwards, its inner border being turned forwards. The 
long tendons of insertion curved round the upper extremity of the 
ulna to be inserted into the upper end of the radius. The fibres 
of the brachialis anticus passed downwards and forwards, arising 


MR SMITH. DISSECTION OF AN EXCISED ELBOW. 381 


from the whole of the external half of the anterior and lower aspect 
of the humerus, to be inserted into the apex of the superior projec- 
tion of the ulna,—this projection then was without doubt the coro- 
noid process. The triceps over the lower extremity of the humerus 
was very thin, and was inserted by fibrous bands into the ulna, two 
inches from its upper margin, and also into the fascia of the forearm. 
These fibres of the triceps formed the posterior ligament of the new 
joint. The anterior muscles of the forearm arose from the internal 
projection of the humerus; those of the posterior aspect arose from 
the external projection. These projections were evidently the re- 
mains of the condyloid eminences and ridges. With the exception of 
the biceps, triceps and brachialis anticus, the other muscles presented 
no peculiarity or deviation from normal arrangement worthy of de- 
scription. 


Arteries.—Brachial artery, tortuous on account of the shortening 
of the forearm; lay on coraco-brachialis, brachialis anticus, passed 
over the ulnar projection, then curving outwards lay on the radius 
and gave off the radial and ulnar arteries one inch below the upper 
border of the extremity of the ulna. The ulnar artery was twice 
the size of the radial, and after arising from the brachial, where it 
lay on the radius, pursued its usual course. The radial artery re- 
quires no description. There was a free anastomosis round the joint 
between the profunda, anastomotica, and recurrent vessels, which 
were all markedly enlarged. 

The ulnar nerve, opposite the lower extremity of the humerus, 
was expanded and flattened out: the length of this expansion was 
three quarters of an inch, the breadth half an inch, This expansion 
was attached to the subjacent muscles and fibrous covering of the 
joint, and from it two nervous processes arose ; one internal, and of 
the normal size of the ulnar nerve in this situation, was one inch in 
length, and was the upper cut end of the ulnar nerve; the other 
external, at first very thin and connected very slightly to the expan- 
sion, after about an inch became thicker and was continued down 
he forearm without any peculiarity. Round the extremities of the 
three bones was an imperfect fibrous capsule, with a small synovial 
membrane, resembling that of a bursa rather than of a joint. There 
was almost no cavity, the two synovial surfaces lying in contact 
opposite the lower extremity of the humerus, and upper and posterior 
surfaces of the radius and ulna. There was no separate or special 
articulation between the radius: and ulna, and no sort of orbicular 
ligament. The radius, as before stated, inclined behind the ulna, 
the tendon of the biceps hooking round the latter bone. The fibres 
of the capsule were attached to the summits of the radius and ulna 
and to the humerus along the anterior aspect of the lower end of the 
bone: posteriorly, the fibres were mainly those of the triceps muscle. 

The bones require but short notice, since they corresponded with 
what has been described as felt on external manipulation. The 
upper end of the radius lying between the other two bones was 
smooth, and the biceps tendon was attached to its anterior aspect 


382 MR SMITH. DISSECTION OF AN EXCISED ELBOW. 


half an inch from the upper border: the sharp projection of the ulna 
had exactly the appearance of the coronoid process, and had the 
tendon of the brachialis anticus attached to it. The point of greatest 
interest was the entire absence of Any new bone: the three bones 
had exactly the appearance of normal and healthy bones excised in a 
dead subject, save that the sections were everywhere rounded off, and 
the eancellated texture was covered in. The bones showed marked 
atrophy on their section a few inches above and below the joint. 


NOTE ON AN UNUSUALLY LARGE RENAL CALOU- 
LUS. By J. A. Russett, M.A. and M.B., Demonstrator of 
Anatomy, University of Edinburgh. 


Durine the dissection of a female subject apparently above mid- 
dle age, last winter, in the Anatomical Rooms of this University, 
the left kidney was felt to contain a calculus of large size; and on 
removing the kidney and making a more careful examination it was 
found that the pelvis of the organ was distended by the stone, which 
could also be readily felt in the calices. The sinus contained much 
fat surrounding the vessels, and the vein and wall of the pelvis were 
adherent where they came in contact. The kidney, which measured 
only 35 inches by 12 by 1 inch, was longitudinally bisected from 
hilus to outer border so as to display the calculus in situ. The 
calculus was now seen to form a cast of the interior of the pelvis, 
infundibula and calices of the organ, and its pointed lower end 
extended along the ureter as far down as on a line with the lower 
end of the kidney. The extreme length of the calculus was three 
inches, and it divided into three main branches, one of which was 
situated in each infundibulum. These branches gradually enlarged 
from the point of division, and attained their greatest size at the free 
extremity. That for the upper end of the kidney was longest and 
thickest, and that for the middle part smallest. 

The calculus was slightly tuberculated and stained brown over 
the greater part of the surface, but over the remainder and internally 
it was white and presented a crystalline appearance. All over the 
surface were seen bright points, due to crystals of ammonio-mag- 
nesian phosphate, of which the chemical tests shewed the calculus 
to be mainly composed. The structure was dense, tolerably hard, 
and though brittle it was not easily crushed. As many of the 
papillary apices of the pyramids of the kidney presented a natural 
appearance, and the atrophy of the cortical substance, though very 
considerable, was not extreme, it is probable that a certain amount 
of urine had been secreted by this kidney up to the time of death. 

The right kidney of the same subject was normal in size, and had 
a large cyst upon its surface. 


SINGULAR MALFORMATION OF WRIST AND HAND. 
By Epwarp Betiamy, Esq. F.R.C.S. 


THE rarity of fusion of the bones of the carpus has led me to place 
the following specimen on record. The body from which it was 
taken was that of a powerful middle-aged labourer, of . great 
muscular development, and with no other noticeable irregularity. 
The os scaphoides was nearly normal as far as its surface articulating 
with the radius was concerned. The os lunare, cuneiforme, trapezoides, 
magnum and unciforme, were fused together into a quadrilateral 
mass articulating superiorly with the radius and the ulna, radially, 
with a tolerably normal scaphoid and trapezium, and on the portion 
of the mass corresponding to the os cuneiforme, with the os pisiforme. 
The unciform process was wanting in the mass, the articulating sur- 
faces of which were very broad and continued far on to its dorsal and 
palmar aspects. The representative of the carpo-metacarpal articula- 
tion existed between the anterior surface of the aforenamed mass, the 
anterior surface of the representative of the trapezium, and three 
peculiarly shaped digits. The trapezium carried a fairly normal 
pollex, the phalanges of which were of great length and massiveness. 
The anterior articular surface of the fused mass carried two metacar- 
pal bones, the inferior articular extremities of which corresponded 
almost entirely to the inferior articulating extremities of (1) the 
index and middle fingers, (2) the ring and little fingers. The 
phalanges were again enormously large. There was a congenital 
dislocation of the elbow-joint, which frequently occurs associated with 
a malformation of the hand, flexion and extension of which, how- 
ever, appear to have been tolerably complete, the acquired articulat- 
ing surfaces being very large. The fore-arm was capable of limited 
pronation, but not of supination. I regret very much that I am 
unable to give any account of the musculature of the hand, as the 
specimen came into my possession too mutilated to examine it effectu- 
ally. The arrangement of the grooves over the posterior aspect 
of the radius leads me to imagine that the movements of this 
abnormal thumb were very limited, and an accurate description of 
the muscles and their tendons would have been of considerable 
myological interest, 


NOTICES OF BOOKS. 


Catalogue of the Preparations of Comparative Anatomy in the 
Museum of Guy's Hospital. By P. H. Pye-Smiru, B.A., M.D. 
London, 1874. 


Unver the unassuming title of a Catalogue of Preparations, Dr. Pye- 
Smith has compiled not only a useful descriptive catalogue of the 
comparative anatomical specimens in the Guy’s Hospital Museum, 
but a work which may serve as an introduction to the science of com- 
parative anatomy. He prefaces the catalogue with an introduction, 
in which he points out the leading characters and the principles of 
classification of the animal kingdom, and the distribution of animals 
both in space and time. The vertebrate specimens are arranged in 
physiological series, and an abstract of the leading characters of each 
class and order is prefixed to the description of the corresponding 
specimens. The invertebrate specimens again are arranged in zoolo- 
gical order, and are in a like manner prefaced by a short but succinct 
statement of the characters of the different classes and orders. With 
this book as his guide, the Guy’s student is in a position to obtain 
not only a knowledge of the specimens in the museum, but an intelli- 
gent conception of the principles of anatomical science. 


Animal Physiology: the Structure and Functions of the Human 
Body. By Joun Cienanp, M.D., F.R.S. London and Glasgow, 
1874. 


The Students’ Guide to Zoology, a Manual of the Principles of 
Zoological Science. By ANDREW Witson. London, 1874. 


Were anything needed to prove how important a part the study of 
the biological sciences is beginning to play in the general education 
of the country, the publication in various quarters of so many manuals, 
which have for their object to popularize these sciences, would be a 
sufficient testimony. Dr Cleland’s little manual is produced by the 
firm of Collins and Sons, as one of their Advanced Science Series. In 
preparing the work, the author tells us that he has kept constantly in 
view the desire of the publishers to supply the information required 
for the advanced course of the directory of the Science and Art 
Department. As might be expected from so able an anatomist and 
experienced a teacher as Dr Cleland, this book furnishes not only a 
lucid exposition of the current facts and opinions on human anatomy 
and physiology, but not unfrequently groups these facts together in a 
new and more instructive manner than had previously been done, 
and draws fresh and original conclusions from them. The chapters on 
the Nervous System and on Reproduction and Development may 
especially be referred to in illustration of the author’s independence 


NOTICES OF BOOKS. 385 


of mind, when matters of opinion are under consideration. We cor- 
dially recommend this book to the notice not only of the general 
student, but to students of medicine, as an excellent and useful com- 
pendium of physiological science. 

Mr Wilson’s book is published by the firm of Churchill, London. 
Though called a guide to zoology, it is not so much a guide to the 
principles of zoology, in the restricted sense in which it is now cus- 
tomary to use that term, asa guide to the general Principles of Biology, 
and it would have afforded a better conception of the character of the 
book if the author had given it that name. The book does not pre- 
tend to discuss the various biological questions of which it treats 
from an original point of view, but is intended to give in plain and 
intelligible language an account of the opinions which are entertained 
on the leading biological questions of the day. The author has suc- 
ceeded in writing a readable book, one in which the student may 
find much from which he may derive interest and instruction. 


A Monograph of the British Annelids. Part 1. The Nemerteans. 
By W. C. M‘Intoso, M.D. Printed for the Ray Society, 
1873—1874. London. 


Amonecst the various important monographs by British naturalists 
which have been published by the Ray Society, none exceeds, either 
in the beauty of its illustrations or the careful preparation of the 
text, that on the British Nemerteans, by Dr M‘Intosh, which the 
society has presented to its subscribers for the years 1873 and 1874. 
The monograph contains chapters on the habits, food, anatomy and 
physiology of this group of Annelids: a chapter on the reproduction 
of lost parts, and another on the parasites which infest them. Their 
classification, homologies and general distribution are also described, 
and an account of the several genera and species is given. Every 
page of the book exhibits the care which the author has taken in its 
preparation, and the desire he has shown to make it worthy to hold 
its place in the series of important monographs produced under the 
auspices of the Ray Society. 


Grundriss der Vergleichenden Anatomie. Von Cari GEGENBAUR. 
Leipzig, 1874. 

Proressor GEGENBAUR’S large work on Comparative Anatomy, the 
Grundziige, is doubtless well known to most of our readers. As it 
treats the subject with an amount of detail greater than is needed by 
those who desire only to obtain a general acquaintance with the science, 
the author has been induced to prepare a shorter and more elementary 
work which he names the Grundriss. This book is not, however, 
a mere abstract of the larger work, but exhibits many modifications 
in the mode of treating the subject. As a general exposition of the 
principles of comparative anatomy, it is worthy of the reputation of 
its distinguished author. 


REPORT ON THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY.’ 


By Proressor TURNER. 


OssEous SysteM.—Wenzel Gruber gives in Wém. de ? Acad. Imp. 
de St Pétersb. 1875 a minute description, with illustrative figures, of 
BonEs SITUATED IN THE FRONTAL FoNTANELLE. He has seen 43 cases 
in the 10,000 human crania which, in the course of 25 years, have 
been macerated in the Institute for Practical Anatomy. He also 
gives an example in a hydro-cephalic skull, and refers to specimens 
seen in the skulls of mammals. In the MJemovrs of the same Acad. 
1874, Gruber describes and figures a series of crania, both in man 
and other mammals, in which the SQUAMOUS-TEMPORAL ARTICULATED 
WITH THE FrontTau. He relates two modes in which the articulation 
may take place in the human skull: a, by direct union of the two 
bones which he has seen in only two crania; 6, by the prolongation 
of a process from the temporal to the frontal. He has seen this in 58 
human crania. In those mammals in which these bones articulate, 
the direct union occurs much more frequently than through the 
intermediation of a process. In Reichert u. du Bois Reymond’s 
Archiv, 1873, p. 337, SUPERNUMERARY BoNEs IN THE ZYGOMATIC ARCH 
are described by Gruber, and on p. 348 modifications in the DenTaL 
ForamEn and Myto-nyoip Groove in the lower jaw. Th. Simon in 
Virchow’s Archiv, tvi11. 572, makes some observations on PERSISTENCE 
OF THE FrontTaL Suture. He found this suture 76 times in 809 
cases, 7. e. nearly 10 per cent.; the skulls were from persons between 
10 and 100 years old. Of the 809 skulls 452 were males, 357 
females, the percentage of cases of persistent suture being 8-4 in the 
men and 10°1 in the women. As a general rule the other sutures 
were well marked. In some cases the frontal suture was in part 
obliterated. As a rule the frontal is not continuous with the sagittal 
suture, but begins either to its right or left. 8. M. Bradley makes 
observations on the NarionaAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SKULLS in Mem. 
Int. & Phil. Soc. Manchester, y. 213. He argues against Retzius’s 
mode of classifying crania, He states that the skull-forms of (pro- 
bably) every living nation range from extreme types of dolicho-cepha- 
lism to extreme types of brachy-cephalism, and constantly present 
examples of every intermediate form. His results were obtained by 
measuring the outline of the living head in some hundreds of persons 
with an apparatus used by hatters. He reproduces many of the out- 
line figures to illustrate the paper. T. Zaaijer describes (Neder. 
Tijdschr. v. Geneesk, 1874) a ScApHocePHALIC CRANIUM and the 
head of a scaphocephalic man. Fr. Merkel gives an account of the 


1 To assist in preparing the Report Professor Turner will be glad to receive 
separate copies of original memoirs and other contributions to Anatomy. 


REPORT ON THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY. 387 


Femur (Virchow’s Archiv, u1x. 237). He describes its position in the 
body; its external form; the direction in which weight presses on it, 
and its internal structure. A, Kolliker continues (Verh. d. Phys. 
Med. Gesellsch. Wiirzburg, 1873) his observations on ABSORPTION OF 
Bone and Inrerstir1aL Growth oF Bone (feports May and No- 
vember, 1872). It principally consists in an adverse criticism of the 
observations of Strelzoff on the same subject, who, in the course of 
his researches into the histo-genesis of bone, had come to conclusions 
opposed to those of Kolliker. J. v. Rustizky in Virchow’s Archiv, 
LIx. 202, relates his observations on the ABSORPTION OF BoNnE and on 
giant-cells. He acknowledges the great importance of Kolliker’s 
observations on the same subject referred to in Report May, 1872, 
but he does not attach the same importance to the giant-cells, as he 
considers that absorption of bone may go on without the interme- 
diation of these colossal cells. C. Robin describes in his Journal, 
1874, 35, some comparative observations on the Marrow or Bongs. 


Tretu.—C. Legros and E. Magitot consider, in Robin's Journal, 
1873, 449, the Origin AND ForMATION OF THE DENTAL FOLLICLE IN 
THE Mammautia. Their conclusions are: 1. The first indication of 
the dental follicle is a cordon arising from the epithelial layer of the 
mucous membrane of the gum. 2. The cordon which gives rise to 
the milk-follicles springs directly from a prolongation of the buccal 
epithelium, whilst that for the permanent teeth is a diverticulum 
from the primitive cordon. When the permanent teeth are not preceded 
by temporary teeth, they arise sometimes from the mucosa, sometimes 
from the cordon of the preceding molar. 3. The cordon is invariably 
epithelial; its peripheral part consists of the prismatic elements of 
the epithelial layer, its centre of polyhedral cells. 4. The extremity of 
the cordon constitutes the enamel-organ. 5. The dentary bulb ap- 
pears spontaneously in the midst of the embryonic tissue close to the 
enamel-organs, 6. The enamel-organ is moulded like a hood on the 
dentary bulb. 7. The wall of the follicle is directly produced from 
the elements of the bulb, from the base of which it rises over the 
sides and summit of the follicle to constitute the sac of the follicle. 
8. When the follicle closes the epithelial cordon is ruptured, and the 
follicle then loses its connection with the mucosa. 9. The phenomena 
of evolution of the follicle, either in the milk or permanent dentition, 
are the same. 10. The genesis of a tooth-follicle and a hair-follicle 
are identical. C. 8. Tomes describes (Quart. Journ. Mic, Sc. Jan. 
1874) the ExisTENCE oF AN ENAMEL-ORGAN IN AN ARMADILLO. In 
Tatusia Peba, a mammal which has no enamel on its teeth, the first 
histological structure recognisable in the tooth-germ is a well-de- 
veloped enamel-germ, and the enamel-organ in its teeth has an 
arrangement similar to that attained to by the enamel-organs in the 
teeth of mammals which possess a distinct cap of enamel. The pre- 
sence of an enamel-organ in the early stage of development of teeth 
on which a cap of enamel does not form, had however been previously 
described by W. Turner in the Narwhal, in a paper published in this 
Journal, November, 1872. 


388 PROFESSOR TURNER. 


REsPrrATORY System.—E. W. Collins laid before the Roy. Irish 
Acad. April, 1874, a specimen illustrating an Accessory LoBE oF THE 
Rieut Lune, takenfrom the body of a male subject, aged about 50 years, 
in the dissecting-room of the University of Dublin. The specimen pre- 
sented a three-fold morphological peculiarity as regarded lung, pleura, 
and azygos vein. An accessory lobe, measuring four inches in length 
by two and a half in breadth at its widest portion, sprang from the angle 
between the root and the upper portion of the right lung, immediately 
above the bronchus. It was somewhat pyriform in shape, and rested 
upon the right side and front of the bodies of the five upper dorsal 
vertebra, in an accessory pleural pouch. The pouch was formed by 
a duplicature, which depended from the cone of the pleura. It was 
continuous with the costal pleura externally along a line correspond- 
ing to the heads of the five upper ribs, internally along the mesial 
line of the five upper dorsal vertebree. Between these points it arched 
over the accessory lobe, and isolated it from the remainder of the 
lung. It extended underneath the trachea, and invested the right 
side of the esophagus. The azygos vein, instead of arching over the 
bronchus, arched over the peduncle of the accessory lobe, lying in 
the lower free margin of the pleural duplicature. This was the only 
specimen of the kind that had been noticed in Dublin, though seven 
similar cases had been recorded elsewhere. Stress was laid upon the 
suggestion of Prof. Cleland, made in this Journal (May, 1870), that an 
abnormal course of the azygos vein during the process of its develop- 
ment, whereby it drew down around it a pleural fold, and thus isolated 
a probably adherent portion of the lung, offered a satisfactory solution 
of the mode of formation of this accessory lobe. The author pointed 
out that a remarkable confirmation of this theory was to be found in 
an unique case recorded by Wrisberg of a similarly situated accessory 
lobe of the left lung, where the left azygos or superior intercostal vein 
preserved its foetal condition by opening into the left vena innominata. 
The author regarded such a case as that described by Pozzi (Report, 
vit. 174), and a similar one on the left side by Rektorzik, as merely 
higher developments of pulmonary notches. The paper concluded 
with an allusion to accessory bronchi in their connection with this 
subject. 


Bioop-vascuLaRk System.—C, Giacomini described to Acead. di 
Med. di Torino, Nov. 1873, a case in which the Porta anp RicurT 
Iu1ac Verns freely communicated with each other——W. Macdonald 
has published a pamphlet in which he explains his peculiar views on 
the Source anpD CouRSE OF THE CIRCULATION in the embryos of 
warm-blooded vertebrates (Edinburgh, 1874).——A. Sabatier records 
his observations (Ann. des Sc. Nat. 1874) on the TRANSFORMATIONS 
OF THE Aortic ARCHES in the vertebrata. 


LympH-vascuLar System.—The researches of Recklinghausen, 
of Ludwig, and his pupils have of late years added much to our 
knowledge of the lymphatics, more especially in their relations to 
the serous membranes. E. Klein has just published an important 


REPORT ON THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY. 389 


monograph on THE SerRous Mempranes, London, 1873, in which 
their structure and relations to the lymphatics are described with 
great care and illustrated by numerous beautiful plates. In chapter 
1. the endothelium of the free surface of these membranes is described 
more especially in connection with the presence of individual polyhe- 
dral, club-shaped, or even short columnar cells, with granular contents, 
an ovoid or sometimes spherical distinct nucleus, with large shining 
nucleolus: these cells he names germinating endothelium. In the 
frog they showed amceboid movements. In chapter u. the cellular 
elements of the ground-substance are described. In the omentum of 
the rabbit two kinds of lymphangial structures are recognised ; a. 
patches, the matrix of which consists of groups of ordinary more or 
less flattened, more or less branched cells, which on the one hand 
multiply by division, so that the patch increases in size, and from 
which on the other hand grow up lymphoid cells. The branched 
cells lie in the lymph-canalicular system together with the lymphoid 
cells, At an early stage of development these patches do not contain 
a special system of blood-vessels ; at a later they are especially rich 
in capillary blood-vessels ; by growing in length these patches join so 
as to form whole tracts; 6. patches and:tracts the matrix of which 
consists of a reticulum the meshes of which contain a variable number 
of lymphoid corpuscles : they are generally. provided with more or less 
abundant blood-vessels. In the omentum of the guinea-pig, cat, dog 
and monkey similar lymphangial structures are met with, but from 
their greater thickness they are named nodes or nodules. Intimate 
relations exist between these lymphangial. structures and the fatty 
tissue of the omentum, the former indeed may and does become con- 
verted into the latter, and with this conversion the lymphoid cells 
diminish in number in the structure. He agrees with Fleming in 
saying that fat-cells are transformed branched cells. In chapter 11. 
he describes the lymphatics of the serous membranes ; some remark- 
able relations of the lymph to the blood-vessels are pointed out, more 
especially the invagination of the veins by lymphatics, and capillaries 
hanging in a lymph-sac. A growth of a network of branched cells 
may proceed from the endothelium of a lymph-sac, which may trans- 
form the sac into a cavernous structure in which lymph-corpuscles 
lie and fill up the meshes. Hence arise endo-lymphangial nodules, 
and as the proliferation increases the nodule extends more and more 
along the lymphatic vessel invaginating or accompanying a large 
blood-vessel. The relations of the lymph-vessels to the surface 
of the serous membrane are described in this chapter. Two kinds 
of stomata are recognised, stomata vera and pseudo-stomata. The 
stomata vera are of two kinds, a. the mouth of a vertical 
lymphatic channel, which is lined by a special layer of endothelium, 
and which channel leads into the lumen of a superficial lymph-vessel ; 
b. a discontinuity between the endothelial cells of the surface, leading 
into a simple lymphatic sinus near the surface, which represents a 
cavity lined only on one side with an endothelium, Both kinds of 
stomata vera are bordered by endothelial elements of a more or less 
distinct germinating character, so that the mouths may he recognised 


390 PROFESSOR TURNER. 


by the endothelial cells surrounding them differing in appearance 
from the ordinary endothelial cells. The lymphatic capillaries and 
the blood-vessels are then described. The book concludes with an 
important chapter on the pathological conditions of the serous mem- 
branes. E. Klein makes a communication to the Roy. Soc. London 
(Proceed. Jan. 29, 1874) on the Lympnatics oF THE Lunes. He 
points out that the endothelium of the pleura pulmonum consists of 
polyhedral or shortly columnar, granular cells with very marked 
nuclei, while the pleura costarum has flattened, almost hyaline, endo- 
thelial plates. Beneath the endothelium of the pleura pulmonum is a 
very thin connective tissue membrane with numerous elastic fibres and 
a layer of flattened connective tissue corpuscles. In the guinea-pig a 
layer of non-striped muscular fibres lies beneath the proper pleural 
membrane, in rats, rabbits, cats and dogs, bundles of unstriped muscle- 
fibres occur sparingly. In chronic inflammation these bundles increasé 
so as to form a continuous membrane. A system of inter-muscular 
lymphatics lined by an endothelium lies in the meshes of the muscular 
layer and communicates freely by stomata with the pleural cavity. A 
network of anastomosing lymph-vessels lies in grooves which corre- 
spond with the most superficial groups of alveoli of the lungs, which 
communicates on the one hand with the inter-muscular lymphatics, 
on the other with deeper inter-alveolar lymphatics. Lymphatic 
capillaries arise in the alveolar septa from branched cells and lead into 
lymph-vessels which accompany branches of the pulmonary artery 
and vein; they run either in the adventitia of these vessels, or the 
blood-vessel is entirely or only half invaginated in a perivascular 
lymph-vessel. The branched cells send a process between the epi- 
thelial cells into the cavities of the alveoli, which processes Klein 
names pseudo-stomata. Other lymphatics are distributed in the 
adventitia of the bronchi, thin capillaries originate in the branched 
cells of the mucosa of the bronchi and penetrate through the tunica 
muscularis. The branched cells penetrate between the epithelial 
cells of the mucosa and project on its free surface. Vascular lymph- 
follicles are in continuity with the endothelial wall of a lymph-vessel 
so that they are surrounded by it, just as a lymph-follicle of a Peyer's 
patch is surrounded by a lymph-sinus. The paper concludes with 
observations on the pathological conditions of the several structures. 
Fr. Tourneux communicates to Robin's Journal, 1874, 66, his 
observations on the EpirHenium oF THE SErrRous Mempranes. He 
regards the distinction recently drawn between epithelium and endo- 
thelium as arbitrary. His observations were made on batrachians. 
G. Thin describes and figures (Lancet, Feb. 14, 1874) a Lym- 
PHATIC SYSTEM INTHE CorNEA. He has seen endothelial lined lymph- 
vessels traversing its substance, the endothelial cells possessing 
precisely the form of the endothelial lining of the lymphatics. He 
regards these vessels as the corneal tubes of Bowman and believes 
that the mercury in Bowman’s injection had passed along these 
vessels. He describes lacunse in the cornea in which the cornea- 
corpuscles lie, which lacunee communicate with each other and with 
the lymphatic system. These lacune are lined by an endothelium 


REPORT ON THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY. 391 


which is directly continuous with that lining the lymph-vessel. He 
states that nerves lie in the lymph-vessels and nearly fill them, a 
narrow space only being between the nerve and the wall of the lym- 
phatic.—On THE LyMPHATICS OF THE NORMAL NON-PREGNANT UTERUS. 
Dr G, Leopold has arrived at the following conclusions with regard 
to the lymphatics of the normal non-pregnant uterus (Archiv fiir 
Gyndcol. Vol. v1. Abst. in Lond. Med. Rec. 1. 35). 

I. Mucous Membrane.—1. The mucous membrane consists of a 
framework of the finest connective tissue, the bundles of which are 
covered with endothelium, and whose interspaces form the lymph- 
spaces (Lymphrdume). 2. In the deeper layers, the membrane of the 
glands consists of a fine layer of delicate connective tissue bundles, 
whose epithelium lies externally, but more superficially it is formed 
only of a sheath composed of the cell-plates (Zellplatten, pldttchen- 
Jormigen Zellen). 3. The blood-vessels, from the finest capillaries 
onwards, have a number of fine endothelial sheaths increasing with 
their size. 4. The framework of connective tissue stands by means 
of fine twigs in direct connection with both sorts of sheaths. 5. The 
glands and blood-vessels, therefore, pass directly through the lymph- 
spaces, separated only from the latter by their sheaths, formed from 
the framework of connective tissue. 6, At the limits of the muscular 
layer the lymph-spaces reach a short distance into the filter-shaped 
hollows between the muscular bundles, and become gradually nar- 
rowed into the intermuscular lymph-vessels and spaces. 

If. Muscular Coat.—1. The muscular layer contains in animals 
and in the human subject lymph-vessels and lymph-spaces (Lymph- 
spalten). The walls of each are formed of the fine intermuscular con- 
nective tissue. The former are lined by fine endothelial lamelle, 
which exhibit here and there openings and slits ; the latter are lined 
by delicate cell-plates (Zellplatten). 2. In animals, the characteristic 
net of lymphatics is arranged parallel to the long axis of the two 
layers of fibres ; they therefore cross each other. Those of the inner 
layer pass into the lymph-spaces of the mucous membrane, and those 
of the outer into the subserous lymph-vessels. The large lymph-col- 
lecting tubes, provided with valves, and spread in the form of a net 
over the horns of the uterus, lie between the muscular layers, and re- 
ceive the whole lymph-vessels from both sides: externally those of 
the subserous and outer muscular layers, and internally those of the 
inner layers and the mucous membrane. 3. In the uterus of the 
human subject the lymph-vessels are much more complicated, on 
account of the arrangement of the muscular fibres. They are most 
richly developed in the outer layer, and in the other layers specially 
in the neighbourhood of the large vessels, and are connected with the 
subserous membrane as in animals, but with the mucous more by 
lymph-spaces. They come together in the outer layer, especially at 
the side of the uterus. 4. The lymph-spaces, in the human subject 
and in animals, surround the smaller bundle of a large muscular 
bundle, and pass into the lymphatics. In animals, they stand in in- 
direct connection with the subserous and CAseD channels ; in the 
human subject, however, in direct connection. 5. For the most part, 


47 


392 PROFESSOR TURNER. 


large blood-vessels lie in the neighbourhood of the large collecting 
tubes; the other lymph-vessels are partly accompanied by blood- 
vessels for a certain distance, and the lymph-spaces are almost regu- 
larly penetrated by small vessels. 

Ill. Serous Coat.—1. Under the serous membrane only lymph- 
vessels are found. They lie in the subserous connective tissue, and 
form large characteristic nets. 2. They are much less numerous than 
the subserous blood-vessels lying over them, but are from eight to ten 
times stronger than the latter. 3. They have large ampulle, points 
of union, constrictions, valves, and swellings, and send branches 
towards the deeper parts, either in a vertical direction or at an angle. 
4, In the pig, rabbit, and sheep, the net has mostly a direction cor- 
responding to the long axis of the uterine horns. In the human sub- 
ject, on the contrary, they cover the anterior and posterior wall, in 
irregular large or small groups, and have, especially at the insertion 
of the Fallopian tube, large ampulle, and then pass as an extended 
net upon the tube. 


Nervous Systew.—In Schultze’s Archiv, 1873, p. 208, Rudolf 
Arndt gives an account of his researches into the GANGLIA OF THE 
SympatHetic. All the ganglion-bodies (cells) of the sympathetic 
are provided with several processes, indeed.all bipolar and multipolar 
bodies correspond with complex cells, and are derived from complex 
cells. All unipolar ganglion-bodies, on the other hand, correspond 
to simple cells and proceed from them. All so-named apolar ganglion- 
bodies, when they are large, represent anomalous forms of deve- 
lopment of the original formative cells ; when they are small, they 
are the formative cells themselves. In the same Archiv, p. 255, 
H. Zuppinger relates a method of demonstrating the AXISs-CYLINDER 
Processes of the ganglion-cells of the spinal.marrow. F. Darwin 
contributes to Quart. Journ. Mic. Science, April, 1874, a paper on 
the SyMPATHETIC GANGLIA OF THE BLappeER.in their relation to the 
vascular system. The.course of the nerves corresponds in a general 
way with that of the chief blood-vessels. Branches from the ganglia 
could be traced :to the arteries; veins appear to be very scantily 
supplied with nerves. The author distinctly saw delicate nerve-fibres 
arise from the cells of a ganglion and supply the neighbouring capil- 
laries, which in some cases formed part of the vascular plexus which 
surrounds the ganglion. Moritz Benedikt communicates (Virchow’s 
Archiv, tix. 395) some observations on the INNERVATION OF THE 
INFERIOR CHOROID-PLEXUS. On p. 511 of the same Archiv, R. 
Arndt enquires into the Paruonocican Anatomy of the CENTRAL 
Oreans of the Nervous System. 


ELEecTRIcAL OrcAns.—F. Boll in Schultze’s Archiv, x. p. 208, 
gives an account of the structure of the electrical plates of Malapte- 
rurus, and on p. 101 of Torpedo. 


Kipyey.—R. Heidenhain in Schultze’s Archiv, x. p. 1, contri- 
butes to the Anatomy and Physiology of the Kidney. 


= REPORT ON THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY. ~ 393. 


Ovary.—W. Romiti makes some observations on the structure 
and development of the ovary and Wolffian duct, Schultze’s Archiv, 
x. p. 200. He confirms Waldeyer’s statement that the ovary posses- 
ses a celiular investment different frem the endothelial celis of the 
peritoneum. 


Piacenta.—J. Mauthner communicates a short paper (Sitzd. 
Akad. der Wiss., Vienna, 1873, p. 118) on the Maternal Circulation 
in the Radbit's Placenta, with reference especially to its relations to 
the human placenta. When a section is made through the placenta 
whilst still attached to the wall of the uterus, a uniformly thick clear 
layer, which consists of a very fine network with interspersed nuclei, 
is seen next the uterus. Then follows the cellular part of the pla- 
centa, commonly named the pl. uterina, but which Winkler has 
named basal-platte (Report, vu. p. 163); this layer is much thicker 
than in man, and consists of an indistinct, granular-looking conglo- 
merate of cell-elements, which possess distinctness only where the 
maternal vessels pierce the basal-plaite. Then succeeds the sonamed 
feetal part of the placenta, which is subdivided into many small 
lobules, separated from each other by furrows. Each lobule contains 
a strong-walied maternal artery and comparatively thin-walled veins, 
so that each such lobule fer itself alone corresponds to the entire 
human placenta, because, in both, arteries and veins are separated 
from the fcetal villi by intermediate blood-spaces: but these blood- 
spaces differ fundamentally from the human, in that they are in the 
rabbit fine capillaries, while in man they are widely expanded spaces.. 
In both, however, the maternal blood-channels have no proper walls, 
but are bounded directly by the epithelium of the villus. The villi 
are so adapted to each other that the epithelial investments of adja- 
cent villous folds become blended with each other, and the maternal 
blood-spaces lie between the two rows of investing epithelial cells. 
M. X. Delore in Gaz. Médicale, 21 Feb. 1874, confirms the “ demon- 
stration by Weber, Kolliker, Turner and Winkler of the circulation 
of the maternal blood through the human placenta.” He finds an 
epithelium in the circular sinus, but has not seen it on the placental 
villi. G. B. Ercolani communicates (Mem. dell Accad. delle Scienze 
di Bologna, tv. 1874) a memoir on the Structure of the Caduca Ute- 
ring in two cases of extra-uterine pregnancy. He arrives at the 
following conclusions: the whole extent of the uterine decidua has 
the power of forming a placenta, bué its actwal place of formaticn is 
determined by the position which the ovum takes up; there the 
development of the placenta goes on, whilst elsewhere its develop- 
ment is arrested. There is ro difference in the decidua in its first 
stage of development between a case of normal pregnancy and an 
extra-uterine pregnancy ; but while in the normal decidua develop- 
ment ceases except in the position of the ovum, in the extra-uterine 
it advances further, for a rich vascularity appears amongst the cellular 
elements, just as in the serotina, and a partial ectasy of some ef the 
vessels, indicating the beginning of the formation of lacuns, takes 
place. Whilst the new formation in normal cases only invades the 


VOL. VIIL 26 


394 PROF. TURNER. REPORT ON THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY, — 


subjacent uterine tissue in the region of the ovum, in extra-uterine 
the whole of the subjacent uterine tissue is invaded. He does not 
believe in the existence of a mucosa in the human uterus, as he finds 
only a fine membrane on which the epithelium rests. As the deci- 
dual formation in these extra-uterine cases extended to the musculo- 
glandular layer, it could not be formed exclusively of the uterine 
epithelium, nor, owing to the absence of a true mucosa, from a sub- 
epithelial connective tissue. From the multitudes of new cells, having 
the appearance of white blood-corpuscles, he believes them to be 
derived from the blood by migration, and he associates with this the 
well-known fact, that white blood-corpuscles abound in the blood of 
pregnant women. The utricular glands are altered in the decidua in 
extra-uterine cases ; in one case at two months large spaces, lined by 
layers of conical epithelium, were seen near the muscular layer, and 
in the layer of decidua, superficial to these spaces, traces of com- 
pressed gland-tubes were seen. The new-formed elements of the 
decidua compress the gland-tubes, and the secretion, being prevented 
from escaping, dilates the terminal branches, and thus the muscular 
bundles are broken up or pushed aside so as to present a trabecular 
arrangement. Amidst the muscular elements of the trabecule there 
was an enormous infiltration of the white corpuscles, more especially 
in the second case at the fifth month of pregnancy, and a similar 
infiltration amidst the cells of the serotina. As from the want of the 
ovum the feetal part of the placenta cannot be completed, the dilated 
vessels of the decidua become stopped up by the formation of clots 
in their interior. 


REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. By Witttam Sriruine, D.Sc., 
M.B., C.M. (Edinb.), jormerly Demonstrator of Practical 
Natural History in the University of Edinburgh’. 


Nervous System. 


Functions OF THE Brain.—Nothnagel (Virchow’s Archiv, tvut. 
420) has continued his researches on this subject. He experimented 
exclusively on the brain of the rabbit. On puncturing with a fine 
microscopic needle a spot lying in the interior of the posterior end 
of the cerebrum, the animal sprang from the table and exhibited 
unusually violent spasmodic movements, which appeared either at the 
time of puncture or a second or so thereafter (at the latest two 
minutes), and lasted not longer than three minutes. No alteration 
of the sensibility of any part of the body was to be observed. The 
author for the present refrains from suggesting any hypothesis as to 
the probable cause of these movements. As to the Cornu Ammonis, 
on puncturing it with a fine microscopical needle no disturbance 
in any direction was observed. Many of the animals so injured had 
meningitis with dyspnea, but dyspnea and death without meningitis 
was also observed. [These results are at variance with those of 
Fournier obtained by the injection-method, Jowrn. of Anat. and Phys. 
vit. 179.] More than forty experiments in different ways and 
different directions were made on the thalamus opticus. Slight dis- 
turbances of the superficial layers were without effect. In a few cases 
the paralysis of the extensors of the finger observed by Schiff oc- 
curred. If punctured more deeply and towards the middle line, the 
limbs of the opposite side were directed towards the middle line. 
This was specially and almost exclusively observed of the fore-limbs. 
The deviation was the more pronounced, the more basal the direction 
of the puncture. The deviation in all cases was only temporary, 
disappearing sometimes after a few hours, in most cases after twenty- 
four hours. In other cases, immediately after puncture, the head 
was turned to the opposite side, the fore-limbs strongly divergent, 
the one directed outwards, the other (opposite side from injury) 
towards the middle line. No disturbance of sensibility. The phe- 
nomena persisted, but with decreasing intensity. After death the 
seat of injury was found in the posterior half of the thalamus, 
unusually deep towards its base, and near to the region of the 
pedunculus cerebri. Horizontal-section of the thalamus from above 
downwards was followed by the phenomena already described by 
Schiff (Lehrbuch der Muskel- und Nervenphysiologie). No change of 
sensibility was observed. Sometimes it appeared that just after 
the operation a slight hyperalgesia specially corresponding to the 
wounded side occurred, but it was not very convincing. This much 


1 To assist in rendering this report more complete, authors are invited to 
send copies of their papers to Dr Stirling, Edinburgh University. 


26—2 


396 DR STIRLING. 


is certain, that on division of the thalamus, no anesthesia of the 
anterior extremities was produced. “ Extirpation of both nuclei 
lenticulares.” Nothnagel, Centralblatt, No. 56, 1873. “ EXAMEN 
DE QUELQUES PorINTs DE LA PuHysIoLoGiI—E pU CERVEAU,” par le 
Dr Eugéne Dupuy, Paris, Ad. Delahaye, 1873. Dupuy has ar- 
rived at results different from those of Ferrier. The conclusions he 
draws from his experiments are: (1) It is possible, by irritating 
certain limited points of the cortical layer of the brain, to produce 
contractions, sometimes of an entire limb. (2) Generally it is the 
fore-limb, and of the opposite side to that of the point of irritation, 
which is the seat of contraction. (3) The electrical current must 
be propagated to the base of the brain in order to excite it; either 
to the nerves which arise on the base itself, or medulla. (4) If 
the dura mater be excited by electricity, we also obtain contrac- 
tions in one of the fore-limbs, generally in a crossed manner. (5) The 
fact that a galvanoscopic frog has been thrown into a state of con- 
traction when its nerve touched a part of the cerebral mass, far 
from the point of excitation, confirms the idea that the electric 
current is propagated. (6) Contrary to the results obtained by 
Ferrier, we have never succeeded in obtaining the effects upon the 
tongue, whether of projection or of retraction. (7) The whole of 
the cortical layer of the brain is probably a centre of reflexion of a 
certain kind of sensibility, capable of acting in a reflex manner on 
motor or sensitive centres, but its integrity is not indispensable to 
the manifestation of voluntary and even intelligent actions. (8) In 
the case of the animals (dogs) on which he experimented, it was 
possible to excite contractions of the muscles of the entire limbs on 
the opposite side of the body, even after the removal of the opto- 
striated bodies of the opposite side. (Also Lond. Med. Ree. Vol. 
u. No. 56.) Carville and Duret, in a communication read before 
the Soc. de Biologie, enter into a criticism on the results of the 
experiments of Fritsch, Hitzig and Ferrier, and add a series of 
experiments of their own to determine whether secondary currents 
are caused in the brain by the application of induced electricity 
when used as a means of stimulating that organ. They praise very 
highly the injection of chloral into the veins for producing sleep in 
the animals to be operated on, and rank it high above chioroform 
for this purpose. (This method is that of M. Oré, for the results 
of whose experiments with this drug see the Lond. Med. Rec. Vol. 
u. No. 64.) These authors have arrived at the following conclusions: 
(1) Even feeble induced currents diffuse on the surface of the brain 
from one point to another. (2) This diffusion on the surface is 
caused by the fluids and by the cerebral pulp. (3) Even feeble in- 
duced currents cannot be localised to the depth of the gray cere- 
bral matter; they diffuse more or less deeply into the subjacent 
white strata. It is probable that in this case they follow a certain 
determinate direction, perhaps that of the principal white bundles 
which lead to the corpora striata or the peduncles. In the Gaz. 
Méd. de Paris, No. 4, a continuation of these experiments on the 
excitability of the hemispheres is published. They show that the 


REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 397 


phenomena described by Ferrier, and which these authors have also 

obtained, are not due to stimulation of centres placed in the cortical 
substance of the brain, and ascribe them to a stimulation transmitted 
from the surface to the cerebral ganglia and the peduncles. They 
find a difference in the results when the animal (dog) is only incom- 
pletely or completely narcotised. When incompletely narcotised, 
the movements obtained by stimulating the surface of the hemi- 
spheres with Faradic electricity are of two orders: (1) Movements 
‘due to the diffusion of the current by the liquids, movements of ro- 
tation of the head to the opposite side, quivering of the jaw, and 
movements of the eyelids. (2) Movements due to the diffusion of 
the current into the depth of the cerebral mass, and to the exci- 
tation due to the corpora striata, movements of the limbs, and of the 
trunk of the opposite side. On the other hand, when the anesthesia 
was complete (tested by stimulating with the induced current the 
central end of the divided sciatic nerve) the experimenters did not 
obtain any of the effects of stimulation of the convolutions, whatever 
the intensity of the current. Neither the centres described by Ferrier, 
as regulators of the combined movements of: the anterior extremity, 
‘nor those of the posterior extremity, nor those of the lips and eyelids, 
became manifest by the electric stimulation. The authors conclude 
from their experiments that the peripheral layer of the hemispheres 
is inexcitable, it is insensible and does not contain any special 
‘motor centres. The effects obtained by Faradisation, which pene- 
trates to the corpora striata and to the peduncles, are those of 
direct excitation of these organs. These effects cannot be attributed 
to any reflex action (as maintained by Schiff and Dupuy). Complete 
anesthesia, which prevents these effects, does not change the con- 
ditions of the gray matter of the hemispheres; it only acts by 
diminishing the excitability, in a more or less pronounced degree, 
of those parts of the brain already known to be excitable. 
E. Hitzig (Reich. und Du Bois Rey. Arch. 1873, 397) has also con- 
tinued his researches on the physiology of the brain. He confirms 
the results of his previous experiments with Fritsch that with in- 
creasing intensity of the current on applying both electrodes to the 
surface of the brain of dogs, the first contraction is produced by 
changing the direction of the currents, when thereby the anode comes 
upon the proper centre. The anode is throughout more effective 
than the cathode. With regard to the influence of narcotism pro- 
duced by ether or morphia, the author found that during the deepest 
zetherisation, one or other centre did not react for a short time, whilst 
in others irritability remained. All reaction could only be abolished 
for a minimum time. With morphia narcotism the reaction of the 
centres remained undiminished. The same is true during the con- 
dition of apnea. The author has found a centre for the single move- 
ments of the eyes, which coincides with a part of the centre of the 
facialis. 


Insury To THE Brain witH Putmonary H#MoRRHAGE.—H. 
Nothnagel (Centralblatt, No. 14, 1874) finds on injiring with a 


398 DR STIRLING. 


needle a certain spot on the surface of the brain of the rabbit that 
peculiar disturbances occur, above all, hemorrhage in the lungs and 
in the tissue of the same, often so pronounced that almost the whole 
lung is traversed by the hemorrhage. Brown-Séquard, as is known, 
has also observed this, not however from injury to the surface of the 
brain, but of its basilar portion. Secondly, in the same way, menin- 
gitis can be regularly produced, chiefly bilateral, very seldom on the 
injured side, sometimes only on the half opposite to the injured side. 
This meningitis, the author thinks, is not a mere accidental cireum- 
stance. 


INFLUENCE OF THE BRAIN ON THE TEMPERATURE OF THE Bopy.— 
J. Schreiber (Pfliig. Archiv, vin. 576) has operated on a large 
number of rabbits, with a view to determine the effect of injuries to 
the brain on the temperature of the body. The injury was made by 
means of a lancet-shaped needle introduced through the skull. The 
temp. was measured in the rectum. From about 70 experiments the 
author concludes that after injury of the pons in all parts, of the 
pedunculi cerebri, of the cerebellum and cerebrum, increase of the 
body temperature occurred when the animals were protected arti- 
ficially from losing warmth; that the same results followed uncon- 
ditionally and constantly on injury to the limit between the medulla 
and the pons. For the present the author leaves the question as to 
whether these results are due to the presence of a moderating excito- 
caloric centre, as T'scheschichin supposed, or are pure vaso-motor 
phenomena. 


Functions oF THE Lincuat Nurve.—Prévost (Arch. de Phys. v. 
253 and 375) has arrived at the following conclusions: 1. Ablation 
of both spheno-palatine ganglia does not affect, in dogs and cats, the 
sense of taste, in parts supplied by the linguals. 2. After section of 
the chorda tympani, in dogs and cats with cut glosso-pharyngei, the 
taste was little modified in some cases, notably diminished in others, 
and completely abolished in one. Our results do not permit us to 
specify the réle the chorda plays in relation to the function of taste, 
but we are inclined to accord to it only an accessory part. 3. Con- 
trary to the old views of Vulpian, and coinciding with his recent 
researches, the author finds that the chorda carries fibres to the ter- 
minal branches of the lingual as well as to the sub-maxillary gland. 
After section of the chorda, in cats, dogs, rabbits and guinea-pigs, de- 
generated nerve-fibres were found in the terminal branches of the 
lingual, as well as in the mucous layer of the tongue and sub-maxillary 
gland. 4. The chorda has not a trophic centre in the papille of the 
tongue, and if the sub-maxillary gland acts as a trophic centre on it, 
this influence ought at least to be very limited. After section of the 
chorda in the ear, the central end of this uerve (on the side of its 
emergence facially) remains healthy. 


INFLUENCE OF EXTIRPATION OF THE SUPERIOR CERVICAL GANGLION 
oy THE MoveMENTs oF THE Irnis.—Vulpian (Arch. de, Phys. vt. 177) 
removed completely this ganglion in dogs, on the left side, At the end 


REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 399 


of from 10 to 15 days the animals were curarised and artificial respira- 
tion kept up. The skin and subjacent tissues of different parts of the 
body were stimulated by strong induced currents. Each time, the 
pupil on the left side dilated a little from one quarter to a third of 
its radius. It is therefore certain that all the sympathetic nerve- 
fibres which act on the iris do not traverse the superior cervical 
ganglion, nor do all of them pass through the part of the sympathetic 
above this ganglion, for it was excised at the same time as the 
ganglion. 

“Vulpian on Section of the Chorda Tympani.”—Abstract in 
Lond. Med. Rec. No. 46. “Experiments relative to the physiology 
of the vaso-dilating nerves.” Vulpian, Arch. de Phys. vi. 175. 


INFLUENCE OF CHANGES OF TEMPERATURE ON THE CENTRAL ENDS 
OF THE CarpiAc Nerves.—Tarachanoff, under Cyon’s direction 
(Pjliiger’s Archiv, vit. 347), finds, in opposition to Fick, who says that 
the central ends of the cardiac nerves are not influenced by changes 
of temperature, that, in passing defibrinated blood under normal pres- 
sure through the vessels of the brain, after ligature of the carotid and 
vertebral arteries, and of the veins, sudden increase of temperature of 
about 18° C. acts as a stimulant in the most powerful manner, on 
the central ends of the vagus, and quite in accordance with the action 
on the peripheral ends of this nerve. 


INFLUENCE OF THE PosteRIOR NervE-Roots oN THE SENSI- 
BILITY OF THE ANTERIOR.—Cyon (Pfliiger’s Archiv, vin. 340), in 
opposition to the negative results of G. Heidenhain, cites the follow- 
ing experiment from Steinmann’s paper, as demonstrating Brondgeest’s 
tonus. The gastrocnemius of a frog is weighted with twenty or thirty 
grammes, and the muscle is allowed, while at rest, to write upon a 
rotating cylinder. The posterior roots are then cut carefully with 
sharp scissors, and the muscle is allowed to write its length further. 
The weighted muscle increases in length in a marked degree, either 
immediately or in the course of a minute. 


Action or Strycunra on Sensory Nerves.—Busch (Berl. Klin. 
Wochensch. No. 37) finds that sensibility is so much impaired in frogs 
poisoned by strychnia that pinching the animals’ toes or burning the 
central end of the divided sciatic nerve may be performed without being 
followed by a reflex action. “The Physiology of Man. Vol. Iv. 
The Nervous System.” By Austin Flint, jun., M.D. 8vo. pp. 470. 
New York: D. Appleton & Co. 1872. ‘Physiological Studies on 
the Motor Nerve of the Heart; Relation of Motor and Sensory Nerves 
to their centres of Nutrition; Relation cf the Roots of the Spinal 
Nerves to the Sympathetic ; Excitability of the Spinal Cord, etc.” 
Abstract of these papers from the Italian by Boll, in Centralblatt 
No. 52, 1873. “Experimental Investigation of the simplest Psy- 
chical Processes.” Sig. Exner, Pjliig. Arch. vir, 601 (Abstract in 
Lond. Med. Recd. 11. No. 55).——“ Paralysis of the Vagus in Man.” 
P. Guttmann, Virch. Arch. u1x. 51. “ New formation of Brain Sub- 
stance in the form of a Tumour on the surface of the Convolutions.” 


400 DR STIRLING. 


T. Simon, Virch. Arch. tv. 310. “Effects of a rise of Tempera- 
ture on Reflex action in the Frog.” M. Foster, Journ. of Anat. and 
Phys. vi. 45; also Nature, Dec. 4th, 1873. ‘“‘Sensation in the 
Spinal Cord,” by G. H. Lewes, and Reply in Nature, Dec. 11th, by 
M. Foster. “Double Nerve Stimulation.” Dew-Smith. bid. 
(Abstract of both papers in Lond. Med. Recd. Vol. 1. No. 59.) 


GENERAL PHysioLoGy oF THE NerveEs.—<Electrotonus.” 4. 
Hermann, Pjliigz. Arch. vu. 301, 323, and 497, Abstract in Central- 
blatt, No. 43, 1873. “Transverse conduction in the Nerves of the 
Frog.” E. Hitzig, Pjliig. Arch. vu. 263. “Form of the Curve in 
the so-called transverse conduction in the Nerves of the Frog.” 
W. Filehne, 7bid. vit. 71. * Action of the electrical current in 
different directions of the nerves and muscles.” Bernheim, 60, Jbid. 
— “Nerve Degeneration and Nerve Regeneration.” H. Eichhorst, 
Virch. Arch. wrx. I. “On the union end to end of Sensory with 
Motor Fibres.” Vulpian in Gaz. Méd. de Paris, No. 7, 1874. 


Eys.—“ Influence of Spectacles on the acuteness of Vision.” 
Donders, in v. Grdfe’s Arch. xvi. 2. 245 (Abstr. in Centralblatt, No. 
47, 1873). ‘‘New apparatus for measuring the field of vision.” 
Scherk, Zehend. Klin. Monatsbl. f. Augenheilk. x. 1873, 151 (Ab- 
stract in Centralblatt, No. 40, 1873). “Development of Traumatic 
Keratitis.” A. Bottcher, Dorpat. Medic. Zeitschr. 1873, tv. 66 ( Ab- 
‘stract in Centralblait, No. 52, 1873). ““Micrometry of the posterior 
part of the Eye.” Laqueur, Centralblatt, No. 59, 1873.-_—“ Lymph 
Sheaths of the Choroidal Vessels.” Morano, Centralblatt, No. 1, 1874. 
“Inflammation of the Cornea.” C. J. Eberth, Centralblatt, No. 
6, 1874. “Change of Fluids in the Eye.” Th. Leber, Arch. f- 
Ophthal. x1x. 87 (Abst. in Centralblatt, Nos. 9 & 10, 1874). “On 
the accommodation movement of the Choroid in the Eye of Man, the 
Ape and the Cat.” Hensen and Vélkers, Arch. f, Ophthal. xrx. 156 
(Abst. in Centrelblatt, No. 11, 1874). “Estimation of the Refrac- 
tive Index of the Fluid Media of the Human Eye.” J. Hirschberg, 
Centralblatt, No. 13, 1874. “Action of the Galvanic Current on 
the Human Eye.” H. Schliephake, Pjliig. Arch. vin. 565. 


Ear.—‘The Mechanism of the Ossicles of the Ear and Membrana 
Tympani.” By H. Helmholtz, translated from the German, by Albert 
H. Buck and N. Smith. New York: William Wood & Co, 1873. 
DP. 69. “Mechanism of the Ear.” J. G. M*Kendrick, £dinr, 
Med. Jowr. coxxut 577. “Mechanism of Opening and Closing 
the Eustachian Tube.” Yule in Journ. of Anat. and Physiol. vit. 
127. “Effect of the Galvanic Current upon the Acoustic Nerve.” 
C. J. Blake, Arch. of Scient. and Prac. Med. New York, 1873. No. 
4. 326.——“The External Ear a Synthetic Resonator.” C. H. 
‘Burnett, Philad. Med. Times, 1873, No. 101. 


FUNCTIONS OF THE SEMICIRCULAR CANALS.—Solucha has made 
‘experiments on this subject under Cyon’s directions (Pfliiger’s Archiv, 
Vol. yur.). Phe results obtained by Flourens are already well known. 


eh te 


— 


ee ee ee 


REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 401 


Goltz ascribes the disturbance of movement produced by section of 
these organs, to the loss of the feeling of equilibrium; while Liwen- 
berg regards the collective disturbance of movement as only con- 
sequences of a reflex stimulation of the nerves, which run in the 
membranous canals. The first point investigated by Solucha was, 
how far is an abnormal position of the head able to disturb the feeling 
of equilibrium of the animal, and so to produce the abnormal move- 
ments? The author confirms the experiment of Longet that mere 
section of the recti capitis posticl majores et minores in the dog 
renders the movements of the animal uncertain and insecure; the 
dog was unsteady on its feet, moved from side to side, kept the fore 
feet widely apart from each other, running was rendered difficult, de. 
After five or six days the head generally assumed the normal position, 
and at the same time the walking became normal. In a second series 
of experiments the author sought to give pigeons a pecuhar position 
of the head, without wounding important parts——a position such as 
occurs on section of the canals, with the beak directed upwards, and 
the occiput towards the ground. On fixing the head to the breast in 
this position with a thread, the animals conducted themselves partly 
like those in which the horizontal as well as the vertical semicircular 
canals were destroyed. They could not retain their equilibrium, but 
moved to and fro on their legs, and always sought for a third point of 
support, made movements de manége, &c. As soon as the head was 
freed, the whole disturbance of movement disappeared, and locomo- 
tion became normal. This experiment also shows the importance of 
a normal position of the head, so that the animal may be able to pre- 
serve its position of equilibrium, as well as to execute co-ordinated 
movements. In what way is the feeling of equilibrium dependent on 
a normal position of the head? The answer to this is, for the greatest 
part, to be sought in the changes which our conceptions of the posi- 
tion and distance of cuter objects bear in relation to our own body. 
In pigeons, provided with spectacles with prismatic glasses, which 
produced artificial strabismus, disturbance of movement distinctly 
analogous to the higher degrees of that which occurs after section of 
the semicircular canals was observed. In some cases even ‘pendulum 
movements,’ corresponding to those seen on section of the horizontal 
canals, were noted. On section of one horizontal canal, the animal 
made several lateral movements of the head, beginning from the in- 
jured side, which soon ceased. On section of the corresponding canal 
on the opposite side ‘pendulum movements’ of the head occurred, 
and persisted very long. The violence of the movements increased 
from the beginning onwards, until they reached a maximum, when 
the animal lost its equilibrium, fell over, executed movements de 
manége, &c. In a few cases the animals recovered completely, but 
generally after four or five days the animal was found in a corner 
with the peculiar position of the head above described, and quite 
quiet, but when disturbed it resumed the pendulum movements, &e. 
Most of the animals died in from ten to twenty days. On section, 
the neighbouring parts of the skull were bloody and infiltrated, and 
the cerebellum was softened on the posterior surface and of a yellow- 


402 DR STIRLING. 


ish-green colour. The results of section of the smaller vertical canals 
were in some respects similar to the above, but differed in some 
important points. In section of the horizontal canals, the head moved 
in a horizontal plane from right to left, and back again; but in animals 
with cut vertical canals, the pendulum movements of the head occurred 
from above downwards and back again—then in a vertical plane. The 
subsequent movements of the trunk were also different, in that the 
whole trunk tumbled round on its transverse axis, and that mostly 
from before backwards. On section of all four canals, violent move- 
ment of the head, resembling a screw motion, occurred immediately, 
accompanied by general swinging movement of the whole body. That 
disturbance of equilibrium is a direct consequence of section of the 
semicircular canals is certain. 1. These disturbances occur ummedi- 
ately after the operation, and this when it is free from all other com- 
plications, as section of muscles, bleeding, injury to the cerebellum, &c. 
2. The two sorts of movement, as well of the head as of the trunk, 
scarcely admit of a doubt, that the semicircular canals stand in rela- 
tion to certain conceptions of space, and sensation. By means of the 
nerves which end in the membranous canals, a series of unconscious 
impressions are continually communicated, which lead to unconscious 
conclusions as to the position of the head in space. The semicireular 
canals contribute only indirectly to the retention of the equilibrium 
of our body, in that they direct the position of the head in space. 
The chief results of these experiments are the following: 1. For re- 
tention of equilibrium, it is necessary that the animal has correct 
conceptions as to the position of its head. 2. The semicircular canals 
possess the functions of informing the animal, by a series of uncon- 
scious (auditory?) impressions, as to the position of his head in space, 
and each semicircular canal has an exact relation to a dimension of 
space. 3. The movements which occur after section of the semi- 
circular canals are of three sorts: a Disturbance in equilibrium, as 
the direct consequence of the injury; 6 Swinging movements, as 
consequences of stimulations arising from abnormal auditory sensa- 
tions ; c. Consecutive phenomena, produced by inflammation of the 
cerebellum, occurring several days after the injury (Lond. Med. Ree. 
Vol. 1. No. 58). “On the Sense of Rotation and the Function of 
the Semicircular Canals.” A. Crum Brown, Proceeds. Roy. Soc. Edin. 
1873—74, and this Journal, 1874. 

Sxivy.—“ Capillary Circulation in the Skin,” Bloch, Arch. de Phys. 
v. 681. “Ueber den Raumsinn der Haut des Unterschenkels.” 


Ad. Riecker, Zeitsch. f. Biol. 1x. 99. “Eifect produced on the 
Skin by various injuries.” Bloch, Arch. de Phys. v1. 158. 


Circulatory System. 


Bouillaud “on normal and abnormal pulse.” Abstract in Lond. 
Med. Reed. 1. No. 42. “Action and Sounds of the Heart,” G. Paton, 
Edin. Med.. Journ. ccxxi. 407 (Abstract in Lond. Med. Recd. 1. 
No. 48). ‘Blood-pressure in the heart and arteries,” Fick, Verhandl. 
d. physik. medic. Gesellsch. zu Wiirzburg, tv. 223 (Abstract in Lond. 


REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 408 


Mted. Reed. No. 49).——“ Quinine and Blood.” Binz, Arch. f. Exper. 
Pathol. 1873, 1. 18. “Action of Atropin and Physostigma on the 
pupil and heart.” Rossbach and Frohlich, Wiirzb. phys. med. Verh. 1. 
(Abstract in Centralblatt, Nos. 58 and 59, 1873). “Origin of 
Hemorrhages after ligature of the vessels.” Virch. Arch. ivi. 436 
(Abstract in Centralblatt, No. 59, 1873). “The Capacity of blood 
for Oxygen at different barometric pressures.” P. Bert in Soc. de 
Biologie (Gaz. Méd. de Paris, No. 2, 1874). ‘Demonstration of the 
Pulse by means of the flame.” R. Klemenziewiz, Untersuch. aus d. 
Institut. in Graz, Heft 11. “On Ecchymosis and other effusions 
of blood, caused by a nervous influence.” Brown-Séquard, Arch. of 
Scien. and Pract. Med. 1873, 148. “The red blood-corpuscles.” 
C. Faber, Archiv der Heilkunde, xiv. 481 (Abs. in Centralblatt, No. 6, 
1874). “On Diapedesis.” J. Arnold, Virch. Arch. uvut. 203 (Abs. 
in Centralblatt, No. 8, 1874). “Action of Calabar Bean on the 
Heart.” H. Kohler, Arch. f. exp. Pathol. 1873, 1. 277 (Abs. in 
Centralblatt, No. 8, 1874). “On the migration of white corpuscles 
into the lymphatics of the frog’s tongue.” KR. Thoma (Z'ageblatt 
d. 46 Versam. deutsch. Naturf. und Aerzte in Wiesbaden, 1873 (Abs. 
in Lond. Med. Recd. 1. No. 51). “Kin Beitrag zur Mechanik der 
Herzcontractionen,” Inaugural Dissertation, by E. A. Lutze, Cothen, 
1874.——“Causes of the secondary waves in the Pulse,” Galabin, 
Journ. of Anat. and Phys. vii. 1. “The Law which regulates the 
frequency of the Pulse.” A. H. Garrod, Jbid. p, 54. ‘““Vaso-motor 
and uterine Nerve-centres.” Schlesinger, Al/gem. Wiener Med. Zeitung, 
Nos. 42 and 43 (Abstract in Lond. Med. Reed. 11. No. 55). “The 
role of Oxygen in the formation of Pus.” C. Binz, Vireh. Arch. urx. 
293. “The proportion of the white to the red Corpuscles after 
Suppuration.” Apolant, /bid. tix. 299. “Doctrine of the reflex 
stimulation of the vaso-motor nerves.” Cyon, Pjliig. Arch. vit. 327. 
“The resistance of the walls of the vessels in the normal condition 
and during Inflammation.” F. v. Winiwarter, Sitz. d. k. Akad. d. 
Wissensch. txviu. 3 Abth. 1873. “ Direct electrical stimulation of 
the Mammalian Heart.” 8S. Mayer, Jbed. 


“OBSERVATIONS ON WELCKER’S METHOD OF ESTIMATING THE 
Quantity or Bioop.”—R. Gscheilden, Pjliig. Arch. vu. 530, disposes 
of objections which had been urged by Ranke against the method of 
estimating the quantity of blood in the body, employed by Heiden- 
hain and himself, for which see the original. 

I. Brozeit suggested that the quantity of blood would be found 
to be smaller when the animal had been previously subjected to an 
important injury. The author, to determine this, experimented upon 
rabbits. From the animal first a small quantity of blood was with- 
drawn and its amount of solid constituents determined. It was then 
subjected to various operations, and then a second quantity of blood 
withdrawn and its solid constituents likewise determined. The 
operations that the rabbits were subjected to were, throwing the whole 
animal into a state of tetanus by the application of induction shocks 
to the spinal cord ; poisoning with strychniaj; section of the spinal 


404 DR STIRLING. 


cord and artificial respiration ; suffocation, by the mechanical cessation 
of the respiration, by CO, and common gas. In all cases the blood 
showed a slight diminution in solid constituents, but this was also 
found in the second blood-test when the animal was left uninjured, 
and was the greater, the smaller the animal employed. 

It. The quantity of blood in rabbits, guinea-pigs, and dogs, 
Ranke gives great variations in rabbits, from 1 : 12,25 to 1 : 34,4, 
In two new experiments the author found it in comparison to the 
nett weight of the body (weight of animal minus intestines) as 1; 19,2 
and 1: 18,2. His former result was 1 : 19,5. 

III. Colouring matter of the muscles of different animals. The 
author shows that Brozeit’s view as to the colour of muscle being due 
to diffusion of hemoglobin is quite untenable. Whether the quantity 
of the colouring matter in muscle depends upon the activity of the 
muscle the author’s experiments do not definitely determine. 


PERIODICITY OF THE ACTION OF THE HEART.—Regarding the expe- 
riments of Metschnikoff and Setschenow (Journ. of Anat. and Phys. 
vit. 193), A. B. Meyer adds a note in Centralblatt, No. 59, 1873, 
to say that he has observed the phenomena described by these authors 
and announced it under the term “Intermittenz,” in his paper “ Ueber 
das Hemmingsnervensystem des Herzens.” 


CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE BLOoD-coRPUSCLES.—J. Paquelin 
and Jolly, in a memoir presented to the Soc. de Biologie (Gaz. méd. 
de Paris, No. 7, 1874), sum up the results of their researches on this 
subject thus : 1. We do not know any process which yields hema- 
tosine ina state of purity. 2. This substance is always more or less 
mixed with albuminous matter. 3. The albuminous matter varies in 
quantity according to the degree of alkalinity of the solvents employed. 
4, Other substances, such as iron, may be mixed with hematosine 
according to the mode of preparation. 5. The differences of opinion 
regarding the constitution of heematosine are a consequence of the diffi- 
culties inherent to its preparation. 6. Heematosine contains no iron. 
7. The ferruginous principle of the corpuscles is combined with an 
albuminous body scluble in heat, alcoholic fluids, but strongly in 
alkaline ones. 8. Ineineration changes the constitution of the 
mineral principles of the corpuscles, 9, Carbonization does not alter 
these principles. 10. Iron exists in the corpuscles in the state of 
phosphate of the protoxide. 11. This phosphate of iron is tribasic. 
12. All the phosphates of the organism may be represented by the 
formula 3 (MO), PO,. 13. The basicity of these phosphates is less 
stable, 14. 100 grms. of dried corpuscles yield 


Phosphoric acid 0,415 


Lime 0,015 
Protoxide of Iron 0,600 
Potass 0,031 


REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY, 405 


which corresponds to 

Phosphate of Potass 0,046 
4 of Lime 0,027 
re of Tren 0,994 


1,067 


The method of (1) extracting the corpuscles, (2) separating the 
heematosine, (3) analysing the mineral substances, is detailed in the 
original. The experiments were made on the blood of the ox. 


Oricin or Mecnanican (ipema.—A. Hehn (Cenéraldlatt, No. 40, 
1873) has repeated Ranvier’s experiments on this subject and arrived 
at the following conclusions. The author experimented on dogs. 1. 
Extraperitoneal ligature of the vena cava inferior below the renal 
veins was follewed, in a large number of animals, by neither cedema 
of the lower extremities nor collection of transudation in the peri- 
toneal cavity. 2. Ligature of the vena jugularis on both sides 
yielded aiso negative results. 3. Section of one sciatic nerve with 
sunultaneous ligature of the vena cava inferior produces edema in 
the corresponding limb only when the nerve is divided at a certain 
height after its exit from the ischiadic foramen. 


Action oF Zinc on Buoop-Sotution.—H. Struve (Journ. of Pract. 
Chem. N. F. vu. 1873, 346). Schdnbein has shown that when Zn is 
shaken with water a small quantity of hydric peroxide is formed. 
The author finds that simple contact of Zn with water is sufficient 
for this. Place Zn in a solution of blood in a similar way and allow 
it to stand, gradually a brownish red precipitate is formed and the 
fluid becomes less and less coloured, and finally becomes as clear as 
water. The precipitate contains the whole colouring matter of the 
blood, and the filtrate is free from albumen. 


TRANSFUSION OF Bioop.—L. Landois (Centralblatt, Nos, 56 and 
57, 1873) injected into dogs the blood of the sheep, cat, guinea-pig, 
rabbit, man, pig, calf, and pigeon. The blood of the hare, sheep, calf, 
and man was transfused into the rabbit. In a special series of ex- 
periments the frog was employed, and into it blood from the frog, 
rabbit, sheep, calf, guinea-pig, pigeon, pike, and man, was injected. 
With regard to the experiments upon the mammalia, the author 
remarks—A. That the blood-serum of many mammals dissolves the 
blood-corpuscles of other mammals. The most active serum (as yet 
examined) is that of the dog, the least active is rabbit-serum. Bb. The 
blood-corpuscles of mammals possess quite another capability of 
resistance in the serum of other animals, e.g. the blood-corpuscles of 
the rabbit are exceedingly easily dissolved, whilst those of the dog and 
cat manifest great resistance. ‘The manner of solution can be observed 
under the microscope. At blood-heat the solution takes place quicker 
than at a lower temperature. Amongst others the author draws the 
following conclusions from his experiments. The dissolved constitu- 
ents of the blood-corpuscles are excreted principally by the urine, less 


406 DR STIRLING. 


richly and not so constantly by the intestine, uterus, bronchial tubes, 
and into the serous cavities. A certain quantity of the dissolved 
materials can be used for the construction of the body of the recipient. 
The beginning and the end of the excretion of blood by the urine 
varies. Already after 12, 24 hours after the injection hemoglobin 
and albumen were found in the urine. The same condition existed 
even twelve hours thereafter and also later. The quantity and kind 
of blood transfused and the condition of the vascular system is in 
this respect of influence. When foreign blood is transfused into an 
animal, some of the animal’s own blood-corpuscles may disintegrate 
and dissolve. ‘This is the case when the blood-corpuscles of the 
recipient are soluble in the serum of the animal which yields the 
blood. In animals with easily soluble blood-corpuscles, e.g. the rabbit, 
the injection of serum of different sorts, e.g. of the dog, man, pig, 
sheep, cat, produces, according to the quantity, very menacing symp- 
toms; increase of the frequency of respiration, dyspneea, convulsions, 
even death or asphyxia: whilst animals with resisting blood-cor- 
puscles, e.g. the dog, can bear the injection of other kinds of serum, 
e.g. of the sheep, ox, pig, without any of these phenomena. After 
too great a transfusion with solution of the blood-corpuscles the for- 
mation of clots of fibrin sometimes occurs, causing the death of the 
aninal, 


AcTION oF BitTER SUBSTANCES ON THE CIRCULATION AND Buioop- 
PRESSURE.—Kohler (Vageblutt d. 46 Versam. deutsch. Naturf. und 
’ Aerate in Wiesbaden, 1873) finds that Cetrarin, Columbin, and pro- 
bably the other bitter substances, when injected into the veins pro- 
duced a diminution of the arterial blood-pressure (8—20 Millim. Hg.) 
followed by a gradual increase of 12—18 Millim. Hg. above the 
original tension. ‘The cause of the diminution of pressure, which oc- 
curred even after section of spinal cord and vagus, is to be sought 
in the heart itself; whilst the cause of the increase, which did not 
take place after section of the spinal cord, must be sought for out- 
side the heart. ‘The increase of the blood-pressure after injection 
of cetrarin and columbin is to be ascribed to the excitation of the 
vaso-motor centre. The initial diminution was also observed after 
paralysis of the termination of the vagus in the heart. The frequency 
of contractions of the heart, even when poisonous doses of the above 
substances had been given, remained unchanged till shortly before 
death. 


A PECULIARITY OF CAPILLARY-BLOOD.—F. Falk (Virch. Arch. urx. 
26) asks why it is that blood is found fluid in the capillaries post- 
mortem, and why even after removal from the body it remains in the 
same condition. He set himself to determine which of the three 
substances necessary for the coagulation of the blood [(fibrino-plastic 
substance, fibrinogen, and the coagulating ferment (Schmidt) ] is absent, 
The blood was obtained by puncture from the human lungs or from 
those of the horse. The presence of fibrino-plastic substance was 
proved by diluting the blood with twenty parts of water and cuare- 


REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY, 407 


fully adding acetic acid, or leading through it a strong stream of 
CO., when a precipitate showing the properties of paraglobulin was 
obtained. This precipitate placed in the fluid of a hydrocele or in 
pericardial fluid yielded fibrin. On treating the blood after the 
manner recommended by Schmidt for obtaining the fibrin-ferment, a 
fluid was obtained which accelerated the coagulation, but not to an 
extent equal to that obtained from normal blood or serum. No 
coagulation occurred however on adding to the capillary post-mortem 
blood, defibrinated blood (which contains fibriu-plastic substance). 
This points to the absence of the fibrinogen. In fact the author could 
not obtain this substance by any of the means recommended for its 
separation. The non-coagulability therefore of capillary blood from 
the dead body is due to the absence or considerable diminution of the 
fibrinogen. 


Inriuencr or Nutrition on Carprac Muscies.—L. Perl (Virch. 
Arch, ux. 39, Abst. in Centralblatt, No. 15, 1874), in his first series 
of experiments (on dogs), performed seldom and large bleedings (every 
5—7 days, 3—3% per cent. of the body weight at each time), in a 
second series more frequent and smaller bleedings (every 3—4 days, 
1—14 per cent.) were practised. ‘The animals endured the operative 
procedures well. The wounds healed well without fever, and only 
in one case did embolus of the lungs vccur. Whilst the animals of 
the second series, on which ten as the minimum, and seventeen as 
the maximum, of bleedings were practised, remained quite cheerful 
and well, and when killed, from the 36—39th day, showed no signs 
of change in the muscles of the heart, the seven dogs of the first 
series, on the contrary, on which 5—7 bleedings were practised, 
became lean, lost appetite, became sad, had partial edema of the 
extremities, and died (6) with the phenomena of marasmus within 
eleven weeks. With a single exception, all the animals dying after 
four weeks showed a very flabby heart, with a yellowish colour, and 
under the microscope a large number of the muscular fibres were 
found to have undergone extensive fatty degeneration. These fibres 
lay irregularly scattered amongst normal ones, for the most part in 
the papillary muscles, especially of the left half. 


Reriex INNERVATION oF VeEssELs.—E. Pick (Jnaug. Dissert. 
Berlin 1873, 8", 30 p., and Reichert und du Bois’ Archiv, 1873, 1.) 
experimented on the web of the second interdigital space of Rana 
temporaria. ‘The main artery and vein run close to the bone, and 
give off a series of branches which divide dichotomously until they 
end in the capillaries. Dilute acetic acid or the induced current 
were used as the stimulating agents. The greater the stimulation, 
and the smaller the vessel, the quicker and more intensive is the 
reflex contraction. Different portions of skin require different in- 
tensities of the stimulant to produce the same effect. The most 
sensitive part is the skin of the back, the least that of the face. 
Intense irritation of the larger arteries is followed by dilatation, 
The vaso-motor channels run exclusively in the ischiadicus. 


408 ; DR STIRLING. 


NumBer of Rep anp Ware CorruscLes IN THE Broop.— 
Melassez (De la Numération des Globules Rouges du Sang, Paris, 
1873, and Arch. de Phys. v1. 32) describes his method of estimating 
the number of corpuscles, red and white, in the Llood. Amongst 
others he has arrived at the following conclusions. 

Arterial blood seems to have the same richness in corpuscles in 
the great trunks; in an arteriole he has found the corpuscles increased 
in number. Venous blood is very different according to its source and 
to the state of activity of function of the organs from which it comes. 
In the skin, the richness in corpuscles (“la richesse globulaire”) in- 
creases. This augmentation is less marked on suppression of the 
cutaneous evaporation and when congestion is produced either by 
paralysis or by stimulation of the sympathetic ; ; 1t is, on the contrary, 
more considerable when the cutaneous evaporation is increased, or 
when congestion is produced by an obstacle to the circulation. A 
similar augmentation is observed in muscles. It is least when the 
muscle is at rest or paralysed, and is much increased when the muscle 
contracts. In glands, the increase is mere considerable during the 
state of repose, than when the gland is in action. The number of red 
corpuscles 3 is increased in the spleen, and most so during the period 
of digestion. In the liver, their number appeared to the author to 
be diminished. ‘Then follows an estimation of the number of the 
red blood-corpuscles in the mammalia Nea Rend. Dec. 1872 
and Abs. in Lond. Med. Rec. No. 1, Vol. 1. 1873). The author 
also estimates the richness of the blood in white corpuscles in cases of 
erysipelas and in some cases of suppuration. The author finds by 
his method that in a cubic millimeter of the arterial blood of the 
dog there are from 3,410,000 to 3,780,000 red corpuscles; in the 
arterial blood of the rabbit 4,700,000, and in the venous 4,900,000; 
in the arterial blood of the grinea-pig 3,900,000, and in the venous 
4,300,000. 


ActTIon or GASES IN THE COAGULATION OF ALBUMEN.—H. Mathieu 
and V. Urbain (Comptes Rendus, 1873, rxxvut. 706, Abs. in Central- 
blatt, No. 58, 1873) have found that blood-serum, when deprived of 
its gases, does not coagulate at 100°, and the same is true of the 
albumen of eggs. The gas obtained from the albumen of the egg is 
for the most part CO,. If the solution of albumen is again saturated 
with CO,, then heat will cone it. When the albuminous coagu- 
lum is treated with an acid, e. g. tartaric, CO, can be obtained, about 
60—80 ccm. frem 100 ccm. of albumen. ‘The authors regard the 
coagulation occurring under heat as a combination of the albu- 
men with the CO, present in the fluid. In an albuminous solution 
freed from CO. ,, alcohol, acids and the metallic salts cause coagulation. 
If the pumping out of the gases is continued long enough, ‘not only 
the dissolved gases are obtained, but also traces of ‘carbonate of am= 
monia, as well as sulphide of ammonium, and then the solution 
exhibits the properties of globulin, which, according to the authors, 
can be precipitated in the cold by CO, The air-pump is not neces- 
sary to cause this change of albumen i into globulin! it is sufficient to 


REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 409. 


dilute freely the solution of albumen and place it under a bell-jar with 
sulphuric acid and caustic potash. The addition of a small quantity 
of phosphate of soda gives the globulin solution the properties of 
cesin. Coagulated albumen, and the different albuminous substances 
dissolved in NH,, and evaporated, yield a solution, exhibiting the 
properties of globulin, and can be.compared with Mulder’s Protein. 


Respiratory System. 


* Action of protoxide of N. on germination and respiration ; on 
the properties of chloropyll.” Jolyet and Blanche, Gaz. Hebdom. 
1873, p. 389.—‘ The respiratory centre,’ Gierke, Pfliig. Arch. vil. 
583 (Abstr. in Centralblatt, No. 59, 1873).—“ The respiratory move- 
ments” (A. physiological and pathological study), F. Riegel, Wiirz- 
burg, 1873, pp. 176, 12 plates. Abs. in Cenétralblatt, No. 5, 1874. 


INFLUENCE OF ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION OVER POISONING WITH 
Srrycunia. Jochelsohn (Verhandl. d. Physikal. Medicin. Gesellsch. 
zu Wiirzburg, New Series, v. 107) finds in support of the experiments 
of Rossbach (Jour. of Anat. and Phys. vit. 203), and in opposition 
to those of Leube and Brown-Séquard, that artificial respiration has 
no distinet effect upon the duration and intensity of the convulsions ; 
and these occurred even when the animal had been rendered apneic 
‘before the administration of the drug. The author does not believe 
that the strychnia is excreted or destroyed in the lungs, and thinks 
that artificial respiration prolongs the life of the animal poisoned by 
strychnia in the same way as that of animals whose spinal cord has 
been divided high up in the neck (fuller report in Lond. Med. Kee. 
No. 52). 


On APNGHA AND THE ACTION oF AN ENERGETIC STREAM OF CO, 
Gas oN THE Mucous MrewBRANE OF THE RESPIRATORY APPARATUS, 
&c. The results of Brown-Séquard as to the effects of a strong 
stream of CO, in cutting short an epileptic attack in guinea-pigs whose 
sciatic nerve or lateral half of the spinal cord has been divided, have 
been already noticed (Jowrn. Anat. and Physiol. vit. 343), W. Filehne 
(Reich. und Du Bois Reym. Arch. 1873, 361) has repeated the ex- 
periments of Brown-Séquard, and has always arrived at only negative 
results. He finds further that powerful stimulation of the soles of 
the feet with induced current is without effect on the epileptic attacks 
in guinea-pigs. 


Alimentation. 


“On the Separation of Digestive Ferments.” V. Paschutin, Pech. 
und Du Bois Reym. Arch. 1873, 382. “ Amylotic Ferment of 
the Pancreas.” <A. Liversidge, Journ. of Anat. and Phys. vu. 23. 
“Chemical Properties and Physiological Action of Fat.” J. Day, 
Australian Med. Journ. (abstract in Lond. Med. Journ. Vol. it No. 
‘62. “Contributions to the Question of Nutrition.” J. Forster, 
4eitsch, f. Biol. 1x. Heft 3. “On the Butyrie Acid Fermentation.” 


VOL. VIII. vag 


410 DR STIRLING. 


V. Paschutin, Pfliig. Arch. vit. 352 (abstract in Centralblatt, No. 9, 
1847). “Tntervention of Electro-Capillary Forces in the Pro- 
duction of the Phenomena of Animal and Vegetable Life.” Becquerel, 
Robin's Journ. de 1 Anat. Jan. 1874.——“ Physiology of Defecation,” 
Gobrecht in the Clinic of March, 1873 (abst. in Lond. Med. Ree. 
No. 49). “ Physiological Action of Alcohol.” Sée, Translation 
in the Lond. Med. Rec. No. 50. “ Absorption of Fat in the 
Small Intestine.” S. Thauhoffer, Pest. Medizin. Chirurg. Presse, 
1873, No. 22 (abstract in Centralblatt, No. 44, 1873, and Pfliig. 
Arch, Viil.). “ Withdrawal of Alkali from the Living Body.” E. 
Salkowski, Virch. Arch. 1873, tv111. 1 (abstract in Centralblatt, No. 
49, 1873). “Mineral Inanition and Influence of Phosphate of 
Lime on the Transformation of Albuminous Substances.” Brothers 
Dusart in Société de Biologie (Gaz. Méd. de Paris, No. 5, 1874). 
“On the Cataphoric Changes of Moist Porous Bodies.” H. 
Munk in Reich. und Du Bois Rey. Arch. 1873, 241.——“ Prepara- 
tion of Solutions of Albumen free from Salts by means of Diffusion.” 
R. Aronstein, and observations on the same by A. Schmidt. Pjliig. 
Arch. vit. 75 and 93 (abstract in Centralblatt, No. 1, 1874). 
“On the Origin of Sulphuric Acid and the Condition of Taurin in 
the Animal Organism.” E. Salkowski, Vireh. Arch. Lyiu., and 
“Synthesis of Taurocarbaminacid,” Berich. d. Deutsch. Chem. Ges. zu 
Berlin, vi. 1191. “The History of Uramid Acid.” H. Huppert, 
Ibid. (abstract of these three papers in Centralblatt, No. 11, 1874). 
“On the Albuminous Bodies.” O. Nasse, Pjliig. Arch. yin. 381 
(abstract in Centralblatt, No. 13, 1874). “ Estimation of N. in 
Albuminous Bodies by means of Soda Lime.” Ritthausen, Journ. f. 
Pract. Chem. N. F. vu. 10. 


SECRETION OF THE Panoreas.—-L. Landau (Znaug. Dissert. 
Breslau, 1873, pp. 34, abstract in Centralblatt, No. 56, 1873). A 
graduated canula was introduced into one of the pancreatic ducts, 
whilst the other was ligatured along with the ductus choledochus. 
Heidenhain’s method of using a poison to paralyse the secretory 
nerves was employed. The dogs were curarised and artificial respi- 
ration kept up. The mean quantity of secretion, in seven experi- 
ments, was 0,2 ccm. in 60 mins. (The results of Bernstein’s ex- 
periments gave about thrice as much.) Injection of Atropin, Calabar 
bean, Nicotin, had no constant effect on the secretion, nor had increase 
or diminution of the blood-pressure any material influence upon it. 
Stimulation of sensory nerves, as well as electrical stimulation of the 
lingual, yielded only negative results. In opposition to Bernstein, 
who employed a permanent fistula, the author found only seldom a 
diminution of the secretion, after stimulation of the vagus. Often 
section of the vagus was without any effect, sometimes however this 
(along with general clonic spasms of the body) as well as its stimula- 
tion was followed by increase of the secretion. Positive results were 
first obtained on stimulating the medulla, either directly or by 
suspending the respiration. Stimulation of the medulla with in- 
duced electricity increased the pancreatic secretion, and this the more, 


REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 411 


the oftener the irritation. Often the rapidity of outflow appeared 
first after cessation of the irritation. 


Estimation oF THE N. ry Atspumen.—M. Maerker (after the 
researches of O. Abesser), Pjliig. Arch. vi. 195. A large num- 
ber of analyses. were made to determine whether the mean per- 
centage of N. in flesh is to be trusted. It is found that the Will- 
Varrentrapp method gives results very nearly accurate. The different 
results of Nowak and Seegen are to be referred to differences in the 
conduction of the analyses. 


SIGNIFICANCE OF THE ASH-CONSTITUENTS IN Foop.—J. Forster 
(Zeitschrift fiir Biologie, Vol. 1x.) has selected pigeons and dogs for 
his experiments on this subject. These animals were fed with food 
containing as few salts as possible, ‘ with albumen, in the form of the 
residue of flesh after the preparation of the “ extract of meat.”’ This 
residue, as is known, is not quite free from salts, but these were 
extracted from it, as far as possible, by repeated boiling and washing 
in distilled water. By this process a powder, containing in the dried 
state 14°445 per cent. of nitrogen was obtained ; 100 grammes of this 
dried substance contained— 


Phosphoric acid anhydride - 0:548 gramme. 
Chalk (calcium oxide) a wOO7SSes 

Tron . < 2 . . 0:023 
Potassium E ° . Ont b: XS 5, 


0-800 


Magnesia and chlorine were found in too small quantities to be 
weighed. Casein from ordinary milk, boiled in distilled water, was 
also employed. The starch used was treated several times with a 
0-08 per cent. solution of hydrochloric acid, and washed in a filter 
with distilled water until the filtrate yielded no precipitate on the 
addition of nitric acid. A mixture of one part of casein and seven 
parts of starch, as used in the experiments on the pigeons, contained 
0-279 grammes of phosphoric acid in 100 grammes of the dried 
mixture. Fat, in the form of the best butter, formed part of the 
food, and in addition distilled water was freely given. 

A prepared mixture of the above was given to pigeons and dogs, 
and when it was rejected they were fed artificially. The author con- 
cludes from his experiments that the addition of certain salts is neces- 
sary for the retention of the balance of materials (Stoff/gleichgewicht) 
in the animal economy. When this supply sinks below a certain 
limit or is completely withdrawn, the body excretes salts, and the 
animal dies. 

The following table shows the quantity of nitrogen taken in in 
the food, and that excreted, in a dog. The duration of the experiment 
is divided into three periods of eight days each. 

This table clearly shows that the removal of salts from the food 
has no effect on the transformation of albumen, but that this chiefly 


27—2 


412 F DR STIRLING. 


depends upon the quantity and kind of supply of the combustible ali- 
mentary materials. 


NITROGEN NrrroGen 


TAXEN IN 
EXCRETED DIFFERENCE 


Flesh Fat Starch Nitrogen Urine | Feces | Total 
met ie | 

I. 1,433] 1,200 | 300 | 207-0 || 197:5| 7:5 | 205-2 + 18 
PE 3st 650) 9 189-3 || 188-2} 15-0 | 203-2 — 13-9 
TIT. 1,249} 689) 663 | 180-4 || 182-1 | 16-0 -| 198-1 -17-7 


Apart from the contents in salts, the solid as well as the fluid 
products excreted, during deprivation from salts, are the same as in 
normal nutrition. At the beginning of the experiments, the digestive 
juices secreted had the normal constitution, but they gradually 
changed. A time then arrived when they became inactive, or no 
longer had the normal composition. 

“In all animals fed with food from which the salts had as far as 
‘possible been extracted, a condition of weakness of the muscles and 
tremblings occurred, best characterised as general exhaustion. Thé 
weakness, of the posterior limbs of the dogs assumed in the second 
week of the experiments 9 paralytic character. The activity of the 
brain was disturbed, as shown by .the stupid appearance of the 
animals, ete. Phenomena of increased sensibility showed themselves 
later. By the greatest possible removal of the mineral constituents 
from the food of adult animals, the process of the changes of materials 
and decomposition m the body proceed in the same way, till the 
death of the animal, as by a diet which, in addition to the above 
“necessary constituents, also contains the ash constituents. Latterly, 
however, disturbances in the functions of the organs occur, which 
hinder on the one side the transformation of the nutritive material 
into modifications capable of being absorbed, and thereby prevent the 
reparation of the decomposed material of the body, and on the other, 
by suppression of processes necessary to life, bring about the destruc- 
tion of the organism, before the impossibility of a continued reception 
of food is followed by decline and death. 

With regard to the salts excreted, when these are removed from 
the food, the tables show that the excretion of phosphoric acid is 
never interrupted. In animals deprived of salts the exeretion of this 
substance by the urine is largely diminished. The less the quantity 
of food poor in salts introduced, the greater is the loss in phosphoric 
acid which the body suffers. The smallest quantity exereted corre- 
‘sponded to the time when the greatest quantity of combustible material 
was introduced. 

Although the food was quite free from chlorine, and the urine in 
the latter ‘period of the experiment contained only a trace of this 
substance, still the vomitings on the thirty-fourth day showed that a 
large quantity of chlorine was mixed in the stomach with the food in- 
‘troduced. 246 grammes of food vomited contained 1:63 grammes of 


REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 413 


chlorine, while the urine excreted on the same day contained only 
0-04 grammes, Chlorine was continually excreted in the stomach 
and absorbed again, for the feces contained no chlorine. 

The author thinks that all these conditions are to be explained by 
the condition of the salts in the body. He divides these into two 
classes. By far the greatest part is in combination with the com- 
bustible substances, chiefly with the albuminous bodies in fixed or 
loose combinations. A small fraction, previously in combination, 
but freed by decomposition and oxidation, is present in the blood, 
with the products of the metamorphosis of the tissues. The latter 
are excreted on the blood passing through the kidneys. Food free 
from salts, introduced into blood from the digestive canal, unites in 
the blood with the free salts arising from the chemical decompositions, 
The quantity of salts excreted must increase with the quantity of free 
salts in the blood. The salts excreted are increased during hunger, 
and this because the salts in combination with the body-substance 
are set free to enter the blood. An increased excretion was also 
observed when a surplus of salts was added to the food, as was the 
ease ut the end of one experiment. 

The author is of opinion that the supply of nutritive salts, or of 
these salts in the food which can prevent a loss of salts from the 
body, is less than till now has been supposed. 


RESEARCHES ON DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION IN THE HUMAN LARGE 
InTEsTINE.—V. Czerney and J. Latschenberger, Virch. Arch. tix. 161. 
{Translation in full in Lond. Med. Ree. Vol. u. Nos. 62 and 63.) 
The authors give a full account of the literature of the subject, and 
then cite the history of the patient upon whom they experimented. 
The researches were conducted on a man with preternatural anus (of 
the sigmoid flexure) in the left inguinal region. The case was dis- 
tinguished from the others which have been employed for physio- 
logical investigation, in the circumstance that the rectum was com- 
pletely exposed by the prolapsed loop of intestine ; it could be filled 
from above with the articles of food on which the experiments were 
made, and, at any desired time, emptied per anum. As the rectum 
could be washed out from above like a retort, the discharge gave at 
once the amount of material absorbed. While Voit and Bauer 
deduced from the excreta, by an indirect process, the amount of water 
absorbed, we were able to directly determine the quantity of unab- 
sorbed residue. 

The method of experimenting is then described. The authors have 
arrived at the following conclusions :— 

The human rectum and its secretion has no digestive action 
either on coagulated albumen, or soluble albumen, or on fat. 

In the normal condition, soluble albumen (dissolved in water) is 
absorbed from the human rectum as such, not being changed by the 
intestine; and a greater percentage is taken up, the longer it remains 
in the bowel. Any irritative condition in the bowel impedes absorption, 
or completely arrests it. Chloride of sodium also impedes absorption, 
_but is itself taken up notwithstanding that the intestine is in a state 


414 . DR STIRLING. 


of irritation and that absorption is suspended. In the hen’s egg 
albumen is contained in a form unfavourable for absorption. . 

Fat in emulsion is absorbed by the human rectum. The quantity 
absolutely absorbed is in proportion to the degree of concentration ; 
and the amount per cent. absorbed is in proportion to the time during 
which the fluid has been in contact with the absorbing surface. 

Starch in the hydrated form is absorbed by the intestine ; whether 
as such, or after being changed into sugar, is not decided by these 
experiments. 

The greatest quantity of albumen absorbed in 29 hours was about 
13 grammes. As the large intestine is on an average about four 
times as long as the portion which served for experiment, this indi- 
cates an absorbent power, in the whole large intestine, of 6 grammes 
of soluble albumen from a solution containing 4} per cent. This 
quantity is far from being sufficient for nutrition, as about 120 
grammes are necessary for a healthy man (Voit and Bauer). The 
quantity of albumen absorbed is evidently increased when more con- 
centrated solutions are used. 

General Result.—The human rectum absorbs soluble albumen 
unchanged, as such; it also takes up emulsion of fat; starch also is 
absorbed, but it remains undecided whether it be absorbed as starch, 
or whether it must first be changed into sugar. Chloride of sodium 
impedes or completely arrests absorption. 

Tables are appended showing the results in each of the experi- 
ments. 


THE Move or Secretion or Gastric J uice.—H. Braun (Eekhardt’s 
Beitrage zur Anatomie und Physiol. vu. 1.27. From abst. in Cen- 
tralblatt, No. 15, 1874). The general view held regarding the secre- 
tion of the gastric juice is that it is caused by stimulants (chiefly of a 
mechanical and chemical nature). In opposition to this view, the 
author renders it probable that, just like the urine, the gastric juice is 
continually being secreted. He experimented on dogs with gastric 
fistula. Through these fistule the stimulating substances, small 
pieces of sponge, portions of feathers, sand, alkalies, and pieces of 
flesh, were introduced, and this without the quantity of secretion, 
which was obtained by means of small pieces of sponge, shewing any 
increase. Quite as inactive was the alkaline saliva of dogs and man. 
According to the author’s experiments no near relation exists between 
the conditions of the secretion in the mouth and stomach, for neither 
had stimulation of the former any pronounced influence on the secre- 
tion of the gastric juice, the secretion of the gastric juice had as little 
effect on the secretion of the saliva. Schiff’s hypothesis that pepsin 
is first extracted from peculiar so-called peptogenous bodies in the 
stomach is rejected by the author, for completely starved animals, 
whose salivary ducts were cut, showed a not unimportant secretion of 
active gastric juice. Much more are pepsin and acids, as Spallanzani 
first hinted, continually secreted. The mucous membrane of the 
empty stomach is only seldom covered with tough mucus, often with 
a fluid, which has an acid reaction. Just the same as the urine, is 


REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. : 4AL5 


the gastric juice secreted in larger quantities after injection of large 
quantities of water into the vena femoralis, This is not a simple 
transudation, for the secretion has an acid reaction and digests discs 
of albumen normally. Often, to give the secretion digestive power, 
the addition of the HCl was necessary ; a fact which is brought by 
the author in connection with the results of Manassein, that in the 
gastric juice of acutely anemic animals the acids are absent. The 
injecting fluids employed were a 1—2 per cent. solution of urea, and 
1 per cent sol. of NaCl. Whether section of one or both splanchnici 
increases the secretion of the gastric juice, the author, in spite of 
several positive results, leaves for the present undecided, for not 
seldom the secretion in the course of the experiment increased with- 
out appreciable cause. 


FEEDING WITH FLESH AND CARBOHYDRATES AND CARBOHYDRATES 
ALONE.—M. Pettenkoffer and C. Voit (Zeitschr. f. Biol. 1873, 1x. 435. 
From Salkowski’s report in Centralblatt, No. 18, 1874). This paper 
is a continuation of their previous one on feeding with flesh and fat 
alone (Journ. of Anat. and Phys. vut. 207). The experiments were 
made upon the same dog and after the same manner as their previous 
ones, with the aid of their respiration apparatus. The gain of fat in 
the body was estimated by the authors from the deficit of carbon in 
the excreta as opposed to the quantity taken in, and this in refer- 
ence to the excretion of N, which represented the measure for decom- - 
position of the albuminous bodies. The results are the following: 
A great quantity of starch can be changed into grape-sugar and ab- 
sorbed from the intestinal canal of the dog. As a minimum one 
kilo dog digests 15 grms. starch in 24 hours, whilst one kilo fattened 
ox, with copious feeding, did not absorb more than 12,7 grms. The 
assumption therefore that the dog, as a flesh-eater, is not suited for 
experiments with feeding on carbohydrates is not correct. Even 
when great quantities of starch were given, the quantity of feces 
excreted was inconsiderable, and consisted, for the most part, of 
the residue of the intestinal juice, and not till the quantity of 
starch exceeded 379 grms, in the 24 hours did unchanged starch 
appear in the feces. The sugar absorbed split up completely into 
CO, and water. The quantity of fat formed is not proportional to 
the quantity of carbohydrates given. On the contrary, the quantity 
of fat stored up depends upon the quantity of flesh present; then 
with 379 grms. starch and 1800 grms. flesh it was 112 grms., with 
800 grms. flesh and 379 grms. starch only 55 grm. From the N. 
excreted during exclusive feeding with starch, it can be calculated how 
much flesh the animal has given up from its body. Leave this aside, 
and calculate how much fat must be stored up when flesh and starch 
were given, and a tolerably exact agreement with the number obtained 
by the experiment is got. This shows that the fat arises from the albu- 
men of the flesh. Of course a certain proportion must always exist be- 
tween the quantity of carbohydrates introduced, and of the fat formed, 
in that the starch protects from consumption the fat resulting from 
the decomposition of the albumen. ‘This is the only action of the 


: aa 


416. 3 DR STIRLING. 


carbohydrates; a formation of fat from them was not found through- 
out, From their former experiments the authors calculated the sepa- 
vation of 11,22 grms. fat from 100 grms. flesh. If large doses of starch 
are added to the flesh, so in fact almost 11 per cent. of flesh as fat 
will be added. 


RECHERCHES EXPERIMENTALES SUR LA QUESTION DE SAVOIR, SI 
CERTAINES GELLULES DES GLANDES (DITES A PEPSINE) DE L’ HsToMAC 
PRESENTENT UNE REACTION ActpE.—R, Lepine (Gazet. Med. No. 51, 
18738) placed thin sections of the mucous membrane of the stomach 
im a mixture of ferrocyanide of potassium.and sulphate of iron, which 

yas treated with so much caustic potash, that the precipitated Prussian 
blue was again dissolved with a yellow colour. Such a fluid produces, 
with a trace of free acid, the separation of Prussian blue. In these 
experiments with microscopic investigation nowhere in the glands of 
the stomach was the separation of Prussian blue detected. The ex- 
periment was varied in another way. Pieces of the mucous mem- 
brane several Cm. long were carefully removed and used as a small 
dialyser,, On the one side was placed lactate or sulphate of iron in 
watery alcoholic solution, and on the other side ferrocyanide. of potas- 
sium. The free surface of the mucous membrane was directed at one 
time upwards, at another downwards. The result was in all eases the 
same. The formation of Prussian blue occurred, but exclusively on 
the free surface. In the glands of the stomach themselves no separa- 
tion of the Prussian blue was to be detected, and the author concludes 
from his experiments that the acid of the gastric juice is not. formed 
in the cells of the glands. 


MOVEMENTS OF THE GisopHacus.—Mosso (Movimenti dell’ Esofago, 
Torino, 1873, pp. 44) employed the following simple methods for 
studying the movements. of this tube. The esophagus was exposed 
in the neck and into it a small wooden ball of the size and shape of 
an olive was introduced. A: thin flexible wire was attached to the 
ball, so that it could be easily extracted from the stomach, The 
experiments were performed on-cats and dogs. A: transverse section 


of the cesophagus does not hinder the propagation of the peristaltic: 


movements when the upper half of the tube is stimulated. Excision 
of a part of the cesophagus, e.g. from under the larynx to the archi: 
of the aorta, does not arrest the peristaltic movements from above 
downwards, under similar conditions. Even when the csophagus 
was ligatured two or more times over a cylinder of wood introduced 
into it (the ligatures were separated about 1 cm. from each other), 
the mov oes were propagated from above downwards. 


In a second series of experiments, on stimulating the vagi by the 


opening shocks of an ordinary induction apparatus, the contractions 
of the cesophagus formed a gradually ascending ‘Treppe,’ such as Bow- 
ditch has described for the heart. The excitability of the vagi- con- 
tinued exceedingly long after death. A dog showed, four and a half 
hours after death, these movements when the recurrent nerves were 


stimulated. The movements of the lower part of the cesophagus, 


REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 417 


described by Magendie and Schiff, have not been observed by the 
author. He finds that the lower part of the cesophagus is always at 
rest, except when the upper portion is stimulated and caused to con- 
tract. 


Movements oF THE Intestines.—V. Basch (Die Hemmung der 
Darmbewegung durch den N. Splanchnicus, Sitzungsb. der k. Akad. 
der Wissensch. txvint. June, 1873). Basch and Oser have previously 
shown that nicotine, at a certain stage, produces regular. peristaltic 
movements of the intestines. The author employed the movements 
.so produced for studying the inhibitory action of the splanchnicus on 
the movements. of the intestine. The experiments were performed 
upon dogs. Not only the phenomena exhibited by the intestines 
were observed, but the blood-pressure was measured at the same time 
in the carotid (this Journal, vur. 226). 

Stimulation of the splanchnicus only inhibits the intestinal move- 
ments, when it, at the same time, produces a considerable increase in 
the arterial blood-pressure. The time when the intestines come to a 
standstill always corresponds to the time when the blood-pressure has 
reached its highest value, and this equally whether the stimulation acts 
for a longer or shorter time. The intestinal movements could be 
inhibited when the medulla eblongata was stimulated electrically, 
after previous section of both splanchnici. Also in these experiments 
-the inhibitory action occurred only when at the same time the arterial 
blood-pressure was considerably increased—i.e.. in animals with 
divided splanchnics, where not all the nervous connections between 
the vaso-motor centres and the vessels of the abdomen were divided. 
Asphyxiated blood or nicotin, after previous section of the splanch- 
nicus, also inhibited the intestinal movements. It is therefore certain 
that the splanchnicus is not the only inhibitory nerve for the intesti- 
nal movements, but that also this inhibition is always accompanied 
by the contraction of the vessels of the intestines, and that the in- 
hibitory action is to be considered as a function of the vaso-motor 
properties of the splanchnicus. Van Braam Honckgeest (Plt tig. 
Arch. vit. 163), in opposition to V. Basch, concludes from his experl- 
ments, that the inhibitory function of the splanchnicus is specific 
and distinct from its vaso-motor functions, and as supporting this 
view he finds that, 1. After section of the splanchnicus the spontaneous 
movements become more lively than before. 2. Stimulation of the 
vagus after section of the splanchnicus produces constant move- 
ments. 3. On exposing the intestines freely to the air, hyperemia, 
‘in consequence of paralysis of these vessels, i.e. paralysis of the peri- 
.pheric expansions of the splanchnicus, is produced; then the spon- 
taneous movements are neither so lively, nor is stimulation of the 
vagus followed by movement, or, if so, only by very weak and irregu- 
lar movements in some loops of the small intestines. 4, During the 
inhibition from stimulation of the splanchnicus, the intestines do not 
- become pale, but remain hyperemic as before. Blood-pressure not 
measured. 


418 DR STIRLING. 


Inver. 


“Tectures on Diabetes and the Glycogenic Function of the 
Liver.” M. Claude Bernard. Lond. Med. Rec. Nos. 40, 41, 42, 43, 
44, 45, 46, 47, translated from the Revue des Cours Scientifique.— 
« Lussana and others on the Portal Circulation and the Biliary Se- 
cretion.” Abstracts by Dr Brunton, in Lond. Med. Rec. 1. No, 56.— 
“The formation of Glycogen in the Liver.” B. Luchsinger, Pjliig. 
Arch. vit. 289. (Abstr. in Centralblatt, No. 10, 1874.) 


Bittary Fistuta. H. Westphalen, Deutsch. Arch. f. klin. Med. 
1873, xt. 588 (Abstr. in Centralblatt, No. 49, 1873). The bile was 
collected from a case of empyema of the right side, in which paracen- 
tesis had heen performed. At first the pus was mixed with bile and 
had a bad odour, but fourteen days after the operation, whilst the 
feces were devoid of colour (this lasted three weeks), only pure bile 
was obtained. The bile was collected by a special apparatus. The 
bile was quite fresh, of a bright gold yellow colour, neutral or scarcely 
alkaline, and of a thinly fluid consistence. The smallest and most 
concentrated quantity was evacuated between 2—4 a.m. In 24 


hours a mean of 498,85. grms. was evacuated. Weight of patient, 


67,5—64 kilos. S.G. 1008—1012,5. Percentage in solid residue 
2,24—2,28 per cent. 

The dried bile yielded with ether, cholesterin 2,49 per cent., un- 
saponifiable fats with some oleate of soda 0,44 per cent. Lecithin 
(reckoned from the P. per cent) 0,21 per cent. The substances in- 
soluble in ether and alcohol (coloured mucin) made up 10 °/, of the 
solid residue. 

The following table gives the results of the chemical analysis of 
the ash of the bile. 


In 100 parts In 100 parts In 100 parts 
Ash, | dried Bile. fiuid Bile. 

K Cl 3,39 1,276 0,029 
Na Cl 65,16 24,508 0,557 
CO, Na, |- iti lik 4,108 0,095 
PO, Nag 15,90 5,984 0,136 
2(PO,) Cag | 4,44 1,672 0,038 
| 100,00 "37,620 | 0,855 


The alcoholic extract of the dried bile contained, glycocholate of 
soda 4,48 per cent., palmitinate and stearinate of soda 6,4 per cent. 
In the decomposition of these with baryta, only glycin and no trace 
of taurin was obtained. 

Urea, sugar, or other substances capable of reducing an alkaline 
solution of Cu, were not found in the bile; only several times traces 
of albumen and leucin (no tyrosin), of bile-pigments, bilirubin and 
biliverdin, and in the ash in three tests each time some Cu, quinine or 
calomel taken did not pass into the bile. The latter had no influence 


oe 


REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 419 


whatever on the quantity of bile. The same was the case with water, 
which however doubled the quantity of urine and diminished its 
S.G. from 10,21 to 10,11. 


On THE ALBUMINOUS SUBSTANCES OF THE Hepatic CELLS, 
P. Plész (Pjliig. Arch. vit. 371), under Ktihne’s direction, has in- 
vestigated this subject. It is well known that the liver-cells undergo 
marked changes soon after the removal of the organ from the body. 
Sections of the fresh liver, even when free from blood, always have 
an alkaline reaction ; but if kept for a short time at ordinary tempe- 
rature, and still more quickly when at blood-temperature, they be- 
come acid. The tissue of the liver as a whole becomes also more 
resistant and rigid (Kiihne). The change in character of those cells, 
which have become altered by post-mor tem changes, or, as the author 
terms them, cells in a state of rigor mortis, are described. To ex- 
amine these, all blood, bile, and lymph must be removed from the 
liver by injections of weak solution of NaCl (0,75 °/,). The liver 
after being washed for an hour or two appears pale, and neither 
hemoglobin nor glycogen are to be detected in it. Some, not incon- 
siderable quantity of soluble albuminous compound is also diffused 
out and washed away. The liver is then finely minced, and passed 
through fine linen, The pap is treated with a 0°75 °/, solution of 
NaCl, and set aside for the cells to precipitate. The supernatant 
fluid can be drawn off in a few hours, and is found to be opalescent, 
partly owing to the presence of a little glycogen, and partly owing 
to extremely fine granules which proceed from broken up cells. 
When these have settled, or after filtration, the clear fluid is found to 
contain—1l. An albuminous compound coagulating at 45° C., and not 
redissolving at a higher temperature, soluble in solutions of NaCl, 
sulphate and carbonate of soda, HCl, and acetic acid. It closely 
resembles the albuminous substance found by Kiihne in muscular 
fibre. 2. An albuminous nuclein combination, which coagulates at 
70° C., and only differs from the preceding in this point. It agrees 
in all its characters with the albuminous compound found by Mie- 
scher in the nuclei of pus-cells. If the cells exhausted with the 0-75°/, 
solution of NaCl, be now treated with a 10°/, solution, a considerable 
quantity of an albuminous substance is obtained, coagulating at 75° C., 
-which is precipitated by the addition of much water, and by an excess 
of a concentrated solution of NaCl, and presents other features showing 
that it belongs to the globulin-like albuminous bodies, and closely 
agrees with myosin. The liver-cells from which the above albuminous 
substances have been extracted yield nuclein (Lancet, Oct. 18, 1873). 


Formation OF GiycoGEN IN THE Liver. G. Salomon (Central- 
blatt, No. 12, 1874) employed rabbits for his experiments. They 
were fed on different substances, and the glycogen in the liver esti- 
mated by Briicke’s process. He confirms Luchsinger’s statement as 
to the difficulty of extracting glycogen and sugar completely from the 
liver. The author confirms Hoppe-Seyler’s view, that on feeding 
with gelatine, glycogen is formed in the liver. This “ gelatine-glyco- 


420 DR STIRLING. 


gen” had the same reaction as ordinary glycogen. Under feeding 
with neutral fat (olive oil) and dilute glycerine, in each case glycogen 
was found in the liver. Milk-sugar and fruit-sugar yielded similar 
results. 


_- ON THE HamaTocEeNous FoRMATION OF THE CoLOURING MATTER 
oF THE Bite.—Steiner (Leichert und Du Bois’ Archiv, 1873, p. 160), 
after referring to what is already known upon this subject, cites the 
results of his own experiments upon the injection of water (at the 
temperature of the body) into the carotid artery and external jugular 
of rabbits. He finds that an injection of 20 cc. of distilled water into 
the common carotid is not followed, either by a solution of the red 
blood-corpuscles in the urine, or by the presence of the colouring 
matter of the bile in the same. From 17 cther experiments the author 
finds, after the injection into the right or left external jugular, of 
from 30 to 50 cc, of distilled water, at the temperature of the body, 
that in twelve cases there was a solution of the blood-corpuscles in 
the blood-vessels, ¢. e. the appearance of free haemoglobin in the urine. 
After precipitation of the albumen and examination of the filtrate, in 
no case was the colouring matter of the bile proved in the latter. 
The method of precipitating the albumen by heat, and examining the 
filtrate for the presence of bile-pigment, is quite reliable. These re- 
sults are completely negative, and stand in direct opposition to the 
positive results of M. Hermann, who, however, operated upon dogs, 
and collected the urine by canule introduced into the ureters. 


Propuction oF Icrerus.—Audigné (Gaz. Méd. de Paris, No. 1, 
1874) read a communication on mechanical icterus. He ligatured 
the bile-duct in a dog. The animal lived 19 days, and though it 
continued to have a voracious appetite, it emaciated visibly. The 
colouring matter of the bile was found four hours after the operation 
in large quantity in the urine, and on the second day the feces were 
quite discoloured. The icteric tint in the skin and conjunctiva ap- 
‘peared on the eighth day. The appearance of the bile-pigment in the 
‘urine is at variance with the results of Frerichs, who observed this 
only after twenty-four hours. A. histological examination was made of 
the liver. 


| CHANGES IN THE LIVER WHICH FOLLOW LIGATURE OF THE BILE- 
Ductrs.—J. W. Legg (St Barthol. Hosp. Rep. 1x. 1873) operated 
upon cats. The animals survived the operation for varying times up 
to 20 days, and peritonitis when present remained local. This author 
also, in opposition to Frerichs, observed the icteric tint of the con- 
junctiva only on the 10th, nay even on the 14th day, after the 
-operation. Hein. Mayer also obtained a similar result upon operating 
‘on cats. The cats became emaciated and died without convulsive 
- phenomena, and only became comatose shortly before death. With 
‘regard to the cause of death, the author lays stress upon the decided 
‘diminution or absence of glycogen of the liver (tested with iodine 
‘solution), Sugar was not found in three cases where a watery ex- 
-tract of the liver was made; still in one case, on the sixth day after 


REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 421 


the ligature of the bile-ducts, diabetes was produced by puncturing the 
floor of the fourth ventricle. If the animals lived after the fourth 
day, a decided increase in the connective tissue of the liver was found 
on histological examination. The cells of the liver were atrophied or 
infiltrated with fat, but not more strongly pigmented than normal. 
In the kidney, as a rule, the epithelial cells were cloudy or had 
undergone fatty degeneration. 


Gentro-UrINARY SysteM.—“Ascertained Facts regarding Diabetes 
and Hydruria.” Résumé by Dr Brunton in Lond. Med. ec. 1. No. 
42. “Erection in Birds.” C. Eckhard, Centralblatt, No. 53, 1873. 
“The Carbonic Acid in the Urine in Fever.” C. A. Ewald, 
Reich. und du Bois Reym. Arch. 1873. ‘Elimination of Urea.” 
Rabuteau, 1’ Union Médicale, 1873, No. 107. “Hstimation of the 
quantity of Albumen.” Esbach in Société de Biologie (Gaz. Méd.de Paris, 
No. 5, 1874). “Condition of the Circulation in the Kidney.” A. 
Hogyes, Arch. f; Hap. Pathol. 1873, 1. 289. Abstract in Centralblatt, 
No. 1, 1874). “Influence of the activity of the Skin on the Secre- 
tion of Urine.” K. Miiller, Arch. f. exp. Pathol. 1873, 1. 429. Ab- 
stract in Centralblatt, No. 3, 1874. 


PHYSIOLOGY OF THE COLLECTION OF URINE IN THE BLADDER.—G. 
Edlefsen (Pjliig. Archiv, vir. 499) took a sufficient quantity of water be- 
fore going to bed, and evacuated the contents of his bladder at stated 
periods (7 times), and then took the sp. gr. of each portion. The first 
portion evacuated in the morning showed the highest sp. gr. The 
sp. gr. of those portions following became gradually less. The layers 
of urine in the bladder became mixed during the day, owing to the 
movements of the body ete. If the author evacuated his bladder 
while on his hands and knees, the first portion in the morning had 
the lowest sp. gr., and the last portion the highest. The gentle motion 
of the body had not changed the position of the contents of the blad- 
der. The author’s experiments show that the walls of the bladder 
move round its contents during the movements of the body. 


To Propuce GrycosuriA.—Ewald (Centralblatt, No. 52, 1873) 
injected subcutaneously from 0,5 to 2,0 grms. of nitro-benzol (sp. gr. 
1,078) into a rabbit. On pressing on the bladder to collect the urine dur- 
ing the first three hours after the operation, a substance having all the 
properties of sugar was found in the urine. This substance can also 
be obtained plentifully till 20 hours after the injection, after that it 
gradually disappears, and after 24—36 hours it can no longer be 
detected, The author could not produce mellituria in dogs on inject- 
ing nitro-benzol subcutaneously ; but when the drug was given by the 
mouth large quantities of sugar (in one case 2°5 per cent.) were found. 


CoMPARATIVE OBSERVATIONS ON THE CONSUMPTION OF SUGAR IN 
Diapetic AND Non-piabpetic ANimALs.—L. Seelig, Jnaug. Dissert. 
Konigsberg, 1873. (From Abs. in Centralblatt, No. 59, 1873.) The 
author experimented on diabetic and non-diabetic rabbits, both of 


429 DR STIRLING. 


which had been allowed to hunger. Diabetes was produced by 
Eckhard’s method. The author then convinced himself that in the 
starving animals after the diabetic sugar had disappeared from the 
urine or occurred only in traces, corresponding to the results of Dock 
(the hunger period lasted 3—5 days, the collected urine was evacuated 
by pressure, after it had collected for six hours), that only once by 
tibiation with Fehling’s solution did he find 0-4 grms, of sugar. A 
solution of sugar (generally 20 ccm. of a 10 per cent. sol. = 2 grms. 
sugar) was then injected into the jugular vein, in the one case into 
the starved animals, and in the other into the starved diabetic ones. 
In the former case only traces of sugar appeared in the urine, when 
the animals had starved for 5, 6 and 7 days, somewhat more, when 
the hunger-period was shorter. As a mean of 16 experiments, 0-2 grms. 
of sugar were found in the urine, while in the diabetic animals the quan- 
tity of sugar excreted was much greater ; the maximum 0-925 grms., 
the minimum 0-27 grms. (in this case only 0-91 grms. were injected), 
mean 0-6 grms. The mean quantity of urine in non-diabetic animals 
was 25 ccm., in the diabetic 41 ccm. The diabetic animal, there- 
fore, is distinguished from the non-diabetic one by its incapability of 
using the sugar for the nutrition of its body. For the theoretical de- 
ductions we must refer to the original. 


REACTION OF URINE AND Sweat.—A. Moriggia (Moleschoti’s Un- 
tersuch. 1873, 1x. 129), from experiments upon himself and animals, 
found that the sweat of plant-eating animals is generally alkaline, that 
of flesh-eaters acid. In animals and man the urine becomes acid during 
fasting or under flesh diet, under vegetable food alkaline; but the 
sweat has a reaction peculiar to the individual. To change the re- 
action of the urine, it is only necessary to have a long and continued 
change of the diet. 


ANATOMY AND PuysioLocy oF THE KipNney.—R. Heidenhain, 
Arch. f. Mikroscop. Anat. x. 1.—This paper is chiefly devoted to the 
histology of the secretory apparatus of the kidney. The author de- 
scribes peculiar rod-shaped bodies (Stdébchen) in the contorted tubules 
and in the broad part of the loops of Henle. Experimenting with 
indigo-sulphate of soda (that bought in the shops is generally impure), 
the author concludes that the kidneys are the specific secreting organs 
for this substance, in the same sense as they are for urea. In this 
process the Malpighian capsules do not act a part, the excretion is 
accomplished by the tubuli contorti. The single tubuli contorti can 
act independent of each other, so that in one a living secretion may 
take place, whilst in those in its immediate neighbourhood no secre- 
tion is to be observed. The straight urinary tubules do not excrete 
the indigo-sulphate, but serve only for conducting the formed secre- 
tion. Not all the constituents which occur in the urine are secreted 
in the Malpighian capsules, the author agreeing with Bowman that 
the capsules secrete only water, and perhaps salts of small atomic 
weight; whilst he thinks that the secretion of urea devolves upon the 
tubuli contorti. What is true of the contorted tubules, is also true of 


REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 423 


the broad part of the loops of Henle. Rod-shaped bodies were also 
found in the fine ducts of the nasal, parotid, and sub-maxillary glands, 
but not in those of the sub-lingual. In animals which excreted blue 
urine on stimulating these glands electrically, no blue secretion was 
obtained. [See fuller abstract in Lond. Med. Reed. 1. 823.] 


Uterus. 


On THE INNERVATION OF THE UTERUS.—Scherschewsky, under 
Cyon’s direction, has arrived at the following results (Pfliiger’s 
Archiv, vit. 349). 1. The uterine plexus contains the most im- 
portant, if not the only motor nerves, which can produce actual 
movement of the uterus, on stimaulation of their peripheral ends 
(stimulation of the central ends produces only violent vomiting). 
2. Stimulation of the central ends of the first two sacral nerves pro- 
duces reflexly violent uterine movements, which disappear after pre- 
vious section of the uterine plexus (stimulation of the peripheral ends 
produce only violent contraction of the urinary bladder and rectum). 
Stimulation of the brachial, crural, median, sciatic, &c., nerves, does 
not produce peristaltic movements of the uterus, but only a slight 
rigidity and paleness of the organ. 4. The consequences of stimula- 
tion of these nerves disappear when the aorta is previously tied. 
Stimulation of the central ends of the sacral nerves is still accom- 
panied by peristaltic movements of the uterus, after ligature of the 
aorta. 


Muscle. 


“Shortening of Muscle and Tendons.” Hermann, Pjliig. Arch. 
vu. 417 (Journ. of Anat. and Phys. vu. 214), M. W. Englemann, 
in Pfliig. Arch. vitt. 77, and Reply by Hermann at 275,——“ Differ- 
ence of the Physiologica] Action of Induced Currents, according to 
the Nature of the Wire forming the Secondary Spiral.” Onimus, 
Acad. d. Scien. in Gaz. Méd. de Paris, No. 1, 1874. “ Das Myo- 
physische Gesetz.” W. Preyer, Jena, 1874, pp. 144; critical and ex- 
perimental observations on the same. B. Luchsinger, Pfliig. Arch. 
vit. 538. “On two Electro-Physiological Disputed Points,” A, 
Griinhagen, Pjliig. Arch. vut. 519. 


Rep anp Waite Muscies oF THE RABBIT AND Ray,—Ranvier, 
Comptes Rendus, txxvit. 1105. It is well known that certain animals 
have two kinds of voluntary muscles, the red and the pale. Thus the 
semi-tendinosus in the rabbit is red, whilst the vastus internus in 
which it is lodged is pale. In the rays and torpedoes there are 
muscles formed of the two kinds of fibres. The difference of colour 
does not depend upon the quality of blood in the capillaries. On 
stimulating the semi-tendinosus of a rabbit with an interrupted 
current, it contracts gradually and progressively, when tetanised it 
remains contracted as long as the irritation is continued, and returns 
gradually to its original length on cessation of the irritation. A pale 


424. ‘ DR STIRLING. 


muscle (adductor magnus) of the rabbit stimulated by the same: 
current contracts quickly and abruptly, and on cessation of the stimu- 
lation returns as abruptly to its original length. The red muscles of 
the rays and the few pale fibres found under the skin of the back, 
exhibit similar physiological properties. These two kinds of muscles 
exhibit slight differences in histological structure. A more complete 
description of the physiological properties and histological structure 
of these two kinds of voluntary muscle is given by Ranvier in the 
Arch. de Phys. v1. 1. The time which elapses between the beginning 
of the stimulation and the contraction of the pale muscle is jy of a 
second, whilst for the red muscles with the same apy and in- 
tensity of the stimulating current the time occupied is 75 of a second, 
or about four times as long a period of latent contraction or irritation 
as for the pale muscle. 

As a corollary to the above the important histological fact may be 
added, that Ranvier (Soc. de Biologie, Gaz. Méd. de Paris, No. 4, 1874) 
has found that the transverse branches connecting the parallel 
capillaries in the red muscles are provided with small dilatation- 
ampulle, or little aneurysmal-like sacs. The importance of this 
arrangement upon the circulation in muscle is pointed out by the 
author. 


DEVELOPMENT OF Muscunar FIBRES IN THE FRoG.—Petrowsky 
(Centralblatt, No. 49, 1873) has arrived at the following results : 

1. In the larval stage the muscle consists of fusiform fibres with 
a series of oval nuclei in the middle. Neither sarcolemma nor peri- 
pheral nuclei are present. 

2. On the periphery of several fibres, at the end of the larval 
stage, and in most of the fibres of the frog when 10 mm. long, the 
nuclei and sarcolemma appear at the same time together. "These 
nuclei appear for the most part as rods, but are oval nuclei, when 
seen in profile. 

3. The axial series of nuclei disappear, the greatest part of the 
peripheral nuclei separate from the sarcolemma, increase by division, 
and thus form rows of parallel peripheral nuclei. Increase of the 
fibres goes hand in hand with increase of the rows. 

4. In the increase of the muscles the formation of new fibres 
participates, but the formation of new fibres does not take place 
through division of the older fibres. 


Retative Provorrion of Nerve to Muscunar Fisres.—P. 
Tergast (Arch. f. Mikroskop. Anat. Bd. 1x. 36) gives the following as 
the result of his investigations upon the relative proportion of nerve- 
‘fibres to muscular fibres in the ocular muscles of the sheep. The pro- 
portionate number of primitive nerve-fibres to muscular fibres varied 
considerably in the several muscles. In the obliquus inferior there 
are three or four muscular fibres for each nerve-fibre, in the obliquus 
‘superior six or seven, in the rectus inferior seven or eight, and in 
the externus ten. In the ocular muscles of man there appear to be 
three primitive nerve-fibres to every seven muscular fibres. In the 


REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 425 


general muscles of the body the proportion of nerve-fibres is much 
less. In the biceps of a young dog the author found only one primi- 
tive nerve-fibre to eighty-three muscular fibres, whilst in the sartorius 
they were in the ratio of one to forty or sixty muscular fibres. 


Action oF Nitrite or Amyt on Musciz.—R. Pick (Centralblatt, 
No. 55, 1873) shows that this substance produces a rapid and direct 
paralysis of muscular fibre. 


Bone. 


“Qn the Marrow of Bone.” Ch. Robin, in Journ. de [ Anat. 
Jan. and Feb. 1874, 33. “Bone Absorption by means of Giant- 
cells.” A. Morison, Adin. Med. Journ. ccxx. 305.“ Intercel- 
lular Growth of Bone.” Schachowa, Cenétralblatit, No. 57, 1878. 
“Resorption of Bone and Giant-cells.” Rustizky, Virch. Arch. 
ix. 202. “Composition of Bone under~Diet poor in Lime or 
Phosphoric Acid.” H. Weiske and E. Wildt, Zeitsch. f. Diol. 1x. 541). 
(Abst. in Centralblatt, No. 14, 1874.) | 


FEEDING with Mapprer.—Centralblatt, No. 47, 1873.—Strelzoff 
in his experiments with this substance has arrived at the following re- 
sults: 1. The bones of old as well as of young pigeons are coloured by 
madder. The coloration occurs more quickly in young than in old 
pigeons. 2. The bones of very old pigeons are either not at all or but 
slightly coloured on feeding with madder, 3. Not only the osseous 
tissue formed during the feeding with madder, but all that formed 
previously is coloured by the madder, 4. A juice-canal system which 
is in connection with the processes of the bone-corpuscles, is inter- 
calated between the blood-vessels and the osseous tissue, and may be 
regarded as a lymphatic system. 5. The bones are coloured in the 
direction of their juice-canals by the madder. 


ARTIFICIAL ARREST OF THE GRowTH OF Lone Bongs By IRrI- 
TATION OF THE EpipHyses.—A. Bidder (Archiv f. exper. Pathol. und 
Pharmacol. 1873, 1. 248. Plates vit. and vu.) operated on the 
superior epiphysial cartilage of young rabbits. The cartilage was 
either exposed and transfixed with needles or destroyed by section. 
Growth of the bone was arrested either on one side only or over the 
whole extent of the terminal surface, according to the part irritated, 
and this effect was marked throughout the whole length of the bone as 
far as the distal epiphysis. Destruction of the cartilage on the fibular 
side was followed by growth of the opposite side, causing curvature of 
the bone with the convexity inwards. 


ConTRIBUTIONS TO THE CHEMISTRY OF Bonr.—R. Maly and 
J. Donath (Site. d. Wien. Acad. d. Wissensch. uxvut. ii, Abth. Juni- 
Heft, 1873) made experiments upon the solubility of bones and phos- 
phate of lime in different fluids. They examined three preparations: 
1. Phosphate of lime precipitated from lime-water, by the addition of 
phosphoric acid and preserved under water. 2. Phosphate of lime 


VOL. VIII. 28 


426 DR STIRLING. 


from chloride of calctum, ammonia, and phosphate of soda, dried and 
ignited. 3. Powdered bones purified with alcohol and ether. 100,000 
parts of water dissolved with shaking and long standing, of the first 
preparation 2°36, of the second 2°56, and of the third 3:00. Under 
certain circumstances salts in the water increased its power of solu- 
bility: 100,000 parts of a 1 per cent. solution of chloride of ammo- 
nium dissolved 16°8 of bone-powder. Pieces of the femur of an ox, 
after lying several days in 2 per cent. solutions of different substances, 
lost most in weight in water rich in Co,, then in sal-ammoniac, bile, 
common salt, simple water. Some substances diminish the power of 
water for dissolving phosphate of lime, sugars, gelatine, glycerine, 
lactate of soda, &c. Co, dissolves phosphate of lime easily. Liberal 
potations of water increase the quantity of phosphoric acid excreted 
per urethram—a fact already well known. No increase, however, of 
this acid was noted under the use of water impregnated with Co,,. 
The authors then discuss the question whether the calcareous salts in 
bone are really in chemical combination with the ground substance of 
the bone or not. ‘They cite the facts that are favourable to such a 
view, and then give experiments of their own. The authors tried to 
impregnate bone-cartilage with phosphate of lime (after extracting 
the bones with HCl), but in vain. They added to solutions of gela- 
tine of different concentrations ammoniacal solution of phosphate of 
soda and chloride of calcium solution, and each time so much, that 
therefrom 1:96 grms. dry phosphate of lime Ca, (Po,), must arise. The 
precipitates always contained gelatine, but the quantity varied with 
the concentration of the gelatine solution; from 1-96 grms. of phos- 
phate of lime 0°37, 0:47, to 0°67 grms. of gelatine were obtained, pro- 
portions which distinctly speak against a chemical combination of the 
gelatine with the phosphate of lime. Other gelatine-containing pre- 
cipitates (oxide of iron, silicic acic, zinc oxide) produced in gelatinous 
solutions, also contained gelatine, often in a high degree; thus the 
iron oxide contained 51°8 of gelatine, and the zine oxide 47°8 per 
cent.; other substances had also this property, as albumen of egg, 
whose precipitate contained 32:4 of organic substance, that of gum 
27:7 per cent. The phenomenon is therefore a purely mechanical 
one, but the mixture is a very intimate one, so that even treat- 
ment for days with hot water does not serve to extract all the 
gelatine. In complete unison with the above is the fact that phos- 
phate of lime in bones conducts itself with regard to solvents in 
exactly the same way as precipitated phosphate of lime. As sup- 
porting the mechanical nature of the union of phosphate of lime in 
bone, see ‘‘Relation of Bone-Cartilage to Phosphate of Lime.” By 
C. Aeby, in Centralblatt, No. 44, 1873. 


Propuction or Rickets ArtiFic1aLLy.— L. Tripier (Arch. de Phys. 
vi. 108) has tried to produce rickets artificially in young animals. 
Guérin has answered this question in the affirmative. He fed young 
dogs on raw flesh, instead of the milk of their mother. Tripier has made 
similar experiments on young cats and dogs, and fowls, giving them 
insufficient nutriment, keeping them both in the town and country to 


REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 427 


test the effect of hygienic conditions. In no case was any affection of 
the skeleton observed. Careful analyses were made of the bones of 
the animals experimented on. 


Milk. 


PERCENTAGE OF Far ry Human Mitx.—Brunner (Abs. in Journ. 
of Anat. and Phys. viti. 210) gave as the mean percentage 1°73. A. 
Schukowsky (Zettsch. f. Biologie, 1x. 432), from numerous analyses 
which he has made in Moscow, is convinced that this figure,is too 
low. He finds that the normal milk of a healthy woman, suckling 
her child, contains very seldom Jess than 3 per cent. of fat. Brunner 
estimated the fat by Trommex’s method. 


Excision oF THE Mamma purine Lacration.—Sinéty read a 
communication before the Société de Biologie (Gaz. Méd. de Paris, 
No. 3, 1874) upon this subject. Rabbits and dogs did not survive 
extirpation of all the glands. Guinea-pigs were therefore employed. 
The guinea-pigs operated on in September are still alive. The re- 
moval of these glands is followed by the occurrence of sugar in the 
urine; under the microscope globules of fat are to be detected. In a 
further communication (Gaz. M/éd. No. 8, 1874) the author finds that 
the absence of the mamme has no effect on the triple function of 
fecundation, gestation, and parturition. Further, that in ‘female 
guinea-pigs, deprived of these organs, glycosuria is not produced 
during gestation or after parturition. Gestation is without influence 
on the appearance of sugar in the urine, this phenomenon depending 
entirely on lactation. “Reaction of Milk to Litmus.” Vogel, 
Jour. f. Pract. Chem. N. F. vint. 137. 


Temperature. 


“Increase of Temperature by Pyrogenic Substances.” 8.‘ Dobez- 
canski and B. Nannyn, Arch. f. Exp. Pathol. u. Pharmac. 1873, 1. 
Sh; “Effects of Alcohol on Warm-blooded Animals.” Read 
before the British Association at Bradford. Abstract in Vatwre, 1x. 
132. “Temperature in Health.” Ed. Laurie. Indian Med. Ga- 
zette. Abstract in Lond. Med. Rec. No. 46. “Influence of Alcohol 
on the Bodily Temperature.” TF. Riegel, Deutsch. Archiv f. Klin. Med. 


1873, x11. 79.——*“ Temperature of the Heart and Lungs.” Albert 
and Stricker, Wien. Med. Jahrbuch, 1873, 29. Abst. in Centralblatt, 
No. 3, 1874.———“Influence of Nerve Lesions upon Temperature.” 


W. Mitchell, Arch. of Scient. and Pract. Med. 1873, 351. “Calo- 
rification in Asphyxia.” Claude Bernard, Lancet, Oct. 3, 1873. 
“‘ Doctrine of the Regulation of the Temperature.” F. Riegel, Virch. 
Arch. rx. 114.——“ Anesthesia from Cold.” Horvath, Centralblatt, 
No. 14, 1873. “ Action of Alcohol on the Temperature and Pulse.” 
Rabow, Abs. in Centralblatt, No. 21, and Daub in Ceniralblati, No. 
29, 1873. “Effects of Exercise on the Temperature and Circula- 
tion.” ©. H. Jones, Proceeds. of Roy. Soc. xxt. 374. “Effects of 
Exercise on the Bodily Temperature.” Allbutt, Jowr. of Anat, and 


28—2 


498 DR STIRLING. 


Phys. vu. 106. “On the Substances which Increase the Temp. of 
the Animal Body.” P. Lewitzky, Centralblatt, No. 46, 1873. 


INSENSIBLE Excretion IN Fever.—Fr. Neumann (Exp. Unter- 
such. iiber das Verhalten der insensibelen Ausgabe im Fieber), Jnaug. 
Dissert. Dorpat, 1873. From experiments upon dogs the author 
arrives at the following results: 1. During hunger the insensible ex- 
cretion sinks from day to day. Variations caused by the varying con- 
ditions of the atmosphere occur. 2. During the fever the insensible 
excretion was in general greater than without fever under the same 
conditions. 5. A parallelism seems to be present between the 
degree of temperature and the insensible excretion. 4. During and 
after the decrease of the fever (“crisis and epicritical stage”) an in- 
crease of the insensible excretion takes place. 


ON THE FoRMATION AND REGULATION oF ANnimMAL Heat (Del 
Potere regulatore della Temperatura Animale, Studio Critico-speri- 
mentale, by A. Murri, pp. 79. Firenze, 1873). This is an exceed- 
ingly able paper. We have only space to cite a few of the author’s 
more important results. A fuller abstract will be found in the Lond. 
Med. Rec. No. 47. 1. The increase in the excretion of Co, during a 
cold bath is probably the consequence of more complete expiration, 
and even if increased formation of the same was demonstrated, this 
can be explained without increased production of heat, which is not 
the case. 2. The increase of temperature in the axilla during the 
cold bath is quite compatible with a considerable diminution of the 
quantity of the heat in the body. There is actually a diminution 
of heat. It is, therefore, not necessary to assume an increased 
production. 3. The calorimetric measurements of Liebermeister 
and Kernig are not exact, because the cooling which the body 
experiences in the cold bath was deduced from erroneous caleu- 
lations. The direct proof shows that no more heat is produced 
in the cold bath than under ordinary circumstances. 4. The hypo- 
thesis that there exists a nervous centre which fixes the tempera- 
ture in health and disease is quite untenable. The heat-regulating 
centres are neither proved nor rendered probable. 5. Fever is 
produced by a series of unusual chemical changes (fever-process) 


which thus increase the heat-production, so that the bodily tem- 


perature rises. Even continued increase of temperature, which is 
not based on a special unusual biochemical process, is not feverish 
(e. g. hysterical, epileptic, and tetanic convulsions). 


Action oF Sweat.—A. Rohrig, Jahr. f. Balneol. 1873, 1. 1, col- 
lected sweat from his forehead, and injected 3:5 ce. of it, fresh and 
filtered, into the jugular vein of a rabbit at mid-day. The temperature 
of the animal was 37°2° C. before the injection. Towards evening 
the temperature rose, and during the night reached 40:2°C. The 
heart-beats rose from 122 per min. to 326, and the respiration from 
82 to 105. Next morning the temperature was 40:2° C. heart-beats 
315, and respiration 215 in the minute. In two days the animal 


REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY, 439 


returned to the normal. Urine during the fever contained albumen, 
which disappeared as the fever subsided. What elements in the sweat 
produced these effects the author has left undetermined. 


INFLUENCE OF VARIOUS. DEGREES OF TEMPERATURE ON THE [RIS 
OF MAMMALS AND UPON THE STRIATED MuscuLar Frere oF THE 
Froc.—Griinhagen (Wageblatt der 46. Versam. deutsch. Naturf. und 
Aerzte in Wiesbaden) stated that certain temperatures between 0° C. 
and blood-heat exert a considerable influence on the size of the pupils 
in mammalia after extirpation. In the cat, if the eye after death is 
exposed to the temperature of the blood, the pupils remain widely 
dilated; whilst, if temp. is lowered to thé mean temp. of the room, 
they contract strongly, and dilate again strongly when the temp, 
is reduced to 0°C. The author believes that this is not due to 
contraction and dilatation of the sphincter pupille, as Brown- 
Séquard and H. Miiller are inclined to believe, but that the cause 
of the phenomenon in question is due to the varying capacity of 
the tissue of the iris for the imbibition of water at different tem- 
peratures. He is of opmion that the tonus of the tissue of the 
iris is lost after death by the absorption of water; whilst on ex- 
posure to low temperature (0°C.) it is restored by the giving up 
of water. That water is really given off in the latter case is rendered 
probable by the reaction of the lens to cold, for this body becomes 
cataractous at a freezing temp., owing to the formation of vacuoles in 
its substance. The impaired irritability of the iris can be restored 
even after two days by placing the iris in a chamber at blood-heat. 
The author also showed that on cooling down the muscular tissue of 
the frog to the freezing point, its irritability, upon the application. of 
a mechanical stimulus, was greatly increased. In this we possess a 
means of producing muscular contraction mechanically, without the 
participation of nerves, The contractions so produced can produce 
secondary contractions. “On the Substances which increase the 
Temperature of the Animal Body.” P. Lewitzky in Centralblatt, No. 
46, 1873. “Tnerease of Temperature in Fever.’ Dobezcanski and 
B. Nannyn. Arch. f. exp. Path. and Pharmac. 1873, 1. 1. 181. 


On THE HEAT PRODUCED IN THE Bopy, AND THE EFFECTS OF 
Exposure To Cotp.—Draper (American Jour. of Scien. and Arts, 
Dec. 1872) wished to determine the quantity of heat passing from 
the surface of the body by finding how much it would elevate the 
temperature of a known mass of cool water during a given period of 
time. By lying quietly for one hour in a bath of 74° F., enough heat 
was lost from the body to raise the temperature of the water 2° F. and 
to lower that of the body 1° F. (temp. measured in mouth and axilla). 
The volume of water in the bath was 7} cub. ft., and that of the body 
3, and the author concludes that enough heat is evolved from the 
body in one hour to warm the body itself 5°F. Thermometers in the 
mouth and axilla indicate a steady fall of temperature during the 
bath and for a short time after, leaving it accompanied by a diminished 
rate of respiration and pulse. When the experimenter executed con- 


430 DR STIRLING. 


tinued muscular movements in the bath, the temperature of the water 
around him was not raised any higher than when he remained perfectly 
at rest. 


BEHAVIOUR oF CoLD-BLOODED ANIMALS AT FREEZING TEMPER- 
ATURE.—Doehnoff (Reich. und du Bois’ Arch. 1872, p. 724) states that 
cold-blooded animals conduct themselves like plants in cold. The honey- 
bee dies at —1°C., the spider —3°; the flesh-fly can endure a temper- 
ature of — 6°, and the silkworm’s egg survives a cold of — 21°. Part of 
the water contained in the leech can be frozen, and the silkworm can 
be solid ice without this being prejudicial to their life. 


On THE Capacity or Frocs FoR RESISTING High snp Low 
TEMPERATURES.—Mueller (Reichert’s Arch. 1872, p. 754) placed both 
Rana esculenta and temporaria in water which was then frozen. The 
vessel was allowed to remain in the open air five hours (temp. of air 
5° and 7°R.). Afterwards the vessel was brought into a moderately 
warm room, and when the frog was freed from the ice, after about 13 
hours, it breathed quite lively at the surface of the water. Leuciscus 
rutilus treated in the same way died after a short time. When a frog 
has been for a long time removed from the water, so that its skin is 
dry, it becomes motionless, but the vital processes are not interrupted, 
as is shown by the circulation. Freezing completely controls the cir- 
culation at first; upon thawing, not the slightest trace of movement 
is to be observed in the web of the foot. Later, but slowly, the vessels 
begin to show signs of life. Frogs placed in water at a temperature 
of 20° R. were lively, at 26° they seemed tired, and at 28° death en- 
sued rapidly. It seems probable that the temperature of warm-blooded 
animals produces death in the cold-blooded. 


THe TEMPERATURE OF THE Bopy 1n HeAttH.—Juergensen, Leip- 
zig, pp. 60, 1 plate, 1873. These papers have already appeared in the 
Deutsch. Archiv f. klin. Medic. The temperature measured in the 
rectum of a person at rest has a daily variation of about 1°C., the 
highest temp. being in the afternoon, and the lowest between mid- 
night and morning. Taking of food slightly increases the temp. 
With regard to the influence of the extraction of heat on the tem- 
perature, the person experimented on found that the subjective feel- 
ing of cold during and after the bath at 9°—11°C., lasting 25’—30, is 
so intense as scarcely to be endured. Bath of 30° C. and 25’ duration : 
during the bath the temperature measured in the rectum showed an 
increase. Bath of 9°—11°C. and 25’ duration: during the bath the 
temp. measured in the rectum showed a greater or less fall. In 
these cold baths, soon after the beginning of the experiment, the 
development of heat is diminished; it then remains some time con- 
stant, and then diminishes further. Thus, after 5 mins.’ immersion in 
such a bath, the rectal temp. in different experiments on the same 
person showed a variation of 0°5°, 0-7°, 0-2°C. less than the temp. at 
the beginning of the experiment. Then followed a longer or shorter 
period when the temp. remained constant. After 25 mins.’ immersion 


REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 431 


the rectal temp. showed a diminution of 1°4°, 0:9°, 1-1°C. under the 
same circumstances. The after-effects of immersion in such a bath. 
The greatest cooling of the body takes place not in the bath, but some 
time (hours) thereafter. After a bath of 10°—11°C. the minimum temp. 
of the after-effect 33-1° (3-6° under the normal), and only after seven 
hours was the normal reached. The duration of the bath also influ- 
ences the after-effects. Period of the day or night also. During the 
night the remote effects appear less than during the day. The after- 
effect increases with the time, and is cumulative. Thus, after a 
series of experiments, the after-effect was so pronounced that even 
after 25 mins.’ immersion in 9°C. bath no diminution of the 
temp. was observed. Then follow chapters on the influence of quinine, 
muscular exercise, etc. on the temp., and also a chapter on the temp. 
during the first week of life. 


La CHaLeur AnIMALE.—Bernard (Revue Scientifique, 1. 133 et seq.) 
in the above lectures discusses the theory of Koerner and Heidenhain 
(Pjliig. Arch. tv. 558), that the difference between the temperature of 
the blood in the right and left ventricles is due to the proximity of 
the right ventricle to the abdominal organs (Journ. Anat. and Phys. 
Vol. vil. p. 358). He rejects this theory, for Hering has found that 
in a case of ectopia cordis the temperature of the right ventricle, even 
in this malformation, was higher than that of the left. 


Miscellaneous. 


Nucteme.—Worm Miiller, as the results of his researches upon 
this substance, has arrived at the following conclusions (Pfliig. Arch. 
vu. 190). Nucleine, as at present prepared, is no single characteristic 
chemical substance, and this is shown by the different results of 
different investigators as to the quantity of P. contained in it. Nu- 
cleine is probably only a mixture of organic phosphorous compounds 
with albuminous or albuminous-like bodies. It cannot with certainty 
be asserted that nucleine belongs entirely to the nuclei.. 


INDEX TO VOLUME VIII. 


A. 

Abnormalities, see ‘‘ Variations ” 

Absinth, effects of, 220 

Absorption, of bone by giant-cells, 425 ; 
in large intestine, 413 

Achscharumow, aconitia, 22 

Acid, uramid, 410; taurocarbamin, syn- 
thesis of, 410; carbonic, in urine 
in fever, 421; nitric and sulphuric, 
toxicology of, 222; origin of, in ani- 
mal organism, 421; of bone, 425 

Ackermann, action of digitalin, 227 

Aconitia, action of, 223 

Afonassiew, oxygen in blood, 196 

Albert, temp. of heart and lungs, 427 

Albumen, 204; destruction of, 206; 
action of gases on, 408; preparation 
of, 410; quantity of 410, 421; of he- 
patic cells, 209, 419; nitrogen in, 
410, 411 

Alcohol, effects of, 220, 233, 427 

Alimentation, see “ Digestive” 

Alkali, withdrawal of, from living body, 
410 

Allbutt, bodily temp., 427 

Amez-Droz, nitrite of amyl, 221 

Amphibia, tissue-metabolism in, 122; 
anat. report, 177 

Amyl, nitrite, effects of, 221; on muscle, 
425 

Anesthesia, from cold, 247 

Annelids, 385 

Antagonism, 23I—232 

Apolant, white and red corpuscles after 
suppuration, 403 

Apomorphia, emetie action ef, 223 

Apneea, 204, 409 

Araneina, embryology of the, 170 

Arctictis binturong, anat. of, 176 

Arloing, the vagus, 185 

Armadillo, enamel-organ in, 387 

Arndt, R., nerve-endings in striated 
muscle, 161; chloral, 220; ganglia 
of the sympathetic, 392; path. anat. 
of central organs of nervous syst., 


392 : 
Arnold, J., Diapedesis, 403) 


Aroustein, R., preparation of albumen, 
410 

Arsenic, not poisonous, 218 

Arteries, see ‘‘Circulatory ” 

Arthropoda, tissue-metabolism in some, 
121 

Asphyxia, calorification in, 427 

Atropia, action of, 225; antagonism 
between physostigma and, 232, 403 

Aubert, carbonic’ acid excreted by skin 
in man, 188 

Audigné, production of icterus, 420 


B. 


Bacteria, in sweat, 188, in blood, 198 

Balandin, J., curvatures of spine, 159 

Balbiani, M., embryology of the ara- 
neina, 170 

Balfour, F. M., develop: and growth of 
blastoderm of hen’s egg, 168, of blood- 
vessels, 169; primitive groove, a 
temporary structure, 169 

Basch, effects of nicotia, 226; move- 
ments of intestines, 417 

Baumstark, cholic acid, 209 

Béchamp, organic particles in milk, 
209; coagulation of caseine by ren- 
net, 209 : 

Becquerel, electro-capillary phenomena 
of life, 410 

Bellamy, E., malformation of wrist and 
hand, 383 

Beneden, P. J. Van, cetaceans, 176 

Benedikt, M., innervation of infr. cho- 
roid-plexus, 392 

Bennett, A., action of thein, caffein, 
guaranin, cocain, theobromin, 225 

Benzine, toxicology of, 222 

Bergeret, absorption, of bismuth, 218, 
of mercury, 219, of lead and gold, 
21 

Ted R., Nudibranchs, 178 

Berlin, section of optic nerve, 187 

Bernard, M. Claude, diabetes: and the 
glycogenic function of liver, 418} 
calorification in asphyxia, 427; la 
chaleur animale, 431 


—— 


INDEX. 


Bernheim, electricity in muscle and 
nerve, 213, 400 

Bernstein, electrotonus, 213 

Bert, phenomena of life, 215; capacity 
of blood for oxygen at various pres- 
sures, 403 

Bidder, A., bone-growth arrested by 
irritating the epiphyses, 425 

Binz, action, of quinine on blood, 198, 
224, 402, of alcohol on warm-blooded 
animals, 233, of oxygen in formation 
of pus, 403 

Birds, report, anat., 177; erection in, 
421 

Bismuth, detection of, in-tissues, 218 

Blake, C. J., galvanic current upon 
acoustic nerve, 400 

Blake, J., introduction into blood of 
inorganic substances, 243 

Blanche, nitrous oxide in plants and 
animals, 221, 409 

Blasius, frog’s heart under varying 
blood-pressure, 189 

Bloch, capillary circulation in skin, 402 ; 
injuries to skin, 402 

Blood-vessels, see ‘‘ Circulatory ” 

Bochefontaine, phys. of spleen, 185 

Bohm, action, of arsenic, 218, of vera- 
tria on muscular fibre, 213, of amor- 
phous aconitia, 223, of digitalin, 227 

Bottcher, movements after section of 
the semi-circular canals, 187; trau- 
matic keratitis, 400 

Bogoslowsky, action of flesh-broth, &c., 
20 

Boll, F., histology and histogenesis of 
central organs of nervous syst., 172; 
electric plates, of Malapterurus, 392, 
of Torpedo, 392; phys. of the ner- 
vous syst., 399 

Botany, Madagascar poison, 102 

Bouillaud, normal and abnormal pulse, 


402 : 

Bowditch, H. P., nerves of heart, 193 

Bradley, S. M., natural characteristics 
of skulls, 386 

Brain, see ‘‘ Nervous syst.” 

Braun, H., secretion of gastric juice, 

I 

Bromides, reflex excitability, 229 

Brown-Séquard, ecehymosis by nervous 
influence, 403 

Brunner, J., comp. of human milk, 
209, 427 ; 

Brunton, J. Lauder, action, of drugs in 
animal organism, 95, of digitalis on 
temp. and circulation, 189; warmth 
in preventing death from chloral, 
3323; diabetes and hydruria, 421 

Buchanan, G., Wilson’s Anatomist’s 
Vade Mecum, 157 

Buck, H., auditory ossicles, 187 


435 


Bunge, chloride of sodium and potassium 
salts in man, 205 

Burnett, auditory ossicles, 187; ex- 
ternal ear, a synthetic resonator, 400 

Bus, M. du, remains of the Delphinide, 
176 

Busch, strychnia on sensory nerves, 399 

Butzke, V., the eerebral convolutions, 
171 


Caffein, 225, 229 

Calabar-bean, action of, on heart, 403 

Calcium-salts, action of, 218 

Carbohydrates, 415 

Carnivora report, anat. 17 

Cartilages and synovial membranes of 
joints, 127 

Carville, cerebral currents, by induced 
electricity, 396 

Caseine, coagulation of, by rennet, 209 

Cassowary, ‘‘moderator band” in heart 
of, 173 

Cat, action of Madagascar poison on, 
107 

Cathcart, C. W., lamb with fissured 
sternum and transposed origin of 
right subclavian artery, 321 

Cetacea, anat. report, 176—177 

Champneys, F., septum atriorum of 
frog and rabbit, 340 

Chatin, J., visceral anat. of Viverra 
civetta, 176 

Chauveau, Prof., Comparative Anatomy 
of Domesticated Animals, 157 

Chick, develop. of blood-vessels of, 169 

Chloral, 220, 229, 332 

Chtapowski, nerve-influence on arteries 
of submax. glands, 184 

Circulatory system ;—synthesis of mo- 
tion, 300; reports, phys., 188—199, 402 
—40g;—arteries, irregular, 155, 3215 
nerve-influence on dilatation of, 183 ;— 
blood-vessels, develop. of, 169 ; inner- 
vation of, 182, 185 ;—blood; size of 
corpuscles in the Salmonide, 178 ; in- 
troduction of inorganic substarcesinto, 
243; formation of colouring matter 
of bile, 420 ;—-cizculation in capillaries, 
402, 427; in kidney, 421 ;—heart, atro- 
pia on, 226; temp. of, 427 ;—lympha- 
tics, of lungs, 390, of cornea, 390, of 
uterus, 391, of serous membranes, 
388, in dura mater, 174, in retina and 
vitreous body, 174 ;—lymph, secretion 
of, in the fore-limbs of dog, 199;— 
pulse, secondary waves, 1; frequency 
of, 54, 189; action of alcohol on, 427;— 
spleen, innervation of, and its rela- 
tion to leucocythemia, 185; pbysio- 


434 


logy of, 185 ;—veins, communication 
between umbilical and portal, 149; 
innervation of, 392; portal circulation, 
418 

Clapham, W. C. §., weighings of the 
brain, 173 

Claus, veratria, 228 

Cleland, Prof., double-bodied monsters 
aud develop. of tongue, 250 ; accessory 
lobes of lung, 388; Animal Physio- 
logy, 384 

Cocain, action of, 225 

Collins, E. W., accessory lobe of right 
lung, 387 

Convulsants, action of, 2 

Costa, intestinal glands, 205 

Coxghtrey, M., tracheal pouch of Emeu, 
177 

Crab, anat. of American King, 178 

Crampe, H., length of intestines, 175 

Crum-Brown, <A., sense of rotation 
and function of the semicircular ca- 
nals, 327, 402 

Crustacea, anat. report, 178 

Curnow, Se irregularities, in ophthal- 
mic and meningeal arteries, 155; in 
some muscles, 377 

Cutaneous syst., see ‘Integumentary ” 

Cyon, influence of posterior nerve-roots 
on sensibility of anterior, 399; reflex 
stimulation of vaso-motor nerves, 403 

Czerney, V., digestion and absorption 
in human large intestine, 413 


D. 


Darwin, F., sympathetic ganglia of 
bladder, 392 

Daub, alcohol on temperature and pulse, 
247 

Davidson, A., Madagascar ordeal poison, 


97 

Day, J., fat, 409 

Death, muscular’ irritability after sys- 
temic, 213 

Decidua, see ‘‘ Genito-urinary” 

Defecation, 410 

Delore, M. X., maternal circulation in 
placenta, 393 

Delphinide, remains of the, 176 

Development, see ‘‘ Embryolo 

Dewar, J., physiological action of light, 
187 

Dew-Smith, A. G., double nerve-stimu- 
lation, 74, 400; sugar-forming sub- 
stance in penicillium, 82 

Diabetes, 209, 418, 421 

Diapedesis, 403 

Digestive system of Arctictis binturong, 
176, of Viverra civetta, 176, of Su- 
matran Rhinoceros, 176; epithelium 


INDEX. 


of cesophagus, 162; stomach and nerve- 
centres of circulation, 182; gastric 
juice, 274; blood-vessels of small in- 
testine, 174;— liver, physiological re- 
ports on, 209, 418—421 ;—pancreas, 
23 ;—ectopia viscerum, 171 ;—tongue 
of the genus Nestor, 177, development 
of, in double-bodied monsters, 250 ;— 
teeth ; bidental skull of Narwhal, 133 ; 
supernum. molars in Orang, 140; den- 
tition of rhinoceros, 176; anat. report, 
378 ;—reports, anat., 175, phys. (on 
alimentation), 204—209, 409—417 

Digitaln, aie 231 

Dobczcanski, , increase of temperature 
by pers substances, 427, 429 

Doehnoff, cold-blooded animals at freez- 
ing temperature, 430 

Dog, olfactory epithelium of, 42 

Dolphins and whales of New Zealand 
Seas, 176 

Donath, J., chemistry of bone, 425 

Donders, expulsion of nitric oxide from 
blood, 197; influence of spectacles on 
acuteness of vision, 400 

D’Ornellas, A. E., action of certain 
enietics, 230 

Draper, heat of the body, 429 

Dromaius Nove-Hollandiz, anat. of, 
177 

Deckert M. G., anat. of Dromaius 
Nove-Hollandiz, 177 

Dupuy, Dr E., la physiologie du cer- 
veau, 396 

Duquesnel, aconitia, 223 

Duret, secondary cerebral currents, by 
induced electricity, 396 

Dusart, Brothers,albuminous substances, 
410 

Dwight, T., ischio-trochanteric lig., 134 

Dybowski, B., skull of Phoca baica- 
lensis, 176 

Dyspnea, from warmth, 203 


E. 


Ear, innervation in rabbit, 184; semi- 
circular canals, function of, 327, 400, 


402 

Eberth, keratitis after section of trige- 
minus, 187; bacteria in sweat, 188; 
inflammation of cornea, 400 

Ebstein, formation of pepsin, 207 

Ecker, Dr A., Convolutions of Human 
Brain, 158 

Eckhard, C., sympathetic on the eye, 
187, on erection in birds, 421 

Edlefsen, G., phys. of collection of 
urine in bladder, 421 

Egg, see “Ovum” 

Egli, T., glands in pelvis of kidney, 175 


INDEX. 


Eichhorst, H., nerve degeneration and 
nerve regeneration, 400 

. Electricity, 423; on heart, 403; on life, 
410 

Electrotonus, 213 

Elephant, Indian, 85 

Embryology; develop., of frontal bone, 
159, of cranium of Sus scrofa, 176, of 
sternum in tortoises, 177, of nerve- 
cells, 181, of tongue, 250, of muscular 
fibre in frog, 424, of Wolffian duct, 
393; of dental follicle, 387; imperfect 
of limbs; anat. report, 168—170 

Emetic, 223, 230 

Emeu, tracheal pouch, 177 

Englemann, irritation of nerves and 
muscles, 186; shortening of tendons, 
214, 443 

Epithelium, olfactory, 39; stratified, 
162; of serous layer of ovum of 
Rabbit, 170; of serous membranes, 


390 

Breland G. B., placenta, 165, 393 

Ergotin, action of, 228 

Esbach, albumen, 421 

Eustachian tube, opening and closing 
of, 127 

Ewald, C. A., apncea, 204; carbonic 
acid in urine in fever, 421; glyco- 
suria, 421 

Ewart, J. C., epithelium of retina and 
capsule of lens, 353 

Exner, §., simplest psychical processes, 


3 

Eye, of lobster, 178; sup. cerv. gan- 
glion and iris, 398; lymphatics of 
retina and yitreous body, 174, of 
cornea, 390; epithelium, of cornea, 
162, of retina and of capsule of lens, 
353; reports, anat., 173; phys., 187, 
400 


F, 


Faber, C., red blood-corpuscles, 403 

Falck, phys. of water, 205; chloride of 
sodium as a poison, 219; action of 
hydrocotarnin, 224; peculiarity of 
capillary blood, 406 

Fasciz and muscles about urethra, 160 

Fat, 204, 207; absorption of, 205, 209; 
assimilation of, 410, action of, 409; 
in milk, 427 

Feinberg, suppression of perspiration, 
182 

Ferment, in stomach, 207 ; pancreas, 23, 
409 

Ferrier, Dr, researches in cerebral phys. 
and path., 152, 179 

Fever, urine in, 421, 428 

Fibrin, digestion of, 204 


435 


Fick, electrical irritation of nerves, 186; 
blood-pressure, 189, 402; stomach- 
ferment, 207; veratria, on muscular 
fibre, 213 

Filebne, W., carbonic acid in apnea, 
409 ; curve in transyv. conduction of 
frog’s nerves, 186, 400 

Fishes, respiration of, 203; anat. report, 
177—178 

Fistula, biliary, 418 

Flesch, M., malform. of thorax, 170 

Flesh, feeding with, 204, 207, 415 

Flint, A., nervous syst., 399 

Fokker, alkaline blood, 199 

Food, mechanical coefficient of, 204 

Forster, J., nutrition, 409; ash-consti- 
tuents in food, 411 

Foster, M., temperature on reflex ac- 
tions of frog, 45, 400; reply to Lewes’ 
‘*sensation in spinal cord,” 400 

Fournié, cerebral phys. and path., 179 

Fraser, T. R., report on pharmacology, 
217—232 

Frohlich, atropin and physostigma on 
pupil and heart, 403; hemorrhage 
after ligature, 403 

Frog, transv. conduction in nerves of, 
186; reflex actions, 45, 400; Auer- 
bach’s plexus, 173; develop. of mus- 
cular fibres, 424 ; action, of Madagas- 
car poison, 105, 108, of temp. on 
striated muscle of, 429; resistance to 
high and low temp., 430; heart, 189, 
191; septum atriorum, 340; lung, 
188 ; migration of corpuscles, 174, 
403; olfactory epithelium, 42 

Fuchs, equilibrium for stimulated and 
non-stimulated muscles, 213 


G. 


Galabin, A. L., causes of secondary 
waves of pulse, 1, 112, 403 

Galton, J. C., translation of Ecker’s 
Convolutions of the Brain, 158 

Galvanism, current of, on eye, 400, 
on acoustic nerve, 400; action of in- 
duced currents, 423 

Garrod, A. H., law regulating frequency 
of pulse, 54, 189, 403; placenta in 
Hippopotamus, 167 ; anat. of Arctictis 
binturong, 176; visceral anat. of Su- 
matran Rhinoceros, 176; nasal bones 
of some birds, 177; tongue of the 
genus Nestor, 177 

Gegenbaur, Carl, Grundriss der ver- 
gleichenden Anatomie, 385 

Genito-urinary system, of Arctictis bin- 
turong,176; phys. report, 421—423;— 
bladder, epithelium of, 162, extrover- 
sion of, 171, sympathetic ganglia of, 


we 


436. INDEX. 


392 ;—kidney, large calculus of, 382; 
anat. reports, 175, 392; ovary, anat. 
report, 393 ;—penis, muscles and fas- 
ciz, 160 ;—placenta, 162, 164, 165, of 
hippopotamus, 167, of sloths, 362 ; 
anat. report, 393 ;—uterus, pregnancy 
in rudimentary cornu of, 171, re- 
flex movements of, 214, lymphatics 
of, 391; decidua, 167, 393; nerves, 
403 

Genzmer, A., path. of lungs after section 
of vagi, 185 

Gerlach, L., nerve-endings in cortex 
of cerebrum, 171; myenteric plexus 
of Auerbach, 173; minerals of blood- 
serum, 196 

Gervais, P., monsters, 171 

Giacomini, C., veins of leg, 174 

Gierke, respiratory centre, 409 

Glands ; Brunner’s, 205 ; intestinal, 205 ; 
in. pelvis of kidney, 175; of head of 
Ophidians, 177; effects of stimuli on, 
206 

Glycerine, nitro-, toxicology of, 222 

Glycogen, source of, in liver, 209, 418, 
419: diabetes, and function of, in 
liver, 209, 418 

Glycosuria, 421 

Gobrecht, defecation, 410 

Gotte, A., develop. of the Vertebrata, 
170 

Gold, in tissues, 219 

Goldstein, dyspncea from warmth, 203 

Goltz, the nerves of erection, £86 

Gray, J. E., pig-skulls, 476; dentition 
of rhinoceros, 176; skeletons of Kogia 
Macleayii, 176; sternum in young 
tortoises, 177 

Gréhaut, absorption of oxygen by blood, 
199; aconitia, 22 

Gruber, W., os zygomaticum biparti- 
tum, 159; supernumerary bones in 
zygomatic arch, 386; variations, in 
foramen mentale, 159, in dental fora- 
men and mylo-hyoid groove, 386, in 
cranial bones, 159; articulation of 
temporal with frontal bone, 386 ; bones 
in frontal fontanelle, 386 

Griinhagen, A. V., anat. of iris, 173; 
‘temp. on iris and on striated muscie 
of frog, 429 ; irritation of nerves and 
muscles, 186; contractions in muscle, 
186; on two electro-physiological dis- 
puted points, 423 

Griitmer, nerve-influence on submax. 
glands, 184; pepsin, 207; reaction of 
muscle, 213 

Gscheidlen, R., chemical reaction of 
central nervous system, 181; quantity 
of blood, 199, 403 

Guaranin, action of, 225 

Gubler, action of chloral, 220 


Gulliver, G., blood-corpuscles of the 
Salmonide, 178 

Guttmann, P., paralysis of vagus, 399 

Guyochin, absorption of quinia, 225 


iH: 


Hemoglobin, variations of, in the zoo- 
logical series, 1g6 

Handyside, P. D., new species of Polyo- 
don, 178 

Harting, P., the swimming bladder, 177 

Hayem, G., changes in spinal cord after 
excision of sciatic nerve in rabbit, 186 

Hector, J., whales and dolphins of New 
Zealand Seas, 176 

Hehn, A., mechanical cedema, 405 

Heidenhain, R., anat. and phys. of 
kidney, 392, 422 

Hein, R., ectopia viscerum and imper- 
fect limbs, 171 

Heinzmann, gradual thermal irritation 
of nerves, 186 

Heller, A., blood-vessels of small intes- 
tines, 174 

Helmholtz, H., ossicles and membrana 
tympani, 400 

Henle, Dr. J., Handbuch der systemati- 
schen Anatomie des Menschen, 157 

Hennig, C., human placenta, 164 

Hensen, accomm. movement of choroid 
in eye of man, ape and cat, 400 

Hermann, L., galvanic currents on 
muscles and nerves, 186; electroto- 
nus, 213, 400; shortening of tendons, 
214, 423 

Hesse, O., hydrocotarnin, 224 

Heubel, E., comp. of tobacco-smoke, 
226 

Hippopotamus, placenta in, 167 

Hirschberg, J., refractive index of eye, 
400 

Histology, and phys. of nerves, 186 

Hitzig, E., trans. conduction in frog’s 
nerves, 186, 400; phys. of the brain, 
397 

Hees A., circulation in kidney, 421 

Hoffmann, F. A., nitrite of amyl, 222 

Hoffman, assimilation of fats, 205 

Hoggan, blood-pressure in inspiration, 
203 

Hollis, W. A., tissue metabolism, 120 

Holmes, ergotin, 228 

Honckgeest, Van Braam; movements 
of stomach and intestines, 209 

Hoppe-Seyler, destruction of albumen, 
206 

Horvath, movements of intestines, 208 ; 
anesthesia from cold, 427 

Hiiter, circulation in frog’s lung, 188 

Humphry, Prof., depressions in parietals 


‘ 
tie iti a i i Nt i i ee he 


INDEX. 437 


of orang and man, supernum. molars 
in orang, 136; use of ligamentum 
teres of hip, 295 

Huppert, H., uramid acid, 410 

Hydrobilirubin, absorption spectrum of, 
209 

Hydorcotarnin, action of, 224 

Hydruria, 421 

Hyperoodon bidens, rudimentary <finger- 
muscles in, 114 


Icterus, 420 

Incanity, cerebral histology of the insane, 
173 

Integumentary system in Ophidians, 
177, in larva of Salamandra maculosa, 
177; irritation of, 186; touch-cor- 
puscles, 30; sweat, 422, 428; reports, 
anat , 175, phys., 188, 402; see also 

» “ Epithelium” 


J. 


Jacobson, pressure in the pericardium, 
18 

ieebeh: R., pregnancy in rudimentary 
uterine cornu, 171 

Jago, J., visible direction, 187 

Jhering, H. V., develop. of frontal bone, 
159 

Jochelsohn, artificial respiration with 
strychnia, 409 

Jolyet, nitrous oxide, 221, 409 

Jones, C. H., exercise on temp. and 
circulation, 427 

Juergensen, temp. of body, 430 


K. 


Keratitis, after section of trigeminus, 187 

Kessel, accommodation of the ear, 187 

Kiewiez, A., pressure in the pericardium, 
189 

Klein, E., Auerbach’s plexus in frogs 
and toads, 173; relation of serous mem- 
branes to lymphatics, 388 ; lympha- 
tics of the lungs, 390 

Klemenziewiz, R., demonstration of 
pulse by flame, 403 

Koehler, H., saponin and digitalin, 231; 
Calabar bean on heart, 403; bitter sub- 
stances on circulation and blood-pres- 
sure, 406 

eee A., absorption, &¢c., of bone, 
3°7 

Kogia Macleayii, skeletons of, 176 


~ 


Korowin, secretion of pancreas and paro- 
tid, 206 

Krause, contraction of muscular fibre, 
213 

Kreatin, 204 

Krolow, Brunner’s glands, 205 

Kronecker, H., fatigue of striped muscle, 
210 


L. 


Lemargus borealis, anat. of, 285 

Landau, L., secretion of pancreas, 410 

Landois, L., transfusion of blood, 405 

Langerhans, P., stratified epithelium, 
162; histology ef heart, 173; touch- 
corpuscles and rete Malpighi, 175; 
skin of larva of Salamandra maculosa, 
177 

Lankester, E. Ray, primitive cell-layers 
of embryo, 170 

Laquer, miecrometry of eye, 400 

Latschenberger, J., digestion, &c., in 
large intestine, 413 

Laurie, E., temp. in health, 427 

Lead, detection of, in tissues, 219 

Leber, T., change of fluids in the eye, 400 

Lee, R. J., sight in birds, 173 

Leeches, tissue-metabolism in, 120 

Legg, J. W., changes in liver after liga- 
ture of bile-ducts, 420 

Legros, C., dental follicle, 387 

Lehmann, nitro-benzine, 223 

Lemur, Madagascar poison, 106 

Leopold, G., lymphatics of uterus, 391 

Lepine, R., peptic gastric glands, 416 

Lesshaft, P., muscles and fascixe about 
urethra, 160 

Leucocythemia, and 
spleen, 185 

Lewes, G. H., sensation in spinal cord, 
400 

Lewitzky, P., temp. of body, 428, 429 

Leydig, F., glands of head in Ophidians; 
177; skin of Ophidians, 177 

Life, 215, 410; synthesis of motion, 300. 

Ligaments; ischio-trochanteric, 134; use 
of ligamentum teres of hip, 291 

Light, phys. action of, 187 

Litzmann, C.C., Th., extroversio vesice, 
7 

Liver, see “Digestive syst.” 

Liversidge, A., amylolytic ferment of 
pancreas, 23, 409 

Lobster, eye of, 17 

Lockenberg, E., movements of respira- 
tion, 203 

Lubimoff, embryonal develop. of nerve- 
cells, 181 

Luchsinger, B., glycogen in liver, 418; 
Preyer’s “das myophysische Gesetz,” 
423 


innervation of 


438 INDEX. 


Luciani, L., periodic function of isolated 
frog’s heart, 191 

Lussana, portal circulation, &., 418 

Lutze, E. A., Mechanik der Herzcon- 
tractionen, 403 

Lymph, see ‘‘Circulatory syst.” 


M. 


Macaques, obs. on, 175 

Mach, accommodation of ear, 187 

Madder, feeding with, 425 

Maerker, M., estimation of N. in albu- 
men, 411 

Magitot, E., dental follicle, 387 

Magnan, alcohol and absinth, 220 

Major, H. C., cerebral histology of the 
insane, 173 

Malapterurus, electric plates of, 392 

Malformation, of pelvic limbs, 358, of 
wrist and hand, 383; anat. report, 
I7O—I7I 

Maly, R., chemistry of bone, 425 

Mamme, excision of, during lactation, 

Mammalia, placenta in, 165; dental fol- 
licle in, 387; temp. on iris, 429 

Marey, uniformity of heart’s action, 190 

Marrow of bone, 387, 425 

Martin, H. N., structure of olfactory 
mucous membrane, 39 

Mathieu, E., action of gases in coagula- 
tion of albumen, 408 

Mauthner, J., maternal circulation in 
rabbit’s placenta, 393 

Mayencon, absorption of, bismuth, 218, 
mercury, 219, lead and gold, 219 

Mayer, 8., relations of stomach to nerve- 
centres of circulation, 182; electrical 
stimulation of heart, 403 

M‘Intosh, W. C., A Monograph of the 
British Annelids. Part 1., 385 

M°Kendrick, J. G., phys. action of light, 
187; mechanism of ear, 400 

Mechanism of Eustachian tube, 127, 187; 
of auditory ossicles, 187 

Mégevand, action of digitalis, 228 

Meihwizeen, reflex excitability, 229 

Melassez, number of red and white cor- 
puscles, 408 

Membranes;—serous, structure and rela- 
tions of, to lymphatics, 388; lympha- 
tics, 391; enithelium, 390 

Mercury, detection of, in tissues, 219 

Merkel, F., the femur, 386 

Metabolism, 120 

Metschnikoff, action of vagus on heart, 


I 5 

Meyer, A. B., action of digitalis on cir- 
culation and temp., 189; periodicity of 
action of heart, 404 


Michell, J., blood and lymph-channels 
of dura mater, 174 

Michelsohn, post-mortem rigidity of 
muscles, 213 

Mihalkovics, V., pecten of birds, 177 

Milk, organic particles in, 209; coagu- 
lation by rennet, 209; comp. 209; 
phys. report, 427 

Mitchell, W., influence of nerye-lesions 
on temp., 427 

Mohlenfeld, peptones, 204 

Moin, cubic space and volume of air, 
203 

Mollusca, tissue-metabolism, 121; re- 
ports, anat., 178 

Monsters, 171 

Morano, lymph-sheaths of choroidal 
vessels, 400 

Moreau, innervation of ear of rabbit, 
184; action of purgatives, 231 

Moriggia, A., reaction of urine and 
sweat, 422 

Morison, A., bone-absorption by giant- 
cells, 425 

Morphia, reflex excitability, 229 

Morphology, of skull, 62 

Mosso, chem. irritation of nerves of 
heart, 193 ; movements of cesophagus, 
416 

Miller, sensibility to sound, 187; activity 
of skin, &c., 421; skin of frog, 430 

Worm, nucleine, 431 

Munk, H., of moist porous bodies, 410 

J., excretion of bile, 209 

Murie, J., the Macaques, 175; Upu- 
pide, 177 

Murri, A., animal heat, 428 

Muscular system ;—in digits of toothed 
whale, 114}; intercostal, 203; influ- 
ence of temp., 429; irregularities in, 
150, 377; galvanic currents on, 186; 
secondary contractions in, 186; irri- 
tation of nerves, 186; of larynx, 203; 
nerve-lesions on, 186; respiratory, 
161, 203 ; effect of section of semicircu- 
lar canals on, 187; of intestines, 208 ; 
of uterus, 214 ;—reports, anat., 160— 
162, phys., 210—214, 423—425. 


N. 


Nannyn, B., increase of temp. by pyro- 
genic substances, 427, 429 

Narwhal, bidental skull of, 133; rete 
mirabile of, 176; enamel-organ in, 

8 

Nae albumen, 204, 410 

Nedsvetski, moving particles in blood, 
198 

N anaus system ;—nerve-centres; rela- 
tions of human cerebrum to skull and 
head, 142, 359; phys. and path, 
152; blood and lymph-channels, 174 ; 


INDEX. 


vaso-motor and uterine, 403; convo- 
lutions of the brain, 158 ;—nerves, 
variations, 297; proportion of, to 
muscular fibre, 424; functions of, in 
larynx, 203; action of electricity on 
muscle and, 213; influence of certain 
substances upon, 45, 229; double 
stimulation of, 74; chemical irritation 
of, of heart, 193; of liver, 209; of 
limbs, 402; of striated muscles, 161; 
of olfactory mucous membrane, 39; 
touch-corpuscles, 175; electrical plates, 
392; reports, anat., 171—173, 392, 
phys., 179—188, 395—402 

Nestor, tongue of the genus, 177 

Neumann, F., insensible excretion in 
fever, 428 

Newt, olfactory epithelium 
tissue-metabolism in, 122 

Newton, E. T., eye of lobster, 178 

Nicotia, effects of, 226 

Nitrous oxide, on plants and animals, 
221 

Norton, A. T., anat. of ciliary body, 


of, 39; 


7 

Mot magal: H., cerebral phys. and 
path., 179, 3953; extirpation of nuclei 
lenticulares, 396; injury to brain with 
pulmonary hemorrhage, 397 

Nowak, nitrogen in albuminates, 204 

Nucleine, 431 

Nudibranchs, 178 

Nussbaum, respiration, 203 


O. 


Obermeier, O., varicose axial cylinders, 
173 

Cidema, 405 

Ogilvie, L., lamb malformed, 321 

Ogle, J. W., absence of lower limbs, 358 

Olivier, A., poisoning by hyperchloride 
of mercury, 219 

Onimus, intercostal muscles, 203; in- 
duced currents, 423 

Ophidians, see ‘‘ Reptilia ” 

Orang, depressions in parietals of, 136; 
supernum. molars in, 140 

Oser, effects of nicotia, tobacco-smoke, 
226 

Osler, bacteria in blood, 198; atropia 
and physostigma, 232 

Osseous system ;—of Kogia Macleayii, 
176 ;—cranium of Phoca baicalensis, 
176; of Pig, 176; of Rhinoceros, 176; 
relations of human cerebrum to, 142, 
359; depression in parietals, 136; 
jaws of the porpoise, 176; bidental, 
of narwhal, 133; auditory ossicles, 
187, 400; nasal bones of birds in 


439 


classification, 177 ;—malformation of 
thorax, 170 ; sternum in tortoises, 177 ; 
subdivision of scaphoid, 177 ;—reports 
anat., 159—178, 386—394, phys., 
425—427 

Ovum, 168, of trout, 170; serous epi- 
thelium of, 170 

Owen, R., anat. of American king crab 
178 

Owsjannikow, nerves of arteries, &c., 
183 


12% 


Pachydermata, anat. report, 176 
Pancreas, see ‘* Digestive”’ 
Paquelin, J., comp. of blood-corpuscles, 


404 

Parker, W. K., morphology of skull, 
62, 176 

Paschutin, lymph in limbs of dog, 199; 
digestive ferments, 409; butyric acid 
fermentation, 409 

Pathology, cerebral, 152, 179, 392; of 
lungs, 185 

Paton, G., action and sounds of heart, 
402 

Penicillium, sugar-forming substance, 
82 

Pepsin, digestive action of, on fibrin, 
204; formation in stomach, 207, 414, 
416 

Peptones, 204 

Perissodactyla, anat. report, 176 

Perl, L., nutrition of cardiac muscles, 
407 

Petrowsky, composition of matter of 
brain, 181; skin under slight mecha- 
nical irritation, 186; develop. of mus- 
cular fibre in frog, 42 

Pettenkofer, feeding with flesh, &c., 
204, 207, 415 

Pettigrew, circulation in plants, &c., 
18 

Sears eee report on, 217—232 

Phoea baicalensis, skull of, 176 

Phosphorus, action of, 217 

Physostigma, and atropia, 232, 403 

Pick, E., innervation of blood-vessels, 
185, 407 

Pick, R., nitrite of amyl on muscle, 425 

Pinnepedia, anat. report, 176 

Placenta, see ‘‘Genito-urinary ”’ 

Plész, P., ferment of blood, 199; albu- 
minous substances of hepatic cells, 

1Q 

Podolinski, expulsion of nitric oxide 
from blood, 197 

Polyodon, new species, 17 

Porpoise, jaws, 176 

Pozzi, S., lobus impar of right lung, 174 


440 


Prévost, lingual nerve, 185, 398; regene- 
ration of nerves, 186 

Pribram, stomach and circulation, 182 

Pulse, secondary waves, I, 112; fre- 
quency of, 54 

Purgatives, 231 

Pye-Smith, P. H., Catalogue of the 
Museum of Guy's Hospital, 384 


Q. 


Quehl, emetic action of apomorphia, 
223 

Quinine, on blood, 198, 224, 403; on 
reflex excitability, 230 

Quinguand, variations of hemoglobin 
in the zoological series, 196; respira- 
tion of fishes, 203 


R. 


Rabatel, M., circulation in coronary 
artery, 189 

Rabbit, innervation of ear, 184; spinal 
cord after excision of sciatic nerve, 
186; retardation of pulse on closure 
of nostrils, 193; circulation in pla- 
centa, 393; septum atriorum, 340; 
red and white muscles, 423 

Rabow, alcohol on temp. and pulse, 427 

Rabuteau, urea, 222, 421 ; calcium salts, 
218 

Radcliffe, C. B., synthesis of motion, 
vital and physical, 300 

Radziejewski, absorption of fat, 205; 
action of purgatives, 231 

Ransome, A., respiratory movements, 
161 

Ranvier, degeneration of nerves after 
section, 186; histology and phys. of 


nerves, 186; red and white muscles ~ 


of rabbit and ray, 423 

Ray, red and white muscles of rabbit 
and, 423 

Reichert, C. B., early human decidua, 
167 

Reoch, J., acidity of gastric juice, 274 

Reptilia, anat. report, 177 

Respiratory system ;—lurgs, pathclogy 
of, after section of both vagi, 185; 
temp. of, 4275; lymphatics of, 390; 
circulation and its disturbances in, of 
frog, 188 ; injury to brain with he- 
morrhage in, 397 ;—respiratory move- 
ments in man, 161;—tracheal pouch of 
Emeu ;—reports, anat., 174—175, 387 
—388, phys., 203—204, 409 

Reyher, C., cartilages and synovial 
membranes of joints, 261 


INDEX. 


Rhinoceros, visceral anat. of Sumatran, 
176 

Rhus, venenata and toxicodendron, 
action of, 22 

Richardson, B. W., muscular irritability 
after systemic death, 213 

Rickets, 426 

Riecker, A., skin of lower limb, 402 

Riegel, F., respiratory movements, 409 ; 
alcohol and temp., 427; regulation of 
temp., 427 

Rindfleisch, E., nerve-endings in cortex 
of cerebrum, 171 

Ritthausen, N., albumen, &e., 410 

Robin, C., marrow of bones, 387, 425 

Rochefontaine, parasiticide action of 
quinia, 225 

Rohrig, secretion of bile, 209; action 
of sweat, 428 

Rolleston, G., Harveian Oration, 1873, 
158 

Romiti, W., structure and develop. of 
ovary and Wolffian duct, 393 

Rosenthal, spinal cord, 182; galvanic 
currents on muscles and nerves,” 186 

Ross, alcohol.and absinth, 220 

Rossbach, artificial resp. in strychnia 
poisoning, 203; atropin and physo- 
stigma, 403; hemorrhage after liga- 
ture, 403 

Roth, M., varicose hypertrophy of cere- 
bral nerve-fibres, 173 

Rouget, action-of silver-salts, 217 

Riidinger, closure of the Eustachian 
tube, 187; perception of high musical 
notes, 187 

Rumbold, functions of Eustachian tube, 
187 

Russell, J. A., communication between 
umbilical and portal veins, 149; large 
renal calculus, 382 

Rustizky, J. V., absorption of bone and 
on giant-cells, 387, 425 

Rutherford, retardation of pulse on 
closure of rabbit’s nostrils, 193 


S. 


Salamandra maculosa, skin of larva of, 


-- 


77 

Salkowski, E., withdrawal of alkali from 
living body, 410; sulphuric acid and 
taurin in the animal organism, 410; 
synthesis-of taurocarbamin acid, 410 

Salmonide, blood-corpuscles, 178 

Salomon, G., glycogen in liver, 419° 

Sanson, mechanical coefficient of food, 


204 

Saponin and digitalin, 231 

Savory, W. S., ligamentum teres of hip, 
2Q1 


INDEX. 


Schachowa, intercellular growth of bone, 
425 

Schiifer, bacteria in blood, 198; action 
of arsenic, 218 

Schech, laryngeal nerves and muscles, 
203 

Scherk, apparatus for measuring field of 
vision, 400 

Scherschewsky, innervation of uterus, 
423 

Schiff, electrical irritation of nerves, 186; 
sensibility of heart lessened by atro- 
pia, 226 

Schlesinger, reflex movements of uterus, 
214; uterine nerve-centres, 403 

Schliephake, H., galvanic current on 
eye, 400 

Schmidt, A., preparation of albumen, 
410 

Schmuziger, F., migration of red and 
white b. corpuscles in frog, 174 

Schreiber, J., influence of brain on temp. 
of body, 398 

Schroetter, resp. movements, 203 

Schultz, nerve-section on nutrition and 
regeneration of tissues, 186 

Schwalbe, lymph-channels of retina and 
vitreous body, 174 

Sée, phys. action of alcohol, 416 

Seegen, nitrogen in albuminates, 204 

Seeliy, L., consumption of sugar in dia- 
betic and non-diabetic animals, 421 

Shark, anat. of Greenland, 285 

Siebert, emetic action of apomorphia 

Silver-salts, 217 

Simon, T., new formation of brain-sub- 
stance, 173, 399 ; persistence of frontal 
suture, 386 

Sinéty, excision of mamme during lacta- 
tion, 427 

Skin, see ‘‘Integumentary”’ 

Skull, see ‘‘Osseous” 

Slavjansky, K., ovum of rabbit, 170 

Smee, A. H., coagulation of blood, 199 

Smith, C. J. M., dissection of excised 
elbow, 380 

Sodium chloride, a poison, 219 

Solucha, semicircular canals, 400 

Sound, sensibility to, 187; perception of 
high musical notes, 187 

Sphygmoyraph, secondary waves of pulse 
in tracings of, I, 112 

Spina, A., structure of tendons, -162 

Spleen, see ‘‘Circulatory” 

Starkow, benzine, nitro-glycerine, nitric 
and sulphuric acids, 222 

Steinbe g, quantity of blood, 197 

Steiner, bile in absorption of fat, 209; 
colouring matter of bile, 209, 420; 
diabetes, &c., 209 

Stieda, L., nerve-coils at roots of hairs, 
175 


VOL. VIII. 


441 


Stirling, Dr, report on phys., 179—216, 
395—431 

are P. B., stimuli on parotid gland, 
20 

Strelzoff, feeding with madder, 425 

Stricker, temp. of heart and lungs, 427 

Struthers, J., subdivision of scaphoid, 
113; rudimentary finger-muscles in 
toothed whale, 114 

Struve, H., colouring matters of blood, 
198; action of zinc on blood-solution, 
405 

Strychnia, influence of on reflex excita- 
bility, 229; on sensory nerves, 399; 
influence of artificial respiration over 
poisoning with, 409 

Sugar, consumption of, in diabetic and 
non-diabetic animals, 421 

Sweat, see ‘‘ Integumentary ” 


AM 


Tanghinia venenifera, 97 

Tappeiner, H., blood-stream after liga- 
ture of vena porte, 189 

Tarachanoff, innervation of spleen and 
its relation to leucocythemia, 185 ; 
temp. in the central ends of cardiac 
nerves, 399 

Taurin, 410 

Teeth, see ‘‘ Digestive” 

Temperature, influence of brain on, of 
body, 398; changes of, on cardiac 
nerves, 399; on sensibility of nerves, 
186; preventing death from chloral, 
3323 on circuation, 189; on reflex 
actions in frog, 45; dyspncea, 203; 
phys. report, 427—431 

Tendons, structure of, 162; shortening 
of, 214, 423 

Tergast. S., proportion of nerve to mus- 
cular fibres, 42 

Thanhoffer, S., absorption of fat in small 
intestines, 410 

Thein, 225 

Theobromin, 225 

Thin, G., structure of tactile corpuscles, 
30; lymphatics of cornea, 390 

Thiry, purgatives, 231 

Thoma, R., migration of white cor- 
puscles into lymphatics, 403 

Tievel, E., sugar-producing ferment of 
blood, 199 

Tissue, nietabolism of, 120; connective 
t., 162; nutrition of, 186 

Toad, Auerbach’s plexus in, 173 

Tobacco-smoke, 226 

Tomes, C. 8., enamel-organ in an arma- 
dillo, 387 

Torpedo, electrical plates of, 392 

Tortoises, sternum in, 177 


29 


442, 


Tourneux, F., epithelium of serous mem- 
branes, 390 

Pens L., rickets artificially produced, 
42 

Trissier, the vagus, 185 

Tschiriew, nerve-influence on arteries, 
&e., 183 

Turner, Prof, bidental skull of Nar- 
whal, 133; relations of convolutions 
of brain, to outer surface of skull, 142, 
359, to intelligence, 173; anat. of 
Greenland Shark, 285; placentation 
of Sloths, 362; enamel-organ in Nar- 
whal, 387; var. in human nerves, 
297; reports on anat., 159—178, 
386—394 


U. 


Upupide, obs. on the, 177 

Urbain, V., coagulation of albumen, 
408 

Urea, absorption of, 222; elimination of, 
421 

Urethra, see ‘‘ Genito-urinary ” 

Urine, 205 

Uterus, see ‘‘ Genito-urinary ” 


V. 


Variations ;—of cranium, 136, 159, 386; 
thorax, 321; upper limbs, 113, 383; 
lower limbs, 134, 358; teeth, 133, 
140; muscles, 150, 377; Nerves, 297; 
arteries, 155, 321; veins, 149; lung, 

eculsr system, see ‘‘ Circulatory ” 

Venous system, see ‘‘ Circulatory” 

Veratria, 228 

Vierordt, C., absorption spectrum of 
hydrobilirubin, 209 

Viscera, see “ Digestive” 
“ Genito-urinary ” 

Viverra civetta, visceral anat. of, 176 

Volkers, accommodation movement of 
choroid in eye, 400 

Vogel, reaction of milk to litmus, 427 

Voit, feeding with flesh, &c., 204, 207, 
415 

Vulpian, nerve-lesions on muscles, 186; 
union of cut ends of nerves, 186, 
400; chorda tympani, 187, 399; 
splanchnic nerve, 187; effect of ex- 
tirpation of supr. cervical ganglion 
on movements of iris, 398 


and also 


INDEX. 


Wi. 


Wagener, G. R., striated muscle, 161 

Walker, R., lower jaw of porpoise, 176 

Waller, regeneration of nerves under 
paraplegia, 186 

Wartmann, L., amorphous aconitia, 223 

Water, phys. of, 204 

Watson, M., anat. of Indian elephant, 
85 

Wegner, phosphorus, 217 

Weise, glycogen in liver, 209; contents 
of liver-cells, 209 

Weiske, H., comp. of bone, &e., poor, 
425 

Wernich, A., ergotin, 228, 229 

West, 8. H., peculiar digastric muscles, 


150 
Westphalen, H., biliary fistula, 418 
Whales, finger-muscles in, 114; dol- 
’ phins and, of New Zealand Seas, 176 
White, J. C., Rhus venenata and KR. 
toxicodendron, 224 
Wildt, E., comp. of bone, &e., 425 
Williams, H. S., muscles of shoulder- 
girdles, 161 
Wilson, A., Student's Guide to Zoology, 


384 
Wilson, E., Anatomist’s Vade Mecum, 


157 

Wilson, H. S., rete mirabile of the 
Narwhal, 176 

Winiwarter, F. V., vessels in inflamma- 
tion, 403 

Winkler, F., human placenta, 162 

Wittich, Von, sugar-producing ferment 
of blood, 199; pepsin on fibrin, 204; 
conversion of starch into sugar by 
bile, 209 

Wolithiigel, digestion of fibrin without 
pepsin, 204 

Wood, H. C., Atropia, 225; convul- 
sants, 230 

Woroschiloff, food, &c., 205 


Ve 


Yule, C. J. F., opening and closing of 
Eustachian tube, 127, 400 


Z. 


Zaaijer, T., seaphocephalic cranium, 386 

Zmitz, expulsion of nitric oxide from 
blood, 197 

Zuppinger, H., spinal ganglion-cells, 
392 


oo 
CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY C. J. CLAY, M.A. AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS. 


Journal of Anat. and Physiology. 


| 2 


Gez u hith-v: DE J Benztnann 


Vol. VI. Pl. I. 


+h Corpuscles. 


Plate 


M® Farlane & Erskine, Lith" Edin™ 


Yn 
lu 
4 
oO 
Ww 
= 
ou 
oc 
oO 
oO 
<x 
Oo 
=) 
j=) 
kK 
z 
oO 


3.0 Ewart, delt 


Tournad of Avat. & Phys. Vol VI. 


5 
4 
lournal of Anatomy & Physiology. Vol. VI. 


University Fress, Cambridge. 


Olfactory and Epithelial cells,/p 30. ) 


‘ Journ.of Anat &Phys. Vol VillPlate 4. 


: = 
W.K.P. del. G West hie. 


W West be Co.amp. 


Cramio-facial elements. 


ae 7 ii 


Sivinad of Inatd Phys. Vol. VU 


18 
a 
es. 


_A.G,DEw-svirs delt 


DOUBLE NERVE STIMULATION. 


EG VE 


University Fress, Cambridge. 


nystology. Vol. VII. 


A 


e 


Opening and shutting of Eustachian tube. 


Journal of Anatomy bf 


LUMI. 


Anatomy & Physiology. Vol. VIM. 


a 


of 


SO 


Onversity Press Caunbridoe 


“ 


oe 
oe 


piel Gey 
= Soe 


Journal of Anatomy & Physiology. Vol. VIL. PL VEE 


e 


bral of Anat. and Phys. Vol. VIIT 


d.Wesley Lith EA. Schafer ad nat del. 


= _ PE ean Pate ao FY a a ee en ee ee re en = en eS 


an 


a 


a RE ge ea ee te —- Wye sey 
L % y 


BINDI'* ~~ =, MAY 24 BE 


QM Journal of anatomy 

i 

J6 

V>» 8 “4 
Bicloztcal 
& Medical 


Serials 


PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE 


CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET 


UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY 


rigs A aga ee 
Noe 


pistes sia 


an 
a3: sent 


fey 


eet 
Hey, pales 


ras ts 


as Cie 4 ae 
Lu ips oe 

eaias Ree canta 

ab 


ah 


ae 
i Hea san Ta 
ea nia fet 
Sli 


rh i 
Ho 


ee 
aire 


tee Cy] ¥ 


cae 


sata ae 
felis ae 
“y 


He be 
ae i i 
Siratan Bey) La 
» diet fe iaheest pitts aa 


Fave ihe fhe i 
st pee 


Hee 
He 


daegetastdite 


marathi 


paid Sec et 


vise 
* a 


ee fixe 
side 


his 


tar 


a ue 
fyirke sf 


i hn 


PASC ay iD, 
ieee Ad 
a 


4) 
20M eS 
i ; 


Ae , rit ibe 
hey niay oe 


Wek 


beta! abit Por 
Hepente 


. Hn i 


Af sitet ithe V 


deh pts 


LaLa 


Epa ie 8 he 


Abt atathes 
4 be be 


Lat 


> 
a Hie viet 
int belt : 


Hyestareas 1 


* ou Marys . 
7 


“eal atid vectra 
<ift TU eal 
yteh vt oer] 
R soeh uniesene bed 
ie laiishe ds 


oye