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A
JOURNAL
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.
CHEMISTRY,
AND
THE ARTS.
VOL. XXXII.
Fllustrated with Engravings.
BY WILLIAM NICHOLSON.
SSS a Be Ee
LONDON :
PRINTED BY W. STRATFORD, CROWN COURT, TEMPLE BAR; FOR
W. NICHOLSON,
No. 18, BLOOMSBURY SQUARE;
Ups oe
“AND SOLD BY
J. STRATFORD, No. 112, Hotzorw Hix.
1812.
PREFACE.
HE Authors of Original Papers and Communications in the
a present Volume are Mrs. A. Ibbetson ; Analyticus; A. H. Z.;
J. Bostock, M. D. Vice Pres. of the Lit. and Phil. Soc. of Liver-
pool; T.S. Traill, M.D. Sec. to the same Society; T, B.; G.
Pearson, M. D. F.R.S. &c.; L. Howard, Esq.; Right Hon. W.
J. Lord Gray; Mr. E. Lydiatt, Prof. of Mechanics, &c.; Benja-
min Count of Rumford, F.R. SS. L.and E. M. RIA, &c.;
D. E. F.; Mr. J. Gough; Mr. J. Murray; J. Nowell, Esq.; J. A.
De Luc, Esq. F. R. S.; J. Farey, sen. Esq. and E.G. ;
Of Foreign Works, M. J. Fabbroni, Cor. Mem. of the French
Institute; M. D’Arcet; M. Schrader; Mr. Laugier; D. J. Carra-
dori; M. Vauquelin; Dr. Wienhold; M. Bucholz; Prof. Cu-
raudau; Prof. Klaproth; M. Sonnini; M. ‘thenard; M Braun;
A. S. Duportal, M. D.; M. T. Pelletier; M. Chevreul; M. Robi-
net; Prof. J. B. Vitalis; M. Leschenault; M. J.C. Delamétherie;
M. H. Flaugergues; and Prof. H. Braconnot.
And of British Memoirs abridged or extracted, A. Marcet,
M.D. F.R.S.; &c. W. T. Brande, F. R.S.; H. W. Way, Esq. ;
Mr. E. Smith; F. Fortune, Fsq. Mr. P. Sleavin; N. Nugent,
M. D. Hon. Mem. of the Geol. Soc.; J. Davy, Esq.; S. Tillard,
Esq. Capt. R. N.; J. Stephens, Esq.; W. Jones, Esq.; Mr. C.
Waistell; Mr.'T. Dickson, Mr. J. Fuller; C. H. Parry, M. D.
¥. R.S.; T. A. Knight, Esq. F. R.S. Prof. Hort. 8. &c.; and
Mr. J. Maher, F. H.S.
The Engravings consist of 1. Dissections of Plants of the Class
Cryptogamia, delineated from Nature, by Mrs. A. Ibbetson, in
two Plates. 2. Mr. E. Lydiatt’s Smicrologometer, for ascertain-
ing the Tenacity of Metals, and Strength of Threads of Silk, Cot-
ton, Linen, &c. 3. A Dissection of a Flower, in a 4to. Plate:
and 4. A Branch of Laburnum, with a Section considerably mag-
nified; all delineated from Nature by Mrs. Agnes Ibbetson. 5.
Closure and draining Bricks, by J. Stephens, ksq. _ 6. Method of
constructing a temporary Rick for securing Corn in wet Weather,
by W. Jones, Esq. 7. An improved Dibble for planting Acorns
in Bushes, by Mr. C. Waistell. 8. A Potato, with the Method of
taking Sets from it for preventing the Curl, by Mr. T. Dickson.
9. Diagram illustrative of Electric Attractions and Repulsions, by
J.C. Delamétherie. 10. Diagram illustrating the Law of Evapos
ration, by Honoré Flaugergues. 11. Different Modes of construct-
ing the en of a Gun, soas to make it throw the Shot close, or
scattering, a Correspondent. 12. An improved Scari
by Mr. J de Puller. : ; ae
TABLE
TABLE OF CONTENTS...
TO THIS THIRTY-SECOND VOLUME.
MAY, 1812.
Engravings of the following Subjects: Dissections of Plants of the Class Cryp-
togamia, delineated from Nature by Mrs. A. [bbetson, in two Plates.
I. On the Fructification of the Plants of the Class Cryptogamia. Jn a Letter
from Mrs. Agnes Ibbetson | - . - - }
If. Trigonometrical Formule for Sines and Cosines. Ina Letter from a Cor
respondent - - - af tesiop 13
III. Inquiry concerning the Means of studying the Modern Analysis. In a
Letter from a Correspondent ~ 1 - - - ae ki
IV. Experiments to prove, whether Water be produced in the Combination of
Muriatic Acid Gas and Ammoniacal Gas. By John Bostock, M. D., Vice
Pres. of the Lit. and Phil. Soc. of Liverpool, and Thomas Stewart Trail,
M. D., Secretary to the Society. Read before the Literary and Philosophi-
cal Society of Liverpool, and communicated by Dr. Bostock = - 18
V. Questions respecting a Passage in Mrs. Ibbetson’s Account of the Water
Lily. In a Letter from a Correspondent - - | ee
VI. The Stater ef Philip, the Father of Alexander; with Remarks on the Purity
or Standard of Gold. By Mr. J. Fabbroni, of Florence, corresponding
Member of the French Institute - - - 23
VII. A Rejoinder toa Paper published in the Philosophical Journal, by Dr.
- Marcet, on the Animal Fluids. By George Pearson, M.D. F.R.S., &c. 37
VIII. Meteorological Journal, by Luke Howard, Esq. - 50
TX. A chemical Account of an Aluminous Chalybeate Spring in the Isle of
Wight. By Alexander Marcet, M.D., F.R.S., one of the Physicians to
Guy’s Hospital, and Member of the Geological Society - 52
X. Experiments to ascertain the State in which Spirit exists in fermented Li-
quors: with a Table exhibiting the relative Proportion of pure Alcohol con-
tained in several Kinds of Wine, and some other Liquors, By William Tho-
mas Brande, Esq. F.R.S. - - - - 7H 6B
XI. Meteorological Table for 1811. In a Letter from the Right Hon, W. J.
Lord Gray ¢. - - - : 73
XII. On Extract and the Saponaceous Principle. By Mr. Schrader, were
- lin - - - - - - :
XIII. An Examination of the Chromate of Iron of the Uralian Mountains, i
Siberia. By Mr. Laugier - oe - - 7B
Scientific News - és a = = 80
JUNE,
CON TEN TF S&S. ¥
JUNE, 1812.
An Engraving of Mr E. Lydiatt’s Smicrologometer, for ascertaining theTe-
. -nacity of Metals, and Strength of Threads of Silk, Cotton, Linen, &c.
I. A Description of the Smicrologometer for ascertaining the Tenacity of Me-
tals, Silk, Cotton, and Linen Threads, &c. invented by Mr. E. Lydiatt,
Professor of Mechanics, and Lecturer on Metallurgy and Manufactures,
&c. i = oe 7 Fe = 81
J. A Chemical Account of an Aluminous Chalybeate Spring in the Isle of
“Wight. By Alexander Marcet, M.D. F.R.S. one of the Physicians to
Guy’s Hospital, and Member of the Geological Society - 85
Il. Account of some new Experiments on Wood and Charcoal. By Benj.
Count of Rumford, F. R. SS. L. and E.M. R.1L. A. &e. - 100
IV. Inquiries concerning the Heat developed in Combustion, with a Description
of a new Calorimeter. By the same - - - 105
VY. Remarks- on the Experiment of Dr. Bostock and Dr. Trail. Ina Letter
from a Correspondent - = = - 125
VI. Method-of preparing a cheap and durable Stucco, or Plaster, for outside
or inside Walls. By H.W. Way, Esq. of Bridport Harbour - 126
VII. Manufacture of Cloth and Cordage from Nettles. By Mr. Edward Smith
: 132
VIII. Account of Herrings cured in the Dutch Mode on board British Vessels.
By Francis Fortune, Esq. ee = - - 184
TX. Method of Curing Herrings. By Mr. Sleavin — - - 137
X. Letter on the Structure of the Water Lily, in Answer to a Correspondent.
By Mrs. Agnes Ibbetson » - Ke - isi
XI. On the Irritability of the Sowthistle and other Plants, with farther Obser-
vations on the Irritability of Vegetables. By D.J. Carradori _ 138
XI. Chemical Examination of some Vegetable Substances. By Mr. Vau-
quelin - = - - oe =“ 143
XML. Of the Efficacy of Plumbago against Tetters. By Dr. Wienhold 148
XIV. Meteorological Journal, by Luke Howard, Esq. “ " 150
XV. Experiments on Camphoric Acid. By Mr. Bucholz - 151
XVI. Inquiry concerning the Means of knowing the Proportions of Acid and
Potash, that enter into the Composition of Sulphate of Alumine and of Sul-
phate, Nitrate, and Muriate of Potash. By Mr. Curaudau, Prof. of Che-
#nistry applicable to the Arts, and Member of various Literary Societies 153
XVII. Analyses of Minerals, By Martin Henry Klaproth, Ph. D. 160
Scientific News - - - -, wi Sh LOS
;
JULY, |
vi CONTENTS.
JULY, 1812.
Engravings of the following Subjects: 1. Dissections of a Flower, in a 4te
Plate: and 2. A Branch of Laburnum, with a Section considerably magni-
fied; all delineated from Nature by Mrs. Agnes Ibbetson.
¥. On the Dissection of Flowers. Ina Letter from Mrs. Agnes Ibbetson . 169
If. Remarks on the Perforations made in nape by Bisel Batteries. In 2
Letter from Mr. John Gough = - 176
III. On some Preparations of Gold lately employed maachieinel By A. S.
Duportal, M.D., &c., and Th. Pelletier, Apothecary 179
IV. Experiments on the Existence of Water in Muriate of Ammonia donrped
by the Combination of Muriatic Acid and Ammoniacal Gasses. By M
John Murray, Lecturer on Chemistry, Edinburgh = - - 185
VY. Meteorological Journal, by Luke Howard, Esq. - 198
VI. Account of the Pitch Lake of the Island of a cin Nicholas iy
gent, M.D., Hon. Mem. of the Geol. Soc. 200
VII. Chemical Experiments on Indigo. By M. Chevreul ~ “ee 1)
VIII. On the Action of Muriatic Acid on Sugar, and the Nature of its Prin-
ciples. Ina Letter from John Nowell, Esq. - - 216
IX. On the eee Motion of ie Electric Spark. - a Letter — J.A. De
Luc, Esq. F.R.S 226
X. Remarks on an Artificial Stony Substance. By F.R.Curaudau _ 230
Scientific News. EL oh s . if 299
AUGUST,
CONTENTS. val
AUGUST, 1812.
Engravings of the following Subjects, 1. Closure and draining Bricks, by J.
Stephens, Esq. 2. Method of constructing a temporary Rick for securing
Corn in wet Weather, by W. Jones, Esq. 3. Animproved Dibble for plant-
ing Acorns in Bushes, by Mr. C. Waistell.
I. Ona gaseous compound of carbonic Oxide and Chlorine. By John Davy,
Esq. Communicated by Sir Humphry Davy, Knt., LL.D. Sec. R.S. 241
II. A Narrative of the Eruption of a Volcano in the Sea off the Island of St.
Michael, by S.Tillard, Esq. Captain in the Royal Navy. Communicated
by the Right Hon. Sir Joseph Banks, Bart. K. B. P. R.S. * 247
III. New Method of making Bricks, so as to form cheaper and firmer Buildings,
and useful underground Drains: by John Stephens, Esq. of Reading, in
Berkshire - - - - - - - - - - 25
52
IV. A temporary Rick, to secure Corn in Sheaves in the Fields till quite dry ;
also Clover, Pease, and Beans: by William Jones, Esq. of Foxdown-Hill,
near Wellington, Somersetshire - oe - - ao ae ape
V. Improvement in the Acorn Dibble; by Mr. Charles Waistell of High
~ Holborn - - - - - - - - - - - 267
VI. On the apparent Streaks of Light, left sometimes by falling or shooting
Stars; and on their apparent rectilinear Courses in the Atmosphere. In a
~ Letter from John Farey, sen. Esq. - - - - 269
VIL. te Galvanic Phenomena. In a Letter from J. A.
aS} - is < fa 3
- =
De Luc, Esq.
° ha! 271
VIIf. Explanation of a hydrostatical Phenomenon observed by Franklin: by
Robinet = - - - - - = - - - = 284
IX. On the Nature of Sheep’s Dung, and its use in dyeing Cotton the Red that
3 called India or Adrianople; by J. B. Vitalis, Professor of Chemistry at
ouen - - ~ - - - - - i - : 288
X. Meteorological Journal aL ahedn Ravy ee Ae - - : 294
x
XI. An Account of ** The Sulphur,” or “ Souffriére” of the Island of Mont-
serrat: by Nicholas Nugent, Esq. M. D., Hon. Member of the Geological
Society - = - : : - - 296
XII. Account of various Specimens of Natural History brought from the Island
3
of Java, Madura, Bali, &c.; by Mr. Leschenault - - 00
XII. Analyses of Minerals: by Martin Henry Klaproth, Ph. D., &c. 304
Scientific News a es ; “ - 312
#
SUPPLEMENT
Vili CONTENTS.
SUPPLEMENT TO VOL. XXXII.
Engravings of the following Subjects: 1. A Potato, with the Methods of tak-
ing Sets from it for preventing the Curl, by Mr. 'T. Dickson: 2. Diagram
illustrative of Electric Attractions and Repulsions, by J. C. Delamétherie.
3. Diagram illustrating the Law of Evaporation, by Honoré Flaugergues.
4. Different Modes of constructing the Breech of a Gun, so as to make it
throw the Shot close, or scattering, by a Correspondent. 5. An improved
Scarrificator, by Mr. John Fuller.
I. Observations on the Disease in the Potato, generally called the Curl; point-
ing out the most probable Method of preventing it; with an Account of the
Results of a few Experiments made on the Subject. By Mr. Thomas Dick-
son, Leith Walk, Edinburgh. - - - - - - - 321
I. Electric Attractions and Repulsions are not explained in a satisfactory Man-
ner in the Hypothesis of Two Fluids. By J.C. Delamétherie - $28
Tif. Memoir on the Proportion the Evaporation of Water bears to the Humidity
of the Air. By Honoré Flaugergues - = - - 330
TY. Remarks on the Construction of Fowlingpieces, pointing out Methods by
which they may be made to throw Shot very close, and the contrary. Ina
Letter from a Correspondent - - - = ~ 338
V. Description of an improved Scarificator: by Mr. John Fuller, No. 14,
Hatton-Garden - = - - eM he ame cer pen
VI. On a Case of nervous Affection cured by Pressure of the Carotids; with
some physlological Remarks. By C. H. Parry, M.D. F.R.S - = 345
VII. A concise View of the Theory respecting Vegetation, lately advanced jm
the Philosophical ‘Transactions, illustrated in the Culture of the Melon. By
T. A. Knight, Esq. F. R. S. - : - - 350
VIII. Some-Remarks on pruning and draining standard Apple and Pear Trees.
By Mr. Jolin Maher, F.H,S.- = = .4- - - = 5 355
XI. On the Advantages of employing Vegetable Matter as Manure in a fresh.
State. By T. A. Knight, Esq. F. R.S. Pres, HS. - P. iin) SH
X. Abstract of a Paper on the tanning Substances formed by the Action of
Nitric Acid on several Vegetable Matters. By Mr. Chevreul - 360
XI. Chemical Examination of the Husks of Walnuts. By Mr. Henry Braconnot,
Prof. of Natural History,-&c. - - - - - ae ee
XII. Analyses of Minerals. By Martin Henry Klaproth, Ph. D., && 379
Index ot he arr ia titate - - - = 385
A JOURNAL
JOURNAL
‘NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, CHEMISTRY,
\
AND
THE ARTS. .
MAY, 1812.
ARTICLE I. .
On the Fructification of the Plants of the Class Cryptogamia.
In a Leiter from Mrs. AGNES [BBETSON.
: To Mr. NICHOLSON.
SIR, }
ly my last letter I showed the dissection of fresh-water Difference of
plants, endeavouring in a particular manner to mark the ee ae
effect produced in different vegetables by the more or less peas
‘water which surrounded them in their growing state; and
proving, that those large divided air vessels are to be found
in fresh-water plants alone; the vessels decreasing as the
ditch, in which they were in the habit of growing, approach-
ed more to boggy or wet ground instead of water. This
is truly exemplified in what I have called the half-water
plants: there are however a few exceptions to this rule;
_ and, since I last wrote, one has occurred to me in the arum,
which, though long removed to tolerably high ground, still
retains its immense air vessels, But in comparing fresh~ Marine plants.
water plants with marine plants, the alteration and transition
‘is excessive. Instead of large bladders of air, circular wood
Vou. XXXII, No. 146.—May 1812. B. vessels
Difficulties of
the study of
the cryptoga-
Mie.
“Few masters
FRUCTIFICATION OF THE CRYPTOGAMLE,
vessels, and the strongly marked vital line, I find an ex-
tremely compressed formation, so delicate and fine, that it
is very difficult to comprehend its uses and capabilities.
But before I enter on the subject of the cryptogamian
plants, I must say a few words in vindication of an under-
taking, that may appear to many (considering the number
of learned men that. have written.on the subject) so little
necessary. Linnzeus might be said to select all the difficul-
ties of botany, and unite them in one class. Yet though
the various genera differ so much from each ‘other, they
are certainly most properly. arranged,'since they carry strong
marks of internal resemblance ; of which, I doubt not, that
great master had a perfect knowledges": The very difficulties
of the study appear to have constituted part of the-charm,
which has tempted such numbers to seek for, and try to
understand this class of plants... Hence we find so many
masters, who have dedicated their whole lives to the pere
fecting the knowledge of one single genus of the cryptoga-
‘mian plants. This being the case, will it not be construed
into extreme vanity in me, to select such asubject? Yet
the plan I. have formed cannot be complete without it; and
there is certainly one part, that has not yet been touched :
neither Gmelin, Dillenius, nor Stackhouse has dissected
have dissected the interior of these plants. No master has proceeded fare
c ryptogamian.
plants,
ther than selecting and describing them, and giving their
- habitats: all which is so admirably shown in that incompara-
ble work, ‘the joint Jabours of Dr. Smith and Mr. Sowerby.
This part therefore, “the dissection of thei interior of plants,”
i may-venture.to appropriate ; and should: I, in the review
1.mean to take of the whole class, contradict the assertions
of any of the great men I have before mentioned ; it will, i
-hope, be consider ed, that I only venture to do it from pos
sessing more powerful means of magnifying than they did,
_renderivg the objects clear sand Juminoéus; which constant
_study. has taught me the means of doing with effect.
importance of
the line of
life in indenti-
fying plants.
Ifthe vital part of a plant was productive of no other
consequence than, that of marking its existence, I should
not so continually have pressed it on the notice and atten-
tion of the, public : but it is the centre from which every
other line sae ial take its rise, it is the point which must cer-
oh Stet vi ’ . tify
FRUCTIFICATION OF THE CRYPTOGAMIA. Bee
tify the identity of every other part. Thus, by tracing the Stamen and
vital line, the seed, the bud, the flower, the radiéle, are Sata
all ascertained and proved. ‘The interior vessel of the ~
pistil is formed by this line alone, which, being a cylinder,
conveys the mixed juices to the seeds. 1 have shown this
before in all other plants, but it is to the cryptogamia T
trust for completing the proof of all [have before advanced
on this subject: Its admirable conformity in the direction
of its vessels ; its agreeing in all points of the fructification,
not only with each genus of this class, but with all others ;
establishes (in my opinion) the truth of both in an eminent
degree. I have said also, that the wood conveyed the pecu=
liar juice for the formation of the pollen: and I trust the
24th-class will exemplify the truth of the fact; for in the
interior of these plants, and by the direction of those two
vessels, will’botanists be alone able to discriminate and iden
tify the stamen and pistil of these diminutive vegetabtes,
To prove this I shall first show the formation of marine
plants; and then endeavour to explain the fructification of
the cryptogamia in general, and mark, by the direction of
the vessels, which is the stamen and pistil of each plant.
v Though the marine plants, (such as the fuct and ulva), Interior for-
have the appearance of stems, yet in the greatest part of pot oie
these plants it is appearance only. When subjected to the —
strongest magnifiers, placing a thin cutting of each ima
solar microscope, they present exactly the same picture, exe
cept that the stalk is thicker and more compressed than that
which is properly named leaves. As the sea weeds are al-
‘most without vessels, (at least have only two or three ina
large surface) they have of course no liquid of the nature of
sap to diffuse into different parts of the plant. This i8
proved by one part drying and dying, though the adjoining
part is immersed in water ; the former not benéfitting by
this, as it has no. vessels, that can convey the moisture:
whicli, I suppose, is given merely by pores at the surface,
and passes not from ote bléb to the other. |
- The faci might be prdperly divided into thin and thick Division of the-
fadi: The 1st; ag the'dalsé, the palmatus, co¢cineus, and fc!
all of this kind, consists of that transparent dnd almost ins Structure of
HSVle skin doubted ¢ which, mm all commdn leaves) thakes a the thin fuc
ite Be part
Formation of
the interior of
the thick fuci.
Only two ves«
sels in the
fuci.
Rules for find-
ing the ves-
sels, and the
stamen and
pistil.
*
Mistalse-cor-
rected,
FRUCTIFICATION GF THE CRYPTOGAMIA.
part.of the cuticle ofeach side... But, what is most extra~
ordinary, this skin, instead of being without, is in the in-
terior ; and,.if you lay the dulse {or any other of this kind).
on a glass, and. serape it very carefully on both sides with a
knife, you will find all the exterior rubbed off, and nothing
will remain but the almost invisible skin. This roughness
I take to be the bark, it is most regularly placed in
diamonds, (see Plate I, fig. 1, dulse unscraped) ; and an-
swers well to the same matter, either within or without the
transparent skin, in almost all the cryptogamian plants of
every different genus. We trace it in the roughness at the
exterior of the lichen, under the clear skin in the thick fuci,
and so on to most of the class. But in the thicker fuci the
transparent skin is on the exterior; and when it is taken
off, and also the thin rough bark, the consistence of the
matter underneath differs greatly from that .of the thin
fucus.. It is so glutinous, so capable of distention, that, if
drawn out or pressed, after being laid in fresh water, it may
be reduced to what appears its original formation ; that is
into cylinders or strings, formed as at fig. 2. They cannot
properly be called-vessels, for they certainly appear not to
convey any liquid; but to be a glutinous mass, in this
shape. On examination of all the different fuci I could
procure, I could find only these two vessels in each plant ;
ist. The line of life which passes to the pistil, and afterward
ties the seeds together: 2d. The wood vessels, which run
directly to the male, and convey not only its peculiar juice,
but the spiral wire that produces its motion. _To make this
plain, to enable any person to discover immediately both the
vessels, and the stamen and pistil, I shall give this easy
rule: When the line of life appears in the interior of a plant
alone, and no wood vessels: are found, it is certain, that the
male is,in,a different plant.. When both line. of life, and
wood vessels, are found joined together, you may be sure to
find, the fruotification inthe same flower. And when both
vessels are found, but separate, it is, always a sign, that the
stamen, and. pistil-are'in different, parts. of, the same plant.
This law,holds good in all the. cryptogamian resale nor
have I even fonndit vary... 1. ’
I must.now apologize for a mistake “i have helt in 1 my
former
212 ‘
-
FRUCTIFICATION OF THE CRYPTOGAMIA.
former letter, in saying, that the spiral wire was found only”
if the conferva of all this class of plants. But I had so often”
sought it in all the sea weeds, and in the lichens, without
discovering the smallest traces of it; that I felt convinced it.
_was not there.~ As itis found in the male plant only, few
would undertake the labour that is necessary to find it. In
the mosses however it abounds, and in the woody part of
‘Motion
the:sign whic
the lichens also} and particularly distinguishes the male distingpishes.
plant, whether single or joined to the female, by its néver-
ceasing motion. So violent is it often, that itis with great
difficulty that it can be confined sufficiently for inspection,
especially when first taken from within the flower. ‘This
alone makes a very distinguishing mark of the male in all
the cryptogamia, for the female is quite inert. When its
size has permitted me to take out the spiral wire, it leaves
the rest of-the plant perfectly quiet.’ I have therefore’ in
various cases absolutely ascertained, that it is this’ ce
which is the cause of motion in all plants.
That the fructification should have been continually mis-
taken by those, who had no other rule but mere guess to
which they-could apply for the discovery, cannot appear
astonishing to any one; since, not knowing the interior for-
mation, they could neither appeal to its analogy, with respect
to other plants ; nor to any means except the appearance and
figure. But, as T have long been accustomed to be led up,
- to the female by a peculiar line; I:sought this in all the
the stamen.
Why the fruc-
tification has
_been mis-
taken,
cryptogamia, and directly found it. It was not indeed Search of the
quite-so easy to discover in the male plant; but remember-
ing, that the wood in all other plants formed the stamen ;
and that I had every reason to be convinced, as there was a
peculiar juice for the formation of the pollen, there must be
some vessel to convey this : this idea excited my diligence
‘in seeking it, and I soon succeeded; and not only found
the wood vessel meandering from male to male, but disco-
vered, that in this class ite: spiral vessels always accompa-
nied it as in every other plant. It is of extreme consequenée
to trace these lines in the cryptogamic; since without them
it is impossible, that any person can be assured, that the
male and female, if separate, belong to the same plant ;
whereas the running of the wood vessels from part to part
will
line jeading to .
the ma.e.
Fructification
ef the fuci.
FRUCTIFICATION OF TRE CRYPTOGAMIA.
will quickly ascertain, whether it is the original or a para-
site plant: if no wood vessel leads to it, it should be cons
demned at once. | |
I shall now turn to the Eaehnesipa of the cryptogamiz ; 3
beginning with the sea weeds, but leaving out the conferva ;
which of itself would nearly occupy a rari The fructifi-
cation of the fuci in general is excmplified in a spécimen of
Fucus serratus the fucus serratus; which | shall just describe. A jellylike
described.
General ana-
logy between
the marine
and other
plants.
Vesicles the ©
male of the
fuci.
mass, with seeds bearing granules, and external papilla.
Though the apparent anomaly, that prevails in the fructifi-
cation of the fucus genus, is acknowledged by, all, yet this
variety is more in appearance, than, ip reality, as. I shall
prove ina future letter. Whatever may be the difference in
the formation of the marine plants, and, in their means of
receiving nourishment ; in all the general lines of their frue-
tification they differ, not from all other plants. The line of
life composes the female plant invariably, and is always to
be known by its direction ; and the seeds are, tied by the
same line, Hence it,is easy to discover it; since, wherever
a. branch is going to shoot (in the thick fuci especially) if
we seek the line from which the bud proceeds, it will dircetly
point ont the line of life, or vital mark. The wood,,vessels
are always to be traced to the male plant, whether carrying
gap or no sap: for these are those peculiar juices already
mentioned, of a more oily nature and whally destined to the
formation of the pollen. Fig, 3. is the tubercle of the fucus
serratus; CC is the line of life leading to it: fig. 4 isa
circle under the tubercle, which, has rays proceeding from
it, to which the seeds are always attached, and to which,
let. them appear ever, so much scattered, they are invariably
fixed, As to the male plant, it is certainly the pencilled
vesicles on the frond, as it is also in the vesiculosus and
many others. When miuch magnified, they are very cu-
rious; in the first itis pitcher shaped, from out of which
tubercle the powder proceeds. In the vesiculosus it is a
sort. of ring, in which the powder is formed, and worked into
the hairs. In both the wood vessels meander from male
to male, and the hairs (if prevented sticking on the frond)
move much when, breathed on, and. when shaking out, the
powder, sie its filaments. See fig. 5, e¢ male, F the
wood
FRUCTIRICATION., QF FRE, CRYPTOGAMI A, , %
‘ecod vessel leading to it... The stamens are said to. be per-
manent ; but this is certainly. not the case, since it is ‘only
once a year the powder is eet in the hairs: but as the old
ones remain a long time aiter they. have performed their
office, before they decay and fall off; it gives them the ap-
pearance of perpstnts i
) The: Ulve.
ichough 1 at first intended to give a marie - plant, yet Fructification
being. so. thoroughly acquainted with the. ulva crassata; I a ite
preferred showing its dissection. It is formed of a mem-
branaceous frond,.with minute thick set tufts of branched
filaments jointed, and beaded ; the female being the ball ;
and the top, which: is. perforated, constituting the pistil,
(see fig. 8). Under the tufts, G, fig. 7, the seeds are im-
bedded in regular order, each holding by the line of life ;
see GG the. pointed filament, which proceeds from the
pistil, and the wood vessels of which run up round it, and |
serve as a cuticle to it; showing themselves also on each |
‘side of the capsule and ‘its stem as seen at HH, fig. 8.
When the plant is first taken out of the water, and gently
dried, if its pollen is ripe, and the hairs stick not on the
frond; when breathed on they move more than the males
of the fuci. I have’seen them rising and falling with a con-
stant succession of motions, which gave to the plant an ap--
pearance of life difficult to describe; but if too wet, or too
dry, they move not. I found much of this ulva in a pond
at Bellevue, near Exeter. The ulva pruniformis much
agrees with this; there are certainly two sorts; one re-
sembling in its fructification the lemna, and the other
the crassula ; but, as | got it twice only, and then rather in.
a dry, decayed state, I was fearful of making some mistake,
if I should attempt to review it.
The Musci.
It is very painful to me, to be obliged to contradict those, Fructification
whose superiority I so gratefully acknowledge; as every of mosses.
botanist must the uncommon labours of a_ Dillenius,
a Michelli, or a Gmelin: yet I cannot but differ from them
Tespecting, the fructification, which I would thus describe.
The
8 FRUCTIFICATION OF THE CRYPTOGAMIE.
The flower of the moss standing on a long stalk, and having
its male and female in the same flower, being a capsule ona
- _ peduncle, sheathed at the base, with its seed vessel in the
interior, the pistil standing up in the middle; the veil ins
Fringes the vesting the fringes, which are troly the male part of the
pret i plant, and keeping them close, till the powder of the pollen
is ripe, then both veil and lid fall off, the fringe spreads,
and as soon as the drop appears on the pointal,- the inner
fringe draws ever it. Then by breathing on it (when under
a strong magnifier) any person can convince themselves, :
that these hairs are the males, since they throw ont the pol-
len from every spray, till the top is covered with its powder,
But as the ianer fringe stands up in a pinnacle, the powder
generally falls under onthe stigma, by which means it is
not so conspicuous, and is sedn dissolved by the liquid of
the pistil, and thence carried to impregnate the seeds. The
outer fringe has from 4 to 32 teeth, which are either re-
flected, straight or twisted, triangular, spear shaped, blunt,
or sharp ;, while the inner fringe ismuch finer, either closely ~
adhering to the outward, or joined to it by threads from its
inner sides 5 but which ever way it is formed, it has powder, -
which works cut from the interior of the fringes. Many have
between the hairs little balls on foot stalks, out of which
proceeds the powder ; others a sort of division up the hairs,
which, when moved, gives out the dust, so that the muper
fringe always appears variously jagged. Nature seems to
have formed the lid to keep the fringe together, and prevent
the hairs throwing out the powder, ere the seeds are ready
to receive impregnation, or the liquid of the pojntal to dis-
solve'the pollen. It is these beautiful provisions of nature,
that should be so closely watched. Who can behold all the
exquisite contrivance displayed in the formation of these
fringes, and not be convinced, that they were intended for
some important purpose? Never issuch perfect mechanism
- | seen without it is designed to produce some great effect.
The sight directly excites my mind to discover the use ; nor
do [ allow myself to pass on to another subject, till I have -
studied hard to, find out the cause.
Description of | The seeds are numerous aud spherical, and all tied toge-
MP aa ther by a line, which is the line of life, ‘The wood vessels
constantly
\
FRUCTIFICATION OF THE CRYPTOGAMIA. 9
_ Gonstantly lead up to the capsule, in which they form stripes.
That which used to be called the male is a cryptogamian
plant, found in all these diminutive vegetables, and taken -
- generally for the stamen of the mosses, filices, lichens, and
others: for, as it grows always, and has the appearance of
powder, the mistake was very natural to those who knew no
law, by which a parasite plant could be distinguished from
the identical plant on examination. Fig. 9 is the capsule ;
T, its interior: fig. 10, is a more highly magnified view of
the outer fringe, K, and the inner fringe, L: figs. 11 and
19 are the pitcher-shaped leaves. “Most mosses, when they
first shoot, require much water ; and there being a quantity
of spiral wire in the leaves, they easily draw into this shape,
and for some time retain water in each leaf by the contra¢-
tion the moisture occasions. ‘That it is the spiral wire, that
' passes up the capsule in the wood vessels, is plainly shown
in the stripe that accompanies this part, and is more
strongly evinced in the figure of the tortula subulata.
When the upper’ case stops some way below the seed vessel,
i, the stripe leaves the outer case and runs up the under, in
_ the shape of a corkscrew, to form both fringes. “See
Sowerby’s admirable print, which is very exact. Vol..16,
p-110?. Both fringes move, and both must concur in the
office of the male, since the spiral is worked to and fro from
the outward to the inner vessel repeatedly ; and is seen in
the microscope to contract and dilate at the bottom of the
capsule, as I have marked at NN, fig. 9. In the poly-
tricha, that which is supposed to be the male plant has cer-
tainly not only stamens, but a pistil, and is of itselfa com-
_ pletely distinct plant ; the middle of which opens, and shows
the pointal, while the teeth around unclose at the edges, and
discover the pollen. In all that I am acquainted with thisis
the case, but I know only four ; vit is not often I could find
the plant called the male, and then they were peffectly di-
vided, having their own stem and root. 4 |
As to the mosses that have no apparent fringes, there may Seme mosses
be some having the male flower in a different plant: but, if aoe Be Lage
I may be allowed to say what I have often experienced in ferent plant.
many cases, when the fringes are not to be found in the
usual place, I seek it in the lid-or veil, where I seldom miss
i finding
!
V0
Fructification
ef the ferns.
‘ sible to understand the whole mana
FRUCTIFIGATION OF THE CRYPTOGAMLE.
finding it. They are so delicate, that. the, smallest touch,
breaks them. I do net. however, deny, that there may be
some, gymnostoma thus unsupplied; nature possesses. so,
much variety of form, but then. it is not generally shown in,
these points: there is a strict conformity .in all that cons
cers the fructification of plants, that teaches us to expect, a
change less in. these matters than in, any, other parts, Be-
sides, they might be-bent or broken. 1, think 1 have. dis-
seeted the g. visidissimaum,, and if it was the plant. (and it
concurred in every other point) it has a very narrow rim of,
inflected teeth, which grew dark as. the powder ripened.
The polytrichum commune is very curiously, formed at the
bottom of the capsule ; the manner in which the spiral is
Jaced displays a mechanism most wonderful ; if it was + Pgh
gement.
‘The Filices::'
The general structure of the i sghtrabien of the ferng is.
as follows, The scale or calyx as not often found. Ht
springs out of the leaf, opening on one side, and ia different
from the covers The wood vessel and line oflife, forming,
together, run up to each set of flowers, which are dispersed
in-parallel limes oblique to the midrib, commonly i in one
rew on each side of it, but sometimes the row is double.
Under the cover, usually supported on little foot stalks, are
the flowers, eucompassed by an elastic ring, which is really.
the male part of the plant. When the seeds are ripe, the
impregnating cord springs and moves with every change of
temperature, till it has shaken out all the powder to be
found in it, The capsules then burst, the seeds disperse.
from the force of the confined membrane within the seed
vessel, which, having the seeds fastened to it, and being
coiled up in a.manner adverse to its form, (as the spiral wire
within it grows stronger) it struggles to get free, which it
does at last by bursting the capsule, and throwing off the
seeds to a distance; in the same manner ag it does in the
spirting cucumber, and in many other plants of that. kind.
That the elastic line that covers the apparent basket is really
the male part of the plant, 1s easily proved. Let any one
place the cyathea fragilis. under a strong magnifier about
the
FRUCTIFICATION, OF THE CRYPTOGAMIM, . ii
die time the male powder is ripe. After observing the cap-
sules to be covered on one side with a white shining mix-
ture, they will soon, see this turn to a. pale green, from the
powder which falls on it from, the handle or elastic rings |
The manner in which the pollen 4s, given out.is as curious
as any part; for the, ring contracts and dilates alternately,
till it has yielded all its dat. Nor is there the least, fear of
taking the pollen for the seeds, the one, being brown, the
other almost white. In the month of September this me-
chanism is very ‘plain in the asplenium scolopendrum ; I
have seen the. male so difficult. to confine from the eternal Great agita-
motion of the cord, that without a pair of pincers it was i
impossible to fasten it within the field of the microscope,
‘ Sometimes the fructification of this powder isin spikes, and
then. the flowers are contained within a case, as in theequi-
setum sylvaticum, There the male and female haye been per=
fectly guessed; the capsule, which, holds, the seeds, being. the
pistil; while, the « agitated part attached to itis the stamen,
and which may really be said to, fly. from the glass, I have
seen them, when first thrown on the paper, move about hke
a worm, and if a drop of water is placed near them, the fila-
ments, gather ronnd the capsule, as if to defend it ; beating
the anthers against ity, till it is, completely covered with pow-
der, It has 4 filaments to each female.
Thus then we, may lay down three rules, for discovering Rules for dis-
the male plant: .ist, the leading up of the wood vessel to covering the
the part either with or without; the line of life, as the male sa
is or is not joined to the pistil, 2d, the constant motion of the
‘filaments and anthers, when giving out, their powder; which
agitation belongs only. to the male, for the female is per-
fectly inert. 3d, the stamens being almest constantly in
‘the shape of hairs, which, will lead a student at once to exa-
‘mine every, thing in the cryptogamize that bears this
‘appearance.
The fructification of the filicesis seen in Pl. II. Fig. 1, 00,
the. joint wood vessel and line of life leading up to th fruc-
‘tification, in the leaf of the scolopendrum vulgare: fig. 2,
.P, the capsule with the pointal ; Q, the elastic line or sta-
men: fig. 3,/ the seeds tied by the line of life. The
fructification of the equisetum sylvaticum,*palustre, and
“ arvensis,
13
Supposed
males of cer-
tain mosses.
FRUCTEFICATION OF THE CRYPTOGAMIZE.
arvensis, for they exactly resemble each other: fig. 9 the’
target carrying the flowers: fig. 10, an interior view of the
same cut through the middle: fig. 11, the pistil and capsule’
bearing its seed, with 4 stamens attached to it by their fila
ments, one of which is shown still more'magnified at fig. 12.
I was proceeding to the agarics, but my letter already ap-"
pears so long, that 1 shall leave these for my next commu-
nication, and join to them the lichens, jungermannie, and
marchantiz.
$ I am, sir,
- Your obliged ‘servant, !
Cowley Cot. ae AGNES IBBETSON.
March the 8th, 1812. —
P.S. Ithink it right, however, to add the three males
of the mosses, which [ have found, dissected, and exposed to
very greit'magnifying powers. Sce fig. 7, which, hke’a
number of others, proved merely a collection of leaves:
fig. 8, which showed a sort of pistil in the middle concealed
and covered by the stamen: and figs. 5 atid 6, which ap-
peared the male of a polytrichum, but were certainly a
complete flower with both stamen and pistil,. ‘The per-
fection and exactness of Mr. Sowerby’s drawings no one
would venture to contradict, and IT mean not in any manner
to do so, I have too many opportunities to admire the per-
fect likeness of each object. All that I would wish to sug-
gest is, that the plants taken for males in the mosses are
plants of the same genus, and having both male and female,
_ which by dissection may be found. ‘Fo prove this, there
are many arguments, most strong and powerful. That na-
ture should have formed all this beautiful apparatus for }
nothing ; that these exact and regular fringes, thus ex-
quisitely formed; should be made to bend over the seed ves-
sel at a certain time, and rub out a powder: that the veil
should remain, without any reason, a stipulated time, then
quit it, for as little apparent cause ; is not like her general
arrangements. But, on the contrary, that nature should
have placed all this spiral wire in the fringes, that its mo-
tion, might rub out the pollen from the teeth : that the veil
should remain on, to keep the’males from moving, till the
- | ‘
seed
HORMULE FOR SINES AND COSINES. : 13
>
seed is fit to receive impregnation; that it should then fall
off, and the fringe bend over the pointal, to mix the pollen. ~
with the juice of the pistil ; and, to prevent the powder of the
stamen from being lost in the seeds, that a thick curtain
should be drawn between, to give time for the melting of
the powder in the sweet juices of the pistil; all this is
exactly conformable to the process in every other flower,
and analogous to the proceedings of every otler plant.
But this is not all: that in all the rest of the cryptogamize
the males should be distinguished for excessive motion, and
yet in the mosses alone be different, is not to be credited.
Besides, when.the supposed.male flower is found; it is often
not one to ten thousand females; and consideriag, that
much powder must be lost in attaining the pistil, nature
would have provided a quantity, as it tages in every other
¢ase 1 am acquainted with, where the male flower is sepa-
rated from the female. These are all strong reasons for
believing, that the male plant has been generally mistaken,
But there is another source of errour admirably suited to Source of ex-
mislead. There isa species of animalcule, which lays its light Eecaceesl
green eggs very often in some species of mosses; and gene- malcules
rally chooses the upper leaves, whence they open to the ent
stalk, These are so like pollen, that it is only keeping ORree
‘them till they hatch, that can prove what they are. I have
been twice so deceived, I have added a dissection, at fig.
4, of the stem of the moss, to show the manner in which the
spiral wire runs from leaf to leaf at z; and to-show the
ball, round which it winds at Sy #4 leaf, thus running ~y
the midrib,
de Il.
Trigonometrical Formule for Sines and Cosines. Ina Lei-
_ ter from a Correspondent,
To W. NICHOLSON, Esq.
“SIR,
From your favourable reception of the Trigonometrical
; Formule, which I had the honour of communicating, and
t which
14. FORMUL® FOR StNES AND ‘COSENES.
which appeared in your Number for February last, I have been en-
couraged once more to trouble you with a few miscellaneous results,
indeed, yet curious.
By the common sciisalioniebsecal resolutions - sines nie cosines .
we have: If 7 =: 3°1415 &e. 1
Sin. Arce yaoc (tem *) (a— iB) (: — Ga)
fl— * &e. saat
(0 ais)
Sin. A. aca aa
Feeney Ane 7 ERIE Waar Au i ay aaa x ea
2 ype &e
m on F m
Let now A = — >. And... = = —* sin. (= -) x
; n j in ” ;
n>. (2n)*. (3n)*. (4n)*. &e. ve Tih act Oe
Si. in. = ee
{n* — m*) (20% m*) (Sait m4 Ula Al: t&e. us ™
n. Nn. Qn. 2 te 3n Sn, &e..
(n—~m) (n+ m) (2m — m) (2n + m) (Gn— m) (3n + m). &e. 31g |
Again
Cos. A= (a = 1— —J0-= aie? &e.
() *(G) #3).
_ (n— 2m) (n+ 2 m)(3n— 2m) (8n-+2 m)(5%— 2th) (5n4-2m). &e.
Te Plea ghee Pages TBH a ee oe g
me ae
In 413 let —- =i. .. sin. — w = 1, and we get
n n
6-.
me 2.2. AVG 656-28". &e.
Fr 8 ale a
PS iret oie hee? tr a a - &u.
pression. This way of deducing it 1s however far shorter and more
. Which is Wallis’s ex-
direct than the usual way (see Woodhouse’s Trigonometry, where,»
however, he does not seem to have bestowed much ‘attention on this
part of his subject).
m 1 Lis. HOR 1 i
In fit let = a a “sin. = WE? and the form becomes
w= PVs & 4.4.8. B-12.12.16.16..&c,
VO Ole 1 wie i138 .15., 17. &e.
FORMULA FOR /SINES. AND ‘COSINES. | i3
My er ANS | Bu Le Gh reaeee eae | |
: Let ie = gi te sin. ge bemg = 5 form 31% becomes
oh i: 6.6612.12, 18.18.9494. &c, (3)
. 5. 67.41. 13.17.19.: 23. 1.25. &e.
1 ;
Let - = ne and form si} becomes
uf $ ofS 3.0846 6, G. 9. 125.1%. &e. (
. 2 Oe as aif «OREO. AE DD. ee. tS a
In the same way by making ™ Coa La Ber we) Owecmnd?
1 OO AR iy?
_ S(W5—1) |. 10. 10. 20, 90. 90. 30. 40. 40. &e. |,
ml cer 2 $n 219. 21.29. 31.39.41 0&e. (4)
And .
_ Set — =], 20-20 «40. 40 - 60. 60, &e,
ome 5 VS- V5 "19. 21.39. 41.59. 01. ke. ©
$ f . m . . -
and so on, whenever sin. — % can be found in algebraic terms, as if
pe, ad
nr *. Lae
bra eg ™m ae te
Let us now take form Jol, and for = write 7 Now
1 1 ae 1 :
COS. — See HD » andthe form Becomes
& /2 ‘COS. © tine
Bet Ale hee sl 2a Lo. OU a 20's OO. Sanne
— '9.6.10.14.18. 22.26.30. &c.-
5 Me, Gia Gs VT AG na Ie eee
bb by 7.9 dt Ae eke TEP Ae
expression due (if I eeprDe rightly) to Euler. |
Ta form iE ¢ Sat m write 5 m, and it becomes
coain. Pie = (am) (tem) (an—m) (On m) fe.
Fs A Tani SRR eS ane et Bee
a Le :
si n= 3." "2 C08. & being =
2248-10-14, 16. 905924 Ko slg f
SS TSTOD Og 1S 1s COTE Me we Pee)
we get
AF, SSID
16 FORMULZ FOR SINES AND COSINES:
4 5— ; 2
r= 1.9.11. 19491229 .31.89.41. 49. &e.
ae | 7, Cap NE SR NEN a eo a eam SA Ma NAMES | NS
f + §.5.15.15.95.25.35.85.45.45. &e, (3)
In the same way as Euler’s theorem, A eine A x sitt:
2s
e “~ ’ pA
@A + : sin. 3 A— &c. is deduced, we may obtain the following
cos. 2 A + cos, 4A + cos.6 A + &¢. always = — —
cos. A + cos.3 A +cos.5 A + &e. to infinity, always = 0
ware? ‘ee Sho
25
and .*. cos. A — cos. 2 A + cos. 3A— &e. = | 5 as may also be
had by differencing Euler's series.
Again, if e = 2°7182818 &e. we find
cos A= $cos. 2A+ 4c08.3 A — ~ £08. wat &e.
2.cos. = me ,
. heh 12
a set ara 2QA+} $ COS. 3 At COs. sub &e.h
vand 2,sin.— =e
2 ,
Again — sin. A + 5 sino AA ~ sin-3 At Bes (k).
Pr aA A” | 1
And “6 ae — mcos.A- —>Z ie A + mo
cos. 3 A + qe 0% 4A+ &a ; ()
4 2 few 2 2
erent: ; (et Rp pent? * (sin. . A) iy fier a
' 1 2 3
+ sna ur anid fy Caml
These last theorems are so easy of deduction, that I have omitted
their demonstrations fog the sake of keeping within the compass of
a letter.
I am, Sir,
Your most obedient humble servant, |
March the 29d, 1812, ‘ -ANALYTICUS.
2
STUDY OF THE MODERN ANALYSIS.
amr
Boutre: baler the Means oy Wiitoend the Mudern ee
lysis. An a a letter from a Correspondent.
RY To W. NICHOLSON, Esq.
mtb, * s YS,
As the object of your excellent Jouynal is the diffusion of What books,
scientific knowledge among all classes, I am sure you will eae
not deem the present queries out of place; and if you will the modern
have the goodness to reply to them either by private come eee aeer
munication, or through the medium of your publication,
you will confer an ae not, merely on the individual
who addresses you, but upon many others in the same. Cite
cumstances as myself...
The object of my. inquiry is this:——What elementaty,
works should be perused by a person, who wishes to become
acquainted with what is usually termed « the. modern
_ anulysis” ? That one who resides ina Mathematical Univers
_ sity should put this question may appear strange ; but itis
well known by-many, who, like myself, -have devoted-a-con-
siderable portion of time to the study of mathematics ac-
cording to the system adopted in this university,—that £0
little attention is paid to the modern language of science,
that the most admired works of the foreign Mathematicians
ate’ a dead letteteven to many of those, who are sufficiently
familiar with the works‘of Newton and the ablest English
philosophérs.—Suppose: then bvhat a person is toletably ac-
quainted with: pure: Geometry, and with the fiuxional Cale
culus, what'tourse of reading should he pursue, in order to
qualify himself for the pee of La Place’s Mécanique
Céleste ?
As these pen Oed are aa oo to you by one who is
an enthusiast in mathematical studies, but who knows of ne
other means of getting satisfactory information upon the
subject of his’ inquiry, than ‘that whichhé has nate ns “2B
early Feply, would be: sereetni Seeeptebtc!
“A. H. as
“ . Vor. aah eek 181 3. oats C ; Answer.
18
Works recom:
mended forthe *> -
study of the
modern ana-
lysis,
Mr. Murray's
attempt to
prove the exe:
modern analysis.
EXISTENCE OF WATER IN MURIATIC Gas,
Answer. -
With ‘respect to the books my “correspondent inquires
after, I would recommend, as ihe first and principal, the
Traité.du Calcul Différentiel et Intégr al of Lacroix ; which,
with the qualifications he mentiens himself, as possessing,
will be sufficient to give him a very complete notion of most
ofthe branches of the modern analysis. Ue should, how-
ever, read with great attention, before he begins to look
into. the Mécanique Céleste of La Place, the ‘Traité de.
Mécanique Elémentaire of Francteur, which is an excellent
introduction to that work, and the /H2canique Analytique
of La Grange, which is a work of the first rank im this de-
partment of science.. If to these he joins the Théorie des
Fonctions . Analytiques, and Legons sur le Calcul: des
Fonctions, by. Lu Grange, he wiil be able to proceed, with
great ease, in any undertaking of this kind, that he may)
wish to engage in; these being, as I conceive, all the. most
necessary and. useful performances, that have hitherto ap-
peared on the. subject of what is more peculiarly. called the
\
wi e* *
ee Pen Din adie t ae EA
IV. Saad Of a cetes.
Experiment to proves Nohetlior Water be produced’ in the
“Combination of Muriatic Acid Gas and Ammoniacal Ges.
By Jowy Bosrocx, M. D., Vice Pres. of the Lit. and
Phil, Soc. of “Liverpool, and Tuomas Stewart TRAILL,
M, Des: Secretary to the Society. Read before the
-" Literary and Philosophical Society of Liverpool, and com=
| municated by Dr. Bosrocx.
pitscaee Po Me. NICHOLSON.
© Tu SIR, ~ 2 Fé
Iw your Journal for February, Mr. Murray has related
an experiment, which he performed on the mixture of mu-
istence of way tiatic and ‘ammoniacal gasses, the object of which was te
ter in muriatic.
GAse
ge Nic ‘whether, when the perch were added together in
the
a
‘EXISTENCE OF WATER IN MURIATIC. GAS. 19
the state of perfect dryness, the muriate of ammonia, formed
by their mixture, contained water. A very obvious quan
tity of water was expelled ftom the salt, and it was argued,
that this water must have formed a constituent part of the
inuriatic gas, for it is now agreed, that pure ammonia con-
sists entirely of hidrogen and azote; and from the terms of
the experiment it is wappeedds that all moisture was retnuved
from both the gasses, and exttiided from every part of the
apparatus. {n your Journal for March, a correspondent, The moisture
who signs himself A. B. C., undertakes to set aside the in- pinche eee me
féfence from the above experiment. This he does; not by have been at-
showing’ that either of the gasses, or any part of the appa+ ch or pi
ratus, contained water, nor by denying the existence of water phere.
in the result of the process as conducted by Mr. Murray,
(for these points appear to be admitted) but by attempting
to prove, that the muriate of ammohia had attracted mois
ture from the atmosphere, while it was transferred from the
vessel in whichit was originally formed, into the oné'to which
the heat was applied ; and to prove this he relatés an experi-
ment, in which newly formed muriate of ammonia attracted
water, simply by being “ removed ae the iby al
“s into a a dry tube." 4
this time particularly interesting, as ee a part of the pe con
controversy respecting the constitution of muriatic acid.
From these considerations Dr. Traill made a proposal, to
which Ivery willingly assented, that weshould in conjunction
repeat w ‘the experiments of Mr. Murray and the correspon
dent ; that, we should especially attend to every circum
stance, by : which moisture might be excluded ; that the
muriate of: ammonia formed Bcc be heated, without being
at all exposed to the ait; and that the quantity of moisture,
which it acquired from exposure to the atmosphere, should
be accurately ascertained.’ Before we entered upon the
process we resolved, that, provided no circumstance occurs
red tointerrupt or defeat the experiments, the results, what+
ever they were, should be communicated to your J ournal.
Every circumstance as to the cleaning and drying the dif- Preparation of
ferent parts of the apparatus, and the providing of the the murlawe ©
necessary substancea, bein “8 attended tu, we commenced our et
j 2 - operations
\
EXISTENCE OF WATER iN MURIATIC GAS.
operations. by,the preparation of the muriatie* gas, Two
ounces of muriate,of ammonia, in coarse. powder, and which
had, been, kept heated for two days, were mixed with §
drachms by measure,of sulphurié, o¢id, sof, the specific gra-
vity of 1:85, inya tubulated retort. The gas soon began to
form, , without the assistance of heat; and, after a consider-
able quantity. had escaped, ‘we received a portion of it over
mercurye; The gas was perfectly transparent and colourless, -
10. thoisture-was perceived within the jar, and move was. visi«
blein any part of thejretort ; it was indeed obseryed, that
some,partioles of the .murjate of ammonia, ;, which had
lodged on the lower part of the neck of the vessel, remained
perfectly dry at the end of the process. A quantity of mu-
riate oflime, perfectly dry and pulveruient, was introduced
through the mercury into the muriatic gas, and in n this state
it? ee tect for 48 hours. .
Preparation of g4 The ammoniacal gas. was.prepared by intiodtitiae intoa
the: ati miOnia~ peters equal witiebia of newly burned quick lime and muri-
cal gas.
Mixture of
the. gasses,
‘
Miuriate of”
ammonia @
formed, and,
ate. of ammonia, in the same state with that used above.
By means-of alamp gas was expelled, and after a sufficient
quantity, had escaped, a portion was received over mercury. -
When ihe jar was become cold, a littlé dew was perceived
on the upper part, which was: very “carefully removed. by
’ bibulous paper, introduced.on the end cf a wire. A consi»
-derable lamp: of dry. quick: hme was then placed imthe gas;
and was suffered to remaia for 48 hours. oP y!
ooAt theeod of this time we resumed our operations. | Upoa
the closest inspection we:céuld not perceive the least mots-
ture.in either of the gasses, or appearance of it in the jars; _
the hime and the muriate of lime were withdrawn, and it was
observed, that,ithe latter was to all appearance as dry as
when it was-first: introduced. A fiask, furnished. with a
ground stopper.and: bent tube, bad 13 cubic inches of am-
moniacal gas introdueed:iito’ it.over mercury, and, to this
was added 6 cubic inches of muriatic eas In suecessive por-
tions. . The flask was then entiely filled with ammomacal
gas, and the apparatus was left at rest for about av hour;
, it was coated;, more especially at its lower part, with a fine
’ frost work of muriate of ammonia. The stopper _and-tube
“= were. then. introduced, and the flask was turned: over, but so
0 Jutoge 2 that
EXISTENCE OF pie 5 IN MURIATIC GAS» 2)
oO .UET STi es. ee
that the end of the tube was pee below tig ane of the
mercury, so as to exclude all’ communication with the at-/
mosphere.. The flask was then embedded in a charcoal without hav-
“furnace, and gradually heated, until it Was s6fttned.”” Tis Hilary! at
process continued about an hout, when the Inuriate of Am- with the at-
monia was all sublimed , into, the weck-of the flask, or into aC.
the commencement of the tube. When the salt was, about the same
half sublimed, a dew was observed to form at the upper part "°S*!:
_of .the' curvature of the tubé,, about an inch ‘from K dew
the stopper. . This dew increased, so that at.one peniod at igure,
-oceupied a zone all round, the tube .of:about.an inch —
“in width, and some globules of water, were formed of about
the size of a small, pin’s head. Towards the end.of the ex-
periment, as the heat increased, the dew was diminished ;
but when the tube was removed from the mercury.a similar
deposition of moisture was observed at;the end,’ where it, had and moisture
-been- immersed in the metal. Before it was taken from the pees 4
-mercuvial bath the tube had its aperture luted with.wax,,in
order to exclude all communication; with, the atmosphere,
«mbich was. farther ensured, by a globule‘of mercury; being
vlodged in. the curvature of the tube ;, and, .as. soon'as it was
become cool, the flask was opened,.a part of the salt scraped Part of the
, from the neck,, and weighed as quickly.as possibly. The eee be
quantity collected was 2°7, BTSy) andnot. ‘more than a minute quickly,
.dould have elapsed between, its being removed from the ves~ ViewD
zsel,' and its: weight .being, ascertained. It remained in;the i abi ab
oscale for 15 minutes; but although we thought that the index and it gained
of ‘the. balance rather, inclined, to that side,” no. increase »of A ee
v weight. could. he pasitively asserted to'haye taken, place. In weight by ex-
~ order, that.a judgment. may be: formed | of the delicacy.of the eats to the
instrument, we found it to turn. with. rg of a graing when lig
«each side was. ee 500 SFAIG9ds Ao pated w8at
wttla ya shufsaay [—~ mle amy, Silly): ifn ¥Vtey bey 0 Tk oY
etatisl 20)? to catego odt Yous nial i aridlnas visas
revign mimes tayupoit tod doviw cottso We BOSTOCKA
*\Knot’ s-hole Bank; riba dod poi OT a? f, af may ty § 2 Fd an acd
Mareh the 26th 51 3'v922 i bog luttsbnow ylout wd af
He gti I
daprio2 a diaud vies big Dagiide doum we
mf by sisi SAD VAL f preg RS Tie 8
Vv
4,
AV
Ambiguity in
Mrs..lbbet- ,
sTRUCTURE OF THE WATER LILY.
V.
Questions respecting a Passage in Mrs. Ippetson’s Account
of the Water Lily. Ina Letier from a Correspondent,
To W. NICHOLSON, Esq.
SIR,
In the last number of your very excellent publication,
son's account. there is a paper ‘of Mrs. Ibbetson’s, in continuation of her
of the water
lily.
Questions
tespecting it.
valuable discoveries in the minute anatomy of plants, in
which T would, though with the greatest deference, point
out an ambiguity, in my opinion of considerable importance,
The passage I allude to is in the description of the structure
_ of the water lily, page 243, where, after referring to * a. a,
of fig. 1, Pl. VII,” for a view of the air vessels, she’ ‘says,
that, lest the pith * should not be sufficient to prevent in-
sects from entering into it, and choking up the air vessel, as
soon as the plant sinks in the water, a quantity of hairs,
which are placed in circles in the interior, rise, and, meet-
ing in the centre, not only aid to keep out the water, but run
through every insect, that ventures to approach.” ‘Mrs.
Ibbetson then goes on to add, “ I have often caught insects
threaded on the hairs, but they are soon washed off. © ~~
Now a question or two naturally arise on reading this ob-
servation.—Ist, how do insects get into or even near the air
vessels ? or, 2ndly,; how can the water come at them, to
wash them off, when’ these vessels gre so entirely internal 2
1 doubt not that these questions can be most satisfactorily
answered ; bur, certainly, Mrs. Ibbetson did not show her
usual perspicuity in this passage. .
Your insertion of this, or an answer to it, if possible i in
your next, will very much oblige me.—I conclude by sin=
cerely thanking the lady, who is the occasion of this letter,
for the high gratification, which her frequent communica>
tions have afforded—and with hopes, that she will persevere
in her truly wonderful and interesting discoveries.
I an, sir,
Your much mat? and very humble servant,
Poole, April the 4th, 1812 T. B.
VI.
STATER OF PHILIP OF MACEDONe 23
Vi.
The Stater of Philip, she Father.of-Alexanders or Remarks
on. the Purity or Standard uf Gold: By Mr..J. Fassrent,
of Florence, Corresponding Member of the French
Instituie*. . ia Fr ie
Narurauists, perhaps on the Me iakes of. Pliny Native gold’
(1), are almost unanimous in the assertion, that native toe to
gold is never found perfectly pure, or free from. all alloy; ~~
particularly of silver; and that the finest is scarcely from
0°875 to 0°917, thatis from 21 to 22 carats, The gold dust Gold dust from
brought from Africa is commonly within these limits. I “sale
have seen some at 0°927, or 22 carats and a quarter?; and
lately there has been some at 0°958, or 23 carats, brought
from Morocco to the mint at Florence. ay hace the
carat is divided into eighth.) '
/ Itis probable, that in the early ages money was coined fal Arieient coine
a porn gold, in the state in which it was found ; for there thee eeite
_ could be no inducement to incur the trouble and expense of
. refining it.
The t most ancient gold coin hanes is suyiposed to be that Most ancient
of Battus IV, cast or struck at Cyrené, in Africa, i in the asa
time of Pisistratus. Its fineness does not appear to be
‘known... ,Of all the Grecian. coins found in our cabinets of Oldest Greek,
medals the most ancient: are the beautiful pieces of Philip, 5 are of
father of Alexander... This enterprising man, who from his eis
infancy looked forward to ascend the throne ef Macedon
and become master of Greece, had the cood fortune to find
some rich gold mines, which he, knew. hats to. work to great His mines.
advantage. | . Mount , Pangzeus furnished him, annually to
the amount of 4300000. F lorence liri, [€218760]. Hence =
he derived the most powerful instrument of. the success of
his political designs and military talents, . Whether the gold
of Philip noclegnret any wishin Speiations before it-was
* Aan. de Chim., “vol. LXXIL, Pp. 25.)
-. The figures. refer to notes by Mr. @ Arcet at. the end of the paper.
" t This gold is found chiefly in the country of Bambouck.
sent
94 sratiR OF PHILIP ‘OF “MACEDON:
sent to the mint, is not known; but there is reason to be
lieve, that it was employed’ in the state in which it was
found*,.
Assay of his Patin’ assay eda old etater of this king, ahd found it 93
Nasir carats and a half fine, or 0°979 : ‘and, as it cannot be sup-
posed, “that hismintmen would’ havé ‘thought of purifying
gold, to add afterward no more than a forty-eighth of alloy,
we may presume, that the g gold was ab native of this fine=
“ness. CMTE of
Addition of “"- Df alloy avid tel added 'to | saul with a bad design, \o
iiaehioet with the erroneons idéa of defraying the expense of seated
it is.a'remedy that has degenerated into fraud, sand has'no
gra Jimits. If alloy have béen added with the desigiy of render-
ing the coin harder, it is a wseless “idea. ’ Neither ‘of these
Philip used his fnotiyés could) have induced Philip to adopt the : ‘practice,
gold native. beeausd the source of his gold:was abundant, and he was
désirous. of appearing: genérouss:so that he »would have
coined his money of pure gold, af he hadithbdught it neces-
sary to. refine,it; or he would) have added ‘more alloy; if
' policy had suggested to him, not to employ it in the virgin
ptate,.as it came’ from ‘the. mite |(2). 1t would sappear
therefore, that nature furmshed him with gold at 23 carats
* and half, or 0°979, as it is in his coin; unless there were an
ervour in the assay of Patin, whines deserves therefore to be
verified, 2 TE Vy iene
Astarcr ately The Mkodien F dabeatadnd) a very case vnidithetital
ed ticians digging the! foundations: of:a house near Arrezzo,
‘ found a stater of Philip in’ very good preservation, No
sooner was he informed of the wish to examine the weight
and chemical composition of his antique, than he readily
sacrificed it to the gratification of this curiosity, « » «
Described. |The obverse of this piece, like that of most of Philip’s
coins, bears the head of Apollo; and the reverse, a'chariot
with two horses walking, ’ The name is ‘in the exergue, “On
similar staters under the legs of the horses appears a mono-
grata, or some type, to denote the mint where the piece was
struck. On this stater it is a place the Sea of
Treezene, eae ay Wi
* Pliny hints, that gold was Found in the bowels of the earth “suf. ,
ficiently pure, to be meltcd without any preparation,
Fourteen
STATER OF PHILIP .OF ‘MACEDON. 25
_ Bourteen staters of Philipare.preserved inthe rich cabinet Fourteen in
of the Floreuce gallery. Eleven resemble that of Arrezzo sal - is
on‘ both sides, but they have different. mint-marks ; one
only having the ‘samevaswthat found near Arrezzo.. The Their weigtt.
weight of two ofthese. staters, «perfectly resembling each
other in external appearance, is. precisely .176 Florence
grains! [1336 grs Eng.:}/; This. is_ precisely the. weight, of a
another stater, the mint-mark of which is formed by ajJlarge |
KK,,and a small. 05) of one’that has a thunderbolt ; one with
larvase;. and one with an earjof corn, the gmark | of the Leon-
tiie: « This:being the. weight, of the. six largest. staters that
ddve come .down to.us,.there.\is reason to presume, that 1. it
“was thé weight prescribed for this Gweek coin*, Hence. it Weight of the
wmay’ bevinferred,: that. the drachma was equivalent, to 88 ‘se hase
‘Flor. grs. [66:8 grs.E.]...(De Romé-de-Lisle gives. 4-461.
gr. [68°9 grs}] for the gréat attic <drachm, that-is to. say,
‘about 2 grs more.) Asproof of the justness of this weight is
the attic: hemidrachma,: or Asiatic drachma, er fourth part
“of the stater of Philip; which is also preserved.in the same
gallery; and weighs precisely 44.grs, [38:4.grs E.]. The
‘obverse of this 'small:piece of gold bears.the head of Her-
veules covered with the'lion’ ’s skin. On the reverse are the Weights of 5
“bow, vase, and club.’ The learned and illustrious professor staters in the
‘A. Li Millin haS‘sent’ me ‘the weights of five Philippi in the een
‘imperial library ; which are as follows, _No,iJ, 160°5 grs:
“2, 161 gts very fexactly: 3,:161 ers: 4, 162 grs very .ex-
-actly': 5, 162 grs.’ Thestwo heaviest,,which differ by an
unassignable: fraction, are’ so because they, are least worn.
» The heaviest answers to 175716 Flor. grs., and is therefore
'0'34'0f a grain lighter than ours; hie therefore may be
~eonsidered as less worn, and more accurate..
»/ UGreaves weighed two staters of Alexander, one of which Staters_weigh-
“was 133 grs English, the other 133°5... ‘He supposed, that sei iia
‘the half grain had been lost by wear; and. he concluded,
‘that the drachma should be’ estimated. at 67 grs precisely,
The second weight given by Greaves is equivalent Lo, 87-6
‘Flor. gre;' Snellius: foand. the stater. of Philip, and gion by Snel-
Alexander, to neeps 179 Dutch grs, equivalent to 1245 ka
WN
Attic hemis
drachma.
Tes 9 * No heavier stater is known to exist,
Eng. ;
Weight ac-
cording to
Barthelemi.
Silver drachma
ot Phuip.
Silver hemi-
drachma.
Tetradrach-
mas of Alex-
ander,
Mint marks.
STARER OF PHILIP. OF RACER ONS.
Eng.” ; which, from ehaectitig a the preceding, » would. :
oh Yeats bag
but very near what we have assigned, or 83 | ries. without ts
being necessary to estimate the wear, in support ‘of. six ‘silni-
lay weights in an equal number of gold staters, and with
the proof of the fraction mentioned. “The | celebrated Bar-
thelem? found, from various weighings, ‘that thé drachma
was precisely 814 French grs [66°55 gis ‘E js ‘which would
give about 87°75 Flor. grs. But he would presume a loss. of
seven eighths of a grain for the wear of 2200 years, and
thus gratuitously make the drachma equal to 82 Fr. gre, or
88°5 of ours, Tt is probable however, that he carries his
estimate too high. We should altogether reject from our
calculations all allowance for wear ; because, by admitting
this, we may draw any vague conclusions we please. ‘The
weight of 88 grs [66:8 grs E.] is confirmed bya silver
drachma of the same Philip, likewise preserved in the Flo- :
rence cabinet. On the obverse ‘is the head of Herevles,
without a beard, and covered with’ the lion’s'skin ; and on’
the reverse Jupiter seated, with the eagle on his right hand,’
and a spear in his left. It is distinguished fromothers by.a
lyre and the letter A beneath the seat. “The accuracy of the
weight of this dzachma is confirmed by its half, also in silver,
of the same king, which weighs exa¢ttly 44 grs. . This has:
the head of Jupiter, ordamented with the diadem;;and on
the reverse is a figure on horseback; withthe. name in. the
exergue, and « mark that cannot be made out... Besides,
there are four tetradrachmas: of Alexander, of the same
metal, the faces and reverses of which are similar; which,
weighing all alike 14 den. 16 gvs, farther prove the weight
of the’ drachma tobe 68 grs. These tetradrachmasiare: dis-
tingpished by various marks, as was said of the staters, One.
has in the fore part a lamp, and under the seat a moon ‘and’
‘a star: another has in the same place the initial T with a,
circumflex overit, and under thé seat the letter, E; a thire
has a buckler, and under the seat a serpent; the fourth.has
a crown, and under the seat’a monogram, composed:of an
* There is evidently some mistake here; but, as I do not know the
precise weight of the Dutch grain, } shall leaye it as in the original. ’C. | '
; wre sf BLiptet ict ie F yee.
M
@TATER OF PHILIP OF MACEDON. a7
M barred between the two inner str okes. Lastly we have Drachma of
also u real drachma of this king, of the precise weight of Alexander,
88 grs, which i is ‘distinguished by a monogram, consisting
of an H, with a kind of circumflex over the cross stroke.
Among the tetradrachmas of Thrace in the same cabinet Thracian tetra-
there i 1s one, the twelfth i in order, heavier than the rest; and. ici
weighing precisely 14 den. 16 grs. This is a proof of the
identity of the weight « of the Thracians and Macedonians,
which had already been conjectured by others*.
After having. ascertained the weight of the, Philippus The state as
found at Arrezzo, it wag subjected to cupellation, and the. payed.
process, of parting, _ Its fineness. appeared to be the same as
found. by. Patin; that i is 0°979, or 23. carats and a half; con-
taining but half a carat, or 0°021 of silver. _
_ The art, of assaying.was known, in the remotest -times, as Art of assaying
the Scriptures attest. _ Inthe time of Pliny it had reached ancient.
_ sugh perfection. f?), that the fineness of gold was ascertained
from 21 carats; or. 0°875, to.21 carats and 7 twenty-fourths,
0‘888, and even to 23 carats and 11 thirty-seconds, 0:973.
In- those days the assay must have been made in the dry
way ; first by separating the base metals from the gold by
means of lead, andafterwards the silver by mpéns,of)sul- ;
_ phaurt, or a sulphuret (*).
~ The method of refining gold in large quantities was also Ancient art of
known, as Strabo says, ey cementing or burning it with an, ee
argillaceous earth, which, destroying the silver, left the gold
in a state ie Bins shies ant that for this purpose the Pliny.
® The scholiast on Nicander says, that the didrachma is the fourth
part of the Attic ounce: this ounce then must be 704 Flor. grs.
[S3a4'4 grs. Eng. Here, as in the other parts of this paper, 1 haye
reduced the Flor. grs directly into Eng., agreeably to the values as-
signed them by Tillet, in the Mem. of the French Academy of
Sciences for 1767 ; ‘ paying no regard to the reduction into grammes,
“made I presume by the French translator, and added in the Ann. de
Chim. He gives here 34-496 grammes ag equivalent to 704 Fl. grs,
which would then be only $32's Eng. C.] |
+ Amanuscript written by one Biffoli, who lived in 1460, which is
-in the Strozzian library, and of which there are several other copies,
gays; “ Parting with aqua fortis was invented about fifty years ago.”
gold
23
Agatharchi- |
des,
Hijs aescrip-
tion,
‘tunes. its weight of salt; and that es was afterwa vd expose
SLATER OF PRILIP, OF, MACEDON:
galdrwas placed on the. fire in an fatthen vessel with three
anew to the fire with, two par ts. of salt, and. ne of sel hist,
certainly argillaceous, This woul “certainly ef e eet t ned -
composition of the salt, and. the volatilization fr) fthe inuriatie
acid in a state of ignition, and dry, which wonld penetrate
the substance of the gold, and separate, the silver. in the
form of a volatile muriate ; the object (5 ) and effect of # 1
cementation of the moderns. , But. Agatharchides, has tr ali-
mitted to us an account ‘of a. Viecaliar method practised in
the mines situate between: the Nile and the borders of the
Red Sea¥, j in which we perceive | the well kuown _ property
of the muriatic acid in separating silver. edit in a dow
This author say S, if he express biméelf aéchrately,’ ‘wit
there be no corntiption of the text; ‘that’ the gold there 8
pees in marble : that the miners “burn or calciné this
that they break’ it with hammers, pound; ‘grind; ead ©
Bish it: and that lastly the gold, ‘placed: sharedrenee erud?
ble with : a little lead, some salt,a little fin, and‘ some barley-
Pure gold
coins of Da-
rus.
_, silver made afterward by ‘his satrap’ ‘Ariander.
Process of
Agatharchides
difficult t6 ex-
plain.
A similar mee «
thod appa-
rently prac-
tised at Lyons,
pr ehe nd the use of barley-meal.
eal, was ‘exposed to the fire fivedays. ©" 7% 6 886-0
‘ The mintmen of’ Darius certainly: employed this ore’
diinilar method, when this enlightened’ Aingt’ was desirous
of giving bis éubjects’ the noble and ‘useful example’ of
money aide with the purest gold, similar to’ that of fine
t
BoD 4) Pl at 6
“Itis not easy, however, to givera ‘plausible explanation‘of
the rationale of ‘the docimasti¢ method transmitted to-us iby
Agatharchides.’ But if the’ operation’ che: deseribes © were
mtended not ke cementation, but a real and prolonged
fusidh) ity ‘emains to be ‘explained, how the “plu esa
a closed crucible,” kept” bn the fire as he’ ‘directs,""is" to be
reconciled with the object proposed : nor is it he to'corh--
isgebes
on dat onvreflecting on, the mgenious ecole eben, Hellot
found practised at Lyons, for refining, purifying, ,and).se-
paratine cepelled: silver Rene the little ead: that iremaliis
yi of 2S asd? Sioew doidw
* Gold was extracted from wigs mines even previous to ia ‘discovery
Of from.” ts eG ORR SHG Wl 6 tiie Suphe Ramey &, ‘
+ The echotast on. “Afistophanes ascribes, this: to aunt OE
the sane ‘pantie; but more ancient.
7 witk
STATER OF PHILIP OF MACEDON. 690
‘with’ it’ after, Be. fiat eee we may form some notion
pmbits(F)e dias. )
s The bed etal in dite St was to take a nersy, & thir- Described by
teen inches high, and five, inches wide at the mouth: Hello.
to, put a Jayer of small charcoal three iuches deep at.the
bottom, and cover it with a triangular piece of a crucible,
«fastened by a little lute at each corner, its sides answering
to the corners of the crucible: and on this false bottom to
place sixty or sixty-five pounds of silver in long slender
ingots, to be melted, and purified. The sinitarnace used
-for this purpose was fourteen. inches high, seven in diameter
cat the grate, and/nine at.the top. The metal, as it melted,
_. was observed to sink to, three inches below the edges of
the crucible; and then, when it had acquired a sufficient
degree. of heat,, it,'was. seen’ to boil like water exposed.
to a strong -fine. In. this state it, was bei seven or eight
shomrsair Lis guise alier is
- The elastic fluid, which i in this case was evolved from the Artificial bel
‘charcoal beneath, caused, the agitation here. mentioned ; lonlis oa
- the charcoal constituting, as we may say,,a kind of bellows
“ingeniously placed at ‘hie. bottom of the crucible, '
- Charcoal, ,placed ‘in close vessels. of glass or metal, we Charcoal net
5 oe is. not, altered, though heated, redhot. This we are ee
taught by theory, and the truth is confirmed by many ex- of ae or me-
. periments, ‘But the observation reported by the judicious tal :
. Hellotequally attests, ; that in this case. the charcoal beneath Her sh
Abs melted silver is decomposed, and continues to furnish
. élastie fluid ; since this, learned chemist found, that silver
kept in the same degree of heat, without. any charcoal
beheath, has a tremulous ‘motion at its surface, and pro-
ceeds from.the centre to, the sides and back again, but does
‘not, ; boil: with such ‘neise*: whence then comes the elastic
SiO? ik io ta 2
eter: the Goridet of modern pneumatic chemistry by This found by
aninimense number, of facts, demonstrates in the most evi- Priestley.
dent mannér, what has since been confinned by many other
“‘éxperiments, that earthen vessels, heated to such a degree
“as to give a passage to light, are filters, or. rather sieves,
* The silver has cane an undulating and cir culatory motion, .
$ giving
30 STATER OF PHILIP OF MACEDON.
The process giving admission even to the external air*, Thus caloric and
Lape light penetrating the bottom of thé crucible, ‘and with them
FANC
i the air, attracted © chemically’ by® the charcoal within, its
oxigen, coming into contact with the incandescent charcoal,
inflames a portion of it, combines with it atid calorie, and
forms carbonic atid. "This elastic fluid, ‘through the unin=
terrupted action of the fire, acquires sufticient force, to
~ overcome the pressure of 4 column of seven inches of liquid
silver above if, and passes through’it, agitating it violently.
The small residue of lead, which wae’combined and-diffused
throughout the mass, being brought by the continual apie
tation into. contact with the carbonie ‘acid’ gas and the at~
- mosphere (the latter, and perhaps the former, being decom-
posed by a superior affinity from the concurrence of cire
cumstances), is oxided, and, from the: diminution of its
specific gravity, is compelled to occupy the upper surface.
The fused ox- In fact, Hellot observed a kindof yellowish oil rise-fronr
ite of lead the interior of the melted silver, and float on it. . This oil
rose like an
cil, was a pure oxide of lead in fusion ;-formed by the contact of
the continually renewed atmospheric a air. The refiners cole
lect this melted oxide, by enveloping and absorbing it. with
gluss or a ‘meagre earths this earth being removed. more
_ readily from the silver it sy foie and. ied the metal. remains
' pure and limpid. .
The processof “If we refer’to this arvethiod the process of Acothaecchider,
Agatharchides-rénorted above, though very imperfectly, we may suppose,
Sinailar. wid .
that the barley, or its meal, was employed instead of char-
coal, to form what the Lyonese eall the soul of the. crucible ;
that it was placed at the bottom of the crucible, and retained
there by a cover (whence probably the expression of a closed
crucible); and» that on this.was poured the gold fused with
a little lead, to vitrify the base metals it might contain, and
common salt, and sulphuret of antimony or of lead, to seize
* This is deuied by many able chemists, who assert, that Priestley
-was mistaken in his idea; and that the air, in his experiments, was
admitted through minute cracks jn. his vessels, imperceptible. to the
auked cye. Still this does not invalidete the reasoning of Mr. Fabbroni :
for, if this be the true state of the case, air might be admitted to the
charcoal in this process Ment similar cracke in the bottom of the
-erucible a at egy Re ast
the
\
STATER OF PMILIP OF MACEDON. St.
the fine silver, and volatilize it.with the lead, or reduce it to
scoria, The elastic fluids evolved from the vegetable mat-
_ter by the action: of the fire would perform the office of
bellows, to agitate the metal violently and incessantly for
several days, which would occasion all the impurities to
float on the surface, where they would be scummed off as is
‘done by the Lyonese. |
» But, to-say the truth, a fire continued Fisn: five days gives Objection,
saither ah idea of the cementation of the moderns, analogous
to that transmitted to us by Pliny, than of a real fusion in
closed cracibles ; a-circumstance directly opposite to the
purpose intended. ‘Thus in Hungary, the better to open Hungarian
all the interior parts of the gold to the muriatic acid reduced Process.
to vapour in the process of cementation, it is customary to
add lead to the mass, which is afterward reduced into
small hollow drops, or grains as they-are called. It. is pos-
sible, that ‘the lead mentioned by Agatharchides was The process of
intended for the same purpose; that tin is a mistaken ex- ralthenindray
“pression for crude antimony, or nutive sulphuret of lead ; aaa “
and that the barley meal was intended merely to promote
-the uniform distribution of the little salt, a stratum of which
was ‘to be placed on the gold, and ‘assisted perhaps in decom-
posiagit, as’clay or sulphate of iron does now.
To obtain some light on this curious subject, into a cru- Experircent to
-cible, covered by another inverted over it, were put 720 grs ahd its ef-
of barley meal,and 576 grs of common: salt. This mix-
ture was heated till it eequited: the colour of a redhot
-¢oal, “and in this'state it was kept for six and thirty hours.
‘More from curiosity, than to derive any important conclu-
sion’ from it, into it had been put a small slip of gold, at 21
‘ davats yt eighths, or 0°891,'a third of a millimeter [about 0°13
of aline Eng.] ‘thick; and ‘weighing 24 grs3 and a slip of
‘silver, at 11 dwts dnd half, or 0-958, half a millimeter [near
02 of a line] thick, and weighing 40 grs, The lower cru-
tible, in which these were placed, was half full; and inthe
luting of that above was left an opening of 5 mil. [near 2
li ines} for the i issue of the elastic vapour.
At the expiration of this time the apparatus, after being Results,
cooled, ‘was opened; .,In it was.found a very little earthy
es alighly saline, whitish, weighing searcely. 11:3
Bits
anew re
siduuin.
STATER OF PHILIP OF MACEDON.
ers. The gold, was above..it, and increased m weight an
eighth of a grain, being: perceptibly. whitened. by the fusion
of some very’ small particles of silver, separated from the
reinains of the little slip of thatimetal, which,was fou nd stick<
ing uponthe geld in) the form, of an, agghutinated dust-pos-
sessing very littleadhesion. Thesereinains were pure.silver;
and weighed 6 grs and an eighth, The gold, which.was
silvered only on pa was; boiled some time in pure
nitric acid ; ewhen, it lost entirely. its silvery, hue, and, was
fouud,,on assaying it,,to be of 24 carats. | sain ane
The litle earthy residuum was. then. examined. ties it,
bea tp ia nor saline particles but, afew atoms of muriate
of. soda, and. barely.a trace of muriate of, copper... The
mauriate of silver; which from. the loss. of | the metal must
have weighed, 45°5.grs, had certainly. evaporated with the
other. elastic vapours, In. the, formation , of. this, muriate
only 11°5 grs of muriatic acid had been employed. ‘The
324 gers of acid beside, contained in the salt employed, were
disianted (leaving the small portion of copper out of the
question) by a decomposition effected through the means of
Evaporation of the vegetable matter mixed with it., But | whatis. dificult, ta
the soda,
Philip used
mative gold.
Doubts re-
specting the
fineness of
native gold:
account for, and is foreign to eet is. the entire
evaporating of 240 gers of soda, which. the COR AP, salt con~
fs
ae the phe sil m hig heb jhe been . caadouiie palatal
eithe by decomposition, or by, forming a new compound,
and escaped through the opening in, the apparatus.
It is not probable therefore, that. Philip employed nee
methods. of refining,, either, by fusion or by, cementation,
because, I must repeat,, he would have reduced the. gold to
a state of perfect purity, as Darius, thought proper, to do
subsequently ; ; or he would not have confined himself to 80
small a portion of alloy, or perhaps, that. alloy , would. not
have been silver. And.if he employed the gold as he found
it, we must necessarily, infer, that nature yields. gold at ma
carats dnd half, or 0°979. (7). ‘ids catirvatiindiee yl
Many perhaps will doubt, whether . meni be. found. an
nature so near to perfect, purity ; though Strabo saps, that
gold was found pure inthe Noric Alps; while Pliny is
quoted for the assertion, that none is found free from silver,
But,
’'STATER OF PHILIP ‘OF MACEDON. 33
But, without being left in suspense by the assertions and
Opinions of others, I have the means of. ‘Temoving all doubt
on the question ; having 1 had an opportunity of ascertaining but it is somes
by my own examination, that gold i is actually found native feb: tins
at 24 carats. ibe
> Thad for some'time the keeping of the rich collect ién Collection at
of natural histery belonging ‘to our first. king, who was Florence.
very fond of these things, and COIR, versed in natural
philosophy. spe ithe
_ In it were many specimens, of mineralized gold and ae Speciméns of
native gold
gold, among: which I obseryed two well formed crystals Of in
golds. one cubical, the other a tetraed ral prisia surmounted Two singujar
by.a a. four-sided, pyramid, It would | be gratifying to know igs
what, substances | united to the gold. determined t these diffe-
rent figures, naturally formed i in, the bowels of the Earth,
“Pe altogether different from those prod uced i in rour hue
ofes. by, cooling 3 after, fusion. The: cube. is very, pales, ‘the
_prism, is of a a deeper. regloni: but, these two crystals, which
r found ‘by ‘chance t in selecting a gteat many native 2 grains,
peg unique in-the Solleetion, so that} bits is impossible tothink : ots
af pete 6 “them, i an “examination, that would spoil Aegan <0
~
“gheir figures, ” \qilild te
oh Gq
dparperh 10 ous ‘but rem emmanka able specimen. from. Boat EP- Specimen
riched the same telleehon Te was given by the Prince of from Brazil,
Brazil, af Badajor; ‘to the late’ King of ‘Etniria, then infant
of Spain*anid Hereditary’ prihte’of Parma. '’Thé weight of
this piecé 18 abdut *r4 ibs. [12 1bs, 9 oz. “troy}*, beside a weighing 12
small fragment of the same, the nature of which, through Ibs, 9 oz.
the kindness of the king’s apothecary, John Ulnci, I was
, enabled to éRainine’ ‘By. Pa petldetGh and’ partibe’; without part of it exe
“neglecting te test its solution in‘nitroma riatic acid by ‘gul- amined
‘phaté of itdn;"and’ nédtral salts with base of potash. By |
“alt these trials: Twas Gb rivineed: > that i is'very ‘pure gold’ of was perfectly
Of earats, if the’ Whole ‘inides Be"hiotogenedis, without: dhy pure.
portion of inferiér’ fetal; 08 bev we Sh geal
29 we: bo person bias evet! déubiteds' tht “véty’ toarse gold ig
“90 silt ao¥9 BroWsqima Sis i9!
* Pliny ihforms us, that pieces ra i pdenads weight were cal-
ghee. Byatt the paid « in_his time palacras.and palacranas; others,say, F
that small pieces were termed ‘palas, whencé perhaps our paglictte, and
the French paillettes.
* Vou. XXXIL—May, 1812. D found
Pliny’s testi-
monye
STATER OF PHILIP OF MACEDON «
found in minerals containing it, 1 am now certain, tliat nae
ture likewise presents us with wt of the greatest. fineness, and
even perfectly pure. This is what I purposed to show by
this new fact, in writing 1 this little essay, as o pe esent to the
lovers of mineralogy and antiquities, ned
>
Notes on the preceding Paper by Mr. D'Ancet, Verifier of
Assays at the Mint of France. fie
(1) Pliny says, book 33, that there is'no gold more pute
than that obtaimued from the sands of rivers ; ‘and that all -
gold obeained by arrugize has no occasion: to be melted;
being pure native gold. But Pliny says in the same book,
that Midi is more malleable and heavier than gold, which 4 is
a mistake, and proves, that the gold considered | by Pliny ¢ as
“pure was an alloy. He says also farther on, that all gold i 1s
mixed with silver : : and that the freest from silver known is
“the gold of Albicrare in Gaul, which contained but a thirty
sixth* : whence it follows, ‘that the. testimony of Pliny t to
this point is of no reais and | at we must ids to. ex-
Analysis of an
ancient coin
af Philip.
Ait
fried
‘coin with the ber of Phin: which’ proves, ‘that 1 in his
reign coins were made of alloys, the composition’ of which
was native, or at Teast unknown 5 for this piéee contained
Silver. cece ee enere sen netoonrns 368... 7 ley
Gold PP ostPOpoeelosreosuviecgeei | ,184. ise aig,
Copper. papegareny cera oneet 448. hs
4 Seto! gay Fe
“1000, ‘
aie is not -nbebsen that sick acalecem: “of t the noe Te
yd “quired - -such -or_ so complex. an alloy, at,a time, when the
methods of analysis or assay were but. approximations ; and
when they were unquestionably far from. the accuracy, that
_may be obtained even by. employing only. the touchstone,.
‘touchneedles, and prepared acid, used at. presents.
The art of ase.
saying among’
the ancients
t
5:
(3), The art of assaying was as.far as possible. from: napfect
in those remote Noelia ‘Under the penne even eine fine--
“#8 He speaks of other ge containing -¥ tenth ‘ int icy 916 an
eighth part. Cc. re ‘rs
wi ibe. ‘ n kh AS
‘STATER OF PHILIP OF MACEDON. 835
ness of gold and of silver was judged by the colour it rr 1M very imper
the fire, and that of its streak on the touchstone. fect. |
These. methods, though practised by experienced men,
can give only very inaccurate résults, and which may be va-
ried by a number of circumstances ; as strong cleaning by
aqua fortis, a complication in the alley, a difference in the
alloy, &c. ;
Archimedes would not hare applied the laws of specifie
gravity to ascertain the falsificatiou of the crown of Hiero,
if he. could have done it by a better method, and particus
larly by a method known and ‘commonly practised.
Et is well known too, that, under the triumvirate of Mark
‘Antony, every street in Rome erected a statue to Marius
Gratianus, who had invented and introduced one of these
Approximative methods, that have been mentioned: and
this denotes the infancy of a useful art, the first steps of
which are highly encouraged, because they are Se as
as conducive to the public” welfare.
(4) By employing alkaline sulphurets the solution of gold Sulphurets,
may be effected: metallic a a only, must. be under-
stood here, — eat ill '
(3) Mr. de Robilant, in his account of the processes ém- Italian mints.
ploye ed in the mint of Turin, says, that ceméntation is the
process of refining commonly employed at Venice, Genoa,
and Florenee, weber civ are coined: of owes pure
bi
golds inj. 83 4, ;
(6) As Mrs Fabroni says, it is not easy to explain the Process of
grounds of the’ process described by Agatharchides, or of incweces ana
that which appears to be still practised at Lyons. These
processes should be repeated, attending to their progress
with care,-and applying to them ‘the means of modern chea
mical analysis, particularly the pneumatochemical appara-
tus, The nature of the gas that traverses the fluid silver
should be ascertained, why it forms under such a pressure,
why it. does not flow back through the ‘pores of the cru-
cible,. &e. §
Thesex periment related by Mr. Batreni anes not appear
to me sufficiently conclusive, to decide the question.
(7) Reaumur says, Mémoires de VAc. des Sciences, An. Ararat
0. us
3718, p. 87, that Jo or Suite:
e
$6 STATER OF PHILIP OF MACEDON:
The gold of the river Céze is at’ 18 car. '8 ers’
‘Rhonee*«+ 20° . ine Die 8 :
Rhine: + © 21°25 .
Arriége’. + 22°25.
Lumps of na- He further abserves, that, the fineness varies in the same
piel sendin piece of native gold. He says, that ‘the piece of 56 marks,
which was seen at the Academy, was ip.one place 28 carats
and half, in another 23 carats, and in another 22, The
piece of 63 marks belonging to father Feuillée was: at its
upper part 22 carats 2 grs; a little lower, 91 carats, 2 gre 5
and at two inches from the bottom only 17 carats and half,
(Reaumur’s grain is a twelfth of a carat, a division used ip
Germany.)
Wicklow gold.’ Mr. G. A. Deluc Sic in the Journal ae lei
yol. LIT, p, 205, that pieces of gold, found im the county —
of Wicklow, in. Ireland, contained a ninth. of aheis hich
of silver, without any other alloy. »
eee ‘My father, -having been appointed to assay. the piece of
academy. native gold belonging to the academy, during the time: of
the revolution, made two assays of it, both of which were
' 28 car. .26 thirty-seconds. . This Gomes! very near to ‘pure
gold; and proves, that. gold is found in, nature alley at
very variable quantities of silvers © | 94) 40 /> ;
a
Pure native = Mr.:Fabbroni is the first voltilitendublsialahe that gold
a is found also quite pure. This 1s an important observa $
* but it doesnot seem to me to oyerturn the general principle,
that native goldis.a natural alloy of gold and ‘silver : ‘a prin-
ciple established by’ a great number of oo anid | to which
only one exception is yet known. ;
Presence of ~ [t is desirable, that the presenée of lead’ anband we sought
pa poy for in ancient coins or medals : as this would be the most
seught, eeitdin method of ascertaining, whether the ancients refined
on golds or stabbed it as natare i sand it heme
a
ON THE. ANIMAL FLUIDS. 37
Vii.
4 Rejoinder to a Paper published in the Philosophical
Journal, by Dr. Marcut, on the Animal Fluids. By
Georce Pearson, MD. F.R.S., & ce. ,
To W. NICHOLSON, Esq.
+ 1SIRs
By a severe accident I have been prevented from writing
the paper, which I proposed in the communication honour-
ably inserted im your Journal for February last. Meanwhile
an ‘answer hasbeen published by Dr. Marcet*. ;
» Before [I redeem my pledge of offering some remarks on Reply to Dr.
Dr. Marcet’s Memoir, the subject of my former communi- Marcet.
cation, I feel myself called upon by what I consider to be ,
the true interests! of science, to reply to his intervening .an-
swer. This gentieman cannot. be more averse from polemi-
caliwriting than’ J am, nor have move powerful motives of
private-advantage by being otherwise employed: but unless,
L.were toravail myself of the plea of a celebrated: philoso~
pher, who asserted, that his regard for truth was so great,
that he would not part with it, lest it should be ill treated by
mankind, I have no ‘option consistent with public duty.
The feelings of either party must however regulate their
future conduct. For myself I can only promise, that I
shall not considers it as a nae of honour to contend for the
last word:
-.In the: answer, which ‘bas rise addressed to me, Tne Whether the
Marcet has set forth evidence from his memoir, still. under alia
examination, to maintain, that soda in an uncombined state, or potash,
_ and not potash, exists in the animal fluids, as [trust I have macpmbineds
legitimately, proved .according to facts hitherto discovered.
As my honourable Opponent has not contravened the most
decisive parts of: the evidence in support of my allegations,
Team spated the pains of again displaying it ; so. thas I have
only'to Rreripeey agrees eens he brings Armani jnstis
thisegs -fi2atc
a NSee the Philos. Meant for March laste silage
al .o fication.
38
Figure of crys-
tuls not a deci-
sive proof.
Acctic acld
said to have
formediacetate
of soda.
Filnid of spina
bifida,
7
ON THE ANIMAL FLUIDS.
fication. In my remarks perhaps I cannot entirely avoid
repetition of objections already produced. - ¢
The first kind of proof, that soda and not potash is pre-
sent, again asserted by my adversary, 18 from the figure of
ctystals. I have to remark in addition to my former obser-
vations, that their forms alone, rarely or never, even when -
perceivable with the unassisted organ of vision, do singly
denote unequivocal properties : ‘and when sot perceivable
without the medium: of glasses, ‘we know from past experi-
ence the figures are to be considered ag still more equivocal,
I might say deceptive. If these cry stalling forms are’ now
admitted as justly distinguishing properties of certain ‘sub-
stances, it is in cousequence of repeated observation on
larger quantities by direct vision, ‘* quae sint oculis subjecta
fidelibns’’; but even then not without concomitant other
well ascertained properties.
Secondly, great dependence seems ‘to be placed on the.
acetate produced by combining acetic acid with ‘the saline:
matter afforded by incineration. This was said to ‘be acetate.
of soda, which dissolved in alcohol, “ while potash was.
found in the residue left undissolved by the alcohol”. ‘fal
have searched the pages of the memoir under examination,
again and again, for the evidence in support of this allegas
tion; but, here and on many other occasions, 1s avmere ase
seriian, except a partial support from the serum of the blood,
as will be seen hereafter. For Ist, with regard to the saline
matter of the fluid of the spina bifida, 1 fiud these words,
* the alcoholic’solution being decanted off and evaporated
to dryness, a residue supposed to consist of acetate of soda
was obtained.” Here no mention is made either of ‘an éx-
periment to prove whether the acetate was that of soda or
_ of potash, but it was supposed to be acetate of soda. As to
the undissolved matter'containing potash, there is not even
Fluid of hy-
é@rocephalus
iulernus.
that can find a ‘word’ written, This taps ney been
Supposed, | f
2, With regard to the: stones “Buid dx citi that of
hydrocephahis joternnsy;we are: rold,.¢ithe abalysis -wag
conduetediia the same manner asin the: former’+-of course
the existence of soda in the alcohol, and of potash undiss
solved, is not proved, but here also supposed.”
3- In
ON THE ‘ANIMAL FLUIDS. 39
nay In the. examination of affier anthait fluids, viz. of Other Auids.
ascites, of hydrothorax, and hydrops pericardii, as well as
subsequently of the hydrocele, of the hydatids, of the thy-
roid gland, and of a tumour of the chest, no such experi-
iment as that of compounding an acetate is mentioned.
4. In the experiments however on the saline matter of the Serum of
f the bl tat ded, which pore,
sernm of the blood, an acetate was compounded, w ich Experiment
dissolved’ In alechol; the words of the author being, -** the with acetic
alcoholic residue, contrary to my expectations, exhibited aN ioe
traces of potash, both by means of tartaric acid, and oximu-
wiate of platina.” This, as far as I can find, is the sole
experiment with acetic acid and alcohol, related by the
author to. determine the kind of alkali present, although
the assertion is made of the animal fluids generally. But,
although the assertion be not proved, it may be worth while
to consider what, or whether any thing is proved by these
-experiments. They prove, that notdsh was present, be- What is prov.
cause there was a precipitate with tartaric acid, but nothing natu
_more-—there 3 is no proof, that it was in the state of muriate,
_ag asserted. It perhaps will be said, that these experiments -
_ prove, , that this se aleoholic residue” contains also acetate of
_ soda; “ for the same residue, treated with nitric acid, was
almost. entirely resolved into rhomboidal crystals, among
-which I was unable, to detect any distinct prisms,” Now I
‘have already expressed my want of confidence in the figure
,ef.minute crystals singly as evidence, especially seen
_ through glasses ; and here I presume is a decisive instance of
_ their fallacy ; for the potash being proved tobe present, and,
“as already said by Dr. Marcet, Uhited to muriatic acid, it
_ must have afforded cubes, if reliance can be placed on
- forms ; ; but. no such cubes were seen. A farther objection
occurs to. my mind in this experiment, I apprehend, that it
i& quite as likely to be true, that alcohol will dissolve a small
proportion of muriate of soda, as according to Dr. Marcet it.
does of muriate of potash. This being the case, the “alco-
holic residue’ ought to have afforded cubes of muriate of
_ soda as well as, of muriate of potash. The process under,
_ éxamination requires farther ‘animad version on the remain=
_ ig part of it: ** Potash was easily ‘discoverable in the resis
je insoluble in alcohol, which residue had’ now lost its
sa deliquescent
40
Anotiter point
Bot satisfac-
tory.
Acetate of
soda deliques-
cent, and so-
Tuble in alco-
hol.
ON THE ANIMAL FLUIDS.
deliquescent quality.” That potash. was present ina com-
bined state j admit may be inferred, but I. say ‘confidently
there ig,no proof, ‘that it was united. to muriati¢ acid. It is
not however incumbent on, me, bat on. the Affirner, to show
with what it is combined. I think it right to notice another
unsatisfactory part of the process helote me, It is said,.a
coacentrated solution of the saline mass in question did not
distinctly indicate potash, by oximuriate of platina, but did
by tartaric acid, Subsequently however we are told, that
the dissoluble, as well as the indisscluble residue, of the ace-
tous compound in alcohol readily denoted the presence of
potash to the oximuriate of platina as well as to tartaric acid,
To me I own this account only shows, that the quantities
employed, were too minute for distinct observation of facts.
How all ambiguity mht have been removed I have taken
the liberty, of proposing in commenting on this process in
my, former communication, to your Journal, ps 1ol. On
that. occasion I expressed my doubt, whether or not the
acetate of soda be dissoluble in alcohol, but I referred to
the authority of experiment. Here, my learned friend
exultingly construes these phrases of doubt,. two palpable
errours, and trium phs—* a hit, a hit, my Lord, a very pal-
pable hit,’ ’-No, there is no errour in this case, ‘Dr. M.,
according to the English meaning of the terms used. To
make. the most of these asserted errours I am also charged,
with no less than three times repeating them; asif the pro-
priety of writing was absolutely limited to the number of
times an assertion should be delivered. At this time. how-
ever, without, the slightest uneasy emotion, I say, that
acetate of soda is a deliquescent salt, and dissoluble i in alco-. -
hol; for I have performed the necessary experiment, not.
indeed with “half a erain and a watch glass,” but with 50
grains. The truth is, I had not leisure, little as was ree
guired, when I wrote. my, communication, to make the ex-
periment ; but as, on inquiry of a friend: most, likely, to be
informed, I found he was ignorant; as.on, just looking into.
two valuable. books, Aikin’s Dictionary. and, Thompson’ ry
Elementary work, one said the acetate. of soda. Was @ pers
manent and the.other a. deliquescent salt; and: asin: my;
collection, of specimens, there was a REAR crystallized
salt
ON THE ANIMAL FLUIDS« 43
salt labelled by an- assistant acetate of soda; I theught it
best to leave the matter as doubtful, although I own I in-
clined to the contrary opinion of that which is I now believe
the truth. Dr. M. may call this a palpable errour, if he
pleases—he will hurt nobody but himself by the phrase.
The main proof is hereby not affected ; for the fact now
ascertajned against my doubtful Opinion is only a collateral
evidence on either side. ae
5. Another source of evidence against me is that potash Proof of coms
combined.“ was proved by the tests oximuriatic of platina, ie #7 as
and tartaric acid.” The just inference has been already.
proposed ; but 1 will now remark that this experiment does
not prove, that soda was or was not present. ;
_ As to any other proofs they have been already minutely
examined in my. former communication, or have been an-
‘swered in this: but I entreat the indulgence. of. being Other insuffi-
allowed to make two or three farther remarks, 1. On the Bee sens
fluid of the spina bifida, of the thorax, and of the pericar-
dium, the tartaric acid was not employed at all. Of these
fluids the analy sis in general was. very partial. 2, Of the
alkaline matter of the hydrocephalus fluid the examination
must be unsatisfactory by the tests, on account of the im-
practicability of entirely separating the two alkalies from
one another i in such minute quantities as were obtained;
and, if the separation were not effected, as the two fixed
alkalies are affirmed to exist, the test, tartaric acid, must
have produced soda-tartrate-of potash ; consequently the ine
ference of the adverse party cannot be just.
Having, as briefly as seemed proper, commented on the
opposing evidence, and set forth in a different light my
own, I must pay due respect to the other parts of the inge-
pious Answerer’s papers :
If it. shall appear, that the vc tee ay ee in the fesults Farther ree
of the i inquiries by the two parties, worth particular notice, aarAENt
is with respect » to the alkaline matter, I submit to the
world, whether or not Dr. M. could with prudence have
published; his:memoir without a reference to his predeces8or,
as‘he observes he ¢ould have done with propriety ; and ‘espeé-
cially as he says he was directed particularly to the alkaline
iiptegaation; by my papers Dr, M. complains, that he ‘is
at
x
42
Whether ‘sub-
stances be
more dis-
tinguishable
im large badies,
or in small,
‘ON THE ANIMAL FLUIDS.
at a Joss to understand my meaning, and is much embarrassed
by my obscure and inaccurate manner of writing. I am
grieved, that my learned friend should experience these dif-
ficulties; but as I have not heard similar complaints from
others, I may perhaps not indecorously venture to say, that
I suspect his claim to judgment of propriety | and perspi-
cuity in English is somewhat doubtful.
My ingenious Opponent cannot agree with me, that aut
stahces and properties of ‘substances are discoverable by
operating upon large masses, which cannot be effected with .
smaller quantities, I really thought the proposition so ob-
viously true, that illustration was needless. Heaps of illus
strative examples in nature occur to my mind, while 1am _
writing, both in the department of chemistry and physi-
ology. If arsenous acid, muriate of soda, or sulphuric
acid, be dissolved in the proportion of one part to 100 equal
parts of water, they will be discoverable by well known re-
agents; but if the proportion of water be increased more
‘and more, the indication of their presence will become less
and less distinct, and at last they will be no longer perceiv-
able, although it is known they exist: or if I take certain
‘fractional designated parts of any given weight ef these sub-
stances, they will elude manifestation by any means hitherto
known. On this principle of division and diffusion the
most deleterious poisons become innoxious by the minute-.
ness of the quantity applied to the human constitution.
Herticte atmospheric air containing fen miasmata, plague
contagion, or small pox matter, are applied with impunity.
“A pound of blood of a glandered horse transfused into a
Healthful horse will not excite disease, but as much blood
as can be transfused from two glandered horses into.one
horse will excite the disease of glanders. Sugar, alkali*,
&c. may exist in tke blaod, but not be discoverable by any
_ known reagent on account of the small proportion of them
“owes as ¥ cercluded, to’tlre smal) proportion of alkali to the blood.
existing in veh bluod at any given time, as I waiatens reason,
%, In Dr. Ralle’s werk on diabetes I have wellsked ‘an experiment, in
which potash was taken in such quantity, that the urine became so
impregnated as to afforda precipitate of super-tartrate with tartaric
ecid, at the same time the blood did not indicate a trace of alkali;
and
ON THE ANIMAL FLUIDS.” 43
and not on account of an hypothetical new ‘channel, a sort”
of northwest passagé from the ‘stomach to the urmary blad-
der, In thecaseof waters the proportion is so minute of»
various impregnating substancess that, unless very large
bulks be used, they must escape detections» The great mas-
térs have accordingly used such large quantities. Margraf,
(Qpuscules chymiques, v. II,. p. 8) did’ not’ evaporate
100 drops of snow or rain water 1n a watch giass capsule like
some modern microscopic chemists, but he operated upoa
100 quart mezsures of snow water, in which he was able to >
find only 60 grains of carbonate of lime, a few grains of -
cgpriate of soda, and traces of nitrous acid. :
“Thad the advantage of making my snivchile efforts to pera
form several chemical exercises ander that _great master,
professor Black... Among other precepts, treasured in the
tablet of my memory for more than 30 years, was that of
employing large bulks of mineral waters; and of all other
things, ia which there was a probability of minute propor-
tions being present. The: reasons of ‘Dr. Black for not
"practising according to this rule ia the insiance of the ana-
lysis mentioned 1 cannot pretend to assign; but it seems —
probable, that he was in possession of only a small quantity
of the material. As to the magnitude of the masses of mate
ter required, it is-impossibly to specify them ; but it is ob=
vious, that analysis must’ fail to develope substauces on ace
count of the’ minute proportion to‘other things with which
mixed not being susceptible of being made evident to the.
senses} and ini consequence, by a due larger proportion
they may be'rendered sensible. Hence perhaps, it is that
we are ignorant of many of the properties of light, calorific,
electricity, of infectious,’ and contagious*substances, &e. It
i argued against me, that *‘ the chemical properties, which
belong to a particle of matter, belong to the whole moun-
taiii of the “same substance.” “Lrae—but T know nothing
of properties of substances but by’ ineans' of the external or-
gains o of sense, {this is indeed an axiom) | ‘and unless the par=
- ticle be'of a age magnitude, my are of s sense cannot in-
fori Wie of its properties.
~My honourable adversary talks of the advantage of a smal] Advantages of
- gcale of operation in the points of economy and convenience, of operating
ami Granted—~
44
ON THE ANIMAL. FLUIDS. ,
denied in some Granteds-but these are minor considerations indeed to the.
sespects,
but admitted
oubers.
acquirement of knowledge. When Dr. Marcet also speaks
of the advantage in point. of accuracy, I protest against it
for reasons above explained, It is farther represented, that
“‘ there is a degree. of neatness gained. by reducing the scale
of operations”. I own 1 have difficulty to conceive a just
sense in which this. term may be used on this occasion, |
Does it mean the avoiding extraneous things occurring in
operations? if so, I cannot.separate it from accuracy ; and
as it is seldom, practicable to operate without meeting with
some extraneous matter or dirt, it appears to me, that many»
of those old chemists, who are reproached. for mentioning.
‘<a little dirtin their results’, are more accurate than those
wiptebs chemists, who make up:a ‘* neat”? tabular exhibition -
of the constituents of substances. in centesimal quantities,
which they have, never weighed; and: even of. which subs
stances there isa palpable, deficiency of proof. If by neate.
ness be meant the mstruments employed,: it would be as, in«
judicious to prefer neatness. to knowledge, as isis of
style to perspicuitys
A proud list is ad of discoveries achieved by mic:
eroscopic experiments, or on small masses of matter ; but.
that was needless. Isnever disallowed, the utility of such.
experiments. My plain answer is bhin---ihat, dae certain:
purposes all the knowledge that 1s’ wanted. is attainable, and
most easily, by operations on the small scale-——that such is,
the nature of our present instruments, that it is: only. practi-
cable to work on small quantities of some kinds of matter—.
that on almost all occasions it is advantageous to commence
an intended perfect investigation with ‘experiments on small
masses,. 1n order to enable. the mind: to invent subsequent,
experiments, and perform decisive operations. on. larger
Supenority of quantities, As.to,the successful practices referred to,. they;
experiments
. Ona large
only manifest, that much may be. accomplished with inferior:
means ; butit is demonstrable, that the same persons could,
have attained infinitely. more. by superior instraments,, and,
in,the more fayourable circumstances of, adequate .quantis, -
ties. In chemistry, I consider illustration by examples, to,
be superfluous, Physic furnishes, new, illustrations analo-—
gous to the questions under discussion, . Sydenham; witha
Tatu out
ON THE ANIMAL FLUIDS. 43
arr chemistry, with seemingly little of anatomical and phy-
-siological knowledge, as well as of natural history, has mes
sritedly acquired the credit of one of the greatest Improvers ;
if he could acquire so much without these auxiliaries, it ap- |
“pears according to. all-reason, that by means of them much
imore would ave been’ achieved. “I might however exem-
oplify the ‘advantages for which I am ‘contending by the con-
‘duct of Dr. Marcet himself. It appears, that he performed
the ‘analysis of two'atimal ‘fluids, of the component ingre-
-dients of which he has'given an account to the one hundredth
“part of a grain; without finding ‘potash i any state. Sub-
sequently however this alkali ‘was detected: in ‘other animal
Hluids, the author’s’attention being directed, as he is pleased
‘to say, by my published paper on expectorated matter, and
“by my conversations, “Whether otherwise Dr. Marcet
ewould have found: ‘out: ‘the potash, let:iothers determine.
‘Notwithstanding ‘the sneering remark of bis cance er
two of dropsical liquid ‘being ‘in ‘competition with my two
‘orthree pounds of 56, ‘ropy pou twoce|! I should ‘be very. un- aX
weasonable’ if TP were-not, after this practical proof! of the
“inadequacy of his method, to be well contented. If :how-
‘everinstead of treading ® ‘the primrose path of the hew mi--
‘croscopic chemical school, -he had condescended and sub-
“mitted to the “task ‘of labouring in. the.“ large; dismal,
~pubterraneous laboratory ;” if, Tsay, he had been thereem-
ployed'instead of in’ dalliance at * the fireside of his com-
“fortable’ study ;”'T um ‘confident it did not require his talents,
to havé'done much more than nearly confirm the‘results of
my experiments on,animal substances. If tuo I can see the
future in the instant, it will be only by experiments on very
darge quantities of the animal fluids, that discoveries will be .
seffected; of, more of, their impregnating ingredients, on ac-
scoumt of the yery minute proportions in which they exist. _
~ Dr. Marcet thinks it worth while to:disclaim his memoir Why Dr.
.as the joint work of Dr. Wollaston and himself. I cannot ba Sa Ge
have the smallest ebjection, indeed..by this. 1 gain concerned in
strength to my: side ; for the demand of justice alone compel- the inquiry.
led me to consider this writing as Ihave done. I must
however, cite a passage for justification. Beside the advan- |
ot from Dr. Wollaston’s writings and conversations Dr.
ad Marcet |
A$ @N THE ANIMAL FLUIDS.
_ Marcet owns his kind personal assistance: in this a ather
Similar inquiries.” +) ignlon
Charge of miss © bam accused of the sar snide eetigstig aes of s¢ ‘tibdine
quotation, in ifalies, and placing between inverted commas words
which have not been used by my adverse friend.” Such
base preceedings I am charged: withal! As for italics. I
knew no. better than that all writers for the sake of emphasis
_do employ such letters either for their own words or those of ©
other writers. The word elegant so complained of is. not ins
tended asa quotation, it. 1s my own word, which Dr. M.
misrepresents... As for inverted commas, the few passages
which they:include I think no one would apprehend are Dr.
Marcet’s writing, except in two or three instances. Heres
cannot perceive any misquotation but mone place. -There
} confess my-heinous. offence, and express. sincere contri-
tion,:viz. for ‘fireside of the drawing room,” in future .
read ‘the large, dismal, subterraneous Jaboratory is now
changed for the fireside of a comjortable study.” ° os
efireny, - « Again 5 my respectable adversary.s,1 find offended, ‘with
what he is pleased -to construe irony... I, can do no more
than declare, whether I:shall again be.aceused of irony, of
not, that [ entertained: more, of. irdipent haw sufficient
for subduing, any such humour. -{ooc'os |e: Ys
ef jocularity. ©, Another offence is jocularity, not ‘eniiedale bin ‘we giao
meut of science. If in such a vein] have: offendingly .writ-
ten, “* I have shot mine ‘arrow. o'er, the shouse:andihurt .2
brother... This modé of writing however haa .the high
einai of a great poet, and still greater philorsabert 3 is
Plo ay LA. ridentém Gicere’verum) 0 0 O40 PSS
> Dye Qurdewerat 2 9/07 re ie Soe aapoae ap yyy: it
' [wish Tcould ‘more’ frequently be jocular, as so many
~ @ecti?rences are experienced in common life’ to make ne
sad, Hence I would rather live with Horace, than with the
‘mélancholy moralist Jaquez.' Some allowance too should
be made for the differing natures of individuals from the
ements being so differently mixed up. Ie Oty Oke
ve ¢¢ Nature hath fram’d strange ‘fellows i in her time, tr
Some being of such vinegar aspect, Toutes oy ot Bal
That they'll not show their teeth in way of: nibs ‘Sioa
‘Though’ Nestor. swear the jést_be laughable”) o> pasa
ON THE ANIMAL ELUIDS. Ay
_ The foregoing pages:of rejoinder will, l.trust, save me the Substances
trouble of many intended remarkson Dr. Marcet’s paper; saree ids.
independently of its relation to the questions at-issues A few
comments only J shall now beg to be allowed to deliver.
1. The animal matters in the fluids examined are stated
The animal _.
to be of two kinds’: viz. coagulable or albuminous matter, inatter in the:
and what the ‘anther calls: muco-extractive. Ido not at all ae a
object to the experiments, but appeal to competent judges, ate
whether it is not unjust to make this distinction,, The ‘evi+
dence of the .coagulable, matter.is from the visible coagular
tion by caloritic, and some reagents, but if there be not a
due proportion, of it to, the water in which itis dissolved,
such evidence isnot; obtainable, This may. be easily, proved,
and as I apprehend I have shown in, my published: papers;
by a kind, of synthetic’ experiment, For example: se-
rum of blood, or any other known coagulable fluid, may be’
so diluted with water, as to afford no clear, proof ef \its pre- °
sence by. coagulation on applying calorific, although; such ~
an effect. may be reasonably inferred on probable . grounds
from, the disturbance of transparency, or-cloudinegs. » And,
as far as LI. have, found .by. experimerit, coagulable matter
so. diffused, on being,collected by evaporation ‘to dryness,’ is
scarcely coagulable.. by calorific ; so that: the whole of any ;
given quantity of, animal , coagulable fluid by ‘such treate 9 9 foo oe
ament was yendered,; uncoagulable.. According to my ‘trials a
too, there always remained;,on coagulating serum and-other
analogous fluids,,.a small proportion of animal matter dis-
solved in the watery part, which differed in no respect from
the matter left on evaporating water containing a certain
wy small and uncoagulable proportion, of serum added to the
water, as, above stated, But. these dilute solutions, which
appear, uncoagulable, denote the, presence of aaimal matter
to, the test of tannin. , It was probably this property, and
the animal matter afforded by evaporation, which induced
some. chemists to conclude, that a different kind of animal
substance from: coagulable,, such as gelatinable, existed in
the serum of blood... Hence I conclude, that the two grains
of. what Dr. Marcet calls. muco-extractéve matter, afforded
by. 500 grains. of serum, after separating 44 grains of albu«
men or coagulable matter, is this matter rendered uncoagus
doe by dissolution.,.And hence too J-eonclude, that the
animal
48 ON THE ANIMAL FLUIDS.
animal matter, in the other animal fluids, which he exe
amined; was of one ‘kind only, viz. coagulable matter,
but not demonstrable by’ its most distinguishing property
on account of digsolation in a large proportion of water.
Ammonia not 2. Ammonia is not mentioned among: the impregnating
mentioned: —_ inoredients:' ‘This is to me not surprising, for it is ev idently
“From my experiments in so small a proportion as to be un-
discoverable’ in the quantities employed. If I could not
find by estimation half a grain weight of it in 7 or 8000
grains of animal matter, it was not Rabie to be rendered evi-
dent in 7 or 800 grains. -
Sulphate of 3. Sulphate oppotash: That a sillier? exists I perceiv ed
eee evidence, and have accordingly inserted it’ among the saline
matters in my published papets; but that it is sulphate of
potash I apprehend will’ not ' be: alowed to have been shown
by Dr. Mareet. © 0
Phosphate of - 4. Phosphates of lime, of: tron, wills of magnesia, are enu-
lime, iron, and erated in ‘the memoir before me.” Of phosphate of lime
ee _ there is: goodvevidence, as I have set forth, and coincide m my
results with those of the author: as well as that there’ is
probably sulphate of magnesia > also, that’ there is iroh’s
but Lwas not able ito infer, chatit‘was in’ a state of phos-
phate, [ only imserted: it'in my results aan oxide, | °°"
The colouring. Although it is ‘not essentially connected, ‘T take this ¢ op-
Boa: “oe portumity a referring to a process, ‘which ‘T offer’as evidence
not iron.
against: ‘the: common” opinion, that’ the colour of ‘the bléod
ig owmng~to irons (I have mentioned ‘it in’ ‘my ‘lectutés
during several past years, and it was’ published’ in the Eain-
burgh Medical and Surgical Journal, vol./VIT, p- 184, “for
January, 18110 ‘Teollected 110 grains of the’ ted! part in @
dried state, by repeated aBNitioneefr om ‘about: yooo0 grains,
or upwards of twentyounces’ of) blood: - BY’ burning | in 4
platina crucible, it: affordéd;’ in weight,’ two- grains ahd a
half of ashalf-fused’ browt tasteless “substance: By boiling
in muriatie acid’a part was: dissolved. "This S6lution wis
mot styptic to the taste; it ‘becaine’. blackish» ‘ott additig
tincture‘ of gall nut,and°on adding prussiate’ bi patish, it
‘afforded a> deep blue’ coloured! precipitate, ‘which did” not
yield by ignitidbh, or ‘calcination, above half a grain “of
reddish: brown powder, “Is it thei’ probable, “that | twenty
ounces of, blood'should derive their tolotit fori half a prain
of
ON THE ANIMAL FLUIDS. 49
of oxide of iron? I think proper to speak of this result at
this time beeause it was published anonymously, and bes
cause subsequently to its publication I find it has been
mentioned by other persons without acknowledgement, or
at least without knowledge of this fact. oT
5. I found also idiedtiods of caronate of limeand of Ses and ¢ar-
silica, not enumerated by Dr. Marcet. Future experiments sper ingl
must furnish unequivocal evidence.
6. Muriate of potash asserted by the author, instead of Muriate of
potash united toanimal matter, or to some other destructible Pots
substance, as J have inferred. On this question perhaps
roore than necessary has been already said in the present and
former papers.
7. Subcarbonate of soda, asserted by the author, has been Siticarhorate
the subject of discussion at the same time as the last men- ° soda.
tioned ingredient. :
8, ‘Muriate of soda, Both parties agree in this being the Muriate of
chief saline impregnation, aun,
It may be right to notice, that T have employed the term Self-coagula-
‘self-coagulable lymph, instead of the usual one coagulable ble lymph.
dymph because the serum, another fluid of the blood, is
also cougulable, but not of itself without a certain tempera-
ture, or certain substances being mixed with it. The de-
posit spoken of by Dr. Marcet is not, I tlink, as he sup-
‘poses, what I mean by the term self-coagulable lymph.
Although, if the cause of truth require it, another com- Conclusion.
munication may be offered; it will be most agreeable. to
me, that it be not found necessary. Considering the er-
roneous inferences, with which the writings of chemistry by
men of the' greatest celebrity abound ; I shall on that ace
count endeavour to find. a source of consolation, if time
show, that I] am the erring party. I hope too, that this
controversial discussion may serve to promulgate knowledge,
by inducing some persons to attend to the subject, who might
not other wise have known the original papers. 1f with these
reflections my respectable adversary can be satisfied, the
controversy will now be terminated.
*© Claudite j jam rivos pueri: sat prata biberurtt”.
George Strect, Hanover Square, G;. PB.
April the 17th, 1812. 45} 2.4
Vou. XX XII.—Mary, 18 ] 2. E Vill.
50
Vill.
METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL. ©
PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE.
1812. |Wind| Max. Min. Med. | Max.} Min.[ Med. |Evap.
—_———S
3d Mo.
Marcu6'S Wi 29°88} 29°84} 29°S60] 56 | 41 | 48°5
“IN WI 29°87 |. 29°66 | 29°765] 57 | 35 | 46°0
SiN WI] 30°19] 29°87] 30°030} 50 | 31 | 40°53
o|N FE} 30°26] 30°19] 30°225| 46 | 33 | 39°5
10IN E| 30°26] 30°20 | 30°230) 44 | 30 | 37°0.
11/N- E} 30°20} 30°20} 30°200] 46 | 33 | 39°5
12iN W| 30°20} 29°96 | 30°080| 44 | 34 | 39°0
13|N E} 29°99] 29°96 | 29°975| 45 | 34 | 39°5
141N E] 29:99| 29°87 | 29°930] 44 | 26 | 35:0 |
15|N E| 29°87 | 29°76 |.29°815| 42 | 31 | 3675
16\N E| 29°77] 29°75} 29°760| 35 | 31 | 33°0
17|IN E} 29°75| 29°66 }29°705} 36 | 29 | 32°5
18|N E| 29°66] 29°40 | 29°530] 39 | 26 | 32°5
19] E | 29°40| 29°30] 29°350} 39 | 29 | 34-0
20/8 W] 29°24] 29°10] 29°170] 50 | 40 | 45-0
21/8 E) 29°54] 29°24] 29°390) 54 | 39 | 46°5
QQIN E| 29°74] 29°541 29°640) 53 | 39 | 46°0
23/S E} 29°74] 20°27 | 29°505| 42 | 40 | 41-0
241N W} 29°64| 29°27 | 29'455| 40 | 32-1 36°0
25|N E} 30.27] 29°64) 29°955| 42 | 24 4 33:0 | —
2961S FE} 30°35} 30°17] 30°260} 46 | 30 | 3s‘0 | —
271 El 30°20] 29°46] 29-830) 51 | 41 | 46:0 | °3610°16
28| S | 29°42) 29°25} 29°335). 53 | 49 | 51:0 | — .
ella ae red
|} Beso 4 |
29/8 W] 29°48] 29°36 | 29°420] 58 } 48 | 53°0 | — [0°46
30/8 W| 29°78} 29°48 | 29°630) 59 | 40 | 49°5 | °3010°12
31) E | 29°53} 29°48] 29°505| 47 | 40 | 43°5 | —J0°10
4th Mo, , e 7
Aprit 1\Var.| 29°64] 29°59] 29°615} 58 | 41 | 49°5 | °18
D) 29-70] 29°58 | 29°640] —. | —-}| —— | —
3 29°68} 29°58} 29°630] 55 | 43 | 49:0. | °17 [0°26
, ~. 1 30°35} 29°10} 29°739} 59 | 24 1 41°5 [1°91 [2°80
N.B. The observations in each line of the Table apply to a period of twenty-
four how's, begivping at g A.M, on the day indicated in the first column. A dash
denetes, that the result is included in the next following obseyyation. ae
NOTES:
METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL.
\
NOTES.
Third Month.—9g. A shower of hail p. m. 11. Hoar frost.
15. Frosty morning. 16. Wind very strong from N. E. all
day. 17. Cold wind. 20. Snow in the morning, followed
by rain. 22. Very wet night: high wind. 25, Snow: the
barometer rising rapidly. 26. a.m. Very fine: barometer
still rising. 27. a.m. Cloudy; a considerable depression
of the barometer, with appearances indicating thunder.
Late at night a shower of hail, with lightning. 28. Stormy,
with showers. 29. a.m. Windy. At2h.30m. p.m., the
temperature without being 54°, I found the vapour point in
a room as high as 1°. In an hour after this it began to rain
steadily, and there fell near half an inch depth. 30. Much
wind, at intervals changing toE. $1. Stormy from E. and
S. E.: cloudy: about 9. p. m. an extensive appearance of
light in the clouds to the W. with rapid coruscations passing
thibugh them, in the manner of an aurora borealis. This
phenomenon was’ apparently not more elevated than the
clouds which then overspread the sky, and was certainly not
produced by the reflection of a light situate below them:
jt continued 20 or 30 minutes.
Pisenes eer
RESULTS.
Prevailing winds easterly.
Barometer: highest observation 30°35 inches; lowest 29°10 inches;
: ‘Mean of the period 29°739 inches.
Thermometer: highest observation 59°; lowest 24°;
Mean of the period 41°5°.
Evaporation 1°91 inches. Rain, &c. 2’80 inches.
~ This, as well as the preceding lunar period, has been un-
-aynally productive of rain; the two afforded six inches and
- a half in fifty-nine days. :
Lonpon, L. HOWARD. —
Fourth Month, 29,1812. ;
inn Eg IX.
51
ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN I, OF WIGHT.
ion
iS
Ns. a
A chemical Account of an Aluminous Chalybeate. Spring. in
the Isle of Wight. By Avexanprer Marcer, M. D.,
F.R.S., one of the Physicians. to Guy's Hospital, and
Member of the Geological Society*.
Analysis of "Tue accurate analysis of a Mineral Water,.although at-
—— w* tended with considerable difficulty and labour, must be al-
lowed, in a general point of view, to be an object of so little
importance, that unless there be some interesting medical
question to investigate, or some new analytical methods to
point out in the course of the inquiry, it may be questioned
whether researches of this kind are worth the time and at-
tention which they require, or deserve to be placed amongst
the records of natural science.
Importance of Having thought it necessary, in the present essay, to con-
an ai fine myself to the natural and chemical history of the spring
in question, without any digression upon its medicinal qua-
lities, and being well aware, that chemical details are consi-
dered by pag leh merely as collateral subjects, some apo-
logy may berequired for the length of this communication.
But if the relation which the ‘jet te of mineral waters bears
to geological and mineralogical inquiries, and the peculiari-
ties of composition, for which this spring is remarkable,
entitle the subject to the attention of this society, I hope,
that the general views and investigations which I have oc
casionally introduced respecting the analysis of mineral
waters, and the composition of several salts counected with
this inquiry, will be deemed a sufficient excuse for having
thus expanded an account, from which they were almost
inseparable,
Inducements It is about two years since my attention was directed to
to the analysis: this chalybeate spring by Dr. Saunders, to whom, in conse- |
quence of his valuable treatise on mineral waters, inquiries of
this kind are frequently referred. Having been requested by
him, and soon afterward by the discoverer of the spring, Mr.
Waterworth, surgeon, of Newport, to examiue this water, I
* Transactions of the Geological Society, vol. I, p 215,
' 900n
ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN I. OF WIGHT. $2
; soon’ perceived by a few preliminary experiments, that ite
principal ingredients were sulphate of irdn and sulphate of
alumine, aud that it possessed a degree of strength far more
considerable than any mineral water of the same kind that
ever came to my knowledge.
This last circumstance, and the probability that. this
spring might some day atcract public notice from its medi
cinal properties, induced me to undertake the present
analysis, which, after many interruptions, I have at length
‘brought to a conclusion.
Sect. I. Situation and Natural History of the Spring.
This spring is situate on the south-west coast of the Isle Situation and
of Wight, about two miles to the westward of Niton*, iP ce Sey
of the spring.
one of Mikese romantic spots for which that coast is so re-
markable. : .
In its present state it may be said to be of difficult access,
for there is no carriage road, nor even any regular foot path
along the cliff leading to it, and the walk would appear
amen iet arduous to those unaccustomed to pedestrian ex-
‘cursions. But it would be practicable, and probably not
very expensive, to render this path equally easy and agree-
able. It was in walking along the shore, a few years ago,
that Mr. Waterworth’s attention was accidentally directed
to this spring, which he traced to its present source, by
observing black stains formed by rivulets flowing from that
spot.
With regard to the mineralogical history of that district, Mineralogy of
I have been favoured through the kindness of my friend the district.
Dr. Berger, who visited the spot very lately, with so much
more accurate an account of it than I should, from my
own observation, have been able to offer, that 1 shall make
no apology for transcribing it in his own words.
_ The aluminous chalytisate spring”, says Dr. Berger,
“© issues from the cliif on the 5.S. W. coast of the Isle of
** Wight, below St. Catharine’s seamark, in the parish
of Chale. The bearing of the Needles from the spot is
®@ On an Estate belonging to Michael Hoy, Esq.
«NW.
54
Situation and
natural history
of the spring.
‘a
nw
a“
n
n
n
Lal
*
n
nn
if’
ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN I. OF WIGHT.
N.'W. while that of Rockenend, not far distant, is S. Ey
by S.
«© The elevation of this spot, as far as I could ascertain
it by the barometer, is one hundred and thirty feet above
the level of the sea. Its distance from the shore may be
about one hundred and fifty yards.
“© The wateris received into a basin formed in the rock
‘for this purpose, and flows, as I was informed, at the
rate of two or three hogsheads ina day. . Itstemperature
I found to be 51°, that of the atmosphere being 48°;
and it may be worth while to observe, that this tempera
ture corresponds with that of several springs of pure wae
ter which I have met with in the island.
« The lower part of the cliff is rather encumbered with
masses of rock, or portions of soil, which have fallen
from the upper strata. Immediately above these, the
spring issues from a bed of loose quartzose sandstone
containing oxide of iron, This sand, in which vestiges
of vegetable matter are discoverable*, alternates with @
purplish argillaceous slate of a fine grain, disposed in
thin layers, with a few specks of silvery mica, interspersed
through the mass, Black stains or impressions of vege-
hice are seen on the natural joints of thisrock. Above
this lies. a stratum, several fathoms in thickness, of a
blueish calcareous marl, with specks of mica, which has
an earthy aud friable texture, and contains imbedded
nodules or kidneys of sulphuret of iron. Many of these
nodules have undergouea partial! decomposition, to whieh,
no doubt, the existence of the principal ingredients of
the spring is to be ascribed. The upper strata of the
cliff are composed of a caleareous freestone, alternating
with a coarse shelly limestone, accompanied by nodules
or layers of chcré or flint.
* On being sprinkled on a heated shovel, this sand scintillates as
undergoing a partial combustion. When submitted to chemical
analysis, it yields a quantity of iron, but no lime, nor alumine, nor any
other earthy matter soluble in an acid. . Close to the sprivg this sand
contains some traces, of sulphuric acid, but not at a distance from it:
it is evident therefore, that the sand rock is not the medium through
which the spring is impregnated.
66 As
ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN I. OF WIGHT. 55
‘© As the same arrangement of rocks here observed pre- Perhaps simi-
«t yails in several other parts of the Isle of Wight, and even Mp ilk shes
«© along the coast of Hampshire, it is not bable, tha etn
along the c p , it is not improbable, that hood
other springs of a similar nature might be discovered.
«* May not Alum Bay, which lies to the north of the Nee-
dles, have derived its name froma circumstance of this
‘6 kind? :
* On the road from Shorwell to Chale, the soil consists of Other chaly-
‘* a ferruginous sandstone, and chalybeate iridescent waters °° ¥at#"-
** are to be seen in several places. To the east of Fresh-
** water bay, not far from the place where the cliffs of chalk
*« hegin to make their appearance, there isa rivulet, the taste
‘* of which strongly indicates the presence of iron. At
© Blackgang Chine, alittle tothe N. W. of the aluminous
** chalybeate, is another ferruginous stream running to
‘‘ the sea. The rock there is a sort of decomposed iron-
46-stone under the form of balls. The sound compact
“< ironstone, having the appearance of flat pebbles worn
‘6 by the rolling of the sea, occurs not unfrequently along
* the shore,
Lay
n
”~
n
Sect. 21. General Qualities and specific Gravity of the
Water. .
a, The water issues from the sand rock above described General qua-
perfectly transparent, and it continues so for any length of sare the
time, provided it be collected immediately, and preserved
ip perfectly closed vessels; but if allowed to remain in con-
tact with the air, or even if corked up after a temporary
exposure to it, reddish flakes are soon deposited, which
partly subside, and partly adhere to the inside of the vessel.
6. It has nosmell, except that which is common to alk
-chalybeates, and this it possesses but in a very slight degree.
c. Its taste is intensely chalybeate, and, beside a con-
_ siderable degree of astringency and harshness, it has the
_ peculiar kind of sweetness, which sulphate of iron and
sulphate of alumine are known to possess.
d, Its specific gravity somewhat varies in different speci-
‘mens. In three different trials I obtained the following
results:
s
lat
1
56
Experiments
on it with va»
vious tests,
ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN 1. OF WIGHT.
ist SPCMIMEN #0 ceric ceveceseece+ 1008'S
od SPECIMEN e eocensecvercese +s 10072
3d SPECIMEN> ee essies ssevveece 10069
8022°4
which gives a mean specific gravity of -+1007°5
Sect. II. Preliminary Experiments on the effects of Re-
agents.
A. ‘Paper stained with litmus was distinctly reddened by
the water.
B. Paper stained with Brazil-wood was changed to a
deep purple.
C. When agitated‘in contact with the air, or repeatedly
‘poured from one vessel into another, the water became ture
bid, and on standing deposited reddish flakes.
D. On applying heat toa portion of the water just un-
corked, and boiling it quzckly, till it was reduced tu one
half or even one third of its original bulk, no precipitation
whatever took place; but on continuing the evaporation, a
white feathery crystalline substance appeared on the surface
of the fluid, and on pushing the process still further, a sae
line matter of a pale yellowish green colour appeared,
which continued to increase till the whole was.reduced to a
‘dry yellowish mass. ‘These were the phenomena observed
with water recently uncorked ; but when, previous to the
evaporation, it had been for some time exposed to the air,
or when the evaporation was conducted very slowly, an ap-
pearance of reddish flakes was the first circumstance ob-
served.
E. The mineral acids produced no obvious Chanige in
the water.
F. _Oxalic acid produced a slight yellowish tinge; but
no immediate precipitation or turbidness.
G. Oxalate of ammonia, in small quantity, likewise
produced a yellow colour, without precipitate: but on ad-
ding more of this test a white precipitate appeared.
H,. Prussiate of potash and infusion of galls produced
abundant precipitates, the one blue, and the other black ar
dark purple; and the colour of these precipitates was much
paler
ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN. J.. OF WIGHT.
paler when the water had not previously been exposed to
the atmosphere.
{. Alkaline solutions produced copious greenish: floccu-
lent precipitates, which became darker on standing in the
air.
-K. Nitrate of silver occasioned a dense, white, but not
considerable precipitate.
L. Both muriate and nitrate of barytes occasioned co-
pious white precipitates.
M. Apiece of marble being, boiled for some. time ina
few ounces of the water, the marble was found to have un-
dergone no sensible loss of weight by this operation; but its
surface had acquired a faint ye a tinge.
N. A quantity ofthe water being evaporated to dryness,
aud aconsiderable degree of heat applied to the dry residue,
a solution of this in water had.the same effect of reddening
litmus as before.
‘Seer. IV. Inferences arising from these Liffects.
1, From experiment A, connected with experiments C,
H, I, M and N, and from the circumstance of taste, and
other general properties, it appeared highly probable, that
the water contained sulphate of iron, and perhaps also sul-
phate of alumine, without any uncombined acid*.
9. From experiments C and D, it appeared evident that
jron and lime were contained in the water, and that their
wine was not carbonic acidf.
~ The experiments D and E concurred to show, that
mtn hitatet did not contain any sensible quantity of care
bonates.
“4, The experiments F and G afforded additional evi-
‘dence of the presence of iron, and, while they showed the
existence of lime in the water, seemed to indicate, that the
quantity of this earth was not considerable.
* Solutions of sulphate of iron, and sulphate of alumine, though
made from these salts in their crystallized state, have, like acids, the
power of imparting a red colour to litmus.
+ The reddish flakes mentioned in C and D, and in Sect. ih. @, are
aa ‘foundto be sub-sulphate of iren.
3. It
57
Inferences
from theses
58
Gaseous con-
tents of the
water.
Quantity of
solid ingredi-*
ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN I, OF WiGHT.
' § It appeared probable from experiment K, that the
water contained a small quantity of muriaticacid. —~
6. The change produced in experiment B,-on the infu-
sion of Brazil-wood, appeared at first ambiguows; it could
not be owing to the prevalence of an alkali or carbonated
earth, since the water turned litmus red, and siacethe pre-
sence of carbonated earths had been disproved by other re~
sults. But having found by comparative trials, that solu-
tions of sulphate of iron changed paper stained with iniusions
of Brazil-wood to a black, or at least intensely dark vicict
colour, and that solutions of alum turned it crimson; and
observing that a mixture of these solutions produced a dark
purple hue, the appearance in question was easily explained.
7. The result of experiment L indicated the presence of
sulphuric acid,
8. Upon the whole, and from a review of the foregoing
experiments, the substances which, at this early stage of the
analysis, the water appeared most likely to contain, were
sulphate of iron, sulphate of alumine, sulphate of lime, aud
a small quantity of muriatic salts, Some sulphate of mag-
nesia, and some alkaline sulphates, might possibly. be con-
tained in the water, though their presence could not be
satisfactorily ascertained by these preliminary experiments.
Sect. V. Gaseous contents of the Water.
A quantity of the water measuring ten cubic inches, be-
ing boiled briskly over mercury, the gas given out, together.
with the air contained in the apparatus, was received in a
graduated tube; on admitting caustic alkali into the tube,
one tenth of a cubic inch of gas was absorbed. It appears
_ therefore, that one hundred cubic inches of the water contain
one cubic inch of carbonic acid gas, which is equivalent to
about three tenths of a cubic inch to each pint,. The water
was uncorked at the moment of being examined, but I had
not an opportunity of ascertaining the quantity of gas.
Sect. VI. Evaporation of the Water, and Estimation of the
Quantity of solid Ingredients. )
1. Sixteen ounces of the water by measure, being evapo-
rated down to a soft mass over alamp, and afterward desic-
cated
ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN I- OF WIGHT.
59
cated in a drying apparatus at the heat of 180°*, the solid ents left by
mass weighed eighty-six grains. During the evaporation &v4portion,
the same appearances were observed as have been already
related (in Sect. ILI, D,) a d the dry saline mass assumed
2 pale greenish colour. On standing in the air, it slightly
deliguesced’, and its colour became somewhat darker. This
saline mass, though slowly evaporated, never assumed a
» distinct crystalline appearance. .
@, ~Lhave stated before (Sect. IL, d.) that some differ-
ence prevailed in the specific grayity of the several specimens
of the water which were examined. A similar want of uni-
formity was observed in regard te the quantity of solid in=
gredients, as will appear from the following statementf.
Grains.
The Ist specimen yielded -+---+++ 86°
Do vcvecsevesecevssevvcces
Ee Miers dso wie ate wields otisidice e's) OHIO
PEPER a Sh esa wie e*o! alan ge Uwiels e 0 OOS
PT SUCEMG o's cs tails obedees! BO°8
Oth sescecccescescsesecess 772
“With secccscccvccecccseasess S4° bs
SUA fe Se wcccsandecase) FR
In the pint
of sixteen
ounces.
cee
' ) 644
These eight results therefore give 80°5 ers dried at 180°,
as the average quantity of solid ingredients in each pint of
.the water.
* This is the heat I have usually employed for desiccation, because
it is that which is obtained by the water-bath which I use, and ca»
: scarcely be raised higher by that apparatus. By a heat of 180° how-
ever, I generally mean some intermediate point between 170° and 180°,
for it is impossible to regulate the temperature with perfect accuracy.
+ In the first of these trials, a whole pint was evaporated; but in
the subsequent ones, the quantity of water was diminished to eight,
6ix, and sometimes only four ounces, all of which, for the sake of
uniformity, I have reduced in the table to the common standard of the
pint.
} This specimen I brought myself from the spring; the others were
sent me in sealed bottles from the Isle of Wight.
SEcT.
—
Different me
thods of ana-
dys.
Methois em-
ployed.
gst method.
24 method.
ALUMINOUS CHA, YBEATE SPRING IN I. OF WIGHT.
Stcr. VIL Of. the different Methods of Analysis applicable
to the present Inquiry.
In analysing a mineral water, two modes. of proceeding
oveur from the very first. We may: either evaporate the
water first, and apply our reagents to the solid residue; or
operate at once upon the water itseif. The former plan is
in general found expedient when the quantity of the solid
contents of the water is small; but when, as in the present
instance, the impregnation is considerable, it muy be more
convenient to adopt the litter method. But at all events,
as’ the redissolution of the solid residue, when the first
mode of proceeding is resorted to, generally requires the in-
troduction of an aeid, which may modify or complicate the
process, it is always desirable, that both methods should be
tried in succession, in order to obtain comparative results.
We may also, if necessary, precipitate from tne same
portion of the water the several ingredients which it contains,
by applying to it im succession their respective reagents ;
or, ifour supply be considerable, we may use, a fresh por-
tion of it for each successive operation, a mode of proceed-
ing which is generally preferable. No difficulty being ex-
perienced during the present inquiry in regard to the supply
of water, a variety of methods was tried, with the details of
which I shall not trouble the Society: but m order to con-
vey a general idea of them, and if hopes that a suminary
yeview of this kind may atford’some assistance to chemical
jnquirers not yet accustomed to researches of this na-
ture, I shall briefly enumerate the different plans which
presented themselves at’ ‘this period of the analysis, and it
will be seen afterward how these plans were gradually modi-
fied,
ist method. To precipitate in succession from a known
quantity. of the water, the iron by prussiate of potash—the
lime by oxalate of ammonia—the alumine and magnesia by
caustic potash, which, by boiling, redissolves the alumine
and leaves the magnesia untouched.
Qd method. ‘fo precipitate the iron and eurths by sub-
carbonate of ammonia. ‘To evaporate the remaining clear
solution to dryness, and. apply a red heat. ‘To: redissolve
this
_ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE 8PRING IN I. OF WIGHT.
this saline residue, and evaporate the solution slowly, in
order to‘discover any fixed alkaline sulphate or muriate
which may exist in the water. To boil in caustic pot-
ash the precipitate containing the iron and earths, in order
to separate the alwmine and silica. To dissolve the remain-
ing mass (supposed to contain iron, hime, and magnesia) in
nitric acid, evaporate to dryness, and apply a red heat, in
order to render the peroxide of iron thus formed inso-
luale in acid. To add to the mass, minutely pulverized,
nitric or acetic acid, as either of these acids will only dis-
solve the dime and magnesia, which may be separately ob-
tained by their respective reagents. And lastly, to ascers
tain the quantity of oxide of iron, supposed to have beeu
left untouched by the acid.
3d method. ‘fo precipitate from another portion of water
‘the irons lime, alumine, and silica, by asolution of neutral
carbonate of ammonia, which reagent retains the magnesia
“in.solution. To boil the precipitate in caustic potash,
which takes up the alumine and silica. To redissolve in
muriatic acid the residue not taken up by potash, whick
consistsef lime and iron—separate the iron by pure ammo-
nia, and the dime by oxalate of ammonia*. Precipitate the
magnesiat from the clear solution by an alkaline phos-
phate.
61
5d method.
Ath method, To evaporate to dryness a known quantity 4th method.
ofthe water, and to boil the residue in caustic potash, which
will dissolve the alumine and silica, both of which may be
" precipitated again by muriate of ammoniaf. Treat the re- -
sidue, insoluble in petash and supposed to contain tron,
. lime and magnesia, in the manngr pointed out in the 2d
method.
* It is necessary to precipitate the iron before the lime, whenever
any considerable quantity of sulphate or muriate of iron is present.
For oxalate of ammonia acts npon solutions of iron, as will be fully
explained under the head of sulphate of lime.
+ The magnesia might be equally, and perhaps more conveniently
separated, by boiling a known quantity of the solid residue ia the neu-
tral carbonate of ammonia, instead of applying this reagent to the
water itself,
ft The mode in which the silica may be separated from the alumine
will be detailed ina subsequent part of this paper. :
~— St
dg
5:h method.
Sth method,
7th methed.
Prussiate of
potash does
hot ascertain
the quantity
of iron,
r
ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN t. OF WIGHT.
5th method. After having obtained by the preceding
methods a knowledge of the proportions of iron and earthy
substances, and formed an estimate of the nature and quans
tities of acids with which they are united, to ascertain ina
direct manner the quantities of acids by their respective
reagents, with a view to obtain a confirmation of the pre-
ceding results.
6th method. To boil a known quantity of the water in
succinate of ammonia, till all the iron and a/umine are pre-
cipitated—edulcorate, precipitate and separate the alumine
from the iron by boiling in caustic potash. From the clear
concentrated fluid, to separate the lime by oxalate of am-
monia, and the magnesia by pure ammonia; to evaporate
the remaining clear fluid to dryness, and to apply a red heat,
in order to burn or volatilize any remaining portions of the
tests used in the processes above described. To redissolve
the residue in order to ascertain by subsequent evaporation
the presence and quantity of sulphate and muriate of soda*. ©
7th method. To boil a known quantity of residue of the
water in alcohol, in order to ascertain what salts it may con-
tain, which are soluble in this menstruum.
Although I found it expedient, before advancing farther
in the examination of the water, and in order to regulate
my steps in the progress of the inquiry, thus to trace the
various plans which seemed adapted to the purpose, yet I
apprehend it would be superfluous to detail here in regular
succession all the trials, which arose from these different me-
thods. I shall therefore confine myself to such as belong
more immediately to my object ; and in relating them, shall
consider singly, and under separate heads, the various ingre-
dients of the water, stating, as I proceed, the proportions
in which they were ultimately obtained.
Secr. VIIL. Sulphate of iron.
The. presence of iron, m the state of sulphate, having
been abundantly proved by the preliminary experiments, the
next step was, to ascertain the proportion of this salt ina
given quantity of the water. The first reagent which I tried
_ ¥* This process is liable fo an objection, which will be hereafter fully
stated, namely, that muriate of soda is decomposed by sulphate of
ammonia at a high temperature.
for
ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN I, OF WIGHT. 63
for this purpose was prussiate of potash; but after many
_ trials (which afforded uncertain and discordant results, I
_ convinced inyself, that this test, however useful for detecting
the presence of iron, is quite inappropriate when our object
_ Isto ascertain the quantity of that substance*.
Fifty grains of residuet dried at the temperature of be- Residuum of
tween 170 and 180, (as described in sect. VI,) and there- Saet O
_- fore equal to ten ounces of the water, were boiled in suce potash,
cessive solutions of the potash, so as to saturate all the acid
contained in that residue, and to dissolve the alumine. The
remaining solid residue, which had passed first to a dark
green, and some hours afterward to a dark brown or nearly
black colour, was dissolved in nitric acid, and the solution treated with
evaporated to dryness, after which a red_ heat was applied, Bittic acid
in order to bring the iron to a state of peroxide, and thus
render it insoluble in the same acid. The mass being now
treated with nitric acid, in order to separate the lime and
magnesia supposed to be mixed with the oxide of iron, and
the whole being thrown into a filter, the clear solution was
found still to contain a good deal of iron. This last solution
was, like the former, evapaiated to dryness, and to the resi-
* Prassiate of potash, as a precipitant of iron, is liable to the fol- Objections 1 to
lowing objections :— prussiate of
ist. Itis apt, although apparently well peciiiesit and crystallized, potash.
to precipitate certain earthy substances, and in particular alumine;
this I found distinctly to happen in two experiments, in which the
mixture was heated.
edly. If the solutions be used cold, and if the metal be not highly
‘exidatéd, some of the Prussian blue unavoidably passes through
the filters; or . no filters be used, it sepsifee but slowly and imper-
fectly.
sdly. If the solutions be heated, the prussiate of potash is itself
decomposed, and yields a quantity of oxide of iron, which vitiates the
results. y
+ By the word residue, thus generally used, is alvays meant the resi-
due of the water under examination, dried at the temperature of be-
tween 170° and 180°. And in comparing a quantity of residue with «
corresponding portion of the water, the average proportion of 80°5 grs
for each pint (sect. VI, 2) is alvays assumed as the standard of com-
parison.
due,
64
and with
acetic,
\
and the itom
seduced,
Residuum
treated with
earbonate of
ammonia,
ALUMINOUS 'CITALYBEATE SPRING IN I. OF WIGHT.
due, again heated. to redness, acetic*, instead of nitric acid,
was this time added, and the solution filtered. The filtered
fluid still contained a quautity of iron, which, however,
from subsequent examination appeared very inconsiderable.
The oxide of. iron left in the filter being roasted with wax
and heated to redness, in order to bring it to a uniform
state of oxidation, weighed 6°8 grains.
2. With a view to repeat and vary the last Gaile bat
another portiou of residue, also weighing 50 grains, was
thrown inte a solution of neutral carbonate of ammonia,
the quantity of the latter bemg more than sufficient to sa-
turate any acid present, and to dissolve the magnesia sus
pected to exist in that residue. A’ considerable efferves-
‘cence took place. ‘The mixture, after this, was gently
the filtered
matter treated
with potash,
State of the
xide.
heated and filtered. The residue left in the filter was ofa
.pale yellowish brown colour. The clear solution deposited
a small quantity of precipitate similar to the residue left in
the filter, to which residue this precipitate was added. ‘The
contents of the filter were then treated with potash, in the
manner before described — VU, 13), im orderto —
* The acetic acid, as well as the AE. is said to be pincinatira of Biss
solving any iron, which has been peroxidated by the process just de-
setibed. In this instance a few particles of oxide were taken up by
the acid: but it is probeble, that if, instead of heating the residue té
redness only afew minutes, the oxide had continued exposed to arcd
heat for half an hour or anore, the whole of it would have become ins
soluble.
+ Tt may be asked, in aoe state of dxidafion the iron is afterthis
operation? lt has generally been supposed to be reduced to the state of
protoxide in consequence of the affinity of the combustible matter for
. oxigen; but in an experiment, which ] made some years. ago to ascer-
tain this point, (the particulars of which may be scen in my account
of the Brighton chalybeate) this process appeared to bring the iron to
the state of peroxide; for 100 parts of iron gave 147°6 parts of oxide, pro-
portions which are now considered as constituting the red oxide of iron.
And as a confirmation of this, I obser ve, that Dr.Thomson, in his value
‘abie paper on the oxides of iron, published in the twenty-seventh yo-
lume of Nicholson’ s Journal, states (p. 379) that some of the red oxide
being mixed with oil ana heated to, redness, till it became black and
magnetic, no. diminution. of weight took place. Indeed I have always
obtained by this process) n not a black, but a brown oxide, which in cooling
passes ‘toa ved brown colour, somewhat varying in shade, but mostly
resetmbling powdered cinnamon, and being more or less magnetic.
rate
/°ALUMINOUS (CHALYBEATE SPRING IN I, OF WIGHT: 65.
fate the alumine, after which the residue, now supposed to
-contdin»nothing but: carbonate of lime and iron, was treated —
with-dilute-muriatic acid, which dissolved:it with efferves- dissolved in
scence, . From this solution the lime was precipitated by muyatic acid,
oxalate. i ammonia, ad the remaining liquor; now con- Precipitated by
taining nothing but muriate of iron, was treated with cdr- i seg woh
bonate of ammonia, so as to precipitate the whole of the and the iron
irons, which, in‘subsiding, assumed a: pale reddish colour. by caftouite
‘Thes clear fiuid -being’ decanted off, and the precipitate of ammonia,
‘carefully washed, dried, and ultimately heated to redness
with: a little wax in aplatina crncible, weighed 7-2 grs.
bb) SyvIt will .be observed, that between this and the former Difference of
result there was a difference of 0:4 grs in the quantity of °*"'*-
oxide of iron contained in 50 grs of residue. But when it
is considered, that in the first of these analyses a small
-quantity-of iron was positively detected in the acetic solu-
tion, which, from the best estimate I could make, would
have brought the quantity of iron very near that obtained
in. the sevond:process, it will readily be.admitted, that the
coincidence was. such as.to authorise me to consider the last
result as sufficiently accurate*.
A. If'therefore we consider 7°2 grs of peroxide. of i iron, as Proportion of
the quantity of this metal contained.in. 50 gts of. the. resi- ses aie Fi q
due, which corresponds to 11°59 grs of the oxide for 80°5
grs of residue {that is for each pint of the water according
to the average before established, sect. VII, 2), we shall
be able so infer the quantity of sulphate of iron contained
jin the water,
6. In order to do ‘this, however, it was necessary ‘to ase Proportion of
certain by a comparative experiment the proportion of bse
ide, which a known quantity of sulphate of iron yields by
& process similar to that which I have just described. For
phate of iron.
fe atin als MstsHip ow! ai 7 “*
* In one experiment in which the iron was precipitated from a simi-
Jar quantity of residueyby prussiate of potash, and the prussiate of irom
‘roasted: with wax, the; quantity of oxide obtained amounted to 11 gre,
from, which I infer, either, that,a portion of the oxide of irgn, always
contained in prussiate of potash; must have been precipitated with the
Prassian.blue, or, that the prussiate of iron was not completely de-
composed in the process in question, or thet, some earthy substance
~ was precipitated along with the iron. *
inoN te XXXI1—May, 1812. | F this
|
66 STATE AND QUANTITY OF SPERIT IN FERMENTED LIQUORS.
this purpose,’ 50 grs of » transparabt crystallized: green sul-
phate of iron were dissolved im water, and treated withiear-
_ bonate of ammonia as long as aby precipitate’ appeared. :
This precipitate,*after being’ carefully separated, edulcoe
rated, dried, und ultimately heated to redness with wax ima
.. platina crucible, weighed exactly 14ers, It ‘appeared in
the form of a red brown magnetic powder®,:0 0)
Proportion of 106, Since therefore 50 grs. of crystallized green statphinte
suPHEHLES 9 of iron gave 14gys of this oxide, the 7-2 grs ef oxide: ob-
te _ tained from 50 grs of residue, would represent 25°7:greof
green sulphate of iron ; and 11°59 gr8of oxide,(which is the
quantity contained imvan English pint of the: ni ag
8 alle Oa 41°4 gts of that salt. 28 Be 430";
Ba i . : ( To be, concluded i in our next. .)
Eperiments to ascertain the State’ in’ which sioereectdi 4 in
“fermented Liquors: with a Table’ exhibiting the velative
_ Proportion ‘of pure Alcohol contained im several Kinds of
* Wine and some other coe efit srs Fe a
ee ps R. ape Yoo qian oes
. a wa ck) at ehingarnaiTs cogil sy 6H) 19
Sect. I. le has Deen’ a ediiadale received ‘opinion,, a
the alcohol. obtained by. the distillation of wine does: not
exist ready formed in the liquor: but that it is principally a
« Product « of the operation, arising out of a new arrangement
of i ‘its ultimate “elements.
pet wo erat ; The proofs. wbich haye been brought forward. in. “support
proof, Of this, ‘theory. are, chiefly, founded _ on, the researches of
* This result, which was obtained in two diitérent trials, with the
variation of otily 0°1 gt. Corresponds exactly with the proportions given
by Mr: Kirwan, in his Treatise on ‘Mineral Waters’ (table iv)),‘in
which 98 gts aretthe quantity of oxide ‘stated-to exist in 100 grs of
_ green'sulphate. ) Bat}: in order to establish the perfect coicidenée df
‘these! Febwlts, 11 would-be necessary to- know the process’ which’ Mr.
‘Kitwan followed’ The iron in his experiment ‘is ‘stated te te ee
obtained inf the' state-of black-oxidel’)/) © 9G 88s
+ Phil. Trae for 18h} p. 297 SOULE OSA AME Hote AEG. Saw
iim A ; ‘ i fi sa Y te os ts
ns P i * Fabroni
,
~
when of the best quality, no spirit can be added, aseven
SPATE AND. QUANTITY OF SPIRIT IN FERMENTED LIQUORS. 67
Pabronit, who attempted to separate alrohol by saturating
the wine with dry subcarbonate of potash, but did not
succeed, althongh by the ‘same means he could detect very
minute portions of alcohol, which had been purposely added.
' To obtain satisfactory results from many of the following Brandy com-
experiments, it became necessary to employ wines to which Monly alded
to wies.
little or no spirit had been added; for very considerable
addition:of brandy is made to most of the common wines,
even before they are imported into this country. I therefore:
wecasionally used Burgundy, Hermitage, Cote Roti, Cham- Good French _
pagne, Frontignac, and some other French wines; to which, an
the smallest proportion impairs the delicacy of their flavour,
and is consequently readily detected by those who are
accustomed to taste them. For these, and for the cppor-
tunity. of examining. many of the scarce wines enumerated’
in the table annexed to this paper, I am indebted to the
liberality of the Right Honourable Sir Joseph Banks.
Dr. Baillie, who took considerable interest in this investi- Port procured
gation, . was also. kind enough to procure for me some port aetna
wine, sent from Portugal for the ex press purpose of ascer-
taining how long it would remain sound, ,without any addi-
_ tion whatever of spirit having been made to it.
_ Lastly, Lemployed raisin wine, which had been fermented Raisin Wine.
without the addition of spirit. .
At avery early per riod of the’ ‘present inquiry, I ascertained Insufficiency of
by, the following experiments, that the separation of the prsenrer
alcohol by means, of subcarbonate of potash was interfered separate the
with, and often wholly prevented by some of the other in- #!cohol.
gredients of the wine.
A pint of port wine was put into a retort placed in a sand Port wine dis-
heat, and eight fluid ounces were distilled over, which, by tiled, and ‘the
saturation with dry subcarbonate of potash, afforded about _—
thr fluid. ounces of tolerably pure spirit floating on the
hl el .
I repeated this distillation precisely under the same cir- but it could
cumstances, and mixed the distilled liquor with the resi. "°t when mixe
duum in the retort, conceiving, that, if the spirit were "stk iopag
product, I now should have no difficulty in separating it
ah * Ann. de Chim..vol. KKK, p. 303.
‘igitcen , Fe@ from
65 STATE AND QUANTITY OF SPIRIT IN FERMENTED LIQUoHe
from the wine by the addition of subearbonate of potash +
but, although every precaution’ was taken, no “spirit sepa-
ted; a portion of the subcarbonate, in combination” with
some of the ingredients of the wine, formed a gelatinous»
compound, and thus prevented the appearance of the alcohol.
Fabroni's ex. It has bee remarked by Fabrohi, in the Memoir above
periments did quoted, that one hundredth’ part of alcoliol”’ purposely
sar vee added to wine may be separated by subcarbonate of potash}
author. but several repetitions of the experiment have not enabled me
to verify this result: when however 2 considerable addition of
alcohol has been made to the wine, a part of it may be again
obtained by saturation with the subcarbonate. The neces-
sary addition of spirit to port wine, for this ie a will-be
seen by the following experiments. aiid
Subcarbonate | Four ounces of dry and warm subearbonate of potash were
of potash add- ydded’ to eight fluid ounces of port wine, which was pre-
ed to Port, e j ie hae sii ;
_ viously ascertained to ‘afford by distillization 20 per cent of
alcohol (by measure) of the specific gravity of 0°825 at 60°.
and the alco. In twenty-four hours the mixture had separated into two
ae distinct portions; at the bottom of the vessel was a: strong
extract, &c. solution of the subcarboniate, upon which floated a gelati-
“nous substanée, of such consistency as to prevent the escape
of the liquor beneath when the vessel was’ inverted, and
which appeared to contain the alcohol of the wine; with the
principal part of the extract, tan, and colouring matter, some
of the subcarborate, and a portion of waters but as these
: or "experiments relate chiefly to the spirit’ contained in™ wine,
- the other ingredients wete not mintitely examined. si
One part ofal. ‘Te seven Auid ounces of the same wine, I added one fluid
eee cei to ounce of ‘alcohol (specific gravity 0°825),"and the same
nope wild be quantity of the subcarbonate of potash as in the Jast experi~
separated. ment; but after twenty-four honts had elapsed, no distinct
| separation of the aleohol had taken place, ”
One part of “When two uid ounces of alcohol were added to six fluid
alcohol to
= apenas ounces of the wine, and the mixture allowed’ to remain Uris
part separated, disturbed for the same length of time as in the former ex-
periments, a stratum of i impure alcéhol, of about & a quarter
of an inch int thickness, separated on’ the ‘surface.’
i Fae of" The addition of three fluid ounces of the alcohol to by
leié ine: fluid ounces of thé wine; fortned: ‘@ mixture’ from which a
Sev wor quantity
STATE AND ah ode el OF SPIRIT IN FERMENTED LIQUORS. 69
quantity of spirit readily separated on the surface, when the
subearbonate was added, and the gelatinous compound sunk
nearly to the bottom of the vessel, there being below it a
strong solution of the subearbonate.
When in these experiments: Madeira and Sherry were €M- Madeira and
ployed instead of Port wine, the results were nearly similar. Sherry.
It was suggested to me by_ Dr. Wollaston, that, if the Picvious sepa.
wine were previously deprived of its acid, the subsequent ie a a
separation of the alcohol, by means of potash, might be less difference.
interfered. with. I therefore added, to eight eae ounces of
port wine, a sufficient quantity of carbonate of lime to sa-
turate the acid, and separated the insoluble compounds
prod uced by means of a filter, The addition of potash ren-
dered the filtered liquor turbid, some soluble salt of lime,
probably the malate, having passed through the paper; but
the separation of alcohol was as a dinidnat as in the experis
ments just related..
evita is ‘commonly Saints that the addition of lime water ta Lime water.
wine not only forms insoluble compounds with the acids, bree =o ee
but also with the colouring matter, and that these ingredis and colouring
ents.may be thus separated without heat; but on repeating | ein bina
these experiments, they did not succeed, nor could I i
any mode of perfectly separating the acids, and the extracte
ive and colouring matter (excepting by distillation), which
did not interfere with the alcohol.
Af the spirit afforded by the distillation of wine were a Whether diffe
pindvet and not an educt, I conceived, that by performing Saat ees
the. distillation at different temperatures, different propor- a lintinn tients
tions of spirit should be obtained, the spirit.
The following are the experiments made to ascertain this
pulok. ;
. Four ounces, of dried muriate of Jime were dissolved in Port distilled
eight fluid ounces of the port wine employed in the former * ast
experiments: by. this addition, the boiling point of the wine,
which | was 190°. Fahrenheit, was raised to 2008. The solu-
tion was pyt into a retort placed in a sand heat, and was
kept boiling ‘until four fluid ounces had passed over into
the receiver, the specific gravity of which was 0°96316 at
6e? Fahrenheit.* The
9 iIt was supposed that in this experiment a small! portion of muriate
of
7%) STATE AND QUANTITY OF SPIRIT IN FERMENTED LIQUORS.
190°, The experiments was = repeated. with, eight fluid ounces of
the wine without any. addition, and, the same quantity was
distilled over, as in the last experiment: its specific Bieo
_at 60° Fahrenheit, was 0° 96311, soa
in aWatdrbathy Eight fluid ounces of the wine were distilled in a water
bath; when four fluid ounces had passed over, the heat wags.
withdrawn. The specific, gravity of the liquor in the re-
ceiver was 096320 at 60° Fahrenheit, .
and at 180°. ‘The same quantity of the wine, as ‘In the last experiment,
was distilled at a temperature not exceeding 180° ’Fahren-
heit. This temperature was kept up from four to five hovurs,
for five successive days, at the end of which ‘period, four
ounces having - passed into the receiver, its specific ‘gravity
at 60° was Rerenned to be 0° 96314.
No difference It may be concluded, from these results, that the pies
ee in portion of alcohol is not influenced by the temperature at
which wine is distilled, the variation of the specific” gravities
in the above experiments being even less than might’ have
: been expected, when the delicacy of the operation by —
salsa dass they are » ascertaived 1 is cons: ‘dered.
Attempt to sev _ Thave repeatedly endeavoured to separate the spirit from
cen wine, by subjec tine it to low temperatures, | ‘with a view to
freeze the.aqueous part; bat when the temperature i is suffi-
ciently reduced, the whole of the wine forms a spongy cake
ng of ice. ”
Thesamewith af a ane of o one fluid ounce or alcohol with three of
SABRES of water, 1 dissolved the residuary matter, afforded by evapo-
rating four fluid. ounces of Port wine, and attempted ‘to
separate the alcohol from this artificial mixture by freezing 3
-but a “spongy cake of ice was sim as in ‘the last: ey
-, Inent,
But wine may When the temperature i ig more © gradually: reduced, ‘and
pale when large quantities of wine are operated upons, the sep a-
reezing, ration of alcohol:sueceeds to a certain extent, ‘and ‘the pors
tion which first freezes i is principally, if not entirel HY water ; i
henge in some countr ies this method 1s employed to feuider
wine. strong. Ly wii ibe. ;
‘ * ‘
pier od Date 2a) arte: be gy Sep ert i¢
of lithe etatl have passed over into the Hecites butithe distilled, tinsian,
did not afford the slightest traces of ity to the tests of oxalate of ammonia
and nitrate of silver. 4
}
SECT
STANE/AND QUANTITY OF SPIRIT IN FERMENTED LIQUORS, ra
) Seer. Ii. Having ascettained,' that, alcohol..exists. im Relative pro-
wine ready: formed; and. that: it is not produced during dis- Sei of al-
tillation, I employed’ this process to discoyer= the relative pcos ik
proportion of alcohol contained in different winess) “6 <~.
In the following experiments, the: wine:was ‘distilled: j ig this diastirrcs
glass! ‘retorts, and the escape of any uncondensed | vapour ducting the
_ was ‘prevented by employing sufficiently capacious receivers, sis advan:
well Juted, and kept cold.during the experiment, ..... saa
Bya proper management of the heat towards theend tg :
the process, I could distil.over nearly the whole - of ae Pee ee,
_ wine without burning, the, vesiduary matter : thus, from a
pint of Port wine, of. Madeira, of Sherry, &c., £ distilled
off from-fifteen fluid ounces, to fifteen fluid ounces -and 4
half aah from the same a tie of Malaga, and other
Inorder te ascertain tea “propor sl fs aitohol with pre-
cisiony pure water was added to the distilled wine, so as
nearly-to make up the eriginal measure of the wine, a very
small allowance being made. for the space occupied by the
Fitna vedients of the wine, and for the inevitable lose
duri pe experiments : thus, five fluid drachms and a
half of d distitted water were added to fifteen fluid ounces and
of port wine, and in pi casea ee nearly the same proportions
were, observed. This, mixture of the distilled wine and
water, _was immediately transferred into a well stopped
phial, and having been ‘thoroughly : agitated, was allowed to
remain at rest for some “hours ; its “specific gravity ‘(at the
temperature of 60° Fahrenheit), was ‘then very carefully
ascertained, by weighing it in a bottle holding exactly one
thousand grains of distilled water at the above temperature,
pst the proportion of alcohol per cent, by measure, was
ted by a reference to Mr. Gilpin’s tables*, the spe-
ciffe gravity of the standard alcohol being 0°82500 at 60°.
As | the most convenient, mode of exhibiting the results of
these numerous experiments, I have thrown them into the
form of 4 tablé;:in the first colimn the wine is specified ;
the second captain its specific” gravity after distillation, as
St. 0 * Phil. Trans» 1794
above
STATE AND QUANTITY OF SPIRIT IN FERMENTED Liquors.
above described and ‘the »third:exhibits: the proportion of
_the pure spirity which every hundred parts of the wine con«
tain. - I have also inberted: porter, ale, cider *,~brandy;-and
some other ‘spirituous: liquors, for the convenience of com-
_ paring their strength with that of the wines.» how
Proportian of
alcohol in va-
rious ferment-
ed liquors,
(Bae sa 0089 a0! > Propertion of Al.
Wine. Specific Gravity af- cohol, per Cent, _
he ~*~ ter Distillation.’ = by Measure.”
Port cee veeewecaw! iy O-O761 1498 bie 2140 — F
Ditto evesedoes . coe 0-97539 © GUati 4 »'99-30° :
Pitta 22’. PH... se Puss ‘097480 "> * 9gRO)
rot Ditto ee vocsause ee ad 0'97400. TP aaaee Fre cs oaks yo Raa
‘Ditto Legeseeseeee” * 0°973.46 is 994-99
Ditto ee é eceves vee bee 9°97200 ey oe 1s ft 95-83) ho
Madeira «+. +6208 9997810 jog g
Ditto -- ses. eeeeee) 0-97616 9140:
Ditto Pa reeeqeegee ~ -*0°97380 5 93°93
Ditto seeeesesseee 0197389 Barge”
Sherry eessesesee OO791S 7 >) 9 FerOg”
Ditto +++-+e2es+0e) 097863 18-79
Ditto seeceesecees '0°07765 eee ny ane
Ditto -o-esreeeed® < 6-97700. °°. Saggegg!
Claret... eecccceee ‘ 0°98440 Berns, "32-91"
Ditto s+++ee+-.-.. 0'98820 1408
Das cee eer ctor 098092 16°32"
Calcavella +yseeee5. | 0°97920 78°10"
Lisbon +++++++2+ 0°07846 ~~ | 1 8Q4"
Malaga eeyese+e+s 0°98000 17°26
Bucellas+.+++++++2 0°97890, 18°4Q-
Red Madeira. --« 0°97899 18°40"
Malmsey Madeira 0°98090, 16-40%
Marsala .+-+esesses 0°97196 25°87
PUTS ois chen cles cine 0:98000 17°26 |
Red Champagne «+ 0°98608 ag ee ea
White Champagne . 0798450 +. * 12-80"
Burgundy «-+0+.- kk 0-98300 7 14"53 sh
’ hy” ye »f
Ditto -.sseccccece 0°98540 : 11°95 Be
it , rr 45 MENTE Ses
* The proportion of spirit, which may be obtained from these three
Iiquors, is subject to considerable. variation in different samples : the
number given for each, in the table, is therefore the mean of several
experiments, as it did nat seem necessary to’specify them separately.
White
METEOROLOGICAL TABLE.’ 73
sunwine lugbon syasienSieinn Ga fee Proportioh of “Al-
a _ Wine. |, , a ecige Gravity af cohol, per Cent, -
“— sete tet Distillation. by. Measure. ey
white Hermitage-’ “ ~ 0°97990 Oi oied vb ‘ Proportion of
‘Red rennteayel 222 093495 eee | s. veo et
Hock ++++e++++6." 0:98290 aay ee
t Ditto tvevees. éVPi ~~ °0°98873 © ; -S°BS
“Vin de Grave+eees 0°98450 ' (1980
Frontignac: ee ee ee 0°98452 ¢ ir 19°79-
Cote Roti --++++e2 = 9°98495 12°32
sion ‘eocceoere ‘0°08005" / ry Na (17-26
oe
Cape Madeira *-#4° ~ O-o7928 ag
Cape Muschat ---- = 097913 |
Constantiae.---+++ 097770 |. 19°75-
Tent Suto veweees o - 098399 Sd 13-90
at a eC8eees ere errs “O98 176" . : 15°52
oy in eae ; 98200; | 15°98
~ Nice ve ceceseeese 0°9082963 (1463,
| Sevinrerrte eseerunyey gyreeen
zs mw Wine «weve ~ 097905 . set
¢ Gtape Wine «+--«« 097925 8 89 lpeedr '
“2 Currant Wine -«-+- 097006 = = |) 20°55
-, Gooseberry Wine ++! 098550 =“ 41°84
se Bilder Wine. seccee— -0°98760 Ee 9°87
MAGEE oo cocoa ot - 0°98760 | 9.87
C Perty'++++rcecseve. »0°98760 © 9°87 =.
= Brown Stout -csees 099116 “ 6:80 gel :
Alevsesesseseeees 098873 8B
- Brandy oes 08 oe oe et 0°93544 ' : ~53°39° :
% Rum: soeeeecesese - 093404 ~~ . 53:68 ©
%., meee eeseceee 0:99855 \ e81-60""~,
Meteralagial Table for 1811. Ina tale rom TT igh
=< - Hon, W. J. Lorp Gray.» |
na | BF Mfo. WALA N NICHOLSON, Esq.
aah : oa. ee
Tue inlogea Table i ig id ae of ‘last year’ 8 , observa. Metcorologie
tions at Gordon Castle, the residence of the Duke of Gor- cal table.
don ; which, if you choose, you may publish.
Tt
ees |
a
ere were
ty 4
ical science
8
osph
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‘publicly, diffused.
ain, sir,
~
METEOROLOGYCAL 148
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ON VRCETABLE EXTRACT. 75
ESE LO me aR
On Extract auth the Saponaceous Principle; by Mr...
| Giada seer of Berlin.*
Arrer quoting the works ‘of! Rose,’ Hetmbstaedt, Writers on’the
Trommsdorf, Foarcroy, and ‘Vauqueliut, ‘all of whom suiting
have examined these two matters, the author adds:
If oxidation be the principal characteristic of extract, Peruvian bark
cinchona is the substance that, should be. preferred for — a
obtaining. it. Accordingly. L exhausted some. cinchona
(china fusca et officinalis) by alcohol, till the menstruum ae vie
was po longer coloured. The. tincture obtained bad | no 2!cohol,
action on solution of. gelatine, but it reddened litmus
paper, and precipitated sulphate of iron green... ,
Having subjected the tineture to distillation, water was
poured on the residuum ; when a sediment fornjeth which
was sepurated.
“The'cinchona exhausted by alcohol was treated with cold cold water,
water. Litmas paper and sulphate of iron were not per-
“ceptibly affected’ ‘by the impression; but it precipitated
gelatine. This aqueous solution was evaporated and re=
dissolved several times, and each time the precipitate that
formed. was collected. Lastly, this extract was purified
from, cinchonate of lime by alcohol, and mixed with the
aleoholic tincture...
The cinchona, that had been treated auccemivele by and boiling
obiptadd and ‘cold water, was boiled in water, . The brown been spt
decoction was likewise evaporated and: redissolved several
times, taking care to separate the flocculent ‘matter that
subsided) "This sediment afforded a ‘brown dowders having
distinetly the smell of extract of cineliona; which was
little soluble in boilitig water, or in alcohol, ‘but formed a.
* Aan. de Chim, vol, LXXI, P. "290, Abridged fiom Gehlen’s
Journal by Mr. Vogel.
+ See also a paper on vegetable “astiingents, by Dr: Bostock,
Journal, vol. XXIV, p 204, 941, in which the existence of extract
gs a separate principle is rendered very questionable. Dr. Henry
“however remarks, Elements of Chemistry, vol. Hl, p. 181, that Dr.
Bostock did not examine the extract from saffrun. C. a
re
76 ON VEGETABLE. BXTRACT.
red hquor with caustic lixivium. When no more sediment
formed, the liquor was added fo the two assis obtained
by ulcchol and cold water. : 4 wf
The cout More than a hundred. evaporations dnd solutions were
yltsac duo its made by the help of a water-bath. Thus the pulverulent
gaa matter was reduced to a small quantity, and the colour of
the liquid became deeper. By repeated solutions almost
the whole was converted into powder. Of four ounces of
cinchona, that bad furnished the extract, 15 grains [?] of
residuum were left, on which pure alcchol would not act. —
Action of ex- The infusions of cinchona then contained extract, which
sande’ & io precipitated 1 iron of a green colour ; a property that extract
loses, when it reaches the nad Hat ‘of oxidation,
Gelatine precipitates the’ extract of cinchona’ but in part,
and {the supernatant liquid comports itself in the same
manner as infusion of cinchona.
andtin. | Solution of tin “precipitates the: infusion of cinchona,
but the supernatant liquid has still the same properties;
or oo for it forma-a green precipitate with iron, and, when boiled
some time, the extract becomes oxided, and falls down in
aflocculent sediment. Tin therefore precipitates the ex-
tract only in part; and the same takes place with lime
water, or with a solution of alum. a
Insoluble in Pure alcohol does not dissolve extract ; and its action ‘is
gelatine,
alcohol. still: farther diminished by the oxidation of the latter.
Distillea When cinchona, or its extract, is ‘distilled with’ water,
icant the product reddens litmus, without rendering the solution
of ivon turbid. But if extract of cinchona be ‘distilled,
till it becomes’ thick, ‘the distilled product ‘precipitates
sulphate of iron green, and. sinha itself like-the sub-
stance of coffee. © ;
Attempt to To obtain the saponaceous animales the roots of gentian
sonra *° and of soap-wort were treated with alcohol. The alcoholic
principle from tincture ef gentian was evaporated and redissolved in water.
"ie of Rin resinous substance was deposited. The filtered liquor
the matte? —_ reddened infusion of litmus powerfully, but did not pro-
ebtained. = dunce a green with solution of iron,
Neither muriate of tin, lime-water, nor gelatine, ren-
dered the liquor turbid.
The liquid pide nag by weak alcohol, and afterward
diluted
° CON VEGETABLE° EXTRACT.”
= 4
“5 -
diluted with water, containing the “saponaceous principle,
was evaporated and redissolved 40 or 50 times. on a water-
bath. Each time a brown powder, insoluble in water or
alcohols. was.throws down. .
The mother water of the: infusion of gentian was
oxided by oxigen Bas, and’ by ‘oximuriatic acid. The €x-
tract from gentian therefore.is less greedy of oxigen than
~ that from cinchona, but nevertheless it becomes oxided.
‘Though the infusion of gentian differs from that of cin-
chona in not acting on tin or lime, still we cannot say, that
it contains a saponaceous principle.
If extract be insoluble both in pure alcohol and in ether ; :
and the saponaceous principle, or the substance so called,
enjoy the same properties 3. what are the characteristics of
the latter ?
The root of auvait was treated in the same manner. poop of sins
The infusion comported itself with gelatine and the other wort weated in
reagents, like that of gentian. . einige ah
The saponaceous principle and extract, having the same The same with
properties, it should be called ite agreeably to the extract,
French chemists, extract.
- The matter in coffee announced as a new substance by Principle in
Chenevix*, and by Payssé as a new acidt, does not differ ‘id the
perceptibly from the extract just described.
“Extract then is an immediate principle of vegetables, exist- Properties of
ing under various modifications. [t combines with several me- ©“?
tallic oxides, particularly those of tin and iron, and pro-
duces a green colour with the latter. It unites also with
lime, and with alumine. It always contains nitrogen.
When concentrated it exhibits a transparent mass, more
or less brown, which attracts the moisture of the air. Very
frequetitly it contains free acetic acid, muriates, and a
saccharine matter. —
In. living vegetables it appears to. be colourless; but
oxigen imparts vo it a black colour. This appears pro-
bable from the’ sap of trees, wee is white when it first
flows from them.
It is very probable, that tannin isa modification of extract. Tannin probs-
® See Journal, vol. II, p.214: + bid. vol. XVII, p. 196.
; It
78 . ANALYSIS OF CHROMATE OF BRON.
bly a modifica It possesses all its properties, sah in addition that of com-
hon oF tt bining with, glue,
General con. . Thus it follows, 1, That the saponaceous principle, which
clusions. has been svid to have been found in several vegetables, tions
not.exist; itis nothing but extract.
_ @,.That extract bina the property. of reddening the blue
Soin of litmus,
8, That this substance is ible only in water and-di-
luted alechol; neither pure alcohol nor ether having any
action on it when well dried. ‘
4, That when it is diluted with a great dead of water, if
it be boiled 1n contact with air it absorbs oxigen, and falls
down in a powder insoluble beth in water and in alcohol.
XIII.
An Examination of the Chromaté of Iron of the Uralian
: Mountains, in Siberia: by Mr. Lausier*.
saa hits year 4 Mr. Pontier discovered in the department
Ghromateof .of the. Var, near the mansion house of la Cassade,.a mineral,
yon re in which Mr, Tassaert first ascertained to be a compound of
chromic acid, and oxide of von... Mr. Vauquehin. confirmed
this analysis; and beside a difference in the proportions
announced the presence of alumine and silex.
Mr. Meder has since found in Siberia, in the Wralian
Mountains, a substance much resembling the mineral of
the Var. The examination of this substance, a specimen
of which was presented to the author by Mr. Steinacher,
of the Socicty of Apothecaries at Paris, is the subject of
the present paper, in which the results of the author’s ana-
lysis are compared with those of Mr. Vauquelin.
Though the Siberian mineral pretty closely resembles 1 m
bbs of appearance that from the Var, there is reason to conjecture,
. on examining it with attention, that the metal in it is more
pure: its fracture, instead of being eranular, is foliated ;
its metallic lustre i is more vivid; and in general it is less
and in Siberia.
* Ann, ie Chim. vol. LX XVIIT, p. 70. pion from the Ann. ihe
Muséum, @ Hist, Net wolw VE, p- 325406 4 3 er
mixed
i
ANALYSIS OF CHROMATE OF TRON. =9
taixed with earthy matters.. On some parts of its surface
the specimen exhibits green spots, which may be known: for
oxide of crome. Its specific gravity supports the opinion of
its greater purity.» That of the specimen is 4°0579, while
that of the mineral of the Var-is only 4:0326, . This differ-
ence in the gravity) indicates of course a. difference, iu’ the
proportions of the metallic matter contained. in hong | tne
varieties, and this the analysis proves.. ;
From the experiments related in the paper, which are too Component
long to be inserted here, it. follows, that. the Pibexiee area eile
- mineral. contains, in 100 partss ix ie ral,
Oxide of Chrome€ececessesseecee SF.
ITON eosccecvvcvcvese 34
Alumine ccovecesooccevvccrvsel |
Silex eocvcecccercccscesscccce ]
—=——
99.
These results differ a little in the proportions from the ana of the
following obtained from the mineral. of the Var by Mr. French,
oVeBESli +s
i. , oldies abit ar ee er
Fe Ses) : shi Oxide of iron. cree reese e cere oS4
ft.
Mis: tela Alu mine: oie. Glee ariae So 800.0 ie QO"
Silexescscveveiscece seccsseeses B
———
EE LE i tela -99-
Does chrome exist in the state of acid, or in that of oxide, Tyey are proe
in the mineral called chromate of iron? Mr. Godon de ar vin
|
Saint-Mesmin, ina paper on.the artificial combinations of hut com.”
-chromi¢ acid, is inclined to think, that it is in the state pounds of the
oxides of irom
of oxide, Me.) Vauquelin, ia his. report on that paper, ang of chrome.
Appears, disposed to adopt. the samejopinion.. Mr. Laugier —
agrees in it, and. supports it. by, the following reflection... No
‘direct experiment proves, that chrome is in the acid state in
the native chromates of iron; and we have so much the less
reason to think it, as slightly calcining the green oxide of
chrome with caustic potash is sufficient, to convert it almost
immediately into an acid: it is quite as probable therefore,
that chrome is in the state of oxide in the minerals of the
Var
80 ANALYSIS OF CHROMATE OF IRON,
Var and of Siberia, as in that of acid; and quite as rational
to consider them as compounds of the oxides of iron and of
chrome, as chromates of iron. °° >» f V1
The Siberian Since I have finished the examination of thin aint}
ag adds the author, I have learned, ‘that Mr. Lowitz has
Lowitz. analysed the same'subtance. I know not what are precisely —
the proportions of the principles found by him: but, to
judge by the note on the subject inserted in the Journal
de Physique, the results he obtatned nearly agree with
mine; since it says, that he found in the Siberian mineral
more than half its weight of oxide of chrome, iron, alumine,
and a little silex.
SCIENTIFIC NEWS.
mie
Tue Jacksonian Prize of the Royal College of tial ip
in London, for the year 1811, has been adjudged
Mr. Joseph Hodgson, of Buecklersbury, London, for his
dissertation on the diseases of Arteries and: Veins; com-
prising the pathology and. treatment of Amrarionn and
wounded Arteries. :, bs
eT TTF - hh pre Ye 2 tH?S Dies 425 The
Sm SORRY ‘Game #4 Pips oye ing wim od ni
¢* , anon , Yi Eee Eo brane eq 8 i (a mani Prrigit
mt 4 ‘be $Y $n vf ¢ 4 {4 + . "
aor ho teh;
omnis? Mr. Dyaiaee $s pupsel ‘is abigiony to” be U defered: itn nert
mionth, the plates for both ninibers of the’ Journal® forsthe
‘present month’ ihe been’ ‘some tinte in ea when tt was
‘received: a, Oe iq taomlis¢x Joep
avsl oc2 4 low bre +: gor to esleme iatetaia yiit
daiti} OF waees
st oudf agi chix boy tp % , ee oie *
Sis 2 ee > SRie ne fi OMI au? sat
=
A
JOURNAL
OF
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, CHEMISTRY,
AND
THE ARTS.
JUNE, 1812.
ARTICLE I.
A Description of the Smicrologometer for ascertaining the '
Tenacity of Metals, Silk, Cotton, and Linen Threads, & ce
invented by Mr. E. Lypiart, Professor of Mechanics,
and Lecturer on Metallurgy and Manufactures, 5c.
Te W. NICHOLSON, Esq.
Sir, -
& In the course of much practice in the application of metals Tenacity of
to the purposes of delicate machinery, I have frequently a fl
found it necessary to ascertain their comparative tenacity ; known,
and also of alloys, in different proportions of combination.
To do this, I have adopted the process employed by and sought by
Muschenbroeck and other foretgu experimenters on this oLweahe
subject; that is, by drawing the metals, to be subjected to from wires.
experiment, into wires of a given thickness, and then sus-
‘pending them vertically by one extremity, while weights
were attached to the other; which weights were increased
by fractional additions, till a separation of the particles took
place.
‘The results obtained, however, by these experiments, I The results not
never found satisfactorily correct, on account of the im- Satisfactory.
possibilily of increasing the weight attached by sufficiently
Vol. XXXII. No. 147.—June 1812. G small
82 INSTRUMENT FOR MEASURING TENACITY:
small proportions, as not in most instances to exceed ‘tia
was absolutely necessary to effect the required purpose,
The spring I began therefore to consider, that the employment of a
ee, spring might be more effectual for my purpose than weights.
I according tried a common spring steelyard, which,
however, I found objectionable, from the difficulty of noting
the breaking point precisely on the graduated slide, by’
reason of its being instantantaneously carried back by the
recoil of the spring: an objection affectmg the accuracy of
the experiment as materially as that above stated against .
the weights.
A screw come After a little farther consideration on the subject, I con-.
bined withthe, . ete : ; ;
derieche. CyOee method of combining a screw with the spring, in a
tuak, way which I have found effectually to give a force capable
of being approximated to the required point by the most
uniform and gradual increments; constituting thereby an
experimental accuracy, which [ believe impossible to be
obtained from weights however applied.
In this arrangement, by the rotary motion of the screw,
an index is moved round a quadrantal scale, graduated with
ibs. and their decimal patts; and this index remaining
stationary at the breaking point, an accurate indication of
the quantity of force is obtained, and can be noted at
. pleasure. |
The principle This contrivance being considered capable of an extensive s
of extensive and useful application, is the reason I solicit its publicity
pe as through the medium of your Scientific Journal.
_ The whole of the Smicrologometer is represented in the
annexed drawing, which I hope will be rendered viliiile cai
by a short explanation.
The apparatus = Fig 1, Plate Ill, isa perspective view.—AA a piece of
sane wood of any required lengthand thickness, at one extremity
i of which is screwed the Rinse plate BB. On this are fixed
the two standards CC ; and into these is pivotted the endless.
screw d, furnished with the nut e, which, on turning the
serew by the micrometer head f, moves backward and for-
ward at pleasure.
This nut hasa slider g attached to it under the screw,
and passing through a hole in the standard C, in which it
slides freely as the nut is mia an immovable round
piece »
INSTRUMENT FOR MEASURING TENACITY. 83
piece of brass passing through a hole in the lower extremi- The apparatus
ty of the nut, and having its ends secured in the standards ‘¢*tibed.
C C, is intended to steady the motion. G the tube contain-
ing the spiral spring represented fig. 2. Down the middle
of this spring passes. the rod or slide, fig. 3. a is a button
of brass of the same diameter as the interior of the tube G,
- and screwed on the end of the slide, so that, when in its
proper situation, it may rest on the extremity of the spring.
6, fig. 3, a reund piece of brass, which screws in and closes
the end of the tube after the spring is in; it has a perfora-
tion in the middle, through which the extremity c of the
slide freely passes, and is connected to the slider g of the
nut e, fig. 1. |
By this arrangement it will be seen, that as the tube G,
containing the spring, is attached to the movable nut e, and
freely supported by the end of the brass plate B B, which is
turnedup at a right engle for this purpose, it must move al-
together backward or forward ‘as the nut is moved ; but if the
wire # have one end coiled round the pin k, which is made to
turn for this purpose in a piece of brass screwed into the end
of the tube, and the other round a similar pin /, which is in
serted in a brass slider, that moves horizontally, through the
standard o for the purpose of adjusting its length; and,
. while in this position, if the screw f be turned so as to
,move the nut.back, the slide will be drawn out, and the
tube held in its original position by the wire 7; which will
_- acquire a tension equal to the resisting power of the spring,
/ as compressed between the round piece of brass 5 and the
_ button afig. 3. If the screw continue to be turned slowly,
the tension of the wire will consequently increase, till the
cohesive attraction of its particles be overcome by the ex-
paasive force of the spring.
‘This expansive force, being the measure of tenacity in the
wire, will be indicated by the index m, consisting of a smalk
brass quadrant and pointer as at fig. 4, fixed on the quad-,
rantal scale nnn, round which it moves as the screw turns,
in consequence of teeth on the edge, which work in the
threads of the screw. The index moving in this way 18
not influenced by the recoil of the tube, when the wire
breaks, but remains at the degree it. has been carried to on
i G 2 es the
“e
}
/
84
Applicable to
threads or
cords of any
kind:
and to stringed
INSTRUMENT FOR MEASURING TENACITY.
the scale, till the screw is turned the contrary way to bring
it back to the zero. Figs 5, 6,7, &c. represent such parts
as may not perhaps be quite intelligible in the perspective
view of the instrument: namely the screw and nut, stand-
ards, &c., all of which, I hope, will be understood, without
a more diffuse description.
The application of the smicrologometer to ascertain the
tenacity of metals being understood, it will be easy to con
ceive, that it may be nee employed in the same way, to
determine the strength of silk, cotton, or linen threads, &c.,
affording thereby means of calculating with facility the force
any combination of them will sustain in cordage, cloth, &c.
It will likewise be found a desideratum to those manu-
instruments of faciurers of stringed musical instruments, who wish to ap=
4 Music.
Mode of ap-
plication to
these.
Experiments
with the in-
strument pro
mised,
proximate to perfection on scientific principles.
It being now determined by experiment, that the trans-.
mission of clear and continuous sounds from piano fortes,
harps, &c., depends very much on the due proportion
of their component parts, and more particularly those
to which the wires or strings are immediately attached ; it
becomes in consequence necessary, that the exact tension,
ef strings producing different sounds should be known as
correctly as their lengths, in order, that. such proportions
may be given as will exactly support the aggregate tension
without impeding the vibrations by unnecessary quantities,
of metal or wood. .
To adapt the smicrologometer to this purpose, nothing
is necessary, but to affix a monochord scale with a movable
bridge on the top of the piece of wood A A: when you have
an instrument that will determine at once the length and
tension of any string, or wire, to the highest degree of accu-
racy, that is capable of practical application.
Satisfied that every invention. and discovery, Sadat the
prospect of opening a shorter and less intricate avenue to
truth, comes with a fair claim to approbation from all who
are interested in the advancement of science; I shall not.
hesitate to lay before the public, in some future paper, the
results of a number of experiments made to ascertain, more
correctly than has hitherto been done, the relative tenacity
of the different. metals, and their alloys: accompanied with
gu ; such
Fi
\
ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN I. OF WIGHT 85
such practical observations on their general properties, as
may serve to show the importance of a more particular at
tention to this subject, than has hitherto been thought ne-
cessary in practical mechanics.
E. LYDIATT.
London, April the 15th, 1812.
Il.
A Chemical Account of an Aluminous Chalybeate Spring in
the Isle of Wight. By ALexanpeR Marcet, M. D.
F. &. S. one of the Physicians to Guy’s Hospital, and
Member of the Rrlecieat Society.
es ( Concluded from p. 66.)
SEor. IX. Sulphate of A lumine.
1. Fiery grains of residue ¢ were boiled in two successive Residue treat-
lixivia of caustic petash (as in sect VIII, 1), soas to take up eae a
all the alumine present; the residue was separated and well
washed, and the washings were added to the alkaline solu-
tion. The clear liquor had a brownish colour, and on
being tried with moriatic acid and prussiate of potash, a
blue tinge was produced, which appeared to have arisen
- from a few particles of oxide of iron, which were suspended
in the lixivium rather than actually dissolved; for the solu-
tion being left at rest for some time, these particles sub-
sided.
2. To the clear alkaline solution muriate of ammonia and precipitate
was added, till no farther precipitate took place; the pre- “ Late denis
cipitate was edulcorated and collected in a filter. it was
> These fifty grains had been previously boiled in neutral carbonate -
. of ammonia, in order to separate the magnesia, as will be detailed
hereafter. The previous intervention of a carbonated alkali renders
the subsequent application of caustic potash for the separation of
the alumine more unexceptionable, as a solution of*caustic potash
~might redissolve a small portion of the lime, if it were not previously
carbonated,
white
86
Another por-
tion,
Crystals of
glum obfained
by adding
potash,
ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN I. OF WI@HT.
white and gelatinous.. Caustic potash being added to the
clear fluid, ammonia was disengaged, showing that it con-
tained an excess of muriate of ammonia; and acetic acid
being added to another portion of the same liquor, no tur-
bidness appeared, both circumstances showing, that all the
alumine was precipitated. This precipitate Being dissolved
in muriatic acid, in order to separate a minute portion of
silica, which it contained*, and being again precipitated by
succinate of ammonia with excess of ammonia, formed a
gelatinous mass, which being edulcorated, dried, and ulti-
mately heated to redness, weighed 2°4 grains.
8. Another portion of residue, weighing thirty grains,
being treated in a manner exactly similar to that just de-
scribed; with this exception, that the redissolution of the
alumine in muriatic acid and its subsequent precipitation
by succinate of ammonia, were omitted ; the gelatinous pre-
cipitate, heated to redness, weighed 1:4 grain +, which
afforded as close a coincidence with the former result as
may be well expected in processes of this kind.
. Having never been able to obtain, by the mere evapo-
ration of the water, any appearance of crystals resembling
alum, I was desirous for the sake of obtaining farther evi-
dence on the subject, to bring the sulphate of alumine to
a crystallized state, by artificially supplying what I con-
ceived to be wanting for the completion of that process.
For this purpose, having dissolved about thirty grains of
residue in distilled water, I added to the filtered solution
two or three drops of a solution of carbonate of potash, and
evaporated it very slowly; crystals were thus obtained,
dispersed in the saline mass, which, though of a size scarcely
exceeding that of a pin’ s head, had a distinct octohedral
* The particulars of the manner in bcs the silica is cgupoakecl iby
the intervention of muriatic acid, will be detailed under the head
Silica, im another part of this paper.
+ The real weight was1:6 grain, but 0-2 ofagrain were deducted, on
account of the quantity of silica known, by other experiments, to have
been present, as will be seen under the head Silica. It may be pro-
per to mention, that the gelatinous precipitate, during its gradual
desiccation, shrunk into small fragments resembling coarsely pul-
verized glue, an appearance which is well known to characterize
alumine. =
¥
form
ALUMINOUS CAALYBEATE SPRING IN I. OF WIGHT, 8F
form, and, when separated and chemically examined, had
all the properties of alum.
5. With regard to the proportion of sulphate of alumine, Proportion of
contained in the water, it will be seen, that by connecting a of
together the results of the experiments just related (1, 2,3),
eighty grains of residue, or a pint of the water, yield 3-8
grains of alumine heated to redness, which, according to the
proportion of twelve parts of iginted alumine in one hun-
_dred parts of crystallized alum*, would be equivalent to
81.6 grains of the alum in each pint of the water$.
Secor. X. Sulphate of Lime.
1. Some of the former experiments (sect. III, d and g) Examination
had shown, beyond all doubt, the presence of selenite; and for sulphate of
indeed, from the general composition of the water, lime a
could scarcely be supposed to exist in it in any other form
of combination,
To ascertain the revisit of this substance, a variety of
methods was used, the principal results of which I shall
cursorily relate.
2. It would have ae in vain, in this instance, to have
applied, without any previous step, oxalate of ammonia,
the usual test of lime, in order to obtain an accurate esti-
‘mate of the quantity of lime present in the water; for as
oxalic acid also acts upon iron, some ambiguity would ne-
eessarily have occurred. Indeed that oxalate of ammonia
did not, in this case, react upon the lime in the manner
that it usually does, had been noticed, (sect. ITI, f, g) in
eome of the preliminary experimentsf,
3, It
* These are the proportions stated by Mr. Kirwan, and which I
- ebtained myself on a former occasion (See the Analysis of the Brighton
Chalybeate)
{ It is scarcely necessary again to observe, that the sulphate of
alumine contained in the water does not appear to exist there in the
state of alum; but it is perhaps better to express the quantity of
alumine by the quantity of alum which it would form, as the crystallized
state of the salt affords a much more precise standard of comparison.
+ By adding a considerable quantity of oxalate of ammonia, and Iron precipi-
concentrating the solutions by heat, the whole of the lime appeared tated with lime
~ ta DY Oxalate of
to be precipitated, together with a portion of iron; but ia wer © icons,
‘ ; ain
88 ALUMINGUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN I. OF WIGHT,
Proportion of 3. It was therefore necessary to separate the iron previoas
Fe aa of to the precipitation of the lime. This was doue in one
instance by prussiate of potash, and in another by succinate
of ammonia. [I shall not trouble the society with a detail
of these operations. It will be sufficient to state, that the
two, most unexceptionable experiments indicated the one.
8 grains, and the other 8-3 grains of oxalate of lime, dried
at 160°, for each pint of the water, making an average of
8°15 grains of oxalate of lime, or 10°17 grains of ee
of lime dried at 160°; or 7°94 grains of Hie same salt dried
at a red heat®,
Sect.
' pbtain the oxalate of lime pure, it was necessary tc calcine the pre-
Cipitate so as to drive off the oxalic acid, to redissolve the residue in
muriatic acid, and to precipitate the lime again by oxalate of ammo-
nia. The small quantity of iron present did not then interfere, and
this process, however circuiteus, proved tolerably accurate.
I was drawn by this part of the subject into an experimental inquiry
vespecting the action of oxalate of ammonia on solutions of iron, and
the unfitness of this test for the pyecipitation of lime when iron is
present, the principal results of. which'I shall state summarily.
1. If to a strong solution of sulphate of iron a small quantity of
sulphate of lime be added, and then a little oxalate of ammonia, no
precipitate or cloudiness appears; while the same quantities of sul-
phate of lime and oxalate of ammonia, added to a bulk of water 6
to that of the solution of iron, instantly form a precipitate.
. If oxalate of ammonia be added to a solution of sulphate of i iron,
a one yellow colour is produced; and presently after this a copious
white precipitate appears, which, in subsiding, assumes a pale lemon
colour. If, at the moment the cloud is forming, the vessel be scratch-
ed with any pointed instrument, white lines appear, as in the pre-
cipitation of magnesia from carbonic acid by phosphoric acid.
3. This precipitate being washed, and gently heated over a lamp,
assumes a bright cinnamon colour, and becomes magnetic, in conse-
quence, no doubt, cf the carbonization of the oxalic acid; and these
changes take place at 2 heat much inferior to ignition.
4. Lfasolution of potash be added to the washed precipitate, previous j
to the application of heat, a strong smell of ammonia arises, and the
oxide passes to a dark grayish colour, showing that the precipitate is
u triple salt of oxalic acid, iron, and ammonia. ;
* J avail myself, in forming these varions estimates, of the pr opers
tious given by Dr. Henry, in his valuable ‘Analysis of several varieties
of Sea Salt (published in the Philusop: ical Transactions for 1910,
page 114), where he states that 109 grains of iguited sulphate of lime
(which
ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN I. OF WIGHT.. 89
Secr. XI. Inferences obtained frum: the application of
‘ Alcohol.
1. Having ascertained (sect. III, k), that a small quantity Examination
bal is : : for muriates by
of muriatic acid was present in the water, it became de- .i.ono1.
sirable, before proceeding any farther, to discover, by the
agency of alcohol, which has the well known property of
dissolving the earthy muriates, with what bases this acid
was combined. With this view, 20 grains of residue were
digested in successive quantities of alcohol of great purity,
and the solution filtered. The residue, by this operation,
acquired a lighter colour and a more pulverulent appear
ance. Part of this residue being treated with muriatic acid
and oxalate of ammonia, oxalate of lime was precipitated ;
and another portion being treated with neutral carbonate of
ammonia and phosphate of soda, some magnesia was pre-
cipitated in the form of triple phosphate, circumstances
which confirmed the presence of lime in the form of selenite,
and that of magnesia, inthe form of eviptats or Epsom
salt.
2. The alcoholic solution being Sudip deited to dryness,
a yellowish deliquescent residue was obtained, which, being
dried at 160°, weighed 0°9 of agrain. Water being added
to this residué, a small portion of it remained undissolved,
The filtered watery solution was yellowish, though per-
fectly transparent, and, being examined by the usual
reagents, appeared to contain iron, sulphuric acid, and mu-
riatic acid, with imponderable vestiges of lime and mag-
nesia, without any trace of lumine. .
3. From these circumstances it was inferred, that the Results,
only deliquescent salts ielded by the residue, in ascertain-
able quantities, were sulphate of iron, and muriate of iron,
both of which had probably been formed ia consequence of
some new orders of attraction taking place during the pro=
cess of evaporation to which the water had been subjected*.
2 Sect.
‘
(which he finds to be equal to 128 grs. dried at 160°), give 102'5 grs.
of oxalate of lime dried at 160°, corresponded to 124 grs. of sulphate
of lime dried at the same temperature. [See Journ. vol. X XVI. p. 278. ]
* Namely, the reo sulphate from the yperoxigenation of the
iron, and the muriate from the decomposition of muriate Of seda, ag:
will be explained hereafter.
90 ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN I. OF WIGHT.
Sect. XII. Sulphate of Magnesia.
Examination 1, The presence of magnesia * was acertained beyond alt
for magnesia. doubt, in the following manner:
50 grains of residue minutely pulverized were. boiled in
a solution of neutral carbonate of ammonia, so as to de-
compose all the sulphate of iron and earthy salts, and
dissolve all the magnesia which might be presentt. This
process was, of course, attended with considerable effer-
vescence, and when this had ‘subsided, the liquor was
filtered. The clear solution deposited on standing a
brownish sediment, which was separated, and proved to be
oxide of iron. The residue left in the filter had passed
from a greenish-yellow to a pale brown colour.
Sodiestion of 2. Phosphate of ammonia being added to the clear
ammoniaco- “solution, a precipitate appeared, having all the characters
Ee aie: of the ammoniaco-magnesian phosphate; and in particular;
' that of forming white stripes on the inside of thé vessel
when scratched with a pointed instrument. This preci
pitate, dried at a temperature of about 120°, weighed 1°9
grajnj], and being made red hot in a platina crucible, was
Proportion of reduced to exactly | gr. = 0°385 of a grain of pure magnesia
sulphate of | = 2:26 grains of crystallized sulphate of magnesia in 50
menor ~ grains of residue, or 3°69 grains in a pint of watert. The
} magnesian
* The presence of this earth in the form of sulphate bad already
been proved by the application of alcohol, (sect. XI, 1).
+ It is scarcely necessary again to state here the well known fact,
that carbonate of ammonia, when fully saturated with carbonic acid,
bas the pewer of dissolying magnesia.
}} In a subsequent experiment, in which the water itself, instead of
the residue, was treated in the same manner with neutral carbonate
of ammonia, the quantity of magnesia appeared somewhat greater ;
but the difference wl not amount to more than one tenth of a grain.
Peseentiin a t It will be iccensary here to state ahs grounds of this compu.
which magne- tation, which will afford me an opportunity of relating some general
sia and phos- results concerning the proportions in which magnesia and phosphoric
phoric acid acid combine.
fomnBio. By dissolving 112 grains of the purest magnesia (perfectly free
from carbonic acid and water) in muriatic acid, and precipitating it
by a mixture of phosphate of ammonia, and neutral carbonate of
ammonia, I] abtained 658 grains of the triple phosphate dried by
exposure for near forty-eight hours to a temperature which never ex-
ceeded
ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN I. OF WICHT. 91
magnesian phosphate became slightly brownish during
the vealéjnation, owing to the presence of a few Peles
of iron, the quantity of which was too minute to be
ascertained.
Secr. XIII. Precipitation of the sulphuric and muriatic
Acids, with a view to ascertain their quantity.
Before. drawing any: ultimate conclusion respecting the Examination
contents of the water and the proportions of its ingredients, ofthe quantity
: ie of the acids.
I found it necessary to ascertain the quantities of sulphuric
and muniatie acids which it contained, in order to enable
“me to try how far these quantities might coincide with the
conclusions obtained by the separation of the basis, and
also to assist me, as will be seen hereafter, in forming cer-
tain inferences with regard to the alkaline salts. For this
‘purpose I made the following experiments,
1. To
ceeded 120°, a degree of heat under which this salt appears to retain the
whole of its ammonia. These 65:8 grains of triple salt, being exposed
for half an hour to a strong red heat in a platina crucible, were reduced
to 30‘Sgrains. The salt appeared then in the form of a friable cake or
loose aggregate, a fragment of which, on being urged by the blowpipe,
ran into a white opaque vitreous globule, without any farther diminu-
tion of weight. In its friable state it was readily dissolved by muriatic
acid; in its vitrified form it required heat and trituration. This salt
‘was nenfedtly tasteless, and showed no attraction for water. With regard
to the proportions of acid and base to be inferred from this experiment,
-it is obvious, that, if 30°8 grains of phosphate of magnesia contain
31°82 grains of earth, the remainder, viz. 18°98 grains, represents the
proportion of phosphoric acid; which is equivalent to 38:37 grains of
magnesia in 100 of uote kate. In another experiment conducted in
a similar manner, the magnesia amounted to 3$ 7 grains, so that, by
taking the mean between these two very nearly similar results, we
have the following proportions, viz.
Magnesia . 9$8'5
Phosphoric acid 61.5
We may infer therefore, that one grain of phosphate of magnesia,
the quantity yielded by twenty grains of residue, indicated 0-385 of
pure magnesia; and if, according to the statements of Kirwan and
Wenzel (which very nearly agree) one hundred grains of crystallized
sulphate of magnesia contain seventeen grains of magnesia, 2-26
grains of that salt will be the quantity corresponding to 0:385 of a grain
of magnesia. And I have the satisfaction ef observing, that the pre.
. portions
t in 100 grains of ignited phosphate of magnesia,
‘
92 ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN f. OF WIGHT.
Sulphuricacid. 1. To four ounces of the water was added nitrate of barytes
till the whole of the sulphuric acid was precipitated ; the
sulphate of barytes thusobtained being carefully edulcorated;
and heated to redness in a platina crueible, weighed 18°5
grains, which correspoud to 74 grains of sulphate of barytes
yak 2 pint of the water. }
Muriatic acid. &, Four ounces of the water were a prea with mtrate of
a as long as any precipitate appeared, and the muriate
of silver thus obtained, being well edulcorated, and after-
wards bought to a state of ineipient fasion by the heat of
an Argand lamp, weighed 2°05, which is equivalent to 82
grains of luna cornea, or four grains of muriate of soda*, in
each pint of the waterf,
Secr. XIV. Sulphate and Muriate of Soda.
Examimatiog 3. The mode in whieh I first attempted to ascertain the
oer presence of alkaline salts in the water was that alluded to
: in a former part of this paper, which consisted in precipi-
tating the iron aud the earths by subcarbonate of ammenia,
evaporating the elear solution to dryness, heating the dry
mass to redness, with a view to drive off the sulphates and
muriates of ammonia, redissolving the residue ta water, and
evaporating again very slowly in order te obtain crystals.
But the saline mass yielded by this process did not crystallize
regularly, and, on being examined by reagents, was found -
to contain only sulphate of soda, with minute quantities of
sulphates of alumine and magnesia, whieh had escaped the ©
action of the carbonate of ammonia. |
Portion, obtained by Dr. Henry, of one hundred grains of ammoniaco-
magnestan phosphate dried at 9o°, for one hundred and eleven grains
of crystallized sulphate of magnesia, would have led te a very similar
result. (Sce Dr. Henry’s ‘Analysis of several varieties of Salt,’ in
Phifos Tyans. for 1810, page 113.) [Journ. vol. xxvi, p. 277.]
* J have found by direct experiments, that one hundred grains of pure
«variate of soda heated to redness, and decomposed by nitrate of silver,
yield 241°6 grains of luna cornea heated to fusion, _
+ The saine experiment was tried three times upon diffcrent speci-
sacns of the water, and L here give the average. The smallest quantity
of lana corne2 obtained was two grains, and the largest 2°5 grains, a
difference too great to erise from mere inaccuraey. From this and
several other circumstances I have reason to suspect, that the water is
sabicet to occasional variations in the proportions, as well as in the
aggregate quantity of its solid contents.
ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN 1. OF WIGHT. 9S
2. In hopes of obtaining more satisfactory results, 1 had Treatment
recourse to the following process: five ounces of the water pipe rag
were boiled with a solution of succinate of ammonia till the
whole of the iron and alumine were precipitated*. The
lime was precipitated: by oxalate of ammonia, and the mag-
nesia by ammonia. The solution was then concentrated
over a lamp, and gradually evaporated to dryness ina platina
crucible. A white pungent smell arose, and on ratsing the
heat to redness, these fumes took fire and burnt with a blue
flame, till the whole was fused and reduced toa fixed saline
mass mixed witha black coaly matter. Distilled water was
poured upon this mass, and the solution filtered. This clear
solution being now evaporated and dried at a gentle heat,
so as to obtain the saltsin a crystallized state, the mass
weighed 6°3 grainst, which would give 20 grains of alkaline,
salts in a pint of the water. The centre of this mass exhi-
bited no distinct crystallization, though. from its appearance
and disposition to effloresce, it evidently. contained sulphate
of soda; but the circumference was strewed with numerous
and perfectly regular crystals of muriate of sodat. ,
3. This ’
* This is a long operation, because the iron dees not combine with >
the succinic acid at a low degree of oxigenation, so that the mixture
must be long digested with access of air, or repeatedly boiled aud al-
Jowed to stand in the air for some hours during the intervals, before
the “process can be completely effected. This operation necessarily
requires one or two days, but is remarkably accurate as to the precipi-
tation of both the iron and alumine.
+ This was the combined result of two separate experiments tried on
three and two ounces of the water, the first of which Ne 3°5 grains, :
and the other 9°8 grains of alkaline salts.
¢ This result shows the compatibility of muriate of soda with sul- Muriate of
‘phate of iron, the latter being in excess, which has been questioned soda comprti-
by some chemists. Being desirous of obtaining a confirmation of this ble with sul-
by a direct experiment, I mixed together solutions of two parts of phate of inom.
_ sulphate of iron and one part of muriate of soda. ‘fhe mixture be-
came yellowish, and on applying heat reddish flakes subsided. On
separating these by filtration, and repeating this process two or three
times, I nevertheless obtained by evaporation distinct crystals of
muriate of soda, partly cubic, partly octohedral, deposited in the
- centre of a saline yellowish mass, without any appearance of efflor-
escence or of any thing reseinbling sulphate of soda. Therefore mx-
riate of soda is compatible with sulphate of iron, although these two
Halts
94
Properties of
the saline
mass,
ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN f. OF WIGHT.
3. This saline mass being dissolved in water, the bstiition
had the following properties:
a, It was neither acid nor alkaline. Bs
b. Its most obvious taste was that of muriate of soda.
c. It formed copious precipitates with nitrate of barytes,
nitrate of silver, and nitrate of lime.
d. Oximuriate of platina, oxalate ofammonia, and prus-
_ siate of potash, produced no precipitate whatever.
Perhaps mu-
riate of soda
enly present.
Proof of the
action of sul-
phate of am-
mMonia on mu-
riate of soda,”
Proportions of
the sulphate
and muriate
determined in-
directly.
. Therefore the only salts contained in this solution were:
sulphate of soda, and muriate of soda.
4. Asto the preportions of these two salts, it soil have
been easy to ascertain them by precipitating their acids. But _-
itoccurred to me, that the sulphate of ammonia formed in the.
solution by the ammoniacal salts, which had been introduced:
for the precipitation of the earths, had probably reacted
upon the muriate of soda when urged by heat, so as to de-
compose it partially, and form the sulphate of soda obtained
by the process just described ; so that muriate of soda might:
perhaps in fact ie the only alkaline salt contained in the
water.
5. Iu order to ascertain this, another portion of the
chalybeate having been treated in the way just described
with succinate of ammonia, the residue was gradually
desiccated, and then heated to redness ina platina crucible,
which was at-first. kept closed, in order to retard the escape
of the sulphate of ammonia, and thus promote its action on
the muriate of soda. ‘The remaining mass, being dissolved
and very slowly crystallized, assumed the form of clusters’
of regular prismatic efflorescent crystals of sulphate of soda,
among which scarcely any vestige of muriate of soda could.
be discovered,
6. The decomposition of munate of soda by the above
process being thus well established, it became necessary to
determine the proportions of sulphate and muriate of soda by
-some
salts evidently exert some degree of action on each other, as appeared
frum the change of colour and the formation of reddish flakes, which I
suppose to be subsulphate of iron. I may take this opportunity of |
mentioning, that by an analogous exper iment on sulphate of iron and,
muriate of alumine, and by the assistance cf alcohol, I satisfied myself~
that thise twe salts could not exist together.
ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN I, OF WIGHT. 95
some les$ direct method; and the expedient which appeared
the most appropriate was that of inferring the point in ques-
tion from a reference to the quantities of acids as estimated
in the preceding section, Thusasit was obvious that, what-
ever the case might-be with regard to sulphate of soda, the
presence of muriate of soda in the water was unquestionable;
and as the whole quantity of muriatic acid discovered in the
water (§ XIII, 2), corresponded to a quantity of muriate of
soda which fell far short of the sum total of alkaline salts, I
naturally inferred, that the whole of the muriatic acid was
united with soda, and that the water must also contain a
quantity of sulphate of soda sufficient to complete the 20
grains of alkaline salts, which the experiments just related
had shown to exist in each pint of the water.
7. Since therefore the whole of the muriate of soda, as
was before computed (§XIII, 2), amounted only to 4 grains
ina pint, the quantity of crystallized sulphate of soda con-
‘tained in each pint of the water will be 16 grains.
Sxet. XV. Comparison of the quantities of Acid actually
obtained from the water by precipitation, with the quan-
_ tities inferred from the precipitation of the basis.
1. It appears evident, from all that precedes, that the Quantities of
only acids contained in the water are the sulphuric and mu- acid obtained
riatic. The whole of the muriatic acid having been shown pie ak a
to exist in the form of muriate of soda, nothing farther re- with thatin-
bee Bt rd : ‘ é 4 ferred from
mains to be said on this head. But it will be curious to ing pases.
examine how far the total amount of sulphuric acid, obtained
from a portion of the water, would coincide with that which
might be inferred from the quantities of bases, with which it
wascombined. This inquiry will give rise to the statement
of certain results respecting the proportions of acid and base
in some of the salts concerned, and the precipitates obtained
from their decomposition, which, from their general impott
in chemical analysis, appear to deserve some attention.
2. It was ascertained by a direct experiment (§ XIII, 1)
that the whole of the sulphuric acid, contained in a pint of
the water, formed, when precipitated by a barytic salt, a
quantity of sulphate of barytes, which, after being ignited,
weighed 74 grains.
I shai}
06 ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN I. OF WIGHT.
I shall now recapitulate the several sulphates discovered in |
the water, and from the quantities of each compute the _
quantities of barytic sulphate, which would result from.their *
suifmae eh decomposition. ah.
ncaa: Sulphates contained in a pint of the Water. _ ;
Sulph. of baryt.
ignited,
Sulphate of iron (§VIII, 6) 41°4 ors. crystallized = 31°8 grs.#
Sulph. of alumive (§ TX, 5,) 3°8 grs.ign. alumine = 17-7 do. f-
Sulph. of lime (§ X, 3) 10°17 grs. dried at 160° = 13-9 do. t
Sulph. of magnesia (§ XII, 2) 3°63 grs. crystal. = 4-0 do. |{
Sulph. of soda (§ XIV, 7) 16-0 grs, crystallized = 11°6 do. §
Total amount of the sulphate of barytes+eesssee. -79-0 ers.
a
* These proportions were deduced from the following experiment:
50 grains of crystallized green sulphate of iron were dissolved in w ater,
and nitrate of barytes was added as long as any precipitate took place.
The sulphate of barytes, after being carefully edulcorated and heated
to redness in a platina crucible, ee 33.5 2 ~ Therefore
50:83:52: 41°4 +318. Cae Nae
Proportions of | + It may be recollected that 3°8 grs. of ignited alumine antl ac-
poate cio cording to the proportion before stated (Sect IX, 5,) correspond to.
z aidataet 31°6 of crystallized alum, I found by a direct experiment, that 100
grs. of regular octohedral crystals of alum formed by gradual deposition
from a staturated solution of common alum, being dissolved in water
and precipitated by muriate of barytes, produced $8"2 grs. of ignited
sulphate of barytes; so that the 31'6 grs. of alum would correspond
to 27'8 grs. of the barytic sulphate. This, how ever, could not be an .
accurate estimate of the real quantity of sulphuric acid, since the
sulphate of alumine does not exist in the water in the state of alum,
With a view to learn the proportious of acid and base in pure sulphate
of alumine, I made the following attempt. A quantity of alumine
(which had been prepared oo precipitation from alum, redissolution
in muriatic acid, and second precipitation by carbonate of ammonia,
and appeared to contain no impurity except a vestige of muriatic acid),
was dissolved in sulphuric acid, and the solution evaporated to siccity.
When reduced to the consistence of a thick sirup, and allowed to
cool, the saline mass congealed into a hard whitish deliquescent cake,
capable of being pulverized. -This was redissolved and reevaporated
four successive times, and the Jast time was made redhot, in order to
expel the excess of sulphuric acid, which always appeared to prevail.
By this’ last operation a portion of the salt was decomposed and ren-
dered insoluble i in water, in spite of which the remainder still exhibited
ch a of acidity. The clear solution of nes mass being divided into —
two
4
(
LE <=
’
' ALUMINOUS CMALYBEATE SPRING IN I. OF WIGHT. 97
3. It appears therefore, that the aggregate of the analy- Difference be-
tween the suj-
tical results would indicate 79 grs. of ignited sulphate of hate df i
barytes, instead of the 74 grs. obtained by a single direct * ry tescaleulated
operation. This difference 1 apprehend to be in a great 44 obtained,
_ degree owing to my estimate of the proportion of acid in
sulphate of alumine being overrated, from the circumstance
of not having been able to obtain a neutral sulphate of alu-
mine in the experiment just related from which that estimate
was deduced.
Sect. XVI. Silica.
Examination
‘1. During the various solutions of the residue in acid, I for silex.
had repeatedly observed, that, beside the selenite, (the
solution of which was attended with some difficulty, and re-
two equal portions, one of which was precipitated by succinate of am-
monia, and the other by nitrate of barytes, yielded 4:5 grs. of ignited
alumine, for 21 grs. of ignited sulphate of barytes. From which it
may be inferred, that the 3'8 grs. of ignited alumine, found in a pint of
the water, were combined with a quantity of acid equal to 17°7 grs. of
ignited sulphate of barytes. But it is assumed in this computation, —
that the artificial sulphate of alumine subjected to analysis, was in
the same state of combination as that which exists in the water, a sup-
pssition which may not be strictly accurate.
{ The quantity of sulphate of barytes, produced by the precipitation Beowowien or
ef a given quantity of sulphate of lime, was ascertained in the following iobate ‘of
manner; some pulverized crystals of native selenite, apparently per- barytes to sul-|
fectly pute, were dissolved in water and afterwards slowly precipitated Phate of lime.
by evaporation.. The object of this previous operation was to obtain
the sulphate of lime in a-state more fit for subsequent redissolution.
Fifteen grains of this selenitic residue, dried at a red heat, were dis-
solved in water, slightly acidulated by muriatic acid, in order to super-
sede the necessity of using large quantity of water; and the solution,
after being neutralize’ by pure ammonia, was precipitated by muriate
_ of barytes. The sulphate of barytes, thus obtained, weighed, after
_ careful edulcoration and ignition in a platina crucible, 296-75 grs. which
are equivalent to 175°6 grs. of hati of barytes for 100 grs. of ignited
sulphate of lime.
|| Accorcing to Dr. Henry 100 grs. of crystallized sulphate of mag-
' mesia give 111 grs. of ignited sulphate of barytes. See Philos. Trans.
1810, p. 114. [Joum. vol. xxvi, p. 278.]
§ These proportions were deduced from the following experiment:
40 gus. of crystallized sulphate of soda, being dissolved in water and
precipitated by nitrate of barytes, thé sulphate of barytea; well, edub,
‘corated and ignited, weighed 29°1 grse G
Vol. XXXII.—June 1812. H quired
98 _ ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN I. OF WIGHT. |
quired a considerable quantity of water) there always re=
mained a small proportion of earthy matter, which resisted
all solvents, caustic potash excepted. This insoluble matter,
_I had thought from some of the first trials, amounted to
about 1 gr. in 100 of the residue; but from some subsequent
experinients in which the silica was separated by caustic
potash, there appeared to be reason to suppose, that. this
estimate was rather overrated, I shall relate the process,
to which, after various trials, I gave the preference.
Silex dissolved 2. 50 grains of residue being boiled with very dilute
; Sane muriatic acid, a white flocculent substance remained une
cipitated by -dissolved, upon which neither acid nor water could make
re gaa any impression. This substance, being separated and boiled —
in a solution of caustic potash, readily redissolved with the
exception of a few particles.of highly oxidated iron, which
subsided. Muriate of ammonia * being added to the clear
‘alkaline solution in sufficient quantity to saturate the whole
of the potash with muriatic acid, the white flocculent sub-
stance reappeared, which after being well washed, and heated
to redness, weighed between 0°3 and 0°4 of a gr. This sub-
stance when heated with alkali ran into a vitreous globule,
and muriatic acid being poured upon this, the alkali was
dissolved, and the earthy matter remained untouched. It
was therefore silica, the quantity of which may be estimated
at 0-7 of a gr. in a pint of watert. et ea
‘ . - On
* This precipitant, whieh was, I believe, frst proposed by Mr.
Cheuevix, is much more appropriate than acids, because if an excess
of acid be incautiously added, the precipitate is redissolved: while
with muriate of ammonia an excess of the test is attended with no in-
convenience. ; ;
Another exa: + The presence of aniiain was also shown, and its quantity attempted
minationfor tg be ascertained by the following process. A portion of residue was
ate boiled in caustic potash: this dissolved not only the silica, but also
the alumine; both these earths were precipitated from the alkaline -
solutions by muriate of ammonia, and separated; muriatic acid being
now added, both the silica and alumine were, reJissolved.(for silica,
~ just precipitated from its solution, and not desiccated, is soluble in -
acid); and this solution being evaporated to dryness on a water-bath,
* by which means the silica parts with its. acid and becomes insoluble,
the muriate of alumiue was washed off by distilled water, and the
silica remained wndissolved. This method, though affording a very
i useful
:” ALUMINOUS CHALYBEATE SPRING IN 1. OF WiGHT. | 99
ae | Secr. XVII. Conclusion.
On reviewing and connecting together all the forer-oing Ingredtente in
results, it appears thaf'each pint, or sixteen-ounce measure pe his st
of the aluminous chalybeate, contains the following in-
gredients: 2
Of carbonic acid gas three tenths ofa cubicinch. @Rains
Sulphate of iron, in the state of crystallized green
sulphate Core rece eceeressserseccepeerereceneo Als
Sulphate of alumine, a quantity which, if brought to
the state of creuealued alum, would amount to +--+ 31°6
Sulphate of lime, dried at 160°, cccseeceeesecceses 10°]
Sulphate of magnesia, or Epsom salt, crystallized -- 3°6
Sulphate of soda, or Glauber’s salt, crystallized....0. 16°0
Muriate of soda, or common Salt, crystallized e--se.+. 4°0
MEMITTaU is erealals’e Uleleiateteie ost eave ible wiersleie «ee aieistasd alsa tee Q'7
\ 107°4
I am not acquainted with any chalybeate or aluminous It is analogous
spring, iu the chemical history of mineral waters, which Ab deat
can be compared, in regard to strength, with that just green, but the
described. The Hartfell water, and that of the Horley- ee
green spaw near Halifax, both of which appear to be ana-
logous to this in their chemical composition, and were con-
sidered as the strongest impregnations of the kind, are stated
by Dr. Garnett to contain, the one only about 14 grs. and
_» the other 40 ers, of saline matter in each pint.
No doubt therefore can be entertained, that the water, .
which 1s the subject of this essay, will be found to possess in
-a yery eminent degree the medical properties, which are
known to belong to the saline substances it contains, Indeed
there appears to be in this spring rather a redundance than
-a deficiency of power; and it is probable, that in many in-
stances it will be found expedient to drink the water in a-
diluted
+ useful means of discrimination, must obviously be liable to inaccuracy
> as to proportions, when Very minute portions of silica are to be sepa-
: rated from considerable quantities of alminé. This however was the -
process to which I trusted on a previous occasion (1X, g,) to free the
alumine from the silica which was mixed with it.
H2
100
Various kinds
of wood pro-
cured for dry-
“ing.
Exposed to a
moderate heat
in a stove,
3.053. of weight.
fieated again.
ON WOOD AND CHARCOAL.
diluted state; wiles in others, when it may be dctbobile te
take in a small compass large doses of these saline stb-=
stances, it will be preferred in ite native undiminished
strength.
———
Ii,
Account of some new Eperiments on Wood and Charcoal: i
Bens: Counr or Rumrorn, J. R. SS. L. and E.
M. R. I. A. &e.*
Havinc had occasion to dry several kinds of wood,
to ascertain how much water was contained in them, I
procured a piece of each kind six inches long and half an
inch thick, and planed off some pretty thin shavings, which
1 kept to dry for eight days in a room, the temperature
of which was constantly about 60° F. : The wood had been
previously drying two or three years in a joiner’s wor kshop.
Of each kind of shavings I took 10 gr. [154°5 grs.]
which I placed ona china plate in a kind of stove made
of sheet iron; and heated them moderately by,a small fire
under the stove for twelve hours, after which they were |
suffered to cool gradually during twelve hours more.
The stove, being surrounded with brick-work, was still hot
twelve hours after the fire had been extinguished.
On taking out the china plates in succession, and
weighing the shavings anew, their weight was found to be
diminished about one tenth, some a little more, others a
little less. When the shavings were put into the stove, their
weight was 10 gr, when taken out it was about 9. Their
colour was not perceptibly altered, and they had no
appearance of having been exposed to a strong heat.
Desirous of knowing how fer the drying of wood might
be carried, I replaced them ail in the stove, which I
heated as before, neither more nor less, for twelve hours, '
and afterward left to cool slowly. for twelve hours.
re ae
® Read at the meeting of the first class of the French Institute, Dec.
the 30th, 1811. This, as well as the following, is translated from the
original, transmitted by the Count, and not yet published in Fiance.
ON WOOD AND CHARCOAL. 101
On taking ovt the shavings the next day, they had all Change of
changed colour more ox less: from a yellowish white they colour,
had become light brown, dark brown, more or less yellow,
and some of a fine purple.
Their weight, which was at first 10 grs. was now found Weight after
to be ' the second
ie heating.
Oak oscvceceee 7G
Elm eccovecee-QGI8
Beech «+ecesss8'5Y
Maple «-..++--8'4}
Ash oec0esceas 9°40
Birch ceccceees AQ
: Service eaceoee 8°40
Cherry ¢+eeeee+8'60
Linden oceee+++7°86
(after ha-
ving been in the
open air twenty~
four hours) «++ +8°06
Male fire +0coe+e8°46
‘Female firs +ee++8.66
Ww ishing to know whether the wood might not be ree Attempt to
duced to charcoal by continuing the moderate heat of the ‘aigl ® Rosen
y a moderate
stove a long time, 1 took half the linden shavings, which heat,
weighed 4:08 gr.; placed them in a china saucer, sup-
ported by a cylindrical earthen vessel three inches in
diameter, and four inches high; put this on an earthen
plate, and covered it by a glass jar, 3ix inches in diameter,
and eight inches high. On the earthen plate was a layer of
ashes, about an inch deep, serving to close the meuth of
the jar slightly.
This little apparatus being placed in the stove, it was
heated a third time for twelve hours; and then left twelve |
hours without fire, to cool gradually.
. On taking ont the apparatus J found, that the wood was Results,
become perfectly black; and that the glass jar was yellow-
ish, and its transparency diminished,
- On weighing the shavings, which retained their original Loss ofweight. |
figure completely, I was surprised to find, that they
weighed only 2°21 grs. As they were the remains of 5¢r.
_\ of wood; and as, from the experiments of Messrs. Gay-
Lussac and Thenard, I had expected to find in this wood at
_ least fifty per cent of charcoal; I did not think it possible,
” to reduce the weight of the shavings to less than 2°5 grey
- Warticularly with the moderate heat I employed.
To
*
102
Heated a
fourth time.
-Results,
Heated a fifth
time.
State of the
wood,
Heated twice
more.
Charcoal may
be dissipated
by a heat be-
low combusti-
on.
ON wood AND CHARCOAL.
To-clear up my doubts, I replaced the apparatus in the
stove, and heated it again as befure for twelve hours, and
afterward left it in the stove twelve hours to cool.
On taking out the apparatus I fonnd, that the shavings
weighed only 1°5 gr. The jar was less transparent, and
of a blackish yellow colour throughout; but particularly in
its upper part, above the level of the brim of the saucer,
in which the shavings were. These Ses were still of a
perfect black. a
Having heated the apparatus again for twelve hours,
and then left it to cool, I was surprised on taking it out
of the stove the next day to find, that the jar had again
become clear and transparent. Not the least trace of the
yellow coating, with which its inner surface had been co-
vered, now remained.
On examining the wood 1 found, that this also had
changed its colour. It had assumed a blueish hue, pretty
deep, but very different from the decided black it had
before. Its weight was 1:02 gr,
I put it twice more into the stove, and each time its
weight was diminished, so that the 5 gr. of wood were
reduced at last to 0°27 of a gr, or about a twentieth of the
original weight.
I am persuaded, that I sisut have diminished it still
more, if I had continued the experiment longer: but it
has been tried Jong enough to establish this remarkable
fact, that charcoal can be dissipated by a heat much-less than
has been considered necessary to burn it.
Experiment
with common
charcoal.
A second ex-
periment.
It may be supposed, that I was very desirous of knowing
whether the same thing would occur to charcoal already
formed by the usual process. Accordingly I took a
piece of charcoal from my kitchen, heated it to a strong-
red heat, and, while it was still red, put it into a marble
mortar, and powdered it. Having passed it through a sieve, -
1 took 4°03 gr. of the powder, placed it in the saucer, ©
heated it in the stove twelve hours, and then left it twelve
hours to cool. On taking it out it weighed but 3°81 gr.
As this powdered charcoal was nothing but a collection
of small bits of charcoal, which were in contact with the air
ouly by a very small surface compared with that of the
hsavings,
J
ON WOOD AND CHARCOAL. 103
_ shavings, I made another experiment, the result of which
was more striking and more satisfactory.
Having enclosed in a cloth a quantity of powdered Charcoal in
scharcoal, that had been pased through a sieve, I beat it Be cavinged,
| strongly in a place where the air was still; and when the air yore
" appeared to be well loaded with the fine dust of the charcoal,
I placed on the ground a white china saucer, qintted the
place, and left the dust to settle.
‘The saucer was covered with it} so as to appear of a very
dark gray.
. Before all the dust had settled, 1 wrote some letters on the
saucer with the point of my finger, and these letters were
_ afterward covered with a still finer dust.
I imagined it possible, that the part covered by a very fine
dust might be found whitened, while that covered with a
stratum of coarser charcoal powder would be found perhaps
still black.
The result of the experiment showed, that this precaution The whole dis-
was not necessary. All the charcoal powder disappeared com- ie. in a
pletely in the stove, and the saucer came out perfectly white, »
Another saucer, which had been blackened a little by rub- a¢ which lamp-
_ bing it with lampblack, and placed in the stove by the side black did nor.
of that blackened with charcoal dust, came out of the stove’
as black as it went in. As soon as I saw, that the linden
shavings converted into charcoal might be dissipated by the
moderate heat of the stove, I suspected, that they had been |
_ consumed slowly by a silent and invisible combustion; and ~
that the prodnct of this combustion could be nothing but
carbonic acid gas.
_ To clear up this point I made the following experiment.
Having procured a stock of very dry birch shavings, in Experiment to
_ ribands shoiit a twentieth of a line thick, near half an inch So oe
~ broad, and six inches lony, I dried them for eight days in a converted into
room heated by a stove, where the temperature was about oe acid
_ 60° F.; the shavings being laid ona table, at a distance from
the stove. Of these shavings thus dried, I took 10 gr., which
I placed on a china plate, and heated in the stove, in the
manner already described, for 24 hours. "When taken out
of, the stove, they weighed but 7-7gr., and had acquired a
deep brown colour inclining to purple. They were still wood
however,
Sorneenene tene arene eee ee
104
Results.
ON WOOD AND CHARCOAL.
however, for, though deeply browned, they burned with a
very fine flame.
Of these brown shavings I made three par cels, each weigh
ing 2°3 gr. The first was placed in the stove on a white
china plate, supported by a tile, but not covered. The
second was put into it in a similar manner, except that it was
covered with a glass jar, six inches in diameter, and six inches
high.
The third parcel was put into a glass vessel, six inches
high, but only an inch and a quarter in diameter. This nar-
row vessel was put into a glass three inches in diameter, and
seven inches high ; which, being slightly closed with its glass
cover, was also placed in the stave on a tile.
As the door of the stoye (which is double, the better to
confine thé heat) does not shut so close as tu prevent the free
passage of air; and as the china plates, on which two of the.
parcels were placed, were flat ; every circumstance was fa-
vourable-for the free transmission of the carbonic acid gas
arising from the decomposition of these two parcels by slow.
combustion, and there was nothing to prevert the progress
of this operation., But the third parcel being enclosed ina
narrow vessel, as this gas is much heavier than atmospherié
air, the first portion of this gas arising from a commence.
ment of combustion of the wood could not fail to descend in .
the vessel toward its bottom, gradually expel the air, and at _ i
length fill the vessel campletely : and as this sort of inunda-
tion by carboni¢ acid gas could not fail to stop the com-
bustion, I expected to find that this parcel of shavings would |
be preserved, at least in part, even though both the others
should be entirely consumed.
The stove having been heated in the oe manner, I
found the next Gar, that the results of the experiment had
been such as I anticipated, The two parcels of shavings
placed on the china plates had disappeared entirely; nothing
at all remaining, except a very small quantity of ashes, of a
} white colour inclining 4 little ta yellow.
' The yellow ashes in the plate that was not vane witha
glass jar were deranged and dispersed by the wind, eccasioned
by opening the door of the stove too suddenly: but those in
the other plate, being protected ie the glass, were found all
togethers .
ON THE HBAT DEVELOPED IN COMBUSTION. ‘105 -
together. As they still retained their original figure of sha.
vings, though reduced to a very small bulk, this appeared to
_ me a demonstrative proof, that the shavings, whence they
arose, had not been burned by a common fire. For this rea-
son, and also on account of their extraordinary colour, ap-
proaching very near that of the wood in its natural state, I
preserved them, to show them to the class. They weighed
only 0:04 of agr.; and as the shavings, of which they were
the remains, weighed 2°987 gr. on coming out of the hands
of the joiner, these ashes make only one and one third per
cent of the weight of the wood.
The third parcel of shavings, which had been placed in a
- marrow glass vessel, had not disappeared, but the wood was
converted into perfect charcoal. I have the honour to pre-
sent it to the class, in the same vessel in which it was charred.
As the three parcels of shavings were of the same wood, Reasonings on
and equal in weight ; as they were exposed together to the them,
' same degree of heat, and for the same time ; and as the two
portions, that were placed so as to facilitate the escape of the
carbonic acid gas arising from their decomposition, disap-
peared entirely ; while the third, which was so circumstanced
that the escape of this gas was impossible, did not disappear ;
it seems to me, that there can be no doubt of the cause of
the phenomena that presented themselves: and it is certainly Charcoal ese
a curious fact, that charcoal, which has hitherto been cons fixed than usu-
sidered as one of the most fixed substances known, can unite sie a a
itself to oxigen, and form with it carbonic acid gas, at a teme
perature much below that, at which it burns visibly.
\ \
IV.
_ Inquiries concerning the Heat developed in Combustion, with
a Description of a new Calorimeter; by the Same*.
Avrremprs have been long ago made to measure the Results of ex.
heat, that is developed in the combustion of inflammable periments on
‘ substances ;-heat from
combustion
di C3
* Read at the meeting of the fifth class of the French Institute, Feb. i aii
the 24th, 1812. .
~106
Unsuccessful
attempts of the
author.
Simple ani ac.
curate method
discovered.
The apparatus
described.
A ealnrisneiee!
-
Worm of 3
new form.
ON THE HEAT DEVELOPED {N COMBUSTION.
substances; but the results of the experiments have been so
contradictory, and the methods employed so little calcula-
ted to inspire confidence, that the uodertabine is justly con-
sidered as very little adyanced.
I had attempted it at three different times within these
twenty years, but without success. After having made a
creat number of experiments with the most scrupulous care,
with apparatus on which I had long reflected, and afterward
caused to be executed by skilful workmen, I had found
nothing however that appeared to me sufficiently decisive
to deserve to be made public. A large apparatus in copper.
more than twelve feet long, which I had made at Munich
fifteen years ago; and another scarcely less expensive made
at Paris four years ago, which I have still in my laboratory 5”
aitest the desire Lhave long entertained of finding the means.
of elucidating a question, that has always appeared to me of —
great importance, both with regard to the sciences, and tu
the arts. ee
At length, however, I have the satisfaction of announcing
to the class, that, after all my fruitless attempts, I have dis-
covered a very simple method of measuring the heat mani-
fested in combustion, and this even with auch epicrokey as
leaves nothing to be desired. ;
Tkat the class may be the better able to judge of my
method of operating, and the reliance that may be placed on
the results of my experiments, | place my apparatus before
Ten ; ; .
The principal part of this apparatus is a kind of prismatic
receiver, eight inches long, four inches and a half broad, and
four inches three quarters high*, formed of very thin sheets
of copper. This receiver, which well deserves the name,
already celebrated, of calorimeter, is furnished with a long
neck, near one of its extremities, three quarters of an inch
im diameter, and three inches high, intended to receive and
support a mercurial thermometer of a particular shape. The
receiver has also another neck, an inch in diameter and the
same in height, situate in the centre of its upper part, and
closed by a cork. | i yi
Within this receiver, two lines above its flat bottom, is a
particular kind of worm, receiving all the products of the
combustion
* French measure.
ON THE HEAT DEVELOPED IN COMBUSTION. 107
combustion of the inflamable substances burned in the ex-
periments; and transmitting the heat manifested in this
combustion to a considerable body of water, which is in rune
receiver.
This worm, which is made of thin copper, occupies and
covers the whole bottom of the receiver, yet without touching
‘either its bottom or its sides. It is a flat tube, an inch and
half broad at one end, and an inch at the other; and half an
inch thick throughout. It is bent horizontally, so as to pass
three times from one end of the receiver to the other; and is
--supported in its place, two lines above the bottom of the re-
“ceiver, by several little feet.
The aperture, that forms the mouth of the worm, is a cir-
cular hole in its bottom, near its broadest end. Into this
hole is soldered a perpendicular tube, an inch in Jength and
an inch in diameter, reaching within the worm to the height
of a quarter of an inch above its bottom.
This tube passes through a circular hole in.the bottom of
the receiver, to which also it is soldered. Its lower aperture
is seven lines below the bottom of the receiver; and through
this the products of the combustion enter into the worm.
The other extremity of the worm passes horizontally through
the perpendicular end of the receiver, opposite to that near
which the products of the combustion enter the worm.
The worm, before it passes through the end of the receiver,
is fashioned into the shape of a round pipe, half an inch in
diameter; and an inch in length of this pipe is seen without
the receiver. This piece is made to fit tight into another
similar tube, belonging to the worm of another receiver, ;
_ which 1 call the secondary receiver ; the purpose of which Secondary tee
is to receive the heat, that might still be found in the °:
products of combustion, after they have passed through the
_ worm of the principal receiver.
To support these two receivers in the air, so as not to touch Mode of sup-
the table that supports them, each of them is fixed ina frame Pots them.
of dry linden wood, made of rods an inch square. Round
the bottom of each receiver is a copper rim, three lines deep,
which is fastened by a row of very small nails to the wooden
frame. The body of the receiver itself enters about a line
inte the frame, to which it is very accurately fitted.
” The
168 ON THE HEAT PEVEECFEP IN COMBUSTION.
Flatness of the The flat form of the worm is deal to the perfection
worm esse~ of the apparatus; as 1s evident, when its Putpers is con<
ue sidered.
All the products of the combustion being elastic fluids,
and consequently substances incapable of communicating
their heat, but by proceeding particle. after particle to
deposit it on the suface of the cold and fixed body intended
toa receive it, it was indispensable so to construct the
apparatus, that the hot fluids should of negessity be spread
bencath and against a large flat surface, placed horizontally,
and always cold.
Before I employed horizontal worms made of flat tubes,
i had more than once tried those of the common form:
but they uever answered my purpose otherwise than so
imperfectly, that I could never make any account of the
‘This shape ad- eXpertments, in which they were ‘employed. There is na
tamtageous for danht but the shape I have adopted for the worm of my
acommoan still.
calorimeter would be very advantageous for every kind of
apparatus for distillation.
Shape of the One thing very important in the construction of my
thermameter. apparatus is the shape of the thermometer, which I employ
to measure the temperature of the water in the receiver.
This thermometer, which I made myself; ; and which, after
having undergone every kind of trjal, has always appeared
good; 1s a mercurial thermometer, divided according to
Fahrenheit’s scale. It is one of four, all similar, that I
employed, at Munich, in the winter of 1802, in my ex-
experiments on the refrigeration of liquids enclosed ia
vessels,
The reservoir of this thermometer is cylindrical, about
two lines in diameter only, and four inches high: and as
ihe water in my ealorimeter is four inches deep, this
thermometer always indicates the mean” temperature of
the fluid, whatever may be the temperature of its different
strata.
fo measure In. my various suai tiries concerning heat, I have had
the heat of 2
Agia the bulb frequent opportunities of seeing the importanee of: this.
of the thermo- precaution; aod I cannot conceive how any one can -
ypeter should
tend form S2Pect to avoid great mistakes in measuring the tempera-
extend rom
hotiom to top, ture of liquids. heated ar cooled, if we da: not attend ta
thise
\ ON THE HEAT DEVELOPED IN COMBUSTION. 109
this, For my own part, I confess, I pay little regard to
‘the experiments of which I am told, when Iknow they |
are so negligently made; and assurediv I shall never waste
my time, in attempting to build theories on their results,
In using the apparatus I have described, several pre- Complete
cautions are necessary. In the first place it is obvious, that, rena ig
when the object is to ascertain the quantity of heat de-
veloped in the combustion of any inflammable substance,
it is indispensably necessary, so to arrange matters that
the combustion shali be complete. 1 have thought, that it
might be so considered, whenever the substance burned
Jeaves no residuum, and burns with aclear flame, without
smoke or smell.
‘The least smell, particularly that peculiar to the in= Smell of the
flammable substance bnrned, is a certain indication, that ey ha
the combustion is imperfect. it is impentece.
I had: long sought, before I was able to find to my
satisfaction, a mode of burning very volatile liquids, such
as alcohol and ether: but 1 have at length discovered it,
as will soon appear. I have frequently succeeded in
burning highly .rectified sulphuric ether, without the least
smell of ether being diffused through the room; and it
was in these instances alone, that I Bie as the experi~
ments as accurate. »
As to wood I have found a very simple method of Method of
burning it completely, without the least’ appearance of sabes liga
smoke or smell. 1 got a joiner to plane me shavings
about half an inch wide, a tenth of a line thick, and six
inches long: and holding these in the hand or with pliers,
elevated at an angle of 45° or thereabout, and with the
edges perpendicular, they burned like a match, with a very
eka? flame. ~ .
The slip of wood that burns being very thin, and placed
between two flat flames, which press on it closely, it is
exposed to the action of so strong a heat, that it burns
perfectly and entirely.
If the shavings employed be too thick, a portion of the —
charcoal of the wood remains; particularly if it be oak, or
any other wood of slow and dificult combustion: and in
this case the experiments are defective. But if the shavings
be
¥ “
| ’ ~,
110 ON THE HEAT DEVELOPED IN COMBUSTION.
be sufficiently thin, and well dried; T have found, that any
kind of wood may be burned completely. 5
Management In burning candles, wax tapers, or fat oils in lamps,
of candles and A . ;
lamps. the only precautions necessary are so to arrange the wick,
* as to yield no smokes to place the flame properly in the
aperture of the worm; and to surround the apparatus on
all sides by screens, to prevent the flame from cae
deranged by the wind. : ) :
Source of er- In these experiments there is one source of errour, too
“splice ee obvious to escape the most superficial observer, and to
receiver, which it.was important to attend. While the calorimeter
is warmed by the heat developed in the combustion of the
inflammable substance, which is burning at the aperture
of the worm, it is continually cooled by the ambient air,
that surrounds it on all sides. It would be possible,
no doubt, by calculations founded on a knowledge of
the law of refrigeration. of the receiver, which might be
found by separate experiments, to ascertain the quantity
of the effect produced by the refrigeration in question ; and
this even with a certain degree of precision: but it would
have been impossible by this method, or by any other
known, to calculate the effects of another cause of errour,.
less obvious perhaps, but certainly more weighty, than
that of the refrigeration of the external surface of the.
receiver.
and from the The nitrogen, high. is mixed with the oxigen of the
Ditrogen Carri-
edie kt. atmospheric air, 1s necessarily carried into the worm with
the proper products of the combustion; and without 2
precaution, which it occurred to me to employ to prevent
the effects of this cause of errour, by making a compen-
sation for them, all the SHPE ee would have been of no
value.
Fortunately the method I employed to obviate the effects
of this cause of errour was: sufficient, to prevent at the
same time those, that might have arisen “from the cooling
of the outer surface of the receiver. '
Method of ob: “As the receiver is cooled, whether by the atmospheric
viating both. gir in contact with its external surface, or by the nitrogen
and other gasses traversing the worm with the products
of combustion, only so far as the worm is hotter than the
surrounding
|
-ON THE HEAT DEVELOPED 1N COMBUSTION. lil
surrounding air; while on the contrary it is heated by these
elastic fluids, whenever it is at a lower temperature than they
are: by arranging matters so, that the temperature of the
water in the receiver shall be a certain number of degrees,
5° for instance, below the temperature of the air at the be-
ginning of the experiment; and putting an end to the
experiment, as soon as the water in the receiver has ‘ac-
quired a temperature precisely the same number of degrees
higher than the air; the receiver will be heated by the
air during half the time of continuance of the experiment,
and cooled by it during the other half: so that the calorific
and frigorific effects of the air on the apparatus will coun-
terbalance each other, and produce no perceptible effect on
the results of the experiments; consequently they will
require no correction. :
When we are making experiments:to elucidate natural Better to avoid
phenomena, it is always more satisfactory to avoid errours, ° ee
or to compensate them, than to trust to calculation for eran ts by
_ appreciating their effects. "calculation.
As the law of the variation of the specific heat of water 4 sma range
at different temperatures is not known, and as we have of the thermo
but an imperfect knowledge of the true measure of the sania Sain
intervals of temperature marked by the divisions of our
thermometers, to prevent the effects, that our uncertainty
on these points would have on the subject of inquiry, I
took care to make my experiments in a room, where the
temperature varied very little, and to confine them to a few
degrees of elevation of the temperature of the water in the
receiver.
It is true, I made some experiments in a room where Other experi
‘the air was much colder, and in which I employed ice ™ents.
_ instead of water to fill the receiver; but these experiments
were for a particular purpose, and are not classed with the
others.. Besides, they never afforded such uniform and ¢a-
tisfactory results, as those made-under other circumstances.
_ It has been fully proved, not only by the results of my Freezing of a-
experiments, but by the experiments of others also, that queous capeur
_ the vapour of water in contact with ice frequently freezes,
_while this same ice is melting by the hieat, or thot its thaw
appears fully established.
To
112 ON THE HEAT DEVELOPED IN COMBUSTION.
Experimentto To give an ides of the reliance that may be placed on
vo? oe the the results of the experiments made with the new appa-
perfection of Be 9 satay
tke apparatus, ratus I have just described, I will introduce here the
particulars of an experiment, made purposely to discover
its degree of perfection. |
Having filled two receivers, properly connected with
each other, with water at the temperature of the air of the
room, 55° F., [ burned a wax taper under the mouth of |
the principal’ receiver, so that all the products of the
combustion passed through the worm of the secondary re-
ceiver, after having traversed that’ of the principal. Each.
of the receivers contained 2371 gr. [$6621°5 grs.] of water.
The following are the results of the experiment.
"Fime of the observation; |§ Temperature of the water —
in the principal in the secondary
Hours Min. Sec. receiver. , receiver.
CRS ; tegen ert 55°
49 42 65 55
(56 15 FO. 55
10 2 52 75 555
QO.” . Bo: 80 55%
16-34 | 85 he
23 64 90 55> |
27 56
31 40. 95 564
39 ~=—- 85 100 562
47. 40 105 56$
The secondary From the results of this experiment it appears, that the
receiver not water in the secondary receiver did not begin to be heated
ice olin: perceptibly, till that in the principal receiver had been heated
ments as uns 15° or 20° and, as I had intended from the beginning never
necessary. = tg continue an experiment longer than was necessary to raise
the temperature of the water in the principal receiver 10° or
12° F.; it may be supposed, that, as soon as I found by this
experiment how little heat remained in the products of com-
bustion after they had passed through the worm of the prin-
tipal receiver, 1 relinquished my original design of operating
_with the two receivers jomed together, As it was evident,
- from.the above results, that the second receiver could never
be
7
ON THE HEAT DEVELOPED IN COMBUSTION, 1138
be sensibly affected ; or indicate any thing except the confi-
dence I might place in the indicatiéns of the first, I resolved
to dispense with the trouble of using it.
It may be seen by the description I have given of this ap- The apparatus
paratus, that it may be used very conveniently for ascertains @PPlicuble to
ascertain the
ing the specific heat of gasses; as well as that made appa- specific heat of
rent in the condensation oF vapours ; and generally in all re- &4Sses.
searches, where the quantity of heat communicated by an
elastic fluid in cooling is to be measured. And as it would
be extremely easy, by very simple means, to separate coms
pletely the products of the vapours condensed in the worm
from the gasses, that pass through it without being cone
densed, I cannot avoid hoping, that this apparatus will be-
come useful as an instrument to be employed in chemical
analyses. This however would only be an extension of the
method already employed with so much success by Mr. de
Saussure, and by Messrs. Gay-Lussac and Thenard.
As soon as my apparatus was finished, I was eager to see Experiments
what quantity of heat I should find in the combustion of °°, ie
wax, and in that of olive oil, that I might afterward compare voisier's.
the results of my experiments with those of Mr. Lavoisier’s :
and, as I have the most implicit reliance on every thing pub-
lished by that excellent man, I sincerely wished to find in
this comparison a proof of the accuracy of my method, and
at the same time a confirmation of the estimates of Mr.
Lavoisier.
Sect. I. Experiments made with white wax.
The air of the room being at the temperature of 61° F., Combustion of
2781 grammes of water, of the temperature of 56° F., were White wax.
put into the receiver of the calorimeter, (including the quan-
tity of this liquor that represents the specific-heat of the in-
strument) ; and, a lighted wax taper having been. properly
placed at the entrance of the worm, the calorimeter was
heated for 13 min. 26 sec. ; when, the thermometer announe-
‘ing that the water had acquired the temperature of 66° F.,
the taper was extinguished.
As.I took care to weigh the taper before it was lighted, [
found by weighing it at the end of the experimen, that
1°63gr. of wax had been burned.
Vor. XXXII—June, 1812. I Te
114
Quantity of
water heated
180° by it.
Quantity of
ice melted.
Two other ex-
ON THE HEAT DEVELOPED IN COMBUSTION.
fo express the results of this experiment so as to render
them obvious, and at the same time easy to be compared
with the results of other similar experiments, we will see how
much water of the temperature of melting ice would have
been made to boil, at the mean pressure of the atmosphere,
by the heat made apparent in the combustion of the 1°63gr.
of wax burned.
The distance on Fahrenheit’s scale belive the temper-
ature of melting ice and boiling water being 180°, if the burn
ing of 1°63gr. of wax were requisite to raise the temperature
of the water in the calorimeter 10°, the burning of 29°34er.
would have been necessary, to raise it 180°: and, if 29°34er.
of wax could furnish by combustion sufficient heat to raise
the temperature of 278lgr. 180°, a gramme of this inflam-
mable substance must furnish enough, to heat 94°785er. of
water to the same point.
Consequently one pound of white wax, or wax taper,
should furnish in burning sufficient heat, to raise 94-785lbs.
of water fromthe temperature of melting ice to the boiling
point.
To find how many pounds ef ice this quantity of heat
would melt, we have only to add to the number of pounds
of water at the temperature of melting ice it would cause to
boil the third part of this number, Sad the sum’ en ex-
press the weight of the ice in pounds.
This, then, for white wax 1S+«++e+Q4‘785
+ 31°5905
_* == 126.380lbs. of ice melted
for one potind of the wax burned. |
Before | compare the result of this experiment with that
periments with of an experiment made with the same substance by Mr. La-
Wax.
voisier, L will give an account of 1wo other experiments I
‘ ‘made with wax, as the reader will undoubtedly be struck with
the uniformity of their results. This is so remarkable, that
I should scarcely venture to publish them, had I not proofs,
that all my experiments were actually made and minuted
down, before [ began my calculation of their results; and
‘were ‘Lmot:assured, that any person, who will follow my
method, using the same apparatus, will find the same results
fon repeating-my experimentss § 0 (40.
113
ON THE HEAT DEVELOPED IN COMBUSTION.
As the mode of operating in making these experiments
must now be well known, I may suppress the particulars in
Tabulated res
Sults.
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I will begin with three experiments made with white wax
and to render them more easy to compare, I will give them
what follows without inconyenience, and give only the results
together in a tabular form.
of the experiments.
If
Qe
116 ON THE HEAT DEVELOPED IN COMBUSTION,
Khchiv of thé If we take the mean term between the results of these ex-
three experi- periments, we shall find, that the quantity of heat developed
oo in the combustion of wax is such, that one pound of this sub-
stance is sufficient, to raise 94'G82ibs of water from the tem-
perature of melting ice to the boiling point; and conse-
quently, that it should melt 126°242lbs of ice.
Recults of ‘Lae According tothe experiments of Mr. Lavoisier, the heat
Yoisiers. developed in the combustion of one pound of white wax was
i sufficient to melt 133°166lbs of ice.
The difference ‘Tbe difference between the resalts of our experiments with
sinall : this substance is not very great; and, if those of Mr. Lavoi-
sier were made at a time, when the temperature of the air was
‘only 2 few degrees higher than that of melting ice (which E
have no means of ascertaining), the quantity of nitrogen, that
bat greatin tmust have entered into the calorimeter with the oxigen em-
: Seen of nicyed to support the combustion, would have been so great
6 as to account sufficiently for the difference. But the very
ercat difference between the results of eur experiments made
vith olive oil proves, that one.or other of our processes must
have been defective. ‘
Resul: of the The mean result of several experiments made with olive
Sea a oa oil gave me for the measure of the quantity of heat developed:
in the combustion of one pound of this substance 99°439lbs
of water heated 180° F; or 12¢lbs of ice melted, neglecting
the fraction.
and of Layoie *n the experiments of Mr. Lavoisier more than 148lbs of
SA18. ice were melted by the heat, that appeared to result from the
combustion of one pound of this oil.
Yhelattersus- It is true, that this result was considered by that eminent
ae a philosopher himself as too great to be capable of explanation;
; und he added, with that modesty which rendered him so en-
geging and so respectable: «* We shall probably find our-
selves under the uecessity of making corrections, perhups
pretty considerable ones, in most of the results I have given:
but [ did not think this a sufficient reason, to delay affording
their assistance to those, who might intend to pursue the
. same object.”
Rape oil puri. As it appears very probable, that all the fat oils, when per-
ae bynes fectly pure, are composed of the same principles, I was curi+
pared with ous to see whether rape o3!, purified by sulphuric acid, would
olive vil,
er
223
rol wal
re,
tii RARE not
ON THE HEAT DEVELOPED IN. COMBUSTION.
“J
a)
fom
not afford more heat in its combustion than olive oil, when
burned in its natural state. ‘The result of three experiments -
showed me, that rape oil thus purified does in fact yield
_ more heat than olive oil. The difference is indeed pretty
considerable, and more than I could have suspected. i &
The combust. of 11b of purified rape’oil gave
93°073 of water heated 180°.
olive oil gave 90°439.
Chemists may tell us, whether the quantity of incombus«
tible matter separated from rape oil in purifying it be suf-
ficient, or not, to account for this difference.
On comparing the results of the experiments made with Comparison of ©
white wax and those with the purified oil, it appears, that ie ok
equal weights of these substances afford nearly equal quan-
tities of heat in their combustion: and as in fact this ought
to be the case, from the quantities of combustible matter
they contain, the result tends to strengthen our confidence
in this method of measuring the heat developed in combus-
tion. | |
It was with the combustion of
11b of white wax 94-682lbs of water heated 180°,
1b of purified oil 93°073|bs,
As the object I had chiefly in view in this series .of Combustion of
experiments was to ascertain the quantities of heat de- Scheele
veloped in the combustion of pure hidrogen and carbon, ject of re-
‘in order to render this method useful in some chemical S¢4tche
analyses, I examined particularly those inflammable sub-
stances, that had been analysed with most care,
Several. attempts have been made to ascertain these...
b q : A ; e 5 This has been
interesting questions by direct experiments, in burning attempted
puie hidrogen, or pure hidrogen and carbon; but the results directly.
of these researches have varied so much, that they cannot
be relied on. i EVE OE ‘
According to Crawford, the heat developed in the com- iidceaen Vas
bustion of one pound of hidrogen gas is sufficient to ed higher by
raise the temperature of 410|bs. of water 180° F. But the pees tae
estimation of Mr; Lavoisier is much lower. According to : ave
him this heat would raise only 221-69 Ibs of water the same
number of degrees.
On
118 ON THE HEAT DEVELOPED IN COMBUSTION.
carbon the On the other hand Mr. Lavoisier estimates the quantity
i serge of heat developed in the combustion of charcoal much
Perhips both higher than Dr. Crawford. I have many reasons to
rate this too believe, that they both estimate it too high: and, if this «
high, : -
opinion be confirmed, we must estimate the heat de-
hidrogen too veloped in the combustion of hidrogen a little higher even
low. than Crawford has done, to be able to account for that
manifested in my experiments.
Pracales: From several experiments, which I made five years ago,
cording to the jt appeared to me, that one pound of charcoal, dried as
author, much as possible before it was weighed by heating it red
hot in a crucible, was not capable of raising more than
from 52 to 54 Ibs. of water from the temperature a
melting ice t6 a boiling heat.
Crawford, and Aen aie to Crawford this heat should suffice to boil
Lavoisier. 57°606 lbs, ; and according to Lavoisier, 72°375 Ibs.
We shall see how these estimates agree with the results
of my experiments.
Results, from AS the experiments made with wax yielded very uniform:
wax compared results, and as the analysis ef this substance has been made
with those cal-
ealated fom With great care, I shall examine how the quantities of -
its component hidrogen and carbon in this substance agree with the quan-
Pats tity of heat, that it afforded me in combastina
According to the analysis of Messrs. Gay-Lussac and
Thenard, a pound of this substance contain
Carbomisce s+ erty one anes see 9e0°8170
Free hidrogen sieigieimioiw'y © o.0le 090i LOD
If we adopt the calculations of Dr. Crawford, both for
the heat furnished by the hidrogen, and that furnished by
the carbon, we shall have for the heat-that should be fur-
nished by the combustion
Ibs of water
according to Of 0°1191 lb. cf nidrogen, after the ratio of 410 raised from
Crawford, ibs. of water Saeed from 32° to 212° by 32° to 212°
burning 1 Ib. of hidrogen «++seeee..---: -- 48°831
Of 0°3179 |b of carbon, after the ratio of 57-666.
lbs, of water raised from 32° to 212” by burn-
ing Lb. of carbon «ccccscccacnvecccceyen 47°116
Total of the heat, that ought to be furnished
by the quantity of combustible matter (hi; ———. ~
drogen and carbon) in 1 lb of white wax «+++ 95°947 Ibs
Quantity
ON THE HEAT DEVELOPED IN COMBUSTION.» 119
Quantity of heat furnished. by 1 |b. of white tuthe author’s
wax, during its combustion, according to my experiments,
experiments Bre withered Male eee tals oblsian ees Q4°682 lbs
_If we adopt the calculations of Mr. Lavoisier for the
heat furnished by carbon and hidrogen in their combustion,
we shall have for the heat that ought fo, be furnished by
the burning
Of 0°8179 Ib. of carbon, after the ratio of tou avcliee,
72°375 \bs. of water heated 180° by-1 Ib.-++* 59°195 1b;
Of 071191 |b. of hidrogen, after the ratio of
221°69 lbs. of water heated 180° by:1 lb. +--+ 26°403
Total of the heat that cught to be furnished
by the combustible matter in 1 Ib. of white
wax ips NOES a eoeesessecserrsecee § 85°598 lbs
From the results of these calculations it appears, that Crawfords ~
the estimations of Dr. Crawford agree much better with pea
the experiments than those of Mr. Lavoisier.
Let us see how the results of the experiments made with Comparison of
fat oils agree with the estimations of these gentlemen. fat oils.
areata to the analysis of Messrs. Pape and
Thenard a pound of olive oil contains
Carbon ++eseseseeeeseeeeesO0°7721Ib Results,
Free hidrogen eeeees++-+++000°1208
According to the calculations of Mr. Lavoisier we have, according to
For 0°7721 |b. of carbon - -55°881 lbs. of water heated 180° L@voisier,
0°1208 lb. of hidrogen 26-780
Total 82°661
According to the calculations of Dr. Crawford it is to Crawford,
For 0°7721 |b. of carbon + +44°478 Ibs. of water heated 180°
0°1208 lb. of hidrogen 49°528
Total 94-006 ’
According to the experiments 1 lb. of purified rape oil to experiment,
furnished heat sufficient to raise 93-073 lbs. of water 180°;
and 1 Ib. of olive oi] enough to heat 90°439 Ibs.
From all these comparisons it follows, that the estima~ Crawford’s still
tions of Dr. Crawford agree much better than those of nearest. |
Mr. Lavoisier with the results of my experiments.
~ : ; SeEcr.
SS ee
ut
Difficulties in
constructed,
120 ON THE HEAT DEVELOPED IN COMBUSTION.
Sect. II. Experiments made with spirit of wine, alcohel, and
sulphuric ether.
As the component parts of these inflammable liquids may
Experiments be considered as well ascertained by the results of the excel-
with infam- Jent investigation of Mr. de Saussure*, I undertook to exa-
mable liquids. ne them for the second time, in order to discover what
quantities of heat are developed in their combustion. 1 had
begun this undertaking five years ago; but, after having
made a considerable number of experiments, I desisted from
it, on account of the great difficulties that occurred. As
soon, however, as I had found means of rendering my appa-
ratus more perfect, I formed the project of recommencing it.
Before I enter into the-particulars of my experiments, I
must say a few words respecting the difficulties that occurred
them, to me, even after I had my new apparatus ; and of the means
l-employed to surmount them. I even found myself exposed
to dangers, which it is necessary for me to mention as a
caution to those, who may undertake the same inquiry. |
and even dan- a ; f :
ger. When I made the experiments with highly rectified alco-
hol, and more particularly with ether, 1 found it very difficult
to prevent a portion of these volatile liquids from esca ping in
the state of vapour from the bulk of them remaining in the
lamp. I procured a small Jamp, resembling in shape a small
round snuffbox, with a nozzle rising from the centre of the
circular plate, which closed it atop ; and.on this plate was
fixed asmall pan, to hold cold water, for keeping the nozzle
cool, and preventing the heat from being communicated to
the body of the lamp. But this precaution was not suficient,
when I burned ether, as I found to my cost: for though the
pan was twice the diameter of the lamp, and filled with very
cold water, the water was so heated in a few minutes, that an
explosion took place from vapour of ether kindling in the air
with a flame that rose to the ceiling. Indeed it was near
Evaporation of
the liquid.
Attempt to
prevent it,
Dangerous ex-
plosion, z
setting the house on fire.
Warned by this accident I procured a new lamp, much
smaller than the former, being only an inch in diameter and
Another lamp and three quarters of an inch deep ; and its nozzle, which
was only two lines in diameter, was three quarters of an inch
® See Journal, vol. xxi, pgs. 222, 250, 321.
| high.
%
ON, THE HEAT DEVELOPED IN COMBUSTION. 121
high. To keep this smalk lamp cool while burning, it was
placed in a small pan, and kept constantly immersed in a
mixture of water and pounded ice to within a quafter of an
inch of the extremity of the nozzle. These precautions were This prevents
sufficient to prevent any explosion, though not the evapora- a CuPRESTOns
tion either of the ether or of the alcohol. This fact I learned ee ifsc,
from observing, that, as often as I made two consecutive ex-
periments without filling the lamp afresh, the alcohol con-
‘stantly appeared weaker in the second experiment than in
the first.
The cause of this phenomenon was not difficult to disco-
ver. The most volatile, and consequently the most combus-
tible parts of this liquid, being diffused in vapour in the in-
terior of the lamp, found means of escaping through the
nozzle with the part of the liquid that traversed the match,
leaving the alcohol, that remained in the lamp, perceptibly
weakened.
To remedy this fa Morfection T constructed a third lamp, A third lamp -
which I now submit to the inspection of the class. It is made St tas
of copper, and has the shape of a small cylindrical vase, an
inch and half in diameter, and three inches high, swelling
outa little atop, and closed hermetically by a copper stopple,
which, being ground with emery, fits tight into the neck of
the vase. Through the centre of this stopple passes a small
perpendicular hole, which can be shut completely, or left a
little open, as may be required, by means of ‘a small screw
carrying a copper collar.
A small tube, about an eighth of an inch 1 in diameter and
two inches and half long, Nroreede horizontally from the side
of the vase very near the bottom. At the distance of an inch
and four lines from the vase this tube is bent ata right angle,
rising upwards perpendicularly to form the nozzle of the
lamp.
This little tube is every where very thin, except at its
upper extremity, where it is made thicker, to admit of being
shaped so as to fit tight into a very small cylindrical extin-
guisher, 5lines high by 3°5 in diameter; intended to close
the nozzle hermetically without touching or deranging the
wick, the moment the lamp ceases to burn; and to keep it
constantly closed, when the lamp is not lighted.
Without
122
Caution.
Apology for
minuteness,
Spirit employ-
ed in the ex.
periments,
ON THE BEAT DEVELOPED IN COMBUST{ON.
Without this precaution ; in experiments made with ih ’
so large a quantity of this volatile liquid would evaporate
through the nozzle of the Jamp while weighiag, that it would
be impossible to ascertain the quantity burned.
The nozzle of the lamp is steadied by two pieces of wire,
proceeding from it horizontally, and soldered to the body of
the lamp.
To keep this lamp constantly cold, as well as the liquid it
contains, it is placed ina small pan, and covered completely,
except the extremity of its nozzle and that of its neck, with
a mixture of pounded ice and water.
When the lamp is weighed, it is taken out of the pan, and
well wiped with a dry cloth. before it is put into the scale.
When the lamp is kindled, the operator must not forget,
after it has burned two or three minutes, to open the screw
that closes its stopple a little, though but very (ttle, other-
wise it might go out.
As the little horizontal tube, by whieh the liquid that is
burned passes from the reservoir of the lamp to its nozzle, is
always filled with liquid, so that it can have no communica-
tion with the vapour diffused in the upper part of the reser-
voir, this vapour cannot escape by the nozzle of the lamp, as
it did before I thought of this method of preventing ite
If { have been very minute in my description of this lamp,
it was because I thought it necessary to spare tnose, who
might be disposed to repeat my experiments or make similar
ones, all the difficulties I had to surmount, before lL found the
means of having under command the combustion of bed
volatile inflammable hquids.
As the apparatus [ have employed has now been Sid
it will be easy to follow the steps of my experiments, and to
appreciate their results. I will endeavour to describe them
clearly, but also as briefly as possible.
Having procured a stock of spirit of wine of the shops, and
of alcohol of ‘different'degrees of purity, I ascertained with
the greatest care their specific gravities at the temperature
of 60° F.; taking that of water at the same temperature
as 100000. I chose this temperature, that I might afterward
the more easily ascertain the quantities of water, that each ~
ought to contain, according to the tables constructed from
the experiments of Mr. Lowitz.
ON THE HEAT DEVELOPED IN COMBUSTION. ~
The following table will show the specific gravity of each,
2nd the qnantity of pure alcohol of Lowitz and of water cons
tained in it.
; Baus Composition.
Liquid. ‘S56 | d Pure alcohol 5
4 a oe fowgs Water.
Alechol of 42° : 817624 0°9179 0°0821
Alcohol of the shops| 847140 0°8057 0°1943
Spirit of wine of 33° 853240 0°7788 0°2212
The following are the resuits of the experiments made to
ascertain the quantities of heat, Weyl these liquids fur-
nished in burning.
In three experiments made with the spirit of wine the
quantities of heat manifested were,
in the Ist, 53-260
2d, “8\°727
3d, 52°604
The mean result is 52°604 Ibs*.
Ibs of water raised from the temperature
of melting ice to that of ebullition.
i238
Results
with the
weakest spirits
As a pound of this liquid contained but 0°7788 of the :
alcohol considered by Lowitz as pure; the other part, =
0°2212, being only water, which does not burn; to find
how much water would be raised from the temperature
of.inelting ice to that of ebullition by a pound of the pure
alcohol of Lowitz, we have only to divide the quantity,
that. is the measure of the mean heat developed in the ex-
periments with the spirit of wine by the fraction, that ex-
presses the quantity of alcohol in a pound of this liquid.
4
ee, saat! 6 :
pera 7°545 lbs, the measure of the
heat developed in the combustion of one pound of pure
alcohol of Lowitz, according to the mean result of the ex-
periments made with spirit of wine.
In two exper!ments made with the alcohol of the shops,
the mean result was $4°218 Ibs: and, as this contained
Th us we have
* As the mean of the three preceding numbers would be 59°530,
“there is evidently some mistake; and the last number of the three
being the same with the mean given, it is probable, ene of these is an
érrour of the transcriber. But, as the nuraber 52604 is employed
as the mean jn the calculation in the next paragraph, it may be pre-
suited, that the result of the third experiment should have beea
$2 825. > C. \
: 0°8057lb
with the
next:
124
with the
stromgest,
Mean for pure
alcokol :
compared
with its com-
ponent parts.
The caleula-
tion from:
Crawford,
aud the xe=
ON THE HEAT DEVELOPED IN COMBUSTION.
0°8057 Ib. of pure alcohol, we have for the measure of the
heat developed in the combustion of 1b of pure alcohol
54°218
O°3''57
Of three experiments made with the alcohol at 42° the
mean result was 61°952 lbs. of water heated 180° F. by
the heat developed in the combustion of one pound of this
hguid.
Hence tb of pure alcohol should furnish heat enough in
619052 _
09179
= 67°294 lbs of water heated 180° F.
burning to raise 67°57 Ibs of water 180° F.; for
6F57*.
Taking the mean between the results of these eight ex-
periments with three alcoholic liquors, we shall have for the
meesure of the heat developed in the combustion of one
yound of pure alcohol of. Lowitz 67°47} Ibs of water raised
from the temperature of melting ice to that of ebullition.
It will be extremely interesting, no doubt, to know whe-
ther this quantity of heat agree with the quantities of com-
bustible matter (carbon and hidrogen) in alcohol. We wilt
see.
According to the analysis of Mr. de Saussure, Ib of
the alcohol of Lowitz contains
Carbon ecoeccesteccccese O°4989
Free hidrogen o+e-sceesse O°1018
Water eccesscscsrecceeee 04700
1°
Now according to the calculations of Dr, Crawford we
shall have for the measure. of the heat Sectoid: in the
combustion of
0°4282 tb of carbon «+--+ 24:°067 lbs of enc veut 180° F.
6°1018 |b of hidrogen e- 41°738
Total ---+ 66°405
The experzments gave us 67°477
If the mean result were as given above, which I-have no means of
knowing, as the results of thesexperiments are omitted, this should be
67-493. C.
+ If the correction in the preceding note were to be made, this
should be 67'444. €. .
t
ON DRYING MURIATIC GAS. 125
- Itis rare in a research of such delicacy to find the re- sult of the ex.
sults of experiment agree so perfectly with those of calcu Perimelt very
: nearly agree.
lation.
-In the conclusion of this paper I shall have the honour Farther
‘ef giving ihe class an account of the results of a consider- ©*Pcrments
able number of experiments, which I have just made to as-
certain the quantities of heat developed in the combustion
of sulphuric ether, naphtha, suet, and several kinds of With other
: 5 : substances
wood ; as well as that manifested in the condensation of the
‘ vapours of water, of alcohol, and of ether. .
These experiments are all finished, and I have made promised.
considerable progress in the paper, in which I purpose to
give an account of them here. 1 flatter myself, that the
class will do me the honour to listen to it with its usual
indulgence, at an early meeting*. |
FO a ca
Vs
Remurks on the Experiment of Dr. Bostock and D;.
Trait. Ina Letter from a Correspondent.
To W. NICHOLSON, Esq.
SIR,
"Tue experiments of Drs. Bostock and Traill cannot, I Experiment of
think, be considered as decisive in proving, that water is ie ee
produced in the combination of dry mumatic and ammo- notdecisive,
niacal gas. The mode adopted in drying the ammoniacal
gas by these gentlemen is not effective. A lump of quick- a lumpof lime
lime iatroduced into a jar of this gas would not absorb ie
the whole of the combined moisture. Lime is not sé greedy muriatic gas.
of moisture as some other substances, and in a mass would
be disposed to take up but little: had it been introduced Hot lime ip
immediately from the fire in the state of powder, it might Powder Detter;
have been more effectual. To deprive gas of the moisture
it contains, the best method has been found to be to pass
4 This the Count has promised to transmit for insertion in the
Journal, as soon as he can find an opportunity,
iz
126 CHEAP AND DURABLE STUCCO.
but hot muri- it repeatedly through muriate of lime in coarse powder
ateoflimebest- yreyiously heated; or to agitate it for some time in contact
with this salt in a dry vessel.
If Drs. Bostock and Traill will take the trouble of re-
peating their experiment with this precaution, they will,
I believe, find the result to be as A. B. C. has stated it..
I am, Sir,
Your most humble servant,
BristTor, D> E.-E.
1ith of May, 1812.
VI.
Method of preparing a cheap and durable Stucco, or
Plaster, for outside or inside Walls: by H. W. Ways;
Esq. of Bridport Harbour*.
SIR,
Stucco for In consequence of your expressing an “opinion, that 3
Leaegngt : general knowledge of my method of preparing a stucco,
mathe or plaster, for outside walls of houses much exposed to sea’
breezes or bad weather, would be of service to the public,
T have enclosed an account of the process; and I will with.
pleasure furnish any farther particulars of this business for
the Society of Arts, or permit any gentleman to examine it,
who may wish for more information on the subject. You
know the situation of my house, which is greatly exposed to
the spray of the sea and bad weather; and I can truly add,
that by means of this stucco it is perfectly free from damp,
and the plaster remains compact and durable.
.. | remain, Sir,
Your obedient humble servant.
Brrpporr Hargour, EC RW AY |
Oct. 12, 1819.
* Trans. of the Soc. of Arts, vol. KXIX, p: 72. “ ‘The silver medal
was voted to Mr. Way; «and specimens of his stucco, and of the sand
from which it was made, are preserved in the Society’s-repository.
To
f
!
CHEAP AND DURABLE sTwucco.
To make a strong Stucco, or Mortar.
Three parts Bridport Harbour sand to one of lime, both
finely sifted and mixed with lime-water; if used as stucco,
the first coat to be laid on half the thickness of a crowns
piece; let it remain two days, then with a painter’s brush
wash it over with strong lime water, and lay on the second
coat of the same thickness.
1805, March 25.—Measured a coal half-bushel of Bea-
mister lime*, and put it into a hogshead of water, to make
the lime-water.— Measured two coal half-bushels more of
the lime, slaked and sifted it, it then measured three half-
- bushels, to which were added nine. coal half-bushels of
Bridport Harbour sand well sifted; I saw it well mixed up
with lime-water, and thoroughly worked together; the next
day saw it turned, and again mixed up, that it might be
well incorporated together.
-97th.—This morning had a fine coat of it laid on the
west end of my large storehouse at Bridport harbour.
, 127
Methed of
making it.
20th.—Had it ane with lime-water, and a second.
coat laid on.
Cost. ]
$s 4d,
One sack and a quarter of lime, at 2s. 6d. = Bae
‘Two men and one boy two days each, fetching and
mixing up materials, and laying on; men Qs. 3d.
per day, boy 10d. per day, and one pint of ale
each per day, 12d. - - - 11 102
‘s : 15 0
ee
N. B.—I suppose the expense swathieh over than under-rated.
May 11—This day Thomas Everett measured and exa-
mined the work, found it hard and sound, 247 square yards,
a little done to the house, suppose the whole to be twenty-
five yards square.
T wenty-five square yards at 73d, per square yard, would
be 15s. 14d.
* This appears, from a subsequent part of the paper, to be chalk
lime. C. “as
ie June
Expense,
128
Its durability.
Farther ac-
count of the
stucco,
Charge for it.
CHEAP AND DURABLE STUCCO.
June 13, 1806.—Examined the work, which was perfect-
Jy sound and free from cracks, nothing having ever peeled
off from it. The situation exposed to the weather in the
greatest degree.
N. B. —The coal half-bushel above mentioned holds ex-
acily thirteen gallons wine-measare.
H. B. WAY.
Str,
I was favoured with yours of the 18th instant, and I now
enclose the mason’s certificate of the quantity of stucco done
with the composition I gave him the particulars of ; in ad-
dition to which it may be necessary to mention, that the coal
half-bushel, with which the ingredients of the composition
were measured, (according to the account formerly given),
contains exactly thirteen gallons of water, wine measure,
and would hold exactly 1 cwt. 1 qr. 7 lb. net of the sand
used. The weight of the lime I do not know; and my
being able to ascertain exactly the weight of the sand arose
from my waggon being employed to carry what was used at
Yeovil, and East Coker, from hence; and for what I sent
to Yeovil I was paid 1s. 9d. per cwt. From the sand here
succeeding so well; Thomas Everett would not be prevailed
on to engage to do any of that sort of work with hill or
river sand, to be got on this shore. "The work he did for
me was all by the day; what he did at Yeovil and East
Coker he agreed for at eight pence per yard, of mine feet
superficial measure for labour only for the two coats, at
four pence per square yard for one coat, all the materials
being brought to the spot at his employer’s expense, and
who also found scaffolding and scaffold ropes. This, J
think, is considerably hiseer than by my calculation of the
expense of what I had first done he ought to have.charged ;
but its being done at a distance of twenty miles from where
he lives, and in the most busy time of the year for masons
work, 1 suppose must account for it in the first instance ;
and having once made that price, he would not now
work under: but, I believe, for a considerable building, ©
and with sufficient notice, and being allowed 6d. per mile
in lieu of wages and travelling expenses for himself
and
CHEAP AND DURABLE STUCCO.
and an assistant, out and home, he would go to any part
of the kiagdom, on being paid Sd. per yard for the work:
It has been the general received opinion here, that plaster Séa sand not
made with sea sand, unless well washed in fresh water,
would always be damp; but, on the contrary, I find from
what has been done in my dining-parlour and passage, it
has been always quite dry, although the whole of the sand
with wiich it has been done hes been thrown up by the
sea, and must have been always at spring’ tides covered
with sea water: indeed it sometimes happens, that, for
months together, there is none to be collected on our shores
at this place, that Everett thinks fine enough for the
purpose; and as I am now and then applied to for getting
it, | have lately, when my horses were at leisure, got a small
quantity collected and hauled in for my own use, or, in
case of its being wanted, I charge 2d. per cwt. for it; where
it is deposited. As I design at some future time to make
some alteration in the passage done with the stucco in April
1806, I had four pieces taken off, which I tied up sepa-
rately, each in a piece of brown paper, and had them
packed in a box, with a layer of sand between each piece,
and at the bottom and top of the box, and directed it for
you, and sent it with some goods I shipped on Saturday
last to my friend Netlam Giles, Esq. No. 2, New Inn,
St. Clement’s. I have requested of him, that he will have
the goodnes on its arrival to forward it to you. The vessel
it goes by is the sloop Mary Ann, John Anning, -master,
bound to Dounes Wharf, Hermitage, Wapping. It is
possible, that the pieces of stucco sent may imbibe some of
the. saline particles of the sand it was packed upin; but
this did not occur to me at the time or they should have
been packed in saw-dust; as they were perfectly dry prrdness of
when packed, so much so as, when struck upon with the the stucco.
knuckle, to give a sound similar to what an earthen vessel
would doif dry end not cracked. Should there be any
farther information requisite, on your letting me know, it
shall immediately be sent you. It had almost escaped me stone jime ape
to say, that the small quantity of six yards, done last poetoanee
October with stone lime for trial, was ‘done from your
Vor. XXXIL—June 1812. K intimating
I
—————
130
Account of
stucco work -
done.
CHEAP AND DURABLE STUCCO.
intimating to me, when I had the pleasure of seeing you it
Dorsetshire, that store lime was likely to answer; but it
would I think look better if white washed; the difference
in point of expense is materially in favour of the stone lime.
The cost of my waggon-load of it at the kiln, about a mile
hence, would be only 10s, whereas abouc the same quan-
tity of chalk lime at the kiln, full eight miles from hence, ~
would cost 1/, 4s., and I cannot get any chalk-lime nearer.
I have only now to add, that I am, very respectfully,
Sir,
Your obedient fale servant,
Bripeorr Harsour, H. B. WAY.
April 22d 1811. .
Certificate.
I hereby certify, that Mr. H. B. Way, merchant, of Brid-
port Harbour, in the county of Dorset, in the month of
March 1805, gave me the necessary directions for making a
strong cheap stucco or plaster, which was composed of. one
part chalk lime, and three-equal parts of fine sand, collected
on the seashore, near Bridport Harbour, the whole of which
was mixed up to a proper consistence with a strong lime
water; and I] have since that time done the annexed work
with the said composition.
For Mr. H. B. Way, at Bridport Harbour.
Yds. Yds.
flat
_ Msr.
1805. March.—On the outside of a warehouse
wall, part rough stone and part brick «+eesseees 25
1806. April.— On the inside walls of ‘a passage
in his dwelling-house, on rough stone. «esseeeees 10.
Oct. & Nov.—On the asi rough stone walls of - ©
two cellars. Uh AIRS SD RR Sf, lo Saat aa 224.
One coat on the ceilings of the said cellars «+++ 228
N. B. The first coat on the ceilings was common
hair mortar 0
1807. April & May.—The whole of the outside
of hisdwelling-house, rough stone walls «++eeees 335
s EUEA® AND DURABLE STUCCO.
August.—On one side wall of the diniug-room in Yds. Yde.
brick; this stucco was rubbed down quite smooth, sin
and has since been painted with oil colours.-.-.. 4g
1810. Oct. 10.—On a rough stone wall of a ware-
house directly fronting the sea, and not two hun-
dred yards from it, with common stone lime, such
as is ased for manure in this quarter, by way of
TPIBE. ca esc crec veces ccvccecccceecccessucnern 6
~—— 323
1811. April.—At Mr. H. B. Way’s request, I
have this day carefully examined the whole of the
above work, and I find it sound and good, and by
his directions, four pieces of the stucco were taken
off from the passage wall, (which was laid on April
1806), and paeked in the same sort of sand as is
used in the composition, and sent by him directed
for the Secretary of the Society of Arts, Manufac-
~ tures, and Commerce, London.-+++ vs+eseseeeee
For Peter Daniel, Esq. of Yeovil, Somersetshire.
, 1808. May & June.—On the outside brick-walls
of his dwelling-house there. ++++seesseeseeeeee 430
1810. May & June.—On the outside brick-walls
‘of other eine fentes theresecercccccccsserrs 480
—— 910
For W. Hellyer, Esq. of East Coker, near Yeovil.
1809. June.—On the outside brick and rough
stone walls of his dwelling-house, at that place. «« 1040
For the Rev. Joseph Fawcett, of Yeovil.
1810. June.—On the outside rough stone walls
of his dwelling-house there -+-see-ssccsseccee Q1¢-
N. B. Mr. Faweett’s house being built the year
“before, with a view to being stuccoed, the walls =
were left rough. Yds. 2983
I hereby certify, that the whole of the foregoimg two thou_
~ sand nine hundred and eighty-three square yards of stucco,
were done with the before-mentioned composition, by me
and my men under my directions ; and I-verily believe it is
K @ | the
131
Cordage and
cloth from
nettles.
Introduction
of a new sub-
stance of pro-
CLOTH AND CORDAGE FROM NETTLES.
the cheapest stucco known, and that it will prove very dura-
ble, both without doors and witbin, and ‘that it has given
etitire satisfaction to the gentlemen who have tried it; and I
am now engaged, if I can, the ensuing summer, to stucco the.
outside of one house at Bridport, and another at Yeovil, also
the inside of a cottage for labourers that I have just built for
Mr. H. B. Way, at Bridport harbour.
‘
THOMAS EVERETT.
Stone Mason, Bricklayer, and Plasterer.
Shipton George, near Bridport,
Dorset, April 22, 1811. ;
Witness, James BuDDEN.
VEE
’
Manufacture of Cloth and. Cordage from Nettles, by Mr.
EpwWarp 5 sees
Iw page 109 of the 28th volume of the Sociéty’s transac-
tionst will be seen a communication from Mr. E. Smith,
of Brentwood, on manufacturing a variety of articles from
the fibres of the common nettle, for which he has received
their silver medal. He has since, with) great attention and
laudable industry, extended his experiments on this subject,
and, during the last session, produced to the society speci-
mens of cloth and cordage made from the nettle, which ap-
pear to possess great str cnet and durability: The society
have, Te pee session, voted ,to him their silver Isis
medal. The following communication was received from
him, and specimens of the cordage and cloth, made by him
from nettles, are preserved in the Society’s repository.
Esrcemep Frienp, . '
I received thy kind favour of the 23d instant, by the con-
tents of which Iam much obliged ; and being impressed by
ductive labour, the consideration of the vast importance the introduction of
ri,
* Trans. of Soc. of Arts, vol. K XIX, p, 81.
+ See Journal, vo XXIK, p. 161.
anew
\ ‘
CLOTH .AND CORDAGE FROM NETTLES... 133
a ag substance of productive labour would be of to the com-
munity of this manufacturing country, particularly as atford-
ing a new source of industry to the increased numerous poor
of both sexes, in truth, so operated on my mind, as to create
.a great unwillingness to suffer any exertions consonant with
my limited powers, from total disadvantages, to he dormant.
I am, therefore, very desirous by unremitted endeavours to
be instrumental in disseminating the knowledge of, and the
means of bringing into use, so valuable a spontaneous pro-
duction as the common nettle substance, under the sanction
and through the medium of the enlightened Society of Arts
Xc. These considerations, aided by the hope of obtaining
their farther approbation, have stimulated me to persevere
in my attempts to contribute all in my power towards the ad-
vancement of so desirable and beneficial an object; in the
expectation, that when all the different fabrics, which that Fabrics from
substance is capable of being converted into, are produced, the nettle.
‘it may have a greater tendeacy towards encouraging others
to embark in a manufactory thereof, than volumes written on
the subject. With these sentiments [ am induced to trouble
thee farther, in requesting thou will be so kind to favour me
by laying before the Society the different specimens of manu-
factory from the nettle substance, which J have at present in
readiness, and which will be sent to thee by the Brentwood
coach, which inns at the Blue Boar, Aldgate, and I expect
will be delivered soon after the receipt of this. The cordage Cordage. '
Nos. 1 & 2 is affirmed by the cord-spinner to be of equal
strength to that made from hemp. The cloth No, 1 is rough
’ from the loom; No. 2, the same fabric half bleached; and Cloth;
No. 3, which I ordered to be huckaback, also is only half
‘bleached for want of sufficient time for the process. The This injured
quality of the cloth hath suffered throughout, by the negli- Te
gence or willfuiuess of the manufacturer, end is principally ;
owing to the raw material having been only passed through
such heckles asare used for the coarse part of the hemp ma-+
- nufactory;—other necessary operations were omitted, in con-
sequence of my instructions not being attended to by the
person into whose care it was entrusted, He resides in the
country, at a great distance, and his capability and integrity
proved greatly inferior to the opinions [ had entest=)
{
134 DUTCH. MODE OF CURING HERRINGS.
him; and it now appears his practice is confined to the coars-
er part of the hemp manufactory. Jt was my intention to
have produced with the above a pair of stockings, manufac-
tured on the principle of cotton, and also a specimen of fine
cloth on the same principle, with a view to show the great
extent of contrast; but, on application to a cotton spinner,
I found the quantity of material [ had in a state of prepar-
ation suitable was not sufficient for the operations of card-
ing; in consequence I am obliged to postpone my designs
till I am enabled to prepare a sufficiency. Greatly desirous
of contributing to the accomplishment of the object in view,
and sensibly how much the sanction and approbation of the
Society would tend to promote it, I hope they will consider
my continued exertions worthy their farther attention. An-
ticipating their approbation, [ remain,
Very respectfully,
Thy assured Friend, -
EDWARD SMITH. |
Brentwood, the a6th of 3d Month, 1811.
VIII.
\
Account of Herrings cured in the Dutch mode on board British .
Vessels; by Francis Fortune, Esq.*
a In the deep sea (which is the principal fishery for her-
Fishing for ;
herrings rings) the nets are cast from the busses by sunset, and they
drive by them alone expecting the shoals, the approach of
which is generally indicated by small quantities of,fish ; and
\ their arrival by immense flights of sea fowl. The best fishing »
js with the wind off shore, for, when it blows in a contrary
direction, the shoals are broken and dispersed, and the fishery
‘ is seldom successful while it continues in that point.
Management Immediately after the nets are hauled in, (which is often
of them when performed with considerable difficulty, by means of a wind- ~
caught.
* Abstracted from the Traus. of the Soc. of Arts, vol. xxix, p. 157.
The gold medal, being the premium offered, class 165, for curing British
y, white herrings in the Dutch method, was adjudged to the author. - 3
¢ lass.
a
‘PUTCH MODE OF CURING HERRINGS. 135.
lass when they are full) the crew begin to gyp the fish, that —
is, to cut out the gill, which is followed by the float or swim,
and divide the large jugular or spiral vein with a kuife at
the same time, ‘endeavouring to waste as little of the blood as
possible ;—at this work the men are so expert, that some
will gyp fifty ina minute.
Immediately after they are gypped, they are put into bar- Salting,
-rels, commencing with a layer of salt at the bottom, then a
‘tier of fish, each side by side, back downwards, the tail of one
touching the head of the other, next a layer of salt, and so
alternately until the barrel is filled :—they are thus left, and
the blood which issues {rem the fish, by dissolving the salt,
forms a pickle infinitely superior to any other that can be
made. The herrings thus drained of their blood occupy
less space, and the whole consequently sinks about one third
down the barrel, but this sinking is at an end in about three
or four days. | yaaea!
When these operations are being performed, the sea is often Peeeuneas
runping mountains high; and it is not therefore to be sup- against loss of
pickle from
posed, that the barrels are so well coopered as not soinetimes Jeaking,
to allow the pickle to leak out; and in order to preserve the
fish from being speiled,« which would otherwise happen in
such cases, some of the gills avd entrails are always put by
in barrels with salt, in the same manner as the herrings,
and yield a pickle of the same quality; with this pickle ,
those barrels which have leaked are replenished, and the fish
sustains no injury. Every operation is performed in the Fishkept in
shade, into which the fish are immediately conveyed on their "te Shade,
being lvauled on board. Each day’s fishing is kept separate cach day's see
with ‘the greatest care. The salt used is mixed, and of three parate.
. different sorts, viz. English, St. Ubes, and Alicant, and Salt used.
each barrel marked with the day of the month on it on
which it was filled.
The advantages of gypping the herrings are, that the Advantages of
blood, which issues in consequence of tie, operation from &YPping-
the fish, yields a natural pickle, and improves the flavour ;
whereas, if left in the fish, it becomes coagulated at the
back-bone, and forms the first cause of decay. The mixture
of blood and salt operated upon by the extreme heat of the rie
weather during the summer ai al produces a fermenta-
tion
136
Difference in
their value,
DUTCH MODE OF CURING HERRINGS.
tion which nearly parboils the herrings, and removes the
coarse and raw flavour so often complained of. The gyp- |
ping is likewise often performed on shore, observing the same
precautions; the only difference 1s, that they are seldom in
that case of sogood a cglour. Gypped herrings are never of
so fine a quality as when kept in their own original pickle;
their value consists in their softness and flavour; it is this
mode of curing herrings that used to be the pride of the
Dutch, and this is the kind which supplied their home cons
sumption, and were so much esteemed by all classes of peo-
ple in Holland. |
In order, as far as it is possible, to give a proof of the
correctness of the above assertion, I shall state a fact for the
information of the Seciety. During the last year I em-
ployed a number of Dutch fishermnen, prisoners, and others,
with Englishmen, in gypping and curing herrings; and at
one time my agent at Yarmouth was offered £4 per barrel,
for all the herrings he had cured there, by a Dutch captain,
in order to their being taken to Holland, while ungypped
herrings. were worth only ‘36s. per barrel. The herrings
now under the consideration of your Society are part of the
quantity for which this offer was made.
Should the Society, after due consideration, think proper
to adjudge me their gold medal, it will afford me much sa-
tisfaction, and convince me, that my exertions have, in,
some degree, been beneficial to the community.
Tam, Sir,
Your most obedient servant,
FRANCIS FORTUNE.
No. 9, Lower Thames Street,’
Feb, the 26th, 1811.
sp. Bi
‘ | “ee.
STRUCTURE OF THE WATER LILY. 137
1X. |
| Method of Curing Herrings: by Mr. Sunavin®.
vi HEN the herrings are taken and alive, break their
gills with your finger and thumb conipletely from the back- ee
“bone, which will in course cause the fish to bleed: then throw hevrugs,
them into the liquor prepared as follows: viz. to three
quarts of salt water, put five pounds of common salt, and
two pounds of bay sult, and when dissolved, let the whole
be boiled. One peck of common sa!t, and half a peck of
bay salt, put between the different layers of herrings, will
be sufficient for one barrel. Let the herrings remein in
this liquor for three weeks, they must then be taken cut and
“gypped, and a fresh liquor made with one gallon of salt
water, the gypping of the fish, one peck of common salt,
and a quarter of a peck of bay salt, and when dissolved,
some of thespare fish mustbe put in to it to make the liquor
rich, and the whole be boiled for an hour, ut so slow as
that it may not burn; then let it cool and «train it off. The
fish must be repacked in clean barre .. the last mentioned
liquor put to them, and be careful that the fish be covered
and kept close. |
P. SLEAVIN.
No. 7, Little Brook Street, ee Road,
April the Oth, 1811.
a ny,
/
x. . /
Letter on the Structure of the Water Lin answer to a
Correspondent. By Mrs. Acnes [BBETson.-
‘SIR, Sere ‘
Tue gentleman, who did me the honour to notice my ¢ :
: : : tructure of
letter on water plants, in your last number, p. 22, is per- the water lily,
* Abstracted from the Traus. of the Soc. of Arts, vol. XKIX, p.
162. Mr. Sleavin cured only erght barrels, of thirty-two gallons
each, of herrings caught off the Isle of Man. Nothing is said of
their quality, except Mr. Sleavin’s assertion, that he has no doubt
they are equal to the Lutch, or better. ‘The silver medal of the
Society was ».ted to him.
fectly
138 IRRITABILITY OF VEGETABLES.
fectly right: the mistake of my amenuansis, who inserted ~
‘washed off” instead of» ‘rubbed off,” has caused an
apparent confusion in the description. No water can enter
the air vessels, except when the adjoining parts are much
- torn.
Movion of the ‘The motion of the hairin the air cylinder is caused by
baits. a pin, whith, entering the widest end of the hair, runs
through the side of the air vessel into the next water vessel,
The water rising contracts the spiral, pushes the pm,
and the hair, which remained before parallel to the side
of the vessel, now starts up horizontally; and, as the whole
ewwcle of hairs rises, each in the same manner and at the
same time, meeting with their. points, if any insect has
placed itself in the way, it will be crushed or run through
(as I have often seen it) by the sudden motion of the hairs.
The plast the No insect certainly can get into the air cylinders, but by
na Gagan: the dilapidations of some of the adjoining vessels; but this.
must often happen, as these plants are the food of many of
‘and perhaps of the diminutive slug kind; and J doubt whether the ciearia
a lemnz (which is the only species I have found on the hairs)
do nat also feed on it.
I am, Sir, .
Your obliged servant,
' AGNES IBBETSON.
XE.
On the Irritability of the Sowthistle, and other Plants, with
farther observations on the Erritability of Vegetables:
by D. J. Carnapori*,
PR ae |
Initability me HE lettuce is not the only plant that possesses a
plants. striking degree of irritability during the period of flowering,
the prickly sowthistle fsonchus asper) has this faculty
Shown in the at the same season. Jn fact it transmits and gives outa
gana res milky fluid, hke the lettuce, when it ts irritated, oF pune-
* Abridged from the Journ. de Phys. vol. LXVII, p. 405.
+ Experiments on the Irritability of the Lettuce, Mem. of the
Italian Society of Sciences, vol. Xil. aa
tured
IRRITABILITY OF VEGETABLES. _ 139
tured, at that time; though not so quickly as the lettuce,
or with the same facility and force. It requires a stronger
irritation, or a more powerful and complex stimulus, to
excite the flow of the milky liquid in’ this plant; and does
not obey the slightest touch like the lettuce, which, as
soon as it is touched, however gently, throws out a portion
ofits proper or milky juice.
_ This exudation is never performed with the same fied and more stri-~
-as in the lettuce, from which it is sometimes spirted out kingly, a, Ele
into the air to some distance; but simply flows out,
however powerful the irritation, Neither is it obtainable
from the leaves that embrace the stalk, as in the lettuce,
but from the calices alone, and chiefly from the circum-
ferences of the little leaves that compose these.
The sowthistle, like the lettuce, does not lose this faculty Not destroyed
when immersed in water; and the plant, if pulled out of Ra an
the ground, or a single branch of it, will retain it some time.
I have not had time to extend‘my observations to the Found in the _
“other species of the lettuce and sowthistle, to find whether, P¢™#"P-
- either while flowering or at any other time, they gave
signs of a sensible degree of irritability in any part by a
similar exudation, though this is probable, IT have found
it in the bark of the fruit when green, or in the pericarps
of these plants. .
I could not obtain the customary exudation from the Other parts
leaves, the stalks, the parts that support the organs of void of it.
fructification, or any other part, in whatever way I irritated
them, except from the green capsules containing the
seeds: and the irritation was always produced by a needle, row excited.
or rubbing; never by any method capable of tearing or
injuring the surface of the capsules*.
* There are motions in plants not owing to irritability, but the Pye mullein
simple effects of the elasticity of certain parts, as in the great mullein made to shed
(verbascum sinuatum). lf a shock, or commotion, be given to the its flowers.-
- stalk of this plant, the flowers will fall off; not immediately, nor all
‘at once, but a little while after, and successively. This is owing to
the elasticity of the calices, which are kept in a state of forced dis-
tension to hold the monopetalous flower, which is not attached to
them; and as the shock causes them to contract, by calling inte
action their natural elasticity, this co aaa gradually expels the
flower. :
hile ’ 1 find
146
F¥ffect of saline
impregnations
on the irrita-
bility:
ef acids:
and of oxim u-
matic
and other
gasses.
' Oxigen does
mot act asa
stimulus to
vegetables.
e
IRRITABILITY OF VEGETABLES.
I put some small lettuce plants, while.in flower, with
their roots, to vegetate in water, to which was added in
some of ‘the vessels a small portion of muriate of soda, in
others of nitrate of potash, and kept them thus in the open
air some days, If any portion of these salts were absorbed
from the water, they did not appear to increase the irrita-
bility of the plants, for the exudation diminished 10 quantity.
I mixed acids also in water, in such proportion as to be
barely sensible to the taste, and particularly nitric and
oximuriatic acid in various proportions, and then placed
several small plants of lettuce in full flower in the vessels,
with similar effect. Ifa larger quantity of acid were added
to the water, it appeared to injure the plants, and their
irritability likewise decreased more quickly.
I apphed this kind of stimulus to the surface of plants,
to see if it would act externally. On immersing a branch
of lettuce in a jar filled with oximuriatic acid gas, and
taking it out in a few seconds, it exhibited the usual
idan when stimulated: but when it was kept longer
in the gas, it was evidently injured, and its irritability
greatly decreased. Nitrous and sulphureous vapours were
still more injurious. ;
It appears then that these stimuli, which are so sala
vaunted as inceasing the irritability of animals, are not’
appropriate to the irritability of vegetables*.
* Those facts, that are admitted as proofs of the stimulant action
of certain substances or principles in the vegetable economy, do not
appear to me decisive.
It is generally supposed, that oxigen is a powerful stimulus to
vegetables, beeause it has been observed to accelerate the germi-
nation of seeds; this effect being ascribed. to its stimulating their
vascular system, and. rendering their circulation more active. But
as it appears from the observations of Mr. de Saussure the younger,
that the oxigen entering into germination is neither absorbed nor
assimilated in this process, but employed in forming carbonic acid,
-I conceive it does not act as a stimulus,. but merely serves tu carry
off from the germinating seed the carbon; an elemeut which, as is
shown in some of my observations respecting the action of light on
germinating seeds, inserted in the Opuscoli scelti of Milan, seems
injurious to the developement of the embryo; and of which nature
seems ut that time disposed to free herself, as noxious or superfluous,
This appears to be’the reason why oxigen accelerates g ermination.
{ immersed
2
F.], 1 put a plant of lettuce in full flower; taking it from a
which fetid exhalations rose, and kept them i: it twenty-
_ heat, and diminished by cold. Vegetables in fact slacken
in the shade: and kept it there some hours, with its root only
IRRITABILITY OF VEGETABLES. 14]
I immersed lettuce plants in some stagnant water, from Lettuce im-
mersed in stage
nant water s
four hours. Having taken them out, a:d repeatedly ex-
amined the state of their irritability by stimel, 1 found
they had lost it entirely, The vessels containing the
proper juice of the plants were so deprived of irritability,
that they did not emit their flu:d, even though wounds
were made in the plants for the purpose. It seems there-
fore, that putrid exhalations, or putrid matter combined
with water, deprive these plants, as well as animals, of
their irritablity.
Having taken a lettuce plant, when Reanmut’s ther- ©*Posed toa
mometer was at 25° in the shade [88°25° F.], I immersed ?
it in water at 50° [144°5° F.]; a degree of heat Thad found
not to injure the organic texture of vegetables. In this
hot fluid there was a spontaneons exudation from the
plant; and at the slightest touch it gave out its juice more
freely than in air at the same temperature. I then im-and low tem
mersed it for a moment in water at 4° [41° F.J; and, after nie
waiting for a few seconds, that it might have become
: sensible of the effect, I irritated it afresh; when I found it
required a much stronger irritation.
The irritability of vegetables appears to be increased by Irritability of
vegetabies in=
creased by heat
in the exercise of their functions, if they do not suspend it and diminish-
entirely, during the cold weather; and the spring, which © >y cel¢.
brings with it warmth, restores to the vegetable economy its
accustomed energy. By thisit appears their sleeping irrita-
bility is awakened, and their life revived; so that the state,
in which vegetables pass the winter, may be compared with
the torpor, or lethargy, that many animals undergo during
that season. Cold benumbs animais, because as is well
known, it deadens their irritability; and this it does by its
direct action on-the muscular fibre, which is the seat of
ivritability, independent of sensation and circulation, as
_ Spallanzani has shown.
Into a deep well, where the thermometer ¥ was at 12° [59° A moderate
temperature
: does not afiect
Kitchen garden, where the thermometer stood at 26° [90°5° F-.] it.
72
142
Light has no
effect on the
irritability,
1
Sa
IRRITABILITY OF VEGETABLES.
in the water. Having taken it out, I found by repeated
trials, that the exudation followed irritation, as it appeared
to me, nearly as before; so that I could not find any percep-
tible difference in its.irritability after it had been exposed to
this caol temperature.
Thus the irritability of vegetables does not appear to suffer
by a sudden transition fepcin a high to a moderate tempera-
ture, or to be diminished in proportion to it: though the
preceding experiment shows, that, when their irritability has
been heightened by a very hot atmosphere, and they are
placed for an instant in a cold one, it is perceptibly dimi-.
uished. ,
Light is well known to act as ¢ stimulus-on plants: but I
did not find greater marks of irritability in the lettuce or sow-
thistle when surrounded by sunshine, than when in the shade.
I tried the effects of the solar light concentrated by-a lens
on these two plants; but it did not produce any irritation,
Y.ife and irrita-
' bility extin-
guisted toge-
ther.
Irritability
strongest in
the morning.
This irritabi-
lity probably
common to al]
plants,
so as to cause the exudation of the usual fluid, though it
scorched them, when sufficiently intense.
I pulled up some whole plants of lettuce and sowthistle,
and also stripped off some branches, and left them to wither
on a table in my room in summer. About ten hours after 1 7
irritated them where the effect wonld be most visible, and
obtained some slight marks of irritation. 1 then placed the
stalks of one or two of these plants in water ; and after some
time I found they recovered from their appsrent death, and
began to vegetate afresh. A little time after I attempted to
irritate some others, that were still more withered; but they
exhibited no exudation. I then put them in water like the
former, but they never recovered. Thus in plants life and
irritability appear to become extinct together.
I tried to irritate plants of lettuce and sowthistle, growing
in the same ground, at various hours of the day and night ;
and [ found their exudation most energetic 1D the morning, »
when the sun had risen, and their flowers were fully ex-
panded.
The property, that lettuce, sowthistle, and spurge ips.
of giving outa milky fluid, or their peculiar jnice, when any
of their more succulent parts are irritated, appears to me, to
render the existence of irritability in plants unquestionable.
It
“-
os esbanag OF A VEGETABLE EXCRESCENCE.
tei is tie, that we perceive this irritability only at a certain
age, and notin ell plants that have a peculiar juice. Bet are
“we to presume, that, if this property donot manifest itself at
every age, and in every plant, but only when it is extremely
exalted, and in those plants that are perhaps mest endued
with it, other plants are destitute of it?, On the contrary we
may reasonably infer, that those vessels, which exhibit a great
deal of irritability at a certain period, and in certain plants,
possess at other times, and in other plants, a sufficient quan-
143
tity for the circulation of the fluids, though no excess of at’
‘to be rendered sensible.
But if it be reasonable to suppose, that the vessels con-
taining the peculiar juice are endued with this irritability,
and that it is by this property the juice is compelled to cir-
culate in them; who will venture to assert, that the vessels
_ of other systems are destitute of it, and that the circulation
ef their respective fluids arises from a different cause, or is
occasioned by some other power ?
—
xii.
‘Chemical Examination of some Vegetable Sudstances; by
Mr. V avquetin*.
Sect, 1. Chemical Examination of a vegetable excrescence
from Madagascar, sent to the Isle of France by Mr. Cha-
peller, and thence to Europe by Mr. Jannet. q
"ns substance is as white as a cake of starch; it is
_ perforated in all directions: by an immense quantity o
and te ali their
vessels.
f Vegetabie ex-
crescence from
holes formed by little insects; it has neither smell nor taste ; Madagascar
_ it diffuses in burning the smell of burned bread, inclining a
little to that of touchwood.
4. Treated with a very large quantity of nitric acid, it far-
nished a little oxalic acid, but no muric; consequently it
contains no gum.
2. Water has no action on it: but if it- remains a long
a
® Ann, de Chim, vol. ixxii, p. 297.
time
described.
144
Result,
Gum-resin
from Mada-
gascar.
Analysed,
ANALYSIS OF A GUM-RESIN FROM MADAGASCAR. |
5 /
time in this liquid, at a temperature sufficiently high, a —
portion of the animal matter, which appears to be contained
in it, undergoes putrefaction, and imparts to the water a
fetid smel}, analogous to that of caal:fiowers ; which appears
to indicate the presence of sulphur.
The portion that remains still enjoys all its properties:
3. Acetous acid, boiled with this substance, takes from it
some matter, which appears to be of an anima! nature; for
it is precipitated by galls, but not by alkalis. What is not.
dissolved by the vinegar possesses the same properties as be-
fure, or at least nearly so.
3. Ten grammes [15445 grs] of this matter, subjected to
distillation, yielded an empyreumatic oil, mixed with an
acid liquor, which diffused an ammoniacal smell, when
potash was mixed with it.’
‘The coal, when burned, left 1 dec. f1 BA gr.] of yellowish
ashes, containing a little phosphate of lime, some carbonate
of lime, and a trace of oxide of iron. i
This matter having the appearance of starch, or at least |
seeming to contain some, a principal object of all the expe-
riménis made with it was to discover this; but not the
least trace of it could be detected.
From this examination it seems to result, that the sub
stance is a mixture of unorganized woody matter, and of
vegeto-animal matter, which, having been superabundant
in ihe vegetable, were expelled to its exterior, and there
formed an excrescence.
|
(
Sec7. If. Analysis of a gum-resin, sent in the year 13 from —
Madagascar to the Isle of France, by Mr. Chapeliter, and
thence to the Hluseum of Natural History by Mr. Victor
Jannet, in November, 1808.
This’ owm-resin is of a greenish Ves colour. It burns
swelling up, and emitting a thick smoke, with a ‘smell not
very pleasant; and leaves ashes containing carbonate of
lime. : rt a ae
Alcohol, assisted by a gentle heat, dissolves a great part
of it; ieaving a residuum greasy to the feel, which alcohol
attacks only. when boiling, and tke greater part of which
separates
/
ANALYSIS OF A GUM-RESIN FROM MADAGASCAR. 145
separates immediately on cooling. The matter that thus_
falls down in cooling exhibits all the properties of lac. It
weight is six hundredths of the resin.
The portion of the resin, one tenth, on which the alcohol
had no action, was treated with caustic potash dissolved in
water. This had not much more action on it than alcohol ;
léavimg it in the form of a brown powder, soft to the touch,
and still weighing near one tenth.
This substance, insoluble botlx in alcohol and potash,
was distilled with a gentle heat. At first it gave outa little
water; and then vapours arose, which condensed into an
oil, and a liquid of a taste somewhat aromatic, without
being disagreeable, having a great resemblance to the pro-
duct of gums. Ag
None ‘of the products of this distillation, mixed with
_ quicklime or with potash, yielded the least trace of ammo-
nia. The coal in the retort was easy of incineration, and
left a decigramme of yellowish ashes, containing some lime,
and a little oxide of iron.
The alcoholic solution of the resin hada brown colour
and a peculiar taste. Being evaporated to dryness in a
retort, the alcohol that came over contained nothing aro-
matic. ) :
The resin was BeedG in water, to which it communicated _
a slight taste. Thus purified. it had a yellowish brown co-
Jour. It retains water pretty strongly, for it is difficult to
dry, and remains soft a pretty long time.
Thus it appears, that the substance which we have called Component
a. gum-resin’ contains, in 10 grammes, ee ee
1, Lac cossccccccscrrecccvesceccecs o'6
2, Residuum, containing a little more
lac and vegetable matter--+-++++++++ 1:0
3, Remains for the weight of the resin -- 8°4
/ a
10.
This is I believe the first time, that lac has been found One piant
mixed with other resins; and this fact confirms us in the cay te pg
opinion, that the same vegetable may form several kinds of and different
resins, as well as different trees produce the same resin. fee es
Vor. XXXII, JUNE, 1812. ~ L SEcrT.
Root of sweet
rush.
Treated with
alcohol,
with water,
and dilute ni-
tric acld acid.
TIncinerated.
ANALYSIS OF SQUINANTH.
Seer. IIL. Analysis of the root of camel's hay, andropogon :
schenanthus, L., sent from the Isle of France by Mr. Jan-
net, in 1808.
This root has a yellowish colour, and in smell resembles
Virginian snakeroot.
Twenty grammes [308:91 grs] were infused in didshier:
which was renewed, till it no longer acquired any colour.
The filtered alcoholic solutions had a fine golden hue.
Subjected to distillation, alcohol came over, the first pore
tions of which had no foreign smell; but as the liquor in
the retort became less spirituous, and required more heat
to keep up the ebullition, the weaker spirit that came over
had a perceptible smell, a little resembling that of the root.
The matter remaining in the retort became turbid, and
was decanted boiling hot into acapsule. On cooling it let
fall a brown coil. =
The supernatant liquid had a yellow colour; and a very —
little taste, slightly saline, and a little aromatic. ‘The oily
sediment was thick, smooth to the touch, had an acrid,
burning taste, like an essential oil, and in smell greatly
reseeabied myrrh.
The 20 er. of the root, after being exhausted by. leah
were boiled in water. The needed an after being concen-
trated, had a yellow colour, and very little tasce; it did not 7
precipitate sulphate of iron or gelatine ; it was not rendered
turbid by alcohol or infusion of galls; it reddened infusion
of litmus’ pretty strongly, but, as the liquor was in small
quantity, the nature of the acid could not be ascertained:
thus the alcohol had left the water scarcely any thing to cise
solve. } .
After the root had been boiled in water, it was infused in
diluted nitric acid. Thisinfusion gave with ammonia a very
slight preeipitate, which resembled oxalate of lime ; but there
was too little of it, {o be certain ofits nature.
20 gr. [808-91 ers} being incinerated left a red residuum *
weighing 8 dec. f12- 36 ers]. ‘This residuum dissolved in mu-
riatie acid with a very slight effervescence. The solution had
a fine yellow colour, and gave with ammonia a bulky pre-
cipitate of a deep brown colour. Treated with caustic pot
eis 4 as fs t+ “ . « 3 Y * s* a ash,
ANALYSIS OF RAVENTSARA. 147
ash, this precipitate afforded a little alumine; but the alka-
line liquor did not give the least trace of phosphoric acid.
The ammoniacal liquor, from which the oxide of iron had
been separated, yielded a little lime to oxalic acid. The re-
siduum left by the caustic potash was oxide of iron.
Thus this root contaiis, si
1, A resinous matter of a deep brown red, with an acrid Substances
taste, and a smell exactly similar to that of myrrh. In fact Pana
we believe it is nothing but resin of myrrh,
2, A colouring matter soluble in water.
3, A free acid.
4, A calcareous salt, the species of which we could net
’ ascertain.
5, Oxide of iron in pretty large quantity, the state of come
bination of which in the plant we do not know.
6, A large quantity of woody matter.
The most interesting result of this analysis is the presence Myrrh may be
in the andropogon schcenanthus of a resinous matter, alto- formed in se-
. e hye : cial Tell veral eles
gether similar to the resin of common myrrh ; it ditfers only
by being little less solid, but if it were mixed, as in myrrh,
with a certain quantity of gummy matter, I have no doubt it
would resemble it perfectly, Hence we may infer, that myrrh
‘is formed in several vegetables; for, though we are unac-=
quainted here with the tree from which the myrrh of the shops
is derived, it is probably not the andropogon schcenauthus.
Secr. IV. Analysis of the aromatic leaves of the raventsara,
agathophyllum ravensara L, sent by Mr. Tuousn.
‘I digested. 15 gr [231°68 grs] of these leaves in alcohol at Leaves of ra
36° [0'837], to which they gave a fine green colour. I re- ventsara treat
ed with alee- |
peated the digestion, till the alcohol acquired no colour as ho),
sisted by heat.
The solutions, when mixed, were of a fine green, On
cooling : asmall quantity of flocculent matter separated, which
I found to be wax.
The alcohol, freed from this matter, was distilled ina retort.
The spirit that came over hada very pleasant smell and taste.
- The remainder was rendered turbid by a little green vee
getable resin. When this was separated by filtration, the
aad was of & fine brown yellow. Qn standing a small
a Le quantity
148° MEDICINAL USE OF PLUMBAGO.
quantity of brown matter was deposited ; after which a few -
drops of oil collected on the surface having the taste and
smell of oil of cloves.
Yieldcd anoil. The liquor, evaporated spontaneously in the open -air,
yielded a pretty considerable quantity more of this brown oil,
and a clear liquor, as thick as a sirup, which had the taste of
oil of cloves mixed with bitterness..
The leaves I boiled in water the leaves exhausted by alcohol, but they
pase in wa- only imparted to it a slight yellow colour, and the property
p of faintly reddening infusion of litmus, and being copiously
precipitated by alcohol. This decoction was not affected by
infusion of galls, solution of sulphate of iron, or gélatine, -
and incinera- After the leaves had been drained, 1 incinerated them, an@
“tps from the 15 gr. [231°68 grs] employed obtained 7 dec. [10°81
gers] of car bonate of lime, mixed with a little phosphate of
~ the same earth.
As it is to be presumed, that this lime was combined with
oxalic acid in the leaves, I digested 8 gr. [12°36 grs] in nitrie
acid diluted with a great deal of water ; but the acid liquor
yielded a very little precipitate when saturated _with am-
monia.
The oilsimilar The oil we obtained from the rayentsara exhibited abso-
tothatof — Jutely all the properties of the essential oil of cloves ; its
eee colour, smell taste, and specific gravity, which is a hittle
greater than that of water. It differed only by being a little
more consistent, which was probably owing to the leaves being
old, so that the oil had been thickened, and in some sort re-
sinified, by time. hii
Different From this analysis we may infer, that vowetabite of differ-
ee may __ ent species are capable of forming an essential oil of the same
orm the same
ole" 4 nature, j
Theleavesa Lhese leaves might be employed for Gaivedie purposes
ee gel for instead of cloves, using them only in larger quantity.
CLOVES» os : :
*»
XU.
i Efficacy of Plumbago against Tetters Wy Dr. area:
; HOED™,
Plumbago iene Oisa natural compound of nine pafts. carbon i
employed as with about one of jrout, forming the carburet of iron ofthe —
a medicine,
*Auwade Chim. vol. LK XVJ, p. 198 + Carbon 96, iron 4. c
chemists, .
‘ ne. MEDICINAL USE OF PLUMBAGO. 149
chemists.. No one seems to have thought of introducing it
into the materia medica, unless in the polar’regions, where
the people not only rub themselves with it daily, but employ
it against cutaneous eruptions. This fact, added to its known
property of exciting animal electricity, and conducting it
like metals, induced Dr. Wienhold to make trial of it: and
in the General Medical. Annals of Altenburg, for May, 1809,
he published his observations and remarks on it; from which ;, herpetic dis.
he affirms, that he can recommend it by experietice against eases,
all tetterous eruptions ; as, whether simple or complicated,
they yield to its internal and external application, provided
it be joined with medicines appropriate to their different com-
plications ; as iron, muriate of lime, and dulcamara, in scro-
fulous; aconite and guaiacum in arthritic; mercury in si-
phylitic; and sulphur in psoric tetters.
In the latter, which neither sulphur alone nor black lead Graphitic ethi-
-alone would cure, he has always been speedily successful; on °P°:
- giving the patient daily a drachm of graphitic ethiops, made
by triturating together equal parts of sulphur and plumbago.
We shall not here enter into all the modes of administer-
ing this remedy, which the author has varied according to the
cases; the formulz he has given for their preparation ; and
his remarks on their mode of acting ; which may be seen in
No. 85 of the Bibliotheque médicale, we shall only add, that, Plumbago dif-
for want of English black lead, being obliged to use that of fers in quality.
Passau, he found, that it was less efficacious, required to be F
given in a larger dose, and, not being reducible to so fine a
_ powder, did not. sit so easy on the stomach. It is indeed
_ well known, that the plumbago of Passau, though it does not
contain pyrites like that of Spain, is much more !eaded with
foreign matter. To those who may be inclined to try this
remedy however, we believe we may point out as preferable,
on acconnt of its purity and the fineness of its grain, that
which is found in the valley of Lucerne, or of Pellis, in the
circle of Pignerol, in the department of the Po, where it forms
a vein two feet thick by. three broad, according to the de-
scription given by Mr. Bonvoisin in the Mem. of the Ac. of
Turin, 1805, ps 182. %
: XIV.
150
XIV.
METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL.
EE
1812. |Wind| Max.
4th Mo,
APRIL E |} 30°10
S 30°18
S 36°10
E 30°02
N I} 30°15
N El 30°15
N E| 30°01
11} W | 29°98
12\N EE} 30.05
13|IN El 30°05
14\N FE} $0°05
15|N E} 29°91
16} N 29°73
17 NI 297S3
18} N | 30°09
19/Var.}| 30:09
20)N WI 30°15
QIN FE} 30°15
29| N 30°01
93) — | ——
94, W | 29°94
2515 Wi 29°86
.26|Var.| 29°65
27IN EK 29°64
28|N E} 29°76
29|N E| 29°80
30\Var.| 30°02
5th Mo.
May
1} E | 30°02
QIN E| 29°92
S\Var.| 29°75
Min.
PRESSURE.
TEMPERATURE.
.
nn ee | eee fl | ee | | |
4
29°60
30°10
29°93
29°88
30°02
30°01
29°98
29°89
29°89
30°05
29°91
29°73
29°64
29°64
29°83
30°02
30°00
30°07,
29°97
29°86
29°56
29°55
29°59
29°64
29°76
29°80
29°92
29.73
29°70!
30°18 | 29°55
29°850
30°140
30°015
99950
30°085
30-080
ae
29°935
29°970
30°050
29°980
29°820)
29°685
29'735
29°960
30°055
50:075
30°110
29°990
29°900
29°710
29°600
29°615
29°700
29'780
29°860
29°970
29°825
29°725
29°902| 59 | 25 | 43°57 13°34 [1°24
53
56
538
50
49
43
47
44
52
51
51
53
49
48
51
50
58
58
54
52
52"
54
49
52
51
52
a8
59
54
56
36
35
42
45°5
45°5
47°75
43°5
37°0
38°0
41°5
40°5
42°0
42.0
41°5
41°5
38°0
38°0
40°0
41°5
440
47°53
42:0
420
440
40°5
4ls5
48°0
47.5
47.5
| 50°0
51°0
48°0 |
44:0
— >
suit ad
25
ala Geet
43 e
‘s7)
98 |
-69| 4710
— 6
ol ot as
27 | *39
55| 4
————- | -
N.B. The observations jn each line of the Table apply to a period of twenty-
four hours, begivvyng at 9 A.M. on the day indicated i the fice connaie A ae
denotes, that the result is included in the next following observation.
NOTES.
METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL, 135i
NOTES.
‘Fourth Month, 4. Cloudy a.m, Clear evening. 5. Mach
dew: barometer unsteady: heavy clouds through the day:
a shower about sunset. 6. Much dew: gray sky, and the
air nearly calm. 7. Lightly cloudy: little wind. 8. Cloudy
a.m.: a shower p.m. 9. Brisk wind: cloudy. 10. Hoar
frost. 11. Cloudy. 16. Slight showers. 17. Little hail.
20. a few large drops. 23, 24. Occasional slight showers
of hail, &c. 25, 26. Gentle showers of rain set not warm.
27. Misty morving: much dew: swallows appear. 28,
29. Cloudy: windy.
Fifth Month. 1, 2. Cloudy: the cuckow heard. 3.
About 1 p.m. a few drops of rain, attended with the smell
of electricity in the air: the wind, which in the morning
had been brisk at N. E., died away, the canopy of the sky
rose: the evening was calm, and dew fell.
\ =e <-
RESULTS.
Prevailing winds N. E.
Barometer: highest observation 30:18 inches; lowest 29'55 inches;
Mean of the period 29902 inches.
Thermometer: highest observation 59°; lowest 25°;
Meanof the period 43°57°.
Evaporation 3°34 inches. Rain 1°24 inches.
PLAIstTow. L. HOWARD.
Fefth Month, 24, 1812.
XV.
Experiments on Camphoric Acid; by Mr. Bucuowz*.
\)orrrurt imagined he had shown by experiment, Camphoric
that the camphoric acid, described by Bouillon-Lagrange, acid distinct
* Journ. de Phys. vol. LXX. p. 347. Translated from Gehlen’s
Journal by Mr. Vogel.
was
152 PROPERTIES OP CAMPHORIC ACID.
from the ben- was similar to benzoic acid. Bucholz has lately resumed
rs the subject. and shown, that the camphoric-is a peculiar
acid. The following properties sufficiently distinguish
them.
iu crystallizae 14, The camphoric acid is erystallizable by slow refriger-
tion, ation. The crystals, as Bouillon-Lagrange observed:
greatly resemble plumose muriate of ammonia. The
benzoic acid, on the contrary, under the same circum-
stances crystallizes in small needles, or in ribandlike
lamine.
tastes 2..The taste of erent acid is very sour, wed leaves
a bitterness behind ; while that of the benzoic i is sweet, sac-
charine, little acid, pungent, and excites coughing. _
solubility in 3. Camphorie acid dissplves at 15° R, [65 75° F.] in 100
WPARETS parts of water, and at a boiling heat in ten or eleven,
Benzoic acid requires 24 parts of boiling water, and 200 at
15° [65°75° F.]
and inalcohol, 4. One part of alcohol at the common temperature
) dissolves 1:06 of camphoric acid; and 92 parts of boiling
alcohol dissolve 146, or even more. Benzoic acid requires
its own weight of boiling alcohol, and twice as much cold.
phenomena of §, Camphoric acid is capable of being sublimed as well.
sublimation gadehe benzoic, but the appearances are very different. In
the first place it sublimes more difficultly : a great quantity
is decomposed: an empyreumatic oil is produced with a
smell of navew, an acid liquor, and a_ great deal of coal:
and the sublimate has not a crystalline form. The benzoic
‘acid sublimes in crystals, and yields no aqueous vapour,
very little oil, and much less coal than the camphoric.
The camphoric acid when sublimed has a pungent and
{Properties of ; 3
eqs slightly acid taste. OQu-acecount pf the oil it dissolves more
acid, ‘ 5 . .
aie slowly in water. This solution reddens litmus paper.
and action ou 6. The camphoric acid comports itself rey eREOT
bases; with respect to the salifiable bases,
The camphorate of lime exhibits a Ae diteeies
particularly "
a
lime, from the benzoate of lime.»
; A hundred parts of camphoric acid require for cheat per-
fect neutralization 56 parts of carbonate of lime; while the
suine quantity of benzoic acid requires 14 parts,
The cam phorate of lime crystallizes diteuttly 3 in rounded
heaps
Te
COMPOSITION OF SULPHATES, 133.
heaps; the benzoate, in shining stellar lamine: The came
-phorate of lime has a slightly saline bitter taste, leaving a
calcareous taste behind: the bonzoate is sweet, and a little *
earthy.
The camphorate of Bee exposed to heat furnishes an
aromatic oil, resembling that of rosemary in smell; n
crystallized substance passes over; and the camphorate iis
not melt.
If the benzoate of lime be treated in the same manner,
crystals of benzoic acid pass over into the receiver, with an
empyrcumatic oil having a sme!l of balsam of Peru; and
the benzoate remaining jn the retort becomes perfectly fluid.
The camphorate of lime dissolves in five parts of water at '
a common temperature; while the benzoate requires twenty
parts. . :
XVI.
Inquiry concerning the Means of Knowing the Proportions
of Acid and Potash, that enter into the Composition of
Sulphate of Alumine, and of Sulphate, Nitraie, and Muriate
_, of Potash: by Mr. Curaupav, Prof. of Chemistry
applicable to the Arts and Member of various Literary
Societies*.
In undertaking the present inquiry I had no intention Products me
_of verifying the experiments of those celebrated chemists, !@"g* alum
E a . , Manufacto
_who. have endeavoured to ascertain the quantities of acid yariance 8
and base, that enter into the compesition of sulphate of the admitted
potash; I was merely desirous of knowing why the annual: AE ome “f
: results of the alum manufactory, that I have established at
Vaugirard, were very far from agreeing either with the
quantity of acid, or that of potash, which different analyses
indicate as contained in sulphate of potash and in alum.
- For instance, when, instead of 31 parts of acid, the quan-
tity designated as entering into the composition of 100
parts Be alia, AS or 44 are required; and, instead of ten
parts and half of pats fifteen and half are required for.
® Journ. de Phys, vol, LXVII, Pp. 5 Read to the Imperial
. Institute, April the 4th, 1808.
100
154 COMPOSITION OF SULPHATES.
100 parts of alum; such an increase in the quantity of
materials could not fail to engage my attention, and lead
me toscek the cause of so great a difference between the |
results of analysis aud those of a manufactory on 2 large | |
seale. At first I suspected, that the surplus of acid and
potash I employed entered into the composition of the
An insulubte Insoluble sulphate of alumine, which, I have remarked,
sulphate of is sometimes formed. _ Indeed [ was long induced to en-
zluptine some-
Gomes. Fovencst bere this opinion, . a at than suppose, that the quantity
of acid and of potash entering into the composition of
#lumine were more considerable, than had been fixed by
different analyses, on'the accuracy of which I had li
depended.
Desirable to However, admitting the hypothesis of the constant for-
prevent tls. mation of an insoluble sulphate of alumine, I could not
remain indifferent to the loss of this substance: on the
contrary, it was an object with me to find the means of
preventing the alum from passing to this state of insolu-
bility. Accordingly, as soon as I was certain, that all: the
acid and potash employed entered into the composition of
the alum I manufactured, I was convinced, that my former
observations had been just.
Attempt to But as I was not satisfied with beng merely Snaneped
ascertain the. of what was in fayour of my Bcertattenas it remained for
proportions of 5 ; é ;
potashandacid Me to ascertain by direct experiments, and particularly
io alum. sach as could easily be repeated, how much acid and
potash enter into the composition of alum. I wished also
to learn, whether the quantities of acid and base in the
sulphate of potash were such, as are generally admitted.
Lastly, that my experiments might not be suspected of
the least maccuracy, it became necessary, that I should
Pore suiphate Prepare some very pure sulphate of alumine; a, circum-
of alumime stance that enabled me to obtain this sulphate very
eran: regularly crystallized, a state in which it had not yet been
‘known, since its concentrated solution yields only lamellar,
micaceous crystals, always of an irregular figure. I have
had the honour of showing crystals of this sulpbate of
aluming to several members of the class, particularly to
Mr, Hlaiy, who was very desirous.of adding a Bpeeiace of
this sulphate to his valuable collection.
Io
COMPOSITION. OF SULPHATES. 155
In a paper, which I shall have the honour of communi-
eating to the class, I shall,make known the physical pro-
perties of this saline substance, as well as the means and
conditions requisite, to promote its crystallization.
When I had at my disposal a certain quantity of this This sulphate
sulphate, it was easy for me to find with precision the cat in ana-
proportions of potash and acid, that enter into all the salts ae
-with base of potash. I satisfied myseif also, that this
sulphate of alumine is a very powerful and certain test for
-ascertaining the quantity of potash contained in vegetables,
either before or after incineration. On this subject: I have
undertaken several experiments, that will complete another
inquiry, which I shall have the honour of submitting to the
class.
To return to the analysis, or rather the synthesis, that
constitutes the subject of the present paper: the following
“are the experiments I have made, to determine the re-
spective quantities of acid and base, that enter into the
composition of alum, and of the sulphate, nitrate, and
muriate of potash.
Exp. 1. In 850 gr. [13129 grs*] of solution.of sulphate Quantity of
_of alumine at 34° [sp. gr. 1°307], the temperature being Eyes oe
-10° [59° F.], 1 dissolved by the assistance of heat 100 gr. of weight of sul-
su!phate of potash. After the liquid was cooled, I obtained ilps Of "pot-
from it 502 gr. of very pure alum. On evaporating the
mother water 1 obtained 18 gr. of alum; and a second
“evaporation and crystallization produced 4 gr. more. The
remaining. liquor yielding ‘no more crystals, 1 mixed it
with 25 gr. of a solution of sulphate of alumine similar to
that above, in order to find whether I had obtained all the
alum, that 100 gr. of sulphate of potash could produce.
The mixture having occasioned only a slight precipitate of :
alum, 1. concluded, that the whole of the sulphate of
potash had entered into the composition of the 524 gr.
of alum obtained.
Exp. 2. On the supposition, that sulphate of potash Quantity pro-
_ contains 62 per cent of potash, | saturated 62 gr. of potash, duced, wih #
1
* The proportions being all that is of importance, it would be
‘superfluous to reduce the rest of the quantities: but this is given,
to mark the quantity operated on. C.
purified
‘
156” COMPOSITION OF SULPHATES.
given weight of purified with alcohol, with 48 gr. of sulphuric acid at 66°
potash and offs». or. 1°848]. I then mixed this sulphate with 850 gr.
sulphuric acid, ~ , : : °
of solution of sulphate of alumine at 34°, and conducted
the rest of the process as in the preceding experiment.
But what was my surprise, when, on adding together
all the alum produced, I found but 408 gr., instead of
524, which the former experiment had yielded. The
comparative results of these two experiments, which f
varied with quantites alternately ‘greater and less of
sulphate of potash and sulphate of atumine, demonstrated
to me, that the proportions of potash and acid contained
in the sutphate of potash were very different from those
hitherto laid down. In fact, knowing how much alum is
produced by 100 gr. of sulphate of potash, and how much
may be obtained with a given quantity of potash saturated
afterward with acid, it was easy for me, on comparing
the results of these two experiments, to ascertain by cal- .
culation the respective proportions of acid and base, that
enter into the composition both of sulphate of potash and
of alum,
Proportions of | For example, since with 100¢gr. of sulphate of potash I obs
hig or base tained 524 gr. of alum; and on the other hand, 62 gr. of pots
sulphate of
potash, ash gave but 408; I necessarily concladed, that the potash »
contained in 100 parts of sulphate of potash must make four
fifths of its weight. But reflecting, that, on the one hand,
this quantity of potash was much greater, than is generally
admitted in the sulphate of| potash ; and, on the other, that
the acid could not luse two thirds of its weight in this com-
Water in bination: | could not but suspect, that the potash contri-~
iP it buted to this Joss in a certain propertion, and hence sought
some means of ascertaining the quantity of water it might
eontain, Accordingly I made a great number of experi-
ments with this view, and with the result of which I have so
much the more reason to be satisfied, as the question to be
solved is very important; ‘since even at present, while it is
allowed, that potash purified by alcohol contains water, the
quantity is not agreed on: for Mr. Berthollet, according to
recent experiments, admits only 15 per cent, while Mr. Dar-
cet finds twice this quantity by his*. .
/
..* See Journ, vol, XASVIE, p. 31.
-Hen ce
COMPOSITION OF SULPHATES. 137
Hence I have presumed, that to make known the result of Attempts te
my experiments, though undertaken with other views, might ascertain this.
be of some advantage. In fact, finding by synthesis the.
quantities of potash ; and of acid entering into the compe-
sition of sulphate of potash and having afterward ascertain-
ed, how much water they lose respectively inthis combination ;
it appears to me, that the question is solved a priori. I must
confess, however, that some difficulties occurred at first in
ascertaining the quantity of water contained in potash; dif-
ficulties schieh havevafforded me an opportunity of knowing,
that, interesting as the experiment of- Mr. Berthollet is, the
tr eatment of potash with iron filings is not a method sufhici-
ently precise to be conclusive. My opinion on the contrary
Was, as it still is, that the substances most proper for detect='
ing the water contained in potash ‘should not be oxidable;
and that their action should be confined to. the separation of
the water contained in the potash. Among the experiments
I made, the following appeared to me best to fulfil the con-
ditions I kad imposed on myself.
Exp. 3. Twenty grammes of potash prepared in ‘lip labo- Experiment.
ratory of Mr. Vauquelin were carefully mixed with 160 of
very pure silex, which must have been dry, as it was heated
for two hours ina forge fire before it was used. The mixture’
was introduced with much caution into a glass tube about
2 cent. [7°87 lines] in diameter. This tube, one of the ex-
tremities of which was closed, weighed 72 gr., and with the
mixture 252; very good weight, it is true, but this excess I
ascribed to moisture attracted by the potash during the tri-
turation. This tube I introduced into a small cylinder of
sheet iron, to prevent its being. fused by the direct action of
the fire. This apparatus was subjected for an hour to the
action of a very moderate fire. No sooner did the mixture
receive the impression of the heat, than a very large quautity
of water. reduced to vapour was suddenly expelled, and con-
tinued to be evolved five or six minutes, after which nothing
move was extricated.
When the tube was cold, I weighed it very carefully, and 97-5 of water
found it had lost 5°5gr.. This experiment, which I repeated in in 100 of pots
several times, sometimes collecting the water, constantly af.
forded me the same results, both with potash of my own pre-
paring, and with that from the laboratory of Mr, Vauquelin ;
whence
158 COMPOSITION OF SULPHATES.
whence I conclude, that in 100 parts of potash purified by
Proportions of aleghol there are 27°5 of water; and, setting out with this —
me SRE datum, that the potash in 106 parts of Sanpete of potash is
57°71, instead of 52 as assigned by Bergman. —
I cannot omit remarking however, that the analysis of —
alums by Mr. Vanquelin* demonstrates the presence of sul--
phate of potash in them nearly in the same proportion, as
appears from‘ synthesis: a result showing the confidence to
bé placed in the analyses of that learned chemist, and leaving”
us to regret, that he relied-on Beryman for the She ieee “a
of acid and base in the sulphate of potash.
Experimentto Exp. 4. Desirous of knowing the proportions of acid and_
‘find the pro- hase im nitrate of potash, I dissolved by the assistance of heut
portions of acid
and base in ni- 100 gr of very dry nitrate of potash in 800 of a solution of |
A ag of pot- sulphate of alamine at 34 [sp. gr. 1°307.] After the liquor ”
was cold, I obtained 376 gr. of alum. The mother water was
set to evaporate again, but as it crystallized confusedly
added 10¢r. of sulphuric acid at 66° [sp. gr. 1°848], because
experience had taught me, that whenever such a solution *
contained an acid foreign to the alum, an excess of sulphuric
acid was necessary to promote the crystallization of the alum. ©
In fact, as soon as this mixture was made, a considerable pre-
cipitate took place, which, after bemg drained and dried, -
weighed 84gr.. Lastly to satisfy myself whether the mother
water still contained alum, I added anew 160 gr. of the’so.
lution of sulphate of alumine. his addition, increasing the
density of the liquid, favoured the precipitation of the small
quantity of alum, which it still held in solution. When this
last product was drained and dried, it amounted to 2 gr. ;
which, with what was obtained before, made 462 gr. of alum.
As it had crystallized however in a liquid containing princi-
ples foreign to its composition, it became necessary to purify ~
it. With this view I dissolved it, and crystallized afresh.
From this process, I obtained only 452 gr. of alum, but cer=
tainly very pure.
49:76 potash, This experiment, which I have repeated several times, ~
and 50°24 ni- e P aap
erie seid. and with different quantities, always gave me results con-
firming the former: whence I conclude, that if 100 gr.
of nitrate of potash produce 452 gr. of alum, 49.76 of
~
* See Journal, 4to serics, vol. iy p 318.
° \
potash
COMPOSITION OF SULPHATES. 150
potash, and §0°24 of acid, must enter into the composition
of 10@ parts of the nitrate.
Exp. 5. The object of this, as of the former experiment, Proportions of
wus to ascertain, whether the base and acid in muriate of uk -
_ potash were in the proportions commonly admitted. For
this purpose I employed the means I have just described ;
and, as it would be superfluous to repeat the particulars,
I shall confine myself to the results.
100 gr. of dry muriate of potash, treated as in the
preceding experiment, produced 607 gr. of crude alvin;
which, after being refined, left but 592 gr.: a result 65°17 base and
proving incontestably, that 100 parts of muriate of potash “4 °° «+
contain 65°17 of base and 34°83 of acid. This experiment,
which, like the preceding, was several times repeated,
always afforded me similar results.
From the experiments that have been described, it General con-
fol hake, : clusions,
1. That 100 parts of sulphate of potash contain 57°71
of potash and 42°29 of acid, which, from the state of con-
_ centration in-which it exists in this sulphate, are equivalent —,
_ to 60 parts at 66° [sp. gr. 1°848].
2. That to form 100 parts of alum requires 42°77
of sulphuric acid at 66°, instead of 30 or 31, the quantity
generally admitted ; 11°01 of potash; and 10°50 of alumine:
“a quantity equal to what was found by Vauquelin.
3. That 100 parts.of very pure alum contain 19°08 of
sulphate of potash, 30°¢2 of sulphate of alumine, and 50 of
' water of crystallization.
4, That 49-76 parts of potash and 50°24 of acid enter
into the composition of nitrate of potash,
_ & -That 100 parts of muriate of potash are composed of
65°17 potash, and 34:83 muriatic acid. |
6. That it is certain potash purified with alcohol contains
' more than a fourth of its weight of water, since, from the
experiments that have been related, 27°5 per cent may be
gbtained from it.
7» Lastly, that by means of sulphate of alumine, with
the siinple base and crystallized, we may in future, in the
analysis of the substances of either of the three kingdoms,
- detect the smallest quantity cf potash contained in either:
me a the
in
160
Triple sul-
aa of lead
omCornwalle
Sulphuret of |
bismuth and
SQppere
ANALYSES OF MINERALS.
the method admitting of great accuracy, since the ‘pro=:
duct, from which the proportion is ascertained, weighs
in the proportion of 9°08 to one of dry potash. ;
~
XVII.
Analyses of Minerals; by Martin Henry K LAPROTH, °
Ph. D. &¢.
(Continued from vol. XXXI, p. 382.)
Ore of antimony and lead from Nanslo, in Cornwall®.
Lead Re MS Ie
Antimony aid ws unth oars iepere ee 28°5
Copper cocccceceeeseseess 35
Sulphur «cscwcceracecesees 16
Tronsscsccccncacessceseece |
Loss eoeeeevroecsseveseaess 2.
100.
Ore of copper and bismuth from Wittichen.
Bismuth .cccccevecerscees A724”
Copper sesessccccescesess 34°66
Sulphureeccssssccsvecsees 13°58
Tesi ese’ e, 6 oiceaaeivihns. vine spel are
100
Meteorclite of Native iron of a se Seeaselitt from Agrau.
Agrau,
4
and Mexico.
Native iron eescceseeceess QOS
Metallic nickelecsscae eeoeoeesd 3:5
ee
100
Proust analysed a meteorolite from the province of Chaca.
Gualamba, in Mexico, sent by Rubin de Celis, and found
in it native iron and metallic nickel.
* See Journal, vol. IX, p. 145 XX, p. 3395. and XXIV, pp. 295),
251, 321; for a full account of the triple sulphuret of lead, copper, and
antimony, from Cornwall, by Mx. Hatchett, Mr: Smithson, and count
de Bournon. Ld edt DD Li pupa.
Huiaboldt
i & ,
- ANALYSES OF MINERALS. 16]
Humboldt brought over a meteorolite from the province Another.
of Durango, in Mexico, from which prof. Klaproth obtained
’
Native iron eeoaveeegeeoene8 96°75
Metallic nickel.--+cecssscee 3°95
100
Native iran from the iron-mine of St. John, near Gross- Native iron
kansdorf, in Saxony. | pot aaxony.
Tron seecessccevecsvscess 95
Lead ooteeseerg ee eerevere 6
Copper soacecsosevesscese 15
' 100
| Sparry iron stone from Dankerode, in the country of Iron spar fro
Ppaiexotadt. a bev
Black oxidulated iron ++++++ 57°50
Oxide of manganese’ ----+- 3°50
Calcareous earth ssseeeeses 1°25
Carbonic acid esscccsccees 36
98°25
Sparry ironstone from Bayreuth. | Bayreuth.
, - Black oxidulated iron «-«+e+ 58
Oxide of manganese -++-+++« 4°25
‘Magnesia coceceecsecces 0°75
EiMiewess cemevderecdsesees +@°50
Carbonic acid eeccesessosee 35
98°5
Blue iron earth from Eckartzberg (native Prussian blue Phosphate of
of Bergman and some other authors). she
3 Oxidulated iron ccccesccee 475
Phosphoric acid -eeceessse 32
hay Water sevcccacencsovcscee 20
99°5
(To be couch
You. XXXIL—J UNE 1912. M ScIENTIFIC
&
163 SCIENTIFIC NEWS,
SCIENTIFIC NEWS.
a
Royal Medécal Society of Edinburgh,
Prize question. Au membets of the Society are invited to write an Exe
perimental Essay on the following subject.
‘© To determine by experiment what substances are ex-
‘* haled by the skin; and the changes, if any, which they
<«* produce on the surrounding air”, |
The dissertations are to be written in English, Latin, or
French, and are to he delivered to the secretary on or be-
fore the Ist of December, 1813, (being the year succeeding
that in which the subject is proposed). The adjudication
will take place inthe last week of February following.
To each dissertation shall be prefixed a motto, and this
motto is to he written on. the outside of a sealed packet con-
taining the name and address of the author. Nodissertation
will be received with the author’s name affixed, and all dis+
sertations, except the successful. one, will be.returned, if
desired, with the sealed packet unopened.
Geological Society, April 3, 1812.
Geology of the A notice relative to the geology of the coast of Labrador
re sgaaickies by the Rev. Mr. Steinhauer was read. The only accounts, ~_
: which have hitherto been published, concerning this part of |
Bs the British dominions are the memoirs of Mr. (afterward sir
Roger) Curtis, inserted in the Philosophical Transactions, »
) and Mr. Cartwright’s Journal,
Moravian miss The Moravian missionaries in 1772 established in this
sions there. country their first settlement, called Nai, in lat. 56°38’;
aud subsequently Okkak, in lat, 58° 43’, and Hopedale, i in
55° 36’. In the course of last year they doubled cape Chud-
leigh, in lat. 60°20’, and descended on the western side of the
same promontory as far as lat. 58° 36". The leisure af the
: _ missionaries, when opportunities occur, is employed i in col-
lecting materials for a Natural History of the country, , they
have kept tables of the thermometrical and barometrical
: variations, have procured specimens of most of the native
: * ‘ | vegetable
SCIENTIFIC NEWS. ! 163.
vegetable productions, and have from time to time sent
over specimens of such minerals as attracted their riotice:
The géneral aspect of this dreary region is that of bare Face of the
and barren rock, towering in craggy eminences; and of country.
sandy marshes, on which are formed a few pines, brushwood,
and aquatic mosses. In several parts of the country the
rocks are intersected by chasms, running generally in a right
line to a considerable distance, which, when covered with
snow, form dangerous pitfalls. The highest mountaius
extend along the eastern coast: the elevation of one of them,
called Mount Thoresby, has been ascertained by actual
measurement to equal 2733 feei, and a few others probably
attain the height of 3000 feet. -
From the islands near cape Chudleigh the missionaries yinerals,
have sent specimens of large-grained pale granite with gar-
nets. The island of Ammitok, in lat. 59° 20’, consists en-
tirely of a’ crumbling garnet rock, in which hornblende
sometimes occurs, The mountains about Nachwak bay
- furnish lapis cllaris.
On the south of the high land of Kiglapyed, in lat. 57°,
the district commences where the Labrador felspar is found;
this mineral occurs not only in rolled stones on the shore,
but in spots in the rocks in the neighbourhood of Nain,
and particularly in the rocks bordering a lagoon about 60
miles inland, in which Nain North river terminates. The-
same district also produces the hypersténe or Labrador horn-
blende.
At Hopedale a findshole occurs, from which have been
procured specimens of reddish limestone, of calcareous spar,
and of a variety of schiefes spar.
.
The country to the west of cape Chudleigh, as far as
‘it has been explored, is called the Ungava; and abounds
with red jasper, with hematites, and with iron py rites.
April the 17th, 1812.
An account of the brine springs at Droitwich, by Leonard Brine springs
Horner, Esq., Sec. G. S,, was read. at Droitwich.
The town of Droitwich has been noted for the manufuc-
ture-of salt, during at least a thousand years, but no detailed
account has hitherto been published of the natural and che-
mical history of the brine springs, from which it ts pro-
cured,
164 SCIENTIFIC NEWS.
cured. The brine pits are in the centre of the town, being
situate in a narrow valley, through which the small river
Salwark flows. The prevailing rock about Droitwich isa
fine grained calcareo-argillaceous sandstone of a brownish
red colour, with occasional spots and patches of a greenish
blue. At Doder hill, in the immediate vicinity of the salt
pits, the rock appears to be a stratified sandstone of a
greenish gray colour, and more indurated than the red
rock. It also differs from this last in containing slender
veins of gypsum.
Stratacovering No new brine pits have been sunk for the last thirty years:
at the only particulars therefore concerning the strata covering
the salt, which Mr Horner has been able to obtain, are de-
rived from Dr. Nash’s History of Worcestershire, and from
an inhabitant of Droitwich, who was on the spot when
the last pit was sunk. From these authorities it appears,
that the depth of from/35 to 45 feet below the surface is oc-
cupied by beds of gravel, of red marly clay, and of blue
and white stone. ‘To these succeeds a bed of gypsum about
105 feet in thickness, immediately below which is what is
River of salt. “galled the ver of salt, which is a stratum of nearly satu-
rated brine, 22 inches in depth, lying on a bed of rock salt,.
‘the thickyess of which is unknown, no borings having been
Construction “sunk in it to a greater depth than five or six feet. In con-
ib structing the pits, the method is to sink a shaft about eight
feet square into the gypsum, and then to pierce this bed by
‘a borer four inches in diameter: the borer is known to have
passed through the g gypsum by its suddenly dropping 22 —
inches, the Beatii of the river of salt, As soon as the borer —
is withdrawn, the brine suddenly rushes wp, and overflows
Produces at the mouth of the pit. There are only four pitsat pre«
sent in all, and the annual quantity of salt which they af-~
‘ford is about. 1600 tuns.
The brine. The brine from all the pits is perfectly limpid, and wher {
in a large body has a pale greenish hue, similar to that of |
_ sea-water. ‘To the taste it is intensely saline, but without |
any degree of bitterness.. The specific gravity differs in the —
different pits, probably on account of the greater or less ac= —
curacy with which the landsprings are stopped out: that of —
Lah saturated brineis equal to 1210°39 (water being 1000):
é that
SCIENTIFIC NEWS, 165
that of the five pits examined by Mr. Horner was found to
vary from 120611 to 1174°715 and on evaporation afforded
from 2289°75 grs to 1922°97 grs of entire salt, dried at 190° |
Fahr., ina pint. —
This salt, from a careful analysis, appears to be composed The «alt.
of
96:48 Muriate of soda
1:63 Sulphate of lime
1°82 Sulphate of soda
0°07 Muriate of magnesia
100°00
On comparing the brine of Droitwich with that of Droitwich and
Cheshire, as described by Mr. Hollaad in his Agricultural Sure ie ks dante ;
vey of Cheshire, and by Dr. Henry in his paper on the sub- peu
ject in the Philos, Trans,, it appears, that the strength of the
different brines is nearly the same, that the Cheshire brine
contains rather a larger proportion of muriate of soda, that
- the Droitwich brine is free from carbonate of lime, oxide of
iron, and muriate of hme, all of which~-are found in the
Cheshire brine; and finally, that the latter is free from the
sulphate of soda, which is contained in the former.
co NE I a
Mr. Sa yaiby author of British Mineralogy, jis jen pub- Delineations
_ published a plate representing the meteor-stone, which was iar sata
. seen to fall in Yorkshire, on the 13th of December, 1795,
accompanied by engravings of part of the one which fell in
Scoiland in 1804, and of that which fell in Ireland in 1810,
all of which are deposited in his museum.
ca
cilie: J. B. Fray, member of the legion of honour, and ictal |
ef several literary societies, has lately published some not produced
experiments which he made, to prove, that animalcules “ 6%
of infusion are not produced from the eggs of 5 ih
insects floating in the atmosphere.
_ Qn the 8th of nivose, 5, [dec. the 28th, 1796], he took on < fines
a glass globe, that would hold about six common bottles of filled with dis-
; Baia: ; well rinsed it with distilled water; and then filled ee re
it with water, which he had just distilled a second time.
Having inverted it on a pneumatic trough, he expelled
\
about
z
166°
SCIENTIFIC NEWS.
and a mixture about five sixths of the water by introducing first a portion
ef oxigen and
hidrosen;
stopped close,
and placed on
a het bed.
In 8 weeks a
«reen vegetati-
on appcared,
of oxigen gas, and then three times as much hidrogen gas.
He then corked the globe in the trough’ with a cork that
fitted it very tight; and tied a piece of wet bladder over
the cork as soon as it was taken out. When this bladder
was dry he covered it with putty, and tied another pieée
of bladder over this. The globe thus prepared he placed
in very hot dung, into which it was sunk to the level of the
water, and covered it with a frame. On the th of january
he removed the trame, and examined the globe. No alters
ation was perceptible. On the 24th it was in the same
state; but, the heat of the bed having diminished, some
fresh hot dung wus added; care being taken, te agitate the
globe as little as possible in moving it. On the sth of
february the water appeared not ‘perfectly limpid; but no
pellicle, or distinct substance of any kind, was perceptible.
On the 26th, as soon as the frame was removed, the water
appeared greenish. On a closer inspection long vegetations
of a beautiful green colour were perceived ramifying in
all directions on the bottom and sides of the vessel.
Several, that were of a larger size, but less green, were
suspended in the water, ave had @ mrucous appearance.
Mr. Fray vow removed the globe to the window of his
and saon after
-animaleules,
The organic
matter at
Jength decom-
posed.
study. On the tst of march he opened the window, the
sun then shining on the globe, and perceived here and
there on the summits of the vegetations, little insects,
moving about pretty quickly. He counted ninety six,
moving in various directions. ‘They were all of the same
species; and he soon discovered, that they were of the
genus podura. For a few days their number increased,
and they were more brisk in their motions: but in about
three weeks, or less, their motion had ceased; and they
were dead, Their bodies socn chauged colour, ie became
of a whitish gray. ila
As soon as the sun had acqnired some power, the green
mutter gradually grew pale. At length it disappeared
entirely, its filaments were decomposed, and all this or
ganic and vegetable matier was precipitated to the bottom
of the water, where it formed a very white mucons sedi-
ment. After some months the surface of the water was
A
covered
_ prisoners on the works. C.
a SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 167
covered pretty copiously with an oily matter. On opening
the globe a slight smell of mouldive-s was perceived.
A drop of the water, with a little of the pellicle swim- Appearance of
ming onit, being taken up with the point of a toothpick, HEU pena
and examined with the microscope, it exhibited an immense
number of globu'es, of various sizes, almost all motionless:
in every drop of water however one or two were perceived,
- that had a very slow motion.
Mr. Fray made several experiments of a similar kind,
all of which afforded curious results, and he intended to
continue them.
eee
In the autumn of 1810, Messrs. Thenard and Cluzel Application of
were sent to Flushing, to direct such means for preserving 0*imuriatic
acid against |
the health of the persons exposed to-the dangers of that miasmata,
insalubrious. situation, as they might think fit. They
ascribe a great deal of benefit to the following practice.
In the apartments for the soldiers, as well as those where
prisoners were confined, they placed earthen vessels filled
with oximuriatic acid greatly diluted with water; and they
obliged every man employed on the fortifications, to dip
his hands into one of the vessels every morning before he
went out to his work. They placed similar vessels in the
ditches of stinking mud: so that from these, and the
fumigations employed, the workmen were immersed day
and night in an atmosphere of oximuriatic acid,
As many topical remedies for the itch were presumed A remedy fer
to act by means of the oxigen they contained, it had been —
supposed, that oximutiatic acid would answer the purpose:
_ and it appeared, that many of the prisoners infected with
the iech soon experienced the good effects of this immersion
of their hands in dilute oximuniatic acid*, One, who had
_ the disease all over him in an inveterate degree, that had
resisted every) application, requested permission to. wet.
rags in the bowls, and rub bis body with them; and by
these means was perfectly cured in.a few days,
At ‘Carcassone, we are told, upward of four thousand Given inter-
nally in putrié
- Spanish prisoners being attacked with fevers, “ adynamico- 5°
“* From this passage it apeeert that the French employed their
ataxic :
368 . SCIENTIFIC NEWS.
ataxic in the highest degree, as if they had been inoculated
with gangrene,” Dr. Estribaud, finding faumigations with
oximuriatie acid of little effect, in places so crowded with
the. sick, except as a preservative, administered the acid
internally with the greatest success. He mixed six or eight
drachms of:the acid with a quart of a mucilaginous decoc-
tion; but it is not sald in what dose he administered the
medicine. He asserts, that its efficacy might be compared
with that of bark in intermittents.
and to prevent Weare further told, that the acid has been administered
bydiophobia. internally, in the hospital at Bordeaux, to several persons
bitten by a mad wolf: and that the hydrophobia was pre-
vented by it.
SEE
Securingcom Mr, Sonnini informs us, on the authority of a German
from the wee- Journal, the title of which he does not give, that ifa granary
me be swept clean from every grain of corn, so as to leave no
food for weevils, and hay be then kept in it for six months,
corn may afterward be placed in it safely, without any dan-
ger from these destructive insects,
ee
Remedy Mr. Braun, of Vienna, ‘gives the following as a cheap and
against leaf = easy mode of freeing plants from leaf-lice, Mix an ounce
ie of flowers of sulphur with a bushel of sawdust, scatter this
over the plants infested with these insects, and they wilt
soon be freed from them. If they should appear again,
the process may be repeated.
a
Medical and Chemical Lectures.
Medical and On Monday, the ist of June, as usual, at No.9, George
enemical lec- Street, Hanover Square, the courses of Medical Lectures
tare will recommence at eight o’clock, and the Chemical at a
quarter after nine. By George Pearson, M. D.. F.R.S.,
sen. Physician of St. George’s Hospital, of the College of
Physicians, &e.
A register is kept of the cases of Dr.| Pearson’s patients
ia St. George’s Hospital, and a clinical lecture is giver
en them ev ery Saturday morning, at nine o'clock.
A j A
JOURNAL
s : OF :
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, CHEMISTRY,
AND y
THE ARTS.
JULY, 1812.
2
ARTICLE IL.
On the Dissection of Flowers. In a Letter from Mrs.
AGNnes IspeTson.
|
!
- To Mr. NICHOLSON. | |
Sir,
I Have long reproached myself with not again bringing
this subject before the public, as one of the most important
in physiology, and that which must prove most absolutely
_ the existence of the line of life. One of the first facts I
endeavoured to Show in my early letters, was, that every * Ne
flower was formed by a part of the stalk appropriated to it; |
and that Linneus was, as usual, most absolutely right,
_ when he advanced, that the wood formed the stamen, the
inner bark the corolla, and so on to the rest of the division. How staal
The present letter should have preceded many you have the mechanisiti
received and published, as it will I hope not only explain of plants.
how the mechanical work is concealed in a plant, but illus«
trate the fact just mentioned; enabling any person (if so:
inclined) to follow me in my dissections, and teach them
how to seek the mechanism that belongs to each separate
part. All vegetable structure is formed in one peculiar
manner, that is, cylinder within cylinder; and on this
Vor, XXXII.-No. 148.—Junty 1812,, WN curious
'
170 _ ON THE DISSECTION OF FLOWERS,
curious construction most of its mechanical contrivance
depends. It is strange we should annex such extreme
simplicity to the vegetable form, when mineralogy is hourly
presenting us with a variety of curious and difficult figures,
such as to puzzle the first mathematicians to find a suitable
name for their multangular solids; or a more simple de-
rivative from which to trace their integral crystallizations.
But with respect to botany the time is now come, I hope,
when its mechanism will be too well known, nat to show
the fallacy of these ideas: ‘for if inanimate mattter requires
orcan be resolved into such complex forms, how much
mére where motion makes mechanism constantly requisite
to supersede volition ;“and make amends for every assistance
this would bestow ? :
This mechans ach day’s work in dissection more and more proves to
ism an import-
ant study, me, that the mechanism of botany is an important science ;
which would develope to us, if known, the most wonderful
proceedings in nature; and give us more exact notions of | |
the sort of existence of plants (independant of volition and
wholly governed by meckanica! powers) than we now possess,
and that the simplicity we talk of so much is merely that
found in ali nature; ‘‘ the labour of the means never sur=-
passing what the necessity of the end absolutely requires”: —
of which however we are not always proper judges; for so
various is the motion, so complicated the effect, to be pro=
‘duced, that it is impossible to dissect a single plant, and
/ not observe some mechanical wonder, that makes one feel
bow little is understood of the purpeses, for which it is
intended; and most ardently long to attain that knowledge :
which to gain is now become the labour of my. life. But
it is inthe whole general system of physiology, that that
beautiful simplicity is observable, not in the mechanical
part. There indeed it is unequalled: and I hope, when I.
come to review the whole of the present work, from the
immense number of drawings 1 now possess, I shall prove
it most exquisite. .
All vegetables By means of this curious “construction of cylinder within |
Se cylinder, formed of each different sort of matter; the vessels
linder. belonging to each circle; and the juices appropriated to .
each vessel, can never in the smallest degree interfere with
each
5
. ON THE DISSECTION OF FLOWERS, 171
\
each other. Suppose seven or eight glass cylinders placed
within cne another, and having ribs of the same matter,
which convey the juices of each to thejrnappointed place;
would it not be most easily understood, that the liquid
thus carried, and the mechanism thus enclosed, can im no
manner disturb those in the adjoining circles, though cer-
tainly increasing the size of the whole? This is exactly
I
the case in the vegetable structure: as for example; when
the mechanism is to be sought that governs the leaf; draw
off the rind of the plant, and in the next matter, (that is
on the bark) will be found the whole of what forms and
regulates the motion of the leaves. Great care must be
taken however not to carry off the balls with the rind; buat,
if properly stripped, the whole management of the spiral
wire will then be discovered in regular order, with the balls
on which it is wound, and the knots by which it is fastened. '
If the mechanism of the flower is desired, the rind 1s first To find the
drawn down, and displays the mechanism of the calyx, Boe of
_ with the partiai skin that leads up the vessels to its edge, ‘and
generally lines it.. When this is thoroughly examined, it
must be taken off wita the greatest care; and it will display
a green matter of a thicker kind, which is the skin on which
the vessels of the corolla repose; this regular cylinder reaches
up to the claw of each petal, and gives to it the vessels
that are to meander through it, and the juices that inflate
them. ‘This, when properly viewed, must be cut off with
a lancet, and a yeilow and also a thin white skin will
appear next, which hold the vessels of the stamea between
them, and convey them either to the filaments orthe co- =
rolla; in which they perform the rest of their journey,
as in the primula;- or in a skin that forms an additional
cuticle to the pistil, as in the malva; or in a cylinder that
stands up round the female, as in many flowers. But let
it pass where it will, it always has askin appropriated to
the stamen alone; till it reaches the part where the corolla
‘branches off; and afterward it has no connexion with the
juices of the petals, though lying on them; or with the
_ pistil, though enclosing it; as I shall now show by the
- dissection of a flower: I chose the peach out of several hun-
dreds drawn in the same manner, because it is now in
N 2 season,
ots
e aye ee
ON THE DISSECTION OF FLOWERS.
season, and I could review my sketch; but all flowers in
this respect are the same. |
I shall first dissect the flower by removing skin from skin
How to dissect as the easiest method of making it thoroughly comprehend-
the flower.
Explanation
of the plate,
-
ed. I shall in the second place cut the flower down tlie
middle; halving the pistil; by which means the interior,
with the vessels which run up to each part, must be exactly
displiyed: and lastly I shall give you a vegetable cutting of
the flower, just where the vessels divide under it, and run,
up the bark to form the calyx, the inner bark to form the —
corolla, the wood to form the stamen, and the line of life to
complete the pistil: and this will, I hope, make the descrip-
tion so plain, that I shall not again be obliged to return to
the subject. Plate LV, fig. 1, is the bud of the peach. I
first remove the scales A A, which generally go on,shooting
as long as the severe weather continues. I then with great
ease remove the calyx. It is seldom possible to get it off
whole, as it must be removed without displacing the corolla;
which is difficult todo: but custom soon teaches the way.
The calyx, when taken off, is seen at fig. 2: BB are the
reservoirs of a glutinous liquid, resembling the juices of the
bark, which appear, by varnishing the exterior, to defend it
from the attack of vermin; which from its delicacy would
otherwise cause it to become a complete victim. This part
has no connexion with ‘the nectary, which I shall not at-
tempt to point ont in this letter, but keep that part for a se-
parate paper, which it well deserves, CC are the vessels which _ :
run down till branching offto the bark. Fig. 3 is next taken
off. itis a green skin belonging to the inner bark ; which
is fastened to the corolla, and conveys the regular vessels DD
from the inner bark of the stem to each separate petal.
Within these vessels (as I have before observed) are the
juices of the inner bark, and the spiral wires which are thus
carried up to perform their office of opening and shuiting the
flower. Next to this is fig. 4, which is a very thin skin of
white; and a very thick one of yellow matter between which
are concealed the vessels which convey the juices that form
the pollen, and carry it first to the filaments, and thence to _ ‘
the anthers, ‘Thus they are most plainly three separate cye
Jinders, capable of being divided, and placed together again ;
fig. 4.
=
\
ON THE DISSECTION OF FLOWERS.
fig. 4 laid within fig. 3, and 4 and 8 within fig. 2: the line of
life, and pistil alone being taken out, which are seen at fig. 5.
When these are replaced the flower is perfect, and has been
regularly dissected, as I promised, skin from skin; and be-
tween each cylinder the mechanism 1s concealed, that be-
longs to each division. |
Ofthe many hundreds (i might say thousands) of flowers
dissected in this manner, of every class and order, I never
yet found one that did not admit of this arrangement.- The
gynandria trite is exactly the same with respect to its cys
linders, which are always to be taken offin progressive order;
~
All flowers dise
sectet nearly
the same.
and let the stamens appear where they will in the flowers, —
their vessels always pass up in this manner, whether after-
ward bound to the corolla, the calyx, or the pistil.
I shall now show the flower when divided into two halves,
and cut perpendicularly down the middie. [I have magnified
this much, in order to show how completely the several parts
Perpendicular
section of the
flower through
_are appropriated ; and how separate the line of lifeand pistil the middle,
are from every other division, till they join thestalk. At
fic. 6 are three buds thus cut, without their corollas or ca-
lyxes, but having their own peculiar cylinders, which reach
up to them. All within the points and the letter E is
the pistil belonging to each flower, with the line of life
running up to each pistil; which in the stem bounds the
pith, till it stops, and then runs wp to form the female. It
may be seen dividing the seed at F, and halving the coreu-
lum. G is the interior of the flower, HIK are the three cy-
linders of the stamen, corolla, and calyx; (at last the skins
to which those parts are fastened, and which conveys ihe ves-
sels or mechanism up to them;) and Lis the rind. I have
not properly proportioned the thickness of the cylinders ; as
I feared they would not be seet ; nature requires so thin a
~ skin, to whichit will fasten and adapt such nowerful mechan-
ism, and such a quantity of vessels, that st requires a long
practice io dissection before we can give credit to our sight
in this respect. I have shown several buds starting from
the line.of life, at TTT ; and at w wiil be seen how the ves-
sels arrange themselves. to exter the different par’s of the
» stalk to which they belong. Fig. 7 is now wy last dissection,
_ it is a horizontal cutting of the part taken from fig, 6 at M,
\
‘ : - oh tq
‘
CSS» ee
a
ee eee
Rg Se EE ae ee am
174 ‘ON THE DISSECTION OF FLOWERS.
to show in a still plainer manner how each cylinder runs up
to form its appropriate part; in the flower QO is the bark
separated to torm the calyx ; P the inner bark to form the
So, carolla; Q the wood to convey the nourishment to the sta-
vs Gkies men; and the whole interior between’the poits, belouging to
the pistil and seeds at R; the line of life bounding the part
as wellas leading up the middle. The stamens are perhaps
better marked where there are fewer, I have given two very |
good dissections of this sort of cutting of the boitom ofa
flower in my third letter (see Jourual, vol. X XIE Pl. 1X,
p- 350.) I have said, that it signifies hitle whether the sta-
men, when once past the cylinder, proceeds up the ealyx, |
corolla, or pistil, since it. has equally its peculiar vessels.
Sometimes the stamens are on one side of a flower only ; and
then the cylinder, instead of passing m1 equal thickuess all
round ; is found large only on one side; this is the case in the
cutting of the violet, but it is then even more distinguishable.
Often in dissecting, you tind the stem suddenly en larged ; on
cutting it through the middle, the pith is found still of the
same size, the line of life at the same distance, and the wood
not altered; but the part between the rind and bark extremely
increases. When this is the case, you may be sure that it
is the mechanism belonzing to the leaves, or, that it is a
stem that turns op a ball, as in the afenarias, stellarias, and
caliuams; but it generally denotes the mechanism of the ,
leaves, which is seen if the rind is drawn down. If the size
appears enlarged in the wood, it 1s always the buds which
cause it, and they will be ‘found in numbers starting from
the line of life: (as seen at T fig. 6, or at T fig. 8.)
Laburnum dis» I shall only add to thisletter a branch of laburnum, Plate
sected, V, fie. 1 ; with a section greatly magnified, at fig. 2; in which
are shown the flowers just shooting at V; and the line of life
passing #2pas usual to form the pistil. As all the other parts
are extremely small in proportion, they are not much marked’
in this sketch, which, however, very evidently ‘shows the new
wood, which is always generated for the use of the flower.
buds within the boundaries of the line of life at SS, and the
little line of old wood which runs next the line W. Itis im.
possible, not to see how exactly each bud shoots from the
line of life, and how wholly separate the bark y is from the
rest,
ON THE DISSECTION OF FLOWERS. 1743
rest, and how entirely the new wood or albumen x divides it
from the wood ; it is only to recollect that these are each of
them regular cylinders of different degrees of thickness, ~
having their vessels closely applied on each part, as well as
the mechanism appertaining to them, udhesive to every cir-
‘ele; aud it will be easily understeed bow such delicate and
complicated machinery ca: be each in its separate cylinder,
without interfering or Tain each other.
I explained in my last le.ter, that it was by this means, Uniformity, of
and by a perfect knowledge of the dissection of plants, that "|
I was able to trace the male and female in the cryptoga-
pian class. -[ have by the same analogy proved which are
the most important lines and vessels to the vegetable king-
dom. I did not set up to form a system ; it is dissection alone
that has created it for me; I trusted to the strict conformity
of nature, and never attempted to make one part agree with
the other, but drew the sketch exactly as nature presented
itto me. Yet on looking back, I find they all agree; the
same conformity is maintained throughout. Is not this the
most convincing proof of the exactness and truth of every
‘part? In my next I hope to give a view of the manner in
which the bads shoot in annuals from the stalk; as it is
really so curious and beautiful, it is well worth a letter to
itself. I have also promised one on parasite plants, a very
amusing and also important subject: matter presses on me
som so at this time ofthe year, I cannot draw quick enough
to keep pace with it.
T am, SIR, ’
Your obliged servant,
i AGNES IBBETSON.
I shall add a few lines to mark the constant use of the
screw in all plants, it serves a double purpose: first, that of
covering and concealing the buds; and next, the easily di- -
viding each circle to let them out when ripe. If such a
specimen as fig. 91s taken, and the rind and bark stripped off,
it will appear as at fig. 10; with the wood separating into
threads to let the buds pass and to make a hollow way for .
them. It appears to me, that there requires no other proof
than
176
PERFORATIONS OF PAPER BY ELECTRICITY.
than this to show, that the buds proceed from the interior,
and therefore from the line of life, for nothing can be.more
different than the appearance of this specimen, and o! the
wood in the stem, which is perfectly straiyht, and without any
openings, while these appear in such quantities in fig. 3. Al-
most every tree in the spring shoots its buds in the same
way, but few in such numbers as the laburnum.
ee EN
I.
Remarks on the Perforations made in Paper by Electrical
P y
An experi-
mient in favour
of two eleetric
fluids stated,
Batteries. Ina letter from Mr, Joun Govuen.
To Mr. NICHOLSON.
SIR,
Many philosophers are of opinion, that the phenemena |
of electricity and galvanism are caused by ihe cooperation of
two distinct kinds of subtile matter; which they denominate
the positive and the negative electric fluids. Amongst many
other facts and argument in favour of this hypothesis, the.
following experiments formerly appeared to me as amount-
ing toa proof; because it seemed to be little short of a me-
chanical demonstration. If a quire of writing paper be
placed betwixt the pomts of two metal reds, which are in con-
tact with the opposite sides of it, and the charge of an elec-
trical battery be transmitted through the wires, the bundle
of paper. will be perforated in the direction of a right line
joining their points; and each orifice of the perforation will
‘be surrounded externally by a bur, or prominent rim. The
This experi-
ment called in
question and
defended.
peculiarity of this experitment consists in the two rings or eles
vated borders, which are driven outward in opposite directions
by the force of the discharge; and their presenve is supposed
to prove the existence of two opposite currents ; which strike
the parallel sides of the quire at the same instant, and meet
in the middle of the Brera: after perforating the sheets in con= -
trary directions. é
The preceding experiment happened tobe the subject of
couversation ina company, where 1 hdd the pieasure of meet-
ing Mr. Webster; who lately gave a course) of lectures at »
Kendal ~
Sat 3
e
ff
PERFORATIONS OF PAPFR BY ELECTRICITY.
Kendal in his progress northward to Edinburgh and Glas-
gow ‘This gentleman observed, that he had reason to sus+
pect the accuracy of the foregoing statement; for, when he
undertook to perforate a slip of card paper by an clectrical
discharge, he invaniabiy found but one bur, and this appeared
on the side of the card, which was connected with the nega-
. tive surface of the battery. In-consequeace of this remark,
the gentleman was asked, if the appearance was the same
when the discharge was made from the negative to thy posi-
tive side of the battery, as well as whe: it passed in the oppo-
site direction, namely from the positive to the negative side.
To this question Mr. Webster replied ingenuously, that
he had always made the experiments in the latter manner;
and my predilection for the idea of a double current induced
me to obviate, or at least to weaken the objection, by re-
marking, that, the positive current being put in motion bes
fore the negative fluid, it acquired a preponderance, which
enabled it to drive, the paper in the direction of its own
course, and consequently te raise a single bur, on the side
of the card that was connected with the negative surface of
the battery. { moreover observed in addition to the last re-
mark; that, if the preceding reply to Mr. Webster's cbjec-
~tion had truth for its foundation, the place of the bur might
be removed to the contrary side of the card by inverting the
experiment, so as to give a preponderatice to the negative
current; which would then drive the paper before it, and
4. ;
form an elevated rim on that face of the slip, which was con-
;,
;
ate
nected with the positive surface of the battery.
The want of facts, which is apparent in this discussion,
determined me to repeat the experiment with the variations
and under the conditions, that had been pigseribed by my-
self. For this purpose I procuredseveral slips of card paper;
‘that were cut accurately into the shape of right angled pa-
| rallelograms; and all of them had both their faces divided
- diagonally, each by two diameters intersecting in the centre
i
of the plane. Pieces of tinfoil were then reduced to the
- figure and size of the triangles, which had the shorter sides
of the parallelograms for their bases. One trian: gle rp each
side of a slip, was covered in the next place by one of these
metallic coatings; the pieces of tinfoil being so disposed as
s *
5 / to
177
The method
proposed for
repeating the
experiment,
\
173 PERYORATIONS OF PAPER BY ELECTRICITY.
to make their bases coincide with the oposite ends of the card,
while their points fell upon the centre of the surface to which
they were pasted. This arrangement evidently formed an
intereepted conductor; which obliged the electric charge to
pass through the card paper in a right line perpendicular to
its oposite faces. Perhaps I may be biamed for giving a cir- '
cumstantial descripticn of a very simple contrivance; but
minuteness always appears to me absolutely necessary in ner
lating the manner .of conducting an experiment.
General result. I made the discharge trom ii positive to the negative
oe es side of the battery in my first trial; in consequence of
current. which two burs were raised at the centre of the card;
namely, a small one on the face connected with the positive
coating, which seems to have escaped Mr. Webster’s notice,
and a second on the opposite side of the paper, to which
he directed his attention exclusively. This perforation
bere a strict resemblance to the Holes that a punch makes
ina plate of metal, or other ductile substance; for I found
upon trial, when’ an instrument of this description was
driven forcibly through a card placed on a piece of soft
wood, or through a plate of lead fixed by nails over a hele,
the perforation made by. it was furnished with two burs,
like those produced by the stroke of a battery. The pro-
minent ring surrrounding the upper orifice, where the
operation of the punch began, was small; but the rim on
the opposite or under surface of the card or lead was
comparatively large. The reason of this difference is too
manifest to require an explanation; but the strict analogy »
observable in the two experiments with the battery and -
punch led me to attribute the perforation in the former
case to the action of the positive current alone. When the
experiment was inverted, and the discharge made from the
r
negative to the positive coating of the jars, no alteration
was produced; for the minute bur still kept its place
upon that side of the card which was connected, with the
positive surface of the battery; aud the large bur was —
formed on the opposite side of the paper.
The existence This result shows the futility of my remarks on Mr.
ee negative Webster's objection to a double current; for, if the
id is not de-
onstrated by: positive current procuced the perforation in my first ex-
-periment ©
MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS OF GOLD. 179
periment, the same cause undoubtedly produced the same the experi-
effect in the second case. This conclusion leads to another ™&8%
of still greater importance; for, if the perforations in ques-
tion are invariably made by the positive current, the
experiment under consideration affords no mechanical
evidence, demonstrating the existénce of a negative fluid.
It will not be improper or superfluous to coaclude the
preseut letter by observing, that I made similar trials with
_seyeral slips of writing paper, which were pasted together
. by their ends and coated with tin-foil iike the cards. The
result in this case was always the same; for the less bur was
on the side of the bundle which was connected with the
positive surface of the battery; and when the slips of paper
were separated, the larger bur of each piece pointed to
that face of the bundle which communicated with_ the
negative coating of the jars.
Mipp1LesHaw, JOHN GOUGH.
May 15th, 1812. .
Til.
“On some Preparations of Gold lately employed medicinally :
by A. S. Durortat, M. D. &c., and Tu. PELLETIER,
. Apothecary*.
r Arter having enjoyed some reputation as a medicine, Whe tise ofeold
gold had ceased to be administered to the patient, and as a medicine
| taken an opposite direction. Lately, however, Dr Chrestien lately revived.
of Montpellier, a physician of great reputation and suc-
cessful practicet, has revived its use. Ele has employed it
in siphylitic and lymphatic affections, and chiefly in Clark’s
_mode{. The preparations he uses are metallic gold ina
_ , * Abridged from Aun, de Chim. vol. LX XVIII, p. 38.
+ The gentlemen through whose means Dr. Godden Jones became
“acquainted with the virtues of @Husson’s eau medicinale in the
F gout.) -C. : %
_.{ From a passage in the sequel I imagine Clark is put for Clare ee
"and that it means by rubbing on the inside of the cheek, or on the
’ gums C,. ditch eas
bi state .
»
Iso MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS OF GOLD.
_ state of minute division, oxide of gold precipitated by
potash, the oxide precipitated by tin, and the triple
muriate of gold aud soda. ‘These he considers as superior
to mercurials. Some experiments by Mr. Vanquelin
on the preparations of gold thus introduced into notice,
have already been given*, and we shall now present our
readers with some remarks on the subject by the gentlemen
above mentioned, one of whom enjoyed the advantage
of a personal acquaintance with Dr. Chrestien, at Mont-
pelher.
Gold in pow- The first preparation of gold employed by this physician
“der, was the metal in a state of minute division. To obtain this,
Tiow prepared ‘ aS : é :
by Dr, Chres- he formed an amalgam, by triturativg leaf gold with seven
tien, times its weight of mercury in a marble mortar with a glass
pestle, and then expelling the mercury by means of a pow=
erful lens in the height of summer, or dissolving it out by
pure nitrie acid.
Another mode Fbe present writers fecommend rather to precipitate a
recommended. golytion of muriate of gold by a solution of sulphate of
iron at a minimum, filtering, and washing the precipitate
with water acidulated by muriatic acid, in order to dissolve
out the oxide of iron mingled with the precipitated gold.
When the gold is thoroughly dried, it is in the state of a
r deep brown powder, theugh in the metallic state; all metals
losing their brilliancy by being minutely divided.
Solution of To prepare the oxide of gold precipitated by potash,
god they direct one part of nitric acid at 40° [sp. gr. 1:396]
to be mixed with four of muriatic aeid at 12°[1°089]; and
eupelled gold to be heated with eight times its weight of
this menstrnum in a matrass with a long, narrow neck,
All it boils gently. Wheo no more gold will dissolve at
this temperatare, the solution is to be poured off, and
evaporated to dryness in anoiber matrass by a gentle fire.
The residuum of this evaporation is to be dissolved in dis-
tilled water, and filtered,
ated The filtered solution is to be treated with potash, to.
lash. ‘ separate from it the, oxide of gold: but in this there are ~
creat difficulties, and the whole cannot be thrown down, ~
<<
without part of ic being reduced to the metallic state.
m4
* Journal, vol. KXX, p. 248.
The —
MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS OF GOLD. . §$si
The cause of this is not known ; but the authors ascribe it,
T; to the formation of a solubletriple muriate, which takes
‘place. when the potash is poured into the solution of mus
riate of gold: 2, to the excess of acid always present in this
muriate: 3, to the more or less caustic state of the alkali ~
employed: 4, to the greater or less quantity of this sub-
‘ stance added to the muriate of gold.
‘When a’ solution of caustic potash is poured into a Oxide of gold
I Pp g
saturated solution of gold by muriatic acid, a yellow oli Wa
precipitate is formed*, aan when collected on a filter,
does not amount to more than 40 grs of oxide from 72 grs
‘of the metal in the solution. The remaining hquid is of a triple muri
a very deep colour, and contains a triple muriate of gold Tate remains
; ¥ y in solution <
and potash. A fresh quantity of the caustic alkali will ba. a
cause no farther precipitation, unless the liquid be kept more alkali
several hours in a gentle heat: but in this case a new and heat
throw down
precipitate will fall down, extremely bulky, and of a deeper gold apparent»
colour than the former, and apparently at a different |¥ im 4 differ
ent state of
degree of oxidation. Several weeks are necessary to com- oxidation.
plete the precipitation; and even at last a certain portion
of gold will remain, which must be thrown down by a slip
of tin, if we would lose nothing.
If the solution of gold be very acid, there will be scarce- Rapemtioat
ly any perceptible precipitation: and this might be ex- 2cidity of the
J yP } P P solution to be
' pected, as the alkali finds a sufficient quantity of free avoided.
acid, to form muriate of potash enough for the production
of the triple salt. Indeed no precipitation at all ought to
s
- take place, when the solution 1s extremely acid: but here
experience does not entirely agree with therory, for a very
small quantity of oxide of auld is always produced,
The causticity of the sets is of great importance; Causticity of
4 . - t} al
\ for, if the neutral carbonate be employed, no change will |. ae
portar ie
_ take place without the assistance of heat. This, expelling Action of the
2 considerable portion of carbonic acid gas, will alter the carbonate,
colour of the solution from yellow to greenish. If it be
: then filtered, traces of the purple aide of gold will be
4
ai :
5
re
~
found; and it will effervesce with acids, havin its fine
pele colour restored, A few drops added to a glass of
water will not eolour it; but, if the water be avidulated,
ia
® It is necessary to employ heat.
_ the
/
#182
Crvstals pro-
duced,
Their nature,
Carbonate of
potash sepa-
rates copper
from gold.
Too much al-
kali not to be
employed.
The oxide to-
be washed but
lightly.
Test of its
_ purity,
Oxide preci-
pitated by fin.
Precipitate
with metallic
tin,
i
MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS OF GOLD.
the colour will instantly appear. The same solution yields
by evaporation white, transparent, alkaline crystals, inter-
spersed with black spots. These crystals dissolve in water
without colouring it; .and on filtering the solution it passes
through transparent, leaving a little gold on the filter.
The hdclivion of any acid howaren causes its colour to re-
appear.
What is the chemical nature of the crystals obtained ?
Though this was not minutely ascertained for want of
time, it appears certain, that they were composed of car-
honic and muriatic acid, potash, and geld: but whether -
constituting a quadruple salt, a trisule, or two salts, one the’ |
triple muriate of gold and potash, the other subcarbenate
of potash, the authors cannot say; nor could they form
any judzment from the figure of the salt.
lt may not be amiss to observe, that, in an impure
nitromuriatic solution of gold, saturated carbonate of pot-
ash will precipitate the copper, without throwing down the
gold, if no heat be employed.
As too large a quantity of alkali, added to a solution
of muriate of gold, will cause a portion of the precipitated
oxide to be redissolved; itis necessary, to'add the alkali |
cautiously, boil the solution at every addition of alkali, —
end separate the precipitate by filtration, whenever a sensi- |
ble quantity appears. ‘
The precipitate must be washed but slightly, it being ,
partly soluble in water, as Mir. Vauquelin remarked ; and
it must be dried in the shade and in a cocl place, otherwise
it will be a mixture of oxide and metallic gold. ;
Tt may’ be known whether the oxide be pure, by treating |
it with. muriatic acid, which in this ease will dissolve it
completely ; but, if it be mixed with metallic hy part
will remain undissolved.
The oxide of gold precipitated by tin, which Dr. Chres-
tien also See oraee ae! may be obtained either with metal
tin, or with its solution.
For the first, slips of tin well cleaned are to be put into an
aqueous solution of muriate of gold. These will soon be
covered with a layer of pulverulent matter, of a colour more |
or less deep; which will be renewed several times, after being
removed
MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS OF GOLD. 183
removed, When this ceases to be reproduced, ne liquor is
to be filtered, and the precipitate washed in distilled water,
dried in the shade, and powder red. This is the purple powder
of Cassius.
If the oxide of anid be precipitated by a solution of tin, it Precipitate
is of importance, that the tin beina fixed state of oxidation, ph ale alien
otherwise ihe product wili vary both in its nature and quan-.
tity. A uniform solution may alw ays be obtained by dissolv Preparation of
ing slips of tin in muriatic acid at 12° [1-089], filtering, eva- the saonag dan
porating to the point of crystallization, dissolving the crystals
in pure water, and filtering again, Part of this solution
should immediately be mixed with the liquid muriate of
gold ; and the union of the two salts produces a precipitate,
which should be increased by adding fresh quantities of the
muriate of tin, as long as any thing is thrown down; after
which the precipitate is to be washed, dried, and powdered.
_ The quantity obtained appears to depend on the quantity of
water added to the solutious of goid and tin. The more they
are diluted, the more tin is thrown down. One drachm of
gold, the solution of which was mixed with ten quarts of
water, mixed with a very dilute solution of tin, yielded near
five drachms and half of a very fine purple precipitate.
_ It does not appear to be a matter of indifference which of Difference be-
these two precipitations is used. When metallic tin is em- tween the two
ee : precipitates.
ployed, the precipitate is brown ; and the gold, if not in the
metallic state, 1s nearly approaching it. On, the contrary,
the precipitate produced by muriate of tin at a minimum of
oxidation is of a deep purple colour; and, though it contains
a little metallic gold, has much more of the oxides of gold
and of tin; whence, it is obvious, the efficacy of the two ee
parations cannot be the saime.
The muriate of gold is so greedy of moisture, that it soon Muriate of
deliquesces, whence it can be employed only in the liquid eae
state; and, as its great causticity renders even this difficult,
Dr. Chrestien thought of uniting it with the -muriate of soda;
thas producing a triple muriate, less deliquescent, and less
caustic.
For this purpose a solution of muriate of gold in distilled Triple muriate -
water, obtained as described above, is to be employed; and pele and
‘itis particularly important, that this salt has not an excess of
acid.
1
184
Management
of 'the fire im-
portant,
Dr.Chrestien’s
mode of ems
ploying these
preparations.
This faulty.
Instances of
the efficacy
-orris root, &e. |
Beside this he joined the compounds of gold with extracts:
'
MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS GF GOLD. |
acid. Into this solution is to be poured an aqueous solution
of pure decrepiiated muriate of soda, so as to combine aa
equal quantity of the dry salt with tie gold dissolved. The
two solutions being mixed, the fluid is to be evaporated by
a gentle heat in a glass capsule, taking care to stir it well
toward the end of the process. When the mass is sufficiently
dry, it is to be powdered while hot iu a @lass or stone mortar 3
and the powder is to be kept from moisture, which it attracts
in a slight degree.
{In this preparation the management of the fire is ak ereat
importance: for, 1f the desiccation of the salt be not carried
far enough, it will contain too much aeid; and, if it be urged
too far, it will be in part decomposed, and mixed with a little
aobts x 4
The enlightened physician, who extols the use of these
preparations, employs them exterually and internally; but
recommends them to be mixed with other substances, lest
their action should be too violent, if given alone. Tus for
along time be did not give the triple muriate of gold and
soda otherwise than mixed with twice its weight of a powder
composed of starch, charcoa!, and the lake used by painters.
As the alamine of the last however might take up a portion
of the muriatic acid, and the chareoal wight revive the gold,
Dr, Curesten changed-this powder for that of liquorice root,
,
of the attenuant plants; sugar-with which he forms lozenges;
sirvps, iu which be dissolves them, &c. He mixes them also,
with Galen’s cerate, when he wishes to promete suppuration,
and with, lard, when he would employ them in frictions on
the seles of the feet after the method of Cyrillo.
The writers of the present article do not approve the com-
bination of the preparations of gold with these different sub
stances, as ali vegetable and animal substances, dissolved or
not, revive gold fiom its acid solution. They recommend
them to be given alone, or dissolved in distilled water: or
at least, if they must be mixed, to mix them as short a time
as possible before they are used. ek,
In this way Dr. Duportal asserts that he has found good
effects from them in siphylitic complaints. In a chancre
| ae corroding
&
MEDICINAL PREPARATIONS OF GOLD. 185
corroding one of the corpora cavernosa he found them of of the prepare
real advantage : but the most striking instance of their effi- ations of gold.
cacy was in a cancerous ulcer, that had destroyed the upper
lip, attacked the soft parts of the nose and left cheek, de-
stroyed the square bones [os carrés], and rendered the max-
illary bone carious. Being called to a consultation with
Dr. Payen on this very serious case, in which all the common
methods had been tried in vain, Dr. Duportal hoped to op-
pose the progress of the disease by the use of Dr. Chrestien’s
medicine assisted by attenuant extracts. In consequence
the patient was directed daily to rub into the gums the triple
muriate of gold and soda ; and to take oxide of gold precipi-
tated by potash, with pills composed of tlie extracts of white
henbane, hemlock, and sharp-pointed toadflax. The ulcer
was daily’ washed with Sydenham’s liquid laudanum,
sprinkled over with powder of red bark and camphor, and
dressed with a digestive in which oxide of gold was mixed,
Under this treatment, which has been continued two months
gradually increasing the dose of the substances, the ulcer
has assumed a promising appearance; the carrous points
have disappeared ; the suppuration furnishes laudable pus
in moderate quantity ; the patient daily improves in flesh
and strength ; and there is every reason to believe, that this
evident melioration will continue, That it cannot be ascribed
to the means employed in conjunction with the preparations
of gold is evident, for they had been used previous to these
without effect.
vals 3
Experiments on the Existence of Water in Muriate of Ammonia
formed by the Combination of Muriatic Acid and Ammoni<
acal Gasses. By Mr. Joun Murray, Lecturer on Che«
_mistry, Edinburgh.
To Mr. NICHOLSON.
STR,
ill Have been prevented by different circumstances from
haoh Mr. Murray’s
bestowing any attention until lately on the objections, whic experiment
186 ON THE WATER IN MURIATE OF AMMONIA. ~
have been made to the experiment in my last communica-
tion proving the existence of water in muriatie acid yas.
This I have little reason to regret, as the deficiency has Been
amply supplied by the cuaeia communication from Dr.
a. Bostock and Dr. Traill in the supplement to your last vo-
saa a lume. From the care with which their experiment appears
to have been conducted, it ust be regarded us nearly deci-
sive of the question at issue ; 3 and shiv result coinciding so
exactly with that which 1 had stated to be obtained, while it
is at variance with that affirmed by Messrs. Davies, [ might
probably spare myself the task of taking any notice of the
observations of my opponent. As I have executed some ex-
periments however, which occurred to me on this.subject, a
brief account of the results may not be unacceptable to your
chemical readers.
Admissions of [t has been admitted, that the experiment which I have
EP onen brought forward, if accurate, is conclusive on: the subject of
this discussion. It has also been admitted, that when the
experiment is performed in the manner I desenbed, the r&
sult is that which I stated to be obtained—a sensible and
even a considerable portion of water being produced, when
the salt formed by the combination of muriatic acid and am-
Attempttoob- Moniacal gasses is exposed to heat. But to obviate the con-
viate the cOD- clusion from this it has been asserted, that the salt, while it
clusion fromit. . : 7 . cpt :
is transferring from the vessel in which it is formed ‘to that
in which it is heated, absorbs water from the atmosphere, and
that this is the source of the water it affords. This explan-
ation has been given on the authority of Mr. Davy, who, it
it stated, performed the experiment without obtaining water
when this source of fallucy was avoided. And Mr. J. Davy,
who it seems wus disposed to doubt of the accuracy of my
experiment before he knew of this mode of accounting for
its result, states, that he was informed of it by his ele :
who farther told him, that, if he heated the salt without ex
posure to the air, he would obtain no water. He accordingly
made the experiment as it is described in your Journal (vol.
XXXI,° p. 314), and found no water to be produced ; but
when the experiment was made inthe manner I had performed
it, “* water in no inconsiderable quantity was evolved :” and
thus, it is added, ‘* we have a demonstration, that the water
librated
ON THE WATER IN MURIATE OF AMMONTAe 187
- librated in Mr. Murray’s experiment was not derived from
the muviatic gas, but from the atmosphere.”
It might have been expected, that the first step these That muriate
geutlemen would have taken, when they assigned this as the aac
source of the water obtained, would have been to prove its from the air
reality; and to show by experimental evidence, that the salt Ponape
_ on which they operated has the power of attracting water
from the atmosphere. No such evidence however is given ;
but the existence of this property is inferred from the result
of an experiment, which may have arisen from causes alto-
gether different. Admitting for a moment the accuracy of The experi-
i ment of
Messrs. Davies
ed after exposure to the air, while none is obtained when it not conclusive.
is héated without this exposure, is no proof, that the water
in the former case has been absorbed from the atmosphere ;
for in making the experiment in these two modes, the sole
difference is not the admission or exclusion of the air, nor is
the sole operation of the air thai of affording moisture; there
are other circumstances of difference equally important, and
which it is easy to perceive must influence the result.
Thus the principal difficulty in the original experiment, so Principal dif-
as to render it conclusive, arises from the volatility of the ee oe tie
: ginal ¢xXpe-
ammoniacal salt, and the inconsiderable interval of temper- riment. .
ature between that point at which any water it may contain
“can be separated from it by heat, and that. point at which the
salt itself will’ pass into vapour. In consequence of this it
must require a nice regulation of temperature to obtain the
ove effect without the other; and from this very circume
stance, even had water not been obtained in the experiment
-as I first performed it, it could not have been affirmed, that
it did not exist in the salt. Now this difficulty it is obvious ‘phic particu.
is much greater, when heat is applied to a thin layer of salt larly maw *
Shameea over the whole internal surtace of a retort, than ene te its
when it is applied to the same quantity of salt collected in
mass at the bottom ofa retort; andit must indeed be nearly
impracticable to apply the heat in the former case with such
a precise adaptation to the relative volatilities of the water
and the salt, as to expel the former without volatilizing the
latter. If the heat therefore is kept sufficiently low not to
volatilize the salt, and especially if care is taken to keep it
O2 still
their experiment, the obtaining water when the salt is heat-
188
4
and ought, on
their own prin-
ciple, to pre-
vent the ap-
pearance of
water.
Other objec-
tions to their
experiment.
The cause
they assume
for the appear-
ance of water
fallacious,
/
ON THE WATER IN MURIATE OF AMMONIA.
still lower than this, it is possible, that there may b
no apparent production of water. If the salt too has any
power of absorbing water, inferior even to what, these
gentlemen suppose, it is evident, that the portion of it in
the upper part and curvature of the neck of the retort must
absorb the small portion of water, that may be volatilized
by a moderate heat applied to the salt at the bottom, or
in the body of the retort; and according therefore to the’
assumption they themselves maintain, no water ought te
appear in’ this mode of making thd experiment, evén
though the salt may contain it. Farther, if any pressure
is present in consequence of the arrangement by which the
air is excluded, (and Mr. Davy’s experiment is not suffici-
ently described, to enable us to determine whether this were
the case or not,) this must retard or prevent the separation
of the water. And lastly, when the air is excluded, that
agency of it by which it promotes the transition of every sub-
stance into vapour by heat, lately so well illustrated by Gay-
Lussac*, is prevented from operating; and the same result
with regard to the expulsion of water in vapour from any
matter containing it cannot be obtained, as when a commu-
nication with the atmosphere is preserved. It was to ob-
viate some of these circumstances, that I performed the ex-
periment in the manner in which it was originally executed.
All of them however are neglected by Messrs. Davies, though
it is obvious, that their influence must be important; and
to account fer the result they are said to have obtained, the
supposition is introduced of the salt attracting water from
the atmosphere, without any experimental evidence being
given, that it has any such power. ) , .
I was satisfied prior to any experimental investigation, that
the cause thus hypothetically assigned is altogether fallacious.
When asoluble substance attracts water from the atmosphere,
it continues to attract it, until it becomes humid, and is at -
length diseolved, This is the case with potash, muriateof
lime, acetate of potash, and indeed every salt known to ab-
sorb water from the air; and it follows from the very property
itself. The deliquescent substance imbibes water in conse=
quence of the strong attraction it has to it; and this attrace
tion must continue to operate, until an equilibrium between
* Mémoires DArcueil, tom: 1, p. 204. it
’
ON THE WATER IN MURIATE OF AMMONIA. ; 189
\
it and the force of cohesion is attained; and ina soluble sub-
stance therefore must continue until it is dissolved. No such
property belongs however to muriate of ammonia; every
chemist knows, that in an atmosphere in a common state of
dryness it 1s not deliquescent, but remains dry for any
length of time. There is no reason to believe, that it is ca-
pable of absorbing water short of that quantity, which shall
produce sensible humidity; and it is altogether an extrava-
gant assumption, that it can absorb water with such rapidity,
as in a few minutes to imbibe that considerable quantity
which it yields when exposed to heat. With regard te any
hygrometric effect from the loose pulverulent state of the The salt cans
salt, itvis not less extravagant to suppose, that it could "ot act hygroe
operate so speedily, or to such an extent as is necessary to RE
account for the result of the experiment ; or that it could
operate after the salt had been heated, so as to enable it to
afford the quantity which even then it yields*.
Fortunately the determination of this point is not attended Ty, point edb
with any peculiar difficulty. It may be ascertained by ex- sily determin-
periment, whether the salt does absorb water or not from the ink
air, and whether the water which it yields when heated is
derived from this source. '
I first performed the experiment of heating the salt with- Experiment
out its having been exposed to the air. In a small retort, described.
over dry qnicksilver, | combined in successive portions 25
cubic inches of ammoniacal gas, which had been dried by
exposure to lime, with muriatic acid yas, which had been
exposed. to muriate of lime, adding at the end an excess of
ammoniacal yas to ill the retort. The retort was then turned
_over in sach a manner, that the extremity of it) acc was
kept under the quicksilver, and an inverted jar idied with |
quicksilver was placed over it. The body of tlie retort being
_ surrounded with sand, heat was applied by an Argui.d’s icmp
\
* After the salt has afforded water by being heated, I had found it
__ to afford an additional portion, when it is expuscd to a strouger heat.
It is also stattd in ‘your Journal (vol. XX XT, p. 237,) thar water may
be-obtained trom the salt successively by heating it repeatedly, if1i is
exposed io the atmosphere fora few minutes each time, ane it isuldrd,
that in this way I might have obtained water tu the amount <f thrice
the weight of the salt. No doubt, ifthe saitthus absorbs water, it may
continue to afford it to fifty times its weight,
% with
190
This repeated
in different
ways.
ON THE WATER IN MURIATE OF AMMONIA.
with a double wick; and afterward the heat was apphied to
the naked retort. In about ten minutes moisture appeared
in the neck, and continued to accymulate, so that a dew
covered a space of about two inches in length, and united
into small globules. At the end of the experiment the
salt was found to be sublimed entirely into the upper part
of the body of the retort, and the curvature of its neck.
This experiment was repeated under different forms. In
one, the two gasses were combined in small successive
portions in the upper part of a long glass tube over dry
quicksilver. The combination being completed, the tube,
which had such adegree of curvature towards the middle of it,
that, wheu placed horizontally, its extremity could be kept
immersed in quicksilver, was turned over iuto this horizontal
position, and ignited charcoal was placed around part of it,
so that beat was communicated to its closed extremity, where
the salt was collected, sufficient to volatilize it. Moisture
in this case also was condensed on the sides of the tube. And
“in all the experiments, which were performed, sensible
Exposure of
the salt to the
air for 15’ had
no effect on
the result,
Experiment to
ascertain,
whether the
quantities of water were obtamed*, ‘
T next repeated the experiment in another form. The salt
was formed by the combination of the gasses in the retort, or
in the tube as before. But previous to applying heat to it,
it was left expused for fifteen minutes to the air. The ex-
tremity of the neck of the retort or of the tube being then
immersed in quicksilver, heat was applied as before, and as
nearly as possible in the same manner, and to the same ex-
tent. The condensation of moisture was soon apparent, but
the quantity was not greater, so far as could be estimated,
than was obtained from the salt heated without having been.
exposed to the atmosphere. This exposure therefore, when
the other circumstances of the experiment were the same,
had no influence on the result.
I next proceeded to ascertath by more direct experiment,
whether the salt does attract any moisture or not from the
atmosphere, A glass bottle of the capacity of six cubic
* A few of the words toward the close of this paragraph were so
obliterated by the soy that it was necessary to supply them by con.
jecture. C,
inches
ON THE WATER IN MURIATE OF AMMONTA, “191
inches was filled with dry ammoniacal gas; muriatie acid a atitee
gas, which had been exposed to muriate of lime, was added moisiure,
to it over dry quicksilver, and successive portions of the two
gasses were introduced, until about 24 cubic inches of mu-
riatic acid gas had been combined, the salt formed condensing
over nearly the whole internal surface of the bottle. It was
then filled wita dry ammoniacal gas, and, a stopper fitted to
it being introduced under the quicksilver, it was removed,
and accurately weighed in a very sensible balance. The
stopper was removed for a moment to allow the ammoniacal
gas to escape, and atmospheric air to enter in its place. The
bottle gained immediately 0°6 of a grain in weight from the
substitution of the one air for the other. The stopper was
again removed, and was placed in the scale, and no farther
weight was gained. At the end of five minutes it remained
perfectly the same, at the end of ten minutes it still remained
exactly balanced; at fifteen minutes it was still stationary ;
at twenty minutes there appeared to be a very slight indi-
cation of increase of weight in the bottle; at the end of half
an hour from the commencement of the weighing this was
more apparent, and amounted to about 2° on the scale of
the balance ; at the end of an hour it had increased to 5°;
and at the end of two hours to 10°. This total increase was
found equal to 0°5 of a grain; the salt collected from the
bottle weighed 13 grs; being wrapped loosely in paper it re--
mained perfectly dry ; and. after two days its weight was
found to be as nearly as possible the same.
The result of this experiment proves, that muriate ivracke that it
ammonia formed by the combination of muriatic acid and 48 ®°-
amimoniacal gasses absorbs no moisture from the air, or at
least none which can account for the production of water
‘from it when it is exposed to heat. Two or three minutes
are sufficient to transfer it. from the vessel in which it is
formed to that in which it is heated, During this time,
and even for 15 minutes, it does not absorb the smallest —
portion of moisture, for it gains no weight whatever; at the
end of an hour the increase of weight was not more than
0°25 of a grain; and the total increase at the end of two
hours was not equal to.one fourth of the weight of water,
which the salt yields by heat. Nor is there apy certainty,
that
Farther proof,
that it does
not.
These exper
ments conclu-
sive,
ON THE WATER IN MUREIATE OF AMMONIAe
that any part of this increase of weiglt arose from the
absorption of humidity. It was more probably owing to
the ammoniacal gas not being entirely expelled, when the
stopper was first withdrawn, but being retained by a slight
force in the interstices. of the salt, and being only slowly
detached by the atmospheric air. It was also not a uniform
result, andia a subsequent experiment, in which the gasses
were combined in a globe furnished with a stop cock,
there was rather a very slight diminution of weight.’ The
two experiments therefore are conclusive in proving, that
this salt does not absorb humidity from the atmosoliere.
One other experiment afforded a very satisfactory de-:
monstration, that the muriate of ammonia formed by the
combination of its coustituent gasses bas no power of ab-
sorbing water either. by chemical attraction, or by what is”
Mined, hygrometric ‘affinity. In the experiment in which
water was expelled from the salt by heat, the mouth of the
retort or of the tube was closed, and the moisture con-
densed on its sides was thus submitted to the action of the
salt in the most favourable manner; it must therefore have
been quickly absorbed, bad the salt any power of attracting
water, such as has been supposed ; but it remained without
any diminution for a number of hours; and even after
twenty-four hours the globules of water remained apparent,
It is impossible to cauceive a result, which can prove more
satisfactorily that the salt has no such power.
These experiments then I consider as conclusive in
refuting the supposition, by which it bas been attempted
to account for the water afforded by this salt when it is
heated, that it is water which it has absorbed from the at
mosphere, It is found, that it affords water when it 1s heated
withovt having been exposed to the atmosphere; that the
quantity it does afford is, as nearly as can be estimated,
as great as that which it yields when it has been previously
exposed; that it does not absorb humidity from atmos-
pherie air in its usual state of dryness; and that it does
not even reabsorb the water, which bas been expelled from
;
it by heat. The original experiment then, I trust, lL may |
consider as’ remaining in full. force, and as affording a
conclusive procf of the existence of water in muriatic acid
gas, and a proof of course of the falsity of the hypothesis
which Mr. Davy has endeavoured to GEiend I
,
%
ON THE WATER IN MURIATE OF AMMONTAe
* [have no wish to enter on the discussion of the remain-
ing observations of Mr. J. Davy in his last communication.
I ouly feel myself called on to make one or two remarks on
his assertion with regard co the accuracy of his own and his
brother’s experiments, and the inaccuracy of mine. He
thinks proper to say, that all my experiments have been found
to be incorrect; that I have advanced no arguments, that
have not been answered, no experiments. the acouracy of
which has been admitted. I shall merely meet these
assertions by recalling in a very brief manner to the notice
of your readers, the fact originally established by my ex-
ie)
uu
periments, the various kinds of denial which Messrs,
Davies gave to them, and the admission which they have
at length been compelled to yield io them.
‘At the commencement of this controversy 1 had affirmed,
that, when dry carbonic oxide, hidrogen, and oximuriatic
acid gasses are submitted to mutual action, the carbonic
oxide disappears, and carbonic acid is obtained, They
193
Remarks on
Mir. Davy’s
last communie
cation,
The conversion
of carbonic
oxide into cars
bonic acid by
oximuriatic
gas
opposed to this the supposition, that the conversion of car- first denied by
bonic oxide into carboric acid was owing to the decompo-
sition of water admitted to examine the product; or to the
presence of atmospheric air, or the intermixture of a com-
pound of oximuriatic acid and oxigen in the oximuretic
gas | employed: and they affirmed, that, when these
sources of fallacy were avoided, and particalarly when am-
- monia was employed to condense the product, the carbonic
oxide remained unchanged, and no carbonic acid was
formed*. ‘Though satisfied of the futility of these’ sup-
positions, I repeated the experiment, with this variation;
and still obtained the same result, the disappearance of the
carbonic oxide, and the production of carbonic acid when.
the salt formed by the ammonia was decomposed by an
acid. Still Messrs. Davies attempted to deny these re-
sults; and to support them in this dental they had recourse
to some very singular methods+. They repeated my ex-
periment to prove it incorrect, but instead of executing it
jn the manner in which I had performed it, as common
candour, and common accuracy required, they diminished
* Journal, vol. XXVIII, p. 200, &c. vol. XXIX, p. 235.
" Ibid, vol. XXIX, p. 42, 188.
ie the.
!
Messrs, Davies
Ja
»
“194 ON THE WATER IN MURIATE OF AMMONI Ac
the proportion of hidrogen to less than one half, (using
four measures te ten of carbonic oxide instead of equal
meusures) thus not only altering it in a material circum-
stance, but withdrawing as far as possible the very circum-
stance, which Ll had held essential. to its success. And to
prove, that the results of iny experiments had arisen from
the presence of atmospheric air, or of moisture in the gasses,
they brought forward an experiment, in which both these
were allowed to operate, instead of being excluded; and
then contended, that the partial conversion of carbonie
oxide into carbonic aeid, which they did obtain, arose from
the very sources of fallacy, which it ought to have been
their care to exclude, but which they thus chose to admit.
thet admitted At leugth, after all these attempts, Mr. J. Davy an-
> ipa J. nounced the discovery of a new gas, a compound as he
a supposed of oximuriatic acid and carbonic oxide, by the
operation of which he farther supposed the formation of
carbonic acid might be accounted for in conformity to his
brother's hypothesis; and then he at once admitted what
I had uniformly a-serted, and what he and his brother had
before as steadily denied, that the carbonic oxide disappears,
and that carbonic acid is obtained, when the ammoniacal
salt is decomposed by an acid. ‘* Repeating my experi-
ment on the exposure of the three passes to light,” he
detected, “ after the addition of ammonia, no traces of car-
bonic oxide;” and he perceived ‘ an effervescence of the
4¢ ammoniacal salt with nitric acid,’”? which effervescence he
farther admits to be owing to carbonic acid*, These are
the precise results I had obtained. How then ean Mr. J.
Davy venture to. assert, that there are no experiments of
mine the accuracy of which has been admitted? or how does
he reconcile the admissions he now makes with the former
positive assertions by himself and his brother, that, mm the
inutual action of these three gasses, the carbonic oxide re-
mains uuchanged, and no carbome acid is formed ?
Vee tiers There is one mode indeed, by which he throws some
effected indie Obscurity oyer this result of the controversy. He main-
rectly. tains, that the production of carbonic acid in these experi-
ments zs effected in an indirect mode; the oximuriatic acid
* Journal, vol, XXX, p. 30, vol. XXXI, p. 312,
. - and.
ON THE WATER IN MURIATE OF AMMONIA.
4
and the carbonic oxide he supposes combine and form an
acid gas, which unites with the ammonia; and when the
salt formed by this union is decomposed by an acid, this
gas he imagines decomposes water, and forms muriatic
195
and carbonic acids. I have already given my reasons, -
which I need not repeat, for considering every thing re-
Jating to this gas as at present in the highest degree doubt-
fuls and with ‘regard to its supposed agency in decomposing
water I also pointed out to him an inconsistency in. his
statement, which he calls imaginary, but which is real, and
remains still unexplained. While he supposed, by a very
circuitous mode of reasoning, that it decomposes: water, I
observed to him, that he had not ascertained the fact; and
that he had even stated as one of the properties of this gas, that
it is “very slowly absorbed by water,” a statement directly
at variance with the supposition, that it decomposes water;
for the result of this decomposition must be an tstanta-
neous reduction of volume by the absorption of the muriatic
acid, which is one of its products, and a rapid absorption
of the carbonic acid, which is its other product. He has
accordingly since stated, that the gas, immediately on
coming into contact with water, is decomposed, and con-
verted into carbonic and muriatic acid gasses: aud hé adds
“in my first notice of the gas [ mentioned its being ap-
parently slightly absorbed hy water only among its most
obvious qualities, those which made the first impression on
me, and led me to consider it as a new substance.”
‘But he forgets to explain how ina result so obvious, and
in which there appears to be no room for fallacy, he should
first have found, that this gas is very slowly absorbed by
water; and afterward, when I had pointed out to him that
this was incompatible with his supposition that it decom-
poses water, that he should have discovered, that immedi-
ately on coming into contact with water it is resolved tnto
muriatic and carbonic gasses, pee must be quickly
absorbed.
Inconsistency~
in his state-
ment still une
explained.
These are points however, on the consideration of which g,,ther she
it is not necessary to enter. Whatever importance may be marks on the
attached to them as connected with the discussion on the
nature of oximuriatic acid, they are of no importance in
regard
subject.
~
Fi
y
2
196
uther res
Marks on the
subject.
ON THE WATER IN MURIATE oF: AMMONIA.
regard to the ultimate results of the experiments. » The.
question in this point of view is not how carbouie acid is
formed, whether directly or indirectly, but whether it is
formed at all. Messrs. Davies affirmed, in contradiction
to what I stated, that dt és not formed. Mr. J. Davy now
admits, that it 2s formed: and he may account as he is able
for these opposite assertions: or, to remove the sheht
ambiguity which arises from involving the statement of the.
fact of the production of carbonic acid with the inquiry as
to the manner in which it is produced, let the questian be
restricted to the effect on the -carbonic oxide. I had
uniformly affirmed, that it disappears. Messrs. Davies
asserted, as the results of repeated experiments, that. it
remains unchanged*, But Mr. J. Davy now tells us,.
that it does disappear, so that no traces of it can be dise
covered after the addition of ammonia. On this I shall
offer no comment, but rest satisfied with the simple state-
ment of the fact; and if Mr. J. Davy after this thinks
proper to repeat his assertions on the accuracy of his and
his brother’s experiments, and on the inaceuracy of mine,
Air H. Davy’s
OPO load
BF)
NOOTY.s
hot @
{ shall certainly not feel it incumbent on me to take any
netice of them. Allow me to add; that I regret having
been compelled to make these observations; but I conceive
Ishould be wanting in what I owe to myself, did 1 not’
repel assertions so injurious and unwarranted; and I believe
I have done so in terms less severe than what the occasion.
might justify. | |
What farther relates to the general reasening on. this
contreversy, I leave altogether to the judgment of your
readers. Mr. J. Davy “ confesses himself totally at a loss
to understand” how I have shown what he calls the theory
of his brother (though: strictly speaking it is entitled to
ne.ther of these appellations) to bean hypothesis: he still
considers it he informs us as an expression ef facts in all its
essential parts, to the exclusion of hypothesis; and I have
_ advanced it seems no arguments, that have not been
answered. op
I had supposed Mr. J. Davy to have been peculiarly |
unfortunate in his attempts to answer these arguments; and
* Journal, vol, XXVILU, p. 201, vol. XXIX, pp. 42, 985.
ad
ON THE WATER IN MURIATE OF AMMONIA. 107
had supposed the question, whether this doctrine is a
theory or an hypothesis, to have been brought into that.
point of view, that it was too obvious to bear any farther
discussion. I may be mistaken in this; but still I cannot
persuade myself, that there is auy necessity for my entering
on any recapitulation ox extension of the arguments I have
employed. With many of your readers they may have
more weight than with my opponents; and my want of
suc¢ess in the latter respect, it is possible, may be owing
net so much to deficiency in the argument, as in the per-
son‘to whom it is addressed; for one who, like Mr. J.
Davy, coyld not distinguish between an inference from a
fact, and the expression of the fact itself*; who could
confound an insulated fact, which his hypothesis did not.
explain, with an ultimate fact of which no explanation was
to be expected, and who could call this fact cne of the
axioms of the sciencet; can hardly be expected, even with
the most candid dispositions, to discriminate very accurately
between the nicer limits, by which theory and hypothesis
are defined. I shall not attempt therefore to convince this
gentleman, but shall leave ‘him in full possession of the
belief (if he seriously entertains it) that he has answered al!
my arguments, refuted all my experiments, and established
his brother’s opinion as a genuine theory.
I shall only add, that the late progress of chemical Relation of _
discovery has shown, that there is nothing peculiar in the A alaaiee Sey
relation of muriatic acid to water, such as is maintained peculiar.
in the common doctrine. The able researches of Gay-
Lussac and Thenard and of Berthollet have shown, that
all the more powerful acids, the sulphuric, nitric, phos-
phoric, and fluoric, contain combined water, from which
they cannot be obtained free in an insulated state. ‘Those
of your readers, who feel an interest on this subject, wili
find a summary of these researches in the supplement to the
second edition of iny System of Chemistry, lately published,
- [ have the honour to be,
: Your most obedient servant,
Edinburgh, May 31, 1812. JOHN MURRAY.
* Journal, vol. XXIX, pp. 39, 195.
t Ibid, vol. XXVILi, pp. 199, 392.
Y.
193
| V.
a
METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL.
ee
PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE.
1812. {Wind} Max. Min. Med. | Max./ Min{ Med. Evap.| Rain
5th Mo.
May 4\N Ej 29°86] 29°78] 29°820) 63 | 38-].50°5 | — >
5| E } 30°01} 29°86] 29°935! 64 | 40 | 52:0 | —
6} E | 30°01} 29°98 | 29°995| 60 | 42 | 510 | —
7| EK | 29°94] 29°86] 29°900] 58 | 45 | 51°5 | ‘70
8iS “E |] 29°86}: 29:73: 129795) 76 | 51 | 63:5 1 ee
9S WI 29°78] 29°68 | 29°736! 72 |} 53 | 62°5 | 90} —
10} W | 29°82} 29°56 | 29690] 64 | 56 | 66°0 | — | °20
1IIN W) 29°50] 29°54] 29°550] 65 | 49 | 57:0 | —|] -02
121S W] 29°53 4. 29°51 [297520] 65 | 44 )-54-5 7 weet #43
i3| § | 29°56} 29°50] 29°530! 60 | 40 | 50°0 | -44] -15
14) S | 29°75) 29°56] 29°655| 58 | 40 | 49°0 | ed -—
15IN E] 29°95] 29°75 | 29°850| 57 | 43 | 50°0 | 1-10
16} N | 30°00} 29°95 | 29°975| 62 | 45 | 53°5 1°36} 2
I7IN E} 29°95] 29°87] 29 910] 53,4 45 | 49°0 | —]. FIs
181 E. | 29°87] 29°80] 29°835! 63. |. 48 } 55°35 | —# —'e@
19] E | 29°80} 29°63] 29°715| 66 | 53 |-59°5 | —-# +44
20)8 YW) oo a 65 | 53 | 59:0 — §
21)Var.| 29°94} 29°65} 29'785) G11 45 1 530 | —] °60
291N WL 30°18] 29°98] 30°080] 52 | 35 | 43:5 | —
231 EB | 30°27} 29°98] 30°125] 61 | 40 | 51°5 | °32
24/8 E} 30°27} 30°11] 30°190} 57°} 52 | 5495 1 — 4
25'S WI 30°11} 29°98] 30°045| 62 | 53 | 575 | —
96'S WI 29°98] 29°55] 29°765| 72 | 55 | 63-5 | °43 oO
271 S | 29°59} 29°55] 29°570} 71 | 51 4 61:0 | —
28'S E} 29°69] 29°59 29°640) GO | 54] O15 | —| Th
29,5 W] 29°84] 29°69} 29-765] 72 | 53 | 625 | —1 -2s
30| S | 29°76] 29°74] 29°750] 67 | 52 | 59'S | G5.
311 S | 29°754 29°72} 29°735] 65 | 54] 59°5 | ——} 10)
29°72 | 29835; Go | 46 | 55:0 | 28] 4}
* 29°50] 29.810) 76 | 35 | 53°46
June 1/8 W 29°95
50°27
4°08 |2 30].
The observations in each line of the Table apply to a period of twenty-four hours
beginning at 9 A.M. on the day findicated in the first column. A dash denotes that
the resvit is included in the next following observation, ; e
NOTES.
METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL.
NOTES.
Fifth Month. 4,5,6, Much dew. 7. Windy. 8. Windy:
cirro-cumulus and cumulo-stratus: wind S. above: thun-
der clouds: the evening twilight was luminous and coloured :
the clouds dispersing, and scattered in loose flocks over the
rich ground of the western sky, presented a striking appear-
ance, 9. Shower very early: Wind S. cirrus, cirro-cum ulus:.
evening, much wind. 10. A.m. overcast: a gale from the
W, with much cloud: showers: p. m. clear and pleasant ;
‘11. Ashower early: cumulo-stratus prevails. 12. Showers.,
13. A thunder shower, with hail, about 3 p.m. 14, Show-
ers. 15,17. Cloudy, windy. 18. A.m. small rain: wined
N. gentle: p.m. sunshine. 19. A. m. Wind E. pretty.
strong: clouds of different kinds, with haze above: p. m.
thunder clouds: in the evening came on a violent thunder
storm, which lasted several hours; it was chiefly to the S.
and W. The appearances were very similar to those of the
destructive hail storm, which occurred here in the same
month, and on the same day of the month, and nearly at the
same time of the day, in 1809: sheets of blue and white
lightning came in quick succession, with an almost conti-
nual rolling of thunder. We had however no hail (being only
on the flank of the storm) but sudden and heavy showers of
warm rain; which was of the same amount in the upper as
in the lowergauge. Atll, p.m.wind N. E. it still lightned
far in the N. 20. A.m. wind W. cloudy.and misty. 23.
About noon, during a shower, it thundered to the south-
ward. 99, A little thunder to the S. W. about 4 p.m. with -
a few drops: wet mght. 31. An electric shower about 9,
a.m. Nimbi: windy night.
a
RESULT.
Winds variable.
®arometer: highest observation 30°27 inches; lowest 29°50 inches;
Mean of the period 29-810 inches.
Thermometer: highest observation 76°; lowest 35°;
Mean of the period 55°46°.
Evaporation 4:08 inches. Rain 9'36 inches.
- -PLatstTow. < L. HOWARD.
Sixth Month, 1812, :
of | VI.
199
Visit to the
pitch lake of
Trinidad,
Porcelain jas-
PCTS
The lake de-
‘scribed.
PITCH LAKE IN TRINIDAD;
VI.
Account of the Pitch Lake of the Isead of Trindad.. By
Nrcnoxias Nucent, M. D,, THERON HE Geol. Soc.*
Berna desirous to visit the celebrated Lake of ma cies
previously to my departure from the island of Trinidad, L:
embarked with that intention in the month of October,
1807, 10 a small vesse! at Port Spain. After a pleasant
sail of about thirty miles down the gulf of Pavia, we
arrived at the point la Braye, so called by the French from
its characteristic feature. It is a considerable headland,
about eighty feet above the level of the sea, and per-
haps ‘two miles long and two broad. We landed on the
southern side of the point, atthe plantation of Mr. Vessigny:
as the boat drew near the shore, [ was struck with the ap-
pearance of a rocky bluff or'small promontory of a reddish
brown colour, very different from the pitch which I had ex-
pected to find on the whole shore. Upon examining this |
spet, I found it composed of a substance coresponding to
the porcelain jasper of mineralogists, generally ofa red
colour, where it had been exposed to the weather, but of
light slate blue in the mterior: it 1s avery hard stone with
a conchoidal fracture, some degree of lustre, andis perfectly
opake, even at the edges: in some places, from the action of
the air, it was of a reddish or yellowish brown, and an earthy |
appearance. I wished to have devoted more time to the inves
tigation of whatin thelanguegeof the Wernerian schoolisterm-
ed the geognostic relations of this spot, but my companions
were anxious to proceed. We ascended the hill, which was
entirely composed of this rock, to the plantation, where we
procured a negro guide, who conducted us through a wood
about three quarters of a mile. We now perceived a stroog
sulphureous and pitchy smell, like that of burning coal, and
soon after had a view of thelake, which at first sight appeared
to be an expanse of still water, frequently ‘inde ene by
clumps of dwarf trees, or islets of rushes and shrubs: but
'
| ‘ )
* Trans, of the Geol, Society, vol. I, p. 69.
ON
PITCH LAKE IN TRINIDADs 20]
bn a nearer approach we found it to be in reality an exten-
_sive plain of mineral pitch, with frequent crevices and
chasms filled with water. The singularity of the scene was
altogether so great, that it was some time before I] could re-
cover from my strprise so as to investigate it minutely.
‘The surface of the lake is of the colour of ashes, and at this
season was not polished or smooth so as to be slippery; the
hardness or consistence was such as to bear any weight,
and it was not adhesive, though it partially received the
impression of the foot; it bore us without any tremulous
motion whatever, and several head of cattle were browsing
on it in perfect security. In the dry season however the
surface is much more yielding, and must be in a state ap-
proaching to fluidity, as is shown by pieces of recent wood
and other substances being enveloped in it. Even large Branches of
_ branches of trees, which were a foot above the ijevel, had in ea ons its
some way become enveloped in the bituminous matter. The toped with
interstices or chasms are very numerous, ramifying and pitch,
joiuing in every direction, and in the wet season being filled i siripid in the
with water, present the only obstacle to walking over the
surface; these cavities are generally deep in proportion to
their width, ‘some being only a few inches in depth, others
several feet, and many almost unfathomable: the water in 4lled with
them is good and uncontaminated by the pitch ; the people 804 water,
of the neighbourhood derive their supply from this source, and
refresh themselves by bathing init: fish arecaught in it, and containing
_ particularly a very good species of mullet. The arrangement eh
of the chasms is very singular, the sides, which of course
are formed of the pitch, are invariably shelving from the
surface, so as nearly to meet at the bottom, but then they
bulge out towards each other with a considerable degree of
convexity. This may be supposed to arise from the tendency
in the pitch slowly to coalesce, whenever softened by the
intensity. of the Sun’s rays. These crevices iare known oc-
casionally to close up entirely, and we saw many marks or
seams from this cause, How these crevices originate it may
not be so easy to explain. One of our party suggested,
that the whole mass of pitch might be supported by the
water, which made its way through accidental rents, but in
the solid state it is of greater specific gravity than water, for
Vou. XX XIT— JULY, 1812. : ae several
-202 - - PITCH LAKE IN TRINIDAD.
Islets inthe several bits thrown into the pools immediately sunk®, The
lake. _ lake (L call it so because I think the common name appro-
priate enough) contains many islets cevered with long grass
and shrubs, which are the haunts of birds of most exqui-
site plumage, as the pools are of snipe and plover, Alli-
gators are also said to abound here, but it was not our lot to
encounter any of these animals. It is not easy to state pre-
cisely the extent of this great collection of pitch; the line
between it and the neighbouring soil is not always well de-
fined, and indeed it appears to form the substratum of the
surrounding tract of laid. We may say, however, that it is
bounded on the north and west sides by the sea, on the
south by the rocky eminence of porcelain jasper, before
mentioned, and on the east by the usual argillaceous soil
of the country; the main body may perhaps be estimated
at three miles in circumference; the depth cannot be ascer-
tained, and no subjacent rock or soil can be discovered.
Vegetation on Where the bitumen is slightly covered by soil, there are
it where there 5 : ‘ oes ;
: ina : ; of cassava, plantains, and pine apples ‘
tfashin et. plantations of cassava, pl P p pples, the last of
Its extent.
which grow with luxuriance, and attain to great perfection.
There are three or four French and one English sugar
estates in the immediate neighbourhood ; our opinion of
the soil did not, however, coincide with that of Mr. Ander-
son, who, in the account he gave some years ago, thought
The surface of lt’ very fertile. Itas worthy of remark, that the main body
the pitch of the pitch, which may properly be called the lake, is situ-
eat leks ate higher than the adjoining land, and that you descend
neighbouring by a ange slope to the sea, where the pitch is much con-
mend, fated by the sand of the beach. During the dry sea-
Much sofien- son, as I have before remarked, this pitch is much softened,
ed in the dry :
season. So that different bodies have been known slowly to sink in
it; if a quantity be cut out, the cavity left will be shortly
filled up: and I have heard it related, that when the Spa-
* Pieces of asphaltum are, I believe, frequently found floating on
the Dead Sea in Palestine, but this arises probably from ‘the extraor-
dinary speeific gravity of the waters of that lake, which Dr. Marcet
found to be 1:211. Mr. Hatchett states the specific gravity of ordi-
nary asphaltum to vary from 1'023 to 1:165, but in two varieties of
that of Trinidad it was as great as 1:336 and 1:744, which led Mr.
Hatchett to form a conjecture, which] shall afterwards notice.
niards
PITCH LAKE IN TRINIDAD 908
niards undertook formerly to prepare the pitch for economi-
cal purposes, and had imprudently erected their cauldrons ©
on the very lake, they completely sunk in the course of a
night, so as to defeat their intentions. Numberless proofs
are given of its being at times in this softened state: the
negro houses of the vicinage, for instanec, built by driving
posts in the earth, frequently are twisted or sunk on one
side. in many places it seems to have actually overflown
like lava, and presents the wrinkled appearauce which a
sluggish substance would exhibit in motion.
This substance is generally thought to be the asphaltum The substance
of naturalists: in different spots however it presents different Vatics much.
appearances. In some parts it is black, with a splintery
conchoidal fracture, of considerable specific gravity, with
httle or no justre, resembling particular kinds of coal, and
so hard as to require a severe blow of the hammer to detach
or break it; in ather parts, it isso much softer, as to allow
one to cut out a piece in any form with a spade or hatchet,
and in the interior is vesicular and oily; this is the charac-
ter of by far the greater portion of the whole mass; in one
place, it bubbles up in a perfect fluid state, so that you
may take it up in acup, and [ am informed, that in one
of the neighbouring plantations there is a spot where it is
of a bright colour, shining, transparent, and brittle, like
bottle glass or resin. The odour in all these instances is I¢ smells of
strong and like that of a combination of pitch and sulphur, St!Phur5
No sulphur however is any where to be perceived, but from
the strong exhalation of that substance and the affinity which
is known to exist between the fluid bitumens and it, much
is, no doubt, contained ina state of combination; a bit of melts inthe
the pitch held in the candle melts like sealing wax, and poseaie eo
burns with a light flame, which is extinguished whenever enson coolings
it is removed, and on cooling the bitumen hardens again.
From this property it is sufficiently evident, that this sub-
stance may be converted to many useful purposes, and ace
‘cordingly it is universally used in the country wherever Usedas pitch.
pitch is required ; and the reports of the naval officers who
have tried it are favourable to its more general adoption ;
~
itis requisite merely to prepare it with a proportion of oil,
tallow, or common tar, to give it a sufficient degree of fluid-
P 2 ity.
204
Its importance
in this views
PITCH LAKE IN TRINIDAD,
i
ity. In this point of view, this lake is of vast national
importance, and more especially to a great maritime power,
It is indeed singular, that the attention of government
should not have been more forcibly directed to a subject of
such magnitude: the attempts that have bitherto been made
to render it extensively useful have for the most part been
cnly feeble and injudicious, and have consequently proved
- abortive. This vast collection of bitumen might in all pro-
Not fairly
tried,
A preservative
against worme,
bability afford an inexhaustible supply of an essential article
of naval stores, and being situate on the margin of the sea
could be wrought and shipped with little inconvenience or
expense*. It would however be great injustice to Sir
Alexander Cochrane not to state explicitly, that he has at
various times, during his long and active command on the
Leeward Island station, taken considerable pains to insure a
proper and fair trial of this mineral production forthe highly
important uses of which itis generally belisved to be capa-
ble. But whether it has arisen from certain perverse occur-
rences, or froin the prejudice of the mechanical superintend-
ants of the colonial dock yards, or really, as some have
pretended, from an absolute unfitness of the substance in
question, the views of the gallant admiral have been inva-
riably thwarted, or his exertions rendered altogether fruitless.
I was at Antigua in 1809, when a transport arrived laden
with this pitch for the use of the dock yard at English Har-
bour: it had evidently been hastily collected with little care_
or zeal from the beach, and was of course much contaminated
with sand and other foreign substances. The best way
would probably be to have it properly prepared on the spot,
and brought to the state in which it may be serviceable, —
previously to its exportation. I have frequently seen it
used to pay the bottoms of small vessels, for which it is
particularly well adapted, as it preserves them from the nu-
‘merous tribe of worms so abundant in tropical countriesf.
* This island contains also a great quantity of valuable timber, and
several piants which yield excellent hemp.
+ The different kinds ofbitumen have always been found particularly ,
obnoxious to.the class of insects; there can be little doubt but that they
formed ingredients in the Egyptian compound for embalming bodies,
and the Arabians are said to avail themselves of them in preserving the-
trappings of their horses. Wide Jameson’s Mineralogy.
There
PITCH LAKE iN TRINIDAD. 905
There seems indeed no reason why it should not, when duly
prepared and attenuated, be applicable to all the purposes
of the petroleum of Zante, a well known article of commerce
in the Adriatic, or that of the district in Burmah, where
400000 hogsheads are said to be collected annually*. .
It is observed by captain Mallet, in his Short Topogra- Bitumen
phical Sketch of the Island, that ‘* near Cape la Brea (la moesee ”
. Braye) a little to the south-west, is a gulf or, vortex, bouring sea.
“© which in stormy weather gushes out, raising the water
** five or six feet, and covers the surface for a considerable
‘* distance with petroleum or tar;” and he adds, that ** on
** the east coast, in the Bay of Mayaro, there is another
** sulf or vortex, similar to the former, which in. the
inidirthhs of March and June produces a detonation like
** thunder, having some flame with a thick black smoke,
which vanishes away immediately; in about twenty-four
‘hours afterward is found along the shore of the bay a
«* quantity of bitumen or pitch, about aes or four inches
thick, which is employed with success”. Captain Mallet Land swallows
likewise quotes Guiilla, as stating in his Description of the &4 bi ges %
Orinoco, that about seventy years ago, ‘* a spot of land on pail ach
‘* the western coast of this island, near half way between
“‘ the capital and Indian village, sunk) suddenly, and. was
«¢ immediately replaced by a small lake of pitch, to the
© great terrour of the inhabitants”,
I have had no opportunity of ascertaining personally Probably a
whether these statements are accurate, ri eaed sufliciently petite rah
provable from what is known tooccur in other parts of the
world; but Ihave been informed by several persons, that
the sea in the neighbourhood of la Braye is occasionally
covered with a fluid bitumen, and in the south-eastern part
of the island there is certainly a similar collection of this
bitumen, though of less extent, and many such detached
spots of it are to be met with in the woods: it is even said,
that an evident Jine of communication may thus be traced
between the two great receptacles. There is every proba-
bility, that in all these cases the pitch was onginally fiuid,
Gi
6
n
/
* Vide Aikin’s Dictionary of Chemistry, quoted from Captain Cox
in the Asiatic Researches, /
an
206 PITCH LAKE IN TRINIDAD.
and has since become inspissated by exposure to the air, as
happens in the Dead Sea and other parts of the east.
Geological in- It is for geologists to explain the origin of this singular
quiries diffi- phenomenon, and eacn sect will doubtless give a solution of
cult in this f : ‘
country. the difficulty according to tts pecuhar tenets. To frame any
very satisfactory hypothesis on the subject, would require a
more exact investigation of the neighbouring country, and
particularly to the southward and eastward, which 1 had not >
an opportunity of visiting. Aud it must be remembered, that
geological inquiries are not conducted here with that facility — -
which they are in some other parts of the world; the sail is al-,
most universally covered with thethickest and most luxuriant
vegetation, and the stranger is soon exhausted and overcome
” by the scorching rays of a vertical sun. Immediately to the
southward, the face of the country, as seen from la-Braye, is
a good deal broken and rugged, which Mr. Anderson attri-
butes to some convulsion of nature from subterranean fires,
Hot springs in in which idea he is confirmed by haviig found in the neigh-
af aris Powe bouring woods several hot springs. He isindeed of opinion,
* that this tract has experienced the effects of the volcanic
power, which, as he supposes, elevated the great mountains
on the main and northern side of the island*. The pro-
duction of all bituminous substances has certainly with plau-
sibility been: attributed to the action of subterranean fires on
beds of coal, being separated in a similar manver as when
effected by artificial heat,and thus they may be traced through
the various transformations of vegetable matter. I was ace
Nocoalknown cordingly particular in my inquires with regard to the exist-
to exist here, ence of beds of coal, but could not fearn that there was any
certain trace of this substance in the island; and though it
may exist at a great depth, I saw no strata that indicate it,
A friend indeed gave me specimens of a kind of bituminous
shale mixed with sand, which he brought from Point Cedar,
about twenty miles distant; and I find Mr. Anderson speaks
of the soil near the Pitch-lake containing burnt cinders, but
I imagine he may have taken for them the = fragments
of the bitumen itself.
An examination of this tract of country could not fajl, 1
* Vide 79th vol. Philos. Trans. ; or Ann. Register for 1789.
think,
PITCH LAKE IN TRINIDAD. 007
think, to be highly gratifying to those who embrace the Huttonian
Huttonian theory of the Earth, for they might behold the e'y:
numerous branches of one of the largest rivers of the world
(the Orinoco) bringing down so amazing a quantity of earthy
particles as to discolour the sea in a most remarkable man-
ner for many leagues distant*; they might see these earthy
particles deposited by the influence of powerful currents on
the shores of the gulf of Paria, and particularly on the
western side of the island of Trinidad; they might there tind
vast collections of bituminous substances, beds of porcelain
2 jasper, and such other bodies, as may readily be supposed to
arise from the modified action of heat on such vegetable and
‘earthy materials as the waters are known ey to deposit.
They would further perceive no very vague traces of subter-
ranean fire, by which these changes may have been effected,
and the whole tract elevated above the ordinary level of the
general loose soil of the country, as for instance, hot springs,
the vortices above mentioned, the frequent occurrence of
- earthquakes, and two semivolcanic mounds at Point Icaque,
which, though not very near, throw light on the general cha-
racter of the country. Without pledging myself to any par-
* No scene can be more magnificent than that presented on a near
approach to the north-western coast of Trinidad. Thesea is not only
changed frem a light green to a’deep brown culour, but has in an extra-
ordinary degree, that rippling, confused, and whirling motion, which
arises from the violence of contending currents, and which prevail here
in so remarkable a manner, particularly at those seasons when the Ori-
noco is swollen by periodical rains, that vessels are not unfrequently
several days or weeks in stemming them, or perhaps are irresistibly
borne before them far out of their destined track. The dark verdure
of lofty mountains, covered with impenetrable woods to the very sum-
mits, whence, in the most humid of climates, torrents impetuously rush
through deep ravines to the sea; three narrow passages into the gulf
of Paria, between rugged mountains of brown micaceous schist, on the
cavernous sides of which the eddying surge dashes with fury, and where
a vessel must necessarily be for some time embayed, with a depth of
water scarcely to be fathomed by the lead, present altogether a scene
which may well be conceived to have jmpressed the mind of the navi-
gator who first beheld it with considerable surprise and awe. Colum-
-bus made this land in his third voyage, and gave it the name of the Inferences of
Bocas del Drago. “From the wonderful discoloration and turbidity of Columbus.
‘the water, he sagaciously concluded, that a very large river was near,
and consequently a great continent,
Magnificent
scene.
ticular
Pr eae
208
Similar coun-
try in Tatary.
PITCH LAKE IN TRINIDAD»
ticular system of geology, I confess an explanation similar
to this appears to me sufficiently probable, and consonant
with the known phenomena of nature. A vast river, like the
Orinoco, must for ages have rolled down great quantities of
woody and vegetable bodies, which from certain causes, as
the influence of currents and eddies, may have been arrested
and accumulated in particular places ; they may there have
undergone those transformations and chemical changes,
whicn various vegetable substances similarly situate have
been proved to suffer in other parts of the world. An acci-
dental fire, such as is known frequently to occur in the bowels
of the Earth, may then have operated in separating and driv-
ing of the newly formed bitumen more or less combined
with siliceous and argillaceous earths, which forcing its way
through the surface, and afterward becoming inspissated by
exposure to the air, may have occasioned such scenes as I
have ventured to describe. The only other country accu-
rately resembling this part of Trinidad of which I recollect
to have read, is that which borders on the gulf of Taman
in Crim Tartary: from the representation of travellers,
springs of naphtha and petroleum equally abound, and they
describe volcanic mounds precisely similar to those of Point
Icaque. Pallas’s explanation of their origin seems to me very
satisfactory, and I think it not improbable, that the River
Don and Sea of Azof inay have acted the same part in pro
ducing these appearances in the one case, as the Orinoco and
gulf of Paria appear to have done in the other*. It may
be supposed that the destruction of a forest, or perhaps even
a great Savanna on the spot, would be a more obvious mode
of accounting for this singular phenomenon; but, as I shall
immediately state, all this part of the island is of recent al-
luvial formation, and the land all along this coast is daily
receiving a considerable accession from thie surrounding water.
The Pitch- lake with the circumjacent tract, being now on
the margin of the sea, must in like manner have had an origin
of no very distant date; besides, according to the above re-
presentation of Capt. Mallet, and which has been frequently.
corroborated, a fluid bitumen oozes up and rises to. the sure
* Vide Universal Mag. for Feb. 1808, Mrs. Guthrie’s Tour in the
Tauride, or Voyages de Pallas, ;
face
PITCH LAKE IN TRINIDAD.
face of the water on both sides of the island, not where the
sea has encroached on and overwhelmed the ready-formed
land, but where it is obviously in a very rapid manner depoe
siting and forming a new soil.
From acousideration of the great hardness, the specific
gravity, and the general external characters‘of the speci-
mens submitted a few years ago to the examination of Mr.
Hatchett, that gentleman was led to suppose, that a con=
siderable part of the aggregate mass at Trinidad was not
pure mineral pitch or decsaltatial but rather a porous stone
of the argillaceous genus much impregnated with bitumen.
‘Two specimens of the more compact and earthy sort, av-
alysed by Mr. Haichett, yielded about 32 and 36: per
cent of pure bitumen: the residuum ic the crucible con-
sisted of a spongy, friable, and ochraceous stone; and 100
20)
Mr. Hatchett’s
supposition,
Specimens ane
alysed by hims
parts of it afforded, as far as could be determined by a_
single trial, of silica 60, alumine 10, oxide of iron 10, car-
bonaceous matter by estimation 11; not the smallest traces
of lime could be discovered, so that the substance has no
similarity to the bituminous limestones which have been
noticed in different parts of the world*, I have already
remarked, that this mineral production differs considerably
in different places, The specimens examined by Mr.
Hatchett by no means correspond in character with the
great mass of the lake, which, in most cases, would doubt-
less be found to be infinitely more free from combination
with earthy substances; though from the mode of origin
which J have assigned to it, this intermixture may be re-
garded as more or less unavoidable. The analysis cf the
stone after the separation of the bitumen, as Mr. Hatchett
very correctly observes, accords with the prevalent soil of the
country; and I may add, with the soil daily deposited by
the gulf, and with the coinposition of the porgelain jasper,
in immediate contact with the bituminous mass.
_All the country which [ have visited in Trinidad, is either
decidedly primitive ar alluvial. The great northern range
_of mountains which runs from east to west, and is connected
with the highlands of Paria on the continent by ‘the
* Vide Linnean Trans. vol. 8.
islands
Geology of the
island.
~
PITCH LAKE IN TRINIDAD.
.
islands at the Bocas, consists of gneiss, of mica slate con-
taining great masses of quartz, and in many places ap-
proaching so much to the nature of talc, as to render the
soil quite unctuous by its decomposition, and of compact
bluish gray limestone, with frequent veins of white crys-
tallized carbonate of lime. From the foot of these mount-
ains for mauy leagues to the southward there is little else
than a thick, fertile, argillaceons soil, without a stone or a
single pebble. Thistract of land. which is low and per-
fectly level, is evidently formed by the detritus of the
mountains, and by the copious tribute of the waters of the
Orinoco,which, being deposited by the influence of currents,
gradually accumulates, and in a climate where vegetation
is astonishingly rapid, is speedily covered with the nrangrove
and other woods. It is accordingly observed, that the
leeward side of the island constantly encroaches on’ the
gulf, and marine shells are frequently found on the land
at a considerable distance from the sea. ‘This is the cha- -
racter of Naparima and the greater part of the country I
Land formed saw along the coast to la Braye. It is not only in forming
by theOrenoko
and the river of
Amazons.
and extending the coast of Trintdad, that the Orinoco
exerts its powerful agency; cooperating with its mighty
sister flood, the Amazons, it has manifestly formed all that
line of coast and vast extent of country, included between
the extreme branches of each river. To use the language
of a writer in the Philosophical Transactions of Edinburgh,
“If you cast your eye upon the map you will observe,
“from Cayenne to the bottom of the gulf of Paria, this
<¢ immense tract of swamp formed by the sediment of these
* rivers, and a similar tract of shallow muddy coast, which
“their continued operation will one day, elevate. The
«« sediment of the Amazons is carried down thus to leeward
«¢ (the westward) by the constant currents which set along
“¢ from the southward and the coast of Brazil. That of the
© Qrinoco is detained and allowed to settle near its
«« mouths by the opposite island of Trinidad, and still more
‘« by the mourtains on the main, which are only separated
«from that island by the Bocas del Drago. The coast of
** Guinea has remained, as it were, the great eddy or resting
** place for the washings of great part of South America
s¢ for
»
EXPERIMENTS ON INDIGO. 91}
* for ages; and its own comparatively small streams have
. §* but modified here and there the grand depos't*.”’
Having been amply gratified with our visit to this sine Political view —
gular place, which to the usual magnificence of the West Se i of
Indian landscape unites the striking MOV eCca eS of the local
scene, we reembarked in our vessel, and stood along the
coast on our return. On the way we landed, and visited
the plantations of several gentlemen, who received us with
hospitality, and made us more fully acquainted with the
state of this island: a colony which may with truth be
described as fortunate in its situation, fertile in its soil, and
rich beyond measure in the productions of nature; pre-
senting, in slert, by a rare combination, all which can
gratify the curiosity of the naturalist, or the cupidity of the
planter; restrained in the developement of its astonishing
resources, only by the inadequacy of population, the tedious
and ill-defined forms of Spanish justice, and the severe,
though we hope transient, pressure of the times.
VII.
Chemical Experiments on Indigo: by M. Cuevrevutt.
Nir. Vauquelin having requested me to examine the pyomination
cause of that purple smoke, which arises from indigo exposed of the purple
to heat, 1 made some experiments for the purpose, of which paed cia
the followiug are the results.
Sect. 1. On distilling indigo with a gentle heat, the 4 ction of neat
products were; 1, an ammoniacal water: 2, sulphur, unit- onindigo,
ed probably with oily hidrogen: 3, a thick oil of a brown
colour, containing carbonate and acetate of ammonia:
4, prussiate and hidroguretted suiphuret of ammonia: 5,‘a
* Vide Mr. Lochead’s Obser. on the Nat. His. of Guiana, Edin.
_ Trans. vol. 4. See Journal, 4to. series, vol. II, p. 352.
‘* Journ. de Phys. vol. LXV, p. 309. Abridged from the paper
read to the Institute, july the 13th, 1807. A fuller account is inserted
in the Ann. de Chim. vol. LXVI, p. 5, of which the translator has
occasionally” availed himself,
purple
Best mode of:
obtaining the
purphe maiter.
Analysis of in-
digo in the
humid way.
Action of wa-
ter on it.
Disoxigenated
indigo,
Green matter,
EXPERIMENTS ON INDIGO.
purple matter crystallized in small silky tufts at the summit
of the retort: 6, a very bulky nitrogenous coal, yielding a
prussiate when calcined with potash: 7, some gasses, which
I did not examine.
The purple matter being the principal ohijert of my re-
search, it was necessary to have recourse to some other mode
of obtaining it in a state of purity, for that I obtained by
distillation was contaminated with the oil, which arose with
it. The process that succeeded best with me was heating
in a platina or silver crucible;surrounded by a charcoal fire,
5 dec. [7°7 grs] of indigo in fine powder; when the purple
matter crystallized in needles in the middie of the crucible.
It is necessary that the crucible be kept well closed during
the process, and also for some time after it is removed from
the furnace, otherwise the indigo would take fire. -
i shall describe below the properties of this sublimed mat-
ter, which had not wholly escaped the observation of Berg-
man ; merely observing here, that it is the indigo separated
from all those matters with which it is combined in what is
sold by this name. At present I shall proceed to examine
the nature of these substances, and the methods of separat-
ing them.
Sect. Il. Art. 1. Indigo finely powdered was infused for
twelve hours in water heated to 90° or 100° F., in a closed
glass vessel. The decanted liquor retaining some indigo in ~
suspension, it was filtered ; and the indigo was exhausted
by repeated infusion and decoction.
a. These liquors being united and distilled eielded an
odoriferous water, a little ammoniacal; and I suspect it
contained also sulphur. Mean time a greenish powder was
precipitated from it, which assumed a blue colour from
contact with the air. This substance exhibited all the cha-
racters of indigo, whence I infer, that part of the indigo in
that of the shops is disoxigenated, and dissolves in water by
means of the ammonia.
6. Long after the separation of the disoxigenated indigo,
a flocculent precipitate appeared of a peculiar substance,
which I shall call green matter ; and which had the follow-
ine properties. it is very little soluble in water, unless by
the intermedium of an alkali. It then assumes a reddish
, colour,
EXPERIMENTS ON INDIGO. 913
colour, which acids change to a green by saturating the al-
kali. When the solutions are concentrated, the green mat-
ter falls down in green flocks. Alcohol dissolves this pre=
Cipitate, and forms a red tincture ; but this, when spread
out thin, or mixed with water, appears green, as it does when
viewed on its surface.
c. Alcohol being added to the concentrated liquor 5, from .
whieh the green matter had been precipitated, separated a
substance, the taste of which was slightly bitter and astrin-
gent, and which burnt on the coals, diffusing a smell of
empyreumatic vinegar. The alcohol acquired a reddish
colour, owing to the combination of green matter with am-
monia.
Thus the substances separated from the indigo by water
were, 1, ammonia: -2, indigo at a minimum of oxidation :
3, agreen matter: 4, a slightly bitter and astringent matter, .
of a yellowish brown colour. Of these the 2d and 3d are
held in solution by the ammonia. .
100 parts of indigo lost 12 by treatment with water.
Art. II. From the indigo exhausted by water alcohol Action of |
took up, 1, some green matter: 2, a matter that I call red #9#0!.
resin: 3, indigo at a maximum of oxidation.
The insolubility of the green matter in the treatment with
water (Art. I.) Lascribe to the want of a sufficient quantity
of ammonia to dissolve it entirely, and the affinity of the red
matter forit. | ,
The principal difference between the red resin and the
green matter is, that the latter is rendered red by alkalis,
and that this compound becomes green by the addition of
anacid ; while the colour of the former is not changed either
by acids or alkalis, only acids produce with ita red floecu-
lent precipitate, |
In acting twice on the indigo alcohol took up 26 parts
from the 88 left by the water. 1 suffered the alcohol to act
on it no longer, when it begaa to acquire a viclet tint.
» Art. 11. Muriatic acid dissolved 10 parts; 2 of which Action of wna
were iron mixed with alamine, 2 carbonate of lime, and 6 M+ acid,
probably red matter, that was dissolved iu the acid after be-
ing decomposed.
The preceding experiment having shown, that the indigo cite, action
was Of Ucchol.
214
Indigoes differ.
Green matter
yariabie.
Colouring
matter various-
ty modified.
Purple smoke
the pure in-
digo sublimed.
EXPERIMENTS ON INDIGO.
was not completely divested of foreign colouring matter, I
treated it again with alcohol, till this liquid became blue.
By this treatment it lost 4 parts of red resin, mixed with a
little indigo.
In these different processes the indigo lost 0°52 of foreign
matter, which reduced it to 0°48, from which 0°03 more
must be deducted for the silex it still contains.
Every sort of indigo does not yield the same results on
analysing as,that of Guatimala, on which I operated. In
most the green matter changed to a fawn colour; it became
very red on the addition of alkalis; but acids did not render
this compound green. One specimen, in pretty thick
square cakes, of a black blue colour, yielded me no indigo
ataminimum. Its ashes contained more iron than that of »
Guatimala, and also magnesia. Some indigo, which I was
informed came from Bengal, yielded me a twentieth of im-
digo at a minimum; and its ashes contained a little sul+
phate of lime. In some indigoes I found traces of phosphate
of lime. : .
{t is not very common to find the green matter in full
possession of its properties: sometimes yellow extractive
matter is so predominant, that it is difficult to detect it;
and sometimes no vestige of it is to be found. In general I
remarked, that these indigoes, which contained most am-
monia, contained also more indigo at a minimum, and more
green matter, than others. The indigo cf Java afforded me
the last in its greatest purity.
I consider the colouring matters accompanying indigo as
originating from the same substance variously modified.
Sect. III. The source of the purple smoke was now easily
detected. On heating successively the green mafter, ex-
tract, and gum, extracted. by water, and the red resin ex-
tracted by alcohol, no purple smoke was perceivable. But
trying the same experiment on the indigo separated, by
water, on that separated by alcohol, and lastly on that
treated successively by water, alcohol, and muriatic acid, a
fine purple smoke arose, much deeper coloured than that
produced by an equal quantity of indigo not purified.
This smoke is not the result of a decomposition of the
indigo by heat: for we found by experiment, that it was
this
¥
/
EXPERIMENTS ON INDIGO.
this colouring matter itself volatilized; and that the sub-
stance crystallized in silky tufts, obtained by distilling
indigo, is indigo in a state of purity. These crystals dis-
solve in concentrated sulphuric acid, imparting to it a fine
blue colour; and are volatilized anew in a purple smoke,
when thrown on a hot body.
Indigo, therefore, is volatile, and capable of crystalliza- Purified in-
tion; and may be purified either in the dry or in the wet
way. The indigo obtained in both ways is perfectly similar,
except that the latter always retains some earthy matter :
and it is remarkable, that the indigo purified in the wet way
is not so blue as it was before, and has a perceptible violet
tinge; while indigo not purified, if placed by its side, ap-
pears of a dull blue.
When pure indigo is thrown into concentrated sulphuric
acid, it first produces a yellow, which afterward becomes
green, and at length ofa fine blue. In this process the in-
digo undergoes some change of composition, that merits
examination. This is shown, by its being soluble in a
number of menstruums, after it has been precipitated from
this solution, which before had no action on it: and, which
is more strange, by .its no longer producing the purple
smoke, at least in the same circumstances, and appearing
to have lost its volatility.
_ Hot alcohol dissolves a small portion of indigo, which
gives it a fine blue colour ; but as it cools the colouring
matter falls down, and after some time scarcely any is re-
tained in solution. If however the indigo contain a certain
quantity of the red resin, the solution will remain coloured
for some months,
From the facts adduced it follows :
{ 1, That pure indigo is purple;
igo.
Action of sul-
phuric acid
cn it.
Action of
alcohol.
General pro-
2, That it is volatilized in the form of a purple smoke, syiee of in-
crystallizable in needles of the same colour :
3,. This volatization of a highly carbonated substance is
remarkable, as it demonstrates, that the volatility of com-
pounds does not depend simply on the volatility of their ele-
ments, bat also on the affinity, with which the most dilata-
ble are united to the most fixed :
4, Indigo ia alittle solublein alcohol.
A very
216
Indigo disoxi-
dated by sul-
phuretted hi-
drogen,
ACTION OF MURIATIC ACID ON SUGAR.
A very interesting observation, for which we are indebted
to Mr. Vauquelin, is the disoxidation of indigo by sulphu-
retted hidrogen. This experiment proves two curious facts :
ist, that in this substance either the whole or at least part
of the oxigen exists in some sort separate from the other prin-
ciples, since it may be taken away, and restored at pleasure
by allowing the sulphuretted hidrogen to evaporate in the
open air, without destroying the nature of the colouring
matter, In this circuinstance indigo has a resemblance to
the metals.. 2dly, that carbon has no concern in the colour-
‘ing of indigo, since this is deprived of colour in circum-
Nitric acid de-
comvosed On
sugar by yield.
ing up one of
its elements,
the oxigen,
might furni-h
a clew for in.
vestigating its
composition,
Thesame may
desaid respect
Ing Murlatic
acid.
Dr Priestley
parually exa-
mined the ef. ~
fects produced
on sugar by
mBUrAtic yas.
stances 1p which it contains most carbon.
Vill.
On the Action of Muriatic Acid on Sugar, and the Nature of
its Principles: In a Letter from Joun Nowy, Esq.
To W. NICHOLSON, Esq, »
SIR,
Ir is well known, that the nitric acid becomes decomposed
with sugar under certain circumstances, and forms a vegeta=
ble acid (the oxalic) by yielding to ihe sugar one of its
elements. If the composition of the nitric acid was not
known, this property evidently would farnish a clew to guide
us in the investigation of its elementary principles. Some
time ago I was struck with the same idea with respect,to the
muriatic acid; and, asics action on sugar had not been ob-
served with attention, I set about making experiments on
the subject, with a view, if not to change the muriatie acid
intoa new substance, at least to satisfy myself of the parti-
culars of its action.
I was aware, that Dr. Priestley had observed when muri--
atic gas was passed through a solution of sugar it gradually
acquired a brown colour and strong smell; but on passing a
current of this gas through a moderately strong solution, I
was convinced of the extreme slowness of the process,
Besides,
ACTION OF MURIATIC ACID ON SUGAR. Q17
Besides I did not observe the effects as he describes them,
till heating the mixture, when it grew black, and carbon be=
came Senasted.
On account of thé slowness of the process I substituted The liquid acid
the weak liquid muriatic acid of the specific gravity of pa ip
1°050 or 1:080 instead of the < gas, having first satisfied my- gas.
self by experiments of the analogy of the réstilts®, In some Oximuriatic
former experiments on the action of the oximuriatic gas on nee by
sigar assisted by heat, I had obtained the same results, considerable
ana drawn the same conclusions, as Mr. Chenevix, though ee on
his results and conclusions were at that time unknown to
me, it being only lately that I saw them in the last edition
of Dr. Thomson’s System of Chemistry. Mr. Chenevix it forms the
thinks, that the oxigen of the oximuriatic acid goes to the Malic acid.
formation of the malic acid, which is produced during the
action; but as the experiments detailed in this paper will
prove, that the muriatic acid acts with facility on sugar,
‘we can, scarcely doubt, that, after all the oxigen has been
given to the elements of sugar from the oximuriatic acid,
the muriatic acid acts on the remaining sugar, being
thereby partially decomposed.
Vauquelin does not mention the formation of the malicacid Mr.Vauquelin
ovetlooked ~
when sugar is acted upon by the oximuriatic gas, but says, 4}. metic ace
‘‘ that the solution pesressed the properties of carainel or when he ex-
partially burnt sugar.” I have often been at a loss what Se ae
substance to ascribe this French name to, whether toa new oximuriatic
product formed during the decomposition of sugar by heat, spanine t
or to the fumes of the pyromucous or acetic acid, which
are given off plentifully. But, if by caramel is meant par-
tially burnt sugar, we may altogether discard this name
from our chemical systems, and substitute the old name
-ynolasses instead of itt. Under certain circumstances that
® My reason for substituting the weak acid instead of the strong
was, that, as the strong acid occupies considerably less bulk, no large
quantity of sugar would be dissolved; for, when the sugar is added
in large quantity, the acid becomes "diffused through its pores by
capillary attraction. There can be no doubt however, that the action
of both is perfectly analogous.
+ “Caramel. Saccharum percoctum. Drogue que les apoticaires
préparent pour le rhume, qui consiste particuliérement en du sucte
fort cuit.” Encyc. Frang. Vat. et Ang. Lond. 1761. C. ‘
Vou. XXXIIL.—Jury 1812. Q this
918 ACTION OF MURIATIC ACID ON SUGAR.
this substance is present is sometimes the case, though we
do not raise the heat high; but that the malic acid exists
in abundance there cannot be the least doubt, notwithstand-
ing the opinion of such an able chemist as Mr. Vauquelin.
The acid was ‘The muriatic acid used in all the following experiments
ati was pure, It gave no indication of avy foreign ingredients
by the usual reagents.
Muriatic acid Sect, I. ist. 50 prs of muriatic acid of the spec. grav,
helt abt 1°050 were added to 50 grs of loaf sugar at the temperature
solves sugar 45° Far. The sugar dissolved without effervescence. The
Bidce i taste of the solution was acid, though shehtly saccharine.
The original stiffness of the acid was somewhat increased,
and its colour changed to that of a yellowish brown. Sa-
turated wiih a solution of subcarbonate of soda, and
: evaporated at 212°, it gradually acquired the consistence
of asirup; and very pungent white vapours were given
off, which condensed on the lid that covered the capsule.
From their taste and’ smell they appeared to be the pyro-
nincous acid. If the 50 grs above had been saturated with
soda, the muriate would have weighed 14 grs. 14 grs
of muriate of soda were mixed with 50 ers of sugar dissolved
in water, and submitted in every respect to the same
operation as the solution of sugar in muriatic acid; when
exactly the same phenomena presented themselves as in the
former case, viz. the mixture acquired a sirupy consistence,
and towards the close of the evaporation emitted acetic
fumes. Hence it appears, that this change takes place
without free murtatic acid being present; of course this
avid had no share in the decomposition, _ This change took
place exactly the same when a solution of sugar was evapo-=
rated rapidly; from which IL infer, that cold muriatic acid
has no action on sugar, except as a solvent. Whether it
be the water contamed in abundance in the dilute acid,
which disselves the sugar, or in some measure the acid
itself, it would not be very easy to decide. Vedi
Muriatic acid If, instead of saturating the solution cf sugar in muriatic
a-sisted by heat
has considera. | ees 4
bie eciion oniwixture becomes black, and carbon precipitates. To
SuBAr obiain all the products of this apparent decomposition, I
made use of the foliowing apparatus. A small retort was”
acid with soda, we apply a slight heat for some time, the
Deseription of
joined.
ACTION OF MURIATIC ACID ON sUGAR. 219
joined te a receiver with two necks; into one neck the beak the apparatus
of the retort was inserted, into the other a glass tube, which ™ade use of.
terminated in a ylass air holder filled with water. The
tubes were fitted through corks into their respective necks,
and luted perfectly air tight with bees wax, or with resin.
By this apparatus I was enabled to ascertain whether any
gas, except the air of the vessels, came over during the
application of heat, at the same time that the air holder
had hot the inconvenience that a common plain tube, ter-
minating under the pneumatic sheif, would have had of
admitting the water ‘of the trough into the receiver, when
‘impelled to it by the sudden condensation of the aqueous
vapour in the retort. -I shall now proceed to give the
experiments as the facts presented themseives during the
inquiry, being persuaded that this method is the most
accurate, as well as the most concise.
- Sect. I]. Ist. 100 grs of muriatic acid, spec. grav. 1:089, Heat applied
were mixed with 100 grs of loaf sugar. A solution of the ‘o the solution
; , : Meas : of sugar in di-
sugar was effected, accompanied by the emission of a slight tute muriatic
pungent vapour of muriatic acid. This solution being acid precipi-
introduced into the retort, and joined and luted to the eae ia
auxiliary apparatus before described, the heat of 180° F. |
was applied by means of a water bath for half an hour.
After about ten minutes had elapsed, abundance of carbon
became deposited, and adhered to the bottom and sides of
the retort firmly; till finally the solution became apparently
solid from the copious deposition of carbon, During this No gas came
change, not the least quantity of gas came over, except the 0%" i pos ‘
air of the vessels, which returned again on suffering the ie - ain
apparatus to cool.
2d. The liquid found in the receiver weighed 7 grs; The liquid diss
of course a large portion must have adhered to the car- tilled into the
bonaceous matter in the retort. But in subsequent ex- Sitel cigs
periments, on using a retort that exposed a larger surface mucous acid
_of the liquid to evaporation, [ haye known it amount to 70 tae wags
or 80 ets, though only exposed to heat the same time.
Still, whatever may be the quantity which comes over, it
_always consists of two acids, the muriatic and pyromucous,
or rather the acetic a little modified. If to this liquid we
add carbonate of lead, #n effervescence is the result, mu-
Q 2 riate
- 990 ACTION, OF MURIATIC ACID ON SUGAR.
riate of lead falls down; and by employing a close filter
we may separate the insoluble muriate from the acetate,
which, passes through the filter. By saturation with soda
the oxide is precipitated, and by evaporating the mother
water we obtain the-acetate, or at Jeast the apparent acetate,
dissoluble in rectified alcohol. The acid, which holds
the lead in solution, appears more susceptible of being
driven off by heat than the acid of the common acetate;
for I have several times observed, that, when a solution of
‘lead in it is concentrated by evaporation, a pungent smell
is given off, and a yellow oxide.is precipitated.
A partial solus Sd. The residuum in the retort was detached by 1000
tion ofthe sub- grs of water, added in quantities of 100 grs at a time, and —
stance 4n the
retort effected, C(™@Ploying some agitation. A partial achution of this
substance was effected.
Baryon not 4th. The substance insoluble being separated by the
pure. filter, it appeared to be carbon, heats when heated it gave
off gaseous inflammable matter. I have seen some sorts
of impure charcoal do the same, under similar cireum-
stances*.
The solution th. The solution, which passed through the filter, was
possessed the of the colour of red wine: its taste was acid, and it reddened
eae Ess vegetable blues, The various reagents generally adopted
eee malic by our most eminent chemists did not indicate the presence
_and citric; neither did the benzeic, suberic, succinic, or
A ee nibs camphoric exist in it. The only products, beside muriatic
tion of the a- acid and a little undecomposed sugar, were a large quantity
cetic likewise
detected, ‘or of malic and a trace of the acetic acid. To a known
vather the quantity carbonate of lead was added to saturation; the
pyromucous: malate and muriate of lead were separated by the filter,
and the acetate passed through. ‘The same evidence of
the presence of this acid was obtained as in sect. II. The
substance left on the filter was of a brown colour. After
* The whole weight of this substance when perfectly dry would be
about 36 grs. 10 grs, being heated red het for some time, lost in
“weight 4 grs. Therefore 36 grs would lose 14:4; so that, if we
could take into’ account all the carbonate in the product drawn off
2 by heat, the quantity would probably differ litle from the statement
. of Lavoisier, viz. in 100 parts 28 gre.
03: &: fons ane
_of any of the following acids, viz. the gallic, oxalic, tartaric, —
ACTION OF MURIATIC ACID ON SUGAR. 901
being well washed, a small quantity of dilute sulphuric
acid was poured upon it. The mixed sulphate of lead
and muriate were separated by the filter. What passed
through possessed the original brown colour, and in part
the acid taste ; and had the properties of the malic acid,
‘though it was evidently mixed with a small quantity of the
~
muriatic. It is very difficult to separate these two acids
from each other, _without resolving the malic into its
ultimate elements; the reagents being acted upon by each
somewhat alike. In the above case the acetate of lead
precipitated both the acids; and the sulphuric acid acted
not only upon the malate, but also on the muriate: con-
sequently instead of finding the malic acid singly, a mix-
ture of the malic acid and muriatic were found. A fact Curious fact:
which at first appeared somewhat puzzling to me was, that, on it el the
introducing a quantity of this fluid into a retort, and gently aieWied faces
distilling, a large quantity of acid was found in the receiver; sited carbon,
which, examined nearly by the method just mentioned, abi arte!
appeared to be of the nature of the acetous. If we apply'acid as a pro- —
-heat a long time to the carbonaceous matter, which is
duct.
plentifully deposited during the distillation, so as to drive
off all the adhering acid; on macerating the dry mass in
water we do not find a solution of malic acid, but some-
“times, under certain circumstances, something of the
remains of sugar*. This curious change is owing to the
presence of muriatic acid, as the following comparative
experiment will prove.
I prepared some tolerably pure malic acid by bruising preparation of
the leaves of the semmpervivum tectorum (houseleek) along malic acid
with a little water in an earthen mortar. The juicy mix- ee
ture thus obtained contained a considerable portion of
malate of lime. To remove the lime from the malate, a
solution of oxalic acid was added cautiously, and the small
excess was removed by lime water. The oxalate of lime yyaise acid dise
was separated by a filter, and the liquid evaporated, till :t tilled by itself
: : : f i » -, does not depo-
became sufficientiy concentrated. About a drachm of it sit cacborsee
* By returning the acid product into the retort, and. distilling
successively several times, this substance gradualiy disappears alto-
gether, and the products are the acetous and muriatic acids and
Carbon. ;
4 was
3
.
22%
yield pytomu-
cous acu’, but
does when dis-
tilled with mu-
riatic acid.
* Action of the
muriatic acid
on sugar
something
analogous to
the action of
the nitric ;
some element
must be fur-
nished,
ACTION OF MURIATIC ACID GN SUGAR.
was introduced into a very small retort, and gradually
distilled to dryness; no carbon became deposited, nor was
any acid distilled into the receiver, The dry mass was
again dissolved im water, and again distilled along with a
few drops of muriatic acid; abundance of carbon now
precipitated, and acetous acid was the product found in the
receiver along with the muniatic.
As it wonld be absurd and vague to suppose such de-
compositions as the above could foseuly take place without
some vev substance being furnished, and as the calonc
would have been quite henmlene had not muriatic acid
been present, we must of consequence suppose, that this
acid is a compound body, capable of furnishing something
analogous to that furnished by the nitric acid to sugar in
similar situations; for the nitric in fact beside the oxalic
forms a portion of malic acid, the quantity of which de-
pends on circumstances. In some cases instead of finding
oxalic acid I have found nearly the whole product malic
acid, at the same time that sometling like carbon was de-
posited*, Butifa part of the muniatic acid is furnished, to
cause the elements of sugar to be differently arranged, of
- course it must be decomposed ; that is, it must be reduced
Some part of
the murijatic
acid must dis-
appear and be
decomposed.
into its primary elements. The following fact 1s analogous :
when the nitric acid changes the sugar into the oxalic acid,
oxigen is furnished, and the other element, thé azote, is
given off in a combination with a smaller portion of oxigen,
in the form of nitrous gas. This analogy would lead us to
suppose, that to change sugar into the malic acid, at least
some part of the muriatic must disappear, and enter along
with the gasseous elements into the composition of the pro-
ducts, viz. the malic and acetous acids; not indeed in the
form of muriatic acid, but in the form of some of its
primitive elements, But before we can say much more
on this subject, we must obtain positive evidence of its pare
tial disappearance, because without such evidence, a nearly
similar explanation of the above fact might. be given, as that
which Mr. Kind gave when he observed the change, that
oil of turpentine underwent when acted upon by mariatic
* Ja this case I cannot answer for the purity of the acid. bi 20g nitri¢
of commerce sometimes contains muriatic acid,
HAE.
ACTION OF MURIATIC ACID ON SUGAR.
gas. Butif we obtain such evidence, then it at once follows,
that this acid is a compound body; and that its disappear-
ance, when made to act upon sugar, is owing to its ultimate
decomposition. To ascertain this important point, after
adopting several methods, I was led finally to pitch upon
the following as the most susceptible of accuracy. The
apparatus made use of for this purpose differed from the
former only by a substitution of atubulated retort for a
common ene.
‘Ssor. Ill. 1st. One hundred grains of muriatic acid of
the spec. grav. 1°050 were poured upon 50 ers of dry sugar,
previously weighed and introduced into the retort. The
apparatus was joined, and found to be perfectly air tight.
After the sugar was dissolved, heat was applied to the retort,
till about 90 grains of liquid were distilled over into the
receiver. After the apparatus had become cool by several
hours standing, the 90 grs just mentioned were poured back
upon the carbonaceous’ matter in ‘the retort, and again dis-
tilled in this manner five times, till finally heat was‘applied
to the retort several hours, to drive off all the adhering acid.
Care was taken in all this operation not to disjoin the appa-
ratus, till it had: been cool for some time, lest some vapour
might rush out, and falsify theresults. Noextragas passed
over into the air holder, nor had the least sensible quantity
of muriatic gas become condensed by its water, for it afforded
no muriate with nitrate of silver.
ad. The liquid condensed in the receiver weighed 128 grs.
Its colour was a reddish brown: its taste extremely acid:
its smell] that of aromatic vinegar nearly.
3d. The substance in the retort was tasteless. Water
dissolved no part of it, but acquired an acid taste from a
number of drops condensed in the neck of the retort*. The
‘whole was thrown upon a filter to separate the carbon, which
weighed, after being well washed and dried at 170° or 180°
for some time, 18 grs. The liquid, which passed through,
weighing 550 grs, gave a precipitate with sulphate of silver
weighing 1°375.
)
* It contained neither a trace of malic acid nor a vestige of unde-
composed sugar. The successive distillations having been with the
presence of muriatic acid capable of decomposing both.
Ath,
224 ACTION OF MURIATIC ACID ON sUG4R.
Proof that the 4th. Ten grains of the original muriatic acid gave a pre-
Geaipearn by cipitate with sulohate of silver, which weighed exactly 7 gra
comparing the after having been dried perfectly on the vapour bath at 170
weg of mU- ‘or 180 degrees, After this rate 100 grs, the quantity used
riate of silver
yielded oy the 1 the experiment above, should yield exactly 70 grains dried —
original acid at the same heat. 10 grsof the liquid (2d) gave with the
with that ; :
yielded by the Same solution of sulphate of silver 4:937 grs dried the same
same quantity exactly; therefore i28 would have given 63°194 nearly,
| ena which, added to the quantity of mariate of silver yielded by
posed sugar. the 550 grs of liquid (8d), makes the whole amount of mu-.
riate of sjlver 64:569 ; which subtracted from 70 ers, the
weight that would have been obtained had we operated on
the original acid, leaves for deficiency 5:43!. According
to Dr. Marcet 100 grs of dry muriate of silver contain
19°05 of acid: taking this datum, 5:43] wi!| contain 1034,
- which is obviously the loss of real acid. Lam at a loss to
know, what objections may be brought against this experi-
ment: for my part I can at present see none, The greatest
care was taken, that no acid vapour might be lost in the
various Openings of tie apparatus; and I have reason to
believe, that not the least escaped, for the weight of the
distilled prodyct, which was 128 grs, compared with the
few drops of liquid, that remained in the retort, made up
along with the carbon the weight of the substances intro-
duced. The muriate of silver in both cases was I think
equally dried: both specimens were brqught to the greatest
state of dryness, by being exposed to exactly the saine heat,
and particular precaution was taken to bring each to the
same state directly before being weighed, It gave me not a
little uneasiness to obtain results, that would in any respect
militate against the prevailing theory of sir Humphrey Davy.
The last experiment I repeated several times with the great-
est care, and [ always obtained results little auiedcas from
the above,. From their constant uniformity I cannot con-
clude less, than that a pert af the acid disappears. 'To ex-_
plain the rationale of the above fact I had first recourse to
the present prevailing theory. proposed by sir H. Davy,
which supposes the muriatic acid to be compounded of
‘hidrogen and chlorine gas; but from facts directly to be de-
tailed I found it incapable, at least without bordering too
much upon hypothesis.
ACTION OF MURIATIC ACID OX SUGAR. 925 | -
%n the experiment (sect. II) the new substances produced The wholepro.
during the decomposition were a quantity of the pyromu- at ee
cous acid and water. I endeavoured’ to ascertain their sition of sugar
relative proportions to each other by proceeding on the data OC eee
of I think Vauquelin, that the pvromucous acid differs only acid,
from the acetic in being conibined with an oil: though Idid
not succeed, being persuaded from several facts, that it
either differs much from the acetic in composition, or others
wise that errour attends the analysis of the acetic acid by
Dr. Hiegias. I however saw evidence of ihe production
of water to a considerable amount; and I can entertain bat
little doubt, that the pyroimucous acid consists of oxigen,
‘hidrogen, and carbon, though we do oot know its absolute
composition. To explain the above facts on the basis of sir _
H. Davy’s theory, we must in the first place suppose, that ae bata
hidrogen must be furnished to sugar to form the malic acid compound ha-
and the pyromucous, and that the other component part of 'teofthe mur
: rlatic acid in-
muriatic acid, the cnlorine, must be giveu off in the gaseous sufficient to
explain the tae
4 ‘ : ” tionale of the
for the most delicate test that 1 could apply did not discover above facts.
a trace of this gas. I am aware however, that a small quan-
tity might adhere along with the muriatic acid insensible to
our, most delicate tests, as is certaiiy the case with the or-
dinary muriatic acid of commerce; but the quantity, which
according to sirH. Davy we should have a right to expect,
could not from its magnitude have operated in this manner.
Tn the second place it might be supposed, that both these
substances were furnished, viz. the chlorine gas and nidre-
gen: but this supposition would not in the least tally with
/
\ < sibeh te eas : . te
‘state of oximuriatic gas. But this expianation is insufficient
the known component parts of the water and pyromucous
acid, the new products. Sugar is composed of oxigen, hi-
drogen, and carbon ; and the products of the decomposition
are composed of the same substances, differing ouly in the
relative proportions of the?r component parts. Hidrogen or The strictest
oxigen indeed might have been furnished, but no other sub- enaleey. hea:
stance differing from these was furnished, nor could be fare rally to sup-
nished without forming a quaternary compound, which we are Le aelaenl
at present not acquainted with*, The excess of ingredients js composed of
cin this decom position being only in oxigen and iiidrogen, and arises one hi-
* Consisting of oxigen, hidrogen, chlorine, and carbon.
as
Reasons for
making the
oximuriatic
acid com-
pound,
ZIGZ4G MOTION OF THE ELECTRIC SPARK.
as no gaseous matter whatever escaped, must we not suppose,
that both component parts of the muriatic acid which disap-_
peared entered into the composition of the two preducts,
water and pyromucous acid? If only one entered, the other
would be given off; but this was not the case, for no gas
whatever, as I have shown before, was produced ; of conse-
quence we may I think conclude, that muriatic acid is com-
posed of oxigen and hidrogen. 4
Upon strict analogy we cannot conclude less than that the
oximuriatic gas or chlorine gas of Davy is a compound.
This when heated along with sugar forms malic acid even in
more abundance than the muriatic acid does. The malic
acid, when submitted to heat capable of decomposing it into
its elementary principles, gives us an acid (the pyromucous),
water, a larve portion of carbonic acid, and some carburetted
hidrogen. Hence it must be composed like sugar of oxigen,
hidrogen, and carbon: consequently the malic acid 1s of
known composition. If the chlorine gas was simple we could
not obtain bodies the composition of which is known, and in
which no such principle is found. Instead of obtaining malie
acid, which is a ternary combination, we should have ob-
tained of course a quaternary compound, or a direct com= —
pound of oxigen, hidrogen, carbon and chlorine; which would
have been a body unknown to us, or anew substance. If I
van in any degree draw the attention of your more able cor-
respondents to this subject, so as to enlarge more upon it,
my sole aim will be fully answered.
Farnley Wood, near Huddersfield, I. N.
June the 10th, 1812.
eos
iX,
On the Zig-zag Motion of the Electric Spark. Ina Letter
Jrom I. Av De Luc, Esa. F. B.S.
To W. NICHOLSON, Eso.
SiR,
,
sé
Papers in the I have found in your No. 144, two papers, on which I shail
Journal on e-
fectricity.
take the liberty of communicating to you some remarks:
one
ZIGZAG MOTION OF THE ELECTRIC SPARK. 927
one is Art. II, signed J. Puanix, concerning the zig-zag
motion of the electric spark; and the other Art. XI, by
Dr. Maycock ona the production of electrical excitement by
friction, which is the continuation of another in your No, |
131. These papers concerning e/ectricity have strongly ex-
cited my attention, as you may suppose from my papers on
the_same subject in your Journal. But for the present I
shall confine myself to the paper signed J. Pranix, on the
zig-zag motion of the electric spark.
The author says (p. 243), ‘‘ that this subject seems to Cause of the
* “have been withheld entirely from public discussion.” But gie7e pees
he immediately mentions the true explanation of this phe- Ht,
nomenon in the following manner. * The only account I
‘* have heard in lectures was, that by its own rapidity of .
‘* motion it condensates the ar to such a degree, that it has
“* to move, as it were, from a solid to a less dense medium;
“‘ which seems to me impossible.” I shall first consider this
rejected explanation with respect, not only to its possibility,
but to its sufficiency.
The electric fluid moves with a great velocity, as we may Capable of
judge by the sight; and it is such, that we cannot estimate epee 2
it, comparatively to that of ight; but it is much denser, as -we it, so as to be
see by the hole that a strong spark produces in a card which oe side-
is opposed to its course ; it may therefore occasion a sufficient
compression in the air before it, so that at last it is repulsed
‘sidewise.
_ We have an example of the repulsion in the air itself. Example of
The instrument called anemometer shows the velocity of the ts in the air.
wind, because the air in motion, finding in it an obstacle, is
condensed against it, and thus presses it forward; but if it
finds less resistance on one side, it escapes and presses the
obstacle stdewise. The immediate pressure of air is shown
in the ingenious anemometer of Dr. Linn, described in the
65th vol. of the Philos. Transactions, p. 363. ‘This instru-
ment consists of a glass siphon, having quicksilver in both
its branches, open at their extremities, one of which is bent
forward at a right angle. When the siphon is held upright,
and the opening of the bent branch is turned towards the
wind, the quicksilver is depressed in it, and ascends in the
_other, in proportion to the velocity of the current of air.
2 As
225
‘Lateral press-
ure of ar on
the sails of a
shipe
Erroneous hy-
poiiesis.
Importance of
meiteoiclogical
pucnomena in
setence.
Nature of the
atmosphere,
ZIGZAG MOTION OF THE ELECTRIC SPARK.
L
As for the lateral pressure of air, when it experiences Jess’.
resistance on one side of its course than on the other, we
have an example of this effect in the motions of ships; why.
do they change their course by the different inclination of
their sails? It is because they offer less résistance to the
motion of the air, which thus changes its course ; however
it presses sidewise, so as to put the sip in a different motion,
which is determined by the rudder. This is an example ab-
solutely analcgous, only mverse, of the change of ceurse of
the electric spark ; this compresses the air, until finding less
resistance on one side, it suddenly changes its course.
I come to the author’s bypothesis, in which he sets out
from this certain faet ; “ that the electric fiuid passes tn a
«¢ more direct line according to. the best or the worst conduci-
‘© ing substances presented to it:” but not being sufficiently
conversant with meteorological phznomena, he makes an
hypothesis, which will give me the opportunity of showing
how necessary is their knowledge in every branch of experi-
mental philosophy, to avoid arbitrary, and even delusive hy-
potheses. ‘* Our atmosphere,” he says, ‘* being a compound
‘of oxigen, &c. presents at once, to the spark, flying from
‘¢ the machine, at least four known gasses; all, I have not
“ the smallest doubt, differing in their conducting power, were —
“they separately tried.” This therefore remains a mere '
hypothesis, till the tréal has been made; however he thus con-
tinues: * This point being ascertained, the phenomenon is
“© at once accounted for. The fluid fliés to thé next Best con- 7%
** ducting gas from a worse, as it would from different por-
“© tions of matter.” "nae 4
I hope the author will see now, that he has not accounted ‘
for this phenomenon. But, Sir, he himself, or others ef your
readers, will I hope take some interest in a short account of |
the meterologica’ phenomena, which might have prevented
his hypothesis, in the first class of which are the following.
I have proved in my work Idees sur la Météorologie,—
1. That it is an errour to cousider the principal mass of the —
atmosphere as composed of two distinct fluids, or.gasses, one
called oxigen, the other Atdrogen; that atmospheric air is a
fluid sui generis, composed, in each particle, of all the ingres
dients manifested in its decompositions. —2 That atmospheric
air
ZIGZAG MOTION OF THE ELECTRIC SPARK. - 999
air isa transformation of the aqueous vapour which constantly
ascends in the atmosphere.—3 That rain is produced by the
‘decomposition of that air, which returns to aqueous vapour, | /
first in clowds, from which, by their condensation, razn pro-
“ceeds,
Those among natural philosophers who have not adopted Different hy-
this system, being however obliged to explain the production pet
‘of rain, have supposed that the aqueous vapour, ascending in ent with facts.
the atmosphere, accumulates -in its upper parts, where it is
condensed by the cold of that region. But in the first place
it has been found by Mr. pE Saussure, and myself, by hy-
groscopical observations, that the more we ascend in the at-
mosphere, the less of aqueous vapour is mixed with the air.
Besides, from this hypothesis, rain should fall only in the
night, when the atmosphere cools after sunset. But the
spring of this year has furnished a test to the atmospheric
systems. We have had almost incessant rains, with great
storms. Where could that enormous quantity of water be
¥
contained, if not in the composition of the air itself >—What
could have occasioned these tremendous local storms, ex-
cept the decomposition of air in certain extents, toward which
the other air was rushing?
However this analysis of the constitution of the atmosphere Ancther ob-
“is not necessary to show how groundless the author’s hypo- anes ae
thesis i is; for it is a known fact, that if such distinct gasses thesis.
as oxigen and hidrogen exist in its mass, they are no where
separaied in the whole of its extent, from the plain to the top
of the highest mountains: consequently the electric spark can
‘no where be attracted on one side more than another, even
were it proved that these fluids possess different conducting
faculties. Therefore there remains only the explanation
which the author rejects, because he was not informed of
these facts.
_ There is a phenomenon, which shows to the sight the Falling stars.
manner in which some fluids, distinct from atmospheric air,
“ascending in the atmosphere, follow their course; I mean —
“what is called falling stars, when they follow a long track. 4
This is a phosphoric fluid, ascending from some spot of the
‘surface of the Earth. It isinvisible in its ascent, because
there is some circumstance required to make it phosphores-
z cent,
ARTIFICIAL STONY SUBSTANCE.
cent, by decomposition ; but when this happens, the light
_ disengaged makes it visible the whole way, and this isin a
Solidification
of water.
Composition
of an artificial
stoae.
Action of a
Jarge quantity
of materials,
straight line. The small falling stars are composed of the
same fluid, but it has been disturbed in its ascent by the
agitation of the air ; its streams have been divided, and their
deebieaieai changed. '
If the author has any objection to the whole, or to some
part of this answer to his system, I shall be giad to receive it
through your Journal ; but he will find, I think, that it in-
volves mauy more objects of meleorology than he was aware
of; as this is connected with most part of natural phileso-
phy, I remain, Sir,
your most obedient servant,
J.E. DE LUC.
Windsor, June the 18th, 1812.
= errr
Ke
Remarks on an artificial stony Substance : by F. R. Cu-
RAUDAU*,
A Remarkable example of the high degree of solidification
that water can acquire in certain combinations is exhibited
by the artificial stones, which form the subject of the a
sent remark.
‘These stones, more than half the weight of which is water,
consist also of sulphuric acid and baked clay reduced to
powder, in the proportion of one part of the former and two
of the latter. The simple mixture of these three substances
affords only a solution of sulphate of alumiune: but, if their
mutual action be promoted, heat is soon produced, and its
evolution is sometimes so considerable, that the matter seems
incandescent.
If the quantity of materials amount to 25 or 30 hundred
weight, this beautiful phenomenon lasts above an hour.
But, what is particularly remarkable, if the matter come to
want water at the moment when the mutual action of the
# Journ-de Phys. vol. LXVILI, p. 409.
substances
ft
- purposes, that experience would point out? Itis true that
ARTIFICIAL STONY SUBSTANCE. 23]
substances on each other is most energetic, the mass, though
still fluid, acquires suddenly a great degree of solidity ; the
heat is even increased in its intensity ; and the matter after-
ward passes almost wholly to a state of insolubility. The
latter property, acquired by a mixture intended to produce
very soluble salts, proves, that the penetration of the earth
by the water and acid must have been very great, since the
whole mass forms only a stony compound.
The stones to which I here allude, though having in ap- 4 stone ‘si-
pearance all the properties of those I have just described, ™iar in i
: : ° JeaTance t
have not the quality of being insoluble. On the contrary bik eeanere
I prevent their passing to this state, es then I could not
make use of them. But as this compound has all the ex-
ternal characters of the hardest stones, except that it is not
insoluble, I conceived it wouid not be uninteresting to see an
artificial stony substance, which some peculiar properties
might render useful. For instance, as it may be softened 4 pplicable to
by a heat superior to that of boiling water, might it not be different uses.
employed with much advantage for fastening iron or wood
in stone, casting statues, moulding vases, and many other
substances formed of this stony paste must not be exposed
to wet.
Another consideration, that has led me to suppose this new Cause of vol-
stony compound would not be viewed with indifference, is, canic erupti-
that the theory of its formation, and its analogy with the nei
stones of solfaterras, render it unnecessary for us to have re-
course to the hypothesis of subterranean fires kept up by
combustible matters, to explain the eruptions of volcances.
In fact, since water alone, by passing instantaneously from
the liquid to the solid state, can give rise to the evolution of
so very considerable a degree of heat, may it not be the
immediate cause.of volcanic eruptions? Is it not like- rao of
wise the slow and gradual passage of water to the solid state, Ges
that produces the heat kept up at great depths in the intes :
_rior of the globe ? Lastly, is not the heat developed in anie anq organic
mal and vegetable organization equally Gwing to water ? bodies.
SCIENTIFIC
232
Society of
Arts, &e.
Promiums for
. planting forest
trees.
Premiums for
de
éciENTIFIC NEWS.
SCIENTIFIC NEWS.
Society for the Encourag gement of Arts, Be,
In the year 1808, the gold medal of the Society of Arts.
&c. was adjudged to Dr. Bain, of Curzon-streety for plant-
ing 338199 forest trees, at. HefHleton, in Dorsetshire, In
1804 and 1805. These were part of more than eight hun=
dred thousand, that he had planted from 1798 to-that time
on a heath valued to the tenant at 1s. an acre per annum, 2
poor gravelly soil, on a situation rather elevated, and mucly
exposed to the winds from the seacowst. ‘Thus encouraged,
and the trees for the most part thriving well, the Dr. has
pursued his exertions, adding near three hundred thousand
trees more to his plantations, on ground not adapted to the
purposes of husbandry. The trees are chiefly larch, pi-
naster, and Scotch fir; the last in much the largest pros.
portion. ‘The laxunance of bis pinasters im particular show
the propriety of planting them as a shelter to other’ trees.
The following table shows the size attained by some of the
pinasters and larches in twelve years after planting. The
pinasters were seedlings of one year old, planted on very
poor ground; the lar ae were three years old when planted,
and the land of a better quality.
CIRCUMFERENCE. | HEIGHT.
at the ground |s ft. from grd.j6 ft. from grd,
No.| ft. inch.| feet inch. | feet inch. | feet inch.
Pinaster. 1| 3 G 3 4 Lo 10. base
Q) 2 8 2 0 1 va 17 0
3} 2 5 Li. 800 1 4 18 3
Larch. Ts 0 ) rt) i 7 94 6
9) .Q 6 . 9 1 6 23 9
a) ee) 5 8 1 Shen eo ORS i
For these plantations a second goid medal was s adjudged
to Dr. Bain this session.
The gold medal, being the premium offered in class 3 for
raising oaks, w was bajedged to Henry Andrews, Esq., of
Wakefield; and, in consequence of the death of Mr. An-
drews, the medal was presented to his two daughters. The
oaks were planted with other trees, and the following is an
account of the whole.
In
4
SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 233
In February and March; 1809. In Feb. and March, 1910. Total.
Black Italian poplars..500-+.... 1000.......s+. 1500
Hunting:lon willows., 1900,..,.. 1000.......... 2000
BSB. ic ae ss G000...4. 0. BNOOS. occu e's GL TO00
Oaks... ccm. s-+- 19600. ..;.. «10000. 0:3....,..22000
Scotch firss....<.. 45000.....148090.....+...293000
BARC Met kine vis ose, CSOD. 0:0 v6: BOOO.'s ss 9 ches 10800
BBVER fire jn 2 ed 10000. . «6.0 2200004... oo =. 30000
SPMOCE o.05 oliya ees asin LOOOD,. « 52. 200006 5:64 00 os 30000"
Alders....0.+++.++ 1800......10000........+.11800
VENPERMROLCR awa nie cine... | OOO coe cea dele cee egos eon? OOO
eee
95760 123900 218760
SC oeneenaatie amend
s
‘The first plantation was 36 acres, 3 rods, 10 perches; the
second, 42 acres, 1 rod. The whole is well fenced with
sod walls, five feet high. and three feet and half thick.
The gold medal was also adjudged to Wm. Congreve, Premium for
Esq., of Aldermaston house, Berkshire, for planting larches.
377520 larches, be*ng the premium offered in class 10. He
planted: 108 acres in rows 3 feet asunder, and the plants at } :
the same distance: 50 acres with the trees six feet asunder | :
each way, except near the outsides, where they were only
three feet ; and 32 acres with the trees four feet distant each
way, which distance he thinks preferable to any other. It is *
his intention to extend his plantations to 500 or 600 acres.
Several of the last yeats shoots of a small plantation of
larch, made in 1806, exceeded three feet in length, and one —
was three feet nine inches.
The silver medal was voted to Mr. Henry Cowlishaw, of Second pre:
Mansfield, for planting 75000 larches, being the premium ee
offered in class 11. The land is on Blidsworth forest, part
of Sherwood. The following account is in his own words. ~
The land being chiefly covered with heath from six to yganagement
eighteen inches high, I caused a piece of the heath sod to be of the planta
‘pared off with a paring-spade, of a sufficient space to plant tion.
the tree in;_and the soil being very thin and near the gravel,
I preferred planting the tree without turning over the soil.
The season being far advanced, and not having been sooner
in possession of the land, I ordered-that the roots of the
trees should be made wet with water, and then rubbed over
_ Vou, XXXIB—JvuLy 1812. R with
234
Plantation. of
larches,
SCLENTIFIC NEWS.
with soil, which thus adhered to the roots; and in this state
they were planted in the proportion of rather more than
five thousand trees upon each acre, having planted seventy-
five thousand trees upon the land, which is not more than
fourteeu acres, allowing for the fences. a
The larch trees were two years transplanted, and from
eight to fifteen inches high. when planted out.
The season proved very favourable, few of the trees died,
as one thousand filled up the deficiencies in the autumn of
1808, and the remainder grew well. In the autumn of
1809 they were again filled uy with the same number; and I
have this mont¥ supplied all the deficiencies with two thou-
sand more, as some had been destroyed by rabbits.
- The plantation is now in abealthy growing state ; ae last
season ithas much improved,
I think the above mode preferable Sia to. destroying
the heath, (as I presume it preserves the moisture in the
soil during the summer, and affords warmth in the winter),
or aes holes by turning up the soil, and begiay what is
bad upon the surface. / ; 7
I am justified in these remarks from plantations adjoining
-mine, where both modes have been tried, and neither has
auswered so well as my method. My plantation is protected
by a quick fence, which was planted in 1808, and secured
. by good posts and rails ail round; the quicks have grown
very well, considering the nature of the soil, which is but
barren, and they are likely to become a good fence. ‘
The following is an account of the expences that have at-
tended this plantation. .
£, 8. .d.
Purchase of the land and stamp .........-.. 200 16 0
Seventy-nine thousand larches at £1. per thou-
SADC oc ate! -4 sy, sik oveces Oia MRI AMer a ike sok Sasi aie 79 0 O
Beste dnd Tals ie tua sacetuicm Rok ls ak aa Sia 30 9 0
Paring, planting, and putting down the fences 38 0 0
(Warrine@eiof trees, SoC... 3 lata Hialwois's so wuniavanie 216 Oo
Cleaning the trees first and second year, where
the heath in any measure incommodedthem 2 21 0
Expenses of filling up the deficiencies........ 3 0 6
356 12 6
Wernerian
)
SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 235
Wernerian Natural History Society.
At the meeting on the 28th of March, professor Jameson Mineralogy. _
.read an account of a floetz gypsum formation, which occurs
on the banks of the Whitadder, near Kelso. Likewise of a
beautiful floetz quartz found in beds in thecoai district of
Fifeshire: and of the occurence of basalt, amygdaloid, and
trap-tuff, ina coal-formation, newer than the old red sand-
stone, and its accompanying porphyry, but probably colder
than the general mass of the rocks of the uewest floetz-trap
formation.. At the same meeting, Mr. Leach read a Species of pig,
description of the pig of Orkney and Shetland, which he
is inclined to consider as 2 distinct species. And the Se- Meteorological
cretary laid before the meeting a very full and interesting 10M"!
thermometrical register and meterological journal, kept on
a voyage to Davis Straits and back again, by Mr. John
Aitkin, surgeon.
At the meeting on the 11th of April, Dr. Macknight mounain of
read a mineralogical description of Tinto, a noted mountain Tinto.
in Lanarkshire. It appears to be of floetz formation ;
probably resting on the gray wacke, which pervades the
whole mountainous districts in the south of Scotland.
Around the base is found conglomerate, containing rounded
masses of gray-wacke, iron clay, flinty slate, splintery horn-
stone, quartz. felspar, mica, &c. Wherethe rock becomes {|
finer grained, it approaches in some places to gray-wackes
and in others to those portions of the old red sand-stone
formation, which are conjectured to alternate with the
newer members of the transition series. Over the con-
giomerate, masses of clay-stone, greenstone, and green- /
stone passing into clinkstone. and porphyry-slate, suc-
cessively appear, till we reach the summit, which, along
with the whole of the upper part, is found to consist of
compact felspar, and felspar porphyry. The disposition of
the rocks in this mountain is conformable to the idea of
secondary deposition, by assuming a finer and more crys
talline texture as they ascend; and the occurrence of ciay-
stone and felspar in a position corresponding to what is
observed on the Eildon Hills, the Pentlands, the Ochills,
Papa Stour, Dundee, and in other places, seems to favour
the hypothesis of a particular overlying formation, in which
these
236
Meteo: ology
of Hudson’s
Bay.
Substances
distitled from
wood analo-
gous to bitus
mens,
SCIENTIFIC NEWS.
these cubstances are prevailing ingredients, extending over
a considerable portion of the lower country of Scotland,—
In the bed of the Clyde, to the eastward of Tinto, amyg-
daloid appears, having nodules of calcedony voated with
green earth; also calcspar, and portions of steatite.—To-
wards the north, the conglomerate forming the base of
Tinto passes into the sandstone of which the whole inferior
districts of Lanarkshire are composed. It is to the waste
of this rock that we owe the sp!endid scenery of Cora Linn,.
and the other celebrated falls of the Clyde, a river which
exhibits in its course many charms of nature, and may
indeed be said to carry along with it beauty and fertility.
At the same meeting, the Secretary communicated a
very ‘carious meteorological journal, kept by Governor
Graham, during his residence in Hudson’s Bay,
Geological Society. —
May the Ist. A paper by Dr. Mac Culloch, M.G. Si
on bistre and other substances produced in the distillation
of wood; and on their analogy with the native bitumens,
was read. When wood is submitted to destructive dis-
tillation, there 1s obtained, among other products, a black
substance resembling common tar. This tar is very ine
flammable, and so liquid, that it may be burnt in a lamp,
By washing it wita water either hot or cold, or submitting
it to the action of lime, or of the mild alkalis, a large
portion of acetic acid is separated, and the residue becomes
pitchy and tenacious. [It is entirely soluble in caustic
alkali, in alcohol, in ether, in acetic acid, and in the mi-
neral acids. "The fat oils and the recent essential oils
dissolve but little of it, but if the former are made drying,
and if the latter have become brown by keeping, they then
act more readily and copiously. Coloured oil of turpentine
takes up a considerable quantity, but naphtha only ace
quires.a scarcely sensible brown colour, by digestion upon
it. When carefully distilled at a gentle heat it is decom-
posed into an oily matter, at first limpid, and afterward
brown, a quantity of acetic acid combined with a little
ammonia, and a spungy coal remains in the retort. In this
process
SCIENTIFIC NEWS, 837
process no inflammable yas is given out; but ata high
temperature the oil is more or less decomposed, aud in-
flammable gas 1s produced; which, however, does not burn
with a flame by any means so bright as the gas trom pit
coal.
If this destructive distillation is not carved very far,
the matter in the returt will be found, when cold. to be
solid, brilliant, shining, and possessed of a conchoidal
fracture: its taste is burn ng and pungent, and its odour is
that of wood smoke. It is fusible and readily inflammable.
When kept melted in an open vessel, till it ceases to be
fusible, it becomes more and more brilliant, its fracture
passes to splintery, and it assumes the perfect appearance
of asphaltum. In proportion as it approaches-this state it
becomes less and less soluble in alcohol, and at length
scarcely gives a stain to this mentruum. Naphtha has no
action on it, and in this circumstance alone it differs from
asphaltuin.
Dr. Mac Culloch then proceeds to an examination of the pifference be- :
bitumens, and shows, that the difference between the pro- tw-en bitu- |
ducts of recent vegetable matter and of the bitumens, when et veges
subjected to distillation, consists in the former yielding matter. |
empyreumatic acetic acid, and a black pitchy matter in-
soluble in naphtha; while the latter afford ammonia and
naphtha, but iittle or no acid.
- He then enters into a detailed investigation of the pro- Lignites ex-
perties of the very important class of lignites, or those amined,
substances such as peat, surturbrand, Bovey coal, &c. in
which the traces of vegetable origin are not obliterated.
Submerged wood from peat mosses gave a brown oil,
smelling of wood tar, and refusing to dissolve in naphtha,
A compact pitchy looking peat gave a fetid oil, resembling
in odour neither wood tar nor bitumen, and very slightly
soluble in naphtha. Bovey brown coal gave an oil resem-
bling in odour that of wood tar, but much more soluble‘in
naphtha. That portion of the oil which was insoluble in
this menstruum had a strong odour of wood smoke. The
oil of jet was. almost pesfectly soluble in napntha, and
smelled strongly of - but it afforded also empy-
reumatic acetic acid,
Residuum.
Thug
238
SCIENTIFIC NEWS.
Wood changed Thus it appears, that there exists a class of fossils of
to bitumen by undoubted vegetable origin, which exhibit the gradual
water.
/
Experiments
at Sir James
Hall.
progress from wood to bitumen, and in which this change
has been brought about by the action, not of heat, but of
water.
The experiments however of Sir James Hall seem to
show, that heat with compression is also capable of con-
verting wood into coal. A critical exammation of this fact
was the next object of Dr. M., and he found on heating -
wood in close gunbarrels, that a black coaly looking sub-
substance was indeed produced, but that it consisted wholly
of charcoal, empyreumatic acid, and woed tar; and did not
contain the smallest portion of real bitumev: hence the
experiments alluded todo by no means prove the possibility
of couverting vegetable matter into real coal by mere heat.
It appears, however, to Dr. M., that the consolidation of
bituminized vegetables into coal is not unlikely to be the
effects of sHbted ranean heat. %
~ Bistrethe pitch This paper concludes by showing the identity of the
ef wood.
Umprovement
and uses of it.
Mineralogy of
&t Dayid’s.
meus of rock crystal are procu
pitch procured: from the distillation of wood and the pig-
ment called bistre ; points out methods of obtaining it in a
state better fitted than common bistre for the purposes
of the artist; and. also enumerates several other uses, to
which this substance may be economically applied.
Some notes on the mineralogy of the ueighbourhood uf
St. David’s in Pembrokeshire, by Dr. Kidd, Prof. Chem.
at Oxford, and Hon. M. G. S., were read. The Country
about St. Davids, when viewed from an eminence, presents
the appearance of an extensive uneven plain, iterspersed
with numerous detached hills or recky summits of an
irregular conical shape. The two highest of, these hills
are Penberry and Carn-Llidy, the western portion of the
latter of which forms the promontory of St. David's head.
These hills present no appearance of stratification, and are
coinposed of felspar and horublend in various proportions
and states of aggregation. They are each surrounded hy
maitle shaped strata of slate, elevated at a high angle, and
presenting the characters of grauwacke slate: this latter is
traversed by verns of warts lig which very fine speci-
ut No carbonate of lime
appears
- | SCEENTIFIC NEWS.
=
appedrs to be contained either in the unstratified trap, or in
the slaty grauwacke, nor did there occur in them, with the
exception of one equivocal instance, the smallest trace of
any organic remain.
May the 15th.—An account of the Island of Teneriffe,
by the Hon. Henry Grey Bennet, M. G. S. wasread. The
greatest length of this island from north to south is about
70 miles, its greatest breadth does not exceed 80 miles. In
the S. W. part of the island is situate the mountain called
by the Spaniards el Pico di Tiede, but better known by the
name of the Peak of Teneriffe, the height of which, from the
mean of several observations, appears'to be about 12500
English feet. The rocks and strata of this island appear
to be wholly volcanic. A long chain of mountains passes
through theinterior, sloping on the E. W. and N. sides to
the sea, but on the S. and S. W. elevated into nearly per-
pendicular mountains, which are intersected by deep and
-harrow ravines. The lowest bed of the island is porpbyritic
lava, composed of horablende and felspar, in its upper
part porous, scoriform, and sometimes passing into the state
of pumice. Upon this rests a bed of the same substance,
as already mentioned, but in structure nearly approaching
to greenstone. This is covered by a thick bed of pumice,
which itself is overspread with basaltic lava, on which, in
many places, rest beds of tufa and volcanic ashes. This
basaltic lava decomposes sooner than any of the other rocks,
and contains the greatest’ variety of imbedded substances :
it is so.netimes divided by a layer of olivine in crystals some
‘inches Jong, and is often intersected by thick veins of por-
phyriticslate. Zeolite and chalcedony also occur init. The
_ number of small craters and extinct volcanoes is prodigious,
They are to be found inall parts of the island ; but none of
them have been in activity of late years. The great streams
of lava have flowed from the Peak: those of the years 1704
and 1797 (which was the last) are basaltic, This latter flowed
so slowly, notwithstanding the steep descent of the moun-
tain, that it was several days in advancing three miles. On
__ the westerr side of the Peak is an ancient lava, not at all de-
composed, several mi ength, and in a perfect state of
vitrification resembl iqggpadian.
: aR Mr. Vauquelin
¢
n
Island of Te
nerife,
240
Mineral water
of Néris,
Mineral water
of Argentiéres.
Mathematical
Repository.
SCIENTIFIC NEWSe
Mr. Vauquelin has analysed the thermal water of Néris,
near Montlugon, in the department of the Allier. Two
ounces of the solid matter left by evaporating the water on
the spot had been sent to him: but he was not informed of
how much water it was the produce. The results of his
analysis were. ee
Carbonate of soda ..cee.eeeees 33°34
Sulphate of soda ....s.....0-4- 28:68
Muriate of soda eeeeeeoevoeeen ee e8 15°28
Carbonate of lime ....c.ee.2-2 2°80
Silex epee ei Be SRE 8°34
‘Water Six niaiietata so Saiagic bh eee
Animal matter, and loss....0..5 2°54 _
100°
The silex he supposes to have been held in solution by
the water; and he thinks it probable, that both this and the
animal matter were indebted for their solubility to the pre-
sence of the carbonate of soda.
He likewise analysed the residuum of the water of Ar
gentiéres, sent him in the same way by the same physician.
The results were.
Carbonate of soda ....eee2006 32°08
Sulphate of soda .........00006 15°75
Dbee@ete of soda .~.....'00> neces 1589 \
MBICCOUS SADT oo codecs vn ee'ess 10742 fs
Carbonate of magnesia ....-.... 34°37
PO ee oo Sara! ee
Animal matter .....ssecccceeee 0°78
a 100°
The Twelfth Number of Leybourn’s Mathematical Ree
pository contains—1. Solutions to the Mathematical Ques-
tions proposed in Number X. 2. On the irreducible Case
of Cubic Equations. 3. New Properties of the Conic
Sections. 4. Indeterminate Problems. 5. On the Ellipse
and Hyperbola. 6. On the Roots of Equations of all Di-
mensions. 7. Properties of the Right-angled Triangle. 8.
Continuation of Le Gendre’s Metnoir on Elliptic Transcen-
dentals. 9. A series of new Questions to be answered in a
subsequent number, |
Dr. Henderson’s paper is obl to be postponed till
next month.
A
JOURNAL
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, CHEMISTRY,
AND
THE ARTS.
AUGUST, 1812.
ARTICLE I.
On a gaseous Compound of carbonic Oxide and Chlorine. By
Joun Davy, Esq. Communicated by Sir HumMPHREY
Davy, Knt. LL. D. Sec. R. S*.
Since the influence of electricity and solar light, as che- oxjmuriati¢
mical agents, are analogous in many respects, and as thé gas said not to
former produces no change in a mixture of carbonic oxide ee
and chlorine, it was hataral to infer the same respecting the
latter. Messrs. Gay-Lussac and Thenard assert, that this
is the case; they say, that they have exposed a mixture of
carbonic oxide and chlorine, under all circumstances, to
light, without observing any alteration to take placet ; Mr.
Murray has made a similar statementt.
Having been led to repeat this experiment, from some ob= The centrary
jections made by the last mentioned gentleman to the theory found by Mr.
Davy.
of my brother, sir Humphry Baty concerning chlorine, I
was surprised at witnessing a different result.
The mixture exposed, consisted of about equal volumes Experiment.
of chlorine and carbonic oxide; the gasses had been previ«
* Philos. Trans for 1812, p. 144.
+ Recherches Phisico-Chimiques, Tom. II, p. 150.
t Nicholson’s Journal, vol. XXX, p. 227.
Vou. XXXII, No, 149.—-AugusT, 1812 S ously
242
Properties of _
the resulting
gas.
Deesom posd
into carbonic
and muriatic
acid gasses,
Condenses 4
times its bulk
COMPOUND OF CARBONIC OXIDE AND OXIMURIATIC GAS.
ously dried over mercury by the action of fused muriate of
lime; and the exhausted glass globe, into which they were
introduced from a receiver with suitable stopcocks, was
carefully dried. After exposure for about a quarter of an
hour to bright sunshine, the colour of the chlorine had en-
tirely disappeared; the stopcock belonging to the globe
being turned in mercury recently boiled, a considerable
absorption took place, just equal to one half the volume of
the mixture, and the residual gas possessed properties per-
fectly distinct from those belonging either to carbonic oxide
or chlorine.
Thrown into the atmosphere, it did not fume. Its odour
was different from that of chlorine, something like that
which one might imagine would result from the smell of
chlorine combined with that of ammonia, yet more ins
tolerable and suffocating than chlorine itself, and affecting
the eyes in a peculiar manner, producing a rapid flow of
tears, and occasioning painful sensations,
Its chemical properties were not less decidedly marked,
than its physical ones. |
Thrown into a tube full of mercury containing a slip of
dry litmus paper, it immediately rendered the paper red.
Mixed with ammoniacal gas, a rapid condensation took
place, a white salt was formed, and much heat was produced,
The compound of this gas and ammonia was a perfect
neutral'salt, neither changing the colour of turmeric nor lit-
mus; it had no perceptible odour, but a pungent saline
taste; it was deliquescent, and of course very soluble in
water; it was decomposed by the sulphuric, nitric, and
phosphoric acids, and also by liquid muriatic acid ;. but it
sublimed unaltered in the muriatic, carbonic, and sulphue
reous acid gasses, and dissolved without effervescing in acetic
acid. The products of its decomposition collected over
mercury were found to be the carbonic and muriatic acid
gasses; and in the experiment with concentrated sulphuric
acid, when accurate results could be obtained, these two
gasses were in such proportions, that the volume of the
latter was double that of the former,
I have escertated by repeated trials, both synthetical and
analytical, that the gas condenses fonr times its volume of
the
COMPOUND OF CARBONIC OXIDE AND OXIMURIATIC GAS. 243
the volatile alkali, and I have not been able to combine it of ammonia.
with a smaller proportion.
Tin fused m the gas ina bent glass tube over mercury, Decompused
by means of aspirit lamp, rapidly decomposed it; the liquor by tin;
of Libavius was formed; and when the vessel had cooled,
there was not the least change of the volume of the gas per
ceptible; but the gas had entirely lost its offensive odour,
anid was merely carbonic oxide; for like carbonic oxide it
burut with a blue flame, afforded carbonic acid by its coms
bustion, and was not absorbable by water.
The effects of zinc, antimony, and arsenic heated in the zine, antimony
gas, were similar to those of tin; compounds of these metals and arsenic,
>
and chlorine were formed, and carbonic oxide in each ex«
periment was |:berated equal in volume to the gas decome
posed. In each instance the action of the metal was quick ;
the decomposition being completed in less than ten minutes:
but though the action was rapid, it was likewise tranquil,
no explosion ever took place, and none of the metals bes
came ignited or inflamed.
The action even of potassium heated in the gas was not potassium,
violent. But from the great absorption of gas, and from
the precipitation of carboa indicated by the blackness pro«
duced, not ouly the new gas, but likewise the carbonic oxide,
appeared to be decomposed.
The white oxide of zinc heated in the gas quickly decom= white oxide of
posed it, just as readily indeed as the metal itself; there was 2inc,
the same formation of the butter of zinc; but instead of
carbonic oxide being produced, carbonic acid was formed ;
and, as usnal, there was no change of volume.
The protoxide of antimony fused in the gas rapidly de- ,,4 protoxide
composed it; the butter of antimony and the infusible pers of antimony.
oxide were formed; there was no change of the volume of
the gas, and the residual gas was carbonic oxide.
Sulphur and phosphorus sublimed in the gas, produced Not decompo-
no apparent change; the volume of the gas was unaltered, os by ba dot
and its characteristic smell was undiminished. meetiae
Mixed with hidrogen or oxigen singly, the gas was not o, hidrogen or
inflamed by the electric spark, but mixed with both, in pro= oxigen singly
per proportions, viz. two parts in volume of the former and
one of the latter to two parts of the gas, a violent explosion
$2 was
~
244 COMPOUND OF CARBONIC OXIDE AND OXIMURIATIC GAS
was produced, and the muriatic and carbonic acid gasses
were formed.
but quickly by The gas transferred to water was quickly decomposed,
svat<ts the carbonic and muriatic acids were formed, as in the last
experiment, and the effect was the same even when light was
excluded.
Nature of the From the mode of the formation of the gas and the con-
compound. densation that takes place at the time, from the results of
the decomposition of its ammoniacal salt, and from the
analysis of the gas by metals and metallic oxides, it appears
to be a compound of carbonic oxide and chlorine condensed |
into half the space which they occupied separately.
Seemingly an. And from its combining with ammonia, and forming with
acid. this alkali a neutral salt, and from its reddening litmus, it
seems to be an acid. It is similar to acids in other respects $
in decomposing the dry subcarbonate of ammonia, one part
in volume of it expelling two parts of carbonic acid gas; and
in being itself not expelled from ammonia by any of the
Its-attraction cid gasses, or by acetic acid. Independant of these cir
forammonia cumstances, were power of saturation to be taken as the
very Great. measure of afiinity, the attraction of this gas for ammonia
must be allowed to be greater than that of any other sub-
stance, for its saturating power is greater ; no acid condenses"
so large a proportion of ammonia; carbonic acid only con-
denses half as much, and yet does not form a neutral salt.
The great saturating and neutralizing powers of this gas are
singular circumstances, and particularly singular when
compared with those of muriatic acid gas.
Its relation to In consequence of its being decomposed by water, I have
Hoe — alka- not been able to ascertain whether it is capable of combining
ss ipiadtat AF with the’ fixed alkalis. Added to solutions of these sub-
stances it was absorbed, and carbonic acid gas was disen-
gaged by an acid.
tt does notde- 1 have made the experiment on the native carbonates
compose cat- of lime and barytes, but the gas did not decompose these
pot ca bodies. This indeed might be expected, since quick-lime,
I find, does not absorb the gas: a cubic inch of it, exposed
to the action of lime in a tube over mercury, was only di-
minished in two days to nine tenths of a cubic inch, and no
farther absorption was afterwards observed to take place.
But
COMPOUND OF CARBONIC OXIDE AND OXIMURIATIC GAS. O45
But even this circumstance does not demonstrate, that the
gas has no affinity for lime, and is not capable of combining
with it; for on making a similar experiment with carbonic
acid, substituting this gas for the new compound, the result
was the same; in two days only about one tenth of a cubic
inch was absorbed.
Though the gas is decomposed by water, yet itappears to wot decom-
be absorbed unaltered by common spirit of wine, whieh con- posed by spirit
tains so considerable a quantity of water; it imparted its pe- Pras
culiar odour to the spirit, and its property of affecting the
eyes; five measures of the spirit condensed sixty measures of
the gas. |
It is also absorbed by the fuming liquor of arsenic, and by apgorbea by
the oximuriate of sulphur. the fuming lie
The former appeared torequire for saturation ten times its aetna ys
own volume; six measures of the liquor condensed about of sulphur.
sixty of the gas. The liquor thus impregnated was thrown
into water, and a pretty appearance was produced by the
sudden escape of bubbles of the gas; had not its intolerable
smell convinced me that the gas was unaltered, I should Pe ere
not have conceived that it could pass through water un- composed.
decomposed. .
I cannot account for the assertion of Messrs. Gay-Lussac Difference of
and Thenard and of Mr. Murray, that oximuriatic gas does the author's
not, when under the influence of light, exert any action on ag with
carbonic oxide: I was inclined at first to suppose, that the
difference between their results and mine might be owing to
their not having exposed the gasses together to bright sun-
shine; but 1 have been obliged to relinquish this idea, since
I have found that bright sunshine is not essential, and that
the combination is produced in less than twelye hours by the
indirect solar rays, light alone being necessary, |
The formation of the new gas may be very readily wit- The formatiia
nessed, by making a mixture of dry carbonic oxideand chlo- o the gas
rine in a glass tube over mercury: if light be excluded, the ;
chlorine will beabsorbed by the mercury, the carbonic oxide
alone remaining; but if bright sunshine be immediately ad-
mitted when the mixture is first made, a rapid ascension of
the mercury will take place, and in less than a minute the
colour of the chlorine will be destroyed, and in about ten
minutes
246
Complete ab-
sence of water
necessary.
Attempt to
form it ina hot
earthen tube.
Tts specific
gravity.
Affinities of
chlorine for
hidrogen and
carbonic oxide
equal.
Name for the
new come
pound,
COMPOUND OF CARBONIC OXIDE AND OXIMURIATIC GAS.
minutes the condensation will have ceased, and the combina-
tion of the two gasses will be complete.
It is requisite, that the gasses should be dried for forming
this compound; if this p ecaution is neglected, the new gas
will be far from pure: it will contain a considerable admix-
ture of the carbonic and muriatic acid gasses, which are pro-
duced in consequence of the decomposition of hygrometrical
water. Indeed there is considerable difficulty in procuring
the new gas tolerably pure; a good air pump is required,
and perfectly tight stopcocks, and dry gasses, and dry
vessels.
I have endeavoured to procure the gas, by passing a mix-
ture of carbonic oxide and chlorine through an earthen-ware
tube heated to redness; but without success. “
The specific gravity of the gas may be inferred from the
specific gravities of its constituent parts jointly with the
condensation that takes place at their union. According to
Cruickshank, 100 cubic inches of carbonic oxide weigh 29°6
grains; and according to Sir Humphry Davy, 100 of chlorine
are equal to 76°37 grains: hence as equal volumes of these
gasses combine, and become so condensed as to occupy only
half the space they before filled, it follows that 100 cubic.
inches of the new compound gas are equal to 105°97 grains.
Thus this gas exceeds most others as much in its density as
it does in its saturating power. |
To ascertain whether chlorine has a stronger affinity for
hidrogen than for carbonic oxide, I exposed a mixture of the
three gasses in equal volumes to light. Both the new com-
pound and muriati¢e acid gas were formed, and the affinities
were so nicely balanced, that the chlorine was nearly equally
divided between them. And that the attraction of chlorine
for both these gasses is nearly the same, appears to be con-
firmed by muriatic acid not being decomposed by carbonic
oxide, or the new gas by hidrogen. _
The chlorine and carbonic oxide are, itis evident from these
last facts, united by strong attractions; and as the properties
of the substance as a peculiar compound are well character-
ized, it will be neccssary to designate it by some simple
name. I venture to propose that of phosgene, or phosgene
B28; from ws, light, and yout, to produce, which sige
nifies
COMPOUND OF CARBONIC OXIDE AND OXIMURIATIC GAS. 947
nifies formed by light; and as yet no other mode of producing
it has been discovered.
I have exposed mixtures consisting of different proportions Oximuriatic
of chlorine and carbonic acid to hight, but have obtained no 274 carbonic
acid gasses will
new compound. not combine.
The proportions in which bodies combine appear to be de- Relative pro=
termined by fixed laws, which are exemplified in a variety rear amet 3
of instances, and particularly in the present compound, Oxi-
gen combines with twice its volume of hidrogen and twice
its volume of carbonic oxide to form water and carbonic acid,
and with half its volume of chlorine to form euchlorine; and
chlorine reciprocally requires its own volume of hidrogen
and its own volume of carbonic oxide to form muriatic adid
and the new gas.
This relation of proportions is one of the most beautiful
parts of chemical philosophy, and that which promises fairest,
when prosecuted, of raising chemistry to the state and cer-
tainty of a mathematical science.
II.
A Narrative of the Eruption of a Volcano in the Sea off the
Island of St. Michael. By S. Tiuuarp, Esq. Captain in
the Royal Navy. Communicated by the Right Hon. Sir
JoserH Banks, Bart. K. B. P. R. S.*
A pproacuine the island of St. Michael’s, on Sun- smoke seen
day the 12th of June, 1811, in his majesty’s sloop Sabrina, #sce2ding from
under my command, we occasionally observed, risiug in the ee
horizon, two or three columns of smoke, such as would
have been occasioned by an action between two ships, to
which cause we universally attributed its origin. This
opinion was, however, in a very short time changed, from
the smoke increasing and ascending in much larger bodies
than could possibly have been produced by such an event ;
and having heard an account prior to our sailing from Lisbon,
that in the preceding January or February a volcano had arising from a
; volcano,
Philos. Trans. for 1812, p. 152.
burst »
‘Two at three
miles distance.
SUBMARINE VOLCANO AND NEW ISLAND.
burst out within the sea near St. Michael’s, we immediately
concluded, that the smoke we saw proceeded from this
cause, and on our anchoring the next morning im the road
of Ponta del Gada, we found this conjecture correct as to
the cause, but not to the time; the eruption of January
having totally subsided, and the present one having only
burst forth two days prior to our approach, and about three
_miles distant from the one before alluded to.
Visit tothe
place.
The volcano
described.
Desirous of examining as minutely as possible a contention
so extraordinary between two such pewerful elements, I set
off from the city of Ponta del Gada on the morning of the
14th, in company with Mr. Read, the consul general of the
Azores, and two other gentlemen, After riding about
twenty miles across the NW. end of the island of St. Mi-
chael’s, we came to the edge of a cliff, whence the volcano
burst suddenly upon our view in the most terrific and awful
grandeur. It was only a short mile from the base of the
cliff, which was nearly perpeadicular, and formed the mare
gin of the sea; this cliff being as nearly as I could judge
from three to four hundred: feet high. To give you an ade-
quate idea of the scene by description is far beyond my
powers; but for your satisfaction I shall attempt it.
Imagine an immense body of smoke rising from the seg,
the surface of which was marked by the silvery ripling of the
waves, occasioned by the light and steady breezes incidental
to those climates in summer. In a quiescent state, it had
the appearance of a circular cloud revolving on the water
like a horizontal wheel, in various and irregular involutions,
expanding itself gradually on the lee side; when suddenly a
column of the blackest cinders, ashes, and stones would shoot
up in form of a spire at an angle of from ten to twenty de-
grees from a perpendicular line, theangle of inclination being
universally to windward; this was rapidly succeeded by ase-
cond, third, and fourth, each acquiring greater velocity,
and overtopping the other till they had attained an altitude
as much above the level of our eye, as the sea was below it.
As the impetus with which the columns were severally
propelled diminished, and their ascending motion had nearly
ceased, they broke into various branches resembling a groupe
of pines, these again forming themselves into festoons of white
feathery:
“ae
SUBMARINE VOLCANO AND NEW ISLAND. 249
feathery smoke in the most fanciful manner imaginable, ins
termixed with the finest particles of falling ashes, which at
one time assumed the appearance of innumerable plumes of _
black and white ostrich feathers surmounting each other; at
another, that of the light wavy branches of a weeping
willow.
During these bursts, the most vivid flashes of lightning
continually issued from the densest part of the volcano; and
the cloud of smoke now ascending to an altitude much above
the highest point to which the ashes were projected, rolled
off in large masses of fleecy clouds, gradually expanding
themselves before the wind in a direction nearly horizontal, eae
and drawing up to them a quantity of waterspouts, which the clouds.
fermed a most beautiful and striking addition to the general
appearance of the scene.
That part of the sea, where the volcano was siihuabe: was Rising of the
upwards of thirty fathoms deep, and at the time of our view- Ae
- ing it the volcano was only four days old. Soon after our :
arrival on the cliff, a peasant observed he could discern a peak
above the water: we looked, but could not see it; however,
in less than half an hour it was plainly visible, and before
we quitted the place, which was about three hours from the
time of our arrival, a complete crater was formed above the
water, not less than twenty feet high on the side where the
greatest quantity of ashes fell; the diameter of the crater
being apparently about four or five hundred feet.
The great eruptions were generally attended with a noise Eruptions at-
like the continued firing of cannon and musquetry inter- tended with
mixed, as also with slight shocks of earthquakes, several of Gee
which haying been felt by my companions, but none by my-
self, I had become half sceptical, and thought their opinion
arose merely from the force of imagination; but while we
were sitting within fiye or six yards of the edge of the cliff,
partaking of a slight repast which had been brought with us,
and were all busily engaged, one of, the most magnificent
bursts took place which we had yet witnessed, accompanied
by a very severe shock of an earthquake. The instantaneous
and involuntary movement of each was to’ spring upon his
feet, and I said ‘ this admits of no doubt.” The words Fall of part of
had scarce passed my lips, before we observed a Jarge portion the cliff.
of
i
250
Farther ac-
count,
The voleano
SUBMARINE VOLCANO AND NEW ISLAND.
of the face of the eliff, about fifty yards on our left, falling,
which it did with a violent crash. So soon as our first con-
sternation had a little subsided, we removed about ten or a
dozen yards farther from the edge of the cliff, and finished
our dinner.
On the succeeding day, June 15th, having the consul and
some other friends on board, I weighed, and proceeded with
the ship towards the volcano, with the intention of witnessing
a night view; but in this expectation we were greatly disap-
pointed, from the wind freshening and the weather becoming
thick and hazy, and also from the volcano itself being clearly
maore quiescent than it was the preceding day. It seldom
emitted any lightning, but occasionally as much flame as
may be seen to issue from the top of a glass-house, or foun
dery chimney.
On passing directly under the great sibud ofsmoke, about
three or four miles distant from the volcano, the decks of the
ship were covered with fine black ashes, which fell inter-
mixed with small rain. We returned the next morning, and
late on the evening of the same day, I teok my leave of St.
Michael’s to complete my cruize.
On opening the volcano clear of the NW. part of the
island, after dark on the 16th, we witnessed one or two
eruptions that, had the ship been near enough, would have
been awfully grand. It appeared one contiuued blaze of
lightning; but the distance which it was at from the ship,
upwards of twenty miles, prevented our seeing it with effect.
Returning again towards St. Michael’s on the 4th of July,
quiet, and 60 I was obliged, by the state of the wind, to pass with the ship
yards above
water,
Landing on
the island.
very close to the island, which was now completely formed
by the volcano, being nearly the height of Matlock High
Tor, about eighty yards above the sea. At this time it was
perfectly tranquil, which circumstance determined me to
land, and explore it more narrowly.
I left the ship in one of the boats, accompanied by some
of the officers. » As we approached, we perceived it was still
smoking in many parts, and upon our reaching the island
found the surf on the beach very high. Rowing round to
the lee side, with some little difficulty, by the aid of an oar,
as a pole, 1 jumped on shore, and was followed by the other
officers |
SUBMARINE VOLCANO AND NEW ISLAND.
officers. We found a narrow beach of black ashes, from
which the side of the island rose in general too steep to ad-
mit of our ascending ; and where we could have clambered
up, the mass of matter was much too hot to allow our pro-
ceeding more than a few yards in the ascent.
The declivity below the surface of the sea was equally
steep, having seven fathoms water, scarce the boat’s length
from the shore, and at the distance of twenty or thirty yards
we sounded twenty-five fathoms.
From walking round it, in about twelve minutes, I should
judge that it was something less than a milein circumference;
but the most extraordinary part was the crater, the mouth of
which, on the side facing St. Michael’s, was nearly level with
the sea. It was filled with water, at that time boiling, and
was emptying itself into the sea, by a small stream about six
yards over, and by which I should suppose it was continually
filled again at high water. This stream, close to the edge
of the sea, was so hot, as only to admit the finger to be dip-
ped suddenly in, and taken out again immediately.
It appeared evident, by the formation of this part of the
island, that the sea had, during the eruptions, broke into the
crater in two places, as the east side of the small stream was
bounded by a precipice, a cliff between twenty and thirty
feet high forming a peninsula of about the same dimensions
in width, and from fifty to sixty feet long, connected with
the other part of the island by a narrow ridge of cinders and
lava, as an isthmus of from forty to fifty feet in length, from
which the crater rose in the form of an amphitheatre.
This cliff, at two or three miles distance from the island,
had the appearance of a work of art resembling a small fort
or block house. The top of this we were determined, if
possible, to attain; but the difficulty we had to encounterin
doing so was considerable; the only way to attempt it was
up the side of the isthmus, which was so steep, that the only
mode by which we could effect it, was by fixing the end of
an oar at the base, with the assistance of which we forced
ourselves up ‘in nearly a backward direction.
Having reached the summit of the isthmus, we found an-
other difficulty, for it was impossible to walk upon it, as the
descent on the other side was immediate, and as steep as the
one
251
Less than 2
mile round, |
The crater full
of boiling wae
ter.
A peninsula
joining the
main island.
Ascent of the
isthmus,
852 IMPROVEMENT IN BRICKS,
one we had ascended ; but by throwing our legs across it, at
would be done on the ridge of a house, and moving ourselves
furward by our hands, we at length reached that part of it
where it gradually widened itself and formed the summit of
the cliff, which we found to have a perfectly flat surface, of
the dimensions before stated.
Fg planted, Judeing this to be the most conspicuous situation, we here
and the iskand planted the Union, and left a bottle sealed up containing a
mamed Sabri- Ne ; P : ‘
eee small account of the origin of the isiand, and of our having
landed upon it, and naming it Sabrina Island.
Withm the crater I found the complete skeleton of a
Fishes destroy= 8 s :
ed by use erup- guard-fish, the bones of which, being perfectly burnt, fell to
tion, pieces upon attempting to take them up; and by the ac-
count of the inhabitants on the ceast of St. Michael’s, great
nuinbers of fish had heen destroyed during the early part of
the eruption, as large quantities, probably suffocated or poi-
soned, were occasionally found drifted into the small inlets
or bays,
The island, like other volcanic productions, is composed
principally of porous substances, and generally burnt to
complete cinders, with occasional masses of a stone, which
I should suppose to be a mixture of iron and lime-stone ; but
have sent you specimens to enable you to form a better judge
ment than you possibly can by any description of mine.
Nature of the
Jsland,
———eeeeeTT—————————lllleSSSSSSS
IIT.
New Method of making Bricks, so as to form cheaper and
firmer Buildings, and useful underground Drains: by
Joun Stepuens, Esq. of Reading, in Berkshire*.
SiR,
Bricks divided qT HAVE sent, for the inspection of the Society of Arts, &c,
nearly though, three closure bricks, which on examination you will find to
have been cut three fourths of the way through in the middle
* Trans. of the Soc. of Arts, vol. KXIX, p. 39. The silver medal
was voted to Mr. Stephens.
by
IMPROVEMENT IN BRICKS. 963
t
by a wire, and the whole of the way through at each end,
which leaves the ends square and handsome for work.
The bricklayer, to divide each brick in length, Has only easily cut for
to take the brick in his left hand, with the mark, or cut, ati
downwards longitudinally ; and by one smart blow with the
trowel he will have two complete king-closures, with which
he can easily make four common closures.
I have shown them to many workmen, who all approve of
them. I had two hundred and fifty of them made by a brick-
maker for an experiment, and I have ordered two thousand
more. The builders who do the principal part of my work
have had some on their own account, and have since increa-
sed thetr orders. I have no doubt when they are better
known they will come into general use.
A considerable saving in labour and waste of bricks may Their advant
be effected by their use, particularly in walls where piers are “8°
built, and where there are many openings; the work will
also be rendered more substantial. There will be a saving
in room and materials where the back of a chimney, is built
against a straight wall, particularly in flues for low build-
ings. They will be found useful in cities or large towns by
being placed in partition walls instead of lath and plaster,
and be a check to the ravages of fire. They will be useful
in preventing the passage of rats and mice, and the disa-
greeable smell occasioned when they die betwixt lath and
plaster or wainscot. They will also answer for draining of
land, and will form cheaper small drains from houses than
any other method. They may be cut in other forms or
directions for particular purposes according to the uses for
which they are intended.
The additional expense of dividing them by the wire is Additional ex
about two shillings per thousand, it is generally done after pense of mak-
they have been moulded one or two days according to the ~
dryness of the season.
I flatter myself, that, if this communication meets with the
approbation of the Society, it will render a benefit to the
public, I am, Sir, with much esteem,
Your most obedient servant,
JOHN STEPHENS,
Reading, October $1, 1810.
3 Deaz
254
Saving in their
mse,
11 inch wall.
Drains,
Drawback of
duty.
Mode of mak-
ing the brick.
Remarks on
she utility of
these bricks,
IMPROVEMENT IN BRICES,
DEAR SIR,
On inquiry from builders, I am informed, that the saving
by the use of the bricks I have invented will be from two
and a half to nearly five percent, in a five-window house in
brick work and labour, in a front of forty feet with or with
out piers. In ornamental brick piers for gateways, I think
the saving of bricks by means of cutting may be very con-
siderable, and in the labour still more, beside the work being
done more sound and substantial.
I am using a few of them in an eleven inch brick wall, (a
system hitherto entirely new), in a westernly aspect, as a
preventive or guard against the effects of weather, and it
will, in point of dryness, be equal to a fourteen inch wall.
I have enclosed a letter from Benjamin Garroway, a brick-
layer, who has requested me to let him have all the bricks I
have of this kind, and to bespeak more for him. I have also
sent a certificate from Mr. Robert Wright, who is exten-
sively engaged in buildings. /
The drains for agricultural purposes might be done by
women or children, except the digging of the drains, espe-
cially two inch drains. With respect to longer drains, if they
are required of four inches, and to be covered with brick, I
would recommend the bricks to be laid anglewise, in order
to promote strength in covering.
It would be of great importance if parliament would allow
a drawback of the duty on all bricks employed in draining.
Every brick, intended for the operation I recommend, is
taken off the stack two or three days after it is moulded,
It is then put on a stool or board, and a wire, about the size
of No. 23, is pressed on the upper side of the brick, so as to
pass through each end of it; it is then immediately placed
on the stack again, avd afterward burned.
1 am, dear sir,
Your most obedient humble servant,
‘Reading, December 8, 1810. JOHN STEPHENS.
Letter from Mr. Ricuarp Biiiine, to Mr. Srepnens.
SIR,
Agreeably to your request, I have taken into consideration
the utility of your closure bricks, and. beg leave to say,
that
IMPROVEMENT IN BRICKS. O55
that my opinion coincides with yours, as to their advantage,
in new chimnies, which are intended to be built against old
walls. In constructing a new chimney it is generally consi-
_ dered absolutely necessary, that the same-should be worked
up close to the old wall, but completely unconnected, in or-
der that it might settle from the old; in this case, it is very
desirable to make the back of the chimney as thin as possible,
that it may project as little as convenient; and in building
piers, particularly small ones, either for gate-ways or fronts
of houses, where there are many bricks, and in the present
mode, which 1s so frequently adopted, of two inch recesses at
the exterior of the windows, your closures would be much
preferable even in appearance to a brick which has been cut
with a trowel, with the surface of course defaced.
Closure bricks might be adopted as a cheap and useful Drains,
drain by a common brick flat, with two closures laid on the
same two inches asunder, or four inches, and reversed.
Your closures would be useful in all kinds of ornamental Omamental
brick work. | work,
Two inches is a very desirable brick, but most times Two inch
bricks desira+
avoided in consequence of the waste in cutting common les
bricks, and difficulty in producing a smooth face, which
would be completely obviated by the introduction of closure
bricks.
I remain, sir,
Your obedient humble Servant.
Reading, RICHARD BILLING,
December 3, 1810.
Letter from Mr. BensamMin GARROWAY, to Mr. STEPHENS.
SIR,
I am of opinion, that, if closures were made for general Farther re-
use, two and a half per cent would be saved in brickwork of ™4tks-
small piers, flues of chimneys, or where there are any bricks
in ornamental works. Common bricks frequently will not
cut more than oue closure; and if your bricks were to be ale
ways had, they would be much more useful.
I remain, sir,
Your humble servant,
Ruscombe, BENJAMIN GARROWAY.
' December 5, 1818. , Letter
Explanation of
the plate.
IMPROVEMENT IN BRICKS.
Letter from Mr. Rosert Wricut to Mr. STEPHENS.
SIR,
Having examined your method of cutting bricks, I am
of opinion, that they would be particularly useful in all kinds
of brick work, make a considerable saving in labour and
materials, and that a much superior bond would be obtained
by your improvement.
You are perfectly at liberty to make any use you please
of my opinion.
I am, sir,
Your very obedient servant,
ROBERT WRIGHT.
No. 5, New Norih Street, Red Lion Square,
London, December 6, 1810.
Description of the drawings of Mr. Stephens’s method of cute
ting bricks for various purposes. See Plate VI, fig. g—7.-
Fig. 2, of plate VI, is a plan of the upper surface of a
common brick: the line aa is a cleft cut nearly through the
brick while it is soft by means of a piece of wire, asis shown
in the section, fig, 3; where the section of brick is shown at
BB, placed on the wooden block A, a piece of wire 66 with
a loop at each end is pressed down into it, so as to divide it
into two parts, except the part C, which. the wire will not
cut through because of the curvature it acquires in being
pressed into the brick. A brick of this kind, being burnt,
may be broken in two halves by one cleft with the trowel,
which will be found very useful in many cases which con-
stantly occur in brickwork, and will be far superior to the
present mode of hacking the bricks, both for the soundness
and appearance of the work, and will be done in less time.
Figs. 4 and 5 show the application of these divided bricks
to draining, where AB are the ends of the two halves of a
brick, and C D tiles, forming the top and bottom of the
drain, this method forms a square drain.
Fig. 5 shows how a triangular drain may be made with
half the number of bricks of the foregoing, that is one half
brick A, and two tiles C D,
Fig.
TEMPORARY RICK FOR SAVING CORN. Q57
Fig. 6, is a plan of a brick divided diagonally, and fig. 7
shows how these halves may be disposed to form a triangular
drain: the letters show the same parte in each of these two
figures: the bottom, D, may be made of tile, or of a brick
cut in half in its thickness: the scale annexed to the figures
will show the dimensions of the different drains.
IV.
A temporary Rick, to secure Corn in Sheaves in the Fields
till quite dry; also Clover, Pease, and Beans: by Wi1«
LIAM Jones, Esq. of Foxdown Hill, near Wellington, So-
mersetshire*,
Sir,
"Tue very unusual quantity of rain, that fell during the Harvesting ia
months of August and September last, with scarcely two wet weather.
days of dry weather following, in this neighbourhood, put
farmers to the necessity of having recourse to various modes
of preserving their corn; and, as I understand the Society
of Arts has offered a gold medal for the cheapest and best
mode of harvesting corn, and also for making hay in wet
weather, superior to any hitherto practised, I beg leave to
communicaté some experiments I made last summer, and
the result of them. In the first place, I put some wheat in Small ticks of
small round ricks, or wind-rows, made in the common way Wheat
ofthis county ; but afterward recollected, that the uncommon
wetness of the ground might render the under part damp.
I thought it prudent to examine them, (about ten days after injured by the
they were set up), and found my apprehensions so well BC cia.
founded, that 1 had the whole spread abroad; and have no j
doubt; that, if they had remained a little longer, the corn
would have been materially injured ; not the bottom only, for
it had contracted dampness a great way up the ricks, inso-
much that I turned my attention to devise some better mode
of preserving my barley in case the weather continued so
rainy, as it afterward proved. I had observed in some wet
* Trans. of the Soc. of Arts. vol. KXIX, p. 46. The silver medal
was voted to Mr. Jones for his invention.
Vor. XXXII, Aveust, 1312. si seasone
258
Barley the
same,
TEMPORARY RICK FOR SAVING CORN.
seasons before this, that many of our farmers, not being able
to get their barley dry enough to put into a large rick, had
set up narrow ricks, containing the produce of an acre or.
two, each in different parts of the field where it was grown,
for the sake of expedition; and though some straw was put
under them, yet the bottom contracted a great degree of
and the clover dampness, so as to occasion it to smell old, and the clover
killed under-
neath.
Method of ob-
viatmg these
inconvenien-
ces,
Stand for the
rick.
Structure of
the rick.
was killed where these ricks had stood.
My object was to prevent both these injuries; and it oc-
curred to me, that four gate hurdles would answer both
purposes, by setting the two outside ones perpendicular, and
two middle ones inclining against and supporting each other.
These hurdles-are usually eight feet long; the two heads, in
which the four bars are mortised, have pointed heads of
about a foot and a half long; the two outside ones are to be
forced into the ground nearly their full length, so that the
middle brace may rest on the ground to afford some support;
and the two middle ones about six inches, to keep them
steady. ‘The foot of the second hurdle should be set two
feet from the foot of the first, the third three feet from the
second, and the fourth two feet from the third, making
seven feet, and occupying a space of seven feet by eight,
for barley or oats; but wheat, being longer.in the straw,
requires the distance to be wider, viz. three feet from the
first to the second, three feet from the second to the third,
and three feet from the third to the fourth, which will be
nine feet by eight.
It will be proper to put seven or eight small stakes, (a
little bigger than a man’s thumb), from the second bar of
the first hurdle to the second bar of the second hurdle, and
from the second bar of the third to the second bar of the |
fourth, to support the sheaves from the ground, to adinit
air urder and prevent injury to the growing clover; or small
poles may be used extending from one outside hurdle to the
other, The appearance of the ends of the hurdles will be as
in the engraved plan, Plate VI, fig. 1, and section Plate VII,
tig. 1, which show where the small stakes are to be placed
to. prevent the sheaves touching the ground, for there will
be but a slight pressure’ on them, since the ground ends of
the éheaves are to be put against the hurdles A B, and the
ears ~
~“
TEMPORARY RICK FOR SAVING CORN. 259
ears of the corn a little elevated to rest against the hurdles
CD: sothat the ears of the corn will be all within side,
and have the benefit of the air between C and D. It is to
be observed, that the hurdles C D, being but six inches in
the ground, and the hurdles AB nearly eighteen inches,
the two former will be a little higher than the two latter;
which is necessary for two reasons, one is, that the higher
these are, the higher the air is admitted to the middle of the
rick; and the more they elevate the tops of the sheaves in
the middle, for the ground ends should be lowest to shoot
off the rain. But as it will be found, that, after two or
three rows are placed around the tops of the hurdles, (for
the ricks should be circular), the ground ends of the sheaves
being largest, the tops will become nearly level; when it
will be necessary to put four sheaves as at G G in the middle
horizontally, forming a square, open in the centre, which
will admit air from the top of the middle hurdles CD,
through this space, to the middle of the rick, as the ears of
each sheaf are just to meet only in the middle resting on
these four sheaves*; which will give such an elevation to the
tops of them, that the ground ends will be sufficiently in= ~
clining downwards to shoot off any rain that may fall. In
forming the roof, the sheaves are of course to be put far-
ther in evéry time they are put around, till the roof termi-
nates ina point, when two sheaves, with the tops downward
spread abroad and bound with a straw band, will secure it
from a great deal of rain; but if the corn is to remain out
long, a little reed or thatch may soon be put on each rick.
Fearing I might not have been sufficiently explicit in de- Medel,
- describing this plan, it has occurred to me, that it would be
better to send a model, containing 100 sheaves, made toa
scale of an inch to a foot, as to the length of the hurdles,
the distance from each other, and the size of the sheaves,
also to exemplify every particular of it.
The weather being'so rainy for some days after my barley
was cut, with every appearance of more rain, I determined,
Barley saved in,
this manner,
* If the corn should be very damp, and the rick made high, four
other sheaves may be put higher up to convey a greater circulation of
air, and operate ac a bond to connect the sheaves in the middle, so
that they cannot possibly slide outwards.
T 2 on
260 TEMPORARY RICK FOR SAVING CORNe
on having a few hours intermission of rain, to get the middle»
of the field, which was a little more dry than the rest, and
to put it in small ricks, containing more than the produce
of an acre, on these hurdles in the same field; it was in such
a damp state as to be totally spoiled in the common rick,
but was’ taken from these ricks into a barn in the month of
January last, perfectly dry, the straw much better than
could. have been expected, the grain good, having been pro-
ved to grow well; for having some doubt on account of beng
put together so damp, I had it first tried by putting a few
grains in a cloth into the earth, and have since sown it, and
no other this spring, aad I never had a better prospect of a
whilesome good crop. ‘The remaining part of the barley, that was left
other was on the ground, was not taken in till ten days afterwards,
erie the grain much grown, a great deal wasted by frequently
turning, and the straw spoiled.
I flatter myself it will be admitted, that in wet seasons,
or when harvest is so late, that, as the days decrease, the dews
increase, and of course remain so long that there are but few
hours in a day for drying, even if there should be no rain;
this method will afford perfect security to corn that ig cut’
dry, and put up in this manner immediately from the sithe
or sickle: because, if there should be grass in it, the ground
end of every sheaf will be withoutside, exposed to the sun
and air to dry; and as for the grain, no part of it can get
damp, because the ears but just meet in the middle,
through which the air passes from the bottom to the top
Barley andoats Suficiently to dry it. I have mentioned sheaves, because in
er deen this county barley and oats are generally bound as_ well as
bu Lie be Wheat; but both the former may be placed in these ricks
stacked with- without binding, as I had some barley put in oneof them (by
Om ts way of experiment), and think it to be the better mode when
there is much grass in it, by carefully keeping the ears to-
gether when carried to the hurdles, where a man is ready to
put it up to another on the top, and to place the ears inwards ;
and it is done in as short a time as the like quantity is put
No waggon to 0 @ Waggon, with this advantage, that, whereas a waggon
ra oe with three or four horses goes over the clover to the great
injury of it in wet weather, by this method the corn is carried
by women or children in their arms to the hurdles, without
the
|
© OO ee o
TEMPORARY RICK FOR SAVING CORN. 261
the least injury to the clover, a consideration fully adequate
to a little extra expense, if any, beside that of being more
_ expeditiously secured ; for every practical farmer will be sen-
sible in how short a time an acre of corn may be carried from
the circumference of an acre to its centre. As to the time Time of fixing
of fixing these hurdles, I have ascertained, that two people the stand.
can fix them in five minutes, and one rick would contain
the produce of two acres of barley oroats. The other ad- Other advan
vantages, beside thecorn being thus sooner secured, are, that tages.
no more attendance on it is required, so that a farmer’s at-
tention may be better directed to his other harvest concerns,
and, that one or two of these ricks at a time, (as may be con-
venient), may be taken into a barn to thrash, whereas a part
of a large rick cannot be taken in without the trouble and
expeuse of thatching the remainder, and being subject to
the risk of rain before it may be covered again.
I trust it will be seen, that by this plan there must be a Saving of
great saving of the quantity as well as the preservation of the hadron
quality of the grain, which is known often times to shed a from injury.
great deal by being frequently turned to get dry. Before I
thought of this expedient (last barley harvest), Iam clear,
that a field of pease of mine required to be turned so often,
that more shed out than were sown; and a farmer in this
neighbourhood had a good crop of eight acres of vetches res
duced to sixty bushels, by so frequently turning them for
three weeks, without getting them dry at last; whereas an
acre or two might have been taken up in this way a few days
after they were cut, and the seed would have got sufficiently
hard, but the greater part of these were so soft as to be much
bruised in thrashing, and it was to be feared a great part of
them would not vegetate. I had an opportunity of knowing
the quantity, having the tithe of them; and proving the in-
jury by the loss of my crop in sowing them, insomuch that
the land has been since ploughed. *
Although I have not tried it, yet I think it is not to be mpplention
doubted, but that this mode may be applied with equal ad- hay eaigiie
vantage to clover hay, and clover seed, before it may be dry .
enough to put into a large rick, by being placed in this si-
tvation to dry without being so frequently turned as to de-
prive the hay of its finest parts, and subject the seed to great
waste.
262 TEMPORARY RICK FOR SAVING CORN.
and tograss waste. In cases also when meadow hay may be dry enough
cutforhay. 4 put in large cocks on the appearance of rain, how much
injury do they receive by the bottom being rendered so wet
as to occasion a dampness some way up, and require much
time to throw abroad to dry ? Whereas, in the same state of
, dryness, how many of such cocks may be put on four hur-
dles; and the bottom instead of being wet and injured will be
perfectly dry, having air circulating under it, and from the
two middle hurdles quite to the top; if a sheaf of reed was
to be drawn up through it, as the hay got higher: a bundle
of straw on the top would secure it from rain. Or, instead
of a reedsheaf drawn up, a couple of small faggots of wood,
or three or four poles bound together, and placed horizontally
about the middle of the rick, to admit air at each end, and
render it dry enough to be carried on to a rick without far-
ther trouble or risk.
Hay injured Hay is known to receive injury, not only from rain, but
by exposure to even from fervent sunshine, when nearly dry, if not. free
too much sun,
* quently turned: as may be observed by the change of colour
and loss of smell, which many farmers in this neighbourhood
experienced in the summer of 1809, for want of hands to
turn it sufficiently. I have seen 4n infusion of such hay
made in a tea-pot, and compared with an infusion of the
like quantity of good hay in another: the former was very
deficient both in colour and taste to the latter, and the qua-
lity of it, of course, much deteriorated.
The strawim- We know that straw, particularly of barley or oats, will
proved. be much injured by being long on‘the ground exposed to
soaking dews, and perhaps to alternate rain and sunshine;
and may it not, when protected from them by this mode, be
far superior for cattle to what we are at present aware of ?
Beside the advantages of grain, hay, and straw, being thus
better preserved, and less expense of labour than by repeat-
Farther adyan- edly turning in rainy seasons, there is another adyantage of
tage; - no small consequence, that the crops may be removed, and
put on hurdles in another field, (without any bindrance to
sheep feeding therein) when the land whence they were
taken may be immediately ploughed; for instance,. after
pease, to facilitate a better fallow, (than if delayed), to be
succeeded by wheat, and ploughing clover lays for wheat,
| id and
TEMPORARY RICK FOR SAVING CORN. 063
and also preparing land for turnips after vetches, to accele- Cheapness and
tate the sowing; in which case, the delay of a few days has
frequently occasioned a total loss of the crop.
It is an essential consideration, that the expense attending
improvements should not counterbalance their utility: and
I flatter myself, there can be no objection to this mode on
that score, because gate hurdles are useful appendages to a expedition.
farm, in any county, for other purposes, when not used on
this occasion; and in this and other counties they are re-
_ quisité for dividing turnips for sheep ; and, as to expedition,
which is of great importance in harvest concerns, four of
these hurdles (as I have already observed) may be fixed in
five minutes,
If, therefore, the Society for the Encouragement of Arts,
Manufactures, and Commerce, instituted for the laudable
purposes which it professes, should think my plan combines
utility with cheapness and expedition, I shonld consider my-
self flattered by their approbation; and feel a degree of
satisfaction in the reflection, that I have not ete my
thoughts in vain toa subject, which must be allowed to be
of great importance. Tam, sir,
Ph cl a Your most obedient servant,
Foxrdown Hill, June 7th, 1810. ~W. JONES.
SIR, | | Jui
I have been favoured with your letter, acknowledging
your having received my model of a temporary rick, and
recommending me to send certificates of its use.
I have to add, that the barley I had put on these hurdles
last year was;done in my presence, by the same man who
‘yemoved it afterward to the barn, thrashed, and, sowed at;
he is ready to attest my former statement of the hurdles
requiring only five minutes time to fix in the ground; of the
barley preserved by them growing perfectly well, witha
prospect, from its present appearance, of yielding a good
crop; and with this farther remark, that it was so damp
-when put upon the hurdles, ‘that he was apprehensive it
would be spoiled, and was much surprised when he took it
into the barn, to find it so perfectly dry.
I notice your query, whether these hurdles could not be Temporary
applied to the purpose of temporary hovels for sheep, in ove! forshesps
wet
State of the
barley saved.
$64 TEMPORARY RICK FOR SAVING CORN)
wet weather? I think, that if two of them were fixed eight
feet apart, and two others placed on the top of them,
covered with straw, reed, rushes, heath, or furze, they
would form a covered hovel of eight feet square, and afford
great protection to sheep in wet weather, (particularly just
after being shorn ;) and to ewes inthe lambing season also, if
some, at were the most forward with lamb, were selected
and put into enclosures, where one end of each hurdle
might be put against a hedge, or against a wall, or end ofa
hoyel, These hurdles, covered in like manner also, would
be useful, if a number of them, proportioned to the quantity
of sheep, were put in the form of a square, in any part of
a field, in hot weather, to afford shade. They would induce
the sheep to lie there, and answer the purpose of folding,
as they could easily be moved to such part of the field. as
wanted improvement; and the sheep would. be more at ease
than when creeping under hedges, to the ne small detriment
of their wool,
Farther use of — I have to report to the Society, that I have this harvest
the temporary
staal: made use,,of the hurdles on a larger scale, viz. to keep
raking wheat separate from the sheaf, and which was too
damp to put in sheaf; and alsoin small nicks of wheat for
seed, to saye the trouble of taking. it from a larger rick,
before the whole was wanted to be thrashed ; ; and for my
tithe wheat, that was not sufficiently dry to put into a barn.
Latecropof . | had also five acres of white pease, which were drilled
Pease. where a crop of vetches had failed, so late as the 12th of
May; they proved to be a very great crop, but they ripened
so late, and the tops’of the haulm were so green, from
having shot out to an extraordinary length, that they were
not all carried till the 27th of last month, At one time I
almost despaired of ever getting them dry, owing tothe
heavy dews which fell during the night, and continued
during most of the day, so as to afford but a few hours to
dry my crop. I therefore took up six waggon loads from
the middle of the field, on the 25th of Jast month, and put
them on twelve gate hurdles adjoining each other, for the
purpose of making one roof, and set the hurdles in the
manner of my nice The first two loads were put on‘four
of these hurdles at one end, which would contain four loads
if
TEMPORARY RICK FOR SAVING CORN. 265
if necessary ; the next two on the adjoining four hurdles;
_ and the other two loads on the four remaining hurdles; so
that though these three ricks were close to.each other, yet
being set up separately, they admitted air between each,
from the bottom to the top, and yet adjoined sufficiently to
make one continued roof to be thatched together.
When these six loads were removed from the field, I had
‘room to turn the remaining parcels towards each other, and
. more towards the middle of the field, so as to have more
air todry. But they were not sufficiently dry till the 27th,
when they were carried to another set of sixteen hurdles
ready to take them, and each waggon load laid over the
whole length of 16 hurdles, not being so damp as to require
‘being barrie’ up in separate ricks, as the former six loads.
Some of these pease have been already thrashed, and prove
to-be in very good condition, as also the haulm, which is
perfectly dry and sweet for cattle.
One of these ricks of pease, and probably some of the
ricks of wheat, will not be taken in till the month of Feb-
ruary, next: they may. therefore be inspected by any member
.of the Society, who may visit this neighbourhood.
I have enclosed a certificate from Mr. Waldron, a gentle-
man of this parish, who farms his.own estate; and another
certificate from Mr. Hewitt, also of this. parish, who is
esteemed a respectable and intelligent farmer; he rents a
farm from Mr. Ware, brother to Mr, Ware of the house of
Ware, Bruce, and Co. London.
lam, sir,
Your most obedient servant,
W. JONES.
Foxdown Hill, Oct. 30th, 1810.
SIR,
‘Agreeably to your request, I lose no time to give Size of tempo.
you the information you desire, respecting the temporary "Yo tick,
corn ricks, and the.size they may be made.. The space be-
tween the two outside hurdles contains about sixty sheaves
on each side, or one hundred and twenty in the whole, to
‘reach the top of the hurdles. Every round of sheaves afters
ward takes forty sheaves or upwards, say fifteen roundshigh,
which makes six hundred sheaves, and which will raise the
rick
‘
ae
£66 TEMPORARY RICK FOR SAYING CORN.
rick about eight feet from the tops of the hurdles. It will
require about seventy sheaves from the top of the above
fifteen rounds, to the top of the conic roof. Four sheaves
crossing each other, five times in the centre of the rick, will
form in the whole twenty, making as follows:
3120 Sheaves to the top of the hurdles.
600 Sheaves from the tops of the hurdles, to, the come
mencement of the roof.
72, Sheaves in the conical roofs.
20 Sheavesin the cross or bonds of the rick.
$12 Sheaves, or upwards of 81 shocks in each rick,
whichis more than the average produce ef an
acre. Si
Fengthof © The wheatin this part of the country is reaped near to
— the ground, and my sheaves, ‘this year, are about 42 feet
long, for which the distance of 3 feet 23 inches between the
outer hurdles, and 3 feet between the inner hurdles, is
caleulated. The distance should be regulated by the length
of the sheaves of barley and oats. ‘When shorter than four
feet, the rick should be oblong instead of round.”
Faggots useful Fageots of wood, placed at intervals within the rick, will
at intervals 16 found particularly useful, where pease, vetches, clover,
hay seeds, and meadow hay, are put into these ricks, as the
faggots will promote a greatér circulation of air.
The number of the cross sheaves: should be according to ;
the dampness or dryness of the corn, either in every row,
or every second or third row.
Reference to Plate ViI, fig. 1, the Section of Mr. Jones’s
Temporary Corn Rick.
The letters, describing the same parts of the construction
of the rick, agree with those in Plate VI.
A B, the two upright outside hurdles,
C D, the two inclined hnrdles.
E E, the poles or sticks on which the sheaves are to be
first placed on Seeeneing the riek, and which cross the
hurdles.
HHH H, the sheaves composing the body of the stack.
Jl,
IMPROVED ACORN DIBBLE, 267
YI, the conical roof, the lower part of which projects
sufficiently over the body of the rick, to cover it from wet;
and in this roof, each round of sheaves is to be placed so
as to cover the ears of the sheaves below, and gradually rise
to nearly a point, over which a bundle, containing twv of
three sheaves, with the butt ends upwards, and tied together,
cover the centre or uppermost point of the rick. ,
V.
Improvement in the Acorn Dibble; by Mr. CHaries
W aistELL, of High Holborn.*
Sir,
lly consequence of information, that Government wanted Dibble for
intelligence respecting the best mode of dibbling acorns, J 2°°TS-
have made an improvement on the acorn dibble in the So-
ciety’s: repository, which I presume will answer well the de-
sired purpose. I therefore send herewith a drawing of it,
Tequesting you will have the goodness to lay it before the
Society of Arts &c. . .
Thorn bushes and thickets are the natural guardians of Bushes and
young oaks from the depredations of cattle of all kinds, on Oe ee
forests and other grounds on which they pasture. By means dians oe young
of this implement, acorns may be deposited in the interior of 9s
bushes, as wel] as in open grounds, with rapidity and accu-
racy. And presuming that such an implement would be of
great utility to many individuals, and also to Government,
I wish much to have it made known as generally as possible
among those who are most likely to profit by it; and which
I think may be best effected by the Society of Arts, &c. giv-
ing an engraving of it jn their next volume; provided they
concur with me in thinking it may be the means of rearing
an increased number of oaks, to promote which every possi~
ble facility should be given, |
Permit me on this occasion to observe, that many propri- Planting on
etors of landed property are not sufficiently aware, that a estates notsuf-
. ae -~- fidiently at-
greater or less proportion of almost every estate would, if jur joo dea to,
* Trang, of the Spe. of Arts, vol. XXIX, p. 60.
diciously
268
The dibble de-
scribed,
Method of
using it.
IMPROVED ACORN DIBBLE.
diciously planted, pay the proprietor much more than the
rent it could be let for to a farmer. It would, therefore, give
me great pleasure to see in the Society’s volumes more com-
munications from successful planters. I trust there are nu-
merous persons of this description, who want only to be’ re-
minded, how greatly they might benefit individuals, as well
as their country, by publishing or communicating to you
such well ascertained facts of their success as planters, as
they may be in possession of ; and in order to direct their at-
tention to the nature of the information that is chiefly wanted,
I beg leave to refer them to pages 80 and 81 of the Society’s _
27th volume*, wherein numerous particulars respecting the
planting, management, and produce of woods, are enume-
rated. I am, Sir,
Your obedient servant,
No. 99, High Holborn, CHARLES WAISTELL.
June 12, 1811.
Reference to the Engravings and Section of Mr. Waistell’s
Improvement of the Dibble for Planting Acorns. Plate
VII, figs. 2, 3 and 4.
a represents the handle of the dibble, which dibble ts a
rod 3 of an inch in diameter, movable in the tube of a stave,
which stave is externally about two inches diameter ; 6 a tin
or metal tube fixed on the exterior part of the stave, and of
the same bore or aperture as the tube of the stave. When
a hole is made in the earth by the point of the dibble d, the
acorn is dropped down the metal tube, and on drawing up
the dibble by‘its handle to'the height of the letter e, the
acorn ¢ passes through a large opening into the dibble tube,
and thence falls into the hole made by the point of the dibble
in the earth; when by moving backwards and forwards the
cross handles gg, fixed on the top of the hollow stave, the
soil surrounding the hole in the earth is loosened by the iron
wings ff, and deposited on the acorn. Fig. 4, h, shows a
section of the iron wings f f belonging to the bottom of the
hollow stave.
Supposing that you wish to plant an acorn in the middle
af any bush, you are to press the instrument through it into
* See Journal, vol. XXVITI, p. 307.
the
STREAKS OF LIGHT FROM SHOOTING STARS.
the ground, make a hole in the earth by the point of the
dibble rod, then raise the rod above the hole where the two
tubes communicate, drop the acorn down the tube 8, which
falls immediately through it and the lower part of the stave
tube into the hole previously made by the rod, which-hole is
instantly covered by the soil raised by the wings. The
dibble rod may be occasionally passed down the metal tube,
to be certain of its being perfectly clear.
VI.
On the apparent Streaks of Light, left sometimes by falling
or shooting Stars ; and on their apparent rectilinear Courses
in the Atmosphere. Ina Letter from Joun Farry, Sen. Esq.
3 To W. NICHOLSON, Ese.
Sir,
269
Some months ago I was induced, by the frequent refer= shooting stars
ences to shooting or falling stars, as being a phenomenon in
not connected
with the state
and connected with particular states of our atmosphere, that of the atmos-
I had noticed in the improved Meteorological Journals for phere.
some time previously, inserted in yours and other periodical
works, to address the gentlemen engaged in these ob-
servation, through your means (see Vol. XXX, p. 285), to
_ suggest, from considerable series of observations by myself
and others on these bodies, that their appearance at parti-
cular times was in no way influenced by the particular state
of our atmosphere, (any more than the appearance of the
moon at particular periods of her revolution); except only,
by the absence of clouds and haziness to obscure, and of
greater degrees of light from other sources to overpower
them (as the stars &c. are by the day-light); and to request
the minute attention of these and other meteorologists to
the particular circumstances, decisive of these my sug~
gestions being well or ill founded. Since which, and pro-
bably in consequence, the references to these phenomena,
‘before so frequent, have nearly or altogether ceased in the
Journs': of Meteorological observations referred to; but.
nothing ferther has appeared on the subject, until your
last ne 71222, 1 which, p, 229, avery respectable and veteran
meteorologist,
270
Mr. De Luc’s
hypothesis,
does not agree
with the facts.
The train of
light am optic
Hiysion.
STREAKS OF LIGHT FROM SHOOTING STARSé
meteorologist, J. A De Luc, Esq., has spoken of this phes
nomenon as being occasioned by jets or streams of some
fluids, from the surface of the Earth into the atmosphere,
and the falling again of the same in a_ phosphorescent
state, &e.
‘The same sincere desire for the extension of our knowledge
on this very interesting subject, that induccd me formerly to
address the gentlemen alluded to, now prompts me to state,
that the above explanation of the phenomenon by Mr. De
Lue is at variance with all the best observations that I have
made, or seen recorded, concerning these meteors: and that
the fact of their general approach to rectiliear courses*
exactly accords with all their other appearances, as being those
of bodies describing parts of very large ellipses, in one of the
foci of which the centre of our planet is situate; and all, ex-
cept a very few of them (which from their apparent size
would not be called falling stars by any one, but large
meteors, as I apprehend), are moving so distant from us, and
in such rare parts of our atmosphere, though with satellitie
velocity, as not ever to be turned suddenly out of their cour-
ses, by highly condensed air before them, as Mr. De Luc
with great appearance of probability maintains the electric
spark to be deflected on or near to the surface of the Earth.
And farther, I beg to repeat my conviction, that all the streaks
of light, that I have sometimes seen, as following shooting
stars and meteors, are to be referred to the eye remaining
stationary, or nearly so, during the observations that were
followed by streaks of light: and I venture to recommend,
as decisive of this question, that two, three, or more intelli-
gent persons should observe in conjunction, and each one
without communication withthe others, write down as quickly
as possible the circumstances attending his observation: and
if then it happens, as it invariably has done with myself and
others, either that there are no streaks seen, or that some will
see streaks and others none, according as their eye does or dees
not adapt itself to the apparent motion of the meteor; then
this supposed evidence of streams of phosphorescent fluids
* But which is not their invariable appearance, as I have sometimes
seen. them move in curves.
must
ON GALVANIC PHENOMENA. g7vi
must be abandoned, as untenable. Hoping that the subject
will ere long attract the attention of observers in earnest;
and be fully elucidated,
I remain, sir,
Your obedient humble servant,
J. FAREY,
Westminsier, July 2, 1812.
VIL.
On Galvanic phenomena. In a Letter from J. A Dz Luc,
Esq, F. R. S.
To W. NICHOLSON, Esq.
Sir,
Dr Maycock’s papers in your Journal have much ine p,, Maycock’s
terested me, as affording the opportunity of very useful dis- observations
quisitions on important objects of natural philosophy; they
are contained in your Numbers 131 and 144, the former of
which will be the subject of my present remarks,
This paper has the following title: Observations on the on the refere
hypothesis, which refers chemical affinities to the electrical ence of chemi-
energies of the particles of metals: an hypothesis introduced oad ara
by Sir H. Davy in a lecture to the Royal Society in 1807. ergy:
The paper of Dr. Maycock (as mentioned in a note) had
before (deservedly) obtained the gold medal of the Medical
Society of Edinburgh, on this question: ‘* Whether are the
«¢ phenomena produced in the decomposition of bodies by
“© galvanism capable of being explained by the usual princi«
“< ples of chemical attraction; or do they seem to establish
** the theory, that chemical phenomena depend entirely on
‘* the electrical energies of the particles of matter.”
Thad already, Sir, refuted this last hypothesis almost a Complete re
year before, in your Journal for June 1810, by the analysis futations of the
of the phenomena of the gavvanic pile; but Dr. Maycock has P¥P°thes'*
more deeply treated this subject in the first two sections of
his paper, proving irresistibly, by direct chemical experi-
‘ments, that they could not be referred to electrical energies.
And indeed Sir H. Davy himself has since expressed some
doubts on his own theory.
But
272 ON GALVANIC PHENOMENA.
Objectionto Bat after having acquiesced with pleasuré in the meri#
: 4 kefafSt a of these first two sections of Dr. Maycock’s paper, I -cannot
do the same with regard to the third section, nur can I acaui=
esce in the consequences he derives from it in your No. 144,
But how can it be that Dr. Maycock, though he addresses
to you his papers, never mentions five of ‘mine on the same
subject,'inserted in your Nos. of June, August, October, and
December 1810, and January 1811, in which [have treated,
from experiments, all the parts of hissystem? Whatever be
the cause of this singular circumstance, the followingdis-
cussion of the subject comparatively to his system, which [
hope he will see, will certainly contribute to throw light on
the most important points of electricity and galvanism.
He supposes = Dr. Maycock begins this subject, in the third section of
pe RE his first paper, in the following manner: ‘* It is an estas
of metalstobe “ blished fact, that from the contact and separation of dis-
Siw coe “‘ similar and insulated metals there is such a’change in the
tion ; ** electrical state of each metal, that, after the separation, the
‘* one is found to be positive, the others negative, in relation
*¢ to surrounding bodies”: Journ. vol. X XIX, p. 25. Before
I proceed in this quotation, I must state the question to be
decided, in order to direct to it the experiménts. Dr.
Maycock supposes, that there is no electrical effect pro~
duced durng the contact of the metals; that it takes place —
only at their separation: Whereas I shall demonstrate by a
but itiscaused great number of experiments, that these effects exist only
by their con.
piet during the contact, ‘and that it is owing to extraneous
circumstances that dny effect remains after their separation.
Dr.Maycock’s J come now to the experiments by which Dr. Maycock
Nea thinks to establish his system. “ To detei'mine this point, "
he says, ‘*1n place of the small plate which usually remains
‘on my ‘electrometer, I adapted a copper plate about’ 5
‘¢ inches in diameter. It is evident, that, when this appa+
« ratus is placed on a common table, the copper plate will
« be connected with the wire of the gold leaves, but will be
“in every other respect perfectly insulated; and, conse«
“ quently, that, whenever a state different from that of the
<“‘ surrounding bouiés is produced in the espper plate, it will
‘< be indicated by the divergence of the gold leaves.
andexperi- ~ * The apparatus above described being so cireumstanced,
ments with it, ** that
Te ny
ON GALVANIC PHENOMENA. 973
« that the tinfoil of the electrometer was connected with the
‘¢ Farth, while the copper plate, the wire, and the gold leaves,
** were insulated, I brought, by means of an insulating
*€ handle, a zinc plate also of 5 inches in diameter, into contact
‘© with the copper plate on the electrometer ; there was no
* visible divergence in the gold leaves. On separating the
‘* metals, the gold leaves immediately diverged. On again
‘* bringing them into contact, if the charge of the zine A we
« had not been removed, the /eaves returned to their natural
** position. On again separating the plates, the divergence
** took place as before....1f the charge of the zzne plate
‘© had been removed after the separation, the second contact
*‘ did not reduce the gold /eaves to their natural state, but
left a slight divergence in them; and when the plates
* wére again separated, they diverged in a greater degree
* than after the preceding separation.—Not, however, be-
‘© yond ceftain limits, which apparently varied according to
*‘ the state of the atmosphere as to moisture.” This cause
of anomaly is possible, but very probably some other extra-
neous cause interfered in Dr. Maycock’s operations; else
one single contact and separation of his plates could not have
produced a sensible divergence of the gold leaves. | This is
an interesting object, which Iam going to explain.
Mr. Haiiy, the celebrated mathematician and experi- Haiiy’s expert-
mental philosopher; isthe first who has proved, that, in the ™°" os aa
contact of zine and silver (or copper), the former became
positive and the latter negative: but from the account I have
had of his experiments, it required about 10 repetitions of
the operation, applied toacondenser, to make it sensible to
the gold leaves.
It is probable that Dr. Maycock has not had the oppor- These verified
tunity of being acquainted with these first and original exe by the author.
periments, else he would have found that they contradicted
the results of his own: but, sir; he might have seen in
pages 261 and 262 of my paper in your Journal for August
1810, that I have repeated them with insulated two of
zinc and silver 4 inches in diameter, and verified both parts
of their result. My first view was to ascertain the effect of
the contact of the two metals on their respective electrical
states; an effect which appeared contradictory to my ob-
Nou, XXXII, Aveustr, 1812, U servation,
Repeated con-
tacts of the
plates neces-
sary to produce
any sensible
effect.
Dr. Maycock
influenced by
a different
opinion,
ON GALVANIC PHENOMENA.
servation on the galvanic pile, related in p. 182 of your
Journal for June 1810; for the extremity of this pile actu-
ally terminated by silver produced the positive divergence
in the gold leaves connected with it; and the other, actually
terminated by zine, made them diverge as negative; which
was the reverse of what Mr. Haiiy had found in his experi-
ments. I had discovered the cause of my illusion, as ex-
plained in the same paper; but this being an important
point in galvanism, and wishing to ascertain it for my own
conviction (not in view of Dr. Maycocx’s experiments,
since I did not know them), I repeated the original experi-
ments with the plates above mentioned.
These experiments showed me first the certainty of the
fundamental point, that, in their contact, the zine plate
became positive, and the silver plate negative. But the
most important part of this experiment for my present pur-
pose relates to the small effect, which one single operation
produces on the gold leaves. Mr. Haiiy having used plates
as large as those with which Dr. Maycock has made his
experiments, ten repetitions of the operation on his condenser
were sufficient to produce a sensible divergence of the gold
leaves; whereas my plates being only 4 inches in diameter, it
required twenty repetitions of the alternate contacts with my
condenser, to produce a sensible divergence of very narrow
and long gold leaves. But besides, the experiments which
follow that in my paper prove also, that a certain number
of those contacts preduce the same electrical effect, as the
same number of groupes of the iwo metals remaining in con=
tact with each other; to which object I-shall return here-
after.
~The opinion, however, that one single nee with the
two plates was sufficient to produce a sensible electrical effect
seems to have influenced Dr. Maycock’s galvunic system;
for, in continuation of the above quoted part of his theory, -
he thus: continues, p. 26: ‘* The experiments, to which I
«‘ have just alluded, appear to be perfectly sufficient to
‘point out the fallacy of the explanation, which is very
-& generally received, of the excitement of the galvanic pile ;
‘¢ the whole of which rests on the assumption, that dissimilar
« metals, while in contact, are in different electrical states,
the
ON GALVANIC PHENOMENA. 275
. 8 the one being relatively positive, the other negative; which
s* has been shown to be perfectly untenable.”
Though Dr. Maycock mentions here the gdlvanic pile
snvedted by Volta, he does not appear to have used it in
his galvanic experiments, for lie never speaks but of the ape
paratus of troughs: but if he had seen my papers in your
Journal, he would have found in them the same effects pro-
duced by the galvanic pile, in which the two metals remain
in contact during its action. I shall therefore repeat here
the most essential parts of these experiments, comparing them
with his system ; a comparison which, thus applied, will pro-
bably fix his attention.
A plate in your Journal for June 1810 shows the con- Mr. De Luc’s
struction of the galvanic pile, which I used in these experi- 2"rangement.
ments, and the paper explains my motives for that construce
tion. My pile was composed of two columns, in which ternal
groups, consisting of zinc and silver plates and wet cloth, were
contained ; but the order of the succession of the metals was
inverse in the two columns; and thus, by means of a brass
slip placed at the bottom, they were united in.one pile, the
extremities of which were both at the top of the apparatus,
each connected with a gold leaf electrometer; which arrange-
ment gave the facility of bringing the chemical experiments,
in the glass tubes with water, more in sight.
I made the analysis of the effects of this pile by three dif- p< analysis of
fereni separations or dissections of its ternal groups, always the effects of
composed of the two metals and a piece of wet cloth. These ee ee
separations were produced by three small upright brass wires,
. forming the feet of brass tripods. In the first dissection the °
ternal groups separated by these tripods were the two metals
and the wet cloth between them ; and the effects of this dis-
seccion of the pile being the same as when it was not divided,
I shall relate them first. ;
' These experiments begin at p. 121 of my paper in your Experiments.
Journal, I first wetted the cloth with pure water: the pile
produced the divergence of the gold leaves, and the gasses
appeared in the water of the glass tubes ; but not the shock;
a very remarkable galvanic phenomenon, which Dr. May-
cock has not considered, though it leads to the real cause of
the chemical effects of the pile, namely, thata liquid must == ~
us separate
276 ON. GALVANIC PHENOMENA.
separate the groups of two metals, in order to produce a coré
rosion on their surface, But the corrosion operated by pure
Corrosion by water not having the effect of producing the shock, I under-
nin FAS took the series of experiments. beginning by the 15th in the
shock. same paper, by which | found, that for the shock, the corro-.
sion of the metals in the pile was to be produced by an acid.
These are essential galyanic phenomena, which if Dr. May-
cock had undertaken to explain, he would have found the
deficiency of his system.
Separation ef ‘The second division of the pile led me to discover, that the
ee 2a cause of its electrical excitement is entirely different from
effects. that of the production of chemical effects. In this dissection,
the groups of the éwo metals in contact were separated from
each other, on one side by the wet cloth, and on the other by
the tripods. In this construction, the eledtvign? excitement
was transmitted from group to group; for the electrical
motions of the electroscopes at its extremities were very
strong, and the gold leaves fell entirely when the extremities
were connected together by the glass tubes with water ; but
no chemical effect was produced in that water, because the
The corrosion corrosion was not produced on the surface of both the metals,
modifies the which is the essential cause of those effects, as it occasions
electric fluid. : ieee M pan bike,
a modification in the electric fluid itself. This isa most ese
sential circumstance in galvanism ; and as it is thus proved,
and will be farther ascertained in the sequel, it must not be
forgotten in forming theories on the effect either of the pile,
or of the apparatus of troughs.
The electrical [return now to the question, whether the electrical effects
rae Pro- produced by the association of two proper metals takes place
uced while
the metals are during their contact, or only at their separation. If Dry
in contact, Maycock had read my paper in your Journal, No. 119, for.
August 1810, he would have seen, that the (wo meta/s re-
maining in contact in my pile produced both électricaé and
chemical effects; and that the intensity of these effects was
proportional to the number of the groups thus connected.
But he doubts whether the course of the electric fluid can be
determined in the pile and its circuit ; and he does not even
think it necessary to inquire into the cause of the electrical
effects, for he saysin p. 14 and 15 of his paper in No. 181;
“Dr. M. suppo , «Franklin, an electric ti
roe ain ‘In the theory of Dr. Fran rie fluid is su iets
oO
ON GALVANIC PHENOMENA. _ 977
‘to be accumulated in the glass, and dissipated in the seal- electricity not
“ ing-wax. Admitting the existence of an electric fluid, it determined,
*< would seem to fallow’ that if it be accumulated in the gluss,
‘© it must be dissipated in the sealing-wax: but as far as ny
“« knowledge goes, it has never been determined, that it is
‘* in the glass, and not in the sealing-wax, that the accumu.
«< Jation takes place.”
This opinion has led Dr. Maycock to suppose, that it can- and conse.
not be determined whether a fluid does enter at a determin- ph baat ie:
ed extremity of the pile, and return to the opposite extremity, pile not ascer-
when a circuit is established ; but if he had seen my paper ‘#¢¢-
in your Journal for June 1810, he would have known, that I
had made this point the object ofa long series of experiments,
demonstrating that, when the extremities of the pile are con-
hected together by a conducting’ substance, the effects are
produced by the circulation of the electric fluid entering the
extremity, which, in the pile without a circuit, is positive,
and returning to the cobetenys which, 1 in the same case, is
negative. '
T come to another proposition of Dr. May eae p- 27 of pr. M. fe
the same Number of your Journal, relating to galvanism. arable oY
*s The galvanic apparatus,” he says, ‘ can duly be excited 5 -cessa; as
“¢ by a decomposable Siuid, and this fluéd is always decomposed the excite.
** when the: apparatus is excited.” Sir H. Davy was at first shine
of the same opinion; -but I have demonstrated by various
experiments in ygur Journal, that no fluid (or Liquid) is ne-
cessary to produce that excitation with respect to the electri-
cal’ phenomena of the pile; that the only condition of this but the con-
trary has been
effect, distinct from the chemical effects, is, that the groups shown.
of two metals in actual contact be separated by u conducting
substance not metallic; and as it is a very essential point in
galvanism, I shall briefly repeat its proofs,
This, first, is the cause why, in the second dissection of the Experiment
pile above mentioned, where that condition only existed, ihe Proving thiss
electrical phenomena continued ; but not the chemical phe-
nomena, which require, as | have proved, a /iquid between
the metals, in order to produce a corrosion on their surface.
This is demonstrated by Exp, 19 in p. 135 of your Journal
for June 181. For, when before I had mounted a pile of 76
groups composed of zinc and st/ver plates 1°6 inch in diame;
ter,
278
Search for a
conductor not
metallic,
Vegetable
best.
Experiment
with this.
ON GALVANIC PHENOMENA.
in contact with each other, separated by pieces of wet cloth,
that pile, beside the motions of the gold leaves at its extre-
mities when free, produced chemical effects in the water of
the glass tubes when forming the circuét; but, by substitut-
ing for the wet pieces of cloth pieces of the same cloth, new,
and without wetting them, I bad the same motions of the
gold leaves at its extremities, only less, and not the smallest
appearance of chemical effect in the water of the glass tubes.
This first observation opened anew field to my view.
Having conjectured, that wool, the material.of the cloth I
used, hadin itself very little conducting faculty, and that
it became a good conductor only by being wet, I undertook
a long series of experiments for finding out what substance,
not metallic, was the best, conductor. I found in general,
that vegetable substances were,better, conductors than animal
ones; and,among the former, plain writing paper having
produced; as much effect as any other, J tixed upon it, as
being easily cut:to the size of the metallic plates.
I then made the Exp, 20, which concludes the paper
in your Journal, I mounted again the pile, of 76 groups
of zine and silver plates in contact, separated only by pieces
of paper. This pile produced as great electrical signs at its
‘extremities, as that with the wet cloth, but not the smallest
chemical effect appeared in’ the water of the tubes, when
they conuected these extremities. », Thus were demonstrated
the conclusions, which I had deduced. from the phenomena
of the pile itself.
Steps tewhich My paper in your Journal for August 1810: deseribie
this discovery
fed,
the steps, to which this first discovery led me; which pro-
gress, had Dr. Maycock: known it, would undoubtedly
have struck him, as bringing to view an absolutely new
field in experimental philosophy, not only by ascertaining
the distinct causes of electrical and chemical effects in the
pile (as indicated by the preceding experiment); but by
this important phenomenon, that the motions of the gold
leaves are very different at different times, without any
connection with the difference of either heat or moisture
which changes were to be attributed to changes in the
‘electrical state of the ambient air, ihe the following Se
Jeading to meteorology.
We
ON GALVANIC PHENOMENAs- 979
We have a method of comparing the electrical state of Electricity of
the stratum of air near the ground with that of the strata {7° Hie ae
higher up, in which we can elevate a conductor; the com- higher up may
parative point of which, or the standard of positive and b&c™pared.
negative, is the electrical state of the ground; whereas, we
have no such point of comparison within the stratum near
the ground, in which our experiments are made; as the
latter influences too much the state of the air near it; how-
ever I have observed changes in the electrical state of this Changes in the
lower stratum in the following manner. Having employed gt took a 7
columns of many hundred groups, the godd leaves not only able,
diverged very strongly, but they struck the tinfoils, fell,
as being discharged, then rose and struck again. Now,
the number~of these alternate motions, in a given time,
differ so much in different days, that I have seen sometimes
60 strikings in a minute, while at other times‘there was not
even one in the same interval. This, as I have said and
constantly observed, not having any connection with the
changes of either heat or moisture, depends very probably
on changes in the electrical state of the ambient air.
But let us fix our attention on the motions of the gold Standard of
leaves in the electrometer, in order to understand the jn- Positive and
: . Negative elec-
fluence of the state of the air on the apparatus. Qn this tricity disco-
essential point, Sig. Volta has made a very important step veredby Volta.
in electricity, which has removed the difficulcies, till then
insurmountable, in Dr. Franklin’s system of positive and
negative, without reference to any known standard. But
Sig. Volta has first proved, that the particles of air possess
the electric fluid as well as other bodies; and that the electrical
state of the air in the place of observation is the standard of
positive and negative with respect to the electrometer.
Therefore, the motions of gold leaves indicate only the actual
electrical state of the air which environs the instrument.
It is impossible however to follow, in its phenomena, all
the effects of the electric fluid, without a determination of
its nature, which Dr. Maycock considers as unnecessary. I
have given that determination in the same paper above
mentioned, beginning at p. 254; but the phenomena on
which it is founded are so numerous, that even in that paper
I could only give a short account of them, referring to my
works
f
|
S80 ON GALVANIC PHENOMENA.
works, Ideés sur la Meétéorologie, and Traité élémentaire sur
le Fluide électro-galvanique. In these works, I have de-
monstrated, by a long series of experiments, what 1 shall
now summarily state on this subject, |
The electric The electric fluid is composed of many ingredients, which
fluid a com- 7 : are
pound. howeyer are only manifested when it exhibits sparks, by
ie darting from one conductor to another. At this instant three
phenomena are observed, which the electric fluid does not
produce when it only moves aloug conductors; they are
light, heat, and a peculiar sme//. These sudden phenomena
must be produced by a decomposition of the electric fluid;
and in following the other phenomena attending this decom-
position Tne shown, that, beside the three ingredients
thus manifested, light, fire, and an odorate sa Lebo there
are other éngredients in the electric fluid; one of which, well
determined, is a most tenuous fluid, which imparts its strong
expansibility to the others, and is the cause of the phenome-
non called electric influences; a most characteristic effect
of the electric fluid, which 1 have followed by exact experi-
ments, beginning at p. 267 of the same paper. The fluid
thus manifested was, for the facility of expression, to have
aname; and [have called it vector, as giving motion to the
unexpansive substance, which constitutes the density. Now,
in the course of these experiments I have demonstrated,
that electrical motions are produced only by the substance
constituting the density, without any participation of the
fluid -producing the electric influences. | This is an indis-
putable proof, that the electric fluid is a compound sub-
stance.
Similar effects There was another point to be Abtendé wad in galvanism,
are ee: which Dr. Maycock not having considered, his system re-
mains without any foundation. The same effects as from
the galvanic pile, namely the shoek and the gasses in water,
are produced by the electric machine charging a battery of
coated jars; but in this case they are produced by a very
much condensed electric fluid ; while, when the same fluid
has pervaded the galvanic pile, it produces these effects
with an incomparably smaller quantity. With regard to
this subject, I have proved by many experiments, what is
above stated, that the chemical effects produced by the pile
proceed
@®N GALVANICGC PHENOMENA, 281
proceed from the electrie fluid pervading it during the cor-
rosion of the metals effected by a liquid; an alteration by
_ which this fluid, though with a very smal) density, is decom
posed when passing from one conductor to another. This
important point, both in electricity and galvanism, is pro-
ved by a series of experiments beginning at p. 243 of me
same paper.
Having been led by these experiments to the above-men- Effect of parte
tioned apparatus, wherein the gtoups of the two metals were ing paperon
separated by writing paper, it came into my mind to try, f)), Of eee:
whether there would be any advantage for increasing the
electrical effect of this new kind of pile, to fix, by pasting,
that paper on one of the metals. I made this experiment
on zinc, and copper or silver, the former of which becomes
positive and the two other negative while in contact, and on
pewter, which in contact with zine becomes negative, and
positive with silver or copper. An additional proof, that,
there is neither positive nor negative state belonging to any
kind of body. The general result of these experiments,
detailed in p. 245 of my paper, was, that there is a sensible
increase of effect by pasting the paper on that metal, which —
in contact with the other becomes negative by losing some
of its electric fluid and yielding it to the other; such as
Silver and copper with zinc.
This opening the prospect of obtaining a spontaneous and Construction
permanent electric machine, the power of which might be o which this
increased almost without limit by increasing the number of *
groups, I was going to undertake it in some measure, by
pasting paper over copper plates of the same size of my zinc
plates; when luckily it occurred to my recollection, that there
‘was paper on which copper was ready laid, called Dutch-
gilt paper. The experiment 27, p. 246 of my above-men-
tioned paper, relates my first trial. I constructed one of
these new piles consisting of seventy-six groups of the same
zinc-plates of 1°6 inch diameter, separated by equal pieces
of Dutch-gilt paper, all the copper sides of which were turn-
ed towards the same extremity of the column. Thus I had
seventy-six groups of-zine and copper in mutual contact,
separated by the paper on which the copper was laid. Now,
these seventy-six groups produced greater electrical effects
at
S3e ON GALVANIC PHENOMEN Ae
at their extremities, than the same number of groups of zine
“and silver separated by the wet cloth: however now not the
smallest chemical effect was produced in the water of the
glass tubes when connecting these extremities, though the
gold leaves fell; a proof of the eérculation of the electric fiuid.
In p. 250 of the same paper, at exp. 29, begin some trials
concerning the comparative electrical effects of the size and
number of the groups, on which I had already formed my
Volta’scon- judgment, by Sig. Voita having explained to me at Paris, in
denser. 1782, the cause of the effect of his admirable instrument
then lately invented, the condenser, as explained in that pa-
Diffrentef- per; according to which I found, that, for a mere di-
fectsofsizeand yergence of the gold leaves, the number only of the groups
mumber, : »
determined it: but that, when they produced some other
effect; as for instance to strike the sides, and thus be re-
duced to the electrical state of the ground; with the same
number of groups, the size of the plates bad an influence, as
they repaired sooner what the gold leaves had Jost; which
made them strike more frequently in the same time, in pro-
portion to the size of the plates.
Nomber of I come now to the general results of these experiments,
pans of metals the account of which begins at p. 262 of the same paper;
siege mad which will show what I have above mentioned, with respect
same number to Dr. Maycock’s system, that acertain number of groups,
neon of ine and copper being in mutual contact, and separated by
paper, produce sensibly the same electrical effect, as the
same number of contacts of one insulated metal, after having
been applied to the other while communicating with the
ground. 1 made these experiments with a particular can-
denser, shortly described in my paper, and with plates of the
Results tabu- S#me diameter as those of my column. Ihave given the
lated, general results of these experiments in some tables, p. 265,
jn all of which, A represents the zinc side, and B the copper
side. In these tables, designed to trace the motion of the
electric fiuid through the pile in different circumstances, I
have supposed the pile of the new construction, (which I
have called electric column) of whatever number of groups,
to be divided into eleven equal parts. I have used arbitrary
numbers to express the progress of positive and negative, but
they are proportional to the whole: I have made these num-
bers
ON GALVANIC PHENOMENA. 283
Bers increase regularly, though regularity cannot be expecte- Results tabu.
ed in such experiments: but these numbers do. not. differ "4.
essentially from the immediate results.
The first two columns, in that p. 265, represent the si-
multaneous progresses .of positive and of negative in the
insulated pile ; one expressing the progress of the negative
from A to B, and the other, the progress of the positive from
Bto A. These are as the elements of the combination of
effects shown in the three following tadb/es, in three different
situations of the pile. inion .
Tastel, ~*~ Tasre JI. T ase Ifl.
B in communni- Ain communi-
Insulated pile, cation with the cation with the >
ground. _ ground.
A AC A
_ + 10 + 20 0
+ 8 + 18 ret
+ 6 + 16 — &
+ 4 + 14 —
-_. 2 + 12 — 8
: 0 + 10 — 10
— 2 + 8 -— 12
— 4 + 6 — 14
— 6 + 4 — 16
— 8 + 2 — 18
— 10 0 — 20
B B B
I cannot think, that Dr. Maycock has seen these experi~
ments; for had he doubted their results at first, he would
have found them confirmed im my following paper, with
such evidence, that he could not have avoided, either to
disprove them, or to show that they were not against his’
system,
I shall not euter into an account of all the experiments
contained in this paper, as it would be a repetition in the
same Journal. I had only here in view Dr. Maycock’s
system, which, according to my judgment, involves in ob«
security the whole field of electricity and galvanism ; I was
therefore to recall those only of these experiments which relate
to this subject: but they are more, sir, to this purpose, in
my
$84 WAVES BETWEEN OIL AND WATER.
my paper in your following number for October 1810,
which F shall also recall for the same motive in a following
communication, and | hope that the whole together will
induce Dr. Maycock to change his system.
Tam, with great regard, sir,
Your most obedient servant,
Windsor, J. A. DE LUC.
July the 10th, 1812. sis’ :
VII.
\ Explanation of a hydrostatical Phenomenon ‘observed by
Franxuin: by Ropiner*.
Agitation of lr you put water and oil into a tumbler, suspend the tum-
ae rae bler by a string, and give ita gentle swing, you will perceive
nothing particular at the surface of the oil; but the surface
of the water beneath will appear agitated, and form considera-
ble waves. Such was the phenomenon observed by Franklin,
and with which he was puzzled no doubt merely because he
had not time to examine it: for that great man had so acute
an eye In observing nature, that he scarcely ever failed to
seize those Connexions of facts, that constitute properly what
we call physical laws. His confession of his ignorance on
this occasion merely proves, that his modesty knew how to
avail itself of his being too much occupied to examine every
thing. )
The pheno- This phenomenon is eaeeble of assuming very diffexent
sei Ke forms, by varying the circumstances by which it is produced.
tion. I shall confine myself here to that observed by pair
because it is one of the most complicated.
The factsie- | The facts that compose this phenomenon, some of which
aoe from two are known to all the world, are the result of two hydrostati-
nown princie BE rete
ples, cal principles, well known separately, but not yet considered
together; that by which liquids seek their level, and that
with the discovery of which Archimedes was so delighted.
Tendency ofa By the first, all the parts of a liquid equally heavy, and
fiuid toa level. perfectly movable on each other, tend toward the centre of
¥ Abridged frem the Jour, de Phys, vol. LXV, p.277. h
. the
WAVES BETWEEN OIL AND WATER. 2985
the Earth with equal energy; and, approaching it as long as
they find no sufficient obstacle in the adjacent columns, do
not stop till they arrive at that state, which is called the
level, And as this motion is an effect of gravity, it is acces
lerated, carries all the parts beyond the point of equilibrium,
and causes them to vibrate several times round this point,
producing undulations, a kind of oscillations with which
every one is familiar.
By the second principle, a body moving in a liquid, being Motion of a
obliged, in displacing it, to communicate to it continually a sy nme
part of its motion, is incessantly losing force; so that, in
obeying the laws of gravitation, it falls Ticoubes the liquid
only with the excess of its specific gravity over’that of the
liquid in which it moves.
It might be supposed at first view, that this second princi- Application of
ple should have no influence over either of the two liquids, these es
that exhibit the phenomenon in question, because neither of °
them is properlyin the other. Both, however, are subjected
to this law: the lowermost, because its surface cannot acquire
any undulatory movement without displacing the upper;
and the uppermost, because its surface cannot move without
raising the air, which then presses on it at every point.
Bot, as we are accustomed to see the effeets of this position
with regard to the air, we do not think of referring them to
their cause.
With respect to the inferior liquid, its situation and re-
lation to the superior render a phenomenon very remarkable,
which at the same time is essentially the same with what we
see without attention at the surface of the superior.
To understand the reason of this singularity, let us sup- Change of
pose some cause to have disturbed the surface of the inferior ta ar ci
liquid, so that it is no longer level, but a given column is a ther not muck
certain degree higher vias another. This column does not lighter.
exceed the shorter in weight by the whole quantity it is
higher, for it makes only a part of the column that exists
in the vessel at that point, consisting of the heavier liquid at
its lower part, and the lighter at its upper. The shorter
column of the inferior liquid in like manner is only the lower
part of a column, the upper part of which is formed of the |
lighter liquid. The difference between these two columns is,
Oh
286
, Conditions Nee
” cessary to its
restoration.
WAVES BETWEEN OIL AND WATER.
the first has more of the heavier liquid and less of the lighter,
the second more of the lighter and less of the heavier.
For these two columns to acquire their level itis necessary ,
that the first should lose a portion of the heavier liquid and
acquire a portion of the lighter, and the second thecontrary.
And as there is no cause to produce this effect but the por=
tion of the heavier liquid that one column has more than
the other, the reduction of the inferior liquid to a Jevel can=
not be effected by the absolute gravity of the liquid as hap
pens when it is alone in a vessel, but must be caused only
by the excess of the weight of the inferior liquid’ over that
of the superior.
The equili-
brium more
slowly re-
stored,
Hence it follows in the first place, that, as the restoration
of the level of the inferior liquid is the effect of a very smalt
part of its gravity only, it must be extremely slow, and in
consequence capable of béing observed more easily, than
and its disturb-
ance more
Gonspicuous,
This scarcely
observed with
m single liquid.
fase of two
Niauids
when this liquid is alone in the vessel. It may not be amiss
to observe however, that this cause, however staall it may
be, being a gravitating action, must retam its nature'of an
acteleratiie forces and thus produce an undulatory motion
as in ordinary circumstances.
If now we attend to the interruption of equilibriut, or of
the level; between the several columns of the inferior liquid,
we shall find, that the same cause, which renders the restora-
tion of the equilibrium slower and more obvious, renders its
interruption hkewise more considerable.
Gravitation, as it exists before our eyes, imparts to ordi-~
nary bedies, in the shortest space of time we can estimate, a
velocity very similar to those which we ourselves very com~
monly produce: se that when we do any thing to disturb
the level of a liquid surface it is restored almost immediately.
If we give a moderate inclination to a vessel fitled with a
liquid, the level is restored in proportion as we endeavour
to destroy it; so that it requires some little knowledge of
natural physiology to be aware, that it has been disturbed
and restored.
But in the circumstances in which the inferior liquor is
placed; as but'a smal! portion of its gravity remains to reduce
it to a level, itis evident, that it cannot effect this’ with the
same cee aor and that, if re same motion be em-
ployed
WAVES BETWEEN OIL AND WATER. O87
ployed to disturb its equilibrium, this will take place toacon-
siderable degree, in a time when it would have been scarcely
perceptible had there been but one liquid in the vessel.
Thus, in the instance stated by Franklin, the swinging of as observed by
the glass produces scarcely any agitation at the surface of ¥™™4lia.
,the oil ; because, though the glass inclines alternately to each
side, as the motion is moderate, the surface of the oil returns
to an equilibrium as fast as it is diverted from it. But the
surface of the water, having to restore its equilibrium only
the excess of its weiyht over that of the oil, which is very
trifling, as we may estimate it at about 0°006 of the weight
of the water, allows the small deviations from the level time
to accumulate; so that this surface 1s no longer level when
the swinging ceases, and is obliged to return to it by very
slow and considerable. undulations, that continue a long
time
Of all the modes, in which this phenomenon may be varied, The experi-
I shall mention but one, where the cause I have mentioned ™*"* varied.
is too obvious to be mistaken.
Take a glass globe, mounted so as to be capable of being
turned on its axis; put into it water alone, so as to fill it te
a quarter of its diameter; and turnit gently : the water will
continve apparently to oceupy the lower part of the globe.
Fill it then to three fourths, and the appearance will be the
same, if you turn it in the same manner. So it will if you
put oil alone, instead of water, Lastly, pour in water to one
fourth of its height, and upon this oil to three fourths: then,
if you turn the globe, there will be no change at the surface
of the oil, and the whole body of liquid will appear to occupy
the lower part of the globe. But with the water it will be
different. When you have turned the globe a quarter round,
you will perceive it nearly at the extremity of the horizontal
diameter, instead of being in the lower part of the globe:
and, if you then stop the rotary motion, the water will de-
scend slowly down the side of the globe to the lower part,
will ascend on the other side nearly to the same height, and
thus oscillate a long time, till it settles at its lower part.
As I have said above we here see clearly, that the particue
lar motion of the water under the oil has the particular cha-
acter of that of solid bodies in fluids; and as it is the phe-
rk nomenon
88s ON DYEING REDS ON COTTON.
nomenon of Franklin divested of all accessory complications
there can remain no doubt of its true cause.
bien _ | They who frequently carry liquids in open vessels had at
plied in ae least an obscure perception of this theory. They know by
mon lift. experience, that the liquid is much less liable to be spilt by
sudden movements, if a light body float on their surface.
For this reason water-carriers put a wooden trencher into
each of their buckets; and in vineyards broom is put on the
wine, when it is carried from the press to the cellar in an open
wooden vessel. Any motion begun or terminated too sud=
deuly would produce a considerable change of level in these
liquids, a wave that would cause them to overflow. This
wave is nearly prevented by the existence of the light body,
that swims on the liquid ; because all the columns, that ter«
minate in this body, find in it an obstacle to their undulatory
motion, as they can rise or fall only with this body itself;
and as it corresponds to a great number of columns at the
same time, and is urged in opposite directions by different
columns, it is a considerable obstacle to them all; and thus
it influences those. columns it does not cover, since these
cannot undulate separately from the others.
IX.
Qn the Nature of Sheep’s Dung, and its use in dyeing Cotton
the Red that is called India or Adrianople: by J. B. Vit-
ais, Professor of Chemistry at Rouen*.
Process for "Tur process followed at present in our manufactories
— aged dyeing cotton red, and which was first brought from the
Levant, is composed of a series of operations, each. of which
requires to be elucidated by chemistry, if we would be cer-
tain of obtaining uniform success in this sort of dyeing.
Chemical ex- Employed’ by government to teach the principles of che-
amination of : : : : , :
is. mistry in all its connexions with the useful arts, I thought it
my duty to pay particular attention to that branch of
® Absidged from the Journ, de Phys. vol, LXVI, p. 153.
industry
t
ON DYEING REDS ON COTTON. 289
industry, which constitutes the base of the employment
and trade of the first manufacturing city of the French
empire.
The manufacturers of Rouen employ both fast and false Dyers of
colours. I have already imparted to the latter, by the help ann
of certain mordants, a degree of richness, lustre, and even
permanence, before unknown; which no doubt procured
the specimens I sent the honour of being admitted to the
exhibition of 1806. :
The class of citizens who are not wealthy, and they are Articles of
the most numerous, require clothes of a price proportionate inferior price,
to their circumstances. Besides, the dyeing of inferior
colours employs a number of workmen, and yields a profit,
that would soon be seized by other towns, if it were
despised here.
But the reputation and wealth of our manufactories are The best dyes
derived chiefly from the colours called fast, that is to say ™° ‘hua
those that are produced by the process for Adrianople red.
These colours have opened a vast field of inexhaustible
fertility to the manufacturer. He can now employ in his
designs that variety, that happy mixture, that elegant as- and carried to
sociation, that harmony of colours, which are so pleasing ak
to the eye, and so gratifying to the taste of the most fastic
dious. Instead of those peiishable colours, that delighted
for a moment, the Indian red, and the extensive series of
colours derived from it, as the cherry, rose, violet, lilac,
julyflower, amaranth, &c., in all their various tints, have
little to fear from the most destructive agents, and scarcely
yield to the long continued action of air, light, and soap.
This process therefore is of the highest importance to us; Some manw-
but, though it is practised with the greatest success by ea ahs
some manufacturers, others meet with obstacles, that occa-
sion failures, which it would be highly useful to be able to
prevent. [have endeavoured as far as possible to remove
these, and to dissipate the uncertainty attending the oper
ations performed on the cotton intended to receive this
colour, by a chemical investigation of them. °
I have the honour now to present to the Institute the Use of sheep's
result of my examination into the nature and use of sheep’s ‘naa > dye-
dung i in dyeing Adiianople red, my object being to impart si
Vor. XXXII, AveusT, 1812. >< solid
290
Mistaken opi-
nion of it.
Sheep’s dung
distilled.
Results,
Residuum.
Oils.
Phiegm.
e
ON DYEING REDS ON COTTON.
solid notions of the mode of action and influence of the
sheep’s dung bath, the first applied to the cotton.
Various opinions have been broached on this subject ; but
the experiment, of which I am about to give an account,
will at least dissipate every idea of its containing a large
quantity of volatile alkali, to which La Pileur d’Apligny
ascribes its property of rosing reds. ’
In May 1806 I distilled 61-19 gr. [945 grs] of fresh sheep’s
dung in a coated glass retort, to which I fitted a receiver
furnished with a tube of safety, and a tube for collecting the
gaseous products. The retort was placed in a reverbera.
tory furnace, and gradually heated till the bottom was red.
On receiving the first impression of the fire, a very clear
liquid passed over. On raising the heat, white vapours
were evolved, oily, not very copious; and socn succeeded
by drops of a very fluid oil, the colour of which was a very
fine orange yellow. To this oil succeeded a second, thick,
almost concrete, of a blackish brown, and smelling strongly
empyreumatic. During the distillation about 50 cubic
inches of elastic fluids passed over, which were found to be
a mixture of carburetted hidroyen and carbonic acid.
Having broken the retort, I observed, that it was lined
interiorly with aslight coating of coal, exhibiting the metal-
lic lustre, and assuming on exposure to the air, though only
in some places, the blue colour of prussiate of iron. At the
' bottom I foynd a dull black coal, tolerably dense, retaining
the shape'of the matter subjected to analysis, without any
sensible taste, and exhaling a smell precisely like that of
tobacco smoke,
«This coal weighed 7°8 gram. Heatedin a porcelain cru=
cible it readily took fire, and before the vessel was redhot.
{ observed, that it emitted oily and empyreumatic vapours,
owing no doubt to a small quantity of oil, with which it was
still impregnated; and that it burned witha small white
flame. After burning six hours with a firewell kept up, it
left 3°68 gr. of a gray substance, which was found to be
phosphate of lime.
Of the two oils mentioned above I collected 3° 91 gr.
The coloured liquor in the receiver, Gonitaane with a
. few
ON DYEING REDS ON COTTON, 991
- > few drops of fluid oil, weighed 48°8 gr. It turned sirup of
violets green; at the same that it reddened infusion of lite
mus, though it is true but faintly.
The last-mentioned property was owing toasmall portion
of acetic acid, which was formed in the course of the dis-
tillation: I think its changing sirup of violets green may
be ascribed to the presence of a sinall portion of gelatinous
matter, that had passed over with the aqueous vapour, by
_ which it was held in solution.
For the rest, on assayiug the liquor by every known Noammonia,
method, no test discovered in it the least trace of am-
monia.
From this experiment it appears, that 61°19 gr. of fresh
sheep’s dung yielded by distillation
An acid and alkaline liquor ...... 48°80
Gaseous fluids .......esceeeesees 0°58 Products,
Concrete and fluidoil .......2..06. 3.91
Charcoal and phosphate of lime.... 7°80
61°09
Loss 01
61°19
From these results I think I may conclude, that sheep’s The dung con-
dung contains much more hidrogen than nitrogen, which been Bie
appears to me demonstrated, Ist, by the great quantity of nitrogen,
water furnished by the matter analysed, and which certainly
did not exist in it ready formed: 2dly, by the hidrogen gas
collected under the jar: 3dly, by the oil obtained: and 4thly,
by the absence of ammonia during the whole of the process.
' It appears to me therefore proved, not only that ammonia
does not exist in sheep’s dung, but that it cannot be formed .
in it in large quantity.
But let us go farther, and suppose for » moment, that Ammonia
sheep’s dung contains a certain quantity of ammonia; is it Sous nee a
not evident to all, who are acquainted with the process for sciibed to it.
Adrianople red, that this alkali, so volatile in its nature,
p. could pm
292 ON DYEING REDS ON COTTON.
could not undergo the numerous manipulations and repeated
dryiogs, either in the open air or by the heat of a stove, to
which the cotton is subjected, without being entirely disen=
gaged? Were it to be urged, that the alkali is rendered
fixed by combining with the cotton; I should require proof
of this, the contrary of which is shown by experiment.
Composition But the property thus ascribed to ammonia of rostng cot-
a lila ton, that is of brightening the tint of madder red, and im-
parting to it warmth, lustre, and liveliness, is equally un-
founded; for these effects can be produced only by forming
with white marseilles soap and muriate of tin a metallic
soap, in which the oxide of tin is held in solution by soda.
Ae hy Thus, since neither does ammonia possess the properties
ier (ihe ascribed to it, nor is it contained in sheep’s dung, we must
gelatine. look for the cause of its effects in some other principle, Now
this can be nothing but the albumino-gelatinous matter so
abundantly contained in sheep’s dung: to convince ourselves
of which, we have only to attend to the manner, in which
it is used.
Mode of em- In the first place the dung is macerated in a solution of
pioynty 26 soda, of the strength of about 4° [sp. gr. 1°027], for some
time. The effect of this maceration is evidently the solution
of the albumen and gelatine by means of the alkali. A cer=
tain quantity of this solution, passed through a sieve and di«
- luted with a solution of soda at 2° [sp. gr. 1°013], is mixed
with thick or mucilaginous olive’oil; and thus a kind of
liquid animal soap is formed, with which the cotton is care-
fully impregnated.
This impreg- In this process the cotton, by combining with the albu-
rite the cot- men and gelatine, approximates to the nature of animal
on with ani- 2 ‘
mal matter. substances; which, as is well known, have.a stronger at-
traction than vegetable substances for colouring matter.
The combination appears to be farther promoted by the oily
principle, that combines with the cotton at the same time.
Intestinal fluid We now see why authors, who have written on India red,
Sey diet recommend the use not only of the dung, but also of the
intestinal liquor of the sheep; which it would be mueh more
advantageous to employ, were it possible to procure it in
sufficient quantity for the demand.
* The
GN DYEING REDS ON COTTON. 993
The theory just laid down is supported by experiment. Sheep’s dung
Having macerated fresh sheep’s dung for four or five days mee wit
in a lixivium of soda at 4°, I filtered, and obtained a reddish
brown Jiquid. On separating the alkali by very dilute yielded a pres
sulphuric acid, a copious, light precipitate was formed, “Pt
which subsided to the bottom of the vessel, after having
for some time occupied its whole capacity.
To remove all doubt respecting the nature of this pre- consisting of
cipitate, I collected it on a filter, washed it well with cold
water, and then boiled it in a phial of pure water for
near an hour. I then decanted off-the liquid, which was
of a reddish yellow, and poured into it a solution of tannin.
This formed a precipitate, announcing sufficiently the pre- gelatine
sence of gelatine.
The albumen, coagulated by the action of the heat, re- and albumen.
mained at the bottom of the phial in the form of little soft
and spongy grumes: and to judge by the quantity of mat-
ter insoluble in water, though it was renewed three or four
times, albumen abounds much more than gelatine in Thelattermost
sheep’s dung. I do not think it would be far from the abundant.
truth to say, that the albumen is to the gelatine at least
as three to one. Particular circumstances prevented my
carrying the investigation to such a degree of accuracy, as I
could have wished for my own satisfaction.
To establish a complete conviction on this subject, I An alkaline
shall add, that I tried an alkaline solution of whites of ~ebapeatiaad
eges, or albumen, instead of the sheep’s dung bath; and ed equally
that it succeeded completely in the preparation for both well
kinds of dyeing: all the colours were rendered much more
permanent, than where natural or artificial sheep’s dung
baths were omitted. .
This observation, founded on theory and experience,
campletely refutes the assertion of Le Pileur d’Apligny,
that the dung and intestinal liquor of the sheep are of no
use in fixing colours, -
994
Xe
= >)
METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL,
—
PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE. ;
1812. {Wine} Max. | Min. Med. | Max | Min, { Med.
6th Mo.
June 2 29°98 | 29°95 | 29°965 60°35
3i|N E] 30°02] 29:98 | 30°000 555. .
4 30°04} 30°00] 30°020 61°0
5} E. | 30°08] 30°04} 30-060 59°5
6IN Fk] 30°18] 30°08} 30-130 55°5
“IN I| 30°35] 30°12] 30°235 57°0
$|N Fy 30°40] 30°35 130-375 54°0
o| N | 30°40] 30°15] 30-275 58°5
10|Var.}| 30°27} 30 17 | 36-220 54°0
111N W{ 30°07 { 30:02 }30°050 64/0 .
12|IN WI] 36°03] 29°93 | 29-980 61°0
13/8 WI 29 93] 29°88] 29°905 59°0
1448 W] 29°88] 29°81} 29°845 59°0
1451S W] 29 82] 29°79] 29°805 58.5
16'S. Wi 29°79} 29°58 | 29°685 56°5
17/S_W| 29°78 $»29°58 | 29°680 49'0.
18S W| 29°58] 29°49] 29°535 56'0
19'S Wj, 2949] 29°34] 29°415 560
20/8 WI 29°53] 29°33] 29430 53°0
21/8 WI] 20°66] 29°32} 29-490 53°0
298 Wi 29°83] 29°00 4'29°745 5 19691
93} W {20°94} 29°81 }.29°875 54'0
24.5 Wi) 29°94) 29°91} 29:925 52'0
25/Var | 29°91] 29:00] 29-755 56°5
26\Var.| 29°S6} 29°45 | 29°655 50°0
27'Var.| 29°80} 29°78 | 29°820 545
a8| N | 30:10] 29°78 | 29-900 48°5
29,8 W| 30:03] 29°96} 29°995 56°0
30'S W} 29°86}. 29°70'} 29:7 80 57-0
30°40] 29°32] 29°881} 75 55°87 {4°09 |2°81
The observations in each line of the Table apply to a period of twenty-four hours
begining at g A.M. on the day indicated in the first column. A dash denotes that
the result us inciuded in the next following observation,
NOTES.
'
METEOROLOGICAL JOURNAL.
NOTES.
Sixth Month. 3. A little rainat intervals. 4. A few large
drops: cumulostratus p.m. AshowertotheS.W. Wind E.
6. Much dew: clear with cirrus. 6. Overcast, windy: then very
fine withred cirri at sunset. 7. Cloudy morning: clear day af=
terward: brilliant orange twilight. 8. Cloudy: brisk wind.
9. Fair, with cumulus, and cirrus above: at sunset the wind
rose, with some appearance ofnimbus, 10. Cumulo-stratus,
with a cold breeze all day. 11. A. m. wind fresh at W.: the
maximum of temperature occured at nine: the barometer
fluctuating. Cumulus clouds, with very large plumose cirri
above, which showed red at sunset. The new moon appeared
(in a white crescent, becoming afterward of a goldcolour) in
the midst of a pretty luminous twilight. 12. A.m.cloudy: ba-
rometer still unsettled: evening twilight luminous and orange
coloured : a stratus began to appear at nine p.m. 13, A. m.
misty: much dew. 15. Cool day: rather windy. 16. Rain
last night: fair and cool. 17. Heavy short showers. 18.
Fair, cloudy: rain by night. 19. The rainbow ¢wice this
morning. 21. Several hours’ rain a.m. Barometer fluc-
tuating. 22. Nimbia.m. fair p.m. 23. Nimbi through
the day: thunder twice to the S.W.: the wind veered as far
as to N. W.' but settled W. 24. A.m. much cloud: calm
air: showers. 25. Cumulus, with very elevated cirrus in
parallel bands KE, and W._ A solar halo for above two
hours soon after noon, the higher atmosphere filled with
cloud: at sunset the wind, which had been S. E. and S. W.,
came toN. W, 26. Coldstormy morning,wind N. Thun-
der twice about two p. m.: rain almost from sunrise to sune
set. 27. A. m. sunshine: wind N.W.: a solar halo p.m.
wind S. W.: evening wet and stormy. 28. A. m. wind N.
a faint blush on the evening twilight. 30. Windy evening:
rain at intervals. ste
RESULTS.
Winds variable, the South-west most continuous.
Barometer: highest observation 30°40 inches; lowest 29°32 inches;
Mean of the period 29°881 inches.
Thermometer: highest observation 75°; lowest 39°;
Mean of the period 55°37°.
Evaporation 4:09 inches. Rain 2:81 inches.
This period is remarkable for being pretty equally divided into a dry
anda wet moiety: the former commencing with the first quarter, the
latter the day before the last quarter of the moon. The return of the
first quarter appears (by subsequent observations) te have again nearly
coincided with that of dry weather.
PLAIsTow. L, HOWARD.
Seventh Month, 15, 1812.
aL
95
206
Qccasion of
the visit,
Face of the
island,
Jourmey to the
Sulphur.
SOUFFRIERE OF MONTSERRAT.
XI.
An Account of * The Sulphur,” or “ Souffriere” of the
Island of Montserrat: by Niéwoias Nucent, M. D.
Hon. Member of the Geological Society*.
On my voyage last year (October 1810) from Antigua to
England the packet touched at Montserrat, and my curiosity
having been excited by the accounts I received of a place in
the island called ** The Sulphur,’ and which, from the
descriptions of several persons, I conceived might be the
crater of an inconsiderable volcano, I determined to avail
myself of the stay of the packet to visit that place.
The island of Montserrat, so called by the Spaniards
from a fancied resemblance to the celebrated mountain of
Catalonia, is every where extremely rugged and moun-
tainovs, and the only roads, except in one direction, are
narrow bridle paths winding through the recesses of the
mountains; there is hardly a possibility of using wheeled
carriages, and the produce of the estates is brought to the
place of shipment on the backs of mules, Accompanied
by a friend, I accordingly set out on horseback from the
town of Plymouth, which is situate at the foot of the
mountains on the seashore. We proceeded by a circuitous
and steep route about six miles, gradually ascending the
mountain, which consisted entirely of a uniform por-
phyritic rock, broken every where into fragments and large
blocks, and which in many places was so denuded of soil,
as to render it a matter of astonishment how vegetation,
‘and particularly that of the cane, should thrive so well.
The far greater part of the whole island is made up of this
porphyry, which by some systematics would be considered
as referrible to the newest floétztrap formation, and by
others would be regarded only as a variety of lava. IJtis a
compact and highly indurated argillaceous rock of a gray
colour, replete with large and perfect crystals of white
feldspar and black hornblende. Rocks of this deseription
* Trans. of the Geol. Soc. vol. I, p. 185.
generally
SOUFFRIERE OF MONTSERRAT. go7
generally pass in the West Indies by the vague denomina- West India
tion of fire stone, from the useful property ahiey possess of gira
resisting the operation of intense heat. A considerable
quantity of this stone 1s accordingly exported from Mont-
serrat to the other islands which do not contain it, being
essential in forming the masonry around the copper boilers
in sugar works. We continued our ride a considerable
distance beyond the estate called “ Galloway’s,” (where we
‘procured a guide) till we came to the side of a very deep
ravine which extends in a winding direction the whole way
from one of the higher mountains to the sea. A rugged
horse-path was drveed along the brink of the ravine, which
we followed amidst the most beautiful and romantic scenery.
At the head of this ravine isa small amphitheatre formed by
lofty surrounding mountains, and here is situate what is
termed ‘* TheSulphur.” Though the scene was extremely
grand and well worthy of ohservation, yet I confess I could
not help feeling a good deal disappointed, as there was
nothing like a crater to be seen, or any thing else that could
lead me to suppose the place had any connexion with a
volcano. On the north, east, and west sides were lofty
mountains wooded to the tops, composed apparently of the
same kind of porphyry we had noticed all along the way.
On the south, the same kind of rock of no great height,
quite bare of vegetation, and in a very peculiar state of
‘decomposition. And on the south-eastern side, our path
and the outlet into the ravine. The whole area thus ine
‘eluded might be three or four hundred yards in length,
and half that distance in breadth. The surface of the
ground, not occupied by the ravine, was broken and strewed
rath fragments and masses of the porphyritic rock, for the The rock des
most part so exeeedingly decomposed as to be friable and to pi meee ae
- ¢rumble on the smallest pressure. For some time I thought vapour.
that this substance, which is perfectly white and in some
instance exhibits an arrangement like crystals, was a peculiar
mineral; but afterward became convinced, that it was
merely the porphyritic rock singularly altered, not by the
action of the air or weather, but, as I conjecture, by a strong
sulphureous or sulphuric acid vapour, which is generated
here, and which is probably driven more against one side
ee
The Sulphur
described.
No appearance
ef a volcano,
£298
This evolved
trom &ssures
with imtense
heat.
Boilingrivulet.
Fissures con-
tinwally vary
ing.
SOUFFRIERE OF, MONTSERRAT.
by the eddy wind up the ravine, the breezes from any other
quarter being shut out by the surrounding hills*. ,
Admidst the loose stones and fragments of decomposed
rock are many fissures and crevices, whence very strong
sulpbureous exhalations arise, and which are diffused to a
considerable distance ; these exhalations are so powerful as
to impede respiration, and near any of the fissures are quite
intolerable and suffocating, The buttons of my coat, and
some silver and keys in my pockets were instantaneously
discoloured. An intense degree of heat is at the same time
evolved, which, added to the apprehension of the ground
crumbling and giving way, renders it difficult and painful
to walk near avy of these fissures. The water of a
rivulet, which flows down the sides ef the mountain and
passes over this place, is made to boil with violence, and be-
comes loaded with sulphureous’ impregnations, Other
branches of the same rivulet, which do not pass immediately
near these fissures, remain cool,and limpid, and thus you
may with one hand touch one mill which is at the boiling
point, and with the other hand touch another rill which is
of the usual temperature of water in that climate. The
exhalations of sulphur do not at all times proceed fimthe
same fissures, but new ones appear to be daily formed, others
* This peculiar decomposition of the surrounding rock has been
frequently observed in similar situations, and under analogous cir-
cumstances, and has I find been accounted for by other persons in the
same way: thus Dolomieu says, “ The white colour of the stones in
the interior of all the burning craters is owing to a real alteration of
the lava produced by acid sulphureous vapours, which penetrate
them, and combine with the alumine that constitutes their base, thus
forming the alum obtained from volcanic substances.” Voy. aux Isles
de Lipari. p. 18.
And he afterward adds, “The alteration of lavas by acid sul-
phareous vapours is a kind of analysis of volcanic substances made
“by Nature herself., There are lavas, on which the vapours have nat
yet had sufficient time to act, sv as to change their nature entirely ;
and then we see them in different states of decomposition, which we
know by the colour.” igh
Alum is doubtless formed at this place, as well as elsewhere under
similar circumstances: the potash necessary for the composition of
this salt being, as well as the argil, derived from the surrounding
rock. See Vauquelin’s Memoire. Journal des Mines, vol. x, p. 441. ¢
becoming
‘
’
SOUFFRIERE OF MONTSERRAT.
becoming, as it were, extinct. On the margins of these
fissures, and indeed almost over the whole place, are to be
seen most beautiful crystallizations of sulphur, in many
spots quite as fine and perfect as those from Vesuvius, or
indeed as any other specimens I have ever met with. The
whole mass of decomposed rock in the vicinity is, in like
manner, quite penetrated by sulphur. The specimens
which I collected of the crystallized sulphur, as weli as of
the decomposed and undecomposed porphyry, were left in-
advertently on board the packet at Falmouth, which prevents
my having the pleasure of exhibiting them to the society.
I did not perceive at this place any trace of pyrites, or any
other metallic substance, except indeed two or three small
fragments of clay 1 iron stone at a little distance, but did not
discover even this substance any where in situ. It is very
probable that the bed of the glen or ravine might throw
some light on the internal structure of the place, but it was
too deep, and its banks infinitely too precipitous for me to
venture: down to it. I understood there was a similar ex-
halation and deposition of sulphur on the side of a mountain
not more than a mile distant ina straight hne; and a sub-
terranean communicatien is supposed to exist between the
two places.
' Almost every island in the western Archipelago, particu- !
‘4 ays those which have the highest land, has in like mauner its
‘« Sulphur” or, as the French better ex pressit, its *¢ Souffriére.
This is particularly the case with Nevis, St. Kit’s, Guada-
Joupe, Dominica, Martinico, St. Lucia, and St. Vincent’s.
Some islands have several such places, analogous I presume to
this, of: Montserrat ; but i in others, as Cpaiounc St. Lucia,
and St.Vincent’ s, there are decided and well characterized vol-
canoes, which are occasionally active, and throw out ashes,
scorize, and lava, with flame. The volcano of St. Vincent’s
is represented by Dr. Anderson, and others who have visited
it, as, extremely Jarge and magnificent, and would bear a
comparison with some of those of Europe. These circum-
stances appear to have been entirely overlooked by geologists
in their speculations concerning the origin and form..on of
these islands. It has indeed occurred to most persons, on
2 surveying
299
Sulphur beans
tifully crystal.
lized.
No trace of
pyrites,
Another Sul-
phura mile
distant.
Most islands
in the western
Archipelago
have one or
more,
and some have
volcanoes,
General re-
marks on the
island,
306
The author
sails for New
Holland,
leaves the ship
at Timor, and
repairs to Java.
NATURAL HISTORY OF JAVA, &
surveying the regular chain of islands, extending from the
southern Cape of Florida to the mouths of the Orinoco, as
exhibited on the map, to conclude that it originally formed
part of the American Continent, and that the encroach-
ments of the sea have left only the higher parts of the land,
as insular points, above its present level. But this hypothesis,
however simple and apparently satisfactory in itself, will be
found to accord very partially with the geological structure
of the different islands. Many of them are made up entirely
of vast accretions of marine organized substances; and others
evidently owe their origin toa volcanic agency, which is either
i some degree apparent at the present time, or else may be
readily traced by vestiges comparatively recent, There is
every reason to believe, however, that some of the islands are
really of contemporaneous formation with the adjacent parts .
of the continent, from which they have been disjoined by the
incursions of the sea, or by convulsions of nature, and it is
probably in those islands which contain primitive rocks, that
we are chiefly to look for a confirmation of this supposition.
XII.
Account of various specimens of Natural History brought
jrom the Island of Java, Madura, Bali, §c.; by Mr. Le-
SCHENAULT*,
Me Leschenault was one of the scientific persons, who
sailed with captain Baudin, to investigate the natural history
of New Holiand and the adjacent countries. It is well known,
that most of those gentlemen died ; but the zeal and talents -
of the survivors rendered this voyage one of the most inter-
esting to science.
Mr. Leschenault, being obliged to quit the ship at Timor,
in may, 1803, on account of sickness, went over to Java, and
repaired to Samarang, the chief seat of the Dutch govern-
ment, and less insalubrious than Batavia. Governor Engel-
* Journ, de Phys. vol. LXY, p. 406.
hard,
NATURAL HISTORY OF Java, &c. 301
hard, a very well informed man, received him very cour-
‘teously, and afforded him every assistance in his researches,
On the 24th of october Mr. L. set off from Samarang for Tourin Jars.
Sourakorta, the residence of the emperor of Java, and about
sixty miles south of the former place. On his journey he
visited the mountains of Dounarang, Morbabou, Telomayo, Mountains,
aod Marapi. The last has on its summit a volcano con- Volcano,
stantly emitting smoke.
From Sourakorta he repaired to Djiokikorta, the residence
of the sultan of Java. ‘The sultan and the emperor are two
andeperdant princes. On this road, which is little more than Ancient tem-
forty miles, are some ruins of ancient temples, remarkable P!¢*
for their extent. Among these are a number of statues of Statues.
lava, which seem to prove, that the people followed the re-
ligion of the bramins.
A severe illness obliged him to return to Samarang.
~ When he recovered, he visited the other parts of the island.
After sailing to Madura, he returned to Java, and visited
mount Idienne; a volcano, in which he found a lake, the Volcano and
water of which was strongly impregnated with sulphuric !Pburic lake.
acid. He afterward sailed to the island of Bali.
Having returned to Samarang, and packed up his col-
lections, he repaired to Batavia in october 1806; sailed thence
on the 27th of november on board an American vessel; ar
rived at Philadelphia in april 1807; sailed thence in june;
and landed safe in France in july.
The following is an abstract of the account of his col-
lection given to the museum of Natural History by Messrs,
Cuvier, Desfontaines, and Lamarck.
We sball say nothing, observe these gentlemen, of the wea- 4 Ge. not
pons, garments, and other articles used by the Indians, or belonging te
of two very curious statues found in the ruins of a temple, a abr ge
as they do not pertain to natural history, and will find their
place among the antiquities of the imperial library.
But Mr. L. has brought some articles interesting to the po. huraam
history of man: as some fragments of undoubtedly human bones.
bones brought from a burying place, that appear to have
undergone at least a commencement of calcareous infiltra-
tion; anda scull of a Chinese of Java, that will increase skulf.
eur collection of those of different nations.
Retura home.
His collection.
Among
¢
302 NATURAL HISTORY OF JAVA, &e.
=t
New species Among the quadrumanous animals he has brought a black
of ape. ape of a new species, with its young, and its skeleton; and
the great slowpaced lemur [le grand lori paresseux], also
with its skeleton.
Galeopithecus. You know how rare the flying macauco, or pretended le«
mur volans of Linneus, is in collections. Neither Buffon
nor Linneus ever saw it. Mr. L. has brought four of differ-
ent ages, and two skeletons. The red and the variegated of
some recent naturalists are only differences of age.
Bats, viverre, He has five or six species of bats, two of which, at
felis. least, appear mew to us; a new weasel; a new civet; and a
new species of felis, in size approaching the lynx.
Skunk, His most curious quadruped in our opinion is a new
skunk [mouffette], truly belonging to that genus, hitherto
supposed peculiar to America, like it striped with white on
a black ground, but distinguished from the other species by
being without a tail. It is common in the island of Java,
and emits when pursued. the same’ stinking smell as other
skunks.
Sirens He has also a new flying squirrel, a new ichneumon
ichneumon. scarcely as big as a rat, and a new squirrel; beside many
specimens of the Java squirrel, and of the taguan, or great~
est flying squirrel.
Skeletons, To these he has added the skeleton ofa porcupine of Java,
and those of two musks, which were wanting to your anato-
mical collection.
Birds, Of birds Mr. Leschenault has brought over 130 species,
which we have not been able to examine with sufficient mi-
nuteness to say how many are new.
Mild dockins There are however two different species of wild cocks, with
their hens: one was discovered by Sonnerat, the other ap-
Bird of Para. pears to us new. And we noticed a new bird of Paradise,
aise. black, with avery shining throat, among four other species.
Of reptiles Mr. L. has brought a superb skeleton of a
wre serpent, more than 15 feet [16f. Eng.] long, worthy a place
in the finest collection. A specimen scarcely inferior to it,
at least in rarity, is a well preserved skin of the celebrated
achrocordus, or warted snake of Java. With these are about
an? lizards, 30 other species of snakes, and several lizards ; among which
are the gecko of Java, and the blue galeot with its spindle-
shaped eggs.
Se
a “24 *
2S SS ee
4
NATURAL HISTORY OF JAVA, &c. 303
The fishes, mollusce, worms, and zoophytes are less nu- '
merous, and their collection less important in proportion.
We have remarked however two new seapens, one of which Pennatule.
is extremely curious, on account of its long and slender
shape, the other on that of its large spines.
In the class of insects however he has been more success= Insects,
ful, having at least 600 specimens of 200 different species,
more than a third of which are new, and the rest are valu-
able, and fetch good prices. They are all in excellent pre-
servation ; and his buterflies in particular are very numerous,
and admirably fresh in their colours.
He has also many shells, some of which are interesting. Shells.
His herbal is composed of 900 plants nearly, about a Plants.
fourth of which are new. He has already drawn up de-
scriptions of near 700, and has made drawings of near 100.
They are a valuable acquisition to botany.
He has brought about 200 species of seeds, which will be Seeds.
divided between the garden of the empress at Malmaison,
and that of the Museum. Thirty species too have been
brought grawing from North America, and are intended
for the garden at Malmaison.
Of mineralogy he collected in the island of Java some Minerals.
very fine specimens of fossil wood, changed to the siliceous
state, without the annual rings having disappeared: a deep
green jasper, of a very fine grain, useful to the lapidary :
and a collection of lavas and specimens of sulphur from
mount Idienne. ;
This mountain, which is about 1100 toises [2344 yds] Volcano of
above the level of the sea, Mr. L. ascended with much dan- ™0U"tidienne.
ger and difficulty, accompanied by commandant Wikerman,
to ascertain whether the sulphur produced by the volcano
might not be turned to account ; and particularly toinvesti-
gate the cause, that affects the waters of the White river at
certain seasons of the year, and render them noxious to men,
animals, and even vegetation. .
This cause did not escape him, and he found it depend- Lake on it oc-
ant on a curious volcanic fact. On arriving near the sum- Lien! a,
mit of the crater, which appears to be changed at present terofthe © ~
into a solfaterra, he descended to the bottom of this cavity, W 7" "*
which is about 400 feet [426 f. Eng.] deep, and 250 toises
[533
J04
This may be
@bviated.
Analysis of
the water.
Meadow iron
ore.
Granular iron
$re.
WATURAL HISTORY OF JAVA, &c.
[533 yds} across the widest part of its bottom. Here he
perceived four openings, or mouths, near the top of the
cavity, continually emitting clouds of sulphurous acid
vapour, which, being condensed by the action of the cold
air, fell into a great lake at the bottom, which is contained
in the crater of the ancient voleano.
The waters in this basin, thus continually impregnated
with the vapour, ‘become so acid, that they attack every
thing they touch; altering all the adjaeent lava, and forme
ing sulphate of iron and of lime, which they hold in solu-
tion, as well as sulphate ofalumine. Accordingly when the
railly seasow arrives, the lake swells, overflows, and conta-
minates the water of the White river.
The cause being thus known, it is easy to obviate the
noxious mixture of this water, by turning aside that which
descends from the lake at certain seasons; and opposing
obstacles sufficient to prevent its reaching the White river,
which would thus remain constantly wholesome, This is a
service of no small importance to the colony.
Mr. Vauquelin has analysed the acid water of this lake,
and found ia it sulphuric acid, sulphurous acid, muriatic
acid, sulphur, sulphate of potash, alum, and sulphate of iron.
XIII.
Analyses of Minerals: by Martin Henry Kriaprotn,
Ph. D. &c.
(Continued from p. 161).
V y IESENERZ (meadow iron ore).
Black oxide of irone++eee+++ +66
Oxide of manganese -+++s+e2 15
Phosphoric acid escessceeces §
Water ecccccccee seesces eee D3
; 98°5
Pisiform ironstone from Hogau.
Oxide of iron oescccccceneeeS3
Silex eocrererresese sess ee DD
ANGIE! sin wie’ 21s’ sissofeyoie wraie lors 0, 1678
Oxide of manganese eeeeeeee P
Woater eoceescocssccesesoselAs
98 Granular
ANALYSES OF MINERALS. 305 -
Granular chromated iron from Styria. ' Chromate ef
iron,
Oxide of chrome ........02.55°5
ION. ae sseeee ees 33.”
NRE. Siiwecdasdcapewes UO
BR eiiclececessceinsepsseve « Sad $0 GIR
~Loss in roasting ........ 2
voereeeley
iste 98'S
Black manganese from layperad’i in Dalecarlia, Manganets.
Oxide of maganese .......+ 60
Silex @eoeecneevetevseoeese nee 25
Water e@ereboneneereese eevee 13
. Ty
. 98
Cerite from Bastnaes in Sweden. :
ar : Cerite,
Oxide of cerium ......026.6 54°50
Silex e@eeeecenveeesceaeneoeee02e88 34°50
Oxide of iron .cccccccceee 3°50
PATHE a oes ee ees 1°25
Water tsssssseiseaseress =) ~
98°75
A fire-coloured opal, brought by Humboldt from Zimas pite coloured
pan, in Peru. opal fromPeru,
“Silex ceccccccseddaveascas GB |
WCET cctv eacttet sane, SS
Oxide of iron ..ceccsesees 0°25
100
Wieritiaa topaz. Brazilian
Silex eehaatect te Pies am 44°5 topaz.
IMIG: <:4s's cada acwee au Agee
Oxide of iron... .....005000, 0°
vi Place? acid fo iese.desapie 7
i ty
99'S
Saxon topaz. Saxon topaz.
Silex RE rh a tee 1 a8
ANGiecowtc. sete re dseass OO
Fitioric ais... fiussscose
Oxide of iron a fravé ..4.56 1
100
“Vor. XXXII.—Aveusr 1812. > § Crystallized
306
Zoisite.
Augite from
Carniola,
and Sicily.
Apatite.
Columnar
brownspar.
ree.
Tete
ANALYSES OF MINERALS:
Crystallized zoisite.
Slee cc ccveecdeueyilele ae
Alumine ...cccccccteccese 29
PAGW ocd ckeceeee et eun Nee
Oxide of iron
@aevee ee 680 @ a 3
; 98
Lamellar augite from Carniola.
Silex 0 6. SHIGE Po. Peo
Magnesia. wevsecccosseeess 12°50
TA GAE ohare talatetaietarmtniteiteaile le atet a A
Aldmine + 2ss.25.%5252% 04.0 80 ees
Oxide of iron .ecececcceee 10°25
Patash ..'6 oe o.diebbiswn io iors views
98
Scoriform augite from Sicily.
Silex 40 tee fs cetwres tere 6 eS
ATUMIMG! oe ce hewccaccess- ME
Oxide of iron ....e.seee00 13°75
BGIUMC A's o:c'e's cies s Siskin saa a ole
Magnesia ..66 die fees sce GS
WESEE Ors sie sis's'c wie ciate seb'eal ei pean
Manganese a trace
98°5
Conchoidal apatite, or spargelstein, from Zillerthal.
Lime e@e2orrseeooenneeeoege 53°75
Phosphoric acid ...ccereee 46°25
100
Stanglichen braunspath (columnar brownspar), brought
by Humboldt from Valenciana of Guanaxuato, in Mexico,
Carbonated lime ..assqeeee SI'S,
MAGNESIA o.eeee 32
ITOW. sss ob ners
———————= manganese ...- 2
Water ‘eae nad gigdaig'as.ts Ms 5
- :
938 ;
; | 4 | Dolomite. |
ANALYSES OF MINERALS.
Dolomite from St. Gothard.
Carbonated lime .......... 52
—— + magnesia ....4 46°50
Oxided iron ...,.,0.0.. 0s’ dis vie O60
Manganese ....--+- 0°25
WAGER: haig'e.a w.cd-ocieie suns wel OREO
100
Dolomite of the Appennines:
A decomposed dolomite from Castelamare.
Carbonated lime eeeesesese 59
magnesia ...... 40°5
Loss eeevoeeeezeeoeevee0e6 0°5
100
A dolomite in mass.
Carbonated lime .......... 65
magnesia, ...... 35
es
100
A dolomite from Carniola.
Carbenated lime ......-2++ 52
magnesia ...... 48
Oxided iron ..csccuveccces 20°0*
307
Dolomite from
St. Gothard,
from Castela~
mare, and
from Carniola,
Blne anhydrite, called muriacite, from Sulz on the Necker, Anhydrous
spec. grav. 2’'94.
DRTC. ola ara luielaline Aincsn' scaformgetae AD
Salphurie seid.) 6a dvicie ents, BF
Orided Wows wos tesvewees. ORO
SUH ss sf cicieduieesamce was | Oe
|
99°35
Compact anhydrite, vulgarly tripestone, from Bochnia.
| Si a iit 2 ae aR Seg A2
Sulphuric acid ............ 56°50
Muriate of Soda ....sces-. 0°95
98 75
® Probably 0°20; although the other component parts, exclusive of
this, amount to 100, C. ae
b gh
sulphate of
lime from
Sulz,
Bochnia, and
*
308
Hajl in Tyrol.
agnesian
spar.
Terre verte
from Verona,
Wyprusy
and West
Prusstne
a
ANALYSES OF MINERALS.
Anhydrite from Hall, in Tyrol.
LAE. oes cw even bins Bee 41°75
Sulphuric acid ....ee.0.008 55
Mariate of Soda :ccsice Sete De °
97°75
Bitterspath (magnesian spar) from Hallin Tyrol.
Carbonated lime ....eceese 68.
magnesia .....» 25°5
TEOW {iluile'e'si stolen
WHat uals a's 'bls ee ajeve etolaupye rues
A mixture of clay
96:5
Terre verte from Mount Baldo near Verona.
SHER is wie Cashes) hate a nis snes
Oxidediyon ....cccecrctes 25
Magnesia ....teceaceveses 2
POtasiir Ui ss ieee sinh erie AO
Watereeiies ccc et scyseee oe te
meme >
99
Terre verte from Cyprus.
Silex iis sie's's cae aeeatce aie okey
Oxided ‘iron sv seyeasscecs ZOD
Magnesia esscscsccceerees 15
Potasaeru: is cnn ss cs tens eek
W Gtere crac cu weve ete cercic he
99°5
Terre verte from New West Prussia. ,
Pe ES UREA ot nie FONE s Sern |
ATIC ay 4:0 seas toa h oa so 2D
RE ving Sh ce poe eet ew ok ee
VERO IERIR! 5c oc cls sehen eas «Otel
OA ee re RTD
Soda with asuspicionof potash 45
WARE ee sale bcs de ced oe pie hO
99°5
Alumstone _
ANALYSES OF MINERALS. 309
Alumstone from la Tolfa. | Alun
Silex Mire kl Oa ae eas from la Tolfa,
PA APIAIEL sss ¢n e's 9.0 0 ee oe wonke
Pulphuric acid .........005 16°8
POS oie donc oi as wis emea'w et
NEES 10 ca 0 Gob da o's C8 aed ot
— Se
102
Alumstone from Hungars. Hungary,
Silex sessco.sceccteeeeens 62°95
Alumine «+eecess.s.seeeee 17°50
Sulphuric acid ......¢.%.0. 12°50
PEN alsa aca ein's'e ng wae VE
Water cecsecsecccscecese 5
aieneeminneennt
98°25
Aluminous earthy schist from Freyenwalde.. and Freyen-
Salph wre wiewiernis ite wieieie dol d ISG a
Charcoal) oc ccecccvceds se 1 96S
AlumMine 6.6 cee vedre sl GO
BITES crerererarerereerevete'aretere's of AOD
Black oxide of iron, with .a
trace of manganese ...... 64
Sulphate of iron ...00eee08 18
GypPSUM ceccceccvcscceee 15
Magnesia ...ccccecccesese 2
Sulphate of potash .......+6 15
Muriate of potash ......02. 5
Water sos cvpedcscocieesenlO7'S
1011°5
Jade from Switzerland, hemanite of Delamétherie, saus- y,4¢,
surite of Saussure.
PRIOR OCS coclems a woe ee eek eke: 40
WIMHVING/HS cece nce cb ag cwmaa, C4
LIME’ seer cceccevccssesees 10°50
Magnesia .ccesccesecssase 3°75
Oxide of iton ....scceceee 6°50
Soda ih Me Selicne’s cclets ae
Se
99°25
Lazulite
310 : ANALYSES OF MINERALS.
Lezulite. Lazulite from Krieglach in Styria.
AANOADC: vn onl Swidinle alsin sdie eupitinged
SOMES in shale ciulets praces's «een TE
Magnesia .ceseasceccsnces 5
ESB ea 259 bictetel etaa eine Wolk yaks
¥
Oxide Of AUT. adie cee wi. aes
Potselac% ¢ wicgitieins ss cue 8a eee
WV atetisis a ccinaih\ ole stake eaten 5
99
Moya. Moya from Quito, brougit over by Humboldt, 100 grs.
yielded
Cubic inches.
Carbonic acid gas....2°25 = 1:06.
. Hidrogen gas ......14°50 = 0°36 |
Water and ammonia with some
_ empyreumatic oi) ,..,.-+- 11
Charcoal .eyecececesecess 525
SP ease os lero osecelenceumuce us oceans »46°50
AL amg) (sein inn jelele elevayeloesyelecs: RN
Lime’ §. idee Fe hh CO a OR
Oxide of iron .......022-5. 621
SUE ve jnlb eis ie soisionjeiaietiiwla eel: digi) (Te
eens
90°88
bie, Guano from the islands on the coast of Peru, brought
ei over by Humboldt, This guano%s supposed to be the re-
mains of the excrements of the birds, with which those islands
are covered.
Ammoniacal uyic acid...... 16
Phosphated lime .....-.... 10
Oxalated lime ,......cce-0 12°75
SIGE ila igisioth ainie ais & ss 9 s:h) oie
Muriated soda ..........++ 0°50
ING prete SHH, sie 'ee conn csew se OB
Water with an animal residuum,
DUNG [08S oe gevccseesces s. 20°75
98
Klebschiefer,
1
ANALYSIS OF MINERALS. 81}
Klebschiefer, or polishing’slate, from Menilmontant, © Polishing
slate,
Silex esrcascssesccesecesczee 62°50 I
Dene comers cece ksitieee
Oxide of iron ..........20 4 .
irreonh- 5.2.52. ess eee OS
PRUNE * %%.'5'e'e's'c'n 0's 0'e ene” OOO
Limne ...cececssesesse. iy. 0°95
Water and gasses evolved *.. 22
Ete,
98
Olive-green garnets from Siberia. Olive green
garnets,
Silek vscccerdevrscdtcccce a4
BAGG \o:a'ete'e"areteXetave'e"s e'e’e's ve ISS
Alumine ee skosceirece eve B'S
Oxide of irons sssse. Feil. 12
- manganese, a trace
‘ TsOs8u cst isivaesesaceerer al
—- #02100
Green chalcedony from Olympus, near Prusa, in Asia minor. Green chale
»t cedony.
MULCH aig bibk.0. 9.5.6 (© abeininren aie ie 06°75
CIGe OF TGR gece ess eeee| OSU
Alumine evpereeszenr sense e28 0°25
Water @eeseeeneeseeoeeeoeeapeaese 2°50.
100° ~’
True Lemnian earth. * Vassatan
earth.
BET TS Sc diie ee cece ss cohen OS
Al@iiiine. ..corevecceccccse 14°50
Oxide of iron. .cceeeccacers 6-
Lime ..ccecccccsesesccsss 0°25
Mamiestacctecerosreccctise OO ee
Soden. Sitter eevee ae S30
Waterss eect ols “sso
>
99
Fuller’s
$12 ANALYSES OF, MINERALS.
Fuller's earth, Fuller’s earth from England. + povenenetitebast 3
English, :
BHO ceceesscsesseseces 58
Alumin€ eeesssesereeesss 1) 5
Wada) 0) Geis! alaealti 24 vi
Potash, a trace
and Siberian, Red fuller’s earth from Siberia,
Magnesia ‘dps | 1°&
Oxide of pn; (o.4s'3 ade to ob
’
z =r, Manganese ..---....0°5
Water | sessesseseare sas 2 sBe 25°5
Sea salt, a trace é
Red cant of - Earth of Sinope, in Pontus, brought from Natolia by
Sinope. Mr. Hawkins. This ‘earth, according to Pliny, farmed
~ yed paint. acy git hey aw
Silex earxcgeneeeeaseetgenseeqeae a 32
Algaiine):73'). (PRS ee 26°5
Oxdgef irons...) f. 82s BI
Sea salt e@eeeeseeeoeeoeeseceoeevpe eee 1S
IWAter sue sisibielsie ee edie ORR ee 17
Brains cat Wee adkn Me We 98
Tincal. Tincal, crystallized borax.
-
w Rae c ct. 8 ts Vo Me
98°5
Datholite
SCJENTIFIC NEWS, } 313
Datholite. Eat Putholite,
. a ie a
Di laonth-lartisinis’ wiggays Rpt CRD TOS BS
oe Prartic ALG sé . bs fe bs beds QA
Water o'élele 4? oh co ee bew se eee 4
Iron and manganese, a.trace
8
100
~ Fluor. ’ eae:
rs Pate ae eo es es Be ROIS
Fluorie’acid ..... 6 000.020. 3215 ,
a0} Oxide of iron, a trace
99°9
{ To be continued.)
Oe + 5 oe te 5 — — 2¢..-—— Se
vee 2“ SCIENTIFIC NEWS.
iit
sig Geological Society. i
Jin UNE the 5th. An account of some new varieties of Al- New varieties
eyonia found in the Isle of Wight by Thomas Webster, Esq, °f leyenda.
Member of the Geological Society, was read. In viewing
the rocks about Ventnor Cove, and in various parts of the
undercliff, Mr, Webster remarked, in the sandstone stratum
immediately under the chalk marl, a great number of small
prominences, resembling in form the branches of trees,
They were of various sizes, from half an inch to three or
four inches in diameter; their substance ‘was sandstone, of
the same kind as the rock they were in; but.the part resem-
bling the bark was somewhat harder, which enabled it to
éndure longer than the rest of the stone, and thus project
above its surface. Someofthem were straight, others a lit-
tle crooked, and in a few instances he observed them forked. *
He found fragments of these bodies in, every part of the
island, where the sandstone stratum can be seen, and parti-
cularly among the masses of rock lying under the cliffs of
Western Lines. In this last place he found, that the stems
above described had frequently heads or bulbous termina-
tions attached to them, in form somewhat resembling a closed
tulip; and in some of these he found distinct traces of or-
ganic
$14
Hipywites
‘trem Sicilye
SCIENTIFIC NEWS.
ganic structure; from which it appeared, that these ‘heads
consisted of a group of: tubuliy now converted into, and en-=
veloped with stony matter.. Beside these extraordinary
shapes, which projected in relief, Mr. W. observedia variety
of very regular white figures, as 1f painted upon the rock,
being even with the surface. They consisted of circles from
two Inches to half an inch in diameter, ellipses of various
eccentricities, and parallel lines both straight and curved.
By a careful examination Mr. W. found, that these white
figures belonged tothe other classof bodiesalready described;
and that the cylinders were only the internal parts of the
same body, the sections of which formed the white circular
and elliptical figures. The vast masses of rock, which have
fallen down, having separated from the cliff at the divisions
between the beds, showed their upper and under surfaces
covered with layers af these bodies heaped upon each other,
and lying prostrate in every possible direction: and in the
joints between the beds, where they were still not separated,
they were distinctly seen. The green sandstone and the
limestone he found to be the chief repositories of these bo-
dies; in the ferruginous sand below the green sandstone he
found none, and only a few fragments of cylinders in the
blue marl on which, the sandstone rests. He traced them,
upwards into the chert, but they there became rare, and they
totally disappeared in the chalk marl. He found them
however frequently in, the fragments of flint lying on the
shore. Mr. Webster having brought away an. extensive
series of specimens, which he has .since deposited in the
' collection of the Seciety, submitted them to the examination
of Mr. Parkinson, who is of opinion, that they belong to the
genus alcyonium, but that they are of three or four different, _
species, neither of which has been hitherto described. From,
the resemblance which these bodies bear to a closed tulip.
attached to its stalk, Mr. Webster suggests, that the name
of tulip alcyonium may not be improperly applied,
Some observations by James Parkinson, Esq. Mem. G, S..
on the specimens, of Hippurites from Sicily, presepted to
the Society by the Hon. Heary Grey Bennet, Mem. G. S..
were read. These specimens Mr. P. considers to be such
as demand particular attention, as they possess those . cha=
racters,
SCIENTIFIC NEWS.
vacters, which will probably serve to correct some erro-
neous opinions respecting the nature and habits of the ani-
mals of which these shells were the dwellings. One of the
" Specimens contains a nearly perfect shell, longitudinally
divided so as to display the two ridges, with the numerous
septa and chambers. From an examination of the speci+
mens, and by comparing them with the observations he has
before had an opportunity of making, Mr. Parkinson 1s of
opinion, that the structure of the shell of the hippurites is
such, as would enable the animal to raise itself to the sur-
face-of the water.’ This opinion is in opposition to that of
Mr. Denys de Montfort, and most of the French orycto-
logists, who consider the hippurites as belonging to what
they term pelagian shells, or such as constantly inhabit the .
bottom: of the sea, never rising to the surface, or appearing
on the shore; and therefore, that there is no reason to sup-
pose them belonging to animals which are now extinct; but
only, that Giesr recent analogues have not yet beea brought
to view.
June the 19th. A paper by Joseph Skey, M. D., en-
315.
Island ef are
titled “Some remarks upon the Structure of Barbadoes badoes.
as connected with specimens of its Rocks,” communicated
' by Arthur Aikin, Esq., ses. was read ; together with a note
by Mr. Parkinson on some of the specimens presented by
Dr. Skey. The island of Barbadoes is totally unlike those
immediately near it, both in structure and in appearance, the
—Jand rises in a gentle swell from the coast towards the middle
of the island, except in‘one small district: its highest hills
do not exceed 800 or 900 feet, and their general direction is
nearly N. W. and S. E. Upon the N. Eastern. coast the
shores are bolder than in the other parts of the island, as is
the case in many of the islands of those seas. Barbadoes is
composed of limestone, in great part of fossil madrepores,
and traces of organic structure are to be met with in almost
every part of the island, more particularly along the whole
of the S. and S. W. coast. The land, which when seen from
the sea, appears to rise uniformly from the cvast, is observed
on a nearer view, to consist of successive terraces rising in -
two or three gradations, one above the other, each forming
a plain of a quarter or half a milein breadth, and terminated
by
Tabes in drift
ed sand.
SCIENTIFIC NEWS.
hy a cliff of coral rock varying in elevation from 12 to 20
feet, and sometimes c onsiderably higher. Deep fissures have,
10 many places of the island, rent asunder the cliff; and these
gulhes, as they are called, are continued. across. the terraces
im irregular nes. Numerous caves are every where to be
met with, and these are sometimes of very large dimensions.
On the S. and S. W. side of the island may be seen at very
low water a bed of calcareous sandstone, dipping S. W. 30°.
Yo the eastward of the garrison of St. Ann’s is found a dull
compact chalky looking limestone, with ramose alcyonia;
while considerably -to, the westward the rock 1s more dis
tinctly’ coralloidal.. Upon the N. and N. E. side of the
island is a small mountainous district called Scotland ; con-
sisting almost entirely of limestone, but of a kind less marked
by organic remains than in the other districts. In Mr. Par-
kinson’s note itis observed, that some of Dr. Skey’s speci
meng illustrated the nature of some fossil corals; showing,
that the forms, in which they at present exist, are not those
which belonged to these substances in their original state;
and ts aaa ought not to affect their spnenc or praere
distinctions.
A letter from E. L. Irton, Esq. describing some remark-
able tubes found in the drifted sand at Drigg m Lancashire,
was read; together with an account by W. H. Pepys, Esq.
Treas. G. S., of a chemical examination, made by him, of
the substance of these tubes. These tubes are found nearly
in a perpendicular position, imbedded in the midst of the
hills of drifted sand on the seashore, without any communi
cation with the surface; there are ramifications extending
from.them, which generally point downwards, and terminate
in fine points. The tube sent to the seciety is above an
ineh in diameter and of an irregular form. The outside
consists of black aud white sand, agglutinated together, the
inside is smooth, aud, has a. vitrified appearance. When
dug out ef the sand it was soft, apd in some degree flex-
ible, and the inside coating at its first exposure to the air
was. soft to the tauch,, and rather unctuous, but in less than
a quarter of an hour it hardeoed into. the state in which it
now exists. "Che tube, when found, was filled, with the
sand. of the hill,;aud, that sand is quite different from the
gand
SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 3} 7
gand of which the outside of the tube consists. Both the
sand and the vitreous part of the tube scratch glass; and
on the latter, when viewed by a lens, there are seen small
air blebs, such as are Common ‘to imperfect vitrification.
Both are inselublein sulphuric and nitric acids; infusible be-
fore the blowpipe without addition ; partially fusible on the
addition of boracic acid but; with soda a complete fusion
took place, and the residue was nearly soluble in water.
A paper by Dr. Mac Culloch, M. G. S. on the vitrified Vitrified forts
fort of Dun Mac Sniechain, near Oban in Argyleshire, was “> Seot#nd.
read. Inthe discussion which some time ago took place re-
specting the vitrified forts of Scotland, the question on
which the two contending parties were most at issue was,
whether the vitrification was the effect of design or of acci«
dent. It occurred to Dr. M., that light might be thrown
on the subject by examining with mineralogical _ accuracy
the substances of which these structures were com posed ;
and noting the changes, which each hac undergone, in con-
sequence of the fire; and also by observing whence the
stones =had been derived, which were used inthem. And
that the question of accident or design might be illustrated,
by examining in the laboratory the degree of heat required
to produce the appearances in the stones, which actually
exist In these structures.
The fort of Dun Mac Sniochain stands on a long narrow Fort of Dun
hill, which is nearly precipitous along three parts of its cir- Mac Sniochain
cumference; and at the other end it rises from the plain
with a very accessible acclivity.' The walls, which are
nearly all at present buried under the soil, are about eight
or ten feet in thickness, They bear marks of vitrification
through their whole fextent, but in no case does it ap-
pear to have extended more than a foot or two upwards, and
the most perfect slags are found at the bottom of the foun-
dation. In the higher parts there are stones roasted by the
action of the heat, but unvitrified ; and at length the marks
of fire almost entirely disappear. The hill consists of al-
ternate beds of schistus and limestone, but the latter is the
predominant rock. It is perfectly insulated in a great al-
luvial plain. The mountains of Benediraloch, which bound”
the plain to the west, consist of granite, gneiss, mica-slate,
quartz
° ‘
The vitrificati-
on probably
the effect of
design.
SCIENTIFIC NEWSs
quartz and porphyry. On the edge of these rocks are found
large detached masses of puddingstone, consisting of rounded
pebbles‘of greenstone of different varieties, of amy gdaloid
and quartz deriented by a paste, which appears to consist
chiefly of trapsand united by the hard variety ef calcareous
spar. The paste contains also, in. small quantity, zeolites
prehnite, garnet, and diallage. This puddingstone, where
nearest to the fort, is at least half a mile distant from it.
The walls of the fort consist. principally of granite, gneiss,
mica-slate, clay-slate, quartz, puddingstone, and pyritical
slate, entangled together; with a very small proportion of the
particular rock on which the fort itself is founded: the pud-
dingstone forming the greater part of them. This pudding-
stone Dr, M. shows to be the only. vitrifiable ingredient of
the walls; and from the distance from which it must have
been brought, and the great quantity of it employed in the
work, he considers it probable, that the builders of the.fort
must have been acquainted with its vitrifiable nature, and
that it was on accouut of this quality, that they bad em-
ployed so great labour in transporting it. For if. their ob-
ject had not beer to produce vitrification, but merely to
erect a dry wall of stone, the limestone of the hill, would
have answered their intentions, or perhaps. the loose stones
of the adjoining plain. That they did not obtain the
puddingstone from the latter source is evident; for although
the plain and shore are covered with fragments, these cons
sist almost entirely of the primary rocks; and besides, the
pieces of the wall which have not felt the fire are angular
fragments, showing pretty clearly, that they were not cole
- lected on an alluvial plain, but broken from the rocks where
they are found. Dr. M. next proceeds to describe the
various states in which the different stones are found. The
puddingstone exhibits the greatest variety of changes, it is
found in every state, from a black glass to a.spongy scoria
capable of floating 1 in water, sometimes exhibiting the gra-
dual succession of chavges from incipient calcination to
complete fusion. To ascertain the degree of heat necessary
to produce the corresponding changes in this rock, Dr. M.
submitted various parts of it to the furnace, and he found,
that some of the fused substances must have been, brought
to
SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 319
to that state in a heat not less than 100° of Wedgwood’s
scale; a heat at which many varieties of earthenware are
baked. Dr. M. next gives a short account of the vitrified
fort of Craig Phadric. in Inverness-shire, and of another in
Galloway; in both of which, but more particularly in the
former, he observed circumstances quite analogous to what
he had already found at Dun Mac Sniochain: and the con-
elusion he has been led to form is, that the vitrification of
these forts is the effect of design.
The Society adjourned till November.
ii
Horticultural Society.
It has been the intention of the Horticultural Society, opjects for
from its first institution, to present annually honorary pre- ete ewes
miums, or medals, to such persons as have raised, and pro fer sepponatand
duced before them, any new and valuable variety of fruit, nig and mc
or esculent plant, or who have made any important dis-°
covery in horticulture. Butas the Society conceived every
one of these to be still capable of acquiring a greater degree
of perfection than it has yet attained, they did not think it
necessary to direct the attention of gardeners to the im-
provement of any particular plant. Subsequently, however,
they have been induced to think, that it might be advanta-
geous, to publish an account of such projected improvements
as shall be suggested by their members, or others, and ap-
proved by their council; and the following are therefore
proposed, as objects deserving, among others, the attention
of experimental horticulturists.
New varieties of the potato, better calculated for forcing,
and for supplying the markets early in the summer, than
those at present cultivated.
Other varieties of the same plant, which will afford abun-
- dant crops, and be capable of being longer preserved in
perfection than any now known, so that the markets might
always afford the potato, as nearly as possible in the great-
est state of perfection.
A rich and sweet variety of the common red currant, which
might probably be obtained from seeds, by appropriate se-
lection, through a few successive generations.
New
S20
Objects for
which the so-
ciety intend to
present premi-
ums and me- °
e
SCIENTIFIC NEWa
New varieties of the gooseberry, which might supply the
markets with green fruit at earlier periods, and mature fruit
at earlier and later periods than those now cultivated.
New varieties of pears, similar to those which have beer
introduced from France; but sufficiently hardy to grow and
ripen on standard trees, and calculated to ‘supply the mars
kets ata moderate pricé during winter and spring.
A good and early new variety of grape, better adapted to
the climate of Great. Britain, i in the 8 air, hat any now
known.
Better and more productive varieties of the apple, and
capable of being longer preserved i in porfectian, than most
hitherto known. .
A good early nectarine; a variety of the strawberry
earlier than the common scarlet ¢ and of the = whieh
would ripen before the early may.
More early and hardier varieties of the peach, which bapa
succeed better, at least, than any now known, on- standard
or espalier trees. '
Several native varieties of the plum afford bléssotis’ so
hardy, that they are rarely injured by frost. Might not
rich varieties be obtained by introducing the farina of ‘thé
fine but tender kinds into the prepared blossomis of these 2
It is stated, in the Pomona Herefordiensis, that very rich
and very bardy varieties of the apple have been thus obs
tained immediately from the seeds of the Siberian érab.
In pointing out the preceding objects, as deserving the
attention of gardeners, it is not the inténtién of the society
to limit its patronage to those solely: on the contrary, it is
their wish, to promote and encoutage successful experiments,
in every branch of useful and or naniental hortieulture.
To Correspondents. stp
The conrenanicutiuis fide Mrs! Bobeteow and E. G. shall he’
inserted the earliest opportunity.
\
v ~ bad
2 qawtay Rl he he)
A
JOURNAL
OF
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, CHEMISTRY,
AND
THE ARTS.
SUPPLEMENT TO VOL. XXXII,
ARTICLE I.
Observations on the Disease in the Potato, generally called
the Curl; pointing out the most probable Method of pre-
venting it; with an Account of the Results of a few
Experiments made on the Subject. By Mr. Tuomas
Dickson, Leith Walk, Edinburgh *.
"Tus disease, so far as I can learn, first began to be Date of the
alarming to the growers of the potato about thirty-five or ais ee
forty years ago. Since that time, it has continued to en.
gage the attention of many eminent agriculturists and gar.
deners.
Various opinions have at different times been advanced Opinions re-
as to its cause. Some were of opinion, that the disease cs Cebilg ‘eg
was caused by the tubers used for seed-stock not having
been sufficiently ripened:—others thought, that they had
been frost-bitten, in the course of the preceding winter :—
some ascribed the evil to the effects of blights attacking the
plants in coming through the ground ;—others to the at-
tacks of certain minute insects:—lastly, the exhausted
state of the soil was blamed for the disease. But no one Real cause.
_ seems to have hit upon the real cause, until the honour-
able Baron Hepburn of ‘Smeaton, in East Lothian, one of
* Memoirs of the Caledonian Horticultural Society, vol. I,
p. 49.
“Vou. XXXII. Supprement. Z the
322
Experiments
made with a
view to its
proof.
Propagation of
particular vari-
eties by cuts.
ON THE CURL IN POTATOES.
the most successful and intelligent agriculturists of this
country, started a new theory on the subject; which, from
its singularity, and seeming inconsistence with our expe-
rience in matters of a similar nature, did not at the time
meet with that attention, to which it undoubtedly was en.
titled. The Baron thought, that the curl was probably
caused by the tubers used for seed-stock having been allowed
to become too ripe the preceding year; and that this prac.
tice of overripening, being repeated year after year, was
the real cause of the disease, the vegetative power in the
tubers being thus exhausted.
I candidly confess myself to have been rather at first a
sceptic on the subject; but, after considering the thing a
little, my doubts began to clear away. In order to satisfy
myself thoroughly, I resolved upon making a suite of ex
periments, I accordingly did so; and as they were cone
ducted entirely by myself, or under my own immediate su-
perintendence, I can pledge myself for their accuracy. I
now beg leave to lay them before the Caledonian Horticul-
tural Society, in hopes that they may, by means of the
Society, be made known to the public; and as the experi-
ments are easily repeated, that they may induce others to
turn their attention to the subject.
I think it right to observe, that the experiments now to
be detailed were not made with any view of their ever ap-
pearing before the public; nor would they have been
brought forward at this time, but from a wish to promote
the views of this Society.
It is well known to all cultivators of the potato, that
the usual mode of reproducing any particular variety of
this valuable root is by cuts or sets of the tubers; and that
this mode of propagation is repeated every year, so long as
that particular sort is wished for, without our ever thinking
of reinvigorating the seed-stock*, by raising new plants
from the real seeds. In this way it happens, that merely
the individual variety is propagated; the species being re-
produced only by sowing the true seeds of the plant. It
* By this expression is always to be understood the stock of éu-
bers for planting, in contradistinction to the real seed of the plant. .
1 is
ON THE CURL IN POTATOTS. 323
is only by sowing the seeds that we obtain xez varieties.
But if the seeds be taken from any particular variety, that May be effect.
is wished to be preserved, and if care be exercised, Ti ia laps
the plants shall have no communication with the farina of
any other plants of the same species in flower, then the
produce of these seeds will probably be the same, or nearly
the same, with that variety from which the seeds were
saved; and from the seed-stock being renewed and reinvi-
gorated in this way, it seems likely, that the variety so
obtained may, by observing a proper management, be pre-
served from the curl or any other kind of degeneracy, for
any length of time.
Ishall presume, that the principal cause of the curl in Curl produced
the potato is the overripening of the seed-stock for the sup- SA bes
ply of the ensuing year, by allowing it to remain too Jong for sets.
in the ground, and especially if it be also planted early;
this practice, being repeated fur several years successively,
causes an exhaustion of the vegetative principle in the tu-
bers, which renders them totally unfit to produce vigorous
healthy plants; and is the principal cause of the disease.
This doctrine has almost uniformly been objected to by Objection to
many very intelligent agriculturists and gardeners, as being ‘"'S hypothesis
quite contrary to our experience in regard to seeds in ge-
neral; full ripeness being considered the best recommen.’
dation. But this objection, I apprehend, arises from the answered,
taking an improper view of the subject. It is true, that
all of what are properly called seeds are improved, by
being thoroughly ripened; but cuts or sets, taken from the
tubers of a potato, cannot, strictly speaking, come under
the description of seeds. Planting cuts of the potato is
analogous to budding or grafting of trees, being only a
secondary mode of propagation; and, consequently, the
above-mentioned objection does not hold good. This doc- Growth of po-
trine may be farther illustrated, by observing the strong esha
tendency, which potatoes raised from seeds have to run to
flower and seed, unless prevented, by destroying these as
they appear, and by earthing up the roots of the plant, so
as to induce them to throw out tubers. This natural dis-
position of plants raised from seeds will remain for several
generations of the plant, gradually yielding to the artificial
Z2 means
‘
NN ee i eC Ln.
oat
ON THE CURL IN POTATOES.
Argument from means used, until they at last become what we wish. And
a successful
practice 5
and the effects
of its opposite.
Potatoes to be
what may be deemed still a farther proof is, that those who
cultivate potatoes most successfully, in the low and early
parts of this country, where the disease chiefly exists, bring
a supply of seed-stock from the higher and Jater parts of
the country, for a change, every second year at farthest.
In such high places, from the lateness and wetness of the
climate, the farmers are prevented from planting their po-
tatoes so early as in the low country, and are also, from
the fear of early frosts, obliged to take up their crop
sooner ; consequently the tubers are never so highly ripened
as to weaken the vegetative principle in them. Here, then,
we have a strong practical testimony to the truth of the
docrine which has been advanced.
On the other hand, in the early districts of the low
country, where, as has already been remarked, the disease
is principally known, particular kinds of potatoes are
planted year after year successively, from the same seed-
stock; and most of the early kinds are planted soon in the
season, with a view to procure an early crop for the mar-
ket: a part of these is generally allowed to remain in the
ground till the usual time of taking up, to supply seed.
stock for the ensuing year: by this time, however, the
plants have become so ripe as to weaken very much the ve-
getative power of the tubers. This practice being repeated
for several years, at last so impairs the vegetative power in
the tubers, as to produce the curl; and there is no doubt,
that, if this practice were persevered in, it would ulti-
mately destroy the power of vegetation altogether, as I
have proved by experiments.
There is yet another powerful cause, which weakens the
used for setting yesetative power in the tubers; and this is, the allowing
should never
be suffered to
flower.
such plants as are intended to supply seed-stock for the en-
suing year, to run to flower, and produce seed*. This
should in all cases be prevented, by cutting off the flowers
as they appear, eveninembryo. Thus, by turning nature
from her ordinary course, we force her to exert herself in
* Tt is generally the late sorts of potatoes, that produce seeds,
very few of the early kinds doing so.
another
ON THE CURL IN POTATOES.
another channel, and to throw back into the trbers that
portion of the vital principle of the plant, which would
have been exhausted in the formation of flowers and seeds.
Nothing will more contribute to prevent degeneracy in the
potato, and especially to prevent curl, than this treatment.
In proof of what I have already advanced on this sub.. Experiments
by the author.
ject, I shall now state a few experiments made by myself in
the years 1801,-2,-3. They appear to me to be quite con.
clusive, and will go farther to convince, ne a volume
written without experiments.
In the autumn of 1800, when in Fife, at a friend’s house,
I met with a potato of the long flat kind *, which I thought
very excellent, and obtained a few to cultivate for my own
use: he however informed me, that they had been so in-
fested with the curl for some years, that he had resolved to
abandon the culture of them altogether. This led me to
conclude, that, from their shape, &c., they were well
adapted for being made the subject of some experiments I
had previously resolved to make, with a view te ascertain
the truth of the new idea, upon the cause of the curl,
which had been some time before mentioned to me. Ac.
cordingly, I selected about half a peck (14lb.) of these,
as near the size and shape of the annexed sketch as possi.
ble; I took one or two sets from each end of each potato, Sets taken
from the appo-
site ends of pa-
bilical, or wet end, next the connecting radicle: each sort tatoes.
that is, from the extreme, or dry end, and from the um-
was planted upon the same ground, but in different rows,
with the same kind and quantity of manure to each, and in
every respect in exactly the same circumstances, onthe
27th of April, 1801.
The season was very favourable. Upon examining the Results.
plants about the end of June, I found, that all those that
were taken from the wet, or least ripened end of the po-
tato, had come up, and were looking well and healthy, ex-
cept three plants, which were a little affected with the dis-
ease: these I threw out, preserving only such as were quite
free from it. Upon examining those plants, which were
* A sketch of atuber of this kind, of the natural size, accom-
panies this, showing the different cuts or sets, &c.
produced
325
eS 2 a a
ae
SSS
326
The experi-
ment twice
repeated.
ON THE CURL IN POTATOES.
produced from the dry or ripest end of the potato, I found,
that but few of them had appeared above ground, and such
as had were all diseased, more or less ; butin many instances,
the sets had not vegetated at all, nor did they, upon taking
them up to examine them, show any signs of vegetation ;
although quite sound and fresh, they were quite inert; nor
did these change their appearance throughout the season,
being nearly as fresh when the rest of the crop was lifted,
as when they were put into the ground.
On the 30th of July, the whole were again examined ;
the plants from the unripe sets were almost covering the
ground, thongh planted at two feet between the rows, and
were looking well, remarkably free from curl, and pro-
mising an abundant crop; while those from the ripened
sets, which had vegetated, and had grown, had made very
little progress indeed, and were universally curled; several
of the plants died after coming a certain length, seemingly
from mere weakness; and suchas grew stronger had very
few tubers at their roots, and these very small and puny.
On the 3rd of October, I took up the produce of both
sorts, and pitted them, for renewing the experiment the
ensuing year.
The same course of experiment was accordingly repeat.
ed, not only next year (1802), but also the following year
(1803); and the resulis were exactly similar; the plants
produced from the wet, or unripened ends, continuing
healthy, and producing abundant crops, while those pro-
duced from the dry ends continued to degenerate.
I thus satisfied myself, that the disease originated entire-
ly in the overripening of the seed-stock ; and indeed all my
experience, since these trials were made, has tended only
to strengthen this opinion. I might follow out this toa
much greater length, and supply many more facts, all cal-
culated to prove the truth of what has already been ad~
vanced; but, by doing so, I should only multiply the de~
tail of similar trials and facts, which, instead of inducing
individuals, might rather deter them from satisfying them-
selves by making experiments. This I should wish them
to do.
It
ON THE CURL IN POTATOES. 327
It may be proper to observe, that the produce of the Perhaps the
curled potatoes was taken up before being too ripe, and Cv"! might be
‘ d removed by
replanted with the others: [ cannot say that the disease taking up the
Was removed, but they did not get worse. Perhaps re- tuber early.
planting them in very highly manured land, for several :
years, might have a good effect: but unless it were for the
sake of reclaiming a favourite variety, the experiment is
hardly worth making.
Having trespassed so long on the attention of the Society,
I shall only beg leave to suggest afew simple rules, which,
if attended to, will, I am humbly confident, soon entirely
banish the disease of curl from the country. These are,
1. To procure a sound healthy seed-stock, which cannot Means of pre-
be relied on, unless obtained from a part of the high country, Venting the
where, from the climate and other circumstances, the tubers aT
are never overripened.
2. To plant such potatoes as are intended to supply seed-
stock for the ensuing season at least a fortnight later than
those planted for crop, and to take them up whenever the
haulm or stems become of a yellow-green colour: at this
period, the cuticle or outer skin of the tubers may be
easily rubbed off between the finger and thumb.
3. To prevent those plants, that are intended to produce
seed-stock for the ensuing year, from producing flowers or
seeds, by cutting them off in embryo; taking care, how-
ever, to take no more off than the extreme tops, as, by
taking more, the crop may be injured. The best mode of
doing this, is with a common reaping-hook, or light switch-
ing bill. Two boys or girls may do an English acre in two
or three days.
Nurseries, Leith Walk,
6th of March, 1810.
References to Plate VIII, Fig. 1.
A The ripened or dry end.
B_ The waxy or wet end.
aa The cuts or sets from the dry end.
‘-b b The cuts or sets from the umbilical end.
cc The umbilical cord or connecting radicle.
dd The real roots of the plant.
II, Electric
328 NOT TWO ELECTRIC FLUIDS.
II.
Electric Attractions and Repulsions are not explained in @
Satisfactory Manner in the Hypothesis of Two Fluids.
By J. C. DevametueErts *.
Electrical ae oe J{LECTRICAL attractions and repulsions,’’ says the
pee Leger author + of +’? Elementary Treatise on Physics, vol. I,
to be easilyex- p. 590, 2ded., ‘‘ form one of those subjects, that have most
Oe ecsct engaged the attention of philosophers, and have most em-
two fluids. barrassed those, who have endeavoured to refer to the ac-
tion of a single fluid two diametrically opposite effects,
which frequently succeed each other very rapidly in the
same body. Butif we admit the combined action of two
fluids, the theory acquires such a happy simplicity, that
the simple enunciation of the hypothesis seems to be a con-
cise explanation of the phenomena.
<¢ Mutual repulsion of two bodies, the electricities of
which are homogeneal.
Instance in re- ‘* § 557. If we suppose in the first place two bodies,
pulsion. each electrified by an additional portion of vitreous or re-
sinous electricity, that has been transmitted to it, we see
instantly what must take place; since this principle, that
bodies animated with the same kind of electricity repel
each other, and that bodies solicited by different electricities
attract each other, is only as it were a literal translation of
that other fundamental principle, that the particles of each
of the component fluids act on one another by repellent
forces, and exert attractive forces on the particles of the
other fluid.
This explained ‘* § 558. This however requires some details, which
experimentally. will find their place in the exposition we are about to give
of the means, that may be employed to prove this principle
by experiment. Let AB, Pl. VUI, Fig. 2, be two balls
of pith of elder, or any other conducting matter, sus.
pended by threads at a small distance from each other, and
to which the vitreous electricity has been communicated.
The fluids surrounding these balls mutually repel each other ;
* Journ, de Phys. vol. LXV, p. 315, + Mr. Haiy.
; and
NOT TWO ELECTRIC FLUIDS.
and their particles would be diffused through space by op.
posite movements, if the surrounding air did not retain
them near each body. Hence they can only glide on the
surface of the body, so, for instance, that the fluid of the
body A, being crowded toward the posterior part of this
body, d, will exert its effort on the air itself, that is ad. -
jacent to this part. Thus the equilibrium between this air
and that contiguous to the anterior part, c, being broken,
the latter will act by its elasticity on the body A, to impel
at in the directionch. 'The same reasoning applies in the
opposite direction to the body B; whence we conclude,
that the fluids and the bedies, or balls, impelled by a com.
mon movement, must recede from each other. We should
have a similar result, supposing the two bodies to be elec
trified resinously.
*¢ Mutual attraction of two bodies, the electricities of
which are heterogeneous.
6¢§ 559. Let us imagine, that, one of the two bodies, Instance in
gine, 9 9 :
“attraction.
A for instance, being solicited by the vitreous electricity,
the electricity of the other, B, is resinous. The fluids
then will attract each other; so that, with respect to the
body A, which we shall.continue to take as the object of
comparison, the crowding will take place toward the ante.
rior part of the body, c. The fluid accumulated in this
place then will act repellently on the neighbouring air:
whence it follows, that the «ir contiguous to the posterior
part, d, will impel the body in the direction dn. The
same effect will take piace in an opposite direction with res _
spect to the body B, and thus the fluids and the bodies will
be carried toward each other.” ~
What has been said is copied literally, that the author’s
opinion might not be misrepresented.
329
This explanation of electric attractions and repulsions Proof that this
by the action of two fluids does not appear ta me satisfac-
tory. I conceive it may be refuted by a single experiment.
The two experiments related by the author, § § 558 and
559, succeed as well in the vacuum of an airpump, as in
the open air: consequently neither the attraction nor the
repulsion of the two little balls is produced by the action
of the atmospheric air.
z In
explanation is
erroneous :
330 RATIO OF EVAPORATION TO HUMIDITY.
Be ihat ee In the next place I would observe, that, if we suppose
contrary should the air to be driven back by the electric fluid gliding over
take place the the ball, the’ effect should be the reverse of what takes
Supposition >]
were true, place: for, as this electric fluid .acts with sufficient force
against the air to drive it back, and the little ball is very
moveable, the same thing should take place as with an
eolipile, sky-rocket, &c. The sky-rocket, for example,
ascends in the air only because the powder as it burns makes
a continual jet, which strikes and drives back the air with
great velocity. The air resists this rapid movement; and
the rocket, being movable is driven forward, and proceeds
with more or less rapidity. Thisis also the cause of the
recoil of cannons, muskets, &c.
II.
Memoir on the Proportion the Evaporation of Water bears
to the Humidity of the Air. By Honore FiAueERaues*.
Humid ty of By the humidity of the air should be understood the
aba abe proportion, that the quantity of water mingled and sus.
tion pended in a given quantity of air bears to the quantity of
the air. The more humid the air, the slower and less con.
siderable the evaporation: and there is even a degree of hu.
midity, at which evaporation wholly ceases, because, the
air being loaded with all the moisture it can contain, no
Experiments more can rise. I have madea great number of experiments,
Hale ot? to ascertain the law, that this decrease of evaporation fol-
tion. lows; and as experiments of this kind appeared to me most
proper to determine the general law of evaporation as it
respects the moisture of the air, I shall confine myself here
to those, on the results of which most dependance can be
placed, as I employed in making them an extensive appa-
ratus, of which the following is a description.
Apparatus de- I began with procuring ‘a stock of air completely dried
poder for the purpose in a very dry season. I caused a cask to
be hooped and headed, that would contain about nine cubic
* Journ. de Physique, vol. LXX, p. iby
feet,
RATIO OF EVAPORATION TO HUMIDITY. 331
feet, very clean, and the staves and heads of which were
perfectly dry. I luted the joints accurately; and for
greater precaution pasted over them slips of paper, to pre-
vent all access of the externalair. Into the bung-hole of this Preparation of
cask I poured about two cubic feet of quicklime coarsely ‘ ie
powdered, and hot from the kiln. The bung-hole was
then closed with a very tight straight cock, the key of
which was perforated with a hole about three lines in dia.
meter, In this state I left things about three weeks, shak-
ing the cask several times a day, that the lime might present
fresh surfaces to the contact of the air, and thus more
speedily and completely free it from all the water, that
might be suspended in it. Thus presuming the air to be
perfectly dried, I employed it in my experiments, pouring
it into a tin vessel, which I had made for the purpose.
This vessel consists of a hollow cylinder, 13 in. 2 lines * Vessel for
in diameter, and 18 inches high. This cylinder is closed Sa ig sie!
at one end by a circular plane, and at the other by a cone
3 in. 7 lines high. Its capacity is about 2614 cub. in.
The summit of the cone is truncated; and has soldered to
it a small cylindrical tube, capable of receiving a cylindri-
cal vessel of glass, four lines in diameter, intended to hold
the water to be evaporated into the air in the vessel. This
glass is fixed in the tube by medns either of putty or of
soft wax. The tin vessel may be fixed in a perpendicular
position, with the glass vessel downwards, by means of
two handles soldered to the cylindrical part, and resting
on two supports of iron fixed upright on a table. The
sheets of tin, of which this instrument is made, are very
carefully soldered ; and the external air cannot find admit-
tance, except through the aperture of the tube at the sum.
mit of the cone when this is not closed by the glass vessel.
To fill this vessel with the dry air in the cask, I began by Mode of filling
filling it completely with fine sand, perfectly dried hy a fire. ‘t® vessel.
I then placed it on the cask, so that the aperture at the
end of the conical part was exactly fitted to the cock; and,
after carefully closing the juncture with soft wax, I turned
the key of the cock. The sand, escaping by the hole in
* The French measures are here retained. C,
the
332
Manner of
making the
experiments.
Heat and pres-
sure during the
experiments.
RATIO OF EVAPORATION TO HUMIDITY.
the key, ran into the cask, and the air displaced by it at
the same time ascended into the vessel. When the sand,
by the help of a few slight shakes, had entirely run out,
and the vessel was filled with the dry air of the cask, I shut
the cock, carefully removed the tin vessel, ard immediately
introduced into the tube the orifice of the cylindrical glass,
filled to within three lines of the top with very pure rain
water; and cemented it there so that it could not fall, and
that none of the external air could get in. I then placed
this vessel, keeping it always upright in the way I have
mentioned, in a room, where I kept up a uniform temper.
ature during each series of experiments. The glass cylin.
der at the bottom of the vessel being thus completely iso-
lated before the window of the room, it was easy to mea.
sure the sinking of the water in it by evaporation, by tak-
ing with a pair of very pointed spring compasses, and with
the assistance of a good lens, the distance from the surface
of the water to the level at which it stood at the commence.
ment of the experiment, this being marked on the glass
with a diamond. For calculating this distance I employed
the same scale of a thousand parts, made by Canivet, as I
used for my experiments on the relation between heat and
spontaneous evaporation*, Every day at the same hour,
four o’clock mean time, I took the measure of the fall of
the water below its original level: but in the following
table, to save room, I shall set down only the measures of
every third day, confining myself also to the four series of
experiments that succeeded best.
During the first of these series, the thermometer by the
side of the tin vessel was constantly at 20° [77° F.]; and
the height of the barometer, when the vessel was filled with
the air, was 27 in. 9-7 lines [29-64 in. Eng. ].
In the 2nd series the thermometer continued with very
little variation at 18° [72°5° F.]; and the height of the
barometer at the commencement was 28 in. 0°41. [29°88in. ].
During the.3rd series the thermometer marked nearly 152%
[65:75° F.]; and the height of the barometer 27 in. 8-4 I.
[29°52 in. ].
* J. de Phys, vol. LXV, p. 446: or Journal, vol. XXVIL, p. 17.
On this scale 190 parts were equal to a Paris inch. ;
on
RATIO OF EVAPORATION TO HUMIDITY. 333
In the 4th series the thermometer was constantly at 10°
[54°5° F.]; and the barometer at the beginning was at
28 in. 2:91. [30-1 in. }.
The results of these experiments are given in the follow~ The table ex-
ing table, divided into four columns. The first of these pone
- contains the date; the second, the distance below the level
at the commencement; the third, the distance fallen be.
tween the times of measuring. These differences form ap-
parently a decreasing geometrical progression, as I quickly
perceived: but to render this law more evident I have added
a fourth column, in which the differences are calculated by
inserting five mean geometrical proportionals between the
- first and last difference found by experiment.
Tabulated Results.
Date of thelFall of the|Actu-| Differ- ||Date of the Fall of the|/Actu-| Differ-
measures. water. al dif-|. ences measures. water. fal dif-{ ences
1807. fer- calcu- 1807. fer- | calcu-
ences, lated. ences.}| lated.
First Series. Third Series.
Aug. 1 | Parts 0 Sept. 18 | Parts 0
4 59 | 59 | 59 Ai) 35 | 35, |-35
7 96 } 37 | 35°9 24 Sao Zur
10 PUT 2172 2h°9 D7: 70} 15 | 13:5
I ess P32 rs (VSS 30 78 8 8:4
16 Woo} Bp SFL Oct. © 3 SA igs Sy
19 145 5 | 49 6 86 4 case
O29 148 3 % 9 88 g Ye
Second Series. Fourth Series.
Aug. 24 | Parts 0 Oct. 12 | Parts O
27 A7 | 47.) 47 15 24 | 2 | 24
* 30 To NA 20M BSS 18 S77) ls 4 1
Sept. 2g 91 | 18 | 16°4 Q1 44 uf 8:3
5 TO2 TE 9:7 24 50 6 4:9
8 108 6 5°7 a7 53 2 2:9
11 111 3 3°4 30 54 Be, EZ
14 113 g 2 Nov. 2 55 1 1
934 RATIO OF EVAPORATION TO HUMIDITY:
The evapora- As the vessel containing the water evaporated in the pre-
tion decreased ceding experiments was cylindrical, the successive diminu-
at econ ines of the height of the wat re proportional to the
progression. § € water are prop
quantities evaporated; and as these successive diminutions
form a decreasing geometrical progression, as may easily
be verified, we shall conclude, that the quantities of water —
evaporated in equal times, in the same body of air, likes: |
wise form a decreasing geometrical progression. Hence it
is easy to ascertain the law followed in the evaporation of
water with respect to the humidity of the air, by means of
avery simple geometrical construction.
The law exem- Let HI, Pi. VIII, Fig. 3, be anhyperbola, described
et ia between the rectangular assymptotes CA, CK. On the
assymptote CA take the abscissas CA, CB, CD, CE,
&c., in a decreasing geometrical progression; and, erecting
the perpendicular ordinates AH, BF, DG, ETI, the hy-
perbolical spaces AH BF, BF GD, DGET, will be
equal*; and the parts AB, BD, DE, of the assymptote,
will be in a continued decreasing geometrical progression :
for, since, by construction, CA:CB::CB:CD::
CD: CE, we shall have dividendo CA: CA—CB (AB)
>;:CB: CB—CD(BD)::CD:CD—CE(DE); and
convertendd CA:CB:CD:: AB: BD: DE. We
may represent the lowering of the water therefore, or the
evaporations, by the lines AB, AD, &c.; and the times
of these evaporations by the corresponding hyperbolical
spacs AHBF, AHDG, &c. This admitted, let us:
suppose A C to represent the quantity of water necessary
to saturate completely the body of air, in which the eva.
poration takes place; and the hyperbolical area A H EI to
represent any time, taken at pleasure: A E will represent
the quantity of water evaporated during that time, and CE
the difference between the quantity of water necessary for
the complete saturation and the quantity of water evapo-
rated. Farther, if we draw e7 parallel and infinitely near
to the ordinate EI, Ee will represent the evaporation that
takes place during the fluxion of time represented by the
¥* F. Deschalles Cursus mathematicus, Sect. conic., Lib. I,. |
prop. xli. ‘
elementary
RATIO OF EVAPORATION TO HUMIDITY:
elementary parallelogram E Jez: but by the hypothesis the
33
~
od
fluxion of time is constant; Ee therefore is inversely pro.
portional to EI, which is inversely proportional to C E;
and consequently Ke is directly proportional to CE: that
is to say, the evaporation is at each instant proportional to
the difference between the quantity of water necessary to
saturate completely the body of air in which the evapo.
ration takes place, and the quantity of water actually eva-
porated and suspended in that air; or, in other words, the
evaporation is proportional to the excess of the moisture
of the air at the point of saturation over the present hu.
midity. This is the general law, which evaporation follows
with respect to the humidity of the air.
This law appears to confirm the opinion of Muschem- Tends to con-
breeck * and Leroy +, that the evaporation of water is no- oe Shaan
thing buta solution of this fluid in the ambient air; for the poration is a
law just announced must take place generally in all solu. ‘Ue Solution.
tions. In fact, if the menstruum did not exert on the body
to be dissolved, in every portion of time, an action pro.
portionate to the quantity that remained to be dissolved to —
produce complete saturation, but a greater or less action,
it would follow, that, in the first case, when the menstru-
um is completely saturated it would still retain a part of its
solvent action, which would remain without effect; and in
the second, that the effect would be greater than its cause,
which is equally absurd.
The application of this law supposes a knowledge of the Attempt to
quantity of water necessary to saturate completely a given Sheen
quantity of air at a given temperature. To endeavour to that would sa-
accomplish this object, I repeated the elegant experiments ses i) ae
= pa-
of Mr. de Saussure +: but not having a large globe, I could ature.
only employ glass jars, the apertures of which I closed
with a plate of metal cemented all round. Notwithstand-
ing the imperfection of this apparatus, I had the satisfac.
tion to obtain the same result as that celebrated philoso.
pher; namely, that it required about 10 grains of water to
saturate completely a cubic foot of air at the temperature
* Diss. Phys. Leyden, 1751, vol. II, p. 721,
+ Mém. Acad. 1751, p. 484 and foll.
t Essais sur PHygrométrie, N. 97 and fol.
of
336 RATIO OF EVAPORATION TO HUMIDITY?
of 15° [65°75° F.]._ I repeated the same experiments with
air at the temperature of 20° [77° F.] and 5° [43:25° F.],
and I found, that it required in the first case about 16°75
grs., and in the second 4:5. These three quantities are
nearly in the same ratio as the evaporations under these de-
grees of heat given in the table inserted in this Journal*;
and it is obvious, that it could not be otherwise.
Humidity of From this principle we have the proportion 17-1: 4:4: 3
pease airat 10 grs : 2-6 grs, the weight of the quantity of water cone
tained by a cubic foot of air at the temperature of melting
ice, when completely saturated. The weight of a cubic
inch of water being 373°5 grs, this is the weight of 12 cub.
lines of water; which, divided by the bulk of the air, will
for the humidity of the air at the temperature
su 12
v
Bive (144)3
of melting ice, when completely saturated with water.
Rule forfinding By the same reasoning may be found the humidity of a
pala ‘cubic foot of air at the temperature X, and at the point of
2 in .
other tempera-saturation; by means of the proportion
tures. 6) Oe
(2-718) 1205 (4.4) :(2.718) 1 “11-05 (4,4) : at :
x
11-05
-12:(2-718) .
(144)!
This 4th term expresses the humidity to which the evapora.
tion in air perfectly dry, at the temperature X, is propor.
tional.
If we call Z the number of cubic lines of water sus.
pended in a cubic foot of air, the temperature of which is
equally X, the humidity of this air will be expressed by
Z . . oa . ;
Can? , and the evaporation in this air, agreeably to
what has been said, will be proportionate to
x .
11:05
12(2'781) ee hs
(144)3 verry
* Journ. de Phys., vol. eee p- 451; or our Journ. vol. X XVII,
p. 22.
Consequently
ee
RATIO OF EVAPORATION TO HUMIDITY.
Consequently the evaporation in air perfectly dry is to
the evaporation in air that contains Z cubic lines of water
in the cubic foot, at the same temperature X, in the ratio
x x
‘05 .
GCF718)..,. ito (2718). °°
12
337
I have concluded from various experiments, that, by in- Formula for
creasing the linear factor of the formula of evaporation *
calculating eya-
poration at any
one fifth, this formula would pretty accurately represent temperature
the evaporation in air perfectly dry. If we make this cor-
rection, and reduce to lines by multiplying by the propor-
tion 435, confining ourselves to two decimal places, this
190
x
3 _ 11:05 ,
formula will become (A). :.. (2°72) (0°34 lines) ;
x
11°05
consequently ( (2°72) ae a (0:34 lines) is the
formula, that gives the value of the evaporation, or low-
ering of the surface, of water expressed in lines, that takes
place in twenty-four hours in air at the temperature of X
degrees of De Luc’s thermometer, aud which contains Z
cubic lines of water in the cubic foot. The calculation of
the last formula is very simple; since it is sufficient, to de-
duct from the quantity calculated by the formula (A) the
quantity Z (0-03 of aline); to which is reduced the effect
of the humidity of the air.
/
and humidity
of the air. .
To facilitate the application of this formula, nothing is Desideratum.
requisite but 4 more convenicnt and speedy mode of deter-
mining the number of cubic lines of water diffused in a cubic
foot of air than that of drying this air by potash or quick«
lime, and then finding the increase in weight of the latier.
I havesought this, which would lead, as has been seen, to
the discovery of a true hygrometer ; but my endeavours have
not been more successful, than those of the celebrated natural
philosophers, who have paid attention to the same subject.
The imperfection of these researches has been the reason
that I have so long deferred publishing them. I was still in
* Journ. de Phys. vol. LXV, p. 452: or Journ. vol. XXVII,
p. 23.
Vou. XXXII. Suprremenr. 2A hopes
338
Experiments
made in the
Open air.
Improvement
in the breech of
a fowlingpiece,
IMPROVEMENT IN FOWLINGPIECES.
hopes of rendering them more perfect; but mot being able
to procure the instruments necessary for this purpose, I have
resolved to communicate them to.the learned, in hopes that
these feeble attempts might perhaps induce them to turn
their eyes toward this interesting subject, and give us at
length a true theory of evaporation. His principiis via ad
muajora sternitur *.
I had intended to add to this paper the experiments on a
large scale, which I made on evaporation with cylindrical
vessels full of water, the apertures of which were from
three inches to eleven in diameter, and the height of
which varied from eleven inches to eighteen. These
vessels were placed in the open air in my garden, and
buried within three lines of their apertures, at a little dis-
tance from each other. It was from these experiments I
inferred evaporation to be proportionate to the surface of
the water in contact with the air. I would also publish a
journal kept for several months, to compare the evapora-
tion that took place in the open air, and in a large vessel,
with my formula, would it not occupy too much valuable
room. I mention it, however, to show, that I have not
always operated on confined air.
8,4)
IV.
Remarks on the Construction of Fowlingpieces, pointing out
, Methods, by which they may be made to throw Shot very
close, and the contrary. In a Letter from a Corres-
pondent.
SIR,
To W. NICHOLSON, Esq.
Tar following circumstance led me to take into considera-
tion the construction of fowlingpieces, and to make what
I conceive to be a useful improvement in that part, which is
called the breech, Meeting by chance with an old foreiga
made gun barrel, of a construction that accorded much with
my fancy, I purchased it, and determined to have it fitted”
up (first having tried it at.a mark two or three times).
* Js. Newtoni Tract. de Quadrat. Curvarum, ad calcem.
‘J thea
IMPROVEMENT IN FOWLINGPIECES. 339
J then unscrewed the breech, or plug, which closes the The bottom
_ hind part of the barrel, and ordered another, the form of ™4de concave.
which may easily be understood by referring to the annexed
representation, Pl. ix, fig. 1. Now, after I had been at
considerable trouble, and much pains, for I was deter.
)
mined to have it fitted up under my own inspection, I was
very much disappointed in not being able to kill any thing
with it, if at a greater distance than about 25 yards, in
consequence of the shot being too much scattered. I va- This caused the
ried the charge several times to shoot at a mark, but could shot to scatter,
by no means satisfy myself.
After some time I took out the breech, and filed down The bottom be-
the edges of the hollow part to the touch-hole, and fitted it he eee
up in the form of a common breech. I now found I had ims formed better,
proved the killing quality of my gun, and had got’ pretty
much out of conceit with the concave form of breeching
guns. However it had this effect; since, thought I, the
form I have just described, impairs the shooting quality of a
fowlingpiece, there must be some contrary means of improve
ing it; and accordingly I had one made of a form which will
be easily understood, by referring to figure 2.
Since this last improvement, I can with more certainty, An improve-
(and I speak within compass) bring down a bird at a ere
distance of about 60 or even 70 yards, than I could when I
made use of the breech fig. 1, at the distance of 20 yards.
E, in fig. 2, is a strong iron or steel peg, standing out of
the common breech, up the centre of the barrel, about an
inch, (the thickness must be determined by the bore of the
barrel), so as to contain the charge of powder round the
peg; the wadding of the powder hereby resting upon the
top of it, so as to prevent the powder being hard rammed.
This not only keeps the grains of powder from being crush- Its effect.
ed by the ram-rod, but the impulsive force of the newly
liberated air, on firing the powder, being removed from the
central part ef the charge of shot, has an opposite effect to
that of thebreech, fig. 1, viz. that of concentrating instead
of dispersing the shot.
Iam, Sir, your humble servant,
Bradford, Yorkshire, July the 7th, 1812. E. G.
2A 2 V. Descripa
340
Use of the sca-
rificator.
Common con-
struction of it.
Objections to
this construc-
tion.
IMPROVED SCARIFICATOR.
Vs
-
Description of an improved Scarificator: by Mr. Joux
Fuitrr, No. 14, Hatton-Garden *.
SIR,
I WISH to submit to the notice of the society an improve.“
ment in the construction of the scarificator, which I flatter
myself will be found worthy their attention. It may be
necessary to premise, that the scarificator is an instrument
used in cupping for making the incisions, from which
blood is afterward obtained by means of exhausted glasses.
As the degree of pain caused by this operation depends on
the good or bad quality of the scarificator, this instrument
hasalways been an object of attention. The best scarificators
generally in use propel from ten to sixteen lancets, through
about half a circle, which is effected by a part, termed the
rack, moving on its centre or part of its edge. On part of
its edge are situate teeth, which are so confined that by
moving the cock or tail of the rack, they work three pinions,
and make them revolve about halve a round; it is evident,
that lancets fixed on the axis of these pinions must also have
a circular motion, and endeavour to cat any thing opposed
to their passage; it is likewise evident, that, if.a spring be
so set, that it can be released, and its force applied on a
sudden to the rack, (somewhat similar to the main-spring
of a gun-lock) -all the lancets will be carried forward at
once, and that with a force and velocity in proportion to
the strength of the main-spring.
The objections to this construction, which frequently oc-
cur in practice are, that from the number of lancets neces«
sarily used, the resistance to their motion is so great, that
that they do not move with the swiftness requisite to the-ease
of the patient; it is likewise often desirable to have the in-
cisions rather deep, and then they are often quite stopped.in
their pregress ; beside this, by the lancets allmoving one way,
they are found to drive the skin up in folds, and thus pre«
sent additional resistance, and occasion excessive pain to
-* Trans. of the Soc. of Arts, vol. xxix, p..126. The silver
medal was voted to Mr. Fuller for this improvement.
the
IMPROVED SCARIFICATOR. 341.
the patient; if to obviate these inconveniences the main
spring be made very strong, it is then, from its confined
situation, exceeding liable to break; and if this does not
happen, another inconvenience is produced, viz. from its
very great strength it is scarce possible for any person to
cock and discharge it with the requisite ease.
It was therefore suggested, that, if two rows of lancets Improvement
could be made to move in contrary directions, these, by SSe°e4-
keeping the skin equally stretched, would form clean inci-
sions with much less force than in the former method: The
scarificator A, marked No. 1, was therefore constructed,
and first used early in 1802 ; it is accompanied by its work-
ing mode! B; this instrument at first contained the twelve
long-edged spiral lancets C.
This instrament immediately showed its theory to be Defects of this
good, but it had its faults; the incisions were too long when "US
of the necessary depth ; from the complex nature of thetwo
racks, &c., and from the confined situation to which they
were restricted, they could not be placed in the most fa-
vourable position for motion, and were therefore liable to
be out of order.
These and many other objections were altered or removed’ These defects
in various ways, which at length terminated in the construc. “™°Ved:
tion of the instrument D, marked No. 2, also containing
twelve lancets, combining every advantage and improvement
suggested by experience and reflection. This instrument
admits of two main springs, but from the manner in which
the racks work in each other, and in their respective
pinions, they in effect become one, but maintain the advan.
tage of being made more slight, and consequently admitting
a greater extent of motion than a single stiff spring can
possibly accomplish ; beside which they are not so liable to
break; and should this happen to one, the instrument
would not be useless, for I believe that one of these springs
would be strong enough forall ordinary purposes, as incisions
are effected with much less force when the lancets diverge;
but combined they never have shown the least disposition to
stop, however decp it might be necessary to set them, or
strong the integuments to which they were applied; and
consequently attended with greater ease to the patient. On
aie Ea inspecting
3AZ IMPROVED SCARIFICATOR.
inspecting the instrument and working model FE, its sime
plicity, I flatter. myself, )will be admitted; nor is any force
of the main-springs spent in overcoming unnecessary fric-
tion or ill-directed. motion; the ease likewise with which
the instrument is discharged, consideriug its strength of
spring, will be noticed by every one accustomed to scarifi-
cators. It may be objected to this instrument that it is
Jarger and heavier than the ordinary scarificator, but itis
capable of being reduced without injury to the improvement,
as is shown by the instrument F, which is completely with.
in the usual size. '
I have been favoured with testimonies of approbation
_ from the following respectable gentlemen. _Dr, Willan,
physician; Mr. Armiger, Mr. Frampton, and Mr. Law.
, Tence, surgeons and teachers of anatomy.—It will be also
seen, that, while in the possession of Mr. Armiger, it was
approved by the late Dr. Rollo, and by Dry. Irwin, the
present surgeon-general and inspector of ordnance hospi-
tals; and I may add as a farther proof of its utility, if
more be necessary, that by an illiberal use of private confi-
dence, others have been made on a similar plan; and I am
misinformed, if the honour of this invention has not been
claimed, within these few months, by three or four different
individuals.
Another searifi- | Accompanying this is another scarificator, G, the peculi-
ction arity of which consists in the lancets being projeced directly
forwards, and returning into the box or case; the working
model N is not exactly such as is contained in the instru-
ment, but an improvement on it. This instrument and
2 model must be considered merely as experiments, to see how
such motion could be effected; for, persuading myself that
punctured wounds would be more painful and more difficult
to heal in this, as they are usually in other circumstances, com.
pared with incised wounds; and likewise having so happily
succeeded in constructing thatalready described, which I con.
sider so far superior, I never used it, and therefore can say
nothing as to its operative merits; nor should I have re.
called it from oblivion, but having lately seen a description
of ascarificator by punctured wounds, invented by a very
ingenious
Testimonies in
its favour.
IMPROVED SCARIFICATOR. 343
m
ingenious and respectable medical gentleman #, who speaks
very satisfactorily of its performance, and which does not
possess the advantage of the lancets withdrawing from the
wounds, they being removed with the instrument, I thought,
that should mine be a mistaken opinion, and that some real
advantage attends this method, it occurred to me that sub.
mitting the instrument to the Society would be applying it
to its best use; as from its possessing the property of the
lancets withdrawing themselves, it might suggest some ideas
for farther improvement.
I am, sir, .
Yours obediently,
JOHN FULLER.
Description of the Engravings of Mr. Joun Futwer’s Explanation of
scarificator, Plate IX. Ale
Figs. 3, 4, 5, and 6, are sections of this fastrument,
taken in different positions, to explain its interior mecha-
nism; fig. 3, isa plan of the lancets, the top of the box be-
ing removed to show them; fig. 4, is a section through the
centre of the box; and fig. 6, the same, but taken in the
opposite direction.
The lancets aa, 4, 5, and 6, are fixed upon two small
arbors mounted parallel to each other across the box; the
Jancets are so arranged on the arbors, that those upon one
arbor are placed in the intervals between the lancets fixed
upon the other; the arbors are placed near the top of- the
box, and the lancets act through clefts cut in the lid, (as
shown in figs. 4, and 6,) when the arbors are turned round ;
this is performed by a pinion upon each arbor, receiving
motion from two toothed sectors, A B, fig. 5, which are also
caused to act together by the teeth on their edges; they are
fixed upon two parallel spindles C D, which extend across’
the box; the sector A, has a lever or handle attached to it,
and coming through the bottom of the box, and by pulling
this, the scarificator is wound up ready for action. The
power is given by two horseshoe springs, ee, figs. 3 and 6,
one end of each is screwed upon the bottom of the box, and
the other acts ina notch ff, in each sector, so as to press
* See Journ. vol. xxvii, p. 124.
those
S44
Method of us-
ing the instru-
ment,
IMPROVED SCARIFICATOR.
these sides upwards ; the sectors are prevented from move
ing, except when required, by a catch g, which enters
notches cut in the handle of the sector A; this catch is a.
brass bar, lying across the bottom of the box, as shown in
figs. 4 and 6, it moves on a screwas a centre pin at one end,
and is pressed towards the sector bya slight spring (not
scen) ; when itis to be discharged, a button Ais pressed in,
which disengages the catch g from the notches in the piece
A, and permits the springs to turn the sectors about, and
by their teeth acting in the pinions, turn the Jancets round
at the same time, which is effected by the teeth of the two
sectors engaging each other, in order that they may not
operate so as to move the whole instrument upon the skin,
as is the casein the common scarificator. -
Fig. 5 shows, that the handle of the sector A has two
notches in it, for the catch g: when it is caught upon the
first of these, the instrument is in the position of fig. 4,
which is the half-cock, the lancets standing directly upright
out of the box ; in this position, the depth they are intended
to penetrate is adjusted by means of a screw k, passing
through the bottom of the box ; it is tapped into a piece of
brass 2, which is screwed to the lid m of the box; the picce
of. brass is bent, as shown in fig. 6, that it may clear the
lancets and their spindles ; when the screw is turned, it is
evident that it will raise or lower the lid of the box, and
cause the lanccts to protrude more or less through it, and
consequently enter a greater or less depth into the skin.
When the instrument is to be used, the handle of the
sector A is to be drawn back into the position of jig. 5,
which is at the full cock; the lancets are now turned down
wholly within the box, and the springs wound up; the lid
is then to be applied flat upon the raised-up skin of the part
to be scarified; and by pushing in the button h, the catch ¢
is moved round on its centre pin, and pushed ont of the —
notches in the handle of the sector A; the springs now turn
the sectors, apd.the lancets fly out of the box with incon-
ceivable rapidity; and making as many punctures in the
skin, return into the box, having made exactly half a turn
with their respective arbors. ‘The dimensions of the instru-
ment may be ascertained by the scale of inches annexed to
the drawing,
VJ. On
NERVOUS AFFECTION CURED BY PRESSING THE CAROTIDS. 345
VI.
On a Case of nervous Affection cured by Pressure of the
“Carotids ; with some physiological Remarks. By C. H.
Parry, M.D. F.R.S.*
OvxsErvinc that the Royal Society, of which I have Laws ofanimal
the honour to be a member, occasionally receives commu- life the most
im portant in
nications illustrative of the laws of animal life, which are physics.
indeed the most important branch of physics, I take the li-
berty of calling their attention to a case, confirming a prin.
ciple which I long ago published, and which I believe had
never till then been remarked by pathologists.
About the year 1786, I began to attend a young lady, Nervous affec.
who laboured under eitentah and violent attacks, either of tions suspended
head-ach, vertigo, mania, dyspneea, convulsions, or other ;>. oye
’ 5% prey SBOAras ’ oO the carotid ar-
symptoms, usually denominated nervous. This case I de- tetics.
scribed at large to the Medical Society of London, who
published it in their Memoirs, in the year 1788. Long
meditation on the circumstances of the case led me to con-
clude, that all the symptoms arose from a violent impulse
of blood into the vessels of the brain; whence I inferred,
that as the chief canals conveying this blood were the carotid
arteries, it might perhaps be possible to intercept a consider-
able part of it so impelled, and thus remove those symptoms,
which were the supposed effect of that inordinate influx.
With this view, I compressed with my thumb one or both
carotids, and uniformly found all the symptoms removed
by that process. ‘Those circumstances of rapidity or inten.
sity of thought, which constituted delirium, immediately
ceased, and gave place to other trains of a healthy kind;
head-ach and vertigo were removed, and a stop was put to
convulsions, which the united strengih of three or four ate
tendants had before been insufficient to connteract,
That this extraordinary elfect was not that of mere pres-
sure, operating as a sort of counteracting stimulus, was
evident: for the salutary effect was exactly proportioned to
the actual pressure of the carotid itself, and did aot take
place at all, if, in consequence of a wrong direction, either
* Phil. Trans, for 1811, p. 89.
to
346
NERVOUS AFFECTION CURED ‘BY PRESSING THE CAROTIDS:
to the right or left, the carotid escaped the effects of the
operation.
Mode in which © ‘This view of the order of phenomena was, in reality, very
it acts.
conformabte to the known laws of the animal economy. It
is admitted, that a certain momentum of the circulating
blood in the brain is necessary to the due performance of
the functions of that organ. Reduce the momentum, and
you not only impair those functions, but, if the reduction
“ go to a certain degree, you bring on syncope, in which they
are for a time suspended. On the other hand, in nervous
affections, the sensibility and other functions of the brain
are unduly increased ; and what can be more natural than to
attribute this effect to the contrary cause, or excessive mo-
mentum in the vessels of the brain? If, however, this ana-
logical reasoning has any force in ascertaining the principle,
I must acknowledge, that it did not occur to me till twenty
years afterward, when a great number of direct experi-
ments had appeared to me clearly to demonstrate the fact.
From various cases of this kind, I beg leave to select one
which occurred to me in the month of January, 1805.
Case ofnervous Mrs. T. aged 51, two years and a half beyond a certain
affection.
critical period of female life, a widow, mother of two chil-
dren, thin, and of a middle size, had been habitually free
from gout, rheumatism, hemorrhoids, eruptions, and all
other disorders, except those usually called nervous, and
occasional colds; one of which, about two years and a half
before, had been accompanied with considerable cough, and
had still left some shortness of breathing, affecting her only
when she used strong muscular exertion, as in walking up
stairs, or up hill.
In February 1803, after sitting for a considerable time in
a room without a fire, in very severe weather, she was so
much chilled as to feel, according to her own expression,
¢¢ as if her blood within was cold.” In order to warm her-
self, she walked briskly for a considerable time about the
house, but ineffectually. The coldness continued for seve-
ral hours, during which she was seized with a numbness or
sleepiness of her left side, together with a momentary deaf.
ness, but no privation or hebetude of the other senses, or
pain or giddiness of the head. After the deafness had sub-
sided,
NERVOUS AFFECTION CURED BY PRESSING THE CAROTIDS. SAT
sided, she became preternaturally sensible to sound in the Case of nervous
ear of the affected side, and felt a sort of rushing or ting- ich
ling in the fingers of the left hand, which Jed her to con-
clude, that ‘* the blood went too forcibly there.”
Though the coldness went off, what she called numbness
still continued, but without the least diminution of the
pewer of motion in the side affected. In about six weeks,
the numbness extended itself to the right side.
Among various ineffectual remedies for these complaints,
blisters were applied to the back, and the inside of the
left arm above the elbow. The formerdrew well. The lat.
ter inflamed without discharging; so that a poultice of
bread and milk was put on the blistered part. After this
period, the muscles of the humerus began to feel as if con-
tracted and stiff: and these sensations gradually spread
themselves to the neck and head, and all across the body,
s0 as to make it uncomfortable for her to lie on either side,
though there was no inability of motion.
\She now began to be affected with violent occasional
flushings of her face and head, which occurred even while
her feet and legs were cold, together with a rushing noise
in the back of the head, especially in hot weather, or from
any of those causes, which usually produce the feelings of
heat.
It is difficult to give intelligible names to sensations of a
new and uncommon kind. That, which this lady denomi-
nated numbness, diminished neither the motion nor the sen-
sibility of the parts affected. It was more a perception of
tightness and constriction, in which the susceptibility of
feeling in the parts was in fact increased; and the skin of
_ the extremities was so tender, that the cold air produced a
sense of uneasiness, the finest flannel or worsted felt disa-
greeably coarse, and the attempt to stick a pin with her
fingers caused intolerable pain.
In the month of September 1803, not long after the ap-
plication of the blisters, she experienced in certain parts of
the left arm and thigh that sensation of twitching, which is
vulgarly called the ‘¢ life blood,” and which soon extended
itself to the right side. Shortly afterward, she began to
perceive an actual vibration or starting up of certain por-
tions
348
NERVOUS AFPECTION CURED BY PRESSING THE CAROTIDS.
Case of nervous tions of the flexor muscles of the fore-arm, and of the del-
affection.
Effect of com-
pressing the ca-
rotid artery.
toid on the left side; not so, however, as to move the arm
or hand.
This disorder had continued with little variation to the
period of my first visit. The vibrations constantly existed
while the arm was in the common posture, the fore-arm
and hand leaning on the Jap. If the arm were stretched
strongly downwards, the vibration of the flexors ceased,
but those of the deltoid continued. The arm being strongly
extended forwards, all ceased; but returned as soon as the
muscles were relaxed. ‘The vibrations were of different de.
grees of frequeucy, and at pretty regular intervals, usually
about 80 in a minute. They were increased in fre-
quency and force by any thing which agitated or heated
the patient, and were always worse after dinner than after
breakfast. The pulse in the radial artery was 80 in a mi.
mute, and rather hard. That in the carotids was very full
and strong; and each carotid appeared to be unusually di-
Jated for about half an inch in length, the adjacent portions
above and below being much smaller, and of the natural
size. I much regret, that I find in my notes of this case no
inquiry, whether there was any coincidence between the
systoles of the heart, and the muscular vibrations. The
patient’s feet were usually cold, and her head and face hot.
The feeling in her limbs was much as I have above described,
exeept that the sensibility was somewhat less acute than ithad
becn, and she complained of.a tightness all over her head,
as if it had been bound with a close night-cap. Her sleep
was usually sound on first going to bed, but afterward, for
the most part, interrupted by dreaming. Bowels generally
costive: appetite moderate: no flatulency or indigestion :
tongue slightly furred, without thirst: urine variable, but
generally pale. <i
The late Mr. George Crook, surgeon, was present while
I made these examinations; and when we afterward con-
versed together, I remarked to him, that if my theory of the
usual cause of spasmodic or nervous affections were well
founded, I should probably be able to suppress or restrain
these muscular vibrations of the left arm, by compressing
the carotid artery on the opposite or right side; while little
effect
NERVOUS AFFECTION CURED BY PRESSING THE CAROTIDS. 349
effect might perhaps be produced, by compressing the carotid
of the side affected. The event was exactly conformable
to my expectation. Strong pressure on the right. carotid
uniformly stopped all the vibrations, while that on the left
had no apparent influence. I may add, that these experi-
ments were afterward, at my request, repeated on this lady
in London by Dr. Baillie, and, as he informed me in a let-
ter, with a similar result.
It is perfectly well known to many of the learncd mem-
bers of this Society, that irritations of the brain, when of
moderate force, usually exhibit their effects on the nerves
or muscles of the opposite side of the body; and in the
case before us, it is difficult to understand how the suspen-
sion of these automatic motions could have been produced
by this pressure of the opposite carotid, in any other way
than by the interruption of the excessive flow of blood
through a vessel morbidly dilated ; in consequence of which
interruption, the undue irritation of the brain was removed,
and the muscular fibres permitted to resume their usual state
of rest. |
From these and many other similar facts, I am disposed Undue imputse
to conclude, that irritation of the brain, from undue im- Mea arin
pulse of blood, is the common though not the only cause mon cause of
of spasmodic and nervous affections; and I can with 1 ES del tee
most precise regard to truth add, that a mode of practice, tion.
conformable to this principle, has enabled me, during more
than twenty years, to cure a vast number of such maladies,
which had resisted the usual means.
An investigation of all the modifications of the principle
itself, and of its numerous relations to therapeutics, would
be inconsistent with the views of-the Royal Society, and
must be reserved for another place.
Bath, Dec. 8, 1810.
VII. A concise
350
Theory of ve-
getation exem-
phfied in the
melon.
‘The seed.
The plumule.
THEORY OF VEGETATION. ©
VII.
A concise View of the Theory respecting Vegetation, lately .
advanced in the Philosophical Transactions,. illustrated
in the Culture of the Melon. ByT. A. Kyuieut, Esq.
F.RS., &c.*
‘I HE Council of the Horticultural Society having desired
that 1 would send them a general view of my theory on
vegetable physiology, which has been published by the
Royal Society, I have great pleasure in obeying their wishes ;
and conceiving, that I shall be able to render it more clear
amd useful, by making it illustrative of the proper culture
of some particular plant, and by referring the reader to the
papers in the Philosophical Transactions for evidence in sup-
port of the circumstances stated, 1 have for this purpose
chosen the me(lon.
A seed, exclusive of its seed-coats, consists of one or more
cotyledons, a plumule or bud, and the caudex or stem of the
future plant, which has generally, though erroneously, been
called its radicle+. In these organs, but principally in the
cotyledons, is deposited as much of the concrete sap of the
parent plant, as is sufficient to feed its offspring, till that has
attached itself to the soil, and become capable of absorbing
and assimilating new matter.
The plumule differs from the buds of the parent plant in
possessing a new and independent life, and thence in assum.
ing, in itssubsequent growth, different habits from those of
the parent plant. The organizable matter, which is given
by the parent to the offspring in this case, probably exists
in the cotyledons of the seed, in the same state as it exists
‘in the alburnum of trees; “and like that, it apparently un-
Caudex.
dergoes considerable*changes before it becomes the true cir-
culating fluid of the plant: in some it becomes saccharine,
in others acrid and bitter, during germination ¢. In this
process the vital fluid is drawn from the cotyledons into the
caudex of the plumule or bud, through vessels which core
* Hort, Trans. vol. I, p. 217. + Phil. Trans. 1809, p. 169:
Journ. vo]. XXV, p. 118. ¢ Phil. Trans, 1805.
respond
THEORY OF VEGETATION. “351
respond with those of the bark of the future tree, and are
indeed perfect cortical vessels *. From the point of the First root.
caudex springs the first root, which, at this period, consists
wholly of bark and medulla, without any alburnous or
woody matter; and, if uninterrupted by any opposing
body, it descends in a straight line towards the centre of
the Earth, in whatever position the seed has been placed,
provided it has been permitted to vegetate at rest +.
Soon after the first root has been emitted, the caudex Lengthening of
elongates, and taking a direction disinetrieaiiy opposite to the caudex.
that of the root, it raises, in agreat many kinds of plants,
the cotyledons out of the soil, which then become the ses
minal leaves of the young plant t.' During this period the
young pliant derives nutriment almost wholly from the co-
tyledons or seed-leaves, and if those be destroyed, it perishes.
Gravitation by operating on bodies differently organized,
- and of different modes of growth, appears at once the cause
why, in the preceding case, the root descends, and why
the elongated plumule ascends §.
The bark of the root now begins to execute its office of Bark of the
depositing alburnous or woody matter; and as soon as this °°“
is formed, the sap, which had hitherto descended only through
the cortical vessels, begins to ascend through the alburnum.
The plumule in consequence elongates, its leaves enlarge and New set of ves-
unfold, and a set of vessels, which did not exist in the root,
are now brought into action. These, which I have called
the central vessels, surround the medulla; and, between it
and the bark, forma circle, upon which the alburnum is
deposited, by the bark, in the form of wedges, or like the
stones of an arch ||. Through these vessels, which diverge
into the leaf stalks, the sap ascends, and is dispersed through
the vessels, and parenchymatous substance of the leaf; and
in this organ the fluid, recently absorbed from the soil, be;
comes converted into ites true sap or blood of the plant: True sap.
and as this fluid, during germination, descended from the
* Tbid. 1809: Journ. vol. X XV, p. 18.
+ Phil. Trans. 1809, Ist part, p. 170: Journ. vol. XXV, p. 119.
+ Phil. Trans. 1806. ;
§ Phil. ‘Trans. Ist part, 1806, p. 4: Journ. vol. XIV, p. 409.
jj Phii Trans. 1801, plate 27th.
toh cotyledons
352
Ajburnum in
the stem with
other central
vessels.
Fluid absorbed
from the soil
mixed with sap
in the albur-
mum,
Power of the
leaves to gene-
rate sap.
THEORY OF VEGETATION;
cotyledons and secd-leaves of the plant, if now descends
fromits proper leaves, and adds, in its descent, to the bulk
of the stem, and the growth of the roots. Alburnum is
also deposited in the stem of the piant, below the proper
leaves, as it was previously deposited below the seed-leaves,
and from this spring other central vessels, which give ex-
istence to, and feed other leaves and buds *.
A considerable part of the ascending fluid must neces.
sarily have been recently absorbed from the soil: but in the
alburnum it becomes mixed with the true sap of the plant,
a portion of which, during its descent down the bark, ap-
pears to secrete into the alburnum, through passages cor-
respondent to the anastomosing vessels of the animal eco-
nomy +. For as the cotyledons, or seed-leaves, first af-
forded the organizable matter which composed the first pro-
per leaves, so these, when full-grown, prepare the fluid
which generates other young leaves, the health and growth
of which are as much dependent on the older leaves, as
those, when first formed, were upon the cotyledons t.
The power of each proper leaf to generate sap, in any
given species and variety of plant, appears te be in the com.
pound ratio of its width, its thickness, and the exposure of
its upper surface to light, in proper temperature. As the
growth of the plant proceeds, the number and width of the
mature'leaves increase rapidly, in proportion to the num-
ber of young leaves to be formed; and the creation con-
sequently exceeds the expenditure of true sap. This there-
fore accumulates during a succession of weeks, or months,
‘or years, according to the natural habits and duration of
the plant, and varying considerably according to the soil
and climate in which each individual grows: and the sap
thus generated is deposited in the bulb of the tulip, in the
tuber of the potato, in the fibrous roots of grasses, and in
the alburnum of trees, during winter, and is dispersed
through their foliage and bark during the spring and sume
mer §.
* Phil. Trans. 1801 and 1805.
+ Phil. Trans. 1807, p. 109: Journ. vol. XIX, p, 246,
¢ Ibid, 1805: Jourp. vol. XII, p. 233.
§ Ibid. 1809, p. 10: Journ, vol. XXY, p. 123. -
As
THEORY OF VEGETATION, 853
As soon as the plant has attained its age of puberty, aBlossoms and
portion of its sap is expended in the production of blossoms 7"
and fruit. These originate from, and are fed by central
vessels, apparently similar to those of the succulent annual
shoot and leaf stalk, and which probably convey a similar
fluid; for a bunch of grapes grew and ripened, when grafted
upon a leaf stalk; anda succulent young shoot of the vine,
under the same circumstances, acquired a growth of many
feet *.
The fruit, or seed-vessel, appears to be generated wholly Fruit,
by the prepared sap of the plant, and its chief office to be
that of adapting the fluids, which ascend into it, to afford
proper nutriment to the seeds it contains. I proceed to
offer some observations upon the proper culture of the
melon +.
There is not, I believe, any species of fruit ai present Melons not
cultivated in the gardens of this country, which so rarely Drought to due
perfection,
acquires the greatest degree of perfection, which it is capa.
ble of acquiring in our climate, as the melon. It is gene.
rally found so defective both in richness and flavour, that
it ill repays the expgnse and trouble of its culture; and my
own gardener, though not defective in skill or attention,
had generally so little success, that I had given him orders
not to plant melons again. Attending, however, after my
orders were given, more closely to his mode of culture, and
to that of other gardeners in my neighbourhood, I thought
I saw sufficient cause for the want of flavour in the fruit,
in the want of efficient foliage; and appealing to experi- from the want
ment, I have had ample reason to think my opinions well aca g
founded.
The Jeaves of the melon, as of every other plant, naturally Causes of this.
arrange themselves so as to present, with the utmost advan.
tage, their upper surfaces to the light; and if by any means
the position of the plant is changed, the leaves, as long as
they are young and vigorous, make efforts to regain their _
proper position. But the extended branches of the melon
_ plant, particularly under glass, are slender and feeble; its
® Phil. Trans. 1803 and 1804: Journ. vol. X, p. 293.
4 Ibid. 1801.
*°Vor. XXXII. Suprrement. 2B leaves
3b4
Attempt to re-
medy this de-
fect.
No water
thrown on the
leaves.
Superfluous
shoots to be
pinched off,
THEORY OF VEGETATION,
Jeaves are broad and heavy; and its leaf stalkslong; so that
if the leaves be once removed, either by the weight of water
from the watering pot, the hand of the gardener in pruning,
in eradicating weeds, or any other cause, from their proper
position, they never regain it; and in consequence a large
portion of that foliage, which preceded, or was formed at
the same period with the blossoms, and which nature ine
tended to generate sap to feed the fruit, becomes diseased
and sickly, and consequently out of office, before the fruit
acquires maturity.
To remedy this defect, I placed my plants at greater diss
tances from each other than my gardener had previously
done, putting a single plant under each light, the glass of
which was six feetlong by four wide. The beds were formed
of asufficicnt depth of rich mould to ensure the vigorous
growth of the plant; and the mould was, as usual, covered
with brick-tiles, over which the branches were conducted in
every direction, so as to present thelargest possible width of
foliage to the light. Many small hooked pegs, such as the
slender branches of the beech, the birch, and hazle, readily
afford, had been previously provided; and by these, which
passed into the mould of the bed between the tiles, the
branches of the plants were secured from being disturbed
from their first position. The leaves were also held erect,
and at an equal distance from the glass, and enabled, if
slightly moved from their proper position, to regain it.
I, however, stili found, that the leaves sustained great
injury from the weight of the water falling from the watering
pot; and I therefore ordered the water to be poured, from
a vessel of a proper construction, upon the brick-tiles, bes
tween the leaves, without at all touching them; and thus
managéd, I had the pleasure to see, that the foliage remained
erect and healthy. The fruit also grew with very extraor.
dinary rapidity, ripened in an unusually short time, and
acquired a degree of perfection, which I had never previe
ously seen.
_ As soon as a sufficient quantity of fruit (between twenty
and thirty pounds) on each plant is set, I would recom.
mend the farther production of foliage to be prevented, by q
pinching off the lateral shoots as soon as produced, wherever
more
{HEORY OF VEGETATION. 355
tore foliage cannot be exposed to the light. No part of the Importance of
full grown leaves should ever be destroyed before the fruit “"° lea¥ee.
is gathered, unless they injure each other, by being too
much crowded together; for each leaf, when full grown,
however distant from the fruit, and growing on a distinct
branch of the plant, still contributes to its support; and
hence it arises, that when a plant has as great.a number of
growing fruit upon part of its branches, as it is capable of
feeding, the blossoms upon other branches, which extend
in an opposite direction, prove abortive,
The variety of melon, which I exclusively cultivate, is The variety
little knowa in this country, and was imported from Salonica apa
by Mr. J. Hawkins. Its formis nearly spherical, when the
fruit is most perfect, and without any depressions upon its
surface: its colour approaching to that of gold, and its flesh
perfectly white. It requires a much greater state of matu.
rity than any other variety of its species, and continues to
improve in flavour and richness, till it becomes externally
soft, and betrays some symptoms of incipient decay. The
‘consistence of its flesh is then nearly that of a water melon,
and it is so sweet, that few will think it improved by the
addition of sugar. The weight of a good melon of this
variety is about seven pounds. I send some seeds of it to
be distributed amongst such members of the Horticultural
Society, as may wish to receive them.
VUL.
Some Remarks on Pruning and Draining standard Apple
and Pear Trecs. By Mr. Joun Mauer, F. H. S.*
i: W FE, often see apple and pear trees, both in gardens and Apple and
= pear trees com-
orchards, not oly crowded too closely together, but MO only toothials
loaded with their own branches, that very little fruit is pro- and crowded.
duced ; and that which is produced is rendered greatly infe.
yior in size and flavour to what it would be under different
management.
* Trans.of the Hort. Soc. vol. I, p, 236.
2B2 Directions
356
Improvement
in their ma-
nagement.
Some trees in
the above state
thinned out
greatly by
pruning.
Theshoots from
them very vi-
gorous.
Bent down by
a weight near
the end.
Advantages of
the practice.
MANAGEMENT OF APPLE AND PEAR TREES.
Directions for pruning these, as well as all other fruit
trees, have already been published by various experienced
gardeners, nor is it my present intention to offer any instruc.
tions on this head; but necessity, which has been so justly
called the mother of invention, having impelled me to trya
method that I have not seen practised by any other person,
and which has proved uncommonly successful, a short detail
of it may perhaps be deemed not unworthy the attention of
the Horticultural Society.
When first I came to Millfield, I found a number of ap-
ple and pear trees, not enly planted too closely, but left
entirely to their natural manner of growing, and exceed.
ingly shaded by a row of high trees in the hedge, which se-
parates them from the pleasure ground.
Other business to be done, of more importance, prevented
‘me from pruning the whole immediately; but a number
were selected the first season, and many of their largest
branches taken entirely out from the bottom, cutting the
wounds very clean. ‘The remaining branches were also pro-
perly thinned, so asto leave room for the air and light to
play upon the smallest branches.
The following summer, the shoots pushed from those
pruned trees, as might have been expected, were uncom-
monly vigourous, suchas the French call gourmands, often
from three to five feet long, or more. About the end of
June, or alittle sooner and later, according to the growth
of the branches, I applied oval balls of grafting clay to-
wards their extremity, sufficiently heavy to incline them
downwards in a pendulous direction. The sap being thus
diverted from its natural mode of ascending and descending,
every bud almost became a blossom bud, and in several
trees this disposition to produce blossom buds was carried
down to the very lowest spurs on the stem and thicker
branches. |
I need not add, that this practice has since been closely
followed up; for many advantages, exclusive of a more cer-~
tain crop of fruit, attend it. Ist. Other small vegetables may
be successfully cultivated under the light shade of trees kept
so open, an object of importance in the villages near London,
where ground is so difficult to be got: 2dly, No expense of
espalier,
VEGETABLE MANURE BEST FRESH. 357
espalier, or of stakes, or of training and tying down the
branches is incurred: 3dly, The crop of fruit is not only
improved in size and flavour by having so much sun and
air, but it is more easily gathered, and suffers much less
from the autumnal winds; for branches in this direction are
more pliable, and bend more easily to the storm; and as a
proof how much may be done by art if necessary, the
branches of a Lombardy poplar accidentally left in my Branches of a
master’s orchard, after being loaded with clay balls, became Pe aa
as pendulous as those of the weeping willow *.
I have only to add, that most of the specimens of apples The fruit excel-
and pears produced at our meeting in November and De-!**
cember last by me, and honoured with the encomiums of
some of the best judges present, grew upon trees kept low
and epen in this method.
ys
IX.
On the Advantages of employing Vegetable Matter as Mae
nureina fresh State. ByT.A.Knicurt, Esq. F.R.S.,
Pres. H. S.+
W RITERS upon agriculture, both in ancient and modern Vegetable sub-
times, have dwelt much upon the advantages of collecting stances best for
te .. Manure when
Jarge quantities of vegetable matter to form manures; while fresh.
scarcely any thing has been written upon the state of decom, |
position, in which decaying vegetable substances can be em-
ployed, most advantageously, to afford food to living plants.
Both the farmer and gardener, till lately, thought that such
manures ought not to be deposited in the soil till putrefac-
tion had nearly destroyed all organic texture; and this
opinion is, perhaps, still entertained by a majority of gare
deners: it is, however, wholly unfounded. Carnivorous
animals, it is well known, receive most nutriment from the
_ * Our President has shown, in the Philosophical Transactions of
1806, the extensive influence of gravitation upon the motion of
the sap of plants; and his experiments perfectly support the author’s
eonclusions.—Secr. See Journal, vol. XIV, p. 409.
+ Trans of the Hort. Soc. vol. 1, p. 248,
flesh
at |
or
1)
Proof of this in
a seedling
plum,
VEGETABLE. MANURE BEST FRESH.-
flesh of other animals, when they obtain it most nearly in.
the state in which it exists as part of a living body; and the
experiments, I shall proceed to state, afford evidence of
considerable weight, that many vegetable substances are best
calculated to reassume an organic living state, when they
are least changed and decomposed by putrefaction.
I had been engaged. in the year 1810, in some experie
ments, from which I hoped to obtain new varieties of the
plum; but one only of the blossoms, upon which I had
operated, escaped the excessive severity of the frost in the
spring. The seed, which this afforded, having been pree
served in mould during the winter, was, in March, placed
in a small garden-pot, which was nearly filled with the live
ing leaves and roots of grasses, mixed with a small quantity
of earth; and this was sufficiently covered with a layer of
mould, which contained the roots only of grasses, to pree
vent, in a great measure, the growth of the plants which
and in potatoes.
Hint to the
were buried. The pot, which contained about one sixe
teenth of a square foot of mould and living vegetable matter,
was placed under glass, but without artificial heat, and the
plant appeared above the soil in the end of April. It was
three times, during thesummer, removed into a larger pot,
and each time supplied with the same matter to feed upon ;
and in the end of October its roots occupied about the space
of one third of a square foot, its height above the surface of
the mould being then nine feet seven inches.
In the beginning of June a small piece of ground was
planted with potatoes of an early variety, and in some rows
green fern, and in others nettles, were employed instead of
other manure; and, subsequently, as the early potatoes were
taken up for use, their tops were buried in rows in the same
manner, and potatoes of the preeeding year were placed upon
them, and covered in the usual way. The days being then
long, the ground warm, and the decomposing green leaves
and stems affording abundant moisture, the plants acquired
their full growth in an unusually short time, «nd afforded an
abundant produce; and the remaining part of the summer
proved more than sufficient to mature potatoes of any early
variety. The market gardener may, probably, employ the
tops
VEGETABLE MANURE BEST: FRESH. 359
taps of his early potatoes, and other green vegetable sub- gardener.
stances in this way, with much advantage.
In the preceding experiments the plum-stone was placed Possible objec-
: 3 : tions to the pre-
to vegetate in the turf of the alluvial soil of a meadow, and ceding experi-
the potatoes grew in ground which, though not rich, was not ments.
poor; and, therefore, some objections may be made to the
conclusions [ am disposed to draw in favour of recent vege.
table substances as manures. The following experiment is,
I think, decisive.
I received, from a neighbouring farmer, a field naturally A decisive one.
barren, and so much exhausted by ill management, that the
two preceding crops had not returned a quantity of cora
equal to that which had been sowed upon it. An adjoining
plantation afforded me a large quantity of fern, which I
proposed to employ as manure for a crop of turnips. This
was cut between the tenth and twentieth of June; butas the
small cotyledons of the turnip.seed afford little to feed the
young plant; and as the soil, owing to its extreme po-
verty, could not afford much nutriment; I thought it
necessary to place the fern a few days in a heap, to ferment
sufficiently to destroy life in it, and to produce an exuda.
tion of its juices; and it was then committed in rows to
the soil, and the turnip-seed deposited, with a drilling ma
chine over it.
Some adjoining rows were manured with the black vege.
table mould obtained from the site of an old wood pile,
mixed with the slender branches of trees in every stage of
decomposition, the quantity placed in each row appearing
to me to exceed, more than four times, the amount ofthe
vegetable mould, which the green fern, if equally decom.
posed, would have yielded. The crop succeeded in both
cases; butthe plants upon the green fern grew with greatly
more rapidity than the others, and even than those which
had been manured with the produce of my fold and stable.
yard, and were distinguishable, in the autumn, from the
plants in every other part of the field, by the deeper shade
of their foliage.
I had made, in preceding years, many similar experiments Similar previ-
with small trees (particularly those of the mulberry when ean eas
bearing fruit in pots) with similar results: but I think it
unnecessary
360
Mr. Hatchett’s
artificial tannin.
Prepared from
Indigo.
Describeds
ON ARTIFICIAL TANNIN.
unnessary to trespass on the time of the Society by stating ,
these experiments, conceiving those I have stated to be suffi.
cient to show, that any given quantity of vegetable matter
can generally be employed, in its recent and organized state,
with much more advantage than when it has been decom.
posed, and no inconsiderable part of its component parts
has been dissipated and lost, during the progress of the pus
trefactive fermentation.
X.
Abstract of a Paper on the tanning Substances formed by
the Action of Nitric Acid on several vegetable Matters:
by Mr. Curvreut *.
i. Vir. HATCHETT has distinguished three varieties of
artificial tanning matter produced, Ist, by the action of
nitric acid on any vegetable, animal, or mineral carbona-
ceous substance: 2d, by its action on common resin, indi-
go, dragon’s blood, &c.+: 3d, by the action of sulphuric
acid on camphor, common resin, elemi, &c.
2. In the present paper I shall speak only of the first two
varieties of tanning matter, reserving the third for a sepa-
rate paper,
PartI. Tanning matter formed with resinous sube
stances. ;
— «-§ L. With Indigo.
3. This is what I mentioned in my former paper, under
the name of ** substance of an otly appearance t.” It was of
an orange red colour, fluid at a temperature of 15°.
(59° F.], but growing thick in the air: it had an acid,
* Ann. de Chim. Vol. LX XIII, p. 36. Read to the Institute,
July, 1809.
+ Mr. Hatchett having observed, that the most carbonaceous
substances were best adapted for conversion into tanning matter,
supposed, that, when this matter was formed from resins, these lost
a part of their hidrogen, and were thus made to approximate
carbonaceous substances.
t See Journal, vol, Xxx, p. 353.
astringent,
———————
ON ARTIFICIAL TANNIN: 361
‘astringent, and bitter taste: it precipitated gelatine copi-
ously, and adhered strong!y to animal substances, which it
dyed of a saffron colour: it was more soluble in hot water
than in cold: it was dissolved by potash, and this com-
pound at the expiration of some days had deposited a small
quantity of detonating matter. It was readily soluble in
concentrated nitric acid, and in alcohol. I analysed it in
the following manner.
4. a. Itook 40 parts, that I ey dried in a capsule with a Analysis of it.
gentle heat, boiled them in distilled water, and added in three
portions 30 parts of carbonate «f lead. Effervesence took
place. After an hour’s boiling, I filtered.
6. A pulverulent matter, of the colour of bistre, remained
on the paper, which, being washed with cold water, acidu-
lated with sulphuric acid, yielded sulphate of lead, a liquor
containing some reséz, and a small quantity of the two
amers.
c. The filtered liquor (a@) was decomposed by sulphuric
acid. The sulphate of lead being separated, the liquor was
concentrated : and a little oily matter was deposited, which
had either escaped the action of the carbonate of lead, or
was regenerated during the evaporation. The liquor sepa-
rated from the oily matter, and concentrated farther, left
a thick, very bitter, and astringent matter, that precipi-
tated gelatine. This was divided into two portions, No. 1,
and No. 2.
d. No. 1 was mixed with potash, which coagulated it
almost into a mass. It was then diluted with cold water,
and filtered. On the filter was left a deep yellow powder,
not crystallizable, and susceptible of detonation, but less
so than the compound of amer at a maximum and potash.
The aqueous solution of this powder reddened sulphate of
iron at a maximum, and precipitated gelatine, when theal-
kali had been previously saturated with an acid. This yellow
powder was a compound of potash, amer at a minimum, and
amer at a maximum: for, having decomposed it by murie
atic acid, I obtained by spontaneous evaporation, Ist,
erystals of amer at a minimum retaining a little amer at a
maximum; 2dly, a mother water, which, being saturated
with potash, yiclded a detonating substance in small yellow
needles,
362
Inferences from
this.
ON ARTIFICIAL TANNIN,
needles, altogether resembling that formed with amer ata
maximum.
The ligaor from which the yellow detopatiae powder was
separated contained some resin, with the addition of a
small quantity of amer at a minimum.
e. No. 2 was treated with concentrated nitric acid.
A few small globules of an oily appearance were formed. It
was boiled, evaporated to dryness, dissolved in water, and
saturated with potash. The compound of amer at a maxi-
mum with potash was obtained crystallized. The mother
water yielded on evaporation fresh detonating acicular
crystals, of adeeper yellow than the first from their retaine
ing a little resin.
From these experiments I concluded,
Ist, that the substance of an oily appearance is forms
ed of resin, amer at a minimum for the greater part,
amer at a maximum, and perhaps nitric acid come
bined with all three, and contributing to their fluidity:
Qdly, that amer at a minimum is capable of combining with
amer at a maximum *, and forming a detonating compound
with potash.
Rationale ofthe 5, The analysis of the matter of an sity appearance is
analysis.
founded on the difference of solubility of amers and resin,
and on that of their compounds with the oxide of lead.
Thus, when carbonate of lead is boiled with the oily mats
ter, the amers and a small quantity of resin combine with
the metallic oxide, and form compounds soluble in water ;
and as soon as the greater part of the resin is freed from
the amers, it is much less soluble, and consequently will
separate; and its separation is farther promoted by its com.
bining with a little oxide of lead. The resin, from its affinity
for the amers, carries down a small quantity with it. When
the soluble compound of amers with lead is decomposed by
sulphuric acid, the two amers combine together, so that
they jointly form a compound of little solubility with pot.
ash; and when this compound is treated with muriatic acid,
* The compound of the two amers has appeared to me capable
of assuming the form of globules of an oily appearance at a tempe-
rament of + 60° [140° F.] Perhaps the nitric acid contributes
to give it this state. ee
the
/
4
a
i
i
PM
q
ON ARTIFICIAL TANNIN. 863
the amers separate from each other in the order of their
respective solubilities.
’ 6. I do not consider the substance of an oily appearance The propor-
as uniform in the proportions of its immediate principles. mea ioett,
Sometimes the amer at a minimum is in small quantity: ples not con-
sometimes it predominates over the others. The same may St
be said of the amer at a maximum, and of the resin. This is
the reason of the differences observed in the colour, cone
sistence, and other properties of these compounds.
7. It remains for me to assign the reason why the com- Why the com-
pound of resin and amers precipitates gelatine much sou ae orig
copiously than amer at a maximum. The fact appears to
me owing to this, that the resin and amer at a minimum
_ (which have themselves an affinity for animal substances, but
not sufficient to precipitate gelatine) in combining with
amer at a maximum diminish the solubility of the latter, so-
lidify it in some degree, and thus in all probability increase
the capacity it has of forming with gelatine a compound
but little soluble.
§ II. Bitter tanning substance formed with extract of
brasil wood.
8. In my first paper on brasil wood, I described a bitter Tannin from
substance, produced by the action of nitric acid on the ex. ©*act of brasil.
tract of this wood. I showed, that this substance did not
' erystallize, was acid, precipitated gelatine, and formed with
potash small detonating crystals. At that time I considered Supposition
this substance as a compound of amer, artificial tannin, and ae "e
nitric acid. My reasons were, Ist, its being fusible by
heat, and forming detonating salts with salifiable bases, in
the manner of Welther’s amer: Qdly, its precipitating gela-
tine in the manner of the tannin described by Mr. Hatchett,
while the amer of Welther, prepared with indigo, does not
precipitate it; whence Linferred, that two different sub-
stances were requisite, to form detonating compounds and pre»
cipitate gelatine* : 3dly,its reddening litmus paper ; because,
in treating extract of brasil with nitric acid, I had obtained
_ * The reason,of my not obtaining a precipitate with Welther’s
amer and gelatine at that time was my cmployiig solutions too di-
lute, or adding too much gelatine,
| another
364
‘Amer of brasil
prepared with
potash.
Approaches
that of indigo,
but not the
same.
Its destructive —
analysis.
ON ARTIFICIAL TANNIN.
another substance, which did not perceptibly redden litmus,
which was fusible by heat, and which precipitated gelatine.
I concluded the account of my labours with saying, that I
purposed to examine whether the tanning matter of Hatchett
were a real tannin, whether the amer of indigo (or of Wel-
ther) were similar to that of brasil, and lastly, whether
these substances owed their detonating property to nitric
acid.
9. To solve these questions I prepared a certain quantity
of amer of brasil in the following manner. J combined it
with potash; I boiled this compound in water acidulated
with muriatic acid; by evaporation I obtained a whitish
substance crystallized confusedly ; and the mother water,
from which this was separated, yielded by concentration
fresh crystals, mixed with small grains of a resinous ap-
pearance, and of a reddish colour. This experiment led
me to think, that, if the amer of brasil be incapable of
crystallizing before it is combined with potash, it is because
it is combined with a certain quantity of matter, which I
believe to be resinous. The latter contributes also to give
it the property of precipitating gelatine more abundantly
than the amer of indigo.
‘The crystallized amer of brazil forms with potash a des
tonating salt of a much lighter colour, than that which it
forms when not crystallized. It seems then to approach
the amer of indigo ; but it exhibits certain differences, which
do not permit them to be confounded together.
10. The crystallized amer of brasil, heated in the glass
tube with a bulb before mentioned *, yielded, Ist, water ;
Qd, carbonic acid ; 3d, prussic acid; 4th, an inflammable
gas, that burned with a heavy white flame, in the manner of
oily hidrogen; 5th, nitrous gas; 6th, nitrogen gas; 7, 2
coal, extremely attenuated.
Acompoundof . Hence I concluded, that the amer of brasil is a compound
nitric acid and
an inflammable
substance,
of nitric acid, and a substance apparently resinous or oily :
that this compound, when united with salifiable bases,
‘ forms detonating salts: that it precipitates gelatine more
copiously than the amer of indigo does, because it appears
* Journal, vol. xxx, p. 354.
4 \ to
ON ARTIFICIAL TANNIN. 265
to have a greater tendency to solidity than the latter; and
that the presence of a certain quantity of resin, with which
it may be united, favours this precipitation.
§ TIL. Tanning substance formed with aloes.
11. On treating aloes after the mode of Mr, Braconnot, Tannin from
I obtained the matter he called aloetic acid *. aloes.
This acid substance has a yellow colour; an acid, astrin-
gent, anid bitter taste: projected on a hot iron, it emits a
yellow smoke, is carbonized, and melts. Heated in the
glass bulb it yields, 1st, water; 2d, carbonic acid; 3d,
prussic acid; 4th, an inflammable gas, which I believe to be
a mixture of oily hidrogen and gaseous oxide of carbon;
5th, nitrogen gas; 6th, charcoal.
Hence it appears to me, that the aloetic acid is a com- A similar com-
pound of nitric acid analogous to those I have already POU"
described. ;
This substance is but little soluble in water ; and, though Its properties
it is yellow, its solution is of a fine purple. I imagine the
water acts in this case by weakening the action of the
nitric acid on the,vegetable matter with which it is combined.
This purple solution becomes yellow on the addition of
nitric acid, muriatic acid, &c.
It gives a purple colour to alcohol.
I boiled some in nitric acid at 50° [sp. gr: 1-5], and eva- not altered by
porated to dryness. On dissolving the residue in water, I Mittic aci¢.
obtained a red solution, inclining a ‘little to fiery, because
probably there remained a little excess of acid. It seems
to me, therefore, that the nitric acid had not changed the
nature of this substance.
With salifiable bases it forms purple compounds, which {ts compounds
are detonating, as Mr. Braconnot first observed. with the bases.
I have found, that it precipitates gelatine very well; and Precipitates ge-
even that several of its soluble compounds precipitate it tine.
without the addition of an acid, which Welther’s amer
eombined with potash never does, when it contains no resin.
12. Is the aloetic acid a compound of nitric acid and {ts nature
a substance arising from the decomposition of aloes? ora
compound of nitric acid and the coloured principle of aloes
* Journal. vol. xxvil, p. 365.
little
866 ON ARTIFICIAL TANNIN. ‘
little or not at all changed? The colour of this substancé
leads me to incline to the latter opinion: yet I do not con-
sider it as imposstble, that, beside the acid and coloured
principle, it may contain a portion of aloes with its nature
changed ; for the pretty copious production of oxalic acid
in the treatment of aloes by nitric acid proves, that a part
of the aloes is completely decomposed.
Hypotheses. 13. Perhaps it may be thought, that the amers of brasil
and aloes are only compounds. of amer at a maximum,
nitric acid, and substances resulting from the more or less
advanced decomposition of the articles with which they
were formed. Without venturing to assert, that this opi-
nion is absolutely false, it appears to me more natural at
present, to consider these amers as two distinct species of
amer ata maximum. Hence it follows, that resinous sub-
stances treated with nitric acid do not aiford a homogeneous
priuciple, that may be considered as a kind of artificial
Different sub- tannin. Besides, the following experiments will prove, that
stances precipi- the faculty of precipitating gelatine belongs to substances
tate gelatine. f \ , 3
of a very different nature, and in which the presence of
amer at a maximum cannot be suspected.
Tannin from Part Il. Tanning matter formed with carbonaceous
Eee substancese
§ I. With pitcoal.
Mr. Hatchett’s 1. Mr. Hatchett asserts, that several bitumens, as jet and —
experiments oD asnhaltum, are formed of charcoal and a resinous matter
batumens
and that, when nitric acid is digested on these compounds,
the carbonaceous part dissolves, and the resinous part sepa-
rates in the form of ayellow or orange-coloured mass. Mr.
seid, Hatchett applies this discovery to pitcoal; and says, that~
when this contains no resinous substance, which is the most
common case according to him, itis completely dissolved by
nitric acid, and converted into tannin; and that, on the ©
contrary, when it contains a little resinous matter, this is |
The authors ot dissolved. The results I have obtained differ a little —
resiilts some- from those of Mr. Hatchett. Like him, by treating pite
what different. 41 with concentrated nitric acid, and reducing the liquor
to asirupy consistence, I obtained a thick, brown homos —
geneous liquid ; but when this liquid was poured into water,
a yele
ON ARTIFICIAL TANNIN. 367
‘a yellow matter separated, which was much more abune-
dant than what remained in solution, and had no property,
that rendered it similar to resins. I obtained the same ree
sults with two varieties of pitcoal, yet I do not allow my-
self the least reflection on the labours of that celebrated
English chemist; as I am too fully aware, that different Causes of dif-
modes of operating, and the different varieties of the bodies tas pea
examined, are so many causes, that may produce a varia-
tion in the results. I shall proceed therefore to relate my
‘own experiments, and deduce from them the conclusions,
that appear to me most natural. °
2. The pitcoal I used was perfectly pure. 100 parts Pitcoal used.
heated strongly in a platina crucible left 84 parts of coak.
I digested 100 parts of this coal, finely powdered, in Treated with
600 parts of nitric acid at 44° [sp. gr. 1°-425]. An effer. wo
vescence took place, with the evolution of nitrous vapour,
&c. When the action diminished I increased the-heat; and
at the expiration of 24 hours I added 600 parts of nitric
acid, and heated to boiling, taking care to pour back into
the retort the acid that passed over into ‘the receiver. Fi.
nally, when the matter appeared to be thoroughly attacked,
I poured it out into a capsule, and evaporated gently to
dryness. The residuum weighed 170 parts, consequently
there was an increase of weight of seven tenths. The hot
water, with which I washed it repeatedly, acquired a red-
dish brown colour, and an acid astringent taste, from dis.
solving the tannin of Mr. Hatchett. ‘The yellow and little
soluble matter, which I shall designate by the letter A, was
not dissolved.
Art. 1. Examination of the tanning matter of Mr.
Hatchett.
3. I evaporated to dryness the washings of the pitcoal Examination of
treated by nitric acid (2), redissolved the residuum in a small Co ae
quantity of water, and thus separated a little of the matter
A. The filtered liquor had an acid taste, with a little bit.
terness and astringency: it coagulated gelatine very well.
To separate the tanning substance in a state of purity, I
‘poured into it acetate of Jead, till no more pretipitate was
thrown
368
Its properties.
Examination of
it for nitric
acid. ~
ON ARTIFICIAL TANNIN.
thrown down. I then poured off the liquid, which was ef
a light yellow, and washed the precipitate with a great deal
of water, é
4. This precipitate, which was a compound of the tan-
ning matter and oxide of lead, was thrown still wet into
water acidulated with sulphuric acid. After boiling I left
these substances to act on each other for twenty-four hours.
At the expiration of this time I satisfied myself by means
of barytes water and sulphuretted hidrogen, that there was
neither sulphuric acid nor lead in the solution.
I filtered the liquor to separate the sulphate of lead, and
evaporated it to dryness. A brown mass remained, which
melted by heat, hardened on cooling, and afterward at.
tracted moisture from the atmosphere. The aqueous solu.
tion of this substance reddened litmus, and formed a pres
cipitate with gelatine, barytes water, and acetate of lead.
The precipitates with the latter two were soluble in nitric
acid; and melted when exposed to heatin a glass tube closed
at one extremity, emitting an aromatic smell mixed with
something of the prussic. When operating on the precipi-
tate with lead, if the residuum were thrown on a paper
while hot, it took fire like apyrophorus. ‘This combustion
was produced by charcoal and metallic lead in a state of
minute division. The residuum of the compound with bae
rytes was very little pyrophoric. a)
5. To ascertain whether any nitric acid were present in
the tanning matter prepared by the preceding process, I in-
troduced 5 dec. [7-7 grs] into the glass bulb, and heated
them. The matter fused, because it contained a little hu-
midity; and evolved with much impetuosity aqueous vapour,
ammonia, carbonic acid, nitrous gas, &c. A coal remain.
ed, that emitted a strong smell of prussic acid.
Combination of 6, As I tried the preceding experiment several times, I
it with sulphu-
ric acid.
found, that sulphuric acid was capable of combining with
the tanning matter, when it separated it from oxide of lead;
and that this compound, when it did not contain an excess
of sulphuric acid, formed with barytes a precipitate solu.
ble in nitric acid, and gave out sulphuric acid when heated.
It seemed to me, that by boiling carbonate of lead with this
compound dissolved in water, evaporating to dryness and
redissolving
——~
a
ON ARTIFICIAL TANNIN. 5
redissolving in water repeatedly, the oxide of lead united
with the sulphuric acid, and a substance was obtained, which
when heated no longer gave out any sensible quantity of
sulphurons acid. | This experiment I performed but once.
7. The liquor, from which the tanning matter had been Amer found in
separated by acetate of lead, had sulphuretted hidrogen ee oe.
passed through it; after which it was filtered, and evapo- nin had been
rated to dryness. The residuum was dissolved in water, and S°P™ted.
potash was added to the solution. . This produced‘a yellow’
precipitate of lime retaining some bitter matter. ‘The liquor
being filtered and concentrated yielded silky crystals, of a
golden yellow colour, detonating, and resembling those
| formed by Welther’s amer and potash. Proust had already
observed, that a:small quantity of this substance’was form-
ed, when pitcoal was treated with nitric acid at 40% sil gr.
1 396].
. Hence it follows, that the matter. totale in. water is Nature of the
compound.
Sensis vist, of a substance that precipitates gelatine copi-
ously, which is a compound of nitric acid,-and ‘carbona-
ceous matter; 2d, of a very small quantity of amer ‘at a
maximum. The acetate of lead forms with the first a com..
pound insoluble in water, and with the second a hpi
soluble in it, _ t
e
-
Art. II. Examination of the matter A.
8. The matter A, after it had been several times washed, Examination of
‘was of the colour of umber. It had a slightly acid taste; ‘he difficultly
and reddenéd litmus paper on which it was moistened with
a little water. Heated in a glass tube it melted, emitting a
red light, and a smell of nitrous acid mixed with prussic.
To destroy the supposition, that the nitrous acid might have
arisen from the remains of the acid that escaped the waters:
of elutriation, I-digested the matter A in water, filtered,
and washed it repeatedly with fresh water. Of the sub.
stance thus washed I heated 2 dec. [3 grs] in the glass bulb.
The matter fused, and gave out, Ist, water; 2d, nitrous
vapour; 3d, carbonic acid; 4th, ammonia; 5th, some in.
flammable gas, which appeared to me a mixture of oily hi-
drogen and gaseous oxide of carbon, for it burned with a
heavy white flame, and presently with a blue; 6th, nitrous
Vou. XXXII, SurpreMent. 2C gas;
soluble matter,
J
370. 5 ON ARTIFICIAL TANNIN.
gas; 7th, nitrogen gas*; 8th, prussicacid, sensible to the
smell, but in too small quantity to afford prussian blue;
9th, charcoal.
9. The matter A digested with a small quantity of water
coloured it red, and gave it the property of precipitating
gelatine. The residuum boiled with fresh water was in part
dissolved; and ultimately left a blackish substance, heavier
than the matter A, and very slightly colouring water with
which it was boiled. I believe it was nothing but the oxide
of carbon described by Proust. To this I shall presently
return,
10. The washings of the matter A were acneiiliensia by
a gentle heat... A substance was deposited, apparently very
similar to A, and a very abhrigg gent matter remained in the
concentrated liquor.
Separated into Hence it follows, that ane hetaated the matter A into
eee: _three different substances: 1st, a black substance, nearly
insoluble in water, which I shall call A*: 2d, .a substance
soluble in water, but. precipitable from it. by evaporation,
which J. shall denote by A: 3d,-a substance very soluble
in water, A>.
The insoluble 11. A! was.a iidleatidi 5 rei [7:7 grs}, heated 4 in the’
a aa ex- glass bulb, melted, diffusing a red light, and giving out, 1st,
water; 2d, carbonic acid; 3d, inflammable gas, burning
white; 4th, nitrous gas; 5th, nitrogen gas; 6th, a little
ammonia; 7th, a coal, that emitted a strong smell of prus-
sic acid.
Acompound of | Hence it is evident, that this sib which possesses
pit and the properties ascribed by Proust to the oxide of carbon, is
a compound of nitric acid and carbon: it differs from A?
and A? only. by containing less acid: and what appears to
confirm this lis, by boiling it in concentrated nitric acid it is
totally dissolved ; and, when water is poured into this so-
lution, it throws down a yellow flocculent precipitate, ex-
hibiting all the properties of the unwashed matter A. Hence
I imagine, that, when the matter A is boiled in water, the —_
* With respect to this product see what I have said in the arti-
cle of the decomposition of Welther’s amer by heat in my paper
on the amers from indigo. See houEns yol. XXX, P- 351.
_ portion
ON ARTIFICIAL TANNIN. 871
portion which does not dissolve cedes a part of its acid: to
that which dissolves; and, when the washings are afterward
evaporated, a farther division is made of the acid between
the substance A*, which is preelpivetad, and A?, which
remains in solution.
Nitric acid, at least in the proportion in which I’ em- Attempt to
ployed it, could not convert A‘ into the tanning matter of rang tin ts “
Hatchett, whichis very soluble in water. There isa por. |
tion of matter, however not separated by water from the :
nitric solution of A’, which precipitates gelatine; but I
cannot assert, that it is absolutely similar to the matter of
‘Hatchett.
' To find whether it were pontine to remove the nitric The nitric acid
ita from A" without heating it, I digested it in a weak:so. 1° separable
lution of neutral carbonate of potash. By the assistance cee Ne oe
of heat carbonic acid was evolved, and nearly the het ash.
-was dissolved!) * max %
so This boliitzow + was decinttpasdd by sulphuric acid, er sy
‘threw down a brown flocculent precipitate. ibrdigatdenee
tant liquid: was colourless.» [twas filtered: -the slight excess
of sulphuric ‘acid contained»in it! was: saturated with. car-
bonate of potash: it was evaporated to. dryness, and the
Fesiduum: was \tteatéd with alcohol at; 30° [sp. gr. 0-868],
-to dissolve the nitre, if it contained any; but none’ was
found. The. carbonate of potash therefore had taken no
observable quantity of nitric acid from:-A?.
The browh precipitate left on the filter was washed with After it is sepa-
hotrwater, till this gave no farther indication of, sulphuric aici
-acid'to the test of solution of barytes. “At this period the ric acid rather:
water ‘of -elutriation was’ fawn-coloured,| had a, taste and ™ore soluble,
‘smell slightly inclining to those of oak bark and roses, and
«did not-perceptibly precipitate gelatine... On eee an acid,
a little flocculent precipitate fell down.
If water dissolve more of A‘ that has been Birticigibahel
from: potash by'sulphurie acid, thanof that which has not, .
-B believe it depends on its lieing more minutély divided’: for -.- > .«
sim'‘that whichoI prepared with care I found no sénsible from being ”
Oquantity of sulphuric acid y and its coal: afforded re an ae a
_ .atomof potash.) 8 /) 0) ik gaat Kos
_ © Experiments [have singe’ made lead tie to think, ‘that potash
“conttibutes to the sdlution of this substance in water. .
2C2 . v8 dee,
| 372 ON ARTIFICIAL TANNING
5 dec. [7-7 grs] of A*, which had been dissolved by the
carbonate, and afterward precipitated by sulphuric acid,
melted with heat, and afterward gave out carbonic acid gas,
nitrous gas, &c., leaving a coal, that emitted a smell’ of
prussic.acid, and contained an atom of potash.
_ Examination 1275 A*; wail dissolved in the water of. elutriation of |
ee croianatieg A, and afterward fell down during its evaporation (10),
concentration, was of a blackish brown ‘colour. Treated’ with boiling
water part was dissolved, and imparted to the water the
property of coagulating gelatine. The solution yielded by
evaporation a residuum, that melted, and evolved nitrous
gas. The part but little soluble in water greatly resembled
A‘. It melted, and gave out nitrous gas, but in smaller
quantity than the portion that had dissolved’in the water.
This indicates, that acid was transferred’ from the portion
but little soluble to the other. afnied
xamination of 13. A%, which remained in solution after the concentra-
a very solu- tion of the washings of ‘A, and had’ been obtained by eva-
substance. ?
porating them, was fawn-coloured. Heated in the. glass
bulb) it melted’; yielded water, carbonic acid; nitrous |gas,
&c.; and left.a coal, that ‘emitted’ a blips ae smell» of
carbonate of ammonia. ° 10" 5": ( ) Stained
Its difference . This substance, which” previpitatad gekrtieie ‘very: ‘well,
from artificial - differed from Hatchett’s'tannin (Art. I)’ in its alkaline so-
bc lution being precipitable by acids, in‘its being consequently
less soluble in water, and in its not melting by heat. +:
The threediffer 39. The matter A therefore is divisible by water ‘into
a - wsieny be three portions, which differ’ from each other only by the
nitric acid. quantity of nitric acid they contain, since by taking a por-
‘tion of this acid from those that contain ‘the most they are
converted into those that» contain the least; and by-adding
-acid to those that have me My are are nove? back ta their
peaks —
ph IL. ge eae praca saith, fit, Fm 1%
Artificial tan- ©»! 40. Av hundred-parts of fir charcoal, which had: hadi
ni fiom char- cined ina platina crucible, in’a red heat, required for their
’ solution in nitric acid more time and more! ‘acid than 100
parts of pitcoal. The solution of the charéoal was brown,
-and thick like a ci 1 Whertsmates was added, a brown
v th q i? % poidule rh, ‘matter
(ON, ARTIFICIAL TANNIN. _ 373
matter, separated, which shall examine below. . The liquor
freed from this was evaporated to dryness: The residuum
was black, alittle astringent, and slightly acid. Heated in
a,glass tube, it did not melt, butan acid vapour was evolved.
The greater part dissolved in distilled water. This solution
precipitated gelatine, and many metallic salts. The preci+
pitate formed with acetate of lead, being heated in a glass
tube, left a.coal, mixed with metallic lead, which took fire,
if thrown on paper while hot.
, 41. To obtain the tanning matter in a state of purity, 2 hee,
precipitated the solution by acetate of lead, and washed the
precipitate, till the water that came off ceased to be colour.
ed ‘by sulphuretted hidrogen. I decomposed the precipi-
tate, while yet wet, by sulphuric acid. The sulphate of
lead was separated by the filter, With barytes and acetate
of lead the liquor threw down a flocculent precipitate, so.
luble.in an excess of nitric acid; which indicated, that it
contained no. sensible excess of sulphuric acid*, How- and examined,
ever, having evaporated to dryness, I obtained a brown,
deliquescent residuum +, fusible -by heat; which, being
heated in the glass bulb, gave out carbonic acid gas, sul-
phurous acid gas, and other gaspes insoluble in water, which _
I was unable to examine from the smallness of their quan-
tity (for I operated only with 2 dec. [3 grs] of tanning
matter); so that I know not whether any nitrous gas were
among them.
42. Thus it appears, that, when the compound of tarl- Sulphuric acld
ning matter and lead is decom paised by sulphuric acid, the tert
matter.
My TO find whether a liquid contain any excess of salpliuric acid, Barytes recom-
sohition, of barytés should be poured intoit. If a precipitate form, Mended as a
try to dissolve it in pure nitric acid. If this dissolve it, the matters = pete, a
should be left to act on each other for 24 hours, and then see whie-
ther there be any precipitate. I have often observed that lead in-
dicated no sulphuric acid, where barytes did perceptibly. The lat
ter therefore is preferable as a test to the former.
+1 have found, that by heating this residuum a little sttongly
‘in contact .with the air in a capsule white fumes of sulphuric acid
were evolved; and the substance thus heated, being redissolved in
water, gave indications of sulphuric acid, -when tested: with solution
af bary tes.
¥
. latter,
Ab
314 ANALYSIS OF THE HUSKS OF WALNUTS.
Jatter, if in excess, enters into combination. It is proba.
ble, that the sulphuric acid combines with the tanning mat-
ter, without expelling the nitric acid.
Earthy matter 43. The liquor from which the tanning matter had been
of the coal, and precipitated by acetate of lead having had sulphuretted hi-
drogen passed through it, and been afterward filtered, con-
yellow bitter tained the earthy matters of the coal, and a yellow bitter
matter. matter, the nature of ea I doll not positively as-
certain.
Betas 44. I dissolved the brown matter I have mentioned (40)
pia ae in in nitric acid at 45° [sp.-gr. 1:435], concentrated the so.
y lution, and afterward added water toit. This precipitated
a yellowish substance, similar in appearance to the matter
A, separated by water from a nitric solution of pitcoal:
but the yellowish substance differs from A in being entirely
soluble in boiling water, and in not being fusible by heat. .
T presume, that it differs from the portion soluble in water
‘(A1) only in containing less nitric acid, and perhaps more
hidrogen.
i
Chemical Examination of the Husks of Walnuts. By Mr.
Henry Braconnor, Prof. of Nat. Hist. &c.*
Husks of wal- "Tue daily use of the husks of walnuts in the art.of dye-
nutsusedin ing suggested to me the wish of making some experiments
it on them, to be enabled to form a more accurate judgment
of their nature.
When fresh the husk is interiorly white, but it scaaibe
coloured very quickly, and ultimately passes to a dark
brown. This is owing to the contact of the air; for, if. it
unless kept | be immersed in water that has been boiled, it will keep
aio some time without undergoing the least change. If it be
Apparently a i; fi 5 S BIue P :
slow combus- placed in a jar filled with atmospheric air, the oxigen will
tion effected. . soon be converted almost wholly into carbonic acid; the
husk acquires a blackish colour; and no doubt there is also
a prodaction of water: so that the whole seems to indicate
4
Soen changed,
t,@
* Ann, de Chim. vol. LXXIV, p. 303. aust
the
ANALYSIS OF THE HUSKS OF WALNUTS: 375
the phenomena of a slow combustion. Oximuriatic acid Action of oxi-
appears to have another kind of action on it; for, instead ea
of blackening ‘it, it causes it to assume a yellow colour.
Nitric acid comports itself in the same manner.
To proceed to the examination of the matters contained Expressed juice
in the husk, I bruised a certain quantity in a marble mortar, eth
expressed the juice, and filtered it. Some green feculz re- Residuum ex:
mained on the paper, which soon changed to a deep brown @™ined.
by exposure to the airs This matter, washed and dried,
was macerated in alcohol, which extracted from it the green
resin common to most vegetables. The residuum insoluble
in alcohol was still coloured, and felt smooth. .A portion
of it was diluted with weak nitric acid, which converted it
into a thick substance, viscous, and soluble in water. In
this solution alcohol occasioned a white flocculent precipi-
. tate. The same coloured residuum, being diluted with
water to which a little potash was added, produced a bulky
tremulous substance, of a deep red colour, and resembling
the coagulum of blood. Lastly another portion of the
same residuum was dissolved in boiling water, and formed
starch. Hence it follows, that this substance, contained
pretty abundantly in the husk, is starch contaminated by
the colouring matter.
The juice of ‘the husk recently filtered is of au amber Examination of
colour, and of an acrid and sour taste mixed with bitter. (i a oe
ness. ‘This acrid principle appears extremely destructible,
for the recent juice, left to itself some days, while it loses
its yellow colour to assume a blackish brown where it has
been in contact with the air, loses also its acrimony, and
becomes decidedly acid: at the same time black pellicles
form on its surface, which are soon replaced by others if
removed. These pellicles, carefully collected and. well
washed, yielded on drying a black, brittle substance, of a
shining, vitreous fracture, and pretty similar, to asphaltum,
or Jew’s pitch, but:burning without any apparentiflame, in
-which-it more resembled charcoal. This carbonaceous mat-
‘ter was dissolved in potash, and in this solution a flocculent:~ ~
precipitate was produced by acids. | It may be, obtained
“more readily by evaporating the juice of the husk with a
gentle heat, and diluting the residuum with water. The
Cs EERE Oe trek ab on liquid
.
ANALYSIS OF THE HUSKS OF WALNUTS.
te
ay
.
liquid standing on the sediment is a pure and even agreeable
acid; whence it follows, that the acrid and bitter principle
-has been entirely destroyed; being converted apparently
into the black matter approaching the state of charcoal.
The same extract gave out no acetous vapour with sulphu-
ric acid, even heated: it contains therefore no acetic acid.
Avcompound From what has been said we cannot but observe. in the
HAR Hy husk of the walnut, as in many herbaceous plauts, a\sub-
solved in the stance held in solution in its juices; and the hydrocarburet
juice, as in that yadjcal of which is more or less decomposable by the simple
of many plants. 9 : :
contact of air, which appears to; cause a production of
water, rendering the carbon predominant. Itis obviously
impossible to have a very accurate idea of a substance so
little permanent: but it appears, ‘that it is but slightly coe:
loured in the vessels of plants; and that the action.of the;
air or of caloric alters it greatly; causing it to pass by de-
grees to the state of extract, another principle badly de-
fined, of little stability in respect to its element, and which
seems rather the result of a decomposition, than a real pros.
‘ duct of living nature *.
Effects of tests. The juice of the husk examined by reagents pa ilibisea?
on the juice. the following effects.
Litmus. It strongly reddened infusion oe litmus. 98
Gelatine. Solution of gelatine formed in it a slight sinecielliit,
which must have been owing to tannin. ' diise
Extractsaltered | * Having had an opportunity of examining some. extract. of
by keeping. rhus toxicodendron, that had been prepared )several years before,
I made the following observation. I applied some to. the skin of
an animal, and gave him some internally in pretty large doses,
without his experiencing any troublesome consequences; while one
drop from the stalk of the plant on the skin occasioned a tolerably
extensive inflammation, terminating in an ulcer. Thus it appears,
that the principles of plants condensed to.the state of extract un-
dergo an alteration, which continues progressive with time;*and.
this must cause their action on the animal economy to vary greatly.
They should Perhaps apothecaries may prevent this alteration ina certain de-
i oe neem ggree, by enclosing their extracts, when perfectly dry, in vessels
ed. well stopped; for the moisture they contain, or have a tendency to
absorb, does not contribute less to alter the feeble equilibrium of
gome of their elements, than the iat of air.
Sulphate
~
ANALYSIS OF THE*HUSKS OF WALNUTS. STE
» Sulphate of iron gave the juice so deep a green, that it nse of
appeared black. No precipitation took place, even on i
standing some time, in consequence of the free acid found in
the mixture, which is capable of imparting a fine gray to .
wool or silk.
Oxalate of ammonia indicated the presence of lime. Cee
Nitrate of barytes produced no signs of any sulphate. Nitr. of barytes, -
Nitrate of silver acts on itin a manner well adapted to 204 of silver.
reveal the presence of the alterable -hydroearburet radical,
for it produces a pretty copious precipitate, which quickly
becomes coloured; while the silver’ resumes. its: metallic
lustre from the action of the vegetable substance on the
oxigen of the oxide. The precipitate is then no longer
soluble but in part in nitric acid, and leaves charcoalas a
residuum. :
Alkalis change the juice to a deep red, and form in it Alkalis.
precipitates that contain lime. If after a certain time an
acid be poured into the liquor, another flocculent sediment
is produced, which dries, grows black, has a vitreous frac-
ture, and resembles in its nature the pellicles, that are
formed successively on the surface of the juice exposed to
the air.
Acetate of lead occasioned in thé juice a whitish, floccu- Acetate of leat.
lent, very copious precipitate, which dissolved entirely in
distilled vinegar. This precipitate, being decomposed by
sulphuretted hidrogen, yielded a coloured liquor, of con-
siderable sourness mixed with astringency, which produced
a sediment with gelatine, and with acetate of lead a, pre-
cipitate soluble in vinegar. This:acid, being evaporated by
a gentle heat, yielded small, . ill-defined crystals; immersed
in the uncrystallizable Jiquor: The whole was mixed with
carbonate of lime; and after the mixture, which contained.
an excess of acid, had been heated, I filtered it. By eva-
porating I obtained a granular, coloured substance, formed
by the union of a number of small acicular-crystals. This _
salt, being treated with cold water, dissolved in it in part:
and the solution, evaporated to dryness, left a brown var-
nished residuum, which comported itself like malate of
lime, retaining some tannin, which then precipitated iron of -
‘a blackish blue. ‘The portion of the calcareous salt that
would
378 ANALYSIS OF THE HUSKS OF WALNUTS.
would not dissolve in cold water was treated with diluted
sulpuric acid, which separatcd from it citric acid, still con-
taminated with malic.
Subacetateof The juice thus freed from part of the matters ittheld in
is solution was still coloured. Acetate of lead supersaturated
with oxide produced in it another sediment, and rendered
the supernatant liquor nearly colourless. This sediment
yielded on analysis the same products as above; namely
malic acid, colouring matter, and tannin, which had escap.
ed the first precipitation in consequence of the presence
of the acetic acid, that had become predominant in the
liquor,
Examination of The magma left after expression of the juice, after: have
" she magma. ing been treated with alcohol, which extracted from it some
green resinous matter, was heated with water till it boiled,
to free it from the starch and the coloured matter it re-
tained. When thus exhausted, it was digested with dilute |
nitric acid, which separated some phosphate and oxalate of
lime, that had been precipitated from the acid liquor by
ammonia. ‘The means I employed to separate these two
; earthy salts, which are very frequently associated together
in vegetables, are founded on the property distilled vinegar
diluted with water has of dissolving phosphate of lime, with-
out sensibly affecting the calcareous oxalate.
Distilled watsr Though the husk has a peculiar smell, it afforded tilt
= very remarkable by distillation in a water bath. 1 obtained
. only a liquor with a faintish taste, which, instead of com-
ing over limpid, was brownish; and on its surface were
perceptible slight iridescent pellicles, which sunk to the bot-
tom in the form of a sediment.
Ashes. The husk yielded by incineration potash, carbonate of
lime, phosphate of lime, and oxide of iron.
From this examination it appears, that the fleshy cover-
ing of the walnut contains:
Substaricescon- Ist, Starch:
tained in the ad, An acid’and bitter substance, very < alterable, which
husk.
appears to approach the state of charcoal by the contact
of air: |
3d, malic acid ;
Ath, tannin ;
5th, citric
ANALYSES OF MINERALS,
5th, citric acid:
6th, phosphate of lime:
7th, oxalate of lime:
8th, potash.
XIl.
Analyses of eee! ‘by Martin Henry KLApPrRotH,
Ph. D. &c.
(Continued from p. 312.
Pu OSPHORESCENT earth from Marmarosch.
379
Phosphorescent
Phosphoric acid ..........0s.00 32°25 earth of Mar-
FIUOric aCid. oo cecccesensoves (2°50 a Re
AMG auc Poe teheee eadees er amene i
SHON eingrestecee eee Pec OOO
Oxide of iron .............. hase TORO
Water tetra feed TR COT
Quartz mixed Lopeeaitne chal SOD
94:5
A new combustible mineral from East Prussia. 1000 grs. Combustible
yielded by distillation.
mineral from
Prussia.
ght? - cubic inches. Grs.
* Carbonicacid gas ....:. 130° = ° 61-1
_ Carburetted hidrogen gas 320: == 59-5:
Empyreumatic oil ....5:....3255. 90 we
Carbonate F anitnonis.! me Me odd OR Ges SaaS
Water ais .pectense see ete, 385-5
The residuum consisting of: -
Charcoal CS EASE UES NM 0s 0228.
| 7 cL RPP Ome GY Et nha 8 45.8
Oxide: of ings sa5..00005 epee: see? 425
Po eee © eae ane seissewe OM
Phosphate-of lime...sescssececeecee 14
Sulphate of lime............ 5:
| A mi-
380° ; ANALYSES OF .MINERALS»,
Mineral water A mineral water at Riepoldsa in Furstemberg. 128 oz.
of Riepoldsa. yielded
Sulphate of soda, dry ......... S93 ot cystatvea 3
Muriate of soda, dry ........ I)
Carbonate ofsada,dryssissssesserQicseseyicedervecceessD°D
TAC pas 0 csi annene 81
se — magnesia......... 2
COMET OO TOG css tsangmiren sco, 2
SHOX -ferorcss-enronancis> eerrane
Carbonic acid gas 332 cub. in.
oe
1838
Tantalite. Tantalite (tantale oxidé ferro-manganésifére wf Haiiy).
Karth of tantalium ...... 2b.00e 88
Oxidulated iron ............ oO
Oxide of manganese............ 2
- 100
Cyanite. Cyanite from Airolo, on St. Gothard.
Alumine® Lie .cscsececctescsoses a8 555
Silex scrteGievensresenecncvcsrsuested
Oxided iron.........0s0 atin 0°5
Potash, a trace.
99
oo feld- Vitreous feldspar, called sanidin, from Drachenfels;
Silex say civeniesiie sv dtebsthsleasiee rE
Alumine «.......0.0 Nivescosestaeo °
. Oxide of iron....... setodetaey spi
Potash..... Bry paideisiviue ene s's since 1405
B.O8S’ sos nsbsbsscnane cubananeanacniee
0} : 100
Azalmatolite, Agalmatolite from Nagyag. : {
Silex.y.sers Roercdncranees Pyeasts 54°50
Alumine ........ et Mit .. 34
Oxide of iron....... Sabb Mn te 0°79
Potash... cssccccoveracenarecdenes 6°25
Water s.ccccdvcesescverssveeeoes 4
99°5
Soaprock
ANALYSES OF MINERALS,
of from Cornwall.’
Axinite.
Gray semiopal from edie athae
Bronzite * evi
Alumine’. eeesrvesescessace AREA NRE Le 3
Silex.. 010 00.000: O:O,0 .0,D-0.6 6,0 0.0.0.00.0,06 080 45 4
f Magnesia.. 25.0.0 6,00 0.0,0,0,00 600000088 24: 75
PUEDE. scrvecrcosnpsicisovs oiahh ae
Oxide of iron isssncdhisecocaas | ORE
Potash’ ....csscceypeccceeroeneceee | /O'75
WV AEE nsckiasaniapwnniienensansaene tee
er ee
98°75 —
See ee, SEO:
Litthe « ececcceeeseoerevecreeveneeee 5 KB
Altimine: jisssiiiccseceseevene ces S16! J
Oxide of ironss...ccc0-se0000. 9°50
Manganese ..eceee. 5°2H
Potash ss. RPA Wi QS seses- ~O°25-
X
ri SHEE deal LARISA Se . 8h
Water, a little ammoniacal “a”
Bituminous oil ...:........... 0°33
.
99-08
oe pandianpdanadieek te ied)
Me ee, 27°5
Oxide Of iron. ...ccenececerres 1095
SVBTCT: ha esac Vasnve A Rdedea teed Ree
98:5
* See Journal, yol. xxv, p. 381.
Hyperstene
381
SOapstons, . ~
Axinite.
Gray semiopal.
Bronzite,
389 ANALYSES “OF “MINERALS.
‘Labrador-horn» Hypersten (Labrador hornblende of Werner)*.
sai SHER. eiesrsiccoe see eencn noes
Nabi estaciccivcewooeevereeall eo agit
ATUMINE voveevevveervesverereces BOS
Like witaniieonmil. dy 918d
Oxide of ironsssccecsereeeees 24°50
Water ssatccesressasererceevornes 11M
Oxide of manganese, a@ trace
oe
Zoisite. Zoisite. . (Sr ceatoe tena ade tides vicadon Lene
CTIA ois ites ac lvoe OEY ae
BE TTT RO Pate a Sell i ase
5 TL Poe ane sGe urer er tp BEB i) g
Oxide Of 10M... see cee secs cree, 2°5
’
— manganese, @ trace \,'
Natrolite. Natrolite. ae
( Silex Cverevcsseeovcsavces ecvoe Be 48...
PAUMINE <,-. 02 e,0nersnecregtegen Sage
_Oxide of iron. ........ wissen
MING osisiaqeisisn ono ss \omanebopeeparae 16°50
Stangenstein. Pycnite t.. ‘ .
SileX si ecssssccscasceseccesescg 4D
Pe re es oe Se One
OGM. of itanscinsseervidovre MNO
PMiBric acid \scscaspeeee AOU OE
Weaker srccreccveseere eM TAS NIEO
GOSS cidiseddvddcccssestesessecd’ qh
iB 100
’: lgniol aa *
1 NS KOY
* See Journ. vol, xxvil, p. 153.
Ib p. 154.
Lamellar
ANALYSES OF MINERALS. 883
Lamellar talc from St. Gothard *. Lamellar talc.
OR ALO ARE A
Ma apen ia... ...0n..:-.cecerpna eee
Oxide of iron.......0.....000+ ey en SO
PAGER sss deonwgompmmbeeoesapnse,, ioe
Loss in roasting .......+ ane seo, 0°50
98°25
Common mica from Zinnwalde +. Common tnica.
Silex..... Sun ueWelsectenunae’ ADORE: * 9
‘SATUURE as ccnsscebeccectaseeenes ZO
CPE GU WOW setirc score conse 15°50
MANZanese .s..0e-e 1°75
Potash... 5 aiaaarere AO Neekipentence hace
98°75
Muscovy glass, or mica in large lamine from Siberia +. Mica in large
“TR cient MEL | oc
Alumine ......... eer Anges coe 34°25
Oxide of iron....... BEAN EAE: 054
Magnesia.,......... ayenceneey gah 8 jo.
ames (nee Ge Sue ete | teens eet ae
Loss in roasting .......0.0. 1°25
Black mica from Siberia §. ~ Black mica!
t BCBG asian .sscnsacuccyoee «opr
ATU ....c0..<.xarkcon dstongss AD
PRE CSI A nn.neennnncinnsninnnnss tee DM
Oxide of iron.......,..sesss-08 22
. manganese... 2
PR liticvacncstisctataancinans LO
Loss in roasting ........... 1
97
* See Journ. yol. xxvii, p. 226.: * +
‘7 Ib. p. 228. §
Black
384. ANALYSES OF MINERALSS.
Black stxurs’'- = Black staurolite *. Ps
oe Silex ..sieitesssceiasatensssiesess 37 SO
PUMINE Acc cce ieee SO :
Oxide of ‘Trom:ispsseses Alls. POrah?
——— + manganese... 0°50 ‘
Magnesia .c Bere a. 4hOGe
97-75
- ‘Bed staurolite.. Red staurolite from St, Gothard +.
Re eR c |
Alumine- ee shia vecvssesseecee, 59°25
Oxide of iron. ere, Ws 18:25
tr Se wR manganese .. O'25
9. TF
‘Reddish tow- Rubellite. from Roschna, where it is found with lepides
malin from — ite + .
+ *
apt rf CP + ola gt? PHIM on at enalh saeneh pierre oy) SORBO
shia Alumine Lisi gS Me Wa enna 6 so 42°25,
Oxide of MANgaMese versereae 1:50
: N Lime stasitacingne os <nacgnapy wie): | Ae UM
Serta ibe. oy aso Sardeadtus a
Water ...... aie oteaee Bh ee 1-95 -
} 2 nie Monee Se cg mee nd
100.
Blue calcareous Blue calcareous stone from Vesuvius.
stone fom Ven Lime a..ica.cnesivadit- ao ashen
: Carbonic acid.........06. ccovees 23°5O0"
Aimmoniacal water............ 21 .
Ma Sneha .wcemreeweeneeey'cen clés’ ORBD:
Oxide of -iron....,...00006- seve!) 0°25
i GChatooal.iniKQuaw.cazs viz ~- 0°25 ii
; > aera
rr ie
| (To be concluded.in a future Number.)
vy ae
* Journ. vol. xxvii, p. 152. + Ib. t Ib. p. 154.
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INDE X. «.
A.
AcIb, camphdric, experimerits on,
151 :
o—— muriatic, its action on sugar, 216
4——— oximuriatic, applied against
miasmata, 167
“Acorn dibble, improvenient in; 267
Agalmatolite, analysis of, 380
A. H. Z. his inquiry concerning the
means of studying the modern ana-
lysis, 17++Ariswered, 18
Aitkin, Mr.J. 235
Alcyonia, new varieties of, 513
Aloes, tannin prepared from; 363
Alum, attempt to ascertain the pro-
portions of potash and acid in, 154
Alum stones, analyses of, 309
Ammonia, muriate of, experiments on
the existence of water in, 185
Analysis, the modern, inquiry relative
to, 17—Answered, 18
Analysis of the waters of a chalybeate
spring in the Isle of Wight, 55, 85—-
Of various fermented liquors, 66——
Of the chromate of iron, 78—Of
various vegetable substances; 143—=
Of various minerals, 160, 504, 379
—Of triple sulphuret of lead from
Comwall, 160—Of sulphuret of bis-
muth and copper, from Wittichen,
160—-Of the native iron of meteor-
olites, 160—Of native iron from
Saxony, 161—Of iron spars and
phosphate of iron, 161; 304—0Of the
salt from the Droitwich brine spring,
165—-Of indigo, 211——-Of the mi- |
neral waters of Nevis and Argen-
tires, 240—-Of sheep’s dung, 290
Of black manganese, 305==Of cerite,
8U5—Of Peruvian opal, -€05—Of
wopazes, S05—_Of zovisite, 306—Of
augite, 306—Of apatite, 306—Of co-
humnar brownspar, 506—-Of dolomite,
Vor. XXXIL.
807—Of sulphate of lime, i —OF
magnesian spar, 508—Of terre verte,
26.—Of dlumstone, 309—Of jade, ib.
—Of lazulite, 310—Of moya, 2d.
Of guaho, is:—Of polishing slate,
S11—Of garnets, 76.—Of chalcedo-
ny, 7% —Of Lemnian earth, i2.—Of
fuller’s earth, 312—Of tincal, or cry-
stallized borax, 26.——Of dathiolite,
S13—Of fluor, id—_—-Of an arti-
ficial tannin prepared from several
vegetable matters by the action of
nitric acid, 361—Of the husks of
walnuts, $74——-Of phosphorescent
earth, 379—Of a new combustible
mineral from East Prussia, i.—<Of a
mineral water in Furstemberg, 380—
Of tantalite, 2b-sOf cyanite, i.—
Of vitreous feldspar, 7.—Of agal-
matolite, 724—-Of soapstone, 381
Of axinite, %+—Of gray semiopal,
tb.—Of bronzite, 7% —Of hornblende,
or hyperstene, 382—Of zoisite, 2b.
—Of natrolite, 26.=Of pycnite, or
stangenstein, 76.—OF talc, 383—-Of
inica, 2.—Of staurolite, 384—Of ru-
bellite, or tourmalin, 76.—Of a blue
calcareous stone from Vesuvius, 384
Analyticus’s formule for sines and co.
sines, 13
Anhydrite, various specimens of, and-
lyzed, 807
Animal fluids, 37
Animalcules not produced from eggs,
165
Antimony, analysis of, 160
Apatite, conchoidal, or spargelstein,
analysis of, 306
Apple-trees, management of, 355
Artificial stony substance, 230
Assaying, art of, its antiquity, 27—«
Modern, at Lyons, 28
Augite, from Carniola and Sicily, ana
lyses of, 306
2D | ‘Baillie,
Baillie, Dr. 67
Banks, Sir J. 67
Barbadoes, isle of, its geological struc-
ture, 315
Bennet, Hon. H.G. his account of the
island of Teneriffe, 239
Berger, Dr. on the mineralogy of the
Isle of Wight, 53
Bismuth, analysis of, 160
Bitterspath, analysis of, 308
Bitumen, lake of, in Trinidad, 200
Bituminous preducts from distilled wood,
236
Black lead, its efficacy against tetters,
_ 148 -
Blood, colouring matter of, not iron, 48
Borax, crystallized, analysis of, 512
Bostock, Dr. 186—Reference to his
paper on vegetable astringents, 75
Bostock, Dr. J. and Traill, Dr. T. S.
their experiment to prove whether
water be produced in the combination
of muriatic acid gas and ammoniacal
gas, 18=»Remarks on, £25
Bournon, €ount De, 160
Braconnot, M. his chemica¥ examina-
tion of the husks of walnuts, 374
Brande, W. T. Esq. his experiments
to ascertain the state and quantity of
spirit in fermented liquors, 66
Braun, M. 168
Brazil wood, tannin prepared from, 363
Bricks, new method of making, 252
Brownspar, columnar, analysis of, 506
Bucholz, M. on camphoric acid, 151
Cc.
- : y
Calorimeter, a newone, 105
Camphoric acid, properties of, 151
Carbonaceous substances, tannin pre-
pared from, 366
@arbonic oxide, compounded yeah Oxi-
muriatic gas, 241
aCarradori, M. on the. irritability of sow-
thistle and other plants, &c. 138
Corites analysis of, 305
Chalcedony, green, analysis of, sit
Chapellier, M. 143
Charcoal, experiments on, 100
Chenevix, M. 98—On the action of
muriatic gas on sugar, 217
Cheyreul, M. his chemical experiments:
on indigo, 211—On the tanning sub-
stances formed by the action of nitric
acid on several vegetable matters, 360°
Chlorine, gaseous compound of with
carbonic oxide, 241
Chrestien, Dr. 179
Chromate of iron, analysis of, 78.
Cloth and cordage fabricated from net-
tles, 152
Cluzel, M. 167
Combustible mineral, see Mineral.
Combustion, heat developed in, 103
Copper, analysis of, 160’
Com, mode of serUrine from weevils,
168
Corn-tick, a temporary, 257 :
Cotton, method of dyeing it red, 288
Crawford, Dr. on ‘the heat developed
in the combustion of hicrogen gasy
Ane,
Curaudau, M. his inquiry concerning
the means of knowing the proportions
of acid and potash, that enter into
the composition of sulphate of alu-
mine, and of sulphate, nitrate, and
muriate of potash, 153—-On an ar-
tificial stony substance, 230
Curl in potatoes, probable’ means of
preventing, 321
Curtis, Sir Roger, 162
Cyanite, anlysis of, 380
D..
D’Arcet, M. on the ae ae ancient
gold coins, 34
Datholite, analysis of, 315
Davy, Sir H. 225, 241, 271 © —
Davy, J. Esq. 186——On a gaseous
compound of carbonic oxide and
chlorine, 242
? D. E, Fe
IN DE X.
D. E. F. on the experiment of Dr. Bos-
tock and Dr. Traill, 125
Delametherie, M. on electric attrac-
tions and repulsions, 28
De Luc, J..A. Esq. on Wicklow gold,
36—On galvanic phenomena, 271—
-On the zig-zag motion of the electric
spark, 226
Dibble, improved, for planting acorns
in bushes, 267
Dickson, Mr. T. on the disease called
the curl, in potatoes, and the proba-
ble means of preventing it, 921
Dillenius’s description of plants of the
cryptogamia class, 2
Dissection of flowers, 169
Dolomite, various kinds of, analysis of,
807
Droitwich, brine springs at, 163
Duportal, Dr. on some preparations of
gold, lately employed medicinally,
AS)
Dyeing cotton of a red colour,.288
E.
Edinburgh, Royal Medical Society of,
prize questions by, for the year 1813,
162 :
E.G. on the construction of fowling-
pieces, showing how they may be
made to throw shot very close, or the
contrary, 338
Electric attiactions and repulsions, 328
Electricity, 176, 226
Evaporation, ratio of, to humidity, 330
Extracts, vegetable, 75
F.
Fabroni, M. 35—On the Stater of Phi-
lip, the father of Alexander, or re-
marks on the purity or standard of
gold, 23
Falling stars, 229, 269
Farey, J. Esq. on the apparent streaks
. of light, left sometimes by falling or
shooting stars, 269
_ Fever, putrid, a remedy for, 167
Feldspar, vitreous, analysis of, 389
Fermented liquors, spirit in, 66
7?
Flaugergues, M. on the proportion thaé .
the evaporation of water bears to the
humidity of the air, 330
Flowers, dissection of; 169
Fluids, animal, 37
Fluor, analysis of, 51S
Formule for sines and cosines, 13 —
Fortune, F. Esq. his account of her-
board British vessels, 134
Fowlingpieces, improvement in, 338
Franklin, Dr. 279, 284
Fray, Mr. J. B. on the generation we
animals, 165
Fructification of plants, 1
340
Fuller’s earth, analysis of, 312 >
G.
Galvanism, 271
Garnett, Dr. 99
Garnets, olive green, analysis of, 311
Gas, muriatic, experiments to prove the
existence of water in, 18, 195, 185
—— oximuriatic, compounded with
carbonic oxide, 241
Gaseous compound of carbonic oxide’
and chlorine, 241
Gay -Lussac, M. 113, 188,241, 2457
Geological Society, proceedings i in, 162,
236, 513
mian plants, 2
Godon de St. Mesmin, M. 79
Gold, purity or standard of, 23—=me-
dical preparations of, 179
Gough, Mr. J. on the perforations made
in paper by electrical batteries, 176
Graham, governor, -236
on the méteotology of 1817, °73 tte
Guano, analysis of, 210 °°"
Gmelin’s description of the cryptoga~_
fings cured in the Dutch mode on‘
.
Fuller, Mr. J. his improved scarificators:
Gray, Lord W. J. communication from, -
INDEX,
Hi.
_ Hall, Sir James, 238 |
Hatchett, Mr. 160-—-On the bitumen of
‘Trinidad, 209—His artificial tannin
examined, 367
Haiy, M. his galvanic experiments, 273
Heat developed in combustion, 105 _
Henry, Dr. 75
Herrings, Dutch mode of curing, 154—-
Another method, 137 Me
Higgins, Dr. 225
Hippurites from Sicily, 314
' Hodgson, Mr. J. on arterial diseases, 80.
Horner, L. Esq. his account of the brine
springs at Droitwich, 163
Horticultural Society, objects for which
it intends to give premiums, 319
Howard, Mr. see Meteorological J ournal.
Hydrophobia, remedy for, 168
Hydrostatjcal phenomenon, cbserved by
Dr. Franklin, explained, 284
I.
Tbbetson, Mrs. A. on the fructification
of plants of the cryptogamia class, 1—
Question to, on the structure of the
_ water lily, 22——Her reply, 138—On
the dissection ‘of flowers, 169
Indigo, chemical experiments on, 211
—Tannin prepared from, 360
Ipflammable liquids, experiments on,
with a view to ascertain the heat de-
veloped in their combustion, 120
Tron, analysis of the chromate of, 78—
Of the ore, spar, and phosphate of,
161, 304
Yron ores, various, analyses of, 304
Irritability of vegetables, 138
Irton, EL, Esq. on some remarkable
tubes found in the drifted sand, in
Lancashire, 316...
Itch, the, a remedy for, 177
J.
Jacksonian prize, of the Royal College
' of Surgeons at London, 80
Jade, analysis of, 809
_ Jameson, professor, on the mineralogy
of Scotfand, &c. 235
J annet, M. 143
Java, specimens in natural history feos,
300 -
Jones, W. Esq. his temporary rick to
secure, corn in sheaves, til] quite dry,
257 coe, ;
K,
Kidd, Dr. on the mineralogy of St.
David's, Pembrokeshire, 238
Kirwan, Mr.87—His treatise on mineral
waters, 66
Klaproth, Dr. on. the analyses of va~ “
rious minerals, 160, 304, 379
Knight, T. A. Esq. his concise view of
the theory respecting vegetation, lately
adyaneed in the Philosophical Trans->
actions, 350-—On the advantages of
employing vegetable matter as manure
ina fresh state, 357
L.
Labrador, geology of the coast of, 162
Larches, premium for planting, 233
Lavoisier, M. 113
Laugier, Mr. his examination of the
chromate of iron of the Uralian moun-
tains, 78
Lazulite, analysis of, 310
Leach, Mr.235
Lead, black, medicinal uses of, 148
Lead, triple sulphuret of, analy i of,
160
Leaf lice, remedy against, 168
Lectures, medical and chemical, in Lon-
don, 168
Lemnian earth, analysis of, 311
Leschenault, M. his account of various
specimens of natural history, brought
from the island of Java, Madura, ,
Bali, &c. 300
Leybourn’ s “Mathematical Repository
240
Light,
INDEX.
Light, apparent streaks of, from falling
or shooting stars, 269
Lily, water, question relative to the
structure of, 22—Answered, 158
Lind, Dy. his anemometer, 227
Iénnzus’s classification of plants, 2
Liquors, fermented, spirit in, 66
Lowitz, M. 80
Lydiatt, M. E. description of his smicro-
logometer, for ascertaining the tena-
city of metals, silk, cotton, and linen
threads, &c: 81
M. °
Mac Culloch, Dr. on bistre and other
“substances distilled from wood, 236
—On the vitrified forts of Scotland,
317
Macknight, Dr. on the mineralogy of
Lanarkshire, 235
Magnesian spar, analysis of, 308 _
Maher, Mr. J. on pruning and training
standard apple trees, 355
Mallet, Captain, on the bituminous pro-
ducts in the vicinity of Trinidad, 205
Manganese, analyses of, 305
Manure, vegetable, best when used
fresh, 357
Marcet, Dr. 224——Reply to his abserva-
tions on Dr. Pearson’s paper on ani-
mal fluids, 37—eHis chemical account
of an aluminous chalybeate spring in
‘the Isle of Wight, 52, 85
Marine plants, 1
Maycock, Dr. on the production of elec-
trical excitement by friction, 227—
Observations on his papers on galya-
nism, in a former volume, 271
Mechanism of plants, 169
Melons, vegetation of, 353
Meteorolites, analyses of, 160
Meteorological Journal for March, 50—_
April, 150—May, 198—June, 294
Meteorological table for 1811, 73
Michael's ‘St. narrative of the volcanic. -
eruption in the sea off, June 1811,
247 z
Mineral, combustible, from Prussia,’
analyses of, 379
Mineral water in the Isle of Wight, 52,.
§5—Of Furstenburgh, analysis of, 380 .
Mineralogy of the Highlands of Scote. .
land, &c, 235, 317—-Of Wales, 238
Minerals, various, analyses of, 160, 304,
379
Mongez, M. 34
Montserrat, description of The Souf-
frigre,” in the island of, 296
Mortar, a strong, method of making, ©
127
Mosses, fructification of, 12+
Moya, analysis of, S10 —
Muriate of ammonia, water in, 125, 18§ |
Muriatic acid, see Acid.
Muriatic gas, see Gas.
Murray, Mr. J. 245——On the SSistence
of water im muriate of ammonia,
formed by the combination of muri-
atic acid and ammoniacal gasses, 18,
185 )
Muschenbroeck, M. $1 ~
N.
Natural history of Java, &e. 300 7
Nervous affection cured by ee the
carotids, 345
Nettles, fabrication of sloth and cord-
age from, 132
Nowell, J. Esq. on the action ‘of mu-
rlatic acid on sugar, and on the nature a
of its principles, 216 ~ fig
Nugent, Dr. N, his account of the pitch ~
lake of the island of Trinidad, 200—=
Of “The sulphur,” or Souffriére,”
of the island of Montserrat, 296
oO.
Oaks, premium for planting, 232
_ Opal, fire-coloured, ‘from Peru, ana
lysis of, 805°»
Oxide,
INDE X.
®@xide, carbonic, compounded with oxi-
muriatic gas, 241
Oximuriatic acid and gas, see Acid and
Gas.
Oxinite, analysis of, 381
P.
‘ é ad
Parkinson, J. Esq. on the specimens of
hippurites brought from Sicily, 314
Parry, Dr. on a case of nervous affec-
tion cured by pressure of the’ ca-
“rotids, 345
Pearson, Dr. G. on animal fluids, in
‘answer to Dr. Marcet, 37—His me-
dical and chemical lectures, 168
Pear-trees, standard, management of,
355-
Pelletier, M.on some preparations of
gold, lately employed medicinally,
179
Petrefactions, 230.
Phenix, Mr. J. on the zig-zag motion
of the electric spark, 227
_ Phosphorescent earth from Marmarosch,
analysis of, 379
Pitch lake in Trinidad, 200
Plants, fructification of, 1—Mechanism
of, 169
Plumbago, medicinal use of, 148
‘Pontier, M. 78
Potash in animal fluids, 137°
Potash, muriate of, 15%; Nitrate of,
1585 sulphate of, 156, (proportions
of base and acid in)
Potatoes, probable means of preventing
the curlin, 321
Premiums given by the Society for the
* Encouragement of Arts, &c. 232
Priestley, Dr. on the effects produced
on sugar by muriatic gas, 216
Prize question by the Royal Edinburgh
Medical Society, for the year 1813,
162
R.
Reaumur on the fineness of gold dust in
Europe, 35
| Red dye for cotton, 288
Refining gold, 27
Rick, temporary, for saving corn, 257
Robilant, M. de, 35
Robinet, M his explanation of a liy-
drostatical phenomenon observed by
Dr. Franklin, 284
Rumferd, Count, his account of some
experiments on wood and charcoal,
100—-Inquiry concerning the hea¢
developed in combustion, with a de-
scription of a new calorimeter, 105
S
Sabrina island, account. of its first
emerging from the sea, 247 —
Salt from the Droitwich spring, analysis
of, 165
Saponaceous principle, 75 _
Saunders, Dr, 52
Saussure, M. de, 113—_On the zig-zag
motion of the electric spark, 229——0
On evaporation, 335
Scarificatgr, an improved, 340
Schrader, M. on extract and the sae
ponaceous principle, 75
Scientific News, 80, 162, 292, 313
Scotland, mineralogy of, 235, 317
Sheep’s dung, useful in dying cotton,
288 . :
Siberia, mineralogy of, 78
Sines and cosines, formule for, 13,
Sinope earth, analysis of, 312
Skey, Dr. J. on the structure of the
island of Barbadoes, as connected
with the specimens of its rocks, 315
Slate, analysis of, 311
Sleavin, Mr. P. on a method of curing
herrings, 137
Smicrologometer, a machine for as-
certaining the tenacity of metals, &cs
$1
Smith, Dr. shis description of the cryp-
togamia class of plants, 2
Smith, Mr. E. on the manufacture of
cloth and cordage from nettles, 132
Smithson,,
INDEX.
Smithson, Mr. 160
Soaprock, from Cornwall, conc of,
581
Soapstone, analysis of, 281
Society for the encouragement of arts
- &e. premiums by, 232,
Soda, in animal fluids, 37
Sonnini, M. 168
“ Souffriere,” the, a district of the
‘ island of Montserrat, described, 296
Sowerby, Mr. 2, 165
Sowthistle, irritability of, 158
Spargelstein, analysis of, 306
Stackhouse’s description of the crypto-
gamian plants, 2
Stater of Philip of Macedon, 23
Steinhauer, Rev. Mr. 162
Stephens, J. Esq. his new method of
making bricks, so as to form cheaper
and firmer buildings, and useful under-
ground drains, 252
Stones, artificial, 230
Stucco, a cheap and durable, 126
Sugar, acted on by muriatic acid, 216
Sulphates, composition of, 153
Sulphur, see Souffriére.
be
Tannin, artificial, S60 ©
Tantalite, analysis of, 3380
7. B. on a passage in Mrs. Ibbetson’s
account of the water lily, 22—-An-
swered, 138
Tenacity of metals, &c. machine for
ascertaining, 81
Teneriffe, island of, described, 239
Terre verte, analyses of, 308
Tetters, remedy for, 148
Thenard, M. 113, 167, 241, 245.
Thouin, M. 147
Tillard, Captain, his narrative of the
eruption of a volcano in the sea off
the island of St. Michael’s, 247 |
Tincal, analysis of, 312
Tinto, a mountain of Lanarkshire, mi-
neralogy of, 235
Topazes from Brazil and Saxony, ‘ana-
lyses of, S05
Traill, Dr. 186, see Bostock.
Trees, forest, premium for planting,
232 hain
Trigonometrical formule for sines eae
cosines, 13
Trinidad, pitch lake in, described, 200
—Geology of the island, 209
Tubes founded in drift sand, 516
Vv.
Vauquelin, M. his chemical examina-
tion of a vegetable excrescence from
Madagascar, 143--Of a gum-resin from
the same place, 144—Of the root of
camel’s hay, from the Isle of France,
146—-Of the aromatic leaves of the
raventsara, 147—-On the action of
muriatic acid on sugar, 21%—His
analysis of the mineral waters of
Nevis and Argentieres, 240
Vegetable extracts, 75
Vegetable manure, best in a fresh state,
3957 °
Vegetable substances, chemical exa-
rainations of, 143
Vegetables, irritability of, 138
Vegetation, theory of, 350
Vitalis, M. on the nature of sheep’s ;
dung, and its use in dyeing cotton
the red, called ee or Adrianople,
288
Vitrified forts in Scotland, 317
Volcanic eruption in the sea off the
island of St. Michael’s, in June, 1811,
247 Ser
Ww.
Waistell, Mr. C. his improvement in
the acorn dibble, 267
Walnuts, chemical examination of their
husks, 374
Water, in muriatic gas, experiments
on the existence of, 18, 125
Water lily, see Lily,
’ Water,
>
Sun
INDEX.
_ Water plants, 1
Waves between oil and water, 284
Wax, experiments on the combustion
of, 113 ‘
Way, H. W. Esq. his method of pre-
paring a cheap and durable stucco,
or plaster, for outside or inside walls,
126
Webster, T. Esq. his electrical experi-
ments, 176—His account of some
new varieties of aleyonia, in the Isle
of Wight, 313 ?
Wernerian Natural History Society,
meeting of, 235 _
Wicklow gold, 56
Wienhold, Dr. on the efficacy of
plumbago against tetters, 148
Wight, Isle of, aluminous chalybeate
spring in, 52, 85——Geology of, 315
Wollaston, Dr. 45, 69
Wood, experiments on, 100—-Changed
to bitumen by water, 238
Zi
Zoisite, crystallized, analysis of, 306
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