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JOURNAL
OF THE
ASIATIC SOCIETY.
Of the early History of Sindh , from, the “ Chuch Namuh” and other
authorities. By Lieut. Postans, Assist. Pol. Agent , Shikarpore.
[My able correspondent, Lieut. Postans, has been for some time persever-
ingly employed in tracing out whatever material is available in Sindh, for
the purpose of throwing light upon its early history. A book called the
“ Chuch Namuh,” is the principal authority to which he has had recourse in
preparing the historical sketch, which he has enabled me to have the satisfac-
tion of publishing. Both he and Capt. Hart (2d Grenadiers, Bombay army)
who has been turning his attention to similar pursuits, despair of discover-
ing any more authentic work bearing upon the early history of Sindh, and
agree in describing the modern Sindhees as so illiterate and apathetic, as
neither to have the will, nor the power to further their researches. I still,
however, do not despair of the recovery of other authorities, as the country
becomes better known to us.
In the mean time, Lieut. Postans has ably and successfully availed himself
of all the material at his disposal, which, dating from the Mussulman in-
roads, may be fairly considered as authentic. The short notice of the
history of Sindh before that period, to be found in the works of Mussulman
authors, must be necessarily in many respects of a traditional character,
and we indeed find, that the Chuch Namuh does not attempt to do more than
describe the revolution which destroyed the ancient Sindian dynasty in
the century immediately preceding the Islamite invasion. The use of the
modern Persian name Brukmanabad, as applied to a city in the days of
Chuch, gives sufficient proof of the loose manner in which the Mussulman
historian collected his material ; he was perhaps, in the spirit of a genuine
Moslem, careless of all respecting the infidel inhabitants of the land, which was
not in some way immediately connected with the advent of his own people.
No. 111. New Series, No. 27. z
184
Of the early History of Sindh.
[No. 111.
We are not tlie less bound to acknowledge our obligations to Lieut.
Postans, for having undertaken the task of laying, compendiously, before an
English reader, the first historical notice of Sindh, which has I believe appear-
ed unconnected with the history of other lands and peoples.]
CHAPTER I.
Sindh — its situation — climate — name whence derived — early history — ca-
pital Alor — extent of territory — rule of the Rahees — appearance of the
first Brahmin Chuck — his reign and death — his son Dahir — account of his
rule until the Mahomedan invasion.
Sindh is one of the sixty-one climates of the world ; it is situated
Sindh, its situ- in the five first climates, belonging chiefly to the second,
foElsternGeo® and is in the same region as the holy cities of Mecca
graPhy. and Medina. The river of Sindh rises in the mountains
of Cashmeer ; another joins it from the mountains of Cabool in Mool-
tan ; it is met by the river Sehoon, and thus proceeds to the sea. Its water
is clear, bright, and cool during the hot season ; in the language of the
country, it is called Mehran. All the rivers of Sindh flow towards the
south, where they empty themselves into the sea, (such as the waters of
Peelab, Chenab, Lahore, Sultanpoor, and Bajuwarrali .) The climate
Climate. 0f Sindh is delightful ; its mornings and evenings cool,
the country to the north hot, whilst that to the south is cold. Its
inhabitants intelligent, and of large stature. Sindh is so called from
Name whence de- Sindh, the brother of Hind, the son of Noah, whose
rived. descendants from one generation to another ruled in
that country ; from them also sprang numerous tribes, such as the
Nubeteh, the men of Tali, and the tribe of Moomeed, who governed
Early History. and possessed it by turns ; no record remains of these,
and its history commences with the last of the dynasty of the Rahees,
or Rajahs, whose capital city and seat of government was Alor.
Capital Alor. Alor is described as a large, flourishing, and populous
city, situated on the banks of the river Mehran, possessing large
edifices ; its gardens highly cultivated, producing every kind of tree
and fruit, where travellers had all their wants supplied.
This territory extended to the east as far as Cashmeer and Kunooj ;
Extent of Ter- West to Mukran and the sea ; south to the territories
of the ports of Surat and Deo ; and to the north to
1841]
Of the early History of Sindh.
185
Kandahar , Seestan, and the mountains of Soolleemany, Girwdn, and
Rynakan. The first Rahee mentioned, is Rahee Deivahey ; he was a
Rule of the powerful prince, possessing absolute authority over the
Rahees. territory of Sindh , as above-mentioned, and formed al-
liances with many of the rulers in Hind; at his death, he was
succeeded by his son Rahee Siheersin ; he by his son Rahee Sahursee ;
and he by his son Rahee Siheersin the 2nd. During this reign,
the king of Persia, Ueem Roz, sent a force by the road of Kirman
to Mukran and Reech, which countries they laid waste, and Rahee
Siheersin, in trying to repel this invasion, was defeated, and he
himself killed by an arrow through the neck ; his troops fled to Alor,
and his son Rahee Sahee was seated upon the throne. During the
Rahee Sahee’ s reign, the Brahmin Chuch , (who afterwards possessed
The Brahmin t*ie country> and bequeathed it to his son,) made his
Chuck. appearance. It is related, that Rahee Sahee s minis-
ter Ram Rao, was a man of such capability, and so well directed
the affairs of state, that the Rahee himself seldom interfered with them,
but passed the greatest part of his time in the sensual enjoyments of
his harem. Accident brought Ram Rao and the Brahmin Chuch
together ; the latter is described as having been a very talented and
eloquent man, well versed in all the learning of the Hindoos. Ram
Rao appreciating his abilities made him his deputy, and on one occa-
sion sent him on some affairs, which required the Rahee' s attention,
to the door of the harem : the sanctity of Chuck’s priestly office
admitted of his being allowed to enter the private apartments
without the formality of a curtain between him and its inmates,
and so great was his personal beauty, that the Ranee became
enamoured of him at first sight ; she afterwards made Chuch ac-
quainted with her passion, but he declined her overtures, on the
score of his being a Brahmin, and as such, incapable of treachery to
the Rahee, whose confidence he had gained. But an opportunity soon
presented itself to the Ranee for the accomplishment of her designs.
The talents of Chuch had given him almost universal sway over the
affairs of government, and the minister Ram Rao was no longer
thought of ; in the mean time the Rahee became dangerously ill, and
the Ranee formed a plot, by which, in the event of the Rahce’s death,
Chuck should succeed to the throne of Sindh. She caused a proclama-
186
Of the early History of Sindh.
[No. 111.
tion to be issued in the name of the Rahee, for a general assembly of
all ranks and classes, and placed the throne in the public hall of au-
dience. When the people were assembled, they were informed that the
Rahee s health prevented his then being present, or any longer attend-
ing to the affairs of his country, but that he had given his signet, and
delegated absolute authority to the Brahmin Chuch, whom they were
to obey as his deputy. Chuch was thus vested with power, and his
ability secured him the obedience of the subjects ; the Rahee afterwards
died, leaving no children ; Chuch married the Ranee, and by universal
consent was placed upon the throne. The government of five preced-
ing Rahees occupied 137 years. Chuch was the first Brahmin who
Reign of Chuck ruled. Many of the relations of the deceased Rahee, who
until his death, possessed claims to the government of the country, were
inveigled by the Ranee into the palace, and murdered. Chuch opened
the doors of his treasury, and by his bounty secured the good offices of
the soldiers, and of his subjects generally. He had scarcely however
imagined himself secure on the throne, when Rana Mihrut Chittooree,
heading the remainder of the relations of Rahee Sahee, came with an
army from Joudpoor and Chittoor to assert their claims to the throne.
The Ranee urged Chuch to prepare to defend his possessions ; he again
propitiated the troops by large presents in money, and prepared to
meet Rana Mihrut. The forces drew up for battle, in the vicinity
of Alor, but Rana Mihrut advancing in front of his host, challenged
C/nich to single combat, as the most merciful way of settling a dis-
pute, in which the two chiefs only were immediately concerned. The
result of the combat was decided to be final as to all claims of ter-
ritory ; and whoever fell, his country was to pass to the possession
of the victor. Chuch consented to this ; the two chiefs advanced in
front of their armies ; Chuch directing his servant to bring his
horse slowly after him, mounted quickly, and treacherously slew
Rana Mihrut with one blow of his sword. The troops of the latter
witnessing the fall of their leader, fled in dismay ; Chuch pursued
and killed many of the fugitives ; he then returned with great pomp to
Alor, the houses and bazars of which city were ornamented upon the
occasion. His authority wTas now established, and he became a power-
ful king. After a reign of 40 years he died, leaving two sons ; the eldest
Duhir, and the younger Dihir ; he had also one daughter. His eldest
1841.]
Of the early History of Sindh.
son Dahir succeeded to the throne, and his brother Dihir was ap-
Dahir, the son of pointed governor of Burhamanabad. He made a tour
Chuck his rei„n. jjjs dominions, and after a treaty of peace with the
governor of Kirman, returned to Alor. When he had for some time
occupied himself in adjusting and arranging the affairs of his country,
he consulted the astrologers as to his future fate, and that of his do-
minions ; they told him that neither in his own, nor in his brother’s ho-
roscopes could they discover any evil sign, but that in his sister’s it
was written, that whomsoever she married, should possess the country
of Sindh ; this sorely perplexed Dahir , who finding the thought of
his losing power and empire too intolerable to bear, determined to
confound the fates, and avert the evil threatened, by marrying his
own sister ; his subjects and those about him tried in vain to dissuade
him from so unnatural a proceeding, but his superstition was insur-
mountable, and with all the forms of his religion he married her.*'
When his brother Dihir heard this, he was sorely incensed, and
wrote a letter full of bitter reproaches to Dahir , for the disgrace
which he had brought upon his family, adjuring him to make all the
reparation in his power, by breaking off so unholy an alliance.
Dahir' s infatuation would not admit of this, and he excused himself by
assuring his brother, that beyond the mere ceremonies of marriage he
had committed no sin.f Dihir determined to punish his brother, and
with this intent collected a large force at Burhamanabad, with which
he marched upon Alor, and encamped under the walls of the city ;
through the intervention of the mother, peace was concluded between the
brothers, and Dihir died shortly afterwards of small pox, in the city of
Alor. Dahir proceeded to Burhamanabad, and having appointed
another deputy to govern it returned to Alor, where he busied himself
in completing the fortifications, which his father Chuch had begun. His
* Capt. Hart in a letter to me quoted, in No. 108 (p. 1216 of vol. ix. Asiatic
Society’s Jour.) mentions the remains of an ancient city in Upper Sindh, called by the
country people “ Dumb-i-Dilora-Shah,” traditionally said to have been destroyed on
account of the king having married his sister. He referred me then to the “ Chuch
Namuh.” The tradition refers doubtless to the “ Alor,” of the history, making it how-
ever the name of the king instead of the city, and to the story of Dahir.
t It is but just to add, that in all the manuscripts from which this sketch is com-
piled, Dahir is particularly represented as not having added the crime of incest to his
other follies.
188
Of the early History of Sindh.
[No. III.
dominions were prosperous, and his sovereignty firmly established ; he
made a tour to the East as far as Cashmeer, upon the boundaries of
which country he planted two trees as memorials of his journey. The
flourishing state of the country, and the growing power of Dahir,
excited the envy of the Rajahs of Hind, and they instigated and sup-
ported Runmul, governor of Kunooj, in collecting a large force to
descend upon Sindh. Runmul marched to the neighbourhood of Alor ;
Dahir called in the assistance of Arab mercenaries, and sought advice
as to the best method of repelling the invasion, from Mahamed Ullafee,
who directed him to dig a ditch in front of his army, one furlong in
length, and to cover it over with grass, &e. Mahomed Ullafee at the
head of about 5000 men, Arabs and Sindians, made a night attack upon
the enemy’s camp, then feigning a retreat, led them to the ditch, into
which they fell, and were for the greatest part slaughtered ; he took
many prisoners, (80,000 men and 50 elephants.) After this victory the
power of Dahir was more than ever firmly established ; he ruled
with pride and prosperity for twenty-five years, when his kingdom
began to decline.
CHAPTER II.
Reason of sending the army of the Faithful to Sindh — Bazeel killed — Bin
Cassini appointed to command the army — arrives at Deebul — takes that
place as well as Nierunkote — the governor of Moosian surrenders — Hijjaj
Bin Sookufie urges Bin Cassim to attack Alor — the tribe of Chunch proffers
their allegiance — the fort of Rawur taken.
The king of Ceylon, Serundeep, sent some servants to the Khalif of
Reason of sending Bagdad, ( Abdool Mulk,) with presents of female
Faithful to Sindh. slaves, and other merchandize; the boat which con-
veyed them, was driven into the port of Deebul, (now called Tattah
and Lahuny ,) where they were attacked and robbed by a predatory
tribe, (the Nukamrelis ,) some were killed, the rest imprisoned. When
the news of this outrage reached Hijjaj Bin Yusuf Sookufie, minister
of Abdool Mulk, he instigated that prince to send an army to Sindh,
to retaliate upon the infidels, and to release the faithful ; at the same
time he wrote a letter to the Rajah Dahir, for some explanation of
the circumstances. Dahir disclaimed any participation in the affair,
1841.]
Of the early History of Sindh.
189
or any authority over the robbers who had committed it. Hijjaj gained
the Khalif s permission to send an officer named Buzeel to Mukran,
where he was instructed to levy troops, and attack Sindh. Dahir
Buzeel killed. sent his son Jaiseh, who defeated Buzeel's forces,
killed him, and took many prisoners. In the mean time the Khalif
h. 92 a. d. 710. died, and was succeeded by his son Wulleed, ( Bin Ab-
doul Mulk) ; Hijjaj urged him to renew the war, and to send a force
under Mahomed Bin Cassim, (a cousin of Hijjaj ,) to release the faith-
ful, and punish the unbelievers, as his father, the former Khalif had
Bin Cassim appoint- intended to have done. The Khalif Wulleed gave
ed to command the °
army. the necessary orders to Hijjaj for the preparation
and equipment of a force from the public treasury. In one month he
collected an army of 15,000 men, 6,000 of whom were horse, 6000
mounted on camels, and 3,000 foot, with 30,000 dinars for expenses ;
five catapultas for levelling forts were dispatched in boats. Bin Cassim
Arrives at Deebul. marched, and arrived at the fort of Deehul , to conquer
Sindh, in the year 92 h. (a. d. 710.) Jaiseh, the son of Dahir, was
at that time governor of the fort of Nierunkote,* and sent intelligence
of the arrival of the Mahomedan army to his father at A/or; Dahir
asked advice of the Ullafees, (a tribe which he had sheltered after an
outrage which they had committed on some of the deputies of Hijjaj);
they counselled him to avoid meetiug the powerful army of Bbi Cas-
Takes Deebul. sim, and to entrench himself in the fort of Alor. Bin
Cassim took the fort of Deebul, in which was a large Hindoo temple, so
sacred, f that it was supposed to act as a talisman, and to prevent the
capture of the fort. Bin Cassim threw it down with a catapulta, des-
troyed the temples of the idolaters, building musjeeds on their sites, re-
leased the prisoners of the Faithful who were confined there, and putting
his material on board boats, proceeded to Nierunkote. After a diffi-
cult journey of seven days, the roads being blockaded by the Sindians,
and the troops of Bin Cassim's army suffering much from drought,
owing to the river not swelling,! the army of the Faithful arrived
before the fort of Nierunkote, the governor of which was Sumnee,
who had succeeded the son of Dahir {Jaiseh,) in consequence of the
* Near the modern city of Hyderabad, see Capt. McMurdo’s paper on Sindh.
f Hence its name from the Hindoo, for a temple, Deebul or Deewul.
J The Mahomedan army joined in prayer for relief from this calamity ; their
supplications were answered by a plentiful fall of rain and a swell of the river.
190
Of the early History of Sindh.
[No. 111.
latter being sent to the more important command of Burhamanabad.
The Mahomedans began to suffer much from want of supplies, but
after a short siege, the governor Sumnee surren-
lakes Neirunkote. the j-eyS 0f tjje fort on condition of quarter
to the garrison. Bin Cassim entered the fort, destroyed the temples,
built musjeeds and minarets in their stead, and appointed keepers and
mouzzins to the same ; he left magistrates to preserve his authority at
Neirunkote, and taking the governor Sumnee with him, proceeded
onwards. This last wrote to the governor of the fort of Moostan,
Bucherim Chunder, advising him to submit to the invaders, as they
were too powerful to oppose. Bucherim's fidelity however was un-
shaken, but after a week’s siege, he was obliged to abandon the
Take Moostan f°rt> an<^ ^ee t0 ^eem> w^ich place Boodeh was
governor. Bin Cassim took possession of the fort
of Moostan, and having made arrangements for its government, pro-
ceeded to Seem , where he found Bucherim Chunder and Boodeh
prepared to oppose him. The infidels failed in a night attack upon
the camp of the Faithful ; and Kakeh, Boodeh' s father, foreseeing that
the time was arrived when the country of Sindh must submit to
the Mahomedan arms, came to Bin Cassim to intreat for quarter for
his son, and the whole garrison of Seem — it was granted. Bin Cassim
took possession of Seem , and leaving Abdool Mulk to settle the affairs
of that place, pursued his march, daily adding fresh conquests to the
arms of the Faithful ; he took the forts of Buhultoor, Kundabuh, (?
Gundava,) and Mussaloj, from all of which he exacted tribute, leaving
troops to retain the new possessions thus acquired. At this time a
...... „ letter reached Bin Cassim from Hijjaj, ordering him
Hijjaj urges Bin J °
Cassim to attack to Neirunkote , to cross the river, and prepare to
expel the Rajah Dahir from the capital of the
country Alor. The large and powerful tribe of Chuch proffered
obedience to Bin Cassim ; it is also related that they embraced
Islamism, and were the first inhabitants of Sindh who did so. In
obedience to the instructions of Hijjaj, Bin Cassim proceeded to the
fort of Raivur, which he summoned to surrender ; the governor Mokeh
Bin Bussayeh made a feint to resist, being afraid of the wrath of
Dahir, but ultimately surrendered the fort, and with the garrison
promised obedience to Bin Cassim.
1841.]
Of the early History of Sindh.
191
CHAPTER III.
Dahir alarmed at the successes which attend Bin Cassini, exerts himself to
prevent his crossing the Meheran — the Mahomedans suffer from famine —
Dahir offers terms — not accepted — Hijjaj sends horses and supplies to Bin
Cassim, who passes the river — Dahir s consternation— comes out from Alor
with a large army — account of his death, and the defeat of his forces —
the Mahomedans enter the capital Alor.
The successes which attended the army of Bin Cassim, began to
Dahir ala-med at terr*fy t*ie Rajah Dahir for the safety of his capital
the successes ot Bin and dominions, and he foresaw that if the Ma-
C assim.
homedans effected the passage of the river, the fate
of his sovereignty was sealed. He collected an army of the Koordans,
Opposes the passage and arriving at the opposite bank, employed him-
ot the Mehr an. se]f obstructing the passage of Bin Cassim ;
this duty he afterwards delegated to Jah Humeen, and he himself
returned to Alor. Jah Humeen performed his part so well, aided
by the Rajah's son, Jaisch, (who cut off the supplies of the Ma-
homedans,) that these latter began to suffer all the misery and
Bin Cassim’ s army horrors of a famine ; they were driven to slay their
suffers from famine. own horses for food ; coupled with this, Chund Ram
Haleh, the former governor of Secoostan, heading some insurgents,
seized that fort from a small party of horse, who were left to govern its
garrison. Bin Cassim, however, immediately dispatched Muzhub
Bin Abdul with 1000 horse and 2000 infantry, who regained the
fort, and took Chund Ram prisoner. Dahir thinking these mis-
Dahir offers terms, fortunes would soon dispirit the Moslems, wrote
but not accepted. to [n Cassim, assuring him, that if he wished
to withdraw his forces, he might do so in security ; the latter
answered, that he had no intention of retiring, until he had taken
the capital Alor, and subjected Sindh and its dependencies to
the Mahomedan rule. The intelligence of the difficulties encoun-
tered by Bin Cassim, and the loss of the passes, reaching Hijjaj,
Hijjaj finds supplies he dispatched 1,000 others, with fresh supplies to
and horses. jj/ n Cassim, urging him to lose no time in crossing
the river, as the overthrow of Dahir was the first and most important
step ; on receiving this, Bin Cassim proceeded to Juhum, where with
2 A.
192
Of the early History of Sindh.
[No. 111.
the assistance of Mokeh Bin Bussayeh, he collected some boats, and
filling them with sand and stones, commenced a bridge for the passage
of his army ; it was under many difficulties and obstructions at length
Bin Cassini crosses completed ; the first detachment of the Faithful pass-
the rivers notwith- e(j -^e river under a shower of arrows from the infi-
standing Dahir s op-
position. dels, who were collected in strength on the opposite
bank ; but these being driven back, the whole of the army of Bin
Cassini passed without further molestation. It is reported that Daldr s
Dahir’ s consternation, rage on receiving the intelligence was so great,
that he killed the messenger who was the bearer of it.
Bin Cassini now exhorted his soldiers to firmness : “ the river was
in their rear, and the enemy in front, still if any were faint-hearted
amongst them, then was the time to quit the army, and return to their
own country.” There were only three of the whole host who did so.
Bin Cassini having thus secured the co-operation of his troops, pro-
ceeded onwards to Jeyoor, near which place he first caught a glimpse of
Dahir s forces ; he detached Muhuzzin Bin Sabit Kiessee with 2,000
men, and Mahomed Zyad ill Huddee with 1,000, to oppose them.
In the mean time, Dahir called Mahomed Haris Ullafee to him, and
said : “ I have protected and promoted you ; now is the time to requite
my kindness, and to shew yourself w orthy of my confidence.” Mahomed
Haris excused himself by saying, that he could not oppose the Mos-
lems without being a renegade to the faith he professed. Dahir therefore
deputed his son Jaisch to lead his army against Bin Cassini ; he did
so, but was defeated with great slaughter, and Bin Cassim advanced
upon A lor, which he besieged.
On the 10th of the month Ramzan, in the year ninety- three Hejira,
Dahir comes out from R('jah Dahir determined to make one bold stroke
Alor with a large army, for his crown and kingdom; came out from the
city of Alor with an immense army ; they say he had 30,000
infantry in advance of his cavalry and elephants ; he himself seated
on an elephant, the liowdah of which wras richly ornamented,
passed to the right and left, animating the soldiers, and disposing
his battalions in order of battle ; seated in the same hoicdah
were two beautiful female slaves, one administered wine, the other
pan and beetle-nut to him. The battle which ensued is described as
1841.]
Of the early History of Sindh.
193
terrific, lasting from morn till night. Bin Cassim himself fought as a
common soldier with his troops, performing deeds of valour ; but the
day was decided in favour of the faithful. In consequence of the latter
throwing fireworks amongst the Rajah’s elephants the hoibdahs took
fire, and the infuriated beasts rushed madly through their own troops,
trampling down all before them until they arrived at the river,
into the muddy banks of which they plunged. Dahir s elephant was
amongst them, and the Mahomedans profiting by the confusion, threw
showers of arrows, one of which struck Dahir in the
Dahir’s death and
the defeat of his neck, and killed him ; his elephant sunk into the
mud ; and the Brahmins who were behind the howdah,
took the body of the Rajah and buried it there. The infidels fled in
all directions, and the carnage which ensued was dreadful ; all the
approaches to the citadel of Alor were most carefully blocked up, and
the Brahmins and two female slaves fell into the hands of an officer of
Bin Cassim’s army, named Keiss, to whom they detailed the particulars
of Daldr's death, and begged for quarter. Keiss took them to Bin
Cassim ; the body of Dahir was found in the mud of the river, and the
head was severed from the body, and stuck upon a spear. That night
the Moslems occupied themselves in prayers and thanksgivings for
the victory they had gained. The next morning Bin Cassim caused
the head of Dahir, together with the two slaves, to be placed over one
of the gates of the city. Daldr's wife, Ladee, seeing this, threw herself
from the walls, and the garrison being no longer able to offer any oppo-
, , sition, opened the gates of the fort. The army of the
Alor%?> h. (a. d.711.) faithful entered and took possession of Alor on
Friday, the 11th of Ramzan, in the 93rd year of the Hejira. Dahir
ruled 33 years, and the rule of the Brahmins embraces a period of 92
years.
194
Of the early Histoiy of Sindh.
CHAPTER IV.
[No. 111.
The tribe of Soommah and others pay homage to Bin Cassim — the rebellion
of the sons of Dahir — governors appointed to the principal cities and
provinces of Sindh — Bin Cassim extends his conquest as far east as Cash-
mecr — the story of his death — deputies of the Kings of Ghuznein, Ghocrr,
and Delhi , govern in some of the provinces of Sindh — origin and rule of the
tribe of Soomrah — Nasir-ud-deen Kibajeh — his rule and death.
The whole of the rich booty of Alor, including the treasury and
crown jewels fo Dahir , were collected and placed in charge of Keiss,
to convey to the j Khali/ at Sham. The Khulif honoured and pro-
moted Keiss, and wrote letters of approbation to Bin Cassim urging
him at the same time to extend his conquest still further, until the
whole of the countries which were dependencies of Sindh, should be
subjugated and form part of the Khalifs territories.
After the defeat and death of Dahir, the men of Soommah came
Men of Soommah with music and dancing t0 Pay homage to Bin
ami others pay hum- Cassim ; he asked the reason of this, and they told
age to Bin Cassim.
him that it wras their custom thus to greet a vic-
torious chief. The Lohanas, Battis, men of Suhateh, Koosejeh, Haleh,
&c. led on by Ally Mahomed Bin Ahdool Ruhmun Sulleetee , with
Rebellion of the sons head and feet bare, also proffered their allegiance,
of Dahir. In the meantime the sons of Dahir entrenched them-
selves in the fort of Sikunder, where they determined to offer opposition
to Bin Cassim. Burhamanabad having previously been taken, and its tax
and tribute settled, Bin Cassim marched to besiege the fort of Sikunder ,
and to quell the rebellion of the sons of Dahir, ( Jaisch, Toofic, and
Wukeeah) ; he reduced this place, and although the sons of Dahir were
sometime before they would believe the death of their father, (even abu-
sing their mother, who was sent to assure them of it, by calling her
a har, traitress, and one in league with the “ slayers of cows,”) a sor-
ceress assured them that he was dead, whereupon they surrendered.
The capital city Alor, with all the principal provinces and cities
of the country of Sindh having thus fallen to the Mahomedan arms,
Governors appoin- governors were appointed to the following places :
ted' Uhnuf Bin Keiss to Alor, with Moossie Bin
Yahoob as Cazy ; to Burhamanabad, Widah Bin Ameed ; and to
1841.]
Of the early History of Sindh.
193
Rawur , Toheh Ddrus. Bin Cassini then proceeded towards Mooltan,
and on the road, at the fort of Baheeah , Kulsur Bin Chunder made
obedience to him ; after that, the fort of Sukkeh was taken, and Utbeh
Bin Tumhee left there as governor. Mooltan , with all its strongholds
and dependencies fell to Bin Cassim, who appointed Kliuzzaneh Bin
Abdool Mulk to the fort of Mehpoor, Dawood Bin Nusserpoor to
Mooltan , and proceeded to Debalpoor ; at this time he is reported to
have had 50,000 horse and foot under his banners, independent of the
regular army with which he invaded the country. Having taken posses-
sion of the countries to the east as far as Cashmeer
Bin Cassim conquers
as far as the country and Kunnooj, he returned, having placed trustworthy
governors and servants in all those places. At the time
that Keiss was deputed to convey the treasure and booty captured at Alor,
Story of his death. with the prisoners to the Khalif of Sham , amongst the
latter were two daughters of Dahir* The Khalif consigned them to his
harem until they should recover from the fatigues of travel, and be prepar-
ed for his service ; their beauty was very great, and the Khalif was about
to consign one to his bed, when she informed him that Bin Cassim ,
flushed with victory, had robbed them both of their virginity, and had
kept them in his harem for three days ; the Khalif s wrath at this
knew no bounds, and he wrote an order with his own hand, informing
his servants to seize Bin Cassim, to sow him up in a raw cow’s hide,
and send him to Bagdad. This order reached the chief at Hadapoor ,
and he desired the servants to obey the order of their tyrannical
master ; they did so, and in three days the brave Bin Cassim sunk
under the torture. Tis body was conveyed to the Khalif who ex-
ultingly shewed it to the two women, as a proof of his absolute power ;
and of the full measure of revenge which he had taken upon the
innocent Bin Cassim. They confessed that the accusation was totally
false ; that they were solely actuated by revenge for the murder of
their father, and the destruction of his kingdom. The wretched Khalif
too late saw the injustice he had committed, and suffered the most
poignant remorse ; he caused the two women to be tied to horses, and
dragged to death through the streets of Bagdad. Bin Cassim was
buried at Damascus. At the time of Bin Cassini's death, Bin Keiss
Gispul Deo and Sooing Deo.
196
Of the early History of Sindh.
[No. 111.
was governor of Alor, the other places being governed, as before-men-
Deputies from the tioned ; five other governors, deputies of the Khulif
Khalifs oi Beni Oom- c ,
kae. °t Hem Uomhae , governed Sindh successively, with
little or no alteration in the state of affairs, until in the year 133 h.
the power over that country passed to the Khalifs of the dynasty of Beni
Abbas. The period of the rule of the deputies of the Khalifs of Beni Oomhae
in Sindh, embraces a period of 40 years from its conquest in 93 to 133
h. (a. i>. 750.)
Sindh continued to be a dependency of the Khalifs of the tribe of
Beni Abbas , who sent many deputies to govern the country. The
only circumstance noted as worthy of observation throughout their
rule, is, that one of the governors named Tumun, who arrived from
Bagdad, brought with him many Arabs, residents of Samrah, who
remained in Sindh, and in the course of time, produced the powerful
tribe called the Soomrahs. In the year h. 416 (a. d. 1025,) Sooltan
Mahmood Ghuzney sent deputies to the country of Sindh, thus
terminating the sovereignty of the tribe of Beni Abbas, after a period
of 283 years. The men of Soomrah had for a period of nearly 100
years been powerful zumindars ; but as they continued to pay tax and
tribute, they will be hereafter treated of as rulers.
The deputies of the kings of Ghuzneiny, Ghoor, and Delhi, possessed
Deputies of the many of the provinces of Sindh, and sent governors
kings of Ghuznein, .
Ghoor, and Dehli, to them from the time of Sooltan Mahmood Gkuzei-
possess some of the .
provinces in Sindh, ny, until a man named Soomrah, of that tribe, during
the reign of Sooltan Abool Rusheed Ghuznein, was by the Soomrahs
placed upon the throne, about 446 h. (1054 a. d.) and ruled indepen-
dently. According to some writers, this tribe were originally Arabs, from
a place called Samrah ; they became zumindars in Sindh, of some power,
and after the departure of the tribe of Beni Abbas, their numbers in-
creased ; whilst the deputies of the kings of Guzneiny, Ghoor, and Dehli
possessed portions of the country, the Soomrahs ruled independently.
According to the author of the Muntukhib-ul - Tuwareek, Sooltan
Origin and rule of the Abool Rusheed being of weak intellect, neglected
tube oi Soomrah. ,jomjnionS) an(j men 0f Sindh threw off his
allegiance; and in the year 445 h. (1053 a. d.) placed a man
of the tribe of Soomrah, named Soomrah, on the throne. He mar-
ried the daughter of Sad, a zumindar, by whom he had Baboon -
197
1841. J Of the early History of Sindh.
kur, who succeeded his father, and died in the year 461 h. (a. d.
1068 ;) he left a son, Deodah, who ruled for 24 years, and died in the
year 485 H. (1092 a. d.) After him Sunkahar reigned 15 years;
Jluneef 36 years ; Onmur 46 ; Deodah II. 14 years ; Pustoo 33 ; Kezreh
16; Mahomeed Poor 15; Kuhereh (unknown,) Deodah III. 14; Tahee
24 ; Juneesur 18 ; Bahoonkur II. 15 ; Hujfeef 18 ; Deodah IV. 25 ,
Oomur Soomrah 35 ; Bahoonkur III. 10 ; Humeel succeeded him ; and
being a tyrant and oppressor, was the cause of the downfall of the
Soomrah dynasty. But according to others, this tribe was in Sindh
altogether 550 years, as zumindars and rulers, and their overthrow
by the men of Soomah was occasioned by the tyrannies of the gover-
nor Humeel , in the year of the Hejira 752 (a. d.
SrMWsdrule 7and 1351,) when their dynasty ceased* Previous to this
death- period, Nasir-ud-deen Kubajeli who was deputed at
the time of Shums-ud-deen Ooltumsh of Delhi, governor of Sindh,
about the year 610 h. (a. d. 1213,) declared himself independent. A
force under Jhingiz Khan invaded the country. Nasir-ad-deen not
being prepared to oppose them, entrenched himself in the fort of
Mooltan, where he was besieged for forty days ; but the besiegers were
obliged to return unsuccessful. Many of the great men of Khorassan,
Ghoor, and Ghuznein fleeing from the oppression of Jinghiz Khan,
came to Nasir-ud-deen at Mooltan.
In the year 611 h. (1214 a. d.) Mulck Khan Khuljee made an
incursion upon Seeostan. Nasir-ud-deen marched to oppose him ; the
army of Mulck Khuljee was defeated, and he himself killed.
In the year 622 h. (1225 a. d.) Shums-ud-deen took an army to
Oochch, to overthrow Nasir-ud-deen, who had entrenched himself at
Bukkur ; to this place Shums-ud-deen detached Nizam-ul-Moolk ; but
His death. Nasir-ud-deen in attempting to escape from Bukkur, took
boat, which foundering in a storm, he was drowned.
* The rule of the tribe of Soomrah in Sindh is far from being clearly made ; but in
the manuscripts consulted in this sketch, the authors confess their want of authentic
record, and Meer Massoom, after a very unsatisfactory account, closes it by saying :
“ If any of my friends know more on this subject, let them publish it; I have said all
I can upon the matter.” Nor is the author of the Soofut-al-Kiram more explicit;
(vide his contradictory statements) ; but it is generally received, that from the date of
sending Nasir-ud-deen to Sindh, until the rule of the Soomas, (about 20U years,) Sindh
was annexed to Delhi.
( To be Continued. )
198
Geological Report on the Valley of the Spiti, and of the Route from
Kotghur. By Capt, Hutton, 37 th iV. I.
[The paper now published, completes a series of notes of a journey to
the Spiti Valley, undertaken on account of the Asiatic Society, by Capt.
Hutton, 37th Regt. N. I. It was with those which have already appeared
placed at the disposal of the Editor of this Journal by the Committee of
Papers. The results of the author’s geological observations have induced
the adoption of theories, upon which the Editor is only competent to
remark in so far as the identification of the opinions of a publisher is
concerned with those of any writer, to whom he is enabled to offer a
medium of communicating his views to the public.
In the belief that hardly any novel theory could be broached, which
w ould be unproductive of good results, (if not by its intrinsic merits, at any
rate by the consequence of the discussion it might excite,) the Editor has
great pleasure in giving publicity to this paper, for the views contained in
which the author is alone answrerable.]
The valley of the Sutledge is that portion of the western Himalya which,
as its name implies, forms the tract of country through which the river
Sutledge flows.
The term valley is however scarcely applicable to it, since it is strictly
speaking nothing more than a deep and rugged mountain glen, of more than
ordinary sternness and magnificence, often affording from the abrupt rise
of its rocky sides, a mere channel for the roaring torrent which winds its
irresistible and headlong course along its sheltered bed.
On either side rise high and snowr-clad peaks, forming along the river’s
course two mighty walls, whose dark and furrowed sides proclaim the
constant warfare which is waged by frost and heat alternately.
Villages are numerous along the river’s course, sometimes placed near
the w'ater's level, at others raised high above it on the mountain's side,
surrounded by their cultivation cut in steppes, and sheltered by the stern
and frowning cliffs which raise their hoary summit far above it.
In the lower part of the valley, commencing from Rampore downwards,
to below Kotgurh, vast beds of rolled and water-worn stones are seen ac-
cumulated on the river’s banks, and rising high above the water’s present
level. Such deposits evidently owe their origin to the eddies or back wa-
ters of some far mightier stream than that exhibited by the Sutledge in the
present day, even at its greatest height, and must undoubtedly have been
formed by the rush of water attendant on the outburst of some enormous
lake or lakes in the higher portions of the hills.
199
1841.] Copt. Hutton's Geological Report.
These deposits extend in many places along both banks of the river, and
appear to have been formerly one solid mass of debris, which as the wa-
ters gradually disappeared, have become divided by the current of the
stream.
These are for the most part situated at those places where the Sutledge
takes a rapid turn, and have been evidently thrown up within the elbow by
the eddies, or back waters.
On the surface of these broad and flat alluvial deposits, now flourishes
an abundant cultivation, consisting of barley, wheat, rice, tobacco, pop-
pies, &c. which being situated high above the river’s level, are irrigated
by the minor streams, which are furnished from the heights above them.
Higher up the river’s course the valley narrows, and forming in many
parts a mural cliff on either bank, gives a mere passage to the foaming
stream, which rushes with a hoarse and deafening roar over the boulders
which obstruct its progress, and dash its waters in muddy waves on
high. Some hundred feet above the stream the hills are clothed with
dense and stately woods of oaks and various sorts of pines, among
which the “ Ree,” producing the edible seed called by the people “ Neoza,”
is in great abundance. Above the belt of wood, are seen to rise
huge rocky spires, along the rugged line of mountains, bare of all
vegetation, and crowned by everlasting snows. From these snow-clad
heights are furnished numerous streams, which rushing downwards in
a sheet of foam, furrow the mountains sides with minor glens, and join
the Sutledge as it rolls along below. Now and then the forests cease,
and wide grassy tracts succeed, affording pasture to multitudes of goats
and sheep; while here and there the whole hill side has slipped away,
and left a mural height of precipitous and crumbling rocks, which are
annually precipitated into the depths below by the expansive powers of
the frost and snow.
The general features presented by the Geology of these hills, may be
briefly and summarily comprised in the following observations : — •
The main or central range of the Himalya or true snowy mountains,
runs in a general direction from East-South-East to West-North- West,
sending off branches or spurs in every direction, intersected or divided
everywhere by deep and precipitous valleys, whose narrow bed or bottom
almost invariably serves as the channel of some mountain torrent or
rivulet, whose waters are supplied from the snowy heights above. Where
the sides of these valleys are of sufficient elevation to retain the snow
throughout the year, these rivulets receive a neverfailing supply of
water; but, on the other hand, if the enclosing walls are of moderate
or medium elevation, the vallies are often dry for several months together.
2 B
200
Capt. Hutton's Geological Report. [No. 111.
The vallies, it must be borne in mind, are not to be attributed, as
some have contended, to the gradual wear and tear of the weather,
and the streams which now drain through them, but have been formed
by the convulsive uprise and disruption of the lofty mountains which
form their sides ; the glen or valley being thus a mere ravine or trough
lying between them, and furnishing often just room sufficient for the
passage of an insignificant stream.
The existence of the valley is not therefore to be attributed to the
abrations caused by the constant action of the waters ; but, on the
other hand, the presence of the rivers and streams within them is entirely
owing to the configuration of the mountains, which furnishing on the
heights vast beds of snow, are ever sending down supplies, which naturally
gather in the hollow troughs below, and gradually wind their way to
form a junction with some larger stream, which in its turn seeks
out the noble rivers of the plains.
It would therefore appear, that the existence of these hill streams is
altogether owing to the previous formation of the vallies by the uprise
of mountain ridges, the intervention of a glen or thud being the natural
consequence of disruption in a range, or the sudden alteration of direction
of the upheaving power, thus often causing ranges to intersect or to
run parallel with each other. Thus the vallies are in no wise the con-
sequence of the unceasing action of the streams, which now find a fitting
channel in their depths.
In the present day, these glens usually communicate or open into some
other, and the waters gradually escape, but doubtless time has been
when their enclosing barriers were continuous, and numerous lakes
were formed, until the weight of waters accumulated from the melting
of the snows, burst through the rocky walls and so escaped. This is
indeed a fact and no wild theory, for the people of different parts of
the hills still hold traditions of such events. Dr. Gerard, I think it is,
who mentions, that the natives informed him the valley of the Buspa
was once closed at the lower extremity, and contained a lake, traces of
which may still be seen along the banks of the present stream. A
similar lake once occupied the glen in which the town of Soongnum
now stands, and thick alluvial deposits containing rounded pebbles may
still be seen in some of the higher parts of it; from the lower portion
they have been swept away by the out-rush of the waters.
Of this, however, I shall speak again hereafter. The dip of the strata
is, as might be expected in such a vast and often confused assemblage
of mountains, excessively variable ; and although previous travellers have
uniformly insisted much on a N.E. dip, it will be quite as often found
201
1841.] Capt. Hutton's Geological Report.
to lie in an opposite direction. The prevailing inclination of the strata
may therefore be said to be N. E. or S. W. It is, however, remarkable that
the latter dip, although perceptible on both sides of the snowy range,
is more prevalent on the northern than on the southern side. It has also
been pointed out as matter of astonishment, that while one aspect of the
mountains presents a gradual and shelving face, rich in soils and forest
scenery, the opposite exposure is, on the contrary, found to present a bare
and often mural cliff. This, however, is no just cause for astonishment,
as the circumstance where it occurs is simply owing to the outcrop of
the strata being on the precipitous side, while the dip of the other forms a
more shelving slope. But this circumstance is by no means confined to
any one direction in particular, for the outcrop of strata is no more preva-
lent on the northern than on the southern or any other exposure. It may,
however, be taken as a general feature in all mountains, that while the
dip or inclined position of the strata gives on the one face a shelving sur-
face for the growth of plants, the other face or outcrop must necessarily be
rugged and nearly barren, as furnishing by its precipitousuess no resting
place for soils. In this respect the Himalya does not differ from other
mountain ranges. Travellers, however, having no knowledge of geology,
and witnessing these facts, have sought to solve the problem by bringing to
their aid supposed peculiarities of soil, of aspect, or of climate.
Viewed at a distance from the plains of India, these hills appear to
form one long continuous chain or ridge, entirely clothed with everlasting
snows, and this line has been designated by way of pre-eminence or dis-
tinction, by the name of the “snowy range,” or “region of perpetual
snows.” Arrived within the mountains, and perched aloft upon the sum-
mit of some portion of this mighty range, the traveller is surprised to find
that what he had been led to consider one continuous field of snow, is no-
thing more than a vast assemblage of scattered and far distant peaks, ap-
proximated apparently by the distance at which they were wont to be
viewed into one wide-extending line, and forming component parts of the
same snow-clad range.
He is surprised to find the greater portion of that line to be absolutely
devoid of snow during several months of the year, except within the deep
and sheltered glens, to which the rays of the summer sun can only pene-
trate for a few short hours during each day, and where frost resumes its
sway the moment his beams are withdrawn or intercepted by some tower-
ing peak.
Far beyond the ridge which he has hitherto been accustomed to dis-
tinguish as the snowy range, he now beholds gigantic and frowning
masses clothed in the winter garment, rising often in isolated peaks to
202 Copt. Hutton's Geological Report. [No. 111.
an elevation exceeding that of the main or central chain on which he
stands.
Around him, far and wide, he beholds these rugged and awe-inspiring
peaks rising pre-eminently grand amidst the sea of mountains by which
he is surrounded, and he now first learns that the line of snow he has
witnessed from the plains, is the wintery sheet which envelopes these
often widely separated masses, but which to the eye of the far-off observer,
have become blended by the distance into one long line of continuous
snowy peaks.
The central range, and all the hills, with the exception of these loftiest
peaks and some deep secluded glens, usually lose the sheet of snows
during the period that the monsoon is raging in the plains. It is at this
season that the snows send down the greatest supplies of water to the
rivers, commencing about the end of May and continuing till September,
when the frosts again arrest the dissolving snows, and the mountains once
more put on the pure and dazzling robes of winter, and continue thus
enveloped in one sheet of snows until the approach of summer again re-
lieves them.
No sooner has the wintery garment disappeared, than a fine rich sward
at once springs up, almost as if by magic, so rapid is the vegetation in
these high tracts, — affording abundant pasture to the flocks and herds,
which then range over them to the height of 15,000 feet above the sea.
This smiling and verdant state of things is, however, unhappily of short
duration, appearing like the transient gleam of sunshine that often precedes
the fiercest storm, yielding in the space of two short months to the
drifting whirlwind and wreaths of snow, that soon enshroud the whole in
cold and dreary solitude.
Journeying from Kotgurh, in the lower hills, towards the Spiti valley,
the geological formations which came under my observation from that
station to the frontiers of Tartary, were exclusively of the primary class.
Commencing at Kotgurh, and crossing the brow of the hill above
Kay poo, we find strata of mica and hornblende schists, jutting up through
the surface, interspersed with veins and nodules of quartz.
These veins are often found to contain iron disseminated in small thin
scales resembling mica, and in such cases the quartz is generally in a state
of decomposition. This ore pays no duty to Government, and the mines,
if indeed such they can be called, are seldom worked, being so unproduc-
tive, that out of 14 lbs. weight of the rough ore only 2 lbs. of iron, and
that impure, can be procured.
Veins and masses of coarse primitive calc spar or carbonate of lime are
also seen to accompany the mica slate. These rocks continue, with an
1841.]
Capt. Hutton's Geological Report.
203
occasional bed of porphyritic gneiss, until we reach. Ramp ore, half a mile
beyond which a fine white granular quartz occurs, underlying mica slate.
These strata dip strongly to the N. E., and are seen on either side of the
river, by which they appear to have been transversely divided, the lower
end dipping down on the right bank, while the upper portion forms a high
mountain on the left.
I say these strata have been apparently divided by the Sutledge, which
now flows through them, because such in reality has not been the case ;
but the bed of the river lying through them, is entirely attributable to the
disruption of the strata at this point having formed a fitting channel for
the waters to escape through to the plains.
(See plate) — Fig. 1.
1.1. Mica Slate. 2. 2. Granular Quartz. 3. Bed of Sutledge.
The surface of this quartz rock takes a yellowish rusty hue when
exposed to the weather, but when freshly fractured, it is of a pure white,
somewhat resembling Carrara marble in appearance, but of a coarser
texture.
Onwards from Rampore, the mica schist is seen in several varieties,
sometimes appearing to be composed entirely of mica, at others containing
a predominance of quartz ; in these cases the strata are either soft and
crumbling, from the mica scaling off, or very hard and flinty, from the
quantity of quartz.
Silvery mica passing into chlorite schist is abundant near Goura, and from
its soapy and decomposing nature, the whole rock has in many places slipt
away altogether, leaving a constantly decomposing cliff, from which in wet
weather large masses are constantly falling.
Further on, the mica is seen to contain numerous small crystals of
hornblende, which cause it to pass gradually into hornblende schists.
Garnets of small size occur occasionally imbedded in the mica, which
also contains masses of white quartz, in which beautiful crystals of cyanite
are interspersed, varying in shade from pale sea green to bright blue.
The characteristic rocks, however, from Kotgurh to Sarahun are mica
and hornblende slates, frequently alternating with each other, and imbed-
ding blocks of porphyritic gneiss and white quartz.
From Sarahun the gneiss begins to shew itself as the prevailing rock,
and occurs both common, red, and porphyritic ; — mica slate and hornblende
are also frequent, and when they come in contact, the mica often becomes
jet black.
204
Ca/'t. Huttons Geological Report.
[No. 111.
A few miles from Sarahun, on the right bank of the river, an interesting
appearance presents itself in the disposition of the strata. The dip which
up to this point has been pretty uniformly to the N. E., now gradually rises,
and preserving for a short distance a nearly horizontal position, at last lifts it-
self abruptly, and dips back again to the S. W. at the same angle of about 45°.
From this disposition of the strata it becomes evident, that they have
been lifted or upheaved at both ends, from the horizontal position they
once had, by some volcanic force. The lowest strata exposed to view
at this spot are on the right bank of the river, nearly even with the water,
and form a complete arch immediately under those strata which dip to
the N. E. I annex a slight sketch made on the spot, which will serve to
show the position of the rocks, better than a description. ( See plate ) — Fig. 2.
Beyond this, as we approach Traada, a fine white granite is observed,
containing large scales or crystals of mica, and farther on still, about
Nachar, white felspar becomes abundant, imbedding the same mica crystals,
and forming the first division of the granite of some geological writers.
Quartz also occasionally entered into its composition and formed true
granite, with which were found hornblende and mica slates, porphyritic and
granitic gneiss. In some instances where the hornblende and granite were
in contact, the mica of the latter rock assumed a black and glossy appear-
ance, producing a variety of granite of some beauty.
Proceeding from Nachar, the road passes over formations similar to those
already mentioned, and a few miles lead down to the Sutledge, which is
crossed by a good broad Sangho. At this point the rocks rise abruptly in
huge masses on either side, confining the river to narrower limits, and
affording a mere passage for its waters.
These rocks are of gneiss, and the stratification which previously had
often been indistinctly discernible, now ceased altogether, and the beds
presented a shattered and amorphous mass, — a circumstance by no means
of rare occurrence among this class of rocks.
From the sangho to Chergong the road still continues along the bank of
the river over beds of boulders and broken rocks of every size, consisting
of granite, gneiss, mica, and hornblende slates. Here too cyanite again
occurred in quartz, and crystals of crysoberyl (?) in granite.
From Chergong to Meeroo the strata of gneiss are often laid bare by
the descent of streams from the snows above, and the dip is seen falling
to the N. E. at about the usual angle of 45°. Beyond this place occur thick
beds of mica slate, containing garnets in profusion, and often, from the de-
composition of the rock, the whole road is strewed with garnets of various
sizes. Beneath this bed occurs one of white quartz rock, which is seen
rising from the edge of the Sutledge to about 3,000 feet in thickness.
\
205
1841.] Capt. Huttons Geological Report.
Near Chini, the mica slate contains occasional small crystals of cyanite,
and sometimes passes into chlorite slate.
A short distance from Chini, the whole hill side has slipped down
into the Sutledge, from the action of frost and snow, and the cliff now
towers up from the banks of the river, presenting a sheer and perpendi-
cular wall of between six and seven thousand feet in height. This
vast mass is composed throughout of gneiss, and the road, which is a
mere scaffolding, passes along the face of it, at 4,000 feet above the
Sutledge, which is seen foaming below.
From this to the village of Leepee, the formation is pretty nearly the
same, consisting of granite, gneiss, hornblende, mica, and quartz.
The granite about Punggee, Rarung, and Junggee, contains a large pro-
portion of hornblende, and at Rarung it is also seen to assume a brick red
colour, often traversed with veins of quartz, both red, amber, and white.
The red granite appears only in masses imbedded in a yellowish variety*
which is the true rock, and which towards Leepee gives place to gneiss and
mica slate. Above the last mentioned rock commences the first bed of
argillaceous slates, which continues interstratified with greywacke schists
to the top of Rooming Pass. The alternations of these strata are frequent,
sometimes the one and sometimes the other rock prevailing in thickness.
These beds are evidently the first indication of the transition, or lowest
secondary formation of geologists, and extending across or through the
Roonung Pass, downwards to Soongnum, they are seen to support strata of
compact greywacke, and beds of quartzose rock, apparently analogous to
and holding the place of the old red sandstone of Europe.
The town of Soongnum stands in a valley immediately between the
Roonung Pass in its front and the Hungrung Pass in its rear. In front,
the range of hills which form the right side of the Rushkoolung valley
are composed of an argillaceous series, consisting of clay stones and grey-
wacke slates, of different textures and degrees of induration, and dipping
to the S.W. The strata in the rear of the town, forming the left bank, dip,
on the contrary, to the N. E. and are composed of greywacke slates, com-
pact greywacke, old red sandstone, and a superior stratum of limestone
and greywacke. These towards the summit of the range gradually change
their dip, and rise up again to the S.W., the whole being surmounted by a
bed of dark blue secondary limestone, containing portions of clay and
silex. This formation extends along both sides of the Rushkoolung val-
ley, even to the Manerung Pass above Manes in Spiti, a distance of about
seventeen miles. About seven miles from Soongnum, copper veins occur
in their strata of white quartz rock, and veinous quartz, lying occasionally
between, or ramifying through, the greywacke and old red sandstone. The
206 Capt. Hutton's Geological Report. [No. 111.
last mentioned rock varies muck in colour and in texture, the lowest stra-
tum being white, and scarcely distinguishable from quartz rock, but chang-
ing gradually to a faint tinge of pink, becoming deeper as it passes up-
wards, until its colour is of a dull purplish hue.
These strata are sometimes separated by a very thin layer of soft
whitish marl. The crest of the Hungrung Pass is 14,837 feet above the
level of the sea, and is composed of dark blue limestone. The range on
which this Pass is situated divides Kunawur from Hungrung, -a district
inhabited by Tartars, who are subject to Bussaher.
Descending from the Pass to the village of Hungo, the road passes over
numerous alternations of blue limestone and greywacke slates, resting upon
white quartz, which lower down gradually passes into a greenish variety
of the same rock.
These strata all dip to the S.W., and are probably an outcrop of those
which run in a N.E. direction from behind Soongnum, and thus shew the
effects of what may be termed a double upheavement, or lifting of the same
strata at two different points. The lofty granitic peaks which tower up to
the right of the Pass, at once shew that they have been instrumental in
forming the S.W. dip, and it is more than probable that the same rock
might be discovered also protruding through the strata on the opposite
exposure.
The following partly imaginary section of Hungrung, may serve to ex-
plain my meaning : —
( See plate ) — Fig. 3.
Supposed Section of Hungrung Mountain.
Strata of greywacke slates are met with for a few miles after leaving
Hungo ; but they disappear as we approach Leeo, or rather, from the
great descent of the road, they are left far above, while the base of the
mountain is found to be a dark coloured gneiss, traversed and inter-
sected in every direction by veins of white quartz.
Leeo stands in a kind of basin, surrounded on all sides by lofty hills
of granite and the same dark gneiss ; but the lower parts of them are
overlaid by strata of the secondary series, consisting chiefly of greywacke
and shales. On the sides of the surrounding hills exist strong indications
of the former presence of a lake, in the lines of water-worn stones
and pebbles that now rest many hundred feet above the river Lee.
These appearances were long since pointed out by Dr. Gerard, who
though knowing nothing of geology, was at once forcibly struck with
(&yiriri t £ fr'Ms? j~f jfo /u&y^ydg 'p'^ytrihlrigi
207
1841.] Capt. Hutton's Geological Report-
the conviction, that nothing but the former presence of deep waters
could account for the phenomena here so plainly exposed to view.
In his conjectures on this head, that enterprising and unwearying
traveller was undoubtedly correct.
In the bed of the Lee, where it is crossed by a wooden sangho, a thick
bed of white quartz rock is seen dipping to the S.W., and as we mount
the hill in the direction of Chungo, beds of boulders, and disjointed masses
of granite, gneiss, and mica slates hurled from above, are passed over, now in
many places overlying the secondary shales.
At the village of Chungo, which is the last on the left bank of the Lee,
under the government of Bussaher, the most decided indications of the
former presence of a deep lake again occur. To the eastward of the
level patch on which the village and its cultivation stands, rise three lofty
and rugged mountains, whose shattered sides present sections of the same
strata as those noticed at Leeo : namely, deep beds of dark gneiss and
mica slates intersected by granitic and quartz veins of various thickness ;
these strata dip down towards the west, and as they approach the village,
are lost beneath the vast accumulations of alluvial soils, which here, as at
Leeo, mark the former presence of deep and tranquil waters.
To the southward these deposits consist almost entirely of thick beds
of clays, sands, and boulders of every size, rising high above the level of
the village; while to the NNE. are again presented the same alluvial
deposits of a greater thickness, and accompanied in addition by a deep
and extensive bed of a pure white and friable gypsum. This bed is per-
haps a most valuable discovery in a geological point of view, as tending
to show the nature of the waters from which it was precipitated. This thick
gypseous bed is overlaid by the sands, clays, and boulders, which have
already been noticed. At the fort of Skialkur, on the opposite or right bank
of the river, about miles from the village of Chungo, this gypsum is like-
wise seen overlying the transition series of alternating shales and sandstones.
These deposits are now at the height of 2,000 to 2,500 feet above the
present level of the river’s course, or at an elevation of 12,000 to 12,500
feet above the level of the sea.
The three mountain peaks of gneiss, which rise up to the eastward of
Chungo, are divided from each other by narrow glens, through which
streams flow down to join the sea, between which and the base of these
mountains, the whole alluvial deposits have been swept away, and the pre-
sent cultivated plain of Chungo is therefore situated far below the surround-
ing alluvium, which rises like walls on either side of it.
As we proceed from Chungo towards Spiti, the road lies at first over the
alluvial accumulations above-mentioned, for two or three miles, when from
208
Capt. Hutton's Geological Report.
[No. 111.
the abrupt nature of the primary rocks that are hence met with, they
cease to exist, except far below where a wide and shelving plain lies along
the river’s side, and which is entirely composed of them. From the point
where the road leaves them behind, for a distance of six miles, the strata
are again of mica, slate, and gneiss, varied with the same carious veins of
granite and quartz as those of Leeo and Chungo. At this point the moun-
tains are separated by a rapid river called the Paratee, which runs down
from Chinese Tartary and joins the Spiti near Skialkur. Here the primary
series may be said to disappear, and the Spiti road crossing the Paratee by
a natural bridge of stone, which is formed of several large masses of gneiss
fallen from above, and wedged firmly together over the stream, brings the
traveller at once upon the secondary class. The lowest strata are there-
fore just perceptible where the waters cut their way through, and we thus
catch a glimpse of the gneiss of the opposite bank, above which occurs a
talcose schist, white quartz rock, and clay slate, dipping to the S. W. Above
these are alluvial deposits similar to those of Chungo, and extending for a
mile or two inland from the river, forming a flattened plain, on which stands
“ Kewrick,” the first village of Chinese Tartary. Here again a portion of
the deposit has been swept away by a descending stream, exactly as at
Chungo. It is worthy of remark, that all these alluvial deposits are the
deepest and most extensive when the surrounding hills have the most
gradual slope, and where they retire so as to form recesses ; while on the
contrary, as might be expected, where the dip of the strata is rapid or
acute, scarcely any trace is left of the former existence of a lake, because
the deposit has been swept away by the outrush of the escaping waters.
These accumulations are likewise the most extensive at the lower end of
the Spiti valley, where alone the gypsum is to be found. To this fact I would
beg to call special attention, as it will be hereafter alluded to, and prove of
some importance in the explanation of these diluvial and alluvial deposits.
From Kewrick the road runs over hills, which are entirely of the secon-
dary class, being frequent alternations of the same rocks, as greywacke and
claystones, limestones, and sandstones, and in one or two instances a trap
of greenstone is also seen, both stratified and amorphous.
From Kewrick to the village of Larree, which is the first inhabited place
in Spiti, we travel first for four miles over the edges of strata of clay slates and
accumulations of debris. From the decomposing state of these strata,
caused the effects of weather and a portion of alum, which causes them to
scale off in soft flakes, the whole of the hills on either side of the Spiti river
have a charred and blackened aspect, which combined with their arid and
barren nature, gives a sad and melancholy appearance to the country, by
no means cheering to the weary traveller.
209
1841.] Capt. Huttons Geological Report.
The dip of the strata is now uniformly to the S. W., and generally at an
angle of 45°, though here and there they rise abruptly to a nearly vertical
position, denoting an excess of the upheaving forces from below. As we
approach Larree after crossing the Gew river, the bed of which is of grey-
wacke slate, we come upon a thick stratum of pure white quartz rock, which
appears to be a continuation of the same rock which was seen at Leeo on
the opposite side of the range ; in contact with this, and immediately rest-
ing upon it, is another bed of siliceous rock, which passes gradually into
thin strata of flinty slate. Upon this rests clay slate, which then alternates
frequently with greywacke and sandstones. Further on we perceive masses
of gypseous breccia formed of angular fragments of argillaceous schists, encrusted
or cemented together by gypsum. This rock, if it be entitled to the name,
owes its origin to the same waters which deposited the gypsum beds of
Chungo and Skialkur ; it is found overlying the edges of the true strata
from which it has been formed, and occurs in rude and mis-shapen masses.
To this breccia I would also call attention, as serving to shew a change in
the waters of the lake, or at all events a decrease in the proportion of
their saline properties. Farther on still, and nearly opposite the village of
Somra, a stratum of trap is seen to occur between shales above and sand-
stone below ; it is conformable to the true strata with which it is clearly in-
terstratified, not causing any dislocation of the series. Beyond Larree, how-
ever, the same rock occurs again, in one place interstratified with grey-
wacke and dark blue limestone, at another running up vertically in an
amorphous mass through the strata, which it first dislocates and then over-
lies. In this case, the strata on either side of the Spiti dip to the S. W.,
while the rocks through which the trap has more immediately passed or
been injected, are thrown boldly and abruptly from the usual course to the
westward. The strata on the opposite side of the river are at the same-
time raised from the angle of 45° nearly to a horizontal position, and af-
ter some twisting of the strata, again with apparent difficulty regain their
wonted S. W. dip. Here it is evident that the trap in question has been
the molten vein whose struggles to burst upwards through the superin-
cumbent weight of strata has been the agent which has thrown them
into their present inclined positions, and in its upward course has first be-
come partially interstratified with those which possessed the least indura-
tion or means of resistance, and then finally, as it burst through all obsta-
cles, flowed over them in a broad sheet of molten matter, w hich as it cooled
assumed the present solid and compact texture.
Of such having been the fact, we observe proof in the vein of vertical
trap acting as a support, or upright as it were, from which the strata
now incline and dip downwards.
210
Capt. Hutton's Geological Report.
[No. 111.
As, however, trap is known to possess, “ in a general sense, the univer-
sal common character of being unstratified, and posterior to the rocks
with which it is connected,”* it becomes necessary in here stating, that
it is conformable to and interstratified with those of the secondary series,
to offer a few theoretical remarks on the probable means by which this
partial stratification has been produced.
The interstratification of this rock, where it occurs, is of very inconsider-
able extent, when compared with that of those with which it is associa-
ted, possessing by no means the wide and almost universal range of the
primary and secondary series, but being on the contrary, “ in a great
measure limited to particular spots, more or less extensive, and to be, if
separately considered, partial and independent productions. ”f
Let us then suppose that these secondary strata were once (which in fact
they really were) horizontal deposits from the waters, which it is generally
supposed were instrumental to the formation of the series to which they
belong.
We shall thus perceive them to have been deep unconsolidated masses of
sands, covered by muddy layers, which we now term shales. The strug-
gles of the molten matter to procure access to the surface would, from the
heat and pressure engendered by its upward course, have the effect of
vitrifying and indurating the sands through which it forced a passage,
and of converting them into strata of sandstone, while the shale or
muddy deposit next in succession being lighter and less massive than
the stream of trap, would probably rise and yield a passage between
itself and the sandstone for the molten matter to form a stratum, some-
what in the same manner as oil would give place to a stream of water
if injected through a tube or aperture below it.
The muddy deposit, however, being hardened by contact with the lava
and by the general pressure of the uprising strata, would burst as the
sandstone had already done, and yield a passage to the trap, which
flowed through and overspread them at the surface.
Should it be contended that the outburst of a stream of lava such as
that I have described the trap to have been, would have expended
itself in a shower of ashes or cinders, rather than have assumed the
stratiform structure it now exhibits, I would remind the reader that
the secondary rocks are supposed to have been deposited in the bosom
of a tranquil water, and that that water formed either extensive lakes or
portions of the sea.
* -t McCulloch's Geology
X
■
211
1841] Capt. Huttons Geological Report.
The upheaving lava current had therefore not only the weight of
the superimposed deposits, but the pressure likewise of an enormous
volume of water. It becomes more than probable, therefore, that this
aqueous pressure would effectually check the tendency to produce cinders
and ashes, and thus as the stream poured upwards through the deposits and
came in contact with the waters, the molten matter would extend itself
along the bottom of the lake, and thus overlie the secondary strata,
as in the present instance.
For farther information on this subject, I would refer the reader to
De la Becke’s Geological Manual, where will be found some very just
and apposite remarks on the point in question.
“ It being by no means probable,” he says, “that the density of sea
water beneath any depth which we can reasonably assign to the ocean,
would be such as to render it of greater specific gravity than liquid
lava ejected from a volcanic rent, situated beneath the sea, it would
follow that so long as the lava continued in a state of fusion, it would
arrange itself horizontally beneath the fluid of inferior specific gravity.”
The question then arises, how long a body of lava in fusion would
remain fluid beneath the waters of the sea? The particles of water
in contact with the incandescent lava would become greatly heated,
and consequently, from their decreased specific gravity, would immediately
rise : their places being supplied from above by particles of greater
density and less temperature. Thus a cooling process would he esta-
blished on the upper surface of the lava, rendering it solid.
Now as the particles of fluid lava would be prevented from moving up-
wards by the solid matter above, pressed down by its own gravity and the
superincumbent water, they would escape laterally, where not only the
cooling process would be less rapid, from the well-known difficulty of heat-
ed water moving otherwise than perpendicularly upwards, but where also
the power of the fluid lava to escape resistance would be greatest.
(See plate ) — Fig. 4. Let a be a volcanic rent, through which liquid lava is
propelled upwards in the direction d f: the lava being of greater specific
gravity than the water b h e c it would tend to arrange itself horizontally in
the directions d b d c The surface b d c having become solid, the lava would
escape from the sides b and c, spreading in a sheet or tabular mass around ;
and this effect would continue so long as the propelling power at a was
sufficient to overcome the resistance opposed to the progress of the lava,
or until the termination of the eruption, if that should first happen.”*
This clearly stated theoretic problem may now be successfully reduced to
practice, and will correctly and exactly apply to the phenomenon under
* De la Beche’s Geological Manual, p. 125.
212 Copt Hutton's Geological Report. [No. 111.
consideration. The truth therefore of Be la Beche’s proposition will be at
once established.
( See plate ) — Fig. 5. Let us suppose these now inclined strata to be in their
original horizontal position, and 2 and 3 forming beds of unconsolidated
sandy and muddy deposits beneath the waters of the lake or sea a c e h.
Then a a a a, & c. is a vein of lava or molten trap, which in its endea-
vours to find vent, upraises and bursts through the solid primary series
denoted at 1.
By the heat and pressure thus engendered, the lava indurates the sand at
2, and converting it into sandstone, breaks through it also, and is thus
brought in contact with the muddy deposits represented at 3. This deposit
being of a specific gravity inferior to the stream of lava, is naturally dis-
placed and forced to contract and furnish room for a stratum of trap
at a a a.
The heat and pressure, however, continuing, speedily and almost on
the instant, converts the muddy deposit into shale or slate clay. And
the lava current bursting through it and the superior stratum of limestone,
comes at length to the surface, and in contact with the waters. Here
then commences the facts detailed theoretically by Be la Beche, as already
quoted, and the stratum of trap spread over the surface of the now inclined
and consolidated strata of deposits ; while the waters of the lake or sea
being displaced by the upheavement, effected an escape through the
various channels afforded by the disruption of the uprising strata.
It may possibly be objected that the occurrence of a compact stratum
of limestone above the shale, and in contact with the trap, will at once
invalidate the theory here proposed, from its being a known fact, that
when heat is applied to calcareous matter, the carbonic acid is driven
off, and the remaining lime rendered infusible.
I shall endeavour therefore to obviate such an objection, by quoting and
establishing a theory long since propounded by Dr. Hutton, which at the
time of its proposition was looked upon as an ingenious, but perfectly un-
tenable, doctrine.
“ He had asserted that calcareous rocks, like every other, had been sub-
jected to the action of heat. But it was well known that when heat was
applied to this class of rocks the carbonic acid was driven off in the shape
of gas, and the remaining quicklime become infusible. Dr. Hutton in-
deed had answered this by suggesting, that the pressure of the superincum-
bent ocean was sufficient to confine the carbonic acid, and to cause it to
act as a flux on the quicklime. His theory, however ingenious, was so
abundantly gratuitous, that it by no means satisfied even his own disciples.
After Dr. Hutton’s death, Sir James Hall ascertained by numerous experi-
‘vV ^ V-
I
I
I
'! Mi
i
i
Cap/. Hatton's Geological Report.
213
1841.]
ments that carbonate of lime might readily be fused when exposed to
heat, if it were at the same time under a pressure not greater than Dr. Hut-
ton’s theory required, or about a mile and a half of sea.”*
Now it is easily perceptible, that the result of these experiments is in
exact accordance with the effects which the theory here proposed would
give rise to.
We have supposed that the present solid strata were once soft and
aqueous deposits beneath a vast depth of waters ; we thus perceive a beau-
tiful and conclusive illustration of Dr. Hutton’s theory in the fact, that
when the heat generated by the pressure and condensation from below
acted on the superior calcareous stratum at 4, that very stratum was
then actually subject to the pressure of the superincumbent waters at A
C E H, which by preventing the escape of the carbonic acid gas, and causing
it to act as a flux upon the quicklime, converted the stratum, as Dr. Hutton
had suggested, into the compact state which it now exhibits.
As theoretic speculations, how'ever just, and however much in accordance
with the phenomena observable, they may prove to be, may nevertheless
be deemed misplaced in a paper of this kind, I shall leave the subject for
a more fitting occasion, and now pass on to a consideration of the remain-
ing facts exhibited in the strata of the Spiti valley.
From Kewrick to the village of Leedung, the strata may be said to be
of the same descriptions, namely, talcose schist, quartz rock, greywacke slates,
clay slates, sandstone shales and trap, all except the last alternating fre-
quently with each other.
A precise description of each rock belongs rather to the department of
the mineralogists than to that of the geologists, and I therefore content
myself with pointing out the series rather than individual species, in order
that I may hasten on to the theory which the appearances presented
suggest.
Passing therefore from Larree via Pokh to the fort of Dunkur, we find
the strata to consist of the same alternations of rocks as those already
mentioned ; but at this latter spot the appearances denote a struggle for the
direction of the dip, which merits some attention. The range of hills run-
ning along the right bank of the Spiti opposite to Dunkur have a N. W.
by W., and S. E. and by E. direction, and at four miles below the fort the
strata dip uniformly to the S. W. From that point, however, or near the
village of Maness, it would seem that an upheavement had taken place
through or along the centre of the range, causing the superior strata to
assume a pent or roof-like appearance, throwing them on one side with
* Journal of Science, p. 4.
214
Copt. Hutton’s Geological Report.
[No. 111.
an acute dip to the N. E., while the opposite side preserved the S. W. di-
rection at a less acute angle. In such cases where a section is obtained
by a water course, the strata forming the heart or interior of the range
are seen twisted in every grotesque direction. These strata consist of
thick beds of argillaceous schists and sandstones, and what strikes one as
singular in their disposition is, that the upheavement has had the effect of
throwing the outcrop of the sandstone, or superior stratum dipping to the
S.W., higher than the portion which falls to the N.E. Thus the joining
of the strata is not at the summit of the range, but the rocks of the N.E.
side are seen lying against those of the opposite direction, whose upper
edge, or outcrop, juts out above them. (See plate ) — Fig. 6.
Passing on from Dunkur we come to the Lingtee river, which joins the
Spiti.
Here again a double upheavement of the strata appears to have taken
place, w'hich will be better understood by a reference to the aiu.jsed sketch,
and which may serve as an example in all similar cases. ( See plate ) — F ig. 7.
On the right bank of the Spiti, the strata fall acutely to the river in a
N. E. direction, as already pointed out, while on the left bank, although
they at first dip to the same direction, they are seen first gradually to rise
to a nearly horizontal position, and then to dip backwards again to the S.
W. This occurs on the left bank of the Spiti and the right bank of the
Lingtee at the point where the two rivers meet.
On the left of the Lingtee the strata first dip to the N. E., and then after
many extraordinary twists and contortions, yield, as it were reluctantly, to
the contrary dip, which turns them back to their old and proper direction
of S.W.
In all these cases it will be found that the rocks are rent asunder, and
the disruption now forms deep khuds or glens, through which at present a
stream or river descends.
About six miles from Dunkur stands the village of Leedung, where the
strata consist, in an ascending order, of greywacke and clay slates, dark
blue limestone shales, limestone and sandstone, repeated in many alterna-
tions.
Leedung stands at the height of 12,037 feet above the sea, and the strata
just mentioned rise precipitously above it to the height of from 3,000 to
6,000 feet more, or to 15,000 and 18,000 feet above the sea. The highest
stratum here appeared to be of sandstone, resting upon shale.
To the N.E. of this village rises a Pass, which has an elevation of
15,247 feet, and here along its summit, w here the streams which descend
Capt. Hutton's Geological Report.
215
1841.]
from the snows have worn numerous channels through the loose and
decomposing shales, occur the fossils which were long ago discovered by
Dr. Gerard. These consist of various species of ammonites, belemnites ,
orthoceratites area, and some others ; but all partaking of the same
decomposing nature as the shales in which they occur, so that it is next to
impossible to procure a perfect specimen, or to prevent its falling to pieces
if obtained.
The limestones which here alternate in the series, are sometimes wholly
composed of shells, and are of a dark grey colour, while at the height of
14,712 feet occurs a bed of a whitish grey colour, and almost free from
shells, but imbedding large rounded masses of various sizes, which when
broken are found to be composed wholly of the dark shell limestone
already mentioned.
Among these hills there is great confusion in the direction of the dip,
the strata sometimes inclining to the S.W. or N. E., while at others they
are N.N.W., and to almost every point of the compass. These masses
are, however, generally limited to small extent, and appear like fragments
torn from the true or main direction by the force of the upheaving agent.
These strata extend along the range for many miles farther up the valley,
but no fossils were apparent at any place, except on the heights above
Leedung and Larra. They exist, however, in the form of shell limestone
along the range immediately leading from the lake Chummorareel ; but at
this season the whole range lay so deeply buried in snow, that the route
was impracticable, and I was obliged reluctantly to quit the fossil site, not
half satisfied with its investigation.
From the nature of the rocks in this part of the valley, and the reports
of those who have visited lake Chummorareel, I should feel strongly
inclined to believe that it is situated among the Lias clays. Puttee Ram,
the Tartar wuzeer, who has often visited the spot, assured me that the
lake was surrounded by high hills composed of earth of various colours,
red, yellow, blue, &c. and that the country around was all of similar clays,
and not composed of rocks like the lower parts of Spiti, although some-
times above the hills of clay, large masses of stone were also found.
Such a description, all rough though it be, would lead one to expect the
Lias beds resting on the red marie, and surmounted by the sandstone series
above the oolite. The subject, I am sorry to think, must thus far remain
obscure, until some more fortunate traveller shall venture upon those
interesting scenes.
From this slight sketch it will be seen that the geological series from
Kotgurh to the neighbourhood of Soongnum, in Kunawur, is that of the
primary class ; while thence, to the head of the Spiti valley, we find,
2 D
216 Capt. Hutton's Geological Report. QNo. 111.
with slight interruption, the transition or lowest secondary series con-
taining fossil exuviae of marine Mollusca.
From the point of junction of the Spiti and Sutledge to the head of
the Spiti valley, we find every thing indicating the former presence of
an extensive lake. These indications consist in beds of friable or earthy
gypsum, clays, sand, and rolled pebbles now left high in horizontal strata
above the course of the river at the present day.
These accumulations are also seen to be the thickest and most extensive
at the lower end of the valley, where the mountains form recesses, and
where the slope is the most gradual. We find the gypseous beds alone at
the lower end, and we also find them growing thinner and dying out as
they approach the higher and narrower part of the valley, until at last
their presence is only to be traced in the incrustations of other rocks.
The clays and sands which have been deposited upon these beds are, on
the other hand, universal throughout the Valley wherever they could
find a resting place, and they pass on after the gypsum has ceased up to the
higher portion of Spiti, where at length they yield to pebbles and boulders.
I have called attention to these facts, because I shall presently show by
what means such an arrangement has taken place.
It will, however, first be necessary to state the theory which these ap-
pearances suggest, and then to show how the phenomena presented to our
view', are in accordance with that theory.
Theory of the Spiti Valley.
We have already seen that the valley bears every appearance of having
been at some remote period the bed of an extensive lake, which at length,
by the accumulations of its waters, and its enormous pressure upon the
rocky barriers which confined it at the lower extremity of the valley, burst
forth with irresistible power and devastating effects down into the district
of Kunawur. I shall endeavour to trace in detail the circumstances which
may have led to this outburst of the Spiti waters.
The first formation of such a lake may have occurred from one of three
distinct causes, namely : —
First. If we allow the existence of these vast mountains previous to the
flood, the lake may have accumulated in the bosom of the valley from the
melting of antediluvian snows, and thus, (suppossing the Mosaic narrative
to be correct,) it will be seen, that although originally composed of fresh
waters, it must have changed its nature and become salt at the period of
its submersion by the deluge ; and agaiu in after years, when that deluge
1841.]
217
Capt. Hutton's Geological Report.
liad subsided, it would have gradually regained its freshness, and parted
with its saline properties by the constant accession of streams from the
beds of snow surrounding it.
Secondly. If these mountain ranges were formed at no remoter period
than that assigned to the subsidence of the Mosaic deluge, the lake may have
been formed simply by the accumulation of the snow streams from the
heights above, since that last grand catastrophe.
And, Thirdly. If suppose these mountains to have been upheaved by sub-
marine volcanic agency during the convulsions attendant on the subsidence of
the deluge, we may assign the origin of the lake to the enclosing or retaining
of the oceanic waters, as the ranges rose upwards from beneath the waves.
I shall presently speak of the most probable of these three causes, and
in the mean time taking for granted the former existence of the lake, pro-
ceed to show by what means it has disappeared.
The walls of the valley, then, we must suppose to have been at one pe-
riod continuous, without an outlet ; thus forming an extensive basin con
taining a lake of water, which from its vast expanse and magnitude, might
have been almost termed an inland sea.
The surrounding barriers of this lake rearing their heads aloft to an ele-
vation of from 16,000 to 20,000 feet and upwards above the level of the
present sea, were then, as they still continue to be, the never-failing
receptacles of eternal snows, which furnished streams of ever-running
waters, all emptying themselves into the broad lake beneath.
This constant increase would of course in a litle time cause the waters to
rise, and overflow that portion of their bounds which attained the least
elevation, and accordingly we find it actually to have been so at the con-
fluence of the present stream with the river Sutledge.
This overflowing would at first proceed quietly, and with a gently exert-
ed force ; but as the action of the never-ceasing stream gradually carved a
deeper channel over the rock, a greater body of water would flow down,
bursting through and tearing away blocks of increasing magnitude, until
its weight and constant action having loosened and undermined the bank,
the massive barrier which had hitherto sustained this enormous weight,
now weakened by the repeated loss of its various supports and out-posts as
it were, would at length give way before the overpowering pressure of
the waters, and yield them a passage to the vales below.
Bursting with headlong fury through this, its long sought aperture,
what devastation must have attended the downward passage of such a bo-
dy of water ! Huge fragments of rocks, together with the soils and pro-
ductions of whole districts through which the torrent rushed, must have
been swept off before it, and have been deposited at various distances from
218 Cupt. Huttons Geological Report. [No. 111.
their original sites, where combining with other soils, they would form
strata peculiar to those situations.
It is probable that these sudden overwhelmings of the district now call-
ed Kunawur, may have happened more than once, both from thi^and from
other lakes ; for although the Spiti lake had burst through its rocky bar-
riers and found an outlet for the superabundant waters, it would merely
have expended itself to a level with the opening it had made, at which
point it would again remain until the accumulating supplies from the
snow-clad peaks above, and the never-ceasing flow and action of the
waters upon the already ruptured rocks, should again have brought
about a similar outpouring of its waves, and thus would the lake gradual-
ly sink by the same never-failing means, from level to level, until its
whole body of waters was expended, and so leave those trickling and ap-
parently insignificant snow streams which had ultimately caused its expul-
sion from the valley, not only to usurp its former bed, but to form by
their united waters the present river Spiti.
From these facts a question naturally arises, as to the probable source
from whence the vast beds of marine exuviae found in the higher portions
of this valley have been derived, and the answer to it must entirely de-
pend upon the origin we assign to the lake itself. That is, if these moun-
tains and the lake were in existence before the Mosaic deluge took place,
it will follow, that the quality of the waters must have undergone a change
from fresh to salt by the influx of the ocean, and it might on this account
be contended by some that the marine shells rising with the waters, were
here left living when that ocean again subsided to its proper bed; that
as from that period the waters of the lake would gradually part with their
saline properties, as the snows around continued to pour down their limpid
streams, causing the lake again to resume its pristine freshness, it becomes
evident that those marine animals, exclusively formed and adapted for an
existence in salt waters, could only have survived there for a short time,
and would then have been deposited in one vast accumulation. But had
this been the case, the exuviae must have belonged to species still existing
in the seas, whereas we find them all to be the spoils of extinct animals ; and
again, had such been the case, they would have been imbedded in strata of
the tertiary formation, whereas, we find them in those of the secondary de-
posits, which are referrible to a period long antecedent to the Mosaic flood.
Thus, we must at once abandon this first position.
Secondly. If we suppose that the lake was formed at and by the deluge,
and afterwards by the constant accession of snow water became fresh, —
the effect, as regards the marine deposits, will still be the same; and con-
sequently this second supposition must be abandoned likewise.
1841.1
Copt. Hattons Geological Report.
219
As it is therefore evident that the presence of the fossils can be attributed
to neither of these sources, we are at once led to the conclusion, that the
vast ranges of the Himalyan mountains were not in existence previous to the
Mosaic deluge, but that the rocks and strata which they now exhibit were
at that time horizontal, and forming part of the bed of the antediluvian
ocean. Of this I shall adduce positive geological proof in the sequel.
The fossils therefore which are found imbedded in these higher tracts,
did not become extinct at the deluge, but at a period long previous to that
great event, when the secondary formations in which they occur were de-
posited, and which period though hitherto passed by unnoticed by writers
on geology, is nevertheless clearly pointed out by the sacred historian.
In order more satisfactorily to ascertain the causes by which animals
once living in the depths of ocean have been left imbedded in rocks now
towering to a height of more than 16,000 feet above its present level, and
at a distance of many hundred miles from it, it will be necessary to skim
lightly over the events which have occurred on the surface of our globe
from the time of its creation, “ until that last catastrophe to which these
mountains owe their existence. “ Geologists,” says Cuvier, “have hitherto
assigned but two revolutions to account for the phenomena which the strata
of the earth now exhibit, namely, the creation, and the deluge, which he rightly
thinks are insufficient, although he erroneously pronounces them to have
been numerous.” Nor is it surprising that he should have deemed them in-
adequate to account for such phenomena, since the first of these periods
was no revolution at all, but occurred before the vegetable and animal races,
whose remains constitute the chief phenomena of our strata, were created,
and therefore it could have been in no wise instrumental either to their
destruction or deposition. It is, moreover evident, that this first revolution
of geologists could in reality be no revolution, but a creation ! A revolution
must imply the overthrow or upsetting of an already established order of
things ; while here in this first period we know that there was no overthrow,
but a setting in order of things which had not as yet existed ; therefore it was
a creation, or calling into being an order of things which subsequently in af-
ter years was to be overthrown through the disobedience of created beings.
The separation therefore of land and sea, by which our earth was first
called into existence, can be looked upon as only a creation, and such indeed
it is termed by the sacred historian, for he tells us that in the beginning
the materials from which our land was to be formed were called into being,
and that on the third day, the interim being occupied in perfecting other
arrangements all tending towards its welfare, the earth was separated
from the waters, and its existence commenced. True, the record mentions
two and only two distinct revolutions, but the Mosaic, equally with the
220
Capt. Huttons Geological Report. [No. 111.
mineral geologist, has disregarded and passed over the first of them which
occurred, not during but subsequent to the Creation, when man first trans-
gressed the commandment of his Maker, and drew down, in consequence,
the curse of an offended God upon the earth and its productions. Thus it
would appear, that geologists are right in referring the fossil exuvije of the
secondary strata to a revolution long prior to that of the deluge, and they
have only erred in not assigning to it the actual period pointed out by
the record.
The second revolution, or deluge, is too clearly marked, and its consequen-
ces too obvious to escape the notice of any one ; but the historian enters
into no details of the means by which the first was effected, although he
clearly points out the effect of it. This difference in the seeming impor-
tance of the two revolutions may have arisen from the fact that the first
did not, like the second, involve the loss of life to the human race, and there-
fore the record is content to point it out merely by its effects, leaving us
at liberty to infer the causes.
Asserting therefore, with the inspired historian, that our planet, toge-
ther with all its goodly furnishing of vegetable and animal life was creat-
ed and finished in the space of six days, each of the same duration as
these of our present computation, and that on the sixth and last day the
progenitors of the human race were also created, and were consequent-
ly contemporaneous with the whole animal kingdom, as constituted before
the fall, I shall endeavour to point out the period when, in my opinion,
the marine animals, whose exuviae are imbedded in the secondary strata
of the Spiti valley, ceased to exist.
Within the limits, however, which it is found necessary to assign to the
present paper, it cannot be expected that I should much enlarge upon the
time at which, or the causes by which this first great change in the tem-
perature of our earth occurred, and I shall therefore pass it over with
a slight allusion only, and with the less regret, since I hope at no distance
of time to lay before the Society a theory of the changes which have
taken place on the surface of the earth, from creation to the present time.
If in succeeding ages a writer were to state that the various countries
of our present earth had suddenly undergone a great change for the worse
in the prolificness and character of their vegetation, would not our poste-
rity justly look upon it as an indication of a well marked revolution and
change of temperature?
And would they not naturally seek for a corresponding change and loss
in the genera and species of the animate classes ?
Assuredly they might reasonably do so ; then why do not we, who have a
parallel case presented to us in the pages of Holy Writ, seek for traces of
221
1841.] Ca.pt. Hutton's Geological Report.
that loss of animal life which must ever be a consequence of any great
change or loss in the temperature and vegetation of the earth ?
Such a revolution, although no details are given of its operations, is
clearly implied in the effects which are recorded in this simple language of
Scripture : —
“ And unto Adam, he said, Because thou hast hearkened unto the voice
of thy wife, and hast eaten of the tree of which I commanded thee, saying
thou shalt not eat of it: — Cursed is the ground for thy sake; — in sorrow
shalt thou eat of it all the days of thy life; — thorns also and thistles
shall it bring forth to thee ; and thou shalt eat the herb of the field. In
the sweat of thy face* shalt thou eat bread, until thou return unto the
ground ; for out of it wast thou taken ; for dust thou art, and unto
dust shalt thou return.”
That earth which had hitherto profusely yielded, freely and gratuitously,
its choicest productions, now shrinking beneath the frown of Him, before
whose wrath all nature trembles, refused to supply even the common ne-
cessaries of life, unless wooed into compliance by the sweat of man’s brow,
and the toil and labour of his hands.
Can a more convincing proof be required of a change of temperature,
and of the first great revolution on the earth ?
Or, can it be thought necessary to assign to the fossils of the secondary
strata a more remote period than this, in all probability, the first few
months of man’s existence upon the globeif
Should such proof be required, it may at once be derived from the charac-
ter of the fossil flora of the earth’s strata, which although now abundantly
found in northern latitudes, is wholly of a tropical form, and consequently
the temperature of those countries must undoubtedly have been much
higher formerly than at present.
It is unnecessary to enlarge here upon the several means which were
instrumental to this change, and enough has been said to show, that to
this epoch I would refer the extinction, and imbedding in the secondary
deposits of the exuviae now under consideration, and it therefore only
remains to state, that these marine formations as they are termed, remained
in the bosom of the deep until the period of the second revolution or
Mosaic deluge, when the mountains in which they now occur were up-
raised, for the purpose of throwing back the waters from the surface of the
earth into their proper beds ; to serve as agents, from their accumulations
* That is — “by labour.”
f I am well aware, that many will object to this, that man did not exist upon the
earth until long after the period here spoken of; but I shall be able hereafter to give
proof that such doctrine is not only unfounded, but actually opposed to facts.
222
Cap!. Huttons Geological Report.
[No. 111.
of snow, in reducing still more the temperature of the earth, and in fur-
nishing those supplies to the rivers and streams, which are so essential
to the welfare of organised creation ; and, lastly, perhaps it may be added,
to stand forth with their imbedded fossils as eternal and convincing monu-
ments of man’s fall and punishment, and of the truths so simply stated
in the Scriptures.
My own opinions lead me to conclude, that when the waters of the
ocean had .risen over, and, as in the beginning again enclosed the earth in
its cold embrace, and had effected tine punitory offices for which it was
permitted to transgress its bound, the lofty mountain ranges which now
adorn the surface of our earth were successively upheaved through the
agency of submarine volcanic powers, forming in the depths of ocean vast
indentations or depressions, corresponding in magnitude to the masses
which were upheaved upon the opposite surface, and into which depressions
or vacuities, by the laws of nature still in force, the waters would have
rushed or risen, forced down as they were by the pressure of the superin-
cumbent atmosphere, and thus as each successive upheavement took
place, the waters being drawn downwards would have again retired from
the surface of the earth, into the place appointed to receive them ; the
same as on that third creative day when, as recorded in the Scriptures,
they were commanded “ to gather themselves together, that the dry land
might appear.”
Nor does this theory of submarine upheavements appear to be unsup-
ported by the opinions of able geologists, for we find in the words of Dr.
Buckland, “ that trachyte and lava being ejected through apertures in
granite, prove that the source of volcanic fires is wholly unconnected
with the pseudo-volcanic results of the combustion of coal, bitumen, or
sulphur, in stratified formations, and is seated deep beneath the primary
rocks.”*
Among the vast mountain ranges which were then upheaved, the Hima-
lya stands pre-eminent, and as it rose towering upwards from beneath the
waters of the deluge, the lake in question, and doubtless many more, may
have been borne on high enclosed among its loftiest ridges. If such were
the case, its waters which at first were salt, would afterwards have be-
come fresh, from the cause already stated. Or if no such lake were borne
aloft, then must it have accumulated in after times from the snows above,
until bursting through the barriers of gneiss, which had hitherto confined
it, the valley would have been left nearly as we find it in the present day.
The solution of the problem must therefore be sought for in the strata
and appearances which the valley now exhibits.
* For an illustration of this, see Fig. 5.
523
1841,3 Cc.pt. Hutton’s Geological Report.
Those phenomena and appearances have already been stated, and it
therefore now only remains to show, that they are precisely in accordance
with the theory proposed, and prove it to be correct.
When the vast ranges of the Himalya burst upward through the watery
shroud which had hitherto enclosed the earth, the lofty ridges which sur-
rounded the lake became at once the eternal reservoirs of everlasting snows,
from which numerous streams descended, as in the present day.
The waters of the lake itself were salt, being taken from the ocean, and
they gradually yielded to the streams which descended from the heights,
until they became first brackish, and finally fresh.
The largest body of water which was supplied from the snows was that
of the Spiti river, and to its current are partly attributable the appearances
of the present valley.
Let us then look well to the mode of operation.
The lake was salt or marine ; its waters after the agitation caused by the
upheavement had ceased became tranquil, and as their nature began imme-
diately to undergo a change from the influx of the snow streams, a deposit
from its waters commenced. That deposit I hold to be the bed of fri-
able or earthy gypsum.
The reason why it occurs at the lower end of the lake is this : — The
downward rush of the Spiti waters from the heights of the Paralassa range,
caused a strong current to advance far onwards into the valley, where it
became less and less rapid, till it died away, or was checked by the body
of water below.
Thus we may at once perceive, that while the fresh waters usurped the
upper portion of the valley, the middle and lower parts were occupied
by brackish and salt waters respectively — a circumstance that may be fully
understood by observing the confluence of a large river with a gulf or
any part of the sea. The river is fresh, the junction brackish, and the
ocean salt.
The gypsum or sulphate of lime would therefore naturally be pre-
cipitated in the greatest quantities at the lower end of the valley, where
the waters were the saltest, and the bed would gradually become thinner
as it advanced into the intermediate part where the lake was brackish, and
it would be wanting altogether in the upper part where the waters were
fresh. This is precisely the fact, for the upper end or head of the Spiti val-
ley is free from the gypseous deposit, while towards the middle we find the
rocks often incrusted with it, or forming with fragments of shale and other
rocks a gypseous breccia, which becomes less crystalline as it advances to the
lower end of the district, where it yields to the thick beds or deposit of
friable gypsum.
2 E
224
[No. 111.
Capt. Huttons Geological Report.
While this deposit was precipitating from the changing waters of the lake,
the streams from the snows were bringing in large quantities of fine allu-
vial particles, such as sands and clays, and water-worn stones of various size.
These were deposited above the gypsum of the lower end of the valley, and
passing on after that had ceased, reached to the upper end of Spiti. This
too, is seen to be the fact, for the beds of clay are found not only covering
the gypsum to a great depth, but also occupying its place at the upper ex-
tremity of the district.
At the same time, the waters carried onwards an uniform solution of
clays, which they precipitated throughout the valley, the heavier stones
and boulders were forming beds at the points where the streams fell into
the lake. A reference to the annexed section will show the order and dis-
position of the various deposits which this valley contains, and serve to
illustrate the foregoing remarks : —
(See plate) Fig. 8.
, Section of the Spiti Valley.
Let 3. 3. represent the fall or present line of descent of the river Spiti
from Leedung 12,037 feet, to Chungo 9897 feet above the sea.
It will be at once apparent that the waters of the lake must have had
an increasing depth towards the lower end of the district, and that they
were fresh about A ; — brackish about B ; — and salt at C. The gypsum was
therefore deposited at the lower end, and is represented as lying within
the triangle 2. 2. 3.
At the same time, above this marine formation a thick stratum of alluvial
deposits took place, forming a fresh water formation throughout the valley,
as represented within 1.1. 2. 2.
The height at 1. on the left hand is 12,037 feet at the village of Leedung,
and the corresponding elevation at 1. on the right hand is the height of the
aqueous deposit about Chungreezing above Chungo, which is also 12,037
feet, thus beautifully exhibiting the line of the former surface of the
alluvium.
Above this the waters rose and filled the valley, till they procured egress
at the lower end, beyond Leeo.
Thus from the appearance of the district we gather, that it has once been
the bed of an extensive marine lake, whose waters having at length burst
through their barriers, have escaped by the channel of the Sutledge.
This fact I consider to be indisputable, and it leads at once to a satis-
factory explanation of the origin of the deep alluvial deposits of clays,
fi'djfioji yyt/s 'M/l fi 'll0'rPdS
1841.]] Capt. Hutton's Geological Report. 22 5
sands, and pebbles now seen in the lower parts of the valley of the Sutledge,
to which allusion has been made in the commencement of this paper.
Having now, I trust, satisfactorily showed how the theory proposed, and
the facts observable, are in accordance, it only remains, before bringing
the subject to a close, to take a brief and rapid glance at the geological
formations of the lower hills from Kotgurh to the foot of the mountains.
Taking that station, therefore, again as a starting point, and proceeding
towards Simla, we find the formation to consist principally of mica and
clay slates, the one constantly fading into the other, and occurring in
frequent alternations. — Quartz veins are numerously interspersed in the
beds of mica, which is sometimes of a soft and scaly nature, containing but
little quartz, — at others hard and compact, exhibiting little trace of the mica.
The mountain of Huttoo, which rises near Nagkunda to the height of
10,656 feet of elevation above the sea, is composed of mica slate and
gneiss, while its summit exhibits some rugged peaks of granite jutting
upwards through the strata.
The soils which occur from Kotgurh to Simla, are formed chiefly from
the decomposition of the clay and mica slates, with the addition often of a
rich vegetable mould.
Descending from Simla towards Subathoo, the primitive formations
again yield to the secondary series, exhibiting dark blue limestones and
many alternations of slate clay of different colours ; dull-greenish, yellow-
ish, and purple. The latter is also seen as the poste or matrix of a quartz-
ose breccia composed of angular fragments of white quartz.
Around Subathoo the change becomes the most decided, and the strata
are there seen in perfection, consisting of the usual thick beds of clays and
marles, varied with veins of gypsum, and resting on a red marie, apparently
analogous to the red marie of England. The strata are here often upheaved
nearly to a verticle position, and thick beds of shell limestone* are found
alternating with thinner strata of compact limestones, containing castes of
bivalve shells, similar to the “ Venus angularis ” of the European strata.
Large specimens of Ostrce also occur, as well as compact strata, almost
entirely composed of small species of the fresh-water genera, Melania and
Poludina:
The presence of these last prove again, beyond a doubt, that fresh water
must have occupied eventually the basins in which the marine strata of
the secondary series were deposited, and leads to the supposition, that
nearly the same causes were instrumental to the formation of that series,
as we have just shown to have been conducive to the deposition of the
diluvium and alluvium of the Spiti valley.
* Strata composed almost entirely of shells.
226 Capt. Hutton’s Geological Beport. [No. Ill-
Above these various alternations we find the oolite, with its strata of
sandstones.
Captain P. Gerard of the Invalids, informed me that his brother, the late
Dr. Gerard, had once discovered some Ammonites in the valley below Suba-
thoo, but although I procured and fractured several of the dark rounded
balls in which they often occur, I was not fortunate enough to meet with
p specimen of the shell.
About eight miles from Subathoo, in an easterly direction, are rocks
of a greyish limestone, rising above the lias and oolitic formation. Im-
mediately underlying this are several strata separated by layers of flints
of various forms, aud imposed upon these, the limestone is first of all
stratified and dipping in the same direction, namely, to the S. W. ; but
the superior portion of the beds rises in shattered and amorphous masses,
giving a picturesque and beautiful appearance to the range. This lime-
stone is quarried and used for economical purposes ; it is of two kinds,
one being of a pale dirty white or greyish colour, and is the stone from
which the lime is procured, the other being darker and harder, emitting a
strong sulphurous foetid smell when fractured. This latter is little used,
and appears to hold the fighter coloured variety imbedded in it in large
masses.
The geological position of this limestone, coupled with the remarkable
occurrence of layers of rounded and kidney-shaped flints, leads to the
supposition, that it may be analogous to the chalk formation of Europe,
and if so, it will follow, that the vast ranges of the Himalya, so long
supposed to exhibit strata of gneiss and mica schists alone, will be found
to present formations entirely analogous to those of other mountainous
countries, even from the granite upwards to the alluvium, at present in
course of deposition and accumulation.
The range on which Subathoo stands, exhibits another example of the
effects of what I have termed a double upheavement.
Seen from the dak bungalow of Chamier, the outcrop of the sandstone
strata is seen dipping towards the N. Eastward, while the same rocks
from which they have been torn, dip on the Chamier side of the Glen,
towards the S. Westward.
But the N. Easterly dip is not the true direction, for we see again on the
opposite side of the same range, that the strata dip likewise to the S. W.
Therefore, the deep valley or glen between the Subathoo and Chamier
ranges is the fine of disruption of the strata, causing them, as it were,
to dip outward on either hand.
From Subathoo downwards to the foot of the hills, the strata belong
to the lias formation, and gradually fade away until they yield at
227
1341.] Copt. Huttons Geological Report.
length to the sandstones of the tertiary series, in which, at various places
from Nahn to Buddee, the fossil exuviae of extinct quadrupeds are found.
This, although but a faint and meagre outline of the geology of
the noble ranges of the western Himalaya, is nevertheless sufficient to
point out the formations which occur from the base of the mountains
to Spiti and Ludak, and is as much as could be done in a hasty tour
over so extensive a field. I shall now, therefore, draw this somewhat
lengthy paper to a close, by alluding to the means by which the im-
bedded exuviae of these formations have been brought to light in these
latter days.
I have already stated, that the fall of man is the true period to which
the loss of the fossil marine Mollusca of the Spiti and Subathoo fields
is to be referred.
At the time of their extinction, the secondary strata in which they
are imbedded were under course of deposition in horizontal beds, beneath
the bosom of a tranquil water, and thus they remained for a period of
many years after.
The increasing depravity of the human race, once more called down the
vengeance of an offended God, and brought about the second and last grand
revolution which the earth has experienced, namely, the Mosaic deluge.
That catastrophe was the means by which the destruction of the large
terrestial mammalia of the tertiary strata was effected.
When, therefore, the waters had performed the punitory offices for which
they were allowed to transgress their bounds, the mountains of the Hima-
lya were caused, among others, to rise upwards by some vast volcanic
or upheaving agent, in order to throw back the ocean from the earth, and
gather it again into the place appointed to receive it.
By that upheavement the primary series of the Snowy Range was thrust
aloft in torn and ragged spires, while the secondary strata of Spiti and
Subathoo then first rose upwards from their horizontal plane to the in-
clined position which they now possess. Consequent on the uprise of this
secondary series was also that of the tertiary beds, and thus we find one
single geological revolution to be the sole agent in upheaving the strata of
three widely distinct and separate formations.
The Snowy Range or true Himalya, is composed entirely of rocks belong-
ing to the primary series, while to the north and south of it are found rest-
ing on its sides, strata of the secondary formationsd isposed at high angles
from the horizon, and usually rich in the exuviae of marine and lacustrine
Mollusca ; while ont he southern exposure, forming the base of the hills,
and resting on the secondary rocks, occur the tertiary or diluvian beds,
which the successful researches of Messrs. Falconer, Durand, and others, in
228
Capt. Hutton’s Geological Report.
[No. 111.
the present day, have proved to be so rich in the exuviae of the now ex-
tinct forms which once inhabited these countries. Whether this last series
occurs also on the northern side, is a point for future investigation ; but as
fossil bones are sometimes brought down by native travellers from the
Tartar hills beyond Almorah, it would seem that similar phenomena are
to be expected there.
The inclined position both of the secondary and tertiary series, is clear-
ly attributable to the outbreak of the primary rocks from beneath or
through them and furnishes to the inquiring mind, a sure and beautiful
guide by which the period when these vast mountain ranges first rose
upwards to adorn our earth, may be satisfactorily and positively deter-
mined. The conclusion, therefore, to be drawn from the facts observable
in these strata, are all strictly in accordance with the rules of geological
reasoning, and I shall therefore now bring the subject to a close, by endea-
vouring to show the reasoning and existing facts to be in unison, and thus
fix the period to which must be referred the stupendous and never-fading
monuments of Almighty power, exhibited in the vast upheavements of the
Himalyan range.
It is a fact accepted and admitted by geology as indisputable, that
where one series of rocks having a horizontal position is found to rest
upon another whose strata are inclined, it amounts to positive certainty,
that the deposition of the former took place subsequent to the upheaving of
the latter ; and vice versa, where both series are found, the one resting on
the other at high angles with the horizon, that the deposition of the supe-
rior strata took place previous to the upheavement of those by which they
are supported.
Resting on the primary rocks of the Snowy Range, we find on either side
the strata of the secondary series thrown into an inclined position by the
upheavement of the granite and its usual accompaniments of gneiss and mica
slates, proving by their inclined position, according to the above reasoning,
that they were deposited previous to the outburst of the former through them.
Again we perceive, that resting on the secondary rocks the tertiary or
diluvial strata of the Siwalik range have also an inclined position, conse-
quent on the upheavement of the primary and secondary series, and there-
fore, that they too, by a parity of reasoning, were deposited previous to the
upheavement of the two former.
Now the tertiary or diluvial strata containing the fossil exuviae of extinct
terrestrial Mammalia are clearly attributable to the effects of the last great
revolution which our earth has undergone, and consequently, we derive from
the phenomena, presented to our notice in the various formations of the
Himalyan mountains, sure and decided data for determining the period of
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V
$
yiittrij Sfrini-a. of !,u Hu 11 at*] a/, Sfctua.n^ h-cro tits. ufilt ta.vcai f,i t / •y fjs* Prunm-rtf Strata. Cel 'J
ii <1 ccu/ ft, h< f, csceieu e«' '! «s<M^>rt, of tbs Scco vtoi n. r u .St-rotZa O. / t£. £ . un ci Iks, Tcrlicor u civ,] t^s t is
Jt of Ike, Plains.
Capt. Huttons Geological Report.
229
1841.]
their first upheavement, which period the facts adduced enable us to as-
sign to the first subsidence of the waters of the Moasic deluge. — (See plate)
Fig. 9.)
We may suppose, therefore, that when the ocean had been permitted to
transgress its bounds, and had again enveloped the earth as in the time be-
fore the third creative day, or separation of land and water ; and had by its
devastating effects fulfilled to the utmost the dreadful doom assigned to all
organised creation, the vast and imposing ranges of the Himalya and
other mountains were caused to burst upwards by volcanic agents from
below', as a means of throwing back the waters from the earth into those
bounds appointed to receive them, and also to furnish, by their subsequent
accumulations of everlasting snows, a never-failing reservoir from w'hich
the rivers of the plains were to be supplied with waters to fertilize the
soil ; which plains, had the mountains been of inferior elevation, would for
ever have remained barren and desolate, except during the prevalence of
the periodical monsoon ; for it is apparent, that in the hot climates of the
eastern world, no snows could have rested upon mountains of a lesser alti-
tude sufficiently long to afford a never-failing supply of waters for irriga-
tion.
Thus, even in the ordering of a mountain range, and the furnishing of
wintery snows, is the wisdom and unvarying goodness of the Great First
Cause, made manifest to the minds of his inquiring creatures.
To enter at length into the means by which these revolutions took place,
and the reasons why they were allowed, belongs more properly to a sys-
tem or theory of geology than to a paper professing to be merely an out-
line of the geological formations of a limited district.
I shall, therefore, for the present, leave the question in this imperfect
form with less regret, since I purpose ere long, (should circumstances be-
friend me,) to lay before the Society and the Public a theory, which I
would fain believe worthy of their most serious and attentive consideration.
Candahar,
1 9th July, 1840.
230
On the two wild species of Sheep inhabiting the Himalayan region ,
with some brief remarks on the craniological character of Ovis, and
its allies. — By B. H. Hodgson, Esq. Resident at the Court of Nepal.
The great paucity of unquestionably wild species of the genus Ovis
now found throughout the habitable globe, is a fact that has been em-
ployed to cast a speculative doubt upon my announcement (Catalogue
of 1832 and 1838,) of two species in the single region of the Hima-
laya ; and the circumstance of my not having been able therefore to ,
give as full and satisfactory an account of the second species as I long
ago gave of the first, (see Journal for September, 1835,) from living
specimens, has tended to confirm the above mentioned doubt. I am
still unpossessed of similar valuable materials for the illusrtation of
this second species, having never been able to procure the animal alive,
nor even to obtain a perfect suite of the spoils of a grown male. I
have horns, however, of the mature ram, and sculls and skins of others,
varying from one to two years in age ; and from these, not inadequate
materials, I purpose now to furnish a specific character of the Ammon-
like, as well as (for the sake of comparison,) of the Musmon-like animal,
together with craniological sketches aud details relative to both ; such
as will suffice, I hope, to place beyond further question, the existence
of two entirely distinct, new, and peculiar breeds of Sheep in a state of
nature in the Himalaya ; where indeed, from the unparalleled elevation
and extent of the mountains, it need be no rational matter of surprise
that they exist.
Ovis Ammono'ides, Nob. — Large wild sheep, with massive strictly
trigonal sub-compressed horns, deeper than broad at the base, presenting
a flat surface vertically to the front, and cultrated edge beneath, insert-
ed not in contact on the crest of the frontals, remote from the orbits,
directed backwards and outwards with a bold circular sweep : the flat-
tened points being again subrecurved outwards and the whole surface
covered with numerous heavy complete wrinkles : the forehead flat and
broad : the nose scarcely arched, and much attenuated to a fine small
muzzle : the ears short, pointed, and striated : the tail short and deer-
like, and the limbs fine and elevated : the vesture composed of close,
thick, more or less porrect, brittle piles of medial uniform length, con-
cealing a scanty fleece : no beard nor mane : general colour dull slaty
231
1841.] Two wild species of Sheep in the Himalayas.
blue, paled on the surface, and more or less tinted with rufous : dorsal
ridge dark and embrowned : lips, chin, belly, and insides of limbs near
it, dull hoary: limbs externally, below the central flexures, rufescent
hoary : snout to base of tail seventy to seventy-two inches : mean
height forty-two : head straight to crest of frontals, fourteen : tail with
the hair, eight : ears, six : horns, along the curve, forty.
Females smaller, with much smaller, compressed (?) nearly straight
horns. Young, with the colours deeper and more sordid. Vulgo,
Banbhera and Bhaaral.
Ovis Nahoor, Nob. Medial sized wild Sheep, with moderate, subtrigo-
nal, uncompressed horns, presenting a rounded surface obliquely to the
front, and a cultrated edge to the rear, inserted nearly in contact on the
crest of the frontals, less remote from the orbits, and directed upwards
and outwards with a semicircular sweep ; the rounded points being
again recurved backwards and inwards, and the general surface va-
guely marked with infrequent rugae : forehead broad and flat : chaffron
arched : muzzle less attenuated : ears erect, short, and striated, and tail
short and deer-like, as in the last : vesture or fur also similar, without
beard or mane : general colour dull slaty blue, paled on the surface, and
more or less tinted there with brownish or fawn : head below, and belly
and insides of the limbs near it, yellowish white : face, or nose rather,
fronts of the intire limbs, a connecting band along the flanks, whole
chest and tip of the tail, black : no disk on the buttocks : their mere
margin and that of the tail, paled. Snout to rump sixty inches : mean
height thirty-six : head, as before, eleven : tail with the hair seven and
three quarters : ears five and three quarters : horns along the curve,
twenty- four. Females smaller, with small straightish, suberect, de-
pressed horns, directed upwards chiefly, and with the dark marks on
the limbs and chest less extended than in the male ; frequently the chest
is wholly unmarked. Young, with the colours deeper and more sordid ;
the marks still less extended, and wanting wholly on the chest and
flanks. Vulgo Nahoor of the Nepalese.
N. B. Since the Prince of Musignano has published his account of the
Musmon, it has become quite evident that our Nahoor cannot be
identified with that species ; and though the vaguer accounts of the
Asiatic Argali render a like confident judgment in regard to the inde-
pendence thereon of Ammonoides difficult of attainment, yet all
232 Two wild species of Sheep in the Himalayas. [No. 111.
appearances warrant that conclusion. I proceed now to the oste-
ology.
Dimensions of sculls and horns of (1) Ammono'ides junior, (with
horns of senior,); and (2) of Ndhodr.
I.
II.
Ft. In.
Ft. In.
Scull.
Length from symp. intermax -j
i H
0
101
to crest frontals, .. ...J
Greatest height at the crest,...
0 91
0
Of
Greatest width between ex- )
ternal margin of orbits, ... i
0 71
0
5i
Diameter of orbits, ...
0 21
0
\2
16
Symp intermax to tips of nasals,
0
0
2-
zi6
Length of nasals,
Height or length of occiput to^
lower edge of great condyles, J
0 6
0 0
0
4
0
4f
Horns.
Length of, along the curve,...
1 10
3
3
1
11
Basal circuit of, ...
1 11
1
H
0
10f
Basal depth of,
0 4J
0
H
0
H
Basal width of (across,)
0 31
0
H
0
34
Terminal interval of,
1 9
1
8
1
H
Basal interval of, ...
0 0|
0
Of
0
Of
Weight,
71bs.
201bs.
71
1 2
lbs.
The above are males, of which the Ndhodr is old, and Ammono'ides
about eighteen months to two years ; but the second pair of the horns
given are those of an old male.
The sculls of both have the same general character, possessing alike
large flat foreheads, with the frontals half-developed on the posteal
plane of the scull, which falls perpendicularly, and nearly at right angles
from the anteal plane, whereon the frontals have an extreme breadth
exceeding their length by one-third almost. The sculls of both alike
have, moreover, the nasals somewhat arched ; and half the anteal extent,
with all the posteal, of the frontals is bounded by the broad proximate
bases of the horns, which, however, extend over the true occiput
in neither. The differences observable in the sculls are chiefly, that
the orbits are more salient in the Ndhodr, and have no semblance
before them on the lacrymal and malar bones of that roundish depres-
sion which in deer and antelopes holds the cuticular suborbital sinus :
1841.] Two wild species of Sheep in the Himalayas. 233
whereas before the less salient orbits of the B/idral, that depression
is palpably marked. Less marked discrepancies between the sculls
are found in the greater arch of the nasals in the Nahoor ; the more
complete concealment of the frontals superiorly and anteriorly by the
bases of the horns ; and the greater attenuation forwards of the max-
illary and intermaxillary bones. In the horns the distinctions be-
tween the two species are very palpable ; those of the Banbhera being
more massive, strictly trigonal, with a flat surface forwards, far more
heavily wrinkled, and much more completely curved towards a circle,
whence it results that the bases are thrown more off the forehead,
and that the direction at first is parallel to the plane of the face. In
the Nahodr , on the other hand, the horns though ample, are neither
as massive nor as long as in the Banbhera. So far from being a
perfect trigonal, the anterior half of them almost is broadly convexed :
their surface is very much smoother ; their divergency greater ; their
bend towards the circle far less complete, and consequently their bases
lie more over the forehead, and they have for some way upwards, a
direction much before the plane of the face. In the Nahodr, the horns
towards their tips are rounded or cylindrical, and are decidedly revert-
ed out of the line of the first curve, backwards and inwards. In the
other species, or Bharal, the characteristics of the horns in these res-
pects are compression to flatness, and a less decided retroversion of
the extremities, leaving the actual points directed forwards and outwards.
I shall conclude this paper with a general remark, which is, that the
great depth or extent of the posteal plane of the scull, (comprehending
half the frontal and all the parietal bones,) and the acute angle it forms
with the anteal plane* in the genus Ovis, will be found to be characters of
more permanency and moment in separating this genus and Capra from
the nearest adjacent groups of Ruminants, than most of the diagnostics
now employed ; and that we have Cuvier’s example in regard to the
Bovine group to authorise our adoption of the additional and so much
required mark as now suggested for the Caprine or rather Ovine. I sub-
join an outline of the typical Antelopine and Cervine form of scull
on one hand, and that of the normal form in Ovis and Capra on
the other; and those only who would reject an essential part of
* The consequences of these peculiarities in the low position of the condyles of the
lower jaw, and of the foramen magnum, are also marked.
234 Two wild species of Sheep in the Himalayas. QNo. 111.
the now generally recognised diagnostics of the groups of the Bovidoe,
(Taurus, Bubalus, 8cc.) or who are ignorant of the shadowy nature
of the existing marks of discrimination between Antelope, Ovis, and
Capra, will, I apprehend, refuse to adopt the now suggested more
enlarged application of Cuvier’s principles. Either those principles
are false, or this larger application of them is as legitimate as it is
requisite. On these principles, (as on others,) Cervus and Ovis re-
present the extremes, and Antelopa and Capra the means : l?ut there
is a regular graduation from Cervus to Antelopa, from it to Capra,
and from it again to Ovis ; in such wise, however, that the two former
fall naturally into one great group, and the two latter into another,
Cervus and Ovis being the typical forms. And I may add as a proof
how useful the new diagnosis now proposed is, and how harmonious
in practice with other and admitted criterea, that, measured by this
standard, our Hemitragus (the Jharal ) is as clearly a caprine form
as Ogilvy’s Kemas (the Ghoral) is an antelopine one. Thus too the
affinity of the Musks and Muntjacs to Cervus, however apparently
anomalous they seem to be, is rendered palpably evident, and the
soundness of our diagnosis consequently further corroborated.
With regard to Ovis and Capra, inter-se, Cuvier’s ‘ forehead concave’
for the latter, and ‘ forehead convex’ for the former genus, are clearly
erroneous marks ; but those sometime since suggested by me, of
‘ males odorous,’ and ‘ males not odorous,’ as respectively characteris-
tic of Capra and Ovis, I find confirmed by every day’s experience :
nor is this discriminative sign dependent, as supposed, on season in
any degree, nor even on age after the animal has reached about four
months, so soon is the odour developed in Capra.
Nipal, March, 1841. H. B. Hodgson. •
Explanation of the Illustrations.
I. — 1. 2. Front view of the horns and sculls of our two species of
Sheep, to prove their distinctness.
II. — Sketch of Ovis Nahoor.
III. — Lateral outline view of two sculls, designed to exhibit the
characteristic form in Cervus and Antelope (1) on the one hand,
and in Ovis and Capra (2) on the other : and I may add, that
the animals having been females, and not specially selected, the
distinction contended for is thus shown to be peculiarly valid.
235
On the Laws and Law-books of the Armenians. By Johannes
Avdall, Esq., M. A. S. &c.
[This paper, Mr. Avdall informs me, was drawn up at the instance of Mr. J. C. C. Sutherland,
who having referred to the author for information on the recognized sources of Armenian law, was
answered by the production of this erudite paper. It contains a very clear exposition of a subject
wholly unknown to general students, and mooting points of historical as well as legal interest.]
An account of the first enactment of laws, instituted in Armenia, by
the Armenian king Valarsaces, a descendant of the Arsacidae, is re-
corded in the historical work of Moses Chorenensis, a Latin translation
of which, with the Armenian text, was published at London, in the
year 1735, by the two brothers, William and George Whiston. This
Armenian historian, of venerable antiquity, enumerates in a successive
and proper order, the rules and regulations enacted by Valarsaces, both
for the guidance of the inmates of the royal palace, and of the citizens
in general. 44 I?*- oplfbu ^ muuiuimlp tiwfli
7. “ Legesque quasdam de aula sua posuit, quibus exeundi et intrandi,
consiliorum, et epularum atque oblectamentarum tempora distribuit.
Ampliorem dignitatem atque honorem civibus, quam rusticis haberi
jubet ; Rusticis, ut cives, tanquam principes, colant, imperat ; Civibus,
ne se erga rusticos superbe gerant, sed fraternam inter se vitam
degant, honeste institutam, et ab invidia remotam, unde tranquillitas
vitae et securitas, aliaque ejusdem generis sint oritura.” Lib. ii.
Cap. vix. — From the foregoing facts it is evident that Valarsaces had
236
On the Laws and Law-books of the Armenians. [No. 111.
given a code of laws for the guidance of the Armenians. To have
orally delivered these laws, without committing them to writing, was
Eut, of all the laws enacted by this king, one is repeatedly quoted by
Moses of Chorene, which shall be mentioned below.
Laws enacted during the reign of the Arsacidce, first by Valarsaces
the Parthian, and afterwards by others.
In the foregoing chapter Moses Chorenensis writes thus about
Valarsaces : “ ^utUr^\t p.uiqnL.tT ru-utnfrpu t
“ Caeteriim quum multos filios haberet, parum utile esse ratus, ut cuncti
ad Nisibim manerent, in provinciam eos Hastensem dimisit, et ad
Zoram, quae fines ejus contingit, trans Taronem sitam ; illisque uni-
versa ea oppida attribuit et stipendia insuper de gaza regia singulis
statuit ; at ex filiis suis, natu solum maximum, Arsaces ei nomen
erat, imperio destinatum. Deinceps inde consuetudo Arsacidarum
fiuit, ut unus de filiis cum rege habitaret, regni successor futurus,
caeterfque filii ac filiae in regionem Hastensem ad possessiones
suas abirent.” Artavazd the First, moreover, conferred on the Ar-
menian princes, possession of the provinces of Aliovit and Arberany.
certainly unbecoming the enlightened and civilised reign of Valarsaces.
1841.]
On the Laws and Law-books of the Armenians.
237
ii IJlU (f~ IU IL. tjji tup. t,rj II I IJ tlflllj Illy fj p_ 111 ft IS flL.p Ll. fj.p ' Yr 11
tpLUt-UM-U W'/?' nij tnji fjL jiufhnj y ftf nijpuJ foninu
tg i fin iLli in ptpn i ^hjs np ^ 2_^u uybiT rp uil.ui ri^uis] y f, utb -
splrpA ut H- ujU a jfh //_ hl riT*? fpjirj y pum op^shus LUtJ~
tp >ii Ij nth ’i/ipi np l^ncppjiUu tup m tfhfitf » npugtpu cjf
ifilihj “ti np tit u^uiie/nLuifjLuiiujtpjyfo Ll cu ri. in c !,[ Jpfiutpui-
t-nptuqlfu tp ’I fit tpujUu ^^p put If null ^iu ♦ JJiuijL op jilt uiipplp
^/ffruipj^jpuipium ’/' pfUu,!ln, [J\nCl, u,p,puj[, j” /X ♦
21. “ Is fratribus suis ac sororibus possessions in provinciis Alu-
hotensi et Arberanensi dedit, regeumque eis vectigal attribuit, quod
ex provinciae ejus oppidis redibat, propriumque ipsis stipendium in-
super statuit, de more cognatorum, qui in regione Hastensi habitabant,
ut honoratiores essent, atque adeo ad regeam dignitatem propiiis ac-
cederent quam Arsacidae caeteri ; lege tantum sanxit, ne Araratam,
quae erat regia habitatio, incolerent.” — TAb. ii. Cap. xxi. — Sanatruk
also sent the daughters of Abgarus to that part of the country, about
which Moses of Chorene says : — — 1 u tOu m Jh ‘liiujii qutuiulf utufltU
\^p.rpmpnu iFuipfruip npnij p-’ug J m rjf If in tip y tfnpu fr ^ uih
Ifi ^pvurfutfplpU ^pipfrufinj'j pLhuilftrp ^ tfmpFiuhu X^nip-
m » ” f- • 32. “ Sed omnem Abgari stirpem, praeter puellas,
ferro sustulit, quas, ex oppido eductas, in provincia Hastenid collocavit.”
Lib. ii. Cap. xxxii. — Following this example, Artavazd the Second, sent
the other princes to those provinces. “ X^mpn^rl- j\\jpcnpm-
mnj qtuJIsUiujb !r ijpuipti ft up ^ tpinuniiun \\rjji n ij //> utj
Ll. \^n.p.frpiuUnj , lb *V p-buiLjtrutjLfh j\\jp,np,„„, ’/s
IfUtpiU l lib'll llipjj'jyfl y p-UJP rJ$l,l1U,h ( r/fr,ir!"JL
ftup ) ufiuGylp iftnfnuubnpip [tup . tjj\ l * V~ *
58. “ Artavazdes omnes fratres suos ab Ararata in Aluotam et Ar-
beraniam provincias pepulit, ut ne Araratam ac possessiones regias
incolerent. Tiranum modo secum retinuit, regni successorem, cum
sibi non esset filius.” Lib. ii. Cap. lviii — The royal descendants
having permanently settled in these parts of the country, began to
238
On the Laws and Law-books of the Armenians. [No. 111.
increase and multiply, and after the lapse of several years, the number
of their offspring became very considerable, so much so, that an appeal
was made by them to Tiran the First, touching the insufficiency of
the provinces allotted for their habitation, to contain such an in-
creased and increasing number of inhabitants. Moses of Chorene says :
44 trlffriup uin. "hui lfUilijijuiif.njU fiuptij uitftf-fiL
2pi If n lAi !r uiij np kFh 7' 'i ntpJiuhu ^ m 2p> frli^i tj , uiufrU •
pUij_uipAui If frill tlhtf^ tfS~iun.uiUipni- Rb^ u tffi "hfrrp ;
tempore interjecto ad eum gens sua Arsaeidarum venit, quae Has-
tenios tractus havitavit, dicens, “ profer nobis haereditatis fines,
quae arctae sunt, cum siraus admodum multiplicati.” Ille verb eorum
nonnullos in Aluotam et Arberaniam provincias migrare jussit ;
cumque ii ad regem acrius clamarent, regionem earn ipsos nimis
coarctare, Tiranus, nihil annuens, Edicto sanxit daturum se eis hae-
reditatem aliam nullam ; quara tenebant, aequaliter inter se divi-
derent. Quam cum pro hominum numero partiti essent, incolis minime
sufficere Hastenia reperta est, ac propterea multi eorum in provincias
Aluotam et Arberaniam commigrarunt.” Lib u. Cap. lix. — Imme-
diately after the death of Khosrow the Great, when Ardashir, king of
Persia, made an aggression on Armenia and conquered the country, he
extended his royal munificence and support to these descendants of the
Armenian kings. For the said venerated historian says : 44 \*uff
Wp in in tf.frrjfrplfuiuflpu juipif-uipfruip tfui^juiup^u
239
1841.] On the Laws and Law-boohs of the Armenians.
Z*U'J
k// !j/u 'liji ifti \ijuip ^uijnpi^.fiiftij fjfilh fyiiintiitj fr nipt it ^ & Ui-
ft. j\^puipuiufti ^bui^fr^nj l^uipcptp ^ uihrijjiu
Jaifi^ ft. n.nTStfO'p npujt^u kfift* t” j£ * 74. Turn Artasires
Armeniae terram egregie ornavit, atque in antiquum statum restituit.
Arsacidas ab regno et domicilio Araratensi pulsos, in eundem locum
reduxit, et eadem eis, quae prius habuerant, stipendia statuit.” Lib.
ii. Cap. lxxiv.
n3 y* 111 ,T-U'P ^ ujuiniainf~p , thui ft. ^^i-
Of the Satraps of Armenia.
History also tells us, that there were specific laws extant for the
guidance of the Satraps of Armenia. Faustus of Byzantium, who wrote
an Armenian history in the fourth century, alludes to the existence of
certain laws, which seem to have obtained in Armenia only during the
reign of Khosrow the Little. “ Posterior to this,” says Faustus, “ the
Persians were incessant in waging wars with the king Khosrow. Laws
were, in consequence, enacted by the king for the guidance of the
Armenian satraps, grandees, chiefs, and lords, whose number Was very
considerable, and on whom it was made obligatory to remain near to
their royal master, and none of them were permitted to accompany
the expedition against the king of Persia. This measure was adopted
by Khosrow, from a want of confidence in the sincerity of the attach-
ment of the nobles of his court. The terror of the disloyalty of Databi
had seized upon his mind, and he apprehended the occurrence of a
similar event in his own country.” Faustus. Lib. hi. Cap. viii.
Laws enacted during the reign of the Bagratidce.
Of the laws enacted during the days of the Bagratian kings, no
record has been preserved in the annals of the Armenian historians.
But, from ancient Armenian manuscripts, found at Lemberg or Leopolis,
a city in Poland, it is ascertained that the Armenians, who emigrated
in the eleventh century from the thickly populated city of Ani,* and
other provinces of Armenia to that part of Europe, had carried with
them the code of laws by which they were guided in their own
* Ani was a most magnificent and populous city in Armenia towards the close of
the tenth century, and contained one thousand and one churches ! See my History of
Armenia, vol. ir. p, 92. It is nothing now, but a heap of ruins.
2 G
240 On the Laws and Law-books of the Armenians. [No. 111.
country. This code of laws was translated into Latin in the year
1548, by order of Sigismund the First, king of Poland. It is greatly
to be regretted that not a single copy of this Latin translation of the
Armenian code of laws has made its way to British India. It is,
however, consolatory to learn, that this translation is to this day
preserved in the library of the Armenian College at Venice. Sigis-
mund writes thus in the preface to that code of laws : “ Although we
have to this day sheltered and protected the Polish Armenians, our
subjects, under their own Armenian privileges and laws, by which our
predecessors had acknowledged and governed them, but on the occur-
rence of dissensions and disputes between them and the citizens, it was
thought necessary to have that law-book of theirs, which was written in
the Armenian language, and which was only understood by themselves,
translated by them into Latin, and presented to us in that form, so that
every cause of suspicion and collusion should be removed, and that we
should, by the help of the members of our council, make judicious
inquiries into its contents, and, by a slight alteration, confirm the
same.” After writing thus far, he mentions the name of Johannes,
the Bagratian king, and cites his mandate in the following manner :
“ Johannes, by the grace of God, king of Armenia, during the days
of his auspicious reign enjoined, not to open courts of judicature
on Sundays — not to borrow money — not to prefer claims against
debtors ; and made other similar enactments for the observance of
Sundays.” After this he adds : “ It is enjoined by the Armenian king
Theodosius, (perhaps Ashot,) of happy and blessed memory, and
other orthodox Armenian kings and princes, to render justice and equity
to all — to cities, towns, villages,” et hoc genus omne. These quota-
tions are corroborative of the existence of laws and law-books in
Armenia, during the reign of the Bagratidae.
Of the succession of Kings.
Although after the subversion of the kingdom of the Bagratidae, we
meet with a specimen of the law of succession in the commencement
of the code of Mechithar Ghosh,* yet it is evident that this law was in
* Mechithar Ghosh flourished iu Armenia towards the close of the twelfth, and the
beginning of the thirteenth century. Besides his code of laws, he is known to be the
author of several other valuable works in the Armenian language. Ghosh is the cor-
241
1841.] On the Laws and Law-books of the Armenians.
force in Armenia during the reign of the Bagratian kings, with some
slight variations. In the days of the Arsacidae the crown devolved
from son to son in a lineal succession ; but the law of the Bagratidse
confers the right of succession upon brothers. There are also some
other laws, of which I shall furnish the reader with an extract :
“ Although,” says this legislator, “ the crown by right devolves upon
the first-born, yet the most eminent for his wisdom is to succeed to the
throne. So long as the king’s brothers survive him, his sons are
debarred from a succession to the throne. But, on the extinction
or demise of the brothers, then the crown devolves upon the king’s
sons. Should the king leave a daughter surviving him, she is to
be invested with the title of nobility, and is, together with her hus-
band, entitled to one-half of a share of a brother. And, on the demise
of kings, if there be a son from the son, and a son from the daughter,
the son’s son is to succeed to the throne, but not the daughter’s. And
so long as there may be descendants of the son, the daughter’s children
are debarred from succession, at which any attempt made by the latter
is unlawful and unjust. For, it was in this manner that our king
Abgarus enacted laws for the succession to the throne of Persia. And
the patriarch Noah apportioned to the sons and the daughter, the
regions of the southward, as women also rule over those parts.” —
Then the legislator describes the manner in which the succession is to
descend when there be only a daughter, but no son surviving the king.
Or, if there be no heir to the king, then the right of succession devolves
on his kinsmen, one of whom only is to reside at the royal palace near
the king, and the rest are to be domiciled at a distance, according to
the custom prevalent among the former kings of Armenia. All this is
written by Mechithar Ghosh, in the commencement of the second chap-
ter of his code of laws. By the last quotation, the legislator means to
allude to that usage of the kings of the Arsacidae, of which mention
was made above. The law of succession was not, however, kept invio-
late during the reign of the Bagratidse, among whom there were
ruption of the Persian word corresponding with^iupk or-PuT3 or vulgo
^ouujfj in Armenian. This appellative cognomen was added to the Christian
name of the Armenian legislator, in consequence of his having very little or no beard.
By this distinguishing appellation he is invariably mentioned throughout the works
of his cotemporaneous writers, and in the page of our national history.
242
On the Lares and Law-books of the Armenians.
[No. 111.
found some pretenders and upstarts, who created disturbances by dis-
puting the right of succession. The collision of Atshot with his bro-
ther Johannes, is a remarkable instance of this dispute.* But, during
the reign of the Arsacidae, the whole of the royal descendants, with the
exception of Sanatruk, adhered to this law of succession.
Some other items of the Laws of the Bagratidce.
Taxes are alluded to in the second chapter of the code of Mechithar
Ghosh, who treats of the royal courts of judicature, and of those
subordinate thereto : “ Kings and princes,” says this legislator,
“ ought justly to impose taxes on lands and nations, and not to exact
more than what is tolerated or allowed by immemorial usages. They will
have to render an account of their stewardship to the great God. They
were appointed for the preservation and welfare of the country, but
not to entail ruin and misery upon the people placed under their
government. The imposition of taxes ought to be in the following
manner : one-fifth of the produce of cultivated lands is to be given to
the state. Lands, gardens, and orchards, purchased by the people, are
not to be subjected to this tribute. Watermills and houses are in like
manner to enjoy this exemption. The inhabitants are to be taxed for
the trade in which they are respectively engaged, and the commodities
which they offer for sale. Christians are considered exempt from a
poll tax, which is only to be imposed upon unbelievers. Irrigated
lands are subjected to a tribute of one- fifth of their produce, and
affranchised or quit lands are subject to the payment of tithes. Be-
cause the right of kings and princes extends only to earth, but not to
water, affranchised lands, orchards, and gardens, are also exempt from
taxation. In like manner, of the seven days in the week, one is to be
devoted to the royal service. To demand from labourers more than this,
is a great injustice. No specific tax is to be imposed upon oxen,
besides that of one-fifth alluded to above. A pound of butter is only
to be levied upon each cow. Pasture-grounds are exempt from the tax
which is imposed upon cattle that graze therein. The sheep are to be
tithed in their lambkins, which can be exchanged with the sheep ad
libitum. Horses, mules, and asses, are not to be taxed, because by the
* Vide my History of Armenia, vol 11. p. 109.
1841.] On the Laws and Law-books of the Armenians. 243
help of these animals essential services are rendered to the government
of the country.”
From the same chapter of the code of Mechithar Ghosh, we shall
quote what relates to the administration and law of precedence of the
ancients. “ It is unjust in princes to impose a tax upon believers, be-
cause the unbelievers are alone to be taxed. It is proper to exact tribute
from the latter, but not from the former, as it is done by the Georgians
to those placed under their subjection. When a tract of land is grant-
ed by the crown to an Armenian nobleman, — if a fort be raised on it by
the latter in accordance with the royal consent, or if a village be con-
structed thereon, or if ruined buildings be repaired thereon, — then, and in
that case, the same tract of land is to devolve on him and his heirs in
perpetuity. The land so granted is by no means to be alienated from
him without a very serious and heinous offence. And, after the death
of the person or persons on whom that land is conferred, the gift is to
devolve on his, her, or their, descendants by order of the king. In like
manner, nobles are to be next to princes, according to the seniority or
priority of the latter, and citizens and peasants ought to be subordinate
to nobles. — Forests cleared, and ruined places repaired or rebuilt, are to
be the undisputed and inalienable property of the enterprising persons
at whose expense the works were performed, and are to devolve on
their children in perpetuity after their death. On the construction of a
city or fort, should there be a deficiency of money in the public trea-
sury, it is incumbent on the people to render their general support
towards the completion of the building. Citizens are to enjoy the honor
of precedence to villagers, and inhabitants of villages should precede
in rank the farmers and husbandmen. This law of precedence is, in
like manner, to obtain among the denizens of forts and villages. These
have been the usual and invariable practices among the ancient kings of
Armenia.” The concluding portion of this quotation alludes to the
usages prevalent in our country during the reign of Valarsaces, as stated
above.
Courts of Judicature, and Codes of Laws in Armenia.
In our national history mention is made of the institution of courts
of judicature by Valarsaces, during the days of the Arsacidae, as it ap-
pears from the testimony of Moses of Chorene, while speaking of the
214
On the Laws and Law-books of tJte Armenians. [No. 111.
public acts of this monarch. “ W' uiuiupuipu ift U! Lift UJpjirU-
“ Judices in aula regi&, judices in oppidis villisque statuit.” Lib.
ii. Cap. vii. Where there are judges, there must of necessity be courts
of judicature, in which judges and arbiters hear causes, and administer
justice by the employment of officers and subordinates, without whom
judicial affairs cannot be properly managed and conducted. But, that
there were actually courts of judicature in existence in Armenia, we
have conclusive and satisfactory evidence in the work of that ancient
“ Quibus adhuc devicis at provinciis, atque etiam rebus sigillatim
domesticis, publicisque controversiis, ac fcederibus, scripta extant apud
nos innumera historiarum volumina, ac praecipue dum successio mansit
libera.” Lib. i. Cap. ii. It is evident that such codes of laws and
instruments regarding which disputes and differences might have na-
turally arisen, by the lapse of several years, among heirs, coheirs, and
legatees, were carefully kept in courts of judicature, conformably to the
order of the government of the country. This has been the common aud
invariable practice of civilized nations, in all ages and in all countries.
We have also incontrovertible proofs of the existence of law-books in
Armenia during the reign of the Bagratidae, in the Latin translation of
the code complied and prepared under the auspices of the Armenian
king, Johannes the Bagratian, of which mention was made above.
The classification of the chapters of this code is preceded by this sen-
tence : — “ The Armenian kings lay down this model of justice for the
guidance of their judges.” — Then follow, in separate chapters, laws
respecting the adjustment of disputes arising from wills — laws enacted
for the settlement of differences among married parties — and laws in-
tended for the correction of offenders and the punishment of criminals.
In the face of all these evidences, one cannot but be greatly astonish-
ed in reading the introduction to the code of Mechithar Ghosh, where-
245
1841.J On the Laws and Law-books of the Armenians,
in he frequently alludes to a total absence of laws and law-books
among the Armenians, and to the consequent necessity of his collect-
ing data, and embodying them in the form of a code of laws ! In the
second chapter of his law-book, the heading of which is, “ Why were
we disposed to compile this book, or what incentives induced us to
resolve on framing this code ?” Mechithar Ghosh furnishes the reader
with a statement of his reasons for so doing, of which the following is
an extract : — “ That we have often been accused not only by unbeliev-
ers, but by Christians also, of a total absence of law-books, based
upon the principles of evangelical laws. That lest, from the non-ex-
istence of a written law, the Armenians should apply or appeal to un-
believers for justice. That many, on various occasions, ignorantly
distort the true meaning of laws, and it is for their information and
correction that we were induced to compose this code of laws. Not
content with this alone, we caused this code to be placed in courts of
judicature, as a record intended for occasional and necessary reference.
That being destitute of written laws, our predecessors were unable to
make references, but, on the removal of this want, we shall now avail
ourselves of this record, and be able to afford a proof to unbelievers of
the existence of written laws amongst us, by which they will be silen-
ced, and obliged to desist from heaping on us accusations for the appa-
rent want of a code. We were for a very considerable time subjected
to the keenest reproaches of our countrymen and strangers for the ab-
sence of a law-book, and their censures proved as a spur to us in
undertaking the preparation of a code of laws. ...I was also seized with
astonishment at the apathetic indifference displayed by our ancestors
in not supplying this desideratum. ”
These remarks were written by Mechithar Ghosh, towards the close
of the twelfth century, at which period, as stated above, he flourished
in Armenia in the character of an Armenian lawgiver, and erudite
author. But, as the numerous Armenian families that first quitted
Armenia emigrated to Poland in the middle of the eleventh century,
it is very probable that these emigrants carried with them their own
law-book, which it was impossible for Mechithar Ghosh to meet with
in Armenia. The Armenian colonists in Poland being in possession of
a law-book of their own, were guided by it in all their civil and judi-
cial affairs, as stated above. Yet, upon all this, considering the laws al-
246
On the Laws and Law-books of the Armenians. [No. 111.
luded to by him, relative to the prerogatives of kings and the rights of
princes, we are led to conclude that Mechithar Ghosh was at least
possessed of some fragments of the laws of the kings of the ancient
Bagratidse and Arsacidae, otherwise he. would have candidly declared
that the code was entirely his own production. This carries with
it its own improbability. And it is not injudicious to adopt this con-
clusion from the perusal of the second chapter of the prefatory ob-
servations of his law-book, in which he says : — “ This string of laws
will perhaps be considered an object of ridicule by those in whose
hands it may chance to fall ! They will assimilate us in their mind's
eye to those who, in a fit of delusion, dream of kingdoms and of
royal splendour and glory ; but no sooner they are awakened from
their illusive and enchanting dreams, than they see nothing but the
mere shadow of what their heated imagination had portrayed in glow-
ing colours ! But, let them remember that I am not ignorant of the
vanity and transitoriness of all earthly kingdoms ! Of this we have
a most singular and striking proof in the rise, progress, and annihi-
lation of our own kingdom. The past has vanished for ever — the
present is a mere tantalising nonentity — the future I can scarcely hope
to see! Yet, these distressing circumstances and melancholy reflec-
tions will not be permitted to cool my ardor in prosecuting the task
of framing a complete code of laws, conformable to the wants and
present state of the nation, from the conviction, that the utility
of my production will be generally acknowledged and duly appreci-
ated. In attempting to publish and promulgate this work, I must
crave the kind indulgence of unbiassed observers; and, in so doing,
I stand fully prepared to be visited with the censures of hasty and
fastidious critics, for such errors and imperfections as may be found in
this production of mine. Yet I still entertain a hope, that they will
consider me worthy of credit for good intentions, though they may not
be disposed to extend to me their pardon for the defects of my work."
From these observations of Mechithar Ghosh it is to be inferred, that
the laws contained in his book were not bond fide his sole production,
but a compilation from those framed by ancient Armenian law-givers.
In preparing this article on the laws and law-books of the Armenians,
I have availed myself of Inchichian’s “ Antiquities of Armenia,'' a
work published at Venice in 1835, and replete with deep research and
1841-3 On the Laws and Law-books of the Armenians. 247
most valuable information. If the Mechitharistic Society* * * § of Venice
be disposed to publish a correct edition of the code of Mechithar Ghosh,
and of the book of laws prepared under the auspices of the Armenian
king, Johannes the Bagratian, — authentic copies of which are preserv-
ed in the extensive library of that learned body, — they will certainly
confer a very heavy obligation on their countrymen generally, but
more particularly on the Armenians located within the pale of the go-
vernment of British India. An approved and unexceptionable edition
of these two statute-books of the Armenians, cannot but be most
servicable to the judges of the Sudder Dewany Adawlut, who will be
entirely guided by them as by an unerring criterion in their decisions
on causes and questions arising from hereditary gifts and testamentary
bequests of the Armenians residing under the jurisdiction of the
Mofussil courts. But in the absence of printed Armenian law-books,
questions of succession to property, in cases in which the litigants were
known to be Armenians, have been invariably referred in writing by
the judges of the Company’s courts to such of the Armenian bishops
as happened to sojourn or itinerate in this part of British India, during
the period of their triennial or septennial episcopal visitation, which
they performed in accordance with the written and acknowledged
authority with which they were respectively invested by the pontificate
of Etchmiatchin,j' near Erevan, in the province of Ararat, the arch-
bishoprickf of Julpha in Ispahan, and the patriarchate of Jerusalem, §
* This veteran Society was established in the year 1717, and its members have been
pre-eminently successful in the revival and cultivation of the classical literature of
Armenia, by the publication of numerous philosophical, philological, and scientific
works of sterling merit. The members of this Society lead a strictly monastic life.
The following lines are extracted from the life of its zealous and patriotic founder : —
ee pf b'liuiLtunujbu ujju putn p.nmpffh
r brjll. ’ft ijiiun u j
Qmppujjni. [ti t.tiib tytrpuiuuuujjunj
[3 Uip utj L[ujprpuju{tfm[i‘lj : ”
“ Fuit hoc monasterium totum tempore Mechithar Petri ex Sebaste I. Abbatis
extructum. A. D. 1740.”
"f" ’]> liuiftnurjbtinuuipuiblfh upnj :
+ OfOjrLutfbnpipuipuibl^ z
§ \ppnuinurjl;ttyi :
2 H
248 On the Laws and Law-books of the Armenians. QNo. 111.
to which each or any of them individually belonged. Sometimes, in
the absence of Armenian bishops, the officiating Clergy attached to the
Armenian church of Calcutta have also been consulted on questions
of inheritance, or testamentary bequests. The exposition of the
Armenian law or usage, furnished by these episcopal and clerical
dignitaries of the Armenian church, in accordance with the specific
queries put to them, has, almost in all instances, guided the judges of
the Company’s courts, either in determining similar questions pending
sub judice, or in pronouncing their decisions in cases of the above men-
tioned description. The Company’s courts, so far as my information ex-
tends, pursue the practice sanctioned by the precedents alluded to above.
In connection with the subject of Armenian laws and law-books, I
think it necessary to add, that in June 1838, I was requested by my
highly esteemed and deeply lamented friend, Mr. James Prinsep, to pass
my opinion on a certain Armenian code of laws in manuscript, which
accompanied his letter, for my perusal and consideration. I cheerfully
undertook the task intrusted to me, and instantly put him in posses-
sion of my opinion in a letter, of which the following is a copy : —
To James Prinsep, Esq.
Mv dear Mr. Prinsep,
I have received your note of yesterday’s date, together with a
manuscript volume in the Armenian language, and hasten to put you
in possession of my candid opinion on the same.
The book in question is a code of laws, both civil and ecclesiastical,
written or transcribed in the Haican era 1135, corresponding with the
year of our Lord 1686, partly by a priest named Alexianus, and partly
by a bishop named Jacob, native of Ghrim, and pupil of another
bishop named George, of the see of Ezinka. The transcription thereof
was made at the desire of another bishop named Thomas, and inscribed
to Stephanus, the supreme patriarch of the Aluans. The work is based
on Mosaic laws, and the materials of which it is composed are derived
from the Old and New Testaments, and from other ancient records.
Mechithar Ghosh, who flourished in Armenia between the close of
the twelfth and the beginning of the thirteenth century, and who
is eminently distinguished in the page of our national history for
his unrivalled attainments, is known to have been the author or
249
] 84 1-3 On the Laws and Law-books of the Armenians.
originator of a code of Armenian laws, which was then generally used
in the courts of judicature of our country. History also tells us that
another code of laws was in existence in Armenia, so far back as the year
of Christ 1046, written or prepared under the auspices of the Armenian
king, Johannes Bagratian. The latter has been in general use among
the numerous Armenian population of Poland, where a transcript of it
is preserved, with a Latin translation ; but the text or original work is
not to be found. As neither of these law-books has found its way to
India, I am unable to say whether the volume you have sent me is a
transcript of the one or the other, for the name of the author or legis-
lator has unfortunately not been inserted therein. I am, however,
inclined to think it to be a compilation from both, but cannot take it
upon myself to say, whether it is one of established legal reputation in
Armenia. It is greatly to be regretted that the code of Mechithar
Ghosh has never been printed or published to this day. This, under
existing circumstances, is certainly a very serious evil to the Armenians
living under the jurisdiction of our Zillah courts.
The following is a translation of a portion of the Chapter on Inherit-
ance : —
“ Chapter CIV. — Of the division of Property.
“ Conformably to the rule of division, property must be equally di-
vided in the following manner: that is to say, the whole of the property
to be considered as one drachma, and the drachma as six oboli. If there
be a son and a daughter in the family, the property must be thus divid-
ed : that is to say, two and a half oboli to the brother, two and a half
oboli to the sister, and one obolus to the mother. But, if there be two
sisters, and both of them married, the two sisters are to be looked upon in
the light of one brother. Two and a half oboli to be given to the brother,
two and a half oboli to the two sisters, and one obolus to the mother.”
From this it will appear, that the wife or mother is entitled to one-
sixth of the property bequeathed by the father or husband. This cus-
tom or usage, so far as my information extends, does to this day obtain
among the Armenians residing in the various parts of Persia and
Turkey. It is difficult for me to ascertain whether the Armenians living
under the rule of Russia,* are equally guided or influenced bythis usage..
* A code of laws, bearing the affix of the imperial fiat, was concocted and
published in 1136, for the guidance of the Armenians living in Ararat, one of the
provinces of Armenia which is now under the sway of Russia. A copy of this code of
250 On the Laws and Laiv-books of the Armenians. [No. 111.
Herewith I return you the manuscript volume, with the contents of
which I have already been made acquainted, by the kindness of its
former owner.* Another copy of this work, though not so elegantly
written, was in the possession of onef of the Armenian priests of
Calcutta ; but in consequence of his death, it was, together with his
other books, sent to his son at Ispahan in January last. Should you
require an English translation of any other portion of the work, I
shall feel most happy to furnish you with it.J
Believe me to be,
Calcutta, Your’s very truly,
26 th June , 1838. Johannes Avdall.
laws in manuscript having been sent to me from Madras, I instantly put it into the
press, and published a sufficient number of copies thereof for the numerous Armenians
living in different parts of British India. The contents of this code are, however,
inapplicable and scarcely of any use or benefit to my expatriated countrymen, scattered
throughout this portion of the globe. Driven as we are from our country by Moslem
despotism and unrelenting persecution — bereft as we are of our national glory and in-
dependence— wandering as we are on the surface of the globe like the scattered
children of Israel, but partially domiciled here, under the fostering and paternal care
of the British Government, I trust I shall not be taxed with presumption in expressing
a wish, that a string of laws, well adapted and suited to the circumstances and general
condition of the Armenians settled in this country, framed and concocted by the
wisdom of the Legislative Council, be passed and promulgated by the Supreme
Government of British India, with the view of promoting and securing the welfare of
the children of their adoption. In asking this boon, I rest assured that it will be
conceded to us by the illustrious and philanthropic head of our government.
* The former owner of this law-book was the late Right Rev. Harutheun Vardapiet
Wppu.qu.'b QwpnuPlidu of the fraternity of the Armenian Con-
vent of Julpha in Ispahan. In the year 1824, while residing at Sydabad
with his brother, the late patriotic Manasacan Vardon, the Rev. gentleman was
applied to in writing by Mr. G. C. Master, first judge of the Provincial Court for the
division of Dacca, to state his opinion on a certain question of inheritance, arising
from the will of a certain opulent Armenian inhabitant of that place. In complying
with Mr. Master’s request, this dignitary of the Armenian church availed himself
of the contents of this very law-book. His opinion on the subject is justly and appro-
priately prefaced by these words— “ All laws of justice, either civil or ecclesiastical,
in all Christian nations, have their origin from the Holy Seriptures.” The judges,
I am credibly informed, were guided by his opinion in pronouncing their decisions.
Hence, it is evident, that the book in question was considered by the judges as a suffi-
cient authority. On the death of Harutheun Vardapiet, the book alluded to be-
came the property of his brother, Mr. Manasacan Vardon, on whose demise it devolved
on his eldest son, and is now in the possession of his youngest son, Mr. S. M. Vardon.
f The late Rev. Ter Marcar Ter Carapiet, $usiupnLigbui[_ U ppui^pob Sp
XYupipuip Sp \iutpuju{lrintjufu formerly vicar of the Armenian church of Calcutta,
of happy and blessed memory.
J The utility of piecemeal extracts from these manuscript Armenian law-books,
will be temporary and confined to a few only. As several of the Armenian residents
in the Mofussil, have a large and extensive property in lands and taluks, would it not
he advisable for them to adopt measures for printing at the Armenian press in Venice the
code of Mechithar Ghosh, and the law-book of the Armenian king, Johannes Bagra-
tian ? Let them come forward and supply the sine gud non , and the long-desired object
will be speedily and satisfactorily consummated.
251
On Tabular Returns of the N. W. Frontier Trade with Afghanistan.
[Profiting by the scope and character of this Journal, and following
the system of the Society after which it is named, the Editor has
not hesitated in publishing the following Tables, and the remarks upon
them, as containing most valuable notice of a subject interesting to all
in India. The information compendiously given in the above, was the
result of private perquisitions, made at the instance of the writer of
this note : it may be relied on as strictly accurate. The allusion to
disadvantages opposed to traders from Cabool is only made, in order
to show how great must the contrary advantage be, and how strong
the impulse to trade, when, (as the writer believes to be the case,)
they have now been removed by recent arrangements.]
Exports.
British Manufactures and Island Produce.
The statement (No. 1,) embracing the trade of the year 1840,
(from January to December,) in British manufactures and Island
produce cannot, it is to be regretted, be pronounced thoroughly
accurate, inasmuch as it is derived from data which is presumed
to be imperfect. However, the quantity of each staple therein
exhibited as having been exported to Cabool across our North-west
Frontier, during the period under review, is, there is every reason
to believe, by no means exaggerated ; on the contrary, it may be
said to fall far short of what actually found its way to the Northern
marts, via Delhi, which is the great entrepot of the extensive com-
merce of our North-western Provinces and Central Asia.
The correctness of the staples of trade given in the statement
can be vouched for, and it will be observed, that cloths form the
chief. Of the several descriptions of linen the most prized and
sought after, is long-cloth, ( Luttah ,) the unbleached being preferred
to the bleached; the Cabool merchants having discovered that our
method of bleaching rots the thread, and abstracts a year’s wear
at least from the cloth ; besides it enables them the more readily
to dye it blue, their favourite colour.
Of all the export staples, British linen is said to give the greatest
return, yielding a nett profit of nearly 100 per cent, on the outlay,
252
On Tabular Returns of
[No. 111.
and to meet with the most ready sale, the merchants from Khiva,
Bokhara, Khorassan, Samarcand, Lodauk, &c. &c. buying it up with
avidity.
Our broad cloths, too, are eagerly sought after, ( sombre colours
are preferred to gay,) and immense quantities are said to be ex-
ported from Bombay. It is only the coarser quality that is inquired
after here. The same remark applies to Birmingham and Sheffield
ware, cutlery, &c. which is very much admired and prized ; especially
when contrasted with the miserable wares of Russia, specimens of
which, when contrasted with the rudest workmanship of the Delhi
artificers, have shown the comparison to be greatly to the prejudice
of the former.
The next article in point of importance is metal, (lead, copper &c.
the former in pigs, and the latter in sheets,) and of this it need only
be said, that the demand for the Northern marts is greater than
the supply here, i. e. the surplus supply — the home consumption
being enormous.
Island produce, of which the several kinds of spices compose
the principal export staple, (black pepper is the chief item,) will
always exercise a very important influence on the Cabool trade ;
for, although not strictly coming under the term “ necessary,” the
customs and habits of Asiatics render the consumption of Island
produce, spices, beetlenuts, pigments, &c. a matter of course.
The trade, as will be seen in Island produce, has been tolerably
brisk during the past year; but it would have been considerably more
so, were it not for customs’ restrictions.
Almost all articles of Island produce are subjected to port duties
* Spices, beetlenuts, when imported seaward into Calcutta, and there-
logwood, pepper,
long pepper and its fore, agreeably to the liberal principle allowed by
roots, (called pipla- n . , . . . , ,
moor,) sandal-wood, Government, ought not again to be taxed any
jamm’ reJTeanh^ed" where within the Company’s territories. This,
lead- however, is not, and cannot be done, inasmuch as
most of the produce of the Islands is also liable to the payment
of inland customs’ duties ; that is, they (vide margin*) are borne on
the tariff, which regulates the levy of duty in the inland cus-
toms’ houses.
2o3
1341.] the N. W. Frontier Trade with Afghanistan.
A Cabool merchant, (to give an example,) purchases at Calcutta 10
maunds of black pepper, which he is told is sea-imported, and therefore
not liable to further interference any where within the Company’s
territories. He brings this pepper to the North-west frontier line
of customs unaccompanied by a rorvannah, when, as a matter of
course, it is seized. The owner urges that he purchased it at Calcutta
as a sea-import, and the customs’ officer demands proof, which is not
forthcoming. The consequence is, that the goods are detained, and
the case is reported to the Sudder office, which is often distant a
hundred miles from the scene of action. The merchant defending
the case urges the same plea, and the native appraiser, who cannot
possibly know the difference, is asked his opinion as to whether the
article is sea-imported, or country produce. In nine cases out of ten he
declares it to be the latter, when the custom collector desirous of
discriminating between zeal to Government and justice to the trader,
determines upon sending samples of the goods to the custom master
at Calcutta: meanwhile, the merchant is told that his property
must remain under attachment, or he must deposit a sufficient sum
of money to meet a demand for single duty. This latter alternative
he gladly accepts, considering any sacrifice better than further detent-
ion, which usually swells out to fifteen or twenty days.
The samples are, in due course, submitted to the English appraiser
in Calcutta, who, possibly knowing nothing of country produce, or
at least of the particular produce in question, pronounces the samples
to be sea-imported ; consequently, the inland custom collector re-
solves to release the pepper ; but the owner is no where to be found,
and his money remains in deposit for three months, when, according
to the rules of the department, it reverts to Government.
Subsequently the owner on his return trip to the provinces calls to
know the fate of his money, and he is told that although the pepper
was proved to have been sea-imported, the duty was carried to credit,
as he did not claim it within the prescribed period of three months.
The above will shew, without further comments, how materially
this branch of commerce is retarded, (and without help) by the
frontier customs.*
* I have reason to believe, that this inconvenience is in course of remedy.
254
On Tabular Returns of
[No. 111.
Country Produce.
Statement No. 3, exhibits this section of the Cabool trade during
the year 1840, and as it is compiled from authentic documents, there
can be no doubt of its accuracy. Want of time has not allowed of a
comparison with the exports of previous years, but there are the most
ample grounds for asserting, that the past has more than quadrupled in
quantity and value the exports of former years.
Statements No. 5 and 7, shew the exports during January and
February 1841, which have also been abstracted from the custom-house
registers. A marked improvement will be observed in these, especial-
ly as regards the chief staples, cloths and shoes, more than double of the
former, and quintuple of the latter, having been exported during these
two months than during the w'hole of last year. Indigo, which also
occupies a prominent station, I have reserved for particular notice
hereafter.
Statement No. 10, gives the exports of the past month, (March
1841); this is not included with Nos. 5 and 7, with the view of
mentioning that measures were taken in February last at all the
custom posts stretching along the outer frontier line, which extends
from Kalsie in the Deyrah Dhoon to Goverdhun on the Eastern
boundary of the Bhurtpore territory, for the registry not only of all
country, but British and foreign produce exported to, and imported
from, Cabool ; and that, therefore, means are obtained for the faithful
record of the operations of each month, and in each article.
From this statement it will be seen, that 92,401 pieces of cloth
(linen, silk, and brocades,) valued at Rs. 1,82,064 were carried across
the frontier in March, which was considerably more than any other
period, and gives evidence of the increasing demand for the productions
of British India.
Cloth being the principal staple of commerce in country produce, it
may be necessary to state what descriptions of cloth are most desired.
The most valuable, and consequently the least in quantity, are kim-
khaubs and doputtas, (coloured,) both of which are manufactured at
Benares, and yield unusually large returns on re-sale at Cabool. The
largest in quantity, but least in value, are Furruckabad chintzes, and
Dooab muslins, ghingams, doosooties, and garhas. also Dinapore
muslins. These latter are preferred to the iudigeuous cloth of the
1841.]
the N. W. Frontier Trade with Afghanistan.
255
north, as possessing a finer and stronger texture, being mostly woven
with English and country thread.
Country shoes, which it will be perceived are exported in large
quantities, are manufactured chiefly about, and exported entirely
from, Delhi. Indigo, regarding which a distinct notice was reserved,
possesses the distinguishing feature of being the only article of
trade contained in the statements, which is not conveyed directly
by the Cabool (Vilati) merchants. It is in the first instance
consigned by the Delhi merchants to Amritsir, from whence it
finds its way to Cabool. That which is exported across our customs’
frontier, is raised at Koorjah in the Alligurh district ; but the quantity
stated in the statements, is perhaps not one-half of what will be
found in the Cabool market, as large quantities have within the
last few years been grown in the protected Seikh states* which are
beyond our line, and from thence imported into the Punjab, and
countries contiguous to it.
There was at first room for doubting the fact, that indigo really
found a market at Cabool to the extent alleged, and close inquiry
was therefore instituted of the Cabool merchants; the result has
proved the correctness of the original information, and the re-
moval of all doubt on this important question may truly be deemed
of paramount interest, both to the European who embarks his capital
in raising indigo, and the exporter, who will be, in a great measure,
rendered independent of the fluctuations of the European market, by
the wide field of enterprize opened to him in the vast countries of
the north ; where, as I have before observed, the beautiful and
permanent dye of indigo will always supersede every other, from its
being the favourite colour, and applied to the commonest wearing
apparel. However, this refers more to a prospective, than a present
benefit.
Indigo produced by a European, whether from its superior qua-
lity, the result of superior machinery and larger outlay, or enhanced
price, cannot for a time compete with the inferior and cheaper material
produced by the native manufacturer, for reasons obvious to those
* Munny Majra in Sirhind, a small principality among the states, produces it most
extensively, and of the best quality.
2 i
256
On Tabular Returns of
[No. 111.
acquainted with the purposes to which indigo is applied,* and the low
The process of manu- ebb to which the monetary relations of the mass
facture could not fail to
produce other than the of the people of the north were reduced, immedi-
pecially as boiling is ne- ately previous to the influx of British enterprise
IndigoL JeldoPmlaerSger and British CaPital When the operation of these
than a sparrow’s egg, and powerful, and hitherto never-failing propellants to
yield a very dingy co- r °
lour compared with that prosperity shall have come into full play, it may
manufactured by Euro- ...
peans. The average reasonably be hoped that articles, whether mdi-
Inaun d , ' 'is' ‘ a bout 'n i n e ty genous to Europe or Asia, of European manufac-
rupees- ture, will be consumed in preference to those which
are produced from the rude and primitive machinery of India.
The other articles of export in country produce, with the exception
of Gotah kenarre, scarcely merit particular mention, as they are so
trifling ; but it may be reasonably expected, that as the productions of
British India become better known, they will be appreciated, there-
fore more extensively consumed. Already the use of lac is being
understood, and I am aware of several merchants having carried
samples of it with them, that they might regulate the supply by the
demand.
Gotah kenaree, (gold and silver tissues,) will, I am assured, in
time be extensively sought after. The chief — possibly only — places
of manufacture are Lucknow and Delhi ; the latter especially.t It
is impossible to ascertain precisely the quantity exported, as from
its great value, every expedient is resorted to, and it is said successfully,
to smuggle it.
As pertinent to this subject, it is worthy of remark, that in 1837,
several camel loads of spurious lace were stopped, which were crossing
the line, packed in bundles bearing the manufacturing mark of
Moscow. It had been brought from Cabool, and had been sent to the
* There are yet other reasons which militate against the purchase by
Afghans of indigo manufactured in the European method, the principal of
which is the compact pressure given by us to the article. This renders
necessary the employment of machinery to grind down the dye before
the colouring matter can be properly extracted, whereas the friable, uncom-
pact nature of the indigenously manufactured article, admits of its ready
solution in water.
ft
| Benares has also, I think, an extensive manufacture of this article.
1841.] the N. W. Frontier Trade with Afghanistan. 257
provinces, with the view of ascertaining whether sale would be ob-
tained for it ; since that period no attempt has since been made to
force the manufactures of Russia into our markets.
Imports.
Previously to the opening of the Cabool trade by the result of
recent political events, exports were greatly disproportioned to im-
ports ; the dangers of the route, and other obvious causes, rendering
it most unsafe to convey foreign and valuable articles, which could
tempt the cupidity of the lawless hordes, inhabiting the countries
through which the route lay. The imports were, in consequence,
converted into specie, and not, as now, paid for in kind : so that the
advantage all lay on the side of Cabool.
In the statements of import trade, only such articles as yield
a duty to the British Government are shewn. Of these, the chief
is assafoetida, which always meets with ready sale in our provinces.
There is perhaps no country in the world where assafoetida is more
commonly used than in Hindoostan.
Saffron is in less common use ; the price placing it beyond the means
of any but the rich, and a preference being given to that which is
brought from Calcutta, imported from the Persian Gulph in Arab ships.
Besides the duty-paying staples, fruits, sarsaparilla, salopmisry,
lapis lazuli, medicinal drugs, opium, and churrus, comprize the
import trade of Cabool. In the margin* is appended a note, shew-
ing the number of camel loads
of fruit, amounting to 4,000,
which crossed our frontier
from November 1838 to April
1839. The operations of this
period are shewn in preference
to any other, as being the least
favourable, in consequence of
the military preparations in pro-
gress at that period, by which
the trade was partially check-
ed ; so that there was a falling
off of nearly one-fourth in the imports of previous years, and one-
tenth of those of 1840.
Raisins,
Camel loads.
Pistachio Nuts,
Monukkas,
Khobaunies,
90
Pears,
Pomegranates,
605
Walnuts,
14
Prunes,
71
Almonds,
Plumbs,
Grapes,
Figs,
4,000
Fruit is only imported in the cold season.
2o8
On Tabular Returns of
[No. 111.
Mooltan, Balia walpore, and Soorutgurh, and Bhutneer, (in the Beka-
neer states,) mark the route followed by the Kafilas before they enter
the British possessions. From Bhutneer they come to Sirsa, in the
Bhutty territory ; whence travelling by Ranea, Hansie, and Rhotuck,
they enter Delhi, and then diverge to the several marts of the
provinces.
The reason assigned for the Kafilas congregating at Delhi is, that
by doing so, they avoid the heavy duties imposed at every customs'
chowkey, which they would have to pass in their progress through
Bekaneer, Lohanee, Kanounie, and other foreign states.
The nature of these duties will be judged from the subjoined me-
morandum.
At Soorutghur, per camel load of fruit, pays a tax of . . 12 annas.
At Bhutneer, the same, . . . . . . ..12 annas.
Total, Rs l 8
This amount of duty is paid by the Cabool merchants to the Beka.
neer state, and it is computed that in good average years a revenue
of rupees 12,000 Js derived from this source; which, at 12 annas per
camel load, would shew the average number of camel loads of fruit im-
ported every season into our territories to be 16,000. This tax is levied
without distinction as to the quality of the fruit, all paying alike, and
when two camels are lightly laden, from their being young or weak,
they pay the tax of one proper camel load.
At Naheir, in the Bhekaneer states, an additional duty
is levied of, per camel load, .. ... .. Rs. 1 5 0
And at Buhadera, also in the Bekaneer states, a further
duty of, per camel load, .. .. .. . . 2 10 0
Making a Total of Rs. 3 15 0
which, added to the duties levied at Lohanee, Kanounie, &c. aver-
aging 1-8 per camel load, shew an aggregate of rupees 5-7 per camel
load, which the merchants would have to pay in addition to the tax
paid at Soorutgurh and Bhutneer, were they to enter our territories
by any other route than Sirsa and Delhi. Of course, no reference
is made to the route running through the Khyber Pass, the Punjab,
Ferozepore and Loodianah, as the Cabool merchants would at all
risks avoid it.
1841.]] the N. W. Frontier Trade with Afghanistan. 259
It now remains to offer a few brief general observations, premising
as to the character of the Cabool merchants, that they are remarkable
for probity and straight-forward dealing, combined with caution
and great tact in the art of buying and selling, and that it is so high
in the provinces, that credit to any amount is given to them without
hesitation. Indeed a striking resemblance in this respect may be
traced between them and that remarkable tribe the Brinjarruhs.
After disposing of most of their import wares at Delhi, the mer-
chants proceed to the lower provinces, furnished with bills of exchange
from the Delhi merchants on their agents at Cawnpore, Allahabad,
Benares, Calcutta, &c. and having laid in a stock of goods suited to the
Cabool markets they return to Delhi, and forming a Kafila, retrace
their way back to Cabool by the same route* they come. They use no
other carriage but camels until they reach Allahabad, at which place
they leave them, and convey any goods they may have purchased in
the lower provinces on hackeries.
Mention was not made in the proper place, that besides the trade
carried on bona fide by the Cabool merchants, which the statements
appended are intended to shew, immense quantities of every kind of
goods obtainable at Delhi are consigned to Cabool by the Delhi mer-
chants, through their agents at Amritsir, and advantage is taken of
convoys proceeding to Cabool to despatch large consignments.
As a proof of the growing importance of the Cabool trade, it
may be mentioned, that an insurance office (Native) has been opened
in Delhi, which will assure goods to any amount and value to
Cabool.
The regeneration of the town of Sirsa has greatly contributed
to the convenience and security of the Cabool merchants. The
opening of the navigation of the Indus, and the predominance
given thereby to Ferozepore, has certainly abstracted in some measure
from the importance of Sirsa, as a grand emporium of traffic. Yet it
will always be deemed a valuabl epoint d’appui to the northern trade,
especially as the superintendent of the Bhutty territory can protect
the traders from exactions and vexatious delays on the part of our sub-
ordinate customs’ officers.
* They usually make trips in the year one and a half.
260
0?i Tabular Returns of
[No. 111.
In conclusion it may be noticed, that the Cabool merchants being
totally ignorant of our laws, especially customs, are shamefully imposed
upon by a set of law people, who, under the pretence of instructing
them how to avoid rendering themselves amenable to our courts, prey
upon them in every possible way. It would therefore be very desir-
able, if the authorities at Delhi were required to direct attention to
the interests of the northern trade.*
I am happy to inform you, that since I last wrote, an enterprizing
merchant of Delhi, who was formerly an inhabitant of Peshawur
and removed to Hindostan with Governor Elphinstone’s mission,
despatched a small consignment of goods (vide margin) to Yarkund via
Subathoo and Lodauk, with the view of ascertain-
Indigo, khimkhaubs, .
doputtas and long- mg whether our exports could not be thrown into
skins and” jewellery ' China by way of Yarkund, which is I believe situa-
ted directly on the borders of it. He seems to be
very sanguine of success ; as he considers that the superiority of our
manufactures will always secure for them the preference over those
of Russia, with which alone the Yarkund market is now supplied.
In a few days I will submit a statement of trade for April, in which
I hope to be able to exhibit three or four new exports. Until October
or November, however, the trade altogether will be very slack.
Attention has, I believe, been directed to this point.
1841.] the N. W. Frontier Trade with Afghanistan. 261
No. 1.
Statement of Goods exported from and via Delhi to Cabool, during the year
1840, the same being British Manufactured and Sea Imported via Calcutta.
Names of Articles.
Quantity.
British Manufactures, &c.
Linen cloth, white,
30,000 pieces,
Chintzes,
25,000 ditto,
V elvets,
400 ditto,
Broad cloths,
not known,
Birmingham & Sheffield-ware cutlery, &c.
ditto,
Glass-ware,...
ditto,
Gun flints, ...
ditto,
Lead, Pewter, &c
ditto,
Copper,
ditto,
Alum,
ditto,
White lead,
100 maunds,
Total,
Sea Importations.
Species, Drugs, &c.
3,300 maunds
Logwood, ...
2,000 ditto,
Beetle nuts,
500
Brimstone, ...
500 ditto,
Quicksilver,
30 ditto,
Red lead
200 ditto,
Vermillion,...
50 ditto,
Sandal wood,
200 ditto,
Red earth,
200 ditto,
Total, ... ... ,..
Grand total,
Estimat-
ed value.
Remarks.
Rupees.
3.15.000
80,000
60,000
50.000
45,000-
15.000
10.000
1.20.000
25.000
20.000
8,000
7,48,000
70.000
20.000
10,000
8,000
5.000
15,000
6.000
3.000
1.000
1,38,000
Ph^
p
OD 2
P
P ~
o
ci :
8,86,000
g £
i s
p
Ph cS
P ^
d>2
£ CD
go
a, 42
« C
.o <u
a <4
.a .
-B 42
i-s
Is
cc o
^■s
o
262
On Tabular Returns of
[No. 111.
No. 2.
Statement of Goods imported from Cabool across the N. W. Frontier, during the
year 1 840. The same being liable to the C ustom Tax.
Names of Articles.
Quantity.
Value.
Amount of Duty.
MDS.
S. CII.
RS.
A S.
P.
RS. AS.
P.
Assafmtida,
1 ,652
38
2
1,44,971
3
9
14,496
15
5
Zeerah, Cummin, ..
1 ,316
16
8
10,275
5
6
770
11
3
Zaffron, Saffron, ..
33
2i
995
5
0
99
8
6
Gum-mastic, . .
6
31
O'
671
6
0
50
6
4
Suinbhoor or Furs. . .
118|
pairs.
224
11
8
11
4
0
Total,
1,57,137
15
11
15,428
13
6
No. 3.
Statement of Goods exported to Cabool across the N. W. Frontier, during the
year 1840. The same being Country produce, and liable to the Custom Tax.
Names of Articles.
Quantity.
Value.
Amount of Duty.
RS. AS.
P.
RS. AS.
P.
Cloth
26,826 pieces
45,525
1
0
1,372
0
8
Cocoanut oil,
20 maunds
280
0
0
20
15
11
Kimkhabs or Bro- \
cades, J
1,633 pieces
39,037
12
0
2,886
5
4
Verdigrease,
70 seers 6 chks.
36
8
3
3
10
5
Hides,
387
218
0
0
10
14
5
Gotah or lace
595 tolahs
1,312
5
0
65
9
10
Leather Stockings, . .
100 pairs
300
0
0
15
0
0
Amber
43 tolahs
129
0
0
9
10
9
Cocoanuts
2,300
92
0
0
4
9
8
Embroidered Goods,
64 pieces
785
2
0
58
14
1
Wax Candles, . . . .
2 mds. 10 seers
180
0
0
18
0
0
Iron vessels
6 mds.
75
0
0
7
8
0
Beetle nuts, country,
26 mds. 35 seers
215
0
0
16
1
11
Sugar, brown,
2 mds. 121 seers
21
8
0
1
2
6
Large Hooka snakes,
2
20
0
0
1
8
0
Till (Oil seeds,)
31 mds, 20 seers
63
0
0
4
11
7
Shoes,
474 pairs
1,340
13
0
78
1
6
Mirzapoor Carpets, .
247
827
0
9
62
0
6
Old Brass,
2 mds. 10 seers
101
4
0
10
2
0
Iron,
41 mds. 30 seers
43
10
0
4
5
10
Ballchud, Spikenard,
1 maund
10
0
0
0
12
0
Red Lead, country,
30 seers
12
0
0
1
3
2
Vermillion, do
6 seers
36
0
0
3
9
8
Nutmegs, do
6 seers
36
0
0
3
9
8
Red Sandal-wood, . .
11 seers
1
10
0
0
1
11
Tuj, (Cassia,)
23i seers
20
9
0
0
8
3
Sulphur,
121 seers
12
8
0
1
4s
0
Doosooty Cloth,
2 seers
1
2
0
0
i
5
Indigo,
1,989m. 19s. 8c.
2,18,116
9
11
10,905
13
9
Gum,
19 mds. 20 seers
136
8
0
10
3
10
Total,
3,08,985
14
11
15,578
8
7
Total Imports and Exports,
4,66,123
14
10
31,007
6
1
O
n
C •
<D 2
6 °
3 "3
5 -J
CO D
1“ D
263
1841.] the N. W. Frontier Trade with Afghanistan.
No. 4.
Statement of Goods imported from Cabool across the N. W. Frontier, during the
month of January 1841, the same being liable to the Custom Tax.
Names of Articles.
Quantity.
Value.
Amount of
Duty.
Bs. As. Ps.
Bs. As. Ps.
Assafoetida,
700 mds. 9 seers.
39,361 2
0
3,996 0 0
Sumbhoor or Furs,
180 pairs,
133 10
0
16 10 11
Black zeerah, Ni- 1
gella, ...)
70 mds. 23 seers.
2,752 14
0
217 5 7
Guns,
2,
20 0
0
4 0 0
Total, ...
42,267 10
0
4,234 0 6
No. 5.
Statement of Goods, exported to Cabool across the N. IV. Frontier, during the
month of January 1841, the same being Country produce, and liable to the
Custom Tax.
Names of Articles.
Quantity.
Value.
Amount of
Duty.
Bs. As. Ps.
Bs. As. Ps.
Cloths,
987 pieces,
1,076
8
10
26
14
8
Kimkhabs or Bro- \
cades, J
51 i ditto,
496
12
10
37
4
3
Lac, shell and stick,
20 seers,
4
0
0
0
3
2
Iron goods,
9 mds. 23 seers,
88
0
0
8
8
0
Brown sugar,
35 seers,
4
6
0
0
3
6
Wax candles,
2 mds. 10 seers,
180
0
0
18
0
0
Indigo,
207 m. 8sr. 6ch.
22,728
15
5
1,136
7
4
Shoes,
1,498 pairs, ...
858
12
0
43
8
4
Total, ...
25,437
7
1
1,271
1
3
Total Imports and Exports, ... 67,705 1 1 5,505 1 9|
These two statements are derived from the Custom House Registers, and
can he therefore relied on.
264
On Tabular Returns of
[No. 111.
No. 6.
Statement of Goods, imported from Cabool and the N. W. Frontier, during the
month of February, 1841, the same being liable to the Custom Tax.
Names of Articles.
Quantity.
Value.
Amount of
Duty.
Rs. As. Ps.
Rs. As. Ps.
Assafoetida,
1 1 mds. 20 seers.
1,150 0 0
115 0 0
Total, ...
1,150 0 0
115 0 0
No. 7.
Statement of Goods, exported to Cabool across the N. W. Frontier, during the
month of February, 1841, the same being Country produce, and liable to the
Custom Tax.
Names of Articles.
Quantity.
Value.
Amount of
Duty.
Rs. As. Ps.
Rs. As. Ps.
Cloth,
66,495 pieces,...
89,052 5 10
2,226 10 3
Kimkhab or Bro- )
cades,... ... j
91 pieces,
2,334 0 0
175 011
Hides,
30
150 0 0
7 8 0
Benares Dooputtas,
9 pieces,
139 3 0
10 7 0
Wax candles,
2 mds. 30 seers,
220 0 0
22 0 0
Iron goods,
3 maunds,
30 0 0
3 0 0
Shoes,
959 pairs,
506 4 0
25 5 0
Mirzapoor carpets,
1 md. 15 seers,
41 4 0
3 1 6
Iron wire,
2 seers,
1 12 0
0 2 10
Tobacco, ...
1 md. 20 seers,
7 8 0
0 6 0
Lac, shell and stick,
2 mds. 11 srs. 8 c.
18 4 3
111 4
Embroidered belts,
8
36 0 0
2 112
Indigo,
424 m. 37 srs. 2 c.
46,798 5 11
2,339 14 5
Total,
1,39,33415 0
4,817 14 5
Total Imports an<
I Exports.
1,40,484 15 0
4,932 14 5
These two Statements are derived from the Custom House Registers, and
can therefore be relied on.
265
1841.] the N. W. Frontier Trade with Afghanistan.
No. 8.
Statement of Goods, exported to Cabool across the N. W. Frontier, during the
month of March, 1841, the same being British manufactured.
Names of Articles.
Quantity.
Value.
Remarks.
Long cloth, mus- $
lins, &c. S
5,256 pieces,
Rs. As. Ps.
26,859 0 0
•
No. 9.
Statement of Goods imported from Cabool across the N. TV. Frontier, during the
month of March 1841, the same being liable to the Custom Tax.
Names of Articles.
Quantity.
Value.
Amount of duty.
Remarks.
Assafoetida
Mds. Seers.
100 23
Rs. As.
9,08? 8
Ps.
0
Rs. As. Ps
905 12 0
No. 10.
Statement of Goods exported to Cabocl across the N. TV. Frontier, during the
month of March, 1841, the same beinq Country produce, and liable to the Cus-
tom Tax.
Names of Articles.
Quantity.
Value.
Amount of duty.
Rs. As. Ps.
Rs.
As.
Ps.
Cloth pieces, silk \
and cotton. $
91,419 pieces
1,60,805
4
0
2,695
12
3
Benares doputtas 1
and brocades, &c. $
982 do.
21,259
10
3
1,593
10
8
Indigo,
397 mds, 2?§ sr.
43,838
5
4
2,191
14
7
Gotah kenaree,
428 tolahs
1,087
9
6
54
6
1
Shoes,
176 pairs
382
8
0
19
2
0
Hides,
140
84
0
0
4
3
2
Ivory,
35 seers
87
8
0
6
9
O
Verdigrease,
25
59
6
0
5
15
0
Cocoanuts,
1000
40
0
0
2
0
0
Cassia,
7 mds.
245
0
0
6
2
ol
Sugar,
2 do, 20 seers
20
0
0
i
0
ol
Total,
2,37,909
3
1
6,580
10
9
Total Imports and )
Exports, j
Ditto including }
British linen, J
2,46,996
11
1
7,486
6
9
2,72,855
11
1
Remarks.
266
Note to Mr. Vincent Tregear's Process of taking casts of Coins.
vide No. 110.
I must not omit to observe, that the above process cannot be applied
to all coins indiscriminately. Copper and brass coins are sometimes so
much oxidated as to be unable to bear any pressure, and therefore would
be broken if put in the press ; those of gold or silver are seldom endanger-
ed ; but still the operator must use a little discretion. Care must also be
taken not to continue the pressure further than is required for the per-
fect copy of the coin, as after the latter has sunk to the full depth of
the relief, a lateral extension takes place, which will injure it. as I have
found by experience.
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