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MICROSCOPY AND NATURAL SCIENCE.
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THE JOURNAL OF
THE POSTAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY,
ALFRED ALLEN,
Jlon. Sec. P. M.S.
Hssociate lEMtors :
Prof. V. A. LATHAM, D.D.S., F.R.M.S., etc.,
Chicago University., U.S.A. ;
FREDK. GAERTNER, A.M., M.D.,
Pittsburg, P. A., U.S.A. ;
J. STEVENSON BROWN, President Montreal Micro. Soc.
Montreal, Ca?iada ;
FILANDRO VICENTINI, M.D., C/iieti, Italy.
VOL III. THIRD SERIES.
VOL XII. OLD SERIES.
3Louti0n :
BAILLIERE, TINDALL, & COX, 20 KING WILLIAM ST., STRAND.
'BATH: I cambridgp: PLACF..
1S93.
THE INTERNATIONAL
JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPY & NATURAL SCIENCE:
THE JOURNAL OF THE POSTAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.
" Knowledge is not given us to keep, but to impart ; its worth
is lost in concealment.''^
[The Editor does not hold himself responsible for the views of
the authors of the papers published.]
4>-
Ipreeibential Hbbreee*
IPolarieeb Xigbt anb its HppUcatione to
tbe fIDicroacope.
Presidential Address by G. H. Bryan, M.A.
Part I.
N a recent occasion, Lord Kelvin (or rather Sir
William Thomson, for he had not then risen to the
rank of a " scientific peer "), in the course of a highly
interesting lecture on " Motivity," remarked, with
reference to the Second Law of Thermodynamics,
that he would not attempt to explain the law that
evening, "for," as he said, "it could not be
explained satisfactorily with less than six hours of
tutorial instruction." Now, the same thing is true
of polarised light, but with this difference, that to explain t/iat
thoroughly, about twelve hours of " tutorial instruction " would be
about the minimum. In the short space at my disposal, it will not
International Journal of Microscopy and Natural Science.
Fourth Series. Vol. III. b
Z PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
be possible to give more than the barest outline of the subject ;
but I trust that every one of my readers will derive a fairly clear
notion of how it is that we see certain appearances with a
polariscope.
Every good microscope for general use is now provided with a
polariscope, so that the pretty colours in crystals, the crosses on
starch grains, the appearances in a section of rhinoceros horn and
the colours seen in plaited horse-hair under the polariscope, both
with and without selenite, are well kno-wn. But life is too short
for every microscopist to become at the same time a physical
optician, a botanist, a chemist, a geologist, a physiologist, an ento-
mologist, a bacteriologist, and a diatomist ; and my purpose now
is to try and explain a little about polarised light to those who have
not made physical optics their speciality. I shall not attempt to
explain any phenomena except those which relate to the construc-
tion of a polariscope and the appearances which it produces in
microscopic objects.
What is polarised light? Mr. Spottiswoode, in his valuable
little book, says, by way of introduction : — " Light is said to be
polarised when it presents certain peculiarities, hereafter to be
described, which it is not generally found to possess ! " These
peculiarities he goes on to describe, but for our present purpose it
will be better to commence by asking the question, " What is
light ? "
Sir Isaac Newton was the first who tried to answer this ques-
tion, but his " corpuscular theory," while accounting fairly well for
some of the simpler optical effects, presented such difficulties when
applied to polarisation and other phenomena, that it had to be
abandoned in favour of the wave theory, due to Huyghens and
Fresnel, and which is now universally accepted as the basis of
modern optics.
The TJndulatory Theory.— According to this theory, light con-
sists in a series of vibrations, which are propagated through space
in the form of waves. In a light-wave the vibratory motion is in
a dirtciion perpendicular to that in which the light is traveUing.
To illustrate this, shake any part of a piece of string (stretched
horizontally between two fixed points) from side to side. You will
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 6
see that the vibration is transmitted along the string, each point of
the string in turn taking up the motion and swinging from side
to side. Fig. i also shows a wave of this kind in eight different
stages of its progress. If we look at the string as a whole, we
shall see the appearance of waves travelling a/ong it, although if
we look at any particular knot we see that it moves backwards and
forwards perpendicularly to the string. We here have vibration
going on in a direction perpendicular to the line along which it is
being propagated.
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Fig. I. — Light-Waves.
If light consists of vibrations such as these, there must be
something to vibrate. We can understand a piece of jelly or
india-rubber vibrating from side to side in this way ; but nothing
of the na.ture of a fluid such as air could do so, much less a
vacuum, and light caji travel through a vacuum. To account for
light-waves, it is customary to suppose space to be filled with a
kind of substance called the ether^ which allows ordinary matter
4 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
to move about in it perfectly freely and without hindrance, and
yet behaves like a mass of jelly in the matter of transmitting
these waves of light. Such a jelly seems at first sight rather
hard to believe, but according to modern views electrical and
magnetic phenomena also require the existence of an ether, and,
what is most remarkable, the same ether that will account for
electricity and magnetism will also account for light. Indeed, the
recent researches of Prof. Hertz and numerous others following in
his footsteps have shown that electrical waves can be propagated,
possessing properties exactly analogous to those of light-waves, and
from these and other experiments we have abundant evidence that
light-waves are in reality electrical oscillations.
But whether we regard the ether as a material jelly-like solid,
or adopt the theory that light is an electric phenomenon, the fact
always remains that the light-vibratio7is take place in a direction
transverse to the line along which the light is travellings and this is
the only point upon which I wish now to lay stress as affecting
the phenomena of polarisation.
Polarised Light. — If we take a string stretched horizontally
across the room, we can make it vibrate transversely in any
number of different directions. We can shake its end backwards
and forwards horizontally, when the whole will vibrate in a hori-
zontal plane, or we can shake it up and down and make the string
vibrate vertically, or by shaking it in any slanting direction we can
make it vibrate in any other plane. In just the same way, if we
suppose a beam of light travelling through the ether in the direc-
tion of the string, the particles of ether might vibrate horizontally
or up and down, or in any of the other directions. In this case
the plane of vibration of the ether, or the corresponding plane in
which the string vibrated, is called the plane of polarisation and
the light is said to be pla?ie polarised. By revolving the end of
the string in a circle, every other point will be made to revolve in
a circle, and this kind of motion may be taken as representing a
beam of what is called circularly polarised X\^X..
Finally, if we shake the string about indiscriminately in differ-
ent directions, we get a more general kind of vibration, and this
represents the kind of motion that goes on in the ether when a
PEESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 5
beam of ordinary light not polarised in any particular way is pro-
pagated through it.
To polarise a beam of ordinary light, then, it is necessary to
have some arrangement which will cause the vibrations of the ether
particles to be restricted to one plane by destroying any vibratory
motion they may have in a direction perpendicular to that plane.
c/
INCibCUr LIGHT
VxTRAOfiDINARY K^1
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UMPOLARISCD
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Fig. 2. — Nicol's Prism.
Polarisation by Double Refraction.— If we take a piece of
Iceland spar and lay it over a piece of black paper in which a
small pinhole has been made, the pinhole appears doubled. If
the spar is laid on a piece of paper with writing on it, the writing
similarly appears doubled. This shows that the spar divides every
beam of light into two, which pass through it in different direc-
tions. The beams of light w^hich are thus separated by the crystal
are polarised in two perpendicular directions. If we can get rid
of one of the two beams, we shall thus be able to get a beam of
polarised light.
This is done by cutting the crystal of spar in halves and then
joining the two halves together with Canada balsam (Fig. 2).
One of the two polarised beams in the crystal (called the ordi7iary
ray) strikes the balsam surface so obliquely that it cannot pass
through, but is totally reflected out of the way. The other beam
(called the extraordinary ray) strikes the surface less obliquely,
and most of it is transmitted through the balsam and emerges at
the opposite surface of the crystal.
This arrangement is called a Nicer s prism, and the polariscope
of a microscope consists essentially of two Nicol's prisms — one
fixed below and the other fixed above the object to be examined.
The former is called the polariser and the latter is called the
a7ialyser.
6 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
If the two Nicol's prisms — the polariser and the analyser — be
placed parallel to each other, the components of the light, which
are transmitted by the polariser, are polarised in the right direction
to be transmitted by the analyser, and we get a bright field of
view. But if the polariser is turned through a right angle, the
plane of polarisation of the light transmitted by it will be that of
the more oblique beam, which is totally reflected by the balsam in
the analyser, so that the whole of the light will now be extin-
guished and the background will be dark. In this case the Nicol'g
prisms are said to be crossed.
If any object be now placed on the stage of the microscope,
and if it be of such ^ nature that the light continues polarised in
the same plane after passing through it, this light is still arrested
by the analyser and the object remains invisible. If, therefore, we
define 2. polar iscopic object 2S one which is visible when the polari-
scope gives a dark ground, we see that polariscopic objects must
possess the property of affecting a beam of plane polarised light
in such a way that after passing through them it is no longer
polarised in the same plane.
Vascular Tissues. — I should be glad of a short Hst of widely
distributed plants, which are most suitable for showing spiral and
annular vessels, pitted ducts, etc. In one of the editions of
Carpenter's " Revelations," there is a woodcut of a longitudinal
section of what he calls " Italian Reed," which shows very clearly
and beautifully, in one bundle, all the above forms of vessels and
ducts. I should be glad to know more about the reed in question.
If not a native plant, as the name would suggest, how may it be
procured ? An answer by a botanical reader would much oblige.
R. W. A.
King's Fluid. — What is known in America as King's fluid for
algae is really Petit's, but as the Rev. Mr. King introduced it, it
was called by his name. The formula is as follows : — Take
Camphor Water, 50 grms. ; Distilled Water^ 50 grms. ; Glacial
Acetic Acid, 0*50 grms. ; Chloride of Copper Crystals, 0*20 grms.;
Nitrate of Copper, 0-20 grms. V. A. L.
[ 7 ]
SoaKiuQ tissues an& Sections of ^iseuee
in Mater.
By J. W. Plaxton (Kingston, Jamaica).
HAS anyone but myself been led astray by this practice?
Or has anyone made use of it in the manner I should
be inclined to do if once more I were to have a class
to teach ?
Soaking in water " for a night " or for " from twelve to
twenty-four hours " is enjoined as preliminary to embedding
spirit-hardened tissues in gum and before cutting sections. I do
not myself embed in gum or use a freezing microtome, but
usually embed in paraffin ; I have not, therefore, suffered by
soaking the tissue in bulk, but I have on two occasions left
sections in water overnight, and stained and mounted the fol-
lowing morning.
In the first case I was engaged in searching for a possible
microphytic ferment in the edible arillus of the fruit of the Akee
{Cupania edulis), which, under ordinary circumstances, is most
nutritious, and a very good substitute indeed for Yorkshire pud-
ding; but, in this case under investigation, proving poisonous,
as it sometimes will, had literally exterminated a family : — five
human beings, their cat, and their dog. The sections in the
second instance were cut from the skin of a case of leprosy.
Hundreds of the imsoaked sections of the Akee had shown
themselves absolutely sterile. The unsoaked sections of leprosy
had shown the bacilli of that disease most magnificently when
stained in magenta. When, however, I came to examine the
soaked sections of Akee, to my transitory astonishment bacteria
were numerous in them and beautifully displayed. In like
manner, my soaked sections of leprotic material, which I had, for-
tunately, stained in gentian violet, though they did not show a
single bacillus of leprosy stained, showed strange bacteria scat
tered through the sections in all the vivid beauty of poppies
8 SOAKING TISSUES AND SECTIONS, ETC.
(violet poppies 1 ) in a corn-field. In both these cases the micro-
phytes were palpably, almost, what we, ancients, would have
recognised as Bacterium termo. Finally, a friend who uses the
gum-embedding method brought me a few recently made and
mounted sections of a tumour. In them bacteria are easily
demonstrable. I knew that the intruding organisms could only
have made a home in the tissue during the preliminaries of
mounting.
Of course, the temperature of my work-room, and that of my
friend, here, in Jamaica, was a tropic temperature of, say, 80^ F.,
but the temperature of an English summer may well approximate
to this ; and, hence, prove equally favourable to the development
of saprophytic organisms, and to the delusion of a Bacteriologist.
I may here say that, taking warning by my first misleading, I
was alive to the danger afterwards, and did, as a precaution,
before leaving work for the day, float a lump of camphor on
the water with the sections.
By a teacher the cultivation, for a few hours, of organisms
in sections in this way could be made good use of as a first
lesson in the microscopy of microphytic organisms in tissues.
There is no huddling together ; the bacteria are superficial, scat-
tered, solitary, or in small groups — discrete, as the doctors would
say of pustules ; and they in every way lend themselves for
observation and study.
Perhaps some may benefit by the warning ; others by a useful
hint.
A Fifth Satellite of Jupiter was discovered by Professor
Barnard, of the Leek Observatory, Sept. 12, 1892, and had been
observed by him to October 1 7th on seven successive nights. It
was also seen by Mr. Reed, at Princetown, on October loth,
with a 23-inch telescope. It was a star of the thirteenth magni-
tude. From three hundred micrometric observations by Prof.
Barnard, and the observation at Princetown, a period has been
approximately deduced of eleven hours and fifty-seven minutes.
[ 9 ]
Concerning tbe IRuIee an& appUancce of
IRcicbert'0 Ib^monicten*
By Frederick Gaertner, M.D., Pittsburg, Pa.
THIS apparatus is designed to ascertain the amount of
haemoglobin in either a diseased or a normal condition of
the blood. It was devised by Prof. E. von Fleischl, and
patented by Carl Reichert, of Vienna. (See Fig. 3). This
• Fig. 3. — Reichert's H^mometer.
little instrument, the Hsemometer, is the result of a need felt by
physicians and scientists of having an instrument which will give
a quantitative judgment (analysis) of the value and function of the
haemoglobin in the circulating blood. It was further necessitated
by the inapplicability of the methods thus far prescribed for this
purpose to the cases encountered by physicians ; and, finally, it
arose from the hope of advancing our physiological and clinical
knowledge by rating the per cent, of haemoglobin in diseased
human blood.
The Haemometer cannot be used either by daylight or by
the electric light, and only by the light of oil lamps, candles, and
gas.
* Read before the Iron City Microscopical Society.
10 CONCERNING THE RULES AND APPLIANCES
Every examination of blood by means of the Hsemometer
must consist of these three operations : — i. — To obtain and
measure the blood. 2. — To dissolve it in water, and to fill
the instrurnent with this solution. 3. — To arrange the instrument
and read the results.
This apparatus consists of a small and simply constructed
horse-shoe base, composed of a foot, column, mirror, and
table. Beneath the table is a frame which bears the glass wedge,
K, the latter being propelled by the milled-head screw, R. Upon
the table is a cylindrical vessel, G, the one-half of which {a) is
filled with blood which has been diluted with water, so as to be
examined. The other half {a) is filled with pure spring water,
after a tube, whose capacity has been exactly guaged, has itself
been filled with blood by capillary action. It is brought into the
half of the vessel at «, where the blood contained in the tube
dissolves in the water until it becomes a perfectly transparent
liquid. By the optical conditions of the apparatus it becomes
possible, under an illumination of oil lamps, candles, or gas light,
to find a position of the glass wedge, K^ at which the colour and
brightness of every such blood solution is exactly the same. This
point is sought by moving the wedge backwards and forwards by
means of the micrometric screw, 7] and by giving the reflector a
definite position, S.
Upon the frame which surrounds the wedge, a scale, P^ is
engraved, a part of which is visible through the aperture at M.
This gives exact results in percentage of the amount of haemo-
globin in a certain blood solution. There is also a stationary
index line on the side of the aperture, M^ which points also to the
discovered amount on the scale.
This Hsemometer presents the following advantages : —
I. — Easy and convenient management of the apparatus.
2. — Rapid and direct results in percentage regarding the degree
of normal haemoglobin.
3. — The small quantity of blood, only a drop, required for
the examination.
It is best to take the blood from the tip of the left middle
finger.
After the skin has been thoroughly washed and carefully dried.
OF REICHERT's HiEMOMETER. 11
and without any preceding compression, or binding of the finger,
as is usually done, it should be wounded by a slight prick with a
sharp needle. Then by a slight pressure above the little wound
a drop of blood is secured. This drop of blood is taken up with
one of the open ends of an automatic blood pipette, a small
capillary tube about 8 mm. in length, bound about in the centre
by a tiny wire, and of definite capacity (6 J cubic mm.). The
filling of the automatic blood pipette is considerably facilitated
and accelerated by holding it horizontally, instead of perpendic-
ularly ; that is, it is dipped sideways into a drop of blood.
Since every trace of blood that clings to the exterior of the
tube is to be considered a serious defect, it is necessary to smear
the pipette with something of a fatty nature. This is best done
by keeping it in a leather case, lubricated with tallow. As soon
as the pipette is full the outer surface should be carefully examined.
If a speck of blood is found there, it must instantly be removed,
or before it has time to dry. This is done by means of a strip
of filtering paper or absorbent cotton. The blood is then much
more fully and easily absorbed when the exterior of the glass is
coated with an oleaginous substance. Care should be taken that
the column of blood ends at both extremities, on the same level
with the glass tubes, and neither with retiring nor with bulging, but
with even extremities. If it should be necessary to use filtering
paper or wadding to remove the blood from the exterior of the
pipette, care should be taken that these substances do not
approach too closely to the extremities of the blood column, in
order to avoid a meniscus.
Even before these instructions are carried out, the various
parts of the Haemometer should be examined to insure perfect
cleanliness, and a perfect condition of the apparatus. The com-
ponent parts may then be arranged. The frame upon which the
red glass wedge reposes must be joined to the wing on the lower
side of the table slab, through which it finds its guidance. More-
over, the comparing vessel must be inserted into the opening
designed for it in the table slab, and so placed that the projection
of the vessel, as observed from above, may coincide with the
visible part of the free wedge lying beneath.
Both halves of the comparing vessel must be filled with dis-
12 CONCERNING THE RULES AND APPLIANCES
tilled or pure spring water. The half above the wedge, called
" wedge half," is completely filled with water from the pipette, so
that the smooth surface which it forms above may be perfectly
level, forming neither a positive nor a negative meniscus. The
other, the blood half, is also filled with water from the pipette, but
only to about one-fifth, or at most, one-fourth of its capacity.
When this is done, the pipette out of which the vessel has been
filled, and which still contains a sufficient quantity of water to
complete the filling of the blood half, should be placed in a
horizontal position — /.<?., upon the brim of a goblet, so that the
water will not flow out of it.
The pipette having been filled with blood, it should be brought
(in a horizontal position) under the water in the blood half of the
comparing vessel, when the little wire should be leaned against
the upper edge of the vessel, but not against the straight edge of
the partition wall, nor in either one of the corners at the end of
the same, but against the middle point of the curved edge of the
blood half. In this manner the little tube with the blood is made
to lie in the centre of the rectilinear chamber, which the partition
wall touches at the bottom of the vessel.
The blood pipette should not be permitted to remain quietly
in that position under water, but a gentle motion should be
imparted by a judicious guidance of the little wire to which the
pipette is fastened ; that is, the little tube should be moved back-
ward and forward along its own axis as far as the dimensions
permit, and in this manner be moved to and fro over its fluid
contents.
It is easily seen that these movements are directed to produce
a speedy solution of the contents of the tube with the surrounding
fluid. It is also readily seen how important it is that no time be
wasted in the proceedings following the taking of the blood, but
rather that all should be arranged as quickly as possible without
neglecting carefulness and exactness of execution. For the rest,
the caution not to work more slowly than necessary, refers only to
the manipulations. These motions are so easy and simple that
even an unskilled hand will need not more than one minute for
their execution. That much of time may pass without endanger-
ing the result in determining the amount of haemoglobin.
OF REICHERT'S HiEMOMETER. 13
All depends upon the blood being mixed with a certain
quantity of water sufficient to dissolve it before it coagulates.
The shorter and broader the capillary, the more rapidly the blood
in the graduating capillary will mix with the surrounding water.
The volume of blood used for measuring will be determined with
greater exactness, the longer and narrower the graduating capillary
is. The most advantageous length and breadth of the blood
pipette is that which permits a rapid mixing of the blood and
water with a sufficient exactness in determining the volume. My
experience permits me to give a warning against the use of blood
pipettes, however well guaged, which are shorter than 7 mm., or
longer than 10 mm. Moreover, the edge of the blood pipette
must be rounded, must be allowed to shape itself in the flame,
but neither of the openings should be contracted nor narrowed.
As soon as most of the contents of the blood pipette has
entered the water, the pipette should be withdrawn by the little
wire and held in a vertical position over the same, so that the
lower opening in the tube in the centre of the blood half of the
comparing vessel may be suspended several millimeters above the
surface of the liquid. Then, with the other hand, seize the drop-
pipette, which has already been filled with water, and allow drop
after drop to enter the upper end of the blood capillary. By this
means not only the contents of the blood capillary, even to the
very last traces of blood in the comparing vessel, are cleansed from
it, but the traces of blood clinging to the surface of the capillary,
and which were lifted from the comparing vessel, are again
washed back.
If the drops which have detached themselves from the lower
end of the graduating capillary are observed, it may be seen how
rapidly the blood drops disappear, and how clear even the fifth or
sixth of these drops is. This is also shown under a careful examin-
ation by a graduating tube, perfectly clean both within and with-
out, perfectly smooth, and filled as well as washed with clear water.
Care must also be taken that no concretions or foreign substances
be on or between the coils of the wire which winds about the
blood pipette and serves as a handle. Only when all is declared
perfectly clean and free from blood, may the blood pipette be
wholly removed from the comparing vessel.
14 CONCERNING THE RULES AND APPLIANCES
The blood half of the comparing vessel, after the graduating
tube has been rinsed, should not be much more than half full,
never more than three-quarters full of the liquid, first, in order to
make a thorough mixing of the contents possible, and second, in
order to permit of a last stratum of water above the blood solution.
This portion of water renders the overflowing of the partition wall
an immaterial instead of a ruinous occurrence. The liquid in the
blood half may now be moved with perfect freedom, a thin wire
being used to stir it. In the absence of a wire, the handle of a
blood pipette may be used ; but in this case the loop which forms
the end is an inconvenience, since it prevents the wire from
reaching the corners at the bottom of the vessel. And exactly
these corners, as well as the angles formed by the bottom and the
walls, as also those formed by the partition wall and the mantle of
the half cylinder, are the favourite sites of very concentrated parts
of the solution. The particles of blood may be so slightly
dissolved that no complete dissolution of the hemoglobin in the
water, and even no perfect destruction of the stromata of the red
blood cells has taken place in order to secure the haemoglobin in
the solution, in consequence of which the liquid appears turbid.
The angles and corners are to be noticed especially, and should
be continually observed until neither inequality of colour in the
liquid in the blood half of the vessel nor the slightest turbidness
can be detected. This of course takes place while the light shines
through it, since the vessel has already been set into the instru-
ment (Haemometer).
When these things have all been arranged, it is time to proceed
to the filling of the blood half of the comparing vessel. It is not
worth while to rinse back into the vessel the very small portion of
the blood solution which clings yet to the end of the wire used to
stir it. Pure water from the pipette is then dropped into the
blood solution, care being taken that the liquid in the vessel is
disturbed as little as possible. With a little practice it may be
risked to allow the last quantity of water to flow in, instead of
being dropped, while the end of the pipette is dipped slightly
beneath the surface of the liquid. The blood half, and also the
wedge half, should be filled to the level of the rim, so that no
meniscus may occur, but the liquid in both halves may have a
OF REICHERT's H.EMOMETER. 15
common, absolutely level surface. Only in this case does the
partition wall appear in the projection as a parallel limited black
stripe, of a thickness corresponding . to that of the partition wall.
If the hquid in either half, or in both halves, has a meniscus
(positive or negative), the dividing line appears distorted, widened
in the centre or at both ends, cut by fine glistening white lines,
also widened and following the line of the rim in several bands.
In a similar manner a coloured field, covered by a meniscus, semi-
circular in the interior, and a distortion of the boundary with a
contraction of the coloured surface brought forward for comparison
is discovered ; although in a lesser degree, this is nevertheless still
perceptible just as is the distortion which the picture of the
partition wall suffers in consequence of a meniscus. This also
affects the exactness and the reliability of the final result. The
simplest method of avoiding this defect arising from the presence
of the meniscus, is to bestow the requisite amount of attention
and care in procuring a perfectly level surface of the fluids in each
half of the vessel. Although this task may be disagreeable, it
should not be called difficult, since circumstances permit an
approach to this end from both sides, and also since the trans-
gression of the proper limit does no great injury. This of course
is obvious in regard to the wedge half; for the blood half the
same holds good according to what has already been said.
Proceed with the same care in case withdrawal of the surplus
liquid is necessary from the blood half. That is needed in adding
the last portion of water to this half, as every current may lead to
a mixing of the upper and lower layers of water. This surplus of
water may be removed either by means of thin glass capillaries
or by filtering paper. In either case avoid dipping too deep into
the water. The wetting and overflowing of the partition wall may
be avoided, when this edge has been greased beforehand.
A second method of eliminating the meniscus presupposes
the fulfilment of the instructions given above. This method
provides purposely a distinct meniscus for each half, or in case of
the overflowing of the partition wall, which is here very probable,
fills it until the whole surface forms a convex meniscus. Then
place a small cover-glass over the opening of the vessel that no air
bubble may be inclosed and without allowing the upper side of
16 CONCERNING THE RULES AND APPLIANCES
the cover to become wet. It is also necessary to avoid any
approach to a stronger current in laying on the cover-glass just as
one would reasonably regard the course of an unexpected current.
In the examination of human blood, notwithstanding the con-
siderable quantity added, it is only on very rare occasions that
merely and imperfect dissolution of the elements contained in the
blood takes place, and in consequence of which there is a certain
turbidness of the liquid, so that a physician in his practice will
scarcely ever find himself disturbed by this annoyance. On the
contrary, in the examination of animal blood, where red blood
cells sometimes carry granules, one must be all the better
prepared for an imperfect solution and a persistent turbidness in
the water. In all such cases the rule of Mr. Leichtenstein is to
add a minimum quantity of caustic alkali. This is an excellent
rule. Indeed, this investigator praises the effectiveness of fixed
alkalies in almost imperceptible doses in every case of protracted
turbidness of a stronger and more of a leuchaemic conditions of
human blood. By this he refers to a pathological condition,
where there is a decided increase of colourless (white) blood cells,
and to the great resistance of the same to the effect of water. I
know from experience only the clearing effect of this method in
thinning blood whose turbidity is the result of the resistance of
the granule conveying red blood corpuscles to the effects of the
water.
The cases for which Mr. Leichtenstein recommends his method
are very different from the cases in which I used this method with
such excellent results, and I was not as yet in a position to observe
the clearing effect in the thinning of the leuchaemia human blood.
But this by no means deters me from unreservedly recommending
this method in all such cases of protracted turbidity as have been
investigated by Mr. Leichtenstein, and, of course, cases of
leuchaemia and leucocythsemia may present themselves to a
practising physician.
There are indeed conditions so simple and so universal that
the certainty which the word of a reUable observer gives cannot
be increased or diminished by repeated assertions.
The testing of a definite blood solution is a task of so great
precision that in the unanimous reports of all the different
OF reichert's h^mometer. 17
universities conducting experiments, the various reports of one or
more persons in the same blood test never varied more than one
per cent.
The more deeply the blood solution to be tested is coloured,
and the thicker, accordingly, that part of the glass wedge which
is of the same colour, the more light the dull white reflector will
throw through the comparing vessel.
If one is aware that the blood is normal, it is best to give the
reflector such a position that as much light as possible will be
thrown upon the lower surface of the vessel. But in such cases
where the thinner parts of the wedge are brought into use, that
position of the reflector must be sought which supplies a sufficient
degree of brightness.
The universal results from the H^emometer are, the sharper
and more exact the smaller the degree of brightness used in
obtaining them.
The observing eye must be brought at a certain distance, per-
pendicularly over the comparing vessel ; the other eye must be
closed. It is also recommended to place between the observing
eye and the comparing vessel, tilted upon the latter, and standing
upright upon the table slab of the Haemometer, a cylinder of
paper or pasteboard. The length of this cylinder must, of course,
be suited to the sight of the observer. It will do no harm to have
the inner surface of the cylinder painted black. The observance
of the following rules is of the greatest importance : —
The observer should not place himself in a position toward
the Haemometer such as he would, for example, assume in the use
of the microscope, but should place himself in the same plane
with the partition wall of the comparing vessel. The consequence
of this is that the picture of both, according to their colour and
brightness, with comparative exactness semi-circles upon the retina,
lie beside each other, not, as in other cases, one upon each other.
But the comparison of the degrees of brightness is much more
exact when the impression is made upon the right and left halves
of the retina, than upon the upper and lower halves. Such is the
case for the following reasons : —
If one excludes the most peripheral portion of the retina in
cases where there is a difference in the shape of the nose root on
International Journal of Microscopy and Natural Science.
Fourth Series. Vol. III. c
18 CONCERNING THE RULES AND APPLIANCES
the temple side of the retina. The right and left halves of the
retina of an eye are generally during the whole life affected by
light and shade to the same degree. In other words, they are
blended in the same degree, and consequently are equally sensitive
to light. The upper and lower halves of the retina, on the con-
trary, are subject to the effect of light in essentially different
degrees, in that the picture of the firmament, which in general
represents by far the brightest part of the range of vision, is
always wanting in the lov/er half of the retina. Thereby it is kept
more nearly blinded ; that is, less sensitive to light.
The observer must also take care that the observing eye is not
affected by rays from the light which illuminates the Haemometer.
For in this case, in consequence of the lights penetrating the
tissues (tunice) of the eye, a similar inequality between the two
sides or retina halves may result, such as we have just found in the
halves of the retina lying one over the other.
The real work now is to focus the Haemometer. This is done
by moving the glass wedge by means of a large hand piece back
of the column until the difference in the appearance of both
halves of the comparing vessel has disappeared. This movement,
as soon as the neighbourhood of the real graduating point is
reached, should be backward, and by short, quick strokes, rather
than by a constant slow motion.
The paths of the wedge as it is shoved from one side to the
other over the proper point should be gradually shortened; in this
way the distance traversed is lessened while the decision vacillates,
until one has at last decided upon the graduation.
As it is advisable to look often rather than long into the
instrument, so also when the graduation point is supposed to be
determined, the eye should be averted for a short time either by
closing it or by looking at some dark surface, and then both halves
of the vessel should be again compared. If there be the slightest
doubt, the perfect equality of both halves should again be sought
by short backward movements of the wedge, until at length
further observation can detect no change in the decision either as
to the purport or as to the exactness.
The sense of perfect exactness and unconditional correctness
of the decision will be experienced in each case at the same time
OF REICHERT's H.EMOMETER. 19
with the conviction that the greatest care and attention has been
given. In the use of the Haemometer, which is so simple that it
must be intelHgible, the conscience of the observer will in every
case tell him of how much confidence he has made himself and
his observations worthy.
But when the observer has been able to reach only a hesitating
and unsatisfactory decision, it cannot always be attributed to want
of conscientious care and attention.
There are persons who, although they are not exactly red
blind, nevertheless have a retina very sensitive to long undulations
of light, and to such persons the graduation of the Haemometer
not only presents a certain difficulty while it does not allow them
to reach a positive conclusion satisfactory to themselves, but
according to the few experiments of which they were hitherto
capable, it seems that such persons graduate the Haemometer
about one-fourth too low ; that is, in the examination of normal
human blood at about 75 per cent.
Whether such persons can use the Haemometer to advantage,
and to what extent, and under what conditions, are questions to
which the preceding experience can give no definite answer, and
whose solution remains for future investigation. Still I wish to
express, a priori, the following conjectures : —
In those who are severely suffering with red-blindness, whenever
their retina are carefully studied and accurately observed, it is
found that the same anomaly exists in all. Such cases afflicted
with red-blindness manifest a functionary defect of the sense of
colour.
I consider the validity of the same course of reduction -
quotients for the totality of the red-blind even more probable than
the validity of the same quotient for the whole extension of the
Haemometer-scale, every graduation made by one who is red-blind
in any definite direction upon the Haemometer-scale, always
through this, one quotient should be changed into the correspond-
ing graduation of the normal eye.
The inability to see red in its proper degree of intensity seems
to be a functionary defect of the sense of colour, which occurs in
all degrees between the normal eye and the total red-blindness.
And I am not as yet convinced that in all the cases the defects
20 CONCERNING THE RULES AND APPLIANCES
extend to and spread wave-like or in a constant ratio over those
lying within the defect.
Under such circumstances it seems to me to be highly im-
probable for red-examiners to have such a common factor of
reduction such as we have observed for the total red-blindness
may exist.
In contradistinction to the above mentioned rare cases of eyes
that are not at all able, or only to a certain degree able to use the
Hsemometer, there are many observers whose sense of colour is
in the beginning, or at least after a little practice, so keen that
they are able to detect with the greatest exactness the inequality
of the colouring m the part of the wedge suddenly made visible
through the comparing vessel. Of course the difference in the
thickness of the wedge at both ends of a piece in a position of
the same visible at the same time is not less than 0*9 mm., there-
fore the difference in the graduation of normal human blood
amounts to about 18 per cent, of the central thickness of the wedge.
Yet it has been said that every observer is not capable of detecting
the corresponding variation of the colour in the thickness of the
red glass. Together with the ability to distinguish such slight
differences in the intensity of the colour, there is combined a real
advantage in the use of the Hsemometer. Such observers are
able in graduating to seek that position of the wedge in which at
the end of the partition wall of the comparing vessel the blood
half is more deeply coloured than the wedge half ; at the other
end the wedge half appears darker than the blood half. Between
these there must of course be a point at which the intensity of
colour is the same on both sides of the partition wall, and this
point must be in the centre of the partition wall if the increasing
variations are alike at both ends. To carry out this arrangement
the division of both halves of the coloured circle into three
subdivisions (so that there are six in all) by means of two thin
black straight lines perpendicular to the dividing line and dividing
the latter into three equal parts, is advantageous.
I believe that I not only anticipate correctly the surprising
effect which these directions for the use of the Haemometer will
probably have upon the most of my readers, but that I will also
find this impression well founded by the evident incongruity
OF REICHERT's H.EMOMETER. 21
between the small number, the simple character, and the rapid
execution of the proceedings demanded in Hsemometer measuring
on the one hand, and on the other, great number of rules
and instructions which I have given above. Since all should be
alive to the importance of the cautionary rules for the correct
execution of these proceedings, it cannot be otherwise than that
every one will find in these instructions much that he already
knows or considers self-evident, but it may also be that each will
find something new or something which he himself would not
have arrived at. The purpose in giving at length these rules is to
enable each possessor of a Hsemometer to use it without fruitless
attempts. In the very beginning he should make useful and
reliable measurements. The purpose could be fully carried out
only by a complete enumeration of all possible rules that might be
considered.
Cbemietri? anb palaeontology.
A NOVEL appHcation of Chemical Analysis was recently ex-
plained by A. Carnot at the Paris Academy of Sciences.
He has endeavoured to fix the age of prehistoric human
remains by noting the progressive diminution of fluorine in the
fossil bones of successive geological ages. Representing the pro-
portion found the oldest specimens as i, that of the tertiary remains
would be indicated by o'64, of the quaternary by o'35, and of the
more recent bones by 0*05 or o'o6. An opportunity of testing
the value of these figures was afforded by the discovery of a human
tibia at Billancourt (Seine), near some animal remains of the
quaternary period. There was a difference of opinion as to
whether it was of the same period as the other fragments or not,
but since on analysis the proportion of fluorine in the animal
bones was found to vary from 0-469 to 0*578, as compared with
0*066 in the human tibia, the more recent origin of the latter was
regarded as established.
— Coinptes Reiidus.
[ 22 ]
a device to tahe tbe place
of tbe Camera Xuciba in flDicrograpbij*
By Henry G. Piffard, M.D.
THE act of micrography, or the reproduction on paper of
images of minute objects seen through the microscope, may
be practised in various ways, of which the three following
are the principal : —
I. — The observer studies the object on the slide, and, when he
thinks he has the outlines and details, or a portion of them, suffici-
ently impressed on his mind, withdraws his eyes from the tube, and
commits the mental picture to paper, using, of course, both eyes
in directing the movements of his pencil. Success with this presup-
poses a retentive memory and considerable skill as a draughtsman.
2. — The observer, looking down
the tube in the usual way with one
eye — for convenience, the left — is,
after a little practice, enabled, by a
sort of auto-projection, to see an image
of the object on a sheet of paper by
the side of the microscope. The out-
lines of this image he traces with the
pencil, using the right eye to direct
its movements, the observation and
the reproduction being simultaneous.
3. — By the aid of a camera lucida,
of which there are many different
sorts, a reflected or projected image is visible on the paper
with the eye that is at the same time occupied in directly observing
the magnified image of the object on the stage. In one of the
latest forms of camera lucida — the Abbe — this use of half the eye
for observing, and the other half for recording, is a reasonably
convenient method, if the observer's eye is approximately normal ;
marked myopia or hypermetropia, and still more pronounced astig-
FiG. 4. — The author's drawing
prism.
CAMERA LUCIDA.
23
matism, necessitating the use of spectacles, render the use of the
camera lucida inconvenient, if not well-nigh impossible.
Some time since it occurred to the writer that the practice of
micrography could be greatly simplified by adapting the principles
employed in ordinary projection, as used in connection with the
optical lantern, the projection microscope, photo-micrography, etc.
It was only a question of reflecting the projected image on to a
piece of drawing-paper fixed in some convenient position. To
this end I requested Messrs. Bausch and Lamb to mount a right-
angled, reflecting prism with a short tube extending from one of its
square faces, (Fig. 4), this tube to be of such calibre that it could be
inserted into the microscope in the place of the eye-piece. From
the other square face a similar short tube extends, capable of
receiving the ocular and holding it firmly.
Fig. 5. — Showing lamp, microscope, and prism in position.
When preparing to use this device the object is placed on the
stage, and focussed in the usual manner. The microscope is then
brought to a horizontal position, the eye-piece is removed, and the
prism case put in its place, the ocular being inserted in the short
tube provided for its reception. The ocular should point down-
ward. The lamp, or other source of light, should then be disposed
in such a way that it properly illuminates the object to be examined,
24 CAMERA LUCIDA.
it being expressly understood that no light shall escape toward the
observer, except that which first reaches the object. A Beck lamp
is conveniently adapted to this purpose. If a piece of drawing-
paper is placed beneath the ocular, and the room darkened, a
brilliant image will be projected on the paper, and its reproduc-
tion can be easily accomplished with a maximum of rapidity
and a minimum of discomfort. In guiding the pencil the
draughtsman uses both eyes, and his spectacles if needed, and
sits in whatever position he finds most comfortable.
The general disposition and arrangement of the apparatus will
be readily understood by an examination of the accompanying
cut (Fig. 5).
With a proper lamp, and careful utilisation of its light, this
device gives excellent results with amplifications up to four and
five hundred diameters.
If a sensitive photographic plate be substituted for the drawing-
paper, an exposure of a few seconds will impress an image that
may be developed in the usual way. — New York Medical Journal.
Mosquitoes are said in the Quarterly Review to have been
frozen on to the surface of a lake in the evening, and thawed
again by the morning sun into animation. Alpine climbers some-
times pick up butterflies lying frozen and brittle on the snow,
which revive and fly away when taken to lower warmer regions.
Insects which habitually hibernate, as larvae and pupae, do not
suffer from being frozen for a lengthened time ; but they suffer in
open winters from frequent alternations of wet, warmth, and cold.
The Asteroids.— According to calculations by M. L. Niesten,
all the asteroids known (now more than 300), if combined into one,
would form a body not quite 514 miles in diameter, or less than
one-twentieth the diameter of the earth ; and it would require
S>575 bodies like it to form a planet having the volume of the
earth. The largest of the asteroids, Vesta is 230 miles in diameter,
and the smallest Agatha, four and-a-half miles. As all these bodies
having considerable size have most probably been discovered,
the estimate of the mass of the whole is not likely to be materially
affected by the detection of new ones.
[ 25 ]
Ipreparing Sections of ^eetb for IbistoloQi?
an£) Bacteriology.
PART II.-HISTOLOGY PRACTICAL.
By Prof. V. A. Latham, D.D.S., F.R.M.S., etc.
Sectio?i II.— SOFTENED SECTIONS.
FOR this purpose several reagents may be used, but all seem
to act by the removing of the calcareous matter and the
hardening of the soft tissues of the teeth. It is most
important that the last should be thoroughly well attended to, or
else we do not get a correct idea of the character and structural
size of the elements found in the tooth. Chromic acid is the
first ; a one-sixth per cent, up to one-half may be used. The
former is preferable, and is made by adding one gramme to 600 cc.
of distilled water, or 15 grains to the pint, a quantity of which
should be kept on hand in order to immerse a freshly extracted
tooth that may be desired for examination.
Tie a piece of cotton round a fresh tooth, and suspend it in
the fluid (one part of spirit to two parts aci,d), carefully stirred so
as to be covered by a quantity of the solution. Where the crown
of the tooth is not required for examination, it is better to saw it
off at the neck so as to allow the stains and reagents to penetrate
the tissues. The hardening fluid must be changed the second day
and on the fifth and eighth days. On the ninth day it is placed
in a mixture consisting of two parts of spirit and one of water well
stirred ; and on the tenth day into pure spirit and left till desired
to use. If desired to soften at the end of the eighth day, a few
drops of hydrochloric acid can be added to decalcify, which may
be tested by passing a fine needle through the tooth ; then wash
well to remove the acid ; then place for a day into two parts spirit
and one water, and the next day into ordinary spirit; on the
fourth day embed and cut.
To Embed in Parafl&n.— A small tin or paper mould should
be made and some melted paraflin poured into it. The tooth
is then quickly dipped in and withdrawn till quite cool. As the
paraffin is now cooling, place the tooth in it near the hand of the
26 PREPARING SECTIONS OF TEETH.
operator, and when set withdraw the needle. Place it in a cool
place to harden. To prevent the object becoming displaced, it
should first be dipped in alcohol for some minutes in order to dry
the surface thoroughly. The sections are then cut with a razor
and kept flooded with alcohol, and the sections floated off the
knife into a capsule of the same. If desired, a mixture (by weight)
of white wax and olive oil, equal parts, melted together and poured
into the embedding dishes, may be used in place of the paraffin.
To Embed in Gum.— If the tooth is in alcohol, transfer for six
hours into distilled water, then to a gum solution for six hours
(made of picked gum arable dissolved in water). Place a fair
quantity of the gum on the plate of the microtome (Cathcart's or
WiUiams'), and cool till nearly frozen. Place the tooth in position
and surround with gum, and let it freeze under a capsule, or by
means of the spray, till solid, but not brittle. The gum should
cut Hke cheese. When the sections are cut, transfer with a camel-
hair pencil from the knife to warm distilled water to dissolve out
the gum. From water transfer to spirit and spread the sections
out evenly. If the sections are delicate, they may be transferred
directly to the slide and treated with dilute spirit insitii. These
may be washed with water and stained with any agent or gold
chloride, and subsequently dehydrated and cleared and mounted
in any media.
Decalcified Sections.— Picric Acid-- A saturated solution in
distilled water is the safest decalcifying agent, and it must be kept
saturated by the addition of fresh crystals every few days. When
soft enough^ prick with a needle to test it, and then wash well in
clean water to get rid of the acid and then in weak spirit, which
will dissolve more acid. Keep in pure alcohol and treat as
chromic acid for embedding, cutting, etc. Sections may be double
stained with picro-carmine and logwood, etc.
Muller's Fluid.— This is one of the most useful hardening
agents we possess; it consists of bichromate of potash, 2 parts;
sulphate of soda, i part ; and water, 1 00 parts. Put the salts into
a pan with some of the water and boil till all is dissolved. Add
the rest of the water to cool it, and put in a stoppered bottle to
keep. After the first few days it does not require changing, but
requires longer time to harden according to the size of the tissue,
PREPARING SECTIONS OF TEETH. 27
and is a great advantage, as specimens are in no way liarmed for
the demonstration of micro-organisms. When the tissue is pro-
perly hardened, pour off the hardening agent and wash well with
water to get rid of the reagent, transfer to weak spirit for a day or
two (2 parts spirit, i water, stir), then into pure spirit.
Sections of Pulp.— Crush a newly extracted tooth in a vice or
with a hammer, and select several pieces of dentine with portions
of pulp adherent to them, then immerse in staining fluid, cover
with a glass capsule, and leave in a warm place for a couple of
days. Then pour the fluid off and wash the specimens in a solu-
tion made of strong glycerine 2 parts, distilled water r part, and
leave for a couple of hours to soak. To enable the tissues to
regain their original volume, transfer them to a solution of 5 drops
acetic acid to i ounce of strong glycerine, and leave in the fluid
for four days.
Another method and one recommended by Dr. Bodecker for
preparing pulp tissue is to immediately place the tooth after
removal from the mouth in a one-sixth to one-half per cent,
chromic acid. To this mixture add, after the third or fourth day
after decalcification, a few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid. It is
important to use a large quantity of the liquid and renew every
six or eight days. After the teeth have been hardening and decal-
cifying for a few weeks, the peripheral portion of the dentine will
become sufficiently soft to be cut with a razor. When the hard
portions of the dentine are reached by the cutting instruments, the
extraction of the lime-salts must again be continued in the manner
described above until the pulp cavity is reached. If care is used,
the tooth, especially the anterior, can be split with a strong pair of
excising forceps. Then take a half per cent, solution of sodium
chloride in distilled water (warm), and place on the pulp and drop
it without handling into the stain, carmine, logwood, fuchsin,
hyperosmic acid, picro-indigo, or chloride of gold, half per cent., etc.
Pulp sections, if thin, after hardening in chromic acid, can, if
first washed in distilled water, be stained with gold chloride, leaving
the stain on the tissue for twenty to thirty minutes, when they
should again be washed in distilled water and exposed to daylight.
In a few hours the colour of the fresh tissue changes to a bright
violet colour, whilst the chromic acid pulp is of a brownish violet.
28 PREPARING SECTIONS OF TEETH.
Osmic acid, i per cent., shows the contours of the constituent
tissues, the nerve-fibres being more especially distinct. Again,
both fresh and chromic acid specimens may be treated with osmic
acid. Carmine is, perhaps, the best stain for pulps.
To examine the pulp together with the enclosing dentine, the
specimen is softened in chromic acid and then embedded in cel-
loidin, or paraffin, or wax, as above described. The fresh pulps
of lower incisors are the thinnest and best adapted for examining
the system of blood vessels, and if transferred to the sUde when
fresh, add some normal saline solution, cover, and with careful
pressure the pulps may be spread and examined.
The Blood-Vessels of the Pulp, To Study.— Chloroform an
animal, and just before respiration ceases open the right auricle
and let the vessels empty themselves ; then inject with Prussian
blue, warmed to a temperature of 40^ C. to render the gelatine
fluid, and also to prevent any vascular spasm which a cold fluid is
very liable to produce. Then place the head in alcohol for
twenty-four hours to harden the injection ; or, if preferred, in
Muller's fluid or chromic acid, which is quite as good and in my
opinion better. The pulp, after hardening in alcohol, is removed
and immersed in a weak solution of chromic acid, and at the end
of ten days sections of it may readily be cut and then mounted in
glycerine jelly. If the animal is quite dead, you must wait till
rigor mortis has passed off and inject a non-gelatinous Prussian
blue, but the first injection is the best. In animals which die of
strangulation the vessels will be found so gorged with blood as to
render any further preparation unnecessary.
If the tissues are partially decalcified in a very weak solution
of chromic acid and treated as above described, sections can be
frozen, cut, stained, and mounted, so as to show the dentinal
fibrillae as prolongations of the odontoblasts.
I prefer to harden teeth well in Muller's fluid, then spirit, and
then to grind sections, keeping them wet all the time, and if wished
they can, after grinding, be embedded in celloidin and decalcified
in half per cent, solution of chromic acid, then treated and
stained as desired. A point worthy of remembrance is the dis-
similarity between caries of bone and decay of teeth, as the reac-
tion is totally different when they are treated with picro-carmine.
PREPARING SECTIONS OF TEETH. 29
Perenyi's Fluid.— As yet I have had very little chance to
thoroughly test this agent, to which Dr. N. S. Hoff, of the Uni-
versity of Michigan, very kindly drew my attention, but it promises
to be a good agent, having the properties of hardening and decal-
cifying at the same time. The formula is : — Nitric acid (lo per
cent.), 4 parts ; alcohol, 3 parts ; and chromic acid (o'5 per cent.),
3 parts. Mix. Leave the tooth in this agent some four hours or
more, until soft. The softening is facilitated if the tooth can be
cut through at the neck so that the agent can enter the canal.
Then transfer to 70 per cent, alcohol for twenty-four hours, strong
alcohol for some days, absolute alcohol four or five days. For
ordinary tissues combine the stain with the fixing fluid. Fuchsin
may be dissolved directly in the fixing solution. But eosin, pur-
purin, or aniline violet must first be dissolved in three parts of
alcohol, and then shaken into the liquid.
Picro-carmine and borax-carmine can also be added, but as a
precipitate results it must be filtered, and after staining pass
through 50 per cent, alcohol for five hours ; ordinary spirit, ten
hours, and then into absolute alcohol. If the tissue is unstained,
it may, after cutting, be immersed in clove oil coloured with an
alcoholic solution of eosin or sapranin, or it may be placed on the
slide for five to ten minutes, with a few drops of the coloured oil.
Kleinenberg's fluid is also useful for decalcifying teeth.
To Clean Cover-Glasses.— Take the cover-glasses from the wool
in which they are usually kept, and place them in a beaker, cover
with strong sulphuric acid ; stir, to get rid of all the air remaining
amongst them and leave them for an hour or two. Then wash
well in several changes of water to get rid of the acid, and place
in alcohol, from which they are taken one by one, and wiped dry
on an old handkerchief, and then polished with a chamois leather
and kept for use in an air-tight box.
Retaining the Soft Parts of Bone and Teeth.— Take a fresh, or
nearly fresh, tooth. Divide it at once with a sharp fretsaw below
the neck into two or three pieces, " allowing distilled water to
trickle over it the while," and then the reagents and stains can
penetrate the pulp cavity. Place the pieces in concentrated sub-
limate solution for some hours to fix the soft parts. Wash in
running water for about one hour ; then place for twelve hours in
30 PREPARING SECTIONS OF TEETH.
30 per cent, spirit, change to 50 per cent., and again after a similar
period to 70 per cent. To remove the black sublimate precipitate,
place the teeth for twelve hours in 90 per cent, spirit, to which
1*5 to 2 per cent, tincture of iodine has been added. The
iodine is afterwards removed by immersion in absolute alcohol
until the teeth become white.
To Stain in Borax Carmine, either an alcoholic or aqueous
solution gives the best results. Remove the teeth from absolute
alcohol to running water for fifteen to thirty minutes, and then
place in the stain. In the watery solution of borax carmine they
must remain one or two days, and in the spirituous two or three
days. Transfer to acidulated spirit (70 per cent, spirit, 100 parts ;
muriatic acid, i part), in which they may remain ; the watery ones
stained require at least twelve, and the alcohol stained ones
twenty-four to thirty-six hours. This done, immerse for about
fifteen minutes in 90 per cent, spirit and then for half-an-hour in
absolute alcohol ; after which they are to be transferred to some
ethereal oil for twelve or more hours ; then quickly wash the ethe-
real oil off the objects with pure xylol. They are then to be
passed into a solution of balsam in chloroform.
The Balsam is prepared by drying in a water-bath heated gra-
dually up to 90 deg. for eight hours or more until, when cold, the
mass will crack like glass on being punctured. Of this balsam so
much is added to the chloroform as to make a thin solution, in
which, as stated above, the teeth must lie for twenty-four hours.
Then add as much balsam as the solution will dissolve. When no
more balsam will dissolve, the teeth and a sufficiency of the
balsam are poured into a vessel and heated up to 90 deg. in a
water-bath until the mass, when cold, shall be as hard as glass.
Let the balsam set ; pick out the teeth carefully, place in a vice,
and thin discs are cut from them with a fret-saw, water being
trickled over them the while. Mount sections in chloroform
balsam.
Teeth to show Odontoblasts in situ.— Take the jaw, preferably
the lower jaw, of an embryonic mammal such as a kitten or puppy,
and while still fresh carefully strip off the tissues covering it, except
the oral epithelium and flange of gum, and place in the usual
MuUer solution, twenty to thirty times in volume greater than the
PREPA.RING SECTIONS OF TEETH. 31
bulk of the immersed tissue. Change the fluid every day for four
or five days, and then every third or fourth day. Then finish
hardening after it has been in Muller's fluid for a fortnight, first in
weak spirit, then into strong, changing till no more colour is seen.
Vertical sections are cut by a thin, sharp knife ; place longitudin-
ally on the stage of a Cathcart or Williams' freezing microtome
and cut in the usual way. The best specimens are got in the
canine and bicuspid regions, for these parts are less likely to be
disturbed in the manipulation processes. Embedding in wax,
paraffin, or celloidin is of little service. The knife cuts the thin
cap of semi-calcified dentine and bone quite easily, and the ele-
ments of the pulp are in no way disturbed in their relation to each
other. The odontoblasts can be separated, if necessary, by sepa-
rating with the point of a needle from the surface of the dentine
papilla, the cap of dentine to which, in places, they adhere. This
affects little, if at all, the relative positions of dentine, odonto-
blasts, and pulp.
To make Preparations of the Teeth of Fishes in situ.— It is
best not to grind down sections of the teeth, but to decalcify the
jaw and teeth with a 5 per cent, solution of hydrochromic acid or
a 10 per cent, solution of hydrochloric acid. Cut sections, stain
and wash them well in distilled water, dehydrate for three minutes
in absolute alcohol, clear in clove oil or xanthol, and mount in
Canada balsam. Carmine is, perhaps, the best stain for fishes'
teeth. If it is used, however, it is necessary, before transferring to
distilled water, to pass the sections quickly through weak acetic
acid, as this fixes the stain. If gold chloride is used, the speci-
mens must be mounted in glycerine jelly.
It is not necessary to Cut Sections of Enamel to Demonstrate
the Prisms. — ist. Soften the enamel by immersion in a 10 percent,
solution of hydrochloric acid. By means of a needle point or
fine brush, remove a small portion to a slide ; put a drop of
normal salt solution on the top of the enamel and press down the
cover-glass ; then run a solution of carmine or orange-rubine
beneath the cover-glass, and draw off the excess with a small piece
of blotting-paper. Wash the stain away further by irrigation with
a weak hydrochloric acid or acetic acid solution, and mount in
this solution or acidified glycerine after Beale's plan.
32 PREPARING SECTIONS OF TEETH.
Staining with Chloride of Gold.— No other stain marks out so
clearly the minute anatomy of the soft tissues which penetrate
bone and dentine ; in fact, its excellence as a selective stain would
long ago have been demonstrated but for the recognised text-books
speaking of the great difficulty of using it and the length of time
it takes, and being only applicable to fresh tissues.
True, fresh tissues always stain faster ; but teeth and bone, and
indeed other tissues, can be stained after having been severed from
the living body for a long time — sometimes weeks. Avoid the
use of metal instruments, bone, wood, or quill being preferable.
The use of steel does not, however, doom the staining to failure.
To stain (a) wash the sections in a solution of bicarbonate of soda.
(b) Put some i per cent, solution of gold chloride in a watch-glass,
test it with litmus paper, and, if acid, neutralise with {c) bicarbon-
ate of soda by drops. Place the sections in the solution and
cover the watch-glass with a lid to keep it in total darkness for from
half to one hour until the sections are straw-colour.
Remove the sections from the staining fluid to distilled water,
leave covered over for a few minutes (they must not be exposed to
the hght for more than a few seconds), {d) Put some i per cent,
formic acid in a watch-glass, float the glass on hot water, put the
sections in the acid, cover them over and keep them in the dark
and fairly hot until they turn crimson, which will be in about an
hour, {e) When stained, immerse the sections in cold distilled
water for about half-an-hour. (/) Dry the sections and mount
them in glycerine jelly; avoid Canada balsam. Keep gold chloride
bottle in the dark.
Sections to show pulp (particularly hyperaemia) are difficult to
make and to retain the natural injection. First, Catch your hare —
i.e., capture the condition — examine a suitable case when one is
presented, note condition of the tooth itself, etc. Remember tke
condition of the tooth at the moment of extraction^ especially as to
pain, as it is of vast importance in studying this object. Extract
this tooth ; place in Muller ; do not handle or disturb in any way
for a week at least, Then harden ; wrap the tooth in muslin and
place in the jaws of a powerful vice (not one where the jaws are
so weak that they will spring together on cracking the tooth, as it
will crush the pulp), and steadily close them until the tooth cracks
PREPARING SECTIONS OF TEETH. 33
open. If skilfully done, the line of fracture will be the long axis.
Then place in Muller's fluid, freshly filtered, and carefully lift the
pulp from its cavity. (Carefully do this, for the dentinal fibrils
will be pulled out a considerable length.) Now place in a thin
solution of gum arabic, to which should be added some gum
camphor, salicylic, thymol, or carbolic acid, to prevent mould. /;/
no case fmist this gum be sfro?ig enough to float the pulp. If of
greater specific gravity than the pulp the tissue shrinks. Evapo-
rate the gum arabic solution slowly to the consistence of a thick
jelly. This should require three or four days to thoroughly pene-
trate the pulp. When the solution is hard enough to handle, the
pulp is taken up with some mucilage, placed in the position for
cutting on a piece of cork afloat on alcohol, with the pulp side
down. In from twelve to thirty-six hours the surface will be con-
siderably hardened by the abstraction of the water by alcohol.
Do not let it get too hard. Insert in a microtome ; use paraffin
or some suitable substance for embedding, and allow to stand
twelve to twenty-four hours. Several sections can be cut if desired,
the specimen being kept wet in alcohol all the time. Mount
direct in glycerine without dissolving the mucilage, or dissolve it
out in tepid distilled water, stain the pulp with haematoxylin or
fuchsin, and mount in Canada balsam.
If a tooth is extracted during a paroxysm of pain, inflamma-
tion of the pulp is almost uniformly accompanied by the signs of
hyperaemia, they being present in a marked degree in the imme-
diate neighbourhood of the inflammatory area; but if the tooth is
extracted during a period of quiet, the hypersemia is limited to the
vessels within the inflamed area.
Celloidin.— After well hardening, place for twenty-four hours in
equal parts of ether and alcohol, transferring to a syrupy solution
of celloidin, made by dissolving celloidin in a mixture of equal
parts of alcohol and ether. Leave it for about twenty-four hours ;
cover the object with a thicker solution of celloidin, and allow it
to remain in it for twenty-four hours. When ready, embed on cork.
Spread on the cork a little of the celloidin solution and allow to
dry ; then another coat and let dry. Now place on it the specimen
as quickly as possible before the celloidin begins to harden. Then
cover the whole with successive layers of the celloidin solution
International Journal of Microscopy and Natural Science.
Third Series. Vol. III. d
34 PREPARING SECTIONS OF TEETH.
until the object is built up quite firm. When it has dried remove
the celloidin from the glass with a sharp knife, and if necessary
trim the mass to a proper size and form.
To place on Cork.— Coat the cork with celloidin solution and
let it dry (to prevent air rising from the cork), The object is now
placed in its hardened matrix and mixing cell, as on the cork, by
means of celloidin. Let dry in air till it retains its shape well.
Drop the cork into 50 per cent, alcohol, and it can usually be cut
after soaking it for one hour. For dental embryological work it is
excellent.
Developing Teeth Sections.— Take the teeth that are forming
in the jaws of embryos, at or nearly the time of birth, while the
tissue is still warm if possible. Place in ^ to J of i per cent,
solution of chromic acid and change daily for three or four days.
The edges of the dentine that were calcified are found sufficiently
softened to make a number of sections. Take the teeth from the
acid solution, wash in distilled water, and then place in a solution
of gum arable for several hours. Then put in alchohol to take
out the water. Paraffin and wax are melted and poured into a
convenient mould. When clouded with cooling, embed the tissue,
and cut it until the calcified tissue is reached. Place the sections
in distilled water for a few minutes to dissolve out the gum, and
then put in glycerine and alcohol and mount in glycerine.
For further details on Embryonic Teeth Sections, see paper on
Histology of the Teeth in this Journal, New Series, Vol. 11. , 1889,
where they are given at length.
Preparing Sections of Decayed Dentine.— Select a freshly-
extracted decayed tooth, wash out all the particles of food, and
break away the margins of enamel so as to expose the softened
dentine as much as possible. Then with a sharp instrument cut
away the decayed portion from the sound dentine, keeping the
instrument well to the latter, and we thus get a large piece of
decayed dentine. Immediately freeze the tissue in gum, stain and
mount.
Staining Tissues. — This requires a little practice to secure good
results, so we will take the simplest — namely, logwood. Buy a
good sample, or make one from the many receipts found in all
PREPARING SECTIONS OF TEETH. 35
histological text-books, and then filter twelve or fifteen drops in a
watch-glass, and add a few drops of distilled water ; stir well to
mix the agents. Place in a few sections (the fewer and the slower
they stain the better) from the spirit, and let them straighten out
on the stain, and then gently press under the logwood ; leave it
for about ten minutes (the time differs in every case), and then
test them by washing in tap water. This is about the only time
we have occasion to use anv other than distilled water, but the
former fixes the stain the best. When deep enough and well
washed to remove all precipitates, place the sections in spirit for a
good ten minutes to dehydrate, then in clove oil, and finally
mount in Canada balsam, or what other media is desired. All
the stains are used, with only slight modifications, in a similar
manner.
Picro-Carmine is a very useful stain on account of its double-
staining property. Place the sections in a strong solution for from
ten to thirty minutes, then wash in acidulated water (distilled
water to which one or two drops of acetic or picric acid have been
added). Leave in this for fifteen to thirty minutes, wash quickly
in alcohol, and then transfer to clove oil and mount in balsam.
Some histologists are against the use of balsam as a medium, and
advise glycerine or Farrant's media. Logwood is a good combin-
ing stain with the above. Fuchsin is also a good stain.
The Mexican jumping seed, or " Devil's bean," is a euphor-
biaceous plant of such poisonous properties, that it is used by the
Indians to envenom their arrow-points. It not having been scien-
tifically identified to satisfaction. Dr. C. V. Riley has made a special
study of it. The saltatory property is not intrinsic with it, but is
imparted to it by an insect {Carpocapra saltitans), which secures
lodgment within the bean and does the work. Dr. Riley believes
that the insect is developed in the capsules of several species of
the genus Sebastia?ia,
[ 36 ]
®n tbe Cultivation of 2)iatom9 b^ artificial
fiDeane.
By Dr. Miguel.
Translated from Le Diatomiste.
Chapter I. — The Ordinary Growth of Diatoms.
TO cultivate any microscopic species it is necessary that the
conditions of its independent and voluntary reproduction
should be provided by the experimenter.
Such an operation requires —
I. — The formation of a nutritive medium, suitable for pro-
moting the development of the species.
2. — The subsequent sowing of the microphyte, the multipli-
cation of which is desired.
3. — Special precautions, without which the growth would be
endangered, and which consist essentially in promoting the life of
the microphyte, either in avoiding the many things which would
injure it, or which would increase too greatly the action of such as
stimulate it.
I. — The Cultivation of Diatomsin a fresh-water Preparation of
the Nutritive medium. Besides the natural medium for the growth
of diatoms, which is water, it is necessary to provide them with
two kinds of food : Saline food and Organic food.
The common water of springs and streams are not usually
sufficiently charged with mineral and organic substances to favour
an abundant growth of diatoms ; nevertheless in sowing diatoms
in common water, fully exposed to light, you can see produced at
the bottom of the vessel, especially if the vessel be of glass, little
yellow spots, formed exclusively of diatoms in course of multi-
plication. But these organisms soon exhaust the mineral and
organic constituents which are essential to their support, and its
growth is arrested. It is resumed and carried forward as soon as
these constituents are supplied ; how this is done we are about to
show.
It is only after having studied repeatedly the action of different
salts that I have been able to establish a proper formula for
THE CULTIVATION OF DIATOMS.
37
mineralising water, the addition of which will give good results in
the culture of siliceous algae in fresh water. The salts of soda
and of lime are those for which diatoms have a special liking, and
it is the same, though in a less degree, with the salts of potash,
while those of ammonia are often injurious.
To mineralise a liquid suitably you may add, with good effect,
to a litre of common water, 40 drops of solution A and from
10 to 20 drops of solution B : —
A.
Chloride of sodium
10 „
Sulphate of soda
Nitrate of ammonia
5 n
I „
Nitrate of potassa
Nitrate of soda
2 „
2 „
Bromide of potassium
Iodide of potassium
.. 0-2 „
... o-i „
Water
100 ,,
B.
Phosphate of soda
Chloride of calcium, dry ...
4grs.
4 „
Acid, hydrochloric, pure, 22^
Perchloride of iron, liquid, 45^
Water
2 cms
2 cms
8 cms
Thus if the volume of water is only 50 cms. you must add 20
times less of these hquids, about 2 and i drops of each solution.
On a pinch you may dispense with the mineralisation of the
ordinary water, and the reason for this is based on the fact that
vegetables, which give food to diatoms, contain for the most part
the above-mentioned elements in a state of combination, but
experience shows that the decomposition of these vegetables being
always very slow, the diatoms have generally an excess of organic
material and not enough mineral, which retards their develop-
ment. Observers may attempt the growth of diatoms in common
water, and may be sure of obtaining growths, often very beautiful,
but rather sparse. Besides, they must not forget that the formulae
I am giving are capable of great improvement, and that they may
38 ON THE CULTIVATION OF DIATOMS
be greatly modified^ according as it is desired to hasten the
multiplication of such and such diatoms.
Some fresh-water diatoms require for their maximum develop-
ment increased proportions of the salts. I have known some that
will very well take 40 grains of chloride of sodium to the litre —
others 10 to 15 grains of nitrate of soda — many develop strongly
under the action of powerful disinfectants. I cannot, in the short
exposition that I propose to make here, enter into these different
questions, and on these points I would refer the reader to articles
that have already appeared, on the Physiology of Diatoms, in the
Annale de Micrographie.
The ascertaining what organic substances are suitable for the
culture of diatoms has required a great number of experiments —
thus in my early experiments I tried leaves, twigs, and roots of a
great variety of plants, and vegetable and animal tissues of every
class ; and it was by noting at each experiment the results as more
or less favourable that I was compelled to eliminate the greater
part of these substances, as sugars, gums, starches, the albumen of
eggs and of blood, green plants, etc., and to retain only a small
group of organic matters— as the bran of wheat, rye, and oats,
the stalks of grasses, mosses, the dried excrement of the rodentia
and herbivora, flesh (muscle), washed and cooked, and this last
I was afterwards obliged to reject as it favoured the development
of fungi and green algae.
Finally, it is necessary to supply to the diatoms such substances
as putrefy slowly and with difficulty, and I may add in quantity so
small that the water in which they are immersed shall never at any
moment, and especially at the beginning, show that phenomenon
of active putrefaction which is indicated by the cloudiness of the
mixture under the influence of bacteria.
A formula for culture which always gives good results is as
follows : — Water 1,000, wheat bran 30 to 40 grains, with the
addition of i decigramme of wheat straw and as much of moss; its
nutritive power will be greatly increased by being mineralised in
the way we have already indicated.
For cultures of less bulk than 300 cms. it is better to use
powder bottles — that is, those with wide mouths which can be closed
tightly with wadding to preserve the liquid from dust, insects, etc.
BY ARTIFICIAL MEANS. 39
Cultures of greater bulk are more conveniently managed in pre-
cipitating glasses or in large glass vessels ; the access of air to the
surface of the liquid is necessary, not to furnish the nourishing
elements to the diatoms, but chiefly to promote the diffusion of
certain poisonous gases, notably, sulphuretted hydrogen, which is
always produced in these cultural operations, and which the
oxygen of the air transforms partly into water, sulphur, and
sulphuric acid.
Having said so much, each experimenter can vary at will and
perfect the formula I have given. My only object has been to
publish, here, some general directions, by which it shall be
possible, at once, to grow diatoms successfully.
As diatoms, like the majority of vegetables, take in nutriment
by endosmose, and part with the residuary secretion by exosmose,
the observer may, if he choose, dispense with the nutritive solids
of which I have spoken ; then he should prepare the macerations
separately, and ultimately should sow the diatoms in the clear and
limpid liquid resulting from an infusion made without heat, and
continued for two or three weeks. But those media that spoil
rapidly are the best adapted for the culture of diatoms in a state
of absolute purity, in which case they must be filtered and placed
in vessels, sterilised by being exposed to a temperature of from
iio^ to 150^. For full details of the preparation of these nutrient
liquids, without the aid of heat, consult my recorded investigations.
Finally, as the macerations in which diatoms can be grown are
also suitable, in degree, to the multiplication of chlorophytes —
especially DesmidiacecE — it is well to avoid as much as possible
sowing these green algae.
2. — Sowmg the kinds of Diatoms. This operation, which in
ordinary cases is very simple, consists in introducing into the
macerations some of the diatoms that you desire to cultivate. It
is essential to point out here that the liquid must be sterilised as
regards the green algae, and such diatoms as may possibly be
existing in the liquid after its preparation.
You can, with certainty, sterilise these liquids by placing them
in a water-bath, kept for about half-an-hour at 70° C, taking care
to ascertain that all parts of the liquid are raised to this temper-
ature. In practice it is convenient to use a tin or zinc vessel half
40 ON THE CULTIVATION OF DIATOMS
full of warm water, in which the flasks to be sterilised are plunged
to a point above the surface of the contained liquid.
In the ordinary culture I recommend 70*^ C. as always sufficient,
because diatoms perish at temperatures above 45*^ C, and not to
boil the liquid for two reasons ; first, to avoid loading the Hquid
with too great a quantity of organic matter unfavourably modified
by heat ; and secondly, to avoid the precipitation of lime, which is
soluble in water as a bi-carbonate, and which boiling changes to a
neutral carbonate, almost insoluble in water.
The diatoms that you wish to multiply should never be sown
in a state of dryness, for a desiccation of only a few minutes is
enough to kill irrevocably those living frustules that are most
charged with endochrome ; possibly the spores of diatoms, if such
exist, possess, like those of mosses and bacteria, the power of sur-
viving a long term of drought, but this has yet to be established.
In consequence, it is necessary always to introduce into these
macerations, either diatoms held in suspension in water or the
same algae contained in moist receptacles, or such as are obtained
by allowing the water to run away very slowly.
As to the sowing — that is, the introduction of the diatoms into
the nutrient liquid^ — you can use the point of a pipette, previously
made hot, or a wire of platinum, having its end flattened so as to
act as a small spoon. The pipette, with a point finely drawn out,
will meet most of your wants.
If you need to sow a single living frustule, the operation
becomes much more delicate. It requires then the application of
special, well-known methods — of fractional sowings — of Hansen's
process — and of other methods that I shall describe later on in
the second chapter of this memoir, devoted to the cultivation of
diatoms in a state of purity, in which I shall show that you may
simplify this operation by a first sorting of the diatoms by heat —
by antiseptics — by nutritive media greatly modified — in a word, by
all that tends to give a preponderance to the species you desire to
isolate.
3. — Of the manage7?ient of the Culture. The sowing being
made the maceration should be exposed to the north, either in
the open air or in the house behind a glazed window. Diatoms
will not develop in the dark, nor in a half light. When the
BY ARTIFICIAL MEANS. 41
actinic rays are deficient, these algae cannot grow, but they jjreserve
for a period of about four months the power of reproduction, when
brought to the light of day. During the cold of the last winter I
did not observe the development of any of the diatoms of our
climate. From about o*^ to 5"C. their rate of multiplication is very
small ; it is very appreciable between 5^ and 10^ C, and from that
to 30^ C. the temperature is favourable to the greater part of the
species. Thus, to have a rapid and prosperous cultivation it is
essential that the diatoms want neither heat nor light. These
facts, and others well-known to all diatomists, receive here a
simple confirmation from direct experiment.
The eminent diatomist of Belgium, M. le Dr. H. Van Heurck,
who has had in his laboratory a spontaneous growth of marine
diatoms ever since 1886, and which exists to this day, has
remarked that the blue rays are favourable to the life of the
diatoms ; his observations are quite true — indeed, two classes of
rays are useful to diatoms, the blue and the yellow ; in the red
rays the multiplication is insensible. Nevertheless, in my opinion,
especially at the commencement of the growth it is well to use
coloured glasses, which always produce some obscurity, and which
by that means lessen the multiplication of the first frustules that
have been sown. All interposition of glass, coloured or uncoloured,
of vessels arranged to produce monochromatic light, produce
numerous reflections, and offer a very serious loss of the actinic
rays, which induces a delay and a slow pace in the multiplication
of the algae. Having said so much, the experimenters can easily,
as I have myself done, expose the diatoms to white light which
has passed through opalised, ground, or fluted glass.
I have been able also to prove that during the shortest days of
the year, in the month of December, you can easily cultivate
diatoms, if the place where the preparations are kept is not too
cold, in which case a fire should be maintained for several hours, or,
better, form a warmed glass case in the window, which could easily
be done.
Under no excuse should the maceration be exposed to direct
sunlight, for in our climate, after the month of March, this is
sufficiently hot to raise the temperature at times to 45° C, a degree
of heat fatal to diatoms. Under the action of the sun's rays the
42 ON THE CULTIVATION OF DIATOMS
golden«yellow spots of the best and most flourishing growths turn
green, then lose all their colour, and at the end of the day the
result is disastrous, all the diatoms have perished, and the liquid
in which they are placed gives out an aromatic odour of aniseed,
very like that of the bug. You may notice that in exposing to the
action of the sun-light, two vessels, one containing a growth of
diatoms and the other distilled water, that the temperature of the
hquid containing the organisms may rise to 48^ and 50°, whilst in
that of the pure water, the thermometer only rises to 45° or 47^0.
The sowing being accompHshed, you will see in from 3 to 10
days, according to the species sown and the existing conditions,
yellow spots at the bottom of the vessel, and (if it be cylindrical,
specially at these points, produced by the caustics of refraction),
these grow rapidly from day to day. Soon the deposit occupies not
only the bottom of the vessel, but also its upright sides; while
bubbles of oxygen gas, released by the diatoms, rising incessantly,
carry upwards some of the newly-formed organisms, and produce a
mass on the surface of the liquid. If you cover vessels of any
considerable size, m this state, with a bell glass full of water, at the
end of fifteen days you may collect about 200 cms. of oxygen,
containing traces of pure hydrogen and of carburetted hydrogen,
probably resulting from the decomposition of the organic matters
of the maceration by means of bacterian ferments.
There are other precautions on which it is useless to insist ;
the evaporated water should be replaced every ten or twenty days
by water sterilised at 70*^0. If the growth is to be continued the
liquid will be robbed of its mineral constituents, and some drops
of the before-mentioned solutions must be added — in this way
the multiphcation of the diatoms may be continued for two, three,
or even four months. I have to-day in my laboratory a growth
that, having been recharged two or three times, has been going on
since December 5th, 1891, and which has always been healthy.
You may carry on in the same manner growths under the
microscope, the only difference being that they must be of less
volume — those which I use contain about 2 cms. of liquid.
Such are the principal things necessary to be observed in order
to obtain, without difficulty, a growth of diatoms in fresh water.
Side by side with these normal growths, others may be produced
BY ARTIFICIAL MEANS. 43
in which purposely you give predominance to the physical and
chemical elements ; then the diatoms which grow under these
conditions take strange forms, and I have given to these growths
the name of " teratological growths." I have followed to the
third generation these strange variations of form ; among some
of the Nitzchias and Cyclotellas, nothing is more curious than to
see the first of these diatoms puffed out — symmetrically narrowed —
and become altogether unrecognisable; while as to the Cyclotellas,
so regularly constructed in a box-like form, you notice the valvular
face lose the circular forms, become oval, triangular, quadrangular,
or take the appearance of a closed curve, not angular, but very irregu-
lar; at the same time the flat surface of the circle is warped, becomes
hilly — the ridges of the upper and under surface of the cylinders
wander about forming hills and valleys — the general design of the
Cyclotella remains, but presents an appearance of great modi-
fication. These modifications of form are clearly appreciated when
noticed in progress, and it is not uncommon to see the box-shaped
diatoms appear like accordions, as if, being flexible, they had been
submitted to a strong pressure. This strange shape does not
prevent these monstrosities being lively and perfectly endochromed.
The results obtained by the teratological growth appear to me
very remarkable ; they explain in the first place why we meet in
nature with abnormal forms. It seems that if you could fix the
diatoms in the strange forms I have referred to, you might not
only produce an infinite variety of hybrids of the same species,
but perhaps also be able to follow a series of modifications that
might lead slowly from one species to another. I am only sure, at
present, as to the possibility of producing by culture important
changes of form in the siliceous carapaces of diatoms. I say no
more on this subject, which is far too important to be treated
here in an incidental manner.
Mr. Conway, who is exploring in the Himalayas, finds the
peaks difficult in their lower parts ; the region above seventeen
thousand feet is easy, but in bad weather one is cut off from the
upper region by the next seven thousand feet below. There are
numerous and vast glaciers descending to between eight thousand
and nine thousand feet above sea level.
[ 44 ]
H flDibwinter fIDontb b^ tbe nDebiterranean*
By G. H. Bryan, M.A. Cantab.
Part III. — Mentone.
IN the town hall, at Mentone, is the museum which M. Bonfils
has formed, of archaeological and natural history objects from
the neighbourhood, and in the museum, when open, is M.
Bonfils himself — an enthusiast, whose whole heart and soul are
absorbed in the study to which he has devoted many years of his
lifetime. The room is small, and M. Bonfils' only regret is want
of more space ; as it is, every available corner is crowded, and
the objects cannot be well arranged. The colours of many of the
Medusae, as well as of the specimens illustrating the Flora and
Algae of the neighbourhood, have been most beautifully preserved,
and among the archaeological curiosities, an old plan of Mentone
in the 13th century, and several other drawings, together with a
collection of coins, are among the most interesting. But f/ie prize
of the museum is the human skull which was excavated in 1884
in the course of an exploration of the " Bone Caves " of the Red
Rocks, conducted by M. Louis Julien, of Marseille, aided by
M. Bonfils. The body to which it belongs was found at a depth
of about 20 feet below the floor of the cave, and is considered to
be undoubtedly palaeolithic, while its position indicated the
probability of its having been interred there. The whole of the
debris forming the floor was filled with signs of human occupa-
tion, such as burnt charcoal and ashes, broken bones of animals,
flint implements, etc.
This treasure was the second human skeleton discovered in
these caves. The previous one, M. Riviere's " I'homme de
Menton,' was unearthed in 1872, at a much smaller depth,* and
is now safely lodged in the Natural History Museum at Paris.
The " new cave man " was more unfortunate in its fate, for, as M.
Bonfils narrates with tears in his eyes, " it was stolen from under
his very eyes ! " The workmen engaged on the excavations seem
* Sciejice Gossip, 1873, P- ^1^-
A MIDWINTER MONTH BY THE MEDITERRANEAN. 45
to have picked a quarrel over its discovery, which ended in a
scramble and general plunder, every man laying hands on what
he could of the remains ; thus the whole of this valuable treasure
has been lost except the skull. Even this would not have fallen
to the share of M. Bonfils had it not been by a fortunate accident
shattered into fragments by a pick-axe before it was actually
unearthed. The fragments have now however been put together
again, and all that now remains of the " new man " is in the
museum of Mentone.*
On the top of the ridge separating the Carei and Cabrolles
valleys, is the monastery of the Anunziata, to which a good path
rises rapidly from the town below. Close to the beginning of the
path I found Jersey ferns {Grauunitis leptophylld) growing in a
bank, and near here several trap-door spiders had built their nests.
On the sandstone slopes grow rosemary, Cistus salviiBfolius, Dian-
thus saxifragus, and such plants. Just above the monastery the
path winds through a plantation of pines and small shrubs, an
excellent hunting-ground for insects at the right season. A little
heather ( Calhma vulgaris) was still in flower, but the white " Med-
iterranean " heath {Erica arborea) bore no blossom as yet.
The roots of the latter shrub are much used for making the
tobacco pipes known as " briar root," " briar " being a corruption
of the French 5r7iyere, or heath. About here I recognised plants
of Coris monspelieiisis, and Lavandula stoechas, not in flower, how-
ever; and a neighbouring olive plantation was carpeted with
leaves of Anemone coronaria. The ground was wet and slippery
with the recent rains. Instead of turning down into the Turin, or
Carei Valley by the paths, I determined to strike for the Cabrolles
Valley, and soon got to a steep slope of soft grey gault, of which
there is much about Mentone. I made one or two attempts to
clamber down the slippery hillside to the torrent bed, and was
rewarded by finding plants of Globidaria vulgaris (one of which I
brought home, and it is still flourishing), and the leaves of
* For a fuller account see the Report of the Aberdeen Meeting of the
British Association in 1885. Since the above was written, three more skele-
tons have been unearthed in the caves, together with a lot of ornaments, flint
implements, etc. These are described in the Mediterranean Naticralist for
July and in Natural Science for June, 1892.
46 A MIDWINTER MONTH
Aphyllanihes nionspeliensis (not in flower), also by the fine view of
the rocks beyond St. Agnese. But on nearly reaching the bottom
I found that I had to retrace my steps, for the heavy rains had so
swollen the torrent that it was impassable, and progress on my
side of the stream was stopped by the slippery gault, which was
weathered away into a precipitous slope, offering no foothold, and
extending right up to where I had started down. So there was
nothing for it but to turn back and clamber all the way up again,
after which I turned down into the Carei valley, and back by the
Turin road, finding on the way another plantation carpeted
with Anemone coronaria^ and one of the small " bloody-nosed "
beetles {Timanhia se?npolita).
My next walk was to Ciotti, one of the finest walks in the East
Bay, the village being high up in the rocky gorge which runs
down to the Pont St. Louis. After crossing this bridge, and
gathering some flowers of the Lavatera maritwia near the road-
side, I turned out of the Ventimiglia road, just opposite the Italian
custom-house. The path skirts the side of Dr. Bennett's garden,
and in a sheltered corner by its side was a fine bush of the large
E2iphorbia dendr aides in flower, of which I collected specimens ;
under the adjoining lemon trees were the leaves of Gladiolus sege-
tum. Soon the village of Grimaldi was reached, from which the
princes of Monaco derive their name, and then a steep climb
through the olive groves, up a rough and stony path, brought me
out on the open hillside, where grew several bushes of Cneorum
tricoccon, with small yellow flowers, and leathery oblong leaves ;
also Dianthus saxifragiis, Helianthemiim roseum, and near by,
Poly gala ?iiccee?isis (a near relative of our common P. vulgaris).
Turning to the left, the path leads round into the rocky gorge,
whence there is a splendid view over Mentone — a favourite subject
for photographs and sketches. The fine, bold rocks on either side
form a V-shaped frame, with the point of Mentone in the centre.
Looking inland, a wild mountain valley presents itself, with its
lower reaches clad with olives, and its further end losing itself in
jagged peaks far beyond the Berceau ; a short distance up is the
village of Ciotti, with its church perched on an adjoining emmence.
A little below the path is a watercourse, carried round the side
of the gorge to irrigate the lemons and drive an oil-mill in Grim-
BY THE MEDITERRANEAN. 47
aldi, and this in one place skirts the brink of a precipice. Like
other similar water-courses and aqueducts about Mentone it is
probably of some antiquity. Turning down the rocks I found
several fine shrubs of Coroiiilla emerus in full flower, and one
flower of Campanula macrorhiza. In the stream grew a kind
of JVitella, while just below were thick festoons of maiden-hair
fern {Adta?itiim capilliis veneris)^ their large pinnae in many cases
more or less deeply cleft. A path, about a foot wide, goes along
outside the little stream, but it was too muddy and slippery to
allow of venturing far round the cliff.
Among the olives higher up I found dry seed vessels of Nigella
damasccena, and some unusually fine plants of the " rusty-back "
(Ceierach officviarum) in the walls, having larger fronds than some
of the finest Somersetshire specimens. Above the village of
Ciotti, and near the church, the nummulitic limestone crops up.
The paths are in some places thickly strewn with loose nummulites
of all sizes, ranging from about one-eighth of an inch in diameter
to the size of a penny. It is also possible to find specimens split
across, and showing the internal structure of the cells very well,
though these are rare. Most of the nummulites are too brittle to
allow of good sections being made for the microscope, and an
examination of the broken fragments resulting from an attempt to
grind down a thin section, suggests that they have undergone con-
siderable changes in the course of fossilisation. Traces of coral
structure may also be found.
The view from the village church extends over towards
Monaco, to the Esterels beyond Cannes, and in the opposite
direction down a wild valley, with La Mortola far below. Here
for a short time I noticed a very curious effect. The sky was
grey and cloudy, but an opening in the clouds allowed a beam of
sunlight to fall on the sea behind Cap Martin, forming a bright
round patch, which had a very weird appearance. From this point
I returned down the hillside, and found the path in places entirely
paved with nummulites, of sizes varying from that of a shilling to
a penny.
My next walk was to Ste. Agnese, for which I took the whole
day. The usual way ascends the ridge on the left side of the
Cabrolles or Boirie valley, by the right of a small branch valley,
48 A MIDWINTER MONTH
called the Val Solitaire. A steep climb brought me on to a ridge
covered with such brushwood as small pines, cistus, rosemary,
myrtle, Spartium Jmicewfi, and Genista horrida. At the right
season this is an excellent entomological hunting-ground, but now
there were only a few belated Red Admiral butterflies ( V. atalantd)
flying about, besides one large migratory grasshopper {Fachyiylus
migratoriiis), and a Xylocopa violacea, both of which I missed.
The path winds in and out, affording alternate views of the Val des
Chateigners and of the Gorbio valley, with the village of Gorbio
at its head, and at last it rises in steep zigzags up the rocky
mountain side. Up to this point the village of Ste. Agnese is
quite concealed by the mass of rock in front, which effectually
screens it off from view from the surrounding neighbourhood. At
last the village is seen, picturesquely perched on the back of the
crag, while down below the Val des Chateigners lies spread out.
Another steep climb beside a little stream leads to the quaint old
village, many of whose inhabitants live and die there, spending all
their days within sight of the sea, but never leaving the village
even to go down to the shore. Another climb leads to the top
of the rock, on which is perched the old ruined castle of Ste.
Agnese, at an altitude of 2,300 feet, 300 feet above the village.
It is supposed to have been built by the Saracens. The walls are
very high and massive, and the large windows, with the blue sky
showing through them, are distinctly seen from Men tone, 5 J miles
away. Through the same windows there is a view over the wide
expanse of valleys running seawards at our feet, bounded by the
Berceau and other high mountains, while to the north stretches
a bare and rocky valley — a continuation of the Cabrolles valley,
between the sharp peaks of the Aiguille, still sprinkled with snow,
and another mountain, while a snow-clad peak is seen further
back. In the valley, some hundreds of feet below, a small water-
fall is seen. On the rocks about the castle grow shrubs of
Juniperus phxnicea^ Alyssum halmifolium, Asplenium tricJiomanes
and rufa-mtiraria, and Ceterach officinaruni ; I also found one small
violet in flower. This was the only place near Mentone where I
found the wall rue fern.
From the village I returned to Mentone by a wide path zig-
zagging down the front of the rock. The descent is easy, but
BY THE MEDITERRANEAN. 49
Stony, the path carefully avoiding all precipices. From lower
down a projecting pinnacle is seen on the left of the main rock,
very much resembling the Pillar Rock in our English lakes, but
tinged with the characteristic red colour of the Jurassic limestone
about Mentone. On the slopes near here grew shrubs of
Cneorum tricoccon, also plants of Helianthemu7n vulgare. My way
was next down a steep slope of loose grey gault, and was anything
but good. In one place there was an abundance of long conical
fossils, which looked like the shells of a kind of JVerincea. Soon
I reached a tiny little wayside chapel, called Santa Lucia, whence
the path followed a pretty ridge separating the Boirie valley from
the Vallee des Chateigners. This is covered with the usual
growth of scrub, and on the Junipers jelly-like masses of the fungus,
Podisoma fuscimi^ occur. Just before emerging at the pottery I
found some fine acute forms of Asplenium adiantum nigrum.
This was the first sunny day after the spell of rain, and in the
evening the full moon was very bright. So still and warm was the
air, that, although it was only the 5th of January, one could
sit out in the hotel garden, in the moonlight, and enjoy the scent
of the heliotrope, roses, and other flowers now in full bloom.
The following morning I hired a bicycle to ride to Monaco ;
but I soon regretted I had not trusted exclusively to "Shanks'
pony." The road was much more hilly than I had imagined.
I nearly managed to ride to the top of the hill behind Cap Mar-
tin, but the next hill was considerably steeper, and with a hot sun
shining down overhead, and the heat reflected by the rocks
behind, riding was too much of a good thing. The last straw but
one was when I came to a hill too steep to ride down. The last
straw was when I got near Monte Carlo. Here there are any
amount of dogs about the streets, and these seem to delight in
worrying the cyclist as they come barking round, and are a perfect
nuisance.
Both Monte Carlo and Monaco are getting very much over-
built ; almost every square inch is covered with houses and hotels,
many of them decidedly second rate, and the few available spaces
a little further on bear the notice of Terrain a vendre. Along the
roads were the triumphal arches and other decorations put up to
welcome the Prince of Monaco on his return to the principality
International Journal of Microscopy and Natural Science.
Third Series. Vol. III. E
50 A MIDWINTER MONTH
the following day. Arrived at the station at Monaco I had had
quite enough cycling experiences, so I put my machine on the
next train, and rode back on a corridor carriage, whence I saw the
scenery far better than on the bicycle, and the red-tinged rocks
and deep blue sea, reflecting the sparkling sunshine, appeared in
their full beauty as the train leisurely steamed along to Mentone.
I saw one Bath white butterfly {Fieris daplidice) near Monaco.
In the afternoon I took the omnibus to the Quartier Garavan
(a corruption of " Gare a vent," on account of its sheltered situa-
tion), and walked round the foot of the Red Rocks. At the base
of these rocks are the Bone Caves, altogether six in number,
where the human skeletons, already mentioned, were discovered,
together with numberless flint instruments and bones of large
quadrupeds ; but the quarrying operations seem to have entirely
destroyed the entrance of one of the caves. After passing the
rocks, the path goes round a tiny little bay, and on to a small
plateau, where grow fine shrubs of Euphorbia deftdroides, and
Lavatera fnaritima. Cneorum tricoccon also occurs in one or
two places. Among the loose gravel grew a few of the pretty pink
Convolvulus Ca?itabrica, and some plants of Fumana spachii ; both
were in flower. A number of clouded yellow butterflies {Colias
edusd) were flying about, but were difficult to catch. A curious kind
of natural fountain is seen here when the sea is rough. The rocks
form a kind of hollow cavern, with several openings in its roof,
through which the waves project jets of water to a great height.
The rock pools contain an abundance of the Peacock's Tail Sea-
weed {Fadina pavo?tia), and other algse, besides innumerable small
crustaceans. The scrapings from the sides of these pools are rich
in diatoms. In a single " boiling " of the material I found
specimens of Biddidphia pulchella (abundant), Aniphitetras antedi-
luvia?ius, var. excavata, RJiabdonema Adriaticum, Synedra superba,
Cocconeis pimctatissiina^ Grammatophora marma and serpeftfina,
besides representatives of the genera Triceratium^ Asteroniphalus,
Eupodiscus^ Campylodiscus, JVavicula^ Fleurosigma, Surirella^
Actmosphcenia, etc. Returning by the Red Rocks I noticed
several plants of Matthiola i?icana, all out of reach.
Before sunrise the following morning Corsica was distinctly
visible, the long line of mountains, distant about 80 miles, stand-
BY THE MEDITERRANEAN. 51
ing out very sharp and clear against the horizon, until they appear-
ed to be melted away by the rays of the rising sun.
A few hours later I took the train to Nice. In passing I
noticed considerable changes had taken place at Beaulieu. It
was such a pretty place twelve years ago, and now it is much built
over ! From Nice I started back to Mentone by the Route de
la Corniche. The road, immediately after crossing the nearly
dried up bed of the Paillon, begins to ascend the side of Mont-
Gros, and soon gets clear of the town. Here I saw a plant of
Caifipanula macrorhiza in flower high up out of reach, and several
of the pretty pink Anemone stellata, just coming out. Where the
road makes a wide bend I took a short cut over the hill behind
the observatory, and here a child from a cottage brought out
flowers of the purple Anemone coronaria and A. stellata, for which
I gave her a sou. Regaining the road after a stiff climb, there
was a fine view over the long line of snow-clad Maritime Alps, up
the valley of the Paillon. A turn of the road brought us to a
view over Beaulieu and the long promontory of St. Jean, stretching
out into the sea many hundreds of feet below. To the far west
the point of Antibes, the Lerins islands off Cannes, and the
Esterel mountains were lit up by a blazing sun. A little further
on a wall of jagged rocks, far below, forms the back of a red cliff
facing the sea, and called the Petite Afrique. The road winds in
and out of the mountains at a height of about 1,700 feet, but the
telegraph wires take short cuts, and fall in a catenary across one
of the depressions.
Several fortresses have been built on the adjoining eminences.
A little further on the quaint village of Eza is seen, perched on a
rock crowned by the remains of a Saracenic stronghold, at a great
height above the sea, but far below the road. Near this point I
found one piece of the yellow broom i^Spartium juricewn) in
flower, although its proper time of flowering is not till about May.
In a wet place by the roadside grew the pretty bog pimpernel
{Anagallis tenella), and on the Jurassic rocks further on grew
Lavatera maritima, Cneorum tricoccon^ and fine bushes of
Euphorbia characias. From this point La Turbia is seen, with
the remains of its fine Roman tower, built by Augustus Caesar,
but which was partially blown up by Napoleon. After passing the
52 A MIDWINTER MONTH
little village of Turbia, the road gradually descends along the face
of the cliffs, affording glimpses of Monaco, far below. Next it
passes below Roquebrune, a village remarkable for the way in
which the houses have been built into and among several gigantic
masses of conglomerate, which must have rolled down the hill
from above. From near here I saw Corsica again shortly after
sunset, this time fainter than in the morning. Soon the base of
Cap Martin was reached, and then Mentone, at a total distance
from Nice of about i8 miles.
The following morning Corsica was again visible at about 7 a.m.
In the afternoon I walked up the Cabrolles valley, or Val de
Boirie. The carriage road then stopped at an oil mill, and
the path followed the right bank of the stream till it crossed over
to the village of Cabrolles by a rustic stone bridge. On wander-
ing about the lemon and olive plantations near here, I found some
fine trap-door spiders' nests, constructed by Nemesia mande?-stjernce,
a spider which not only excavates a tube, lines it with silk, and
furnishes it with a flap door, but also adds an upward branch some
way down, separating it from the rest with an inner door, so
constructed that it can close off the whole lower portion of the
nest against the intrusion of an enemy. Of plants I found a few
capuchins [Arisarum vulgaris) still out, some fine fronds of
Asplenium adiantum nigrum^ var. acutu?7i, one or two Jersey ferns
(Gram7Jiitis leptophyHa), and a quantity of plants of Anemo7ie
coronaria growing thickly over the terraces, but with no flowers.
The ridge flanking the valley on its left side near Mentone is
called the Arbutus ridge, from the number of arbutus trees
growing on it, and some enterprising genius has constructed a
road from the valley below to the top of the ridge, ascending by
a series of zigzags — a kind of Jacob's ladder arrangement,
remarkable as a piece of engineering, but not as an object of
beauty. It joins a footpath along the ridge, close by a hedge
of beautiful roses, and on descending the ridge lovely views are
obtained of Mentone, through the foreground of pines and
arbutus trees. Here grew very luxuriant plants of Dia^ithus saxi-
fragus, Alyssum saxafile, Fu77iana spachii^ etc., all in full flower,
and I also saw a Clouded Yellow Butterfly flying about among the
pines.
BY THE MEDITERRANEAN. 53
My last walk before leaving Mentone was to Gorbio. The
road passes in front of the modern Alexandra Hotel, and while
the views up and down the Gorbio valley are not wanting in
beauty, the first part of the walk loses much of its interest from
being along a wide and fairly level driving road, constructed
before 1877. A lemon plantation some way up is well known
to visitors for its scarlet anemones, both single and double [Anem-
one hortensis and var. pavonifia), which are much sought after by
tourists when they are in flower. A little further on, after crossing
the stream, the real climb begins. The carriage road executes a
sweep of two or three miles round the slopes of the valley, but
the old Gorbio road, a broad mule path, climbs straight up to the
primitive village of Gorbio. The view higher up the valley dis-
plays a fine rocky chasm, the sides of which are tinged with the
characteristic red hue before mentioned. I had no special "find"
on this walk beyond a few daisy roots (Bellis sylvestris) and some
trap-door spiders' nests; still, it was a most enjoyable ending to my
fortnight's stay at Mentone.
Barometric Plants.— The Petit Traite de Meteor ologie Agri-
cole^ by M. Cana, contains a list of prognostics apropos of the
aspect which certain plants present according to the state of the
atmosphere. The following are a few examples : — If the head of
the gith [Nitella sativa) droops, it will be warm ; if the head of the
same plant stands upright, it will be cool ; if the stalks of clover
and other leguminous plants stand upright, there will be rain ; if
the leaf of the sorrel turns up, it is a sign of a storm ; if the leaf
of the willow grass slowly bends up, there will be a storm ; if the
flower of the convolvulus closes, it will rain ; if the flower of the
pimpernel closes, it will rain ; if the flower of the hibiscus closes,
it will rain ; if the flower of the sorrel opens, it will be fine
weather; if the flower of the same plant closes, it will rain; if the
flowers of the carline thistle close, there wiU be a storm ; if the
flower of the lettuce expands, it will rain ; if the flower of the
small bindweed closes, look out for rain ; if the flower of the
pitcher plant turns upside down, it will rain, but if it stands erect,
it will be fine weather ; if the flower of the Cinque-foil expands,
there will be rain, but if it closes the weather will be fair; if the
flowers of the African marigold close, it will rain ; if the scales of
the teasel become close pressed against each other, it will rain.
[ 54 ]
^be flDicroecopc an& its acceseorlee.
Part I.
TO the student of Nature who is not content to take the
observations of others on trust, but would see for himself
and subject such observations to a close scrutiny, the
possession of a good microscope is essential ; but how shall the
would-be observer determine, among the multitude of instruments,
each of which is set forth by its constructor as the most
effective — which is the one that most nearly meets the require-
ments — which of them is best adapted for the class of work he
is contemplating — and which of them, in the great matter of cost,
comes within his means ? This latter point is one of the greatest
importance, for if cost is no object, there is little need of selec-
tion. An unlimited order to any of our first-class opticians will
provide an instrument, with appliances, that will do almost any-
thing, and will take part of a lifetime fully to understand and
effectively to work. We have, therefore, thought that we should
be doing good service to the cause of original research by passing
in review such instruments, of our principal makers, as are
specially intended for students' work. We have no interest in
recommending any special make, and shall endeavour to place
all before our readers on their own merits, pointing out, where
practicable, the peculiar advantages claimed for each form. In
order to avoid appearing to give undue preference, we shall
arrange our notices of the instruments of the various makers
alphabetically, though it is very possible that we shall not be
able to confine ourselves strictly to this plan, for some special
instruments may be brought under our notice which it would be
unjust and impolitic to decline, because, being the production of
Messrs. D., it had not been received till after those of Messrs.
K. had been noticed.
It may be well to state that in the production of this series
of articles we are favoured with the assistance of a gentleman
thoroughly conversant with all the details of microscopical
technique. In the present paper we shall describe
[ 55 ]
SOME STUDENTS' MICROSCOPES.
C. Baker. — Last year Messrs. Baker brought forward a very
convenient form of student's microscope, illustrated by Fig. 6.
The instrument is support-
ed on two columns, which
arise from a horse-shoe foot.
It has a rack and pinion
coarse adjustment, a differen-
tial screw fine adjustment,
and a draw-tube. The stage
is of the horse-shoe shape, as
advocated by Mr. E. M.
Nelson, and it is provided
with a Wright's finder ; this
will be found to be a most
useful addition. The sub-
stage carrying the condenser
is worked by a rack and
pinion adjustment. It is
moreover provided with cen-
tring screws.
Instead of the horse-shoe
base, this instrument can also
be supplied with a tripod foot,
which form of base is cer-
tainly to be preferred. Fig. 7
illustrates the same makers'
Fig- 6. stand of their " Nelson "
model series. As can be seen by the figure, the instrument is on
a tripod foot, and has a rack and pinion coarse adjustment, differ-
ential screw fine adjustment, and a draw-tube. It has a horse-shoe
stage with sliding-bar, but if preferred a circular rotating stage
can be substituted. The sub-stage can be had either with or
without centring movements.
R. AND J. Beck. — This firm supplies a great variety of expen-
sive stands and is largely patronised by students. Fig. 8 illustrates
their " Pathological " Microscope, as represented in the new edi-
tion of " Carpenter on the Microscope." It will be noticed that
56
THE MICROSCOPE AND ITS ACCESSORIES.
the foot of the stand is a flat tripod, with a single pillar supporting
the instrument arising from it. The peculiarity about this stand is
the tine adjustment, which is placed below the stage, the actuating
milled head being behind the column that supports the body-
tube. It has a rack and pinion coarse adjustment and a draw-
tube. There is a moveable glass stage, to which the object is
affixed by spring clips. x\n achromatic condenser, diaphragm
plates, and two eye-pieces are supplied with the instrument.
Fig.
In the various forms of the " Star " Microscope, Messrs. Beck
supply a useful class of stand at a ridiculously cheap rate. One
of their latest additions to this series is the " 'Bacteriological'
Star,'' Fig. 9. This instrument is made in two forms: one
with a sliding tube and the other with a rack and pinion coarse
adjustment. It is almost needless to say that for all purposes a
rack and pinion movement is by far the best. The fine adjustment
is by a micrometer screw, the milled head of which is on the top
of the pillar of the stand. The instrument has a draw-tube,
spring clips to the stage, and a swinging double mirror. The
special point in this stand is the sub-stage, which is on a screw
Fig. 8.
Fig. 9.
THE MICROSCOPE AND ITS ACCESSORIES. 59
movement. It is raised or lowered by a milled head on the
right-hand side of the stage, and when at its lowest position
a further turn of the milled head throws the whole sub-stage
out to the right-hand side, as illustrated, thus allowing the con-
denser to be easily removed or altered. The stand is sold with an
Abbe condenser, iris diaphragm, and two eye-pieces.
W. Johnson and Sons. — Fig. lo illustrates Messrs. Johnson
and Son's Advanced Students' Microscope. The instrument has a
horse-shoe foot, the body being slung between two pillars. It has
a rack and pinion coarse adjustment, differential screw fine adjust-
ment, and a draw-tube, which is marked for the English and Con-
tinental objectives. The speciality in this instrument is the sub-
stage adjustment, the milled head. A, of which is let into the pillar
of the stand. This instrument was shown at the Royal Micro-
scopical Society last year, when the sub-stage adjustment was highly
commended by the late Mr. John Mayall, jun., who said that "it
seemed to him that Messrs. Johnson had undoubtedly ' scored i '
by bringing out this screw-focussing adjustment for the sub-stage.'^
A mournful point of interest is connected with this stand, it being
the last instrument that Mr. Mayall criticised publicly. The
sub-stage, which has screws for centring purposes, carries an Abbe
condenser, with iris diaphragm. The sub-stage is fixed to the
tail-piece by a bayonet fastening, and can be removed if occasion
requires (see B).
Powell and Lealand.— For the dearer class of stands a
foremost place is occupied by Messrs. Powell and Lealand's No. 3
model, Fig. 11. This instrument is made on the same principle as
their famous No. i model. It is supported by a tripod stand.
The coarse adjustment is effected by a triangular bar, manipulated
by two large milled heads. At the top of the bar is the arm which
carries the body-tube. This arm also forms the case for their
delicate fine adjustment screw, which acts directly upon the nose-
piece ; the actuating milled head of the fine adjustment is seen at
the end of the arm. The stage has the ordinary rectangular and
sliding movements. The sub-stage is fitted with mechanical
centring movements, and has a rack and pinion coarse adjustment.
It will be noticed that the plano-convex mirrors are fitted upon a
double-jointed arm.
60
THE MICROSCOPE AND ITS ACCESSORIES.
Fig. lo.
THE MICROSCOPE AND ITS ACCESSORIES.
61
Fig. II.
62
THE MICROSCOPE AND ITS ACCESSORIES.
Ross AND Co.— The excellence of Messrs. Ross's instruments,
considering the reputation of the makers,
need not be enlarged on.
Fig. 12 illustrates their No. 4 stand. A
general idea of the arrangement can be
seen by glancing at the figure. This
instrument is made on the lines of what is
known as the Ross-Jackson model. The
body of the stand is supported between
two pillars arising from a " bent claw "
foot. It has a rack and pinion coarse
adjustment, a screw fine adjustment, a
draw-tube, and a concentric revolving
stage. The sub-stage apparatus is attached
to a swinging tail-piece, thus being rapidly
removable if direct illumination from the
mirror is required.
Fig. 13 is a somewhat similar stand, but
supported on a tripod foot. This form of
foot is greatly to be preferred, being far
steadier than any other. The coarse and
fine adjustments and the stage are the
same as in Fig. 7 ; but there is no tail-
piece for sub-stage apparatus. It has,
instead, a brass collar affixed to the under-
part of the stage, into which a revolving
plate of diaphragms is inserted.
J. Swift and Son. — Fig. 14 illustrates Messrs. Swift's Advanced
Students' Microscope. The stand is supported between two
pillars. The coarse adjustment is by rack and pinion, the fine
adjustment being by differential screw. The body-tube is short
enough to allow of Continental objectives being used, while the
draw-tube will bring it up to the full English standard. It has a
Nelson's horse-shoe stage, carrying a sliding-frame with spring clips.
The tail-piece is grooved to receive a sliding bar, bearing a sub-
stage fitted with centring screws (a rack and pinion adjustment
can be had in place of the sliding movement). The sub-stage as
THE MICROSCOPE AND ITS ACCESSORIES.
63
Fig. 14.
64
THE MICROSCOPE AND ITS ACCESSORIES.
^ig- 15-
Fig. 1 6.
International Journal of Microscopy and Natural Science.
Third Series. Vol. III.
66 THE MICROSCOPE AND ITS ACCESSORIES.
seen in the figure is fitted with an x\bbe condenser. The swing-
ing double mirror slides in a slot cut in the bar, and can easily
be removed when required.
Messrs. Swift also supply a Petrological Microscope, built upon
the same lines as their x^dvanced Students' Stand. It has a
revolving glass stage with a divided edge. xA.U the necessary
polarising apparatus is attached.
W. Watson and Sons. — The " Edinburgh " Students' Micro-
scopes of these makers represent a good class of working instru-
ments. Fig. 15 illustrates their " Edinburgh " C model. The
instrument is supported by a single pillar, arising from a horse-shoe
foot. It has a rack and pinion coarse adjustment, a lever fine
adjustment, and a draw-tube marked for the various objectives now
in use. The sub-stage is worked by a rack and pinion movement.
It is provided with screws for centring purposes and is mounted on
a pivot, so that it may be turned on one side when direct light
from the mirror is wanted.
The A and B stands of the Edinburgh series are m.uch simpler
than the C model, as, for instance, the A stand has a sliding-tube
instead of rack and pinion coarse adjustment ; it is also without
the sub-stage, as represented in C. The B stand has a rack and
pinion coarse adjustment, but is without the sub-stage. The D
has, in addition to the movements of the C stand, a complete
mechanical stage.
But as the Tripod form of foot gives a maximum of steadiness
to the instrument, and Dr. Dallinger, in his new edition of
" Carpenter on the Microscope," says : — " A broad base, resting
on three points only, and these blocked with cork, is the ideal
for a perfect instrument " ; Messrs. Watson and Sons have con-
structed an instrument to meet these requirements. Fig. 16
shows Stand H of the Edinburgh Students' Microscope, made by
Messrs. Watson and Sons. The original of this instrument was,
as shown in Fig. 15, with the continental horseshoe base and
pillar. The plainest of this series of instrument has only a sliding
fitting for the coarse adjustment of the body, and an under-fitting
to carry the Substage Condenser, so that a student buying only
the plainest form of instrument can have the most perfect form of
foot.
THE MICROSCOPE AXD ITS ACCESSORIES.
67
The microscope figured No. 16 has mechanical movements to
the stage, with a very large rotating top plate, and a compound
substage, with rectangular screws for centring and rackwork to
focus. We consider this the most complete of their Edinburgh
Fig. 17.
series. The makers also claim as a speciality their Fine Adjust-
ment, which is of the lever form, it having compensating screws,
by means of which the user can adjust the instrument for any
slackness caused by wear and tear ; also the position of the milled
head permits of manipulation with either hand, and as it does not
68 THE MICROSCOPE AND ITS ACCESSORIES.
move with the body when attached to the connecting rod of a
camera for photo-micrography, no alteration has to be made on
the rod when using different powers.
Fig. 17 illustrates the Histological Microscope of this firm.
This has a large stage, the continental length of body with draw-
tube, and is made with a sliding body for focussing, or with rack-
work as shown in the figure. It is provided with double mirror,
and all fittings are of the universal size, so that any accessories
may be used.
The Students' Petrological Stand of Messrs. Watson is built on
a similar plan to their Students' Stand. No further comment need
be made on them beyond stating that it has a revolving glass stage
with divided edge and all necessary apparatus for petrological
research.
It must not be considered that all the better class of students'
stands have been here mentioned, nor that the instruments of
other makers may not be quite as reliable. But these notes should
only be taken as representing some of the more reliable instru-
ments from a few of our London makers who try to keep pace
with the demand for a working stand at a moderate price.
It will probably be noticed that the monocular form of instru-
ment has been adhered to. This has been done for two reasons :
one being that the monocular is cheaper than the binocular ; and
the other, that with high powers better work and greater definition is
got out of the single form than out of its double-barrelled and
more costly relative.
Since writing the above, other forms of Microscopes have been
brought to our notice, which we hope to describe on a future
occasion.
It is said that a larger cave than the Mammoth Cave, situated
on the Ozark Mountains, near Galena, Mo., has been explored for
a distance of more than thirty miles. In it have been found bones
of recent and prehistoric animals, including the hyena or cave-bear,
and flint arrow-heads, but no bones of man. A few animals of the
usual forms found in caves are still living there, including a white
newt.
[ 69 ]
^be pollen of tbe pine anb Bean :
a Comparattpe Stut)^.
By H. G. Wills, B.Sc, and A. H. Trow, B.Sc*
THE mature pollen-grains of both Pine and Bean consist of
two nucleated cells — one known as the generative^ the other
as the vegetative cell. Both types of pollen-grain are micro-
spores. Regarded morphologically, the vegetative cell is con-
sidered to be a reduced prothallium, and the generative cell a
metamorphosised antheridium. The vegetative cell, from the
physiological point of view, must be regarded as a polar body.
The two cells are enclosed in a common cell-wall, the outer
layer of which is strongly cuticularised.
The chief differences between the two types may be exhibited
thus : —
Pine. Bean.
I. — The pollen-grains possess lateral i. — The pollen-grains possess no
vesicles or wings. lateral vesicles, but only small pro-
jections.
2. — The vegetative cell is the small- 2. —The vegetative cell is the larger
er and the generative cell the larger. and the generative cell the smaller.
3. — There is a permanent wall be- 3.— The wall between the vegetative
tween the vegetative and generative and generative cells soon disappears,
cells.
Pollination is effected in the case of the Pine by means of the
wind ; in the case of the Bean by bees and other insects.
In the Pine, at the time of pollination, the ovuliferous scales
separate. The pollen-grains, blown by the wind, fall on the upper
surfaces of these, and are guided by the projecting ribs of the
scales to the apices of the ovules. Hence, by a curving upwards
of prolongations of the integuments of the ovules, they are carried
to the micropyles.
In the Bean, the stamens and stigma are so arranged that a
bee visiting the flowers to obtain food, carries away pollen-grains
from some stigmas to deposit them upon those of others.
The wings or lateral vesicles of the pollen-grain of the Pine
increase its buoyancy, and so facilitate its dissemination. The
grains are dry, easily shaken out of the pollen-sacs, and produced
in enormous quantities.
* From the "Intermediate Science Directory."
70 THE INFLUENZA BACILLUS.
The projections of the pollen-grains of the Bean facilitate their
removal by bees. The grains are not easily shaken out of their
pollen-sacs, are somewhat sticky, and are produced in, compara-
tively speaking, very small quantities.
^be 3nflueti3a Bacillue/
THE discovery of the germ of Influenza, first by Dr. R. Pfeiffer,
and shortly afterwards by Dr. Canon, was announced on
January yth, at Koch's Institute, Berlin. Dr. Pfeiffer
examined the sputum of Influenza patients, first sterilising and
cleansing it by Koch's methods, and then treating it with ZiehFs
solution or Loefifler's hot methylene blue. A large number of
micro-organisms then became visible under the microscope, and it
soon appeared that they were mostly of the same kind. This was
always the case with the sputum of patients suffering from Influenza
alone ; when the disease was accompanied by other pulmonary
disorders other bacteria were also present. It was intelligible that
this bacillus had so long escaped detection, for it was far smaller
than any micro-organism hitherto known, and the circumstance
that its two extremities stained more intensely than the intervening
parts gave them a striking resemblance to diplococci and stepto-
cocci. Pure cultures of the bacillus were cultivated. The colonies
were so small, that at first they were only visible under a magnify-
ing glass. Glycerine Agar proved the best nutritive medium.
One of the characters of the bacillus was its immobility, the
colonies not flowing together, but remaining separate. Monkeys,
rabbits, guinea-pigs, rats, pigeons, and mice, were inoculated, but
Influenza was only produced in the first two. Dr. Canon's method
was to examine under the microscope blood from Influenza patients,
taken during fever. Organisms hitherto unknown were found.
Special attention was attracted to them, as they were found only in
the case of feverish influenza patients and disappeared from the
blood as soon as recovery took place. The examination of his
discovery by Drs. Koch and Pfeiffer showed the bacillus to be
identical with Pfeiffer's.
* The Lancet^ 1S92, Vol. I., pp. 169 — 170.
[ 71 ]
^be IRecent Sun=*Spot^.
SIR Robert S. Ball, Lowndean, Professor of Astronomy and
Geometry in the University of Cambridge, has written an
article for the November number of the " King's Own," in
which he deals with the recent outbreak of Sun Spots. He says :
" At the present time (1892) it happens that the spotted area
of the sun must be nearly at its maximum, even if it has not
already reached it. It will thus be seen that we have now an
opportunity of investigating solar phenomena, which ought not to
be neglected by those who desire to learn something of the
wonders of our great luminary. Perhaps some may ask what,
after all, is the interest which attaches to such matters as sun
spots ? How can they possibly teach us anything, or what
connection can they have with terrestrial matters ? Here we
happen to touch on a scientific question of very great interest
about which, unfortunately, very little is at present known. It is
quite certain that the presence of abundant sun spots does
correspond in some remarkable manner with certain terrestrial
phenomena.
Suppose that we take a mariner's compass of an especially
delicate construction. Suppose that we hang the magnetic needle
with such careful precautions that its slightest movement shall be
perceptible. Suppose we carefully screen it from all external
interference. Suppose we put it, not, indeed, in the cabin of a
ship, which rolls about at the mercy of the winds and waves, but
in the basement of a specially-constructed building, from which
all iron is absent, because that metal interferes with the action of
the earth on the magnet. Suppose that we further provide
microscopes by which we are enabled to study with minute
attention the slightest movement of the needle. Or, suppose
that, with still greater refinement, we arrange a photographic
apparatus by which the needle shall be made to record, with
faultless accuracy, its exact position at each moment of time, then
we shall be able to learn something of the connection between
sun spots and terrestrial affairs.
We are accustomed to speak of the compass as pointing to
the north, but it is not to be understood from this that the
72 THE RECENT SUN-SPOTS.
direction indicated by the magnetic needle undergoes no changes.
The fact is that it is in incessant movement. It is true that these
movements are generally so small that they do not in the least
interfere with the practical utility of the compass. In fact, such
changes as those to which I am now referring would not be at all
perceptible on an ordinary ship's compass i they would require the
refinement of apparatus and observation which I have already
indicated. But there is no doubt that incessant fluctuations of
the needle are in progress by day and by night, and sometimes
it will happen that what is known as a magnetic storm will take
place. On such an occasion the needle is thrown into a state of
oscillation, which may be described as violent in comparison with
the movements which it has on more normal occasions. It has
been shown by a careful study of upwards of a hundred magnetic
storms, that there is an almost invariable connection between them
and some disturbance of the sun's surface.
It is not at present easy to say what the precise character of
that connection may be, but it is absolutely certain that whenever
the sun is in a highly disturbed state, as shown by the sun spots
and other solar features, that then there is a distinct disturbance in
the magnetic state of the eartli. Other similar phenomena can
also be cited. Auroras are most usual when the magnetism of
the earth is in unusual excitement, and auroras are seen in unusual
splendour, and frequently at a time when the sun is in a state of
agitation.
Special instances have also been noticed in which there is an
absolute coincidence in time between the occurrence of some
striking phenomena in the sun and a marked outbreak of magnetic
phenomena on the earth. A very interesting instance of this is
recorded by the distinguished American astronomer, Prof Young,
who, on the 3rd of August, 1872, perceived a violent disturbance
of the sun's surface. He was told the same day by a gentleman
who. was engaged in magnetic observations, and who was quite in
ignorance of what Prof. Young had seen, that he had been obliged
to desist from his work in consequence of the violent fluctuations
of the needle. On the same day a magnetic storm was indicated
by the instruments in England, at a distance of many thousand
miles from where Prof Young was making his observation.
MICROSCOPICAL TECHNIQUE. 73
It seems that we have still a good deal to learn with respect to
this matter. Perhaps we may liken the periodicity of the sun to
the periodicity of the great geysers in Iceland. In the latter phe-
nomenon there is a sudden outbreak of heated water, which occurs
with some regularity in a certain number of hours after the last
outbreak. There is a somewhat similar pulse in the sun, and,
considering the fire of the body involved, it is not surprising that a
period of eleven years should divide two successive outbreaks.
But how it is that these solar phenomena should be able to set our
magnetic needles into a tremble is a matter to which science has
not as yet been able to give a quite satisfactory answer."
— The Standard^ Oct. 20, 1892.
flDicro6copical ^ccbniquc.
Compiled by W. H. B.
Glycerine- Mounting.^— Mr. C. E. McClung writes on the merits
of glycerine as a mounting medium. He finds the advantages of
glycerine are its being non-volatile, colourless, slightly affected
by changes of temperature, has a high refractive index, and remains
perfectly colourless for any length of time. " The glycerine should
be pure and free from dust and air-bubbles. To keep it free from
these contaminations, devices such as are recommended by Car-
penter and Prof. James are excellent. These are bottles containing
the glycerine and provided with glass tubes, whereby the glycerine
IS forced out by air-pressure. The cements may be of a balsamic
nature, but preferably zinc oxide or asphalt. Any cement not
aftected by the medium may be employed, but experience has
proven that the two above named are the best. The other essen-
tial parts of the completed mount are the slip and cover-glass.
No special mention is made concerning these except that they
should h^ perfectly clean. To ensure this, the practice of leaving them
until ready for use in a bath of ordinary battery fluid is recommend-
ed. Upon the consistency of the cement depends, in a great mea-
sure, the formation of a good cell. It should not be thin enough
* The Microscope, xii. (1892), pp. 201—203.
74 MICROSCOPICAL TECHNIQUE.
to spread, yet should flow readily and smoothly from the brush.
The depth of the cell should be such that a complete support
shall be provided for the cover-glass without causing it to bear
upon the object when cemented down, and yet should not be of
such a depth as to interpose an unnecessary stratum of glycerine
between the section and the cover-glass. Of more importance,
perhaps, than any other point is the direction regarding the age of
the cell. It is a common practice to ring a cell and use it while
fresh, the manipulator arguing that a more perfect union of cell-
wall and cover-glass is secured in this manner. Perhaps this is
true ; but it is at the expense of the slide's usefulness. The author
already quoted is authority for the statement that any ordinary
balsam cell will, in drying, shrink 30 per cent. Under these con-
ditions, and in view of the fact that glycerine is non-compressible,
something must give way when the cell contracts, and this is either
the cover-glass or the cell-wall. Whichever it is, the final result is
the destruction of the mount and loss of all the work involved in
its preparation. This leads us, then, to make the following state-
ment : — Never use a green cell. The older the cell the better, and,
at ordinary temperature, two weeks is the shortest space of time
in which a cell of medium depth will become seasoned. ... In
placing the section care should be exercised to have it exactly in
the centre of the cell. With the section thus situated, a drop of
glycerine is allowed to fall upon it from the dropping-bottle. Take
the clean cover-glass and place the left side in contact with the
drop of glycerine ; draw it over until supported on the left edge
of the cell-wall . . . and allow the cover-glass to fall gradually
by supporting the right edge with a needle. Having thus placed
the cover-glass and centered it, place a clip upon it. The super-
fluous glycerine thus forced out is washed away by means of a jet
of water from the wash-bottle, so directed as not to strike the
cover-glass. Some water does get under, but this does no harm, as
it supplies moisture which the glycerine otherwise would have by
' creeping ' from the cell. When thoroicghly dried by means of
strips of bibulous paper, the slide is ready for the last step —
securing the union of cover-glass and cell-wall. This result
is best obtained by ringing once around the cover-glass, and
allowing this coat to dry before applying cement enough to
MICROSCOPICAL TECHNIQUE. 75
hide the junction of the cover-glass and cell-wall. When this
latter step is accomplished, the mount is essentially complete, but
no one who has a pride in his work will leave the slide unstriped.
There is no more beautiful slide than one formed of white cement
ringed with black. Properly labelled and cleaned, the slide is
ready for the cabinet, and if the due amount of care has been exer-
cised in its preparation, it will always be a source of pride and
pleasure to its owner."
Notes on Celloidin Technique. —Mr. A. C. Eycleshymer gives
the following as the result of his experience in working with cel-
loidin. The prepared fragments of celloidin are placed in an air-
tight chamber, a four-ounce wide-mouth bottle being very suitable
for this purpose, and enough ether-alcohol (equal parts of acid-free
sulphuric ether and absolute alcohol) poured in to cover the frag-
ments. The ether-alcohol should be added until no celloidin
remains undissolved. It should finally be of the consistency of
very thick oil. This solution may be labelled No. 4. No. 3
consists of two parts of No. 4, diluted with one part of ether-
alcohol ; No. 2, by proceeding in a like manner with No. 3. No. i
is a mixture of absolute alcohol and sulphuric ether in equal parts.
The object to be embedded is transferred from 95 per cent,
alcohol to solutions i, 2, 3, 4 successively, in each of which it
remains from a few hours to days, dependmg upon the size and
permeability.
In embedding, unless orientation is desired, the ordinary
paper-box is best. A thin plate of lead is placed in the bottom
and the embedding solution poured in. The object is taken from
the same solution, and with needles wet in ether placed in the
desired position. Fine needles may be passed through the box to
support the object.
In hardening, Viallare's chloroform method is preferable. An
air-chamber should be filled with chloroform. After the mass is
thoroughly hardened — which requires about twenty-four hours — it
is removed, the paper cut from the sides, and transferred to 70 per
cent, alcohol for a few hours.
It is now ready for sectioning. Blocks are trimmed to fit the
* American Naturalist, xxvi. (1892), pp. 354 — 357.
76 MICROSCOPICAL TECHNIQUE.
clamp of the microtome. Solution No. 3 is poured over the
block ; into this the celloidin block is pressed, after dipping the
under surface in solution No. i. Place in chloroform until
hardened.
Reconstruction points are often very desirable. For this
purpose the ordinary metallic embedding box, made of two L-
shaped pieces, held in place by overlapping strips, is used. The
ends and sides are perforated in as many places as desired by a
very small drill. The holes should be so drilled that the silk
threads which are drawn through run parallel. After being drawn
tightly, they are cemented to the sides of the box by a drop of
celloidin. Five or six cm. of the thread should be left hanging.
The bottom of the box is made by fitting in a piece of heavy
blotting-paper. The object is placed upon the threads in the
desired condition and the embedding mass poured in. As soon as
hardened, the celloidin holding the threads is dissolved by a drop
of ether. The loose ends are soaked in solution No. 2, which has
been thickened by the addition of lampblack. The threads are
then drawn through, leaving the lampblack adhering to the celloi-
din, thereby forming excellent reconstruction points.
For small objects, where reconstruction points are not needed,
the following method may be advantageously employed : — The
heads are clipped from fine insect-pins, which are then placed in
handles in such a way that they may be easily removed. On these
pins the objects are oriented in the desired condition. The pins
are then removed from the handles and fixed in a cork, previously
perforated by a somewhat larger pin. As fast as the pins carrying
the objects are inserted the cork is replaced in the tube, which is
filled wuth alcohol. A half-dozen fish or amphibian ova may be
oriented on the same cork. If desirable to draw the objects in
situ, a piece of lead may be pinned to the cork and the whole
immersed in alcohol. The corks carrying the oriented objects are
transferred successively to tubes containing the different solutions.
When ready for final embedding, a piece of porous paper is
wrapped about the tubes and cork and pinned. The cork is now
removed, allowing the embedding solution to fill the paper tray thus
formed. A lead is fastened to the cork and the whole placed in
chloroform until hardened, after which the paper is cut from the
MICROSCOPICAL TECHNIQUE. 77
mass and the pins drawn through the cork, when it is ready for
sectioning. This method offers many advantages in that several
objects may be cut at the same time ; drawings may be made
after orientation ; the objects are transferred from one solution to
another more rapidly, etc.
In cutting, care should be taken that the knife is placed as
obliquely as possible and kept constantly wet with 70 per cent,
alcohol. For this purpose an ordinary pipette, provided with a
large rubber bulb, is used. As fast as cut, the sections are drawn
back on the blade of the knife by means of a needle, and arranged
in a single row until the blade is filled. To remove these, a heavy
paper spatula is placed directly upon the section, to which it
adheres, and may be drawn off the edge of the knife and trans-
ferred to the slide. By slight pressure together with a rolling
movement, the section is left in the desired position. Sufficient
alcohol is kept on the slide to prevent drying, but not enough to
allow the sections to float. When the requisite number have been
arranged, they are covered with a strip of toilet-paper, which is
held on the slide by winding it with fine thread. The sections
being thus firmly held in position may be stained, etc. They
should not be placed in absolute alcohol, but cleared in 95 per
cent., in a mixture of equal parts of bergamot oil, cedar oil, and
carbolic acid. When cleared, the excess of fluid is removed by a
piece of blotting-paper. With gentle pressure, sections which are
by chance loose are firmly fixed in position, the thread is now cut,
the strip of paper rolled back, and balsam and cover applied.
If the object is stained iti toto — which is often the case — much
time may be saved by the following method : — The stained object
is embedded in the usual manner, but after hardening in chloro-
form and removing the paper, the celloidin block is transferred to
95 per cent, alcohol for twenty-four hours, then to carbolic acid
(Bumpus, Amer. Nat., January, 1892, advises the use of thymol)
or glycerine, in which it becomes as transparent as glass (Mr.
Eycleshymer finds that the clearing mixture answers the same
purpose as the carbolic acid, but requires a little longer time).
Orientation is now accomplished with the greatest ease. In
cutting, the knife is wet with the clearing medium given above.
The sections may be arranged in serial order on the knife-blade
78 MICROSCOPICAL TECHNIQUE.
until a slide-full is obtained, when they are transferred, and balsam
and cover applied. By this method long series may be readily
handled. Glycerine is used only when the mounting medium is
glycerine ; in this case the knife is wet with glycerine.
Paraffin Infiltration by Exhaustion."^— Mr. A. Pringle finds
that this system of embedding objects or tissues in paraffin is of
value in ordinary work. The advantages claimed are : — Great
celerity ; certain and complete infiltration ; certain removal of the
solvent ; absence of distortion of the tissue elements ; obviation
of necessity for prolonged heating of the objects ; possibility of
using the same paraffin over and over again ; pecuniary economy.
The only apparatus required is a small, simple air-pump, with
its usual glass chamber. The plate of the air-pump is smeared
over with glycerine or lard ; over this is laid a sheet of india-
rubber, which is also smeared with glycerine or lard. For greater
convenience the air-pump should have near the plate, between the
air-inlet and the plate, a tap, which is to be closed after the air is
exhausted. If the paraffin-stove is large enough to admit the air-
pump, with or without its barrel, so much the better. If no stove
large enough for this is at hand, it may be well to remove the
wooden stand on which the plate is usually mounted.
Any of the ordinary processes preparatory to the embedding
are available, but preference is given to chloroform for reasons that
will appear apparent as the process is described. The preparation
is now put into the melted paraffin, the dish containing it is placed
in the air-pump, and the air exhausted. So long as the bubbles
rise the pumping may be continued, but it is well, after a little
pumping, to let air into the receiver at least once. Of course, the
paraffin is to be kept melted the whole time. If the stove will
take the air-pump, the best way is to exhaust till the bubbles rise
in great numbers to let in the air, to exhaust again, and, turning
the tap suggested, to put the whole apparatus into the stove, where
it may be left for a few minutes. The air is let in once more, the
dish is removed from the pump, and put into the stove till the
bubbles have disappeared from the surface, when the process is
complete. After chloroform-preparation, the process takes fifteen
* Journ. Pathol, and Bacterial. ., I., 1892, pp. 117 — J19.
MICROSCOPICAL TECHNIQUE. 79
minutes. Benzole and cedar oil are not so easy to remove as
chloroform, and it is necessary to remove all but a trace of the
clearing substance, otherwise the paraffin will be soft and bad for
cutting. The only modification entailed by the use of benzole or
cedar oil is that it is well to give two baths of paraffin, exhausting
during the first, but not necessarily during the second. This modi-
fication should not entail more than about five minutes' extra time,
if the paraffin is melted ready for use. Mr. Pringie recommends
an air-pump on the Tate principle, as it can be used for other
important purposes. He does not find that exhaustion facilitates
the hardening process, but thinks that further experiments are
necessary to settle the point.
In the fixing, hardening, and embedding processes which he
uses and now recommends, the tissue is fixed in saturated HgClg
(corrosive sublimate) for about twelve hours, washed in running
water for a like time, and then put for twenty-four hours into 30,
50, and 70 per cent, alcohols consecutively, being kept in the latter
until further steps are to be taken. Mliller's fluid may be used in
the same way, followed by alcohols as above. Then the tissue is
placed in pure methylated spirit, absolute alcohol, and a second
time in absolute alcohol, each for twenty-four hours. Then chlo-
roform is placed with a pipette or syringe under the alcohol and
left twenty-four hours. This mixture is then poured away and
replaced by pure methylated chloroform, and the containing vessel
is left, loosely stoppered, on the top of the paraffin stove or in any
warm place for twenty-four hours, till any trace of alcohol has
vaporised. The tissue is then placed in the melted paraffin, and
the air-pump may come into use as soon as the tissue has warmed
through.
Fixing Paraffin Sections to the Slide."^— Dr. G. L. Gulland
uses a modification of Gaskell's method. The paraffin block con-
taining the tissue must be trimmed very carefully, care being taken
that the surface meeting the razor is exactly parallel to the opposite
surface, and that the block is exactly rectangular. A thin layer of
soft paraffin is then applied to the surface meeting the razor and to
the opposite surface. This is best done by dipping these surfaces
* Journ. Anat. and Physiology^ xxvi. (1891), pp. 56 — 59.
80 MICROSCOPICAL TECHNIQUE.
into the melted soft paraffin, and when this has become firm the
surfaces are again trimmed square. The reason for this very
special care is that any curve in the ribbon of sections produced
by neglect of this precaution is accentuated by the flattening out of
the sections. The ribbon is then divided, and one end is seized
with forceps and the other end is gently lowered on to the surface
of the warm water. When the flattening is complete, a slide is
immersed in the water, and the ribbon is floated to its position
with a stiff brush. As much of the water as possible is then
drained off, and the rest evaporated by placing the slide on the top
of an oven where the temperature is just below the melting point
of the paraffin. When the water has evaporated completely, the
opacity of the sections disappears, and they become much more
transparent and look dry. When the fixation is quite com-
plete, the paraffin is melted by putting the slide inside the oven
for a little while, and is then washed off with turpentine or xylol.
One of the great advantages of this method is the perfect ease and
safety with which it allows sections on the slide to be uianipulated,
so that the most various stains and reagents can be applied suc-
cessively to a slide. Of course, a single section can be mounted
in the same way, and, when desirable to examine a few sections
with as little delay as possible, warm methylated spirit, or even
absolute alcohol, evaporate more rapidly than water, while the fixa-
tion is as perfect with them and the method of use exactly the
same, as with the less volatile liquid.
Method for making Paraffin Sections from Preparations
stained with Ehrlich's Methyl en-Blue.*— In the course of his
work Mr. G. H. Parker found it necessary to devise a method for
making paraffin sections from preparations in which the nervous
elements had been stained with Ehrlich's methylen-blue, of which
he now gives the following account : — " In order to stain the ele-
ments in the nervous system of a crayfish, i/ioth to i/2oth ccm.
of a '2 per cent, aqueous solution of methylen-blue was injected
into the ventral blood sinus, the animal afterwards being kept alive
in a glass aquarium.
" In about fifteen hours many of the ganglion cells and nerve-
* Zool. Anzeiger, xv, (1892), pp. 375 — 377.
MICROSCOPICAL TECHNIQUE. 81
fibres in the peripheral as well as the central nervous organs were
stained intensely blue.
" Preparations made in this way, after being removed from the
animal, retain their colour only about an hour, but, as is well
known, they can be made more nearly permanent by treating them
with reagents, which precipitate the methylen-blue, such as picric
acid, ammonium picrate, potassic iodide, potassic ferro-cyanide,
chromic acid, or corrosive sublimate. Of these reagents, the one
last named, in addition to being an excellent fixing reagent, yielded
the most satisfactory precipitate. In a well-stained ganglion or
nerve, a cold, concentrated, aqueous solution of corrosive subli-
mate converts the methylen-blue into a finely-grained purplish
precipitate.
" In order to bring such a preparation into paraffin, it must
first be dehydrated. The dehydration cannot be accomplished by
the use of alcohol, for this fluid dissolves the precipitated colour.
As a substitute for alcohol, two fluids — aceton and methylal — were
tried. In aceton the precipitate is as soluble as in alcohol, and in
pure methylal it is also slightly soluble ; but in methylal containing
some corrosive sublimate it remains unaffected. The tissue was,
therefore, dehydrated in a solution composed of i gramme of cor-
rosive sublimate and 5 ccm. of methylal.
"The preparation, after being dehydrated, is, of course, per-
meated with a strong solution of corrosive sublimate in methylal.
To free it from corrosive sublimate and replace its methylal gra-
dually with xylol is the next step. This is in part accomplished by
putting it next into a mixture composed of two parts xylol, one
part pure methylal, and one part of the dehydrating mixture of
methylal and corrosive sublimate. In this mixture some of the
corrosive sublimate is washed out and a part of the methylal is
replaced by the xylol. After remaining in this mixture a short
time, the preparation is next placed in a considerable quantity of
xylol. Here it should remain till all the methylal is replaced by
xylol and the corrosive sublimate is washed out. As the last-
named substance is only slightly soluble in xylol, the preparation
should stay in this fluid some four or five days. At the end of
this time it may be either mounted in xylol balsam and studied as
a transparent object, or embedded in paraffin and cut in the usual
International Journal of Microscopy and Natural Science.
Third Series. Vol. III. g
82 MICROSCOPICAL TECHNIQUE.
manner. The sections should be fixed to the slide with Schalli-
baum's collodion and not with Mayer's albumen, which discharges
the colour. Whole preparations or sections made in this way are
serviceable for study for several weeks ; but after an interval of a
month the finer details in them are likely to fade.
" The principal difficulties met with in employing this method
are three : — A semi-crystalline condition of the precipitate, due,
apparently, to over-action of the corrosive sublimate ; incomplete
dehydration and imperfect removal of the corrosive sublimate.
Remedies for these troubles easily suggest themselves.
" The essential steps in the method can be recapitulated as
follows, the lengths of time given being those required for a satis-
factory preparation of a ganglion in the ventral nerve-chain of the
crayfish : —
I. — Cold, saturated, aqueous solution of corrosive sublimate
for lo minutes.
2, — Solution A : — Methylal, 5 ccm. ) corrosive sublimate, i gr. ;
for fifteen minutes.
3. — Solution B : — Methylal, i vol. ; solution A, i vol. ; xylol,
2 vols. ; for ten minutes.
4. — Pure xylol in considerable quantities for 4 or 5 days.
5. — Mount preparation in xylol-balsam, or embed in paraffin
and cut sections."
An Aqueous Solution of Hsematoxylin which does not readily
deteriorate."^ — Prof. S. H. Gage — finding that aqueous solutions of
hgematoxylin soon begin to deposit a dark precipitate on the bottle
and become filled with granules and mycelium growths — has
devised the following solution, which, after a lapse of eight months,
is as good as when first made : — Distilled water, 300 cc. ; Potash
alum, 10 grams; Chloral hydrate, 6 grams; Hsematoxylin crystals,
i/ioth gram. Place the water in a porcelain dish, add the alum
either in powder or small pieces, and boil for five minutes. When
cool, add the chloral hydrate and the haematoxylin. It is advan-
tageous to dissolve the haematoxylin in 5 to 10 cc, of absolute or
95 per cent, alcohol before adding to the alum solution.
The colour is quite light at first, but afterwards changes to a
* Read before the American Micros. See, 1892. Micros. BuL, ix. (1892),
PP- 36, 37-
MICROSCOPICAL TECHNIQUE. 88
dark purple. The solution may be concentrated by adding more
haematoxylin. For dilution, alum, chloral, and distilled water
answers best.
Method of Examining Blood, Bone - Marrow,^— Although
Ehrlich's method preserves the characters of the red corpuscles
and fixes the hsemaglobin. Dr. R. Muir, finding that the structure
of the nuclei is not so well preserved by it, proposes the following
method : — -Films of blood are made on cover-glasses, as in
Ehrlich's method, care being taken to avoid pressure on the films.
They are then placed, before any drying can occur, film down-
wards, for about half-an-hour, on the surface of a saturated solution
of corrosive sublimate, with J per cent, sodium chloride added,
preferably heated to a temperature of about 50*^ C. (though this
latter is not essential).
They are then thoroughly washed in J per cent, common salt
solution, taken through successive strengths of alcohol, and then
stained in the same way as sections. He also adds salt in the
same proportion to the weaker strengths of alcohol. In the case
of the bone-marrow, a little of the pulp is brought in contact with
a cover-glass once or twice, so as to make a layer, but it ought not
to be spread out — e.g., by a glass rod, as thereby the cells become
distorted. The cover-glass is then placed in the fixing solution.
Spleen pulp, the juice of the lymphatic glands of tumours, etc.,
can be treated in the same way. The stains found most useful are
Ehrlich's acid, haematoxylin with aurantia or with eosin, saffranin
with aurantia, the triple stain of saffranin, hgematoxylin and
aurantia, and Biondi's triple stain. Dr. Muir states that he found
the method very useful for photographic purposes.
Method of Preparing the Blood- Vessels of the Retina for
Lantern Demonstration.! — Dr. J. Musgrove has been experiment-
ing on the eye of the ox, and says that the eye should be obtained
within a short time of death. In removing the eye, as much as
possible of the fat and muscles of the orbit should be removed as
well, and the vessels cut far back. The injection is made through
the ophthalmic artery with an ordinary hand-syringe. Very good
* Journ. Anat. and Physiology, Vol. xxvi. {1892), pp. 393, 394.
\Journ. Anat. and Physiology , xxvi. (1892), pp. 244 — 253.
84 MICROSCOPICAL TECHNIQUE.
results are obtained with melted carmine-gelatine, but it is import-
ant to keep the eye in hot water for half-an-hour before the injec-
tion is made and after the nozzle has been inserted, in order that
the gelatine may flow readily through the smallest vessels. It is
better to arrest the " bleeding " points, especially the veins, while
the injection is being made. He has generally found that it
requires as much pressure as could be exerted with one hand in
order to fill the vessels completely. The tension of the eye-ball
and the state of the conjunctive vessels serve as a guide to the
progress of the injection. Although carmine-gelatine gives very
good results, it does not afford a complete view of the vessels,
because the colouring matter in the capillaries is too small to pro-
duce any effect on the screen. To overcome this difficulty, I tried
an injection mass composed of gelatine and a preparation of
logwood, which gave excellent results. VVhen the injection is
complete, the eye must be cooled for a few hours in order to allow
the gelatine to set. The next stage consists in removing the entire
retina without tearing the membrane. This can best be done from
the front. The cornea is removed by making a cut with scissors
along its margin. Then the iris is removed in the same way,
taking care to wash off any pigment from the iris which remains,
since it is difficult to remove it from the retina if once it touches
that membrane. The lens is next removed by cutting through the
anterior part of the capsule, after which the vitreous, along with
the capsule of the lens, may be withdrawn from the eye by pulling
upon it with forceps, at the same time making pressure on the
posterior part of the sclerotic with the other hand. After the
removal of the vitreous, the retina will be found hanging down
from the optic disc, and its attachment there is to be divided with a
knife, sufficient room being allowed for the purpose by cutting away
part of the sclerotic. The retina may be freed and floated out in
water. With the aid of a soft camel-hair brush, the retina is now
spread on the glass, and it is important that no hardening agent, such
as alcohol, be used, since this has a tendency to cause unequal con-
traction of the gelatine. By carefully stretching the peripheral
parts, and slightly crowding together the central portions, it will be
found possible to adapt the whole retina to the flat surface of the
glass. Dehydration is carried out by slowly drying for twelve
MICROSCOPICAL TECHNIQUE. 85
hours in an oven at a temperature below the melting point of
gelatine. Should any air-bubbles have got between the retina and
the glass, they must be removed by pressure with the camel-hair
pencil before the specimen is dried. The retina is then clarified
by allowing it to remain for two or three days under oil of cloves,
until all opacity is removed. The clove-oil is drained off, and the
retina covered with solution of balsam in benzole, and another thin
lantern slide used as a cover-glass. Should it be desired to take a
direct negative photograph of the vessels, this can easily be done,
before the clove-oil is removed, by placing the silver paper directly
in contact with the specimen and exposing it to the light. The
clove-oil, which will have sunk into the paper, can be removed
with methylated spirit, and the development proceeded with.
Specimens prepared in the above manner are equally suitable for
naked-eye and lantern purposes, and for microscopical examination
if sufficiently thin glasses have been used.
Method of Killing Nematodes. — The following method for pre-
venting Nematodes from curling while being killed is recommended
by a writer in the November number of the Americaji Naturalist^
who has found it indispensable in fixing Nematodes and other
worms : —
" The worm is placed in a few drops of water upon a large
slide ; a second sUde is placed over the worm and moved slowly
to and fro. This movement causes the worm to straighten. As
soon as the Nematode assumes the desired position, the fixing
liquid is pipetted between the slides, the motion of the upper slide
being continued until the worm is dead. By this method one can
obtain a specimen which is perfectly straight and round. If the
worm is delicate, too much pressure must not be used during the
rolling process. Pressure may be avoided by pasting a piece of
paper on the upper surface of the second slide and using that as
an handle. As a killing liquid, the following solution is used : —
Corrosive sublimate ; alcohol, 70 per cent. ; and a few drops of
acetic acid, heated to 50^ C, which passes through the cuticle
very quickly."
[ ^6 ]
1balf:^an^1bour at tbe fIDicroscope,
Mitb /Ilbn ITutfen Mest, ff.X.S,, 3f»1R./II>.S., etc.
Plates L, IL, III., IV.
Stellate Hairs amongst the Sori of Platycerium alcicorne
(PI. I., Fig. i) are both beautiful and interesting. The great
difference between the lax, sparsely divided, greatly produced, hairs
of the frond, and the compact, multifid hairs of the sori, is a sig-
nificant fact.
Anchors, Synapta inherens (PI. I., Fig. 2). — Synapta "is
abundant, buried in mud-banks, at and a little above low-water
mark, on the shores of Belfast and Strangford Loughs" (Wyville
Thomson, Q.M./., 1862, p. 131). A. de Quatrefages' so called
S. Duserncea is a synonym ; a closely allied form frequently met
with on the English coast. S. digitata has been carefully described
by Johannes Miiller (Ueber Synapta digitata, Berlin, 1852). An
elaborate memoir on the anchors and calcareous plates of the genus,
by the late W. D. Herapath, appeared in the Quarterly Journal of
Micro. Science some years back. Wyville Thomson gives, among
other structural details, a most interesting account of the formation
of these anchors and anchor plates, from the time when they first
become to be visible to that of their completion.
This slide requires as its complement (failing living specimens)
a portion of the skin in its dry state, and a section of the same, to
show the projection of the anchors from the surface. There is an
important note on the use of these anchors in a work called Reiseii
im Archipal der Philippinen, by C. Semper, of which a review will
be found in the Q.M.J., 1868, p. 163. "The anchors of the
Synapta are by no means, as is often supposed, locomotive organs;
when they have laid hold of any part, the animal cannot disengage
itself without sacrificing them. They are, it is true, moveable in
their basilar plate, but there are not any muscles destined to move
them, and the will of the animal has no action on their movements.
Besides, the body of the Synapta does not cling to the hand ex-
cept when one touches it roughly. In reality, the Synaptse crawl
on stones and plants without hooking on to them, and in Synapta
J5eseliit\\Q anchors are lodged so deeply in the skin, that M. Semper
believed in their complete absence until microscopic examination
showed him the contrary."
HALF-AN-HOUR AT THE MICROSCOPE. 87
Centipede (PI. I., Figs. 3-10). — Aberrant forms of life — "con-
necting links"— have always a special interest to the naturalist.
Amongst such are the Myriapoda; these serve to connect Worms
with Insects, and Crustacea with Arachnida. A diagram may
express these relations in the clearest way, thus : —
Annelida
Crustacea — Myriapoda — Arachnida
I %
Insecta
As is well said by Van der Hoeven — "There is in the entire
Animal kingdom a net, everywhere connected, and every attempt
to arrange animals in a single ascending series must necessarily
fail of success." {Handbook of Zoology^ Vol. I., p. 289.)
Myriapods, in the first period of their life, have fewer rings, and
only three pairs of feet, as with all true insects. As they grow new
rings arise, and the number of feet is augmented. In this respect
also they resemble ringed worms, whilst in the metamorphoses of
Insects, the homologous parts, rings, segments, are not multiplied,
but are developed unequally, or are united, to form the different
divisions of the body in the perfect insect. The number, also, of
simple eyes increases during the development of myriapods.
The changes needed to convert an annelid into a myriapod, are
elegantly set forth by Rymer Jones in his outlines. His remarks
are too extended to be given here, but in brief the process consists
in — I St, Conversion of external branchiae into internal respiratory
organs (tracheae) ; 2nd, Strengthening the soft integumental organs
by chitinous material, the simple setae for progression to be modi-
fied into jointed limbs; and 3rd, Concentration of the nervous
system (ed. 1861, p. 280).
Head of Gnat (PL II., Upper part).— The Q.MJ., 1855, p. 97,
has a remarkable paper by C. Johnston "On the auditory apparatus
of the Mosquito "—a creature which differs but slightly in the main
from our common English Gnat, Culex pipieiis. The habits of the
creature in a state of nature, experiments on the actions of sounds,
and anatomical structure, all lead the author to consider that the
greatly dilated basal joint in the male is the seat of the sense
named. I must refer our members to the original paper for details.
88 HALF-AN-HOUR AT
only quoting the conclusion — "The position of the capsules strikes
us as extremely favourable for the performance of the function
which we assign to them ; besides which, these present themselves
in the same light, the anatomical arrangements of the capsules, the
disposition, and lodgment of the nerves, the fitness of the expanded
whorls for receiving, and the jointed antennae fixed by the im-
movable basal joint for transmitting vibrations, created by sonorous
modulations. The intra-capsular fluid is impressed by the shock,
the expanded nerve appreciates the effect of the sound, and the
animal may judge of the intensity^ or distance, of the source of
sound, by the quantity of the impressions ; of i\\Q pitch, or quality,
by the consonance of particular whorls of the stiff hairs, according
to their length ; and the direction in which the modulations travel,
by the manner in which they strike upon the antennce, or may be
made to meet either antenna, in consequence of an opposite
movement of that part. That the male should be endued with
superior acuteness of the sense of hearing appears from the fact,
that he must seek the female for sexual union, either in the dim
twilight or in the dark night, when nothing, save her sharp hum-
ming noise, can serve him as a guide. The necessity for an equal
perfection of hearing does not exist in the female ; and, accord-
ingly, we find that the organs of the one attain to a development
which the others never reach. In these views we believe ourselves
to be borne out by direct experiment, in connection with which we
may allude to the greater difficulty of catching the male mosquito.
In the course of our observations, we have arrived at the conclusion,
that the a?itennce, serve, to a considerable extent, as organs of touch
in \.\\Q female; for the palpi are extremely short, while the antennae
are very moveable, and nearly equal to the proboscis in length.
In the male, however, the length and perfect development of the
palpi would lead us to look for the seat of the tactile sense else-
where ; and, in fact, we find the two apical antennal joints to
be long, moveable, and comparatively free from hairs ; and the
limited motion of the remaining joints very much more limited."
{loC. Cit., pp. lOI 102.)
Anatomy of Drone-fly.— A thoughtfully prepared dissection of
a kind much to be desired in our boxes. The importance, in
THE MICROSCOPE. 89
choosing the subjects, of taking types of form, must be carefully
borne in mind. So long as they are good "types," the commoner
the better. It is desirable to either accompany or precede the
dissections by an example of the object in its entire state ; in some
cases a good coloured drawing may be the only means of prac-
tically doing this. Some good work should, in all cases, be taken
as a guide, and the assistance of a friend with knowledge and
experience will be invaluable, especially at the outset. The con-
tributor speaks of the spiracle as if there were but one ; that
usually sold under the name, and which he doubtless intended, is
the second or meta-thoracic, situate at the base of the balancers.
Besides this, there is one on the pro-thorax, a little above the attach-
ment of the first limb, and in addition, one on each side of the
five abdominal segments, besides one to nearly each segment of
the overpositor. So that, taking the Blow-fly as the type of the
Diptera, there are ten spiracles on each side in the male, and eight
in the female {Lowjie on the Blo7v-fiy). The explanation of this
discrepancy doubtless has reference to the greater activity of the
male in pursuit of the opposite sex, and consequent need of more
highly developed respiratory organs ; the females being often more
sluggish in their habit.
Gizzard of the Green Weevil (PI. II., Figs. 1-3). — This slide
differs from others which I have seen, only in minor particulars.
The " teeth," which have their points directed towards the mouth,
are seated on elevated ridges ; in all the examples from weevils
which I have seen, they are thin chitinous plates, curiously resem-
bling the scales of Lepidoptera, both alike having longitudinal
ridges running out at their free extremities into spines, with shorter
transverse ridges. The more or less horny membrane on which
they are seated (the " gizzard bag,'' it might be called), is sur-
rounded by an inter-lacement of muscular fibres, whereby its
effective action is produced. The gizzard of the Cockroach offers
a favourable subject of examination of the muscular structures ;
they are the parts which the contributor of this slide calls " the
skin," and which it is generally preferable to leave in situ, when
not so thick as to interfere with the examination.
90 HALF-AN-HOUR AT THE MICROSCOPE.
Section of Small latestine of Mouse (PI. III., Upper portion).
In this preparation some interesting points in the blood-supply are
well shown. The part is that which succeeds to the stomach ; it
is in it that the absorption of nutrient materials, from food received,
principally occurs. To increase the absorptive surface, it is raised
into innumerable finger-like processes called "z^////." Certain
smaller vessels may be seen in the line of axis of the villi, which
are the Arteries; there is also one vessel of larger calibre by which
the blood is carried away — the Veins. Proceeding across the villi,
and constituting a network over and a little within its surface, are
finer vessels, the capillaries ( Capillus, a hair). On reflection it will
become evident how admirably such a sponge-like arrangement is
adapted to the purposes of an organ, alternately turgid through
the stimulus of present food, and flaccid during intervals of absti-
nence. The surface of the villi is covered with conical epithelium
cells, whose office is to absorb the liquid aliment, and to pass it
on to channels excavated in the villi, the lacteals (lac, lactis, milk),
from the milky appearance of their contents. The lacteals unite,
and receive the name of lymphatics, and the contained fluid is
eventually poured into the great veins of the neck on the left side,
just above the heart. In the lungs a wonderful change takes place,
the " chyme " becoming changed into fully formed blood.
Cheyletus eruditus (PI. III., Figs. 1-4). — R. Beck was not the
first to discover this insect. It will be found mentioned in an
Enumeration of the Insects of Austria^ by Schrank, published
towards the close of the last century' (1792, circa), and afterwards
by Latreille, in the Natural History of Crustacea and Insects
(1806 — 9). R. Beck found it independently in 1866, and though
he did not know what he had got, to him belongs the merit of
accurately observing its life-history, as well as carefully describing
and figuring it. Mclntire's paper in Sciefice Gossip partakes some-
what of the sensational, and his account is rather confused in parts.
The figure at its commencement is thought by M. C. Cooke to
represent, probably, C. verrutissimus^ Koch. As to oviposition,
I doubt the weaving of threads around the eggs to retain them in
their places, either from the mouth or elsewhere, and think there
must be an error of observation. By R. Beck's description the
eggs are attached by a short thread of condensed mucus to the
SELECTED NOTES, ETC. 91
bodies on which they are placed, as in the Lace-wing fly, the Lady-
bird, and Alcyrodes Cheledonii. Trustworthy observations cannot
be made upon the fact, except in living specimens, R. Beck says
— " The last joint of each tarsus is furnished at its extremity with
two hooks, and two longitudinal and parallel rows of delicate ten-
ent hairs ; by the aid of these the Acarus walks with some little
hesitation in an inverted position upon glass." His figure represents
a narrowly linear, undivided pulvillus, with eight tenent hairs on
either side. S. J. M. says nothing of the remarkable brooding of
the female over the eggs, so graphically described by R. Beck.
I once found a Cheyletus' (species undetermined) running over
a dead chicken ; and in one of the insect cabinets in the vaults at
the British Museum I was shown a moth with several acari on its
wings. From a passage (I think in Kirby and Spence) it seems
to be not unlikely these may have been Cheyleti. This was,
however, many years ago, and they w^ere not examined with the
microscope. T. West.
Sclccteb IHotee from tbe IHotc^BooF^e of
tbe Ipoetal flIMcroscoptcal Society.
Mites, To Mount. — Mites, because of their transparency, look
better if stained. I have mounted some stained specimens from
humble-bees, and every part is thoroughly distinct.
H. M. J. Underhill.
Cheyletus eruditus (PI. IlL, Figs. 1-5).— I imagine that the parts
which 1 call falces (/, Fig. 2) are analogous to the falces of spiders.
I would call attention to the two beautifully delicate combs on
each falx. At first I thought there w^ere three — viz., two of the
larger sort and one small ; but more careful examination showed
me that I was deceived by two extremely slender claws, which by
refraction of light through the comb appeared to have teeth also
when the objective was slightly out of focus. These combs are
moved by three or four muscles which arise at the outer edge of
the basal joint of the falx (Fig. 4). The muscles which move the
chief claw have their origin further down.
In the mouth proper I fancy I can detect two exceedingly
minute mandibles, one on each side of the rostrum, r. The
rostrum is hollow and retractile. It is moved by exsertor and
92 SELECTED NOTES FROM
retractor muscles {e.r. and r.r.^ Fig. 2). The structure of this
organ reminds one slightly of the mouth of a sheep-tick. The
feet are curious and possess a pair of claws (a cheese-mite has only
one), a pad, and two or more tenent hairs. Cheyleti are very
scantily furnished with hairs. It will be noticed that those on the
last joint of the fore-feet are much longer than on the last joints
of the other feet. Cheyleti use their fore-feet as feelers, having no
eyes, just in the same way as certain gnats use theirs ; consequently,
the hairs are longer to render them more sensitive.
In Science Gossip. 1869, p. 5, some account of the Cheyleti and
their habits may be found. The following is a digest of that
paper : — Cheyleti feed on cheese-mites and other acari, which they
generally seize by the leg. They obtain nutriment by suction,
They are to be found on rotten wood, spiders' webs, etc., in old
cellars. They are active. They were first thought to be herma-
phrodite (but, as the contributor to the slide under observation
says, it contains two males and one female, this statement is doubt-
less false). At any rate, several generations of females produce
young without the intervention of the male, as Aphides do. The
eggs are laid in corners and kept from rolling about by being
secured by threads crossing in various directions. These threads
appear to be spun by the animal from the mouth (I doubt this, but
cannot detect any spinnerets). Cheyleti were first found by R.
Beck. H. M. J. Underhill.
Head of Gnat. — I find the best way to mount these delicate
antennae is, after stupefying the gnat with chloroform, to sever the
head with a pair of fine-pointed scissors, and let it fall direct into
oil of cloves. After remaining there a few days or a wTek, I float
it at once on to a slide and mount in Canada balsam. A. A.
Dolichopus (PI. IV., Upper portion).— I have given drawings of
a foot and an antenna of an allied species, Dolichopiis lo?igicornis, to
show some peculiarities of the genus. If the foot of the Doli-
chopus on the slide be examined, it will be observed that the ter-
minal joint of the tarsus is considerably thicker than any of the
others. Nevertheless, the difference in size is quite small when
compared with that of the tarsus of D. longicornis (see Figs.
A and B). There is another species, D. discife?-, which has tarsi
exactly intermediate in form to these two, even to the form of the
last joint but one.
This enlargement of the last joint, which amounts almost to
grotesqueness in D. lo?igicor?iis, extends chiefly in one direction —
i.e., in the figure the greater diameter is shown ; if the foot were
seen from above, the last joint would appear but little broader
than the others.
In some species of Dolichopus the other feet have peculiarities
THE society's NOTE-BOOKS. 93
also, but in the slide before us the other feet are of the ordinary
form. In this genus the antennae are very variable. C, PL IV.,
shows the antenna of Dolichopus longicornis. The antennae are pecu-
liar in structure ; but I think with the aid of the diagrams Z> and E
they may be understood. The second joint, Z>, has a thumb-
like process projecting from one side ; this process is received
into the interior of the helmet-like third joint, E^ and is articulated
to the bottom of it, in the same way as a clapper is articulated (so
to speak) to the bottom of a bell. F. J. Allen.
Wings of Insects are always spoilt by caustic potash. To save
them entire, they should be cut off from the insect before it is
treated with potash, and placed in position on the slide at the
time of mounting. F. J. A.
Haltere of Fly. —These organs, with some few exceptions, are
even more delicate than wings and are totally ruined by potash.
They are very beautiful objects, but their chief interest lies in
their being the probable seat of the sense of hearing. In his " Ana-
tomy of the Blow-Fly " Mr. Lowne goes deeply into the subject.
His conclusions are that the antennae are not organs of hearing,
but of smelling ; and that if insects hear at all they hear with
their wings.
In the wings of most insects, on one of the larger nervures
near the base, may be seen a group of little spherical bodies
embedded in the substance of the wing. The theory connected
with these is that they are otoconia or ear-stones, floating in fluid,
and connected with auditory nerves, and that the sonorous vibra-
tions of the air are communicated to them by the membrane of
the wing, which acts as a tympanic membrane. It is believed that
in the Diptera one pair of wings is modified into halteres for the
special purpose of hearing, for although otoconia exist in the wings
proper, they are much more developed in the halteres ; moreover,
the haltere seems to be eminently adapted for receiving impres-
sions of sound.
The haltere consists of a delicate membrane enclosing some
kind of fluid. It is strengthened by two nervures — one at the
anterior, the other at the posterior border, which are relics of the
nervures in the wings of insects. In the interior are a number of
oval, cell-like bodies with nuclei, whose functions I do not at all
know.
At the base of the haltere are situated two groups of otoconia :
one on the posterior nervure, the other on the soft portion of the
haltere contiguous to the body. The latter group are irregularly
arranged, and do not appear in my drawings on the plate ; but the
former are arranged in rows across the nervures, and are shown at
Fig. F, and much more magnified in Fig. 6^, PI. IV.
94 SELECTED NOTES FROM
When very highly magnified, they appear, as shown at Fig. G^
as rows of Uttle spheres, with irregular dumb-bell-like objects
between them, a space lying between two rows, with a row of
bristles on each space. I do not understand the " dumb-bells " ;
they are, perhaps, not solid, but merely illusory appearances,
caused by light refracted and reflected from the otoconia.
Some idea of the smallness of the otoconia may be gathered
from the fact that Fig. G is magnified 630 diameters. In the
haltere on the slide under discussion the otoconia cannot be seen,
but their sheaths are plainly visible when the haltere is torn near
the base. Space and time will not permit me to fully discuss the
function of the so-called otoconia ; but I recommend all who can
to read what Mr. B. T. Lowne says on the subject in his valuable
work on the Blow-Fly.
I have omitted to mention that at the end of most halteres
(and probably all) there is a flat, oval, more transparent portion
which seems peculiarly like the tympanic membrane in the ears of
mammalia.
The insects from which the drawings of the haltere and oto-
conia were made are two of the best diptera for studying these
organs by. The common Blue-Bottle, however, shows these
organs as well as most insects. Frank J. Allen.
Flea. — The muscles of this insect may be well shown by soak-
ing a freshly-killed flea successively in ether, water, weak spirit,
absolute alcohol, and oil of cloves, and finally mount in Canada
balsam without pressure. Frank J. Allen.
Centipede. — Mr. West's careful drawings of the Centipede (PL
I., Figs. 3 — 10) are very interesting, and bears upon a subject
respecting which I should like to know more. In the first place,
is it to be regarded as an undoubted fact that the segments or
rings of insects are not multiplied as Mr. West states ? Audouin,
many years ago, in a paper published in the Annales des Sciences
Naturelles, endeavoured to show that each segment of the thorax
of insects was normally composed of four sub-segments. Now, I
have not had an opportunity of seeing this paper, and do not
know what reasons were adduced for such a conclusion ; but
certain phenomena connected with the thoracic appendages have
lately attracted much of my attention, leading forcibly to a similar
result. Audouin's views seem to have dropped completely out of
sight, for I nowhere find the number of segments in insects put
down at more than seventeen ; indeed, in all but recent treatises,
thirteen is quoted as the normal number, and it was only after
forming my own opinion on the subject that I became aware of
its coincidence with that of Audouin.
I cannot here enter into the discussion of this subject. Suffice
THE society's NOTE-BOOKS. 95
it to say that the reasons I have for so thinking seems to me to
apply to the abdominal segments also. It will, of course, be seen
that if this is the case, the typical number, seventeen, is greatly
understated. It would seem, further, to come back to my starting
point, that from the marked character of the segmentation hitherto
recognised, such sub-segments, if they exist, must have been pro-
duced by duplicative subdivision of the former ; thus, roughly and
diagrammatically, for example (see Diagram, Fig. i, PL IV.), as
regards the thoracic segments. I hope I shall not be thought
overbold in this speculation, seeing that I am held in countenance
to some extent by no mean authority. I shall endeavour to direct
my attention further thereto.
I should much like to see Rymer Jones's Outlines^ alluded to
by Mr. West. I gather that the external branchiae of Annelids are
herein regarded as the homologues of the tracheae of the Myria-
poda and Insecta, thus confirming a hint thrown out by Mr. Lowne
that these latter are true appendages developed inwardly. It will
be observed from Mr. West's drawing (PI. I., Fig. 4) that
the spiracles occur opposite the legs towards the dorsum imme-
diately beneath the lateral edges of the dorsal plates, just the very
position where they should occur as superior dorsal appendages.
Arthur Hammond.
Anatomy of Drone-Fly (PI. IV., Lower portion). — The ovi-
positor presents similar features to that of the Blow-fly, but the male
organs are different. The drawings are copies of some of my own
made some time ago. The eighth dorsal abdominal plate appears
by a curious process of torsion on the ventral aspect. The minute
chitinous spaces on the membranous part of the integument,
marked 5^., 6^., and 7^., are the fifth, sixth, and seventh dorsal
plates. This appears from the occurrence of spiracles between
them and the corresponding larger ventral plates, marked 5z^., 6?^,
and "jv.
The bilateral symmetry usually observable in insect structure
appears here to be wholly wanting, as, indeed, it frequently is in
these parts. The plates seem to be twisted over, so that on the
dorsal aspect we see a little piece of the sixth ventral plate, a
larger piece of the seventh, and nearly the whole of the eighth ;
while on the ventral aspect the reverse takes place : we see nearly
the whole of the sixth, less of the seventh, and only a little piece
of the eighth. In the same way, the dorsal plates represented by
the eighth (for the fifth, sixth, and seventh are mere rudiments)
are presented on the ventral aspect. This may seem strange, but
an examination of the parts in their natural condition will show
that it is most difficult to determine what does follow the eighth
ventral plate from observation alone. I have therefore followed
96 SELECTED NOTES FROM
the lead indicated by the preceding segment, and the analogy pre-
sented by the Blow-fly where the anus opens between the dorsal
valves or appendages of the eighth and ninth segments.
The relations of the succeeding parts, including the male gene-
rative organ, are very obscure. I have indicated my opinion about
them in the lettering of the figures, but feel it is little more than
conjecture. A. Hammond.
Halteres of Diptera.— If the theory be true that in the Diptera
one pair of wings is modified into Halteres for the special purpose
of hearing, that sense ought to be considerably more acute in the
Diptera than in other insects. Is such the case? J. H. Green.
Haltere of Blow-Fly. — I know that a certain mounter circu-
lates the Halteres as " Buzzing Organs " ; whatever they may be,
they are certainly not that.
The Halteres of the Diptera take the place of the second pair
of wings in four-winged insects, and they are, in fact, transformed
wings. They are connected to the upper posterior sides of the
thorax by a joint, and are raised and lowered by special muscles.
Their use seems to be to enable the insect to direct its flight.
They act by displacing the centre of gravity. Experiment shows
that, deprived of them, the insect, on attempting to fly, falls at
once ; but if a small weight be attached to the abdomen so as to
bring the centre of gravity behind the axis of suspension, the
power of directing the flight is restored (Compius Rendus, 1879,
p. 89).
At the base of the haltere are four sets of special organs : two
sets on the upper and two on the lower surface. Each set consists
of a series of curved ridges, under each of which is a row of
hemispherical or oval vesicles, numbering nearly a thousand in all.
Each ridge is divided from its neighbour by a row of curved hairs.
The vesicles are described by Dr. Hicks as openings in the
chitinous integuments, closed by a thin, cuticular membrane,
whereby a longer or a shorter tube is formed.
Dr. Low^ne denies the assertion that the vesicles are openings
in the integument, and says they are lenticular corpuscles of high
refractive power. He considers the corpuscles to be otoconia and
the organs to be those of hearing ; and as a parallel instance
mentions that the auditory organs of some orthoptera are deve-
loped on their anterior femora.
Dr. Hicks considers them to be organs of smell, their position
(close to the posterior thoracic spiracles, like the position of the
olfactory organs in the nostrils of vertebrata) being particularly
suitable for detecting odoriferous particles in the streams of air
inspired into the body. Which of the doctors is right ?
The sense of which they are the organs is one of great import-
THE society's NOTE- BOOKS. 97
ance to the insect, for the nerve supplying it is, with the exception
of the optic nerve^ the largest in the insect's body. On entering
the haltere it splits up into a multitude of filaments, one passing
to each vesicle, while the main branch proceeds along the shaft of
the haltere and ends in a loop in the globe. T. C. Watson.
Halteres.— I find it stated that a Crane-fly continued to buzz
after being deprived of its halteres, so that they cannot have much
to do with that performance. The same authority states that a
Crane-fly deprived of one or both its halteres or winglets could not
fly at all, and he concludes that they must be used as air-holders.
Derham, on the other hand, states that Diptera, when deprived of
one of their halteres, flew one-sided, and he thinks they must be
to steady the flight. Probably they are compound organs and
used for both purposes — viz., for smell and as poisers.
E. S. Angove.
Halteres. — A quotation from Hurley's Manual of the hiverte-
brata will probably show that the function of the halteres is not of
such importance as the above writers appear to suppose. On
p. 439 it is stated : — " In many winged insects both pairs of wings
are developed, and take equal shares in flight. In the Diptera the
posterior wings are represented only by short processes of the
halteres. In the Strepsiptera, on the other hand, it is the anterior
pair of wings which abort. In all orders of winged insects, indi-
vidual cases of complete abortion of the wings occur, either in the
female alone or in both sexes. R. L. Hudson.
Halteres.— Perhaps the most convincing proof that the halteres
of flies are modified wings is to be found in the fact that in the
pupa of many of these insects these organs are to be seen nascent
in what must be called true wing-cases, precisely similar to those
of the fore-wings in every respect except that of size. Thus, in
the Crane-fly, PI. IV., Fig. H shows the fore- wing case of the
pupa with the nascent wing inside. Fig. / is the hind-wing case,
with the haltere inside. It is impossible to doubt with such evi-
dence that the organs are homologous. The same thing may be
distinctly recognised in the pupa of the gnat, and even in the
larva when arrived at maturity. A. Hammond.
Mica is a mineral occurring in metamorphic rocks ; it consists
of bright, shining plates, which can be split up into very thin
laminae. With polarised light it appears of a variety of lines, the
colour depending on the degree of thinness of the lamina.
H. F. Parsons.
Granite and Syenite are both rocks of igneous origin, formed,
under great heat and pressure, from masses of erupted matter
International Journal of Microscopy and Natural Science.
Third Series. Vol. III. h
98 SELECTED NOTES FROM
thrust in among the substance of the older strata, or from the
alteration of the pre-existing strata themselves.
Granite consists of three minerals : quartz, mica, and felspar.
Syenite is of similar composition, except that the mica is replaced
by a greenish-black crystalline mineral called horne-blende, seen in
the section as greenish crystals. Felspar occurs in crystals which
have a somewhat elongated form and ragged outline, due to their
being crossed in two directions by cleavage planes. One set of
cleavage planes (the most conspicuous) is longitudinal ; the other
transverse. There are two varieties of felspar : orthoclase, in
which the planes are at right angles to each other, and plagioclase,
in which they lie obliquely. H. F. Parsons.
Section Stenocarpus Cunninghami.— Stained by Dr. Beattie's
method. The anahne colours stain all too quickly ; yet the
details of the section cofitinue to come out much more plainly than
in others which have never been stained.
The genus Stenocarpus is one of the Profeacecz, an order of
perigynous exogens, comprising some forty-live genera, nearly all
of them natives of the Cape of Good Hope or Australia — shrubs
or trees with hard dry leaves, often showy flowers, and often differ-
ing very much in external appearance ; hence the name of the
order. The present species is a lofty tree, with handsome orange
flowers in terminal umbels, and is found in Queensland and other
semi-tropical parts of Australia. The section is made from a small
twig of a tree growing in an English conservatory, and shows
under the microscope small sphgeraphides, and, also, both in the
centre and round the edge, numerous angular semi-opaque nodules
of very various sizes. Are these resinous or siliceous concretions ?
I do not remember to have seen any such in 7^/^^^ sections before,
though in many of the seeds of commerce they are not uncommon.
It would be useful to know if the wood furnishes any resinous or
other useful products. J. H. Green.
J)
EXPLANATION OF PLATES I., 11. , IIL, IV.
Plate I.
Fig. 1. — Represents some of the Sporangia of Platycerium alicorne,
with stellate hairs intermixed.
. — Shows the various stages in forming Anchors and Anchor -plates
of Synapta inherens, after Wyville Thomson. The first stage
consists of minute calcareous granules (a) ; the anchors precede
the plates ; a slender rod is the first indication (6). By accre-
tion this enlarges somewhat, and grows out laterally on either
side of one end (c) ; by continuance of the process through
(d) the perfect state is nearly arrived at. In the meantime,
underneath the anchor — that is, nearer the interior of the
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THE society's NOTE-BOOKS. 99
body — a correspondino: process of accretion has been taking
place, represented by figures a', b', c', d', e', whereby a cal-
careous network with hexagonal areolae is formed. By degrees
this becomes more shaped, and as a finishing stroke the edges
of the network entirely become denticulate, whereby the
power of holding to the skin, and s(; aiibrding a firm resting-
bed for the anchor, must be very greatly increased.
Fig. 3. — Mandible of Lithobius forficatus, the ccnnmon brown Centi-
pede, X 50, to show the poison-gland, with its investment of
spirally arranged, unstriped muscular fibre, the long slender
duct, and the slit near the extremity of the fang, where the
poison finds exit through a very minute opening.
,, 4. — Lithobius forjicatiis, as seen with a very low power (x 7).
Counting the head as one, it will be found there are twenty-
two segments, fifteen joints in the antennae, and twenty pairs
of limbs ; thirteen pairs of spiracles, belonging to the 3rd,
4th, 5th, 8th, 9th, 11th, 13th, 17th, 19th, and 2 1st segments
■ / respectively. These vary in size, the 3rd, 5th, and 8ch being
very small, the 18th small, and the remainder of a larger size.
g.o shows the genital orifices.
9 on Plate represents the small spiracle of the 3rd segment, and
Fig. 11 one of the larger size from the 11th segment, which is
a good average of the large ones, both x 100.
5. — The mandible of the left side, seen from below, x 50.
6. — The same, more enlarged, showing the sieve-like openings of
the receptaculum veneris and the duct.
7. — Right mandible from below. At the inner angle is a brush
formed of three or four tufts of hairs ; the teeth of the man-
dible are seen to be themselves denticulate.
8. — Labrum and portion of labium. Drawn by Tuflen West.
5 )
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5 5
Plate II.
Upper Portion.
Head of Male G nat, showing, o,t, at. , antenn?© of fifteen joints ; x cc,
the enlarged basal joints. These latter, and the two terminal
ones, are free from whorls of hair. Ibr.^ labrum ; ^6., labium ;
Ib.p. , labial palpi ; Ig. , lingua. x 20,
Louver Portion.
Fig. 1. — Gizzard of Weevil. The entire specimen, as seen with a
moderate power. x 90.
,, 2. —Three of the scale-like teeth, highly magnified. x 400.
,, 3. — Diagrammatic section of the entire Gizzard, in a distended
state. It will be easy to ascertain the nature of the food by
examining the contents. In Hylobius abietis, the largest
English weevil, portions of the bark of the Scotch fir were
contained in a gizzard 1 dissected. In the present instance,
I have no doubt the softer portions of leaves of nettle, hazel,
and perhaps other plants would be found.
Drawn by TuflFen West.
5)
100 SELECTED NOTES FROM THE SOCIETY'S NOTE-BOOKS.
Plate III.
Upper Portion.
Fig. 1. — Transverse section through the small intestine of mouse.
X 20.
2. — A single villus. x 100.
3. — Diagram of part of the extremity of a villus, showing, c. e. ,
conical epithelium ; a. , artery ; i'. , vein ; c. , capillaries ;
I. , lacteal. Drawn by Tutfen West.
Lotver Fortiori.
Fig. 1. — Egg of Cheyletus, 2/3rd in. objective, and A eyepiece. From
Science Gossip.
,, 2. — Head of Cheyletus eruditus, $ , showing muscles, etc.
/. , falces ; n , rostrum ; r. r., retractor muscles of rostrum ;
e.r., extractor muscles of rostrum. x 143.
,, 3. — Foot of same, x 425.
,, 4. — One falx of same, x 250, from a slide in the possession of the
writer, showing muscles and comb-like falces more plainly
than in Fig. 2.' Drawn by H. M. J. Underbill.
Plate IV.
Upper Portion.
^.— First tarsus of Dolichopus longicornis, x 25.
B. — First tarsus of another species of Dolichopus, x 25.
C. — Antenna of Dolichopus longicornis, x 25.
-D, E. — Diagrams of second and third joints of the same.
F. — Haltere of Dioctria rujipes, a dipterous insect, showing otoconia
at X.
G. — A few otoconia from haltere of Tachino virgo, a dipterous insect,
X 630. Drawn by F. J. Allen.
H. — Fore-wing-case in pupa of Crane Fly, showing undeveloped wing.
I. — Hind-wing case of same, containing haltere.
Lower Portion.
Fig. 1. — Diagrammatic sketch of the duplicative sub-division of the
thoracic segments.
,, 2. — Sexual segments of Eristalis tenax (male). The several plates
are indicated by numerals, followed by the letters v. or cL, to
indicate whether ventral or dorsal ; thus, 8y. is the eighth
ventral abdominal plate, dorsal aspect. The figure shows the
increasing extent of exposure of the sixth, seventh, and
eighth ventral plates towards the dorsum.
,, 3. — The same, ventral aspect, showing diminishing exposure
towards the venter of the same segments, and the eighth
dorsal plate wholly turned towards the centre.
4. — The male generative organ and surrounding parts : front view.
5. — Ditto, side view, marked^, in Figs. 2 and 4.
6. — Same segments from another slide, similarly lettered for coui-
parison. Drawn by A. Hammond.
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[ 101 ]
tlbe rnMcrobe of flDalarial fever.
DR. Hoisholt, of Stockholm, U.S., has read a paper at the
Medical Society of the State of California on the " Plas-
modium MalaricEr After mentioning the principal ideas
brought forward as to the nature of the disease from the time of
Hippocrates to the middle of the present century, the author
alluded briefly to the most noted germ theories, and the character
of the different microbes, claimed, by various investigators, to be
the cause of malaria, ist, Salisbury's unicellular alga, palmella
geviiasma ; 2nd, Lanzi's germ-ferment, identical with bacteridium
bruntieum ; 3rd, Eklund's fungus, limnophysalis hyalina ; 4th,
Kleeb's and Tomasi-Crudeli's bacillus malaricE; and 5th, Laveran's
oscillaria jnalarice, now known 2i?> Plasmodium malaricz.
Since this French observer first published his fundamental re-
searches (1881), many eminent investigators have corroborated his
discovery, and have contributed largely to our knowledge of the
parasitic malaria, having ascertained that it attacks the red blood
corpuscles, lives and grows with them, and finally brings about
their disintegration. It can be observed as follows : — After taking
the proper precautions in removing the blood from the tip of the
finger, it is fixed on cover glasses, and heated at a temperature of
105^ to 110° C. (220° to 230° F.), for about half-an-hour. The
cover-glasses are left for twenty-four hours in a neutral solution,
consisting of equal parts of a J per cent, aqueous solution of
eosin, and a saturated aqueous solution of methelyne blue, diluted
one half with distilled water. This is Romanowsky's colour test.
He examined the blood in this manner in fifty cases of different
diseases, not malarial, and in health, without being able to detect
anything of the microbe in question.
— Man. Mag. Phannacy.
Botes.
WE are glad to note that the Conversazione of the Royal
Microscopical Society, held at St. James's on Nov. 30th,
passed off so successfully. Of late years the interest in
the Society's exhibitions fell off considerably, owing principally to
want of space and also to the fact that ladies were not admitted.
Now that the " Royal " has again interested itself in the success of
its Conversazione, microscopists will look forward to it as being
the principal microscopic, or rather macroscopic, event of the year.
102 NOTES.
It is exhibitions of this kind that give an impetus to microscopy
by interesting persons in the study of the wonders of the semi-
invisible. —
One of the principal exhibits at the Conversazione was that
of the Marine Biological Association, showing the different
stages in the development of food fishes, and also an inge-
nious apparatus by which colour is made to assert itself on the
underside of flat fish, and which will probably give a clue to the
piebald appearance of many fish which has puzzled investigators
so long. Considering the almost national importance of the work
done by the M.B.A., it is to be regretted that it is not sufificiently
known to be appreciated at its proper value. To those of our
readers who are interested in the study of marine life, we
would call attention to the advantages of the association. The
M.B.A. issue a price list of Marine xA-lgae, and of Zoological
specimens (ranging from Protozoa to Fishes), which are supplied at
an extremely cheap rate, and we strongly advise all who would
continue their investigations in these subjects to communicate
with the Association at their Laboratory at Plymouth. By doing
this they will derive the double satisfaction of getting subjects for
investigation, and of contributing, in no slight degree, to the success
of the Association.
Speaking of the enormous variety of insect life. Dr. C. V.
Riley, in the Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum, No. 39, says :
"The omnipresence ol insects is known and felt by all ; yet few have
any accurate idea of the actual numbers existing, so some figures
will not prove uninteresting in this connection Linnaeus
knew nearly 3,000 species, of which more than 2,000 were Euro-
pean and over 800 exotic. The estimate of Dr. John Day, in
1853, of the number of species on the globe, was 250,000. Dr.
Sharpe's estimate, 30 years later, was between 500,000 and
1,000,000. Sharp's and Walsingham's estimate in 1889 reached
neaty 2,000,000, and the average number of insects annually
described since the pubhcation of the Zoological Record., deduct-
ing 8 per cent, for synonyms, is 6,500 species. I think the
estimate of 2,000,000 species in the world is extremely low, and
if we take into consideration the fact that species have been best
worked up in the more temperate portions of the globe, and that
in the more tropical portions a vast number of species still remain
to be characterised and named, and if we take further into con-
sideration the fact that many portions of the globe are yet unex-
plored entomologically, that in the best worked-up regions by far
the larger portion of the Micro-Hymenoptera and Micro-Diptera
remain absolutely undescribed in our collections, and have been
but very partially collected, it will be safe to estimate that not
NOTES. 103
one-fifth of the species extant have yet been characterised or
enumerated. In this view of the case the species in our collec-
tions, whether described or undescribed, do not represent perhaps
more than one-fifth of the whole. In other words, to say that
there are 10,000,000 species of insects in the world, would be,
in my judgment, a moderate estimate."
The American Microscopical Society offer the following prizes
for the encouragement of microscopical research : —
Two prizes of 50 dols. each for the best papers, and two prizes
of 25 dols. each for the next best, which give results of an original
investigation on animal and plant life respectively, made with the
microscope. The papers are not to be less than 3,000 words in
length and the methods by which the results were obtained must
be given in full. Two prizes of 30 dols. and 15 dols. each for the
best and next best six photomicrographs on the same subject in
animal or vegetable histology. The photomicrographs are to be
of the following amplications, viz. : 50, 150, and 500, two of each.
They are to be made by transmitted light and printed on albumen
paper from untouched negatives. Two prizes of 30 dols. and
15 dols. each for the best and second best six lantern slides, illus-
trating some one biological subject. The slides must be accom-
panied by a full description of the methods of preparation of the
specimens. The photographs and slides are to become the pro-
perty of the Society. The papers, etc., must be submitted to the
Committee before July ist, 1893. The competition is open to
members of the Society and to those who make application for
membership before submitting their papers. The entrance and
annual fees are 3 and 2 dols. respectively. All further particulars
can be obtained of the Secretary, Prof. \V. H. Seaman, 1424,
Eleventh Street, Washington.
At the opening meeting of the R.M.S., Mr. G. C. Karop des-
cribed a microscope made of aluminium by Messrs. Swift. With
the exception of a microscope which had an aluminium stage,
shown in the United States some months ago, we believe it is the
first instrument practically made entirely of that metal. Of course,
its extreme lightness is the chief characteristic, the weight being
2 lb. 13 oz., against 7 lb. 10 oz. of an exactly similar instrument
made in brass. The adjustments and screws were the only parts
in which aluminium was not used on account of certain difficulties
inherent to that metal.
104 CORRESPONDENCE.
The Robertson Cyanide Bottle {American Naturalist,
XXVI., 1892, p. 352). — Prof. C. Robertson uses a wide-mouthed
bottle with cork stopper. Out of the lower side of the cork he
cuts a hole, into which is inserted a pill-box filled with cyanide. A
dozen pin-holes are made in the bottom of the pill-box through
which the fumes can pass into the ■ bottle. The bottle can be
easily washed out, and has many advantages, especially for flies,
bees, and similar insects. It is to be preferred to the ordinary
plaster-of-Paris cyanide bottle.
CorrcBponbence*
Picrq-Carmine Stain. — In reply to Mr. B. Ives, I see that
Squire, in his ''Methods and Formulae,'' recommends Ammonia
Picro-Carmine, prepared as follows: — "Carmine, i grm.; Strong
solution of Ammonia, 3 cc. ; Distilled Water, 5 cc. Dissolve the
carmine in the ammonia and water with a gentle heat ; then add
saturated aqueous solution of Picric Acid, 200 cc. ; heat to boiling
and filter. This solution gives good results when used as follows :
Take a section which has been rinsed in distilled water and lay it
out flat on a glass slide, drain off" the superfluous water, then pour
on to the section several drops of the Picro-Carmine Solution,
warm the slide over a spirit-lamp to a heat that can be borne by
the hand when touched with the glass (if the section be too
strongly heated, it will shrivel), keep it about this temperature for
five or ten minutes, remove the excess of stain by tilting the glass
and wiping it wnth a cloth or filter paper, leaving some of the stain
in the section, then place one or two drops of Formic Farrant
upon the section, and apply the cover-glass. The staining of the
section is much improved after it has been mounted two or three
days and exposed to daylight. A section of skin gives the most
striking results by this method. Nuclei and the transverse muscu-
lar fibres stain red, the remainder yellow." W. H. B.
Will any microscopist kindly tell me the cause of the clouded
appearances which occur in apochromatic objectives? I think it
is known as the apochrojjiatic disease. If the objective is sent to
the makers, they return it as good as new ; but the question as to
the defect and its cause is quietly shelved. T. Ashchurch.
[ 105 ]
Guide to the Science of Photo-Micrography. By Edward
C. Bousfield, L.R.C.P. London. 8vo, pp. xv. — 174. (London : J. & A.
Churchill. 1892.) Price 6s.
This is a second edition, entirely re-written and much enlarged. The
author gives special consideration to the difficulties usually met with in
histological and bacteriological work, and has introduced a new section, in
which he deals in extenso with the method of photographing cultures; a number
of good illustrations of photo-micrographic cameras, etc., are given. The
book will unquestionably be found of much assistance to those interested in
the subject.
Medical Microscopy : A Guide to the use of the Micro-
scope in Medical Practice. By Frank J. Wethered, M.D. London. Crown
Svo, pp. XX. — 412. (London: H. K. Lewis. 1892.) Price 9s.
Some very useful hints for the microscopist are given here, whether or not
he belongs to the medical profession, but for the medical practitioner or
student it will prove invaluable. It treats of the most simple methods of pre-
paring micro-sections, and of the examination of urinary deposits, sputa, blood,
etc. Elaborate methods are also given for the examination of foods and
bacteriological studies. There are upwards of 100 illustrations.
Untersuchungen uber Mikroskopische Schaume und
das Protoplasma, von O. Biitschli. 4to, pp. iv. — 244. (Leipzig : Wilhelm
Engelmann. 1892.) Price 24 marks.
This is an exposition of the author's "foam theory " of the structure of
protoplasm. He first gives a very elaborate investigation into the formation
and properties of microscopical foam, which may be produced in various ways,
but after many experiments the best results were obtained from a mixture of
olive oil and carbonate of potash. The fine froth thus produced simulates the
movements of protoplasm in a remarkable manner ; when a drop is examined
upon a warm stage under the microscope, characteristic amosboid changes take
place, and vigorous currents are set up. The explanation of the cause of these
movements are given. Then follows a description of the structure of proto-
plasm in various organisms, and a critical examination of tlie various hypotheses
which have been advanced to explain vital action. The author is of opinion
that the structure of protoplasm corresponds to that of ordinary foam, with
this difference, that the minute cavities in protoplasm are filled with a watery
fluid instead of air, as in the foam. An exhaustive bibliographical list of
works consulted is appended. The book is illustrated with six litho-plates and
23 wood engravings.
Die Naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien. By A. Engler and
K. Prantl. Parts 72, 3, 4, 5. (London : Williams and Norgate. Leipzic :
Wilhelm Engelmann.)
In these four parts thirteen orders are described, and very capitally illus-
trated by 98 woodcuts, containing 709 figures.
British Fungus-Flora : A Classified Text-book of Mycology.
By George Massee. In three vols. Vol. I. Crown Svo, pp. xii. — 432.
This volume deals exclusively, and somewhat exhaustively, with the
Basidiomycetes groups of fungi. The opening chapter gives an account of the
nature and origin of Fungi. There are several woodcuts, illustrating more than
100 species.
106 REVIEWS.
Glimpses into Nature's Secrets : Or Strolls on Beach and
Lawn.
Amidst Nature's Realms : A Series of Zoological, Botanical,
and Geological Essays. By Edward Alfred Martin. Crown 8vo, pp. xii. — 131,
and xii. — 157. (London : Simpkin, Marshall, & Co., and Raithby, Lawrence,
and Co. 1892.) Price 2s. 6d. each.
Two exceedingly instructive and well illustrated books ; each is divided
into two parts, the subjects of the first being : — I., By Shore and Shallow ;
II., Rock Written Stories. Those of the second are : — I., Life in the Living
Present; and 11., Annals of a Far-away Past. The papers are interestingly
written, and we heartily echo the author's hopes that they " may act as a key
to unravel some of the secret wonders of nature."
Vegetable Wasps and Plant Worms. By M. C. Cooke,
M.A., LL.D., A.L.S., etc. Crown Svo, pp. viii. — 364. (London : Society
for Promoting Christian Knowledge. 1892.) Price 5s.
Dr. Cooke here gives us a popular history of Entomogenous Fungi, or
Fungi Parasitic on Insects. The first chapter of this interesting book treats of
Entomogenous Fungi, and the four groups under which these funyi are
arranged. In succeeding chapters they are arranged according to their host,
under their various classes, viz., Hymenoptera, Coleoptera, etc. There are a
number of illustrations, showing the insects and their parasitic fungus. At the
end of the book is a classified list of the Entomophytes and 4 litho. plates
showing the different fungi magnified.
Beetles, Butterflies, Moths, and other Insects. By
A. W. Kappel, F.L.S., F.E.S, etc., and W. Emont Kirby. Foolscap 4to,
pp. 182. (London : Cassell and Co. 1892.) Price 3s. 6d.
A simple and popular guide to the collection and arrangement of insects.
It explains the classification of insects, and describes their Metamorphoses,
HaVjits, and Haunts. Directions are given for collecting insects and prejDaring
them for the cabinet. There are 12 coloured plates and many wood engravings.
Animal Rights considered in relation to Social Progress. By
Henry S. Salt. Crown 8vo, pp. x. — 162. (London: G. Bell and Sons.
1892.) Price 2s.
The author declares his object in writing this book to be to set the prin-
ciple of animals' rights on a consistent and intelHgible footing. He is, of
course, a strong opponent to vivisection, and as such we fear his zeal some-
times oversteps his consistency.
The Student's Handbook of Physical Geology. By A.
J. Jukes-Browne, B.A., F.G.S., etc. Second edition, revised. Crown 8vo,
pp. xiii. — 666. (London : G. Bell and Sons. 1892.) Price 7s. 6d.
This is exactly what we consider a " handbook " should be. It is written
in an easy and interesting manner. Part i treats of Dynamical Geology : —
I. — Changes produced by the Influence of Internal or Subterranean Causes ;
II. — Those produced by agencies which operate on the surface of the Earth's
Crust. Part 2. — Structural Geology. Part 3. — Physiographical Geology.
There are two plates and upwards of 200 woodcut illustrations.
REVIEWS. 107
A Text-Book of Elementary Biology. By H. J. Campbell,
M.D. Lond. Crown 8vo, pp. iii. — 284. (London : Swan Sonnenschein and
Co. 1893.) Price 7s. 6d.
This volume gives a concise account of some of the more important facts
of Biology. It treats at some length the subjects of Protoplasm, Cells, Cell-
Division, Reproduction, and the Early Stages of Development. This book,
which will prove of great assistance to the student, contains 136 very excellent
illustrations.
Light : A Course of Experimental Optics, chiefly with the
Lantern. By Lewis Wright. Crown 8vo, pp. xvi. — 391. (London : Mac-
millan and Co. 1892.) Price 7s. 6d.
This is a second edition of this valuable work. The author treats his sub-
ject in a thoroughly masterly manner, and places before the mind of his
readers, through a course of experiments, the physical 7'ealities which underlie
the phenomena of Light and Colour.
There are 10 full-page plates, several of them beautifully printed in colours,
and upwards of 200 wood engravings.
Text-Book of Petrology. By Frederick H. Hatch, Ph.D.,
F.G. S., etc. Crown 8vo, pp. viii. — 222. (London : Swan Sonnenschein and
Co. 1892.) Price 7s. 6d.
In this work we have briefly described the mineral constituents and internal
structures of the Igneous Rocks — their mode of occurrence at the surface, and
their origin beneath the crust of the earth. The various chapters treat of —
Mode of Occurrence, Structure, Ci mposition, The Constituent Minerals of the
Igneous Rocks, and their Classification and Description. There are 86 capital
engravings, mostly illustrating the microscopic appearance of Rock Sections.
Time and Tide : A Romance of the Moon. By Sir Robert
S. Ball, LL.D., F.R.S., etc. Fscap. 8vo, pp. 192. (London: Society for
Promoting Christian Knowledge. 1892.) Price 2s. 6d.
This very interesting little book, now in its second edition, contains two
lectures delivered in the theatre of the London Institution in Nov., 1888. The
theory of the tides is explained in a practical and understandable manner, and
the illustrations are good.
The Grammar of Wood-Work. By Walter E. Degerdon.
(London : Macmillan and Co. 1892.)
This most useful work consists of a graduated system of manual training
for Elementary, Secondary, and Technical Schools, designed for the pupils of
the Whitechapel Craft School. It is divided into 21 lessons. The working
drawings are admirable, showing the finished work from all its aspects. The
instructions are short, but very concise and to the purpose. Size of page,
II2 in. square.
How TO Make Common Things. By John A. Bower. Crown
8vo, pp. 240. (London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. 1892.)
Price 3s. 6d.
This is just the very book for boys. It tells how to make a Hat- Rail, a
Set of Bookshelves, or a Picture-Frame, How to Bind Books, How to Make
some Useful Electrical Appliances ;■ — in fact, how to do nearly everything that
a handy boy wants to know. There are 150 illustrations.
Woodwork, Carpentry, and Joinery. By Thos. C. Simmonds.
Crown 8vo. (London : Bemrose and Sons.) Price is.
This little book briefly describes the methods of using the various tools
and of making joints, etc.
108 KEVIEWS.
The Steam-Engine Catechism, with Supplement. By R.
Grimshaw, M. E., etc. i6mo, pp. 194 and 220. (New York : John Wiley and
Son. 1891.) 82.00
A series of direct practical Answers to direct practical Questions, mainly
intended for young engineers and for examination questions. That this work is
in its tenth edition speaks very forcibly for its usefulness. There are good
indices to each part and several diagrams.
Atlas of Commercial Geography. By H. de B. Gibbins,
M.A. (Edinburgh and London : W. and A. K. Johnstone.) Price 5s.
This compact little Atlas (size of page, 5in. by 7^in.) contains 48 maps,
with explanatory letterpress. The maps of the continents and the British Isles
are coloured Geologically and Physically ; the others are coloured Physically.
In the letterpress descriptions, special prominence is given to the European
Products, Industries, Trade Highways, Centres of Population, and Manufac-
tures.
Arnold's Abridged P.T.'s Year-Book of Memory Maps, Bk. I.
(London : Simpkin, Marshall, and Co. Leeds : E. J. Arnold.) Price is. 4d.
Contains 18 maps, with instructions for map-drawing. A useful little book.
Chemistry. Part IL, Inorganic and Organic. Crown 8vo,
pp. 64. (Edinburgh: E. and S. Livingstone.) Price is.
We recommend these little " Catechism Series " books to the student, for
we feel sure they will help to refresh his memory, especially if about to pass an
"exam."
Arithmetical Chemistry, Book B. By C. J. Woodward,
B.Sc. Crown 8vo, pp. 132. (London: Simpkin, Marshall, and Co. Bir-
mingham: Cornish Bros. 1892.)
This is a new and entirely re-written edition of this work, in which many
important additions have been made.
Notes on the Clinical Examination of the Blood and
Excreta. By Sidney Coupland, M.D., F.R.C.P., etc. (London : H. K.
Lewis. 1892.) Price is. 6d.
Instructions for clinical and microscopical examinations are plainly given in
this little book, which is of course intended for the use of the physician.
Illustrated Ambulance Lectures. By John M. H. Martin,
M.D., etc. Third edition. Crown 8vo, pp. xvi. — 142. (London : J. and A.
Churchill. 1892.) Price 2s.
A series of six lectures, given under the auspices of the St. John Ambu-
lance Association. Lecture i. — The Human Body and its Construction;
2. — Hsemorrhage or Bleeding ; 3. — Fractures ; 4. — Shock or Collapse ;
5. — Method of lifting and carrying the Sick and Injured ; 6. — Nursing.
These lectures are nicely illustrated.
Epidemic Influenza : A Comparative Study in Statistics. By
F. A. Dixey, M.A., M.D. 8vo. (Oxford: The Clarendon Press. 1892.)
Price 7s. 6d.
The work before us is the result of an extended investigation into the sta-
tistical materials which have accumulated under the direction of the Registrar-
General. These statistics are here arranged and grouped together in a compact
form. There are 22 Tables and 11 Diagrammatic Charts.
REVIEWS. 109
A Primer of the Art of Massage for Learners. By Dr.
Stretch Dowse. Fcap. i6mo, pp. 151. (Bristol : John Wright and Co.
London : Simpkin, Marshall, and Co. 1892.) Price 2s.
Very plain and explicit directions are given for those who wish to make
themselves acquainted with the general principles of the various modes of
applying energy to the human body by means of the hands.
Principles and Practice of Bandaging. By Gwilym G.
Davis, M.D. 8vo, pp. xi. — 61. (Detroit, Mich., U.S.A. : George S. Davis.
1 89 1.) Price $3.00.
This book goes thoroughly into the subject of bandaging, and describes —
I., The Roller Bandages ; II., The Tailed Bandages or SHngs ; and III., The
Handkerchief Bandages. There are 23 plates, containing in all 172 figures,
showing the various methods of using the bandage. The information in the
letterpress is very explicit.
Ophthalmic Diseases and Therapeutics. By A. B. Norton,
M.D. 8vo, pp. 555. (Philadelphia: Boericke and Tafel. 1892.) Price
17s. 6d. net.
This is a text-book on Ophthalmology, in which special attention is given
to the homceopathic treatment of diseases of the eye. The author gives in a
very concise manner all the essential features necessary to a thorough knowledge
of the diseases of the eye, commencing with sufficient anatomy of the various
structures to aid in an understanding of their diseases. The book contains 53
illustrations and 12 chromo-Hthographic figures.
Contributions of Physicians to English and American
Literature. By Robert C. Kenner, A.M., M.D. pp. 93.
Acne and Alopecia. By L. Duncan Bulkley, A.M., M.D.
pp. 85. (Detroit, Mich., U.S.A. : Geo. S. Davis. 1892.)
Volumes of the Physician's Leisure Hour Series. These books are well
written, handsomely got up, and where necessary well illustrated. Price, in
paper covers, 25c. ; in cloth gilt, 50c. They are published monthly.
Public Health Problems. By John F. Sykes, B.Sc, M.B.
Crown 8vo, pp. xii. — 370. (London: Walter Scott. 1892.) Price 3s. 6d.
The author states very forcibly some of the essential points in evolution,
environment, parasitism, prophylaxis, and sanitation, bearing upon the preser-
vation of public health. Part I. treats of Internal and External Influences
upon Health; II. — Communicable Diseases; III. — Defensive Measures
against them ; and IV. — The Urban Dwelling. There are several illustrations.
The Boys' Own Book of Health and Strength. By
Gordon-Stables, M.D., CM., etc. Crown 8vo, pp. 238. (London: Jarrold
and Sons.) Price 2s. 6d.
We ail know Dr. Gordon-Stables' manner in writing for boys. The book
before us is written in his best style, and is full of plain and valuable advice
for old as well as young boys ; there are several plates.
Around the Roman Campagna. By George E. Thompson.
Crown 8vo, pp. viii. — 156. (Liverpool : Edward Howell. London : Simpkin,
Marshall, and Co. 1893.) Price 4s.
In this most interesting book Mr. Thompson takes the reader by easy
stages around the Roman Campagna; he describes his visits to the various
places of interest in a quaint and very amusing manner ; indeed, having begun
to read the book, you cannot leave it until you have read it all. There are
six capital photo-illustrations.
110 REVIEWS.
Book of Delightful and Strange Designs, being loo
fac-simile Illustrations of the Art of the Japanese Stencil Cutter. Oblong
crown 4to. (London : Leadenhall Press.) Price 6s.
Upwards of lOO fine designs in stencil work, as used by the Japanese, are
given here. All the white parts of the design are intended to be cut out. A
specimen original cut-out stencil is given as a frontispiece. Many of the
designs are very handsome and a clever person will find them very useful.
Chinese Stories. By Robert K. Douglas, 8v6, pp. xxxvii. —
348. (Edinburgh & London : W. Blackwood and Son. 1893.) Price 12s. 6d.
A series of stories reprinted from various sources, illustrating the popular
literature of China, holding up, as it were, a mirror to the hfe of the people,
and thus bringing home to us the fact that the human feelings are much the
same on the banks of the Zang-tsze-Kiang as on those of the Thames.
There are 8 full-page plates, and a great number of amusing illustrations in the
text. The book is handsomely got up.
Matches that Strike. Edited by Rev. Chas. Bullock,
B.D. Crown 8vo, pp. xii. — 298. (London : Hofue Words Office.) Price 5s.
A collection of anecdotes which are well worth reading ; the editor calls
them " Matches that Strike " because good anecdotes are always "striking " —
sure to be remembered whatever else is forgotten ; and, like matches, however
slight, they are often significant of important service.
Notable Women Authors of the Day. By Helen C. Black.
8vo, pp. xii. — 312. (Glasgow : David Bryce and Son. 1893.) Price los. 6d.
A series of twenty-six biographical sketches, each being accompanied
by a full-page fine Photo-mechanical portrait. These sketches give a pleasing
insight into the home life of the ladies whose writings are so well known.
Readers are thus brought face to face with the authors whose works they are
daily reading. The volume is handsomely got up.
The Antiquity of Man, from the Point of View of Religion.
By F. Hugh Capron. 8vo, pp. 98. (London: Elliot Stock. 1892.) Price 4/6.
It will be enough to say of this book that it is written in answer to Mr. S.
Laing's "Modern Science and Modern Thought." Its three chapters treat of:
I., The Scientific View of the Problem ; II., The Bible View; and III., The
two Views Reconciled.
Did Moses Write the Pentateuch after all ? By
F. E. Spencer, M.A. Crown 8vo, pp. xii. — 291. (London : Elliot Stock.
1892.) Price 6s.
The author firmly believes in Moses, but we thinks he takes a somewhat
too scholarly view of the subject to be readily followed and appreciated by the
general reader.
Music and Motion. Action Songs for Little Singers. Edited
by Alan Reid, F.E.I.S. 4to, pp. 66. (Paisley : J. & R. Parlane.) Price 2s. 6d.
A collection of 80 original and favourite Songs, Musical Games, Marches,
Rounds, etc., for young people, with pianoforte accompaniments.
REVIEWS. Ill
The Noble and Joyous History of King Arthur.
The Book of Marvellous Adventures and other Books
of the Morte D'Aithur. Edited by Ernest Rhys. Crown 8vo, pp xxiv. — 325,
xiii. — 384. (London : Walter Scott.) Price is. 6d. each.
These two volumes of the " Scott Library " contain the complete text of
the Morte d'Arthur, and, save for modernising of the old spelling and a few
unimportant omissions, are a fairly faithful version of the 1634 edition.
Cassell's New Technical Educator is now published in
Monthly parts, at Sixpence. Part L contains papers on a great variety of
useful subjects. These papers are well illustrated, and are written by gentle-
men who thoroughly understand what they are writing about.
The Fireside Pictorial Annual. 1892. Edited by
Rev. Charles Bullock, B.D. Crown 4to, pp. 858. (London : Home Words
Office.) Price 7s. 6d.
This very excellent Magazine is full of most entertaining reading ; besides
several continued tales, there are Biographical Sketches of Great Authors,
chapters on Books of the Season, and a host of other interesting things, with
a number of full-page and other illustrations.
The Rose-Bud Annual. 1893. Crown 410, pp. 192.
(London : James Clarke and Co.) Price 4s.
A capital book for the little ones. It contains nearly 300 illustrations,
with plenty of music and poetry.
The Day of Days. Crown 4to, pp. 186. Price 2s.
Home Words. Crown 4to, pp. 284. Price 2s. (London :
Home /^f^(7r^j- PubHshing Office. 1S92. )
Two yearly volumes of these prettily illustrated and interesting monthly
magazines so suitable for young people.
Sinai from the Fourth Egyptian Dynasty to the Present Day,
By Henry Spencer Palmer. Fcap. 8vo, pp. 224. (London : Society for Pro-
moting Christian Knowledge. 1892.) Price 2s.
An interesting account is given of the physical character and present inha-
bitants of the peninsula of Sinai as well as its past history.
Band of Mercy. Crown 4to, pp. 96. (London : S. W.
Partridge and Co. 1892.)
This attractively got-up volume cannot fail to please all young people,
being full of pictures and stories about animals. It is issued by the Royal
Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals.
The Zoo. By the Rev. J. G. Wood and Rev. Theodore Wood,
F.E.S. Fcap. 4to, pp. 100. (London : Society for Promoting Christian
Knowledge. 1892.) Price 2s. 6d.
This is the third series of " The Zoo," full of pictures, both plain and
coloured, of birds and animals, and is just the book to please our young friends.
112 REVIEWS.
The Animal World. Vol. for 1892. (London: S. W.
Partridge and Co.)
This interesting magazine is truly, as stated in its title, "An Advocate of
Humanity." It is issued by the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to
Animals, and is full of illustrations, which are for the most part very good.
Fallowfield's Photographic Annual.— This Catalogue of
Photographic Materials, Chemicals, and Apparatus, consisting of nearly 600
pages, is now in its thirty-sixth year.
Studies in Photography. By John Andrews, B.A. Crown
8vo, pp. xiii. — 202. (London : Hazell, Watson, and Viney. 1892.) 3s.
In this handsome little volume the author claims that photography should
rank as an original art, and gives some practical remarks to assist the photogra-
pher who aspires to produce more artistic work. There are six good photo-
mechanical plates.
Practical Guide to Photographic and Photo-Mechanical
Printing. By W. K. Burton. Crown Svo, pp. xviii. — 415. (London : Marion
and Co. 1892.) Price 4s.
The second edition of this useful work has been very carefully revised and
in many cases thoroughly re-written. The first half of the book is devoted to
what is ordinarily called Photographic Printing. The latter part describes the
various processes known as Photo- Mechanical Printing.
OTHER BOOKS RECEIVED.
Hastings and St. Leonards as Winter Resorts. By F.
Augustus Cox, M.B.Lond. Crown 8vo, pp. 12. (London: John Heywood.)
The Book of Revelation, Showing the Fourth Beast of
Daniel, its Carcase, its Millennial and Jewish Fables — a sign of the end. By
F. W. Christie, B.A., Camb., etc. Second edition, enlarged. Crown Svo,
pp. xvi. — 594. (Liverpool: E. Howell. London: Simpkin, Marshall, & Co.
1892.) Price 7s.
Scripture Photographs : Men in the Sunlight of the World.
By James Elder Cumming, D.D. (Stirling: Drummond's Tract Depot.)
Price 2s. 6d.
The Berridges of Silver Lea. By Sidney Watson.
(Stirling: Drumnnond's Tract Depot.) Price 2s.
The Visible To-Be : A Story of Hand Reading. Crown
8vo, pp. 133. (Leadenhall Press.) Price 3s. 6d.
The Awful and Ethical Allegory of Deuteronomy
Smith. Foolscap 8vo, pp. 68. (Edinburgh : E. & S. Livingstone.)
[ 113 ]
Sea^Matcr Hquaria*
By R. Lawton Roberts, M.D.
Illustrated by Miss Florence Phillips.
Plates V. and VI. .
HE illustration (Plate V.) represents the general plan
of a small private aquarium, constructed on the
principles (i) that f/ie ivater is circulated^ but 7iot
changed ; and (2) that the only vegetation present is
such as developes from invisible germs existing in the
"* 1^ In 1872, the late W. A. Lloyd wrote :—" The
balance of existence between plants and animals in a
streamless aquarium is never easy to maintain, and
therefore amateurs have usually to choose between the meagreness
of a tank with but very few and small animals in it, and one with
so many that the destruction of the whole can be very quickly
brought about by some small adverse circumstance ; and there
frequently is no choice between an aquarium with the water
looking dull from an insufficiency of oxygen caused by too little
light to act on the vegetation, and one with an exposure to so
much light that the plants evolve so many spores (or seeds) that
the water becomes opaquely turbid and of a greenish-brown hue.
A stream of water in an aquarium, however, with the greater part
of the water in a separate vessel, the latter containing no animals
and never being exposed to light, and with a smaller part of the
water containing the animals, and being fairly well illuminated, at
once surmounts many difficulties, and is (so to speak) a 'fly-wheel
which carries the whole machine of an aquarium over its dead
points. But such an arrangement is expensive, and needs much
attention in vvorking it."
It is precisely "such an arrangement" that I have attempted
to carry out in a practical manner, and the result of my efforts is
figured in the accompanying illustration (Plate V.).
The tank (2) is strongly constructed, the base and ends being
of slate, and the sides of plate glass ; its internal measurements
International Journal of Microscopy and Natural Science.
Third Series. Vol. III. j
114 SEA-WATER AQUARIA.
are as follows : — Height, i foot 3^ inches (exclusive of slate rim) ;
breadth, i foot 6J inches ; length, 2 feet 5| inches. It is placed
on an exceedingly strong wooden sfa?id (i), 2 feet 5 inches high.
Both the tank and stand were obtained from Messrs. Dick
Radcliffe and Co., of 128 and 129 High Holborn, London.
The cover of the tank (4) at first consisted of a central piece of
glass, supported by a perforated and painted metallic framework.
This, however, was soon found to be extremely unsatisfactory, as
the paint chipped off, the metal corroded, bits fell into the water,
and the animals suffered in consequence. With a fountain playing
and the metal frame being continually wet by the spray, it can be
readily understood how the water became fouled. So 1 had an
entirely new cover (4) made by the Indiarubber, Gutta Percha,
and Telegraph Works Co., Limited, of 54 Castle St., Liverpool.
This consists of five pieces of glass, fitted into a framework of
ebonite. The central piece of glass is over 6 inches broad,
rather more than 12 inches long, and 7^ inches above the level of
the top of the tank, the other four pieces of glass sloping up to it.
The main portion of the rockivoi'k in the tank consists of a
porous substance called Tufa ; but other parts are constructed of
slag, pumice, etc., fixed in cement, and in addition there are
stones, shells, gravel, and, at one end of the tank, sand to the
depth of 3 J inches. 1 should mention that the sand was obtained
from the sea-shore.
In one of the slate ends of the tank there are two circular
holes, half-an-inch in diameter, both in the middle line, one being
13 inches, the other yj inches from the base. I made these holes
with an auger or centre-bit, which bored through the slate without
any difficulty and without cracking it. I then got two corks to fit
the holes and pierced each with a "cork-borer," so that a glass
tube of one-third of an inch in diameter could be pushed through.
One of the corks, through which I had pushed a short piece of
glass tubing, I fitted tightly into the lower hole in the slate ; and
to the outer end of the glass I secured a piece of indiarubber
tubing, which runs into a large dark reservoir. This forms the
overflow tube {11), so that the water in the tank remains at the
level of 7J inches.
Into the uppermost hole in the slate another cork is fixed.
SEA-WATER AQUARIA. 115
pierced by a glass tube (lo), which is bent down to the base of
the tank and passes along, more or less hidden by rockwork, to
near the centre, where it is twisted up for about nine inches, and
ends in a very finely-drawn fountain-jet (5). Outside the tank the
glass tube is connected by a piece of indiarubber tubing (9) with
a fountain reservoir (6).
With regard to the glass fountain tube, this necessarily is bent
three times in the vertical plane, and also twice horizontally on
account of the irregularities of the rockwork in the tank ; and as
considerable care was needed in the fashioning of the finely-drawn
jet, I thought it best to obtain three or four tubes (in case of
breakage) ready shaped, from skilled manipulators.
The fountain tube in use, therefore, and some duplicates of
the same, were supplied to me by Messrs. Townson and Mercer,
of 89 Bishopsgate Street Within, London, E.G.
The fountain reservoir (6) is supported on di metal stand {'j)^
5 feet 6 inches in height, consisting of a strong rod with a circular
flat plate at the top, and three stout feet, which are screwed to the
floor.
As for the sta?id (7) it really is an old music-stand, altered by
a local smith for the purpose to which it is now applied.
The fountain reservoir (6) is a glass "aspirator." It measures
about I foot 9 inches in height, inclusive of the narrowed and
raised mouth, and nearly i foot in breadth, and holds 5 gallons of
water. At the base of the aspirator is a small glass stopcock (8)
communicating by indiarubber tubing (9) with the fountain tube
(10) in the tank. Fixed into the mouth of the aspirator (6) is
also the open end of the delivery hose (15) of a pump (13).
The large dark reservoir (17) is a circular earthenware " mixing
pan," over 2\ feet in height, 2 feet in diameter, and made to hold
40 gallons. The " mixing pan " came without any cover, but I
had a flat one made of hard oak, with a sufficient opening to
allow of the passage into the reservoir of the overflow tube (11),
and the passage out of the reservoir of the rubber suction hose
(16) of a pump (13). The suction hose (16) is i inch in diameter;
the open end hangs in the water of the reservoir, and as the hose
passes through the cover over the side of the reservoir down to
the pump, it acts as a syphon, and the pump always contains water.
116 SEA-WATER AQUARIA.
The water is pumped up from the large dark reservoir into the
fountain reservoir by means of a small rotary pump (12, 13, 14).
A plan of this pump, showing both front and side views, is given
in Miss Phillips' other drawing (Plate VI.). The corresponding
portions of the pump in both side and front views are marked by
similar figures. There is a strong wooden board (i), 8^ inches
broad, i^ inch thick, and 4 feet long; and on this is fixed a
driving wheel (3), with a suitable handle (4), and lower down on
the board is securely attached the actual pump (5). An india-
rubber driving cord (6, 6) passes around the driving-wheel and a
small " head " connected with the pump ; and so by seizing the
handle (4) and turning the driving-wheel, the pump is very easily
worked.
The india-rubber hose used with the pump is an inch in dia-
meter. The delivery hose (10) is fitted on to the upper opening of
the pump (9), and is tightly fastened thereon by copper wire. The
suction hose (7) is secured in the same manner on to the lower
opening (8) of the pump. The driving-wheel (3) has a diameter
of 15 inches, and the handle (4) is 4 inches in length. These
measurements, with those of the wooden board already given, will,
I think, give a general idea of the size of the entire concern.
Passing back again now to the drawing of the aquarium (PI. V.)
the pump (t2, 13, 14) is seen in its actual position. The strong
wooden board (14) is fastened securely flat against the wall (18)
in an oblique or slanting direction, so that the driving-wheel (12)
is at a convenient height for working. The actual pump (13) is
quite near the floor, since it is necessary to ensure the proper
working of such rotary apparatus for water to be always in it; and
this is ensured by the syphon arrangement of the suction hose (16).
It should be mentioned that all the parts of the pump in contact
with the water are covered by vulcanite, and this is of course
essential always where sea-water is in question, as otherwise the
water would become impregnated with poisonous metallic
impurities.
I have had this apparatus working for several months, and it
acts admirably. In order to fill the fountain reservoir from the
large dark reservoir, it is only necessary to turn around the
driving-wheel at moderate speed for about a minute and a-half.
SEA- WATER AQUARIA. 117
The water rushes in a full, steady, and continuous stream from the
delivery hose into the fountain reservoir, as long as the driving-
wheel is being turned. Once the fountain reservoir is filled, the
fountain in the tank plays for six hours, the excess of water passing
through the overflow tube into the large dark reservoir. I find
that with very little attention — though this must be regular — the
fountain can be kept playing and the water of the aquarium cir-
culating for from fifteen to eighteen hours in the twenty-four.
The pump was made especially for me by Messrs. Leete,
Edwards, and Norman, Limited, of 366 and 368 Euston Road,
London, N.W. This firm appear to have made a speciality of the
manufacture of patent rotary pumps for the circulation and aera-
tion of public marine aquaria, and have supplied powerful
machinery adapted to the purpose for aquaria at Plymouth, the
Crystal Palace, and many other places.
An exceedingly useful instrument, in connection with an
aquarium, is a pair of long ivooden forceps for the purpose of feed-
ing the animals and removing any dead creatures or other matters
likely to foul the water. Forceps of this kind are in use at the
Crystal Palace, and are made by Messrs. Aston and Mander,
machine rule makers. Old Compton Street, London, W. I have
a pair by me as I write, measuring 20J inches in length, each
blade being half-an-inch broad and about quarter-an-inch thick,
and the distance between the free thinned ends of the blades
equalling about an inch and a quarter.
When first 1 commenced operations, I was in some doubt —
living inland as I do — where it would be easiest to obtain sea-
water. I finally decided to profit by the arrangements offered by
the Great Eastern Railway Sea-Water Office, 122 Bishopsgate St.
Without, London, E.C. From this source good sea-water can be
obtained m three-gallon kegs, at the rate of sixpence a keg ; unless
four or more kegs are ordered, when the reduced rate is charged
of fourpence half-penny a keg, or one shilling and sixpence for
every twelve gallons. A deposit of four shillings and sixpence a
keg is invariably required, but this is returned on application, pro-
viding the empty kegs are returned to the office carriage paid and
in good condition.
It is well to remember that if there are difticulties in procuring
118 SEA-WATER AQUARIA
sea-water in a natural state, it can be made artificially. Gosse
produced, in 1854, a formula for the purpose which answers
admirably, viz. — Common table salt, 3J ounces (Avoir.) ; Epsom
salts, I ounce (Avoir.) ; Chloride of Magnesium, 200 grains (Troy);
Chloride of Potassium, 40 grains (Troy). These salts to be dis-
solved in rather less than four quarts of ordinary drinking water,
so that the solution attains a specific gravity of 1027. If the
hydro7?ieter shows a figure higher than 1027, then more water must
be added; if under 1027 more of the salts are needed.
Perhaps the simplest method is to procure some of Southall's
Aquarium Sea Salt, in each package of which is a measure and
the directions : — " For sea-water of full strength add a gallon of
water to each measureful of salt." For aquarium purposes, adjust
the specific gravity with a hydrometer or gravity bubble, so that its
specific gravity shall be T027 at 60^ Fah. This salt " was used in
preparing sea-water for the Royal Aquarium, Westminster^ and for
the magnificent aquarium at Aston, Birmingham, where 200,000
galls, were in constant use."
It is an advantage, however, to obtain natural sea-water, if this
is possible, since it contains myriads of microscopic animal forms,
which multiply and serve as food for the creatures in the aquarium,
and also countless invisible vegetable germs or spores which, under
the influence of light, will develope into a low form of vegetation.
Yet water from the sea-shore (shore-water), though suitable for
animal life in a state of nature, is very frequently found at first to
be quite unfit for use within the narrow limits of an aquarium.
For example, the 100,000 gallons of " beautifully clear sea-water in
the Crystal Palace Aquarium " was, when first received from the
shores of Brighton, " neither well-coloured nor of high density,
nor in any way fit for the maintenance of animals."
One can easily understand this. Shore-water is often more or
less impure from the introduction of sewage, refuse, and other
impurities from the land ; but such deleterious matters are con-
tinually counteracted and destroyed by the air absorbed by the
immense and ever-changing water surfaces exposed to the atmo-
sphere through the agency of waves, tides, currents, and the
natural movement of the sea ; and this purifying process is enor-
mously increased by the action of numberless healthy, growing,
and vigorous seaweeds.
SEA- WATER AQUARIA. 119
Put the same water within the confined limits of an aquarium,
and the case is quite altered. There is no growing vegetation
present, neither is there the unceasing movement of Nature,
— nothing of any importance, in fact, to counteract and destroy the
impurity of the water. Allow the water to remain in the aquarium
without changing it, or, in other words, without introducing more
impurities by the addition of fresh water, and affairs will right
themselves naturally. Air is absorbed by the water surface in
contact with the atmosphere, and vegetation of a low form grows
from invisible germs existing in the water, with the result that the
impurities at first present are gradually destroyed, and the water
slowly becomes clear, pure, and fit to sustain animal life.
The late W. A. Lloyd, as far back as 1874, wrote very empha-
tically on these matters. He said, in an article in the Popular
Recreator : — "I have incidentally mentioned failures from the use
of new sea-7vate?% and I have known many persons to have lost
(from this cause, without knowing it) animals at the seaside which
they would not have lost inland. It is so always when there is an
occasional renewal of water from the sea wherever the water is
turbid, and the ill result is increased in proportion to the fre-
quency of renewal. It is to this source that may be traced the
too-small commensurate biological value of all public seaside
aquaria built up till now, when their very large money-cost for
erection and maintenance is remembered. That is to say, too
much reliance has been by the constructors placed on the facilities
which the position of such aquaria give for obtaining new sea-
water, and that sea-water is almost always impure, and of much
varying density at the shore. Animals may or may not live in
such shore-water in the sea ; but it is a very different thing to
living in the same water in the confined limits and measurelessly
smaller aeration of an aquarium, whence, unlike as in the sea,
they cannot escape if they find the water and other circumstances
unfit for them.
The advantages of having a marine aquarium at the seaside
consist in the ease with which some animals can be obtained
without their being carried during a long and exhaustive journey,
and in the saving of some of the cost of the first supply of sea-
water. But, once obtained, thaifrst supply should be the iast^ and
120 SEA- WATER AQUARIA.
it should be stored in great dark reservoirs, and should be circulated^
but 7iot changed. ... It is true that if a marine aquarium were to
be set up where the sea-water is always clear and equally dense,
as, for example, in some of the islands of the South Pacific Ocean,
or even in some of our English Channel Islands, then the water
could be drawn directly from the sea into the aquarium, and
perhaps the animals in the latter would derive benefit from the
microscopic food contained in the water not otherwise possible."
The Crystal Palace Aquarium was established on those prin-
ciples which Lloyd insisted on as being correct ; in fact, it was
constructed under the supervision and direction of Lloyd himself.
The sea-water taken from the shore at Brighton was impure and
unfit for animal life when it first arrived at Sydenham, and it was
fouled still further — rendered poisonous indeed as regards the
purpose for which it was intended— by the absorption of lime
from the fresh cement used in the construction of the reservoir
and tanks. Yet, in due course, the action of the air absorbed
by the water, and of the vegetation which gradually developed in
the tanks from invisible germs present in the water, brought about
the purification of the latter, so that, to use Lloyd's expression,
" the water has become what it now is by keeping it and using
it." The water in the Crystal Palace Aquarium is the same that
was brought in an impure state from Brighton about twenty years
ago ; and it is kept circulating in the following manner : — There
is a huge reservoir, placed underground, containing 80,000
gallons of water ; and the series of large aquarium tanks con-
taining the living sea creatures contain 20,000 gallons more.
The water is driven by powerful pumping apparatus, continuously,
by day and night, from the reservoir through the whole series of
tanks, and back again into the reservoir. In the course of circu-
lation the water not only drops several inches from each tank into
the next one, but is also forcibly driven from pipes in jets down
to the bottom, or nearly to the bottom of each tank, by which
means the thorough aeration of the water is ensured.
I might quote much additional evidence in support of the
plan of not changing the water in an aquarium, but the limits of
this paper will not allow it. When I first attempted to keep
living sea creatures, I changed the water periodically, at intervals
SEA- WATER AQUARIA. 121
of about a fortnight ; and I noticed (and in those days of ignor-
ance wondered too) that the animals looked bad and sickly for a
time after each change — and this though the sea-water supplied
by the G.E.R. sea-water office is guaranteed to be taken a con-
siderable distance from land, and therefore is proportionately pure.
Lloyd's suggestion tliat " where the sea-water is always clear
and equably dense, as for example . . in some of our English
Channel Islands, then the water could be drawn directly from the
sea into the aquarium,'' is about to be practically tested. A
public sea water aquarium, the result of private enterprise, is even
now being established (in connection with fresh-water aquarium
globes, a museum, library, and zoological laboratory) at Havre-
des-Pas, Jersey. The sea-water tanks are constructed to hold
from 4,500 to 5,000 gallons, and the water is to be pumped
directly from the sea into the tanks, passing through them, and
then running off waste. At least continual change of water will
be kept up steadily for about sixteen hours out of the twenty-four,
and it is thought that the animals, under the circumstances, will
not suffer from the water being stationary during the remaining eight
hours. This enterprise, in the light of Lloyd's experiences and
his well-known views, is of the greatest possible interest, and is
being anxiously watched.
When first I started my aquarium, 1 was of course quite alive
to the need of having vegetation growing in the tank ; and, being
acquainted with the interesting and beautifully illustrated works of
Gosse, I was strongly impressed by the necessity of procuring
young or full-grown sea-weeds for my purpose.
" Ulva lalissima,'" says Gosse in his " Aquarium," " is prob-
ably the best of all sea-weeds for our purpose, and is one of the
most easily procured on every shore." So the Sea Lettuce (or
U/va latissimd) 1 got, and placed two or three pieces in my tank.
The result was certainly striking, but not ^quite of the character
that was anticipated and hoped for. The water became turbid,
and covered with a soapy-looking scum ; two or three of the
animals died, and it was only with much difficulty that any of the
collection in the tank were saved.
Just about this time I met with a number of articles written
by A. W. Lloyd, and in one of them I found the following
122 SEA-WATER AQUARIA.
passage : — " And now, as I have poked fun at these antediluvian
aquarium sea-weed gatherers, I should like to say something
which is not fun. I have already mentioned that the collecting,
transmission, and introduction of them was a very obvious appli-
cation of the balancing arrangement of plants and animals, and
there would have been nothing to say against it on the score of
being lumbering, costly, or anything else, // these sea-weeds would
live in captivity as well and as easily as the animals which these
plants were supposed to keep in health. But they would not live,
they will not live now. And then, to add to the provocation of
the matter, they will sometimes live and thrive, perhaps one time
in a hundred, or one time in a thousand, when one takes no
pains at all with them, and die outright immediately when they
are made the subject of goodness knows how much solicitude."
The fact is, as Lloyd found out for himself, that if the water
(whether salt or fresh) is left in an aquarium without being
changed, and exposed to light, a low form of vegetation ialgcE)
will develope on the rock-work and glass from invisible germs
existing in the water ; and this vegetation — which grows naturally,
and is adapted to the circumstances of an aquarium — is amply
sufficient for all purposes, so that there is not the slightest
necessity for the introduction of young or full-grown aquatic
weeds from without.
So, after my failure with Ulva latissima, I made no further
attempt to introduce and cultivate sea-weeds in my tank, but let
the water rest for a time, exposed to a moderate light, not even
circulating it, and of course not changing it. In a few weeks,
sure enough, there developed on the glass, and on the rock-work,
both green and brown vegetation. The green grows chiefly on
the glass and the exposed portions of the rock-work which face
the light from the window, whereas the brown growth appears on
the submerged rock-work, and on parts more in the shade. This
vegetation exists mostly in the form of a coating over the parts
which it favours, but on the lower portions of the rock-work,
tawny filaments, half an inch or so in length, shoot up in tufts,
and from these, when the sun shines on them, streams of bubbles
may be seen rising upwards through the water.
I cannot refrain from giving a quotation bearing on this sub-
SEA- WATER AQUARIA. 123
ject from Lloyd's Handbook to the Marine Aquarium oj the Crystal
Palace (1872). It runs thus : —
" Mrs. Thynne need not have sent from London to the sea
for sea-weeds to revivify the water for her flagging corals, even
though she for the first time thus intelligently applied the purpose
of the vegetation in a marine aquarium ; as had she but exposed
the water long enough to light, sea-weeds would inevitably have
come, even in London, without their having been visibly put in —
and they doubtlessly did come without being recognised, in her
case. It was the same with Mr. Gosse, and with every other
writer who recommended the putting masses of grown-uj) or even
young plants into tanks* Such vegetation is very elegant, often
as much so, and as interesting, as the animals themselves, but
with the exception of the knowledge taught by Warington and
Gosse, namely, that a few of the red Algce can be grown in cap-
tivity in darkness or in much shade, or by the interposition of
coloured media, it is not known how to systematically cultivate
the green kinds, as Ulva^ Porphyra^ and Enteromorpha^ or indeed
hardly any others, whether they be brown, or red, or green. By
chance, indeed, sometimes one here and there (and even difficult
kinds occasionally, as Delesseria, Lafninaria, and others) may be
grown more or less well ; but as the reason is unknown, a repeti-
tion of success can seldom be had ; and, in fact, so uncertain are
these Algce^ and so easily are they killed from a slight disturbance
of condition, that sometimes an alteration of position of even the
extent of a few inches in a tank, without the attachment or any
other part being disturbed or injured, will cause a growing plant
to die. It may be that some AlgcB need the alternate exposure
and submersion of tides, or the successive periods of rest and
growth afforded by the cold and warmth of actual nature ; or
possibly some require tidal actions, or the influence of the rain
they occasionally get when the tide is out. Be that as it may, it
is certain that with our present knowledge, the putting into an
aquarium of masses of already grown sea-weed, especially the
green kinds, whether they be young or old, or attached to stones
or not, or of any ready-grown fresh-water plant, is not only very
seldom attended with an after successful result, but so much
positive harm is done by the decomposition arising from their
124 SEA- WATER AQUARIA.
decay, that it is better to avoid them altogether, and to depend
only upon that which gradually and naturally appears upon the
rocks of the aquarium by the action of light, and which answers
every chemical purpose ; and the amount of growth of such
vegetation can always be precisely regulated by the amount of
light given to them — and so vigorously does it grow on places of
its own choice, that its tendency is to increase too much when the
light cannot be so far diminished without making an aquarium
too dark for objects to be distinctly seen in it — and in such cases
some animals, as the moUusk, the ormer {Haliofis), and the fish,
the grey mullet {Mugil), are employed to eat it down to the very
small quantity required to decompose the carbonic acid gas of
even the largest aquarium."
In my tank there are two Periwinkles {Litlorina littorea), one
Top (Troc/ins umbilicatus)^ three Chitons (^Chiton fasciculaiis)^ and
one Dog Whelk {Pui-pura lapillus) ; and all these are at work
keejjing down the vegetation. The Trochus seems happy enough
and very busy ; so it is interesting to note, on Lloyd's authority,
that " the Top is of delicate organisation, and usually dies (in a
streamless aquarium) instead of doing any work." It is curious
to see how clean the Chitons sweep the rock-work. The bare,
raw-looking patches on the rock mark their track, and contrast
strangely with the brown or. green vegetation on either side. The
Periwinkles work very spasmodically, sometimes adhering to the
slate, close together, high out of the water for several days with-
out moving ; whereas at other times they are very active, clearing
off the vegetation and following it down into the porosity of the
rock-work, so as to leave little depressions or concavities. As to
the Whelk, he progresses but very slowly ; he keeps to a piece of
rock-work in a corner of the tank, and either works very little, or
does his business with great thoroughness, so long does he take
to get over a small space. I notice that this creature sticks to the
rock-work with great tenacity.
I have between thirty and forty other specimens, some of
which are very fine and large, in my tank, and hope after a time
to procure more. Two of these specimens I may briefly allude
to, on account of the difficulty some have in keeping them alive
in captivity. One is Tealia Crassicornis^ the Dahlia Wartlet or
SEA- WATER AQUARIA. 125
Crass. Of this gorgeous Anemone, Pennington says : — " It is one
which may be kept with ease in an aquarium ; " but other ob-
servers have been led by their own experience to form quite an
opposite opinion. Thus Gosse remarks : — " Beautiful as is the
Dahlia, it is not a very frequent tenant of our aquariums, as it is
one of the most difficult to keep. . . It appears to be little
able to sustain extremes of temperature. The heat of summer
is generally fatal to our captive specimens ; and a severe winter
makes havoc among those which are in the enjoyment of free-
dom. '' And Bennett says that his " own experience goes to prove
that they die in a few days."
I seem to be one of the lucky ones, for my large Tealia
flourishes well, and I have had him for several months. In con-
nection with this Anemone, it is interesting to note that Dicque-
mare observed :—" Of all the kinds of Sea-Anemones, I would
prefer this for the table ; being boiled some time in sea-water,
they acquire a firm and palatable consistence, and may then be
eaten with any kind of sauce. They are of an inviting appear-
ance, of a light shivering texture, and of a soft white and reddish
hue. Their smell is not unlike that of a warm crab or lobster."
The other creature against which I was warned as one unlikely
to live in captivity is Anthea Ceretis, or the Opelet. But here
again I have been successful, for the Anthea in my tank flourishes
well. I had often noticed, when shore-hunting, that the Opelet
seemed to thrive in shallow tide pools, exposed to the direct rays
of the sun, and the water of which could only be replenished at
high water. I also noted that Lloyd, in his Handbook, referring
to the Anemones of the Cr}stal Palace Aquarium, remarked that
" some of them are diurnal in their habits, however, notably
Anthea, which likes much exposure to light, and does not fade,
and has a tendency to close at night. . . The one in the collec-
tion least apt to close when touched is Anthea, and this is also
the one most constantly open by day, and frequently apt to close
at night ; the reverse of this rule being the one generally found
to obtain among Sea- Anemones."
Accordingly, when my Afithea first arrived, I dropped it on a
portion of rock-work only just covered by water, and fully ex-
posed to the light, and the creature has flourished well. I have
126 SEA- WATER AQUARIA.
also noticed the marked diurnal character of the animal, its
condition of wide expansion by day, and its tendency to shrink at
night. The colour of this Anemone is dependent, I believe, in
considerable measure, on the amount of light to which it is
exposed. The extremely vivid colouring — the bright green and
red — present in some specimens, appears to be due to exposure
to direct and powerful sunlight. If the same creatures are placed
in positions subjected to less powerful light, then the colouring
becomes correspondingly subdued.
It seems that this species has not been overlooked by epicures,
since Johnson observed : — "Even the hot and peppery Anthea has
its praise ; from it they prepare the dish called Rastegfia, w^hich is
a favourite in Provence."
Gosse made several experiments in the w^ay of preparing Sea
Anemones for food. He did not think much of Althea, but
achieved a great success with Tealia Crassicornis. He had these
very carefully cleaned, every trace of slime and adherent particles
being scraped off completely. They were then fried in egg and
bread-crumbs, with the result that " all prejudice yielded to their
inviting odour and appearance, and the whole table joined in the
repast with indubitable gusto."
Note. — Since the above paper was written, I have received
information regarding the susceptibility of Tealia Crassicornis to
cold, which is quite contradictory to the experience of Gosse. A
friend writes : — " As regards cold and its effect on Anemones, I
had a large Crassicornis in a bowl, and it got frozen into a solid
blocks like a fly in amber. It thawed out next day and expanded
beautifully, and was as hearty and well as ever."
EXPLANATION OF PLATES V., VI.
Plate V. — Plan of a private Sea- water Aquarium.
Fig. 1. — Strong wooden stand.
,, 2. — Aquarium tank, sides of plate glass, base and both ends of
slate.
,, 3. — Surface of water in aquarium tank.
,, 4. — Aquarium tank cover of ebonite and glass.
PLATE 5
d
Journal of Microscopy. 3 Ser. Vol. 3
F.Phillips Del. etSc.
Private Sea-Water Aquarmm,
PLATE 6.
Journal of Microscopy 3^.^ Ser. Vol. 3. \
ord
F. PhiUipsDeletSc.
Rotaiy Pump, showing front and side views.
SEA-WATER AQUARIA. 127
Fig. 5. — Fountain in aquarium tank.
6. — Glass vessel (or Aspirator) : acts as fountain reservoir.
7. — Iron and brass stand of fountain reservoir.
8. — Glass tap of fountain reservoir.
9. — India-rubber tube, leading from fountain reservoir to
fountain jet.
10. — Glass fountain-jet ; dotted line shows the position in
aquarium tank.
11. — Overflow glass pipe and india-rubber tube from aquarium
tank leading into large earthenware reservoir.
12. — Driving-wheel of rotary pump.
13. — Rotary pump.
14. — Wooden board on which rotary pump and driving-wheel are
fixed.
15. — 1-inch delivery hose from pump into fountain reservoir.
16. — 1-inch suction hose arranged as syphon from large earthen-
ware reserv^oir to pump.
17. — Large earthenware reservoir (or Mixing Pan).
18.— Wall.
Plate VI. — Plan of small Rotary Pump supplied by Messrs. Leete,
Edwards, & Norman, Limited ; showing front and side views.
Fig. ]. — Strong wooden board.
„ 2.— Wall.
,, 3. — Driving wheel.
4. — Handle of driving wheel.
5. — Rotary pump.
,, 6. — India-rubber driving cord.
,, 7. — 1-inch suction hose.
,, 8. — Lower opening of pump.
,, 9. — Upper opening of pump.
,, 10. — 1-inch delivery hose.
Photography has thrown a curious light upon plant life.
Photographs of a seedling have been taken every half-hour, with
the result that sufficient change has taken place in the growth to
be noted on the sensitive plate. A series of these photographs,
placed in the zoetrope, give the impression of a stem growing
under our very eyes. The statement is made that photography
has demonstrated that even when asleep the plants were con-
tinually growing.
[ 128 ]
ipolarieeb Xigbt anb ite HppUcatione to
the fIDicroacope.
Presidential Address by G. H. Bryan, M.A.
Part II.
Plate VII.
Doubly Refracting Polariscopic Objects.
MOST microscopical polariscopic objects are polariscopic on
account of their possessing the property of double refrac-
tion, as described, for the case of Iceland spar, in the
first part of this paper. Such is the case with many chemical cry-
stals, thin films of selenite, certain woody tissues of plants, starch
grains, sections of hoof and horn, many animal and vegetable
hairs, and certain polyzoa. Crystals belonging to what is called
the "cubic" system — of which common salt is an excellent
example — are not doubly refracting and therefore not polariscopic.
Glass, when properly annealed and unstrained, is not polariscopic,
but it becomes polariscopic when it is strained by being subjected
to great pressure or tension in one direction. Badly annealed
glass sometimes becomes strained in the same way in the process
of cooling, and it is then polariscopic. For this reason a polari-
scope is largely used in glass-works for testing whether the glass is
properly annealed or not. Any articles which exhibit bright
patches when the polariscope is arranged to give a dark ground
are rejected.
Conditions necessary for Polariscopic Effects.— If a ray of
ordinary unpolarised light fall on a section of a doubly refracting
crystal, such as Iceland spar or selenite, it is split into two com-
ponent rays, which are polarised in perpendicular directions, and
these rays travel through the section in different directions and at
different speeds. As in the case of Iceland spar, it will be con-
venient to call one of these rays the ordinary and the other the
extraordinary ray,* and we shall call the directions in which these
* In many crystals, such as selenite, neither of the rays ought properly to
be called an ordinary ray, but for our purpose the use of the terms " ordinary
ray " and " extraordinary ray " will not be misleading.
Journal of Microscopy 3^ Sen Vol. 3
PLATE 7.
FIG 2
Direr Pol..
Acces ofSel-.
F. PM/yos Del elSc.
POLARISED LIGHT AND THEl MICROSCOPE. 129
two rays are polarised the optic axes of the section. We notic
that evei-y section of a doubly refracting substance has two optic axes,
a?id these are perpetidicular to each other.
If the section is not very thick, the beams of light will not
have separated when they emerge, and they will re-combine to
form a beam of unpolarised light. Thus, in PL VIL, Fig. i, the
extraordinary ray from A and the ordinary ray from B unite to
form an unpolarised ray, which emerges at b, and so on ; only the
extreme rays which emerge at a and e are polarised. If then, a
crystal of Iceland spar is laid over a piece of black paper in which
a sufficiently large square hole is cut, we shall see the appearance
shown in Fig. 2. In the central portion the two images of the
hole will overlap and the light will be unpolarised, while in the
portions not common to the two images the rays will be polarised
in different directions, as shown by the directions of the shading.
When the images are examined with an analyser which is slowly
rotated, first one image and then the other will be extinguished ;
but the central part will never be extinguished, so that the light
which emerges from this part is unpolarised.
Hence, if we exa?nine a doubly refracting section with unpolar-
ised light, we shall not obtain any polariscopic appeara?ices. In
other words, an analyser without a polariser would not be suffici-
ent to form a polariscope.
Neither shall we obtaifi any polariscopic appearances if we
examine the section with light polarised alojig either optic axis of
the section. For if the incident light be polarised, say, along the
optic axis of the extraordinary ray, it will be entirely refracted as
an extraordinary ray, and will emerge polarised ks it entered. If
the polariser and analyser are "crossed," we shall still get darkness,
and if the polariser and analyser are parallel we shall still get
light just as if no object were interposed.
We are now left with only one alternative, namely — To obtain
polariscopic appearafices, we must exa?nine the section with light
polarised in a directio?i more or less diagonal to the optical axes
of the sectiofi.
Before proceeding further, the microscopist should verify this
by the following experiment with the polariscope and selenite, even
if he does not procure a rhomb of Iceland spar for the purpose of
carrying out the experiments above described.
International Journal of Microscopy and Natural Science.
Third Series. Vol. III. k
130 POLARISED LIGHT AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Adjust the polariser and analyser of the microscope so as to
give a dark ground, and place a slide of selenite on the stage.
On rotating the selenite into a certain position the beautiful colours
will all disappear, leaving a black ground. If the selenite is
rotated through a right angle from this position, the colours will
again disappear (to perform the experiment properly, the micro-
scope should be furnished with a rotating stage). In either
position, one of the two optic axes of the selenite coincides
with the direction in which the light is polarised by the polariser.
On turning the polariser through a right angle, a white field of
view will be obtained just as if there were no selenite. On the
other hand, the brightest colours will be obtained when the selenite
is rotated through 45*^ (half a right angle) from either of the
aforementioned positions.
Thus, to obtai?i the best effects, the light should be polai'ised in a
direction inclined at Of^^"^ to {i.e., half-way bettueen) the directiofis of
the optic axes of the section.
Pendulum Experiment.— To completely explain on the wave
theory the changes which take place in a beam of polarised light
as it travels through the section is very difficult. If we rely
exclusively on theory, we cannot help finding ourselves face to
face with mathematics, or something very like it. The following
very pretty pendulum experiment, however, affords an excellent
illustration of the phenomena, and as it requires no special appa-
ratus I hope all my readers will perform it for themselves :—
Take two pieces of string (PI. VII., Fig. 3), knot them
together at C to form a Y? ^iid attach the shorter ends A, B
to a horizontal bar (such as that of a towel-horse) a few inches
apart ; or (what amounts to the same thing) tie a loop in the
string and pass it over a narrow plank whose breadth is AB, so
that it should hang in a Y as before. To the longer end (which
should be a foot to 18 inches in length), attach any convenient
weight P — say, \ lb.
If the weight be pulled out of the vertical to a point E in the
plane of the strings (as in Fig. 3), it will swing to and fro along
EE after the manner of a pendulum attached to a fixed support
at C, and the upper arms, AC, BC, will remain at rest. Next,
TO THE MICROSCOPE. 131
pull the weight aside in a direction PO perpendicular to the
plane of the strings, so that this time all three strings swing about
the line AB (Fig. 4). The weight will again begin to swing
like a pendulum, but in a direction 00 ' perpendicular to its
former direction, the chief difference being that it does not
swing quite so rapidly as before — -each oscillation takes a little
longer. This difference in the rate of oscillation may be intensi-
fied — and so better exhibited — by making the upper strings {AC^
BC) of considerable length and the lower string {CF) short.
But for what follows it will be necessary to do the reverse, by
arranging the strings so that the knot C is not more than an inch
below the supporting-bar AB, while the lower string CF is of
considerable length.
Now let the weight be pulled aside in a diagonal direction, say,
at an angle of 45*^, with the plane of the three strings. Let this
direction be represented in Fig. 5 {a) by the diagonal line //',
where 00\ EE\ represent the directions in which the weight
oscillated in the former cases. On letting the weight go this time
it will begin by oscillating along the diagonal //', but it will not
continue to do so for any length of time. On the contrary, the
motion will go through the series of changes represented in Figs.
5 {a-k). After a little while the weight will begin to swing a little
from side to side of the diagonal II', and will then revolve in an
oval curve or elHpse as at {b). Gradually this ellipse will widen
out until the weight revolves in a circle (c). After this the path
of the weight will elongate along the diagonal UU^, and contract
along II' {d), until a time comes when the weight swings to and
fro along the opposite diagonal, UU', as at (<?). Subsequently, at
(/) it will begin to revolve in an ellipse, but in the opposite direc-
tion to what it did previously. This ellipse will contract along the
diameter UU', and will open out along the diameter 11'^ and will
again pass through the form of a circle {g). The path will then
elongate as at (/z), until at {k) the weight once more swings to and
fro along II', just as it did at starting. After this the same cycle
of changes will be repeated. As long as the weight keeps swing-
ing, the path in which it moves will keep changing periodically
backwards and forwards from one diagonal to the opposite one,
each time passing through all the intermediate forms of ellipses
and circles shown in Fig. 5.
132 POLARISED LIGHT AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Application to transmission of Light through Crystals. —
Now, a precisely similar cycle of changes takes place, according
to the wave theory, when a ray of light falls on a section of
doubly-refracting material polarised in any direction other than
along one of the two optic axes. Suppose that on entering the
section the ray is polarised in the direction //'', inclined at 45^
to the optic axes EE,, 00' . Then at the surface the ether is, of
course, vibrating in straight lines in the direction //'. As the
light penetrates into the section, the ether begins to vibrate in
ellipses, and the light is said to be elliptically polarised. At a
certain depth the light becomes circularly polarised. At double
this depth (Fig. 5 e) it becomes polarised along the diameter UU^
perpendicular to the original direction of polarisation. At treble
the same depth it is again circularly polarised, but the ether is
revolving in the opposite direction to what it was before. At four
times that depth the light has gone through a complete cycle
of changes, and is polarised in the same way as it was on entering.
As the light penetrates further and further into the section, the
same cycle of changes keeps recurring over and over again.
Now let the emergent light be examined with an analyser
placed perpendicularly to the polariser, in the position known as
" crossed." In this position it will transmit all vibratory motion
of the ether in the direction UU'^ but stop all vibration along //'.
If the thickness of the section be such that the light emerges
at the middle of the cycle of changes which we have just
described — i.e.^ in the stage represented at {e) — it will be polarised
along UU'^ and will be entirely transmitted by the analyser. The
section will therefore appear bright while the field of view is dark.
On the contrary, if the light happens to have undergone exactly
one, two, three, or more cycles of changes, when it comes out it
will be polarised as it was on entering, and the object as well as
the field will appear dark. Unless, however, the light comes out
exactly at the end of a cycle, it will be in a condition to be, at
any rate partially, transmitted by the analyser, and the object will
appear more or less brightly illuminated, and the perfectly dark
background will render it conspicuous.
Suppose the analyser turned round parallel to the polariser,
giving a bright background. It now transmits light polarised along
TO THE MICROSCOPE. 133
//^, and if the light happens to emerge from the section after
undergoing an exact number of cycles of changes, the object as
well as the neld will appear bright. If, however, the light emerges
in the middle of a cycle (Fig. 5 <?), where it is polarised along UU'
it will be quenched by the analyser, and the object will appear
dark on the bright ground. For intermediate thicknesses the light
is more or less reduced in intensity by the object, which therefore
appears somewhat darkened, or at any rate less bright than the
background. Now a slight diminution of brightness in a bright
field is not so conspicuous as even a faint illumination where the
surrounding field is perfectly dark, and for this reason, as every
microscopist knows, objects which are sufficiently polariscopic
to show up fairly well on a dark ground, frequently exhibit no
very noticeable polariscopic appearances when the field is bright.
Comparison of the two phenomena.— It may perhaps be worth
while to examine a little more closely the analogy between the
oscillations in the pendulum experiment and the ether vibrations in
the beam of polarised light, and to enquire why the same cycle of
changes takes place in both. We have seen that the pendulum is
capable of permanently oscillating about the knot C in the plane
EE' of the strings, and that it is also capable of permanently
vibrating at a slightly slower rate about the points ^, ^ in a direc-
tion 00' perpendicular to that plane. When we pull the string
aside in a diagonal direction we set both of these motions
going at the same time, and the actual motion is a combination of
the two. [For in Fig. 5 ^ we may suppose the weight pulled aside
in the plane of the strings from P to E^ and then in a perpendic-
ular direction from E to /, and let go from /.■ the first of these
two displacements will start it oscillating in the direction EE'^
and the second will start it oscillating in the perpendicular direction
00'\ But the quicker of the two oscillations gradually gai?is on the
slower. This gai?t is the cause of the cycle of changes in the ob-
served motion formed by the combinatio7i of the two oscillations.
Whenever the pendulum has simultaneously performed an
exact number of complete oscillations in the direction EE^ and
an exact number along 00'., it will return to rest at /, and will
again begin to oscillate in exactly the same way that it did at the
134 POLARISED LIGHT AND THE MICROSCOPE.
beginning. This happens every time the quicker of the two
motions has gained one whole oscillation on the slower, and then
the complete cycle of changes of Fig. 5 has taken place in the
series of curves traced out by the weight.
For example, suppose the pendulum vibrates in the plane of
the strings once every second and in the perpendicular direction
once in lo^n seconds. Then, in 21 seconds, it performs 21' of
the quicker oscillations or 20 of the slower, so that the former
gain one oscillation over the latter. If, then, the weight be
pulled aside in a diagonal direction, its motion will undergo the
complete cycle of changes of Fig. 5, and again swing in the
same diagonal after 21 seconds. In half this interval (or loj
seconds) it will vibrate in the opposite diagonal to that in which
it started, as at (e).
Reverting to polarised light, we have seen that the doubly-
refracting section is capable of transmitting rays of light polarised
along either optic axes without altering their character. There are
two such rays — i.e.^ those which we have called the ordinary, and
the extraordinary rays — and they travel through the substance at
somewhat different rates. Hence, as they penetrate further and
further into the substance, one of them gains slightly on the other,
just as one oscillation gained on the other in the pendulum. Hence,
remembering that the rays really consist in vibrations transmitted
from point to point through the ether, we see that the circum-
stances of the case are exactly analogous to those of the pendulum
experiment. It necessarily follows from this analogy that the
changes in type of the light at different depths, when the ray enters
the section polarised at an angle of 45° with the optic axes,
exactly reproduce the changes of type in the pendulum oscilla-
tions at different times, when it is started swinging diagonally.
Another consequence of the analogy is that in the polariscopic
section the complete cycle of cha?iges takes place when the light-vibra-
tions in one of the rays have gained a whole oscillation over those in
the other. When the gain is half an oscillatiofi, half a complete
cycle has taken place, and the polariscopic appeara?ices are then most
marked.
[ 135 ]
^be (Brapbo^priem anb tbe ^ecbnfquc of
Drawing fIDicroecopic anb
HDacroecopic ©bjecta*
By Frederick Gaertner, A.M., M.D., Pittsburgh, Pa., U.S.A.
WITH the assistance of the Camera lucida or Grapho-prism
any microscopist possessing average skill in the use of
the pencil, may, with comparative ease and perfect
accuracy, reproduce the outline and principal markings of the
object under the micro-
scope upon a sheet of
paper lying beside his
instrument. The sim-
plest and most success-
ful drawing-prism is that
of Zeiss (Fig. 1 8). This
is closely followed in
merit and popularity by
thatofNachet (Fig. 21),
then that of Abbe (Fig.
22), Oberhauser (Fig.
23),and thoseof Nobert
and many others, all
working upon the same
principles.
Fig. 18. -Zeiss' Grapho-Prism. -[^he following re-
marks and illustrations will explain and demonstrate the principle
of this kind of drawing apparatus. If the glass plate— ^/., Fig. 19 —
stands at an angle of 45^ with the axis of the eye, the rays from
the object {0) — which on their part also form an angle of 45*^ with
the glass plate, according to the position of the eye — will be
reflected, and the picture of the object will be seen in a position
which will also form a right angle with that of the object. If w.
(Fig. 19) is the cylinder of the microscope and /./. the piece of
paper, in this case the eye will see upon the paper lying beside the
microscope, at 0', the picture which is brought about by the trans-
136
THE GRAPHO-PRISM AND THE TECHNIQUE
parent condition of the glass plate, gl. In this case we say that
the picture is projected ; but if we place a prism,/'. (Fig. 20), upon
/'
-/'
r-^
Fig. 19. Fig. 20.
the same level with the glass plate, gl. (Fig. 3), and 0. is the object
under the microscope, ///., standing in a vertical position — the glass,
gl.^ forming an angle of 45*^ with the axis of the eye and standing
upright over the ocular — we will then see the picture at 0^ pro-
jected upon the paper, //. Upon this principle is also constructed
the drawing-prism of Nachet (Fig. 21). In this apparatus a prism
is employed in place of the glass plate, while a second prism
moves upon its own axis so as to bring the reflecting surfaces at
different angles.
The use of a drawing-prism is obvious, as soon as the drawing-
prism has been placed upon the ocular and adjusted by means of
a ring or other attachment. The drawing of a picture, whether of
a microscopic or macroscopic nature, nowaday is considered a scien-
tific achievement, especially so when the sketch is made by " free-
hand."
In the drawing of a macroscopic object (gross appearance) the
principal considerations are the direct measurements, and these
can easily be obtained by the use of circles, lines, rules, strings,
and other metrical appliances on the one hand, and on the other
by the use of a camera, photographic apparatus, magic lanterns,
etc. etc. Of course (in this case) the object aimed at is, first, to
OF DRAWING MICROSCOPIC OBJECTS.
137
secure only the outlines of the macroscopic picture, and then, when
this has been accompUshed with only moderate artistic dexterity,
ingenuity, and taste, one can readily reproduce a fac-simile or
likeness ; but where pure freehand work is required— such as we
observe in some of the ancient oil paintings, e.g., those of Rubens,
Rembrandt, Raphael, and others— the operator must rely entirely
upon his own artistic skill and taste. By repeated measurements
one will be able to obtain accurate and artistic results, such as we
now see in some of the most approved, artistic oil paintings,
water-colours, crayons, etc.
Fig. 21. — Nachet's Grapho- Prism.
In the freehand production of a microscopical drawing one
must be skilled in drawing. The necessity of this exceptional
artistic skill has led some of the expert microscopic artists to
devise an instrument which greatly facilitates the work and renders
it comparatively easy to any microscopist. This valuable instru-
ment is the grapho-prism. In drawing a picture from a specimen
under the microscope, all depends upon the optical measurements.
If the object be so small that the combined compound microscope
is brought into use, the optical measurements are easily and simply
procured by means of a micrometer-eyepiece; but if the object be
an extremely minute one (such as germs, baciUi, microbes, etc.),
other means must be employed to satisfy this necessity, and opti-
cians have therefore manufactured micrometer objectives which, of
course, are divided into the one-thousandth part of a millimetre :
but with the oil-immersions the lines of the graduated millimetre-
scale are invisible, therefore inapplicable.
188
THE GRAPHO- PRISM AND THE TECHNIQUE
If only an artistic (impressional) reproduction is required, it
may generally be produced by freehand without the aid of any
accessories, since in such a case the mathematical correctness is
not so necessary as in a drawing made for scientific study, where
all depends upon its mathematical correctness if it is to be instruc-
tive, and under the latter instances the optical measurements are
the first consideration and of paramount importance.
Fig. 22. —Abbe's Grapho- Prism.
The most practical and most frequently applied drawing-appa-
ratus in microscopical work is the Camera Lucida. This and all
similar instruments work upon the same principle — that is, the
object and the paper are seen with the one eye, while at the same
time the picture is reflected into the eye by means of the mirror
or prism. As the picture is seen upon the paper beside the micro-
scope, its contour can easily be reproduced upon the paper with
the point of a pencil. Thus a fac-simile of the utmost mathema-
tical and scientific correctness and exactness may readily be
produced. He who has by practice learned to look into the
microscope with one eye and to hold the other eye open at the
same time may succeed even without the use of a Camera Lucida.
If he gazes with one eye into the microscope and with the other
eye at a piece of paper lying beside it, in a few moments the
observer will find the object projected upon the paper, and will
thus be able to sketch the outlines of the image with comparative
ease and exactness.
OF DRAWING MICROSCOPIC OBJECTS. 139
In the execution of the drawing of a microscopic object it is
best to use good drawing paper or Bristol board, which should be
either pale yellow, pale green, or white, slightly tinted. It is also
advisable to have the paper fastened upon a smooth board. First
use a soft and finely sharpened black-lead pencil, in order to
secure the outlines and the contour of the picture. It should be
slightly shaded without pressure, then with bread crumbs erase
most of it again ; after that with a harder and finely pointed
pencil retrace the outlines of the first drawing, again using the
prism for comparison in order to make any necessary improve-
ments, and to secure perfect accuracy ; at this moment is the
proper time to do the shading, if such is required, and this can
easily be done with the point of a pencil and an eraser, or still
better with charcoal and a soft cloth. For the execution of a
coloured drawing in which a variety of colours are used, water
colours are most commonly used, and are to be preferred, but
coloured pencils, and even oil colours and pastel crayons may be
employed instead. I wish here to call especial attention to the
fact that in shading it is advisable to shade off the uncoloured
parts first with black, of course, particular care being taken that
the shading does not extend into the coloured field. This is
necessary to avoid confusion and to preserve scientific accuracy.
It is also decidedly recommended to use a variety of colours,
especially so in the drawing of very minute objects, such as
endothelium, and epithelium-cells, fibrous and connective tissue-
cells, blood and lymphoid-cells, etc. Also in the drawing of a
whole slide (specimen), or only a part of it, it is almost an abso-
lute necessity to use a variety of colours. The contrasting
colours will not only make a drawing or an illustration more
elaborate and intelligent, but decidedly more comprehensive and
instructive.
Let me here refer to the pertinent and emphatic declarations
of Prof. Virchow, one of the most noted and expert path-
ologists of the nineteenth cencury, who said that he would not
give " ein pfennig " for illustrations, drawings, or sketches that
were not correct or exact, because they would invariably convey a
false impression. He further declares that all lectures, demon-
strations, original articles, or manuscripts of any kind, must be
140
THE GRAPHO-PRISM.
accompanied by first-class drawings, sketches, illustrations, etc.,
if they are to be considered bona fide, and which should be
strictly a chef d'oeuvre. I would therefore advise every practical
and expert microscopist, and particularly those who are not
skilled in drawing or sketching, and in the art of producing
microscopic illustrations, to make use of the Grapho-prism.
Especially would I advise students of practical histology, physi-
ology, pathology, pathological anatomy, bacteriology, embryology,
pharmacology, etc., to use the Grapho-prism hand in hand with
the microscope. If a student produces a careful drawing of the
object under microscopical consideration and examination, he will
certainly comprehend the subject more readily and fully than
would otherwise be possible.
This method of using the microscope and Grapho-prism
combined together, I denominate Microscopy Duplex, in con-
tradistinction to the other mode of studying microscopy in its
simple form without the Grapho-prism, Microscopy Simplex.
Fig. 23. — Oberhauser's Grapho-Prism.
I will now make a few explanatory remarks concerning the
Camera of Oberhauser (Fig. 23), which is somewhat more compli-
cated than the others ; for this reason I will give more particularly
the details in regard to its practical application in microscopy
duplex. The ascending rays from the objective are totally
reflected through the large prism {d) into the horizontal arm {A).
STARCHES. 141
If the ocular is placed in a horizontal position {B) it directs and
throws the rays into the small prism {G)^ at an angle of 45^,
providing it is focussed from the right position, where it is again
reflected at a right angle into the eye of the observer. Ober-
hauser's Camera is liked for the reason that it does not create a
disturbance nor a confusion by the reflection of the projected
picture at a right angle upon the projected paper placed in a
horizontal position. The Oberhauser Camera is attached to the
tube of the microscope at the ocular end without any trouble or
loss of time, and would be considered perfect but for one defi-
ciency. When the microscopic picture is twice reflected it loses a
considerable portion of its clearness and accuracy ; that is, in its
clearness and exactness. This is especially the case when high
powers, oil immersions, etc., are used ; it is then only by the
most concentrated light that the special and superficial contour of
the microscopic picture can be procured.
By James W. Gatehouse, F.I.C.
THE importance of starch will be at once perceived when it
is considered that starch-containing foods form the staple
nourishment of the human race and of domestic animals,
there being scarcely an order, and if we except certain fungi and
algae, barely a species in the vegetable kingdom but contains starch
in some form or other during certain periods of its growth. Starch
is not only found in plants, but in animals. Stafford found starch
in the blood of epileptic patients. Virchow found amyloid matter
in the spinal cord and nerve centres, and traced its distinct con-
nection with diseases of the bones.
Whether we obtain starch from ears of wheat, tubers of the
potato, the thallus of lichens, from the pith of the palm, or from
the tissues of animals, it invariably consists of the same chemical
elements — carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, united always in the
same proportions ; the hydrogen and oxygen being in the propor-
tion to form water, whilst the number of carbon atoms is one less
142 STARCHES.
than the number of water molecules, the chemical constitution
being usually expressed by the symbol, Co Hio O5, or a probable
isomer C18H30O15.
Starch, when heated to 158*^ F., swells up and forms a paste,
from which alcohol precipitates a white powder consisting of
soluble starch. Heat alone dries the granules, and at a tempera-
ture of 320° F. converts them into a soluble modification called
dextrine. This dextrine differs from starch in being soluble in
cold water, and in producing a reddish brown colour with iodine
instead of the bluish purple so characteristic of true starch. This
test, above all others the most delicate for starch, can most readily
be applied under the microscope, all that is required being to
place a small portion of the material to be examined on a slide
with water under a covering glass, and by means of a delicate
pipette introduce a solution of iodine in potassium iodide, to the
edge of the cover. A slip of bibulous paper now placed on the
opposite edge will, by capillary attraction, draw out the water
from under the cover, and cause the iodine to run in gradually,
tinting any starch granules blue, the colour gradually deepening as
the action of the re-agent is the more prolonged. Dextrine, under
similar circumstances, takes a copper colour. Inulin, however (a
variety of starch to be obtained from the tubers of certain Compo-
sitce^ as dahlia and elecampane) is not thus affected by iodine.
The composition of starch cannot be considered alone, for
during the growth of a plant we find in it certain other consti-
tuents having the same composition as starch. Of these, dextrine,
gum, and sugar need only be mentioned here as connected with
our subject, as we shall find it probable that in the life of the
plant these three substances, or others analogous to them, are the
immediate principles from which starch granules are produced.
In this connection I may mention that starch boiled with dilute
acid loses its power of becoming blue with iodine, and is, in point
of fact, first of all converted into dextrine, and ultimately into
glucose, a form of sugar. This same change is brought about
naturally in the plant by the action of diastaste.
Having spoken thus far on the chemistry of starch, we will
next proceed to investigate its physical characters, and herein not
a step could be taken without the aid of the microscope, which.
STARCHES. 143
indeed, in conjunction with the chemical tests above referred to, is
all in all in the determination of the kind of starch, or source from
which any variety of starch may have been obtained. Looking at
any sample of starch, we perceive it under the microscope to
consist of more or less rounded particles, which, if moist, will be
seen to be marked with certain concentric rings surrounding a spot
called the hilum. Old observers considered these granules in the
light of cells, the rings being markings on the cell wall, whilst the
hilum represented the point of attachment to the wall of the
primary cell wherein they were enclosed.
A section of any tuber or starch-containing seed before ger-
mination — such as the pea — will show the fallacy of this ; the
granules, though certainly contained in cells the same as any other
cell contents, are not attached either to the cell-wall or to each
other, but appear to be merely deposited therein, and to act as a
reserve store for the future formation of cells. Thus, although the
cells in a pea are full of starch before germination, yet let germi-
nation once ensue, after some two or three days iodine no longer
produces the magnificent blue colour indicative of starch, but the
browner tint showing the transformation into dextrine, and after
from ten days to a fortnight no trace of starch granules are visible,
all having been dissolved by the diastaste, and left the cells
wherein they were deposited to produce cells in the young shoots,
before the formation of roots enables nourishment to be extracted
from the soil. This may be beautifully illustrated by observing
two sections of pea under the microscope, one being cut before
germination ; the other ten days after.
How, then, are starch-grains produced ? From what are they
formed ? Do they grow in layers, as would seem to be indicated
by the markings ? and if so, are these layers deposited from within
outwards, as would be the more natural supposition, or in the
opposite direction ? Many observers have worked on this subject,
amongst whom I may mention Raspail, Fritzsche, Buck, AUman,
Criiger, Schlieden, Virchow, Raine, Nagelli, and Sachs. These
are only a few of the names of workers in this subject who have
attempted to elucidate the growth of the starch granule, nearly
every observer coming to a slightly different conclusion to others.
The observers on the subject may, however, be divided into
144 STARCHES,
three classes : — (i) Those who considered the granule to be com-
posed of layers rolled, so to speak, over each other.
(2) Those who considered it to be a vesicle increasing by
inward growth, the vesicle continually expanding up to a certain
point to allow of further internal increase. On this supposition
the internal layers would be the younger and the external the
elder. This view was strongly supported by AUman, as he found
the internal portion more easily attacked by such re-agents as sul-
phuric acid, acetic acid, and iodine, than the external.
(3) Schlieden and Criiger, however, from identical experiments
connected with observations on compound starch granules, which
contained two or three hilums or centres of growth, came to the
opposite conclusion — namely, that the external layers were depo-
sited later than the internal, all with the exception of the nucleus
being chemically identical.
Nagelli was of opinion that starch grains are utricles, consisting
of a membrane and fluid contents, concentric layers being depo-
sited on the inside of the membrane as in lignifying cells j the
cavity of the utricle, the so-called " nucleus " or " hilum," thus
becoming reduced to a most minute excavation always filled with
fluid. When starch is first treated with iodine, and then imme-
diately with sulphuric acid, the granule swells up and the lamellae
generally separate from each other. This experiment may be
made by any one possessing a microscope.
From the latest observations of Sach and others, starch would
appear to be actually produced by the deposition or rather precipi-
tation of minute starch particles, which, cohering to each other,
gradually form the granule, the growth of the grain being produced
entirely by intussusception — i.e.^ by the intercalation of new par-
ticles amongst those already deposited. This mode of growth
necessarily depends on the permeability of all parts of the grain
to the aqueous solutions, from which starch particles are precipi-
tated. This again can only be explained by supposing the starch
substance to be discontinuous, consisting of minute, invisible par-
ticles, each of which possesses the power of attracting moisture
and enveloping itself with an aqueous envelope.
Where the particles are large, the number of these aqueous
envelopes in a given bulk of starch will be less than when the
STARCHES. 145
particles are smaller, and the markings observed in the granule,
together with the hilum or nucleus, are caused by the greater or
less amounts of water, and therefore alteration of refractive power
in various parts of the granule. The stratification of a starch-
grain disappears when the water is wholly removed either by
drying or by chemical re-agents, or when it is rendered equally
aqueous in all its parts. This abstraction of water may be accom-
plished by the action of absolute alcohol, whilst the absorption of
water may be effected by treatment with dilute solution of potash.
Starch-granules, although rendered blue in all their parts by
iodine, yet consist of two distinct modifications — granulose, which
is the more soluble and readily acted on by iodine, and starch
cellulose, which is not so readily acted on. This latter is present
only in the proportion of from two to six per cent. Granulose may
be extracted either by saliva or by a saturated solution of salt,
containing one per cent, of hydrochloric acid.
It is not absolutely known what are the principles in the plant
from which starch is precipitated, but here an observation of
Rainey's offers a valuable suggestion. He found that a mixture of
gum and dextrine, whether in acid or alkaline solutions, caused a
precipitation of true starch particles. The best way to observe it
under the microscope is to acidify a solution of dextrine with citric
acid, and under the microscope to treat first with gum and then
with iodine, or the iodine may be added first and the gum after;
in either case, colourless starch corpuscles are first formed, turning
blue as they unite with the iodine. Now, as we know that gum,
dextrine, or their isomers are always present in living plants, it is
but reasonable to suppose — although the fact has not been actually
demonstrated — that these substances play an important part in
starch formation ; we should thus find in the plant a gradual
transformation of starch into dextrine, sugar, and gum, etc. ; and
again the re-formation of these bodies into starch to act as a
reserve food in the process of further cell formation.
With respect to this portion of our subject, it is found that
starch is not usually produced in the living plant except in pre-
sence of chlorophyll. In a perfectly dark place, where green
chlorophyll cannot be formed, there starch is not usually produced,
and if starch, which has been formed under the action of chloro-
International Journal of Microscopy and Natural Science.
New Series. Vol. III. l
146 STARCHES.
phyll in the light, be placed in the dark, it is again absorbed by the
living plant as seen in Spirogyra, etc. Although this is the general
rule, yet some tuberous plants — as the potato, where the tubers
contain an abundance of starch — seem to possess the property
whilst germinating of absorbing the starch of the tuber and again
depositing it, although no ray of light has ever reached the plant,
thus trying to put forth its powers. In perfectly dark cellars it is
not uncommon to find small young potatoes from the size of a pea
to that of a walnut, when the tubers have been left to germinate.
The shoots here are wonderfully elongated and quite white from
want of light and of the formation of green chlorophyll. As the
young tubers thus formed are always small and few in number, it is
very doubtful whether any further development of starch has really
taken place, but it is thus certain that after the starch of the tuber
has been rendered soluble it may be again deposited at least par-
tially in absence of chlorophyll and of light.
As starch enters so largely into the food of man, it frequently
becomes necessary to distinguish between the starches, as derived
from various sources, in order to be able to state whether any
admixture may have been added to a given article. Thus, it
sometimes occurs that wheat-starch finds its way into pepper,
potato-starch partially replaces the more expensive arrowroot, and
rice has been made up to resemble sago or tapioca.
These adulterations can only be discovered by examining the
intimate structure of the article by the microscope, and in order to
do this it is necessary to note — (i) Shape and size of granule.
(2) Position and shape of hilum. (3) Position and clearness of
concentric rings. (4) Facility with which the granules polarise.
Granules of starch vary in size in different samples, from 1-5, 000th
of an inch — as in liquorice, ipecacuanha, and rice — to the 1 -200th
of an inch in tous les mois. Now, although from the natural growth
of starch-grains we may find in any sample of a large variety a
number of very small grains, yet on the whole the size may be
fairly relied on \ at least to the extent that in each species the size
of the grains will never be larger than a certain maximum.
In this microscopic examination of starches we may divide
them into certain groups : —
I. — Oval, more or less, and with hilum and rings well visible.
STARCHES. 147
Amongst these we have — Tous les mots, 1*250 (2); arrowroot,
•00148 ('8); Natal (rings very plain) potato, '0025 (i'5) ; turmeric,
•00148.
II. — Oval or round hilum and rings visible with difficulty.
Wheat, '00185 (^) '} barley, '00073 ("4) 'y i"ye, liquorice, 'oooiS ('i) ;
jalap, '00185 (^)j polarizes brightly ; chestnut, "0009 ('5).
III. — Hilum well developed, rings not well seen. Bean,
•00135 (75); Calabar bean, '003 (i"6) : pea, '00135; maize,
•00074 ('4) ; polygonal.
IV. — More or less truncated. Sago, '002 (i"2); tapioca,
'00074 ('4); arum, '00056 ("3); colchicum, '00074 ('4); podo-
phyllin, '0004 ('25).
V. — Very small and generally polygonal. Oat, rice, pepper,
ipecacuanha.
The figures in brackets refer to the size of the granule as
compared with that of wheat-starch. I have attempted to identify
and separate the granules of mixed starches by other means.
Taking their specific gravities seemed to present a probable solu-
tion of this problem. This, however, failed practically owing to
the very slight difference between the specific gravities of various
starches.
Another method tried was to sift the granules from each other
by means of fine sieves, composed of a layer of cellular tissue
attached to the end of a glass tube about one inch long and one-
fourth of an inch or less in diameter. If layers of cellular tissue,
such as the inner cuticle of leaves, could be found, in which the
size of the cells varied as the starch granules, it would be quite
possible to separate small from large granules exactly as different
sized stones may thus be separated from each other by means of
stronger sieves.
A BALLOON, intended to make headway against air-currents of
twenty-eight miles an hour, is being made in France. It will be
similar in form to the La France of 1884 — 85, but larger — two
hundred and thirty feet in length and forty-three feet in its greatest
diameter. It will weigh sixty-six pounds per horse-power, and
will be propelled by a screw in front, with a rudder behind.
[ 148 ]
iSit tbe Cultivation of 2)iatoin0 b^ artificial
fIDeans.
By Dr. Miguel.
Translated from Le Diatoiniste.
Plate VIII.
Part 11. — On the Artificial Growth of Marine Diatoms.
IF the experimenter is near the sea^ he will use natural sea-
water for the growth of Marine Diatoms ; but if he has at
hand only soft, or river water, he must add the undermen-
tioned salts in the following proportions : —
Soft Water (rain or distilled) ... looo c.
Common Salt (Na. CI.) ... ... 25 grms.
Sulphate Magnesia ... ... 2 grms.
Chloride Magnesium ... ... 4 grms.
This artificial sea-water, which, like the natural water of the
sea, may perhaps be somewhat modified as to its composition,
readily lends itself to the growth of Diatoms. In my comparative
experiments this compound has often given finer growths than
the natural sea-water, and sometimes the reverse has been the
case. But whether it be natural or artificial sea-water, there is in
them little of nutriment for the Diatoms, whose behaviour in this
respect is similar to that of Fresh-water Diatoms. It is, therefore,
necessary to add to them the solutions described as A and B^^
and also organic substances in suitable quantities, as bran, straw,
or some ribands of the yastera, commonly called " vraick."
In some cases, in order to obtain precise comparative results,
you should make, two or three weeks in advance, a nutritive
maceration, filtered ; and also a fluid sufficiently charged with
nitrogenous substances. In all cases sterilisation must be effected
at yo^C. But you must be very careful how you add to the sea-
water gelatinous lichen or other marine plants (either fresh or
dried) from muddy localities. In a word, if you wish to imitate
what takes place in Nature, and you yield to this desire, you will
obtain such a putrescent medium, that in twenty-four hours the
Diatoms that you have sown will be irremediably destroyed. In
* See page 37.
THE CULTIVATION OF DIATOMS. 149
these delicate cultivations, the experimenter will never regret that
he has used the greatest parsimony in adding organic substances.
I have before said how these sowings should be made, so
that I need not return to that part of the subject ; but I ought to
tell how you may, and ought, to procure Marine Diatoms, for
charging these solutions.
By immersing fresh oyster shells that have been very carefully
deprived of all traces of the flesh of the mollusc, so as to avoid
all putrefaction, in sea-water, either natural or artificial, you form
a growth that can be carried on for one or two months, and pro-
duce often fine specimens of Diatoms, that you can further
cultivate at leisure. The oysters should be placed in stone-ware
or earthen vessels, which by their opacity scatter the reflections
of the sun and wafls, and only allow the light that proceeds from
near the zenith to reach the Diatoms.
If a correspondent is caUed on to send away Diatoms, he
should, in the first place, separate by decantation all muddy
substances, and after washing them with clean sea-water five or
six times, enclose them in a tight vessel with a large excess of
sea-water. By adopting this plan, living marine Diatoms may be
kept several weeks, whilst if Diatoms be sent with the sediment
from which they have been gathered, putrefaction will kill them
in a few days.
When the growth of marine species has to be continued for a
long time, it is indispensable to prevent the sea-water from alter-
ing its density, etc., by concentration. Many forms of apparatus
have been proposed for preventing the evaporation of the water,
and the lowering of the level w^hich results from it ; that which I
represent in Fig. i, PI. VIII., appears to me the most practicable
and trustworthy.
Fig. I. — Fis a vessel containing growing Diatoms, filled with
sea-water. 7^ is a flask containing distilled water, to maintain
a constant level. S' is a siphon which conducts the water, and
6" a tube that permits the action of the siphon when the level of
the liquid in F falls below its orifice, and when, consequently, the
air in the flask communicates freely with the external air. The
theory of this intermittent siphon is too simple to require any
explanation to my readers.
150 ON THE CULTIVATION OF DIATOMS
Part III. — General Directions and Notes on the Growth
OF Diatoms.
Despite all the precautions that I have been obliged to insist on,
the Diatomist will hug a delusion if he thinks that the cultivation
of the frustular algae is always an easy task. In order to avoid
the annoyance that failure occasions, the operator ought, in the
first place, to make serious study of the different manipulations
that the cultivation requires. Then he should understand
thoroughly the light that visits his laboratory, and which will often
be found to act in very different manners, as the days are long or
short. He must take precautions to protect his growths from the
excess of the luminous radiations, as well as from the deficiency
of these radiations. Some screens, some curtains, some stages,
so placed as to admit of the governing of the lighting, which
ought to be continually looked after and intelligently managed,
will be required. On the dark and rainy days of summer, the
growths of the large and beautiful Diatoms should be exposed to
the north, and immediately behind the sashes ; if the sun burns,
they should be carried into a half-darkened chamber. In winter,
constant exposure towards the north offers less diiEificulty, and the
oversight is much easier.
Thus, then, in the majority of cases, we must protect the
Diatoms against too much light. If in Nature the Diatoms instinc-
tively fly from these luminous rays, that are hurtful to them, and
seek those that are helpful in the narrow part of the flask, they
are evidently compelled to submit to such physical conditions as
the experimenter forces on them ; if these conditions are adverse,
the Diatoms will not develop, and this is a frequent cause of
failure. On the other hand, if many species are mingled together,
those that receive the luminous radiations most congenial to them
which develop, will occupy the centre, and smother the adjoining
species. You will quickly perceive many kinds of little Nitzschies
displaying their pretty frustules, after the manner of weeds ; if
they have once got foothold in a maceration, it is difficult to get
rid of them, whence the necessity, as I have before said, of
establishing for each kind of Diatom a special form of culture,
suitable for assuring the predominance, and favouring the multi-
plication of the species desired.
BY ARTIFICIAL MEANS. 151
It often happens that in the rough sowings you may introduce
into the liquids with the Diatoms algae, or spores of algge, of
protococci, desmids, confervas, etc. ; more rarely in the liquids I
have described, cryptogams of the moss tribe increase very annoy-
ingly, but the green algae are the most troublesome, and if you
cannot eliminate them, they will pervade the whole liquid, taking
up rapidly the organic and mineral substances contained in the
maceration, and the life of the Diatoms will be rendered
impossible.
If the Infusoria (properly so called) are of but little injury to
the Diatoms, we cannot but consider as dangerous some of the
Parameceae, which will swallow as they pass, in their gluttony, a
little navicule, a cyclostella, or an achanthe ; nor can we say
otherwise of a class of Protozoons — the Rhizopods — which, like
the Vampyrellas, destroy them one by one, and spoil the growth.
I have in my laboratory a kind of Actinophrys, which, sown along
with the Diatoms, in a maceration highly nutritive for siliceous
algae, disorganised and killed them by enclosing them for a long
time in its protoplasmic mass. The Glass Worm, and many
other annelides, also spoil the growth of Diatoms, but it is easy
to get rid of them by killing them.
The Bacteria, as previously said, also attack the Algae that we
are growing, and it is not rare, even in the most successful
grovvths, to distinguish moveable friistules perfectly endochromed,
literally covered with the filaments of Bacteria, fixed perpendicu-
larly on^the thallus, giving them the appearance of cells bristling
with pseudopodia. When the medium is very favourable to the
production of schizomycetes, all the Diatoms are tainted with the
bacillus disease ; they end by becoming immovable, their valves
open out, and then parasites of all sorts settle down on their
endochrome, which is destroyed in a few days ; and the Protozoa
make only a few mouthfuls of this protoplasm which has become
accessible to them, and in a very little time the Diatoms are
entirely ground up.
Without being directly attacked, Diatoms are also pathologic-
ally influenced by the proximity of many cryptogams. I know
one moss that, grown by the side of these algse, induces among
them a kind of " melanose," or " anthracnose," manifesting itself
152 ON THE CULTIVATION OF DIATOMS
by the gradual blackening of the protoplasm of the cellules, at
the end of the disease the contents of the frustules becomes
grey, but in the dead cellules the shrivelled endochrome becomes
as black as coal. The chapter relating to the diseases of Diatoms
under artificial culture is therefore very extensive, and the
diatomist must expect numerous infections, very varied in their
manifestation, and which may come altogether unforeseen, to
neutralise his operations.
Hitherto we have only spoken of the cultivation of Diatoms
by daylight, which is uneven and variable in its action. To avoid
the irregularities of the natural light, I have tried, and succeeded,
in growing these algae by gas-light. The flame of a jet burning
from 50 to 100 cm. of gas per hour, is sufficiently life-giving to
promote, at a distance of o'2o cm., the growth of the greater part
of the marine and fresh-water Diatoms. You can even obtain
splendid growths of Melosira and Fragillaria, which fill all the
liquid, giving magnificent tufts, formed by an infinity of yellow
filaments, perfectly endochromed. Nearly all the marine and
fresh-water Diatoms, as I have said, develop under the action of
gas-light, and I have no want of success to notice, even in the
growth of the marine Pleurosigmas, the cultivation of which is a
most delicate affair.
When the artificial light, is feeble, as when 40 to 50 litres of
gas are burnt in an hour, many of the Diatoms that are mobile in
daylight increase and multiply, without sensible movement, but as
soon as, and in proportion as the light is increased, they are seen
to regain their habitual movements, even when their length is
greatest, as certain Naviculas, Pleurosigma Balticum, Cymato-
pleura solea, the long Synedras, etc.
The apparatus that M. Admet, of Paris, has constructed for
me, for the growth at the same time of a great number of Diatoms,
is represented in PI. VIII., Fig. 2. It is composed essentially of a
cylindrical chamber, capped with a conical cover, E, surmounted
by a chimney that draws off the products of combustion. The
vertical division and the lower part of the chamber are furnished
with a double envelope, that allows a current of cold water to
circulate around them, and thereby to lower the temperature of
the growths when they are acted on by very intense luminous rays.
BY ARTIFICIAL MEANS. 153
For lighting the growths a bat's-wing burner, or a circular
burner, may be used, entering the chamber by a central aperture,
and of which the supply of gas is regulated by a pressure guage,
and the quantity burnt per day being ascertained by a small
meter. You can also place between the growths and the light
cylinders of glass, coloured or ground, so as to diminish the
intensity of the luminous and heating rays ; rendering the flame
of the gas less flickering, more brilliant, and modifying the nature
of its radiations. The electric light, less heating and more easy
to manage, might certainly be substituted for gas-light with advan-
tage, but I have not been able to employ it in my experiments.
In order not to confuse the description of the simple facts
that I have noticed, I have not spoken of the many modes of
growth that the operator may attempt. Not only is it possible in
certain cases to employ glass vessels, either plain or coloured,
stoneware, or earthenware, but to carry on the cultivation in
continuous currents of water, provided that the water employed
to renew that which the Diatoms have exhausted for their nutri-
tion shall arrive slowly, and after having been perfectly filtered.
To carry out this arrangement, the filtered water should be con-
ducted to the centre of the liquid, and delivered, drop by drop,
from a glass tube, or a fine thread, whilst the excess is allowed to
escape at a lateral tubule at the top of the glass.
You may also introduce into the nutritive liquids some sub-
stratum on which certain Diatoms love to fix themselves. Twigs
or bits of wood that have been previously boiled, or macerated
for a long time previously ; fragments of marble, of earthenware,
of chalk, of various rocks, oyster-shells, flint nodules, etc. The
introduction into the growths of these various substances, that
are more or less indestructible, generally without action on the
development of the Diatoms, permits them to seek and choose
for themselves the spot most favourable to their multiplication.
To cultivate some very fragile kinds I have prepared deposits of
artificial flocculi, in the middle of which many Diatoms find the
degree of light that is most favourable to them. These flocculi
are composed of the silicate of magnesia, hydrate of allumina, or
of pure hydrate of silica. The two first substances form floccu-
lous clouds, of which the extremely slow aggregation permits the
154 THE CULTIVATION OF DIATOMS.
algae to penetrate the deposit, there to remain, and thence to
issue when circumstances require it.
All these details, which are important, will better find their
place in the description of the special arrangements required for
the cultivation of each kind of Diatom, for there is only a small
group of species that accommodate themselves easily to the same
physico-chemical conditions.
If, for example, we desire to obtain an abundance of the
little common Nitzschia, which is found in almost every place,
you should add to the maceration some decigrammes of gela-
tinous silica, produced from mineral salts, and expose them to a
strong light. Under these conditions, there are scarcely any
species, but some Cyclostellas and Synedras, which can multiply
in the same. If you wish to establish the predominance of
Cyclotellas, it will be necessary to add to the liquid 4, 5, or even
10 per 1,000 of chloride of sodium ; if, on the contrary, you wish
to prevent their multiplication, you should substitute for the
chloride of sodium chloride of calcium, and the Nitzschias will
become predominant. The Pleurosigma attenuatum fears not the
light ; the Pleurosigma sculptum high temperatures ; Pleurosigina
angulatum quadratum and Pleurosigma Balticum become superb
in yellow light, etc. etc. From this you can see that no one
mode of culture is equally applicable to all species. If the nu-
tritive substances, organic or mineral, are few, the proportions in
which they ought to be employed, according as you wish to obtain
a great quantity of this or that species of Diatoms, is very
different.
Thus experimenters need to establish with certainty the
chemical composition of the macerations best adapted to the
development of those Diatoms that they desire to study, and to
determine with exactitude the physical conditions (light and heat)
for which they have a marked predilection. This work is con-
siderable, long, and delicate, but its utility is undoubted ; for by
means of the artificial culture of Diatoms, we shall, I believe,
arrive at an elucidation of the many obscure points that surround
their history. With a little patience and perseverance, you will
be able to cultivate all kinds easily ; for my part, those that I
have myself procured, or that I owe to the kindness of M.
Journal of Microscopy 3^ Ser. Vol. 3
PLATE 6.
F I G
■ " '■ . 'i' ^ ' '■^''-^
FIG 2
F FkiJ^jpsDeletSo.
Apparatus for the Artificial Cultivation of Diatoms.
FROM LE D /ATO M /STE .
THE BOT-FLY OF MAN. 155
Tempere, have shown themselves capable of increasing in the
macerations that I have prepared ; one only, the Rhizosolenia
graceUe7iia that M. Bergon has obtained from a gathering recently
made at Trepart, has shown itself refractory ; but I ought to add
that this want of success is not without a cause, for these
Rhizosolenas arrived in an advanced stage of putrefaction, with an
endochrome completely granulated ; whilst the numerous Bid-
dulphias which were found mingled with them, less affected by the
poisonous gas resulting from the decomposing matters, increased
and multiplied without difficulty.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE VIII.
Fig. 1. — F., Flask containing distilled water ; F. , Cultivating vessel ;
>Si'. , Siphon conveying distilled water into V. ; aS'., Tube
which permits the siphon t(,> act.
,, 2. — _E^, Dark Chamber for cultivating the Diatoms ;/./., Cultures ;
F, Glass cylinders ; Gt^ Gas-burner ; U, Water-tap; W, Gas-
tap ; 0, Indicator ; ikf, Pressure-regulator.
tlbe Bot»=jfl^ of flDan.
A WRITER in Insect Life for September states that in Hon-
duras and other Central American Countries there is a fly
that deposits its ova in the skin of human beings. The
naked Indians have a few, but the whites, who wear shirts, have
ten times as many. Mr. David Logan, now in Massachusetts,
passed about twenty years of his life in tropical forests hunting for
mahogany, and has had at least a hundred of these parasites in
different parts of the body at the same time. On one occasion he
had eighteen of the maggots squeezed out of his back. The back
and shoulders are especially subject to the attacks, although they
are not limited to those parts. Mr. Logan was once attacked in
the upper lip.
The first evidence of the presence of the larva in the skin is the
appearance of a small furuncle, not painful, but giving the victim a
sensation of uneasiness. Close inspection shows that there is a
minute orifice in the middle of the swelling. When first detected
the larva is of about the size of a pin's head. If not dislodged
for a period of five or six weeks, the grub will attain to the length
of an inch. The treatment employed by the natives is to cover
the infested parts with a piece of tobacco leaf just over the per-
foration of the integument, and soon afterwards the maggot can be
forced out. It is probable that the species concerned is the Der-
matohia noxialis^ commonly known to Spanish Americans as Ver-
macaque.
[ 156 ]
an 3niproveb fIDcanB of obtainino Critical
3lluniination for tbe flDicroecope.
By Henry G. Piffard, M.D.
CRITICAL illumination is that sort or kind of illumination
which best conduces to the revelation of the intimate
structure of microscopic objects. The illumination is said
to be " critical " when the image of the radiant (lamp-flame or
otlier source of illumination) is brought to a focus by mirror or
condenser at the plane of the object under examination. Skilled
raicroscopists are pretty well agreed that the most convenient and
feasible means of obtaining critical illumination is by focussing
the edge (not the flat side) of a half-inch kerosene flame on the
object.
The writer is unable to use with comfort either gas or an oil
lamp in microscopic work, but has found that he can work by
electric light for several hours continuously without inconvenience.
Attempts to obtain satisfactory critical illumination from this
source have occupied a portion of his time during the past two
years. Without referring to the devices he has abandoned, he
will simply describe the one at which his experiments have ter-
minated, leaving to others the opportunity to still further
improve it.
The ordinary electric lamp in domestic use has an illumin-
ating value of sixteen candles, and its thread-like filament is
brought to incandescence by a current having an intensity of
about half an ampere under a pressure (in the Edison system) of
from one hundred and fifteen to one hundred and twenty volts.
The light is distributed over a filament about five inches in length.
Such a light is not a desirable one for microscopic work. It
would be much better to have the light more condensed by the
use of a shorter and thicker filament. There is no difficulty
whatever in constructing such a lamp, but if it were brought
directly into the Edison circuit, its life would be exceedingly
brief ; in other words, a certain length of filament is required to
withstand the pressure of the current from the main. Two things,
then, are needed : First, a lamp with a short and thick filament ;
ILLUMINATION FOR THE MICROSCOPE.
157
and, second, a means of properly connecting it with the street
service.
Having decided on the character and form of lamp desired, I
applied to the Edison Lamp Works to have it constructed accord-
ing to the plans and specifications which I furnished. These
were carried out as requested, and the result was a lamp of fifteen-
candle power, requiring a current of about three amperes under
a pressure of fifteen volts.
The lamp in question possessed certain pecu-
liarities of construction, as will be seen by an
examination of the cut (Fig. 24).
The glass bulb, instead of possessing the pear-
shaped form usually met with, is cylindrical, and
about three inches in length by an inch in diam-
eter. At first glance the carbon filament would
appear to have the ordinary horse-shoe form, and
to be of the usual length (four to five inches).
A closer inspection, however, shows that the car-
bon is actually but three quarters of an inch in
length, while the rest of the apparent filament is
composed of copper wire, arranged so as to hold
and support the carbon in a vertical position. It
will also be noticed that the carbon is much
broader and thicker than in the ordinary domes-
tic electric lamp. When this carbon is rendered
Fig. 24. incandescent by the passage of a suitable electric
The author's electric ^ -n , u <.i 1 • •
illuminator. current, we will have, when the lamp is in posi-
tion, a vertical streak of light, of intense brilli-
ance, about three quarters of an inch long, and apparendy an
eigth of an inch wide. The minified image of this is focussed by
mirror or condenser on the object we desire to examine, and con-
stitutes "critical" illumination. If now we proceed to the
examination of the object, with, for instance, a quarter of an inch
objective, we observe that the field is not evenly illuminated, but,
instead, a central brilliant streak, on each side of which the light
is comparatively feeble. The portion of the object within the
area is now illuminated in the manner most favourable for the
revelation of its intimate structure. In systematic work, critical
158 ILLUMINATIOX FOR THE MICROSCOPE.
illumination is rarely called for, except as a means of control, and
subcritical or diffuse illumination, as obiained by racking the
condenser a little out of focus, is preferable and more commonly
employed. The lamp here described furnishes a light for ordinary
work, which, in many respects, is preferable to any I have hereto-
fore employed.
While this fifteen-volt lamp can be readily maintained at full
incandescence by the current from an eight-cell storage-battery,
the care of this latter is by no means an insignificant matter ; and
I am not prepared to recommend its use unless one has access to
one of the street circuits. In this city we have at our disposal
either the Edison circuit, with a pressure of from one hundred and
ten to one hundred and twenty volts, or the alternating current,
distributed to houses under a pressure of fifty-five to sixty volts.
If the fifteen-volt lamp be connected directly with either of these
circuits, it would be instantly destroyed. It is necessary to
neutralise, or take up a portion of this pressure, by the introduc-
tion of a suitable resistance. This can be conveniently accom-
plished on the Edison circuit by the interposition of a one-
hundred candle power, one hundred volt, three ampere lamp of
the '•'• mu7iicipar^ type, the two lamps being connected in series.
Both lamps will, when thus arranged, burn at full incandescence ;
but, as we do not desire to employ the larger lamp, this may be
placed under the table and covered with a box.
In photo-micrography the writer has made use of nearly all
the methods of artificial illumination that have been proposed,
including the electric arc, electric incandescent with coiled carbon
of one hundred candle power, calcium light, Welsbach gaslight,
and kerosene oil. The lamp here described he finds infinitely
more convenient and amply efficient. For the study of absorption
spectra by means of artificial light, this lamp gives an ideal
illumination. — New York Medical Journal.
Dr. A. Famintzine has found some remarkable new forms of
bacteria in the aquarium of the Botanical Laboratory of the
Imperial Academy at St. Petersburg.
Journal of Microscopy, 3rd Ser. Vol. 3, PL 9
ZaCCH ARIAS JANSSEN,
Inventor of the Microscope.
Facsimile.
After P. BORELLUS, De Vero Telescopii Inventors.
lb' ( L I B R A R
^P •*>i«-'^'^^
[ 161 ]
^be fIDicroecope : ite (Tonetructiorls!^
ant) fIDanagement*
MR. Wynne E. Baxter has favoured English-speaking
microscopists with a carefully translated edition of Dr.
Henri Van Heurck's treatise on the Construction and
Management of the Microscope, including Microscopical Tech-
nique and Photo-micrography. The volume before us is a very
handsome one, being printed on stout Imperial 8vo. paper, with
broad margins. Although it is called a translation of the Fourth
French, it may really be considered as a fifth edition, so large an
amount of new and interesting matter has been added.
Fig- 25.
-I v3na
* "The Microscope: its Construction and Management," including Tech-
nique, Photo- Micrography, and the Past and Future of the Microscope. By
Dr. Henri van Heurck, Prof, of Botany at the Antwerp Botanical Gardens;
Late Pres. Belgian Micro. Soc. ; Hon. F.R. M.S. and New York M.S.
English Edition, augmented by the Author from the Fourth French Edition,
and translated by Wynne E. Baxter, F.R. M.S.., F.G.S., with three plates and
upwards of 350 illustrations. Imperial 8vo, pp. xvi — 382. (London : Crosby,
Lockwood, and Son. 1893.) Price 18/-.
International Journal of Microscopy and Natural Science.
Third Series. Vol. IIL m
162
THE MICROSCOPE : ITS
The introductory chapter deals with Elementary Optics. A
short extract from the section, which treats of Reflection, will
show the thoroughly practical manner in which the subject is
treated : — " Let us examine the course taken by rays falling on a
plane mirror. Let AB, Fig. 25, be the mirror, C a luminous point;
a ray emanating from the point, and striking the mirror at Z>, will
make, with the perpendicular to the surface of the mirror at that
point (which perpendicular is termed the normal), an angle EDF,
called the angle of reflection, equal to CDE^ the angle of inci-
dence. Other rays, CG, GN, emanating from the same point,
make again, with the normals GI, ///, the angles of reflection
IGK, JHL equal to the angles of incidence CGI and CHJ\ thus
all the reflected rays seem to diverge from a point C\ which has
no real existence, and is called the virtual image of C. Its posi-
tion, as compared with that of C, is symmetrical with regard to
the mirror."
This section is follow-
ed by others on Refrac-
tion, Lenses and their
properties, Spherical aber-
ct ration, etc., and explained
by a number of diagrams.
Chapters IL and III.
describe Prof. Abbe's
Theory of Microscopic
Vision, and experiments
on its application. Book
I. treats of the micro-
scope, its optical parts,
stage, illumination, acces-
sory apparatus, etc., etc.
Here we have a good sec-
tional view of an objec-
d tive with correction collar.
"In 1829, Amici first no-
ticed that high-power
objectives, which give a
perfectly clear image
Fig. 26.
CONSTRUCTION AND MANAGEMENT.
163
when objects, not covered with a glass, were examined, but did
not give so good a one when the object was covered, and that
the clearness of the image increased and diminished according to
the thickness of the cover-glass. To remedy this defect, which
resulted from spherical aberration, Amici constructed his objectives
in such a manner that they could all be used with cover-glasses of
a definite thickness.
"In 1837, the celebrated English optician Ross, though ignor-
ant of the discovery of Amici, made the same observation, and, to
remedy the defect, he invented correction objectives. In this kind
of objective, the two upper lenses (Fig. 26, d.) occupy an invariable
position with regard to one another. They are fixed in a movable
tube, and can be made to recede from, or approach, the lower part,
which is fixed, and carries the single or double frontal e. By turn-
ing the ring a, the upper lenses rise or fall, and the coiled, spiral
spring c regulates the small inequalities of the screw, and, above
all, prevents the 'back lash,' which is always produced when the
sense of motion is changed."
Fig. 27 shows how a microscope, which can be inclined, is
Fig. 27.
arranged for adapting thefcamera lucida. When this apparatus is
164 THE MICROSCOPE : ITS
used, the light of the microscope must be so regulated that it is of
an intensity as nearly as possible equal to that from the paper on
which the drawing is being made ; when the light from the paper
is more intense than that of the microscope, it is impossible to
distinguish the point of the pencil sufficiently well. In this case
the light from the paper must be reduced by means of a screw.
Passing Book II., which treats briefly of simple microscopes,
and of projection — Solar, Gas, or Photo-electric — microscopes, we
come to Book III., which describes to the reader what should be
the situation and arrangement of the work-room ; choice of light;
hygienic rules for microscopical research, in which we are told
there is absolutely no foundation for the statement that micro-
scopical research is injurious to the eyes, and that no trouble need
be feared by anyone who will take heed of the following advice :
" I. — Do not make observations directly after a meal.
2. — Let the field of the microscope be comfortably illuminated.
Always avoid brilliant illumination, and on no account use [direct]
solar light for ordinary observation. It is only during experiments
with polarised light, photo-micrography, and with monochromatic
light, that solar light can really be employed to advantage.
3. — As soon as your eyes feel at all fatigued, suspend your
observations at once. This is of the greatest importance.
4. — An excellent hygienic rule, which has greatly assisted us
during the last six years, is to wash the eyes thoroughly every
morning with warm water. We use a litre (if pints) of water
for this daily ablution. The warm water thus employed produces
at first a very slight congestion, followed immediately by an excel-
lent reaction. We cannot too strongly recommend this washing,
which rests the eyes. Cold water, on the other hand, gives a
momentary calm, followed afterwards by a congestion of the
visual organ."
Descriptions, covering nearly 100 pages, are given of instru-
ments manufactured by various American, Continental, and English
opticians ; this portion of the work is very fully illustrated. Concise
instructions are given on Photo-Micrography, in relation to which
a variety of apparatus is illustrated; these are mostly of continental
manufacture. The causes of error in microscopical observations
are pointed out, one of them being Muscce volitantes^ popularly
CONSTRUCTION AND MANAGEMENT.
165
Fig. 28, — MusccE volitanies.
known as Flying Flies, represented in Fig. 28. These "are more
visible and tenacious one day than
another ; a brilliant light or physical
fatigue renders them more apparent.
We sometimes perceive these flies with
ordinary light, when looking up at the
sky, or at a strongly illuminated sur-
face, such as the ground covered with
snow. At other times, notwithstand-
ing the most fatiguing examination
of diatoms, we have remained for en-
tire weeks without being aware of their
existence."
In Book IV. we have : Chapter i,
General Rules for preparing micro-
objects, with descriptions of the
various Aqueous and Oily, Resinous
and Chemical, media ; Chemical and
Staining Reagents, and instruments used in the preparation of
objects, etc., etc. Chapter 2 is entitled the Microscopist's Lib-
rary, in which the author has " collected together a number of
books which the microscopist, and especially the botanical micro-
scopist, may, with advantage, consult," but judging from the very
meagre list, Foreign and English (about three dozen works are
named), we cannot think his library is overdone with periodical
literature, as neither the Journal of the Qiiekett Club^ nor our
own Journal, are mentioned, nor are the Aj?ierkan Month/y
Microscopical Journal or The Microscope.
Book V. treats of the microscope in the past and in the future.
Here, we are told, "an early form of microscope consisted of a
magnifying glass set in a mount, and carried on a small foot. A
needle was fixed at a short distance from the lens, and the object
for examination was stuck on the point of a needle. It was this
sort of microscope which gave rise to the microscope of Leeuwen-
hoeck, and with which this illustrious microscopist made his
splendid discoveries.
Leeuwenhoeck's microscope. Figs. 29 and 30, differed from that
above described in the perfection of his lenses, which magnified
166
THE MICROSCOPE : ITS
highly, and in the fact that the point which carried the object was
Fig. 29. Fig. 30.
Leeuwenhoeck's Microscope.
capable of being raised or lowered by means of a screw or stem.
The stem could spring back easily, and, by means of a small screw-
nut, the object could be brought nearer to the lens, so as to be
perfectly focussed. Leeuwenhoeck had microscopes of differing
magnifying power; one is known to have given 270 diameters.
The lenses are bi-convex, and very well made.
The simple microscope was considerably improved by Wilson
about 1740. His instrument was furnished with a mirror, and
mounted on a stand as shown in Fig. 31. The object was placed
between two glass slips, which were held tight between two small
brass plates. A tube with a screw thread enabled the object to be
raised or lowered so that it could be examined in distinct vision.
A spiral spring, pressing from above, holds the plates close, and
counteracts, at the same time, the back-lash of the^screw used in
focussing. His instrument was in great request, and imitated on
all sides.
CONSTRUCTION AND MANAGEMENT.
16V
The invention of the Compound Microscope is attributed to
Zaccharias Janssen, whose portrait we are enabled, through the
Fig. 31. — Wilson's Microscope, 1740.
courtesy of Mr. Wynne E. Baxter, to present to our readers.
Janssen was a small optician of Middleburg, whose residence was
attached to the Church.
An instrument called " Janssen's Microscope " is still preserved
at Middleburg, which, according to Harting, can be referred back
as far as his period without its being the original instrument. This
instrument was shown at the Antwerp Exhibition.
The Microscope, Fig. 32, consists of four tubes, made of iron
and soldered together, coated inside with tin. The outer tube A
is of the greatest diameter, and contains the tubes B and C, which
slide into it. The tube B contains, within itself, a fourth tube^',
having, at its lower end, a bi-convex objective lens of 2,2 inches
focus. The ocular lens, of about 3 inches focus, is plano-convex,
and is held in a wooden cell by a ring made of iron wire. The
tube C which contains it is terminated at the upper end by a con-
cave diaphragm. The tube B\ which contains the objective, is
terminated at the upper extremity by a diaphragm, flush with the
168 THE MICROSCOPE: ITS CONSTRUCTION, ETC.
end. The tube B is terminated at its lower extremity by a dia-
phragm. In using this instrument i5 Ms pushed right down into
B, and the tubes, B and C are drawn out as far as possible from
the exterior tube A^ and the instrument is directed towards the
I Oijeotzf.
J
OcuJ&L
^ . bs >
;
Fig. 32. — Janssen's Microscope.
object. In the foregoing notes we believe we have taken a fair
survey of the book, and in doing so have selected such of the illus-
trations, kindly lent to us by Mr. Baxter, as we thought would be
most interesting to our readers. The article on the Future of the
Microscope is comprised in a long letter by Dr. S. Czapski, and
will be found towards the end of the volume ; this we will leave
our readers to peruse at leisure from the volume itself. There is a
full and comprehensive Glossary-Index.
Staining Jneect ZTiaeuee*
AT a meeting of the Entomological Club of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science, 1891, Mr.
Smith made a few remarks on Staining Insect Tissues.
He had found considerable trouble in his studies on differentiating
parts, and especially those structures that tend to become trans-
parent. After considerable experimentation he had found nigrosm
one of the most satisfactory stains for trachea and glands, and
many of the membranaceous structures. It does not touch
chitine. By the use of this stain he had followed the trachea to
the tips of the antennae and into the labella of flies. Saffronin is
another valuable stain, and especially for chitinous structures, for
which it seemed to have a special affinity. Combining nigrosin
and saffronin often gives very pretty results. Care should be
exercised not to leave the objects in saffronin too long, as it is apt
to result in a uniform and too intense colour, which is hard to get
rid of. Hsematoxylin gave very poor results, and he does not look
on it with favour. Eosin is excellent where only a slight stain is
desired, and has given some beautiful results. The use of such
methods in studies admitting of them will solve many problems
that are still obscure. — Canadian E?ttomologist.
[ 169 ]
Jnjecting Small animale for fIDlcroecopical
purpoaee.
By R. N. Reynolds, M.D., Detroit, Mich.
HAVING experienced much disappointment in the results of
injections with injecting gelatin purchased, I experi-
mented until I found proportions of the materials which
would give uniform, beautiful specimens, and at less than half the
cost of the old method. For thirteen ounces of gelatin costing
about fifty cents., which would be sufficient for a full-grown cat,
take of gelatin (such as is sold in checkered packages in grocery
stores) 600 grains, place in a pint fruit-jar and add to it five ounces
of cold water ; cover, and set aside for an hour or over-night. Put
into another air-tight jar, (No. 40) carmine, 400 grains; water, 4 oz. ;
and stronger water of ammonia {amvionia fort.), 4 drams.
Cover tightly and set aside.
When ready to proceed, place the jar of gelatin into a water-
bath and heat until the gelatin is melted ; then strain through a
fine cloth into a clean jar (a linen handkerchief makes a good
strainer). Next insert a wad of absorbent cotton into the neck of
the funnel, and through it filter the carmine solution into a jar of
gelatin which has been kept warm in the water-bath. If the
cotton plug proves too tight to allow all the carmine to pass
through, decant the remainder into the jar it came from, replacing
the cotton plug by a looser one.
After all the carmine has passed through into the gelatin,
clean the funnel, and place in it a fresh plug of cotton, pour into
the funnel some water, and with a rod press down the cotton until
the water goes through drop by drop. This test ivater is ?iot to be
allowed to drop into the gelatin. Then replace the funnel so that
it hangs over the gelatin, putting into the funnel the following to
granulate the carmine : — Water, 2 oz. ; glacial acetic acid, 4 drs. ;
and while this is dropping in, the gelatin must be continuously
stirred. By the time the whole of the acid has passed in, the
gelatin will be changed from a dark lilac to a bright scarlet
colour, and is then ready for use.
The exact quantity of acid that it will take to bring about this
170 INJECTING SMALL ANIMALS FOR
change is not constant. It depends on the strength of the ammonia
used, the amount of ammonia which has escaped during the mani-
pulations, and also on the strength of the acid.
The change in colour may be plainly seen, as it is quite marked
and sudden, by looking, not into the mouth of the jar, but on its
side, where the light is strongest, and when the change in colour
comes the gelatin is ready for use ; but it will do no harm to use
all the acid prepared. A greater quantity of water with weaker
ammonia would do, but it is best to use a standard article. So
also with the acid. The ordinary acetic acid would do if we used
more of it and waited for the change in colour. If we put in too
little acid, the fluid would be too dark, and the colour would pass
through the walls of the blood-vessels, staining the intervening
tissues.
For injecting we need the following : —
I. — Injecting-syringe, with canula and stopcock.
2. — Curved needle, threaded with No. lo Chinese silk.
3. — Some ordinary strong parcel twine.
4. — A sharp-pointed knife.
5. — An ordinary wash-basin.
6. — A kettle of hot water.
7. — A pail of ice water.
8. — A starch or other box, with sliding lid.
9. — Some chloroform.
We should use much more gelatin solution than would fill the
animal's blood-vessels, because a considerable quantity should be
allowed to pass through and out of the animal to wash out the
remains of the blood, which if left in would turn black ; and also
because a greater amount should be forced and left in, to ensure
well-filled capillaries in our sections.
When ready to inject, the jar of gelatin, the syringe, and parts
should be kept in warm water.
The animal should be placed in the box and the lid closed.
Next pour some chloroform on a cloth and drop it into the box,
and wait for the animal to cease moving about. After narcosis is
complete, and before the animal ceases to breathe, it should be
removed from the box. The operator should with the thumb and
finger seize the skin of the belly to lift the parts from the intes-
MICROSCOPICAL PURPOSES. I7l
tines while the knife is passed through, opening from near the hind
legs, well up between the fore-legs. Cut the diaphragm, to allow
the fore-legs to spread. Seize the heart with one hand, while its
apex is cut off with the knife in the other hand.
Hold the animal up alternately by head and tail to allow blood
to drain out ; wash away the blood. Pass the knife up between
the heart and pericardium, slitting up the latter so that it may be
pushed up to expose the aorta. Place the animal in a basin of
warm water. Do not hurry ; there will be plenty of time for
every move.
If we have cut only a quarter or three-eighths of an inch from
the heart, we have opened the left ventricle only, and cannot then
pass the syringe canula into the right ventricle in error.
Hold the heart in the left hand, while with the right the
detached syringe canula is run up through the heart, its point
passing out into the aorta, using care not to pass it too far up, else
it might puncture the arch of the aorta. Now with the right hand
pass the curved needle under the aorta, through the tissues between
it and the superior vena cava.
The canula may now be allowed to drop out of the heart
while the thread is drawn partly through, and the first half of the
surgeon's knot is loosely tied ; then replace the canula and tighten
the thread on it, completing the knot. Bring the long ends of the
thread up over the hook on the canula, tighten, and again tie it.
The nose of the stop-cock is now twisted tightly into the
canula, while the canula is held in one hand to prevent twisting
the aorta. Drop the stop-cock so that it is covered with the warm
water while the syringe is being filled.
When the syringe is slowly filled, close its nose with a finger,
rinse the gelatin from the outside of the syringe ; then, placing
its point under water, enter it into the stop-cock, holding the latter
firmly while the syringe is twisted tightly into it. Hold the nose
of the syringe tightly in the one hand, while the piston is managed
with the other. This is to prevent damage to the aorta.
Force the solution very slowly into the animal. We will notice
a rapid change in the colour of the animal's nose, pads of the feet,
intestines, etc. ; and very often the animal will kick and twitch
about for five or six minutes, although it was dead some time
before the injecting began.
172 INJECTING SMALL ANIMALS FOR
Do not quite empty the syringe each time, as some air would
be forced out with the last of the fluid. Close the stop-cock,
refill the syringe and proceed as before, bearing in mind that
injecting too rapidly is apt to burst some vessel and spoil the
subject. When you think that about sufficient has been forced in,
pass a string around the heart and tie it tightly around the canula
to prevent further escape ; then force in from one-half to one
ounce more, depending on the size of the animal. This is to
prevent the capillaries being emptied by the rigor-mortis, which
will set in later. (The syringe should be slowly filled, else air will
be drawn in at the back and be forced into the animal.) Now
close the stop-cock, remove the syringe, and hold the animal in a
stream of water from the tap to wash away stains from the outside
and the abdominal cavity. It should next be placed for some
hours or over-night in ice-water. If desired to harden, ice-cold
Miiller's fluid is to be preferred. After which, it may be dissected
and the parts desired may be placed in ordinary alcohol. After a
few hours this alcohol may be turned off, to be replaced by fresh
alcohol. In this way the brain and kidneys will be ready for
cutting in forty-eight hours.
It is a mistake to expect tissues to harden in the second or
third alcohol. It is not length of time that is necessary to harden,
but the several changes of alcohol to get rid of water from the
tissues.
After hardening, we may cut our sections, place them for a
few moments in oil of cloves ; then transfer them one at a time to
a clean pad of tissue paper ; put a drop or two of benzole on to a
slide ; lay the section into the benzole (which will drive out the
air-bubbles) ; apply a drop of Canada balsam, then the cover-glass,
and our specimen is ready for the microscope.
If our balsam has been properly prepared, and the slide is
deposited in a warm place, it will soon harden into a permanent
mount, to be admired by lovers of the beautiful.
We cannot well secure the brain and spinal cord by sawing. I
find the following to work nicely : — Cut the neck off close to the
skull, remove the skin and muscle from the top of the head ; then
with a screw-driver or similar tool commence at the foramen
magnum ; pick away the skull piece by piece ; this is done by
MICROSCOPICAL PURPOSES. 173
inserting the tool between the bone and the covering of the brain,
(the Dura Mater) ; then pulHng away the piece of bone, we run no
risk of damaging the brain.
After the bone has been removed from the top, spUt up the
Dura Mater, and with a pair of forceps pull out the bony septum
from between the cerebrum and cerebellum ; next, a little shaking
will show the nerve attachments, which hold the brain on its under
side. After these are cut the brain will fall out, and may be placed
in ordinary alcohol to harden.
The spinal cord may be easily secured by using a wide chisel.
First place the trunk of the animal on its back, and with the chisel
cut the ribs from both sides of the vertebrae, letting the chisel
pass close to the vertebrae, and down through to the work-bench.
Next, let the slice containing the vertebrae lay on its side, set
the chisel on to the bone over the spinal cord, and with the ham-
mer tap on to the handle of the chisel, to make a longitudinal
fracture along the cord. Continue this the whole length of
the cord.
Turn over the slice and repeat the fracture along the opposite
side ; then seize the two sides of the bone, one in each hand, and
pull them apart. The cord will then be set free with the nerve-
roots hanging to it.
From various experiments respecting a connection between
thunderstorms and the souring of milk, Prof. H. \V. Conn draws
the conclusion that electricity is not of itself capable of souring
milk, or even of materially hastening the process ; nor can the
ozone developed during the thunderstorm be looked upon as of
any great importance. It seems probable that the connection
between the thunderstorm and the souring of milk is one of a
different character. Bacteria grow most rapidly in the warm,
sultry conditions which usually precede a thunderstorm, and it will
frequently happen that the thunderstorm and the souring occur
together, not because the thunder has hastened the souring, but
rather because the climatic conditions, which have brought the
storm, have, at the same time, been such as to cause unusually
rapid bacteria growth.
[ 174 ]
By the Right Hon. Sir John Lubbock, Bart, M.P., F.R.S.,
D.C.L., LL.D., etc.
IT is with much pleasure that we give our readers as full a
notice of these two most interesting volumes as the limited
space at our disposal will allow. We are sure that all bot-
anists will agree with the author when he tells us in the opening
paragraph of his preface that " the germination of plants is not
the least interesting portion of their life-history, but it has not yet
attracted the attention it deserves. The forms of cotyledons, and
the fact that they differ so much from the subsequent leaves, had,
of course, been alluded to more fully in botanical works, but no
explanation had been offered, and Klebs, in a recent memoir,
expressly states that the problem is still an enigma."
Fig- 33. — Leaf of Tamus, to show Fig. 34. — Leaf of Sycamore, to show
the curved course of the veins. the straight course of the veins.
Speaking of the Forms of Leaves, and of their endless
differences, the author tells us " vertical leaves, for instance, are
generally long and narrow, horizontal ones have a tendency to-
wards width, which brings the centre of gravity nearer to the
points of support. Wide leaves, again, are sometimes heart-
shaped, sometimes palmate. The former shape is obviously that
* "A Contribution to our Knowledge of Seedlings," by the Right Hon.
Sir John Lubbock, Bart., iM.P., F.R.S., D.C.L., LL.D., with 684 figures in
the text. In two vols., 8vo, pp. viii. — 608 + 646. (London : Kegan Paul,
Trench, Triibner and Co., Ltd., Paternoster House, Charing Cross Road.
1892.) Price, 36/- nett.
SEEDLINGS.
175
which would arise if a linear leaf were gradually widened at the
base ; and I have pointed out that in many species with palmate
leaves — for instance, species of Passiflora, Cephalandra, Hibiscus,
etc. — the first, or few first leaves, are entire, and more or less
cordate. The cordate form, then, appears to be the early, the
palmate the later form. But how has the palmate form arisen ?
" The origin is, perhaps, connected with the manner in which
the leaves are folded up, more or less like a fan, in the bud, so as
to save space. Another advantage, perhaps, is that the cordate
leaves with veins following the curvature of the leaf, as, for
instance, in Tamus, Fig. 33, the vascular bundles pursue necess-
arily a curved course ; while in palmate leaves, as in Acer,
Fig. 34, the veins are straight, and it is clearly an advantage that
the main channels which convey the nutritive fluid should hold a
direct course."
I^ig- 35- — Seedling of Fcenic-
ulum vulgare, half nat. size.
Fig. 36. — Seedling of Ceratocephuhis
fulcaltcs, nat. size. The numerals in-
dicate the successive leaves.
We now turn to the Forms of Cotyledons, and are told that
176
SEEDLINGS.
" no one who has ever looked at a young plant can have failed to
be struck by the contrast they afford to the older specimens be-
longing to the same species. This arises partly from the contrast
which the cotyledons, or end leaves, afford, not only to the final
leaves, but even to those by which they are immediately followed."
Fig. 37. — Seedling of Impatiens
balsamma, half nat. size.
Fig. 38. — Seedling of Menispej-muni
canadense, half nat. size.
Some cotyledons are narrow, as in Foeniculum, Fig. 35, and
Ceratocephulus, Fig. 36. In Ceratocephulus (and in many other
species) the order of growth of each successive leaf is shown.
and its shape described. Thus, leaves
T, 2 are linear, entire, similar to the cotyledons.
3 Spathulate ; apex tridentate.
4 Spathulate, trifid.
5, 6 Cuneate, unequally trilobed.
7, 8 Cuneate, tripartite ; segments linear, lateral ones
bifid at apex.
9 Tripartite, wnth linear segments.
10 Tripartite, lateral segments unequally lobed.
1 1 Doubly bipartite.
SEEDLINGS.
177
12 Tripartite; lateral segments bifid.
13 Similar.
14 Cuneate, tripartite, lateral segments unequal.
Some cotyledons are broad, as in Impatiens, Fig. 37 ; in other
species we find narrow cotyledons and broad leaves, as in Meni-
spermum, Fig 38, while in others the cotyledons are broad and
the leaves narrow, as in Hakea, Fig. 39.
In some cases instances of broad and
narrow cotyledons may be found in the
same family, as in Chickweed, and Pink,
and sometimes even in the same genus,
as Galium Saccharatum and Gallium
Aparine. In some cases, again, the two
cotyledons are unequal, as in Mustard,
Cabbage, etc. Sometimes the two halves
of each cotyledon are unequal, as in
Geranium, and indeed their variety ap-
pears to be very considerable.
Turning now to the embryo, some ex-
Fig. 39. -Seedling of ^a^.a^eedingly interesting descriptions of its
acicularis, half nat. size, growth are given, as, for example, in Acer,
Fig. 40, the embryo originates in a short tubular cavity opposite
the micropyle, and is at first straight, with an extremely short
tubinate radicle, and ovate, obtuse^ closely adpressed cotyledons.
6
Fig. 40. — Acer Pseudo-Plaianus. Sections of seed in seven successive
stages, showing growth of embryo, x 3.
As growth continues the embryo extends itself along the lower
Imtbrnational Journal of Microscopy and Natural Scienck.
New Series, Vol. III. n
178
SEEDLINGS.
side of the seed, and curves with it, becoming gradually lanceo-
late, or oblong lanceolate (Fig 40, 2). When the cotyledons have
reached the upper, narrow end of the seed, the curvature of the
wall turns them down again on themselves (Fig. 40, 3). This
growth is continued until the tips reach the radicle again, and the
ultimate arrangement of the embryo differs according to whether
they then curve inwards or outwards. I'his again seems to depend
on the exact direction of the growth of the cotyledons ; if they
strike (Fig. 40, 5) against the process which encloses the radicle,
then their general direction naturally carries them outwards, until
the wall of the seed again turns them upwards, so that they be-
come phcate ; if, on the contrary, the tips of the cotyledons press
just wdthin the micropylar process and touch the radicle, then
they are compelled to groW' in the opposite direction, and they
become spirally coiled. In the specimens examined the latter
arrangement was exceptional.
Fig. 41. — Seedling of Lasiopetahim ferrugineum, half nat. size.
With respect to the growth of First Leaves we are told : —
" In species with trifoliate leaves, the first leaf is generally simple.
When mature leaves are pinnate, the first ones are generally tri-
foliate ; and when the final leaves are bipinnate, the first ones are
generally pinnate. In most cases the first leaves are simpler than
those which follow." In species however, from very dry localities,
the reverse is often the case, as in Lasiopetalum, Fig. 41.
SEEDLINGS.
179
Jtd-.
I.
r
C (fC
KOy
2. 3.
Fig. 42.
Berheris Aquifolhtm.
I. — Transverse section of fruit, x 5. D.S., dorsal suture; i'Pa., raphe ;
i?.i^., radicles ; C. C, cotyledons; V.S., ventral suture; (9., ovary
wall or pericarp.
2. — Longitudinal section of seed, x 10. Ch., chalaza ; R., radicle;
6>. C, outer coat (testa) ; /. C, inner coat (tegmen).
3- — Transverse section of seed, x 10. C, cotyledon; O.C.^ testa;
/. C, tegmen; Ra.^ raphe.
An immense number of seedlings are described and figured in
180
SEEDLINGS.
these volumes, some few of which figures, by the courtesy of the
pubhshers, Messrs. Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner and Co., we are
enabled to present to our readers. To give an idea of the
thoroughness with which the author has performed his task, we
turn to the Berberide^e, and briefly abstract the general
description: — " The fruit of the Berberidese is a berry or capsule.
The ovules are two, indefinite, very rarely solitary. . . The
seeds contain a copious, fleshy, or somewhat hard endosperm ;
and the embryo is frequently small. . . The cotyledons are
generally oblong, obtuse, shortly
petiolate or subsessile, deep green,
glabrous, sub-coreaceous, with a
few slender, ascending, and gen-
erally slightly emarginate veins."
*^The illustration. Fig. 42, shows
sections of fruit and seed of
Berber is aquifolium.
Fig. 43 shows a young plant
of the same drawn natural size.
The cotyledons are described as
oblong, obtusely pointed, narrow-
ed into the petiole, glabrous, 1*5
cm. long, 5 mm. broad. Leaves
simple in the seedHng stage.
I. — Reniform, cuspidate, minute-
ly spinous-serrulate.
2. — Reniform, cuspidate, finely
spinous-serrate, fine nerved
at the base.
3-4. — Cordate, finely spinous-ser-
rate, fine nerved at the base.
5. — In a second specimen, un-
equally bifoliate.
6. — Trifoliate. Subsequent forms
three to five foliate, and ulti-
mate leaves 3 to 9 foliate.
Fig. 43. — Berheris Aquifolium^
natural size.
Turning now to the CRUCiFERiE, we select as an example Fig.
44, which shows the fruit and seed of Ochthodium cegyptiacum.
SEEDLINGS.
181
ch
F \
T
Jl
I. 2. 4.
Fig. 44.
Ochthodiuni cegyptiacum.
I. — Fruit on its pedicel, x 6, lateral aspect.
2. — Longitudinal section of fruit, x 6. F.^ funiculus; T.^ testa; R.^
radicle; Ch.^ chalaza.
3. — Transverse section of fruit, x 6. CC, cotyledons; ^.-^., radicles ;
Ep.^ epicarp ; En., endocarp.
4. — Seed, x 15. C/^, chalaza ; M, micropyle.
One more example from this important work is all our space
will allow. Fig. 45 shows the seed of Bryonia ladniosa, and
Fig. 46 a young seedling of the same, half natural size.
Fig. 45A.
182
SEEDLINGS.
IC oc o'c
Fig, 45B. Fig. 45c.
Fig. 45. — Bryonia laaniosa. A, seed, x 10 ; B, longitudinal section of
seed; O.C., testa; /.C, tegmen, x 10; C, transverse section of seed,
X 10.
In making these selections we have confined our attention to
Vol. I., although Vol. IL would have proved equally prolific of
good and interesting examples. It will be noticed, too, that we
have generally selected illustrations where sections of seeds are
Fig. 46. — Bryonia lacintosa, half nat. size.
A MIDWINTER MONTH BY THE MEDITERRANEAN. 183
also shown. This we have done in a great measure to induce our
readers to adopt what we think will be, to a great number of
them, ah entirely new branch of study, viz., the microscopical
structure of the seeds of plants.
The subject of seeds and seedlings is a very vast one, and we
earnestly hope that Sir John Lubbock's marvellous work may be
the means of suggesting an entirely new field of work to great
numbers of microscopists. In looking at these books, with their
nearly 700 illustrations, we cannot but admire the unwearying
diligence and careful study displayed in their production.
H flDibunntcr flDontb b^ tbe nDcbiteiranean.
Xast Meefi.
By G. H. Bryan, M.A., Cantab.
1
Part IV. — Grasse and Hyeres.
At Grasse I stayed one night at the Grand Hotel, subsequently
the residence of our Queen. Grasse is a picturesque old town,
built high on the side of a long range of hills about 12 miles from
the sea, and reached by a branch line of railway from Cannes.
The chief manufactures of the place are perfumes and preserved
fruits, so that, although the streets are many of them very narrow,
they are fragrant with the scent of the numerous perfumeries.
The road from the station ascends in a series of zigzags, crossing
a new line of rail in process of construction, and east of the town
is a fine boulevard leading past the Grand Hotel. From this
point is a fine view over the Golfe de la Napoule and the Esterel
Mountains. In the olive plantations the ground is everywhere
carpeted with leaves of Atiemone coronaria, and a white kind of
wild radish {^Raphanistrimi Landra) grows by the roadsides. I
visited the perfumery and confectionery works in Grasse, but there
was little or nolliing going on at them.
On the following morning I made my way up the hills at the
back. After emerging from the olive plantations I came out on
the open scrub and soon reached an aqueduct, quite recently con-
184 A MIDWINTER MONTH
structed for the purpose of supplying Grasse with water. It runs
along the side of the hill, dipping down and up in a syphon at a
depression in the mountain side. Beside this I found Polygala
Nicceensis^ Osyris alba, and a fine pink Candytuft {Ibei'is lifiifolia)^
from which I have raised seedlings that now form splendid,
compact masses of flower, fully a couple of feet in diameter.
I should be pleased to send seeds to any readers who may care to
send an envelope for them.
By following the watercourse, I emerged in a few minutes on
a well made road leading along the hills, which were here covered
with Cistus albidus (now in fruit), small oaks, and other shrubs.
A little way along the road I found large shells of Zofiites celJarius
and a couple of big brown ants {Formica cruentata). In returning
I followed the road down to Grasse past an ornamental fountain
at the end of the aqueduct, and some way lower down the road
found plants of Salvia clandestina.
From Grasse I took the train to Hyeres, spending an hour
enjoying the view from the Promenade de la Croisette at Cannes
while waiting for the train. Cannes itself has grown so large
and has been so built over of late, that I am told it is difficult
now to get country walks in the neighbourhood. Many years
ago it was possible to find anemones and pink maiden tulips
[Tulipa Clusiand) growing wild at the Croisette close to Cannes.
The train did not reach Hyeres till dusk, and on driving up
to the hotel I was much charmed with the effect of the electric
arc lamps which now illuminate the avenue of palm trees
between the station and the town.
Hyeres, the most southerly station on the Riviera, is a small
town at the foot of a line of hills, of heights ranging up to 800
feet. The sea is about three miles away, but is seen from the
town, with the islands of Hyeres (the Stcechades of the ancient
Romans) in the distance.
The following morning I walked up the Colline des Oiseaux.
The way lay along the main road to Costebelle for some dis-
tance past the station, diverging by a rough cart-track nearly
opposite the Hermitage. In a cottage garden near here some
fine double narcissus were in flower which I remembered having
seen there fourteen years previously. I had some little difficulty
BY THE MEDITERRANEAN. 185
in finding my way up the hill, for I lost the right path several
times, and progress was then much impeded by the small
prickly oaks {Quercus cocci/era), interspersed here and there with
the equally prickly butcher's broom {Ruscus aculeatus). I saw
the leaves of Ophrys fiisca here and there, and some more
of the candytuft {Iberis linifolid) in flower. There were a good
many shells of Btilimns decollatus (all broken off at the point),
Zonites ceUarius^ and a kind of Cydostouia about here, and in a
few shady places the ground was white with hoar frost.
A little further up a large fritillary butterfly was seen flying
about, but not caught. The top of the hill, about a thousand
feet high, was soon reached, and from among the arbutus trees
i^A. unedo) there was an extensive view comprising the islands of
Hyeres and the Salines, or salt marshes, on one side, and on
the other the range of hills behind Hyeres known as " Les
Maures," all standing out clear in the bright sunshine. From the
top I came down in the direction of Carqueiranne, finding on the
way some more shells of Zonites, Coronilla j'wicea, marigolds
{Calendula arvmsis), the white Rapha7iistrui7i Lafidra^ Alyssu7n
maritimum^ etc. After passing a small farmhouse, and traversing
a few olive plantations, I emerged on the road to Carqueiranne.
This skirts along near the shore, but the views are much impaired
bv several villas on either side.
In a bank by the roadside I found fine plants of Erodiiun
romajium^ and in digging one up accidentally destroyed a small
trap-door spider's nest of the "cork" type — i.e.^ with tight-fitting
door. The return was through some olive plantations by Coste-
belle, where the Hotel d' Albion forms a hideous eyesore, here the
ground was carpeted with large daisies {Bellis sylvestris) \ further
on, a little before reaching the railway station, I noticed in a
bank several trap-door spiders' nests with thin " wafer '' doors,
constructed by Nemesia congener, a species peculiar to the neigh-
bourhood of Hyeres.
In the afternoon I followed a path called the Chemin de St.
Bernard, leading round the rock on whose slopes Hyferes is built
and which is crowned by the remains of an old castle. On join-
ing the ridge behind the castle hill, I found a quantity of heads of
the grass, Lagurus ovatus, in a dried state. In a wall near here
186 A MIDWINTER MONTH BY THE MEDITERRANEAN.
grew the Jersey fern i^Grammitis leotophylld). Turning in the
direction of the Pic du Fenouillet, I found large patches of the
dwarf annual daisy {Bellis annua) as much smaller than our
English B. perennis as the latter is smaller than B. sylvestris.
Near here Oxalis Libyca grew in abundance, and also Ranunculus
chcerophyllus. In a bank a little further on were the tall dried
remains of the flowering heads of Asphodelus ramosus. The path
next skirted the side of a hill covered with cork trees (Quercus
suber), and overlooking the valley of the river Gapeau. Here I
was fortunate enough to come upon a specimen of that gorgeous
beetle, Calosoma sycophantha^ the larvae of which live in the nests
of the Procession Caterpillars {^Cnethocampa pityocampa and pro-
cessionea), and do a great deal of good by consuming large numbers
of these destructive caterpillars. The beetle is truly magnificent,
its body being about i\ inches in length, and its green elytra in a
bright light reflecting tints of green, purple, orange, crimson, and
nearly every colour of the rainbow. It is considered rather a
rarity. There were also some fine ferns of the acute variety of
Asplenium adiantum-nigrwn. Returning down the castle hill, I
found more large nests of the trap-door spider, N. congener. The
sunset that evening was very brilliant.
The following morning I walked out through the Place de la
Rade to the eastern end of the town. Here a good many villas
have been built, but these have of late years been letting badly.
Very soon I found a path turning up on to the hills behind, and I
followed along the ridge covered with cork trees, arriving finally
at the point where I had found the asphodels the day before. Here
I came upon the small leaves of an Orchis rnorio-laxiflora.
Climbing up a hill on the left, I saw a Red Admiral butterfly ( V.
atalanta) flying about, and on descending the shaly slopes the
other side, where the heat of the sun was most intense, there were
numerous grasshoppers of different sizes and colours jumping and
flying about. One, CEdipoda ccerulescens, with its deep-blue wings
tipped with black ; another species with delicate wings tinged with
pale blue ; and a third, Acridium tartaricum, with a wing expanse
of about 2 1 inches, the wings tinged with lemon yellow, especially
at their base. There were also a good many dried " earth-stars "
(a fungus of the genus Geaster) about loose on the hillside. I
PARASITISM OF PROTOZOA IN CARCINOMA. 187
returned along the back of the castle hill down the winding alleys
of the old town of Hyeres.
In the afternoon of the same day (January 13) I left Hybres,
gathering a few flowers of the little wild marigolds while waiting
for the train as a last piece of collecting The following morning,
on the homeward journey, day broke with a leaden, sunless sky,
showing that I was no longer in the "Sunny South," and that my
" Midwinter Month " had come to an end.
^be Iparaeitism of Iprotosoa in Carcinoma/'
By James Galloway, A.M., M.D, Aber.,
RR.CS. Eng., M.R.C.P. Lond.
Protozoa as Parasites in Animals : Type, the Coccidium
OviFORME IN Rabbits.
AS is now well known, the organisms which have been so fre-
quently mentioned of late in connection with carcinoma
belong to the division of the protozoa ; and if I devote part
of the time at my disposal to the study of a disease characterised
during part of its course by the formation of tumours occurring in
one of the lower animals, and undoubtedly caused by a certain
protozoon, I shall carry out one of the suggestions of Sir James
Paget, who pointed out that much light may be thrown on the
formation of tumours in man by the study of growths in other
organisms, and at the same time fulfil the purpose in my mind,
when I commenced this inquiry, of obtaining a clear idea of some
of the characteristics of the class of micro-organism which is now
suggested as the cause of cancer.
I'he animal which I have chosen as the type of those infested
by protozoa is the rabbit, principally because the life-history of the
parasite, which is the cause of the disease, is very completely
known, and may be looked upon as typical of many others allied
to it in organisation. This affection of rabbits is brought about
* Abstracted from TJie British Medical Journal, by permission of the
editor, to whom also we are indebted for the loan of the illustrations.
188 THE PARASITISM OF
by the influence of one of the sporozoa {Coccidium oviforme^
Leuckhart) which infests the intestine, bile ducts, and livers of
diseased animals, in myriads. The disease is so common in
certain hutches and warrens near London,* that the keepers
recognise it readily, and distinguish it by the " wet snout," which
the affected animals exhibit. It is most fatal in young rabbits ;
which become affected as soon as they cease to suckle and begin
to eat green food. They loose flesh rapidly, suffer from enteritis
of more or less acute character, and many die in from eight to
fifteen days after the initial symptoms. The adult animal is more
rarely infected, and, as a rule, resists the disease. The develop-
ment of the parasite which brings about this very fatal disease may
be considered in two stages, external to and within the host.
Development External to the Body.
The organism as it escapes from the alimentary canal consists
of a firm, translucent cyst, enclosing a quantity of very gran-
ular protoplasm, which fills the whole cavity. The cyst, which
is the striking feature of this period of development, is oval
in shape, and measures about 36 /i in length, and about 22^ in
breadth. Very soon after expulsion, and often while within the
CL
Fig. 47. — a, Coccidium showing capsule full of granular protoplasm; b^
shows condensation of the protoplasm into one sphere, after two
days' growth external to body ; ^, division of the single sphere in-
to four daughter spherules, after four days' development ; d, an
empty ruptured cyst. (From Photographs magnified about ^00.)
* Hutchinson, J., sen., Archives of Surgery^ Vol. iii., 1891.
PROTOZOA IN CARCINOMA. 189
host, the protoplasmic contents contract, and form a sphere lying
free within the cyst wall. Under suitable circumstances this ball
of protoplasm pushes out projections, at first flattened, but soon
becoming more distinct, till at length it divides into four distinct
smaller spherules. Each of these protoplasmic masses becomes
somewhat elongated, and forms, within itself, two crescentic germs
lying in its long axis, leaving unutilised a small nuclear mass. A
wall of less density than the outer cyst is formed round each of
these groups of two germs, and then this stage of development
is complete.
In this condition the parasite seems very resistant to injurious
influences, and is capable of remaining alive for at least 6 months.
Methods.
For the purpose of noting the changes which I have briefly
mentioned, the parasites obtained from recently killed animals may
be placed on a cover glass, and examined as a drop cultivation.
The method which I have found most useful is that recommended
by Professor Delepine, under the name of inter-lamellar films.*
In this way the cycle of development, which I have described,
will be accomplished in less than a week, the transformation into
four daughter cells being noticeable on the third day, at the ordin-
ary temperature of a room.
On commencing these observations, the ordinary bacteriological
processes were made use of, with very little result. Tubes of ster-
ilised blood serum, bouillon, and other media, were utilised, and
the usual precautions observed. Subsequently the inoculated
materials were placed in incubators at temperatures of 2o^C. and
38 '^C. The more elaborate the precautions, however, the less
result was obtained. The organism flourished best when freely
exposed to the atmosphere. And as R. Pfeiffer observes, the
presence of carbonic acid, and the change from the temperature
of the body to the cooler external temperature, aid in their devel-
opment. A warm temperature, and want of free aeration, modify
and even prevent the changes described, and influences of this
sort no doubt account for the very great discrepancies, as to time,
* SeQ /ourn. Micros., Third Series, Vol. i., p. 339, 1891.
190
THE PARASITISM OF
which may be noted between the accounts given by different
observers. I have drawn attention to these facts to show hor'
readily this important external cycle of development may b
influenced.
w
e
Development within the Body.
When an uninfected young rabbit swallows the parasite in the
larval or resting condition just described with its food, the resist-
ing capsules are acted on by the digestive ferments, so that the
crescentic germs already mentioned become free. A new cycle of
intense activity is now observed. These crescents become round-
ed, and probably acquire the power of locomotion. Most of the
naked amoeboid forms of the organism divide into numerous
small crescentic sporules, which, in their turn, also become free,
and it seems probable that this " endogenous sporulation " may
Fig. 48. — Adenoma from Rabbit's liver, caused by the C. Oviforme ;
shows the arrangement of the growth, the condition of the epithe-
lium, and numerous parasites enclosed in the cells, and lying free
in spaces between the processes. (From a photograph magnified
about 100.)
PROTOZOA IN CARCINOMA. 191
be repeated. Thus myriads of young sporozoa are soon found in
the alimentary canal, the gall bladder, and the bile ducts of the
infected animal. In this stage the organisms are very readily
destroyed on being removed from the body, showing a marked
difference, so far as resistance is concerned, when compared to
the organism in its resting stage.
The sporules, on being set free from the mother cell, have the
power of entering the epithelial cells of the affected region, where
they commence a process of growth and differentiation of their
protoplasm, which ends in the production of the encysted parasite.
It is said that several parasites may infect the same epithelial cell,
but, in the adult condition, one parasite is seen to occupy the
greater part of the distal region of the cell body, and no trace of
others can be seen. In course of time the epithelial cell wall is
ruptured, and the parasite escapes, without necessarily causing
destruction of the host cell ; it passes through the alimentary
canal, gains access to the atmosphere, and thus meets the con-
ditions necessary for recommencing the cycle of development.
Anatomical Changes Produced in the Host.
Let me now pass in review the changes produced by this para-
site, whose life history I have described, and especially those in
the liver where the disturbance is most obvious. The liver of an
animal dead of the disease, after the acute stage has passed, or
killed when the condition has become chronic, is studded over
with greyish-white areas, varying in size from a pin's head to that
of a pea, usually rounded, but occasionally somewhat branched in
shape, resembling the aspect of chronic tubercle, a likeness which
is more close as each spot of disease is filled with material which
is apparently caseous. On examining these tumours, however, by
means of microscopic sections, they are found to consist mainly of
epithelium and connective tissue, which is arranged in the form of
a very complex adenoma. The area of the bile duct affected
becomes widened, and the space tiius formed becomes filled up
with the much hypertrophied and convoluted mucous membrane.
The outer margin of the growth is marked off by a layer of well
formed connective tissue, varying in thickness from the surround-
ing hepatic substance. Lining this fibrous layer is the epithelium
102
THE PARASITISM OF
of the bile duct, which, in most places, has not preserved its typ-
ical cubical form, but is somewhat embryonic in character. The
most striking feature of the tumour, however, is the extreme com-
plexity of the processes projecting from the mucous coat. These
projections are very finely branched, and thus the characteristic
convoluted appearance is obtained. They carry with them a small
quantity of fibrous tissue, and, usually, very large thin-walled ves-
sels. Filling up the interstices of this adenomatous structure are
seen multitudes of parasites in many stages of development. Some
are encysted, and in this condition may be observed lying free, or
stilt contained within the epithelial cells of the tumour. Naked
Fig. 49. — a, b, Coccidia occupying epithelial cells of the affected bile
ducts ; c, appearance presented after escape of the parasite.
forms may be seen from the smallest homogeneous globules of
protoplasm, in all stages of granularity of protoplasm, according
to their age, up to the adult form of the encysted parasite in which
the protoplasmic contents of the cyst become very coarsely gran-
ular. These younger forms are seen usually lying embedded in
the epithelial layer. If an animal still suffering from the acute
form of the disease is examined, the crescentic spores, due to
"endogenous sporulation," may be seen if special precautions are
taken.
If the animal recovers from the disease, the tumour just
described commences — apparently in a very short time — to alter
its appearance. Many of the parasites pass out of the body, the
remainder show signs of granular and fatty degeneration, their
cyst walls resisting longest, and being, for some time, obviously
PROTOZOA IN CARCINOMA.
193
empty. The fibrous boundary of the adenoma becomes thicker,
contracts, and, at length, the lesion caused by the attack of the
parasite heals, and its site is marked by a small concentric nodule
of fibrous tissue.
(/
h
Fig. 50. — a, b, Formation of crescentic spores within the daughter sphe-
rules, external to the host (after Balbiani) ; c^ d, sporulation within
the host, division of the spores into numerous crescentic segments.
(After photographs by Pfeiffer magnified 1,000.)
In the small intestine, the areas of mucous membrane affected
show similar changes to those described ; the protozoa penetrate
deeply into the glands, the epithelial cells become infected, the
mucous membrane is thickened, and there results a hypertrophied,
adenomatous condition of the particular area involved.
Inoculation Experiments.
Before passing from this division of my subject, I wish to draw
attention to certain attempts which have been made to produce
this disease by artificial introduction of the organism. Messrs.
Ballance and Shattock attempted to infect certain animals by
means of " psorospermial material," both by subcutaneous inocu-
lation and intravenous injection.* Mr. D'Arcy Power, by means
of specially-devised methods, has sought to produce the disease
by the implantation of coccidia on specially irritated epithelial
surfaces. Dr. R. Pfeiffer has taken coccidia which have passed
through their cycle of development external to the body, and were
thus presumably in a stage capable of causing infection, and injec-
ted them directly into the liver and into the veins of presumably
healthy animals. All these experiments have yielded negative
results, while the feeding of rabbits with ripe coccidia has brought
about the disease in animals presumably healthy ; and, so far as
* Ballance and Shattock: Trans. Path. Soc. Lond.^ vol. xlii., p. 380.
International Journal of Microscopy and Natural Science.
Third Series. Vol. III. o
194 THE PARASITISM OF
we can judge, infection by the alimentary canal is probably the
only method of infection.
Conclusions as to Protozoa in Rabbits.
It may be taken as established in the case of the Coccidium
oviforme attacking the rabbit that :
1. A most important portion of the developmental cycle of
this parasite takes place only external to the body, under aerobic
conditions.
2. Influences occurring outside the body delay, and even pre-
vent the external sporulation of the parasite, thus interfering with
its infective power.
3. The host cannot be infected by coccidia inoculated directly
from animals already suffering, thus proving that the disease,
though infectious, is so only in a very special way.
4. The parasite infects the host by passing into the aUmentary
canal, where it meets suitable conditions for its future development.
5. The parasite enters and grows within epithelial cells without
necessarily destroying them, and causes great proliferation of the
neighbouring epithelium.
The Question of Parasites in Cancer.
Having drawn attention to the development of this well-recog-
nised organism^ and its effect on the tissues, I wish now to consider
certain appearances which may be recognised in carcinomata, and
to inquire what evidence there is of their parasitic character.
It is now more than forty years since Virchow* drew attention
to the structure of certain cells occurring in tumours which
appeared to contain inclusions of extraneous origin. At that
time considerable discussion arose concerning these cell inclusions.
The chief opinions then advanced in explanation of the bodies
under observation were that they arose from the endogenous for-
mation of cells, along with alteration of their nuclei, so as to give
the appearance of homogeneous spheres (Virchow), or that they
were due to the imbibition of albuminous or watery fluids, probably
a part of a degenerative change (Henle, Bruch, and others).
*Virchow, Arch. f. path. Anatomie, etc., Bd. i, 1847, Taf. ii, Fig. 5, /^ and /,
and Band iii.
PROTOZOA IN CARCINOMA. 195
l^'he next series of researches of importance in the history of
parasitic influences on cancer were undertaken as a result of the
great additions which were made to our knowledge of pathological
processes by the investigation of the pathogenic fungi.
After this period, the question of the parasitic origin of carci-
noma seems to have been considered, in most quarters, as one of
those which for all practical purposes was settled definitely in the
negative. About the year 1888, however, the current of opinion
began to change, taking a somewhat different channel. Increased
attention was being paid to the lowest animal organisms, which
had been long overlooked on account of the great interest which
had been taken in the corresponding group of the vegetable king-
dom, and the influence of these as possible factors in disease began
to be more carefully studied.
On looking over the numerous papers written on this subject,*
and especially by comparing the figures given by their authors, the
conclusion which must inevitably be drawn is that the bodies des-
cribed are of the most diverse character, and that undoubtedly
many forms of cell and nuclear degeneration have been made to
do duty as parasites, or are mentioned by the writers as having
been described as parasites.
The Existence of a Parasitic Protozoon in Carcinoma.
Having accounted to myself for many of the peculiar structures
described by various writers, there still remained one series of
appearances which remained to be identified. I now refer to the
cell inclusions which have been noted by various authors. After
having investigated the matter for some time, and examined a large
number of different cancers, I had become still more sceptical than
at the outset of being able to identify any structure which might
be considered with any degree of probability to be parasidc in
character. When I was able to define this body, however, it
became obvious that something totally different from the appear-
ances already noted was under observation. Since that time I
have examined a number of cancers from different regions — breast,
* For the bibliography of this subject refer to papers by Stroebe, Central-
blatt f. path. Anatomie u. allg Pathologic^ Bd. ii, 1891 ; Ruffer and Walker,
Journal of Pathology^ vol. i, 1892.
196
THE PARASITISM OF
liver, alimentary tract, skin, etc. — and I am glad to say that I am
able to corroborate most of the descriptions of the various writers.
The illustrations of this structure will be observed to be in
many cases from cancer of the breast. What holds true about
such typical growths as those of the mamma may be regarded
as being also applicable to most other varieties of cancer.
Description of the Parasite.
I. — In the Cell Body. — Taking, therefore, cancer of the breast
as an example, if careful microscopic examination is made, there
will be found lying, most commonly within the cell body, rounded
or oval structures, varying in most cases from 2/* to lo/^ in diameter,
having, when large, a very distinct capsule, and presenting a smaller
body of variable shape, situated, as a rule, towards the centre of
the capsule. From the capsule there may be seen passing towards
the centre numerous fine radial striations, and the capsule itself
occasionally seems to have similar markings. On the other hand,
passing outwards from the nucleus towards the periphery may be
observed processes of a somewhat different character; they are not
nearly so regular, and appear to be prolongations of the nucleus.
Fig. 5 1 . — From cancer of the breast. Cells showing parasites contained
in the cell body magnified about 800. p, Parasite ; «, Nucleus.
a ^ c
Fig. 52. — Parasites enclosed within the cell body magnified about 800.
These bodies occur usually one in a cell, but there may be
more ; and, in some cases, eight or ten of small size may be seen
PROTOZOA IN CARCINOMA.
197
lying closely together in a cluster. In a successful preparation
each of the small ones may be noticed to contain the usual
nuclear substance.
2. — hi the Cell Nucleus. — Similar structures of smaller size
may be observed lying inside the nucleus of the epitheHal cell.
In this situation the capsule, which is so very characteristic of the
intracellular inclusion, is very slight, and, indeed, appears to be
absent in most cases. The nuclear inclusions may be single, or
may also occur in small groups. Occasionally the bodies may be
Fig. 53. — Cells from different cancers of the breast, showing various
forms of parasites in the cell protoplasm magnified 1,200.
seen partly within and partly without the nucleus, as if they were
passing out from the nucleus into the cell protoplasm. In this
reference I would draw attention to an observation of Dr. Ruffer's*
who has been able to show that, in certain cases, the nucleus seems
to become filled up with numerous small parasites which escape
into the cell protoplasm after having burst through the nucleus.
The presence of the intranuclear forms does not seem to be so
common as the intracellular variety, and, for some reason, they
appear more plentiful in certain cancers than in others. The fea-
tures shown by many preparations strongly favour the idea that in
OL
Fig. 54. — a, b, c, Cells showing single parasites occurring within the
nucleus magnified about 800; d, numerous parasites in the nucleus
and in the cell protoplasm magnified about 1,000.
* Ruffer, British Medical [ournaly vol. ii., 1892, p. 993.
198 THE PARASITISM OF
some cases the inclusions multiply readily within the nucleus, and
ultimately free themselves from the nucleus and gain access to the
surrounding protoplasm.
3. — In the Intercellular Spaces. — Bodies of similar character
may be observed, in much smaller numbers, lying in the intercell-
ular spaces, and more rarely still they may be seen lying two or
three together in lines amongst the fibrous tissue at the margin
of an alveolus, that is to say, in lymphatic vessels. It is difficult
to say whether the latter appearances are accidental, but there
seems to be no doubt that the bodies are of the same character as
the intercellular and intranuclear forms already noted. They give
the reaction which so readily distinguishes the body under con-
sideration from the globules of altered chromatin which are so
often seen in cancer and in other conditions, and with which,
perhaps, they might be confused in unstained preparations.
4. — Position in the Growth. — The position of these bodies is a
fact o-f important significance. They occur with greatest frequency
in rapidly growing cancers, and in those cases where there is the
least sign of cell degeneration. In the case of cancer of the breast
they are found most numerously at the outer margin of the mass of
cancer, or in the outlying alveoli, and in recently infected lymph-
atic glands. On approaching the centre of a mass of growth, or
where degeneration has commenced, they begin to be less readily
recognised, whereas the many varieties of so-called ^'' cancer para-
sites" to which I have drawn attention become more and more
numerous. The disappearance of these characteristic forms must
not be taken as necessarily implying destruction, for it must be
borne in mind how resistant are the adult coccidia in the case of
the rabbit, and how they continue to develop in situations where
their destruction by decomposition would seem inevitable.
It will be gathered from what I have said that I have described
these bodies with so much detail for the purpose of concentrating
special attention on them, as the only bodies yet found which show
any probability of being parasitic. Their occurrence within the
cell as a distinctly foreign substance, their appearance so strongly
suggestive of an organised structure, the staining reactions which
they give so distinct from those presented by the normal contents
of cells, their great analogy in this latter respect, and especially in
PROTOZOA IN CARCINOMA.
199
their behaviour within the cell, and possibly also external to it, to
well-known species of sporozoa recognized as parasitic in animals,
all point forcibly to the conclusion that these bodies, though not
necessarily coccidia, are nevertheless protozoa, and are parasitic in
cancerous epithelium.
Fig. 55. — a, b, Groups of cells containing intracellular parasites magni-
fied about 1,000 ; c, cancer alveolus from edge of rapidly growing
carcinoma of breast, showing numerous parasites magnified about
400.
Methods.
At an early period of this investigation it occurred very natu-
rally to me that cancers had been probably the most frequently
investigated, from the histological standpoint, of all abnormal
tissues, and yet these bodies had not been described. I examined
many old specimens of cancers prepared by myself in this labor-
atory for an investigation on totally different lines, and I also
examined a number of excellent preparations kindly lent me by a
friend, and prepared some years ago, when the question of para-
sitism was not being discussed ; in none of them could I obtain
satisfactory evidence of the parasite under consideration. The
cancers from which the preparations were made were hardened by
200 THE PARASITISM OF
immersion in Miiller's fluid or chromic acid, and spirit. Being
now accustomed to recognise this parasite, faint traces of them
were observed in places, but nothing satisfactory nor convincing.
The reason is, I beheve, that the material was not properly pre-
pared for the purpose.
Methods of Fixing. — The way in which I now attempt to
proceed is to obtain the material as soon as possible from the
operating table, fresh specimens being much more satisfactory to
handle afterwards than material obtained from the post-mortem
room. Pieces of small size {\ inch square) are then placed, one
set in Flemming's fixing solution, and another set in corrosive
sublimate, or in Foa's fixing solution. After remaining in the fixing
solution for a sufficient time, the pieces of tissue are thoroughly
washed, hardened in successive strengths of alcohol, embedded in
paraffin, and cut in the usual manner.
Methods of Staining. — The staining reagents which have been
found most useful are hsematoxylin (Ehrlich) alone, or with some
ground stain (rose bengale, eosin, etc.), and the Biondi triple stain.
The reason for having the preparations fixed in two different ways
is that Flemming's solution fixes the cell elements more sharply
and definitely than any other not containing osmic acid, and if the
parasites are present in the piece of tissue to be examined one
feels sure of finding them. The staining reaction, however, with
an osmic acid fixing reagent is not very brilliant, and for this
reason it is well to have the other series of preparations at hand
to obtain staining reactions if required.
Flemming's solution, followed by haematoxylin, gives, to my
eyes, as good results in the way of sharpness of definition as can
be obtained ; the epithelial cell nuclei take up the haematoxylin in
the normal way, but do not bear the same tone of blue as that
shown by the parasites ; in the case of the " Biondi " reagent — so
strongly recommended by Dr. Ruffer and Mr. Walker — the dis-
tinctive colouring is much more striking and beautiful, and its
results are well seen in the beautiful drawings accompanying their
paper.
I would add, in reference to the matter of staining, that the
secret of discovering the bodies is in the fixing and hardening of
the preparations ; no precaution should be thrown aside in carry-
PROTOZOA IN CARCINOMA. 201
ing out these processes. If this is well done, the observer need
not seek far for stains if he wishes simply to see the parasite. A
perfect differential stain to pick out the bodies alone is still to be
found. The nuclear stains, such as methyl green, haematoxylin,
are not very suitable for that purpose ; like the coccidia in the
rabbit's liver, the parasite seems to prefer general protoplasmic
stains, and, acting on this principle, the best results of which I am
aware have been obtained by Mr. Plimmer, who has used aniUne
blue as the special stain for the organism.
In all well-prepared specimens there is no difficulty in distin-
guishing the parasite from the ordinary forms of cell degeneration.
It may be of interest to remark in this connection, that when the
coccidia in the rabbit's liver were being first investigated, certain
pathologists declared the appearances of this now well-known
parasite as being given rise to by alterations in the surrounding
liver tissue.*
Conclusion.
The further questions which arise — namely, can the parasites
be observed " undergoing reproduction," and can they be observed
developing outside the body ? What influence have they on epi-
thelial cell multiplication ? and, finally, have they a causative
influence on cancer ? — are now the points to be investigated ; and
it must not be considered a reproach if, as yet, no definite answer
may be given. It will be remembered that, although the very
characteristic Coccidium oviforme was recognised so long ago as the
year 1839 by Hake in this country, it is only within the last few
months that the description of the processes, apparently completing
our knowledge of the anatomical changes in the life history of
this organism and accounting for the enormous rapidity of its mul-
tiplication within the body of its host, have been made known by
Dr. R. Pfeiffer.
* Lang, Archiv. f. path. Anatom., etc., Bd. 44.
Celluloid. — A new and rather surprising use, says Aiithony's
Bulleti?!^ has been discovered and patented by Mr. C. H. Koyl, of
Euston, Pa., for Celluloid. By silvering the back of a sheet of
this material, Mr. Koyl has succeeded in producing a looking-glass
which is not only of excellent quality, but is much less destructible,
and has also the advantage of being bent or formed into any shape.
[ 202 ]
Iprot i£. (3. Balbiani'e IReeearcbee on tbe
flDerotomv of CUtatcb 3nfu6onan6,*
By Filandro Vicentini, M.D. (Chieti, Italy).
PROF. Balbiani defines Merotomy as being the operation
which consists in the separating or cutting from a living
organism, a more or less considerable portion, for the
purpose of observing the anatomical and physiological modifica-
tions of the isolated part.
In a previous paper f on the subject of artificial division, Prof.
Balbiani traced the work of earlier writers, and gave a detailed
account of the structure of Cyrtostomum leucas, and his study of
the effects of merotomy on this species. He found that the
merozoite, or fragment of the individual, which contained the
nucleus, or a part of the nucleus, was alone capable of regenera-
tion — namely, of constituting an individual similar, though smaller,
to the original. Studies of Trachelis ovum and Prorodo7i nivens
yielded essentially the same results.
In the present work. Prof. Balbiani describes some interesting
experiments which he has made upon Stentor cceruleus. After
comparing them with those of Gruber on the same species, he
gives a detailed account of the various phases presented, from
which we abstract the following : —
A.— Merotomy of S. cceruleus by artificial division.— In
transverse sections intersecting the nuclear chain the anterior
merozoite has to reproduce the rudder and the posterior sucker,
but these are generated in less than twelve hours. The pos-
terior merozoite has to reproduce a mouth, a peristome, and a
new contractile vesicle. Should the Stefitor be divided into three
fragments, the middle one, containing a portion of the nuclear
chain, regenerates in twenty-four hours the missing extremities, and
the other portions behave as above. Should either of the pieces
not contain a portion of the nucleus, it is not converted into a
complete individual ; but the protoplasm degenerates, becoming
spongy, and dies in about twenty-four to forty-eight hours.
* Annales de Micro. , I v. (1892), pp. 396 — 407, 449 — 489 (3 plates).
\ Recueil Zool. Suisse, v. (1888), pp. i — 72 (2 plates).
THE MEROTOMY OF CILIATED INFUSORIANS. 203
B.— Merotomy of Stentor by fission.— When the Stentor
approaches the phase of fission, its nuclear chain shrinks up into
a rounded mass. The author shows, first, the part allotted to the
nucleus ; and then that each offset resulting fi:om the division of
the primitive individual acquires by means of the plasm its own
individuality before finally separating. He also finds that fission
does not take place if each of the offsets do not contain a nucleus
of its own.
C— Merotomy of Stentor by Conjugation.— Stentors in conju-
gating unite together at the anterior extremities ; the nuclei of the
two individuals dissolve, and in their stead the micro-nuclei mul-
tiply by karyokinesis (or indirect division). On the separation of
the two individuals a new nucleus and nuclear chain appear in each.
The new nucleus '^ appears to be due to the blending of the micro-
nuclear substances of the two individuals.
At the end of his paper Balbiani summarises his experiments
and his opinions as to their results as follows : —
(i) The more or less large fragments which are separated from
the body of a Stentor generally close quite easily the wound pro-
duced by the section. This closing takes place almost immediately
owing to the contractility of the muscular fibres of myonemes (the
fibres of Lieberkiihn). When the w^ound is very large its closing is
often incomplete, and imbibition is then probably delayed, as in
the normal lacerations of the cuticle described by Schuberg, by
the superficial coagulation of the denuded plasm.
(2) The local modifications of the wound and the contractions
of the body which aid in closing it must be considered as pheno-
mena of excitation determined by traumatism. This excitation
can be observed also in the movements of locomotion, where they
are manifested by a more rapid and less regular agitation of the
vibratile cilia, as well as by a greater frequency of diastrophy or
inversion of the normal direction of swimming.
(3) The phenomena of excitation may be observed as well in
those merozoites containing nuclei as in those without any. After
* In his previous researches (1861 — 62) Balbiani regarded the nucleus as
an ovarium and the nucleoli as a testis. (On the conjugation of the infusoria
and other relative questions, see Carpenter, " The Microscope and its Revela-
tions," 7th edition, by Dallinger, 1891, pp. 709 — 712.)
204 THE MEROTOMY OF CILIATED INFUSORIANS.
the period of excitation — which is generally of short duration —
and when the laws of equilibrium are not too profoundly disturbed,
the fragments regain their normal orientation and regularity of
movement — behaving, in a word, like ordinary Stentors.
(4) The most apparent and remarkable phenomenon of
merotomy is the rapid and complete regeneration of those mero-
zoites which contain the whole or part of a nucleus, a single
segment of the nuclear chain being enough to induce regeneration
as rapidly and completely as that performed by the entire nucleus.
Regeneration is generally completed in about twenty-four hours,
varying according to the temperature.
(5) Should the peristome be removed, it is re-formed by a
rudiment which, as in reproduction by division, appears first in
that part of the ventral surface to which Schuberg has given the
name of the branching zone (Verastelungszone). The new peri-
stome is completed by a mouth and an adoral zone, which are also
formed as in the process of division. The contractile vesicle is
not reproduced as a new organic formation of the plasm, but by a
simple local dilatation of the previous excretory system. The
reconstitution of the nuclear chain is the last act in the regenera-
tion of the merozoite. It takes place by successive divisions of
the nuclear particles which the merozoite first contained. The
new particles having the same volume as the primitive particles, it
results that the nuclein increases at the expense of the plasm.
The regeneration of the merozoite is sometimes followed by a ten-
dency to multiplication by division ; in other words, to a second
reproduction of new parts. But these are soon reabsorbed, and
the individual reappears in its original aspect. This phenomenon
is probably caused by a superabundant physiological activity
of the nucleus induced by the lesion.
(6) The merozoites which do not contain any part of the
nucleus never form a complete individual. They present a short
period of excitation, which is manifested in the same way as in
those containing a nucleus. When a merozoite without a nucleus
contains a mouth or anus, it ingests food or rejects the undigested
masses like a normal individual. The nucleus is thus shown to
have no influence over the ingestion or rejection of food. Mero-
zoites without a nucleus do not survive more than from twenty-four
THE MEROTOMY OF CILIATED INFUSORIANS. 205
to forty-eight hours at most ; the cause of death is the alteration
of the plasm, which presents a vacuolated or spongy aspect owing
to aqueous imbibition, and probably also to the arrest of the
functions of assimilation. The principal seat of aqueous imbibi-
tion is probably the wound, owing to its not being completely
closed. The same cause which prevents the reproduction of the
lost parts prevents also the disappearance of the irregularities of
form which are often the consequence of traumatism and which
give rise to the merozoite. These irregularities fully disappear in
the course of regeneration among the nucleated merozoites.
(7) The opinion of Gruber that the nucleus is necessary to
give an impulse to the formation of new organs and useless for the
further development of these organs is inexact. The presence of
the nucleus is indispensable at all stages in the formation of the
organs.
(8) When a merozoite without a nucleus has been taken from
an individual which is preparing for spontaneous division, but has
not yet shown any sign of outward contraction, the division of the
merozoite takes place as if it continued to form part of the intact
individual ; but, whilst this would have given birth to two com-
plete buds, the merozoite produces only portions of the two buds
which would have formed at the expense of the mass of plasm
which composed it.
The division is but rarely carried to a complete separation of
the two parts. As soon as it arrives at a certain stage, a retrograde
movement takes place, and the two parts are again mingled in a
common mass, which is destroyed by degeneration. When one of
the two parts is only a miniature of the other, it sometimes be-
comes completely independent, but soon perishes. It is to be
inferred from this observation that the impulse which determines
the division of the plasm comes from the plasm itself and not from
the nucleus, but that the nucleus is necessary to sustain this
impulsion and carry the division to the end.
(9) The micro-nucleus, whether alone or accompanied by the
nucleus, takes no part in the regeneration or other vital manifesta-
tion of the plasm. Its object is to intervene in the phenomenon
of conjugation ; it is, to use Biitschli's expression, a sexual nucleus
(Geschlechtsken).
206 THE MEROTOMY OF CILIATED INFUSORIANS.
(lo) The non-intervention of the micro-nucleus in the vital
phenomenon of the plasm is also proved by the fact that it has no
influence over the intracellular absorption of the parts of the old
nucleus at the time of conjugation. It is only when by its fusion
with the congeneric element of another individual thus becoming
a truly active nucleus, that it effects the absorption of the old
nucleus. This absorption, which has a great analogy with the
digestion and assimilation of food, is probably due to a secretion
having its seat in the plasm, and which is dependent on the
nucleus as in the other secretions of the Protozoa.
(ii) The fragments which have been separated by artificial
division from a Stentor in the state of conjugation are regenerated
when the segments of the nucleus which these fragments contain
present a clear and homogeneous appearance — a sign of their
vitality. In the more advanced stages when these segments
appear grey and granular — a sign of their approaching disorgani-
sation — regeneration does not take place, but the fragments con-
taining them degenerate and die. But these fragments regain the
power of regeneration when the new nucleus makes its appearance
in the plasm and exercises its functions as an active element, as
previously described.
Prof. Balbiani is of the opinion that the physiological influence
of conjugation is clearly shown by these experiments.
It is related by the British Consul at Cadiz, Spain, in illustra-
tion of the perfection with which natural wine can be imitated by
modern chemical methods, that he and a friend, visiting one of the
native sherry cellars there, were given two samples of wine to
drink, which seemed to be almost identical ; and when told that
one was a natural product, and very costly (250 dols., equal to
;^5o, a bottle), while the other was a manufactured product, the
market price of which was only a few cents a bottle. In making
the imitation, the natural product is first analysed, and the chemist,
ascertaining the exact nature of its constituent parts, is able to
combine them, and thus nearly reproduce the original compound.
[ 207 ]
mb^ aboulb not 3njccte& flDaterial
be 1bar&eneb as carefully as ©rMnar^ /IDatenal ?
By Prof. V. A. Latham, D.D.S., Chicago University.
IT is time to consider the vast importance attached at the
present time to micro work, that greater attention should be
paid to the matter of hardening. Why this is so badly
attended to is scarcely to be understood. If it can be neglected
without detriment, why need we trouble to do it at all ? To this
many will answer, why, to keep the parts in a good condition.
Then is this true where the hardening is not thoroughly done ?
We aim to preserve the cells and tissues in as natural a state as
possible, to keep the tissue as near as possible to the original con-
dition, to prevent shrinkage of the elements ; and here we
require every care, so as to be able, in pathological growths, to
distinguish the particular kinds of neoplasm, as, for example, a
large or small round-celled sarcoma, or a spindle-celled from a
round-celled. These are important, and if badly hardened the
spindle-cells shrink so as to make them nearly round in appear-
ance. Injected material is useless for good histological or
pathological work, if not hardened well.
A slide should show the cell and tissue-structure quite as
clearly as the course of the blood-vessels, lymphatics, or bile-
ducts, for otherwise we do not get the correct idea of their re-
lationship to the cells, etc. To-day the idea of a slide to show
injections, and another for the structure, is out of place, when
they both can be so well done. Alcohol is only permissible as a
hardening agent in very small, thin pieces of tissue, where rapid
examination for diagnosis is desired, and here very great care
should be used to have the alcohol in varied strengths, using a
weak solution for a few hours, a stronger for a little longer time,
until complete hardening is done in strong alcohol. The abstrac-
tion of the water from the tissues by the alcohol, and its power of
coagulation, rendered it a little dangerous for hardening for
diagnosis, or for preserving micro-organisms in the tissues.
Chromic acid, i/6th per cent. (2 parts of solution of acid and i of
spirit, stir), as advised by Klein, is decidedly one of the best and
most reliable agents known, but it has its objections — that the
208 HARDENING OF INJECTED MATERIAL.
material must be cut into small cubes, and its power of rendering
micro-organisms z/«stainable. For objects in bulk, as amputations,
small or large animals, if an opening be made in the abdomen
and thorax, so the fluid will penetrate, Miiller is the best agent,
and it does not interfere with the staining of micro organisms.
Its objections are the length of time it takes, and the slight
colouring of the tissues by the potassium bichromate, though
this, by frequent washing with running water, can be aided, pre-
vious to the tissue being put into weak spirit to the strong, or by
a 5 per cent, solution of hydrate of chloral. Chromo-osmic
acetic acid is also good for small tissues.
The main point to be remembered is, we require to fix the
elejtients as soon after death as possible, by an agent which will not
contract the tissues too suddenly, by abstracting the water too quickly
a?td coagulatifig the albumen. These methods of hardening are
the best also for injected tissues, if used ice cold when the gelatin
masses are employed. I find a good way is to use the solution of
Miiller to keep the animal in whilst injecting with hot masses, as
gelatin, instead of the ordinary hot water.
Mbi? Xeavee Cbange Colour*
A BOTANIST has thus explained in Forest and Stream why
leaves change colour : — The green matter in the tissues of
a leaf is composed of two colours — red and blue. When
the sap ceases to flow in the fall and the natural growth of the tree
ceases, oxidation of the tissue takes place. Under certain condi-
tions, the green of the leaf changes to red ; under different
conditions, it takes on a yellow or brown tint. This difference in
colour is due to the difference in combination of the original con-
stituents of the green tissue and to the varying conditions of
climate, exposure, and soil. A dry, cold climate produces more
brilliant foliage than one that is damp and warm. This is the
reason that the American autumns are so much more gorgeous
than those of England.
There are several things about leaves that even science cannot
explain. For instance, why one of two trees growing side by side,
of the same age and having the same exposure, should take on a
brilliant red in the fall and the other should turn yellow ; or why
one branch of a tree should be highly coloured and the rest of the
tree have only a yellow tint, are questions which are as impossible
to answer as why one member of a family should be perfectly
healthy and another sickly.
[ 209 ]
Bote on Xavatera Hrborea
(Ube Uvcc /IDallow),
By R. Lawton Roberts, M.D.
I HAVE received from a friend in the Channel Islands a section
of a stem of the Tree Mallow {Lavatera Arborea), and it is
of such prodigious dimensions that the plant from which it
was cut must have been quite exceptional in point of size.
Turning to the third edition of Sowerby's " Botany " (edited
by Syme), I find that the " stem " of Lavatera Arborea is stated to
be " woody, 2 to 8 feet high, ajid in large examples often i inch in
diameter.'"' (The italics are my own.)
Now, I have kept my bit of stem for some months, so some
shrinkage has taken place, yet I find it measures over 5 inches in
diameter in one direction and 4 inches in another, and a good
15 inches in circumference. I am informed that the girth of the
fresh stem was uniformly 16 inches or just over, up to a point
3 feet from the ground, where it branched.
The history of this giant amongst mallows is soon told. A
Mr. Dancaster erected for himself a dwelling near the shore of
St. Owen's Bay, Jersey ; and in September, 1891, this gentleman
cleared a small portion of the adjacent ground. Soon afterwards
he noticed a number of seedlings of Lavatera Arborea shooting up,
and, as the ground was not required for some months, the young
plants were left unmolested. On October loth, 1892, when my
friend visited the spot, a little forest of monster tree mallows had
sprung up ; but of these luxuriantly growing plants, which num-
bered over a score, only one had attained the enormous dimen-
sions already described.
"The height of the main stem," writes my friend, "was 3 feet
and the girth wiiformly 16 inches or just over to the point whence
it branched. It was a fine plant for one of the Malvacece^ the
topmost leaves being quite 8 feet high."
The rapidity of growth of this specimen seems remarkable,
since the unusual girth of the stem was attained in thirteen
months from the time the plant first showed as a seedling.
The Tree Mallow — though usually considered rare — grows
International Journal of Microscopy and Natural Science.
New Series. Vol. III. p
210 MICROSCOPICAL TECHNIQUE.
freely in Jersey ; and, since the usual habitat of the plant is found
to be " maritime rocks," it is probable that the greater fertility of
the cleared soil near the shore of St. Owen's Bay was the cause of
the excessive luxuriance and size of the samples of Lavatera
Arborea seen by my friend on October loth, 1892.
flDfcroecopical tlccbnique.
Compiled by W. H. B.
Substitute for Glass for Covers and Slides."^— In using Cellu-
loid — viz., wood rendered soluble in ether and alcohol with gum
camphor — for films for microphotography, Dr. Edwards was struck
with the idea that it could be used in microscopy. It is much
cheaper than glass, and almost as transparent. Being unbreakable
and very light, it is especially valuable for sending by post. It is
stronger than wood, has no fibre, and can be cut readily with
scissors. It can be obtained with a ground surface as well as
plain. The thin celluloid films commonly used for instantaneous
coverers can be employed for covers, whilst the thicker kind used in
ordinary photography makes capital slides. Dr. Edwards has some
an inch square, and mounts them temporarily on a glass slide for
use on the microscope.
Preparing Artemia fertilis.f— Dr. J. E. Talmage finds that the
mounting of Artemia fertilis^ the brine shrimp, is by no means a
simple undertaking ; most of the ordinary media either causes the
delicate structure to become distorted or produces such a trans-
parency as renders the whole object invisible. The method which
he now uses is to mount them in a preparation of the lake water
(the lake from which he gathers his specimens is the Great Salt
Lake, Utah), with corrosive sublimate and an alcoholic solution of
carbolic acid. The living Artemi(B are placed direct into this
fluid ; they die quickly, in so doing spreading themselves out most
perfectly. Before mounting, he makes a very shallow cell of hot
paraffin and balsam, and after the cover-glass is in position he
* Microscopical Notes ^ by Dr. A. M. Edwards, Newark, N.Y., U.S.A.
t The Microscope, xii. (1892), pp. 238—240.
MICROSCOPICAL TECHNIQUE. 211
rings the edge with a very Httle of the same material, following this
with repeated layers of cement (King's preferred).
Examination of the Blood of Amphibia."^— Herr M. C. Dek-
huyzen uses test-tubes holding 8 ccm. and having a diameter of
14 mm. These are placed in a wooden stand and filled with the
fixation fluid or with simple salt solution. In the latter case they
are filled first with water and boiled, and the slides are also treated
in the same way ; the cover-glasses are cleared with acetic acid and
water, and, after drying, with ether. The two fluids used were —
(a) [i] A 2 per cent, solution of osmic acid, [2] 6 per cent, acetic
acid containing 24 per cent, of a watery solution of methylen-
blue, and a little (o"oi4 per cent.) acid fuchsin ; (d) the other
fluid contained 20 volumes of acetic acid mixed with 80 volumes
of methylen-blue solution, 6 volumes of this fluid mixed with 14
volumes of i/sth per cent, solution of acid fuchsin gave the
required concentration.
Before every fixation 2 ccm. of the last deep-blue mixture was
well mixed with 6 ccm. of 2 per cent, osmic acid and placed in
small tubes, which were filled up to the top.
It is important to be very careful in allowing the blood when it
comes from the blood-vessels to come into the most intimate
contact with the fixing mixture. The blood-cells sink to the
bottom. After thirty minutes a drop of the fluid should be placed
on a slide, and then some of the bottom be drawn up and added
to it ; the cover-glass should be run round with xylol balsam. The
preparations must be kept from the light.
Sterilising Incoagulable Alb umen.t—M. E. Marchal suggests
that the action of certain salts may be utilised to prevent the
coagulation of egg-albumen when heated to 100 deg. These salts
are borate of soda, sulphate of iron, and nitrate of urea. The
following are the quantities of these substances to be used for the
purpose : — Solutions of 2 to 5 percent. : — Borate of soda, '05 grm.
per litre ; sulphate of iron, "001 — '006 grm. per litre. Solutions of
* Journ. R. Mic. Soc, 1893, P- ^l^; from the Verhandl. Anat. Gescll..
1892, pp. 90—93-
\ Journ. R. Mtcr. Soc, 1893, p. 112 ; from the Bull. Acad. Roy. Set. de
Belgique, xxiv. (1892), pp. 323 — 27.
212 MICROSCOPICAL TECHNIQUE.
lo per cent. : — Nitrate of urea, 4 to 5 grm. per litre, Thus pre-
pared, the liquids may be sterilised at 100 deg. in cultivation flasks.
It is hardly necessary to point out that nitrate of urea should
not be used to prevent the coagulation of albumen if the experi-
ments relate to nutrition or fermentation of matter containing
albumen.
Preparing and Staining Yeast."*^— For fixing preparations of
yeast, Dr. H. Moeller uses a i per cent, solution of iodide of
potassium saturated with iodine, this fluid ten times diluted, and
also iodine-water. The material and the fixative may be mixed
together at once or upon the cover-glass, which merely requires a
smear. When fixed and dried the preparation must be thoroughly
hardened. This may be done by leaving the preparations in the
iodine solution for a day, and then, after washing in water and
weak spirit, keeping them in absolute alcohol for one or two days.
The time required for hardening may be diminished by repeatedly
boiling the alcohol, and the preparations are more clearly stained
if they are then immersed in chloroform for a day. It is always
useful to pass the cover-glasses once or twice through the flame.
The preparations are best stained by means of hsem.atein and
picric acid, the latter acting as a mordant. But it is essential that
the preparations should be thoroughly fixed and hardened ; they
may then be treated with a saturated aqueous solution of picric
acid for from half-an-hour to three hours. The preparation is then
passed through water so as to wash off some, but not all, of the
picric acid. For staining, an alkaline solution of haematoxylin is
used. It would not appear, however, that the foregoing staining
was more advantageous than that with aniline, of which the fol-
lowing were successfully employed : — Phenol-fuchsin, alkaline,
methylen-blue. Gram's method, and also gentian-violet in carbolic
acid, water, glycerin, i per cent, acetic acid, and i per cent, iodide
of potash.
If the anilin dyes are used, the preparation should be over-
stained and then differentiated by some decolorant ; if Gram's
method be adopted, alcohol must be used ; but for other stains a
*Journ. R. Micr. Soc, 1893, pp. 1 18 — 1 19 ; from the Centralb.f. Bakteriol.
u. Parasitenk., xii. (1892), pp. 537 — 50.
MICROSCOPICAL TECHNIQUE. 213
mixture of equal volumes of glycerin and water was found to give
the best result. As soon as the desired degree of decolorisation
is attained, the preparation is washed in water, dried in the air,
and mounted in balsam, styrax, or dammar.
The grana or microsomes were best brought out by staining
with some anilin dye and then differentiating with 2 per cent,
acetic acid.
Spores are very easily stained by treating the preparation with
boiling phenol-fuchsin and then washing out in 4 per cent, sul-
phuric acid.
The yeasts used for these observations were natural cultiva-
tions of ordinary bottom yeasts. The yeast was shaken up with
distilled water, and then, after settling, the fluid decanted off.
The sediment, after having been thus treated several times, was
kept for observations.
Minute Structure of Butter."^— J. Ferdinand points out that,
when microscopically examined, the fat-cells of pure butter
appear round and regular. Granular masses of casein and albu-
minous matters may be seen in addition if the butter has not been
prepared carefully, and occasionally spores or filaments of penicil-
lium are present under these circumstances. Added animal fat (as
in margarine) shows crystals, either separate or in groups. The
polariscope and selenite plate are of use in examining these.
Aniline Dyes as Antiseptics.t— Dr. C. Prioux points out that
solutions of pyoktanin and gentian violet in the strength of i : 100
prevent the development of micro-organisms. Weaker solutions
(i : 500 and even i : 2000) arrest the cultures of the typhoid
bacillus and B. coli communis. One per cent, solutions of safra-
nin hinder the development of Eberth's bacillus, and it is main-
tained that the violet anilines constitute the most powerful
antiseptics.
Glycerine Jelly for Mounting.^— The difficulty of satisfactorily
enclosing micro-mounts prepared with pure glycerine has induced
* Journal d^ Hygienic.
\ Merck'' s Bulletin.
X PharviacetUical Journal.
214 MICROSCOPICAL TECHNIQUE.
many workers to substitute glycerine jelly wherever practicable.
Many formulae have been published for this medium, but one
recently published by J. E. Huber possesses a degree of novelty
in that he excludes the use of water as one of the ingredients.
He recommends that clear gelatine (i drachm) be allowed to
macerate in glycerine (ijoz. by weight) overnight, and that the
mixture should then be heated in a water-bath until solution is
perfect. Specimens to be mounted should be soaked first in
dilute, then in stronger glycerine, afterwards placed on a slide with
as little dilute glycerine as possible, and covered with hot jelly.
After cooling, the cover-glass is placed over the object, heat applied
to the slide, and the cover pressed down into position when the
jelly melts. On cooHng overnight the slide may be cleaned and
finished off. The mounts are stated to be free from the liability
to shrinkage that often occurs when glycerine jelly is used.
Notes on Bone Technique.— In the section " Microscopy " in
the American N'aturalist for June, 1892, Dr. C. O. Whitman gives
the following notes for preparing sections of bone : — " In prepar-
ing bones for sectioning, it is w^ell to have fresh material taken from
a young individual. After the soft parts are removed, the bone is
cut into short pieces, and then macerated in water until the
medulla is easily washed out. They are then ready to section.
Preparations nearly as good as those obtained by maceration
may be made from fresh tissue. Thin sections are cut from the
desired region with a fine saw. From these the medulla should
be carefully washed out under a jet of water ; they are then
ground until the desired thinness is reached, again washed, dried,
and mounted. The grinding may be done with a file or on a
revolving grindstone, or with emery on a dentist's lathe,* or
between pieces of compact pumice stone, followed by hones of
finer grain, and finally polished on a piece of smooth leather or
buckskin, covered with powdered chalk.
Another method is to grind the bone on a glass plate with
emery of different degrees of fineness. This may be accomplished
by pressing the section down with the fingers, or it may be fas-
tened to a cork by means of sealing-wax or thick balsam. It is
then polished on one side until smooth ; then the wax of balsam
* Healey, Anier. Mon. Mic7'o. Journ., 1884.
MICROSCOPICAL TECHNIQUE. 215
is melted, the section turned and polished on the other side until
the required thinness is reached. Only compact tissue can be
prepared by this method. The spongy tissue, being delicate, must
be embedded before sectioning. This may be done according to
the method given by Wiel,* Koch's copal method, t or a mixture
of ten parts resin and one of ordinary wax may be used. J The
objects should be placed in a very fluid, but not too hot, solution
of the above, and after a short time lifted out with forceps, leaving
as much of the mixture as possible adhering to the object. When
cool, the mass may be cut into thin sections and ground in the
ordinary way, washed and cleaned in turpentine, and mounted in
balsam. If an opaque preparation be desired, the embedding
mass is removed by washing in chloroform and the sections dried
between sheets of filter-paper and mounted.
A very convenient method is given by Ranvier.§ The frag-
ment of bone is placed in a syrupy solution of gum arable, and
when saturated it is exposed to the air until the gum thickens ; it
is then hardened in alcohol From this mass sections are made and
ground in the usual way, except that alcohol is used to wet the hone
instead of water. When ground sufficiently thin, the gum is dis-
solved in water and the section is ready to mount. According to the
method of mounting, either opaque or transparent preparations are
made. For the study of Haversian canals, lacunae, and canaliculi,
the former is better. To obtain an opaque preparation, a drop of
balsam is placed on the slide and heated over a spirit-lamp to
evaporate the oil. It is then cooled and tested by a needle. If
hard, the balsam is again softened and the dry section placed in
it ; at the same time a drop of balsam is placed on the cover-
glass, which is applied, and the whole transferred to a cold surface.
This should be done as quickly as possible, in order that the
balsam may solidify before penetrating the cavities. If, on the
other hand, we wish to study osseous lamellae as stained prepara-
tions, the section is first placed in a solvent of balsam, then trans-
ferred to a warm solution of balsam until the entire canalicular
system is filled, when it is mounted."
* Zeit,f. I'Viss. Alikros., Bd. iv., p. 200, 1888.
t Whitman's Embryological Methods^ p. 233.
t Ehrenbaum, Zeit. f. IViss. Mikros., Bd. I., p. 14, 1884. § Traite^ p. 249.
[ 216 ]
motce.
DR. A. Rothpletz {Botanisches Centralblatt, 1892, pages
265 — 68) advances an interesting theory as to the for-
mation of oolite. An examination of calcareous material
from the shore of the Great Salt Lake, Utah, U.S.A., revealed the
fact that they were covered with a bluish-green coating, which con-
sisted of colonies of the lime-secreting algae, Glceocapsa and
Gloeotheca. The lime enclosed by the alga is in roundish masses
and is of a finely granular texture. Dr. Rothpletz says they are
undoubtedly produced by these algse. He has also investigated
the oolitic bodies from the shores of the Red Sea, and believes
that they are produced by similar algae. Analogous structures are
described from the limestone of the Vilser Alps. The author is
of the opinion that the greater number of the marine calcareous
oolites with a regularly zoned and radial structures are produced
by these algse.
Apropos of the Great Salt Lake, Dr. J. E. Talmage, in the
Microscope for December last, disposes of the assertion, often made,
that no living thing can exist in its waters. He records the pre-
sence of four forms : — i, Artemia fertilis, Verrill, abounding in
large numbers ; 2, Larvae of one of the Tipulidae, probably Chi-
ronomus oceaniciis (Packard) ; 3, A species of Lorixa, probably
C. decolar (Uhler); and lastly, the larvae and pupae of a fly,
Ephydra gracilis (Packard). He also considers that the "vege-
table life of the lake is a subject worthy of investigation."
Hitherto the two groups of Macro- and Micro-lepidoptera into
which butterflies and moths have been divided have been charac-
terised by the former including all the large and conspicuous
species, and the latter only containing small and inconspicuous
moths. In a recent communication to the Entomological Society
of London, Dr. Chapman has endeavoured to raise the Micros in
general favour by transferring to that group several of our finest
moths. According to him, the pupa of the Goat-Moth {Cossus
ligniperda) possesses all the characteristics of a typical micro-lepi-
dopterous pupa, and for a similar reason the genera Sesia^ Zygcena^
Frocris, and Hepialus ought to be placed among the micros. The
loss of the pretty burnets, clearwings, and foresters will hardly be
welcome news to the macro-lepidopterist, nor will the disturbance
of a well-arranged drawer of micros, to make room for the large
and chronically " greasy " goat and swift moths, be considered an
altogether favourable change. Still, other elements besides the
NOTES. 217
structure of the pupa must necessarily be taken into consideration
before a satisfactory system of classification is arrived at, and Dr.
Chapman's views will probably afford material for considerable
discussion. It is not so many years since the genus Psyche was
removed from the Bombyces (where it formed a striking contrast
to the giant Saturfiias) and placed in the micro-lepidoptera.
Mr. T. Mellard Reade, in the Geological Magazine for March,
supplies the latest computation as to the age of the earth. He
says : — " The mean area of denudation throughout post-Archaean
times being taken as one-third the entire land-areas of the globe,
the bulk of the post-Archaean rocks being expressed by the land
area of the globe two miles thick, and the rate of denudation one
foot in 3,000 years ; the time of accumulation will be 5280 x 2
X 3000 X 3 = 95,040,000. The time that has elapsed since the
commencement of the Cambrian is, therefore, in round figures 95
millions of years ^ The italics are Mr. Reade's.
At the February meeting of the R.M.S., the Rev. Dr. VV. H.
Dallinger, in discussing Mr. Nelson's paper on the chromatic
curves of microscope lenses, pointed out that unless some means
could be devised to allow of the employment of the shorter wave-
lengths of the spectrum, we had nearly reached the limits of visual
possibility with the means at present at our disposal. He also
considered that there could be little doubt that all who believed in
the advantage of monochromatic light foresaw that there must be
lenses specially prepared for its use.
Electric Light and Plant Structure. — G. Bonnier has
conducted some interesting experiments to ascertain how the
structure of herbaceous plants is influenced by exposure to the
electric light. He finds that direct electric light is prejudicial to
the normal development of the tissues on account of its ultra-
violet rays. Generally, when considerable development, accom-
panied by intensification of the green colouration, is caused by
continuous electric light, in plants growing under glass shades that
intercept excess of ultra-violet radiation, at first high diff'erentiation
occurs in the structure of the organs ; but an intense light, pro-
longed unchanged for months, causes remarkable modifications of
structure in the various tissues of such new organs as are capable
of adapting themselves to the illumination. Less difterentiation
then takes place in these organs, though they are always rich in
chlorophyll. — Co??iptes Rejides.
218 CORRESPONDENCE.
Lao Tea. — According to the Kew Bulletin^ the Laos, who live
in the neighbourhood of Chiengunai, Siam, do not use tea-leaves
for preparing infusions, but prepare them for chewing. The leaves
of the Camellia theifera are steamed, then tied up in bundles, and
buried in the ground for about fifteen days. The product is
termed " mieng," and is said to keep for two years or more. It is
reported to be almost indispensable to natives engaged in hard
work.
Potato Diseases. — A disease in potatoes has made its appear-
ance in several districts in the Bengal Presidency, which is quite
distinct from that caused by the Phytophthora infestans. It is now
in course of being investigated locally, but Mr. G. Massee is of
opinion that it closely resembles the disease caused by Ferojiospora
trichotoma on Colocasia antiquorum (an edible corm or Yam) in
Jamaica. — Kew Bulletin.
Ambergris. — H. Beauregard is of opinion that ambergris may
be considered as an amber-coloured calculus containing a propor-
tion of black pigment and some excrementitious matters. Pieces
extracted from the intestines of the sperm whale appear to be
formed by an aggregation of acicular crystals arranged in different
positions. If examined under the microscope, with the aid of
polarised light, these crystals are readily differentiated from the
surrounding mass by the brilliant colours displayed on revolving
the prism, and it is suggested that the peculiarities of structure
disclosed should be utilised for the rapid investigation of samples
suspected to be adulterated.— y(?z/^/z<^/ de Pharmacy.
(Torresponbence^
Will some microscopist kindly give me a little information
respecting the mounting of spread diatoms ? I find, after acid
treating and washing the material, that when put on the slide with
balsam there is such a cloudiness that spoils the appearance. I
shall be glad to know the cause and the cure ; so will other friends,
I presume, as I have received several in exchanges with the same
objection. — John T. Neeve.
Plant Hairs. — Examine the hairs from the flower-stalk of the
Cypripedium, scrape a few off the stem, and place them under a
I /5th in. objective, i in, o.c, and also with polariscope. They
are most interesting. E. S. Mattison, M.D.
Weak Solutions. — Is it possible that solutions of coooi per
cent., if used for five minutes, are of any use in staining goblet
cells, etc. ? E;. P.
REVIEWS. 219
Beautiful Slides of Marine Algae, with reproductive organs, etc.,
in exchange for other Slides, Materials, Books, or Accessories. —
John T. Neeve, 68 High Street, Deal.
Twenty-four Microscopic Slides, various, offered in exchange
for either of the following books : — Gray's " Marine Algae," Pen-
nington's "Zoophytes," Hooker's " Student's British Flora," John's
" Flowers of the Field," Prand and Vine's " Botany," Spencer's
" Biology," etc.— J. T. Neeve, 68 High Street, Deal.
URcvicvoe.
The Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft. Vol. 38, Essays
and Miscellany. 8vo, pp. vi. — 764. (San Francisco : The History Co. :
London: Triibner aiid Co. 1890.)
This volume contains accounts of Early American Chroniclers ; The New
Civilisation ; Root-diggers and Gold-diggers ; Treatment of the American
Races ; and many other important papers by Mr. Bancroft, which had not
previously been published.
The Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft. Vol. 39, Literary
Industries. 8vo, pp. vii. — 808. (San Francisco : The History Publishing
Co. London: Triibner and Co. 1890.)
This, the concluding volume of the series of Mr. Bancroft's gigantic work,
gives a history of the author's labours. It explains his methods and tells of his
trials and triumphs. Over thirty years ago he commenced the task, which was
accomplished on the completion of this volume, during the whole of which
time he tells us his efforts have been continuous. Sickness and death have
made their presence felt, but he never lost mterest in his work or felt it irk-
some, and all who read his books cannot fail to be assured of the fact that from
first to last his labour has been a labour of love. Of all the books which it has
been our privilege to read during the last twelve or thirteen years none have
afforded us more real pleasure, and it is with feelings of no little regret that we
are compelled to look on this as the last of the series. One of his reviewers
has well said, " Your work will remain to coming ages a treasure-house of
information."
The Field Club, Edited by Rev. Theodore Wood, F.L.S.
Vol. 3. 8vo, pp. 194. (London : Elliot Stock.)
This is a magazine of General Natural History for Scientific and Unscien-
tific Readers, and contains a great number of interesting articles relating to ail
departments of Natural History.
An Account of British Flies (Diptera). By Fred. V.
Theobald, B.A., F.E.S. Vol. i. 8vo, pp. xx. — 215. (London: Elliot
Stock. 1892.)
Perhaps no order of insects is more common than Diptera and no order is
less understood. This is doubtless due in a great measure to the scarcity of
literature on the subject. The book before us comes, therefore, very oppor-
tunely. It commences with a short account of the more important character-
220 REVIEWS.
islics of the families of Diptera, followed by chapters on Fossil Diptera ; the
Classification of Diptera ; the Aphaniptera ; the Cecidomyidae ; the Myceto-
philidae ; the Bibionidae and Simulidse ; and the Chironomida. The book is
published in bi-monthly parts at is.
Text-Book of Biology. By H. G. Wells, B.Sc.Lond., F.Z.S.
With an Introduction by G. B. Howes, F.L.S., F.Z.S. Part I., Vertebrata.
Cr. 8vo, pp. X. — 149. (London : W. B. Clive and Co. 1892.) Price 6s. 6d.
This little book — which is one of the Univ. Corr. Coll. Tutorial Series —
contains in a concise form a large amount of useful information, the subjects
treated being the Rabbit, Frog, Dog-Fish, and Amphioxus, followed by a
chapter on Development, Miscellaneous Questions, etc. We are disappointed
with the plates which are diagrammatic, the reference-letters being very indis-
tinct. The student, however, will find the book helpful.
The Building of the British Isles : A Study in Geological
Evolution. By A. J. Jukes- Browne, B.A., F.G.S., etc. Second edition,
revised. Cr. 8vo, pp. xii. — 465. (London : George Bell and Sons. 1892.)
Price 7s. 6d.
The aim of the book before us is the restoration of the physical and geo-
graphical conditions which prevailed in the British area during each of the great
periods of time which make up our geological sequence, the author's chief
object being to trace out the succession of physical and geographical changes
which have led up to the existing disposition of land and water in the north-
western portion of Europe. There are 15 plates, chiefly diagrammatic.
Elementary Mathematical Astronomy, with Examples and
Examination Papers. By C. W. C. Barlow, M.A., B.Sc, and G. H. Bryan,
M.A. Cr. 8vo, pp. vi. — 442. (London: Clive & Co. 1893.) Price 6s. 6d.
In the book before us— which is now in its second edition — the aim of the
authors has been to produce a book that shall take its stand between the popu-
lar and non-mathematical treatises, and those which involve high mathematics,
and to prove a suitable text-book for such examinations as those for B.A. and
B.Sc. of the University of London. The diagrams are clear and good.
Zoology for Secondary Schools. By C. de Montmahon
and H. Beauregard ; translated by Wm. H. Greene, M.D. Cr. 8vo, pp. 368.
(Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott and Co. 1893.)
This book forms the basis of instruction upon the natural history of animals
in the secondary schools of France, and treats the subject in a manner found by
experience to excite most interest on the part of the pupil. The illustrations,
319 in number, form an important feature of the work, and are the best of the
kind we have seen.
Handbook of Practical Botany. By E. Strasburger, edited
from the German by W. Hillhouse, M.A., F.L.S., etc. Third edition. 8vo,
pp. xxiv. — 425. (London: Swan Sonnenschein and Co. 1893.) Price 9s.
A very desirable work for the microscopical botanist and all those who wish
to become acquainted with the elements of scientific structural botany. It is
divided into thirty chapters, leading the student on by easy stages. The first
assumes on the part of the worker entire ignorance as to the use of his instru-
ments. In the appendices are given an alphabetical list of plants used for
study ; an alphabetical list of reagents, and how to prepare and use them ; and
Notes on Methods and Selected Reagents. There are upwards of lOO very
clear and good illustrations.
REVIEWS. 221
The Field Naturalist's Handbook. By the late Rev.
J. G. Wood and the Rev. Theodore Wood. Fifth edition. Cr. 8vo, pp. 167.
(London : Cassell and Co. 1893.) Price 2s. 6d.
A most excellent book for the field naturalist; its scope is confined princi-
pally to Entomology, Field Botany, and Egg-Collecting. Each month in the
year is taken separately, a complete catalogue being given of all the butterflies
and moths which appear in it, together with the plants in flower and their
localities. In addition to each insect, there will be found notes on its eggs,
caterpillar, and pupa. The food plant is also given. At the end of the ento-
mological portion we find a chapter describing the localities most frequented by
each species of butterflies and moths, and the best methods of taking them.
Birds are classed according to their order, beginning with hawks and ending
with petrels.
There are also short chapters on Breeding from the egg, larva, and pupa,
with full details of the best modes of catching, setting, and preserving butter-
flies and moths, and of blowing and preserving birds' eggs, and drying and
arranging plants. A young naturalist cannot afford to be without this book.
The Year-Book of Science. Edited for 1892 by Prof. T. G.
Bonney, D.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S., etc. Cr. Svo, pp. viii. — 519. (London:
Cassell and Co. 1893.) Price 7s. 6d.
This is the second year of the publication of this useful book, which gives
a report of the scientific work of the past year. It will be noticed that more
attention than in last year's volume has been given to Zoology. Thus we find
Animal Biology divided into the following sections : — Zoology and Comparative
Anatomy ; Animal Physiology and Patholog}' ; and Bacteriolog}^ Botanical
Biology treats of Systematic and Geographical Botany ; Morphology and
Biology of Plants ; Minute Anatomy of Plants ; and Physiology of Plants.
More about Wild Nature. By Mrs. Brightwen ; with illus-
trations by the Author. Crown Svo, pp. xvi. — 261. (London: T. Fisher
Unwin. 1892.) Price 3s. 6d.
We are charmed with Mrs. Brightwen's book. She is a thorough lover of
animals, and has given us some very interesting sketches of their habits.
There are also hints on Home-museums and for studying living insects and how
to keep them as pets.
Hazell's Annual for 1893. Cr. Svo, pp. 740, (London :
Hazell, W^atson, and Viney. 1893.) Price 3s. 6d.
This is truly a cyclopaedic record of men and topics of the day, giving an
account of the year's history in all parts of the globe, revised to Nov. 30, 1892.
Amongst the new subjects discussed in the present volume are articles on
Bimetallism, about 26 Biographies, Building Societies, Chicago's World's Fair,
The General Election of 1892, Political Parties, Uganda, etc. etc. A most
useful book.
Our Secret Friends and Foes. By Percy Faraday Frank-
land, Ph.D., B.Sc, F.R.S., etc. Foolscap Svo, pp. 167. (London: Society
for Promoting Christian Knowledge. 1893.) Price 2s. 6d.
This, which is one of the " Romance of Science" Series, will do much
towards making the reader more intimately acquainted with the low forms of
germs or micro-organisms now attracting so much public attention. It treats
of micro-organisms in the air and in water, useful and malignant micro-organ^
isms, and the theory and practice of prevention in disease. There are nearly
50 good illustrations.
222 REVIEWS.
A Manual of Bacteriology. By A. B. Griffiths, Ph.D.,
F.R.S.E., etc. Cr. 8vo, pp. XV. — 348. (London: W. Heinemann. 1893.)
Price 7s. 6d,
Those desirous of knowing something of the Science of Bacteriology will
do well to study this one of fleinemann's Scientific Handbooks, which treats
of the Methods of Cultivating, Staining, and Mounting Microbes ; their
Origin, Classification, and Identification ; the Biology of Microbes ; Microbes
of the Air, Soil. Water, etc. ; with many other particulars. There are 56
illustrations.
Bacteriological Diagnosis. By James Eisenberg, M.D. ;
translated by Norval H. Pierce, M.D. 8vo, pp. xiv. — 184. (London : F. A.
Davis and Co. 1892.) Price 8s. 6d.
A series of Tabular Aids for use in practical work in the Study of Bacteria,
in which 138 micro-organisms are considered in the following order : — I., Non-
Pathogenic Bacteria — a, Liquefying Gelatin ; b, Non-Liquefying Gelatin.
II. — Pathogenic Bacteria — a, Cultivated outside the animal body ; b, Not Cul-
tivated outside the animal body. III. — Fungi. We are much pleased with the
tabular arrangement, an entire page being devoted to each species. Here is
given the specific characteristics of the various well-established bacteria, so that
the worker may at a glance inform himself as to the identity of a given organ-
ism. These Tables are followed by an Appendix, in which is given Microsco-
pical Technique used in the cultivation and staining of Bacteria ; a Laboratory
Inventory ; and a good Index. It is unquestionably a most useful book.
The Medical Annual and Practitioner's Index. Cr. 8vo,
pp. Ix, — 644. (Bristol : John Wright and Co. London: Simpkin, Marshall,
Hamilton, and Co. 1893.) Price 7s. 6d.
We have received the eleventh Annual Volume of this important work.
It contains a report of the progress of Medical Science in all parts of the
world, together with a number of original articles. There are eight plates and
about eighty wood engravings. The volume is in every respect equal to its
predecessors.
Cholera ; Its Protean Aspect and its Management. By Dr.
G. Archie Stockwell, F.Z.S. In two vols. Vol. I. Fscap. 4to, pp. vii. — 132.
(Detroit, Mich., U.S.A. : G. S. Davis.) Price — 2s. cloth ; is. paper covers.
The author positively denies the assertion that Cholera and several other
diseases " are diseases whose microbic origin is positively known," but believes
that if immunity is to be secured it will only be at the price of " eternal vigi-
lance," coupled with more perfect knowledge. This is one of the well-known
Physician's Leisure-Hour Series.
Note-Book for Dental Students. By James F. Rymer.
Second edition. Foolscap 8vo, pp. 67. (London : C. Ash and Sons, Broad
St., Golden Square. 1892.)
We think this book will prove helpful to students. The information con-
tained in so small a compass is necessarily of a condensed nature. The book
is interleaved throughout with blank paper.
Elements of Human Physiology. By Ernest H. Starling,
M.D.Lond., M.R.C.P. Foolscap 8vo, pp. 464. (London: J. and A.
Churchill. 1892.)
In this little book will be found very clearly and concisely expressed such
of the main facts of Physiology as are of importance to the student. There
are nearly 100 diagrammatic and other illustrations.
REVIEWS. 223
Early History of the Retreat, York : Its objects and
influence. By D. Hach Tuke, M.D., LL.D. 8vo, pp. 96. (London:
J. and A. Churchill. 1892.)
A paper on Reform in the Treatment of the Insane, read at the
Centennial Meeting of the Retreat, held at the Institution, May i6th, 1892.
With a report of the celebration of the Centenary.
How Nature Cures, comprising a new system of Hygiene;
also the Natural Food of Man. By Ernest Densmore, M.D. 8vo, pp. 413.
(London : Swan Sonnenschein and Co.) Price 7s. 6d.
A statement of the principal arguments against the use of bread, cereals,
pulses, potatoes, and all other starch foods. The author says, in the future,
when the doctrines herein taught are understood and adopted, mankind will
become "fruitarians." A fruit diet means the solution of the problems of how
to banish disease and intemperance from the race, and to give us a food which
is, at once, in accord with our higher instincts and the demands of aesthetics.
A Manual of Current Shorthand, Orthographic and
Phonetic. By Henry Sweet, M.A., Ph.D.. LL.D. Crown 8vo, pp. xx. — 137.
(Oxford : The Clarendon Press. 1892.) Price 4s. 6d.
In this system the author claims to give us a system of writing shorter and
more compact than ordinary longhand, and, at the same time, not less distinct
and legible. By this system the two styles, orthographic and phonetic, can be
written concurrently, so that orthographically written words, e.g., proper names,
etc., can be inserted in a phonetically written passage without confusion. We
could have wished that the alphabet, and some of the earlier examples, had
been written in much larger characters.
A Synopsis of Trigonqaietry. By William Briggs, B.A.,
LL.B., F.C.S., etc. Crown 8vo, pp. 43. (London : W. B. Clive & Co.)
One of the Univ. Corr. Coll. Tutorial Series. A very concise and useful
little book.
Standard Arithmetic. By William J. Milne, Ph.D., LL.D.
Crown 8vo, pp. 428. (New York : American Book Co.)
In many cases in the book before us we think the rules, and explanatory
reasons for working the different problems, are more plainly expressed than in
some of our own arithmetics.
Cassell's New Technical Educator, Parts 4 and 5,
monthly. Price 6d.
This is an excellent periodical for home study. The contents of each
number are very varied, and treat of Steel and Iron, Plumbing, Cotton Spinning,
Projection, Cutting Tools, Drawing for Carpenters and Joiners, Photography,
The Steam- Engine, Watch and Clock Making, Electrical Engineering, etc.
Records of the Past. Vol. VL Edited by A. H. Sayce,
Hon. LL.D. Dublin, Hon. D.D. Edinburgh. Crown 8vo, pp. xxii. — 160.
(London : S. Bagster and Sons.)
This volume completes the New Series of Records, which are English
translations of the Ancient Monuments of Egypt and Western Asia, and con-
tains, amongst other interesting papers. Historical Inscriptions of Rameses III ;
List of Places in Northern Syria and Palestine conquered by Ramses II. and
Ramses III. ; Letters from Phoenicia to the King of Egypt in the 15th Century,
B.C. ; The Non-Semitic Version of the Creation Story, etc., etc.
224 REVIEWS.
The Story of Paul Boyton. Crown 8vo, pp. viii. — 358.
(London : George Routledge and Sons. 1893.)
This is a most entertaining book, giving an account of voyages on all the
great rivers of the world, paddling over twenty-five thousand miles in a rubber
dress. He gives a number of thrilling experiences in distant lands among
strange people. We were so interested in this book that we could not leave it
till we got to the end. A splendid book for boys, whether young or old.
The Marvels of the Polar World. Translated from the
French by Robert Routledge, B.Sc. Lond., F.C.S., etc. Post Svo, pp. 256.
(London : George Routledge and Sons.) Price is.
One of " Every Boy's Library" series, giving interesting accounts of the
Polar world, its seasons, flora, fauna, the inhabitants of the extreme north, etc.
There are 38 good illustrations. This is just the book to interest boys.
Photographs of the Year. (London : Hazell, Watson,
and Co.) Price los. 6d.
Consisting of 12 beautiful Glypogravure pictures, suitable for, and worthy
of, framing, accompanied by descriptive notes and critical review of the Photo-
graphic Society's Exhibition, 1892. These pictures are by far the best we
have seen.
The London Stereoscopic and Photographic Co., Ltd., have
sent us specimens of the Owl Note Paper. Each sheet has a picture, on top
right hand corner, of a pair of remarkable species of Australian birds, Podargus
Strigoides, which migrates to, and breeds in, the British Islands during the
summer months. These birds have been sketched from life in various attitudes
by W. Saville-Kent, F.L.S., F.Z.S., who has had a pair in his possession for
three years. The sketches, although true to nature, are most comic and
amusing.
The Year-Book of Photography for 1893. Edited by T.
C. Hepworth, F.C.S. Crown Svo. (London: Alexander and Shepheard.)
Price IS. 6d.
This is a book of about 650 pages, of which about 300 form the Year-
book, which contains the results of Photographic Experimeuting during the
past year, and many special articles by leading photographic authorities; with
formulae, details of processes, useful tables, and many illustrations. The Year-
Book keeps up its standard of excellence.
British Journal Photographic Almanack. Edited by J.
Traill Taylor. 1893. (London: Henry Greenwood and Co.) Price is.
Here is a book of nearly 1250 pages, of which about 500 represent the
Almanack, which, as usual, is full of useful information, giving the results of
the experiments and researches of the last year. There are also a number of
good plates and other illustrations.
Handbuch der Photographie. By Dr. Josef Maria Eder.
Nos. 20, 21, 22, 23. (Halle a S. : Wilhelm Knapp. )
In these four numbers of Dr. Eder's Photographic Handbook we have a
description of the various lenses employed in photography and the methods to
be employed in testing them.
By the Sea and other Poems. By Fred. Henderson. Second
Edition. Crown 8vo., pp. 78. (London: T. Fisher Unwin.) Price 2s 6d.
[ 225 ]
1Rcmarft9 on eonic of tbc ipbaecs Bccn in a
tew ©r^anisms tounb in Decomposing :Bloo^, etc.
By R. L. Maddox, M.D., Hon. Fell. R.M.S., etc.
^^
AVING requested the butcher to supply me with
some blood from his slaughter-house for use as
manure, I received a very large pailful of blood,
seriously contaminated by some garbage, which, as
far as I could see, was mostly composed of the
(//^^^f entrails of ducks and fowls, all being in the early
-^^^ro S> stage of putrefaction. Before making use of the
eff^^ material supplied, it occurred to me that it might
be worth while to examine the more fluid part with
the microscope. Upon so doing I was struck with the multiplicity
of the various organisms present, consisting chiefly of different
bacteria, bacilli, spirilla, though rare, and a few very arched vibrios,
with some very minute flagellate infusoria, besides numerous cell-
structures, with duplicate nuclei.
There was one point, however, that seemed to me rather pecu-
liar about some of the large rod bacilli, and which, though possibly
common, I had never before noticed so distinctly, and which is
best described as being of a horse-whip character or shape. This
was seen not only in the long filaments, but also in the short ones,
though a great many, apparently of the same kind, had the width
equal throughout the full length. The material was found so
exceedingly dirty, it seemed useless to attempt to make any
serviceable slides. It was, therefore, put aside in the room and
kept lightly covered from dust and light, as I was desirous more
especially to note the further character of the rod bacilli. No
attempt was made to procure a pure culture by plate cultivation
for separating the different organisms, as I preferred to keep the
material as received.
The fluid was re-examined after a couple of days, when much
of the debris had sunk to the bottom. The same objects were
now seen more clearly, and I was enabled to mount a slide show-
ing many of the general features. As all were not found in the
International Journal of Microscopy and Natural Science.
Third Series. Vol. III. o
226
ORGAXISMS FOUND IN
same field, only one has been selected, the chief objects being
the putrefactive bacteria, slender bacilli in chains, two of the
stout rods somewhat narrowed at one end, a spirillum, and a
curved chain of possibly lactic acid elements, which is seen
somewhat out of focus at the edge of the circle in Photograph
No. T (Fig. 56).
Upon continuing the examination a day later, a considerable
change was noticed ; the putrefactive bacteria were not so
numerous. The rods of all lengths were plentiful, of equal
width, and noticed to have bluntly rounded ends. The whip-
Fig. 56. — A few of the organisms found in the material when received : —
Bacteria, bacilli, two whip-shape rods, a spirillum, and lactic ferment, x 520.
shaped rods were not quite as abundant as the others, but
many of them were seen with the thick ends discharging their
spores, and with spore formation occurring in nearly the whole
of the remaining length of the rod. These points are shown in
the photographs, Figs. 57 — 58, though many of the rods of both
kinds extended far beyond the field of the microscope when
using the i/5th objective and No. i ocular.
The spirilla, which had been somewhat sparse, appeared at
DECOMPOSINO BLOOD, ETC.
227
^iS- 57- — Rods of equal width ; in length many were treble the diameter
of the field, x 520,
Fig. 58.— A whip-shape rod filled with and discharging spores at' the
thick end, x 520.
228
ORGANISMS FOUND IN
the next day's examination to be more numerous, though chiefly
as free commas or single joints scattered loosely and generally
immobile. The size varied from almost straight, short rods to
the full-size curved joint, some having, as is very commonly the
case, the curves opposed, others with the curve turned the con-
trary way or assuming the spiral shape. In some of the free
joints one end could be seen to be slightly larger than the other.
Although diligent search was made for growing spores, I was
not able to conclusively satisfy myself upon this point ; but in
photograph, P"ig. 59, such a condition as stated is to be seen
-^ig- 59- — -^ ^^^ f''^^ commas or joints of spirillum before formation of
colonies, x 520.
in the central comma in the field, where the appearance is that
of an oval enlargement, placed rather irregularly at one end, and
a somewhat similar state is seen in one or two of the others.
Scattered about in the field, though infrequent, well-defined
round or rather oval bodies were noticed, which I concluded
were the spores of the spirillum, and not of the long rods, which
appeared to be a trifle larger. Amongst the few comm^as that
were mobile, it was most difticult, after numerous methods of
DECOMPOSING BLOOD, ETC.
229
staining had been tried, to find one with a single flagelluni.
The next examination, a day later, offered for view quite a
different set of objects, or rather similar objects in a different
stage. The spirilla were now found in numerous small and large
colonies, varying from five or six organisms to more than a
hundred gathered together. Lying amongst them were, here and
there, seen the small circular or oval bodies which I regard as
spores — some free and some apparently attached to one end of
a few of the felted commas. These immobile organisms, though
not measured, appeared a trifle larger than the free ones previ-
Fig. 60. — A spirillum colony with a few free spores, x 520.
ously described. In some of the colonies, at the border, a few
could be seen separated from the general collection, and in one
or two cases with a sifigle flagellum. Whether these had divided
off from others, and so produced the flagellum at the point of
separation by drawing out the inner plasm, or any living plastic
membrane, or \\hether they had grown with the growth of the
organism, I will not venture to decide. As I have several times
seen, in the full-grown spirillum with the joints adhering, project-
ing from the points where separation into commas would take
230
ORGANISMS FOUND IN
place if the organism broke up into its components, a flagellum
at either side alternately, I am inclined to suppose a flagellum
can be formed at one end of the original comma, though I do
not state it positively, because flagella can often be seen lying
about broken off", and then, of course, such a feature may be
accidental. One of these colonies is shown in the photograph.
Fig. 60, and if carefully examined some of the points indicated
can be readily seen.
On resuming the examination the next day, the free commas
or joints were found to be far more numerous than on the day
Fi^. 61.— Free commas, in greater abundance, after the formation of the
colonies, x 520.
prior to the appearance of the abundant colonies, but very few
of them had divided. Nearly all were now mobile. In a few of
them could be seen the oval or round bodies, apparently attached
or lying close against one end of the joint. Three of the small
bodies can be seen free, placed almost in a line towards the centre
of the field in the photograph. Fig. 61, where also the other point
stated is indicated. Part of the field is somewhat out of focus,
which was due to the preparation being tilted by some dirt out
DECOMPOSING BLOOD, ETC.
231
of the true plane. Upon close examination, some of the commas
may be noticed as having a slight enlargement at each end.
Whether this is caused by the ends only of the little curve being
in contact with the cover-glass, and thus not in correct focus
with the other part, it is difficult to state.
Upon resuming the microscopical examination two days later
the whole material appeared to be charged with very active
flagellate infusoria, from very minute ones, which appeared when
seen edgewise as rather narrowed and beaked, through all sizes
up to the large ones, which were provided with minute cilia
Fig. 62. — Flagellate Infusoria, x 200.
covering the entire body, and at one end with a long pendant
cilium. Scarcely any other organism could be seen in the exami-
nation of many fields. Unfortunately, the method employed to
fix and stain them much altered their shape by contracting the
contents of the body. Nevertheless, a preparation was made and
a slide mounted v.ith xylol balsam. Some apology is needed for
the indistinct outline and detail of these objects, as represented
in the photograph, Fig. 62. Several attempts were made to pro-
cure a better negative, but I found I had to content myself with
232 ORGANISMS FOUND IN
being satined by only a general focus, the objects varying so
much in size and photographing badly. The main point, how-
ever, is well indicated; that is, their extraordinary abundance. It
would have been better to have preserved them in some neutral
medium as solution of ammonia chromate, after staining by a
weak solution of logwood, or else to have killed them by a solu-
tion of chloral hydrate and mounted in weak potassic acetate
solution. In most cases it is exceedingly difficult to so apportion
the specific gravity or strength of the solutions that contraction
or swelling shall not occur at the same time that the objects are
preserved. Many of the solutions useful for other objects often
cause a coarse granulation to appear with considerable cloudiness
of structure. Being little interested at the moment in more than
the numbers present, the subject was not pursued.
The examination was continued on the following day, and
proved, perhaps, the most interesting, though the previous con-
dition of the material led me to fear it would prove wholly futile.
I was considerably surprised to find an almost total absence of
the infusoria, and in their place scattered over the field numerous
active free commas and some consisting of two joints, with others
of several turns. In a fair number of those which might be
called mature, and in others consisting of the free joints, a dif-
ferentiation of the internal, usually homogeneous plasm could be
most beautifully seen, especially after the treatment, which will
be immediately noticed.
The change varied from trivial shading, and passed into a more
or less distinct location at sundry points, leaving small spots or clear
spaces very distinctly indicated, some of these being circular, others
rather oval, and placed longwise across the breadth of the rod.
From two to four could be made out in many of the single joints
and from three to four in what would be each joint in the main
growth or mature spirillum. These I regard — though I avoid
making the assertion — as spores, not vacuoles, and think
they go far to support the statements recorded by the cele-
brated microscopist, Dr. Henri van Heurck, when photograph-
ing the commas or joints of the so-termed cholera bacilli with
an objective having the largest angular aperture yet constructed,
N.A. i'6., the objects being mounted in styrax with a very high
DECOMPOSING BLOOD, ETC.
233
refractive index, and (as required to obtain the greatest advantage
the use of the objective offers) upon a flint glass slide and cover.
( Vide a letter from Dr. van Heurck, with figures from his photo-
micrographs, which unfortunately do not do justice to his work,
in the English Mechanic^ Oct. 7, 1892.)
The preparation from which my photograph. Fig. 63, is made
is of a wet one : — A saturated solution of potassic acetate and
distilled water, equal parts ; while the photo-micrograph was made
with an old Gundlach immersion, i/i5th, and which was employed
for all the photographs except No. 7 (Fig. 62)
Fig. 63. — A spirillum and free joint, showing flagella and changes, with
spores that have occurred in the plasm, x 520.
Upon close examination, I at last found a field of view in
which both the mature spirillum, with its flagellum at each end,
and a separate joint lying near, each showing the differentiation
that has been alluded to in such a position that both could be
photographed at the same time. For many years, or at least
since making my experiments on the organisms found in the
excrement of the domestic goat and goose,* 1 have been exceed-
* Vide Journal R, M, 5. , Dec. , 1 882.
234 ORGANISMS FOUND IN
ingly interested in the structure of spirillum, and have cultivated
those found in horse-dung and in duck-droppings in many ways,
yet had never arrived to such a stage as to obtain these demar-
cations so clearly. There is a point in these observations that
is rather curious, which is the revival, so to speak, of the spirilla
after the almost sudden appearance and abundance of the infu-
soria, of which only a very feiv were then present, and those of
the minutest. Upon further keeping of the material there was
no indication of the presence of any of the spirilla, the changes
had become so complete as to be inimical to life.
To make this article a little more complete, it may be as well
to state some of the various methods adopted and found most
useful in the many examinations. In those cases where the
objects in the blood-fluid were not allowed to dry direct on the
cover-glass, it was diluted with an equal amount of pure water
for after-treatment, and this always on the cover-glass. A very
thin ring of Hollis' liquid glue, weakened by wood naphtha, was
struck on the slide ; a droplet of water was then put on the clean
cover-glass; and then an equal portion of the fluid material,
taken from just beneath the surface, was mixed with it, or rather
placed on it ; a thin platinum wire, twisted into a loop about the
diameter of i/i6th of an inch to the i/r4th (as two sizes were
kept at hand), then fixed by melting into the end of a glass
rod for a handle, and which I have used for years for the same
purpose, enabled me to apportion the amount of fluid on the
cover so that it did not run beyond the ringed space. After waiting
a short time for the objects to settle more or less on the cover,
by means of a pair of weak forceps, it was turned over on to
the centre of the ringed spot and allowed to fall gently. It was
then examined under the microscope, using the i/5th objective
with No. I ocular, and if sufficiently clean and worth the trouble
it was further dealt with to fix the objects in position. This
was generally effected by placing a small drop of a saturated
solution of tannic acid in water at one part of the edge of the
cover, at the same time placing the point of a strip of thick
blotting-paper at the opposite side. This effected a suction of
the tannin under the cover-glass and across the objects ; if the
little stream appeared to flow too violently or too much in one
DECOMPOSING BLOOD, ETC. 235
direction, then the blotting-paper was shifted. Sometimes two or
three httle strips were used to divert the flow, so that the
minute free organisms should not be withdrawn out of the ring.
After the tannin had acted for five minutes, a drop of water was
placed at the edge, and this sucked through, repeating its use
as often as appeared necessary. When the tannin solution had
been removed and the washing made effective, a drop of a
saturated solution of sulphate of iron with lo grs. of citric acid
to the ounce of solution were allowed to act for five minutes,
and then washed out by water as described for the tannin ; then
the mounting medium was placed at the edge of the cover, and
by means of absorbent paper made to take the place of the
water. A solution of chrysoidine was sometimes employed after
the water washing, if the sharpness of the outline seemed defi-
cient in the objects.
The same method was adopted when using any of the ordinary
aniline stains, besides employing the usual plan of drying the
material on the cover, then using the difierent fixing or staining
materials, and washing from a pipette, or by soaking, allowing the
cover to float on the water. Some of the minute dirt-particles I
found were sucked out to the advantage of the mount, and no
doubt some of the loose organisms went with the dirt. It took
some time to accomplish before the cover could be fixed down by
the usual Hollis' glue, but I found the plan under the circum-
stances to yield me the best effects. The tannin, as is well known,
has an immediate action on such parts of the organism as the
cilia and flagellum, and also tends to fix the soft plasm ; the iron
solution, after its action for a short time, stains both parts of the
organism, showing a pale grey tint in the flagella, which readily
catches the eye when using the microscope. Logwood solution
and iron were also tried, and likewise reversing the solution of
tannin and iron by allowing the iron to act first, but preference
was given to using the tannin first. All this detail will no doubt
be sadly wearying to those who are far more efficient workers than
myself; they will therefore excuse it, I trust, in favour of those
less experienced than themselves.
The foregoing will show that in the original material supplied
to me, I had; although in an early stage of putrefaction, what
236 DECOMPOSING BLOOD, ETC.
turned out to be a good culture medium, and which permitted of
following several of the interesting phases of growth and change
without more than ordinary trouble. The temperature which for
one part of the day was at summer heat in my room, may have
had much to do with these changes.
It would be impossible to say from whence the rods both of
equal width and whip shape, and the spirilla, were derived ; but,
from my examinations of the excrement of the duck a few years
since, I am strongly inclined to suppose they each were derived
from it as left in the entrails thrown into the pail of blood, which
itself, no doubt, was of a rather heterogeneous character. But
little attention was paid to any of the other organisms. I will not
attempt to classify either the rods or the spirillum, which might
be Spirillum imdula^ as this is found in putrefying ditch water.
The rods are larger than those of the hay bacillus, as found in
infusions of hay or grass, and none of the spores were found
growing like the spores of the hay bacillus. As to the more or
less whip-shaped rods, I can offer no suggestion. The food
material of both the duck and fowl partaking of both the animal
and vegetable kinds, it would be difficult to fix the source without
considerable trouble and favourable opportunity. Sufficient has,
however, I trust, been indicated to show that our knowledge of
these minute organisms is far from perfect, yet every fragment has
its value. It may, perhaps, be worth while to state that when
examining the long, largely-arched vibrios with well curved ends,
I was surprised to see one suddenly spring back like a well-bent
bow to instantly resume its place, as if in effort to free itself,
though it remained otherwise motionless. This occurred twice in
different individuals.
All the photo-micrographs were taken with the same objective,
and the objects magnified 520 diameters, except that of No. 7,
Fig. 62, which was taken with the i/5th objective, and magni-
fied 200 diameters.
[ 237 ]
Qn tbe (Tultivatton of ©iatome b\i artificial
fIDeane-
By Dr. P. Miquel. (Translated from La Diatomiste^
Chapter II.
GROWTH OF UNMIXED DIATOMS.
WE may consider two methods for the cultivation of unmixed
diatoms. The first is one in which one kind only grows
and multiplies, to the exclusion of all other siliceous
alg£e ; the second is one in which one special diatom is evolved to
the exclusion of all other living organisms, \vhether infusoria, green
algae, fungi, bacteria, etc. This latter should be called the cultiva-
tion of Diatoms in a state of absolute purity.
If the first of these methods is comparatively easy of success,
the second is, on the contrary, very difiicult, which arises, not from
the impossibility which is often found of separating the diatoms
from the green algae, the fungi, and the protozoa, but from the
bacteria that often live as parasites on the exterior thallus of the
friistules.
I. — Growth of One Single Species.
In order to be assured that you have in any maceration but one
species of Diatoms, you may use several processes — some special
and not equally applicable to all species ; others are general, and
furnish in all cases certain results if they are applied with judgment.
Special process. — I suppose that it is desired to insulate from a
natural or artificial growth, containing numerous species, a fila-
mentous diatom of the family of Melosiras. If the filaments of
Melosira rise in the liquid above the sediment — which is very
often the case — you take hold with tweezers, whose tips have been
previously heated, a portion of the filament, which may be visible
to the naked eye or may require a lens, and wash it repeatedly in
sterilised water, and then quickly, and before it dries, place it in a
fresh maceration that has been maintained for a quarter of an hour
at 7o^C. and then cooled.
The washing is intended to detach from the filament, as far as
is possible, any other Diatoms that may be adherent to it ; it will
not always succeed, as you often find other species grow by the
238 THE CULTIVATION OF DIATOMS
side of the filament that has been selected. Nevertheless, by this
first action, you have eliminated many species and have estab-
lished the predominance of the Melosiras in the preparation,
which, in contact with a new and specially suitable environment,
will attain in a few days a superb development, furnishing tresses
of filaments which rise in the liquid, and which allow you to
recommence the process, with the probability of insulating the
Melosiras absolutely.
It is equally easy, with a little practice, to separate, under a
low-power microscope, Fragilarias, Diatomas, Biddulphias, etc.,
grouped in longer or shorter chains, and to place them in the
nutritive liquids. But this operation is infinitely more difficult
when it is desired to separate one living Diatom. We may say,
without exaggeration, that every frustule seized by the tweezers is
a broken frustule and therefore incapable of reproduction.
If the diatoms could be previously reduced to a dry state, the
difficulty that I have noted would be easily overcome. However
it may be, I attribute my failure solely to want of skill in with-
drawing from a maceration, either with a capillary tube, a bristle,
or the point of a forcep, any small diatoms previously determined
on. Success is a little more certain with the larger kinds, such as
the Coscinodisci and other species, that have a diameter or length
of a tenth of a millimetre. In this case they may be insulated on
the stage of the microscope, and by a bristle conducted into drops
of distilled water in series on the mounts, and finally on to a piece
of cover-glass placed in a new maceration.
Observers who are in this way able to insulate with certainty
diatoms of all sizes will have no need to recur to the '' general "
processes, which require much longer manipulations.
General Process for the Separation of Diatoms.
The process that has hitherto given me the best results is that
which depends on the division — -fractionnemetit — of a previously
arranged culture. It consists in putting the diatoms in suspension
in such a volume of water that 5 ccm. of that water shall enclose
at least one frustule, which results in this, that when you sow
I ccm. of the dilution in five macerations, you will have four
sterile and one fruitful. This method requires a preliminary
experiment.
BY ARTIFICIAL MEANS. 239
Frelinmiary Experimerit. — The diatomaceous sediment is agi-
tated in a small bulk of sterilised water, and this water — still turbid,
but deprived of the larger impurities by decantation — is placed in
a new flask, or one that has to be heated almost to redness.
A drop of this liquid is placed on a slip of glass, whose upper
surface is divided into squares of one-tenth of a millimetre. The
water is allowed to evaporate, and you count under the microscope
how many diatoms are held in suspension in each evaporated drop,
noting especially the number of the frustules of the species that
you desire to insulate.
Let us suppose that the drop has deposited five hundred frus-
tules on the surface of the lined piece of glass — four hundred of
various species and one hundred individuals of the species 
