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wo oNiN 31097 |g THE
JULY oO fo ad):
ony,
Wse
Nera JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
INDEX AND TITLE PAGE |
VOL. XXXVHI
NOS. 3&4
Price iti hs. 2-7-0
MADRAS
PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS
1957
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Errata ee a mee
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two nuimbers.
THE
JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
EDITED BY
P. M. D. SANDERSON, F.Z.S., S. H. PRATER, C.M.Z.S., M.L.C., J.P.
& C. MCCANN, F.L.S.
VOL. XXXVIIi
Nos. 3 & 4
Containing 2 Coloured Plates, 46 Black and White Plates,
and 32 Text-figures.
Dates of Publication
Part 3. (Pages 415 to 646) ... 15th April, 1936.
» +4 ( 4 647 to 835) ... 25th August, 1936.
LONDON AGENTS
DAVID NUTT, Esq., 212, Shaftesbury Avenue, London, W.C. 2.
PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS
1936
CONTENT SAO VOLO ME. KX IIT,
No. 3
PAGE
SomrE BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES. By the late Rev. E. Blatter,
Saeepiweereres.. and W. 5. Millard, miz.s, Part XX,
(With two coloured plates and four black and white plates)... 415
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS.
(Ornithological Section). By H. Whistler, M.B.0.u., assist-
edi bye Ne Be kannear, .B On! Part XT, i000 cesar setae 418
To MALAYA FOR A RHINOCEROS. By R. C. Morris. (With
two plates)... a ee ee ee ee
Tue INDIAN cone FLIES 5 (TRICHOPTER A). pe Martin E.
Mosely, F.R.E.S. Part IV. ee sixteen text-tigures
and eighteen plates)... Aa: er ees
THE MALAy TAPIR (Tapirus indicus). vey W. 8S. Thom.
(With one plate)... ae : meee: 479
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF ihe econe AND eoceny By
Salim Ali, with notes by H. Whistler. Part IV........... 484
HocG-HuNTING REMINISCENCES. By J.C. Aviec cece ccc cee cee plo,
ON THE BIRDS OF THE KRISHENGANGA VALLEY, KASHMIR.
By Major R. 8. P. Bates, M.B.o.u. (Wath four plates)...... 520
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS GRASSES OF INDIA. By
JN. Caius,, S.3.;, F-L.S-. Te rape O40
\ /SxHoorinc Witp ua aN TIN UL OMIE Late © Sys, By
Apeterete Ml BCVA ONE DLOLOYs ch xe. ye us yantnetued nasi ccseeneh ees cbs 585
THE Lirz HISTORY FROM EGG TO PUPA OF Bien wallichtt
Gray. By Major J. A. Graham, R.E. (With two plates
DAO BRCM LERUTUICS \eisisnasidaeeebiicanss eves ee uiiarssrssteieen inser OG
A FIsHING Trip IN Kumaon. By A. St. J. Macdonald.
GU Ay Ome ON DLEULCSs) esteaie Ai eaiece au coieehth asinesis en kok geese ws neaaen as 598
ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ADHESIVE TENDRILS IN Aignonia
venusta KER-GAWL. By J. F. R. D’Almeida, B.A., M.sc.
CLM UOLE) reset scrihtag A saaar ioe Hata gulea ys Rilee'a:ue one vocales 601
REVIEWS :—
I. AN ABRIDGED CATALOGUE OF CERTAIN Scuteller-
oidea of China, Chosen, Indo-China and
Aart eae a: Wiel cacetata teens OOF
Mb Abens ey OF ne Nee een ase eee Les Ny ees 604
Ill. Tue NIDIFICATION OF BIRDS OF THE INDIAN
VMOU VO) oie viol stevens oiieeasreee acc 605
JUN 2 1937
CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXVI11/1
OBITUARIES
Mr. ‘OSMOND CHARLEES OLLUENBACH eee ee
Mr. WALTER ORMISTON...
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—
\/I.
JOe
TLL.
1Ve
xT;
XIV.
XV
XVI.
DVT,
Tiger versus Bison. By R.C. Morris.. 3
Occurrence of the Panther CAD, pare
Linn:), in. Tibet?” By Capt. Ro K.’ M; Battye:..
Further Records of the Distribution of ine
Cheetah <Acinonyx jubatus Erxl. By R. C.
Morris.. : —
Deseupion: er a Bie. pea ape aos Pa
nosus Blyth) from Tibet. ByS. H. Prater...
Ratels and Corpses. By A. A. Dunbar Be aden,
nee Bel Ce os Lt.-ColfC.G: Reosood,
1DS.0% PT eh Ae
The Birth ye an ee ane Calf. Bie R: CG,
MOPrriSsk. steeds cesta ticne cones ie ee samerr a aaa erent
Why Elephants turn Rogues. By S. K. Ghosh,
1.C.S:.
The Ponnscen aig pees af Tusks i in TBle plants.
By Rui. MOrris ca vec deo cv te ean eee
Horn Growth as observed in Black Buck and
Nilgai. By J. E. Hall. ;
Early Development of tiers ne Satin in athe
Billigirirangan Hills, South Indiaywivek. C:
MOLPiS coc teeendes 00d San sscaarc ceo ee eee:
White Bison. By A. A. Dunbar Brander, I.F.s.
(Retd))..2 ; scp Wanatee emt st Het. Soh ae
Mating Hane war Ground By Narayan Kao
Babasaheb cri ies is ee cee ee
Extension of the Range of the White-browed
Bulbul (Pycnonotus luteolus). By S.C. Law,
M.A., Ph.D., F.Z.S., M.B.O.U..
Further Report on the ehetne a een Cs
citrina, Latt. in twenty-four Parganas, Bengal.
By S. Ci Law, s0.A.,.2D.5 FsZsS.,aMerO.U. 7,80.
The Distribution of the Kashmir Roller (Coraczas
garruius semenowt Landon and ie By
H. Abdul Ali.. :
Habits of the Elaimtive Sirians : (Caco
merulinus Scop.). By Lt.-Col. G. Covell, I.M.s.
PAGB
607
608
609
609
610
610
611
612
613
614
615
618
619
619
620
620
622
623
THE
XVIII.
i.
OM
XOX:
XXIT.
OTT:
CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXVIII
The short-eared Owl (4s7o fHammeus eee
out at sea. By C. McCann.. Bea:
Vultures feeding at night. By W. Nests Ae ee
Probable Breeding of the Black-winged Stilt
(Himantopus h. himantopus Linin) in the
Shwebo District, Upper Burma. By J. K.
SME OMG neal 2m haute aha teeis ase ders Bk naeeanhes
The Jack Snipe and the White-eyed Pochard in
Invderabads “By~ Els Abd VAN mia teecs cee ce
Some Rare Birds in Northern Burma.
Stanmore. TGiS:. ve
Notes on Elwes’ Homed Brenan omen
harmani Elwes). By Capt. R. K. M. Battyi.....
XXIV. Migration of Wild Fowl. By Editors..
XXV. Do Birds employ Ants to rid ee oe of
Ectoparasites? By Salim Alt.. aah
XXVI. Geckos and Superstition. By B. C. Nene
XXVIII. The Notodontid Moth (Dudusa nobilis Walther.
By Capt w «©. Carrots.
XXVIII. Occurrence of Untiana ie. in nige Teesta Valley
By John Eliot, R.A.. care
XXIX. On the Preservation oe Fennee. in ree By
WeGe SC VASO DUO .5 eases ater eeen ce mee
XXX. On the Flowering of Stvobzlanthes in 1934..........
Froceedings of the Annual Meeting of the
Bombay Natural History Society, held
OO LW a6 em aS 16 | oyun ac ee eae gee
No. 4
VERNAY-HOoPWooD UPPER CHINDWIN EXPEDITION.
By ec;
Morris, F.Z.S., F.R.G.S. ne stx black and
white plates)... ks ; :
THE VERNAY Soenainte ena OF THE ene capa
Patt xy. By Ha Whistler, ¥:z.s.;
M.B.O.U., assisted by
N. B. Kinnear, M.B.0.U..
A New RACE OF Hoc See. Trea,
H. Whistler, F.z.S., M.B.O.U..
NEw ORIENTAL ne ae
By
“By ae Col, F wou Tae
TMs (COREG RO sy eee ee re
“ FRESHWATER FISH AND FISHERIES OF TRAVANCORE. .
C. C. Johnearecs,.:Se;, (Lond.), b.1.¢.
figures)
By
(With five text-
oe)? (6. @ Os ereire! eis) 6 (ec) 8: 810 0) 0:8)6: 6/00 6.9.0 0.8.0 68 Oe ee eles Cas 6 ne tes Ces ees ces eas
@aoe
Vv
PAGE
623
624
624
625
625
626
627
. 628
631
633
633
634
636
637
647
672
699
700
702
vi CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXVII
Cuckoo ProsLtems. By T. R. Livesey. (With four plates).
THE ORNITHOLOGY oF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN. By
Salim Ali.. With Notes by H. Whistler, F.z.s., M.B.O.U.
Pare wy: hs Sates cagh Gh Moanin, Seen s eee eee
THE MEDICINAL AND aero ane (Onennae OF INDIA. By
Revs... Fo Caiis, Sj Les Seteeaeed
BUTTERFLIES OF ee ee ace i) FB. cere eee ene
A DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES OF WASP ASSUMED TO
BELONG TO THE FAMILY Vespid@ AND NAMED Paravespa
eva; WITH REMARKS UPON ITS AFFINITIES WITH THE
GENUS J/schnogastery AND REASONS FOR THE CREATION OF
A NEW GENUS) Paravesia. -By To". Bell cre. (Retd.)
(UAW G Plate )t mrt ee
REVIEWS :—
de. MANS -AUSPECIAL “CREATION 4.2545 mec oe muse nee
I. “GLIMPSES ‘OR-THE Wa Deo ee se ree ee
EL, AX“ SHELLAC -PATEN® SIN DE x. .cowies es erect eee Pe
IV. WItLpb ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE AND THE
PROBLEM-OF THEIR. PRESERVATION... ic. io eeetee ees
AN APPEAL: WANTED INFORMATION ABOUT CUCKOOS. By
HO. Start Baker c.k. socchas ene ee ae tee
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—
I. Roosts of Flying Fox. By H.G. Acharya, F.z.S.,
F RuGeSuias let eieeue ndes ee eee
II. Melanism in Wild Dogs. By R.C. Morris, F.z.s.,
F.R.G.S.. ie
TEL eee ano ee nea Wila Des oe
Et.-ColzArindale Beobiewe nnn es oe
IV. Sound listening for Tiger Shooting. By Lt.-Col.
J. Toogood.. a ;
V. Measurements ae a Buffalo Chena i nen
By R. G. Griffith. (Wzth a photo)...
VI. Bison and Panther. By R. C. Motriee BZaS3;
/ BS RIGIS: fsa oes ten ae tion ce erent ee eee
NYII. Gaur Heads from the Chin Hills. By T. R.
LIVESEY Sei ac Sate eRe Oe ee ee ees
JY VIII. Season of Horn development in Sambhur. By
R. C. Morris, F.Z.S., F.R.G.S..
IX. Cuckoo-Lore: “By, Rev. F.C. 1 Nourdact ae
ARR, LAV GSCY Bites tron. oes ie ee ee ) cha eee eee
PAGE
734
7359
79]
800
810
812
813
814
814
817
818
819
819
820
XE
DGD OE
XIV.
XV.
DOVE
QA
NAGE
Dex,
DEX
2x.
XXII.
»O.CUOE
XXIV.
CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXVITI
The Brown Shrike (Lanius cristatus Linn.) in
Burma and Assam. By Dr. C. B. Ticehurst...
A note on the Distribution of Chloropsis jerdont
(Blyth) and Chloropsis aurifrons (Temm.) in
Central and Western Bengal. By S. C. Law..
Indus
Hume.) and Crested Lark (Galerida cristata
Linn.) laying in the same nest. By H. M.5.
Newton..
The Brown aubod (On (Sha aa ees reo.
By Deis Biveseyin aG777/7- Gs PHOLO)\ sxc cmatesa ers
The White-bellied Sea-Eagle (Haliaétus leuco-
gaster Gmelin) in North Gujarat. By H.N.G.
ENGIN ELT VU niscts eae Ree eases tiie saci ian ter ot eiaee
The Eyesight of Vultures. By A. A. Dunbar
ES eal Gl Cian ees are cartes cian eewia ln th toa nied wnat ree
A note on the Alpine Swift (Af%icropus melba
bakevt Hartert) at Gersoppa. By Humayun
Abdulali.. -
Does the Pictn ce Cie "Omni (OHIEE | Gs
japonica) breed in the Shan States? By
T. R. Livesey...
Sarus Flocks. By H. N. G nace.
The Long-tailed Duck par ie Linn,
in Sind..
Death of So, oer fae a poisoning ae
Common Krait (Bungarus caeruleus). By
TCL ORS ceca aes erate aiceen nema 1 aetna Sacer ese oniees
Migration of Wild Fowl. By Editors...............
Occurrence of Shrenk’s Bittern (Lxobrychus
eurythmus Swinhoe) in Amherst District,
Tenasserim. By E. C. Milner, 1.F.S..............
Occurrence of the Butterfly P. antiphates naira
in the Nilgiris. By Brig. T. D. Broughton,
RERs (INCKGs) 2. ;
Distribution of fae Papecca eee ASE BIERZ
GIy SiseR).. by FC) BECSOncma..c....2,.52-:
Sand Lark (Alaudula raytal adams
vil
PAGE
824
825
826
327
828
828
oe)
830
831
831
832
833
834
834
834
ALP AABEIUC Ase LISL OF CONTRIBUTORS
VOLUME XXXVIII
Nos. 3 and 4
ABDULALI, HuMayvun ; Noteon
the Alpine Swift (J/icropus
melba bakert. Hartert) at
eae
Sane Dabe
tion of the Kashmir Roller
(Coracias garrulus seménowt)
| - -The Jack
Snipe and the White-eyed
Pochard in Hyderabad
ACHARYA, HARI NARAYAN,
F.Z.S., F.R.G.S.; The white
bellied Sea-Eagle (AHaliaetus
leucogaster Gmel.) in North
Gujarat
—— Sarus Dee
A.J. C.: Hog-hunting Remi-
niscences
ALI, SALIM ; Do Birds mente
Ants to rid themselves. of
Ectoparasites ? ads
=== with snotes = by
Hugh Whistler. ‘The Orni-
thology of Travaucore and
Cochin. Part TV i...
—— Part V
BABASAHEB, NARAYAN
Mating Habits of Crows
BAKER, E. C. Stuart; Com-
ment on Cuckoo Problems ...
Se retin
Wanted information
Rao;
appeal :
about Cuckoos <
Batss, Major R.S.P., M.B.O.U.;
On the Birds of enon enna
Valley, Kashmir
BATTYE, Capt. R.K.M. eOcche
rence of the Eaten ( Pan-
thera pardus) in Tibet
; Notes
on Elwes’ Horned Pheasant
(Crossoptilon harmant)
BRESON, ~Cy GE... -2D:Sc.;
FRIES, H.N.E-S. 3) Distuibu-
tion of the Buprestid Beetle
(Sternocera chrysis F.)
PacE |
829
828
831
519
628
454
759
620
759
810
520
609
626
834
BEGBIE, Lt.-Col. ARUNDEL ;
Legendary Method of Hunt-
ing Wild Dogs a
BEDE alcigoks. i iGstom,. | Wines:
(Retd.); Description of a new
species of Wasp (Paravespa
eva). (With I plate)
BLATIER, “Dhe late E., S.34
Ph.D., F.L.S.; and MILLARD,
W.S., F.zZ.Ss. Some beautiful
indian’ Urees Part. XX:
(With two coloured plates and
one black and white plate) .
BRANDER, A. A. DUNBAR:
Ratels and Corpses
White Bison
The Eyesight of Vultures
BROUGHTON, BRIGADIER T.,
DELVES, R.-E. (Retd.);
Occurrence of the Butterfly
P. antiphates naira in the
Niigiris Sle
CAIUS, Ja ag Ses Pe
Medicinal and
Grasses of India
The
Poisonous
; The
Poisonous
Medicinal and
Orchids of India aoe
CarrotTt, Capt. W. C.; The
Notodontoid Moth (Dudusa
nobilis)
CovELL, Lt.-Col, Gk ; Habits of
the Plaintive Gackoo (Cacom-
antis merulinus)
@ALMBIDA, J.B OR.) BA. M.SC.;
On the occurrence of adhesive
tendrils in Bigzonia venusta,
Ker-Gawl. (With one plate).
Epitors ; Why Elephants turn
’ cae eee
Siiieration, of Wild-
Fowl aE
————; Record Measurements
of Indian Buffaloes
JUN 8 1997
PAGE
814
803
415
611
619
828
834
540
791
633
623
601
615
627, $32
818
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS -
Epitors; Death of Survey Kha-
lassi due to Poisoning bya
Common Krait eee
caeruleus ) ;
—_ — UAporoorinton of nests
as other species :
; Range of Serene
Bittern (lvobrychus euryth-
mus Swinhoe)
ELIoT, JOHN ;
Occurrence of
Untiana attina in the Teesta
Valley
FRASER, Lt.-Col. F. C.,
GRetd.) FoeR. Bs S.
Oriental Dragonflies
GuosH, S. K.; Why Elephants
turn ‘ Rogues’
aa
New
GoucHu, W.; Vultures eaeanag
at night eh ae
GrAwAn. Major J. As Ries ;
The Life History from Egg to
Pupa of ‘Brahmea wallichit
Gray. (With two plates and
four text-figures) -
GRIFFITH, R.G.; Measurements
of a Buffalo Head from
Assam. (W2th a photo)
Hatt, J. E.; Shooting Wild
Buffalo in the Kosi River
Swamps. (With one plate)...
- Horn-growth as
observed in Black Buck and
Nilgai Bos
Joun, C.C., M.A., D.Sc. euteonat
D.C; pe icsuinater Fish and
Fisheries of ‘Travancore.
(With five text-figures)
JOURDAIN, Rev. T.C.R. ; ‘ Cuc-
koo-Lore ” ‘
Law, 5S. C., M.A., Eee ee
M.B.O.U. ; mutcasion of the
Rarge of the white-browed
Bulbul (Pycnonotus luteolus)
Further report on the Nesting
of Geocichla c. citrina in 24
Parganas, Bengal
Note on the Distribution of
Chloropsis jerdont (Blyth)
and Chloropsis auritrons,
(Temm.) in Central and
Western Bengal ...
PAGE
832
826
834
633
700
614
624
585
618
702
820
620
622
825
LIVESEY, .T. R.; ‘Cuckoo
Problems, (With four
plates)
from the Chin Hills. (With a
photo) ve om
‘Cuckoo-Lore’
> The Brown
Wood-Owl (Strix indranee).
(With a photo) ame
—; Does the Japan-
ese Grey Quail (Coturnix c.
japonica Temm. and
Schleg.) breed in the Shan
States ? a ue
MacpONALD, A. St. J.; A
Fishing Trip in Kumaon.
(With two plates)
MAHENDRA, B. C.; Geckos ana
Superstition ;
MAYURANATHAN, P. Vv. On the
FJowering of Strobilanthes in
1934
McCann, C. ; The Short: dated
ooo
Owl (Aszo flammeus) out at
sea as it Ze
MILNER, C. E., I.F.S. ; Occur-
rence of Shrenk’s Bittern
(lxobrychus euryvythmus
Swinh.) in Amherst District,
‘Tenasserim a
MorRRIS, R.C., F.Z.S., F.R.G.S. ;
To Malaya for a Rhinoceros.
(With two plates) .. ;
——--—-; The oes
tion and absence of Tusks in
tea
; Early Development of
eae by Sambhur in the
Billigirirangan Hills, South
India
——_——_———-; Tiger versus
Bison ae tee
; Further Re-
cords of the Distribution of
the Cheetah (Actnonyx
jubatus) in South India
- ———; The Birth of
an Elephant Calf
;‘Why Elephants
turn Rogues’
a
; Gaur Heads
827
§30
598
631
636
623
834
615
619
609
610
613
615
x LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Morris, R.C.; The Vernay-
Hopwood Upper Chindwin
Expedition. (With six plates).
Melanism in
b)
Wild Dogs es se
-—-———; Bison and
Panther ae ae
-—-- ; Season of
Horn Cees in
Sambhur Aer
MosgELY, MARTIN E., F.R.E.S.
The Indian Gaddis: Flies
(ZRICHOPTERA). (With 16
text-figures and 18 plates).
Part IV one of
Newton, H. M. S.; = Indus
Sand-Lark (Alaudula raytal
adamst Hume) and Crested
Lark (Galerida cristata
Linn.) laying in the same
nest
OBITUARIES :—
OsMOND CHARLES OLLEN-
BACH Ee
WALTER ORMISTON ...
PRATER, S. H.; Description a
a Blue Bee (Ursus arctos
pruinosus) from Tibet
; The Long-tailed
Duck (Clangula hyemalis
Linn.) in Sind
REVIEWS :—
I. An abridged Catalogue
of certain Scutelleroidea
‘Plataspide, Scutelleride
and Pentatomide) of China,
Chosen, Indo-China and
Taiwan ..
Il. The onaltes of
- Ill. The Nidification
Binge of the Indian
Empire ae tee
PAGE
647
813
818
819
447
826
607
608
610
831
604
604
605
Reviews; i. Man: A Special
Creation AC ee
———j; i. Glimpses of the
Wild 500 ah
————; iti. A Shellac Patent
Index ae
—; iv. Wild Animals
of the Indian Empire and the
Problem of their Preservation.
SANDERS, D. F.; Butterflies
of Secunderabad :
SEVASTOPULO, D. G., F.R.E.S. ;
The Preservation of HeETERO-
CERA in India aaa
STANFORD, J. K.; Probable
breeding of the Black-winged
Stilt (Aimantopus h. himan-
topus) in the Shwebo District,
Upper Burma ee
- -——— ; Some rare
Birds in Northern Burma
THom, W. 8S.; The Malay
Tapir (Zapirus indicus).
(With one plate) or
TICEHURST, DR. CLAUD B.;
The Brown Shrike (Lanius
cristatus Linn.) in Burma
ar.d Assam vite
Toocoop, Lt. icon % G.,
D.s.o.; Ratels and Corpses.
Toocoop, Lt.-Col. J.; Sound
Listening for Tiger Shooting.
WHISTLER, HUGH, F.Z.S.,
M.B.o.U.; A New Race of
Horsfield’s Scimitar-Babbler.
AND
KINNEAR, N. B., M.B.O.U. ;
The Veriay Scientific Survey
of the Eastern Ghats
ee Section).
Part ALL! . 5
oe . Part XIV.
PaGE
807
808
808
808
800
634
624
625
479
699
418
672
LIST OF PLATES
VOLUME XXXVIII
Nos. 3 and 4
Some Beautiful Indian Trees—
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
oo,
30.
XXXI.
XXXII.
XXXII.
XXXIV.
The Large Flowered Dillenia (Dillenta indica)
The Kleinhovia Tree ( Kleinhovia hospita)
Dillenia indica, Tree of, in the People’s Park,
Madras, August 8th, 1935 fe oe
Dillenia indica, Flower of, from a tree in the
People’s Park, Madras, July 1935
Kleinhovia hospita, Tree of, in the Agri- Hori
cultural Society’s Gardens, Madras ...
Kleinhovia hospita, Flowers of, the Agri- Horti-
cultural Society’s Gardens, Madras, September
21st, 1935
To Malaya for a Rhinoceros—
Plate
Plate
ie
IJ.
(A) Kroh River
(B) Sakai Hut, occupied at Changkat Kereta
(Base Camp)
(A) Bernam River. Boundary. between Perak and
Selangor State
(B) Camp in dense evergreen forest in the Bernam
area
Indian Caddis Fiies (TRICHOPTER A)—
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
se:
II.
III.
IV.
XL
».GUE
XITT.
XIV.
XV.
KV EE
2 NIUE
XVIII,
Tapirus indicus—
Plate
Plate
JUN 2
Astratodina inermis
Colpotaulius major
Astratus tricalcaratus
Micropterna indica '
Pseudostenobhylax ere
Pseudostenophylax himalayanus
Pseudostenophylax griseolus
Astenophylodes burmanus
Stenophylina mitchellt
Trichobhylax votundi pennis ...
Pseudohalesus aberrans
Halesinus albipunctatus
Platyphylax rufescens
Phylostenax himalus :
Stenophyliella kashmirensis ...
Astenophylina kashmirus
Apataniana hutchinson
Apatidea brevis
(A) Tapir shot by the author
(B) Young Tapir caught after its mother was shot
in Tavoy ie; ae oa aes
1937
PAGE
415
417
416
416
417
417
442
d44
450
451
453
454
456
457
458
459
460
462
464
466
468
469
472
473
475
477
479
xii LIST OR PEAIELS:
Kishenganga Valley, Kashmir, Birds of—
Plate I. Entrance to Tithwal Gorge, Alpine Swifts occupied
crevices in the cliff face ...
Plate II. View near Kel *: oe
Plate Ill. Myophonus coeruleus pene on ie way to
its nest :
Plate IV. Gypshimalayensis nigneeiag of the poet of a young
Buffalo
Shooting Wild Buffalo in the Kosi River Seupee
Plate Rogue Buffalo, Kosi River. Horn Sweep, 95 in.,
girth 17% in.
Brahmea wallichiit Life History from Egg to Pane
Plate Y.. (A) Darvee. Nos. 2 and a rather less: than, full
size
(B) All five larvae on ash-twigs : AGE
~Plate ll. Front view of larva, 4th instar, in alavmed posi-
tion
Kumaon, A Fishing Trip in--
Plate I. (A) A morning’s catch
(B) The junction at Pacheshwar showing the
Temple Roek::; ae aah one
Pilate II. (A) A typical gorge on the Ramganga below
Aulaghat
(B) Big water with big fellows Hh
Plate Bignonia venusta, Adhesive tendrils in ..,
Verney-Hopwood Upper Chindwin Expedition—
Plate Members of the Expedition at Jumri Hka. R. C.
ag = S. Vernay, H.C. Raven, S. F. Hop-
wood, C. McCann
Plate (A) Wanga Nagasat Dalu
(B) Wanga Nagas at Dalu
Plate (A) Rasa Nagas at Hahti
; (B) Camp at Singkaling Hkamati
Plate War dance of Rasa Naga braves at Hahti
Plate Dance of Rasa Naga women at Hahti ...
Plate Leaves of a Palm Livistona (?) (sp.)
Cuckoo Problems—
Plate Baby Burmese Plaintive Cuckoo being fed by its
diminutive foster-mother—-a Franklin’s Wren-
warbler ane
Plate Nest of Franklin’s Wren- varies containing an egg
of the Burmese Plaintive Cuckoo
Plate Blyth’s Pipit feeding young Khasia Hills Gdeioor
Blyth’s Pipit and young Khasia Hills Cuckoo
Plate Paravespa eva eee ae
PAGE
524
526
932
538
585
593
596
598
599
601
647
656
660
664
665
670
734
737
742
743
803
Pitas Aad aire
WNMDEX, TOTELLOSTRATIONS
VOLUME XXXVIII
Nos. 3 and 4
PAGE
Apataniana huichinsont, P1., Gyps himalayensts disposing
figs. 1-10 aia cen LO of the body of a Young.
A patidea brevis, Pl., figs. 1-5... 477 Binttaloue. - ee
Astenophylina es. J Fiatesinus albipunctatus Pi.,
figs, 1-6 : ae 2473 figs. 1-8 se
Astratodina mevInts, Pl Kishenganga Valley, K Manet
figs. 1-7 ne re!) Pl. i. Entrance to Tithwal
Astratus tricaicaratus, P1., Gorge
figs. 1-8 453 PL. ii. View near Kel
Astenophylodes Rae a ES Pl. Kleinhovia hospita, Pls.
figs. 1-6 ee 2 iiamaony A Rishing trip dn
Bignonia venusta, Pl., adhe- ie ey Gree
d I. : ornings catch at
sive tendrils 601 Tenney ae
Bison, Heads of, fig. 819 Padava, with the
Blyth’s Pipit feeding Voukie Kali es
Khasia Hills’ Cuckoo, Pl 742 PL LB. Th - ;
Blyths Pipit and Young Khasia ge
Hills Cuckoo, Pl. ce Seles Ou
Brahmea wallichii— as tle aac
Pl. A. Larvee Nos. 2 and 5. Rock
B. All five Larve on Pl.ii-A. A typical Gorge on
ash-twigs 593 the Ramganga
Pl, Front view of Larva, 4th . below Aulaghat,
instar, in alarmed position. 596 Pl. ii-B, Big water with big
Brown Wood-Owl, Young 827 fellows ve
Buffalo (The rogue), Pl. 535 | Malaya for a Rhinoceros mae
—-— Head, from Assam, River, Pl. A.
fig. iA Be Se Sakai hut, occupied at
Colpotuins major, PL., figs. Changkat Kareta (Base
1-9 wa 451 Camp), Pl. B ee
Cuckoo Problems— Bernam River. Boundary
Burmese Plaintive Cuckoo between Perak and Sel-
being fed by a Franklin’s angor States, Pl. A,
Wren-Warbler, Pl. ; 734 Camp in dense evergreen
Nest of Franklin’s Wren- forest in the Bernam
Warbler containing an egg area, PI. B, ne
of the Burmese Plaintive Micropterna indica, Pl., figs.
Cuckoo, Pl. 137 1-7 : sis 4 sine
Piilevtatndica, Piss ‘se 415, | Myophonus coeruleus tem-
416, 417 mincki, Pl.
JUN 2 1937
- PAGE
598
599
444
454
932
XIV INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS
Panthera pardus, Photo of skin
of a Panther shot at Thakpo,
Tibet. ik s
Paravesta eva, Pl. FE a
Phylostenax himalus, P1., figs.
1-9 bass aoe ae
Platyphylax rufescens,
figs. 1-5 a
Protorthemis intermedia, fig.
Pseudohalesus aberrans, Pl.,
figs. 1-10 a a ce
Pseudostenophylax griseolus,
Pl., figs. 1-4
lel
himalayanus ,
Pl., figs. 1-3 ee
—_~——— martynovt,
Ply digs. 1- : ee
Stenophyliella kashmtrensts,
Pl., figs. 1-6 ae
Stenophylina mittchelli, Pl.,
figs. 1-6
Tuapirus indicus—
Adult, Pl., fig. A.
Youoe.-Fh, io. B.
PAGE
609
803
469
468
700
464
458
457
456
472
450
479
Travancore, Freshwater Fish
and Fisheries of—
Bamboo frame called Oftad,
fo, ae fee
Float-net, fig. 2 ee
Setting of cast-nets, fig. 3.
Typical fish trap, fig. 4
Tripod net, fig. 5
Trichophylax rotundifennis,
Pl., figs. 1-3 oa
Upper Chindwin, Vernay-
Hopwood Expedition to—
Members of the Expedition,
Pl i eee eae
Wanga Nagas at Dalu, Pl.
Ras Nagas at Hakti, P.,
19% el.
Camp at Singkaling
Hkamti, Pl., fig. 2
War dance of Rasa Naga
braves at Hahti, Pl.
Dance of Rasa Naga
women at Hahti, Pl.
Leaves of a Palm (Livt-
stona)
PAGE
647
656
INDEX OF
PAGE
Abisara echerius suffvsa i ee e50n
Acampe wightiana fie “ii ee eh
Acanthopneuste magnirostris ... ce soo
-————- occipitalis occipitalis. 533
Accipiter affinis an ae we 435
——-—— ferox ae oe .. 426
——-—— macrourus... ae ... 430
——--—— nisus ae — = 538
—_—-——— ——-. nisosimilis We we «= 434
——-—— virgatus besra fae .. 435
— - - kashmiriensis we «= 435
Acridotheres tristis tristis st 502, 534
—— melanosternus ae O03
Acinonyx jubatus rr oie .. 610
Acrocephalus agricola ... ah .. 486
- dumetorum jee . = 485
-- SLtentoreus Petes eae 484
—meridionalis. 484
A&thiopsar fuscus mahrattensis Poe oUS
Aithopyga siparaja vigorsi_... ame
AEgypius monachus ae ne or O95
Agropyron repens 2 w= (O44
Alauda gulgula australis a poe 797
- -- gulgula ae a 107
—- —--- thamorum ... Ga”. 530
—- ———-- punzabi aes ae . COS
Alaudula raytal adamsi... se ss | O20
Alcedo atthis pallasii ... a ee 3050
Alectoris greeca chukar ~ . 039
Alseonax ruficaudus __... a ek 52
Amandava amandava amandava ... 509
Amaurornis fuscus bakeri oe fn 8409?
———-——_ ——--- erythrothorax ... 692
——-——-— ——-- fuscus sas ep ous
- -—— ——-- zeylonicus as 692
-—— phoenicurus phoenicurus. 692
Ambassis dayi... sah 707, 714
—— = gymnocephalus so eon 707
= ~nalua ..,. S64 ae a FOF
_ ~ thomassi oe : a. 707
Amblypharyngodon mreletGna. 706, 710
—— - microlepis 706, 710
eae
mola... 706, 710
yon 2 1987
SPECIES
Ampelosis hederacea
-~ quinquefolia
————_-- tricuspidata
-————-- veitchii
Amphilophim mutisii
Amphilophis odorata
Anabas scandens
Anabolia oculata
Anas platyrhyncha
Andropogon citratus
- contortus
———_-——— helepensis
-—______—— jivarancusa
— — murricatus
—_—--——-— nardus
odoratus
schoenanthus
sorghum
Squarrosus
Anguilla bicolor
vulgaris
Anthoxanthum odoratum
Anthraxon ciliaris
Anthropoides virgo
Antiaris toxicaria
Antigone antigone
ee eee
antigone
Anthus campestris thermophilus
- hodgsoni hodgsoni
—-—-- nilghiriensis
- richardi
- roseatus
- rufulus atimencs
- waitei
- similis similis
——_—-- striolatus
- trivialis trivialis
Apataniana hutchinsoni
Apatelia fimbriata
Stee
————_ inornata
Apatidea brevis
— - copiosa
———- elongata
PAGE
1078
706,
601
601
601
601
601
544
715
470
627
555
561
977
554
982
555
545
954
578
582
708
706
545
546
695
661
831
695
766
763
764
764
935
765
766
764
767
763
475
477
477
477
477
477
RVI
Aplocheilus rubrostigma
Apiolophium
Appias albina darada
- libythea libythea
Aquila clanga
- fasciata
————- nipalensis
- perniger
———- pomarina nastate
- rapax vindhiana
PAOE
713
601
801
801
423
423
422
424
423
423
Arachnothera longirostra ionecca 776
Arcenthornis viscivorus bonapartei ..
Arctogalidia leucotes
Ardea antigone
——-- cinerea
——-- virgo
Argya “is
Aristida Be cnecionie
Arundinella brasiliensis
Arundo donax
Asio flammeus
Astenophylina fesnmn
Astenophylodes burmanus
Astratodina inermis
Astratus tricalcaratas
Astur badius
dussumieri
—- kienerii x
_—- - trivirgatus dimes
—— layardt
Avena fatua
~ sativa
-- var. erentalie
Azanus jesous gamra
-ubaldus ...
- uranus
Bagrus malabaricus
- montanus
- oculatus
Balitora maculata
Bambusa arundinacea
——-——-- blumeana
—__——-- vulgaris
Barbus amphibius
- arulinus
+. burmanicus
- conchonius
—___—= curmuca
- denisonni
—-——-- filamentosus
—— trivirgatus .
531
650
695
09.
695
752
546
546
547
623
473
459
450
453
433
432
424
434
~ 434
433
547
547
548
802
802
802
709
709
709
710
549
“wor
949
707, 712
4875712
706, 711
107, 7212
706, 711
707, 712
HOF ie
INDEX OF SPECIES
Barbus lithopidos
- mahecola
——-- melanampyx
——— melanostigma ...
——- parrah
———- pinnauratus
——_—= |punetatus
- sarana
- stigma
=tOr
- vittatus :
Baza jerdoni ceylonensis
leuphotes leuphotes
Belone cancila
Bignonia capreolata
— littoralis
———-— unguis-cati
-— yentista
Bombax
Bos gaurus
Brachirus orientalis
Brachypternus penea iene
medius :
—- tehminz
Brahmea wallichii
Bromus catharticus
- mollis
- purgans
Buagarus ceruleus
Burhinus oedicnemus indicus
Butastur teesa
Butea frondosa :
Buteo buteo burmanicus
—- desertorum
——- japonicus
——- melanotis as ae
——-plumipes ..
—- rufiventer
——- vulgaris
Byblia ilithyia Ae:
Cacomantis merulinus ...
PAGE
706, 711
707, 712
706, 711
707, 712
706, 711
706, 711
707. 712
706, 711
707, 712
706, 711
107, oF uz
437
436
407 9713
601
601
601
601
665
585
730
inter-
783
783
593
So1
oh. obks
551
832
696
427
670
431
431
431
426
431
431
431
801
623,72, 823
Calandrelia brachydactyla dukhun-
evsis
Callacanthis aa
Callichrous bimaculatus
—— malabaricus
Calliope pectoralis pectoralis
Callosciurus sladeni
Calycopteris floribunda
Capoeta amphibia
768
534
706, 708
706, 708
531
648, 650,
654, 655, 658
670.
712
INDEX OF SPECIES
2
PAGE PAGE
Caprimulgus indicus ... ae .. 03/7 | Cisticola exilis erythrocephala 487
macrourus albonotatus. 537 — juncidis omalura aa cost o ESS
Careya arborea ... : cat 669, 670 —— salimalii 487
Carpodacus erythrinus ne .; - 009 | Clamator fod
Carpophaga cuprea sa ve ww. = 674 — jacobinus 810
—- pusilla tee ae .. 674 | Clangula hyemalis ia S31
Cassia fistula. site a .. 670 | Clarias magur sie ae 706, 708
Catopra malabarica .... tis .. 714] Cobitis botia 709
Catopsilia florella gnoma bee .. 801 | Coix lachryma-jobi 552
Cenchrus catharticus ... ae ... 991 | Colotis amata modesta .., 801
Cephalostachyum capitatum EMeee OOL - eucharis 801
Cerchneis tennunculus eee 420, 538 | Colpotaulius incisus 45]
Ceriornis macrolophus biddulphi ... 539 kolenati 451
Certhia himalayana limes ate PSs | See major 451
Cervus rusa ze wer .. 443 | Columba cambayensis 679
Ceryle lugubris eitalats, ao ieee s OSD — elphinstonii 676
Cettia aes ee .. 758 | ——— indica 675
Chaimarrornis ledeoceplala e .. O31 | ———— livia intermedia ; ome O20
Chalcophaps indica ns’ zsh .. 675 | ~-———— neglecta ae ae 539, 676
es = - robinsoni .. 676 | ———— orientalis meena 677
Charadrius coromandelicus ... .. 697 | —--—-— risoria var, decaocto 680
—— dubius jerdoni a ... 624 | ——-— suratensis 679
Charcharias dussumieri a fe O39 — sylvatica 2075
Charaxes fabius fabius me ee OU2 — tranquebarica 680
— polyxena imna re ... 801 | Copsychus saularis saularis Baul
Chaulelasmus streperus ns .. 833 | Coracias garrula semenowi : meee Oae
Chela boopis.... the ae 707, 713 | Corvus cornix ... sae ite 628, 630
Chilades laius laius ... ve eee 107) -corone ... ee 629, 630
Chilasa clytia clytia vay. dissimilis ... 800 | ——— A Acrerivncnig inrermoaraee 528
Chloris petraea ... ae as .. 552 | ——— monedula 529
- - virgata oie A .. 52 | —— Ssplendens 928
Chloropsis a. aurifrons es .. 825 | Coturnixargoondah _... nbs ve? O87
— jerdoni ee sg 628, 825 | ———-— coromandelicus _... 684, 831
—sp.... ane ree .. 629 | ——— coturnix 684
Choriotis nigriceps se Se we 695 | ——- —-— japonica 830
Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus cherso- — erythrorhynchum 687
nesus ... = ee .. 784 | Crocopus chlorogaster .. 672
Chrysopogon eematas see ... 5092 {| Crossoptilon harmani 626
Cinclus cinclus a eee ..» 629 | Cryptoplectron erythrorhyn shun 687
pallasii Pantie oe .. 530 { Cuculus canorus we . 536, 734, 823
Cinnyris asiatica asiatica are ue) Ot ee bakeri 734, 737, 741, 743, 823
— lotenia eae ses .. @72 | ——- himalayanus 752
—_———- Minima ... ... oes cers - optatus ... 536
— zeylonica a hs .. 774 | Culicicapa ceylonensis Sallidior yer
Circaétus ferox ei — ... 426] Cursorius coromandelicus coroman-
Circus aeruginosus aeruginosus foe Aol delicus sie 697
macrourus =r io ». 430 | Cymbidium algroluin ‘i 794
———mmelanoleucos ... .. .. 430] Cymbopogon citratus 595
pygargus me es »- 430 jivarancusa 904
teesa oF Sot vs 427 | ———~-—— nardus rs 995
Cissus paulinifolia ‘ive ae «. 601) —— schoenanthus ... 553, 554
Vili
PAGE
Cymbopogon winterianus 553
Cynodon bradleyi 556
——— dactylon 556
hirsutus 556
Cyprinus curmuca Teal
——-—— conchonius 712
——-—— lamata 710
——-—— laubuca 713
———- mola ... 710
———- sarana Jack
——-— tor eae irs TA
Dactyloctenium egyptium 908
Danais aglea aglea ~ we SOL
Danio malabaricus 07,2713
Delias hyparete ethire ... 800
Delichon cashmeriensis 534
— urbica ... ouZ
Dendrobium chlorops 794
——-- macraei 794
a ovatum 794
pumilum .. 794
Dendrocalamus strictus 553
Dendronanthus indicus.. 763
Dendrophassa bicinceta bicincta 673
—- ——- pompadora affinis 673
Desmostachya bipinnata 559
Desmotrichum fimbriatum 794
Dicaeum concolor concolor ee ade
— erythrorbynchos erythro-
rhynchos ld]
Dicrurus macrocercus albix ae 933
Dillenia indica 415, 666
— pentagyna 669, 670
- ——~-— speciosa.. 415
Dinopium javonense mala bacienta 784
Dipterocarpus 72051,-002, 061
Discognathus jerdoni 706, 710
Dromas ardeola . 698
Dryobates rani tene: 536
—— hardwickii omereigale 782
—— — gymnopthal-
US = A. ae a 782
—- himalayensis albescens 536
———---—— mahrattensis mahrattensis. 781
Ducula badia cuprea ean ee OA
Dudusa nobilis 633, 639
Echinochloa colona 559
-——_—— var. fr inentareee 599
——— crus-galli... 560
Elaeocarpus 661, 665
Elanus ceruleus v asics 429, 430
INDEX OF SPECIES
Elephas maximus
Eleusine aegyptiaca
— coracana
— indica ...
Elymnias hypermnestra wadelare
Em beriza cia stracheyi ...
—-— stewarti ee
Enicurus maculatus maculatus
Eragrostis cynosuroides
Eremias rubropunctata ..
Eremopterix grisea grisea
Ergolis ariadne indica...
- merione merione
Eriboea athamas agrarius
Erythopus amtrensis
Esacus recurvirostis
Etroplus maculatus
— suratensis
Euchrysops cnejus
——_—-——--- pandava panaaen
Eulophia campestris
————-- herbacea
——-—-- nuda
—- pratensis ote
Kumyias thalassina ERataseen
Euplcea coreta coreta
— crassa kollari...
Eurema lacta lacta ie
Euthalia garuda meridionalis...
— nais Ss
Everes parrhasius Dee aeiis 5
Excalfactoria chinensis chinensis
Falco aeruginosus ie
cenchris var, pekinensis
ceylonensis
—— chicquera chicquera
cirrhatus.:.
ichthyaetus
indus
—__——- interstinctus
jugger
leucogaster
melanoleucos mus
naumanni pekinensis ...
———- nisosimilis
——-. objurgatus
—— pennatus ...
peregrinus Site
—_—- —+——---—— peregrinator
———— severus rufipedoides
subbuteo ...
PAGE
107, (log aA
707, 71Si27i7;
421,
613
558
560
561
801
534
534
530 -
5959
631
770
802
801
802
419
697
718
718
802
802
795
795
796
796
532
801
801
801
801
802
802
684
431
422
425
419
425
427
428
422
419
427
430
422
434
422
423
418
418
419
938
Gymnopetalum Peehimeninen:s
PAGE
Falco tinnunculus japanensis 422
——- ~ japonicus... 422
—_-- ——_ ——- objuregatus 420
——- -——- tinnunculus 422
—— trivirgatus 433
—— veSpertinus vay. amurensis 419
vociferus ... 429
Felis jubata 610
Ficus glomerata ... €65, 669
Formica rufa 628
Francolinus nivosus 683
—- - pictus pallidus 688
—_- —_—___ —-—_ pictus 687
_—__ ——_- watsoni 688
-———_--——-- pondicerianus pondicezia-
DUS ss 688
— -- vulgaris oe oe anolets:
Franklinia gracilis 737, 743, 822
—_—— - ——-- albogularis 4x8
+ —_—_-——--- pectoralis ... 490
Fulica atra atra ... 627, 633
-———— cinerea 693
Fulvetta manipurensis 625
_ Galerida malabarica ... wes 770
-——— oristata 826
Gallicrex cinerea : 693
Gallinula chloropus indicus 692
——-—— phoenicurus ... 692
-— poliocephala ... 693
Galloperdix lunulata | 683
— - Spadicea spadicea 682
———~ —— —- stewarti 683
Gallus gallus murghi 681
-——-— sonneratii 682
Garrulax 629
Garrulus eiandanus 630
——-—— lanceolatus 529
Geocichla citrina 622
Gerres limbatus ... 707
Glareola lactea nae 698
——_——- pratincola madi yanina 697
Gliricidia maculata 670
(Jmelina arborea 670
Gobius giuris 707, 714
——_——— nandus ... 714
—— —— striatus... - 707, 714
Gongylus gongyloides ... 804
Gracula ptilogenys 499
= -- religiosa indica 499
Grus grus lilfordi 695
601 |
INDEX OF SPECIES
Gymnorhis xanthocollis xanthocollis
Gypaetus barbatus grandis
Gyps himalayensis
——- indicus
Habenaria eomine tieola
Haematornis cheela melanotes
spilogaster _
Halcyon pileata
——--—— smyrnensis
-—————_ ussuriensis
Halesinus albipunctatus
Haliaeétus leucogaster ...
Haliastur indus indus ...
Hanburia mexicana
Haplochilus lineatus ...
—-- rubrostigma
Hebomoia giaucippe australis
Hedera quinquefolia
Heliopais personata
Hemichelidon sibirica euler gi
Hemicircus canente canente
cordatus -..
Hemidactylus flaviviridis
Hemiramphus xanthopterus
Hemipodius dussumieri
-- taigoor
Herpestes urva
Hetaeria obliqua
Heteropogon contortus...
Hieraaétus fasciatus
pennatus
Hierococcyx
Sparveroides
varius
Himantopus h, himantopus
Hippolais rama rama
Hipposiderus armiger ... :
Hirundapus caudacutus nudipes
Hirundo daurica erythropygia
scullii
——-———. javanica domicola
————— fluvicola
— nepalensis
ee — rustica gutturalis
- —-— rustica
Holarrhena antidysenterica
Homaloptera maculata
Homochlamys pallidus pallidus
Hordeum vulgare
Hydrophasianus chirurgus
Hygrorhiza aristata
ab.
PAGE
706,
510
538
538
830
796
425
427
830
536
466
466
, 828
428
602
707
GS
801
601
607
932
786
785
631
714
689
689
660
796
561
423
423
(32
752
510
624
491
661
537
514
534
513
830
514
513
934
669
710
933
562
694
563
aX INDEX OF SPECIES
PAGE PAGE
Hylobates hoolock ore =P .. 648] Macrones oculatus oe co 706, 709
——_——--- lar ane .. 440 | ———- vittatus as af 706, 709
Hypotaenidia striata valae See ... 690 | Macropicus javanensis hodgsoni ave => 706
Ianthia cyanura pallidara a ... 931] Macrotarsius bitorquatus ee Aes = a6 97
Ichthyophaga. ichthyaétus ee ... 4271 Manisuris granularis. ... ae sien, SO
Ictinaétus malayensis perniger .. 424 | Mareca penelope ee 833
Idionyx dohrni a ae ... 701 | Mastacembelus armatus 707, 714, 719
~ laidlawi a a soca UL —— ——.- guentheri. 703, 1076715 77.
Imperata arundinacea se ee TOOL | 719
—-Cylindrica G.. 7 ss. lett t004) MMeoalopsicyprinoides...a0), =: 707, 713
Irena puella puella ae ap .. 496 | Melanitisledaismene ... ae ba fH eOUZ
Ischnogaster eximia ... ae ... 804 | Melophus melanicterus ... ae Son (aod
Ixobrychus eurythmus ... is ... 834 | Metopidius indicus Fe : see = O93
Iynx torquilla japonica oe ... 936 | Microscelis psaroides Beaeoides Pe ee,
Jamides alecto eurysaces ae: ... 802 | Microcichla scouleri scouleri ... eu 00
Kleinhovia hospita ee ae -- 416 | Micropterna indica ae .. 404
Krimnochelidon concolor ie ... 830 | Micropternus brachyurus orden vecofen id Se
Labeo denisonii wis eee? he | 72 Micropusvathiniswes: ies 27 aye 537, 829
——-- dussumieri es »- ‘ 406, 710 | —— - apus pekinensis e: is Oe
Lanius cristatus vai a wet 2024/2 melbanee Hoe ass Peet o6)//
.———-schach erythronotus ... PRE MESS) oS - bakeri... tee ia) tei}
- vittatus ay a2: .. J32 | Milvuslineatus ... a oe 429, 538
Laportea crenulata bie Sas 655,657 migrans govinda te 428, 538
Leiothrix lutea Su; ve .. 629 | ——— - migrans ee ep macs
Leptocoma asiatica ee as 1939 | EMiratra ainis =... ties Seen LOO
Leptosia nina‘nina ag de ae O00 -— eovionenclt oa Been VAG)
Lethe europa ragalva ... se Teas gOU2 -—erythroptera.... Bele woe
——-- rohria nilgiriensis aug ... 801; Molpastes leucogenys jedcosenne co eooU
Leuciscus mahecola +e -P ... 712 | Monticola cinclorhyncha ge wee Ol
== Nelittina Bes sa ... 710 | Morphnus hastatus eae aay rae 755)
== stoma a me .. 712 | Motacilla alba dukhunensis ... nie moo.
-——_———. - filamentosus... a e012 te = personata wee we 799
Liminitis procris calidasa ... .. 801 | -——-—~—- alboides as ase eo eOSS
Lioptila capistrata - a ... 629 | ————- cinerea caspica wee 535, 761
Locustella neevia straminea ... ... 486 | ————- flava simillima ase . 162%
Lolium temulentum ... A’ . 564) — -- thunbergi ee - 762%
Lophatherum gracile ... es ... 565 | ————- maderaspatensis.... fo TEN)
Lophophanes melanolophus ... =. 929:) Mania malacea:<... aie s457 W906
——— - rufonuchalis rufonucha- Muscadivora enea Preis cae 674
lis ie ees .. 529] Muscicapula superciliaris super oie! 532
Lophotriorchis kienerii ae ... 424} Mycalesis perseus typhius ee .. 801
Loxura atymnus atymnus ee .. 802 | ————- visala visala ... ar 45) 0
Luisia tenuifolia ie ae ... 796 | Myophonus czeruleus temminckii ... 532
Lyccenopsis puspa gisca Ee ... 802 | Nandus marmoratus ... ane 707, 7149)
Lymnocryptes minima a ... 625 | Nemachilus botius ees scr 706, 709 |
Macacus mandibularis say 4440 ——- triangularis ane 706, 710 |
—- nemestrinus ait, : 443 | Neophron percnopterus percnopterus. 538 |
Macrones chryseus = ie 706, 709 | Neptis columella nilgirica sua + S01
-—— - gulio sac ne 706, 709 hordonia hordonia Ane ca SOOM
———-- malabaricus ... ah 706, 709 hylas varmona ... am > ‘SO2m
——--—- montanus ... A 706, 709 | Nettion crecca .., Re en sa 02a
Niltava sundara whistleri
Nisaétus ceylonensis
a, cirrhatus: cirrhatus
———— nipalensis kelaarti
Nucifraga multipunctata
Nyroca ferina
=~ Tita
Oberonia anceps...
—_.—_——- bifolia ...
——_——-- fusca ... ses
——_——- latifolia
—_——- laxifolia
——_——-- maculata
——-——- mascula
—-——-- militaris
————- morio ...
—-——-- pyramidalis
—-———- sambucina
————-- simia ... ‘ve
Odina woodiar
Oecophylla smaragdina
Oedicnemus indicus
—--- recurvirostris
Oenanthe picata
Oenopopelia tranquebarica heme
—————__ ——__-- murmensis
—————_——_____———_-- tranqueba-
Ompok bimaculatus ...
Ophiocephalus gachua ...
——— ——— -- marulis ..
-- micropeltis
—-- Striatus...
Orchis latifolia
Oreicola ferrea Reraneiont
Oriolus chinensis diffusus
- oriolus kundoo ...
Orsotrioena medus medus
Orthotomus sutorius guzerata...
- sutorius ...
Oryza sativa
Otis indica
—— nigriceps ie
Oxytenanthera sinuata ...
Panicum antidotale
———— crus-corvi ae
—— crus-galli os
->——— frumentaceum
-——-—-- leucopunctatus
- xanthornus ceylonensis
maderaspatensis.
PAGE
032
425
425
425
529
627 |
627
797
797
797
797
797, |
797
797
797
797
797
797 |
797
670
628
696
697
530
680
680
680
708
715
715
, 715
hoi
W728
797
741
498
533
499
498
801
486
486
566
696
695
567
569
560
560
599
INDEX OF SPECIES
xxi
PAGE
Panicum maximum aes Pe ects,
-—— — miliaceum se e508
——— miliare aie ss + O08
—_—_-—— Sarmentosum ... yas 569
Panthera pardus aa 609
Pantoporia perius seen OU
Papilio antiphates naira a 834
———. crino os 800
Paradoxurus ie ‘ee 665
Paravespa eva ... ses ice 803
—— eximia ane 804
—— — _ fraterna esis 803
—_——-——— micans . 803
—— —- nigrifrons Be 804
——— —— nitidipennis... ws 804
———_——- rufomaculata sie faa OUD
—— scitula ae 803
Parra indica ar 693
Parus major cashmirensis 529
——-- monticolus monticolus... 529
Paspalum conjugatum .., 570
——-——- sanguinale ass 570
—— ——- scrobiculatum 570
Passer domesticus indicus 511
——- parhini oh 534
rutilans cinnamomeus ., 534
Pastor roseus aA 500
Pathysa nomius nomius 800
Pavo cristatus eae 681
Pennisetum compressum se 971
—_—_———.- typhoideum ofl
——_—-——-- spicatum Sas 571
Penthoceryx sai ss 734
——-- sonneratti... 823
Peponopsis adhzreus 601
Perca scandens Ha” BYARD)
Perdicula argoondah 686, 687
——.——-- asiatica asiatica 685
———— —— ceylonensis ... 686
—— vidali 686
Perdix asiatica 685
lunulata es 683
—-— picta ae O07
Pericrocotus pievirocaag Drevirostcrs 533
Perilampus laubuca 707, 713
- malabaricus 7s
Perissospiza icteroides icteroides 534
Pernis ptilorhynchus ruficollis 436
Phalacrocorax carbo sinensis ... . 339
Phalaris arundinacea oft
Phoenicurus frontalis
XRil INDEX OF SPECIES
PAGE
Phragmaticola aedon ... ‘42 an, Dal
Phragmites communis ... a rene
—_——-———- maximia .. if ae O42
--_——--—— roxburghii ... sat we > O12
Phyllanthus-emblica.. ... 3 Sup li WOO
Phylloscopusaffinis. .. see 492, 533
—-- “inornatus:- humet .:. ae a2
—_- —— magiuirostris noe tage <499
—___-+-—— nitidus nitidus «. At S402
—— - ——_-———- viridanus . Sue aoe
————- ——. occipitalis Gecipitali: wa 493
~—— proregulus Arr 2, 8633
Phy!lostachys bambusoides ... ee sie
Phylostenax frauenfeldi one sea > PACD
- -——himalus ... ie os 469
icaipica..\.. : ‘ sex O29
Picus Biigeciopnts Ealorie aster <2, 80
——- squamatus squamatus ... ial Mooo
-xanthopygaeus ... aes et E780
Pimelodus gulio ... re oe see OO
Pipistrellus ae ee Sa daa Ol
Piprisoma agile agile... Ss i APO
Pithecus cristatus ibe oe sv 40
-— obscurus ner ie ww» 440
-—-— -- pileatus... ae ie am OST
Pitta brachyura ... ea ten | ED
Platyphylax Tees a ao UE4Gy
THfescens 4... ihe ze F468
Ploceus manyar flaviceps ae sen O08
- philippinus burmanicts ao aS
_ travancoreensis ... 504
Polycanthus cupanus ... noe 10h 7S"
Polytoca barbata a ies Ga) Ore
Pomatorhinus ferruginosus .. Be 0) AC)
- albigularis. 626
— ————- —— mariae ... 626
stanfardi. 626
horsfieldi maderaspa-
es
LENSIS) foe 2 Hee cere ls)
Nr ea travancor-
eensis' 1.5 “699
Porphyrio Bai scaph ales poliocephalus 693 |
Porzana amauroptera ... ee Aa” kee
--— porzana ... Bus — seen OO
-- pusilla pusilla ... ae eS 691
Prinia albogularis fas wes Hume tote)
——.- inornata franklinii nt oa = (AQ5
———----——- insularis Hoe ww. 489
——-- pectoralis ... Bes De cee S89
—-- socialis brevicauda ie 494
: -socialis ... So0 4¢ 24, 783
PAGE
Prinia sylvatica sylvatica 494
—_—— valida 489
Pristolepis fasciata eee LOT
--—— malabarica ... on: 707, 714
Prunella strophiata jerdoni Daz
Psedera quinquefolia 601
- tricuspidata 601
Pseudobagrus chryseus ... 709
Pseudogyps bengalensis 538
Pseudohalesus aberrans 464
- kashmirus 463
Pseudominia castaneiceps 625
Pseudostenophylax griseolus ... 458
himalayanus 456, 457
—— —— martynovi 46
Pseudotropius sykesii... 706, 709
Psittacula himalayana rieialayans 536
Pterocles exustus ellioti... 681
——-—— indicus... 680
Pteropus giganteus eee, She
Pterospermum ... uae a 652, 661
Pu-tius parrah 711
- pinnauratus 711
- punctatus 712
= vittatus”’.. 72
Pycnonotus luteolus 620
Pyrrhocorax graculus B29
Rallus benghalensis i: 694
eurizonoides amauroptera 691
— fuscus 692
gularis 690
porzana 691
pusillus 691
superciliaris 691
Randia uliginosa Baa Gy Al
Rasbora daniconius nee aes 70756713
-- nilgiriensis ie a (00 R7 NS
Regulus regulus himalayensis Coa
Rhinoceros sondaicus ... hee 438, 481
ts, = smi atrensis ... 445, 480, 481
Rhinolophus 661
Rhinoptilus bitorquatus 697
Rhodophila ferrea ferrea ine 530
Rhyacornis fuliginosa fuliginosa Son
Rhynchostylis retusa 797
Riparia concolor ... 512
Rohita dussumieri he Rea)
Rohtee bakeri_.... AO7 713
Rostratula ben manlene aac iorels 694
Saccharum arundinaceum SYS
SY)
je ciliare
INDEX OF SPECIES
PAGE
Saccharum munja 575
— officinarum ... 574
— spontaneum .. Boe oh)
Saccobranchus fossilis 705, 708
Saccolabium papillosum 797
-——— praemorsum 793
Saxicola caprata bicolor oO)
—_ ——_—— _ burmanica ... 734, 741
-— torquata indica 530
Schilbe sykesii 709
Schoenicola platyura 490
Setaria italica 576
- plicata 976
- viridis 47
Sicyos angulata ... 601
Silurus vittatus 709
Sitta leucopsis 329
Sorghum helepense S771
———— vulgare... 978
Spatula clypeata ... 627
Spizaétus kelaarti 425
Stenophylax 455 ans 449
—_—— (Allophylax) indicus 473
Stenophybella kashmirensis 472
Stenophylina mitchelli ... 469
Stenotaphrum glabrum 579
Sternocera chrysis 83
Stipa capillata ... 579
—- sibirica mee : 979
Strebulus asper ... 405 670
Streptopelia chinensis suratenels 679
—.- decaocto decaocto 680
—_—-——- orientalis agricola © 679
_——— —-- ferrago og
—— ——____ ____ —- meena... ; 677
ee —-~ orientalis 677, 678
——— —-- roseogrisea . 680
--——_——=~ senegalensis paTibayencnt 679
Strix aluco biddulphi ... a 537
——- indranee eg ; 827
= ~ shanensis 827
Strobilanthes consanguineus ... 634
- cuspidatus 634
-——— - heyneanus 634
—— -——-- kunthianus 640
——— - sessilis 634
——__ ----—_—-- wartrensis 636
Sturnia malabarica blythii A) 04
a - malabarica eeu, OU
Sturnus vulgaris ... as 628, 630
Surniculus lugubris ... — 2» 7/49
Suthora saturatior
———-- unicolor...
Ee PC UAS LCI tee
Suya atrogularis ...
- criniger criaiger ...
Sylvia althzea
Symphalangus ere
Sypheotides indica
Systomus arulius
Tajuria cippus cippus
Talicada nysetis nyseus
Tamiops :
Tapirus indicus ...
Tarsiger brunnea
Tarucus theophrastus
Tchitrea paradisi leucogaster
Tectona gracilis ...
Telepogon elegans
Temenuchus pagodarum
Tetrao chinensis ... ;
—-— coromandelicus ...
—— coturnix ...
indicus
pondicerianus
SOREN
Themeda triandra
Thereiceryx viridis e
——- zeylanicus inoRnatne
—- zeylanicus
Thysanolaena acarifera
- agrostis ...
- procera ...
Tinnunculus saturatus ..,
Tomeutes ... ie
Trichophylax a seuwaipentile i:
Trichosanthes palmata...
-——- pubera ...
Tringa chirurgus
- hypoleucos
- ochrophus
Triticum estivum
————-- amyleum
——-— durum...
————- repens...
—— -—— spelta ... ais
Trochalopteron lineatum lineatum
Troglodytes troglodytes neglectus
TurJoides ... ; ee
Turdus atrogularis sae ons
~--—- boulboul...
Sea ree musicus p09 ooo
2. 696
XSuE
PAGE
625
625
~-6§25
822
933
Is)
440
ar le
802
802
648
479
530
-802
932
670
SVS)
992
684
684
684
680 —
688
682
979
788
787
787
580
580
580
421
648, 654
462
601
601
694
939
539
580
980
580
544
580
530
530
752
o31
ool
629
- &xiv INDEX OF SPECIES
PAGE PAGE
Turdus philomelos aes : -. 629 | Vinago unicolor ane 23 Secs SOMES
- rubrocanus ibrocems .. 931] Virachola isocrates Ns: ne as- 802
——- unicolor ... a ae fe. OOM | |e Vals asSsamlea ular BA a 601, 602
Turnix suscitator leggei a ... 689 | —— capreolata... we Ar peer OOM
—— taigoor Bee ... 689 | —— hederacea ... a safe er 00)!
- sylvatica dussumieri ... .. 689 | —— incosistans... uy As see 6OL
- tanki tanki ahs ase .. 690 | —— quinquefolia as a ie OO:
Turtur orientalis PE aide ... 679 |" =—royleana. «%.. ce sine wi + 1601
Unkana attina ... acy. ae .. - 633 | ——ternata fais Res sk sve ee OL
Upupa epops epops _... nek ee 2OOOe |e Viverraszibet hawn.. * ce 649, 669
Urocissa flavirostris cucullata... «we. #029: || Viverricula manieecenete Gas ‘ee OO
Uroloncha kelaarti jerdoni _..... .. 4507 | Vivia innominatus avunculorum Ronee? (hol
-—- malabarica ... Aa .. 508 | Wallago attu eos) 065/08, 57475 722, 2730
-———- -—- punctulata neorentes .. 508 | Woodfordia fruticosa ... oe 665, 670
_—_———-- striata striata a ... 507 | Xantholema hemacephalaindica ... 789
Ursus arctos pruinosus ... hh .. 610 | — ————.- malabarica 789
Urtica dioica eas ae iets oe Oe), = kc malabarica. 789
Vanda spathulata es a oo 7988) PZeamays—.. =e : ae 215 ESS
tessellata a ay .. 798) Zetides agamemnon mie mides 4 sea B00
Vanilla griffithii ... ve aa .. 7/98 | Zeuxine strateumatica ... ane Abie 7pek)
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-chlorogaster ... soe coum 1Ofe | ea -——- occidentis 393-771
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CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXVIII, No. 3.
PAGE
SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES, By the late Rev. E. Blatter, s.s.,
EieD. ons. and Wo. Millard, .F.Z.S... Part: XX. (With: two
coloured plates, and four black-and-white platéS)......ccccsceee sevecseeeees 415
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN Guats. (Orni-
thological Section). By H. Whistler, M.B.0.U., assisted by N. B.
KGMmineCat: MAB Or UA Ioan OU bie (acta ee trade Lamon esr) Sel R kOe ieee Ae 418
To MALAYA FOR A RHINOCEROS. ByR.C. Morris. (With two plates)... 438 .
THE INDIAN Cappis-Fiigs (Z7vichoptera). By Martin E. Mosely,
BighedsSoue PATU LV ge (HCL LO CALL PO UIES OL 1S PLALES) sieve asaev geese 447
THE Maray Taptr (Z7apirus indicus). By W.S. Thom. (Wz2th one
UCU ere SRO ate OR ioe « paige es (aS BeReOd sek asleiny -Oh ate sue tel woe ethene ses 479 ~—
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF ‘TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN. By Salim Ali,
NVEtie Notes: Dyclismwinisther: Part lNt.ccl.c:ee:sibacbeuiccaesseossee’s oseptenes es 484
ELOG-FLUNTING REMINISCHNCES:: By Ws; C. Asictcigeecs ci cscscectsccvbes crasepeses 515
ON THE BIRDS OF THE KISHENGANGA VALLEY, KASHMIR, By Major
Rene yo barese MuBsO Usa CHCl: LOUP PLALCS) os .sivch's scant cnese vein ds ots see ces 520
‘THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS GRASSES OF INDIA. By J. F. Caius,
SI SESS Semen errr sr pene tean tas hart ts clued cantaia's olds djatisesis oa sawce sie ens sebinecaen 540
SHOOTING WILD BUFFALO IN THE KOSI RIVER Swamps. By J. E. Hall.
( OYTO BEA OR ea OIE ASR PR Les ts Pe ee eee 585
THE LIFE HISTORY FROM EGG TO PUPA OF Srahmea Wallichit Gray.
By Major J. A. Graham, R. E. (With two plates and four text-
ELEC NOE EN STA aS MBER c Te SGN nu egs Soe Sea ardt deus Mee Sank Nees tee Pee 593
A FISHING TRIP IN KUMAON. By A. St. J. Macdonald. (With two
DAVES) reece cree cantata Senate es setae oeslslee voicb4¥ cas st, ce'valeatlg onif? Prenat asec eeeeen 598
ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ADHESIVE ‘lENDRILS IN Signonia venusta
KER-GawL. By J. F. R. D’Almeida, B.a., M.Sc. (With one
ELEN ee eee ero cteencieme vara s caudal fade stds dtaneen s 06 be dadwe evasive va Seteeseter 601
REVIEWS :—
I.—An Abridged Catalogue of certain Scu/lelleroidea of China,
Chosen indo-Chinasanad Paiwaniirs ccc'.sevep acos cadens csmeiecs 604
eee AICS: Ole UINCIA reac hes cscseree ates ich .<-cvsnaseehgtseebsoieanshessens 604
IlI.—The Nidification of Birds of the Indian Empire, Vol. IV. 605
OBITUARIES :—
Mas. O©Osimone: Gharies Ollen Dac hics<sesctvsclscvaesesccccestcctsvescadeus 607
MIT AV NAITO CO TIMISTOL secdes os lose Gouecceevecilaesars ue vee rite anew DS one 608
il CONTENTS OF Vol. “QQ, Now
PAGE
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—
l—TViceriwevsus Bison, yw By -R. Coyotes. cen ene enes Brimees 609
II].—Occurrence of the Panther {Panthera pardus Linn.) in
Waibet: By Capt. Re Ko Batiye.s cece sarees cece ce 609
Ili.—Further Records of the Distribution of the Cheetah
(Acinonyx jubatus Erxl.) in South India. By R. C.
INL OTTISS So Gas Scat Soetnewaaies sae domieen tani ioe aioe cme cist ar oan ace semtetor 610
1V.— Description of a Blue Bear (Ursus arctos pruinosus Blyth)
from Tibet: = By iS sb erator: oe ceuctna ss accetonestmace ances 610
V.—Ratels and Corpses. By A. A. Dunbar Brander, 1.F.S.
CRG. \spccawscmences orale ccna snele came acs noes ince cls eetaare peat nO 611
VlI.—Ratels and Corpses. By Lt.-Col. C. G. Toogood, D.S.o..... 612
VIl.—The. Birth of an:'Elephant Calf... By R.-C Morris.:;2.3-.2.% 613
VIlI.—Why Elephants turn ‘Rogues’. By S. K. Ghosh, I.c.s....... 614
IX.—The Formation and Absence of Tusks in Elephants. By
Ro Cy SNROERISS Necemichescncae sk ce fens sucueecmee se satan eeuacecneeaees metas 615
X.—Horn Growth as observed in Black-buck and Nilgai. By
ig Ee ALA soc, Maite ts ae ateeinc et tute eases. se setae meee 618
XI.—Early Development of Antlers by Sambhur in the Billigiri-
rangan Hills, South India. By R. C. Morris:....:... fat oeee 619
XII.—White Bison. By A. A. Dunbar Brander, 1.F.s. (Retd.)...... 619
XIII.—Mating Habits of Crows. By Narayan Rao Babasaheb,
Chief of ichalkaraayisy. ates cece oes te ee ee toe evAl)
XIV.—Extension of the Range of the White-Browed Bulbul
(Pycnonotus luteolus Less.). By S.C. Law, M.A., Ph.D.,
FZ.S2) OMe BtOl Uren tans cere. Rede tien rae Ace Rene Nese 620
XV.—Further Report on the Nesting of Geocichla c. citrina Lath.
In‘ 24-Parganas (Bengal). By S. C. Law, M.A., Ph.D.,
EB ZeS2, <M Be OrU sis ten cues aackon sees ae, eae tae name een Rae 622
XVI.—The Distribution of the Kashmir Roller (Covacias garrula
SCHCHOWT) @ soy? Hie NDC uleeN iar nccreren ieee. tae Bac esos ates 622
XVII.—Habits of ‘the Plaintive Cuckoo (Cacomantis merulinus
Scop): \Byvbt.<ColGCovelilar, Me Sieieercnasscesnenscauess 623
XVI1I.—The Short-eared Owl (Aszo flammeus Pontopp.) out at
Sea. By CAMCEa niin, suerte once nt, See eee 623
XIX.—V.ultures Heedingiat Nicht. ByaW. AG Ou hves se rees ses cee 624
XX.—Probable Breeding of the Black-winged Stilt (Wz:mantopus
h. himantopus) in the Shwebo District, Upper Burma.
BY J sks SUaNiOr ds Mi OrS we soca rs ec cie ctle dae e nie Houna sens eens 624
XXI.—The Jack Snipe and the White-eyed Pochard in Hyderabad.
BycHicsA Dehn est Nccoscmecten cn cemre eureene Sains ot cette. eae 625
XXII.—Some Rare Birds in Northern Burma. By J. K. Stanford,
JOE Spore ate Sure Odo mca EONnecED nbc acaba mcacen treo se sahectes GanOZO
CONTENTS OF Vol. XXXVITT, No, 3 lil
PAGE
XXIII.—Notes on Elwes’ Horned Pheasant (Crossoptilon harmanti
Elwes) by, Captwiv. ic. Me Battye rn. (oer tees » O26
XO ;— Mioration of Wild Fowl. “By Mditors.. ... ci cccbeni) costs. oe. 027
XXV.—Do Birds employ Ants to rid themselves of Ectoparasites ?
Bye oalisayeAlrrah tock andes ewowiiotian 9 ce esceee ° 1628
XXVI.—Geckos and Superstition. By B. C. Mahendra................... 631
XXVII.—The Notodontid Moth Dudusa nobilis Walker. By Capt.
Wend! Gar rOtes a ieretse aancnactatry hemes chase keh. Re cotati, 633
XXVUI.—Occurrence of Unkana attina in the Teesta Valley. By
Liett John: Eliot, R.A..>.. Mss Deas alcatel ce Stare doa inch rela yy Fe neaae 633
XXIX.—On the Preservation of Heterocera in India. By D. G.
DEVAS LOPLUMO; Pes Re Shy sas esate wrath vepnincnweeaeemaaacapene seawes 634
XXX.—On the Flowering of Strobtlanthes in 1934. By P. V.
Mayuranathan.......... Apel ecascde OSG
PRO Cs EDU GS ea oes eo Pca ueieteraseeee ale et autene BOOT
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Journ. Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc. PLATE, 29.
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John Bale, Sons & Damelsson.L*4 London.
THE LarGe FrtowerRepd DILLENIA.
Dillenia indica, Linn.
(about % nat. size)
JOURNAL
OF THE
Bombay Natural History Society.
AprIL, 1986. Vou. XXXVITI. No. 8.
SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES.
BY
Tur tate HK, Buarter, 8.J., ph.p., F.L.8.;
and W., S. MILLARD, F.Z.S.
Part XX.
(With two coloured plates and one black-and-white plate),
(Continued from page 281 of volume xxxviii).
THE LARGE-FLOWERED DILLENIA.
Popular Names: Chalta (Hind., Beng.); Mota karmal (Mar.);
_Karambali Thabyu (Burm.).
Dillenia indica Linn. Sp. Pl. (1753), p. 535, (Syn. D. speciosa
Thunb.). Belongs to the family Dilleniaceae. Dillenia in honour
of J. J. Dillenius (1684-1747), botanist and professor at Oxford,
and author of important botanical works; indica after its habitat—
India.
Description: An erect evergreen tree, which in favourable
localities grows to a height of 30 or 40 ft. Its spreading branches
form a dense rounded crown of handsome bright green foliage. The
bark is smooth, red and moderately thick. It peals off in small
hard scales. The leaves grow at the ends of the branches. The
leaf-stalk is channelled, bout 1-2 in. long, its base partially en-
circling the supporting branch. An average leaf is 8-12 in. long and
4 in. in breadth. It is oblong lance-shaped with a finely pointed
apex and sharply toothed margins. The close-set nerves running in
regular parallel lines to the marginal teeth give the leaves a beauti=
ful deeply fluted surface. The upper part of the leaf and the nerves
beneath are covered with fine hairs. The large fragrant white
flowers appear singly at the ends of the branches. They may
exceed 6 in. in diameter. The club-shaped stalk of the flower is
416 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXViti
38 in. long, round and smooth. The calyx is composed of five
fleshy rounded and concave sepals, which persist and form the
outer covering of the fruit. The five large petals are oblong and
heavily crinkled. The numerous stamens form a yellow crown
round the white spreading rays of the stigma. The fruit is large
and hard. With the sepals which surround it—it measures from
3-4 in. across. Internally it is fleshy and its many flat seeds are
embedded in a glutinous pulp.
Flowers: The fiowers appear in June and July.
Distribution: Moist and evergreen forests of the eastern sub-
Himalayan tract, Assam, Burma and the Indian peninsula.
Chiefly found along the banks of tropical forest streams and rivers
and other damp places, on deep rich moist soil.
Uses: Planted as an ornamental tree. The thick sepals have
wn agreeable acid flavour and are eaten by the natives. When
added to syrup they are used as a cough mixture (Dalzell and
Gibson).
Gardening: Dillenia is readily propagated from seed but with
difficulty from cuttings (Bailey). The tree reproduces satisfac-
torily from coppice-shoots, as in the Holongapar coppice coupes,
Assam (Troup). Growth is moderately fast.
The fruits are buoyant in water, and those which drop into
the streams from the trees along their banks are carried down
until stranded. Wild elephants eat the fruits, and are probably
agents in the spread of the seed. Under ordinary conditions,
however, the seed has no means of escaping from the fruit owing
to the rigid covering of the thickened sepals, and Nature’s method
of overcoming the difficulty is interesting. The fruit on reaching
the ground quickly turns brown, decays and, in the hot season,
shrivels into dry masses. White ants eat out the interior and
fill the dry shell with earth. The seeds, however, remain un-
touched, and at the commencement of the rains they germinate
in the earth accumulated by the white ants, and the seedlings
burst through the many cracks and joints of the dried shell (see
Hroup, vole We paee):
THE KLEINHOVIA.
Popular Names: (None known).
Kleinhovia Hospita Linn. Belongs to the order Sterculiaceae.
The species was described first in Linnaeus’ Specie Planta-
rum, Ed, 2, as ‘“Kleinhof horti. Bot. ecultor in Java’. _Nairne
(Flowering Plants of Western. India) says: ‘A doubtful native (D)
but pretty widely distributed in India (H.)’.
In regard to the derivation of the name Kleinhovia, by the
courtesy of Mr. C. A. Backer of Heemstede, formerly botanist at
Buitenzorg, we quote the following:
‘Linnaeus’ correspondent was. Christian Kleynhoff, born
(year unknown) at Sandau in Upper Silesia, who was a Govern-
ment physician for three years in West India and for twenty-one
years in Kast India and from 1741 or 1742, a civil officer of the
V.O.1.C. (United East India Company). He had ‘a garden at
Batavia in which many native and Chinese medicinal plants were
'GE6T ‘T98 ASNSNY ‘seApeTY “Yleq s.ojdoeg oy4 ul vapur nrw04)N2q JO 9eA],
“IN XX BSLV IF
‘OOS “LSIT “LVN AVENOG ‘Nunor
ceg ‘Ang ‘seapepy ‘ya emp SS
WIV 8,e[doeg oy} ut oa14 Be Woy ‘VOIpUr DUA JO JAMOTA
ee
TIXXX Giv1g ‘000 ‘“ISIFT ‘LVN AVAWOg ‘Nunor
Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. Prate 30. is
|
John Bale. Sons & Damelsson. Lt? London. |
THe KLEINHOVIA TREE.
Kleinhovia Hospita, Linn.
(about “2 nat. size)
JourRN. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATH XXXIII,
Tree of Kleinhovia Hospita in the Agri-Horticultural Society's Gardens, Madras.
——
7
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AIXXX OHLVId
009 “LSI{ “LVN AvaNwog ‘Nunor
SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES 417
erown. He returned to Holland in 1763 and died at Culemborg,
tolland. im 2777."
Mr. Wm. T. Stearn, Librarian, Lindley Library, Royal Horti-
cultural Society, London, has kindly supplied the followimg note
on the specific name Hospita:
‘Hospita is the feminine of hospes—a_ visitor, guest or
stranger. Burmann’s account of Kleynhoff’s generosity in distri-
buting plants and seeds suggests that the specific name (Hospita)
refers not to a property of the plant Kleinhovia itself but to the
hospitable Kleynhoff himself. The capital H for Hospita is I
presume used by Linnaeus because Hospita is here a noun in
apposition, not an adjective in agreement, in the same way as
Linnaeus adopted a capital letter for generic or vernacular names
used as a _ Sspecific epithet, e.g. Epidendrum Vanilla, Schinus
Molle, ete.’
Description: This is a moderately-sized tree with large leaves
and showy panicles of delicate rose pink flowers. The leaf is
oval, often with a heart-shaped base. Its nerves 8-7 in number
erow out fan-wise from the base. The small flowers grow in large
many-branched clusters. The fine sepals of the flower fall off
early leaving only the pink unequal petals, the uppermost of which
has a long claw-shaped apex. The stamens unite to form a
slender column, which widens into a cup, bearing in each of its
five divisions three 2-celled antlers. The ovary is 5-celled and
lobed and hes in the cup formed by the stamens. The style is
slender, the stigma divided into five parts. The fruit is a mem-
braneous, inflated capsule. The seeds are marked with small
tubercles.
Flowering season: July to August.
Distribution: The tree is indigenous to the delta of the
Mekong River. It is common on the shores of the Malay Archi-
pelago and grows inland in Tropical East Africa and Australia.
It was introduced into Ceylon about 1820 and is now fairly
established in cultivation in Western India.
Gardening: A beautiful tree particularly when in bloom and
really worthy of cultivation. It is propagated by layers: seeds
being rarely procurable. ,
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE
EASTERN GHATS.
(ORNITHOLOGICAL SECTION). —
BY
HucH WHISTLER, M.B.0.U., assisted by N. B. KINNEAR, M.B.O.U.
Pant Xone:
(Continued from page 240 of this volume).
Falco peregrinus calidus Latham.
Falco calidus Latham, Index. Ornith., vol. i (1790), p. 41—India.
The Peregrine Falcon is, according to Jerdon, abundant all along the ~east
coast of India, and less so perhaps along the western coast, and this agrees
with the information which I received from my Punjabi falconers in_ the
days when I kept my own trained falcons. There is, however, very little
accurate information on the point. Jerdon goes on to say that he found it
near Trichinopoly and at Calicut and Tellicherry and that many used to be
captured at Ramnad. He also tells us that great numbers were captured
yearly in the Northern Circars. Colonel Sparrow’s collection contains an adult
male killed on the Colair Lake on 2 February 19138.
Hume states (S.F., x, 333), that the Peregrine had been killed near Sultan’s
Battery in the Wynaad, and William Davison says that he identified a pair
on the wing at close quarters near -Ootacamund on 24 January.
Ferguson says that his collectors secured a single specimen on the backwaters
of North Travancore in December 1903 and saw a second bird near the back-
water at Quilon.
This completes the published records and the only Presidency specimens in
the British Museum are three old skins marked ‘Madras’ from Jerdon, Wardlaw-
Ramsay and the Hume Collection. The Peregrine was not reported by the
Survey and for lack of proper specimens I have not investigated the correct-
ness of the subspecific name, which is merely accepted from the New fauna.
The bird is of course a winter visitor or passage migrant only.
Falco peregrinus peregrinator Sundevall.
Falco peregrinator Sundevall, Physiogr. Sallst. Tidsskr. Lund, vol. i (1887),
p. 177, pl. 4-near Nicobars.
The Shahin was not reported by the Survey, but Jerdon states that it occurs
in certain localities in the Carnatic and is known to breed in various parts
of the Eastern Ghats. There are specimens in the British Museum obtained
at Madras in March 1877 (Hume Coll.) and November (C.L.0. Buck), and
Dewar says that one was shot by Mr. D. G. Hatchell in his compound.
On the west, Betts considers it an occasional wanderer into Coorg. William
Davison says that it is rare on the Nilgiris and their slopes but that he had
noted it occasionally, the last occasion being between Neddivattum and Guda-
lur. Betts informs me that a pair may nearly always be seen (and presumably
breed on) the Gudalur malai, a crag which rises above the Gudalur ghat’ road.
Kinloch presumably refers to this form when he says that the Peregrine is
common on the Nelliampathies, breeding on the precipices of the northern
slopes.
In Travancore I find only Jerdon’s statement that he had shot it in the
state and Ferguson’s that one was shot by a Mr. Walch in Trivandrum in
November 1893 and presented to the Museum.
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 419
The Shahin is doubtless resident in the Presidency but the breeding season
is not recorded.
Falco jugger Gray.
Falco jugger Gray in Hardwicke’s Illustr. Ind. Zool., vol. u (April 1834),
p. 26—India.
There are only two records of the Lugger Falcon in the Madras Presidency.
A bird collected at Pulicat in the Chingleput district is in the Madras Museum,
while a male collected by Darling on 5 January 1878 in the Wynaad is in
the British Museum.
Falco severus rufipedoides Hodgson.
Falco rufipedoides Anonymous=Hodgson, Calcutta Journal Nat. Hist.,
vol. iv (1844), p. 283—Hills of India, restricted to Nepal by Stuart Baker,
Bill. B.O.C., xiv. (1927), p. 107.
Not, met by the Survey. The Indian Hobby is only known to occur in
the south-western corner of the Presidency and there is very little accurate
information about its status there.
Its occurrence in the Nilgiris is still a matter of doubt. William Davison
was under the impression (S.F., x, 383) that he had noticed a pair frequenting
the .Ibis rocks near Pykara, and Primrose (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 166) says that
though he never met with the bird personally in the Nilgiris he was _ told
that it bred in the Gunjara precipices.
Kinloch considered it not uncommon in the Nelliampathies. In Travancore
its occurrence is at least authenticated by three specimens in the British
Museum. These are a male with no precise data collected by Bourdillon, a
male collected at Kowdiar, South Travancore, on 27 April 1874 (Bourdillon)
and a male shot on 14 February 1914 at Aneichardi by Stewart. F. W.
Bourdillon thought for some reason (S.F., iv, 354) that the Indian Hobby
might breed in Travancore but Ferguson was probably on surer ground in con-
sidering it a winter visitor, to be seen on the hills and occasionally in the
low country.
In the account of this race in the New Fauna (vy, 47) the western limit
of the distribution is given as Kumaon (misspelt Kuman) in spite of the
statement in the next paragraph that Mackinnon took a nest at Murree and
others round Mussoorie. This species certainly occurs as far west as Mussoorie
for there is a specimen from that place in the Hume Collection. I doubt
however whether it breeds at Murree and think that there must be some mis-
take over the nest supposed to have been obtained there by Mackinnon. In
Nidification (vol. iv, p. 84) the western limit is extended to Kashmir where
it is said probably to breed fairly commonly, but at present the evidence for
its occurrence at all in Kashmir is unsatisfactory.
[Falco chicquera chicquera Daudin.
Falco chicquera Daudin, Traité d’ Orn., vol. i (1800), p. 121—Bengal,
Chandernagar.
Dewar includes the Red-headed Merlin in his Madras lst, but as he makes
no comment on the fact and there is no other record for the Presidency I
think it is wiser not to admit the species to the Presidency list until further
evidence is forthcoming. ]
Erythopus amurensis (Radde).
Falco vespertinus var. amurensis Radde, Reis. Ost. Siberien, vol. ii (1863),
p. 102—Blagowestschensk, Amoor, E. Siberia.
The Eastern Red-legged Falcon is only a rare straggler to the Presidency
and there is very little detailed information about it. Jerdon states (B. of I.,
i, 41) that he had killed it in the Nilgiris and the Carnatic and had seen
another at Nellore and the former specimen is perhaps the one which Hume
refers to in Stray Feathers (ii, 529) as being in the Calcutta Museum. Dewar
includes it in his Madras list, possibly also on Jerdon’s authority. There is
420 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
however, an adult male in the British Museum killed in 1871 at Nursipatam
near Rajahmundry and the label states that it was obtained by a collector
from the Madras Museum.
Falco tinnunculus objurgatus (Stuart Baker).
Cerchneis tinnunculus objurgatus Stuart Baker, Bull. B.O.C., vol. xlvii
(1927), p. 106—Nilgiris.
Specimens collected :—245 Q 17-5-29 Shevaroys 5,400 ft.
Measurements :— a ;
Bill. Wing. Tail Tarsus.
93 934 Worn. 389 mm.
There is in Southern India—and the fact has been well known from the
time of Hume—a small dark resident race of Kestrel which is very largely a
mountain bird. Its distribution is not yet fully worked out, but it probably
breeds here and there throughout the Western Ghats as James Davidson
(apud Barnes, J.B.N.H.S., iii, 211) says that a fair number breed all along
the ghats in the Nasik district where he shot a young bird unable to fly
in May. This specimen from Septashring is in the British Museum and
undoubtedly agrees with Nilgiri specimens.
In the Presidency it is recorded from the Wynaad where William Davison
shot one (Q juv.: wings and tail not fully grown: in the Hume Collection)
near Karote at the foot of the Brahmagherries, and saw two others on those
hills. It is common on the Nilgiris and their slopes, frequenting the more
open and cultivated tracts and the downs and breeding on the more inaccessible
crags. It occurs commonly in the Nelliampathies and Palnis, more particularly
af) higher elevations in the latter, and also apparently through the ‘Travancore
ranges.
- On the eastern side our information is meagre, but the specimen obtained
by the Survey in the Shevaroys suggests that it also has some distribution in
the Eastern Gahts.
The New Fauna (v, p. 65) says that this race is also resident in Ceylon.
IT have seen no evidence to that effect. _ Legge clearly considered the Kestrel
to be a winter visitor to the island and none of the specimens in the British
Museum belong to this race. Wait did not meet with it.
* Hume states that the laying season in the Nilgiris is in the last week
of February, in March and in April.
~The identification of the Survey Kestrels made it necessary for me to go
into the general question of what races occur in India as the arrangement
‘of the group in the New Fauna is most manifestly unsatisfactory. The New
Fauna (vol. v, 61-5) admits 5 races in the Indian Empire as follows:—
tinnunculus as a winter visitor; interstinctus breeding throughout the Lower
Himalayas from 2,000 ft. to 8,000 ft. and also in the Assam area, wintering
in Northern India; saturatus breeding in Burma and only a local migrant;
japonicus (japanensis) breeding in Tadakh and Northern Kashmir and winter-
ing in the Peninsula; and finally objurgatus resident in Southern India. The
distinctions given between these forms are nebulous and have resulted in
very curiously mixed identifications in different collections.
The first point to establish in this enquiry is the identity of the breeding
birds of our area and here we are immediately up against the fact that breeding
specimens are strangely lacking for identification. I have been through the
whole of the Indian Empire series in the British Museum and, apart from
specimens of the race objurgatus, can only find 4 breeding birds, all from the
Western Himalayas. There are no specimens from Assam or Burma in the
British Museum, which from their dates are hkely to be breeding birds, and
Dr. Ticehurst tells me that he has found no definite evidence that any Kestrel
breeds in Burma at all. No specimens of probable breeding birds are included
in the large collections that he has received from Burma. Luckily I can
supply the deficiency in one particular. My own collection contains a good
series of birds from Ladakh, Kashmir and the western Himalayas which are
known to be breeding birds, in many cases shot for the identification of eggs.
This series first of all establishes the fact that there is no difference between
the breeding birds of Ladakh, Kashmir or the outer Himalayas down to 2,500 ft.
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 421
The series has been most carefully compared with a good series of Kuropean
birds. In size there is no difference at all.
European birds measure as follows :—
Wing. Tail. Wing. Tail.
Witherby (Hand-
book, p. 122) 15 3 =. 230-252 150-173: Q 235-265 — mm.
Ticehurst (Ibis,
1923, p. 262) 20 5 234-251 160-180: 18 Q 244-261 162-185 mm.
H. W. Collection 12 ¢ 286-256 147-165: 4 Q 252-258 169-177 mm.
This range of variation is very wide and it amply covers the range of
measurement in Himalayan breeding birds as follows :—
Wing. tar 3
IES 932-250 154-170 mm.
ove 243-264 166-183 mm.
Mr. Stuart Baker (Bull. B.O.C., xlvii, p. 103) in his preliminary discussion
says that the few Western Himalayan specimens killed in the breeding season
are all darkish birds if compared with European specimens. My series, and
with this verdict Dr. Ticehurst agrees after a careful comparison of them
with European birds, are quite indistinguishable from Huropean birds. They
have the same wide variation in colour and markings. The only difference
we can find is that some males are paler than any European birds we possess,
but the percentage of such pale birds is not sufficient to warrant the separation
of a Himalayan race. I am therefore satisfied that West Himalayan birds
belong to the typical form. The identity of the breeding race (if any) in the
Eastern Himalayas, Assam and Burma, remains to be established.
It has long been known that the breeding race of Southern India is separable
on size and colour. It is slightly smaller as follows :—
Wing. Tail.
10 ¢ 921-242 147-158 mm.
12 9 934-258 145-173 mm.
The adult male differs from the typical race in the deeper, more foxy,
brick-red of the upper parts, lacking the faint wash or bloom characteristic of
tinnunculus. The top of the head is a duller, darker grey, or even streaked
rufous-brown as in the female. The grey tail is apparently always faintly
barred. The underparts are well tinged with rufous and the markings on the
central flanks are somewhat different in character. The female is a richer
brick-red in colour, with heavy barring and the underparts also differ as in
the male.
It remains to establish the identity of Falco iterstinctus McClelland,
P.Z.S. 1839 (March 1840), p. 154—Assam and Tinnunculus saturatus Blyth,
J.A.S.B., xxviii (1859), p. 277—Ye, Tenasserim (not Port Blair, Andamans as
given in the New Fauna, vii, 403), in case either of these should prOve to be
the same bird as objurgatus, which is antedated by both.
Falco interstinctus of McClelland is based on descriptions in atin and
English which are merely generalised descriptions of the immature or female
Kestrel and not recognisable as any particular race. Horsfield, however, goes
on to explain that the real difference from the typical form is apparently that
the male and female are alike in plumage and confirms this with a quotation
to the same effect from Sykes. It will therefore be seen that the original
describers made no claim to this form being darker, and this arose later
from an examination of the supposed McClelland type in the British. Museum,
which has no exact data but is of the immature type of plumage, a rather
dark bird with broad heavy bars. Taken alone it might be considered one
of the darker phases of tinnunculus tinnunculus, to which all the other Assamese
specimens in the British Museum belong in my opinion except a second Mc-
Clelland specimen which is of a foxy red type.
Tinnunculus saturatus of Blyth from Tenasserim is, on the other hand,
definitely said to be a heavily. barred bird. There is no reason to suppose
that any Kestrel breeds in Tenasserim and all Burmese birds that I have
seen belong either to the typical race or to a heavily barred form which is
422 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
evidently the bird that Blyth received. With these latter the type of snter-
stinctus agrees.
These heavily barred birds I am unable to separate from the Japanese and
N. Chinese form Falco tinnunculus japanensis Ticehurst (vide Bull. B.O.C.,
vol. i, p. 10 new name for F. t. japonicus Temm. and Schlegel) and I have
no doubt that they are winter visitors to the Eastern Himalayas, Assam, Burma,
Eastern and Southern India and Ceylon from all of which localities I have
seen specimens. This race has a bright foxy phase which is not found in
the typical race and to it the second McClelland specimen evidently belongs.
Of the three names interstinctus is the earliest and will therefore take
precedence. Objurgatus is easily separated from interstinctus in most cases—
no one can expect to name all specimens of Kestrels correctly, the species is
so variable and the races so difficult to discriminate—by the smaller size,
by the richer brick-red colour and the absence of bloom on the back and
mantle of the adult male, and by the richly coloured underparts, interstinctus
having the undersurface as in the typical form, from which indeed many
specimens are not separable.
Falco tinnunculus tinnunculus Linnaeus.
Falco tinnunculus Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, vol. 1 (1758), p. 90—Sweden,
Europe.
Specimens collected: 1083 Q 11-12-29, 1133 [¢] 17-12-29 Cumbum Valley,
Kurnool.
Measurements :—
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
IUNGs 21.5 231 161 36.5 mm.
ZO 22.5 249 159 38 mm.
The typical race of the Common Kestrel certainly occurs as a passage
migrant or as a winter visitor in the Madras Presidency, and probably in
some numbers, as Major Bates tells me that Kestrels are very common in
the plains of the Carnatic in the winter, being about as late as April. In
addition to the two Survey birds there are specimens in the British Museum
as follows:—(¢ 4-1-1869 Salem (Theobald), Q 22-1-1881 Ootacamund (William
Davison) and ¢ imm. Travancore (Fry). Most of the specimens I have exa-
mined from Ceylon also belong to this race.
Falco tinnunculus interstinctus McClelland.
Falco interstinctus McClelland, P.Z.S. 1839 (March 1840), p. 154-Assam.
This race also occurs in the Presidency as a winter visitor for there are
the following specimens in the British Museum:—¢ immature 15 January,
2 19 December 1868 Pothanore, Coimbatore (Carter), Q no date Travancore
(Fry).
[Falco naumanni pekinensis Swinhoe.
Falco cenchris var. pekinensis. Swinhoe, P.Z.S. 1870, p. 442—Ming tombs
near Pekin.
The Lesser Kestrel is included in Inglis and Baker’s Birds of Southern
India, p. 286, with reference to Jerdon’s statement that he found it breeding
on the cliffs of the Nilgiris in May and June; but the authors are of course
right in discrediting this record. Hume (Scrapbook, p. 105) gives the measure-
ments of an adult female said to have been shot near Coonoor by Mr. Carter
of Coimbatore. As however the specimen is not in the Hume Collection and
it does not appear that Hume ever saw it himself, while the measurements
do not rule out the possibility of the specimen being a Common Kestrel, I am
not prepared to accept the record.]
[Aquila nipalensis Hodgson.
Aquila nipalensis Hodgson, Asiat. Res., vol. xviii, pt. 2 (1833), p. 18, pl. 1
(named on plate only)—Valley of Nepal.
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 423
In the Old Fauna the southern limit to which the Steppe Eagle penetrates
in India in winter was given as Khandesh, Seoni and Raipur, but in the
New Fauna (vy, p. 71) it is said to occur as far south as North Travancore
on the authority of Mr. Stewart. As eagles are notoriously difficult to identify
and it does not appear that a specimen was preserved for comparison with
authentic examples I have some hesitation in accepting this bird on the
Presidency list, the extension of range being so great and the country so
unsuited to its requirements. ]
Aquila rapax vindhiana Franklin.
Aquila vindhiana Franklin, P.Z.S. 1930-31 (October 25, 1931), p. 114—
Vindhya Hills.
Jerdon states that the Tawny Eagle is unknown on the Malabar Coast
and rather rare in the Carnatic and the only actual records I find for the
Presidency are from the latter area. There is a specimen—Dr. Gravely is
kind enough to tell me—in the Madras Museum from Poonamallee. Major
R. 8S. P. Bates informs me that he found a nest at St. Thomas’ Mount on
3lst May. It then contained a single feathered chick which had become a
‘brancher’ by the end of June.
[Aquila clanga Pallas.
Aquila clanga Pallas, Zoogr. Russo-Asiat., vol. 1 (1811-1827), p. 351—Russia.
Jerdon states that the Greater Spotted Eagle is tolerably common in
the Carnatic and the Malabar Coast but I have traced no more definite record
to justify its inclusion in the Presidency list. ] .
Aquila pomarina hastata (Lesson).
Morphnus hastatus Lesson in Bélanger’s Voy. Indes Orient. (1834), p. 217—
Bengal.
The New Fauna (v, 76) states that the Small Indian Spotted Eagle is
‘uncommon in Travancore and Madras’ but the only authority that I can find
for its inclusion in the Presidency list is a female collected at Kotagiri on
15 February now in the Hume Collection in the British Museum.
Hieraaétus fasciatus (Vieillot).
Aquila fasciata Vieillot, Mém. Linn. Soc. Paris, vol. 11 (2), 1822, p. 152—
Montpellier, France.
Bonelli’s Eagle was not procured by the Survey. It does, however, occur
on the eastern side of the Presidency as Jerdon obtained the specimen figured
in his Illustrations in the Guindy Park at Madras, and this is doubtless the
authority on which Dewar included the bird in his lst.
On the western side it is recorded from the Nilgiris and Travancore. In
the former hills it is not uncommon according to William Davison and he
had also seen it in the plains country at the base of the hills. Bonelli’s Eagle
is not included in Ferguson’s Travancore list but Stuart Baker (Nidification,
iv, 54) says that Stewart took many nests.
The breeding season appears to be about December in which month Miss
Cockburn obtained eggs at Kotagherry (Nests and Eggs, vol. iii, 148).
A specimen from ‘Madras’ (Jerdon) in the British Museum is_ probably
the above from Guindy Park. There appears to be no other Presidency speci-
men available for examination to verify the statement that’ South Indian birds
belong to the typical race.
Hieraaétus pennatus (Gmelin).
Falco pennatus Gmelin, Syst. Nat., vol. i, pt. i (1788), p. 272—Hungary.
The Booted Eagle was not procured by the Survey but it appears to be
a fairly common winter visitor to the Presidency, keeping apparently to the
plains and lower hills. On the western side we have a specimen from Coorg
(Wardlaw-Ramsay) in the British Museum, while Hume states (9.F., x, 335)
424 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
that it is not uncommon in the Wynaad, whence ‘he had received a pair
many years previously. A male from Cannanore (17-10-1882 Wardlaw-Ramsay)
and an unsexed bird from Calicut (1873 Hume Collection) are in the British
Museum, as well as one ‘Anjango’ and two ‘Madras’ specimens. Ferguson
states that the Trivandrum Museum possessed only one local specimen killed
in February. ;
On the eastern side Dewar’s inclusion of the Booted Eagle in his Madras
list is doubtless based on the local specimen in the Madras Museum. A male
from Pothanur, Salem district, collected by Theobald on 9 December 1868 is
in the British Museum. Jerdon mentions a specimen procured by Mr. Hooper
C. S. at Trichinopoly (Madras Jour. Lit. Sci., 18389, p. 75).
Hume (Scrapbook. p. 186) described a nest with 2 eggs taken by his col-
lector Mr. Theobald on 21 February 1869 at Hurroor, Salem district, from
which the parents, both in the brown plumage, are said to have been shot.
This record has been copied from book to book and is included in Mr. Stuart
Baker’s Nidification (vol. iv, p. 56). In my opinion it is quite untrustworthy
and I am of opinion that the nest was that of the Common Pariah Kite.
The description of the egg is unhke that of the Booted Eagle and agrees with
that of the Kite; the breeding of this migratory eagle in Southern India is
quite unlkely; and finally Theobald was a most unreliable collector [vide
his account of the breeding of Montagu’s Harrier in a tree in the same district
(Scrapbook, p. 805) and of the Long-legged Buzzard in the Salt Range (loc. cit.,
p. 277)]. The Booted Eagle frequently flies with Kites (cf. Bruce Amer. Nat.,
vi, 1872, p. 460) and I myself in my early collecting days in India procured
my first specimen of the brown phase of the Booted Eagle when I was shooting
kites as food for a captive Lammergaier. No doubt Theobald shot his birds
near the nest, not from it.
Lophotriorchis kienerii (Sparre).
Astur kienertt Sparre, Mag. Zool. Ois. (1835), pl. 35—Huimalayas.
According to the New Fauna (v, 81) the Rufous-bellied Hawk-Eagle is found
in the ‘south-west coast of India from Southern Bombay Presidency to Ceylon’
but I can find no record from further north than the Wynaad from where
Primrose believed that he had secured a specimen (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 164). The
identity of this specimen appears never to have been confirmed and its present
whereabouts is not known. With this exception I cannot trace it further
north than the Anamallai Hills where Kinloch found a nest with a young
bird in December 1906 (J.B.N.H.S., xvii, 1027). In Travancore it is a resi-
dent species but not common. Bourdillon obtained a specimen at 2,000 ft.
and thought that he had seen another alive (8.F., vii, 33) and Ferguson
shot one at the foot of the hills in South Travancore in April 1901. <A supposed
specimen of the egg taken on 16 February 1906 is described by T. F. Bour-
dillon in the Journal (xvii, p. 499).
In Nidification (iv, 57) Mr. Stuart Baker gives us very complete information
of the status of this fine eagle in Travancore on the authority of Mr. Stewart.
It is said to breed at all heights from 1,000 to 4,000 ft., but principally between
1,500 and 8,000 ft. while the egg has been taken from 27 November to the
end of. March.
On the eastern side of the Presidency the bird is not known to occur.
There appears to be no specimen of the Rufous-bellied Hawk-Eagle from
the Presidency available for examination unless a female dated 26-10-1876 in
the British Museum from the ‘Great Valley’ is possibly Bourdillon’s original
specimen. I have not therefore been able to verify the identity of these
south-west birds with the Himalayan race.
Ictinaetus malayensis perniger (Hodgson).
Aquila perniger Hodgson, J.A.S.B., vol. v (1836), p. 227—Nepal.
The Black Eagle is well known on the western side of the Presidency where
it must be very generally distributed through the hill jungles. Jerdon states
that he saw it in Coorg and Mr. Betts has recorded that he saw one there
for about a week in November 1928. Jerdon also saw it in the Wynaad and
a nest taken there early in January is recorded by Daly (J.B.N.H.S., xii, 589).
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 425
All observers agree that it is not uncommon on the Nilgiris and their
slopes, though avoiding the actual plateau and it is also common on the
Nelliampathies (Kinloch). In the Palnis Fairbank observed it at three differ-
ent places about 4,000 ft.
Yn Travancore Bourdillon. and Ferguson considered it a fairly common
resident from 500 ft. upwards. Stewart is said to have taken eggs in 'Travan-
core between 1,000 and 4,000 ft., the breeding season being apparently from
November to February, though one egg was taken on 9th September (Nidi-
fication, iv, 61). There are 5 specimens in the British Museum from Kotagiri
(Cockburn) and Mynall (Bourdillon).
Jerdon tells us that he also saw the Black Eagle on the Eastern Ghats and
Mr. LaPersonne reports that he saw a fine specimen on the Shevaroy Hills.
As no specimens were procured by the Survey I have not checked the
identification of South Indian birds.
Nisaetus cirrhatus cirrhatus (Gmelin).
Falco cirrhatus Gmelin, Syst. Nat., vol. i, pt. 1 (1788), p. 274—India.
Specimens collected:—310 ¢ 2-6-29 Chitteri Hills 2,000 ft.; 648 9 3-8-29,
713 2 19-8-29 Palkonda Hills 1,000 ft.
Measurements : —
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
IU ee 41 398 278 100.5 mm.
2 9 45-46 424-434 284-288 102-102.5 mm.
The Crested Hawk-Eagle is found on both sides of the Presidency. On
the eastern side there is a record from Chatrapur, Ganjam (where a Captain
Pritchard shot a specimen on 7 March 1904). As the bird had been particularly
noticed about since the preceding November and the same gentleman was
said to have killed one previously in 1895 it is obvious that the species was
not considered common in this area (C. EK. C. Fischer, J.B.N.H.S., xv, 716).
Jerdon states that he obtained this eagle in the Kastern Ghats and doubt-
less some of the six specimens marked ‘Madras’ in the British Museum came
from the Eastern Ghats, but the three Survey specimens supply the only
other precise records from this side. Mr. LaPersonne remarks regarding them
that many were observed in the forest round Ballepalle and that in the Chitteri
range its call might be heard daily. ; .
On. the west both Hume (S.F., x, 3386) and Primrose (J.B.N.H.8., xvi,
165) state that the Crested Hawk Eagle occurs in the Wynaad and the Nilgiris
and a male collected by William Davison on 28-4-1876 at Seegore is in the
British Museum. Kinloch says that it is very common in the Nelliampathies.
There appears to be no record of the breeding season in the Presidency.
With reference to the note on the identity of the ‘Devil-bird’ given ante
(p. 2838) it may be remarked that Dr. Spittel in Ceylon was convinced (for
reasons given in full J.B.N.H.S., xxx, 914) that this eagle is the author of
the nocturnal cries. Mr. LaPersonne is of the same opinion after his visit
to the Chitteri range.
Nisaetus cirrhatus ceylanensis (Gmelin).
Falco ceylanensis Gmelin, Syst.. Nat., vol. i, pt. i (1788), p. 275—Ceylon.
This race of the Crested Hawk-Hagle is stated by Mr. Stuart Baker (New
Fauna, v, 86 and Nidification, iv, 64) on the authority of Mr. Stewart to be
very numerous in the south of Travancore. It is said to breed from the
foothills upto about 2,500 ft.; and eggs are usually laid in January and Febru-
ary, though Stewart has taken them from early December to the end of March.
The only specimen which I have examined is an ‘Anjango’ bird in the
British Museum which is the type of Hume’s Spizaétus sphyna (S.F., i, 319).
Nisaetus nipalensis kelaarti Legee.
Spizaétus kelaarti Legge, Ibis 1878, p. 202—Ceylon.
This race of Hodgson’s Hawk-Eagle is confined to the western side of
the Presidency. Hume received an adult specimen from the Nilgiris (8.F., iv,
426 JOUKNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
446) which was given him in June 1872 by Mr. F. L. Chapman of Ootacamund
(S.F., x, 836) though the racial identification was never confirmed. Mr. Betts
informs me that he shot one in his bungalow compound 4 miles from Nedivat-
tam.
In Travancore, according to Ferguson it is rare and confined to the hills.
Three specimens obtained by Bourdillon at Mynall (¢ 18-12-76, 9 9-7-78,
Q juv. not dated) are in the British Museum. Stuart Baker states on the
authority of Stewart that the bird breeds between 1,000 ft. and 4,000 ft.
(Fauna, v, 91; given as 3,000 ft. in Nidification, iv, 68) and that the breeding
season lasts from early December to the end of March, most eggs being laid
in January.
Circaetus ferox (Gmelin). Olim Circaetus gallicus (Gmelin).
Accipiter ferox 8S. G. Gmelin, Nov. Comm. Acad. Petrop., xv (1771), p. 442,
pl. x—Astrakan, S. Russia.
The only record of the Short-toed Eagle which I can trace for the Presi-
dency is the statement by Stuart Baker (Nidification, iv, 69) that Stewart took
two or three nests in Travancore.
For the change of name from the time-honoured Circaetus gallicus (Gmel.)
see Grant, Ibis 1934, p. 644.
Haematornis cheela melanotis (Jerdon).
Buteo melanotis Jerdon, Madras Jour. Lit. Sci., vol. xiii (1844), p. 166—
at the foot of the Nilgiris.
The status of the Crested Serpent Eagle on the eastern side of the Presi-
dency appears to be quite unknown. Jerdon met it at Goomsoor. Dewar
includes it in his Madras list without any comment and I have a note that
it breeds at Yercaud but cannot trace the authority for either statement. On
the west it is well known. In Coorg, according to Betts, it is common though
not numerous, and William Davison and Primrose (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 165)
both state that it is not uncommon in the Wynaad.
In the Nilgiris according to Davison it does not occur on the higher hills
and is uncommon on the slopes, becoming more numerous at the foot of
the hills. Kinloch calls it common in the Nelliampathies but in the Palnis
Fairbank only saw a single pair.
In Travancore Ferguson says that it is fairly common in the low country
and also on the hills. This statement is expanded by Stuart Baker on the
authority of Stewart. He considers that there are two races in the country,
of which the larger called H. c. minor is very common in the plains and
foothills, and the smaller, considered identical with the Ceylon bird spilogaster,
is found in some numbers between 500 ft. and the highest hills, but most
commonly between 500 and 2,000 ft. The breeding season of the larger bird
is given as December to March and of the smaller as January to March
(Nidification, iv, 72-75). To anyone who knows this eagle in life this alti-
tudinal difference of races cannot seem satisfactory. The chief characteristic
of the bird is its propensity for soaring very high in the sky, so it is hard
to believe that birds which must meet daily in their common playground the
air can segregate into two races, one breeding from sea level up to 500 ft.,
the other above the 500-foot contour. The evidence on the point also can
hardly be very strong as in the New Fauna Mr. Stuart Baker, again on the
authority of Stewart, states (vol. v, p. 99) that minor breeds in the plains
and on page 101 that it is confined to the higher and drier ranges where the
forest is almost deciduous, while on the latter page spilogaster is said to be
resident in the wetter evergreen forests at the lowest elevations and sea
levels. A similar confusion over the breeding ranges of H. c. cheela and
H. c. minor occurs in Nidification, vol. iv, pp. 71 and 78, the breeding bird
of Nadia being attributed to each in turn.
The explanation is, I think, that sufficient allowance has not been made
for the fact that the Crested Hawk-Hagle—like many other birds-of-prey—is
a species with a good deal of individual variation, both in colour, amount
of spotting and barring, the colour of the undertail coverts and size. The
grease staining on the lower parts of many skins in the British Museum has
also been mistaken for true colouration.
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 427
The situation as regards India and Ceylon appears to me to be as follows.
The typical race breeds along the Himalayan foothills and the neighbouring
forest areas as far westwards as Kangra and Gurdaspur, visiting also the
Indo-Gangetic Plain in winter. This race has the chin and throat blackish,
the breast somewhat barred and the tail-bar almost pure white. It is also
very large :—
Bill. Wing. Tail.
3 adult $ Punjab foothills 42-50 472-479 296-305 min.
2 adult Q Punjab foothills 47.5-48 482-484 299-304 mm.
Birds from the Peninsula southwards to Travancore and also from Ceylon
all appear to me to be similar in colouration, except for individual variation.
The chin and throat do not usually become black, the breast is generally
uniform and the tail bands are grey, not white. They show a steady dimi-
nution of size from north to south, obscured no doubt again by individual
variation, and most marked in Ceylon. On size alone I would, therefore,
separate the Cinghalese bird H. c¢. spilogaster :—
Bill. Wing. Tail.
4 adult ¢ Ceylon 41-44 370-389 222-240 mm.
3 adult Q Ceylon 42-44 384-398 240-250 mm.
I have not been able to trace the specimens collected by Stewart and
have only been able to examine 4 males from Travancore. These measure :—
bill, 48-46; wing, 387-4384; tail, 244-279; which is clearly larger than Cinghalese
specimens and agrees well with 4 males from Kanara:—bill, 44-46; wing,
399-481; tail, 250-265 mm.
I therefore attribute all birds from Travancore to the continental form
and for this Jerdon’s name melanotis, wrongly given in New fauna, vii,
p. 410, as a synonym of the typical race, takes precedence of munor.
Butastur teesa (Franklin).
Circus teesa Franklin, P.Z.S. 1830-1831 (October 25, 1881), p. 115—Between
Calcutta and Benares and in the Vindhyan Hills between the latter place
and Gurra Mundela. :
Not found by the Survey. The White-eyed Buzzard is far scarcer in the
Presidency than in the rest of India and on the eastern side I only know of
a male in the British Museum collected by Blanford north-west of Rajahmundry
on 29 May 1871 and a local specimen in the Madras Museum, the basis for
Dewar’s inclusion in his list.
On the west it is only recorded from Travancore where Ferguson says
it is not uncommon in the low country but does not ascend the hills.
Haliaeétus leucogaster (Gmelin).
Falco leucogaster Gmelin, Syst. Nat., vol. i, pt. 1 (1788), p. 257—no
locality = New South Wales.
How far the White-bellied Sea-Eagle is distributed along the wide-flung
coast-line of the Madras Presidency is not certain but it has as yet only
been recorded from a few localities. There are two ‘Madras’ specimens in
the British Museum, as well as a bird in the Hume Collection from Narasa-
patam, Vizianagaram. An interesting note by Mr. S. C. Law on two pairs
observed by him at Vizagapatam will be found in the Journal (xxix, 1059).
Dewar includes the species in his Madras list without comment. Jerdon
(Madras Jour. Lit. Sci., 1889, p. 65) says that he saw it over the Chilka Lake,
at Ponay and again near Calicut.
Ichthyophaga ichthyaétus (Horsfield).
Falco ichthyaétus Horsfield, Trans. Linn. Soc., vol. xiii, pt. i (May 1821),
p. 186—Java.
I can find no information about the Large Grey-headed Fishing-Eagle in
the Presidency except the statement (Nidification, iv, 82) that Stewart found
it breeding in Travancore and Betts’ record from Coorg. The latter states
428 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XXXVIIi
that the only pair he had seen haunted a small tank in the jungle on the
Coorg-Mysore frontier where they had an eyrie up in a tree.
Hume considered (S.F., v, 129) that Indian birds were smaller than Javan.
So in the absence of specimens I have kept the name binomial.
Haliastur indus indus (Boddaert).
Falco indus Boddaert, Tabl. Pl. Enlum. (1788), p. 25 for Pl. Hnl., 416—
Pondicherry, India. :
Specimens collected :—802 9 1-6-29 Chitteri range 2,000 f{t.; 597 $ 25-7-28
Tindivanum near Pondicherry.
Measurements : — ;
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
es 34 371 194 51 mm.
Woe -~ 391 200 49 mm.
The Brahminy Kite is a very common resident and generally distributed
in the Presidency though there is no record of it north of the Godavery Delta
where LaPersonne found it common on the river. It is exceedingly abundant
about Madras itself, and in Salem district LaPersonne found it fairly common
around villages, ascending also the Shevaroys and Chitteri Hills. In this
area Foulkes (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 757) had an interesting experience in the
Pikkil Hills in April, watching 600 birds collect nightly to roost.
On the western side Betts says that it is occasionally seen, though far
from common, in Coorg. It is much more common in the Wynaad, according
to Wilham Davison, being found in every paddy field. All observers agree
that the Brahminy Kite is less common in the Nilgiris, though a few may
always be seen about the lake at Ootacamund. In none of the western ranges
does it normally breed.
A note on this species catching termites with Milvus m. govinda at Ged-
desal, Coimbatore, will be found in the Journal, vol. xvii, 526 (C. E. C.
Fischer).
In the Nelliampathies it is common in fine weather, coming up from the
plains (Kinloch). Fairbank found it common on the tanks and ponds near
the base of the Palnis and in these hills he observed it up to 4,000 ft. while
Terry observed a pair at Kodaikanal, where they usually hawked about the
lake.
In Travancore it is common all over the low country, preferring the neigh-
bourhood of the sea and the palmyra plantations some miles inland. Here
too it occasionally visits the hills in the hot weather.
Nothing appears to have been recorded about the breeding season of the
Brahminy Kite in the Presidency except in Travancore where it is said to
breed in January and February.
Milvus migrans govinda Sykes.
Milvus govinda Sykes, P.Z.S. 1832 (81 July 1882), p. 81—Dukhun.
Specimens collected: —264 Q 21-5-29 Shevaroy Hills 4,800 ft.; 325 Q
3-6-29 Chitteri range 2,000 ft.; 696 ¢ 15-8-29 Palkonda Hills 1,000 fie
1741 Q 29-4-1930 Jeypore Agency 3,000 ft.
Measurements : —
‘Bill. Wing. Central tail. Outer tail,
1 S imm. 35.5 426 2138 246, mm.
DOr aiid 37-38.5 418-437 217-227 244-269 mm.
1 2 imm. 39 413 213 242.5 mm.
The Common Pariah Kite seems to. be very generally distributed and
numerous throughout the Presidency though there are few details available
from the eastern side. The Survey specimens and two birds in the British
Museum collected north of Ellore by Blanford are supplemented by Dewar’s
statement that it is found in great numbers at Madras. Here as at other
ports it is found about the harbour. William Davison saw one accompany
a ship the whole way from Madras to Calcutta (S.f., 11, 150), and H. B.
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 429
Tilden (J.B.N.H.S., xxxi, 526) saw one strike a wavelet in the harbour and
after flopping about in the water for half an hour sink and drown.
On the western side the kite is apparently more of a local migrant. In
Coorg according to Betts it occurs round most villages but not in great numbers
and it disappears at the end of the hot weather, not apparently breeding in
the district. There is no information about it in the Wynaad but in the
Nilgiris it keeps mostly to the neighbourhood of the stations and villages, and
is less numerous on the estates though found at all elevations. It is common
from December to the beginning of the rains in June, but very few are to
be seen during the South-West Monsoon.
Fischer remarks (J.B.N.H.S., xvu, 526) on kites collecting to a termite
hatch at Geddesal, Coimbatore, and he also remarks on the way they collect
in Kollegal Taluk to eat dead silk-worms thrown out by the villagers.
In the Palnis the kite is common round the base of the hills but scarce
over about 3,000 ft. It is common in fine weather in the Nelliampathies, but
Kinloch believes it is only a daily visitor from the plains, not roosting in
the hills.
In Travancore the bird is abundant in the low country and though common
also in the hills is apparently only found up there in the hot weather, also
possibly only as a daily visitor.
Ferguson gives the breeding season in Travancore as February and March.
William Davison says that in the Nilgiris it is in December, January and
February and at Madras he took the nest at the latter end of December.
In the pages of Stray Feathers (i, 160; iii, 35, 229-80, 275;' iv, 272; viii,
180, 466; ix, 309; x, 181) there was a good deal of discussion as to whether
the Milvus govinda of Sykes was the larger or the smaller of the two Peninsula
forms. Brooks held that it was the larger bird lineatus whilst Hume main-
tained that it was the ordinary smaller bird since known by the name. There
can be no doubt that Hume was correct and the type now in the British
Museum, if correctly so designated, supports his view, being an ordinary
adult bird (bill, 87; wing, 488; tail, 264 mm.). The further controversy as
to whether there are two or three forms in JIndia—in addition to Milvus
migrans migrans since shown to breed in Baluchistan—was justified. The
kite, like many other species, increases slightly in size in India from south
to north, and the difference will be seen if these Survey specimens are com-
pared with the following Punjab series in my collection :—
Bill. Wing. Central tail. Outer tail.
5 fo adult 38-40.5 435-471 221-247 266-310 mim.
1 S$ imm. 38.5 458 234 266 mim.
3 92 adult 39-40.5 463-470 246-256 281-301 mm.
1 2 imm. 40.5 466 237 274.5 mm.
The South Indian series is, however, so small, and the number of inter-
mediate birds so great that the recognition of two races in the Peninsula—
in addition to the large Himalayan form lineatus—does not at present appear
of value.
Elanus caeruleus vociferus (Latham).
Falco vociferus Tatham, Index. Orn., vol. i (1790), p. 46—Coromande!
Coast.
Not reported by the Survey. There is very little information about the
status of the Black-winged Kite in the Presidency. On the eastern side all
we know about it is furnished by the specimen in the Madras Museum from
Kolambakkam, Chingleput District, and by Theobald’s account (Scrapbook,
p. 805) of the breeding of Montagu’s Harrier in Salem district. This nest
contained three feathered young on Christmas day and the description leaves
no doubt in my mind that the nest really belonged to the Black-winged Kite.
On the west the bird is better known. Primrose states (J.B.N.H.S., xvi,
165) that he saw a pair hawking at Poda Padi at the foot of the South
Wynaad Hills and specimens from the Wynaad (@ 5-12-1877, Darling) and
Sultan’s Battery (Q 19-2-1883, William Davison) are in the British Museum.
Davison speaks of it as rare, saying that he had shot one some years previ-
ously at Neddivattum and that his shikari had got another below Kotagherry,
the bird having been seen by him on perhaps half a dozen occasions in all.
430 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Kinloch considered it somewhat rare in the Nelliampathies, only occasionally
appearing as a visitor for a day from the plains.
Ferguson had only two records for Travancore. One was shot in Trivandrum
and another seen in open grass land at Sastancotta in the low country near
Quilon, both occasions being in March.
Circus macrourus (S. G. Gmelin).
Accipiter macrourus S. G. Gmelin, Nov. Comm. Acad. Petropol., vol. xv
(1771), p. 489, pl. viii and ix—Voronezh to River Don, Russia.
Not obtained by the Survey. The Pale Harrier is a common winter visitor
to the greater part of the Presidency, though as usual there are not many
records from the eastern side.
In the Jeypore Hills, Vizagapatam, Donald met with a number collecting
to roost with Marsh and Pied Harriers on a bare plateau on 13 February
(J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 504). Dewar was doubtful whether the species could be
included in his Madras list but there is a specimen from Singaperumal Coil,
Chingleput, in the Madras Museum and Major Bates informs me_ that
Harriers, presumably of this species, were common at St. Thomas’ Mount.
There he first noted them in 1929 on October 16th and in 1924 on October
18th, and in 1930 they were common up till April 21st. A Harrier of some
sort was seen on the grass farms on June 38rd and again about a mile up
the Adyar River from the grass farm on June 18th.
In Coorg Betts gives the date of arrival as 4 November (1928) (J.B.N.H.S.,
xxxui, 718). A specimen collected in the Wynaad on 1 January 1878 by
Darling is in the British Museum. In the Nilgiris William Davison considered
it a very abundant winter visitor coming in about the end of October (first
noted 23 October 1929 Betts, J.B.N.H.S., xxxiv, 569) and seen as late as
the last week in April. Primrose, however, points out (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 165)
that they are usually not common above 5,000 ft.
In Travancore the Pale Harrier is not uncommon from November to
February. It is found both in the low country and in exposed grass land
on the High Range at 6,000 ft. There are specimens from both the Nilgiris
and Travancore in the British Museum.
Circus pygargus Linnaeus.
Circus pygargus Linn., Syst. Nat., ed. x, vol. i (1758), p. 89—England.
Montagu’s Harrier is doubtless a regular winter visitor to the Presidency
and Hume remarks (Scrapbook, p. 306) that the Nilgiris provide one of the
areas of its greatest abundance in India, though William Davison curiously
enough does not include it in his list.
In Travancore, according to Ferguson, it arrives about December and _ is
found both in the hills and plains. An adult male collected by Bourdillon
at Hridge on 28 December 1877 is in the British Museum.
In Salem District Hume’s collector, Theobald, stated that Montagu’s Harrier
was common from December until May or June and this identification was
supported by specimens of which an adult male, collected on 18 January 1869,
is in the British Museum. His account of the breeding in that district
(Scrapbook, p. 805) was, however, evidently due to confusion with Elanus
caeruleus.
The bird is included without comment by Dewar in his Madras list. Tt
was not obtained by the Survey.
Circus melanoleucos (Pennant).
Falco melanoleucos Pennant, Ind. Zool. (1769), p. 2, pl. i—Ceylon.
The Pied Harrier was not obtained or recorded by the Survey, but it is
evidently a regular winter visitor and passage migrant (on its way to
Ceylon) in the Presidency. Donald met with a few roosting with numbers
of Marsh and Pale Harriers in the Jeypore Hills on 18 February (J.B.N.H.S.,
xvi, 504). Dewar includes the species in his Madras list and a specimen
from Chingleput is in the Madras Museum. Of three adult males in the
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 481
British Museum marked ‘Madras’ one at least apparently came from the
neighbourhood of the capital.
On the west the Pied Harrier occurs but sparingly in the Wynaad and
on the Nilgiris and their slopes according to Wiliam Davison, and Primrose
(J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 165) mentions seeing a few on the Terramia Tea Estate.
In Travancore, according to Ferguson, it is less common than the other
species, frequenting the low country as well as the hills. A female collected
by Bourdillon on 18 April 1877 in the Colathoorpolay Patnas 8,800 ft. is in
een Museum. In Travancore it may be seen as late as the beginning
of April.
Circus aeruginosus aeruginosus (Linnaeus).
Falco aeruginosus Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, vol. i (1758), p. 91—Sweden.
Not procured by the Survey. On the eastern side the Marsh Harrier is
only recorded from the Jeypore Hills, Vizagapatam, where Donald found it
the most numerous species in the congregation of Harriers at a roost on a
bare plateau on 13 February (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 504).
On the west it’is a fairly common winter visitor. Betts’ date of first arrival
in 1932 in Coorg, namely September 26 (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvii, 225) and William
Davison’s specimen in the British Museum, collected in the Brahmagherries
on 16 April 1881, suggest the normal duration of its stay in the Presidency.
William Davison says that the Marsh Harrier is not uncommon on the
Nilgiris and their slopes. Primrose records a bird at a small swamp in the
Terramia Tea garden (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 165), and a male collected at Kotagiri
(Cockburn) on 28 January 1875 is in the British Museum.
In Travancore, according to Ferguson, this is the commonest Harrier, found
about paddy fields in the low country from October to April. It does not,
however, ascend the hills.
Buteo buteo burmanicus Hume.
Buteo burmanicus Hume, Stray Feathers, vol. 11 (1875), p. 30—Thayetmyo,
Upper Pegu.
No specimen of a Buzzard was secured by the Survey, and the genus does
not yet appear to have been recorded from the eastern side of the Presidency.
On the western side there are several records and one species appears to
be a not uncommon winter visitor to the hill ranges. No two authors agree
as to the identification or the nomenclature of the forms of Buzzard which
are resident in or winter visitors to India, and I despair of ever being able
to settle these oft-debated questions. There seems, however, to be little doubt
that the Buzzards which visit South-West India in winter all belong to the
smaller form which has been treated variously as Buteo vulqaris, B. deser-
torum, B. plumipes, B. japonicus or, as in the New Fauna, Buteo buteo bur-
manicus.
A- male was shot by William Davison on 16 April 1881 in the Brahma-
gherries. This was described by Hume as B. desertorum in Stray Feathers
(x, 159 and 838) after submission to Gurney.
Jerdon had previously shot a specimen in the Nilgiris and seen one or two
others (B. of I., i, p. 88). These he called Buteo vulgaris or Buteo rufiventer.
William Davison also saw Buzzards on several occasions in the Nilgiris and
on the strength of a specimen in the dark fuliginous plumage seen at Ootaca-
mund attributed them to the name Buteo plumipes. This was also the name
given by Hume to a specimen received by him from Bourdillon in Travan-
core (S$.F., iv, p. 858). Bourdillon called it a not uncommon winter visitor in
December, January and February preferring high open country at 2,000 ft.
and higher. Ferguson later added—under the name desertorwm—that he had
often seen them over the grassland at Ponmudi, without however obtaining a
specimen.
Tt is stated in the Old Fauna (iii, 389) that the genus Buteo is remarkable
amongst its near relatives in having no distinct immature plumage and this
statement is very generally accepted as correct, and is agreed to in the New
Fauna (v, 186). It seems curious therefore that on the next page Mr. Stuart
2
432 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Baker has given separate keys to the adult and immature plumages, a proce-
dure adopted in no other genus of the Falconidae.
Astur. badius dussumieri Temminck and Lang.
Falco dussumiert Temminck and Lang., Planch. Color. d’Ois (November
1824), livr. 52, pl. 808—Bengal, India.
Specimens collected :—452A Q 20-6-29 Tirthamalai 1,000 ft.; 794 ¢g 4-9-29,
828 Q 18-9-29 Kodur 500 ft.; 861 [3] 1-10-29, 915 [Q] 18-10-29 Seschachalam
Hills 2,000 ft.
Measurements! :—
Bill. Wing. anh: Tarsus.
Dis 19.5-20 176-178 V37-5-141 47.5-48 mm.
3.9 22..5-23.5 204-208 156-163 48-54.5 mm.
Unless Jerdon’s statement that the Shikra is very common through the
whole of India is held to cover the eastern side of the Presidency we have
no record of this species in that area beyond Gooty (Nuidification, iv, 104),
the Survey specimens and Dewar’s inclusion of the name without comment
in his Madras list. On the west there is more information. In Coorg it 18
widely spread but not common according to Betts. In the Wynaad it is
common according to Primrose (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 165) and William Davison and
thence it extends commonly up the slopes of the Nilgiris as far as the plateau,
where however it is only sparsely distributed.
Kinloch says that the Shikra is common in the Nelliampathies. In Travan-
core Ferguson says it is a very common resident in the low country and at
the foot of the hills. It ascends the hills occasionally but only where there
is open land. ;
Bourdillon gives the breeding season in the Travancore plains from March
to June. Stuart Baker (New Fauna, v, 148) says that Bourdillon and Stewart
took eggs in February, March and May and in Nidification (iv, 102) on
their authority he gives the breeding season as from the middle of January
to the middle of April.
In the Nelliampathies Kinloch took eggs on 27th March and Howard
Campbell took his eggs at Gooty on 22 February (loc. cit.).
The races of the Shikra are very difficult to define. It is clear that—
speaking in general terms—a very small and dark race in Ceylon grades
gradually into a large pale race in Turkestan but the degree and the gradation
of these differences is so slight and their average is so obscured by individual
variation that it is very difficult to know where to draw a line of demarcation
between the different races.
As in any study of this species the sexes and the ages must be considered
separately, it is necessary to point out that the New Fauna (v, 148) is wrong
in saying that the adult female is like the adult male. The adult male Shikra
has the entire upper plumage an ashy blue-grey with the central tail feathers
unbarred, indeed unmarked save for in some cases an obsolescent spotting
along the shafts, indicating the position of the vanished bars. The adult
female, on the other hand, has the upper plumage dark smoky brown, washed
with grey while the central tail feathers have rather more trace of barring
extending also to their webs. This distinction is maintained in all adults that
I havo seen and the difference in size between the sexes is also very constant.
If Ceylon birds (badius) are compared with birds from Bengal (dusswmieri)
it will be found that in the adult male and female there is no constant differ-
ence in colour. Odd males from Ceylon and Southern India are darker above
and similarly odd males from North-West India are paler and brighter. Some
females from Ceylon and Southern India have the barring on the lower
plumage darker and browner, but these differences are purely individual and
probably do not affect 50 per cent of a series, so alone cannot be regarded as
subspecific. The immature male and female in Ceylon are, however, very
distinct, a very rich dark brown with bright rufous edging on the upper
1 Adult and immature birds of the same sex do not appear to differ in size.
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 433
parts, contrasting definitely with the grey washed tail. The shaft streakings
on the lower plumage are a very rich dark chocolate brown in colour. Im-
mature birds from the continent are alike, whether in the North-West, Bengal,
or further South. The upper parts are paler with pale fulvous edging and a
grey wash so that there is little contrast with the upper surface of the tail.
The streaks on the lower plumage are much paler, a more rufous brown. This
character of the juvenile plumage in Ceylon justifies separation of the island
race. It also is rather smaller :—
Wing. Tail.
6 ¢ adult Ceylon 177.5-182 129.5-132 mm.
6 Q adult Ceylon 195-202 147-158 mm.
The large race cenchroides I have difficulty in defining for lack of material
from Russian territories. Both the adult male and female are much _ paler
above and the barring of the lower parts is also very pale. The immature bird
is similar to that of dussumiecrt but is perhaps a little paler above, though
single birds could not be separated with certainty. I measure specimens from
Bokhara, Kandahar and Quetta as follows :—
Wing. Tail.
3 ad Gg 196-198 148-154 mm.
AS ad. Oo 214-238 174-180 mm.
Hartert gives the measurements as follows :—
Wing. Tail.
9d 185-197 150-160 mm.
6 9 210-222 180-192 mm.
Between these two the intergrading is so complete and so gradual that
no definite racial boundaries can be fixed and as a matter of practical con-
venience it is best to group all birds from India proper—including the Hima-
layas—as dussumiert recognising that the proportion of dark birds will be
higher in extreme Southern India and the proportion of pale birds higher in
N.-W. India as they approach the boundaries of the two extreme races. It
is a matter of opinion whether Travancore birds should go with badius or
dussumiert. Some adults are very dark. The only immature bird I have seen,
on the other hand, agrees with dussumiert. Measurements overlap, but on
the whole I am inclined to keep Travancore birds as badius.
Astur trivirgatus trivirgatus (Temm. and Lang.).
Falco trivirgatus Temm. and Lang., Planch. Color. d’Ois. (Octobre 1824),
livr. 51, pl. 3083—Sumatra.
The Crested Goshawk is known to occur along the western side of India
from N. Kanara (not Khandesh as given in the New Fauna, v, 154 and
Nidification, iv, 107, though on p. 108 it is given correctly) down to Travancore
and again in Ceylon. It is of course resident.
In the Presidency Primrose says that he saw a few—though he did not
consider it common—in the Wynaad (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 165). Jerdon did not
consider it very rare in the Nilgiris but this statement is rather objected to
by William Davison who states that whereas in the Nilgiris one may obtain
two or three specimens in three or four months’ hard collecting, he had seen
five in a single morning in the Wynaad, between Nellacotta and Davala. It
certainly keeps to the wilder parts of the Nilgiris and being a very silent bird
may easily be overlooked. Kinloch calls it common in the Nelliampathies and
his identification is confirmed by a specimen sent me, collected in Decem-
ber 1928.
In Travancore it is said to be by no means common, keeping mostly to
the forest-clad hills and breeding at about 1,500-2,000 ft. (Bourdillon). Stewart,
however, says that it breeds from the foothills up to some 3,000-3,500 ft.
FEiggs have been taken in Travancore from 2nd March to 25 May (Stewart)
but the latter date is considered unusually late.
434 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
There are only two specimens of the Crested Goshawk from Sumatra in
the British Museum but they support the usually accepted statement that
birds from S.-W. India agree with the typical race. It is perhaps unfortunate,
however, that in Nidification, vol. iv, p. 107, Mr. Stuart Baker has selected
this species as the most complete example of the affinity between birds from
5. India and Ceylon and those of the Malay Peninsula, for it is quite im-
possible to keep S. Indian and Cinghalese birds under the same _ subspecific
name. ;
Cinghalese birds differ from those of S.-W. India in the much deeper,
more chocolate brown of the markings on the breast, flanks and upper abdomen
in the adult. These markings are smaller in extent and pear-shaped in
character so that the breast gives an impression of white, spotted with dark
brown. In the continental birds, on the other hand the impression is more of
a brown breast, with the feathers edged with white. The island form is also
‘smaller.
Bul. Wing. Tail.
2 adult § Ceylon 24-25 183-184 150-152 mm.
4 adult Q@ Ceylon 27-27.5 199-206 157-168 mm.
6 adult ¢ S.-W. India 26-28 196-208 159-168 mm.
6 adult 9 S.-W. India. 28.5-380.5 214-237 169-180 mm.
This insular form is clearly worth recognition and as no existing name
refers to it I propose to call it
ASTUR TRIVIRGATUS LAYARDI subsp. nov.
Type:——9 ad. WPillymally, Peak Forest, 15 August 1876 (Legge). British
Museum Register No. 1878—10-4-28.
Astur trivirgatus indicus Hodgson.
Astur indicus Hodgson, Bengal Sporting Magazine, vol. viii (October 1836),
p. 177—Nepal.
Specimen collected:—1740 [@] 28-4-1930 Anantagiri 3,000 ft.
Measurements :—
Bill. Wing. Tail.
28 220 168 mm.
This fine adult male of the Crested Goshawk must from its measurements
clearly be attributed to the Himalayan race, though as one would expect, it
is shehtly small for it and therefore intermediate in character. This provides
the only record for the outlying corner of the Presidency though Jerdon says
it is found in the Eastern Ghats and it is known to occur in Nagpur, Bala-
ghat, Sambalpur, Singbhum and Manbhum. Birds from this latter area have
already been attributed by Hume (S.F., v, p. 8) to the Himalayan race.
Accipiter nisus nisosimilis (Tickell).
Falco nisosimilis Tickell, J.A.S.B., vol. ii (December 1833), p. 571—Marcha
in Borabhum.
In spite of Jerdon’s statement that the Sparrow Hawk is abundant on
the Eastern Ghats, many being caught every year, it was not procured by
the Survey and I have seen no specimens from this side of the Presidency.
Dewar includes the bird without comment in his list, probably on the strength
of the Red Hills specimen said to be in the Madras Museum.
On the eastern side the Sparrow Hawk seems to be a fairly regular winter
visitor, though it is at present only recorded from the Nilgiris and Travancore
Hills. In the former William Davison says that it occurs sparingly and he
mentions an adult female collected by himself at Ootacamund on 7 February
1881, which is still in the British Museum. Immature females collected at
Kotagherry on 25-11-74 and 11-12-74 by Miss Cockburn are also in the British
1;
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 4385
Museum. My own collection contains adult males collected at Ootacamund on
19-1-02 by Col. H. R. Baker and 18-2-1935 by Major E. G. Phythian-Adams.
An immature female collected by Bourdillon at Mynall in the hills in winter
(S.F., vi, 33 and J.B.N.H.S., xv, 672) and an immature male collected by
Fry in Travancore are also in the British Museum.
The above specimens all belong, in my opinion, to the large pale form to
which Tickell’s name is applied. Tickell’s type is not in existence, so far
as is known, and his description of an immature male, though detailed and
good of its kind, is not sufficient to allow of racial discrimination. The name
has however been applied to the Asiatic breeding form on grounds given by
Hartert (Vog. Pal. Fauna, ui, p. 1155) and this attribution is satisfactory and
may well stand.
I may here note that it is evident from the fine series in the British
Museum that this form is the breeding bird of the Gilgit area, so the state-
ment in Nidification, vol. iv, p. 110, that melanoschistos is the only race
breeding in the limits of the Indian Empire is incorrect.
Accipiter virgatus besra Jerdon.
Accipiter besra Jerdon, Madras Jour. Lit. Sci., vol. x (1839), p. 84—
Soonda Jungles.’
The Besra was not procured by the Survey and there is very little recorded
about its distribution in the Presidency. On the eastern side all I can find
out about it is the existence of a local specimen in the Madras Museum and
Jerdon’s statement that it is found here and there in the Eastern Ghats. His
Indian informants also told him that it was found occasionally in the tract
of jungly country in South Arcot and Chingleput, bordering on Tanjore and
Trichinopoly. .
In the Nilgiris William Davison considered it rare. He obtained a couple
of specimens (one of which is in the British Museum:—¢ adult 18-11-1881)
and saw others on the Coonoor Ghat; an immature female collected at Kota-
gherry by Miss Cockburn on 16 June 1874 is also in the British Museum.
Kinloch ‘says that it is very common in the Nelliampathies and Stuart
Baker, on the authority of Stewart. says that it is common in Travancore.
Here the breeding season is said to last from January to May, most eggs
being laid in March and April (Nidification, iv, p. 112). The bird is doubt-
less a resident in our area.
The New Fauna admits only two races of Besra in India namely 4A. v.
besra in Southern India and Ceylon and A. v. affinis across the whole of
Northern India and the Himalayas. |
. There are, however, in my opinion three races, as Himalayan birds fall
into the usual eastern and western races. Of these the eastern birds agree
with Accipiter affinis Hodgson, Bengal Sporting Mag., new series, vol. viii
(1836), p. 179—Nepal. Western birds differ from them as follows :—
(1) Adult ¢. The upper parts are definitely paler with more of a dove-
grey. tint as opposed to sooty grey. The underparts are also slightly paler
and I have seen no specimens of the type which has the underparts very
like those of the adult female, a type that is common in the eastern form.
(2) Immature ¢. The upper parts are markedly paler, both as regards
the brown colour of the feathers, the rufous edges to them and the pale
area of the hindneck, which last is white as opposed to rich rufous. The
lower parts are much paler, lacking the rich rufous wash on the throat and
breast found on eastern birds.
Females, adult and immature, cannot individually be separated, but in
a series western birds are slightly paler.
The birds which appear in winter in the United Provinces belong to this
western form. As there does not appear to be any existing name applicable
I propose to call it 3
ACCIPITER VIRGATUS KASHMIRIENSIS Subsp. nov.
Type:—3 ad. 14 September 1868 Murree (Coll. C. H. T. Marshall), British
Museum Collection Register No. 1885.8.19.641, My 3 faye
436 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXYVIII
Measurements :—
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
A. v. kashmiriensis 5 ad. 18 165-167 127.5-180 = 49.5-538
5 ad. @ 21.5-23 196-207 153-160 55-58.5
6 ad. 3 18-20 165-173.5 123-185.5 48.5-53
Be @. Afnis 5 ad. Q 22-24 199-210 151-167 54.5-61
Accipiter virgatus besra of 8. India and Ceylon is a much smaller bird as
is shown by the following measurements :—
Brill: Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
4ad. ¢ 17-18 148-155 112-119.5 45.5-48 mm.
4imm. Q 21-22.5 178-187 187-148 52-55 mm.
It is, therefore, of the same size as the typical form (Java) but the latter
is far more richly coloured.
Pernis ptilorhynchus ruficollis Lesson.
Pernis ruficollis Lesson, Traité d’Orn. (February 1830), p. 77—(patrie in-
connue) Bengal.
Not procured by the Survey. The only record of the Crested Honey Buzzard
on the eastern side of the Presidency which I can find is furnished by two
specimens in the Madras Museum from Madras and Kodambakkam, as Dr.
Gravely kindly informs me.
On the west William Davison says that the Honey Buzzard occurs through-
out the Wynaad and a female collected by him at Manantoddy on 5 April 1881
is in the British Museum. It also occurs on the lower slopes of the Nilgiris
where Primrose says (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, p. 166) that he collected two specimens ~
and saw a few others. A specimen from Kotagiri is in the British Museum.
In Travancore Ferguson secured a specimen at Pirmaid near the Periyar
dam in January 1901.
Nothing accurate is known about the status of the Crested Honey Buzzard
im the Presidency and there is littla warrant for the statement in Nidification
(iv, 116) that the bird is resident in Ceylon. Legge was clearly of opinion
that it was an immigrant and did not breed in the island.
Baza leuphotes leuphotes (Dumont).
Falco leuphotes Dumont, Dict. Sci. Nat., xvi (1820), p. 217—Pondicherry.
Very little is known about the Black-crested Baza in the Presidency and
it appears to be a very rare bird. The Survey did not meet with it. On the
eastern side Jerdon informs us that he shot a specimen in a grove at Davroypilly
in Nellore district. There is a specimen in the Madras Museum labelled
Madras. The type specimen came from Pondicherry and there is a male in
the Hume collection from Trichinopoly dated 1871. There is unfortunately
nothing to show the month of any of the specimens but they were usually
considered as supporting the hypothesis expressed by Legge that the Black-
crested Baza was migratory, the birds which visited Ceylon in the cold weather
probably having bred in the Eastern Himalayas.
On the western side this Baza is only recorded from Travancore and Stewart
appears to have been the only observer to meet with it in that State. A
specimen collected by him on 19 February 1914 in the Aneichardi Estate is in
the British Museum. According to the New Fauna (vol. v, p. 172 and Nidi-
fication, iv, 121) the breeding season in Travancore is in February, March
and April and Stewart took a nest of eggs on 4 July. If this is correct the
bird can hardly be a migrant but Stewart obtained most of his eggs from
native collectors and there may have been some mistake in the matter.
The statement (loc. cit.) that the young bird is unknown is incorrect. Tt
was described by Bingham (S.F., ix, 145) and it remains to be seen whether
the differences attributed to the Burmese race B. 1. burmana Sclater are not
merely those of immaturity.
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 487
Baza jerdoni ceylonensis Legge.
Baza ceylonensis Legge, Stray Feathers, vol. iv (1876), p. 247—Kandy,
Ceylon.
For many years Legge’s Baza could only be included in the fauna cf
the Presidency on the strength of a single specimen, the immature male
collected in the Wynaad on 17 October 1877 by Darling and fully described
by Hume in Stray Feathers, vii, p. 151, and reported on by Gurney (S.F.,
vill, p. 445). Since then it has been discovered in Travancore by Stewart
who says that it is rare and difficult to locate (New Fauna, v, 176 and
Nidification, iv, p. 123). The breeding season in Travancore is given as from
early February to the end of April, most eggs being laid in March. There
appears to be no doubt that it is resident.
(To be continued),
TO MALAYA FOR A RHINOCEROS.
BY
R.* OC; IMopRIsS,. F2z.S.
(With 2 plates).
Sanction having been obtained by Mr. Arthur 8. Vernay from
the Government of Perak, F.M.8., through Mr. Hubback, the
Game Warden of Malaya, to collect a bull Rhinoceros sondaicus
for the American Museum of Natural History, I] was asked early
in 1985 to undertake the expedition with the assistance of Mr.
H. C. Raven of the American Museum and Professor of Compara-
tive Anatomy at the University of Columbia. Raven preceded
me to Malaya by a fortnight with the idea of making all necessary
arrangements on the spot, but he found the Game Warden away
on tour and was unable to effect as much as he would have
hiked to. However, I do not think that this at all affected the
final results.
Sailing from Madras on the s.s. Rajula on the 21st May I dis-
covered that I could have joined the boat five days later at
Negapatam! The Straits steamer from Madras meanders down
the east coast picking up and discharging cargo at the ports of
Pondicherry, Cuddalore, Porto Nuovo, Karikal and Negapatam.
However this enabled me to land at and see Pondicherry and
Karikal, both French ports, and unromantic places they are.
Pondicherry especially gives the landing visitor the impression of
being ‘unfinished’ with the Place de Dupleix surrounded by tall
unconnected pillars (apparently taken from some ancient temple)
and the work on the statue of Dupleix never completed. Four
iron stanchions, supports for a canopy over the statue, stand out
in ugly contrast and spoil the beauty of the work. Here one
sees those curious vehicles, the push-push carts, the only speci-
mens of its kind in the world; built on the model of a Victoria
horse-drawn carriage, of the size of a rickshaw but with four
wheels and pushed from behind like a bath chair, the rackety-
packety push-push cart is a comic spectacle. The coolies and
boatmen that throng round the visitor on his arrival on the jetty
insisting that his presence is required by the Commissioner of
Police, the Collector of Customs or, if the names of these two
officials make no impression, the Postmaster (!!), the idea being
to extort bakshish as guides, are an intolerable nuisance. Karikal
is said to flourish on smuggling. I landed at Negapatam to see
a friend and found it uncomfortably hot and mighty unclean.
Negapatam had to my mind the appearance of a dying port which
had once seen far better days.
Sailing from Negapatam on the 26th we arrived at Penang at
dawn on the 380th. The crossing was uneventful, the southern
islands of the Nicobars were passed on the 28th and the northern
end of Sumatra the following day. I was fortunate in having
the Director of Irrigation and Drainage in Malaya and the
|
|
TO MALAYA FOR A RHINOCEROS _ 439
Director of Immigration with me on board, both very pleasant
companions, and the former was especially helpful in giving me
a letter of introduction to his superintendent in charge of Irriga-.
tion at Teloh Anson in Perak, F.M.S. On my arrival at Penang
I was met by Mr. Coulson, the Government Treasurer, and
received from him the greatest help. It is perhaps not generally
known that both Penang and Singapore are islands and form,
together with Malacca, the three Straits Settlements of Malaya.
Malacca is itself a part of the Malay Peninsula, which also com-
prises the nine Native States of Perak, Pahang, Selangor, Negri
Sembilan, Johore, Kedah, Perlis, Kelantan and Trengganu, the
first four of which are federated and the remaining five unfede-
rated. Penang is quite rightly called the most beautiful town
of the East: the whole setting is truly gorgeous and the range of
hills rising to 2,000 ft. on the eastern side, to the top of which
runs a funicular railway from the town of Penang, forms a superb
background to a beautiful scene. Very attractive are the Chinese
eirls in their gaily coloured ‘pyjamas’-like clothes (surely these
must have given rise to the modern Western beach-pyjamas).
Late in the afternoon I boarded the Straits steamer, the s-.s.
Krian, arriving at Teloh Anson, on the mighty Perak river, at
7 a.m. on the following morning. Here I was met by the Super-
intendent of Customs who very kindly saw my things through
and found R awaiting my arrival at the Rest House. The day
was spent in fixing up the hire of a launch from the Superinten-
dent of Irrigation, taking out Arms Licenses, seeing the District
Officer, Mr. de Moubray, and in making final purchases. Mr.
and Mrs. de Moubray were most kind and helpful to us. R had
paid a visit to Mr. Hubback’s headquarters at Kuala Lipis,
Pahang, and had brought back with him four Pahang Malays as
camp coolies. I was fortunate in that R could speak Malay,
having picked it up some years ago while collecting in the
Dutch East Indies, and it speaks well for R’s memory that
he had forgotten httle. Malay is undoubtedly one of the easiest
languages in the world to learn, it is indeed absurdly easy to
pick up. It struck me as amusing that a Malay cooly could
spell a Malay word in English without knowing a word of
English! Although Malaya has a script of its own their language
is now mostly learnt by the Malays themselves in Roman charac-
ters and the use of the Malay script is fast dying out. I found
the Malays, nearly all are Mohamedans, a pleasant and cheery
crowd, though notoriously lazy. Living in a wonderfully fertile
and rich country the Malay has never had to work hard for his
living.
June Ist saw us leave Teloh Anson and work up the Perak
river, finally turning off up the river Kinta, a large tributary of
the Perak, arriving at our first camp, Changkat Budiman, late in
the afternoon. Here we camped in a hut in a patch of rubber
owned by some Indians. Mosquitoes were bad but luckily R had
included in our outfit mosquito nets for our party. Some of the
eges we had purchased in Teloh Anson were not too good and
Mahmet, our excellent servant, informed us that he had found
440 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
‘little fowls’ inside several of them! Leaving camp early next
morning with Ngah, the Game Ranger, kindly lent to us by Mr.
Hubback, and four Sakais (aborigines of Malaya) I trekked north-
wards marching by compass, across the Kroh Reserve and had
my first experience of the Malayan jungles. The going was ex-
tremely bad at times, swamp after swamp had to be crossed
either knee, waist or, in one case, shoulder deep. Old _ tracks
of elephants and fresh tracks of pig and tapir were seen but no
sign of any rhino. Ngah, a nice old rogue, knew only a few words
of English and described one track to me as that of a ‘ham’.
It took me quite a minute to realise that he meant pig. Very
easy it must be to get lost in the dense and vast evergreen jungles
of Malaya and a compass is most essential. Langurs of two types
were seen, Pithecus cristatus and P. obscurus. The white-handed
eibbon (Hylobates lar) and seermangs (Symphalangus syndactylus)
were either seen or heard, as also the common tailed-macaque
(Macacus mandibularis). The seermang is outwardly very similar
to a gibbon and was formerly, in fact, classed among the Hylo-
bates. Several hours of tiring struggle through swampy areas
brought us to the Sakai villages at Pinggan and further on to a
Chinese Rubber Plantation and shop on the Kinta river. KR turned
up an hour later in the motor launch. Returning with him to
the Sakai villages we discussed with them the prospects of finding
a Rhinoceros sondaicus and a reward was offered. The Sakais
were anything but optimistic. No tracks of sondaicus had been
seen, we were informed, for a long time. On our way back to
the river we were drenched to the skin in a torrential thunder-
storm. Heavy rain fell almost daily although June is supposed
to be one of the dry months. That night we occupied a Malay’s
new unfurnished house, the Atap or Nipa palm roof of which
was effectively rainproof.
Leaving early next morning by boat we landed and searched
one of the few areas bordering the Kinta river which was not
under flood water. There were no signs of any rhino tracks, of
tapir a few. Proceeding in our launch further down we camped
that night at Kampong Laba Kubong. From here JI marched
through a part of the forest bordering the Kinta with the idea
of meeting RK further up river. Water got into my compass
and it was not functioning properly with the result that
I found myself travelling in the wrong direction. Leading our
way back we struggled through swamps and dwarf screw-pine, to
traverse which we sometimes had to fell and walk along saplings,
and eventually found ourselves on the bank of the Kinta
again just as light was failing. On the opposite bank luckily was
a fisherman’s hut, and the owner obligingly took me upstream in
his smal] sampan until I met R. On our way downstream again
we picked up my men and camped for the night at Laba Kubong.
In the morning, after collecting two or three squirrels in a rubber
plantation surrounding the village, we proceeded downriver and
turning up the river Kroh camped at some fishermen’s huts about
2 miles up. I noticed every time I raised my shot gun to my
shoulder a pleasant smell, the source of which puzzled me con-
TO MALAYA FOR A RHINOCEROS 44]
siderably until I found my gun had been cleaned with our skinner’s
‘Brilliantine’! Leaving R here I paddled up the Lampam river, a
tributary of the river Kroh, in a sampan with four Sakais. Land-
ing about 3 miles up we followed a path and then searched for
rhino tracks all over that area. Fresh tracks of tapir were seen
and old tracks of elephant, but none of rhino. The ground was
mostly dry though three or four deep swamps were encountered.
The leeches were bad here, although under similar conditions in
other parts of the jungle we found none. On June 5th we again
worked up the Lampam river with six Sakais and four Malays
as porters and camped that night in one of the Elephant Control
Patrol huts on a forest reserve boundary. Here we found the
jungle had been quartered by hnes cut through the forest prior
to being felled for paddy cultivation. The Sakais made a fire
with a modern petrol cigar lighter! JI was also amused at seeing
a message written in pencil on a tree blaze from one Game
Ranger to another to the effect that food had been left for him
in one of the Patrol Huts: Barang-makantingal, literally (‘things
to eat remain’). Leaving camp early we returned to the Lampam
river and boated down in sampans to the launch at the fishermen’s
huts. Here the Sakais were paid off as we had satisfied ourselves
that rhino were not to be found in the Kroh Reserve. Two or
three more squirrels were collected. Travelling down the Kroh
and Perak rivers we reached Teloh Anson by noon. In the after-
noon Mr. Theodore Hubback with Mr. Plane, the Elephant Control
Officer and Deputy Game Warden, turned up and our plans and
future operations were discussed. Mr. Hubback agreed that it
would be best to transfer our activities to the large area north
of the Bernam river bordering the State of Selangor. On the
following day we transported ourselves, our men and our kit in a
hired lorry to Lima Blas Estate, a large oil palm concern,
French-owned. Mr. Hubback had on the day before telephoned
to the Danish Manager, Mr. Iversen, and we were most hospitably
received and entertained. I cannot adequately express our appre-
ciation of the hospitahty and help we received from Mr. Iversen
and his French assistants, Mr. Talau and Mr. Hine, especially
the latter. I was glad at the opportunity of meeting again a
first cousin of my wife who had married Talau. Hine turned up
for dinner at Iversen’s bungalow and I was amused to note that
the four of us were of different nationalities; Iversen Danish, Hine
French and R American. After an early breakfast we left next
morning in one of the estate lorries guided by Hine on his motor-
bike to the boundary of the estate. Here our kit was dumped
while Hine and I walked to a Sakai village across the Bernam
river and then on to a further Sakai ‘kampong’ half-a-mile on.
We had to cross the swollen Bernam river singly in a small
sampan, the seat of which collapsed while I was in midstream.
Hine’s shout: ‘Be careful, the crocodiles here are awful’ just as
the sampan was rocking dangerously and shipping any amount of
water did not tend to increase the comfort of my mind! Arrang-
ing with Sakais there to procure others as porters for the
folowing day we returned to the estate. Shortly afterwards some
442 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
of the estate Tamil coolies carried our kit across to the Sakai
village (Buloh Seruvas). These Sakais are often referred to by
the Malays as ‘oran utan’, literally ‘people of the jungle’, and
this also is the meaning of the term used for the ape. I was inter-
ested to hear from Hine identically the same yarn as is to be
heard in South India regarding the existence of Negrito Pygmies
living on trees in the forest, never being seen by any one, and
that the Sakais leave rice for them at the foot of trees, just as
the jungle tribes in South India are supposed to do. I am con-
vinced this is entirely a myth.
One of our Malay camp coolies developed a badly swollen face
through coming in contact with a ‘Rongas’ tree. He certainly
looked a pitiable sight with his face all swollen, eyes nearly
closed and swellings on his neck and chest where he had spread
the inflammation by scratching. The effect of touching the bark
of this tree is similar to that of the Poison Ivy in America.
Most of the Sakais possess long blow-pipes and use them most
skilfully, the poison on their darts being that of the ‘Upas’ tree
as in North Burma and the Dutch East Indies, the tree in Malay
being known as the ‘Ipoh’: probably the town of Ipoh draws its
name from this tree.
Heavy thunderstorms were of daily occurrence. The loud and
musical call of the Argus pheasant was frequently heard all day,
as also the calls of the Seermangs and the ‘Wah-Wah’ or white
gibbon.
Plane had put me on to the best anti-leech footgear I had
hitherto seen; ordinary rubber boots with canvas uppers, tongue
sewn to sides, and cloth extensions up to just below the knee
sewn into the boot. Putties over this increase the life of the
extensions and the whole is very effectively leech- and mosquito-
proof.
These jungles lie directly under the mail-plane route between
Europe, India, Burma, Siam, the Dutch East Indies and
Australia. So used had the Sakais become to planes flying over-
head that they did not deign to look up on hearing them.
We left our camp at Buloh Seruvas, having slept in a vacated
Sakai’s hut, and arrived at the Sakai village of Changkat Kereta,
on the Erong river, in the evening. The going was not too bad
but swampy in parts. Two or three old pits were passed, pre-
viously used by poachers for trapping rhino. Strangely enough
this part of the forest between the Erong and Bernam rivers
appeared to be leechless although conditions seemed to be favour-
able for them. The ‘Jelutang’ tree, the sap of- which is tapped
by the Chinese for the manufacture of chewing gum, occurs in
these jungles. At Changkat Kereta I tasted my first Daurian, but
IT was quickly put off by the sickly smell without which the
fruit would be quite palatable. Patches of Liberian coffee are
cultivated round the Sakais’ huts at Changkat Kereta, also pine-
apples, sugarcane, plantains, cocoanuts, areca palms, betel vines
and limes. In their clearings (the usual shifting cultivation of
jungle tribes) the Sakais grow rice. and Cassava (Tapioca). We
hired a Sakai’s house for ourselves at Changkat Kereta and decided
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I.
Sakai hut we occupied at Changkat Kereta (Base camp).
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TO MALAYA FOR A RHINOCEROS 443
to make our base camp here. The headman’s house was adorned
with a large clock and four lamps, two being of the petrol type,
one acetylene and the fourth an oil lamp: I think only the last
was in working order! The headman was not very helpful at
the outset, expressing fear that Sakais would not be available
for shikar as they were all out cutting rattan. I felt sure that
he was fishing for a present, and on learning from him on the
following morning that he hoped to be able to supply six men he
was told that there was to be no hoping and that we required
eight men without fail. This firm attitude had immediate results
and all the men we required were easily procured. We did not
find the climate pleasant, it was like that of a hot-house. R was
feeling far from well the whole time and I found that scratches
and insect bites on my legs were apt to suppurate. I spent the
next three days in searching the forest for miles around for
sondaicus’s tracks but without success, although tracks of Rhino-
ceros sumatrensis were quite common. Here and there patches
of ground in the forest, about 12 ft. in diameter, swept clean
by the Argus pheasant were to be seen, as also fresh tracks of
the Malayan bear (in Malay ‘bruan‘, probably the origin of ‘Bruin’
for a bear). Small hornets were a common feature in these forests
and our Sakai trackers were frequently stung. On one occasion
we had to run from hornets for 200 or 800 yards much to the
merriment of the Game Ranger Ngah who thought it was a great
joke until he was stung on the neck when his mirth ended in a
yelp! The Sakais, like nearly all jungle folk, possess a keen sense
of humour and are a cheery crowd: crossing the Erong river on
a fallen tree on the first day the leading Sakai was deposited into
the river by the log breaking in two, much to the joy of the others.
Pig-tailed monkeys (locally known as ‘beroke’—Macacus nemes-
trinus) were common, as also the white-eyed langurs, specimens
of both being collected. When the weather is fine the dry parts
of the interior of these forests are really beautiful, but their beauty
would be better appreciated but for the myriads of mosquitoes and
other insects that bite and sting, in which respect these forests
must surely correspond to those of Brazil. The fruit of one of
the jungle trees, somewhat similar in appearance to a mango and
locally known as ‘Poonti’ was quite good eating, a little like
a custard apple. The water in the small rivers in this area was
bright red in colour, especially in the case of one stream where
the water had the appearance of having been dyed with potassium
permanganate, probably due to the fact that these rivers are fed
by swamps, the water being coloured by the roots of trees and
rotting vegetation. It is noticeable that many of the scientific
names of fauna are actually the Malay names for the creatures
concerned such as Tupaia (tree shrew) from ‘Tupai’, the Malay
word for a squirrel; Rusa (sambhur=Cervus rusa), the Malay name
for sambhur. The word ‘godown’ used in India is probably
derived from the Malay word ‘godang’ (shed) and a ‘compound’ is
said to be derived from ‘kampong’ (village) though this may be
open to doubt. The traps laid by the Sakais in the jungle are
chiefly for the Chevrotain or Tragulus (mouse deer) known in
444 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Malay as ‘Plandok’, pheasant, and porcupine, the same _ trap
serving for all:. a wall of Zalacca palm leaves being placed on
either side of, and across, a game path with a small doorway left
for the victim to pass through straight into a noose, The under-
erowth in large tracts of the forest is mainly Zalacca palm which
adds a great deal to the beauty of the jungle. I noticed far less
creepers and vines in these jungles than in similar type of forests
in Upper Burma. In other parts the ground is covered by three
or four species of plants with leaves akin to the Arum lily, and
many of the swamps grow three species of tall and dwarf screw-
pines. I came on the nest and eggs of a green forest-partridge
one day having inadvertently disturbed this very beautiful bird.
Sakais attach no value to empty bottles and tins and a lot of
these can be seen thrown away round their houses.
On June 18th I left for my advanced camp, having had huts
prepared in the forest some 12 miles north of Changkat Kereta,
leaving R at our base camp. On my way I shot with my -:22 a
fine specimen of a male seermang and sent it back to Raven. On
arrival at my camp, on the upper reaches of the Erong, I had a
bathe in the river while the Sakais completed a hut for themselves.
That night I slept little being devoured by myriads of midges
that invaded my mosquito curtain. For three days the jungle was
searched for sondaicus’s tracks without success. I had Sakais out
in different directions quartering the jungle with the offer of a
good reward for the discovery of a sondaicus’s tracks. On the
fourth day while some miles north-east of camp two Sakais caught
me up and produced a 8$ in. stick which was declared to be the
measurement of a fresh rhino track they had found. Although
this was a bit small for a sondaicus’s track I decided to follow
it up. Returning to camp at noon I sent a Sakai to R with the
information, and with Ngah and three men reached the spot where
the rhino’s tracks had been found 45 minutes later. The rhino’s
tracks had been found on a forest boundary separating the Chawang
and Sungkei Reserves. Following up the tracks we eventually
reached its wallow and from here on for a considerable distance
the undergrowth through which the rhino had gone was caked
with grey mud and our clothes were very soon similarly covered,
and very much the worse for wear, following the rhino’s path
through rattan and Zalacca. Ngah’s excellent tracking surprised
me. We later came on a heap of the rhino’s faeces, some-
what similar to a horse’s droppings. It is well known to a
rhino poacher that a rhinoceros is wont to return to the same
spot to defecate, a habit it shares with some of the antelopes,
and this, as often as not, leads to its destruction, the poacher
occupying a machan over the spot. A rhino is worth Rs. 1,000
or more to the poacher, its chief value is in its horn, but every
part of if possesses a definite value, including the blood, as an
aphrodisiac. Shortly afterwards we came on the fresh tracks of
a solitary elephant which sometimes covered the tracks of the
rhino; and our difficulties were increased by a heavy thunder-
storm which made it well nigh impossible to distinguish new ,
from old rhino tracks. Added to this the light was becoming
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PGA TB Wa:
Bernam River. Boundary between Perak and Selangor States.
Camp in dense evergreen forest in the Bernam area.
Photos by author,
TO MALAYA FOR A RHINOCEROS 445
very poor and I abandoned the search for the day. Although I
felt fairly sure that the tracks were those of a large sumatrensis
I decided to have this confirmed. It took us two hours to reach
camp and a large part of the going was perfectly poisonous, we
were frequently up to our knees in mud and water. LHarly next
morning I left with Ngah and two men sending the remaining
Sakais on to the Chawang river to prepare a new camp. Taking
up the rhino’s tracks again we found at about mid-day that
the tracks had led under a fallen tree under which it was
obviously impossible for a sondaicus to pass. This settled the
question beyond doubt and we found our way to the Chawang
camp by compass bearing. Later in the day we returned to cur
first camp and found R had arrived, and that night we dis-
cussed our future plans. We both felt that there was _ little
chance of our coming on the tracks of a sondaicus, and R decid-
ed to catch the P. & O. boat to Hongkong from Singapore
on the 20th, which involved his leaving for Teloh Anson early
on the following morning. The forest west and north-west of the
Chawang river had still to be examined, and I did not wish to
abandon the search until this had been done, although I felt
there was very little hope of success. Further I now had low
fever nearly every day, and my legs were in a bad _ state
from suppurating scratches and insect bites. R left early next
morning still feeling none too well. Soon after he left I shifted
everything to the new Chawang camp and arrived there feeling
unable to do any tracking that day. Ngah and the Sakai
trackers were sent out to continue the search. ‘Miowk’, my
gibbon, who had been my devoted companion all through, was
stung by a hornet on a tree near the camp and retreated yelling.
Ngah and his men returned in the evening without having found
anything but new elephant and sumatrensis’ tracks. The next
day found me still feeling feverish, but I accompanied Ngah
while the other trackers went off in different directions as usual.
No suecess attended our efforts either this or the following day.
As our search had fairly covered this last area I decided to strike
camp and return to headquarters, Teloh Anson. We left the
Chawang river camp next morning and reached Changkat Kereta
that afternoon. Here I paid off the Malays and all the Sakais,
retaining those of Buloh Seruvas to accompany me to Lima Blas
estate on the following day. My heavy outfit I sent round by
boat down the Hrong and Bernam rivers to Utan Milantang in
charge of Gabriel, my skinner, with instructions to engage carts
or a lorry for the kit and himself, Ngah, and our hardworking
camp boy Mahmet, to Teloh Anson. The camp supplies that
remained over in the shape of tinned fruits, rice, sugar, salt etc.
I divided up between the camp staff. That evening I went over
to the headmans’ house hearing music and much noise, and found
the Malays and Sakais gambling away all ther pay! One of
the Sakais was playing a violin quite well.
Leaving Changkat Kereta next morning I walked, carrying my
gibbon, with the Buloh Seruvas Sakais arriving there at about
noon. Here we were greeted by two damsels. These two young
446 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIii
ladies, pretty girls in their way, went through the most blatant
vamping tactics, directed at Raven and myself on our previous
visit to the village, strutting around in gay rags and faces covered
with powder and to our surprise using lip sticks and mirrors.
Their remark in passing ‘We are following you, Tuan’, an idiom
in itself, evoked our reply that we were taking no camp followers.
The Sakais of Malaya are considered to be the surviving
representatives in the Malay Peninsula of the Indo-Malayans, as
the Nagas, Kachins, Chins, Wahs, etc. are in Burma and Assam.
The Tarajas of the Celebes, the Dyaks of Borneo and the hillmen
of the mountains of Formosa and Philippines exhibit many of the
same characteristics, have many of the same customs, and even
similar words in their languages and nearly all are spirit wor-
shippers. The ‘Nat’ poles, topped with funnel-shaped caskets, of
the Burma races have very similar counterparts with the races of
Malaya, the Dutch East Indies, Formosa and the Philippines.
A message that I was returning to Lima Blas had been sent
on ahead and Hine met me between the Bernam river and the
estate boundary. Arriving at Iversen’s bungalow I arranged to
leave for Teloh Anson the same evening in a hired car. Cars and
lorries can be hired in Malaya at just about one-third of the rates
in India. I reached Teloh Anson in what must have been almost
record time, the driver being of the reckless speed-fiend type.
Back in Teloh Anson I felt considerably better although pretty
tired with my long day. The forests we had been through were,
except for a few sumatrensis, tapir, pig, bear and elephant well-
nigh gameless as was our experience in most of the evergreen
forests of Upper Burma.
The next day was spent in drawing out funds from the Bank,
in farewell visits to Mr. and Mrs. de Moubray and Mr. Ferguson
and in re-sorting and packing up my outfit. My skinner Gabriel,
Ngah, and Mahmet having turned up at noon I left the same
evening on the s.s. Krian and arrived at Penang at 9 a.m. on
the followimg morning. After making arrangements for the trans-
fer of my luggage to the Madras boat, the s.s. Rohna, I spent
the morning in Penang getting tickets for passages (Mahmet to
Rangoon) and export licenses for my weapons. The s.s. Rohna
sailed at 2 p.m. and the shores of Penang and Malaya were soon
out of sight. Our route lay close in to the shores of Sumatra
which we finally left behind us at noon on the following day. Our
arrival at Madras on June 80th brought to a close an expedition
which, though unsuccessful in its main object, was both interesting
and instructive.
A further attempt to procure a specimen of a Lhinoceros
sondaicus will probably be made in Sumatra where this species
still exists. |
vege
’ “THE INDIAN CADDIS-FLIES (T7RICHOPTERA).
ae BY
Martin E. MossEty, F.R.E.S.
(With 16 text-figures and 18 plates). °°
were Part IV.
(Continued from page 133 of volume xxxviiil).
LIMNOPHILIDAE.
Kolenati.—Gen. et Spec. Trich., vol. i, p. 29, 1859.
CHARACTERS OF THE FAMILY.
Antennae as long as (rarely longer than or slightly shorter than
the wings, moderately stout, the basal. joint bulbose. Ocelhi
always present. Maxillary palpi three-jointed in the male, five-
jointed in the female, similar in structure in both sexes, only
slightly pubescent, the basal joint short. Labial palpi small, the
end joint often concave. Legs usually rather long; tibial spurs
varying greatly, but the anterior tibiae are either spurless or have
only one (apical) spur (excepting in Astratus where there is an
unusually formed double black spur) and the intermediate have
never more than three; tibiae and tarsi usually with strong spines.
Abdomen generally short and robust; the margin of the eighth
segment often produced. The appendages of the male tolerably
constant in general character; that is to say, there is a pair of
(ordinarily) small superior appendages, a pair of (ordinarily) lan-
ceolate intermediate appendages, and a pair of inferior appendages,
often fused to the ninth segment. Between these appendages
is placed the penis which is usually short and cylindrical and
generally accompanied by a pair of sheaths which are often bifid
or pectinate. |
In the female the ninth segment is nearly always visible both
dorsally and ventrally; above, it is generally accompanied by a
pair of pubescent appendages, and below them there is ordinarily
a testaceous tubular piece open in front. On the surface of the
eighth ventral segment is the vulvar scale which is generally trifid,
consisting of two side lobes and a more or less tongue-shaped
median lobe.
Wings usually ample and only slightly pubescent; but some-
times there is a close dense pubescence and the membrane may
be granulose and with long erect hairs which are more frequently
‘confined to the veins. Normally the neuration is similar in both
‘sexes. In the anterior wing, the discoidal cell is always closed
(excepting in one or two aberrant forms); the sub-costa ends
usually in the costa but in one sub-family it ends abruptly in'a
3
{ransverse nervule between the costa and radius; there is no.
median cellule and the cellula thyridii is always long and narrow;
four basal cellules; the anastomosis is usually divided into two
portions, the lower placed nearer the base of the wing than the
upper but in some genera both portions are nearly in line; there
are nine apical cellules, and forks Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 5 are present.
The posterior wings are shorter and much broader, and _ broadly
folded; the anal portion usually well developed: discoidal cell
usually closed (but open in one group); eight apical cellules and
forks Nos. 1, 2, 8 and 5 present.
There are three very anomalous genera which, however, have
not as yet been recorded in the Indian fauna, Anomalopteryz,
Thamastes and Enoicyla; of these the first two depart widely in
their neuration from the general form, with rudimentary posterior
wings, and, in Hnoicyla, the female insect is to all intents and
purposes, apterous.
There are several female examples in the British Museum
and the author’s collections belonging to the Limnophilinae. I
refrain from naming these as it 1s very probable that some at
least may be associated with males either already described or
perhaps described here as new.
SUB-FAMILIES,
LIMNOPHILINAE Ulmer.
APATANIINAE Ulmer.
CHARACTERS OF THE SUB-FAMILIES.
1. In the anterior wing, the sub-costa continues to the costal
margin. LIMNOPHILINAE Ulm. (Text-fig. 1).
2. In the anterior wing, the sub-costa ends in a cross-vein
joining the radius and costal margin. APpaTANIINAE Ulm. (Text-
fig. 14).
LIMNOPHHANAE Ulmer.
Limnophilinae Ulmer.—Ab. Natur. Ver. Hamb., xvii, pp. 42,
46, 1908. |
The sub-family of the Limnophilinae contains most of the
Indian Limnophilid genera, and might well be further subdivided
in a work having a world-wide range. There are objections, how-
ever, to the creation of sub-families to deal with the fauna of a
particular region, so I shall therefore restrict myself to the collect-
ing together of certain genera into two groups in the hope that
this course may render easier the study of the Indian Limno-
philinae.
First will come the group of Colpotaulius, characterised by the
formation of the anterior legs of the male, which differ from
those of the female in having a deep groove along the femora
lined with short black setae, and in the genera Colpotaulius and
Astratus, having peculiarly shaped black spurs. In Astratodina
the groove is present, but there are no spurs. ;
THE INDIAN CADDIS-FLIES (TRIHOPTERA) 4AY
The remaining genera will not fit comfortably into a single
group although most of them follow closely the pattern of Marty-
nov’s Pseudostenophylax.
I omit the European genus Stenophylax from my _ tables.
Navas has described an Indian species in this genus. I am unable
to recognise it from the description, and I think it doubtful in the
extreme that the genus is really Stenophylax as we know it in
Europe.
TABLE OF THE INDIAN LIMNOPHILINAE GENERA.
1. Insects in the male with a groove lined with black setae
on the anterior femora, generally with a specialised black spur
on this leg; female leg normal. (Colpotaulius group) 2
—Anterior leg of the male without the groove or specialised
spur. 4
2. No specialised spur on the anterior leg. ASTRATODINA
gen. nov. p. 400
—One or more specialised spurs on the anterior leg. 3
3. A single specialised black spur. CoLporauLius Kol. p. 461
—Paired black spurs. Astratus McLach. p. 452
4. In the male, first joint of the anterior tarsus much shorter
than the second; discoidal cell in both sexes strongly excised
along its upper margin. MIcROPTERNA Stein p. 404
—In the male, first jomt of the anterior tarsus not shorter
than the second.
5. In the male, posterior wing with specialised scales or
specialised hairs. 6
—Male posterior wing without such scales or hairs. 7
6. Scales or hairs in the anal region of the posterior wing
either entirely or partly along A,. PsEUDOSTENOPHYLAX Mart.
p. 405
—Scales or hairs along the region of the sector.
ASTENOPHYLODES gen. nov. p. 458
7. Posterior wing of the male with a strong triangular anal
projection. STENOPHYLINA Mosely p. 460
—Posterior wing of the male normal.
8. All the tergites covered with long silky hairs.
TRICHOPHYLAX gen. nov. p. 461
—Tergites normal.
9. Anterior wing of the male with a mass of black setae occu-
pylng the basal half of the costal area. PSEUDOHALESUS Mart.
p. 462
—Anterior wing of the male without such setae. 10.
10. Distal margin of the anterior wing undulating, neuration
of the male posterior wing abnormal with only fork No. 5 present.
Hauesinus Ulm.’ p. 465
—Margin of the anterior wing not undulating; posterior wing
of the male normal. 11
450 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY,. Vol. XXXViii
1 Spurs, 122) bevel
—Spurs 1, 38, 4. - 13
12. Fork No. 3 of the posterior wing passes the cross-vein at
its apex. PuatypHyLax McLach. p: 467
Fork No. 8 of the posterior wing meets the cross-vein at its
APeX. — PHyYLOSTENAX Mosely p. 468
13. Superior appendages very long, blade like (see Text-fig. 11).
ANABOLIA Steph. p. 470
—Superior appendages not so long. 14
14. Discoidal cells of both wings much longer than their foot-
stalks. STENOPHYLIELLA gen. nov. p. 471
—Discoidal cells of both wings shorter or as long as their foot-
stalks. ASTENOPHYLINA gen. nov. p. 473
Astratodina gen. n.
Closely allied to Colpotaulius and Astratus but the 3 without
the specialised.spurs on the anterior legs.
Antennae slender, about the length of the anterior wings, basal
joint large and rounded, particularly on the inner side, next joint
short; maxillary palpi ¢, first joint short; second long, about four
times.. the length of the first; third shghtly shorter than
the second; 9, basal joint short, about half the length of the
second; third slightly longer than the second; fourth slightly
longer. than the first; fifth about as long as the second. Anterior
wings elongate, costa somewhat rounded, apex sub-acute discoidal
cell long (in both anterior and posterior), membrane granulose;
legs differing in the sexes; ¢ with the anterior formed as in
Astratus but without spurs, femora with a groove lined with black
setae which are present also on the tibiae; first tarsal joint more
than twice the length of the second; spines black, no spines on
the termmal- tarsal joints; spurs 0, 2, 2 ¢; 1,.2, 2 9. .
--Genotype: Astratodina inermis sp. Nn.
-_Astratodina inermis sp. n. Gi ie fics, ery
Head dark fulvous, antennae lighter in colour than the head
with still paler annulations; palpi and legs, pale fulvous; the
anterior femur carries a single black spine (not a spur) on its outer
surface towards the apex. Anterior wing elongate, cinereous with
yellowish irrorations, membrane granulose with short yellowish
hairs, fringes yellowish; neuration inclined to aberrancy, in one
example the second and third apical sectors are bent inwards to-
wards each other and united on one side by a cross vein, in
others, neuration is normal.
-- Genitalia ¢.—Margin of the eighth dorsal segment rounded
and set with short black setae; superior appendages are welded
to the ninth segment making a pair of large rounded processes as
seen from above; the ninth segment towards the centre of its
lateral margin is heavily fringed with long stout bristles; from
behind may be seen a pair of broad, strongly chitinised inter-
mediate appendages, apices truncate, slightly. serrate and deeply
JouRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PEALE We
Loos
t
i
5
IE
=
oe
5 ee
4°:
):
A stratodina inermis sp.n., Fig. 1, wings d. Fig. 2, anterior leg ¢. Fig. 3,
maxillary palpus ¢. Fig. 4, maxillary palpus 9. Fig. 5, genitalia 4, lateral.
Fig. 6, ventral and slightly from behind. F ig. 7, genitalia 2, ventral.
a
--
Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I
Colpotaulius major Mart., d. Fig. 1, wings. — Fig. 2, maxillary palpus. Fig. 3,
anterior leg. Fig. 4, specialised spur enlarged. Fig. 5, genitalia, lateral.
Fig. 6, dorsal. Fig. 7, from behind. Fig. 8, superior appendage with apex of
intermediate appendage, from within. _ Fig. 9, apex of intermediate appendage
from behind.
THE INDIAN CADDIS-FLIES (TRICHOPTERA) ou 45
notched towards their inner margins; penis-sheaths very strong
and heavily chitinised, bases broad, apices acute, curving outward
on each side of the penis which is short and straight; inferior
appendages small and rounded, thickly beset with strong hairs
and projecting only shghtly beyond the ninth segment to which
they appear to be welded.
@.—The surface of all the dorsal segments set with minute
setae, rather longer at the apical margin of the eighth; beyond this
segment are two broad triangular processes with the inner margins
somewhat serrate and carrying small rounded forks at their bases
as seen from above; as seen from beneath, the processes are con-
tinued in broad inturned plates of which the inner apical angles
appear as pointed projections; vulvar scale with two broad wings
and a small and acute inner process; previous segment deeply
and narrowly excised in the centre of its apical margin.
Length of anterior wing ¢ 12 mm.
Length of anterior wing 9 16 mm.
Western Tibet; Lhabaps, ft. 11,855, 28-vi-1982 G. E. Hutch-
inson, Yale North India Expedition.
Type ¢ and paratype Q in the British Museum collections,
other paratypes ¢ and Q from the same locality in the collec-
tions of the Yale University, United States of America,
Colpotaulius Kol.
— Colpotaulius Kolenatii—Gen. et Species Trichop., pt. 1, p. AT,
1848; McLachlan.—Rev. & Syn. Trich., p. 384, 1874; Ulmer. _—Gen.
Insect., fasc. 60a, p. 36, 1909.
Maxillary palpi ¢, basal joint less than half the length of the
second which is slightly longer than the third; spurs 1, 3, 4 39
but that on the anterior tibia of the ¢ is differently formed to
the equivalent spur in the Q being intensely black, sometimes
long and thin with merely the apex slightly curved, sometimes
stout and curved resembling a strong spine. First joint of the
anterior tarsus in the ¢ only half the length of the second, where-
as in the @ it is nearly one-third longer ‘than the second. Tibiae
with few spines on the anterior but. they are more numerous on
the two other pairs and on the tarsi; the anterior legs of the ¢
short and stout, the tibia fitting into a eroove on the inner side
cf the femur, this groove being clothed with short and dense
black setae. Antennae about the length of the wings, moderately
stout. Anterior wings elongate with moderately dense short
pubescence and evident apical fringe, costal margin gently rounded,
the apex sub-acute; discoidal cell very long and narrow; no marked
pterostigma. Posterior wings very deeply incised below the apex
at the point where the lower branch of the cubitus terminates.
Genotype: ~Colpotaulius incisus Curt.
Coipotaulius major Mart. (PI. II, figs. 1-9).
Colpotaulius major Martynov.—Zool. Jahrb. Bd. xxvii, pp.
516- 8; pl. 24 figs. 1-4, 1909.
CO. incisus Curt. n. var. Martynov.—Ann. Mus. Zool. ac. sci,
legions, vol, xxvi,.p. 24, Pl. II fig. 9° 1925, :
45a JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Head and thorax clothed with yellowish-grey hairs; antennae
brownish testaceous with light-ochraceous annulations. Wings
yellowish with brownish markings; under-surface of the anterior
femora of the ¢ set with close black hairs, the abnormal single
spur of this leg long, black and shghtly curved at the tip.
Genitalia ¢.—Margin of the ninth dorsal segment slightly pro-
duced and rounded; superior appendages from above, large,
obscuring all the rest of the genitalia excepting the inner margins
of the intermediate appendages; the lower margin of each appen-
dage is produced at its centre in a short, blackened, triangular,
inturned spur; intermediate appendages from the side, broad at
the bases terminating in acute blackened apices (hidden by supe-
rior appendages); from beneath, the appendages are directed
shghtly outward and are notched towards the inner angles of their
apical margins so that they resemble a pair of boots placed heel
to heel with the soles directed upwards and the toes well turned
out; penis straight, apex blunt; penis-sheaths long and _ slender,
apices pectinate; inferior appendages welded to the ninth segment;
from the side, triangular, only slightly projecting beyond the line
of juncture with the segment; from beneath, with only the apical
third free and distinct from the segment, apices acute.
Length of anterior wing ¢ 12 mm.
Kashmir, Caucasus, Kamtshatka.
In the Ann. Mus. Zool. Ac. Scei., 1925, Martynov describes
from Kamtshatka, a Colpotaulius as a variety of C. incisus Curt.
The genitalia as figured differ far too widely from those of Curtis’s
species for the Kamtshatka insect to be associated with it even
as a variety. On the other hand, the figures of these parts are
indistinguishable from those given with the description of C. major
and I conclude, in spite of the wideness of the range that the
so-called variety is in fact this species.
Astratus McL. (Text-figs. 1-3).
Astratus McLachlan.—Rev. and Syn. Trich., p. 86, 1874;
Ulmer.—Gen. Insect., fase. 60a, p. 37, 1907.
Maxillary palpi ¢, first joint about two-thirds the length of
the second which is slightly longer than the third.
Maxillary palpi 9, first joint about two-thirds the length of
the second which is slightly shorter than the third, fourth as
short as the first, fifth as long as the third; anterior wings elongate
with moderately short pubescence; discoidal cell long and narrow;
posterior wings somewhat excised below the apex; spurs g, 2, 3,
4 or 2, 8, 38, 9 1, 3, 4 or 1, 8, 8; anterior legs differing in form
in the two sexes; in the male, femora broad, lower margins of
the femora and tibiae lined with fringes of short black setae; spurs
2 in number, long, black, slightly hooked at the apices and set
closely together in juxtaposition so that the presence of a second
spur may easily be overlooked; first joint of the tarsus much
longer than the second; in the female, the anterior leg normal
with a single normally formed spur and no fringes of black setae;
in the ¢ margin of the eighth dorsal segment strongly produced
at its centre with the extreme apex generally fringed with short
Journ. BomBay Nat, Hist. Soc. PEALE i
(K)
A stratus tricalcavatus sp.n., 6. Fig. 1, genitalia, lateral. Fig. 2,dorsal. Fig. 3,
ventral and from behind. __ Fig. 4, superior appendage with apex of intermediate
appendage, from within. Fig. 5, anterior leg. Fig. 6, specialised spurs of the
anterior leg, enlarged. Fig. 7, 9 genitalia, lateral. Fig. 8, 2 genitalia, ventral.
THE. INDIAN CADDIS-FLIES (TRICHOPTERA) 453
black setae; inferior appendages welded to the sides of the ninth
segment.
Genotype: Astratus asiaticus Mel.
Figs. 1-3. Astratus tricalcaratus sp.n., Fig. 1, wings d. Fig. 2, maxillary
palpus ¢. Fig. 3, maxillary palpus Q.
Astratus tricalcaratus sp. n. (Text.figs. 6-7; Pl. X, figs. 1-3).
Head testaceous, oculi dark testaceous, antennae of the same
colour with darker annulations. .Wings long, marrow,~ greyish,
nervures dark; spurs ¢ 2, 3, 8, 9 1, 8, 8; spurs of the anterior
leg §g as detailed in the generic description.
Genitalia ¢.—The apical margin of the eighth dorsal segment
is strongly produced at the centre but there is no mat of short
black setae linmg the extreme apex; superior appendages from
above, rather long; to each appendage there is an inner ridge
carrying a stout spur whose extreme apex is blackened; this
spur may be seen, both from above and beneath, projecting be-
yond the inner margin; from the side, the appendage is broad,
broader at its base; intermediate appendages from the side, con-
cealed by the superior appendage; they are very broad at the
bases narrowing to strongly chitinised blackened and_ slightly
hooked apices directed upwards and, from above, slightly out-
ward; penis from the side deeply notched on the underside before
the apex which carries two slender spines on its underside directed
454. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
downwards and towards the base; penis-sheaths long and slender, |
curving slightly upwards from the side, divergent from beneath;
inferior appendages welded to the sides of the ninth segment; from
above narrow, apices directed slightly inward; from the side, the
apices appear slightly twisted; lower margins strongly fringed:
margin of the terminal ventral segment widely excised.
@ General appearance resembling that of the ¢; genitalia.—
From above, terminal dorsal segment: produced and rounded ; from
beneath, can be seen below this segment two large rounded lobes;
vulvar scale with a slender central piece extending slightly beyond
the outer lobes whose apical margins are sinuous.
Length of anterior wing ¢ 9 mm.
Length of anterior wing ®-9.5 mm. |
Western Tibet; Pangur Tso, 14,203 ft., 18-14-vii-1932, G. E.
Hutchinson, Yale North India Expedition.
Type ¢ and paratypes ¢ and @Q in the collection of the
British Museum; other paratypes in the collection of the Yale
University, U.S.A., all from the same locality.
A. tricalcaratus closely resembles Martynov’s A. alaicus in the
genitalia but differs vastly in general ap Dea ace and in having
only 3 spurs to the posterior leg.
Micropterna Stein.
Micropterna Stein.—Stett. Ent. Zeit., p. 247, 1874; © Mc-
Lachlan.—Rev. and Syn. Trich., p. 187, 1874; Uhner cen
Insect., fasc. 60a, p. 58, 1907.
Antennae rather slender and shorter than the anterior wings;
maxillary palpi ¢, first joint very short and rounded, second and
third long; @, first joint very short, remaining joints long, with
the fourth slightly shorter than the others. In the anterior tarsi
of the ¢, the basal joint is very much shorter than the -second
joint and is sometimes thickened; spurs generally 0, 3, 4 or 0,
8, 8 in the ¢ and 1, 38, 4 in the 9 but in the single described
Indian species, the spurs are doubtful and appear to be 0; 2,.2
in the g and 1, 2, 2 in the 9. Anterior wings ordinarily
elongate and broad with the apices sometimes rounded, some-
times sub-acute, costal margin more or less arcuate, pterostigma
as a rule absent, discoidal cell strongly excised on its upper edge,
first apical cell somewhat rounded at the base, third and fifth
sub-acute, second and fourth slightly truncate; posterior wings
broad, not perceptibly excised below the apex; the margin of the
eighth dorsal segment is generally inturned and densely clothed
with short black setae. a
Genotype: Micropterna testacea Gmelen.
: Micropterna indica sp. n. (Pl. qe Afess i).
Head ochraceous, antennae ochraceous, long and slender, palpi
of the same colour; mesothorax ochréceous in the centre with
wide black patches on each side; metathorax with two rounded
black patches. Wings large, anterior rather long, apex sub-acute,
pale stramineous, rather bdarkce along the costa and sub- costa
Journ. BompBay Nar. Hist. Soc. PLATE IV
VA ly
. we
SER Py eaae
RYLEY Wf 46
LU
ate
.<
ate
Saeticeas
wy
AN
yn
Hy LA
te
Micropterna indica sp.n., Fig. 1, wings <Q. Fig. 2, genitalia do, lateral.
Fig. 3, portion of intermediate appendage, lateral. Fig. 4, genitalia ¢, from
behind. Fig. 5, genitalia 2, ventral. Fig. 6, maxillary palpus ¢, Fig. 7,
maxillary palpus 9°.
THE INDIAN. CADDIS-FLIES (TRICHOPTERA) — 455
and towards the pterostigma which is only slightly indicated; in
both sexes there is a narrow cell towards the base pigmented
entirely with dark ochraceous; posterior wing broad, pale ochra-
ceous, Legs ochraceous. Spurs of the anterior legs, 0 in the
gd and 1 in the 9; on the median and posterior legs doubtfully
2 in both sexes.
Genitalia ¢.—Margin of the eighth dorsal segment truncate
and set with a close mass of rather pale coloured setae as com-
pared with the black setae of most European species in _ the
genus; superior appendages small and rounded, not visible from
above and appearing as rounded lobes from the side; intermediate
appendages only visible from behind, stout, black, their centres
approximating each other, apices directed outward, bases diverg-
ing widely; penis slender, sheaths very shghtly longer than the
penis; as seen from the side, broad at the base narrowing abruptly
at the centre and from there directed upward in a slender spine;
inferior appendages from the side, wide at the base and tapering
rather suddenly to a blunt apex.
Genitalia 9.—From beneath, the abdomen terminates in a
pair of finger-like processes, broad at their bases, apices acute;
below these are two reniform, strongly chitinised hairy plates
towards the base of which is the vulvar scale with broadish wings
and a small central lobe.
In both sexes the margins of the sixth and seventh ventral
segments are set with minute teeth.
Length of anterior wing ¢ 18 mm.
Length of anterior wing 9 20 mm.
Type d and paratype Q taken coupled, Kashmir, ft. 5,600,
Khanabal, 20-ix-1928, Dutt. Coll. from the collection of the Im-
perial Institute of Agricultural Research, Pusa, Bihar, now in
the collection of the British Museum.
Pseudostenophylax Mart. (Text-figs. 4-5).
Pseudostenophylax Martynov.—Ann. Mus. Zool. Acad. Imp,
St. Peters, vol. xiv, pp. 281-2, 1909; Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.,
Pt. I, No. 6, pp. 91-2, 1930.
Figs. 4-5. -Poeudostenophylas inate Mart., Fig. 4, maxillary. el roi
: - aS 5, eee palpus o
“4
J SO iaclare palpi slender, first ‘om’ short, second and third
more than twice the length of the first. Q first joint short,
456 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
second nearly twice its length, third and fifth longer than the
second, fourth as long as the second. Spurs 1, 8, 4. Terminal
joint of each tarsus without spines (or with two or three very
short ones only); anterior wings broad, rounded at the apices,
greyish-yellow or testaceous with yellow spots; nervures strong;
membrane granulose with very short semi-erect hairs; discoidal
cell very long, much longer than its foot-stalk. Posterior wings
sub-hyalin, posterior margin excised in the region of fork No. 5,
fourth apical cell as broad as the second; in the anal region of
the ¢ wing there are specialised hairs or scales.
Genotype: Pseudostenophylax fumosus Mart.
Pseudostenophylax martynovi sp.n. (Pl. V, figs. 1-6).
Pseudostenophylax himalayanus Martynov — partim.—Proc.
Zool. Soc. London, Part I, No. 6, pp. 92-5, figs. 87-41, 1930.
Head dark ochraceous, antennae and palpi pale ochraceous;
wings, anterior, brownish irrorated with round yellowish spots;
membrane granulose with numerous semi-erect and very fine black
hairs and with a mass of dense black hairs fringing the costa
making a narrow black rim to the costal margin. There is a
dense mass of black hairs in the subcostal region at the base of
the wing. Membrane of the posterior wing finely granulose,
covered with small semi-erect dark hairs; at the base of the second
anal vein is a long, rather broad yellowish area free from hairs
but set transversely with some wide yellowish wax-like scales, the
structure of which is very obscure. There is no fringe of scales
clothing the second anal vein as in himalayanus and the yellowish
area is confined to basal third of the vein. Basal portion of the
wing deeper in proportion to its length than in himalayanus.
Genitaha ¢.—The margin of the eighth dorsal segment is
produced and clothed with a dense mat of black setae which
continue not very far round to the under side; there is a raised
centre portion of the margin also densely covered with black
setae. Side-pieces of the ninth segment triangular with acute
apices; superior appendages from behind, ear-shaped, margins
fringed with long black hairs; from the side, deep and narrow,
apical margin concave, distinguishing the species from himala-
yanus in which the margin is convex; between these appendages,
seen from behind, are the intermediate appendages broad at the
base with narrow, pointed yellowish apices directed upwards and
placed side by side; from the side, the base of the appendage
projects nearly at right-angles; penis short and stout, apex from
behind excised; lower penis-cover trough-shaped, set close beneath
the penis; penis-sheaths with broad membranous bases and narrow
strongly chitinised terminal portions bent inwards _ horizontally,
apices furnished with stiff bristles; inferior appendges small and
broad, margins fringed with long hairs and bearing slight projec-
tions towards the inner angles as seen from beneath; from the
side, broad at the base, apex produced in a small blunt finger,
Length of anterior wing ¢ 21 mm.
Tibet; Yatung, 4,500 ft., A. E, Hobson,
Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE V
Pseudostenophylax martynovi sp.n., do. Fig. 1, wings. Fig. 2, anal area of
left posterior wing showing scales, enlarged. Fig. 3, genitalia, lateral. _‘ Fig. 4,
apex of intermediate appendage, lateral. Fig. 5, genitalia, from behind. Fig. 6,
inferior appendages, penis and lower penis-cover, etc., ventral.
Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. REALE Vi
Pseudostenophylax himalayanus Mart., 3. Fig. 1, wings. Fig. 2, portion of
right posterior wing around A2, enlarged. Fig. 3, genitalia, lateral.
THE INDIAN CADDIS-FLIES (TRICHOPTERA) 457
Type ¢ in the British Museum collection, abdomen mounted in
balsam.
Pseudostenophylax himalayanus Martynov (Text-figs. 4-5;
Pl. VI, figs. 1-8).
Pseudostenophylax himalayanus Mart. partim.—Proc. Zool.
Soc. London, Pt. I, No. 6, pp. 92-5 but not figs. 38-41.
Head dark ochraceous; antennae, basal joint yellowish, re-
mainder still paler with no apparent annulations, palpi and legs
ochraceous. Wings, anterior, broad, -srounded at the apices,
membrane yellowish, granulose with short semi-erect yellowish
hairs with rather larger blackish hairs in the sub-costal area dark-
ening the base of the wing in this region; costa fringed with
very short adpressed black hairs. The wing is irrorated, parti-
cularly in the post-costal region with round yellowish — spots.
Posterior wing yellowish, finely granulose with a dense row of
thick whitish scales clothing the second anal vein to the margin
of the wing. The basal portion of the wing is not so deep in
proportion to its length as in the preceding species, martynovt.
Genitalia ¢.—Points of difference between the genitalia of
himalayanus and martynovi few, and are as follows:—
There is no raised upper portion of the setae-clad margin of
the eighth dorsal segment; superior appendages from the side with
the outer margins convex instead of concave; the terminal por-
tions. of the penis-sheaths much broader; inferior appendages
from the side, rounded, the apices are not acute as in martynovi.
Length of anterior wing ¢ 20 mm.
Tibet: Yatung, 4,500 ft., A. E. Hobson.
Type do with the abdomen mounted in balsam, in the col-
lection of the British Museum.
In the course of the examination of the examples of P. hima-
layanus in the British Museum collection for the purposes of this
revision, it was discovered that the two ¢ examples collected by
A. EK. Hobson in Tibet, remaining in the British Museum, repre-
sented two distinct species.
In the lght of the discovery, it became apparent that
Martynov’s description of the wings, more particularly of the
posterior wing with its provision of scales ‘in a dense row’ cloth-
ing the vein A,, referred to the one species but his figures of
the genitalia, to the other. This is clearly evidenced by the
mere outer margin of the superior appendage as seen from the
side,
As the more important characters separating the two species
are to be found in neuration, particularly the arrangement of the
scales on the posterior wing, T have fixed the type of himalayanus
as the species bearing the dense row of thick whitish scales.
Martynov’s figures of the genitalia (figs. 38-41, Proc. Zool. Lond.,
p. 98, 1930) agree perfectly with mine from the cleared abdomen
of martynovi.
With regard to the 9 9, it is impossible to say with certainty,
with which species they should be associated and I therefore
abstain from including descriptions here.
458 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Pseudostenophylax griseolus Mart. (Pl. VII, figs. 1-4). :
Pseudostenophylax griseolus Mart.—Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.,
Pt: Li No.27 7 pp. 97168) 7 1030:
Q ‘Head reddish-brown above, testaceous in front; ocelli
large, whitish; antennae brown, with distinct pale annulations;
palpi testaceous. Thorax reddish-brown above, metanotum paler;
underside of the thorax reddish-yellow. Legs yellow with black
spines; spurs 1, 8, 3 yellow; on anterior tibiae some brownish
spots around groups of spines; anterior tarsi also brownish. <An-
terior wings rather narrow with apical margin rounded; membrane
granulose with minute hairs; pale brownish-grey irrorated with
numerous small round hyaline spots; costal and sub-costal areas
greyish-yellow; dorsal portion behind Cu brown, with. distinct
hyaline spots. DC very long, first apical fork impinging only
slightly further inward than the second; cross vein rs-m equal to
irs but oblique. Posterior wings sub-hyaline, minutely granulose
and hairy; first apical fork impinging not further inward than
the second. Abdomen dark brown, ochraceous beneath. Ninth
segment rather broad in dorsal part, ventral portion projecting
considerably backward and rounded if seen from the side. Sub-
genital apparatus composed of a very small median-lobe and two
large pale testaceous side-lobes, concave on their inner posterior
margins. Superior appendages fused with tenth segment, hairy,
triangular as seen from above, united at their bases, apices pro-
duced in two slender stick-shaped processes. Side-lobes of tenth
segment rounded in profile, broadly divided by a median excision
beneath.
Length of body 8 mm. Expanse 27-28 mm. .
38 9Q Sikkim: Khamba Jong, 15,000-16,000 ft., 15-80-vii-1903,
Tibet. Expedition, Lt.-Col. H. J. Walton. | |
The above is Martynov’s description with reproduction of his
figures. I am opposed to the description of new species from
female types and have not therefore re-described and re-figured
the species myself. I am inclined to the opinion that, having
regard to the spur formula 1, 3, 3 and the shape of the posterior
wing which is not perceptibly excised beneath the apex as in
Pseudostenophylax species, griseolus might be better placed in the
genus Pseudohalesus; in the absence of the male, I am not pre-
pared to make a definite pronouncement. . !
Astenophylodes gen. n.
This genus may be separated from the nearly related
Pseudostenophylax partly by the presence of spines on the ter-
minal tarsal joint but mainly by the structure of the posterior
wing. |
Anterior wings rather elongate, apices sub-acute, discoidal cell’
long and narrow; posterior wing, discoidal cell long and reduced
in width to dimensions quite unknown in any other recordéd
Limnophilid genus; the two branches of ‘the sector enclosing this
Journ. BomBay Nat, Hist. Soc. PLATE VII
Pseudostenophylax griseolus Mart., 2. Fig. 1, wings. Fig. 2, genitalia,
lateral. Fig. 3, dorsal. Fig. 4, ventral (genitalia after Martynov).
o
Journ. BompBay Nar. Hist. Soc. PLATE Witt
ly Nt
AN
Avy vt
ally yt!
\
\ rant
My \
Astenophylodes burmanus sp.n., ¢. Fig. 1, wings. _ Fig. 2, specialised hairs of
posterior wing, enlarged. Fig. 3, maxillary palpus. Fig. 4, genitalia, lateral.
Vig. 5, dorsal. Fig. 6, inferior appendages, penis and lower penis-cover, etc.,
ventral.
THE INDIAN CADDIS-FLIES (TRICHOPTERA) : 45g
cell as also the second, third and fourth apical sectors carry
rows of peculiarly formed scales each set on a long foot-stalk
with a dilated head somewhat of the pattern of the Lepidopterous
battledor' scales. Forks Nos. 1, 2, 8 and 5 in both anterior and
posterior wings present. Antennae rather slender, nearly as long
as the anterior wing, basal joint large and dilated on its inner
margin, adjacent joint very short and the next more than twice
as long and longer than each of the remaining joints. Mazxillary
palpi ¢, basal joint about half the length of the second which
is as long as or slightly longer than the third. Spurs 1, 3, 4.
Genotype: Astenophylodes burmanus sp. na.
Astenophylodes burmanus sp. n. (Pl. VIII, figs. 1-6).
Head dark fulvous; ocelli greenish-yellow; antennae, basal
joint ochraceous, remaining joints fulvous with ochraceous annula-
tions; palpi ochraceous; mesothorax fulvous with large, nearly
black lateral markings.
Wings, anterior, dark fulvous with numerous yellowish irrora-
tions, veins dark ochraceous, membrane granulose with innumer-
able- short erect black setae, post-costal area beset with longish
recumbent black hairs so that the wing is considerably darkened
in this area; narrow darkened borders to the apical veins giving
the wings a somewhat striate appearance; posterior wing also
granulose, for the rest, as detailed in the generic description.
Legs ochraceous with dark patches at the bases of each tarsai
joint, spines black.
Genitalia ¢.—Margin of the eighth dorsal segment rounded,
set with dense black setae to a considerable depth and with a
deep semicircular excision at its centre; superior appendages short
and yellowish furnished with rather long hairs particularly along
the inner margins; intermediate appendages very strongly chiti-
nised with bifurcate blackened apices, outer forks long and slender,
inner ‘wide and rounded as seen from above; from the side the
inner-fork-has. an outer convex margin and is directed upward
and slightly backward; outer fork slender and directed backward;
there is a small rounded lobe at the base of each appendage on
its outer side; side-pieces of the ninth segment somewhat pro-
duced and triangular, set with long hairs; penis long and straight,
apex dilated and widely excised; lower penis-cover strongly chiti-
nised, narrow and tapering to a point; penis-sheaths membranous,
from above, the apical extremities curved and lying transversely
across the basal stem, outer ends of these transverse portions
rounded and set with short teeth, inner ends with long stiff
bristles; inferior appendages from beneath, short and_ broad,
apices obliquely truncate, outer angles produced; margin of the
ninth ventral segment produced at its centre.
Length of anterior wing ¢ 16 mm.
© unknown. .
Burma 28°N., 97° 24”H., 11,000 ft., 29-vi-1926, F. Kingdon
Ward. , |
Type 3 in the British Museum collection, abdomen mounted
in balsam.
460 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Stenophylina Mosely.
Stenophylina Mosely.—Intom., Ixix, p. 18, 1986.
Maxillary palpi with the basal joint about half the length of
the second which is equal to the third; antennae long and stout,
basal jomt large and rounded, next joint very short, third longer,
about two-thirds the length of the basal joint and longer than
the following joints. Anterior wings broad, costal margin round-
ed, radius bent towards its apex nearly to meet the sub-costa;
forks Nos. 1, 2, 8 and 5 present, all sessile; discoidal cell long and
narrow; cellula thyridii long and narrow, extending towards the
base beyond the cross-vein joining the cubitus and the first anal
vein.
Posterior wing with forks Nos. 1, 2, 8 and 5, all sessile; there
is a well-developed frenulum situated on the basal half of the
costa, consisting of very long fine hairs; anal area produced in
a large triangle; discoidal cell long and narrow.
Spurs 1, 8, 4. For genital characters, reference should be
made to the description of the single species mitchellt.
Genotype: Stenophylina mitchelli sp. n.
The genus is evidently related to Martynov’s Pseudosteno-
phylax having regard to the genitaha, but the posterior wing
lacks the specialised hairs or scales which is so characteristic of
that genus.
Stenophylina mitchelli Mosely (Pl. IX, figs. 1-6).
Stenophylina mitchelli Mosely.—Entom., Ixix, pp. 18-14, 1936.
The two examples of this species are both mounted as balsam
preparations. The wings are large and brown and the insects
bear a general resemblance to species of the genus Pseudosteno-
phylax but the costal margin of the anterior wing is far more
rounded and the very extraordinary development of the anal region
of the posterior wing renders this insect amply distinct from the
Pseudostenophylax species. The general characters are given in
the description of the genus. :
Genitalia ¢.—The margin of the terminal dorsal segment is
produced at its centre in two large rounded lobes closely set with
minute black setae and with a deep excision between; superior
appendages small and narrow; intermediate appendages from above
broad and triangular, inner angles produced in strong black teeth
directed upwards, apical angles also blackened; from the side, the
apical angle appears as a short, slightly curved spur and the inner
angle as a well-developed and much larger black upwardly-directed
tooth. Penis from above, long, dilated slightly at the centre,
apex rounded; from the side it curves slightly downward with a
truncate apex. Penis-sheaths long and membranous, apices fur-
nished with long bristles or teeth. Inferior appendages very broad,
nearly quadrangular, apices truncate with the outer apical angles
slightly produced; from the side the appendage is rather narrow
with a concave upper margin and acute apex; the margin of the
terminal ventral segment produced shghtly at its centre.
Length of anterior wing ¢ 16 mm.
PPA Tex
Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.
Stenophylina mitchelli sp.n., &. Fig. 1, wings. Fig. 2, maxillary palpus.
Fig. 3, genitalia, lateral. Fig. 4, intermediate appendages and penis, lateral.
Fig. 5, genitalia, dorsal. Fig. 6, inferior appendages, etc., ventral.
THE INDIAN CADDIS-FLIES (TRICHOPTERA) 461
Kashmir: Lake Vishensar 12,000 ft., F. J. Mitchell.
Type o and paratype ¢ in the author’s collection, both
mounted as balsam preparations, one pair of wings of the type
mounted dry.
I dedicate this species to the memory of the late F. J. Mitchell
to whom is due the introduction of trout into Indian waters and
who took a keen interest in the entomology of Kashmir in its
relationship to trout food.
Trichophylax gen. n. (Text-figs. 6-7).
Antennae broken away at the second basal joints in the unique
example; basal joint long, second joint very short; maxillary palpi
3, basal joint short, stout, about half the length of the second,
Figs. 6-7. Trichophylax rotundipennis sp.n., Fig. 6, wings 6. Fig. 7,
maxillary palpus ¢.
third nearly half as long again as the second. Anterior wing,
membrane granulose with erect black hairs particularly along the
veins, apex broad and rounded, costa rounded; posterior wing only
shightly broader than the anterior, also granulose with very small
erect hairs; discoidal cell long in both wings. Spurs 1, 3, 4 (2),
rather difficult to make out in the single example. Dorsal seg-
ments of the abdomen bearing long fine silky hairs. Genitalia
conforming to the general pattern of the Pseudostenophylax group.
Genotype: Trichophylax rotundipennis sp. n.
This is the first Trichopteron I have seen with an abdomen
provided with long fine hairs along the dorsal segments.
462 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIil
Trichophylax retundipennis sp. n. (Pl. X, figs. 1-8).
Head dark fulvous, paler next to the oculi; antennae, palpi
and legs fulvous.. Other characters are given with the generic
description. ‘
Genitalia ¢.—The margin of the eighth dorsal segment bears
at its centre a mat of unusually coarse black setae, the centre
itself is produced and elevated so that the setae appear more dense
in this region; superior appendages from above, short and slender,
curving inwards and fringed. with long hairs; from the side, broad
at the base and tapering to a rounded apex; intermediate appen-
dapes from above appear as ear-shaped processes with blackened
rims curving upwards at their inner and still more blackened mar-
gins; from the side the appendage appears as an upwardly directed
rather stout process. Penis short and straight with a collar below
the apex; penis-sheaths strongly developed with dilated triangular
apical parts fringed with stout bristles and with the upper and
lower apical angles bent sharply inward; inferior appendages short
and broad, each with a short slender process arising from the
interior margin towards the inner angle; the margins of the eighth
and ninth ventral segments produced at their centres; there is a
patch of short bristles on the eighth sternite towards the centre
of its margin. al Ce rr te ae a
Length of anterior wing ¢ 16 mm. eal
Punjab: Murree, 6-1x-86. 46-83. eng a eae el
Type ¢, with the abdomen mounted in balsam, in the British
Museum collection. es a ;
This species was found in the British.Museum collection over
the name Stenopliylax micraular Mcl. It is ‘evident however
that it has been wrongly determined. 8S. micraulax, as described
by McLachlan, is characterised by a groove along the costal margin
of the anterior wings, filled with black hairs,and should therefore
be placed in Martynov’s genus Pseudohalesus (and not in Pseudo-
stenophylax as Martynov suggests in Ann. Mus. Zool. Ac., 1927
and again in the Proé. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1930).
Pseudohalesus Martynov.
Pseudohalesus Martynoy.—Ann. Mus. Zool. Acad. Sci.
U.S.8.R., vol. xxvii, pp. 480-1, 1927.
Antennae rather short, basal joint bulbose, next joint very
short, the next about three times longer and about twice as long
as the following joints. Maxillary palpi of the ¢ with the basal
joint very short, second and third long and equal; 9, basal joint
half the length of the second, third slightly longer than the second,
fourth as long as the second, fifth slightly longer than the fourth.
Anterior wings brownish, usually obliquely truncate at their
apices, membrane granulose with numerous semi-erect, very short
black hairs, rather longer along the veins; along the costal margin
towards the base is a narrow fold filled with short black specialised
hairs; the posterior wings are without the specialised hairs or
Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.
ASF. 33
Wie uy 4 SNe | ee Bey eh
\\E perry tA a i
\ = ! rh PANTY) iid Hh Sf Ais
Neat |
3 | ~ 4) D
Es
i
PLATE
x
Tvichophylax rvotundipennis sp.n., d. Fig.1, terminal abdominal segments
and genitalia, lateral. Fig. 2, ventral. Fig. 3, dorsal.
THE INDIAN CADDIS-FLIES (TRICHOPTERA) 463
seales found in Pseudostenophylax, membrane rather more granu-
lose than usual and, as in the anterior, carrying numerous semi-
erect hairs but smaller and less dense than in that wing; discoidal
cell in both wings long. Legs, first joint of the anterior tarsus
long, carrying a mat of short black setae along its under surface,
spines black, few in number and absent on the terminal tarsal
joint; spurs 1, 3, 3.
Genotype: Pseudohalesus asiaticus Ulmer.
Pseudohalesus kaschmirus Mart. (Text-fig. 8).
Pseudohalesus kaschmirus Mart.—Ann. Mus. Zool. Acad.
Sci. U.B.S.8., xxviii, Pt. I, pp. 481-2, Pl. XXV, figs. 1-38, 1927.
Fig. 8. Pseudohalesus kaschmirus Mart., wings ¢. 8A. costal area of anterior
wing more enlarged. .
This species is to be distinguished from P. aberrans only by
its neuration and size. I have been able to find no satisfactory
distinctions in the genitalia by which. to separate the two species.
On a comparison of the figures of the wings of the two insects,
it will be noticed that in both anterior and posterior, fork No. 1 is
of normal width in kaschmirus and exceptionally narrow in
aberrans; in the former species, fork No. 3 is present in both
wings, in the latter, generally absent, in occasional examples
present perhaps only in one wing and then unusually natrow.
Length of anterior wing ¢ 15 mm. . :
Western Tibet:. Chagra, 15,215 ft., 4-vii-1932, G. E. Hutch-
inson, Yale North India Expedition; Kashmir, 7-8-vi-1910. . :
4
464 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Pseudohalesus aberrans sp. n. (Pl. XI, figs. 1-10).
Head dark fulvous; ocelli white and rather prominent; antennae
fulvous with paler annulations; palpi and legs pale fulvous. An-
terior wings warm fulvous with yellowish irrorations more
numerous in the post-costal region, membrane granulose, set with
black erect hairs very long on the veins and closer together and
more recumbent in the post-costal region so that the wing is con-
siderably darkened in this area; in the ¢ there is a groove along
the costa towards the base filled with specialised black hairs as
indicated in the generic description; in this sex also the anterior
wings in each example of a series of four, show varying aberra-
tions in neuration but all agree in the absence of fork No. 8 which
is absent also in the wings of one of the females represented
but present in those of the other; other aberrations are too variable
for description and consist mainly of broken nervures, in parti-
cular the sector so that in several examples (¢), the discoidal
cell is only partially enclosed, the upper basal margin being want-
ing; membrane of the posterior wings weakly granulose with
short but much less conspicuous black or brownish hairs than on
the anterior wings. Fork No. 3 sometimes present, sometimes
absent.
Genitalia ¢.—Margin of the eighth dorsal segment which is
produced in a black tongue towards the centre, closely set with
a mass of short black setae which form a mat, not only on the
tongue but also over a considerable area beneath it; superior
appendages from above, very small and narrow, curving slightly
inward and fringed with long hairs; intermediate appendages
somewhat complex and varying in detail in individuals; there is
a pair of broad plates, as seen practically from behind, set side
by side with the inner margins deeply coneave so that between
the two there is a nearly circular excision, inner apical angles
slightly produced and turned over, from the side, directed up-
ward; these plates form the bases for processes which are con-
cealed by the dorsal segment and can only be seen directly from
behind; they arise from towards the inner angles of the bases of
the plates and are strongly chitinised and blackened; they vary
in shape in individuals as indicated in the figures but agree in
having small warts covered with long hairs at their bases; penis
short and straight, sheaths membranous, no doubt extensile to
judge by the creases in the membranes, apices set with long
bristles; inferior appendages very broad, apices sinuous, nearly
truncate, outer angles slightly produced. |
Genitalia 9.—The structure is only visible from directly
behind; the ninth segment is produced at the centre of its lateral
margins in two acute triangles directed inwards; below this is
the vulvar scale with a pair of leaf-like, rather broad and sinuous
lateral processes with a very small central lobe between. In both
sexes the margin of each ventral segment carries a pair of nearly
parallel rows of bristles separated from each other slightly to-
wards their centres to enclose a narrow clear space (excepting
the eighth where the bristles are closer together).
Length of anterior wing ¢ 10-12 mm.
PLATE XI
Journ. Bompay Nat, Hist. Soc.
Pseudohalesus aberrans sp.n., Fig. 1, genitalia g, lateral. Fig.2, dorsal.
Fig. 3, intermediate appendage, dorsal. Fig. 4, basal plate of the appendage
from another specimen. Fig. 5, inferior appendages, etc., from beneath.
Fig.6, wings ¢. Fig.7, wings 9. Fig. 8, maxillary palpus ¢. Fig. 9, 9.
Fig. 10, genitalia 9, ventral.
THE INDIAN CADDIS-FLIES (TRICHOPTERA) 465
Length of anterior wing 9 11 mm.
Western Tibet; Kyam, about 15,500 ft., 19-25-vi-1932, C. E.
Hutchinson, Yale North India Expedition.
Type ¢ in the British Museum collection, mounted in balsam,
one pair of wings dry. Paratypes ¢ 6, 99 from the same
locality in the British Museum and Yale University collections.
All the species of the series were found dead under stones.
This is a strange insect and I can find no satisfactory variation
in genitalia on which alone to separate the species from P. kasch-
mirus Martynov. Had I been confronted with a single example,
I should unhesitatingly have considered it as merely an aberrant
dwarfed form of this species. But having regard to the fact that
Mr. Hutchinson obtained a series of no less than six examples,
it is impossible to beheve that in nearly all, a mere aberration
could take the same form, i.e., the absence of fork No. 8 in both
wings.
Halesinus Ulmer (Text-figs. 9-10).
Halesinus Ulmer.—Notes Leyden Mus., xxix, No. 1, pp. 3-4,
fig. 8, 1907; Gen. Insect., fasc. 60a, pp. 57-8, Pl. V, fig. 38, 1907.
The genus Halesinus was erected by Ulmer to take a single
Q species tenuwicornis and the generic characters have been select-
ed in accordance with the characters of this 9. Subsequently
Martynov described another Q, ussuriensis.
The first ¢ to be recorded was found in the collection of the
British Museum, from Tibet, and described by Martynov, in 19380,
in the Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., under the name albipunctatus.
Martynov described both sexes but does not figure the ¢
wings nor extend the generic description to cover this sex.
) fe]
Figs. 9-10. Halesinus albipunctatus Mart., Fig. 9, maxillary palpus gd. Fig. 10,
maxillary palpus
When, for the purposes of this revision I found it necessary
to prepare figures of the ¢ wings, it became apparent that the
neuration of the ¢ is abnormal, and that the genus must. be
considered as exceptional as is the case with Thamastes, Ano-
malopterye and LHnoicyla.
The characters given below are based on those selected by
Ulmer and refer to the 9 sex alone, with the exception of the
spurs which are 1, 8, 3 in both sexes.
-Head very short and: broad with a pair of transverse warts
towards the back and a pair of small rounded warts between
these and the lateral ocelli; antennae generally thin, as long as
466 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
the anterior wing, the basal joint thicker and longer than the
following ones and longer than the head; maxillary palpi very
long and fine, first joint short, second equal to the fourth, the
third somewhat longer, as long or even longer than the fifth;
legs thin and long, with the spurs 1, 8, 8 inner spur slightly
longer than the outer, spines black; first joint of the fore-tarsus
as long as the second and third joints together. Anterior wing
thickly clothed with hair and with the apex dilated, the apical border
undulating so that the margin is coneave in the fourth, fifth
and sixth apical cells, the fringe at these poimts being compara-
tively long; neuration of the 9 regular, forks Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 5
present; radius bent slightly before its extremity; discoidal cell
very long and narrow, about three times as long as its foot-stalk,
its upper and lower margins nearly straight; fourth apical cell
closed by a straight nervure which is slightly longer than that of
the second. Posterior wing only slightly broader than the fore-
wing, discoidal cell much shorter than that of the forewing; only
8 apical veins present instead of the usual nine, the sixth apical
vein being missing so that only forks Nos. 1, 2 and 5 are present;
fourth apical cell as in the anterior wings.
It may be added, with reference to the male, that in the
posterior wing the discoidal cell is wanting, only fork No. 5 is
present and that the first joint of the maxillary palpus is very
minute. It cannot be made out at all in the type of albipunctatus
in the British Museum, but Mr. Martynov (in litt) states that
‘in the ¢ of H. ussuriensis there are three joints of which the
basal is very short although distinct’.
Halesinus albipunctatus Mart. (Text-figs. 9-10; Pl. XII,
figs. 1-8).
Halesinus albipunctatus Martynov.—Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.,
Pt. I, No. 7, pp. 98-100, figs. 52-6, 1930.
Head black with slender black antennae; mesonotum black
with the median impressed portion reddish-brown; metanotum
dark brown. Maxillary palpi ¢ basal joint very short, second and
third joints long and thin, approximately equal in length. Legs
yellowish-brown; tarsi somewhat blackish externally. Anterior
wing dilated towards the apex the margin of which is obliquely
truncate, and distinctly undulating so that it is concave in the
fourth, fifth and sixth apical cellules;; membrane brown, clothed
with blackish hairs; there are several pale yellow rounded spots
particularly in the costal and sub-costal areas and two oblique
pale spots between the cubitus and the hind margin and also
two round yellowish spots at the arculus; fringe long with whitish
spots here and there; discoidal cell long; posterior wing @ smoky,
with a long discoidal cell; neuration of the male posterior wings
abnormal as may be seen in the figure; there is a well-developed
frenulum in both sexes, an unusual feature in the Limnophuilidae.
Genitalia ¢.—Margin of the eighth dorsal segment fringed
with long stout hairs; from above, beyond it is a large bifurcate
dorsal plate with a narrowish cleft between the two forks, the
sides of the cleft standing up in two sharp ridges of which the
Journ. Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc. PLATE XII
Halesinus albipunctatus Mart., Fig. 1, wings ¢. Fig. 2, genitalia ¢, dorsal.
Fig. 3, lateral. Fig. 4, ventral. Fig. 5, wings 2. Fig. 6, genitalia 2, lateral.
Fig. 7, ventral. Fig. 8, portion of penultimate ventral segment 9, enlarged.
THE INDIAN CADDIS-FLIES (TRICHOPTERA) 467
distal ends are abruptly elevated in a pair of triangular processes;
beyond the cleft, the plate slopes sharply downward and each fork
terminates in a broadened truncate apex, apical angles projecting
beyond the sides of the fork; on each side of the dorsal plate
there is a large, strongly chitinised blackened curved hook, as
seen from the side, directed upward with the apex slightly for-
ward; penis retracted and difficult to make out; lower penis-cover
broad, with excised apex which, seen from beneath appears as a
pair of broad, shallow, truncated lobes; inferior appendages single-
jointed; from the side, rather broad and straight, directed upward;
from above, outer margins convex, inner straight or slightly sinu-
ous, apices acute; from beneath, they are widely separated but
connected at their bases by a strongly chitinised plate with a
sinuous apical margin; margin of the ninth ventral segment
strongly produced and rounded at its centre.
Genitalia 9.—From above, the ninth dorsal segment termi-
nates in two triangular processes separated from each other by a
narrow cleft, each with a rounded wart at its base; from the
side, they are very broad at the base, upper margins convex,
lower sinuous, apices directed downwards; the margins of these
processes and also the warts are rather densely fringed with long
hairs; on each side of the central triangular processes are rather
short, strongly chitinised caliper-like branches which, from
beneath, terminate in clavate apices; from the side, each of these
branches has the appearance of a duck’s head, neck and shoulders
directed downward; there is a ventral plate with a deeply cleft
apical margin and a small central lobe, no doubt representing
the vulvar scale; along the margin of the penultimate ventral
segment there is a deep band of minute black setae arranged in
groups of twos and threes to make a close pattern.
Length of anterior wing ¢ 11 mm.
Length of anterior wing 9 12 mm.
Tibet; Yatung, A. E. Hobson.
Type ¢ and 38 paratypes 9Q in the British Museum.
Platy phylax McLach.
Platyphylax Mclach.—Journ. Linn. Soe. Zool., xi, p. 109,
1871; Rev. and Syn. Trich., p. 148, 1875; Ulmer.—Gen. Insect.,
fasc. 60a, pp. 58-4, 1907.
Spurs 1, 2, 2, $69. First joint of the anterior tarsi long
in both sexes. Palpi and legs slender (typically). Form of wings
and general appearance much as in Stenophylax or Halesus (typi-
cally); anterior wings shining with scarcely any pubescence on
the membrane (typically). Male with long up-directed inferior
and broadly rounded superior appendages. The apex of the
abdomen very obtuse, without appendages.
The above is McLachlan’s description of the generic characters
but he adds ‘The Chinese P. lanuginosus and numerous North
American species are widely divergent and in a general work on
the species of the world it would be necessary to place them in
several genera’,
468. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Martynov’s rufescens, a 9, and the only described Indian
species, hardly conforms to the generic characters, but until the
Indian species of this genus are better known, particularly the
males, it would be premature to extend the characters to cover
this one case.
Genotype: Platyphylax frauenfeldi Brauer.
Platyphylax rufescens Martynov (Pl. XIII, figs. 1-5).
Platyphylax rufescens Martynov.—Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.,
Pt. I, No. 7, pp. 105-6, figs. 64-6, 1930.
The type of this species is a 9 of which Martynov’s description
is as follows :—
‘Head and thorax yellowish-rufous with concolorous _ hairs.
Antennae and palpi also yellowish-rufous. Legs yellow with few
black spines; spurs yellowish-rufous 1, 2, 2. Anterior wings with
parabolic apical margin, membrane finely granulose clothed with
short yellowish hairs; fringe concolorous, yellowish without mark-
ings; post-costal area shghtly brownish, irrorated with indistinct
hyaline spots. Discoidal cell long, somewhat dilated at the end;
first and third forks triangular, not deeply impinging inwards.
Nervures pale testaceous. Posterior wings yellowish, sub-hyaline.
Neuration resembling that in the anterior wings; fourth apical cell
closed basally by an oblique nervure as in the anterior wings.
Discoidal cell very long. Abdomen pale reddish-yellow, seventh,
eighth and ninth segments brownish. Eighth segment normal,
large; eighth sternite with a deep excision, side borders of which
are sinuous; behind the sternite is small oval lobe and_in the
distal portion of the excision two minute lobules. Ninth segment
small, reduced, more or less fused above with the tenth segment
and with the superior appendages, but lateral portions better
developed, subquadrate beneath, hairy; dorsal portion of the ninth
segment with a median excision as far as the base. Appendices
superiores fused with the tenth segment but their .edges discer-
nible above; from above they are broad at the base with oblique
outer margins; hind margins excised and each sub-divided into
two small lobes. Tenth segment (fused with the superior appen-
dages) forming two long stick-shaped processes above and a trans-
verse short plate beneath. SD ae
» Length of body 10 mm. Expanse 27 mm.
Tibet; Yatung, 4,500 ft., A. E. Hobson.
“Type Q and paratype 9 in the British Museum.’
Phylostenax Mosely.
.-Phylostenax Mosely.—Entom., Ixvili, p. 184, 1935. °
-. Insects large and brown, somewhat resembling Pseudosteno-
phylax species but without the specialised scales of the posterior
wing; anterior wing somewhat elongate, costal margin straight,
apex only shghtly dilated; in both wings second apical cellules
very broad and forks No. 38 very acute at their bases; anterior
wing, discoidal cell rather long and narrow, that of the posterior
wing very broad at its distal end; shape somewhat different in
Journ. Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc. Pea esol
: (ee pee a
=
aon ;
———s,
Tes
a
Platyphylax rufescens Mart., 2. Fig. 1, wings. Fig. 2, maxillary palpus.
Fig. 3, genitalia, dorsal. Fig. 4, ventral. Fig. 5, lateral (genitalia after
Martynov).
_
a 7
Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. Pe Eee)
if
Phylostenax himalus sp.n., 6. Fig. 1, wings of type (Muktesar). Fig. 2, wings
of a second specimen (Darjiling). Fig. 3, maxillary palpus. Fig. 4, genitalia,
lateral. Fig. 5, intermediate appendage (Muktesar). Fig. 6, ditto (Darjiling).
Fig. 7, a penis sheath, lateral (Darjiling). Fig. 8, genitalia, from beneath and
behind. Fig. 9, genitalia, dorsal.
THE INDIAN CADDIS-FLIES (TRICHOPTERA) 469
the example from Muktesar, but the wings in this insect are in-
complete; membrane of the anterior wings scarcely granulose,
brownish with numerous pale round irrorations; pubescence some-
what scanty but there is a mat of black hairs in each basal anal
angle of the anterior wings.
Maxillary palpus male, first joint small, second and third long
and approximately equal in length. Legs, terminal tarsal joints
scantily furnished with black spines; genitalia, given in detail in
the description of the genotype.
In the Muktesar insect the spurs are 1, 2, 2, but in the
examples from Darjiling the legs are so broken that the spurs
are uncertain. Three legs are gummed to the label, one showing
three spurs, but these may perhaps have been detached from
some other insect.
Genotype: P. himalus Mosely.
If the spurs alone were considered, himalus might perhaps be
placed in Platyphylax, but McLachlan considered that the
European species P. frauenfeldi was typical of the genus and that
the ultra-European species would be better placed in other genera.
As I am also of opinion that the collection of many widely
divergent forms of neuraticn and genitalia in one genus tends to
confuse rather than simplify classification, I prefer to create a
new genus rather than overload an existing one.
Phylostenax himalus Mosely (Pl. XIV, figs. 1-9).
Phylostenax himalus Mosely.—Entom., Ixviii, p. 184, 1935.
General characters detailed in the generic description.
Genitalia ¢.—Margin of the eighth dorsal segment covered
with small black setae which tend to group in two rounded masses
towards the sides of the segment; superior appendages small and
very wide, scarcely showing beyond the margin of the segment,
from the side pear-shaped; the intermediate appendages are
branched and the upper branches project beyond the margin of
the segment, appearing as two divergent, rod-like processes; the
lower branches are heavily chitinised and from above are rather
widely separated, broad, inclining towards each other, apices wide
and truncate, turned slightly upward with a strong ridge connect-
ing the two apical angles; from beneath and slightly behind, they
are strongly curved and direct upward; penis short and straight,
furnished with a pair of forked sheaths whose apices are fringed
with stiff bristles, the upper branch of each fork appearing above
the penis and the lower, below; inferior appendages very small
and wide, welded to the segment, on the eighth sternite, towards
the centre is a tuft of fine spines.
Length of anterior wing ¢ 15 mm.
United Provinces; Kumaon, Muktesar, 7,000 ft., 24-iv-1923 to
15-v-1923, Fletcher coll.; Darjiling.
Type 3 (Muktesar) in the collection of the British Museum.
Paratypes, 2 ¢o 6 Darjiling, in the collection of the Indian
Museum, Calcutta.
The example from Muktesar differs slightly from the two
examples from Darjiling both in the form of various parts of the
470 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
genitalia and also in the neuration, particularly in the form of
the base of the discoidal cell in the posterior wing, wings much
broken in the Muktesar insect. These differences, however, do
not in my opinion, warrant the separation of a second species.
The spurs of the legs of the Darjiling examples are doubtful as
the legs have been broken off and reattached, possibly mistakenly.
Anabolia Stephens.
Anabolia Stephens.—Ill. Brit. Ins., p. 229, partim 1837; Mce-
Lach.—Rev. and Syn. Trich., p. 101, 1875; Ulmer.—Gen. Insect.,
fase, 60a, p..45, 1907.
Spurs 1, 8, 4, ¢ 9. Anterior tarsi with the first joint long
in both sexes. Antennae about the length of the wings, moder-
ately stout. Anterior wings elongate, nearly unicolorous, fuscous,
eradually, but not widely, dilated to the apex which is parabolic;
discoidal cell and most of the apical cellules long; external basal
cellule and ninth apical cellule short, the latter not extending to
the anal angle; membrane scarcely granulose; no pterostigma.
In the posterior wings, the fourth apical cellule at its base is
as broad as the second, and is closed by an oblique nervule.
Superior appendages of the ¢ very large; intermediate forming
two long laterally-lanceolate blades; inferior short and cylindrical.
Penis-sheaths furcate at the apex; penis slender, simple. No
ventral teeth in either sex. In the 9, the abdomen is very obtuse;
ninth dorsal segment small; no appendages, but the tubular piece
above forms broad sub-quadrate lobes.
I have given above McLachlan’s description of the genus. The
single Indian known species, oculata, has been described by
Martynov and placed in Anabolia. I am unacquainted with the
species and cannot say to what extent the neuration conforms
with the above characters as the wings are not figured.
Anabolia oculata Martynov. (Text-figs, 11-18).
Anabolia oculata Mart.—Ann. Mus. Zool. Acad. Sci. St.
Petersb., xiv, pp. 259-60, Pl: V, figs. 1-3),1909;
Head, thorax and abdomen blackish fuscous; antennae black;
maxillary palpi fuscous; coxae and femora black, anterior and
median tibiae fuscous, tarsal joints testaceous, at the apex brown-
ish; tibiae of the posterior pair proximally testaceous, distally
fuscous ; spines black. Anterior wings fuscous with some hyaline
markings :
|. (a) a hyaline transverse depot at the base of second, third,
: fourth and fifth apical cells;
(b) a large irregular spot at the end of the be yea cell arid
in the sub- discoidal area;
© (¢) a small transverse narrow spot before the pterostigma:
(d) a small spot at the end of the sixth apical cell:
(e) along the veins and on costal and post-costal areas there
are small pale dots.
Neuration black; posterior wings sub-hyaline; the fourth apical
cell at the base as broad as the second; cubitus furcate at the
quarter beyond the level.of the discoidal al
THE INDIAN CADDIS-FLIES (TRICHOPTERA) . 471
Genitalia ¢.—Superior appendages blackish; from the side,
superior margin convex, inferior slightly concave; the apex slightly
;
Figs. 11-13. Anabolia oculata Mart., gd. Fig. 11, genitalia dorsal. Fig. 12,
ventral, Fig. 13, lateral (after Martynov).
bent downwards; they are narrow, entire (not divided at the end);
intermediate appendages (tenth segment) black, divergent and as
long as in European species; side-pieces of the ninth ventral
segment large, posterior margin impressed and covered with black
hairs; inferior appendages forming a narrow margin along the edge
of the ninth ventral segment (beneath), with ends produced
somewhat triangularly (if seen from the side), all these anal parts
blackish; penis not exserted.
Length of body 183 mm.; expanse 35 mm.
é& .—Tibet Orient; -vii-1901, Kozlov.
Stenophyliella gen. n.
Maxillary palpi ¢, first joint rather more than half the length
of the second which is slightly shorter than the third. Antennae
472 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXYVIII
longer than the anterior wing, basal joint large, the second very
short, about half the length of the following ones. Wings large,
anterior brownish with faint yellowish annulations, membrane not
eranulose and covered with fine recumbent black hairs, apices
considerably dilated. Posterior wings very broad; sub-hyaline, no
scales in the anal region. Legs with spurs 1, 8, 4 and black
spines but there are no spines on the terminal tarsal joint. Geni-
talia showing an affinity with thoge of the species of Pseudosteno-
phylax.
Stenophyliella closely resembles the European genus Steno-
phylax and it is scarcely possible to find any substantial difference
in neuration or the armature of the legs to separate them. But
IT am unwilling to place the single Indian known species in
Stenophylax as this genus is already overloaded with incongruous
forms and a far closer affinity is shown with Martynov’s genus
Pseudostenophylax although the scales on the posterior wings,
which are a prominent feature of this genus is wanting.
Details of the genitalia appear in the specific description.
Genotype: Stenophyliella kashmirensis sp. n.
Stenophyliella kashmirensis sp. n. (Pl. XV, figs. 1-6).
The two examples of this species were collected in fluid by
the late F. J. Mitchell and subsequently mounted in balsam.
They are large insects, anterior wings brownish with faint yellow
irrorations, apices considerably dilated, membrane set with short
black setae between longer recumbent black hairs but scarcely
granulose. Legs with spurs 1, 38, 4; no spines on the terminal
tarsal joint.
Genitalia ¢.—Margin of the eighth dorsal segment from above,
slightly produced at its centre and covered with fine black setae;
superior appendages from above and slightly behind, rather large,
dilated at their apices; from the side, broad at the base tapering
from about midway to acute apices; intermediate appendages from
above and slightly behind, broad, apices truncate, with the inner
angles turned upwards in acute. blackened processes, the outer
angles produced in broad triangular plates; the appendages are
divided from each other by a wide triangular excision of which
the margins are rolled over towards the base; from the side, the
appendage appears as an upwardly directed blackened spur; penis
straight, bearing two lateral processes about midway, one on each
side making a cross, each furnished at its apex with long hairs,
apex of the penis slightly excised; penis-sheaths appear as strong
curving arms at the sides of the penis, caliper-shaped, apices
curving inwards and furnished with bunches of bristles which meet
inward across the penis, from the side they curve slightly up-
ward; inferior appendages from the side narrow and_ pointed
broader at the base; from beneath very broad, apices truncate or
sinuous, each with a small blunt process towards its inner angle;
ventrally the appendages nearly touch at their inner margins and
are divided from each other by a narrow V-shaped excision.
Length of anterior wing ¢ 18 mm.
Kashmir, F. J. Mitchell.
Journ. Bomspay Nat, Hisr. Soc. PLATE XV
|
i! i ht butt ii Ray ise
MM ae!
Ape | i
I ith mn 1 hy
ithe
K 3
Stenophyliella kashmivensis sp.n.,. 3. Fig. 1, wings. Fig. 2, maxillary palpus.
Fig. 3, genitalia, lateral. Fig. 4, dorsal. Fig. 5, intermediate appendage, dorsal
Fig. 6, inferior appendages, etc., ventral.
“
an
Journ. BomBay Nar, Hist. Soc. PLATE XVI
Astenophylina kashmivus sp.n., ¢. Fig. 1, wings. — Fig. 2, maxillary palpus
Fig. 3, genitalia, lateral. Fig. 4, penis sheath, lateral. Fig. 5, genitalia,
dorsal. Fig. 6, from behind.
THE INDIAN CADDIS-FLIES (TRICHOPTERA) 473
Type ¢ and paratype d in the author’s collection, both
mounted in balsam.
Astenophylina gen. n.
Insects large and brownish, wings rather short and rounded,
sub-costa joined to the radius by a cross vein; first apical sector
in each wing curved at its base; second apical cellule very broad
at its base; discoidal cell short and broad in each wing; surface
of the wings not granulose or set with short stiff hairs. Maxillary
palpi very short, no longer than the labial palpi, but possibly
abnormal in the unique type; basal joint very short, second joint
slightly shorter than the third. Legs, spurs 1, 8, 4; terminal
tarsal joints furnished with black spines. Genitalia conforming
with the Pseudostenophylax group in respect to the fringed penis-
sheaths and small inferior appendages, but without the black
setae bordering the margin of the eighth segment.
Astenophylina kashmirus sp. n. (Pl. XVI, figs. 1-6).
The unique type was collected in fluid and subsequently dried
out and set; beyond that it is a brownish insect, it would hardly
be safe to give a description of its general appearance; characters
other than genitalia are noted in the generic description. —
Genitalia ¢.—Margin of the eighth dorsal segment without
any mat of black setae; in the unique type, the ninth segment is
rather extruded, its dorsal margin rounded; superior appendages
short and rounded, ear-shaped, fringed with long fine hairs, tri-
angular from the side with a wide base; between them,. from
above, are the intermediate appendages which are narrow, strongly
chitinised with approximate bases and widely divergent apices,
from the side, directed upward; penis, from beneath, «slender,
with an ovate apex and two stout sheaths each broadened at
its apex and with a produced upper angle as seen from the side;
inferior appendages short and triangular, welded to the ninth
segment, fringed with long black hairs; ninth ventral segment
deeply excised with a large rounded excision.
Length of anterior wing 15 mm.
India; Kashmir, R. Arrah, F. J. Mitchell.
Type do presented by the author to the British Museum.
Stenophylax (Allophylax) indicus Navas.
Stenophylax (Allophylax) indicus Navas.—Mem. Ac. Pont.
Rome, (2) Nuov. Lince., iii, pp. 9-10, 1917.
I am unacquainted with this Darjiling species and therefore
give the description as written by the author. No figures are
given. |
‘Caput, palpi, antennae testaceae, pilis testaceis; ocellus
plumbeis; oculi fuscis.
_ Thorax fusco-ferrugineus, pilis fuscis.
_. Abdomen testaceo-ferrugineum, pilis testaceis brevibus, sparsis;
ultimo tergito ¢ denticulis nigris toto vestito, margine postico
truncato; cercis superioribus brevibus, intermediis adscendentibus
474 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
acutis; copulatore exerto cylindrico; lamina subgenitah seu ultimo
sternito in processum longum filiformen cylindricum producto.
Pedes testacei, pilosi, nigro setosi, calearibus 1, 8, 4 longis, fulvis.
Ala anterior in tertio apical: lata apice rotundata; margine
externo obliquo; membrana tota minute granulata, leviter fusco
tincta, pone procubitum usque ad marginem posticum densius
fuscata; tota maculis sive guttis. parvis rotundatis pallidis cons-
persa, in tertis posteriore distinctioribus; stria pallida ad_ thyri-
dium; pubescentia brevi, fusca; fimbriis brevibus, fulvis; reticu-
latione fulvo-testacea; cellula’ discali, longissima, saltem quater
longiora suo petiolo; furca apicali prima parum intra cellulam dis-
calem penetrante. Ala posterior basi lata, apice parabolice ro-
tundata; membrana tota minutissime granulata vel potius im-
presso-punctata, hyalina, levissime fulvo tincta, distinctus in
tertio apicale; pubescentia fimbriisque fulvis; reticulatione fulvo
testacea; cellula discali longa, bis vel ter longiore suo petiolo, furca
apicale prima parum cellulam discalem penetrante.
3 %
Long. corp. Le wt, A ean, 138 mm.
Long. ala post. ... Sti teoy saannays i) Sma:
Long, ala post. ... Meme Sta) sock ade 14.7 mm.
Patria Asia. Darjeeling in montibus Himalaya 1910 (Coll. m.).
Si formam cellulae discalis attendas haec species ad genus Allo-
phylax Banks referenda; sed genus hoc mea sententia omitten-
dum, quod charactere parum conspicuo et definito nitatur- vide-
licet cellulae discalis et furcae apicalis primae longitudine quae
summopere variat.’
The presence of the genus Stenophylax Kol. in India requires
confirmation, so I defer giving a description of the genus for the
time being.
APATANIINAE Ulmer.
Apatantinae Ulmer.—Ab. Natur. Ver. Hamb., xviii, pp. 42, 74,
1903.
The Apataniinae are separated from the Limnophilinae by the
abnormal neuration of the anterior wing in which the sub-costa
ends in a cross vein joining the radius and costal margin instead
of continuing directly to the margin.
1The Indian fauna so far known contains only the two genera
Apataniana and Apatidea separated as follows:
TABLE OF GENERA.
1. Discoidal cell of the posterior wing present. APATANIANA
nov. gen. p. 475
—Discoidal cell of the posterior wing absent. ApaTiIpEA Mc-
Lach, p. 476
* Since this part was sent to press, a large collection has. been received
from Assam and Burma containing at least one new genus in this sub- family.
A description will appear later on in a supplement.
Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE Xvil
Apataniana hutchinsoni spn. Fig. 1, genitalia d, lateral. Fig. 2, dorsal.
Fig. 3, ventral. Fig. 4, apices of superior appendages and penis, etc., ventral.
Fig. 5, wings d. _- Fig. 6, costal margin of posterior wing d, enlarged. Fig. 7,
genitalia 9, ventral. Fig. 8, posterior wing 2. Fig. 9, maxillary palpus d.
Fig. 10, maxillary palpus @.
THE INDIAN CADDIS-FLIES (TRICHOPTERA) 475
-Apataniana gen. n.
The genus has been erected to take the new _ species
hutchinsoni in which the characters of neuration differ consider-
ably from all other genera in the Apataniinae.
Maxillary palpi 3, first joint about half the length of the
second which is slightly shorter than the third; 9, first joint less
than half the length of the second, third joint almost as long
as the first and second together, fourth joint slightly shorter than
the fifth which is about twice the length of the first. Antennae
slender, about the same length as the anterior wing; basal joint
large, second short, remaining joints each longer than the second.
Wings; anterior alike in both sexes; sub-costa running int@ a
cross vein joining the costa to the radius, forks Nos. 1, 2, 8 and 3
present, discoidal cell closed, moderately long and narrow; pos-
terior wings broader than the anterior, sub-costa parallel with
the radius, construction differing in the sexes; in the <¢ there
is a narrow fold or flap along the costal margin towards the base
of the wing lined with coarse yellow hairs ; ne fold is wanting
in the 9; discoidal cell closed, forks Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 5 present; in
the o, radius running into the first pal sector, first apical
fork short and rather broad at the base, second as long as the
third which. is sessile, fifth short and with a distinct foot-stalk.
Spurs t, 2,4. °.
Genotype: Apataniana hutchinsoni sp. n.
Apataniana hutchinsonisp. n. (Pl. XVII, figs. 1-10).
Head dark fuscous with light honey-coloured hairs; palpi dark
fuscous; antennae dark ochraceous with narrow black annulations;
prothorax, mesothorax and metathorax black; legs ochraceous,
spurs black, 1, 2, 4.
Wings, anterior greyish with honey-coloured hairs; whitish
patches along the apical border between the apical sectors, pos-
terior wings greyish, g with a fold, filled with NY hairs in
the costal margin towards the base.
Neuration as shown in Pl. XVII, figs. 5-6, 8.
Genitalia ¢.—Margin of the ninth dorsal segment very
broadly and shallowly “excised : there are two short black superior
appendages, apices somewhat dilated and serrate. Between them
is a dorsal plate narrow at the base, broadening in two wide
lateral triangular shelves; the apex of the dorsal plate is pro-
duced in a rounded blackened process; beneath this plate is a
strongly chitinised arched structure, sides very deep and _ slightly
inturned beneath; penis from beneath, narrow at the base, broad-
ening to a widely excised apex; there is a pair of penis-sheaths,
one on each side, rather shorter than the penis, inferior appen-
dages two-jointed, basal joint very stout, terminal more slender,
slightly shorter, apex armed with two or three short acute spurs;
there is also a single spur on each joint slightly before the apex.
Genitalia 9@.—Beyond the terminal dorsal segment is a small
penthouse-shaped process with a slight excision at the apex;
from. beneath there are two chitinous plates towards the apex;
476 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
below this is the long central lobe of the vulvar scale, the outer
lobes being formed by the produced lateral margin of the terminal
segment.
Length of anterior wing ¢ and 9 10 mm.
Western Tibet; Kyam, 19-25-vi-19382, G. EK. Hutchinson, Yale
North India Expedition, 7 ¢d6, 1 9.
The collector, Dr. Hutchinson, to whom I have much pleasure
in dedicating the species, states that the examples were all
found under stones.
Type ¢ and paratypes ¢ and Q in the collection of the
British Museum. Paratypes ¢ in the collection of the Yale
University, U.S.A.
The genitalia of hutchinson closely resemble Martynov’s figures
of Apatania bulbosa which in the <3 posterior wing also displays
the narrow costal fold with the yellow hairs but in respect to
other features of neuration, bulbosa is very abnormal.
Apatidea McLachlan (Text-figs. 14-16).
Apatidea McLach.—Rev. and Syn. Trich., p. 217, 1876.
Figs. 14-16. Apatidea brevis sp.n., Fig. 14, wings o. Fig. 15, maxillary
palpus ¢. Fig. 16, maxillary palpus 9
Apatelia Wallengren, subgenus of Apatania.—Ent. Tidsk. Arg.,
7, H. 2, p. 78, 1886; Skand. Neur.—Kongl.- Sv.- Vet.—Akad.
Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc.
PLATE XVIII
[Kl]
A patidea brevis sp.n. Fig. 1, genitalia d, lateral.
dg, ventral. Fig. 4, genitalia 9, lateral.
Fig. 2, ¢, dorsal.
Fig. 5, ventral.
Fig.
THE INDIAN CADDIS-FLIES (TRICHOPTERA) 477
Handl., Bd. 24, N. 010, p. 88, 1891; Martynov.—Ann. Mus.
ZoOlaeke. Sci... Xxil, pp. 995163, 1918.
Maxillary palpi ¢, first joint about half the length of the
second which is slightly shorter than the third; 9, basal joint
short, about two-thirds the length of the second, third equal to
the second, fourth equal to the first and slightly shorter than the
fifth. Antennae, basal joint large, the second very short, re-
maining joints each longer than the second. Anterior wing; the
sub-costa ends abruptly in a transverse nervure joining the costa
and radius; radius heavily~fringed with short thick hairs; dis-
coidal cell long and narrow, upper margin slightly excised, first
apical cell very acute at its base, second, third and fourth trun-
eate, fifth with a minute foot-stalk. Posterior wing; the radius
is arched towards its distal end to touch or nearly touch the
sub-costa; sometimes not suddenly arched but confluent at a point
towards the distal end, sometimes joined by a minute cross vein:
lower margin of the wing slightly scalloped.
Spurs 1, 2, 2 or 1, 2, 4 o and Q.
Genotype: Apatidea copiosa McLach.
A few words are required in explanation of the synonymy.
The sub-genus Apatelia was erected by Wallengren in 1886 to take
the species inornata Wallengr. and fimbriata Pict. in both of
which the radius and sub-costa are partly confluent in the pos-
terior wing. In 1918 Martynov raised the sub-genus to full
generic status. At the same time, he revised McLachlan’s genus
Apatidea in which two species had been described, elongata
McLach. and copiosa McLach. placing the former in Apatania and
the latter in Apatelia with the consequent entire disappearance of
McLachlan’s genus. In copiosa, the neuration of the posterior
wing is similar to that of fimbriata.
Martynov in this transgressed the laws of priority, McLachlan’s
Apatidea having been erected ten years prior to Apatelia Wallengr.
As neither McLachlan nor Wallengren selected genotypes of their
respective genera, I here fix copiosa McLach. as the genotype of
Apatidea McLach. 1876 and fimbriata Pict. as the genotype of
Apatelia Wallengr. 1886, the latter genus thus becoming a
synonym.
Apatidea brevis sp. n. (Text-figs. 14-16, Pl. XVITT, figs. 1-5).
Head and oculi black, particularly the oculi; palpi fuscous;
antennae fuscous, no noticeable annulations; prothorax, meso-
thorax and metathorax dark fuscous. Wings, anterior castaneous
posterior rather paler, for neuration, see text-fig. 14. Legs fuscous,
spurs 1, 2, 4; abdomen castaneous, paler beneath.
Genitalia ¢.—The margin of the ninth dorsal segment widely
excised with the central portion of the excision slightly produced
and rounded, sides curling slightly under to make sockets from
which arise the intermediate appendages; beyond it is a median
process, wide at the base and produced in a long, slender, tail-
wardly and downwardly directed finger; on each side of this pro-
cess are the superior appendages which are considerably shorter
than the median process; intermediate appendages very long and
478 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXViII
strongly chitinised, heavily fringed, apices dilated and turned
shghtly downward; penis narrow, apex widely furcate, apex of
each, fork bearing two or three spines, beneath the penis are two
long thin spines which are divergent so that they lie closely under
the forks of the penis; penis-sheaths wide at their bases which
cross, one over the other so that the narrower apices are widely
divergent; inferior appendages two-jointed, basal joint short, very
stout and round, terminal joint turned in and rather pointed.
Genitalia @.—From beneath, tubular piece narrow, central
lobe of the vulvar scale broad and long, from the side, very deep,
upper margin produced to make a small finger; side lobes very
short and rounded; there is a broad, transparent sub-genital plate.
welded beneath to the tubular piece which, from the side is widely
cleft.
Length of anterior wing ¢ 5.5-10 mm.; Q 8-10 mm.
Kashmir; Gagirbal, 5,190 ft., F. J. Mitchell, numerous ¢ ¢
and 99; Killanmarg, 10,500 ft., 18-vii-1931, Fletcher Coll.,
2°36, 19-22-vii-1923,. Fleteher Coll., 1.4.
Type o (Gagirbal) in the author’s collection; paratypes d
and 9, details as above, in the author’s and the British Museum
collections.
The species is very variable in size, the dimunitive ¢ with
a 5.5 mm. wing being recorded from Kashmir, Killanmarg,
10.500 ft., the larger from Kashmir, Gagirbal, at 5,190 ft. Brevis
bears a close resemblance to the Turkestan species Apatidea
copiosa McL. but differs in the arrangement of spurs and in the
length of the superior appendages which, in copiosa, are longer
instead of shorter than the median process. :
(To be continued).
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Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
Young tapir caught by the author after its mother was shot in Tavoy.
THE MALAY TAPIR (TAPIRUS INDICUS).
BY
W. 5S. THom.
(With one plate).
The Burmese call the tapir Kyan-thu-daw. I have never heard
it called Tarashu. Tarashu does not appear to me to be a
Burmese name although it is mentioned in the Fauna of British
India, and in EK. H. Peacock’s book A Game Book for Burma.
The name may be peculiar to Tavoy or Mergui where alone in
Burma this animal is found, and where true Burmese is_ not
spoken.
The tapirs, rhinoceroses, horses and wild asses, are included
in the Perissodactyle or Three-toed Ungulates. Five species of
tapirs are known to exist: of these four are confined to Central
and South America; while the fifth is an inhabitant of the Ori-
ental region, where it is found only in Lower Burma, the Malay
Peninsula and Sumatra. The fact that tapirs are now found in
limited areas separated by many thousands of miles from each other
provides a good instance of the rare phenomenon of ‘Discontinuous
Distribution’. We know that in past geological epochs tapirs were
abundant over a large portion of the Earth’s surface. Their fossil
remains have been dug up in many European countries. One
explanation is that the tapirs were once prevalent in the northern
countries. Owing to changes of chmate and other conditions
which are not very clear, they migrated southwards, and the
existing tapirs now found in the Malay countries and America are
the descendants of these emigrants. Or it may be that tapirs
were once continuously distributed over the Earth’s surface from
north to south, that they ceased to exist in the northern countries
and we have now only to deal with the few scattered remnants
of what was once a widely distributed tribe.
The Malay Tapir, which is the largest of the group, is
readily distinguished from all its South American cousins by
the parti-coloured hide of the adult; the head, limbs, and front
part of the body being dark brown or black, while all that portion
of the body situated behind the shoulders including the rump,
and the upper part of the thighs, together with the tips of the
ears, are greyish white, or white in the adult. In very young
animals on the other hand, that is to say those not exceeding
from four to six months in age, the ground colour is blackish-
brown. or black marked (as in the young of the American species),
with longitudinal streaks of yellow on the under parts. The hair
too is markedly denser than in the full-grown animal. In height
an adult tapir stands from three to three and a half feet at the
withers and about four inches more at the rump; the length from
the tip of the snout to the root of the tail measured along the
curves of the body being about eight feet.
5
480 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Its habits are in all probability very similar to those of the
American representatives of the genus. Like the rhinoceros,
tapirs love wallowing in water and in mud holes in the deepest
recesses of the jungle. Another habit common to tapirs and some
rhinoceros is that their droppings are sometimes found in large
heaps. They also browse on twigs and leaves lke rhinoceros.
All tapirs are extremely shy and retiring animals dwelling amid
thick jungle in the neighbourhood of water to which they take
readily. They are easily tamed and make very docile pets, fol-
lowing one about like a dog. A young one was caught in Tavoy,
Lower Burma, 26 years or so ago and presented to Major Reid,
a one time Deputy Commissioner of Tavoy. This animal was,
if I mistake not, subsequently given to Colonel King, 1L™.s.,
Burma, who presented it to the Maharajah of Mysore, India. I
wonder if it is still ahve. These animals are generally nocturnal
in their habits. Their sense of sight, smell, and hearing is very
acute. I should say that their sense of scent was equal to that
of any deer, elephant, wild cattle, thakin, or rhinoceros. I would
also go as far as to say that their sense of sight 1s more acute than
that of any animal to be found in the jungles of Burma. I have
tracked up and followed tapir on many occasions accompanied
by only one experienced Burman hunter, and although we could
both cover the ground as noiselessly as cats, the animals in-
variably stampeded before we came up with them and made off
at a lumbering gallop uttering a succession of squeaks and snorts.
My intention on those occasions was not to shoot the animals
but to study their habits and also to get a photograph.
These animals are rarely met with during the day unless
they are tracked up to their resting places and wallows or
are driven out of their haunts by the larger felines or by beaters.
They usually inhabit low-lying, flat, damp, swampy ever-green
forests, but in Tavoy I have also come across them in jungle in
close proximity to villages. They are, if I am not mistaken, never
found in hilly country so far as Burma is concerned. I do not
suppose any sportsman in Burma has seen as many tapir in their
wild state as I have over a period of about two years. It may
be thought that being such shy and timid animals they would
be found far away from human habitations, but I have found
their tracks in dorian and jackfruit gardens adjacent to villages.
In the Bombay Natural History Society’s Journal, vol. xx, No. 2,
dated the 18th October 1910, p. 515, Mr.. J. B. Mercer-Adam,
F.C.H., of the Forests stated that a Burman of Kado village,
Moulmein, had seen a tapir in his garden in the evening. The
‘Burman although he did not recognize it as a tapir described it
as a very large pig, half black and half white. Both tapir and
rhinoceros revel in a country where the forests are dense and
where the rainfall is heavy. Tapir never inhabit the high moun-
tainous country frequented by the Sumatran rhinoceros (Rh. suma-
trensis).
The Malay Tapir, which like rhinoceros is now entirely protect-
ed, offers little’ attraction to a European’ sportsman since
it yields nothing in the way of a trophy except the skull,
THE MALAY TAPIR (TAPIRUS INDICUS) 4s
skin and hoofs, and it is not given to charging or attacking human
beings.
No European, Burman, Indian, or Karen hunter seeks to kill
or catch tapir unless it be to capture a young for sale to some
Indian prince or zoo; as their blood, unlike the two species
of rhinoceros found in Burma, viz. R. sumatrensis and ft. son-
daicus, appears to possess no valuable properties. Any animal
captured alive would of course belong to the Forest Department
as it would come under the nomenclature of forest produce. <A
good many of these animals were trapped in pits and nets during
beats in the bad old days for food principally, not only in Burma
but in the Malay States. The residents of the two districts of
Tavoy and Mergui however consider it a sin to kill a tapir; be-
cause, as the legend has it and as its Burmese name, Kyan-thu-
daw, seems to imply, the animal is considered to be holy and more
or less sacred because periodically about the full and new moon it
visits the nearest salt-lick or hot sulphur springs of mineral and
saline mud in the vicinity of its haunts as if to go into retreat, or
to make as it were its orisons. The word Kyan-thu-daw literally
translated would mean Kyan a rhinoceros and thu-daw, a person
devoted to the service of religion, or in other words the worshipping
or holy tapir; although why they should prefix the word ‘Kyan’
before the thu-daw I am unable to say. It may perhaps be
because the shape of the animal’s foot is not unlike that of a
rhinoceros. Indeed, in the old days, newcomers when out after
game in the Tavoy and Mergui districts often mistook the tracks
of a tapir for those of a small rhinoceros. Rhinoceros as a matter
of fact visit salt-lcks at regular intervals, once or twice a month
with the new and the full moon as do tapir, and perhaps the
Tavoyans and Merguians consider the tapir to be a religious atten-
dant or follower of the rhinoceros; henee the name Kyan-thu-daw.
The first and only tapir bagged by me was in the Tavoy
District. It was at a place called Mijyaunghlaung (the resort of
crocodiles), where a magnificent morass of hot bubbling sulphur
springs of mineral water and mud may be found situated in the
heart of virgin tree, bamboo and cane forest, a veritable - health
resort of all wild animals who partake of the mud and. waters
in order to rid themselves of internal parasitic worms. As a
matter of fact I was not out after tapir at the time but after
‘tsaing’ or banting (Bibos banting birmanicus) and bison (B.
gaurus).
The water and mud in this morass or swamp was so hot that
one could not walk in it bare-footed. The surface was pitted
with the tracks of elephant, bison, tapir, sambar, hog deer and
‘tsaing’, I heard the lumbering galloping sounds of the tapir’s
hoofs approaching, so unlike those of any other animal, ex-
cepting perhaps the buffalo and the rhinoceros. It was conjec-
tured that it must be one or other of these and not a female
tapir with a young one. It was all over in a few seconds. The
jungle was dark and gloomy and objects were not easily discern-
ible; the animal consequently as she galloped past received before
it was known what manner of beast she was, a right and a left
482. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIIi
behind. the shoulder from a 12-bore ‘Cosmos’ ball and shot gun,
which brought her to the ground with a crash into a nullah
150 yards further on, shot through both lungs. The young one
which appeared in view some 50 yards or so behind its mother
after I had fired at the latter, was captured after a short struggle
and kept alive for a period of about a month when it succumbed
to shock and blood poisoning in spite of every attention and a
liberal use of antiseptics, as it was found that both it and her
dam had been badly mauled either by a leopard, wild dogs, or a
tiger. Probably it was a leopard that had attacked them with
the object of making a meal of one or both; but had been frus-
trated in the attempt. The young one became so tame before its
death that it. used to follow me about when I called it, and eat
plantains and jackfruit and the leaves of the latter tree from my
hands.
The tapir has no means of defending itself with the exception
of the kicking power of the hind legs which are not however
propelled with sufficient force to be of much use as a means of
defence sufficient to ward off an attack frorn the ‘felidae’ and
wild dogs, their only enemies besides Man. The shape and posit-
ion of the snout of the animal also makes any attempt at using
its teeth with any great hope of success, well nigh. impossible.
If the hind legs could be used with the rapidity and force em-
ployed, shall we say, by an ostrich, horse, elephant, bison or
even a mule, it might have some chance of holding its own. It
is probably due: to the tapir’s acute sense of smell, sight and
hearing that it is saved from early extinction. Its snout, like
the trunk of an elephant, is extremely sensitive to pain and a
struggle between a tapir and either a leopard, tiger or a pack
of wild dogs would invariably end in the death of the tapir. The |
feet or hoofs make excellent trophies if properly. mounted by a
good taxidermist. I have all four feet of the only tapir shot by
me beautifully mounted by Messrs. Rowland Ward, two of them
as spirit cheroot lighters, one as a call bell, and the fourth as an
inkstand. The flesh of the tapir although coarse is_ palatable
enough and not unlike that of rhinoceros meat, but neither animal
is sought after on account of its meat. The people moreover
believe that the consumption of tapir flesh tends to cause leprosy
which of course is a fallacy like many other of their beliefs.
Before ending my article on Tapir I would lke to quote here
a few extracts from an article which was published in the Ran-
goon Gazette of August 1985 by a correspondent of that paper,
and which seems: to me very apt. ‘Nature’, he says, “is capable
of surprises and even jests that upset our pre-conceived notions
and: theories, and not the least remarkable of these surprises is the
tapir described by. Mr. H. C. Smith, Honorary. Game Warden of
Burma, in his series on-the wild animals of Burma’.
‘When we think of wild. animals we instinctively divine the
thought further with recollections of animals we have read or
heard’ or-seen in zoos and films, we: have had witness of the fero-
city of the. tiger and the lion; there is a smile for the antics of
the monkey tribe, or for the ungainly absurdity of the rhinoceros
THE MALAY TAPIR (TAPIRUS INDICUS) 483
on his stumpy legs; and there is wonder and delight at the swift
erace of the deer and antelope tribes. But what shall we say of
the tapir? It is a perpetual refutation of the general application
of theories on the struggle for existence. It is a shy and mild and
gentle creature. It is easily tamed in captivity. It is nothing
much to look at and its white overcoat is an amusing vagary of
jungle fashion. The female is bigger than the male. A small
shrill squeal is the only sound recorded in connection with the
animal. It hkes water and is credited by some with the extra-
ordinary power of walking along the bottom of deep pools instead
of swimming. It wanders silently and unobtrusively in the densest
evergreen. It is not poached, the jungle people regarding it as
is the fate of many philosophers hving out of their time with
‘“‘almost amused contempt’’. And the tigers do not seem to kill
it. It is, as Mr. H. C. Smith remarks, a‘harmless and interesting
‘animal. The tapir is in fact an enigma. It may be a survivor
of some more gentle and legendary time, or it may be wandering
in unique isolation in a world not yet mature enough for ‘its
wisdom. We should therefore cherish and protect the tapir, just
as so many of the wild animals of Burma should be ‘pretected
in case they are exterminated.’
Alas I am afraid I must plead guilty to having shot one of
these inoffensive animals under rather. peculiar circumstances in
the Tavoy District many years ago, in the year 1909 to be exact,
1.e., some twenty-six years ago. I wrote an. account, of. this
animal’s death at the. time and als6, described the tapir and its
habits in detail. This appeared in a number of the Asian sport-
ing paper which has now been defunct for many years. c
These reminiscences of mine are after all of days. gone by
when much game was shot :by sportsmen. This is a new age
ef licenses, game laws and protection. The old days are gone
never to return. . : ~
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN.
BY
Sauim ALI.
With Notes by HucH WHISTLER.
Part IV.
(Continued from page 820 of this volume).
FAMILY: SYLVIIDA.
Acrocephalus stentorius brunnescens (Jerdon). The Indian Great Reed-
Warbler.
Specimens collected: 286 9, 287 ¢ 15-2-83 Kottayam S8.L.; 422 ¢ 7-83-33
Kumili 3,000 ft.; 1041 ¢@, 1042 9 30-12-33, 1052 $ 31-12-83 Karupadanna
ta; S27;
Elsewhere noted at: Vembanad Lake (Trivandrum Environs).
Colours of bare parts: Iris hazel to olive-brown; bill, upper mandible
excluding commissure horny-brown, commissure and lower mandible pale flesh
colour, horny at tip; mouth bright orange-brick colour; legs and feet horny-
grey or pale plumbeous; claws duskier.
{The Survey specimens measure:
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
4gco 24.5-26.5 87-94 76-84.5 97.5-29.5 mm.
299 25.5-26 85-90 76-79 98 mm.
Additional specimen from Travancore examined:
Brit. Mus. Coll.: 2 26-4-1910 Thodupuzha (Nair).
In J.B.N.H.S., vol. xxxv, p. 450, I threw doubt on the validity of the
resident breeding race in Ceylon A. s. meridionalis (Legge), as the two speci-
mens in the British Museum did not appear to me to be separable. Owing
to the courtesy of the Director of the Colombo Museum I have examined
four more specimens from Ceylon. Two of them are undated and one unsexed,
whilst one of the others is very worn, but the series, so far as it goes, makes
me more prone to accept the probability of a small and very dark Cinghalese
race. Further material is required to settle the point, as although Mr. Stuart
Baker (Nidification, ii, 356) accepts it, he considers it intermediate in character
between brunnescens and his race amyae. The probability that true brunnes-
cens reaches Ceylon as a winter visitor, living then alongside a resident separ-
able race, must also be borne in mind.
In the New Fauna, ii, p. 388, the genus Acrocephalus is said to undergo
a complete moult both in autumn and spring; and it appears to be certainly
correct that there are complete moults in spring and autumn in the closely
allied Acrocephalus arundinaceus (vide Practical Handbook of British Birds,
i, 335). After examining a very large number of A. s. brunnescens I can
however only come to the conclusion that there is no spring moult. The
complete post-nuptial moult takes place from September to November. So far
as I can ascertain the post-juvenal moult is complete.
In fresh autumn plumage this form is distinctly washed with grey on the
upper parts, more particularly on the crown and hindneck. With wear in
summer the colour becomes much duller and browner.—H. W.]
There is nothing on record to show the status of ‘the Indian Great Reed-
Warbler in Travancore and Cochin. The latest date on which the Travancore
Survey came across it was 7 March among scrub and bushes on a_ seepage
marsh by the margin of Periyar Lake. The birds were common there at that
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 485
time, but whether it is a resident species or not is doubtful. They were also
abundant amongst the densely shrubbed bunds or dykes in the backwaters
(consisting of Pandanus and clumps of tall coarse grass) where the birds
hopped about in the undergrowth, occasionally clambering up into the over-
hanging fronds of cocoanut palms. It frequented similar environment at Karu-
padanna and about the Vembanad Lake. Specimen No. 1052 was a solitary
bird obtained among bushes growing on a spit of dry sand on the sea-shore.
Besides the loud, harsh and often ventriloquistic song of the male which
is uttered from exposed perches on bushes and the like, it has a harsh, single
‘Ke’ like Turdoides, uttered every few seconds and also a ‘chr-r, chr-r’, etc.
similar to but much louder than that cf the more familiar Blyth’s Reed-
Warbler.
Breeding: The gonads of the specimens were in an undeveloped condition.
No. 1042 (80 December) was immature with two imperfectly ossified patches
on the anterior part of the skull. No record of its breeding in this area exists,
though it is not inconceivable that it may do so about the backwaters.
Acrocephalus dumetorum Blyth’s Reed Warbler.
Specimens collected: 69 Q 12-1-338, 96 Q 14-1-83 Maraiytr 3,500 ft.:
112 0? 19-1-88 Munnar 5,000 ft.; 148 9, 149 9 25-1-33 Santhanpara 3,500 ft.:
210 ¢ 4-2-838 Thattakad 200 ft.; 324 Q 21-2-88, 342 9, 848 0? 28-2-33,
860 S$ 25-2-83 Peermade 3,200 ft.; 896 © 3-83-83 Kumil 3,000 ft.; 554 o?
10-4-33, 562 0? 11-4-83 Cape Comorin ca. 8.l.; 960 0? Nemmara 300 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Kottayam (ca. §.L.);. Wtndamet; Rajampara
(1,850 ft.); Tenmalai (500 ft.); Kuriarkatti (1,600 ft.); Wadakkancheri (400 ft.);
Padagiri (8,000 ft.—Nelliampathy Hills).
Colours of bare parts: Iris hazel-brown (dark straw colour in one); bill,
upper mandible horny-brown; lower mandible pale flesh colour; mouth orange-
yellow or pale pinkish-yellow; legs, feet and claws greyish flesh colour; soles
pale yellow. In the albino (No. 210): Iris olive-brown; bill pinkish flesh
colour slightly brown on upper mandible; mouth orange-yellow; legs, feet
and claws vellowish flesh colour.
[Additional specimens examined :
B. M. Coll.: Q 7-4-07 Manthukuly [Muthukizhi ?], Travancore (Nair);
3 6-2-80 Mynall (Bourdillon); 0? 7-38-77 Mynall (Hume Coll.). =
Measurements:
ee Bill. Wing. “Pails -
Pere oc 17 63.5 . 53 mim: |
699 16-18 60-62.5 - 515-545 mm,
This common migrant arrives in India in worn breeding dress and the
complete moult takes place from August to November, mostly in September
and October. The spring moult, which T think is confined to the chin, throat
and breast, is late, taking place about April and May. The upper plumage
becomes much duller and browner by wear.
Some juveniles arrive in India before the post-juvenal moult. They may
be distinguished, in addition to the softer character of the plumage, by being
a more rusty-brown above, especially on the rump and upper tail coverts
(thereby recalling Acrocephalus scirpaceus) and on the edgings of the wings
and tail, ‘the quill feathers being altogether duller and washed with this
colour; the underparts are slightly’ paler.
I suggest that the post-juvenal moult is usually complete, but that some
individuals do not moult the primaries, primary coverts, secondaries and
greater coverts or the tail—H. W.]
Blyth’s Reed-Warbler is a common winter visitor to Travancore and Cochin.
A marked decrease in its numbers was observed by the beginning of April.
The last date on which~the Survey came across it and obtained a specimen
was J1:April, by which time most birds had departed. This specimen was
very. fat also, suggesting that it was ready to emigrate. —
In the cold weather it is a common species in hills and plains alike, fre-
quenting. scrub. country, hedges and brushwood. At Padagini (3,000 ft.) in the
Nelliampathies it was particularly abundant in the dense bracken thickets on
486 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
water-logged patches along the hillstreams, commonly in association with
Phragmaticola aédon. It hops about the undergrowth singly, incessantly utter-
ing its single harsh note ‘T'schuk’ at intervals of a few seconds, varied occa-
sionally by ‘chur-r-r’ or ‘chr-chr’. It is a great skulker and seldom shows
itself.
Ii is also a winter visitor to Ceylon.
The gonads of all the specimens were in a quiescent state.
Acrocephalus agricola Jerdon. The Paddy-field Warbler.
Specimens not procured.
A single example was flushed in a field of standing paddy in a forest
clearing at Thattakad (200 ft.), but its identity remains unconfirmed. It has
not been obtained in Travancore or Cochin before, the nearest records being
from the Wynaad (Hume, S.F., x, 390) and the pair collected by William
Davison in the Brahmagiri Hills, Coorg, in February 1883 now in the British
Museum.
Locustella naevia straminea Seebohm. The Eastern Grasshopper Warbler.
Specimens not procured.
Noted at Maraiyar (Annemalai Hills) and Padagiri (Nelliampathies). Fer-
guson (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 156) records a specimen obtained in a swamp in
Travancore at 4,000 ft. elevation during April 1901. I procured one in the
Biligirirangan Hills (4,500 ft.—Coimbatore District) on 29-12-32.
This species, apparently a winter visitor, was not uncommon on hillsides
covered with tall grass (Andropogon sp.) interspersed with dwarf date palms
above Kodekkadt (near Maraivtr) at between 5 and 6 thousand feet elevation,
especially on the edge of sholas. It was also present in similar facies around
Padagiri.
The bird was invariably met with singly, uttering ‘chek-chek’ or ‘chur-7,
chur-r’ from its concealment, something like the notes of Blyth’s Reed-Warbler.
Jt is a great skulker and flushed only with difficulty when almost trod upon.
After flying a few yards it dives headlong into the grass stems and is well-
nigh impossible to flush a second time. So swiftly does it thread its way
through the stalks low down near the ground that by the time one reaches the
spot where it dived it has vanished mysteriously, and no amount of trampling
around will avail !
Orthotomus sutorius sutorius (Pennant). The Tailor Bird.
Spec'mens collected: 245 [¢] 8-2-338 Thattakad 200 ft.; 616 Q juv., 617 ¢&
18-4-38, 684 ¢ 21-4-83 Aramboli 250 ft.; 722 9 (imm.) 25-7-33 (Thiramalai
100 ft.); 757 ¢ 31-7-83 (Akktlam 150 ft.); 896 ¢ (imm.) 18-8-33 (Nettayam
200 ft.) Trivandrum Talik; 948 9 6-12-33 Nemmara 300 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Maraiyir (8,500 ft.); Kottayam (ca. 8.L.); Peermade
(3,200 ft.); Kuamili (3,000 ft.); Rajampara (1,350 ft.); Trivandrum Town (ca.
§.L.); Cape Comorin (ca. 8.L.); Chalaktidi; Wadakkancheri (400 ft.); Trichur;
Ernaktitam (ca. §.L.).
Colours of bare parts: Adult: Iris and eyelids orange-brown to orange-
red; bill, upper mandible excepting commissure horny-brown, commissure and
lower mandible pinkish flesh colour; mouth pale flesh colour; legs and feet
brownish flesh colour; claws dusky. Juvenile (No. 616): Iris pale olive-
brown; upper mandible horny-brown, lower mandible pale flesh; gape yellow;
mouth pinkish-yellow; legs, feet and claws pale pinkish-flesh.
[ Measurements :
Bill. Wine... Tail. Tarsus.
43d 15-16 48-51 37.5-55 19-19.5 mm.
299 15-16 43-46.5 34.5-86.5 19 mm.
It is with considerable hesitation that I attribute this series to the typical
raco for it is in truth intermediate. In colour the specimens agree with the
Indian form O. s. guzerata but they are rather small and in that particular
agree with, the Ceylon bird. Also No. 757 ¢ dated 81 July has the tail in
moult and the new feathers appear to be of the long summer type, which
suggests that in Travancore as in the typical race of Ceylon the long pointed
feathers may be found throughout the year.—H. W
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 487
The Tailor Bird is a common resident species in Travancore and Cochin,
throughout the low country and up to at least 3,500 ft.—probably higher—in
the hills. I do not seem to have come across it in the Nelliampathies, but
Kinloch (J.B.N.H.S., xxvii, 943) records it as common in those hills.
It frequents scrub and secondary jungle as well as hedges and shrubbery
about cultivation and human habitations, being especially fond of the mango
and jack-fruit gardens about homesteads along the backwaters.
» In the Palni Hills, Fairbank (S.F., v, 406) records it from Shembaganur
5,500 ft. The typical race, O. s. sutorius, is also resident and common in
Ceylon.
i Bneediig On 15 April (Aramboli) a _ half-built nest was discovered in
a small bush at 18 inches from the ground in fairly open scrub under a Babool
grove. Several of the Jamun-like leaves had been sewn together into a sort
of funnel and one of the owners was observed lining it with vegetable down.
Specimen No. 616 (18 April) was in juvenile plumage. No. 617 (same date)
had enlarged ovarian follicles ca. 4 mm. in diameter and a prominent incu-
bation patch, and was obviously breeding. No. 722 (25 July) had a soft skull
and was undergoing post-juvenal moult, while 896 (18 August) also had an
imperfectly ossified skull, but had already completed moult into fresh adult
plumage.
The evidence shows that the breeding season in Travancore commences
in April and probably lasts till the end of May or the middle of June. Fergu-
son (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 456) says that it breeds in May.
Cisticola exilis erythrocephala Blyth. The Red-headed Fantail-Warbler.
Specimens not procured by the Surveys.
According to Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 456) this species is fairly common
and resident on grasslands on the High Range in Travancore. Mr. Whistler
has examined the following two specimens in the Trivandrum Museum col-
lection: @ juv. 25-1-07, ¢d juv. 26-1-07 Devicolam. He measures them as
follows :
; Bill. Wing. Tail. - . Tarsus.
2 uv... 6 o 12.5 45.5-48 51-53 18.5-19 mm.
In the Palni Hills, Terry (S.¥., x, 476) found this warbler very common
at Kukal and Kodaikanal. Fairbank (S.F., v, 406) shot a 4 on Mount Neboo
(6,000 ft.) on 12 June and saw two others, while Mr. Howard Campbell also
found it common in small colonies in those hills (Fauna, ii, 420).
No records of its breeding in Travancore or Cochin apparently exist.
Cisticola juncidis salimalii subsp. nov. The Travancore Streaked Fantail-
Warbler.
Specimens collected: 79 9, 80 Q (imm.), 81 Q (imm.), 82. ¢ 13-1-33
Maraiyur 3,500 ft.; 357 o® 3858 dg 25-2-33 Peermade 3,200 ft.; 882 ©, 883 o?
384 2 1-3-383 Kumili 3,000 ft.; 508 3, 509 9, 510 dg, 511 0? 5-4-83 (Velayani
fuake) Trivandrum Environs; 570 0?, 571 0?, 572 @ 12-4-33 Cape Comorin
ca. §..; 623 ¢ 19-4-83 Aradmboli 250 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Santhanpara (3,500 ft.); Kottayam (ca. §.L.).
Colours of bare parts: Iris pale hazel-brown or pale olive-brown; bill,
upper mandible and tip of lower pale horny-brown, commissure and rest of
lower mandible pinkish flesh colour; mouth pink, brownish-pink © or pale
yellowish flesh-colour, in some individuals: streaked or blotched with brown:
legs and feet pale brownish flesh-colour; claws duskier.
[Additional specimens examined: ene ee
Trwendrum Mus. Coll.:. 89 9-38-02 Trivandrum; ¢ 10-8-01, ¢ 8-8-0]
Cape Comorin. oe ,
Measurements :
Bill. Wing, - Tail. Tarsus.
5 &S (summer) — 10.5-11 51-55.5 - 33-34 19 mm.
6 SS (winter) 10.5-11 — 47-52.5 ' 37-40 - 18.5-19 mm.
8 Q9Q (summer) i Ly ss Un ee «- 45,5-48.5 33-36.5 ‘18-19 mm.
4 22 (winter) 11-11,5 , 46.5-48.5 35.5-40 (L385...
awe
488 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
At the time when I was writing the account of this species in the Hastern
Ghats Survey (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi, ”564) no specimens of the Streaked Fantail
Warbler were available from Travancore for examination. Mr. Salim Ali’s
fine series has now revealed the interesting point that this species has
developed one of the peculiar dark Travancore races which we have found in
so many other species. Compared with birds from North India, the Travancore
series appears very ‘saturated’ and richly coloured, both on the upper surface
and below. The rumps are bright reddish-brown and the flanks are washed
with bright rufous. The small beak immediately separates the Travancore
birds from the Ceylon race. I have submitted our birds to Rear-Admiral
Hubert lynes, the well-known monographer of this genus, and he agrees
with the recognition of this well-marked race from the rain area. JI have accord-
ingly much pleasure in naming it after Mr. Salim Ali in recognition of his
valuable work in carrying out the Travancore Survey. The type No. 358,
3 adult in winter plumage, 25 February 1933, Peermade 3,200 ft., has been
deposited in the British Museum.—H. W.] roe
The Streaked Fantail Warbler is a common resident species in Travan-
core and found in suitable localities throughout the low country as well as up
to at least 5,000 ft. in the hills. Standing paddy fields and areas under tall
erass, especially on water-logged ground as on the margins of Periyar Lake
and in the swampy depressions or ‘valleys’ among the hilltops at Wundamet,
seldom fail to attract it whilst it also frequents the grass-covered hillsides
everywhere. Curiously enough I seem to have missed recording if in Cochin
though there is no reason to doubt its occurrence there.
Though usually met with singly and never in flocks, it was not uncommon
to find 10 or 15 birds gregariously in the same patch of grassland. They were
also observed at times to alight on the ground, on bunds, etc. and hop about
like Munias, presumably after insects. What were evidently courtship displays
were in progress between January and March. A bird (3?) launches from
its perch near the tip of an upstanding grass-blade or reed, rises in the air
for about 50 or 60 ft. in irregulan wavering zigzags, and flies about in the
same irregular undulations and wave crests in no particular direction. It
closes its wings on each descending curve and flaps rapidly a few times on
the upward curve. The actions are reminiscent of a Black-bellied Finch Lark.
Just at the bottom, before commencing the upward curve, it utters a single
‘chip’ like the snip of a barber’s scissors heard in the distance. This is
repeated about once every second and is also uttered from a perch at the
same intervals. After flying about aimlessly in this manner for two or three
minutes, the bird descends to a perch some distance away or in the same
neighbourhood.
It has not been recorded from the Palni Hills, but it is likely that some
at least of Terry’s notes thence (S.F., x, 476) on Custicola e. erythrocephala
refer to this species.
In Ceylon it is represented by the race C. 7. omalura.
Breeding: Apparently nothing is on record as regards the breeding season
in this area. Of the specimens obtained by the Survey, Nos. 80 and 81
(18 January) were immature with imperfectly ossified skulls. No. 82 (same
date and in the same paddy-field) -had testes enlarged to 4X38 mm. and it
was in worn breeding plumage. None of the others showed any gonadal
development.
From his examination of the specimens, Admiral Tynes concludes that
the breeding season in Travancore is probably from August until March.
Franklinia gracilis albogularis (Walden) ?. The Coorg Wren-Warbler.
Specimens collected: 195 ¢ (imm.) 30-1-23 Santhanpara 3,500 ft.; 241 0?
8-2-33 Thattakad 200 ft.; 367 ¢, 368 ¢ 27-2-33, 389 9 3-3-3383 Kumili 3,000 ft.;
466 ¢ 18-3-33 Rajampara 1,350 ft.; 649 ¢ 28-4-338, 655 Q 25-4-33 Balamore
Estate 2,000 ft. =
Elsewhere noted at: Urimbikera Reserve Forest (near Mindakayam);
Wadakkancheri (400 ft.); Padagiri (3,000 ft. —Nelliampathies): f
Colours of bare parts: “Adult : Tris straw colour; bill black, horny at
chin; mouth slaty-brown and pink or pinkish-brown:: legs ahd feet brownish
flesh colour;~-claws horny-brown. Immature (No. 195): Iris‘~orange = straw ;
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 489
bill dark horny-brown, paler at commissure and gape. Mouth pale yellowish
cream colour with slaty blotches; legs and feet yellowish flesh colour; claws
horny-brown. .
[Additional specimens examined:
Trivandrum Museum: 6 30-8-08, @ 3-8-08 Konni; 0? 2-8-00, 00 juvs.
27-7-00 Ponmudi.
Brit. Mus.: 0? 15-38-75 Hlgugand (Bourdillon).
Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Summer tail. Winter tail.
43d 12-13 46-46.5 45-47 46 mm.
ee ales 44 39 = Mie
N.B.—Nos. 195 and 867 both appear to me to be in moult from juvenile
to first winter plumage so they are omitted from the measurements.
In the Eastern Ghats Report (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi, 564) I suggested that
this species would probably prove to have races when better material was
available. This has been confirmed though my additional material is not quite
sufficient yet to allow me to work out the question fully for the whole of
the range.
First of all I am definitely of the opinion that the Ceylon bird requires
separation on the grounds that the summer and winter plumage are alike,
both being of the type which in continental India is the breeding plumage,
i.e. dark above with a grey pectoral band. The tail is the same length in
both seasons and the juvenile plumage resembles that of the adults in the
possession of the pectoral band. This similarity between summer and winter
plumage in Ceylon is an interesting parallel with the cases of Prinia sylvatica
valida and P. inornata insularis in Ceylon, already described in the Eastern
Ghats Survey. The name for this race is evidently Prinia pectoralis Legge,
Ceylon Blue Book, 1874, p. 9—Hambantota District, Ceylon.
The Travancore bird also requires separation. It has a definite summer
and winter plumage, and the particular interest of this form lies in the fact
that the pectoral band, distinct as in other continental forms in summer
plumage, is also adumbrated in the winter plumage, thereby connecting the
extreme difference of the continental Indian and insular Ceylon forms. The
upper parts and wings are considerably darker and more saturated in winter
plumage than in the winter plumage of the typical form. The upper parts
may also be darker in summer plumage, but summer plumage wears and
bleaches so rapidly in this species that I cannot speak positively on the
point without a larger series. There is no existing name available for the
Travancore race but it is possible that Coorg birds are sufficiently close to
it to allow the name Prinia albogularis Walden, Ann. Mag. N.H., 1870, vol. v,
p. 219—Coorg to apply to both. The only two specimens in existence from
Coorg however are two summer birds and these do not allow the point to be
settled—H. W.]
Franklin’s Wren-Warbler is a common resident species in the Travancore--
Cochin area, being met with by the Surveys both in the low country and in
the hills up to about 5,000 ft. Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 457) states that
it occurs at all elevations. It does not enter evergreen sholas but frequents
the patches of tall grass, scrub and deciduous jungle on the hillsides which
often alternate with them, and also similar facies in the low country. It
usually keeps in small parties of 3 to 5 birds, but flocks of 10 or 12 may some-
times be seen. They are active, restless little birds for ever on the move, and
in tall grass country their presence is usually proclaimed by their tinkling
calls as they hop about among the stems. One seldom gets a glimpse of
them unless an individual momentarily clambers up to the top or as they
fly from one thicket to another. They were much more in evidence with the
approach of the breeding season when males constantly clambered up on to
exposed perches on bushtops or grass and uttered their ‘chipping’ song.
The birds were observed feeding regularly on nectar from the blossoms of
Erythrina lithosperma shade trees in abandoned tea clearings overgrown with
byilberase and pushes; 9 see ase ae a
490 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
This Wren-Warbler does not appear to have been recorded in the Palni:
Hills. In Ceylon it is represented by another race, F. g. pectoralis, with .a
local distribution.
Breeding: The Surveys found that at the end of April (Ashambu Hills
2,000 ft.), the birds were either breeding or .ready to do so. -In No. 649
(23 April—fresh summer plumage) the testes had enlarged to 4x3 mm., while
No. 655 (25 April also in fresh summer plumage) had a soft ovarian egg.
According to T. F. Bourdillon (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 457) the breeding season
in Travancore is May, June and July, the birds preferring elevations “between
300 and 1,000 ft. above sea level for the purpose.
Schoenicola platyura (Jerdon). The Broad-tailed Grass-Warbler.
Specimens -collected: 834 [¢] 22-2-33, 355 9, 856 0? 25-2-33 Peermade
8,200 ft.; 899 [Q] 5-8-3838, 4138 @ 7-3-3 Kimili 3,000 ft.; 488 ¢, 489 9@
11-28-23 Camp Deramalai 4,000 ft.; 660 9, 661 ¢, 662 ¢ 25- 4-33 Muthukuzhi,
Ashambua Hills—38,500 ft.; 1053 ¢, 1054 3, 1055 3 28-10-33 Peermade 3,200 ft
Elsewhere noted at: Santhanpara (3,500 ft.—Cardamom Hills).
Absent on Andropogon grass-covered hillsides. between 3,000 and 4,500 ft.
on the Nelliampathy Hills (16-20 December 1933) although facies apparently
suitable !
Colours of bare parts: Iris brownish-grey, greyish-olive or olive brown;
bill, upper mandible horny-brown, lower horny-grey or flesh colour; mouth
yellowish-pink, paler in some individuals and stippled with brown in others;
gape yellowish cream colour or yellow; legs, feet and claws greyish-brown. .
[Additional specimens examined:
B.N.H.S. Coll.: @ 80-5-96 Kodaikanal (Cook).
Brit. Mus. Coll.: GQ 6-4-01, ¢ 5-4-01 Muthukaly [Mithikutzhi ?]
(Ferguson); Go dQ 17-4-80 Colathoorpolay [Kulatttptzha] Patnas 4,000: ft.
(Bourdillon—Hume Coll.); Q 18-4-77 same locality 3,800 ft. (Bourdillon); ¢
25-6-81 Palnis 5,000 ft. (Fairbank); @ 26-4-83 Pittur, Palnis (Terry).
Measurements: : :
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
B ack 13.5-16 64.5-69 (1-73 91-23 mm.
4 99 13-14 638-64.5 63-66 91-21.5 :mm.
In the New Fauna, ii, p. 4386, Mr. Stuart Baker has given a note on the
possibility of there being two races of this bird in its limited distribution
on the Western Ghats from South Travancore to Belgaum. He bases the
possibility on the two items of size and colour. With regard to size, he
states that birds from Travancore and Ceylon measure 68 to 67 in length
of wing and birds from Belgaum 66 to 71 mm. I measure the Belgaum.
series as follows: Pe
Bill. Wing. Tail.
5 ood 14-15 70-72 65.5-72.5 mm.
2 One® 14-14.5 66.5-67 61.5-64.5 mm.
Compared with our Travancore series there is evident no ground for
separating birds from the two areas on size. ry
As regards colour, this point could not be settled on the British Museuni.
series even when augmented by Mr. Salim Ali’s fine collection. The Belgaum
birds were all collected in September. and they are in very worn and faded
dress, whereas all the Travancore birds were collected from February to April
and are evidently in much fresher plumage after the complete moult ,which
must take place in the winter.. Mr. Pillai, however, very kindly made a.
special point of collecting three males for us in October on. Peermade, ¢0.
that they should bein a state of plumage comparable. with the -Belgaum,
series. These prove to be dull and faded before the approaching moult and.
cannot be separated from the Belgaum birds. The possibility of. two races
has therefore been thoroughly disposed of.—H. W.] :
The Broad-tailed Grass-Warbler is common in the Travancore Hills. between
about 8 and 4,000 ft. Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 457) did not. meet with
m2 EF
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 491
it at Peermade or on the High Range, though the Survey found it not un-
common in the former locality. It frequents tall grass-covered hillsides, often
steep and precipitous, and is particularly fond of the marshy or moist flat de-
pressions among the hilltops overgrown with thin matted grass or reeds as about
Wiundamet in the Cardamom Hills and at Camp Deramalai. It is an in-
veterate skulker and all that has been written about the habits of the Streaked
Grass-hopper Warbler apples to it in every detail. In patches where it
occurs I found its population to be not denser than about one bird—or more
rarely a pair—to an acre, and the individuals always keep widely scattered.
In the mornings usually while the grass is still heavily sodden with dew, and
also in the late afternoons about sunset, single birds were occasionally observed
clambering up the grass stems to exposed situations near the tips and uttering
a feeble ‘pink, pink’, etc. somewhat similar to but louder than that of the
Red Munia (Amandava). The flight is indirect and top-heavy like that of
Prinia or Cisticola, and the broad graduated tail conspicuous on the wing.
Neither Fairbank nor Terry record this species in their Palni lists though
specimens collected by them in those hills are now in the British Museum.
In Ceylon it is believed to occur, but rarely.
Breeding: No nests appear to have been taken in Travancore. Bourdillon
considered that they were breeding there in April and this presumption is
partly supported by the evidence obtained by the Survey. Specimen No. 661
(25 April—fresh plumage) had testes enlarged to 6x4 mm. and in No. 662
(same date—undergoing complete moult) they measured 6x3 mm. and_ sug-
gested that the birds were breeding or about to. 'The organs in all the
3 October specimens were enlarged to breeding condition. In Belgaum, Col.
A. E. Butler and Mr. T. R. Bell took many nests in September. Is_ it
double-brooded or is there no definite season ?
_. Phragmaticola aedon (Pallas). The Thick-billed Warbler.
Specimens collected: 68 Q 12-1-33 Maraiyir 3,500 ft.; 154 9 25-1-38
Santhanpara 3,500 ft.; 225 9 6-2-33, 252 9 9-2-3383 Thattakad 200 ft.; 450 ©
17-3-33, 460 ¢ 18-38-83 Rajampara 1,350 ft.; 967 ¢ 12-12-33 Padagiri 3,000 ft.
Elsewhere not noted.
Colours of bare parts: Iris hazel-brown to olive-brown; upper mandible
horny-brown, lower yellowish flesh colour; gape and mouth bright orange yellow;
legs and feet plumbeous; claws horny-brown.
[ Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
Dest 19.5-21 84.5-86 88-90.5 27-29 mm.
5 OQ 18-20.5 78.5-84 83-87 26-29 mm.
All the Survey specimens are of the fulvous-brown type of colouration.—
Ee W.]
Ferguson says (J.B.N.H.S., xv,,-457) that in Travancore ‘it is a very
occasional winter visitor. I have only one specimen shot at the foot of the
hills’. In view of this statement it is interesting to record that the Surveys
found this species fairly common between 12 December and 18 March in
suitable localities, at elevations from 200 up to 3,500 ft. in both Travancore
and Cochin. Its favourite haunts are the patches of tall grass and weeds
that so luxuriantly overrun abandoned forest clearings, and the growth of
grass tussocks and bracken bushes on water-logged ground in ravines etc.
through tea and coffee plantations.
As it hops about the undergrowth it utters a loud, harsh quick-repeated
‘tschuck, tschuck’ and ‘chr-r’ etc., the latter like the agitated notes of the
Black-headed Babbler (Rhopocichla), but louder. These calls are sufficiently
distinctive, with a little practice, to proclaim its identity long before a glimpse
of their skulking producer can be obtained.
It has not been recorded from the Palni Hills or from Ceylon.
Hippolais rama rama (Sykes). Sykes’ Tree-Warbler.
Specimen collected: 543 9 8-4-3838 Cape Comorin ca. 8-1.
Elsewhere not noted: Possibly confused with Acrocephalus dumetorum.
492 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXvVitl
Colours of bare parts: Iris olive-brown; fine rim round eye (eyelids)
magenta; upper mandible horny-brown, lower pinkish flesh colour; mouth
orange-yellow; legs, feet and claws brownish flesh colour.
This species is apparently a fairly common winter visitor to Southern
India but I do not record sight observations as it is not easy to differentiate
it with certainty in the field from the commoner Acrocephalus dumetorum,
while the habits and call notes of the two are also practically indistinguishable.
The specimen was in fresh plumage and very fat, suggesting that it was
ready to emigrate.
Curiously enough the only other example recorded from ‘Travancore
(J.B.N.H.S., xv, 457) was also obtained at Cape Comorin (December 1901).
Phylloscopus affinis (Tickell). Tickell’s Willow-Warbler.
Not procured or noted by the Surveys, but Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 457)
records specimens obtained during the winter months from the High Range
of Travancore at 6,000 ft. elevation—never in the plains.
In the Palni Hills it is apparently common at Pulungi and one collected
by Fairbank on 38 April is now in the British Museum. It does not seem
to migrate as far south as Ceylon.
[Phylloscopus inornatus humei (Brooks). Hume’s Willow-Warbler.
Not procured by the Surveys, neither is it mentioned in Ferguson’s Travan-
core list nor in those of Fairbank and Terry for the Palni Hills. On what
authority it is stated in the Fauna (iu, 469) to extend in winter as far south
as Travancore is not known. |]
Phylloscopus nitidus nitidus Blyth. The Green Willow-Warbler.
Specimens collected: 25 dG 7-1-38, 94 ¢ 14-1-33 Maraiyair 3,500 ft.;
235 Q 7-2-8838, 244 0? 8-2-83 Thattakad 200 ft.; 447 ¢ 16-38-83 Rajampara
1,850 ft.; 920 ¢ 29-11-83 Wadakkancheri 400 ft.; 1019 0? 26-12-33 Kartpa-
danna ca. §.L.
[There is a specimen with no data from Mynall in the British Museum by
Bourdillon.
Measurements :
Bill. Wing. . Tail. Tarsus.
4 oe 12-13.5 63-67 48-49.5 19-19.5 mm.
1 9 13 62.5 48 18 mm.—H? W.]
Phylloscopus nitidus viridanus Blyth. The Greenish Willow-Warbler.
Specimens collected: 119 ¢ 20-1-33 Munnar 5,000 ft.; 365 Q 27-2-33
Kumili 3,000 ft.
[ Measurements :
Baill: : Wing. - Mail.
13 14 64 48 mm.
aS 13 58 — mm.—H. W.]
Elsewhere noted at: Kottayam (ca. §8.L.); Peermade (8,200 ft.); Ten-
malai (500 ft.); Chalakidi; Kiriarkutti (1,600 ft.); Nemmara (800 ft.); Pada-
girl (3,000 ft.).
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill, upper mandible and tip of lower
horny-brown, commissure and rest of lower mandible pale flesh colour; mouth
pale yellow and greyish-pink, or yellow; in some individuals gape also yellow;
legs and feet greenish-grey or pale horny-brown; soles yellowish.
I treat these two forms together as I am totally unable to distinguish
them in the field. The call- notes of the Willow-Warblers once ascertained
by properly authenticated specimens, appear to me to be the most satisfactory
guide to distinguishing many of the confusing species in life, but in the
case of these two they are so similar that this method fails.
Both the Green and the Greenish Willow-Warblers are common winter
visitors to Travancore. and Cochin, the low country as -well as to at least
5,000 ft. up in the hills. The latest record I have is 27 March .by which
date the majority of birds had certainly departed. Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S.,
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 493
xv, 458) shot two specimens as late as July and suggests that some may
remain through the summer.
They are usually met singly hopping about amongst undergrowth and
the foliage of trees both in deciduous and, to a lesser extent, in evergreen
jungle, uttering a merry, penetrating ‘chi-wee’ at intervals of a few seconds.
The Surveys also found them invariably present among the fruit gardens
about backwater homesteads and in wooded compounds of the larger towns.
They have apparently not been recorded from the Palni Hills where they
must doubtless occur. Both forms are also winter visitors to Ceylon, the
latter having occurred in the island in March.
Phylloscopus magnirostris Blyth. The farge-billed Willow-Warbler.
Specimens collected: 165 ¢ 26-1-33 Santhanpara 3,500 ft.; 328 Q 22-2-33
Peermade 38,200 ft.; 862 0? 14-11-33 Kutnarkuatti 1,600 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Kkamili (8,000 ft.—Periyar Lake Environs); Kiuvalle
Incline (Cochin Forest Tramway); Chalakidi; Wadakkancheri (400 ft.); Pada-
giri (8,000 ft.—Nelliampathy Hills).
Colours of bare parts: Iris hazel brown; bill horny-brown, pale flesh
colour at gape, chin, commissure and tip of lower mandible; mouth pale
pinkish-yellow; legs, feet and claws greyish-brown or brownish-slate.
[Additional specimen seen:
Brit. Mus. Coll.: Q 15-11-74 Mynall (Bourdillon).
Measurements:
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
clare 15 73 54 19 mm.
1 @ 14.5 62.5 47.5 18.5 mm.—H. W.]
The Large-billed Willow-Warbler is also a common winter visitor to this
area, the latest date I have being 7 March. In my experience it is far more
partial to evergreen forest than the two foregoing, and commoner than either
the Green or the Greenish Willow-Warbler in the sholas (up to 4,000 ft. !).
William Davison (Ibis 1883, pp. 146-7) also found it very common ‘in the
Travancore Hills’. In the short time he was there he collected 19 specimens
and says he could easily have got 50 more.
The call-note is a mousy, interrogative ‘whee-chi?’, besides which a_ short
feeble song was occasionally heard.
It has not been recorded from the Palni Hills. In Ceylon it is a winter
visitor.
Phylloscopus occipitalis occipitalis (Blyth). The Large Crowned Willow-
Warbler.
Specimens collected: 124 ¢ 22-1-33 Santhanpara 3,500 ft.; 3872 0? 28-2-33
Kumili 3,000 ft.; 480 9 9-8-83 Camp Deramalai 3,000 ft.; 981 G 15-12-33
Padagiri 3,000 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Thattakad (200 ft.).
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill, culmen brown, commissure, tip
and lower mandible pale orange-yellow; mouth pale yellow; legs, feet and
claws greyish-brown or brownish-slate; soles pale yellow.
[ Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
2 6 13-13.5 66-68 54 17 mm.
1 9 13.5 61 45 19 mm.—H. W.]
A common winter visitor to Travancore and Cochin. Last noted 9 March.
This Warbler is confined to evergreen forest mostly on the hills between
2 and 4,000 ft. elevation, but it also occurs in this biotope in the low, country.
Unlike the preceding 38 species, it is gregarious in its habits and moves about
in active flocks of from 10 to 380 birds. amongst the foliage of lofty trees in
sholas, searching the sprigs for insects. They were invariably found in asso-
ciation with other small birds such as Culicicapa, Zosterops, Machlolophus,
Muscicapula pallipes and Alcippe poioicephala. —
It has not been recorded from the Palni Hills or from Ceylon.
494 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Prinia socialis socialis Sykes. ‘The Ashy Wren-Warbler.
Specimens collected: 147 ¢G 24-1-33 Santhanpara 3,500 ft.; 351 G 24-2-38
Peermade 3,200 ft.; 407 ¢ 5-38-88, 416 ¢@ 7-38-83 Kumili 3,000 ft.; 481 9
10-3-33 Camp Deramalai 3,000 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Rajampara (1,850 ft.); Balamore Estate (2,000 ft.—
Ashambt. Hills).
Noted as absent in Cochin at the following places: Kuriarkutti (1,600 ft.);
Wadakkancheri (400 ft.); Nemmara (800 ft.); Padagiri (8,000 ft.); Trichur.
[Additional specimen examined:
Trivandrum Museum Coll.: o? 2-1-04 Arnakal.
Measurements:
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
4dd 14 48-50.5 60-65 20-20.5 mm.
1 Q 14.5 46 55 — mm.
All specimens in winter plumage.—H. W.]
The Ashy Wren-Warbler is a resident species in Travancore, not un-
common where it occurs, but curiously patchy in its distribution. During
the whole of the Cochin Survey it was noted as ‘absent’. It frequents tall
grassland on the hillsides (between 1,500 and 3,500 ft. !) and. was not
observed in the low country at all though Ferguson states (J.B.N.H.S., xv,
458) that it is found in suitable localities there. At Wiundamet in the Carda-
mom Hills (ca. 3,000 ft.) it was common among the matted grass and reed-
beds in the water-logged hollows or ‘valleys’ where the birds appeared to
have concentrated owing to the burning of the grass on the surrounding
hilltops.
Fairbank (S.F., v, 406) obtained a specimen on a grassy hillside at 6,000 ft.
in the Palni Hills, but he does not say anything about its numbers there.
Terry says (S.F., x, 476) that it is not uncommon on the slopes in the long
grass near Pulungi and Pittur. It is represented in Ceylon by the slightly
smaller and shorter tailed race P. s. brevicauda Legge.
Breeding: The gonads of all the Survey specimens were in normal non-
breeding condition. According to T. F. Bourdillon (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 458) this
Wren-Warbler ‘breeds [in Travancore] most abundantly on the lower slopes
of the hills in May and June and also in July’.
Prinia sylvatica sylvatica Jerdon. The Jungle Wren-Warbler.
Specimens collected: 627 ¢ 19-4-83, 680 ¢ 20-4-338, 689 ¢, 640 9 21-4-33
Aramboli 250 ft. gas
Elsewhere not noted.
Colours of bare parts: Iris bright brownish-yellow or orange-brown; rim
round eye (eyelids) paler; bill blackish-brown, paler at chin and on gonys;
mouth brownish-slate or pink with brownish streaks; legs and feet brownish
flesh colour; claws horny-brown.
[No other specimens seen.
Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
Sie otras 14.5-16.5 61-62 67-67.5 92-23.5 mm.
ibe. 14 53.5 5Ts5 — mm.
All in winter plumage. These are the first specimens I have seen from
Travancore and they agree definitely with. the typical form and not the
Ceylon race.—H. W.]
The Jungle Wren-Warbler has apparently not been recorded from Travan-
core before. The Survey met with it only at Aramboli at the southern end
of the Ashambu Hills and on the western extremity of the gap or pass
through the Ghats leading into the drier district of Tinnevelly (Madras Presi-
dency). It frequented steep boulder-strewn hillsides with sparse cactus and
thorn bushes where males were constantly observed perching on the boulders
or in exposed positions on bushes and warbling: ‘Pretty-pretty’, etc. reminiscent
of a Tailor-bird’s call, but louder and easily distinguishable from it. It
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 495
was repeated for three minutes or more at a, stretch and resumed after a
pause of two or three seconds. Each ‘pretty’ of the song is preceded by a
curious subdued ventriloquistic ‘pit’ uttered in a different key. The birds were
extremely wary and difficult to approach. Their absence from the rest of
Travancore and from Cochin suggests that their habitat is confined to broken,
boulder-covered hills with sparse and stunted vegetation, a facies which does
not occur elsewhere within the area.
It has not been recorded in the Palni Hills. The race P. s. valida repre-
sents it in Ceylon.
Breeding: From the excited behaviour of the birds at the time (middle
to end April) it was evident that they were nesting. No. 627 (19 April) had
testes enlarged to 6X4 mm. and on the same date another bird was observed
carrying building material. In No. 639 (21 April) the testes measured 5x4 mm.
Its pair, 640, had probably finished laying but there was a conspicuous in-
cubation patch present. From the agitated behaviour of this pair—hopping
about the bushes and uttering ‘pit-pit-pit-pit’, etc.—it was clear that they had
a nest (or young ?) in the neighbourhood.
Prinia inornata franklinii Blyth. The South Indian or Nilgiri Wren-Warbler.
Specimens collected: 194 Q (imm.) 30-1-33 Santhanpara 3,500 ft.; 241 09,
242 3S 8-2-83, 276 9 (imm.) 12-2-33 Thattakad 20@ ft.; 284 0?, 285 Q 15-2-28
Kottayam ca. 8.L.; 3889 Q 3-3-3833 Kumili 3.000 ft., 434 9 10-28-88 Camp Dera-
malai 3,000 ft.; 1005 ¢ 25-12-33, 1016 ¢ 26-12-88, 1050 ©, 1051 ¢ 81-12-33
Kartpadanna ca. 8.1L.
Elsewhere noted at: Peermade (5-4,000 ft.); Wadakkancheri (400 ft.—
only 1 in a paddy-field; unconfirmed !); Nemmara (300 ft.—very scarce).
Colours of bare parts: Adult: Iris and eyelids brownish-yellow or orange-
straw colour; bill, upper mandible and tip. of lower horny-brown, rest of
lower mandible pale flesh colour; mouth blackish-brown, brownish flesh colour
or pale pink with brownish streaks and blotches (probably seasonal); legs and
feet brownish flesh colour; claws dusky. Immature: Iris pale khaki; gape
and eyelids yellow; mouth pinkish-yellow; legs and feet as in adult but with
a pinkish flush.
[ Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Summer tail. Winter tail.
4g¢¢6 13.5 47-50.5 58-55.5 — min.
220.0 12.5-18 48.5-49 50.5-51 — mm.
3 99 12.5-13.5 46-49 — ' _ §7.5-68 mm.
in the typical race with the tail markings more distinct. The difference
between them of course accounts for Ferguson’s belief that two forms of
this Wren-Warbler were to be found in Travancore.—H. Wreildec a
This Wren-Warbler is common among the grassy bunds and_paddy-fields
about the backwaters both in Travancore and Cochin, and is also found to
a lesser extent in undulating grassland in deciduous country and on the hills’
in similar facies up to ‘at least 4,000 ft. elevation. Ferguson (J-B.N.H.S.,
xv, 459) found it up to 6,000 ft. (‘P. jerdoni’’). I did not come across it
in the Nelliampathy Hills at all. Its distribution is patchy and capricious,
the birds being absent from many areas to all appearances eminently suitéd
to them.
In the. Palni Hills, Fairbank (S.F., v, 406) cbserved it chiefly abdve
5,000 ft. elevation in long grass and fern thickets. In Ceylon it -is repre-
sented by the race P. 1. insularis (Legge).
-1 Or more intelligibly in Travancore ‘breeding and non-breeding plumages.’
6
496 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.. XXXvitt
Breeding: The earliest date on which nesting activity was noted was
8 December (Nemmara) when a bird was observed carrying building material
—a strip of paddy leaf. No. 1016 (26 December) had its testes enlarged to
6x4 mm. and it was undergoing complete pre-nuptial moult. Nos. 194
(30 January) and 276 (12 February) were immature with imperfectly ossified
skulls and evidently lately out of nest. Im 285 (15 February) the ovarian
follicles measured 1-1.5 mm. At this time males were warbling excitedly from
exposed perches on grass or paddy stems and chasing each other about. An
individual was observed carrying a green caterp:llar in its bill and from all
these signs it was obvious that breeding was in progress.
From the evidence obtained, the breeding season in ‘'Travancore-Cochin
appears to be earlier than that given for the Nilgiris (March to July), but
how long it continues here is not known. The two specimens obtained on the
hills in March had undeveloped gonads.
Famity: IRENIDA.
Irena puella puella (Latham). The Fairy Blue-bird.
Specimens collected: 28 o, 29 Q 7-1-8383 Mardaiyar 3,500 ft.; 462 6
18-83-88 Rajampara 1,350 ft.; 971 SG 12-12-38, 975 (not sexed—alcohol sp.)
18-12-23, 979 (not sexed—alcohol sp.) 14-12-83 Padagiri 3,000 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Santhanpara (3,500 ft.); Thattakad (200 ft.); Urtim-
bikera Reserve Forest (ca. 1,000 ft.—near Mtndakayam); Peermade (8,200 ft.);
Kamili (8,000 ft.—Periyar Lake Environs); Tenmalai (500 ft.); Balamore
Kstate (2,000 ft.—Ashamba Hills); Kuvalle Incline (Cochin Forest Tramway);
Kuriarkutti (1,600 ft.).
Colours of bare parts: Iris claret or scarlet; bill in @ black, in 9
brownish-black; mouth greyish-pink; legs, feet and claws black.
[Additional specimens examined:
Brit. Mus. Coll.: Ad. @S 12-12-78, 24-7-78, 20-11-74, 11-11-78 and
-10-78; 99 5-12-78, 29-11-78 Mynall (Bourdillon).
Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Mani Tarsus.
9ad. dd 27.5-30 124.5-134 100-106 18-18.5 mm.
sae ®. 27-30 127-127.5 101.5-104 17.5 mm.
The juvenile plumage is a dull edition of that of the adult female except
that the wings and their coverts have very little of the blue-green wash
and the lower parts are dull sooty-black with only a few feathers blue-
green. Tho first primary is softer and rather more rounded than in the adult
while the tail feathers are narrower. The first winter male resembles the
adult female still more closely, but I have not seen enough material to work
out the moults.—H.
The Fairy Blue-bird is a resident of evergreen forest and is found in
Travancore and Cochin wherever this biotope- occurs both in the low or foot-
hills country (cf. Thattakad) and up in the highest sholas. Parties of 7 or
8 birds are commonly met with flying about among the lofty tree-tops uttering
a pleasant musical ‘weet-weet’ as they do so. They also occasionally descend
into low bushes to feed on various berries. They are very fond of the
various species of Ficus figs, and flowers of Hrythrina lithosperma shade trees
in coffee estates are regularly visited for the nectar. Two of the specimens
shot off these had pollen adhering to their chin feathers. The call-note
most. usually heard is a rich, mellow, percussive ‘Whats it’ repeated every
few seconds.
Fairbank (S.F., v, 406) records this species as common in the Palni Hills
from their base up to 4,500 ft. In Ceylon it is probably only a straggler.
Breeding: The birds were evidently breeding in March. Specimen No. 462
(18 March) had its testes enlarged to 11xX7 mm.; it was in fresh plumage
and was observed tugging at dry twigs for a nest.
According to T. F. Bourdillon (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 262) it builds in Travan-
core at elevations between 500 and 3,000 ft. above sea level from January to
May Kinloch took eggs in the Nelliampathy Hills on 26 February, and
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 497
Stewart in Travancore in every month from January to June. Most eggs
are said to be found in March and April. ‘The normal clutch is almost in-
variably 2 eggs, but c/3 has once been taken and one incubated egg is
occasionally found (Nidtfication, i, 497).
FAMILY: ORIOLIDA.
Oriolus oriolus kundoo Sykes. The Indian Oriole.
Specimens collected: 269 g 11-2-33 Thattakad 200 ft.; 486 Q 24-38-35
Tenmalai 500 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Santhanpara (3,500 ft.); Kottayam (ca. 8.L.); Kumili
(8,000 ft.); Kuariarkitti (1,600 ft.); Wadakkancheri (400 ft.); © Nemmara
(300 ft.); Padagiri (8,000 ft.—Nelliampathies); Trichur Town; Karupadanna
icae 1.)
Colours of bare parts: Iris brownish-scarlet; bill reddish-brown; mouth
pinkish flesh; legs and feet slate; claws horny-brown.
[Other specimens examined:
Brit. Mus. Coll.: @Q 18-11-78 Trivandrum; 9 11-38-77, @Q 20-12-78
Mynall (Bourdillon).
In the Ibis 1916, pp. 56-7, Dr. C. B. Ticehurst made some notes on the
plumages of a series of orioles collected by me in Jhelum District, Punjab.
That account is now expanded after the examination of a considerable amount
of fresh material.
In juvenile plumage (presumably of both sexes), the crown, ear coverts and
hind-neck are yellowish-green with an indistinct dusky loral band; upper
parts olive-green with pale tips to the feathers; upper tail coverts bright
yellow; wings dark brown, all the lesser and median coverts and the tertiaries
washed with olive-green and with pale tips; primary coverts dark brown,
the ends of the feathers with well-defined yellow edges; primaries and
secondaries dark brown, edged with greyish-white; tail olive-green all but the
central pair of feathers with bright yellow tips to their inner webs, broadest
towards the outer feathers. The underparts are white, washed with pale
yellow on the flanks, all the feathers with dark brown shaft streaks except
on the chin and throat; undertail coverts bright yellow.
The post-juvenal moult takes place about August. The male in first winter
plumage has the whole of the upper plumage and sides of the head except
for an indistinct dusky loral band, greenish-yellow, brightest on the super-
cilium and rump and dullest on the wing coverts; the primaries and secon-
daries, the primary, median, and greater wing coverts and the tail are
retained from the juvenile plumage. Lower plumage greyish-white, the sides
of the breast, the flanks and the undertail coverts golden yellow, the breast
and flanks having broad blackish-brown shaft streaks.
The male in second winter plumage is very similar but the loral streak
is darler and better defined and there is more yellow on the lower plumage.
This stage may however be easily recognised by the primary coverts which
have their yellow tips much wider and yellower, forming a distinct yellow
Se while the lesser wing coverts are irregularly blotched with brownish-
ack.
Third winter males are still brighter and yellower on the upper parts;
the lower plumage is bright orange-yellow throughout, almost but not quite
as clear as in the adult, and the shaft streaks are narrow, indistinct and
sometimes absent. The wings now resemble those of the adult being black
with a yellow patch on the primary coverts and distinct yellow tips to most
of the primaries and secondaries. The lesser and median coverts, the ter-
tiarles and to a lesser extent the secondaries are still, however, much washed
with olive-green while the yellow patch on the primary coverts is neither so
large nor so pure as in the adult. The tail in this stage is also distinctive;
the central pair of feathers is olive-green with black tips and a_ terminal
yellow triangular spot, the amount of yellow in the other feathers being
greater than in the last stage.
Finally the adult male plumage—as described in all text-books—is assumed
at the fourth autumn. The brown iris of the juvenile has become red by
the first summer, the males breeding in their first year in svite of the much
longer period necessary for the assumption of full plumage.
498 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Tho first winter female only differs from the first winter male in having
the under plumage whiter, lacking most of the yellow wash on the breast
and flanks.
In second winter pluriage she appears to be quite indistinguishable from
the male of a similar age, while the adult plumage—of the text-books—is
assumed in the third winter, that is at the post-nuptial moult at the end
of the second breeding season.
The autumn moult is always complete except in the case of the first, viz.
the post-juvenal moult when the w ings and tail are retained from the juvenile
plumage as mentioned above. There appears to be no spring moult.
It is not quite clear to me whether some females attain a plumage similar
to that of the adult male. T have seen birds, which on plumage could
certainly not be distinguished from adult males, marked as females but there
was nothing to show Sueiier the sexing was reliable.* There is, however,
one adult female in the Scully Nepal Collect?on in the British Museum which
differs from the adult male only in having the central pair of tail feathers
green with black tips. This is reliably sexed as there is a drawing of the
enlarged ovary on the label.—H. W.]
The Indian Oriole is, as Ferguson observes (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 461) sparingly
met with in the low country of Travancore and also in the hills, in my ex-
perience up to about 3,500 ft. elevation. According to him it is a resident
species. The Survey noted it as most abundant at camps between 25 January
and the end of March. By about the middle of April it was not in evidence
at all and it seems more than probable that the majority of birds had left.
Kinloch (J.B.N.H.S., xxvii, 941) describes it as ‘very common’ in the Nelliam-
pathy Hills at what season he does not say, and its status there is presumably
the same as in Travancore. The Cochin Survey found it only moderately
common at Padagiri in December.
This Oriole frequents open secondary forest either deciduous or with a
mixture of evergreen species, well-wooded compounds and groves of trees about
cultivation, and is often met with in the localised bird associations. It was
observed feeding largely on Peepal figs (Ficus religiosa), Lantana berries and
on the nectar of Erythrina lithosperma blossoms.
It has apparently not been recorded in the Palni Hills or in Ceylon.
Breeding: The gonads of the specimens were in a quiescent state and no
record of its breeding in Travancore or Cochin exists.
Oriolus chinensis diffusus Sharpe. The Indian Black-naped Oriole.
‘te Specimen collected: No. 451 2 (imm.) 17-83-33 Rajampara 1,350 ft.
- Elsewhere noted at: Thattakad (200 ft.).
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown, rest. as. in kundoo.
[ Measurements :
Bill. Wing. ubanils
33 149 93.5 mm.—H. W.]
This oriole was observed singly in small numbers in secondary mixed
deciduous-and-evergreen jungle on the edge of rubber ee pagen: One was
feeding on ‘Omé’ berries (Trema orientalis Blume).
Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S8.;° xv, 461) describes it as an occasional pees visitor
to the low country in Travancore and says that he has only one specimen
obtained in Trivandrum. Mr. Whistler has examined five further Travancore
specimens in the British Museum (Fry, Bourdillon, Anjango) with no more
precise data.
It is a straggler in w: ‘nter to Ceylon.
Oriolus xanthornus madéraspatensis Franklin. The South Indian Black-headed
Oriole.
Specimens collected: 690 Q imm. 18-7-38 (Pulayanarkotta 200 ft.); 745 ¢
¢
“l’ TT“ agree with this as I have watched several breeding pairs of adults
during ‘ane last two seasons (Dehra Dun) in which the male could not be
‘distinguished from the female by colour.—s. A,
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN - 499
imm,. 29-7-33 (Kuattani 800 ft.); 882 ¢G ad. 11-8-383 (Pulayanarkotta 200 “t.)
Trivandrum Taluk.
Elsewhere noted at: Maraiytr (8,000 ft.); Thattakad (200 ft.); Kottayam
(ca. S.L.); Tenmalai (500 ft.); Trivandrum Town (ca. 8.L.); Wadakkancheri
(400 ft.); Nemmara (800 ft.); Kartpadanna (ca. 8.L.). .
Colours of bare parts: Adult: ‘Tris crimson; bill horny pinkish-brown,
darker at tip; mouth pale greyish-pink; legs and feet bluish; claws horny-
black’ (Pillai). Immature (Nos. 690 and 745): ‘Iris blackish-grey and light
blue [?]; bill slaty-black; mouth grey and pink; legs and feet blackish-grey
(690), bluish-grey (745); claws horny-brown’ (Pillai).
[Additional specimens examined :
Brit. Mus. Coll.: @ 19-11-70 Trivandrum (Bourdillon), @ undated
Trivandrum (Fry), ¢ 8-5-77 Lower Palnis (Fairbank).
Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Nant
3 ad. dd 29-32 132.5-139.5 88-86.5 mim.
1 imm. ¢ 29 diestsi 45) 86 mm.
1 imm. 9 26 126.5 79 mm.—H. W.]
The Black-headed Oriole is a common resident species in 'l'ravancore and
Cochin. It is found in the low country, usually under 500 ft. elevation, and
excepting Maraiyur (8,000 ft.)—where it was fairly common in open deciduous
forest about the terraced paddy-fields in the valley—it was not met with at
all in the hills. Kinloch (J.B.N.H.S., xxvii, 940) also states that it does
not- occur in the Nelliampathy Hills at any ‘season. In the Palni Hills,
however, Fairbank (S.F'., v, 406) met with it from the base up to 5,000 ft.
I hazard a guess that Fairbank’s statement refers only to the eastern and
drier side of the hills where the facies is of a nature more suited to this species.
In Ceylon it is represented by the endemic race O. «. ceylonensis Bonaparte.
Breeding: There are no published records of the breeding of the Black-
headed Oriole in the Travancore-Cochin area. wo of the specimens obtained
by Mr. Pillai at the middle and end of July, however, were immature with
—according to the collector—imperfectly ossified skulls. Both of these are in
fresh first winter plumage.
Over the greater part of its range, it breeds from February to July—prin-
cipally April and May (Fauna, ui, 12). The Ceylon race, according to Wait
breeds in the island from October to May (Nidification, 111).
FAMILY: HEULABETIDA.
Gracula religiosa indica (Cuvier). The Southern Grackle.
Specimens collected: 427 @ 9-3-83 Camp Deramalai 3,000 ft.; 500 ¢
97-38-33 Tenmalai 500 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Mdannar (5,000 ft.—Kanan Devan Hills); Santhan-
para (3,500 ft.—Cardamom Hills); Thattakad (200 ft.); Urtmbikera Reserved
Forest (ca. 1,000 ft.—near Miundakayam); Peermade (8,200 ft.); Kamil
(3,000 ft.—Cardamom Hills); Rajampara (1.3850 ft.—Panthalam Hills); Bala-
more Estate (2,000 ft.—Ashambt Hills); Kariarkitti (1,600 ft.—Annemal!ai
Hills); Padagiri (8,000 ft.—Nelliampathy Hills).
Colours of bare parts: Tris brown; bill orange with yellow tip; mouth,
palate yellow, gullet pink: wattles and infra-orbital skin bright yellow; legs
and feet orange-yellow; claws blackish-brown.
[Additional specimens seen: 3 from Lower Palnis (Fairbank).
Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
Edd 29-30 142.5-149 66-67 29-31 mm.
This race also occurs in Ceylon where its exact relationship with the
Ceylon Grackle (Gracula ptilogenys) is not very clear. Both are birds of
very local distribution in the island and in the main their ranges do not
appear to coincide. This latter form is usually attributed to a _ distinct
species because of the suppression of the wattle on the ear coverts though a
500 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
division. in the feathers suggests its comparativley recent suppression. As,
however, the variation in the wattles is a subspecific character elsewhere and
the ranges of the two birds in Ceylon have possibly been confused by the
process of deforestation, it appears probable that ptilogenys is in reality
nothing more than a race of religiosa.a—H. W.
The Grackle or Hill Myna is one of the commonest birds on the forested
hills of Travancore and Cochin. The Survey has noted it in evergreen forest
as low down as Thattakad (200 ft.) and it also occurs in the forest-clad
foothills, but most abundantly at between about 1 and 4 thousand ft. elevation,
and in lesser numbers up to at least 5,000 ft. It is partial to the lofty
shade trees in cardamom plantations feeding on the ripe fruit of Calophyllum
wightianum (?) and of the various species of Ficus scattered about these
sholas, in company with hornbills, barbets, green pigeons and other frugi-
vorous birds. Flocks of up to 20 or more birds are commonly met with.
Their wings produce the same whirring sound as green pigeons’ and some of
their loud, sharp call-notes may easily be mistaken for those of the Black
Bulbul (Microscelis). They also feed largely on nectar from the flowers of
Bombax malabaricum in forest, and Grevillea robusta and Erythrina lithosperma
shade trees in tea and coffee plantations. I have frequently observed pollen
adhering to their chin and forehead feathers and have no doubt that they
assist considerably in the cross-pollination of these species.
One bird of a pair noted at Rajampara (16 March) had the abdomen and
vent white; its mate was normally coloured.
In the Palni Hills this Grackle is common up to 4 or 5,000 ft.
Breeding: No. 427 (9 March) had testes enlarged to 8x4 mm. and a
conspicuous incubation patch, and was one of a pair. In No. 500 (27 March) .
the testes measured 8X5 mm. and it also had a prominent incubation patch.
On 4 March a pair were observed carrying fine twigs into a hole in a dead
tree-trunk standing in the Periyar Lake at a height of about 25 ft. from
the surface of the water. On 20 March another pair was observed building
in @ hollow in a dead tree-trunk on the edge of Lahai Rubber Estate (Rajam-
para) about 40 ft. up. By this time birds were mostly in pairs when not
congregated to feed, and breeding was obviously in progress generally.
According to Stewart (Nidification, 11, 506) the breeding season in Travan-
core is February to April—earliest date for eggs 6 February, latest 28 April.
He says that in July some birds seem to breed again as he has taken fresh
eggs on the 28th of that month. Bourdillon took a nest on 27 May. The
full clutch consists of 8 eggs, but sometimes only two are laid.
FAMILY: STURNIDZ.
Pastor roseus (Linn.). The Rosy Pastor or Rose-coloured Starling.
Specimens collected: 3854 Q 25-2-83 Peermade 3,200 ft.; 608 9, 604 CG
16-4-88 Aramboli 250 ft.; 958 G 7-12-33 Nemmara 300 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Thattakad (200 ft.); Kumili (8,000 ft.).
Colours of bare parts: Iris hazel brown; upper mandible and tip of
lower mandible horny-brown, gape and rest of lower mandible pale yellow;
mouth, palate yellow, gullet pink; legs, feet and claws horny-brown.
[No other Travancore specimens seen.—H. W.]
Ferguson writes (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 462): ‘Found in large flocks both in
the low country and on the hills from September to April usually. I have
seen them as late as May occasionally.” This conveys the impression that
the bird is a common winter visitor, but my experience both in Travancore
and Cochin shows that it is decidedly rare and uncommon in these parts.
The largest flock noted by the Travancore Survey comprised of about 10 birds;
parties of 3 or 4 or single individuals amongst flocks of Grey-headed and
Brahminy Mynas was more usual. The two seasons during which these areas
were worked did not appear to be exceptional in any way, and therefore my
experience and Ferguson’s statement seem rather difficult to reconcile. The
explanation doubtless is, however, that as in other parts of its winter as
well as breeding range its numbers vary considerably from year to year
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 501
depending partly upon the abundance or otherwise of food supply, but partly
also on factors which as yet we do not know. .
The specimens shot or observed were feeding largely on the berries of
Lantana camara and Salvadora persica and also on the nectar of Bombax
flowers. The stomach of No. 953 (7 December) was crammed full of ripe
Lantana berries exclusively. 56 seeds were recovered from the guts intact,
some of which were on the point of being excreted. As I have noted else-
where, the Pastor is undoubtedly one of the more important agents in the
dispersal of this pernicious weed in India.
This bird has apparently not been recorded in the Palni Hills. It is an
irregular and uncertain winter visitor to Ceylon in small numbers.
Sturnia malabarica malabarica (Gmelin). The Grey-headed Myna.
Specimens collected: 41 Q 9-1-33, 97 @ 15-1-33 Maraiytr 3,500 ft.;
545 9-4-8383 Cape Comorin ca. 8.L.; 928 @ 1-12-33 Wadakkancheri 400 ft.
Sturnia malabarica blythii (Jerdon). Blyth’s Myna.
Specimens collected: 255 dG 9-2-3833 Thattakad 200 ft.; 453 ¢G 17-3-33
Rajampara 1,350 ft.; 762 dg imm. 31-7-33 (Maruthankuzhi 50 ft.); 821 o
imm. 9-8-3838 (Nettayam 200 ft.) Trivandrum Taluk.
Elsewhere noted (both forms) at: Kottayam (ca. §.L.); Kumili and
Periyar Lake Environs (8,000 ft.); Balamore Estate (2,000 ft——Ashambt Hills) ;
Kariarkttti (1,600 ft.).
Colours of bare parts: Iris greyish- or creamy-white; bill yellow at tip,
leaden blue at base with a greenish intervening area. In immature birds
(Nos. 762 and 821) the green is replaced by brown; mouth, palate dusky
yellow, gullet pinkish-grey or slaty; legs, feet and claws yellowish-brown,
brownish-flesh or pale lemon yellow.
[Additional specimens seen:
B.N.H.S. Coll.: malabarica o? n.d. Thekadi, Travancore (Cook);
8-2-29 Kalathrupoh, Travancore (M. O. H. Beusley).
Brit. Mus. Coll.: blythi 0? 9-83-76 Travancore (Bourdillon).
B.N.H.S. Coll.: @ 29-9-98 Thekadi (Cook).
The range and status of these two forms in Travancore and Cochin seem
utterly confusing and it is impossible to say anything definite regarding them.
The difficulty is heightened by the fact that both races may commonly be
met with together and even in one and the same flock. Thus No. 928
(malabarica) was shot from a party which contained two or three undoubted
blythi. In addition, there is every inter-gradation of colour between the
grey-headed malabarica and the white-headed blythi, while it is_ practically
impossible to tell females and immature males of the latter from malabarica.
On the whole, however, the specimens confirm that blythi is probably the
breeding form in Travancore and that malabarica only appears in this area
as a winter visitor. None of the specimens attributed to malabarica showed
any gonadal development, while No. 255 (9 February—blythii) had its testis
(only a single !) enlarged to breeding size—13x10 mm.—and 458 (17 March—
blythi) to 10x7 mm. On 4 March, two pairs were observed building in
holes in partially submerged tree-trunks in Periyar Lake which, judging from
the males, were undoubted blythiw. Several other pairs were also noted
prospecting for nesting sites here between 28 February and 7 March, all of
which seemed to belong to the white-headed form. A half-fledged young was
brought in by an urchin on 25 March at Tenmalai, but its parents were
unfortunately not seen.
Specimen No. 545—an adult male malabarica—on the other hand showed
no genital development on 9 April at which time Dlythii were breeding
generally. Moreover it was very fat, a condition which at this season ind)
cates in true migrants their readiness to depart. Whether it can be inte
preted in the same light in the case of local migrants, as the Grey-headed
Myna seems to be, is of course open to question.
In Travancore and Cochin, these Mynas frequent secondary jungle and
the neighbourhood of cultivation usually in the low country and foothills, but
also up to about 3,500 ft. elevation. They keep in flocks of 5 to 20 birds or
more, and I found them feeding largely on Lantana berries, Peepal and
502 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
various other Ficus figs and the nectar of Bombax malabaricum flowers. On
these trees they indulge in the same sort of squabbling, chatter and _ bellicosity
as the Rose-coloured Starling. Occasionally they were also observed springing
open Loranthus buds and probing into them for the nectar.
Fairbank (S.F., v) does not record either of these forms in the Palni
Hills, but according to the Fauna (iu, 41) blythi breeds there and is
apparently a resident.
This species is not found in Ceylon.
Breeding: On the evidence obtained by the Survey nesting of the white-
headed form—blythii—in Travancore is in progress during March and April
and probably also May.
Col. Sparrow took 2 fresh eggs at Kamili (Cardamom Hills) on 4 April.
He attributes these to the grey-headed typical race, but as he did not shoot
the parents, the uncertainty remains.
Stewart and Bourdillon took eggs of Sturnia m. blytha in Travancore in
March and April (Nidification, it, 519).
Temenuchus pagodarum (Gmelin). The Black-headed or Brahminy Myna.
Specimen collected: 547 4 9-4-8383 Cape Comorin ca. S.L.
Elsewhere noted at: Kottayam (ca. 8.L.): Aramboli (250 ft.); Chalaktdi
and in the low country along the Cochin Forest Tramway; Wadakkancheri
(400 ft.); Karapadanna (ca. a Lisl:
Colours of bare parts: ‘Iris white; bill blue at base, bright yellow at.
tip; legs, feet and claws yellow’ (Humayun Abdulali).
[Additional specimen seen:
Brit.. Mus. Coll.: @ 6-6-77 Periakulam, E. base of Palnis (Fairbank).
The juvenile differs from the adult in being paler and duller throughout
and lacking the crest, while the pronounced shaft streaks on the hackled
tips to the feathers are wanting. Cap dark sooty brown. -Ear-coverts and
lower parts—save for the white vent and lower tail-coverts—are warm creamy
unicolorous buff. The post-juvenal moult is complete and the first winter bird
cannot be distinguished from the adult. There is no spring moult. The com-
plete autumn moult takes place in October and November. The adult female
differs from the male merely in having a shorter crest.—H. W.]
The Black-headed Myna is restricted in Travancore and Cochin to the low
country under 500 ft. elevation, where it frequents deciduous and_ secondary
scrub jungle about cultivation and human habitations. Flocks of up to 8 or
10 birds were not uncommon, often in association with other Mynas, and they
fed extensively on Banyan figs, Lantana and Salvadora persica berries in the
uenal mixed company of frugivorous birds.
In the Palni Hills Fairbank (S.f., v, 407) obtained specimens at the base
and also observed it well up on the hillsides, presumably on the eastern (drier)
side.
Tn Ceylon it is confined to the dry coastal areas.
Breeding: The specimen (9 April) was very fat and its organs showed no
departure from the quiescent condition. Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 462) does
not comment upon the status of this Myna in Travancore. No records of its
breeding there or in Cochin exist and it may be that, as in many other parts
of its range, it is only a winter visitor to the area.
Acridotheres tristis tristis Linn. The Common Myna.
Specimens collected: 227 G 6-2-8383, 277 4G 19-9-38 Thattakad 200 ft.;
534 gd 8-4-38, 574 9, 575 SB 12-4-83 Cape Comorin 8.L.; 621 ¢ 18-4-83,
6382 Q 20-4-83 Aramboli 250 ft.; 711 ¢ 28-7-83 (Beach); 747 ¢@ imm. 30-7-383
(Veli, S.L.); 779 9 3-8-83 (Kovalam ca. 70 ft.); 839 9 12-8-83 (Beach) Tri-
vandrum Town and Taluk; 9638 @ 9-12-33 Nemmara 300 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Maraiytr (8,000 ft.); Kottayam (ca. 8.L.); Chala-
kadi; Wadakkancheri (400 ft.); ‘Trichtr Town; Kartpadanna (ca. S8.L.);
Ernaktilam.
Colours of bare parts: Adult: Iris brown (according to Pillai ‘outermost
ring greyish-white, succeeded by a ring of fine silver spots surrounding a
brownish-red ring which encircles the pupil’); bill yellowish except at sides
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 503
of base of lower mandible which are brownish-green; orbital skin bright
yellow; mouth dark slate; legs, feet and claws yellow lke bill, paler than
the bare orbital skin. Immature: Iris ‘blackish-grey’ (Pillai); gape yellow;
mouth more pinkish; orbital skin paler; rest as in adult. Juvenile (4 fledged):
Iris brown; bill dusky yellowish flesh colour; gape yellowish-cream; mouth
bright yellow; legs and feet pale yellowish-flesh; claws dusky.
[ Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
(ase) vet 25.5-30.5 139-150 81.5-90.5 38-40 mm.
3 99 26-27 138-142.5 78.5-85.5 35-39 mm.
This good series clearly establishes the fact that Mynas from ‘Travancore
are intermediate between A. ¢t. tristis and A. t. melanosternus and some
would be inclined to name them as another of the Travancore races. Com-
pared with birds from N.-W. India they are certainly darker with a more
purple tint on the lower plumage, and the white of the ventral patch is
somewhat constricted. The upper parts average darker and closely resemble
those of melanosternus. Below, however, they are not as dark as the latter
and they have fewer traces of the extension of the black of the chin, throat
and upper breast as a ventral band. I do not think, however, that the
naming of this intermediate race would prove of value as the typical race
is somewhat variable in colour and size and throughout its range a number
of indiv:duals approach these Travancore intermediates in colour. It is better
to be content with the statement that while the Myna in India cannot be
divided into races—ags one might perhaps expect from the robust adaptability
of this common bird—the fact may be remembered that it shows a tendency
to develop a pale race in the extreme North-West and a saturated race in
Travancore.—H. W.]
The Common Myna is an abundant and familiar resident species in the
low country of both Travancore and Cochin. Apart from Maraiytr which is
in many respects an exceptional locality with a mixture of hills and_ plains
features, it was not found at all above an elevation of about 400 ft. As
elsewhere, it inhabits open country about cultivation and towns and _ villages.
In the Palni Hills, Fairbank (S.F., v, 407) found it common about
villages at nearly 4,000 ft.
It is a common species in Ceylon.
Breeding: On 4 February (Thattakad) a pair was observed nesting in
a hollow about 385 ft. up in a charred tree-trunk standing in a_ paddy-
clearing in deciduous forest. When visited again on 6 February, this tree
had been felled. Examination of the nest showed a partially fledged nestling
sitting at the entrance, hale and hearty and quite unhurt by the fall!
No. 277 (12 February) had testes enlarged to 8x5 mm. On 6 April (Cape
Comorin) a nest was located in a hole in a palmyra palm trunk at about
20 ft., while another pair was observed building on 138 April. In_ specimen
No. 534 (8 April) the testes measured ca. 5x4 mm. and appeared to be
developing, whereas in other specimens at this time the gonads were as yet
in a quiescent state. No. 621 (18 April) had testes measuring 9x5 mm.,
while 632 (20 April) had one hard shelled egg in its oviduct ready for laying,
and the distended nature of this organ indicated that others had already
been laid. Among the later specimens Nos. 711 (28 July) with testes measur-
ing 12x6 mm. and 779 (3 August) with the largest ovarian follicle ca. 2 mm.
in diameter were obviously breeding. No. 747 (80 July) was immature with
imperfectly ossified skull.
Ferguson says (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 462) that the Myna breeds in April in
Travancore. The evidence shows that nesting operations commence about
mid-January and continue till at least the first week in August and_ probably
later, so that the breeding season in this area is a very protracted one.
AAthiopsar fuscus mahrattensis (Sykes). The Southern Jungle Myna.
Specimen collected: 172 CG 28-1-33 Santhanpara 3,500 ft.
lilsewhere noted at: Maraiytr (8,500 ft.—more common and abundant
than the foregoing species); Munnar (5,000 ft.—Kanan Devan MHills—abun-
dant); Thattakad (200 ft.); Kottayam (ca. 8.L.); Peermade (3,200 ft. fairly
504 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
common); Kumili (8,000 ft.—Cardamom MHills—common); Trivandrum Town
(ca. S.L.); Wadakkancheri (400 ft.); Karupadanna (ca. 8.L.).
Colours of bare parts: Iris bluish-white; bill orange-yellow, dark brown
at nostrils, gape and base of lower mandible; mouth dark slate; legs and
feet yellow; claws brown.
[The one 4 measures:
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
21D 131.5 78 35.5 mm.—H. W.]
The statement by Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 463) to the effect that this
species does not ascend the Travancore hills seems surprising, and it certainly
is not correct at the present time. The Survey found it fairly common
both in the low and foothills country of Travancore and conspicuously so
in the hills where it occurs to the exclusion of the Common Myna. Its
distribution, however, is patchy; for example it was absent in the Ashambit
Hills and my notes do not record it from Rajampara, Camp Deramalai or
Padagiri.
At Maraiytr and in the low country, the Jungle Myna was frequently
observed in mixed flocks with the Common Myna, grubbing amongst flooded
fallow fields or attending on grazing cattle. They fed largely on Ficus figs
of various species, Lantana berries and on the nectar of Erythrina (lithosperma
and other species) blossoms. The specimen, shot off these, had a quantity
of pollen adhering to its throat and tuft feathers. The tuft at the base of
the culmen acts as an efficient pollen brush.
This Myna has apparently not been recorded from the Palni Hills and
it does not occur in Ceylon.
Breeding: The organs of the specimen (28 January) were in normal’ non-
breeding condition. At Peermade, on 24 February, a pair were observed
building in a hollow in a tree-trunk, 8 ft. up, in the compound of the
Travellers’ Bungalow, and on 4 March several pairs were busy nesting in
holes in the partially submerged tree-trunks standing in Periyar Lake.
No published records of its breeding in Travancore or Cochin exist.
According to the Fauna (iii, 58) the Jungle Myna breeds in South India
from February to May and this season evidently applies to our area as well.
FAMILY: PLOCEIDZA.
Ploceus philippinus travancoreensis subsp. nov. The Travancore Baya or
Weaver-Bird.
Specimens collected: 316 9, 317 o, 318 Q 19-2-33 Kottayam ca. §.L.;
678 © imm. 16-7-33 (Beach); 726 3, 727 ¢ 26-7-388, 741 [d¢ ?] 29-7-383 (Kut-
tani 300 ft.); 785 @ imm. 4-8-33 (Cattle Farm 150 ft.) Trivandrum Taluk;
918 go imm. 27-11-83 Wadakkancheri 400 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Maraiytr (8,000 ft.; only old nest colonies !).
Colours of bare parts: Iris hazel brown; bill horny-brown, yellowish at
chin and gape; mouth pink; legs, feet and claws brownish flesh-colour. In
the 2 (818) the brown of the bill is paler.
[ Measurements :
Bilt, Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
4 $o¢ adult. 18-20 70-75 41.5-48 20-21 mm.
23 juv. — 68-70 40-42.5 — mm.
1 9 20 eo moult 19.5 mm.
These Weavers can certainly not be retained with the typical race. The
upper plumage is much darker and browner, while the breast and flanks
have a more pronounced brown wash, the shaft streaks being more defined
and at the base broader than is usual in the typical race. On these features
alone I am prepared to separate this as another of the peculiar Travancore
forms and propose for it the name:
PLOCEUS PHILIPPINUS TRAVANCOREENSIS subsp. nov.
Type: No. 317 ¢ (breeding) 19-2-1983 Kottayam (Backwaters), sea level.
Coll.; Sdlim Ali. Deposited in British Museum,
—
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 505
There is a further point of interest connected with this series. It contains
4 breeding males—in all of which the organs were enlarged—and none of
these have attained the full breeding plumage as known in the typical form.
The type has a yellow crown, a fairly developed black throat patch and
odd golden feathers on the breast. The other three lack the throat patch
and the yellow crown and have the yellow on the breast represented only
by odd feathers. One has a yellow wash on the crown, the other two
have the supercilium yellow. It is impossible to be dogmatic on so small
a series, and the specimens may not be mature, but they suggest that in
this race as in burmanicus, the normal breeding plumage is largely sup-
pressed. If so, this will be a further character of the race.—H. W.
Beyond the low country, signs of the Baya were noted only at Maraiyur
(3,000 ft.). Here, two or three small colonies consisting of from 3 to 8 dis-
used nests each were observed suspended on mango trees amidst terraced
paddy-fields in the valley lying fallow at this season (early January). From
the fact that all the nests hung on the eastern side of the trees, it may
be presumed that the birds nested here during the south-west monsoon and
that they only came up for breeding purposes while the paddy crops were
standing and departed after that function had been performed and the paddy
harvested.
In the low country of Travancore and Cochin and about the backwaters,
where paddy is the principal crop grown, the Baya is common and its works
abundantly in evidence in the neighbourhood of this cultivation. In the dry
season the birds keep mainly to the backwaters, but spread out during
the monsoon over most of the low country.
In the Palni Hills it of course does not occur, but it is found in suitable
localities in Ceylon.
Breeding: Specimen No. 316 (breeding plumage; testes 8x6 mm.), 317
(breeding plumage; testes 9X5 mm.) and 318 (ovarian follicles over 1 mm. in
diameter) were all shot on 19 February off a colony of about 25 nests in various
stages—some completed and occupied by females, others barely begun. They
hung from the fronds of a cocoanut palm (ca. 50 ft. up) in a hamlet on the
banks of Vembanad backwaters. The breeding season of the Baya in this area,
as elsewhere, seems to be directly correlated with paddy cultivation which
provides the birds with both nesting material and food for themselves and their
young. In localities where paddy cultivation is dependent wholly upon the
rainy season, it is well known that nesting operations do not commence until
after the monsoon has well set in and the paddy plants or the coarse saw-edged
grasses which supply the building material are several inches high. In the
backwaters where irrigation is perennial, paddy crops were standing at this
period (middle February) ready to be harvested in about a fortnight. As
soon as this crop is reaped a second sowing is made which ripens_ before
the south-west monsoon sets in. During the monsoon months all the paddy land
in the region of the backwaters is completely submerged so that Bayas can
only continue to breed in this neighbourhood from early in the year up till
the commencement of the south-west monsoon in May or June, or more
precisely between the end of one monsoon and the beginning of the next.
During the rainy season therefore the Bayas resort to the neighbourhood of
the regular paddy cultivation further inland, and this is presumably the ex-
planation for the deserted nest colony in January at Maraiyur. Two of the
July specimens (726 and 727) had enlarged organs and were ready to breed,
and Pillai notes that on 4 August nesting activities were still in full swing
near the Cattle Farm. Two of the July/August specimens are immature with
yellow gapes and imperfectly ossified skulls.
It is evident that on account of the favourable conditions obtaining in
Travancore as regards paddy cultivation, Bayas breed here practically through-
out the year, most probably in shifts or relays as they become sexually
mature.’
* At my request Mr. Pillai visited the Kottayam backwaters in the middle
of December (1985) in search of further breeding specimens. He found that
paddy cultivation there had only just commenced and he failed altogether to
come across any Bayas at that time. :
506 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
According to Nrdification (i, 38) Bourdillon took many nests with ess
in Travancore in May and thence onwards to August.
In our experience, paddy leaf is the building material exclusively, or at
least most extensively, used in Travancore and Cochin. We did not ‘see
any nests made of cocoanut fibre, as have been described, inspite of the
great abundance and availability of this material. The birds are capricious
in regard to the selection of sites. Cocoanut palms are largely patronised,
but sometimes @ couple of palmyra palms standing amidst a cocoanut grove
or in its vicinity seemed to be the centre of attraction, all the nests being
concentrated upon them.
Ploceus imanyar flaviceps Lesson. The Madras Streaked Weaver Bird.
Specimen collected: 288 ¢ 15-2-23 Vembanad backwaters, Kottayam.
Hlsewhere not noted.
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill brownish-horn, paler at commis-
sure; legs and feet brownish-pink; claws dusky.
[Other Travancore specimens seen:
Brit. Mus. Coll.: SQ and juv. 21-6-77 Vellarney Lake Welter Coll.).
The Survey specimen—¢ in breeding plumage—measures :
Biull: Wing. Tail.
18.5 rel 45 mm.—H. W.]
Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 468) describes this Weaver as confined to the
plains in Travancore, where it is not common. The Survey only came across
it by the Vembanad backwaters near Kottayam where the birds were breeding
and fairly numerous, though only in patches.
It is a local resident in Ceylon.
Breeding: The specimen (15 February—breeding plumage) had enlarged
testes measuring 7X5 mm. and it was busy collecting strips of the coarse
saw-edged grass that grows so plentifully on bunds “and dykes along the
backwaters. A colony of 15 nests was located on the same date among tufts
of tall grass and Pandanus thickets growing on a small islet in the back-
water, barely three yards by two. The nests were smaller than those of
Ploceus philippinus, woven more loosely and roughly, and in texture rather
resembling those of the Indian Wren-Warbler. They lacked the prolonged
entrance tubes and had only shght ‘porches’. Pellets of mud were plastered
within as is the case with the Common Baya. The colony contained several
unfinished nests in various stages, and among the birds a preponderance of
males in breeding dress over females was noticed. Of the completed nests
examined, one contained 3 eggs, 3 nests 2 eggs each, and 1 contained a single.
Two eggs taken, measured 1918.5 and 19x14 mm. respectively. a
T. F. Bourdillon (8.F.,° vu, 39) fcund thousands beginning to build in
June amongst the reeds which formed flcating islands in the Vellayani Lake
about 6 miles from Trivandrum. Nidification (ii, 9) adds that the same
observer found it breeding in ‘Travancore from July to September. These
reed beds have since disappeared and with them the nesting colonies of the
Streaked Weaver-bird.
IT should not be surprised if, like the Common Baya, this species is also
found to breed in the Travancore-Cochin area over a considerable part: of
the year, varying with local conditions. In Northern India birds in February
and March are in eclipse plumage and breed about September. Wait (Birds of
Ceylon, p. 115) says that the breeding season on the island is in February
and March and again in June.
Munia malacca (Linn.). The Black-headed Munia.
Specimens collected: 257 9, 258 ¢, 259 @ 10-2-33 Thattakad 200 ft.
Elsewhere not noted.
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill pale bluish-grey, dusky on culmen;
mouth cream colour with slaty crescent and blotches; legs and feet slate;
claws horny-brown.
[Other specimens examined:
Brit. Mus, Coll.: @ 21-6-77 Vellarney Lake (Hume Coll.).
Sai
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN B07
B.N.H.S. Coll.: 02, 9 20-7-93 Kodaikanal (Palnis); ¢ 31-1-01. Devi-
colam [Travancore] (Ierguson).
Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
2 3-3 13-138.5 55.5-56 32 16 mm.
oy ee) Age AES 5) 53-55.0 380.5-35 16-16.5 mm.—H. W.]
The Travancore Survey only once came across a single flock of 20 to
25 birds in the vicinity of standing irrigated paddy crops in a clearing in
deciduous jungle. All the 8 specimens secured were undergoing complete moult.
According to Ferguson (VJ.B.N.H.S., xv, 468) it is only found in the low
country of Travancore where flocks may often be met with especially about
the backwaters. Stewart apparently found them in the hills also, to what
elevation is not stated.
In the Palni Hills, Terry (S.f., x, 478) found it fairly common in the
Lower Palnis and breeding in the Pittur Valley in April. There is a specimen
from Kodaikanal in the Bombay Natural History Society’s Collection.
The Black-headed Munia is a locally distributed resident in Ceylon.
Breeding: 'The Survey procured no data on the nesting of this species in
Travancore or Cochin. Bourdillon (S.f., vu, 89) found it breeding . among
the reeds in Vellayani Lake (near Trivandrum) in June. Stewart also obtained
nests in grass fields in Travancore (Nidification, ii, 14) but the season is
not mentioned; Ferguson gives the breeding seascn here as May to August.
Urofoncha striata siriata (iinn.). The White-backed Munia.
Specimens collected: 314 ¢, 315 @Q 19-2-33 Kottayam ca. S.L.; 418 6,
419 Q 7-3-83 Kumuil 3,000 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Thattakad (200 ft.); Nemmara (800 ft.): Karupa-
danna (S.L.). .
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill, upper mandible horny-black, lower
bluish-grey; mouth pinkish-grey or pale yellow and grey; legs, feet and claws
slate or slaty-brown.
[No other Travancore specimens seen.
Measurements : .
Beer Bill. Wing. ale Tarsus.
Dee Ges 2 eal 75 51-54 38 13.5 mm.
2 99 BB pest al it ez) 58-54 38.5-39 13 mm.—H. W.]
The White-backed Munia is, as Ferguson observes, commoner in Travancore
—also in Cochin—than the foregoing species, though far from generally distri-
buted. The-Surveys-came-across it in the low country as ‘well-as, to a lesser
extent, in the hills up to 8,000 ft. elevation. Flocks of 8 to 15 birds: arid
smaller parties were usually observed about paddy cultivation in forest clear-
ings, in fruit gardens by homesteads along the backwaters, and also in hghtly
wooded cultivated country generally.
In the Palni Hills, Terry (S.F., x, 478) found a flock in the Pittur Valley,
but says nothing about its status. It is a common species in Ceylon up to
2,500 -ft. and in parts up to 4,000 ft. .
Breeding: Specimens Nos. 314 and 815 (19 February) were a pair build-
ing in a pollarded Thespesia populnea tree, about 7 ft. up, near a backwater
homestead. The testes of the former measured 5X4 mm., while the largest
ovarian follicle of the latter was about 4 mm. in diameter. The gonads of
the other 2 specimens were in a quiescent state.
‘In Travancore Stewart and Bourdillon obtained eggs from May to August,
but both say that odd nests with young. or eggs maybe found in:-any
month. . . . Bourdillon speaks of clutches of 8 eggs.’ (Nidification, i, 18).
Urotoncha kelaarti jerdoni (Hume). The Pucoucewellied Munia. eee
Specimens collected: 187 Q imm., 188 @Q 80-1-83 Santhanpara 3,500 ft.
250 Q 9-2-33 Thattakad 200° ft.; 671 ¢ 26-4-33 Balamore Estate 2,000 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Maraiytr (8,000 ft.); Wadakkancheri (400 ft.); Pada-
giri (3,000 ft.—Nelhampathy Hills).
508 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIiI
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill dark horny-brown, bluish at chin
and base of lower mandible; mouth slate with pale yellow crescent on palate
and patches of the same colour; legs and feet greenish-plumbeous; claws
horny-brown. ‘The immature (No. 187) differed from the adults in having
the mouth cream colour, blotched with slaty and in having no _ greenish
tinge on the legs and feet.
[A small series from Travancore (Fry and Bourdillon) in the British
Museum examined, but I have omitted to note details of individuals.
Measurements:
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
ee 14 56.5 43 13.5 mm.
3 09 13-13.5 57-58 36.5-38 14-15 mm.—H. W.]
This is a fairly common resident species in Travancore ‘and Cochin,
more or less confined to the hilly portions though also met with by the
Surveys sparingly in the foothills country, but not at all in the succeeding
plains belt or on the coast. It frequented scrub and grassland sometimes in
the proximity of cooly-lines or hillmen’s settlements on the edge of jungle
and tea plantations, in small parties of 3 or 4 or flocks of up to 380 or more
birds.
Tt is apparently common in the Palni Hills. In Ceylon, the typical race
U. k. kelaarts (Jerdon) is found in the hills above 2,000 ft.
Breeding: No. 187 (80 January) was immature with very imperfectly
ossified skull and in worn juvenile plumage. No. 671 (26 April) had_ testes
measuring 4X3 mm. and it was undergoing pre-nuptial moult. No other
data in this regard was procured by the Surveys.
T. F. Bourdillon (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 468) gives the breeding season in Tra-
vancore as June to August and says that the birds nest at elevations of
2,000 ft. and upwards. Six to eight eggs is said to be the normal clutch.
Uro'oncha malabarica (Linn.). The White-throated Munia.
Specimens collected: 559 ¢ 10-4-83 Cape Comorin ca. §.L.; 6381 92 20-4-33
Aramboli 250 ft.
Elsewhere not noted.
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; upper mandible horny-brown, lower
bluish-grey; mouth grey and pink; legs, feet and claws greyish-pink.
[Plumage too worn for measurements. No other Travancore specimens
seen.—H. W.]
I can fully endorse Ferguson’s statement (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 469) that in
Travancore this Munia is only found in the dry open country about Cape
Comorin—up to approximately the Aramboli Gap—where it is fairly common,
being also the only Munia met with. It was observed in pairs, family
parties or small flocks feeding on grass-seeds, etc.
In Ceylon also the distribution of this species is restricted to the dry
areas in the north.
Breeding: Both the specimens (10 and 20 April) had slightly enlarged
gonads. The male was in heavy general moult and the female in very worn
plumage. On 19 April a bird was observed carrying building material—a
grass blade—in its bill, so evidently some nesting at any rate was in progress
then.
Ferguson gives the breeding season as December to March.
Uroloncha punctulata lineoventer (Hodgson). The Spotted Munia.
Specimens collected: 728 ¢ 26-7-83 (Kuttani 300 ft.); 765 ¢ 1-8-33
(Beach) Trivandrum Taluk and Town; 934 ¢ 8-12-33, 948 dG 5-12-83, 966 ¢
40-12-33 Nemmara 300 ft.; 1045 ¢ 80-12-33 Karipadanna ca. S.L.
Elsewhere not noted.
Colours of bare parts: Iris orange-brown; bill slaty-black, blue-grey at
base of lower mandible; mouth slaty-grey with cream-coloured crescent on
palate; legs and feet bluish-slate; claws brown.
——
2
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 509
[ Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail.
5 gS -(breeding plumage) 12-13.5 57-58.5 37-41 mm.
1 g (brown plumage) 12.5 54 33 mm.
Additional specimens examined :
Brit. Mus. Coll.: Q 17-6-77, Q 12-6-77 Lower Palnis (Fairbank).
I have not yet been able to work out—for lack of the necessary moulting
specimens—the relationship between the brown and spangled plumages.—
H. W.]
The Surveys found the Spotted Munia much more generally distributed
in the low country in Cochin than in Travancore, nowhere above 3800 ft.
elevation, and as Ferguson says (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 469) it evidently does not
ascend the hills in this area. This is curious because in the Nilgiris I found
several nests at Kotagiri (ca. 6,300 ft.) in July and August, and a pair
were building in the Ootacamund Botanical Gardens (ca. 7,000 ft.) on
27 September.
The birds were met with in pairs, small parties and flocks—one of over
70—in the neighbourhood of paddy cultivation in hummocky country. It was
observed that the flocks in December comprised chiefly of birds in the plain
brown plumage. Its food seemed to consist very largely of ripening paddy
grains supplemented by grass-seeds. The crops and stomachs of the specimens
were gorged with the grains. The crop of one contained 14 entire grains of
green paddy, while its stomach was packed with broken pieces of the same.
Fairbank met with this species twice in the Lower Palnis, but unfortu-
nately does not comment upon its status there. In Ceylon it is generally
distributed up to 2,500 ft. and locally to 4,000 ft.
Breeding: The July and August specimens both had testes enlarged to
6x4 mm. They were in fresh spotted plumage and evidently breeding. Of
the four December specimens, Nos. 484 (8 December—testes 4x38 mm.—incu-
bation patch !) had probably lately finished breeding. No. 9438 (5 December
—testes 6x4 mm.) a partial albino, was in very worn dress and moulting
primaries, secondaries and rectrices. It had either just finished breeding or
was changing into pre-nuptial dress. No. 966 (10 December) in plain brown
plumage had undeveloped organs. Unfortunately its skull was damaged by
shot which rendered age determination impossible. No. 1045 (80 December—
testes 5x4 mm.—spotted plumage) was apparently breeding.
According to Ferguson, this Munia breeds in Travancore from April to
July. From the evidence provided by the Survey specimens and the data
collected in the field, it seems more likely that breeding continues irregularly,
more or less throughout the year.
Amandava amandava amandavya Linn. The Red Munia.
This Munia has not been recorded in Travancore or Cochin, but Terry
found a large flock at Pulungi in the Palni Hills in April (S.F., x, 478).
FamMity: FRINGILLIDZA.
Carpodacus erythrinus roseatus (Blyth). The Common Indian or Hodgson’s
Rose-Finch.
Specimens collected: 24 J 6-1-3833 Maraiytir 38,000 ft.; 105 ¢ 18-41-33
Minnar 5,000 ft.; 998 @ 18-12-83 Padagiri 3,000 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Santhanpara (8,500 ft.—Cardamom Hills).
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill, legs, feet and claws horny-brown.
[ Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
2ad. dd 14.5 85.5-87 55-59 17.5-19 mm.
1 @Q 15 84.5 — 18.5 mm.
No other specimens from Travancore seen.
The juvenile closely resembles the adult female. I have not seen the
post-juvenal moult, but young birds in their first winter and summer still
resemble the adult female and cannot be distinguished in any way from her.
510 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Many males breed in this plumage but I have seen no evidence to show whether
it is moulted at the second autumn between August and October or whether
it is retained and adult males must be considered dimorphic.
Adults have a complete post-nuptial moult from August to October. There
is no pre-nuptial moult and the plumage in consequence becomes considerably
worn in summer. The female then becomes much duller and browner. The
male changes considerably in appearance as a result of the wearing off of
the feather edges and an apparent increase of colour owing to the prismatic
effect. of transmitted light on the worn surface..—H. W.]
The Rose-Finch is a common winter visitor to the northern hill ranges
of Travancore. Kinloch records it as fairly common in the Nelliampathy Hills
(Cochin) and Ferguson found it in the High Range. ‘The southernmost point
at which the Surveys came across it was in the Cardamom Hills at ca. 10°N.
lat. It goes about in small flocks of usually up to about 20 birds, frequenting
scrub country on the outskirts of evergreen sholas and hillmen’s settlements,
and cardamom, tea and coffee plantations. The highest elevation at which
the Surveys came across them was about 7,000 ft. (above Maraiyur) in Rubus
thickets bordering hill streams. ‘
Their food was observed to consist largely of the berries of Lantana camara,
Maesa perrottetiana and Trema orientalis—also seeds and flower buds of Poly-
gonum chinense Li.—while they regularly visited Hrythrina lithosperma shade
trees in coffee plantations for the nectar of their blossoms. The chin of a
specimen shot off these was coated with pollen.
The Rose-Finch has apparently not been recorded in the Palni Hills nor
has it yet occurred in Ceylon.
Gymnorhis xanthocollis xanthocollis (Burton). The Yellow-throated Sparrow.
Specimens collected: 507 ¢ 4-4-33 Trivandrum Town; 560 ¢ 10-4-83 Cape
Comorin; 897 @ 24-11-33 Wadakkancheri 400 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Maraiyur (8,000 ft.); Thattakad (200 ft.); Kottayam
(ca. S.L.); Vadaserikara (ca. 400 ft.—near Rajampara); Aramboli (250 ft.);
Nemmara (800 ft.); Kartipadanna (ca. S.L.).
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill brownish-black; mouth greyish-
pink; legs, feet and claws brownish flesh colour.
[ Measurements :
Bill. Wing. lane Tarsus.
3 ocd 15-17 .. 88-86 50-53 , 16-17.5 mm.
Other specimens examined :
Trivandrum Mus.: © Q 7-7-07 -Aramboli.
Also 4 Fry and Anjango birds in the British Muséum without data.
The post-nuptial. moult in this species is complete, and there is no pre-
nuptial moult. The post-juvenal moult is said by Ticehurst to be compléte.—.
H. W.]
The Yellow-throated Sparrow is fairly common in the drier portions of
the low country of both Travancore and Cochin where it frequents the neigh-
bourhood of cultivation and backwater homesteads, and. also light deciduous
jungle. In the cold weather they were observed keeping in flocks, often of
considerable size, gleaning paddy grains in harvested fields and feeding ex-
‘tensively on Lantana berries and on the nectar of -Bombax and EHrythrina
flowers in mixed avian company. At this season, large numbers usuaily
congregated into leafy bamboo clumps or bushy trees - during the heat of the
day. and created a great. noise with their. chirping.: Except at Maraiytr, it
' Two males, apparently of this race, in the aviary of Sahebzada Dr. Saiduz-
zafar Khan (Dehra Dun) moulted at the end of October from the adult rose-
coloured: plumage into one closely resembling the female but with the chin,
cheeks and throat a more or less immaculate’ ’vinous-buff. At the time of
writing (6 December) this plumage remains unchanged although in the wild
state males (at least some) may still be seen in the rose-coloured plumage.
I do not find this eclipse plumage of the male recorded in the hterature.—S. A.
es
ail
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN Bil
was not met with above about 500 ft. elevation. Already by the first weck
of February, the flocks had started breaking up, and by the beginning of
April, pairs had become the rule and courtship was in progress generally.
It does not ascend the Palni Hills, but Fairbank (S.F., v, 408) found it
plentiful at Periakulam near their eastern (dry) base. In Ceylon it 1s only.
a straggler.
Breeding: No. 560 (10 April) had testes measuring 7X5 mm. and it was
breeding. On 12 April a pair were observed feeding young in a hollow 7 ft.
up a Thespesia trunk (Cape Comorin) and on 13 April another nest was in
occupation.
Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 469) states that in Travancore this species
breeds in May and June.
Passer domesticus indicus Jardine & Selby. The Indian House-Sparrow.
Specimens collected: 58 ¢, 54 @Q 10-1-33 Maraiytr 3,500 ft.; 518 <,
519 6, 520 9 7-4-838, 586 ¢ 138-4-388 Cape Comorin:ca. §8.L.; 629 ¢ 19-4-33
Aramboli 250 ft.; 678 9! 16-7-88, 714 ¢$ 23-7-83, 764 9, 767 1-833 Beach,
Trivandrum.
Tilsewhere noted at: Wadakkancheri (400 ft.); Nemmara (800 ft.);
Trichtir; Karapadanna (S.L.); Ernakilam; Cochin Town.
Noted as absent (or exceedingly rare ?) at: Miannar (5,000 ft.); Kottayam
(ca. S.L.); Peermade (8,200 ft.); Kumili (8,000 ft.—none observed, but said
to occupy dwellings in town sparingly); 'Tenmalai (500 ft.).
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill in ¢@ dark horny-brown to black,
in Q and immature pale horny-brown; mouth yellowish-pink, pink, or slaty-
pink varying with age; legs and feet brownish flesh colour; claws duskier.
{Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
10 8d 18-14.5 72-78 49-55.5 16-18 mm.
4 99 13.5-15 70.5-74 51-55. 17.5-18.5 mm.
In the Eastern Ghats Survey (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi, 838) I commented of
the fact that the available series of House-Sparrows from Southern India
was a poor one but that as far as it went it allowed me to state that no
difference either in size or colour could be distinguished between South Indian
birds and birds from Northern India, south of the Himalayas. The good series
obtained by the Surveys has now confirmed that view. The Travancore birds
agreo in colour, state for state, with my Punjab series and there is no appre-
ciable difference in measurements :— ae
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
- 8 ¢¢ Punjab 13.5-14 72.5-78 51.5-57 17-18 mm:.
4 92 Punjab 14-15.5 72.5-77.5 53-54.5 17-20 mm.
In the Sparrow the post-juvenal moult is complete. There is fo spring
moult and the autumn moult is complete. The juvenile plumage is too well
known to require description.—H. W.]
The distribution of the House-Sparrow in this area is curious. It is
fairly general in the low country of Cochin, but becomes inexplicably patchy
and ¢apricious in North Travancore as will be seen from the gaps indicated
above. In the low and coastal country of South Travancore it is common.
Excepting at Maraiyir—and possibly at Ktmili—both along the highways of
commune:ation between Travancore and the adjoining drier districts of Madras
Presidency through the barrier of the ghats that separate them, it was not
met with above an elevation of about 500 ft. Wherever present it was, of
course, as a commensal of man.
In the Palni Hills, Fairbank (S.F., v, 408) found MHouse-Sparrows in
villages up to 5,000 ft. altitude. The same race, indicus, is abundantly resi-
dent in Ceylon.
Breeding: In the first week of January (1933) House-Sparrows were
Observed breeding commonly among the rafters and thatching of the huts in
Maraiytr village. The organs of Nos. 53 and 54 (10 January) confirmed this;
the testes of the former measured 5x4 mm., while the ovarian follicles and
distended oviduct of the latter indicated that it had lately finished laying.
7
4
5i8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Of the April specimens, only 586 (18 April) with testes enlarged to 7X5 mm.-
was breeding, while in 519 (7 April) the testes were slightly developed (8x2 mm.)
although its imperfectly ossified skull showed that the bird was as yet im-
mature. In the second week of April, however, Sparrows were nesting freely
in holes in the masonry sides of the Travellers’ Bungalow well at Cape
Comorin. This was also observed to be the case in the frontier Customs station
at Aramboli on 14 April.
The gonads of three of the July/August specimens indicated that breeding
was still in progress at that time. In No. 714 (23 July) the testes measured
3x4 mm. while the largest ovarian, follicle of 764 (1 August) was about 3 mm.
in diameter.
On 3 January (1934) nesting was in progress on cornices etc. in the Guest
House at Hrnaktlam, and on the same date similar activity was noted in
and about the historic synagogue of the White Jews in Cochin Town.
Ferguson says (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 469) that the Sparrow breeds in Travancore
in February and March, but the evidence shows that there is no definite season
and that it does so more or less throughout the year.
Famity: Hirmunpinipaz.
[Delichon urbica (Linnaeus). The House-Martin.
Not met with by the Surveys, neither recorded from this area by previous
observers, but there is a specimen labelled ‘Travancore’ from Surgeon-General
Fry in the British Museum with no more precise date. It is open to doubt
whether this specimen was actually procured in Travancore or purchased from
some dealer there, or perhaps even mislabelled. ]
Riparia concolor (Sykes). The Dusky Crag Martin.
Specimens collected: 597 CG 15-4-33, 620 4 18-4-33 Aramboli 250 ft.:
886 §$ 20-11-33 Kuriarkutti 1,600 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Padagiri (at ca. 3,000 ft.—Nelliampathy Hills).
Colours of bare parts: Irs brown; bill blackish-brown; mouth pale flesh
colour; legs and feet pinkish-brown; claws horny brown.
[ Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail.
38d 10-11 - 109.5-112.5 45-46 mm.
This is an €xtension of range as the Dusky Crag Martin was not previously
known to occur south of the Nilgiris where according to William Davison
it is found at all elevations as a not uncommon winter visitor, a few birds
staying to breed.—H. W.}]
The Dusky Crag Martin has not been recorded from the Travancore-Cochin
area before. It was found to be very locally and patchily distributed in the
low country as well as hills, and far from common. The birds were usually
observed hawking insects in company with Common or Spine-tail Swifts over
steep grass-covered hillsides with sheet rock or cliffs and scarps, up to about
5,000 ft. elevation. .
The species has not occurred in the Palni Hills and it does not extend to-
Ceylon.
Breeding: The testes of specimen No. 597 (15 April) measured about
8x2 mm., those of the other two (20 November and 18 April) being in a
quiescent state. Both the April birds were undergoing complete post-nuptial
moult. No. 620 (18 April) was one of a pair which had a nest on an in-
accessible ledge of rock, ca. 40 ft. up, in the hills bordering the Aramboli
Gap. The contents of the nest could not be ascertained, but from the fact
that the owners visited it every now and again, and their actions while there,
I presume that it contained fairly grown young which the parents were feed-
ing.
Elsewhere in its range, the Crag Martin breeds largely in February and
March.
Sell
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 513
Hirundo rustica gutturatis Scopoli. The Hastern Swallow.
Specimens collected: 289 0? 15-2-88, 299 ¢@ 17-2-38, 305 ¢ juv. 18-2-33
Kottayam (Vembanad Backwaters); 529 ¢, 5380 ¢ 7-4-3838, 578 dG 12-4-33 Cape
Comorin; 1012 0? juv. 25-12-33 Kartipadanna ca. S.L.
Elsewhere not noted.
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill, legs, feet and claws blackish-
brown; mouth pinkish-yellow. In juvenile (No. 305) bright yellow.
[Additional -specimen seen:
Brit. Mus. Coll.: Q 28-2-80 Quilon [Travancore] (Bourdillon).
In the Swallow, both in the typical race and in H. r. gutturalis, to which
I attribute these specimens from their small size and broken breast band,
both the post-juvenal moult and the post-nuptial moult of the adult are com-
plete and appear to take place somewhat irregularly and slowly, occupying the
greater part of the winter. There is no time for a spring moult as some of
these specimens have still not completed their moult by April.
These specimens (adults and juveniles) are all, except No. 289 which has
finished, in different stages of their moult and so cannot be measured.—H. W. |
The Surveys found this Swallow fairly common in the neighbourhood of
paddy cultivation in the low country, especially the coastal region and about
the backwaters, both in Travancore and Cochin. Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xv,
470) describes it as a winter visitor to the low country in Travancore (and not
hill country as is inadvertently stated in the Eastern Ghats Report, J.B.N.H.S.,
xxxvi, 840). The birds were most abundant about the backwater paddy-fields
where they were to be seen either perched on the tall grass stems or dyke
stakes, or hawking insects over the standing crops or the surface of the water.
This species is a winter visitor to Ceylon.
The gonads of the specimens were in a quiescent state. No. 529 (7 April)
was very fat suggesting that it was more or less ready to emigrate.
Hirundo javanica domico!a Jerdon. The Nilgiri House-Swallow.
Specimens collected: 38 9, 389 ¢, 40 9 9-1-3833 Maraiytr 3,500 ft.; 663 ,
664 0? juv., 665 3, 666 dG juv. 25-4-838 Martthanktzhi 4,000 ft. (Ashambt
Hills); 1001 0?, 1002 0? 20-12-33 Padagiri 3,000 ft.
Elsewhere not noted.
Colours of bare parts: Adult: Iris brown; bill brownish-black; mouth
yellowish-pink; legs and feet horny-brown; claws like bill. Immature: Iris
brown; bill horny-brown, yellow at gape; mouth and gape yellow; legs and
feet pinkish-brown; claws horny-brown.
[Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail.
296 ad. 10.5-11 108-104.5 46.5-47 mm.
2 9° ad. 10.5 103.5 44.5-45 mm.
3 jUuvs. — 100-101.5 42-42.5 mm.
The juvenile is very similar to the adult but the upper parts are less
metallic, the chestnut forehead is less defined and the chestnut of the chin,
throat and breast is softer and paler. The rest of the lower parts are faintly
washed with pinkish-white. The tertiaries and their coverts and the lower
tail coverts are broadly edged at their tips with pinkish white. The outer tail
feathers are blunter at the tip.
This good series confirms the distinctness of the South Indian race which
differs from the typical race in the smaller bill and the greener gloss of the
upper plumage.—-H. W.]
The lowest elevation at which the Surveys came across the Nilgiri House-
Swallow was about’ 3,000 ft. (Maraiyir), and as Ferguson says (J.B.N.H.S.,
xv, 470) it is usually found at 4,000 ft. and upwards in the hills of both
Travancore and Cochin. Kinloch (J.B.N.H.S., xxix, 564-5) records it from
the Lily Downs of Cochin, ca. 4,700 ft. The birds were met with in fair
numbers hawking insects over grassy hillsides and on the edge of tea planta-
tions. No. 666—a juvenile—was observed being fed by its parent in mid-air,
This swallow probably occurs in the Palni Hills, but there are no records
thence. It is a resident in the Ceylon hills.
si4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vols DOOCy hit
Breeding: Tho gonads of the specimens furnished no indication as regards
breeding, but skull examination and colours of bare parts showed that two
of the birds procured on 25 April were juvenile and evidently lately out of nest.
According to Bourdillon (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 470) the breeding season in’ ‘rez
vancore is March, April and May. It builds its mud nest, well lined with
feathers, usually singly and not in colomes, under the eaves of a house or
even against a rock. 1 to 8 eggs is said to be the normal clutch.
Hirundo daurica erythropygia Sykes. Sykes’ Striated Swallow.
Specimens collected: 92 Q 14-1-33 “Maraiyur 3,000. it-; 279 9) | 28079
19-2-33 Thattakad 200 ft.; 688 Q 21-4-83 Aramboli 250 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Kottayam (S.L.); Camp Deramalai (8,000 ft.=— Pane
thalam Hills); Wadakkancheri (400 ft.); Karupadanna (ca. §.L.).
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill, legs, feet and claws dark horny-
brown (in No. 92 with a pinkish tinge); mouth pinkish-yellow.
[| Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Central tail feathers Outer tail feathers
4.99 10-11 110-116.5 40-48.5 71-79 mm.
These 4 specimens have the chestnut rump-band slightly richer in colour
than is usual, but I am not satisfied that this difference is of subspecific
value. It is very slight in degree and the colour of the rump-band is apt to
vary. with wear and bleaching.
No other Travancore specimens seen except one in the British Museum
without data from Surgeon-General Fry.--H. W.]
Sykes’s Striated Swallow is fairly common in the low country of Travan-
core and Cochin and was also met with by the Surveys sparingly and capri-
eiously -in the hills up to about 8,500 ft. Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 470)
shot a specimen in the High Range at over 5,000 ft. and Kinloch (cbid.,
xxix, 564-5) records it (‘nepalensis’) on the Lily Downs of Cochin at about
the same elevation. ay is
In the ‘Palni Hills, Terry (S.F., x, 469) saw this species at Pulungi in
April. It is a rare straggler to Ceylon where the chestnut tinted H. d.
hyperythra Layard is the resident form.
Breeding: Nos. 279 and 280 (12 February) had conspicuously granular
ovaries which, with their more or less immaculate plumage, suggested that
they were ready to breed shortly. No published record of its breeding in
Travancore or Cochin exists, however, and the Fauna (iii, 251) even describes
this bird only as a winter wanderer into our area.
Hirundo daurica subsp. ? vs mS
Specimens collected: 1021 9, 1022 0%, 1023 0? imm., 1024 ¢ 27-12-33
Karapadanna ca. 8.1L. | ies
Elsewhere ?
Colours of bare parts as in the foregoing.
[These 4 swallows are all immature and by their measurements (wing:
114.5-117.5, central tail feathers: 37.5-48, outer tail feathers: 76.5-90 mm.) ane
evidently not erythropygia, for it will be remembered that the tail in the
juvenile is always shorter than it will be in the adult. Correctly sexed young
birds from the breeding ground of the various races are too rare in collections
for me to have worked out the differences between the immature birds of
different races, but these agree with other young birds found in India in
winter which I have hitherto (provisionally) called nepalensis.—H. W.]
These swallows were shot out of a vast concourse of several hundred (or
thousand ?) birds that collected morning after morning on some _ telegraph
wires near the Travellers’ Bungalow. They began assembling at about 7 o'clock
and flew about in dense shoals or sat huddled together for over two furlongs
of the line, all facing the sun and preening themselves. By about 9 or 9-80
they had usually all dispersed to feed. None were to be seen on the wires
in’ the evenings and it was observed that the birds all retired to roost for the
night among the reeds on small islets in the backwaters, which were white
with their droppings.
(To be continued).
HOG-HUNTING REMINISCENCES.
BY
JL ONS
During the half century of the life of the Bombay Natural
History Society no articles on pig-sticking—that is more realistic
than hog-hunting!, have appeared in the Journal; so these
reminiscences, dating back to 1889, may be of interest to readers,
especially those new to the country. .
Forty-six years is a long time to look back; yet do 1 most
vividly recollect that tense moment when I first viewed ‘the great
erey boar’. ‘There was something close to the water’s edge, and
my heart with one leap stood still,—What a pity it is there was
no poet in those days of the like of Lindsay Gordon to record in
splendid verse the joys of the King of all Sports; though this
is said in no carping spirit against the great epic song of the
Hog-hunter, which will aptly find a place in these pages before
we lay aside our phantom spear.
That first encounter with the redoubtable foe was soon after
I entered upon the glorious life of an Indigo Planter in Tirhoot,
that level, cultivated, country which lies between the mighty
Ganges and its great tributary the Gandak river bringing icy
floods from the snowy ranges of Nepal. ;
My Factory Manager was a splendid horseman and a noted
G.R., for despite his inches—he was over six feet, he was thin
as a lath so rode about 9 stone 10 pounds. Rightly could it be
said of ‘Bob’ Crowdy—he raced under the name of ‘Mr. Bob’:—
‘A rider unequalled, a sportsman complete,
A rum one to follow, a bad one to beat.’
Many are the tales which could be told of his reckless ways
of putting even his racehorses and chasers into a trap without
previous training; and as often as not he would scorn the high
road and take short cuts across country to the terror of any less
venturesome companion who might be with him. A dangerous
man indeed to be alongside of! A counterpart he was of the
famous John Mytton.
With such a chief, it was not long before I possessed a modest
stable and entered into the varied sports of those days. It was
on a pretty warm morning in the early part of May that six of
us were out in pursuit of pig. We were beating some ‘ijer’ jungle,
consisting of fair-sized trees which favour low-lying, swampy,
eround. E and I were together, as we separated ourselves into
three heats. Some time after the beat started a fine old grey
boar broke on our side, and giving the usual ‘law’ we raced after
him, but before we got on terms he went into a deep nullah
in which were some wild rose bushes standing in water. Nothing
would induce him to show, though his grim form could be dimly
made out in the not very thick cover, : ,
516 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII1
In the meantime Bob Crowdy’s heat came along and ‘Take
the shot gun and tickle him up’ was the instruction to me, the
novice at the game. So, the gun taken from an attendant, it seemed
simultaneous with the arrival of the insulting pellets that the boar
had floored my pony and myself! Fortunately for us, when we
recovered from the mix up, the pig had spotted one of the beaters
and made for him. The man had the presence of mind to throw
himself flat on the ground, and before any damage could be done
Crowdy rode up and pricked the boar with his spear; he dared
not spear heavily for fear of injuring the man. At this fresh
insult the boar charged and Crowdy failed to stop him, not having
any pace, and got his horse cut below the hock: then there was
a general melée and the gallant fight was over.
My pony had been caught and brought to me, so I was in
at the death of my first pig! Not indeed mine by virtue of
‘first spear’, but had I not tickled him up with the shot gun?
And how soon had I learnt that the prowess of the great grey
boar was no whit exaggerated.
In those days ponies were cheap to buy, and keep, so I soon
owned some useful nags. The Sonepore Fair, where to this day
you may buy anything from an elephant to a mouse, or an eagle
to a quail, was perhaps the greatest event of the year. There
was a great gathering of the planting community from far and
near, to enjoy the ten days of business and pleasure for all and
sundry assembled from most parts of India.
Wandering around on an elephant, the camps and native
quarters could be seen to great advantage. There were streets
of shanties rigged up as shops for sale of all sorts of goods; gro-
ceries, toys, curios, various liquids in many-coloured bottles;
silks, muslins, beds, tables, and every conceivable article of fur-
niture; carriages, carts, conveyances of all sorts. Doubtless in
these days there will be bicycles and motor cars; and soon there
will be aeroplanes!
Beyond the tents was the horse fair to which dealers, even
from far Afghanistan, brought animals of every quality for sale.
Good, sound, nags could be had, but the buyer needed his wits
about him for he was bargaining with some of the most astute
horse-copers in the world.
It used to be a great sight to watch the many elephants
being bathed in the waters of the Gandak, just as one sees them
near Kandy in Ceylon and at other places at the present day.
Lying down in the water they are well scrubbed with a brick,
then over on the other side, obedient as any child, and when
that has been well cleaned, off to the sugarcane mart and away
to camp for a feed for man and beast.
It was the Kabul horses that we younger planters used to
buy, they being cheap as well as strong and hardy: round about
Rs. 200 is what they cost us. There was racing on four alter-
nate days, with a ball kept up until a late hour in the same
evenings; and the evening drive round the race course when all
Sonepora used to put in an appearance; and the polo and tennis
and endless jollifications: what a hectic time of it we lads used
HOG-HUNTING REMINISCENCES 517
to have! I wonder if the great mango grove of a hundred acres
is still as it used to be, affording welcome shade to the great
concourse of canvas.
But let us get along to the best part of those days; the pig-
sticking and hunting of jackal, wolf and fox. It would be weari-
some to relate the happenings of many hunts, but there are
incidents which stand out in the memory. One such was the
day when an elephant was cut about a foot below the root of
the tail! You would not think that possible? This was the
way of it.
On the day of that memorable incident four spears were out,
and a fifth man was on an elephant with a shot gun, for the
ground to be beaten was covered in heavy thatching-grass. The
line of beaters started a fine boar. He broke just under my pony’s
nose: we nearly trod on him. A real fighting pig he was, and
we were unable to get him out of the grass. As he lay up and
would not show himself the elephant was called up fo push
him out, but the pig turned the tables on the hathi for he in-
stantly charged; and as the elephant turned tail gave him two
good cuts on the leg. On receiving these hasteners the frightened
elephant stumbled for some cause and half sat down—which was
the pig’s opportunity to give him a real swipe of a cut in a nice
soft place! Our pal with the gun fell off, almost on top of the
pig, but Crowdy near by covered the fallen warrior with a spear,
so enabling him to get clear without damage. But the pig got
home on C’s horse and cut him badly in the hock; yet, even
in that thick stuff, Crowdy managed to get in a mortal spear so
that fighting boar died without a sound.
As we all know, the throwing of a spear is a very dangerous
thing. An excitable member of our community twice did this
when out with me. We were riding a small boar which had
broken cover and made for some ‘jhow’ in a river bed. Seeing
the pig escaping into this G, old hand though he was, hurled
his spear at the vanishing porker: the spear rebounded and cut
the thigh of a cooly near by, for the turn of the hunt had taken
us towards the beat. Fortunately it was not a serious wound,
but it might have been.
That incident, however, was insufficient brake upon the
excitable temperament of my friend, for a month later, when
two nice boars broke and we were hard after them they jinked
back and made for cover. We had cut out the larger of the
two and were riding him for all we were worth, but the distance
was too short. G stood up in his stirrups and hurled his spear
at the disappearing pig; the spear point imbedded in the ground
and G rode on to the leaden butt which caught him a heavy jolt
over the liver. Lucky it was not the business end! He is not
long gone to other hunting grounds, for he died about three years
ago.
Pig-sticking risks are many and various. Buffalo wallows
concealed in the long grass, the deep foot-marks dried in the
fierce sun, were always a potential danger. One of us had a
fall in one of these, and being spread-eagled in front of his mount,
518 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
the spear still fast in his hand and the point backwards, speared
the mare in the neck; a deep wound. As often as possible we
used to have a Native Veterinary Assistant out with us and he
was fortunately handy; so the wound was quickly seen to, and
healed in about a month.
An accident which happened in Purneah, next country to ours,
created a -great stir at the time. G.-W and another, B, were
riding a pig. B was on the pig and came down in the blind
going. G.-W close behind saw this and tried to pull out, but
his horse also came down and he was thrown on the point of
B.’s spear which entered under the left breast and came out
under the left shoulder blade. Instead of being instantly killed or
mortally wounded, as one would imagine, no serious damage was
done! The spear could not be pulled out from the front so was
straightaway cut off close to the chest and pulled out from the
back. Within a month the wounded man was fit and well, a
most marvellous recovery from an apparently fatal wound. He
rode pig afterwards and died twenty-five years later from causes
unconnected with the injury.
One day, when we were all having a rest and a drink, with
the half dozen beating elephants taking their ease a short distance
behind us, there was a sudden uproar among the animals. A fine
tusker, whose mahawat had left him for some purpose of his own
rushed at another, overthrew him by the unexpected assault,
and savagely prodded him with his tusks, one of which pene-
trated deeply behind the elbow. The missing mahawat rushing
up with a stick in his hand, belaboured the offender to the accom-
paniment of a fine vocabulary of abuse and actually beat him
off in that way, while the other elephant attendants had been
powerless to make the brute desist from his attack. The poor
beast died a month later from his injury.
It is a common saying that ‘where a pig can go a horse can
go’ and this is almost literally true; but sometimes it is not
possible. The deep fissures of the parched alluvial soil, much
of it very blind owing to high grass and scrub, were always
dangerous, but it was surprising how seldom bad falls occurred
over such ground. It was the pace that did not kill, for in speed
lay safety “for man and beast, as all who have experience well
know. Sometimes horses used to be badly staked by the sliced
tops of cut crops such as ‘arhar’, castor oil, and the like; and on
one occasion a horse lashing out at a pig tore off the tush which
remained imbedded in the soft part of his heel!
Bees sometimes caused a complete dispersion of sportsmen
and beaters, the. unfortunate animals suffering much on_ such
occasions as they were unable to dive into the thick folage of
some bush, or to cover vulnerable spots with a portion of clothing.
Their only protection lay in maddened flight which sometimes
extended to miles.
The vitality of the wild boar is extraordinary, and I once saw
a pig take thirteen spears before succumbing without a sound.
Of course a good spear in a fatal spot is speedily fatal—but every
spear is not so delivered,
HOG-HUNTING REMINISCENCES 519
There were two kinds of boar in cur country, at least so we
non-naturalist pig-stickers considered; and they had different dis-
positions, the grey being the more fierce and pugnacious. A
vicious and implacable foe when roused he always showed better
fight than the black variety which would sometimes utter a dying
squeal, which the grey boar never did. The two differed much
in the slope of the skull, that of the black pig being high over
the frontal bone and not very deep in proportion to length while
the grey boar had a skull not markedly high but long, and receding
in proportion to height. The black boars grew to a great size
and the grey were, on the whole, smaller and more shghtly built
animals. The young of the grey pig were striped at birth, whereas
those of the black were unstriped and of uniform black colour.
With an incident which might have been a tragedy I will
end these sketchy reminiscences. G and B were in one heat,
and W and self on the other side of the cover. The boar headed
for the railway embankment, G and B on his tail. The line
being of recent construction was unfenced. W and I having fol-
lowed on arrived as the pig was speeding up the slope. G was
met as he topped the edge of the embankment by the charging
pig and delivered a good spear, rolling the animal down into a
borrow pit. Almost in the act of spearing a train thundered
by within a few feet of the excited rider. What a mess there
might have been!
Now let us sing the good old song. No heel taps!
I would like to sing, but, I am sorry to say, I cannot accurately
give the words of ‘The Great Grey Boar’ and do not know where
to find the correct version.
Tt is fitting to close with those lines of Lindsay Gordon’s in
‘The Sick Stockrider’ :—
In these hours when life is ebbing, how those days when
life was young
Come back to us; how clearly I recall
Even the yarns Jack Hall invented, and the songs Jem
Roper sung;
And where are now Jem Roper and Jack Hall?
ON THE BIRDS OF THE KISHENGANGA VALLEY,
KASHMIR.
BY
Magor R. S. P. BAtEs, M.B.0.U.
ITINERARY.
April 16. Arrived Domel (2,200 ft.) by the Abbottabad route.
,, 18. Domel to Pateka (2,670 ft.). 15 miles.
19 to 21. Remained at Pateka.
22. Pateka to Dhanni (8,200 ft.). 10 miles.
,, 23. Dhanni to Tithwal (8,487 ft.). 8 miles.
24. Remained at Tithwal.
,, 25. Tithwal to Salkalla (4,500 ft.). 17 miles.
26 and 27. Remained at Salkalla.
,, 28. Salkalla to Keran (4,990 ft.). 10 mules.
29 to May 6. Remained at Keran.
May 7. Keran to Reshna (5,900 ft.). 14 miles.
» 8. Reshna to Sharda (6,180 ft.). 13 miles.
., 9 and 10. Remained at Sharda.
11. Sharda to Kel (6,544 ft.). 14 miles.
12 and 18. Remained at Kel.
» 14. Kel to Janwai (6,906 ft.). 15 miles.
,», 15 and 16. Remained at Janwai.
17. Janwai to Taobat (7,400 ft.). 14 miles.
18. Taobat to Badwan (Gurai:s) (7,900 ft.). 14 miles.
19. Remained at Badwan.
», 20. Badwan to Bagtor (7,700 ft.). 9 miles.
», 21 to-29. Remained at Bagtor.
,, 30. Bagtor to Koragbal (8,400 ft.). 5 miles.
,, 3l. Koragbal over the Razdhainangan Pass (11,586 ft.) to Tragbal,
and thence to Bandipur and Srinagar on June 1 and 2.
NARRATIVE.
Ornithologically the Kishenganga is little known for the simple
reason that the easiest and usual way of exploring Kashmir’s many
valleys is to go direct to Srinagar to arrange kit, supplies, and
transport and to commence explorations thence. The route from
Srinagar to Gilgit certainly traverses the extreme upper end of
the valley through Gurais, but the stretch of the Kishenganga
flowing through that very beautiful district comprises but one
twelfth of its length from the junction of the Tilel and Burzil
streams to the river’s confluence with the Jhelum at Domel.
My wife and I had always longed to see Gurais, so the idea
of combining a visit there with a study of the Kishenganga’s birds
proved an irresistible attraction in spite of a number of disadvan-
tages in the scheme, the main one being that I had to take my
leave from April 15 to June 14. This I knew before we started
to be, even in normal times, a good month too early for my
purpose, but the weather in the first half of April this year was
most unusually wet and cold. The result of course was to all
ON THE BIRDS OF THE KISHENGANGA VALLEY, KASHMIR 521
intents and purposes that we were always moving up about three
marches behind the snow level. In consequence practically none
of the birds which I particularly wished to study and photograph,
with the exception of three or four very early breeders, had begun
to contemplate nidification. This made it almost impossible to
separate residents from migrants and to determine exact breeding
limits.
The itinerary given above will I trust give the reader some
idea of our travels but it requires amplification.
We arrived at Tret on the evening of April 14 to hear that
the Murree-Kohala road was entirely blocked by snow and _ land-
slides and certain to remain blocked for some days. The follow-
ing morning we gloomily retraced our steps to Rawalpindi only
to find that the road via Abbottabad was also breached five miles
or so from Domel, but feeling that a possible walk of five miles
could not be allowed to interfere with our programme, we set off
forthwith and reached Garhi Habibullah the same evening. By
next morning the road had been cleared, and in consequence we
were soon at the Domel Dak bungalow. Alas! a telegram there
intimated that servants and supplies coming down from Srinagar
were held up indefinitely by further slips near Uri.
To enable a start to be made at the earliest possible moment,
I went off to the Thesildar at Muzzaffarabad to arrange transport,
either coolies or ponies. Ponies, I was informed, are not to be
had in the lower Kishenganga. Mules are used but the Thesildar
was not optimistic. The heavy rain had played havoe with the
track—it can hardly be called a road—along the Kishenganga,
and an important bridge across a side nullah had also been swept
away. He arranged to send us 26 coolies which he said could
not possibly be expected to turn up before 11 o’clock on the 18th.
It being then the 16th, I banked on our kit arriving and fixed up
accordingly.
The following morning a worried Zaildar called upon us. His
object was apparently to dissuade us from attempting the journey
upon which we had set our hearts. I think he was afraid for my
wife, but he did not know her determination nor that she is un-
doubtedly surer of foot than I am. Besides, it is extraordinary
what one can accomplish when the only alternative is to go back
all the way one has come. There are few routes over the hills
out of the Kishenganga Valley and they are almost impracticable
until well on into May. According to the Zaildar the path was
so awful that we might reach Tithwal, only three marches up the
Valley, in a fortnight or three weeks. Actually we were there in
less than a week but nevertheless he was right about the state
of the track, and after those first three marches we both
felt quite competent to take on any goat over ground of its own
choosing.
Our kit fortunately turned up on the 17th, so by the following
morning everything had been sorted out and repacked into fifty-
pound coolie loads in time for the proposed start. The promised
coolies did commence to appear roundabout 11 o’clock, but they
were a very mixed crew. A good hour and a half was wasted
522 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII!
wrangling over loads and it required a vigilant eye to see that
each coolie had anything like a full one, added to which the
coohes of these parts carry their loads unroped on their heads or
shoulders instead of across their backs in a sensible manner. A
string of gurgling camels would have been easier to deal with.
It was long after midday before a start could be made.
The dak bungalow compound was seething with migrants.
The previous day had seen the trees filled with Grey-headed Fly-
catchers and Willow-Warblers. The former had passed on but
shimmering white streaks of beauty now proclaimed the place
alive with Paradise Flycatchers, and just as we started a flock
or five or six Black-throated Thrushes arrived, but whether the
latter were bound up or down the valley I cannot say.
Birds seen at the beginning of this march were mainly those
of the lower levels and plains including Jungle Crows, Common
Mynas, White-cheeked Bulbuls, Drongos, Indian Bushchats, and
by the river a couple of White-breasted Kingfishers, Himalayan
Whistling Thrushes, many Plumbeous and White-capped Red-
starts, and to my surprise on a patch of boulders a mile or so
beyond Muzzaffarabad a Pied Chat. A second one was seen a
little way further on.
A couple of miles or so from Domel the Kishenganga roars from
a gorge of thoroughly impressive dimensions, and from there for
over thirty miles to Tithwal it can be said with truth that the
valley is but a narrow gash in the mountains with a precarious
path scratched out on its flank, sometimes high above the seeth-
ing water; sometimes, but not often, approaching nearer its sur-
face. From Tithwal to Keran the hillsides are perhaps less preci-
pitous; again a gorge to Dudhnial, but inclined to be more often
slightly less enclosed from there to Gurais. But throughout its
entire length the river has cut a series of deep gorges with occa-
sional fans and flattened spurs where large side streams flow in.
Here of course are the villages, usually consisting of but a few
houses, the inhabitants of which eke out a precarious existence by
terracing every available spot into narrow fields in which they
grow maize, corn, and to a lesser extent rice, maize being to all
intents and purposes the sole crop from Keran upwards, in spite
of the fact that Keran is only 5,000 ft. above sea level. The
severity of the zemindar’s lot is reflected in their weather-beaten
faces and ragged clothing, and certainly in the lower reaches they
struck me as being an under-nourished meagre race. The coolies
of the lower tracts were a poor lot after the sturdy Kashmiris,
and a thirteen-mile march with a fifty-pound load took them all
day to accomplish.
At the eighth mile from Domel, at Ghori, the river is spanned
by a suspension bridge. As far as this the road, a ledge cut for
the most part in the gorge side, was in an execrable condition
but by no means impassable. Numerous slips had occurred with
abrupt slides straight into the river beneath, and across: these a
path a foot or so wide had been trodden. The first few were
unpleasant to negotiate but there were so many that we quickly
got used to them, From Ghori to Pateka the path was on the
ON THE BIRDS OF THE KISHENGANGA VALLEY, KASHMIR 523
left bank and crossed one or two spurs so was not so often apn
over the river.
From Ghori too the country began to show a definite Bheiee.
Bushes had certainly become more numerous and taller, but now
open woods of long-leafed pines began to make their appearance
on the southern bank, though these were mainly high up the
mountain sides. It was not until the next march that the woods
definitely grew down to the river’s edge.
At Pateka I at once noticed Striated Swallows flying around
the forest rest-house. We also heard Nightjars there but I failed
to collect a specimen. They had the extraordinary habit. of hawk-
ing insects at dusk high overhead well out of gunshot over the
two stoney nullahs on either side of the hut. I failed to discover
them in their daytime haunts and a meghttime expedition with
an electric torch likewise drew blank.
From Pateka to Dhanni, a distance of but ten miles, took us
all day, three coolies not getting in until nearly dark. First we
had to negotiate a rushing torrent where the bridge had been
destroyed, and shortly afterwards we were faced with a slp be-
tween three and four hundred yards wide where the whole hillside
had literally fallen away. -It was not as terrifyingly steep as it
might have been, but rocks jutted out awkwardly. in the worst
places and slipping shale splinters made it necessary to go quickly
for yards at a time, an unpleasant proceeding where the ‘path’
was but a series of imprints of coolies’ naked feet. Our difficul-
ties were further increased by our two dogs who would insist on
trying to walk side by side. The cocker in one place developed
cold feet and made an effort to get back along the path to his
mistress past those who were leading.
At Dhanni Striated Swallows were again in plenty, so I did
not add to the only specimen I had collected at Pateka, expecting
to meet with them further on when building operations had com-
menced. Alas! we saw no more after entering the Tithwal gorge.
3,200 {t. seemed to be the limit of this race. I also ascertained
that the. Common Swallow was unknown in the valley. The Zail-
dar at Pateka was able to describe quite accurately the nesting
of the Striated Swallow and told me they would have eggs in
twenty days’ time but said no Swallows ever built in the hoes,
_ and eertainly I never saw one after leaving Domel. a
Dhanni to Tithwal was an easy march, the latter half being
through a very beautiful gorge. There were now a few trees on
the right bank as well as ecru, and deodars with their graceful
drooping boughs and symmetrical outlines made their appearance
amongst the pines. Wild pear in blossom and some kind of fig
tree ARG added their quota to the flora. Flocks of Blue Rock-
Pigeons inhabited the craggy banks, and I was surprised to see a
Large Cormorant wing its way swiftly down stream.
Tithwal, apparently usually called Karnah, was hot; the high
hills enclosing it on all sides reflected the sun’s rays as in a
funnel, and we were pleased to quit it. after a day’s halt. There
ras an isolated colony of Common Mynas there and also a few
House-Sparrows. No more of either were seen throughout the
504 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIIl
length and breadth of the valley until we again found the Spar-
rows in Gurais. It was here also that the last Paradise Fly-
catchers were noted, a single pair amongst some almond _ trees
and one at Mirpur but a few miles further on.
At the entrance to the Tithwal Gorge I had an amusing hour
or so trying to collect specimens of Alpine Swifts. They had
their quarters in some crevices in a perpendicular cliff about
forty yards above the path. A screaming band would _ literally
hurtle past the crevices, one or two birds swinging upwards and
rapidly creeping into a crack whence issued further chitterings.
I regret to say that I expended ten cartridges without the least
effect. The bands arrived over a little spur with such incredible
speed that an aimed shot was an impossibility. I tried standing
with the gun to my shoulder aiming at a favourite crack until I
could stand the strain no longer when of course with a swish
like a passing shell half a dozen birds would rush by. Browning
being inffective I attempted to get birds as they crawled into one
of the narrow cracks. Twice I succeeded in peppering one, but
each time it just seemed to shake itself and crawl in the faster.
The range was too great for No. 10 shot and dust from the .410
bore. I returned in the evening with 6’s but alas they had
already retired for the night.
The next stage was a long one, approximately 17 miles to
Salkalla. We arrived tired and thereby chose just about the worst
camping ground we could have done. Next day we wondered
how on earth we could have hit upon such a sandy spot when
within two hundred yards was a comparatively grassy patch under
a chenar quite close to the spring whence we drew our water..
Incidentally in three weeks we used the tents for as many
days, so at Keran sent them back to Srinagar over the 10,000 ft.
Pass which leads to Tregam and Sopor. Not only are there fre-
quent forest rest-houses at convenient intervals all through except
at Kel and at Taobat, but to find camping grounds anywhere
along the whole length of the valley until one is nearly in Gurais
is almost an impossibility. Where a flat space large enough to
pitch a tent does occur, it is either incredibly dirty, having been
well fouled by successive pack-mule caravans, or else it has been
turned into a narrow field and consequently is either bearing a
crop or in process of being ploughed up. I advise travellers to
obtain permission to use the forest rest-houses—most of them have
two rooms with just sufficient furniture—take one small tent for
use in case of necessity and their own camp furniture. The use
of each room is only eight annas a day, so not only does one
save coolies, who are not always easy to collect in the lower
reaches, but one saves considerable expense into the bargain.
A further change was coming over the birds. The zwang-
zwang-zwang of Stewart’s Bunting faded out somewhere in the
neighbourhood of Salkalla and the Meadow Bunting took its place.
Blue Magpies became common, Black Bulbuls excessively so, and
Turtle Doves appeared. Scaly-bellied Green Woodpeckers were
by no means uncommon. In fact one had reached a new zone
of bird life. Salkalla is only 4,500 ft. above sea level but its bird
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PL
| Copyright ihe Sucve. Bates:
| Entrance to the Tithwal Gorge. Alpine Swifts occupied crevices in the cliff
| face near the small bridge on the right,
a
ON THE BIRDS OF THE KISHENGANGA. VALLEY, KASHMIR 525
population appeared to correspond with about the 6,000 ft. level
of such valleys as the Sind and Lidar off the main vale of Kashmir.
At Keran we stayed a week. We were overtaking the snow
level which was then only three marches ahead. Keran itself had
experienced a late fall on April 14 but it also appeared a good
place for birds. The woods were thicker—deodar, long-leafed
pine, horse chestnut and other trees on both sides of the river,
and the Ilex growth scantier. The latter, which had been much
in evidence from below Salkalla soon after disappeared altogether.
There are also two big villages and a considerable crop area as
a stream flows into the main river on each side. Chukar abound-
ed on one slope. The Blue Magpie parties were breaking up into
pairs: Pied Woodpeckers appeared, and altogether we had = an
interesting time.
Alas! few birds except Whistling Thrushes, Plumbeous Red-
starts, and Brown Dippers, whose photographs I already have in
plenty, had really got down to nesting, so bird photography was
still at a discount, but the list of species noted scon swelled to
the neighbourhood of ninety. The first Crested Black Tit and the
first Simla Black Tit were noted, while Short-billed Minivets in
large bands were most numerous. Pipits I still did not meet. In
fact I had only seen one in the neighbourhood of Dhanni when
I was without my gun.
The stretch from Keran to Sharda we did in two instead of
the usual three marches, but the 14 miles to Reshna is better
done in two stages, halting at Doarian where there is another
F.R.H. Doarian to eshna is decidedly hard going, the path
having to ascend through the forest some hundreds of feet to
surmount the towering cliffs of a narrow rocky gorge.
At Sharda I heard Thrushes singing a few hundred feet above
the rest-house. They turned out to be Grey-headed Thrushes and
were mating. I also saw here a Blue-headed Rock-Thrush for
the first time and a Missel Thrush. The forest was thoroughly
suitable for the Grey-headed.Thrushes. Many chestnut trees, just
unfolding their leaves, were growing amongst towering. forest
giants of deodars and silver and spruce firs, numbers of whose
rotting trunks were strewn over the steep hillsides collecting drifts
of melting snow against their shppery decaying sides. A thin, as
yet leafless, parrottia scrub formed the undergrowth. .
By the time we reached Kel on May 11, a further change had
come about. The deodars had almost disappeared and the firs
predominated, though long-leafed pines were again common. Un-
fortunately these close-growing fir forests which now persisted for
the rest of our trek to Gurais contained little undergrowth, so a
great many birds which prefer woods of a more mixed character
were absent or rare. Wide snow drifts across every nullah and
streain slowed up one’s rate of march. On the south bank snow
was still lying in the forest, and here I heard and saw the first
and last Yellow-billed Choughs. 6,500 ft. is surely a very low
altitude for these birds even in early May.
We had thoroughly bad luck at Kel, the one and only stage
where no forest hut of any kind exists. Shortly after our arrival
526 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIil
the temporary bridge over the Barai nullah, within three hundred
yards of which we had pitched a tent on the roof of a deserted
hut, was swept away, and we were let in for an. enforced stay
of three days. I regret now I did not climb the hill immediately
behind our camp as I believe a good view of Nanga Parbat, but
thirty-five miles away, is to be obtained from its summit.
Fortunately for us the lambardar of Kel was an enterprising
soul and nobly turned out a stout band of villagers who, with
the help of men from a small hamlet on the other side, threw a
primitive cantilever pine-log bridge across a narrows. Unfortu-
nately it entailed a detour of two miles up the nullah and an
appalling scramble over snow shoots and the steepest of slopes
before we were back on the path. Nevertheless we shall remem-
ber the lambardar of Kel with real gratitude.
Our troubles as regards the path were now practically over.
We still had a few tricky places to get across—one where a snow
bridge had collapsed and we had to descend the stream between
deep snow walls splashed by the iciest of waterfalls and crawl
under the overhanging lip along the river edge, a by no means
pleasant experience, and I for one heaved a sigh of relief when
the last coolie was through, as a block of snow the size of a
house looked ready to crack. off at any moment.
We spent two full days at Janwai and.then made for Taobat.
Between Kel and Janwai the forest on both sides of the river was
amazingly. thick, but now, six or seven miles short of Taobat,
the valley at last really did open out. The slopes still went up
straight from the river but at a gentler angle. Villages and culti-
vation were more in evidence: one could actually see hilltops and
margs. The fall of the river was less and the din of churned up
seething mud-stained water. diminished. It frequently widened
out. enclosing a few islands and at last the querulous twitterings
of Sandpipers were frequently heard. J had seen but one or two
of these birds all the way up and had come to the erroneous con-
clusion that the Kishenganga was not to be counted.as one of
their. best loved routes from the plains. It was now, and only
now, that we fully realised the extraordinary nature of the valley
we had traversed. For 120 miles we had. walked through fear-
some gorges until we expected nothing else. At last we were in
country more like that to be found in the better known valleys
of Kashmir. vo
After-a somewhat draughty and chilly night at Taobat as our
shelter consisted of a large one-roomed hut with wooden barred
openings on opposite sides for windows, a ‘kuth’ store, we went
on to Gurais.
The river here takes a wide double bend between heights of
18,000 ft. or so and passing along this bend we could not help
feeling that we were in a milder more hospitable clime. This
seemed to be definitely true as I began to note again birds which
we had left behind at considerably lower levels. At Bagtor
Rufous-backed Shrikes re-appeared and at Gurais itself House-
Sparrows outnumbered Cinnamon Tree-Sparrows by twenty to one,
while Sandpipers became increasingly numerous.
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ON THE BIRDS OF THE KISHENGANGA VALLEY, KASHMIR 52%
But we were not impressed with Gurais. True the snow had
hardly melted: flowers were practically non-existent, and the
weather broke. Perhaps we had been expecting too much, but we
had undoubtedly passed through much finer scenery. After a
day’s rest we therefore retraced our steps to the Bagtor F.R.H.
two miles below Kunzalwan, charmingly situated on the edge of
the forest on a sloping green marg still soaked with but recently
melted snow, where bright blue gentians already starred the
earth, and where irises were soon to cover the sward in wide
patches. There we spent a thoroughly pleasant ten days from
May 21 to May 30.
Migrants were still arriving. One day I suddenly realised that
Sooty Flycatchers were about, hawking flies from the highest
perches to which they would return again and again, while three
days before we left I thought I heard a Blue Chat, soon confirmed
as next day two were calling and thereafter they were every-
where.
On May 80 we left on the final stage to cross the Razdhainan-
gan Pass and descend into the vale of Kashmir. There is little
more to add. As we left Koragbal I heard the unmistakable
five-noted call of the Large-billed Willow-Warbler and went on
hearing it until we left the vicinity of the stream near Gorai.
The pass was very trying. In spite of getting up at 4 a.m. ina
sharp frost the snow was very soft and through it we had _ per-
force to plod and slip and sink for nearly six miles before leaving
it behind for good at the top of the Tragbal forest. A biting
wind was blowing in our faces as we neared the crest and our
toes were like blocks of ice but it was a perfect day and the views
in all directions more perfect still.
_ As we trudged down the Tragbal forest I received ample con-
firmation of the rigour of the Kishenganga’s climate compared
with that of the vale of Kashmir and its immediate side valleys.
Birds were much more numerous, the Meadow Buntings and
many other birds obviously breeding freely, and below Tragbal
the wild roses were glorious with many Hume’s Lesser White-
throats breeding amongst them. Nevertheless I soon ascertained
that conditions really were abnormal everywhere, as after arrival
in Srinagar my efforts to get at least a few photos of the water
birds of the Dal Lake were quite abortive as the water was very
deep and the birds I wanted only just commencing to build. As
the Kishenganga from its very topography and climate is bound
to be backward compared with the vale of Kashmir, it is not
surprising therefore that I had found so few nests.
Notes.
The following condensed notes may be of use to others taking
the same route :—
(1) Kashmir always experiences rainy weather in the first
half of April. In a valley of the character of the Kishenganga,
this is bound to result in frequent landslides rendering the path
unfit for anything except lightly laden coolies.
8
528 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, .Vol.. XXXVIII
(2) Repairs to the path are only considered after the better
weather has set in and the snow melted in the upper reaches, and
take considerable time to effect.
(3) From approximately Sharda the danger from avalanches
and landshps is not over even in normal times until well on into
May. Thus
(4) one cannot count on being able to use animal transport
until the beginning of June.
(5) The forests of the valley are divided into three divisions:
(a) Muzzaffarabad Division,
(b) Keran Division, and
(c) Sindh Division,
In order to use the forest rest-houses permission must be
obtained from the respective Divisional Forest Officers whose
offices are at Muzzaffarabad, Keran, and Bandipur.
(6) These F.R.H.’s have furniture, including bathroom
utensils, with the exception of Janwai I’.R.H. which had nothing.
(7) There are no F.R.H.s at Kel and Taobat, but at the
latter place is a large one-roomed shed which may be used. There
is of course no cook-house or servants’ quarter along with it.
The Bagtor F.R.H. is 54 miles further on but this makes it a
twenty-mile march from Janwai—not iunpossible of course provid-
ed the path has been repaired and one can use ponies as the
going is good except over one or two short stretches.
(7) Tentage may be used in place of going to the rest-houses
but places to pitch them are difficult to find until after Janwai,
the only available ground often being in the F.R.H. compounds.
(8) Milk, eggs, chickens, and sheep are obtainable. Butter
is not good and the sheep are miserably thin as the grass is of
scant growth until June. Vegetables are quite unprocurable with |
the exception of dandelion leaves which make quite presentable
spinach.
(9) The time of year to undertake the trip is rather difficult
to advise upon, as the lower end of the valley warms up very
quickly. Even on April 24 we found Tithwal decidedly hot. But
if one starts too early one overtakes the melting snows and finds
the path frequently blocked or damaged. Personally I would
advise starting in the first week of May and moving up more
slowly than we did.
(10) Should one wish to strike into the valley instead of
starting from Domel, there are three good passes leading from
Kamraj or the Lolab to Tithwal, Keran, and Dudhnial. These are
not likley to be practicable for ponies until well on into May
or even early June.
SysTEMATIC List.
(1) Corvus macrerhynchus intermedius.—Jungle Crows were common all along
the line of march and were noted to be building in April; namely at Dhanm
on April 22, near Tithwal carrying lining material on April 28, and at
Salkalla on April 27.
(2) Corvus splendens.—House-Crows were totally absent from the valley.
Villages like Tithwal and Keran might have been expected to harbour colonies
of this crow but the last I saw were near Abbottabad in Hazara.
ON THE BIRDS OF THE KISHENGANGA VALLEY, KASHMIR 529
(3) Corvus monedula.—This bird also has really no place here as it was
never met with. A pair were however seen not far from Garhi Habibullah
in Hazara shortly before crossing over into the Kishenganga Valley.
(4) Urocissa flavirostris cucullata.—These beautiful birds were very commonly
met with in the lower parts of the valley, the last, a party of three, being
seen a couple of miles beyond Dudhnial at an elevation of approximately
6,000 ft. on May 8. More often than not they were in small flocks but single
pairs were not infrequently met with. For instance, we had two pairs near
us at Keran occupying territory on either side of the Rest-House. Stuart
Baker, F'.B.I., 2nd Edition, vol. i, remarks that they haunt principally
evergreen forests and heavy jungle. I would rather put it that they haunt
the outskirts of evergreen forest and heavy jungle, seldom if ever being found
far within the latter, unless well provided with glades dotted with trees and
tall bushes. They often visit cultivation where it lies close to forest, and I
have not infrequently seen them hopping about ploughed fields in a most
ungainly manner.
(5) Garrulus lanceslatus.—On April 26 I procured a female which flew
across a small patch of cultivation into some light mixed forest by the river
side at Salkalla. The ovary was slightly developed, having a granular appear-
ance. A pair was seen in similar country three miles from Salkalla on April 28
during the march to Keran.
(6) Nucifraga multipunctata—A single bird was seen at Keran on April 30
on the edge of the forest by the F.R.H.
(7) Pyrrhocorax graculus.—A party consisting of some thirty birds was seen
on May 12 at Kel. Taking advantage of the air currents they circled rapidly
up a rather bare steep nullah behind our camp and were soon lost to view.
None was seen elsewhere, not even during our crossing of the Razdhainangan
Pass.
(8) Parus major cashmirensis.— Very common as far as Sharda after which
they became progressively scarcer until the last one was seen and shot on
May 17 five miles beyond Janwai at an elevation of 7,200 ft. At Keran at
the beginning of May they appeared mostly to be concerned with searching
for nesting sites, but the specimen procured near Janwai proved to be a
breeding male.
(9) Parus monticolus monticolus.—A single pair was remarked at Keran on
May 3 in some mixed forest about 800 ft. above the F.R.H. They were not
uncommon at Sharda.
(10) Lophophanes melanolophus.— First noted in the Keran Forest at 5,300 ft.
on May 1. Thereafter it was met with at each halt to Bagtor. The next
species, however, seemed to be the common Black Tit of the Kishenganga.
411) Lophophanes rufonuchalis rufonuchalis._Also first seen at Keran, on
ay 5, where it was undoubtedly more numerous than melanolophus. It was
in fact the commonest Tit seen from there right up to Gurais, and most of
the Black Tits on which I levelled my glasses turned out to be of this species.
A pair was watched inspecting holes in the ground for a nesting site in the
forest on the edge of the path near Kunzalwan on May 18. I am quite
convinced that numbers of ‘Black Tits’ nests taken from holes in the ground
in the forests of the Kashmir valleys and recorded as melanolophus are in
reality those of rufonuchalis and that the bird is much commoner throughout
Kashmir than it is recorded to be. TI am sure that I have unfortunately “been
guilty of the error myself. The two birds are not very easy to differentiate
except at the closest range with glasses.
(12) Sitta leucopsis.— Marching back to Bagtor from Badwan on May 20,
I heard a very harsh call issuing from the summit of a tall spruce fir. Two
birds of the size and shape of Nuthatches few out and across the path into
the thick forest on our left. Judging from their notes I consider they must
have been of this species. They were the only Nuthatches seen throughout
the valley.
580 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
(13) Trochalopteron lineatum lineatum.—Evidently a common bird throughout
the valley wherever ground suited to its requirements occurs. Although an
arrant skulker it does not mind leaving cover if undisturbed. A pair haunted
the compound of the F.R.H. at Tithwal although it could boast of but three
bushes capable of affording any protection from view. Near Sharda I saw
one out in the middle of a ploughed field, while at Bagtor one was actually
noted sitting on the roof of a house. It only shuffled away when I approached
and levelled the glasses in its direction. They possess a very plaintive un-
mistakable three-noted danger call of ‘twee-twee-twee’. Two males shot at
Pateka on April 20, which JI had taken for a paired: couple, had the testes
enlarged to the size of peas but a search for a nest only produced a last year’s
one.
(14) Microscelis psarcides psaroides.—From Muzzaffarabad, where I saw a
pair in the trees of a cemetery just before getting into the gorge, to Keran
(5,000 ft.) these birds became increasingly common. I saw a pair at Reshna
(5,900 ft.), 138 miles further on, but none after that, although I thought I
heard their harsh notes once at Sharda but may have been mistaken.
(15) Molpastes leucogenys leucogenys.—Common as far as Tithwal. I noted
one or two at Salkalla (4,500 ft.) but none beyond.
(16) Certhia himalayana limes.—'The first Tree Creeper was noted at Pateka
on April 24. This bird, a female, was not in breeding trim. Others were
seen at Keran, Janwai, Bagtor, and Badwan. At Bagtor they were very
numerous. A male shot at Janwai on May 16 had the testes greatly enlarged.
Hodgson’s Tree-Creeper was not noted.
(17) Troglodytes troglodytes mneglectus.—I did not come across this cheerful
little songster until I had climbed to about the 8,500 ft. level into a rocky
rather gloomy patch of forest in the Gishat nullah at Bagtor on May 24.
I heard them again after passing Gorai on the way up to the Razdhainangan.
(18) Cinclus pallasii tenuirostris.—Hxceedingly common along the river, and
its side streams, over its whole length. Young birds strong on the wing
were seen from Pateka in April to Badwan and Bagtor at the end of May.
One bird was observed sitting, presumably on eggs, in an inaccessible nest
at Tithwal on April 24. Although undoubtedly an exceedingly early breeder,
the nesting of this bird is very prolonged, to a certain extent depending on
elevation. I have seen young ones in the nest at between eight and nine
thousand feet in the Lidar Valley as late as August.
(19) Tarsiger bronnea.—-This bird only put in its first appearance on
May 28 when I recorded that I thought I heard its notes once in the Gishat
nullah at Bagtor. I had ample confirmation next day when I heard two at
once on either side of the F.R.H. Thereafter they became increasingly
numerous.
(20) Saxicola caprata bicolor.—Not uncommon at Domel and seen again at
Pateka between April 18 and 21.
(21) Saxicola torquata indica.—Common throughout the valley. Signs of
breeding were noted from the end of the first week in May.
(22) Rhodophila ferrea ferrea.— Common at both Domel and Pateka. None
seen further up the valley.
(23) GEnanthe picata.—On April 18 I saw one of these birds on a stoney
patch just opposite the old fort at Muzzaffarabad and another one a little
further on, likewise amongst stones and boulders.
(24) Enicurus maculatus maculatus.—Noted at Keran and Sharda on May 1
and 10 respectively. From their behaviour I am sure the Keran pair had a
nest but I failed to locate it. This bird is probably much commoner 1n the
Kishenganga than it appeared to be but I visited few streams suitable to its
habits, except at Bagtor, where, however, I never came across it.
(25) Microcichla scouleri scouleri.—Generally connected with mountain torrents
in the steepest of nullahs well provided with waterfalls where this little bird
can play about in the spray. At the Gehl nullah between Tithwal and Salkalla
ON THE BIRDS OF THE KISHENGANGA VALLEY, KASHMIR 581
on April 25, one was seen right underneath a voluminous fall and another
in a typical situation at Janwai on May 14, but two miles beyond Dudhnial,
where the river for once flows serenely between wide banks, I was surprised
to see a Little Forktail pottering around a boulder some ten yards out from
the near bank. We did not pass a side stream for another quarter of a mile.
This. was choked with snow and had very little water in it.
(26) Phoenicurus frontalis—One was noted in Gurais on May 19 feeding in
a patch of viburnum near Wampur village.
(27) Chaimarrornis teucocephalan—Common everywhere along the main river
and also to be seen on the larger streams. In my opinion the majority of
these Redstarts breed late, from the end of June, and move up very leisurely
from the lower winter levels to their breeding grounds in the neighbourhood
of eight or nine thousand feet upwards. A male, shot at Bagtor on May 23,
had the testes greatly enlarged and appeared to be breeding.
(28) Rhyacornis fuliginosa fuliginosa.—As common along the whole length
of the Kishenganga as along the other Kashmir rivers. I noted no signs of
nest building until we were at Keran at the end of April. From the beginning
of May many pairs had commenced nidification, and at Bagtor on May 27,
the only time I really searched for them, I found nests both being built and
containing fresh eggs.
(29) Calliope pectoralis pectoralis.—The first one seen was feeding in some
viburnum bushes twenty yards from the Bagtor F.R.H. on May 29. It was
a male with organs developing and may have been driven down from higher
levels by the stormy weather we had experienced on that and the two previous
days. The next one I saw was sitting unconcernedly on a stone by the
broken bridge near the remains of the Gorai dak bungalow.
(30) Ianthia cyanura pallidicra.—First noticed near Badwan on May 20,
but on our return to Bagtor I found them very common there, often coming
out into the viburnum shrubs running along the edge of the forest. On
May 21 I shot what I thought was a female, only to find it was a male in
immature plumage with testes well enlarged. A second one in full plumage
shot the next day appeared to be hardly contemplating breeding.
(31) Copsychus saularis saularis.—As usual there was a pair in the Domel
dak bungalow compound, and I saw one by the roadside as we passed through
Muzzaffarabad.
(32) Turdus boulbouwl.—A dark unicoloured Thrush with an orange bill,
which I took to be a female of this species, was seen quietly feeding on the
ground in a small bagh three miles from Pateka on April 22.
(33) Turdus rubrocanus rubrocanus.— Only met with at Sharda, May 8 to 10,
although a fine song heard near Gorai at 9,000 ft. on our way to the Razdhai-
nangan Pass on May 81 was attributed to this species, as well as a number
of old nests on the edge of the fir forest at Bagtor. At Sharda it was common
above the rest-house and a male shot there had its testes greatly enlarged.
They appeared to be mating as no less than five were seen at once chasing
one another about the wood to an accompaniment of much cackling. As already
stated the forest here was most suitable for them. After Sharda it was com-
posed mostly of silver fir and spruce and was very thick and lacking in
undergrowth.
(34) Turdus atrogularis.—A party of these Thrushes flew into the tall trees
in the Domel dak bungalow compound just as we were preparing to leave
on April 18.
(35) Turdus unicolor.— Only noted at Keran where I shot a male with
greatly enlarged testes out of a pair which flew over the F.R.H. on May 3.
Another bird was seen on the Nilam plateau near Keran two days later.
(36) Arceuthornis viscivorus bonapartei.-One seen at Sharda on May 9 and
another at Janwai on May 16.
(37) Monticola cinclorhyncha.— First recorded at Sharda where I saw a male
on May 10 when watching the Grey-headed Thrushes. I heard the song on
582 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVITE
several occasions during the remaining marches to Gurais and found them to
be fairly common at Bagtor. I spent two whole days towards the latter end
of May looking for their nests but without success. The pleasant though
rather monotonous song of the male, so often rendered from the very pinnacle
of a pine or fir tree, renders this bird easily traceable.
(38) Myophoaus caeruleus temminckii.—Common everywhere and numbers
had nests even from the date of our arrival in Domel, although I think few
birds. were then at the stage of incubating eggs but merely building. On
May 11 between Sharda and Kel I observed three nests on ledges of the
steep rock face of the further bank of the river within less than fifty yards
of one another. On two of them birds were sitting. The other nest was
visited twice. At Janwai there was a nest with three fresh eggs in it on
a rafter of the F.R.H. verandah, while at Taobat one had actually built
on a beam inside the shed in which we spent the night.
(39) Prunella strophiata jerdoniicmN male was singing on a branch just over
our heads shortly after we got into the forest at Gorai (9,000 ft.) on May 81.
It was obviously breeding, its testes being very greatly enlarged.
(40) Hemichelidon sibirica gulmergi.—I only became aware of the presence
of these birds after we had been at Bagtor some days, that is on May 25,
when 1 came on quite a party near the mouth of the Shalput nullah. One
pair appeared to be building near the end of a branch high up in a fir tree.
They have a very characteristic habit of hawking insects from a high perch
to which they often return. After the date in question I saw many even
around the F.R.H. They were very numerous at Koraghal in some _ birch
trees on the evening of May 30.
(41) Muscicapula superciliaris superciliaris.—First noted at Salkalla. They
were common at Keran where I watched a pair on April 80 fussing around a
crack in an old split trunk. Both birds entered the cavity repeatedly although
I was but four feet away. They eventually rejected it as a possible nesting
site. I saw none beyond Reshna.
(42) Eumyias thalassima thalassima.—One pair observed by a small stream
on a bush-covered hillside at Pateka on April 20.
(43) Alseonax ruficaudus.—I first met with this rather unobtrusive Fly-
catcher at Keran. It may occur lower down the valley but until I had shot
one I was not conversant with its notes and may have missed it. They were
exceedingly common and breeding around Bagtor. Incidentally I found no
trace of the occurrence of latirostris.
(44) Culicicapa ceylonensis pallidior.— The trees of the Dak bungalow compound
were full of these flycatchers all through the day of our arrival at Domel,
April 16. The following day they had passed on; apparently up the Jhelum
valley as only at Keran on April 29 did I hear the unmistakable notes of a
single bird.
(45) Niltava sundara whistleri.—Seen in the Domel Dak bungalow compound
on both April 17 and 18, possibly the same bird both times.
(46) Tchitrea paradisi leucogaster.—Numbers of these beautiful birds passed
through Domel the day after our arrival there, April 17. I don’t think I have
ever seen so many as I did at Pateka during our three days’ halt at that
place from April 19 to 21. Nevertheless I only saw one pair at Tithwal
(April 24) in some almond trees and a single bird five miles further up at
Mirpur, elevation 3,700 ft., on April 25. I quite expected to see them at
Keran but none had appeared when we left on May 7. In fact this striking
bird seemed to be unknown to villagers I questioned around Keran. Between
Dusut and Sharda, 6,180 ft., there are many little orchards of cherry and
apple trees as the valley is somewhat wider but this is perhaps a little too
high for them to penetrate to.
(47) Lanius vittatus.— A single bird attributable to this species was seen at
re edge of a small copse between Tithwal and Salkalla at about 4,000 ft, on
pril 25,
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ON THE BIRDS OF THE KISHENGANGA VALLEY, KASHMIR 5338
(48) Lanius schach erythrono{us.— Common at Pateka. We had a pair in
the F.R.H. compound. I then saw them at Keran on the little plateau on which
Nilam village stands, the elevation being about 5,400 ft., and shot a breeding
male there on May 5. After that none was seen until we were passing
through Bagtor where the river makes its abrupt turn into the wider milder
Gurais valley. They were not uncommon in Gurais.
(49) Pericrocotus brevirostris brevirostris.— Noted immediately on our arrival
in Keran where they were commonly seen in flocks of considerable size feeding
through the forest often descending into the parrottia scrub. A male shot
there on April 29 had the organs only slightly developed. They were common
enough right up to Gurais, but from Keran onwards the flocks appeared to be
breaking up into pairs.
(50) Dicrurus macrocercus albirictus.— Became increasingly common as we
approached Keran. At that place a pair near the F.R.H. were most aggressive
and may have already been breeding. I have no records of any seen after
Keran.
(51) Sylvia althaa.— On May 1, I shot the male out of a pair seen in the
viburnum and rose bushes on the edge of the Nilam plateau near Keran. Its
testes were enlarging. It appeared very suitable ground for them and_ they
may well breed there. I saw them nowhere else. ‘
(52) Phylloscopus affinis.—A small party of these diminutive but hardy
warblers was noted on passage at Pateka on April 19.
(53) Acanthopneuste magnirostris.—The characteristic five-noted call of this
Willow-Warbler was not heard until we were leaving Koragbal in the small
hours of the morning of May 31. I heard them frequently as far as Gorai
where we left the vicinity of the stream. A few days before leaving Bagtor
I had noticed that a very plain-coloured Willow-Warbler had appeared in
~small numbers in the Shalput nullah. This bird, which was then silent, fed
largely in low bushes and close to the ground on weedy grass-covered banks
along the stream. A specimen, a male with testes enlarging, shot on May 2
in this nullah, turns out to be magnirostris.
(54) Acanthopneuste occipitalis sccipitalis.— Noted commonly throughout the
valley. In April in the lower reaches they were probably only on passage.
But at Keran in early May I began to hear their plaintive danger call.
The commonest Willow-Warbler of all, especially in the fir forest zone,
was a small yellow-rumped bird, almost certainly Phylloscopus proregulus.
So many Willow-Warblers were only passing through that I shot none of
this species intending only to procure specimens actually nesting. I rather
suspect that this bird is a late breeder and none seemed to have commenced
nidification when we left the valley.
(55) Homochlamys pallidus pallidus.—This little bird of the intriguing voice
was heard at Pateka, Salkalla, and Keran, in all of which places it appeared
to be fairly prevalent. eran being but five thousand feet above sea level
I expected to meet with it much further up the valley, but, although the
hillsides on the north bank of the river at Sharda looked ideal for it, I never
heard it there. Is its range in the Kishenganga very restricted or did we
pass it at Keran moving up the valley even more slowly than we were doing?
(56) Suya criniger criniger.—Common at Pateka; heard again near Dhanni,
and one seen on a bushy hillside at Keran at about 5,400 ft. A male shot
at Pateka on April 19 in the thick bushes just by the F.R.H. showed that
breeding was about to commence. Incidentally it seemed to be a well known
bird there and had the local name of phitta.
(57) Regulus regulus himalayensis.-- The only one recorded was seen in the
fir forest in the Shalput nullah near Bagtor at about 7,600 ft. on May 22.
Unfortunately I blew it practically to pieces. Its testes were enormous and
very pulpy but I could find no nest.
(58) Oriolus oriolus kundoo.— A single bird flew across the river four miles
from Pateka during the march to Dhanni on April 22.
584 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCKETY, Vol. XXXVIII
(59) Acrfdctheres tristis tristis.— Common enough at Domel but met with
them nowhere in the valley except at Tithwal where there is an isolated colony.
I presume they must have worked their way from Kamraj over the compar-
atively low passes at the head of the Kazinag nullah.
(60) Perrisospiza icterioides icterioides.— On April 29 a flock flew past the
F.R.H. at Keran and I heard their pleasant notes in the neighbouring forest
for some time. I next met with this finch at Bagtor on May 24 and subsequent
days, when I often heard and saw a small flock feeding through the forest
above the rest-house. I also heard them in the Gishat nullah. On May 30
I saw some in the trees above the Koragbal Dak Bungalow shortly after our
arrival there, and on the following day others were noted in the Gorai forest
at about 9,000 ft.
(61) Callacanthis burtoni.— A single pair flew off the path between Badwan
and Kunzalwan (7,800 ft.) on May 20 and as usual sat still and unperturbed
on 'a rock quite close to us at the edge of the forest to let us go by before
resuming feeding. I shot the female in the hopes of obtaining an _ oviduct
egg but the ovary only contained yolks about the size of pin-heads.
(62) Passer domesticus parkini.— Only met with at Tithwal and in Gurais.
Nowhere else in the valley. In Gurais they were very common, outnumbering
the Cinnamon Tree Sparrows by about twenty to one.
(63) Passer rutilans citnamomeus.— First noted three miles beyond Dhanni
on April 28. This would be at an elevation of approximately 3,250 ft. They
were common thence right up the valley though at Tithwal the birds in and
around the village were Passer domesticus. Again in Gurais they seemed
comparatively scarce where domesticus was once again very much in evidence.
(64) Emberiza stewarti—HExceedingly common as far as Tithwal. Some-
where in the neighbourhood of Salkalla (4,500 ft.) they gave place to the
Meadow Bunting, the latter being alone noted at Keran. A male shot out —
of a party at Pateka on April 19 had the testes only very slightly enlarged.
(65) Emberiza cia stracheyii— Meadow Buntings were first definitely identified
at Keran whence they were common all along the valley. The organs of a
male and of a female procured on May 1 at Keran showed only slight develop-
ment; those of a male shot at Janwai on May 16 were practically normal,
but those of another male obtained at Bagtor on May 21 were considerably
enlarged. Nest-building was first observed at Bagtor on May 24. As usual
the ranges of stewart, and cia did not appear to overlap. Coming down the
Tragbal forest it was also observed that the White-capped Buntings commenced
where the Meadow Buntings ceased.
(66) Melophus melanicterus—A male was noted as we crossed a small
cultivated spur four miles from Pateka on April 22. On our way down from
Srinagar on June 12, I noticed they were common from Garhi downwards.
(67) Delichon cashmeriensis.—1 was particularly on the look-out for Martins,
but in spite of passing excellent country between Kel and Janwai none was
seen until May 25 and the following day when a party appeared out of the
Shalput nullah at Bagtor. They were feeding over the marg high up with
a party of Swifts, but after a time a band came fairly close and I brought
dne down with a lucky shot. Shortly afterwards the whole party returned
whence they had come. From the map the only likely nesting place seemed
to be near the mouth of the nullah but through the glasses I could make out
no suitable cliffs or rocks.
(68) Hirundo rustica rustica.—Although seen at Domel, and I imagine large
numbers must pass up the Jhelum, the Swallow was not seen and is apparently
unknown in the valley. Many of the houses are constructed as in the vale
of Kashmir but enquiries at Pateka elicited the fact that no Swallows built
in the houses although the nesting of the Striated Swallow, which they called
phairni, seemed to be well known to everyone.
(69) Hirundo daurica scullii.—The moment I went out of the hut the morning
after our arrival at Pateka (April 19) I noted a pair of Striated Swallows
flying round the compound. The zaildar, who called the bird phairni, said
—————————
ON THE BIRDS OF THE KISHENGANGA VALLEY, KASHMIR 535
they would have eggs in about twenty days’ time. On the strength of this,
as ‘I hoped to procure specimens at the nest, I only shot one, a male with
testes the size of lentils. The following day half a dozen birds were about and
often rested on the rafters of the verandah. I examined likely nesting places
in the adjacent nullahs but could find no signs. In fact the only time I
came on a nest was on the remains of an old one halfway between Dhanni
and Tithwal, elevation approximately 3,000 ft. At the Dhanni_rest-house
the eaves were also being used by these birds, and as far as the Tithwal
gorge I noted them at times as we marched along. It was most disappointing
therefore to find that they no longer occurred at Tithwal. 38,200 ft. seemed to
be their limit.
On the journey down from Srinagar on June 12 I first noted one of these
birds at the 87th mile from Kohalla. The elevation marked on the milestone
was 2,860 ft. I saw them all the way to Kohalla, particularly about Domel,
and even after we had left the Jhelum and climbed a thousand feet or so
towards Murree I noticed odd birds. Two nests were also observed, one
crumbling, the other new looking, on rocks overhanging the road near the
29th milestone.
(70) Motacilla alboides.--Pied Wagtails were very common in the lower
reaches of the valley in April, both grey and black backed birds being noted
in numbers feeding in ricefields and other wet patches. These birds were
probably on passage. In May as we approached the upper reaches of the
river I came to the conclusion that I was only observing Hodgson’s Pied
Wagtails which were then to be found in pairs at rather wide intervals. As
I was particularly keen on collecting only those birds which I knew to be
actually breeding, I collected no specimens as I found no nest, nor did I
observe any birds even carrying building material.
(71) Motacilla cinerea caspica.—Grey Wagtails were very common through-
out. Their vanguard is certainly early on to the breeding grounds at the
lower elevations, and even in April intruders were very rapidly ‘seen off’
occupied territory. Nevertheless nesting activity was hardly noticed before the
march from Janwai on May 17, during which I saw no fewer than three
separate birds carrying building material.
(72) Anthus roseatus.x—With the exception of a single bird seen in some
cultivation on one of the first marches, which I failed to procure, I saw no
Pipits until Kel was reached. Here was a stretch of very damp grazing
ground on which Pipits abounded. Two obtained on May 13 proved to be
females with the ovaries but slightly developed. Suitable grassy ground of
the same description seven miles short of Taobat, at Taobat, Bagtor, and
Gurais supported many of these same Pipits. The state of the organs of two
males shot at Bagtor on May 27 showed that breeding was imminent. I also
noted them at this place on much drier ground and even in newly-ploughed
fields.
(73) Alauda gulgula thamorum.—Neither heard nor seen until we first passed
through Bagtor on May 18. They were common there and in Gurais. I found
them feeding in small flocks on the grassy margs and amongst new plough,
but a male shot on May 27 had the testes greatly enlarged, while two females
had a few yolks measuring an eighth of an inch in diameter.
(74) Zosterops palpebrosa occidentis.—Flocks were noted from Domel to
Keran wherever there were groves of leafy trees or bushes. The last were
seen feeding in viburnum and other low bushes on the Nilam plateau (5,400 ft.)
a mile or so beyond Keran on May 5.
(75) Leptocoma asiatica.— Evidently not uncommon at Domel as I saw two
pairs in the course of an evening stroll on April 17. One pair was also seen
twice. at Pateka on April 18 and 19 in some bushes at the edge of culti-
vation about a mile from the F.R.H.
(76) Picus squamatus squamatus.—The loud call of this species first attracted
my attention on our arrival at Salkalla on April 25, where I found it to be
somewhat common in the open mixed forest and around clearings. It was
common at Keran and I also noted it at Sharda, but it was not seen after
leaving the latter place.
586 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
(77) Dryobates himalayensis albescens.—This Woodpecker was not recorded
until we reached the 5,000-foot level at Keran where it was somewhat common.
From Keran onwards it was noted at every halt to Gurais, but was scarce
in the thick spruce and fir forests. I have always noticed that this Wood-
pecker has an undoubted predilection for chestnut trees and where these occur
nie ous oe seen nest holes will be bored in them. The thick fir forests
rom Kel upwards, containing but few trees of other speci
held but a limited number of Woodpeckers. gaeengug cc
(78) Dryobates brunnifrons.—While searching for Dryobates macei at Pateka
with which I never met incidentally, on April 20 I shot a male of this species
with testes developing, approximately 7% inch in length, which was searching
the trunks of an open wood of long-leafed pines in company with its mate.
On arrival in Srinagar on June 2, I was surprised to see a pair of these Wood-
peckers in the Chenar Bagh on one of the poles carrying the electric mains.
They were most amazingly tame.
(79) lynx torquilla japonica.—Shot one at Keran in mistake for another
bird when it was feeding by the side of a small bush. Its stomach was filled
with a large number of small red ants which accounts for its presence on the
ground. it was a male with testes slightly enlarged. JI observed this bird
to be common at Kel, and also at Bagtor where I heard its call from three
directions at the same time as we were passing through on May 18.
(80) Cuculus canorus.—Not common. It was first heard at Sharda between
May 8 and 10, but only in the one locality. Near Kel on May 14 one flew
across the path in front of us. At Bagtor up to the date of our departure
I heard the call not infrequently from two directions. On crossing the Raz-
dhainangan pass however and dropping into the Tragbal forest, it immediately
became very common.
(81) Cuculus optatus.—Heard at Bagtor between May 20 and 29, but only
occasionally. One appeared to have its territory in the forest around Izmarg
between Bagtor and Kunzalwan, and another to the west of the forest rest-
house.
(82) Psittacula himalayana himalayana.—Slaty-headed Paroquets were met.
with from the commencement of the trek and were last seen near Dudhnial
at approximately 6,000 ft. on May 5. My wife aptly likened their screams
when flying about in bands to the whistlings of marmots on @ more subdued
scale. A pair which seemed to have a nest behind the Keran bungalow, were
also heard to produce some very pleasant soft notes, the screams being generally
resorted to on the wing. A number of somewhat large elliptical holes with
the axis horizontal, which I thought might have been made by this species.
were noted at Keran and one or two other places about there, generally near
the very summit of tall dead trunks standing in forest.
(83) Ceryle lugubris guttulata.—Nest holes of this fine bird were seen at the
Ghori suspension bridge in the bank of the main river, where I was told the
bird breeds regularly, near Mirpur, at Salkalla, and at Keran. At Salkalla
on April 27 I surprised the birds during tunnelling operations. The hole they
were boring was a yard from an abandoned hole three feet deep in the wall
of a sandy recess on the inner side of the path where it runs close to the
water’s edge a mile below Salkalla. When first noted the previous day the
new hole was under a foot deep, but in twenty hours another three and a half
feet of sand had been excavated. Incidentally I saw no nest holes or birds
on the side streams.
(84) Alcedo atthis pallasii.—I only saw a single bird and this in the Shalput
nullah at Bagtor at 7,900 ft. on May 21.
(85) Halcyon smyrnensis.— Before the valley closed in a couple of miles from
Muzzaffarabad I saw two or three of these birds, but the deep gorge thence
to Ghori seems to have effectively barred their further progress up the valley.
(86) Upupa epops epops.—Not common. Only noted at the following places :—
May 5. Keran. One seen on the Nilam plateau.
May 8. Sharda. One by the suspension bridge.
a
ON THE BIRDS OF THE KISHENGANGA VALLEY, KASHMIR 587
May 19 and 20. Gurais. One seen near Wampur village and another
haunted the P.W.D. Inspection bungalow at Badwan.
These were all light-coloured birds with much white in the crest so pre-
sumably epops.
(87) Micropus melba.—I have already related how I came on a colony of
these Swifts at the mouth of the Tithwal gorge, and failed to collect any
specimens. Narrow crevices in the rock face each seemed to be occupied by
a number of birds. Some of these crevices were horizontal, others almost
vertical. Noisy bands visited the crevices at intervals of roughly quarter of
an hour, but a certain number of birds evidently seldom or never left them,
as twittering noises emanated from within at frequent intervals the whole
time I was watching, and on occasions single birds flew out. I climbed up a
small steep rocky spur as far as I could but failed to get near enough to see
anything. A party was also seen at Salkalla and a few birds were with the
Martins seen at Bagtor.
(88) Micropus apus pekinensis.— Although only definitely recognised at Pateka,
Keran, and Kel, this Swift is almost certainly quite common throughout the
valley. Swifts imperfectly seen flying at high altitudes at practically every
stage were most probably of this species.
(89) Micropus affinis.—A party of Swifts flying about below me in a deep
gorge five miles beyond Dhanni was attributed to this species.
(90) Hirundapus caudacutus nudipes.— A band of these birds was seen on
a number of occasions flying over Keran. After an exhibition of their amazing
speed the flight of the Eastern Swifts appeared slow and laboured.
(91) Caprimulgus macrourus albonotatus.— Presumably this species. On both
sides of the Pateka F.R.H. are deep nullahs; one a mass of tumbled rocks
and debris, the other harbouring a small stream with open woods of long-
leafed pines on its precipitous flanks. Between them is a grassy spur with
pines scattered about it. At dusk each night, sometimes from the spur and
always from the direction of the nullahs, I heard the rapid tuck-tuck-tuck of
Nightjars. The notes were rapidly repeated in series of varying length at the
rate of the ticking of a clock. Soon after the calling started, flighting also
began. Going out the moment I first heard them in the hopes of collecting
specimens I was surprised to note no less than three birds at once high up
in the air hawking insects lke Swallows. Standing well up the spur not
one came over me low enough for a shot, and over the nullahs they must
have been some hundreds of feet up though as it grew darker one commenced
to swoop down into the pines further above me. These aerobatics appeared
to last about half an hour. The calling also ceased as soon as it was dark.
On my way up the spur one calling bird flew out of a pine where it had
evidently been sitting about ten or fifteen feet up. After failing to get speci-
mens at Pateka I hoped to meet with them further on but no more were
either seen or heard.
[Mr. Hugh Whistler, who has very kindly read through the draft of this
paper and examined the few skins collected during the trip, has drawn my
attention to the descriptions of Nightjars’ calls given in his Survey of the
Hastern Ghats (J.B.N.H.S., vol. xxxviii, No. 1). To transfer bird-calls to
paper is an almost impossible task and I am not quite convinced that the
Pateka Nightjar was not albonotatus, but must admit that his suggestion that
it was more likely indicus may be right. At 9-30 p.m. on May 20 I recorded
in my diary ‘There is now a new sound (from some distance up the stony
nullah)—a double note followed by a lower more subdued one—poo-poo-tuck
poo-poo-tuck.’ |
(92) Strix aluco biddulphi.—This fine Owl was heard by the river at Badwan
(Gurais) and a male was obtained at Bagtor on May 29 when it paid us a
visit at dinner time. Osmaston’s version of its call (J.B.N.H.S., vol. xxxii,
p. 140) does not seem to me quite correct. It struck me as being ‘Hoo—
interval— Hoo’—shorter interval—‘'Hoo-ho-ho-hoo’, the final ‘hoo’ being some-
what drawn out. In fact the notes are not unlike those of the Turtle-Dove.
When picked up not quite dead, the bird I shot snapped its bill quite loudly a
number of times. Its testes were not much enlarged, being about the size
588 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
of small peas. A bird was also disturbed by our dogs in thick fir forest above
thea Bagtor rest-house but it may have been the one I shot.
(93) AEgypius monachus.— One of these magnificient Vultures was come upon
perched on a deodar branch on the edge of the Nilam plateau at Keran on
May 1. On our nearer approach he sailed off in the direction of some towering
clifis a mile up the valley.
(94) Gyps himalayensis.--Common throughout the valley.
(95) Pseudogyps bengalensis.— One was seen cruising over the confluence of
the Kishenganga and Jhelum rivers at Domel on April 17 in company with
some Himalayan Griffons.
(96) Neophron percnopterus percnopterus.—Seen occasionally as far as Doarian
(5,000 ft.). I once saw one of these birds at Sekwas in the Lidar valley at
an elevation of nearly 12,000 ft.
(97) Gypaétus barbatus grandis.— Noted throughout the length and breadth
of the valley. They seemed just as much at home sailing over the steep
forest-clad hillsides as alongside towering cliffs in the gorges, although of
course bare crags and rock-strewn slopes above the tree-line is the type of
country most usually connected with this bird’s habitat.
(98) Falco subbuteo.—One pair of Hobbies was noted over Keran on April 380.
At Bagtor on May 29 I was hailed from my breakfast to deal with an obviously
breeding Sparrow Hawk which had been carrying off Turtle-Doves from nearby.
A Hobby had been taken for her by my servants and was sitting at the very
summit of an exceedingly tall spruce fir. I managed to bring it down where-
upon a second one, which I had not noticed, flew from the next tree emitting
wild screams of anger. While skinning the bird procured, which was a
female holding nine or ten yolks as much as one-eighth inch in diameter,
a second bird, which I thought must be the male returned in search of her,
flew into a pine not thirty yards off. As it sailed back towards the wood
low over my head it paid the penalty for its temerity. To my surprise it was
likewise a female with yolks developing, one being 4% inch across.
(99) Cerchneis tinnunculus.—Kestrels, obviously breeding birds, were seen
frequently whenever we passed suitable cliffs. At one point where the path
took an abrupt bend over a rocky nullah and then on a wooden gallery up
the face of a low cliff, I was able to look on to a sitting bird. Unfortunately
some rock plants just prevented me from seeing whether there were eggs in
the slight hollow in which the bird was seated. After watching for a couple
of minutes its mate arrived whereupon both birds flew to a projecting rock
where copulation immediately took place. This was on April 22 five miles
from Dhanni at 2,900 ft.
(100) Milvus migrans govinda.— This Kite was seen as far as Dhanni.
(101) Milvus lineatus.— I came to the conclusion that all the Kites seen
from Dhanni to Gurais were of this species. I saw no nests but they must
breed in the Valley. I have a record of a nest containing voung ones in
June at 7,200 ft. in the Lidar valley.
(102) Accipiter misus.—One was shot at Keran on May 5. Unfortunately
its abdomen seemed to have received the full charge, and I found it impossible
to tell whether it was a breeding bird or even to sex it. Another was seen
on a number of occasions at Sharda between May 8 and 10. As it always
returned up the forest whence it had come I did not shoot it hoping to trace
a nest. In this I was unsuccessful. Again I came upon one at Bagtor which
I saw fairly frequently, as its pet beat was the edge of the forest close to
which the rest-house stands. On May 26 it killed a Turtle-Dove within a
few yards of us, making a deep gash in its back. When we retreated it
plucked{ the carcase most neatly and carried it off into the thick fir forest.
Mounds of Dove feathers in two other places close by proclaimed the fact
that other Turtle-Doves had met a similar fate very recently. Unfortunately
SOD
d
Ss
“AT GLVTd
a
cages
Sunok e jo Apoq oy} jo Sutsodstp sisuahvjput
ys
dfin
1yhishdo
ge
‘20S ‘ISIH 3RN Avquiog ‘uno
O
——= —s-- =
ON THE BIRDS OF THE KISHENGANGA VALLEY, KASHMIR 539
I had not got the gun with me, added to which she obviously had young
ones to feed.
(103) Columba livia meglecta.—These Pigeons were not as common as I
expected them to be. Flocks were certainly noted occupying suitable ledges
and caves in the rocky banks in all the more gorge-like stretches of the river
e.g. in the Tithwal gorge, but I never saw them out in the fields where such
occurred except at and nearing Taobat where we disturbed two parties of
three.
(104) Streptopelia orientalis ferrago.— The first one was seen five miles short
of Salkalla on April 25 when we entered some rather thick secondary jungle
consisting mostly of Lex. Thereafter they gradually became commoner until
at Taobat and Bagtor they were excessively so, roosting just within the fir
forests and coming out particularly in the evenings to feed on the margs and
in the cultivation.
(105) Ceriornis macrolophus biddulphiimThe crow of this Pheasant was
heard a number of times during our short stay at Sharda, May 8 to 10, and
again from the thick fir forest at river level three miles beyond that place
on the march to Kel.
(106) Alectoris graeca chukar.—Common on the steep slopes running up to
the Nilam plateau at Keran.
(107) Tringa ochrophus.—One bird of this species was feeding in a flooded
ricefield with a number of Pied Wagtails two miles beyond Pateka on April 22.
(108) Tringa hypoleucos.—-These birds must move up to their breeding grounds
very early. Single birds were seen near Salkalla on April 28 and five miles
beyond Dudhnial on May 8, but on reaching the wider more placid stretches
of the river halfway between Janwai and Taobat they at once became com-
mon. On May 18 shortly after leaving Taobat I came on a pair preparing
a nest in some dock-leaves only four yards from the path but twenty from
the river bank.
(109) Phalacrocorax carbo sinensis.— Noted as follows :—
April 17. A pair circling over the junction of the Kishenganga and
Jhelum rivers at Domel.
April 238. A single bird flying downstream halfway up the Tithwal
gorge.
April 24. A single bird flew downstream into the Tithwal gorge.
April 25. Before leaving Tithwal a bird was again seen flying into
the gorge while a little later one flew upstream, possibly the
same bird.
April 27. At Salkalla a Cormorant flew downstream.
May 1. At Keran (5,000 ft.) the last one was seen.
(110) Ardea cinerea.—On April 28 a single bird was observed perched on
the summit of an isolated tall pine tree near the village of Danudra (4,670 ft.)
between Salkalla and Keran. For a couple of miles just here the river is
wider and less turbulent with a tree-covered large island almost opposite
Danudra. I could see no signs of a Heronry.
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS GRASSES OF INDIA.
BY
J tsk |) CATUSs Sete tr ais,
The GRAMINEAE are one of the largest families of plants,
including about 480 genera and 5,880 species. They are found in
all climates and situations, but are most numerous in temperate
regions.
The medicinal and poisonous grasses of the world belong to
78 genera:—AGRopyron (temperate regions of Europe and Asia);
AMPHILOPHIS (tropical Asia and Africa); ANATHERUM (Brazil); AN-
DROPOGON (tropics of both hemispheres; South Europe, North
America, temperate Asia); AnTHEPHORA (Africa); ANTHOXANTHUM
(temperate regions); ArtsTipA (all warm dry countries); ARTHRAXON
(tropics and subtropics of the Old World); AruNDINELLA (tropical
Asia and America); Arunpo (Mediterranean region; East Indies,
Malay Archipelago, Central and South America, South Africa,
Madagascar, New Zealand); Avena (Mediterranean region; tem-
perate region of the eastern hemisphere); Bampusa (Eastern Asia,
Australia); Brckmannia (China); Bracutaria (both hemispheres,
mostly African); Bromus (temperate regions of northern hemi-
. Sphere, South America); CENcHRUS (tropical and_ subtropical
regions); CEPHALOsTACHYUM (North India, Malaya, Madagascar);
Cuorts (all parts of the world in tropical and subtropical regions);
Curysopocon (Old World tropics, West Indies); Corx (East Indies,
Ethiopia; warm regions); Crossorropis (Africa); CymMBopocon (Old
World tropics); Cynopon (Australia, cosmopolitan); CynosuRus
(Mediterranean region; Europe, Canaries); DactryLoctEenium (Tro-
pics); DENDRocALAMUS (South-eastern Asia); DEsmMosracHya (India
to Syria and North Africa); Diarruena (China); Diairaria (all
warm countries); KCHINOCHLOA (warm regions of both hemispheres);
ELeusineE (all warm countries); Enionurus (tropical and subtropi-
eal regions of both hemispheres); Enymus (northern and southern
temperate regions); EraGrostis (all warm and temperate regions);
Eriantuus (mainly tropical); Festuca (temperate regions); Guy-
cERIA (North America); GyNnertumM (South Brazil, Argentina);
Hetreropocon (tropical Africa and Asia to Mediterranean); H1rro-
CHLOA (temperate regions); HorpEum (temperate regions; Europe,
North Africa, Asia, North and South America); HyGRorHiza
(India, Ceylon, Tongking); Iwprrata (tropical or warm regions of
both hemispheres); Lonttum (temperate regions; Europe, Asia,
North Africa); LopHatHERuM (Indo-Malaya, China, Japan); Manr-
suRIS (tropical countries; India); Menica (subtropical and tem-
perate regions; Europe, Asia, Africa, America); MELINIS (Africa) ;
Miscantuipium (tropical Africa south of the Equator, South
Africa); Nastus (Madagascar); OLyra (Africa); Oryza (tropical
and subtropical regions of both hemispheres); Oryzopsis (northern
hemisphere); OxyTENANTHERA (Africa, India, Malaya); Panicum
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS GRASSES OF INDIA 541
(tropical and subtropical regions); PAspaLum (all warm regions);
PENNISETUM (most warm dry regions; Africa); PHanaris (Medi-
terranean region; South Africa, Caltomne to Chile); PHRAGMITES
(almost the whole world); PuyiLostacuys (Eastern Asia); Poa
(temperate regions); PoGonarTHRIA (Africa); PoLytoca (tropical
Asia, Australia); SaccHaruM (tropical and subtropical regions of
both hemispheres); Sasa (China); SECALE (temperate regions);
SETARIA (warm and temperate regions); SoRGHUM (warm and tem-
perate regions; Africa, India); SporoBoLus (tropical and subtropi-
eal regions of both hemispheres; America); STENOTAPHRUM (tropics
of both worlds); Svipa (tropical and subtropical regions of both
hemispheres); THELEPOGON (India to tropical Africa); THEMEDA
(tropical and subtropical regions of the world); THySANOLAENA
(Indo-Malayan region); Triticum (Mediterranean region; temperate
regions); VETIVERIA (tropics of the Old World); Zea (all warm
countries); ZrzaAnta (North America, North-Eastern Asia).
The medicinal and poisonous grasses of India belong to 49
genera:—AGROPYRON, AMPHILOPHIS, ANTHOXANTHUM, ARISTIDA, AR-
THRAXON, ARUNDINELLA, ARUNDO, AVENA, BamBusA, Bromus, CEN-
CHRUS, CEPHALOSTACHYUM, CHLORIS, CHRYSOPOGON, COIx, CYMBO-
PoGoN, Cynopon, DactTyLocTENiIuM, DENDROcALAMUS, DESMOSTA-
CHYA, EcuinocHLoa, ELEUSINE, HETEROpOGON, HorpEuM, HyaGro-
RHIZA, IMpERATA, Lox“iumM, LopHaTHERUM, MANISURIS, ORYZA, Oxy-
TENANTHERA, PANICUM, PASPALUM, PENNISETUM, PHALARIS, PHRAG-
MITES, PHYLLOSTACHYS, PoLytTocA, SACCHARUM, SETARIA, SORGHUM,
STENOTAPHRUM, Strpa, THELEPOGON, THEMEDA, 'HYSANOLAENA, TRI-
TICUM, VETIVERIA, ZEA.
I. Spikelets spicate, all unisexual, male spikes in terminal
panicles or continuous with the female spikes.
a. Fruiting spikelets enclosed in a strong nut-like
polished bract Coix.
b. Fruiting spikelets having all the inner ‘glumes con-
cealed within the areatly enlarged hardened outer Ponytoca.
c. Fruiting spikelets densely crowded on a_ cylindric
spongy rachis — coe baa IEA
II. Spikelets homo- or heterogamous, 1-2-flowered, solitary
or 2- rarely 3-nate, on the internodes of an articu-
late spike or raceme.
Spikelets 2-nate; lower involucral glume globose ... MANISURIS.
III. Spikelets with a terminal perfect flower, and one
or more imperfect male or neuter below it; rachilla
not produced beyond the perfect flower.
a. Panicle contracted or spiciform; spikelets awnless PHALARIS.
b. Panicle spiciform; glumes 6, III and IV_ neuter,
awned, stamens “9 ioe e ... ANTHOXANTHUM.
IV. Spikelets panicled; rachilla not iioaced beyond
glume III; floral glumes rigid or hard, awned.
a. Glume III narrow, awn 3-flowered or, ... ARISTIDA.
b. Glume IIT narrow, awn entire, grain terete 22 ..) OTEPA,
V. Svik
» Spikelets homogamous, in compound racemes or
panicles. Lower involucral glume not sunk in a
hollow of the rachis.
a. Rachis not fragile. Spikelets in a cylindric silvery
thyrsus Fe ae .... [MPERATA.
b. Rachis fragile. Spikelets in a thyrsus of spiciform
racemes a ao ... SACCHARUM.
549 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
VI. Spikelets many, in solitary digitate or fascicled spikes,
usually heteromorphous. Lower involucral glume
not sunk in a hollow of the rachis. Margins of
the lower involucral glume of sessile spikelet not
inflexed.
a. Spikes 2-nate or digitate; spikelets 1-flowered
b. Spikes digitate; spikelets 2-flowered; glume I
tubercled bea ree ah ais
VII. Spikelets heterogamous, 1-flowered, 2-rarely 3-nate
on the whorled articulate branches of simple or
compound racemes or panicles.
a. Spikelets in two superposed series; upper series of
heterogamous pairs, and a terminal male, lower
a whorl of 4 persistent males or neuters
b. Spikelets 2-nate, or the uppermost 38-nate, spicate
or panicled.
1. Sessile spikelets of all the pairs alike in sex
and form throughout the spikes.
‘| Joints of rachis many, stout or slender, opaque
{ Joints of rachis few; spikes articulate on the
obliquely truncate bearded tips of the
branches of the panicle at si
199 Joints .of rachis very few, filiform, opaque;
lodicules ciliate; grain dorsaliy compressed
"999 Joints of rachis and pedicles of upper spike-
lets linear compressed with usually a central
translucent channel and thickened margins ...
_~
il. Lowest one or more sessile spikelets differing
from all those above it in sex or form.
{ Spikes binate on the peduncle which is en-
closed in a spathiform sheath; sessile ee
let dorsally compressed
{{ Spikes solitary, lower pairs of spikelets very
unlike the upper; upper sessile spikelets
cylindric aks Rd
VIII. Spikelets 2-flowered; upper flower bisexual, lower
male or neuter, rarely both fertile.
. Spikelets dorsally flattened, base not thickened;
glumes 8 with very rarely a minute 4th
b. Spikelets panicled or spicate; lower floral glume
not beaked, upper floral glume crustaceous
e. Spikelets innumerable, very minute, hairy, densely
crowded in the capillary branches of a very large
panicle es ais
d. Spikelets persistent on the pedicels, cr -glumes —1
and II separately deciduous, IV eee
usually awned, awn _ bent oe
e. Glumes awned from the entire acute or acuminate
tip or caudate or cuspidate-acuminate. Racemes
dense, more or less secund oe eon
f. Spikelets articulate on their pedicels, each sur-
rounded by an involucel of bristles ... ta
g. Spikelets persistent on their pedicels, at least the
fertile, or deciduous with their pedicels.
ioe)
i. Spikelets in involucelled deciduous | fascicles.
{ Involucel of bristles
14 Involucel of spines connate at the “pase
iit. Spikelets not involucelled, 2-seriate on a flat
subarticulate rachis
ARTHRAXON.
THELEPOGON.
'THEMEDA.
VETIVERIA.
CHRYSOPOGON.
SoRGHUM.
AMPHILOPHIS.
CYMBOPOGON.
HETEROPOGON.
PASPALUM.
PANICUM.
THYSANOLAENA.
ARUNDINELLA.
ECHINOCHLOA.
SETARIA.
PENNISETUM.
... CENCHRUS.
STENOTAPHRUM.
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS GRASSES OF INDIA
IX. Spikelets 2- or more-flowered; rachilla produced.
Spikelets 2-6-flowered; flowering glumes awned; awn
subterminal or dorsal
X: Spikelets panicled, 2-many-flowered ; glumes very nar-
row, flowering glumes penicillate.
a. Rachilla elongate, glabrous; flowering glumes silkily
hairy ie ae is
b. Rachilla very short; flowering glumes glabrous;
callus with long silky hairs
XI. Spikelets 1-many-flowered, 1-2-seriate on the rachis of
a simple spike or on the long slender branches of
a simple panicle. Leaves broad, tessellately nerved.
Spikelets 1-flowered, secund and articulate at the
base; upper glumes mee convolute with seti-
form tips :
XII. Spikelets ey panicled, 2- or more-flowered; floral
glumes 5-many-nerved, upper empty or 0; styles
short.
Spikelets panicled, 3-many-flowered; floral glumes mu-
cronate or awned, dorsally rounded, 5-9-nerved,
top of ovary lobed villous
XIII. Inflorescence various; spikelets | 2-many-flowered ;
flowering glumes 1-3-nerved, entire, 3-toothed,
3-lobed, or 38-awned. Floral glumes entire; acute or
acuminate ,
XIV. Spikelets 1- or more-flowered, biseriate and secund on
an inarticulate spike or on the spiciform branches
of a slender panicle; flowers all or the lower only
bisexual.
a. Spikes digitate, 1-flowered, upper imperfect flower
absent sa ae
b. Spikes solitary, spicate or racemed ; spikelets 2- or
more-flowered, upper flower imperfect
c. Spikes digitate or whorled; spikelets 3-6-flowered,
densely crowded, awnless
d. Spikes terminating with a sharp point; ‘upper invo-
lucral glume and floral glumes rigidly mucro-
nate or shortly awned i
XV. Spikelets 1-flowered, articulate on their pedicels and
deciduous from them ; palea 1-3-nerved, stamens. 6
or fewer.
a. Spikelets bisexual, awned; glumes 2, narrow, thin
b. Spikelets bise xual, awned or not; glumes 4; I and
IIT minute or setaceous
XVI. Spikelets sessile, singly or in clusters; florets 1 or
more. >
a. Flowering glumes 5-9-nerved, lateral nerves not
conniving; short or ending in teeth or awnhs ...
b. Flowering ‘glumes 5-7-nerved, lateral nerves con-
niving or confluent with the single terminal awn
es Spikelets solitary at the nodes of the spike, 8-many-
flowered; glumes coriaceous, lower involucral
absent, except in the terminal Sa floral
glumes 5-many-nerved
d. Spikelets in groups of 3 at the nodes of a dense
spike; floral glumes 5-nerved “
XVII. Shrubby or arboraceous grasses. Leaves flat jointed
on. the sheath.
a. Pericarp thin, adnate to the seed.
i. Stamens 38; spikelets 1-4-flowered, spicate;
empty glumes 2-3 ss
9
543
AVENA:
ARUNDO:
PHRAGMITES.
LOPHATHERUM.
BROMUS.
DESMOSTACHYA.
CYNODON.,
CHLORIS.
E\LEUSINE.
DACTYLOCTENIUM.
HyYGRORHIZA.
ORYZA,
TRITICUM.
AGROPYRON.
LouiuM.
HorRDEUM.
PHYLLOSTACHYS.
544 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
il. Stamens 6; filaments free; paleas entire or
slightly cleft, all 2-keeled sae .. BaAmMBusa.
il. Stamens 6; filaments connate. Spikelets few-
flowered, palea of upper flower absent or
glume-like, not keeled ... a .... OXYTENANTHERA.
b. Pericarp crustaceous; seed free; spikelets 2-many-
flowered; palea 2-keeled, lodicules none; ovary
hirsute at the top ae oe .... DENDROCALAMUS.
c. Fruit oblong, beaked, pericarp thick, separable.
Spikelets L-flowered, bracteate, crowded in glo-
bose heads ve .... CEPHALOSTACHYUM
AGROPYRON.
This genus numbers 45 species, inhabiting mainly the tem-
perate region of Europe and Asia.
Agropyron repens Beauv. (=Triticum repens Linn.) is found
in Kashmir and Western Tibet, ascending up to 14,000 ft. in
the Karakoram Range. This grass is a native of Europe, where
it is found freely in road-sides, fields and waste places. The com-
mercial supplies come largely from England and Germany. ‘The
plant now abounds in meadows and cultivated grounds in the
northern United States of America, where it is often very
troublesome as a weed. ‘This grows in gardens and arable lands,
as an infirmitie or plague of the fields, nothing pleasing to hus-
bandmen; for after the field is plowed, they are constrained
to gather the roots together with harrowes and rakes, and being
so gathered and laid upon heaps, they set them on fire lest they
should grow againe.’
‘Although that Couch-grasse be an unwelcome guest to fields
and gardens, yet his physicke vertues do recompense those hurts.
Couch-grasse healeth green wounds.
The plant has been employed in England from remote times
as a vulnerary, and to remove difficulties of urination. ‘Being
boiled and drunk it openeth obstructions of the liver and _ gall,
and the stoppings of urime, and easeth the griping pains of the
belly, and inflammations; wasteth the matter of the stone in the
bladder, and the ulcers thereof also. The seed doth more power-
fully expel urine and stayeth laxes and vomiting. The distilled
water alone, or with a little worm-seed, killeth the worms in
ehildren.
‘The way of use is to bruise the roots, and having well boiled
them in white wine, drink the decoction; it is opening, but not
purging, very safe; ‘tis a remedy against all diseases coming of
stopping, and such are half those that are incident to the body
of man; and although a gardener be of another opinion, yet a
physician holds an acre of them to be worth five acres of carrots
twice told over.’
In modern days an infusion of the root is generally regarded
as a soothing diuretic, helpful to the bladder and kidneys. For-
merly, this was a popular drink to purify the blood in spring.
The decoction may be made from the whole fresh plant, or from
the dried root sliced, two to four ounces being put in a quart of
water, reduced to a pint by boiling. A wineglassful of this may
as
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS GRASSES OF INDIA 545
be given for a dose. It certainly palliates irritation of the urinary
passages, and helps to relieve against gravel. A liquid extract is
also dispensed by the druggists, of which one or two teaspoontfuls
are given in water.
In Europe the decoction is used to a considerable extent as
a diluent and shghtly nutritious drink. The French specially
value it for its stimulating fragrance of vanilla and rose perfumes.
The rhizome is officinal in the pharmacopeias of France, Swit-
zerland and Turkey. It is diuretic, demulcent and aperient. It
exerts an influence upon the genito-urinary organs, and it is used
internally as a demulcent drink for irritable bladder, and also for
cystitis. It is one of the least stimulant of the remedies of its
class, and may be employed very freely. It is also reeommended
in gout and rheumatism.
The rhizome contains grape sugar, fruit sugar, a sugar of un-
determined identity, gum and inosite. It is also said to contain
glucosides, one of which yields vanillin on hydrolysis, also a car-
bohydrate resembling inulin which has been named triticin.
Brahui: Milinj—; Catalan: Agram, Gram—; Chinese: Se Mao 'T's’ao—;
Dutch: Kweek—; English: Couch Grass, Dog Grass, Quack-grass, Quick Grass,
Quilch, Twitch Grass, Witch Grass—; French: Agram, Agropyre rampant, Auge,
Blé sauvage, Chiendent, Chiendent des boutiques, Chiendent officinal, Chiendent
ordinaire, Froment rampant, Herbe 4 deux bouts, Laitue de chien, Petit chien-
dent, Sainte neige, Tranuge, Vagon, Wagon—; German: Ackergras, Acker-
mannswurzel, Bagenwurzel, Fadenwurzel, Fegwurzel, Flechtgras, Graswurzel,
Haarstrang, Hundsgraswurzel, Hundsruecken, Knotengras, Kriechweizen, Land-
dreck, Paeden, Peden, Peyer, Poeden, Queck, Rebel, Ribel, Schnur, Schweine-
gras, Sehnengras, Spulwurz, Tuerkisches Gras, Weisswurz, Wreeten, Wuem-
gras, Wurmgras, Zweckenwurzel—; Greek: Agrostis—; Italian: Caprinella,
Dente canino, Graminga, Granacina—; Polish: Perz—; Portuguese: Grama—;
Provence: Grame—; Roumanian: Albeiu, Iarba caineasca, Pir—; Russian:
Hyja, Pirei, Porei—; South Africa: Couch Grass, Dog Grass, Triticum—;
Spanish: Grama, Grama de las boticas—; Swedish: Quick hwete—; Tasmania:
Couch—; Turkish: Ayrikotu—.
AMPHILOPHIS.
This genus consists of 25 species or more, distributed through-
out tropical Africa and Asia, many of them closely allied and
difficult to differentiate.
Amphilophis odorata A. Camus (= Andropogon odoratus Dna.
Lisboa) is found in the Deccan, where it is considered carnunative.
Bombay: Ushadhana—.
ANTHOXANTHUM.,
The genus includes 4 or 5 species, natives of Kurope and tem-
perate Asia; one being found also in North America and Australia.
Anthoxanthum odoratum Linn. is a native of Europe and
Central and Northern Asia occasionally found in the hill districts
of India, but only as introduced by man or as an escape from
cultivation. It is found in North Africa and the Atlantic Islands.
Naturalised in North America it occurs as a meadow grass in
pastures from Washington to California.
546 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
This grass is specially provocative of hay fever and hay asthma
with persons liable to suffer from these distressing ailments.
Accordingly a medicinal tincture is made from it with spirit of
wine, and if some of the same is poured into the open hand-palms
for the volatile aroma to be sniffed well into the nose and throat,
immediate relief is afforded during an attack. At the same time
three or four drops of the tincture should be taken as a dose
with water, and repeated at intervals of twenty or thirty minutes,
as needed.
The flowers contain coumarin, and their volatile pollen im-
pregnates the atmosphere in early summer. But, strange to say,
while the plants growing in spring have a delightfully character-
istic odour and a pleasant aroma, those flowers which appear
late in autumn emit a most nauseating odour.
English: Pig Grass, Sweet-scented Grass, Sweet-scented Spring Grass,
Sweet-scented Vernal Grass, Sweet Vernal Grass—; French: Flouve odo-
rante—; German: Ruchgras—; Italian: Paleino odoroso, Paleo—; Uruguay:
Grama de olor—.
ARISTIDA.
It is assumed that this genus includes about 300 species, natives
of warm countries.
Aristida adscenscionis Linn. is found throughout the plains
and low hills of India, Burma and Ceylon, ascending to 8,000 ft.
in Kashmir; it is distributed over most warm countries.
In Madagascar an ointment consisting of lard and the ashes
of the flowers is used topically for itch and ringworm.
Hova: Horombavy, Pepaka—; Southern Nigeria: Oka olongo—.
ARTHRAXON.
The genus consists of 20 species distributed throughout the
tropics and subtropics of the Old World.
Arthraxon ciliaris Beauv. is found in the hilly districts of
India from Kashmir eastwards to Burma, ascending the Himalaya
to 5,500 ft., and southwards to the Nilgiri Hills and Ceylon. It
extends to southern and central China, and Shantung.
The plant is used medicinally in various parts of China.
Bombay: Turade, Turde—; Chinese: Chin T's’ao—.
ARUNDINELLA.
This genus consists of about 55 species, found mainly in Tro-
pical Asia and America.
Arundinella brasiliensis Raddi occurs throughout the hilly parts
of India, from the Himalaya, ascending to 7,000 ft., to Burma
and Ceylon. It is distributed to China, Malaya, Australia, South
Africa, South Europe, tropical America.
The natives of Basutoland use the plant in compounding many
medicines and in making a lotion for washing wounds.
Bombay: Dundi, Kotir—; Suto: Mahlakamane—.
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS GRASSES OF INDIA 547
ARUNDO.
This genus includes 12 species, natives of the Mediterranean
region, and distributed to the East Indies and the Malay Archi-
pelago, Madagascar, New Zealand, Central and South America.
Arundo donax Linn. is found in the Lower Himalaya from
Kashmir to Nepal, ascending to 8,500 ft., from the Punjab to
Sylhet, the Naga Hills up to 5,000-8,000 ft., Burma, the Cirears,
Coorg, the Nilgiri Hills. It extends westwards to Europe, North
Africa and North Asia. |
The rhizomes are much used in decoction as an emollient and
diuretic. They are said to stimulate the menstrual discharge and
diminish the secretion of milk.
Catalan: Canya—; Hgypt: Busfarisk, Bus haggai, Buz haggni, Ghab,
Gub-rumy, Gasab—; English: Common Reed, Giant Reed, Great Reed, Reed,
Spanish Cane—; French: Canne de Provence, Donax, Grand roseau—;
Greek: Kupho Kalamo—; Indo-China: Cong, Cuoi, Dich lo chuc—; Italian:
Canna—; Maltese: Kasba—; Portuguese: Canna—; Spanish: Catia comun—;
Sokoto: Gabara, Machara, Wutsiyar giwa—-; Yemen: Kassab—.
AVENA.
This genus numbers about 55 species found chiefly in tem-
perate regions.
A. fatua Linn., A. sativa Linn., A. sativa var. orientalis
Hook. f. are used medicinally in Europe; A. fatua Linn. is also
used in China.
1. ligule short, very obtuse, up to 3 mm. long ... A. fatua.
2. Ligule truncate, 1-3 mm. long oe .. A. Sativd.
1. Avena fatua Linn. is found in the Punjab, North-West-
ern Himalaya, and Western Tibet, in cultivated fields, ascending
to 9,000 ft.; also in Sikkim Himalaya up to 9,000 ft. It is
distributed to temperate Europe, Northern Africa and Northern
Asia.
In Europe the seeds are used for their emollient, refrigerant,
and diuretic properties.
In the Punjab the seed is believed to produce poisonous and
deleterious effects.
Arabic: Bakhragan, Basheruk, Ghallash sheytany, Khafur, Shair-el-ghul,
Sabus ssabbaras, Zommeyr—; Catalan: Cugula—; Chinese: Ch’iao Mai—;
Egypt: Chafur, Sammeir—; English: Drake, Wild Oat—; French: Avéneron,
Averon, Avoine bouffe, Avron, Coquiolle, Couyonne, Folle avoine, Pied de
mouche—; German: Windhafer—; Greek: Agrio genima—; Hindi: Gandal,
Ganer, Jei, Kuljud—; Iraq: Dosar, Shofan, Sunaislah—; Italian: Lippa—;
Jhalawan: Gandamkao—; Kurdish: Gia brishi, Kaltas—; Languedoc: Coughi-
oulo—; Mosul: Hurtuman—; Punjab: Ganerjei, Gozang, Kasamm, Upwa,
Yupo—; Roumanian: Odos—; Russian: Jivoi ovios—; Spanish: Avena loca,
Cula—; Turkish: Chodar—.
2. Avena sativa Linn. is cultivated in Northern India, from
Bengal to the Indus; and in the Himalaya up to 12,000 ft. It
was known to the ancients, and is now cultivated in all civilized
countries; but its original locality has not been satisfactorily
ascertained. It grows wild in Sicily, and is said to have been
seen in the Island of Juan Fernandez, off the Coast of Chili.
548 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
‘Common Otes put into a linnen bag, with a little bay salt
quilted handsomely for the same purpose, and made hot in a
frying pan, and applied very hot, easeth the pain in the side
called the stitch.’ Oats fried with bay salt, and applied to the
sides, take away the pains of stitches and wind in the sides of
the belly.
‘A poultice made of the meal of oats, and some oil of bays
added, helps the itch and leprosy; as also the fistulas of the
fundament, and dissolves hard imposthumes.’ A yeast poultice
made by stirring oatmeal into the grounds of strong beer is a
capital cleansing and healing applcation to languid sloughing
sores.
The meal of oats boiled with vinegar and applied, takes away
freckles and spots in the face, and other parts of the body. ‘Ote-
meale is good for to make a faire and wel-coloured maid to look
like a cake of tallow, especially if she take next her stomacke
a good draught of strong vinegre after it.’
As a food oatmeal is apt to undergo some fermentation in
the stomach, and to provoke sour eructations. Furthermore, it
is somewhat laxative, because containing a certain proportion of
bran which mechanically stimulates the intestinal membranes;
and this insoluble bran is rather apt to accumulate.
American doctors have taken of late to extol the Oat when
made into a strong medicinal tincture with spirit of wine, as a
remarkable nervine stimulant and restorative: this being especially
valuable in all cases where there is a deficiency of nervous power,
for instance, among over-worked lawyers, public speakers, and
writers.
The tineture is ordered to be given in a dose from ten to
twenty drops, once or twice during the day, in hot water, to act
speedily; and a somewhat increased dose in cold water at bed-
time so as to produce its beneficial effects more slowly then. It
proves an admirable remedy in nervous prostration and exhaustion
after all febrile diseases, and in sleeplessness from nervous exhaus-
tion. It seems to exert a very beneficial action upon the heart
muscles and on the urinary organs, speedily relieving spasmodic
conditions of bladder and ureter.
Catalan: Sibada—; Dutch: Haver—; English: Groats, Haws, Oat, Oats—;
French: Avoine, Avoine cultivée, Avoine noire—; German: Haber, Hafer—;
Greek: Bromi—; Hindustani: Jai—; Hova: Varintsoavahy—; Hungarian:
Zab—; Italian: Avena, Vena—; Languedoc: Arracho, Aveino, Civada, Civado,
Sibado—; Malta: Oats, Avena, Hafur—; Polish: Owies—; Portuguese: Avea—;
Punjabi: Javi—; Roumanian: Oves—; Russian: Ovios—; Spanish: Avena—.
Avena sativa var. orientalis Hook. fil. is characterised by the
presence of bristly hairs at the base of glume III. It is found
in North-Western India, the Soane Valley, and Murshidabad.
The seeds are used in Spain as an emollient, refrigerant, and
diuretic.
BAMBUSA.
This genus consists, of about 73 species, occurring in Eastern
Asia, Malaya, and one in Australia,
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS GRASSES OF INDIA 549
B. arundinacea Retz. is used medicinally in Guiana, B. bar-
bata Trin. in Madagascar, B. vulgaris Schrad. in Indo-China.
B. blumeana Schult. is used as a poison in Malaya.
I. Arborescent or shrubby. Stems not spinous ole be oulgarts.
II. Arborescent. Stems spinous.
a. Stem-sheaths long blade with felted hairs
within. Empty glumes 0-2 ovate lanceolate
acute or mucronate, many-nerved tbs
b. Stem-sheaths short. Empty glumes 2-3 ovate
acute, 3-7 nerved ve
2. B. arundinacea,
3. B. blumeana.
1. Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. is cultivated throughout tropical
India and in all hot countries.
The roots, the shoots, the bark and the leaves are all used
medicinally in Indo-China.
The roots and the shoots are considered emollient, diuretic,
diaphoretic; they are used to purify the blood, and they are com-
monly administered for obstruction, retention of urine, indefinite
pain and syphilis. Mixed with equal parts of tobacco and betel
leaves, the fresh root is macerated in oil and applied externally
to hard tumours and in cirrhoses.
The astringent bark is used in haemorrhage, excessive men-
struation, nausea and vomiting.
The leaves are cooling and emollient; a decoction is given in
fevers, melancholia, cough and sore throat.
In Cambodia the nodes are considered bechic, astringent, tonic
and depurant; they are prescribed in bronchitis, blennorrhagia,
leucorrhoea, metrorrhagia and the yaws.
Bengal: Basini bans—; Bombay: Kallak, Vansa kalaka—; Cambodia: Asey,
Russey—; English: Yellow and Green Striped Bamboo—; French: Bambou des
jardins—; Indo-China: Long dau chuc, Tam vong, Tre tau, Tre vuon—;
Malay: Buluh minyak has, Buluh pan—; Sinhalese: Una—.
2. Bambusa arundinacea Retz. is found throughout the plains
and low hills of India, Burma and Ceylon, wild and cultivated.
It is cultivated in the lower Himalaya and in the valleys of the
Ganges and Indus.
The hollow stems of this bamboo often contain a silicious and
crystalline substance known in the bazaars of India as tabashir.
This is largely used by Hindus and Mahomedans who prize it
very highly as a stimulant and aphrodisiac. It is a demulcent,
tonic, aphrodisiac and pectoral, which has been found useful in
cough, consumption, asthma and fever. In combination with
other astringent medicines it is given in chronic dysentery and
internal haemorrhages.
The most efficacious application for dislodgement of worms in
ulcers is a poultice made by pounding the young shoots of the
bamboo. The juice is first poured on the vermin, and the lig-
neous mass is applied and secured by a bandage.
Yunani practitioners consider the root a good tonic; they apply
the ash to ringworm, bleeding gums and pains in the joints. In
the Tamil country the root is considered diluent, the bark is used
as a cure for eruptions, the leaves are given to stimulate the
550 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
menstrual flow, and the tabashir is prescribed in paralysis and
for flatulence.
A behef in the emmenagogue properties of the leaves is com-
mon alike in India and in China. A decoction of the leaf-bud
is said to be very effective. The juice of the leaves with aromatics
is given in blood vomiting. With black pepper and common galt
the leaves are used to check diarrhoea in cattle.
The juice of the flower is dropped in the ear for earache, and
in deafness.
A decoction of the joints is supposed to have an action on
the uterus, and is used by females after delivery to cause a
free flow of the lochial discharge. The same part of the plant
pounded with water is applied to inflamed joints.
The. Ayurvedists describe the seeds as acrid, sweet, aphrodisiae
and fattening. They use them freely in biliousness, urinary dis-
charges and all forms of poisoning.
Mhaskar and Caius have shown experimentally that the bark,
the seeds and the tabashir are equally useless in the antidotal
treatment of either snake bite or scorpion sting.
Annam: Tre, Tre pheo—; Arabic: Qasab—; Assam: Bnah, Kata, Koto—;
Bengal: Bans, Bansh, Behurbans, Kautabans, Ketua—; Bombay: Dougi,
Kalak, Mandgay, Padhai—; Burma: Kyakatwa—; Canarese: Bambu, Bidaru,
Bidiru, Bidirumale, Bidru, Bidungalu, Bidungulu, Biduru, Dongi, Elubidiru,
Gale, Hebbidiru, Hebbidru, Hennubidiru, Kalale, Karira—; Cantonese: 'T’in
Chuk Wan, T’in Chuk Wong—; Catalan: Bambu—; Central Provinces: Kat-
tang—; Chinese: T’ien Chu Huang, T’ien Chu Yuen—; Chittagong: Bariala—;
Deccan: Bambu, Bhans, Chansa—; English: Spiny Bamboo, Thorny Bamboo—;
French: Bambou, Bambou commun, Canne bambou—; French Guiana: Bam-
bou—; Garo: Whahkanteh—; German: Bambus—; Gond: Katiwadur—;
Gujerati: Toncor, Wans—; Haldwani: Kanwas—; Hasada: Katangarimad—;
Hindi: Bans, Kantabans, Kattang, Magarbans, Malbans—; Italian: Bambu,
Canna indiana—; Java: Singkara—; Kadir: Mula, Mulai—; Kolami: Katam-
madh, Katanga—; Konkan: Kalak, Padhai—; Konkani: Conoqui, Kanaki,
Vellu—; Korku: Mad—; Kumaon: Kanta bans—; Lambadi: Bambu—; Lao:
Mai pai—; Madras: Ponteveduru—; Magahi: Wanah—; Malaya: Thian chook
wong—; Malayalam: Tli, Kampu, Kaniyaram, Karmmaram, Mula, Mulmulam,
Pattil, Tejanam, ‘Trinadhvajan, Valiyamula, Venu—; Marathi: Kallak—;
Mundari: Katanggamad, Katanggarindd—; Nagur: Katangmad—; Panch
Mahals: Vas—; Persian: Nai—; Portuguese: Bambu espinhoso, Spodio—;
Provence: Boulou—; Punjab: Magae, Nal—; Roumanian: Bambu—; Russian:
Bambuk—; Sanskrit: Bahupallava, lBrihattrina, Dhanurdruma, Dhatushya,
Dridhagranthi, Dridhakanda, Dridhapatra, Duraruha, Kamatha, Kantaki,
Kantalu, Karmmara, Kichaka, Kilati, Kishkuparva, Kugshirandhra, Mahabala,
Maskara, Mrityubija, Navagragandha, Phalantaka, Purvayoni, Pushpaghataka,
Shataparva, Shatpadalaya, Suparva, Suparvan, Tajana, Tejana, Trinadh-
vaja, Trinaketu, Trinaketuka, Twvachisara, Tvakasara, Vadaniya, Vansha,
Vanya, Venu, Yavaphala—; Santali: Mat—; Sinhalese: Kattuuna, Una—;
Spanish: Bambu, Cafia de Indias para bastones, Mambi—; Tagalog: Cana-
yangtotoo—; Tamil: Ambal, Ambu, Aril, Bongu, Iraivarai, Kalai, Kambu kilai,
Kisagam, Kulaimungil, Masukkaram, Mirittusam, Mudangal, Mulai, Mullu-
mungil, Mundlaveduru, Mundul, Mungil, Nadimungil, Nedil, Nettil, Palandam,
Panai, Pandil, Pasy, Periamungil, Perumungil, Peruvarai, Sabam, Sanagi, Sey,
Tandu, Tattai, Tulai, Tumbu, Valai, Vannigaruppam, Varaimungil, Vedir,
Velam, Venu, Veral, Vey, Veyal, Vindil—; Telugu: Bongu, Bongudu, Bongu-
veduru, Kichakamu, Maskaramu, Mullaveduru, Mudusuveduru, Pentiveduru, Tri-
nadhvajamu, Veduru—; Thana: Kalak, Katestokar, Padai—; Tongking: Tre
gai—; Tulu: Bedru—; Upper Godavery: Kanka—; Urdu: Bansa—; Uriya:
Beudobaunso, Kontabanso, Kontabaunso—; Uruguay: Bambu, Cafia.
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS GRASSES OF INDIA 551
3. Bambusa blumeana Schult. is indigenous, and also culti-
vated to some extent, in the open sandy country of the Malay
Peninsula, at Pekan in Pahang, at Perlis and Kanga in Kedah.
Tt extends to the Malay Islands.
The very fine hairs found on the sheath leaves of the young
sprouts are promipent among Malay poisons, They are used
either alone or in combination with other things.
Malay : Buloh duri, Buluh duri—.
BRoMUS.
This genus numbers about 40 species, found mostly in the
temperate regions of the Northern hemisphere and of South
America, several in the high mountains of the tropics.
B. catharticus Vahl., a Peruvian plant, is said to be purgative,
and B. purgans Linn. of Canada is reputed emetic.
Bromus mollis Linn. is found in North-West India, Europe,
the Mediterranean region as far as Persia, Western Siberia, Japan
and the Atlantic Islands. It is naturalised in North and South
America.
The grains of this plant bring on giddiness in man ame the
quadrupeds, and are fatal to poultry.
English : Bull-grass, Goose-corn—; Italian: Spigolina—; Maltese: Hortan,
artan—.,
CENCHRUS.
This genus consists of about 25 species, found in the warm
regions of both hemispheres, and in temperate North America.
Cenchrus catharticus Del. occurs in the Punjab and in the
Upper Gangetic Plain. It is found in Perim Island, at the mouth
of the Narbada River, and is distributed over Arabia, and tropical
Africa.
In La Reunion a decoction of the fruits is taken as a diuretic
and pectoral.
Bombay: Baront, Kukar—; Hausa: Karangiya—; La Reunion: Gratte-cul,
Pagode—; Rajputana: Bharut—; Sudan: Cram-cram, Heskanit—.
CEPHALOSTACHYUM.
This genus numbers 8 species inhabiting North India, Malaya
and Madagascar.
Cephalostachyum capitatum Munro is found in the Sikkim
and Bhutan Himalaya at 2,000-8,000 ft., and also in the Kasia,
Jaintea and Naga Hills.
The leaves are much used medicinally in Madagascar. The
infusion, 60 leaves for a litre of water, is given as tonic, anthel-
mintic, stomachic and carminative. An ointment consisting of
20 parts of ash and 30 parts of lard or suet is applied for the
itch and for rheumatism.
Betsimisaraka: Volozatsy, Volozevona—; Lepcha: Pa-yang, Pa-yong—;
Madagascar: Volo, Volotsangana—.
552 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
(HLORIS.
This genus contains 75 species found in the tropical and sub-
tropical regions of both hemispheres.
C. petraea Thunb. yields hydrocyanic acid.
Chloris virgata Sw. is found abundantly in Rajputana, Upper
and Lower Gangetic Plains, southwards to Bihar, Central and
Southern India, Burma, Western Tibet. It extends westwards
to Algeria, and is distributed over China, Mongolia, Tropical and
South Africa and America.
A decoction of the plant or of its roots is used by the Xosas
of South Africa as an addition to baths for the treatment of
colds and rheumatism.
Rajputana: Gharaniagas—; Nigeria: Kafar gauraka, Kafar fakar, Sawun
gauraka—; Telugu: Uppugaddi—; Transvaal: Sweet Grass, Zoet Grass—;
Xosa: uMadolwana—.
CHRYSOPOGON.
This genus consists of about 18 species found in the hot parts
of the Old World, a few extending into the temperate zones; one
in Florida and Cuba.
Chrysopogon serrulatus Trin. occurs in the Western Hima-
laya, from Kashmir to Nepal, ascending to 6,000 ft. It is found
in the hilly districts from the Punjab to Bihar and Orissa, Burma
and southwards to Ceylon. It extends to Indo-China, Afghan-
istan, Portuguese Hast Africa, Madagascar, Rhodesia and South
Africa.
The plant is said to yield hydrocyanic acid. The seeds are a
popular vermifuge in Annam.
Annam: Bong co, Co may, Co mu, Nam hoang lien—; Indo-China: Chien-
dent grenille—; Jhalawan: Kaj—; Kharan: Kohigayab—; Kila Saifulla: Sab-
ba—; Nushki: Kuj—; Pab: Kaj—; Quetta: Kohigayab—.
CoIx.
The genus includes 5 or 6 species, natives of the East Indies
and Ethiopia, one being broadly dispersed in warm regions.
Coix lachryma-jobi Linn. is found throughout the hotter and
damper parts of India and Ceylon, wild and cultivated—not wild
in Ceylon. It is distributed over tropical Asia, and is cultivated
in Africa and America.
Yunani doctors use the seed as a tonic and diuretic. In
Western practice the seeds are given as a tincture or decoction
in catarrhal affections of the air passages and in inflammation of
the urinary passages. In Tongking they are considered a good
blood purifier and an excellent diuretic.
The kernels deprived of their shells are used as a food and
medicine throughout China, Malaya, Indo-China, the Philippine
Islands, and in La Reunion. They make an excellent diet drink
for invalids, and have diuretic and cathartic properties. They
are also employed for lung and chest complaints.
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS GRASSES OF INDIA — 558
Among the Santals the root is given in strangury and in the
menstrual complaint known as ‘silka’.
An infusion of the parched and ground grains is used instead
of tea by the Japanese. The Chinese consider the toasted seeds
to be tonic and diuretic; they prescribe them in blennorrhagia.
The root is one of the ingredients in Vagbhata’s snake remedy
Ashtanga-agada; but Mhaskar and Caius have shown experimen-
tally that the drug is not an antidote to snake venom.
Arabic: Damudud—; Ashanti: Akrokosaibia—; Assam: Koamonee, Sohriu—;
Balaghat: Gurlu—; Bengal: Gurgur, Jilgurgur, Julgurgur, Kunch—; Bom-
bay: Gurgur, Kardia, Kassaibija, Kassar, Keruch, Ranjondhla, Ranmaka—;
Bundelkhand: Ganddula, Garun—; Burma: Cheik, Kalithi, Kyeikphun, Kyeit,
Sakyeik—; Cachar: Jhonki—; Central Provinces: Galbi, Ganddula, Kasei—:
Chanda: Gadi, Galbi, Kasei—; Chinese: I I Jen, Kiai Li, T’u I Mi, Y I Mi—;
Cutch: Dhamra—; Egypt: Dimma ayub—; English: Christ’s Tears, Job’s
Tears—; Fiji: Sila—; French: Larme de Job, Larmillé des Indes—; Gond:
Kasai—; Gujerati: Kasai, Ranzondlo—; Hindi: Baru, Dabhir, Ganduta, Gara-
hadua, Gargaridhan, Garun, Gulbigadi, Gurlu, Jilgurgur, Julgurgur, Kaiya,
-Kansh, Kasei, Sanklu, Sankhru, Sankru—; Igorotte: Agda—; Indo-China:
Bo bo hoang, Cuom gao, Neang vong, Y di—; Jaintia Hills: Sohriu—; Japan:
Judsudama, Tomugi—; Karen: Be, Bema—; Khasia Hills: Sohriu, U_ soh-
riew—; Konkani: Ranzondlo, Ranzonnalo—; La Reunion: Job—; Lepcha:
Kun-dap, Tung-lin—; Lushai Hills: Mim—; Malay: Jilai batu, Mulai tikus,
Ringuiringui—; Malaya: Yee mai, Yee yin—; Malta: Dmuh ta Giobb, Hara
tac Ciaul, Job’s Tears, Lacrima di Giobbe, Zibeg tal curum—; Manipur:
Changmimkhombi, Mim, Mung—; Marathi: Ranjondhala, Ranmakkai—;
Matheran: Kasai, Ranmaka—; Mexico: Acayacoyotl—; Mount Abu: Dabhir—;
Mundari: Bakrihoreng, Horeng, Loeonghoreng—; Naga Hills: Kasi, Kesi,
Koasangti, Kudhati, Kudhiathia, Sikrakravu, Sotsa—; New Caledonia:
E’Houa—; North-West Provinces: Sankru—; Philippines: Alimodias—;
Poona: Jondhali—; Porto Rico: Camandula—; Portuguese: Lagrimas de
Job—; Punjab: Sanklu—; Rajputana: Dabhir-—; Ranchi: Danghir—; Sabathu
Hills: Sanklu—; Saharanpur: Baru—; Samoa: Maniusniu, Samasama—;
Sanskrit: Gaberu, Gavedhu, Gavedhuka, Gavedu, Gojivha, Gundraguttha, Jar-
gadi, Kshudra, Kunta—; Santali: Jargadi—; Sema: Akiti—; Seont: Galu—;
Sierra Leone: Boukon, Boukori, Ewaruwura, Kali bugi—; Sinhalese: Karibu,
Kikirindi, Kikirindimana, Kukirrindi—; Spanish: Lagrimas de San Pedro—;
Tagalog: Tegbe, Tigbi—; Tamil: Kattu-kundamani—; Twi: Owu-ammang-
mankang-m’asaim—; Uruguay: Lagrima de Cristo, Lagrima de Job, Lagrima
de Maria—; Visayan: Adlay—.
CYMBOPOGON.
This genus consists of about 86 species distributed throughout
the tropical, and more rarely the subtropical, regions of the Old
World.
C. winterianus Jowitt is officinal in Germany.
C. schoenanthus Spreng. is used medicinally in China, Guinea,
Madagascar and Guiana; C. nardus Linn. in Cambodia, Guinea
and Madagascar; C. citratus Stapf. in the Gold Coast; C. excavatus
Stapf., C. marginatus Stapf., C. validus Stapf. in South Africa.
A. Basal leaf-sheaths ultimately loosened and curled;
blades flat; raceme-fascicles compound .. 1. GC. qwarancusa.
B. Basal leaf-sheaths in dense tufts, tightly clapping,
thickened below; blades more or less filiform and
flexuous, except when very short; raceme-fascicles
more or less simple a: ns 2. C. schoenanthus.
554 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
C. Sessile spikelets lanceolate or ovate- or obovate-
lanceolate; back flat. Lowest pedicel of raceme
scarcely stouter than the upper. All the spike-
lets awnless 3: -C. nardus.
D. Sessile spikelets linear to lanceolate-linear, awn-
less; back distinctly concave in the lower part;
panicle usually loose; branches slender, the
ultimate branchlets more or less nodding;
spathes long and narrow; hairs of joints and
pedicels rather spreading ... ee foes eh a. CULNOUILS,
1. Cymbopogon jwarancusa = Schult. (=Andropogon jwaran
cusa Jones) is found in the outer hill zone of the United Provinces,
Kumaon, Garhwal, and westwards as far as Peshawar, Jodhpur
and Jaisalmer, Sind, Bihar. It occurs in Western Tibet, ascend-
ing to 8,000 ft., and extends westwards to North Africa.
The plant is described by both Ayurveda and Yunani writers.
This grass is used to purify the blood, and in coughs, chronic
rheumatism and cholera. It is recommended as a valuable aro-
matic tonic in dyspepsia, especially that of children. It is also
used as a stimulant and sudorific in gout, fever and rheumatism.
The flowers are astringent and are used to stop haemorrhage.
When a Baluchi has fever, a large quantity of this grass is
collected and made into a bed. He lies on it and at once begins
to sweat.
Arabic: Izkhair—; Baluchi: Haveh—; Bengal: Gandhavena, Tbharankusha,
Karankusa—; Bombay: Ibarankusa, Iwarankusa, Izkhir, Kurankusa—; Bra-
hui: Have, Haveh—; Canarese: Kari lavancha—; Guwjerati: Jalavalo, Khada-
jala, Pilovalo—; Hindi: Bur, Ghatyari, Ibharankusha, Karankusha, Khavi,
Khawi, Khoi, Lamjak, Panni, San, Solara—; Marathi: Izkir, Lavaja, Pivala-
vala—; North-West Provinces: Bad, Ganguli, Misiyaban, Piriya—; Persian:
Gurgiyah—; Punjab: Bur, Ghatyari, Ibharankusha, Karankusha, Khavi, Khawi,
Khoi, Lamjak, Panni, San, Solara—; Sanskrit: Amrinala, Avadahaka, Avada-
taka, Dirghamula, Isthakapathika, Jalashaya, Jwarankusa, Laghu, Lamajjaka,
Taya, Nalada, Sevya, Shighra, Sunala, Sunila—; Tongking: Co de—.
2. Cymbopogon schoenanthus Spreng. (=Andropogon schoe-
nanthus Linn. = A. laniger Desf.) is found in the hotter parts
of India, wild or cultivated, from the Punjab to Burma and
southwards to Travancore and Ceylon. It extends to Afghanistan
and through North Africa to Morocco; it also occurs in Eritrea,
Socotra and Somaliland.
Ayurvedists describe the grass as acrid, bitter and pungent;
useful in fevers, bronchitis, pains, leprosy, heart and_ throat
troubles, and epileptic fits in children.
In Mahomedan medicine it is prescribed as a diuretic, emme-
nagogue and deobstruent, also as a stimulant to promote perspi-
ration and expectoration.
A decoction of the plant is given as a febrifuge. It is used in
China against oppression and spasmodic dyspnoea.
A strong infusion of the grass is commonly used in Egypt as
an antispasmodic and diuretic, and is reputed to have valuable
results, especially in promoting the passage of urethral stones.
The oil is considered a powerful stimulant when applied exter-
nally. It is used as a liniment in chronic rheumatism and neural-
gia, and is believed to have the property of curing baldness.
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS GRASSES OF INDIA 555
The root and the stem are popular snake and scorpion remedies;
but Caius and Mhaskar have demonstrated experimentally that
both of them are useless in the antidotal treatment of either
snake bite or scorpion sting.
Arabic: Izkhir, Mahareb—; Bengal: Agyaghas, Gandhabena, hamakar-
pura—; Bicol: Baliyoc—; Bombay: Rohisha, Rosegavat—; Cairo: HKl-maha-
reb—; Canarese: Vasanchullu—; Ceylon: Camel Grass—; Chinese: Cha Yang,
Che Yang, Mao Hsiang, Yang Mao T's’ao—; English: Camel Grass, Camel
Hay, Geranium Grass—; French: Barbeau musqué, Chiendent musqué, Foin
de chameau, Gramen oriental, Jone odorant, Pature de chameau, Schoenanthe,
Schoenanthe odorant—; French Guiana: Citronnelle—; Fort Sandeman: Sar-
garah—; Gujerat: Roshdo, Roshgas, Rusaghas, Rush, Rushgas—; Hassan:
Ezkryr—; Hedjaz: M’haz, Ulfaz udwiyah—; Hindi: Bujina, Ghandhabela,
Ghatyari, Gundbel, Khavi, Mirchiagand, Musel, Palakhari, Rohisha, Rousaghas,
Saundhiya—; Hova: Fiahana, Fiahina, Fiehana, Verofehana, Veromanitra—;
Italian: Fieno di camelo—; Jhalawan: Hawai—; La Reunion: Citronnelle
Las Bela: Pui—; Malayalam: Sirek—; Marathi: Rohisha, Rosegavat, Rush-
gavat—; Matheran: Rusha—; New Caledonia: N’Dowi—; North-West Pro-
vinces: Bujina, Palakhari—; Persia: Gorgiyah—; Philippines: Paja de meca,
Raiz de moras, Salaid—; Punjab: Ranus, Rauns—; Sanskrit: Bhustrina,
Bhuti, Bhutika, Devajagdha, Dhupagandhika, Dhyama, Dhyamaka, Katrina,
Paura, Putimugdala, Rohisha, Rohishatrina, Saugandhika, Shyamaka, Sugan-
dhatrinashita, Sushitala—; Shahrig: Sargarah—; Siwaliks: Mirchiagard—;
Spanish: Esquenanto, Paja de camello, Paja de la Meca—; Tagalog: Salai,
Salay, Tanglad—; Tamil: Kamachipillu, Kavatampillu, Vassinapillu—; Tehe-
ran: Azkar—; Telugu: Kamachikussu—; Visayan: 'Tanglad—.
38. Cymbopogon nardus Linn. (=Andropogon nardus Linn.)
occurs throughout the hotter parts of India, Burma, the Malay
Peninsula, and Ceylon, wild or cultivated, common everywhere.
It extends to tropical Asia, Africa and Australia.
The infusion of the leaves is used as a stomachic and earmi-
native.
The oil is stimulant, carminative, antispasmodic and sudorific.
It is used as rubefacient.
In Cambodia the flowers and the leaves are considered good
against cough, and sudorific; the roots are used as a diuretic,
sudorifice and antiperiodic.
Bengal: Kamakher, Kurankosha—; Burma: Singoumia—; Cambodia:
Sakrey, Slek Rey—; Canarese: Gandahanchikhaddi, Kamakshihullu—; Deccan:
Ganjni—; English: Citronella Grass—; Hindi: Ganjni, Ganjnikaghas, Iwaran-
kosa, Pustburn—; Hova: Verofehana—; Indo-China: Citronnelle, Hung nghe
huyen, La sa, Satrey—; Malay: Sereh wangi—; Malayalam: Chorapulla, Ka-
makshipulla—; Marathi: Ganjni, Usadhana—; Sinhalese: Maana, Mana, Pen-
girimana, Watusaewendara—; Spanish: Espicanardo espurio—; Tamil: Kavat-
tampillu, Kamachipillu, Mandappilfu, Sukkunaruppillu, Sunnarippillu—;
Telugu: Kamakshikasuvu, Kamachikussu, Kamanchigaddi—; Zulu: ubungu—.
4. Cymbopogon citratus Stapf. (=Andropogon citratus D.C.)
is only known in the cultivated state. Probably of Indian origin
it is now widely distributed over the tropics of both hemispheres.
Ayurvedists describe the grass as pungent, bitter, sharp and
hot. They say it is a good laxative, an aphrodisiac and anthel-
mintic; useful in bronchitis, leprosy and epileptic fits.
An infusion of the leaves is a popular sudorific, stimulant,
antiperiodic, very frequently given in simple catarrh. As a fever
drink it has great effect in inducing a remission or intermission
by bringing on sweat; and it is especially successful with weakly
556 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
subjects or when the fever is of a typhoid type. It is also used
as a medicinal vapour bath in mild cases of fever, or as an in-
halation.
The roots and tender leaves are sometimes given with black
pepper in cases of disordered menstruation and in the congestive
and neuralgic forms of dysmenorrhoea.
In flatulent and spasmodic affections of the bowels, and in
gastric irritability, the oil is a remedy of value. In cholera it
proves very serviceable, not only by allaying and arresting the
vomiting, but by aiding the process of reaction as well. Applied
externally, it forms an excellent embrocation in chronic rheuma-
tism, neuralgia, sprains and other painful affections. Externally
it ig also used for the ringworm.
In the Gold Coast the leaves are often boiled in water like tea,
and the liquor is drunk to cure fever. It is sometimes put into
hot bath water, and the patient stands in the hot vapour given
off. This is also said to be a good cure for fever.
Bengal: Gandhabena—; Burma: Sabalin—; Canarese: Kavanche hullu,
Majjigehullu, Purhalihulla, Vasanehullu—; Chinese: Mao MHsiang—; Colom-
bia: Limoncillo—; Deccan: Hazarmasalah—; English: Jeemon Grass, Melissa
Grass—; French: Chiendent citronnelle, Verveine des Indes Orientales—;
Gujerati: Lilacha, Lilicha—; Hindi: Gandhatrina—; Indo-China: Huong mao
thao, La sa, Sacrey, Say sa—; Java: Sireh—; Malay: Sereh makan—; Malay-
alam: Shambharapulla, Vasanappulla—; Marathi: Hirvacha, Olancha, Olen.
cha—; Persian: Chaekashmiri, Hazarmasalah—; Portuguese: Herba cheirosa,
Capim de Cheiro—; Sanskrit: Abichhatraka, Atigandha, Badhira, Badhiradh-
vanibodhana, Bhustrina, Bhutina, Chhatra, Gochhalaka, Guchhala, Guhyabija,
Gundardha, Jambukapriya, Karenduka, Kutimbaka, Malatrinaka, Punsvavigh-
raha, Putigandha, Roshisha, Samalambi, Shringaroha, Sugandha—; Sinhalese:
Penquin, Saira—; Spanish: Grama de limon, Limoncillo—; Tagalog: Tang-
lad—; Tamil: Karapurappillu, Vasanappillu—; Telugu: Chippagadi, Nimma-
gaddi, Vasangaddi—; Venezuela: Citronera, Limonera, Malojillo—.
CYNODON.
Of the 7 species which constitute this genus, 1 is cosmopolitan,
the others Australian and South African.
C. dactylon Pers. is used medicinally in Madagascar, La Re-
union and South Africa; C. hirsutus Stent. in Basutoland.
O. bradleyi Stent. yields hydrocyanic acid.
Cynodon dactylon Pers. is cosmopolitan and_ distributed
through all warm countries. It is found throughout India, Burma
and Geylon, ascending to 5,000 ft. in the Himalaya.
A decoction of the root is chiefly used as a diuretic in South
India and in Chota Nagpore. In Mysore it is employed for
secondary syphilis.
The cold infusion of the root often stops bleeding from piles.
The roots crushed and mixed with curds are a Deccan remedy
for chronic gleet.
The expressed juice of the plant is an Ayurveda specific for
hysteria, epilepsy and insanity.
The expressed juice of the plant, however, is a popular astrin-
gent commonly used as an application to fresh cuts and wounds
and given internally in cases of chronic diarrhoea and dysentery.
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS GRASSES OF INDIA 55?
It is also diuretic and used in cases of dropsy. It has moreover
been found useful in catarrhal ophthalmia.
In the Konkan the grass is prescribed in compound decoctions
with more active drugs for the cure of dysentery, and abnormally
profuse menstruation. A white variety, which appears to be only
a diseased state of tne plant, is used medicinally by the native
Hindu practitioners. It is acidulous and is given to check vomit-
ing in bilious complaints.
A preparation of the plant is apphed by the Santals in a
parasitic disease, which attacks the spaces between the toes.
In Madagascar the whole plant, or the rhizome alone, is
applied specially in gout and rheumatic affections.
An infusion of the plant is taken as a tonic in Venezuela.
Europeans in the Transvaal use the plant for heartburn. It
is taken bruised and mixed with sodium bicarbonate and other
substances. The bruised plant alone is applied as a styptic to
wounds.
The Xosas use a decoction as a lotion for sores and swellings.
Mhaskar and Caius have shown that the plant is not an anti-
dote to either snake venom or scorpion venom.
Afrikaans: Batawiese kweek, Fynkweek, Kwagga, Kwaggakweek, Kruis-
gras, Oostindiese kweek—; Antsianaka: Arampandrotra—; Arabic: Nagil—;
Baluchi: Milinu—; Bengal: Dub, Dubla, Durba—; Betsileo: Kindrese—;
Bombay: Harala, Haryeli—; Canarese: Garikehullu, Karkeri hullu, Kudi gari-
kai—; Catalan: Agram, Gram—; Central Provinces: Dhupsa, Hariali—;
Chinese: Ko -Oung—; Cuba: Grama—; Cutch: Chhabar, Chhabbar—; Egypt:
Nedil, Negil, Nishil, Nisiil—; Hnglish: Bahama Grass, Bermuda Grass, Couch
Grass, Creeping Panic Grass, Devil’s Grass, Doab Grass, Dog’s Tooth Grass,
Doob Grass, Doorwa, Doub Grass, Dun Grass—; French: Chiendent pied de
poule, Gros chiendent, Herbe des Bermudes, Pied de poule—; Greek: Agria,
Agriada—; Guam: Grama—; Gujerat: Dhro, Dhrokad, Gharo, Khabbal—;
Hausa: Kiri kiri, Tsar-Kiyar zomo, Tsirkiar zomo—; Hawaii: Manienie—;
Hindi: Dhoboghas, Dub, Dubra, Durba, Huriyale, Kalighas, Kabbar, Ram-
ghas—; Hova: Fandrotararana—; Indo-China: Co chi trang, Co ong, Hanh
nghi chi—; Iraq: Thaiyil—; Jhalawan: Char, Chobi, Godmaz—; Kolami:
Dhobighas, Dubi—; Konkani: Dhurva, Harialy—; Languedoc: Limaoucga—;
Lao: Ya Pet—; Las Bela: Sabah—; Loanda: Capim dos caballos—; Loralaz:
Sabah—; Madagascar: Kindresy—; Malta: Capriola, Couch Grass, Doub Grass,
Gramigna, Nigem—; Marathi: Dhurva, Durva, Harialy, Karala—; Menabe:
Fandrahana—; Mundari: Dubila, Dubilatasad, Dubitasad—; Nairob1: Uganda
Grass—; Nisirabad: Kabb—; North-West Provinces: Duba, Kalighas, Ram-
ghas—; Pacific Coast: Bermuda Grass, Dog’s Tooth Grass, Indian Couch
Grass, Scotch Grass, Wire-Grass—; Panjgur: Shez—; Punjab: Daurva, Dun,
Dubra, Kabbar, Khabbal, Talla, Tilla—; Rajputana: Dob, Nilldub—; Raro-
tonga: Mati—; Sadani: Dublaghas—; Sakalave: Vandrotsana, Fandrotsara-
na—; Sanskrit: Amari, Amrita, Ananta, Anuvallika, Asitalata, Bahuvirya,
Bhargavi, Bhutahantri, Dhurta, Dhurva, Durmara, Gauri, Guna, Harasalika,
Harita, Haritali, Jaya, Kachharuha, Mahaushadhi, Mahavari, Mangala, Nanda,
Niladurva, Ruha, Sahsravirya, Saumya, Shadvala, Shambhavi, Shanta, Shashpa,
Shataparva, Shatagranthi, Shatavalli, Shatmula, Shita, Shitakumbhi, Shitala,
Shiva, Shiveshta, Shyama, Tiktaparva, Vamini, Vijaya—; Santali: Dhobighas,
Dubi—; Sind: Chhabar, Chhabbar, Chibbur—; Sokoto: Jarikiri, Tsarkryar-
zomo, T'sirikiarzomo—-; South Africa: Bahama Grass, Bermuda Grass, Bermuda
Quickgrass, Devil’s Grass, Doab Grass, Dub Grass, Fine Couchgrass, Florida
Grass, Germiston Grass, Scotch Grass—; Spanish: Grama comun—; Suto:
Mohlwa, Morara—; Tagalog: Cautcauran, Colatay, Malit—; Tamil: Arugam-
pillu, Hariali—; Tasmania: Indian Couch—; Telugu: Ghericha, Gurka hari-
ali—; Trans Indus: Burawa—; Transvaal: Quagga Quick—; Upper Godavery:
Haryali—; Urdu: Dub—; Uriya: Dubbulaghanso—; Uruguay: Gramilla, Gra-
5538 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIIi
milla colorada, Gramilla del tiempo, Pata de perdiz—; Virginia: Wire Grass—;
West Indies: Bahama Grass—; Xosa: uQuagqaqa—; Zulu: isiNandi, umFul-
wane, uNgwengwe—.
DACTYLOCTENIUM.
The genus consists of 5 species inhabiting warm regions, one
widely spread throughout the tropics.
Dactyloctenium aegyptium Rich. (=EHleusine aegyptiaca Desf.)
is spread throughout the low country of India and Burma,
to Malacca and Ceylon. It is also known from Egypt, Nubia,
Eritrea, Arabia and other countries of Tropical Asia and America.
It was introduced into the New World from the warm regions
of the Old.
The grains are used medicinally by the Mundas of Chota Nag-
pore; they are parched in an earthern vessel and consumed in
small doses for three to eight days by women who after child-
birth suffer from belly-ache.
A decoction of the seeds is renowned in Africa as an alleviator
of pains in the region of the kidney, and its herbaceous parts are
applied externally for the cure of ulcers.
Annam: Co chi trang—; Australia: Hgyptian Finger Grass—; Bombay:
Mhar, Nacham, Nagli, Natchni, Raj—; Bundelkhand: Makamakna, Tipakia—;
Central Provinces: Chikara, Chotamandiya, Mathna, Utesirkum, Utesirla—;
Egypt: Im-es-salib, Rigl-el-herbayeh—; English: Goose Grass—; Hausa:
Gudegude—; Hindi: Makra, Makri—; Malayalam: Kavarapullu—; Mundari:
Bulungeuri, Bulungkode, Bulungruti, Bulungrutui—; Natal: Inane—; Phalip-
pines: Salai maya—; Punjab: Bhobra, Chimbari, Chubrei, Karmadhana, Mada-
na, Madhana—; Rajputana: Malicha, Maligha, Mansa—; Sadani: Nonma-
rua—; Santali: Suntubukrui—; Sinhalese: Putatana—; South Africa: Coast
Grass, Duck Grass—; Tagalog: Alam—; Tamil: Sodi, Tamida—; Telugu:
Muttengapillu—; Transvaal: Egyptian Kweek-grass, Natal Kweek-grass—;
United States: Comb Fringe Grass, Crowfoot Grass, Little Crowfoot—; Uriya:
Kakuriya—; Zulu: isiNandi, isInane, uNgwengwe—.
DENDROCALAMUS.
This genus numbers 24 species, which inhabit the Indo-
Malayan region, the Philippine Islands, China and Africa.
Dendrocalamus strictus Nees is found in the dry hills of
Northern India, from Garhwal to Nepal and southwards from the
Punjab to Bihar, the Konkan, Central and South India, Burma
and Great Cocos Island. It extends to Java. |
The leaves are boiled in water for convalescents to bathe in.
A decoction of the leaves is given to aid parturition; the juice
in two-ounce doses taken frequently is used as an abortifacient.
In Arabia the joints are made into a decoction and used as a
medicine to procure abortion. |
The minute hairs found on the sheath leaves are used by ae
Malays as a poison; it is given either alone or in combination
with other things.
Baigas: Bhiru—; Bengal: Karail—; Bombay: Bas, Bassa, Kaban, Udha,
Vassa—; Burma: Myinwa—; Canarese: Bidiru, Gandubediru, Kibbidary, Kin-
bidiru—; English: Male Bamboo, Solid Bamboo—; Gond: Halpa, Vadur, Ved-
dar—; Gujerat: Nakorvans, Narvans, Vans—; Hindi: Bans, Banskaban,
THER MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS GRASSES OF INDIA _ 559
Banskhurd, Kopar, Lakdibans, Narbans—; Khond: Maringi—; Kolami: Buru-
madh, Burumat, Mathan, Saring—; Kumaon: Bans—; Kurku: Indo—; Lam-
badi: Vasi—; Malay: Buloh batu, Buloh berang, Buloh tempat—; Malayalam:
Arinkantam, Cheriyamula, Kalmula, Kalmungil, Karinalimula, Karinkana—;
Marathi: Bans, Bharilvel, Bhovarlit, Vela—; Mundari: Birmad, Burumad,
Janggimad—; Palamow: Bukhar—; Pandratola: Kark—; fReddi: Kondave-
duru—; Sanskrit: Vansha, Venu, Yavaphala—; Santal: Burumadh, Burumat—;
Saora: Kondaveduru—; Tamil: Karanai: Jalmungil, Kattumungil, Mungil,
Sinnamungil, Sirumungil, Siruvari—; Telugu: Chittiveduru, Gattiveduru, Kan-
kaveduru, Penveduru, Potuveduru, Rativeduru, Sadanapaveduru, Sannaveduru,
Veduru—; Thana: Bundi, Manwel—; Tulu: Lavakiri, Panjibedru—; Uriya:
Saliabans, Saliabhanso, Salimbo, Salimbobaunso, Salimbo bhanso, Sanobaunso—.
DESMOSTACHYA.
The only species of the genus is D. bipinnata Stapf. (= Eva-
grostis cynosuroides Beauyv.). It is found in the plains of India,
from Peshawar and Sind to Burma and southwards, in hot dry
places. It extends westwards to Syria, Egypt, Nubia and East
Tropical Africa.
The culms are diuretic and stimulant. In the Konkan they
are prescribed in compound decoctions with more active drugs
for the cure of dysentery, and profuse menstruation.
Afghanistan: Drab, Kuthag—; Bengal: Kusha—; Bolan: Drab—; Bom-
bay: Darbh—; Brahui: Drak—; Bundelkhand: Dabvi—; Central Provinces:
Chir, Dabhat, Kusha—; Egypt: Ambarfe, Halfa, Hamarte, Gash—; Gazechah:
Kuthag—; Gujerati: Dabha, Darabha—; Hindi: Dab, Davoli, Durva—; Kani:
Kuthag—; Kila Saifulla: Sparmaghaz—; Libya: Halfa—; Marathi: Darbha—;
North-Western Provinces: Dab, Daboi, Dhab, Kush—; Punjab: Dab, Dhab,
Dib, Drab, Drabh, Kusa—; Sanskrit: Barhi, Darbha, Durbha, Garbha, Hrasva,
Kurava, Kusha, Kutha, Kutupa, Pavitra, Suchyagra, Yajnabhushana—; Shah-
rig: Dab—; Sibi: Drab—; Telugu: Aswalayana, Dabha, Darbha, Durpa,
Kusadatbha—; Turbat: Ding, Drab—.
ECHINOCHLOA.
This genus consists of 20 to 25 species distributed throughout
the warm regions of both hemispheres.
E. colona Link. var. frumentacea Blatter and McCann, and
E. crus-galli P. Beauv. are used medicinally in China.
1. Upper involucral glume and lower ficral glume
equally acute or cuspidate ... HH. colona.
2. Upper involucral glume and lower floral glume
cuspidate or produced into an awn, the latter
more than the former, Ligule absent .. HE. crus-gallt.
1. Echinochloa colona Link var. frumentacea Blatter &
MeCann (=Panicum frumentaceum Roxb.) is cultivated over the
greater part of India, up to 6,500 ft. on the Himalaya.
The plant is said to be a good remedy useful in biliousness and
constipation.
America: Billion Dollar Grass—; Baluchi: Samako—; Bengal: Saimra-
shama, Sanwa, Saon, Shama, Shamula, Syamadhan—; Bihar: Sama, Sanwan,
Sawan—; Bombay: Bavto, Sama, Samuka, Sanwak, Shama—; Canaresc:
Same, Save—; Central Provinces: Sawa, Sema—; Chinese: Shan Tzu—;
Deccan: Kangra, Kathi, Kathli, Sanwa, Saon, Sawa Shama, Shamula—,;
English: Japanese Barnyard Millet—; Garhwal: Jhungara—,;, Gujerat: Samo,
Samoghas, Janglisamak—; Hindi: Samak, Sanwa, Sawa, Sawan, Shama, Sha-
mula—; Kashmir: Karin, Soak—; Khondmals: Jhari—; Aumaon:; Jhangora,.
10
560 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Koni, Kungni, Mandira—; Malay: Padi burong—; Marathi: Janglisama,
Samul—; North-Western Provinces: Jhungara, Saman, Sawan—; Oudh: Sama,
Samei, Sanwan, Sawan, Sawanbhadeha—; Persian: Bajri—; Punjab: Chandra,
Sama, Samuka, Sanwak, Sawank, Soak—; Sanskrit: Avipriya, Rajadhanya,
Shyama, Shyamaka, Sukumara, Tribija, Trinabijottama—; Sind: Saon,
Saron—; Sinhalese: Welmarukku—; Tamil: Kudraivallipillu, Railpillu—;
Telugu: Bontachamalu, Bontashama, Bonthshama, Chama, Chamalu, Pala
oodalu, Sawa—; Uriya: Samu—.
2. Echinochloa crus-galli P. Beauv. (=Panicum crus-galli
Linn.=P. crus-corvi Linn.) is common throughout the greater part
of India and Malaya; as a weed it is found throughout the warm
temperate countries of the northern hemisphere. It is somewhat
rare in the tropics of Africa and the New World, and south of
the Tropic of Cancer.
The plant is used to check haemorrhage, and is prescribed for
diseases of the spleen.
Australia: Barnyard, Cockspur Grass—; Baluchi: Samo—; Bengal: Bura-
shama, Dul—; Betsileo: Ahibary, Aibary—; Bombay: Borur, Jiria, Pakud,
Pakushama, Sawank, Todia, Tor—; Canarese: Kadu dabhai hullu—; Central
Provinces: Baribhodore, Bharta, Datia, Kondabuttamgodi—; Chinese: Pai—;.
Dutch: Vingergras—; Egypt: Dineyb—; English: Panic Grass—; French:
Créte de coq, Ergot de coq, Millard, Panis des marais, Panis pied de coq,
Patte de poule, Pied de coq—; German: MHahnenfussfennich—; Greek:
Kechri—; Gujerat: Adbausamo—; Hindi: Samak, Sanwak—; Hova: Fari-
manga, Tsimparifarifolsy, Tsimparifarifary, Tsimparifarimango, ‘'simparifari-
mena—; Iraq: Dahnan, Danan, Dukhain—; Italian: Cresta de gallo—; Malta:
Panickgrass, Cock’s shin Grass, Panicastrella, Xrika—; Marathi: Sama—;
Mundari: Camatasad, Iri—; North-Western Provinces: Dhand, Jalsawank—;
Punjab: Barasanwak, Bharti, Dhand, Jarotha—; Rajputana: Horma, Sama,
Siwan—; Roumanian: Bujorul—; Sadani: Sauna, Sawa—; Sakalave: Karan-
ey—; Sanskrit: Jalasamaka—; Spanish: Daza, Mijo—; Tagalog: Dauadaua—;
Teulgu: Peddawundu—; United States: Barnyard Grass—; Uruguay: Pata
de gallo—.
ELEUSINE.
This genus consists of 10 species distributed over the warm
regions of the eastern hemisphere, one being widely spread
throughout the tropics. |
E. coracana Gaertn. is used medicinally in South Africa, HE. in-
dica Gaertn. in Guiana and Cambodia. :
1. Spike stout, often incurved, pubescent at base.
Seed globose
2. Spike slender, nearly glabrous at base. Seed
oblong, obtusely trigonous oe >. mdica.
FE. coracana.
1. Eleusine coracana Gaertn. is cultivated throughout India
and in many parts of tropical Africa and tropical Arabia.
Ayurveda authors describe the grain as acrid, bitter and sweet
and cooling. They consider it tonic, and recommend it in bilious-
ness and blood diseases.
The grain is generally used as an astringent.
“In South Africa the Tongas and Shangaans use it along with
Plumbago zeylanica Linn. as an internal remedy for leprosy.
Abyssima: Talban—; Bengal: Marua, Murha—; Bombay: Nagli, Nangli—;.
Canarese: Raggi, Ragi—; Egypt: Bishna—; EHritrea: Dagussa—; French:
Coracan, Eleusine coracana—; Golungo Alto: Luco, Lucu—; Gujerati: Bavto-
nagl, Navtonagli—; Hadramaut: Dokhn—; Hausa: Tamba—; Hindi: Makra,
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS GRASSES OF INDIA 561
Mandua, Marua, Maud, Murua, Rotka—; Katagum: Tamba—; Khasi: U’rai-
truh—; Kolami: Kode—; Konkani: Gonddo, Nachno—; Malayalam: Chetti-
pulli, Mutami—; Marathi: Nachiri, Nagli—; Mundari: Dasaikode, Dumba-
kode, Kode—; Natal: Upoko—; Nile: Ooleyzei—; Northern Nigeria: Tomba—;
North-West Himalayas: Koda, Kodon, Kodra, Kutra—; North-West Provinces :
Makra, Mandua, Marua, Rotka—; Oudh: Makra, Mandua, Marua, Rotka—;
Persian: Mandwah—; Portuguese: Nachinim—; Punjab: Chalodra, Koda, Ko-
don, Kodra, Mandal—; Sanskrit: Bahupatraka, Bhuchara, Guchha, Kadhina,
Kanisha, Lanchhana, Maliyasa, Narttaka, Nrityakunda, Ragi, Raji, Rajika—;
Santali: Kode—; Shangaan: Liphokho—; Sind: Nachni, Nangh—; Sinha-
lese: Kurakka—; Tamil: Kalvaragu, Kapai, Kayur, Ragi—; Telugu: Chodalu,
Ponassa, Ragi, Ragulu, Sodi, Tamidelu—; Unyoro: Bolu—; Uraon: Kodai—;
Uriya: Mandia—; Zambesi: Marumbi, Mitchinin—; Zanzibar: Vimbe—;
Zulu: uPoko—.
2. Eleusine indica Gaertn. is found growing throughout the
plains of India and Ceylon. It is common in the tropics of the
Old World. It is naturalized in the Mediterranean region, and
is said to have been introduced in the New World.
The whole plant, but more especially the root, is considered
sudorific and febrifuge in Cambodia. It is much used in liver
complaints.
In Guiana a decoction of the plant is given to children for
convulsions.
- Bundelkhand: Gurchawa—; Burma: Hsengnomyeet, Singnomyet—; Cambo-
dia: Choeung Kras—; Central Provinces: Godchabba, Gurragadi, Kakariya,
Madanya, Malghi, Mandial—; Cuba: Pata de gallina—; French Guiana: Pied
de poule—; Golungo Alto: Pé de galinha—; Guam: Umog—; Gujerat: Ad-
baunagli—;_ Hausa: Chiyawartuji, Tuji—; Hindi: Malankuri—; Katagum:
Chiyawar tuji, tugi—; Kolami: Bir Kode—; Kumaon: Mandavi—; Lagos:
Hse-kana-kana, Gbegi—; Malay: Rumput sambau—; Marathi: Ran nachani—;
Mundari: Kodai, Sukari kodai—; North-Western Provinces and Oudh: Gadha,
Gadhacharwa, Gathamandwi, Jhingri, Jhinjhor, Lijhar, Makraila—; Philtp-
pines: Baquisquisan—; Rajputana: Mandwa—; Sesuto: Moseli—; Shahrig:
Chhabal—; Sverra Leone: Osoekurunyi—; Sinhalese: Walkurakkan—; South
Africa: Crowfoot, Goose Grass, Wild Rapoko Grass—; Tagalog: Sabongsabon-
gan, Sambale—; Tamil: Thipparagi—; Telugu: Karuchodi, Karsodi, Kuror—;
Uganda: Kasibanti—; United States: Goose Grass, Yard Grass—; Uriya:
Nandia—; Zulu: uMunyankomo, umNyankomo, uPoko.
HETEROPOGON.
This genus consists of about 6 species found in the tropical
and subtropical regions of the whole world.
H. contortus Roem. & Schult. is used medicinally in China
and South Africa.
Heteropogon contortus Roem. & Schult. (=Andropogon con-
tortus Linn.) is found in all warm regions. It is distributed
throughout India, Burma and Ceylon to the Straits of Malacca,
ascending the Himalaya to 5,000 ft. It 1s common throughout
the whole Tropical Africa, and the adjacent islands, ascending
in Eritrea to over 8,800 ft. It extends all over Africa, the Medi-
terranean region, and the tropical and subtropical regions gene-
rally.
The root is a stimulant and diuretic.
The Sutos of South Africa use the plant with Tribulus terre-
stris Linn. for the treatment of rheumatism in the hands,
562 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIti
Afrikaans: Steek Grass—; Bihar: Chorant—; Bombay: Bal, Bale, Dakli-
euckal, Italisuckal, Musaneh, Pendrisuckali, Suckal, Suckali kussal, Suckeri—;
Canarese: Kari vunugada hullu, Sunkari hullu—; Chinese: Ti Chin—; Eng-
lish: Spear Grass, Wild Oats—; Ga: Akorsorfeng, Ananugangi—; Gujerat:
Dhabsuhyum—; Hausa: Bunsurundaji—; Hawaii: Pili—; Hindi: Kher, Saral,
Shurighas, Shurval—; Ho: Saiyu—; Kharwar: Chorant—; Kohlu: Barwu—;
Marathi: Kant egawta—; Matheran: Bal, Kusal, Pandrisukal—; Mundari:
Sauri—; Ormara: Abdarka—; Sambalpur: Sukla—; Santali: Saurighas—;
Sesuto: Selokana—; Shahrig: Barwaz—; Somaliland: Aggar—; Tamil:
Karunsipullu, Panipullu, Usipullu—; Telugu: Dubbagasarigaddi, Eddigaddi,
KXaserigaddi, Yedda, Yeddi, Yerragoyi—; Uriya: Dauria, Sinkola, Sinkolo— ;
Zulu: isiTupe—.
HorDEUM.
This genus numbers about 25 species, natives of temperate
regions, mainly found in the northern hemisphere.
Hordeum vulgare Linn. is cultivated chiefly in North India and
up to 18,000 ft. in the Himalaya. It is widely cultivated in all
temperate regions.
Both Ayurveda and Yunani writers credit barley with anti-
bilious, antispasmediec, and antifebrile properties, and recommend
its use in the treatment of bronchitis.
Barley is demulcent, and easy of digestion, and is for these
reasons used in the dietary of the sick. A powder of the parched
grains is much employed in the form of a gruel in cases of pain-
ful and’ atonic dyspepsia.
In Patna the ashes of the leaf are employed in the formation
of cooling sherbets. The ashes of the stalks are prescribed for
indigestion in the plains of the Punjab.
From the earliest times barley has been employed to prepare
drinks for the sick, especially in feverish disorders, and for sore
lining membranes of the chest. Barley in the form of the decoc-
tion popularly known as barley water, affords a mucilaginous drink
very valuable in all cases requiring demulcent treatment. Pearl
barley is the form usually preferred for the preparation of the
decoction, made by pouring four pints of boiling water on two
Troy ounces of pearl barley and boiling away to two pints, and
straining. It is especially used in infant feeding, as it seems to
prevent the formation of large milk curds by its colloidal
character.
Pearl barley is the seed deprived of all its investments and
afterwards rounded and polished in a mill. It is in small round
or oval grains, having the remains of the longitudinal furrow of
the seeds, and of pearly whiteness. It is wholly destitute of
hordein, and abounds in starch, with some gluten, sugar and
cum. This is the proper form of barley for medicinal use.
Honey may be added beneficially to the decoction of barley
for bronchial coughs. Barley water with gum arabic, one ounce
of the gum dissolved in a pint of the hot decoction, is a very
useful drink to soothe irritation of the bladder and of the urinary
passages.
Barley meal is formed by grinding the seeds _ previously
deprived of their husk. It may be made into a coarse, heavy,
THE MEDICINAL AND -POISONOUS GRASSES OF INDIA 563
hard bread, which in some countries is much used for food,
though apt to purge.
In China barley sprouts are especially prepared for medicinal
use. This is done by moistening the grains with water, allowing
them to germinate, and then drying them in the sun. The sprouts
are rubbed off and the grain ground into flour. The sprouts enter
into a number of prescriptions given for infantile complaints.
The germinated barley or malt with the radicle is used in
China as peptic, stomachic, lenitive, demulcent and expectorant.
Preparations of malt have acquired some reputation of late years
in Europe and America, since they are more demulcent and nutri-
tious than those of the unmalted barley.
Barley is officinal in France, Portugal, Spain and the United
States of America.
Afghanistan: Jao, Jaoshirin, Jaotush—; Arabic: Shaair, Shair—; Armc-
nian: Kari—; Ashkobi: Arbus—; Bagwana: Brehnajau—; Behar: Jowakhar—;
Bengal: Jab, Jao, Jau—; Bhotia: Nas—; Bombay: Jav, Satu—; Brazil:
Cevada, Cevada sancta—: Burma: Muyau—; Canarese: Javegodhi—; Catalan:
Ordi, Ordi comu—; Chinese: Kung Mai, No Mai, Ta Mai—; Danish: Byg—;
Deccan: Satu—; Dutch: Gerst—; Egypt: Shair—; English: Barley—; Fin-
land: Ohva—; French: Béchette, Blé d’Egypte, Blé de mai, Epeautre, Epente,
Epinte, Espigan, Orge, Orge commune, Orge grosse—; German: Garsten,
Geste—; Greek: Krithari, Krithi—; Guwjerati: Jau, Jav, Ymvah—; Harboi
Hills: Jau, Sa, Urbusha—; Hindi: Jau, Jav, Jawa, Suj—; Hungarian:
Arpa—; Indo-China: Dai mach, Lua mach nha, Ta me, Thoe mach nha—;
Iraq: Sha’ir—; Italian: Farro, Orzo, Scandella, Spelita, Spelta—; Jhalawan:
Jau, Sa, Urbusha—; Kila Saifulla: Jau, Sa, Urbusha—; Konkani: Cevad,
Jav—; Kurdish: Ju—; Languedoc: Espeulto, Espigan, Feraje hordi, Ordi,
Ordigal—; Lapland: Kordne—; Lassa: Soah—; Malaya: Mai ngai—; Malta:
Barley, Orzo, Xghei, Xghei tal birra, Xghei tal mazza—; Marathi: Cevad,
Jav, Java, Satu—; Nepal: Tosa—; North-West Provinces: Indarjau, Janu,
Yurk—; Persian: Jao—; Polish: Jenczmien—; Portuguese: Cevada—; Pun-
jab: Buza, Chak, Chang, Chung, Jaon, Jau, Jawa, Nai, Thanzatt—; Rou-
manian: Orz—; Russian: Jetschmen—; Sanskrit: Akshata, Dhanyaraja,
Divya, Hayapriya, Hayeshta, Kanchuki, Medhya, Pavitradhanya, Praveta,
Shaktu, Shvetashunga, Sitashuka, Sitrishuka, Tikshnashuka, Turagapriya, Yava,
Yavaka—; Sharig: Jau, Sa, Urbusha—; Spanish: Cebada, Cebada comtin—;
Swedish: Biugg—; Tamil: Barliyarisi, Barliyarishi—; Tartary: Arpah—;
Telugu: Barlibiyam, Dhanyabhedam, Pachchayava, Yava, Yavaka, Yavala—;
Turkish: Arpa—; Urdu: Jav—; Yemen: Schair—.
HYGRORHIZA.
H. aristata Nees., the only species of this genus, is found
in the upper and lower Gangetic Plains, Assam, Chittagong, Pegu,
the Deccan and Ceylon, extending to Tongking. It occurs either
floating on the surface of water, or creeping on wet ground.
Ayurveda describes the seeds as sweet and acrid, oleagenous,
digestible and cooling. They are astringent to the urinary tract,
and useful in biliousness. They cause constipation and flatulence.
Bengal: Uridhan—; Bombay: Deobhat, Urodhan—; Canarese: Jyarahu-
medhe—; Gujerati: Vanti—; Hindi: Janglidal, Tili, Tini—; Malayalam: Nir-
vallipullu—; Marathi: Deobhata—; North-Western Provinces: Parsal, Passahi,
Passai, Passari, Tinni—; Punjab: Pastal—; Sanskrit: Aranyadhanya, Ara-
ayajali, Munidhanya. Nivara, Prasadhika, Trinadhanya, Trinodbhava, Vana-
vrihi—; Sinhalese: Gojabba—; Tamil: Valli pullu—, ;
564 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
IMPERATA.
This genus consists of 5 tropical species found in the warm
regions of both hemispheres, but chiefly American.
Imperata arundinacea Cyrill. (=I/. cylindrica Beauv.) is found
in the hotter parts of India, from the Punjab southwards and
eastwards, to Malacca and Ceylon. It grows in all warm countries
and often covers enormous areas. When entering cultivated land
it may become a serious pest.
The roots are used as an emollient in Cambodia, mostly in
the fumigation of piles.
The roots are much appreciated in China for their restorative,
tonic, haemostatic and antifebrile properties.
The Sutos of South Africa use the root in making a medicine
for chest colds in children, while the Zulus regard it as a specific
for hiccough.
Australia: Blady-grass—; Baluchi: Drug—; Bengal: Ulu—; Bhabar:
Shiro—; Bombay: Dhub—; Burma: Thek-kay nyen—; Cambodia: Sbeou—;
Canarese: Sanna dabbai hullu—; Cantonese: Pak mau kan—; Chinese: Mao
Tsao, Pai Mao Ken—; Hausa: Tofa, Toha—; Hindi: Dabh, Siru, Ulu—;
Hova: 'enina, Tenona, T'sevoka—; Indo-China: An do bach mao, Co danh,
Mao ken, Tranh—; Iraq: Halfah, Shismallah—; Kolami: Chero—; Malay:
Alang alang, Lalang—; Malaya: Pak mau kan—; Mundari: Huringciru—;
North-Western Provinces: Shiro—; Punjab: Siru, Ulu—; Sakalave: Mane-
vica—; Sanskrit: Balbajamu, Barhissu, Darbha—; Santali: Chero—; Simla:
Dab—; Sinhalese: Iluk—; Southern Nigeria: Spear Grass—; Suto: Mohlaba-
lerumo, Mohlorumo—; Tamil: Dharbai pul, Tharpaipillu—; Telugu: Barum-
biss, Dharba, Modavagaddi—; Uganda: Lusanke—; Upper India: Bharwai,
Sil, Sir, Usirh—; Zulu: umThente—.
LoLIuM.
This genus includes 6 species, natives of Europe, temperate
Asia, and North Africa; but naturalised in many countries.
Many of the species are reputed to possess a poisonous prin-
ciple.
Lolium temulentum Linn. is an annual weed of cultivation,
also occasionally met with as a wayside weed and in waste
ground, common in the plains and hills of the Upper Gangetic
-Plain, the Punjab, the North-West Provinces ascending to 4,000-
6,000 ft. in the Himalaya, and Sind. It extends throughout
Europe and Western Asia, has been found in the island of Madura
and in North Africa, and occurs as an introduced plant in the
United States and Australia.
The seeds or grains were used medicinally by the ancient
Greeks and Romans. The old sages, however, supposed it to
cause blindness, and with the Romans, lolo victitare, to live on
Darnel, was a phrase applied to a dim-sighted person. Gerard
says, ‘The new bread wherein Darnel is eaten hot, causeth
drunkenness’. A general trembling, followed by inability to walk,
hindered speech, and presently profound sleep with subsequent
headache and vomiting, are the symptoms produced by Darnel
when taken in a harmful quantity.
‘As it is not without some vices’, says Culpeper, ‘so hath it
also many virtues. The meal of Darnel is very good to stay gan-
THE MEDICINAL. AND POISONOUS: GRASSES .OF INDIA. 565
erenes and other such like fretting and eating canker and putrid
sores; it also cleanseth the skin of. all leprosies, morphews, ring-
worms, and the like, if it be used with salt and raddish roots.
And being used with quick brimstone and vinegar, it dissolveth
knots and kernels, and breaketh those that are hard to be dis-
solved, being boiled in wine with pigeon’s dung and linseed. A
decoction thereof made with water and honey, ” and the places
bathed therewith is profitable for the sciatica. Darnel meal
applied in poultice draweth forth splinters and broken bones in
the flesh. The red darnell boiled in red wine and taken, stayeth
the lax and all other fluxes and women’s bloody issues and
restraineth urine that passeth away too suddenly.’
Darnel meal is still recommended as a sedative poultice, and
is still believed to cure freckles. |
_, Catalan: -Juy, Sfgenaee Devonshire: Haver, Iver—; Dutch: Bolderik,
Dolik, Dravik—; English: Bearded Darnel, Cheat, Darnel, Jura, Ray Grass,
Ryo Grass, Wary, Bragge, Cockle, Dornel, Dragge, Drake, Drank, Dravick,
Droke, Drunk, Drunken Plant, EKaver, Ivray, Jum, Lover’s Steps, Ray, Riely,
Rivery, Sturdy—; French: Ivraie, Ivraie annuelle—; German: Lolch, Taumel-
korn—; Hindi: Machni—; Iraq: Hanaitah, Ruwaitah, Shailam—; Italian:
Gioglio, Logho—; Maltese: Sicrana—; Portuguese: Joio—; Roumanian: Ne-
shina, Selbata, Zizanie—; Russian: -Plevel, Pshenetz—; Somersetshire: Devon
Ever—; Spanish : Joyo, Zizafa—; Sussex: Crop—; Uruguay: Joyo, Trigollo,
Zizana—.
LOPHATHERUM.
This genus consists of 2 species inhabiting Indo-Malaya, China
and Japan.
Lophatherum gracile Brongn. is found in Tropical Himalaya
from Sikkim eastwards, the IKhasia and Naga Hills, and Ceylon
up to 4,000 ft. It is common along forest paths in the whole
Malay Peninsula from Singapore to Kedah, from the plains to
5,000 ft. altitude in the Thaiping Hills and Pahang. It extends
to the waste land in China, Japan, Java, Amboyna and New
Guinea. 7
In China the leaves are considered to have antifebrile and
diuretic properties.
_ Annam: Co may, Dam chuc diep—; Chinese: Tan Chu—; Malay: Rumput
jarang, Rumput Kelurat, Rumput ubi bulush—; Sino-malay: Tham chook—.
MANISURIS.
The one species of this genus, M. granularis Sw., is found
throughout the hotter parts of India, from the Punjab eastwards
to Burma, and southwards to Ceylon. It occurs in most tropical
countries.
Anislie says that in Behar the plant is prescribed internally
in conjunction with a little sweet oil, in cases of enlarged spleen
and liver.
Ajmere: Kangni—; Berar: Ratop—; Chanda: Agimaligadi—; Gujerat:
Kasium, Kasiunghas—; Hindi: Kangni, Trinpali—; Naguri: Buruburuludia-
tasad, Ludiatasad—; fRajputana: Dhaturoghas—; Sanskrit: Palanggini—;
Sierra Leone: Ardande, Fesifesi, Guisqui— ; Udaipur : Dhaturoghas—,
566 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
ORYZA.
This genus numbers about 17 tropical species extending to the
subtropical regions of both hemispheres.
Oryza sativa Linn. is widely cultivated. It occurs indigenous
in the marshes of Rajputana, Sikkim, Bengal, the Khasia Hills,
Central India, the Circars and Pegu. It extends to Australia.
Ayurveda describes the rice grain as acrid, sweet, oleagenous,
tonic, aphrodisiac, fattening, diuretic and useful in biliousness.
In India rice is used variously in sick diet. It is invariably
ordered as the safest and best food in all dysenteric complaints.
Boiled rice, when hot, is used as a poultice. Rice-water is recom-
mended as an excellent demulcent, refrigerant drink in febrile and
inflammatory diseases, dysuria and other affections requiring this
class of remedies. This decoction is also given aS an enema in
ffections of the bowels.
In Cambodia the husk of the grain is considered anti-dysenteric.
The roasted grain, mixed with an equal amount of palm-sugar, is
prescribed in Strychnos poisoning. Boiled in water and then dried
in the sun, the grain enters into the composition of remedies for
leprous ulcers.
Certain varieties of specially prepared grains are used medi-
cinally in China and Malaya. Malted rice is used as a peptic,
carminative and tonic.
In Europe the grain has long been considered to exercise
pectoral virtues, and useful for persons troubled with lung disease,
and spitting of blood, as in pulmonary consumption. ‘The grain
stays laxes and fluxes of the stomach and belly, especially if it
be parched before it is used, and hot steel quenched in the milk
wherein it is boiled, being somewhat drying and binding. The
flour of the rice has the same property, and is put into cataplasms
to repel humours from flowing to the place, and also to women’s
breasts to stay inflammations.’
Rice bread and rice cakes, simply made, are very light and
easy of digestion. The gluten confers the property of rising, on
dough or paste made of rice flour. But as an article of sustenance
rice is not well suited for persons of fermentative tendencies during
the digestion of their food, because its starch is lable to undergo
this chemical change in the stomach.
The grain is officinal in Austria, Belgium, France, Germany,
Great Britain, Holland, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland and
Turkey.
Amblaw: Fala—; Annam: Lua nep, Lua nui, Lua song lon, Lua te, Lua
toc—; Arabic: Arruz, Arz—; Armenian: Priusch—; Belgaum: Bhatta—;
Bengal: Chal, Chanvol, Dhan, Oridhana—; Bombay: Bhatta, Dangar—;
Bouru: Hala, Halai, Pala—; Broach: Dangar—; Burma: Chan, Saba, San—;
Cambodia: Srau damnop, Srau khasai, Srau prapeai vea—; Canarese: Akki,
Batta—; Catalan: Arros—; Central Provinces: Deaodhan—; Ceram: Fala—;
Chinese: Ch’en Lien Mi, Hsien, Keng, Tao, Tao Tzeu—; Cochin China:
Lua—; Danish: Riis—; Deccan: Chanval—; Dutch: Rijst—; Hast Indies:
Paddy—; Egypt: Arus, Rus, Ruz—; English: Rice—; Hwe: Molung, Morli,
Morlu—; Fanti: Omo—; Fatehpur: Phasai—; French: Riz—; Ga: Omong—;
THA MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS GRASSES OF INDIA 567
Gambia: Mannow—; German: Reiss—; Greek: Oryza, Oryzion, Oryzon—;
Guam: Fae, Fai, Faria—; Guwjerati: Chokha—; Hausa: Shinkafa—; Hazara:
Shali—; Hindi: Chaval, Deodhan, Dhan, Pusui—; Hungarian: Riskasa—;
Indo-China: Khao, Nganh, Nhu—; Iraq: Shilib, Ruzz—; Italian: Riso—;
Japanese: Ko, Kome, Motsj—; Java: Bai—; Jhang: Munji—; Kashmir:
Dein, Tani—; Khmer: Srau, Srou, Srur—; Kolami: Baba, Birbaba—; Kon-
kani: Bhat—; Krepi: Morli—; Krobo: Omong—; Kurdish: Chaltuk, Pishik—;
Laos: Khao chao, Khao hai, Khao loi, Khao nieu—; Madagascar: Vary—;
Malay: Pady—; Malayalam: Ari, Nellu—; Marathi: Bhat, Tandula—; Mata-
bello: Feha—; Mon: Sro—; Mount Abu: Garri, Sal—; Mundan: Baba—;
Mysol: Fas—; Mysore: Bhatta, Nellu—; North-West Provinces: Chanwal,
Dhan, Jarhan, Lehi, Munji, Pusai—; North Queensland: Kineyah—; Oudh:
Dhan, Pashai, Passari, Tinni—; Palaung: Rekao, Sakao, Takao—; Pandran:
Kandahari, Khisumbhuz, Wilaiti—; Partabgarh: Sathi—; Persian: Biranj—;
Peshawar: Shol—; Philippines: Bolahan, Palai—; Polish: Ryz—; Portuguese:
Arroz—; Punjab: Dhan, Munji, Shahan, Tai—; Rajputana: Garri—; Rampur:
Phasai—; Roumanian: Orez—; Russian: Psheno, Ris, Sarachinskoe psheno—;
Sanskrit: Arunya, Ashuvrihi, Dhanya, Nivara, Shali, Tandula, Vrihi—; San-
tal: Uri, Urihoro—; Sema: Aghi—; Shahrig: Shali—; Sind: Chanwar, Sari,
Sugdasi—; Sinhalese: Goyan, Hal, Uruwi—; Spanish: Arroz—; Sunda: Pare,
Pari;— Swedish: Ris—; Tagalog: Bigas, Binambang, Bolohan, Dumali, Lamu-
yo, Malagguit, Palay, Quinanda, Tangi—; Tamil: Arishi, Arisi, Nellu—;
Tartary: Dugu—; Tayabas: Nilomot—; Telugu: Biyam, Dhanyamu, Erraji-
lama, Nevaridhanyamu, Ouri, Urlu, Vadlu, Vudlu—; Tobu: Shahi—; Turkish:
Pirin}, Pirins—; Twi: Aimong, Mong—; Uriya: Balunga, Chaul, Dhan,
_Dhanno, Rabana—; Xong: Ruko—; Zehri: Pirkalanari—.
OXxYTENANTHERA.
This genus includes 16 species occurring in India, Burma,
Malaya and Africa.
Oxytenanthera sinuata Gamble is found south of the Malay
Peninsula in Johor, and Negri Sembilan; but nowhere very com-
mon.
The very fine hairs found on the sheath leaves of the young
sprouts are prominent among Malay poisons. They are frequently
used with pounded glass and set up a train of symptoms lke
that of a chronic pseudo-dysentery.
In Kelantan bamboo hairs are sometimes mixed with the juice
obtained from Caryota mitis Lour. and an extract of toad. This
toad extract is made from the common. brown toad by allowing
it to decompose in a bamboo cylinder containing a little water;
after an interval of seven days this is smeared or sprinkled over
wearing apparel, and the ingredients are said to set up an in-
curable and painful skin disease lke a ringworm in appearance.
The hairs are mixed with the ground bark of Wickstroemia
ridleyi Gamble and decayed copra, and then thrown into rivers
to stupefy fishes.
Malay: Buloh minyak—.
PANICUM,
This genus is a heterogeneous assemblage of about 400 species,
mostly natives of warm regions, a few being found in temperate
climates of the northern hemisphere, one or two being almost
cosmopolitan.
568 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Many species are much valued as fodder-grasses but a few are
said to be toxic to the animals.
I. Annuals.
a. Spikelets ¢-2 in. long. Stems tufted, 2-4 ft.
long, stout. Leaves 6-12 in. long 1. P. miliaceum.
b. Spikelets ,4-3 in. long. Stem 1-3 ft. long,
rather slender. Leaves 1-2 ft. long Spee tad see UNO TD
IT. Perennials.
a. Spikelets jin. long, lJaxly clustered on the
branches; glume IV smooth. Leaves 6 by
¢. i Jeanicle 26 ah, ghicle ess. :.. & ~P. antidotale.
b. Spikelets j-14 in. long, large, scattered;
glume IV finely rugulose. Leaves 1-2 ft.
by 3-1 in. Panicle 1-2 ft. high » 4. P. maximum...
c. Spikelets small, very numerous, crowded:
glume IV smooth. Leaves 5-12 in. by .
4-3 In. Panicle 7-12 in. long ... . O. DP; sarmentosum.
1. Panicum miliaceum Linn. is cultivated or naturalized
throughout the hotter parts of India, Africa and other hot coun-
tries. It is grown in various parts of India, even up to 10,000 ft.
on the Himalaya, but nowhere to any great extent.
Ayurveda writers describe the plant as sweet and acrid, causing
biliousness and indigestion.
At Shoran, in Baluchistan, the plant is used as a cure for
gonorrhoea.
Arabic: Dokhu, Worga, Worglo—; Ashkobi: Azhaum, China—; Bagwana:
Peonprish—; Bengal: China—; Bihar: China, Chinh, Chinna—; Bombay:
Bansi, Chenah, China, Chirwa, Phikar, Rali, Sama, Sawa, Vari,., Varikaanu,
Varisava, Wadi, Worga—; Bundelkhand: Bansi, Phikai, Rali—; Canarese.:
Baragu, Bilibaragu, Karibaragu, Save—; Chinese: Chi, Shu—; Deccan: Sava,
Sawi, Shamakh, Wari—; Dutch: Gierst—; Egypt: Dokhn—; English: Broom
Corn Millet, Chena Millet, Common Millet, Indian Millet—; French: Mil,
Mil en branches, Mil commun, Mil d’Inde, Petit mil, Millet, Millet commun,
Millet & grappes, Millet rond, Millet rouge—; German: Hirse—; Gujerats:.
Chino, Samli, Vari—; Hindi: Chena, China—; Iraq: Dukhn—; Kashmir: Chin-
wa—; Kila Saifulla: Azhdan—; Ladak: 'Tzede—; Lepcha: Mung-cher—;
Marathi: Barag, Sava, Vari—; North-Western Provinces: ‘Chehna, Chinwa,
Chirwa, Kuri, Sawanchaitwa, Sawanjethwa—; Persian: Arzan—; Portuguese:
Milho miudo—; Punjab: Anne, Chena, China, Chini, Salan, Salar—; Quetta:
Gamh—; Roumanian: Malaiu, Meiu—; Russian: Proso—; Sanskrit: Anu,
China, Chini, Rad, Varaka, Vrihibheda—; Shoran: Chabor—; Sind: Chinu—;
Sinhalese: Mainairi—; South Africa: Indian Buffalo Grass—; Tamil: Kadai-
kanni, Katakanai, Samai, Varagu—; Telugu: Barigalu, Varagalu, Warigalu,
Worga, Wuragi—; Tobu: Azhdun—; Uriya: Rala—; Yemen: Kossayb,
Mileb--.
2. Panicum miliare Lam. is cultivated or naturalized through-
out India and Ceylon. It is cultivated in the tropics.
According to some Ayurveda practitioners the plant acts as a
nervine stimulant and tonic.
Bengal: Gondula—; Bombay: Badi, Bagad, Burburi, Kulti, Poi, Warai—;
Canarese: Bilisamai hullu, Shamai—; Central Provinces: Chika—; English:
Little Millet-—; Hasada: Bicagurulu—; Hindi: Kungu, Kutki, Savan—; Indo-
China: Co gang, Co ong—; Khond: Gundli, Pani kuhuri—; Malayalam:
Shama—; Mundari: Arabende, Saramecadlongurulu—; Naguri: Hendegudulu—;.
North-Western Provinces: Kutki, Mighri—; Punjab: Kutki—; Rajputana:
Nillashama—; Ranchi; Mota gundli—; Santali: Gundli—; Sinhalese: Meneri;
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS GRASSES OF INDIA _ 569
Tamil: Chamai, Perusamai, Samai, Shamai—; Telugu: Chamalu, Gangasamalu,
Nallachamalu, Nellashama, Nellashamalu, Sani, Savai—; Uriya: Luniva—.
38. Panicum antidotale Retz. grows abundantly in the Pun-
jab, the Upper Gangetic Plain, the Western Peninsula and Ceylon.
It extends to Afghanistan, Africa and Australia.
The smoke of the burning plant is used for fumigating wounds,
also as a disinfectant in small-pox.
In Madras it is given for throat affections.
A report from Hissar states that this grass is grazed only
when green, as it afterwards becomes bitter or saltish, and
poisonous to cattle.
Baluchi: Bershonk, Gomaz, Gumazg—; Bombay: Barigagli, Barn, Bar-
wari, Ghamar, Gharam, Girni, Git, Male, Mangrur, Sera, Shamukha—;
Gujerat: Dun, Dusghas, Dusto—; Hindi: Ghemor, Gunara, Jamur—; Kulanch :
Gomaz—; Mand: Dariagi—; North-Western Provinces: Gamur, Ghamor—;
Punjab: Baru, Garm, Ghamrur, Ghamur, Gharam, Ghirri, Girui, Mangrur—;
Pushtu: Male, Shamukha—; Rajputana: Bangagli, Banvari, Gramna—;
Sadani: Bende—; Santali: Layogundi—; Shahrig: Gunj—; Sibi: Gam—;
Sinhalese: Krimisastru—; Tamil: Nassiampillu, Pinisupillu—.
4. Panicum maximum Jacq. is a native of Africa, cultivated
in many parts of India. It occurs throughout South Africa, the
Mascarene Islands, Madagascar and in Yemen. It has been intro-
duced and is widely spread in America.
This grass is considered one of the best horse-fodders, but it
may cause fatal colic if given in too large a quantity or when wet.
It is said to be responsible in South Africa for the production
of ‘dikoor’, a disease which affects young sheep, four to twelve
months old, which are running on old lands.
Ala: Ikbo mili—; Brazil: Capim de Angola, Capim de Colonia—; Burmese:
Nau-Ka-thau-hau—; Canarese: Gini hullu—; English: Guinea Grass—; Hwe:
Kogbe—; Fanti: Nykekyer—; Ga: Nto—; Hindi: Gini ghaus—; Orange Free
State: Blousaad—; Seychelles: Fataque—; Sinhalese: Ratatana—; Southern
Nigeria: Ikbo mili—; Tamil: Giniopillu—; Transvaal: Buffelgras—.
5. Panicum sarmentosum Roxb. is found in Assam, Sylhet,
Cachar, and the Khasia Hills, ascending to 5,000 ft., Chittagong,
and Burma. It is very abundant in the Malay Peninsula in
thickets and open edges of woods, often forming great masses
scrambling over bushes and ascending to tree-tops. It extends to
the Malay islands, Tongking, and China.
In Malaya the roots are chewed with betel nuts as an aphro-
disiac.
Malay: Rumput jangut ali, Rumput kulubong—.
PASPALUM,
This is a plymorphic genus including over 200 species, scattered
through the tropics of both hemispheres, but most abundant in
America.
I. Spikelets oblong or lanceolate acute or acuminate.
Margin of rachis minutely toothed .. 1. P. sanguinale.
I]. Spikelets orbicular or broadly oblong.
a. Spikelets ciliate from the margins of the
upper glume $68 esis + 2. -P.xcomugatum.
b. Spikelets not ciliate bias z.2' 8, BP, scrobiculatum,
570 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
1, Paspalum sanguinale Lam. is found throughout India,
in moist and dry situations, ascending the Himalaya to 6,000 feet.
It is cultivated in the Khasia Hills. This grass is one of the com-
monest weeds in all tropical and warm countries, becoming less
frequent in Central Europe.
The plant is known to yield hydrocyanie acid.
Berar: Chikhar:—; Central Provinces: Korkoljodi—; Egypt: "Traq-en-Najil,
Tayyin—; Hindi: Takri, Takria—; Khasi: U’rai-shan—; North-Western
Provinces: Charamara, Kewai—; Punjab: Baratakria, Dubra, Farw, Moti-
khabbal, Takkri—; Rajputana: Hen—; Suto: Mmoyane—; Trans-Indus:
Khurash—; United States: Brab Grass—.
2. Paspalum conjugatum Berg. is common in the _ hotter
parts of America from the Gulf States southwards; also in the
Indo-Malayan region, Lower and Upper Guinea, and Polynesia.
In some places of the Gold Coast the grass is boiled and used
in the bath to cure faintness.
Ashanti: Nsuorhwea—; Hawaii: Hilo Grass—; Jamaica: Sour Grass—;
Malay: Rumput kerbau—; Malaya: Buffalo Grass—; Montserrat: Crab
Grass—; Sierra Leone: Yane, Yani—; Singapore: Green Grass—; Twi:
Nsorhwea—; West Indies: Sour Grass—.
3. Paspalum scrobiculatum Linn. is found wild or cultivated
throughout the hotter parts of India, from the Punjab eastwards
and southwards to Singapore and Ceylon. It is distributed through
the Tropies of the Old World.
Ayurveda writers describe the plant as sweetish and _ bitter,
tonic, and antidotal to poisons, useful in the treatment of ulcers;
it causes constipation and flatulence, upsets the physiological
balance of the body, and leads to hallucinations and dysuria.
Mohammedan authors consider it styptic, useful in inflamma-
tion and in diseases of the liver, Hable to cause constipation and
temperature.
Though used as food by a very large number of people in
India, the grain is decidedly a narcotic poison, and its deleterious
effects are well known in the various parts of the country where
this crop is grown. The symptoms of poisoning resemble those
caused by datura, and are more severe in cattle than in man,
due no doubt to the animals eating the grain and husk, and
also to the absence of vomiting, an effect which almost always
takes place in man.
Sushruta prescribes the plant in combination with other drugs
for the treatment of scorpion sting, but Caius and Mhaskar. have
shown experimentally that this grass is not an antidote to scorpion
venom.
Australia: Ditch Millet, Hureek—; Bengal: Khodoadhan, Kodoadhan—;
Bihar: Koda, Kodai—; Bombay: MHarik, Kodra, Kodri, Kodro, Kodroakora,
Pakod, Pakodi—; Canarese: Arikel, Haraka hullu, Harik—; Central Provin-
ces: Kodie, Kodo—; Ceylon: Koda Millet—; Gujerati: Kodra, Kodro, Meya—;
Hausa: Tumbijaki, Tumbin jaki—; Hindi: Koda, Kodaka, Kodava, Kodon—;
Kolami: Garakode—; Konkani: Pacodd, Pacoll—; Kumaon: Kodo, Kodra,
Kodram—; Marathi: Harik, Kodra, Kodru—; Mundari: Birjane, Loeongjane,
Pirijane, Tasadjane—; North-West Provinces: Koda, Kodon, Kodram—; Pore-
bunder: Kodo—; Punjab: Kodon, Kodra—; Sanskrit: Koddara, Kodrava,
Koradusha, Kordrava, Kuddala, Madanagraka, Uddala, Vanakodrava—; San-
tal1: Janhe—; Sinhalese; Amu, Karalamu, Walamu—; Southern Nigeria:
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS GRASSES OF INDIA | 57i
Ikbonta—; Tagalog: Paragis, Sabungsabungan—; Tamil: Karuvaragu, Varagu,
Varaku—; Telugu: Allu, Alu, Arikalu, Arike, Arikelu, Aruga, Kiraruga, Nita
arigaddi, Pataarige—; Urdu: Kodon—; Uriya: Khoddi, Kodus—; Zulu:
isAmuyisane—.
PENNISETUM.
This genus numbers about 40 species which are found in most
warm countries, particularly in dry regions.
Annual ste ne sas eee hee a SMLGatiunt.
Perennial oe ws sie so 2. L. COMPTessin.
1. Pennisetum spicatum Roem. & Schult. (=P. typhoideum
Rich.) is cultivated in numerous forms in India, northern and
tropical Africa, and southern Europe.
Ayurvedists consider the plant heating, aphrodisiac in women,
and tonic; it is useful in diseases of the heart; it improves the
appetite for food and the relish of it, but it causes flatulence.
In Guinea the root is reputed toxic to man and animals.
In South Africa the Sutos use the plant as a medicine for
cows which have been incompletely delivered at parturition.
Arabic: Dookhr, Duku—; Ashanti: Ewio—; Bihar: Gahuma, Jondhariya—;
Bombay: Bajera, Bajra, Bajri—; Canarese: Sajje—; Egypt: Dok, Hema,
Gusab—; English: Bulrush Millet. Cumboo Millet, Pearl Millet, Spiked
Millet—; Hritrea: Bultuc—; Hwe: Gbekul, Lu—; Ga: Ngma—; Gambia:
Sannio—; Hausa: Damro, Dauro, Gero, Maiwa—; Hindi: Bajera, Bayjra,
Bajri, Kasajonar, Lahra—; Kolami: Tuti—; Krobo: Ngma—; Kumaon:
Bajra—; Malayalam: Kampam, Mattari—; Mandingo: Sannio—; Matabele:
Um-velli-veli—; Msutu: Leeuja—; North-Western Provinces: Bajra, Bajra
tangunanwa, Bajri, Lahra—; Nupe: Gero—; Punjab: Bajra, Bajza—; Raj-
putana: Bajra—; Sanskrit: Agradhanya, Nali, Nalika, Nilakana, Nilasasya,
Sajaka, Varjari, Varjarika—; Santali: Lendha—; Sesuto: Nyalothie—; Shah-
rig: Bajari—; Sind: Bajaro—; Sudan: Dukhu—; Tamil: Kambu—; Telugu:
Gantelu, Peddaganti, Sajja, Sajjalu, Sazza—; Transvaal: Leeuja—; T'ripoli:
Shessab—; Uriya: Bajramula, Gantiva—; Zambesi: Mishuera—; Zanzibar:
Mawali—; Zulw: Amabile, Nyaloti, Nyawoti—.
2. Pennisetum compressum RK. Br. (=P. japonicum Trin.)
is found in Burma, Taong Dong, the Sham Hills up to 4,000 ft.
It extends to China, Japan, Tongking and Australia.
This grass is used as a tonic in China.
Chinese: Lang Wei Tss’ao.
PHALARIS.
This genus consists of 10 species, natives of the Mediterranean
region, but widely dispersed as weeds; one species occurs in the
boreal region and in South Africa, and another is found from
California to Chile. ;
Phalaris arundinacea Linn. is found in Kashmir by the Wolar
Lake at an altitude of 5,550 ft. It is fairly common along the
pond edges and stream banks, and in wet places in Eastern
Washington, but is infrequent in California. It extends to the
northern temperate and Arctic regions.
This grass is reported poisonous.
FEinglish: Gardeners’ Garters—; Pacific Coast: Daggers, Reed Canary-
grass, Ribbon-grass—.
572 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XxxXviti
PHRAGMITES.
This genus includes 2 species, one cosmopolitan, and one in
Argentine.
Phragmites maxima Blatter & McCann (=P. communis
Trin. =P. roxburghti Steud.=P. karka Trin.) is cosmopolitan.
Ayurvedists describe the plant as sweet and acrid, cooling,
aphrodisiac; useful in bilhousness, urinary troubles, vaginal and
uterine complaints, erysipelas, and diseases of the heart.
The root is regarded as cooling and diuretic by the Chinese.
It is considered diuretic and ‘sudorific in Spain.
The plant is said to be rich in sugar. A manna, known as
California Manna or Father Picolo’s Manna, is mentioned as being
deposited on the plants growing in California and collected by
the Indians. It is believed that the manna is a saccharine deposit
caused by aphides.
Arabic: Bus—; Bengal: Nal—; Bihar: Narkat—; Burma: Kaing—; Cana-
rese: Hulugalagu, Hulugilahullu, Hulugilu—; Catalan: Canya borda, Canya
de escombretas, Canyis, Canyisos—; Chinese: Lu—; Egypt: Buz haggny,
Buz hagney, Ghab, Ghabrihy, Haggn—; English: Nodding Reed—; French:
Cannette, Petit roseau, Roseau 4 balai, Roseau aquatique, Roseau des marais—;
Garhwal: Bichhra—; Gujerati: Nairi, Nali—; Hausa: Machara, Wachiar
giwa, Wutsiyar giwa—; Hindi: Nainarakula, Nal, Narkul, Nulanara—; Hova:
Barorata, Katsaoka, Volotara—; Indo-China: Kiem, Lo can, Sai, Say—; Iraq:
Qasab—; Irish: Giolcach—; Italian: Canela de Ema, Canna palustre, Cannuc-
cia—; Katagum: Machara, Wachiar giwa, Wutsiyar giwa—; Kolami: Jan-
kai—; Kumaon: Karka, Khaila, Khailuwa, Nal—; Lagos: Ifu—; Languedoc:
Rouza, Rouzo—; Loralai: Nal, Nar—; Libya; Buzzam—; Malay: Gudabong—;
Malayalam: Nadam, Nalam, Nannana, Naval—; Malta: Common Reed, Spire
Reed, Canna di palude, Canna da spazzole, Kasbiet irrih—; Marathi: Deonala,
Nala—; Mexico: Carrizo—; Pacific Coast: Common Reed—; Punjab: Bagnarri,
Dila, Nai, Nal, Nar, Nara, Naria—; Pushtu: Drumbi, Dwarena, Ghwarga—;
Roumanian: Rogoz—; Sanskrit: Dhhamana, Nada, Nala, -Potagala, Shunya-
madhya—; Shahrig: Nal—; Sokoto: Gabara—; Spanish: Cafeta, Garrizo—;
Tagalog: Tambo—; Tamil: Perunanal—; Telugu: Kikkasagaddi, Mettantisa,
Nagasvaramu, Peddarellu, Puvvuguttigaddi—; Turkish: Gamish—; Uniyoro:
Mataetae—; Uriya: Nolo—; Zhob: Nal—.
PHYLLOSTACHYS.
This genus consists of about 20 Eastern Asiatic species.
Phyllostachys bambusoides Sieb. & Zucc. is found in Upper
Assam on the Mishmi Hills. It inhabits China and Japan.
The plant is much used medicinally in China, where the root
is considered tonic and the sprouts parasiticidal. The silicious
concretion or tabashir, is a demulcent, tonic, aphrodisiac and pec-
bere commonly administered in cough, asthma, consumption and
ever.
Chinese: Chu, Chu Huang, Chu Sun, Hsien Jen Chang, Kuei Ch’ih, Suan
Sun—; Indo-China: Son truc, Truc—.
POLYTOCA.
This genus consists of 8 species spread over tropical Asia and
Australia.
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS -GRASSES OF INDIA 573
Polytoca barbata Stapf. is found in the hot and damp parts
of India, from the Punjab to Assam and Munnepore, and south-
wards to Ceylon, extending to Java.
According to Ayurveda the plant is bitter and sweet, tonic,
laxative and aphrodisiac. It is reputed useful in strangury, burn-
ing sensations, phthisis, vesical caleuh, biliousness, diseases of the
blood and tendency to haemorrhage.
Balghat: Kadpi—; Bengal: Gurgur, Keshaghansa—; Canarese: Kajalu—;
Central Provinces: Kadpi—; Chanda: Kirmagilaramgadi—; Gond: Karpia—;
Guejrati: Kansado—; Hindi: Kansa—; Konkan: Kasada—; Marathi: Kasai,
Varival—; Sanskrit: Amarapushpaka, Ashvabala, Chamarapusha, Darbhapa-
traka, Ikshugandha, Ikshura, Ishika, Kanda, Karmamula, Kasekshu, Kasha,
Nadeya, Niraja, Potagala, Sharada, Shiri, Sukanda, Vanahasaka—; Telugu:
Ghellagadi—; Uriya: Phultainr—.
SACCHARUM.
This genus includes 8 tropical and subtropical species.
I. Hairs on callus much exceeding the spikelet.
Glumes I and II mot dorsally villous.
a. Culms not leafy above, under .7 in. diameter.
Leaves under .8 in. width. Glumes I
and II ciliate oe Si .. Ll. S. spontaneum.
b. Culms densely leafy above, over 1 in. dia-
meter. Leaves over 1 in. width. Glumes
I and II glabrous ... xe .. 2. SS. officinarum.
II. Hairs on callus of sessile spikelet shorter or not
much longer than the spikelet. Glumes I
and II often dorsally villous. Nodes of culm
not bearded. Sheaths not hirsute. Glumes I
and II dorsally villous.
a. Foliage not glaucous. Culms densely leafy
above. Sessile spikelet shorter than inter-
nodes ee A .. 38 S. arundinaceum.
b. Foliage glaucous. Culms not leafy above.
Sessile spikelet longer than internode of
rachis = ae ae 4. S. munia.
1. Saccharum spontaneum Linn. is found throughout the
warmer parts of India and Ceylon, ascending to 6,000 ft. in the
Himalaya. It is distributed from the south of Europe to the
warm regions of the Old World, and extends to East Australia.
Ayurveda practitioners commonly use this grass as a substitute
for Polytoca barbata Stapf. Sanskrit authors credit the two
plants with the same medicinal properties.
Bombay: Bochri, Dharbi, Dhub, Kan—; Bengal: Kagara, Kans, Kas, Kash,
Kashiya, Khagra, Khansi—; Burma: Thekkaygyee, Thetkiakyn—; Canarese:
Darbhe, Hodakehullu, Mutullahullu—; Central Provinces: Kans, Khan, Padar—;
English: Thatch Grass, Wild Sugar Cane—; Gujerat: Kans, Kansado, Kan-
sadoghas—; Hasada: Karetasad, Karitasad—; Hausa: Abokin, Kyamo, Kyamo
kibiya, Kyamro, Kyauro, Kyauro kibiya, Sheme, Sansari—; Hindi: Kagara,
Kans, Kas, Khansi, Khugura, Kosa, Kus—; SKolami: Puyal—; Kumaon:
Jasha, Jhaush, Kash—; Lao: Pong—; Lepcha: Brung—; Malayalam: Nan-
nana—; Marathi: Kagara, Kas—; Mundari: Kariba—; Nagurt: Kasitasad—;
North-Western Provinces: Kans, Kansa, Kansi—; Oudh: Khagar, Rara—;
Punjab: Kahi, Kanh, Kans, Sarkara—; Rajputana: Kans, Kash, Kashi—;
Sadani: Kasighas—; Sanskrit: Ikshugandha, Kasa, Kahsa, Khaggara—;
Sind: Kahu, Khan, Khau—; Tamil: Achabaram, Anjani, Eruvai, Kosangam,
Kucham, Kumil, Kurbagam, Nanal, Nanarbul, Nanmugappul, Peykkarumbu,
574 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVI1i
Sangabidam, Saravanam, Sarupparasi, Sasabaram, Sugattan, Suvedasaram, Tit-
tiru, Tittiruchi, Tuttam, Vedasam—; Telugu: Billugaddi, Kakicheraku, Kaki-
veduru, Koregadi, Rasalamu, Rellugaddi, Vetticharaku—; Uriya: Chhataiagaso,
Inkoro, Kaso, Khhodi, Pothhorokhhodi—.
2. Saccharum officinarum Linn., probably a native of South
Asia, is grown everywhere in India.
Ayurveda describes the sugar cane as sweet, oleagenous, diu-
retic, tonic, cooling and aphrodisiac. It recommends it as a
useful remedy in fatigue, thirst, intestinal troubles, anaemia, ery-
sipelas and leprosy. The cane, however, is indigestible, and likely
to interfere with the heat factor in the body causing inflammations
and ulcers.
Yunani describes the cane as sweet, laxative, diuretic, :fatten-
ing and aphrodisiac. It considers it useful to purify the blood,
good for the lungs, but bad for the liver.
The roots are used as a cooling and diuretic medicine; and
the stem is said to be useful as a remedy for cough.
Sugar cane enters into the composition of Cambodian medicines
used for the treatment of ulcers of the skin and mucous mem-
branes. A decoction of the stem is given in diarrhoeas of child-
hood.
The sugar cane is recognised in Portugal, Spain, Switzerland
and the United States as tha officinal source of sucrose or saccha-
rose.
The Hindus set a great value upon sugar, and in medicine it
is considered by them as nutritious, pectoral and anthelmintic.
In Arabian works on Materia Medica, sugar is described as
detergent and emollient. Many writers speak of it as attenuant
and pectoral. It has also been supposed to have virtues in eal-
culus complaints. ee
In the Punjab sugar is considered heavy, tonic and aperient,
useful in heat delirium and disorders of the bile and wind.
In cases of poisoning by copper, arsenic, or corrosive subli-
mate, sugar has been successfully employed as an antidote; and
white sugar finely pulverised is occasionally sprinkled upon ulcers
with unhealthy granulation. |
The root, the bark, the stem and the leaf, treacle and sugar,
have all been boomed as snake-bite remedies. Mhaskar and Caius
have, however, shown experimentally that, whether administered
internally or applied externally, every part of the sugar cane is
useless in the treatment of snake-bite.
Ada: Afunu—; Annam: Mia—; Arabic: Kasabishakar, Kasibshakar, Qasa-
bussakar—; Awina: Fofongu—; Behar: Katari, Ketari, Khusiyar, Ukh, Ukh,
Ukhi—; Bengal: Ak, Ganna, Ik, Kajuli, Kulluar, Kushiar, Puri, Uk, Ukyo—;
Bombay: Ganderi, Gol, Serdi, Us—; Brazil: Canna, Canna de assucar, Taco-
maree, Viba—; Burma: Keyan, Kyan—; Cagayan: Agbo—; Cambodia: Am-
peou, Ampou—; Canarese: Ikshu, Ikshudanda, Ingolu, Kabbu, Kantara, Kan-
taraka, Madhura, Marakabbu, Pundra, Rasadali, Rasala, Rastale, Tanigarbu,
Trinaraja—; Catalan: Cana dolsa, Cana de sucra—; Ceylon: Karambu—;
Chinese: Kan Che, Sha T’ang, Shih Mi—; Cochin China: Mia—; Deccan:
Ganda, Us—; Dutch: Suiker riet—; Haster Island: To—; Egypt: Ghah,
Qassab sukkar—; English: Sugar Cane—; Ewe: Fofongu, Bogleng—; Fanti:
Ahwerenkakraba—; Fiji: Dovu, Vico—; French: Canamelle, Cannamelle,
Canne de Batavia, Canne de la Chine, Canne d’Haiti, Canne a4 sucre, Roseau
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS GRASSES OF INDIA _ 575
% sucre—; French Guiana: Canne & sucre—; Ga: Sheng—; German: Zucker-
rohr—; Guam: Tupo, Tupu—; Gujerati: Naisakar, Serdi, Sheradi, Sherdi,
Uns—; Gulf States: Ribbon Cane, Sugar Cane—; Hausa: Deke, Karansariki,
Rake—; Hindi: Ganna, Ikh, Kajuli, Khuilua, Kumad, Naishakar, Rikhu, Uk,
Ukh—; Hova: Fary—; Iraq: Qasab sukkari—; Japanese: Kansia—; Java:
Tebu—; Kano: Rake—; Konkani: Uny, Uss—; Krepi: Bogleng, Boglengbiei,
Boglengfe, Boglengyibor—; Korbo: Ahleu—; Kumdon: Rikhu—; Kurdish:
Gamish-i-shikir—; La Reunion: Canne—; Madagascar: Fary—; Malay: Tebu,
Tibu mira, Tubu—; Malayalam: Darbheshu, Ikshu, Kantarakam, IJarimpu,
Madhutrinam, Vellakarimpu—; Marathi: Aos, Kabbo, Us, Usa—; Mundari:
Gurdanda, Gurkatauri, Gurkosear—; Nepal: Akali, Chaku, Uk—; WNewar:
Tu—; New Caledonia: Ariva, Arolam, Boiepe, Boinlioua, Delenole, Dilou,
Dogangueni, Gadenadeboui, Goreate, Jate, Kabopolenouen, Kiaboue, Kinemaite,
Kondimoua, Koubala, Maiou, Mebouangue, Mengou, Migao, Moene, Moindiene,
Moueouete, Ngala, Niemba, Ouali, Ouane, Oudiepe-ait, Ouen, Ouen ebail, Ouen
mangia, Ouen ou poudendate, Paiambou, Paieme, Pidiak, Pobone, Poilote,
Schimate, Sthiabanghi, Tangahte, Thsiogan, Tilibi, Tshiambo—; North-West
Provinces: Ganna,. Ikh, Ikhari, Kanthirikhu, -Punarikhu, Rikhu, Ukh,
Ukhari—; Parbuttiah: Ghenra—; Persian: Naishakar—; Philippines: Tubo—:
Portuguese: Canna de assucar, Canna doce—; Punjab: Canna, Ikh, Kamad,
Kamand, Khand, Paunda, Shakarsurkh—; Rowmanian: Trestie de zahar—;
Russian: Saharnyi trastnik—; Sakalave: Fisika—; Samoa: ‘'olo—; Sanskrit:
Adhipatra, Asipatra, Bhurirassa, Dirghachhada, Gandidi, Gudada, Gudadaru,
Gudakashtha, Gudamula, Gudatrina, Ikshu, Ikshura, Kantara, Kantaraka, Kar-
kotaka, Khadgapatraka, Koshakara, Madhutrina, Madhuyashit, Maharasa,
Mrityupushpa, Payodhara, Pundraka, Rasala, Rasalu, Sastra, Sukumasaka, Tri-
nadhiya, Vansha, Vipularasa, Vrishya—; Santali: Akh, Ikhshu—; Sind:
Kamand—; Sinhalese: Uk, Ukgas—; Sokoto: Arakke—; Spanish: Caha de
azucar, Cafia dulce, Cafamiel—; Tagalog: Tubo—; Tahiti: To—; Tamil: An-
garigai, Asibattiragam, Ikku, Kalai, Kannal, Karumbu, Madudirunam, Paru-
vayoni, Pundaram, Ukkiragandam, Ukkiragandi, Velam, Vengarumbu—;
Telugu: Arukanupulakranuga, Cheraku, Cherakubhedamu, Cherakubodi, Chera-
kudubu, Ikshupu, Inju, Kantaramu, Kanupulacheraku, Lavucheraku, Pottika-
mucheraku, Tellacheraku, Tiyyamranu, Tunta, Vamsukamu—; Tongking: Mia,
Mia co ke, Mia lau, Mia ly—; Tulu: Karumbu—; Twi: Ahwereu—; Urdu:
Cana—; Uriya: Aku, Gudodaru, Ikhyu—; Visayan: Quilaba—; Yemen: Mud-
dardjend—.
3. Saccharum arundinaceum Retz. is found throughout the
plains and low hills of India, extending into China.
The root is demulcent and diuretic.
Bengal: Teng—; Burma: Phoungga—; Canarese: Abbe, Baragu, Hodakai
hullu, Lekhinihullu, Munja, Munji, Nala, Rellu, Sara—; Ceylon: Hlephant
Grass—; English: Devil Sugar Cane, Reedy Sugar Cane, Wild Sugar Cane—;
Malaya: Elephant Grass, Tebrau—; Malayalam: Mekhalapullu, Munja, Sarap-
pullu—; Punjab: Sarkanda—; Rajputana: Sarpat—; Sanskrit: Gundra, Munja,
Sara, Tejanaka—; Sinhalese: Rambuk—; Tamil: Elhudugirananal, Munji, Pi
karumbu—; Telugu: Adavicheruku, Bramhamekhalamu, Gundra, Kondakanamu,
Munjagaddi, Mungamu, Nadamu, Polagaddi, Ponika, Ponugu, Saramu—;
Uriya: Kantosoro, Soro—.
4, Saccharum munja Roxb. (=S. ciliare Anders.) is abundant
over the greater part of North-West India, especially in the
Punjab, extending to the Upper Gangetic Plain.
Ayurveda describes the stem as sweet and acrid, cooling, and
aphrodisiac; useful in thirst, burning sensations, erysipelas, dis-
eases of the blood, urinary complaints, and eye troubles.
In the Punjab the root is burnt near women after delivery,
its smoke being considered beneficial. The root is also used as a
fumigant for burns and scalds.
Ajmere: Sara, Sarpat—; Bengal: Mucha, Ramshara, Sar, Sara, Sarpata,
Shar —; eG River: Kash—; Bombay: Kerpa, Munj, Sar—; English: Mun]
576 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIii
Grass—; Hasada: Mail—; Hindi: Munj, Munja, Ramsar, Sara, Sarkanda,
Sarkara, Sarpat, Sarpatta—; Marathi: Mole—; Mundamn: Hatumail—; Naguri:
Mahil—; North-West Provinces: Ikar, Patawar, Sarhar, Sarkanda—; Oudh:
Palwa—; Pishin: Surghashae—; Punjab: Kanda, Kharkana, Sarjbar, Sarka-
ra—; Quetta: Surghashae—; Sanskrit: Bahupraja, Bana, Bhadramunja, Brah-
manya, Chakshuveshtana, Darbhavhaya, Dridhatrina, Durmula, Ikshukanda,
Maunji, Munja, Munjanaka, Munjata, Ranjana, Shakrabhanga, Shara, Shiri,
Sthuladarbha, Sumekhala, Tejana, Tejanavhaya, Trinakhya, Vaniraka—: San-
tal1: Sar—; Telugu: Gundra, Ponika—; Tharu: Kandikhar, Karai—; Trans-
Indus: Darga, Karre—; Turbat: Dil—.
SETARIA.
This genus numbers about 100 species, found in tropical and
warm temperate regions.
S. italica Beauv. and S. viridis Beauv. are used medicinally
in China; S. plicata T. Cooke in La Reunion; S. sulcata Raddi in
Zululand.
I. Leaves more or less plicate. Perennial. Culm
reaching 5 ft. wis ee -.. 1. SS. plicata.
II. Leaves flat, not plicate.
a. Culm 2-5 ft. high au oe wee 2s 9s HhOlCas
b. Stem 1-2 ft. high si Be ng tl Oo" We) DUTLOIS:
1. Setaria plicata T. Cooke is found throughout the moister
hilly parts of India, from Kumaon in the Himalaya eastwards,
ascending to 5,000 ft. in Sikkim, the Shan Hills in Burma, the
Nilgiris up to 6,000 ft., the Malay Peninsula, and Ceylon. It
extends to the Malay Islands and China.
The plant is used in La Reunion as an emollient diuretic.
La Reunion: Trainasse—; Malay: Akar pimpan—.
2. Setaria italica Beauv. is cultivated throughout India, and
up to 6,000 ft. in the Himalaya. It is found in most warm,
temperate and tropical countries.
According to Ayurvedic texts the plant is sweet and acrid,
fattening, aphrodisiac, and sedative to the gravid uterus. It is
useful in dispelling burning sensations, and in healing fractures.
It produces flatulence.
It is a popular domestic remedy for alleviating rheumatic pains
and the pains of parturition.
The grain is said to act as a diuretic and astringent, and to
be of use externally in rheumatism.
When taken as the sole food Indian Millet is sometimes apt
to produce diarrhoea. It has long been regarded as unsatisfactory
for horses unless fed sparingly.
Andamans: Tanahal—; Arabic: Dukhn—; Bengal: Bertia, Chena, Kakni,
Kakun, Kangni, Kangu, Kauni, Kirakang, Kirang, Kora, Rala, Rawla, Tan-
gan—; Bombay: Kakun, Kang, Kangni, Korakang, Korakangu, Vavani—,
Bona: Kango—; Bundelkhand: Kkakun—; Burma: Puki, Pyounglaykouk,
Zami—; Canarese: Karibiragu, Naoni, Navanai, Navani, Vavani—; Catalan:
Cua de guilla, Cua de guinea, Panis, Panissa—; Cebu: Mijo—; Central Pro-
vinces: Kungni, Rala—; Chinese: Iiang, Shu, Su—; Cochin China: Cay
khe—; Deccan: Bertia, Chena, Kakni, Kakun, Kangni, Kangu, Kauni, Kira-
kang, Kiran], Kora, Rala, Rawla, Tangan—; Hnglish: Boer Manna, Foxtail
Millet, Hungarian Grass, Italian Millet, Millet—; French: Mil & épi, Mil
d’Italie, Millet en épi, Millet des oiseaux, Panis d’Italie, Panouil, Panouque,
Penille—; Guwjerati: Kang, Karang—; Hindi: Bertia, Chena, Kakni, Kakun,
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS GRASSES OF INDIA 5%?
Kalakangni, Kanghuni, Kaugni, Kangu, Kauni, Kirakang, Kiranj, Koni, Kora,
Rala, Rawla, Tangan—; Ilocano: Bicacao, Bucacao—; Iraq: Dukhn—; Ita-
lian: Panico—; Kashmir: Pingi, Shali—; Khasi: U’rai-shoh—; Kolamu: Ha-
raba, Marang Kukru—; Khondmals: Arga—; Konkani: Kangu—; Kumaon:
China, Gandra, Kangni, Koni, Mandira, Mandua, Murhoa, Shungura—; Lynn-
gam: Jrai—; Malay: Iskoi—; Malayalam: Navana, Tauna, Tena—; Malta:
Italian Millet, Panico—; Marathi: Chenna, Kang, Kangu, Rala, Rale—; Mun-
dari: Irba—; North-Western Provinces: JSangni, Tangun—; Pampangan:
Borona—; Persian: Arzun, Gal—; Punjab: Chanwalkangni, Chiurr, Gal, Hus-
ketkangni, Kangni, Ikhauni, Ither, Kusht, Shak, Shali—; Pushtu: Gal—;
Sanskrit: Chinaka, Kangu, Kanguni, Kangunika, Pitatandula, Priyangu—;
Santali: Erba—; Sema: Astth—; Sind: Kirang—; Sinhalese: Tanahal—;
Spanish: Mijo menor, Panizo—; Tagalog: Daua, Dava—; Tamil: Tenai,
Tennai—; Telugu: Kora, Koralu—; Uriya: Kangu, Tangun—; Visayan: Daoa,
Daua, Dava—.
3. Setaria viridis Beauv. is found in temperate Himalaya
and Western Tibet, ascending to 11,000 ft.; but it is In no way
common anywhere. It is also rare on the plains of India. It
has been reported from the Nilgiri Hills. It is distributed
throughout the temperate and subtropical regions of the Old
World.
The plant, crushed and mixed with water, is used in China
as an external application for bruises.
Chinese: Kou Wei T's’ao—.
SORGHUM.
This genus consists of about 85 species spontaneous in the
tropical and subtropical regions of both hemispheres, very few
extending into the temperate zone. One group of forms is widely
cultivated in the tropics, particularly in Africa and India.
A form of S. guineense Stapf. is grown for medicine in Upper
Guinea; its grain is said to give colic to animals.
Perennial sae aie oe .. JL. 8S. halepense.
Annual : ye We 221. DULGOTE.
1. Sorghum halepense Pers. (=Andropogon halepensis Brot.)
is common all over India, Burma and Ceylon in cultivated and
uncultivated ground. It is distributed over most warm countries.
The seeds are demulcent and diuretic.
The grass is a good fodder both for grazing and for hay, but
it is held to have injurious effects if eaten when too young or
when the plants are stunted by drought. It has becn reported
from the Punjab that cattle after eating it had developed fatal
head affections; and reports from various parts of Iraq indicate
that the plant may cause the death of sheep or goats. This pro-
perty is also well known in Australia, the United States of
America and many other countries.
Banda: Bajra, Bara, Barru--; Bengal: Kalamucha—; Berar: Kartal—;
Bhabar: Buru, Rikhon—; Bombay: Bara, Barru, Batal, Dacle, Kartal—;
California: Arabian Millet, Evergreen, Means Grass, Millet—; Canarese: Kadu-
kambu-hullu—; Ceylon: Johnson-weed, Sorghum-weed—; Chanda: Gallajari,
Gudi, Paddajalla—; Egypt: Gerrau, Hashish-el-faras—; English: Aleppo Grass,
Evergreen Millet—; French: Herbe de Para—; Greck: Kalamagra—; Hind1:
Baru—; Iraq: Halaiyan, Sifrand—; Kashmir: Braham—; Kohlu: Baran—;
Kumaon: Bikhonda—; Malta: Aleppo Millet-grass, Cannarecchia, Dente caval-
lino—; Merwara: Bowari—; Punjab: Baru, Barwa, Braham—; Pushtu:
578 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIIi
Barua—; Sakalave: Fembamboloky—; Shahrig: Baran—; South Africa: Cuba
Grass, Johnson Grass—; Tamil: Kadu cholam—; Telugu: Gaddijanu—; United
States: Cuba Grass, False Guinea Grass, Johnson’s Grass, Mean’s Grass,
Mears Grass—; Uruguay: Gramillon, Pato ruso, Sorgo de Alepo—.
2. Sorghum vulgare Pers. (=Andropogon Sorghum Brot.) is
widely cultivated in India. It is cultivated in numberless forms
in the tropical and subtropical regions, particularly in the Old
World, and in the warmer parts of the temperate zones of both
hemispheres.
According to Ayurveda writers the grain is cooling, and aphro-
disiac, improving both appetite and relish for food. It is useful
in the treatment of general disorders, diseases of the blood, piles,
ulcers, tumours. It is highly indigestible, and causes constipation.
The seeds are diuretic and demulcent.
American Negroes like the decoction of the seeds as a remedy
for urinary, bladder and kidney, complaints.
The adventitious shoots growing out of derelict stumps are
fatal to cows and goats. In Guranjwala, Gujerat, and Shahpur
districts, it is said to be poisonous until the rains are over, when
the cattle eat it with impunity.
Afghanistan: Jaor, Jaoriturkimani, Jawars, Jowar, Kiosagi—; Arabic:
Dakkn, Dhura, Dhurat, Jawars, Taam, Zura—; Ashanti: Atokoor—; Babian
Shahrig: Jowari, Targhar—; Baghwana: Dhutar, Turi—; Bengal: Jowar,
Juar, Kasajonar, Kurbi—; Betsileo: Variampemby, Varifemba—; Bhabar:
Junali—; Bombay: Burru, Jaundri, Joar, Jondla, Jowari, Kangra—; Burma:
Pyoung Canarese: Jolah, Kenjol, Nirgol, Shalu, Yengara—; Catalan: Melca,
Menca, Mill africa—; Central Provinces: Jowar, Phag, Thuthera—; Ceylon:
Cholum, Durra, Great Millet, Guinea Corn—; Chinese: Kao Liang, Shu Shu—;
Deccan: Jondla, Jowari—; Egypt: Dokhn, Dura, Dura-belledi, Durra, Kaydi—;
English: Broom-corn, Guinea Corn, Great Millet, Indian Millet—; Hwe: Fo—;
French: Balai, Balai de jonc, Balai d’eau, Blé de Guinée, Houque 4 balais,
Mais de Guinée, Mil d’Italie, Mil d’Inde, Millet d’Afrique, Millet a balais,
Grand Millet noir, Millet de Turquie, Gros mil, Mil d’Ethiopie, Sorgho, Sorgho
d’Afrique, Sorgho a balai, Sorgho commun—; Ga: Akoko—; Gambia: Bassi-
qui, Bassiwulima, Kous, Manio—; German: Moorhirse, Sorghum—; _ Gold
Coast: Guinea Corn—; Gujerati: Jowar, Juar, Sundia—; Hindi: Janera,
Joar, Jondla, Jowari, Juar, Jundri, Juvarijondhla, Kanggni—; Hova: Ampem-
by—; Iraq: Dhurah, Idhrah baidha—; Khasi: U Krai—; Kolami: Gangai—;
Konkani: Juar—; Krepi: Fo—; Krobo: Koko—; Kumaon: Jowar, Junali—;
Kurdish: Zurat spi—; Languedoc: Millangue, Millanque—; Lao: Ya pong—;
Las Bela: Jowari—; Lepcha: Ra-Kong, Tsung-Kong—; Makran: Mohamma-
disa, Sohro—; Malayalam: Chavela—; Mal Paharia: Sissua—; Malta: Dari-
seed, Durrah, Karabocc, Melica, Saggiwa—; Marathi: Jondhala, Juari, Kad-
val, Shalu—; Mundari: Gangae, Ganggai—; North-West Provinces: Bajra-
hopanwa, Chotijuar, Juar, Junri—; Oudh: Bajrahopanwa, Chotijuar, Juar,
Junri—; Portuguese: Milho—; Punjab: Bajrahupanwa, Chari, Chotijuar,
Chotijunri, Joar, Junri, Ka—; Russian: Sorgo—; Sakalave: Bakaka, Mora-
ma—; Sanskrit: Dirghamala, Dirghashara, Ikshupatraka, Kshetrekshu, Rakta-
khumah, Shikhari, Vrittatandula, Yavanala—; Santali: Juar—; Sarakhala:
Tarighara—; Sema: Atstindkhi Sinhalese: Karaliringu—; South Africa:
Kafr Corn, Kafir Corn—; Spanish: Alcandia,.Sama—; Tamil: Cholum ==
Telugu: Bondajanu, Janu, Jonna, Jonnalu, Kondajanu, Tellajanu—; Turkish:
Baiyadh dari—; Twi: Atoko, Awi, Kokorte—; Uruguay: Maiz de Guinea,
Sorgo—; Visayan: Batad—; Zulu: Amabele, Imfe—.
STENOTAPHRUM.
lyf
This genus consists of 7 species, found mainly on the shores
of the tropical and subtropical seas, four being confined to Mada- |
casear and the neighbouring islands.
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS GRASSES OF INDIA 979
_ §tenotaphrum glabrum Trin. occurs in the plains through-
out India. It is found in Lower and Upper Guinea, also in South
Africa from Cape Town to Natal, on the American shores of the
Atlantic from South Carolina to the La Plata and in the Pacific
from Southern Mexico to Australia. It has been introduced in
Southern France and Italy.
The rhizome is diuretic, and the decoction is used in Brazil
as a diuretic and sudorific.
America: St. Augustine Grass—; Australia: Buffalo Grass—; Bahia: Grama
da Praya—; Bermuda: Crab Grass—; Florida: Mission Grass—; Jamaica:
Pimento Grass—; La Reunion: Chiendent de boeuf—-; Mauritius: Herbe bour-
rique—; Natal: Tweek Grass—; St. Helena: Hnglish Wire Grass, Mat
Grass—; Transvaal: Tweek Grass—.
STIPA.
This is a genus of over 100 species, spread over the temperate
and tropical regions of both hemispheres.
S. inebrians Hance, S. sibirica Lam., and S. viridula Trin. are
actively poisonous; S. vaseyt Scribner is a very active narcotic.
I. Leaves smooth; ligule oblong. Callus — short,
conical. Anther-tips bearded ane eee Val eeStOIT COs
II. Leaves scaberulous: ligule lanceolate. Callus
scabrid, top bearded. Anther-tips naked ee ee SO CON LOs
1. Stipa sibirica Lam. is found in the Western temperate
Himalaya, from Kashmir to Kunawar up to 8,000-9,000 ft. alti-
tude, and to the Black Mountains. It extends to Afghanistan,
Siberia and Korea.
This grass. is actively poisonous and is reported to have caused
death in horses and other domestic animals.
2. Stipa capillata Trin. is found in Western Himalaya,
ascending up to 11,000 ft. in Kashmir. It extends westwards to
Spain, Dahuria, China.
This grass frequently kills sheep, not, however, by a direct
poisonous action, but by its glumes working through the skin
into the vital organs. |
'THELEPOGON.
The one representative of this genus, T. elegans Roth., occurs
in Central India, the Konkan and Malabar, extending to tropical
Africa. |
In Northern Nigeria it is fed to horses as a tonic. It is de-
scribed as very bitter.
Hausa: Dataniya, Dwatana—; Katagum: Dandata—.
THEMEDA.
This genus numbers about 15-16 species, all natives of the
tropical and subtropical regions of the Old World, mostly Indo-
Malayan.
Themeda triandra Forsk. is found in the hotter drier parts
of India, from Upper Bengal to Travancore, ascending the Hima-
laya to 8,000-4,000 ft. It also occurs in Burma and Ceylon,
ascending to 4,000 ft. It is one of the commonest grasses of
580 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVITII
the drier regions of Africa, often forming extensive associations.
It extends to Australia and all the warm regions of the Old World.
This plant is said to be used medicinally in China. It has
been found to yield hydrocyanic acid.
Canarese: Bettanchi hullu, Gondamanchi hullu, Thodda anji hullu—; Indo-
China: Quan—; Natal: Insinda—; South Africa: Rooi Grass—; Tamil: Erigai
thattu pullu—.
THYSANOLAENA.
T. procera Mez. (=T. agrostis Nees=T. acarifera Nees and
Arnot.), the only species of this genus, is found in subtropical
Himalaya, from Kumaon eastwards and the Khasia Hills at alti-
tudes of 4,000-5,000 ft., in Behar on the Parasnath, in the Deccan,
Burma, Nicobar Islands, and the Malay Peninsula, where it
abounds in dry banks in the hills at 1,000 ft. altitude and upwards
from Penang to Malacca. It extends eastwards to New Guinea.
A decoction of the root is used in Chota Nagpur as a mouth-
wash during fever.
Birja: Jopono—; Gond: Phulbari—: Hasada: Durhitasad, Duritasad—;
Indo-China: Dong trung ha thao, Dot, Le, Ong anh, Xay—; Khond: Saderi,
Saperi—; Kolami: Dodri, Gara-jonor—; Malay: Buluh tubaro—; Mundari:
Garajapono, Garajono—; Naguri: Durhitasad—; Santali: Bushnia, Karsar—:
Saora: Kondachipuru—; Uriya: Phulosoro—.
TRITICUM.
This genus consists of 20 species, natives of the Mediterranean
region and of Western Asia.
T. aestivum Linn. is used medicinally in Europe, and three
of its races—T. amyleum Ser., T. durum Desf., T. spelta Linn.—
are used as tonics in Brazil.
Triticum aestivam Linn. (=T7. sativum Lam.) is cultivated
in many parts of Northern India and the Deccan Peninsula, es-
pecially in the North-West, and up to 138,000 ft. in the Himalaya
and Tibet.
Ayurveda writers describe wheat as cooling, oleagenous, tonic,
aphrodisiac, laxative, and fattening, improving appetite and relish
for food. They held it as a useful medicine in general disorders
of health; but they admitted that it was hard to digest.
‘The fine floure’, says Gerard, ‘mixed with the yolke of an
egge, honey and a little saffron, doth draw and heale byles and
such like sores, in children and in old people, very well and
quickly. . . . Slices of fine white bread laid to infuse or steepe
in Rose water, and so apphed unto sore eyes which have many
hot humours falling into them, doe easily defend the humour,
and cease the paine. The oyle of wheat pressed forth between
two plates of hot iron, healeth the chaps and chinks of the hands,
feet and fundament, which come of cold, making smooth the
hands, face or any other part of the body.’
And Culpeper: ‘The oil pressed from wheat by means of plates
of iron or copper, heals tetters and ringworms, if used warm.
The green corns chewed, and applied to the bites of mad dogs,
heals. them; wheat-bread poultices made with red Wine, and
e
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS GRASSES OF INDIA 581
applied to hot, inflamed, or blood-shot eyes, helps them. Hot
bread poultices applied three days together, heals Kernels in the
throat. Wheat flour mixed with juice of henbane stays the flux
of humours to the joints, if laid thereto; or mixed with the yolk
of an egg, honey or turpentine, draws, cleanses, and heals boils,
plague sores, or foul ulcers. It is more useful for food than
medicine; though a poultice made of it with milk, easeth pains,
ripens tumours and imposthumations; and a piece of toasted bread
dipped in wine, and applied to the stomach, is good to stay
vomiting. ’
Wheaten flour, bran, starch, and bread-crumb are still very
much in demand as popular medicines in Europe and in all places
inhabited by European settlers or their descendants.
The flour, which is officinal in France, is esteemed as an ex-
ternal application in erysipelas, burns, scalds, and various itching
and burning eruptions. A mixture of flour and water is used as
an antidote in cases of poisoning by salts of mercury, copper,
zinc, silver and tin, and by iodine.
Bread is formed by making flour into a paste with water, with
the addition of yeast, setting it aside to ferment, and then ex-
posing it to the heat of an oven. A poultice is often made by
boiling bread with milk; its effects are similar to those of a flax-
seed poultice although it does not hold the heat so well. Bread-
crumb is useful for giving bulk to pills, and for making poultices.
Bran is laxative, and may be used with advantage to prevent
costiveness. Bran bread made from the unsifted flour, is an ex-
cellent laxative article of diet in some dyspeptic cases, and, owing
to its freedom from starch, in diabetes. Bran poultices are useful
for many purposes. Bran is sometimes used in the form of a
decoction or infusion, as an emollient bath, and also internally as
a demulcent.
Starch prepared from wheaten flour is officinal in all pharma-
copoeias. It is employed for sprinkling over inflamed surfaces, to
absorb acid secretions, and prevent excoriation. Mucilage of
starch is valued in pharmacy for many purposes, and medicinally
as a demulcent. In surgery it is occasionally employed for
stiffening bandages.
Gluten is a term popularly known in connection with the
names of ‘gluten flour’ and ‘gluten bread’, used and recommended
especially in connection with the dietary of diabetics when starchy
foods are to be administered in small amounts or altogether prohi-
bited. These preparations are legion and in many instances are
sold under claims which are as false and misleading as they are
cruel in the hope of which they hold out to the sufferer from the
disease.
In China the grains are roasted and are considered useful in
colliquative sweating, especially in tuberculosis in women.
__ Afghanistan: Ganam, Gandam—; Afrikaans: Koring—; Arabic: Burr,
Hintah—; Ashhkobi: Spinghanam, Wasaghanam—:; Bagwana: Dayak, Kanda-
hari, Kub, Shorawaki, Shuthardandan, Sundia, Trimali—; Bengal: ‘Gam, Giun.
Gom—; Bombay: Gahu, Ghawn, Ghawutghum, Gium, Gohum, Kapale, Mar-
gshum—: Brazil: Trigo, Trigo candeal, Trigo tremez—; Burma: Givonsaba
Gyungsaba—; Canarese: Godhi—; Catalan: Blat menut, Xeixa, Xexa—;
582 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXYVIII
Central Provinces: Ghubot, Seonikar—; Chinese: Ch’ao, Cheng Ping, Chiang,
Hsiao Mai—; Deccan: Gohun—; Dutch: Tarwe—; English: Wheat—;
French: Blé, Blé cultivé, Blé marcel, Blé marcet, Blé de mars, Blé
d’été, Blé trémois, Froment, Froment cultivé—; German: Weizen—; Greek:
Sitari—; Gujerati: Gawn, Ghavum, Govum—; Hadramaut: Burr—; Harboi
Hills: Ghanam, Kholam, Shirukh—; Hausa: Alkama—; Hindi: Gehub,
Gehun,. Giun, Kunak—; MHova: lJLafarina, Varimbazaha—; Hungarian:
Buza—; Italian: Frumento, Grano—; Jhalawan: Geroli, Sundia—; Kharan:
Pashmik—; Khuzdar: Geroli—; Kila Saifulla: Ghanam, Sarghanam, Spingha-
nam—; Kirta: Barkhani, Sungsillah—; Konkani: Gahum—; Languedoc:
Blad, Bladet, Blat, Bled—; Malayalam: Gendum, Kotanpam—; Malta: Spring
Wheat, Grano d’estate, Marzuolo, Civitella, Tomnija—; Marathi: Gahum,
Gahung—; Mastung: Ghanam, Kholam—; Michi: Shruk, Tokar, Tomar,
Tro—; Nigeria: Common Wheat, Egyptian Wheat, Miracle Wheat, Mummy
Wheat, Wheat—; North-Western Provinces: Gehun—; Oudh: Gehun—; Pab:
Khisankah—; Persian: Gandum—; Portuguese: Trigo—; Punjab: Do, Dro,
Gehun, Kanak, Nis, Rozatt, To, Zud—; Quetta: Pashmik—; Roumanian:
Griu—; Russian: Pshenitza—; Sadani: Gehom, Gohom, Gom—;° Sanskrit:
Arupa, Bahudugdha, Godhuma, Kshiri, Mlenchhabhojana, Nistusha, Rasala,
Saman, Sumana, Yava, Yavana—; Sdaruna: Khalam—; Shahrig: Boja, Gan-
dun, Ghanam, Kholam—; Sinhalese: Tiringu—; Sohrab: Pesur, Puzho, Shu-
thardandan—; Spanish: Trigo candeal, Trigo chamorro, Trigo -comun, Trisoum
jejar, Trigo marzal—; Tamil: Godumai, Gcodumbaiyarisi
mulu—; Wad: Sundia—; Zulu: ukKolo, uKolweni—.
a. Triticum durum Desf.—Portuguese: Trigo durasio—.
b. Triticum spelta Linn.—; Arabic: Hunta, Qamh, Qamh m’ghejir, Qamh
ne ejghe, Qamh stejri—; Catalan: Escanya major, Espelta—; Hgypt: Hunta
Qamh—; French: Ampeutre, Engrain, Froment rouge, Grande épeautre, In-
grain—; Spanish: Hscanda, HKspelta—.
ce. Triticum amyleum Ser.—Brazil: Trigo branco—.
> Lelagus God
VETIVERIA.
This genus consists of 7 species, distributed throughout the
tropics of the Old World; one has been introduced into the New
World.
Vetiveria zizanoides Stapf. (=Andropogon muricatus Retz.
=A, squarrosus Cooke) is found practically over the whole of
India, and eastwards to Burma. It is very common in every
part of the Coromandel Coast, and in Bengal and Burma, where
it meets with a low, moist, rich soil, especially on the banks of
the water-courses. It covers large tracts of waste land in
Cuttack. It inhabits the plains of the Punjab and North-West
Provinees, and ascends into Kumaon, 1,000-2,000 ft. in altitude.
It is cultivated in Rajputana and Chota Nagpur. It occurs occa-
sionally in Malay gardens, and extends to the West Indies, Brazil,
and Lower Guinea. So far it has been found in the wild state
only in tropical Asia.
Ayurvedists describe the root as bitter, cooling, stomachie,
astringent and an antidote to poisons. They recommend its use
in burning sensations, bilious fevers, sweats, foul breath, thirst,
strangury, ulcers, and diseases of the blood.
Yunanists hold the root as cooling to the brain, bitter and
soporific. They recommend its use in spermatorrhoea, headache,
and diseases of the blood. :
An infusion of the root is given as a febrifuge, and a powder
in bilious complaints. It is regarded as stimulant, sudorific,
stomachic, and refrigerant,
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS GRASSES OF INDIA 583
The essence is used as a tonic.
A paste of the pulverised roots in water is also used as a
cooling external apphcation in fevers.
In Guinea the infusion of the roots is used as a tonic and
an emmenagogue. In China it is chiefly used to remove dandruff.
The root and stem are Ayurveda cures for snake-bite and
scorpion-sting, but Mhaskar and Caius have shown experimentally
that neither is an antidote to either snake or scorpion venom.
Arabic: Izkhir, Usir—; Bengal: Bena, Khaskhas, Khor, Kuskus—; Bom-
bay: Khasakhasa, Vala—; Burma: Miyamoe—; Canarese: Dhappa_ sajjai
hullu, Kadu karai, Lavancha—; Chinese: Ko Cha—; Cutch: Vala—; Deccan:
Khaskhas—; English: Cuscus, Khuskhus, Koosa—; French: Chiendent des
Indes, Vétiver—; Gujerati: Valo—; Hindi: Bala, Balah, Bena, Ganrar, Kas-
kas, Khas, Onei, Panni, Usir—; Indo-China: Chuoe mat, Huong bai—; Kolamz:
Sirom—; La Reunion: Vétiver—; Malay: Akar wangi—; Malayalam: Rama-
chchamver, Vettiver—; Marathi: Vala—; Mundari: Birnijono, Sirum, Sirum-
jono—; Oudh: Tin—; Persian: Bikhiwala, Khas—; Philippines: Moro, Raiz
de Moro—; Punjab: Panni—; Sadani: Birni—; Sanskrit: Abhaya, Amrinala,
Avadaha, Dahaharana, Gandhadhya, Haripriya, Indragupta, Ishtakapatha, Jala-
moda, Jalashaya, Jalavasa, Rambhu, Katayana, Laghubhaya, Lamaijjaka,
Nalada, Ranapriya, Samagandhika, Sevya, Shishira, Shitamulaka, Sugandhi-
mula, Ushira, Vira, Virabhadra, Virana, Virataru, Vitanamulaka—;. Santali:
Sirom—; Sinhalese: Saivandera, Savandramul—; Tamil: Ilamichamver, Vakil,
Vettiver, Vilhalver, Viranam, Virkel, Viyal—; Telugw: Avurugaddiveru, Kas-
savu, uruveru, Lamajjakamuveru, Vettiveru, Vidavalliveru—; Tharu:
Khatra—; Urdu: Khas—; Uriya: Bena—.
ZEA.
The only species of this genus is of American origin, in culti-
vation in all warm countries of the world.
Zea mays Linn. is widely cultivated in India.
According to Hindu writers the grain is nutritive, demulcent,
emollient, diluent, and absorbent; but, it is lable to produce
flatulence.
Jé is considered by Mahomedan writers to be resolvent, astrin-
gent, and very nourishing; they consider it to be a suitable diet
in consumption and a relaxed condition of the bowels. It is anal-
gesic, and a decoction is recommended as a hip-bath for piles.
In the Konkan an alkaline solution is prepared from the
burnt cobs and is given in lithiasis. In the Central Provinces the
centre of the cob, deprived of the seeds and reduced to an ash
by burning, is given in combination with common salt in bronchial
catarrh and whooping cough.
In Europe and in the United States of America the grain is
much used as a valuable article of diet for invalids and children.
Corn bread contains more nourishment than wheaten bread, and
is a better diet for persons suffering from diseases of the liver, or
of the kidneys.
In Greece the silky stigmata are used in decoction in diseases
of the bladder, a custom which also obtains in the Philippine
Islands, where the plant is considered diuretic. The styles and
stigmas have now been generally recognised as diuretic, anodyne,
and demulcent. Under the popular name of ‘corn silk’, a hquid
extract is sold as a remedy in irritable conditions of the bladder
with turbid and irritating urine; it has a marked diuretic action,
584 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXYVII1
Zea, or the stigmas and styles, is employed in acute and
chronic cystitis, and in the bladder irritation of uric acid and
phosphatic gravel. It has also been employed in gonorrhoea, and
has been affirmed to be a useful diuretic and even cardiac stimu-
lant in the dropsy of heart disease.
The meal is made into emollient poultices. It is also made
into mush by boiling, but its exclusive use gives rise to a skin
disease.
In Cambodia the grains are prescribed in angina, and the stig-
mas in paludism.
Animals are sometimes poisoned from eating the green plant.
Infants fed on Indian corn flour grow up rickety; 1t contains only
about eighteen grains of proteic substance to the pound. The
male flowers are said to contain hydrocyanic acid. The pollen is
a possible cause of hay fever.
Accra: Abblay—; Afghanistan: Jaoari, Jaori, Jaorikhurdani—; Afrikaans:
Mielie—; Annam: Bap ngo, Lua ngo—; Arabic: Durahkisan, Durahshani,
Hintaherunu, Khalavan, Khandaruz, Zurratulmakkah—; Ashanti: Aburow—;
Awuna: Akple—; Bengal: Bhutta, Janar, Kokka—; Bombay: Barjoar, Buta,
Macka, Makai—; Brazil: Zaburro—; Burma: Pyaungbu—; Cambodia: Paut,
Put—; Canarese: Goinjol, Makkai jola, Mekkejola, Musukujola—; Catalan:
Blat de moro—; Ceylon: Cholum—; Chinese: Pang Tzeu, Yu Shu Shu—; Chota
Nagpur: Jonar—; Cochin China: Bap ngo, Lua ngo—; Dardanelles: Kalama-
sitaro—; Deccan: Makkajari, Makkajowari—; Dutch: Mais—; Egypt: Durra—;
English: Indian Corn, Maize—; Hwe: Akple, Blikple—; Fanti: Abru, Abu-
row—; Fiji: Sila ni papalagi—; French: Blé de Barbarie, Blé d’Hspagne, Bleé
de Guinée, Blé d’Inde, Blé d’Italie, Blé de Rome, Bléture, Blé de Turquie,
Froment des Indes, Graine de Turquie, Mais, Maiz, Mil d’Espagne, Gros millet
des Indes, Troquet, Truquiet, Turquie—; Ga: Able—; Garhwal: Junala, Mun-
gari—; German: Tuerkische Korn, Tuerkisher Weizen—; Gold Coast: Agbah-
dor—; Guam: Maeis—; Gujeratt: Makkari—; Hasada: Jonra—; Hausa:
Masara—; Hindi: Barajuar, Bhotta, Bhuta, Bhutta, Jawdra, Junri, Kukri,
Makai, Makka—; Hova: _Kasobotso, Katsamanga, Katzaha, Tsako, Tsakot-
sako—; Indo-China: Bao, Bap, Cennaron, Khao phot, Mali, Ngo, Ngoc thue
thu, Put, Sah—; Iraq: Indhrah safra, Idhrat-ash-sham—; Italian: Grano sici-
iano, Grano turco, Melicatto Meliga—; Kashgar: Conac—; Khasi: U riew
hadem—; Kila Saifulla: Makai, Maki—; Konkani: Maeo, Zonallo, Zondllo—;
Krepi: Adakple, Blikple, Kple, Kpledzi, Watsikple—_; Krobo: Blaifo—;
Kumaon: Bhutta, Junala, Mukni—; Kurdish: Gumnah shami, Zurat zard—;
Languedoc: Artho, Avari, Avati, Blamari, Blarama, Garouilhé, Garouillet, Mil-
laral, Millargo, Millargou—; Laos: Khao phot, Khot—; Lepcha: Kun-tsong—;
Lynngam: Soh rikhaw—; Madagascar: Katsabazaha, Katsakandevolahy,
Sako—; Malayalam: Cholam, Makka cholam—; Malta: Frumentone, Grano-
turco, Indian Corn, Kamh irrum, Maize—; Marathi: Bonda, Maka—; Meno-
mini: Apesapimin—; Moldavia: Popusoiu—; Mundari: Gorajonra, Gurulujonra,
Jondra, Jonra, Loeongionra—; Naguri: Jondra—; North-West Provinces: Bara-
juar. Bhutta, Junri, Maka, Makai, Makka—; Persian: Bajri, Gaudumemakkah,
Koshahemakki—; Philippines: Borona, Maiz—; Portuguese: Milho, Milho
grosso—; Punjab: Barajuar, Chhale, Juar, Kukri, Kuthi, Mak, Makkei,
Makki—; Rajputana: Mukkha—; Roumanian: Porumb—; Russian: Kukuruva,
Mais—; Sanskrit: Kandaja, Mahakaya, Makaya, Samputantastha, Shikhalu,
Yavanala—; Santal: Jondra—; Sarakhala: Makkai, Maki—:; Sema: Kolakiti—:
Shahriq: Badaghariuari—;. Sierra Leone: Amarsk Kabe, Nvin—; Sind: Bara-
juar, Makkai—; Sinhalese: Bada iringu, Tringu—; South Africa: Mealie Corn.
Mealies—; Spanish: Maiz, Trigo de las Indias, Trigo de Turquia, Zara del
Perti—: Suto: Poone—; Tamil: Makkasholam, Turaka cholam—; Telugu:
Makkanzonnalu, Mokkajanna, Mokka jonnalu—: Toba: Makai—: Tongking:
Bap ngo, Lua ngo—: Transylvania: Cucuruz—: Turkish: Misir. Sari dari—:
Twi: Aburow—: Urdu: Makai—: Uriya: Buta, Maka, Mokha—:; Yemen:
Rumi—; Zomba: Chimanga—. Pest
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Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
The Rogue Buffalo, Kosi River, horn sweep 96 in., girth 174 in,
SHOOTING WILD BUFFALO IN THE KOSI RIVER
SWAMPS.
BY
J. E. Hatu.
(With one plate).
It was quite by chance that I discovered there were a few
Buffalo left in the exntensive Kosi Duars, descendants most pro-
bably of the numerous herds that once populated these jungles,
which Ingles makes full mention of in his Tent Life in Tiger-
land. Consisting of alternate stretches of high Kas grass and
Jhowa (a kind of Tamarisk) scrub, extremely dense, and growing
up to 20 feet in height in places; the jungle is intersected by
numerous streams. These are either branches of the main Kosi,
or subsidiary streams. Except for high ground in places most
of the area is swamp, infested with tiny but extremely vicious
mosquitoes. In places there are extensive thickets of dog rose
and Igar (a peculiar type of tree with white flowers, overrun
with red ants). Formerly these jungles especially along the
Kosi and Ganges held innumerable Tiger, Buffalo, Hog-Deer,
Pig, and occasionally a Rhino strayed in from further north
(Nepal). It was in this area in the Purnea District. that the
Shillingfords made such mighty bags of Tiger. With the exten-
sion of cultivation however most of the jungle land has been
cultivated; what remains is so small and so subject to annual
inundations from the river floods, that little or no game remains.
A few pig and an occasional hog-deer or nilgai, with sometimes
a straying panther is the most one can find. It was after work-
ing with most disappointing results in these riverside jungles, with
an expenditure of backbreaking effort that eventually I stumbled
on an excellent block comprismg some 20,000 acres of high Kas
and Jhowa, which being a shooting preserve of a local Raja had
attracted all the buffalo from the surrounding area. The migra-
tion of the buffalo being helped along by the extension of culti-
vation, and reclamation of former swamps. I, however, was lucky
enough to know the Raja well, having played out many a hard
fought polo match both for and against him. On my approaching
him he gladly gave a general shooting permit; also not being
extra keen about shikar he asked me to see if the jungle was
worth preserving, it having been reserved years ago in his father’s
time; and with the increasing land values the settlement of the
o for cultivation was practically the only course left open to
im.
Tracking being out of the question, recourse was had to questing
in the most likely places with the help of an elephant: Buffalo
were found in fair numbers; but after bagging two of the largest
herd bulls, as no solitary was seen, the writer was forced to the
586 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXYVIII
conclusion that many of the buffalo were half-bred, probably from
tame buffalo run wild, and joining their wild brethren. This being
I was told a not uncommon occurrence. The better of the two
bulls shot had a horn sweep of 93 inches with a girth of 194;
the horns were very worn and splintered at the tips. Height
from point of shoulder to hoof 62 inches (154 hands). He was
very heavy and massive and covered with scars. Being told by
the junglewallas that April was the best month, when most of
the rivers’ and streams were either dry or low, with the greater
part of the Kas burnt, I decided on a shoot in April 1933, my
intention being to bag a solitary bull. It was perfectly dreadful,
excessive heat with a constant high breeze raising continual sand-
storms. The skin blistered and peeled off most of my arms and
face, my lips were cracked and bleeding after the first day. I
tried to do too much and eventually had to give up with sore
eyes caused by the amount of sand that had got into them. The
shoot however was worth all the discomfort, a really fine solitary
bull being bagged on the fourth day, besides some enormous ‘Croc’.
We used to start out from the mango tope on the fringe of
the jungle, where camp was situated, on the elephant about 4 a.m.,
swim two streams of the Kosi, and quest the most lkely places
on foot. The party comprised two locals, my orderly and myself.
Getting the bull was sheer luck, we had had a very trying day
and were resting in the shade of a high bank when the sun was
at its hottest, about half past one. There were a couple of
cotton teal in an open bit of water about 80 yards away and I
took a pot shot with the little .22 bagging one. One of the
locals waded out to get it, he had hardly gone 15 yards when
he ducked under water, made his way with only his head above
water to a small patch of reeds, and motioned with his hand
for me to come at once. With great caution I waded out to
him, with only my head above water and the rifle likewise held
clear. Putting my head above the reeds and looking in the direc-
tion indicated, I got the shock of my life. 40 yards from me
there was an enormous head on the surface of the water. As
the owner would shake his head to drive away the flies his huge
horns would show. To take a correctly placed shot was quite
out of question as his body was practically submerged. I gave a
shout. The effect was electric, the bull heaved himself up and
I fired at right angles behind the shoulder. After a desperate
stumble he caught sight of the orderly and the remaining local
who were climbing up the bank, and went all out for them.
Passing me within 10 yards | let him have the other barrel in the
neck; it did not seem to have the slightest effect. I just managed
to get in a third shot into the small of his back as he topped the
bank, and then the fun started. Rushing up the bank after him
we just managed by leaping into a small nullah to avoid a most
vicious charge. He then went into some horribly dense wild rose
thickets.
Following up the blood spoor, we experienced another charge
from the side, but this was not too effective as he blundered
into an Igar tree. I let him have another shot in the chest and
SHOOTING WILD BUFFALO IN THE KOSI RIVER SWAMPS 587
he came down. The orderly, silly ass, in a wild desire to ‘hallal’
the bull grabbed hold of one of the horns and after that did not
know what hit him. He was sent backwards at least 10 feet by
the dying sweep of the horns. His thigh was severely bruised,
at one time I thought it broken, and he could not walk for days
afterwards. Had the point of the horn struck him his number
would have been up. The bull, however, was a grand beast, typi-
cal solitary, with horns 192 inches in girth, 109 inches tip to tip
across forehead, 17 hands in height. I checked these measure-
ments with the greatest care. I have never seen a more massive
animal.
I had been granted permission to shoot one cow buffalo, but
so far had seen nothing exceptional, though heads of 7 and 8 feet
(as far as I could judge) were seen. However, by this time I had
got to know the jungle better and my uncle who had arranged
to join me, in the meanwhile decided against foot-slogging; his
weight is nearly 14 stone. We decided to return in October. To-
wards the latter half of that month we marched nearly 18 miles
from the station in pouring rain and pitched camp in the Raj Kat-
cherry. The tehsildar had obtained the loan of two staunch ele-
phants. Without going into detail IT may state that between us
we bagged a fine bull, though not as big as the one obtained in
April; this was uncle’s, though I had to help hard, especially
as he went for my elephant. We also shot a really fine cow.
This latter cost us two days hard work, but eventually we managed
to isolate her from a herd of some dozen individuals and I got her
in two picked shots without indiscriminate firing as is usual in
bagging a herd animal. She was worth the trouble and effort,
her horns measuring 18 inches in girth and 112 inches in sweep.
This cow was very old and scraggy. I was also compelled to
shoot a fine young breeding cow who charged and chivvied my
orderly and the skinners. She would not leave a certain patch
of jungle, where we afterwards found a young ealf. I felt so
cut up about this that I abandoned the shoot. We tried to rear
the calf but it was sickly having some sort of cow-pox, and it
succumbed after a few days.
Some time later I had rather an amusing letter from the tehsil-
dar, part of which I give below :—
SRIMATA,
Zlst March, 1984.
‘My pear J. E. Hatt, Esa.,
I did not receive any letter since a long time. Perhaps you
have forgotten me at all, but J don’t. I have reported that the
buffalo who was shot by your uncle, has become lame, and now
it is turned into ferocious condition. One man has been wounded
by that very buffalo and he died as soon as he was approached
to —hospital, etc, etc.
Yours sincerely,
Aziz KHAN,
Tehsildar.’
588 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVili
This was serious for, as far as I knew, neither uncle nor myself
were responsible for wounding any buffalo. I was unable to obtain
leave just at the time, and before I could get away two more
men had been killed. Eventually I went with a friend and we
succeeded in bagging the culprit, a herd bull, probably a crop
raider, who had two hammered lead slugs in him, on the forearm
and shoulder. It appears that he used to he up near water and
if anybody, cowherd or grasscutter passed his side he would rush
and gore or trample them to death. When he was shot he had
three deaths and some four maulings to his discredit. He had
a habit of raiding the paddy fields, where most probably he got
wounded from a machan, and going for anybody who attempted
to drive him away. He was a fairly big bull 16 hands high,
with horns measuring 96 inches in sweep by 174 inches in
girth. His head is shown in the accompanying plate. My
friend, White, who was with me on this shoot, and myself had
a rather narrow shave from a herd of buffalo on this trip. We
were sitting towards dusk smoking, when we saw a herd contain-
ing a fine animal which in the uncertain light we took to be a
bull crossing a stream to our left. We rushed for the spot, and
I almost bumped into the buffalo in question. To the sound of
my shot there was a general stampede by the herd in the high
erass in our direction “and we had to run pretty fast to clear
them. The animal fired at turned out to be a cow but with a
fine head measuring 9 feet 4 inches in sweep (112 inches). My
punishment consisted in carrying that head covered with blood,
weighing at least 80 lbs. or more, for very nearly 7 miles. We
lost. our way in the dark, floundered into swamps, and did not
get into camp till the night was half passed. I refused to abandon
the head under any circumstances.
Reading the above one must not get the idea that we habit-
ually shot cows, in fact only three were shot during the course
of three years, of which one was in error (the one above), one
for a collection (the first), and one in sheer desperation to avoid
a tragedy.
When the heavy jungle is taken, into consideration it is really
a wonder that more accidents of a like nature did not occur; we
were however most careful on this point, and once I let a beauti-
ful cow go, with I think at least 12 feet horns (sweep); she would
have been a trophy worth keeping in a national collection, but
she had a small calf at heel, and so was not molested. I never
saw her again in spite of hunting for her for days at a time,
with a cine camera.
It should also be borne in mind that arrangements had been
made to clear the jungle for cultivation; and if we spared, the
villagers did not. I rather flatter myself that as a result of a
personal appeal to the Raja and his Estate Manager it was decided
to stop the removal of the jungle and declare the area a closed
preserve. This has been done, and though I lose by not being
allowed to shoot, it is much the better arrangement; as I think
that the wild buffalo is a species that is fast dying out and in
need of very careful and strict preservation. I have since had a
SHOOTING WILD BUFFALO IN THE KOSI RIVER SWAMPS 589
couple of days after hog-deer and panther in these jungles and
note with the utmost satisfaction that the wild buffalo are increas-
ing, so much so that I think steps will have to be taken to reduce
their numbers, by shooting out obviously half bred and inferior
animals. The area being circumscribed can only support a lmited
number otherwise pox and rinderpest will take toll in a drastic
fashion. Now a few notes with regard to kit, etc.
~ Use the heaviest rifle you can, mine is a 450/400 H.V. double
barrel; bullets should be either solid or with just the tip exposed,
a split bullet breaks up on impact and has no penetration. The
best shot I find is at the triangle. Pig-sticking taught me this.
The triangle is that part of the back about 12 inches by 9 inches
just behind the last rib, and level with the spine. If you get
the spine the animal is paralysed in the hind legs and cannot
move, if you go a httle low the bullet takes him in the kidneys
or liver and he cannot go very far. Unless perfectly placed low
down a lung shot leaves an animal with plenty of go and he
may take you far with the chance of a charge in the process.
When questing on foot, search all the open spaces in the high
grass between the heavy jungle and the crops up to about 8 a.m.
You usually find a bull or so grazing after a night out. In the
hot weather quest along the banks of streams in the jungle or
stalk the wallows and pools, the best time for this is between
12 noon and 2 in the afternoon. Again in the evening quest
along the maidans as in the morning for the buffalo coming out to
graze at night. Following them up in the dense cover that exists
is impossible and decidedly dangerous.
Buffalo horns go in all shapes though the bulls have mostly
horns set in an are of a circle, either more or less circular.
Cows on the other hand show great variety: turn over horns are
common, straight out from the head is another type. I do not
agree with there being two varieties of buffalo, in my opinion
there is only one type, with variations, either due to environment,
or interbreeding with tame animals run wild. Shooting on foot
is the cream of the sport though fearfully exhausting in the hot
weather; shooting off elephants in heavy cover if only one or two
elephants are employed requires profound patience, and a consider-
able knowledge of woodcraft. Shooting with lines of elephants is
glorified butchery, which I have no experience of. When shooting
off an elephant in high Kas jungle, where the buffalo are invisible
at any distance beyond a few yards, an invaluable tip is to look
out for paddy birds (egrets) who settle on the backs of the
animals to pick off ticks, etc. Any wheeling by such birds about
a particular spot is a sure indication of the presence of buffalo.
You should also have a shot gun loaded with ‘Lethal’ ball handy
as very often a hog-deer rises up practically under the elephant’s
trunk. I once lost a fine stag by not being prepared. In this way
I have been lucky enough to bag some good hog-deer and kakur
or barking-deer. An occasional panther is sometimes raised, but
as a rule these brutes squat in a bush and refuse to move unless
almost stamped upon; and when they do break all one sees is
a flash of yellow and black. It is far more convenient to sit on
590 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXYVIII
the pad and drive the elephant oneself, in this way there is no
chance of the mahout getting in the line of sight. I have heard
of one unfortunate’s head being blown off by an excitable griff.
Moreover you are in the best position to take a snapshot. Driving
an elephant is not difficult of attainment especially if you tip the
mahout to show you the particular tricks of his individual beast.
Always have the mahout on the pad behind you, as he can also
control the animal by command. Shooting off a howdah makes
the shikari frightfully sick, besides which howdahs are very seldom
obtainable. Some practice is necessary to shoot off an elephant
with any accuracy. I usually fix a light slip of wood with in-
sulating tape along the barrels; this covers my sights and permits
my using the rifle as a shot gun. Elevation should be judged
according to range, but in actual practice shots are seldom taken
beyond point blank distance. Avoid shooting a head out of a4
collection of bulls, these are usually good though inferior to the
solitary bulls. These gatherings are of younger bulls too undeve-
loped to contest for the mastery of a herd, and if you do shoot
one you may find yourself in a predic ament with the remainder
refusing to leave the dead one and pawing up the ground, smelling
the blood, bellowing, and generally making most trying demon-
strations, which if there is not a tree handy as once happened
to me is decidedly bad for the nerves. Avoid a cow with a calf
like poison, meddling with her means that you will have to shoot
darned fast and straight in the end to avoid someone being hurt.
Look at the base of the horn with a good glass, if it is flat, tri-
angular, with a frontal breadth of at least 8 inches and _ heavily
corrugated it’s a bull. A rounded smooth horn with very little
taper in the first half of its length belongs to a cow. Spread in
a head is just as important as length, so try to bag a bull with
the tips of his horns well apart. Horns and skulls are easily
cleaned and mounted on shields, see that you pour kerosine oil
or turps at frequent intervals into the outer sheaths to avoid ex-
cessive shrinkage and beetles, which otherwise eat horns away
from the base. The hoofs mounted in silver make delightful and
unique ashtrays (half a hoof well dried and polished), I have a
couple which are the envy of all who see them.
Reading through these notes I find that I have commented
rather freely on the charging habits of wild buffalo. Naturally I
remember best the shoots that were more exciting, but on the
whole with our modern rifles I do not think that shooting wild
buffalo is any more dangerous than pig-sticking or following up
a wounded tiger. In nine cases out of ten the bull is dead before
he realises what is happening. It is the tenth case, when follow-
ing up a wounded beast, or one that has had a slug in him from
some a nee gun, that produces the incidents and occasional
accident. I did hear that a couple of sportsmen had been injured
during previous years, and in both cases they were entirely to
blame for using shot- guns or rifles totally inadequate for the pur-
pose. One man who was using I think a .280 Ross got a couple
of ribs and a leg smashed. I consider he was lucky to get away
alive.
“SHOOTING WILD BUFFALO IN THE KOSi RIVER SWAMPS 591
As regards how buffalo charge, in dense cover there is usually
no time to note particulars. All one sees is an immense head
and horns, accompanied by fearful crashing in the thickets at a
distance of 5 or 6 yards. If your luck is in he passes to your
front, if not and he faces you I really cannot advise you how
to manage, I usually dive behind the nearest cover and let him
have a shot when he pulls up in indecision before making up his
mind to follow you. I can speak with greater certainty as to
how they charge elephants, as I have on three occasions been
charged or seen another charged. In each case there was a
preliminary grunt, low and subdued, followed by a trot with the
nose up, horns well back across the neck. The horns were only
lowered when about 10 yards distant from the elephant, when
the trot was changed to a series of bounds. The actual strike
with the horns was made with a sideways sweep. I have seen an
elephant horribly gored in the region of the stomach, the horn
penetrating some 8 or 10 inches. This was a case where a cow
sitting in high grass absolutely jumped up at the elephant, the
elephant fled being pursued by the cow who gave her a good shove
behind whenever possible. |
These preserved jungles were very fine, one could moon round
looking at buffalo and taking photographs, if not actually shooting,
whilst mighty boar and fine heavy hog-deer kept the senses suffi-
ciently alert to fully appreciate the snap-shooting practice one
used to indulge in as a light-horseman in the Volunteers. It
was a delight to slay Mugger. These ugly brutes were in every
swamp and creek, and grew to immense size—17 feet in length
peing the biggest we ever got. The number of brass and copper
bangles and anklets we got out of their stomachs surely couldn’t
have come from corpses only. Gharial or long snouted crocodile
also went to great length in the Kosi streams; the biggest we
ever got was nearly 28 feet from the tip of his snout to the end
of his tail, the lumps on his nose were as big as saucers: this
brute also disillusioned me as to this type being purely fish-eaters,
as when cut open we took out of him a child’s thigh bones com-
plete with silver bangles as well as a flattened brass ‘Lota’. In
addition small game of all descriptions was to be had with little
or no trouble, snipe, teal, black and swamp partridge, quail, pea-
fowl, and an occasional florican (Lik or lesser species). Storks,
waders and kindred non-sporting birds were in their legions in
every swamp, whilst in the paddy-fields the wary Koolung or
Demoiselle Crane could be stalked and bagged for the pot with
the light rifle.
Measurements recorded are as follows:—
A. Big Bull Buffalo with self just after being shot, horn
sweep 109 inches, girth 192 inches. Height after being properly
laid out 68 inches.
B. The Rogue Buffalo, horn sweep 96 inches, girth
174 inches.
C. Cow, sweep 112 inches, girth 18 inches, tip to tip
49 inches.
12
593 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
To anybody wanting expert information on the Wild Buffalo,
I can recommend J. D. Inverarity’s excellent article in the Bom-
bay Natural History Society’s Journal, vol. x, No. 1, of 10th
November 1895.
For Wild Buffalo Shikar I think Assam is the only province
where the average shikari of moderate means can meet with any
success, though even there I should think that anything over
108 inches in sweep is rare.
~
We rumeie Are 6 neha
oh neha a cananine it a aeims
Seager cunceean ee he Mie uangs
retry
Mates?
Bes
Vapet ant
eS Co mete ee ee ee ee ie en cet ent ae neni Sere Sh ner
PAT Beals
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
All five larvae of Brahmea wallichii on ash-twigs.
Lt 18%
Larvae Nos. 2 and 5 of Brahmea wallichii,
A.
rather less than full size.
Se
THE LIFE-HISTORY FROM EGG TO PUPA OF
BRAHMEA WALLICHII GRAY.
BY
Mason J. A. GRAHAM, R.E.,
_ Headquarters, Meerut District, Dehra Dun.
(With 2 plates and 4 text-figures).
Having had the opportunity to rear some larvae ex-ovo, the
following details of this peculiar species may be of interest to
lepidopterists—more especially as [I am informed that the life-
history is not known.
At Naini Tal on June 27th 1935 IJ received from a friend a
female Brahmeid moth, which during its incarceration in a card-
board box had deposited 87 ova. The moth was so worn as to be
worthless as a cabinet specimen, and it was released on the
trellis-work of the bungalow verandah, over which was growing
common honeysuckle. Next morning 10 more eggs were found
on the trellis where the moth had been placed.
Ovum.—The egg is almost three-quarters spherical, on a flat
base, and very slightly depressed at the distinct dark grey mi-
cropyle; colour pale yellow, darker tinged near summit; diameter
2.5 mm., height 1.8 mm. On the eighth day the colour is grey
with a deep brick-red area round the summit. On the tenth day
the head and black and grey colouring of the larva inside are
plainly discernible; the larvae hatched on July 8th, the eleventh
day from deposition of ova.
Fig. la. Larva of B. wallichu. x about 10.
Side view, 386 hours old. Length 7.0 mm.
Larva.—On emergence the first meal is the egg-shell; some
eat practically all, some have only a few nibbles. The -larvae
ko4 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
present a most peculiar appearance, and look much too big for
the shell they emerge from (Fig. la.). Length at 36 hours
of age is 7.0 mm., and the longest fleshy protuberance or
‘tentacle’ is about 3.25 mm. The general colour is greyish white
with black transverse bars, and yellow with black markings on
the first three and last two somites, the ‘tentacles’ being black.
Fig. lb. Front view of larva of B. wallichu. x about 15.
(1) 2nd somital pair of ‘tentacles’. (2) 8rd somital pair. (8) Anal somital
pair. (4) Anal somital (single). (5) Ist pair of true legs.
During the next four days nineteen different trees and shrubs
and several creepers were tried as food-plants without success;
in consequence all the young larvae died of starvation except five
which at last began to feed on a species of Ash (Fraxinus macro-
cantha).
On July 14th the two larger larvae were 14 mm. long, and
very plump, so-that the head was relatively small; the second
and third somites were pale yellow and swollen. These two
larvae completed their first moult between 8 p.m. and 12-30 a.m.
on the night of July 15th-16th. The moulting position for all
moults is on the underside central rib of a leaf or of the leaf-
stalk, preferably head downwards.
The remainder of this account deals chiefly with the history
of the largest larva as typical.
Fig. 2 shows the changes that result from the first moult.
The black bars are reduced to two longitudinal marks per somite,
the sublateral and ventral surfaces are yellow, and each somital
joint.is tinged with yellow. All the bristles on the ‘tentacles’
LIFE-HISTORY FROM EGG TO. PUPA OF BRAHMEA WALLICHII 595
have gone, and the latter are much longer, peculiarly bent and
kinked, and shiny black; the ‘tentacles’ are not moveable except
in a general fore and aft direction by movement of the skin at
¥
Fig. 2. Side view of larva of B. wallichii. x about 5.
In 2nd instar. Aged 8 days; length 16 mm.
their points of attachment. All warts except one small anal
one have also disappeared. ‘The alarmed attitude is very similar
to that of a Sphina ligustri larva, but the head is even more
recurved as it touches the sixth somite.
On July 19th the larva was 20.5 mm. long and preparing for
its second moult, which took place early a.m. 20th. By 6 p.m.
on this date the length was 24 mm.; the first pair of ‘tentacles’
12 mm., second pair 14 mm., single anal one 7.5 mm., and anal
pair 5 mm. Thickness of larger pair about 0.2 mm. The head
is now marked with black bars on a greenish yellow ground
(Fig. 3). Body markings are as previously except that the each
lateral and sublateral ones
are finer. The sublateral por-
tion of each somite is some-
what folded and wrinkled.
The third larva was
watched whilst moulting be-
tween 9-10 and 9-25 p.m. on
July 21st. On emergence
from the old skin, the head
is hke an unripe’ maize-
erain, and the tentacles hke
irregular bits of greenish
glass-thread; whilst drawing
itself out of the skin the
tentacles can be seen folded
flat along the dorsum reach- Fig. 38. Head of B. wallichii,
ing to about the tenth 20. in 8rd instar.
somite. They are apparently
not connected in any way with the old tentacles which are shed
complete on the old skin. When the last somite is withdrawn
x about
596 JOURNAL, BOMBAY .NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, .Vol. XXXVIII
by one or two jerks of the body, the larva uses its jaws to free
the three anal tentacles from each other as they are more or
less stuck together.
The head markings and tentacles of this larva were fully black
by 10-380 p.m., about an hour after moulting.
On July 28rd the largest larva was 31 mm. long and _ prepar-
ing for its third moult. The tentacles do not increase in length
or thickness with body growth during each instar.
The third moult occurred about 10-30 p.m. on July 24th. The
only appreciable alteration in markings is that the sublateral black
markings are wider and the intersomital joints more yellow. At
4 p.m. on July 25th this larva was 84 mm. long. The tentacles
seem to have been damaged during withdrawal, as their lengths
are now :—
Ist pair right, 10 mm.; left, 15 mm.; 2nd pair right, 24 mm. ;
left, 17 mm.; anal single, 18 mm.; anal pair, 6 mm. each and
slender.
The last 8 mm. of the anal single one is re-curved posteriorly
like a hook.
When the second larva moulted for the third time, the ten-
tacles also varied in lengths as below :—
Ist pair right, 9 mm.; left, 17 mm.; 2nd pair right, 23 mm;
left, 24 mm.; anal single, 183 mm.; anal pair, 7 mm.
Plate II gives an impression of the front view of a larva in
third and fourth instar in the alarmed position. The head is
bent down in between the foremost pair of prolegs which are
raised from the stalk on which the caterpillar is resting.
On July 27th the largest larva was 54 mm. long, average
thickness of body 7 mm. Twelve hours later its length was
61 mm. The skin is now very smooth, shiny and well filled out.
Plate IB shows the five larvae on food-plant.
On July 29th this larva prepared for its last moult, which
occurred between 3 p.m. and 5 p.m. on July 3lst. The head
markings did not get fully black till about 7-380 p.m.
In this last instar the seven tentacles are completely shed;
on the second and third somites they are replaced by oval-shaped
chalk-white marks with a tiny wart in the centre, on a dirty
olive-green ground. The lateral markings on first three somites
are now fine black reticulations filled in with white. The third
somite is double-humped and has a_ pair of large chestnut-
eoloured spots posteriorly, with black centres.
Somites 5 to 10 have a dorsal black cigar-shaped mark, and
two small black dots anteriorly. On the anal somite there is
no trace of the single tentacle, but a prominent hump with a
blunt point; the posterior half has black spots where the last
pair of tentacles were; the vent is surmounted by a triangular
anal plate tipped with black. The ventral surface is dirty brown-
ish with a medial black stripe and edged by the black sublateral
lines which are much thicker.
Plate IA. taken on August 8th, shows the second largest larva
in the last instar together with the smallest, which was rather a
weakling, in its fourth instar one month after hatching.
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PEATE, 1
Sige) somite,
somite. 2% somite.
sf
1
Head bent under
About x3
Front view of larva, 4th instar, in alarmed position.
on - > i
m i ; = -
cs ' eee tn
4 4
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Nae
LIFE-HISTORY FROM EGG TO PUPA OF BRAHMEA WALLICHII 597
On August 7th the largest larva, now 110 mm. long had
changed its dorsal colouring to dull orange—obviously prepara-
tory to pupating, as it was restless. An assortment of soil, stones,
twigs, moss and bark was provided for pupation, but was not
received with gratitude, and the larva duly pupated on August 138th
on the floor of the breeding cage under a loose piece of bark.
The third larva attained a length of 114 mm. when full-grown.
The pupa is deep brownish black, naked, cylindrical, smooth
but not shiny; length 44 mm. exclusive of anal spike which is
strong, 4 mm. long and furnished with two small sharp points
about .75 mm. long; diameter at lower edge of wing cases 14 mm.;
at the base of the thoracic plate is a curious raised transverse
feature, with a double pit or indentation centrally and a small
pit at each side. Segments 8 and 9 have small knobs in the
positions of the old prolegs.
None of the other larvae made any use of the materials sup-
plied for pupation, and it is regretted that no notes can be given
of their natural pupation habits.
After moulting the larvae must eat the old skin, as no traces
were found after any moult (other than the fourth) except the
head and bits of the old tentacles.
The appetite is enormous, and it is of interest that although
by no means lethargic, the larvae do not wander, but prefer to
remain on a particular twig until all available leaves and stalks
are consumed. A move is then made to the next nearest twig
providing a meal.
In conclusion, the following table gives the average periods
for the various changes from deposition of egg to pupation.
Period in ovo ... set ... 10S days
5» to 1st moult eel Oe Gs
f etouenca ie oe 2 ee Average
ue tO ord) oe Bel eo Qe total
» to4th ,, - te eT 2k WOO days.
Ms to pupation Sa eC: re
A FISHING TRIP IN -KUMAON.
BY
A. St. J. MAcpbona.Lp. -
(With two plates).
Assuming that anglers like myself scan the papers for new
and up-to-date information of rivers to spend a fishing holiday on,
I am writing this note of my recent trip up the Kal, Sarju,
and Eastern Ramganga rivers in Kumaon. There is much which
needs adjustment in Skene Dhu’s book, in both the fishing water
and the route to be followed. I worked the Kali or Sarda from
Tanakpur to Pacheshwar, where the Sarju joims and up the
Sarju to above Kapkote on the Pindari Glacier road, then over
the Sema Pass to Tejam and down the Ramganga to Rameshwar
where it joins the Sarju a distance of 280 miles of fishing water.
In all this stretch of water the rivers need only be left in four
places, and worked along above by village paths or roads. If
given time, the water can be approached at certain points if one
is prepared to descend and climb a few hundred feet. Kit can be
carried along the rivers by Dhutials without whom it would be im-
possible to undertake the trip. The local Pahari or Kumaonee
would let one down and ask extortionate wages. It must not be
presumed by these notes that it is an easy matter to follow up
the river-bed. Much boulder stepping and chmbing is necessary
to get by land-slides and cliffs, and in some places difficult wading
from one bank to the other, but as long as marches are kept to
five and six miles over the difficult stretches, the water can almost
all be fished and good sport obtained.
In the two months I spent on my holiday, I had fifty fishing
days and caught with another rod (which was with me for a time
only and fished only a couple of hours a day) 117 fish=946 lbs.,
over an average of 8 lbs. Five best fish scaled 96, 40, 36, 30
and 29 lbs. The best bag in one day was 16 fish to my own rod,
and the best weight in a day was 117 lbs. for 8 fish, with Fly Rod.
The best day was 16 fish=52 lbs., best 64 Ibs.
From Tanakpur one can follow the Kali to Chuka where the
Ladaya joins 21 miles. From two miles above Chuka one must
leave the river and climb over the ridge, a stiff climb of 5,700 ft.
to a village on the top, Dabangaon—a distance of six miles. Camp
here on the north side, and if the weather is fine, an excellent
view of the snows can be had. From here march to Gurmack-
tashwar (14 miles). A dull march over open slopes and then a
steep descent for the last two miles. The Loha Ghat stream
joins in here. The river from here can be followed to above
Kapkote and no further difficulty is experienced till below Tejam
to Thal on the Ramganga. There is a wonderful gorge here,
which rust hold monsters, but it wants to be worked very
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A FISHING TRIP IN KUMAON 599
thoroughly and in small stretches. The D.B. road is 600 ft. or
so above the river, and much climbing is necessary to get to
and from good water. The river is again difficult at a point
below Thal at Munipani where it enters a gorge and is impossible
for a mile or so, but the path along the right bank keeps near and
above the river which can be approached in some places. From
here. to Aulaghat, water is good and can be worked to a point
just below. Here again is a gorge, but a path leads along the
face of a precipice for three miles and is but a few inches wide
and takes time for the coolies to negotiate with loads. <A _ false
step or slipping stone would end in disaster several hundreds of
feet below. The path should only be attempted if one has a good
head for heights. From it is only eleven miles to Rameshwar.
Intermediate water is excellent and can be approached anywhere
provided one is prepared for heavy work in descending and climb-
ing. These gorges are the saviour of the fish. They serve as
sanctuaries, and are still unmolested by the hand of man. Wild
and well forested they are the few remaining landmarks of the
Kumaon of long years ago. This note read with Skene Dhu’s
book gives an idea of the rivers as they are today and the route
to follow.
To those unacquainted with these rivers a note on tackle will
be of interest. A ten-foot spinning rod and fly rod with wire
traces for spinning and gut for fly spoon work meets one’s outfit.
The water is gin clear and the river small, so that unless one’s
tackle is of the finest, few fish will be caught. Spoon does not
meet with success and Chilwa (or rather small fish for I never
saw a Chilwa in the rivers) is far the most killing in the Sarju.
Spoon is killing in the Ramganga. A small net is necessary for
catching small bait and 150 yds. of hne, ample. Like all Hima-
layan rivers the snags and rocks are sharp-edged and cut through
eut or one’s line like a knife. Killen wire is the best form of
wire for traces and can be made up in a few moments. The
places to fish are the same as in all rivers, in and below rapids
or at the end of pools above rapids. The best time appears to
be from the time the sun gets on to the water until it leaves it
in the evening. Early morning and late evening did not meet
with much success, and I found, once the fish started to rise
after the sun left the water, it was useless continuing. Cloudy,
rainy, and sunny days all gave good and bad sport so I would
not speak for or against weather conditions. I think, for Mah-
seer anyway, the only element that matters is the water, and
exactly how remains a problem to be solved. Fly spoon } an inch,
I found better than any other size and gilt and silver seems to
take best. At burning ghats, huge fish are to be seen cruising
about but not to be tempted with either spoon or small fish.
Atta I tried without luck, and meat if it can be obtained will
provide a run or two, but the idea is repulsive, as anyone who
has visited these waters will know. The moment a _ corpse is
released the water is alive with corpse eating fish from 60 lbs.
downwards. I tried a black and red spoon on these fish to try
and represent their fancied though depraved taste, but met with
600 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVITII
no success. It is a waste of time fishing at these places as good
fish are to be taken in the rapids above and below gorges where
the country is wild and unmolested. Supplies like atta, rice,
milk and ghee, are to be had in most villages. Fowis and eggs
are scarce and expensive, so that a certain amount of tinned pro-
visions, are necessary.
A few general remarks on shooting and the state of the country,
may be of interest. In this connection I can only paint a picture
ol gloom. ‘The fish are poached from end to end, from Pacheswar
to Kapkote on the Sarju, and Tejam on the Ramganga. Fish
traps, nets, spears and weirs to divert the water and leave the fish
high and dry, for easy capture, are in great evidence. I have seen
baskets of young Mahseer caught in this way by three or four
children, so that with the colonising of the valleys, the destiny of
these rivers for sport is gloomy, unless some enquiries are made
and protection is enforced by the Civil Administration. A much
more curious feature is that none of the commoner fishes
of the Indian rivers are to be seen. Rohu, Kalbash, Bowali,
Tengra, Butchwa, Chilwa and the other Carps are all missing.
I examined baskets of fish and in such clear water it is easy to
pick out the fish in variety. The local people attribute this to
the Sarda canal headworks at Bombassa, whether this is a fact
or not, it is one calling for investigation and immediate adjust-
ment, if these rivers are to remain the fishing waters they are
attributed to be. Game by the river is scarce, and it is pathetic
to see Gooral, Muntjac, and Koklass pheasants down by the rivers
in May because of the fires on the hills, which have driven them
down for safety. The fire season is from April till the rains
break, and hardly a hill side escapes unless it is a Regeneration
Reserve for Cheer Pine. The damage to bird life (nesting at this
time), insect life and the subsequent destruction of creatures
which are driven down to the rivers and make easy prey for
the numerous Bundook Wallahs, is deplorable. While fishing, I
have on three occasions had Gooral on the opposite bank, within
easy range of a shot gun. The haze caused by these fires is like
a cloudy day, or the western sky in the plains when the Loo is
at its height.
This is the Kumaon of today and unless a commission which
includes experts in Ornithology, Pisciculture, and Entomology, are
soon appointed to adjust this state of affairs, there will be little
left but the terraced labours of man, and the dry springs of admi-
nistration. And the day is in sight when there will be no fuel or
or water available to provide for the ancient rights of the Sons of
India.
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Adhesive tendrils in Bignonia venusta Ker.-Gawl.
(For explanation of figures see end of article). .
ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ADHESIVE TENDRILS IN BIGNONIA
VENUSTA KER-GAWL.
BY
J. 2. ah. D ALMEIDA, B.A.,- M.Sc.
(Professor of Botany, St. Xavier's College, Bombay).
(With one plate).
The formation in consequence of mechanical irritation of cellular outgrowths
in the shape of ‘discs’, ‘balls’, ‘pads’ or ‘suckers’ on tendrils by means of
which they attach themselves to rocks, walls, the bark of trees or other similar
supports has been the subject of investigation by various writers, and Darwin
(1), Géebel (3), Kerner and Oliver (4), and Pfeffer (10) cite several instances
of such tendrils.
Amongst the AMPELIDACEAE adhesive tendrils have been observed in Vitis
hederacea Ehrh. (=V. quinquefolia Lam., Ampelopsis hederacea DC., A. quin-
quefolia Michx., Psedera quinquefolia Greene, Hedera quinquefolia Linn.) (1),
(4), (7), V. inconstans Mig. (=Ampelopsis Veitchu Hort., A. tricuspidata
Sieb. & Zuce., Psedera tricuspidata Rehder) (4), (6), V. capreolata D. Don
(=V. Royleana Hort.) (4), V. ternata Baker (=Cissus paulinifolia Vell.)
(10), and V. assamica M. Laws (11). The tendrils of most CUCURBITACEAE
show a certain proliferation of the epidermal and cortical cells and in Sicyos
angulata Linn. and a few other Cucurbitaceae the fixation is aided by a viscid
secretion (8), (10), whilst in Hanburia mexicana Seem. (1), (8), (4), (10),
Peponopsis adhaerens Naud. (8), (9), Gymnopetalum cochinchinense Kurz
(11), and Trichosanthes pubera Blume (=T. palmata Roxb.) (11) structures
analogous to adhesive discs are formed. Similar outgrowths have also been
observed in the BiGNoNntIACcEAE, for instance, Bignonia capreolata Linn. (1), (8),
(4), (10), B. littoralis H. B. & K. (1), (8), (4), (10), Amphilophium Mutisi
H. B. & K. (=Amphilobium Mutist Loud.) (10); and Aplolophium Cham.
(=Haplolophium Endl.) (2). To this list it is proposed to add Bignonia venusta
Ker-Gawl. whose tendrils the present writer has observed occasionally to
produce similar adhesive masses, but before we proceed to deal with these
it will be well to state a few facts known about these peculiar outgrowths
in the plants that have already come under the observation of previous investi-
gators.
Von Mohl was the first to show that such adhesive structures appear in
response to the stimulus of contact with a firm body (6). They are usually
formed by outgrowths from the epidermal cells and subjacent parenchyma,
and they secure a firm hold of the support by growing into the irregularities
of its surface and secreting a sticky substance or cement which completes the
attachment (1), (4), (5), (10). Adhesive tendrils either require the stimulus
of contact for the first development of their discs, e.g. Vitis hederacea (1),
(4), (10); V. capreolata (4); Bignonia capreolata (1), (4); B. littoralis (1), (4);
and Amphilophium Mutisw (10); or the suckers are pre-formed structures present
as small swellings at the tips of the branched tendrils, and are simply excited
to further development by contact. e.g. Vitis inconstans (1), (4), (8); V. ternata
(10); and Aplolophium (1), (2), (8). Adhesive tendrils, though they all seem
to agree more or less in being negatively heliotropic, i.e. in inclining away
from light, show their predilection for a particular substratum. Some, like
Vitis hederacea and V. inconstans, can climb up smooth walls and even planed
wood, glass, and smooth polished iron, and form their discs upon these surfaces.
Others like Bignonia capreolata require rough uneven surfaces, and seek crevices
and crannies of stem and bark, and actually creep into them and there swell
out into a club or ball and sometimes even fill up the cracks (1), (4).
Darwin (1) has given a pretty elaborate account of the tendrils of Bignonia
venusta. They are modifications of leaves (Fig. 1). Each leaf consists of a
petiole (P, P’) with two lateral leaflets (LIL, L’L’) and ends in a tendril
which is formed by the metamorphosis of the three terminal leaflets. Like
the tendrils of Bignonia unguis-cati Linn. and some other Bignonias it has
602 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
a fanciful resemblance to the leg and foot of a small bird. ‘The lower part,
or tarsus (T, T’) is four times as iong as the three toes (a, b, c and a’, b’, ce’);
these are of equal length and diverge equally, but do not he in the same
plane; their tips are bluntly hooked, and the whole tendril makes an excellent
grapnel’ (1). Kerner and Oliver (4) liken the claws at the ends of the delicate
tendrils to those of insects’ feet. Darwin also describes the manner in which
the tendril seizes the support, but, it seems, his observations are restricted
only to instances in which the tendril seizes an object which it can clasp by
twining round it, for he makes no mention whatsoever of the peculiar cellular
outgrowths or cushions which the present writer has seen to be produced on the
tendrils under certain circumstances. The author’s attention was first drawn
to these structures by accident on a plant which was growing on the vene-
tianed verandah of his residence. The climber had been trained some distance
up the outer side of the verandah on a frame-work of thin wire. Higher up
it was left to find its own way. In a short time some of the branches grew
inwards into the verandah through the venetian blinds. On an examination
of these inwardly growing branches a number of irregularly-shaped pads or
cushions about 10-15 mm. in diameter and 6-8 mm. in thickness and of a creamy
colour slightly tinged with green were noticed at’ the ends of the tendrils
(Figs. 2 and 8, D). These masses adhered firmly, as if cemented, to the
inner angles of the venetian shutters and looked like wax which had been
poured round the edges of the slips of wood composing the blind and had
solidified. On a further investigation it was found that some of the tendrils
that had crept into the crevices of the venetian woodwork also showed a
development of a similar tissue so that they could not be readily withdrawn,
and, where the tendrils clasped a split bamboo post which presented many
projecting points and fibres and fine crevices, the hooked ends developed into
small irregular discs 1-2 mm. in diameter which adhered firmly to the rough
surface of the post.
The adhesive pads of Bignonia venusta may appear separately on each of
the three branches of the tendril should each of these meet with the requisite
type of support (Fig. 2), or the outgrowths of branches (toes) of a single
tendril or of two distinct tendrils may unite in a single mass (Fig. 8). Should
a tendril or any of its branches not meet with a support it dwindles down
and dies. But such free tendrils or their branches are frequently found
embedded in the adhesive pads produced by a neighbouring tendril or branch
of tendril (Fig. 38, b). Such encased tendrils can often be recognized by
the hooked tips which may be seen projecting beyond the pad and which show
no indication of swelling. There is reason to believe that the tendency to
form pads is not restricted only to that branch of the tendril which meets
with the type of support calculated to cause the development of the adhesive
masses, but the stimulus to form such masses is transmitted to the other
branches of the tendril which also develop similar outgrowths on clasping
supports, such as wire, tendrils, stems, etc., which do not ordinarily cause
the formation of adhesive pads. As regards their tropisms, observation points
to the fact that the tendrils of Bignonia venusta are not negatively heliotropic
as are the adhesive tendrils of most of the other plants mentioned herein.
They have been seen to point indifferently in all directions irrespective of
the source of the illumination. In regard to the type of support suitable
for the formation of adhesive cushions or pads it is obvious from the foregoing
that bodies presenting a surface with a certain degree of roughness can
stimulate the formation of pads. Smooth walls, window panes and_ similar
surfaces seem to produce no impression whatsoever on the tendrils which have
been seen to droop and die in spite of being in constant contact with these
surfaces, unless, however, they come across a support which they may clasp.
To summarize :—
Adhesive tendrils have so far been definitely known to be produced
in the following plants :—
AMPELIDACEAE : — Vitis hederacea Ehrh.,
. nconstans Miq.,
. capreolata D. Don.,
. ternata Baker,
. assamica M. Laws.
ce a
OCCURRENCE OF ADHESIVE TENDRILS IN BIGNONIA VENUSTA 603
CUCURBITACEAE : — Sicyos angulata Linn.,
Hanburia mexicana Seem,
Trichosanthes pubera Blume,
Peponopsis adhaerens Naud.,
Gymnopetalum cochinchinense Kurz.
BIGNONIACEAE : — Bignonia capreolata Linn.,
_ B. littorais He Bi -&. K,,
B. venusta Ker-Gawl.,
Amplilophium Mutisi H. B. & K.,
Aplolophium (Chain.) sp.
The tendrils of Bignonia venusta behave like ordinary tendrils when they
come across supports which they can readily clasp—sticks, wire, etc. They
form adhesive cushions, however, on contact with a body presenting a some-
what rough surface. The stimulus to form adhesive structures seems to be
transmitted from branch to branch of a tendril. The inclination of the tendrils
is independent of the direction of the light.
The writer’s thanks are due to the Rev. Fr. J. F. Caius, s.3., of. St.
Xavier’s College, Bombay, for his kind help in determining the synonymy of
the plants mentioned in the paper, and for his valuable suggestions which
have been embodied herein.
LITERATURE CITED.
1. Darwin, Charles. The Movement and Habits of Climbing Plants; Lon-
don, 1891.
2. Fritz Miller. Notes on Some Climbing Plants near Destero in South
Brazil; .Jowr. Linn. Soc.,-1x, p. 346.
3. Goebel, K. The Organography of Plants (English Edition); Clarendon
Press, Pt. I, 1900, -p. 268.
_ 4. Kerner & Oliver. The Natural History of Plants (English Hdition);
London, vol. i, 1894, pp. 698-700. :
5. Lengerken, A. Von. Die Bildung der Haftballen an den Ranken einiger
Arten der Gattung Ampelopsis; in Botan. Zeitung, 1885.
6. M’Nab Dr. In Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinburgh, vol. xi, p. 292.
7. Mohl. Ranken-u. Schilingpflanzen. 1827, pp. 70-1.
8. Miller D. Unterschungen uber die Ranken der Cucurbitaceen. Cohn.
Beitrage z. Biol., Bd. iv, pp. 107, 128, etc.
9. Naudin. In Ann. des Sciences Nat., Ser. 4, xii, 1859, p. 89.
10. Pfeffer, W. The Physiology of Plants (English Edition); Clarendon
Press,: vol. iii, 1896, p. 47.
11. Debarman, P. M. Some Observations on the Anchoring Pads of
Gymnopetalum cochinchinense Kurz and Some Other Cucurbitaceous Plants;
Journ., Ind. Bot., iii, Dec. 1922.
EXPLANATION OF FIGURES.
Fig, 1.—Portion of a branch of Bignonia venusta Ker-Gawl. showing two
opposite leaves and their tendrilar prolongations. P,P’, petiole; LL’L’L’,
- lateral leaflets; TT’, tarsus; a,b.c,a’b’c’, toes. —
Fig. 2.—Portion of a branch of Bignonia venusta Ker-Gawl. the development
of adhesive pads D, from twa branches (a’ & c’) of a tendril. The rest
_ of the lettering as in Fig. 1.
Fig. 8.—Portion of a branch of Bignonia venusta Ker-Gawl. showing union
into a single mass (D) of outgrowths of the branches of two opposite
tendrils. Lettering as in Fig. 1.
REVIEWS.
Il AN ABRIDGED CATALOGUE OF CERTAIN SCUTELLEROIDEA
(PLATASPIDAE, SCUTELLERIDAE AND PENTATOMIDAE) OF CHINA,
CHOSEN, INDO-CHINA, AND TATWAN. By W. E. Horrmann, Lingnan
University Bulletin, No. 7 (19385).
The Catalogue of the Rhynchotan order Scutelleroidea by Dr. W. E. Hoff-
mann contains an admirably arranged list of genera and species of China and
the neighbouring faunal subregions. It is an enlarged edition, with a great
deal of additional material of the check list of the order published by the
author in 1932. In 1909, Kirkaldy compiled a complete list of the World fauna
of the group. Hoffmann’s Catalogue makes an addition of 11 genera, 86
species and 12 varieties to Kirkaldy’s lst of 142 genera, 362 species and
20 varieties recorded from this region. To make the list as complete and
up-to-date as possible, the author found it necessary to include two chapters
of ‘Additional species’ and ‘Addenda and Corrigenda’ in the Bulletin. Through-
out the catalogue he has followed a uniform method of arranging the genera
phylogenetically and the species alphabetically following Kirkaldy’s catalogue.
As earlier literature is all listed in Kirkaldy’s catalogue, Hoffmann has mainly
confined the literature citations to works published after 1909. The geographi-
cal distribution of the various species is given in great detail. The ‘Alphabetical
list of genera and species’ in conjunction with the ‘Index to the genera,
species and varieties’ published at the end of the volume’ facilitates the
location of different species, more particularly as the old names and synonyms
are also indexed. .
The very useful annotations added to the detailed bibliography fully define
the exact scope of the different papers, monographs, catalogues, etc. and should
enable students consulting the catalogue to determine the value of various
references.
Appendices I and II contain notes on Faunal Sub-regions of Hastern Asia
with special reference to China, and remarks on the Zoogeographical items with
the aid of maps and the alphabetical list of about 600 place-names in Hastern
Asia classified into general sub-regions, should prove very useful for workers
in understanding the distribution of the species of the group; this is of special
value as the names of many places, in China particularly, are not easy to
find on maps that are generally available to most workers. i
A cursory glance through the list of species shows the large number of
species which are common both to India and China, and as the last volume
of Distant in the Fauna of British India series was published in 1918 the
present catalogue should prove very helpful to workers in India.
Bae
Il. THE SNAKES OF INDIA. By K. G. GuHarpurgey, 1.M.s. Demy 8vo.
Pp. x+165; 29 diagrams, 52 illustrations. (The Popular Book Depot, Bombay)
1935, ~ Price, Rs. 3:
Tt often happened in the past that in aristocratic families the eldest son
was a kind of privileged being, whose future was being carefully planned and
at times entailed sacrifices which were bound to affect his younger brothers
who were supposed to shift for themselves. A similar spirit of favouritism
obtains even nowadays among the scientific brotherhood, whose members
write for their fellow-scientists and apparently do not care for those unfortunates
who belong to the unscientific crowd! Hence the author is to be congratulated
on having produced a popular book giving general information and_ useful
knowledge about the various common snakes of India. Scientists may perhaps
object that the book could have been written on other lines; but, if they do
so, they lose sight of the author’s aim which is essentially pragmatic—to let
REVIEWS 605
knowledge reach as many persons as possible. Accordingly the book has been
priced at Rs. 8, which is a record-breaking low price for an illustrated book
on snakes.
The author himself tells us that there is hardly anything original in this
book and that the information it contains has been collected from divers
sources and put together without its being made too technical. But if the
book is not original in this sense of the word, it is nevertheless an interesting
production which well fulfils the purpose intended.
The opening chapter gives general information about snakes, and is followed
by a short note on animals confused with snakes—an excellent idea this.
Various points, such as Teeth and Poison-glands, Snake Poison, Scales on a
Snake, Classification of Snakes, Identification of Snakes, Protection against
Snakes, Treatment for Snake-bite, are dealt with separately and form the
subject of as many short chapters. By far the greater part of the book is
devoted to the description of Indian Snakes. All through the style is simple
without being obscure, and the matter is condensed without being jejune.
It may be noted that serpens is Latin, not French, and that kattuvirian
is the Tamil for the Indian Krait and not for the Echis which is known as
suruttaippambu.
In the reviewer's opinion it is regrettable that the author should on
several occasions have made use of the word ‘variety’ instead of ‘species’.
The two words are not synonymous, and species is such a common word
that it cannot be objected to in a popular book not strictly scientific.
Je. He C,
III. THE NIDIFICATION OF BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE. By
HK. C. Sruart Baker, C.1.E., 0.B.E., F.Z.8. Vol. IV (Taylor & Francis, 30/-).
It is with mixed feelings that one sits down to write the review upon this,
the concluding volume, of Mr. Stuart Baker’s great work, for to the reader,
no less than to the author, there must always be a certain feeling of sadness
when the word ‘Finis’ comes to be written.
On the other hand, it is a matter of supreme satisfaction that the final
word has been written by Mr. Stuart Baker’s own hand, and that he has
been spared to place the coping stone upon the edifice, the foundations of
which he laid half a century ago.
In tendering him our hearty congratulations, may we also add that it is
characteristic of the author, and of his devotion to the cause of Ornithology,
that ha kept to the last the writing of this work which, one feels, has always
been nearest and dearest to his heart.
For in addition to his innumerable contributions to Ornithology in the pages
of The Bombay Natural History Journal, The Ibis, and elsewhere, and his
volumes on the Indian Ducks, Pigeons, and Game Birds, it was not until
he had completed his masterly revision of the Birds of the Indian Empire
in the Fauna of British India series, that he embarked upon the work under
review, which he has now brought to a successful conclusion.
In his preface to Vol. TV, Mr. Stuart Baker tells us that the Fauna deals
with no less than 2,351 species and sub-species, of which the breeding of
1,723 species and sub-species is recorded in the present volumes. Of the residue,
349 are known to breed in countries outside the Indian Empire and Ceylon,
whilst there remain 279 concerning whose nidification nothing whatever is
known.
To the author, this figure of 279, or approximately 12 per cent, may
appear large: to us, and we venture to say to our readers, it is well nigh
incredible that it should have been possible to record, with such accuracy, the
nidification of nearly 75 per cent of the total within Indian limits.
In this connection, may we express the hope that Mr. Stuart Baker may
find it possible, in contributions to this Journal, to indicate where and when
to look for the nests of some, at least, of the unknown 279? To give an
example, the nidification of the Masked Finfoot (Heliopais personata), recorded
on pages 316 to 318 of the present volume, was, discovered at the first attempt
in 1920, when two keen field workers happened to be located in one of the
606 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
breeding areas of this bird, but it is quite possible that it would have escaped
them but for the hint obtained and recorded by Mr. Stuart Baker as far
back as 1904.
The present volume commences with accounts of the breeding of the whole
of the Birds of Prey, other than the Owls, which were included in Volume III,
and continues with the Pigeons and Doves, Sandgrouse, Game Birds, Mega-
podes, Bustard Quails and Quails, Rails, Waders and Waterfowl, and as in
the earlier volumes exactly follows the classification of the Fauna.
The author also continues his system of trivial nomenclature, which indi-
cates, in the English name, the habitat, appearance, or some other distinguish-
ing pecuharity of the bird, a system which, we learn, has been very greatly
appreciated not only by the general public, who are apt to boggle at long
Latin names, but also by the scientifically minded.
Throughout the book, Mr. Stuart Baker maintains the same high level
which he has set himself in the previous volumes, and when he permits him-
self the luxury of an occasional page of descriptive writing, he gives us a
vivid word picture of a Himalayan mountain side or a Burmese jungle which
adds immensely to the charm and interest of the work.
As in the earlier volumes, the author has collated all the older material,
and to this has added a very great deal that is new, the whole being presented
in his inimitable and eminently readable style. We give it as our emphatic
opinion that no field ornithologist can afford to be without this magnificent
work, quite apart from its value as a contribution to Ornithological Science,
and its appeal to all those interested in Indian bird life.
The book is illustrated by seven beautiful photographic plates, and the
printing is once again all that can be desired, and very easy to read. We
would also add a word of praise for the great care which has evidently been
expended upon obtaining the correct spelling of the innumerable place names
which occur throughout.
C. H.
OBITUARIES.
OSMOND CHARLES OLLENBACH.
Osmond Charles Ollenbach, formerly of the Survey of India,
died at Mussoorie on the 6th July, 19385, aged 66 years.
Mr. Ollenbach was perhaps the doyen of Indian butterfly
collectors, a fraternity which was in its hey-day in the more
spacious times before the Great War. He himself used to com-
ment on the decline of the hobby in India and attributed it partly
to the lack of leisure and the more rigorous demands made upon
people’s time by the exigencies of hfe in the present day. Many
enthusiasts had also left India on retirement and there were few
to take their place.
Attracted to butterflies from childhood, Mr. Ollenbach took up
the hobby of collecting as a boy in school, at Mussoorie. In those
days the absence of works on the subject hampered serious study,
but by the time, he entered the Survey of India he found that
opportunities for observing and collecting had so much improved
that in 1900 he determined to start collecting seriously. In the
next thirty years he captured and set about 17,000 specimens,
comprising some 1,400 species, all of Indian Empire origin. ‘To
museums and learned societies in many lands he gave away 3,000
specimens and to other collectors over 5,000. The number now
in the unique personal collection that he has left is roughly
9,000. They are most carefully preserved and scientifically classi-
fied in airtight cabinets, which Mr. Ollenbach loved to show to
privileged visitors. Among those who saw his collection was
Brigadier W. H. Evans—the noted authority on Indian Butterflies.
In a letter to the Society, Brigadier Evans writes: ‘I had corre-
sponded with Ollenbach for many years but did not meet him
until 1921, when our paths crossed in Burma. In 1922 I paid a
visit to Dehra Dun and saw his collection not only of Butterflies
but of insects of all Orders and I was very much impressed.’
Mr. Ollenbach’s service years were spent in all parts of India,
including Burma, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Kashmir,
Hazara and the Himalayan region from east to west, and also
Ceylon and Turkestan. In all these regions he had _ boundless
opportunities of indulging in his hobby and more than once was
helped by fellow-officers or friends who were keen naturalists.
Ollenbach was most generous in assisting other collectors and
in presenting unique specimens to the Society’s collections and
to the South Kensington Museum. His knowledge of the habits
of butterflies all over India and Burma were immense. Unfortu-
nately he rarely wrote; but the Society has to thank him for
several important notes and a comprehensive account of the
Butterflies of Tavoy. Mr. Ollenbach also contributed articles and
notes to Records of the Forest Department. Subsequent to his
retirement he was employed as an Entomologist at the Forest
Research Institute, Dehra Dun. After retirement he settled on
13
08 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVili
his own estate at Dehra Dun and took a great deal of interest in
his orchards. He leaves a widow and two sons.
WALTER ORMISTON.
Walter Ormiston was born in Hongkong where his father was
the Manager of the Chartered Bank. He was educated at Rugby
and after passing out as a Barrister. at Lincoin’s Inn, he practised
at Hongkong. Finding the work uncongenial he gave up his pro-
fession and went to Ceylon where his family owned the Kalupahani
Estate, at Keslande. He worked on the estate up to the year
1925, when he returned to Galle and made the Oriental Hotel his
headquarters.
Ormiston was a born naturalist, his love of Nature and the
out of doors, drew him away from the vocation for which he was
trained. A keen fisherman—one of the most expert in Ceylon, he
was the oldest member of the Nuwara Eliya Fishing Club. Animal
and bird life attracted him. His observations were always won-
derful; and as such he was a welcome and charming companion
on shooting trips. He handled a rifle as cleverly as he handled
a rod and was a keen member of the Ceylon Planters’ Rifle Club.
Stamp collecting was also one of his hobbies and as a collector
he mastered the intricacies of his hobby and became an expert
philantelist. But his chief claim to remembrance amongst natur-
alists will he in his work on the Butterflies of Ceylon which he
published in 1924. His experience as a collector and his close
study equipped him for the task. He was in close correspondence
with noted lepidopterists such as Brigadier Evans, Capt Riley and
T. R. Bell. His work was based mainly on the collections which
he made in Ceylon. They include long series of each species
illustrating both dry and wet season forms and other variations.
In writing his book he spent some time studying the collections at
the British Museum. He gave the British Museum such Ceylon
Butterflies as were unrepresented in their collection, besides many
rare.and abnormal forms. But the bulk of-his collection of his
Ceylon Butterflies he presented to the Bombay Natural History
Society of which he was a member for twenty-five years. They
are now preserved in separate cabinets as the ‘Ormiston Collec-
tion’. His work as an entomologist will be remembered in the
new species which have been named after him, this includes one
species new to science named by Evans and Riley as Amblypodia
ormistoni, two new races Vacaduba herenice ormistoni and Terias
andersoni ormistoni. He died in the General Hospital at Colombo
on July 12th, 1935, aged 71 years cae
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.
IL.—TIGER VERSUS BISON.
With reference to a note in vol. xxxvii, No. 4 of 15th April
1935, anent a fight between a bull gaur and a tiger, Mr. W. &.
Thom is mistaken in thinking that a tiger is no match for a full-
grown bull bison. I have known at least six cases of solitary
bulls having been killed by a tiger; about as many instances of
unsuccessful attacks, including that of an old bull which had been
severely mauled on its head, neck and shoulders and the near
hind leg bitten through, the bone being completely severed. How
this bull had managed to shake off the tiger after such a terrific
mauling is difficult to imagine.
Honnamerrt Estate, | te
ArrikKAN P.O., via: Mysore, Ree. MORRIS.
S. Lyopia.
July 12, 1935.
Os OCCURRENCE, OF THE PANTHER (PANTHERA
| -PARDUS LINN.) IN TIBET,
Skin of a panther shot at Thakpo, Tibet.
The accompanying photograph is of the skin of a panther a
to have been killed in Thakpo which is in the Tsang Po valley,
610 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXViti
Tibet. The only difference I noticed between this one and the
common Indian panther is that the cclours are richer, the hair
thicker and slightly longer and the tail broader but shorter. Un-
fortunately the skull was not brought in to me.
PouiTicAL DEPARTMENT,
LHASA. Bods. MM. BATES
September 29, 1985. , ... Captame
III.—FURTHER RECORDS OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF
THE CHEETAH (ACINONYX JUBATUS pened IN|
SOUTH INDIA.
With reference to my recent letter to you about the occurrence
formely of the hunting cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) in South India
I see from the lst of Mammalia taken from an article written in
875 by the Rev. F. W. Jackson ‘entitled the “Maminals of the
Coimbatore District, 1875’, that the hunting cheetah was then
sparsely distributed in parts of the Coimbatore District bordering
the river Bhavani near Vellamundi and Kottamangalam: Five
skins of Felis jubata exarnined in the Coimbatore Collector’s Office
in 1871 apparently came from the low hills about Kottamangalam
(near Satyamangalam). The skins are described as having been
‘in good order and undoubtedly those of Felis jubata’. The skin
of a Felis jubata then in the possession of Mr. A. Wedderburn,
Collector of Coimbatore, was obtained near Bolampatti, south of
Coimbatore. I have already given instances of the hunting
cheetah’s former occurrence in the Mysore State, so you will
realise that the distribution of the cheetah extended southwards
well into-the Coimbatore District, possibly further south than that.
Nicholson, in his Manual of the Coimbatore District (1887)
records the Hunting Leopard as occurring in the Kollegal taluk
at Bandhalli and in the Mysore State at Bandipur.
HonnaAMETTI ESTATE,
AtTTIKAN P.O., via Mysore, RoC. MORRUS:
S.- InpIA.
November 1, 19385.
IV..DESCRIPTION OF A BLUE BEAR (URSUS
ARCTOS PRUINOSUS BLYTH) FROM TIBET.
A skin of a Blue Bear (Ursus arctos pruinosus) was sent to
the Society in November 1935 by Captain R. K. M. Battye, who
in forwarding the skin writes: ‘The bear is said to have been killed
near Hor in. EKastern Tibet. I am told that the species lives only
in the bare mountains where there is no jungle and where there
‘isysnow lying for 7 months in the year. Vernacular Tre-Mo or
Tom-Dre.’
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES oe ie Ste ORL
The skin is that of an immature animal, in general coloura-
tion it resembles the skin of an immature male from the Minshan
Mountains, W. Kansu, presented to the British Museum by Capt.
O. Fenwick Owen and described by Pocock (J.B.N.H.8., vol.
my, p. SOY).
Face, pale tawny, with a silvery sheen where the light catches
the hairs. The basal portion of the hairs of the crown, cheek
and forehead is dark brown, but this dark colouring is not’ seen
unless the hairs are disarranged. A small patch of hair between
the eyes brown; chin -brown, ears dark ashy brown with an
admixture of fulvous hairs. A distinctive collar of creamy hair
interrupted in front of the shoulders where the dark basal part
of the hair becomes more evident. The black of the shoulder
mat is not very pronounced owing to the pale tipping of the hairs.
This paling becomes more evident in the middle of the back, but
is less pronounced on the loins flanks and rump where the pale
tipping of the chair is less marked. Belly dark brown passing to
yellowish brown on the breast. Limbs grizzled black. Claws:
pale, horn coloured. Fore claws 2% inches, hind claws 14 inches.
Hair on the shoulder mat 4-5 inches, on the back 3-4 inches,
Bompay NaturaL History Society, S. H. PRATER,
6, APOLLO STREET, Bompay. Curator.
February 12, 19386.
V.—RATELS AND CORPSES.
Mr. Clifford Hurst’s letter in your issue dated December Ist
1935 brings the grave-digging habit of the Ratel out of the realms
of ‘Indian Superstition’ to which Mr. Champion would relegate
it. | :
A detailed enquiry amongst those whose business it is to deal
with corpses, ;would further establish the Ratel’s habits; and
possibly more of your readers, whose business naturally does not
lie in that direction, may nevertheless have come across isolated
instances of grave-digging.
Mr. Champion has replied to my letter on the subject in a
letter of his published on page 953 of your Volume xxxvu, No. 4.
A few comments on Mr. Champion’s letter are called for, both
personal and general.
In my letter to Which Mr. Champion’s purports to be a reply,
I quote the case of Ratels habitually excavating in a grave yard
and I gave a particular instance in which a Ratel (no other ani-
mal) had exhumed a corpse.
I expressly stated that this was only ‘some’ of the evidence
at my disposal. Mr. Champion for his own convenience con-
verts this to the ‘dénly’ evidence and finds it ‘deplorable’ that I
should make statements on such flimsy foundations,
612: JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
The foundations are entirely of his creation for the special pur-—
pose of trying to meet an unanswerable case: moreover he
entirely ignores the cemetery evidence: wisely.
Many people reading Mr. Champion’s letter would conclude
that he had hardly ever seen or encountered a Ratel, although
his trip wires certainly have.
The letter contains no particle of evidence or observation what-
soever of any kind: much less in repudiation of the habit he
denies. It goes further than that: it admits that he has never
observed a grave yard: and definitely asserts that he does not
intend to do so in future. One is thus left wondering how he
proposes to support his contention: save by a process of transmi-
eration. He certainly cannot observe corpses save where corpses
are. It is time Mr. Champion told us when and where and under
what circumstances, he has encountered Ratels, if at all, which
give the lie.to observed facts in regard to their habits: and in
doing so he would gratify many, if he would tell us also of his
personal experiences of the Ratel’s courage, and which enabled
him to confound his critics from a Bombay paper to which he
refers. : .
BISHOPMILL, A. A. DUNBAR BRANDER, .
ELGIN, SCOTLAND. LES. (Reidy
January 6, 1986.
VI.—RATELS AND CORPSES
With reference to the correspondence which has taken place
in your Journal about Ratels and corpses, I should like to report
the three following instances on which I saw Ratels at this work:
(1) In the Melghat Division in April 1926, I was sitting
over a tiger kill two days old. In those days, one was allowed
to sit up all night with an electric apparatus. I actually shot
the tiger about 40 yards from the kill at 7-30 p.m. Being of the
opinion that there was another one in the vicinity, I remained on
in the tree. At some time between 11-30 and 12 midnight, I
heard a noise which sounded like two animals fighting. It was
a bright moonlight night and I saw movement near the carcass
and watched these forms tearing and rummaging inside the car-
cass and fighting amongst themselves. I turned on my electric |
torch, as I was unable to make out what they were and dis-
covered them to be a pair of Ratels. One looked up into the
light and moved away about 20 yards, the other did not take the
slightest notice. I picked up my shot gun which was loaded
with lethal and tried to change over to shot, but the noise drove
the animals away. They did not reappear, ane
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES |. el se 613,
(2) In the Chakata Block of the Haldwani Division in
December 1928, I was ‘ghooming’ in the early morning in the
hope of finding a tiger or a panther on one of the tie-ups, or
meandering about the road. JI moved into a dry river bed (Nala)
and about 200 yards off the forest track I got an odour of a car-
cass. In moving forward round the bend of the Nala which was
all sand, I noticed a lot of tiger pug marks and saw about 60
yards away two Ratels scratching and scraping at something in
the bed of the nala. I watched them for quite a long time.
The earth flew and they seemed to be feeding on something dead,
as the odour was pretty strong even where I was. After about
10 minutes, I shot one of these animals and on going up to see
what it was, discovered it to be a human corpse which had been
covered over with about 6 inches of sand. The part about the
neck and the left shoulder had been torn and eaten by these
Ratels. The remainder of the corpse was a good deal decompos-
ed, and there was no doubt about it,. that these Ratels had
exhumed this body and were feeding on it.
(3) My third instance took place in the Jaulasal Block in the
Haldwani Division in April 1933. I was wandering about on an
elephant at dawn, and was shown by the mahout a Ratel mov-
ing across an open patch between two bits of forest. I watched
the beast very carefully and suddenly I heard a noise as if there
were more Ratels quite near. I told the mahout to make the
elephant advance. very slowly and quietly. After having gone
about 20 yards I saw four Ratels on an old carcass of a ‘cheetal
doe. One was actually inside the careass which was, I should
say, three to four days old. Suddenly one of them saw the ele-
phant and gave a queer little yelp and they all ran away. I did
not move from the spot for about 10 minutes in order to see if
they came back. The time must have been somewhere between
6-30 and a quarter to seven. To my amazement, two of. the
four returned and advanced slowly towards the carcass. They
never reached it again, because I think they must have caught
sight of the flap of the elephant’s ears, as they disappeared very
suddenly.
GOVERNMENT HouskE, CVG. TOOGCOD:
Bompay. iG Cola mes 6.
January 25, 1936.
VIIL.—THE BIRTH OF AN ELEPHANT CALF,
With reference to Mr. Tutein Nolthenius’s note under the
-heading of ‘The Birth of an Elephant Calf’ in the Journal of
August 15th, in-vol. xxxvii, No. 3, I referred to the death of a
wild elephant while calving. This elephant was found dead lying
on its left side with the hind quarters of the calf only exposed,
614 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII |
On another occasion I happened on a spot where a cow elephant
had calved on a sandy path in open scrub jungle; there was no
sign of the placenta.
HonNAMETTI Estate,
ATTIKAN P.O., via Mysore, R. C. MORRIS.
S. Inpzia. 3
September 3, 1935,
VIII.—WHY ELEPHANTS TURN ‘ROGUES’.
I wonder if any of your members has any information as to
the real reason for elephants turning ‘rogue’. The usual theory
is that some old and cantankerous elephant is turned out of the
herd, specially during the ‘musth’ or rutting period, by a more
powerful male, and this old and ill-tempered fellow gradually
becomes a confirmed ‘solitary’, and in time becomes dangerous to
human life and property. My experience in the Chittagong Hill
Tracts (on the borders of Bengal, Bihar and Assam) leads me to
question this, for on at least three occasions, I was attacked by
well-known ‘rogues’ which after being shot turned out, in spite
of their commanding size, to be quite young fellows, with no
. signs of wounds or injuries likely to cause them pain or discom-
fort, which might turn them soured in temper. One fellow who
very nearly got me, was quite small, standing barely seven feet
at the shoulder, and must have been only a young lad, yet he
had been by himself for months, in the plains during the rains,
when all herds were away among the higher ranges. Every rogue
I shot myself, and every other which was shot by others, and
which I had the chance to examine, had undoubted need for a
dentist for at the root of the tusks of each one of these animals,
I found pounds and pounds of live maggots, which must have
caused them excruciating agony. I am inclined to think that it
is this tusk-disease, which makes them, young and old, so bad-
tempered, and forces the others to kick them out of the herd.
Whenever tracking a ‘rogue’ or ‘solitary’ (undeclared rogue), I
have noticed that the animal frequently thrusts his tusks through
ant-hills, or soft saplings, and as I have never seen the marks of
tusks thrust through in this manner when a herd has passed, nor
have I seen our tame elephants doing this, I feel that I am
not far wrong in holding that they do this in order to relieve the
agony caused by the maggots far inside their jaws. During my
stay in that area, I tracked and followed up herds and solitaries—
literally by the hundred, so my observations were not quite
casual, and were spread over a period of nearly four years. I
hope this may bring some light on the matter.
RANGPORE, 5. Ko GHOSH,” Css
EK.B.R. District Magistrate.
August 2, 1985,
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 615
| Mr. R. C. Morris comments on Mr. Ghosh’s letter as follows :—_
‘While agreeing with Mr. Ghosh that in many cases tusk
disease is the cause of many elephants turning into rogues, this
is by no means the cause in all cases, in fact most of the elephants
I have shot or helped to shoot had no apparent disease in the
tusks. Marginal gum disease of elephants is very common, occur-
ring in the case of both wild and tame elephants, probably due
to food packing under the gum, but this would not account for
elephants turning into rogues. Frequently inflammation from old
and fly-blown wounds may be the cause (the last rogue I shot had
had its tail bitten off and the stump was diseased). Again in some
cases there is no apparent reason for the elephant having become
vw rogue. In two cases this was undoubtedly due to the elephants’
tusks being crossed, resulting in difficulty in feeding. Only in
two cases was I sure the elephants’ ill-temper was due to tusk
disease. That elephants with tusk disease do thrust the diseased
tusk into ant-hills and young trees is correct. A broken end of
a tusk, about a foot long, was brought to me some years ago,
the Sholaga had found it wedged firmly into a tree, and Sir Frank
Colyer, to whom I sent the tusk, expressed the opinion that the
elephant had been suffering from tooth-ache.
Seven or eight rogue elephants have been shot in the Mades-
waranmalai Reserve in this district in the past ten years, one of
these was definitely handicapped having tusks crossed so close to
its jaw that the elephant must have experienced considerable diffi-
culty in feeding itself, but the others were healthy animals, and
I put their ill-temper down to the fact that their favourite grazing
grounds bordered a much-frequented pilgrim patch up to the famous
Madeswaranmalai temple. Nearly every day, devotees journeying
up and down this path create a good deal of noise, especially
once a week, and I think that this continual row used to irritate
solitary elephants frequenting the bamboo jungle there. In every
case the elephant was proscribed owing to its adopting an aggres-
sive attitude towards pilgrims on this path.
I am convinced that one of the chief causes of elephants
turning into rogues now-a-days is due to ryots firmg at elephants
raiding their fields. The herds are nearly always led by a bull.
The ryots, who now nearly all have guns, cannot be blamed for
their action in this respect, and it is up to Government to create
a Game Department, which will take measures to prevent the
continuous raids on fields that are now carried on during the har-
vest time by the increasing number of elephants.’—Eps. ].
IX.—THE FORMATION AND ABSENCE OF TUSKS IN
ELEPHANTS.
With reference to Sir Frank Colyer’s article in the Society’s
Journal of 15th November 1980, and my comments on the same
which appeared under ‘Unerupted tusks of Elephants’ in Journal
4, vol. xxxv, I enclose extracts of further correspondence on the
616 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
subject between Sir Frank Colyer and myself which may be of
interest.
Hxtract from a letter dated 11th November 1984 from
Sir Frank Colyer.
‘It is a most unusual condition for an animal to have one
tooth absent and the ether well developed. It does occur in the
Narwhal but in that animal it is the normal. The tusk in many
Indian elephants seems to be a degenerate organ. Is that not
the case? That is, do not a good number of elephants fail to
develop tusks? Is it only the females? Have the calves which
have shed a tusk been followed up to see if the tusk which
develops on the other side is a well-formed and grown tooth?
It is most important to settle this question. I take it that in
your view many elephants which have only one developed tusk
have at some time possessed another small tusk which was shed
in early years. Further you think that masses such as you sent
me may really be formed from a tooth germ which has ‘failed
to produce a tusk in the proper way but has formed a shapeless
inass which is retained in the bone. It may be so but, judging
from similar conditions which I have seen in other animals, and
they are very rare, the mass of hard tissue formed is not tissue
which approaches to the structure of the normal tooth.
I have had another good look at the specimen you sent to the
Museum and have discussed the tooth with some of my friends
and we still think that it is not an aborted tooth but is the
remnants of the formative parts of a tusk which was once in
position. If you can prove that elephants which shed one tusk
as calves develop really well-developed tusks then you have some-
thing to support your contention. I had a long talk to Major
Powell-Cotton, a Big Game hunter and collector, and who has
seen plenty of elephant life in Africa. I put the question of the
frequency of tusks with severe fractures in a longitudinal direction
and he remarked that such conditions were to be expected when
one realised the way in which the African elephant used the tusks
for breaking trunks of trees etc.
I see that the ‘‘erosion’’ of the female tusk does occur in the
animal from the wild state. The case described by Sclater in
1871 was irom a wild animal. If you do obtain another mass
from a single tusker and will send it to me I will have it cut in
two, examined and returned to you.’
Extract of my reply dated 29th October 1935.
‘In your letter you put forward two or three queries, and
you expressed the opinion that the tusk in many Indian elephants
seems to be a degenerate organ, which would certainly seem to
be the case as quite a number of male elephants fail to develop
tusks and in Ceylon of course tuskers are uncommon. It is my
view that many elephants which have only one developed tusk
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 617.
were possibly born with only one tusk, or when their ‘‘milk tushes’’,
as it were, were shed they were replaced by only one instead
of a pair of tusks. I had some correspondence on the matter
with Mr. Gordon Hundley of Steel Brothers & Co., and one of
the Bombay Burma Trading Corporation men. Both these Com-
panies maintain, as you no doubt know, a large number of ele-
phants, several thousand in fact. Gordon Hundley informed me
that calves have been known which developed into single tuskers
and referred me to Evans’s work on Elephants and their Diseases.
He also told me an interesting thing; that ivory thieves used to
steal whole tusks from a living tusker by repeated blows on the
point; after a certain period the tusk so maltreated can be removed
or is shed. Also that one type of tusker will ‘‘cut through’’ a
large tusk in a comparatively short time by continually “‘knock-
ing’’ a trunkful of grass against one of his tusks.
Evans in his Elephants and their Diseases records a case
where an elephant dropped a male calf which grew up with. only
one tusk. He also states that Selous recorded it as far from
uncommon to meet with one-tusked animals among elephant cows
in South Africa, though rarer among the bulls; and when an
elephant has only one tusk the bone on the other side is quite
solid and shows no sign of a hollow where the hollow ought to be.
This has exactly been my experience, and you will recollect my
informing you of this myself in regard to Indian single tuskers.
Evans goes on to say that ‘‘Males occasionally lose a tusk when
fighting or through other injury but some are born with a single
tusk’’. Evans disagrees with Sanderson in the latter’s statement
that the first tushes of a bull elephant are never shed and says
that on the contrary the milk tusks are shed between one and
two years of age and replaced by the permanent ones.
If I do obtain another mass from a single tusker I will cer-
tainly send it to you.
Evans in his classical work on elephants mentions instances of
mucknas (tuskless males) being feared even by powerful tuskers.
This of course is well known among the jungle tribes both in India
and Burma; mucknas seem to make up in size of body and trunk
for the lack of tusks and are generally enormously powerful ele-
phants. In fights between mucknas and even large tuskers as
often as not the tusker will be defeated. Evans quotes a case of
a fight between a good-sized tusker and a Jarge muckna which was
well known in the Shweli forests of Burma. During the course
of the battle the muckna snapped off one of the tusks of its oppon-
ent with its trunk. A somewhat similar instance is recorded
of a fight between a muckna and a tusker in which the former
was seen to seize and break off one of the tusks of its antagonist.
66
Honnametti Estate,
AtTikan P.O., via Mysore, R, C. MORRIS, -
S. InpIa.
October 29, 1935,
618 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
X.—HORN GROWTH AS OBSERVED IN BLACK-BUCK
AND: NILGAT.
I have always been under the impression that horns, by which
is meant the outer horny covering of hollow-horned animals, grew
without any break from early age to death in all species of
Bovidae, e.g. Bison, Buffalo, Black-buck, Chinkara, Nilgai, Four-
Horned Antelope etc. This at least is what I have read in most
books dealing with Natural History, the solitary exception to the
rule being the Prong-horn Buck of America; which annually
sheds its outer horny covering of the bony core. Within the last
two years however, four cases have come under my direct obser-
vation of partial shedding of outer horns, one case cf Black-buck
and three of Nilgai.
In the case of the Black-buck this is a perfect example of new
growth of horns displacing the older horn from underneath and
erowing in the usual way. The buck when shot was noted as
being immature, but carrying an exceptional head for his size.
On examination this was found to be due to the lower and. inner
pair of horns having forced out an older and outer pair, which
however had not been shed, but were still joined to the new
pair. The joint is quite firm, the older pair of horns are splinter-
ed slightly at their junction through the forcing action of the
new horn growth, thereby showing how the annular ridges of the
lower horn fit perfectly with those of the outer horn. No doubt
in the course of time by fighting, or otherwise, the older horns
would have dropped off. This buck was shot in the Phihbit Dis-
trict. The length of horns by straight measurement are right
21 in., left 21 in.; rather exceptional for the district where the
average is 17-19 in. The outer horn-covering measures 164 in.
right and 153 in. left. Both horns are in my possession, though
unfortunately the skull was cut down to. form a small frontlet;
my not being a very keen or expert field observer in those days.
I kept the head out of curiosity and as something out of the
usual.
In the case of Nilgai (Blue-Bull) which are fairly common in
these parts (Behar), on two occasions I have noticed horns of
old bulls covered with a sleeve of horny substance, evidently part
of an outer horn casing in the process of shedding, such shedding
taking place gradually by.wear and not by the dropping of: the
entire outer casing. In my latest case however,-I noted the horns
of an old bull much splintered along their length, with indications
that there were perfectly formed horns beneath the damaged
covering. I took some pains about cleaning this head and now
have a horn (right) showing very clearly how the outer covering
is separated and shed from the newer growth; such shedding
taking place along the entire length, and most probably assisted
by the animal rubbing his horns against trees, bushes, ete.
Length of right horn 84 in. The left horn was unfortunately
freed of the old covering by my servant, who misunderstood my
instructions, :
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 619'
In view of the above-noted observations of mine I would be
glad to know if any other sportsmen or naturalists have recorded
similar cases.
BuRMA-SHELL Co., Lrp.,
MUZUFFERPORE, BENGAL. di... He HALA,
October 1985. |
XIL.—EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF ANTLERS BY
SAMBHUR IN THE BILLIGIRIRANGAN HILLS,
SOUTH INDIA.
There is an astounding number of sambhur on the Billigiri-
rangan Hills, Kollegal and North Coimbatore Divisions, this year
including many fine stags.
There are two interesting features in connection with the
present increase in the number of sambhur, and here I may say
that chital and bison have also appeared to have increased cor-
respondingly. Many of the sambhur stags were in hard horn this
year in August, which to my knowledge has not happened before
within the past twenty years. By the end of the current month
the remainder should be out of velvet. Further the sambhur
seem to be unusually fearless this year. Time and again a group
will trot off quietly on being approached and will then recommence
grazing about 800 yards away. It is to be hoped that this is one
of the first fruits of stricter game preservation, but I can hardly
think this can be the case as yet. It would be extremely inter-
esting to learn what actually governs the early or late shedding
of antlers and growth into hard horn again, and what has caused
stags to be in hard horn two months early this year. The increase
in the number of large heads is remarkable.
HonnaAMETTI ESTATE,
Attikan P.O., via Mysorg, hi. CO. MORRIS:
S. Inpia.
September 6, 1935.
XII.—WHITE BISON.
Mr. Morris asks where White Bison are to be found in the
Central Provinces. The answer is the Mandla-Balaghat jungles
and their associates and the Chanda District. This list is not
prescriptive, it is only what I know of.
As Mr. Morris does not agree with me in thinking that “dor-
mouse colour’ and: ‘sandy or lght fawn’ are interchangeable
colours, I would be grateful to know in what terms he would
describe ‘dormouse colour’. |
640 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIi1
I take exception to Mr. Morris’s remark that I admit in Wila
Animals in Central India to not having much experience of Bison.
Disparagement is generally evidence of a poor case. Such an
admission on my part is a sheer impossibility, as I have lived
amongst Bison throughout most of my service. As you,- Mr.
Editor, have given publicity to Mr. Morris’s remarks, I would
request an equal publicity to any quotation he can make, from
anything ever written by me, which supports his statement, or
as an alternative a complete and adequate withdrawal by him.
BISHOPMILL, A. A. DUNBAR BRANDER,
ELGin, SCOTLAND. LF.s. (Retd.).
January 6, 1936.
XII.—MATING HABITS OF CROWS
With reference to the Miscellaneous Note xii (Mating Habits
of Mynas and Crows), p. 186 of vol. xxxviii, No. 1, I may say
that I have seen crows coupling twice in the normal manner
of birds, in the afternoon at quiet spots where the pairs were by
themselves on both occasions. J remember the incident because
because one sees it so very rarely and because of a belief amongst
the people of this part of the country, that such a sight foretells
one’s death within the next six months and, though one has
no faith in such beliefs, it made me remember the incidents. |
There is also a belief that crows hold a sort of council of
their community—a lot of them are seen gathered together in a
partial circle with one crow in the middle who is being chastised
by two or three crows. The one so: pecked- at, receives his punish-
ment meekly without any retaliation. The supposition is that the
crow has committed some -offence against the Crow-community
and- is so- receiving his punishment quietly. I have seen ~-such
gatherings also. The- Mynahs also’ have such small gatherings” to
witness the duels which: occur then. |
ICHALKARANJI. NARAYAN RAO BABASAHEB,
September 5, 1935. Chief of Ichalkaranji.
XIV._EXTENSION OF THE RANGE OF THE
WHITE-BROWED BULBUL (PYCNONOTUS LUTEOLUS
: LESS.).
The limit of. distribution in the extreme east or rather north-
east, of Pycnonotus Iuteolus Less. is given as Midnapur ‘in the
Fauna volumes. Mention of..this is also made in Mr.- -Stuart
Baker’s Nidification, 1, 898. Hvidently this description is based
on Tickell’s original record (J.A.S.B., ii,-578) from a ‘woody and
barren country at Bamireah, near Mednapur’. Blyth noted three
specimens procured in 1847 in Midnapur . jungles (Cat. B. Mus.
A.S8.B.. 210). So far as Western Bengal is.concerned these
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 621
appear to be the only records available. Mr. Whistler, though
he writes of this bird (Handbook of Indian Birds, 1935, 65) as
common in Western Bengal, is silent as to whether it is found
anywhere else than Midnapur. It is of interest to note that in
my excursion to Satgachia (20 miles east of Burdwan town),
district Burdwan on June 28, 1985, I came across this species
affecting the scrub-jungles on and near the bank of the river
Banka. I collected one specimen alive with the aid of a bird-
catcher. I also found it rather common and fairly numerous in
the neighbouring thickets and unfrequented orchards on the Kalna
Road, where I collected a second specimen.
Measurements :
No. 1. Apparently 9 adult. Iris reddish brown. Bill
somewhat slender. Wing 89 mm., tail about
88 mm., tarsus 23 mm., culmen 16 mm.
No. 2. Juvenile in moult. Iris brown. Bill stout. Wing
| 86 mm., tail 87 mm., tarsus 23 mm., culmen
NG imamate
| By nature these birds do not appear to be as bold as their
congeners, Molpastes h. bengalensis Blyth. and Otocompsa e.
emeria (Linn.), with which they were sometimes observed to con-
sort together. Skulking and evasive, they try to avoid detection
as much as possible and, only when uttering their lusty warbles,
serve to reveal their identity either in high tree- tops or low bushes.
It is possible to spot them by their call, but it is difficult to get
a good view of them.
There is no doubt the species is distributed beyond its recorded
limit, still further north-east. The locality where the first speci-
men was secured is obviously typical of its haunt in a serub and
bush country. .Hedges and thickets stretch along to some distance
but. are not very. dense. The neighbourhood where: the second
specimen was collected harbours numerous orchards and garden-
lands (Burdwan Raj’ s Staging Bungalow is among them) mostly
in disuse, with an array GE prickly undergrowth and secondary
jungle. © Here towards. evening I .saw quite ‘a number of these
birds, often going about in pairs. On my approach they would
slip out of view and seek cover in lofty trees, wherefrom they
would pour forth their voluble notes. 7
Ecologically the whole of this locahty has no doubt much in
common with the deltaic alluvium of Central Bengal, nevertheless
its proximity to the more open, undulating and amd zone charact-
erising a large section of the district dines not altogether leave
it impervious to its influences. Inasmuch as it is bre need by
the Banka, originally a spill channel of the Damodar, which brings
down vast. quantities: of silt from the Chota- Nagpur plateau, alee
action of this river has apparently not been inconsiderable in
bringing about a gradual transfusion of the soil peculiarly RENO,
able to the grow th of scrub and bush jungle.
50, Kainas Bosk STREET, S. C. LAW, m.a., pPh.p.,
CALCUTTA. F.Z.8., M.B.0.U.
October 22, 1985.
622 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVill
XV:—FURTHER REPORT ON THE NESTING OF
GEOCICHLA C. CITRINA LATH. IN 24-PARGANAS
(BENGAL).
I had on two previous occasions (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi, 501-2
Ibis, twelfth series, i, 778) recorded my observations on the nest-
ing of Geocichla c. citrina Lath. in the district of 24-Parganas. 1
have now to report further instances which came to my notice:
July 2, 1935. Two young secured near Dum Dum from a
nest in a mango tree.
July 10, 1985. A clutch of four fledgelings, also another
clutch of two young: locally procured by a bird-catcher and brought
for sale to the bird fair on the occasion of the Car Festival.
July 14, 1985. Nest with two young found in a bamboo
clump in a place called Kerati near Dum Dum Aerodrome. One
young Q still thriving in my aviary.
August 28, 1935. A nest found near Dum Dum Aerodrome
with two young just hatched out.
It appears that: protracted drought and exceptional weather
conditions due to belated monsoon prolonged the period of nesting.
50, KarLAs BosE STREET, 8. C. LAW, m.a., Ph.p.,
CALCUTTA. F,Z.8:, M.B.0.U;
October 22, 1985.
XVL—THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE KASHMIR ROLLER.
(CORACIAS GARRULA SEMENOWI LOUDON & TSCHUSI).
In'- October 1955,..Br..A. Navarro; s.3:;. of ther St-2Xayrerns
College Museum, obtained two specimens of the Kashmir Roller
(Coracias garrula semenowi) at Khandalla. As the New Fauna
limits this bird to an area in North and North-Western India,
the following records of its occurrence in Peninsular ss may
be of interest.
Davidson (J.B.N.H.S., xu, 48) records a single specimen from
Majoli, 5 miles north of Karwar, in November 1893. In the
Bombay Natural History Society collection there are two et
obtained by T. R. Bell at Karwar in October 1898.
At a meeting of the Society held on 24th April 1900, E. H.
Aitken mentioned the European Roller as one of the birds ‘not
usually found in or near Bombay, which had appeared that year,
owing no doubt to the want of water and food in Guzerat and the
Decean’ (J.B.N.H.S:, xii, 398).
These records seem to show that the Kashmir Roller is a
more or less regular visitor to the south along the line of the
Western Ghats. In the field this bird may be distinguished from
the Indian Roller or Blue-jay (C. benghalensis) by the absence of
the large brown patch on the upper breast.
GopreJ Howse, 7
ANDHERI. H. ABDUL ALI.
November 29, 1935.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 623
AVIIL.—HABITS OF THE PLAINTIVE CUCKOO
(CACOMANTIS MERULINUS SCOP.).
I have recently had the opportunity of observing the bird
described by Jerdon as the Indian Plaintive Cuckoo, at a place
just below Kasauli, height about 5,000 ft. above sea-level. I saw
a single bird several times, with the usual grey plumage. It was
not at all shy, and I was able to see it at close quarters with
field-glasses and to hear the typical call.
Yesterday evening I saw the bird with what I took to be its
mate. This was bright rufous, with the abdomen barred, exactly
as described by Jerdon as the adult in rufous plumage. What in-
terested me was the fact that for the most part the rufous bird
remained perched on the branch of a tree, whilst the grey one
foraged for caterpillars, which it then brought and presented to
the other, which ate them with relish. z
Can you tell me whether it is a common event for a bird to
feed its mate in this way? The rufous bird can scarcely have
been one of the progeny of the gray one, for surely a cuckoo does
not feed its own young.
Since writing the above I have come across an article by E. C.
Stuart Baker in your Journal, vol. xvii, p. 88, in which he quotes
Capt. Hutton’s remarks regarding the Himalayan Cuckoo, C.. opta-
tus (Oates’ Nests and Eggs, ii, p. 381):—‘I have seen the young
cuckoo sitting for hours together on a branch waiting for the
return of the adult which continued every now and then to bring
supphes of caterpillars wherewith to satisfy the apparently in-
satiable appetite of the nestling until at last both-would-fly off to
another spot.’ This exactly describes what I saw, but I think
there is no doubt that the bird I saw was the Indian Plaintive
Cuckoo.
Pasteur Institute oF Inpia, | i’
Kasaunt, Pungsas. | G. COVELL, ~
July 11, 1985. if Lt.-Col., 1.M.8.
XVIII.—THE SHORT-EARED OWL [ ASIO FLAMMEUS
(PONTORE)| OUT AT sis:
On the 19th October this year while on board the s.s. Vita, on
my return journey from Cutch I noticed a bird, soon followed by
two others, approaching the ship from the west. The ship was
then about four hours’ journey from Bombay Harbour. The flight
of the- birds was owl-like; but it was not until they came near
that I was able to be sure. Finally one of them settled on the
rigging quite close to me and it proved to be the Short-eared- Ow]
(A. flammeus). The birds followed the ship for about an_hour, at
14
624 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIit
times flying high above the ship, at others just skimming the
water's surface, in the same manner as do gulls. After this they
went east towards the land which was just visible.
These birds were evidently on migration, as it is well known
that the Short-eared Owl visits India during the winter months.
Bompay NAturaL History Society,
Bombay. C. McCANN.
October 28, 1985.
XIX.—VULTURES FEEDING AT NIGHT.
‘IT noticed on p. 190 of vol. xxxvii of the Journal a note by
Mr. R. C. Morris on vultures feeding at night.
In case it is of any interest, I had an identical experience in
1921 when sitting up over a kill for a tiger near Neemuch, In
my case, however, the vultures were disturbed before they could
entirely demolish the kill.
MACHINE GUN SCHOOL,
AHMEDNAGAR. W. GOUGH:
September 18, 1985.
XX.—PROBABLE BREEDING OF THE BLACK-WINGED
STILT (HIMANTOPUS -H. HIMANTOPUS LINN.) IN-THRE
SHWEBO DISTRICT, UPPER BURMA.
In vol. xxxv, No. 1, of the Journal (June 15, 1931), I mentioned
having found a small colony of Stilts obviously breeding two miles
east of Kinu in the Shwebo district in July 1931 on: a beg “ort
voleanic origin, which is locally called a ‘soap-bog’.
I had no opportunity to revisit this place until August 4th,
1935, when I flushed a single bird out of the rushy grass on the
edge of the bog which was very loath to leave the place and
almost, certainly had young ones in the grass. The main part. of
this bog, about ten acres, is quite impassable, and the only other
birds frequenting it were Charadrius dubius jerdoni and some
Temminck’s Stints.
The only other breeding records of this bird from Burma are
from Myingyan in June and July 1900-1901 (J.B.N.H.8S., xvii,
p. 499).
MyITKYINA, Jo Ke SLANE ORD:
UppPEeR BuRMA. Indian Civil Service.
August. 6, 1985.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 625
XXI.—THE JACK SNIPE AND THE WHITE-EYED
POCHARD IN HYDERABAD.
The Hyderabad State Ornithological Survey did not come across
the Jack Snipe (Lymnocryptes minima) and the White-eyed
Pochard (Nyroca rufa). Major R. H. Stable, 3/6th Rajputana
Rifles, whose game register for the seasons 1928-1980 is filed at
the Society's office, shot jack snipe at Secunderabad as follows:
Season 1928-1929. 7 jack between 16th October and 22nd
February, out of a total of 181 snipe.
Season 1929-19380. 33 jack between 9th October and 15th
JOOMLA out of a total of 408 ae.
In Stuart Baker’s Ducks, Mr. M. Allen’ is-recorded to have
shot a pair of White-eyes in the ‘Nizam’ s territory at Nalgonda,
latitude 17°22!.
GoprEI House,
ANDHERI. ial
November 29, 1985.
ABDUL Aut.
XXIJ.—SOME RARE BIRDS IN NORTHERN BURMA.
The. records. which follow are from the Myitkyma. district.
These skins have been sent to Dr. C. B. Re whose notes
are in square brackets: :
Suthora unicolor. Brown Suthora.
There do not appear to be any Indian elon of this Crow-Tit
since the first edition. of the Fauna was’ Ug There are
certainly none from Burma.
Mr. W. Stubbs shot a female on December 29th, 1934, on: the
Pajao-Nahpaw road, which winds round the western: edge of Lun-
esrebum. (8,528 ft., Sheet 92, Survey of India). Lungrebum-:is at
the extreme east-south-eastern corner of the Myitkyina district,
and forms here the Myitkyina-Yunnan: border. :.A few: miles to
the south-west, the Myitkyina and Bhamo districts meet. at
Nabang. I examined this bird a few minutes after it-was shot and
it was apparently with a flock of seven or eight others: une
in stunted cane-jungle (which is a feature of this area), on 2a
treeless hillside at about..7,000 ft. It had a most distinct ae
ring round the eye, a character not noted in the Fauna, -and <I
recorded the soft. parts at. the time as: “iris pale yellowish white)
bill pale horny. yellow, -legs and claws plumbeous-green.: I -shot
specimens of Pseudominia castaneiceps and Fulvetta manipurensis
in this locality, on the same day but had no other opportunity: ta
visit these hills.
[This specimen, as: aia be expected, belongs to the vane
Szechuan form canaster “described from Washan, Szechuan,. by
Thayer and Bangs and of which saturatior of Rothschild from the
Shweli-Salween Divide: is said to be a synonytt. -Mr.- Stanford’s
bird. matches Yunnan examples in the British Museum. .Suthora
unicolor canaster is a new form to the avifauna of British India. ]
626 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Pomatorhinus ferruginosus, Coral-billed Scimitar Babbler.
The Fauna (Edition II) does not record any race of this Babbler
as occurring between the Chin Hills and Yamethin, in Central
Burma. In December 1988, I had a close view of a Scimitar
Babbler with a vermilion or coral-red beak and a white supercilium
at about 38,000 ft. in bamboo jungle near Sumprabum. In May
1984 Mr. W. Stubbs obtained a female at Kambaiti on the Yunnan
border (7,000 ft.). In December 1934 I saw two or three, and
shot a male on the Sadon-Sima frontier road at between 5,000 ft.
and 7,000 ft. These were all with flocks of Actinodura egertoni
in bamboo and tree jungle and, unlike the latter, were extremely
shy, giving only momentary ghmpses of themselves and uttering
a repeated ‘churring’ note. When seen, the supercilium and bill
were most distinctive characters in the field.
[This Scimitar Babbler belonged to no known form of ferru-
ginosus and therefore I described it as new under the name Poma-
torhinus ferruginosus stanfordt (Bull. B.O.C., lv, p. 178, June
1935).
At the same time I feel doubtful if P. f. mariae from the Karen
Hills is different to P. f. albtgularis from North Tenasserim but
only fresh material from these two localities can decide the ques-
tion. |
MYITKYINA. J. K. STANFORD:
June 1935. Indian Civil Service.
XXII.—NOTES ON ELWES’ HORNED PHEASANT
(CROSSOPTILON HARMANI ELWSES).
Location.—Near Nyengo, Tibet, about half way up the Gokar
La Pass. Altitude 14,000 ft. -Latitude 29°2d/N. Longigs
91°33/E. Date 21st August 1935.
Type of country.—Steep-sided mountain, thickly covered with
several types of dense prickly bushes, stunted silver birch trees,
herbs and grass from which large rocks protruded in abundance.
Country very difficult to move over.
Habits noticed.—A covey of 7 adult and young birds was first
seen sitting on a rock. They were conspicuous by their red legs
and feet. “When this covey was flushed a number of other Cros-
soptilon started ‘clucking’ and showed this particular part of the
mountain side to be swarming with them. It was not difficult
to approach them to within 40 yards. When flushed they flew
down hill. Amongst those seen were a number of young birds
somewhat resembling ‘black partridge both in colour and size.
The adults appear to have two distinct cries—one a ‘Cluck’ of
alarm with a rather metallic resonance, and the other a communi-
cation call resembling the ‘come-back’ of the domestic guinea
fowl. The young birds’ call is a kind of shrill whistling cry very
similar to that of the Marmot.
POLITICAL DEPARTMENT, Tio ee ME BATTYE,
_ Laasa., | : fae Captain.
September 12, 1988. oe
627
NOTES
MISCELLANEOUS
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TIMOHGTIM HO NOLLVYDIN— AIXX
628 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Since the commencement of the Society’s Bird Banding
Scheme approximately 4,000 rings have been issued to members
and others interested in the migration of wildfowl. So far 26 birds
have been recovered of which 18 were recovered in India either
in the same year as they were ringed or on return from their
breeding rounds. The remaining 13 were reported to have been
captured or shot outside Indian limits, chiefly in Siberia.
Owing to the absence of properly organised Bird Banding
Stations in India the ringing of wildfowl has been confined £0
ducks in places where they are regularly snared or shot.
Bompay Natural History Society,
BomBay. EDITORS.
January 1936.
XXV.—DO BIRDS EMPLOY ANTS TO RID THEMSELVES
OF ECTOPARASITES ?
In the course of our collaboration in the account of the birds
of Bombay and Salsette (to be published in this Journal) my
cousin Humayun Abdulali recently sent me the following note on
Jerdon’s Chloropsis [Chloropsis jerdoni (Blyth)].
‘On 8 September 1934 I observed a pair catch and eat Red
Ants (Oecophylla smaragdina) on a mango branch. The ants
were captured in the beak and then quickly but deliberately rubbed
into the tail feathers before being swallowed. Every ant cap-
tured was scrupulously treated in this peculiar fashion..-’
He speculates that the ant is crushed and the sac-like abdomen
bursts in the process discharging formic acid ‘which may be
absorbed by the fluffy tail- coverts” (2)
As far as I am aware, a similar observation has not been
made in India before and Abdulal deserves credit for recording
what most people would have considered far too trivial or ‘original’
to bother about. The instance only shows—if an example were
needed—-how much there is still to be learnt by an unprejudiced
study of the live bird.
Referring to hterature, it is interesting to find that the same
question as heads this note was put forward by Dr. EK. Stresemann
in the Ornithologische Monatsberichte for July-August 1985 (p.
114). He pointed out that the expected discussion had not been
produced by the publication of H. Heine’s note in Orn. Monatsb.
in 1929 (p. 188) under the title ‘Crows use Ants to get rid of
Eetoparasites’, but that he had now, for the first time, found
quite similar observations recorded in the recent book by A. H.
Chisholm, Bird Wonders of Australia (Sydney, 1935), pp. 153-5.
In the note referred to, Heine had observed some Hooded
Crows (Corvus corniz) deliberately seeking an ant-hill of Formica
rufa and squirting or allowing themselves to be squirted with
formic acid in order, the author presumed, to rid themselves of
ectoparasites. Mr. Chisholm in his book, describes European
Starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) introduced into Australia, taking ants
in their bills and sticking them deliberately under their wings, and
also suggests that the object of this behaviour was to expel or kill
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 629
the ectoparasites by means of the formic acid exuded by the
squashed insects.
A number of very interesting notes on similar observations
irom readers of Ornithologische Monatsberichte followed the above
communication by Dr. Stresemann, and these are published in the
September-October issue of that Journal (pp. 184-8). Ageregately
they indicate that without doubt this habit is widely and regularly
practised by many species of birds, especially of the tropies.
Kleinschmidt refers to a short communication published in a
sporting paper as far back as 1911, of a tame Magpie (Pica pica)
eagerly seeking all available cigar stumps and rubbing them into
its plumage. Apropos of this note, Dr. Heinroth observed at the
time that Starlings do something similar with live ants and that
a young Dipper (Cinclus cinclus) was seen by himself and his wite
to catch the insects in the tip of its bill and rub them deliberately
through its wing feathers. The ant was then dropped, a fresh
one seized and the action was repeated on the feathers of the
abdomen and thighs. It would be assumed, naturally enough,
that the bird did so to get rid of vermin, but Dr. Heinroth further
remarked that several young dippers taken by him from the nest
and who could not have had a similar experience before, acted in
precisely the same manner although no trace of any parasites
could be detected on them, a fact which suggests that the re-
action is wholly instinctive.
Other writers also recorded similar observations with crows and
starlings, of these birds not only sticking the insects into their
feathers, but literally ‘bathing’ in a swarm of ants. Herr Neunzig
observed that caged Leiothrix and several species of Garrulax
will even stick mealworms into their plumage. From this, Dr.
Kleinschmidt speculates that it may perhaps be the pleasant sen-
sation produced by insects crawling through their plumage—akin to
that produced by stroking a bird’s nape with the fingers, which it
so obviously enjoys—that induces birds to behave in this manner.
One correspondent mentions that his tame Carrion Crow
(Corvus corone) ‘bathes’ as often as it can in ant swarms with
much apparent relish, one such bath lasting for 25 minutes! The
bird gathers a number of ants in its bill, squashes them, rubs
them through its plumage and then casts them away in the form
of a pellet and gathers more. The same observations have been
made with captive Chloropsis species and with the thrushes
Turdus musicus and T. philomelos.
A. Troschiitz is quoted as writing in Gefiederte Welt (1981,
p. 484) as follows: A peculiarity which only some exotic birds
(Leiothrix lutea, Lioptila capistrata, etc.) and the Thrushes have
in common is their predilection for ants, not as food but for
rubbing into their thighs, rump and wings. The formic acid has
probably some beneficial effect, but whether it helps to eradicate
parasites or acts as some form of general tonic is doubtful. In
the case of his tame crow, at any rate, Herr Troschiitz doubts if
it can be the former, since the bird takes plenty of water baths
and keeps itself scrupulously clean.
The notes published deal in all with the following species of
630 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
birds, both captive and in a wild state: Magpie (Pica pica), Jay
(Garrulus glandarius), Starling (Sturnus vulgaris), the crows Cor-
vus corone and C. corniz, Leiothrix lutea, Lioptila capistrata,
Garrulax spp., Chloropsis spp., the thrushes Turdus musicus and
T. philomelos and the Dipper (Cinclus cinclus).
Besides ants, which are regularly and deliberately rubbed
through the plumage by all of them, there are other things which
have also been observed to be similarly utilised. Cigar ends and
mealworms have been mentioned before, and ‘Flohkrebs’ (?) and
many acid fluids such as lemon-juice and vinegar are among the
others.
Formic acid—first discovered by Rey in 1670 by distilling red
ants (Formica rufa)—is well known to be a powerful antiseptic,
and ants rubbed into the feathers of a bird would indeed effectively
rid them of noxious insects as has been generally suggested.
Mealworms and ‘Flohkrebs’ (evidently some sort of caterpillars ?)
require closer investigation, although it is known that formic acid
is also formed in the acid secretions of certain caterpillars.
Tobacco-juice or decoction is commonly sprayed by gardeners to
ward off insect pests and is also widely and effectively used by
jungle people to deter leeches from climbing up their legs and
for dropping off partly satiated ones. Moreover, it is common
knowledge that a slice of lemon rubbed on to the arms, neck ete.
will discourage bites of mosquitoes and sandflies (Culicidae and
Psychodidae) and it seems very probable that lemon-juice (citric
acid) may have a similarly repellent action on lice (Mallophaga),
ticks and other ectoparasites of birds. It is not difficult to con-
ceive, therefore, that in the above cases, the cigar-ends, lemon-
juice, vinegar etc. may all have been instinctively employed by
the birds for this purpose although the immediate need was not
apparent.
As Dr. Stresemann points out in his summing up, however,
the assumption that the ridding of parasites is the real object of
this behaviour is merely a conjecture so far, albeit a very plausible
one. It is hoped that this note will provoke further observation
and experiment.
Curiously enough in none of the observations referred to is
there a suggestion that the ants were eaten by the birds at the
time or after being rubbed through the feathers, and in this
Humayun Abdulali’s note differs from the rest. Ants in varying
degree form the food of so many bird species in India that there
is nothing remarkable about this part of his observation, but the
effect of formic acid taken internally is of some interest. Taken
by mouth or hypodermically, it is said to give tone to the muscles,
increase muscular energy and abolish the sense of fatigue.' The
Stinging Nettle (Urtica dioica) which also contains formic acid, has
long been employed as a tonic and diuretic, and it may be for
this and the other beneficial properties that red ants are eaten
by the Santals, a typical Dravidian tribe of Chota Nagpiar.?
vol. i, p. 84.
* Sir George Watts, Dictionary of Economic Products of India, vol. i, p. 264.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 631
In addition to formic acid, ants also contain a small amount
of formaldehyde and at a certain stage these may be chemically
acted upon by the gastric secretions of the bird and converted into
glucose which is a very valuable food material. It 1s conceivable
also that at times the formic acid froin the squashed and swallowed
ant may have the effect of ejecting endoparasites with which we
know birds are commonly afflicted.
Dr. Stresemann suggests the use of a special term for this
‘rubbing in’ process on a par with preening which may be tran-
slated into English, and henceforth used, as ‘anting’,—e.g. a bird
ants itself or its feathers, even when objects other than ants
(necotine, lemon-juice, mealworms etc.) are used in the process.
DenRA Dun. SALIM ALI.
November 11, 1938.
XXVI.—GECKOS AND SUPERSTITION.
Many reptiles have given rise to superstitious notions the world
over, and lizards have also made their contribution in this direc-
tion. Having been engaged in the preparation of a detailed
memoir on the common Indian wall-lzard (Hemidactylus flavi-
viridis Riippel) for the last two years, I have been much interested
in the prevalent superstitions about geckos. Some of the results
of my search are given below.
Flower! says, ‘ “‘Bors’’, or ‘‘Abu Bors’’, is, as it was in the
time of Forskaal, the common name for any Gecko in Egypt.
Better-informed people may tell you that it is ‘“‘Abu Boris’’, to
fit better with the words used by Damiri, “‘Abou Baris’’ (Jaya-
kar’s translation, 1, p. 352) and “‘Sam Abras’’ (o.c. 2, p. 283),
meaning respectively ‘‘Father of leprosy’’ and ‘‘Poison of a leper.’’
Damiri wrote: “‘One of the characteristic qualities of this animal
is that, when it settles down in salt, it rolls about in it, giving
rise to what becomes the means of producing white leprosy.”’
‘It should be mentioned that some of the desert Arabs, who
know more about lizards than the Fellaheen do, include under
the term ‘‘Bors’’ the Red-spotted Lizard EHremias rubropunctata:
I do not know why. They believe in poisonous and non-poisonous
lizards: a non-poisonous lizard may be known by its running fast
for a short distance and then stopping suddenly—for it has re-
membered it has no poison!’
The bite of house-geckos is generally, though erroneously,
regarded as poisonous and Roberts? describes ten native remedies
for it. Even the saliva? of these creatures is believed by some
people to be highly emetic. According to an article in Hncyclo-
1 Flower, S. S., ‘Notes on the Recent Reptiles and Amphibians of Egypt,
with a list of the Species recorded from that Kingdom.’ (Proc. Zool. Soc.,
1933, pp. 742-3.)
* Roberts, E., ‘Native Remedies used in Snake-Bites, etc.’ (H. W. Cave
& Co., Colombo, 1919, pp. 41-3.)
* Prof. N. M. Antani, St. John’s College, Agra, tells me that the dropping
of a house-lizard’s saliva in milk is believed by the people of Gujarat to
make the latter highly poisonous.
682 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
paedia Britannica,! the saliva is supposed ‘to produce painful
cutaneous eruptions’; and even the touch of geckos ‘was thought
sufficient to convey a dangerous taint’. In almost all places in
India, the touch of a house-lizard is beheved to be polluting in
effect and there are people who attribute this reptile to the pariah
or ‘sweeper’ caste.
The following explanation? of this popular disfavour sounds
plausible: ‘With the head considerably flattened, the body short
and thick, the legs not high enough to prevent the body from
dragging somewhat on the ground, the eyes large and almost desti-
tute of eyelids, and the tail short and in some cases nearly as
thick as the body, the geckos altogether lack the litheness and
erace characteristic of most lizards. Their colours also are dull,
and to the weird and forbidding aspect thus produced the general
prejudice against these creatures in the countries where they
occur, which has led to their beig classed with toads* and snakes,
is no doubt to be attributed.’
In India, both the sound produced by a house-gecko and its
falling on the human body are supposed to be predictive in nature.
Several Indian almanacks give accounts of the consequences to
be expected if a lizard produces sound from this or that direction,
or happens to fall on a particular part of the body. The following
quotation* is an example:
‘If the house-gecko (Tiktiki) makes a sound from above,
acquisition of money is expected; from the east, immense success;
from the south-east, fear; from the south, fear of fire; from the
south-west, quarrel; from the west, profit; from the north-west,
fine clothes and scented water; from the north, gain of goddess-
limbed woman; and from the north-east, death. The same
consequences can be expected from sneezing. |
‘Tf the house-lizard falls on the right side of the body, there
will be loss of relatives and money. On the left side, profit. On
chest, forehead, back and throat, gain of kingdom. On arms,
legs and heart, happiness.’ |
Tamil almanacks,® however, are far more detailed in this
respect. In them, the consequences to be expected from a
* “Gecko” (Hnecyel. “Brit.; With. ed... U9E1, ext, ~ pp. 2546-7):
2 Op. cit., same pages.
° Cf. Shakespeare’s Macbeth, IV, i, ll. 12-19:
‘Fillet of a fenny snake,
In the caldron boil and bake;
Eye of newt and toe of frog,
Wool of bat and tongue of dog,
Adder’s fork and blind-worm’s sting,
Lizard’s leg and howlet’s wing,
For a charm of powerful trouble,
Like a hell-broth boil and bubble.’
* From Gupta Press Directory Panjika (Bengali), 1935-386, p. 41 (published
by Gupta Press, Calcutta). The passage was translated by Mr. J. C. Banerjee,
to whom I am thankful for it.
* IT have consulted Anand Bodhini, 1933, edited by C. G. Rajan, B.A. Mr.
C. §S. Krishnamurti who kindly translated the necessary passages for me,
tells me that exactly the same sort of thing is mentioned in other Tamil
almanacks also and that there is no change in this portion from year to year.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 633
gecko’s sound depend not only on the direction from which the
sound is produced, but also vary from day to day in the week.
The parts of the body on which the lizard may fall are mentioned
in great detail, and the consequences also appear to be better
discriminated. The lst consists of as many as forty-five anato-
mical regions.
Why is the gecko’s sound regarded as prophetic? Here is an
interesting explanation: !
‘The God Boar cut off the tongue of Khona Saheb and
stood guarding it in a secret place. The lizard came, thought
that it was an article of food and devoured it. Since then, the
sound of a house-hzard can bring the facts of past and future to
light.’ Obviously, Khona Saheb was a great prophet himself!
One should like to know, however, why the fall of the house-
lizard on the human body comes to have predictive value.
Perhaps some member of the Bombay Natural History Society
can enlighten us on this point!
St. JOHN’s COLLEGE,
AGRA. B. C. MAHENDRA.
August 20, 1935.
XXVIT.—THE NOTODONTID MOTH DUDUSA NOBILIS
WALKER.
In vol. xxxviii, No. 1, Mr. T. R. Bell gives an interesting
account of the early stages of the above moth.
It might interest Mr. Bell and other members of the Society
to know that I have a pair of these moths in my collection and
which were caught in the house which to my mind proves they
‘are attracted by artificial hght’. I mention this as Mr. Bell says
they are certainly not.
This moth is fairly common in Upper Burma as I have seen
many on the wing but only cared to collect a pair. If I have
an opportunity to collect others I shall be glad to send Mr. Bell
a specimen or two for comparison with his own bred ones.
Unfortunately I did not at the time record the date of capture.
Maymyo, W. C. CARROTT,
BurMA. Captain.
September 4, 1935.
XXVITI.—OCCURRENCE OF UNKANA ATTINA IN THE
TEESTA VALLEY.
When collecting in the Teesta Valley below Kalimpong (Dar-
jeeling District), I captured a ¢ Unkana attina on 8th September
1934, flying at about 1,000 ft. in shady jungle. I identified it by
Brigadier-General Evans’ Identification of Indian Butterflies, and
was surprised to see that it had hitherto apparently not been
taken further north than Bassein.
* Gupta Press Directory Panjika, 1935-36, p. 76.
684 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Recently I had the good fortune to be able to show it to
Brigadier-General Evans in the South Kensington Museum, who
confirmed my identification, and added that my specimen was
distinctly darker than any of the series in the Museum, which
show a progressive darkening towards the north. This seems to
indicate that this butterfly may be found sparingly throughout
the intermediate region and have an alternative to its normal
food-plant, the cocoa-nut palm, which is not found in the Kalim-
pong district.
On the other hand as the district has been so extensively
worked by collectors, and the butterfly itself is so large and dis-
tinctive, consideration must be given to the possibility that it
may have been accidentally imported in the pupal stage in a crate
of cocoa-nuts.
SoutH KENSINGTON, JOHN ELIOT,
Lonpon, S.W. Lieutenant, R.A.
July 20, 1935.
XXIX.—ON THE PRESERVATION OF HETEROCERA
IN INDIA.
Collectors of Butterflies are far more numerous in India than
those of Moths, the reasons usually advanced being that the
Heterocera are more difficult to identify and preserve.
The first of these reasons has a certain foundation, the only
general books that are easily obtainable being Hampson’s Moths
in the Fauna of British India and the three Indo-Australian
volumes in Seitz’s Macrolepidoptera of the World. Hampson is
now out of date and incomplete and Seitz, which is still in course
of publication, does not include the Pyralidae.
The excuse regarding preservation, however, is completely un-
founded and the following account of how I deal with my speci-
mens may be of help to other collectors. In the first place I
must make it clear that I set nothing in India, all my specimens
being papered and sent to Kurope.
After killing the moth with cyanide, I paper it in exactly the
same way as I would a butterfly, the envelope bearing the usual
data in pencil. I keep the papered specimens in a large cigaratte
drying bottle, the drying pad being exchanged for a wad of cotton
soaked in creosote as a preventive against mildew. I never evis-
cerate even the largest species and, except for an occasional
specimen becoming greasy, I have never had the slightest trouble.
As soon as I have accumulated a couple of hundred insects, I
pack them securely and post them to London, where they may
remain for two or three years before being relaxed and set.
For relaxing I use methylated spirit. The papers and_ their
contents are damped with the spirit and are then shut up in an
air-tight tin for a couple of days. The insects will then be per-
fectly plable and ready for setting and can be removed from the
setting boards after twenty-four hours. MHairy-bodied species
should not be damped, as this leads to the matting of the hair
on the thorax and abdomen, but should be exposed to the fumes
of a mixture of spirit and water. It is important to write all data
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 635
on the envelopes in ordinary lead pencil; ink or copying pencil is
affected by the spirit and will cause stains on the insects inside
the papers. I have employed this method with great success on
the largest Saturniidae and the smallest Pyralidae.
For reference in India, I keep a series of wings mounted on
cards. ‘These are prepared as follows:
Take a suitable piece of card, I use small visiting cards, and
cut a piece of Cellophane large enough to cover from a third to
a half of the card, depending on the size of the wings to be
mounted, and to overlap each side and the end. The two wings
of one side are then cut off as close to the base as possible, a
thin film of good paste such as Gripfix is brushed over the card,
the wings are placed in position and the whole covered with the
Cellophane and pressed down. The overlaps are turned over and
pasted to the back of the card, a thin strip of paper is pasted
over the free edge of the Cellophane to prevent it coming away
from the card and a small square of paper is pasted over the back
of the mount to prevent it warping with changes in humidity.
The usual data is written on the exposed half of the card. I have
found it convenient for comparison to make all mounts with
wings from the same side, either right or left is immaterial. If
the markings of the underside are of importance, a wing can be
mounted to show this aspect also.
The appearance of the finished mount is shown below.
Cellophane .
overlap
Cellophane
ae),
we,
Paper strip
paper strip
5134—Maruca
testulalis,
| Geyer.
Calcutta,
| 26-10-35.
Front. | Back.
Papered specimens are very difficult to’-examine and I have
636 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIit
found these mounts extremely useful in two ways. They enable
local variation to be recognised at once and also serve as a basis
when identifying one of a group of allied species, especially those
where Hampson’s description reads ‘As... but lines more
oblique.’
CALCUTTA, - Dp. G. SEVASTOPUIO Fx ne
October 28, 19385.
XXX.—ON THE FLOWERING OF STROBILANTHES
IN 1984.
Very little has been known about the periodical flowering of
the numerous species of the genus Strobilanthes and M. E.
Robinson’s record of the flowering of a few of them in 1934 in
No. 1, vol. xxxviii of the Journal, is a useful contribution. As I
travelled through Coorg, Wynaad and Nilgiris in September 1934
I am able to add the following species which were found flowering
in addition to those mentioned by M. KE. Robinson.
S. heyneanus Nees, was found in flower in jungles in Coorg
and Wynaad. Gamble says it is often found in flower.
S. cuspidatus T. And. was found on the sides of hills in
Gudalur. Gamble says that it was collected in flower in 1851,
1870, 1877, 1884 and that its period seems to be about 7 years.
S. sessilis Nees, was flowering very copiously all over the
hills behind Naduvattam overlooking the Ouchterloney Valley.
This hill is locally known as the Gudalur malai as it overlooks the
town of Gudalur on the other side. It is a very pretty plant in
flower and grows and flowers gregariously. Gamble says it pro-
bably flowers almost every year or at any rate at short intervals.
I also found this plant in flower in the same locality in May 1988,
but am not able to say whether it flowered profusely in that year
as it did in 1934.
Before concluding this note I might mention that I found
S. consanguineus C. B. Clarke, in bloom on the sacred hills of
Tirupati in March 1927. This is a new locality for this plant as
it has been so far known only from the Western Ghats. |
Little is known about the flowering of S. warrensis Dalz, It
has been reported from South Canara and Coorg. I collected. this
species on the lower slopes of the High Range, Travancore, above
Neriamangalam in December 1933 but then the flowering season
was over and I could gather only dry spikes.
Lovers of plants who happen to collect any species of Strobi-
lanthes in flower may send them to the writer who will be glad
to identify their specimens for them. The planting community
can do much towards establishing the periodicity of their flowering.
Botany DEPARTMENT, P. V. MAYURANATHAN.
GOVERNMENT Museum. Mapras. -
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANNUAL MEETING OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.
The Annual General Meeting of the Society was held at the Prince of
Wales’ Museum on Monday the 9th March 1936 at 6-15 p.m. The Hon'ble
Mr. Justice K. W. Barlee, I.c.s., was in the chair.
AGENDA.
1. Reading of the Annual Report of the Comunittee.
2. Presentation of the Balance Sheet and Statement of Accounts for the
past year.
3. Election of the Committee.
Mr. P. M. D. Sanderson, Honorary Secretary, announced the election of
the following thirty new members since the last meeting:
Mr. A. N. Moos, Bombay; Lt.-Col. J. D. Deane-Drummond, Nilgiris;
Mr. B. E. Smythies, B.F.s., Rangoon; Mr. P. G. Chapman, Burma; Major
J. H. L. Hindmarsh, Delhi; Mrs. M. Parker, Bandra; Mr. F. J. Mustill,
L.F.s.; The Librarian, Imperial Secretariat Library, New Delhi; Mr. EH. Jenning,
Upper Burma; Mr. G. P. Walden, Upper Burma; Mr. L. J. Vernall, Upper
Burma; The Honorary Secretary, Rangoon Literary Society, Rangoon; Major
D. A. Tapp, Belgaum; Mr. J. E. Gardiner, Bombay; Capt: J. M. Ferguson,
Deccan; Mr. K. D. Kothawala, Ahmedabad; Mr. E. J. H. Jacobson, Calcutta;
Mr. F. C. Badhwar, Calcutta; Mr. Noel Exshaw, France; Mr. E. J. Langle-
son, Bombay; Mr. H. E. Burgess, Nilgiris; Mr. Mg Tun Yin, B.A., Rangoon;
The Economic Botanist, Bengal; Mr. M. R. Gokaru, Kalyan; Mr. D. Willis
Fleming, Assam; Miss Winifred H. Baker, Lahore; Rev. M. G. Champion,
Roorkee; Capt. G. McElligot, m.R.c.v.s., Bombay; Mr. U. B. H. Dunbar,
Burma; and Mr. Jal N. D. Tata, Bombay.
The following proposals were accepted :—
Vice-President.—Rev. Fr. J. F. Caius, s.J., in place of the late Rev. Fr.
E. Blatter, s.s.
Executive Committee.—Mr. H. D. Ash, in place of Major 8. L. Bhatia,
I.M.S., who does not attend meetings.
Advisory Comnuttee.—T'wo names to be struck off the roll, i.e. Lt.-Col.
F. C. Fraser, 1.M.s., and Lt.-Col. C. H. Stockley, p.s.o., who have left India.
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.
OFFICE BEARERS—1936.
Patron.—His Excellency The Viceroy of India.
Vice-Patrons.—_H.. H. The Maharao of Kutch, G.c.s.1., ¢.c.1.z.; H. H. The
Maharaja of Jodhpur, k.c.s.1., K.c.v.o.; H. H. The Maharaja of Rewa,
K.c.s.1.; H. H. The Maharaja of Bhavnagar; H. H. The Maharaja or Travan-
core; Mr. F. V. Evans, Inverpool; Sir David Ezra, xkt., F.z.s., Calcutta;
ae A. 8. Vernay, New York and London; Lt.-Col. K. G. Gharpurey, 1.m.s.
Retd.).
President.—H. E. The Right Hon’ble Lord Brabourne, G.c.1.8., M.c.
Vice-Presidents—H. H. The Maharao of Kutch, G.c.s.1., G.c.1.B.; The
Hon’ble Sir Robert “Bell, K.c.8.1., c.1.8., 1.c.s.; Rev. Fr. J. F.: Caius, s.2.
Ezecutive Committee.—Right Revd. R. D. Acland, Bishop of Bombay, Mr.
H. D. Ash, Mr. Farrokh E. Bharucha, Mr. C. B. B. Clee, 1.c.s., Sir Alwyn
Hizra, Kt., F.R.G.8., F.Z.8., Mr. J. B. Greaves, m.u.c., Lt.-Col. S. S. Sokhey,
I.M.s., Mr. A. Forrington (Honorary Treasurer), Mr. H. McGusty, Mr.
P. M. D. Sanderson, F.z.s. (Honorary Secretary), Bombay.
Avisory Committee.—Dr. C. F. C. Beeson, D.sc., M.A., I.F.S., Dehra Dun;
MrT. R. Bell, c-1.u., 1.F.s. (Retd.), Hurope; Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, 1.a.
(Retd.), Coonoor; Mr. C. H. Donald, F.z.s., Dharmsala; Dr. F. H. Gravely,
D.sc., Madras; Mr. §S. F. Hopwood, 1.F.s., Rangoon; Mr. C. M. Inglis,
M.B.0.U., ¥.z.8., Darjeeling; Mr. R. C. Morris, F.R.c.s., F.z.8., Coimbatore;
6388 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Major E. G. Phythian Adams, F.z.s., 1.4. (Retd.), Nilgiris; Dr. Baini Prashad,
p:sc., Calcutta; Mr. H.C... Smith; -1.F.s.. Maymyo; Mr. J. Hi. Walhamer
Coimbatore. ;
ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.
FOR THE YEAR ENDING 3lst DECEMBER 1985.
ADMINISTRATION.
President.—H. HE. The Right Hon’ble Lord Brabourne, G.C.1.z., M.c.
Vice-Presidents.—H. H. The Maharao of Kutch, G.c.s.1.,.@.¢.1.B.; The
Hon'ble Sir Robert Bell, K.c.8.1., C.1.E., 1.0.8.
Executive Committee.—Right Revd. R. D. Acland, Bishop of Bombay, Mr
Farrokh E. Bharucha, Major S. L. Bhatia, 1.M.s., Rev. Fr. J. F. Caius, s.J.,
Mr. C. B. B. Clee, 1.c.s., Mr. Alwyn Ezra, F.R.G.s., F.z.Ss., Mr. J. B. Greaves,
M.t.c., Mr. H. McGusty, Mr. J. G. Ridland, Lt.-Col. 8. S. Sokhey, 1.m.s.,
Mr. A. Forrington (Honorary Treasurer), Mr. P. M. D. Sanderson, F.z.s8.
(Honorary Secretary), Bombay.
Advisory Committee.—Dr. C. F. C. Beeson, D.sc., M.A., 1.F.8., Dehra Dun;
Mr. T. B.. Bell,. ci.s., 1.F.8.. CRetd:), Karwar; t--Col: KK. W. =Burtonjai.
(Retd.), Coonoor; Mr. C: H.* Donald, F.z.s., Dharmsala; Lt:-Col. Fy C. Fraser
1.M.s., Coimbatore; Dr. F. H. Gravely, p.sc., Madras; Mr. S. F. Hopwood,
1.F.s., Rangoon; Mr. C. M. Inglis, B.z., M.B.o.U., F.z.S., Darjeeling; Mr.
R. C. Morris, F.R.G.S., F.Z.8., Coimbatore; Major E. G. Phythian Adams,
F.Z.8., 1.4. (Retd.), Nilgiris; Dr. Baini Prashad, p.sc., Caleutta; Mr: Et @
Smith, 1.F.s., Burma; Lt.-Col. C. H. Stockley, 0.B.z., D.s.o., M.c.,; Meerut;
Mr. J. H. Williams, Coimbatore. :
Staff—s. H. Prater, M.u.c., J.P., c.M.z.s. (Curator); C. McCann, F.L.s.
(Assistant Curator).
THE HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE YERAB 1935.
THE Society’s JOURNAL.
The Thirty-seventh Volume of the Journal was completed and two parts
of Volume XXXVIITI were issued during the year.
Birds :—
Survey of Eastern Ghats.—The more important scientific papers pub-
lished during the year include the reports on various Ornithological Surveys.
Messrs. Kinnear and Whistler continued their reports on the Vernay Scientific
Survey of the Hastern Ghats, parts X, XI and XIT of which were published.
The authors deal with the Parrots, Bee-eaters, Kingfishers, Hornbills, Swifts,
Nightjars, Owls and Vultures which occur in the Madras Presidency, and
comment on their status and distribution.
Travancore and Cochin.—Parts I, II and III of the Ornithology of Travan-
core were published during the year. The papers are based on a Survey of
the States of Travancore and Cochin, carried out by the author Mr. Salim
A. Al in 1988. Since the publication of Hume’s and Ferguson’s papers on
the birds. of Travancore a considerable advance has been made in our know-
ledge of the avifauna of the Peninsula of India notably through the recent
surveys in the Eastern Ghats and Hyderabad State. The Survey of Cochin
and Travancore was specially undertaken to link up with the surveys in neigh-
bouring areas and so complete the data available. In his Introduction, the
author makes a special plea for greater concentration on the study of birds
in relation to their environment. Every student with an observant eye and
an enquiring mind can make some contribution. A great many biological
problems await solution by the intensive study of animal life in its environ-
ment, and such study can now be recommended to bird lovers in India. It is
recommended as being of far greater importance and potentiality than the
mere collection and labelling of skins.
Sittang Irrawaddy Plain,—In Volume XXXVII, No. 4, we published Mr.
Stanford’s note on the Birds of the Sittang Irrawady Plain. Since Oates
published his Birds of British Burma in 1888, practically no one has collected
in the huge area which hes between the mouth of Sittang on the Hast and
the hills which fringe the western side of the Prome, Henzada and. the Bassein
PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 639
Districts. Mr. Stanford’s collections in this area were identified by Dr. Tice-
hurst who contributed his notes to the paper which lists 291 species, 3. of
which are new to Burma.
Central Provinces.—Mr. E. A. D’Abreu, Curator of the Nagpur Museum,
published a paper on the Birds of the Central Provinces, based on collections
and observations carried out over a period of 20 years. His paper is a revision
of his list published in 1923 to which many alterations and additions have
become necessary.
Chittagong.—A paper on the Birds of Chittagong was written by Capt.
R. 8. P. Bates based on observations made during a period of three months,
March-May 1984. Capt. Bates also contributed a paper on the Nesting Habits
Habits of Some Indian Birds illustrated with the fine photographs which
usually accompany his articles.
Fishes.—Fishes of Afghanistan.—In 1933 we published a paper by Dr.
Sunder Lal Hora on the Fishes of Afghanistan. During the year under review
we were able to publish a second paper by the same author on the fishes of
this little known area. The paper is based on a collection made by Sir
Richard Maconachie, Major A. HE. Farwell and Capt. E. W. Fletcher. The
thanks of the Society are due to these gentlemen for their very valuable
collection, the study of which has helped us to a better knowledge of the
precise specific limits of McClelland’s hitherto ill-defined species from this
country. In Volume XXXVIT, No. 4, Mr. John Berry, of the Natural His-
tory Department, University College, Dundee, described an interesting case of
semi-cyclopia in a shark (Charcharias dussumieri). The monstrosity was ob-
tained by the Raffles Museum, Singapore.
Snakes.—Dr. 8. G. Tscherbakoff wrote a paper on the feeding of cobras
in captivity based on observations of 319 specimens kept in the Serpentarium
of the Haftkine Institute, Bombay. Various experiments were conducted rela-
tive to the method of feeding and housing of cobras in captivity. The results
will be conducive to reducing the high rate of mortahty among these snakes
for whose venom there is an increasing demand from medical research workers.
Col. K. G. Gharpurey, 1.M.s., contributed a paper on the Snakes of
Belgaum which supplemented his previous note on the snakes of this area.
Insects.—Part III of Mr. Martin Mosely’s paper on Indian Caddis Flies
was published during the year. The series of articles when complete will
form the standard work on Indian Trichoptera. Articles on Butterflies included
Major Ghosh’s paper on the Butterflies of Nepal, based mainly on 3 months
collecting in the Nepal Valley. The paper provides a nucleus on which a
complete list of the Butterflies of this unknown region may be built up.
Col. Logan Homé wrote on the Butterflies of Secunderabad and its surround-
ings, and listed 70 species obtained within this area. The Butterflies of the
Nilgiri District, a popular area among collectors, were listed in a paper by
Mr. J. A. Yates. The author revises and supplements Sir George Hampson’s
List published in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society in 1888. Lt.-Col.
F. C. Fraser described a new Drangonfly from Burma; and Mr. T. R. Bell the
Notodontid Moth (Dudusa nobilis) and its early stages. Mr. Mathew’s interest-
ing paper on the life history of the Plant Bug (R. pedestris) traces the
development of the species and shows how in the early stages the nymphs
exhibit close resemblances to different species of ants. The ant-mimicking
is gradually lost in the subsequent moults and disappears completely in the
adult. The Californian Red Scale Insect (C. aurantt), a serious pest of citrus
plants in many parts of the world, is recorded by Mr. P. M. Glover as
attacking Grape Fruit grafts recently imported into India, the attack was not
very heavy but of sufficient intensity to warrant control measures. In
the same paper Mr. Glover records an instance of the Lac Insect as a_ pest
of Grape Fruit. A resin spray was found effective in the control of both
these coccids.
Botanical papers include ‘The Revision of the Flora of the Bombay Presi-
dency’. Parts XXVI and XXVII were published during the year. The authors,
the late Rev. Fr. Blatter and C. McCann, deal in these parts with the
Cyperaceae.
The Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of India are being described by Rev.
Fr. Caius. During the year the author dealt with 3 Orders—the Palms, the
Ferns and the Sedges and gave data of the medicinal and poisonous properties
13
640 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
perties cf the species mentioned. Father Caius also wrote a very interest-
ing and readable monograph on the Papaya or Papaw Tree with notes on_ its
cultivation, food value, medicinal uses and commercial possibilities. Mr.
Robinson gives an account of the flowering of Strobilanthes on the hills of
South India in 1984. Among the species referred to is Strobilanthes Kunthianus
‘the great blue flower’ of the Nilgiris which once in 12 years colours whole
tracts of the hill sides with sheets of delicate blue. The author illustrates
the article with fine pen and ink drawings of 7 species.
Popular Papers—Among the popular papers published during the year was
Mr. Stuart Baker’s concluding article on Waders and Semi-Sporting Birds.
The series which commenced in Volume XXXI, No. 2, will form a companion
volume to his work on the Game Birds of the Indian Empire, 3 volumes of
which have already been published by the Society. The thanks of the Society
are due to the author whose writings, for so many years, have added much
to the attractiveness of the Journal. Mr. Stuart Baker’s recently published
work on the Nidification of Indin Birds (4 volumes, Taylor & Francis, London)
will be found of great interest to all bird lovers and students in this country.
It replaces Hume’s Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds which was till now the
standard work on the subject. Members will be interested to know that
Stuart Baker has now in preparation a book on Cuckoos—a fascinating subject
on which he wrote a series of articles in the early volumes of the Journal,
and which Col. Burton recently summarised in his paper on ‘Cuckoo Lore’.
Parts XVII, XVIII and XIX of the serial on Beautiful Indian Trees
were published during the year. Twenty-eight of our more conspicuous flower-
ing trees have so far been described and illustrated in colour. It is proposed
during 1936 to complete the series with description of 8 more species. The
Committeo have decided to issue this attractively illustrated serial in book
form. Orders may now be registered for the book. The estimated cost to
members is Rs. 9.
As usual the Journal contained a number of shikar articles. Notable
among these was Vicomte Edmond de Poncins’ Reminiscences of a ‘Hunting
Trip in the Sunderbunds’ in 1892, Mr. Burgess’ account of his ‘Early Days in
Malaya’ and Mr. W. S. Thom’s ‘Experiences of hunting Rhinoceros in Burma’.
In the rigid conditions of our day these: records of veteran sportsmen who
hunted and travelled in the more spacious times of the past make interesting
reading.
There can be few places more likely to appeal to a lover of nature than
a secluded Salt lick in some remote forest of Burma. Mr. Peacock describes
his attempts to photograph T'saine in these surroundings and illustrates his
account with some fine production of his camera. Speaking of Salt licks
br:ngs us to the analytical investigation carried out for the Society by Rev.
Fr. Caius into the composition of Salt licks. Samples of earth from 39
different salt licks have so far been chemically analysed by Fr. Caius and the
results published. During the year, in response to enquiries and as a guide
to those who wish to co-operate in the work, the author published an account
of the procedure adopted by him in his analysis. Col. R. W. Burton, a very
welcome contributor to the Journal, published an account of his visit to the
Yala Game Sanctuary in Ceylon. The author has visited many sanctuaries
in India and Burma but nowhere has he seen so much varied wild life in its
natural state as in the Yala Sanctuary. For 86 years the animals in this
sanctuary have multiphed in peaceful security; but, without the allotment by
the Government of Ceylon of funds for providing increased grazing and water
the animals in the sanctuary must inevitably suffer.
During the year the Society published Parts III and IV of the serial
cn the Wild Animals of the Indian Empire. The parts deal with the Beasts
of Prey and cover the Cats and the Civets. In conformity with the previous
parts, the serial is beautifully and profusely illustrated with numerous photo-
graphs and colcured plates. Once again the Society has to offer its thanks
to Mr. F. V. Evans, whose continued generosity has made possible the
publication of these articles. As a pendant to the serial we published articles
by various authors on the problem of protecting wild animals in various parts
of India and Burma. ‘Those who contributed were H. C. Smith (Burma); R. D.
Richmond and R. C. Morris (the Madras Presidency); Salim A. Ali (Hydera-
bad); Major Phythian Adams (Mysore).
PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 641
In conclusion we should like to offer our thanks to the numerous members
who contributed to the Miscellaneous Notes which make an important and
very readable feature of the Journal. We should like to develop this section
of the Journal and to print more articles of a popular nature so as to make
our publication still more attractive to the general reader. We hope that
members will continue to send us their observations and experiences which
are often very valuable and always make interesting reading.
The Museum.—The new Natural History Wing of the Museum was com-
pleted during the year and the transfer of the collection to the new _ build-
ing was started in December. The work involves the breaking down _ of
several of the large habitat groups, which were so much admired in the old
wing. They will be resurrected in a far finer setting in the new wing and
a larger number of new groups will be built. During the year an expedition
to the Runn of Cutch was organised to acquire material for the building of a
group illustrating the nesting habits of the Flamingo. The thanks of the
Society are due to His Highness the Maharao of Cutch and Prince Vijaya-
rajji for their generosity in meeting the considerable expense involved. We
are also indebted to Capt. Steer Webster who conducted the expedition under
the most difficult climatic conditions. As a result, ample material was ob-
tained for the construction of a group which will form a beautiful and striking
addition to the Bird Gallery. Mr. 8. I*. Markham who is on a tour of inspec-
tion of Museums in India on behalf of the Museums Association, inspected
the New Museum and expressed himself as very pleased with the designing,
lay out of the galleries and with the methods of exhibition which were being
adopted in the Natural History galleries. He stated that when completed the
Natural History section would be the finest of its kind in the Hast.
Revenue Account.—This account unfortunately shows a loss again this
year. The deficit for the last three years was as follows :—
Year. Deficit.
1933 ae. ae Be nc Rs. 2451 8° 9
1934 ate ee on ae pose eeo4n Goo 9
1935 ae a ie ee DLODD 12. 0
Actual receipts this year were Rs. 26,847-7-11 as against the receipts of
Rs. 80,050-7-7 in 1934,.a decrease of Rs. 8,222-15-0.
This year’s decrease in receipts is made up as follows:—
1934. 1935.
Subscriptions wee va. 22,810 “% 2 Rs. 20,409 6 10
Entrance fees : aa ee 820 0 0 BS 640 0 0
Sale of Journals eo OOD: 608 0 5) EBESe lle . 0
Balance Sheet.—The Society’s investments are shown as per the last Balance
Sheet or at market value whichever is the lower.
Life Membership Fees.—In 1935 the Society received Rs. 700 on account
of Life Membership fees. This has been taken to increase the reserve for
Life Membership fees. This account now stands at Rs. 48,200. Under our
memorandum of association we have to maintain investments in excess of the
total of our Iife Membership fees. The market value of our investments
exceed this figure considerably, as will be seen from the Balance Sheet.
Membership.—During the year 1935, 66 new Members, including 2 Life
Members, joined the Society, and 61 members resigned.
The total number of members on the roll of the Society (excluding 195
Life Members) was as follows :—
38lst December 1934 oe as ae wen OhO
81st December 1935 ae Pig aes ane “Sho
In spite of the slight increase in membership as compared with 1934, there
was a decrease in Revenue from subscriptions. This is partly due to the fact
that Messrs. Lloyds Bank, who usually pay the subscriptions of Members for
the ensuing year in the month of December of the previous year, have not
done so for the year 1936. Thus the year 1935 is short of Rs. 1,720 in subscrip-
tions, which went into 1934. The total number of members who paid their
subscriptions for 1985 was 848 as compared with 908 in 1934. This shows a
decrease in subscriptions of 60 members,
642 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
General.—The loss on last year was anticipated, and although the present
financial position is sound, we cannot continue to work at a loss for very
much longer. As will be seen from the Balance Sheet, we have surplus Assets
made up from surplus revenue, etc., which form a Reserve Fund and although
every economy possible has been effected for the coming year, it is most
necessary to bring in new members. Any co-operation from present members
in this respect would be greatly appreciated.
Staff—The Committee wish to thank the Curator and his staff for the
usual good work during the past year.
P. M: DY SANDERSON,
Honorary Secretary.
Mr. Prater then delivered a short lecture on the new Natural History
Wing of the Prince of Wales’ Museum and the plans for its development. Mr.
Prater said that one of the main objects for which the Museum exists is
popular education and entertainment, but 90 per cent of the visitors who came
to the Museum came there purely for pleasure and so with the majority of
visitors the message the Museum had to offer was lost, unless the Museum
provided something to rouse their attention and hold their interest. The pur-
pose of the Museum should be to lead people to better ideals and to offer
them new points in a way which they could understand and appreciate. The
appeal could be made more to the senses than to the intellect, but it could
be made in such a manner that in addition to mere attractiveness it should
offer food for thought, which was the first step to a higher and more intellectual
ideal. There were many ways of telling the story of Nature. Their plan was
to choose the beautiful way, the way which leads from an appreciation of its
interest and beauty to an understanding of its meaning. We were living in
a changing world, the stress and strain of modern life and the demand it
makes on the time and attention of the wage-earner does not leave much time
for intellectual pursuits or for such side issues as art or natural history.
The democratic spirit of the age necessitated a change in the attitude of the
Museums towards the public. The older Museums were autocratic, they were
exclusive laboratories of science intended for scientists where the visiting public
were looked upon as intruders. But modern conditions are bringing about a
change in this policy. Museums are becoming more and more dependent on
public support, on money voted by the people’s representatives, and unless
something was done for the people that support would not be forthcoming.
It has been more and more realised that if Museums which stand for
the cultural development are to succeed in their mission it is necessary for
them to alter their standards, to break down their aloofness and restraint—
that attitude which looks upon the public as a nuisance—and to come down
to a more sympathetic consideration of the people’s wants. It is the duty
of the Museum Curator to see that his Museum is worth being interested in,
to give his Museum such vitality and pertinence that people will want to be
interested in it, will want to visit it and will realise the advantage of sup-
porting it. ;
Mr. Prater then proceeded to show what was being done in the new
Natural History Wing of the Museum in furtherance of this policy, how the
whole arrangement of the galleries, the show-cases and the exhibits . were
planned with a view to creating interest and rousing the attention of the
layman. Suitable colour schemes were being adopted in the different galleries
with a view to providing an attractive ‘atmosphere’. The show-cases were
being built and arranged to avoid that feeling of artificiality and cumber-
someness which makes so many over-crowded Museum galleries repellent. The
The arrangement of exhibits on shelves was being done away with to avoid
monotony in arrangement. The exhibits themselves were carefully prepared
and selected so as ‘to give the visitor a clear outline of the animal kingdom
without confusing him with too much detail. Specially interesting to the lay-
man would be the large number of habitat groups with scenic backgrounds
illustrating the various phases of animal life. These groups make a direct
appeal to people by their beauty, the appreciation of which was common to
PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 643
all. Nevertheless, when well designed and constructed each of them had a
lesson to teach. Apart from illustrating animal life the groups would also
illustrate various phases of Indian scenery from the deserts of Sind to the
evergreen forests of Assam and the snow-capped peaks of the Himalayas.
In conclusion Mr. Prater said that Mr. Markham who had recently visited
the new wing of the Museum expressed himself as very highly pleased with
the plans of development and the methods of exhibition now being used in
the natural history wing which he said when completed would be easily the
- finest of its kind in the East.
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CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXVIII, No. 4.
PAGE
THE VERNAY-HOPWOOD UPPER CHINDWIN’ EXPEDITION. By R. C,
Morris, F.z.S., F.R.G.S. (With 6 Black and White Plates)....s........ 647
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHaTS. Part XIV.
By H. Whistler, M.B.O.U., assisted by N. B. Kinnear, M.B.0.U........ 672
A NEW RACE OF Horsrrerp’ S SCIMITAR-BABBLER. By H. Whistler,
F.Z.Ss, M.B.O.U.cccsece Soe dens ecaisedsceeceecatsce cet ewscsccececdescasas deccelecesaceasane 699
NEw ORIENTAL DRAGONFLIES. By Lt.-Col. F. C. Fraser, 1.m.s.
MING EGG) ReueitccesconsacceccstadenstsesscaccifesssesweseesectetecSeesssesessesthcvsaecsstoees 700
FRESHWATER FISH AND FISHERIES OF TRAVANCORE. By C. C. John,
mime psc. (Lond.), D.1.C. (With 5 text [1ZUTES) 0s c.csesentessiacoecsns. 702
Cuckoo PROBLEMS. By T. R. Livesey. (W1th 4 plates)...cccccccccceceoeres 734
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN. ite Salim Ali, vita
notes by H. Whistler, F.z.S., M.B.0.U. Part V.. Biseeateracssaiinehes. 3 ZOO
THE MEDICINAL AND Poisonous Oncuane OF INDIA. By Rev. J. F.
BROS IS ay Side Hi alar Ge ds se ciaeisuaaasieeeseecioma cee ose sers wi d0us du<cainbausinvdsecensidssistiessere 791
BUTTERFLIES OF ESOS EEE. By:D. F. Sanders........: BR Aer ae 800
A DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES OF WASP ASSUMED TO BELONG TO THE
FAMILY VESPIDA AND NAMED Paravespa €va; WITH REMARKS
UPON ITS AFFINITIES WITH THE GENUS Vinee ier AND REASONS>
FOR THE CREATION OF THE NEW GENUS FParavespa. By T.R. Bell,
“OC. 1.8. (Retd:).: -(Wethed Dlabe) ..cccscccacssevsssaceeecees eae Fie ata ir eet 803
REVIEWS : —
alk —Man: A special creation......ce00- sasescesseeseeseones Wecacdec caecssee 807
fe —Glimpses of the Wild........ eiieuceeqeumenaass sees ceGieteecsnsnsssse'cswese 808
III.—A Shellac:Patent Index.) seacccpsceracesssseccdsseoes Peea Peco tiee essa 808
IV.—Wild Animals -of the Indian i and the Problem of
thelee PreserVatlONs.......00sc..nee0 eect sae ee arenes siesceecueues sees 2 808
AN APPEAL : Wanted icmnanen one Bucoce: By E. Stuart Baker. 810
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—
I.—Roosts of Flying Fox. By H.G. Acharya, F.z.s., F.R.G.s. 812
II.—Melanism in Wild Dogs. By R. C. Morris, F.z.s., F.R.G.Ss. 813
Il1].—Legendary method of hunting in Wild Dogs. By Lt.-Col.
NGUING COIS CO DIS certs toon cuieraceaisisasecots see0s sats cedeswance lays 814
IV.—Sound listening for Tiger shooting. By Lt.-Col. J.
MOO DOM Glcarseccutwssteretocsieetonerssses svesscsevectssseevessssedesescwes 814
V.—Measurements of a Buffalo head from Assam. By R. G.
Guise len (G01 /0 PHOTO) 6s... eave chswdsetecesaces.’ ee open az ere 817
CONTENTS OF Volo XXXVI, Wor?
VlI.—Bison and Panther. By R. C. Morris, F.Z.S., F.R.G.S....c00.08
VII.—Gaur-Heads from the Chin Hills. By T. R. Livesey....... eee
VIII.—Season of horn development in Sambhur. By R. C. Morris,
B.Z:S.5 ARG iGucec senders est sesabesudeactonscecceane wecueeesscoteonens
IX.—Cuckoo-Lore. By Rev. F. C. R. Jourdain and T. R.
LVESCY vessecsecnpesivswcidacesteesescees towetesecetescussusmaced ton
X.—The Brown Shrike (Lanius cristatus Linn.) in Burma and
Assam: ‘By Dr. C. B. Ticehurst..c....00055.50-ssssceeensnneses
XI.—A Note on the distribution of Chloropsis jerdoni (Blyth) and
Chloropsis a. aurifrons (Temm.)in Centraland Western
Bengal. By S.C. LaWeerccses..scscees scvcecssvesesecees: traceees
XII.—Indus Sand Lark (Alaudula raytal adamsi Hume) and
Crested Lark (Galerida cristata, Linn.) laying in the
same nest. By H. M.S. Newton... s....0cscnc.cccscescsreseset
XIJI.—The Brown Wood Owl (Strix indranee, Sykes.). By T.R.
Livesey. (W211. PROLOG) .csaviase coscnccasecntessodasaecoscaecadeeat
XIV.—The White-Bellied Sea-Eagle (Haliaétus leucogaster
Ginelin): By HaNvG. cAChatyaseeccsseccavesnssstestscseeeseee
XV.—The Eyesight of Vultures. By A. A. Dunbar Brandet.......
XVI.—A note on the Alpine Swifts (Micropus melba bakeri
Hartert at Gersoppa. By Humayun Abdulai............
XVII.—Does the Japanese Grey Quail (Cofurnix c. japonica) breed
in the Shan States? By T.R. Livesey..cce..cscceessces Javecstine
XVIII.—Sarus Flocks. By H. N. G. Acharya..... ......... LS aoe
XIX.—The Long-tailed Duck (Clangula earn Linn. yi in Sind..
XX.—Death of Survey Khalassi due to poisoning by Common Krait
(Bungarus ceruleus). By Eds....... cabicee Sotosacasuenderteee
XXI.—Migration of Wild Fowl." By EGS .<. .cs.s..000cessesceseslecsstectente
XXII.—Occurrence of Shrenk’s Bittern (lxobrychus eurythmus,
Swinhoe) in Amherst District, Tenasserim. By C. E.
MAING, ThE cSchivecwwonsenc <eene awiesecbscetessaccecesenestieie: setae
XXIH.—Occurrence of the Butterfly (P. antiphates naira) in the
Nilgiris. By Brig. T. D. Broughton, R.£. (Retd.).....
2 AT-M isknbution of the Buprestid Beetle (Sternocera chrysis F.)
By C; HAC, Beesonsi.cccccasssstesccasssctaces+ secs cocucanee.<soeeees
825
826.
827
828
828
829
830
831
831
832
833
834
834
). crn
-poomdoy{ “A “g “TOAR yy ‘9 ‘Fy ‘Aeurea ‘SCV ‘Sao, “QO “WY: 1Yyold OF fa]
‘eyyT wumy, ye uoryrpedxy ey} Jo srioquieyy,
— ee es aA amane
00S ‘ISIH ‘3JeN Avquog ‘‘uanoe
SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES.
The concluding article in this serial which will deal with the
Padouk will appear in the next number of the Journal.—Eps.
JOURNAL
OF THE
Bombay Natural History Society.
Auc. 1986. Vou. XXXVITI. No. 4.
THE VERNAY-HOPWOOD UPPER CHINDWIN
EXPEDITION.
BY
ie Ce WORRIS< 577.5... .ReG.S.
(With 6 plates).
As an introduction to an account of the Vernay-Hopwood Upper
Chindwin Expedition of 1935 I cannot do better than quote Mr.
Vernay’s own words in the June Number of ‘Natural History’
(the Journal of the American Museum of Natural History).
‘The plan to penetrate the Chindwin region of inner Burma
grew out of a conversation that I had several years ago with Mr.
S. F. Hopwood, Chief Conservator of Forests of Burma.
‘At the time, we were collecting specimens in Lower Burma
for the South Asiatic Hall of the American Museum of Natural
History. Mr. Hopwood pointed out to me the exceptional rewards
which this remote section would yield to a scientific expedition.
The Chindwin River, or the ‘‘Mighty Chindwin”’ as he called it,
wound through a country which in many parts was unknown, a
region buried in dense jungle, unvisited by white men. Interest
was added by the fact that a journey to this region would take
one within the territory of the head-hunting Nagas.
‘Thus the seed was sown. From time to time we further dis-
cussed the possibilities of an expedition, and later I took up the
matter with members of the scientific staff of the Museum. When
I was informed that no animals from the Upper Chindwin country
were in the collections of the Museum and that such specimens
were greatly to be desired, the importance of the undertaking
became apparent.
‘It was in December 1933 that Mr. Hopwood offered his help
and also expressed his willingness to do all he could to further the
objective, with the result that definite plans were made for the
expedition to form in Rangoon early in January 1935.
‘The personnel had been carefully chosen. We were fortunate
in being able to have an old friend of mine, Mr. Randolph Morris,
“AT 4A 1A8B
648 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
the ‘‘shikari’’ of Southern India; also Major Rowley, an expe-
rienced shikari and Mr. Charles McCann, Assistant Curator of the
Bombay Natural History Society. And finally, a few months
before the Expedition set out, Mr. H. C. Raven, Associate Curator
of comparative and human anatomy at the American Museum,
fortunately was able to join us. Mr. Hopwood accompanied the
Expedition for a few weeks. The task of organizing fell chiefly
to his lot, and the success of the Expedition is evidence of his
thoroughness in these preparations.’
Mr. Vernay and Major Rowley arrived in Calcutta by ‘fe
Imperial Airways Plane on the 4th January and we met at the
Great Eastern Hotel. The Imperial Airways bus called for us at
4 a.m., and at 5-80 a.m. the plane left the Dum Dum Aerodrome. —
for Rangoon. The route took us over the Sunderbans and then over
the open sea until we sighted the coast of Burma at about 7-45 a.m.
From the air the Sunderbans looked like a vast low-lying mass
of swampy jungle cut up by numerous streams and channels.
Landing at Akyab at 8-30 a.m. we breakfasted and left for Ran-
goon at 10 a.m. A squadron of Air Force planes took off for
Rangoon and Singapore just ahead of us. Flying over the Arrakan
Yomas we reached the Mingladon Aerodrome, Rangoon, at 12-45.
Here we were met by Messrs. Hopwood and Raven. Mr. McCann
of the Bombay Natural History Society had already preceded us
to Nanyaseik, our first collecting point. Spending the next two
days in Rangoon completing our outfit ete. we left by train for
Mandalay on the 8th afternoon in a special self-contained Railway
Officers’ carriage. Arriving at Mandalay on the following morn-
ing we proceeded up the Irrawaddy river in a steam launch
visiting the ‘Great Bell’ of Mingun, the world’s largest or second
largest bell, and the huge unfinished and ruined pagoda nearby.
Detraining at Mogaung on the following morning we loaded our
outfit on buses, including four cows and six goats for baits! and,
after a tiring journey on an appalling road, arrived in the evening
at Nanyaseik where Mr. J. K. Stanford, the District Commis-
sioner of Myitkyina, and Mr. McCann, who had already been
successful in collecting a number of specimens of mammals, met
us.
An amusing incident occurred on the railway journey up to
Mogaung from Mandalay. Hopwood’s dog, we discovered, had
been left behind at a wayside station soon after the train had
started and the mail train was stopped to send back for it!
On the 11th and 12th all our stores and outfit were packed
into 60 Ib. loads for mules and we started collecting specimens,
the mammals shot comprising squirrels, Callosciurus sladeni,
Tamiops, Tomeutes, tree shrews and monkeys and quite a number
of birds. MeCann had already collected specimens of the above
as well as of the Hoolock gibbon (Hylobates hoolock), two macaques
and a male and female Barking Deer.
On January 13th 110 mules were loaded up and we left at
8 a.m. for Namting and Lonkhin (194 miles). Including our
interpreters, skinners, Burmese servants and the Yunnanese
muleteers we were a party of fifty-eight. The skinners comprised
THE VERNAY-HOPWOOD UPPER CHINDWIN EXPEDITION 649
Mr. Stubbs, kindly lent to us by Mr. Stanford, Mr. Fernandez
of the Bombay Natural History Society, and Mr. Gabriel Joseph
lent to the expedition by the writer. Each muleteer had five
mules under his control and very efficiently handled the mules
were. The two leading animals were adorned with _ brilliantly
coloured plumes of dyed goat’s hair and a mirror in the harness
to keep off the evil spirits. I think I am correct in saying that
the hire paid per mule per month was Rs. 16-8-0. The assistance .
of Mr. Stanford was most valuable. The path to Namting and Lon-
khin led through hills and valleys covered with dense evergreen
jungle, 750 ft. above sea level at Namting and rising to nearly
1,300 ft. a few miles from Lonkhin. Dropping down to Lonkhin
we pitched camp round the Rest House, perched on a_ knoll
(850 ft.) on the bank of the Uyu river. In the evening two
members of the party accompanied Mr. Stanford out after wood-
cock and secured a couple. Dense morning mists were a feature
of both Lonkhin and Nanyaseik. Maximum and minimum tem-
peratures recorded by Mr. McCann at Nanyaseik were in the region
of 76° and 50° respectively. We continued our collecting at
Lonkhin and traps were put out every evening. Efforts to secure
a specimen of the White-winged Wood Duck were unsuccessful.
As at Nanyaseik, there were large numbers of Hoolock gibbons,
their howling in the mornings resound through these jungles. Very
human as these gibbons are, it was hateful work shooting them
for the collection. The minimum temperature at Lonkhin went
down to 44° while the maximum during the day rose to 82°F.
A young civet, Viverra zibetha, was secured near the bungalow
and the traps yielded rats and tree shrews. A visit was paid
to the Kansi Duwar’s house in the village where we saw the
very fine pair of elephant-tusks portrayed on page 486 of the
Bombay Natural History Society Journal, vol. xxxvii, No. 2. The
Kansi Duwar, the ruler of the Kansi State, was instrumental in
clearing for us many miles of paths through the jungle from
Lonkhin to Dalu (Taro) on the Tanai Hka (upper reaches of the
Chindwin river). Journeys at night in dugouts were made up-river
with ‘jacklights’ on our heads for anything we could secure for
the collection, three owls and a nightjar being secured. Shooting
rapids in the dugouts on our way back was not without excite-
ment. On the 17th most of the party left for the Hpakan Jade
Mines. Photos of scenes in the bazaar and at the Jade Mines
were taken and that night we spent an hour or so in the streets
of Hpakan. Most interesting it all was, not excepting the
gambling tables both in the houses and out in the streets, the
opium dens and other features typical of mining towns and camps.
We all slept the night in the Hpakan Rest House and on the
following morning, Stanford accompanied us over the mines again
and further photos were secured. The methods used for pumping
water out of the workings were most ingenious, long hollowed-out
bamboos, with a bamboo piston covered with soft leather, being
employed most efficiently as pumps. Most of the workings were
on the Uyu river here, and every stone in the vicinity had been
at one time or another turned over and examined. The workings
650 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
were in no case of great depth and apparently the labourers
employed by the owners of these workings received only their food
with a share of the profits of any find. These mines are of special
interest in that they are the only true green Jade Mines in the
world, nearly the entire output being exported to China. Jade
stones of other colours were shown to us in the most beautiful
shades of mauve, pink, orange and blue; but none of these are of
any real value. White jade we were informed is mined on the
Yunnan border, and a form of soft green jade in Tibet. After
buying some jade in the rough we returned to Lonkhin (14 miles)
where McCann had earried on the good work of collecting, his bag
including a crab-eating mongoose (Herpestes urva).
The following morning saw us marching to Tawmaw, about
12 miles from Lonkhin at an elevation of 2,700 ft. where we camp-
ed. The path led through dense forest for most of the way
ascending at times over crests of over 2,000 ft. Gibbons were in
evidence on all sides, and langurs. A few of the latter were
collected. At Tawmaw are a number of disused Jade Mines and
the houses of their owners, some of which are in charge of watch-
men. That night four specimens of civets (three of Arctogalidia
leucotes, a female and two young, and one of Viverricula malac-
censis) were secured by the party with the aid of jacklights, A
total eclipse of the moon occurred lasting a considerable time.
During the night the minimum temperature recorded was 42° and
the maximum during the day 76° and on the following night the
minimum temperature was 39°. The Kachins brought in a num-
ber of peacock-pheasants and partridges and the party secured five
specimens of Callosciurus and some birds.
On the 21st we moved camp to Mansun, a 12-mile march.
The path led over crests of 3,000 ft. and through dense forest the
whole way. The camp at Mansun (elevation 3,200 ft.), where
our tents were pitched near a long Kachin’s hut, proved most pro-
ductive. Perched on a ridge and surrounded by dense evergreen
and bamboo forest, Mansun was a most picturesque spot. Blister
flies were bad here. Traps were laid out daily. The temperatures
recorded were from 42° to 45° during the night and 76° to 78°
during the day. The dew was very heavy. A number of gibbons,
squirrels and birds were collected including a young baby gibbon
captured alive, which however died later. Kachins brought in a
few pheasants, frogs, snakes, crabs, a tortoise and a live adult
bamboo rat. A baby stump-tailed monkey (Macaca), which
McCann had procured from the locals at Lonkhin died here.
Tracks of tiger being in evidence a couple of baits were put out.
Just as we were leaving for our next camp news came in that
a tiger had killed one of the baits. The kill was visited and a
machan prepared. Vernay and Raven sat up that night but with
no result. In the meantime the rest of the party proceeded
to the next halt, Kora, passing through the Kachin village of
Hpala. The Kachins are very neat in their water supply arrange-
ments. Bamboo-pipes are installed in many places and wooden
stands erected for bamboo water containers. The path to Kora
dropped down to the upper reaches of the Uyu river (1,000 ft.)
THE VERNAY-HOPWOOD UPPER CHINDWIN EXPEDITION _ 651
and rose steeply to Kora (2,600 ft.). We were met on the way
by Kachin villagers who had already collected for us specimens
of reptiles, mammals, birds and amphibians for which they were
duly paid. Blister flies continued to be very bad and it was
noticed that the legs and arms of the Kachin villagers were a
mass of bites. The Kachins are most adept. with their bows and
clay pellets with which they shoot birds and squirrels. Speci-
mens of silver and _ peacock-pheasants, partridges, squirrels,
bamboo rats were brought in by the villagers on the 25th. A
stump-tailed monkey was collected by a member of the party.
The Kachins like most jungle folk have a keen sense of humour
and they appeared to derive great enjoyment from the frequent
tosses members of the party took while collecting over the rough
and tricky country.
Raven sat up over the kill at Mansun again that night but
saw nothing of the tiger. Apparently a number of tiger are
accounted for annually by trapping in Burma. One method is
to plant bamboo stakes thickly on both sides and close up to a path
frequented by tiger. The split half of a bamboo clapper, released
by the tiger coming into contact with a cord tied across the path,
springs back against the other half with a loud report and
apparently causes the tiger to jump to one side and so impale itself
on the bamboo stakes! The jungle around Kora is very dense,
chiefly bamboo. Both here and in the Mansun and Tawmaw
jungles a feature of the forest is the large number of a gigantic
species of Dipterocarpus with a scaly bark. One of them had a
girth of 24 ft. 7 in. with a clear trunk reaching 150 ft. up to the
lowest branches. On the 26th, five specimens of the stump-tailed
monkey, including a young, were secured, a very welcome addi-
tion to the collection. The digging out of a bamboo rat by
Kachins was witnessed and proved most interesting. The Kachins
brought in many specimens. On the following day three more
stump-tailed monkeys were collected, also a giant squirrel. <A
large part of the area traversed was taungya (abandoned cultiva-
tion) and here a number of bison and sambhur tracks were in
evidence and also those of pig.
The Kachins in these parts are neither good trackers nor tree-
climbers and we often had great difficulty in keeping them from
conversing in loud tones while out collecting.
Some fine specimens of Lobelia were in flower in the
taungya.
The minimum temperature during the night was in the region
of 50° to 51° and the maximum during the day about 74°.
On January 28th camp was moved to Pumsin, the path
dropping down to 1,900 ft. from Kora to the Kum Hka and rising
at the village of N’bung Hku to an elevation of 3,150 ft. From
here the path ascended at Pumsin to 3,900 ft. Gibbons were col-
lected and a young gibbon about a year old captured alive. The
country round Pumsin is steep on all sides. The Kachins erect
bamboo benches where their main paths top hills and ridges, a
most convenient and thoughtful habit. Some of the -Kachin
women in the village of N’bung Hku wear large cylindrical pieces
652 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
of amber in their ears. Violets were growing all round our camp-
ing ground at Pumsin and in the jungles round about, as also at
Mansun and Kora, there are a large number of fish-tailed palms.
One of them was cut down by the Chinese muleteers, which very
nearly led to trouble with the Kachin villagers, as these palms
are considered sacred. The Kachin headman demanded Rs. 30 in
compensation but was eventually satisfied with Rs. 2! From our
camp we had a wonderful view of vast chains of forest-covered
hills, while away in the distance lay the Naga Hills, the region
we were heading for. Our collection was being rapidly increased.
Mammals, birds and reptiles were secured by the party and
brought in daily by the Kachins, while Raven took plaster casts
of the villagers’ faces and feet. The forest was chiefly bamboo
interspersed with patches of evergreen trees. A brush-tailed por-
cupine was brought in, and traps yielded tree shrews (Tupaia) and
rats. The minimum temperature in the night was in the region
of 50° and the maximum during the day was 80°. The Kachin
headman of Pumsin, a villainous-looking individual bore on his
face the scar of a dah slash and he had one finger missing. On
January 80th we struck camp and marched to our next halt at
Tasu Bum. The path rose to 4,000 ft. and then dropped down
through dense forest of bamboo and taungya to a stream at
2,900 ft. Ascending from here to the village of Pum Noi, we
watehed Kachin women weaving their Tartan cloth. From this
point the path dropped in some places very steeply to the Khara
Hka, a stream at 2,800 ft. Rising abruptly the path led up to
Tasu Bum (4,200 ft.), the highest point of our march (14 miles
from the last camp). On our arrival we quenched our thirst with
cups of cocoa made with Nestle’s milk chocolate and water boiled
in bamboos. The Kachins here cultivate a small patch of tea,
as also oranges, peaches and plums. Blister flies were bad. Vil-
lagers brought in a number of peacock-pheasants and a squirrel
(Dremomys).
On January 3lst the party secured specimens of langurs,
squirrels (Callosciurus) and gibbons, while a cobra and two green
whip snakes were brought in by the villagers, as also several
birds and small mammals. Here the minimum _ temperature
recorded during the night was 51° and the maximum temperature
during the day 84°. On February Ist we struck camp and
marched to the river Tapa Hka. Three langurs and a gibbon
were collected; once a bison crashed across the path ahead of us.
Pitching camp at Tapa Hka (800 ft.) the surrounding area was
explored and a few specimens collected. Tracks of tiger were
seen and numerous old tracks of elephant. Leeches were much
worse here. ‘Gooming’ at night with jacklights yielded nothing,
but Raven secured a Scop’s owlet. Baits put out for tiger yielded
no result. Gibbons, squirrels and a pa were secured by the
party on the following day.
Four of the mules and one of the goats became very ill here
through eating something poisonous, two of the former dying.
~ Species of Dipterocarpus and Pterospermum were frequent,
-growing to a tremendous size. Aroids were numerous, bird: life
THE VERNAY-HOPWOOD UPPER CHINDWIN EXPEDITION _ 653
fairly rich, but animal life definitely poor. The temperature
recorded was minimum 54° and maximum 78°. Specimens col-
lected on February 2nd were a male gibbon, a Callosciurus, a
peacock pheasant and some birds. On February 38rd we moved
to the Tumri Hka, a distance of about 20 miles, and camp was
pitched on a sandbank. The mules kept up marvellously well in
spite of the fact that some of the going was difficult: had they
been less sure-footed, casualties would have occurred along places
where the ground dropped steeply from the path. In one stream
we found a quantity of petrified wood including large logs which
Raven considered were possibly of the Tertian (Miocene) period,
about twenty million years old. Three species of a beautiful wild
Begonia were seen and gathered by McCann. The jungles were
full of two or three kinds of stately palms. White sap oozing from
stumps of saplings and trees, cut by the men clearing the path
ahead of us, gave the stumps the appearance of having been
whitewashed. A sambhur hind and a muntjac were seen crossing
the Tumri Hka in the evening. The young gibbon captured at
Pumsin was by now quite tame and flourishing.
On February 4th leaving Tumri Hka at 8 a.m. we waded down
the river (650 ft. above sea level) for one and a half hours. Four
otters were seen, but we were not successful in collecting a ‘speci-
men. Quite a number of tracks of elephant, bison, sambhur and
tiger were in evidence though few were fresh. From here onwards
the greater hornbill was common. Down the stream, we frequently
came on places where gold washers had been at work. Crossing
the Taro Hka the path led through tall elephant grass and on
through dense evergreen and bamboo forest finally entering
taungya and cultivation. Along the path were tracks of tiger,
some quite fresh. A mile from Dalu (Taro) we passed Kolun, a
Chin village. Dalu, a Shan and Kachin village on the banks of
the Chindwin or the Tanai Hka, as it is known here, was reached
at noon. On the way one of our goats was drowned in the river,
how this actually occurred we were never able to discover. Some
of the outfit, including two boxes of cartridges, some cases of
skins and one containing kit, got soaked in crossing the rivers.
Baits were tied out in the evening and those of the party who
were keen fishermen went afishing, the two fish caught being
served up for dinner. Two of the party occupied the local Rest
House at Dalu, while the remainder were in tents. We had
marched about 130 miles from Nanyaseik. On the following morn-
ing, Major Rowley and the writer, crossing the Chindwin in a
dugout, set out for a Kachin village, Taga Hku, at the foot of
the Naga Hills, west of the Chindwin river. The river flowed for
eight miles mainly through fields of poppies (cultivated for opium).
Wild strawberries, insipid to the taste, grew in profusion. A heron
and two or three other river birds were collected, and Taga Hku
was reached at about noon. With the aid of our interpreter the
possibilities of a visit to a salt spring some distance away in the
jungles were discussed with the villagers. Here we saw our first
Nagas or Wangas as they called themselves. Our interpreter in-
formed us that Nagas were actually sections of the Chin tribe.
654 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Returning we travelled down the Taga Hka on bamboo rafts, shoot-
ing rapids, collecting birds, and taking movies, reaching Dalu in
the evening. When nearing the western bank of the Chindwin,
the leading Kachin drew the writer’s attention to what apparently
was a fine jungle cock. Fortunately the writer’s aim was not
good, a torrent of language from a neighbouring hut proclaimed
that the owner wanted to know why we were firing at his poultry!
On the following morning Rowley and Hopwood went fishing down
stream, while preparations were made for an expedition to the
salt springs in the jungles at the foot of the Naga Hills. Speci-
mens of squirrels (Tomeutes and Callosciurus) were secured in
the jungle nearby and thirty frogs along the river’s edge. On
February 7th, McCann and the writer, accompanied by our inter-
preter, a servant, and seventeen men, left for, the salt spring at
Lahkaw Hka following our previous route to Taga Hku. From
Taga Hku village to Lahkaw Hka, where a camp had been pre-
pared for us in the depth of a vast area of evergreen forest, we had
to wade knee deep, two or three miles up the Tara Hka. Follow-
ing an elephant-path we eventually reached our camp. The huts
were of palm-leaves and one joint bed, raised a little off the
eround, was covered with a mattress of the same material.
Leeches were in abundance and the path to the salt springs,
about a mile away, led through an evil-smelling bog. At the salt
springs, tracks of elephant and bison, all old, a few fresh tracks
of sambhur and those of a large tiger were seen. The tiger was
obviously a regular visitor. The salt-lick and its surroundings were
truly beautiful—banks of grey or of grey-blue overlaid with brown
sandstone. That evening the Kachins brought in a Banded Krait.
On the following morning another visit was made to the salt-lick.
The tiger had again visited the salt-lick during the night and
some of its droppings were found to be chiefly composed of salt-
lick earth. There was nothing salt in the taste of the earth of
this lick and, as in the case of most so-called salt-licks in India
and Burma, it was hard to determine the reason for its popu-
larity. The Lahkaw Hka salt springs are in two parts. One
of the banks at the upper lick had been worn into a curve by
elephants continually rubbing against it. Kachins were deputed to
erect two machans over the licks, on the chance of seeing the tiger
during the night. But our hopes were however not fulfilled, we
had a wet night’s vigil without the reward of seeing a single
animal. At the lower and smaller lck elephants had holed the
banks with their tusks in several places. The Kachins informed
us that we were the first Europeans to visit the salt-lick and, in
fact, that part of the country. On the 9th February the salt-lick
was re-visited, photos and samples of the earth being taken.
During the day we collected some birds and a type of Callosciurus
quite new to us and possibly a new form. Kachins brought in a
number of birds including pheasants, partridges, and a squirrel
(Dremomys), also a small pit viper. Snares laid for pheasants in
the jungle around produced victims daily. It is obvious that the
Kachins live well of the jungle and in view of the large number
of snares set for birds, porcupines, etc, in. the vicinity of Kachin
THE VERNAY-HOPWOOD UPPER CHINDWIN EXPEDITION © 685
villages it is amazing that such a large number continue to exist.
Snares for pheasants were invariably of the bent-over stick type
with a noose held down on a small circular patch of cleared
ground, the bait being small red berries which appeared to attract
the bird. On February 10th we struck camp and returned to Taga
Hku collecting en route. leeches were very bad after the previous
night’s: rain. A number of birds were collected, among them a
serpent eagle. We found the Tara Hka deeper afer three days’
rains. When near Taga Hku, McCann and the writer were both
stung by the giant stinging nettle (Laportea crenulata) which is
common on the banks of the rivers and streams in those parts.
Contact with water increased the pain from the stings considerably
and their effects were felt for three days. At Taga Tku we pitched
camp. A ‘goom’ after dark produced no results although a munt-
jac and a small animal, probably a civet, were seen. On February
11th two Pied-Hornbills were secured on a Ficus tree nearby
before leaving for Dalu, also a diminutive squirrel (Tamiops),
two monkeys (M. rhesus) and another specimen of Callosciurus
similar to that obtained at Lahkaw Hka. Boarding dugouts, we
- were paddled by the Kachins down the Taga Hka, shooting several
rapids. On the way down several birds including another Serpent
Eagle were collected. Dalu was reached at about 5 p.m., after
taking photos of a few semi-wild buffalo. Hopwood and Rowley
had in the meantime returned from their fishing trip, the latter
having caught several fish, but no Mahseer. One of the baits
had been killed by a tiger, but Raven had no luck sitting up. On
February 12th Vernay, Hopwood, Rowley and the writer left in
five dugouts for the Partip Gorge, about 380 miles up-river.
Arriving at the lower part of the gorge in the afternoon, we camped
on the rocks bordering the river. The river here was narrow and
obviously very deep, while the evergreen forest descended steeply
to nearly the water’s edge on both sides. Large splashes all
through the night indicated the presence of turtles. A langur was
collected on the journey up. On February 13th an early start
was made upstream; three or four birds including a grey heron were
collected on the way. Above the Partip Gorge we found gold
diggers at work and landed for a few minutes to watch them.
Lunching on a sandbank, we continued our journey finally tying
up at 8-30 p.m. on a large sandbank. Vernay and Rowley fished
for the pot while the writer collected birds in the adjacent forest.
It was noticeable that the slots of sambhur in these jungles were
very large, possibly due to the swampy nature of the jungles in
wet weather. Similarly the semi-wild buffalo leave tracks almost
as large as quarter-plates. On the following morning, while bréak-
fasting at 5 a.m. peculiarly raucous calls were heard from the other
side of the river and a pair of eyes was reflected in the light of
a jacklight flashed across. Rowley quickly slipped across the river
with his rifle and shot one of a pair of large Fishing Cats, a fine
specimen and a welcome addition to the collection. Returning to
Dalu, our progress down-river for the first hour was very slow
on account of dense mist. The Partip Gorge is indeed beautiful
with its steep forest-clad sides and low banks of rock, either bare
656 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
or fern- and moss-covered, while the water appeared to be as still
as in a pond. Although the journey up had taken nearly two full
days we reached Dalu in one, which involved hard work for the
boatmen. On the way down, two hawks were seen attacking a
great eastern purple heron, which, probably would have been killed
had the hawks not been disturbed by our presence. Vernay also
saw a hawk kill a common egret and was able to recover the
latter. At Hopwood’s suggestion the five boats took part in a
race with only the boatmen paddling. We had noticed that Hop-
wood’s boatmen had been paddling in a most regular and disci-
plined manner for sometime prior to this, and it transpired that
he had been preparing them for the race, needless to say his
boat won! Dalu was reached at 7 p.m. the journey having taken
just 12 hours. On landing the writer sent off four rocket (fire-
work) cartridges much to the boatmen’s delight. Raven had had
no luck with the tiger for which he had sat up three nights,
although the animal was heard giving tongue far and near. ' In
our absence, McCann had added mammals and birds to the
collection, and while engaged in the good work met with a demon-
stration from a tiger late in the evening in dense undergrowth.
He sat up for this tiger (over a goat) with no better success. The
minimum temperatures recorded at Dalu during the nights ranged
from 54° to 58° and 76° to 80° during the day. On February
15th, four Wanga Nagas came in and were subjected to photo-
graphy for some time. Their village: was apparently away in the
interior of the Naga Hills, at an elevation of about 8,000 ft. They
were small men compared to the Nagas we saw later on, but even
so they were fine specimens of humanity and bore themselves well.
Endeavours to persuade these men to take us to their village met
with no success: they were adamant in their refusal on the grounds
that it would be too dangerous. On February 16th Hopwood left
us to return to Rangoon taking with him cases of prepared speci-
mens and 58 of our mules for which we no longer had. loads. The
writer then developed fever and had to lie up. McCann, while
sitting under a Ficus in fruit, made an excellent collection of
gibbons (capturmg a young one as well), flying lizards and
squirrels. In the evening Raven and Vernay took flashlight
photos of the interior of the Kachin houses. |
While at Dalu, a member of the party received a _ letter
addressed to him ‘C/o Veterinary-Hospital Expedition’ (for Vernay-
Hopwood Expedition)! The 17th found the writer still in bed with
fever. McCann added to his previous day’s collection under the »
fig tree, and in the adjoining jungle secured four more gibbons,
another specimen of the flying lizard, and some birds. Unfortu-
nately the young gibbon caught alive on the previous day strangled
itself to death in McCann’s tent. By February 18th the writer’s
fever had eased off and camp was struck. A short journey was
made down river to Lakchang Ga, a Kachin village, on the
western bank. The mules swam across the river while our outfit
was taken across in two twin boats formed of two dugouts lashed
together with a curved mat roof over the centre. Both Lakchang
-Ga and Dalu are surrounded by paddy fields bordered by dense
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
Wanga Nagas at Dalu.
Wanga Nagas at Dalu. Note the buffalo
rib worn
in the hair.
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THE VERNAY-HOPWOOD UPPER CHINDWIN EXPEDITION _ 657
evergreen forest. Around these villages a species. of lemon, ori-
ginally cultivated, now grows in wild profusion, especially in aban-
doned taungya. The fruit is quite uneatable. The Kachins
displayed the keenest interest in us and in our work. At Dallu
we were favoured with the visit of a Chin man and two women
who had come on a three days’ journey to catch their first
glimpse of white men. They brought eggs and a piece of hand-
woven cloth and in return received half a bag of salt, which to
them was worth far more than it sounds. The headman of Lak-
chang Ga was a man of some substance and importance, owning
a large tract of country, mostly heavy forest including however
several Kachin and Chin villages. In times past the Chief of
Lakchang Ga owned a number of slaves, who were bought their
freedom by Government, the Chief receiving some thousands of
rupees in cash and, as the slaves continued to work for him con-
tentedly though free he did not lose much! At the request of
the Kansi Duwar, the Chief of Lakchang Ga had continued the
good work of clearing a path for the expedition on the western
side of the Chindwin. Between these two Chiefs about 85 miles
of path had been cleared for the expedition through dense jungle,
no mean work, and without which, the expedition’s progress would
have been fraught with greater difficulties. Leaving Lakchang Ga
on February 19th we journeyed down-river for about 8 miles pitch-
ing camp at Rasa, a Chin village on the west bank. The Chin
villages are noticeably not as clean or as orderly as those of the
Kachins. In the evening a species of langur not yet obtained
(Pithecus pileatus) was secured. On the following morning, camp
was struck and the expedition now divided, Vernay and Rowley
continuing down-river in the boats, while Raven, McCann and the
writer carried on west of the Chindwin with the mules. The path
from Rasa followed the bank of the Chindwin for a mile or two
and then cut through heavy evergreen jungle. At one or two
places on the bank small patches of surface coal were noticed.
Pausing for refreshments at the deserted village of Jantang (750 ft.),
we finally arrived at the place selected for our camp on the
Tagum Hka shortly after 3 p.m. (elevation about 750 ft.). The
path from Jantang had taken us up to 1,150 ft., and we crossed
the Mergui Hka two or three miles further before reaching our
camping site. Here three langur (Pithecus pileatus), including a
young one, and a female gibbon and her young were secured. At
Jantang we collected several specimens of sunbirds. Heavy rain
fell during the night. For dinner we ate langur but thought it a
bit tough. We found that our otherwise excellent 1 in.=1 mile
maps were a bit out for this region, the Tagum Hka not being
marked in at all. The writer was nearly sucked dry by the
father and mother of all leeches, of a colossal size, and_ this
monster was quickly consigned to the fire. One of the party’s
12-bore guns had ceased to function, but temporary repairs to
the broken lock-spring were cleverly effected by Raven, quite the
most handy man of the party, even to the extent of resoling
boots. February 21st saw us add two gibbons, two grey-tailed
Callosciurus and two macaques which were new to the collection.
658 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
These macaques were closely allied to Macacus rhesus, but larger
and more heavily built. It is now almost certain that they were
the long-tailed rhesus of Burma, specimens of which are badly
required by the British Museum. The forests in these parts
include many species of Ficus and Dipterocarpus. On the follow-
ing day a large langur and two grey langurs collected on the east
bank of the Chindwin, were brought in by Vernay who visited
the camp from his boats away down on the Chindwin river. Tem-
peratures recorded at Tagum Hka were 54° to 57° minimum and
66° to 71° maximum. .On February 23rd we struck camp and
while marching came on a troop of gibbons of which Raven took
movies, and subsequently a male and a female were secured. I
should have mentioned that the variations in colour in these
Hoolock gibbons from adolescence to maturity is most interesting.
In infaney the colour of both sexes is silvery, gradually darkening,
until within a year both sexes are black. On reaching the adult
state however the female becomes fawn-coloured, the male
remaining black.
One of the most interesting features of the collection was the
natural bar afforded by the Chindwin river. In the case of nearly
all species of mammals we found, the male adult gibbons, east
of the Chindwin have a patch of white hair in the region of the
scrotum, apart from the white bands across the forehead, the
bridge of the nose and under the chin. West of the Chindwin
river the adult male has the white band across the forehead, but
the white hair round the scrotum is completely absent. By far
the most interesting differences however were displayed in the
range of squirrels (Callosciurus), collected on both sides of the
Chindwin.? Whereas from Nanyaseik to Dalu the colour of the
animal remained fairly constant, it was found that on crossing
the Chindwin river, west of Dalu, the Callosciurus with their
almost white tails presented quite a different appearance. This
type remained fairly constant all through our journey on the
western side, the only variation occurring in the amount of white
to be seen on the tail. For instance, on the 23rd February, two
specimens were secured with tails slightly darker than those
collected on the western side previously.
Our next camp was located at Changa Hka about 12 miles
from Tagum Hka. The path from Tagum Hka to Changa Hka
at first rose rapidly to 1,200 ft. finally dropping steeply to our
camp site at 1,700 ft. Two gibbons and some specimens of
Callosciurus were added to the collection. On February 24th
sixteen mammals were collected, including four gibbons, ten Callos-
ciurus, one Dremomys and a young macaque. As a collecting area
this seemed a promising one, but unfortunately we had to move
on as difficulties arose in regard to fodder for the mules. Callos-
ciurus especially were very plentiful and there were evidences of
* A coloured plate with descriptions of seven different colour forms of one
species of squirrel (C. sladeni) collected along the Chindwin River between
Hkamti and Yin by the Society’s Mammal Puey will be found in the
Society’s Journal (vol. xxiv, p. 224)—Eps. . -
THE VERNAY-HOPWOOD UPPER CHINDWIN EXPEDITION. 659.
a number of muntjac. The minimum night temperature 54°
and the maximum day temperature 64°. A dinner of squirrels
proved good eating. We left Changa. Hka next morning the
path rising at the start very steeply and gradually ascending
till a height of 2,900 ft. was reached, whence we. descended to
2,110 ft., the elevation of our next camp at Hai Bum. This is
quite a large Chin village, not however shown on the maps, and
about 15 miles from our last camp. On the way specimens of
Ratufa, five gibbons and a langur were collected, and one or two
birds, and unfortunately we wounded and lost two or three langurs.
While chasing these langurs McCann had rather an unpleasant
fall leaving him rather shaken. On our arrival at Hai Bum the
headmen of seven villages paid a call and brought Naga spears,
dahs, chickens, eggs and plantains, all of which were duly paid
for! We were now in the Chin country; and the Chins brought us
pheasants (both silver and peacock), a number of birds, and three
brush-tailed porcupines. After tea a ceremonial visit was paid to
the house of the Headman of Hai Bum and we all, with the aid
of our interpreter, conversed round a fire in his house, sitting on
little rattan stools. He shortly produced a certificate given him
by the Assistant Superintendent, Frontier Service, a few years
before, in which it was indicated that the Headman had promised
to hold no more human sacrifices and to keep no more slaves.
Our query as to whether he had kept his promises was received
with considerable mirth! When human sacrifices were prevalent
the person selected, usually a slave, had a really wonderful time
for quite a lengthy period before he was sacrificed. Fed on the
fat of the land and country beer (to fatten him up) and doped with
opiates, the victim probably did not worry at all on the score that
he was soon to shake of this mortal coil.
The Kachins, Chins and Nagas are all spirit (‘Nat’) worshippers,
and the symbols of their worship are to be seen in the large
number of funnel-topped ‘Nat’ poles outside their villages and
their sacrificial houses. Semi-wild buffaloes are retained entirely
for sacrificial purposes and in no case is any milk of cattle or
buffaloes drunk by them; in fact they consider milk to be in the
nature of excreta. Raven, who had had years of experience col-
lecting in the Dutch East Indies was extremely interested in these
tribes and found that in features, dress, many of their customs,
in the black fibre ‘garters’ worn below the knee, and in other
respects they corresponded closely with the Dyaks of Borneo and
the Taragas of the Celebes, many words also being common to or
similar in their languages. In our subsequent expedition to the
Malayan jungles, Raven and the writer found certain similar
features in the case of the Sakais of Malaya, and his view was
that at one time an Indo-Malayan migration southwards from the
north of Assam and Burma must have taken place.
On February 26th, specimens of Callosciurus, a Tomeutes, a
langur and a gibbon were collected and a variety of birds, fifty of
which, including a peacock pheasant and a_ partridge, were
brought in by the Chins. The Chins are adept at shooting birds
and squirrels, and clever at spearing them with sharpened bamboo
660 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
splinters stuck into bamboo poles. Raven was pleased at being:
able to secure for the anthropological side of the collection a piece
of bark cloth made from the bark of the Upas tree (Antiaris tozi-
caria Lesch.), from which also a deadly poison is collected by
these tribes for the tips of their darts and spears. Here it is inter-
esting again to record that the same tree is utilised for the manu-
facture of bark cloth and the extraction of poison by the Dyaks
and Taragas of the Dutch East Indies. On the following morning
we left camp early and the day’s collection comprised a greater
hornbill, a number of Callosciurus, four Tamiops, a Ratufa and a
number of birds including an oriole and an owlet. This being
the Chin New Year’s day the Headman brought us two goats, a
fowl and eggs, expecting of course the usual return in cash which
was duly paid, and invited us to a Chin dance in the evening. At
their request six firework cartridges were fired by the writer, while
Raven took flashlight photographs of the scene which was most
picturesque: dancing in a complete circle, men and women with
arms interlocked, the men sang the first phrase of each song and
this was taken up by the women and boys. The Headman’s son
in particular presented a fine appearance in his tribal dress, akin
to that worn by the Nagas. On February 28th we were just
about to leave camp when Vernay and Rowley turned up having
climbed about 1,600 to 1,700 ft. up the steep path from the
Chindwin river. They brought with them a specimen of Slow
Loris (Nycticebus) and another specimen of the Long-tailed Rhesus.
They had had good fishing, especially at the Kyaukse rapids where
unfortunately Vernay lost a mighty mahseer; they were the first
white men to fish there. The total collected for the day amounted
to three gibbons, a number of squirrels, and birds including a
peacock-pheasant secured while displaying. A ‘goom’ in the
jungles at night produced no result. For night work these jungles
are like a grave-yard, and do not compare with the evergreen
jungles of South India in the amount of life held. Temperatures
recorded varied from minimum 56° to 63° to maximum 82° to 92°.
An interesting feature of Hai Bum is its boat-building industry.
Although situated 1,600 or 1,700 ft. above the Chindwin river fine
big dugouts were carved out of the trees of the forest adjoining
Hai Bum and dragged down to the river far below.
On March 1st, several Callosciurus, a Tomeutes, three gibbons
and a number of birds were collected while the Chins brought
in birds, pheasants, a snake and two Tomeutes: the last shot
with cross bows.
Neither the Chins nor the Kachins seemed to be able to grasp
the idea of driving animals towards guns. If sent in to the jungle
they would invariably go straight towards the object to be driven
instead of encircling it, thus driving it in the opposite direction.
Another point they have in common is their habit of cutting leaves
to sit on when sitting on the ground.
We had now collected over 100 mammals since leaving Lak-
chang Ga alone. The next day ten more mammals were added
to the collection including three giant squirrels, two gibbons, a
langur and four specimens of Callosciurus, also a number of birds
THE VERNAY-HOPWOOD UPPER CHINDWIN EXPEDITION _ 66)
and a terra-cotta-coloured snake, probably a species of Zamenis.
The collections of mammals were made at elevations between
700 ft. (near the Chindwin river) and 1,700 ft. Temperatures
during the last two days and nights recorded were 56° minimum
and 84° and 87° maximum. ‘The locals brought in 27 bats consist-
ing of Hipposiderus armiger, Rhinolophus and a Pipistrellus. The
three goats presented us previously by the Chins were today
slaughtered for the Museum, and the meat utilised for the pot and
very good it was too, not a trace of goaty flavour. The Chins, in
these parts, like the Kachins, are not good tree climbers and
prefer felling a tree of any size to climbing it. We found the Chins
less talkative than the Kachin fraternity and possessed with a some-
what less degree of humour. Large species of Dipterocarpus were
plentiful in the forests round Hai Bum and from these the dug-
outs were hewn. Fine specimens of a species of Pterospermum
and of Hlaeocarpus also abounded, the nuts of the last two being
eaten by Ratufa and Callosciurus. Many and large also were the
Upas trees (Antiaris toxicaria) from which the Chins, as already
stated, made bark cloth and derived poison for darts and spear
heads. McCann drew the writer’s attention to the fact that little
puffs of ‘smoke’ seemed to appear as the ‘fruit’ fell from these
trees which for a time puzzled us, but we eventually discovered
that they were actually puffs of pollen dust and probably Nature’s
means for the dispersal of the pollen. The fruit lay in abundance on
the ground, but neither mammal nor bird were seen to feed on it.
- On March 8rd camp was struck and we left for Sailung on
the Chindwin river passing through the village of Lachu Ga en
route. Our path from Hai Bum to Sailung took us up to
2,500 ft. and then dropped rapidly down the valley to the Chind-
win. The views obtained of the surrounding country and of the
Chindwin valley were superb. A specimen of Callosciurus and
some birds were collected. Sailung was reached at noon and here
a message from Mr. Vernay was handed to the writer intimating
that the mules were to be paid off and the journey down river
to Singkaling Hkamti made in twin dugouts connected by a
bamboo platform, in pontoon formation. Their accounts settled,
the muleteers swam the mules across the Chindwin. The men
first pushed out.into the river on a raft and when some distance
off the shore called to the mules which at once entered the water
and commenced swimming—a most interesting spectacle. Pitch-
ing camp on a large sandbank at the river’s edge, McCann and
the writer paddled up-river in a dugout that evening in the hopes
of obtaining further specimens of the long-tailed rhesus. On the
way a peacock was unsuccessfully stalked. It was fairly dark as
we came up to a troop of macaques on a tree overhanging the
river. Landing on the rocks at the water’s edge we climbed the
banks which were almost sheer. While attempting to locate the
macaques, McCann slipped and just saved himself from a nasty
fall though his gun sustained a little damage. He was certainly
the champion faller of the party! At dusk while using our jack-
lights, McCann stalked and fired at the glowing embers of a
fire left by fishermen on a sandspit taking them for the eyes
662 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
of an animal! Curried turtle eggs were served for dinner that
night and proved quite tasty. On the following morning we leit
Sailung at 8 a.m. in three twin boats with the double flies of
tents rigged up over each boat. Movies were taken of men locating
and digging out turtle eggs on a sandbank, and an otter was shot,
but unfortunately sank and was carried away by the current before
it could be recovered. Two otters were seen and were found
to be eating a young turtle. Singkaling Hkamti was reached at
6 p.m., Vernay and Rowley meeting us at the riverside and intro-
ducing us to the Sawbwa of that State. The Sawbwa proved quite
a useful collector and added a number of specimens to our already
valuable collection. Specimens of Callosciurus collected here
showed a distinct change in colouration being very much lghter
than those collected on the eastern side up-river. Next morning
Rowley and the writer accompanied the Sawbwa on a round
through the jungle nearby. Three specimens of Callosciurus were
obtained and a number of birds. Two tanks holding duck, geese,
snipe and other water fowl were visited but we were only able to
secure a single snipe, shot by the Sawbwa. The Sawbwa_ used
Vernay’s -22 rifle on doves with considerable accuracy. In the
evening a further specimen of Callosciurus and an owl were secured
and later, a group of Nagas came into camp and gave us an exhi-
bition of their war-dancing and singing which was quite impressive.
Most of the Nagas had splendid deep voices and their chanting
was most harmonious. The whole was supposed to represent a
party out head hunting and the dance on their return with their
spoils. On March 6th Vernay, Rowley, Raven and the writer,
together with the Sawbwa, left for the village of Hahti, away in
the Naga Hills. This village had been concerned recently in a
successful head hunting expedition. Crossing the river in boats we
walked for about 18 miles reaching an elevation of 2,200 ft. It
was a very hot day and the switch-back nature of the route made
it all the more tiring. Our loads were carried by Nagas who
rested for a little at the Naga village of Kawai (half way) while
we had our lunch. The writer secured a couple of gibbons and a
Tamiops, while the Sawbwa shot a Callosciurus and a partridge.
On approaching Hahti, which we reached at 5 p.m., one of the
headmen advanced out of the village to meet us and, satisfying
himself that the party had not come with any hostile intent, he
led the way back to the village, and we were accommodated in
huts that had been prepared for a military expedition expected
soon to deal with an head-hunting affair. It was noticeable that
the Naga villages were generally situated on bare hill tops or
ridges with the jungle cleared away all round, presumably to
safeguard themselves as much as possible from surprise attacks.
That such attacks could nevertheless be carried out successfully
was shown by the fact that the Nagas of Hahti and five other
villages attacked at dawn the large Naga village of Wantung about
30 miles away. First completely surrounding the village, the
attackers on three sides yelled and, as some of the inhabitants, in
panic, attempted to escape in what appeared to be a safe direction,
fifteen were cut down and decapitated. Satisfied with their spoils,
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
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THE VERNAY-HOPWOOD UPPER CHINDWIN EXPEDITION 668
the attackers returned and divided the heads equally amongst the
six villages, each village being allotted two and a half heads! <A
report on the affair was transmitted to Government by the Sing-
kaling Hkamti Sawbwa, and the village was heavily fined as being
the instigators of the raid. We were informed that the Wantung
villagers would certainly retaliate in due course, though possibly
not for some years. It should be mentioned that the Sawbwa had
been induced to take us to Hahti with a promise of Vernay’s
20-bore shot gun and 200 cartridges! We were shown a_ hut
where the Nagas placed their dead, the corpse or corpses being
kept on a raised platform inside. Eventually the huts collapse
together with the remains of the dead and a ceremony is then
performed over the skull which is subsequently put back with
the remains. At times we were unpleasantly reminded of the
proximity of these burial huts when the wind happened to be
blowing in our direction.
Magnificent specimens of manhood these wild Nagas! Their
dahs (long-handled choppers), stuck in short wooden sheaths slung
on their backs hang nearly vertical up the centre of the back
and are drawn out over the shoulder—a contrast to those of the
Kachins and Chins, who carry their dahs slung to one side. The
blades of their dahs are narrower and considerably lighter; and
in most cases the slings are adorned with a portion of a tiger's
or panther’s jaw. The Naga men were nude except for a short
black cloth hanging from the waist in front, and the women wore
a short black skirt of coarsely-woven material. The men always
carry spears, the blades of which are sometimes protected by a
bamboo sheath. Both men and women are tattooed on the face
and body.
On the following morning the writer collected a specimen of
Callosciurus (both this specimen and that secured on the day
before had very much darker feet) while the Sawbwa secured a
Tomeutes and three or four birds. Photos, both still and movies,
were taken in the village of the ‘Nat’ poles, the war drum, and
the skulls of the victims of the recent raid. A portion of one of
their victims’ hands was nailed up on a tree-trunk at one of the
entrances to the village while the remains of a tiger-skin were
stretched over a wicker frame above the human skulls. The
Nagas here appeared to have a special breed of goats with black
heads and white bodies. One of these was purchased for the
Museum, the meat being given to the Nagas. The expedition
also paid for two pigs which were slaughtered by the Nagas for
the feast. Tied up in the village was a fine specimen of a bull
Mithun. The remainder of the herd were apparently in the jungle
and were said to return to the village at nightfall. As in the
case of the semi-wild’ buffaloes to be found in the vicinity of
Kachin and Chin villages, these animals are only used for sacri-
ficial purposes. The buffaloes were rarely aggressive and would
generally crash away into the jungle on our approach. In the
afternoon the Naga women gave us an exhibition dance while the
men put on their full war regalia and reacted the outgoing and
return of a Naga head-hunting expedition. First the Naga warriors
2
664 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
were called together by the beating of the war drum (a hollowed-
out tree trunk). This was done in a most rhythmical way with
poles, and the party then left the village. Returning with their
spoils the party danced into the village headed by two warriors
dancing backwards at the head of the column. As they reached
the centre of the village the column formed into a ring and with
dahs drawn the dancing and chanting continued for some time,
a most impressive scene. Some of the warriors carried oblong-
shaped shields of either stout leather or beaten-out kerosene tin.
The men’s war helmets, or wicker caps were topped with a ring
of bear’s fur and adorned with hornbill feathers, while in front,
in some cases is Sewn a pair of very fine boar’s tushes. The Head-
men’s helmets were generally crowned with a thick fringe of
goat’s hair dyed red. During pauses in the dancing, exhibition
duels with spears and shields took place between a couple of
warriors, while the ever-present funny man was really amusing
with his antics—a true clown. The Assistant Headman, a magni-
ficent specimen, when not drinking beer out of a bamboo recep-
tacle, was continually exhorting the men to further efforts. After
it was all over the men were presented through the Sawbwa,
with beads and the women with skeins of yarn and needles, all
of which were much appreciated. At night the village presented
a most animated appearance, large fires burning in the centre of
the village, and sounds of mirth emanated from the houses around.
Built upon stilts, as are the Kachin and Chin houses, the Naga
huts were akin to those of the Chins in appearance, not being so
clean or well kept as the long houses of the Kachins. After dining
we returned to the village where Vernay and Raven took flashlight
photos of scenes in the interior of two houses. In the first the
inhabitants were sitting round a pot of boiling pork and goat’s
meat, in the second house, the people had just prepared themselves
for the night; a young couple were on a bench to one side, a group
of bachelors were lying on the floor in the centre of the house,
and other inmates occupying suitable spots in the long room. Many
of the Nagas kept up a Gregorian-like chant to a late hour, their
musical voices blending in fine harmony. We were told that the
tiger which had once borne the skin now hanging in tatters on
the. wicker frame had been shot by the Headman’s brother with
a bow and poisoned arrow. We were up early next morning and
after purchasing a few things the Nagas brought for sale we bade
a regretful farewell to Hahti and its Nagas, a cheerful and good
lot they appeared to be. |
The journey back to Singkaling Hkamti was _ considerabl
easier than the march up. A Tomeutes and a. gibbon were
collected. Some of the jungle passed through was typical Serow
country and evidence of their existence was provided by the
number of Serow horns worn by the Nagas on their dah sheaths,
the Serow being hunted by the Nagas with their dogs. On reaching
the Chindwin river, Vernay, Raven and the writer stripped and had
an enjoyable bathe in the cool water. McCann had not been idle in
our absence having collected about two dozen specimens of Callos-
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THE VERNAY-HOPWOOD UPPER CHINDWIN EXPEDITION 665
ciurus, a Latufa, Tamiops, two gibbons, a Loris (Nycticebus), and
a number of birds.
I should mention that at Singkaling Hkamti, Raven discovered
that Vernay had found what proved to be a valuable addition to
the collection, the fossilised tooth of a Stegadon (a pre-historic
elephant) anything from two to thirty million years old. Vernay
had picked this up while fishing on the banks of the Chindwin
river near the Kyaukse rapids. Subsequently further pre-historic
fossil remains were presented to the collection by Mr. Bodekar,
District Forest Officer at Mawlaik, earning the gratitude of the
expedition and the Museum,
As a reward for arranging our visit to Hahti the Sawbwa of
Singkaling Hkamti was duly presented with Vernay’s 20-bore
shot gun and cartridges.
The 9th March was taken up in a re-sorting of cases of stores,
camp equipment, calls on the Sawbwa and a further visit to the
jungle around. During dinner one of our servants nearly trod on
a Banded Krait which McCann adoritly caught. Later two of the
party “goomed’ up river in a dugout but had no luck. A 38- or 4-lb.
fish however, possibly dazzled by the lights, leapt right over the
boat hitting the front boatman in the back!
Singkaling Hkamti is the capital of the Shan State of that
name. We were able to obtain here a few provisions. such as
condensed milk, cigarettes, sugar, potatoes, etc. An extensive
area of paddy cultivation extended to the east and south of the
village. Beyond this lay a mixed forest of evergreen and deci-
duous trees, chief among the latter being Ficus glomerata, Wood-
fordia fruticosa, EHlaeocarpus sp., Bombax and Phyllanthus Em-
blica. A certain amount of tea is cultivated on both banks of the
river and the writer noticed a few coffee trees (arabica) growing in
the compounds of the houses.
While we were striking camp on the 10th the villagers brought
ina civet cat and two turtles. Loading all our equipment on
twin dugouts we travelled downstream till nearly dusk, dining and
sleeping on the sands at Heinsun. The Sawbwa accompanied the
expedition downstream as far as the limit of his territory. Early
next morning the party divided to collect on both banks, the
total collection for the morning resulting in a Ratufa, nine Callos-
ciurus and two macaques. Quite a large area of tea is cultivated
here, typical of Shan villages in tea country. Leaving Heinsun
at noon we tied up again at Linhpa in the evening. A ‘goom’
after dinner produced a civet (Paradoxurus). On the 12th collect-
ing proceeded on both banks of the river. Continuing our journey
at noon Kunghein was reached late in the afternoon, camp being
pitched on the west bank at the confluence of the Nanswa and
Chindwin rivers. ‘“Gooming’ after dinner (at which an excellent
squirrel curry was served) an owl was added to the collection.
Vernay and Rowley set out on a fishing expedition up the Nanswa
river next morning, while the remainder of the party collected on
both banks of the Chindwin. The Sawbwa went out collecting
daily and produced quite a number of specimens. That night a
peacock was collected by Raven while ‘gooming’! On the 14th
666 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Vernay and Rowley returned having had no success whatever.
During the day 385 Callosciurus including four with white tails
similar to those previously obtained at Taga Hku, a crab-eating
mongoose (Herpestes urva), a Dremomys and a number of birds
were collected on both banks of the river. ‘Gooming’ in the
evening McCann and the writer drew a blank, but Raven returned
at midnight with a civet, five turtles and some of their eggs. He
had come on men who had turned a turtle over and were digging
out its eggs. While watching them Raven spotted four more
turtles and turning them over captured them too. Unfortunately
two managed to right themselves and escaped. They had been
left lying on their backs on the sand near our cots to be dealt with
in the morning. Our departure from Kunghein was delayed by
the work on the turtles, and in the meantime a few birds were
collected. This area was quite one of the best for squirrels. The
village hes on the eastern bank, and near our camp was a pagoda
standing high over the confluence of the Nanswa and Chindwin.
To the east of the village was the usual extensive tract of paddy
lands beyond which lay the jungle, a feature of which was an
abundance of large Dillenia indica trees, their fruit continually
dropping off with loud thuds. The jungle bordering the river on
the western bank here is a dense mass of bamboo and cane beyond
which lies a forest of large trees composed of many species of figs
and Elaeocarpus. Large stretches of old taungya covered with
dense growth including Zalacca and Calamus palms made collect-
ing difficult. A certain amount of tobacco was cultivated on both
banks of the Nanswa at its junction with the Chindwin. Leaving
Kunghein at noon, camp was pitched at a village named
Moklok. Hearing from the villagers that elephants were raiding
their crops nightly, two of the party visited the village cultivation
on the 16th morning to see the damage done, but found that the
elephants had not turned up during the night. Collections on
both banks comprised a langur, a Rhesus macaque, three Callos-
ciurus, a Tamiops, a Tomeutes, two large hornbills, and other birds.
Leaving at noon we landed at Malin, where a ‘pwe’ was in pro-
gress, and visited the stalls and shops on the riverside. Proceeding
down-river we arrived at Minsun in the afternoon and here bade
farewell to the Sawbwa, Minsun being the southern limit of his
State. From here we carried on till evening pitching camp on
the sandbank at Awthaw for the night. Within 200 yards of camp
a langur was collected, definitely different from specimens obtained
up river, one of a troop in a tope of Dillenia trees. The weather
was getting noticeably warmer every day. The specimens of
Callosciurus collected on the east bank were still different from
those on the west, while Tomeutes on the east bank were yellowish
on the underside compared to the grey of those on the west bank.
Ticks were very badin the areas from Singkaling Hkamti southwards.
Karly next morning, the 17th, the whole party visited the tope
where the troop of langurs were seen on the previous evening and
a further six langurs were added to the collection before breakfast.
We were afloat again at noon and arrived at Tamanthi, about
14 miles down-river just after sunset. On the way down an otter
THE VERNAY-HOPWOOD UPPER CHINDWIN EXPEDITION 667
was shot but unfortunately sank before it could be recovered.
Our boats were moved to near the Tamanthi Rest House which we
occupied. Tamanthi, with its Post and Telegraph office, fortnightly
postal service and military police outpost, was our first real link
with civilization again. The local doctor and the Subadar of the
military police called on the leader of the expedition and the former
was able to diagnose a case of illness among our servants as that
of appendicitis, the first casualty among the staff. On the 18th
camp provisions were checked up and supplies replenished from
the local shops, while the writer and Raven made some tomato
jam which we considered excellent though not apparently appre-
ciated to the same extent by the remainder of the party! The
Callosciurus collected here exhibited a paler form than those col-
lected previously. Vernay went through the floor of one of the
rooms in the bungalow grazing his leg rather badly. The appendi-
citis case was taken on board the Government Mail Launch (a stern-
wheel paddle steamer) for the hospital at Homalin or Mawlaik.
Engaging two small dugouts next morning, the party travelled
down both sides of the river collecting squirrels, several birds in-
cluding a cormorant, a darter and a tern; also a crab-eating
mongoose. Reaching Sinnaing in the evening we dined and con-
tinued the journey in the two small boats with headlamps, Rowley
and the writer occupying one boat followed later by Raven and
Stubbs, the skinner, in the other dugout. Both Vernay and
McCann were feeling unwell and came down on the larger
boat-rafts. Rowley and the writer taking two-hour shifts collected
two owls and three nightyars.
At dawn on the 20th we landed at Hulaung and were joined
by Raven shortly afterwards. Here more squirrels and_ several
birds were collected including a fine fish-eagle. The Callosciurus
from this area showed a much whiter coat than any previously
secured. Raven and the writer were badly stung by the poisonous
giant nettles (Laportea crenulata), the taungya on the borders of
the river being full of it. After two or three days our arms and
legs were still most painful. All along the eastern bank were a
number of beautiful Bauhinia trees in flower. Camp was pitched
for the night at Maungkan, the writer landing and walking along
the east bank for the last few miles collecting two specimens of
Callosciurus, a Rhesus macaque, two Imperial green pigeons and
a few other birds. At dusk four bats were secured on the western
bank.
On the 21st Vernay and Raven left in small boats on a fast
run to Homalin, while the rest of the party followed on down-river
collecting on both banks. That night camp was pitched on a
sandbank in mid-river opposite the village of Kawya, quite a large
place bordered on the east by an extensive area of tea. Here two
Callosciurus were collected, the tails being quite white and their
bodies nearly so. The ‘Tuck-too’ lizard call was heard by us for
the first time. More attention is obviously paid to the tea here,
the plantations being of a better standard than hitherto seen.
We found a great difference between the Shans who- are
Buddhists and do not take life, and our former guides the Kachins
668 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol... XXXVIII
and Chins, the Shans being obviously not interested in the fauna
sought for. That night an amusing incident occurred though
rather riling to the writer at the time. The party, ‘gooming’, had
separated and the writer managed to secure our only specimen of
the large Yunnanese flying squirrel (Petaurista), a fruit bat
(Cynopterus) and two birds. We were to foregather at midnight
on the river-bank. The writer’s guide however did not seem to
understand this, with the result that camp was not reached till
2a.m. Every effort to make the guide return to camp only
resulted in a long journey in the opposite direction! A few minutes
after camp was eventually reached (Rowley and McCann having
returned two or three hours earlier) a violent gale suddenly sprang
up blowing down mosquito-nets and nearly carrying away a tent
off. one of the boats. The gale subsided after half an hour as-
quickly as it had started. The writer, being still fully dressed,
was the only member unaffected.
Striking camp early next morning, a collection of eleven Callos-
ciurus, eight Tomeutes and a gibbon were made on both banks
of the river, one of the party collecting as far as Tampao on
the west bank was picked up by the boats at noon. At 4 p.m.
Rowley and the writer landed on the east bank and walked
the rest of the way to Homalin securing two langurs near
Kaungkan. McCann with the rafts reached Homalin at 8-30 p.m.
Camp was pitched in the compound of the Inspection bungalow
where Vernay and Raven were already installed. Here we
received an accumulation of mail, Homalin being the northern-
most point of call for the Irrawaddy Flotilla steamers. On
the 28rd most of the day was spent in going through and re-pack-
ing our outfit while in the evening a single Callosciurus was
collected, nearly white in colour and four bats at night round the
bungalow. Collecting was continued on both banks of the river
on the following day, the bag from the western bank comprising
fourteen specimens of Tomeutes and some birds. The scrub jungle
in parts seemed to be alive with this species. Quite a large num-
ber of coffee trees are grown in the compounds of the houses at
Homalin as also in Kaungkan and Kawya. At about 10 p.m.
the well-known explorer and botanist, Kingdon Ward, turned up
with Tunstell (Mycologist at the Tocklai Tea Station in Assam),
having walked through the Naga Hills, and climbed within 2,000 ft.
of the summit of Saramathi, the elevation of which is 12,000 ft.
Apparently they were unable, for want of time, to climb the last
2,000 ft. but the snow line which was the limit of the forest was
reached and here snow was still lying among the rhododendrons
which formed the major part of the forest at the higher altitudes.
Kingdon Ward and Tunstell, with an escort of twenty Sepoys,
and about 120 coolies, reached the Chindwin at Tamanthi having
followed the Nantaleik river. They. had seen no game and few
birds but droppings of either Serow or Goral on the slopes of
Saramathi were observed. They spent the next day with us at
Homalin. Collections were made -during the day on both sides
of the river. The Callosciurus obtained on the eastern side were
nearly white. Successful flashlight. photos of the whole party
THE VERNAY-HOPWOOD UPPER CHINDWIN EXPEDITION 669
were taken in the bungalow late that night. On the 26th morning
Kingdon Ward and Tunstell left in a boat downriver. ‘Gooming’
after dinner, eight ‘Tuck-toos’ and two tree-frogs were secured.
Villagers brought in a small Himalayan bear cub which was taken
over by the writer. On the 27th two gibbons were collected in a
patch of evergreen jungle bordering a reservoir near Homalin
and a further four specimens of ‘white’ Callosciurus were also
added to the collection. In the afternoon all our heavy camp kit
was put on board the Irrawaddy Flotiila steamer Namtu which had
arrived. ‘Goomers’ that night secured two different specimens of
civets, Viverricula and Vivera zibetha.
Homalin is quite a large town, the Headquarters of a Sub-
Division Officer, on the eastern bank of the Chindwin, boasting in
a number of shops mostly owned by Sikhs. The forest on the
east bank is composed of small deciduous trees among which are
Careya arborea, Holarrhena antidysenterica, Feronia, Dillenia pen-
tagyna, Zizyphus, Ficus glomerata and other species of figs, also
Congea, Bombax, Combretum, Elaeocarpus and a large species
of Smilax which was in flower. A number of Meliaceae and
Rhamnaceae, Apocynaceae and Urticaceae also occur. In the ever-
green patches bordering the reservoir and stream the following
were noticed:—Myrtaceae, Araliaceae, Araceae, Scitaminaceae,
Palmae, and Pygeum. The last was fairly abundant and in fruit.
The stomach of a female gibbon shot at Homalin contained fifty-
four fruits of Pygeum entire, while the alimentary canal con-
tained numerous seeds of the same kind. In the swamps grasses,
Cyperaceae, Onagraceae (Ludwigia), a species of a rose (white),
and the water hyacinth were common, while a willow (Salix) was
observed along the banks of the stream. Very extensive paddy
fields lie round Homalin; cocoanut, betelnut, plantains and pawpaws
are also cultivated. The deciduous forest contained large numbers
of a species of Hrythrina, while a species of Rumex was common
along the river-banks.
By 8-30 a.m. on the following morning all our light luggage
had been loaded on the steamer which left Homalin on the last
stage of our journey down the Chindwin river. The steamer
stopped at four places to pick up cargo and tied up for the night
at Phaunglyin passing during the day several of the quaint native
craft known as ‘Hoolongs’. As we travelled down-river the forest
appeared to become more and more deciduous, Butea frondosa
showing up in full bloom on the eastern side. The river was
very shallow in parts and our boat, a stern-wheel paddle steamer,
frequently either stuck on or grated over sandbanks. At this time
of the year a passage for the steamers is continuously charted and
marked out by bamboos painted either red or black. Owing to
this all steamers only travel by day. From here onwards Talipot
palms, a number of them in flower, were in evidence near villages.
The steamer continued the journey down-river calling at several
places en route including Pantha, where there is a large oil
refinery, and Kindat. At noon we passed some very interesting
rock formations. Mawlaik was reached at about 7 p.m. and here
we had to change steamers, After. breakfast next morning the
670 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVUI
jungle on both sides of the river was visited and four Callosciurus,
three Tomeutes, a Tamiops, and several birds were secured. The
forests entered were purely deciduous. The following species were
common:—Bombax sp., Dillenia pentagyna, Randia uliginosa,
Zizyphus sp., Lagerstroemia, Elaeocarpus sp., and some of the
Combretaceae, Mimosae and Albizzia also Butea frondosa, species of
Ficus, Strebulus asper, Cassia fistula, and trees of the Begnoniaceae.
The Calloscturus collected were unlike any of those secured
hitherto being dark with rufous tipped tails and a rufous blaze on -
the forehead, those collected at Homalin being nearly white. The
Uyu river joining the Chindwin 8 miles below Homalin apparently
forms a barrier to the white squirrel area, the Callosciurus on the
south and east of the Uyu being more of the type occurring
in the interior east of the Chindwin. That night we moved into
the larger boat Sima which had excellent accommodation and
electric lights. The Sima was due to travel up river to Pantha,
halting at Kindat on the way, and as this provided an opportunity
for collecting at Kindat, the writer landed here at 8-80 a.m., and
crossed over to the west bank in a dugout with two villagers.
During the night while ‘gooming’ in the Rest House compound
a large civet (Paradorurus) was brought down from a fig tree and
several ‘Tuck-too’ lizards caught. Harly on the following morning
(April Ist) the writer travelled out east, but came to no jungle
and hearing the whistle of the steamer had to hurry back, reach-
ing the boat at 7-30 a.m. The villagers informed the writer that
there was scrub jungle out further east but that only Tomeutes
occurred. This was interesting being a complete reversal of con-
ditions, as from Singkaling Hkamti southwards the east bank had
been the productive area for Callosciurus, the west bank producing
mainly Tomeutes which were rare on the eastern side. At Mawlaik
the east bank again produced Callosciurus, only Tomeutes occur-
ring on the western side; at Kindat the Callosciurus shot on the
west bank was dark grey with a grey white tail and chestnut
underparts. McCann collected a Callosciurus on the east bank at
Pantha, similar to the specimen secured at Mawlaik. A number
of ‘Tuck-too’ lizards had also been collected and a leopard cat
unfortunately lost.
McCann records that the forests on the eastern bank at Pantha
are dry and deciduous except along the banks of streams where
evergreen trees occur, the deciduous forests beimg composed
chiefly of the following trees and shrubs:—Tectona grandis, Elaeo-
carpus sp., Gmelina arborea, Careya arborea, Bassia sp., Odina
woodiar, Butea frondosa, Calycopteris floribunda, Woodfordia fruti-
cosa, Ficus sp., Eugenia sp., Randia sp., and a tree of the Papilo-
naceae with a purple bloom. Gliricidia maculata was also common.
The civet (Paradoxurus) collected at Kindat contained five
foetuses. Halting at Mawlaik for a short time the steamer arrived
at Kalawa soon after 4 p.m. and here six Callosciurus were secured,
mostly in the compounds of the houses in the village on the
eastern bank, also 11 Tomeutes on-the western bank. The Callos-
ciurus were of the same type as collected at Mawlaik and Pantha.
The Tomeutes were apparently feeding on the fruit of Calycopteris
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THE VERNAY-HOPWOOD UPPER CHINDWIN EXPEDITION 671
floribunda. In front of nearly every Burmese and Shan house in
these towns and villages stands a long pole headed with a plaited
bamboo mat, about 18 in. square, and a crook: apparently it is
an unwritten law that one of these has to be maintained in front
of every house to beat out fires and pull out burning materials.
Leaving Kalawa at 5 a.m. in the morning the steamer reached
Okina on the eastern bank at 4-30 p.m. calling at several villages
en route. In the evening squirrels and some birds and frogs were
collected and after dinner 14 ‘Tuck-toos’ and seven nightjars.
The giant squirrels (Ratufa) were different to those shot previ-
ously being much lighter in colour and smaller. We were now
in the typical dry zone of Burma and much of the scrub jungle
is similar to that occurring in the dry parts of South India.
Leaving at 5 a.m. next morning we arrived at Monywa at 1-30 p.m.
and so completed our journey down the Chindwin river and our
collection work. Our train left Monywa early next morning, and tra-
velling most comfortably in a special reserved carriage, we arrived at
Rangoon on the morning of April 5th, and were met by Hopwood.
~ Our collection consisted of some 1,000 mammals, 750 birds and
a large number of reptiles and fishes. The most interesting side
of the collection was definitely the squirrels (Callosciurus) which
exhibited a remarkably interesting variation in colouration of coat.
Those collected on the eastern “ide of the Chindwin showed the
most interesting changes, while the specimens of Callosciurus
collected on the western side remained far more constant. It is
suggested that an explanation for the variety of colour displayed
east of the Chindwin might possibly be found in an examination
of the flora in the different localities producing the different colour
forms. In the dense forest of the northern areas the colouration
was definitely darker than those in the lighter deciduous forest
further south, continuing down to Homalin, where the Callosciurus
were almost white. McCann observes that in studying the vege-
tation it would be necessary to take into consideration the colour-
ation of the bark of the trees and the predominance of either dark
or light coloured vegetation, and it would be also necessary to
study this in connection with the rainfall figures of the various
places. At the time the expedition visited the area the squirrels
were observed to be feeding on Elaeocarpus sp., and Pterospermum
sp. An examination of the embryological material collected by
Raven would provide interesting information on the breeding
season of those animals.
The writer cannot conclude these notes without expressing his
obligation to McCann for his notes, of which he has made full use.
The botanical notes in this article are almost entirely quoted from
his notes as also the opinion expressed on the possible bearing
the vegetation in the various localities has on the variation in
colouration exhibited by specimens of Callosciurus collected east
of the Chindwin down to Homalin. The writer cannot but observe
however that one obvious hitch to this theory is provided by the.
colouration of the Callosciurus collected south of Homalin which
appear to be a definite throw-back to that of specimens collected in
the denser jungles of the interior up north, west of the Uyu river.
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE
EHKASTERN GHATS.
(ORNITHOLOGICAL SECTION),
BY
Hucu WHISTLER, M.B.0.U., assisted by N. B. KInNHAR, M.B.0.U.
Part XIV.
(Continued from page 4387 of this volume).
Crocopus phoenicopterus chlorogaster (Blyth).
Vinago chlorogaster Blyth, J.A.8.B., vol. xii (1848), p. 167, note—no locality,
now restricted to Salem district in South India.
Specimens collected:—144 ¢ 28-4-29 Kurumbapatti; 1022 ¢ 22-11-29 Nalla-
malai range 2,500 ft.
Measurements : —
| Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
26 90-22..5 182-184 100-108.5 24.5 mm:
There is very little definite information about the status and distribution
of the Southern Green Pigeon in the Presidency. On the eastern side the
above two records ate merely supplemented by Dewar’s statement that it is
not at all common at Madras.
On the west I find the following records. A male in the British Museum
was collected by William Davison on 17 February 1881 three miles beyond
Seegore (Sigur). There is a male from Malappuram dated 7 April 1912 in
Colonel Sparrow’s collection. |
In the Nelliampathies according to Kinloch the Green Pigeon is very common
and locally migratory. He says (J.B.N.H.S., xxvii, 943) that it comes up
from the plains towards the beginning of October and in November and
December may be found everywhere. Towards the middle of January they start
disappearing, presumably going back to the plains and they gradually diminish
in numbers till the middle of February when the last stragglers depart. Occa-
sionally a few birds remain in the Nelliampathies till the burst of the S.-W.
Monsoon and breed in the hills.
In the Palnis this Green Pigeon appears to be confined to the base. Fair-
bank says that he obtained it in the avenues of the north base in October 1866
but did not find it at all on his second visit, which suggests that here too
there may be local movements. Terry, however, took a fresh egg in the
Pittur Valley on 7 April but found the bird no higher up.
Stewart is said to have taken eggs in Travancore in January (Nidification,
iv, 127) but the species does not occur in Ferguson’s list.
It may be remarked that the few specimens I have examined from the Presi-
dency appear to be smaller than the specimens of chlorigaster which occur
across the central belt of the Peninsula, where males have a wing varying up
to 203 mm. in size.
The Vinago chlorigaster of Blyth was originally described without any
type locality. In the Annals Mag. Nat. Hist. 1844, vol. xiv, p. 116, Blyth,
however, says in the Birds of Calcutta:—‘that of Southern India (Vinago or
Treron) chlorigaster nobis I have only once obtained in this part and have
received specimens of it from Mr. Jerdon and others.’ This clearly fixes
So type locality as Southern India and I now further restrict it to Salem
istrict. .
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 673
Dendrophassa pompadora affinis (Jerdon).
Vinago affinis Jerdon, Madras Jour. Lit. Sci., vol. xii (1840), p. 13—West
Coast of India.
The Grey-fronted Green Pigeon was not obtained by the Survey and it is
confined to the west coast of India from the extreme south up to, not only
North Kanara as given in the New Fauna (v, 188) but to Alibag (Sinclair,
J.B.N.H.S., xii, 185) and Khandala (Fairbank, S.F., iv, 261) as correctly
given in the Old Fauna.’ In this area it is of course a resident species though
it moves about locally in accordance with the ripening season of the berries
and fruits on which it feeds. The statement that it occurs in the Laccadives
is surely an error for Pigeon Island (see Hume, S.F., iv, 424).
In Coorg, according to Betts, large flocks come into the coffee estates from
September to Christmas but spend the rest of the year in the jungle. There
are two specimens from Coorg in the Tweedale collection as well as two from
Calicut. In the Wynaad William Davison obtained a series now in the British
Museum and he says that it is found in small flocks in different parts, though
nowhere very abundant. It does not ascend the Nilgiris to any height, but
is fairly common up to 3,500 ft. On the north side Phythian Adams saw it
occasionally at Musnigudi and saw several flocks at Anaikatti 3,000 ft. in
September and October.
Kinloch found this Green Pigeon extremely common in the Nelliampathies
in February and March but says that it descends to lower levels before the
burst of the S.-W. Monsoon. In the Palnis Fairbank obtained it at Periur,
where it was coming in flocks to feed on the ripening fruit of Zizyphus.
In Travancore this Pigeon is common in the jungles both in the low
country and on the hills at low elevations. They ascend higher in February
and March, then occurring up to about 3,000 ft. :
The breeding season in the Presidency is from January to April. Darling
took several nests on the 10th April at 3,000 ft. at the foot of the Terriat
hills, 10 miles N.-W. of Vythery, 8. Wynaad (N..& E., ii, 375). Phythian
Adams took eggs at Anaikatti in February. In the Nelliampathies Kinloch
found them breeding almost solely in January and February (Nidification, ‘iv,
130). Bourdillon took an egg in the Ashambo Hills on February 24th.
Dendrophassa bicincta bicincta (Jerdon).
Vinago bicincta Jerdon, Madr. Jour. Lit. Sci., vol. xii (1840, after Sep-
tember 22), p. 13—sea coast, south of Tellicherry.
Specimens collected :—1635 ¢ 31-3-30, 1640 J 1-4-3830 Sankrametta 3,500 ft.
Measurements : —
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
26 19 161-164.5 98.5: 20 mm.
The Orange-breasted Green Pigeon appears to be fairly generally distri-
buted on both sides of the Presidency though very little is really known
about it. Jerdon obtained a female, the type of his Vinago unicolor (which he
did not then recognise as the female of his Vinago bicincta), in a grove of
trees at Bimlipatam on the sea coast, not far from Sankrametta where the
Survey specimens were obtained. He also states in the Illustrations that he
had obtained specimens from the Eastern Ghats west of Nellore and once in
the ‘Carnatic’.
Tor the west William Davison (S.F., x, 406) records that he once saw a
specimen shot at Cherambady in the Wynaad by a Mrs. F. Hodgson. In
Travancore, according to Ferguson, this bird may be met with in the low
country not far from the coast.
Nothing is recorded about the breeding season in the Presidency.
There are evidently two races of the Orange-breasted Green Pigeon in India
and Ceylon distinguished merely by size. Ceylon birds are very small. 9 males
measure: bill 17-19, wing 145-154, tail 88.5-93.5 mm. Himalayan birds, on
eee
1 Since the above was written I see that Mr. Humayun Abdulali has recorded
the species from Karnala Fort, Kolaba District on 25 February 1934.
/.B.N.H.S.; xxxvlil, 985..- .- 7" oe den wet as
674 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
the other hand, are large and with them must be grouped our Survey birds,
and birds from N. Kanara, 6 ¢ measuring bill 16-19, wing 156-164.5, tail
93.5-98.5 mm. There are however unfortunately no birds available from the
Malabar Coast to show what is the typical race, whether it agrees with either
the large or the small form, or is intermediate between them. Mr. Stuart
Baker tries (New Fauna, v, 190) to settle the question on the three specimens
with no precise locality collected by Jerdon and Baker (wrongly called Baber)
in the British Museum. This however is valueless as there is nothing to
show whether Jerdon’s birds were collected from his northern or southern
localities and there is no reason to believe that Baker collected in Ceylon as
alleged by Mr. Stuart Baker. There also seems to be no proper evidence for
the statement (Nidification, iv, 131) that birds from South Travancore belong
to the small Ceylon race.
The Malabar birds must of course. be the typical race. There are names
available both for the northern and southern (Ceylon) birds. For the former
Vinago unicolor Jerdon, Madras Jour. Lit. Science, vol. xii, 1840 (after Sep-
tember 22), p. 183—Bimhpatam. For the latter Treron bicincta legge. Hartert,
Novitates Zool., vol. xvii (1910), p. 193—Ceylon. When Malabar specimens are
available the correct names and distributions of the races can be settled.
Ducula badia cuprea (Jerdon).
Carpophaga cuprea Jerdon, Madr. Jour. Lit. Sci., vol. xii (July 1840), p. 12
—Wynaad.
Not procured by the Survey. There is a very doubtful record of Jerdon’s
Imperial Pigeon in Jeypore State (Ball, S.F., v, 418) which supplies the only
suggestion that it occurs anywhere in the Eastern Ghats. On the west it is
well known. Colonel Baker (Birds of S. India, p. 277) has an interesting
account of how he met with it at Wotacolly in Coorg, finding it common
almost to the foot of the western slopes, though he had not observed it at
all on the eastern side of the Ghats. William Davison called it not uncommon
in the great forests of the Wynaad and on the slopes of the Nilgiris where
Mr. Betts informs me they occur up to about 4,000 ft. Jerdon (Birds of India,
iii, 458) has something to say about the local migration of the birds from
Coorg and the Wynaad, from the middle of April to the first week of June,
to the neighbourhood of Cannanore, to feed in a large salt swamp but this
swamp now seems to have disappeared.
Kinloch found it very common in the Nelliampathies.
In Travancore Jerdon’s Imperial Pigeon is common in the hills in heavy
forest at all elevations and a series from Mynall is in the British Museum.
A specimen collected in May 1917 by Mr. 8S. H. Prater in Madura (doubtless.
in the High Wavy Mountains see J.B.N.H.S., xxv, 290) is in the Society’s
collection.
Bourdillon was of the opinion that the bird was double-brooded laying in
April and again in November, but Stuart Baker (Nidification, iv, 139) on the
authority of Stewart gives the breeding season as from January to May in
Travancore. It is doubtless much the same in Coorg and the Wynaad as Iver
Macpherson (N. & E., ii, 368) took eggs in March, April and May, just over
the border in Mysore territory.
Muscadivora aenea pusilla (Blyth).
_ Carpophaga -pusilla Blyth, J.A.S.B., vol. xviii (1849), p. 816—Nilgiris.
. Specimens collected:—14 Q 10-4-29 Kurumbapatti; 291 3 30-5-29 Chitteri
range 2,000 ft.; 652 ¢ 4-8-29 Palkonda. Hills 1,000 ft.
Measurements :—
ca Bill. Wing. Tail, Tarsus.
Se 2s 27-28.5 . 211-218 139-140 29. mm..
Lo . 27 202 131 28 mm.
The Green Imperial Pigeon seems to be very generally distributed in
small numbers in the Presidency. Ball (S.F., v, 418) tells us that it was
found by Captain Blaxland-at Paparhandi 1,800 ft., a town in the Jeypore
Agency: -A-male obtained north of Ellore on 6th April 1871.-is in the Hume
collection and a specimen from Vellikonda, Nellore district, is in the -Madras
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 675
Museum. On this side the records are completed by the two Survey specimens.
- For the west there are a male (2 October 1867) and a female (17 October
1867) from Kullar and an unsexed bird collected at Calicut in 18738, all in
the Hume collection. There seem to be no records for the Nilgiris but Major
Phythian Adams informs me that he obtained it in July near Kollegal (North
Coimbatore) though there were not many about.
In the Nelliampathies it is rare and only occurs, according to Kinloch,
towards the foot of the southern slopes.
In Travancore Ferguson says it is only found in forest in the low country.
He had never seen it in the hills or away from the coast.
According to Stuart Baker (Nidification, iv, 142) eggs have been taken in
Travancore by Bourdillon and Stewart from February to April and in June.
In tha New Fauna (v, 209) Mr. Stuart Baker says that there is a vast
area between North and South India where no Green Imperial Pigeons occur.
This is not quite correct. I have plotted all the records on a map and find
that they extend in an unbroken line from the Eastern Himalayas to Travan-
core mostly confined to the eastern side, but on the west also occurring up
as high as Bombay. In this wide Indian distribution and in Ceylon there
is no variation in colour but there is a gradual increase in size from the south
to the north. The series available is not properly sexed but the difference in
size between Himalayan and Cinghalese birds is considerable: —
Bill. Wing.
6 birds Eastern Himalayas 30.5-33.5 232-248 mm.
6 birds Ceylon 29-32 202-213 mm.
This difference is bridged by degrees by the specimens available from the
intermediate areas and it does not. seem possible to say where one race begins
and another ends. Under the circumstances I propose to use the arbitrary
boundary of the twentieth degree, which has been already used in a number of
similar cases. All Presidency birds may then be known as M. e. pusilla
while for the northern birds the name available is Columba sylvatica Tickell,
J.A.S.B., vol. ii (November 1833), p. 581—Borabhum.
Mr. Stuart Baker has wrongly given the type-locality of M. e@. pusilla as
Ceylon instead of the Nilgiris and his argument (loc. cit.) is affected by this
mistake.
Chalcophaps indica indica (Linnaeus).
Columba indica Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, vol. i (1758), p. 164—In
India orientalis.
Specimens collected:—357 Q 7-6-29, 374 ¢ 9-6-29 Chitteri range 2,000 ft.
Measurements : —
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
lume’ 22 146.5 94.5 25 mm.
1° 21.5 147 91 24 mm.
The Bronze-Winged Dove is better known in the Presidency on the western
side. Although normally a forest bird Mr. Betts tells us that in Coorg it is
occasionally seen in the well-wooded coffee estates. It occurs in fair numbers
according to William Davison in the Wynaad and over the lower slopes of
the Nilgiris, ascending in smaller numbers as high as Coonoor on the one
side and Neddivattum on the other. Major Phythian Adams informs me that
it may often be seen on the Goodalore Ghat. There is a specimen (3) from
Malappuram dated 9-6-12 in Colonel Sparrow’s collection.
Kinloch called it very common in the Nelliampathies. In the Palnis Fair-
bank shot one and saw another at Periur, and Terry obtained a specimen at
Pulungi. In Travancore, according to Bourdillon, this bird is common on the
hills at all elevations in the dry weather, but at other times is confined to
the lower slopes.
On the eastern side the Bronze-winged Dove was found in Panapakkam
Forest Reserve, Chittoor district, by Dawson (J.B.N.H.S., xxvi, 671) when a
female was shot on 13 February 1919 and two other birds seen. There is a
specimen from the Shevaroys in the Madras Museum a locality confirmed by
the two specimens collected by the Survey. Mr. LaPersonne reports that the
birds were common.
676 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
As to the breeding season Mr. J. Darling found a nest with two young
ones at Vythery on 7 March 1873 (N. & E., 11, 3864). In the Nelliampathies
according to Kinloch and in Travancore according to Bourdillon this dove breeds
in April and May and again in November and December (Nidification, iv, 147).
Bourdillon also records two hard-set eggs on January 13th.
There is no difference between birds from North and South India. Ceylon
birds are, however, separable as Chalcophaps indica robinson: Stuart Baker on
the characters given in the New Fauna.
Columba livia intermedia Strickland.
Columba intermedia Strickland, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. xiii (January
1844), p. 39—India.
Not reported by the Survey. The Blue Rock Pigeon is evidently much
less common and less generally distributed in the Madras Presidency than in
Northern India, though I am not sure how far the records convey a true
picture of its distribution. On the eastern side it is only recorded in Dewar’s
list for Madras. On the western side we have two specimens marked Coorg
in the Tweedale collection. It may be remarked however that the bird is not
included in Bett’s Coorg list and these specimens are not altogether satis-
factory, being indistinguishable from North Indian birds.
The Blue Rock Pigeon is not included in William Davison’s Wynaad and
Nilgiri list but two males collected at Coonoor by him on 4 November 1881 .
and 25 October 1881, that is after the trip whose results are recorded in his
paper, are in the British Museum.
In the Palnis Fairbank met with a flock by ‘the fall of Levinge’s brook’
and Terry found a large colony on the cliffs near Pittur. In Travancore,
according to Ferguson, this pigeon is common in the low country, frequenting
paddy fields. During the dry months these flocks ascend the hills in South
Travancore to an elevation of 2,500 ft., feeding up there by day and returning
at night to roost in the plains. There is a large colony on a sea-girt rock
off Cape Comorin.
‘Nothing is recorded about the breeding season in this Presidency. The
small amount of material from South India for the critical study of this
pigeon is far from satisfactory but it appears that the Blue Rock Pigeon
is darker and smaller in South India (intermedia) and larger and paler in
North India (neglecta), the two forms grading into each other. Until proper
material is, however, available from Central and South India any ree to
define the distribution of the two races is premature.
Columba elphinstonii (Sykes).
Ptilinopus elphinstonu Sykes, P.Z.S. 18382 (November. 22), p. 149—Ghauts.
Not met by the Survey. Except for the unconfirmed and unlikely report
of its occurrence in Jeypore (Ball, S.F., v, 418) and the statement in the
Birds of South India (p. 281) that it occurs in the Shevaroys, the Nilgiri
Wood Pigeon is only found in the Presidency in the western hills. William
Davison reported it as comparatively common in the Brahmagherries. The
Wynaad is not high enough for it but in the Nilgiris it is common from
about 4,000 ft. upwards, being usually found in pairs though numbers may
collect when the fruits of various trees are in season. Its numbers and _ its
movements evidently depend very greatly throughout its range on the berries
and fruits on which it feeds. -Colonel Sparrow’s collection contains a female
collected at Kolattur, Malappuram, on 9 December 1912.
This Pigeon does not occur in Kinloch’s Nelliampathy list but in the
Birds of S. India he is quoted as saying that it is found sparsely in those
hills. Southwards it is common in the Palnis, from 4,000 ft. upwards, and
in all the higher ranges of the Travancore hills. Mr. Prater obtained a
specimen, now in the Society’s collection, in the High Wavy Hills of Madura
on 14 May 1917.
“Mr. Stuart Baker (Nidification, iv, 154) states that the breeding season in
the Presidency lasts from March to July, most eggs being laid in May and
June.
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 677
Streptopelia orientalis meena Sykes.
Columba meena Sykes, P.Z.S. 1832 (November 22), p. 149—Dukhan.
Although no specimen of the Rufous Turtle-Dove was obtained by the
Survey I have thought it desirable to go into the whole question of the
distribution and names of our Indian races in view of the different views which
have been published on the point and in order to identify the only Presidency
specimen available for examination.
There are four difficulties in the matter—so far as our Indian birds are
concerned—the lack of reliable information as to where these doves are to
be found as breeding birds, the lack of specimens of known breeding birds, the
intergradation between the three races, and finally the correct attribution of
the available names. .
_ There is no difficulty—save of name—for the bird which breeds as a summer
visitor at moderate and high altitudes throughout the Western Himalayas.
This is the bird with pale underparts, much white on the belly and white
under tail-coverts and white tips to the tail feathers. On its breeding there
is plenty of accurate information and there are many specimens available
which from their dates and other information may be satisfactorily accepted as
breeding birds. As this race is highly migratory its breeding season is well-
defined. In winter it vanishes from its. breeding territory and moves south-
wards and eastwards, avoiding however the desert areas of Sindh and Raj-
putana. Specimens in the British Museum verify its occurrence far south
in fair numbers in Western Khandesh (Davidson, S.F., x, 315) and also occa-
sionally at Mahableshwar (Q May 1874, Fairbank), N. Kanara (¢ 14-83-89,
Sirsi James Davidson), and Manantoddy, Wynaad (sex? 10-4-1881, William
Davison). Eastwards I have examined specimens from Seoni (Q 4-3-70 Hume
coll.), Mirzapur (sex? March 1869, Thompson), Darbhangha (3 8-10-07
Baghownie, ¢ juv. 2-12-03 Anarh, Inglis), and Native Sikkim (¢, sex? April
1874, Mandelli).
The eastern limit of this bird’s breeding range is not satisfactorily esta-
blished. The Old Fauna (iv, 42) says that it breeds as far east as Sikkim.
Mr. Stuart Baker says (New Fauna, v, 240) ‘The Himalayas as far east
as Western Nepal and then through the lower levels to Sikkim up to 8,000 ft.,
above which the preceding bird [orientalis orientalis] takes its place.’ This
he amplifies in Nidification (iv, 160) by saying that in Sikkim, Stevens saw
and obtained birds in early summer at 4,500 ft. though they were not then
breeding. There is something wrong about the latter statement as Stevens
says very clearly (J.B.N.H.S., xxx, p. 885) that he had failed to meet with
this form at all in the Sikkim Himalaya. I cannot find any authority at all
for the breeding of this form in the Sikkim Himalaya and both editions of
the Fauna are manifestly relying on Hume’s statement (N. & E., ii, 349)
which was perhaps based on the two Mandelli (April) skins. Hume in writing
of the Rufous Turtle-Doves appears to have departed from his usual care, for
his account of the breeding range in continental India was also evidently
written without satisfactory evidence.
My own wiew is that as a breeding bird this race is confined to the Western
Himalayas, and that in Nepal it intergrades into the richly coloured form
which is common in Sikkim and the Duars. Scully’s account of the Rufous
Turtle-Dove in Nepal (S.F., vii, 340) shows clearly that the bird is found as
a breeding species and also as a passage migrant from August to December
and again in March and April. This is borne out by the series of Scully
and Hodgson skins in the British Museum which clearly fall into two groups.
One group are typically pale birds, like those of the north-west. Such of
these as bear dates were collected in October, November and December and
doubtless represent the passage birds of Scully’s account. The remainder are
intermediate between the west and east Himalayan forms, the pale and the
richly coloured and, in my opinion, represent the breeding bird as in several
cases Scully has recorded the organs as greatly enlarged. Stevens (loc. cit.)
describes a breeding pair from the Mai Valley, E. Nepal as intermediate. I
am aware of course that Inglis has recorded the pale north-western bird as
breeding in Mahdubani subdivision, Bihar (J.B.N.H.S., xiv, 562), but his
account suggests that the occurrence was unusual and it is possible that a
critical examination of the birds would have shown that they were also
intermediate.
678 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
To return to the Hast Himalayan bird. This as. I have already stated is
very richly coloured with the white of the previous form replaced by grey.
It is very close to S. orientalis orientalis (Manchuria, Korea, Japan and Tibet)
and the Old Fauna indeed included both as one form. It may have however been
separated from the typical race as more richly coloured, but it certainly grades
into it on the one side and into the pale north-west bird on the other. The
exact attribution of many specimens to one form or the other is quite
impossible.
This richly coloured form—by whatever name it is to be known—is said
by Mr. Stuart Baker to breed in Sikkim and the Assam Hills and Burma,
though I have not been able to examine any skins known with certainty
to be of breeding birds. This form was also believed by Hume to breed in
the ‘broken belts of hills and forests that stretch across the continent of India
from the northern portion of the Western Ghats to Cuttuck’ (N. & E., ii, 350)
but as regards their breeding in this area the only evidence seems to be
Blewitt’s account of its breeding in great numbers in Sambalpur.
This bird certainly occurs at Khandala, Mahableshwar, and in N. Kanara
on the Western Ghats and at Seoni from all of which places there are
specimens in the British Museum. Whether it breeds in these places is hard
to make out, as though the skins are dated March, April and May these months
in this area might agree with breeding or migration. At Mahableshwar, Fair-
bank (S.f%, iv, 262) says it occurs in the cold season. In North Kanara
James Davidson (xii, 62) found it common from November to April and doubted
whether it bred. Other records from this area e.g. Satara (Davidson &
Wenden, S.F., vii, 86) and Belgaum (Macgregor, S.F., x, 440) throw no light
on its status except that it 1s common.
I feel that until satisfactory evidence of breeding in the Western Ghats
is produced it is wiser to consider that both the pale and the richly coloured
forms are winter visitors to this area. One thing I feel certain of however,
that the birds examined from the Sambalpur, Raipur, Seoni and Western
Ghats localities belong to the richly coloured form and not to the typical
race which Mr. Stuart Baker says (New Fauna, v, 239) ‘in winter occurs
over the greater part of Eastern India as far west as the Deccan and possibly
the Bombay Presidency but, in the north, not west of the United Provinces’.
It is not easy to separate the typical race and the richly coloured form while
many specimens might belong to either, but I am far from satisfied that the
typical race occurs in India at all; at any rate no specimen that I have exa-
mined from India proper can, in my opinion, be definitely referred to it.
With regard to the correct names for these Indian forms I do not feel
the difficulties which have oppressed certain writers. The oldest name
orientalis is generally accepted for the Chinese and N. Asiatic bird. The next
oldest name is the oft-debated Columba meena of Sykes. Kinnear (Ibis 1934,
p. 97) has recently given the full details of the situation regarding this name.
It is evident that Sykes obtained both the pale bird of the north-west and
the richly coloured bird of the north-east, which as I have shown, both occur
in winter in the area which he was working. The former he took for the
male, the latter for the female. The mistake does not invalidate the name
which must be used for the supposed male, which comes first in the description
and as it was the bird with the white tips to the tail feathers, the name
meena will stand for the pale bird which breeds in the North-Western Hima-
layas. The next oldest name in the synonymy of the Rufous Turtle-Dove is
Columba agricola Tickell, J.A.S.B., vol. i1 (November 1833), p. 581—Jungles
of Dholbhum and Borabhum.
The description is poor but obviously refers to some form of Rufous Turtle-
Dove and as we have at present evidence as to the occurrence of only one
form—the richly coloured bird of the north-east—in this area the description
and name may be safely taken as applying to it.
There are very few records of the Rufous Turtle-Dove in the Presidency.
Jerdon says that he procured it in Goomsoor and in the Bamboo jungles of
the Eastern Ghats. There is a specimen from Chingleput in the Madras
Museum and another in the British Museum collected by William Davison
on 10-4-1881 at Manantoddy in the Wynaad. The last specimen is, as men-
tioned above, the pale bird of the north which in future I propose to call
S. orientalis meena. The other records however are more likely to refer to
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 679
S. 0. agricola and the Madras Museum bird was labelled from the Old Fauna
Turtur orientalis under which agricola was then included.
Streptopelia chinensis suratensis (Gmelin).
Columba suratensis Gmelin, Syst. Nat., vol. i, pt. ii (1789), p. 778—Surat.
Specimens collected:—160 Q@ May 1929 Kurumbapatti; 277 Q 24-5-29
Shevaroy Hills 4,000 ft.; 408 Q 18-6-29 Chitteri range 3,000 ft.; 771 d
98-8-29 Palkonda Hills 1,000 ft.; 911 ¢ 12-10-29 Seschachalam Hills 2,000 ft.
Measurements : —
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
2d 19-20 141-142 128.5-131 21-21.5 mm.
3 9 19-20 132-137 117-124 20-22.5 mm.
I can find no record of the Spotted Dove in the eastern side of the Presi-
dency north of the Godavery Valley. With that exception—which probably
does not exist in fact—the Spotted Dove is evidently generally distributed and
common throughout the Presidency from sea-level up to a height of about
4,000 ft. and there appears to be no need to quote individual records, though
Jerdon’s remark that it is rare on the bare Carnatic tableland suggests that
there may be local patches of country unsuited to its needs. In the Nilgiris
it is said to be common up to about 4,500 ft. and scarce above that height
except in the highly-cultivated area between Coonoor and Ootacamund. In the
higher Travancore Hills Ferguson considered it a dry weather visitor only.
In the Nilgiris the breeding season is given by Miss Cockburn as March
and April, but Cardew says that it breeds from February to September (N. & E.,
u, 356). In Travancore Bourdillon gives the breeding season as between April
and September.
The Spotted Dove is slightly variable in colour and in the amount of
spotting on the back and tertiaries, and south Indian birds average a few
millimetres smaller in size. It is not, however possible to divide the birds
into two races in India proper. Ceylon birds are definitely smaller and have
been separated by MReichenback (Vollst. Naturg. Tauben, pl. 253 b, figs.
3373-3374, 1851) as ceylonensis and this race may be maintained, as the follow-
ing measurements show :—
15 ¢ India (north and south) 135-146.5 mm.
9 @ India (north and south) 132-142.5 mm.
5 unsexed, Ceylon 127-133.5 mm.
The three Travancore birds examined (wings 134.5, 188.5, 139) belong to the
continental form.
Streptopelia senegalensis cambayensis (Gmelin).
Columba cambayensis Gmelin, Syst. Nat., vol. i, pt. 11 (1789), p. 779—Surat.
Specimens collected:—1068 ¢ 9-12-29, 1082 ¢ 10-12-29 Cumbum Valley.
Measurements : —
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
23 17 121-128 106.5-111 18-18.5 mm.
The Little Brown Dove occurs sparingly on the tableland of the Nilgiris
according to William Davison and a few can always be obtained about the
Badaga cultivation. Mr. Betts considers that they usually go down to the
Mysore plains to breed as they are seldom to be seen in the Nilgiris between
April and September.
Fairbank observed it at the base of the Palnis and in the lower hills and
Terry specifies that he saw it on the slopes below Pulungi and in the Pittw
valley, though it was not common.
In Travancore it is said by Ferguson to be confined to the dry patch of
country about Cape Comorin.
On the eastern side there are very few records of the Little Brown Dove—
_namely the two Survey specimens, Dewar’s inclusion of it without comment
on his Madras list and Salem. In this last locality Theobald obtained a nest
with two eggs at the railway station on August 15th (N. & E., ii, 3651).
Both the Cumbum Valley birds had the organs much enlarged.
3)
680 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIME
The two males obtained have wings 121-128 mm. and three males in the
British Museum from Sigur and Bandipur, close by in Mysore, have wings
125-1381 mm. Seven males measured from the Punjab have wings varying from
126-135.5 mm. There is no difference in colour and it is obvious that all
Peninsular Indian birds must be kept in the one subspecies.
Streptopelia decaocto decaocto Frivalszky.
Columba risoria var. decaocto Frivalszky, A. M. Tarsasag Evkonyvei 1834-36,
Bd. ii, Teil 3 (1838), p. 188, pl. viii—Turkei.-
Not procured by the Survey. The Indian Ring-Dove appears to be far
less common in the Presidency than in other parts of India. On the eastern
side it 1s only recorded by Dewar who includes it in his list without comment.
On the west William Davison says that it is not uncommon about Seegore
(Sigur) in the Nilgiris and a male collected by him near there on 18 February
1881 is in the Hume collection. He also adds that many years previously
he shot a specimen on the plateau about 7 miles from Ootacamund but this
was the only specimen he had found at that elevation.
Fairbank found it in the plains near the Palnis and Terry met with it
in the Pittur Valley, but both observers remark that it is not particularly
common.
In Travancore Ferguson says it is only to be met in the dry region of
the far south, round about Cape Comorin.
There is no information about the breeding season in the Presidency
though the bird is presumably a resident. No difference in size or colour
exists between the birds of Northern and Southern India.
As Hartert explained (Nov. Zool., xxiii, 1916, pp. 78-80), the time-honoured
name Columba risoria Linnaeus cannot really be used for the Indian Ring-Dove
as it was definitely given to the domesticated dove. This bird is of uncertain
origin but may be derived from the African Streptopelia roseogrisea.
Oenopopelia tranquebarica tranquebarica (Hermann).
Columba tranquebarica Hermann, Observ. Zool. (1804), p. 200—Tranquebar.
Specimens collected:—1138 ¢ 18-12-29, 1145 19-12-29, Cumbum Valley.
Measurements : —
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
oS WD 138.5-141 89-90 17-18 mm.
Both the specimens of the Red Turtle-Dove collected by the Survey had
the organs greatly enlarged and therefore presumably were breeding. These
specimens provide the only records for the Presidency except for Dewar’s
inclusion of the species without comment in his Madras list and for the type
locality Tranquebar.
I do not think it is worth recognising the intermediate subspecies murmensis
for birds from the Eastern Himalayas and Assam. The two races tranquebarica
and humilis (type locality Bengal), even when extremes from N.-W. India and
the Philippines are compared, are far from being as distinct in colour as the
New Fauna makes out and the colour of the axillaries may be variable. Many
individuals certainly cannot be separated. The intermediate race could there-
fore only be identified by reference to locality. |
Pterocles indicus (Gmelin).
Tetrao indicus Gmelin, Syst. Nat., vol. i, pt. ii (1789), p. 755—Coromandel
Coast.
Jerdon’s statement that the Painted Sandgrouse occurs in the Carnatic
doubtless refers to the neighbourhood of Madras city as there are specimens
from Madras and Arkonam near Vellore in the Government Museum. A male
obtained at Madras in 1876 by Wardlaw-Ramsay is in the British Museum.
It also occurs just inside the Presidency boundary at Anaikatti 3,000 ft. on.
the northern slopes of the Nilgiris. Here it is found in pairs or small parties
of 6 to 8 birds but is not common (Phythian Adams, apud Birds of S. India,
p. 289).
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 681
Pterocles exustus ellioti Bogdanow.
Pterocles elliott Bogdanow, Mél. Biol. (Bull. Ac. Sci. Petersb.), xi (1881),
p. 54—Eritrea, Southern Abyssinia.
The only definite record of the Common Sandgrouse in the Madras Presi-
dency which I have been able to trace apart from Hume’s general statement
(Game Birds, i, 69) that it occurs in the northern and central portions is that
by Blanford (Old Fauna, iv, 61) ‘I have seen many and shot some a little north
of the Cauvery near Trichinopoly.’ Mr. Stuart Baker (Game Birds, ii, 297)
states that he has received eggs from Travancore and this no doubt refers to
the dry country round Cape Comorin.
Captain C. H. B. Grant who has been working at the races of this species
kindly informs me that the above is the correct name of our Indian bird.
Pavo cristatus Linnaeus.
Pavo cristatus Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, vol. i (1758), p. 156—India.
The only detailed information about the status of the Peafowl in the
Presidency comes from the western side. Here in Coorg it is common in the
scrub jungle on the Mysore frontier (Betts). It occurs locally throughout the
Wynaad and on the slopes of the Nilgiris up to 4,000 ft. (Davison). Jerdon
says it occurs up to 6,000 ft. in the Nilgiris but Hume doubts this (Game Birds,
i, 82) though he knew of its occurrence as high as Cook’s Hill 5,000 ft. Nor-
mally it does not breed in the Nilgiris above 2,000 ft. according to the latter.
Major Phythian Adams informs me that it is common at Anaikatti and Colonel
H. RK. Baker (Birds of S. India, p. 294) says that it is common at Musnigudi
on the Seegore (Sigur) Ghat and also at the foot of the Wynaad Ghats in the
Nilambur Valley.
Fairbank observed it at the northern base of the Palnis, in which hills
according to Hume (loc. cit.) it does not occur over 3,000 ft. As regards
Travancore -Ferguson states that it was at one time common at the foot of
the hills in South Travancore though at that time no longer so: also found
on the hills about Pirmeed.
From the eastern side I have no information whatever beyond the fact
that the Survey met it in the Salem district in thick dry forests with a
liberal sprinkling of boulders and cactus.
Miss Cockburn (N. & E., iii, 407) says that eggs are to be found in the
Nilgiris in June and July.
Gallus gallus murghi Robinson and Kloss.
Gallus ferrugineus murghi Robinson & Kloss, Records Ind. Mus., xix
(1920), pp. 14-15—Chirala, Gya district, Bihar. .
- The Red Jungle Fowl is confined in the Presidency to the north-east corner
and its range in this area is thus defined by Hume (Game Birds, i, 217) :—it
occupies the whole country north of the Godaveri, Orissa, the Tributary
mahals, Ganjam, Vizagapatam and part of the Godaveri district, Joonagurh,
Kareall, Nowagurh, Jeypore and other Feudatory States. Jerdon says that he
even heard of its being killed south of the Godavery at Cummum, though
he was not certain of the correctness of the statement. Jerdon declared it to
be very abundant in the Northern Circars and it is surprising therefore that
the Survey had nothing to say about it in the Vizagapatam hills." I have
seen no specimens from this area and therefore follow Robinson and Kloss in
their use of the above name.
1T fear that many sportsmen in the Presidency will consider the account
of the Game-birds inadequate, either because their own experience has told
them a great deal about the distribution and numbers of the various species
which has nowhere been recorded in print; or because increase of human
population, opening up of the country by cultivation and the motor-car and
the repeal of the Arms Act has materially altered the distribution and status
of various species. I can only urge them to put their experience on record
in the pages of the Journal.
682 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Gallus sonneratii Temminck.
Gallus sonneratiu Temminck, Pig. et Gall., vol. ii (1818), p. 246—India,
now restricted to the Hastern Ghats near Madras.
Specimens collected: —16 Q 10-4-29 Kurumbapatti; 477 ¢ 24-6-29 Tirthamalai
1,000 ft.
Measurements : —
Bill. Wing. Tail. ‘Tarsus.
diac ade 32 235 387 79 mm.
1 Ze) 31 207 132 67 mm.
Spur of male measures from base to tip in direct line 36 mm.
Jerdon states that the Grey Jungle-Fowl is common in suitable localities
on the Eastern Ghats from about the line of the lower Godavery and on
the various isolated ranges of hills in the south of India. He adds that it
is not rare in the Naggery hills near Madras and is constantly brought for
sale to the Madras market. William Davison (apud Hume and Marshall, i,
234) also remarks that numbers are brought in to the Madras market from
the Red Hills. aPersonne reports it to be fairly common in all the Reserved
Forests in the district of Salem, ascending the hills to about 3,000 ft. or higher
where suitable jungle exists. Except for the above statements I can find no
detailed information as to the exact range on the eastern side of the Presidency.
On the west the Grey Jungle-Fowl is more numerous, more widely distri-
buted and better known. In Coorg and the Wynaad, in parts of Calicut
district, throughout the Nilgiris, in the Wallar jungles, the Nelliampathies,
Anamallais, Palnis and the whole of the Travancore Hills the bird is so
generally distributed and so often recorded that there is no need to give the
individual records. It occurs at all altitudes in the hills from their lowest
slopes to their summits, but is scarce above 5,000 ft.
Opinions differ as to the breeding season from which the deduction may
be fairly drawn that it is very irregular and extended unless Hume was right
in his suggestion that it differs locally according to the parts of the hills
subject to the influence of the north-east and south-west monsoons. Miss
Cockburn at Kotagherry called it March to April. Waite at Coonoor said May
and June. Davison at Neddivattum said October, November and December.
Colonel H. R. Baker says February to the end of June, most nests being
found in April and May. In the Nelliampathies Kinloch says it extends
from February to October, while Stuart Baker, on the authority of Bourdillon
and Stewart, says that in Travancore it is from March to July.
Excellent accounts of the habits of this Jungle-Fowl and of the sport that
it affords in the Presidency are available; see for instance Davison, Stray
Feathers, x, 409; Hume and Marshall, Game Birds, vol. i, pp. 231-239; Stuart
Baker, Game Birds, pp. 156-162 and Colonel H. R. Baker, Birds of 8. India,
pp. 298-800.
Gailoperdix spadicea spadicea (Gmelin).
Tetrao spadiceus Gmelin, Syst. Nat., vol. i, pt. i (1789), p. 759—Mada-
gascar errore—Nilgiris.*
Specimens collected: —44 9 18-4-29, 81 dG 18-4-29 Kurumbapatti; 213 ¢
12-5-29 Shevaroys 3,500 ft.; 704 [9] 17-8-29 Palkonda Hills 1,000 ft.
Measurements : — :
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
23 01..5-28 153-161 130-133 43 mm.
29 91-21.5 140-147 105-1238 40-42.5 mm.
No specimen has more than two spurs on one leg.
The Red Spur-Fowl is very widely distributed in the Presidency. It is
found at Gumsoor and in the Northern Circars according to Jerdon and Hume
though the former says that in the less wooded ranges of the Eastern Ghats.
’ Restricted to Nilgiris, Stuart Baker, J.B.N.H.S., xxviii, 844.
—_$__ -— —_—__—__ --
—S—
Me
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 6838
it is rare, being mostly replaced by the Painted Spur-Fowl. A specimen from
Rajahmundri (¢ 4-4-1871, Blanford) is in the British Museum. Hume's state-
ment (Game Birds, vol. i, 248) that it is found even in the low hills of Madras
itseli—no doubt the basis for Dewar’s inclusion of the species in his list—
is now amplified by the specimens collected by the Survey in the Palkondas
and Shevaroys as well as at Kurumbapatti.
On the western side Betts says that the Red Spur-Fowl is common every-
where in Coorg, even in cultivated land where there is sufficient cover in the
form of lantana scrub. It is also found throughout the Wynaad and the
lower slopes of the Nilgiris up to about 5,000 ft., occurring also in smaller
numbers to the summits where it has actually been shot at 7,500 ft. (Hume,
loc. cit.). William Davison remarks (in 1883) on the improvement in their
numbers since the introduction of a close season. In this area it presumably
also occurs down to sea-level as there are a pair from Calicut in the Hume
collection.
The breeding season in the Nilgiris is in February, March and April accord-
ing to Miss Cockburn and in May and June according to William Davison.
Galloperdix spadicea stewarti Stuart Baker.
Galloperdix spadicea stewarti Stuart Baker, Bull. B.O.C., vol. xl (1919),
p. 18—Travancore.
In Travancore this race of the Red Spur-Fowl is said by Ferguson to be
common throughout the low country wherever there is forest. According to
him it frequents the base of the hills and does not ascend them, but Elwes
(Ibis 1870, p. 528) says that he occasionally saw the bird up in the Cardamom
Hills and Stuart Baker (Nidification, iv, 228) says that it occurs in great
numbers up to about 3,500 ft. The breeding season is said to be very regular
extending from January to the end of March or early April and Bourdillon
took. c/2 fresh eggs on 6th September.
The Red Spur-Fowl is also found in the Palnis as recorded by Fairbank
and Terry. The latter found it common at Pittur. It is also very common
everywhere in the Nelliampathies, according to Kinloch, and Stuart Baker
(Nidification, iv, 227) adds that Kinloch found them up to 4,000 ft. The
latter took a clutch of eggs in July. No specimens are available for the
racial identification of birds from the Palnis and Nelliampathies but from the
analogy of other species I expect they will prove to belong to the Travancore
race.
Galloperdix lunulata Valenciennes.
Perdiz lunulata Valenciennes, Dict. Sci. Nat., vol. xxxvin (1825), p. 446—
Bengal.
Specimens collected: —451 ¢G 20-6-29, 478 g 24-6-29 Tirthamalai 1,000 ft. ;
565 Q 20-7-29 Gingee; 824-5 9 ¢ 17-9-29, 829 ¢ 18-9-29, 831 92 19-9-29 Kodur.
Measurements : —
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
43 22°03 148-154 gS ey 40-45 mm.
3.0 91-215 132-142 99-106.5 35.5-43.5 mm.
No specimen has more than two spurs on one leg.
Although Jerdon tells us that the Painted Spur-Fowl is found all along
the Eastern Ghats, and I have no doubt that it is common throughout their
extent, we have no actual record in the Presidency from north of the Godavery
Valley. Here Mr. R. Thompson found it. in the hills north of Rajahmundry.
From there southwards it is found, as Hume enumerates (Game Birds, i, 256)
in the Nallamallai Hills, in Kurnool, in Bellary, Cuddapah, the Eastern Ghats
inland of Nellore, about Tutapur and southwards to near Pondicherry. The
gap in this enumeration is filled by the Survey specimens and LaPersonne also
reported that it was very common in the Palkonda Hills at varying altitudes
where suitable jungle occurs, and also common in the forest reserves of Salem
district, chiefly found at low elevations but occurring as high as 4,000 ft. in
the Shevaroys. ey
It also occurs at~Pondicherry which is the type locality for the synonym
Francolinus nivosus of Delessert, Mag. de Zodl., 1840, Ois., p. 18, and two
684 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
male cotypes are in the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College,
vide Bulletin lxx, No. 4 (1980), p. 157, of that Museum.
In the western side of the Presidency the Painted Spur-Fowl is only
recorded from the circumference of the Nilgiris and in the Palghat district.
Hume says it has been found between Metapolliam and Burliar, between
Burliar and Coonoor, near Kullar, in the orange valley below Kotagiri. On
this side it appears to be very scarce. Two males, marked 17-9-1876 Meta-
polliam (Wardlaw-Ramsay) and 11-11-1883 Coonoor (Davison) are in the British
Museum. On the northern circumference Morgan (S.F., ii, 582) says that
he had seen and shot it at various times on the Seegore (Sigur) Ghat and
Major Phythian Adams informs me that it is not uncommon at Anaikatti.
It also occurs south of the Nilgiris in the Palghat district and Hume (loc.
cit. and N. & E., ii, 425) received several specimens thence, apparently from
the Walhar jungles.
Nothing very definite seems to be known about the breeding season in the
Presidency but Col. H. R. Baker took eggs in the Hastern Ghats on 18th June
(Nidification, iv, 280).
Excalfactoria chinensis chinensis (Linnaeus).
Tetrao chinensis Linn., Syst. Nat., ed. xii, vol. i (1766), p. 27—Nankin,
China.
Not procured by the Survey. The Blue-breasted Quail does not appear to
have been recorded from the Presidency further north than ‘the Carnatic’
where Jerdon says he once procured it. Dewar includes it without remark
in his Madras list but these two vague records are substantiated by Mr. F.
Bidie (S.F., ix, 208) who, whilst snipe-shooting near Goodavancherrie in Chingle-
put, killed a pair in December. |
On the west William Davison tells us that he met with it sparingly
through the grassy portions of the Wynaad. Ferguson says also that it occurs
in the grass lands of Pirmeed in Travancore.
This quail is to some extent migratory and its status in the Presidency is
not yet known. I can find no difference between Indian and Chinese birds.
Coturnix coturnix (Linnaeus).
Tetrao coturniz Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, vol. i (1758), p. 161—Sweden.
The Common or Grey Quail was not ‘procured by the Survey, and the Presi-
dency appears to be beyond the reach of its ordinary migrations. On the
eastern side it is only recorded by Dewar who includes it in his list without
comment.
On the west William Davison says that he shot a female within 3 miles
of Ootacamund on 14 January 1881, and that in former years he had met
with them in the Nilgiris on a few occasions. ’
The footnote in Hume and Marshall (vol. 11, p. 133) regarding the occurrence
of Quail in Travancore, which is apparently the basis for Ferguson’s suggestion
that the Grey Quail may occur on the grass lands of Pirmeed, is only doubt-
fully referable to this species.
No specimens are available for racial identification.
Coturnix coromandelicus (Gmelin).
Tetrao coromandelicus Gmelin, Syst. Nat., vol. i, pt. it (1789), p. 764—
Coromandel coast.
Not procured by the Survey. There is very little on record about the
status and distribution of the Black-breasted Quail in the Presidency. On the
eastern side it is only recorded from Madras, where Dewar includes it in
his list without comment. There are in the British Museum several Madras
specimens collected by Wardlaw- -Ramsay, and the. only .dated skins were
obtained in June. A partial albino in the Madras Museum is described Dy
W. F. Dique in Stray Feathers, ix, 508.
On the western side William Davison says it occurs in the Wynaad and.
mentions that he once shot one out of a.small covey on the edge of the Govern-
ment Cinchona. plantations at Neddivattum and another bird in Ootacamund. |
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 685
This quail does not figure in Ferguson’s Travancore list but there are two
males in the British Museum, collected in Travancore, apparently near Trivan-
drum by Fry.
Perdicula asiatica asiatica (Latham).
Perdix asiatica Latham, Index Orn., vol. ii (1790), p. 649—Mahratta region,
now restricted to Poona.
Specimens collected :—463-4 [¢]¢ 28-6-29 Tirthamalai 1,000 ft.; 663 9
7-8-29, 749 [9] 25-8-29 Palkonda Hills 1,000 ft.; 902 ¢ 11-10-29 Seschachalam
Hills 2,000 ft.
Measurements : —
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
sites 13-14 82-85 39-41 93.5-26 mm.
2 9 13-14 83.5-86.5 40-41 93-24 mm.*
There is still a good deal to learn of the distribution of the Jungle Bush-
quail in the Presidency and I have so far found no definite record of its
occurrence north of the Palkonda and Seschachalam Hills, in the former of
which LaPersonne remarks that it was in small coveys on bare hillsides.
LaPersonne did however come across coveys of some species of quail—which
may well have been this though no specimens were obtained—both in open
scrub jungle and in thick forest in the Vizagapatam area at Sankrametta.
Jerdon considered this quail rare in the low Carnatic but in addition to
the two Survey specimens from Tirthamalai there is another Salem district
specimen in the British Museum, a male collected at Pothanore on 18 October
1868 by Carter. It evidently occurs commonly in the Tinnevelly district as
Ferguson states that numbers were caught there and brought alive for sale
in Trivandrum. He was doubtful whether this species occurred at all in
Travancore, except possibly in the dry area round Cape Comorin but according
to Stuart Baker (Nidification, iv, 240) Stewart found them breeding from
January to March, most eggs being laid in February. The area is not specified.
The only other information about the Jungle Bush-quail I find on the west
is a female in the Sparrow collection obtained at Malappuram on 16 July 1912
(of which more anon), a male and two females in the British Museum
collected by William Davison near Seegore on 22 February 1881 and Hume’s
statement (Game Birds, 11, 111) that he had seen a specimen from the Wynaad.
In his review of this genus (J.B.N.H.S., xxix, p. 310) Mr. Stuart Baker
first introduced the theory that the Rock Bush-quail and the Jungle Bush-quail
are merely two races of one species, a theory which is somewhat surprising
in view of the fact that both forms are found to coincide in their distribution
over a considerable part of India. He accounts for this theory by stating
that the two birds normally occupy a different type of terrain, that the two
forms grade into each other and that intermediates are not uncommon. The
last are said to occur in intermediate country and form the link between
two sub-species which are probably of very recent origin. P. asiatica he
says breeds in places fairly well covered with jungle of some kind whereas
argoondah breeds in rocky open upland or bare plains. The intermediate
country here apparently means the country intermediate in character between
the two distinctive terrains described, which are both found here and there
over most of India. This conception is an intelligible if unlikely one. In the
New Fauna (v, 376) however the conception changes. ‘The distribution of the
two, he says, is most puzzling, as they constantly overlap, but many indi-
viduals are exactly half way between the two and it would seem that, whilst
the extremes are very distinct, there is an immense intervening area where
there is no really constant form.’ This, if it means anything, can only mean
that on one edge of the range asiatica is found, on the other edge argoondah and
that the intermediates are found (not on the intermediate country between
two types of country, both found all over the range as in the earlier concep-
tion but) over an immense area at their point of junction.
The difficulties obviously inherent in these mutually destructive theories
have made me examine the case of these two forms with particular care and
I have been able to supplement the British Museum series with nearly 50 extra
bh =~ Snr ooh fr =
686 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL: HIST. SOCIETY, “Vol. XXXVI
specimens from my own collection or through the kindness of Mr. H. W.
Waite, Mr. E. A. D’Abreu, Mr. Salim A. Ali, Colonel R. Sparrow and the
Society. As a result I find myself in complete disagreement with Mr. Stuart
Baker. In the first place the intermediate specimens which apparently gave
rise to his theory and which are necessitated by it do not exist in fact. There
is no intergrading between adults of asiatica and argoondah. Both remain true
to type and are easily separable. What Mr. Stuart Baker has mistaken for
intermediates are immature birds of both forms. Their plumage stages are not
at present easily worked out, chiefly because of the unreliable sexing of many
specimens, and without previous experience the identification of these young
birds is not altogether easy. Adults are easily identified throughout the whole
range and there is no ground at all for suggesting that an area of true
asiatica is separated from an area of true argoondah by an immense _inter-
mediate area in which variable birds, inclining some to one form some to the
other, are found.
In the Old Fauna, asiatica and argoondah were treated as two straight-
forward species which could be easily separated and identified. This con-
ception seems to me entirely correct. The males have certainly a_ general
resemblance but no one with any experience of the genus could fail to identify
every specimen on the characters given. The females on the other hand differ
very widely in plumage pattern and the differences are of kind rather than
degree, i.e. specific rather than subspecific. The decisive factor, however, is
even stronger than this. P. argoondah is the form with the more restricted
distribution. This distribution is such that one would not expect it to lead
to the development of races and it has not in fact done so. In all parts of
its range argoondah is invariable in size and colour. P. asiatica, on the other
hand, has a much wider distribution, a distribution that has rendered it liable
to the formation of races of its own, though these have hitherto not been
named. These follow the ordinary lines of racial development in widely distri-
buted Indian birds. There is an island race in Ceylon, a richly-coloured race
on the western coast, whilst in the Peninsula proper there is a definite
grading in colour and size from north to south. If asiatica has its own races,
and argoondah occupies a portion of the range of asiatica alongside it, the
obvious deduction is that the two forms are separate species, and not races
of each other. As such I shall treat them.
The differences in -the two races which I am about to name were noticed
long ago by Legge (Birds of Ceylon, p. 753) and Hume (S.F., ix, 77) res-
pectively. In Ceylon the upper plumage of both sexes is much darker through-
out, with the black blotching and the pale shaft-streaks of the scapulars
reduced in extent so that these parts do not contrast so strongly with the
rest of the plumage as in the typical race. The chestnut throat-patch is
also far darker than in the typical race. For this race I propose the name
PERDICULA ASIATICA CEYLONENSIS subsp. nov.
Type:—c adult 1894 Cocoawattee, Ceylon (Butler), British Museum register
No. 1916.9.20.503.
The second race is based on the fine series collected by Vidal in the South
Konkan. These birds, both adult and immature, differ from the typical race
in the deep reddish tint of the whole upper plumage, which is even more
particularly marked on the crown. In the adult males the black barring of
the lower plumage is broader than in the typical form. This race may be
known as
PERDICULA ASIATICA VIDALI subsp. nov.
Type:—@ adult 22 February 1879, Kelsi, 8. Konkan (Vidal), British
Museum register No. 1889.5.10.658.
This race probably extends down the Malabar coast to Travancore as
the only specimen I have seen from this area, the bird in Colonel Sparrow’s
collection from Malappuram, is of the same red colour. The three Nilgiri
specimens examined, being from the northern face of Seegore, do not of course
belong to it.
As regards the grading in size and colour from north to south in the rest.
of the Peninsula, I am at present content to point it out. More specimens
from Southern India may show that a horizontal division into races is desirable.
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EHASTERN GHATS 687
Perdicula argoondah (Sykes).
Coturniz argoondah Sykes, P.Z.S. 1832 (November 22), p. 153—Dukhan.
The New Fauna states that the Rock Bush-quail is found in the south-east
of India from Madras to the extreme south. This statement is no doubt based
on Hume and Marshall (Game Birds, ii, p. 117) who say ‘it occurs in the
Peninsula on the eastern side down to the extreme south and in all the drier
eastern Madras districts and even near Coimbatore.’ There is a female from
Coimbatore dated 3 October 1868 (Theobald) in the Hume collection but I have
seen no other direct evidence of the occurrence of this species in the Presidency
and it is possible that there is some mistake. It will be remembered that
Jerdon transposes the names of these two quails and some confusion has in
consequence probably crept into the records. It is to be hoped that local
observers will clear up the point.
Cryptoplectron erythrorhynchum erythrorhynchum (Sykes).
Coturnia erythrorhynchum Sykes, P.Z.S. 1832 (November 22), p. 1538—
Valley of Karley, Dukhan.
Not met by the Survey. The Painted Bush-quail is a very characteristic
species on the hills of the western side of the Presidency. In Coorg it is
somewhat scarce, according to Betts, though occasional coveys may be met
with dusting on the roads. In the Wynaad William Davison calls it not un-
common and in the Nilgiris it is—or was for it is now scarce near Ootacamund
—abundant everywhere, apparently at all elevations. An exhaustive account
of the habits in this area by Davison and Miss Cockburn will be found in
Hume and Marshall (11, p. 123) and it may be supplemented by a note from
Primrose (J.B.N.H.S., xxiv, p. 596). Kinloch found it in large numbers on the
Lily Downs 4,000 ft. in the Nelhampathies.
In the Palnis Fairbank met it in Kodaikanal and Terry called it fairly
common in places though never numerous enough to allow of a decent bag
being made.
In Travancore Ferguson says he only met with it on the Cardamom Hills
and the High Range.
The only record of the Painted Bush-quail on the eastern side of the
Presidency comes from Yercaud where W. Mahon Daly (J.B.N.H.S., i1, 149)
describes an instance of its bravery in defence of its young.
The breeding season seems to be very extended. Miss Cockburn gives
January, February, March and September-October as the months for eggs in
the Nilgiris. Darling says August to November for the Wynaad and Nilgiris.
In Travancore Bourdillon is said to have obtained eggs in January and
February, July to September and in December.
Francolinus pictus pictus (Jardine and Selby).
Perdiz picta Jardine & Selby, Illustr. Orn. (April 1828), pl. 50—Bangalore.
It is curious that the Painted Partridge was not procured by the Survey
as the evidence goes to suggest that it is, or was, generally distributed through
much of the eastern side of the Presidency. Jerdon says that the Painted
Partridge occurs throughout Chota Nagpur to the more open parts of the
Northern Circars, as far as Cuttuck. I am not clear how much of the Presi-
dency this is meant to include but according to Hume (Game Birds, 11, 20) it
occurs in hilly semi-jungle country and where there is much grass in the
Kistna and other more northern districts right up to the Goomsur taluka of
the Ganjam district. He also states that it occurs in the Godavari district and
it’ certainly occurs in parts of the upland talukas of the Masulipatam district
(Horsfall, S.F., ix, 208), a statement which is corroborated by a skin in the
British Museum collected on 20 April 1880.
South of this again, we learn from Hume, the Painted Partridge was shot
in the Anamalai Hills of the Kurnool district (Mr. Cardozo), about the Raman-
droog and Sandur jungles of the Bellary district (Mr. Gordon, Mr. Cardozo and
Captain Bellis) and on both sides of the Eastern Ghats in the Cuddapah and
Nellore districts. There then appears to be a break in its distribution and
Hume quotes Theobald as authority for its occurrence in the Coimbatore
688 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
district where it is found about the jungles called Nuddacovil between Kollegal
and Bhavani in Northern Coimbatore. It can be heard in several parts of
the jungle of the Kollegal taluka.
I am quite unable to understand the distribution of the two races of the
Painted Partridge as defined in the New Fauna. There must have been some
muddle in the type setting. I do not feel quite certain that Francolinus pictus
pallidus is a sufficiently good race to be worth maintaining. Specimens from
Deesa, Anandra, Jhansi, Bundelkund, Ahmedabad and Neemuch in the British
Museum do, perhaps, appear a little paler than those from further south and
as a series perhaps justify the keeping up over the name pallidus. Mr. Stuart
Baker has, however, overlooked a far better race in Ceylon. The three speci-
mens from Ceylon in the British Museum differ from the typical race in the
much darker brown tint of the upper plumage with the spotting on the back
of the neck and the white edging of the mantle and scapulars much reduced. |
The lower plumage is also much more heavily marked with black, that of
the female being much more definitely barred than in the typical race. If
these specimens are representative the sexes differ more than in the continental
race. Legge (p. 745) had already suggested that the Cinghalese bird might
prove separable. So I now carry out his expressed desire that the race if
separated should be called after Colonel Watson, one of the noted old shikaris
in Ceylon. It will stand as Francolinus pictus watsoni Legge, Birds of Ceylon,
vol. ili (1880), p. 745—Wellemade, Ceylon.
Attention may be drawn to the two specimens labelled ‘Bihar’ (Hodgson)
in the British Museum. They are said to be hybrids with Francolinus vulgaris
but this appears to me unlikely and the birds may represent an unnamed
race from the north-eastern area. Further specimens of this partridge from
different parts of its range are clearly needed for examination, both for the
accurate study of its races and for a complete understanding of its plumages.
Francolinus pondicerianus pondicerianus (Gmelin).
Tetrao pondicerianus Gmelin, Syst. Nat., vol. i, pt. ii (1789), p. 760—
Pondicherry. ans
Specimens collected: —469 ¢ 11-6-29 Chitteri range 3,000 ft.; 472-474 gSoS
imm, 23-6-29, 479 ¢ imm. 24-6-29 Tirthamalai 1,000 ft.; 596 9 24-7-29 Tindi-
vanum.
Measurements :—
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
1 ¢ ad. 25 153 83 46.5 mm.
4 ¢$ imm. 24.5-25 moult 66-74 40-42 mm.
1) 25.5 moult 72 39 mm.
I can find no information at all as to whether the Grey Partridge occurs
in the north-east side of the Presidency anywhere further north of Madras where
Dewar includes the name without comment in his list. From there south-
wards it appears to be common—occurring certainly up to 3,000 ft.—as La
Personne reports that it is netted on a fairly large scale in the zamindari
forests. The professional netters, he says, wander from district to district
like the Persian gypsies. Their outfit consists of a cow and a single long net
some 10 to 15 ft. in width. The method adopted is simplicity itself. The
cow is let loose in a field frequented by partridges and one man covered
with an old cow-hide walks alongside her. The cow is trained to turn to
right or left as she is nudged and by this means she is used to drive the
partridges gradually towards an opening where the net has been placed.
The Grey Partridge is also doubtless common in the area south of that
worked by the Survey as Hume records it from Rameswaram Island (S.I’.,
iv, 459), shot it at Tuticorin (¢ 11-83-75 in the British Museum) and saw it
within a stone’s throw of the square beacon that marks the southernmost extre-
mity of the Peninsula (Game Birds, ii, 51). It is in fact fairly common in
the neighbourhood of Cape Comorin (Ferguson), the only part of Travancore
suited to it.
The only other part of the western side of the Presidency where I know
of its occurrence is on the slopes of the Nilgiris where William Davison says
it occurs sparingly on the Sigur side. He says up to 5,000 ft., evidently
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 689
referring to the straggler killed at Kalhatty (Hume and Marshall, 11. 51) but
Hume gives a more conservative estimate of 1,500 ft. as the normal upper
limit on this side. Colonel H. R. Baker considers it common round Musnigudi.
Nothing has been recorded as to the breeding season in the Presidency
but LaPersonne saw a young brood with the parents in the Chitteri range
at 3,000 ft. in June.
Turnix suscitator taigoor (Sykes).
Hemipodius taigoor Sykes, P.Z.S. 1832 (November), p. 155—Dukhan.
Specimen collected: —80 Q 18-4-29 Kurumbapatti.
Measurements : —
Bill. Wing. aa Tarsus.
i 9 14 86.5 36 22 mm.
The Common Bustard-quail is found, according to Hume (Game Birds, i,
170), throughout the Madras Presidency and in Travancore, but there is not
much evidence in support of this somewhat sweeping assertion. On the eastern
side I can find no record of its occurrence north of that very vague locality
the Carnatic. Here according to Jerdon there was a practice of snaring
females with a decoy and in this way he had known 12 to 20 birds occasionally
captured in a day, which suggests that the species was fairly common. A
specimen from Chingleput in the Madras Museum and the statement by
Theobald (N. & E., ui, p. 367) that he had taken the nest at Ahtoor in the
Shevaroys completes the evidence from this side.
On the west Major Phythian Adams shot one from a couple on partly flooded
paddy stubble near Cannanore in September 1927 (Birds of S. India, p. 821).
A specimen collected by Theobald on 26 October 1868 at Coimbatore is in the
Hume collection. Fairbank says that he observed the species in gram fields
near the base of the Palnis and Ferguson says that it is not uncommon in
scrub jungle in the low country of Travancore.
Five specimens from ‘Madras’ in the British Museum (Jerdon, Gould, Hume
collection) and a female collected by Nair on 15 February 1899 at Pudmanabha-
puram (a locality which I cannot find but presume to be in Travancore) com-
plete the evidence for the Presidency.
The breeding season in the Carnatic is said by Jerdon to be from July to
September and Theobald’s eggs were taken at Ahtoor on 20 August. The
Survey specimen collected at Kurumbapatti on 18 April, however, contained
an egg ready for expulsion.
As regards the race or races of this Bustard-quail which occur in_ the
Presidency I suffer from the difficulty of lack of proper material. The only
two specimens with proper data (Coimbatore, Kurumbapatti) are clearly refer-
able to the race taigoor. The five ‘Madras’ birds on the other hand agree
with specimens from Belgaum and Dapuli, 8. Konkan in the British Museum
which seem to me very red and suggest the possibility of an erythristic race
on the West coast, as in the case of Perdicula asiatica.
The Pudmanabhapuram bird, on the other hand, cannot be distinguished
from the Cinghalese race Turnia suscitator leggei, but perhaps this unidentified
locality is really in Ceylon. There is also much individual variation in these
Bustard-quails and it is to be hoped that observers in the Presidency | will
make a point of collecting some fresh material to settle these difficulties.
I should like also to direct the attention of observers to the breeding
habits of this genus. So far as Indian literature is concerned there is not
much exact evidence to support the full accounts given of their polyandrous
habits. The proved pugnacity of the females is after all not necessarily in-
consistent with monogamy and both sexes have certainly been found brooding
eggs, a practice denied to the female in the current accounts.
[Turnix sylvatica dussumier (Temm. and Lang.).
Hemipodius dussumier Temminck and Lang., Planch. Color. d’Ois., livr. 76
(1828), pl. 454, fig. 2—Bengal.
According to the New Fauna (vol. v, p. 452) the Little Button-quail occurs
on the Nilgiris and hills of Southern India everywhere up to the peaks,
690 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
though this statement is modified by the author in Game Birds (vol. iii, p. 32)
to the effect that it is extremely rare on the highest parts of the Nilgiris.
Mr. Stuart Baker also states (Nidification, iv, 286) that Stewart twice found
it breeding in Travancore. As these statements conflict with the experience of
Davison, Bourdillon, Ferguson and others who worked these areas carefully
for years and as the identification of Button-quail is a notoriously difficult
matter, I am not yet inclined to admit this species to the Presidency list. ]
Turnix tanki tanki Blyth.
Turna tanki Blyth, J.A.S8.B., xi (1848), p. 180—no locality = Bengal.
Specimens collected:—45 og 13-4-29 Kurumbapatti; 1588-9 9 24-3-30
Sankrametta 3,000 ft.
Measurements : —
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
2d 13.5-14 82-84 27 .5-30 23 mm.
1 © 14 93.5 SOAS) 24 mm.
Jerdon says that the Indian Button-quail is not uncommon in the upland
districts of Malabar and in the Eastern Ghats and this statement is apparently
roughly correct. On the eastern side the Survey obtained the above specimens
at Sankrametta and Kurumbapatti and Stuart Baker states (Nidification, iv,
287) that he had received birds and eggs from Tinnevelly. Hume received a
skin from Bourdillon from 8. Travancore (Hume and Marshall, ii, 187) and
Terry states that he shot one at Pulungi in the Palnis. Stuart Baker states
(New Fauna, v, 456) that in this area it occurs up to 4,000 ft. but I know
not on what authority. William Davison collected a male on 18 May 1881
at Karote at the foot of the Banasore Peak in the Wynaad and this specimen
is still in the British Museum.
This completes our knowledge of the Button-quail in the Presidency ‘and
nothing definite seems to be on record as regards the breeding season or the
status of the species.
Hypotaenidia striata gularis (Horsfield).
Rallus gularis Horsfield, Trans. Linn. Soc., xiii (1821), p. 196—Java.
Not obtained by the Survey. The Blue-breasted: Banded Rail.is probably a
resident species in the Presidency though very little is really known about it.
The late Mr. J. Darling found a nest with 5 eggs in a small swamp at
Sultan’s Battery, Wynaad, 2,000 ft., on 26 August and in addition found the
hatched shells of three other nests. William Davison mentions examining
_fragments of a skin obtained by Darling in the Wynaad, and it was either
these fragments or a female in the British Museum obtained by Darling at
Vythery, Wynaad, on 26 August 1874 that was doubtless connected with the
identification of the above nest (Hume and Marshall, 11, 249; S.F., x, 415). A
female from Kotagherry (15 March 1875 Miss Cockburn) is also in the British
Museum.
Cardew records it from Cannanore (Birds of S. India, p. 325) and Terry
obtained a female (now in Dr. C. B. Ticehurst’s collection) on 4 April at
Pulungi in the Palnis. A banded rail observed by Captain Bates on April
29 on the downs outside Kodaikanal at 6,500 ft. may have been of this species.
In Travancore, according to Ferguson, this rail may be found scattered
about in marshy thickets near the coast. A pair in the Hume collection from
the ‘west coast of Madras’ may perhaps be Travancore birds.
There is no very definite evidence as to the occurrence of this rail on
the eastern side of the Presidency. Hume received two specimens from Captain
Mitchell said to have been procured in the Madras market but the italics
suggest that Hume suspected some mistake in the matter.
Specimens of this rail from N.-H. and §.-W. India appear to me to belong
to the same form and to be larger and with less black on the upper parts
than specimens of the typical race from the Philippines. These Indian birds
are attributed by Stuart Baker to gularis (Java) but by Chasen (Handlist of
Malaysian Birds, p. 24) to a separable larger race Rallus albiventris Swainson
Animals and Menag. (December 1837), p. 837—India. The difficulty is that
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE HASTERN GHATS 691
there is no proper series available to furnish the measurements of Javan
topotypes, which agree with Indian birds in colour. As the type of gularis
in the British Museum has a wing of 117 mm. and two birds (¢<¢) from
Ceylon have wings (118, 120.5 mm.) I propose to follow Stuart Baker in
uniting Indian birds with the Javan form, until such time as a Javan series
is available to establish otherwise.
[Porzana porzana (Linnacus).
Rallus porzana Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. xii (1766), vol. i, p. 262—France.
Jerdon states that the Spotted Crake is found over all India and in particular
reference to a Rail obtained in a swamp in the Nilgiris which he _ believed
to belong to this form (Madras Journ. Lit. Sci., 1844, p. 174). There is a
specimen labelled Madras in the Madras Museum. As however there does not
appear to be any particular history to this specimen and as the species is not
otherwise recorded from nearer than Belgaum, I think it better not to admit,
this species to a full place on the Presidency list. ]
Porzana pusilla pusilla (Pallas).
Rallus pusillus Pallas, Reise Russ. Reichs., vol. iii (1776), p. 700—Dauria.
Baillon’s Crake has only been recorded from the western side of the Presi-
dency, and there apparently only on three occasions. Hume says (S.F., x, 415)
that he had received one from the Wynaad though the specimen is no longer
in the Hume collection.
Ferguson states that he received a single specimen in Travancore, brought,
to him alive in December. He adds that it had evidently bred there as there
was a young one with it, but this was I presume only hearsay and is hardly
likely to have been correct. A female collected at Charki, Trivandrum (Bour-
dillon) on 18-11-1878 is in the British Museum.
In the New Fauna (vi, p. 15) the nest is said to be very hard to find as
the bird always creeps quietly away from it. In Nidification (iv, 295) it is
stated that the nest is not hard to find as the bird generally flies direct from it.
Rallus eurizonoides amuroptera (Jerdon).
Porzana amuroptera Jerdon ex Blyth, MSS. Birds of India, vol. ii (1864),
p. 725—Orissa.
Very little is known about the Banded Crake in the Presidency and_ it
was not procured by the Survey. On the eastern side it is only recorded
from Gumsur in Ganjam, whence Blyth obtained it (Catalogue Birds. Mus. As.
Society, p. 285), and Madras from which neighbourhood the Madras Museum
obtained a single specimen (Hume and Marshall, 11, 288).
On the west a male was collected by Captain Gosse on 28 June 1918 on
the Rookey Estate, Kil Kotakiri 4,300 ft. This bird was shot in a swamp in
the bottom of a deep valley near the factory and is now in the British
Museum.
Tt occurs in Travancore. Hume obtained a specimen from the Assambo
Hills (loc. cit). A specimen marked ‘Mynall’ with no other data is in the
Hume collection, and Ferguson states that he procured one in 1875 in some
paddy fields near the foot of the hills in 8. Travancore at about 400 ft. I am
not quite clear how many different specimens these three records refer to or
whether they all actually refer to the same bird. There is however another
Travancore specimen in the British Museum, without proper data, collected by
Fry.
Finally in the Journal (xu, 216) Mr. W. N. Fleming records a specimen
caught at Tuticorin on 14 November 1896, exhausted after a cyclone from the
N.-E., a record which recalls Hume’s account of the arrival of this species
on the coast of Ceylon.
The name nigrolineatus Hodgson in Gray’s Misc. 1844, p. 86, finally adopted
for the Indian bird by Mr. Stuart Baker, Nidification, iv, 295, cannot be
used as it is a nomen nudum and quoted as a synonym of Rallus superciliaris
Eyton (vide Peters, 1934, p. 172). The next name available is Porzana amu-
roptera Jerdon ex Blyth, MSS. Birds of India, vol. iii, 1864, p. 725. The
type locality is Orissa, vide Ibis 1867, p. 310.
692 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
I have provisionally accepted Mr. Stuart Baker’s identification of South
Indian birds with those found in Northern India, though the birds that I have
measured from Ceyon and §. India appear to be somewhat smaller. So few
of the specimens available are, however, reliably sexed that, in view of the
difference in size of the sexes in rails, I have hesitated to accept a southern
race until better material is available.
Amaurornis fuscus fuscus (Linnaeus).
Rallus fuscus Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. xii, vol. i (1766), p. 262—Philippine
Islands.
Not procured by the Survey. The Ruddy Crake has hitherto only been
recorded from the western side in the Presidency, from the Wynaad and
Travancore. Of the former William Davison remarks that he only saw and
obtained two males on 2 May at Karote in some rice fields. There are however
three specimens in the British Museum collected by him at Karote, namely
two males shot on 12 May 1881 (so 2 May is doubtless a misprint) and a
female shot on 16 May 1881.
As regards ‘l'ravancore Ferguson considered the Ruddy Crake fairly com-
mon. In his time the Trivandrum Museum contained 6 specimens namely an
Anjango skin, two from an old collection labelled Travancore and three taken
at IKuttyani near Trivandrum in April. A Bourdillon specimen with no precise
data is in the British Museum. In Nidification (iv, 300) Stewart is said to
have once taken the nest in Travaneore but no details are given.
Mr. Stuart Baker [Bull. B.O.C., vol. xlvii (1927), p. 73] has separated
Cinghalese and 8. Indian birds from the typical race (Philippines) as Amaurornis
fuscus zeylonicus, as being much paler and faintly tinged with yellowish olive
above. There appears to be no real difference in size and the supposed colour
difference I have failed to recognise. Under the circumstances therefore T
keep these southern birds with the typical race. They are of course smaller
(wing 90.5-98.5 mm.) than N. Indian birds A. f. bakeri (wing 100.5-109.1 mm.)
which are again slightly smaller than A. f. erythrothorax of Japan (wing
111..5-118 mm.).
Amaurornis phoenicurus phoenicurus (Pennant).
Gallinula phoenicurus Pennant, Ind. Zool. 1769, p. 10, pl. ix—Ceylon.
Not procured by the Survey. In the Presidency the White-breasted Waterhen
is best- known on the western side. It is presumably a resident species.
In Coorg it is evidently not common for Betts calls it a shy and solitary
bird which may occasionally be flushed. William Davison says that it is
rare on the Nilgiris and their slopes but not uncommon at the base of the
hills through the Wynaad. He did however procure it in the Botanical Gardens
at Ootacamund. Colonel Sparrow’s collection contains a specimen killed at
Kolletur, Malappuram, on 18 December 1912.
In Travancore, according to Ferguson, it is found throughout the low
country round the edges of paddy fields.
On the eastern side the sole authority for its occurrence is Dewar’s remark
that it is rare at Madras.
Ferguson gives the breeding season in Travancore as April.
In the Ibis 1924, pp. 509-10, Ticehurst gives his considered opinion that
birds from India and Ceylon are inseparable, the variation in size and the
colour of the under tail-coverts being individual. With this opinion, I agree,
having arrived at it independently on the examination of fresh material not
seen by 'Ticehurst.
Gallinula chloropus indicus Blyth.
Gallinula chloropus ? var. indicus Blyth, J.A.S.B., vol. xi (1842), p. 887—
India, Nellore.
Not procured by the Survey. The Waterhen is far rarer in Southern India
than in the north and there are practically no records for the Presidency.
I have examined no local specimens but assume that they are not likely
to be different to those of India generally. Status unknown.
William Davison says that he has often seen the Waterhen in the Wynaad
and that it is common on the lake at Ootacamund, breeding in the sedges
of the margin. This latter statement was doubtless correct at the time but as
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 693
Col. H. R. Baker points out (Birds of S. India, p. 332) the lower portion of
the lake was reclaimed many years ago and the Waterhen has disappeared in
consequence.
Ferguson states that it is by no means common in Travancore, there being
only one specimen in the local museum.
On the eastern side this species is only recorded from Madras where Dewar
calls it rare, his record being probably based on the local specimen in the
Madras Museum.
Jerdon was at Nellore when he sent the type specimen to Blyth.
Gallicrex cinerea (Gmelin).
Fulica cinerea Gmelin, Syst. Nat., vol. 1, pt. 1 (1789), p. 702—China.
Not procured by the Survey. There is as yet very little information about
the distribution of the water-cock in the Presidency and it is probably more
common than is at present realised.
Dewar calls it rare at Madras but its occurrence is substantiated by a local
specimen in the Museum. On the west Major Phythian Adams informs me
that it is common about Cannanore. In Travancore, according to Ferguson,
it is not uncommon in and about the rice cultivation of the low country.
Two ‘Anjango’ females are in the British Museum.
Nothing is known about the breeding season in the Presidency though the
bird is presumably a resident. |
When a proper series is available the racial identity of South Indian and
Chinese birds will require checking.
Porphyrio poliocephalus poliocephalus (Latham).
Gallinula poliocephala Latham, Suppl. Index. Orn. (1801), p. 68—India.
So far the Purple Coot has only been recorded from two areas in the
Presidency, the neighbourhood of Madras and in ‘Travancore. At Madras
according to Dewar the Purple Coot is fairly common.
In Travancore Ferguson states that it is common in all the larger lakes
wherever there are reeds and rushes, and this information is amplified by
Bourdillon’s statement (S8.F., vu, 39) that the bird is found in great numbers
in the reed-beds of the Vellarney Lake, though for some reason (possibly the
increase of vegetation) it appeared scarcer in June than in March.
Ferguson gives the local breeding season as July and August.
No specimens were procured by the Survey and I have geen none from
anywhere in the Presidency. As however Ceylon birds appear to me to be
identical with those from North-West India there can be little doubt that
Presidency birds belong to the typical race.
Latham’s name was based on a drawing by General Davies of a bird in the
Exeter Exchange.
Fulica atra atra Linnaeus.
Fulica atra Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, vol. 1 (1758), p. 152—Sweden.
The coot was not reported by the Survey and it appears to be scarce in
the Presidency, though Howard Campbell found it breeding in the Cuddapah
district (J.B.N.H.S., xiv, 392). In 1892 he found a nest with 3 hard-set eggs
on 80th September in a small tank near the town of Cuddapah. On 30 October
of the same year he found several nests with fresh eggs in a small reedy
tank at Occhaveli. He considered that the coot was probably double-brooded
as a brood of young were seen following their parents on a tank early in April.
Finn includes the species in his Madras list, probably on the strength of
a local bird which is in the Museum.
I have examined no specimen killed in the Presidency but have no reason
to think that Presidency birds do not belong to the typical race, like all
other Indian specimens.
Metopidius indicus (Latham).
Parra indica Latham, Index. Orn., vol. ii (1790), p. 765—India, Bengal.
Not procured by the Survey. Very little has been recorded about the
Bronze-winged Jacana in the Presidency. As regards the west a specimen
694 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
from Coorg is in the T'weedale collection in the British Museum. William
Davison states (S.F., x, 415) that Mr. T. Darling of the Rasselas estate near
Manantoddy, Wynaad, procured a specimen. In Travancore, according to
Ferguson, this Jacana is to be met with in suitable localities throughout the
country. A male from the Vellarney Lake (5-2-1879 Bourdillon) is in the
British Museum as well as a Fry specimen, and four ‘Madras’ specimens
from Rev. H. H. Baker.
Dr. Gravely informs me that a local specimen is in the Madras Museum.
Bourdillon obtained eggs in Travancore in August, vide Stuart Baker, Nidi-
fication, iv, 321.
This species apparently has no races.
Hydrophasianus chirurgus (Scopoli).
Tringa chirurgus Scopoli, Del. Flor. et Faun. Insubr., vol. ii (1786), p. 92—
[New Guinea] Luzon, Philippines.
The Pheasant-tailed Jacana was not procured by the Survey and we have
even less information about its status in the Presidency. It evidently occurs
at Madras for there is a local specimen in the Madras Museum and there are
two Madras skins (one undated; one 1876, both Wardlaw-Ramsay) in the British
Museum.
Ferguson says that flocks are common in the tanks of South Travancore,
especially about Nagercoil.
This species apparently has no races.
Rostratula benghalensis benghalensis (Linnaeus).
Rallus benghalensis Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x (1758), vol. i, p. 153—Asia,
Bengal.
Not procured by the Survey. The Painted Snipe is, I presume, very
generally distributed in suitable places throughout the Presidency and no doubt
many sportsmen can supplement the following details which I am about to
enumerate. On the eastern side it is recorded from Jeypore (Ball). Mr. R. I.
Stoney kindly informs me that they are fairly common both at Nellore and
in Chingleput district and Dewar includes it in his Madras list. A local
specimen is in the Madras Museum.
An interesting note by A. Theobald will be found in Hume and Marshall
(vol. ii, p..883). He says ‘I have seen and shot this bird almost all over
Southern India south of the 12° North Latitude. In the dry districts it
comes in during the cold weather and remains till all the swamps and fields
are dry but in well watered portions, like Tinnevelly, Tanjore, Malabar and
parts of Coimbatore I have shot them throughout the year. I have never
found the nest, but heard of one being taken near Erode. They are common
in the inland districts but rare towards Madras, where they are caught in
large numbers [sic] for the sake of their skins which are imported to China.
[This trade we may now hope has been put an end to.] The bird fetches from
two to four annas each in the Madras market, while the preserved skins are
sold at from eight annas to one rupee. They are snared with horse-hair
nooses by the Madras fowlers.’
In Travancore Ferguson considered it fairly common throughout the low
country wherever there are reedy marshes. He also often flushed it from
paddy fields. Three specimens from the Vellarney Lake (Fry) are in the
British Museum. In this state Stuart Baker (Game Birds, ii, 124) considers
it to breed up to 3,000 ft. In Cannanore it is evidently fairly plentiful as
Captain Wall killed 82 in December, January and February of the shooting
season 1903-4 (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 722). From here it extends sufficiently up into
the hills to reach the Wynaad, whence William Davison records it. Whether
it may be included in the Nilgiri list is doubtful.
The Painted Snipe is in the main doubtless a resident species in the
Presidency but it must move about locally in accordance with the distribution
of the water supply and there may be also more definitely migratory move-
ments, as in Ceylon it is apparently an immigrant about October.
Our information about the breeding season in the Presidency is far from
complete. In Travancore Ferguson received eggs in December and young in
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 695
February. At Coimbatore Captain Packard found a shelled egg in a bird sent
to the table in October (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 139) and further north a Mr. Hadfield
found an oviduct egg in January (S.F’., x, 414). This evidence suggests that
a sufficient number of Painted Snipe breed in the cold weather to justify one
in asking sportsmen to spare what is at best a most indifferent game bird.
There is no difference between birds from North and South India.
[Grus grus lilfordi Sharpe.
Grus lilfordi Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus., vol. xxii (1894), p. 252—
R. Jhelum near Jelalpur, Punjab. .
In Hume and Marshall, iii, p. 21, Major Campbell of the 26th M. N. TI.
writes from Quilon that the Common Crane is not uncommon in Travancore,
but this statement has never been confirmed and is on the face of it unlikely.
When describing this species Sharpe neither designated a type nor a
type locality. He described an adult male, and as only two such were in
the British Museum collection and both from the Punjab, one must be the
type, and we have selected the first which came from River Jhelum, near
Jelalpur. ]
Antigone antigone antigone (Linnaeus).
Ardea antigone Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, vol. i (1758), p. 142—Hast
Indies.
I have no knowledge regarding the occurrence of the Sarus Crane in the
Presidency beyond Hume’s statement (Game Birds, ii, p. 1) that it occurs
in the Madras Presidency north of the Godavery and perhaps between the
Kistna and the Godavery. It was not reported by the Survey.
Anthropoides virgo (Linnaeus).
Ardea virgo Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, vol. i (1758), p. 141—Numidia.!
The only record of the Demoiselle Crane in the Presidency will be found
in Hume and Marshall (iii, 31-38) where Albert Theobald is said to have
seen it in the neighbourhood of Kollegal in the north of Coimbatore district
and to have had reports of it from as far south as Tinnevelly. About Kollegal
Mr. Theobald states that they appear in the latter part of December viz.
about harvest time and leave by the end of February or early in March. In
that neighbourhood in his time a certain measure of sanctity was attached
to the bird.
Choriotis nigriceps (Vigors).
Otis nigriceps Vigors, P.Z.S8. 1830-81 (2 March 1831), p. 85—Himalayas.”
According to Jerdon the Great Indian Bustard is—or was—found in_ the
Carnatic and there is a specimen in the Madras Museum which is said to
have been killed locally. Another specimen, in the Museum of St. Joseph's
College, Trichinopoly, was killed by native fowlers at Samajapuram, 10 miles
north of Trichinopoly on 25 February 1924. This was a full grown male
(Father Leigh, J.B.N.H.S., xxx, 225). In this area they must have been
fairly common at one time as Major Charles A. Tostems (S.F., x, 167) records
that he shot one three miles west of Arupacottah, a large village in the
Madura district on the Tinnevelly border. It was one of a party of seven
or eight and he says that he had repeatedly seen eight or ten of a morning
near the same place. Writing as if they were well known birds he adds :—
the Bustard came to these plains (in Tinnevelly and Madura) about September
and October. The same writer goes on to say that to the north of the Carnatic
these Bustard are often to be had in the cold weather in the Kurnool district.
A successful stalk at Tugalli in Kurnool when three birds were secured from
a party of six in January 1896 is described by Major R. W. Burton in Stuart
Baker’s Game Birds, vol. u, p. 179.
1 For type locality see Grant, Bull. B.O.C., lv, No. ccclxxxii (January
1935), p. 65. ;
4 See Ibis 1924, p. 470, for a discussion of this type locality.
4
696 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
As this wonderful bird is, I fear, doomed to extinction before long, one
can only hope that all sportsmen who have met with it or shot it in the past
will record their experiences in some detail in the Journal. The historian of
the Great Bustard in England deplores the paucity of his material and would
give anything for the information which numbers could have recorded had
they realised the birds’ approaching doom.
Sypheotides indica (Miller).
Otis indica Miller, Icones Anim. (1782), p. 6, pl. 83—India Orientali.
Not procured by the Survey. I have been able to trace a fair number of
records of the Likh in the Madras Presidency though these, no doubt, do not
give a full picture of its status and distribution. Jerdon says it is found
in the Northern Circars. and Stephen Cox (J.B.N.H.S., xu, 575) saw one
shot at Razan in Waltair District. There are fuller records for Cocanada and
Rajahmundri. Near the former place Major Charles MacInroy says that he
has known four or five killed in a morning at Samulcottah, a deserted canton-
ment (N. & H., viii, 492). Major Charles A. Tostems (S.F., x, 168) says
that he had shot 3 or 4 of a morning in December and January at Rajahmundri
—Cox also knew of it being shot in the Godavery district—and mentions as
very unusual the capture of a female in June by a native shikari. Further
south at Ongole in Nellore district he considered the bird common.
In the Carnatic generally Jerdon considered the Iikh chiefly a winter
visitor. About Madras Dewar called it not at all common, quoting a Mr.
Cross who though shooting regularly rarely killed more than a single bird
a year. There is a local specimen in the Madras Museum, and four speci-
mens labelled Madras with no definite data are in the Wardlaw-Ramsay and
Hume collections in the British Museum. Further south Jerdon states that
he had found the nest in October near Trichinopoly.
The western side is not very suitable to its requirements but a single
specimen was killed on the slopes of the Nilgiris some years before 1887
between Neddivattum and Pykara (Hume, S.F., x, 412).
In Travancore Ferguson only knew of a single record, a bird shot in
some rushes near Trivandrum in 1876.
Burhinus oedicnemus indicus (Salvadori).
(Edicnemus indicus Salvadori, Atti Soc. Ital. Sc. Nat., vol. vu (1866),
p. 881—India. ; oe
Specimens collected: —117 Q 28-4-29 Kurumbapatti; 458 oo 20-6-29 Tirtha-
malai 1,000 ft.
Measurements :—
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
Lv, 42.5 203 109 73.5 mm.
1 © 40 208 103 74.5 mm.
There are a few records of the Stone-Curlew on both sides of the Presidency.
On the east Rhodes Morgan shot a female in May in Kurnool and found a
coloured egg in the oviduct as described in N. & #., 1, 333. A specimen
from Singaperumal Koil, Chingleput district, is in the Madras Museum. The
two Survey specimens complete the records on this side. No. 117 contained
an egg almost ready to lay.
On the west William Davison collected a female at Segore on 18 February
1881 which is now in the British Museum and Major Phythian Adams informs
me that he took c/2 eggs, almost fresh, near Kollegal in N. Coimbatore on
21 July 19385.
As regards Travancore Ferguson says:—I have on more than one occasion
seen and shot this bird when snipe-shooting at Valey, 4 miles from Trivandrum,
where the soil is sandy and the place is clothed with shrubs and cocoanut
trees. They were sometimes in small parties of three or four; at other times
solitary. Breeds here in August.
ypu nena oS
THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 697
Esacus recurvirostris Cuvier.
CGdicnemus recurvirostris Cuvier, Regne Anim., 2nd ed., vol. 1 (1829),
p. 500—India.
Not procured by the Survey. While the Great Stone Plover probably occurs
on all the suitable rivers of the Presidency I have only actual record of its
occurrence in three localities. Mr. H. C. Smith, .r.s., kindly informs me
that he found a newly hatched chick at Masulipatam on 16 April 1918. Mr.
H. R. 5. Hasted saw at least 12 old birds and found a chick on the Kistna
River in Kurnool. The date is given as 29 June 1909 but there may be
some mistake as Mr. Hasted was apparently out snipe-shooting (J.B.N.H.S.,
xx, 221). There is a local specimen in the Madras Museum. The bird is
doubtless a resident as in other parts of its range.
Cursorius coromandelicus coromandelicus (Gmelin),
Charadrius coromandelicus Gmelin, Syst. Nat., vol. i, pt. ii (1789), p. 692—
Coromandel Coast.
Not procured by the Survey. The Indian Courser is only recorded as
occurring in two areas in the Presidency. The first is near Madras as there
is a local specimen in the Government Museum and three specimens from
Madras—apparently meaning the capital—are in the Hume and Wardlaw-
Ramsay collections.
In Travancore Ferguson says his collector shot two in June 1902 in some
sandy plains 8 miles south of Quilon. Four more were subsequently obtained
12 miles south of Quilon and as these included a very young bird Ferguson
concluded that the species must breed in this area. He was doubtless right as
Stuart Baker (Nidification, iv, 845) says, on the authority of Stewart, that
this Courser is common in the deforested areas of Travancore, breeding from
May to July.
The scientific name is given trinomially as in my opinion Cursorius tem-
minckit Swainson, 1822 is merely an African race of the Indian Courser.
Rhinoptilus bitorquatus (Blyth).
Macrotarsius bitorquatus Blyth, J.A.S.B., vol. xvii (1), 1848, p. 254—
Kastern Ghats.
‘This remarkable Plover has hitherto, I believe, only been procured by
myself,’ said Jerdon in his Birds of India, ‘from the hilly country above the
Eastern Ghats, off Nellore and in Cuddapah.’ He appears to have left no
further record of the exact locahty, the date or the number of birds seen,
though he gave a few details of behaviour and the bird was not reported
again until Blanford saw three in open forest 15 miles east of Sironcha (Ibis
1867, p. 462 and J.A.S.B., 1869, p. 190). Later Blanford obtained two males
on the 5th and 9th March 1871 near Badrachalam north of the Godavery.
These two specimens are in the British Museum. Since then an anonymous
writer in the ‘Asian’ is said to have found the eggs and Howard Campbell is
said to have procured a male near Anantapur (New Fauna, vi, p. 88) but these
original references I have failed to trace.
The above is a brief epitome of all that is known about the occurrence
and distribution of Jerdon’s Courser not only in the Presidency but in the
whole of India and the rarity and lhmited range of this Indian member of
an African genus make it one of the most interesting birds on the Presidency
list. Mr. LaPersonne in this Survey and Mr. Salim A. Ali in the Hyderabad
Survey (J.B.N.H.8., xxxvil, 443) made special efforts to find the bird again
but without success.
[Glareola pratincola maldivarum Forster,
Glareola (Pratincola) maldivarum Forster, Fauna Indica (1795), p. l1—
Maldive Islands.
Baker and Inglis include the Large Indian Pratincole in their account of
the Birds of South India, no doubt on account of the fact that it breeds in
small colonies in Ceylon. There is, however, so far as I am aware, no record
of its occurrence in the Presidency. |
698 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Glareola lactea Temnunck.
Glareola lactea Temminck, Man. d’Orn., 2nd ed., vol. 11 (1820), p. 508—
Bengal.
Specimens collected :—1275 G 20-1-80, 1285-1288 9999 21-1-30, 1290 Q
22-1-80, 1291 9 1298 ¢ 28-1-80 Godavery Delta.
Measurements : —
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus,
26 15 156.5-160.5 56-58.5 99-92..5 mm.
6 9 ADS) 143-156.5 50.5-58.5 9929.9°5 aim
The Little Indian Pratincole was only obtained by the Survey in the
Godavery Delta in January. Here they appeared about sunset in flocks of
30 or 40 birds which flew about over the tree tops of the island, where the
Survey was encamped, feeding in the air and descending after sunset to
skim over the surface of the water. The females had their ovaries slightly
enlarged.
It had been -previously recorded in the west of the Presidency. Ferguson
says that he only received it from North Travancore where flocks consisting
of a dozen or more were met by his collectors at Velyani near Alwaye, fre-
quenting the open flats on either side of the Alwaye River up to Malayaltur.
Sir A. Cardew found it breeding on the sandy banks of a river at Mangalore
in April.
There is no difference between birds from North and South India.
Dromas ardeola Paykull.
Dromas ardeola Paykull, K. Vet.-Ak. Nya Handl., vol. xxvi (3), 1805, p.
182—India.
The. only information which I can find about the distribution of the Crab-
Plover in the Presidency is Jerdon’s statement that he found it on the east
coast near Nellore, far from rare at the mouths of rivers and along back-
waters. It was in small flocks and observed ‘during the hot weather, as well
as at other times’. A specimen in the Madras Museum is said to have been
obtained locally. As it is fairly common on the north coasts of Ceylon it is
doubtless also to be found on other parts of the Presidency coast. —
(To be continued).
1
}
|
i
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A NEW RACE OF HORSFIELD’S SCIMITAR-BABBLER.
BY
H. WHISTLER, F.Z.S.,.M.B.0.U.
In the Eastern Ghats Survey (J.B.N.H.S., xxxv, 742) I discussed the
difficulties inherent in a study of the races of MHorsfield’s Scimitar-Babbler
(Pomatorhinus horsfieldii) and pointed out that birds obtained from the Lower
Kastern Ghats (Kurumbapatti, Shevaroy Hills, Palkonda Hills, Nallamalais)
) differed from those of the rest of India in having short beaks (29-31-5 mm.)
and in lacking the black edge to the white plastron. At the time however
I was loath to add to the races of this species on the material before me. In
the Hyderabad Survey (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi, 375) I returned to the subject,
pointing out that the three specimens obtained by Mr. Salim Ali at Ferahabad
2,800 ft. on the Amrabad Plateau, which is physically little but a continuation
of the Nallamalais, agree with the series from further south. I suggested then
that this south-eastern race appeared worthy of a name as its characteristics
though slight in character appeared to be correlated with a sharply defined
distribution.
Since the above was written I have examined a fine series of Horsfield’s
Scimitar-Babbler collected by the interest of Mr. R. C. Morris in the Billigiri-
rangan Hills. These birds are all long-billed (30-33 mm.) and have a marked
black edge to the plastron and evidently belong to the typical race, being
sharply defined from P. h. travancoreensis of the western coast and the birds
under consideration from the Eastern Ghats. As this fact emphasises the
definition of the characteristics and range of the Scimitar-Babbler of the South-
Eastern Ghats, I now desire to give the latter a name and propose to call it
POMATORHINUS HORSFIELDII MADERASPATENSIS subsp. nov.
Type: Vernay Survey No. 122 ¢ 24 April 1929 Kurumbapatti, Salem
District (now in the British Museum).
NEW ORIENTAL DRAGONFLIES.
BY
F.C... Fraser, Ut.-Col., 1.8. \i(Retd:), Pek -b st
(With a teaxt-figure).
Dr. F. F. Laidlaw has passed on to me three species of dragonflies for
description, two of which are new to science and the third, the hitherto
undescribed female of Idionyx dohrni Kruger.
een meee Ee
Wings of Protorthemis intermedia sp. nov.
Male. Abdomen 88 mm. Hindwing 42 mm.
Head: labium and anteclypeus ferruginous ; labrum, rest of face and frons
dark reddish-brown; occiput almost black. Prothorax and synthorax reddish-
brown changing to blackish-brown on middorsum. Wings hyaline; antenodal
portion of costa of forewing distinctly longer than the portion from node to
apex (this portion decidedly shorter in all other species); subtrigone of forewing
made up of 5 cells; hypertrigones traversed once or twice; discoidal cell
of forewing 3-celled, traversed once in the hindwing; discoidal field forewing
beginning with a row of 4 cells and then continued for a short distance as
rows of 38 cells; supplementary nervures present in Bridge; anal loop extending
4 cells beyond distal end of discoidal cell. Membrane dark-brown. Legs
reddish, distal ends of femora and tibiae and tarsi black. Anal appendages
simple, finely denticulate beneath, reddish-brown. Genitalia closely similar to
those of P. celebensis.
Habitat: Palawan. A single male only, which will be deposited in the
British Museum as the type. The relative lengths of the antenodal and _ post-
nodal portions of the forewing will serve to distinguish this species from all
others of the genus, '
NEW ORIENTAL DRAGONFLIES 701
Idionyx dohrni Kruger.
Female: Abdomen 30 mm. Hindwing 31 mm.
The female has not been described: it resembles the male very closely
in colour and markings. The vesicle is not specialized but is rather flattened
and rounded at the apex. Wings hyaline, uncoloured; anal-loop 9-celled; only
one row of cells between the origins of Cui and JA in the hindwing; 14-15
antenodal nervures in forewing, 7 postnodal; 8-10 antenodal and 8 postnodal
nervures in hindwing.
Habitat: Perak, '.M.S., Jor Camp, 2,000 ft., coll. 8. Seimund, 22, vin, 22.
The female of this species closely resembles that of J. imbricata but the
wings are uncoloured at tle base and the anal-loop is shorter.
Idionyx laidlawi sp. nov.
Female. Abdomen 31 mm. Hindwing 34 mm.
Head: labium, labrum and rest of face including the lower part of frons
dark ochreous; upper part of frons and the vesicle metallic blue; the latter
conical, rising steeply, its apex tapered finely and bearing a small horse-shoe
ridge at its summit which encloses a tiny notch behind, whilst below it, on
the posterior aspect of the vesicle, there is a small but stout spine. Occiput
black. Prothorax and thorax metallic blue marked with short antehumera!
yellow stripes extending only halfway up the dorsum, and with two oblique
citron yellow stripes on each side, one medial, the other bordering the metepi-
meron posteriorly. Beneath yellow, marked with three large oval submetallic
dark spots. Wings hyaline, uncoloured; pterostigma black; membrane pure
white; anal-loop made up of 10 cells; 2 cubital nervures in hindwings; only
a single row of cells between the origins of Cui and JA in the hindwing;
13 antenodal and 7-8 postnodal nervures in forewing, 9 antenodal and 10-11
postnodal nervures in hindwing. Abdomen black, unmarked, segments 8 to 10
slightly dilated and depressed; vulvar scale triangular, projecting conspicuously
in profile. Legs black but the two hinder pairs of tibiae bright yellow on
the flexor surface. Male unknown.
Habitat: Pahang, Malay Peninsula. A single female, the type, from
Fraser’s Hill, 4,200 ft., 3-6-21, collected H. M. Pendlebury. This species is
easily determined by the highly specialized shape of its vesicle which approaches
that of I. intricata Fras., but has a posterior spine which is absent in the
latter. It appears to be closely related to this. species and belongs, with it,
to the optata group. The type will be placed in the British Museum.
FRESHWATER FISH AND FISHERIES OF TRAVANCORE.
BY
C."@> JOHN,“ M.A.,D se. (send!) Dic:
(Department of Zoology, Agra College, Agra).
(With 5 teaxt-figures).
CONTENTS.
Introduction ae oe she ee sce LOR
Geography ae ee AGE
List of Freshwater fish and their loc al names ... 706
Systematic description of the Freshwater fish of Travan-
core a ne. ae eh ae 10S
Methods of capture ... “ae x Be a
Factors injurious to the development of Freshwater
Fisheries a ee ve fa eee
General considerations oe =i ae oh 128
References be Be a oe Monae koi
INTRODUCTION.
The materials for this paper were obtained during the years
1982 and 1983 when I had the opportunity of spending some
months in Travancore. To get a fairly accurate idea of the
seasonal distribution of the various types of fish, it was necessary
to make collections during different seasons. Accordingly the first
collection was made three weeks before the commencement of the
South-West Monsoon and another, two weeks after the commence-
ment of the rains. The third collection was made during October
and November. The first and second collections were made _ per-
sonally by me both in the hilly regions and the plains, but for
the October and November collections, I depended mostly on the
help rendered by friends in different parts of the country. As.
already stated, these three collections were planned with the
object of obtaining a more or less general idea of the seasonal
distribution of the freshwater fishes. The first collection is I
beheve fairly representative of summer. conditions, when in the
plains, rivers and canals are stagnant and at their lowest levels
and streams in the hills are partly dry and broken up into puddles
and pools. connected only by narrow and irregular channels. The
second collection gives some idea of the fish obtainable during
the rainy season, while the third represents the condition of the
fisheries during the cold season. The author is fully aware of
the fact that three hurried collections by themselves are not suffi-
cient to give a perfectly accurate idea of the seasonal distribution
of fish, even of a very narrow tract of country, but it is hoped
that this work will more or less form a preliminary account, which
may stimulate other workers permanently settled in the country
to make a more comprehensive and thorough study of the subject.
Judging from the lst of vernacular names of fishes supplied bv
local residents in different parts of the State I presume that
FRESHWATER FISH AND FISHERIES OF TRAVANCORE
Go
0
NI
there is still a large number of species unrecorded. For instance
in Thodupuzha (one of the Taluks of the State), I was informed
that the type commonly called ‘Vakameen’ (one of the Ophioce-
phalidae) is represented by at least two distinct varieties, which
I had not succeeded in getting. Their vernacular names were
Arivaka and Pandavaka. In other places people gave me names
of fish, such as Katti, Kathi, Kuilkathi, Chekada, Kadimeen,
Vazutha, Kooral, Chenkanian and Vellivala, which I have not been
able to correlate with the specimens I had collected, and, by way
of explanation, I was informed that these varieties were not avail-
able during the particular season when I visited those places.
It is impossible, with the present state of our knowledge, to say
whether these names are synonymous with other names which I
have recorded or whether they are really types which I did not
succeed in getting, owing either to their rarity or absence during
certain seasons.
One great difficulty in the way of arriving at any positive
conclusion in this matter is the fact that the same fish is known
by different vernacular names in different locahties. The verna-
cular names of fishes in South Travancore have been compiled
by Shankeranarayana Pillay (1929) and these names resemble the
Tamil names. In the northern parts of the State, the same fishes
are known by different names. As these parts of the country are .
completely isolated from Tamil influence, the names prevalent here
may be safely regarded as the Malayalam names. Even in these
northern parts, the name of the same fish changes from place to
place. For example, according to Shankeranaraye ana Pillay, Mas-
tacembelus quenthert is known as Kal-aural in South Travancore.
The same fish is called Arakan in places round about the little
market town of Changanacherry, while it is called Pazh ukkamundt
in the hilly regions of Moovattupuzha and Thodupuzha_ taluks.
The variable and indefinite nature of these vernacular names pre-
railing within narrow limits shows how great are the difficulties
which confront the worker who attempts to discover vernacular
names of even the commonest food fishes of the country.
A fairly representative collection of fishes were brought to
Madras for purposes of identification and they are now preserved at
the Madras Government Museum.
In conelusion I wish to record my deep sense of gratitude to
Dr. F. H. Gravely, Superintendent of the Madras Government
Museum, for kindly allowing me the use of collecting equipment
and for permitting me to carry on the work of identification in
the Zoology Department of the Museum. My thanks are also due
to Mr. Chinnappiah, Zoological Assistant of the Government
Museum, for his valuable help and suggestions during the progress
of this work. However, soon after I began this work I was
appointed to the Agra College and so I got through the identi-
fication in a hurry, using only Day’s volumes on Fishes, in the
Fauna of British India series. References giving more recent
nomenclature are not available at Agra, hence it was not possible
for me to make the systematic deseri iption more uptodate. It has
already been pointed out to me that some of my identifications
704 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXYVIII
are open to doubt. I do not challenge such a criticism as I
have no facilities to verify my observations, as I am far away
from the place, where the material is available. However, in
such a paper as this, though the systematic description is not
the essential aim, it forms an indispensable part, since it is the
only medium through which the habits and economic importance
of the various types of fish can be adequately described, and that
purpose will be achieved whatever the system of classification
adopted.
GEOGRAPHY.
For the proper appreciation of the scope of fisheries in a coun-
try it is essential to have a general idea of its geographical features,
as the possibilities of fisheries development can be gauged only
from this aspect.
Travancore, a name derived from the Malayalam word, which
means the ‘abode of the Goddess of Prosperity’, is a land which
certainly justifies its name, being perhaps one of the most beauti-
ful and fertile areas in the southern part of India. The great
diversity of the physical aspects of the country, with its “moun-
tainous amphitheatre, sylvan slopes, sequestered glens, rich and
variegated valleys embellished with foaming torrents’, its flat
coastal plains with extensive cocoanut plantations and waving
expanses of paddy fields, presents a picture unique in the whole
of India.
Travancore lies in the extreme south-west of Peninsular
India between 8° 4’ and 10° 21’ N. and 76° 14’ and 77° 73’ E.; and
derives great advantage from the fact that it is flanked by a con-
tinuous range of hills along its eastern boundary. The northern
and eastern parts spread out in a plateau of considerable width.
Towards the coast these ranges soften down into undulating slopes
which finally melt into the narrow strip of flat fertile coastal plain.
The total area of the State is 7,625 sq. miles, of which 5,778 sq.
miles or nearly three-quarters, comprise the highlands and the rest,
1,847 sq. miles, forms the coastal plains.
The Western Ghats extend into the north-eastern part of
Travancore and reach their highest elevation in the Anamudi peak.
The numerous hills clustering round this part are collectively
called the “High Ranges’. South of this there is a chain of hills
called Cardamom Hills. From this main chain of ranges, rocky
spurs forming secondary ranges run out towards the west and in
certain places reach the coast. These chains of ranges are
separated by innumerable valleys enclosed within an ocean of
forests, through which run streams, rivulets and rivers, roaring
in a mad rush to reach the plains below.
The chief mountain ranges according to their vernacular names
are Anamudi Hills, Agasthyakootam, Mahendragiri, Mottachimala,
Pirmed, Ponmudi, Elamala and Sabirimala. As already stated,
this chain of ranges collectively called Anamudi Hills and Carda-
mom Hills form a broad plateau, from the bosom of which a
few rugged cliffs and spiry points break through the undulating
contour and reach altitudes ranging from 4,000 to 8,000 ft. above
FRESHWATER FISH AND FISHERIES OF TRAVANCORE
ioe |
or
0
sea level. These mountain ranges standing like a wall behind a
narrow coastal plain covered with exuberant vegetation check
the rain-bearing winds blowing directly against them from the
Indian Ocean. This gives Travancore its greatest natural advan-
tage. The rainfall is heavy. The South-West Monsoon, which
brings the greatest quantity, falls between May and August. The
North-East Monsoon commences at the end of October. The
maximum annual rainfall is about 200 inches.
Owing to the mountainous character of the country and the
heavy rainfall both during the summer and winter months, there
are numerous rivers and streams all over the country. There are
twelve main rivers and these in the order of succession from
north to south are: (1) Periyar, (2) Moovattupuzha river, (8)
Meenachil river, (4) Pambayar, (5) Kallada river, (6) Attungal or
Vamana river, (7) Karamana river, (8) Killiyar, (9) Neiyar, @0)
Thambravarni river, (11) Kothayar and (12) Vadacherry river.
The northernmost river—the Periyar—is the longest and as we
proceed southwards they become smaller and smaller and_ the
southernmost one is only a small rivulet hardly about 25 miles
long. The Periyar is 142 miles in length and rises in the Sivagiri
forests about 60 miles from Devikulam at an elevation of 8,000 ft.
About seven miles west of a place called Mullaperiyar the river
runs through a narrow gorge steeped on both sides by high hills.
The construction of a dam at this point has caused water to accu-
mulate into a big freshwater lake, from which water is diverted
to the adjoining British territory for irrigation purposes.
All the rivers generally have a winding course and they empty
themselves either into the system of lakes described below or
directly into the sea.
Along the coast, a chain of lakes extends from the borders of
Cochin to Trivandrum. These lakes are extensive sheets of water
into which one or more rivers flow. A few of these lakes are
connected permanently with the sea, while others are separated
from the sea by a bar of sand. The rivers which flow into these
lakes deposit large quantities of alluvium and, as a result, the
lakes are rather shallow and in certain parts, espécially in the
Vembanad lake, these shallows are enclosed by bunds and used
for paddy cultivation. Proceeding northwards from Trivandrum,
the lakes in their order of succession are: Velikayal, Katinam-
kulam, Anchuthengil Kayal, Nadayar, Paravur lake, Ashtamudi,
Kayamkulam lake and Vembanad lake. Of these eight lakes,
Vembanad, Kayamkulam and Ashtamudi lakes are important.
The Vembanad lake is nearly thirty miles long and nearly ten
miles across at its broadest part. Though the ‘Ashtamudi lake
is only ten miles long, it is one of the most beautiful lakes in
India. Apart from its natural beauty, it affords important fisheries
to the country and popular belief maintains that fishes found in
certain parts of this lake are delicious.
In addition to the lakes mentioned above, in which the water
is either saline or brackish, there are a few freshwater lakes, the
three largest being, Vellani, near Trivandrum,’ Sasthankotta,. in
the Kunnathur taluk, near Quilon, and the Periyar lake. Thazakudi
106 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIit
tank in Thovala taluk and Mekottu tank in Kalkulam taluk may
also be brought under this category. ,
From the above account it will be seen that Travancore is
ideally suited for developing both sea and freshwater fisheries.
Nowhere in India is there another State or Province which is so
well suited to the development of fisheries. The possession of a
shallow coastal sea, which affords excellent fishing grounds for
Sardine and Mackerel fishery, the presence of a beautiful chain of
lakes and a system of deep and perennial rivers intersecting the
country with a net-work of canals, combine to afford the best
facilities for developing this source of revenue to the State and a
substantial and steady income to the people.
List or FRESHWATER FISHES AND THEIR LocAL NAMEs.
Serial | Scientific Name Local Name
No. |
1 Anguilla bicolor | Valangil, Manangu (C.T.).
2 | A. vulgaris ve Kuruttu-vilangu (T.).
3. Clarias magur .-| Yeri-vahlay (T.).
4 Saccobranchus fossilis --.|' Kaari \(C.T.),° They (T.).
5 | Wallago attu ct Vahlah (CT):
6 = Callichrous bimaculatus .... Chotta-vahlah (C.T.).
7 = C. malabaricus Manja-vahlay (T.), Chotta-vahlah,
Phamma: (C.7.).
8 Pseudotropius sykesit ..| Naui-kelithi (T.).
9 §Macrones chryseus ..| Manja-koori, Hatta-koorie (at);
| Moongil (T.), Mungil yata (D.).
... Vellah-koorie, Changan-koorie (C.T.),
| Kadel-kelithi (T.).
...| Koorie (C.T:), Theydoo -(E.):
.--| Chillan (C.T.), Kallen-koorie (T'.)
-- Vari-kallan-koorie (T.).
10 | M. gulio
ABI | M. oculatus
12 °| M. vrttatus
13. M. montanus
14 M. malabaricus _ Kallan-koorie (T.).
15 | Nemachilus botius | Attu-meen (T.).
16 | N. triangularis Kal-kanni (T.).
17. Homaloptera maculata
18 Discognathus jerdoni
19 ~~ Dz. jerdoni wae
20 | Labeo dussumieri -:-| Poolee. (C.-L. o& —D:;).
Amblypharyngodon mola ei) Oolamn la.
22 | A. microlepis Os) Mesto te
23. =A. melettina ..| Airay (T.), Thuppalu-kothi
Wumboo (D.).
Koravai (Hae
Kal-nakki (T.).
bo
pn
(C.D);
24 | Barbus sarana Kuruvah (C.T.).
25 | B. pinnauratus Panchala-kylie (T.).
26 |B. tor Nari-meen (C.T.).
27 | 6B. curmuca Kadi-meen (C.T.).
DS 7 |S MAEhOPId OSt Vd ste Uh koealt eine
29. | B. melanampyx Kylie (T.).
30 | B. parrah Parrah-parlee (D.), Kylie (T.).
31 | B. burmanicus ...| Sappauli-kendai (T.).
The letter *‘T.’ after the vernacular
prevalent in the Tamil-speaking part of Travancore
|
names indicates that these names are
(south of Trivandrum)
and were first recorded by Shankeranarayana Pillay (1929); the letters ‘C.T.’
indicate that they are the real Malayalam names prevalent in the central
and northern parts of Travancore; and the letter ‘D.’ indicates that they are
the Malayalam names given by Day in the Fauna of British India. Except in
—— -
FRESHWATER FISH AND FISHERIES OF TRAVANCORE — 7%
List oF FRESHWATER FISHES AND THEIR LocaL NamMEs—(contd.)
rial ey:
vo Scientific name | Local Name
; |
32 Barbus denisonni
33 B. melanostigma a!) Kendar) (0 ,);,
34 | B. amphibius ...| Oolee-parlee (D.), Urulen-kendai (‘T’.).
35 B. arulius ...|. Kendai..(T;).
36 | B. mahecola ..-. Poovaulen-kendai Cis Kuruvah-
paral (C.T.).
37 B. conchonius marl weeny
38 | B. punctatus ...| Vattakkali (C.T.), Putter-perlee (D.).
39 | B. stiqma ...| Unda-kanni (T.).
40 | B. vittatus sie Chehekubhn (Cole
41 | B. filamentosus ...| Kachi-paral (C.T.).
42 | Rasbora daniconius ...| Kokanutchee (D.), Parava-kendai
(ie).
43 R. nilgiriensis ...| Parava-kendai (T.).
44 | Rohtee bakeri ...| Mullan-paral (C.T.).
45 | Danio malabaricus _ «| Cheela-pauray (T.).
46 | Perilampus laubuca soalposeenst
47 | Chela boopis Peal Rete
48 | Megalops cyprinoides ..| Mullan-kanni, Palan-kanni (C.T.),
Nanchil (T.).
AQ | Haplochilus lineatus .. | Manathu-kanni (T.).
50 H. rubrostigma =, \ Poonjgane (CE).
51 | Belone cancila me) Solahe (Co. ),
52 | Hemiramphus «xanthopterus .., Murasu (C.T.).
53. | Ambassis thomassi .... Mullu-cheru (C.T.).
54 | A. nalua ..| Sennel (T.).
55 A. dayt : o\) Nandhant (Cir:
56 | A. gymnocephalu: ..| Nandhan (C.T.).
57. | Gerres limbatus ...| Prachil, -Kootha-prachil (C.T.).
58 Nandus marmoratus oe Mudhu-kolah, Mudhukala (Cops
Mootahree (T.) & (D.).
59. | Pristolepis fasciata Meee
60 P. malabarica 2 Kalluringee (Cee Chempalli (CI);
Chutichi (D.).
61 robius striatus ...| Kadel uluvay (T.).
62 |G. giurus ..| Poonthy (T.), Wartee-poolah, Pooan
and Kurdan (D.).
63 | Mastacembelus armatus ..| Mookan-arakan, Pana-arakan (C.T.),
| Kal-aural (T.).
64 M. guentheri ...| Arakan, Pazhukkamundi (C.T.), Kal-
| aural (T'.).
65 = Ophiocephalus marulis ...| Choaree veral and Curavu (D.), Poo-
| Virgil COCs.) ase
66 =O. leucopunctatus ...| Pulli-viral (T.), Cheru-meen (C.T.).
67 O. micropeltis ...| Karuvauhay (T.), Vaaha-meen (C.T.).
68 | O. striatus ...| Viraal .(T.), Wharaal. (C.T.), -Wara-
| hal (D.).
69 | O. gachua : .. | Para-koravai (T.), Manathu-kannan,
Vattoon (C.T.), Karavu (D.).
70 | Anabas scandens ..:| Kallada-mutti, Undeecallee (C.T.),
Undeecollee (D.).
71 | Polycanthus cupanus | Carmgannah (C.T.) & (D.).
72 | Etroplus suratensis ...| -Chauni-kendai (T.), Karimeen (C.T.).
73. | E. maculatus ...| Setha-kendai (T.), Pallathi (C.T.)
&- (D.).
three cases, i.e. Undeecollee, Caringannah and Pallathi, the Malayalam names
given by Day are not understood in. any part.of Travancore. Probably they are
the names commonly used in British Malabar. : eT:
708 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTION OF THE FRESHWATER FISHES OF
TRAVANCORE.
Order: SYMBRANCHOIDEA.
Family: SYMBRANCHID.
Anguilla bicolor, McClelland.
Anguilla bicolor, McClelland, Calcutta Jour. Nat. Hist., v, p. 178.
Anguilla bicolor, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind., Fish, i, p. 87.
This fish is of a dark olive colour, becoming yellowish beneath, and is
commonly found in the central part of Travancore. In the hilly regions
it usually lives in crevices, between boulders, along the banks of rivers; while
in the plains, it frequents rivers, which are somewhat marshy.
A. bicolor is supposed to have certain medicinal properties and is usually
recommended as diet to people suffering from piles. However it is not very
much esteemed as food by. the better classes.
Order: OS PAT ORE YS
Family: SILURID«.
Clarias magur, Day.
Claritas magur, Day, aun. Brit. “Ind., Fish, 1, p.. lis;
Usually found in the regions round about Trivandrum, and I was not able
to find any specimens of it in the northern part of the State. It is not of
any economic importance and is only eaten by the poorest sections of the
population.
Saccobranchus fossilis, Day. .
Saccobranchus fossilis, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind., Fish, i, p. 125, fig. 58.
Usually found in marshy regions in the plains. Fishermen are afraid of
handling it, since it is believed that its pectoral spine is very poisonous and
that wounds inflicted by it cause excruciating pain. It is not much esteemed
as’ food owing to its foul feeding habits, and in certain parts it is regarded
as a scavenger and is eaten only by the poorest classes.
Wallago attu, Schn.
Wallago attu, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind., Fish, i, p. 126, fig. 54.
Wallago attu, Vinciguerra, Ann. Mus. Stor. Nat., Genova (2), ix, p. 199.
A very cosmopolitan fish, much esteemed as food especially by the Christian
section of the population. It has a wide distribution and is found abundantly
in Kuttanad, where it is usually caught by the airam choonda, a device which
is described elsewhere. In the hilly regions, during February, March and
April, when the streams and rivers are partially dry it is usually caught by
poisoning streams.
Callichrous bimaculatus, Bloch.
Callichrous bimaculatus, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind., Fish, i, p. 181, fig. 57.
Callichrous bimaculatus, Vinciguerra, op. cit., p. 201.
Ompok bimaculatus, Jerdon and Starks, Ann. Carnegie Mus., xi, p. 484.
Specimens of this species have been recorded from Cape Comorin. They
are silvery-white in colour with a black blotch on either side above the
pectorals. The single specimen which I obtained was 8 in. long.
Callichrous malabaricus, Cuv. & Val.
Callichrous malabaricus, Day, op. cit., p. 188.
Found all along the Malabar coast south of Canara. In Travancore it is
found usually in the plains during the rainy seasons. Reaches a maximum
length of 18 in.
FRESHWATER FISH AND FISHERIES OF TRAVANCORE — 709
Pseudotropius sykesii, Day.
Schilbe sykesii, Jordan, Mad. Jour. L. Sc., xv (1849), p. 8865.
Pseudotropius sykesit, Day, op. cit., p. 140.
A small fish not exceeding 6 in. in length. Rather rare in the northern
half of the State. Back bluish green, sides and abdomen silvery. The upper
jaw is shghtly longer and the palate contains two distinct patches of teeth.
Macrones chryseus, Day.
Pseudobagrus chryseus, Day, Fish. Malabar, p. 185.
Macrones chryseus, Day, op. cit., p. 148, fig. 63.
Recorded both from hilly regions and plains. One of the commonest species
in Travancore, found in all the deep rivers and canals. It is a small fish,
not exceeding 7 or 8 in. in length, and it is considered to be good for cooking.
Macrones gulio, Day.
Pimelodus gulio, Ham. Buch., Fish. Ganges, pp. 201, 379.
Macrones gulio, Day, op. cit., pp. 151-8, fig. 64.
In Trivandrum this fish is called kadel-kelithi, a name which indicates
that it migrates into brackish and freshwater from the sea. Very abundant in
brackish water lakes along the coast, which communicate with the sea and
from them it ascends the rivers and canals. Not found in hilly regions or in
the interior of the country.
Macrones oculatus, Day.
Bagrus oculatus, Cuv. & Val., H.N. Poiss., xiv, p. 424.
Macrones oculatus, Day, op. cit., pp. 156-7.
Does not reach more than 4 or 5 in. in length, much esteemed as food and
caught in plenty during the rainy seasons, in rivers, canals and fields, especially
in the coastal regions. Colour silvery with a dark spot at the base of the
commencement of the dorsal fin.
Macrones vittatus, Day.
Silurus vittatus, Bloch, Icht., t. 371, fig. 2.
Macrones vittatus, Day, op. cit., p. 157.
Found abundantly from November to January in all rivers and canals which
have a sandy bottom. When caught it makes a characteristic sound by erecting
its dorsal spine. Body silvery with four longitudinal bands, the lowermost of
which is somewhat faint. The average length is not more than five inches;
much relished as an article of food.
Macrones montanus, Day.
Bagrus montanus, Jerdon, Mad. Jour. L. Sc., xv (1849), p. 387.
Macrones montanus, Day, op. cit., p. 159.
Recorded by Shankeranarayana Pillay. I was not able to get a specimen.
I include it here to make the list as complete as possible.
Macrones malabaricus, Day.
Bagrus malabaricus, Jerdon, op. cit., p. 3838.
Macrones malabaricus, Day, op. cit., p. 160.
Abundant in the Kallada river, and, during certain seasons, brought in large
numbers along with M. vittatus and M. oculatus to the fish markets of Quilon.
The presence of a black spot on the shoulder, another at the base of the caudal
and a dark band along the lateral line enables this species to be easily dis-
tinguished. ;
Family: CypRINID®.
Nemachilus botius, Day.
Cobitis botia, Ham. Buch., Fish. Ganges, pp. 850, 394.
Nemachilus botius, Day, op. cit., p. 227.
Day. observes -that the distribution -of this species- does: not extend south
7i0 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
of the river Kistna, but Shankeranarayana Pillay recorded its occurrence in
Travancore. It 1s usually found in the hilly regions.
Nemachilus triangularis, Day.
Nemachilus triangularis, Day, op. cit., p. 234.
Restricted to the hill streams. Specimens were obtained from Mundakayain,
Devikulam, Pirmed and Thenmalai.
Homaloptera maculata, Day.
Balitora maculata, Gray & Hardw., Ill. Ind. Zool., i, pl. 88, fig. 2.
Homaloptera maculata, Day, op. cit.,-p. 243.
Recorded from the hilly regions in the neighbourhood of Punaleor and
Thenmalai. Colour dull olive becoming lighter ventrally and with brown blotches
on the body. A rather rare species of no marketable value.
Discognathus lamta, Day.
Cyprinus lamata, Ham. Buch., Fish. Ganges, pp. 348, 393.
Discognathus lamta, Day, op. cit., p. 246, fig. 87.
Recorded by Shankeranarayana Pillay from Trivandrum. Size small, not
exceeding 7 or 8 in. in length. Eaten only by the poorer classes.
Discognathus jerdoni, Day. -.
Discognathus jerdoni, Day, op. cit., p. 247.
Found only in the hilly regions, usually prefers streams with rocky beds.
Vernacular name kal-nakki, descriptive of its habit of remaining attached to
rocks against strong currents.
Labeo dussumieri, Day.
Roluta dussumiert, Cuv. & Val., H.N. Poiss., xvi, p. 258.
Labeo dussumierit, Day, op. cit., p. 262.
Common in all the deeper rivers of Travancore. Specimens up to 18 in.
in length are often seen in the fish-markets of Alleppy, Changanacherry and
Quilon. As this fish grows rapidly to a moderately good size and as it could
be used for stocking purposes, it is of some importance to local fisheries.
Amblypharyngodon mola, Day.
Cyprinus mola, Ham. Buch., Fish. Ganges, pp. 3384, 392.
Amblypharyngodon mola, Day, op. cit., p. 291, fig. 92.
Hirst recorded from Travancore by Shankeranarayana Villay, who thereby
negatives the observation of Day that it is not found on the Malabar Coast.
Amblypharyngodon microlepis, Day.
Amblypharyngodon microlepis, Day, op. cit., p. 291.
From Day’s account it would appear that this species is not found in
the west coast of India. Though not abundant, I have obtained stray specimens
in collections of small fish from Kuttanad and in the region round about
Changanacherry. Shankeranarayana Pillay also recorded this species from
Alleppy, a town which is only twenty-four miles from Changanacherry.
Amblypharyngodon melettina, Day.
Leuciscus melittina, Cuv & Val., H.N. Poiss., xvii, p. 3804.
Amblypharyngodon melettina, Day, op. cit., p. 292.
Found all over South India. In Travancore it occurs in all the rivers and
canals of the coastal region. It is very abundant in the Sasthankotta lake.
Genus: Barbus, Cuv. & Val.
The genus Barbus is fairly well represented in Travancore. Nineteen
species have been so far recorded and they are found all over the country,
both in the hilly regions and in the plains, though in the latter they are
more abundant. Most of the species are small, not exceeding 6 to 8 in. in
length, but some like B. sarana, B. tor and B. curmuca reach a maximum
FPRESHWATER FISH AND FISHERIES OF TRAVANCORE — Til
length of one to over three feet. Their migratory habits enable them to be
caught in plenty during the monsoon seasons. They are not generally so
tasty as certain other freshwater fish e.g. Htroplus suratensis and for . this
reason their market value is comparatively low. However, in the country-sides
they constitute an abundant source of fish supply during the monsoon seasons.
Barbus sarana, Day.
Cyprinus sarana, Ham. Buch., Fish. Ganges, pp. 3807 and 388.
Barbus sarana, Day, op. cit., p. 800.
One of the larger types of Barbus found in Travancore. It enjoys a wide
distribution throughout the State. In the hilly regions, where it reaches its
maximum length, it is usually caught by poisoning the streams. Abundant in
the rivers, canals and fields of the coastal plains.
Barbus pinnauratus, Day.
Puntius pinnauratus, Day, Fish. Malabar, p. 209, pl. xv, fig. 2.
Barbus -pinnauratus, Day, op. cit., p. 301.
Found all along the base of the Travancore hills. During the monsoon
they descend to the plains for breeding. The maximum length of the specimens
which I obtained from this locality was only 6 in.
Barbus tor, Day.
Cyprinus tor, Ham. Buch., Fish. Ganges, p. 305.
Barbus tor,-Day, op. cit., p. 807, fig. 104.
Not very common in Travancore. Occasionally found in the deeper parts
of the Pamba and the Manimala rivers. Since this is a large and costly
fish it 1s not disposed off in the market immediately, unless there is a good
demand. If there is no demand the fish is kept alive and captive in a
unique way. A strong string is looped through the mouth and opercle and
the other end of it is tied to a tree on the bank of the river. The string is
long enough to give the fish some freedom to swim about within the limited
range of its length. When a prospective buyer comes it is hauled ashore and
sold. At one place I saw five big specimens being kept alive in this manner.
Barbus curmuca, Day.
Cyprinus curmuca, Buchanan’s Journey in Mysore, iii, p. 344.
Barbus curmuca, Day, op. cit., p. 3810.
Very rare in Travancore. Usually caught from deep cool and shady parts
of rivers in the hilly regions. It is supposed to be a very good fish, and the
fortunate fisherman who catches one gets whatever price he demands. The
specimen which I examined was about 2 ft. in length.
Barbus lithopidos, Day.
Barbus lithopidos, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind. Fish, i, p. 310.
Recorded by Shankeranarayana Pillay from Trivandrum and I saw _ one
specimen in the local museum. I did not, however, succeed in getting one
myself from any part of the country.
Barbus melanampyx, Day.
Barbus melanampyxz, Day, op. cit., p. 816.
A very small species not exceeding 3 in. in length found in the hilly regions.
Barbus parrah, Day.
Puntius parrah, Day, Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1865), p. 301.
Barbus parrah, Day, op. cit., p. 817.
Black and green above, silvery below with a dark bluish line along the
sides. Not very much esteemed as food.
Barbus burmanicus, Day.
Barbus burmanicus, Day, op. cit., p. 318.
Recorded by Shankeranarayana Pillay from Trivandrum and included here
only to make this list as complete as possible.
5
712 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVill
Barbus denisonii, Day.
Labeo denisonu, Day, Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1865), p. 299.
Barbus denisont, Day, op. cit., p. 320.
First recorded by Day from Mundakayam (Travancore). I was able to
obtain specimens about 23-3 in. in length from Munnar, Devikulam and
Kangirapally.
Barbus melanostigma Day.
Barbus melanostigma, Day, op. cit., p. 820.
A small fish not exceeding 3 in. in length. Colour silvery with a light
band along the sides and a black blotch on each side of the tail region.
Barbus amphibius, Day.
Capoeta amphibia, Cuv. & Val., H.N. Poiss., xvi, p. 282.
Barbus amphibius, Day, op. cit., p. 822.
Commonly found in the coastal plains in rivers, canals and fields during
all seasons. It is small and is caught along with other species of Barbus.
Steel blue above with a black blotch on each side of the tail.
Barbus arulius, Day.
Systomus arulius, Jerdon, Mad. Jour. L. Sc., xv (1849), p. 817.
Barbus arulius, Day, op. cit., p. 822.
A very small species, not exceeding 2 or 8 in. in length, recorded from
the vicinity of Trivandrum and Nagerkoil. As a food its value is practically
negligible.
Barbus mahecola, Day.
Leuciscus mahecola, Cuv. & Val., H.N. Poiss., xvii, p. 3805.
Barbus mahecola, Day, op. cit., p. 828, fig. 105.
Commonly found along the base of the Travancore hills, but during the
monsoon it descends to the plains and is caught in plenty from ‘rivers, canals
and fields along with other species of Barbus, especially B. pinnauratus.
Barbus conchonius, Day.
Cyprinus conchonius, Ham. Buch., Fish. Ganges, pp. 317, 389.
Barbus conchonius, Day, op. cit., p. 325.
Recorded by Shankeranarayana Pillay from Trivandrum. Length not ex-
ceeding 5 in. As it is never found in large numbers it has no remarkable value.
Barbus punctatus, Day.
Puntius punctatus, Day, Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1865), p. 3802.
Barbus punctatus, Day, op. cit., p. 326.
Does not seem to exceed 3 in. length. Olive-green above becoming white
on the abdomen. The dorsal fin, which is tipped with orange, bears two rows
of black spots. In some specimens these rows of black spots are altogether
absent.
Barbus stigma, Day.
Leuciscus stigma, Cuy. & Val., HN. Potss:, -xvu, -p. 93.
Barbus stigma, Day, op. cit., p. 329.
Usually found in Kuttanad and its environs. It has a bitter taste when
cooked and so fishermen, who can identify it by sight, always reject it if
caught in the nets.
Barbus vittatus, Day.
Puntius vittatus, Day, Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1865), p. 3808.
Barbus vittatus, Day, op. cit., p. 838.
A very small fish not exceeding 1} in. in length. It is not used for cooking,
as it is believed to have a bitter taste when cooked.
Barbns filamentosus, Day.
Leucius filamentosus, Cuv. & Val., H.N. Poiss., xvii, p. 96.
Barbus filamentosus, Day, op. cit., p. 388.
These fish are natural inhabitants of the hilly regions, but during the rains
they descend to the plains and deposit their spawn in shallow fields among
FRESHWATER FISH AND FISHERIES OF TRAVANCORE 713
submerged stumps of straw. During migration they are caught in large
numbers.
Rasbora daniconius and R. nilgiriensis
Recorded by Shankeranarayana Pillay, but I did not succeed in getting
either of them in the regions from where I obtained the greater part of my
collection.
Rohtee bakeri, Day.
Rohtee bakeri, Day, Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1873), p. 240.
Rohtee bakert, Day, op. cit., p. 3840.
A small fish reaching a maximum length of 5 in. Usually found in the
Manimala river and its branches and was first recorded by Day from Kottayam.
The vernacular name is mullan-paral; and paral is the name by which many
of the smaller species of Barbus are known. The prefix mullan means that this
species contains numerous spines. So it would appear that in the vernacular
nomenclature the distinction between the genera Barbus and fohtee is not
noticed.
Danio malabaricus, Day.
Perilampus malabaricus, Jerdon, Mad. Jour. L. Sc., xv (1849), p. 325.
Danio malabaricus, Day, op. cit., p. 355.
Recorded by Shankeranarayana Pillay from Trivandrum.
Perilampus laubuca, Day.
Cyprinus laubuca, Ham. Buch., Fish. Ganges, pp. 260, 384.
Perilampus laubuca, Day, op. cit., p. 360, fig. 112.
' A small species not exceeding 3} in. in length, of no economic importance.
Stray specimens when caught along with other small fishes are sold with the
catch. I have not found it abundant in any part of the country. Only solitary
specimens are occasionally found even in big catches.
Chela boopis, Day.
Chela boopis, Day, Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1878), p. 708.
Chela boopis, Day, op. cit., p. 366.
A rather small species which seems to be restricted to the southern part
of the State.
Megalops cyprinoides, Day.
Megalops cyprinoides, Day, op. cit., p. 402, fig. 116.
Among the Clupeidae there are some species which migrate into rivers during
breeding seasons, but in Travancore though there are many species of Clupea,
which frequent its shores, I have not found any migratory forms in fresh-
water. The only outstanding exception is Megalops cyprinoides. This fish
reaches a maximum length of about 14 in. and is found in most of the
rivers and canals, near the coast, during certain seasons.
Family: CypRINODONTID®.
Haplochilus rubrostigma, Day.
Aplochetlus rubrostigma, Jerdon, Mad. Jour. L. Sc., xv (1849).
Haplochilus rubrostigma, Day, op. cit., p. 416.
A small fish, not exceeding 3 in. in length, commonly found in tanks,
canals and fields, especially those which contain plenty of water-weeds. It is
not an edible species. A closely related species H. lineatus has been recorded
by Shankeranarayana Pillay from Sasthankotta lake.
Family: ScOMBRESOCID#.
Belone cancila, Day.
Belone cancila, Cuv. & Val., H.N. Poiss., xvui, p. 455.
Belone cancila, Day, op. cit., p. 420, fig. 186.
One of the commonest fish in Kuttanad from May to August. Prefers
shallow canals and fields and goes about in shoals. Never found in the hilly
regions except during the monsoon season.
714 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXViIll
Hemiramphus xanthopterus, Cuv. & Val.
Hemiramphus xanthopterus, Cuv. & Val., H.N. Potss., xix, p. 47.
Hemiramphus xanthopterus, Day, op. cit., p. 425.
ound abundantly in the region between Thottapally lock and the Vembanad
lake, in the low-lying fields and shallow canals. Confined to the narrow belt
of coastal plain, ifs distribution does not seem to extend beyond 25 miles from
the coast. Specimens have also been recorded from ‘Trivandrum and from the
canals of South Travancore.
Order: ACANTHOPTERYGII.
Family: PERcIDz.
Ambassis dayi, Bleeker.
Ambassis dayi, Day, op. cit., p. 487.
Very common in Kuttanad during all seasons, also found in the hilly regions
of North and Central Travancore. Not recorded from South Travancore and
even stray specimens have not been observed south of the Varkala tunnel.
Besides this species A. thomasst and A. gymnocephalus have also been recorded
from Travancore. Although the latter is found in the sea, specimens have |
been obtained from fresh and brackish waters as well.
Family: NAnpDID.
Nandus marmoratus, Cuv. & Val.
Gobius nandus, Ham. Buch., Fish. Ganges, pp. 96, 870.
Nandus marmoratus, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind. Fish, u, p. 82, fig. 39.
Widely distributed throughout Travancore. -Found in fresh and_ brackish
waters and in marshy fields among water-weeds. Though it does not exceed
43 in. in length it does considerable damage to freshwater fisheries as it preys
upon young Cyprinoids.
Pristolepis malabarica, Day.
Catopra malabarica, Gunther, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 38, xiv (1864),
p. 376.
Pristolepis malabarica, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind. Fish, ui, p. 84.
Usually found in the coastal plains especially in Kuttanad. Remains close
to the banks hiding beneath overgrowths, hence it is difficult to catch in cast
nets. Travancore specimens are of a reddish brown colour, hence the vernacular
naine chempalli. A closely allied species, P. fasciata has been recorded from
the borders of Vembanad lake.
Family: Gopiipa:.
Gobius striatus, Day.
Gobius striatus, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind. Fish., ii, p. 262.
The genus Gobius is not very much liked as an article of food. Though
five species have been recorded from Travancore, only two of them are purely
freshwater forms. Of the rest, two (G. griseus and G. personatus) are brackish-
water forms and one (G. tentacularis) is purely marine. G. striatus is found
in the mouths of rivers, which open into the brackishwater lakes. The Travan-
core specimens are darkish olive with a bluish tinge along the sides, brownish
white beneath, with irregular vertical bands in the dorsal half of the body.
Gobius giuris, Ham. Buch.
Gobius giuris, Ham. Buch., Fish. Ganges, pp. 51, 366, pl. 83, fig. 15.
Gobius giuris, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind. Fish., ii, p. 266.
In general appearance this fish resembles the previous species. It differs in
colour and shows spots and blotches on the back and sides of the body.
Family: RHYNCHOBDELLID#.
Mastacembelus armatus, Lacep.
Mastacembelus armatus, Lacep., H.N. Poiss., u, p. 286.
Mastacembelus armatus, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind. Fish., 1, p. 384.
A common fish in all the rivers and canals of Travancore, confining itself
to the regions beyond tidal influence. During summer when the water in
the rivers and canals in Kuttanad become slightly brackish, these fish die in
large numbers.
FRESHWATER FISH AND FISHERIES OF TRAVANCORE 715
Mastacembelus guentheri, Day.
Mastacembelus guentheri, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind. Fish., ii, p. 384.
Found in marshy canals and rivers, always frequenting places which are
not much disturbed by currents. It usually deposits its spawn under accumu-
lations of decaying leaves and weeds. This fact has been used with advantage
by fishermen for catching it in large numbers.
Family: OPHIOCEPHALIDA.
Ophiocephalus marulis, Ham. Buch.
Ophiocephalus marulis, Ham. Buch., Fish. Ganges, pp. 65, 367.
Ophiocephalus marulis, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind. Fish., ti, p. 360.
Day describes the presence of a black ocellus on the upper part of the base
of the caudal, but in the specimens which I obtained in Travancore—one of
which is preserved at the Madras Government Museum—such* an ocellus is not
present. Found in most of the rivers of Travancore and very much esteemed
as food.
Ophiocephalus leucopunctatus, Sykes.
Ophiocephalus leucopunctatus, Sykes, Trans. Zool. Soc. London, ii, p. 352.
Ophiocephalus leucopunctatus, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind. Fish., ii, p. 3861.
Regarded as one of the best edible fish of Travancore. It normally grows
to a maximum length of about 3 ft. and being a very strong fish can easily
tear through ordinary cast nets with the strong lashes of its tail. It is
therefore usually shot down with gun or with arrows.
Ophiocephalus micropeltes, (Kuhl. & v. Hass).
Ophiocephalus micropeltes, Cuv. & Val., H.N. Poiss., vii, p. 427.
Ophiocephalus micropeltes, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind. Fish., 1, p. 362.
Grows to a large size. The largest specimen I saw was from Thodupuzha.
It is very rare in the plains and is regarded as one of the best food fish of
the country.
Ophiocephalus striatus, Bloch.
Ophiocephalus striatus, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind. Fish., ii, p. 368.
Commonly found in all rivers, canals and tanks. According to Day the
number of rays in the dorsal fin is usually 37-45, but in the specimens which
I obtained from Travancore, the number is only 30-35.
The species of Ophiocephalus so far described are best suited for rearing
in tanks and large wells. They thrive well in captivity and breed without
difficulty. I met an enterprising landholder in Kuttanad who keeps a good
stock of all these three species in a specially enclosed tank, but he does not
profit by their breeding. Since large numbers are kept in the same tank
the eggs and young ones are preyed upon and destroyed by other fish.
Ophiocephalus gachua Ham. Buch.
Ophiocephalus gachua, Ham. Buch., Fish. Ganges, pp. 68, 367.
Ophtocephalus gachua, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind. Fish., ii, p. 364.
This fish is eaten only by the poorest class of people. There is a popular
belief that these fish ascend the clouds when they take their store of water,
and fall to earth again with the rain.
Family: LABYRINTHICI.
Anabas scandens, Day.
Perca scandens, Daldroff, Trans. Linn. Soc., iii (1797), p. 62.
Anabas scandens, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind. Fish., ii, p. 3867, fig. 120.
Found all over Travancore. The possession of accessory respiratory organs
enables it to live even in muddy water. It does not exceed 7 in. in length;
it is esteemed as food by certain sections of the population.
Polycanthus cupanus, Cuv. & Val.
Polycanthus cupanus, Cuv. & Val., H.N. Poiss., vii, p. 357.
Polycanthus cupanus, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind. Fish., ii, p. 368, fig. 121.
A small inedible species, usually found in canals and tanks in the plains,
sometimes extending into the interior through the larger rivers. In the fully-
716 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
grown adult the body is a rifle green with a round dark spot at the base of
the caudal. Day mentions a variety in which the body is reddish with two
horizontal bands extending from the snout and slowly fading towards the tail.
These are about half the length of the former type and are the young of the
species. When reared in tanks within about two months they assume the
adult colouration.
Family: CHROMIDES.
Etroplus maculatus, Day.
Etroplus maculatus, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind. Fish., ii, p. 429, fig. 150.
Rather small in size, not exceeding 3 in. in length. Believed to be very
tasty, especially when fmed. H. maculatus is very pugnacious and _ both
parents guard the eggs and the young during their early development. LHggs
are laid in the bottom mud in places sheltered by overgrowths. The species
is abundant in the lower regions of all the rivers of Travancore and in the
canals, tanks and fields of Kuttanad.
Etroplus suratensis, Day.
Etroplus suratensis, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind. Fish., 11, p. 480.
Considered to be the best food fish, and there is always a good demand for
it all over the country. It is abundant in brackish waters especially in the
Vembanad lake. These brackishwater forms are somewhat dark in colour and
grow to a much larger size than the purely freshwater form. During the
breeding season the colouration becomes brilliant and both parents guard the
eggs and the young.
METHODS OF CAPTURE.
The different methods employed for catching freshwater fishes
can be classified as (1) fixed engines, and (2) non-stationary
devices. Fixed engines are those contrivances, which are fixed
permanently, or for a considerable time, to one definite place. In
Travancore this type includes traps of different kinds, nets fixed
to the mouths of water exits, ‘tripod nets’ and ‘trap ponds’. The
second type is represented by cast nets, seine nets, angling, torch-
light fishing and shooting.
Freshwater fisheries are well developed in the region round
about the southern shore of the Vembanad lake. This part of
the country known as Kuttanad is popularly described as fen
country. It is a low-lying strip of land, over which three of the
important rivers discharge their waters into the Vembanad lake,
through innumerable branches, which are in turn interconnected
by a close net-work of deep canals. The average elevation of
land is two or three feet below the level of water in the rivers
and canals, so that, except when under cultivation, the fields are
covered with two or three feet of water. This stretch of watery
land, intersected with deep canals and perennial rivers, possesses
all the natural advantages of excellent fishing grounds to the local
inhabitants, for whom fish constitutes an important article of food.
Many species of freshwater fishes though usually not exceptionally
large, are met with and fishing methods of different types are
commonly used. These devices, so widely used in Kuttanad, are
also prevalent to a limited extent in other parts of the country
along the banks of rivers and water-courses,
|
r
FRESHWATER FISH AND FISHERIES OF TRAVANCORE tl?
The commonest method of fishing is with simple cast nets,
made of fine twisted cotton, with meshes varying from three-fourth
to three-eighth of an inch. These nets are used in different ways.
Usually they are cast from the bank or from a canoe. As a preli-
minary preparation the fisherman throws food in suitable places to
attract the fish. Roasted rice, bran or small pieces of cocoanut oil
cakes are chiefly used. After an hour or so he easts his net in these
spots. From the nature of the food thrown it is evident that
only certain types of fish, e.g. Ophiocephalus, Etroplus, Barbus and
Labeo, and freshwater prawns can be caught by this method.
Most of these species do not swim about freely through the day
and so the cast nets are used either in the morning or towards
dusk. It is obvious that this method of fishing, especially if the
mesh is not too small, is practically innocuous, except during
breeding and migratory seasons.
Under normal conditions only a very small portion of the stock
in any water can be taken by means of cast nets and so other
methods are usually adopted by those who make fishing a liveli-
hood. Along the banks of most rivers and canals there are over-
hanging growths of semi-aquatic plants and Pandanus, between
the interlocking stems and roots of which fishes find a_ safe
retreat. The parts of these over-growths lying under water are
surrounded by two or three cast nets held in position by two or
three men. A fourth man then dives under and violently disturbs
the water. By this process the fish are frightened and driven
into the nets. The upper edges of the nets are then let down and
the fish thus entrapped are hauled ashore or into an awaiting
canoe. In the same process a single net of the seine net type,
with an upper float line and a lower lead line is used. As this
type of net remains in position owing to the presence of a float
line, a fewer number of men can work it. This method has been
practised for a very long time and, as the supply of fish decreased,
it has been more and more intensively exploited, so that, in many
places, overgrowths have been completely destroyed and_shelter-
loving fish are now consequently very scarce.
The cast net is also often used as a fixed engine. We have
already stated that the fields in Kuttanad are normally covered
with two or three feet of water. So one of the first steps in
cultivation is to erect bunds all round the fields and with the
help of oil-engines to pump the water out into adjoining rivers
or canals. At the outer ends of the drainage pipes of the pro-
pellor, a large half-inch mesh net is firmly fixed. Since the entire
volume of water in the field is drained through the pipe, all the
fish including the very young fry are caught in the net as the water
passes through it.
There are certain types of fish, e.g. Htroplus suratensis, FE.
maculatus, Wallago attu, Mastacembelus and some of the Ophio-
cephalus, which are regarded as superior food fishes. To catch
such fish in large numbers certain special methods have been
evolved, based on a knowledge of some peculiar habit. For
catching H. suratensis during and after the monsoon, long narrow
strips of the white tender petiolar sheaths of the plantain
718 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
tree or the white tender leaves of the cocoanut palm are cut
into pieces of uniform length and tied to a long coir rope to form
a streaming festoon. Each end of this festoon is held by a man
standing knee-deep in water by either bank. They wade forward
along the banks, dragging the festoon with them on the surface
of the water. A third man with a net, ready to be cast, follows
in a canoe, a few yards behind the apex of the festoon, carefully
observing the surface. Fish, probably frightened by the white line,
swim towards the middle of the stream and reaching the apex dive
deep, in an attempt to escape. In doing so they let out a few
bubbles of air. The man with the net who watches for these
bubbles immediately casts his net and it is only in rare cases that
he misses his object. Though this device is usually meant for
catching Etroplus, other fish may also be obtained.
For catching Etroplus suratensis a second device has been per-
tected, based ‘on knowledge of its breeding habits. EH. sura-
tensis usually spawns in August and September. During these
months, fishermen gather the petiolar ends of the cocoanut leaves
and cut out the broad basal part to a length of nearly one and a
half feet. These are fixed in pairs under water in the submerged
paddy fields, with their basal ends upwards and in such a way
that the coneave inner surfaces face each other, thus enclosing
a hollow space between them. The device thus set up is
termed oli by the fishermen. The fish, which are in the habit
of selecting protected spots for spawning, naturally choose these
enclosed spaces in the oli and after depositing the eggs both the
parents keep guard over them. The fisherman comes on his rounds
a week after fixing the olis and locating them one by one,
— plunges a_ basket-like
Trovonenit bamboo structure called
TARA an ottal over each oli in
YU li LW succession. The fish are
Yy it | \\ thus entrapped in the
ottal from which they
SS
aS
———— ee
=
oantisiuist AN and shaped lke a large
mverted basket, as
shown in the accom-
panying diagram (text-
fig. 1). At the top there
is a thick ring-like aper-
ture about six inches
across, through which
the entrapped fish are taken out by hand. :
Etroplus maculatus, which is very palatable, is usually caught
by young girls as a useful past-time. Certain small nets which
may conveniently be called ‘Float nets’ are used for this purpose.
They are made of pieces of netting about 24 ft. square, which are
cut out from old discarded cast nets. The four corners are fastened
| i MAAN are taken out by hand.
i Se
| Hah N rods which are tied up
i:
iis
Text-Fig. 1.—Bamboo frame called ottal in
- Malayalam.
FRESHWATER FISH AND FISHERIES OF TRAVANCORE 719
to four pieces of thin coir, of equal length and the free ends
are tied to a piece of pith, which is large enough to keep the
net suspended in water. A number of these nets are thrown into
the water about 4 ft. away from the bank and about 20 ft.
apart. These are properly spread out with a long pole, and a
small quantity of rice bran, made into a paste, is thrown into
the centre of each net. As already observed, fish of this species
frequent the edges of canals, tanks and fields and are therefore
easily attracted by the food in the net. Further, they have a
peculiar habit of remaining
for a considerable time at
the spot where they have
obtained food, so that when
the nets are lifted up vigor-
ously at the end of a pole,
each usually contains two
or three fish. This type of
net is called Uri-vala in
Malayalam and it is repre-
sented in text-fig. 2.
The process of catching
Mastacembelus armatus and
M. guentheri is also based on
knowledge of their breeding
habits. These fish usually
preter a muddy bottom and
when entrapped in cast nets,
instead of swimming | to-
wards the meshes, like other
fish, they wriggle into the
mud at the slightest disturbance.
Mastacembelus spawns among accumulations of decaying
vegetable matter by the banks of marshy canals or rivers, in which
currents are not very strong. In such localities, fishermen select
suitable spots and fix a number of vertical poles in a semi-circular
row, close to the bank. The area of water thus enclosed is filled
up with masses of dry cocoanut leaves, Pandanus leaves, twigs
and straw. This affords a suitable place for the fish to spawn,
they make their way into the heap in large numbers. Once a
week the sides of the heap are covered with two or three cast nets
as shown diagrammatically in text-fig. 38 and the mass of decom-
posing straw and leaves is lifted out in small quantities. By this
operation the fish ave driven into the surrounding nets. The straw
and leaves are then replaced within the enclosure for repeating
the process in the succeeding weeks.
From the middle of June to the middle of October one of the
most important and lucrative sources of the professional fisher-
man’s income is prawn-fishing. Though prawns are not fish, they
are a sufficiently important food commodity, to be included in
this account. Freshwater prawns breed from August to October.
They deposit their eggs in shallow waters, and the extensive fields,
covered with two to three feet of water, afford excellent breeding
720 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
erounds. During this season they are caught in plenty by a unique
method. The visceral mass of a large snail (Ampullaria) is tied
.
Bo WSS (==
cas Se
~“Text-Fig. 8.—The setting of cast nests for catching Mastacembelus.
to a thin string and suspended in mid-water by a small float. A
number of these bait-bearing floats
are thrown over a limited area and
the fisherman waits in a small canoe,
with an Ottal (ref. text-fig. 1). When
a prawn nips at a bait the float moves
and the fisherman rows his canoe
noiselessly towards the spot and
plunges his ottal over the float. The
prawn thus entrapped is taken out by
hand. Though this process seems
apparently slow and tedious, during
the best part of the prawn season, a
single fisherman working for about six
hours catches about a hundred to
hundred and fifty prawns.
Traps of various sizes are used all
over the country, and whatever be
their dimension, they are all con-
structed on the same plan (ref. text-
fig. 4). They are made of bamboo
rods and each has a wide funnel-
shaped mouth, which opens into a
wide chamber surrounding it. The
distal ends of the rods forming this
Martane ene nena a chamber are free and loose, but when
Sf Mrawancore. the traps are set up these ends are
brought together and tied up with a
string as shown in the diagram, thus making the outer chamber a
completely closed one. Fish which enter the mouth of the trap
——S>
SS
—S
—=\—
ir, NS
i
FRESHWATER FISH AND FISHERIES OF TRAVANCORE 721
pass through the internal opening of the funnel into the surround-
ing outer chamber wherefrom they cannot escape. In the plains
small traps about 44 ft. long and 84 ft. in circumference are used
by the field-labourers known as pulias. They are fixed in the
water inlets in the bunds of paddy fields and innumerable quanti-
ties of small fry and young fish, which easily escape through the
meshes of cast nets, are caught. In the hill regions, especially
along the course of the Manimala river, traps 8-10 ft. long and
20-80 ft. in circumference are used during the monsoon season.
Some of them are set up with their mouths pointing upstream to
entrap fish descending to the plains with the flood water; while
others are set up with their mouths pointing downstream to entrap
those fish which ascend the rivers for breeding purposes. In some
places conical nets fixed to a wide circular frame are used instead
of bamboo traps.
In hilly places where the streams are long, narrow and deep,
with steep sides formed of jagged rocks, cast nets cannot be used.
In such places during the rainy season, when the currents are strong
and dangerous, traps are set up. But during the hot weather
these streams are comparatively dry and appear lke a succession
of pools united by more or less insignificant channels. The larger
fish, which do not descend to the plains, resort to these pools.
At the slightest sign of danger they take refuge under boulders
and in crevices. In such places angling is widely practised.
Occasionally, however, some of these pools are poisoned with a
mixture of copper sulphate
and the powdered seed of
Jatropha, or of the talipot
palm. Some years back
dynamiting was also prac-
tised, but now, owing to
the scarcity of fish this
practice is dying out.
In parts of the hilly
region, where the river-bed
is sandy and where the
water is clear and shallow,
a device called mukhkali
vala (tripod net) is used.
Three long bamboo poles
are fixed in the river-bed
and they are tied together
at a point some distance
below their free ends, as
shown in text-fig. 5. Be-
tween the diverging ends
of the poles, above the
knot, a small platform is :
constructed and a pulley is Text-Fig. 5.—The tripod net, mukkalivala.
fastened to the distal end
of one of the poles. A wide eircular net with a number of long
strips tied to its edge, is then spread on the riyer-bed, between
- mere, it —
122 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY; Vol. XXXVili
the poles. These strings are taken up and knotted together and
tied to the lower end of a rope passing over the pulley. The other
end of this rope is held by a man sitting on the platform. After
the device has been thus set up food is thrown into the net and
this attracts fish in large numbers. The man on the platform
keeps a close watch and when sure that a good catch has collected
in the net, he gives a vigorous pull to the rope, which. lifts the
edges of the net above water-level.
In some of the larger and deeper rivers, such as the Pamba
and the Manimala, Wallago attu is very abundant. These are
usually caught by lne and hook. Hooks with line about 14 ft.
long are tied to a long rope at intervals of 2 ft. thus making a
long festoon of short-lined hooks. This device called airam choonda
is tied across the river at night-fall and each hook is baited with
small living frogs. The fisherman waits in a canoe near the bank
and whenever he hears loud splashes in the water he knows that
a bait has been taken. :
Factors INsJuRIOUS TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF FRESHWATER FISHERIES.
Freshwater fisheries differ from marine fisheries in one impor-
tant respect. In the sea, the methods of fishing or the exploitation
of the fisheries, however intensive, have little or no influence on
supply of fish. For instance the Herring fisheries of the North
Sea and the English Channel have been intensively exploited since
the introduction of the steam trawler. Still the supply of herrings
in any particular year does not show any appreciable diminution.
This does not necessarily mean that the supply is constant. Statis-
tical records maintained at the places of landing show that
quantitative fluctuations occur from year to year, but it has now
been definitely proved that this is due entirely to variations in
the food supply of the young herring and are not the result of
intensive catching. The seas being wide expanses of water, the
size of the nets used bear only a very insignificant proportion to
the entire area and hence there is always the possibility of large
numbers of fish escaping capture and thus maintaining a breeding
reserve for the succeeding year.
In freshwater areas conditions are different. The rivers, canals
and tanks being comparatively limited in extent, intensive and
destructive methods of fishing leave indelible marks on the suc-
ceeding years and perchance lead to the despoilation of the fisheries
altogether.
In general, it may be stated that under normal conditions fish
multiply rapidly, producing enormous numbers of eggs and young
which are distributed over a wide area by migratory habits or
periodic floods. If the area over which the young scatter, affords
favourable environmental conditions, plenty of food and protection,
it will yield in the succeeding year an abundant catch. If, how-
ever, the fish are caught in “plenty during their breeding season
and if the fry are destroyed in enormous numbers it will naturally
follow that the succeeding years will experience a progressive
diminution in the supply of. fish,
FRESHWATER FISH AND FISHERIES OF TRAVANCORE 728
The intensity of fishing in any particular locality increases
directly in proportion to the increase in the numerical strength of the
population of the locality and increase in the price of the commo-
dity. Thus the whole problem of fisheries and fishing comes under
the simple economic rule of Supply and Demand. As the demand
for fish increases it gives greater impetus to the exertions of the
fisherman to capture more fish. New methods of capture are
devised, fixed traps are set up, the sizes of mesh are decreased and
every type of fish caught, without consideration of size or food
value. This propensity of the fisherman is the direct consequence
of his complete ignorance of the biological aspect of the problem.
He does not stop to consider whence the next year’s supply is to
come, when he destroys spawn fry and also the natural environ-
ment and the shelter of the fish. He does not realize that in the
long run he will be depopulating the fisheries and ruining his own
source of income.
The unpleasant consequences of this wasteful destruction are
well exemplified in the condition of the freshwater fisheries in
Kuttanad. The growth of the population of Kuttanad during the
last fifty years has been very rapid. The direct result has been
that the swamps and marshes which covered the greater part of
the area have been drained, low-lying stretches of paddy fields have
been reclaimed into extensive cocoanut gardens suitable for habita-
tion, while improved methods of field drainage quickened up the
process of cultivation. Thus a large freshwater area, which afforded
the most suitable habitat for fish, gradually diminished in extent
and the value of the existing fisheries began to show signs of
deterioration. On the other hand, the increase in population stimu-
lated a greater demand for fish and the fishermen to meet this en-
hanced demand exploited the resources so thoroughly, that year
by year the supply of fish diminished and now, one can almost
say, that this area, once so rich in its fisheries, is more or less
denuded of fish. The price of fish which always bears an inverse
proportion to the supply, also increased by rapid bounds so that
fish has now become a luxury, which can only be enjoyed by
those who can afford it. These facts amply support the obser-
vation of Dr. Day that ‘the intensity of fishing depends on the
numerical strength and nature of the population and that the
country or district which is most populated will be the most
denuded of fish’.
It is difficult to collect any accurate figures regarding the
freshwater fisheries as they are entirely in the hands of private
owners, and unrestricted fishing is carried on all the year round.
No satisfactory or accurate data can be collected about river, lake
and tank fisheries. However, some idea of the conditions prevail-
ing in the entire area can be gathered from the quantity of fish
caught annually from paddy fields, during the preliminary drainage
operations, before cultivation. In this process oil-engines are often
used, especially where the fields are extensive. When the water
is thus driven out, nets are fixed to the outer ends of the drain
pipes and by this means all the fish including small fry are caught.
When the fields are more or less completely drained, the larger fish
724 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXYVIil
which still remain in shallow puddles and pits, are caught by hand
or in baskets. As large quantities of fish are obtained in this
way, the cultivator gives out the right of fishing on a system of
contract. The daily catch is measured out in baskets of a
standard size holding about 60 Ibs. of fish and the price
is fixed on the total catch till the particular field is completely
drained.
Some of the bigger cultivators have maintained regular and
authentic accounts of their total income including the income from
fisheries. Fortunately some of them have made entries of the
quantity of fish obtained from year to year and their corresponding
prices. From such systematically maintained account-books of a
few cultivators I was able to gather sufficient information of the
condition of field fisheries. I had the opportunity of examining the
account-books of twenty-one cultivators, but in many cases the in-
formation was not complete owing either to the neglect of entering
the income from fisheries during certain years or not mentioning
the quantity of fish obtained. However, all of them point to the
same general conclusion and so I have only selected three typical
examples from places far removed from one another.
STATiIsTics oF FIELD FISHERIES OF KUTTANAD.
Example No. I.
Lee eee eee SS he ee ee ae
Value of
cs oe | Quageiy| Torrico | PHSB | Sentra
Year. sere “of fish of 100 acres.
: obtained gi ==5, an aca
RS. ING || 125 RS. A.| P. RS. A. | P.
1923 640 acres.) 5,1001bs.} 90 | 0 | 0 P02 sel ae a0
1924 } 480 ,, | 4,200 ,, 75 |0:| 0 1 112) ) 7] 215 08/40
1925 640 ,, | 4,800 ,, 98 | 0 | 0 2/014] . 25.1] 40
1926 | 640 ,, | 4,200 ,, 85 | 0 | 0 2 (20:| 4 P4 13)) 4-16
1927 640 ~,,. | 4,200 4, 97; 0 0 De seeeli te fare atsh pv |e
1928 640 =, =| 3,600 ,, 112 | 0/0 3/1/9 17.) 8/140
199. ‘| 480 ., | 2,400 ,, | 68)0/0| 213/44 wl2)s
1930 "640 7 i | 10.106 3110184 117 sao
1931 640 ,, | 2,400 ,, 98 | 0 | 0 4/1/47 15/5] 0
1932 «| 640 «,, |1,500,, | 68 /o/o] 4/3/2] 9/3] 6
1933 | 480 ,, | 1,200 ,, | 55 0/0 rey ames yp at
a
Sa
FRESHWATER FISH AND FISHERIES OF TRAVANCORE 725
Kxample No. Ll.
Value of
an me Price per | fisheries per
Area of | Quantity Yotal price | “499 Ips, | unit area of
Year | Fald of fish 100 acres.
obtained 7
Rs. |A./P.] Rs. | a.| Pp. RS. A P,
ink | a
1925 40 acres | 720 lbs. 15 019 2 1|\4 37 8 | 0
1926 40 _,, 660 _,, 12 010 IWS ieal 30) | 01-0
1927 40 ,, 600 ,, 14 0/0 ? 5} 4 35) 0) | 0
1928 40, 48), 15 0/0 3 ZO 3 8 | 0
1929 40 _,, 480 ,, 3 010 De hes eS 3218.10
1930 40a, 240 _,, 9 10/0 3 {1 0 22 1810
1931 40. ,, 240 ,, 10 0/0 4 2) 81.25 OO
1932 40 ,, 240 ,, 10 0/0 4 ZS 25 00
1933 A> +=, 240 ,, Stal 0/0 4 9 | 4 ot 8 | 0
Example No. III.
| Value of
| r + Price per | fisheries per
Area of Quantity} “Ot! P™ICe | “yoo Ibs. | unit area of
Year | : | of fish 100 acres.
| field ‘
| | obtained oom al
Rs. | A.|P Ns: ALP Rs. | A.| P
eee |
1928 200 acres 1,800 lbs. § 55 | 0] 0 ade la 19 1-0 120
1929 900°, 11,410 ,, 40 [0 0 22 |S 20, 0170
1930 200, 11,2004, 42 1010 3 |8|O] 21 |0| 0
1931 2006 ome 900) .,, 40 | 00 A elt 20k hn
1932 200%% es 7208 321010 4 /7/1] 16 |0/0
1933 200 ,, “| 600. ,, 27 | 0;of 4 /8]0] 13 |8] 0
|
These tables reveal a number of interesting facts with regard
to the condition of freshwater fisheries in general. The quantity
of fish in the open fields will always be proportional to the total
quantity found in the entire freshwater area of the locahty. If
fish are abundant in the rivers and canals a larger number will
find their way into the fields. If, however, there is a scarcity of
fish in the rivers there will be a corresponding scarcity in the
fields also. From this it is correct to infer that the condition of
field fisheries gives a more or less accurate idea of the state of
fisheries in general for the particular locality under consideration.
The statistics indicate that field fisheries have dwindled steadily
since the introduction of engine drainage. In 1923 an area of
640 acres yielded 5,100 lbs. of fish, while from the same field only
1,500 lbs. of fish was obtained in 1982. Similarly an area of
40 acres yielded 720 Ibs. of fish in 1925 and only 240 Ibs. in 1983.
The third table supports the same conclusion that is that the field
fisheries of Kuttanad have dwindled to one-third of their original
yield within a period of nearly ten years. The most important
726 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
result of the reduction in supply was a slow and steady rise in
price. In 1928, 100 lbs. of fish cost the wholesale dealer Rs. 1-12-83
while for the same quantity he had to pay about Rs. 4-9-0 in
19388. During a period of ten years the price of fish has more
than doubled. _The increase in price has been mainly determined
not only by the diminishing supply but to a greater extent by the
increased demand for the commodity. This slow and_ steady
increase in price was at first advantageous to the owner of the
fisheries, since he derived a slightly higher income per unit area.
The annual income per unit area of 100 acres was Rs. 14-1-0 in
1923. It rose to Rs: 17-8-O0-in 1928 and 1930, but from that time
onwards the fall has been rapid and reached the low level of
Rs. 9-18-6 in 1982.
The annual income from the field specified in the second table
bears no relation to the annual income from the other two fields.
In fact the annual income per unit area of the different fields
shows considerable variation, depending chiefly on their situation
in relation to rivers and other environmental advantages favour-
able to fisheries. However, from these statistical considerations it
is evident that the fisheries have suffered to a grave extent owing
to the intensive and injurious methods of fishing, which were
stimulated by an increased demand and diminishing supply of
fish.
We shall now consider some of the immediate causes which
lead to the deterioration of the fisheries in general.
All methods of fishing operations carried on during the spawn-
ing season of fishes and all methods of capture which destroy the
fry are detrimental to the future of the fisheries. In Travancore,
as elsewhere in the greater part of British India freshwater
fisheries are not protected by Legislative measures, hence indis-
criminate fishing is carried on all the year round and this is
mainly responsible for the steady diminution of the fisheries.
During the monsoon, when fields and channels are flooded
many fishes pass upstream and others, normally inhabitants of hill-
streams, descend to the plains for breeding. During this time they
lose much of their natural timidity and seem only anxious to reach
places suitable for depositing their spawn. The fry of many
migratory fishes of the plains pass the first year in the hill-streams
and descend to the plains only with the commencement of the
succeeding year’s monsoon. The appearance of these young
migrant fishes and the spawn-bearing adults, when the monsoon
bursts with its full force, is called in Malayalam ootha elakkam.
In large shoals they find their way into the fields or rush up against
the currents. This is the time when fish are caught in plenty. All
conceivable methods are employed to catch them: fixed engines
of every type are set up against the currents and cast nets are
used in all possible ways. This means that out of millions of
spawn-bearing adults and young which start on their hazardous
journey only a few manage to reach their destination. They are
netted by. hundreds in rivers and canals, those that manage to
escape, following the flow of water arrive at the partition bunds of
paddy fields and here they are again netted or trapped. If any
FRESHWATER FISH AND FISHERIES OF TRAVANCORE — 727
manage to escape to the smaller water courses their dangers only
seem to increase.
We have described elsewhere the basket-work traps used in
Travancore. They are constructed to prevent escape of even very
small fish. Such traps and small-meshed nets, used during. the
migratory seasons of fishes are largely responsible for the destruction
of large numbers of fry and young fish. If allowed to reach their
destination they would in due time develop into large fish. Though
some types of fry do not develop into edible forms, they are still
of great importance, since they form the food of the larger and
carnivorous species. Hence, whatever be the nature of the fry,
their preservation, directly or indirectly tends to improve the con-
dition of fisheries, but, owing to the lack of proper control, they
are destroyed in enormous numbers year iter year. The gravity
of this wasteful destruction of fry can be SEI comprehended from
the simple mathematical calculation worked out by Dr. Day,
which I have adapted in a shghtly modified form to suit local
conditions. Let us suppose that 670 tons of fry are annually
destroyed and suppose we calculate the weight of each iry at one
erain we find that the number of fry destroyed is about
8,656,000,000. Suppose half the number are destroyed by natural
processes and the remaining fry develop into adults weighing one
pound each, at the end of one year we would get 4,325,000,000 Ibs.
or roughly about two million tons of altel nena fish sufficient to
feed a “population of three million fish-eaters of mixed diet for more
than three years. Though this calculation may not represent actual
figures, still it is evident that the country is suffering a consider-
able loss. Apart from this wholesale destruction of fry during
the monsoon, there are some methods of fishing which are equally
injurious to the fisheries. In Kuttanad the practice of fixing small-
meshed nets to the outer ends of drainage pipes, when water from
the fields is pumped out prior to cultivation, is responsible for
the destruction of large quantities of young fish and fry. The mesh
of the nets used is so small that not even very small fish can
escape.
Many countries interested in developing and maintaining the
value of their fisheries have passed Legislative measures to prevent
the capture of fish during the spawning and migrating season. In
Travancore there are no such precautionary measures, and hence
spawn-bearing fish are destroyed in plenty without restraint.
Migration is one of the essential factors in the life-history of many
freshwater fishes and as a general rule migratory types produce
more eggs than non-migratory forms, as an offset against the
dangers which beset them in the course of their development. If
left unmolested and allowed to reach their spawning grounds and
deposit their eggs, the young fish which may develop from them
would yield a catch in the succeeding year, which will more than
repay the previous year’s loss.
Among the non-migratory forms Ophiocephalus and Etroplus
are regarded as very good food. Both these fishes, being of shy
and retiring habits, are not often obtained in ordinary cast nets.
Hence fishermen with knowledge of their breeding habits easily
6
728 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
catch them, as we have already described. It is evident that their
methods of catching are ruinous to the fisheries. Either the fish
are deprived of the chance to deposit their eggs, or the eggs are
destroyed in the process of catching the parents. Ophiocephalus
striatus which is commonly found in the plains, builds nests and
both parents keep guard till the fry hatch out. When the fry
begin to swim about they do so under the protection of the parents.
The parents with their brood always keep close to the banks for
protection, but this habit enables them to be easily detected and
caught. When the parents are caught the fry scatter and are
eaten up by other fish. Similarly the catching of prawns during
the breeding season is responsible for the considerable reduction in
supply during the last decade.
In the hillstream region trapping during the monsoon seasons
and the poisoning of streams during summer are very injurious to
the development of fisheries.
From this brief account the causes which are injurious to the
development of freshwater fisheries in the State may be summed
up as follows:—
1. The use of small-meshed nets.
2. The use of drain pipe nets called engine nets, or mada-
vala.
3. The indiscriminate use of traps and other fixed engines
and cast nets during breeding and migratory seasons.
4. Methods of fishing based on knowledge of the breeding
habits of fish.
5. Poisoning and trapping in hillstreams.
6. Destruction of semi-aquatic plants along the banks of
rivers and canals.
These methods of fishing affect the fisheries by:—(1) prevent-
ing adult fishes from depositing their eggs; (2) destroying the fry;
(3) destroying the natural food, protection and environment of the
fish.
How conspicuous the ill effects have been to consumers, to the
fishermen and to the owners of fisheries is evident from the statis-
tical conclusions given. The increase in price stimulated by a
dwindling supply has made fish a rather costly commodity. But
this increase in price has not enhanced the income of the fishermen
or owners owing to the decimation of supply. If such conditions
are to prevail unchecked for another decade, this country so rich
in natural resources favourable to the development of freshwater
fisheries, will become more or less completely denuded of fish and
many varieties of edible fish once very abundant but scarce, will
be on the road to extinction.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.
According to the Census Report of 1931 the population of
Travancore is 5,100,000. Nearly 82 per cent are non-vegetarians,
who eat fish if they can obtain it. The remaming 18 per. cent
is formed of Nambudiri Brahmins, Vishnavite Tamils and some
Nair families, who came under the influence of the Nambudiris
‘during the days of the old Matriarchal system. The entire popu-
—————_———SSSSS————
_ nT
Pr
FRESHWATER FISH AND FISHERIES OF TRAVANCORE 729
lation of Christians, Muhammedans, Ezhavas, Channars, and the
so-called depressed classes are fish-eaters. Hence there is always
a good market for freshwater, marine and salted fish.
Fish constitutes a nitrogenous food comparable to meat in food
value. It is much better and healthier than the flesh of half-
starved country sheep or poultry. A large demand being beyond
dispute we have to enquire whether the present supply is in any
way adequate. Many educated men who live in coastal towns or
in places within twenty miles from the coast have expressed them-
selves strongly against any need for developing the freshwater
fisheries. It is true that along the sea coast, marine fish are landed
in plenty during certain seasons, but the entire quantity must
be sold in local markets or salted and dried. During certain
months even salting becomes impossible and consequently large
quantities have to be buried. Along the coast therefore fish is a
very cheap commodity. For a very small fraction of an anna it
ig sometimes possible to get sufficient good fish to feed a family
of ten. It is therefore quite unnecessary to contemplate any
scheme to develop the freshwater fisheries on the coast, where
there is always a regular supply of marine fish. The next question
we have to ask is whether the abundant resources of the sea
could supply the entire need of the fish-eating population of the
State. It is more or less true that the quantity of marine fish
landed would be sufficient to supply the greater part of the need,
if the yield could be brought within easy reach of inland consumers.
The greatest difficulty, which marine fisheries have to contend with
is the exceedingly perishable nature of the commodity. In
Western countries freezing, canning and curing and the organiza-
tion of methods to ensure quick delivery to inland consumers, by
the development of rapid and accurately co-ordinated means of
transport have been adopted to get over this difficulty. But it must.
be emphasized that only fresh fish can be used as a satisfactory
substitute for fresh meat. However, in India such organization
of the industry does not exist and it is not possible to distribute
marine fish beyond twenty miles from the coast. For this reason
in the interior of the country people have to depend entirely on
the freshwater fisheries for their daily supply.
Freshwater fishing is carried on all through the year in Kutta-
nad, but here the supply is hardly sufficient to meet even the
local demand. In the hilly regions owing to the rugged nature of
the river-beds and the extreme scarcity of fish, fishing is difficult
and uneconomical except during the monsoon seasons. Hence the
greater part of the State comprising a population, the majority
of whom will eat fish if they can obtain it, is actually forced
to subsist on a purely vegetarian diet, owing to the scarcity of
fish.
The introduction of co-operative methods adopted to the needs
of those engaged in marine fishing industry and the introduction of
refrigeration in co-ordinated rail-road transport may perhaps be
a remote possibility in India, but till such a time comes the
easiest and the quickest way of supplying the needs of the people
living in the interior, lies in the development of freshwater
730 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIil
fisheries. The existing fisheries are not only plentiful but well
distributed. The great system of rivers, lakes and canals with
hardly any exception will hold large stocks if properly developed
and controlled.
The freshwater fisheries of the State may be classified as fol-
lows :—
Perennial rivers of the plains;
Hill streams;
Canals;
Tanks and subinerged paddy fields (the latter in Kuttanad
only) ;
5. Natural lakes;
6. Artificial reservoirs.
All these without exception contain a rich variety of fishes which
have already been enumerated. These fish can be classified under
three headings as follows :—
1. Predaceous fish. Wallago attw in particular and many
Siluroids in general are exceedingly predaceous and though
Wallago is esteemed by many sections of the population, their
preservation is injurious to fisheries.
2. Non-migratory forms, e.g. Htroplus, Ophiocephalus, Mas-
tacembelus and Brachirus orientalis. All these except Brachirus
are best suited for rearing in tanks.
&. Migratory forms. The different species of Barbus and
Labeo come under this category. They will not breed under
captivity, but many grow rapidly and are well fitted for stocking
tanks. The fry can be captured from the rivers and transferred
into suitable tanks. In Kuttanad, though stocking is practically
impossible owing to the severity of the annual floods, in the higher
regions this process will ensure a constant supply of fish. Dr. Day
has calculated that migratory forms produce on an average about
500,000 eggs each, but owing to the destructive methods of fishing
employed, a greater proportion of the fry perish before they reach
maturity. However if reasonable measures are adopted to con-
serve them, they will multiply rapidly and provide plentiful catches
in the succeeding years.
The methods of conservation followed in other countries are :—
(1) Enforcing closed seasons; (2) Restricting the methods of catch;
and (3) Maintaining fish sanctuaries.
Closed seasons are enforced in England during the migratory
and breeding seasons of certain types of fish, to enable them to
reach their spawning grounds unmolested. During these seasons
it is an offence punishable with severe penalties, to set up fixed
engines or even to fish with line and hook except for scientific
purposes and even then only with the written sanction of the
authorities. The difficulty of enforcing this law in India is obvious,
but one cannot find a suitable alternative suggestion. In Travan-
core fishing is carried on vigorously during the breeding seasons
und we have described elsewhere how the methods of fishing are
responsible for the destruction of large quantities of eggs and
young.
He 09 2O
FRESHWATER FISH AND FISHERIES OF TRAVANCORE 731
In the absence of closed seasons the maintenance of sanctuaries
will afford the necessary protection for breeding fish. The success
which has been achieved by the establishment of sanctuaries in
the Punjab is well known to those interested in the development
of fisheries. A number of sanctuaries are maintained on the tribu-
tary streams of the Beas and they are guarded by a staff of
inspectors, who enlist as far as possible the co- operation of the
villagers on a system of rewards. That the protection thus afforded
has met with some measure of success is seen from the fact that
these sanctuaries now teem with fish and there is conclusive evi-
dence that the stock in the main river has noticeably increased.
In Travancore fish sanctuaries can be very successfully developed,
but before doing so it will be necessary to study the precise
migratory and breeding habits of the important freshwater edible
fish of the State.
A still easier and practicable method of improving the fisheries
of the State is by restrictions on the methods of fishing.
The restrictions usually suggested are:—(1) Regulating the size
of mesh of cast nets; (2) Preventing the use of traps and fixed
engines during migratory and breeding seasons; and (3) Preventing
the poisoning of streams.
Dr. Day was the first to suggest that the size of mesh must
be regulated, but this suggestion has been eriticised by a few
who believe that cast net fishing is ‘practically innocuous’ to
fisheries of any locality since only a very small proportion of the
fish of that locality can be caught by this method, and further
that the fish are naturally protected by the big and turbid waters
of the floods. Even if this observation is true of large bodies of
water so far as small rivers, canals and streams are concerned,
we are convinced that the use of small-meshed nets is positively
harmful, particularly in Travancore, where it is a common practice
to use very small-meshed nets as fixed engines. By this process
even small fry are filtered out. The system of licensing nets has
been introduced in the State; if this could be extended to en-
compass freshwater fisheries as well, and if the licensing fees were
considerably increased in the case of small-meshed nets, it would
effectively discourage the use of such nets in due time.
There has been a considerable outcry against the use of traps
and fixed engines, and Dr. Day, in his work on the freshwater fish
and fisheries of India, pointed out the serious consequences of
this practice. The millions of small fry which are slaughtered in
these traps and sieve- like fixed engines if allowed to escape and
mature, in due time would grow to. sizes varying from one pound
to twenty pounds or more. for this reason he suggested that
the method be made illegal. On the other hand the report on
the freshwater fisheries of the United Provinces, maintains that
traps are positively uninjurious to the fisheries of any locality as
they capture only small and unimportant types which do not deve-
lop to any size. It is generally believed that experience and
the accumulation of scientific data always acts as a check to the
exuberance of imagination and the tendency to jump at conclu-
sions. The observations in the United Provinces fisheries report
732 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
are based on inadequate information and uncertain analysis of a
‘number of catches’. In such matters one would hesitate to draw
any general conclusions even after regular and systematic analysis
of a few months’ catch. Two years before the publication of
this report Dr. Hora published an account of the Fish and
Fisheries of Manipur and he definitely stated that by the use of
traps large quantities of fish are caught. In Travancore trap-
fishing is well developed and traps of different sizes are prepared
to catch both small and large fish. In the large traps which are
set up along the course of the river Manimala and in almost all
the hill-streams, plenty of large fish are caught while the smaller
traps used in the plains are mainly for small fish, including fry
and the young of Ophiocephalus, Barbus, Etroplus, Siluroids and
young prawns. These traps, whatever their size, are set up in
bunds, which are specially constructed across rivers and water-
courses. The flow of water is thus checked and diverted into the
traps, through which it is sieved out. In this process fish have
no means of escape. Only a few, such as Labeo and Ophioce-
phalus, are able to jump over the bunds into the streams below.
In spite of this overwhelming evidence against the practice of
trap-fishing, suppose for a moment we agree with the observations
of the United Provinces. Fisheries Report, that only small and un-
important fish are obtained in traps—though we fail to see the
reason why under such unprofitable conditions the fishermen
should persist in setting up traps—still the fact remains that small
and unimportant fish are the natural food of the larger and useful
ones and their capture indirectly tends to ruin the value of fisheries
by destroying the food of the larger types. With all these facts
before us we see no reason for hesitating to agree with the con-
clusions of Dr. Day that trap-fishing is positively harmful to the
development of fisheries and therefore forceful measures should be
adopted for its discontinuance.
In this short account we have attempted to bring into promi-
nence some of the destructive methods of fishing, which are
threatening to depopulate the freshwater fisheries of the State,
but we have not ventured to suggest any positive measures which
will overcome these defects and restore the fisheries to their
normal flourishing state, since such a task mainly rests with
the Fishery administration of the Government and is beyond the
scope of a paper of this type. However in a general way we can
conclude that if the wasteful and destructive methods of fishing
which are now widely and indiscriminately practised in the
country are discouraged by the enforcement of suitable legislative
measures or regulations, the freshwater fisheries of the country will
once more revive and afford a new source of revenue to the State
and plenty of wholesome and cheap food of high nutritive value to
the people living in the interior beyond the reach of Marine fish
markets.
REFERENCES.
Annandale, N. Note on the Fisheries of the Delta of the Helmnad and
on the use of shaped rafts of Bulrushes in India and Siestan,
FRESHWATER FISH AND FISHERIES OF TRAVANCORE 733
Administration Reports of the Department of Agriculture and Fisheries of
Travancore, 1926-7, 1927-8, 1928-9, 1929-30, 1930-1 and 1931-2.
Day, F. Report on the enquiry regarding the Effect to Fisheries of Ani-
cuts and Weirs across large rivers, 1857.
Report on the enquiry into the condition of Fisheries in India, 1873.
. Freshwater Fish and Fisheries of India, 1884.
Eddy, T. H. Report on the Fisheries of the United Provinces, 1923.
Empire Marketing Board Publications. The Fishing Industry of the British
Empire, 1924.
Hora, 8S. L. The Fish of Manipur. Records of the Indian Museum, 1921.
Hamilton, F. B. An Account of the Fishes of the Ganges. Edinburgh, 1822.
Jerdon, T. C. On the Freshwater Fishes of South India. Madras Jour.
litt.. Sct., xv, 1849.
Jordan, D. 8. Fishes of Samoa. Bulletin of the Bureau of Fisheries, De-
partment of Commerce and Labour, Washington, vol. xxv, 1905.
John, C. C. Some Aspects of Freshwater Fisheries in India. Madras Uni-
versity Journal, 1933.
Madras Government Tisheries Administration Reports, 1928, 1929, 1930,
1931 and 19382. .
Sundra Raj. Freshwater Fishes from the City of Madras. Records of the
Indian Museum, 1916. '
Shankeranarayana Pillay. A list of the Fishes of Travancore. Bombay
Natural History, 1929.
CUCKOO PROBLEMS.
BY
T. R. Livesry.
(Wir a Comment py EH. C. Sruarr Baker).
(With 4 plates).
The parasitic cuckoos set a whole series of exciting problems
to the naturalist—and especially to the oologist. This note is
written in the hopes that it may induce members of the Society
to record their personal opinions and observations on a subject of
peculiar interest.
1. What exactly is the particular significance of the hawk-like
appearance of the Common Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus), with its
pointed wings and long tail—and especially the barred lower-
plumage, that recalls the lower plumage of the sparrow-hawk? Is
it mimicry with advantage ?
To us the cuckoo certainly resembles a hawk of the sparrow-
hawk type, but that is not to say that birds see such a resemblance.
Birds are especially clever in their recognition of the different
species of the birds of prey—their lives depend upon it.
I have not noticed that birds are frightened of the cuckoo—
although they show an excited interest generally in cuckoos. Nor
have I seen any combination between the male and the female
cuckoos at the time the hen cuckoo deposits her egg which would
suggest that thei hawk-hke appearance is in any way brought into
play to distract, or frighten, the intended fosterer. Species that
habitually foster the cuckoo seem to be attracted by the cuckoo,
and I have seen the Burmese Stone-Chat—Sawzicola c. burmanica—
(the commonest fosterer of the cuckoo in the Shan States) con-
stantly seek out the cuckoo and sit close to it in apparent excite-
ment and interest. I have seen these chats sit close to the cuckoo
right out in the open at the top of a bare bamboo for a consider-
able time and in no way, it seemed, were they frightened by the
presence of the cuckoo, preening their feathers from time to time.
Further observations of a like kind confirm my behef that birds
are not frightened of the cuckoo, and therefore, I am not inclined
to think that cuckoos appear to them at all hawk-like.
Then if the barring of the lower-plumage is supposed to be in
mimicry of the sparrow-hawk—what does the barring on the
lower-plumage of the small cuckoos, lke the Bay-banded Cuckoo
(Penthoceryx) mimic? There is no such small hawk to mimic.
Light dawned upon me—so I thought, quite recently in this
connection. I was sitting in a hide waiting to photograph a pipit
feeding a fledgling Khasia Hills cuckoo (C. c. bakeri). Whenever
the young cuckoo got frightened, as it did from time to time, it
reared itself up and puffed up its crown feathers, and began to
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
SRS
Photo by author.
‘Please’
Baby Burmese Plaintive Cuckoo being fed by its diminutive foster-mother—a Franklin's Wren- Warbler.
oe
Pat Ine erent hoaed 7
CUCKOO PROBLEMS 735
turn about like a wryneck. The resemblance to the wryneck was
so striking that I at once saw—so I think—the special significance
of the. barred lower-plumage. The young cuckoo had become a
snake! The resemblance of the barred lower-parts to the ventral
scales of a snake was most striking and the resemblance to a
snake was still further emphasised when the young cuckoo opened
its great orange gape. The barred upper-plumage was not unsnake-
like, though here that might as well—if not better—be explained
as protective colouration. Now the same snake-like effect may be
seen in the case of the young of the smaller cuckoos like the
Plaintive Cuckoo to which such a resemblance would be of equal
value in scaring off enemies, such as wandering dogs, etc. (pariah
dogs here regularly hunt the fields for young birds).
If this is then the explanation of the barred plumage of the
cuckoos when fledglings—why does it persist into the adult plu-
mage? And again, w hy the hawk-hke wings and tail?
The barred plumage would naturally tend to persist in the adult
plumage, unless there were reasons why it should be eliminated.
Perhaps there are no such reasons for elimination—and again, it
may persist by reason of aesthetic selection—it may well be admired
and desired.
The Common Cuckoo loses the barring on the upper-plumage
when adult. What does that mean? I can only suggest that it
is lost as it is not admired—that it is not distinctive enough—and
that the plain coloured plumage is preferred. But I confess the
weakness of my remark. As to the long wings and tail—perhaps
the roving, promiscuous habits of the cuckoos, and their migrations,
demand a little speed and stream-lining.
2. Do the fosterers seek to defeat “the cuckoo in her intention
to victimise them—or do they seek to attract her to deposit her
ege in their nest? One thing is certain, and that is that the
the fosterers are not indifferent to the presence of the cuckoo—
especially if they have a nest in the vicinity. I have noticed that
whenever a cuckoo perches on the top of a high bamboo clump
near my house, as one frequently does—it is almost sure to attract
the attention of the nearest pair of stone-chats. These little
birds are not in the habit—especially the female bird—of sitting
on such a high and exposed position—yet if the cuckoo is up there
they invariably fly up to it in some excitement and interest. They
seem to flirt with the cuckoo, and flutter about it—first on one
side and then on the other. Meanwhile the cuckoo has got a
stupid, stuck look on its face, and keeps for a long time in this
dazed and mesmerized state. What does it all mean?
I have seen a cock chat sit for a long time within two feet of
a cuckoo on a single and exposed telegraph wire. Certainly it was
in no way afraid of the cuckoo.
Why is this interest shown in the cuckoo? If the chats wished
to conceal their nest from the cuckoo they would surely le low
and not advertise their presence. Again, some cuckoos were this
year constantly feeding on some bare ground by my house—flopping
down every now and again from the nearby fence to pick up
something that they were eating. The chats were always in atten-
7386 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
dance upon them and in an excited state. Other birds did not
seem interested. ,
Once, when the cuckoo was on its high perch on the bamboo
top with a chat alongside, the chat suddenly flew off in a dip
to some dead ground some forty yards beyond the bamboo clump.
It was the hen chat. When I searched the locality later on I
found her nest there with hard-set eggs in it. The cuckoo did
not deposit in that nest—probably because the eggs were hard-set
—but it appeared to me that the chat had clearly shown its nest
to the cuckoo. They may have actually reared one themselves in
a previous year.
As human beings we are over-inclined to attribute our own
human feelings to animals—we think that the fosterers would
resent being imposed upon, and so we are too inclined to believe
that they seek to cheat the cuckoo in her intentions.
Cuckoos seem to find very easily every nest of the species
they victimise—the most cunningly-hidden nest does not escape
them. It is true that they sit and watch the fosterers for long
periods with the utmost patience—but do the fosterers help them
in their quest? It seems to me very probable that some do. If
this is true then the cuckoo does not resemble a hawk in their eyes.
3. How does the cuckoo deposit her egg in the nest of the
fosterer? This is perhaps the most exciting problem the cuckoo
sets us, and which every ornithologist hopes to discover.
Mr. Edgar Chance in his Cuckoo’s Secret, published thirteen
years ago, showed the systematic way of studying the habits of
the cuckoo, and by his photographs proved that the Cuckoo in
England when desirous of depositing her egg in the open nest of
the Meadow Pipit actually sits on the nest to lay into it. He
was careful not to generalise from his observations and attribute
to cuckoos this habit when victimising other fosterers—other
species—in other places.
He had the cuckoo filmed and photographed actually sitting
on the nest. I have been completely out of touch with Europe
and all publications so that I do not know what further discoveries
have been made and proved to Science in this matter—but I
believe that nothing further has been proved. The crux of the
problem now is not how the cuckoo deposits her egg in an open
cup-shaped nest easy of access—like that of an English meadow
pipit, but how she deposits her egg in a nest in which she cannot
sit by reason of its having too small an entrance to admit her
body—as in the case of a wren’s nest (in which cuckoo’s eggs
have been found), or by reason of the nest being situated in a
narrow place into which she could not possibly squeeze herself to
sit on the nest. How the cuckoo dealt with such a problem was
one of the problems he did not solve.
Now Mr. Chance—in spite of his name—studied the cuckoo with
such careful method and with such system that he could predict
in which pipit’s nest the cuckoo would deposit on any particular
day—and approximately at what hour. This is how he managed
to get his photos taken. I wrote to him many years ago sug-
gesting that he might solve the problem of how exactly the cuckoo
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
SEAN
Photo by author.
Sewn into a single living leaf, a nest of Franklin’s Wren-Warbler containing
an egg of the Burmese Plaintiye Cuckoo,
CUCKOO PROBLEMS 737
deposits her egg in an inaccessible nest by simply placing a small
basket contrivance securely over the open pipit’s nest so as to
convert it into a domed nest and one into which the cuckoo could
not sit and lay directly. Or, he could have obtained the same
result by the placing of stones round the nest. He might then
have seen how the cuckoo met the problem set her—one she finds
very commonly in Nature.
But as far as I know he did not do so—nor anyone after him.
This problem of how the cuckoo gets her egg into inaccessible
nests is very much in evidence in a country like Burma, where,
in the Shan States the commonest fosterer of the Cuckoo is the
little Burmese Stone Chat which makes a nest generally in some
crevice—or under a clod of earth—where a cuckoo could never
enter to sit on the nest. I judge these nests by trying to put my
hand (a small hand) into them and take out a chat’s egg. If I
am unable to do so then I conclude that the cuckoo with her
long tail is also unable to get in. I should say that about 70 per
cent of these chat’s nests are inaccessible, judged by this
standard.
A very good example of such an inaccessible nest was one I
found in a section of bamboo lying out on open ground. This
photo was published in the Society’s Journal, vol. xxxvi, No. 4
of December 15, 19388.
It may be asked why I did not myself sit up over such nests
and solve the problem. I am sensible to the reproach, but there
are great difficulties in the East to contend with, and it is very
difficult to find all the nests of the fosterers in any given area—
besides I was ill when the best opportunities offered.
A point that is worth mentioning in regard to these inaccessible
chats’ nests is that many of them are situated—in fact most
are—under clods of earth in ploughed fields, and when the chats
lay in April and May the earth is parched and dry and of a
crumbly nature so that the least disturbance of the clod brings
it down.on to the eggs. Any attempt on the part of a cuckoo
to get in under the clod would certainly, with her long tail,
cause a falling of earth on the chat’s eggs, and subsequent
desertion. ;
In a nest I took this year it was quite impossible to get the
cuckoo’s egg out with the hand—even using two fingers for the
purpose—and [ had to carefully poke my handkerchief in with a
stick over the eggs to protect them from being broken by the
earth that would fall when the place was opened out.
The Little Plaintive Cuckoo must find the same difficulty in
getting her egg into a Franklin’s Wren Warbler’s (fF. gracilis) nest
as C. c. bakeri does in getting hers into inaccessible chats’ nests.
Until the exact way these cuckoos get their eggs in to such
inaccessible nests is known to Science—we cannot claim to have
discovered the whole of the cuckoo’s secret.
There is one more point to consider. Sometimes one finds a
cuckoo’s egg lying just outside a chat’s nest. In that case it
would appear that either the chat has kicked it out of its nest
—an impossibility in my opinion—or that the cuckoo placed it
738 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
there—either by laying it there—or by putting it there in her bill.
Now, in 1938, I found here three cuckoo’s eggs in the same vicinity
at short intervals of time which were all found lying outside the
chats’ nests. These three cuckoos’ eggs were obviously the pro-
duct of one bird—and being small eggs I suspected them to have
been laid by a young bird. The chats’ nests in these three in-
stances presented no particular difficulty for the cuckoo to deposit
in although all were of the inaccessible type. The eggs of this
cuckoo were in all three cases lying about six inches outside the
chats’ nest—and were in no way damaged.
This year I found again a cuckoo’s egg lying six inches outside
an accessible chat’s nest and I have a very attractive photograph
Ol ats
From the above it would not appear that the chat is responsible
for this contretemps—tor the eggs were not damaged—were
approximately always six inches outside the nest and in one case
they were the three eggs of a certain individual cuckoo.
So therefore I conelude it was the cuckoo’s doing and that she
laid her eggs there.
Why was it left outside? Perhaps the hen chat sat tight and
refused to get off her eggs—perhaps the cuckoo was disturbed and
frightened, but from the fact that a particular cuckoo did it three
or more times in one season points to an idiosyncrasy in that
particular individual.
T think that it is certain that all these eggs were laid where
they were found just outside the nest. Is this laying just outside
the nest the preliminary action before putting the eggs in with
the bill?
4. Does the male cuckoo assist the female in any way in
depositing her egg?
As the cock cuckoo can be distinguished by his call note
cuck-koo that makes observation easier than it might be. They
are in the habit of perching on some high tree or bamboo clump
affording a good look-out, and seem to spend most of the day
thus—going from one prominent tree to another, chasing rival
male or female cuckoos. Very little time seems to be spent in
feeding. What is the meaning of these long waits in the tree
tops? I think a good part of the time of the male bird is devoted
to a close observation of the surrounding fields and open ground
for fosterers’ nests, and that when located, it shows them to the
female cuckoo to win her favours. I saw a male (calling) cuckoo
fly down to a chat’s nest which was in an exceptionally deep hole
in the ground—after a few seconds it flew away. There were eggs
in the chat’s nest—slightly incubated. What was its object in
visiting this chat’s nest? Not to eat the eggs. It never touched
them. No cuckoo’s egg was deposited in this nest subsequently
—which rather spoils my story—still I think that it found this
nest in order to show it to its mate. What other object could
the bird have had? It was a most cunningly-hidden chat’s nest.
That no cuckoo’s egg was deposited in it may be accounetd for by
the fact that the eggs were incubated, and the nest about 15 inches
down in a crack in the ground,
CUCKOO PROBLEMS 739
What more natural than that the male cuckoo should assist
its mate in the finding of fosterer’s nests ?
5. Why do cuckoos remove eges from nests sometimes ?
It seems to be the rule for cuckoos to remove an egg of the
fosterers’ when depositing their own, and Mr, Chance saw them
remove the fosterer’s ege first, and then sit on the nest to lay,
holding the fosterer’s egg in the bill meanwhile. Such removals
are, We suppose, to make room for the cuckoo’s egg, and that is
a reasonable supposition. But there is another aspect to this
removal of eges, for cuckoos often remove a single egg from a nest
and never deposit one of their own in its place. Why ?—I think
it is to test the state of incubation of the eggs—to see if they are
fresh enough for depositing their own egg among them.
It does not appear to be for the purpose of eating the eggs
although the single egg taken is undoubtedly eaten by the
cuckoo. If that was their reason they would return to such nests
and eat the whole lot of eggs (these chats lay 5-6 eggs). I have
never observed more than the one egg being taken. The year
before last, at about dusk, I saw a cuckoo glide down to a chat’s
nest in a ploughed field. After a moment at the nest it flew up
and towards me, passing straight across my front at 20 yards
distance, clearly silhouetted against the evening sky. It had an
egg in its bill. It had no egg in its bill when it flew down to the
chat’s nest. It flew up on to the top of a bamboo close to me.
When I had got my field-glasses on to it the egg was gone. I
searched under the bamboos but found no broken egg and so I
concluded that the cuckoo had eaten it.
Now these chat’s eggs were very hard-set. Next day they
hatched. No cuckoo’s egg was deposited among them.
What was the cuckoo’s object in taking one egg from this
nest? Not to eat it—for the cuckoo would have then eaten the
lot at the visit it made to the nest—or returned later and
finished them. I think it was to test the state of incubation of
the chat’s eggs. The cuckoo found them hard-set and unsuitable
and so did not deposit its egg among them. Eating the eggs was
just a convenient way of disposing of it.
Single eggs are often thus missed from a nest. Hunting for
cuckoos’ eges, one marks down all the chats’ nests one can find
and then visits them from time to time, and so such diminution
in the number of eggs in one or another nest is often noted.
A curious incident happened ten yards in front of my window
this year. There was a Blyth’s pipit’s nest there under a clod
of earth and on the morning in question there were two eggs in
it on the point of hatching and one young one just hatched.
Suddenly a cuckoo came swooping down to it and after a scramble
at the nest flew off with one of the eggs. I went to inspect the
nest and found that the young one had been kicked out of the
nest to a distance of about a yard—and in the nest there remained
but one egg. IJ put the young one back. The nest was destroyed
by dogs a few days later. The cuckoo must have known in
this instance that the eggs were hard-set and unsuitable—yet
ij took one egg. I think it was just habit. It flew down,
740 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
I suppose, with the intention of taking an egg—and did so.
Although the eating of an egg is not, I think, the cuckoo’s primary
object yet no doubt they enjoy it.
I am inchned to think that both male and female cuckoos take
eggs in this manner to test their stage of incubation. To know
their state of incubation is most essential for them. Chats’ nests
are so often so tucked away in holes and crevices that the eggs
are in comparative darkness and their condition may not be
apparent to the cuckoo by merely looking at them.
We know more or less how the cuckoo watches the fosterer’s
nest being built and has her egg ready to deposit in it at the
right time—and in such cases I do not think any egg is removed
with the object of testing its incubation. The cuckoo knows well
enough that they are quite fresh. Then, if an egg is removed, it
is removed at the time of depositing in the nest—to make room
for the cuckoo’s egg—not to test the state of incubation.
I suspect that both male and female cuckoos are given to this
ege-testing. That would be a _ reasonable supposition if we
believe that the male assists in finding the nests. The testing
being of course a part of the finding of suitable nests.
So it would appear to me that there are two aspects to this
egg removal—one to make room for the cuckoo’s egg—and
secondly to test the state of incubation of the fosterer’s eggs.
6. Why is the common cuckoo’s egg so small?
I think that a reduction in size has been achieved for the
purpose of adaptation to the small eggs of birds chosen to be
fosterers—not as Mr. Chance does, that it is because the cuckoo
has to retain her egg in waiting for a suitable moment—or day
even—to lay. <A clue is to be found among the other species
of parasitic cuckoos. The Koel for instance ‘lays a normally-
sized egg though her difficulties in depositing it in the nests of
crows may be greater than that of the Common Cuckoo, as
there may be opposition from the crows.
If adaptation in colour in the egg why not in size too?
7. How is the adaptation in colouration—in ground colour
and markings—of the cuckoo’s egg to those of its fosterer brought
about ?
Even people who are scarcely at all interested in birds wonder
at the mimicry of the parasite’s egg.
One obvious theory is that natural selection working through
desertion has brought about this adaptation—that cuckoos’ eggs
which contrasted too violently with the fosterers’ have been fre-
quently deserted through the ages, and so unadapted eggs and
their might-have-been progeny eliminated—until well adapted
eggs came Slowly into being—slight individual variations in cuckoos’
eggs determining whether they should be retained and incubated—
or deserted by the chats.
I confess I do not lke this theory at all. The more we know
of wild animal hfe the more we see design and the more we
appear as the simpletons! It is hard to think of mimicry taking
place without guiding desire on the part of the animal that is to
benefit by that mimicry. I prefer to see more intelligence in
CUCKOO PROBLEMS 741
Nature, and look elsewhere for a solution to this ‘colourful propo-
sition’. I know it is difficult and open to ridicule to suggest the
inheritance of ‘acquired characters’, etc., but a biologist finds
difficulty and ridicule an incentive to thought and observation.
Let us consider this problem.
It is certain and to be seen that cuckoos have their eggs very
well adapted to the eges of special species of birds they victimise.
Here in the Shan States, we see the C. c. bakeri parasitic on two
species—the Burmese Stone Chat (8S. ¢. burmanica) and the Dark-
erey Bush Chat (O. ferrea harringtoni) (which lays pale blue im-
maculate eggs in Burma). The Stone Chat’s eggs are a pale
greenish-blue in ground colour handsomely and well marked with
rusty red markings, which often tend to form a zone or a cap at
the larger end. The Bush Chat’s eggs are a delicate pale, imma-
culate blue. The cuckoos lay two types of eggs—one type rather
like an English robin’s egg—a pale yellowish-white in ground
colour marked with light red which often zones the egg, to
resemble the Stone Chat’s eggs, and the second type is a pale blue,
immaculate egg admirably adapted to the eges of the Bush Chat..
In this area there may be other types of adaptation but they are
uncommon. (I suspect one type, adapted to the eggs of the
Crested Bunting.) Although the red type eggs of the cuckoo
parasitic on the Stone Chat are very like Stone Chat’s eggs—they
are larger, and never seem to show any bluish or greenish
tint in their ground colour. And the pale blue immaculate eggs
of the second type of cuckoo never seem to show the least signs
of any markings.
I have noticed that where there are bush chats, the blue
cuckoo’s eggs are invariably deposited in their nests. But bush
chats have become very scarce in the vicinity of Taunggyi in the
South Shan States, due to the clearing away of light scrub jungle
and the general flattening out of the countryside following ‘civili-
zation’, so that blue-egg-laying cuckoos that still haunt the
Taunggyi neighbourhood cannot find bush chats’ nests in which
to deposit. I myself have not seen a pair of bush chats this year
here—although they were not uncommon here some ten years
ago. Therefore faute de mieux the cuckoos are depositing their
blue eggs in nests of the Stone Chat wherein they appear in
violent contrast. But I have found none deserted on that account.
I have found no cuckoo eggs of the red type in nests of the Bush
Chat. I may say that stone chats are extremely common and
bush chats generally far scarcer. There would be about 10-20
pairs of stone chats to one pair of bush chats—some proportion
like that, in the Shan States; but I think the proportion of
blue-egg-laying cuckoos to the red-laying type to be rather higher
than might be suspected. I should say there is one blue-ege
cuckoo to seven red-egg cuckoos. It is almost certain that
the Bush Chat was a much commoner bird in these States many
years ago—before the population of humans had so _ increased.
They like wild, scattered scrub jungle, whereas the little Stone
Say is friendly to human beings and loves the open cultivated
ands.
742 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIIi
As might be expected then, we find a number of these blue
cuckoo’s eggs deposited in stone chats’ nests instead of in the
fosterer’s to which they are adapted (bush chats). As the Stone
Chat does not appear to mind the violent contrast. (these pale blue
eges have a startling white appearance in a stone chat’s nest)
the blue-egg cuckoo continues on without any appreciable dimi-
nution in numbers, I think. If the desertion theory was here in
working order we should find that these violently contrasting blue
eges were being frequently deserted and that in consequence the
blue-egg cuckoos were diminishing. I do not think they are dimi-
nishing. In spite of no adaptation to the fosterers they are now
choosing they seem to be as successful as the red-ege type of
cuckoo. I have noticed no desertions.
How did these two types of egg, each so well adapted to the
eges of a particular host, reach their perfection of mimicry? What
influences the colouring of the egg shell of the cuckoo’s egg? When
two cuckoos mate the male cannot of course influence in the
slightest the colour, or size, of the egg that the female cuckoo
lays as a result of their union. The yolk, white and the shell
of the egg are entirely maternal products of the female cuckoo
and are not derived from the fertilized ovum. But the young
cuckoo born from their mating will inherit tendencies from both
its parents. We can imagine a case in which the male cuckoo was
born from a blue egg in a bush chat’s nest laid by a female cuckoo
fertilised by a male also born from a blue egg. Should such a
male mate with a red-ege female, their offspring—a daughter for
instance—should inherit the blue-egg laying quality from her father
and the red-egg laying quality from her mother! What eggs will
she lay when she becomes mature? It should be an egg of inter-
mediate type between the two—say a blue egg with a few sparse
red spots on it. But such eggs are not found. The eggs seem
always to be true to their respective types, and that is perhaps a
point in favour of Mr. Chance’s contention that the blue-egg type
cuckoos breed only with blue-egg females, and the red-egg type
with the red-ege type, and so direct as it were a pure parasitism
against their respective fosterers the Bush Chat and the Stone
Chat.
And yet there are difficulties in such a belief. In such promis-
cuous birds as cuckoos appear to be, it would seem certain that
the different types co-habit, and again, certain that their union
would be fertile. In this consideration a further point comes out.
If the male cuckoo assists the female in finding nests of the
fosterer, in an alliance of two types, they would be at cross pur-
poses, the blue-egg male showing bush chats’ nests to the red-egg
female who would desire but stone chats’ nests!
That the types keep to themselves and do not interbreed may
be worth considering. Or, could we believe that in the matter
of egg-shell colouring the female is completely prepotent over the
male influence. And in that case, the offspring would always
follow the mother’s habits and, if a daughter, deposit in the nests
of the same fosterer that she was reared in, irrespective of her
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CUCKOO PROBLEMS 743
father’s upbringing. One feels inclined to leave all these compli-
cations to the judgment of the High Court!
And yet, as if this was not complicated enough, we get a
further refinement of the problem. The Burmese Plaintive Cuckoo
in the Shan States commonly lays two types of eggs—the one
white with red markings, and the other bluish with red markings.
Now these two types are not parasitic on different species of
fosterers as in the case of C. c. bakeri—but they are parasitic
on the same species—Franklin’s Wren Warbler, which lays here
two types of eggs—the one white with red spots, and the other
bluish with red spots. And the cuckoos are particular to get the
white egg into the white-egged Franklinia, and the blue egg into
the blue-egged Franklinia! How indeed can we believe here that
the two types of Plaintive Cuckoo do not interbreed?
That leads me to think that perhaps the maternally inherited
tendencies are completely prepotent over the males in the matter of
the egg-shell colouring and in the selection of the species to serve
as fosterer. But the point at issue is being lost.
Let us consider first the case in which we have a pale blue,
immaculate egg of C. c. bakeri in a nest of the Bush Chat. Here
is an instance of perfect mimicry except that the cuckoo’s egg is
rather larger.
If this remarkable adaptation has been brought about by natural
selection working through desertion—the desertion theory—it
supposes that the cuckoo has taken no initiative in the changing
of her egg through the generations it has taken to bring about
the adaptation, but that the chat has—that the chats have ever
been of a particularly discriminating nature and extremely critical
of the egg deposited in their nest—deserting whenever the cuckoo’s
ege contrasted violently with their own. This implies that the
intelligence shown has been entirely on the side of the chats.
Somehow [I feel this to be all wrong. I am inclined to attribute
the adaptation rather to the cuckoo which is the one to benefit
by that mimicry, rather than to the chats.
The desertion theory relies upon cuckoo’s eggs showing slight
variations. It has been commonly held that such slight variations
have no particular significance—that they are lttle unaccountable
‘jumps of Nature’. Now that does not appeal to me at all. I
think a biologist should avoid such a ‘jumpy’ attitude of mind.
IT think he should say rather that he is unable to appreciate the
meaning of such slight variations. Such slight variations—barely
perceptible—are not—I prefer to think—haphazard ‘jumps’, but
definite indications of tendencies we may—or may not—be able to
appreciate which have their origin in the germ plasm.
If that is so, the slight variations of colour and markings
in the cuckoo’s eggs are not just unmeaning ‘Jumps’—occurring
without purpose—signifying nothing in particular—but rather they
are definite differences produced by that individual cuckoo, that
have a meaning even if it is not given to us to see what that
meaning is. That is to say, that it is the cuckoo that is bringing
about the change in her egg—and not the chat. She is directing,
and the chat’s choice is subsidiary. After all is it not rather like
744 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
an artist and lis paintings? The variations in his painting—slight
differences in tone and colour—nuances—may seem purposeless
and without meaning to others who view the finished picture, but
to the artist they are his very work and full of an intimate signi-
ficance. If therefore you prefer to see a possible meaning and
design in individual variations rather than none you will not favour
the desertion theory.
Biologists have always ridiculed the idea that a bird could ‘by
taking thought’ alter in any way its egg. If you mean during
that bird’s lfe-time, then I agree that the supposition is worthy
of ridicule, though ill health and possibly unaccustomed food may
give rise to abnormality in eggs in the hfe time of the individual.
But if you suggest that ‘by taking thought’ a desire to a particular
end is created within that individual, and that that desire to the
same end is inherited by that individual’s offspring, and again
strengthened and transmitted to future generations, I do not see
why the continued desire should not eventually begin to have a
visible effect after the lapse of 10-100 generations or more.
Surely such desire is the main element in sexual selection—
does not the very word ‘selection’ suggest a desire ?
In the desertion theory, desire is shown when the chat refuses
the cuckoo’s egg. It does not desire to accept it—or, if you like,
it desires to desert it. The transmission of acquired characters
has given rise to much argument. But it is impossible to esti-
mate the amount of desire that may be acquired within the life-
time of the individual—and who shall say that some such desire
acquired in an individual’s life is not transmitted to the offspring ?
The original move in parasitism in cuckoos must have come from
the cuckoo. A cuckoo’s egg did not find its way by accident
into another bird’s nest. The cuckoo put it there—or in other
words the cuckoo desired to put it there. The cuckoo then first
showed desire—what is more hkely than that such a desire should
continue to play its part in the full evolution of cuckoo parasitism ?
Nature struggles persistently to its end.
I think that it has—that desire has been the chief factor—
desire on the part of the cuckoo to imitate—in her evolution of
complete mimicry. Natural selection working through desertion
may have played some part too, but I cannot see it as having
been a major factor in the mimicry.
I think that a bird can change the colour of its egg ‘by taking
thought’—if you give it long enough—say many generations.
The desertion theory demands a high percentage of desertions.
I have never noticed many. I have found not more than about
3 per cent of nests containing cuckoo’s eggs deserted. That is
to say about the same percentage of deserted nests as one finds
that do not contain cuckoo’s eggs. Again those three deserted
nests containing cuckoo’s eggs may have not been deserted on
account of the cuckoo’s egg they contained at all—but to
other causes such as cause birds to desert their nests—
vermin or the passing of men and. cattle—or an accident to the
parent bird.
The problem is probably incapable of solution . . . but we are
CUCKOO PROBLEMS 745
quite charmed to think about it. Exasperating to a man of exact
science such problems must be—and to those of ordinary education
who demand a reason—and only one reason for any perplexity—
but full of fruitless delight to the biologist.
THE ORIGIN OF THEIR PARASITISM.
The cuckoos are classified into two groups, the parasitic and the
non-parasitic. That classification is not necessarily a correct and
natural one; it is only the best that mankind has been able to do
so far. The entire classification of birds is more or less arbitrary,
and probably very incorrect, for their natural descent cannot be
made out when so many groups have become extinct in the long
process of evolution. Besides the missing links, there are all the
apparent affinities, that are not homologous, to confuse and obscure
the zoologist who would attempt to draw up a genealogical tree
for the Aves. Even within historical times, a number of species
of birds have become extinct, so that a vast number of species
must have been eliminated in the long ago of which there is now
no record, not a trace.
If it is true that the parasitic and the non-parasitic cuckoos
have been correctly classified together and associated, then it is
interesting to speculate as to which of these two divisions is the
older. Probably the non-parasitic are the older or of approximately
the same period, for were they a more recent group it must be
supposed that they were at one time parasitic and then have
reverted to normal habits. Strong evidence would be necessary to
convince one of that. Nature does not forgive—does not offer a
second chance.
Perhaps cuckoo parasitism is of comparatively recent origin;
and perhaps it arose independently in two, or more, groups of
euckoos—not in all its present forms from one stock.
It is more than doubtful if we shall ever be able to get an
answer to the question as to how this extraordinary parasitism
started, but that is only an incentive to the biologist!
As the simpler problems that the parasitic cuckoos set are
slowly solved, this great fundamental question as to the origin of
parasitism must loom out larger and larger to the enquiring mind.
Or, it may be viewed as a comparatively simple problem—just
how a habit started in a common group of birds! But the more
it is considered the more formidable it seems, this question as to
‘How did it start?’
The very nature of birds, with their soft plumage and _ light
bones and habits of flight, and hfe above the earth, preclude the
finding of their fossil remains in any useful quantities, so that
their history seems irretrievably lost. There remains only their
embryology to suggest past mysteries—but it is indeed difficult to
read, and can scarcely help us to trace a habit, such as parasitism,
that leaves no structural modification behind to identify it.
The mind must set out on a wild flight of fancy to dream of
the birds of long ago, when the species of today were in the
making, and the cuckoos about to enter on their great adventure
of parasitism.
746 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Now it could never have been chance that started parasitism
in the cuckoos. Chance seems to play hardly any part in Nature—
we must look for design behind phenomena.
Birds never lay or deposit their eggs by chance in the nests of
other birds. The few instances known in Nature of birds laying
in other birds’ nests are always deliberate and nearly always in
the nests of the same, or closely allied, species.
Had the first cuckoo—had the first hundred thousand cuckoos
laid or deposited their eggs by chance in the nests of other birds
all the young cuckoos reared to maturity from those eggs, would,
when the time came for them to reproduce their kind, have revert-
ed to normal habits of nidification. There would not have been
born in them the quality of parasitism—they would have felt no
urge to depart from the normal habit of making their own nest
and hatching their own eggs.
We are then most certainly bound to suppose that parasitism
did not originate by chance.
Had the cuckoos so utterly departed from the natural law as
to deposit their eggs by chance in other birds’ nests we see that
their attempt at parasitism would never have survived the first
generation.
We are then led to suppose that the cuckoos started their para-
sitism by design, by desire. They must be credited with some
such powerful, and special impulse, to cause them to depart so
far from the normal habits of nidification. This does not of
course solve the problem of the origin of parasitism, but it is a
step back in the history of parasitism—and one forward towards
the insoluble.
Parasitism may have started in the long, long ago, by desire in
a particular individual cuckoo—or in a pair of cuckoos, but it
would seem more natural—less of chance—that the habit was
evolved, more or less at the same time in the whole group of
‘cuckoos’ that were about to become parasitic. In other words
that parasitism was not the freak, or chance, of a single bird,
or pair of birds, departing from the normal but rather the culmi-
‘nating act brought about by an impulse or desire that had gradually
developed in those species over many generations.
Had the parasitism started in a single bird, or in a pair only,
the chances of the habit surviving would have been very slight—
especially when the suitability of the fosterers had not as yet been
tested and ascertained.
It is therefore reasonable to suppose that parasitism started on
a wide front and over a large area by those particular species in
which this urge—or desire to become parasitic had become so
strong as to be ready for actual expression. It may too have
originated independently in more than one species.
The next stage would be the placing of their eggs in the nests
of other birds over a large area most probably. What were these
eggs like? Were they of the primitive colour—white, or were they
marked, or coloured, eggs peculiar to that species? Or had they
even at this early stage a resemblance to the eggs of certain
species of birds decided upon to act as fosterers? The latter idea
a a
CUCKOO PROBLEMS 747
may safely be discarded as it is generally believed that mimicry
only results after considerable trial over ages during which it is
gradually perfected. It could not well jump to perfection before
being put to use.
It may be supposed then that the cuckoo’s eggs were white
(or any other colour you like) and were placed in the nests of
either a certain species—or in nests of many different species—with
special intention—or at random. But ‘at random’ suggests
chance, and it is more probable that even at that early stage the
cuckoos had marked down the particular species they intended to
victimise. Or they may have placed their eggs in the nests of
certain species especially chosen, and other eges, faute de mieux,
in other birds’ nests, as they seem to do now, which is not
quite the same as ‘at random’.
It may be supposed then that the cuckoos at this stage—at
the beginning of their adventure in parasitism—laid eggs that did
not at all resemble the eggs of the birds they were about to try
and dupe—for all birds lay eggs of a type peculiar to their parti-
cular species—and, also, that they laid eggs of a size normal for
the size of their bodies.
Having given in to this desire, or urge, to be parasitic, and
having actually placed their eggs in the nests of other birds,
the next thing to consider is how the cuckoo’s eggs became adapted
eventually to those of the fosterers. If the first act of parasitism
—the placing of their eggs in other birds’ nests—was brought
about by desire, what is more natural than to suppose that the
ultimate perfection of parasitism—the mimicry—has followed also
by reason of the same desire within the cuckoo—that the mimicry
has been slowly brought about by the cuckoo. This does not
preclude other factors from taking effect on adaptation—but they
would seem to be of minor importance.
The first stage in the adpatation of a white egg to resemble,
say, red, marked eggs of the fosterer would be supposedly the
appearance of a single red mark on it, or a few red marks—there
would certainly be no sudden jump to a_ perfect resemblance.
Such changes and adaptations in Nature are believed to take place
only gradually and over very long periods of time.
Now the first appearance of such insignificant markings would
have no natural-selection value, and this makes the desertion
theory—that resemblance has been brought about indirectly by
the fosterer deserting eggs that contrasted violently with her own,
‘difficult, if not impossible of acceptance. Thus we are led to
believe that these first few markings on the cuckoo’s white egg
came into being by desire of the cuckoo. It is impossible to fix
the exact origin of desire in any particular and former generation,
it would be far too subtle and elusive a quality to be traced, but
we may suppose it to have been long inherited and strengthened
already—this desire to mimic and dupe—before being given visible
effect to in this change of colour in the egg.
Given once the beginning of red markings the elaboration of
them to resemble the fosterer’s eggs, change in colour tone, and
748 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
possibly size, would follow in due course towards a perfect mimicry
by the continued inherent desire of the cuckoo to dupe.
It has been argued that assimilation is not necessary, and my
own contention that cuckoos’ eggs are accepted by the dupes—even
when contrasting violently with their own eggs, points to there
being no particular value in the mimicry.
Why then this elaborate mimicry that has taken such ages in
becoming perfected, if it is to be eventually of no use?
I think Nature works to a given end with astonishing and
elaborate care—with a wealth of detail—much of which appears
to us to be superfluous. So, I think, the parasitic cuckoos, driven
by the desire to completely dupe their victims, have perfected
their mimiery irrespective of what the small birds duped might
think of it. After all, how could the cuckoo know what the
dupes would think of her (the cuckoo’s) egg? She would not
know. It would be best for her in her parasitism to take no
chances but adapt her eggs to the chosen species of fosterer. She
would complete her mimicry—whatever the dupes might think of
it. This is what, I think, she has done.
I have a very strong conviction that birds have a wonderfully
keen appreciation of their own eggs and little, or no appreciation,
of any other eggs. They regard their own eggs in the hght of
their inherited ‘unconscious memory’. Instinct gives them a full
appreciation of their own eggs. With regard to other eggs, I
think, they just recognize them as eggs—and nothing more. To
attribute an appreciation of a bulbul’s egg to a sparrow is to credit
the latter with human reasoning.
In the case of the cuckoo, it is different since cuckoos have
been studying their dupes’ eggs over countless generations with
the sole object of perfecting parasitism. Here is the exception—
the cuckoo is the only bird that is interested in the eges of certain
other birds. She views them with an inherited appreciation. This
is another argument against the desertion theory, as I feel you
cannot attribute to the fosterer an appreciation of the cuckoo’s
egg, to do so is to attribute powers of human reasoning to the
fosterer who has no inherited qualities to enable it to judge any
egos other than its own. |
And now we get back to where we started from—the origin of
parasitism!—the birth of the desire. It originated in the cuckoos
presumably for the reason that it has originated in many other
forms of life—the inherent urge, impulse, or desire of an organism
to take advantage of any opening that occurs in Nature by which
it may profit to advance itself in the struggle for existence. For -
an understanding of the struggle for existence and the dreadful
suffering it entails to guilty and innocent alike, it is best to leap
from Biology to .. . Buddhism—from this world . . . to the next.
There are two, further and significant facts for consideration
that I omitted to mention previously, that would appear to support
my opinion that the resemblance of the cuckoo’s eggs to those of
the chosen fosterer has come about by reason of forees—however
mysterious and incalculable they may be—that act within the
cuckoo, rather than by forces of an external Natural Selection
CUCKOO PROBLEMS 749
such as the desertion theory demands—a selection I consider un-
natural—rather than ‘natural’—since it tends to the disadvantage
of the selector—the fosterer bringing about its own ruin.
The first, is the fact that the eggs of any particular, individual
hen cuckoo are: marked in such a particular manner, and are of
such a particular character, that they are at once distinguishable
and recognisible as the eggs of that particular hen cuckoo and
no other.
Secondly, is the fact that the Drongo Cuckoo (Surniculus
lugubris) resembles to such an extraordinary degree the King-Crow
that it is generally accepted as a case of direct mimicry.
Now oologists agree that the marked eggs of any particular
hen cuckoo bear such a close resemblance to each other that they
can be safely assigned only to that particular, individual hen
euckoo. In some eases this particular and individual character of
the eggs is so marked that it would appear to detract somewhat
from the quality of their resemblance to the eggs of the fosterer.
It would appear in such eases that the individual character of the
eggs was of almost equal importance as their resemblance to those
of the fosterer.
What is the significance of this marked individuality in the
eges of a particular hen cuckoo? It does not help in adaptation.
On the contrary it tends to distinguish, and so interfere with
complete adaptation. It cannot then be accounted for by the
desertion theory—in other words it is not due to the fosterer. It
must then be due to the cuckoo. It is natural to suppose that
such an individual character to its eges is required by that parti-
cular cuckoo for purposes of recognition—to distinguish its own
particular eggs from those of any other bird. What other signi-
ficance could it have but one of distinction? As a cuckoo does
not place more than one of its eggs in any one nest, it is natural
to suppose that it has a need to be able to distinguish and
recognise its own eggs. Their individuality, their characteristic
distinction from other eggs, enables the cuckoo to see at a glance
whether it has already laid in a nest or not. In this connection
it is interesting to note that as often two, or more, cuckoo’s eggs
are found in one nest—all laid by different individual cuckoos—it
would appear that a cuckoo is not able to recognise another cuckoo’s
ego!
If the cuckoo has evolved within itself—over a great number
of generations—those particular markings and colouration and type
that give a distinguishing character to its eggs—is it not natural
to suppose that the other remaining and incorporated character of
her eges—that tend to make them resemble those of the fosterer—
are also derived from forces working within the cuckoo?
In the case of the Drongo Cuckoo there is said to be a remark-
able resemblance in both form and colour to the King Crow. Is
this not a case of mimicry? If so how has the mimicry arisen?
According to the desertion theory, I suppose, the likeness has
been brought about by the King Crow!—to its own disadvantage
and ruin!
IT would rather think of it as a case of direct mimicry on the
750 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
part of the cuckoo—over untold generations—working to its profit
and advantage in its-parasitism. If this is so—that a cuckoo can,
over untold generations, so alter its whole form and colouration so
as to mimic the King Crow—to help it to perfect its parasitism on
the King Crow—why should not its egg also reach a_ similar
mimicry from similar forces of desire acting in the same manner
within the cuckoo to the perfection of parasitism ?
If the mimicry of the bodily form is admitted why not too in
the egg? Is not the egg a part of the body?
Undoubtedly. many of the minor problems that the parasitic
cuckoos set us will be solved in the near future by intensive obser-
vation on the part of an increasing number of naturalists, aided
by photography, and possibly the keeping of various parasitic
cuckoos in captivity. But will the major Cuckoo Problems ever
be solved? Almost certainly not. Then why enter into a_profit-
less speculation of the Unknown and Unknowable? Because it is
Man’s pleasure! and on the way he the minor discoveries that
lighten the path to understanding. Biological thought plunges far
beyond the cold, ascertained facts of Science—nor will any intelli-
gent man be denied the fantasy of thought into the Beyond.
Ornithology is not worthwhile unless it leads beyond mere
measurements in millimetres of faded bird skins and the ‘creation’
of super-subspecies is the honour of colleagues.
The obejet in opening the subject of Cuckoo Problems is to
stimulate the interests of naturalists, to their own advantage—to
the enrichment of their hfe, and the solving of minor problems
connected with cuckoo parasitism, and to provoke thought on the
major and insoluble problems.
I regret that my name must be subscribed to what I have
written. The interest in Ornithology is in birds and not in the
people who write about them—and above all in live birds—the
courtship and nidification and embryology of which form the secret
and intimate and most significant part of their life.
Since writing the above I am very pleased to say that I have
made quite a sensational discovery that should interest all
naturalists—sinee it is a discovery of fact, and not opinion. Pro-
fiting by the invaluable information conveyed in Mr. Chance’s book,
The Cuckoos’ Secret, I was able here at Taunggyi, on April 24,
to witness by design the cuckoo depositing its egg at an inaccessible
nest of the Stone Chat. |
An account of this interesting act of parasitism will be published
in the Journal shortly. I claim that it is the most important
cuckoo discovery since Mr. Chance’s work in 1921. I claim too
that it is the first time that the act of parasitism has been
observed at an inaccessible nest. Primitive man never had the
advantage of Zeiss field glasses! The chat’s nest was 5 yards
distance from my hide, and with the glasses set at +5 the act
took place in my very presence.
Comment by E. C. Stuart Baker.
The Editors of our Journal have asked me to write a com-
mentary on the interesting paper written by Mr. Livesey on ‘Cuckoo
CUCKOO PROBLEMS 751
Problems’ and the origin of Cuckoo Parasitism. This is not an
easy matter to do and it is rather like asking someone to answer
one conundrum by setting another. So many of our cuckoo pro-
blems are still matters of personal opinion, while many people
think they have solved these problems in perfectly different ways.
Mr. Livesey has dealt, more or less, with many problems. He
asks, ‘Is the foster parent attracted to, or frightened by, the
cuckoo? In what way, or ways, does the cuckoo deposit its egg
in the nest? What interest does the male bird take in deposition,
etc.? Why are the fosterer’s eggs removed from the nest?’ All
these are questions of interest but it would take a volume to answer
them so I restrict myself, for the present, mainly to an attempt
to answer his theory as to the evolution of the cuckoo’s egg,
referring very briefly to the other problems.
Mr. Livesey and I have very different ideas as to how the
adaptation of cuckoos’ eggs to those of their foster-parents has
been brought about. Hither of us may be right or both of us
may be wrong but, if between us we write something which will
make other people think, then we have done something worth
doing however much these same people mav disagree with the
conclusions we have arrived at.
I have had the pleasure of knowing Mr. Livesey now for
many years and I know him to be an exceptionally keen and
intelligent observer of all forms of Nature, so that anything that
he makes up his mind to write about, will almost assuredly give
us something worth, both reading and fully considering.
Mr. Livesey states, I think quite definitely, that he considers
the main factor in the production of any cuckoo’s egg of a
type, colour or character similar to that of the foster-parent, in
whose nest she deposits the egg, to be the cumulative effect of a
desire to produce that particular colour of egg held by that parti-
cular line of cuckoos for many, it may be countless, generations.
I do not think that Mr. Livesey wishes us to believe that desire
is the sole factor for, in one of his letters to me on the same
subject, he remarks, “I do not say that environment does not
assist the cuckoo in bringing her desire to perfection’, while,
perhaps also, he would admit certain other factors as having a
ereater or lesser degree of weight in the same direction.
Now my own belief is that the adaptation of the cuckoo’s egg
has been evolved by methods which are those relied on in the
very crudest form of Darwin’s theory of the survival of the
fittest; i.e. I think it has been brought about by the gradual
elimination of the eggs showing the greatest contrast to those
of the fosterer and the hatching and rearing of those nearest in
adaptation.
Unfortunately in an article of this nature and of the length,
within the limits of which I must keep, it is impossible to deal
very fully with such an intricate problem as that which has
been set before us. I can, therefore, here only consider a few
of the major points.
Let me first try to show what I consider to be the weak point
in Mr. Livesey’s theory. When we come to consider cuckoos’
12; JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
eges we have to remember that there are a very vast number
of cuckoos which produce a far vaster number of eggs, among
which are many which have acquired what I term ‘assimilation’,
either perfect or complete, advanced, incipient, or none at all.
Qbviously we may consider that those. birds whose eggs have
reached the most perfect stage in evolution are those which have
been longest employed in attaining it, whilst those cuckoos, in
which there is little or no evidence of assimilation between their
own eggs and those of the foster-parent, are those which have
been the latest to commence the aequirement of such assimilation.
When we study this particular point we find that the Common
Cuckoo at the furthest pomt of its range north-west is that which
appears to have reached the least perfect stage of evolution in
its eggs. It is not until we study the oology of some of our
more primitive sedentary cuckoos, such as those of the genus
Clamator, that we can envisage an apparent finality of evolution.
Amongst these various degrees of adaptation we find the most
extraor dinary evolution in colour, the results being often the same
in genera widel y separated. Thus, in what I have termed the
perfect or complete stage we find certain cuckoos (Clamator,
Hierococcyx) laying blue eggs which, even to the human eye, can
hardly be distinguished from those of the birds which it normally
‘cuckoos’ (Argya, Turdoides, etc.). In another instance we find
an almost equally final stage in which one species of cuckoo
(Hierococcyx sparveroides) lays two types of egg, brown eggs
which it deposits in the nests of birds which also lay brown
eges, or blue eges which, in the same manner, it deposits in the
nests of birds which also lay blue eggs.
Another similar dimorphic evolution is that shown by the
Little Himalayan Cuckoo (Cuculus himalayanus) which lays red
eggs in one area and in another white. In each of the above five
instances the birds have attained a stage of evolution which, because
it is sufficient for its purpose, may be termed either complete or
perfect, yet these five colours have sufficed for all their purposes.
Must we then imagine that out of the many millions of
cuckoos which have laid these eggs only the five colours, pale-
blue, dark-blue, brown, red or ante were desired by ihexe birds
and that no one strain among such countless thousands desired
erey, yellow, pink or any other particular colour? Such a.
reasoning seems to me weak, in that among so great a number
of individuals we would hardly expect five colours to embrace
all their desires.
We can, however, ge even a little further than this. Let us
consider the eggs of the Little Plaintive Cuckoo (Cacomantis
merulinus). This is a bird which lays eggs which I have called
polymorphic in their colouration. Over the greater part of the
enormous area occupied by this little cuckoo from West India and
Ceylon to Eastern China it lays two types of egg, white or pale
blue, spotted or blotched with various shades of red and _ red-
brown. Over this same extent of country the eggs are normally
deposited in the nests of small warblers of the genera Orthotomus,
Franklinia, Suya, Cisticola, etc., and, roughly speaking, these
CUCKOO PROBLEMS 753
~warblers lay similar white or blue eggs somewhat similarly
marked.
[f we take these areas one by one we find that further modi-
fications of the cuckoos’ eggs in character and markings have
taken place and, in every instance, these modifications tend to
increase the hkeness between the eggs of the cuckoo and_ those
of the foster-parent specially selected in that area. Thus in
Hongkong, the Plaintive Cuckoo hardly ever places its egg in any
other nest than that of the Tailor Bird (Orthotomus), while here
also the great majority of Tailor Birds lay pale blue eggs with
blotches. Accordingly the eggs of the cuckoo are nearly always
pale blue and distinctly blotched, being so perfect in their assimi-
lation that but for their larger size and different texture they would
be most difficult to distinguish.
In Siam, much the same thing obtains but here the cuckoo
also makes use of the nests of Franklin’s Wren Warbler (Frankli-
nia) which lays eggs which are generally speckled rather than
blotched and we find that two strains of cuckoos have been
evolved, of which one strain lays blotched blue eges to place in
the Tailor Bird’s nests, while the second lays speckled blue or
white eggs to place in those of Franklin’s Wren Warbler.
Working through to India, its hills and plains from North to
Central India, we find the blotched eggs gradually disappearing
and the speckled eggs increasing in number and we also find
that these latter are placed in the nests of Swyas and Cisticolas
which also lay speckled eggs.
In the Nilgiris and in some other parts of Southern India this
little cuckoo deposits its eggs in the nests of common Wren
Warblers which lay deep blue eggs with dark blotches and we
find also the astonishing fact that the cuckoo lays eggs which are
deeper blue and more darkly blotched in this area than in any
other part of its habitat and so here, too, assimilation has been
advanced to suit special characteristics.
Finally we have an even more extraordinary result obtained
by environment (as I beleve it to be) in the Hyderabad district
of the Deccan.
Generally speaking the Plaintive Cuckoo is a bird which prefers
very wet, wet or moist chmates and is not found in exceptionally
dry areas of Sind, the Punjab and Rajputana, yet there is one
dry area, that referred to above in the Deccan, in which this
little cuckoo is exceptionally common. Here it has probably
been driven by competition and by excessive cuckoo population
from all the surrounding wetter areas and it has had, therefore,
to find new foster-parents to take the place of those generally
euckolded in the less dry countries. The bird it has selected is
‘the Little Ashy Wren Warbler (Prinia socialis) which is certainly
the most common of the warblers round Hyderabad. This little
bird, however, lays a brilliant dark red ege and necessity has
evolved a red cuckoo’s egg to agree with it. .
Red eggs of this cuckoo are only to be found within a very
small area, possibly some 50 miles across one way and very much
less if measured from east to west. It is placed exclusively in
754 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
nests of the Ashy Wren Warbler and never in the nests of those ©
birds which the cuckoo usually victimises elsewhere. Surely here
we have an instance in which the dominating factor seems to be
the necessity of laying eggs suitable in colour to agree with that
of the foster-parent and not a sudden desire of the cuckoo to la
a red egg. |
If the Plaintive Cuckoo desires to lay a red egg in this one
small area is it conceivable that in the many hundreds and
thousands of square miles over which the species lays, no other
individual bird has ever been seized with a similar desire? On
the other hand we have in the gradual elimination of unsuitable
eges, apparently an obvious method by which the evolution of red
eges has been acquired. It seems to me that when the Plaintive
Cuckoc was first forced to enter an area in which, suo motu, it
would never have entered, it at once selected as prospective foster-
parents, birds whose nests were very similar in appearance and
suitability to those of its former foster-parents outside this area.
Among the great number of eggs laid by these cuckoos it may
have been that there were a certain number with a slight tinge
of pink in them, such indeed as we sometimes see even in eggs
deposited in other parts of India. Among these were some more
pink than the rest and these, when placed alongside the eggs of
the Ashy Wren Warbler contrasted less violently than the others.
Some accordingly escaped destruction (in this case desertion) by
the foster-parents. The birds hatched from these eggs would again
lay eggs very similar to them and amongst the variations which
we know to occur in all birds’ eggs, a few again would be yet
more decidedly pink than those of the preceding generation.
In each succeeding generation this process would continue, the
reddest eggs in each escaping desertion in greater proportion than.
those not so well adopted, until, eventually, we should find that
the suitable eggs predominated and the unsuitable ones were few
and far between.
Professor K. Burnett who collected a wonderful series of eggs
of this little cuckoo, most of which he very kindly handed over
to me, told me that both the Little Cuckoo and the Ashy Wren
Warbler were extraordinarily common round about Hyderabad. I
asked him, accordingly, if he thought he could collect for me two
series of eges grading from those similar to the eggs of the same
species of cuckoo laid outside the Hyderabad area up to the
almost perfectly adapted red egg. Mr. Burnett went to immense
trouble to obtain two such series, each containing about a dozen
eges graded as I had asked him. He, however, told me that
while it was very easy to get the fully red eggs, it was very
difficult to get those showing an approach to the normal outside
types. Indeed, when I finally received these series I found that
there was no egg which was quite identical with the normal type
or types, although there were one or two which I could match
with unusually coloured eggs laid by birds elsewhere. There is yet
one other point in interest in connection with these red eggs of
the Plaintive Cuckoo and that is the fact that spots, specks and
blotches have almost entirely disappeared. The only markings
CUCKOO PROBLEMS 755
ever seen ate a very faint ring or zone of the deeper darker red
round the larger end or, in a very few cases only, an indistinct
mottling of red rather darker than the ground colour.
Now if we take in review all the various types of egg laid by
the Plaintive Cuckoo over the whole of the area in which it
occurs, we find the following action has taken place. Three main
types of eggs have been evolved: (1) white, variously marked;
(2) blue, equally variously marked; (8) red, unmarked or very
shightly marked. As regards the ground colouration, whether
white, blue or red, in each case this special colour is the same
as that of the eggs of the bird in whose nests the cuckoo’s eggs
are deposited, and further, we find that not only has a definite
colour been evolved but that especial characters of spots, specks
and blotches have also been evolved to suit those particular types
of eggs with which they have to compare.
If Mr. Livesey’s theory of desire is correct then we must admit
not only that cuckoos can by desire attain any colour in their
eggs they wish for but that they can also, by desire, attain
modification in depth of colour and variations in the character of
the markings.
Surely Darwin’s theory is easier to believe, easier to explain
and more satisfactory in every way and from every point of view
from which one can consider this marvellous adaptation.
I was once told by a clever, but rather young, biologist, who
in his anxiety to criticize had not troubled to listen to what I had
said, that it was high time pompous old gentlemen ceased to lay
down the law on various scientific matters. On that occasion
what I did say was that I hoped that no one would take any one
law as governing the whole question of evolution but would remem-
ber that while many theories such as those of Mendel, Bateson
and others were, or might, all be true, yet they were each but
one factor in evolution, the results of which were modified by
environment as a whole.
In the present instance I again make no assertion that I am
right and all I do is put forward my evidence and _ leave
it to the reader to determine, if he can, who is right and who is
wrong.
Before I leave this problem of adaptation I must refer to three
very important letters which seem to throw an extraordinary light
on this question of evolution. They were written by gentlemen, all
keen observers, and absolutely without any desire to prove or dis-
prove any particular theory. The first letter was written to find
out if anybody could give the reason why the Ashy Wren Warbler,
which in previous years had been found to be much the most
-eommon bird in Hyderabad, had suddenly disappeared. The
second letter was written asking if anybody could say what species
the little cuckoo was which the writer had found laying freely
in the nests of the Common Wren Warbler and in the nests of
Franklinia, although in every case the nests had been deserted.
Yet a third letter refers to two eggs of this little cuckoo, similar
to eggs of the Jungle Wren Warbler laid in the nests of the
Ashy Wren Warbler and promptly ejected and to other red eggs
756 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVII1
deposited in nests of the same warbler which were accepted,
hatched and reared.
From these three letters we can perhaps conclude that some
sudden disease having practically wiped out the Ashy Wren
Warbler, the cuckoos, which had not been affected by the same
disease, had to lay their eggs in some other birds’ nests.
Naturally those they selected were those of the birds which, outside
the Hyderabad area, had previously generally provided their vic-
tims but, the red eggs of the cuckoos having been evolved to the
practical exclusion of all other types, they were no longer suitable
when contrasted with the eggs of the Common Wren Warbler or
of Franklinia and, in consequence, the vast majority were deserted.
It is probable, however, that among the red eggs which had now
become the stable form, a few would be found less brilliantly red
than the others and, these being less conspicuous, would be
hatched, so that eventually we should have a process exactly
reversing that which had occurred to produce the red eggs, until
eventually these latter had been wiped out and we had a complete
reversion to the white and blue spotted and blotched eggs laid
by all other Plaintive Cuckoos. Here is a most interesting fact in
the biology of the Plaintive Cuckoo which I sincerely trust some
of our bird-loving residents around Hyderabad will do their best
to confirm or refute.
Another cuckoo of which we at present do not know very much,
the Himalayan Cuckoo, lays pure white eggs very faintly speckled
with black or dark brown and, so far as we know, no other type
is ever produced. The eggs are deposited in the nests of the
numerous small warblers of the Western Himalayas, which also
lay white eges, either immaculate or faintly speckled as are those
of the euckoo. Here I suppose Mr. Livesey would say that the
cuckoos do not lay white eggs because the others have been
eliminated by the foster-parents but merely because in this parti-
cular species of cuckoo there are no individuals who ever desire
to lay coloured eggs of any kind whatsoever.
It will be seen from what I have written above that if Mr.
Livesey’s theory of desire is the correct one we have the following
points which must be conceded in addition to the primary one
of desire. First, that having produced an egg not only of the
colour but with markings of a certain character, the cuckoo then
proceeds to select for the disposal of her eggs the nests of some
other species of birds which lay very similar eggs. Here we seem
to have a very striking contradiction. Admittedly most cuckoos
do lay eges which approach more or less closely in appearance to
those of the foster-parents but if desire only on the part of the
cuckoo is the factor causing this special colour and appearance,
why is it that they so often are found in the nests of birds with
similar eggs? Surely this would be utterly unnecessary unless the
foster-parents had some power of discrimination and the cuckoo
was afraid of her egg being unhatched or evicted. If she was
so afraid, then the necessity for assimilation is at once apparent
and if discrimination on the part of the fosterer and the necessity
for elimination is admitted, we are at once back to the original
eee
CUCKOO PROBLEMS 157
position, that whatever the desire of the cuckoo may be, as to
the production of any particular colour in its eges, the eggs which
are unsuitable will die out, while those which are more fitted
for their purpose, i.e. assimilation, will continue, and we once more
realise that the discrimination of the foster-parent is really the
deciding factor. The only other alternative one can visualise is
that throughout every cuckoo’s life the most remarkable continu-
ation of coincidences goes on—quod est absurdum.
Having reviewed the portion of Mr. Livesey’s papers dealing
with assimilation of cuckoo’s eggs to those of the foster- -parents
and its cause, I can only touch very briefly on his other points.
As regards the alleged hawklike appearance of the cuckoo, I can
say very little. It is quite true that the cuckoo is often mobbed
by small birds but this I think may well be not because it
resembles a hawk but because it is a cuckoo, for there are other
cuckoos, such as the birds of the genus Clamator, which bear no
resemblance to hawks yet are frequently mobbed by small birds,
especially during the breeding season.
The squamated appearance of the Common Cuckoo on its under
plumage may quite possibly be explained as Mr. Livesey suggests.
The idea is certainly ingenious.
Mr. Livesey’s next theory to which he draws our attention is
that so far from most birds being opposed to or intolerant of the
euckoo and its unpleasant habits, they are really only too proud
to hatch and bring up a youngster so superior to their own. If,
however, we examine carefully Mr, Livesey’s reasons for thinking
as he does, the behaviour of the bird as referred to by him might
equally well show fear and anxiety rather than, as he suggests,
fascination and attraction. Moreover, there is one little fact that
Mr. Livesey does not allude to which is that very often small
birds when they attack the cuckoo have been seen to pluck
feathers from its back. One would not think that this would
prove very attractive to the cuckoo.
Then Mr. Livesey goes on to discuss the method in which the
cuckoo deposits the egg in the nest of the fosterer. To me this
is not a very exciting “problem though it is one which can only
be dealt with at very great length, for it requires the accumulation
of much evidence and cannot be dismissed as proved one way or
the other. Here I would merely say that I am on the whole
very much in agreement with Mr. Livesey. It is within my per-
sonal knowledge that eggs of cuckoos are frequently found in
places where ane could not possibly lay them directly into the
nest yet Mr. Chance has proved to everybody’s s satisfaction, except
that of Mr. Bunyard, that the cuckoo does, at all events some-
times, lay her eggs direct into the nest of the bird she victimises.
IT should perhaps draw attention to a certain accepted fact as
it is one of those which assist the theories of those who say that
all cuckoos place their eggs in the nests in the manner described
by Mr. Chance. This is the fact that the cuckoo is exceptionally
supple and can for its size, get into smaller places than other
birds of similar bulk. Thus I think Mr. Livesey’s statement that
he judges of the possibility or the reverse, of entrance by the
758 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIIi
cuckoo to the nest-hole by whether they are less than the width
of his hand, cannot be relied on. At the same time Mr. Livesey
has found many nests with their entrances far smaller even than
this into which it is quite certain no cuckoo could have possibly
entered.
Just as I was folding this paper up to go to the post I have
received a most interesting letter from Mr. Livesey in which he
writes: ‘On the other hand my theory allows me to suppose that
cuckoos finding that they have for some reason (such as extending
migration) no suitable fosterers at hand to victimise, must adapt
themselves to some other species (that has never yet been duped)
or else try to continue unadapted. They would note red eggs of
Cettia and recognise the need to imitate them, i.e. lay red eggs.
Many cuckoos would begin to feel this urge’ and then he goes on
to say that with each succeeding generation this urge or desire
would increase ‘until after some generations the first red tinge in
their eggs would appear as a visible expression of desire’ to be
repeated and added to until a fully red egg would express the
fulfilled desire of countless generations.
Although I cannot, even now, agree that Mr. Livesey’s theory
of ‘desire’ or ‘urge’ is the dominating factor in the evolution of
the cuckoo’s egg, the above paragraph in a few lines adds so much
to the scope of the theory as elaborated in his previous letters,
that it is well worth repeating.
What a wonderful world this would be, or will be, if ‘desire’
or ‘urge’ to produce beautiful women and fine men could be given
effect to for in every woman is an innate ‘desire’ or ‘urge’ in this
direction.
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN.
BY
SALim ALI.
With Notes by HucH WHISTLER, M.B.0.U.
Part V.
(Continued from page 514 of this volume).
Famity: MovraciLuIpZé.
Motacilla alba dukhunensis Sykes. The Indian White Wagtail.
Specimens not procured by the Surveys but there are two in the Trivandrum
Museum as follows: ¢ 22-12-03 Kayankolum Bar; ¢ 17-1-03 Alwaye.
Met with by the Cochin Survey only at Ernakulam, and there only a
single bird on a grassy patch near Maharaja’s College (3 January). It is a
winter visitor, of course, and apparently very rare. Jerguson states that he
collected specimens both at Peermade and the High Range and again in the
low country at Alwaye in North Travancore, in January 1901 (J.B.N.H.S.,
xv, 471). It has been recorded from Ceylon.
Ticehurst (J.B.N.H.S., xxviii, 1089) gives the distinguishing character of
the race dukhwnensis as having the ear-coverts white at all seasons as against
the next race personata which has them black at all seasons. This is usually
an excellent clue to their differentiation in the field.
Motacilla alba personata Gould. The Masked Wagtail.
Not met. with by the Surveys. There is a specimen in the Trivandrum
Museum labelled ¢ 21-1-01 Moonar. Mr. Whistler comments on this as
follows: ‘According to the Old Fauna this wagtail was known to extend as
far south as Belgaum, and I have not traced the original record on which
the New Fauna (iii, 260) states that it occurs as far south as Travancore.
The fact is, however, now proved by this specimen which was labelled by
TFerguson Motacilla alba.’
TFerguson’s statement under dukhunensis (supra) that he collected it on the
High Range is obviously based on this specimen which Mr. Whistler points
out is in reality personata wrongly labelled. That statement must therefore
be referred to the Masked Wagtail.
It does not occur in Ceylon.
Motacilla maderaspatensis Gmelin. The Large Pied Wagtail.
Specimens collected: 173 ¢ 28-1-338 Santhanpara 3,500 ft.; 701 SG imm.
91-7-38, 751 S 30-7-33 Beach, Trivandrum.
Elsewhere noted at: Munnar (5,000 ft.—High Range); Thattakad (200 ft.);
Kottayam (ca. S.L.); Kumili (8,000 ft.); Kollatupiizha (ca. 300 ft.); Velayani
Lake (Trivandrum Environs); Cape Comorin (ca. 8.L.); Aramboli (250 ft.);
Kuriarkatti (1,600 ft.—Annemalai Hills); Wadakkancheri (400 ft.); Kartpa-
danna and Ernakulam (ca. S.L.).
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill, legs, feet and claws horny-black
(slaty in immature No. 701); mouth slaty-pink in adult, pale flesh colour
in immature.
[Other specimens examined:
B.N.H.S. Coll.: SG 21-2-94 Trivandrum; J 16-12-91 Travancore; also e#
small Travancore series in the British Museum.
8
760 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Measurements:
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
5 dd 19-20.5 98.5-99 98-105 26-27.5 mm.
This species has no races. The adult male is always pure black and
white in colouration. The adult female has two phases (1) exactly like the
adult male in colour, though of course slightly smaller in size; (2) differing
from the adult male in having the black of the upper parts including the
lesser and median wing coverts replaced by dark sooty-grey. This plumage
is assumed at the second autumn, i.e. when the bird is about fifteen months
old. The post-nuptial moult is complete and there appears to be no spring
moult, summer and winter plumage being therefore alike.
The male and female in their first year are alike and closely resemble
the second phase of adult female colouration. They can, however, be usually
distinguished from the latter by the presence of the wing-feathers retained
from the juvenile plumage and by the fact that the accidental moult of odd
feathers tends to make the dark sooty-grey of the upper parts blotched with
black in some specimens.
The juvenile plumage follows the same colour pattern as the first-year birds;
the black or dark sooty-grey of the body and coverts is, however, replaced
by ashy grey-brown, and the white parts of the plumage are washed with
creamy fulvous. The quills of the wing and tail are a much browner black
than in the adult.
The post-juvenal moult does not appear to be ever quite complete, but
the extent to which it embraces the wings and tail appears to be variable.—
H. W.]
The Large Pied Wagtail is a fairly common resident species in both
Travancore and Cochin. Ferguson says (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 471) that it does
not ascend the Travancore hills, but the Surveys found it from the neighbour-
hood of the backwaters and coast up to 5,000 ft. elevation. I suggest that
it usually prefers the low country to the hills on account of its predilection
for more or less smooth-running streams in open country rather than hill
torrents, and that it occurs wherever such are to be found irrespective of the
elevation. The birds are usually seen in pairs, never very widely separated,
tripping lightly over stones in the stream bed or on its banks and calling in
sweet, clear whistling notes. It was also observed by irrigation tanks and
pools, and frequently on stakes, moorings and jetties in the backwaters. Large
numbers roosted in company with other wagtails and swallows on the reedy
islets in the backwaters. At Munnar a favourite roost was the tangled growth
overhanging the banks of the Munnar stream near the Club.
In the Palni Hills, Terry (8.F., x, 477) noted this wagtail at the end of
May by the side of a stream at Pumbarrah [elevation?]. It is said to be
an extremely rare straggler to Ceylon.
Breeding: On 29 November a bird was observed carrying nesting material
to the top of a masonry pile of the old railway bridge across the Shoranur
River (Cochin). Another pair were trying to build on a rafter under the
eaves of the Travellers’ Bungalow at Munnar on 16 January. On the Periyar
River at Thattakad (11 February) two juveniles with ashy grey-brown backs
were observed being fed by adult birds. Courtship was in progress generally
at this time and males were singing from rooftops, rocks in river beds, etc.
On 16 February a pair were observed in copula on the ground in the com-
pound of the Travellers’ Bungalow at Kottayam. The preliminaries consisted
of the male puffing out his plumage and with outstretched wings raised verti-
cally back to back, approaching the female, singing excitedly the while. The
female ducked somewhat, at the same time elbowing out her wings laterally,
and shivered as when asking to be fed. The male hopped lightly but rigidly
on to her back from behind, she dipping her posterior somewhat to accommo-
date him and thus coitus was effected. These proceedings took place in the
morning at about 8 o’clock.
Terguson states that in Travancore this wagtail breeds at the end of the
year. The skull of a specimen—No. 701—was reported by Mr. Pillai to be
imperfectly ossified as late as 21 July.
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 761
Motacilla cinerea caspica S. G. Gmelin. The Eastern Grey Wagtail.
Specimens collected:—61 ¢ 11-1-33 Maraiyur 3,000 ft.; 187 Q 23-1-33, 198 9°
31-1-88 Santhanpara 3,500 ft.; 385 ¢ 22-2-833 Peermade 3,200 ft.; 866 o
14-11-83 Kuriarkutti 1,600 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Munnar (5,000 ft—High Range); Thattakad (200 ft.)
Kiamili and Periyar Lake (8,000 ft.); Camp Deramalai (8,000 ft.); Tenmalai
(500 ft.); Nemmara (800 ft.—only a single !); Padagiri (3,000 ft.—Nelliam-
pathy Hills).
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill horny-brown, paler at chin and
on commissure; mouth pale yellowish-pink; legs and feet brownish-flesh colour ;
claws dusky.
[Other specimens seen :
Brit. Mus. Coll.: Q 18-4-75, @ 5-11-78, ¢ 8-11-78, ¢ 4-12-78 Mynall,
‘'ravancore (Bourdillon).
Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail.
3 dd 16-17 83.5-87 91-95 mm.
299 16-17 79-82, 88-88.5 mm.
In this form the male and female in winter plumage are alike, the adults
and first winter birds being separable only with difficulty by the fact that
the latter retain the worn primaries and primary coverts, secondaries, some-
times the tertiaries, and the greater and median coverts of the juvenile
plumage. The adult males average a deeper brighter yellow and the first
winter males average a paler and less generally distributed yellow on the
lower parts, but there is a good deal of variation and individual birds could
hardly be picked out. In fresh plumage there is a variable amount of green
wash on the upper parts, but this gradually wears off. There is apparently a
pre-nuptial moult usually confined to the body plumage but sometimes
extending to the tertiaries and central tail feathers. In breeding plumage first
summer females do not appear to differ from the above general winter plu-
mage, but adult females have the white of the chin and throat more or less
variegated with black. The males on the other hand become a rather purer
slate-grey on the upper parts and ear-coverts, the supercilium becomes purer
white, the chin and throat become black leaving a white malar streak on
each side, and the lower parts become a deeper more uniform yellow. The
feathers of the black throat-patch may be fringed with white which gradually
wears off. First-year males may then only be distinguished with difficulty by
the worn appearance of the juvenile feathers of the wings and tail. The
post-nuptial moult is complete.
The juvenile retains the general colour pattern of the adult winter plumage,
but the greater and median wing coverts are edged with buff, the yellow of
the lower plumage is very pale and the breast is washed with buff. The
post-juvenal moult does not include the primaries and primary coverts, the
secondaries and greater and median coverts, nor usually, I think, the tertiaries
and tail._—H. W.]
The Grey Wagtail according to Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 471) is one
of the earliest winter visitors to arrive in Travancore where it stays well on
into May. The latest date on which I have a sight record is 25 March, and
it was noted that by 27 April when the next suitable locality in the hills
(Balamore Estate) was visited, it had completely disappeared. Kinloch
(J.B.N.H.S., xxvii, 941) writes that in the Nelliampathy Hills it arrives early
in October and leaves in early March. Although exceptionally met with at
lower elevations, Ferguson is correct in saying that it is found only in the ~
hills from about 1,000 ft. upwards. Coming down the Munnar Ghat, single
Grey Wagtails, which were being constantly put up from the road by our
motor bus, disappeared conspicuously below this elevation. Similarly on
the road from Kottayam (ca. §.L.) to Peermade (8,200 ft.) our bus encoun-
tered the first of numerous subsequent Grey Wagtails only at Mundakayam
ca. 1,200 ft. In the hills of both Travancore and Cochin the birds were
common. They were invariably met with singly, running about and feeding
on roads and paths through secondary evergreen as well as bamboo forest,
and especially through tea, coffee and cardamom plantations. Often also by
762 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
forest streams and trickles. On one occasion several Grey Wagtails were
observed hawking insects over a steep fall in the Parambikolam River. They
launched aerial sallies after them from the adjacent rocks and turned and
twisted in the pursuit with great agility.
In specimen No. 61 the left wing was a mere stump with the carpal
region and primaries missing. In spite of this deformity—evidently congenitai
—the bird flew with little apparent difficulty, though when taking off the
movement was somewhat lop-sided or rotatory as in a dove suddenly frightened
off the ground. It is remarkable that even with this obvious handicap the
bird should have successfully accomplished its long migratory journey and
reached almost the southernmost extremity of its Indian range.
This was the only species of migratory wagtail observed in the hills of
Travancore and Cochin.
Terry (S.F., x, 477) records it from the Palni Hills where its status is
presumably the same as in our area. It is a winter visitor to Ceylon from
the middle of September to the end of March.
Motacilla flava thunbergi Billberg. The Grey-headed Wagtail.
Specimens collected: 282 0? 15-2-33 Vembanad Lake, Kottayam Back-
waters; 521 0? 7-4-83, 558 9 10-4-38, 584 dg, 585 ¢ Cape Comorin (ca. 8.L.);
608 ¢ 17-4-88 Aramboli 250 ft.
[ Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
33d 16 82-85.5 75-77 23-24.5 mm.
19 16.5 80 — 22 mm.
Not previously recorded from Travancore though a common winter visitor
to Ceylon.—H. W.]
Motacilla flava simillima Hartert. The Short-tailed Grey-headed Wagtail.
Specimens collected: 609 Q 17-4-33 Aramboli 250 ft.; 1089 g 29-12-33
Kartpadanna ca. 8.1L.
[This race—the Motacilla flava of the Old Fauna—was omitted entirely in
the New Fauna but restored with a brief notice in vol. vii, 660. It is the
breeding form of Kamschatka and is well known to winter in Burma (ef.
J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi, 931) but this appears to be the first record of the race in
South India, providing another interesting illustration of the fact that Travan-
core winter visitors are apt to arrive from the eastern side of Asia. The
very dark ear-coverts and the pale superciliary stripe are diagnostic, and my
identification has been confirmed by Dr. C. B. Ticehurst.
Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
fot 16 83 69 24 mm.
Q 15.5 78 65.5 22.5 mm.—H. W.]
Elsewhere not noted.
Colours of bare parts (both races): Iris brown; bill horny-brown, paler
(yellowish) on commissure and at base of lower mandible; mouth pale yellowish-
pink; legs, feet and claws blackish-brown; soles yellow.
The Surveys found these two races of the Grey-headed Wagtail—not previ-
ously recorded from Travancore or Cochin—common and abundant in the low
country, especially on the grassy banks and bunds and water-logged ploughed
or fallow fields along the backwaters and by irrigation tanks. Both -races
occurred together gregariously, and no other migratory wagtails were noted
with them. They were not met with in the hills at all. A specimen on
10 April and the two procured on the 17th of that month were very fat.
They were undergoing pre-nuptial body moult, the rectrices and remiges being
fresh. [locks of 30 to 50 birds were common at this time, and it was evident
that they were massing for the northward migration.
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 763
Dendronanthus indicus (Gmelin). The Forest Wagtail.
Specimens collected: 222 Q 4-2-338 Thattakad 200 ft.; 874 99, 875 do
28-2-33 Kumili 3,000 ft.; 879 ¢ 17-11-33 Kuriarkitti 1,600 ft.; 973 ¢§ 18-12-33
Padagiri 3,000 ft.
Hilsewhere noted at: Camp Deramalai (8,000 ft.); Rajampara (1,350 ft.);
Tenmalai (500 ft.); Aramboli (250 ft.). |
Colours of bare parts: Iris hazel-brown to dark brown; bill upper mandible
horny-brown, lower mandible pale flesh colour; mouth pale yellowish flesh
colour; legs and feet brownish-flesh colour; claws duskier.
[Other specimens seen:
Brit. Mus. Coll.: Q 28-11-74, g 12-11-78 Mynall (Bourdillon).
Measurements :
Bull. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
Siaretie? 17-18.5 81-82.5 66.5-68 91-21.5 mm.
2909 aly, 75-80 68 21 mm.—H. W.]
The Forest Wagtail is a well distributed but not abundant winter visitor
to the States. Bourdillon says that it arrives in Travancore soon after the
Grey Wagtail and stays nearly as long as that species. The last date of
which I have a record is 21 April. It affects well-wooded country and in both
Travancore and Cochin the Surveys came across it from about 200 ft. up to
an elevation of at least 3,500 ft. A few birds were also observed at Aramboli
where they kept under a dense grove of Acacia planifrons surrounded by open
cultivated country in the ‘Gap’ or pass through the southern extremity of
the Ashambu Hills. These wagtails were usually met with singly or in widely
separated pairs on footpaths and small clearings in forest, both evergreen
and deciduous. Well-shaded plantations of coffee and cardamoms are favourite
haunts where, as Kinloch remarks, they feed on the insects which infest the
thick mulch of dead and decaying leaves. The notes commonly uttered are
a pink, pink, very reminiscent of the Chaffinch as is also their flight. When
alarmed, the birds usually fly up into the overhanging branches of trees where
they pivot about silently, turning one way then another, and descend again
to feed as soon as their suspicion is allayed.
This species has not been recorded from the Palni Hills. In Ceylon it is
a common winter visitor from October to March.
[Anthus trivialis trivialis Linnaeus. The Tree Pipit.
Not met with by the Surveys nor apparently by any previous collectors
in this area. The statement in the Fauna (iii, 279) that it extends south to
Travancore in winter needs confirmation. The southernmost authentic record
so far is from the Nilgiri Hills (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvii, 96).]
Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni Richmond. The Indian Tree Pipit.
Specimen collected: 991 ¢ 18-12-33 Padagiri (8,000 ft.—Nelliampathy Hills).
Elsewhere not noted.
Colours of bare parts: Iris hazel brown; bill upper mandible dark horny-
brown, lower pale flesh colour; gape yellow; mouth yellow and pink; legs
and feet yellowish-brown; claws horny-brown.
[Additional specimens seen:
Brit. Mus. Coll.: 0? -3-88 Kodaikanal (Hume Coll.); 0? no date Peer-
made (Fry). ;
Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail.
teres 16 89 62.5 mm.—H. W.]
The Survey does not appear to have come across the Indian Tree Pipit
in Travancore. Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 471) however, collected: specimens
on the High Range (in April) and at Chimunji in South Travancore in open
grassland surrounded by forest at an elevation of about 4,000 ft. He only
saw the bird at high elevations on the hills and never in the low country.
My experience in Cochin agrees with this. The species was fairly common
about Padagiri in the Nelliampathy Hills (8,000 ft.). Single birds, small
764 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
parties of 4 or 5, or flocks of up to 15 individuals were usually observed
feeding among the fallen leaves in the tea, coffee and cardamom plantations.
When disturbed they flew up into the tall Grevillea and other shade-trees
uttering a single sharp tseep from time to time.
Terry (S.F., x, 477) saw it frequently in March at Kodaikanal and it pre-
sumbaly has the same status in the Palni Hills as in Travancore and Cochin.
It has not occurred in Ceylon.
Anthus nilghiriensis Sharpe. The Nilgiri Pipit.
Not procured by the Surveys. There are 3 specimens dated 25-29 January
1901 from Devicolum (High Range) in the Trivandrum Museum. Mr. Whistler
measures these as follows:
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
266 16.5-17 77.5-78.5 60-66.5 24-25 mm.
ne) 16 82 67.5 25 mm.
Mr. Whistler has also examined the following series from the Palni Hills
in the British Museum Collection: 9 9-6-77 Kodaikanal 7,000 ft.; ¢ 9 380-5-77
Top of Palnis; ¢ 30-3-77 Top of Palnis; Mt. Nabu 7,000 ft.; ¢ 9-6-77 Top
of Palnis, 7,000 ft. All these specimens were collected by Fairbank.
Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xii, 203) had a specimen from Ponmudi in South
Travancore. He describes this pipit as a fairly common resident on the open
grass lands on the High Range ([bid., xv, 471). There is nothing recorded
about it from Cochin, but its status in the hills there is doubtless the same
as in the Travancore ranges and the Palnis. Terry (S.F., x, 477) found it
very common on the tops of all the latter and breeding everywhere. He
obtained a nest with c/3 at Pittur on 5 May. The breeding season according
to this observer, Davison and Betham is April and May (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvil,
O0s
It is not found in Ceylon.
Anthus similis similis Jerdon. The Rufous Rock Pipit.
Specimens collected: 648 ¢ 23-4-33 Balamore Estate at 3,500 ft. (Ashambu
Hills).
Elsewhere not noted.
Colours of bare parts: Iris hazel brown; bill upper mandible dark horny
brown, lower pale flesh; gape yellow; mouth pinkish yellow; legs and feet
yellowish-brown; claws horny-brown.
[ Measurements :
Bill, Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
ac: 20.5 93.5 78 26.5 mm.
No other Travancore specimens seen.—H. W.]
As Ferguson remarks (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 472) the Rufous Rock Pipit is a
resident but rare bird in Travancore. He had a single specimen shot at
Ponmudi (8,500 ft.) in August 1900. The Survey also came across a single
pair on a grassy hilltop with outcrops of rock.
According to Hume (S.F., i, 203) it occurs in the Palni and Annemalai
Hills. It is not found in Ceylon.
Breeding: 'The testes of the specimen (23 April) measured 7x5 mm. and
the birds were evidently breeding. The doubt cast in the Fauna (iii, 285)
on Bourdillon’s record of its breeding in the higher hills of Travancore there-
fore is scarcely justified. This doubt, however, seems only in respect of the
eggs sent by Bourdillon to Stuart Baker thence, and not to the fact of
breeding (Nidification, iii, 142).
Anthus richardi Vieillot. Richard’s Pipit.
Specimens collected : D193: O'; ‘(bd VSs Olas 624238 Velayani Lake, Tri-
vandrum Environs; 576 0? 12-4-83 Cape Comorin ca. $.L., 917 2 28-11-33
Wadakkancheri 400 ft.; 1040 ¢ 30-12-33 Karapadanna ca. 8.L.
Elsewhere not noted.
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill horny-brown, paler on lower
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 765
mandible except tip; mouth pink; legs, feet and claws brownish flesh colour;
soles bright chrome yellow.
[ Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
4dgd 17-19 99-100 75-78 29.5-381 mm.
229 17-18.5 93 72 31 mm.
The only other Travancore specimens seen are two in the Trivandrum
Museum. These two specimens marked striolatus (¢ 4-3-02 and d 2-83-02
Trivandrum) and of Ferguson’s collecting, prove to be really specimens of
A. richardi which is not included in Ferguson’s list and which the Survey has
proved to be a common winter visitor to Travancore. It appears therefore
that Ferguson’s note on A. striolatus should really refer to A. richard.
The late departure of this species from Ceylon and ‘Travancore is no doubt
correlated with the heavy moult in April.—H. W.]
Richard’s Pipit is a winter visitor to the low country of Travancore and
Cochin. It frequents swampy terrain with rank grass—typical snipe marshes
—by the backwaters and irrigation tanks. Also dry, cut paddy fields in the
neighbourhood of water, frequently in association with other pipits, Black-
bellied Finch Larks and Skylarks. It was usually met with singly or in
pairs. By the middle of April the majority of birds appeared to have left.
It has not been recorded in the Palni Hills. In Ceylon it is a winter
visitor from October to May.
Anthus rufulus malayensis Eyton. The Malay Pipit.
Specimens collected: 11 ¢ 5-1-33, 43 ¢ 9-1-33, 56 @ 10-1-83 (at 6,000 ft.),
62 ¢ 11-1-83 Maraiyur 3,500 ft.; 157 Q 25-1-33, 193 ¢ 30-1-33 Santhanpara
(4,000-4,500 ft.); 218 ¢ 4-2-33 Thattakad 200 ft.; 326 3 21-2-33 (4,000 ft.),
339 2 23-2-33 (4,000 ft.), 852 9 24-2-83 Peermade 3,200 ft.; 869 G 27-2-33,
398 ¢ 3-3-33 Kumili 3,000 ft.; 4837 ¢ 11-38-33 Camp Deramalai 4,000 ft.; 516 ¢
juv. 5-4-383 Trivandrum (Velayani Lake); 548 G 9-4-3838, 577 @ 12-4-383 Cape
Comorin ca. 8.L.; 656 ¢, 657 Q 25-4-83 Miuthikizhi 3,500 ft.; 770 9,
773 3 2-8-3838, 800 9, 802 0? 7-8-3383, 851 dG, 852 19, 853 g, 854 SG 14-8-33
(Golf Links) Trivandrum; 893 © 24-11-33 Wadakkancheri 400 ft.; 985 <,
986 0? 16-12-33 Padagiri 4,000 ft.; 1004 ¢ 25-12-83 Karipadanna ca. S.L.
Elsewhere noted at: Trichir.
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill upper mandible and tip of lower
horny brown, rest of lower mandible pale flesh colour; gape yellow; mouth
orange yellow, bright yellow or yellow and pink varying with age; legs and
feet brownish-yellow; claws dusky.
[This fine Travancore-Cochin series yields the following measurements:
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
18 3d 15.5-17.5 (75.5) 79-87.5 55-62 24-26.5 mm.
9 99 15-17 75-84 54-60.5 23.5-26.5 mm.
In the Hyderabad Survey (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi, 911) and the Eastern Ghats
Survey (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvii, 101) I suggested both that a new race of this
pipit required naming and that it was difficult to decide the identity of birds
from South-West India. I have now been able to assemble about 140 speci-
mens of this pipit from different parts of India supplementary to the good
series in the British Museum, and there is now no great difficulty in under-
standing the position. In North-West India this pipit has the upper parts a
pale rather sandy coloured brown, very similar to that of the Tawny Pipit;
the lower parts are also pale being generally speaking whitish with a faint
buff wash over the breast and flanks. In Ceylon it is a much more richly
coloured bird. The upper parts are a rich fulvous brown, very similar to that
of Richard’s Pipit; the lower parts are also richly coloured being generally
speaking warm buff, with the throat and centre of the abdomen whitish.
There is complete intergrading between these two extremes and it is virtually
impossible to draw any exact dividing line between stages in the intergrading
as the effect of wear and individual variation are apt to obscure the differences.
The type-locality is unfortunately Bengal, an intermediate locality from which
few specimens are available.
766 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Ticehurst considers (J.B.N.H.S., xxxii, 352) that birds from Ceylon should
be separated as malayensis and I quite agree that birds from Ceylon and the
Malay Peninsula are exactly alike? With them I am inclined to include our
Travancore series. The majority of these, which are in more or less worn
plumage, cannot be separated from similar worn birds in the Peninsula generally.
The three freshly moulted specimens, however, agree with Ceylon birds in
the greater amount and depth of buff on the lower plumage and this I cannot
match with other Peninsula birds.
With common, widely distributed forms whose races intergrade, the defi-
nition of the distribution of the recognisable races has at times to be somewhat
arbitrary. The very pale north-western race as described above I would recog-
nise from the North-West Frontier Province, the Punjab and United Provinces,
extending southwards over Sind and Rajputana to the Nerbudda River. For
this I propose the name (in grateful acknowledgment of all the assistance I
have had from a fellow ornithologist in the Punjab)
ANTHUS RUFULUS WAITEI subspecies nov.
Type: 3d 16 February 1926, Jhelum, Punjab, H. W. Waite Collection, No. 2.
The typical race is taken as distributed over the remainder of India except
for Cochin and Travancore States.
In Travancore the complete post-nuptial moult takes place mostly in August.
There appears to be no spring moult, and as far as I can make out the post-
juvenal moult appears to be complete.
It is interesting to note that the two birds from Cape Comorin are much
paler than the others and may well belong to the typical race. The possibility
that both rufulus and malayensis occur in Ceylon in different climatic zones
should be borne in mind in view of Legge’s remarks.—H. W.]
The Malay Pipit is an abundant resident species in both Travancore and
Cochin. The Surveys found it common in the low country as well as in the
hills up to at least 6,000 ft. elevation. In the former it affects ploughed and
stubble fields, sparse grass-covered and stony fallow land and also the neigh-
bourhood of the backwaters and irrigation tanks. In the hills it is found
freely on the grassy slopes and summits particularly where stony, and where
outcrops of sheet rock occur. Single birds, pairs or widely scattered parties
of 4 or 5 were met with. Males were constantly rocketing up and soaring
with a feeble ‘cheeping’. song, and shooting back to earth.
Specimen No. 437 was club-footed, a deformity which appeared to be either
congenital or to have been contracted early in life as it in no way interfered
with the normal functions of the bird. The enlarged gonads showed that it
was even ready to breed.
Terry (S.F., x, 478) found this Pipit common in the Palni Hills, and
Fairbank (S.F., v, 407) obtained specimens both at the base of the hills and
4,000 ft. up. The race malayensis is common in Ceylon.
Breeding: The majority of the specimens collected between November and
April had enlarged gonads, and from various other signs such as birds carrying
building material or food for young, it was evident that they were breeding
generally throughout this protracted period. Our earliest specimen with organs
in breeding condition was on 24 November; latest 25 April. The gonads of
all the adult August specimens had reverted to normal non-breeding condition
and the birds were in heavy post-nuptial moult. :
Terry took a nest with c/3 at Pittur in the Palnis at the beginning of May.
Anthus campestris thermophilus Jerdon. Blyth’s Pipit.
Specimen collected: 642 @ 21-4-383 Aramboli 250 ft.
Elsewhere not discriminated ?
Colours of bare parts: Mouth pinkish flesh colour, otherwise as in A. 7.
malayensis.
{The specimen measures:
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
16 90.5 damaged 26.5 mm.
For a note on this form, see J.B.N.H.S., xxxvii, p. 100.—H. W.]
|
4
j
NNR er NR
———
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 767
This Pipit was observed in small numbers, usually singly or in widely
separated pairs, in fallow fields etc. in the Aramboli ‘Gap’.
Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 472) writes under ‘Anthus striolatus’ (a synonym
of this bird) as follows: ‘Blyth’s Pipit is a winter visitor (to Travancore) and
may be found in fairly large numbers in the dry paddy fields in February
and March after the crops have been cut.’ Mr. Whistler’s remarks under
Anthus richardi have shown that the above note refers in reality to that species.
Blyth’s Pipit is a straggler to Ceylon.
Famity: ALAUDIDZA.
Alauda gulgula australis Brooks. The Small Nilgiri Skylark.
Specimens collected: 158 3 25-1:33 Santhanpara 4,000 ft.; 295 Q, 296 o,
297 Q 17-2-83 Kottayam ca. $.L.; 325 J 21-2-33, 340 ¢ 23-2-33 Peermade
4,000 ft.; 440 9, 441 ¢ Camp Deramalai 4,000 ft.; 914 ¢ 27-11-33; 915 ¢,
916 Q 28-11-83 Wadakkancheri 400 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Velayani Lake, Trivandrum Environs.
Colours of bare parts: Iris hazel brown; bill upper mandible horny
brown, lower pinkish flesh-colour; mouth pink or yellowish-pink; legs, feet
and claws brownish flesh-colour.
[In the Eastern Ghats Survey (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvii, 102) I referred the
fine series of skylarks from the Godavery Delta to Alauda gulgula australis
with considerable hesitation, and hoped to return to the question in the Travan-
core Survey. My reason for this hesitation was the smaller size of the Godavery
birds compared with those from the Nilgiris and a feeling that this group
required further study. I have now been into this group again—aided by this
fresh series—and consider that three races are required in place of the two
already recognised in continental India.
These two races are attributed in the New Fauna (iii, 319) to North and
South India respectively. The typical race is said to occur in ‘Tropical North
India [whatever that means], Assam and Burma. In India south to Khandesh
and roughly to a line from Hyderabad to Masulipatam.’ A. g. australis ig
said to occur in India south of the typical race and in Ceylon.
The main objections to this grouping are two. Under the typical race are
included the very pale birds of North-Western India and the darker birds of
Bengal and other areas, while under A. g. australis are included the large
birds of the south-western hill ranges and the smaller birds of the central and
eastern plains. These anomalies are avoided by the recognition of three races.
The pale north-western race extends throughout the Punjab and the United
Provinces as far east as Mogulserai and Dinapore. It is therefore necessary
to restrict Franklin’s rather composite type-locality in which, during the
course of his journey, he might have met with both the pale and dark forms.
I therefore now restrict the type-locality of Alauda gulgula gulgula to the
Ganges between Calcutta and Benares, so that that name may continue to
be used for the darker of the two birds, with which it is commonly associated.
This leaves the North-Western birds without a name and for them I propose
ALAUDA GULGULA PUNJAUBI subsp. nov.
This race differs from A. g. gulgula in its markedly paler colouration both
on the upper parts and the lower parts, in fresh plumage and in worn. The
pale fringes are colder in tint and the dark streaking is narrower and less
intense. The buff of the lower parts does not extend from the breast to the
vent but largely disappears on the abdomen. It is a slightly larger bird:
Wing: 10 do 92.5-97 mm.; 599 86.5-94 mm.
Type: H. Whistler Collection, No. 598, g 28 April 1912, River Sutlej,
Ferozepore. Deposited in the British Museum.
A. g. gulgula extends in my opinion all down Kastern, Central and Southern
India—wherever this lark occurs for it is somewhat local—to and including
Ceylon where it breeds in the drier areas. To this belongs the Godavery Delta
series tentatively attributed to A. g. australis in the Eastern Ghats Survey.
768 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Alauda gulgula australis differs from the typical race in its larger size,
and from A. g. punjaubi in its darker colouration. It measures:
Bill. Wing.
11 So Nilgiris 16.5-17 93.5-102 mm.
10 9@Q on 16-17 89.5-93 mm.
as compared with A. g. gulgula which measures:
Bill. Wing.
3 3d Bengal 16-16.5 89.5-90.5 mm.
49° » 14-15.5 85.5-88 mm.
24 $ og Godavery Delta 14-16 (once 18) 87-93 mm.
3 2 Q ts 13-14.5 84.5-85.5 mm.
The Survey series from the Travancore hill ranges agrees with Nilgiri
birds both in colour and in measurements, though odd birds are a little darker
than Nilgiri specimens. They measure:
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
63d 15-16 90-96 51.5-55 23.5-25 mm.
499 15-16.5 83.5-88 49-54 22-24 mm.—H. W.]
The Nilgiri Skylark is a common resident species in Travancore and Cochin.
The Surveys found it in the low country by the backwaters, as well as up
to 4,000 ft. in the hills, and it probably occurs higher. In the low country
it affects cut paddy fields and was also noted in numbers on bunds and
footpaths through the standing crops ready to be harvested in a fortnight or
so. In the hills, the open rounded grassy summits and upper slopes as at
Peermade constituted favourite haunts. As courtship was in progress every-
where, males were conspicuous soaring, fluttering in the air with legs dangling,
and singing for well over 5 minutes at a stretch.
In the Palni Hills, Terry (S.F., x, 478) found this Skylark common on
the top of bare rocky hills. The same race australis occurs in Ceylon.
Breeding: All the specimens collected between 27 November and 5 April
had their gonads in breeding condition. In 5 of the males the testes measured
7x5 mm. and in the sixth 6x4 mm. The ovarian follicles of all the females
except one were enlarged from 1 to 3 mm. in diameter. Bourdillon in a
note to Stuart Baker (Nidification, 111, 163) mentioned that they lay 4 to 5
eggs and later altered it to 3 to 4. According to the Fauna (iii, 321) the
principal breeding season in South India is March to May, but many birds
are said to breed again from August to November. I am unable to say
anything about the second breeding period, but the birds in Travancore and
Cochin certainly seem to breed uninterruptedly from November to May, and
they may well be found to continue throughout the year without the break.
In the Palni Hills Terry got a nest at Pulungi and another at Pittur in
April.
Calandrella brachydactyla dukhunensis (Sykes). The Rufous Short-toed Lark.
Speicmen collected: 1003 ¢ 25-12-33 Kartpadanna ca. 50 ft.
Elsewhere not noted.
Colours of bare parts: Iris hazel brown; bill pale horny-brown, darker
on culmen and tips; legs and feet brownish flesh colour; claws darker brown.
[ Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
13 ~ 103.5 58.5 21 mm.
This is a considerable extension of the known range as this Lark has not
hitherto been recorded south of North Kanara (J.B.N.H.S., xi, 674).
This race appears to undergo a complete post-nuptial moult in its breeding
quarters before coming down to winter in India, and then about January to
March there is, in the winter quarters, a pre-nuptial moult confined to the
body plumage.—H. W.]
The only locality in which the Short-toed Lark was met with by the
Travancore or Cochin Surveys was Karupadanna near the backwaters in the
“ig
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 769
latter State. Here a flock of about fifty birds was observed on three conse-
cutive evenings coming to roost at dusk among the scraggy grass on the open
laterite plateau adjacent to the Travellers’ Bungalow. The stomach and crop
of the specimen were full of paddy grains gleaned from the neighbouring fields.
It has not been recorded from Ceylon.
Mirafra affinis ceylonensis subsp. nov. The Ceylon Bush Lark.
Specimens collected: 239 ¢$, 240 J 8-2-33 Thattakad 200 ft.; 606 Q 17-4-33,
641 G 21-4-33 Aradmboli 250 ft.; 5385 3, 586 ¢ 8-4-33, 553 ¢ 10-4-33 Cape
Comorin ca. 8.L.; 735 ¢ 26-7-33 (Kuttani 300 ft.); 756 ¢ 31-7-33 (Akkulam
150 ft.); 771 3, 772 QB 2-8-88, 801 9 7-8-3383 (Golf Links); 823 ¢ 10-8-33
(Kuttani 300 ft.); 855 g 14-8-83 (Golf Links) Trivandrum Environs; 911 d
27-11-83; 942 0? 5-12-83 Nemmara 300 ft.; 1014 ¢ 26-12-33 Karupadanna ca.
8.L.
Elsewhere not noted.
Colours of bare parts: Iris hazel brown or brownish-straw; bill horny-
brown, paler (flesh-coloured) at gape and base of lower. mandible; mouth pink;
legs, feet and claws brownish flesh-colour.
[Additional specimen seen:
Brit. Mus. Coll.: 3 7-6-97 Periakulam, eastern base of Palnis (Fairbank).
When wrifing the Eastern Ghats Survey Report I was not able to see
a satisfactory series of these larks from Travancore and Ceylon, but that
deficiency has now been remedied by the admirable series collected in Travan-
core by Mr. Salim Ali and by the loan of a series from the Colombo Museum.
These confirm my original opinion that Travancore and Ceylon birds are
slightly darker and have larger bills than birds from the eastern side of India.
Colour is not a very good character as this species bleaches so markedly and
apparently so quickly that there is much variation in any series, but the
difference in size in the beak cannot be overlooked, especially as a large beak
is the racial characteristic of several Cinghalese forms.
This character is shown by the following measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail.
11 ¢o¢ Ceylon 16-18.5 79.5-90 43-50.5 mm.
3 9Q Ceylon 16.5-17.5 81-82.5 — mm.
15 ¢S Travancore 16-18 79.5-89 42-52.5 mm.
2 99 Travancore 15-16.5 78 39-41 mm.
26 ¢S EH. Ghat Survey 14.5-17.5 77-88 43-50 mm.
138 99 E. Ghat Survey 13-17 75-82 38.5-45 mm.
The significance of these figures—and the comparative size of beaks is
admittedly difficult to appreciate from measurements—is more evident when
I state that out of the 31 Ceylon and Travancore specimens all but 8 measure
17 mm. and upwards, whereas in the 89 Eastern Ghat specimens all but
2 measure under 17 mm. I am of opinion that this difference must be
recognised and accordingly propose for Ceylon and Travancore birds the name
MIRAFRA AFFINIS CEYLONENSIS subsp. nov.
Type: o dated 7-11-1877, Colombo, Ceylon. Collected by Messrs. Hart
Bros. (British Museum Collection).
It seems probable that this form will be found to occur as far north as
North Kanara. I have seen no further evidence as yet to settle the question of
the specific identity or otherwise of Mirafra affinis and M. erythroptera.
The post-juvenal moult is complete. There is no pre-nuptial moult. The
post-nuptial moult begins with the body plumage and tertiaries, then spreads
to the wing quills and finally to the tail, the tail beginning sometimes after
the body and wing moult is nearly finished. This order is also, apparently,
observed in the post-juvenal moult.—H. W.]
The Ceylon Bush-Lark is a common and resident species in the low country
of both Travancore and Cochin. The Surveys never met with it above 500 ft.
elevation. It inhabits open cultivation, sparse scrub-and-bush country, fallow
land and grassy hummocks with outcrops of sheet rock. The males have a
habit of springing up into the air every now and then for about 20 ft. or so,
7710 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
uttering a feeble, mousy song swir, swir swir, etc., of the volume and quality
of a Purple Sunbird’s notes, and parachuting down in spirals—wings out-
stretched and motionless, legs dangling—to perch on a bush-top or clod.
In the hand the bills of the specimens at once struck me as enormous as
compared with those obtained in the Hyderabad State.
It has been obtained on the eastern (dry) base of the Palni Hills in
June (S.Ff., v, 408—specimen in British Museum) and is found in Ceylon,
presumably in similar facies.
Breeding: No satisfactory data as regards breeding was obtained by the
Surveys though several of the specimens collected between 27 November and
10 April as well as in the first half of August showed a slight departure in
their gonads (8x2 to 5x2 mm. in males) from the normal non-breeding con-
dition. The earlier specimens, however, from their comparatively fresh plumage
suggested that their gonads were developing, while all the August specimens
were undergoing more or less heavy post-nuptial moult indicative of having
finished breeding. This would point to the breeding season being April, May,
June and possibly July, but it is not inconceivable that, as is said to be the
case in Ceylon, this Bush-Lark may breed throughout the year, relays of birds
presumably becoming sexually mature at different times.
Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 472) found a nest containing a single egg in
the Public Gardens, Trivandrum, on 26 April 1902. According to Nidification
(iii, 174) Bourdillon and Stewart took eggs in Travancore in March, April
and May.
Galerida malabarica Scopoli. The Malabar Crested Lark.
Not procured by the Surveys. Possibly confused with Alauda? Mr. Whistler
has examined four specimens in the Trivandrum Museum labelled as follows:
3d 19-6-02, § 20-6-02 Quilon; ¢ 7 June (?) Muttam (?). He does not
record measurements from doubt of the sexing. There are also three Anjango
specimens in the British Museum Collection.
Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 472) only observed and collected this Lark on
the High Range at 6,000 ft. elevation, where according to him it was fairly
abundant and going about usually in small flocks.
It has not been recorded in the Palni Hills and it does not occur in Ceylon.
Eremopterix grisea grisea (Scopoli). The Ashy-crowned or Black-bellied Finch-
Lark.
Specimens collected: 522 ¢ 7-4-33; 552 nestling (in alcohol) 9-4-83 Cape
Comorin ca. §.L.; 679 ¢ 16-7-33, 733 9 27-7-33 Beach, Trivandrum; 912 ¢
27-11-8338 Wadakkancheri 400 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Maraiyar (8,000 ft.); Aramboli (250 ft.); Nemmara
(800 ft.); Kartpadanna (ca. 8.L.).
Colours of bare parts: Adult: Iris brown; bill greyish-white, dusky on
culmen; mouth pink; legs, feet and claws brownish flesh-colour. Nestling
(No. 552): Gape and mouth bright orange; a black point each at tip of upper
and lower mandible; a black point at tip of tongue and one each on either
side of base of tongue.
[No. 679 has the bill 14 mm. which is without parallel in the very large
number of Indian and Cinghalese birds which I have measured. It must be
abnormal. Excluding this, the series measures:
Bull. Wing. Tail.
33d 12-12.5 76.5-79 39.5-45 mm.
1 Q 13 76 moult.—H. W.]
The Ashy-crowned Finch-Lark is common and resident in the drier portions
of the low country in Travancore and Cochin. To some extent it may be
locally migratory. Ferguson says (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 473) that at Cape Comorin
it is fairly common throughout the year. ‘In the dry weather it frequents
the paddy fields about Trivandrum, but disappears when the rains come on.’
Mr. Pillai, however, obtained specimens on the Trivandrum Beach in July.
It affects dry stubble fields, fallow land and laterite country in the neigh-
bourhood of cultivation, and is also partial to the sparse grass-covered sandy
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 771
stretches by the sea in South Travancore. A single pair was observed in
dry, terraced paddy fields in the valley at Maraiyur (8,000 ft.) a locality
rather remarkable for its combination of hills and plains features both wet and
dry.
_ Flocks collected every evening to roost on the ground on the scraggy grass-
covered laterite plateau adjoining the Travellers’ Bungalow at Karupadanna.
With the aid of an electric torch it was revealed that the birds do not sleep
huddled together, but squat individually a foot or two apart.
This Finch-Lark is presumably common about the eastern (dry) base of
the Palni Hills, and Fairbank (S.F., v, 408) obtained a specimen at Peria-
kulam. In Ceylon it is replaced by the large-billed race HE. g. ceylonensis
Whistler.
Breeding: Specimen No. 912 (27 November) had testes enlarged to 7x5 mm.
and it was obviously breeding. This also appeared to be the case with No. 522
(7 April—testes 6X4 mm.) which was in fresh plumage and had an incubation
patch. No. 552 (9 April)—a downy chick—was taken from a nest containing
a second nestling in the same stage. The nest was a shallow depression
sparsely lined with grasses, under shelter of a clod on fallow land. During
the whole of the Survey period—November to May—males were observed in
their courtship aérobatics and chasing off rivals or intruders. Nesting opera-
‘tions, however, probably extend over most months of the year in this area.
FAMILY: ZOSTEROPIDA.
Zosterops palpebrosa nilgiriensis Ticehurst. The Nilgiri White-eye.
Specimens collected: 91 @Q 14-1-83 Maraiytr 3,500 ft.; 1380 J, 1381 9
23-1-83 Santhanpara 3,500 ft.; 980 Q 14-12-33 Padagiri 3,000 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Munnar (5,000 ft.); Peermade (3,200 ft.); Camp Dera-
malai (8,000 ft.—Panthalam Hills); Balamore Estate (2,000-4,000 ft. Ashambu
Hills).
Colours of bare parts: Iris buffy hazel brown; bill horny-brown, grey at
gape and chin; legs and feet slaty-grey; claws brown.
[ Measurements :
Bull: Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
ire 13.5 56.5 39 16.5 mm.
3.99 14-15 53-56 38-41 16-16.5 mm.
These four specimens confirm the fact that nilgiriensis is a good race. In
colour they are much darker more saturated above, while the flanks and
sides of the breast are washed more heavily with grey than in either the
typical race or Z. p. occidentis.
It is interesting to note that the two specimens shot on 238-1-33 are in
moult, both finishing their body moult and beginning the tail moult. This
is presumably the post-nuptial moult as in a large series of Z. p. occidentis
IT find that there is no pre-nuptial moult and the post-nuptial moult takes
place from July to November.—H. W.
Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 263) correctly describes the White-eye as con-
fined to the hills in Travancore, and his description applies to its status
in Cochin as well. The Surveys nowhere came across this species below
1,500 ft. and the highest elevation at which it was met was 7,500 ft.
It is a resident, and not, uncommon is suitable facies. It frequents ever-
green sholas, moving about restlessly in flocks which systematically search
the foliage for insects, both in bushes as well as up in the tree-tops. They are
also commonly observed springing open and probing with their bills into
Loranthus flowers for the nectar, and the birds must play an important part
in cross-pollinating them as I have found by a microscopic examination of
the pollen adhering to their chin’ and forehead. FErythrina shade trees in
tea, coffee and cardamom plantations when in bloom are also regularly
visited for the nectar and derive similar benefit. The flocks often form part
of the localised bird associations in forest. I have noted in the field that
some of the jingling notes which the birds constantly keep up are curiously
reminiscent of the laugh of the woodpecker Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus—of
course in miniature.
772 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
From what Terry writes (S.F., x, 478) the White-eye is apparently common
on the Palni Hills. It is represented in Ceylon by the race Z%. p. egregia
and also by a very closely allied species 4. ceylonensis which is confined to
the hills over about 3,000 ft.
Breeding: The male shot on 23 January (No. 180) had testes enlarged
to 5x4 mm. It was in moult, however, which Mr. Whistler presumes was
post-nuptial (cf. supra) meaning therefore that the bird had lately finished
breeding (?). The gonads of the other three specimens were undeveloped and
no other direct evidence in this regard was obtained by the Surveys. Accord-
ing to Ferguson, the breeding season in Travancore is April and May. That
the birds also breed later on in the year—in December or January—is sug-
gested by the above specimen.
Terry found a nest with young at Kukal in the Palni Hills in May.
FamiIty: NECTARINIDA.
[| thopyga siparaja vigorsi (Sykes). Vigor’s Yellow-backed Sunbird.
Nidification (ii, 205) after giving the distribution of this Sunbird as
extending from Bombay and Poona to the south of Travancore, states: ‘As
Stewart found three young in a nest on 8 June, it would appear that the
breeding season (in ('ravancore) starts in the middle of May and continues
up to the end of September.’
Neither the Surveys nor any of the other observers in Travancore, Cochin,
Palni Hills or in the immediately neighbouring areas record meeting this
species, and therefore the temptation is irresistible to accept the verdict of
the Eastern Ghats Report (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvu, 282) that the distribution in
the Fauna (ii, 382) as well as Nidification is imaccurate. One would very
much like to have further particulars of the nest alleged to have been found
by Stewart and also to learn whether the nestlings or their parents have been
preserved and confirm his identification. |
Cinnyris lotenia (Linnaeus). Loten’s Sunbird.
Specimens collected: 70 G 12-1-33 Maraiyur 3,500 ft.; 694 Q 20-7-33
(Thirtmalai 120 ft.); 717 ¢ 24-7-33 (Maruthankuzhi 50 ft.); 816 ¢ 9-8-33
(Nettayam 200 ft.); 835 @ 11-8-33 (Pulayanarkotta 200 ft.) Trivandrum En-
virons.
Elsewhere noted at: Thattakad. Other sight records not given owing to
possible confusion with C. asiatica.
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown or reddish-brown; bill, legs, feet and
claws horny-black; mouth pinkish-brown.
[ Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
4 oo 27-28.5 56.5-58.5 36-39 15-15.5 mm.
1 @ 28.5 55.5 34.5 14.5 mm.
Additional specimen examined:
Brit. Mus. Coll.: ad. 5-6-77 eastern base of Palnis (Fairbank).
This Sunbird has no eclipse plumage. The juvenile male is exactly like
the adult female and can only be distinguished by the shorter bill (25 mm.)
and softer feathers. There is a complete post-juvenal moult to adult dress
(vide Ticehurst, Ibis. 1935, p. 195).—H. W.]
Loten’s Sunbird is a fairly common resident species in the low country of
Travancore and presumably also in Cochin whence, however, the Survey
unfortunately procured no specimens or undoubted sight records. According to
Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 478) it ascends. the hills to 2,000 ft.
Sunbirds in Travancore and Cochin were invariably noted as the most
regular visitors to Loranthus clumps in flower, moving about restlessly among
the clusters of buds, squeezing their tips to spring them open, probing into
the flower tubes for nectar with their perfectly adapted bills and assisting
in their cross-fertilisation by transferring the pollen adhering to their forehead,
throat or bill on to the mature stigmas of other blossoms. Numerous other
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 773
species of flowers are also visited, Lantana, Erythrina and Bombax being
amongst the commonest.
We have no definite information concerning the status of this species in
the Palni Hills, but it would appear that it does not ascend them to any
height. Fairbank (S.F., v, 399) obtained a male at their eastern base and did
not see another during his stay (up). It is found in Ceylon where it is said
to ascend the hills up to 38,000 ft.
Breeding: The testes of No. 70 (12 January) were enlarged to 5x4 mm.
It was in perfect metallic plumage. The testes of No. 717 (24 July) measured
7X6 mm. and those of 835 (11 August) 6x4 mm. The ovarian follicles of
694 (20 July) were enlarged. All these specimens were likewise in fresh
plumage and manifestly breeding. According to Stewart and Bourdillon (Nidi-
fication, ii, 214), this Sunbird breeds in Travancore principally from January
to April and on into May. The evidence we have procured is somewhat
confusing in view of that statement, but it certainly suggests that as in
many other Travancore species the breeding season is not well-defined and
probably extends over a protracted period.
Cinnyris aSiatica asiatica (Latham). The Indian Purple Sunbird.
Specimens collected: 403 ¢ 5-3-383 Kumili 3,000 ft.; 592 ¢ 18-4-83 Cape
Comorin ca. §.L.; 896 ¢ 24-11-33 Wadakkancheri 400 ft.; 989 ¢ 16-12-33
Padagiri 3,000 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Munro Island (Vembanad Lake, Kottayam Back-
waters); Rajampara (1,350 ft.); Trivandrum; Nemmara (800 ft.). In these
sight records, the possible confusion with C. lotenia must be borne in mind.
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown or orange-brown; bill, legs, feet and
claws brownish-black; mouth brownish-pink or slaty-pink.
[ Measurements :
Bill, Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
4d¢ 19.5-21 55-58 33-35.5 14.5-15.5 mm
Additional specimen seen: Brit. Mus. Coll.: @ 15-1-75 Kalland Kharmi (?)
- South Travancore (Bourdillon).
The adult male moults by a complete post-nuptial moult from the metallic
plumage into the eclipse in late June and July and moults back again to full
plumage about November. In eclipse the broad black line from the throat
to the breast, with its metallic gloss, the black wings with their metallic
coverts and the metallic wash on the tail easily distinguish this plumage
from that of the female.
The immature male and female are alike and similar to the adult female
plumage, but I am not quite sure when the metallic plumage is first assumed
by the male.—H. W.]
Like the last, the Purple Sunbird is also a fairly common resident species
in the Travancore-Cochin area. I have no record of its occurring above
3,000 ft., but it was not uncommon about that elevation. At Kumili and
in the neighbourhood of the Periyar Lake it was constantly observed probing
for nectar into the blossoms of Gmelina arborea, a common tree in deciduous
forest there and flowering generally in March. It also frequents gardens and
compounds in villages and towns, both large and small.
According to Fairbank (S.F., v, 399) it is common at the base of the Palni
Hills. It is a resident in Ceylon.
Breeding: No. 896 (24 November) was in fresh metallic breeding dress
with testes enlarged to 5x3 mm. In No. 403 (5 March) in like plumage
the testes measured 6X4 mm. The other two males (16 December and
18 March) were in intermediate plumage with undeveloped gonads. T. F.
Bourdillon (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 473) describes eggs taken in Travancore but is
silent as regards the breeding season there. From the evidence provided by
the Survey specimens it appears that breeding commences, at least, by the
latter half of November, but how long it continues is not known.
Cinnyris minima (Sykes). The Small Sunbird.
Specimens collected: 206 ¢, 207 9 3-2-3383 Thattakad 200 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Maraiytr (at 7,000 ft.); Santhanpara (8,500 ft.);
774 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Urambikera Reserve Forest, near Mundakayam (ca. 1,000 ft.); Peermade
(3,200 ft.); Kumil (ca. 3,000 ft.); Balamore Estate (2,000 ft.—Ashambu Hills);
Sa Incline, Cochin Forest Tramway; Padagiri (3,000 ft.—Nelliampathy
uls).
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill, legs, feet and claws in male
blackish-brown, in female somewhat paler. Mouth (in female only) yellowish
near gape otherwise greyish-pink.
[| Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Maal. Tarsus.
a 15.5 49 30 13 mm.
1 @ 14.5 45 27 — mm.
Additional specimens seen:
Brit. Mus. Coll.: 3 18-5-77 Painkad 4,000 ft., Lower Palnis (Fairbank) ;
@ 15-6-77 Tandagudi 4,000 ft., Lower Palnis (Fairbank); ¢ no data, ¢ 13-1-76
Mynall, Travancore (Bourdillon).
The male has an eclipse plumage in which it becomes like the female
except that the metallic colours are retained on the lower back, rump and
upper tail coverts. This is assumed about April or early May and is retained
through June, the moult to the full metallic plumage taking place again
before August. The young male and female are alike and similar to the adult
female, though rather yellower below. The young male attains the metallic
adult plumage by a complete moult about May.—H. W.]
The Small Sunbird is common in the hills of Travancore and Cochin.
Thattakad (200 ft.) at the foot of the High Range is the lowest elevation at
which the Surveys came across it, the highest being Kumarikkai Malai 7,000 ft.
(above Maraiyir). Here the birds were met with on the outskirts of a small
shola. This Sunbird prefers well-wooded country and generally speaking is
inseparable from evergreen forest or its close proximity. I did not observe
it at all anywhere near the backwaters or in the low plains country about
the coast. Mr. K. K. Nayar, Professor of Zoology, Maharaja’s College, Erna-
kulam, has, however, recently recorded it (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvii, 780-32) breeding
at Ernakulam. Unfortunately he did not collect a specimen, but in reply
to my doubts assures me of the correctness of his identification. This record, -
if authentic, must undoubtedly be considered a very exceptional one.
I found the Small Sunbird very partial to the blossoms of Hrythrina
lithosperma shade trees in tea and coffee plantations and it was of course
invariably present on Loranthus clumps in flower. At Balamore Estate the
flowers of Duranta plumiert planted as a hedge along the path from the tea
factory to the Travellers’ Bungalow attracted numbers of these sunbirds.
The courtship song of the male consists of a feeble, squeaky see-swee,
see-swee, see-swee etc. uttered from a branch in the proximity of the female,
to the accompaniment of a restless pivoting this way and that the while.
In the Palni Hills, Fairbank (S.F., v, 398) found this species common from
4,000 ft. elevation to the top of the hills. It is locally distributed in Ceylon.
Breeding: On 12 December (Nelliampathy Hills, Cochin) a female was
observed carrying a strip of fibre in her bill. She was escorted by the male
who was singing. Most males at this time were noted as being in fresh
breeding dress. The specimens (8 February) appeared to be breeding or about
to breed. The testes of the male measured 5x4 mm., the ovarian follicles of
the female being about 1 mm. in diameter. The former was in fresh breeding
plumage, and the latter just completing pre-nuptial moult.
According to Ferguson, the breeding months in Travancore are December
and January. WNidification (i, 225) gives the breeding season in Ceylon and
Travancore as February, March and April, and in Kanara as December to
April.
Cinnyris zeylonica (Linnaeus). The Purple-rumped Sunbird.
Specimens collected: 100 ¢ 15-1-33 Maraiyur 3,500 ft.; 591 [Q] 18-4-33
Cape Comorin ca. 8.L.; 698 Q 20-7-383 (Thirumalai 120 ft.); 746 ¢g 29-7-33
(Kuttani 800 ft.); 778 ¢g 2-8-33 (Kovalam ca. 70 ft.); 792 Q 5-8-383 (Poojap-
pura 140 ft.); 814 @, 819 Q 9-8-33 (Nettayam 200 ft.); 844 ¢ 18-8-33 (Veli)
Trivandrum Environs; 957 0? 8-12-83 Nemmara 300 ft.
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 775
Elsewhere noted at: Thattakad (200 ft.); Kottayam (ca. 5..); Araémboli
(250 ft.); Chalakidi; Trichtr; Kartpadanna (ca. §.L.).
Colours of bare parts: Iris orange-brown or reddish-brown; bill, legs, feet
and claws horny-black; mouth brownish-pink (in some, yellowish pink).
| Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail.
Ny etwas 17-18 55.5-56.5 33.9-00 IMM.
6 2° 16-17 51-54.5 30-31.5 mm.
Additional specimens seen :
Brit. Mus. Coll.: @Q 25-2-80 Quilon (Bourdillon); @Q juv. 6-6-77 Peria-
kulam, Palnis (Terry).
B.N.H.S. Coll.; ¢ 27-8-93 Thekadi (Cook).
This species has no eclipse plumage. The post-juvenal moult is complete
and the young male goes straight into the metallic plumage. ‘The juvenile
male and female are alike and closely resemble the adult female in fresh
plumage when the upper parts are greenish olive with the chin and_ throat
pale yellow. In worn plumage the upper parts of the female fade to earthy-
brown. The female of zeylonica may be distinguished from the female of
asialica by
(1) shorter bill;
(2) chin and throat and flanks are white, or in fresh plumage the chin
and throat are white with a yellowish wash, contrasting with the yellow of
the abdomen ;
(3) golden olive edges to the wing quills—H. W. |
The Purple-rumped Sunbird is a common resident species in ‘Travancore
and Cochin. Except at Maraiytir—a locality peculiar in its mingling of hills
and plains forms—it was met with only in the low country, and up to not
more than about 300 ft. elevation. Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 474) also saw
it in the low country in Travancore and never on the hills. The general
impression conveyed by the Fauna (iii, 408) that it ascends the Palnis up to
2,500 ft. and is found up to 3,000 ft. in Travancore therefore needs modi-
fication. It has, moreover, a decided predilection for dry and deciduous country,
a fact which was clearly evident in the case of Thattakad. Along the old
High Range road in this locality where heavy evergreen forest occurs, only
Cinnyris minima was met with, whereas a few miles down the Periyar River
below the ‘Travellers’ Bungalow where open deciduous secondary jungle
occurred, the Purple-rumped Sunbird completely replaced it.
It has the usual sunbird habits. Nectar of Calycopteris floribunda, Lantana
camara, Loranthus (loniceroides ?) and Moringa oleifera is largely eaten, and
in the gardens the exotic Russelia juncea is an unfailing attraction to the birds.
It apparently does not ascend the Palni Hills. Fairbank (S.F., v, 398)
obtained a pair at the eastern (dry) base of the hills and observed a few
others there, but thought they were probably more abundant around gardens
in the plain. It is a resident in Ceylon.
Kinloch writing of the Nelliampathy Hills (J.B.N.H.S., xxvii) says: ‘T
believe this (Purple-rumped) to be our only sunbird. Very common.’ Iinloch’s
list, hggever, altogether omits the Small Sunbird, a species which I found to
be confmon about Padagiri to the exclusion of others. To my mind there is
no doubt that this is a case of mistaken identity and that his note in reality
relates to C. minima.
Breeding: On 238 December a nest was discovered hanging about 4 ft.
up in a potted croton within 4 yds. of the Residency Palace at Trichur.
Motor cars constantly drove past or stopped within arm’s length of it, and
malis sprayed water on the crotons twice a day. The nest was the usual
rounded pear of fibres with pieces of bark and caterpillar droppings on the
outside. It contained c/2 which the female was brooding complacently. Another
similar nest was observed at Karipadanna on 28 December, suspended from
the tip of a Pandanus leaf arching over a constantly used foot-path on the
edge of paddy fields. The male was in the proximity, the hen within.
The testes of the July-August males were enlarged from 4x3 mm. to
5x4 mm. and the ovarian follicles of the females from 1 to 4 mm. in dia-
meter. They were all in fresh plumage at the time, and some at least,
undoubtedly breeding.
9
7176 JOURNAL, BOMBAY..NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol: XXXVIII
Ferguson says that in Travancore they breed in February and March.
Nidification (iii, 227) gives the breeding season as February to April while
the evidence now procured by the Surveys suggests that the season is by no
means so short or so well-defined.
Arachnothera longirostra longirostra (Latham). The Little Spider-hunter.
Specimens collected: 125 G 22-1-38, 188 ¢G imm. 23-1-83, 148 9 imm.
24-1-83 Santhanpara 3,500 ft.; 472 dg 19-3-33 Rajampara 1,350 ft.; 988 ¢
16-12-33 Padagiri 3,000 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Thattakad (200 ft.); Urambikera Reserve Forest (ca.
1,000 ft.—near Mundakayam); Peermade (3,200 ft.); Kamili (38,000 ft.); Camp
Deramalai (8,000 ft.); Balamore Estate (2,000 ft.—Ashambu Hills); Kuvallé
Incline—Cochin Forest Tramway; Kuriarkutti (1,600 ft.—Annemalai Hills).
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill horny-brown, plumbeous at chin
and on gonys; mouth greyish-pink with brown mottling; legs, feet and claws
bluish-plumbeous. In 143 (9 imm.) legs greyish-blue, feet parti-coloured yellow
and blue.
[ Measurements :
Bill, Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
4o¢ 34-36.5 64-66.5 40-41 15 mm,
1 0 32.5 59 36.5 14.5 mm.
Additional specimens examined:
Brit. Mus. Coll.: & 16-6-77 Periur woods 4,000 ft., Lower Palnis (Iair-
bank); Q 17-6-77 Pundegude 1,000 ft., Lower Palnis (Fairbank); ¢ juv.
9-2-80, Q 24-11-77 Mynall (Bourdillon); ¢ 5-4-79 Eridge, Travancore (Bour-
dillon).
H, Whistler Coll.: 0? 28-10-23 Nelliampathies (Kinloch).
The immature male and female are exactly alike and cannot be distin-
guished from adults.—H. W.]
The Spider Hunter is a typical dweller of evergreen forests, and in this
biotope it is found fairly commonly in Travancore and Cochin, both in the
low and foothills country as well as in the hills—in our experience—up to
at least 4,000 ft. Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 474) met with it to upwards
of 5,000 ft. in the High Range. Cardamom sholas with their lofty shade
trees are favourite haunts, and Banana plantations adjoining forest home-
steads or estate cooly lines almost invariably hold their quota. The birds
usually go about in pairs, and often two or more of these may be seen feeding
gregariously. In addition to spiders and other insects, their food was found
to consist largely of the nectar of flowers into which they probe with their
admirably adapted bills and which they undoubtedly help to fertilise. Some
of the blossoms observed in regular attendance were those of Musa (sapien-
tum 2), Erythrina lithosperma, Mezoneuron cucullatum and Sterculia colorata.
Its harsh calls—chee-chee—are very like those of the Paradise Flycatcher
(T'chitrea) or the Ashy Swallow-Shrike (Artamus) but somewhat pleasanter and
in a higher key. The song consists of a metallic which-which-which-which
etc. repeated about once or twice a second without any variation, and is kept
up for two minutes or more at a stretch. The volume of sound is somewhat
bigger than that of the Purple Sunbird (Cinnyris asiatica).
Fairbank (S.F., v, 397) obtained a specimen at Periur (4,000 ft.) in the
Palni Hills and its status there is presumably the same as in Travancore
and Cochin. Curiously enough it does not occur in Ceylon. ~ |
Breeding: Between December and March at least the breeding season was
certainly in progress. Specimen No. 988 (16 December) had its testes enlarged
to 10x5 mm. It was in fresh plumage and singing excitedly.. In No. 125
(22 January) the testes measured 6X4 mm. and in 472 (19 March) 4x3 mm.
Irom the fresh plumage of these specimens moreover, and from the general
behaviour of the birds at the time—singing and chasing each other etc.—it
was clear that they were breeding or about to breed. Nos. 133 (23 January)
and 143 (24 January) were immature with imperfectly ossified skulls, indicating
that they had hatched a month or two before. The season is apparently a
protracted one. According to Nidification (iii, 235) Stewart and Bourdillon
took eggs in Travancore from 7 March up till the end of May.
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN ETT.
FamMIty: DIcAeIDZ.
Diceum concolor concolor Jerdon. The Nilgiri Flower-pecker.
Specimens collected: 171 ¢G 28-1-33 Santhanpara 3,500 ft.; 290 ¢ 16-2-33
Kottayam ca. 100 ft.; 442 g 16-3-33 Rajampara 1,350 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Thattakad (200 ft.); Kumili and Periyar Lake En-
virons (3,000 ft.); Tenmalai (500 ft.); Trivandrum; Balamore Estate (2,000 ft.
—Ashambu Hills); Kuriarkutti (1,600 ft.); Padagiri (3,000 ft.—Nelliampathy
Hills). : .
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill bluish-grey, dark horny-brown on
culmen; mouth grey, brownish and pink; legs, feet and claws brownish-black.
[Additional specimens seen:
Brit. Mus. Coll.: CS 28-6-77, 99 31-5-77 Kodaikanal 7,000 ft., Palni
Hills (Fairbank); Q 1-8-00 Ponmudi, Travancore (Ferguson).
Sparrow Coll.: CG juv. 14-83-14 Cardamom Hills.
Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail, Tarsus.
38dcd 12.5-13 48-50.5 23.5-25.5 12.5 mm.
1 -2 12 AT — — mm.
The juvenile is similar to the adult in plumage. No. 290 might be
D. erythrorhynchos. It has the beak of the latter and the colour of the
former.—H. W.]
The Nilgiri Flowerpecker is a common resident species in the Travancore-
Cochin area. It frequents deciduous as well as mixed deciduous-and-evergreen
forest, as also clearings in and about plantations, and groves of trees in the
vicinity of villages. The Surveys came across it from the low country up to
about 4,000 ft. elevation, but it has a decided preference for the foothills
country and the hills up to 2,500 ft. It was invariably observed on Loranthus
clumps, and indeed the presence of the plant parasite in any locality was
the surest indication of the presence of Flowerpeckers. These birds feed
largely on the nectar of the flowers and on its ripe berries, and constitute
perhaps the most important agency in the fertilisation of its blossoms and the
dissemination of its seed. Mango and Nelli trees (Phyllanthus emblica) were
universally parasitized by Loranthus longiflorus Desr. and other species, who
have, in addition, a large number of hosts besides. At Nemmara, teak trees
in the Government forest were heavily infested. |
I found the voice and notes of this species indistinguishable from those of
Tickell’s Flowerpecker.
It is common in the Palni Hills. Fairbank (S.F., v, 399) obtained speci-
mens at Kodaikanal, 7,000 ft. It does not extend to Ceylon.
Breeding: The testes of two of the specimens namely No. 171 (28 January)
and 290 (16 February) measured 3x2 mm. and appeared to be maturing.
The latter was completing pre-nuptial moult on the secondaries and -rectrices.
In the specimen collected on 16 March the organs were in a quiescent state.
No other evidence as regards breeding was obtained by the Surveys. Col.
Sparrow collected a juvenile in the Cardamom Hills on 14 March (1914).
According to Stewart and Bourdillon, the normal breeding months in Travancore
are March to May (Nidification, ii, 248).
Diceeum erythrorhynchos erythrorhynchos (Latham). Tickell’s Flowerpecker.
Specimens collected: 590 3 13-4-33 Cape Comorin ca. $.L.; 689 Q 18-7-33
_(Pilayanarkotta 200 ft.); 707 Q_ 22-7-33 (Pattom 50 ft.); 786 0? 4-8-8383 (Cattle
Farm); 842 g 12-8-33 (Beach) Trivandrum Town and Environs; 938° 9 4-12- 33
_ Nemmara 300 ft.; 1048 9 juv. 81-12-33 Kartipadanna ca. S.L.
Elsewhere noted at: Kottayam (ca. §.L.); Peermade (8,200 ft. both
doubtful with concolor; Kuriarkuatti (1,600 ft.); Wadakkancheri (400 ft.); Pada-
girt (8,000 ft.); Trichtr; Cranganour Fort.
Colours of bare parts: Adult: Iris hazel brown; bill pale horny brown,
pinkish flesh-colour at gape and on lower mandible excepting tip; mouth pale
pink; legs, feet and claws dark slate. Juvenile (1048): Iris hazel brown;
778 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
bill orange-yellow, dusky on upper mandible and tips; gape and mouth
orange-yellow; legs and feet slate; claws horny-brown.
[ Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
2Ee GS 12 49-52 23.5-25 12.5 mm.
4 2Q 13 48.5-50 235-24. — mm.
Additional specimens seen:
Brit. Mus. Coll.: G 28-83-76 Palnis (Fairbank); ¢ 5-6-77 Periakulam,
eastern base of Palnis (Fairbank); 92 14-5-94 Ponmudi 3,500 ft.—Travancore
(Nair).
The juvenile is similar to the adult in plumage.—H. W.]
Tickell’s Flowerpecker is a common resident species in the low country of
Travancore and Cochin. The Surveys’ sight records from the hills, being un-
supported by specimens, must be accepted with some reserve considering how
easy it is to confuse this with the foregoing species in the field. Indeed, it
is not always .a simple matter to tell the one from the other even in the
hand (vide Specimen No. 290 under concolor). On the whole, however, my
impression is that as a general rule Tickell’s Flowerpecker is not met with
in the higher hills, although of course both do at times occur in the same
localities lower down. It is inseparable from Loranthus whose flowers it
probes into for nectar and cross-fertilises, and whose seed it disperses. Viscum
clumps are similarly attended and the guts of a specimen shot off one of these
contained no less than 27 of the viscous seeds, each measuring ca. 3X2 mm.,
and some on the point of being extruded from the vent.
In the Palni Hills, according to Fairbank (S.F., v, 899) it is sometimes
observed on the hillsides, but is common in the adjacent plains. In Ceylon it
is represented by an endemic race—ceylonensis—which is much darker-coloured
above.
Breeding: Specimen No. 1048 (81 December) was a juvenile lately out of
nest and still attended and being fed by its parents. Three of the specimens
collected by Pillai (18 July and 4 August) were immature with imperfectly
ossified skulls. The gonads in the rest of the specimens were in non-breeding
condition.
Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 474) had a nest from Trivandrum brought to him
on 16 March containing two young birds and one ‘fresh’ egg! The breeding
season in this area appears to be ill-defined and an extended one. The Fauna
(ili, 482) gives the general season as February to June, but says that they
often have two broods in the year.
Piprisoma agile agile (Tickell). The Thick-billed Flowerpecker.
Specimen collected: 1 6d 4-1-3833 Maraiytr 3,500 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Peermade (8,200 ft.); Nemmara (800 ft.—base of
Cochin Nelliampathies).
Colours of bare parts: Iris brownish-orange; bill plumbeous, darker on
culmen; mouth pinkish-brown; tongue yellow; legs and feet slaty-brown.
[The specimen measues: Bill 10, wing 62, tail 81.5, tarsus 13.5 mm.
This is a new record for the Travancore list, the bird not having been
recorded previously in India south of the Nilgiris though it has a local distri-
bution in Ceylon.—H. W.]
The Thick-billed Flowerpecker is a rather uncommon and locally distributed
species in our area. It has not been recorded by previous observers in Travan-
core, Cochin or the Palni Hills. It was noted as fairly common (not abundant)
in and about deciduous forest and in the neighbourhood of cultivation in the
localities named. The bird was oftenest seen on Loranthus and Viscum clumps
where laden with ripe berries, and usually also on Peepal (Ficus religiosa)
trees in fruit. It feeds extensively on both these and along with the other
Ilowerpeckers is largely responsible for the dispersal and propagation of the
nefarious plant parasites. Owing, however, to its habit of revolving the ripe
‘berries in its thick finch-like bill to strip them of the edible epicarp and of
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 779
wiping off the sticky seeds on to adjoining branches—seldom swallowing them
entire—it perhaps helps to spread the parasite over the same host more than
in its dispersal farther afield to neighbouring trees.
The call notes, chick-chick-chick etc., resemble those of both the Nilgiri
and Tickell’s Flowerpeckers, but nevertheless are distinct enough to be easily
diagnostic. .
Breeding: The testes of the specimen measured 5X3 mm., and considered
along with its fresh plumage suggested that it was preparing to breed shortly.
No other evidence in this regard was obtained. According to the Fauna (iii,
435) over the rest of its range, this Flowerpecker breeds from February to
April in the plains, and from April to June in the hills up to about 6,000 ft.
and rarely up to 7,000 ft.
SUB-ORDER: ANISOMYODI.
Famity: Pirripm.
Pitta brachyura (Linn.). The Indian Pitta.
Specimens collected: 98 G 15-1-33 Maraiyir 3,500 ft.; 6385 Q 21-4-33
Aramboli 250 ft.; 895 9 24-11-88 Wadakkancheri 400 ft. =
Elsewhere noted at: Munnar (5,000 ft—Kanan Devan Hills); Santhanpara
(3,500 ft.—Cardamom Hills); Thattakad (200 ft.); Kottayam (ca. 8.L.); Peer-
made (3,200 ft.); Kumili and Periyar Lake Environs (8,000 ft.); Rajampara
(1,850 ft.—Panthalam Hills); Tenmalai (500 ft.); Trivandrum (ca. §.L.);
Kuriarkttti (1,600 ft.—Annemalai Hills); Nemmara (300 ft.); Padagiri
(3,000 ft.—Nelliampathy Hills); Kartpadanna (ca. 8.L.).
Noted as absent in the Ashambu Hills (2,000-4,000 ft.) between 22 and
29 April.
Colours of bare, parts: Iris brown; bill brown with orange tinge, brighter
orange at gape and on basal half of lower mandible; ,mouth brownish, yellow
and pink; legs and feet pinkish flesh-colour; claws duskier,
[ Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
23 23 108-110.5 36-39.5 35-38.5 mm.
2 99 24-25 106-107 39 35-35.5 mm.
Additional specimens seen: |
Brit. Mus. Coll.: 09? -8-75 Eridge (Hume Coll.); ¢ 80-12-79 Kallaur Road
(Bourdillon); ¢ no date Mynall (Hume Coll.). Also four birds from Trivan-
drum (Fry).
The post-nuptial moult is complete and takes place from August _ to Septem- —
ber. There is no spring moult. —H. W.]
“The Pitta is apparently a winter visitor to Travancore and Cochin where
the Surveys found it common. The last date on which it was noted was
21 April. It was. common at this time in the scrub under the Babool groves
and light deciduous jungle in the Aramboli Gap, but curiously enough none
were heard or seen during the next week in the Ashambu Hills at between
2,000 and 4,000 ft. elevation.
The birds were partial to mixed bamboo forest, scrub. jungle, overgrown
ravines etc. both deciduous and evergreen, and were met with in the neigh-
bourhood of plantation cooly-lines and on the outskirts of towns and. villages
as well as far away from human habitations. Their whistling calls in-
variably gave the first indication of their presence in any locality. These
consist of two long-drawn notes, weet-teew, repeated without variation every
five seconds or so, sometimes for well over 15 minutes at a stretch. The
birds. reply to one another for considerable periods, often three or four calling
from’ different directions simultaneously. They are amongst the earliest. risers
‘and may usually be heard soon after the first Whistling Thrush (Myophonus)
has proclaimed to slumbering bird-dom the inky greyness of approaching dawn.
They call principally in the mornings and evenings, frequently till well after
dusk. Besides the double whistling notes, they have several harsh mono-
syllabic chee-s and mew-s. : j a eS
780 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
- When disturbed off the ground where it usually feeds, the Pitta flies up
into overhanging branches of trees and very deliberately and slowly wags its
stumpy tail up and down like a wagtail in ‘slow motion’.
_ The bill and feet of a specimen shot in the vicinity of Maraiytr villag
were coated with human ordure and its stomach contained a mass of maggots
—presumably of the Blue-bottle Fly (Musca vomitoria ?)—along with some of
the human excreta whence it had obtained them.
There seems to be nothing on record concerning this bird in the Palni
Hills, but its status there is doubtless the same as in the Travancore and
Cochin ranges. It is a winter visitor also to Ceylon. The gonads of the
specimens showed no departure from the normal non-breeding condition.
ORDER: CORACIITFORMES.
SUB-ORDER: PICI.
FAMILY: PIcIDm.
Picus xanthopygeus (Gray). The Little Scaly-bellied Green Woodpecker.
Specimens collected: 95 ¢ 14-1-33 Mardiyir 3,500 ft.; 175 Q 28-1-33
Santhanpara 3,500 ft.; 260 @Q 10-2-83 Thattakad 200 ft.; 624 9 19-4-33
Aramboh 250 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Kiuriarkitti (1,600 ft.—Annemalai Hills).
Colours of bare parts: Iris pinkish-white with inner ring of brownish-red ;
bill horny slate, pale yellow at sides of lower mandible except tip; mouth
greyish-pink; legs and feet greyish sage green; claws horny.
[ Measurements :}
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
1d 36 182 88 25 mm.
3 929 31.5-34 124.5-128 78-88 22.5-24 mm.—H. W.]
The Surveys came across the Scaly-bellied Green Woodpecker from about
200 to 4,000 ft. elevation in Travancore and Cochin. In our experience it
was certainly commoner than Ferguson’s note (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 654) would
suggest, though sparingly distributed and nowhere numerically abundant. This
woodpecker frequents mixed bamboo and deciduous forest with sometimes an
intermingling of evergreen species. It eschews heavy jungle and keeps to open,
lightly wooded country, rubber and cocoanut plantations and the like, usually
singly or in pairs.
It is evidently not uncommon in the Palni Hills whence both Fairbank
and Terry. recorded it at Periur, Pulungi and Pittur. It also occurs in Ceylon,
but is said to be rare.
Breeding: In specimen No. 95 (14 January) the testes appeared to have
just commenced enlarging. The larger measured about 3x2 mm. No. 175
(28 January) had. ovarian follicles enlarged to about 2 mm. in diameter and
the bird seemed ready to breed shortly. No other data was obtained and
there seems to be nothing recorded about its breeding in this area. At Pittur
in the. Palni Hills, Terry (S.F., x, 471) once cut out a nest-hole at the
' beginning of May but it then contained no eggs. : 7
-Picus chlorolophus chlorigaster Jerdon. The Southern Indian Small Yellow-
naped Woodpecker.
Specimens collected: 264 9Q 10-2-33 Thattakad 200 ft.; 904 09 26-11-33
Wadakkancheri 400 ft. .
Elsewhere noted at: Kiumili and Periyar Lake Environs (3,000 ft.); Camp
Deramalai (8,000-4,000 ft.—Panthalam Hills); Balamore Estate (2,000-3,000. ft.
—Ashambu Hills).
Colours of bare parts: Iris crimson; bill horny brown or brownish-black,
greenish-yellow at sides of base especially of lower mandible; mouth pink; legs
and feet. greyish-green or dusky olive-green; claws horny. | .
_ 1 Owing to wear, measurements. of bills and tails of woodpeckers are to
be used always with caution. re
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 781
[ Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
13S 26 123.5 81.5 19.5 mm.
1 9 26 120.5 (fier) 20.5 mm.
Additional specimens seen:
Brit. Mus. Coll.: 9 18-8-75, Q@ not dated Mynall (Bourdillon); ¢ Tra-
vancore (Bourdillon); 9 ‘Travancore (Gould).—H. W. |]
The Yellow-naped Woodpecker is a fairly common species in the Travancore-
Cochin area. It affects deciduous jungle, the mixed intermediate zone on the
edge of evergreen forest and rubber plantations especially in the foothills
country, and thence up to an elevation of about 3,000 ft. It is usually met
with singly or in pairs. In the absence of any personal observations, I can
only repeat Ferguson’s quotation (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 655) of F. W. Bourdillon’s
note: ‘It is not noisy except during the breeding season. In February and
March the plaintive monotonous call of these birds (which somewhat resembles
the breeding call of the common Pariah Kite) may be heard at all hours of
the day, as they cling motionless to the topmost bough of some tall forest
tree.’
In the Palnis, Fairbank (S.F., v, 396) obtained a male near Periur but is
silent as regards the status of this species in those hills. In Ceylon it is
represented by the race P. c. wellst.
Breeding: The November specimen showed no gonadal development, but
No. 264 (10 February) had soft ovarian eggs. Its oviduct was much distended,
indicating that the bird was laying.
According to WNidification (111, 280) Stewart took several clutches of eggs
in February (earliest 3 February) around Aneichardi Estate (Central Travan-
core) while Bourdillon took a fresh c/3 in the same district on 8 May. The
normal clutch is said to be 2 eggs, c/3 being considered exceptional.
Dryobates mahrattensis mahrattensis (Latham). The Southern Yellow-fronted
Pied Woodpecker.
Specimens collected: 542 Q 8-4-3833 Cape Comorin ca. §.L.; 798 9 6-8-33
Palayanarkotta 200 ft.—Trivandrum Environs; 929 ¢, 9380 9Q 1-12-33 Wadak-
kancheri 400 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Maraiyar (38,500 ft.); Trivandrum Town; Nemmara
(800 ft.).
Colours of bare parts: Iris reddish-brown; bill pale horny grey, brownish
on culmen and tips; mouth pinkish-grey; legs, feet and claws brownish-slate.
[ Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
Leese 26 96.5 55 19 mm.
3 99 22.5-23 97.5-101.5 54-56 18 mm.
The post-nuptial moult is complete and there is no pre-nuptial moult.—
H.W.)
This little woodpecker is fairly common in secondary deciduous forest and
lightly wooded tracts about cultivation in the low country of Travancore and
Cochin. I do not think that Ferguson’s description of it (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 654)
‘by no means common’ is a very happy one. With the exception of Maraiyur,
the Surveys did not meet with it above an elevation of 400 ft. It moves about
in pairs usually, but sometimes three or four birds may be seen together,
and frequently as members of the localised bird associations or hunting parties.
Fairbank (S.F., v, 395) collected a pair on the Palni Hills and found them
not uncommon there up to 5,000 ft. In view of the very different ecological
status of this woodpecker in the Travancore-Cochin area, a confirmation of
Fairbank’s statement seems desirable. The same race is found in Ceylon.
For an excellent paper on the tongue mechanisms of this and certain other
Indian woodpeckers, based chiefly on material procured by the Surveys in T'ra-
vancore and Cochin, the reader is referred to Journal fiir Ornithologie, July
1934, pp. 399-408—‘Untersuchungen iiber den Zungenapparat indischer Spechte’
by Joachim Steinbacher. cae
Breeding: The gonads of the specimens gave no indication as regards the
782 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
nesting season, and no other evidence was obtained. There are evidently no
published records of its breeding in our area.
Dryobates hardwickii cinereigula (Malherbe). The Malabar Pigmy Woodpecker.
Specimens collected: 3870 ¢, 871 Q 27-2-338, 400 @ imm. 5-3-33 Kiumili
3,000 ft.; 1000 ¢G 20-12-33 Padagiri 3,000 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Nemmara (800 ft.).
Colours of bare parts: Adult: Iris pale lemon yellow; skin round eye dull
magenta; bill horny grey, brownish on culmen; legs and feet brownish-slate;
claws horny brown; Immature (No. 400): Iris olive; bill horny brown, paler
(greyish) at chin and basal two-thirds of lower mandible; mouth greyish-pink;
legs and feet slaty; claws horny brown; soles yellowish.
[ Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
one Oo 15-16 72.5-74 88.5-85 12.5 mm.
1 9 15 T5 36 13 mm.
Additional specimens seen:
Brit. Mus. Coll.: & 14-6-77 Machur, 4,500 ft.—Lower Palnis (Fair-
bank); Q 18-2-76 Mynall (Bourdillon).
B.N.H.S. Coll.: OG -4-98 Vambayam.
In this race in addition to the very dark crown an important character is
the lightness of the streaking on the lower parts so that in some specimens
the lower parts almost appear unicolorous dirty white-—H. W.]
The Pigmy Woodpecker was found by the Surveys to be not uncommon—
though not abundant—in the foothills country from about 300 ft. elevation
up to about 38,000 ft. It was observed in pairs in secondary deciduous jungle
and also in the intermediate zone between it and evergreen forest, but never
actually within the latter. The localised bird associations in this facies fre-
quently included a pair. It feeds on stems of saplings close to the ground
and up to moderate heights, and then again high up in the slender branches
and twigs near the tops of the lofty trees. I have never observed them on
the thick boles of the larger trees. The flowers of EHrythrina lithosperma
shade trees in cardamom, tea and coffee plantations in suitable biotope are
regularly visited and probed into for the nectar. A specimen shot in the act
of so feeding had a quantity of pollen adhering to its chin feathers.
In the Palas Hills, Fairbank (S.F., v, 396) obtained a specimen and saw
another at Machur on the road between the Lower Palnis and Kodaikanal. In
Ceylon it is replaced by the race D. h. gymnopthalmus to which Ferguson
erroneously attributed his Travancore specimens and Hume the one from Machur
in the Palnis.
Breeding: In specimen No. 1000 (6 December) the testes had enlarged to
5x3 mm. No. 870 (27 February) had testes measuring 4x3 mm. and in its
mmate—No. 871—the ovarian follicles were distinctly granular. All these birds
were evidently preparing to breed. No. 400 (5 March) was immature, with
imperfectly ossified skull. No more precise data as regards breeding in our
area is available.
Micropternus brachyrus jerdoni (Malherbe). The Southern Rufous Woodpecker.
Specimen collected: 795 Q 6-8-83 Putlayanarkotta 200 ft., Trivandrum
Jinvirons.
Elsewhere noted at: Kutmili (ca. 3,000 ft.—Periyaér Lake Environs). I
have seen five or six specimens from Travancore in the Trivandrum Museum
but without precise data.
Colours of bare parts: ‘Iris brownish-red; bill upper mandible horny black,
lower mandible white, horny towards the base; mouth greyish pink ; legs and
feet bluish-green; claws horny black’ (Pillai).
[ Measurements :
oo Bill. Wing. Tail.
43o 26-29 116.5-120.5 60.5-62.5 mm.
2 99 27-27.5 116.5-120 62-63 mm.
Additional specimens gamed: 7 ’Anjango’ specimens in British Museum.
H.W.)
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 783.
The Rufous Woodpecker is evidently rather uncommon in Travancore, and
I have no record of it from Cochin. Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 655) only
saw it in the low country and at the foot of the hills, and thought that
it did not ascend them. During the Survey I only came across it once—a
single bird—in fairly open deciduous forest at Kimili. Regarding his
specimen also, Pillai notes that it was the first seen by him during
twenty days’ collecting round Trivandrum. Its call or ‘laugh’ is a_high-
pitched ke-ke-ke-ke somewhat of the timbre of a Myna’s. Elsewhere I have
observed this woodpecker clinging to the smooth trunks of banana trees,
boring into the soft tissues near the base of the leaves and sucking the sap.
This species has not been recorded from the Palni Hills. The same race
jerdoni is found in Ceylon.
Breeding: The ovary of the specimen was undeveloped. Nidification (iii,
304) states that Stewart obtained eggs of this woodpecker in Travancore in
March and April. Two is said to be a normal clutch, but occasionally c/3
is found.
Brachypternus benghalensis tehminz Whistler. The Malabar Golden-backed
Woodpecker.
Specimens collected: 72 Q 12-1-33 Maraiyur 3,500 ft.; 475 J 20-38-33
Rajampara 1,350 ft. (Type); 720 9 24-7-33 (Thirtimalai 120 ft.); 780 0? 3-8-33
(Kovalam ca. 70 ft.); 794 ¢ 5-8-3833 (Poojapptra ca. 140 ft.) Trivandrum In-
virons; 940 9 4-12-83 Nemmara 300 ft.; 1083 ¢ 28-12-33 Kartipadanna 8.1L.
Elsewhere noted at: Kuamili and Periyar Lake Environs (3,000 ft.); ‘Ten-
malai (500 ft.); Trivandrum Town; Kuriarkitti (1,600 ft.—Annemalai Hills) ;
Wadakkancheri (400 ft.).
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown, brownish-crimson or crimson; bill slaty-
brown (horny-black), greyish on sides at base of lower mandible; mouth greyish-
pink; legs and feet greenish-grey; claws horny-brown.
[ Measurements : ;
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
bios 39-43 135.5-151 86-95 25-26 mm.
699 38.5-41 138-149 88-93.5 23.5-25 mm.
There are five specimens from Travancore without proper data in the
British Museum.—H. W
The Golden-backed Woodpecker is a common and familiar resident species
in the low and foothills country of Travancore and Cochin. With the ex-
ception of Maraiyur, it was not met with above an elevation of ca. 2,000 ft.,
usually below 1,000 ft. It affects lightly wooded terrain, cocoanut and rubber
plantations and also compounds and groves of trees in and around villages
and towns. The fruit gardens about the backwater homesteads are a favourite
haunt.
Contrary to our experience at Padagiri, Kinloch (J.B.N.H.S., xxvii, 941)
seems to have found it ‘very common’ in the Nelliampathy Hills. Unfortu-
nately he does not say to what elevation. At Nemmara (300 ft.) along the
northern base of these hills, however, the Survey noted it as common. It
was usually seen in pairs and frequently as a member of the mixed hunting
yarties.
Fairbank (S.F., v, 896) describes it as abundant in the heavy forest in
the Lower Palnis. It would be interesting to know if his identification was
confirmed by specimens. In Ceylon it is replaced by the race B. b. intermedius.
Breeding: Specimen No. 72 (12 January) had a distinctly granular ovary
and No. 475 (20 March) though with testes only 3x2 mm., had a prominent
incubation patch and had probably lately finished breeding. The largest ovarian
follicle of No. 720 (24 July) measured about 2 mm. in diameter, and both
it and No. 794 (5 August—testes 8x4 mm.) were apparently breeding. No
more definite information in this regard was obtained, however. According
to the Fauna (iv, 69) Kinloch found a nest with two eggs in the Nelliampathy
Hills in March. ae aay
784. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Dinopium javanense malabaricum Whistler. The Malabar Golden-backed Three-
toed Woodpecker. j
Specimens collected: 126 Q 22-1-33 Santhanpara 3,500 ft.; 424 Q 9-38-33
Camp Deradmalai 3,000 ft.; 646 0? imm., 647 0? 23-4-33 Balamore Estate (at
3,500 ft.—Ashambu Hills) ; 871 9 16- ite 33 Kuriarkutti (1,600 ft.).
Elsewhere noted at: Thattakad (200 ft.); Tenmalai . (500 ft.); Padagiri
(8,000 ft.—Nelliampathy Hills).
Colours of bare parts: Iris reddish-brown to brownish-red; bill slaty-
brown, grey at chin, gape and base of lower mandible; mouth greyish-pink;
legs and feet greenish-grey to greyish-green; claws slaty-brown.
[ Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
1S 31 135 87 22 mm.
4700 26.5-31.5 187.5-189 82.5-94 22-24 mm.
Additional specimens seen:
Brit. Mus. Coll.: GQ no date, G 25-7-78, 9 -10-78,. 9.11-7-78, 99
5-10-74, ¢G 27-11-74 Mynall (Bourdillon); G 18-1-72 Assambo Hills) (Hume
Coll.).
Sparrow Coll.: Q 26-38-14 Cardamom Hills.—H. W.]
In Travancore and Cochin, this woodpecker—in my experience—is confined
more or less to the humid evergreen forest tracts, both in the low foothills
country and up to an elevation of at least 4,000 ft. Ferguson says
(J.B.N.H.S., xv, 655) ‘very common in the hills at all elevations’. Bourdillon
(S.F., 1v, 890) considered it’ as one of the commonest birds in hill forest and
not occurring in the low country. In this biotope it is partial to cardamom
sholas where the birds move about usually in pairs on the trunks and boughs
of the lofty shade trees. In localities where evergreen sholas and mixed
deciduous bamboo jungle alternated, this woodpecker was noticeably more
common in the former than in the latter.
It has not been recorded from the Palni Hills and it does not occur in
Ceylon.
Breeding: The ovary of No. 126 (22 January) suepested that it was pre-
paring to breed shortly. The largest follicles measured over 2 mm. in diameter.
No. 646 (23 April) was definitely immature with a poorly ossified skull, and
is was undergoing post-juvenal moult. This data, meagre as it is, supports
the finding of Stewart and Bourdillon (Nidification, i, 808) that the breeding
season in Travancore is from February to April. T. F. Bourdillon found it
breeding in the Ashambu Hills (at 3,000 ft.) in March, whilst both he and
Stewart took eggs from early February to mid-April and rarely into May. A
normal clutch is said to be of two or three eggs (Fauna, iv, 74).
Chrysocolaptes festivus Boddaert. The Black-backed Woodpecker.
Specimens not obtained. I have only a single unconfirmed sight-record of
this woodpecker from Thattakad (200 ft. elevation—4-2-33) and it is evidently
rare in this area. Ferguson has not included it in his Travancore list, neither
has it been recorded from the Palni Hills.
Breeding: According to the Fauna (iv 77) Stewart obtained an egg in
Travancore on 4 February from a hole in a tree in deciduous forest. I do
not know if the specimen of the bird was also collected at the time, fons if
not, how far this record is to be relied mn uo
Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus chersonesus Kloss. Malherbe’s Golden-backed
Woodpecker.
Specimens collected: 111 Q 18-1-33 Munnar ca. 5,000 ft.; 863 ¢ 14-11-33
Kuriarkatti 1,600 ft.; 970 9 12-12-38 Padagiri 3,000 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Urambikera Forest (ca. 1,000 ft.—near Mundakayam) ;
Peermade (8,200 ft.); Tenmalai (500 ft.).
Colours of bare parts: Iris cream colour Sai a pinkish tinge. More
precisely, a fine outer ring reddish, inner pinkish cream colour; bill dark
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 785
horny-brown, plumbeous at chin; mouth pale slaty pink; legs and feet greyish-
green or greenish-plumbeous; claws dark horny.
[ Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
1 o 48 153 — 30.5 mm.
22 OO 43.5-49.5 147-157 89 AEM tabnnte
Other specimens examined :
Brit. Mus. Coll.;: _ Q 18-6-77 Periur, Lower Palnis (Fairbank); 9 Mynall
(Bourdillon); Q ‘Trivandrum (Fry); @ 22-2-14 Anaichardi Estate (Stewart).
The young male and the young female have the colour of the heads as in
their respective sexes, and they otherwise agree with the adults except that
the markings of the breast are not quite so definitly squamated.—H. W.]
This woodpecker is also fairly common in and about evergreen forest tracts.
It inhabits the foothills country as well as the hills up to at least 5,000 ft..
elevation. Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 655) shot it at 6,000 ft. on the High
Range. It was not met with in the plains or coastal belt, either in Travancore
or Cochin. It is fond of the scrub and secondary mixed jungle on the fringe
of evergreen, i.e. the transition zone between the latter and the adjacent
deciduous forest. It runs about on the trunks and branches of the saplings
and trees, both large and small, in search of insects. The call is similar
to but somewhat less harsh than that of Brachypternus.
In the Nelliampathy Hills, Kinloch (J.B.N.H.S8., xxvii, 546) discovered a
woodpecker, probably this species, roosting at night on a bare branch of an
Albizzia_ stipulata tree at an angle of 45 degrees from the trunk. The bird
was squatting along it as if in search of food.
Fairbank (S.F., v, 396) states that this species ranges in the Palnis from
the base to the summit, and that it is probably the commonest woodpecker
in those hills. In Ceylon it is replaced by the race C. g. stricklandi.
Breeding: Specimen No. 970 (12 December) had a mature ovary with
some of the follicles measuring 2-2.5 mm. in diameter. Its oviduct, moreover,
was distended and a prominent incubation patch was present on the abdomen.
This bird was evidently breeding. The gonads of the other two specimens
were in a quiescent state.
Nothing seems to be recorded about its breeding within our area. proper,
but according to the Fauna (iv, 81) in the Nilgiri and other hills of South
India, this race breeds during December, January and February, and occa-
sionally March. Betts (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvii, 200) has also found eggs by the
middle of December in Coorg, at between 3,000 and 5,000 ft. elevation.
Hemicircus canente cordatus Jerdon. The Malabar Heart-spotted Woodpecker.
Specimens collected: 203 Q 3-2-38, 211 Q 4-2-33 Thattakad 200 ft.; 469 ¢
19-3-33 Rajampara 1,350 ft.; 487 Q 24-38-83 Tenmalai 500 ft.; 674 Q 27-4-33
Balamore Estate 2,000 ft.—Ashambu Hills.
Elsewhere noted at: Kimili and Periyar Lake Environs (8,000 ft.); Kuriar-
kutti (1,600 ft.); Padagiri (8,000 ft.).
Colours of bare parts: Iris olive-brown; bill dark horny brown; mouth
greyish-pink; legs, feet and claws blackish-slate in two specimens, brownish-
black in three.
[ Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
266 20.5-22 94-94.5 34-35 17.5-18 mm.
499 17-18.5 84.5-91 30-382 16-18.5 mm.
Additional specimens seen:
_ Brit: Mus. Coll.: 3 Q - 3-12-74, Q 18-12-78, Q 15-12-79 Mynall (Bour-
dillon).
B.N.H.S.. Coll.: [¢] 14-10-94 Mudumallai Forest. (J. P. Cook); [9]
23-8-93 Perriar, Travancore (J. P. Cook).
I find considerable difficulty, in understanding the plumages of this wood-
pecker, but this may be due to wrong sexing of many specimens in collections.
786 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Of the allied H. c. canente Hume wrote (S.F., ii, 62) that the adult male
has the top of the head black with minute white spotting on all but the long
crest feathers. The adult female and the young male, on the other hand—and
presumably also therefore the young female—have the forehead and crown
white or buffy white with the nape and crest black. I have somewhat ex-
panded Hume’s actual words. The young bird has the whole lower plumage
—except of course the pale throat-patch—black, while the adult has the lower
plumage either black washed with dull olive or entirely dull olive. Mr. Salim
Ali’s series, so far as it goes, supports this theory of the plumages and
No, 487 shows the moult from black to olive on the breast.—H.
The Heart-spotted Woodpecker is not uncommon in the evergreen forest
tracts of the two States, in the foothills country as well as up to an elevation
of at least 3,500 ft. The Surveys usually found it in pairs affecting dense
deciduous forest on the edge of evergreen jungle, or more precisely, the
transition zone between the two habitat types, sometimes among bamboo
clumps. I never heard it ‘drumming’ on a stem or branch, but merely tapping
gently on the bark four or five times in succession in order to dislodge
insects from the crevices.
Davison (S.F., vi, 127) has drawn attention to the bristly tufts of feathers
borne on the middle of the lower back by both sexes, which are clotted by
a gummy substance that emits a strong resinous odour. The use of this
tuft and the nature of the glands producing the viscid matter is unknown.
A specimen preserved in alcohol has been forwarded to Dr. Stresemann of
Berlin for histological investigation of the skin of this region, and his report
is awaited. The tongue mechanism of this woodpecker has been recently
studied in detail and comparatively by Joachim Steinbacher (J.f.0., July 19384).
Tt is interesting to note that the genus Hemicircus differs from all other
woodpeckers (except the North American Dryobates villosus) in that the hyoid
horns are curled round the right bulbus oculi, approximating to the condition
described by Stresemann in his Aves (p. 453, fig. 463).
This woodpecker has not been recorded from the Palni Hills and it is not
known to occur in Ceylon.
Breeding: The gonads of the specimens were undeveloped and no indication
as regards breeding was provided by them. In Travancore, C. Primrose
(J.B.N.H.S., xxxv, 207) took eggs from holes excavated by the birds in fencing
posts round a plantation—3 ft. from the ground—on 26 November and 15 Decem-
ber. Usually, however, it is said to make a tunnel in a dead branch of a
treo standing in forest, at considerable heights. Stewart( Nidification, iii, 318)
took two clutches of three eggs each on 8 January and 38 May. It would
appear, therefore, that the breeding season in Travancore is a prolonged one.
Macropicus javensis hodgsonii (Jerdon). The Malabar Great Black Woodpecker.
Specimen collected: 123 d 99-1-33 Santhanpara 3,500 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Thattakad (200 ft.); Camp Deramalai (3,000 ft.—
Panthalam Hills); Kuriarkitti (1,600 ft—Annemalai Hills); Padagiri (3,000 ft.
—Nelliampathy Hills).
Colours of bare parts: Iris yellowish cream colour; bill horny-slate, paler
on sides of lower mandible; legs and feet greyish-slate; claws horny-brown.
[ Measurements :
Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.
230 64.5 2175-222 163-166.5 36 mm.
Additional specimens seen:
Brit. Mus. Coll.: @ no date Mynall (Hume Coll.); OG IET Oe
8-12-74 Mynall, 3,000 ft. (Bourdillon).—H. W.]
This magnificent woodpecker is confined to the evergreen forest biotope in
Travancore and Cochin. The Surveys came across it from the foothills country
as at Thattakad up to an elevation of at least 3,500 ft. It was not uncommon
locally and in patches, but nowhere numerically abundant. Cardamom sholas
and well-shaded tea and coffee plantations constitute favourite haunts, and like
several of the forest-loving woodpeckers described previously, it is most partial
to the densely wooded intermediate zone on the edge of evergreen sholas with
2
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 787
a free intermingling of the evergreen and deciduous types of vegetation, often
including bamboo. The birds were met with in pairs and occasionally singly,
but as they were manifestly breeding at this time these latter may have
been individuals whose mates were on eggs.
The loud metallic call of a single note—clang—is repeated every two seconds
or so while the bird scuttles in short spurts up and around the trunk of a
lofty tree, or during flight from one patch of forest to another. This sound
carries a great distance. The stomach of the specimen contained a fat, juicy
larva of some wood-boring beetle about 14 in. (40 mm.) long.
Neither Fairbank nor Terry have included this species in their Palnis lists,
though it doubtless occurs there in suitable facies. From an ecological point
of view it seems rather curious that this woodpecker does not occur in Ceylon.
Breeding: 'The testes of the specimen (22 January) measured 16xX7 mm.
and it was undoubtedly breeding. According to Kinloch (J.B.N.H.S., xxix, 561)
eggs—normally c/2, not 1l—are laid in the Nelliampathies in January. The
nest-hole is usually excavated at heights of 85-50 ft. from the ground. The
entrance 1s about 6 in. in diameter, the hollow itself being 2-24 ft. deep.
During excavation by the birds the ground for some yards round the base of
the tree becomes littered with fragments of wood. On 7 March, Kinloch
found two naked chicks in a hole 20 ft. up in a Grevillea robusta tree
(J.B.N.H.S., xxvii, 942).
Vivia innominatus avunculorum (Hartert). The Nilgiri Speckled Piculet.
Not met with by the Surveys. Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 656) only shot
a single specimen of this little woodpecker in dense forest on the hills in
South Travancore at ca. 4,000 ft., and saw another on the same day. Both
were on living trees. I have seen a single fragmentary skin in the Trivandrum
Museum labelled *“Chemunji, April 1893 (or 1898?)’ which is probably the one
referred to above.
According to the Fauna (iv, 94) Stewart and Bourdillon both obtained it in
the Travancore hills. It has not been recorded from the Palni Hills and it
does not occur in Ceylon.
FAMILY: CAPITONIDA.
Thereiceryx zeylanicus zeylanicus (Gmel.). The Ceylon Green Barbet.
Specimens collected: 599 g 15-4-33 Aramboli 250 ft.
I have seen a specimen in the Trivandrum Museum from Vembayam ca.
12 miles North-East of Trivandrum town.
Elsewhere noted at: Thattakad (200 ft.); Kartpadanna (ca. 8.l.—uncon-
firmed and doubtful).
Colours of bare parts: ‘Bill reddish, darker at tip; patch round eye yellow;
legs yellow; claws horny’ (Humayun and Pillai).
[The single specimen agrees definitely with the typical race from Ceylon
as do a series of nine ‘Anjango’ specimens in the British Museum. In the
New Fauna (iv, 109-111) the typical race is said to be confined to the southern
quarter of Travancore, and this is again emphasised in Nidification (ili, 326),
while T. z. inornatus is said to occur in the rest of the country. I can find
no evidence in support of this division of races in Travancore. Besides the
above ‘Anjango’ specimens I have seen only two other specimens from 'Travan-
core, a female of the typical race obtained at Kuravenuth (?) by J. P. Cook
on 29-8-93 (Society’s Collection) and a specimen in the British Museum collected
by Surgeon-General Fry at Trivandrum and labelled tornatus. The latter
is, in my opinion, a worn specimen of the typical race and Trivandrum is
of course right in the south of the country.—H. W.]
The Ceylon Green Barbet is, on the whole, not a common bird in Travancore
and Cochin. The Surveys only came across it in the low country where it
was fairly abundant though locally and _ patchily distributed. Ferguson
(J.B.N.H.S., xv, 656) once shot a specimen in the hills at 4,000 ft. elevation,
but this was doubtless exceptional. Its voice and call—Arrr, kr-r-r, kutroo,
kutroo, etc.—is slightly different from that of the much commoner and almost
ubiquitous Small Green Barbet, but still sufficiently like it to confuse the
788 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
hearer. At Thattakad I commonly observed this Barbet feeding on the nectar
of Bombax malabaricum flowers in the usual mixed avian company.
It has not been recorded from the Palni Hills. It is found in Ceylon
in the low country and up to about 4,000 ft. elevation.
Breeding: 'The specimen (15 April) had testes enlarged to 10x5 mm. It
was in fresh plumage and evidently breeding. Nidification (iii, 326) records
that Stewart took two nests, each containing c/3 in the extreme. south of
Travancore on 7 March.
Thereiceryx viridis Boddaert. The Small Green Barbet.
Specimens collected: 7 Q 4-1-8383 Maraiytr 3,500 ft.; 233 Q 7-2-33 Thatta-
kad 200 ft.; 685 ¢ 18-7-83 (Public Gardens); 744 @ 29-7-38 (Kiuttani, ca.
300 ft.); 8383 9 11-8-33 (Pulayanarkotta ca. 200 ft.) Trivandrum Town and
Pea 872 ¢ 16-11-33 Kiuriarkitti 1,600 ft.; 1085 9 28-12-33 Kartipadanna
ca. 8.L.
ilsewhere noted at: Santhanpara (8,500 ft.); Kottayam (ca. §.L.);. Peer-
made 8,200 ft.); Kuamili and Periyar Lake Environs (8,000 ft.); Camp Dera-
malai (8,000 ft.); Rajampara (1,350 ft.); Tenmalai (500 ft.); Balamore Estate
(2,000 ft.); Chalakadi; Wadakkancheri (400 ft.); Nemmara (300 ft.); Padagiri
(3,000 ft.).
Colours of bare parts: Iris chestnut-brown or dark brown; eyelids or cir-
cumorbital rim slaty-black; bill brownish flesh-colour, browner on culmen,
plumbeous at gape; mouth pinkish-grey; legs and feet greenish-grey; claws
horny-brown.
[Additional specimens examined:
Brit. Mus. Coll.: A series. from the Palnis (Fairbank); a series from
Mynall (Bourdillon); @Q -3-72 Glengarnock (Bourdillon); ¢@ 21-2-70 Cardamom
Hills (W. Davison).
B.N.H.S. Coll.: Q 9-6-9838, ¢ 22-6-93 Palnis.
H. Whistler Coll.: 0? 12-5-28 Nelliampathies 3,600 ft. (Kinloch).
There is a complete post-nuptial moult, starting about May and June, but
no spring moult. Worn birds are paler in colour especially on the crown and
breast, the latter becoming much whiter with the wearing off of the brown
margins to the feathers.
The juvenile plumage is similar to that of the adult except that the
streaking of the head, neck and breast is not so well-defined and the head is
rather paler.—H. W.] |
The Small Green Barbet is a very common species throughout Travancore
and Cochin, being found in the low country as well as up to at least 4,000 ft.
in the hills. It frequents all types of forest and also gardens and groves in
the neighbourhood of towns, villages and cultivation, and its monotonous call
of kutroo-kutroo etc. may be heard on all sides. In March it was noted as
particularly obstreperous, calling unceasingly all day long, and sometimes also
during moonlit nights. As soon as one bird begins to call he is almost inva-
riably joined in by another from some distance, and this uneven duet is
kept up for a considerable time. The birds: keep singly or in pairs, but are
most often met gregariously—frequently twenty or more—on some Ficus. or
other tree in fruit where they foregather in company with numerous other
frugivorous species. Their food consists to a very large extent of Banyan or
Peepal figs and those of the various other species of Ficus. Lantana berries
are likewise eaten, and I have even observed one devouring a green grass-
hopper. In coffee plantations they do considerable damage to the ripening
‘cherries’, the epicarp of which they greatly relish. Nectar of Hrythrina
lithosperma and Grevillea robusta is also regularly sought after, and from the
pollen adhering to the forehead and throat feathers of specimens shot off these
flowers, it is evident that they assist in cross-pollination.
Fairbank (S.F., v, 896) writes that in the Palni Hills this barbet is found
abundantly in groves and trees at all elevations. It ‘does not occur in Ceylon.
Breeding: Specimen No. 1085 (28 December) was undoubtedly breeding.
Its largest ovarian follicle measured 4 mm. in diameter. In No. 7 (4 January)
the follicles. were about 1 mm. in diameter and appeared to be enlarging. On
31 January a bird was observed clinging outside a nest-hole in a dead branch
THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 789
of a tree standing on the edge of forest. The gonads of the July-August
specimens were in a quiescent state, and the birds were undergoing post-
nuptial moult. According to Kinloch (Nidification, 11, 331) it breeds in the
Nelliampathy Hills in February. F. W. Bourdillon obtained two unfledged
chicks from a nest in the South Travancore hills early in April (S.F., iv, 391).
Xantholema hemacephala indica (Latham). The Crimson-breasted Barbet.
Specimens collected: 52 Q 10-1-33 Maraiyur 3,500 ft.; 684 Q 17-7-33
(Beach); 758 ¢ 31-7-33 (Akktlam ca. 150 ft.); 763 Q 1-8-83 (Public Gardens)
Trivandrum Town and Environs.
Elsewhere noted at: Kottayam (ca. §.L.); Cape Comorin; Aramboli
(250 ft.); Kuriarkutti (1,600 ft.); Wadakkancheri (400 ft.); Trichir.
Colours of bare parts: Iris dark brown (‘greyish-brown’—Pillai); eyelids
coral-red; bill horny black, cream coloured at chin; mouth greyish-pink; legs
and feet dull coral-red; claws black.
[ Measurements :
we ill Wing. Tail.
13 18 fe) 33 mm.
3 99 18.5-19 77-80.5 31.5-33.5 mm.
The only other Travancore specimens seen are four unsexed birds with
no precise data.
- A complete post-nuptial moult, beginning about July. No spring moult.
The juvenile is similar to the adult but the green is rather greyish in tint.
The forehead, crown and nape are uniform with the rest of the upper parts,
i.e. they lack the red, black and grey of the adult. The yellow above and
below the eye is paler, the black behind the eye and ear-coverts and on the
moustachial streak is duller and less in extent; the chin and throat are
greyish-white, tinged with yellow round the chin and sides; breast greyish-
green, merging into the streaking of the lower breast and flanks. The post-
juvenal moult is presumably complete as the first-year bird is in no way
distinguishable from the adult.—H. W.]
With the exception of Maraiyir, where it was common, the Coppersmith was
only met with by the Surveys in the low country below 500 ft. Ferguson
-(J.B.N.H.S., xv, 657) says that at times it may be found in the hills up to
1,500 ft. elevation. It frequents lightly wooded terrain about cultivation,
groves of trees near villages and human habitations, also the gardens and
compounds of the larger towns. Its diet consists principally of Peepal and
Banyan figs, and large numbers of birds collect on the trees laden with these
fruits. .
In the Palni Hills, according to Fairbank (S.F., v, 397), it is common at
the base and up to 4,000 ft. I do not know if Fairbank obtained specimens,
but if not I suspect he may have confused it with malabarica. Confirmation
is desirable. It occurs in the drier areas of Ceylon.
Breeding: The ovary of No. 684 (17 July) has been drawn by Mr. Pillai
as distinctly granular with some of the follicles measuring over 1 mm. in
diameter. The specimen, however, was undergoing post-nuptial moult and so
had apparently lately finished breeding. According to Ferguson, T. F. Bour-
dillon obtained eggs near Courtallum (at ca. 1,500 ft.) in March, but I am
not sure if this same record is not referred by F. W. Bourdillon (S.F., iv, 392)
to the Crimson-throated species !
On 8 April (Cape Comorin) Humayun Abdulali found a nest excavated in a
vertical Drumstick (Moringa oleifera) branch at a height of 15 ft. It contained
c/2 slightly set. The eggs measured 24X18 mm. and 23x16 mm. respectively.
They were laid in the hollow about 6 in. deep, on chips of wood which had
apparently fallen in during excavation. Humayun noted that the chips were
wet (in spite of the dry weather) as was also the abdomen of the sitting bird.
Xantholoema rubricapilla malabarica(Blyth). The Crimson-throated Barbet.
Specimens collected: 199 Q 24-1-33 Santhanpara 3,500 ft.; 502 Q 27-3-33
Tenmalai 500 ft.
Elsewhere noted at: Thattakad (200 ft.); Kimili (8,000 ft.); Balamore
Estate (2,000 ft.—Ashambu Hills); Padagiri (3,000 ft.—Nelhampathy Hills).
790 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXYVIII
Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill upper mandible horny-brown, lower
pale flesh colour at chin, plumbeous at gape and sides except near terminal
portion, which brownish; mouth greyish-pink; legs and feet coral pink; claws
horny-brown.
[Other specimens seen from ‘Travancore:
Sparrow Coll.: o? 14-5-14 Cardamom Hills.
Brit. Mus. Coll.: Q 21-2-70 Cardamom Hills 4,000 ft. (Also four birds
with no proper data).
Measurements:
Bill. Wing. Tail.
BOme) 17-18 80-87.5 35-39 mm.
Tor a note on the juvenile plumage and my reason for considering this a
race of the Ceylon bird, see EKastern Ghats Survey Report (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvii,
517).—H. W.]
IT agree with I’erguson (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 657) that Bourdillon’s description
of the status of this barbet in Travancore is entirely misleading. I would
go further and say that in my experience both in Travancore and in Cochin,
the Crimson-throated Barbet more or less completely replaces the Crimson-
breasted species in evergreen biotope, both in the foothills and higher up—to
4,000 ft. at least. A scrutiny of the localities where the two species were
met with by the Surveys will show this clearly. It is common in suitable
localities, and like its low country congener, resorts to feed gregariously on
the various Fici in company with Green Pigeons, Hornbills and numerous
other frugivorous birds.
I found its voice and call indistinguishable from the foregoing species.
Fairbank’s Palni lst (S.F., v) omits this species altogether. I suggest
what has probably happened is that in giving the range of haemacephala as
‘Common at base and up to 4,000 ft.’ he has muddled up the two species,
the one being found presumably in the drier country about the base and the
other in evergreen biotope higher up. Confirmation is desirable.
The typical race X. r. rubricapilla replaces it in Ceylon where it is said
to be a bird of the low country, extending up to 2,500 ft.
Breeding: Both the specimens (24 January and 27 March) had conspicu-
ously granular ovaries, and in the latter a prominent incubation patch was
present besides. On 5 March (Kumili) an individual was observed emerging
from a nest-hole in the stump of a vertical Hrythrina branch, about 20 ft. up,
and it was evidently breeding.
The record of eggs obtained by Bourdillon early in March (Nidification,
iii, 340) is doubtful as Mr. Whistler has shown (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvii, 517).
(To be continued).
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS ORCHIDS OF INDIA.
BY
je HS GAIUS 2Si0e. eS:
The ORCHIDACEAE include about 610 genera with over 8,000
species, mostly natives of tropical and subtropical countries, less
frequent in temperate countries, a few being found in cold moun-
tainous regions.
The medicinal and poisonous Orchids of the world belong to
88 distinct genera: —AcAMPE (Indo-Malaya, Africa); AcERAs (Medi-
terranean); ANACAMPTIS (Europe, North Africa); ANGRAECUM (La
Reunion, Mauritius); AnseLuLia (Tropical Africa); APLOSTELLIS (Old
World tropics and subtropics); Bietra (Tropical America); CoRAL-
LoRHIZA (North America); CREMASTRA (Japan); CymBipium (Tropical
Asia, Africa, Australia); Cypripepium (Northern cold and temperate
regions, Mexico); Cyrtopopium (America); DrENnpropium (Tropical
Asia to Japan, Australia, Polynesia); Desmorricuum (Indo-China,
Malay Islands); Epwenprum (Tropical America); Eutoputa (Africa,
Indo-Malaya); GALEANDRA (Tropical America); GaAstTropiA (Indo-
Malaya, Japan, China, Australia); GoopyErA (Hurope, Asia, Mas-
carene Islands, North America); Govern (Tropical America); Gym-
NADENIA (Hurope, Asia); Hapenarta (whole world); Herarria
(Africa, Indo-Malaya, Polynesia); Lrmoporum (Mediterranean); Lis-
socuiLtus (Africa); Luisia (Indo-Malaya, Polynesia); Muicrostyiis
(cosmopolitan; chiefly tropical); Monaprenrum (Africa); Nerorrra
(Temperate Kurope, Temperate Asia); OBERoNIA (Old World Tropics,
Japan); Opurys (Kurope, Mediterranean); Orcuis (Mediterranean,
Temperate Europe, Asia, North America, North Africa); Puatan-
THERA (North America, Tropical Asia, Africa); RuyNcHOSTYLIS
(Indo-Malaya); Saccotasium (Africa, Indo-Malaya, China); Vanpa
(Asia, Australasia); VANILLA (All tropical countries); ZEUXINE (Tro-
pical Asia, Africa).
The medicinal and poisonous Orchids of India belong to 15
distinct genera: —ACAMPE, CyMBIDIUM, DENDROBIUM, DESMOTRICHUM,
EuLopHiaA, HapenariaA, Hetagria, LuisiA, OBERONIA, OrcHIS, Rayn-
CHOSTYLIS, SACCOLABIUM, VANDA, VANILLA, ZEUXINE.
A. Anther 1, opercular. Pollinia waxy, 1-4 in each cell:
1. Column footless. Lip entire or lobed, with a nectar
depression at base - = ... OBERONIA.
2. Column with a long foot. Lip adnate to the pro-
duced foot of the column, contracted at the base
or clawed:
a. Flowers fascicled .... DESMOTRICHUM.
b. Flowers solitary or in fascicles or racemes... DENDROBIUM.
B. Anther 1, posticous. Pollinia waxy, usually 2 or 4:
1. Scape usually leafless. Petals like the dorsal sepal;
lip gibbous or saccate, rarely spurred EULOPHIA.
2. Sepals and petals subequal, spreading; lobes of the
lip embracing the unwinged column. Leafy
stems short, pseudobulbous ue ... CYMBIDIUM.
10
792 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIti
3. Sepals and petals fleshy, widely spreading from a
narrow base. [Flowers large, in simple racemes. VANDA.
4. Sepals and petals subequal. Columns short stout,
no foot. Flowers small pink or white crowded
in dense racemes showy; lip entire ... .... RHYNCHOSTYLIS.
5. Sepals and petals widely spreading. Column without
appendages. Flowers small, in simple or
branched racemes; lip 8-lobed with callus in the
spur mouth SACCOLABIUM.
6. Sepals and petals thick, concave. Flowers small,
crowded in a short rigid, simple or branched
peduncle; lip obscurely 8-lobed, no callus ... ACAMPE.
7. Sepals subequal or the depressed dorsal smaller.
Petals narrower often longer, spreading. Column
much shorter than the lp, truncate. Flowers
few in short lateral spikes. Lip sessile on column
base, divided into basal and apical parts .... LUISIA.
C. Stem not bulbous. Anther 1, posticous, opercular or
erect and persistent. Pollen granular, powdery or
in small masses:
. Sepals and petals subequal, spreading. Column
long, anther broad “a6 a ... WANILLA.
. Sepals free, dorsal with the petals cohering in a
hood; lip with dilated end. Column very short
with lamellar or conic processes in front ... QEUXINE.
3. Upper sepal usually adnate to petals pubescent;
lip without a dilated end. Column rather large
with long rostellar arms ae ... HETAERIA.
—
be
D. Anther 1, posticous, erect, inclined or reflexed. Pollinia
1 rarely 2 in each cell, granular, produced into short
caudicles. Terrestrial herbs:
1. Lip spurred. Glands of the pollinia both in one pouch ORCcHIS.
2. Lip spurred, sepals equalling or exceeding the petals.
Flowers spicate or racemose; rostellum not
elongate oes ae .... HABENARIA.
It is chiefly as sources of SALEP that orchids have become
therapeutically famous, and it is as sources of salep that some
species are still retained in the pharmacopoeias of Austria, Belgium,
Germany, Holland, Japan, Norway, Portugal, Russia and Swit-
zerland.
Salep is the name given to the tubers or tuberous roots of
various orchids, collected in the flowering season, immersed in
boiling water for a short time, and dried. At present the salep
of European commerce is prepared chiefly in the Levant, but to
some extent in Germany and other parts of Europe. The tubers
are collected from wild plants growing in Asia Minor, South-west
Asia, France and Germany. The salep of the Indian bazars is
produced in the hills of Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Persia and
Bokhara; a part of it is obtained from the Nilgiri Hills and also
from Ceylon.
From ancient times salep has been considered to possess great
invigorating virtues, and has hence been extensively prescribed
both in Europe and the east for recruiting the exhausted vitality
of aged and enervated persons. An infusion or decoction was
taken generally in England as a beverage before the introduction
of tea and coffee. Sassafras chips were sometimes added for giving
the drink a flavour.
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS ORCHIDS OF INDIA 793
Though its medieval and oriental reputation as an aphrodisiac
has been irretrievably lost in the West, salep is still considered
highly nutritive and a most useful article of diet for those who
suffer from chronic diarrhoea. All scientific opinion, however,
coneurs in the belief that salep is devoid of medicinal virtue and
that it is highly doubtful if its nourishing properties are as great
as they are supposed to be.
In the east, nevertheless, faith in the efficacy of the drug is
still unshaken and the dry tuber has an immense reputation as an
aphrodisiac, a nervine restorative, and a fattener. It is much
used by vaids and hakims in conjunction with other nervine
tonics. It is also considered a very nourishing article of diet,
and is given mixed with milk and flavoured with spices and sugat
Tn fact salep is so very highly esteemed and is in such great
demand that ‘imitation salep’ is largely prepared for the Indian
trade. Wealthy Orientals are known to have paid a handsome
price for pounded potatoes and gum. ‘Royal Salep’, said to be
much used as a food in Afghanistan, has been identified as the
product of a hhaceous plant, Allium macleaniti Baker.
The Order is remarkable for the absence of poisonous properties;
only in so far, however, as trifles may be neglected, for three
species are considered toxic. The natives of Portuguese East
Africa say that a lquid extract of Monadenium lugardac N. FE. Br.
is poisonous and produces vomiting; the leaves and stem of the
Malayan Vanilla griffithii Reich. f. contain an irritating latex;
reports of violent dermatitis in workmen handling vanitla beans,
Vanilla planifolia Andrews, are not uncommon.
It is no less interesting to note that four orchidy are used in
the treatment of various forms of insanity. Natives in the Mpika
district of Northern Rhodesia administer an infusion of the leaves
and stems of Ansellia humilis Bull. as a remedy for madness;
American Indians give a decoction of the Swamp Orehid, Simo-
dorum giganteum Thunb., to combat manias; on the Malabar
Coast the powdered flowers of Vanda spathulata Spreng. are said
to abate frenzy; and in France the fruit of Vanilla planifolia
Andrews is prescribed in order to overcome melancholia.
ACAMPE,
This genus contains 12 species, mostly Indo-Malayan and
Chinese, a few African.
Acampe wightiana Lindl. (= Saccolabium praemorsum Hook. f.
=§. Wightianum Hook. f.) is found throughout Bengal, the
Western Peninsula, and Ceylon.
The plant is a bitter tonic. It is used in rheumatism.
Canarese: Marabale—; Malayalam: Taliyamaravala—; Marathi: WKanbher---.
CYMBIDIUM.
The 80 species which constitute this genus inhabit Africa, Asia,
Australia, extending as far as Japan.
7194 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
Cymbidium aloifolium Swartz occurs in Nepal, the Terai, tro-
pical Himalaya, eastwards to Sikkim, Western and Southern India,
Ceylon.
The plant is said to be emetic and purgative.
English: Boat Orchid—.
DENDROBIUM.
Epiphytic herbs belonging to about 750 species and distributed
throughout Tropical Asia, Japan, Australia and Polynesia.
D. ceraia Lindl., D. moniliforme Swartz, D. nobile Lindl. are
used medicinally in China; D. reptans Franch. and Sav. is simi-
larly used in Japan.
Two Indian species are credited with therapeutic properties:
1. Stems tufted, 12-18 in. long, usually slender.
Flowers in lateral and terminal racemes 3-6 in. long D. ovatum.
2. Pseudobulbs tufted, cylindric or dilate upwards,
2 in. long. Flowers 1 or 2 from terminal tuft of
bracts a ay oa .. D. pumilum.
1. Dendrobium ovatum (Willd.) Kranzl. (=D. chlorops Lindl.)
is found. on the Western Ghats and the Western Coast of the
Madras Presidency.
The plant is an emollient. The juice of the fresh plant is
given internally for all kinds of stomach ache; it excites the bile
and acts as a laxative to the intestines.
Malabar: Maravar—; Marathi: Nagli—.
2. Dendrobium pumilum Roxb. is very common on orchard
trees in the Malay Peninsula whence it extends to Burma and
Borneo.
The Malays use it as a drug in dropsy.
Malay: Sakat kalumbai—.
DESMOTRICHUM.
The genus consists of about 80 Indo-Malayan species.
Desmotrichum fimbriatum Bl. (=Dendrobium macraet Lindl.)
inhabits the Western Ghats of the Bombay and Madras Presi-
dencies, Ceylon, Sikkim, the Khasia Hills, Burma, the Malay
Peninsula, whence it spreads to Siam, Borneo and the Philippine
Tslands.
Sanskrit writers describe the plant as cold, mucilaginous, light,
strengthening, and as a remedy for disorders of the bile, blood
and phlegm. The whole plant is used in decoction along with
other drugs supposed to have similar properties. The fruit is said
to be an aphrodisiac.
The plant is prescribed by Sushruta, in combination with other
drugs, for the treatment of snake-bite and scorpion-sting; but
Mhaskar and Caius have proved experimentally that it is not an
antidote to either snake-venom or scorpion-venom,
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS ORCHIDS OF INDIA 795
The plant is occasionally used alone as a stimulant and tonic.
As a tonic it is given in debility due to seminal losses.
Bengal: Jibai, Jibanti—; Gujerati: Jivanti, Radarudi, Wajhanti—; Hindi:
Jiban, Joivanti, Sag—; Marathi: Jivanti—; Sanskrit: Bhadra, Jiva, Jivabhadra,
Jivada, Jivani, Jivaniya, Jivanti, Jivapatri, Jivapushpi, Jivavardhini,
Jivavrisha, Jivdatri, Jivya, Kanjika, Kshudrajiva, Madhushvasa, Madhusrava,
Mangalya, Mrigaratika, Payaswini, Pranada, Putrabhadra, Raktangi, Shaka-
shreshtha, Shashashimbika, Shringati, Srava, Sukhankari, Supringala, Yashas-
kari, Yashasya—.
EULOPHIA.
This genus numbers 200 species distributed through the warn
countries of the Old World; they are especially numerous in
Africa and Indo-Malaya.
E. arenaria Bohn., EH. flaccida Schltr., EH. hians Spreng.,
E. robusta Rolfe are used medicinally in South Africa.
Among Eulophias which furnish salep to the Indian bazaars
may be mentioned EH. campestris Wall., EH. herbacea Lindl., E.
nuda Lindl. and EF. pratensis Lindl.
A. Column produced into a foot. Flowers large; lateral
sepals inserted on the spur of the lip... .. EH. nuda.
B. Column not produced into a foot:
1. Scape 7-12 in. long, sheathed at intervals by loose
membranous _ bracts. Sepals linear-lanceolate.
Petals narrower than the sepals, oblanceolate .... H. campestris.
2. Scape 1-3 ft. long with appressed acute sheaths.
Sepals elliptic-oblong. Petals shorter and broader
than the dorsal sepal, elliptic-oblong, obtuse.
Lip broader than long : ws :
3. Scape stout, 2-8 ft. high with large acuminate
sheaths. Sepals linear-lanceolate. Petals oblong-
elliptic, obtuse or subacute. Lip longer than
broad oe = ... . herbacea.
E. pratensis.
1]. Eulophia campestris Wall. is found in the sub-Himalayan
tracts of Rohilkhand and North Oudh, Nepal, Sikkim, Chittagong,
Bengal, Upper Burma, Baluchistan and Afghanistan.
Ayurvedists consider the tuber tonic, stomachic, aphrodisiac
and alterative; they commonly give it to stimulate appetite and
to purify the blood in heart troubles.
Yunani doctors credit the tuber with tonic, aphrodisiac and
astringent properties; they consider it useful in stomatitis, purulent
cough and paralytic conditions.
The plant furnishes a salep which is much prized by Indians
as a tonic and aphrodisiac.
Arabic: Khusyu-uth-thalab—; Bengal: Salibmisri, Sungmisrie—; Gujerati:
Salum—; Hindi: Salibmisri—; Marathi: Salamishri—; Nepal: Hattipaila—;
Persian: Sungmisri—; Punjab: Salibmisri—; Sanskrit: Amrita, Amritodbhava,
Jiva, Jivani, Pranabhrita, Pranada, Sudhamuli, Virakanda—; Santal: Bonga-
taini—; Urdu: Salabmisri—.
2. Eulophia herbacea Lindl. is found in the Western Hima-
laya and Western Peninsula; it is met with in Kanara, Konkan
and Gujerat.
The tuber furnishes an esteemed kind of salep.
796 JOURNAL,. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
3. Eulophia nuda Lindl. occurs in Tropical Himalaya from
Nepal eastwards to Sikkim, in Chota Nagpur, Assam, the Khasia
Hills, Manipur, Burma, the Western Peninsula and Ceylon.
Hindu practitioners use the tuber in tuberculous glands of the
neck, tumours, bronchitis and diseases of the blood; they say it
gives appetite and prescribe it accordingly.
The pounded fresh plant is applied to boils and abscesses to
promote maturation and suppuration.
The powdered tuber is said to be an antidote for poisoning; it
is administered internally to those suffering from intestinal worms.
The plant is a source of salep.
Bengal: Budbar—; Hindi: Ambarkand, Gourma—; Marathi: Ambarakand,
Bhuikakali, Manakanda—; Sanskrit: Balakanda, -Granthidala, Kandalata,
Malakanda, Panktikanda, Trishikhadala—.
4. Eulophia pratensis Lindl. is apparently endemic in the
Western Peninsula; it is found in the pasture-lands of the Deccan,
in the Sholapur District and in Belgaum.
The tubers are applied externally and given internally to
remove scrofulous glands in the neck. They are also administered
internally as a worm remedy. They make up a large portion of
the salep of Western India.
Marathi: Satavari—.
HABENARIA.
The genus contains about 500 species, widely diffused through
tropical and subtropical regions.
An infusion of the root of H. foliosa Reichb. fil. is used as an
emetic by the Zulus.
Habenaria commelinifolia Wall. occurs in the outer ranges of
Western Himalaya from the Punjab to Kumaon up to 5,000 ft.,
extending eastwards to Parasnath, Chota Nagpur, Bihar and
Upper Burma, Central India, Konkan, Western Ghats, Deccan,
North Kanara and Bababudan Hills.
The plant is a source of salep.
Sadani: Jadu, Jaitjadu—.
HETAERIA.
The 40 species which make up this genus inhabit Africa, Indo-
Malaya and Polynesia.
Hetaeria obliqua Bl. is common in the woods of the Malay
Peninsula, extending thence to Sumatra and Borneo.
The plant is used by the Malays for poulticing sores.
Malay: Poko tumbak hutan—.
Luisi.
The genus numbers about 15 species, mostly tropical Asiatic,
a few Austrahan.
Luisia tenuifolia Bl. inhabits the Western Peninsula and
Ceylon.
The pounded plant is used as an emollient. It is applied as
a poultice to boils, abscesses and tumours,
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS ORCHIDS OF INDIA 797
OBERONIA.
The genus consists of about 60 species, tropical Asiatic,
Australian and Pacific.
Oberonia anceps Lindl. is common throughout the Malay
Peninsula; it extends to Tenasserim and Java.
The Malays use the leaves for poulticing.
Malay: Sakat lidah buaya—.
ORCHIS.
The 70 species of this genus are found in Europe, temperate
Asia, North Africa and America.
The following are used in Europe for the preparation of salep:—
O. bifolia Linn., O. fusca Linn., O. hircina Linn., O. latifolia
Linn., O. laxiflora Lam., O. maculata Linn., O. mascula Linn.,
O. militaris Linn., O. morio Linn., O. pyramidalis Linn., O. sam-
bucina Linn., O. simia Lam.
Orchis latifolia Linn. occurs in the Western Temperate Hima-
laya from Nepal to Kashmir, and Western Tibet at altitudes
between 8,000 and 12,000 ft. It extends to Northern Asia and
through Afghanistan to North Africa and the Atlantic. It usually
grows in damp meadows and marshes.
The tubers are expectorant and astringent. They yield salep.
English: Marsh Orchid—; Spanish: Palma Christi—.
RHYNCHOSTYLIS.
The genus consists of 2 Indo-Malayan species.
Rhynchostylis retusa Bl. is distributed throughout © India,
Burma, the Malay Peninsula, Siam, Java, the Philippine Islands
and Ceylon.
The fresh plant is used as an emolhent.
SACCOLABIUM.
This genus comprises about 200 species, inhabitants of Africa,
Indo-Malaya and China.
Saccolabium papillosum Lindl. is found in Bengal and the
lower Himalaya Mountains from Sikkim eastwards, Assam, the
Gangetic Delta and Tenasserim.
The root is considered a specific for rheumatism. It is com-
monly used as a substitute for sarsaparilla and for Vanda tessellata.
In the Konkan the roots are used as a cooling remedy.
Marathi: Nakul, Rasna—; Sanskrit: Gandhata, Nakuli, Rasna—.
VANDA.
The genus consists of about 30 species found in Tropical Asia
and Australia.
Two Indian species are credited with therapeutic properties.
1. Flowers 1.2 in. diam., golden yellow... ... V. spathulata.
2, Flowers 1.5-2 in. diam., tessellated with brown ... V. tessellata,
7198. JOURNAL, -BOMBAY NATURAL.HIST. SOCIETY, Vol: - XXXVIII
1. Vanda spathulata Spreng. occurs in the Western Penin-
sula from Malabar to Travancore and Ceylon.
On the Malabar Coast the juice of the plant is supposed to
temper the bile and abate frenzy. The golden yellow flowers,
reduced to powder, are given in consumption, asthma and mania.
Malayalam: Ponnamponmaraiva—.
2. Vanda tessellata Hook. (=V. Roxburghii R. Br.) is found
in Bengal, Chota Nagpur, Bihar, the Central Provinces, the
Western Peninsula, Travancore and Ceylon.
Ayurvedists consider the root antipyretic and an antidote for
poisoning; they use it in dyspepsia, bronchitis, inflammations,
rheumatic pains, hiccough, tremors and diseases of the abdomen.
Yunani practitioners hold it to be laxative, and tonic to the
liver and the brain; they prescribe it for bronchitis, piles, lum-
bago, toothache and boils on the scalp; they further say that it
lessens inflammation and heals fractures.
Rasna root is commonly prescribed in a variety of forms for
rheumatism and allied disorders. It enters into the composition
of several medicated oils for external application in rheumatic
pains and diseases of the nervous system.
In Chota Nagpur, the leaves pounded and made into a paste
are applied to the body during fever, and the juice is introduced
into the aural opening for inflammation of the middle ear.
The plant is occasionally given as a cure for snake-bite. Com-
bined with other drugs it forms some of Charaka’s and Sushruta’s
snake and scorpion remedies. Caius and Mhaskar have, however,
shown experimentally that whether single or compounded it is not
an antidote to either snake- or scorpion-venom.
Arabic: Kharkittan—; Bengal: Nai, Rasna—; Bombay: Rasna—; Canarese:
Bandanike—; Gujerati: Rasno—; Hindi: Banda, Nai, Perasara, Persara, Rasna,
Vanda—; Marathi: Rasna—; Sanskrit: Atirasa, Bhujangakshi, Chhatraki,
Dronagandhika, Elaparni, Gandhanakuh, Muktarasa, Nakuleshta, Nakuli, Palan-
kapa, Rasadhya, Rasana, Rasna, Rasya, Sarpagandha, Shreyasi, Sugandha,
Sugandhimula, Surasa, Suvaha, Vandaka, Vriksharuha, Yuktarasa—; Santal:
Darebanki—; Telugu: Chittiveduri, Kanapabadanika, Mardaru, Vadanika—;
Urdu: Banda—.
VANILLA.
The genus consists of about 20 species; to be found in all
tropical countries.
Vanilla planifolia Andrews and other species furnish the well-
known vanilla pods of commerce, used as a flavouring ingredient
and sometimes as a tonic,, carminative and aphrodisiac. The pod
of V. planifolia is official in the pharmacopoeias. of Austria,
France, Japan, Portugal, Switzerland and Turkey.
Vanilla griffithii Reichb. fil. is common in the forests of the
Malay Peninsula and the Karimun isles.
The leaves and stem, which contain an irritating latex, are
mashed and applied to the hair for strengthening it.
fever.
Malay: Akar punubal, Telinah kerbau bukit—,
The flowers pounded with water are rubbed on the body for
THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS ORCHIDS OF INDIA 199
ZEUXINE.
This genus numbers about 20 species, tropical Asiatic and
African.
Zeuxine strateumatica Schlechter (=Z. sulcata Lindl.) is
found throughout the greater part of India up to 5,000 ft. on the
outer Himalayan ranges; it also occurs in the Malay Peninsula
and Ceylon, and is distributed to Afghanistan, China, Japan, Java
and the Philippine Islands.
The tubers are used as salep.
Bengal: Shwethuhi—.
BUTTERFLIES OF SECUNDERABAD.
BY
D. F. SANDERS.
I have read with interest the article, by Lt.-Col. W. E. M.
Logan Home, published in volume xxxvii, No. 4, of the Society’s
Journal, on the Butterflies occurring in the neighbourhood of
Secunderabad.
I collected in the neighbourhood from the Spring of 1927 to
June 1929 and, while I can confirm that all the species mentioned
by Col. Logan Home were found by me to occur there, I would
mention that the following were also taken by me in and around
Hyderabad (Deccan).
I found the best places to be gardens, European and Indian,
mango topes, and low scrub jungle; also grass lands and the sur-
roundings of cultivated land, especially where, as often in the
Deccan, small outcrops of granite boulders occur, surrounded by a
fringe of prickly pear, which the wandering herds of goats are
unable to penetrate and the butterflies’ food-plants, which are
elsewhere largely destroyed by them, are thus able to survive.
Another good place was the compound of the Imperial Bank of
India at Hyderabad, which, in addition to a large garden, contained
several acres of waste land with a plantation of toddy-palms;
several species seemed to have made this land their habitat, owing
to the fondness of the imagines for the toddy extracted from the
trees, and by smearing the trunks of these trees with a mixture
of toddy and gur, I was able to attract a fair number of species
which were otherwise seldom seen.
My collecting was necessarily confined to this compound,
except for occasional Sunday and holiday mornings, but I believe
that I succeeded in securing all the species available in the District.
Additions to Col. Logan Home’s List of the Butterflies of
Secunderabad and the District.
A. PAPILIONIDA.
Chilasa clytia clytia vay. dissimilis. Very rare.
Papilio crino. Very rare.
Pathysa nomius nomius. Very rare.
Zelides agamemnon menides. Common in February and March and again
during the monsoon.
B. PrIeRIpDz.
Leptosia nina nina. Not rare.
Delias hyparete ethire. This butterfly appears to get up very early in the
morning and to spend its day flying around, or resting on, the tops of high
trees, The few I caught were mostly taken in the evening, when the butterfly
BUTTERFLIES OF SECUNDERABAD 801
comes down to settle for the night. Rare. (This appears to be the first record
of this insect occurring in the central parts of Southern India.)
Appias libythea libythea. Very rare.
,, albina darada. I only found two or three, in November 1928, in the
Bank garden and saw no others elsewhere then or at any other time. Very
rare.
Catopsilia florella gnoma. Very common.
Eurema laeta laeta. Very common, in all seasonal forms, especially on
grass lands.
Co‘otis amata modesta. Not rare.
,, e€ucharis. Common.
Hebomoia glaucippe australis. [ only saw two, flying fast and high, which I
was unable to catch, but they were unmistakable. Very rare.
C. DANAIDA.
Denais aglea aglea. Very rare.
Euploea coreta coreta. Rare.
crassa kollari. Very rare.
)
D. SATYRIDA.
Mycalesis perseus typhius. Not rare.
o visala visala. Very rare.
Lethe rohria nilgiriensis. Rare. I caught a fairnumberat my toddy mixture
otherw se seldom seen.
Orsotrioena medus medus. Very rare. This appears to be the first record of
the occurrer.ce of this insect from further south than the Central Provinces,
from which Bingham records it.
Elymnias hypermnestra undularis. Very rare. Taken in the Bank garden in
Spring. Bingham records this insect from Central India, though according to
Evats it would not appear to occur south of Bengal.
EF, NyYMPHALIDA.
Charaxes polyxena imna. Very rare. One male and one female only taken at
my toddy imixture.
Euthalia garuda meridionalis, Very rare. Seen occasionally in gardens and
mango topes, but the specimens [ succeeded in catching were in such a bad
condition that it was impossible to judge whether they were race ‘ meridionalis’,
or, as I believe, race ‘ anagama ’.
Liminitis procris calidasa. Very rare.
Pantoporia perius. Very rare.
Neptis columella nilgirica. Rare; only seen in February and March,
,, hordonia hordonia. Very rare.
Byblia ilithyia. Not rare, but very local. Occurs wherever its food plant is
found, on the edges of cultivated land and on grass lands, in the Spring and
again during the monsoon.
Ergolis merione merione. Very common, especially wherever Castor Seed
crops are grown. Came to the toddy mixture.
G. ERycrInipaz.
Abisara echerius suffusa. Very rare,
802 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
H. LyYcaEniIpD&.
Talicada nyseus nyseus. Rare.
Tarucus ? . Common enough, but as, when I collected, I was unaware
of the division of ‘ Theophrastus’ into several distinct species, I cannot
hazard an opinion as to which species occur.
Azanus ubaldus. Common.
rf uranus. Common.
,, jeSsous gamra. Rare and very local.
Everes parrhasius parrhasius. Very rare.
Lycenopsis puspa gisca. Very rare.
Chilades laius laius. Common.
Zizeeria maha ossa. Not rare.
, gaika. Common.
Euchrysops cnejus. Common.
a pandava pandava. Common.
Jamides alecto eurysaces. Very rare.
Loxura atymnus atymnus. Very rare.
Tajurla cippus cippus, Very rare. I never saw one flying, but a servant
caught one in the Bank garden, and brought it to me fresh, but covered with
finyer-prints.
Virachola isocrates. Common ; the larve could always be found, in numbers,
at suitable seasons of the year, in pomegranates.
The following, included in Col. Logan Home’s list, were found
at the toddy mixture spread on the toddy-palms : —
Lethe europa ragalva.
Melanitis leda ismene.
Charaxes fabius fabius. This insect appeared to be very rare but I succeeded
in catching large quantities of both sexes on the toddy mixture; they were
most greedy and aggressive, fighting for favourable places, and were so
occupied in their absorption that they could often be taken by hand.
Eriboea athamas agrarius. These were nothing like so common or greedy as
‘fabius ’.
Euthalia nais. These were obviously attracted by the good smell of the
toddy mixture, but I never found them actually drinking ; instead, they used to
sit about on the ground some distance from the trees treated with the mixture.
Neptis hylas varmona.
Ergolis ariadne indica.
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
PARAVESPA EVA.
Fig. 1, mandible; fig. 2, nest; fig. 38, Q imago.
A DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES OF WASP ASSUMED TO
BELONG TO THE FAMILY VESPIDAE AND NAMED
PARAVESPA EVA; WITH REMARKS UPON ITS AFFINITIES
WITH THE GENUS ISCHNOGASTER AND REASONS FOR
THE CREATION OF THE NEW GENUS PARAVESPA.
BY
TR. BEL, C.1:E:, Les. (etired),.
(With a plate).
PARAVESPA EVA.
Q@. Head, thorax, abdomen, including petiole, thinly pubescent, the pubes-
cence longest on thorax and last three segments of abdomen and more or
less golden on the last three segments, brown or silvery everywhere; head, pro-
and meso-notum, scutellum, postscutellum and median segment very minutely
punctured ; clypeus very long, pointed, anteriorly carinated down the middle ;
median segment vertical, very obscurely rounded—carinate in anterior half
along dorsal line, with a thin, also somewhat obscure furrow in continuation,
in posterior half. Colour black with the middle third of petiole above and
more extensively beneath ferruginous, the legs also having a ferruginous shade
though otherwise black and the last three segments of abdomen being also
light rusty; mandibles black, strongly three-toothed (see fig. 1 of plate), the
ends of these teeth slightly ferruginous; antennze black with stipes and last
segment ferruginous; distal end of clypeus black, the rest as far as base of
antennz and the eye-sinus yellow; tegule dark brown; the following yellow
markings; scutellum yellow except for a thin dorsal line and narrowish hinder
margin (which are black); a thin band along front margin of postscutellum
occupying about half the breadth of segment; a broad stripe on each side of
median segment, a broad stripe on posterior margin of pronotum, a spot beneath
each wing with a larger, lunulate one below that; the base of the second
segment of abdomen broadly, the third segment similarly but more narrowly
banded alone front margin, this band interrupted in dorsal line and the fourth
segment sim. ar to third but the yellow hardly visible because of being tele-
scoped into tuird; ventrally there is a smal! spot on each side of medial
line near the middle of segment 2 and a large spot larterally near front margin
of segment 3 tha’ looks like a continuation of the band along its dorsal front
margin; the yeilow front of segment 2 is produced laterally backwards to
make a spot sy metrical with this last; the tibiae of legs dorsally yellow.
Wings hyaline w.:h a very shght yellowish or brownish shade, the whole of
the radial cell very dark, nearly black, suffused downwards to fill the outer-
most cubital cell.
3. Exactly similar to the female except that there are seven abdominal
segments instead of six (including the petiole). and the terminal joint of the
antennz is strongly suffused with black.
Habitat.—N. Kanara District, Bombay. ¢@. Length 20 mm. and slightly
over; especially up to 33 mm.
In Bingham’s Hymenoptera, vol. i, p. 877 of the Fauna of British India
series, this species would come in under division A as follows :—
A. Colours black with yellow or red markings.
a. Head and thorax black with yellow markings.
a!. Clypeus yellow with an irregular medial space black,
not reaching its apex; median segment with a
reversed 'I’-shaped yellow mark on each side ee INGO S:
b/. Clypeus yellow without black medial space, median
segment with a yellow spot on each side at apex. fraterna.
ce. Clypeus black with small central yellow spot;
median segment immaculate black 2 scitula.
d!. Clypeus yellow, except for a broadish black border
reaching from apex to eye on each side, including
apex; median segment with yellow, broad lateral
stripe on each side oe ... €0G.
b. Head and thorax black with red manne be .. Trufomaculata.
804 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. “SOCIETY, Vol. XXxVUi
B. Colours rufescent brown or _ ferruginous with yellow
markings.
a. Median segment very finely transversely striate .. nigrifrons.
b. Median segment smooth.
a’. Median segment with vertically impressed medial
line; length 12 mm. a HES nitidipennis.
b’. Median segment smooth throughout; length 18 mm. eaimia.
As far as we are aware, I. eva is the only species of the genus that exists
in India proper with the exception of Sikkim and its neighbourhood: micans
reaching from Sikkim through Burma to Borneo; scitula from Sikkim to Assam;
fraterna, rufomaculata, nigrifrons and nitidipennis are found in Tenasserim
in Burma and eximia is confined to Ceylon. Hva so far is only known from
the Kanara District in the Bombay Presidency where it apparently keeps
to the forest-clad hills of the Western Ghats. It is there found from practically
sea-level up to the tops of the hills which, however, do not reach to more
than 2,600 ft. except for two small areas where a peak runs up to, at the
most, 3,500 ft.
The wasp builds an absolutely unique pattern of mud nest very similar
to that of Ischnogaster eximia, Bingham, first collected by E. E. Green in
Ceylon and described by Colonel Bingham in the Journal of the Bombay
Natural History Society, vol. v, p. 244, with an accompanying plate depicting,
fig. 7, the nest. The description is repeated in Bingham’s Hymenoptera,
vol. i, p. 877, published seven years later in 1897. When I originally dis-
covered my species in Kanara, I recognised it must be either the same as
Bingham’s or very closely related to it. His is ‘dark rufo-ferruginous’, mine
is black and both have very similar yellow markings. His eximia has ‘man-
dibles simple’ and unidentate claws, both characters that make it abnormal
for the family Vespide, but normal for its first genus Ischnogaster (itself
abnormal for the family in possessing dentate claws). My species is abnormal
for the family in the one character of the dentate claws and for the genus
Ischnogaster in having the mandibles toothed as in the family. I met Colonel
Bingham in 1908 in London and showed him my wasp and the plate accom-
panying this article (depicting fig. 1 the mandible, fig. 2 the nest and fig. 3
the imago) and. notwithstanding that I pointed out to him that my
insect had toothed mandibles, he said it was eximia, ignoring this character
and the difference in colour. It struck me from what he said that he thought
he might possibly have made a mistake in describing the mandible of his
species as ‘simple’. Naturally I thought that Colonel Bingham must be right
and from that day to this my specimens have lain in my collections unnoticed
until this year (1985). For reasons given above I now know that my wasp
is not eximia but differs from it in many characters other than colour and
mandibles as may be seen by anybody taking the trouble to compare the two
descriptions. I have just lately, within the last two months, December and
January, collected some 13 or 14 specimens in the imago—and pupal state
and three pupez have produced imagines in the bungalow from nests collected
outside—there are still some pupz left to yield wasps. A Mantis, Gongylus
gongyloides, kept in one of the cages with a nest, killed and demolished one
imago without my being able to rescue it.
The nest is one of the most graceful bits of architecture conceivable,
light as a feather and excessively fragile, built by the insect, small particle
by particle of earth, brought on the wing and mixed with glutinous saliva
to ensure adherence. It is invariably. attached by the upper end to a dry
and often nearly rotten rootlet hanging from the roof of a cavity in a bank
in the jungles. When completed it hangs quite free and is never less than
a couple of feet off the ground beneath. It resembles in shape an inverted
pear with a lowly conical top and a cylindrical end that forms the entrance
to the abode. The junction of sides with the roof is more or less angular
but the other contours are gracefully rounded. The roof is low conical with
the slope at an angle of about 45°, the bottom is a short tube made of
little earth-pellets with interstices to resemble filigree work and the entrance
at the bottom is ornamented, further, with an expansion, executed so as to
resemble the distal half of a pointed leaf, extending well beyond the tube
and as long as it is wide, embracing with its base the actual entrance-hole—
a sort of platform for the insect to land upon when it arrives home. This
A DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SERIES OF WASP VESPIDH 805
structure is further ornamented with a dozen low, rounded, longitudinal flutings
extending the whole length and each alternate fluting has a lowly prominent
ridge down its middle which is expanded outwards to a height of about
5 mm. into a thin triangular wing, deepest above in the horizontal plane of
junction of sides with roof, about 10 mm. long, losing itself gradually in
its ridge below; occasionally the wing on a particular ridge may be omitted
and, as an expression of the exuberance of fancy animating a_ particular
architect, there may be an extra wing, along one of the ridges continued onto
the roof near the point of attachment. Inside this wonderful house are the
cells, all built in a single series on the roof, all perfectly hexagonal, one
against the other, 5 mm. in diameter by abotit 14 mm. in depth with very
thin walls and well-smoothed interiors. All a truly wonderful piece of handi-
work no parallel to which I have ever seen elsewhere. The nest resembles a
delicate reproduction of a shell of the genus Voluta amongst the mussels.
It also reminds one of a suspended bat when placed in a darkish corner
and real bats are common enough in such places. The flutings on the outside
correspond at their origin to the contours of the outer row of cells inside.
The largest nest I found was 80 mm. by 60 mm. over all, the entrance
tube with its expansion taking up 20 mm. of the former while the promi-
nence of the wings when existing is not included in the 60 mm. The diameter
of the filigree tube is 10 mm., its length about the same. The smallest nest
measured rather under 60 mm. by 40 mm. and contained only 14 cells. In
the larger ones there are up to 21 cells and those forming the outer row
appear always to be 12 in number which explains the number of the longi-
tudinal flutings always present on the outside of the structure. The cells
that have been inhabited can always be recognised by their mouths bearing
remains of the covering (only a partial affair as a round aperture is always
left in the centre) woven by the larva or grub when it ‘spins’ itself up
before turning into the pupa. I have never found more than five of these
used cells in any nest, new or old and, including all found, that means at
least a couple of dozen examples. The wasps from one nest emerge at
intervals of at least a week, often much longer. The building up of the
entrance is presumably necessary to hold the pupa in place as, naturally,
the cells being on the roof of the nest, these pupze all lie with the head
downwards. The head is held so that the face hes against the side of the
nest, the abdomen is folded in against the sternum of the petiole and median
segment and the cell opening is of much smaller diameter than the head and
thorax.
Kanara is on the Western Ghats about 15° north of the equator and
has, at Karwar, a yearly rainfall of 125 in. Inland, towards the crest of
the Ghats, this may rise to 350 in. in certain places; in exceptional years
it may even go to 450 in. and above and 150 in. on the sea-coast. The wet
zone does not extend to more than at the outside 60 miles inland after which
the rainfall rapidly diminishes eastward. At 60 miles inland it is, say, about
80 in., at 80 miles it is not over 25 in. The vegetation is Malayan in type
in the wet parts, eastward it is all Deccan flora which means that the Ghats
are largely covered with evergreen forests, the eastern country with deciduous
species. The whole district is fully 85 per cent forest.
The insect under consideration is found only in the damper areas and the
places where it first came to notice were cuttings in the sides of roads which
were excavated to get the earth for annual repairs to their surfaces. Many
of these are quite deep and shaped like the commencement of burrows and
it was on the roofs of these that nests were originally discovered; the inhabit-
ing wasps were at first only recognized as the architects of a beautiful mud
nest. Later on specimens were collected and kept as adjuncts to the nest.
That was forty years ago. There are many fine roads in Kanara running
from the sea-board through the Ghats to the Deccan so that there was no
lack of hunting ground in which nests could always be found; but, of course
there are plenty of natural hollows in’ banks inside the jungles that are
also used as building-sites. The particular requisites in the choice of a spot
for the wasp seem to be a certain degree of humidity, absence of direct sunlight
and a suitable ‘roof’ with rootlets hanging from it.
In no case has there been more than a single nest in any one cutting. In
no case have there been more than three wasps in and around any nest and,
806 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
in the single case of three, one insect had certainly only just been born. In
no case have any of the wasps caught ‘wild’ (which means at nests in the
jungles) been other than female. In the last batch of insects obtained wild
or bred in the bungalow from nests brought home there has not been one
of the male sex.t I conclude from this that the male does not assist in the
construction of the home, neither does he ordinarily help in domestic affairs
any more than do the solitary wasps of the family Humenide immediately
preceding these Vespidea. These two species eva and (by general analogy,
it is nearly certain) Bingham’s eximia are, to all intents and purposes,
‘solitary’ wasps like the Humenide and, although more like Vespide in most
respects, they constitute a link between the two families abnormal in possessing
characters of more than generic value differentiating them from both. Bingham
mentions this in the case of his eximia and, in another way, for the whole
genus Ischnogaster. This genus is abnormal for the Vespide in that it
possesses dentate claws (the family has simple ones).
I think the best way out of the difficulty would be, to obviate the necessity
of making a new family for the exceptions, to divide the family Vespid@ into
two sections :—
1. The perfectly normal insects.
2. The insects that are abnormal in one or more characters.
Under 2 would come the genus Ischnogaster and the two species Hva and
eximia for which I suggest a new genus to be called Paravespa, as follows :—
Insects with unidentate claws, normal mandibles and of
normal social habit nee ae hee ... Ischnogaster.
Insects with unidentate claws, mandibles simple or normal
(toothed) and of solitary habit ss =. Paravespa.
Mandibles normal, claws abnormal for family -« Sp. eva.
Mandibles abnormal as well as claws a2 «=. SP. eximia.
As a matter of fact these two wasps with their equivocal characters out-
lawing them from any existing family, should have had a family of their
own, but one hesitates in introducing such a thing into the old and well
established hierarchy of tribes, families and genera of the Hymenoptera we
have been accustomed to recognise and work with for so long in the past.
The Paravespa wasp starts building operations at the commencement of
the monsoon, in June in Kanara and goes on until about the end of January
next with a lull in the months of February to next June necessitated, I have
little doubt, by the lack of moisture in the air and paucity of prey and
pabulum; probably chawed-up caterpillars. The new-born wasps, bred in capti-
vity, spend a day or two after emergence in the nest and are very sluggish
when they come into the open and, without food, only live fcr a day or two;
when fed with sugar they live but a short day longer.
1 It was only after I had written the above that I bred two males from
nests; the total number of wasps caught at nests and bred from them was 15;
none of those caught at them were males.
REVIEWS.
I, MAN: A SPECIAL CREATION. By Dovcetas Dewar, B.A. (Cantab.),
F.z.8. (Thynne & Co., Ltd., London, 3/6).
This little volume (pp. 128), like many others of its kind which have
appeared from time to time since the publication of Darwin’s Origin of Species
and Descent of Man, has the definite purpose of questioning the validity of
the theory of organic evolution in general and of Man’s animal descent in
particular, and of asserting that all the varied forms of life including Man
were created by a special act of God in the not very remote past. Within
the limits of space available for a review, it is impossible to deal adequately
with all the arguments advanced by the author against the theory of organic
evolution, and in consequence, the review is mainly confined to a summary
of the work.
This little book is divided into six chapters. In the first the author points
out that modern scientific classification compares very unfavourably with that
adopted in the Book of Genesis in regard to the position of Man in the animal
kingdom, and believes that scientists have purposely ignored certain anatomical
and mental characters of Man which militate against the acceptance of the
theory of Man’s primate ancestry. In the next two chapters the author goes
on to show that Man’s descent from a non-human ancestor has not been proved,
and that all the evidence brought forward to prove this theory makes undue
demands on the credulity of most intelligent men with a legal as well as a
scientific training. The claim of the evolutionists that the difference between
the brain of Man and that of the ape is one of degree and not of kind is
not accepted, and the evolutionists are challenged to produce by _ selective
breeding of monkeys ‘an intellectual giant among its fellows’ if the creationists
are to be satisfied. The existence of divergent opmions in regard to the
descent of Man from an ape-like or other ancestor is attributed ‘to the fact
that there is no evidence to go upon’. In the third chapter the author exa-
mines the various theories held in regard to the origin of human language,
to the anatomical peculiarities of Man such as the upright posture and the
bipedal gait, and to the psychic gulf that exists between Man and the rest
of creation. In the fourth chapter, which is the longest, a great deal of
criticism is levelled against Darwin, and against the indirect evidence he
and his followers put forward in support of the theory of Man’s animal descent.
The insufficiency of the evidence adduced is examined under five headings viz. :
(1) the anatomical and physiological resemblances between Man and the Pri-
mates; (2) the method of Man’s embryonic development; (8) the vestigial
organs in Man; (4) the supposed reversions of human organs to an ancestral
state; and (5) the blood serum reactions of Man. After a lengthy but un-
convincing discussion of the topics under each of these headings, the author
concludes that the indirect evidence adduced in support of the theory of Man’s
animal descent is exceedingly weak, and is not opposed to the theory that
Man is a special creation. The fifth chapter is devoted to the examination
of the causes which led to the wide and ready acceptance of the theory of
Man’s animal descent, amongst which may be mentioned (1) that amusement
is derived by the average biologist in solving the biological cross-word puzzles
of the theory of evolution; (2) that the theory of evolution is the life-blood of
the rationalists and the materialists; (8) that the literary skill and persuasive-
ness of the supporters of the theory in expounding it to the public were
responsible for the popularity of their views. What surprises and pains the
author most is the fact that eminent men, scientists to boot, who have been
most vehement in attacking the mode of operation of the theory as propounded
by Darwin and his followers have retained their belief in evolution as a
settled fact. He is, however, satisfied that the recent Evolution Protest Move-
ment under the leadership of Capt. B. Acworth and Sir Ambrose Fleming
will not make it easy for weak-kneed protestants to succumb to the casuistry
of the clever evolutionists. In the last chapter the author reiterates that
the evolutionists have failed to produce demonstrable evidence from the study
ie
608 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY> Voln XxxVimi
of fossils and from experiments in breeding to prove to the satisfaction of
the creationists that Man originated by a process of evolution. The evidence
which he brings forward to prove the theory of man as a special creation
is classed as scientific, under the headings—anatomical, psychological, palaon-
tological, and biblical, but none of these are elaborated to show clearly that
Man cannot be included in the general scheme of evolution of all living things.
There is much irrelevant matter included in this chapter as for instance,
amongst others, the accusation levelled against H. G. Wells as a plagiarist
by a contemporary woman author.
The book is, however, well worth a perusal as both the matter and manner
of presentation are interesting. The printing and get-up is good, and a glossary
at the end helps the lay reader to understand the technical terms.
HH? 5. R:
TT. GLIMPSES OF THE WIELD. By dar-Con. “B. S. Woop. wes:
Pp. 180; with colour and monochrome plates. London, H. F. & G. Witherby,
1986. Price, 8s. 6d.
Lovers of nature and newcomers to India will delight in the reading of
Glimpses of the Wild in which Lt.-Col. Wood deals with the more common
denizens of Indian rivers, hills and forests: animals, birds, reptiles and
insects—not all of them, but those he has come to know or even to befriend
in his rambles. The author’s style is simple and pleasant; his descriptions
are not crowded with useless details; and his selection of illustrations is
excellent. In fine, a very readable and attractive book.
Old timers may be to some extent disappointed for, somehow, they will
all along carry the impression that they have heard the story before. As
for the men of science they will, no doubt, be horrified at some of the phrases
and statements. But, before passing any adverse criticism, let them remember
that the book has been written by a ‘non-scientific observer’ (p. 179) and
is intended for ‘young naturalists’ and for ‘those who visit India for the
first time’ (Preface).
oo
Ill. A SHELLAC PATENT INDEX. By R. W. Atpis. Pp. iv+115.
Indian Lac Research Institute; Namkum, Ranchi, Bihar and Orissa, India;
August 1985. Price, Rs. 2-8.
This valuable compilation ought to be in the hands of every one interested
in the manufacture and uses of shellac and its synthetic rivals.
The author is to be congratulated; but not so the binder.
J. ees
TV. WILD ANIMALS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE AND THE PRO-
BLEM OF THEIR PRESERVATION. By THe Bompay NaturaL HIsToRy
Soctety. With coloured and_ black-and-white illustrations (Diocesan Press,
Madras). Price, Rs. 2 per part.
Having gone through the four parts of the Wild Animals of the Indian
Empire and the Problem of their Preservation published by the Bombay Natural
History Society, I feel that all the Naturalists and Sportsmen in India are
under a heavy debt of obligation to the Society for this fine work. The
problem of the preservation of wild life in a country like ours is complicated
by the fact that the average man takes little or no interest in Natural
History. Hence it is very pleasing to see that in these books, before the
problem of preservation is discussed, a full account of the Wild Mammalia is
given, calculated to generate and foster an abiding interest in them. The
value and the importance of the work is greatly enhanced by the many beauti-
ful plates which are included in these volumes.
REVIEWS 809
Whenever the need for the protection of Wild Life is mentioned, it is
customary for people to look to Government legislation and enforcements.
But before any Government legislation can be enacted and successfully carried
we have to remember two important facts :—
Firstly, most modern governments appear to be unwilling to bring into
legislation any subject which is not supported and demanded by a strong
public opinion.
Secondly, even if such a legislation has been effected, however much it
can and may help in the endeavour, anything like practical success is possible
only if there is a strong public opinion demanding it and co-operating with
Government.
For this end, viz., the formation, development, and strengthening of public
opinion looking upon wild life with interest, sympathy and a fair amount of
knowledge, these four delightful volumes are, I believe, well suited.
These well-got-up volumes, each I believe sold by the Society for the very
nominal price of Rs. 2 which must be only a small part of the actual cost of
production, should be a cherished and proud possession in every cultured Indian
home to tell us of our forest denizens, and to make us love them. Loving
them, much of that indifferent callousness and hatred begat of selfishness,
greed and ignorance, will, I trust, disappear.
1 wish these Volumes wide popularity and great usefulness in serving the
purpose for which they have been conceived and intended.
Ay Pe MM,
AN APPEAL.
WANTED INFORMATION ABOUT CUCKOOS.
To THE Eprirors,
The Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society.
DEAR SIRS,
I am hoping within the next few months to commence a book
on Cuckoo problems, a subject in which I have been interested
for more than 50 years, in spite of which I find that there is still
an extraordinary lack of evidence on many material, yet in some
cases, simple points. May I hope for help from our readers ?
Here are a few of the points which still require elucidation in
whole or part :—
Desertion of nests in which ecuckoos’ eggs have been depo-
sited.
Hjection of cuckoos’ eggs from the nests of the foster-parents.
These are simple points, yet not easy to generalize on from
the evidence so far in existence. Most of us find our nests when
the owners leave them and so disclose their whereabouts; if desert-
ed there is no owner to leave and the whereabouts are not dis-
closed. Simple questions, yet very difficult to answer satisfactorily.
Extent of habit of ejection. We know that all species of
Cuculus have this habit. We also know that some species of
Clamator do not eject eggs of the foster-parent or their young.
We do not, however, know yet to what extent Hierococcyx, Pen-
thoceryx, Cacomantis and other genera have or have not this
habit. We do not even know to what extent the Koel has it,
if at all. Nor have I been able to ascertain whether the newly
hatched young of all these species possess the physical attributes
(hollowed back, ete.) which would enable them to practise this
habit. It would surely be easy to ascertain if the young of the
Koel, the Brain-fever Bird (H. varius) or Clamator jacobinus
possess the hollow back.
Rearing of multiple young. Mr. A. J. Cronil has published
a few notes on this matter, and a few others are scattered here and
there in journals and elsewhere; but still comparatively little is
recorded. Does, or can, a pair of ‘Seven Sisters’ bring up more
than one young Hawk Cuckoo and, if so, how many? .
Deposition of eggs. It has been found that some cuckoos lay
direct into nests and circumstantial evidence shows, and indeed
proves conclusively, that many eggs are found in nests in which they
cannot have been laid direct. Quaint methods of deposition have
been suggested; and deposition has actually been described as
having been effected by an elongated vagina working like an ovi-
positor, yet no dissection of the bird seems to have been made to
expose the impossibility of this act.
ane
AN APPEAL 811
Much must have been done of which I am doubtless ignorant;
but far more still remains to be done. I shall be very grateful for
any notes and any material which may be sent me, and these will
be acknowledged when received and, of course, in the book when
and as they are made. use of. Especially shall I be glad to
receive eges and full notes on the breeding of the Plaintive Cuckoos
round Hyderabad in the Deccan.
Yours hopefully,
6, Harroup Roan,
Upper Norwoop, 8.E. 19. iG, SPUART BAKIGR
February 24, 1986.
MISCELLANEOUS NO@iirs:
I.—ROOSTS OF FLYING FOX.
While going through the past volumes of the Journal, I came
across Mr. McCann’s very instructive article on the Flying Fox
(Pteropus giganteus Brinn), J°BINJE.S:, “volo xxxvuy Nowa:
p. 148. Among other things, he has recorded some colonies of this
animal. In this connection, the undernoted information may be
found useful.
(1) About 56 miles north of Ahmedabad, there is a town
called Unjha (a Railway Station) in North Gujerat. On the out-
skirts of it, there are several Tamarind trees, which have been the
abode of the Flying Fox for at least the last 80 years. The trees
stand within the town, and nearby is a big tank, a scene of bustle
and noise throughout the day. Still the bats occupy the trees
year in and year out undisturbed. I have no knowledge whether
the same animals have been hving there or whether new-comers
are added to the colony from time to time. But this much is
certain, viz., that these trees are always occupied.
One thing in this connection puzzles me: the source of their
food supply. There are no orchards here, nor are there any fruit-
bearing trees. The whole country-side is pincipally an agricul-
tural tract, interspersed with Acacia trees.
(2) Another colony I have found right in the city of Ahmeda-
bad. There are several Tamarind trees in front of the Victoria
Gardens, at the foot of the Ellis Bridge. Until a few years ago,
one of these trees was the permanent residence of Flying Fox. I
first saw them there in 1914 when I came to Ahmedabad. I
cannot say how long they had occupied this tree previous to 1914.
It took all the ingenuity of the municipal staff to remove them
from their quarters. This was done in 1932, yet for eighteen years,
to my knowledge—and how long before, I do not know—the bats
lived in the heart of a big city, where noisy traffic passed under
them throughout the day.
It is interesting to record that in an adjacent tree—also a
Tamarind—there was a colony of Egrets living apparently on good
terms with the bats. When the Flying Foxes were forced to
vacate their home (the Egrets also went: where I cannot say).
About a couple of hundred yards north of the Victoria Gardens,
there are Government buildings occupied by the Court of the City
First Class Magistrate. There are several trees in the compound
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES : 813
of this court house, out of which eight are at present occupied
Sai ;
by Flying Foxes. They comprise:
Tl. qiqat Pipal tree: Ficus religiosa,
», Ulqe Pipal tree: F. tsiela.
»- wlRer Nim tree: Azadirachta indica.
» wwWeaAy Heaven’s tree: Ailanthus excelsa.
CoN
At Patan (North Gujerat), several trees—mostly Tamarind and
Banyan—have been the abode of Flying Foxes for about 25 years.
Hibernation.—It is believed that the Indian Bats hibernate.
This is not altogether correct—especially for North Gujerat bats.
During the last three months I have daily found the cheerful
Indian Pipistrelle (V. abramus) hawking insects from early even-
ing in company with their inseparable friends—the swallows. But
I thought that the case of the Flying Fox was different. I had,
during December and January, several times visited the colony
mentioned under item 2 above—as late as 11 p.m. and as
early as 5 a.m. The animals were still there, wrapped up in
their shrouds and sleeping undisturbed. They never appeared to
leave the place nor were found arriving as they did in summer.
Hence I concluded that at least these fruit-eating bats did hiber-
nate in North Gujerat.
Now I find I was mistaken in this belief. Because, for the
last six days, I see Flying Fox passing my window daily in
the evening, going from west to east. They come incessantly for
about thirty minutes in large numbers. Once I counted up to
200 and then lost the count. Whence they came and where they
were going I cannot say. Also I am not in a position to say
that they were the same as No. 2 colony above. But this at
least shows that Flying Fox also comes out in winter.
Navo Vas, DANAPITH,
AHMEDABAD. Ae Gao AGHA RY A
January 31, 1936. WiZi5., Uae Geoe
II.—MELANISM IN WILD DOGS.
Mr. V. G. Darrington, 1.F.s., ‘the District Forest Officer,
Coimbatore North, saw a black wild dog at Gaddesal, in the North
Coimbatore Division, on the 11th instant. With the exception of
a white tip to its tail the dog appeared to be completely black
and was unmistakably a wild dog. I wonder if an instance of
such complete melanism in a wild dog has been recorded before.
HonnaMetri Estate,
ATTIKAN P.O., Via Mysorg, R. C. MORRIS,
S. Inp1a.
January 14, 19386,
814 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
TII.—_ LEGENDARY METHOD OF HUNTING IN WILD DOGS.
As a pendant to Mr, Livesey’s interesting note on the behaviour
of the Indian Wild Dog (QJ. BN. H.S., vol. xxvii, p No.2), cam
confirm the belief among native villagers that these dogs make
use of their urine to blind game they are hunting. I was most
solemnly assured by one of my mahouts, when stationed at Baksa
Duar, that these dogs urinated on their tails and then, running
ahead of their quarry, flicked their tails towards the animal’s
face.
Also I was told, on several occasions, a habit of theirs which
seems far more credible, and that is, when a pack arrives at a
new hunting ground, its members go round the boundaries of the
portion they mean to work, urinating at frequent intervals, because
—so my informants told me—all wild animals, which the dogs
hunt, are so terrified of the enemy that they will never cross a
point where they can smell the taint of the dog’s presence.
May I congratulate you on the continued excellence of the
Journal? It is a quarter of a century since I left India, but I
enjoy my Journal as much as ever I did when shooting, fishing,
or egg-collecting in the country.
Catcorr, Near BrRiIDGEWATER,
SOMERSET. ARUNDEL BEGBIE,
January 2, 1986. Lt.-Col.
IV.—SOUND LISTENING FOR TIGER SHOOTING.
INTRODUCTION.
It is with trepidation one ventures to put forward an article
on tiger shooting as the subject has been so widely written upon
by famous sportsmen. This article is only put forward to help
the young and keen tiger ‘shikari’; and my reason for doing so is
due to a conversation I overheard the other day. I have heard
so many similar remarks and pathetic descriptions of failure,
through lack of knowledge. All the good books on tiger shooting
give one full particulars of how to run a beat, but none that I
have read give one advice of how to find out, as far as it is
possible in this kind of sport, whether the tiger is really in the
beat after he has killed the tie up. Hence my reasons for this
article. I feel I must repeat the conversation before I get on with
the meat of the article.
CONVERSATION.
‘Raifal’, a keen young ‘shikari’ back from a tiger shoot.
‘Blanderbast’ (known as B.) an old hand at the game.
B.—Well young man—What luck?
R.—None at all, had three kills—all in beatable places, no
tiger in any of them.
B.—Dodged the stops or broke back ?
R.—No, never in the beat at all. I am fed up as I spent a
packet on beaters, shikaris, etc.
B.—Shikari venture any information for tiger not being in
beats? Did he seem surprised when they did not appear?
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 815
R.—No. Just said it was Kismet and that the Saheb was not
liked by the Gods.
B.—What did he or you do to ascertain whether the tiger was
in the beat before you had your beat?
R.—We walked round the beat to look for pug marks going
in and out of the beat, but the ground was so hard and stoney
that it was very difficult to see much.
B.—You did nothing more before beating to discover whether
the tiger was there or not?
R.—No.
B.—Well, you did not do much and I am not surprised you
have been unsuccessful.
The above makes one feel sorry for the youngster, as he is
ignorant of a few hints which would have been very valuable to
him, had he read them anywhere before going out and he would
have felt that he had not wasted all his hard-earned savings on
learnings and been disappointed.
SounD LISTENING.
Its object is to locate the tiger after he has killed near a beat-
able area. On hearing these words, one is apt to get alarmed
and think that one has got to deal with complicated wireless appa-
ratus, or some machine to discover the whereabouts of submarines,
or some other fiendishly clever invention. Far from it. This
scheme has only to do with human beings and is as simple as
adding the proverbial 2 and 2. It is put forward because it is
so simple, and with experience is found to be almost infallible.
REQUIREMENTS.
Two men fairly intelligent in jungle lore, two pieces of card-
board from 6 to 10 inches square, two pencils and a ream of
foolseap paper, two khaki drill bags to carry the pieces of card-
board in the forest, one cheap watch (this is not absolutely neces-
sray, as Indians are fairly good about the time of the day).
INSTRUCTION.
Can start anywhere, in one’s own bungalow, or while one is
out in the forest. One point to remember is to choose men who
are conversant with the different sounds made by the animals, and
one can be assured that most of the jungle folk anywhere in India
are good at this.
Choose a piece of ground representing a beat, with two trees
somewhere near the base. Place your men with their backs
against the trunks facing the direction of the line of advance of
the beaters. This is not essential, but is only suggested for sim-
plicity’s sake. The men can be placed anywhere surrounding the
beat. Put the foolseap paper on to the cardboard, give it to the
men with pencils and make them face the direction of the beat.
In the centre of the nearest edge of the paper draw a blob repre-
senting the tree, make the man set his paper. Inform him that
in a certain direction a cheetal called at 11-00 a.m. Make him
draw a ray in this direction and put down roughly how far away
816 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
he thought it was. In practice the range has to be given. Other
rays can be drawn in this manner. Explanation makes it clear
that this is what they—the men—have to do after a kill has taken
place. Hach man works on his own as the Indian is rather apt
to feel insulted if he realises that another man is doing his work.
Also he is Hable not to do the work when the opportunity arises.
The final drawing is done by combining the two cards. The base
of the triangle is known on account of it having been measured
before, then where the rays on each card cross on the main ecard
is the rough area in which the tiger has been located.
METHOD.
The object, as stated before, is to locate the tiger after he has
killed. In order to put this plan into action one must have some
sort of idea what are the habits of tiger. Roughly speaking, the
habits of a tiger after he has killed are, drag the kill to some
secluded spot, feed (depending on the time), move off to his drink,
return and lie up somewhere near the kill if the jungle is good
holding jungle, from where he can watch his kill and keep off
all carrion.
In the hot weather the tiger seeks the cool and the shade and
more often than not will lie in water during the hottest part of
the day. He does not move about very much unless water is
very near his kill in the heat of the day.
In the cold weather the forest is generally heavy with dew
till late in the morning; and due to it being cold, the tiger meanders
about for quite a while, even to the extent of climbing a hill near
his kill to obtain the warmth of the sun. He generally returns
when it gets hot and lies up in the cool and shade and somewhere
near his kill if the forest is thick and not likely to be disturbed.
It is during these movements that touch must be kept with the
tiger, as he may very easily, like a defeated enemy in war, slip
right away and not return to the beat. Thus this sound listening
is strongly .recommended. To put it into action.
One assumes that the beat has been reconnoitred beforehand.
The tie up has been killed and dragged as far as can be ascer-
tained in the direction of the beat. Do not let anybody follow the
line of the drag. One can generally see which way the tiger
has taken the tie up. The report reaches camp. The sound
listeners, having fed, are taken out, shown the piece of
ground placed in their respective trees with their apparatus,
with full instructions and emphasis about no noise or talking.
Any noise must be reported and the ray drawn. These men must
stay in their places till one returns to beat, as information can
be had up till the last minute and sometimes very valuable in-
formation. If there are several rays in each diagram, then one
can be contented. If there are none, the best thing to do is to
give up the idea of beating and return to the attack the next day,
as it means that the tiger has taken up his abode somewhere else.
(I have assumed that there will be animals in the forest, and
as one knows that when a tiger moves every animal and bird who
smells or sees the tiger gives tongue to every sort of cry.)
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 817
CONCLUSION.
I trained some of my Regiment in the above work and they
became so keen that in order to make no mistake each man
bought a ruler on his own and produced drawings of the utmost
accuracy. This is not necessary! Reports were always clear and
I found that I saved a lot of money on beaters, and also what
was more valuable, time. I think that I can honestly say that
this method practically never failed. The tiger may have got
away but this was the fault of the gun or stops and not of the
sound listeners. I am a great believer in silent beats. By this
I mean the beaters shout twice before they start beating, once
to wake the tiger up and the other to get him moving. During
the beat itself, tapping is the only noise one hears,
I realise that I am in for a lot of controversy, but am only too
willing to answer any reasonable questions.
GOVERNMENT HOUSE,
Bompay. ; J. TOOGOOD,
February 9, 1936. it-=Col
V.—MEASUREMENTS OF A BUFFALO-HEAD FROM
ASSAM.
(With a photo).
mete ae . ee oo —_ _
The photograph above is the head of a bull buffalo I recently
shot in the Mangaldai District of Assam, which possibly comes
in the record class, and [ should be grateful if you would advise
me in the matter, | .
818: JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BIST SOCIETY, Vol Xxx
The measurements, by steel tape, which have all been checked
and witnessed, are as follows:—
Tip to tip across forehead ... dic PRESS aL
Right horn & es ee | DOOU Mn.
Left horn me ae . | 48 hin: “(broken
Maximum girth ... ae nt TE Zomeaae
Maximum spread ... ie a 2Oeiay
Height at shoulder a? oe Oy im,
You will observe that the maximum spread is very small indeed,
but the girth as far as I am able to trace appears to be a record.
Unfortunately, I cannot get hold of the latest edition of Messrs.
Rowland Ward’s [?ecords of Big Game to compare these measure-
ments.
If the left horn had not been broken, the tip to tip measure-
ment would have been approximately 128 in., and this seems to
be a fine head for these days.
It may interest you to know that this buffalo was with a herd
of eleven cows some miles from any reserve, had killed three men
and badly injured a boy within recent months and was said to
have been 29 years old.
CALCUTTA. R. -G. “GRIER EEE:
Anni 19356;
[The Record head of the Indian Buffalo has a horn length of
773 in. and a girth 177 in. This is the head of a female now in
the British Museum. The largest recorded head from Assam
(Rowland Ward) has a horn length of 70 in.; cireumference 1834 in. ;
widest span between horns 673 in.; tip to tip 60 in.; widest out-
side 72 in. The maximum girth measurement so far recorded for
the horns of a Buffalo is 22 in. This of a head with 60 in. horns.
Shot in the Central Provinces.—Ebps. }.
VI.—BISON AND PANTHER.
A rather interesting incident occurred last night while I was
sitting up over a panther kill with Col. R. P. Warwell.. A herd
of bison happened to come grazing along while the panther was
feeding on its kill. As soon as the bison scented the panther the
herd commenced to converge slowly on the kill in a rough half-
moon formation snorting and bellowing. Had I been alone I
should have waited to see the outcome but my guest wanted a
panther badly and shot it before the panther had even time to
show signs of uneasiness. The bison did not seem to be much
disturbed at the shot and remained around in the vicinity for
some time.
HonnaMETTI ESTATE,
AttTikan P.O., Via Mysore, R. C. MORRIS,
S. Inpia.
January 15, 1986,
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 8i9
VII.—GAUR-HEADS FROM THE CHIN HILLS.
(With a photo).
It is generally believed that you must have a ‘cordite cannon’
to shoot bison with. But this photograph from south of Haka in
the Chin Hills shows what magnificent beasts have fallen to the
humble flint-lock with soft lead bullets and home-made black
powder.
A SPORTSMAN IN THE CHIN HILLS—MAGNIFICENT BISON HEADS SHOT WITH
A FLINT-LOCK !
All heads are over 40 inches. The widest is 46 inches and the longest round
the horn 87 inches.
All four heads are well over 40 in. in span, and the second
from the right was 46 in. across. The second from the left
measured 37 in. along the outer curve of each horn. All were of
great girth.
Nowadays such great heads are rare in Burma when yearly
guns increase and game decreases.
Then huge, slab-sided cattle are vulnerable to almost any
weapon if taken through the heart from the flank and the great
bones and muscles avoided.
A Chin Chief stands to his trophies as he did in the chase—a
fearless and a perfect gentleman.
TAUNGGYI,
BurMa. Dee Re ul VES Bie,
March. 6, 1936.
VIII.—SEASON OF HORN DEVELOPMENT IN SAMBHUR.
Mr. A. A. Dunbar Brander writing on sambhur in his Wild
Animals in Central India mentions that he had never heard of
sambhur being in full horn in August or September.
820 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIti
In 1983 I shot a stag in full horn in September and saw
another. This year, a large number of stags in this District (the
Billgirirangans) were in hard horn during the second half of
August and. in September, Mr iG, MM. Dunner. shot in
the first week of September a fine stag which had certainly been in
full horn during the latter part of August. This has been followed
by a very early shedding of antlers in February this year instead
of March and April as is usually the case.
HonnametrTi Estates,
ATTIKAN P.O., Via Mysore, Ee C. MORRIS:
S. InpIa. FOZ .S Ske RAGace
March 30, 1986.
IX.—'CUCKOO-LORE’.
1. In Lt-Col. R. W. Burton’s article on this subject there are
certain statements which require qualification. “Sometimes when
the nest is large enough and favourably situated she will lay her
ege in it, but in probably the large majority of cases she lays her
ege on the ground and introduces it by her bill into the nest.’
(J. Be NaiS.; Yols, soccville pesc0e.)
Most field-workers, finding cuckoos’ eggs in small and awk-
wardly placed nests, especially those in which the hole is at the
side, have inferred that the egg must have been introduced by the
bill. Mr. E. P. Chance, Captain O. G. Pike, Mr. Scholey and
T myself, all formerly shared this view. Yet at the present time,
all of us are agreed that in every case where it has been possible
to observe accurately and closely the cuckoo has laid her egg
directly into the nest.
In many cases there is little doubt that when the cuckoo has
been seen on the ground apparently picking up an egg, she has
in reality been devouring an egg taken from the fosterer’s nest. I
do not know and have never heard of a case when it has been
proved conclusively that the cuckoo’s egg was first laid on the
eround and afterwards introduced into the nest by the bill. On
the other hand she has been photographed and even filmed in the
act of laying, not only in the nests on the ground, but even in
that of the Reed-Warbler, which would seem at first sight to be
too small for the cuckoo to lay directly into it.
The fact is that the cuckoo can cling to the side of a nest
just as a woodpecker clings to the side of a tree, and in that
position can bring the cloaca opposite to the entrance of the nest
and eee) the egg so that it rolls down among those of the foster-
parent.
Nests of the Wren frequently bear traces of the damage done
to the upper part of the nest while the female is positioning
herself for oviposition and several cases are on record where the
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 821
ege has not rolled into the nest, but has fallen to the ground.
This could hardly happen if the egg had been placed in the nest
by the parent’s bill.
It is not impossible that the method which Lt.-Col Burton
describes as being adopted in the majority of cases may also be
used, but the fact remains that so far we lack conclusive proof
of it.
‘On rare occasions the mother has been observed to feed its
own young: while there is one reported instance of the common
cuckoo hatching its own eggs and rearing the young.’ (p. 268.)
The evidence of the hen cuckoo feeding her young is quite
unconvincing: moreover other species besides the actual fosterers
have been known to supply food to a hungry youngster. As for
the story of the cuckoo hatching its own eggs, this was published
over forty years ago in a popular German paper. It was at once
challenged and disproved on internal evidence and has never been
accepted in the country of its origin, but was unfortunately tran-
slated and republished in England and has been quoted several
times since as authentic, although known to all ornithologists as
being quite unreliable.
The proportion of eggs which resemble those of the fosterer is
extremely high in those districts where the cuckoo is parasitic on
one or two species only. In certain districts however where four
or five common fosterers are present a ‘mixed’ type occurs, in
which resemblance is less close—I do not find any discrepancy
between the views of Mr. Stuart Baker and Dr. Rensch. The
adaptation of the cuckoo’s eggs spoken of by the former is carried
out by elimination of unsuitable eggs by the fosterer, not by any
action on the part of the cuckoo.
W HITEKIRK,
SOUTHBORNE, P. CARS JOUR DAN
BouRNEMOUTH.
January 1936.
2. Naturalists will be grateful to Col. R. W. Burton for his
very interesting collection of Cuckoo-Lore recently published in the
Journal (vol. xxxvil, p. 266).
Considering the number of parasitic cuckoos in the Indian region
it is surprising to see how lhttle has been recorded about them
except for the valuable contributions of Mr. Stuart Baker. It
shows how real Ornithology has been neglected.
Col. Burton’s article provokes interest—and so, of course, com-
ment; and that surely is what it was written for, that naturalists
may record their own experiences, and offer their own opinions
on the problems that the parasitic cuckoos set us. Until such
problems are definitely solved, and proof acceptable to Science
established, the humblest naturalist among us is entitled to his
opinion—and the interchange of such opinions lightens the way
go JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXxvill
for an impartial summing up of the evidence and the pro-
nouncement of a verdict—if a verdict can indeed ever be given.
But as Delight les all along the way let as many of us as possible
join in.
Mention is made on page 267 of small birds chasing cuckoos
on account of their resemblance to a bird of prey—presumably the
sparrow-hawk. It cannot be denied that small birds take a great
interest in cuckoos and get very excited by their presence, but I
do not think it is because they appear to them like a bird of prey,
for reasons I have given (vide p. 734 of this number). It is very
significant in this connection to notice that it is those species
who are commonly the fosterers of the cuckoo that show the most
excited interest in the cuckoo.
I do not think a cuckoo’s egg has become reduced to its present
small size to enable the cuckoo to carry it easily in her bill. There
is as yet no evidence that she ever does so. It is generally
believed that she does pick up her egg in her bill on occasions
to get it into a nest, but it must not be forgotten that that has
not yet been proved that she does so. I think it is due to the
necessity of adapting the size of her egg to the eggs of the fosterer
she has become parasitic on. As to why she should become para-
sitic on small birds, that is another question. Small birds are
more numerous and may have offered better opportunities, bearing
in mind the competition from other species of larger parasitic
cuckoos on the larger species.
Not only soft-billed birds that feed on insects, but also birds
of the Bunting type are made use of as fosterers. A regular
fosterer in Kashmir is the Striated Meadow Bunting, and in India
and Burma the Crested Bunting. These species are mostly grain
and seed eaters.
Is the instance of a cuckoo rearing its own young beyond all
shadow of doubt? I should much like to see the record.
‘With regard to the remarks on page 269, surely such Hawk
Cuckoos have adapted their eggs to the fosterers they are now
using. I do not quite follow that paragraph. Cuckoos we may
presume laid white or non-descript eggs originally in the long,
long ago, and in the case of these Hawk Cuckoos they became
eradually blue for adaptation to the eggs of the species chosen by
them to act as fosterers which laid blue eggs. It was certainly
not a case of blue-egg-laying cuckoos going about looking for blue
eggs |
As to the remarks on pages 275 and 276 a good deal has
been discovered since then. JI myself have taken a number of
eges of the Burmese Plaintive Cuckoo both in the Chin Hills in
nests of Suya atrogularis (July and August), in the Shan
States in nests of Franklin’s Wren Warbler (Ff. gracilis) and certain
tailor birds (in April, May and June). I have taken photographs
of their eggs in the nests and of the young cuckoo being fed by
Franklin’s Wren Warbler. The adaptation to the eggs of the
fosterer is remarkable, and far more perfect than I have ever
seen in the case of canorus eggs. Here no one could doubt the
mimicry or exact resemblance.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 823
As regards the Bay-banded cuckoo (Penthoceryx sonnerattt)
1 have found it not rare in the Shan States. In my note on
Cuckoos in the Journal of December 15, 1933, there is mention of
seven eges found in a variety of nests that I put down to this
cuckoo. One of these eggs in the nest of a Shan States Scimitar
Babbler has been sent to Mr. Stuart Baker for identification. It
is interesting to note that these seven eggs were placed in six
different species nests, and that they did not appear to be adapted
to anyone of the six, as a matter of fact contrasting violently with
all the fosterer’s eggs. ‘Two were found in nests of the Shan States
Scimitar Babbler—the small red, richly-coloured and marked egg
of the cuckoo contrasting violently with the pure white eggs of
the babbler which were nearly three times as large! Of course
seven eggs are not sufficient on which to form an opinion, but
they do suggest that birds of many kinds will incubate anything—
for none were deserted—and that fact goes against the Desertion
Theory. No greater contrasts could be imagined—both in colour
and size.
All seven eggs were much alike. They were marked rather
like English Blackeap’s eggs, but had the rich, red colouring of
eggs of the Yellow-eyed Babbler (marbled and blotched type). I
do not know to what species these eggs were adapted to, but
the fact of seven being found in seven unsuitable nests suggests
that there were none of the chosen fosterer about that locality.
With regard to cuckoos placing not more than one of their
eggs in any one nest, I think, that this has only been established
in the case of canorus and the Plaintive Cuckoo (C. merulinus).
It does not follow that other parasitic cuckoos show a lke restraint.
I suspect both the Koels and Crested Cuckoos to place several of
their eggs in the same nest. I have seen a pair of crows feed-
ing three young koels sitting on a house top at Kotah, and that
suggested to me at the time that a hen koel perhaps placed
several of her eggs in one nest, and that the young koels that
hatched out did not eliminate each other as in the case of
C. canorus, ete. Is this so?
Experiments such as are recorded on page 280 tell against the
Desertion Theory very strongly—and it has been my experience
~ that birds will incubate anything and very rarely desert on account
of a strange egg, or even object, placed in their nest. I have
found only about three nests out of a hundred deserted in the
case of nests with cuckoo’s eggs (C. c. bakeri) in them, and in
those three instances the reason for desertion was not established.
Three per cent of desertions—or more—occur ordinarily in Nature
among birds of many species due to accidents, illness, approach
of cattle, or humans, etc., etc.
In this locality I have recorded how pale blue, immaculate
eges of C. c. bakeri are frequently placed in Stone Chat’s nests
where the contrast is astounding—yet I have noticed no deser-
tions on that account. :
In the above comments I apologise for certain repetitions and
redundances. There is a wide and exciting field for exploration
among the parasitic cuckoos in India and Burma, and for anyone
12
824 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
who intends to enter in I would recommend him to read and
study a small book published by Sidgwick & Jackson, 1922, The
Cuckoo’s Secret by Edgar Chance. That book gives a good idea
how to set about an intensive study of the cuckoo and how it
should be photographed and filmed. He proved in this way
one fact among others and that was, that in England, the cuckoo
ane! sits on the nest of the Meadow Pipit to lay directly into
the nest.
TAUNGGYI,
S. San States, Burma. i, Ry VESEY.
February 11, 1986.
X.—THE BROWN SHRIKE (LANIUS CRISTATUS LINN.)
IN BURMA AND ASSAM.
Mr. Whistler has practically answered Capt. Livesey’s query
about the status and plumage of the Brown Shrike (p. 307). I
can add that the adult dress must be quite common in Burma as
I have received, besides spring examples, five or six in the winter,
all showing the black band through the eye and the underparts
more or less unbarred. Some are immaculate in this respect and
although most adult males show no barring, some females may
also be similar. I notice that in females this band is often, but
not always, less decidedly black than in males. So far as is
known this Shrike does not breed in Burma, and in this con-
nection I can state that it has not completed its full moult until
early in May and that it may be commonly met with still n May
or perhaps, as Capt. Livesey has noted, to early June. But then
this Shrike is a late breeder and the first arrive in Kentei, Mongolia,
according to Madam Koslor, on May 24. Hence its lingering on
in Burma is nothing remarkable.
There is just one point I should like to query and that is that
this Shrike breeds in Assam. Mr. Stuart Baker in his Nidification
of Indian Birds, vol. i, quotes his own records of many nests
found by himself in the Cachar and Khasia Hills. But it must be
noted that he quotes them ‘for what they are worth’, implying
thereby that he is not too certain about them, in spite of the
statement that birds snared off the nests are in the Bulgarian
Museum. But according to the catalogue of the Royal Museum
the only Lanius cristatus there from Cachar which might conceiv-
ably be said to have been taken in the breeding season is dated
June 4, 1894 and there is nothing on the label to show that it was
taken from a nest. All the others are dated from September to
March. As shown above, a bird early in June might still be on
passage in Cachar and beyond this there is no proof whatsoever,
except Mr. Baker’s recollections of forty years ago, that this
Shrike breeds in Assam at all and I think we should wait further
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 825
proof before accepting the record. After all, Cachar ig some 1,600
miles south of the known southern limit of breeding!
Saxon Hovusz, APPLEDORE,
Kent, ENGLAND. CLAUD 8]. GME tins ls
April 15, 1935.
XI.—A NOTE ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF CHLOROPSIS
JERDONI (BLYTH) AND CHLOROPSIS A. AURIFRONS
(TEMM.) IN CENTRAL AND WESTERN BENGAL.
It seems the distribution of Chloropsis jerdont (Blyth) and
C. a. aurifrons (Temm.) in reference to Central and Lower Bengal
is obscure. The Fauna mentions Midnapur as the easternmost
limit of the range of the former, to which Mr. Whistler lends sup-
port by saying that it is ‘correct’ (Vernay Survey, J.B.N.H.S.,
xxxv, 753). Jerdon writes of it as ‘not extending to Lower
Bengal’. Ball, however, recorded its distribution in district
Burdwan (S.F., vii, 215). Reports of its occurrence in 24-Perga-
nas, Hooghly and Burdwan have from time to time reached me
and on August 28, 1932, I collected one specimen 9 from Khardah
(24-Perganas). Apparently a stray or rather lonely bird though
it was, there cannot be any question as to its being an ‘escape’
from the cage, for as a rule, females are not caught and offered
for sale in the Calcutta market. I found it in a somewhat jungly
waste land in the outskirts of a village: solitary and silent, cling-
ing to low branches of Dillenia indica and Alstonia scholaris and
looking for insects. Measurements: wing 90 mm., tarsus 20 mm.,
culmen 20 mm.
Of C. a. aurifrons (Temm.) the New Fauna has no reference to
Central and Western Bengal. Blyth and Ball collected it no doubt
from Midnapur. I observed it common enough at Jhargram,
associating not unoften with jerdoni in Sal jungles. Jerdon also
mentioned it from Midnapur as well as Lower Bengal. Cun-
ningham (Some Indian Friends and Acquaintances, 93-4) who saw
it in gardens near Calcutta wrote (1903): ‘It is certainly seldom
noticed, but this by no means implies that it is very rare, as
birds of such quiet habit and singularly protective colouring may
well fail to attract notice even where they are relatively common.’
While one might not doubt the applicability of this remark in past
days, the species is now unmistakably one of very very rare occur-
rence in Lower Bengal, specially in the immediate environs of
Calcutta. Whatever stray specimens are now and then observed
amidst remote villages may very well have been escapes from the
cage (astonishingly huge trade in these birds goes on in the Cal-
cutta market!), now at liberty, striving to hold their own against
odds and adverse circumstances. They are invariably found to be
shy and wandering locally. One such pair I have myself come
across several times in the outskirts of village Bandipur, off
Khardah (24-Perganas).
CALCUTTA. SATYA CHURN LAW,
March 4, 19386. M.A., Ph.D., F.Z.S.,M.B.0.U,
826 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
XIT.—INDUS SAND LARK (ALAUDULA RAYTAL: ADAMS!
HUME) AND CRESTED LARK (GALERIDA CRISTATA LINN.}
LAYING IN THE SAME NEST.
Can you or any of your readers let me know if the following
has ever been noticed before and if it is a regular thing?
On the 20th of this month I observed a lark’s nest containing
one egg and to all intents and purposes the nest was that of an
Indus Sand Lark (Alaudula adamsi). In fact this lark was seen
to rise from the locality and it was this which led to my finding
the nest. The ege however appeared to be rather too large for a
lark of this species; but as there was only one egg, and not want-
ing the bird to desert it, I did not examine it closely. I again
went and examined the nest on the 23rd to obtain the full clutch
and was surprised to find not two eggs but no less than five, three
belonging to the Crested Lark and two to the Indus Sand Lark.
The bird that flew off the nest on the second occasion was a
Crested Lark (Galerida cristata). Now the point is, whom did the
nest belong to? The size of the nest indicates that it belonged
to the Indus Sand Lark as it is much smaller than that of the
Crested Lark and the same size as other nests of the former in
my possession. As the nest contained a full clutch of each of the
birds, it shows that the nest was being shared by them and pro-
bably both helping in the matter of incubation.
GENERAL Post OFFICE, H. M. 8S. NEWTON.
KARACHI. Postmaster.
March 28, 1936.
[There are instances in which an unusual number of eggs
found in a nest is the product of more than one parent of the same
species. There are again instances of birds laying their eggs in
the disused nests of other species, not only habitual parasites such
as the cuckoos, but species which customarily build nests for them-
selves. The appropriation of the nest of other species occurs quite
commonly among certain birds, which build nests of their own.
White-throated Munias may for example not only build their nests
in the base of an eagle’s nest or in the nest of a Scavenger Vulture,
but they frequently appropriate the disused nests of Weaver birds.
Marshall even found a sparrow’s nest occupied by a pair of munias.
The nest contained four sparrow’s eggs and seven eggs of the
munias. So far as we are aware no such instances have been
recorded of larks. Indus Sand Larks, from the experience of Col.
A. E. Butler, and Mr. R. C. Pitman, sometimes build a nest very
similar to the nest of the Crested Lark and in the present case
the Crested Lark may have appropriated the nest of the former.
The writer of the note had the opportunity of discovering whether
the fortuitous partnership between the two species extended to
the incubation of the eggs or even the care of the young.—Eps. |
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 827
XIIIL.—THE BROWN WOOD OWL (STRIX INDRANEE
SYKES).
(With a photo).
I see the note of this fine owl is queried in vol. xxxvili, No. 2,
p. 288.
A pair of these owls which I secured at Sintaung, 12 miles
south of Taunggyi, 8. Shan States, in 1933 were kept in captivity
THE Brown Woop Ow.
Young male bird.
by me for some time, and subsequently by Mr. Carrot at Maymyo
for nearly two years. They have been described as a new sub-
species by Mr. Stuart Baker, Strix indranee shanensis, in Bulletin”
No. ecexe of the B.O.U. of November 138, 1935.
1 have good reason to remember the diabolical, screaming
shrieks both birds (an old hen bird and a young male bird) used
to utter during the night, for they were in a cage just by my
bedside! They are most certainly ‘Devil birds’ of a kind—and
their scream like the high-pitched shriek of some demented person
casting themselves over a_ precipice! Besides this diabolical
screaming they have a respectable, and lovely-sounding, rolling
hoot which reminds me of the hooting of the Tawny Owl in Eng-
land but, I think, it is more musical and prolonged.
The Taungyos and Taungthus name this owl from its hooting.
The former call it ‘Tit-ter-roo’ and the latter ‘Tit-til-loo’.
I had to keep them in captivity as the old female had her
wing broken by a blow from a stick as she flapped out of a cave
and the young bird when captured was not fully fledged and could
not fly.
It is interesting to record that the eyes of the young owl were
seriously injured—temporarily—by my placing it in the sunlight
to photograph it. Two or three days after the photograph was
828 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
taken the eyes turned dull red, and this bird could not see. It
appeared to me that the diaphragms of the iris had opened right
out, and that the back of the retina, highly inflamed, was therefore
fully visible and so gave the eyes their red appearance.
It did not recover its sight for about a fortnight—the iris
gradually relaxing from day to day. I have heard these owls hoot
fromm the crags at Taunggyi. Here they apparently breed in
February and March, I am told, in rocky caves. I have not heard
of them under 4,000 ft. ;
TAUNGGYI,
S. SHAN STATES, BurRMA. TR eva.
March 4, 1986.
XIV.—THE WHITE-BELLIED SEA-EAGLE (HALIAEETUS
LEUCOGASTER GMELIN) IN NORTH GUJARAT.
Does the Haliagtus leucogaster frequent inland lakes?
On the 9th of February 1936, I visited Gobhlaj—one of the
largest artificial lakes of North Gujarat, nearly eight miles in cir-
cumference, eighteen miles south of Ahmedabad and a favourite
haunt of migratory birds to pass the winter. There I saw a bird,
bigger than a kite—to quote from the notes I made on the spot—
‘perched on a vertical post in water; its wings ashy black, top of
head, neck, lower parts and legs snowy-white, beak black.’
Clearly a White-Bellied Sea-Eagle.
It was not possible to see the colour of its back as the bird
sat facing me at a distance of about a hundred feet. Thus I had
ample opportunity to observe it with naked eye as well as with
a pair of powerful binoculars. Hence there was very little chance
of any mistake. |
But experts say that this species of Eagle is not seen inland.
It is also not recorded in the works of Butler and Barnes as
occurring in Gujarat. Eha also is of opinion that it does not go
inland owing to the absence of its food, viz., sea-snakes, though
Stuart Baker (Fauna of British India, 2nd ed.) gives ‘fish’ as its
normal food. The nearest seacoast is 50 miles from this place.
Was I mistaken? Or was the bird a straggler?
AHMEDABAD,
N. GuJERAT. HARI NARAYAN GO ACHARYA:
March 8, 1936. . B.208.5) FuRsGuce
XV.—THE EYESIGHT OF VULTURES.
As soon as the early morning sun has taken effect vultures leave
their perch and with a flapping flight of some fifteen seconds’
duration, in order to get clearance, they begin to soar in circles:
making height at every turn. Between five and six minutes’ time
they pass out of vision to the naked eye, but can be followed to
greater heights with a glass until they again disappear. During
gaia a a tT
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 829
the day the whole of India from Bombay to Calcutta is under ob-
servation by vultures and every vulture is in sight of one, or
more, other vultures. When an animal has been killed the first
bird to arrive is the crow. This is shortly followed by the kite.
The vulture within whose orbit this takes place descends to inspect,
and if the kill is worthy of his attention he makes a second descent
to earth. His preliminary descent has been observed by some
five or six vultures from their orbits. These converge on the
vacant orbit, still keeping their altitude, and on arriving over the
kill, and thus able to inspect, they, in their turn descend. The
movements of each of these five or six vultures has been observed
by five or six more vultures from their orbits, and the same pro-
cedure is adopted until the sky over a wide area has been drained
of its vultures. 2
IvyBANK, BISHOPMILL,
Eoin, N.B. A. A. DUNBAR BRANDER.
April 10, 1986.
XVI.—A NOTE ON THE ALPINE SWIFTS (MICROPUS
MELBA BAKERI HARTERT) AT GERSOPPA.
In a recent issue of the Journal, Mr. Hugh Whistler sum-
marised our knowledge of this bird. As a considerable amount of
speculation and uncertainty seems to be attached both to the
records and their interpretation, I venture to place on record a
few notes that I was recently able to make.
Motoring in from a camp in Dharwar, we reached the British
side of the Falls at 11 a.m. on Christmas morning. The 800 ft.
valley was full of Alpine swifts. They were as thick as a swarm
of midges, and in this place of huge distances they looked hardly
any bigger. A few flew higher and passed leisurely within a few
feet of us as we stood at the top.
The ledge that overlooks the ‘Rajah’ is an excellent place for
observation. Birds flew in and out of the innumerable cracks near
the top of the cliff between the ‘Rajah’ and the ‘Roarer’. The
broader ledges are occupied by pigeons, which look hke grey flies
in the distance. As these birds fly about they dislodge pieces of
the dry stunted grass that grows among the rocks. The swifts
can then be seen chasing the straw as it floats slowly down, and
having captured it carry it into crevices in the rock.
By 3 p.m. the number of birds had dwindled appreciably, but
they were in all probability resting in the rocks. At dusk they
had regained their numbers, and now they flew higher and even
strayed some distance from the falls. Large flocks flew round
twittering the while. The movement was not unlike the oft-
described ‘balling’ of Micropus affinis, but was less compact. Long
after dark, in fact I noted it till 10 p.m., an occasional twitter
could be heard far above. Are stray birds still aloft, or is it some
sort of bat?
Davidson (Birds of North Kanara, J.B.N.H.S., xi & xii)
believed that they collected here from the surrounding country to
830 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
roost, and states that the birds ‘pour in long after dark’. While
visibility lasted (there was no moon), I noticed no movements
that could be interpreted as a daily mass migration.
On the morning of the 26th we went down to the pool at the
bottom, and collected a pair of swifts as they swept past us in
the valley. Many birds appeared to have paired off, and some
sort of aerial courting was going on. Alpine swifts in pairs were
also seen elsewhere in Dharwar and Belgaum during the week.
The specimens collected, were submitted to Mr. Whistler who
has named them as bakeri, and measures them as follows :—
3 bill 15-5; wing 204; tail 75 mm.
® bill 15-5; wing 200; tail 76 mm.
The male, with fairly large salivary glands had testes measur-
ing 18x8 mm. The female with a shelled egg in the oviduct,
had the salivary glands very much more enlarged. The egg,
broken by the shot, was roughly measured as 24 mm. long, which
approximates to the egg obtaimmed by Miss Cockburn, and upon
which doubt has been cast. Another follicle was enlarged to a
sphere of 18 mm. Two more of the ova measured 4 mm. each.
The oviduct was much distended and may have been used. Both
birds were very fat. The contents of the stomachs were few and
unrecognizable.
There were few other birds about—the rock scarp being bare
and uninviting. Pigeons, of course, were fairly numerous, and
nested on the broader ledges. A honey-buzzard hung about the
place, and the swifts flew excitedly round it. An _ unidentified
hawk, in spite of being mobbed by the pigeons dropped on to a
ledge and calmly flew away with a squab. On the cliff opposite
the falls, white patches advertised the nests of a few pairs of Gyps
indicus. A small number of Krimnochelidon concolor, Hirundo
fluvicola (?), and a solitary Halcyon pileata completes the list.
This last bird was a surprise. I had always believed that it
was a littoral species. The stream flows into the sea 20 miles
away, and the bird probably found its way upstream. It is of
interest to note that Davidson saw it in the same place many
years ago.
Bomay. HUMAYUN ABDULALIT.
March 15, 1936.
XVII.—DOES THE JAPANESE GREY QUAIL (COTURNIX
C0. JAPONICA TEMM. & SCHLEG.) BREED IN THE
SHAN STATES?
Last year when ploughing in wheat seed on fallow land by my
house at Taunggyi, 8. Shan States, Burma, at an elevation of
approximately 5,000 ft. a carefully made Quail’s nest was upset,
and three out of seven of the eggs destroyed. The remaining
four eges are of the Grey Quail type spotted and well marked and
measured as follows :—
29-0° x: 23.0 mm.: 28:05. 22.0) mim
29.0 x 22.0: mm.; 29.8 x 22.5 mm.
ae
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 831
These measurements partly exceed the maximum width
measurements given in Nidification for C. c. coromandelica and
would suggest that they are eggs of the Japanese Grey Quail (C. c.
japonica) which is not known to breed in Burma.
The nest was found on October 80, 1935, and, of course, at
that time of the year the Japanese Grey Quail are with us here
in the Shan States—and a casual clutch of eggs would not be too
surprising. Mr, Stuart Baker saw one of the eggs and considered
it to be an egg of C. c. coromandelica but he did not remark on
its large size for that species.
I myself believe the eggs to be those of C. c. japonica, but
the identification cannot be considered as established!
TAUNGGYI,
S. SHAN STATES, BuRMA. Te iS:
November 5, 1985.
XVITI.—SARUS FLOCKS.
It is a well known habit of the Sarus Crane (A. antigone) to
generally move in pairs. Taking their stand on this fact, many
ornithologists aver that these birds never occur in flocks. Even
that wonderful observer Devar subscribes to this opinion in his
Common Birds (vol. 1, p. 40), though, very shrewdly, with some
reservation.
This may be true for other parts of India but clearly is not
correct for North Gujarat. For here, one comes across numerous
flocks of this beautiful bird—sometimes peacefully resting or
passing the night in an open field or on the banks of the river
Sabarmati, occasionally feeding on Gram (Cicer arietinum) crops
or sonorously flying overhead—their number varying from 20 to
200.
This flocking habit of the Sarus is peculiar for this part of the
country, as it has been even observed by writers, two or three
centuries back, in Samskrta literature.
HARI NARAYAN G. ACHARYA,
7250, eG
AHMEDABAD,
N, GUSARAT.
March 8, 1986.
XIX._THE LONG-TAILED DUCK (CLANGULA HYEMALIS
LINN.) IN SIND. |
A female of the Long-tailed Duck (Clangula hyemalis) was shot
by Mr. Lambrick at Drig, Sind, and sent to the Society for identi-
fication. This is the third record of the occurrence of this duck
within Indian limits within the last few years.
The first record was of a specimen shot at Chaman, Baluchistan,
in October 1933 by Capt. A. E. Dredge (Stuart Baker, J.B.N.H.S.,
vol. xxxvil, p. 549). The second record was made by Mr. R. E.
Parsons. This specimen was shot at the village of Messaki, on
13
882 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
the Brahmaputra River in the Passighat Division, Sadya Frontier,
Assam.
BomsBay Naturaut History Society,
6, APOLLO STREET, BoMmBAyY. S. H. PRATER.
March 15, 1936.
XX.—DEATH OF SURVEY KHALASSI DUE TO POISONING
BY A COMMON KRAIT (BUNGARUS CAERULEUS).
Capt. H. W. Wright, r.z., has sent the following report on the
death of a Survey Khalassi from Krait poisoning. The snake
responsible for the fatality was submitted for identification by the
Director, Geodesic Branch Survey of India. It has been identified
as a Common Krait (Bungarus caeruleus).
‘Khalassi Nandan Singh who was working in Surveyor Kundan
Singh’s squad died on 20th November 1935 morning at Chaman
village (Jaisalmer) in map sheet 45A.
He was sleeping on the ground when at about 2-30 a.m. he
found something crawling over his legs. He woke up other
khalassis in the tent who found nearby a black snake with white
rings, being 1 in. in girth and 14 ft. long, which they killed.
After an hour, Nandan Singh complained of a burning sen-
sation in his mouth at which the Surveyor thought that the snake
had bitten him. But no mark of the bite was found anywhere
and neither did the deceased complain of any burning sensation
over any other part of his body.
The surveyor then called the villagers to find out whether
they could cure him with country-medicines, but they told him
that such a snake’s poison was incurable.
Within half an hour the victim died. :
On receipt of the information, a Survey Officer, who was
camping about four miles way from Chaman, went to look at
the deceased after about six hours, by which time the body had
become cold and stiff. The Officer could not discover any snake-
bite mark on the body.
The local people say that it is a very poisonous snake which
never bites and which after inhaling the breath that comes out
through the mouth of persons who sleep with mouths open at
night drops some of its poison into that person’s mouth; result
being instantaneous death without any remedy. Other villagers
also confirm this story with many similar instances of death.’!
EDITORS.
ae —
* That Kraits and Phoorsas poison people when asleep in the ingenious
manner described above or even by merely breathing upon them is a belief
prevalent in many parts of India. It is a belief akin to that of the Mythical
Beta which is supposed to kill a man by casting its shadow over him !—
DS.
833
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
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834 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXVIII
XXIT.—OCCURRENCE OF SHRENK’S BITTERN
UXOBRYCHUS EURYTHMUS, SWINHOE) IN
AMHERST DISTRICT, TENASSERIM.
While trying to find snipe in the heavily-flooded area near
Yedwingon on the Moulmein-Kyaikmaraw road on 24th September
1935 I shot an unknown byaing which none of the local villagers
had ever seen before.
On examination by Dr. Ticehurst, m.B.o.u., this has been identi-
fied as Shrenk’s Bittern (Ixobrychus eurythmus) a bird which has
apparently, never previously been recorded within Indian limits
and I have been unable to trace any Yunnan records. On the fol-
lowing day the same party secured a second specimen which the
local coolies regrettably plucked, no others were seen.
RANGOON. C. KH. MILNER,
April 4, 1936. ; Lee
[Shrenk’s Bittern is a new addition to the Indian Avifauna.
The recorded distribution of the species is Eastern China extending
into Japan. A few descend into Indo-China.—Eps. |
XXTIT.—OCCURRENCE OF THE BUTTERFLY
(P. ANTIPHATES NAIBA) IN THE NIDGIRIS:
With reference to the last para of Mr. J. A. Yates’ article on
Butterflies of the Nilgiri District published in Part II, vol. xxxviu,
of the Journal, I have two specimens of P. antiphates naira which
I took on the Nadghani Ghat Road on the western slope of the
Nilgiris at an elevation of about 1,500 ft. on 23rd April 1921.
This is the only occasion I ever saw one.
STONE House, PEWSEY, Z T. DELVES BROUGHTON,
Wits, ENGLAND. Brigadier, R.E. (retd.).
January 27, 1936.
XXIV.—DISTRIBUTION OF THE BUPRESTID BEETLE
(STERNOCERA CHRYSIS F.).
Reference: Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society,
vol. xxxvil, p. 411, Sternocera chrysis.
Aecording to Obenberger’s Coleopterorum Catalogus, Bupresti-
dac, 1926, Sternocera chrysis F. is known from Ceylon, India,
Baluchistan, Himalayas, Burma, Siam and South China.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 835
I have observed beetles of the form chrysidoides feeding on the
foliage of Acacia arabica and A. leucophloea. From its distribu-
tion and the habits of its allies it is probable that S. chrysis is
associated with Acacias and breeds in stumps and roots of these
trees in the larval stage.
©, tC. BEESON,
Wen dace
New Forest,
DerHRA Dvn. D.S¢.,.-FR:E.S.,
February 12, 1936. Forest Entomologist.
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= GOUMey 4k 5}
List of Indian Butterflies. By ee ans 5 Ete
Butterflies, British and Foreign ce igre aa eee Shon ee =
Orchid Growers Manual. By B. J. Williams AS wien nu 10 j
About Orchids. By Fredric Bayle (Coloured illustrations) ..._ ieee (' <
- Horae Macrolepidopterological.. By Otto Bang-Hass nore 10 :
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.
Be
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Po
a of British India, v ae Vol. Land Scipplemene by Hampson
Fauna of British India, Ssonthoee, Vol. fl (Part 1), Wi, and IV, Parts T and nf
By! Distant - : ae!
: e ~LAMELLICORNIA ~ i oy
= Fauna of British India, Birds Vol. Land Il. By Oats. — 40
: Do. - do. Vol. WI and IV. By Blanford
"Birds of an Indian Village. By G. A. Levette-Yeats eae Bish
Illustrations of Indian Birds of India, Vol. I and If (Part I) and tit oe Cees
Illustrations of Indian Grnithology, Vol. Hi and1l¥V. By T. C. Jerdon \ »
_— Notes of Nidification of some Indian Falconidae. By E. C. Stuart Baker . ..; 10
_ Butterflies of India, Vol. I, 1! and II and Key. By Marshall and de Niceville. 60
Heterocera. Extract from the B.N.H.S. Journal a oe AD
Rhynchota and Hymenoptera. — do. - do. Be
_ Die Gross-Schmetterlinge Europas. By Dr. Ernst Hofman and Keys for
identification by J. C. Moulton
Some undescribed Biiyalecers from Siam. By N. D. Riley, and Ee J: Bas a
ae A set of Bombay Natural History Society’s Journals from Vol. XVII (Parts 3, a Nee
2 4 and 5) Vols. XVHI to XXXII (Parts 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5) complete ... 200
Proceedings of the Entomological Society of London, 9 issues ... seat ee 3
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List of Books and also a collection of eggs the property of the Soe a
late Mr. A. A. Graham ; :
Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds. By AsO; Hume. 2nd Edition. Edited bye es -
E. W. Oates (original birding) Vol. I. 1889, Vols. Il and III. 1890. ~~ ce.
Eastern Persia. An account of the journeys of the Persian Boundary ae ae
Commission of 1870, 71, 72 (original binding). Vol. II. Zoology and Ra.
Geology. By W. T. Blanford, 1876. z
Fauna of British India, including Burma an Ceylon, ee -bound). — eee
= WO). Er 1889 | ° . eae
Cer ioe 4 By BE. W. Oates. 0° 747" B08 By W. T. Blanford.
Birds of India pe eind binding) By T. C. Jerdon, Vol. I, 1877. !
Do. do. do. <9) Molr 1, Bart 10-1877) ee
B. N. H. S. Journals from 1918 to 1935. — es i
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COMMON INDIAN BIRDS.
ILLUSTRATIONS IN COLOUR. |
Two hundred and ten Common Birds of the
Indian Plains, arranged in a set of 5 Charts
measuring 40~x 36 in., fitted with wooden rollers and designed
for hanging on a wall.
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