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.._.vANCEMENT0F^3G^Nf 

THE  JOURNAL 

OF  THE 

POSTAL  MICROSCOPICAL  SOCIETY: 

A  MISCELLANY  OF 

NATURAL  AND  MICROSCOPICAL  SCIENCE. 


EDITED  BY 
ALFRED    ALLEN, 

Ho?iorary  Secretary  of  The  Postal  Microscopical  Society^ 

ASSISTED    BY 

SEVERAL  MEMBERS  OF  THE  COMMITTEE. 


VOL.    I, 


Xont)on : 

W.  p.  COLLINS,  157  GREAT  PORTLAND  STREET, 

3Batb : 

I  CAMBRIDGE   PLACE. 
1882. 


JPFFfatF. 


JTH  the  issue  of  this,  the  fourth,  part  of  our 
Journal,  which  completes  the  first  Annual  Vo- 
lume, we  heartily  congratulate  the  Members  of 
the  Postal  Microscopical  Society  and  our  Sub- 
scribers in  general  on  the  success  of  this  under- 
taking. 

Although    the     publication    of    such     a     Journal 

had     been     contemplated     for     some     time     in     the 

mind   of   the    Editor,   still   he   felt   reluctant  to   enter 

upon  so   anxious  an    undertaking,   until    early   in    the 

present   year    an    esteemed    member    of    the   Society, 

Dr.    Measures,    of   Long    Sutton,    sent   a    draft   of  a 

proposed    Magazine,    and    by   a    curious    coincidence 

another    arrived    on    the   same    day   from   the    editor 

of   a    Natural    History    periodical.      Our   Committee 

gave    careful     attention     to     both     of     these     schemes,    and 

eventually    decided     to    publish   the    Journal    in     its    present 

form. 

The  Hon.  Secretary  of  the  Postal  Microscopical  Society 
has  undertaken  the  office  of  Publisher  and  Editor.  In 
the  duties  of  the  latter  office  he  has  received  very  valu- 
able assistance  during  the  issue  of  the  first  three  parts 
from  the  Rev.  J.  H.  Green  (Chairman  of  the  Bath  Sub- 
Committee),    to    whom    he    tenders    his    very    sincere    thanks, 


as    well     as    to    those     other     gentlemen     who     have     kindly 
volunteered    their    assistance. 

At  the  suggestion  of  a  great  number  of  our  members 
and  subscribers,  the  quarterly  parts  of  the  second  volume 
will  be  increased  in  size,  and  we  hope  also  in  the  quality 
and  usefulness  of  the  matter  contained ;  at  the  same  time, 
although  a  slight  increase  will  be  made  in  the  price,  it 
will  be  supplied  at  cost  price  to  the  members  of  the 
Society.  To  the  general  public  the  price  will  be  is.  6d. 
each   part. 

We  have  thought  it  advisable  to  present  our  readers  with 
a  Map,  shewing  the  general  distribution  of  our  Mem- 
bers throughout  England.  A  List  of  Members  is  also 
presented   as   a   Supplement. 

Our     best     thanks    are     due    to  those     able    contributors 

who   have    so    generously    responded  to    our    needs,    and     to 

all    our    friends    we    adopt    the    good  old    English    custom    in 
wishing   them 

**U  /llbevrp  Cbttstmas  anb  a  IFDappp  IRew  l^ear/' 


The  Journal 


OF    THE 


Postal  Microscopical  Society. 


MARCH,     1882. 


STo  our  39lea53fers 


^N  adding  one  more  to  the  already  numerous   host   of 

weekly^  monthly,  and  quarterly  Magazines  which  are 

being   published    on    every    conceivable    subject,    it 

seems  desirable  to  say  a  few  words   concerning   the 

reasons  which  have  led  to  it,  and  the  objects  which  it 

is  designed  to  serve. 

For  some  time  past  a  feeling  has  been  growing  in 
the  minds  of  many  members  of  the  Postal  Micro- 
scopical Society,  that  something  more  was  needed 
beyond  the  mere  circulation  of  Slides,  to  bind  those 
members  more  closely  together,  scattered  as  they  are 
over  all  parts  of  the  British  Isles,  and  with  but  few 
opportunities  of  becoming  personally  known  to  one 
another.  A  desire  was  also  manifested  to  utiHse  in 
some  way  the  valuable  Notes  and  original  Drawings 
by  Mr.  Tuffen  West,  Mr.  Hammond,  and  others,  which 
have  hitherto  lain  buried  in  disused  Note-books  ;  and  to 
put   them    into    such    general    circulation,    that    not    only    the 


2  ADDRESS 

members  of  the  Society,  but  others  also  outside  it,  might 
be  able  to  obtain  them  if  desirous  of  doing  so.  Various 
plans  were  proposed,  and  these  have  all  had  full  consideration 
and  discussion  :  the  result  is  to  be  seen  in  the  present  Journal, 
which  will  be  published  quarterly  in  the  first  instance  ;  but  if 
sufficient  encouragement  is  given,  and  suitable  matter  provided, 
it  may  hereafter  be  thought  advisable  to  issue  it  at  shorter 
intervals. 

In  its  pages  will  be  found  copious  extracts  from  the  Note- 
books, which  are  being  carefully  gone  over,  and  their  contents 
classified  as  far  as  possible  ;  choosing  and  collating  what  seems 
of  permanent  value,  but  rejecting  all  that  is  merely  personal  or 
ephemeral.  These  extracts  must  necessarily  remain  somewhat 
fragmentary  in  form,  but  they  will  be  found  to  contain  much 
interesting  detail,  and  information  not  easily  met  with  elsewhere. 

To  these  will  be  added  Original  Papers  by  members  of  the 
Society  and  others,  on  subjects  connected  with  Microscopic  study, 
together  with  extracts  culled  from  various  sources,  and  recent 
intelligence  as  to  what  is  doing  among  Microscopists  generally. 
Correspondence  is  invited  upon  matters  relating  to  the  welfare  of 
the  Society,  or  to  the  general  advancement  of  Science  ;  but 
everything  of  a  personal  or  controversial  nature  will  be  rigidly 
excluded.  A  column  will  also  be  devoted  to  Notices  of  the 
Exchange  or  Sale  of  Microscopic  material  and  appliances,  under 
conditions  therein  specified. 

By  these  and  other  arrangements  it  is  hoped  to  make  the 
Journal  sufficiently  interesting  to  insure  a  wide  circulation  among 
all  who  are  engaged  in  Microscopic  pursuits,  both  within  the 
Society,  and  beyond  its  boundaries.  The  endeavour  will  simply 
be  to  try  and  lend  a  helping  hand  to  isolated  workers,  and  to  any 
others  who  may  desire  it ;  aiming  especially  at  what  is  useful  and 
practical,  while  avoiding  whatever  is  merely  technical,  or  too 
learnedly  abstruse.  The  simple  observation  of  Nature,  and  the 
habit  of  inquiring  into  her  way  and  modes  of  working,  form  the 
true  foundation  of  every  branch  of  science ;   it  is  Lord  Bacon 


TO   OUR  READERS.  3 

who  reminds  us  that  "  every  phenomenon  has  its  reason,  and 
every  effect  its  cause."  By  patient  searching  into  these,  and  by 
viewing  them  all  as  links  in  the  great  and  wondrous  chain  which 
leads  us  through  Nature  up  to  Nature's  God,  we  are  using  the 
most  effectual  means  of  training  our  intellectual  faculties  to  their 
highest  development,  and  providing  for  ourselves  pleasures  that 
are  quite  unknown  by  others,  to  whom  Nature  is  as  yet  but  a 
sealed  book. 

It  only  remains  to  thank  those  whose  kind  co-operation  has 
been  given  in  the  preparation  of  this  first  number  of  our 
Journal,  and  on  whose  help  reliance  is  placed  for  the  future. 
The  Committee  are  anxious  to  spare  no  pains  in  promoting  its 
efficiency  and  success,  but  these  must  necessarily  depend  in 
great  measure  upon  the  amount  of  support  it  receives,  and  the 
kind  of  matter  furnished  to  fill  its  pages.  It  is  now  sent 
forth,  not  without  some  misgivings  in  this  most  critical  age, 
but  hoping  that  due  allowance  may  be  made  for  what  is  a 
first  attempt  in  an  hitherto  untried  field,  and  only  asking  for  it  a 
kindly  reception,  and  a  fair  and  unprejudiced  judgment  as  to  its 
merits  or  demerits.  And  so  this  first  "  Address  to  our  Readers  " 
may  fitly  close  with  the  familiar  lines  of  Goldsmith  : — 

"  Blame  where  you  must,  be  candid  where  you  can ; 
And  be  each  critic  the  good-natured  7na?ir 


[4] 


Ibiator^  of  tbe  poetal  fllXcroecoplcal  Society. 


THE  issue  of  this  opening  number  of  our  Journal  seems  to 
afford  a  good  and  fitting  opportunity  for  giving  a  brief 
resiwie  of  the  history  of  the  society,  of  the  way  in  which  it 
originated,  and  of  the  ends  which  its  promoters  had  chiefly  in  view. 
The  circumstance  which  more  immediately  gave  rise  to  its 
foundation,  was  the  appearance  in  "  Science-Gossip,"  during  the 
summer  of  1873,  of  a  letter,  suggesting  that  if  12  gentlemen  could 
be  found  willing  to  co-operate  in  forming  a  httle  club  for  the  circu- 
lation of  Microscopic  Slides,  and  notes  thereupon,  it  might  lead  to 
a  very  pleasant  and  profitable  interchange  of  thought  and  study. 
This  letter,  from  an  unknown  hand,  was  replied  to  by  our  present 
Hon.  Sec,  Mr.  A.  Allen  ;  thereupon  a  further  correspondence  and 
enquiry  ensued,  when  it  was  soon  ascertained,  that  not  12  only, 
but  3  times  12,  individuals  were  ready  to  come  forward,  and  join 
at  once  in  the  proposed  scheme.  A  code  of  rules,  few  and  simple, 
was  quickly  drawn  up,  and  in  September  of  that  year  the  Society 
came  into  existence,  under  the  name  of  the  "Postal  Micro-Cabinet 
Club,"  and  with  a  roll  of  36  members.  Mr.  A.  Atkinson,  of 
Brigg, — the  writer  of  the  original  letter  in  "  Science-Gossip," — was 
chosen  its  first  President,  and  held  that  office  for  two  years ;  he 
was  then  succeeded  by  Mr.  T.  West,  who  continued  to  hold  it 
until  failing  health  compelled  his  resignation  in  1879,  niuch  to 
everyone's  regret.  By  that  time  the  club  had  increased  from  36 
to  over  100  members,  its  sphere  of  action  and  usefulness  had 
greatly  enlarged,  and  it  had  changed  its  first  title  for  that  of  the 
''  Postal  Microscopical  Society,"  which  it  now  bears.  What  more 
remains  to  be  said  about  it,  may  perhaps  be  most  fitly  said  in 
the  words  of  Mr.  West,  as  spoken  by  him  in  his  Presidential 
Address  for  the  year  1877  : — 

"  As  is  generally  the  case  with  great  inventions  or  discoveries, 
the  possibility  of  conducting  such  an  important  educational  work 
through  the  post,  originated  quite  independendy  in  the  minds  of 
two  individuals,  and  at  just  the  same  period  of  time.  These 
workers  were  living  far  apart,  entirely  unknown  to  each  other; 
but  the  time  was  ripe  for  the  coming  event — the  nascent  thought 
was  brooded  upon,  its  practicability  made  clear,  and  we  had  our 
birth.  Need  I  say  that  the  honoured  name  of  one  was  Alfred 
Atkinson  !   on  whom,  from  slight   priority   of   utterance   to    his 


HISTORY   OF  THE  SOCIETY.  5 

thought,  was  conferred  (as  well  beseemed)  the  dignity  of  first 
President  to  the  Society  ?  The  name  of  the  other,  Alfred  Allen  ! 
whom  we  are  all  proud  to  welcome  this  evening,  still  so  ably  filling 
the  arduous  and  responsible  post  for  which  he  then  volunteered — 
that  of  Honorary  Secretary. 

"  The  design  of  the  Society  is  specially  to  afford,  to  dwellers 
in  remote  parts  of  the  country,  by  means  of  postal  facilities,  the 
advantages  derivable  from  interchange  of  thought  on  such  subjects 
of  common  interest  as  may  be  elucidated  by  the  microscope.  This 
is  to  be  done  by  passing  slides  from  one  member  to  another  in  regu- 
lated course.  And  how  vast  a  field  lies  before  us  !  There  is  not 
a  subject  you  can  approach  at  the  present  day,  be  it  mineral, 
vegetable,  or  animal,  but  it  has  its  microscopic  side,  needing  the 
application  of  this  magic  tube  to  elucidate  all  its  bearings.  Years 
ago,  Professor  Owen,  speaking  of  Geology,  said  that  the  student 
of  this  science,  to  be  successful,  must  possess  a  knowledge  of 
Chemistry ;  of  Meteorology  and  Mineralogy  ;  of  Botany,  Zoology, 
and  General  Physics  : — in  effect,  must  have  a  good  acquaintance 
with  the  general  circle  of  the  Sciences.  What  a  task  indeed  ! 
And  now  must  be  placed  in  this  enumeration,  all  the  knowledge 
which  has  been  gained  by  the  microscope  in  each  of  these  various 
departments. 

"  That  a  considerable  measure  of  success  has  attended  our 
efforts  will  not  be  denied.  The  continued  increase  in  our  numbers 
testifies  in  one  way  to  the  fact ;  showing  clearly  that  by  the  estab- 
lishment of  this  Society,  a  want  which  many  had  felt  is  being 
supplied.  Were  it  desirable  it  would  be  an  easy  matter  greatly  to 
add  to  those  numbers.  But  though  it  is  freely  admitted  there 
would  be  some  gains  to  be  reaped  from  such  a  course,  I  confess 
'to  having  grave  doubts  as  to  mere  numbers  being  an  unalloyed 
advantage  to  us.  A  small,  compact  army  of  well-disciplined 
soldiers  is  both  more  easily  handled,  and  capable  of  more  execution, 
than  one  whose  very  size  introduces  an  element  of  weakness  :  it 
then  becomes  unwieldly  in  its  strength.  The  difficulties  of 
working  through  the  post  with  large  numbers  of  members  appear 
to  me  to  be  very  great. 

"  Should  it  be  deemed  desirable  to  limit  our  numbers  in  order 
to  increase  our  effectiveness,  the  question  presents  itself  for  solution, 
— Who  are  those  we  should  most  seek  to  attract  ? 

"  Workers  in  isolated  spots  should  have  our  first  consideration. 
It  was  for  their  benefit  especially  that  the  Society  was  formed  ;  it 
is  on  such  that  the  arrival  of  a  Box  of  our  Slides,  with  its  accom- 
panying Book  of  Notes  and  Drawings,  confers  the  greatest  boon. 
None  but  those  who  have  experienced  it,  can  fully  realise  the  state 
of  stagnation  into  which  even  an  active  mind  may  sink,  with  no 


6  HISTORY    OF   THE    SOCIETY. 

fellow-worker  at  hand;  none  with  whom  to  communicate  on  subjects 
enlightening  and  elevating,  such  as  these. 

"■  Nor  is  the  state  of  matters  much  more  hopeful  with  the 
dweller  in  or  near  a  large  manufacturing  town,  the  inhabitants  of 
which  are  too  much  engrossed  with  the  pursuit  of  material  wealth 
to  cultivate  the  God-like  portion  of  their  being,  the  mind  !  To 
isolated  dwellers  in  such  a  community,  possessed  of  higher  tastes 
and  feelings,  our  Society  may  be  made  a  priceless  boon  ;  one  of 
the  means  of  retaining  faith  in  God,  and  their  fellow-men ;  which 
might  otherwise  be  trodden  under  foot  of  mammon,  or  die  out 
from  sheer  inanition. 

"  Then  I  think  that  our  Society  may  be  the  means  of  linking 
together  in  happy  and  profitable  union,  other  like  bodies  having 
kindred  aims.  That  we  might  become  the  cement  whereby  other 
local  leaders  of  scientific  thought  in  their  various  districts — say 
the  President,  Secretary,  and  one  or  two  others  of  the  most  active 
members,  being  also  members  with  us — might  keep  up,  and  through 
the  pleasant  intercourse  thus  created,  augment  a  common  interest 
in  each  other's  well-being. 

"  Nor,  though  mentioned  here  last,  is  it  intended  in  any  sense 
to  forget,  or  treat  lighdy,  the  claims  on  our  regard  of  the  fairer, 
the  brighter  sex.  I  have  had  some  experience  of  Microscopic 
Soire'es — my  first  dating  more  than  thirty  years  ago,  the  life-time 
of  a  generation — and  have  ever  taken  note  that  the  most  delighted 
observers,  the  most  eager  questioners  and  listeners,  on  such 
occasions,  were  the  ladies  !  It  is  a  trite  saying,  that  man  has 
to  work  out  his  conclusions,  whilst  woman  sees  them  intuitively. 
I  plead  for  the  admission  to  our  Society  of  Ladies  ;  on  equal 
terms,  with  equal  rights  and  privileges.  We  cannot  but  be 
gainers  by  the  sharpness  of  their  insight  into  structure ;  the 
neatness,  tidiness,  ingenuity  in  the  modes  of  mounting,  which 
would  soon  follow  after  a  little  practice  by  them.  In  cases  where 
the  experiment  has  been  fairly  tried  it  has  proved  a  complete 
success. 

"With  regard  now  to  the  future  work  of  our  Society.  I 
consider  one  great  advantage  possessed  by  our  members,  to  a 
greater  degree  than  in  any  other  Society  with  whose  workings  I 
am  acquainted,  consists  in  the  very  large  amount  of  ge?ieral  know- 
ledge to  be  gained  by  careful  study  of  the  various  slides  which 
come  before  us,  instead  of  restricting  themselves  too  closely  to  one 
subject.  If  due  care  be  taken  to  profit  by  this,  plenty  of  openings 
for  special  work  in  many  different  directions  cannot  fail  to  present 
themselves.  Mosses  have  scarcely  been  brought  before  us  at  all ; 
Fern-structures  in  only  a  desultory  way ;  Seeds  and  Seed-structures, 
Algae   and    Desmids ;    Marine    organisms    of  various  kinds  ;   the 


NUMERICAL  APERTURE.  7 

innumerable  form  of  Fungi ; — all  present  a  very  wide  field  indeed. 
The  smaller  Crustacea  appear  to  have  engaged  little  attention  from 
our  members.  Amongst  Insects,  the  Diptera  alone  would  furnish 
an  enormous  field  for  work.  How  few  of  the  '  Saws  of  Saw-flies  ' 
have  yet  been  satisfactorily  identified  !  And  though  so  many 
forms  are  to  be  met  with  among  the  Miscellanea  of  Cabinets,  this 
is  as  nothing  compared  with  what  remains  to  be  done  at  them.  The 
Acari  are  numerous  ; — practically  inexhaustible,  and  most  urgently 
require  such  work  as  our  members  might  profitably  take  up. 

"  And  so  we  might  go  on.  Let  but  a  kindly  feeling  prevail 
amongst  our  members  towards  one  another,  a  readiness  to  help  for 
the  love  of  science,  and  present  difficulties  in  the  real  study  of  the 
minuter  forms  of  life  will  easily  be  overcome  and  vanish." 


IRumerical  aperture* 

By  the   Hon.  J.  G.  P.  Vereker. 


AMONG  English  Text  Books  on  the  Microscope,  the  only 
one,  as  far  as  I  know,  which  defines  what  is  now  known 
as  "  Numerical  Aperture  "  is  the  last  edition  of  Carpenter 
on  the  Microscope  :  although  the  subject  has  been  fully 
debated  by  the  "  Koyal  Microscopical  Society,"  and  described  in 
its  Journal. 

As,  however,  many  members  of  the  "  Postal  Microscopical 
Society "  may  not  have  followed  these  discussions,  it  may  prove 
of  interest  to  them  that  I  should  give  an  account  of  what  this 
term  means.  I  send,  therefore,  an  article  on  it,  both  ^or  the 
above  reason,  and  also  because  a  clear  appreciation  of  it  is 
most  important. 

The  ideas  of  microscopists  have  lately  undergone  consider- 
able development,  owing  to  the  investigations  of  Professor  Abbe, 
which  have  led  him  to  define  the  laws  of  aplanatic  combinations, 
and  also  to  put  forth  his  diffraction  theory  of  microscopic  vision ; 
and  these  investigations  may  be  considered  amongst  the  most 
important  advances  in  modern  optics. 

Owing  to  his  theories,  the  older  plan  of  measuring  the 
aperture  of  objectives  by  mere  angular  magnitude  has  been 
found  to  be  unsatisfactory ;  and  probably  the  aperture  will  in 
future  be  very  generally  expressed  numerically. 


8 


NUMERICAL   APERTURE. 


It  is  necessary  for  a  clear  understanding  of  this  subject  to 
approach  it  ah  initio,  laying  aside  all_  preconceived  notions,  and 
bringing  in  the  abstruser  laws  of  optics. 

For  this  purpose  we  must  first  realise  what  is  meant  by 
aperture : — 

The  word  aperture  means  "  an  opening,"  and  in  optical 
instruments  ought  to  be  measured  by  the  greatest  amount  of 
licrht  from  the  same  area,  which  can  traverse  the  system,  the 
intensity  of  the  illumination  remaining  constant.  In  the  case 
of  the  microscope,  with  which  we  are  at  present  dealing, 
this  is  evidently  dependent  on  the  objective. 

Now,    if    in   Fig.    I.,    A   is    a    luminous    point,    placed    at 


Fig  I 


the  focus  of  the  lenses  B  or  C, 
acting  independently  of  each  other, 
and  giving  out  rays  of  light,  Aa', 
Aa",  in  every  direction, — the  lens  C, 
though  of  less  diameter,  has  evi- 
dently a  larger  aperture,  that  is, 
admits  more  light  than  B.  On  the 
other  hand,  C  is  of  shorter  focus 
than    B.       This    shows    that   focal  a 

lens^th  is  an  element  in  the  true  calculation  of  aperture. 

In  a  compound  system,  however  constructed,  as  in  Fig.  II., 

where  two  lenses  are  repre- 
sented in  combination,  viz., 
BF  and  C,  the  amount  of  light 
which  passes  through  the  sys- 
tem from  the  point  A  at  its 
focus,  is  represented  by  the 
amount  of  light  included  be- 
r  •  ,  Tr  tween  BD  and  FE,  the  limit- 
'  b  -^  ing  rays  emerging  from  the 
back  lens  ;  as  this  back  lens 
cannot  transmit  more  light 
than  it  receives,   for  which  it 

is    dependent    on     the     front 

lens  C,  it  follows  that  in  any 
system  of  lenses,  the  system  ought  to  be  treated  as  a  whole, 
and  the  aperture  measured  by  the  emerging  beam.  Any  method 
v/hich  does  not  do  this  is  liable  to  error  ;  and  in  the  following 
arguments  the  objectiye  is  treated  as  if  it  were  a  single  lens. 

On  the  undulatory  theory,  a  wave  of  light  passing  from  a 
rarer  to  a  denser  medium  is  retarded,  owing  to  the  free  vibrations 
of  the  luminous  ether  being,  so  to  say,  "  clogged,"  thus  causing 
the   phenomenon   of  refraction.      For  example,  if  in  Fig.  III., 


NUMERICAL  APERTURE. 
P 


Firi  JTI 


and  A   a  luminous 


XX'  represent  the  limiting  surface  between  the  two  media,  the 
oblique  rays  AO,  BO,  CO,  instead  of  passing  through  in  a 
straight  line,  like  AOa',  are  squeezed  together,  and  brought 
nearer  the  normal  OP  ;  and, — vice  versa, — rays  passing  out  of  a 
dense  medium  into  a  rarer  one  are  expanded.  The  effect  of  this 
is  that  in  the  dense  medium  the  waves  of  light  are  shortened, 
and  a  given  area  in  a  dense  medium  contains  more  light-waves 
than  the  same  area  in  a  rare  one. 

In  applying  this  to  our  present  question,  it  is  to  be  re- 
membered that  the  medium  into  which  the  pencil  emerges  is 
always  air. 

If,  in  Fig.  IV.,  BC  represents  a  lens, 
point  placed  at  its  focus ;  then, 
if  there  is  air  between  the  lens 
and  the  object,  the  cone  Bx\C 
will  represent  the  extreme  a- 
mount  of  light  which  can  pass 
through  the  lens ;  if,  on  the 
other  hand,  a  denser  medium 
than  air  be  interposed,  the  cone,  Bx\C,  will  include,  for  the 
above  reasons,  a  larger  amount  of  light-waves,  represented  in 
air  by  the  larger  cone  Di\E  :  consequently,  the  angle  of  the 
emergent  pencil  is  increased,  and  the  aperture  enlarged. 

The  density  of  the  medium,  between  the  objective  and  the 
object,  must  therefore  be  taken  into  account  in  estimating  the 
aperture  ;  although  it  in  no  way  alters  the  angular  magnitude 
of  the  entering  pencil  of  light. 

The  next  question  is,  how  are  we  to  get  an  expression  for 
aperture  which  will  enable  us  to  compare  lenses  with  reference 
to  each  other? 


10 


NUMERICAL   APERTURE. 


Take  any  aplanatic  system,  as 
represented  in  Fig.  V.,  A  being,  as 
before,  an  object  at  its  focus,  the 
image  of  which  is  projected  to  the 
conjugate  focus  at  E.  As  we  are 
only  comparing  the  relative  emer- 
gence of  light,  not  the  absolute 
quantity,  we  can  consider  the  case 
of  an  infinitely  thin  pencil,  repre- 
sented by  the  plane  of  the  paper, 
and  also  consider  only  the  case  of 
the  semi-diameter  of  the  pencil. 

Let  DEL  represent  the  plane  of 
emergence. 

DF  =  a  =  the  amount  of  emer- 
gent light ; 

^IBAC  =  a  ',    <^     DEF  =  /3 ; 
FE  =  1  =  constant  ^  ; 

AC  =  b  =  the  focal  length  of 
the  objective  ; 

n  =  index  of  refraction  of  medium 
in  front  of  the  objective  ; 
m  =  index   of  refraction  of  medium 
behind  the  objective  ; 

1        sin  /3 
Thenar  ltan,3  =  l      ^ 

(as   /3  is  very  small,   cos  ^  =  nearly 
to  i) 

.".  a  =  1  sin  /3  (i) 
By  the  laws  of  aplanatic  conver- 
gence 
n    sin 


V. 


m 


-     =  magmfymg  power  =    -r— 
sin  /3  D 

I     for  air 
=   b  n  sin  <i; 


m 

.'.  1  sin  ^  =   b  n  sin  a  (2) 

Substituting  value  of  1  sin  ^  (i) 

a    =:  bn  sin  a 

a 

—  =  n  sm  a 

b 

Or  the  ratio  of  "  aperture  "  to  "  focal 
length  "   is  expressed  by  "  ;^  sin  a" 

This  expression  is  known  as  the 
"  numerical  aperture  "  of  an  objec- 
tive, a  being  the  semi-angle  of  aper- 
ture as  usually  given,  and  n  the 
refractive  index  of  the  medium  in 
front  of  the  objective.  The  principal 
values  of  n  in  microscope  work  are  : 

*  This  varies  with  the  length  of  tube  for 
which  the  lens  is  corrected. 


Ci 


j-!_ 


NUMERICAL   APERTURE.  11 

Air  :=   i;  water  =   1.33;  oil*  or  crown  glass  =    1.52. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  total  amount  of  light  admitted  is 
proportional  to  (n  sin  a)\ 

There  is  another  corollary  from  this  proof,  viz.,  that  if  the 
wave-length  of  light  is  taken  as  1-50,000  inch — that  is,  about 
the  middle  of  the  green  in  the  spectrum — the  theoretical  limit 
of  resolving  power  of  objectives,  in  number  of  lines  to  the 
inch,  is  found  by  multiplying  the  numerical  aperture  by  100,000. 

From  the  above  arguments  it  follows^  that  to  get  a  true 
idea  of  the  actual  capacity  of  a  lens  to  transmit  light,  the  older 
plan  of  measuring  the  angle  by  degrees  is  unsatisfactory,  even 
if  the  objective  in  question  is  a  dry  one,  and,  in  comparing 
dry  and  immersion  lenses,  is  misleading;  for  an  immersion 
objective  has  really  a  larger  aperture  than  a  dry  one  of  the 
same  focus  and  ajigidar  aperture. 

Also  it  is  seen,  that  if  the  extreme  limit  of  angular  aper- 
ture, viz..  iSo*^,  is  taken,  the  amount  of  light  received  varies 
in  air  and  oil,  as  2:3. 

This,  on  consideration,  shows  that,  owing  to  the  reduction  of 
the  length  of  light-waves  in  a  medium  like  oil,  smaller  objects 
can  be  seen  than  could  be  delineated  by  a  dry  lens  of  even 
exU'eme  theoretical  limit.  This  is  practically  proved,  both  by 
experience,  and  by  the  fact  that  immersion  objectives  can  and 
do  utilise  larger  back  lenses  than  dry  objectives. 

The  question  of  the  value  of  wide-angle  lenses  is  entirely 
distinct  from  this  paper,  which  aims  solely  at  showing  how  to 
compare  apertures  truly. 

As  an  example,  take  an  ^-inch  of  100*^  immersion  (water), 
one  of  120^  dry,  and  140°  dry. 

The  numerical  aperture  of  these  are  as  follows  : — 
(too°    water-immersion)    .  .  .     1,024;    (120^    dry)  .   .  .    0,866; 
(140^  dry)  .   .  .   0,940. 

It  is  seen  by  this  that  the  immersion  lens,  though  it  has 
the  smallest  angular^  has  really  the  largest  aperture:  and  the 
lenses  resolve,  theoretically,  in  lines  to  the  inch,  as  follows  : — 

(100?  water  immersion)  .  .  .   102,400  hues  ; 

(120^  dry)  86,600  lines;  (140°  dry)  94,000  lines. 

It  will  also  be  seen,  that  no  dry  lens  can,  with  the  wave- 
length of  1-50,000  inch,  resolve,  theoretically,  a  greater  number 
of  lines  than  100,000  to  the  inch,+  whereas  the  homogeneous 
oil-immersion  objective,  of  refractive  index  1.52,  can  resolve 
152,000  lines  to  the  inch. 

This  is  taking  the  lenses  at  their  theoretical  limit  of  180° 
aperture. 

*  This  is  a  homogeneous  oil  of  the  same  refractive  and  dispersive  index  as 
crown  glass,  of  which  lens  fronts  are  now  made. 

+  Amphipleura  pellucida  contains   about  90,000  lines  to  the  inch. 


12  MICROSCOPICAL   EXAMINATION 

I  trust  this  article  will  give  the  members  a  clear  appreci- 
ation of  what  aperture  means,  and  the  mode  of  expressing  it 
numerically ;  also  what  increase  of  resolving  power  may  be 
expected  to  be  obtained  from  an  increased  aperture. 


On  the  flDicro0Copical  Eyamination  of 
Cbloropb^ll,  SniUin,  anb  protein^Ci^stale, 


Translated  FROM  the  German  of  Dr.  Leopold    Dippell. 
By  Chas.  Vance  Smith. 


CHLOROPHYLL,  the  green  colouring  matter  of  plants, 
consists,  strictly  speaking,  of  a  formless  substance,  and 
only  takes  the  shape  of  grains,  when  it  serves  to  impreg- 
nate other  constituents  of  the  contents  of  the  vegetable  cell, 
v/hich  are  then  termed  Chlorophyll-bodies.  It  never  forms  the 
contents  of  minute  vesicles,  as  has  been  asserted  on  insufficient 
evidence.  To  ascertain  its  amorphous  character,  it  is  only 
necessary  to  place  a  suitable  section  in  either  alcohol  or  ether, 
which  will  at  once  dissolve  out  the  Chlorophyll,  leaving  the  base, 
which  it  has  served  to  colour,  behind  unchanged. 

In  the  case  of  many  plants — for  example,  the  cells  of 
Drapariialdia^  Spirogy?'a,  Zygnema,  Closterium^  anci  other  algas, 
and  also  in  the  fronds  of  AntJioceros — the  Chlorophyll  is  distri- 
buted indiscriminately  through  the  general  protoplasm,  and  may, 
for  distinction  sake,  be  spoken  of  as  amorphous.  In  by  far 
the  greater  number  of  plants,  however,  it  is  not  thus  generally 
distributed,  but  is  confined  to  certain  granular  bodies  imbedded 
in  the  protoplasm,  and  has  the  api)earance  of  being  itself 
granular. 

The  matter  of  which  these  Chlorophyll  bodies  is  composed 
is  not  the  same  in  all  plants,  being,  in  f^ict,  of  two  kinds.  In  the 
first,  they  consist  of  a  nitrogenous  substance,  probably  a  hardened 
portion  of  the  protoplasm  ;  since,  on  withdrawing  the  colouring 
matter  by  means  of  alcohol  or  ether,  and  applying  the  usual 
chemical  tests,  an  unmistakeable  albuminous  action  is  evident. 
Such  Chlorophyll-grains  are  found  in  the  fully-developed  leaves 


OF    CHLOROPHYLL,    ETC.  13 

of  the  Tulip,  of  Ilex  aquifolhan^  Sediim  acre,  and  Sedum  tele- 
J>/itum.  As  a  rule,  their  shape  resembles  that  of  a  flattened 
lentil,  and  they  vary  in  size  from  "0075  to  '009  mm. 

Chlorophyll-bodies  of  the  second  kind  are  composed  of  one 
or  more  starch-grains,  over  which  the  Chlorophyll,  colouring  a 
certain  amount  of  protoplasm,  forms  a  covering  of  varying  thick- 
ness ;  the  presence  of  the  starch  being  easily  recognised  by 
its  characteristic  blue  colour,  on  the  application  of  iodine  solu- 
tion, especially  if  the  Chlorophyll  has  first  been  removed  by 
alcohol  or  ether.  In  shape  Chlorophyll-grains  of  this  descrip- 
tion vary  greatly,  being  round,  oval,  or  even  rod-like  ;  and  their 
size  is  from  about  '0075  to  '019  mm.  Of  the  plants  in  which 
they  alone  are  found  may  be  mentioned  the  epidermis  of  the 
antheridia  of  Mosses,  the  leaves  of  Mosses  and  Liverworts,  and 
of  Mistletoe  and  Boya  carnosa.  When  the  outer  layers  of  leaves 
and  green  stems  contain  only  Chlorophyll-grains  of  the  nitro- 
genous kind,  starch-bearing  grains  are  also  always  present  in  the 
more  deeply-buried  layers,  and  indeed  they  appear  to  possess  a 
very  general  distribution  among  Chlorophyll-bearing  plants. 

The  earliest  stages  of  the  development  of  the  starch-grains 
within  the  Chlorophyll  cannot  be  observed  under  the  microscope. 
What  may,  however,  be  seen  is  the  following : — Within  the 
hitherto  apparently  homogeneous  Chlorophyll-grain,  one  or  more 
minute  granules  make  their  appearance,  and  gradually  increase  in 
size,  dilating  the  grain  containing  them.  The  layer  of  proto- 
plasmic matter  covering  the  starch  thus  becomes  thinner  and 
thinner,  and  at  length  disappears  altogether,  setting  the  starch- 
grains  free.  It  need  hardly  be  said  that  a  high  magnifying 
power  and  very  carefully-prepared  sections  are  needed  thus  to 
watch  the  development  of  the  starch. 

Inulin  was  at  first  believed  to  be  peculiar  to  the  Compo- 
sitcc,  but  is  now  known  to  be  present  in  plants  belonging  to  other 
orders  as  well.  It  is  oftener  found  in  the  roots  than  in  the  stems, 
and  may  be  looked  for  in  such  plants  as  the  dandelion,  the  sun- 
flower, or  the  dahUa.  In  living  cells  it  exists  only  in  solution, 
but  its  presence  may  be  rendered  evident  by  placing  a  section 
from  the  root  of  one  of  the  above  plants  in  alcohol,  when  the 
Inulin  will  be  precipitated  in  the  form  of  minute  granules.  If  the 
section  be  left  in  alcohol  for  five  or  ten  minutes,  these  granules 
will  unite  into  larger  bodies,  which  under  water  appear  to  have 
cracks  running  radially  through  them ;  and  sometimes,  especially 
after  the  addition  of  nitric  acid,  to  be  composed  of  distinct  layers. 
The  finest  crystals  of  Inulin  are,  however,  obtained  by  leaving 
larger  pieces  of  suitable  roots  in  alcohol  or  glycerine  for  a  period 
of  several  weeks,  and  then  cutting  sections  of  only  moderate 
thinness. 


14  TUBIFEX   KIVULORUM. 

For  the  examination  of  the  Protein-Crystals  or  Crystalloids  of 
the  tuber  of  the  potato,  the  skin  of  the  tuber  should  first  be  re- 
moved and  a  very  thin  section  then  taken  parallel  to  the  surface. 
The  Crystalloids  are  not  present  in  all  potato-tubers,  nor  are  they 
equally  developed  in  all  those  in  which  they  exist ;  but  in  cells 
containing  them,  they  may  generally  be  found  either  embedded  in 
the  protoplasm,  often  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  the 
nucleus,  or  in  contact  with  the  primordial  utricle.  They  are  also 
to  be  found  in  many  oily  seeds,  such  as  the  Brazil  nut,  the  Castor- 
oil  seed,  the  Hazel  nut,  etc.,  where  they  lie  embedded  among  the 
other  granular  contents  of  the  cells,  and  may  be  brought  into  view 
by  cutting  thin  sections  through  the  endosperm. 


®n  ^ubifey  IRivulorum. 

By  a.  Hammond,  F.L.S. 


Plate  I. 


THE  following  observations  on  the  structure  of  this  inter- 
esting little  worm  are  the  result  of  such  study  of  the 
subject  as  the  author  has  been  able  to  make  during  the 
short  period  of  about  eight  weeks.  They,  therefore,  must  not 
be  taken  as  either  exhausting  the  subject,  or  as  offering  any  new 
information  thereupon.  To  tell,  indeed,  all  that  might  be  said 
upon  it  would  require  far  more  space  than  can  probably  be 
spared  for  it  in  the  pages  of  our  newly-started  Journal. 

A  reddish  blush,  spread  over  the  surface  of  the  mud  at  the 
margin  of  a  slowly-moving  stream,  is  a  sure  indication  of  the 
presence  of  Tubifex  ;  touch  the  surface,  however  lightly,  with  the 
end  of  your  stick,  and  the  blush  disappears  for  some  inches 
around  it,  showing  the  extreme  sensibility  of  the  sense  of  touch 
in  these  animals,  as  in  others  of  their  class — a  sensibility,  indeed, 
which  supplies  the  place  of  all  other  organs  of  perception.  The 
name  "  Tubifex"  was  applied  to  these  worms  by  Lamark,  from  the 
habit  they  are  said  to  have  of  constructing  a  muddy  or  sandy  tube 
for  their  dwelling,  in  which  they  reside  head  downwards,  the  tail 
projecting  from  the  orifice,  and  waving  to  and  fro  in  the  water  for 
the  purpose  of  respiration.  It  is  somewhat  singular,  that  1  have 
frequently  obtained  a  plentiful  supply  of  worms  without  a  single 
fragment  of  the  tubes  ;  at  other  times,  I  have  obtained  the  tubes, 
but  in  small  numbers,  totally  disproportionate  to  those  of  the 
worms  ;  and  on  such  occasions,  my  finding  of  them  has  been 
associated  with  two  curious  circumstances.     First,  that  the  tubes 


Journal    of  _  Microscopy.  Vol.  1.  Pl.l. 


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TUBIFEX   RIVULORUM.  15 

obtained  seemed  to  be  such  as  I  had  noticed,  at  the  time  of 
gathering,  lying  in  considerable  numbers  prone  on  the  surface  of 
the  mud,  instead  of  being,  as  usual,  buried  therein,  and  present- 
ing only  the  orifice  ;  and  secondly,  that,  with  one  exception,  they 
were  either  devoid  of  their  proper  tenants,  or  else  occupied  by  an 
intruder  in  the  shape  of  a  "  figure-of-eight,"  or  blood-worm,  as  they 
are  familiarly  called — the  larva  of  Chironomus  plumosiis.  The 
tubes  thus  found  are  flaccid,  totally  devoid  of  rigidity,  yet  having 
sufficient  coherence  to  render  it  difficult  to  understand  how,  on 
the  many  occasions  in  which  I  have  failed  to  find  them  in  my 
collecting-bottle  all  trace  of  them  should  have  been  destroyed 
in  the  act  of  removal.^  The  worms  appear  to  be  confined  to  very 
narrow  limits  as  to  depth ;  they  are  frequently  covered  with  the 
merest  film  of  water,  and  never  (so  far  as  my  observation  extends) 
is  the  red  blush  which  indicates  their  presence  found  at  a  greater 
depth  than  two  or  three  inches.  On  this  account  I  placed  them 
on  reaching  home,  in  a  saucer,  with  about  half-an-inch  of  water  to 
cover  them,  and  have  kept  them  in  this  condition  for  three  or  four 
wTeks.  I  have  never  seen  any  attempt  on  their  part  to  recon- 
struct their  tubes.  They  lay  their  eggs,  however,  plentifully  at  this 
season  of  the  year  (February) ;  and  these  are  contained  in  capsules, 
holding  from  one  or  two  to  six  or  eight.  The  capsules,  which  are 
nearly  white  and  about  the  size  of  a  pin's  head,  begin  to  strew  the 
surface  of  the  mud  in  the  saucer  in  the  course  of  a  day  or  two. 
After  the  lapse  of  some  days,  however,  the  worms  do  not  thrive, 
numbers  of  them  being  found  in  a  fragmentary  condition  ;  but 
whether  this  is  the  result  of  a  suicidal  tendency,  owing  to  unna- 
tural conditions,  or  is  the  initial  stage  of  the  process  of  repro- 
duction by  fission,  which  is  stated  by  many  authors  to  occur,  I  am 
unable  at  present  to  say.  From  the  abundant  deposition  of  eggs, 
it  is  evident  that  numbers  of  them  must  have  completed  the 
usual  cycle  of  existence,  and  their  decease  on  that  account  might 
be  expected  \  but  though  the  fragments  appear  lethargic  and 
unhealthy,  and  the  vascular  system  has  in  many  cases  lost 
its  colour,  yet  vitality  is  evidently  not  extinguished  ;  and  what  is 
more,  the  wound  frequently  seems  to  be  healed  by  the  formation 
over  it  of  a  new  skin.  I  have  not  as  yet,  however,  seen  anything 
Hke  the  formation  of  a  new  head  or  tail.f 

Various  authors  have  at  different  times  described  the  ana- 
tomy and  habits  of  Tubifex.     The  most  important  treatises,  how- 

*  Since  writing  the  above,  I  have  had  reason  to  doubt  whether  the  tubes  above 
described  are  the  work  of  the  annelid  or  of  the  larva.  If  the  latter,  I  have  never 
seen  as  yet  a  trace  of  the  tubes  from  which  the  worm  takes  it  name. 

t  It  should  be  noted  that  Dr.  Williams  strenuously  denies  reproduction  by 
fission  in  the  annelida.     See  Report  of  the  British  Association  for  1851,  p.  247. 


16  TUBIFEX   RIVULORUM. 

ever,  on  the  subject  are  those  of  Bonnet,*  Jules  d'Udekem,t  and 
Edouard  Claparede,:j:  on  the  Continent ;  whilst  at  home  we  have 
observations  by  W.  C.  Mcintosh  ||  and  Ray  Lankester.§  Bon- 
net's work  deals  with  the  result  of  cutting  the  worm  in  half. 
Jules  d'Udekem  gives  us  a  most  elaborate  and  careful  monograph, 
illustrated  with  four  beautifully  executed  plates ;  and  he  was  ably 
followed  by  Claparede,  whose  work  refers  to  a  closely  allied 
species,  Tiibifex  Bo7meii.  He  points  out  several  errors  which 
d'Udekem  had  made,  at  the  same  time  fully  acknowledging  the 
general  excellence  of  his  work.  The  works  of  the  two  last-named 
authors  are  devoted  to  special  points  on  which  they  differed  from, 
or  made  advances  on,  their  predecessors. 

The  most  abundant  worm  in  Thames  mud  is  Tiihifex 
rividontm.  Two  other  worms  are,  however,  very  abundant, 
living  inextricably  mixed  with  it  in  masses  :  one  is  Limnodrihis 
Udekemiaims  of  Claparede,  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  the 
capillary  setae  of  the  former,  and  by  the  unusual  thickness  of  the 
integument;  and  the  other,  Tubifex  umbeUifer  of  Lankester, 
which  has  the  dorsal  setae  of  the  first  ten  segments  webbed  (see 
PI.  I,  Fig.  i).  My  own  observations  have  been  confined  to  T. 
rivuloriim. 

The  worm  (Fig.  7)  is  about  an  inch  or  a  little  more  in  length, 
and  from  its  small  size,  and  the  transparency  of  the  integument, 
forms  a  good  subject  for  examination  in  the  living  state  with 
low  powers  of  the  microscope  :  the  chief  features  of  anneli- 
dan  organisation  revealed  thereby  being  the  perivisceral  cavity, 
with  its  contained  perivisceral  fluid  and  corpuscles  (Fig.  10), 
— the  system  of  closed  vessels  containing  a  coloured  non-cor- 
pusculated  circulating  fluid,  regarded  by  some  authors  as  a  true 
blood  system,  and  by  others  as  a  pseudo-haemal  system  analagous 
to  the  water- vascular  system  of  the  Scolecida,  Rotifera,  etc.,  the 
nature  of  which  is  respiratory  (Figs.  9  and  10); — and  lastly, 
the  intestine  with  its  covering  of  glandular  hepatic  cells  (Fig.  10). 
The  reproductive  organs,  extending  from  the  9th  to  the  15th 
segment,  are  only  indicated,  on  a  casual  glance,  by  the  superior 
size  of  this  part  of  the  body  in  mature   specimens,  and  require 

*  (Euvres  d'histoire  naturelle  cle  C.  Bonnet,  Amsterdam,  torn.  I.,  1780. 

t  Histoire    naturelle    du    Tubifex   des    ruisseaux  :     Memoires   couronn^s   de 
I'Academie  des  Sciences,   de  Belgique.     Brussels,   1855. 

Memoires 


de 


X  Recherches  Anatomiques  sur  les  Oligoch^tes,  par  Ed.  Claparede, 
la  Soci^te  de  Physique  de  Geneve,  tome  XVI.,  1861. 


II  On  some  points  in  the  structure  of  Tubifex,  by  W.  C.  Mcintosh,  M.D. 
Transactions  Edinburgh  Society,  Vol.  26,   1870. 

§  Observations  on  the  Organization  of  Oligochcetous  Annelids,  by  Ray 
Lankester:  Annals.  Nat.  Hist.,  1871  ;  also,  on  the  Spermataphores  of  Tubifex, 
Quar.  Journ.  Micro.  Science,  1871,  p.  180. 


TUBIFEX     RIVULORUM.  17 

much  searching  to  make  their  structure  evident.  The  number  of 
segments  varies  much ;  I  have  counted  in  some  specimens  from 
60  to  80  of  them.  Each  segment  is  separated  from  those  adjoin- 
ing by  a  muscular  septum,  closely  constricting  the  intestine  at 
these  points.  It  may  be  somewhat  difficult  for  an  uninitiated 
observer  to  distinguish  the  head  of  the  worm  from  its  tail ;  but 
the  position  of  the  setae,  directed  backwards  as  the  worm 
advances,  will  show  that  the  bluntly-pointed  termination  of  the 
body  is  the  head,  while  the  tail  tapers  away  gradually  and  then 
ends  off  abruptly  truncated. 

The  setae,  with  which  every  segment  of  the  body,  except  the 
head  is  furnished,  are  of  two  kinds — the  long  capillary  setae, 
which  are  confined  to  the  dorsal  surface ;  and  the  hooked  setae, 
which  are  common  to  both  surfaces.  They  are  found  in  bundles, 
of  which  each  segment  possesses  one  pair  containing  capillary, 
and  two  pairs  containing  hooked  setae.  The  latter  are  of  the 
forked  shape,  shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  number  of  setae  in  each 
bundle  varies  somewhat,  the  capillary  setae  being  usually  two, 
rarely  three  or  four, — and  the  hooked  varying  from  three  to  seven. 
The  hooked  set^  are  placed  in  pouches  or  invaginations  of  the 
epidermis,  to  the  bottom  of  which  radiating  muscular  bands  are 
attached,  by  which  their  movements  are  effected  (see  Fig.  3). 

The  integument  is  described  by  d'Udekem,  as  consisting  of  a 
delicate  epidermis,  and  of  a  chorion  intimately  united  to  the  mus- 
cular layer.  The  latter  is  divided  into  six  longitudinal  bands, 
separated  by  as  many  furrows,  as  shown  in  the  ideal  transverse 
section  (Fig.  4).  Upon  these  furrows  are  situated  the  bristle-sacs, 
and  into  them  the  perivisceral  cavity  extends.  This  perivisceral 
cavity  occupies  the  whole  of  the  large  space  which  everywhere 
intervenes  between  the  muscular  layer  and  the  intestine.  It  is 
lined. throughout  with  a  cellular  membrane,  continuous,  according 
to  Ray  Lankester/''  with  the  glandular  covering  of  the  intestine, 
of  which  we  shall  presently  speak  ;  so  that  it  may  be  described  as 
a  double  bag  through  which  the  intestine  passes.  On  this  account 
it  has  been  likened,  by  Dr.  Williams,t  to  the  peritoneal  cavity  of 
the  human  body,  and  its  contained  fluid  has  received  from 
him  the  designation  of  the  peritoneal  fluid,  or  the  chyl- 
aqueous  fluid  of  the  peritoneal  cavity.  Between  every  two 
segments  it  is  greatly  constricted  by  the  muscular  septum  or 
partition  already  referred  to.  The  fluid  with  which  this  cavity  is 
fiUed  is  a  highly  coagulable  and  vital  one.  The  coagulating  prin- 
ciple consists  of  fibrine,  and  the  great  bulk  of  the  fluid  portion  is 
composed  of  sea-water.     Mechanically  and  physiologically,  as  Dr. 

*  Observations  on  the   Organization   of  Oligochaetous  Annelids,    Annals  of 
Natural  Histoiy,  1871. 

t  Report  Brit.  Assn.,   1851. 

6 


18  TUBIFEX   RIVULORUM. 

Williams  says,  it  is  essential  to  the  maintenance  of  the  life  of  the 
annelid  : — mechanically,  by  preventing  contact  between  the  intes- 
tine and  the  integument,  and  by  furnishing  the  fulcrum  on  which 
all  muscular  action  is  based ;  physiologically,  by  furnishing  the 
pabulum  out  of  which  the  true  blood  is  being  perpetually  rein- 
forced. It  holds  organic  corpuscules  in  suspension,  which  perform 
irregular  to-and-fro  oscillations,  under  the  agency  of  the  muscular 
contractions  of  the  intestine  and  integument,  passing  from 
segment  to  segment,  either  between  the  internal  borders  of  the 
septa  and  the  intestine,  or,  as  Claparede  states,  through  orifices 
provided  in  the  septa  themselves.  The  character  of  the  corpus- 
cules varies,  according  to  my  own  observations,  considerably ; 
some  being  opaque  and  others  transparent,  some  circular  and 
others  very  much  elongated  (see  Fig.  5).  This  variation  may  be 
connected  with  the  fact,  asserted  by  Lankester,  that  the  cellular 
membrane  (endothelium)  of  the  perivisceral  cavity  casts  off  its 
cells  into  the  perivisceral  fluid.  I  must  not  omit  to  mention  that 
Dr.  Williams  regards  the  perivisceral  fluid  as  physiologically  allied 
to  the  chyle  of  the  lower  animals, — that,  in  fact,  it  presents  the 
same  relation  to  the  contents  of  the  proper  blood-system  of  vessels 
that  the  chyle  of  the  higher  animals  does  to  the  true  blood  in 
them. 

The  blood  proper,  as  it  is  termed  by  Dr.  Williams,  is  in  this 
annelid  a  red,''^  non-corpusculated  fluid,  circulating  in  a  system 
of  closed  vessels,  the  main  trunks  of  which  are  more  or  less 
intimately  united  to  the  intestine,  but  send  out  branches  into  the 
peripheral  portions  of  the  body  (Fig.  9).  A  large  dorsal  vessel, 
thrown  into  many  sinuosities,  carries  the  blood  from  the  tail 
towards  the  head  of  the  animal,  where  it  bifurcates,  and  subdivides 
into  numerous  small  branches,  which,  reuniting,  go  to  form  the 
feeders  of  the  main  ventral  vessel,  by  which  the  blood  is  carried 
back  again  towards  the  tail,  where  it  finds  its  way  again 
into  the  dorsal.  "  f  In  each  segment  two  great  branches  pass  off 
from  the  dorsal  and  ventral  vessels  respectively.  Towards  the 
posterior  border  a  large  trunk  (the  perivisceral)  springs  on  each 
side  from  the  dorsal,  and  proceeding  outward  towards  the  body- 
wall  divides  into  numerous  capillary  branches,  which  again  unite 
to  form  a  trunk  nearly  as  large  as  the  original,  that  on  each  side 
enters  the  ventral  vessel.  The  coils  are  especially  distinct  towards 
the  posterior  part  of  the  body.  About  the  middle  of  each 
segment,  again,  the  ventral  vessel  on  each  side  gives  off  a  branch, 
which  passes  upward  round  the  intestine  ;  but  whether  it  termi- 
nates by  anastomosing  with  its  fellow  of  the  opposite  side,  or  by 

*  In  some  of  the  Annelida  this  fluid  is  green, 
f  See  Mcintosh  on  Structure  of  Tubifex.     Trans.  Edin.  Soc,  vol.  26. 


TUBIFEX  KIVULORUM.  19 

joining  the  dorsal,  could  not  be  determined."  The  foregoing 
account  of  Dr.  Mcintosh  is  in  the  main  confirmatory  of  the 
observations  of  Claparede,  some  additions  being  made  thereto. 
It  will  be  observed  that  the  "  perivisceral  branches "  proceed 
toward  the  body- wall,  floating,  as  they  do,  freely  in  the  perivisceral 
cavity ;  while  the  others,  which  proceed  from  the  ventral  main 
trunk,  tightly  enclose  the  intestine  ;  they  are  called  by  Claparede 
the  "  intestinal  branches."  The  periviscerals  of  the  eighth 
segment  appear  to  be  slightly  more  swollen  than  the  others,  and 
have  been  described  as  hearts, — a  pulsating  movement  being 
observed  in  them.  The  pulsations,  however,  do  not  appear  to  be 
confined  to  those  of  the  eighth  segment,  but  extend,  according  to 
Claparede,  to  the  tenth,  eleventh,  and  twelfth.  I  have  myself 
seen  portions  of  these  vessels  suddenly  contract  and  assume  a 
puckered  aspect,  the  contained  red  fluid  being  completely,  for  the 
moment,  expelled. 

It  may  be  observed  that  there  are  no  special  respiratory 
organs  visible  in  Tubifex ;  and  the  question  may  be  asked,  in  the 
first  place,  "  How  is  the  respiratory  process  carried  on  ?  "  and  in 
the  next,  "  Which  of  the  two  fluids  in  question  is  the  subject  of 
that  process?"  The  thinness  of  the  integument  would  in  any 
case  offer  great  facility  for  the  aeration  of  the  blood,  and 
especially  in  the  intestine,  where  a  constant  access  of  fresh  water 
is  maintained  by  ciliary  action ;  but  the  true  answer  to  the 
question  would  seem  to  be  involved  in  considerable  difficulty,  from 
the  opposite  points  of  view  in  which  the  relations  of  the  two 
fluids  are  regarded ;  for  while  Dr.  Williams,  who  regards  the 
circulating  fluid  as  true  blood,  thinks  that  it  receives  its  supply  of 
oxygen  in  great  part  through  the  intermediate  agency  of  the 
perivisceral  fluid  by  which  its  vessels  are  bathed, — Dr.  Carpenter, 
on  the  other  hand,  regarding  the  perivisceral  fluid  as  the  true 
blood,  conceives  that  the  coils  of  the  "  vascular  system  "  floating 
therein  are  destined  to  convey  to  //  the  aerating  influence  received 
by  the  red  fluid  in  its  circuit. 

We  must  now  notice  the  coiled  vessels,  which  have  received  the 
name  of  segmental  organs.  They  are  two  in  number  on  each  seg- 
ment (Fig.  lo),  and  consist  of  long,  twisted,  vibratile  canals,  with 
an  external  and  an  internal  orifice.  They  are  provided  with  an 
external  and  an  internal  tunic,  the  former  of  which  is  described 
by  d'Udekem  as  elevated  into  pouches'^  (see  Fig.  6),  and  the  latter 
is  provided  with  cilia,  which  cause  a  current  to  flow  from  the 
interior  towards  the  exterior.     The  external  orifice  is  situated  a 

*  I  am  doubtful  as  to  the  correctness  of  this  observation.  In  Lininodrilus 
Hoffmeisteri,  Claparede  describes  the  organs  of  the  7th  and  8th  segments  as 
covered  with  a  mass  of  pyriform  glandular  cells  (see  Fig.  11),  and  I  have  been  able 
to  verify  his  statement.     Possibly,  d'Udekem's  pouches  are  also  cells. 


20  TUBIFEX   RIVULORUM. 

little  in  advance  of  the  ventral  setae  ;  and  the  internal  orifice,  after 
traversing  the  system,  opens  into  the  segment  preceding  that  in 
which  its  convolutions  and  external  orifice  lie,  where  it  presents  a 
crown  of  cilia.  The  normal  function  of  these  organs  is  believed 
by  d'Udekem  and  Claparede  to  be  excretory,  and  not  respiratory, 
as  has  been  supposed  by  others ;  and  this  opinion  seems  to  be 
borne  out  by  the  fact  that  the  ciliary  current  is  always  from 
within^  outwards.  In  certain  segments  of  the  worm,  however,  the 
segmental  organs  are  specialised  to  provide  efferent  ducts,  etc., 
for  the  reproductive  system.  Where  this  is  the  case,  they  are 
large  and  very  apparent ;  but  in  general  they  are  rather  difficult  to 
distinguish  amid  the  contents  of  the  perivisceral  cavity. 

The  alimentary  canal  consists  of  a  mouth,  pharynx,  oeso- 
phagus, and  intestine.  There  is  no  muscular  crop  or  gizzard,  as 
in  the  earth-worm.  The  mouth  usually  shows  as  a  transverse  line 
on  the  lower  surface  of  the  cephalic  segment.  It  opens  into  a 
more  or  less  globular  pharynx,  occupying  two  or  three  segments  of 
the  body,  and  provided  with  a  muscular  coating.  The  pharynx  is 
capable  of  being  projected  from  the  mouth,  and  again  withdrawn. 
The  oesophagus  occupies  the  fourth  and  fifth  segments,  and  is 
succeeded  by  the  intestine.  As  far  as  this  point,  the  alimentary 
canal  is  devoid  of  colour.  The  intestine  is  considerably  larger  than 
the  oesophagus,  and  extends  to  the  termination  of  the  body.  It 
has  an  inner  mucous  membrane,  covered  with  vibratile  epithelium, 
the  cilia  being  especially  visible  near  the  anus,  and  an  outer 
muscular  coat,  by  which  the  peristaltic  movements  are  effected. 
This  coat,  however,  requires  the  addition  of  acetic  acid  to  render  it 
visible.  It  is  covered  throughout  its  length  with  a  cellular  invest- 
ment (Figs.  8  and  lo) — at  least,  such  is  the  account  generally  given 
of  it ;  but  Lankester  points  out,  what  appears  extremely  probable, 
that  this  cellular  covering  is  but  the  internal  parietes  of  the  perivis- 
ceral cavity.  A  glandular  function  is  attributed  to  these  cells,  and 
it  is  said  that  they  secrete  a  fluid  into  the  intestine  analogous  to 
the  bile  of  the  higher  animals.  Claparede,  however,  doubts  the 
hepatic  character  attributed  to  them,  pointing  out  that  they  cover 
the  dorsal  vessel  as  well  as  the  intestine ;  and  he  thinks  they  may 
pour  their  secretion  into  the  perivisceral  cavity.  Lankester  says : — 
"  The  whole  of  the  endothelium  "  {i.e.,  the  whole  of  the  wall  of  the 
perivisceral  cavity,  including,  as  he  views  it,  the  glandular  covering 
in  question)  "  sheds  its  cells  into  that  cavity.  The  cells  are  filled 
with  brownish  granules,  giving  a  colour  to  the  intestinal  tract  that 
is  wholly  wanting  to  the  pharynx  and  oesophagus." 

Before  quitting  our  subject  for  the  present,  we  may  say  that 
d'Udekem  describes  the  nervous  system  as  consisting  of  two 
closely  united  cords,  bifurcating  to  form  the  oesophageal  ring. 
From  the  brain^  two  pairs  of  nerves  were   thought  to  arise.     The 


TUBIFEX  RIVULORUM.  21 

nervous  cords  are  difficult  to  make  out,  and  I  have  only  succeeded 
in  catching  occasional  glimpses  of  them. 

The  reproductive  organs  present  a  complicated  structure,  and 
many  points  of  very  great  interest  j  but  space  is  wanting  here  for 
their  elucidation,  and  they  must  be  reserved  for,  perhaps,  another 
opportunity.  I  trust  that  the  foregoing  remarks  may  enable  some 
of  our  members  to  take  an  interest  in  this  despised  Httle  worm, 
within  whose  tiny  compass  so  many  lessons  of  physiological 
importance  lie  hid. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  L 


Fig.  1. — Webbed  seta  of  Tubifex  umbellifer,  extremity  only. 

,,    2. — Hooked  seta3  of  Tubifex  rivulorum. 

,,    3. — Bristle-sacs  with  muscles. 

,,  4. — Ideal  transverse  section  of  worm,  after  Claparede,  showing — 
a,  the  integument ;  6,  the  layer  of  circular  muscular  fibres  ; 
cc,  the  six  bands  of  longitudinal  muscles  ;  ff,  the  furrows 
between  these  bands  into  which  the  perivisceral  cavity  ex- 
tends ;  j^,  the  perivisceral  cavity  with  its  corpuscules  ;  c?, 
the  dorsal  vessel ;  v,  the  ventral  vessel ;  g,  the  glandular 
hepatic  cells  of  the  intestine  ;  e,  its  inner  vibratile  epi- 
thelium. 

,,    5. — Corpuscules  of  perivisceral  fluid. 

,,  6. — Portion  of  segmental  organ,  after  d'Udekem,  showing 
pouches. 

,,    7. — Tubifex  rivulorum,  slightly  magnified. 

,,    8. — Glandular  hepatic  cells  of  intestine. 

,,  9. — Anterior  segment  of  Tubifex  rivulorum,  after  Mcintosh, 
showing  arrangement  of  blood-vessels  :  d,  the  dorsal ;  v, 
the  ventral  vessel ;  pj>,  the  perivisceral  ;  ii. ,  the  intestinal 
branches. 

,,  10. — Three  segments  of  Tubifex  rivulorum  further  enlarged, 
showing  the  intestine  constricted  by  the  segmental  septa  : 
d,  the  dorsal,  and  v,  the  ventral  vessels.  In  the  first  segment 
the  integument  and  ventral  hooked  setaj,  st,  are  shown  ;  in 
the  second,  the  segmental  organs,  s,  with  their  orifices,  o  ; 
and  in  the  third,  the  perivisceral  corpuscules,  cp. 

,,  11. — Portion  of  segmental  organ  from  eighth  segment  of  Limno- 
drilus  Hofi"meisteri  covered  with  pyriform  glandular  cells. 


[22] 

®n  2)iatom0* 

By  Thomas  Partridge,  M.K.Q.C.P. 

IT  is  not  my  intention  in  this  paper  to  offer  any  description  of 
these    curious    structures,   their   mode    of  growth,   develop- 
ment, or  peculiarities,  all  of  which  have  been  often  explained 
already ;  but  merely  to  give  a  few  disconnected  and  brief  notes 
and  ideas  that  have  been  brought  to  my  notice  lately. 

These  interesting  and  peculiar  organisms  are  found  nearly 
everywhere,  and  though  usually  invisible  to  the  naked  eye,  they 
exist  in  myriads,  and,  as  Pritchard  in  his  "  Infusoria,"  says  (p. 
305),  ^^  Play  a  viore  impoi'tant pa7't  in  fornmig  the  earth's  crust  than 
even  the  gigantic  Satirians  of  the  past.'' 

Diatoms  are  found  in  the  Eocene,  Miocene,  Pliocene,  and 
Chalk  formations,  and  even  the  Oolitic  are  not  zuithoiit  traces  of 
them.  A  deposit  of  diatomaceous  earth  was  found  400  miles 
long  by  120  wide  in  Victoria  Land;  and  the  town  of  Richmond, 
Virginia,  is  built  on  a  bed  of  diatoms  18  feet  deep  and  unlimited 
in  extent.  The  deposits  at  the  bottom  of  lakes  are  composed  of 
this  material,  as  may  easily  be  seen  on  examination  of  the  mud. 
The  polishing  slate  of  Bohemia,  "  Turkey  stone  "  and  "  Rotten 
stone,"  are  composed  chiefly  of  diatoms,  and  in  our  own  country, 
North  Wales,  Ireland,  and  Scotland,  large  deposits  are  found; 
while  in  Sweden  and  Norway,  the  Bergh  Mehl,  or  Mountain-Flour, 
is  composed  of  diatomaceous  earth,  which  is  supposed  to  possess 
some  nutritious  properties.  In  the  last  report  of  the  State  Min- 
eralogist for  California,  Mr.  G.  H.  Hanks  says  that  diatomaceous 
earth  is  being  used  in  that  country  for  numerous  purposes ;  among 
others — 

I. — To  make  Silicate  of  Soda  and  Potash  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  Porcelain. 
2. — Slabs  of  it  are  used  as  absorbents  in  laboratories. 
3. — Floating  bricks  were  used  in  the  time  of  Pliny.     The 
secret  of  making  these  had  been   lost,   but  was  lately 
re-discovered,    diatomaceous    earth    being   mixed    with 
I — ^2oth  part  of  clay  and  burnt.     Specimens  were  to  be 
seen  in  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1878. 
4. — A  lump  of  diatomaceous  earth  fixed  on  to  the  end  of  a 
wire  and  dipped  in  petroleum  makes  a  good  fire-lighter, 
and  can  be  used  over  and  over  again. 
5. — In  Germany,  the  "  flint-froth  "  is  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  dynamite,  as  it  absorbs  four  times  its  weight  of 
nitro-glycerine. 


DIATOMS.  ^3 

6. — In  South  Carolina,  the  land  in  some  places  is  rich  in 
diatoms,  which  is  said  to  account  for  its  fertility,  and  we 
know  that  the  Guano,  so  much  used  in  this  country,  owes 
some  of  its  properties  to  its  diatomaceous  character.  Mr. 
Hanks  also  says  that  it  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  soap; 
and  last  and  most  curious  of  all,  the  well-known  "  Vege- 
table Sozodont  Tooth-Powder  "  is  composed  of  diatoma- 
ceous material,  and  makes  a  good  microscopic  slide. 

All  these  facts  show  how  important  it  is  that  we  should  know 
more  of  diatomaceous  formations  than  we  do,  and  the  study  of 
these  organisms  is  recommended  to  every  beginner  in  microscopic 
work,  as  the  care,  skill,  and  dexterity  requisite  to  resolve  even  the 
simplest  form  give  a  steady  hand,  require  much  perseverance,  and 
make  the  worker  observant  and  a  neat  manipulator. 

To  anyone  so  disposed,  this  locality  (Stroud)  affords  ample 
scope  for  working,  as  there  is  not  a  drain,  ditch,  or  pond  where 
these  structures  may  not  be  found  in  quantities.  When  going  my 
own  rounds,  I  often  take  a  dip  with  my  bottle  and  generally  meet 
with  a  good  reward,  as  so  many  beautiful  forms  exist  without 
going  far  away.  Amongst  a  few  localities  in  which  I  have  col- 
lected are  : — 

Stroud  Upper  Reservoir — Cocconenia  and  Finindaria. 
Seven  Springs,  Bisley — JDiafojna  vulgare  and  GompJwne^na, 
Salmon's  Spring — Synedra  radians,  S.  nobilis,  etc. 
Stratford  Mill  Pond — SiifHrella  and  Pleurosigma. 
Lightpill —  Cocconema  lanceolatiim. 
Pond,  Bowbridge — Pleurosigma,  etc. 
Heven's  Spring — Navicida. 

Some  other  forms  from  different  parts  of  the  world  may  be 
interesting  to  mention ;  for  example,  the  Sozodont  Tooth-Powder 
before  alluded  to.  This  diatomaceous  deposit  comes  from  Vir- 
ginia City,  near  Nevada,  California ;  and  in  addition  to  its  use  as 
a  dentifrice  is  applied  to  the  manufacture  of  what  is  known  as 
'•''Rock  Soap"  and  the  ^^ Electoric  Silicon."  From  Nevada  City, 
Maryland,  U.S.,  we  get  forms  of  a  similar  character  to  the  so- 
called  Bermuda  earth  (New  Nottingham  deposit).  Coming  nearer 
home,  a  deposit  from  the  Humber  pond-beds,  and  another  from 
the  Thames  mud,  both  show  fine  forms  of  diatoms. 

Mr.  Kitton  has  sent  me  some  Bergh  Mehl,  or  "  rock-flour,"  a 
term  applied  to  diatomaceous  deposits,  especially  of  fresh-water 
origin ;  also  called  Keeselgiirh,  a  miner's  term  for  wet  or  sloppy 
layers.     It  is  also  called  Essebare  Erden^  on  account  of  being 


24  DIATOMS. 

used  as  flour  by  the  Lapps,  Indians,  and  Chinese,  in  times  of 
dearth.  Bergh  Mehl  is  an  indefinite  term,  and  applied  to  all 
diatomaceous  deposits  of  the  same  character  as  those  in  Norway 
and  Sweden.  These  two  are  exceedingly  interesting,  and  one  is 
composed  entirely  of  diatoms,  as  may  be  seen  under  the  micro- 
scope. 

By  this  short  list,  we  see  that  many  different  forms  are  to  be 
found  in  certain  localities,  and  it  occurs  to  me  to  enquire  whether 
there  are  any  conditions  of  soil  or  water  to  which  these  peculiari- 
ties are  owing ;  for  instance,  why  do  we  get  polygonal  forms  in 
one  place  and  a  rounded  or  semi-circular  form  in  another  ? 

Circular  forms  are  more  abundant  in  sea-water.  The  Rev. 
W.  L.  Smith,  in  his  "  Synopsis,"  says  that  "  The  discoidal  forms 
of  diatoms  constitute  about  30  per  cent,  of  the  total  number  of 
genera — the  polygonal  forms  about  10  per  cent. — and  the  remain- 
der have  more  or  less  of  a  Navicula  contour."  Most  of  the  fresh- 
water genera  are  represented  in  brackish  and  in  sea  water,  and  by 
far  the  larger  proportion  of  discoidal  and  polygonal  forms  are 
marine.  The  presence  of  Silica  in  water  has  much  to  do  with 
the  robustness  of  the  diatoms.  I  fancy  that  I  have  noticed,  in 
some  instances,  that  the  harder  the  water  the  more  elongated  in 
shape  are  the  diatoms,  but  of  this  I  am  not  yet  satisfied. 

But  all  of  these  organisms  are  worthy  of  notice.  Being  so 
numerous,  no  doubt  they  play  some  important  part  in  Nature's 
economy,  as  w^hen  living  they  assimilate  and  appropriate  the 
soluble  constituents  of  the  water,  especially  Silica.  They  give  off, 
also,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  living  specimens,  a  large  quantity  of 
Oxygen,  that  must  not  only  impregnate  the  water,  but  as  it  is  one 
of  Nature's  purifiers,  must  assist  likewise  in  keeping  it  pure  and 
wholesome  by  the  oxygenation  of  its  constituents.  This  suggests 
the  thought,  "  Would  not  the  presence  of  so  much  Silica  make  it 
an  excellent  filtering  medium  ? "'  We  know  how  well  the  Silica- 
filters  do  their  work,  and  if  diatomaceous  earth  could  be  obtained 
in  sufficient  quantities,  it  would  no  doubt  make  a  good  filtering 
medium  by  being  first  burnt,  and  then  mixed  with  the  usual 
proportion  of  carbon. 

I  hope,  by  these  few  and  unconnected  remarks,  that 
some  will  be  led  to  look  more  after,  and  investigate  these 
beautiful  and  wonderful  structures.  If  we  just  think  that 
one  of  these  little  objects  requires  a  power  of  400  or  500 
diameters  at  least,  to  show  anything  like  its  structure,  and  that  it 
exists  in  millions  and  millions  in  our  rivers,  lakes,  and  streams, 
and  is  playing  such  an  important  part  in  the  world's  history,  we 
shall  then  see  the  value  of  studying  them,  not  simply  straining 
our  eyes  to  resolve  dots,  and  holding  long  arguments  as  to 


FORAMINIFERA.  25 

whether  they  are  elevations  or  depressions,  or  whether  the 
fracture  be  transverse  or  obUque  ;  but  rather  studying  them  in 
their  Geological,  Physiological,  and  Physiographical  aspect,  which 
will  not,  in  my  opinion,  fail  to  prove  both  interesting  and  useful. 


Ibow  to  prepare  foraminifera* 


First  Paper. 

THERE  are  probably  few  cabinets  of  microscopical  slides 
which  do  not  contain  specimens  of  the  Foraminifera. 
The  simplicity,  the  complexity^  the  great  variety  of  struc- 
ture, added  to  the  extreme  beauty,  of  these  minute  shells,  have 
ever  caused  them  to  find  a  place  amongst  the  many  "  odd 
things "  which  the  microscopist  delights  to  own.  Until  quite 
recently,  a  very  general  ignorance  prevailed  as  to  what  these 
shells  really  were.  This  has  been  somewhat  broken  into  of  late 
by  the  impetus  which  has  been  given  to  their  study,  owing  to 
their  connection  with  the  very  lowest  forms  of  animal  life,  and  to 
the  yet  very  important  part  they  play  in  making  up  the  shell  of 
the  globe  on  which  we  and  they  live. 

The  object  of  this  paper  being  to  give  such  information  as 
will  assist  students  to  obtain  and  to  prepare  these  organisms  for 
the  microscope,  any  disquisition  as  to  zuhat  they  are  would  be 
foreign  to  such  a  purpose. 

Foraminifera  are  essentially  marine,  and  may  be  found  on 
almost  every  sea-coast,  although  a  few  species  exist  which  belong 
to  brackish  water.  In  some  places  they  abound  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  compose  nine-tenths  of  the  shore  material,  and  may 
there  be  gathered  by  the  ton.  The  best  time  for  shore-collecting 
is  at  the  lowest  low-water,  when,  by  means  of  a  spoon,  or,  better 
far,  the  half  of  a  razor-shell,  the  surface  of  the  sand  between  the 
ripple-marks  may  be  gently  scraped  off  and  bagged;  or,  the 
whitish  lines  and  streaks  left  by  the  receding  tide  on  the  sand ; 
or,  again,  the  white  lines  left  on  rock  surfaces  by  the  high-tide, 
may  be  so  treated.  Shore  debris  is  generally  rich  in  Foraminifera. 
Sponge-sand  \  the  sand  often  found  in  large  sea-shells ;  what  is 
known  as  coral-sand ;  the  "  dust "  which  shakes  off  dried  sea- 
weeds which  have  been  dredged  from  the  bottom  of  the  sea — all 
these  are  sure  to  contain  a  greater  or  smaller  proportion  of 


26  FORAMINIFERA. 

Foraminifera,  Ostracoda,  and  other  microzoa.  The  surface  of 
muddy,  oozy  sea-shores  is  mostly  pecuharly  rich  in  these  delicate 
shells.  They  also  occur,  in  some  instances  plentifully,  in  sea- 
soundings  at  all  depths ;  in  the  mud  deposited  at  the  mouth  of  all 
tidal  rivers  ;  in  the  mud  and  marl  found  in  the  "  raised  beaches  " 
(which  are  far  from  uncommon),  though  sometimes  many  feet 
above  the  present  sea-level,  and,  it  may  be,  miles  away  from  the 
sea.  What  is  known  as  "  Estuarine  Clay  "  and  "  Boulder  Clay  " 
is  often  richly  stored  with  them. 

In  all  the  above,  the  Foraminifera  present  pretty  nearly  the 
same  appearance,  as  a  rule,  and  may,  for  the  purposes  of  this 
paper,  be  regarded  as  "recent." 

Fossil  Foraminifera  are  abundant  in  almost  every  clay  found 
in  the  Lias,  in  the  London  Clay,  in*  the  Suffolk  Crag,  in  the 
Carboniferous  Limestones  and  Shales,  and  in  the  Chalk,  being 
especially  well  preserved  in  the  soft  powder  found  in  the  interior 
of  the  large  flint  nodules  called  "  Paramoudras,"  of  which  I  shall 
speak  in  a  future  paper.* 

The  methods  adopted  for  separating  the  Foraminifera  from 
the  materials  in  which  they  occur  vary  according  to  the  character 
of  that  material,  the  "  recent  "  requiring  very  different  treatment 
to  the  "fossil."  All  recent  Foraminifera  being  full  of  air  when 
dry,  will  (except  the  very  large  ones)  float  in  water ;  but  all  fossil 
Foraminifera,  being  generally  solid  casts  more  than  simple  shells, 
sink  to  the  bottom.  By  availing  ourselves  of  this  power  of  float- 
ing, we  secure  with  very  little  trouble  a  ready  means  of  separating 
the  shells  of  the  Foraminifera,  Ostracoda,  etc.,  from  the  sand  with 
which  they  are  generally  intermixed,  and  thus  reduce  what  would 
otherwise  be  a  most  tedious  and  difficult  operation,  involving  an 
enormous  sacrifice  of  time,  into  one  which  is  at  once  simple, 
easy,  rapid,  and  satisfactory,  and  which  is  performed  somewhat  as 
follows  :  — 

To  obtain  recent  Foraminifera  from  sa;id,  such  as  shore- 
gatherings,  dredgings,  etc. 

If  wet  and  fresh,  stir  up  in  plenty  of  cold,  fresh  water,  in 
order  to  remove  as  much  of  the  salt  as  possible,  and  if  time  is 
no  object,  allow  to  stand  all  night,  so  as  to  soak  out  all  the  salt. 
Skim  off  everything  that  floats,  picking  out  bits  of  weed  and  such- 
like, and  examine  the  same  for  any  forms  which  may  be  adhering 
to  them.  This  washing  may  be  most  easily  done  on  a  very  fine 
sieve,  which  can  be  put  into  a  large  pan  and  kept  under  a  tap  of 

*  Paramoudra  is  the  name  given  to  the  large,  irregularly  cylindrical,  but  really 
amorphous  masses  of  flint,  large  as  a  chimney-pot,  often  found  in  chalk,  two, 
three,  four,  or  more,  one  over  the  other,  something  like  a  chimney-stack !  What 
these  were  is  not  yet  known. 


FOEAMINIFERA.  27 

An  excellent  substitute  for  the  sieve  is  a  good^ 
fine  linen  handkerchief  {ivithout  holes  in  it),  stretched  across  a 
colander  so  as  to  make  a  deep  basin  in  it.  The  best  material  for 
the  sieve  is  miller's  silk-gauze,  i8o  threads  to  the  inch,  which  is 
very  strong  and  durable  ;  if  fewer  threads  than  this  per  inch, 
minute  forms  will  slip  through  and  be  lost.  When  the  salt  is 
washed  out,  dry  the  sand  perfectly,  in  any  convenient  way,  and 
allow  it  to  get  quite  cold,  after  which  it  should  be  passed  through 
a  fine  sieve  (No.  50  or  60),  or  a  vejy  fine  gravy-strainer.  The 
"  coarse  material "  which  does  not  pass  through  the  sieve  should 
be  examined,  as  most  of  the  larger  forms,  which  would  not 
"  float "  in  the  subsequent  process,  will  be  found  in  it. 

The  Foraminifera  are  separated  from  the  fine,  or  sifted, 
material,  as  follows  : — 

Procure  a  deep  vessel,  holding  about  three  or  four  pints,  such 
as  a  wz/;^^-bottomed  (not  flat)  milk-basin,  or  a  common  two-quart 
tin,  with  a  lip,  into  which  pour  a  cupful  of  the  fine  material,  and 
then  fill  with  clean,  fresh,  cold  water,  up  to  about  half-an-inch 
from  the  top.  Stir  this  well  with  a  spoon,  breaking  all  bubbles 
which  may  arise,  and  then  allow  all  to  stand  for  one  or  two 
minutes  for  the  sand  to  settle.  The  Foraminifera,  having  their 
chamberlets  full  of  air,  will  be  found  floating  on  the  surface  of  the 
water  like  a  scum,  and  may  be  easily  poured  into  a  filter  by 
tilting  the  basin  towards  the  spout  or  lip,  and  gently  blowing  the 
surface  at  the  same  time.  A  very  little  practice  will  teach  how  to 
do  this  so  as  to  remove,  by  this  operation,  little  more  than  the 
scum  itself.  The  dij  finger  should  then  be  gently  carried  round 
the  edge  of  the  basin,  with  a  sort  of  revolving  motion  (so  as  not 
to  crush  the  delicate  shells),  to  remove  those  adhering  to  the  side, 
and  these,  by  means  of  a  "  washing-bottle,"  or  other  gentle  stream 
of  water,  may  be  washed  off  the  finger  into  the  filter.  Fresh 
material  may  be  added,  and  thus  "  floated  "  until  all  the  gathering 
has  passed  through  the  process.  It  is  well  not  to  let  the  basin  get 
more  than  half-filled  with  sand.  Each  cupful  of  this  should  be 
well  stirred  up  two  or  three  times  so  as  to  secure  all  the  shells 
that  will  float,  but  of  course  the  greater  part  floats  with  the  first 
stirring.  It  is  desirable  to  float  all  the  water  off  the  sand  through 
the  filter,  so  as  to  catch  everything. 

The  sand  left  in  the  basin  may  then  be  put  on  a  soup- 
plate,  and  should  be  well  shaken,  by  slapping  the  outside  with  the 
hand,  which  will  cause  most  of  the  larger  forms  which  have  not 
floated,  and  are  still  buried  in  it,  to  come  up  to  the  top,  whence 
they  may  be  easily  skimmed  by  means  of  a  teaspoon.  These 
should  be  kept  separate  from  the  "  floatings." 

The  "  floating "  being  finished,  let  the  filter-paper  drain  to 


28  FORAIkllNIFERA. 

the  bottom,  and  then,  by  means  of  a  "  washing-bottle  "  (or  its 
equivalent),  begin  at  the  top,  and  wash  the  shells  to  the  bottom 
of  the  filter,  using  as  little  water  as  may  be.  The  filter  must  then 
be  carefully  and  perfectly  dried,  after  which  the  "  floatings  "  are 
ready  for  examination.  If  the  different  operations  just  described 
have  been  properly  performed,  the  Foraminifera  will  be  found 
clean  and  bright,  and  fit  for  mounting. 

Sometimes,  however,  it  happens  that  a  quantity  of  minute 
fragments  of  algae,  or  vegetable  matter,  which  was  present  in  the 
"  gathering,"  has  also  floated — which  quantity  may  be  much  in 
excess  of  the  shells,  and  may  even  be  firmly  adherent  to  them. 
This  may  be  almost,  if  not  entirely,  removed,  by  carefully 
boiling  the  floatings  (after  drying),  in  the  common  liqtwr-potassce, 
strength  B.P.,  as  sold  by  chemists,  after  which  the  floatings  must 
be  well  washed  in  clean  water,  so  as  to  remove  every  trace  of 
the  potash  (boiling  in,  at  least,  two  waters  is  best),  then  dried, 
re-floated  in  a  beaker,  and  dried  again.  The  result  will  always 
amply  repay  for  the  additional  trouble  it  entails.  The  floatings 
are  best  kept  in  flat,  "  shouldered  "  pill-boxes,  care  being  taken 
to  label  each  lot  as  it  is  done,  so  as  to  avoid  mistakes  respecting 
locality,  etc. 

It  will  sometimes  be  found,  where  the  sand  is  very  fine, 
{e.g.^  sponge-sand),  that  the  air  clings  so  tenaciously  to  its  surfaces, 
that  a  quantity  of  it  will  also  float  with  the  Foraminifera.  I 
have  frequently  overcome  this  annoyance  by  blowing  off  the 
floatings  into  a  pint  beaker-glass,  and  after  nearly  filling  this, 
have  well  stirred  all  up,  and  allowed  a  sort  of  second  floating 
to  occur,  by  waiting  four  or  five  minutes,  and  then  blowing  off 
the  scum  from  the  beaker  into  a  filter-paper,  which  was  dried, 
etc.,  as  before  described.  But  when  doing  this — and  it  is  often 
worth  doing — the  sand  which  settles  to  the  bottom  of  the  beaker 
should  also  be  dried  and  examined,  as  generally  it  will  be  found 
to  contain  many  shells. 

The  various  operations  just  described  may  be  now  summed  up 
thus  (for  Shore-sand  and  such  like) : — 

I. — Well  wash  in  fresh  water  to  remove  the  salt. 

2. — Dry  perfectly^  and  allow  to  get  cold. 

3. — Sift  (sieve  No.  50  or  60). 

4. — Float  the  fine  material  in  cold,  fresh  water. 

5. — Dry  the  floatings. 
Perhaps  it  may  also  be  found  needful  to — 

6. — Boil  the  floatings  in  liquor-potassa',  B.P. 

7. —  Wash  away  every  trace  of  potash. 

8.— Dry. 

9. — Re-float  in  a  beaker. 
10. — Dry  again,  ready  for  mounting. 


LICHENS.  29 

This  process,  though  seemingly  tedious,  is  one  which  can  be 
confidently  recommended,  as  ensuring  success,  if  followed  with 
ordinary  care. 

The  next  Paper  wdll  detail  the  means  by  which  Foraminifera 
are  obtained  when  embedded  in  mud,  clay,  etc. 

Charles  Elcock. 
Belfast 


A  Paper  read  before  the  Stroud  Natural   History   and 
Philosophical  Society,  by  the  Rev.  H.  P.  Reader. 


THOUGH  the  study  of  the  flowering  plants,  at  least  in  a 
superficial  way,  is  very  general  in  these  days,  it  is  still  a 
fact  that  the  investigation  of  the  Natural  Orders  of  what 
are  known  as  flowerless  plants,  or  Cryptogams,  is  by  no  means 
popular.  This  is  sufiEiciently  to  be  accounted  for  by  the  difficul- 
ties which  the  Cryptogamic  Orders  undoubtedly  present,  by  the 
comparative  absence  of  introductory  or  popular  literature  on  the 
subject,  and  not  a  Httle,  perhaps,  by  the  absolute  necessity  of 
careful  microscopic  work  in  this  department  of  botany,  which 
renders  it  formidable  to  many,  and  out  of  the  reach  of  some. 
This  being  the  case,  those  who  are  already  familiar  scientifically 
with  the  Lichens  will  pardon  me  if  I  premise  my  remarks  on  the 
Lichen-Flora  of  our  neighbourhood,  by  an  explanation  of  these 
plants  for  the  benefit  of  a  possible  majority  who  are  not  so 
familiar  with  them. 

Lichens,  then,  form  a  Natural  Order  of  flowerless  plants, 
composed  of  cellular  tissue  alone,  and  are  generally  considered  to 
hold  an  intermediate  place  between  the  Algae  (or  Order  to  which 
the  Seaweeds  belong)  and  the  Fungi — approaching  the  former 
chiefly  by  the  Gelatinous  Lichens,  and  having  the  closest  affinity 
with  those  Fungi  of  which  the  spores  are  enclosed  in  cases. 
Those  Lichens  which  are  most  familiar  to  the  eye,  clothing  espe- 
cially the  trunks  and  boughs  of  trees,  appear  to  consist  prin- 
cipally of  what  may  be  termed  a  membranous  expanse  of  a 
hoary-grey,  yellowish,   or   greenish   colour,    variously   lobed   and 


30  LICHENS. 

indented  at  the  edges,  or  pendent  in  long,  somewhat  rigid,  and 
beard-like  filaments.  This  membranous  substance  of  various 
form  is  called  the  thalliis^  and  represents  a  very  well-known  and 
common,  but  by  no  means  universal,  thalline  form.  Many  thalli 
are  scaly,  or  scurfy,  or  powdery,  or  gelatinous ;  and  many  again 
exist  only  during  the  early  stages  of  the  Lichen's  life,  disappear- 
ing completely  eventually.  Still,  all  Lichens,  with  the  exception 
of  a  few  parasitic  species,  have  a  thallus  of  one  kind  or  another, 
at  least  for  a  time ;  and  all  thalli  have  much  the  same  structure. 
Three  distinct  layers  are  almost  always  present,  called  respec- 
tively the  cortical,  gonidial,  and  medullary  layers.  The  cortical 
layer  forms  the  upper  surface — the  bark,  as  it  were — of  the 
thallus,  and  is  composed  of  minute  cells  closely  compacted 
together.  Beneath  this  is  the  gonidial  layer,  consisting  of  a 
series  of  cells,  filled  with  a  green  colouring  matter,  which  seem 
to  lie  close  together,  but  without  any  actual  union,  and  which  are 
called  gonidia.  These  gonidia,  which  have  the  power  of 
reproduction  by  bisection,  or  splitting  into  parts  (like  many 
Algae),  are  at  the  present  day  the  subject  of  very  warm  discus- 
sion amongst  cryptogamic  botanists,  and  upon  them  is  based  a 
controversy  which  affects  so  important  a  point  as  the  right  of 
Lichens  to  rank  as  a  distinct  order  of  plants.  No  adequate 
distinction  has  hitherto  been  recognised  between  the  Lichens  and 
the  Fungi,  except  the  presence  in  the  former  of  those  spherical 
green  bodies ;  and  a  theory  has  of  late  years  been  broached,  and 
obtained  some  adherents,  that  these  gonidia  are  in  reality  uni- 
cellular Algae,  upon  which  various  Fungi,  constituting  the  residue 
of  the  so-called  Lichens,  are  parasitic.  According  to  this 
dual  theory  of  Lichens,  as  it  has  been  termed,  these  plants  are 
merely  a  composition  of  Algae  and  Fungi ;  and  if  it  has  met  with 
some  clever  exponents  and  defenders,  it  still  lies  open  to  very 
serious  objections,  and  is  considered  untenable  by  many  of  our 
leading  cryptogamists. 

There  still  remains  the  medullary  layer — a  mass  of  colour- 
less, interwoven  filaments,  from  which,  in  many  of  the  foliaceous 
species,  root-like  organs  spring,  serving  to  attach  the  plant  firmly 
to  the  substance  on  which  it  grows.  A  vertical  section  through 
the  thallus  of  Peltigei^a  canuia — a  large,  membranous  Lichen  of 
an  olive-green  colour,  turned  up  with  brown,  to  describe  it 
roughly — shows  these  layers  readily  under  the  microscope.  Where 
the  air  is  unfavourable  to  the  growth  of  Lichens — and  these 
plants  never  flourish  where  the  atmosphere  is  impure — masses  or 
communities  of  gonidia  will  increase  and  form  pseudo-thalli ; 
but  the  reproduction  of  the  perfect  Lichen  is  effected  by  special 
organs — spermatia  and  sporidia,  enclosed  in  special  receptacles — 
spermogotiia  and  apothccia.     The  spermogonia   are  usually  very 


LICHENS.  31 

minute  and  inconspicuous  tubercular  bodies  on  the  surface  of  the 
thallus,  hned  internally  with  the  cylindrical,  straight,  or  curved 
spermatia,  whose  office  it  is  to  fertiUse  the  spores.  The  apo- 
thecia,  on  the  other  hand,  are  easily  detected  by  the  eye  in 
most  cases.  A  common  yellow  Lichen,  forming  circular  patches 
on  most  of  our  walls,  is  seen  to  be  studded  with  reddish  shields 
or  targets,  the  apothecia  of  the  plant,  containing  numerous 
colourless,  pear-shaped  vessels,  which  in  their  turn  enclose  the 
spores.  These  cases,  known  as  asci  or  thecae,  are  surrounded  by 
filaments  called  paraphyses,  which  are  welded  together  more  or 
less  firmly  by  a  gelatinous  substance,  and  which  serve  to  protect 
the  thecae. 

The  appearance  which  the  apothecia  present  differs  widely  in 
different  genera,  though  the  internal  structure  is  much  the  same  in 
all,  and  amongst  our  own  Lichens  we  may  easily  collect  types  of 
the  principal  variations.  The  shield-like  form,  to  which  I  have 
alluded,  is  common.  Again,  certain  apothecia  resemble  shallow 
cavities,  or  cups,  sunk  in  the  substance  of  the  thallus.  In  the 
large  genus  Verj-ucaria,  the  apothecium  is  entirely  covered  by  an 
integument  known  as  the  perithecium^  which  gives  it  a  remarkably 
convex  appearance,  and  eventually  opens  by  a  pore,  through  which 
the  spores  escape.  The  genus  Pertiisaria^  common  on  trees 
about  us,  is  in  reality  one  of  the  most  abundantly  fertile  of  our 
British  genera,  and  has  spores  of  enormous  dimensions,  com- 
paratively speaking; — but  the  apothecia  might  easily  be  passed 
over,  and  the  Lichen  regarded  as  sterile,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
tubercles  composed  of  thalline  substance  almost  completely 
envelope  them.  But  by  far  the  most  remarkable  fructification  is 
that  of  the  GrapJiidece.  A  close  observer  of  the  tree-trunks  in 
our  beech-woods  will  have  noticed  pale  spots  on  the  bark, 
definitely  bounded  by  darker  lines,  upon  which  are  traced  most 
singular  markings,  which  can  forcibly  be  compared  to  the  letters 
of  the  alphabet  of  some  Oriental  language.  These  weird  and 
mysterious-looking  characters  are  in  reality  the  apothecia  of  the 
genera  Graphis  and  Opegrapha — sometimes  simple,  often  con- 
fluent, branched,  and  radiate,  and  always  much  elongated. 
Such  specific  names,  as  Graphis  scripta  (the  Lichen  scripiiis  of 
Linnaeus)  and  Graphis  sophistica,  reproduce  the  impression 
conveyed  by  these  curious  forms. 

Lastly,  I  may  mention  the  odd  little  stalked  fructification  of 
the  genus  Calicium,  which  is  very  fungoid  in  appearance  and 
structure.  The  thecce,  or  spore  cases,  are  usually  pear-shaped  or 
flagon-shaped ;  but  the  spores  themselves  vary  considerably  in 
shape,  size,  structure,  colour,  and  number :  the  number  in  each 
theca  being,  however,  almost  constantly  the  same  in  each 
individual   of    a   species.      They  may    be   egg-shaped,    elliptic, 


32  LICHENS. 

spindle-shaped,    linear,    pointed    at  both    ends  or  only  at  one, 

constricted  in  the  middle,  or  nearly  globular.     Most  of  them  are 

straight,  but  others  are  curved,  or  even  spirally  twisted.     Some 

are  simple  (or  undivided),    whilst    many   have   one,   three,  five, 

seven,  or  more  numerous  divisions.     A  very  large  proportion  are 

colourless,  but  not  a  few  are  yellowish,  brownish,  or  nearly  black. 

I   have   thus   summarised   the   leadino-  features   and  distinc- 
.  .  .  ^ 

tions  of  the  various  parts  of  a  Lichen,  having  purposely  confined 

myself  to  such  genera  as  are  represented  locally. 

It  is  an  undoubted  fact  that  a  pure,  keen  air,  and  espe- 
cially the  salt  sea  breezes,  are  highly  conducive  to  the  growth 
and  fertility  of  these  plants.  To  see  them  in  their  highest 
perfection  and  greatest  abundance,  we  should  have  to  seek  cUffs 
and  mountains  such  as  we  do  not  possess  here.  However,  if  we 
cannot  boast  of  such  a  Lichen-Flora  as  adorns  the  Welsh 
mountains,  or  the  Cornish  sea-boards,  we  have  still  one  quite 
varied  and  ample  enough  to  provide  the  student  with  working 
matter  for  many  a  day.  The  British  Lichens  are  by  the  most 
recent  authorities  divided  into  76  genera,  comprising  in  round 
numbers  some  2,000  species.  Some  of  these  genera  are  very 
large,  and  the  species  composing  them  not  readily  to  be  dis- 
tinguished without  long  and  minute  examination.  I  am  not  at 
present  in  a  position  to  estimate,  satisfactorily  to  myself,  the 
number  of  species  which  our  neighbourhood  may  possess.  I 
have,  however,  myself  collected  examples  of  at  least  one-third 
of  the  76  genera,  within  three  or  four  miles  of  Stroud — which, 
all  things  considered,  seems  a  very  fair  proportion.  As  time 
goes  on,  many  new  discoveries  and  additions  may  confidently  be 
expected,  especially  if  fresh  workers  should  present  themselves 
in  this  much-neglected  field  of  botanical  knowledge.  As  an 
encouraging  fact,  I  may  mention  that,  at  any  rate,  one  Lichen, 
new  to  science,  has  been  added  of  late  years  to  our  local  Flora. 

Excepting  those  Lichens  which  are  of  world-wide  distri- 
bution— such  as  the  common  yellow  Placodium  murorufn, 
which  ranges  from  Britain  to  Australia,  from  Patagonia  to 
Labrador — I  should  characterise  our  own  Lichen-Flora  as  being 
pretty  strictly  of  the  N.  European  type.  More  southern  forms, 
however,  approach  so  close  to  us  as  the  St.  Vincent's  Rocks  at 
Clifton,  and  some  of  them  may  probably  be  found  nearer  home. 
Our  most  numerous  and  best-developed  Lichens  are  saxatile 
or  stone-loving — -clothing  walls  in  exposed  situations,  such  as 
Selsley  Hill,  or  Minchinhampton  Common,  with  various  tints  of 
yellow  and  grey.  The  arboreal,  or  tree-forms,  are  not  so  abun- 
dant, nor  by  any  means  so  generally  fertile.  Beech-trees,  of 
which  our  woods  are  mainly  composed,  are  not  great  favourites 
with  these  plants;    indeed,  they   seem   often  to  remain  perma- 


LICHENS.  3S 

nently  in  a  gonidial  state  on  their  trunks,  or  instead  of  producing 
apothecia,  develope  only  those  white  pulverulent  masses  known 
as  soredia.  Oaks,  provided  damp  or  want  of  sunlight  do  not 
stand  in  the  way,  usually  repay  research ;  and  Ash-trees  are  almost 
invariably  clothed  with  Lichens.  Wall-tops  coated  with  mud 
produce  some  terrestrial  forms,  including  Feltigera,  which  spreads 
in  large  patches,  greenish  when  wet,  grey  when  dry,  and  bearing 
numerous  chestnut-coloured  apothecia  on  the  edges.  Collema 
may  be  found  there,  too,  a  gelatinous  genus  with  no  cortical  layer. 
But  Lichens  which  grow  on  earth  are  by  no  means  numerous 
with  us.  Turfy  and  sandy  soils  are  what  they  chiefly  affect,  and 
these  are  precisely  what  we  do  not  possess.  Bceomyces  riifus^ 
however — a  terrestrial  Lichen,  having  a  bluish-white,  pulverulent 
thallus,  and  stalked,  pinkish  apothecia — occurs  with  one  of  the 
scarlet-fruited  Cup-Lichens  {Cladonia  digitata)  on  a  certain  piece 
of  ferny  ground  on  the  outskirts  of  Woodchester  Park,  which  has 
in  other  respects  a  very  peculiar  and  distinct  flora  of  its  own. 
Our  hill-sides  produce  the  Reindeer  Lichen — well-known  as  form- 
ing the  principal  food  of  that  animal  during  Scandinavian  winters 
— and  two  or  three  allied  species  in  some  abundance. 

Amongst  the  localities  easily  attainable  from  Stroud,  though 
rather  outside  the  radius  I  have  been  considering,  Oakley  Park, 
Sapperton  and  Hailey  Woods,  and  the  stone  wall  separating  the 
Berkeley  Canal  from  the  Severn  at  Sharpness  Point,  deserve 
special  recommendation. 

The  student  of  Lichens  must  remember  that  these  plants  are 
not  always  easily  seen,  and  careful  scrutiny  will  often  detect  their 
presence  abundantly,  where  at  first  sight  they  seem  to  be  wanting. 
A  pocket-lens  for  examining  bark  and  stones  will  be  found  useful, 
and  rainy  weather  has  at  least  this  advantage — that  it  renders 
them  more  conspicuous.  They  share  with  mosses  this  recommen- 
dation— that  after  being  collected  they  may  be  set  aside  without 
anxiety,  to  be  examined  at  any  convenient  opportunity.  After 
months,  or  even  years,  they  can  be  restored  to  their  pristine 
condition  by  a  few  drops  of  water. 

As  regards  their  examination,  a  general  view  of  the  thallus 
can  be  taken  with  an  ordinary  magnifying-glass ;  but  for  inves- 
tigating the  internal  structure,  the  microscope  is  essential.  Where 
a  section  cannot  be  made,  a  small  fragment  of  an  apothecium 
should  be  placed  on  a  sHde  in  a  drop  of  hydrate  of  potash,  with 
a  covering-glass  over  it.  When  this  fragment  has  become  well 
moistened,  it  must  be  rubbed  down  till  it  becomes  transparent, 
when  a  good  quarter-inch  objective  will  show  the  internal  organs. 
The  colour,  shape,  size,  and  internal  divisions  (if  any)  of  the 
spores  can  then  be  observed,  and  the  presence  or  absence  of 
paraphyses  noted.     In    examining   spores,   accurate   focussing  is 

c 


34  AN  HOUR  AT 

very  necessary,  and  the  student  should  not  content  himself  with 
observing  only  one  or  two.  The  number  of  divisions,  or  septa, 
often  mark  out  large  groups  of  species  in  the  more  extensive 
genera,  and  their  extreme  tenuity  causes  them  to  be  easily 
overlooked.  I  have  noticed  that  apparent  septa  are  often 
produced  in  really  simple  spores  by  the  presence  of  green  nuclei ; 
but  careful  examination  will  reveal  their  true  character. 


an  Ibour  at  tbe  fliMcroacope, 

Mitb  /IDr»  XTuffen  Mest,  ff.X»S,,  ff.1R,/ID,S.,  etc 


Plates  2  and  3. 

|"T  TNDER  this  heading  it  is  proposed  to  give,  in  successive 
L  vJ  numbers  of  the  Journal,  selections  from  the  full  and  varied 
Notes  written  by  Mr.  West  on  the  numerous  slides  which 
passed  through  his  hands  whilst  President  of  the  Society.  They 
will  serve  to  show,  in  his  own  words,  his  general  method  of 
dealing  with  a  box  of  sHdes,  his  arrangement  of  their  contents, 
his  kindly  criticisms,  his  genial  and  instructive  comments  upon 
each  object  passed  in  review  before  him,  as  well  as  the  vast 
stores  of  information  which  he  had  ever  at  command  on  every 
subject  connected  with  the  Microscope.  The  long  and  serious 
illness  that  has  for  the  present  laid  him  entirely  aside  from  all 
work,  and  deprived  the  Society  of  his  valuable  help,  is  an  event 
deeply  to  be  lamented,  not  by  this  Society  alone,  but  by  all 
who  are  interested  in  Microscopic  pursuits. 

Let  us,  then,  as  it  were,  go  with  Mr.  West  into  his  study, 
and  look  on  while  he  examines  a  box  just  arrived,  and  hear  what 
he  has  to  say  respecting  its  contents.] 

It  will,  perhaps,  be  advantageous  if  I  here  make  a  few 
remarks  on  the  most  profitable  way  of  studying  the  contents  of 
our  Postal  Boxes.  The  world  of  natural  objects  is  practically 
infinite  : — Method,  Arrangement,  Classification,  are,  therefore, 
absolutely  necessary  as  aids  to  remembrance.  Without  such, 
the  most  gigantic  powers  of  memory  fall  helpless ;  with  them,  by 


THE    MICROSCOPE.  35 

judicious  grouping  of  facts,  the  task  becomes  practicable  even  to 
ordinary  minds,  and  increasingly  delightful  as  the  hidden  links  in 
the  plan  of  "  The  Master  Builder,"  which  connect  one  form  with 
another,  become  gradually  unfolded.  Hence  it  is,  that  in  all 
modern  works  on  natural  history,  so  prominent  a  place  is  assigned 
to  the  subject  of  classification.  Authors  in  their  preparation  find 
it  requisite  to  carefully  collate  their  facts ;  taking  first  the  simplest 
and  most  rudimentary,  they  proceed  thence  to  those  whose 
organisation  becomes  increasingly  elaborate. 

I  regret  very  much  to  find,  even  yet,  so  little  appearance  of 
thought,  on  the  part  of  many  of  our  members,  as  to  what  they 
shall  put  into  our  boxes,  when  the  favoured  opportunity  comes  for 
so  doing.  It  seems  to  me  as  if  a  glance  were  taken  at  the 
Cabinet,  and  almost  the  first  thing  to  meet  the  eye  were  put  into 
circulation.  Or  it  may  be  that  one  of  the  last-mounted  is  con- 
sidered, without  any  idea  of  connection  with  what  may  have  gone 
before,  to  sufiiciently  meet  the  need  of  placing  something  in. 
This  would  be  natural  at  first.  But  could  we  not  now  aim  at 
something  better  ?  There  will  always,  with  real  workers,  be 
abundance  of  material  to  show,  for  the  sake  of  its  novelty.  But 
many  of  our  slides  can  scarcely,  without  any  approach  to  fairness, 
come  under  such  a  heading ;  though  they  may  sometimes  be 
given  m  further  elucidation  of  subjects  already  partially  shown. 

In  the  list  upon  which  these  remarks  are  based,*  it  will  be 
seen  that  mineral  or  geological  slides  are  placed  first.  Diatomacese, 
as  representing  some  of  the  humblest  vegetable  forms,  and  so  largely 
impregnated  with  mineral  matter,  follow.  Next  to  these  come, 
cuticular  appendages  of  higher  plants,  and  starch  as  amongst 
"  Cell-contents."  Then  we  have  a  Hydroid  Zoophyte,  and  one  of 
the  Molluscoid-Bryozoa  ;  which,  with  much  external  similarity  of 
form,  yet  possess,  in  rudimentary  nervous  system  (with  some  at 
any  rate),  an  anal  outlet,  a  decidedly  higher  type  of  organisation. 
This  juxta-position  leads  to  reflection  on  the  reason  why  forms 
that  seem  so  nearly  related,  require  to  be  widely  separated.  As 
examples  of  Insect-structures,  appear  the  head  of  "  Crane-fly " 
and  "  Teeth  of  Blow-fly."  Acari  succeed  these,  and  are  followed, 
lastly,  by  one  of  the  dermal  structures  of  a  fish,  with  its  remark- 
able tooth-like  structure  ;  which  introduces  us  to  the  investigations, 
into  the  true  nature  of  teeth,  with  the  surprising  results  obtained, 
principally  by  Williamson  and  Huxley,  of  the  essential  identity  of 
dentinal  and  dorsal  structures. 

*  Names  of  Slides  in  the  Box  : — 


Elvanite. 

Crj'solite. 

Pinnularia  viridis. 

Leaf  of  Vegetable  Marrow. 

Starch,  Cape-Coast  Castle. 

Laomedea  gelatinosa. 


Gemellaria  loriculata. 

Head  of  Crane-fly. 

Teeth  of  Blow-fly. 

Gamasus  from  Humble-Bee. 

Mites. 

Spine  and  Scales  of  Dog-Fish. 


S6 


AN    HOUR   AT 


I  think  it  much  the  best,  after  taking  the  shdes  carefully  out 
when  the  box  arrives,  to  place  them  in  a  shallow  tray  ;  which  may 
be  easily  made  out  of  card,  or  a  draper's  box  answers  the  purpose 
admirably.  There  they  can  remain,  taking  up  each  sei'iatim  for 
examination  and  comparison,  until  the  time  arrives  for  packing  up 
and  sending  off  again.  In  this  way,  too,  any  links  of  connection 
between  the  various  slides  will  be  readily  seen  ;  and  fresh  ones,  not 
at  first  perceived,  will  occasionally  suggest  themselves.  Some 
members  appear  to  place  them  in  a  cabinet,  amongst  their  own 
slides,  which,  however,  involves  the  risk  of  troublesome  admix- 
ture unless  there  be  a  vacant  drawer  which  can  be  utilised,  for  the 
time  being.  Marking  on  the  labels  of  the  slides  themselves  to 
prevent  any  confusion  of  this  kind  I  have  several  times  noticed, 
and  consider  quite  an  unwarrantable  liberty. 

We  are  all  greatly  indebted  to  the  Rev.  J.  M.  Mello  for  the 
opportunity  of  inspecting,  from  time  to  time,  his  illustrations  of 
Micro-Petrology  (Pk  2,  Figs,  i,  2,  3).  May  I  venture,  on  behalf  of 
those  who  have  not  worked  so  deeply  at  this  interesting,  yet  novel, 
branch  of  research  as  he  has  done,  to  ask  him  to  make  his  terms 
as  simple  as  may  be,  and  to  explain  the  meaning  of  such  as  it 
appears  requisite  to  use  ?  "  Orthoclase,"  "  Twin-Crystals," 
"  Quartz  porphyritically  developed,"  "  Oligoclase,"  "  Oliogo- 
clastic,"  and  "Sanidine,"  may  be  taken  to  illustrate  what  I 
mean.  With  every  desire  to  gain  all  that  may  be  learnt  from 
examination  of  his  slides,  and  after  spending  many  hours  of 
valuable  time  in  hunting  over  books  likely  to  help,  with  various 
detached  papers,  I  have  to  confess  inabiHty  to  comprehend  the 
meaning  of  all  of  them,  so  as  to  get  a  lucid  picture  of  what  they 
put  before  us. 

The  chalky  whiteness  to  be  often  seen  at  the  enlarged  base  of 
the  hairs  of  Vegetable-Marrow  leaf  is  doubtless  due  to  the 
presence  of  Carbonate  of  Lime  in  the  cells,  as  has  been 
shown  by  Professor  Gulliver  to  be  the  case  with  a  similar  appear- 
ance in  the  leaf-hairs  of  Viper's  Bugloss  ( Lycopsis  arve?isis).  It 
would  be  easy  to  try  this  by  tearing  part  of  a  mature  leaf  to  pieces 
on  a  slide,  adding  acetic  acid,  and  then  watching  for  the  appear- 
ance of  effervescence.  Although  the  Cell-coiUcnts  are  so  different, 
the  structures  by  which  these  hairs  are  built  up  are  nearly  the 
same  as  with  the  Nettle  tribe  ;  whereupon  Lindley  has  some 
interesting  remarks  on  relationships  between  these  two  Natural 
Orders,  otherwise  apparently  so  remote  (Lindley's  Vegetable 
Kingdom  i7i  loco).  It  is  easy  to  make  a  little  confusion  between 
the  scattered  whiteness  visible  in  the  decaying  leaves  of  Vege- 
table-marrow, which  is  caused  by  these  hairs,  and  that  which  is 
due  to  the  overspreading  of  an  Oidium,  a  form  of  fungus  undis- 


Journal   of   Microscopy,  Vol.  1.  PI  2. 


<.. 


lid    i^     -■  -:  \-\   V  ^  ^ 


^^.  4 


THE    MICROSCOPE.  37 

tinguishable  in  such  condition  from  that  which  causes  the  vine- 
bhght  and  the  hop-mildew ;  but  careful  examination  will  readily 
show  the  difference. 

Teeth  of  Blow-Fly. —In  the  "  Entomologist"  for  March,  1873, 
at  p.  336,  appear  some  remarks  "  Oji  the  Food  of  Eristalis  and  other 
Diptcra^'''  which  may  be  cited  for  the  valuable  light  thrown  by  them 
upon  the  structure  of  the  proboscis  of  various  members  of  that  order: 
"  As  to  flies,  it  has  been  until  now  generally  admitted  that  they  are 
exclusively  destined  to  fluid  nutriment;  but  in  the  summer  of 
1867,  I  was  surprised,  while  observing  in  my  garden  an  Eristalis 
tenax  upon  a  flower  of  (Enothera  7nedia,  to  discover  that  it  was 
eating  the  pollen.  Resting  upon  its  middle  and  hind  legs,  it 
thrust  out  its  fleshy  proboscis  like  an  arm,  seized  a  morsel  of 
pollen  with  the  two  valves  which  terminate  the  proboscis,  and 
tote  it  away  from  the  anther.  Since  the  pollen-granules  of 
CEnothera  are  tied  together  by  elastic  threads,  that  bit  of  pollen 
torn  from  the  anther  was  attached  to  others  by  a  band  of  threads  ; 
and  the  insect,  in  order  to  free  its  mouth  from  that  inconvenient 
appendage,  began  to  use  its  fore-legs.  Raising  both  together 
towards  its  mouth,  it  seized  between  them  the  cordon  of  threads, 
and  rapidly  rubbing  them  one  against  the  other,  much  as  we  do 
in  washing  our  hands,  succeeded  in  cutting  the  threads  and 
clearing  them  from  its  mouth  and  legs  ;  then  it  raised  them  again, 
and  seized  the  two  valves  of  the  proboscis,  thoroughly  cleaning 
them  of  pollen  and  the  threads  yet  adhering  to  it ;  and  in  about 
three  seconds  this  work  of  cleaning  was  complete.  At  the  same 
time,  the  valves  of  the  proboscis,  by  rubbing  against  each  other, 
had  masticated  the  morsel  of  pollen,  and  had  conveyed  the 
single  granules  into  the  channel  of  the  labium,  whence  they  were 
pushed  into  the  mouth.  It  had  hardly  finished  cleaning  its 
proboscis,  and  eating  the  first  mouthful  of  pollen,  when  it  seized 
another  portion,  and  repeated  each  and  all  the  operations  I  have 
described.  It  was  so  intent  upon  its  meal,  that  I  was  able  to 
observe  it  in  the  closest  proximity  without  its  manifesting  the 
slightest  fear.  The  quantity  of  pollen  which  an  Eristalis  can 
devour  in  this  way  is  surprising.  Upon  making  a  section  of  one 
and  examining  the  stomach,  it  appeared  very  large,  and  was  full 
of  a  yellow  substance,  which  consisted  of  hundreds  of  thousands 
of  pollen-grains.  I  have  since  then  had  many  opportunities  to 
observe  this  eating  of  pollen,  not  only  in  all  the  species  of 
Eristalis,  but  also  in  the  genera  Rhingia,  Syrphus,  Volucella, 
and  Scatophaga.  This  chewing  of  pollen  alternates  with  sucking 
honey,  if  the  flowers  have  any ;  and  I  am  of  opinion  that  the 
singular  structure  of  the  proboscis  of  flies  cannot  be  fully 
explained,  without  taking  into   account   its   double   function  of 


38  AN    HOUR    AT 

sucking  honey  and  eating  pollen.  In  the  Tipulidae,  and  also  in 
those  flies  which  do  not  eat  pollen,  but  live  exclusively  upon 
juices — for  instance,  Bombylius — the  two  valves  of  the  pro- 
boscis serve  no  other  purpose  than  to  protect  and  guide  the 
sucking-tubes ;  but  in  the  flies  which  devour  pollen,  besides  this 
function,  there  is  also  that  of  grinding  the  pollen,  for  which  they 
have  special  adaptations,  for  the  margins  of  the  two  valves  at  the 
point  of  union  are  transversely  dentate  with  fine  and  parallel 
bands  of  chitine.  Probably,  the  greater  or  less  distance  of  these 
bands  in  different  species  is  related  to  the  different  size  of  the 
pollen  upon  which  they  feed." — (Dr.  Erm  Miiller,  of  Lippstadt.) 
I  have  not  met  in  my  readings  with  any  observations  on  the 
Blow-fly  as  a  pollen-eater  ;  nor  does  it  follow  that  because  teeth 
are  present,  such  must  always  be  their  function ;  but  in  the  warm 
days  of  autumn,  when  grapes  are  ripening,  they  do  much  injury 
to  this  fruit  by  making  holes  in  the  "  skin,"  and  eating  largely  of 
the  juicy  contents. 

Dermanyssus  gallinse,  the  fowl-mite,  when  present  in  num- 
bers, occasionally  causes  troublesome  eruptions  on  human  beings ; 
and  they  may  also  become  a  serious  nuisance  to  horses  in 
stables.  A  graphic  account  of  the  latter,  too  long  to  extract 
here,  will  be  found  in  Vol.  III.  of  Gamgee  on  "  Our  Domes- 
tic Animals  in  Health  and  Disease,"  at  p.   213. 

Spine  of  Dog-Fish. — All  the  slides  which  I  have  seen  named 
"  Skin  of  Dog-Fish"  are  from  Scylliuin  caniculum,  the  Smooth- 
spotted  Hound,  a  portion  of  the  skin  of  which  is  shown  on  the 
upper  part  of  PI.  3,  Fig.  2.  The  spine,  from  which  the  section 
figured  (PI.  3,  Fig.  i)  has  been  taken,  is  from  Spt?iax  acanthias^ 
the  Picked  (or  spiked)  Dog-Fish.  These  do  not  differ  greatly 
in  size,  though  the  former  under  favourable  conditions  grows  to 
be  larger.  The  differences  in  colouring,  however,  are  great.  In 
the  "  Smooth-Hound,"  the  general  colour  of  the  body  is  pale 
reddish  on  the  upper  parts,  covered  with  many  little  spots  of  dark 
reddish-brown;  below  it  is  yellowish-white.  The  "Picked  Dog- 
Fish  "  is  of  a  bluish-grey,  darker  on  the  back,  and  becoming 
almost  white  on  the  belly.  It  is  further  characterised  by  the 
possession,  in  front  of  each  of  the  two  dorsal  fins,  of  a  long, 
tapering,  acute,  and  very  hard  spine  (PI.  3,  Fig.  3),  with  which, 
unless  the  fish  be  handled  with  great  caution,  fearful  wounds 
may  be  inflicted.  They  sometimes  occur  on  the  North-Eastern 
Coast,  in  large  shoals,  and  are  much  disliked  by  the  fisher- 
men, who,  it  is  said,  used  formerly  to  cut  the  livers  out,  and 
then  cast  the  poor  brutes,  still  living,  into  the  sea  again.  Those 
who   have    not    imbibed    the    stupid    prejudices    against  them 


ourn 


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THE  MICROSCOPE.  39 

which    are    so    rife,   will    find    the    flesh    white,    delicate,  and 
wholesome. 

Zones  of  growth  are  clearly  to  be  seen  in  the  Section. 
What  periods  of  growth  these  may  indicate  is,  I  believe,  yet  a 
moot  question. 

TuFFEN  West. 


In  his  Notes,  Mr.  T.  West  has  observed,  that  more  detailed 
description  of  some  of  the  names  used  in  microscopical  notes  on 
rocks  might  be  useful  to  some  unacquainted  with  the  subject.  I 
will,  therefore,  add  a  little  explanation  in  reference  to  Felspar,  etc. 

The  Felspars  belong  to  the  Siliceous  group  of  minerals,  and 
are  divided  into  two  great  groups : — ist,  the  MonocHnic  or 
Orthoclastic  ;  and,  the  TricUnic  or  Plagioclastic. 

The  cleavage-planes  of  the  former  form  an  angle  of  90° ; 
those  of  the  latter,  of  less  than  90°. 

I. — Orthoclase ;  composition,  K  Si  +  Al  Si3,  part  of  the  Al 
(Alumina)  may  be  replaced  by  Fe  (Iron)  or  Mn  (Manganese)  and 
part  of  the  K  (Potassium)  by  Na  (Sodium)  or  Ca  (Calcium). 

Its  varieties,  accordmg  to  Colour  or  Lustre,  are  : — i. — Adu- 
laria;  2. — Common  Felspar  (the  ordinary  Orthoclase  of  Granite, 
etc.) ;  3. — Sanidine  (only  found  in  true  volcanic  rocks). 

Orthoclase  Felspars  are  essentially  Potash  Felspars. 

II. — Plagioclase ;  composition  Na  Si  +  Al  Si3.  Ca,  K,  or 
Mg,  may  replace  Na. 

I. — Oligoclase.  2. — Labradorite.  Some  of  the  Na  may  be 
replaced  by  Ca.  The  rich  play  of  colours  shown  by  this  is  due 
to  numerous  inclosures,  consisting  of  Microlithic  needles  and 
plates,  the  latter  being  frequently  crystals  of  Haematite,  yellowish 
by  transmitted  light,  but  gorgeous  in  reflected  ;  specular  iron  also 
occurs.  These  MicroHthic  inclosures,  as  a  rule,  follow  the 
cleavage-planes  of  the  crystals,  or  sometimes  they  cross  them. 
3. — Saussurite  (impure  Labradorite).     4. — Anorthite. 

Opalescent  Felspar,  or  Labradorite  will  be  found  extremely 
beautiful  if  viewed  either  as  an  opaque  object,  care  being  taken 
to  rotate  it  under  the  light,  so  as  to  get  the  most  brilliant 
effects  of  colours  ;  or  else  as  a  polariscope  object,  when  the 
polysynthetic  (twin)  structure  of  the  Plagioclastic  Felspars  will 
be  seen. 

The  Plagioclastic  Felspars  may  almost  invariably  be  known 
under  the  microscope  by  their  parallel  striping,  which  in  the 
polariscope  presents  a  very  beautiful  appearance.  It  is  owing  to 
the  parallel  growth,  side  by  side,  of  numerous  crystals. 


40  SELECTED  NOTES  FROM 

Orthoclase    is    often  found    in  twins    (Carlsbad  twins),  but 
never  twinned  like  Plagioclase. 

J.  M.  Mello. 


Selectcb  1Rote0  from  tbe  Socicti^'e 


INORGANIC. 

Elvanite  (PI.  2,  Figs,  i,  2),  or  Quartz  Porphyry,  is  a  rock 
which  occurs  in  veins  piercing  through  the  granite,  and  is  therefore 
a  more  recent  formation.  It  will  be  seen  in  the  Microscope, 
especially  when  the  Polariscope  is  used,  to  consist  of  a  matrix  of 
dull-looking  orthoclase  Felspar,  sometimes  forming  twins  when 
definite  crystals  are  developed  in  it.  The  matrix  will  be  found  to 
enclose  numerous  clear  grains :  these  are  grains  of  quartz  por- 
phyrytically  developed.  They  will  display  fine  colours  when 
polarised.  Some  accessory  minerals  occur  in  small  quantities, — 
amongst  them  a  green  one,  which  is  pleochroic ;  its  behaviour  is 
best  observed  by  removing  the  analyser  and  rotating  the  polar- 
iser.  It  is  probably  Chlorite,  a  secondary  product  in  the  rock, 
indicating  a  slow  process  of  change.  Oligoclase  and  Sanidine 
sometimes  are  present  in  Elvanite  as  well  as  Orthoclase. 


Crysolite,  or  Olivine  (PI.  5.,  Fig.  3)  (from  Atraja,  in  the 
Sandwich  Isles),  is  apparently  in  the  form  of  water-rolled  grains, 
although  it  must  have  been  originally  derived  from  one  of  the 
neighbouring  volcanoes.  Very  few  of  the  grains  show  very 
distinctly  the  peculiar  appearance  by  which  Olivine  may  be  so 
readily  recognised  in  microscopical  sections  of  Olivine-bearing 
rocks — viz.,  an  uneven-looking,  granular  surface,  usually  present- 
ing in  the  polariscope  bright  rosy  and  green  colours. 


Diorite  is  a  rock  consisting  essentially  of  Plagioclastic 
Felspar  and  Hornblende;  the  Plagioclase  may  be  seen,  espe- 
cially when  the  Polariscope  is  used,  to  form  a  network  of 
beautiful  Crystals,  showing  more  or  less  of  twin  compositions, 
the  Crystals  forming  the  groups  exhibiting  striae  of  various  colours. 
The  Hornblende  is  best  recognised  by  moving  the  analyser; 
when,  on  the  rotation  of  the  polariser,  the  characteristic  dichroism 
of  this  mineral  will  be  seen. 

J.  M.  Mello, 


THE   society's  NOTE-BOOKS.  41 

DESCRIPTION  OF  PLATE  IL,  Upper  Portion. 

Figs.  1  and  3. — Li  the  upper  half  the  slides  are  represented  unpolar- 
ised  ;  in  the  lower  half  the  colours  induced  by  polarisation  are 
given  ;  t.  c.  t.  c,  Fig.  1,  a  (supposed)  twin  Crystal. 

Fig.  2. — Portion  of  the  accessor}^  mineral  spoken  of  as  having  a 
greenish  colour  ;  in  the  upper  half  of  the  circle,  the  natural 
appearance  is  represented  ;  in  the  lower  half,  the  changes 
induced  (after  the  removal  of  the  upper  prism,  as  directed),  by 
rotating  the  sub-stage  prism. 


Xanthidia  in  Flint  (PI.  3,  lower  portion). — These  curious 
and  obscure  organisms,  when  first  observed,  made  such  a  sensation 
that,  it  is  said,  the  quantity  of  flint  nodules  broken  up  in  the 
search  for  specimens  amounted  altogether  to  many  tons.  They 
are  often  found  plentifully  in  the  fossil  state,  as  many  as  20 
having  been  detected  in  a  piece  of  flint  i-i2th  inch  in  diameter ; 
and  Hogg  says — "  It  is  rare  to  find  a  gun-flint  without  them." 
There  has  been  much  discussion  as  to  what  these  bodies  really 
are.  At  first,  Ehrenberg  and  others  thought  them  to  be  Infusoria, 
but  more  recently  they  have  been  described  as  the  fossil  Sporangia 
of  Desmidiaceae  ;  their  skeletons  being  shown  to  be  composed  of 
a  horny  substance,  and  not  of  silica,  as  was  once  supposed.  In 
form  they  vary  much  ;  generally,  they  are  small,  flattened  spheres, 
either  smooth,  bristly,  or  furnished  with  spines,  some  of  which 
are  simple,  others  branched  at  the  extremities.  In  one  species, 
the  tip  of  each  spine  is  expanded  like  a  sucking-disc.  Some- 
times a  membrane  may  be  traced,  either  covering  the  spines  or 
entangled  with  them.  Some  specimens  exhibit  denf  spines,  and 
torn  margins— appearances  which  forbid  the  idea  that  they  were 
originally  siliceous  in  structure. 

Similar  bodies  have  been  found  in  the  Chalk  near  Dover,  as 
well  as  in  flints ;  and  recent  specimens  have  been  obtained  from 
the  Thames  mud,  near  Greenhithe.  But  all  these  deposits  are 
believed  to  be  marine,  whereas  the  Desmids,  as  far  as  we  know, 
are  confined  to  fresh  water :  how,  then,  has  the  connection 
arisen  between  them? 

J.  H.  Green. 

I  well  remember  the  period  referred  to  by  Mr.  Green,  when 
stone-breaking  was  the  rage,  and  the  many  pleasant  hours  I 
enjoyed  in  my  search  for  these  singular  forms. 

My  practice  was  to  split  a  flint,  and  then  with  a  light 
hammer  chip  ofl"  small  and  very  thin  flakes,  which  I  placed  in 
Balsam,  and  by  this  means  could  select  such  as  possessed  a 
desired  figure.  This  is  not  possible  in  a  polished  slide.  Some 
time  ago  I  circulated  a  slide  containing  125  Xanthidia. 

A.  Nicholson, 


42  SELECTED   NOTES  FROM 

BOTANICAL. 


Vital  Absorption  in  Plants.— I  have  in  my  possession 
sections  taken  from  a  piece  of  Larch  sent  me  by  Mr.  Hyett, 
F.R.S.,  of  Painswick.  The  wood  is  coloured  by  a  process  called 
Vital  Absorption,  first  tried  by  Dr.  Boucherie  about  1839,  with 
a  view  of  testing  the  effects  of  different  solutions  on  the  dura- 
bility of  wood.  Several  different  things  were  used.  The  tree 
from  which  the  piece  under  notice  was  cut  was  first  treated  with  a 
Solution  of  Sulphate  of  Iron,  and  then  Ferro-Cyanide  of 
Potassium.  A  hole  was  bored  in  the  tree  (while  growing),  just 
at  the  off-shoots  of  the  roots  ;  then  a  saw  was  run  through  to 
divide  the  tree  on  each  side  of  the  hole,  leaving  sufficient  uncut 
for  its  support.  A  bed  of  clay  was  made  round,  and  the 
Solution  of  Iron  first  poured  in ;  after  two  or  three  days,  it  was 
replaced  with  the  Solution  of  Ferro-Cyanide ;  absorption  took 
place,  and  the  chemical  change  followed  in  the  tissues,  forming, 
as  is  seen  in  my  sections,  Prussian  Blue.  This  is  interesting 
physiologically,  and  also  to  the  microscopist,  as  showing  the 
colouration  of  the  structure  ;  the  most  dense  being  only  slightly 
stained,  or  not  at  all,  and  the  medullary  rays  and  vascular  tissue 
more  so.  I  have  examined  other  woods,  such  as  Beech  and  Elm, 
that  have  been  coloured  with  sulphate  of  Iron  only,  but  fail  to 
detect  any  crystals.  In  the  specimen  referred  to,  the  colouring 
matter  is  in  the  state  of  an  amorphous  deposit,  an  aggregation  of 
which  may  be  seen  in  places.  The  late  Mr.  W.  H.  Hyett 
experimented  very  largely  on  the  effects  of  different  solutions,  and 
their  varying  effects  on  different  trees.  The  softer  woods  were 
not  the  only  ones  experimented  on,  and,  if  my  memory  serves 
me,  he  took  out  a  patent  for  the  process.  I  think  he  satisfied 
himself  that  no  useful  result  would  be  gained,  as  the  staining  was 
not  uniform,  and  certain  parts  of  the  tree,  such  as  the 
"  medullary  rays,"  took  the  colour  better  than  the  woody  tissue. 

The  staircase  of  Painswick  House  is  inlaid  with  the  several 
woods  experimented  upon,  in  parqueterie  work,  and  the  appear- 
ance is  pleasing. 

Dr.  Partridge  and  Col.  Basevi. 


The  structure  of  the  fruit  in  some  species  of  the  Palm  bears 
a  kind  of  resemblance  to  that  of  bone  : — that  of  the  Date-Palm 
is  not  unlike  the  dentine  of  teeth.  It  consists  of  long  oval  cells 
with  a  central  cavity,  from  which  ramify  canaliculi  towards  the 
cell-wall.     In    many    of   these    cell-cavities    are   crystals,  which 


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THE   society's  NOTE-BOOKS.  43 

appear  to  belong  to  the  class  called  by  Professor  Gulliver  "  short 
prismatic  crystals."  I  am  not,  however,  quite  sure  that  they  are 
crystals  of  Lime-salts,  as  they  polarise  somewhat  differently. 
The  embryo  in  the  Palm  is  very  minute,  and  the  great  mass  of 
the  seed  is  made  up  of  albumen — using  the  word  in  its  botanical, 
and  not  in  its  chemical,  sense. 

Messrs.  Beeby  and  Parsons. 


ZOOLOGICAL. 


Soldier-Beetle,  Telephorus  (PI.  4.). — There  are  two  beetles 
of  this  family,  very  commonly  found  in  June — one  red,  the  other 
with  steel-blue  elytra ; — the  latter  is  much  the  commoner  of  the 
two.  It  is  found  amongst  grass,  stinging-netdes,  hedges,  etc., 
and,  I  believe,  it  is  vegetarian  in  its  feeding.*  The  mouth 
(PI.  4,  upper  half)  is  rather  peculiar,  from  its  four  palpi  ending  in 
triangular  knobs.  The  labium  and  labrum  both  exhibit  traces 
of  the  original  form  of  pairs  of  limbs.  The  upper — i.e.^  the 
inner — surface  of  the  labium  has  a  brush  of  hairs.  The  maxillae 
are  quite  covered  with  hair,  and  appear  to  have  no  sharp  claws  : 
I  believe  that  this  is  rather  unusual  amongst  beetles.  It  seems 
that  the  maxillae  are  the  homologues  of  two  pairs  of  limbs,  each 
maxilla  being  two  legs  amalgamated  ;  this,  however,  does  not 
appear  very  plainly  in  the  drawing.  It  is  very  instructive  to 
prepare  a  series  of  mouths  dissected  and  laid  out  as  in  the 
drawing,  w^hich  is  made  from  a  slide  having  the  various  parts 
mounted  and  laid  out  in  the  position  figured. 

The  folding  of  a  beetle's  wing  is  to  me  always  an  interesting 
problem.  In  the  present  instance  the  douMing  is  but  simple.  I 
do  not  know  the  right  names  of  the  veins  in  the  wing,  but  I 
have  named  them  just  for  convenience  sake  in  describing  them 
(PI.  4,  lower  half).  The  folding  seems  to  be  effected  thus  : — 
The  lappet,  or  anal  areolet,  is  turned  up  to  the  rest  of  the  wing. 
The  radial  and  the  cubital  veins  are  brought  up  close  to  the  sub- 
costal (r,  cu^  and  ^),  the  intervening  portion  of  the  wing  doubling 

*  The  following  remarks,  taken  from  Westwood's  ' '  Classification  of  Insects, " 
vol.  I.,  page  256,  will  serve  to  show  how  careful  we  should  be  in  forming  our 
deductions: — "They  (the  Telephori)  are  very  voracious,  feeding  upon  other 
insects,  and  devouring  such  of  their  own  species  as  they  can  subdue  ;  the  females 
not  even  sparing  their  mates.  These  circumstances  were,  indeed,  doubted  by 
Ohvier,  but  they  have  been  since  authenticated,  and  1"  (J.  O.  Westwood)  "  have 
myself  been  often  a  witness  of  their  voracious  dispositions." 

TuFFEN  West, 


44  SELECTED   NOTES   FROM 

underneath  them.  These  movements  I  suppose  to  be  effected 
by  thoracic  muscles,  and  by  the  mechanical  action  of  puUing 
the  wing  backwards  (like  closing  a  fan).  The  folding  of  the  tip, 
I  judge,  is  caused  by  the  natural  elasticity  of  the  wing,  and  it  is 
unfolded  when  the  beetle  expands  its  wings,  by  the  tightening  of 
a  tendon  that  runs  down  inside  the  sub-costal  vein.  This  is 
shown  by  a  line  (much  too  thick)  in  Figs,  i  and  2,  and  of  its 
(comparative)  proper  size  in  Fig.  4.  I  fancy  that  a  "  round-the- 
corner"  pull  of  ithis,  at  the  end  of  the  sub-costal  vein,  would 
unfold  the  tip.  The  dark  colour  of  the  wing  in  places  is  caused 
by  numerous  fine  hairs,  shown  at  Fig.   3. 

The  great  nervures  are  hollow,  and  down  each  one  a  trachea 
(Fig.  4.)  runs.  The  smaller  nervures  seem  solid.  On  the  upper 
side  of  the  sub-costal  nervure,  close  to  its  base,  are  two  groups  of 
the  curious  organs  supposed  to  be  "otoconia."  They  are  on  the 
surface  of  the  nervure,  and  are  highly  refractive  of  light.  They 
appear  to  be  seated  on  globular  cells  within  the  nervure. 
AVhether  they  really  be  organs  of  hearing,  I  am  unable  to  say  : 
perhaps  some  of  our  members  can  throw  some  light  on  this 
interesting  question.  I  have  found  them  in  every  wing  that  I 
have  investigated,  except  the  May-flies,  but  they  are  not  always 
on  the  sub-costal  vein ;  in  the  bees  they  are  on  one  of  the  joints 
at  the  base  of  the  wing. 

H.  M.  J.  Underhill. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  PLATE  IV. 

Upper  portion  : — mouth  dissected  and  viewed  from  above. 
l.h.r.,  Labrum  or  upper-lip. 
m.d.  Mandibles. 

m.x.,  Maxilla3 ;  m.i?.,  Maxillary  palpi. 
La,,  Labium,  or  lower-lip  ;  l.j).,  l.j).,  Labial  palpi ;  m.t,  Mentum  or 

chin. 
Lower  jDortion  : — 

Fig.  1. — Left  wing  folded  ;   c.o.,  Costal  ;  s.c,  Sub-costal ;  r.,  Radia  ; 

C.U.,  Cubital  nervures  ;  s.c,  is  the  tendon  which  folds  the  tip. 
Fig.  2.  — Right  wing  spread  out. 
Fig.  3. — Group  of  hairs  which  give  the  brown  part  of  the  wing  their 

tint. 
Fig.  4. — Small  portion  of  the  sub-costal  nervure,  near  its  base,  upper 

side  showing  i.r.,  a  Trachea;  i.e.,  the  Tendon,  marked  s.c.  in 

Fifr.  1 


Gamasus,  from  Humble-Bee  (PI.  2,  lower  half).— These 
may  be  found  frequently  in  hundreds  on  Humble-Bees,  but  I 
do  not  remember  ever  to  have  seen  them  on  any  other  kind  of 


THE    society's    NOTE-BOOKS.  45 

bee  than  the  genus  Bombus.  The  Gamasi  which  infest  the  Dor- 
beetle  are  ahnost  identical  with  these.  I  generally  mount  them 
in  two  ways — in  Glycerine  and  in  Balsam.  Those  mounted  in 
Glycerine  are  prepared  in  the  following  manner  : — 

They  are  either  killed  by  Cyanide  vapour,  or  just  wetted 
w^ith  spirit ;  if  put  into  spirit,  they  are  not  allowed  to  remain  long 
in  it.  They  are  then  soaked  for  a  day  or  two  in  x\cetic  Acid, 
until  their  legs  become  quite  uncurled  ;  then  for  half-a-day 
in  water,  and  then  in  glycerine.  They  are  mounted  in  a  hol- 
lowed slip  with  glycerine,  to  which  two  or  three  drops  of  Acetic 
Acid  has  been  added  to  each  ounce  of  glycerine.  This  method 
of  mounting  is  intended  to  show  the  natural  colour  and  shape. 
The  muscles  are  more  or  less  destroyed  by  the  acid,  but  some  of 
them  can  mostly  be  detected,  and  the  natural  position  of  the 
chelae  is  generally  well  shown. 

Other  specimens,  after  having  been  soaked  in  potash  in  the 
usual  way,  and  then  double-stained  in  order  to  bring  out  certain 
minute  details,  are  mounted  in  Balsam,  thinned  with  Benzole, 
and  without  pressure.  This  method,  in  spite  of  what  some  have 
said  against  it,  I  still  consider  greatly  superior  to  the  ordinary 
process  of  using  thick  balsam. 

The  structure  of  these  mites  is  very  interesting.  Their 
bodies  are  all  in  one  piece,  but  there  is  an  approach  to  a  divi- 
sion into  two  parts,  as  will  be  seen  in  Fig.  i,  where  the  cara- 
pace is  divided  into  two.  The  second  pair  of  legs  are  very 
curious.  In  some  mites  (Dermanyssus)  the  males  have  them 
modified  into  claws,  but  in  the  females  they  are  just  the  same  as 
the  other  legs.  Although  I  have  looked  at  perhaps  20  of  these 
Gamasi,  I  cannot  detect  any  difference.  I  cannot  say  whether 
all  were  males  or  all  females,  or  whether  they  are  hermaphrodite. 
The  feet  are  terminated  by  a  claw  and  pad  of  the  ordinary  type, 
but  the  claws  are  shorter  than  the  pads. 

In  Fig.  I,  by  the  mark  x  will  be  seen  very  curious  organs, 
which  I  have  noticed  in  many,  but  not  in  all,  mites.  Mr.  Tuffen 
West  seems  to  consider  them  trachese,  and  that  the  holes  in 
which  they  terminate  are  spiracles ;  what  they  really  are,  I  have 
no  idea,  but  I  cannot  think  this  supposition  correct,  because  two 
spiracles  may  be  seen  in  the  abdomen,  w^hich  are  very  evidently 
spiracles,  and  which  have  no  connection  with,  or  resemblance  to, 
the  other  organs.  They  occur  in  just  the  same  place  as  the 
spiracles  in  ticks  (Ixodes),  to  which  ramifying  trachese  may  be 
seen  adhering. 

The  most  interesting  part  of  the  mite  is  the  mouth.  This 
is  very  difficult  to  understand,  and  in  most  specimens  it  is 
nearly  impossible  to  make  out  its  details,  wiiich  can  be  seen  only 
with  a    i^-inch  or  jE^-inch  objective.     In  the  upper  part  of  the 


UJ    LIBRARY 


46  SELECTED    NOTES    FROM 

head  is  a  pair  of  chel^,  which  are  furnished  with  one  moveable 
joint  each,  so  as  to  make  them  into  pairs  of  tweezers.  They  do 
not  work  sideways  hke  insects'  jaws,  but  up  and  down.  (In 
Ixodes  they  are  merely  serrated  lancets  and  not  pincers.)  They 
are  capable  of  considerable  extrusion  and  retraction,  but  often  in 
mounted  specimens  they  are  forced  out  too  far.  I  imagine  that 
they  are  analogous  to,  if  not  homologous  with,  the  falces  of  a 
spider — i.e.,  they  have  no  connection  with  the  mouth  (strictly 
speaking),  but  serve  merely  to  hold  the  food. 

Below  the  chelae  is  the  mouth.  This  has  a  pair  of  maxilla 
(?)  {mx.,  Fig.  j) ;  but  I  very  much  doubt  if  they  are  moveable, 
and  they  certainly  do  not  look  as  if  they  could  meet.  In  the 
middle  is  a  lancet  or  a  rostrum  (r) ;  this  may  possibly  be  hollow. 
I  feel  sure  that  i/iis  set  of  organs,  and  not  the  chelae,  is  the 
mouth,  because  the  rostrum  can  be  traced  to  the  gullet  (g^).  If 
this  were  all,  the  mouth  would  not  be  difficult  to  understand,  but 
there  is  also  a  most  curious  fringed  tongue  (/).  I  do  not  ever 
remember  to  have  seen  this  figured  and  described. 

On  each  side  of  the  mouth  is  a  palpus  :  the  pair  form  the 
maxillary  palpi.  The  presence  of  these  palpi  is  almost  universal 
in  insects,  arachnida,  and  myriapoda.  Nobody  seems  to  have  a 
very  clear  idea  of  their  use,  but  it  is  generally  said  that  they  are 
for  "  examining  the  food,"  etc.  Just  below  the  head  of  the  mite 
is  a  little  organ  with  two  fringed  bristles  proceeding  from  it  {s.o., 
Fig.  2).  Perhaps  this  is  a  sexual  organ. '^  On  each  side  of  its 
base  are  little  thickened  plates  of  chitine.  The  object  of 
double-staining  is  to  show  up  the  difference  in  texture  of  the 
various  parts  of  the  membranous  covering  of  the  creature.  Thus, 
the  feet  are  blue  and  the  legs  purple,  while  the  membranous 
joints  of  the  legs  and  the  palpi  are  blue.  Blue  and  purple, 
however,  do  not  form  by  any  mea^s  a  good  contrast. 

H.  M.  J.  Underhill. 


DESCRIPTION   OF  PLATE  IL,  Lower  Half. 

Fig.  1. — Gamasus  of  Humble-Bee,  viewed  from  above. 
,,     2. — Mouth-parts,     more  highly  magnified  :c.h.,  Cheke  ;  m.p.^ 

Maxillary  palpi  ;  s.o.,  Organ  of  unknown  function. 
,,     3. — Mouth    proper,    removed  :  —  r..     Rostrum  ;     t,     Tongue 

fringed  with  hairs  ;  g.t.,  Gullet ;  m.x. ,  Maxilla3. 
,,     4. — c.Z. ,  Claw  ;  p..  Pad. 


Fowl-Mite,  Dermanyssus  gallinge. — It  is  very  curious 
how  slight  the  difference  is  between  parasitic  and  non-para- 
sitic  mites.     The  difference  between  parasitic  and  non-parasitic 

*  Mr.  Tuffen   West   thinks   there   is    no    reason    for   assuming   this   sternal 
appendage,  terminated  by  two  bristles,  to  be  a  sexual  organ. — \_Ed.'\ 


^y.St^cjr 


j^-y. 


^^'^-pz.O/n^ , 


^ 


'-c^>z7Z6:z/72/. 


'0',-^'^ 


THE  society's  NOTE-BOOKS.  47 

insects  is  generally  very  great.  I  have  just  been  examining  a 
series  of  Chelifers,  Cheyleti,  Mites  of  various  genera  (Trombidia, 
Dermanyssus,  Gamasus),  and  the  Harvest-man  Mites,  and  some 
Ixodes.  The  essential  differences  are  really  very  small,  although 
externally  the  creatures  are  very  unlike  each  other.  Their  rela- 
tive positions  may  be  arranged  thus  : — 

Ixodes. 

i  ^1 

Dermanyssus.  Gamasus. 

I  I   . 

Cheyletus.  Trombidmm. 

I  I 

Obisium.     Chelifer.  Harvest-man  Mites. 

(several  genera.) 
H.  M.  J.  Underhill. 


Anguinaria  Spatulata  (PI.  3,  central  portion)  is  so  called 
from  Angiiis,  a  snake,  to  the  head  of  which  the  cells  of  the 
Anguinaria  have  some  resemblance.  The  snake  Coralline  is 
described  by  Johnson  as  parasitical  on  the  smaller  sea-weeds, 
"  not  common."  It  invests  those  species  chiefly  whose  stems 
are  clothed  with  hair-like  fibres,  as  Dasya  coccinea,  Griffithsia 
equisetifolia,  etc.  ;  but  is  found  occasionally  on  smooth-stemmed 
species,  as  Plocamium  coccineum.  The  Micrographic  Dictionary 
says  there  are  only  two  British  species — A.  spatulata  and  A. 
truncata.  Anguinaria  is  a  genus  of  marine  Bryozoa,  of  the  sub- 
order Cheilostomata,  and  family  Eucratidse.  J.  Ford. 

Fig,  1  represents  the  whole  animal,  slightly  enlarged  ;  Fig.  2, 
Head  of  the  same,  more  magnified  ;  Fig.  3,  one  of  the  Setae. 


Kidney  of  Rabbit  (PI.  5). — I  herewith  enclose  a  drawing 
of  the  Section  of  Kidney  of  Rabbit  (Fig.  i),  accompanied  by 
copies  of  figures  from  "  Quain's  Anatomy,"  representing  at  Fig.  2 
the  course  of  the  Uriniferous  tubules  in  the  Human  Kidney  ; 
and  at  Fig.  3,  one  of  the  Malpighian  bodies  (also  Human),  with 
its  contained  glomerulus  of  blood-vessels.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  in  Fig.  2  the  large  tubules  which  open  in  the  interior  of  the 
Kidney  are  represented  as  ascending  into  the  cortical  substance 
of  the  organ  and  descending  again  as  loops  before  entering  the 
Malpighian  bodies.  In  Fig.  3  the  tubule  is  seen  at  the  upper 
portion,  and  the  afferent  and  efferent  blood-vessels  at  the  bottom. 
A  casual  inspection  might  give  the  idea  that  the  Malpighian 
bodies  were  botryoidal  or  grape-like  clusters  of  cells,  but  closer 
examination  will  reveal  their  structure  as  convoluted  tubes. 
These  bodies  appear  to  be  the  secreting  elements  of  the  organ. 

A.  Hammond. 


48  SELECTED  NOTES  FROM 

Kidney. — The  secreting  structure  consists  of  tubes  (tubuli 
uriniferi),  which  commence  in  flask-like  dilatations  (Malpighian 
capsules),  near  the  outer  surface.  The  tubes  are  convoluted  in 
the  superficial,  but  straight  in  the  central  part  of  the  kidney, 
where  they  unite  together  and  discharge  into  the  central  cavity, 
from  which  a  tube,  the  ureter,  leads  to  the  bladder.  The  tubules 
are  composed  of  a  membrane  lined  by  epithelium  cells.  A 
minute  branch  of  an  artery  enters  each  Malpighian  capsule, 
where  it  breaks  up  into  a  network  of  capillaries,  the  Malpighian 
tufts,  which  lie  free  in  the  interior  of  the  Capsule  :  these  organs 
unite  into  a  single  vessel,  which,  after  leaving  the  capsule,  goes 
to  form  a  plexus  of  Capillaries  around  the  tubules.  It  has  been 
supposed  that  the  urinary  solids  are  secreted  by  the  tubules,  the 
office  of  the  tufts  being  to  allow  the  watery  constituents  of  the 
urine  to  transude,  thus  acting  like  a  flush-tank  at  the  head  of  a 
sewer. 

H.  F.  Parsons. 


Section  Cat's  Tongue. — In  the  Cat  and  other  animals  of  the 
tribe  Felidae,  the  papillse  attain  a  large  size,  and  are  developed 
into  sharp,  recurved,  horny  spines.  These  large  papillae  cannot 
be  regarded  as  sensitive,  but  they  enable  the  tongue  to  play  the 
part  of  a  rasp,  as  in  scraping  bones  ;  or  of  a  comb  in  cleaning  the 
fur.  The  small  papillae  which  are  found  amongst  the  horny  ones 
are  the  sensitive  papillae. 

J.  Edwards. 


PREPARATION     AND     MOUNTING. 


Gizzards  are  best  cleaned  by  soaking  in  potash  for  a  day. 
This  destroys  the  muscles,  of  course ;  but  the  teeth  are  brought 
out  well,  and  the  muscles  might  be  shown  on  another  specimen 
mounted  in  glycerine   without  soaking  in  potash. 

H.  M.  J.  Underhill. 


The  simplest  way  to  clean  Gizzards  is  to  feed  the  insect  on 
honey,  syrup^  or  treacle,  before  killing  them  ;  keeping  them  at  the 
time  under  a  tumbler.  They  would  eat  it  readily,  if  it  were  not 
too  thick  to  swallow  ;  and  in  passing  through  the  stomach  the 


THE  society's    NOTE-BOOKS.  49 

syrup  would  carry  with  it  any  debris  lying  there.     This  would  not 
be  so  cruel  a  process  as  starvation,  which  some  recommend. 

F.  J.  Allen. 


The  above  methods  need  not  be  adopted.  If  the  Gizzard 
be  opened  and  placed  in  water  for  a  day  or  two,  it  will  be  nicely 
cleaned  by  agitating  the  water  strongly  by  blowing  through  a 
pipette. 

A.  Nicholson. 


My  own  plan  has  simply  been  to  kill  the  insect  in  spirit,  and 
leave  it  there  for  three  or  four  weeks,  or  longer  :  this  hardens  the 
tissues,  making  them  less  liable  to  tear,  and  therefore  easier  to 
manipulate.  On  opening  the  Gizzard,  it  will  then  generally  be 
found  clean  and  firm  in  texture,  the  loose  particles  of  food  or 
dirt  being  soon  washed  out,  either  by  Mr.  Nicholson's  plan  or 
any  other  suitable  one.  Gizzards  are  best  mounted  in  slightly- 
acidulated  Glycerine  in  a  cell  of  gold-size,  which  must  be  well 
sealed  up.  Balsam  makes  them  too  transparent,  and  obliterates 
many  of  the  finer  details. 

J.  H.  Green. 


Glycerine-Jelly  Mounts. — Failures  when  using  this  medium 
are  due  to  two  causes — {a)  imperfect  removal  of  superfluous  jelly ; 
{b)  mounting  objects  which  are  springy.  The  most  effective 
way  to  remove  the  jelly  is  to  apply  a  mixture  of  whiting,  or  chalk 
and  water,  about  the  consistence  of  cream.  Let  this  dry,  and 
then  brush  off  carefully  :  the  chalk  absorbs  the  jelly,  and  leaves 
the  glass  perfectly  clean.  I  use  a  mixture  of  Gutta-Percha  and 
varnish  for  the  two  first  coats  of  finish ;  it  stands  better  than 
varnish  alone. 

T.  Lisle. 


Ditto. — Washing  the  jelly  off  with  a  tooth-brush,  under  water, 
is  a  simpler  method.  Glycerine  jelly  should  be  varnished  within 
half-an-hour  after  cleaning,  otherwise  the  jelly  shrinks  from  the 
edge  of  the  cover,  and  allows  the  varnish  to  run  in. 

H.  M.  J.  Underhill. 


Starches. — The  nature  of  Starches  cannot  be  well  determined 
when  mounted  in  Balsam.  They  should  either  be  mounted  dry^ 
or  in  Glycerine  Jelly,  and  viewed  as  an  opaque  object.  Mounting 
in   Balsam  prevents  the  markings  on  the   surface   being  distin- 

D 


50  SELECTED   NOTES,   ETC. 

guished,  and   only  makes  a  very   beautiful    Polariscopic  object, 
without  any  scientific  proofs  as  to  adulteration,  etc. 

Col.  Basevi. 


A  method  of  mounting  Starches,  strongly  recommended  in  the 
Journal  of  the  Royal  Microscopical  Society  for  June  last,  is  as  fol- 
lows : — First  prepare  a  blue  staining  fluid  by  mixing  together — 
Soluble  Anihne-Blue,  J  grain ;  Alcohol,  25  drops ;  Distilled 
Water,  i  ounce.  Then  take  of  Glycerine  and  Water  equal  parts, 
adding  a  little  Acetic  Acid,  2  or  3  drops  to  each  ounce  ;  into  this 
pour  enough  of  the  staining  fluid  to  make  the  whole  of  a  decidedly 
blue  colour.  Place  a  drop  or  two  on  the  centre  of  a  glass  slide, 
and  dust  some  Starch-grains  over  it,  which  is  best  done  by  touch- 
ing the  Starch  with  a  small  camel-hair  brush,  and  gently  shaking  it 
over  the  glycerine.  Let  the  starch-grains  gradually  sink  into  the 
mixture,  and  then  put  on  the  glass  cover,  pressing  it  firmly  down, 
and  carefully  removing  all  excess  of  the  fluid.  On  the  Turn-table 
run  round  a  thin  layer  of  Dammar,  or  Balsam  in  Benzole ;  and 
when  this  is  dry,  finish  off  with  coloured  varnish. 

The  Starch-grains  never  take  the  staining,  but  appear  in  their 
natural  condition,  each  surrounded  by  a  blue  medium,  and  pre- 
senting a  very  beautiful  effect.  J.  H.  G. 


Desmids  and  Confervse. — In  the  same  Journal  is  given  the 
formula  for  preparing  a  fluid  medium  in  which  to  preserve  these 
and  similar  organisms ;  and  in  the  hope  of  inducing  members  to 
take  up  more  frequently  the  study  of  these  neglected  but  interest- 
ing plants,  it  may  perhaps  be  usefully  quoted  here  : — 

Take  of— 

Camphorated  Water  -  -     50  grains. 

Distilled  Water     -  -  -50  grains. 

Crystallizable  Acetic  Acid  -       J  grain. 

Crystallized  Chloride  of  Copper  -     2-ioth  grain. 
Crystallized  Nitrate  of  Copper    -     2-ioth  grain. 

Dissolve  the  crystals  in  the  water,  mix  all  well  together,  and 
filter  carefully. 

Monsieur  Petit  has  found  this  solution  better  adapted  than 
any  other  which  he  has  tried  for  preserving  the  natural  colour  of 
fresh-water  Algae  ;  it  is  founded  on  the  process  used  in  commerce 
for  preserving  vegetables.  Desmids,  Confervc^,  Spirogyra,  etc., 
when  mounted  in  this  fluids  have  kept  their  brilliant  green  tints, 
even  after  a  year's  full  exposure  to  light. 


IMPROVED  MICROSCOPIC  APPLIANCES.  61 


1Re\>iew)0. 


BOLTON^S     PORTFOLIO.* 


At  the  moment  of  going  to  press,  we  have  received  from  Mr. 
Bolton  his  PortfoUo,  No.  7,  containing  18  outhne  lithographic 
drawings,  with  descriptions  on  the  back  of  each.  Five  of  the 
subjects  relate  to  the  Vegetable,  the  other  thirteen  to  the  Animal 
Kingdom.     We  consider  it  a  very  good  shilling's-worth. 


fIDicroecopical  Hpparatue. 

Aperture   Diaphragm. 

This  apparatus  was  described  at  the  last  meeting  of  the  "  Royal 
Microscopical  Society,"  and  was  suggested  by  Mr.  Geo.  Davis, 
of  Heaton  Chapel.  It  is  arranged  to  fit  over  the  object-glass, 
and  to  screw  into  the  body  of  the  Microscope. 

Fig.  6. 


By  this  appliance,  an  objective  of  large  angle  can  be  used  for 
objects  with  depth,  and  great  penetration  obtained  by  simply 
reducing  the  diameter  of  aperture.  Its  usefulness  is  still  further 
increased  by  an  adapter  for  fitting  the  same  under  the  stage,  in 
place  of  the  ordinary  wheel  of  diaphragms.  Mr.  Collins,  of  157, 
Gt.  Portland  Street,  London,  is  the  maker. 

*  Portfolio  of  Drawings  and  description  of  Living  Organisms  (Animal  and 
Vegetable),  illustrative  of  Fresh-water  and  Marine  Life,  by  Thos.  Bolton, 
F.R.M.S.,  57,  Newhall  Street,  Birmingham. 


52 


MICROSCOPIC     APPLIANCES. 


To  the  Editor  of  "  The  Journal  of  the  Postal  Microscopical  Society:' 
Sir,— 

As  a  Microscope  suitable  for  class  demonstration,  I  would 
recommend  an  instrument  represented  by  annexed  wood-cuts, 
and  made  by  J.  Parkes  and  Son,  Birmingham,  at  a  very  moderate 
cost.     As  shown  in  Fig.  8,  it  may  be  used  as  an  ordinary  table 


Fig.  9. 


Microscope ;  or,  with  condenser  substituted  in  place  of  mirror,  as 
in  Fig.  9,  the  Microscope  may  be  held  up  to  the  light,  and  passed 
round  from  hand  to  hand.  The  object  is  firmly  fixed  on  the  stage 
by  means  of  two  flexible  clips.  The  body  has  rack  adjustment, 
and  is  furnished  with  standard  Microscopic  screw. 

Yours  truly, 

Thomas  Bolton, 
Microscopists'  and  Naturalist's  Studio, 
57,  Newhall  Street,  Birmingham. 


IRcporta  of  Socicticin 


We,  shall  be  glad  if  Secretaries  ivill  send  us  Notices  of  the  Meeti7ig$ 
of  their  Societies.  Short  abstracts  of  Papers  read,  and  Principal  Objects 
exhibited,  will  cdways  be  acceptable. 


BATH     MICROSCOPICAL     SOCIETY. 


A  general  meeting  of  the  Bath  Microscopical  Society  was  held  at 


REPORTS  OF  SOCIETIES.  53 

the  Mineral  Water  Hospital,  on  Tuesday  evening,  Feb.  7,  the 
President  in  the  chair. — Mr.  A.  Pitman  was  unanimously  elected 
a  member  of  the  Society. — After  the  reading  of  the  minutes,  the 
President  referred  to  the  great  loss  which  the  Society  had  sustained 
since  its  last  general  meeting  by  the  death  of  Mr.  Charles  Moore, 
F.G.S.,  who  was  one  of  its  original  founders.  He  thereupon 
moved  a  vote  of  condolence  to  the  widow  of  their  deceased 
fellow-member,  which  was  seconded  and  carried.  The  President 
(Rev.  E.  T.  Stubbs,  M.A.)  read  the  paper  of  the  evening,  on 
"  A  Species  of  Lepeophthirus,"  which  he  found  in  the  Aquarium 
at  Brighton  upon  a  Bass.  The  species  is  apparently  hitherto 
unknown.  The  history  of  the  Lepeophthirus,  a  genus  of  the 
Crustacea,  was  sketched  in  an  interesting  way,  and  it  was  described 
as  a  creature  which,  among  many  others,  is  formed  not  to  fill  a 
spot  in  the  world  unoccupied  or  untenanted,  but  to  live  and 
multiply  upon  the  bodies  of  other  animals.  Such  creatures,  known 
as  parasites,  form  not  at  all  an  inconsiderable  class  among  living 
beings,  and  many  of  them  are  tenanted  by  other  and  smaller 
parasites.  The  specimen  he  was  describing  had  been  handed  to 
him  by  the  courteous  manager  of  the  Brighton  Aquarium  in 
August  last.  It  was  found  by  him  on  the  Bass,  one  of  the  fishes 
of  the  Perch  family,  and  since  then  Mr.  Stubbs  had  found  a  very 
similar  creature  on  the  John  Dory.  He  had  no  doubt  that  the 
parasite  belonged  to  the  genus  Lepeophthirus,  of  which  there  are 
at  present  six  or  seven  species,  the  largest  being  the  one  frequently 
found  on  the  salmon,  Z.  Stromii.  The  paper  entered  fully  into 
the  history  and  anatomy  of  these  curious  creatures,  and  was 
accompanied  by  some  excellent  drawings  and  a  large  collection  of 
slides. — A  discussion  followed  the  reading  of  the  paper,  and 
Mr.  Braham  referred  to  the  theory  of  deterioration  in  the  limbs  of 
parasites,  consequent  upon  their  inaction. — A  cordial  vote  of 
thanks  was  given  to  the  President  for  his  instructive  paper. 


The  Bath  Microscopical  Society  held  a  general  meeting  on 
Tuesday,  March  7th,  the  President,  the  Rev.  E.  T.  Stubbs,  being 
in  the  chair.  Arrangements  were  made  for  searching  the  canal  for 
fresh-water  Ufe,  to  be  exhibited  by  several  members  on  the  next 
club  evening.  Mr.  Alfred  Allen,  one  of  the  Vice-Presidents,  read 
a  paper  on  "  Legs  of  Insects,"  accompanied  by  several  novel 
diagrams,  in  which,  by  the  use  of  red  discs,  the  remarkable  variety 
of  position  was  shown  which  these  organs  occupy  in  the  several 
orders  of  the  insects.  The  locomotive  organs  from  the  larval 
state  to  the  condition  of  the  perfect  insect  were  interestingly 


54  CORRESPONDENCE. 

described,  although  it  was  clearly  shown  that  many  apodal 
larvas  move  without  legs.  To  some,  these  organs  would  be  a 
comparative  hindrance  to  locomotion,  because  their  natural 
requirements  in  seeking  for  food  only  occasion  slight  differences 
in  situation  and  posture.  The  tubercular  legs  of  many  were  well 
described,  and  attention  called  to  the  Rose  Aphis  with  its  six  rows 
of  tubercles,  containing  seven  homogeneous  legs  in  each  row, 
with  a  total  of  42  for  the  creature's  use.  The  position  of  some 
of  these  legs  is  very  curious.  Reaumur  describes  legs  on  the  top 
of  the  backs  of  certain  insects.  There  is  the  grub  of  a  little  gall- 
fly, found  upon  the  under  side  of  oak  leaves,  which  has  upon  the 
middle  of  each  segment  of  its  upper  surface  a  retractile  fleshy 
protuberance  resembling  the  spurious  or  pro-legs  of  a  caterpillar. 
This  position  is  an  admirable  provision  for  the  creature's  wants  in 
the  pecular  spherical  home  which  it  inhabits  upon  the  under  side 
of  leaves.  The  next  portion  of  the  paper  described  the  pedate 
larvae  which  move  by  proper  or  articulated  legs  in  distinction  from 
those  before  mentioned,  and  the  remainder  of  the  paper  was  occu- 
pied by  describing  the  legs  and  feet  of  the  perfect  insects. 
Numerous  slides  were  exhibited  to  illustrate  the  subject,  and  a 
cordial  vote  of  thanks  was  tendered  to  Mr.  Allen  for  the  reading 
of  the  paper. 


Correeponbence. 


The  Editors  do  not   hold  themselves  responsible  for  the  opinions  or 
statements  of  their  Correspondents. 


To  the  Editor  of  "  The  Journal  of  the  Postal  Microscopical  Society." 

Sir,— 

I  should  much  like  to  learn  the  opinion  of  my  brother 
members  on  the  subject  of  Microscopic  Demonstrations,  when 
there  are  30  or  40  people  to  whom  objects  are  to  be  shown  by 
these  instruments. 

On  the  other  hand,  I  have  collected  much  information  on 
projecting  Microscopic  objects  on  a  screen,  which  I  shall  embody 
in  one  or  two  papers,  if  the  members  will  care  to  have  it. 

Carey  R  Coombs. 

[We  shall  be  very  glad  to  insert  Dr.  Coombs'  paper.— i?^.] 


CORRESPONDENCE.  55 

To  the  Editor  of  "  The  Journal  of  the  Postal  Microscopical  Society.''^ 

Sir,— 

Perhaps  some  of  our  members  can  offer  suggestions  as  to  a 
Microscope  suitable  for  class  demonstrations.  I  want  to  meet 
with  a  really  useful,  portable  instrument,  which  can  be  passed 
round  to  individual  students  during  class  instruction.  The 
arrangement  must  admit  of  the  perfect  safety  of  the  slide,  and 
also  allow  the  object  to  be  fully  illuminated.  The  instrument 
referred  to  by  Dr.  L.  Beale  in  his  work  on  the  Microscope,  is, 
from  what  I  can  gather,  of  a  costly  nature ;  what  I  require  is  an 
instrument  of  reasonable  cost. 

Wm.  Narramore, 

Liverpool. 

[Our  correspondent  will  find  an  instrument  described  on  page  52, 
that  may  probably  meet  his  requirements. — Ed.'\ 


To  the  Editor  of  "  The  Journal  of  the  Postal  Microscopical  Society  y 
Sir,— 

I  should  like  to  suggest  that  in  an  early  number  of  this 
Journal  a  short  description  of  "  How  to  take  a  Photograph  of 
Minute  Organisms  "  be  given.  Many  a  subscriber  who  is  not  able 
to  give  a  correct  drawing  might  be  able  to  furnish  a  Photograph. 
The  description  should  be  as  short  and  clear  as  possible. 

Yours  truly, 

J.  Smith. 
[Other  correspondents  have  made  a  similar  request. — Ed^ 


A  correspondent  writes  to  us,  asking  for  information  as  to  the 
"  best  and  simplest  mode  of  separating  such  minute  objects  as 
Spicules  of  Gorgonia  and  Sponge,  Plates  of  Holothuriae,  Starch- 
granules,  etc.,  from  the  dirt  and  debris  with  which  they  are  always 
mixed  up,  and  obtaining  them  in  a  clean  state,  ready  for  mounting." 
He  cannot  find  the  process  explained  in  any  of  the  ordinary  text- 
books, and  attempts  made  to  solve  the  difficulty  have  hitherto 
ended  in  failure. — Ed. 


[56] 


EXCHANGES. 


Notices  are  inserted  in  this  column 
free  of  charge.  They  should  not 
exceed  Jive  lines  in  length,  and  must 
reach  us  at  least  3  weeks  before  date 
of  publication. 

Works  on  Geology  and  Mineralogy, 
Fossils  &  Minerals,  wanted  in  exchange 
for  works  in  General  Literature,  and 
good  Photographs  of  European  and 
American  Scenery. — J.  C.  Christie,  Old 
Cathcart,  Glasgow. 

Wanted — Fronds  of  Hot-house  Ferns 
vnth  Sori,  for  Microscopic  Mounting. 
List  on  application. — Miss  E.  Jarrett, 
Camerton  Court,  Bath. 

Parasite  of  Cat,  Trichodectes  suhro- 
stratu.'i,  Hsematopinus  from  Rat,  and 
many  others,  offered  for  similar  objects. 
Braula  and  Stylops  of  Bee,  Haemato- 
pinus  of  Seal  and  Sea-Lion  especially 
desired.  Please  send  list  to  H.  E. 
Freeman,  1,  Templeton  Road,  Finsbury 
Park,  N. 

A  few  good  mounts  of  Horn  and  Hoof 
Sections,  Diatoms,  etc.,  also  various 
interesting,named, unmounted  Objects, 
in  exchange  for  well-mounted  Slides. — 
Chas.  J.  Watkins,  Kings'  Mill  House, 
Painswick. 

Beale's  "  How  to  Work  with  Micro- 
scope," fourth  edition,  as  good  as  new, 
in  Exchange  for  Beale's  "Microscope 
in  Medicine  ;  "  name  edition. — Dr. 
Coombs,  Castle-Cary. 

Well-mounted  Sections  of  the  Gener- 
ative Organs  of  Dog  and  Monkey,  and 
other  anatomical  objects,  for  good  slides 
of  Foraminifera,  Vegetable  Tissues, 
Algce,  Fungi,  etc. — Wm.  Narramore, 
37,  Flaxman  Street,  Liverpool. 

I  shall  be  happy  to  exchange  lists  of 
Duplicates  with  any  member  ;  objects 
chiefly  simple  vegetable. -G.  B.  Mundy, 
Warminster,  Wilts. 

Wanted,  during  the  summer,  speci- 
mens of  the  less  common  Diptera, 
freshly  killed  in  spirit,  in  exchange  for 
good  botanical  and  entomological  slides. 
—J.  H.  G.,  15,  Prior-Park  Buildings, 
Bath. 


SALE   COLUMN. 


Advertisements  by  Members  and 
Subscribers  are  inserted  here  at  the 
rate  o/ Sixpence /or  20  words,  and 
Threepence  for  every  additional 


10  words,  or  portions  of  10. 

Dealers'  and  Trade  Advertise- 
ments ore  inserted  only  on  the  cover, 
and  at  special  rates. 

All  Advertisements  should  be  sent 
to  the  Editor,  1,  Cambridge  Place, 
Bath,  at  least  3  weeks  before  the 
date  of  publication. 

Microscopic  Objects  for  Mounting. 
Fifty  preparations,  accurately  named, 
2/6.— R.  Philip,  4,  Grove  Street,  Step- 
ney, Hull. 

For  Sale,  or  Exchange  for  Microscopic 
SHdes.  Natural  History  Works,  etc.,  a 
fine-toned  Violin,  in  capital  condition, 
with  case  for  same,  etc.— J.  E.  Priestly, 
Abbey  House  School,  Tewkesbury. 

Wa^nted— Journal  of  the  Royal  Micro- 
scopical Society,  V^ol.  I.,  1878  ;  Know- 
ledge, Nos.  1  and  2,  (November  11  and 
18,  1881.  )-A.  Allen,  1,  Cambridge 
Place,  Bath. 


NOTICES    TO   CORRES- 
PONDENTS. 

All  communications  should  be 
addressed  to  "  Editor, '^  care  of 
Mr.  A.  Allen,  1,  Cambridge  Place, 
Bath.  They  must  be  accompanied 
by  the  name  and  address  of  the 
writers,  but  not  necessarily  for  pub- 
lication. 


G.  D. — Thanks  for  your  interesting 
"  Ramble  ;  "  no  room  for  it  in  present 
issue. 

J.  S. — Your  short  paper  on  Carboni- 
ferous Holothurite  in  our  next. 

T.  P. — The  palmers  from  you  shall 
receive  our  careful  consideration. 

W.  H. — One  of  your  most  interesting 
papers  will  ap]:)ear  in  our  next. 

G.  B.  M. — Thanks  for  your  letter ; 
we  fear  your  suggestion  will  interfere 
with  the  efficient  working  of  the  Jour- 
nal. 

F.  M. — Early  attention  shall  be  given 
to  your  paper  ;  it  will  need  some  little 
revision . 

Dr.  C. — "Section  Cutting"  in  our 
next. 

Sigma. — The  contents  of  your  paper 
not  very  suitable. 


P1.6 


'^^^^^^B 


The   Journal 


OF   THE 


Postal   Microscopical   Society  ^ 

JUNE,    1882. 


®n  a  6uppo6eJ)  1Rew  Species  of  Caligue* 

By  the  Rev.  E.  T.  Stubbs,  M.A. 


L^ifc^j)  Plate  6. 

AST  August  there  were  given  to  me  by  the 
kind  and  intelligent  Manager  of  the  Brighton 
Aquarium,  several  living  specimens  of  a  parasite 
which  he  had  found  upon  a  Bass  in  one  of  the 
tanks,  and  which  appear  to  me  to  have  been 
hitherto  unknown,  or  at  least  undescribed.  I 
found  afterwards  a  large  number  of  the  same 
parasite  upon  a  John  Dory,  in  the  same  aquarium, 
and  thus  had  a  good  opportunity  of  studying 
closely  and  minutely  their  structure. 

There  is  a  group  of  Entomostraca,  chiefly,  if  not  altogether, 
marine,  of  the  order  Siphonostomata,  called  so,  as  the  name 
implies,  from  the  shape  of  the  mouth  ;  the  genus  Caligidce  belongs 
to  this  order,  and  includes,  according  to  Baird,  four  sub-genera, — 
Caligus,  Trebius,  Chalimus,  and  Lepeoptheirus. 

The  mouth  in  this  order  is  extremely  singular  in  its  arrange- 
ment and  appendages,  and  in  the  subjoined  plate  (Figs,  i  and  2) 
is  seen  situated,  both  in  the  male  and  female,  on  the  under  side 
of  the  cephalothorax,  between  the  first  or  anterior  pair  of  feet ; 

E 


58  NEW    SPECIES    OF    CAIJGUS. 

in  the  living  specimen  it  could  be  seen  moving  slightly,  with  a 
sort  of  contractile  motion.  In  Lepcoptheinis  Stromii^  which  is  the 
largest  of  this  kind,  the  siphon-mouth  can  more  readily  be  seen ; 
it  is  shown  in  Fig.  3  magnified  200  diam.,  and  is  seen  to  consist 
of  a  sac  surrounded  by  three  muscles,  arranged  transversely,  and 
having  also  two  longitudinal  muscles,  by  which  apparently  the 
process  of  suction  is  carried  on.  This  sac  is  terminated  by  a 
very  curious  mouth,  armed  with  twenty-four  curved  teeth,  arranged 
in  two  quarter-circles,  and  diminishing  in  size  in  opposite  directions 
from  a  point  in  front.  A  separate  sketch  of  this  mouth,  greatly 
magnified,  is  given  in  Fig.  4.  Behind  the  mouth,  but  connected 
with  the  sac  above  mentioned,  is  a  proboscis,  having  its  inner 
and  anterior  extremity  shaped  like  a  funnel,  and  the  external  end, 
which  projects  beyond  the  mouth,  terminated  by  a  sucking-disc  or 
gland,  not  unlike  the  extremity  of  the  proboscis  of  a  humble-bee. 
I  have  little  doubt  that  this  description  will  also  serve  in  the  main 
for  that  of  the  siphon-mouth  in  the  other  sub-genera. 

When  I  became  possessed  of  the  living  specimens  from  the 
Bass,  I  found  that  they  were  themselves  encrusted  with  other  and 
smaller  parasites  of  three  different  kinds — principally  Apoda,  and 
of  the  species  Nephilis — which  in  one  example  clustered  so  thickly 
upon  the  Caligus  as  to  conceal  its  configuration  altogether. 

In  Figs.  I  and  2,  sketches  are  given  of  the  underside  of  the 
male  and  female  Caligus^  which  will  be  found  to  differ  from  each 
other  in  some  curious  and  interesting  particulars.  The  body  is 
flat,  having  its  upper  surface  convex  and  the  under  surface 
concave.  On  the  anterior  extremity  of  the  cephalothorax  are  to 
be  seen  two  lunules,  or  sucking-discs,  situated  close  to  the  edge  of 
the  carapace ;  they  are  oval,  and  for  two-thirds  of  the  hinder 
part  of  the  curve  have  a  double-ridged  border  more  elevated  than 
the  front  portion — they  are  apparently  not  used  for  walking,  as  is 
the  case  with  those  of  the  Arguliis  foliaceus. 

There  are  six  pairs  of  legs  attached  to  the  under  surface  of 
the  carapace.  The  first  pair  are  small,  and  terminate  with  claws 
or  hooks  not  unlike  those  of  a  crab ;  the  second  pair  are  very 
large  and  powerful  in  the  male,  but  smaller  in  the  female,  and  are 
evidently  designed  for  holding  the  prey  firmly.  The  third  and 
fourth  pairs  are  long,  slender,  and  slightly  hooked  ;  the  fifth  pair 


NEW   SPECIES    OF   CALTGUS.  59 

are  adapted  for  swimming ;  and  the  sixth  and  last  pair  are  long 
(longer  and  more  powerful  in  the  male  than  in  the  female),  and 
in  both  they  are  furnished  with  claws,  five  in  number. 

The  swimming-apparatus  is  exceedingly  elaborate  in  its 
structure,  and  consists  of  two  sets  of  plumose  setae,  eleven  in 
number,  placed  at  each  side  of  the  head  behind  the  lunules,  and 
in  front  of  two  long  antennae,  which  project  at  almost  right  angles 
from  the  median  line.  The  fifth  pair  of  legs  already  mentioned 
form  also  part  of  the  swimming-mechanism.  These  legs  have 
each  a  strong  tarsus,  and  upon  this  are  articulated  two  joints, 
short,  and  nearly  at  right  angles  to  each  other ;  one  furnished  with 
eight  long  plumose  setae,  the  other  provided  similarly  with  seven. 
Ranged  immediately  behind,  quite  on  the  posterior  edge  of  the 
carapace  and  projecting  backwards,  there  are,  on  each  side,  two 
pairs  of  semi-circular  flap-like  swimming-plates,  also  plumose 
and  capable  of  motion. 

The  female  has  a  larger  abdomen  than  the  male,  and  in  it  are 
to  be  detected  convolutions  of  what  appear  very  much  like  eggs 
in  the  ovaries.  There  is  a  double  tail,  having  at  each  extremity 
three  long  plumose  setae,  not  unhke  the  double  tail  of  Cyclops 
quadric07-nis. 

'Jlie  eye.  Fig.  5,  is  placed  on  the  upper  side  of  the  cephalo- 
thorax,  in  the  median  line,  and  just  opposite  to  the  mouth,  which 
is,  as  already  stated,  on  the  under  side.  On  careful  examination 
with  the  quarter-inch,  the  eye  is  found  to  be  double,  composed  of 
two  lenses  placed  back  to  back,  separated  by  a  comparatively 
v/ide  septum,  and  thus  capable  of  looking  in  opposite  directions. 

It  is  not  unlikely  that,  as  is  the  case  with  Cyclops  and  some  of 
the  Entomostraca,  the  respiration  is  anal ;  and  when  the  living 
animal  is  viewed  in  a  favourable  light,  a  movement  corresponding 
to  such  respiration  may  be  detected. 

The  female  bears  two  ovisacs  at  each  side  of  the  tail,  in 
which  the  eggs  may  be  seen  closely  packed  together  :  they  are 
long,  narrow,  and  transparent;  very  easily  detached,  and  about 
as  long  as  the  creature  itself 

The  cephalothorax  is  fringed  all  round  with  a  very  finely 
striated,  gelatinous  fin,  of  such  exceeding  tenuity  that  it  almost 
disappears  from  view  when  traced  along  from  the  front,  where  it  is 


60  NEW  SPECIES  OF   CALIGUS. 

thicker,  towards  the  propulsion  feet.  A  fin  somewhat  similar  but 
much  smaller  is  seen  at  the  anterior  extremity  of  the  carapace, 
between  the  two  lunules. 

The  upper  side  of  the  cephalothorax  appears  to  be  composed 
of  nine  plates  of  shell ;  at  least  there  are  depressions  which  would 
seem  to  indicate  that  the  shell  is  separated  into  that  number 
of  parts. 

At  first  it  was  concluded  that  this  was  a  species  oi  Lepeoptheirus ; 
but  from  the  presence  of  the  two  lunules,  or  sucking-discs,  which 
I  believe  only  the  Caligus  has,  it  must  belong  to  the  latter  species. 

The  fish  upon  which  these  Caligi  were  discovered  did  not 
appear  to  be  in  the  slightest  degree  discomposed  by  their  pre- 
sence ;  neither  did  they  seem  to  inflict  any  injury  upon  their  host, 
or  even  to  attach  themselves  permanently  to  any  one  special  spot 
or  portion  of  his  body  ;  but  just  to  move  about  with  greater  or 
less  briskness  as  humour  or  accident  dictated. 

What  purpose  in  the  economy  of  Nature  such  creatures  can 
serve  is  very  mysterious.  For  these,  the  Caligi  and  Lepioptheiri 
especially,  are  not  found  on  unhealthy  fish,  but  are  rather  proofs 
of  good  condition  and  vigour.  The  indications  of  disease  are 
shewn  by  quite  a  different  class  of  Hving  things — by  other  species 
of  parasites  quite  unlike  these,  and  by  various  kinds  of  fungoid 
growth  ; — but  the  fact  that  a  condition  of  health,  sound  constitu- 
tion, and  perfect  vigour  should  be  indicated  by  the  necessary 
presence  of  any  sort  of  parasitical  animals,  is  a  mystery  in  nature 
which  remains  yet  unsolved. 


EXPLANATION     OF    PLATE     G. 


Fig.  1. — Female  Caligus,  undescribed  species. 

Fig.  2.— Male  ditto  ditto. 

Fig.  3.  — Mouth-organs  of  Lepeoptheirus  Stromii  ;  general 

view,   X  200. 
Fig.  4. — Recurved  teeth  in  mouth,  more  highly  magnified. 
Fig.  5. — Eye  of  Caligus,  with  double  lens. 


[61] 

Cutting  Scctione  of  Soft  ^ieeuea. 

By  C.  p.  Coombs,  M.D.,  Lond. 


THE  people  who  cut  Sections  of  granite,  coal,  bones,  teeth, 
and  the  like,  are  to  my  mind  worthy  of  much  honour  ; 
but  I  do  not  feel  disposed  to  follow  their  lead.  The  soft 
tissues  are  troublesome  enough  at  times,  and  impracticable 
always,  unless  properly  hardened  ; — but  the  intermediate  tissues, 
such  as  most  vegetable  structures,  are  fairly  manageable  when  a 
section-cutter  is  employed; — they  are  in  the  province  of  the 
double-  and  treble-staining  people,  and  to  these  I  would  rather 
leave  them,  hoping  that  we  shall  have  a  paper  on  the  preparation 
of  these  most  attractive  objects.  This  paper  refers  merely  to  the 
best  modes  of  cutting  soft  animal  tissues  ;  the  first  and  readiest  of 
these  being  by  preparatory  freezing.  Ice  and  salt  have  been  largely 
used  for  this  purpose,  but  the  ether-spray  apparatus  has  latterly 
taken  the  place  of  this  mixture,  and  is  employed  in  the  arrange- 
ments now  to  be  described.  The  simplest  apparatus  with  which 
I  am  acquainted,  is  a  soHd  cylinder  of  copper,  an  inch  long,  and 
about  3/^ -inch  in  diameter,  fitted  on  a  cylinder  of  wood  with  a 
foot.  "  A  tube  of  wood  is  made  to  fit  outside  the  copper 
cylinder,  and  to  slide  back  over  the  handle.  This  tube  acts  as  a 
guard  in  preventing  the  contact  of  the  warm  fingers  with  the 
copper,  while  the  section  is  being  made.  To  use  the  instrument 
the  ether  spray  is  directed  against  the  metal  until  a  white  floss 
covers  it, — the  guard  is  then  slid  up,  and  a  piece  of  the  tissue  to 
be  examined  is  laid  on  the  rough  surface  of  the  copper.  A  drop 
of  water  or  serum  is  now  let  fall  on  the  tissue,  and  in  a  few  seconds 
both  fluid  and  tissue  are  frozen  sufficiently  for  cutting  purposes." 
This  description  of  his  instrument  is  given  by  the  inventor,  Mr. 
Coppinger,  of  Dublin. 

Dr.  Rutherford's  Microtome  is  similar  in  principle,  but  is  more 
elaborate.  It  has  a  large  cutting  plate  on  which  the  knife  or 
razor  is  made  to  slide ;  the  copper  table  on  which  the  frozen 
tissue  rests  is  propelled  by  a  screw  which  has  a  very  fine  thread, 
and  the  ether  spray  is  thrown  up  from  beneath  into  a  hollow  in  the 
copper,  which  is  so  made  that  the  surplus  ether  can  be  collected. 
This  clever  instrument  has  many  advantages,  besides  the  one 
(common  to  all  freezing  microtomes)  of  enabling  the  pathologist 


6t  CUTTIXG   SECTIONS   OF   SOFT   TISSUES. 

to  examine  tissues  without  delay.  Dr.  Lockhart  Clarke  made  his 
sections  of  brain  and  spinal  cord  in  the  following  manner.  It  is 
an  interesting  contrast  to  the  freezing  method  just  described  : — 
The  tissue  is  cut  into  fragments  of  moderate  size,  which  are  first 
soaked  for  24  hours  in  a  lluid  composed  of  equal  parts  of  alcohol 
and  water,  then  for  24  hours  in  pure  alcohol.  Then  the  pieces 
are  immersed  in  dilute  Chromic  Acid  (straw  coloured),  or  solution 
of  Potassium  Bichromate  in  water  (i  to  200),  for  some  luccks^  or 
until  they  are  found  hard  enough  to  be  cut.  The  sections  are 
rendered  transparent  by  soaking  them  in  turpentine,  if  necessary. 

Now  I  proceed  to  the  plan  devised  by  Dr.  Klein,  or  some  of  the 
German  Histologists,  for  cutting  sections  without  apparatus.  The 
tissue  must  first  be  hardened  by  the  method  of  procedure  just 
described,  or  by  soaking  in  methylated  spirit  only,  which  is 
sufficient  for  most  animal  structures ;  others  do  better  when 
steeped  in  a  one  or  two  per  cent,  aqueous  solution  of  Potassium 
Bichromate.  In  either  case  several  days  of  soaking  are  required 
before  the  tissue  can  be  cut ;  but  supposing  that  a  fragment 
has  been  rendered  firm  enough  by  one  of  the  methods  given, 
it  is  to  be  mounted  in  wax  as  follows  : — 

White  wax  is  melted  with  about  one-fourth  of  its  weight  of 
olive  oil  in  a  porcelain  dish,  and  the  two  are  well  mixed  together. 
When  cool,  the  wax  should  be  cut  with  a  razor  to  try  its 
consistency,  and  if  it  is  hard  enough  to  cut  into  very  thin  slices 
without  breaking,  it  will  do.  Then  a  little  paper  or  cardboard 
trough  is  made,  (about  ij-inch  long,  \  an  inch  deep,  and  the 
same  broad,)  and  set  on  a  firm  and  level  surface, — the  wax  is 
melted  by  holding  the  porcelain  dish  over  a  lamp, — and  poured 
into  the  trough  till  three-quarters  full.  Now  thrust  a  fine  needle 
into  the  piece  of  tissue  to  be  cut — which  should  be  a  cube  about 
one-sixth  inch  each  way — and  dip  the  tissue  into  the  melted  wax; — 
take  it  out  and  hold  it  in  the  air  to  cool; — then  dip  again,  holding 
it  up  as  before,  and  repeating  the  process  until  it  is  well  coated ; 
then  hold  it  in  the  middle  of  the  trough  till  the  wax  begins  to  set, 
and  fill  up  the  trough  with  more  melted  wax.  When  the  whole  is 
cool,  strip  off  the  paper  mould ;  and  cutting  away  the  wax  until  the 
imbedded  tissue  appears,  slice  tissue  and  wax  together  with  a  thin 
razor  dipped  in  spirit.  The  slices  are  to  be  taken  off  the  razor 
while  it  is  immersed  in  spirit,  as,  if  thin  enough,  they  are  very 
fragile.  (Before  describing  the  mounting,  it  will  be  as  well  to 
say  that  the  "Army  Razor,"  sold  by  Messrs.  Arnold,  of  Smithfield, 
is  well  adapted  for  section  cutting,  as  it  has  a  very  thin  and  wide 
blade.) 

The  sections  which  appear  eligible  having  been  selected,  they 
are  next  to  be  taken  from  the  methylated  spirit  on  a  flat  instru- 
ment, and  deposited  in  clear  spirit  first,  and  then  in  the  staining 


Pi. 


4J     ^- 


%  li 


SPIDERS  :     THEIR   STRUCTURE  AND   HABITS.  63 

fluid.  If,  however,  the  tissue  has  been  hardened  in  Bichromate, 
or  in  Chromic  Acid,  they  must  go  into  a  solution  of  Carbonate  of 
Soda,  before  staining. 

Haematoxylin  stain  is  made  by  boiling 

Extract  of  Hcematoxylon    ...              ...          i  part; 

Alum    ...             ...             ...             ...         3  parts; 

Water   ...             ...             ...             ...       40  „ 

filtering  when  cold,  and  adding  to  this  fluid  methylated  spirit  5  or 
6  parts.  This  stain  has  some  advantages  over  that  made  with 
carmine,  but  ink  is  a  very  fair  substitute  for  either. 

Watch-glasses  for  holding  the  sections  in  the  various  re-agents, 
viz  : — methylated  spirit, — clear  spirit, — the  staining  fluid  suitably 
diluted  with  water, — absolute  alcohol,  and  lastly,  oil  of  cloves, 
should  be  arranged  on  the  table  in  the  proper  order,  so  that  the 
sections  may  be  lifted  from  one  to  the  other — after  remaining  a 
few  minutes  in  each.  Finally,  the  section  is  taken  on  the  lifting 
instrument  from  the  oil  of  cloves,  allowed  to  rest  for  a  few  seconds 
on  some  blotting-paper,  then  laid  on  the  centre  of  a  glass  slide, 
and  covered  with  a  thin  glass  circle,  bearing  a  drop  of  the  mounting 
medium.  Dammar  varnish — or  balsam  softened  with  chloroform — 
will  be  found  the  best  for  objects  prepared  as  above  described. 


Spibers :  ^beir  Structure  anb  Ibabite^ 

By  William  Horner. 


FIRST  PAPER. — Plate  7. 

I  PROPOSE  in  this  paper,  after  saying  a  few  preliminary  words 
on  the  class  Arachnida,  to  take  up  more  particularly  one 
of    its    main    divisions — Araneidoe ;    and   to    consider   the 
structure,  economy,  and  habits  of  the  animals  which  compose  it, 
illustrating   these  by  reference  to  some  of  the  more  remarkable 
British  species. 

The  Arachnida  are  a  class  of  Annulosa,  closely  allied  to 
the  Crustacea,  and  include  Spiders,  Scorpions,  Mites,  etc.  The 
body  is  divided  into  segments,  or  somites,  and  is  furnished  with 
four  pairs  of  legs. 

There  are  two  divisions  of  the  Arachnida  :— (i)  Trachearia^  in 


64  SPIDERS:    THEIR  STRUCTURE  AND    HABITS. 

which  respiration  is  cutaneous — />.,  by  the  general  surface  of  the 
body, — or  else  by  trachea,  which  are  air-tubes,  opening  on  the 
surface  of  the  body  by  stigmata,  or  spiracles,  and  branching  freely 
as  they  penetrate  the  interior.  The  eyes  in  this  division  never 
exceed  four.  (2)  Piibnonaria^  in  which  respiration  is  by  pulmo- 
nary sacs  alone,  or  by  these  and  tracheae  conjointly,  and  the  eyes 
are  generally  six  or  eight  in  number. 

To  the  former  division  belong  the  Sea-Spiders  or  Fodosomata, 
Mites  or  Acari,  and  Phalatigidoe  or  Harvest-Spiders,  distinguished 
by  the  length  of  their  legs. 

To  the  latter  belong  the  higher  Arac/mida,  as  Scorpions  and 
Spiders.  The  Scorpions  are  possessed  of  a  segmented  abdomen 
terminating  in  a  hooked  claw,  perforated  at  its  point  by  the  duct 
of  a  poison-gland  which  lies  at  its  base.  There  is  no  line  of 
demarcation  between  the  abdomen  and  cephalothorax,  and  they 
have  strong  nipping-claws,  or  chelae. 

The  AfaneidcB,  or  true  Spiders,  (called  also  Dimerosomata^ 
from  their  bodies  showing  two  distinct  divisions),  are  characterized 
by  the  union  of  head  and  thorax  into  one  mass,  which  is 
named  the  cephalothorax,  and  by  a  soft  unsegmented  abdomen 
attached  to  the  former  by  a  peduncle.  They  breathe  by  pul- 
monary sacs  in  combination  with  tracheae.  The  head  bears  2,  4, 
6,  or  8  simple  eyes;  they  have  no  chelate  limbs,  and  their 
abdomen  terminates  with  a  spinning-apparatus  instead  of  a  sting. 
These  are  the  principal  points  of  difference  between  Scorpions 
and  Spiders. 

In  treating  of  these  latter,  it  will  be  best  to  commence  with 
the  internal  structure,  as  it  is  by  this,  rather  than  by  outward  form, 
that  the  divisions  of  the  animal  kingdom  are  ruled. 

Spiders  possess  a  system  of  circulation  and  respiration  dis- 
tinguishing them  from  insects,  and  giving  them  a  higher  rank  in 
the  scale  of  creation.  The  blood  is  colourless,  and  like  that  of 
fishes  holds  in  suspension  oval  corpuscles.  The  heart  is  a  long 
muscular  vessel,  placed  lengthwise  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
abdomen,  enclosed  in  a  pericardium,  and  having  four  chambers. 
An  artery  runs  through  the  peduncle,  separating  in  the  cephalo- 
thorax into  three  pairs  :  of  which  the  upper  pair  sends  off  vessels 
to  the  eyes  and  mouth,  the  middle  pair  to  the  digestive  organs, 
and  the  third  to  the  legs.  These  arteries  re-unite  in  the  forepart 
of  the  cephalothorax,  and  form  one  canal,  which  runs  backwards 
along  the  lower  part  of  it,  and  of  the  abdomen,  to  the  spinning- 
organs,  sending  out  small  branches  on  its  way  (Plate  7,  Fig.  i). 
The  blood  is  then  passed  on  through  channels  analogous  to  veins 
into  receptacles  communicating  with  the  breathing-organs,  where 
it  is  oxygenised,  and  so  returns  to  the  heart. 

The  pulmonary  sacs,  or  gills,  two  in  number,  are  involutions 


SPIDEKS  :    THEIR  STRUCTURE  AND  HABITS.  65 

of  the  integument,  or  skin,  of  the  abdomen  ;  the  vascular  surface 
thus  formed  being  increased  by  the  development  of  50  or  60  thin 
triangular  white  leaflets,  like  the  leaves  of  a  book,  all  opening 
into  a  common  cavity,  and  communicating  with  the  external  air 
by  a  pair  of  stigmata  visible  on  the  under-surface  of  the  abdomen, 
near  its  base.  In  the  envelope  of  these  gills  is  a  tough  ligament 
which  is  attached  to  the  pericardium ;  consequently,  the  dilata- 
tion and  contraction  of  the  heart  alternately  close  and  open  the 
gills,  and  by  this  simple  arrangement  respiration  is  effected. 

The  stomach  is  situated  in  the  cephalothorax,  receiving  food 
from  the  mouth  through  an  oesophagus,  and  discharging  its 
contents  through  a  tube,  or  alimentary  canal,  running  down  the 
abdomen  into  the  rectum  at  its  extremity. 

Passing  now  to  the  outward  structure  of  the  spiders,  we 
commence  with  the  cephalothorax,  the  upper  side  of  which  is 
called  the  shield,  and  has  attached  to  it  the  eyes  and  the  fakes ; 
the  lower  side  goes  by  the  name  of  the  breastplate,  and  is  con- 
nected with  the  mouth,  the  palpi,  and  the  legs  (Plate  7,  Fig.  8). 

The  eyes  are  simple,  like  the  stemmata  of  insects,  but  in  struc- 
ture they  bear  some  resemblance  to  the  vertebrate  type,  although 
apparently  fixed  and  inexpressive.  To  compensate  for  their 
immobihty,  they  are  disposed  in  several  pairs  in  various  parts  of 
the  forehead.  Their  mode  of  arrangement  varies  widely  in  the 
different  genera,  and  affords  one  of  the  best  generic  characters  : 
in  the  8-eyed  tribe  they  are  often  placed  in  two  transverse  rows 
on  the  forehead,  but  such  is  by  no  means  always  the  case,  as  may 
be  seen  from  the  drawings  in  Plate  7,  Figs.  2 — 4 ;  in  the  6-eyed 
tribe  there  is  even  greater  variety  of  position.  Figs.  5  and  6. 

For  seizing  and  disabling  its  prey,  the  spider  is  furnished  with 
a  pair  of  falces,  which  are  very  formidable  instruments  in  pro- 
portion to  their  size  :  they  are  attached  to  the  front  edge  of  the 
cephalothorax  above  the  jaws,  and  consist  each  of  two  joints. 
The  lower  joint,  or  base,  is  somewhat  conical  and  fleshy ;  the 
upper,  or  fang,  is  horny  and  pointed,  with  an  opening  at  the  tip, 
through  which  a  poison  is  conveyed  from  a  gland  in  the  basal 
joint.  That  this  poison  is  an  acid  is  proved  by  its  reddening 
litmus  paper,  but  it  has  no  taste  perceptible  by  the  tongue  ;  and  a 
series  of  experiments,  carefully  conducted  by  Mr.  Blackwall, 
appear  to  establish  the  conclusion  that  it  produces  no  appreciable 
pain  or  inflammation  upon  the  human  subject ;  neither  does  it 
exhibit  any  high  degree  of  virulence  in  its  effects  upon  other 
spiders,  or  upon  insects.  This  naturahst  conjectures  that  upon 
insects  it  may  have  a  tendency  to  paralyse  their  organs  of  volun- 
tary motion,  and  induce  a  determination  of  their  fluids  to  the 
injured  part.  The  fang  is  attached  to  the  base  by  a  hinge-joint, 
and  in  most  famihes  with  a  vertical  or  inclined  articulation, 


66  SPIDERS  :    THEIR   STRUCTURE    AND   HABITS. 

allowing  it  to  move  inwards  in  a  horizontal  or  inclined  plane  only. 
AVhen  not  in  use,  the  fang  is  folded  upon  a  groove  along  the 
inner  edge  of  the  basal  joint,  which  is  furnished  sometimes  with  a 
single,  and  sometimes  with  a  double,  row  of  teeth  (Plate  7, 
Fig.  8). 

Below  the  falces,  and  attached  to  the  forepart  of  the  breast- 
plate, are  the  external  organs  of  the  mouth  :  these  comprise  a 
pair  of  maxilte,  or  jaws,  each  bearing  a  long,  five-jointed  palpus, — 
and  an  under  and  upper  lip,  the  latter  scarcely  visible.  The  palpi 
project  from  the  jaws  on  either  side  of  the  fakes,  and  have  each 
five  joints  covered  v/ith  hairs  and  spines,  and  named  respectively 
the  axillary  joint,  which  is  short ;  the  humeral,  which  is  long  ;  the 
cubital,  short ;  the  radial,  long  in  the  female,  but  short  in  the 
male ;  and  lastly  the  digital.  In  the  female  they  strongly 
resemble  the  legs,  and  taper  towards  the  extremities,  which  are 
armed  with  a  single  claw,  toothed  like  a  comb.  In  the  male  the 
fifth,  or  digital,  joint  is  much  dilated,  and  has  no  claw,  but 
instead,  a  complicated  set  of  soft  membranous  parts,  ascertained 
by  the  patient  observations  of  Mr.  Blackwall  to  constitute  the 
sexual  organs.  They  are  fully  developed  in  the  adult  male  only, 
and  afford  the  readiest  means  of  distinguishing  the  sexes  (Figs. 
9,   10,   11). 

The  legs  are  attached  to  the  breast-plate,  and  consist  each  of 
seven  joints  of  very  different  lengths.  The  seventh  joint,  called 
the  tarsus,  is  terminated  by  two  or  more  claws,  usually  curved  and 
toothed  like  a  comb  ;  the  number  of  these  claws  varying  according 
to  the  habits  and  requirements  of  the  family.  The  absolute  and 
relative  lengths  of  the  legs  also  vary  greatly,  and  afford  useful 
generic  and  specific  characters. 

The  abdomen  is  unsegmented,  and  is  enveloped  in  a  soft, 
continuous  skin,  covered  more  or  less  densely  with  hairs.  Its 
upper  surface,  in  the  out-of-door  species,  is  often  variously 
painted.  At  its  extremity  are  the  spinning-organs,  consisting  of 
three  pairs  of  mammulae,  or  spinnerets,  in  every  British  family 
except  one — that  of  the  Ciniflo7iidcE^ — which  has  four  pairs.  They 
are  distinguished  as  the  upper,  lower,  and  intermediate  pairs. 
The  upper  pair  have  each  two,  and  occasionally  three,  joints  ; 
the  lower  pair  have  two,  and  the  intermediate  pair  but  one  joint. 
Each  of  these  spinnerets  is  furnished,  at  its  extremity,  or  along 
the  under  surface  of  the  terminal  joint,  with  fine  moveable 
papillae,  or  spinning-tubes,  communicating  by  ducts  with  a  series 
of  internal  glands.  These  secrete  a  liquid  gum,  which  on  issuing 
from  the  tubes  hardens  immediately  by  exi)osure  to  the  air,  and 
forms  numerous  very  delicate  filaments.  To  produce  the  finest 
possible  lines,  the  spider  employs  the  spinning-tubes  separately ; 
but  if  stouter  lines  are  required  she  causes  the  tips  of  the  tubes 


SPIDERS:    THEIR  STRUCTURE   AND    HABITS.  67 

to  converge  into  a  point  like  the  vertex  of  a  cone,  and  so  spins  an 
entire  thread  composed  of  a  multitude  of  strands.  The  threads 
so  spun  are  not  all  alike.  If  we  examine  the  web  of  a  garden- 
spider  {Epeira)  with  a  good  pocket-lens,  we  find  it  composed  of 
three  difterent  kinds  of  threads.  Two  of  them  are  plain  and 
differ  only  in  size  ;  the  third  is  studded  with  minute  globules  like 
dewdrops.  It  is  also  found  that,  while  the  plain  threads  are  only 
slightly  elastic  and  unadhesive,  the  beaded  threads  are  adhesive 
and  possess  a  high  degree  of  elasticity. 

With  regard  to  the  organs  of  smell  and  hearing  nothing 
certain  is  known,  although  the  fact  that  spiders  possess  the  latter 
sense  seems  sufficiently  established  by  many  well-known  anec- 
dotes ;  as,  for  example,  that  of  Pelisson,  the  prisoner  in  the 
Bastille,  who  beguiled  his  weary  solitude  by  taming  a  spider,  and 
teaching  it  to  come  for  its  food  at  the  sound  of  his  flute. 

Such,  then,  with  some  allowance  for  slight  deviations,  or 
adaptations,  is  the  structure  of  ail  spiders.  We  will  now  briefly 
consider  their  economy  and  habits  ;  for,  although  all  are  endowed 
with  the  same  organs  and  formed  upon  one  type,  these  are  often 
widely  difterent.  Some  float  in  the  air,  some  dive  beneath  the 
water;  and  of  those  \vhich  are  tenants  of  the  land,  some  are 
sedentary,  some  vagrant.  Of  the  sedentary  ones,  some  wxave 
snares  more  or  less  curious  and  complex,  and  sit  therein  patiently 
waiting  for  clients ;  while  others  of  more  refined  taste,  instead  of 
residing  at  their  place  of  business,  weave  a  silken  gallery  and  con- 
nect it  with  their  private  residence  at  a  convenient  distance  off. 
Some,  again,  are  burrowers,  and  live  in  chambers  excavated  for 
themselves  beneath  the  ground  and  comfortably  lined  with  silk. 
Unsocial  and  ferocious  in  their  habits,  ugly  and  repulsive  as  they 
are  commonly  considered,  and  the  abomination  of  tidy  house- 
wives, the  only  redeeming  feature  about  them  is  the  devotion  of 
the  female  to  the  silken  cocoon,  in  w^hich  are  deposited  her  hopes 
of  a  family.  Of  conjugal  affection  she  has  none.  Being  larger 
and  stronger  than  the  male,  she  will  not  seldom  even  kill  and 
devour  her  consort ;  and  were  it  not  for  her  fecundity,  and  capa- 
bility of  producing  several  sets  of  prolific  eggs  in  succession, 
without  renewing  her  marital  intercourse,  the  race  of  spiders  would 
long  ago  have  become  extinct. 

But  in  spite  of  this  cloud  of  obloquy,  and  the  inveterate 
prejudice  against  them,  they  display  an  intelligence,  an  ingenuity, 
a  patience,  and  a  fertility  of  resource,  that  cannot  fail  to  enlist  the 
admiration  and  the  interest  of  any  one  who  will  be  at  the  pains  to 
study  them,  or  w^ho  (to  adopt  the  words  of  John  Hunter)  will 
"amuse  himself  with  spiders." 

The  next  point  to  consider  is  their  classification.  British 
spiders  are  divided  into  two  tribes  : — the  8-eyed  tribe,  consisting 


6S  SPIDERS:    THEIR    STRUCTURE   AND   HABITS. 

of  ten  families  ; — and  the  6-eyed,  which  contains  only  two  families. 
Of  foreign  spiders  there  are  two  tribes  in  addition  to  the  above, 
namely,  the  4-eyed  and  the  2-eyed  ;  but  of  the  4-eyed  tribe  only 
two  individuals,  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  are  known.  One  of  these, 
the  Tetrablemma  mediociilahc7n,  was  discovered  by  Mr.  Thwaites  in 
Ceylon  in  187  r,  and  a  description  of  it  is  given  in  "The  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  Zoological  Society  for  1873."  It  bears  no  affinity 
to  its  fellow-tribesman  ;  and  the  four  eyes  are  closely  grouped 
round  a  circular  eminence  in  the  centre  of  the  cephalothorax — an 
adaptation  rendered  necessary  by  the  conical  shape  of  the  latter. 

The  2-eyed  spiders  are  also  very  scarce,  only  a  few  species 
being  known. 

The  12  British  families  may  be  divided,  like  the  Roman 
gladiators  of  old,  into  two  classes  : — the  Retiarii  and  the 
Secutores,  for  six  of  them  ensnai-e  their  prey  by  subtlety  in  webs 
of  various  descriptions,  and  six  ptirsue  their  prey  and  capture  it  by 
swiftness  of  foot.  Suppose  we  designate  them  the  Rdiary  and 
the  Hunti7ig  spiders,  and  see  whether  we  can  find  any  interesting 
members  of  either  class. 

The  "  Hunters "  weave  no  snares,  but  hide  under  stones  or 
leaves,  or  in  crevices,  whence  they  rush  out  upon  passing  insects, 
sometimes  springing  upon  them  from  a  distance  and  surprising 
them.  Of  these  the  Lycosa  (wolfish)  and  the  Saltims  (leaper)  are 
very  common  examples  ;  and  many  of  them  may  be  found  even 
in  the  winter  months  on  sunny  days  in  full  activity. 

The  Drassidce  (seizers),  although  they  weave  no  snares,  con- 
struct silken  cells  for  places  of  concealment,  and  in  these  they  lie 
snugly  ensconced  through  the  winter,  generally  beneath  the  loose 
bark  of  rails  or  trees.  The  most  remarkable  members  of  this 
family  are  the  Water-spiders,  or  more  poetically  and  more 
classically  the  Ar^yroiietm  (spinners  of  silver),  from  the  beautiful 
silvery  cell  which  they  build  on  sub-aquatic  plants,  and  which 
they  fill  with  air  brought  down,  a  bubble  at  a  time,  from  the 
surface,  just  as  a  glass  jar  is  filled  with  gas  on  the  shelf  of  a 
pneumatic  trough.  The  Rev.  J.  G.  Wood  gives  a  charming  des- 
cription of  these  interesting  little  creatures  in  "  Homes  without 
Hands."  They  are  so  commonly  met  with  in  aquaria,  of  which 
they  are  among  the  most  popular  tenants,  as  to  render  any 
farther  description  of  their  proceedings  almost  superfluous.  One 
of  the  Wolf-spiders,  the  Dolojjicdes  fimbriatus — the  generic  name 
signifying  "  crafty  " — also  frequents  the  water  ;  not  building  a 
sub-aquatic  home  like  the  former,  but  leading  a  piratical  life  on 
the  surface,  cruising  about  on  a  raft  of  dead  leaves  and  twigs 
bound  together  Avith  cords  of  silk.  It  disembarks  and  runs  along 
the  surface  of  the  water  in  pursuit  of  insects,  and  even  descends 
beneath  it,  not  by  diving,  like  the  Argyroneta^  but  by  crawling 


spiders:   their  structure  and  habits.  b\) 

down  the  stems  of  plants.  It  is  among  the  largest  of  British 
spiders,  the  female  being  nearly  an  inch  long  in  the  body ;  and  it 
mostly  inhabits  fenny  districts. 

Beside  these  two  species,  it  has  been  found  by  experiment 
that  a  few  others,  belonging  to  a  distinct  family — Nericne  longi- 
palpis^  for  example — will  exist  in  a  state  of  activity  for  several 
days  submerged  in  water,  spinning  their  lines  and  behaving  all 
the  time  just  as  in  air. 

The  feet  of  the  Hunting-spiders  are  somewhat  differently 
furnished  from  those  of  their  Retiary  brethren.  Each  foot  has 
two  claws  and  a  scopula,  or  brush,  designed  like  the  tarsal 
cushions  on  the  feet  of  flies  and  other  insects,  to  enable  them  to 
run  up  polished  surfaces,  or  to  walk  along  them  in  an  inverted 
position.  The  brush  consists  of  a  number  of  shafts  springing 
from  the  base  of  the  tarsus  under  the  claws,  shghtly  curved, 
slender  at  the  base  and  expanded  at  the  extremity.  Each  shaft 
is  fringed  with  fine  hairs,  and  its  extremity  on  the  under-side  is 
covered  with  a  multitude  of  hair-like  papillae,  which  not  only  give 
the  animals  a  mechanical  hold  on  smooth  surfaces  by  the  friction 
arising  from  so  many  points  of  contact, — amounting  in  a  specimen 
of  the  My  gale  avicularia  to  400,000  on  each  foot, — but  they  also 
emit  a  viscid  secretion  which  adheres  to  the  surface  with  a 
tenacity  sufficient  to  sustain  their  weight. 

Some  of  the  genus  Salticiis  have  been  observed  to  use  these 
brushes  to  wipe  and  polish  the  cornea  of  their  two  front  eyes, 
which  are  unusually  large  and  prominent. 

The  Burrowing  Spiders  afford  good  examples  of  ingenuity 
and  perfection  of  workmanship  in  the  construction  of  their 
habitations  and  snares.  To  this  class  belong  some  of  the  Agelence 
(foragers);  and  one  species,  the  A.  labyri?ithica,  is  common  enough 
on  open  banks  where  the  herbage  is  coarse  and  the  surface 
irregular.  It  spins  a  horizontal  web  of  a  compact  texture,  and 
fabricates  a  tube  of  white  silk  conducting  to,  or  serving  for,  its 
retreat ;  at  the  mouth  of  this  it  watches,  and  yet  is  not  easily 
captured ;  for  it  pops  into  the  tube  and  disappears  on  the  slightest 
alarm.  It  is  readily  distinguished  by  the  length  of  its  spinnerets, 
the  upper  pair  being  three-jointed,  and  projecting  far  beyond  the 
others  ;  while  the  spinning-tubes  are  placed  in  a  row  along  the 
under  surface  of  the  terminal  joint.  When  we  come  to  examine 
closely  the  silken  tube  woven  by  this  spider,  we  discover  a  cause 
for  their  unusual  length.  It  is  a  compact  tissue  impervious  to  the 
smallest  grains  of  sand,  and  made  by  a  process  analogous  to  that  of 
weaving.  Instead  of  the  tips  of  the  spinning-tubes  being  brought 
to  meet  in  a  point,  as  when  a  strong  thread  is  to  be  spun,  the 
tubes  of  the  lower  pair  of  spinnerets  are  erected  so  as  to  be  brought 
parallel  to  each  other,  and  thus  a  band  of  fine  parallel  filaments  is 


70  SPIDERS:     THEIR  STRUCTURE  AND  HABITS. 

produced,  forming  the  warp  ;  as  these  are  being  drawn  out  the 
spinning-tubes  of  the  long  upper  pair  are  similarly  manipulated  to 
])repare  the  woof,  which  by  an  alternate  lateral  movement  of  the 
joints  is  bound  down  upon^  and  across  the  warp.  This  process  is 
repeated  until  the  web  has  acquired  the  necessary  toughness  and 
compactness. 

The  best  example  of  British  Burrowing  Spiders  is  that  very  rare 
species  of  the  Mygaiidcs,  and  the  only  one  found  in  Britain,  the 
Atypus  Sidzcri,  (Plate  7,  Fig.  7,)  which  means  by  interpretation  the 
mis-shapen  one.  It  loves  sandy  places,  where  it  excavates  for  its 
abode  a  cylindrical  hole  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  in  a  direction  slop- 
ing downwards.  To  keep  out  the  sand  it  lines  this  hole  with  a  tube 
of  v>'hite  silk  of  compact  tissue,  protecting  the  entrance  by  a  flap  of 
the  same  material,  and  for  this  purpose  it  is  furnished  with  a  promi- 
nent pair  of  spinnerets  like  the  Agekna  labyriiitJiica.  This  is  the  only 
kind  of  spider  that  has  the  fangs  of  its  falces  articulated  horizontally, 
so  as  to  give  them  a  vertical  movement.  They  are  very  formidable 
weapons,  and  so  gigantic  in  size  that  the  owner  would  be  unable  to 
see  over  them  but  for  an  adaptation  of  the  cephalothorax  to  meet 
the  emergency.  It  carries  in  its  forepart  a  protuberance  or  turret, 
and  on  the  summit  of  this  the  eyes  are  planted  in  four  pairs. 

From  a  friend  I  recently  received  an  interesting  communication 
relative  to  this  solitary  British  species  of  trap-door  spiders.  He 
informs  me  that  a  few  days  before  he  had  dug  out  the  nest  of  an 
Atypus^  in  the  vicinity  of  London.  The  tube  was  10  inches  long, 
and  at  the  bottom  was  the  female  surrounded  by  her  numerous 
progeny,  157  in  number,     l^he  male  was  not  at  home. 

But  the  cleverest  of  all  the  Burrowing  Spiders  is  the  Trap-door 
Spider  of  Jamaica,  who  lines  her  subterranean  gallery  with  a  fine 
silken  tube  enclosed  in  one  of  a  coarser  texture.  The  flap  at  the 
mouth  of  this  double  tube  is  neatly  finished  off  with  a  hinge,  and 
is  so  contrived  as  to  open  outwards  only,  and  to  close  by  its  own 
weight  when  left  alone,  concealing  all  traces  of  the  burrow,  the  outer 
surface  being  covered  with  earth.  Specimens  of  these  nests  are 
preserved  in  the  British  Museum. 


EXPLANATION   OF  PLATE   YIL 

Fig.  1. — Circulatory  sj^stem  of  Spider.  «.,  The  4-clic'\mbered 
heart,  inclosed  iii  a  pericardium,  and  sending  off 
arterial  branches  into  tlie  cephalothorax  ;  6.,  the 
gills  in  which  the  blood  is  aerated  before  it  returns 
to  the  pericardium  through  4  large  vessels,  as  shewn. 


HOLOTHURIAN  PLATES, 


71 


Fig.  2. — Eyes  of  Ljjcosa  andrenivora. 
,,     3.—      ,,        Agelena  Hyndmanii. 
,,     4. —      ,,         Walckeaaer a  acuminata  ^. 
,,     5.—      ,,        Dysdera  Homhergii. 
,,     G. —      ,,        Scytodes  thoracica. 
,,     7. — Profile  viev>'  of  Atypus  Sulzeri  $  . 
,,     8. — Falces  and  ceplialothorax  of  Tetragnatha  extensa  ^  , 

viewed  from  beneath. 
,,     9. — Male  Palpus  of  Atypus  Sulzeri. 
,,10. —  ,,  of  Salticus  scenicus. 

,,  11. — Palpus  of  Epeira  diadema  ^,  underside. 

(To  be  CO  nil  fined.) 


Ibolotbuiiau  platen  from  tbe  Carboniferoua 
Strata  of  tbe  W.^Bt  of  Scotland, 

By    J.   Smith. 


Fio-.  10. 


Fm,   11. 


Fi^.  12. 


IN  Messrs.  Armstrong,  Young,  and  Robertson's  "  Catalogue  of 
the  Western  Scottish  Fossils,"  under  the  head  of  "  Echino- 
dermata/'  on  page  41,  occurs  the  following  note: — ''In 
washing  the  limestone-shales  from  one  or  two  localities  (not 
given),  small,  microscopic,  perforated,  wheel-like  organisms  have 
been  found,  that  are,  provisionally,  referred  by  Mr.  R.  Ethridge, 
jun.,  to  the  Holothuridse."  In  examining  under  the  microscope  a 
quantity  of  the  washed  shale  from  Orchard  Quarry,  near  Glasgow, 
I  found  a  considerable  number  of  "  perforated,  wheel-like  organ- 
isms," v/hich,  I  beUeve,  are  identical  with  those  mentioned  in  the 
foregoing  quotation.     'I'hese  little  organisms  measure  about  one 


72  HOLOTHURIAN   PLATES. 

eighty-eighth  part  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  are  roughly  octa- 
gonal in  outline.  The  upper  surface  is  smooth,  convex,  and 
perforated  with  twelve  small  holes,  four  of  these  holes  being  near 
the  centre,  and  eight  placed  at  regular  distances  apart,  just  inside 
the  margin  (Fig.  lo).  The  under-side  is  concave  and  smooth, 
with  central  boss,  as  shown  in  section  (Fig.  ii) ;  and  it  has  only 
nine  perforations  (Fig.  12),  the  reason  for  this  being  that  the  four 
central  perforations  of  the  upper  surface  join  together  (Fig.  11) 
before  reaching  the  under  side,  and  are  there  represented  by  one 
perforation  only,  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  central  boss.  These 
organisms  are  apparently  composed  of  carbonate  of  lime,  as 
they  effervesce  on  the  api)lication  of  an  acid.  They  still  possess 
a  dull  whitish,  pearly  lustre.  I  searched  the  shale  diligently,  to 
see  if  I  could  meet  with  any  anchor-shaped  "  feet,"  such  as  we 
find  in  connection  with  the  plates  of  the  recent  Synapta,  but 
nothing  of  that  kind  turned  up.  I  have  examined  a  long  list  of 
Scottish  Carboniferous  Shales,  without  finding  any  other  speci- 
mens of  these  minute  fossils,  and  I  know  of  no  recent  organism 
that  is  at  all  like  them.  May  they  not  be  the  ancient  prototypes 
of  the  "  wheels  "  of  Myriotrochtis  1  A  slide  of  unnamed  Holo- 
thurian  Plates  from  Corsica,  in  my  possession,  shews 
three  kinds  of  oval  plates,  perforated  by  four,  six.  Fig.  13. 
and  eight  ovoid  holes  respectively;  see  Fig.  13. 
They  are  all  very  much  smaller  than  the  Carbon- 
iferous species. 

In  examining  the  Orchard  Shale,  I  came  across 
about  a  dozen  of  these  fossils  all  massed  together, 
which  indicates  clearly  that  to  whatever  organism 
they  belonged  they  must  have  existed  in  considerable 
numbers.  On  first  seeing  them,  I  thought  they  might  be 
diatoms,  but  their  calcareous  nature  excludes  this  idea.  That  they 
had  been  embedded  in  truly  marine  strata,  is  clearly  indicated  by 
the  fossils  which  were  found  accompanying  them  : — such,  ^.^.,  as 
riatycr'uius,  G^-iffithidcs^  Dif/irocaris,  Fcuestdla^  Froductus^ 
Spirifcni^  Liiigula,  etc.  I  have  named  this  Carboniferous  Holo- 
thurian  Tiochopahvus  (ancient  wheel)  Youngiafius,  after  Mr.  John 
Young,  of  the  Hunterian  Museum,  Glasgow,  who,  I  believe,  was 
the  first  to  find  it. 


[73] 


1b?bro3oa  anb  pol?3oa* 

By    Dr.    G.    D.    Brown,    President. 


IN  giving  a  short  account  of  these,  it  is  necessary  to  state  that 
while  specimens  of  each  of  the  above  classes  have  certain 
points  of  agreement,  which  will  be  spoken  of  presently,  the 
two  classes  are  so  different  in  their  anatomical  structure  that 
there  is  really  a  nearer  relation  between  a  dog  and  a  fish  than 
between  one  of  the  Hydrozoa  and  one  of  the  Polyzoa.  Thus, 
while  the  Polyzoa  are  comparatively  highly  organized,  and  some- 
what complicated  in  structure,  forming  a  division  of  the  sub- 
kingdom  MoUusca,  which  comes  next  below  the  sub-kingdom 
Vertebrata, — having  a  mouth  to  take  in  food,  with  oesophagus, 
stomach,  and  intestine,  a  separate  aperture  for  the  getting  rid  of 
undigested  matter,  and  nervous  and  reproductive  systems ;  the 
other  class  with  which  we  propose  to  contrast  them^  namely,  the 
Hydrozoa  or  Hydroida,  has  a  much  simpler  structure,  and  occu- 
pies a  far  lower  position  in  the  animal  kingdom.  It  belongs  to 
the  sub-kingdom  Ccelcnterata,  of  which  it  is  the  first  class  ;  the 
second  class  being  the  Actinozoa,  or  corals,  sea-anemones,  etc. 
There  are  two  other  sub-kingdoms,  namely,  that  which  includes 
the  Radiata,  consisting  principally  of  the  sea-urchins,  star-fishes, 
etc.,  and  one  next  higher  than  this,  which  contains  the  worms, 
the  Crustacea,  and  the  insects  ;  all  these  are  placed  below  the 
Polyzoa,  or  Bryozoa,  as  the  class  is  generally  named  by  most 
continental  authorities. 

The  Hydrozoa,  then,  or  Hydroida,  like  the  Actinozoa,  which 
include  the  corals,  sea-anemones,  and  others,  have  a  most  simple 
structure,  such  as  many  of  us  have  seen  in  the  sea-anemone,  or 
the  common  Hydra  of  our  ponds  and  ditches.  In  these  cases, 
each  is  a  distinct  animal,  and  is  a  bag  with  only  one  orifice  to 
receive  the  food, — this  orifice  being  surrounded  by  a  ring  of 
tentacles  which  have  the  power  of  grasping,  and  often  of  para- 
lyzing, the  objects  constituting  its  food,  and  bringing  them  into 
the  mouth.  After  being  swallowed,  the  undigested  portions  are 
returned  by  the  way  they  entered.  It  appears  to  be  a  matter  of 
indifference  how  these  simple  forms  of  Hydrozoa  are  treated. 
Turned  inside  out,  what  was  before  the  outer  skin  acts  very  well 
as  a  digestive  stomach,  and  if  an  individual  be  cut  into  pieces, 
each  piece  starts  on  its  own  account,  and  becomes  an  individual, 
perfect  in  all  its  parts. 

F 


74  HYDROZOA    AND    POLYZOA. 

These  are  the  simple  members  of  the  class,  but  many  others 
are  compound,  consisting  of  a  stem  with  a  sort  of  root,  by  which 
they  attach  themselves  to  stones,  etc.,  and  branches  on  which  cells 
develop  at  intervals,  each  of  these  cells  resembling  the  simple 
forms  just  described  in  having  a  mouth,  stomach,  and  tentacles 
round  the  mouth,  but  differing  in  being  all  connected  into  a 
compound  structure,  through  which  circulates  a  fluid,  formed  and 
elaborated  by  such  of  the  individual  polyps  (as  the  individual 
cells  are  called)  as  are  in  active  life  at  any  particular  time.  This 
common,  connecting  substance  often  develops  on  its  outside  a 
horny  tissue,  which  firmly  supports  and  holds  together  the 
delicate  and  soft  substance  forming  the  polyps,  and  being  light, 
elastic,  and  strong,  allows  the  waves  to  bend  it  gracefully  back- 
ward and  forward  without  injury.  It  is  this  horny  or  chitinous 
external  skeleton  which  remains  when  life  has  departed  from  the 
organism. 

It  may  be  useful  next  to  explain  why  animals  so  different  in 
structure  are  often  exhibited  together,  and  thus  many  persons  to 
whom  they  are  new  are  led  to  confound  the  one  with  the  other. 

All  the  older  authors,  including  Ellis,  called  them  Zoophytes, 
or  animal  plants,  not  recognizing  their  anatomical  differences,  but 
judging  from  their  external  characters  that  they  were  all  very 
nearly  related  ;  and  even  placing  with  them  some  vegetable 
growths  called  Corallines,  which  only  bore  the  most  superficial 
likeness. 

What  are  known  as  Corallines  are  a  family  of  Algae  which  are 
stiffened  by  a  deposition  of  chalk  in  their  cells  ;  but  in  the  last 
century  many  of  the  Hydrozoa,  and  Polyzoa  also,  were  called 
Corallines  by  Ehis,  (whose  work  is  dated  1755,)  and  by  other 
writers  also.  ElHs's  work  gives  most  faithful  descriptions  and 
exact  illustrations  of  these  objects  ;  and  he  has  a  happy  way 
of  naming  in  famihar  English  most  of  them — such  as  "Snake 
coralline,"  "  Bull's  horn  coralline,"  "  Goat's  horn  coralline," 
"  Coat-of-mail  coralline,"  etc.  etc. 

But  while  the  forms  of  the  compound  polypary  or  polyzoary  * 
bear  a  close  resemblance  one  to  the  other,  and  while  it  is  common 
to  both  classes  to  have  tentacles  round  the  orifice  by  which  the 
food  is  admitted,  there  remain  the  important  differences  of 
structure  previously  described,  and  the  fact  that  while  both 
classes  have  tentacles,  in  the  Hydrozoa  the  object  of  these 
tentacles  is  to  grasp  the  food  and  bring  it  to  the  mouth,  while  in 
the  Polyzoa  the  same  end  is  gained  in  a  very  different  manner. 
The  tentacles  of  the  latter  do  not  seize  the  food,  but  while  they 

*  Polypary  is  the  term   applied  in  the   case  of  compound   Hydrozoa,   and 
polyzoary  in  the  case  of  compound  Polyzoa. 


PHOTO-MICROGRAPHY.  tS 

remain  spread  out  in  the  form  of  an  expanded  ring,  their  surface 
is  covered  with  ciHa  in  ever  active  movement.  These  ciHa  create 
a  perfect  whirlpool,  having  the  mouth  as  its  centre,  and  any  object 
small  enough  to  be  swallowed  is  brought  in  quite  as  effectually  as 
by  the  less  refined,  and  apparently  more  energetic,  seizure  by  the 
tentacles  of  the  Hydrozoa.  As  may  be  supposed,  the  tentacles 
of  these  latter  do  not  possess  cilia. 

It  remains  to  add  that  both  classes,  as  well  as  being  abun- 
dantly represented  by  living  forms,  are  also  found  fossilized.  The 
Hydrozoa  have  representatives  as  old  as  the  lower  Silurian.  The 
Polyzoa  also  certainly  date  as  far  back  as  that,  and  possibly  (if 
the  Oldhamia  belong  to  this  class)  as  far  as  the  Cambrian  \ 
but  the  exact  zoological  position  of  this  interesting  fossil  is  doubtful. 

Coming  to  comparatively  recent  geological  periods,  one  genus 
of  Hydrozoa  (viz.,  Hydraditiid)  still  found  living,  has  been 
observed  in  the  chalk.  Otherwise,  Hydrozoa,  common  and 
varied  as  are  their  living  forms,  have  not  been  found  fossil. 
Perhaps  this  is  because  their  skeletons  are  more  perishable  than 
those  of  the  Polyzoa. 

The  skeletons  of  the  other  class,  the  Polyzoa,  which  are 
generally  calcareous  (or  formed  of  chalk),  are  very  numerous  in 
the  Devonian,  Carboniferous,  Permian,  Triassic,  Cretaceous  (very 
abundant),  and  in  the  Miocene  and  Pliocene  (as  the  Suffolk  crag) 
very  numerous.  Some  of  the  species  found  in  the  latter  forma- 
tion are  identical  with  existing  species;  others  of  them  have 
disappeared. 

As  regards  recent  and  living  forms  of  both  classes,  it  is  well  to 
state  that  while  there  are  a  few  Hydrozoa  occurring  in  fresh  water 
(as  in  the  several  species  of  Hydra),  and  also  a  few  Polyzoa 
(belonging  to  a  special  sub-division  of  the  class  in  which  the 
tentacles  are  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  horse-shoe),  yet  the  vastly 
greater  portion  of  both  classes  are  marine. 


lpboto=^fHMcroorapb^» 

By  Harry  Barker. 


WITHOUT  some  knowledge  of  the  ordinary  wet  and  dry 
photographic  processes,  it  is  utterly  useless  to  attempt  to 
photograph  with   the  microscope.     For   to  a  skilled 
PHOTOGRAPHER  the  inherent  difficulties  can  only  be  overcome  by 
employing  the  best  materials,  adjusting  the  apparatus  with  the 


76  PHOTO-MICROGRAPHY. 

greatest  care,  and  using  abundant  patience.  I  would,  therefore 
(before  detailing  any  plan  of  procedure),  strongly  urge  micro- 
scopists  -who  are  entirely  ignorant  of  the  photographic  art,  to 
practise  the  ordinary  wet-collodion  process  until  they  have 
acquired  a  practical  knowledge  of  it ;  when  they  have  advanced 
so  far,  and  can  judge  correctly  when  a  wet  plate  is  properly 
exposed  and  developed,  their  next  step  must  be  to  purchase  two 
or  three  packets  of  Swan's  dry  plates,  4J  in.  by  3J  in.,  and  learn 
how  to  develop  them.  The  best  and  quickest  way  of  doing  this 
would  be  to  go  to  a  photographer  and  take  a  few  lessons. 

Let  us  suppose  the  amateur  has  gone  through  these  preliminary 
stages,  and  feels  himself  duly  qualified  to  commence  operations  ;  I 
will  next  give  a  description  of  the  various  appliances  required, 
and  afterwards  the  mode  of  working.  The  illustration  opposite 
shews  the  apparatus  ready  for  use  :  it  should  stand  on  a  strong 
table,  the  slightest  vibration  being  an  effectual  bar  to  success. 

A  is  the  Camera ;    B,  the  dark  slide ;     C,  the  Microscope ; 
D,  the  Condenser ;    E,  a  Lantern ;  F,  a  Magnesium-Lamp ; 

G,  Gas-burner;         H,  Diaphragm. 

The  Camera,  a  bellows  one,  from  four  to  five  feet  long,  rests  on  a 
baseboard,  which  has  a  lath  one  inch  high  nailed  on  each  edge,  to 
prevent  the  Camera  slipping  from  side  to  side  when  moved  for 
focussing.  This  board  should  be  at  least  two  feet  longer  than  the 
Camera,  so  as  to  hold  the  Microscope,  Lantern,  etc.  ;  and  the 
length  of  the  Camera  regulates  the  size  of  the  picture,  for  as  it  is 
drawn  out  the  picture  increases,  and  vice  versa.  The  microscope 
is  an  ordinary  monocular  one,  with  a  draw-tube  lined  with  black 
velvet  to  prevent  central  flare;  and  the  eye-piece  is  removed. 
The  coarse  and  fine  adjustments  should  work  well.  For  the 
benefit  of  those  who  have  not  penetrated  into  the  mysteries  of 
Photography,  it  is  necessary  to  say  that  the  visual  and  actinic  foci 
of  a  lens  generally  lie  in  different  planes ;  it  would,  therefore,  be 
better  to  purchase  a  one-inch  lens  specially  made  for  Photography, 
or  a  Woodward's  amplifier,  which  would  correct  all  objectives. 
However,  if  the  amateur  does  not  wish  to  incur  more  expense 
than  is  absolutely  necessary,  he  must  determine  by  experiment  the 
actinic  focus  of  the  power  he  intends  to  work  with ;  how  to  do 
this  will  be  described  further  on. 

The  Lantern  is  made  of  tin  or  wood,  and  should  be  about  12 
inches  square  (an  ordinary  wooden  magic-lantern,  or  a  Sciopticon, 
can  be  utilised)  :  the  condenser  is  fitted  in  the  front,  and  a  hole 
is  made  at  the  back  for  the  nozzle  of  the  lamp  :  the  door  must  be 
kept  closed  when  exposing.  I  have  tried  several  means  of 
illumination,   and   have    been    most    successful   with   Solomon's 


78  PHOTO-MICROGEAPHY. 

magnesIum-lamp,  placing  it  inside  the  Lantern  instead  of  the  oil- 
lamp.  As  the  magnesium  ribbon  is  expensive,  I  use  a  common 
fish-tail  gas-burner  to  focus  with,  brought  down  into  the  Camera 
by  an  india-rubber  tube ;  and  when  the  image  on  the  ground 
glass  appears  clear  and  sharp,  I  take  it  away  and  illumine  with  the 
lamp  to  see  all  is  right  before  exposing. 

If  the  microscopist  works  with  a  one-inch  objective,  there  will 
be  sufficient  space  between  the  front  lens  and  the  slide  to  allow  a 
thin  piece  of  wood,  covered  with  black  cotton  wool,  to  be  held 
against  the  lens  as  a  cap  ;  but  if  he  is  working  with  higher 
powers,  the  exposure  must  be  effected  by  a  mechanical  con- 
trivance sold  for  the  purpose. 

Having  thus  explained  the  various  parts  of  the  apparatus,  the 
next  thing  will  be  to  put  them  together  and  start  to  work.  Great 
care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  any  light  being  admitted  into  the 
Camera  except  that  which  passes  through  the  lens;  the  part 
where  the  tube  of  the  microscope  fits  into  the  front  of  the  Camera 
should  especially  be  seen  to.  The  centres  of  the  condenser  and 
magnesium-lamp  must  also  be  exactly  on  a  level  with  the  objective. 
Do  not  use  the  focussing-screen  belonging  to  the  Camera,  as  it 
might  not  be  quite  in  register,  and  it  is  not  to  be  relied  on  for 
Photo-Micrography ;  but  get  a  piece  of  very  fine  ground  glass,  the 
size  of  your  plates,  and  put  it  into  the  carrier  of  the  dark  slide  in 
the  same  way  as  you  would  the  sensitive  plate.  The  mounts 
selected  must  be  very  transparent, — preferably  those  mounted  in 
glycerine  jelly  to  those  in  Canada  balsam, — and  quite  free  from 
dust  or  air-bells.  Sections  of  wood,  and  the  larger  species  of 
Algae,  are  capital  things  to  begin  with.  Place  the  slide  to  be 
photographed  on  the  stage  of  the  microscope ;  take  a  diaphragm 
a  little  larger  than  the  object,  so  as  to  allow  a  margin  all  round, 
and  fasten  it  at  the  back  of  the  stage  between  the  microscope  and 
the  condenser  (it  is  shown  in  position  in  sketch) ;  this  will  cut  off 
any  extraneous  light  from  the  lens.  Light  the  gas,  which  should 
rest  on  a  movable  stand  between  the  magnesium-lamp  and  the 
condenser,  and  begin  to  focus.  A  magnifying-glass  should  be 
used,  and  when  the  picture  cannot  be  improved  in  sharpness, 
clamp  the  Camera  to  the  baseboard.  Then  remove  the  gas,  and 
light  the  magnesium  for  a  moment  to  see  that  all  is  right ;  fix  a 
plate  in  the  dark  slide,  and  put  the  slide  into  the  Camera ;  cover 
the  lens,  draw  the  shutter  up,  and  expose.  No  rules  can  be  laid 
down  for  the  time  to  be  given,  as  the  conditions  vary  so  con- 
siderably ;  but  with  plates  ten  times  as  sensitive  as  wet  collodion, 
and  a  one-inch  objective,  a  minute  should  suffice.  The  majority 
of  amateurs  expose  dry  plates  too  long,  whereby  they  get  misty 
pictures  with  no  contrast.  The  Pyro-Glycerine  developer  is  the 
best  to  use,  and  the  following  is  Mr.  Fry's  formula  for  it;  the 


PHOTO-MICROGRAPHY.  79 

directions  for  developing  are  also  his,  with  some  alterations  : — 
(A.)  Pyrogallic  Acid    ...             ...             ...     i  oz. 

Glycerine  ...  ...  ...     i  oz. 

Methylated  Spirit  ...  ...     6  oz. 

Mix  the  Glycerine  and  Spirit,  and  pour  into  the   Pyrogallic 
bottle. 

(B.)  Bromide  Potass.        ...  ...     200  grains. 

Liquor  Amm.  ...  ...         i  oz. 

Glycerine  ...  ...         i  oz. 

Water         ...  ...  ...         6  oz.     Mix. 


(C.)     I  oz.  of  A  to  15  oz.  of  water. 

(D.)  I  oz.  of  B  to  15  oz.  of  water. 
Into  a  measure  pour,  for  a  quarter-plate,  i  oz.  of  C  solution  and 
I  oz.  of  D;  when  the  plate,  which  is  now  in  water  in  an  ebonite 
dish  with  a  cardboard  cover,  has  soaked  for  a  minute,  pour  the 
water  quickly  off,  and  pour  on  the  developer.  If  the  exposure 
has  been  correctly  timed,  the  image  will  begin  to  appear  in  about 
20  seconds,  and  in  about  3  minutes  will  have  attained  sufficient 
strength :  the  negative  may  then  be  slightly  rinsed  in  water,  and 
put  at  once  into  the  Alum-bath  (Alum  i  oz.,  Water  20  oz.),  where 
it  should  stay  for  ten  minutes,  but  not  longer.  Then  wash  very 
thoroughly  and  immerse  in  a  Hypo,  bath  (Hyposulphite  of  Soda 
I  oz..  Water  5  oz.) ;  this  should  not  be  used  too  often  or  it 
becomes  discoloured,  and  stains  the  clear  parts  of  the  negative. 
Wash  well  again  after  fixing.  It  is  necessary  to  soak  the  negative 
in  water  for  two  hours  to  get  rid  of  all  traces  of  Hyposulphite ; 
then  allow  the  plates  to  dry  spontaneously,  and  varnish  in  the 
usual  manner. 

The  directions  given  with  each  parcel  of  dry  plates  regarding 
the  precautions  necessary  to  prevent  injury  to  the  plates  by  light, 
should  be  strictly  attended  to. 

If  the  amateur  is  using  a  power  that  is  not  corrected  for 
photography,  he  must  determine  the  actinic  focus  in  the  following 
manner  : — Focus  the  object  as  distinctly  as  possible,  and  expose 
a  plate  ;  the  negative  thus  taken  will  probably  be  very  indistinct. 
Turn  the  milled  head  of  the  fine  adjustment  so  as  to  bring  the 
objective  away  from  the  sHde,  until  the  picture  on  the  screen 
coincides  with  the  negative  :  this  will  be  found  to  be  the  right 
actinic  focus.  I  am  told  that  a  piece  of  ground  glass,  placed 
between  the  condenser  and  the  microscope,  gives  an  even, 
opaque  background  to  the  picture,  though,  of  course,  there  is 
great  loss  of  light ;  but  I  have  not  tried  this,  and  am,  therefore, 
not  certain  how  far  it  will  answer.  The  amateur  should  work 
only  with  low  powers  until  he  has  had  considerable  practice ;  for 


8Q  PHOTO-MICROGRAPHY. 

those  higher  than  the  h  inch,  an  achromatic  condenser  will  be 
required. 

From  the  foregoing,  it  will  be  seen  that  Photo-Micrography 
and  Photo-Enlarging  are  as  nearly  as  possible  identical  operations  ; 
in  fact,  I  have  obtained  in  this  way  several  fairly  good  pictures  of 
the  larger  microscopic  objects,  mounted  by  Enock,  such  as  Larva 
of  Vapourer  Moth,  Orgyia  aiiticjiia — Fan-Tail  Fly,  Dolichopus 
nohilitatiis — Green  Saw-Fly,  Tenthredo  Viridts,  etc.  If  it  is 
intended  to  make  transparencies  for  the  Lantern  from  the  Micro- 
Negatives  obtained,  I  recommend  the  carbon  process  :  it  is  not 
difficult,  and  the  results  are  very  superior.  The  tissue  is  suppUed 
by  the  Autotype  Company. 

Dr.  Koch,  of  Berlin,  has  sent  some  Photo-Micrographs  to 
Professor  Lister,  of  King's  College,  which  far  surpass  anything 
that  has  hitherto  been  done  :  they  are  pictures  of  some  of  the 
minutest  living  organisms,  and  were  executed,  I  believe,  to  illustrate 
the  germ  theory  of  disease.  They  were  exhibited  at  the  Inter- 
national Medical  Congress  recently  held  in  London ;  and  I 
append  a  few  details  of  his  mode  of  working,  copied  from  "  The 
Photographic  News."  He  uses  an  immersion  lens,  by  Siebert 
and  Kraft,  of  Wetzlar,  and  for  illumination  employs  sunlight 
reflected  by  means  of  a  heliostat.  A  wide-angled  condenser 
concentrates  the  light,  which  is  passed  through  an  ammoniacal 
solution  of  copper,  rendered  as  monochromatic  as  possible,  and 
then  diffused  and  softened  by  allowing  it  to  pass  through  ground 
glass.  He  works  with  wet  collodion,  and  finds  that  an  exposure 
of  two  minutes  suffices  in  the  case  of  an  enlargement  of  seven 
hundred  diameters. 

I  have  endeavoured  to  make  the  foregoing  article  as  plain  and 
simple  as  possible,  remembering  that  my  own  early  attempts  at 
Photo-Micrography  were  attended  with  many  difficulties  and 
failures  ;  for  all  the  articles  which  I  read  bearing  upon  the  subject 
were  so  utterly  unpractical,  or  so  highly  scientific,  that  a  beginner 
could  glean  from  them  but  little  information  of  any  real  value. 


[81] 

St^laiia  ipalubosa* 

By  a.  Hammond,  F.L.S. 


Plate  8. 

THE  subject  of  this  notice  was  brought  to  me  a  few  weeks 
ago  by  my  friend  Mr.  Baily,  who  informed  me  that  he 
had  witnessed  the  act  of  fission  in  a  similar  specimen  a 
day  or  two  previously.  The  alleged  reproduction  of  the  Naid 
worms  by  a  process  of  fission,  as  I  stated  in  a  note  on  my  paper 
on  Tubifex,  received  the  most  strenuous  denial  from  Dr.  Wil- 
liams, the  author  of  the  report  on  the  British  Annelida.*  After 
quoting  a  statement  by  Professor  Owen,  to  the  effect  that  in  this 
very  worm  a  proboscis  shoots  out  from  the  posterior  portion, 
which  is  then  detached  from  the  parent  worm,  he  says  : — "  On 
the  authority  of  hundreds  of  observations  laboriously  repeated  at 
every  season  of  the  year,  the  author  of  this  report  can  declare 
with  deliberate  firmness,  that  there  is  not  one  word  of  truth  in  the 
above  statement.  It  is  because  accounts  so  fabulous  have  been 
rendered  respectable  by  the  fact  that  Professor  Owen  has  thrown 
over  them  the  aegis  of  his  great  authority,  that  they  demand  a 
contradiction,  which  may  displease  by  the  strength  of  the 
language  in  which  it  is  given."  I  had  previously  been  led  to 
doubt  the  correctness  of  Dr.  Williams'  positive  conclusion  with 
respect  to  Tubifex,  and  my  doubt  was  confirmed  upon  seeing  the 
elaborate  and  exhaustive  memoir  by  Bonnet  of  his  experiments 
upon  these  animals, — experiments  which,  it  seemed  to  me,  were 
not  to  be  lightly  set  aside.  It  was,  therefore,  with  peculiar 
pleasure  that  I  heard  from  Mr.  Baily  his  account  of  the  fission 
of  Stylaria  as  witnessed  by  him,  and  received  from  him  a  spe- 
cimen which  I  determined  to  watch.  On  the  24th  February,  the 
worm  presented  the  appearance  shown  in  Plate  8,  Fig.  i,  v/here 
it  will  be  observed  that  it  possesses  a  long,  fleshy  proboscis, — 
whereby  it  is  distinguished  from  Nais, — and  a  pair  of  eye-spots. 
A  pharynx,  or  dilatation  of  the  alimentary  canal,  immediately 
succeeds  the  mouth,  and  the  first  three  or  four  segments,  includ- 
ing the  head,  are  devoid  of  bristles,  a  special  feature  of  the  Naid 
tribe.  We  note  again  that  the  long  filiform  setse  which  adorn  the 
body  are  interrupted  at  about  the  posterior  third  of  its  length, 
where  a  constriction  occurs.  The  interruption,  however,  is  more 
apparent  than  real,  for  if  examined  under  a  ^-in.  objective,  the 
integument  of  this  portion  is  seen  to  bear  a  series  of  minute 
*  British  Association  Report  for  1851,  p.  247. 


82  STYLARIA  PALUDOSA. 

setae,  both  hooked  and  filiform,  very  closely  set  together,  and 
differing  from  the  others  only  in  their  minute  size ;  the  fiUform 
ones,  however,  being  confined  to  the  portion  preceding  the 
constriction,  which  Mr.  Baily  told  me  was  the  point  of  division  of 
the  worm.  The  intestine,  it  should  be  noted,  is  continued  past 
the  constriction ;  though  the  glandular  covering,  which  elsewhere, 
as  in  Tubifex,  gives  it  its  colour,  is  here  deficient — a  deficiency 
which  is  again  apparent  in  the  anterior  segments.  On  the  27  th,  I 
found  the  small  setae,  which  had  previously  been  difircult  to  make 
out,  longer  and  much  more  clearly  marked.  The  intestine  was 
continuous  as  before,  but,  iriirabile  dictu,  a  new  proboscis  was 
seen  immediately  below  the  constriction,  waving  about  as  if  to 
feel  the  surrounding  objects,  exactly  as  did  its  prototype  (see  Fig. 
2).  Also,  a  pair  of  new  eye-spots  were  distinctly  visible,  and 
something  very  much  like  a  new  pharynx  adjoining  the  intestine ; 
but  of  this  last  observation  I  am  not  quite  sure.  On  the  28th 
my  worm  had  divided,  and  become  two  perfect  worms  :  I  did  not, 
indeed,  as  Mr.  Baily  had  done,  see  the  separation,  but  the  fact 
was  placed  beyond  all  dispute.  The  process  evidently  consists  of 
the  interposition  of  a  number  of  new  segments,  both  above  and 
below  the  point  of  separation  ;  these  being  at  first,  as  might  be 
expected,  much  crowded  together,  as  indicated  by  the  minute  size 
and  close  setting  of  the  new  setae,  which  gradually  grow  and 
separate  from  one  another  as  differentiation  proceeds.  Inasmuch 
as  no  new  filiform  setae  are  produced  below  the  separation,  this  is 
in  exact  conformity  with  the  type  of  the  original,  which  requires 
the  absence  of  these  setae  from  the  anterior  portion  of  the  new 
worm  produced  by  the  fission.  By  the  absence,  again,  of  the 
glandular  covering  of  the  intestine  in  the  new  segments  posterior 
to  the  constriction,  provision  is  made  for  the  reproduction  of  this 
feature  also  in  the  new  being.  The  intestine  itself  appears  to 
remain  entire  till  the  moment  of  separation ;  for,  on  comparing 
the  new  worm  with  the  original,  it  is  at  once  seen  that  the  mouth 
of  the  former  is  as  yet  imperfect,  requiring  time  for  its  complete 
development  (see  Plate  8,  Figs.  3  and  4). 

Dr.  Carpenter  *  gives  the  following  details  concerning  the 
fission  of  Nais  : — "  After  the  number  of  segments  of  the  body 
has  been  greatly  multiplied  by  gemmation,  a  separation  of  those 
of  the  posterior  portion  begins  to  take  place  ;  a  constriction  forms 
itself  about  tlie  beginning  of  the  posterior  third  of  the  body,  in 
front  of  which  the  alimentary  canal  undergoes  a  dilatation,  while 
on  the  segment  behind  it  a  proboscis  and  eyes  are  developed,  so 
as  to  form  the  head  of  the  young  animal,  which  is  to  be  budded 
off;  and   in   due   time,   by   the   narrowing  of  the   constriction,  a 

*  Principles  of  Physiology,  3rd  ed.,  p.  934,  par.  714a. 


LARVA  OF  TANYPUS  MACULATUS.  83 

complete  separation  is  effected,  and  the  young  animal  thenceforth 
leads  an  independent  life.  Not  unfrequently,  however,  before  its 
detachment  a  new  set  of  segments  is  developed  in  front  of  it, 
which  in  like  manner  are  provided  with  a  head,  and  separated 
from  the  main  body  by  a  partial  constriction ;  and  the  same 
process  may  be  repeated  a  second^  and  even  a  third,  time,  so  that 
we  may  have  in  this  animal  the  extraordinary  phenomenon  of 
four  worms,  which  are  afterwards  to  exist  as  separate  individuals, 
united  end  to  end,  receiving  nourishment  by  one  mouth  and 
possessing  one  anal  orifice/'  Strange  to  say,  this  passage  is 
quoted  by  Dr.  Williams  as  "an  illustration  of  the  extraordinary 
degree  to  which  the  groundless  fancies  of  the  older  observers 
have  taken  captive  the  imagination  of  the  moderns."  It  is  a  pity 
that  a  work  replete  with  interesting  and  valuable  information 
should  be  marred  by  such  a  positiveness  of  assertion,  which,  as 
Dr.  Johnson  truly  says,  "  is  unhke  that  with  which  a  prudent 
man  dealeth  with  knowledge."  I  would  remark,  in  conclusion, 
that  two  or  three  segments  of  this  worm  are  provided  with 
pulsating  vessels,  viz. — those  immediately  following  the  head — a 
feature  which  is  denied  them  according  to  the  synoptical  table  of 
Claparede,  "^  but  distinctly  recognized  by  O.  Schmidt,  t  I  also 
observe  that  the  blood-corpuscles  are  lenticular,  presenting  their 
edges  as  they  roll  over  ;  and  the  small  setae  are  simply  hooked,  as 
shown  in  Figs.   5  and  6. 


®u  tbc  Xarva  of  ^an^pue  flDaculatue. 

By  a.  Hammond,  F.L.S. 


Plate  8. 


THERE  appears    to   be   some    confusion   about  this  insect. 
Walker:!:,  curiously  enough,  describes  the  larvae  of  two  species 
of  flies — viz.,  of  Tanypiis  maculatiis  and  Tanypus  monilis. 
His  description  of  the  latter  is  exactly  that  of  the  subject  of  this 
paper,   that  of  the  former  being  very  different,  as  inter  alia  he 
speaks   of  its  having  ten  legs.     Having  thus  led  his  readers  to 

*  Memoires  de  la  Soc.  de  Phys.  de  Geneve,  Tom.  16,  p.  221. 

t  Ann.  des  Sci.  Nat.,  3rd  Ser.,  7  and  8,  1847,  p.  183, 

\  Insecta  Britannica,  vol.  3,  pp.  197 — 8. 


84  LARVA  OF  TANYPUS  MACULATUS. 

suppose  that  there  are  two  distinct  flies  with  two  distinct  larvae, 
we  find  in  his  specific  description  of  the  perfect  insects,  that 
Tanypus  moJiilis  is  synonymous  with  De  Geer's  Tanypiis  macula- 
tus,  ^  and  also  with  that  of  Latreille,  t  the  larvae  of  which  in 
either  case,  as  evidenced  especially  by  De  Geer's  figure,  are 
identical  with  one  another  and  with  mine.  Whatever  may  be  the 
explanation  of  this  paradox,  the  Tipulid  larva  I  purpose  here  to 
deal  with  was  known  to  De  Geer  as  that  of  Tanypus  maculatus^ 
and  was  described  by  Walker  under  the  name  of  T.  monilis.  It 
is  a  type  of  a  number  of  somewhat  similar  larvae,  none  of  which, 
so  far  as  I  can  find,  have  ever  been  described,  and  whose  habits 
and  transformations  are,  I  believe,  entirely  unknown.  Its  minute 
size  and  the  transparency  of  its  tissues  render  it  especially  adapted 
for  microscopic  study,  and  as  a  starting  point  for  the  study  of 
other  allied  forms. 

The  larva  (PI.  8,  Fig.  7)  is  composed  of  13  segments, 
including  the  head,  which  is  distinguished  by  the  denser  and 
yellower  character  of  the  integument,  upon  which  are  situated  a 
pair  of  conspicuous  eye-spots.  The  front  of  the  head  (Fig.  8) 
exhibits  a  pair  of  setaceous  organs,  which  I  must  be  content  to 
describe  as  antennae,  though  I  am  doubtful  as  to  their  function. 
They  appear  to  occupy  the  place  which  undoubted  antennae  do  in 
other  species,  but  they  have  two  peculiarities  which  seem  to 
remove  them  functionally  from  those  organs  : — firstly,  they  are 
retractile,  having  a  muscle  at  their  base  by  which  they  are  occa- 
sionally withdrawn  a  considerable  way  into  the  head,  from  which 
they  can  be  again  protruded  by  some  unknown  agency  ;  and 
secondly,  they  seem  to  be  furnished  at  the  base  with  a  saccular 
organ,  reminding  one  of  the  poison-gland  of  spiders.  Both  of  these 
features  lead  me  to  regard  them  as  lethal  weapons,  whatever  may 
be  their  homological  relations.  In  the  same  situation,  also,  we  find 
a  pair  of  strong  mandibles  (Figs.  8  and  20),  and  between  these 
appear  a  pair  of  pointed  maxillae,  the  inner  basal  angle  of  which 
is  furnished  with  an  appendage  consisting  of  a  group  of  pyriform 
cells  (Fig.  17),  a  feature  so  strange  that  I  was  doubtful  at  first 
whether  they  were  not  minute  Vortlcellce,  till  prolonged  observa- 
tion convinced  me  to  the  contrary.  I  have  never  seen  anything 
similar  in  any  other  insect.  Below  the  maxillae  is  seen  the 
labium,  the  front  edge  of  which  is  raised  into  a  number  of  little 
rounded  projections. 

Perhaps  one  of  the  most  striking  features  of  this  and  similar 
larvae  are  the  singular  grappling  appendages,  which  supply  the 
place  of  feet  (Figs.  7,  10,  and  12).     Two  pairs  of  these  are  found, 

*  De  Geer,  Mem.,  Tom.  vi.,  Plate  24,  Figs.  15 — 19. 
t  Hist.  Nat.  des  Cruse  et  Insect,  Tom.  iv.,  p.  248. 


LARVA  OF  TANYPUS  MACULATUS.  85 

— one  beneath  the  prothoracic  ring,  and  the  other  at  the  termina- 
tion of  the  body ;  the  former  corresponding  to  the  front  pair  of 
thoracic  Hmbs,  and  the  latter  to  the  anal  pro-legs  of  caterpillars. 
Both  pairs  are  built  on  the  same  plan,  and  consist  of  coronets  of 
recurved  booklets  surmounting  retractile  fleshy  footstalks.  The 
anterior  pair  can,  perhaps,  be  scarcely  described  as  a  pair,  since 
the  two  branches  coalesce  into  one  common  stem  arising  from  the 
centre  of  the  under-surface  of  the  segment.  In  other  species, 
however,  the  insertions  are  distinct.  We  may  see  occasionally  the 
two  coronets  withdrawn  into  their  respective  branches ;  then  these 
are  withdrawn  into  the  common  stem,  and  finally  the  whole 
disappears  into  the  interior  of  the  body.  These  organs  are  used  by 
the  larvae  to  grope  their  way  among  the  flocculent  sediment  in 
which  they  are  found,  and  confer,  as  might  be  expected,  but 
little  locomotive  power  upon  their  possessors. 

The  whole  course  of  the  alimentary  canal  can  be  easily  traced. 
The  anterior  portion  constituting  the  pharynx  receives  in  its 
passage  through  the  head  the  insertion  of  a  mass  of  powerful 
muscles,  which  have  their  origin  in  the  integument,  and  which 
serve  to  dilate  its  cavity  when  occasion  requires  for  the  passage  of 
food.  These  muscles  stand  out  in  brilliant  colours  under  the 
action  of  polarized  light. 

Immediately  behind  the  head  we  find  two  large  and  delicate 
sacs,  lined  with  epithelial  cells,  and  each  terminating  anteriorly  in 
a  small  duct  which  joins  with  its  fellow  of  the  opposite  side.  The 
common  duct  thus  formed,  I  have  not  been  able  to  trace,  but 
analogy  leaves  little  doubt  that  it  enters  the  pharynx  immediately 
behind  the  mouth.  The  sacs  are  the  salivary  glands,  and  the  duct 
is  the  salivary  duct. 

After  passing  the  salivary  glands,  the  oesophagus  suddenly 
widens  into  a  large  crop,  the  counterpart  of  what  is  known  as  the 
sucking-stomach  of  the  fly.  In  this  may  frequently  be  discerned 
two  or  three  small  Crustacea,  such  as  Chydorus  sphcei-icus^  just 
swallowed,  lively  enough  as  yet,  and  making  vigorous  but  futile 
efforts  against  the  walls  of  their  living  prison.  'Jlie  crop  is  suc- 
ceeded by  the  proventriculus,  an  organ  that  corresponds  to  the 
gizzard  of  the  cricket,  so  much  admired  as  a  microscopic  object 
for  its  rows  of  horny  teeth.*  No  such  teeth,  however,  exist  in 
the  proventriculus  of  the  Diptera,  but  the  organ  is  surrounded  by 
a  number  of  casca  or  blind-appendages,  as  shown  in  the  drawing. 

The  proventriculus  is  followed  by  the  ventriculus  or  true 
digestive  cavity.  Here  again  we  find  Chydorus^  but  its  struggles 
are  now  at  an  end,  and  under  the  action  of  the  gastric  juice  it  is 

*  I  observe  that  Newport  says  there  is  no  gizzard  in  the  Diptera.  The  organ 
I  have  above  described  evidently  occupies  its  place,  howeyer  different  in  appearance 
and  function. 


86  LARVA  OF  TANYPUS  MACULATUS. 

slowly  dissolving  away^  and  becoming  undistinguishable  from  the 
mass  of  food-matter  that  fills  the  stomach.  At  the  pyloric  end  of 
the  stomach  occurs  the  insertion  of  the  biliary  tubes,  four  in 
number, — two  passing  forward  and  two  back  ward, — and  surrounding 
the  stomach  and  intestine.  From  this  point  the  intestine  is  con- 
tinued as  a  straight  tube   to   the  anus. 

In  the  thoracic  segments  succeeding  the  head  we  may  discern 
(if  the  larva  be  sufficiently  grown),  in  addidon  to  the  salivary 
glands,  certain  cellular  structures  in  pairs, — four  on  each  side,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  i8.  These  are  the  imaginal  discs  from  which  in 
due  time  the  legs  and  wings  of  the  future  fly  will  be  developed. 

The  nervous  system  is  best  seen  in  very  young  specimens.  It 
consists  of  a  chain  of  ganglia  united  by  double  nervous  cords,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  ii.  This,  however,  is  wanting  in  the  cephalic 
ganglia,  which  I  have  not  been  able  to  make  out. 

I  have  omitted  to  mention  that  near  the  extremity  of  the  body 
there  occur  two  pencils  of  fine  hairs,  and  that  the  anus  is  sur- 
rounded with  four  fleshy  appendages,  the  use  of  which  I  do  not 
know.  They  are,  however,  very  much  developed  in  the  larva  of 
Chirono7?ius  plinnosus^  known  as  the  "  blood-worm,"  where,  I 
think,  they  are  concerned  in  the  formation  of  its  tube. 

In  the  month  of  August,  1880,  I  found  in  a  pond  in  the 
Crystal  Palace  grounds,  some  circular  gelatinous  masses  contain- 
ing eggs  (as  shown  in  Fig.  9),  adherent  to  floadng  sticks,  leaves, 
etc.  I  soon  found  that  some  of  the  egg-masses  were  in  course  of 
development,  and  were  producing  young  larvae,  which  I  recog- 
nised as  that  of  Tanypiis.  Whilst  still  in  the  egg,  the  position  of 
the  eyes  and  the  alimentary  canal,  as  well  as  the  segmentation  of 
the  body^  could  be  well  discerned,  and  they  are  shown  in  Figs.  13, 
14,  and  15.  The  young  larva  resembles  the  adult,  but  is  slightly 
thicker  in  proportion  to  its  length  :  the  alternate  protrusion  and 
withdrawal  of  the  antennae  was  well  marked,  as  were  also  the 
pulsations  of  the  dorsal  vessel. 

In  conclusion,  I  should  like  to  refer  the  reader  to  a  very 
interesting  account  in  "  The  Intellectual  Observer  "  for  February, 
1864,  by  the  Hon.  Mrs.  Ward,  endtled  "A  Windfall  for  the 
Microscope,"  and  describing  certain  larvae  very  similar,  if  not 
identical,  with  mine ;  the  eggs  of  which,  together  with  those  of  a 
species  of  Phryganea^  were  deposited  abundantly  on  the  sails, 
deck,  and  rigging  of  a  yacht  lying  at  anchor  in  Lough  Ree,  co. 
Westmeath. 


LARVA  OF  TANYPUS  MACULATUS.  87 


EXPLANATION    OF    PLATE    YIII. 


Fig.  1. — Stylaria  paludosa,  showing  incipient  division  of  the  body  at  x 

,,    2. — Portion  of  the  body,  shoAving  the  constriction  more  advanced ; 
the  new  setce,  and  the  formation  of  new  proboscis  and  eye. 

,,  3. — Head  of  new  worm  just  detached,  showing  imperfect  mouth. 

,,  4. — Head  of  original  worm,  showing  mouth  fully  formed. 

, ,  5.  — Blood-corpuscles. 

,,  6. — Hooked  seta. 


7. — Larva  of  Tanypus  maculatus  : — sg,  salivary  glands  ;  c,  crop  ; 
p,  iDroventriculus  ;  v,  ventriculus,  or  stomach ;  bt,  biliary 
tubes  ;  i,  intestine. 

8. — Head  of  larva: — cia,  antennae;  Z,  labium  ;  m,  muscles;  t, 
trachea. 

9. — Eggs  of  Tanypus  maculatus. 

10. — Anal  foot. 

11. — Nervous  chain  from  young  larva. 

12. — Hooklet  of  anal  foot. 

13. — Egg,  front  view. 

14. — Ditto,  side  view. 

15. — Ditto,  more  advanced,   showing  alimentary  canal   (a),  and 
segmentation  of  body. 

16. — Young  larva,  a  day  old. 

17. — Pyriform  cells  attached  to  maxilla. 

18. — Thoracic    segments    of    worm,    shewing — sg,    the    salivary 
glands,  and  dd,  the  imaginal  discs. 

19. — Root  of  antennae,  with  muscle  and  sac  attached. 

20. — Mouth-organs,  etc.  : — aa,  antennae  ;   imn,  mandibles  ;  mW, 
maxillae. 


|uj    LIBRARY  i;:J 


^iN5lf^'><^^ 


[88] 

a  mew  ffftctbob  of  {preparing  flDinute 
flDicroecopic  ©roaniema* 


IN  a  recent  German  periodical,  the   " Zoolog.  Anzcigcr^''  vol.  4, 
Professor  G.    Entz  describes   the  method  used  by  him  in 

momiting  minute  organisms  for  the  microscope,  such  as 
Protozoa,  Rotifera,  Infusoria,  etc.  He  first  enumerates  some  of 
the  plans  which  have  been  previously  tried,  referring  especially 
to  the  mounts  exhibited  by  Duncker  in  1877,  which  showed 
numerous  fine  details  in  a  most  wonderful  manner,  but  unhappily 
were  not  permanent.  He  then  goes  on  to  say  that,  according 
to  his  experience,  there  are  various  means  well  adapted  for  fixing 
the  smallest  and  most  delicate  organisms — such,  ^.o-., as  pyroligneous 
acid,  picric  acid,  chromate  of  potash  in  glycerine,  etc. — but  that 
a  preparation  strongly  recommended  by  Ur.  Paul  Mayer  for  the 
lower  animals — viz.,  picro-sulphuric  acid — should  certainly  have 
the  preference  over  all  others.  This  is  prepared,  according  to 
Kleinenberg's  formula,  as  follows  : — 

100  parts,  cold  saturated  solution  of  picric  acid  in  water  ; 
2  parts,  strong  sulphuric  acid. 
Mix  well  together,  and  filter ;  and  when  diluted  with  three  times 
its  bulk  of  water,  it  is  ready  for  use.  One  great  advantage  of  this 
medium  is  that  it  supplants  the  water  and  other  fluids  in  the 
animal's  body ;  and  after  having  done  its  work,  allows  itself  to  be 
entirely  removed  and  replaced  by  alcohol.  With  large  objects,  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  it  must  be  used,  and  generally  it  is  needful 
to  open  the  body  well  with  a  pair  of  scissors,  so  that  the  liquid 
may  penetrate  more  thoroughly,  as  it  passes  with  difficulty 
through  thick  chitinc.  It  must  be  used  before  or  immediately 
after  death, — time  not  being  allowed  for  the  blood  or  animal- 
juices  to  coagulate  and  fasten  the  organs  together ;  neither,  of 
course,  should  it  be  employed  for  animals  containing  carbonate 
of  lime,  where  that  is  desired  to  be  preserved. 

But  its  principal  use  in  the  hands  of  Professor  Entz  is  for  the 
preservation  of  minute  organisms,  as  already  mentioned.  These 
it  kills  instantaneously,  without  injuring  their  structure,  and 
fixing  the  smallest  details  as  in  life — even  flagella  and  cilia,  the 
suctorial  disks  of  the  Acinetae,  or  the  pedicels  of  rapidly-jerking 
Vorticell?e.  Rotifers,  such  as  Carchcsium  and  Epistylis,  may 
often  be  fixed  in  the  act  of  lively  rotation,  though  they  generally 
die  with  the  peristomes  moderately  withdrawn.  Infusoria  may  be 
caught  in   the  act  of   fission  or  conjugation;    and    nucleated 


1>REPARING    MINUTE   ORGANISMS.  89 

elements  come  out  also  prominently.  Spongillce^  HydrcB^  small 
Nematodes,  delicate  Insect-larvae,  the  ciliated  gills  of  Mussels, 
etc.,  may  all  be  excellently  fixed  and  preserved.  But  to  make 
these  preparations  durable,  it  is  absolutely  needful  that  the  fixing 
fluid  be  removed  when  it  has  completed  its  work,  as  it  might 
otherwise  injure  or  decompose  the  organisms  by  longer  action. 

Professor  Entz  then  describes  his  method  of  procedure  in  the 
following  terms,  which  we  borrow  from  "  The  Journal  of  the 
Royal  JMicroscopical  Society,"  vol.  II.,  p.  121  : — "I  place  the 
Protozoa  or  other  microscopical  organisms,  together  with  the 
Algae^  sediment,  or  other  objects  to  which  they  are  attached,  with 
some  water  in  a  watch-glass,  and  then  drop  in  a  few  drops  of  the 
fixing  fluid,  which  I  allow  to  act  only  one  to  tivo  mumtes.  I  then 
pour  off  the  fluid  carefully,  or  simply  lift  the  preparation  out  w4th 
a  pencil,  in  order  to  transfer  it  at  once  into  a  larger  quantity  of 
alcohol,  which  must  not  be  too  strong.  Half-an-hour  is  usually 
enough  to  withdraw  the  fixing  fluid  and  replace  it  by  the  alcohol, 
in  which  it  may  remain  for  a  longer  time  without  damage.  For 
removing  the  chlorophyll  colouring-matter  of  many  Infusoria, 
and  also  of  the  x\lgse  in  the  preparation,  a  longer  stay  in  alcohol 
is  of  course  necessary,  replacing  this  by  clear  alcohol  when  it  has 
become  coloured. 

"  Microscopical  organisms  thus  treated  may  then  be  mounted 
at  once  in  equal  parts  of  glycerine  and  distilled  water.  But 
colouring  must  not  be  neglected.  Carmine  certainly  is  to  be 
preferred,  because  it  is  not  bleached  in  glycerine,  and  does  not 
colour  everything  with  one  tint  like  the  aniline  dyes,  but  prin- 
cipally the  nuclear  elements.  Preparations  transferred  from 
alcohol  to  carmine  are  mostly  coloured  sufficiently  in  ten  to 
twenty  minutes ;  only  loricated  forms,  such  as  Etigle?ia.  Spiro- 
§yra,  the  PeridinccE^  etc.,  require  several  hours  to  make  their  nuclei 
sufficiently  prominent.  To  remove  superfluous  dye,  the  prepara- 
tions must,  of  course,  be  put  into  distilled  water  before  being 
transferred  to  the  glycerine  :  they  should  remain  in  it  until  the 
yellow  picric  acid  is  drawn  out,  and  only  a  nice  rose-colour 
remains. 

"  Beautiful  and  instructive  preparations  may  thus  be  obtained, 
which  when  carefully  mounted  show  no  further  change.  I  have  a 
fairly  considerable  collection  of  different  Protozoa,  which  have  not 
altered  in  the  least  for  six  or  seven  months,  and  are  adapted  both 
for  demonstration  and  for  detailed  study." 


[90] 

an  Ibour  at  tbe  fIDicroacope, 

Mitb  mv.  XTutfen  Mest,  jf.X.S.,  3f.1R*/in)*S.,  etc 


Plate 


THERE  is  no  more  delightful  way  of  spending  an  evening, 
that  I  know  of,  than  to  get  together  a  few  friends  when  a 
Box  of  Slides  arrives,  with  books,  etc.,  at  hand  for 
reference  in  case  of  need,  and  then,  with  the  microscope  on  the 
table,  to  observe,  compare,  and  discuss,  whatever  the  box  contains; 
trying  to  clear  up  any  doubtful  points,  and  to  gain  or  to  impart  fresh 
knowledge,  through  the  medium  of  the  Note-Books.  I  strongly 
recommend  the  plan  to  members  who  may  live  sufficiently  near 
each  other  to  make  it  practicable. 

With  regard  to  the  question  of  "  bought "  Slides,  there  can  be 
no  objection  to  members  occasionally  sending  round  a  good, 
instructive,  professional  mount ;  but  the  fact  of  its  being  such 
should  be  distinctly  stated.  Slides  mounted  by  real  workers,  with 
a  definite  object,  are  infinitely  better  and  more  interesting  than 
the  gay  things  got  up  by  professional  mounters,  which  sometimes 
resemble  certain  well-known  razors,  "  made  to  sell."  Would  that 
all  our  members  might  continually  remember  that  our  future  as  a 
Society  depends  greatly  upon  the  character  and  quality  of  the 
work  that  we  do  I  We  have  great  opportunities  for  self-improve- 
ment, if  they  are  honestly  embraced  and  utilized ;  but  if  these 
are  let  slip,  and  members  are  content  to  use  the  microscope 
merely  as  a  plaything,  to  while  away  a  leisure  hour,  or  for  the 
exhibition  of  pretty  things,  then  we  shall  probably  soon  fall  to 
pieces,  as  we  shall  deserve  to  do. 

Diatoms. — Try  to  draw  these,  if  you  can,  with  the  camera, 
giving  all  the  reticulations,  etc.,  just  as  they  occur, — and  then  feel 
for  the  poor  artist,  who  has  to  give  weary  years  to  drawing  and 
engraving  them;  the  latter  process,  with  some  of  the  more  elaborate 
ones,  taking  a  fortnight  for  a  single  disc.  And  wonder  not 
that  he  heaves  a  sigh  of  relief  as  he  removes  the  last  slide  from 
the  field  of  his  microscope,  and  rejoices  when  engagements 
permit  of  his  turning  to  other  branches  of  microscopical  drawing 
and  research  than  Diatoms. 

Sphagnum,  portion  of  Stem.— There  is,  in  its  way,  no  object 
more  beautiful  than  that  furnished  by  the  leaves  of  the  Bog- 
Mosses.     It  is  preferable  to  mount  them  at  once  in  Glycerine,  as 


AN  HOUR  AT  THE  MICROSCOPE.  '     91 

obtained,  and  then  the  two  forms  of  cells,  parenchymatous  and 
spiral,  are  well  seen,  as  also  the  openings  of  the  latter.  It  is  a  curious 
sight  to  see  Infusoria  passing  in  and  out  of  these  holes,  and 
making  themselves  quite  at*  home  in  the  restricted  domain  of  a 
cell  of  Bog-Moss.  Professor  Huxley,  in  an  article  in  the  British 
and  Foreign  Medical  Review,  has  written  to  the  effect  that  by 
carefully  dissecting  the  growing  point  in  Sphagnum  it  would  be 
found  that  a  stage  would  at  last  be  reached  where  no  difference 
could  be  traced  between  the  sinuous,  narrowly-elongate  cells 
containing  chlorophyll,  and  the  large  spiral-bearing  air-cells  which 
they  surround  ;  though  these  are  so  very  different  in  the  mature 
condition.  An  early  enunciation  in  fact  of  the  law  of  differentia- 
tion, which  has  helped  so  materially  in  the  recent  march  of 
scientific  research. 

Sphaeraphides  from  Echinus  Vesnagii.— John  Quekett 
preferred  maceration  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  Sph?eraphides, 
and  I  can  certify  that  it  is  the  safest  way.  Liquor  Potassae  may 
be  used,  but  it  is  powerful  stuff;  I  am  afraid  of  it.  "  Pulvis 
Rhei  "  of  the  druggists  will  furnish  very  fine  Sphgeraphides  ;  and 
sections  made  of  the  root  will  show  them  ///  situ  capitally,  along 
with  the  rich  red-brown  cells  bearing  the  fragrant  resin  which  gives 
this  drug  its  officinal  value.  Quekett  ascertained,  and  stated,  the 
curious  fact  that  the  number  of  Sphaeraphides  in  Rhubarb  root 
may  be  taken  as  an  index  of  its  quality, — the  best  Turkey  being 
very  rich  in  them,  but  the  dressed-up  English,  sold  by  sham 
Turks,  containing  comparatively  few.  The  same  genial  climate 
which  nourishes  the  cathartic  products,  is  alike  favourable  to  the 
growth  of  these  crystalline  accompaniments,  both  in  abundance 
and  in  size.  There  is  a  good  article  under  the  head  of  "  Raphi- 
des,"  in  the  Micrographic  Dictionary,  which  should  be  consulted 
by  all  would-be  workers  at  the  subject.  If  practicable^  Professor 
Gulliver's  various  papers  should  also  be  read  :  they  are  scattered 
through  various  periodicals,  some  difficult  of  access,  and  many, 
alas,  buried  and  all  but  lost  to  science  in  the  proceedings  of  a 
local  Microscopical  Society  ! 

Trichina  Spiralis.— Could  anything  more  conclusively  show 
the  value  of  the  microscope,  than  that  it  enables  us  to  find  out 
the  cause,  otherwise  mysterious  and  inscrutable,  of  one  of  the 
most  dangerous  and  deadly  diseases  ?  We  take  a  bit  of  infected 
muscle,  some  y^Awch  square,  and  a  mere  film  in  thickness,  and 
find  in  it  perhaps  70  of  these  death-inflicting  creatures  !  The 
literature  of  Trichina  and  Trichinosis  is  now  a  copious  one  ;  the 
best  way  to  get  at  it  will  be  to  consult  a  medical  friend  ;  or  we 
may  read  a  most  complete  account  of  it  in  an  old  volume  of  the 
Transactions  of  the  Pathological  Society  of  London,  by  Rainey 


92  AN   HOUR  AT 

and  Bristowe.  A  scourge  to  man,  due  to  neglect  of  sanitary 
conditions  !  In  my  neighbourhood  is  a  Pig  Club,  the  cottagers 
belonging  to  which,  by  paying  small  subscriptions,  mutually  insure 
against  total  loss  when  one  of  their  pigs  die.  They  have  their 
own  butcher,  specially  retained  to  exercise  his  calling  at  any  hour 
of  the  day  or  night,  when  "  piggie  "  is  seen  to  be  "  in  extremis.''^ 
I  have  known  instances  where  animals  have  died  before  he  could 
reach  them,  and  where,  judging  from  all  that  I  can  now  remember 
concerning  the  symptoms,  there  could  be  little  reasonable  doubt 
that  Trichinosis  was  the  cause  of  death.  And  what  became  of 
the  animals  so  suffering,  and  killed  "  in  time  ?  "  Too  often  they 
were  sent  to  market,  or  otherwise  disposed  of,  and  the  mischief 
they  may  have  been  the  cause  of,  or  that  may  be  done  in  this 
way,  no  human  being  can  tell. 

Proboscis  of  Tortoise  Tick  (Plate  9). — This  object  is  one 
most  difficult  to  procure,  and  the  best  way  is  for  the  owner  to  cut 
it  out  of  its  moorings  himself  The  Proboscis  is  the  Labium  or 
upper  lip,  modified  for  the  requirements  of  the  creature,  and  it 
differs  in  appearance  very  considerably  in  the  different  species  of 
Ticks.  The  drawing  is  that  of  the  mouth  of  Tick  from  common 
Tortoise,  I  have  consulted  also  a  slide  of  Ixodes  (purchased), 
said  to  have  been  taken  from  a  Magpie.  Both  are  balsam-mounted, 
both  crushed  down  ;  but  so  far  as  I  can  read  them  in  their 
present  state,  all  agree  in  saying  this — that  the  mucrones  (tooth- 
like points)  are  on  the  undej-  surface  of  the  labium.  This  is 
buried  in  the  host  by  an  operation  which  may  be  described  as 
follows  : — Did  you  ever  see  a  Mole  working  its  way  into  the 
earth  ?  It  is  a  highly  curious  and  instructive  operation.  The 
hands— a  combination  of  digging-fork,  shovel,  and  scavenger's 
brush  in  one — deave  the  earth  asunder  ;  whilst  the  nose,  armed 
with  its  special  bone,  and  densely-ossified  nasal  cartilages,  is 
pushed  forwards  with  a  motion  alternating  from  side  to  side,  and 
the  creature,  under  favourable  circumstances,  disappears  almost 
in  a  twinkling.  I  had  recently  a  capital  opportunity  of  watching 
one  in  an  enfeebled  condition  under  a  large  bell-glass,  so  that  I 
was  able  to  observe  the  whole  process  thoroughly. 

Well,  the  Ticks  having  found  their  victim,  attach  themselves 
thereto  by  the  help  of  suckers,  almost  circular  in  outline,  with  one 
of  which  each  of  the  eight  limbs  terminates.  Then  the  mandi- 
bles, or  maxillae,  or  both  combined  (figured  on  either  side  the 
labium  in  my  sketch,  see  PI.  9,  m.m.),  pus/i  aside,  as  it  were,  the  fleshy 
with  instruments  like  a  veterinary  surgeon's  "  fleam,"  and  a  three- 
prong  fork,  having  the  "tines"  bent  sideways  on  the  handle. 
The  saw  (labium)  is  then  introduced,  and  by  a  little  gentle  motion 
backwards  and  forwards  of  the  body  on  its  fixed  supports,  it  soon 


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THE  MICROSCOPE.  93 

completes  the  task.  Now  this  instrument  remains  buried  almost 
up  to  the  hilt,  and  catmot  be  withdrawn  by  force ;  the  head  is  just 
torn  off  in  the  attempt ;  but  if  you  want  to  remove  them,  tickle 
them,  i.e.,  brush  them  over  with  oil,  and  being  stifled,  they  will 
seek  to  escape,  and  you  may  then  secure  them.  For  about  the 
front  half  of  the  labium,  on  its  upper  surface,  is  an  open  channel : 
at  the  hinder  half,  attached  to  this  channel  on  either  side,  is  an 
elastic  membrane  (see  diagram  PI.  9,  Fig  3b).  Along  the  middle 
runs  a  white  line,  the  indication  of  a  ridge,  which  prevents  the 
membrane  falling  in,  and  so  destroying  the  vacuum.  So  far  as  I  can 
judge,  I  think  that  the  arrangement  at  the  base  may  be  very  probably 
adapted  for  sucking  ;  but  it  would  require  the  dissection  of  fresh 
specimens  to  feel  confident  on  such  a  point. 

I  once  purchased  a  Tortoise  on  the  flags  at  the  Exchange, 
which  to  my  delight  had  some  30  specimens  of  its  Tick  upon  it ; 
and  several  specimens  have  been  also  brought  me  in  the  living 
state,  of  the  species  which  occurs  on  the  Weasel.  I  wish 
members  would  collect  all  the  Ticks  they  can — there  is  one  not 
uncommon  on  the  Dog  ;  one  is  found  on  the  Sheep  ;  one  occurs 
on  the  Deer ;  and  one  in  the  nest  of  the  Bank-Swallow.  No 
doubt  there  is  a  vast  number  of  species,  on  which  scarcely  any- 
thing has  as  yet  been  published.  Some  species  occur  in  America, 
which  are  known  there  by  the  name  of  "  Piques,''  whose  attacks 
are  very  distressing,  and  sometimes  dangerous,  both  to  men  and 
cattle.  Members  having  relatives  or  correspondents  there,  who 
could  procure  some  of  these,  would  be  able  to  render  right  loyal 
service.  The  "  insects  "  which  are  so  troublesome  at  times  to 
canaries  and  other  singing  birds,  should  be  sought  for ;  to  put 
them  into  glycerine  at  once,  is  the  best  way  to  preserve  them. 
The  Pigeon  Tick — Argas  reflextis,  is  also  worth  notice.  I  have 
little  doubt  it  is  the  "large  Ixodes,"  which  Denny  mentions 
having  found  on  the  Pigeon  (Mon.  Anop.  Brit,  p.  173),  and  any 
of  our  members  having  access  to  Dove-Cotes,  might  be  able,  with 
a  little  exertion,  to  secure  them. 

Egg  of  Louse  of  VielUot's  Pheasant.— (9i7;«W,fj-  Colchici  is 
the  name  of  the  Louse  of  the  Common  Pheasant.  I  cannot  just 
now  say  whether  the  Louse  of  Vieillot's  Pheasant  be  the  same 
species,  nor  do  I  know  the  eggs  of  the  parasite  of  the  Common 
Pheasant.  In  mounting  such  objects  one  may  injure  their  value 
materially,  by  sticking  a  lot  together  for  the  sake  of  effect,  instead 
of  being  content  to  obtain  this  truthfully,  by  attaching  portions  of 
feathers  to  the  glass  slip — each  independently.  I  never  knew  eggs 
to  occur  in  groups,  or  in  such  large  clusters  as  are  sometimes  shewn. 
I  have  seen  a  singular  chitinous  thread  attached  to  the  lid  of  one 
of  these  eggs.  Is  it  merely  casual,  or  does  it  furnish  a  mark  of 
specific  distinction  ? 


94  AN    HOUR   AT 

On  principle,  I  very  much  dislike  to  see  objects  mounted  with 
an  irremoveable  black  back-grotmd.  When  it  is  desirable  to  view 
objects  as  opaque,  there  are  so  many  other  ways  of  doing  this  ; 
e.g. — the  diaphragm,  or  the  dark-well  of  the  opticians,  or  a  piece 
of  dead-black  paper,  cloth,  or  velvet,  placed  behind  the  slide  ;  it 
can  then  still  be  viewed  as  a  transparent  object  also.  Otherwise 
it  is  the  mounter  saying  to  the  observer — "  You  shall  see  my  slide 
as  /  will,  and  in  no  other  way." 

■  TuFFEN  West. 


Sphaeraphides  of  Cactus  were  obtained  from  Mr.  Peacock,  of 
Hammersmith,  who  imported  a  very  fine  specimen,  but  it  fell  to 
pieces  in  travelling ;  he  very  generously  distributed  the  pieces 
for  the  benefit  of  Microscopists  generally. 

These  Sphaeraphides  required  no  maceration ;  a  little  grating 
together,  or  merely  rubbing  with  the  finger,  is  sufficient  to  reduce 
the  tissue  to  powder,  and  the  Sph^raphides  are  easily  separated 
by  allowing  them  to  roll  down  a  sheet  of  writing  paper.  The 
little  balls  readily  separate  from  the  remaining  debris,  and  the 
process  may  be  repeated  once  or  twice  if  necessary.  They  show 
much  the  best  with  a  little  light  from  below,  or  with  spot-lens. 

H.  E.  Freeman. 

Turkey  Rhubarb.— Just  one  passing  observation  as  to  Mr. 
West's  suggestion  that  we  should  look  for  Sphaeraphides  in  Hhei 
Pulv.  I  have  read  that  real  Turkey  Rhubarb  is  scarcely  ever 
seen  now,  and  that  the  best  houses  have  ceased  to  quote  a  price 
for  it  in  their  lists.  Mr.  West  speaks  of  the  "  dressed-up  Engfish" 
Rhubarb,  and  this  reminds  me  that  the  dressing  is,  or  used  to  be, 
one  of  the  indications  of  quality.  If  my  memory  serves  me,  the 
Turkey  (real)  or  Russian  used  to  be  always  clean-cut  with  a  knife, 
and  therefore  the  edges,  or  "  arrises,"  were  left  sharp,  or  at  least 
angular ;  but  the  East  Indian  variety,  which  is  much  inferior  in 
quality,  and  much  lower  in  price,  is,  or  was,  always  finished  with  a 
file,  and  consequently  presented  no  "  arrises,"  although  it  is  thus 
made  to  look  neater  to  the  eye  of  the  purchaser.  Sphaeraphides 
are  not  plentiful  in  the  E.  I.  Rhubarb. 

W.  Lane  Sear. 

Dark-g^round  Illumination.— I  find  that  many  objects  show 
better,  not  with  a  black,  but  with  a  white  or  porcelain  back-ground, 
and  it  is  useful  to  have  the  following  slips  of  glass,  of  the  same 
size  as  slides,  both  for  opaque  and  transparent  objects  : — 

JPale  Blue,  for  destroying  the  yellow  glare  of  the  lamp.  For 
transmitted  light. 


THE  MICBOSCOPE.  95 

Ground  Glass,  for  bringing  out  with  good  definition 
Foraminifera,  etc.     For  transmitted  light. 

Opal  or  Porcelain,  or  even  C/wia,  for  viewing  dark  objects 
as  opaque,  such  as  Seeds,  etc.     For  reflected  light. 

Glass  Slips,  dull-varnished  on  one  side,  useful  for  most 
opaque  objects.     For  reflected  light. 

These  should  be  slipped  under  the  slide  on  the  stage  of  the 
microscope,  and  may  be  procured  at  a  very  trifling  cost. 

E.    LOVETT. 

Proboscis  of  Tortoise  Tick.— I  cannot  make  out  any  terminal 
opening.  Mr.  West's  account  of  the  channel  for  suction  may  be 
right,  but  it  cannot  be  made  out  by  examination  of  a  mounted 
specimen;  and  certainly  if  the  membrane  described  were  "elastic," 
it  would  prevent  the  passage  of  juices,  by  being  drawn  into  the 
channels.  This  remark  of  Mr.  West's  puzzles  me.  What  proof  is 
there  of  its  elasticity?  and  what  is  the  supposed  need  of  elasticity  in 
relation  to  it  ?  The  central  support  could  not  prevent  the 
membrane  falling  into  the  two  channels  thus  formed.  I  suppose 
we  must  conclude  that  the  elasticity  of  the  membrane  and  the 
power  of  suction  are  invariably  well  balanced ;  but  is  it  elastic  ? 
and  why  ?  D.  Moore. 

Eg^gs  of  Louse  of  Vieillot's  Pheasant  differ  from  those  of 
Reeve's  Pheasant  in  having  much  coarser  reticulations ;  the  general 
shape  is  the  same ;  the  thread  attached  to  the  lid  is  present,  and 
when  absent  it  is  probably  accidentally  removed.  It  is  a  very 
common  appendage  to  louse-eggs,  and  it  occurs  in  6  or  7  out 
of  8  different  species  that  I  have.     Are  these  egg-shells  chitinous  ? 

D.  Moore. 


Mr.  West's  reply  to  the  foregoing  notes  : — 

Dr.  Moore's  remark  on  the  thread  attached  to  the  lid  of  the 
Louse's  Egg  is  highly  interesting.  This  is  a  subject  well  worthy  of 
study.  I  believe  there  is  no  publication  on  them  as  a  class  yet, 
and  they  would  form  excellent  material  for  our  "  Proceedings," 
stimulating  intelligent  inquiry  into  the  subject  as  well. 

If  these  egg-shells  in  question  be  not  chitinous,  of  what 
material  are  they  composed  ?  Simply  animal  membrane  ?  Some 
appear  from  their  porcellaneous  lustre  and  brittleness,  as  if  they 
might  be  impregnated  with  earthy  salts,  — Carbonate  and  Phosphate 
of  Lime  probably. 

The  Larvae  of  Bird-Lice  push  off  the  cover  of  the  beautiful 
"  urns  "  in  which  the  first  stage  of  their  existence  is  passed,  when 


96  SELECTED   NOTES   FROM 

ready  to  make  their  exit.     Previous  to  leaving,  they  cast  their 
first  skin,  which  may  frequently  be  seen  left  behind. 

More  on  Tick's  mouths,  when  materials  have  been  obtained 
sufficient  to  render  a  discussion  of  use — mine  was  merely  a 
suggestion  thrown  out  to  excite  remarks  from  other  members.  I 
do  not  now,  after  examination  of  the  mouth  in  several  other 
Ticks,  in  Human  Lice,  and  in  some  Pycnogons,  think  it  quite 
correct,  yet  neither  does  Dr.  Moore's  theory  of  a  "  closely  fitting 
piston,"  appear  to  accord  better  with  what  I  find.  T.  West. 

EXPLANATION    OF    PLATE    IX. 


Fig.    1. — Proboscis    of    Tortoise-Tick,     x   100. — m,    m,    Mandibles  ; 

I,  toothed  Labunii  or  Rostrum. 
Fig.  3. — Ideal  transverse  sections  of  the  Labium,  taken  at  the  points 

a  and  b,  shown  on  Fig.  2. 


Selcctcb  1Rotc0  from  tbc  Socict^'a  IRote^ 


INORGANIC. 


Clifton  Oolite. — The  small  egg-shaped  nodules  found  in  this 
rock  seem  to  be  formed  by  successive  layers  deposited  round 
minute  fragments  of  various  foreign  bodies  which  serve  as  nuclei. 
Among  these  may  be  noticed  portions  of  Echinus  spines, — bits 
of  Coral,  such  as  Favosites^  Hdio/ites,  and  others, — fragments  of 
Encrinoids, — minute  shells  and  Foraminifera,  etc.  They  all  seem 
to  be  of  animal,  not  of  vegetable  origin.  The  same  organisms 
which  are  found  in  the  Oolite  are  found  also  in  the  Carboniferous 
Limestone  ;  and  at  CHfton  may  be  seen  strata  of  Oolite,  some 
2o  feet  thick,  with  layers  of  the  Limestone  lying  both  above  and 
below  them.  Here  and  there  one  finds,  imbedded  in  the  mass  of 
Oolite,  pieces  of  Encrinoids  of  considerable  size, — as  large 
sometimes  as  a  small  bullet.  The  nodules  possess  a  granular, 
rather  than  a  crystalline  structure,  and  often  exhibit  concentric 
rings. 

The  formation  of  this  rock  one  may  imagine  to  have  proceeded 
somewhat  as  follows:— On  a  shallow,  sandy  shore,  partly  strewn 
with  broken  bits  of  shells,  corals,  encrinoids,  etc.,  there  has  been 


THE   society's   NOTE-BOOKS.  97 

heavy  rain,  churning  up  the  fine  particles  into  mud.  This 
again  has  been  dried  and  cracked  by  the  sun,  and  the  broken  and 
separated  fragments  have  been  rolled  along  hither  and  thither  by  the 
wind.  Many  of  them  are  driven  into  the  water,  where  they  get 
massed  together,  and  become  stationary ;  while  as  time  goes  on, 
other  deposits  are  formed  over  and  around  them,  and  so  the 
Oolite  is  found  sometimes  imbedded  in  the  Hmestone,  sometimes 
interstratified  with  it. 

T.  Inman. 


Nummulites ;  from  7iumjnus,  money, — owing  to  their  coin-like 
shape.  There  are  few  forms  which  play  a  more  important  part 
than  these  do  in  the  configuration  of  some  portions  of  the  earth's 
surface.  Originally  the  shelly,  calcareous  envelopes  of  Protozoan 
Rhizopods,  they  have  been  welded  together  by  geologic  action, 
and  now  constitute  very  massive  and  important  rocks.  One  huge 
stratum  of  Nummulitic  Limestone,  often  attaining  to  a  thickness  of 
1500  feet,  extends  through  Southern  Europe  and  the  North  of 
Africa ;  from  Egypt  it  has  been  traced  into  Asia  Minor,  and  thence 
through  the  Himalayas  into  India.  It  is  from  this  that  the  Egyp- 
tian Pyramids  were  built;  and  the  curious  fossil  forms  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  ancients,  being  mentioned  by  Strabo  and 
others.  Many  popular  legends  have  been  attached  to  them,  one  being 
that  they  were  the  petrified  remains  of  the  lentils  used  as  food  by 
the  workmen  who  built  the  Pyramids.  In  Germany  they  were 
known  as  Bauer ?i-pfe?inige^  or  peasant's  penny,  and  as  Teufels-gdd^ 
or  devil's  money, — both  appellations  being  in  common  use.  Later 
on  they  came  under  the  notice  of  Naturalists  : — Lancisi,  an  Italian 
physician,  supposed  them  to  be  the  Madreporiform  plates  of 
Echinites  ;  Buckmann,  that  they  were  bivalve  Mollusca,  while 
other  authorities  classed  them  amongst  the  Cephalopoda ;  but  in 
1825  D'Orbigny  ranged  them  in  the  class  then  first  known  as 
Foraminifera.  In  size  they  vary  considerably, — from  a  mere 
particle  to  the  bigness  of  a  shilling ;  in  a  few  cases  even  reaching 
as  much  as  4J  inches  in  diameter. 

The  grand  era  of  the  Nummulites  was  during  the  Eocene 
formation  of  early  Tertiary  times  :  existing  forms  are  but  a  poor 
representative  of  the  wonderful  development  reached  by  them  at  that 
period:  they  do  still  occur,  however,  though  of  humble  dimensions, 
both  in  Arctic,  Temperate,  and  Tropical  Seas. 

E.    LOVETT. 


98  SELECTED  NOTES   FROM 

BOTANICAL. 


Puccinia  graminis. — The  genus  Puccinia  is  characterised  by 
its  spores  being  divided  into  two  compartments  supported  on  a 
stalk  ;  and  however  much  their  shape  may  vary  in  different 
species,  the  plan  is  the  same,  These  Pucc'mice  or  "Brands"  are  very 
numerous,  52  species  being  described  as  British  in  Cooke's 
"  Handbook."  The  most  common  of  them  is  P.  graminis^  which 
may  be  found  commonly  on  any  pieces  of  straw  left  lying  about ; 
the  difficulty  will  often  be  to  find  a  straw  free  from  it.  On  the 
straw  its  appearance  is  that  of  a  brown,  raised  patch,  of  linear 
shape,  which  under  the  microscope  is  seen  to  be  made  up  of  tops 
of  the  spores  densely  packed  together.  On  making  a  cross-section, 
we  discover  the  stalked,  uni-septate  spores  lying  side  by  side. 

Cooke  tells  us,  however,  that  this  form  must  probably  be 
described  as  only  one  condition  of  a  Fungus,  which  in  other 
stages  of  its  existence  shows  other  and  quite  dissimilar  forms. 
Thus,  the  straw  Puccinia  is  preceded  on  growing  wheat  by  the 
Uredo  form  called  "  Rust."  This  has  a  yellowish-brown  appearance, 
and  the  spores  are  seen  under  the  microscope  to  be  simply 
globular,  and  without  a  stalk.  It  is  known  that  these  are  two 
states  of  the  same  thing,  and  not  two  distinct  fungi,  because  one 
finds  sometimes  on  a  leaf  a  patch  showing  both  stages.  This  I 
have  myself  seen  in  several  instances. 

There  is  also  another  well-known  Fungus,  the  yEcidium  of  the 
Berberry,  which  has  long  been  popularly  believed  to  be  connected 
with  the  Wheat  Puccinia.  Cooke  mentions  a  village  near  Yarmouth 
that  was  famous  for  mildewed  corn,  said  to  be  produced  by  the 
Berberry  bushes  ;  and  when  they  were  cut  down  the  Corn-Mildew 
disappeared.  This  was  investigated  by  De  Barry,  who  made 
experiments  by  applying  Puccinia  spores  to  healthy  Berberry 
leaves,  and  succeeded  in  producing  a  growth  of  ALcidium  on  them, 
while  other  Berberry  leaves  which  had  not  been  so  treated 
remained  free  from  it.  The  subject  is  interesting  and  may  be 
studied  in  Cooke's  "Fungi,"  Vol.  16  of  the  International  Scientific 
Series.  It  is  curious  to  note  how  different  the  two  Fungi  are  in 
appearance. 

G.  D.  Brown. 

[The  conclusions  stated  above,  with  respect  to  the  connection 
between  Corn-Mildew  and  the  ^cidium  of  the  Berberry,  do  not 
as  yet  command  universal  assent : — authorities  differ  on  the 
subject,  and  it  may  therefore  be  regarded  as  being  still  under 
discussion. — Edit07-.  1 


THE  society's  NOTE-BOOKS.  99 

^cidium  Ranunculacearum.— The  cluster-cups  of  this  Fungus 
grow  in  the  leaf,  and  appear  first  as  minute  brownish  spots ; 
these  expand  until  they  burst  through  the  epidermis,  when  they 
resemble  little  cups  having  a  sort  of  fringe  round  the  circumference, 
which  is  elevated  above  the  leaf.  These  hollow  cups,  or  peridia, 
are  filled  with  an  enormous  number  of  globular  spores,  which 
become  scattered  and  thus  propagate  the  fungus.  Cooke  estimates 
their  number  at  over  250,000  in  each  cup. 

H.  W.  Peal. 


TJlva  crispa  is  a  congener  of  the  well-known  Sea-Lettuce, 
U.  hifissifna,  often  grown  in  aquaria, — and  of  other  marine  species. 
Ulva  crispa,  however,  is  not  marine,  but  terrestrial,  growing  on 
damp  earth  at  the  foot  of  walls  ;  I  have  several  times  gathered  it 
near  London.  It  consists  of  a  colourless,  gelatinous  membrane, 
having  embedded  in  it  numerous  square  green  cells  in  close  parallel 
rows  :  this  arrangement  gives  rise  to  some  curious  optical 
appearances  when  seen  with  a  low  power. 

H.  F.  Parsons. 


Aulacomniuni  androgynum  is  one  of  the  Acrocarpous  Mosses 
found  plentifully  in  some  districts,  growing  on  rotten  wood,  etc.,  in 
plantations.  The  normal  fruit  of  mosses  is  an  urn-shaped  capsule, 
but  this  species  is  very  rarely  found  in  fruit,  and  it  is  propa- 
gated by  the  male  plant  sending  up  a  stem  bearing  a  terminal 
globular  mass  oi ge?mnce,  which  in  due  time  fall  to  the  ground  and 
produce  new  plants. 

The  Micro.  Dictionary  says  that  these  gemmce  "  are  formed  of 
only  a  few  cells  (3  or  4)  at  the  time  when  they  fall  off,  and 
illustrate  well  the  independence  of  the  individual  cells  forming  the 
organs  of  these  plants  ;  where,  under  peculiar  circumstances,  a 
single  cell  of  the  tissue  may  be  developed  so  as  to  lay  the 
foundation  of  a  new  plant." 

W.  N.  Cheesman. 


Lopliocolea  bidentata  belongs  to  the  Foliaceous  group  of  the 
Hepatic(e,  or  Scale-Mosses,  and  its  fruit,  when  immature,  is  like  a 
little  black,  shining,  glass  bead,  on  a  white  porcelain  stalk.  When 
ripe,  the  bead  bursts  suddenly,  and  the  elaters,  which  lie  loose 
inside  the  capsule  and  are  very  minute,  spring  out  and  scatter  the 
spores.  Specimens  may  often  be  found  with  the  four  valves  open, 
and  a  great  many  elaters  and  spores  lying  on  them. 

In  another  species  of  Scale-Moss  the  elaters  are  fixed  to  the 


100  SELECTED  NOTES   FROM 

sides  of  the  capsule,  and  are  quite  as  long  as  the  valves  are  broad. 
A  specimen  mounted  without  pressure  is  most  elegant  under  a 
2-inch  objective,  since  the  elaters  stand  out  from  the  valves. 

H.  M.  J.  Underhill. 


The  chief  differences  between  the  Hepaticce  (Scale-Mosses  and 
Liverworts)  and  the  true  Mosses  are  as  follows  : — In  the  former 
the  capsule,  as  it  grows  upward,  bursts  through  the  perigonium,  or 
membranous  sheath  which  surrounds  the  pistillidium  or  female 
organ,  so  that  the  sheath  remains  like  a  calyx  around  the  base  of 
the  fruit-stalk  ;  in  the  true  IVIosses,  the  sheath  splits  around  its 
base,  and  the  upper  part  is  carried  upward  as  a  cap  or  hood, 
(calyptra,)  covering  the  capsule. 

In  the  Hepaticce  the  fruit-stalk  is  usually  brittle  and  hyahne  ; 
in  the  true  Mosses  tough  and  bristle-like.  In  Hepaticce  the 
capsule  bursts  by  splitting  regularly  into  four  valves ;  whereas  in 
the  Mosses  (except  in  the  genus  Andrcea,  in  which  it  splits  into 
four  valves,  and  in  Fhasaim,  in  which  it  bursts  irregularly)  the 
capsule  has  a  thickened  mouth,  closed,  Hke  that  of  an  urn,  with 
a  conical  lid,  which  at  length  falls  off,  frequently  disclosing 
beneath  it  a  beautiful  series  of  teeth  guarding  the  mouth  of  the 
capsule.  In  HepaticcB  there  are  found  mingled  with  the  spores 
bodies  called  elaters — spirally-coiled  threads — which  when  the 
capsule  bursts,  elongate  suddenly,  and  shoot  out  the  spores  like 
the  spring  of  a  toy-gun ; — these  are  not  found  in  Mosses.  The 
leaves  of  Hepaticce  are  very  generally  attached  edgewise  to  the 
stem,  and  are  frequently  lobed  and  folded  upon  themselves. 
Stipules  are  met  with  on  the  under-surface  of  the  stem  in  some 
species.  Many,  however,  are  frondose,  having  no  distinction 
between  stem  and  leaves. 

H.  F.  Parsons. 


ZOOTOGICAL. 


Hoplophora. — The  family  Oribatidce,  or  Beetle-Mites,  are 
related  to  the  Acaridce — of  which  family  Cheese-Mites  are  a 
familiar  example — in  a  way  we  should  hardly  expect.  Beetle- 
Mites  are,  without  exception,  hard-shelled  and  very  unlike  the  soft 
Acarids.  But  few  species  had  been  found  in  England  until 
recently,  and  it  is  likely  that  more  may  yet  be  discovered  if 
properly  searched  for.  Within  the  last  few  weeks  I  have  myself 
found  two  species,  and  a  friend  has  found  a  third,  which,  if  Mr. 


THE  SOCIETY*S  NOTE-BOOKS.  lOl 

Murray's  "  Handbook  "  on  the  Aptera  is  to  be  depended  on,  have 
not  hitherto  been  found  in  England. 

HoplopJiora  is  one  of  the  known  Enghsh  genera.  One  species 
of  it  Uves  in  decaying  Fir-wood  ;  another  on  the  roots  of  the 
Vine. 

The  following  account,  gathered  from  the  above-named  work, 
appears  sufficiently  interesting  to  be  introduced  here  : — Clapa- 
rede  found  H.  contradilis  in  the  burrows  or  borings  in  rotten  fir- 
wood  ;  but  he  sometimes  found  with  it  another  larger,  semi- 
transparent,  soft,  white  mite,  like  a  Cheese-Mite.  One  might 
naturally  think  that  this  was  possibly  the  larva ;  but  then  it  had 
eight  legs,  and  therefore  it  was  assumed  that  it  must  be  in  its 
mature  state ;  moreover,  by  watching  the  eggs  deposited  by 
Hoplophora,  Claparede  soon  ascertained  that,  as  usual,  the  first 
stage  was  a  six-footed,  soft,  white  mite,  bearing  a  close  resem- 
blance to  the  eight-footed  soft,  white,  Acaroid  form.  What 
relation  did  the  latter  bear,  then,  to  the  Hoplophora  with  which 
it  was  associated  ?  M.  Claparede  solved  this  by  the  following 
experiment  : — He  took  twenty  specimens  of  the  soft,  white, 
Acaroid  Mite,  and  placed  them  on  a  morsel  of  decaying  pine- 
wood,  first  making  sure  that  there  were  no  other  mites  present. 
After  keeping  the  wood  for  three  weeks  in  a  moist  flask,  the  Mites 
were  scarcely  to  be  seen.  They  had  bored  into  the  wood,  and 
had  to  be  dug  out.  On  examination,  he  found  only  twelve  speci- 
mens resembling  Acarus  against  seven  of  Hoplophora.  A 
transformation  of  seven  had  thus  taken  place,  and  one  individual 
was  missing.  But  the  nature  of  the  transformation  was  not  yet 
clear.  He  repeated  the  experiments,  and  followed  the  traces  of 
the  transformation.  He  found  that  a  perfectly  colourless  Hoplo- 
phora was  developed  inside  the  Acarus-like  form.  Those  Acaroids 
which  were  becoming  Hoplophorse  appeared  very  light  to  the  eye. 
The  perfect  animal  leaves  the  larval  skin  with  its  parts  pecuharly 
tender.  It  then  lies  for  a  long  time  seemingly  immoveable  ; 
but  by  degrees  the  coat  thickens  and  becomes  firm.  From  being 
colourless  it  turns  rose  colour,  then  reddish,  and  at  last  quite 
brown.  An  important  point,  however,  remained  doubtful.  In  all 
his  experiments,  several  Acari,  and  these  the  largest  specimens,  did 
not  change  ;  how  are  these  individuals  to  be  looked  upon  ?  Per- 
haps as  males.  It  is  very  striking  that  he  did  not  find  in 
Hoplophora  any  difference  of  sex,  and  that  most  specimens 
contained  eggs.  Nor  could  he,  with  any  certainty,  discover  any- 
thing distinctive  of  the  male  sex.  The  important  fact  ascertained 
by  M.  Claparede  is  that  the  Hoplophora  goes  through  an  Acarus- 
like,  soft  stage,  which  proves  its  relationship  to  the  real  Acarids 
(Cheese-Mites,  etc.) 


102  SELECTED  NOTES,  ETC. 

From  what  I  can  make  out,  the  mouths  of  Hoplophora  and 
Notaspis  are  very  similar.  I  have  made  a  drawing  of  the  mouth 
of  the  latter  (Plate  lo).  It  has  two  well-defined  maxiihc — to  give 
the  organs  a  name, — although  I  very  much  doubt  whether  they  be 
homologous  with  the  raaxilte  of  insects.  I  have  drawn  the  palpi 
standing  out  from  the  mouth  instead  of,  as  they  naturally  are,  lying 
close  to  it,  in  order  that  the  peculiarity  of  the  termination  of  the 
head  may  be  seen.  This  forms  a  kind  of  hood  over  the  mouth, 
and  the  arrangement  in  Hoplophora  is  similar. 

No  Beede-Mites  have  eyes,  but  it  appears  that  for  a  long  time 
the  curious  breathing-pores  were  mistaken  for  them. 

H.  M.  J.  Underhill. 


I  have  found  Acarida  on  the  Dung-Beetle,  some  of  which 
have  been  brown  and  others  white  ;  perhaps  these  have  been 
different  stages  of  the  same  Acarus. 

W.    LOCOCK. 


[Since  the  above  Notes  were  written,  various  observers  have 
been  at  work  upon  the  0?'ibatidcr,  and  several  new  species  have 
been  discovered,  while  the  transformations  of  some  of  these  have 
been  carefully  watched  : — much,  however,  remains  yet  to  be  done. 
One  of  the  most  careful  and  successful  workers  is  Mr.  A.  D. 
Michael,  F.L.S.,  who  has  read  papers  on  the  subject  before  the 
Royal  Microscopical  Society,  illustrated  with  drawings  of  very 
curious  examples  of  the  family.  These  have  been  published  in 
the  "Journal"  of  that  Society.  His  latest,  conclusions,  as  there 
stated,  are  to  the  effect  that  the  O?  ibafidcE  are  not  wholly  vivi- 
parous, as  some  have  thought,  but  chiefly  "  oviparous  " ;  and  that 
the  young  are  brought  to  maturity  in,  at  least,  four  different 
modes  : — First,  the  egg  is  deposited  in  a  slightly-advanced  stage, 
as  in  insects  ;  Second,  egg  deposited  with  the  larva  almost  fully 
formed ;  Third,  the  female  is  occasionally  viviparous,  when  only 
one  egg  is  usually  ripe  at  a  time;  Fourth,  several  eggs  are  matured 
at  once,  but  not  deposited.  The  mother  dies ;  the  contents  of 
her  body,  all  but  the  eggs,  dry  up  ;  and  her  chitinous  exterior 
skeleton  forms  a  protection  throughout  the  winter  to  the  eggs. 
The  occurrence  of  a  daitoviun  stage  in  the  egg  is  also  recorded — • 
i.e.,  the  egg  has  a  hard  shell  which  splits  into  two  halves  as  the 
contents  increase  in  volume,  the  lining  membrane  showing 
between,  and  gradually  becoming  the  true  exterior  envelope  of  the 

egg. 

The  history  of   the  death   of  the   parent   insect   before   the 


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--^■■;ju. 


I' 


REVIEWS.  103 

escape  of  the  ova  is  thought  to  be  a  very  anomalous  thing  in 
nature, — the  nearest  approach  to  it  being,  probably,  in  the  case  of 
the  Coccus,  or  Scale-insect,  where  the  mother  dies  immediately  after 
the  deposition  of  the  eggs,  and  forms  a  sort  of  roof  over  them 
with  her  dead  body,  which  protects  them  during  the  cold  of 
winter. 

Mr.  Michael  has  also  ascertained  that  the  soft,  white,  Acarus- 
stage  passed  through  by  Hoplophora^  as  described  above,  is  not  by 
any  means  confined  to  that  species.  He  names  other  genera  and 
species  of  the  Oribatidce,  the  larvae  of  which  live  in  Fungi  or 
dead  wood,  which  they  perforate  with  long  burrows  in  all  direc- 
tions until  the  substance  is  often  thoroughly  riddled  by  them, — the 
larva  or  nymph,  as  the  case  may  be,  being  usually  found  at  the 
end  of  the  burrow  farthest  from  the  mouth,  the  last  place  to 
which  it  has  worked.  In  all  these  instances,  the  larvae  or  nymphs 
are  soft,  white  creatures,  entirely  without  the  hard  and  dark 
defensive  armour  possessed  by  other  members  of  the  family  which 
are  more  exposed  to  danger. — Editor?^ 


EXPLANATION    OF    PLATE    X. 

Fig.  1. — Beetle-Mite,  Notaspis  hipUis. 

*  Breathing-pores,  with  hairs, 
t  Remarkable  hairs. 

,,  2. — Mouth  of  Notaspis  hipilis,  seen  from  beneath  ;  p),  palpi  ;  mx, 
maxilh^e  (probably  not  homologous  with  the  maxillye  of  winged 
insects)  ;  c//,   chelee  (possibly  mandibles). 

,,    3. — One-clawed  foot  of  Hop)lop]iora  ferruginea. 

,.    4. — Three-clawed  foot  of  Notaspis  hipilis. 

,,    5. — Single  chela,  extracted  from  the  mouth,  and  viewed  sideways. 


IReviewa, 


KNOCK'S     ENTOMOLOGICAL     SLIDES. 

We  have  much  pleasure  in  acknowledging  the  receipt  of  some  of 
Mr.  Enock's  excellent  Insect-Preparations,  which  we  very 
cordially  recommend  to  all  students  of  Entomology.  The 
insects  are  mounted  without  pressure ;  and  while  retaining  their 
perfect  form,  have  lost  but  little  (if  any)  of  their  natural  colour— 


104  KEPORTS   OF   SOCIETIES. 

just  sufficient,  in  fact,  to  permit  their  internal  anatomy  being  well 
made  out.  He  has  requested  us  to  draw  attention  to  the  fact  of 
his  having  just  removed  from  London  to  Ferndale,  Woking 
Station,  Surrey,  and  we  trust  that  he  may  there  meet  with  greater 
facilities  for  obtaining  an  abundant  supply  of  the  "material" 
which  he  is  so  well  able  to  utilize. 


ELCOCK'S     TYPE-SLIDES     OF     FORAMINIFERA. 

These  Slides  are  marvels  of  manipulative  skill.  Each  slide 
contains  50  species,  neatly  arranged  in  squares,  with  the 
name  of  each  species  photographed  in  good  readable  type 
above  its  respective  shell.  A  clearly-printed  and  arranged 
Catalogue  accompanies  each  slide  to  assist  in  the  finding  of  any 
special  form,  should  that  be  necessary.  As  each  species  is  repre- 
sented in  most  cases  by  two  or  three  specimens  mounted 
"  front,"  "  back,"  and  "  side-view,"  we  consider  that  these  Slides 
ought  to  be  in  the  hands  of  every  student  of  the  Foraminifera  ; 
and  for  our  own  part  can  only  say  that  we  should  not  like  to 
prepare  them  for  twice  the  price  at  which  they  are  sold. 


IRcporte  of  Societies* 


We  shall  he  glad  if  Secretaries  luill  send  us  Notices  of  the  Meetings 
of  their  Societies.  Short  abstracts  of  Papers  read,  and  principal  Objects 
exhibited,  will  cdivags  be  acceptable. 


EALING    MICROSCOPICAL    AND    NATURAL 
HISTORY    CLUB. 

The  fifth  Annual  Conversazione  of  this  Club  was  held  on 
April  29th,  and  was  largely  attended.  The  objects  exhibited 
were  both  valuable  and  numerous,  but  the  special  feature  of 
the  meeting  was  a  large  collection  of  the  living  and  dead  forms 
of  Hydroida  and  Polyzoa,  ranged  along  one  side  of  the  room, 
and  including  living  specimens  of  Clava  sqiianiata,  Sertidaria 
pwnila,  with  many  others.  They  were  accompanied  by  enlarged 
drawings  of  several  species,  one  set  of  these  showing  the  various 
phases  in  the  life-history  of  Hydra  Uiba ;  also,  by  a  large 
Album   containing  many  well-mounted  specimens,  and  a  copy  of 


REPORTS   OF   SOCIETIES.  105 

Ellis's  "  Essay  on  Corallines."  A  short  paper  on  the  subject 
by  Dr.  G.  D.  Brown,  President  of  the  P. M.S.,  was  distributed 
freely  about  the  room,  and  has  been  kindly  sent  to  us  for 
publication.     It  will  be  found  on  page  73  of  the  present  number. 


GREENOCK    NATURAL-HISTORY    SOCIETY. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  above  Society,  held  in  the  Watt  Museum 
Hall  on  Thursday  evening,  Mr.  M.  F.  Dunlop  read  a  paper 
entitled  '^  Notes  on  the  Rotifera."  He  remarked  that  Rotifera 
appear  to  have  been  discovered  about  the  end  of  the  seven- 
teenth or  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  centuries.  Leuwenhoek, 
a  Dutch  naturalist,  was  usually  credited  with  the  discovery  in 
1702;  but  in  the  "Philosophical  Transactions"  for  1696  a 
description  is  given  of  an  animalcule  observed  in  1694  by  Mr. 
John  Harris,  an  English  naturalist,  which  Mr.  Saville  Kent  in  his 
new  work  on  the  "  Infusoria  "  recognises  as  the  common  Rotifer. 
As  to  the  peculiar  wheel-Hke  organs  which  give  the  order  its 
name,  the  early  observers  believed  that  two  toothed  wheels 
were  placed  on  the  front  of  the  little  animal,  and  were  rapidly 
revolved  on  their  axes.  But  they  were  unable  to  conceive  how  such 
a  movement  could  consist  with  parts  maintaining  an  organic  connec- 
tion between  themselves.  Mr.  Dunlop  quoted  from  various  works 
showing  the  slow  process  by  which  the  idea  of  mechanical  wheels 
was  got  rid  of,  and  the  idea  adopted  that  the  "  motion  "  was  an 
optical  illusion  produced  by  the  vibratory  movement  of  the  cilia, 
with  which  the  organs  are  furnished.  He  stated  that  the  Rotifera 
were  all  microscopic,  the  largest  in  size  not  exceeding  T-36th  of 
an  inch,  the  smallest  being  only  the  i-5ooth  of  an  inch.  He  then 
gave  a  brief  description  of  their  structure,  referring  to  their 
various  organs — the  mastax,  stomach,  respiratory  tubes,  etc.,  and 
to  their  nervous  and  muscular  systems.  After  alluding  to  the 
difference  of  opinion  which  existed  as  to  the  position  of  the 
Rotifera  in  the  animal  kingdom,  Huxley  and  others  classing  them 
under  the  Annuloida,  and  Gosse  and  others  thinking  that  they 
deserved  a  place  amongst  the  lower  Crustaceans,  he  concluded  by 
describing  the  classes  and  families  into  which  the  order  is  divided 
by  Ehrenberg;  and,  with  reference  to  one  of  the  species — Afiurc^a 
lo7igispina  (size,  i-4oth  of  an  inch) — he  mentioned  that  it  was 
new  to  science  in  1879,  having  in  the  beginning  of  that  year  been 
discovered  by  Professor  Kellicott,  Buffalo,  U.S.,  in  Niagara  water. 
In  the  same  year,  in  July,  it  was  found  by  Mr.  Levick,  in  Olton 
Reservoir,  near  Birmingham,  Dr.  C.  T.  Hudson,  an  authority  on 
such  subjects,  identifying  the  Rotifer  as  the  same  as  that  found  in 

H 


106  CORRESPONDENCE. 

America.  He  further  mentioned  that  about  a  fortnight  ago,  in 
examining  a  gathering  taken  from  Murdieston  Reservoir,  he 
found  what  he  took  to  be  this  new  species,  and  thinking  it  might 
be  interesting  to  record  its  being  found  in  this  locaUty,  he  for- 
warded a  specimen  to  Mr.  Thomas  Bolton,  of  Birmingham,  for 
identification,  who  has  written  to  say  that  it  is  certainly  Afiwcea 
longispina. 


Correeponbence^ 

The  Editors  do  not  hold  themselves  responsible  for  the  opinions  or 
statements  of  their  Correspondents. 


To  the  Editor  of  "  T/ie  Journal  of  the  Postal  Microscopical  Society.'^ 
Dear  Sir, — 

As  I  occupy  (though,  I  fear,  very  unworthily)  the  position  of 
President  of  our  Society  for  the  current  year,  I  cannot  refrain 
from  offering  you  my  best  congratulations  on  the  successful  issue 
of  the  first  periodical  portion  of  our  Transactions. 

There  cannot  be  any  possible  doubt  in  the  minds  of  any  of 
the  members  of  the  P. M.S.  as  to  the  existence  in  the  "Notes" 
of  a  large  quantity  of  material,  from  which  may  be  usefully 
selected  for  publication  most  valuable  information  on  practical 
microscopy. 

Our  archives  are  rich  in  notes  and  illustrations  from  the  hands 
of  our  late  honoured  President  (Mr.  Tuffen  West),  Mr.  A. 
Hammond,  Mr.   Chas.  Elcock,  and  others. 

I  hope  the  Editor  will  be  able  to  make  use  of  this  valuable 
material,  as  I  am  sure  that  "  The  Postal  Microscopical  Journal," 
enriched  by  the  notes  and  illustrations  I  have  spoken  of,  will 
command  a  high  position  among  microscopists. 

With  best  wishes  for  the  success  which  I  beUeve  the  Journal 
deserves, 

I  remain,  dear  Sir,  yours  truly, 
Eali?ig;  xWay,  1882.  Geo.  D.  Brown. 


To  the  Editor  of  "  The  /ournal  of  the  Postal  Microscopical  Society" 

Dear  Sir, — 

I  would  ask  permission  to  make  a  few  remarks  relative  to 
a  "  New  Series  of  Living  Specimens  for  the  Microscope,"  which 
is  advertised  on  the  covers  of  this  Journal. 

Having  taken  a  lesson  from   my  experience  during  the  past 


CORRESPONDENCE.  107 

few  years  whilst  in  business  as  a  professional  microscopist,  I 
purpose  in  this  "  New  Series  "  to  give  my  subscribers  the  benefit 
of  the  same. 

In  order  to  devote  the  whole  of  my  time  and  energy  to  the 
packing  and  posting  of  specimens,  I  appointed  a  staff  of  collectors 
residing  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  who  kept  me  supplied 
with  the  best  objects  their  respective  neighbourhoods  aiforded  ; 
and  by  this  means  I  have  from  time  to  time  been  able  to  supply 
"  local  objects  "  of  great  interest,  which  but  for  this  arrangement 
would  have  been  seen  only  by  a  very  few. 

But  as  soon  as  the  "  New  Series  "  gets  into  working  order,  I 
shall  have  collectors  throughout  the  whole  of  the  United  Kingdom, 
and  also  on  the  Continent.  Indeed;  I  have  already  imported, 
experimentally,  specimens  from  different  parts  of  the  Continent 
with  much  success. 

The  number  of  subscribers  at  the  price  named  is  limited  to 
400  :  of  these  a  large  proportion  has  been  obtained,  and  so  soon 
as  this  number  is  made  up,  I  shall  issue  drawings  and  descriptions 
of  the  specimens  with  each  tube. 

The  Hon.  Sec.  of  the  P. M.S.  has  kindly  undertaken  to 
receive  subscriptions,  which  should  be  sent  to  him  at  once  to 
avoid  disappointment;  and  hoping  for  the  co-operation  of  your 
members  and  subscribers, 

I  remain,  Sir,  yours  truly, 

Leeds.  E.  Wade-Wilton. 


To  the  Editor  of  "  The  Journal  of  the  Postal  Microscopical  Society" 
Sir,— 

Referring  to  the  note  which  Mr.  Edwards  has  written  on 
the  section  of  cat's  tongue,  I  should  like  to  ask  whether  it  is  not 
more  probable  that  the  papillae  were  designed  to  enable  the 
animal  to  lap  up  fluids,  rather  than  "  to  play  the  part  of  a  rasp, 
as  in  scraping  bones."  The  former  opinion  is  confirmed  by  the 
shape  ot  the  papillae,  which  a  microscopical  examination  will 
show  are  concave  towards  their  extremities,  and  therefore  adapted 
for  supplying  the  animal  with  drink.  Will  you  kindly  permit  me 
to  ask  also,  what  is  the  best  method  of  injecting  a  cat's  tongue  ? 

A.  J.  D. 


To  the  Editor  of  "  The  /ournal  of  the  Postal  Microscopical  Society.'^ 
Dear  Mr.  Editor, — 

I  congratulate  you  on  the  form  and  size  of  the  Journal, 
and  still  more  on  its  contents.     A  better  method  of  publishing 


108 


CORRESPONDENCE. 


the  more  valuable  articles  in  our  note-books  could  not  have  been 
found. 

The  illustrations  are  very  good.  I  did  not  think  that  you 
would  have  attained  to  coloured  drawings. 

The  omission  of  the  border-lines  would  perhaps  improve  the 
plates.  Yours  very  truly, 

Castle- Gary.  C.  P.  Coombs. 


Information  has  been  asked  for,  by  a  correspondent  going  to 
India,  regarding  the  best  modes  of  mounting  and  preserving 
Microscopic  Objects  in  that  and  other  similar  climates.  Where  the 
normal  temperature  ranges  between  80^  and  100^  Fahr.,  or  even 
higher,  it  is  evident  that  the  ordinary  methods  employed  in  this 
country  will  not  suffice.  Balsam  will  never  harden  properly,  and 
fluid  media  will  soon  find  their  way  through  the  cements  and 
varnishes  in  common  use  here.  Will  some  of  our  readers  who 
have  been  in  those  climates,  or  who  have  given  attention  to  the 
subject,  kindly  furnish  us  with  the  results  of  their  experience  ? 

Editor. 


EXCHANGES. 


Notices,  are  biserted  in  this  column  free  oj 
charge  : — they  should  not  exceed  5  lines 
■in  length,  and  must  reach  us  at  least 
8  weeks  hefore  date  of  publication. 

I  have  about  Four  Dozen  Duplicate 
Slides,  which.  I  shall  be  glad  to  ex- 
change with  any  member  ;  they  are  very 
various. — Colonel  Basevi,  Elm  Lodge, 
Prestbury,  Cheltenham. 

For  Exchange,  over  12  Doz.  Micro. 
Slides.  Wanted,  other  Slides,  Shells, 
Natural- History  Objects,  and  Scientific 
Books,  etc.  —Send  for  List  to  J,  A. 
Ollard,  F.K.M.S.,  Ye  Hermitage,  Forty 
Hill,  Enfield,  Middlesex. 


SALE    COLUMN. 


Advertisements  hy  menibers  and  suhscrib- 
ers  are  inseHed  here  at  the  rate  of  Six- 
pence for  20  words,  and  Threepence 
for  every  additional  10  ivords  or  por- 
tion of  10.        

Microscopic  Objects  for  Mounting. 
Fifty  preparations  accurately  named, 
2/6.  E.  H.  Philip,  4,  Grove  Street, 
Stepney,  Hull. 


NOTICES  TO  CORRES- 
PONDENTS. 


All  communications  should  be  addressed  to 
'^Editor,"  care  of  Mr.  A.  Allen,  1, 
Cambridge  Place,  Bath.  They  vmst  be 
accompanied  by  the  name  and  address 
of  the  writers,  but  not  necessarily  for 
2)ublication. 

W.  T.  A.— The  title  of  the  book  you 
enquire  for  is  "  The  Story  of  our 
Museum,  showing  how  we  formed  it, 
and  what  it  taught  us."  By  H.  Hous- 
man.  2/6.  Pub.  by  "  Christian  Know- 
ledge Soc." 

Phonographer,— "  How  to  Work 
with  the  Microscope,"  by  Beale.  6th 
edition  (just  published),  price  21/- 
Pub.  by  Harrison. 

Chas.  Elcock. — Your  second  paper 
will  appear  in  our  next. 

E.  Lovett. — Thanks  for  your  paper, 
which  shall  have  early  attention. 

T.  Barrett.— Many  thanks  for  your 
help  kindly  given  to  the  drawing. 

Communications  received  from  J.  S., 
A.  B..  J.  v.,  W.  S.,  W.  J.  D.,  J.  S.  H., 
J.  B.,  T.  B.  S.,  J.  B.  J.,  A.  D.,  T.  P., 
C.  N. 


:^.-^'^f<JMi,'. 


mtsmm 


The   Journal 


OF   THE 


Postal  Microscopical   Society. 

SEPTEMBER,    1882. 


®n  tbe  lEmbr^olog^  of  tbe  po&opbtbalmata 
or  Stalk^^E^cb  Cruetacea. 

By  Edward  Lovett. 


AVING  recently  had  an  opportunity,  extending 
over  a  period  of  about  eighteen  months,  of 
examining  a  large  number  of  the  stalk-eyed  forms 
of  Crustacea,  collected  from  a  variety  of  localities 
and  depths,  I  noticed  some  interesting  features 
with  regard  to  the  ova  of  these  animals  that 
seemed  worthy  of  attention. 

In  the  first  place,  several  species  were  with 
ova,  whilst  others  from  the  same  locality  were  not ; 
secondly,  some  species  were  with  ova  at  periods  totally  different 
from  the  time  recorded  by  authors  on  this  subject ;  thirdly,  the 
ova  of  various  species  were,  as  regards  their  size,  out  of  all 
proportion  to  the  ova  of  other  species;  fourthly,  the  protective 
power  of  the  parent  differed  widely  in  species  living  under 
various  conditions;  and  fifthly,  the  ova  themselves  underwent 
great  changes  in  appearance  as  they  approached  maturity. 

As  regards  the  first  of  these  facts,  it  would  appear  probable  that 
many  species  may  be  double-brooded;  and  although  I  have  noticed 

J 


110      EMBRYOLOGY  OF  THE  PODOPHTHALMATA. 

that  it  is  during  the  early  summer  months  that  ova  are  generally 
carried  in  the  immature  state,  yet  there  are  many  species  that  are 
later,  and  others  that  are  earlier  than  this.  In  May  I  obtained  the 
ova,  in  an  immature  state,  of  Portimiis  tnarmorciis^  Palcetnon  serratus^ 
P.  squilia,  Porttinmus  latipeSy  Gebia  deltura^  Scyllarus  arctics,  etc. 
I  had,  however,  already  obtained  the  ova  of  several  species  in  Jan- 
uary, February,  and  March.  In  September  I  obtained  the  mature 
ova  of  Xantho  florida^  X.  rivulosa,  and  Achceus  Cranchii,  and  in 
December  the  semi-mature  ova  of  Hyas  coa7'ctatus.  It  thus 
appears  that  the  spawning  season  extends,  in  different  species, 
over  the  whole  year ;  and  that  more  or  less  favoured  localities, 
causing  a  variation  in  the  spawning  season  of  particular  species, 
may  account  for  the  discrepancy  to  which  I  have  referred  in  the 
second  place. 

Taking  as  an  example  a  species  of  sbmewhat  wide  distribution, 
I  have  found  that  specimens  from  the  South-west  parts  of  the 
English  coast,  and  from  the  Channel  Islands  in  particular,  attain 
to  a  more  developed  condition  in  many  ways ;  and  it  is  thus  that 
we  find  species  with  ova  in  such  favourable  localities,  at  a  time 
when  the  same  species  from  the  Thames  estuary  or  the  North-east 
coast  would  be  without  any ;  hence  possibly  arises  the  difference 
in  time  recorded  by  various  authors  as  to  the  spawning-season 
of  one  and  the  same  species. 

Not  only  does  this  variation  obtain  under  these  conditions,  but 
the  geological  features  of  a  district  have  a  most  marked  result 
upon  the  life  inhabiting  it;  for  instance,  the  protected  rocky  caves 
and  chasms,  or  the  Zostera-zoM^x^d.  pools  of  a  granitic  locality  are 
far  more  conducive  to  the  development,  in  every  way,  of  a  species, 
than  the  cold  and  unfriendly  clay  shores  of  the  estuaries  of  the 
Thames  or  Medway,  or  the  cretaceous  ledges  of  the  south-east 
coast ;  hence  we  find  the  ova  or  Zooea  stages  of  Crustacea  in  a 
more  advanced  state  in  the  former  localities  than  in  the  latter. 

We  have  next  to  consider  the  remarkable  disparity  that  exists 
in  the  size  of  the  ova  of  some  species  as  compared  with  others. 

To  take  a  familiar  example.  The  eggs  of  the  common 
lobster,  Homarus  marifius,  are  three  times  the  size  of  those  of  the 
spiny  lobster  or  cray-fish,  Paliminis  qiiadriconiis^  although  the 


EMBRYOLOGY  OF  THE  PODOPHTHALMATA.       Ill 

latter  animal  exceeds  the  former  in  size.  Besides  this  marked 
example,  there  are  numbers  of  others ;  the  ova  of  all  the  Palce- 
monidce,  or  prawns,  are  far  larger  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the 
animal  than  the  ova  of  any  of  the  Brachyura;  and  those  of  the 
"  burrowing  shrimp,"  Axhis  stirhyjichiis^  an  animal  only  three  or 
four  inches  in  length,  are  even  larger  than  those  of  the  spiny 
lobster,  which  is  usually  over  a  foot  in  length. 

It  would  seem,  however,  that  the  size  of  the  ova  may  to  some 
extent  be  regulated  by  the  same  law  that  regulates  the  protective 
power  which  the  parent  Crustacean  is  able  to  afford  to  its  ova 
during  development.  This,  I  think,  depends,  if  not  entirely,  at 
any  rate  to  a  great  extent,  upon  the  conditions  under  which  the 
animal  exists ;  so  that  a  deep-water  species  of  sluggish  habits,  or  a 
species  that  passes  most  of  its  life  either  in  sand-banks  or  mud- 
banks,  will  have  larger  ova  with  a  smaller  amount  of  protection 
than  a  species  living  on  the  shore,  subject  to  the  rough  treatment 
of  the  surf,  or  one  swimming  near  the  surface,  and  exposed  to  the 
disturbing  influence  of  the  waves  and  wind.  As  examples  of  this, 
we  find  that  the  protective  segments  of  Corystes  cassivelatmiis^  a 
Crustacean  inhabiting  loose  sand  in  deep  water,  are  by  no  means 
so  developed  as  those  of  species  which  exist  under  a  less  quiet 
condition  of  things, — those  of  the  PortiinidcB^  or  swimming  crabs, 
being  very  broad,  and  thus  capable  of  affording  the  necessary 
protection  to  the  spavv^n  carried  beneath.  Again,  we  find  that 
when  the  abdominal  segments  are  broad,  the  ligatures  by  which 
the  ova  are  connected  together,  and  to  the  base  of  the  swimmeret, 
are  more  slight  than  when  those  segments  are  narrower,  in  an 
animal  existing  under  equally  favourable  conditions. 

The  protection  referred  to  consists  in  the  Brachyura  of  broad, 
pear-shaped  somites  which,  as  we  have  seen,  fold  beneath  the 
sternum ;  when  the  ova  are  exuded,  they  are  covered  by  this 
shield,  and  are  besides  defended  by  the  beautiful  fan-like  swim- 
ming-feet, which  also  circulate  the  water  through  the  mass  of  eggs. 
Among  the  Anomoura,  the  hermit-crabs,  Faguridce,  living  as  they 
do  in  the  dead  shells  of  Mollusca,  obtain  this  somewhat  remark- 
able and  artificial  protection  for  their  young.  The  Macrura, 
having  the  abdominal  somites  developed  into  arched  processes, 


112       EMBRYOLOGY  OF  THE  PODOPHTHALMATA. 

are  furnished  with  a  double  row  of  swimmerets  between  which  the 
ova  are  securely  carried ;  and  the  ova  in  this  tribe  are  usually 
attached  by  very  strong  ligatures,  thus  obtaining  additional 
protection. 

We  will  now  briefly  consider  the  ova  or  spawn  of  these 
animals,  noting  any  particular  points  of  interest  that  present 
themselves  in  certain  species. 

The  usual  form  is  spherical,  but  there  are  exceptions  to  this 
rule,  for  the  ova  of  the  Crangonidce  are  oval  in  shape,  whilst  those 
of  the  FagutidcB  are  slightly  so,  but  closely  approaching  the  cir- 
cular form,  as  also  are  the  eggs  of  Hojnarus  ?narinus. 

The  colour  is  generally  golden,  pale  brown,  or  of  an  amber 
tint ;  and  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  colour  of  the  ova  is 
certainly  regulated  to  some  extent  by  that  of  the  parent  Crusta- 
cean. For  example,  the  ovum  of  Fortunmus  variegaitts,  an 
animal  of  a  pale  tawny  tint  and  inhabiting  sand-banks,  is  of  a 
very  light  straw  colour; — that  of  Xantho  florida,  an  animal  of  a 
warm  reddish-brown  tint,  is  rich  golden; — and  that  of  Carcbnis 
tncenas^  an  animal  of  a  very  variable  tint,  but  usually  of  a  brownish 
green,  is  precisely  similar  in  colour  to  the  parent. 

There  are,  however,  one  or  two  remarkably  striking  exceptions 
to  this  rule  ;  the  ova,  for  instance,  of  Fatidalus  ajuiulicornis  (the 
Thames  "  red  shrimp ")  are  of  a  brilliant  blue-green  tint,  and 
those  of  Fasiphcea  swado,  an  almost  ivory-white  Crustacean,  are 
of  an  aqueous  colourless  appearance. 

The  manner  in  which  the  eggs  are  exuded,  and  arranged  in 
symmetrical  groups  on  the  swimmerets,  is  difficult  to  ascertain, 
and  as  the  females  of  most  species  retire  either  to  deep  water  or 
to  hiding-places  at  this  period,  very  little  is  known  on  this  point ; 
but  if  we  remove  one  of  the  swimming-feet  and  a  group  of  ova 
from  the  abdominal  segments,  and  examine  them  under  a  low 
power  of  the  microscope,  by  means  of  dark-ground  illumination, 
we  shall  find  that  the  basal  joint  or  coxopodite  of  the  swimmeret 
supports,  as  well,  a  transparent  stalk  branching  out  into  smaller 
and  still  smaller  processes  ;  and  at  the  end  of  each  of  these 
minute  stems  is  fixed  an  ovum,  so  that  each  swimmeret  thereby 
protects  one  bunch  of  ova,  and  supplies  the  young  with  oxygen  by 


EMBRYOLOGY  OF  THE  PODOPHTHALMATA.       113 

setting  up  a  current  of  water  through  them.  An  ovum,  when 
newly  deposited,  is  found  to  consist  of  a  colourless  transparent 
envelope  full  of  transparent  fluid  of  a  tint  varying,  as  we  have 
seen,  in  different  species.  This  envelope,  or  membrane,  is 
continued  into  a  strong  viscid  ligature,  which  is  apparently  twisted  ; 
and  as  these  ligatures  unite  they  become  stronger  and  thicker, 
ultimately  forming  the  stout  peduncle  which  attaches  them  to  the 
basal  joint  of  the  swimmeret,  and  which  supports  the  whole 
group. 

The  first  indication  of  the  development  of  the  egg  is  the 
granular  appearance  that  the  yelk  assumes,  and  its  separation  from 
the  envelope ;  gradually  the  outline  of  the  enclosed  Zooea  becomes 
defined,  and  the  yelk  is  then  enclosed  in  the  large  cephalo-thorax. 

At  this  stage  the  most  prominent  feature  is  the  eye,  which 
gives  the  ova  a  most  remarkable  speckled  appearance,  even  when 
seen  without  the  aid  of  the  microscope. 

In  the  mature  egg  the  abdomen  of  the  Zooea  is  closely  folded 
on  the  sternum  of  the  cephalo-thorax,  and  the  limbs  lie  in  close 
contact  with  the  antennse,  antennules,  and  mouth  organs.  When 
the  Zooea  leaves  the  egg  the  envelope  of  the  latter  is  simply  a 
collapsed  and  crumpled  membrane,  and  in  this  respect  resembles 
the  ova  of  many  of  the  Lepidoptera. 

The  larval,  or  Zooea,  forms  of  the  stalk-eyed  Crustacea  are 
most  remarkable  in  structure,  and  until  a  comparatively  recent  date 
were  regarded  as  a  distinct  order  of  animals,  or  rather  as  aUied  to 
the  Entomostraca.  When  first  hatched  their  eyes  are  sessile, 
their  cephalo-thorax  large,  more  or  less  round  in  form,  and,  in 
many  genera,  armed  with  large  curved  spines.  The  abdominal 
segments  are  long  and  simple,  terminating  in  a  remarkable  filamen- 
tous tail ;  the  Zooea  of  Lithodes  maia  is  particularly  curious  in  this 
respect,  its  tail  development  presenting  a  broad,  fan-shaped 
expanse  of  branching  filaments  of  most  delicate  and  beautiful 
structure.  The  swimming  feet  are  absent,  but  the  ambulatory 
feet  are  developed  into  limbs  armed  with  setae,  thus  supplying  the 
necessary  natatory  organs ;  as  the  true  swimmerets  appear,  these 
others  gradually  assume  the  structure  of  walking-appendages. 
These  larval  forms,  in  successive  moults,  assume  the  eyes  fixed 


114  EMBRYOLOGY  OF  THE  PODOPHTHALMATA. 

on  peduncles  and  the  other  characteristics  of  the  fully-developed 
animal. 

It  is  very  remarkable  that,  unlike  the  Lepidoptera  and  Coleop- 
tera,  the  Crustacea  arrive  at  their  final  stage  before  they  can  be 
said  to  have  grown  at  all.  If  we  take  any  of  the  insects,  we 
find  that  all  the  growing  takes  place  during  the  larval  state; 
whereas,  if  we  take  as  an  example  the  common  edible  crab, 
Cancer pagums^  we  find  that  it  reaches  its  final  stage  when  very 
minute.  I  have  frequently  taken  it,  developed,  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  only  across  the  carapace ;  and  yet  this  species  sometimes 
attains  a  weight  of  12  lbs.,  so  that  the  amount  of  growth  that 
takes  place  during  the  Zooea  form,  as  compared  with  the  crab 
form,  is  very  small. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  these  curious  Zooea  forms  constitute  the 
food  of  numerous  fishes  as  well  as  other  marine  animals,  and  that 
millions  upon  millions  of  them  are  thus  destroyed  ;  were  this  not 
so,  the  sea  bottom  could  not  afford  standing  room  to  the  various 
Crustacea  that  would  be  produced,  for  the  number  of  eggs 
deposited  by  one  individual  is  something  astounding.  There 
seems,  however,  to  be  a  wide  difference  in  the  proportionate 
numbers  produced  by  different  species;  and  it  would  appear 
as  if  those  species  whose  young  are  more  especially  liable  to 
this  destruction  were  more  prolific  than  those  whose  young  are 
not  so  liable,  owing  to  their  different  mode  of  existence. 

For  examination  by  the  microscope  these  objects  afford  a  wide 
and  comparatively  new  field  ;  and  apart  from  the  amount  of  infor- 
mation which  they  furnish  to  the  student  of  zoology,  particularly  on 
that  part  of  the  subject  which  refers  to  the  embryo  stages,  they  are 
also  specially  interesting  on  account  of  their  great  beauty  when 
shewn  by  means  of  dark  ground  illumination,  as  also  on  account 
of  the  remarkable  structure  of  the  developing  Zocea  form  of  the 
animals. 

In  order  to  obtain  the  desired  means  of  examination,  it  is 
necessary,  with  such  delicate  organisms,  to  preserve  them  in  such 
a  manner  as  shall  retain  their  living  appearance  and  form  ;  and  at 
the  same  time  enable  them  to  be  mounted  for  microscopic 
examination,  not  only  temporarily,  but  for  future  reference.     This 


i'uj'l  L  1 1 


JOURN.  POST.  MICRO.  SOC,  VOL.  I.,  PL.  11 


iwi# 


-^^ 
■^^s^-^4 


rMM 


% 


ADULTERATION   OF   COFFEE.  115 

it  is  quite  possible  to  do,  but  there  are  a  few  species  the  ova  of 
which  do  certainly  lose  some  of  their  living  colour,  the  most 
notable  being  Pandalus  annidicornis^  whose  eggs  are  of  a  remark- 
able turquoise  blue.  This  colour  it  is  at  present  impossible, 
under  preservation,  to  retain. 

The  method  of  examination  best  adapted  to  these  objects,  in 
order  to  define  their  structure  and  make  out  their  general  form,  is 
by  means  of  the  Binocular  Microscope  with  a  ij-in.  or  2-in, 
object  glass,  No.  i  eye-piece,  and  either  parabola  or  spot-lens  ;  if, 
however,  the  ova  be  small,  or  it  is  desired  to  examine  more 
minutely  the  structure  of  any  part,  a  higher  power  with  different 
illumination  may  be  resorted  to.  If,  after  suitable  preparation, 
they  be  thus  examined,  they  will  be  found  not  only  to  have 
retained  their  rotundity  and  natural  appearance,  but  it  will  be 
quite  easy  to  discern  the  limbs,  pigment  cells,  tail  appendages, 
etc.,  of  the  mature  Zooea,  though  still  enclosed  in  the  egg-envelope. 


Voz  Hbiilteration  of  Coffee  anb  tbe 
flDicro6COpe* 

By  J.   S.    Harrison,    F.R.M.S. 


Plate  II. 


IN  the  small  town  in  which  I  reside,  I  happen  to  know  the 
possessors  of  several  microscopes,  who  do  not  put  their 
instruments  to  any  practical  use,  and  I  have  no  doubt  such  is 
the  case  also  in  many  other  parts  of  the  country ;  so  that  a  large 
amount  of  microscopic  power  lies  dormant,  merely  for  the  want  of 
knowing  what  to  do  with  it.  In  the  hope,  therefore,  of  par- 
tially removing  this  want,  I  would  point  out  to  our  unprofessional 
and  non-scientific  friends  an  interesting  and  practically  useful 
direction,  in  which  to  employ  the  few  leisure  moments  they  may 
be  able  to  devote  to  their  instruments. 

The  adulteration  of  the  Foods  and  Drinks  which  we  daily 
consume,  and  on  which  our  bodily  health   so  much   depends, 


116  ADULTERATION  OF  COFFEE. 

although  not  so  openly  and  flagrantly  carried  on  as  it  used  to  be 
(thanks  to  the  "Adulteration  of  Foods'  Act "),  is  still  practised  to  a 
very  large  extent.  As  science  brought  its  powers  to  bear  on  the 
discovery  and  detection  of  adulterations,  so  did  the  would-be 
defrauders  engage  science  also  on  their  side  ;  hence  there  is,  in 
reality,  a  lasting  conflict  between  science  and  science  :  just  as  our 
Admiralty  build  armour-plated  vessels  to  withstand  the  penetrating 
power  of  the  heaviest  guns,  which  is  no  sooner  done,  than  some 
clever  inventor  produces  a  still  heavier  gun,  which  shall  once 
more  penetrate  the  ship. 

Perhaps  no  article  of  daily  consumption  in  our  homes  is  more 
open  to  the  practice  of  adulteration  than  Coffee ;  and  an  epitome 
of  the  facts  of  a  case  relating  to  this  subject,  which  appeared  in  a 
local  paper  a  few  weeks  ago,  may  not  be  without  interest  to  our 
members  as  microscopists,  while  it  will  also  serve  as  a  fitting 
introduction  to  my  subject. 

A  sample  of  Coffee,  purchased  from  a  grocer,  was  submitted 
to  the  public  analyst,  who  certified  that  the  coffee  contained  a 
large  admixture  of  chicory  ;  and  he  felt  sure  that  he  could  not 
possibly  have  made  a  mistake,  since  he  had  twice  tested  the 
coffee,  analyfkally,  with  precisely  the  same  result  down  to  a 
millegramme.  So  certain,  however,  was  the  defendant  that  the 
coffee  was  not  mixed,  that  he  put  in  two  certificates  from  other 
public  analysts,  who  declared  the  coffee  to  be  pure  ;  he  also 
produced  a  paper  from  Somerset  House,  signed  by  Messrs.  Bell 
Bannister  and  Harkness,  certifying  that  the  coffee  was  pure  and 
free  from  chicory.  The  case  was  accordingly  dismissed,  with  costs 
against  the  Corporation. 

I  am  of  opinion  (open  to  correction)  that  there  is  no  chemical 
process  by  which  the  adulteration  of  coffee  with  chicory  can  be 
undeniably  proved.  I  know  that  the  ash  of  coffee  and  of  chicory 
differ  materially,  both  as  to  quantity  and  as  to  their  behaviour 
under  different  re-agents,  and  on  this  fact  many  analysts  base  their 
results ;  but  I  would  ask,  is  no  other  adulterant  than  chicory  ever 
used  ?  I  am  afraid  that  many  are  : — even  chicory  itself  is  largely 
mixed  with  other  things,  and  pure  chicory  is  almost  as  difficult  to 
obtain  as  pure  coffee. 

Where  Chemistry  fails,  the  Microscope  steps  in  ;  and  now 
most  of  our  public  analysts  put  as  implicit  faith  in  the  revelations 
of  the  microscope  as  they  do  in  their  chemical  processes.  Had 
the  unfortunate  analyst  in  question  appealed  to  his  instrument,  it 
would  have  told  him  with  absolute  certainty,  whether  or  not  any 
chicory  existed  in  the  sample  of  coffee. 

The  examination  of  coffee  is  a  simple  matter,  and  may  be 
accomplished  by  the    most    unpractised    microscopist.       After 


ADULTERATION   OF  COFFEE.  117 

intimately  mixing  the  sample,  place  a  small  quantity  in  a  test-tube 
with  a  few  drops  of  Liquor  Potassae  ;  boil  for  a  few  minutes,  and 
when  it  has  cooled,  pour  off  the  potash  and  wash  the  residue 
well  several  times  with  distilled  water.  After  washing,  spread  a 
small  portion  on  a  glass  slip ;  with  a  needle-point  pick  out  any 
small  hard  pieces  which  might  break  the  cover-glass,  and  such  as 
you  may  be  pretty  certain  are  pure  coffee  ;  whilst  picking  these 
out,  observe  whether  there  are  any  small,  soft,  jelly-like  pieces  ; 
if  so,  you  may  be  equally  certain  they  are  chicory. 

Now  cover  with  thin  glass,  and  examine  with  a  half-in.  or 
quarter-in.  objective. 

The  Coffee-berry  is  made  up  of  two  distinct  parts  : — the  sub- 
stance of  the  berry,  and  the  testa,  or  membrane,  by  which  it  is 
surrounded. 

The  substance  of  the  berry  consists  of  vesicles,  or  cells,  of  an 
angular  form,  which  adhere  so  firmly  together  that  they  break  up 
into  pieces  rather  than  separate  into  distinct  and  perfect  cells. 
The  testa,  or  investing  membrane,  presents  a  very  different 
structure  from  that  of  the  berry  itself,  and  if  once  fairly  recog- 
nised cannot  be  confounded  with  any  of  the  structures  found  in 
chicory,  or  in  the  other  adulterants  of  coffee.  It  is  made  up  prin- 
cipally of  elongated  and  adherent  cells,  forming  a  single  layer,  and 
having  oblique  markings  upon  their  surfaces  ;  and  these  cells  rest 
upon  another  thin  membrane,  which  presents  an  indistinct  and 
fibrous  structure  (PI.  ii.  Fig.  3).  In  the  groove  which  runs  along 
each  berry,  a  few  small  vessels,  each  formed  of  a  single  and 
continuous  spiral  thread,  may  usually  be  found. 

In  the  Chicory  root,  four  parts  or  structures  may  easily  be 
detected, — cells,  dotted  vessels,  vessels  of  the  latex,  and  wood- 
fibre  (Fig.  i).  The  bulk  of  the  root  consists  of  small  cells, 
generally  rounded,  but  sometimes  narrow  and  elongated.  The 
dotted  vessels  are  particularly  abundant  in  the  central  and  harder 
parts  of  the  root,  which  they  traverse  in  bundles ;  they  are  cylin- 
drical, unbranched  tubes,  tapering  to  a  point  at  either  extremity, 
and  marked  on  the  surface  with  short  fibres  that  describe  an 
interrupted,  spiral  course. 

The  vessels  of  the  latex,  vasa  laticifera,  form  branched  and 
frequently-anastomosing  tubes,  of  smaller  diameter  than  the  dotted 
vessels,  and  with  smooth  membranous  walls.  The  woody  fibre  of 
chicory-root  does  not  present  any  markings  or  other  peculiarities 
of  a  special  character. 

These,  then,  are  the  distinctive  differences  between  Coffee  and 
Chicory ;  and  if  the  amateur  microscopist  will  make  himself 
thoroughly  conversant  with  the  two  substances  in  their  pure  state, 
he  will    be   able  to  pronounce    at    any    time    with    certainty, 


118 


A  NEW  GROWING-SLIDE. 


whether  any  sample  put  before  him  contains  them  both  in  admix- 
ture, or  whether  it  is  unadulterated. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE   XI. 


Fig.  1. — Portion  of  Roasted  Chicory,  showing  dotted  vessels  and  cells. 
,,    2. — Portion  of  seed  of  Roasted  Coffee. 
,,     3. — Portion  of  Membrane  of  CofFee-Berry. 
,,    4. — Sample  of  Coffee  adulterated  with  Chicory. 


H  H^ew  (5iowi!t(3=^Slibe. 


AT  a  recent  meeting  of  the  Royal  Microscopical  Society,  a 
new  form  of  growing-slide, — intended  for  the  examination 
of  minute  aquatic  organisms, — was  exhibited  and  described 
by  the  inventor,  Mr.  T.  Charters  White,  M.R.C.S.,  F.R.M.S. 
The  ordinary  glass  sHp  need  not  here  be  used  at  all,  but  the 
organisms  should  be  at  once  placed — with  a  little  water — on  this 
Slide,  when  all  that  is  needed  to  maintain  a  constant  current 
through  the  cell  is  the  insertion  of  small  threads  of  cotton  into 
openings  in  its  sides.  The  organism  is  thus  duly  nourished,  and 
its  normal  development  not  being  interfered  with  can  be  readily 
observed  at  any  time  from  day  to  day.     The  annexed  drawing  and 

Fig.   15- 


description  of  this  useful  Slide  are  taken  with  the  kind  permission 


A  NEW  GROWING-SLIDE.  119 

of  the  Editor  from  the  current  volume  of  the  Royal  Microscopical 
Society's  Journal,  page  19  : — 

"  It  consists  of  the  usual  glass  slip,  A  A  (3  in.  by  i  in.), 
having  a  narrow  ledge  of  glass,  B,  about  ^th  of  an  inch  wide, 
and  extending  nearly  its  whole  length,  fastened  to  its  lower  border 
with  marine  glue ;  to  this  is  cemented  at  right  angles  a  strip  of 
thin  covering-glass,  C,  about  ^  of  an  inch  wide,  and  at  about 
I  ^th  inch  from  the  end  of  the  slide,  having  a  narrow  channel 
cut  through  it  for  the  passage  of  an  intake  thread,  D.  A 
similar  strip,  E,  having  a  similar  cut  through  it  for  the  passage  of 
an  outlet  thread,  F,  is  cemented  at  the  same  distance  from  the 
opposite  end  of  the  slide.  In  order  that  organisms  near  the 
bottom  of  the  cell  may  be  benefitted  by  a  constant  change  of 
water,  a  very  narrow  slip,  H,  of  the  same  thin  covering-glass  is 
cemented  to  the  inner  side  of  the  outlet  end  of  the  cell,  com- 
mencing at  the  top  of  the  slide  and  extending  very  nearly  to  the 
bottom,  so  as  to  leave  only  about  Vieth  inch  between  E  and  H.  If 
the  intake-thread  is  now  connected  with  a  bottle  of  water  placed 
above  the  level  of  the  slide,  water  entering  by  it  will  pass  in  a 
diagonal  direction  from  D  to  the  left  and  bottom  of  the  cell,  where 
the  suction  set  up  by  the  siphon-like  action  of  the  outlet  thread 
makes  itself  felt,  and  there  is  a  regular  current  in  the  direction  of 
the  arrows. 

The  front  of  the  cell  is  formed  of  a  piece  of  thin  cover-glass  of 
I J  inch  by  ^  ;  and  two  small  square  blocks  of  glass,  I,  cemented 
on  each  side,  will  hold  this  cover-glass  sufficiently  firm  to  prevent 
it  sliding  on  the  organism  and  crushing  it. 

Such  a  Growing-Slide  will  hold  about  one  drachm  of  water, 
and  taking  the  rate  of  the  drops  from  the  outlet-thread  as  about 
one  per  minute,  the  whole  of  the  water  will  be  changed  once 
every  hour;  while  at  the  same  time  the  current  is  not  strong 
enough  to  carry  away  any  but  the  finest  and  lightest  particles.  It 
allows  of  fair  observation  with  a  J-inch  objective." 

Another  very  simple  plan  was  suggested  at  the  same  meeting, 
which  consisted  in  making  a  small  cell  of  the  ordinary  thin 
covering-glass,  and  then  surrounding  it  with  blotting-paper,  which 
must  be  kept  constantly  wet ;  by  this  means,  large  monads  might 
be  kept  under  continual  observation  for  three  or  four  weeks. 


[120] 


Spibcre :  ^beir  Structure  anb  Ibabite. 

By  William  Horner. 


Second   Paper.     Plate    12. 

THE  webs  of  the  Retiary  Spiders  have  each  a  distinct 
character,  so  much  so  that  you  can  tell  by  inspection  to 
what  family  a  given  web  may  belong,  and,  indeed,  in  many 
cases  they  betray  even  specific  differences.  However,  not  to 
enter  too  much  into  detail,  it  will  suffice  to  remark  that  some 
exhibit  an  irregular  network  of  lines  in  all  direcUons,  and  in 
different  planes ;  others  resemble  a  horizontal  sheet  of  fine 
webbing,  supported  by  its  margin,  and  secured  by  fine  lines 
running  from  various  parts  of  its  surface,  both  above  and  below. 
Others,  including  those  of  the  domestic  spider,  are  large  and 
close-textured ;  and  when  in  the  corners  of  buildings,  contain  a 
tubular  hiding-place  for  the  proprietor,  placed  in  the  angle 
formed  by  the  walls. 

There  are  some  webs,  however,  which  deserve  a  more  detailed 
description,  especially  those  of  the  Epeiridce^  sometimes  called  the 
Geometric  Spiders,  from  the  symmetry  and  regularity  of  plan 
which  characterizes  their  work.  They  usually  suspend  their  nets 
in  an  oblique  or  vertical  position  on  shrubs  or  buildings  ;  and 
their  first  operation  is  to  enclose  an  area,  no  matter  of  what 
figure,  with  threads  of  sufficient  strength.  This  is  done  by 
walking  round  the  space  destined  for  the  snare,  and  laying  down 
threads  from  point  to  point,  until  it  is  enclosed  by  straight  lines 
forming  an  irregular  polygon.  Should  the  spider  meet  with 
inaccessible  openings  in  the  course  of  her  walk,  she  has  more 
resources  than  one.  She  may  drop  a  perpendicular  from  one 
spot  to  another,  or  she  may  swing  herself  across  by  the  aid  of  a 
breeze,  and  so  reach  a  convenient  spot.  Should  this  be  imprac- 
ticable, she  proceeds  as  follows  : — She  has  no  power  to  eject  a 
thread  from  her  body  in  whatever  direction  she  pleases,  but  she 
avails  herself  of  currents  of  air,  and  on  their  wings  sends  out  her 
lines  to  astonishing  distances.  But  inasmuch  as  her  threads,  when 
entire,  are  too  heavy  to  yield  to  a  moderate  breeze,  while  the 
separate  strands  which  compose  them  are  moved  by  the  slightest 
breath,  she  uses  her  spinning-tubes  separately :  emitting  their 
liquid  gum,  and  turning  her  face  to  the  wind,  she  allows  it  to  be 


JOURN.  POST.  MICRO.  SOC,  VOL  I.,  PL.  12 


--'''^^^^'^^^m^m^^m/^^^ 


^r^ 


9 


.,J^y^^ 


SPIDERS:    THEIR    STRUCTURE   AND   HABITS.  121 

drawn  out  and  floated  on  the  current,  until  the  delicate  filaments 
attach  themselves  to  some  object.  Using  this  temporary  line  as  a 
bridge,  she  travels  along  it,  replacing  it  as  she  goes  by  an  entire 
thread.  The  boundary  lines  being  thus  laid  down,  she  now 
attaches  a  thread  to  one  of  them,  and  crossing  to  the  opposite  side 
fastens  it  there,  so  as  to  form  a  diameter.  Reascending  to  the 
middle  of  this  line,  she  then  attaches  a  new  thread,  conveys  it 
back  to  the  margin  and  along  the  boundary,  (guiding  it  all  the 
way  by  her  hind  feet  so  that  it  may  not  get  entangled,)  and  then 
fastens  it  to  some  point  to  serve  as  a  first  radius.  Along  this  radius 
she  returns  to  the  centre,  doubling  the  thread  on  her  way  to 
strengthen  it,  and  thence  proceeds  in  the  same  manner  to  lay 
down  20  or  30  more  radii.  These,  as  well  as  the  boundary  lines, 
are  all  plain  threads.  She  then  returns  to  the  centre,  and  lays 
down  a  spiral  line  from  it  to  the  circumference,  intersecting  all  the 
radii.  These  are  also  plain  threads,  but  finer  than  the  former ; 
and  they  serve  a  temporary  purpose  only,  viz.,  to  afford  her  a 
foot-hold  while  she  draws  a  spiral  line  of  viscid  threads  from  the 
circumference  to  the  centre,  which  is  to  form  the  most  important 
part  of  the  snare.  The  plain  spiral  threads  she  bites  off  so  soon 
as  she  has  done  with  them,  just  as  any  other  builder  removes  the 
scaffolding  when  it  has  served  its  purpose.  The  viscid  spiral  is 
not  continued  quite  up  to  the  centre,  but  a  central  space  is  left, 
closely  covered  with  plain  threads.  From  this  she  spins  a  line  of 
communication  with  her  retreat,  near  the  confines  of  the  web ; 
and  by  the  vibrations  of  this  line  she  is  promptly  informed  of  the 
arrival  of  visitors. 

It  will  have  been  noticed  that  in  the  process  above  described 
the  spider  has  often  to  walk  along  two  sides  of  a  triangle  in  laying 
down  the  third  side,  or  in  order  to  reach  a  destined  point  by  a 
circuitous  route.  In  such  cases,  one  might  expect  to  find  a  slack 
line,  but  it  is  not  so — they  are  invariably  tight.  This  result  she 
accomplishes  by  puUing  at  the  non-elastic  threads  with  her 
pectinated  claws,  and  so  tightening  them.  The  elastic  threads 
adjust  themselves  to  any  diminution  of  distance  between  their 
extremities  :  (as  may  be  seen  in  a  piece  of  ordinary  elastic,  which 
after  being  stretched  to  perhaps  a  foot  in  length,  reduces  itself  to 
a  few  inches  on  being  let  go).  This  elasticity  of  the  viscid  threads 
also  enables  the  web  to  adapt  itself  to  frequent  and  sudden 
shocks  from  the  wind,  or  from  the  struggles  of  captured  insects. 

Such  are  the  webs  of  the  Epeira  diadejna,  or  "  Garden  Spider," 
known  by  its  hunchback  and  the  distinct  cross  on  the  upper  side 
of  the  abdomen.  Another  species,  the  Epeira  calophylla^  employs 
a  radius  of  its  web  for  a  pathway,  and  thus  gives  the  snare  an 
unfinished  appearance ;  as  the  spaces  between  this  and  the  two 


122  SPIDEKS  :    THEIR  STRUCTURE  AND  HABITS. 

adjacent  radii  are  left  open  to  prevent  the  spider  from  being 
caught  in  her  own  net.  The  E.  i?idmata,  so  called  from  the 
oblique  position  of  its  web,  bites  away  the  tuft  which  united  all 
the  radii  at  the  centre,  and  takes  her  station  near  the  circular 
opening  thus  formed.  She  extemporises  a  line  of  retreat  wherever 
required,  lowering  herself  to  the  ground  by  a  thread  fastened  to 
the  innermost  spiral,  and  re-ascending  by  it  when  the'  coast 
is  clear. 

Our  admiration  of  these  webs,  so  true  in  all  their  proportions, 
is  increased  when  we  consider  that  they  are  executed  entirely  by 
the  sense  of  touch.  The  eyes  of  spiders  are  so  convex  that  they 
can  discern  objects  only  at  very  small  distances  ;  it  is,  therefore, 
unlikely  that  they  can  be  of  much  service  in  guiding  the  move- 
ments of  organs  so  remote,  and  so  much  out  of  the  line  of  sight, 
as  are  the  hind  feet  and  the  spinnerets. 

It  is  moreover  a  well-ascertained  fact  that  webs  spun  by  the 
Epeiridce.  in  the  dark  betray  no  irregularity  of  plan,  nor  imperfec- 
tions of  workmanship.  An  instance  came  under  my  own  obser- 
vation last  autumn. 

It  is  an  interesting  question  how  these  different  kinds  of 
thread  are  produced  from  the  same  spinning  apparatus.  We  have 
noticed  in  the  web  of  the  Epciridce  three  distinct  threads, — one 
differing  from  both  the  others  in  being  adhesive  and  highly  elastic. 
Now,  examination  proves  that  the  former  property,  the  stickiness, 
is  not  inherent  in  the  thread  but  in  the  globules  alone;  for  when 
these  are  carefully  removed  the  thread  is  left  perfectly  unadhesive, 
while  yet  retaining  its  elasticity.  These,  therefore,  must  be  the 
product  of  a  different  kind  of  secretion  from  that  which  produces 
the  threads  ;  for  the  latter  possess  indeed  ductility  in  a  high 
degree,  but  are  unadhesive,  while  with  the  globules  the  case  is 
exactly  the  reverse.  We  have  therefore  to  account  for  four,  if  not 
five,  distinct  products,  viz. — three  kinds  of  thread,  the  viscid 
globules,  and  the  Hquid  gum  or  solder,  used  by  all  Retiary 
spiders  in  fixing  their  threads. 

The  supply  of  viscid  material  in  the  spinning  apparatus  of  the 
Epeiridce  must  be  considerable  ;  for  according  to  the  calculations 
of  Mr.  Blackwall,  the  number  of  globules  in  a  Geometric  Spider's 
web  of  average  dimensions,  is  not  less  than  87,000,  while  in  a 
large  web  of  14  or  16  inches  diameter,  they  must  amount  to  near 
upon  120,000. 

To  assist  our  inquiries  the  microscope  furnishes  us  with  the 
following  data  respecting  the  spinning-organs  : — 

(i) — In  the  Retiary  Spiders  the  spinning  tubes  are  far  more 
numerous  than  in  the  Hunting  Spiders  ;  and  this  is  pre-eminently 
the  case  with  the  Epeiridce^  the  total  number  exceeding  1,000  in  a 


SPIDERS:     THEIR  STRUCTURE  AND    HABITS.  123 

specimen  of  this  genus  that  weighed  only  about  20  grains.  This 
is  precisely  what  we  might  have  expected, — that  nature  has  been 
careful  to  proportion  the  supply  to  the  demand,  here  as  elsewhere. 

(2) — In  the  same  class  of  spiders  the  spinning-tubes  are  very 
unequally  distributed  among  the  three  pairs  of  spinnerets, — being 
far  more  numerous,  and  at  the  same  time  more  minute,  on  the 
lower  pair  than  on  the  upper  and  intermediate  ones. 

(3) — The  lower  pair  in  all  spiders  have  two  spinning-tubes 
much  larger  than  the  rest ;  and  in  the  Epeiridce  the  upper  and 
intermediate  pairs  also  have  each  two  or  three  that  are  larger,  and 
of  different  shape  from  the  others. 

(4) — In  all  cases  the  silk-glands  are  larger  or  smaller  according 
to  the  size  of  their  respective  tubes. 

From  the  unequal  distribution  of  the  spinning-tubes  we  might 
conjecture  that  all  the  pairs  of  spinnerets  have  not  the  same 
office  ;  and  when  we  observe  that  the  Epeiridce  and  others,  which 
spin  three  varieties  of  thread,  have  three  pairs  of  spinnerets,  and 
that  the  CiniflofiidcE  (to  be  noticed  presently),  which  spin  four 
varieties  of  thread,  have  four  pairs,  we  seem  naturally  led  to  the 
conclusion  that  each  of  the  different  sorts  of  thread  which  con- 
tribute to  the  composition  of  a  web,  is  the  separate  formation  of 
one  pair  of  spinnerets,  specially  adapted  for  that  one  thread. 

Connecting  facts  3  and  4  with  the  large  supply  of  viscid 
material  requisite  for  the  wants  of  an  Epeira,  there  appears  to  be 
ground  for  assuming  that  the  five  large  glands  and  spinning-tubes 
attached  to  the  upper  and  intermediate  pairs  of  spinnerets 
furnish  the  adhesive  liquid,  and  apply  it  as  a  varnish  to  the 
elastic  threads  drawn  out  from  the  lower  pair.  It  would  then 
run  into  dots  or  globules,  like  moisture  on  a  hair,  by  the  attraction 
of  cohesion.  The  liquid  gum  used  for  soldering  purposes  may 
likewise  be  the  special  product  of  the  two  large  glands  and 
tubes,   always  present  in  the  lower  pair  of  spinnerets. 

The  feet  of  the  Retiary  Spiders  are  beautifully  adapted  to  their 
office  of  rope-walking  and  rope-making.  They  need  no  scopula, 
but  are  provided  with  three  principal  claws  at  the  extremity  of 
the  tarsus^  and  several  secondary  ones  on  its  under  side,  all  being 
pectinated  (Plate  12,  Fig.  7).  In  some  species  of  Epeira,  as 
many  as  five  of  these  secondary  claws  may  be  counted,  and  their 
office  is  obviously  to  guide  the  threads  drawn  out  in  traversing 
their  complicated  webs,  so  as  to  prevent  entanglement.  Many  of 
the  Epeiridce  have  also  a  strong,  movable  spine  inserted  near  the 
end  of  the  tarsus  of  each  hind  leg,  on  the  under  side,  which 
bends  abruptly  upwards  at  its  extremity  towards  the  claws.  This 
serves  the  office  of  a  thumb,  and  with  the  claws  gives  the  foot  a 
firm  grip  of  that  thread  by  which  the  creature   suspends  itself, 


124  SPIDERS  :    THEIR  STRUCTURE    AND   HABITS. 

Was  this  known  to  Solomon  when  he  wrote,  "  The  spider  taketh 
hold  with  her  hands,  and  is  in  kings'  palaces "  ? 

Inferior  in  interest  to  the  Epeiridce,  but  worthy  of  more  than  a 
passing  notice,  on  account  of  certain  peculiarities  of  structure,  and 
the  singularity  of  their  webs,  are  the  Ciniflotiidce^  or  Hair-Curlers. 
The  Ciniflo  atrox^  one  of  the  best  representatives  of  the  family,  is 
a  very  common  spider,  from  J  to  J  inch  long  :  it  frequents  crevices 
in  old  walls,  or  the  branches  of  trees  growing  against  walls,  and 
spins  a  web  of  somewhat  close  texture  and  woolly  appearance, 
with  a  funnel-shaped  passage  of  thin  silk  conducting  to  its  retreat. 

The  Cinifiotiidce  have  two  peculiarities  in  their  structure  : — 

(i)  They  have  four  pairs  of  spinnerets  (Plate  12,  Fig.  3). 
The  upper  pair  are  three-jointed  and  longer  than  the  rest ;  the  two 
intermediate  pairs  are  two-jointed  ;  while  the  fourth  pair  are  the 
shortest  of  all,  and  are  situated  beneath  the  lower  of  the  two 
intermediate  pairs.  They  consist  of  a  single  joint  only,  and  are 
sometimes  connected  throughout  their  entire  length  ;  they  are 
conical  in  figure,  but  truncated,  so  that  their  appearance  is  that 
of  flat  oblong  plates,  studded  with  a  vast  number  of  exceedingly 
minute  papillae.  Those  who  have  examined  them  under 
sufficiently  high  powers  profess  to  have  counted  1250  papillae 
on  each  plate,  or  2500  on  the  pair;  whereas  there  are  not  more 
than  1 1 2  on  the  remaining  six  altogether — an  enormous  prepon- 
derance. But  the  minuteness  of  these  papillae  is  equally  astonish- 
ing, each  one  being  only  i — 40th  of  the  size  of  those  belonging 
to  the  third  pair,  which  last  are  smaller  than  those  of  an  Epeira : 
they  are,  in  fact,  not  more  than  i — 15,000th  of  an  inch  in 
diameter. 

(2)  The  other  peculiarity  of  the  Cmiflonidce  is  the  possession  of 
an  appendage  to  the  meta-tarsi  of  the  two  hind  legs,  consisting  of 
two  parallel  rows  of  fine  movable  spines.  These  are  situated  on 
a  ridge  on  the  upper  side  of  the  joint  nearest  to  the  abdomen, 
commencing  near  the  articulation  with  the  tibia,  and  terminating 
at  a  strong  spur  near  the  tarsus.  Those  of  the  upper  row  are  bent 
and  tapering, — those  of  the  lower  stronger,  closer,  and  nearly 
straight.  This  instrument  is  called  the  calami sti'iim,  or  curling- 
iron,  and  is  that  which  contributes  to  the  web  its  singular  and 
characteristic  features.  A  drawing  of  it  will  be  found  on  PI.  12, 
Figs.  9  and  10. 

A  lens  of  tolerably  high  power  reveals  four  kinds  of  thread  in 
a  Ciniflo's  web.  First,  we  observe  a  number  of  fine  lines,  con- 
necting various  objects  around  the  spider's  retreat,  and  inter- 
secting one  another  in  an  irregular  manner.  To  these  are 
attached  flocks  of  filaments  of  a  pale-blue  tint,  arranged  both 
longitudinally  and  transversely.     One  such  flock  consists  of  two 


SPIDERS  :     THEIR   STRUCTURE  AND  HABITS.  125 

thin,  straight  Hnes,  with  a  tortuous  Hne  superposed  on  each ;  and 
on  each  of  these  again  a  pale-blue  band,  of  such  extreme  tenuity 
that  its  filaments  are  imperceptible,  even  by  the  aid  of  the 
microscope.  These  blue  bands  impart  to  the  web  an  adhesive 
character, — not  from  being  glutinous,  but  from  their  fibrous  nature, 
since  they  are  composed  of  loose  fibre  Uke  floss  silk.  These 
composite  flocks  are  produced  by  the  use  of  the  calamistra,  which 
are  so  beautifully  regulated  in  position  and  movements  that  the 
points  of  the  lower  row  of  spines  draw  out  the  filaments  from  the 
tips  of  the  spinnerets,  while  the  upper  row  detach  them  by  an 
upward  movement.  Each  flock,  as  soon  as  completed,  is  fixed  to 
one  of  the  foundation-Hnes. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that,  in  constructing  this  web,  the 
long  pair  of  spinnerets  is  used  to  produce  the  foundation-lines ; 
the  upper  intermediate  pair  produce  the  two  fine,  straight  fines, 
and  the  lower  intermediate  pair  the  two  tortuous  ones ;  while  the 
fourth  pair,  with  their  innumerable  papillse,  produce  the  pale-blue 
bands.  On  this  hypothesis,  the  relative  position  of  these  various 
components  of  a  flock,  as  well  as  their  several  characters,  is  best 
accounted  for. 

I  have  alluded  to  the  strong  maternal  instinct  of  these  crea- 
tures as  an  amiable  feature  in  their  character,  and  it  may  not  be 
uninteresting  to  bestow  some  brief  notice  upon  the  way  in  which 
they  exercise  their  parental  functions. 

The  period  of  the  year  when  the  female  deposits  her  eggs 
Varies  in  different  families,  and  embraces  all  the  months  from 
May  to  October  inclusive.  At  the  proper  time  she  prepares  a 
cocoon,  and  sometimes  more  than  one,  in  which  to  deposit  them ; 
and  these  cocoons  differ  much  in  form,  colour,  texture,  situation, 
and  contents.  Two  examples  of  the  process  employed  will 
suffice  for  present  illustration. 

The  Epeira  quadrata,  in  constructing  her  cocoon,  (a  single  one,) 
presses  her  spinnerets  against  the  mass  of  eggs,  and  attaches  a 
compound  line  to  it ;  then,  drawing  out  the  line  by  raising  her 
body,  she  again  attaches  the  spinnerets  to  the  eggs,  and  cements 
this  line  to  them  in  the  form  of  a  small  loop.  This  operation  is 
continued  until  the  eggs  are  covered  ;  when  the  lines  are  united 
and  form  a  mass  of  short  silken  loops,  giving  the  cocoon  a  loose 
texture. 

Others  of  a  more  compact  structure  are  fabricated  in  the 
following  ingenious  manner  : — The  mother  spins  a  thin  coating  of 
silk,  and  gives  it  a  hemispherical  shape  by  turning  her  body  round 
and  round  during  the  process.  The  hollow  cup  thus  formed  she 
fills  with  eggs,  piling  them  up  till  they  become  a  globe,  of  which 
the  upper  half  is  bare.      Over  this  she   spins   another   coating 


126  SPIDERS:    THEIR  STRUCTURE  AND   HABITS. 

similar  to  the  former ;  and  the  result  is  a  well-protected  ball  of 
eggs,  whose  diameter  is  about  equal  to  the  length  of  her  own 
body.  The  number  of  eggs  in  a  cocoon  varies  widely  in  the 
different  species,  from  the  Salticus  scaiims^  which  lays  about  15 
eggs  only,  to  the  Epeira  quadrata,  with  1000  or  more. 

The  devotion  of  the  mother  to  her  cocoon  is  beautiful.  Many 
of  the  Hunting  Spiders  carry  it  about  with  them,  attached  usually 
to  the  spinnerets,  but,  in  some  cases,  to  the  breastplate  (see 
Plate  12,  Fig.  2);  and  two  species  of  Retiary  Spiders,  viz: — 
Theridion  Carolinwn  and  Liiiyphia  crypt icok?is,  do  the  same. 
These  display  the  utmost  tenacity  in  guarding  their  charge,  refusing 
to  part  with  it  even  when  attacked  by  a  more  powerful  enemy.  The 
rest  deposit  their  cocoons  (either  uncovered  or  enclosed  in  a 
cell)  beneath  stones,  on  the  under-side  of  leaves,  under  the  loose 
bark  of  trees,  or  in  crevices  of  walls,  etc.  ;  and  many  keep  watch 
and  ward  over  them  during  the  winter  months. 

When  the  young  spiders  issue  from  the  egg,  they  are  enclosed 
in  a  membranous  envelope,  which  they  do  not  throw  off  until  the 
time  when  they  quit  the  cocoon, — a  period  depending  in  part 
upon  the  temperature,  but  generally  occurring  about  the  months  of 
April  or  May.  In  the  case  of  a  cocoon  found  by  me  during  the 
month  of  October,  under  some  loose  bark  in  the  fields,  and  kept 
indoors  without  any  artificial  heat  through  a  very  mild  winter,  I 
found  that  by  the  first  week  in  February  the  young  were  all 
hatched,  and  busy  filling  their  prison  with  a  labyrinth  of  webs.  A 
cocoon  of  the  Epeira  diade7na,  found  with  the  mother  in  Novem- 
ber, was  subjected  to  artificial  warmth  from  the  13th  of  February, 
and  before  the  end  of  the  month  nearly  a  dozen  young  ones  had 
issued  from  it  and  begun  weaving  with  the  utmost  alacrity. 

After  throwing  off  their  first  integument  on  leaving  the  cocoon, 
the  young  spiders  undergo  several  other  moults  before  they  arrive 
at  maturity.  The  number  of  these  varies  with  the  species.  An 
Epeira  has  been  observed  to  moult  five  times  in  four  months  from 
the  day  of  its  quitting  the  egg ;  when  it  appeared  to  have  reached 
maturity.  A  Tegeiiaria  civilis, — one  of  the  House  Spiders,  as  the 
name  implies, — has  been  known  to  moult  nine  times  in  the  first 
fourteen  or  fifteen  months  of  its  existence,  after  which  its 
development  was  complete.  In  these  cases,  it  was  noticed  that 
the  intervals  between  the  moults  were  always  much  shorter  in  the 
summer  than  in  the  winter  months. 

Connected  with  the  renewal  of  integuments  is  the  reproduc- 
tion of  the  limbs.  If  a  leg,  or  a  palpus,  or  even  a  spinneret,  be 
amputated  or  mutilated,  the  member  is  found  to  be  restored, 
generally  with  enlarged  dimensions,  at  the  next  period  of 
moulting. 


SPIDERS  :    THEIR   STRUCTURE    AND    HABITS.  127 

Most  persons  will  have  observed  on  fine,  calm  autumn  days,  a 
filmy  substance  covering  the  fields  and  hedges  with  a  confused 
kind  of  network,  and  rising  and  floating  in  the  air  in  flakes  varying 
from  a  few  inches  to  several  feet  in  length.  I  refer  to  the  "gos- 
samer," the  phenomena  of  which  have  been  made  the  subject  of 
much  marvel  and  mystery  by  poets  and  philosophers,  and  have 
been  explained  even  by  scientific  men  on  various  fanciful  theories. 

The  word  still  remains  as  great  a  puzzle  to  etymologists,  as  the 
thing  itself  once  was  to  naturalists.  The  derivations  found  in  the 
dictionaries  are  various  and  unsatisfactory.  Wedgwood's  seems  to 
me  to  be  the  best,  who  compounds  it  of  God  and  summer. 
"  God's  summer  "  would  pass  into  gossamer  as  naturally  as  "  God- 
spel "  does  into  Gospel,  or  "  godsip  "  into  gossip ;  and  the  idea 
was  doubtless  suggested  by  the  names  under  which  it  is  known  in 
France  and  Germany  : — ^^ fils  de  la  vierge "  in  the  one,  and 
"  Marien  fadeii  "  in  the  other.  Both  of  these  connect  it  with  a 
tradition  respecting  the  blessed  Virgin's  winding-sheet. 

But  whatever  the  meaning  of  the  word,  gossamer  is  now 
acknowledged  to  be  the  production  of  spiders.  There  are  certain 
species,  and  those  about  the  smallest  of  their  respective  tribes 
{Thomisus  cristatus  and  Lycosa  exigtia,  being  only  i — 6th  of  an  inch 
long),  which,  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  and  for  reasons  best 
known  to  themselves,  are  suddenly  seized  with  an  excursionist  fit. 
Mounting  to  the  sum.mit  of  a  blade  of  grass  or  the  top  of  a  gate, 
they  emit  from  their  spinning-tubes  (which  are  kept  separate  the 
while)  a  multitude  of  fine  filaments,  invisible  to  the  naked  eye. 
These  are  drawn  out  and  carried  upwards  by  an  ascending  current 
of  rarefied  air ;  and  uniting  into  flakes,  they  soon  acquire,  by  the 
action  of  the  current  upon  them,  a  buoyancy  sufficient  to  support 
the  spider,  who  then  quits  her  hold  of  terra  fir?na^  and  launches 
into  the  fields  of  air.  This  phenomena  is  never  seen  except  under 
suitable  atmospheric  conditions  :  it  requires  a  bright  and  calm  day, 
the  former  being  necessary  to  create  a  stratum  of  hot  air  near  the 
ground,  and  the  latter  to  allow  of  the  establishment  of  an  upward 
current. 

By  way  of  conclusion  to  these  remarks  upon  our  British 
Spiders,  I  have  added  a  tabulated  arrangement  of  their  families 
and  genera,  with  letters  affixed  to  each  genus,  pointing  out  its 
most  characteristic  details  of  structure.  It  may,  perhaps,  help 
towards  the  identification  of  captured  specimens. 


128 


SPIDERS:    THEIR   STRUCTURE   i^lsD   HAEITS. 


I.— Mygalidse 
II.— Lycosidae 
III.— Salticidse      - 
IV.— Thomisidge    - 

v.— Drassidse 

VI.— Ciniflonidse 

VII.— Agelenidse 
VIII.— Theridiidse 
IX.— Linypliiidse 
X.— Epeiridae 

I,— Dysderidae 
II.— Scytodidse 


-Tribe,  Octonoculina. 

Atypus 

Lycosa 
Dolomedes 
Hecaerge  - 
Sphasus     - 

(    Eresus 

I    Salticus 

/  Thomisus  - 

<J  Philodromus 

I  Sparassus 

r  Drassus 

<  Clubiona  - 
I  Argyroneta 
r  Ciniflo 

<  Ergatis 
i    Veleda       - 

Agelena 
Tegenaria  - 
Coelotes     - 
Textrix 
Theridion  - 
Pholcus 
Linyphia    - 
Neriene 
Walckenaera 
Pachygnatha 
f    Epeira 
I    Tetragnatha 

11. — Tribe,  Senoculina 
Dysdera     - 
Segestria    - 
Schoenobates 
Oonops 

Scytodes  - 


-  a 

-  a 

-  a 

-  a 

-  a 

-  b 

-  b 

-  b 

-  b 

bj  (a  few  a) 

-  b 

-  b 

-  b 
b  ov  c 

-  b 

-  b 

-  b 

-  b 

-  b 

-  c 

-  b 

a  or  b 

-  b 

-  a 

-  a 


d 

d 
d 
d 
d 
d 
d 

d 
d 
d 
d 
d 
d 


f 
f 
f 
f 
f 
f 

f 
f 
f 
f 
f 
f 
e  f 
e  f 
e  f 
d  f 
d  f 
d  f 
d  f 
d 
d 
d 
d 
d 
d 
d 
d 


f 
f 
f 
f 
f 
f 

f 
f 


d  g 

d  g 

d  g 

d  g 

d  f 


UNPRESSED  MOUNTING  FOR  MICROSCOPE.  129 


(a)  2  claws  and  scopula 

(/^)  3  claws 

(c)   more  than  3  claws 


(d)  3  pairs  of  spinnerets 

(e)  4  ditto 

(/)   2  branchial  vents 


(^)  2  branchial  and  2  trachaeal  vents. 


EXPLANATION   OF  PLATE  XIL 


Fig.  1. — Diagrammatic  section  of  Spider's  abdomen,  showing  the  silk- 
glands  and  other  organs  in  situ,  a,  Spinnerets  ;  6  c,  Silk- 
glands  ;  d,  Pulmonary  leaflets  ;  e,  Pulmonary  chamber  ; 
/,  Heart ;  g,  Pericardium ;  /(,  h,  Vessels  which  return  the 
blood  to  the  heart  after  aeration  ;  k,  Anal  outlet  ;  I,  Ovary 
containing  eggs. 

,,  2. — Female  of  Dolomedes  mirahills,  carrying  her  cocoon  attached 
to  the  breastplate. 

,,    3. — Spinnerets  of  Cinifio  atrox,  4  pairs. 

,,    4. — Ditto  of  Agelena  labyrintliica,  3  pairs. 

,,  5. — Long,  3-jointed  spinneret  of  ditto,  side  view,  showing 
spinning-tubes. 

,,    6. — Foot  of  Tegenaria  civilis,  with  3  claws. 

,,  7. — Ditto  Epeira  dladema,  with  3  large  and  several  subsidiary 
claws. 

,,    8. — Foot  of  Scdticus  scemcus.  with  2  claws  and  scopula. 

,,    9. — Hind-leg  of  Cinifio,  with  calamistrum  in  situ. 

,,    10. — Calamistrum,  more  magnified. 


'\Ilnpre06eJ)  flftountino  for  tbe  HDicroecope^ 

By  Alfred  W.  Stokes,  F.C.S. 


BLUE-BOTTLES  are  still  in  season  !  At  every  window,  with 
very  little  or  very  great  panes,  the  microscopist,  on  that 
happy  hunting-ground,  may  meet  the  buzzing  monster. 
There  are  few  cabinets  in  which  "  the  Tongue  of  a  Blow-fly  "  is 
not  to  be  found ;  it  haunts  the  boxes  of  "  The  Postal  Microsco- 
pical Society  "  with  painful  regularity ;  go  to  any  soiree,  and  you 
will,  with  certainty,  through  some  brazen  tube,  see  the  blow-fly 
putting  out  his  tongue  at  you.     Most  books  on  the  microscope 


130  UNPRESSED  MOUNTING   FOR   MICROSCOPE. 

seem  to  open  easiest  at  the  picture  of  '^  the  tongue  of  a  blow-fly  " ; 
they  almost  all  have  a  drawing  of  it.  And  all  these  many  tongues 
apparently  conspire  to  utter  the  same  mis-statement  of  fact ;  for 
how  few  of  us  have  ever  through  the  microscope  seen  anything 
but  a  squashed  and  flattened  object ; — a  something  as  like  the  real 
thing  as  that  flattened  collection  of  dirty  feathers  over  which 
several  cart-wheels  have  passed  is  like  the  once  gay  rooster 
crowing  on  his  own  dung-hill. 

Now,  seeing  these  are  serious  objections  to  the  too-common 
method  of  mounting,  and  suspecting  that  most  of  this  distortion 
of  Nature  results  from  not  knowing  how  else  to  preserve  micro- 
scopical objects,  we  would  lay  before  our  readers  what  we  consider 
a  better,  easier,  and  more  natural  method  : — a  plan  in  which,  from 
the  beginning  to  the  end,  the  true  shape  of  the  object  is  preserved. 

Let  us  try  whether  we  cannot  mount  our  "  Tongue  of  Blow- 
fly," for  instance,  so  as  to  see  its  true  shape  ;  to  have  it  transparent 
in  every  part ;  to  be  able  to  view  each  hair,  every  ramification  of 
the  internal  organs,  trachece,  etc.,  just  in  the  positions  they 
naturally  occupy. 

And,  firstly,  it  is  not  necessary  to  wait  till  our  blow-fly  has  his 
tongue  protruded  over  some  piece  of  sugar,  and  then  deftly  to  cut 
it  off  with  a  pair  of  scissors.  Nor  need  we  squeeze  the  head  to 
make  the  tongue  protrude,  nor  pull  it  out  with  tweezers.  All  such 
methods  mean  the  expenditure  of  a  lot  of  time,  and  the  slaughter 
of  a  number  of  blow-flies,  with  the  production  of  a  few  more  or 
less  damaged  and  fragmentary  objects.  In  fact,  we  will  not  cut 
off  the  tongue  at  all,  but  mount  it  in  its  natural  position  on  the 
head;  for  our  blow-fly's  neck  is  so  slender  that  there  is  no 
difficulty  whatever  in  decapitating  him.  We  will,  therefore,  do  so. 
Now,  if  we  consult  our  books  on  microscopical  mounting,  we  find 
that  we  must  first  dry  the  head,  and  then  soak  it  in  turpentine  ; 
or,  as  some  say,  put  it  at  once  in  turpentine  and  wait  till  it  is 
transparent.  If  mounting  anything  but  horses  had  been  in  vogue 
in  Methuselah's  days,  such  methods  would  have  been  then  well  worth 
trying ;  there  was  no  need  for  hurry  in  those  happy  times.  Those, 
perhaps,  were  the  days  when  they  placed  knobs  of  "  Wallsend  "  in 
carbonate  of  potash  solution,  and  fished  them  out  a  century  or  so 
later,  just  nice  and  soft  for  cutting  "  coal  sections."  Alas  !  this  is 
now  a  lost  art,  in  spite  of  the  plain  directions  given  in  various 
works  on  microscopical  mounting  !  But  as  we  cannot  wait  the 
months  necessary  for  the  blow-fly's  head  to  become  transparent  (if 
it  ever  would  by  this  process),  we  will  try  a  shorter  plan ;  for  even 
in  microscopical  mounting  it  is  of  some  advantage  to  be  reason- 
able. And  in  order  to  make  it  transparent,  we  have  first  to  get 
rid  of  the  mass  of  colouring  matter  and  of  all  air ;  since,  of  all 


UXPRESSED   MOUNTING   FOR   MICROSCOPE.  131 

things,  air  diffused  through  an  object  is  the  most  ///-transparent, — • 
difhcult  to  get  rid  of,  and  misleading  in  its  appearances  to  the 
microscopist.  Most  bodies  contain  about  seventy  per  cent,  of 
water ;  and  in  drying  an  object,  therefore,  we  get  rid  of  all  this, 
partly  by  shrivelling  up  the  object,  partly  by  replacing  the  water 
with  air.  Then,  having  spent  some  time  and  effort  to  get  the 
object  well  filled  with  air  and  nicely  shrunken  up,  we  set  to  work 
with  still  greater  trouble  to  get  the  air  out  again,  and  to  puff  out 
the  specimen  to  something  like  its  former  shape.  Hence,  whatever 
else  we  do,  we  will  not  dry  our  object.  That  part  of  the  tissue  of 
the  blow-fly's  head  which  is  not  swollen  with  water  is  filled  with 
air ;  and  so,  w^hile  taking  out  the  colouring  matter,  it  will  be  an 
economy  of  time  to  get  rid  also  of  some  of  the  air.  What 
apparatus  do  we  need  for  this  ?  would  not  an  air-pump  be  of  use  ? 
J3y  all  means,  if  you  can  afford  it,  and  if  you  wish  to  add  another 
to  your  array  of  instruments,  go  and  purchase  an  air-pump,  and  do 
whatever  you  like  with  it,  only  do  not  use  it  for  microscopical 
mounting.  Go,  instead,  and  buy  a  half-penny  test-tube  ;  for  a 
solitary  test-tube  is  the  whole  of  the  preparing  apparatus  needed  in 
this  method  ! 

Into  this  test-tube  place  the  fly's  head,  and  fill  the  tube  half- 
full  with  a  solution  of  soda  or  potash.  Stand  the  tube  in  a  cup  or 
tin  pot  of  boiling  water,  and  leave  it  on  the  hob  of  a  fire  or  other 
warm  place  to  keep  hot  till  morning.  Then  examine  the  head 
and  see  if  it  looks  almost  transparent ;  if  not,  pour  off  the  soda- 
solution,  and  add  a  fresh  supply,  and  again  keep  the  tube  hot  till  the 
object  becomes  semi-transparent.  Now  pour  off  the  solution  and 
add  hot  water,  in  a  few  minutes  emptying  it  out  and  adding  some 
more  : — repeat  this  at  least  three  times,  and  finally  leave  the  last 
quantity  of  water  on  the  object  for  an  hour  to  cool.  Next  pour 
off  all  the  water  and  replace  it  with  spirit  of  wine ;  methylated 
spirit,  if  strong,  will  do  sufficiently  well.  Heat  this  by  immersing 
the  tube  in  a  vessel  of  hot  water  for  one  minute  ;  then  take  it  out, 
cork  it  up,  and  leave  it  for  one  hour. 

So  far,  we  have,  by  means  of  the  soda-solution,  destroyed  all  the 
flesh  and  fat-tissues,  leaving  only  the  cuticle  and  internal  organs, 
such  as  the  tracheae,  etc.  In  doing  this,  we  have  filled  up  most  of 
the  few  natural  air-spaces  with  soda-solution ;  which,  however, 
being  a  somewhat  dense  fluid,  would  not  enter  many  of  the 
narrow  tracheal  tubes.  Then  with  water  we  replaced  the  soda- 
solution,  and  washed  away  the  parts  destroyed  thereby.  On 
replacing  the  water  by  alcohol, — -a  still  less  dense  fluid, — more  of 
the  finer  air-spaces  are  penetrated  and  the  air  driven  out  :  there 
are  still,  however,  some  tubes  too  minute  even  for  alcohol  rapidly 
to  enter.     So  now  we  pour  off  the  spirit,  and  add  ether  instead, 


l32  UNPEESSED   MOUNTING   FOR   MICROSCOPE. 

which  answers  a  double  purpose ;— it  enters  readily  the  very 
minutest  passages,  displacing  the  contained  air,  and  it  also 
dissolves  the  globules  of  fat  left  unsaponified  by  the  soda- 
solution.  After  leaving  the  ether  for  fifteen  minutes  in  the  corked 
tube,  and  shaking  it  once  or  twice,  we  pour  it  off  and  add  tur- 
pentine; and  then  in  ten  minutes'  time  our  blow-fly's  head  is 
ready  for  mounting  in  Canada  Balsam  or  Dammar. 

But  if  so  mounted,  it  will  be  very  difficult  to  see  much  of  the 
finer  internal  structure,  since  these  media  render  some  parts  far 
too  transparent  :  and  hence  some  of  the  glycerine  media  are 
preferable.  In  such  cases,  after  pouring  off  the  ether  add  alcohol, 
and  at  the  end  of  fifteen  minutes  replace  the  alcohol  with  cold 
water,  and  leave  for  fifteen  minutes  more.  Then  the  water  may  be 
poured  off,  and  the  mounting-fluid,  whether  glycerine,  carbolic- 
acid,  gelatine,  Goadby's  or  Thwaites'  fluid,  may  be  added.  The 
object,  if  mounted  in  any  of  these,  will  have  a  far  more  natural 
appearance,  and  show  more  plainly  the  finer  structures,  than  if 
mounted  in  Canada  Balsam.  The  times  mentioned  above  are 
those  it  is  fiecessary  in  most  cases  to  wait,  but  longer  intervals 
would  often  be  preferable.  If  we  are  busy,  the  tube  and  its  con- 
tents may  be  left  at  any  stage  of  the  proceedings  for  days,  with  a 
certainty  that  the  object  will  only  benefit  by  the  delay;  except  in 
the  case  of  the  soda-solution.  Of  course,  when  the  object  is 
transparent  enough,  a  longer  stay  in  that  solution  would  only 
render  it  too  transparent,  and  so  spoil  it.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
use  distilled  water,  though  it  is  better  to  do  so ;  but  whatever 
water  is  used,  it  should  have  been  just  freshly  boiled  and  be  used 
hot.  Cold,  unboiled  water  contains  a  large  quantity  of  air,  and  if 
used  in  that  state  will  certainly  impart  air  to  the  object  instead  of 
helping  to  extract  it. 

The  soda  or  potash  solution  is  made  by  adding  solid  potash  or 
soda  to  eight  times  its  weight  of  boiling  water. 

The  spirit  and  the  etlier,  which  have  been  used  during  the 
process,  should  be  poured  off  into  a  separate  waste  bottle,  either 
to  be  afterwards  redistilled,  or  for  use  in  some  other  way : — ether, 
being  highly  inflammable,  should  not  be  brought  near  a  light. 
The  only  expenses  are  for  soda,  alcohol,  ether,  and  one  tube ; 
of  the  alcohol  and  ether  there  is  practically  very  little  waste,  as  a 
pint  of  each  will  prepare  some  thousands  of  specimens. 

So  far,  we  have  written  as  if  it  were  only  the  blow-fly's  head  that 
we  wished  to  prepare;  but  it  is  obvious  that  in  the  same  tube  we  may 
have  some  dozen  or  more  insects,  or  parts  of  insects, — only  being 
careful  to  remember  which  is  which.  The  same  system  will 
answer  likewise  for  plant  specimens,  such  as  sections  of  wood, 
small  seed-vessels,  leaves,  etc.    Only  in  their  case  they  should  first 


UNPEESSED   MOUNTING   FOR   MICROSCOPE.  lS3 

be  decoloured  by  pouring  Sodic  Hypochlorite  into  the  tube ;  then, 
after  well  washing  with  water,  the  rest  of  the  process  may  be 
followed  as  before,  leaving  out  entirely  the  use  of  the  soda-solution. 
The  great  difference  is  in  the  matter  of  speed,  as  vegetable 
preparations  can  be  made  far  more  rapidly  than  insect  ones.  It  is 
possible  by  this  method  to  cut  a  dozen  sections  from  a  living 
branch, — bleach,  stain,  and  mount  them  in  Canada  Balsam  or 
Glycerine-solution, — and  finally,  ring  and  label  them,  all  within 
the  hour. 

Should  some  of  the  preparations — our  Blow-fly's  head,  for 
instance — become  too  colourless  and  transparent,  all  we  have  to  do 
is  to  stain  such  by  the  addition  of  a  few  drops  of  an  alcoholic 
solution  of  some  colouring  matter  (logwood  answers  well)  to  the 
alcohol  in  the  tube.  The  subsequent  use  of  ether  will  fix  the 
colour. 

Usually  after  this  treatment,  the  object  will  be  found  to  be 
quite  clean ;  but  if  not,  it  should  be  gently  brushed  with  a  camel- 
hair  pencil  while  in  the  turpentine  or  glycerine-fluid.  The  wings 
of  many  insects  are  partially  destroyed  during  the  process,  but 
since  these  can,  if  desired,  be  easily  mounted  separately,  this  is 
not  of  very  great  importance. 

The  next  point  is  how  to  mount  our  objects  without  ptessure. 
Small  insects, — such  as  Ichneumon-flies  and  Gnats, — parts  of 
insects,  such  as  the  legs,  etc., — leaves  and  other  portions  of  plants, 
may  be  mounted  in  shallow  cells,  formed  by  running  a  ring  of 
gold-size  or  "  Brown  cement "  on  the  glass  slip.  The  brown 
cement  is  very  useful  for  this  purpose,  and  is  highly  recommended 
where  a  rapidly-drying  and  firm  cement  is  required.  For  those 
to  whom  expense  is  no  object,  the  slips  having  cells  hollowed 
out  in  the  centre  should  be  chosen. 

Larger  objects  will  need  a  deeper  cell  than  any  of  these 
afford  ;  and  to  form  such,  vulcanite  rings  are  undoubtedly  the 
best,  as  also  they  are  the  cheapest.  A  number  of  these  rings,  of 
various  thicknesses,  should  be  cemented  to  gTOWid-cdge  glass  slips. 
Let  no  true  microscopist  indulge  in  the  paltry  saving  effected  by  using 
slips  with  rough  edges.  Though  anyone  possessed  of  such  ultra- 
frugality  may  have  the  right  to  cut  his  own  fingers  with  their  sharp 
edges,  he  has  no  right  to  endanger  the  cuticle  of  his  friends  :  and 
if  he  intends  to  prevent  this  by  covering  up  the  slide  with  some  of 
the  harlequin  papers  too  often  used,  he  will  find  that  there  is  no 
economy  in  the  double  purchase,  either  in  the  matter  of  time  or 
expense. 

Having  prepared  a  number  of  vulcanite  cells  a  day  or  so 
beforehand,  we  select  one  just  a  trifle  shallower  than  the  object  to 
be  mounted  :  and  if  the  mounting  is  to  be  in  any  other  solution 


134«  UNPRESSED   MOUNTING   FOR  MICROSCOPE. 

than  Canada  Balsam  or  Dammar,  we  proceed  thus  : — The  top 
edge  of  the  cell  we  cover  with  a  thin  layer  of  brown  cement ; 
then  we  breathe  into  the  cell,  and  before  the  moisture  dries  fill  it 
up  with  the  solution  for  mounting  in.  If  we  did  not  breathe  into 
the  cell,  there  would  probably  be  an  ugly  rim  of  minute  air- 
bubbles  clinging  round  its  bottom  angle.  Into  the  cell  we  now 
place  our  Blow-fly's  head  or  other  object,  and  with  a  needle  or 
small  sable-brush  arrange  it  in  the  centre  in  any  desired  position. 
Insects  mount  best  by  placing  them  on  their  backs. 

After  seeing  that  the  cell  is  brimful  with  fluid,  we  take  up  a 
clean  cover-glass  of  such  a  size  that  it  is  not  quite  so  wide  as  the 
full  width  of  the  vulcanite  ring,  and  on  the  under  side  of  this  we 
breathe  gently  :  then  quickly  place  one  edge  downwards  on  to  the 
vulcanite  ring,  in  the  position  it  vrill  finally  occupy,  and  somewhat 
slowly  lower  down  the  opposite  edge  on  to  the  ring  till  the  cover- 
glass  lies  flat.  If  this  is  properly  done,  there  will  be  no  air- 
bubbles  in  the  cell,  nor  any  clinging  to  the  cover-glass ;  neither 
will  the  object  be  forced  from  its  central  position.  To  ensure  the 
still  tacky  cement  fastening  the  cover-glass  securely,  we  place  over 
the  whole  a  slight  spring-clip,  and  leave  the  mount  thus  for  some 
hours.  Then  the  clip  may  be  taken  off,  and  the  slide  washed 
under  t*he  tap  ;  when  dry,  a  new  ring  of  cement  should  be  placed 
on  the  edge  of  the  cover-glass  and  on  the  outer  edge  of  the 
vulcanite  ring :  to  which  any  rings  of  coloured  cement  may 
afterwards  be  added.  There  are  few  finishing  cements  that  are 
equal  in  appearance,  or  so  durable,  as  that  made  by  adding  one- 
third  of  gold-size  to  some  Brunswick  Black  :  it  dries  rapidly  and 
is  tough  and  elastic. 

For  mounting  in  Canada  Balsam  or  Dammar,  we  make  a 
similar  ring  of  brown  cement  on  the  vulcanite  ring.  Inside  the 
ring,  or  cell,  we  place  a  drop  or  two  of  turpentine,  which  we  then 
shake  out  again,  and  fill  up  the  cell  with  the  fluid  balsam.  Into 
this  we  place  the  object,  taking  it  from  the  turpentine  in  which  it 
had  been  left  to  soak,  and  arranging  it  in  the  cell.  On  the  under- 
surface  of  a  clean  cover-glass  we  place  another  drop  of  turpentine, 
allow  it  to  run  off,  and  then  lower  down  the  cover-glass  just  as  in 
the  former  case.  After  the  spring-clip  has  been  on  for  a  day  or 
two,  we  can  carefully  scrape  off  the  excess  of  balsam,  wiping  the 
top  carefully  with  a  rag  moistened  in  spirit,  and  then  running  a 
ring  of  cement  round  the  edge  as  before. 

And  now  we  have  mounted,  let  us  say,  two  heads  of  the  Blow- 
fly,— one  in  glycerine  fluid,  the  other  in  Canada  Balsam.  Let  us 
see  how  they  look  through  the  microscope.  Our  first  impression 
is — how  different  the  object  appears  to  that  spread-eagle  thing  we 
have  so  often  looked  at !     Why,  we  can  actually  focus  down  and 


AQUARIA   FOR   MICROSCOPIC   LIFE.  l35 

see,  first,  the  tips  of  the  hairs  on  the  top  of  the  fly's  head  ;  then 
we  see  their  insertion  on  the  scalp  ;  and  focussing  somewhat  lower 
we  enter  the  cavity  where  once  part  of  the  brains  were, — only  a 
cavity  now,  through  which  meander  a  pair  of  tracheal  tubes,  but 
where  once  our  blow-fly  did  all  her  thinking, — where  she  laid  her 
plans  for  stealing  our  sugar,  and  for  the  safe  depositing  of  those 
minute  progeny  so  dear  to  the  cultivators  of  the  gentle  angling 
craft.  Lower  down  still  we  come  to  the  roots  of  the  hairs  at  the 
base  of  the  skull.  We  really  must  have  revolved  our  fine  adjust- 
ment-wheel some  dozen  times,  and  we  remember  how  formerly, 
with  only  half  a  turn,  we  used  to  find  ourselves  at  the  other  side 
of  our  flattened  specimen. 

On  each  side  of  the  globular  head  stand  out  the  many- 
facetted  eyes.  At  the  base  of  the  proboscis  which  juts  out  from 
the  front  are  the  strange  pair  of  antennae.  In  the  middle  of  the 
proboscis  stand  out  the  palpi.  In  a  groove  near  its  end  lie  the 
sharp  setee  or  lancets.  The  end  is  swelled  out  by  a  beautiful 
network  of  pseudo-tracheae  into  two  semi-heart-shaped  masses, 
between  which  we  discern  the  salivary  tube.  And  now  it  is  easy 
to  understand  how  the  sugar  disappears.  There,  under  our 
binocular,  the  "  Tongue  of  a  Blow-fly  "  stands  out  soHd,  and  looks 
as  Ave  never  saw  it  before ;  it  is  more  than  ever  a  thing  of  beauty, 
but  its  use  also  is  plain.  Turning  over  the  slide,  we  notice  under- 
neath the  narrow  opening  from  v/hich  some  tracheae  still  project, 
and  through  which  there  once  passed  nerves,  muscles,  digestive 
canal,  and  trache?e,  from  the  head  to  the  body. 

Let  us  henceforth  resolve  that  we  will  no  longer  crush  out  of 
their  real  semblance  any  more  of  Nature's  beauties,  no  longer  fill 
our  minds  with  false  notions  of  the  truth ;  but  preserve,  so  far  as 
we  can,  the  true  and  lovely  form  that  Nature  everywhere  bestows 
v.pon  her  creatures  ! 


aquaria  for  nDicroacopic  Xife/ 


IN  the  management  of  small  Aquaria  a  very  little  experience  is 
of  great  value.     The  first  attempts  are  usually  not  successful, 
but  after  a  while  it  will  be  found  that  the  aquaria  run  along 
without  much  trouble.      The  secret  of  this  is  in  the  experience, 
which  seems  to  have  come  very  naturally,  that  indicates  to  us  just 

*  Reprinted  from  "The  American  Monthly  Microscopical  Journal." 


136  AQUARIA.  FOR  MICROSCOPIC  LIFE. 

about  how  much  plant-Hfe  there  should  be  in  a  given  quantity  of 
water,  and  where  the  aquarium  should  be  placed  to  ensure  the 
most  satisfactory  growth. 

It  need  not  be  said  that  the  conditions  of  prolific  growth  in  an 
aquarium  are  the  same  as  are  found  in  open  ponds ;  but  to  imitate 
those  conditions  indoors  requires  some  judgment.  The  collector 
will  observe  that  the  water  in  ponds,  although  freely  exposed  to 
the  glare  of  the  sun,  never  becomes  greatly  heated,  because  of  the 
rapid  evaporation  from  the  surface.  But  if  an  ordinary  aquarium 
be  thus  exposed  to  the  sun,  the  small  body  of  water  would  soon 
become  so  warm  that  many  organisms  would  die  in  it.  Therefore, 
the  aquarium  should  not  be  placed  in  sunlight.  By  far  the  best 
place  is  near  a  window  where  it  can  receive  good  light  from  the 
sky  all  day  long,  but  no  direct  sunlight.  The  first,  and  most  im- 
portant rule  is,  to  keep  the  water  cool. 

For  microscopic  specimens,  a  small  bottle,  holding  about  6 
ounces,  with  square  sides,  makes  an  excellent  aquarium.  Such 
bottles  should  be  about  two-thirds  filled  with  water,  and  covered  to 
exclude  dust.  We  have  used  the  tin-foil  that  tobacco  is  wrapped 
in  to  cover  them,  and  found  it  well  adapted  to  the  purpose. 
Several  of  these  bottles  should  be  kept  with  sprigs  of  water-plants 
growing  in  them,  so  that  whenever  an  interesting  specimen  is  found 
it  can  be  put  into  one  of  them,  to  grow  and  multiply  by  itself.  In 
this  way,  it  is  sometimes  possible  to  cultivate  microscopic  forms  of 
life  very  successfully.  We  have  thus  grown  hundreds  of  the 
common  rotifers,  and  kept  them  for  weeks  in  the  winter-time. 
That  was  done,  however,  in  a  one-ounce  bottle,  which  had  a  small 
bit  of  Nitella  in  it.  We  have  also  kept  Volvox  in  fine  condition 
for  many  days  in  a  small  bottle  covered  with  a  watch-glass. 

Beginners  in  this  work  are  apt  to  put  too  much  material  into 
their  jars.  A  very  small  bit  of  a  vigorously-growing  plant  will 
suffice,  and  if  too  much  is  introduced,  it  will  soon  lose  its  vigour, 
and  some  of  it  will  decay  and  make  the  water  impure. 

The  jars  should  not  be  disturbed  much,  and  when  they  are 
moved  they  should  be  handled  carefully,  and  then  replaced  as  they 
were  before,  in  order  to  ensure  uniform  conditions  of  light  and 
temperature. 

We  have  seldom  been  troubled  with  an  excessive  growth  of 
unicellular  alg?e  on  the  sides  of  our  jars.  Usually  these  come 
from  an  excess  of  light.  But  a  filamentous  Cladophora  found  its 
way  into  one  of  our  larger  jars  more  than  a  year  ago,  and  it  became 
such  a  nuisance  that  finally  the  jar  was  given  over  to  that  plant 
entirely,  and  is  now  green  with  it.  When  the  jar  is  wanted  for 
other  use,  it  must  be  washed  in  boiling  water  to  get  rid  of  the  too- 
prolific  alga.     When  minute  algae  do  come  in  such  abundance  as 


AQUARIA  FOR  MICROSCOPIC   LIFE.  137 

to  be  troublesome,  set  the  jar  in  a  dark  closet  for  a  few  days  and 
they  will  disappear. 

However,  for  microscopic  purposes,  such  growths  are  not 
usually  objectionable,  for  some  of  the  Infusoria  delight  in  them, 
and  it  is  not  necessary  to  keep  the  sides  of  the  small  bottles  clear, 
as  in  the  case  of  larger  aquaria.  Nevertheless,  they  should  not  be 
allowed  to  increase  too  much,  for  if  they  do  they  may  suddenly 
fill  the  water  with  a  cloud  of  swarmspores,  and  bring  about  a  de- 
composition which  will  kill  everything  therein.  Such  a  condition 
of  affairs,  if  threatened,  can  be  prevented  by  removing  the  jar  a 
short  distance  from  the  window,  when  growth  will  be  less  rapid. 

It  does  not  seem  to  be  a  matter  of  much  consequence  what 
plants  are  used  in  the  microscopist's  aquaria.  Nitella  is  a  clean 
and  hardy  plant,  and  we  have  usually  preferred  it.  One  or  two 
stems,  a  couple  of  inches  long,  is  enough.  Anacharis  is  also 
excellent  for  the  purpose ;  Myrio;phyUuni  would  doubtless  prove 
quite  as  good,  and  perhaps  even  better,  for  it  is  a  plant  with 
leaves  well  adapted  as  a  resting-place  for  the  tube-bearing  rotifers. 
Besides  these  we  have  Ceratophylliwi^  Caliitriche,  Utricidai'ia^ 
NaiaSj  and  FotaftiogetOfi ;  but  some  persons  prefer  Ceratophyllum 
above  all  other  plants  for  the  aquarium. 

As  for  the  stocking  of  small  aquaria,  the  only  precautions  are, 
not  to  put  in  too  much  material,  and  not  to  put  in  animalcules 
that  will  kill  each  other.  Our  plan  is  as  follows  : — When  we  have 
a  collection  of  pond-life,  plants,  and  animals  of  all  kinds  all 
together,  we  put  the  whole  mass  into  a  saucer  of  water  and  let  it 
remain  there  until  it  is  convenient  to  look  it  over.  In  a  saucer 
the  collection  will  keep  fresh,  while  in  a  bottle  it  would  soon 
become  foul.  Then,  in  looking  over  it  with  the  microscope,  the 
animalcules  that  it  is  desired  to  keep  are  transferred  to  the  bottles, 
either  by  washing  them  off  from  the  slide  upon  which  they  are 
found,  or,  if  practicable,  by  the  use  of  a  dipping-tube.  But  a 
mass  of  algae  or  of  debris  that  is  supposed  to  contain  infusoria  of 
interest  is  not  introduced  at  random.  Such  a  mass  may  be 
dropped  in  for  a  few  hours  and  then  removed  by  forceps  or  dipping- 
tube  ;  but  it  must  not  remain  long  enough  to  decompose.  This 
should  never  be  done  in  a  bottle  that  already  has  a  variety  of 
living  forms  in  healthy  growth,  as  thereby  there  is  danger  of  losing 
them  by  introducing  incompatible  creatures. 

Sometimes  it  is  desirable  to  keep  a  certain  specimen  found  in 
a  jar  attached  to  something,  as  a  leaf  or  stem,  separate  from  the 
others  for  a  short  time.  This  can  readily  be  done  by  placing  it  in 
a  small  tube,  uncorked,  which  can  be  suspended  in  the  jar  by 
means  of  a  thread,  or  by  a  bit  of  sheet-cork  with  a  hole  cut 
through  it.     In  the  same  way  a  number  of  specimens  can  be 


138  AQUAEIA    FOR  MICROSCOPIC  LIFE. 

selected  and  placed  in  tubes,  which  can  then  be  suspended  in  a 
jar  of  water  and  carried  about — to  a  meeting  of  a  Society  for 
example, — in  this  way  securing  the  advantages  of  a  considerable 
quantity  of  water,  while  the  specimens  are  easily  found. 

The  secret  of  success  lies  in  having  the  plants  in  the  small  jars 
growing  well  before  the  Infusoria  are  introduced.  Even  then  many 
of  them  will  not  live,  for  they  are  very  sensitive  creatures  and  will 
not  well  bear  sudden  changes  in  their  conditions  of  life.  But 
perseverance  and  experience  will  bring  their  reward  in  this  as 
in  other  things. 

The  microscopist  who  desires  an  inexhaustible  source  of 
entertainment,  or  a  rich  field  for  investigation  during  the  winter 
evenings,  can  provide  for  these  in  no  better  way  than  by  starting -a 
number  of  aquaria  now.  September  is  the  proper  time  to  start 
aquaria  for  the  winter,  and  we  trust  many  of  our  readers  will  act 
upon  the  suggestions  of  this  article,  for  if  they  do  so  we  are  sure 
to  hear  of  many  observations  they  will  make. 

Besides  the  numerous  small  aquaria,  the  microscopist  vrould  do 
well  to  have  one  or  two  large  tanks,  holding  about  two  gallons,  in 
which  can  be  kept  a  stock  of  plants  and  animals  of  different  kinds  ; 
and  one  tall  jar  in  which  Vallisneria  can  be  grown.  In  the  large 
tanks  should  be  kept  different  water-plants,  such  as  Nitella^ 
Anachm-is,  My?'iophylhim,  Leinna  (duck-weed),  and  others,  from 
v/hich  the  small  aquaria  can  be  replenished.  In  these  may  also 
be  kept  many  microscopic  specimens  from  collections,  and 
especially  snails  and  JDap/mm,  Cyclops  and  other  Entomostraca. 
The  snails  may  be  occasionally  introduced  into  the  small  jars  as 
scavengers,  and  the  Entomostraca  can  be  used  to  feed  the  Hyih-as^ 
which  will  probably  be  found  in  one  or  more  of  the  jars. 

The  cyclosis  in  plant-cells  is  very  beautifully  shown  in 
Vallts?ieria,  and  this  plant  can  be  grown  in  a  tall  jar  without  any 
care  whatever.  The  roots  should  be  imbedded  in  mud  and  sand 
at  the  bottom.  The  plant  will  grow  rapidly,  and  probably  fruit  in 
the  jar.  It  will  die  down  in  the  fall,  but  in  the  spring  it  will 
again  grow  if  the  roots  are  undisturbed. 


[139] 


1!)ow  to  prepare  3foraininifera. 


Second  Paper. 

THE  experience  gained  by  washing  shore-sand,  and  floating 
off  the  Foraminifera,  as  described  in  a  preceding  Paper, 
will  prepare  for  the  manipulations  about  to  be  described. 

Next  to  having  the  "material,"  a  good  supply  of  clean,  fresh 
water  is  essential.  If  water  is  "laid  on,''  it  will  be  found  a  great 
convenience  to  have  a  piece  of  india-rubber  tubing  about  a  foot 
long,  to  fit  on  the  end  of  the  water-cock,  so  as  to  be  able  to  move 
the  jet  of  water  to  any  part  of  the  sieve,  when  washing  the 
material.  By  squeezing  the  end  of  this  tube  with  the  fingers, 
the  force  of  the  jet  may  be  increased,  and  a  very  fine  stream 
may  be  easily  produced  for  washing  the  cleaned  material  to  one 
side  of  the  sieve,  just  before  tipping  it  on  to  the  plate ;  or  a  per- 
forated cork  may  be  fitted  in,  so  as  to  insert  a  glass  tube,  drawn  to 
a  fine  point,  which  will  give  a  jet  with  more  convenience  than  a 
washing-bottle. 

As  to  apparatus  needed : — The  sieve,  before  mentioned,  (or 
some  modification  of  it,)  being  necessary,  I  will  describe  mine. 
It  is  a  strong  zinc  cylinder,  open  at  each  end,  nine  inches  in 
diameter  and  four  inches  deep,  having  a  one-eighth-inch  brass  wire 
round  the  mouth,  and  a  similar,  hvX  finer  wire  round  the  bottom  end. 
Over  this  end  is  tightly  tied  with  fine  dry  pack-thread,  a  djj  piece 
of  millers'  silk-gauze,  i8o  threads  to  the  inch,  which  is  pulled  as 
tight  as  possible,  and  well  wetted  with  clean  water  every  time 
before  using.  By  using  this  gauze  we  can  easily  and  thoroughly 
clean  the  sieve,  by  removing  and  well  washing  both  gauze  and 
cylinder,  and  thus  run  no  risk  of  mixing  the  species  in  "gatherings" 
from  different  localities, — a  point  of  essential  importance  in  any 
scientific  investigation.  The  gauze  should  be  cut  with  a  good 
margin,  so  that  it  may  readily  be  replaced  on  the  cylinder,  and 
being  very  durable,  is  no  worse  for  being  hemmed.  By  removing 
the  gauze,  and  tying  a  fine  linen  handkerchief  loose  over  the 
top,  the  cylinder  will  make  a  good  bag  or  basin,  which  is  sometimes 
very  desirable.      I  will  call  this  sieve  "number  one."*     Tin-plate 

*  A  very  full  description  of  the  Sieve  arrangement  used  on  the  "  Porcupine," 
etc.,  is  given  in  "  The  Depths  of  the  Sea,"  by  C.  Wyville  Thomson,  pp.  259 — 261, 
The  whole  chapter  will  repay  careful  reading. 


140  HOW   TO   PBEPARE   FOKAMINIFERA. 

and  iron  wire  should  not  be  used,  as  they  are  sure  to  rust,  and  rot 
the  gauze. 

For  filtration,  a  similar  cylinder,  three  inches  in  diameter  and 
three  deep,  with  a  thick  wire  or  flange  at  the  top,  (made  so  that  it 
may  rest  on  the  ring  of  a  retort  stand),  and  a  fine  brass  wire  at  the 
bottom,  will  be  found  very  useful.  This  is  used  by  tying  over  the 
bottom  a  sheet  of  good  filter-paper,  free  from  holes,  and  outside  it 
a  piece  of  gauze  or  muslin  to  prevent  the  paper  bursting  through. 
For  very  small  quantities,  broken  test  tubes  may  be  used  in  the 
same  way.  The  funnel-filter,  as  I  know  to  my  cost,  is  not  satisfac- 
tory, being  apt  to  burst,  and  its  valuable  contents  to  be  thereby  lost. 
There  are  small  glass  cylinders  to  be  had  at  the  apparatus  shops, 
which  answer  well. 

If  the  preservation  of  the  Polycystina,  or  larger  Diatoms,  in 
any  gathering  is  desired,  the  finest  linen  handkerchief  should  be 
used  for  a  bowl,  as  described  ;  but  for  all  other  purposes,  the  i8o 
gauze  is  everything  that  can  be  desired.  I  have  sometimes  used 
it  double,  crossing  the  threads  diagonally.  This  gauze  may  be 
obtained  at  most  of  the  wire-workers  who  supply  mills  ;  it  is  made 
in  Lyons.* 

The  material  from  which  fossil  Foraminifera  may  be  most 
easily  prepared,  is,  perhaps,  chalk-powder.  Many  ways  are 
recommended  for  doing  this,  one  text-book  copying  another, — 
apparently  without  proving  the  process,  but  just  hoping  it  may  be 
a  success.  One  plan  which  I  remember  advised  to  get  a  piece  of 
chalk  and  to  brush  it  gently  in  water;  allow  this  to  stand  and 
settle,  then  pour  off  the  water  and  add  fresh,  and  repeat  as  needed. 
Finish  by  spreading  the  sediment  on  a  slip  to  dry,  and  add  Canada 
balsam.  Another  recommended  to  get  the  fine  powder  found  at 
the  base  of  a  cliff  by  the  weathering  of  its  surface,  and  treat  this 
similarly  with  water.  I  have  spent  hours  working  each  of  these, 
and  other  plans,  with  chalk  from  Dover,  Gravesend,  and  elsewhere, 
in  which  Foraminifera  are  known  to  abound,  and  never  got  any 
satisfactory  result ;  so  I  gave  up  trying  to  obtain  the  Foraminifera  as 
hopeless.  Since  then,  through  the  kindness  of  my  friend,  Joseph 
Wright  of  Belfast,  I  have  learnt  how  to  go  to  work  with  success. 

The  proper  material, — the  only  material  worth  handling, — from 
which  to  obtain  the  Foraminifera  found  in  the  chalk  in  a  condition, 
almost,  if  not  quite,  uninjured,  is  the  powdery  matter  found  in  the 
cavities  of  the  flints  which  abound  in  the  chalk,  but  especially  in 

*  Of  course,  where  the  Siliceous  organisms  only  are  wished  for,  the  best  way  is 
to  treat  at  once  with  acid  so  as  to  dissolve  everything  else,  after  which,  wash  as  for 
Piatoms. 


HOW  TO  PREPARE  FORAMINIFERA.  141 

cavities  in  the  large  nodules  known  as  ''  Paramoudras,"  *  of 
which  a  sketcli  is  here  annexed.  Paramou- 
dras are  masses  of  flint  of  a  very  irregular 
ovoid  form,  (as  irregular  for  size  and  shape  as 
potatoes,)  in  which  are  cavities  of  various  sizes, 
filled  with  chalk,  which  not  unfrequently  is  in 
the  condition  of  powder  ;  like  flour  if  dry,  or 
like  grey  clay,  if  wet.  This  powder  contains 
Foraminifera,  Ostracoda,  Sponge-spicules,  bits 
of  corals,  shells,  etc.,  which,  as  a  rule,  are  in 
fine  preservation.  Properly  speaking,  the 
siliceous  "  casts "  of  the  Foraminifera  are 
what  are  generally  found,  the  "  cast "  being 
an  exact  reproduction  in  silica,  or  glauconite, 
of  the  body  as  well  as  the  shell  of  the  animal, 
coated  over  with  a  delicate  film  of  lime  of  purest  whiteness, — 
probably  all  that  remains  of  the  shell  of  the  little  creature  it 
represents,— and  marked  with  all  the  exquisite  traceries  which  it 
bore.  What  can  we  think  of  the  plan  recently  recommended  for 
cleaning  and  separating  these  organisms  from  the  sand,  etc.,  among 
which  they  occur,  by  shaking  up  the  chalk-powder  with  water  in  a 
bottle,  the  "  gentle  friction  "  of  the  particles  one  against  the  other 
being  nearly  the  most  certain  way  of  removing  this  film,  and  thus 
utterly  spoiling  the  specirnens  for  either  investigation  or  preservation 
in  the  cabinet !  I  have  tried  it,  and  would  warn  anyone  else  from 
doing  so  ;  the  plan  is  worse  than  useless. 

Having  got  some  proper  chalk-powder,  if  it  is  dry,  the  first 
thing  is  to  sift  it  through  a  rather  coarse  sieve, — zinc,  perforated, 
with  holes  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  diameter  will  do, — so 
as  to  remove  all  the  fine  flakes  of  flint,  which  would  cut  the 
gauze  like  lancets.  If  damp  or  wet,  the  powder  may  be  washed 
through  this  zinc  sieve  (under  the  tap)  into  the  large  sieve  "number 
one."  Either  way  v/ill  answer  well,  but  after  much  experimenting, 
I  prefer  first  to  dry  perfectly,  and  sift  dry.     What  will  not  pass 

*  "  Paramoudras. — Several  of  our  flints  assume  curious  and  peculiar  forms. 
They  are  known  as  Paraynoudras  from  the  following  circumstance  : — The  late 
Dr.  Buckland,  in  one  of  his  geological  rambles  in  Antrim,  seeing  these  flints  for  the 
first  time,  was  surprised  at  their  curious  form,  and  asked  his  guide  what  their  name 
was.  The  guide,  who  had  previously  been  puzzled  by  the  hard  names  the  doctor 
gave  his  geological  specimens,  determiined  to  coin  a  puzzler  himself,  and  replied 
that  the  flints  were  called  Fayamoiidras  ;  and  thus  they  were  named  by  the  Dean 
of  Westminster.     (See  Trans.  Geo.  Soc,  London,  Vol.  iv.) 

The  Paramoudras  are  somewhat  cylindrical  in  form,  from  one  to  two  feet 
long,  and  from  ten  to  sixteen  inches  in  diameter.  They  usually  have  a  hollow  in 
the  centre,  which  sometimes  passes  through  from  end  to  end.  In  the  quarry,  the 
Paramoudras  stand  on  end  ;  and  two,  three,  and  even  four  have  been  found  in  the 
chalk,  one  over  the  other,  like  a  jointed  column." 

(From  "  Belfast  Naturalists'  Guide  to  Belfast.") 


142         HOW  TO  PREPARE  FORAMINIFERA. 

through  this  zinc  sieve  must  be  well  and  carefully  washed,  and 
looked  over  when  dry,  as  it  will  contain  the  largest  forms,  some 
of  which,  as  JVodosaria,  Dentaliiia,  etc.,  may  be  nearly  half-an- 
inch  long. 

A  large  cup-full  of  the  fine  sifted  powder  must  now  be  put  into 
sieve  "  number  one,"  and  a  good  stream  of  clear  fresh  water 
be  allowed  to  wash  it  until  all  signs  of  milkiness  have  disappeared, 
and  the  water  runs  away  quite  clear.  Do  not  use  either  fingers  or 
spoon  to  stir  up  the  material,  but  let  the  stream  of  water  from  the 
india-rubber  tube  do  all  the  work,  directing  it  so  as  to  move  the 
powder  well  about.  When  the  water  runs  away  clear,  wash  all 
into  a  corner  of  the  sieve,  drain,  and  tip  out  the  chalk  powder  on 
to  a  plate  to  dry  thoroughly  in  the  oven.  Repeat  this  process 
until  all  is  washed  ;  and  when  dry,  and  cold,  sift  into  sizes  for 
examination.  The  finest  siftings  will  probably  be  the  richest  in 
species. 

If  the  chalk-powder  is  good  and  the  washing  properly  done, 
a  considerable  portion  will  be  found  to  consist  of  Foraminifera, 
Ostracoda,  Sponge  and  other  spicules,  etc.,  the  remainder  being 
sand,  etc. 

If  sponge  spicules  or  other  siliceous  organisms  only  are  being 
sought  for,  pour  dilute  Hydrochloric  Acid  over  the  Chalk-powder, 
and  let  it  remain  for  a  day  or  two  to  remove  all  the  lime  ;  after 
which  pour  off  the  acid,  and  wash  well  with  clean  water  until  every 
trace  of  the  acid  is  removed  ;  then  dry,  sift,  and  examine. 

As  these  Foraminifera  are  fossil,  and  mostly  siliceous,  they  will 
not  "  float,"  but  the  washed  material  (after  drying)  must  be 
examined  under  the  microscope,  and  the  individual  shells  picked 
out.  There  is  no  royal  road  for  doing  this.  It  is  best  done  by 
means  of  a  fine  miniature  red  sable  pencil,  wet  with  clean  water, 
and  just  passed  through  the  lips  so  as  to  bring  it  to  a  fine  point, 
and  prevent  its  being  too  wet.  A  full  description  of  the  modus 
operandi^  either  for  fossil  or  recent  Foraminifera,  is  given  near  the 
end  of  the  present  article. 

Fresh  dredgings  of  sea-mud,  shore-mud,  etc.,  may  be 
treated  thus  : — 

If  principally  sand,  the  process  described  in  the  first  paper 
(page  26)  must  be  followed  throughout. 

If  soft  mud,  a  small  quantity  should  be  put  into  a  suitable 
vessel  (say  a  large  wide-mouthed  jug),  full  of  fresh  water,  and  be 
well  stirred  up  to  about  the  consistency  of  cream.  Sieve  "number 
one "  being  ready,  and  well  wetted,  should  then  have  a  little  of 
this  cream  poured  into  it,  and  upon  this  a  good  stream  of  fresh 
water  should  be  allowed  to  run  so  as  to  wash  the  mud,  until  the 
water  runs  away  clear ;  after  which  the  contents  of  the  sieve  may 


HOW  TO  PREPAKE  FORAMINIFERA.         143 

be  tipped  upon  a  plate,  as  before  described,  for  drying.  Do  not 
use  a  spoon  for  emptying  the  sieve.  Repeat  this  operation  with 
all  the  material,  after  which  the  process  given  in  the  first  paper 
must  be  followed  throughout. 

Should  the  material  be  dry,  or  in  hard  lumps,  as  the  Lias 
Clay,  etc.,  first  soak  it  in  water  in  a  jug,  until  it  has  fallen  down 
like  mud  ;  after  which  proceed  as  has  just  been  described  for 
fresh  mud.     Use  the  water  freely. 

It  must  be  observed  that  the  Foraminifera  in  the  Lias  and 
many  other  clays,  being  true  fossils,  will  not  float,  but  must  be 
searched  for  in  the  washed  material  after  drying.  Such  clays  as 
are  found  on  raised  beaches,  or  estuaries,  being  sub-fossil, 
generally  contain  the  Foraminifera  in  nearly  the  same  condition 
as  if  recent,  and  such  will  float,  if  not  too  large. 

Too  much  care  ca7inot  be  taken  with  the  first  tuashing,  so  as  to 
secure  the  removal  of  all  the  fine  mud,  which,  if  not  thoroughly 
removed,  will  cause  almost  endless  trouble  afterwards,  sticking 
the  shells  together  and  to  the  sand-grains,  and  so  preventing  them 
from  floating,  also  coating  them  with  minute  specks  of  dirt,  which 
spoil  their  beauty  and  hide  the  (often  characteristic)  markings  on 
the  shells. 

Be  careful  not  to  put  too  much  mud  in  the  sieve  at  once,  or  it 
will  be  clogged,  and  be  very  diflicult  to  work,  especially  if  a 
handkerchief  is  used  instead  of  the  gauze.  Not  unfrequently, — 
and  I  have  not  yet  satisfactorily  seen  tvhy, — some  difficulty  is 
experienced  at  first,  the  muddy  water  seeming  as  if  it  would  7iot 
pass  through  the  handkerchief;  and  then  in  a  minute  or  two  it 
will  run  off  pretty  rapidly.  To  assist  this,  it  is  desirable  to  keep 
the  mud  well  stirred  up  by  the  stream  of  water,  which  is  far 
better  than  using  the  fingers  or  a  spoon  for  the  purpose,  as  it  runs 
less  risk  of  crushing  the  minute  shells. 

Where  the  Foraminifera  are  mixed  with  tallow,  lard,  etc.,  as  is 
frequently  the  case  in  ship's  soundings,  they  should  first  have 
boiling  water  poured  over  them,  in  a  beaker-glass,  so  that  the 
tallow  may  melt  and  float.  Allow  all  to  get  cold,  and  when  the 
tallow  is  set,  remove  it ;  examining  it  to  see  whether  any 
Foraminifera  are  adherent,  in  which  case  they  may  be  removed 
with  as  little  tallow  as  possible,  and  re-melted  in  a  second  beaker. 
Then,  when  cold,  drain  off  the  water  and  boil  the  soundings  in 
liquor  potassce,  B.P.,  so  as  to  convert  all  traces  of  grease  remaining 
into  soap,  after  which  wash  well  with  clean  water,  and  finish  with 
boiling  water.  When  dry,  the  soundings  may  either  be  examined 
as  they  are,  or  floated,  if  in  any  quantity.  I  have  found  this  plan 
very  successful,  and  it  gives  but  little  trouble.  Various  plans  for 
dealing  with  soundings  may  be  seen  in  Davies's  v/ork  on 
Mounting. 


144  HOW   TO   PREPARE   FORAMINIFERA. 


This  Paper  would  be  incomplete  without  a  few  practical  hints 
as  to  how  to  examine  the  floatings,  etc.,  for  the  Foraminifera. 

The  microscope  must  be  used  all  but,  if  not  quite,  upright, — 
the  latter  is  best,  though  rather  awkward.  If  furnished  with 
rectangular  motions,  such  may  now  render  good  service  ;  but  these 
are  far  from  being  essential,  and,  in  fact,  a  simple  arrangement  of 
a  sliding  stage  and  tray,  which  may  be  made  by  the  student,  will 
answer  every  purpose  and  do  first-rate  work. 

A  tray  of  some  sort  is  necessary,  and  may  be  easily  made  of  a 
piece  of  thin  slate,  say  4  inches  by  2  J  inches,  rubbed  down 
perfectly  flat  on  each  side  ;  but  I  much  prefer  a  tray  made  of 
black  ferrotype-plate,  4  inches  by  ij  inches,  with  the  edges  on 
each  side,  and  one  of  the  ends  turned  up  neatly  about  Yifith  of  an 
inch.  On  this  tray  must  be  spread  as  thinly  as  possible,  by  gently 
shaking  from  a  pill-box  or  spoon,  a  layer  of  the  "  floatings  "  or 
other  washed  material,  for  examination.  The  tray  must  then  be 
passed  regularly  to  and  fro  across  the  stage  of  the  microscope,  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  ensure  the  examination  of  the  whole  of  the 
surface,  without  needlessly  going  over  any  part  twice.  This  may 
be  easily  done  by  commencing  at  the  side  furthest  from  us,  and 
moving  the  slide  from  the  right  to  the  left.  Then  move  the  slide 
azvay  a  distance  equal  to  the  width  of  the  field  of  view,  and 
returning  it  again  to  the  right,  examine  a  second  time  while 
passing  //w;/  right  to  left.  It  is  better  to  have  a  definite  plan  as 
here  given,  and  not  to  work  left  to  right  and  right  to  left,  but  only 
one  way,  and  I  believe  pushing  the  tray  f?'om  the  right  to  the  left 
will  be  found  most  convenient.  The  shells  should  be  picked  out 
with  the  sable  pencil,  as  before  described.  The  lower  the  power 
of  the  objective  the  better,  and  it  is  rarely  needful  to  go  higher 
than  one  inch. 

Of  all  ways  of  mounting  Foraminifera,  none  is  to  be  com- 
pared with  mounting  them  as  opaques.  When  mounted  in 
balsam,  as  transparencies,  it  is  almost,  if  not  quite,  impossible  to 
identify  the  different  species.  Foraminifera  look  best  without  a 
covering-glass ;  hence,  a  cell  which  admits  of  the  cover  being 
removed  without  injury  is  to  be  preferred.  These  may  readily  be 
made  by  selecting  ebonite  rings  of  such  sizes  as  that  one  will  fit 
just  inside  the  other  ;  the  smaller  one  should  be  well  cemented 
to  the  glass  slip,  and  the  cover  be  fixed  on  the  larger  one.  Ward's 
"  Brown  Cement"  is  first-rate  for  the  purpose,  but  old  Gold-size  will 
do.  Cells  made  of  thick  cardboard  with  a  hole  punched  through 
one  piece,  which  is  then  pasted  to  a  second,  with  a  piece  of  black 
paper  under  the  hole,  are  very  useful  and  easily  made,  and  are 
largely  used.     Section-making  scarcely  belongs  to  the  purpose  of 


AN   HOUR   AT   THE   MICROSCOPE.  140 

the  present   paper,    but  may  perhaps  claim  notice  in  a   future 
number. 

The  operation  called  "  floating,"  which  has  been  described  in 
these  papers,  was  first  made  known  by  Professor  Williamson,  in  his 
Monograph  on  British  Foraminifera  (Ray  Society),  which  contains 
excellent  figures  and  descriptions  of  most  of  our  species,  and  is 
still  the  text-book. 

For  students,  Dr.  Carpenter's  "  Introduction  to  the  Foramin- 
ifera" (Ray  Society),  also  his  papers  in  the  Philosophical  Transac- 
tions ;  a  paper  by  Parker  and  Jones  in  Philosophical  Transactions, 
on  the  Foraminifera  of  the  North  Atlantic ;  and  various  papers  in 
Annals  of  Natural  History  Magazine,  by  Dr.  H.  J.  Carter  and 
others,  will  all  be  found  full  of  valuable  and  interesting 
information. 

Charles  Elcock. 
Belfast. 


an  1bour  at  tbe  flDicroecope, 

Mttb  /ilM%  ITuffen  Mest,  ff.X.S.,  3F.lR.m3.,  zic. 


Plates  13,  14,  and  15. 

Fimaria  hygrometrica. — The  peristome  of  this  Moss  fur- 
nishes an  exquisite  object  for  the  microscope. 

In  mounting,  it  is  desirable  to  show  one  peristome,  at  least, 
looked  directly  down  upon,  and  one  in  exact  profile ;  while  ano- 
ther in  section,  to  show  the  columella,  would  add  much  to  the 
value  of  such  a  slide.  The  one  lateral  seta  developed  on  the 
inner  side,  and  near  the  point  of  each  tooth  of  the  peristome,  is 
highly  interesting ;  as  is  also  the  delicately  reticulate,  cancellous 
membrane  in  the  centre  of  each  mouth.  The  section  suggested 
would  also  show  the  set  of  sixteen  inner  peristomial  teeth,  on 
which  one  of  the  characters  of  the  genus  is  based. 

Petal  of  Geranium. — The  structure  is  one  which  is  not 
uncommon  in  petals, — an  elevation  of  the  centre  of  the  cuticular 
cells  (mostly  of  the  upper — />.,  inner  series)  into  papillae,  the 
delicate  furrows  on  vv'hich  are  often  exceedingly  elegant.  When 
these  papillae  have  still  further  developed,  they  then  form  hairs. 
The  Periwinkle,  Primrose  or  Polyanthus,  Garden  Balsam,  Snap- 


146  AN   HOUR   At 

dragon,  Borage,  or  Comfrey,  may  all  be  instanced  as  good 
examples  of  this  structure,  readily  accessible  and  not  generally 
known.  A  short  paper  on  the  subject  was  contributed  by  the 
writer  to  the  Microscopical  Society  of  London,  and  will  be  found 
in  their  "Transactions."  There  is  much  yet  to  be  learned  respecting 
them,  if  any  member  of  "  Ours  "  will  take  it  up  in  earnest.  The 
principal  points  to  be  noted  will  be  found  under  the  head  of 
"Spiral  Structure,"  "Secondary  Deposits,"  and  "Pitted  Structure," 
in  the  "  Micrographic  Dictionary." 

Cotton  Seed. — Portions,  and  even  entire  seeds,  may  not 
unfrequently  be  found  amongst  the  common  Sheet  Cotton- Wool ; 
and  with  these  should  be  examined,  for  the  sake  of  comparison,  seeds 
of  all  the  Mallow  order  which  can  be  obtained  : — five  species 
grow  wild  in  this  country.  Then  there  is  the  Althcea^  with  the 
various  species  of  Malope,  Hibiscus^  etc.,  the  names  of  which  can 
easily  be  obtained  from  any  seed-catalogue,  and  good  specimens 
purchased. 

Recent  Polycystina. — I  wish  there  were  indeed  a  "  Royal 
Road  to  Learning,"  as  those  members  who  think  that  all  which  a 
slide  can  teach  may  be  learnt  at  a  glance,  or  in  a  few  minutes  at 
best,  seem  to  suppose.  To  grasp  all  the  knowledge  which  a  good 
slide  of  these  organisms  is  capable  of  imparting  would  take  a 
couple  of  days'  steady  work.  Major  S.  R.  J.  Owen's  observations 
"  On  the  Surface  Fauna  of  Mid-Ocean  "  (Proceedings  of  Linnean 
Society's  Journal,  Vol.  VIIL,  1865,  p.  202;  and  Vol.  IX.,  1867, 
p.  147)  should  be  specially  consulted  by  any  who  would  go  into 
the  subject.  They  appear  to  render  it  certain  that  the  Polycystina 
live  oji  the  siC7-face  of  the  ocean,  appearing  mostly  at  night;  that  in 
some  tracts  they  are  exceedingly  abundant,  in  others  scanty  or 
none  at  all.  Facts  of  a  most  interesting  kind,  relating  to  self- 
division,  conjugation,  and  other  points  in  their  life-history,  so  far 
as  known,  will  be  found  detailed. 

Teeth  from  the  Sucker  of  Cuttle-Fish. — I  can  find  none  but 
most  imperfect  accounts  of  these  peculiar  rings  of  Sucker-Teeth, 
and  am  unable  to  refer  to  any  figure  whatever  of  them : — more 
information  respecting  them  would,  therefore,  form  a  very  accept- 
able contribution  to  our  knowledge.  Where  spoken  of  they  are 
described  as  "  horny,"  but  I  do  not  know  how  to  reconcile  this 
statement  with  the  condition  these  teeth  present  on  a  slide  I  am 
looking  at,  where  nearly  all  are  broken.  And  what  is  still  more 
remarkable,  the  fractures  are  transverse  !  From  mere  reasoning 
on  the  matter,  it  seems  to  me  we  should  expect  the  fibres  would  be 
best  fitted  to  resist  strain  if  they  ran  longitudinally,  and  not  across 
the  direction  in  which  a  straining  force  would  act.     I  think,  too, 


JOURN.  POST.  MICRO.  SOC,  VOL.  I.,  PL.  13 


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THE  MICROSCOPE.  147 

there  must  be  a  considerable  amount  of  earthy  impregnation,  or  they 
would  not  be  so  brittle.  How  far,  however,  the  treatment  with 
Caustic  Potash  they  have  probably  undergone  is  answerable  for 
their  present  condition,  I  cannot  say.  Caustic  Potash  is  a  dan- 
gerous ally,  of  which  members  will  do  well  to  be  as  careful  as 
they  would  of  fire ;  simple  maceration,  and  then  mounting  as  an 
opaque  object  in  a  cell  sufficiently  deep  to  prevent  all  chance  of 
crushing,  would  be  the  best  way  to  learn  the  true  structure  and 
condition  of  these  parts. 

Spines  of  Solaster  Papposa  (PI.  13,  upper  half). — The  jointing 
of  the  bony  framework  is  very  interesting  ;  and  I  wish  particularly  to 
call  the  attention  of  those  who  are  fortunate  enough  to  reside  at 
the  seaside,  or  who  possess,  or  have  access  to.  Marine  Aquaria,  to 
the  rounded  openings  in  the  integuments.  They  appear  to  be  too 
numerous  and  too  regular  to  be  accidental.  "What  is  their  pur- 
pose ?  Are  they  contractile  ?  Have  they  anything  to  do  with  a 
circulation  of  the  water  to  the  body  cavity  ?  Are  they  found  in 
others  of  the  Echinodei-mata^  and  if  so  under  what  modifications  ? 
The  spines  are  arranged  in  bundles  on  short  stalks ;  the  number 
in  different  bundles  varies  considerably,  and  judging  from  their 
arrangement  as  seen  here,  they  must  have  a  power  of  independent 
motion — possibly  like  the  vibracula  in  Polyzoa — for  sweeping  the 
surface  of  the  animal  clear  of  extraneous  particles.  It  will  be 
interesting  to  compare  the  spines  of  other  species  of  Echinodcrmata 
with  those  now  under  discussion,  which  appear  to  be  really  com- 
pound spines,  and  sessile. 

Flustra  foliacea  (PI.  14)  is  a  capital  illustration  of  a  typical 
Polyzoon.  Sometimes  the  marginal  spines  are  quite  absent; 
at  other  times  (as  in  a  specimen  now  before  me,  gathered 
on  the  coast  at  Boulogne),  they  are  exceedingly  numerous,  there 
being  an  additional  one  at  either  side,  and  one  projecting  like  a 
horn  from  the  convex  end  of  each  cell.  Such  a  condition  is 
probably  owing  to  luxuriant  growth  under  favourable  circum- 
stances. The  horse-shoe-like  plate  at  the  opening  of  the  mouth 
serves  the  purpose  of  a  little  door,  opening  and  shutting  at  will. 
An  ovicell  is  represented  in  Figs,  i  and  3 ;  specimens  are 
occasionally  found  thickly  covered  with  these  curious  egg-capsules, 
of  which  an  interesting  description  has  been  given  by  the  Rev. 
Thomas  Hincks  in  the  "  Poi)ular  Science  Review."  I  have  seen, 
after  storms,  pieces  of  this  Flustra  thrown  up  with  the  tenants  of 
these  elegant  little  "berceaunettes"  in  full  vigour  of  life,  and  expand- 
ing beautifully  when  put  into  a  basin  of  sea-water.  It  is  well  worth 
while  to  try  and  give  permanence  to  such  a  display.  This  has 
been  successfully  accomplished  in  many  cases  by  dropping  gin 


148  AN   HOUR  AT 

carefully  into  the  vessel  containing  them ;  and  the  spirit  flying  to 
their  heads,  poor  things,  they  forget  to  withdraw  their  beautiful 
plumes. 

Probably,  Glycerine  and  Water  (increasing  the  proportion  of 
the  former  as  the  latter  evaporates)  would  be  the  best  way  to 
mount  them.  Goadby's  fluid,  a  solution  of  Bay-salt,  is  apt  to  leak 
out,  and  weak  spirit  is  a  very  treacherous  material. 

On  making  sections  through  the  Polypidom,  numerous  open- 
ings are  seen  in  the  horny  walls,  whereby  circulation,  nutrition,  and 
consentaneous  action  are  secured,  through  the  medium  of  delicate 
nervous  threads. 

[Whiskey,  pure  Alcohol,  Carbolic  Acid,  and  other  like  things, 
have  all  been  recommended,  and  tried  with  more  or  less  success, 
for  the  purpose  of  instantaneously  killing  the  Polyzoa  with  their 
tentacles  exserted.  We  have  not  tested  it  personally,  but  very 
probably  tl\e  process  with  Picro-Sulphuric  Acid,  used  by  Professor 
Entz,  and  described  in  Part  II.  of  this  "Journal,"  will  be  found 
as  effective  as  any.  Only  care  must  be  taken,  in  applying  it  to 
such  species  as  have  calcareous  Polypidoms,  to  eliminate  the  acid 
as  soon  as  possible. — Editor?^ 

Haematopinus  suis  (Hog-Louse),  (PL  15,  lower  half). — The 
points  specially  to  be  attended  to  in  observing  these  creatures 
are : — The  rostrum,  which  is  highly  curious ;  the  stiff  bristles 
(whiskers)  on  either  side  of  the  mouth ;  the  tactile  papillae  (having 
probably  gustatory  functions),  which  terminate  the  antennae ;  the 
eyes  seated  on  stout  projections  immediately  behind  the  last- 
named  organs  ;  the  large  metathoracic  spiracles  ;  the  singular  and 
not  unpleasing  design  on  the  dorsal  surface  of  the  abdomen, 
which  may  be  compared  with  that  of  the  same  part  in  the  Pigeon- 
Tick,  Argas  reflcxiis ;  the  six  pairs  of  abdominal  spiracles,  of 
which  the  first  pair  differ  much  n  outline  from  the  others ; 
the  male  organs  of  generation;  the  powerful  limbs,  and  varied 
structure  of  the  parts  composing  them.  Hccmafopi7iiis  suis  is  a 
capital  type  of  the  genus  Haematopinus,  and  of  the  suctorial 
division  of  the  Anoplura. 

[This  louse  is  identical  with  a  human  parasite  prevalent  on 
beggars — one  of  three  kinds  which  honour  humanity  with  their 
company. — A.  Nicholson.] 

[Denny  gives  the  following  additional  particulars  which  may 
prove  interesting : — "  This  species  is  found  in  great  numbers  on 
swine,  but  it  does  not  appear  so  generally  spread  as  might  be 
expected  from  the  dirty  habits  of  the  animals.  It  most  frequently 
occurs  on  those  freshly  imported  from  the  Sister  Isle, 


JOURN.  POST.  MICRO.  SOC,  VOL.  I.,  PL.  14 


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THE   MICROSCOPE.  149 

"  In  walking,  this  species  uses  the  claw  and  tibial  tooth  with 
great  facility  (which  act  as  a  finger  and  thumb)  in  taking  hold 
of  a  single  hair.  The  male  is  much  smaller  than  the  female, 
with  the  abdomen  shorter,  sub-orbicular,  and  the  segments  lobate ; 
the  egg  is  three-quarters  of  a  line  in  length,  of  a  creamy  colour, 
and  slightly  shagreened,  oblong  and  slightly  acuminated,  sur- 
mounted by  a  lid,  which,  when  the  young  insect  is  ready  to 
emerge,  splits  circularly,  or,  as  a  botanist  would  say,  has  a 
circumcissile  dehiscence." — Editor?^ 

Lice  (said  to  be)  taken  from  a  Gull. — I  have  had  a  slide  sent  to 
me,  named  as  above,  and  I  find  that  the  objects  do  not  belong  to 
the  Mandibulata  as  stated.  I  compare  the  mouth  with  the  same 
part  in  the  louse  from  Partridge,  Gull,  Vulture,  or  Turkey ;  and 
then  with  the  suctorial  mouth  of  HcBmatopimis^  Fediculus,  or 
Phthiriiis.  I  ask  the  little  creatures  what  they  have  got  in  their 
maw.  Oh  !  blood  !  As  surely  do  they  tell  the  work  they've  been 
engaged  in,  as  did  the  blood  on  Lady  Macbeth's  hands.  But 
where  are  the  oval,  nucleated  corpuscles  ?  The  blood  is  not  that 
of  a  bird,  but  of  a  mammal,  and  of  a  small  one,  too.  No  suc- 
torial lice  have  ever  been  found  on  birds.  These  evidently  belong 
to  the  genus  HcEmafopinus^  and  seem  to  me  to  come  nearest  to 
the  louse  found  on  the  field  Campagnol. 

The  drawings  on  Plate  15,  lower  half,  will  serve  to  illustrate 
the  details  of  the  mouths  of  various  species  of  lice. 

[These  last  remarks  are  quoted  to  show  the  very  shrewd  way 
in  which  Mr.  West  was  accustomed  to  detect  any  error  in  naming 
the  slides  that  passed  through  his  hands. — Editor ?\ 

TuFFEN  West. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE   XIII. 


Upper,  Half. 
Portion  of  the  arm  of  Solaster  Fapposa,  showing  the  calcareous  frame- 
work,— the  membrane  supported  thereby,  with  openings  in  it, — 
and  the  bundles  of  spines,  apparently  seated  on  short  stalks. 

Lower  Half. 
These  figures  are  specially  intended  to  illustrate  the  characters  of  the 

mouth-organs  in  the  niandibulate  and  suctorial  Lice. 
Fig.  1. — Mouth  of  Louse,  said  to  have  been  taken  from  a  gull. 
,,    2. — Mouth   of    Gonioies  stylifer : — m.m.,    Mandibles;    mx.    n'uX.y 
Maxillae  ;  Ibr, ,  Labrum ;  Ih. ,  Labium. 


150  SELECTED  NOTES   FROM 

Fig.  3. — Mandibles  and  labium  (with  its  palpi)  of  Lipeurus  pelagicus 
(Louse  of  Stormy  Petrel)  (after  Denny)  : — lb. ,  Labium  ;  lb}). , 
Labial  palpus. 
,,    4. — Mouth    of    Body    Louse,    human,    Pedicidus    vestme}di,    in 
different  positions. 

a,  haustellum  withdrawn. 
6,  partially  protruded. 

c,  exhibiting  the  lateral  horny  hooks. 

d,  with  the  setiferous  sheaths. 

(Also  after  Denny.) 


PLATE   XIV. 

Illustrating  the  structure  of  Flustra  fuliacea. 
Fig.  1.  — Portion  of  the  Polypidom,  as  seen  with  a  low  power. 

,,  2. — Sketch  to  show  the  animal  protruding  from  one  of  the  cells, 
with  the  ciliated  tentacula,  x  50;  r.m.,  Retractor  muscle, 
for  drawing  it  back  into  its  cell. 

,,  3. — Portion  of  the  Polypidom,  magnified  50  diam.  o.c.  in  Figs. 
1  and  3,  represent  Ovicells. 

,,  4. — Vertical  section,  transverse,  of  the  polypidom,  showing  the 
openings  in  the  cell-wall,  whereby  vital  connection  is  main- 
tained between  all  parts  of  the  structure. 

,,  5. — Vertical  section,  ^e;t(/^/ii(;is6,  indicating  the  same  details;  o.o. 
in  Figs.  4  and  5,  openings. 


PLATE    XV. 

Lower  Half. 
Fig.  1. — Hrematopinus  suis,   ^. 
,,    2. — Anterior  leg,  more  enlarged. 
,,    3. — Antenna. 
, ,    4.  — Haustellum. 


Selccteb  Botee  from  tbe  Societ?'0 
motcvBook6. 


INORGANIC. 


Dendritic  Spots  on  Paper.— Several  short  notices  and  an 
article  on  this  subject  will  be  found  in  "  Science-Gossip,"  vols.  4 
and  5.  It  appears  that  some  authors  have  supposed  these  spots  to 
be  an  Alga,  others  a  Fungus.     The  former  have  named  it   Con- 


THE  SOCIETY*S  NOTE-BOOKS.  151 

fetua  daidritica;  the  latter  Demathim  olivaceum.  Dr.  M.  C. 
Cooke  believes  it  to  be  inorganic,  and  that  it  is  caused  by  a  speck 
of  Iron  or  Copper  Pyrites  in  the  paper. 

I  have  found  it  in  considerable  abundance  in  certain  samples 
of  Blueisk-\\\\\iQ  paper,  and  in  a  few  cases,  but  much  more 
sparingly,  on  Cream-laid  paper.  I  further  suspect  that  its  growth 
is  assisted  by  certain  atmospheric  conditions,  such  as  dampness, 
etc.  In  certain  favourable  circumstances,  it  not  only  penetrates 
the  sheet  of  paper  in  which  the  nucleus  is  found,  but  also 
insinuates  itself  into  the  next  sheets  both  above  and  below  it.  I 
am  inclined  to  think  that  this  spot  is  only  to  be  found  on  compa- 
ratively modern-made  papers,  having  searched  carefully  but 
unsuccessfully  through  some  old  account-books  that  were  used 
before  the  days  of  steel  pens. 

A.  Allen. 


I  have  noticed  these  spots  only  on  the  blueish-white  paper, 
coloured  with  smalts,  used  for  ledgers,  etc.  There  can  be  little 
doubt  that  they  are  merely  inorganic,  and  due  to  crystallization. 
The  repetition  of  crystalline  forms  lying  at  similar  angles  to  each 
other  will  produce  a  very  close  imitation  of  vegetable  forms,  as  all 
may  see  on  a  frosted  window-pane. 

Dendritic  marks  are  common  on  the  surfaces  of  the  laminse  of 
certain  rocks — as  the  Lias  and  Magnesian  Limestone — and  are 
composed  of  oxide  of  manganese,  or  sulphide  .of  lead. 

H.  Franklin  Parsons. 


On  rubbing  the  paper  with  a  piece  of  India-rubber  so   as 
partly  to  erase  the  Dendritic  spot,  it  will  be  found  to  have  spread. 

F.    W.    MORRISS. 


The  above  Notes  were  written  three  or  four  years  ago  ;  but 
within  the  last  few  weeks  I  saw  at  the  printer's  a  quantity  of 
cuttings  of  blue-white  foolscap  paper,  on  which  I  found  a  number 
of  Dendritic  Spots,  some  exceedingly  minute,  others  very  much 
larger  than  any  I  had  ever  before  noticed.  Although  I  made 
every  enquiry,  I  was  unable  to  learn  the  history  of  these  cuttings, 
further  than  that  they  were  the  waste  trimmings  of  a  job  lately 
executed.  The  paper  was  practically  quite  new,  and  I  have  every 
reason  to  believe  that  it  had  left  the  mills  at  a  comparatively 
recent   date,  yet  here  were  spots  larger  and  more  beautifully 


152  SELECTED  NOTES   FROM 

defined  than  I  had  ever  yet  seen.  This  would  lead  to  the 
inference  that  time  was  not  so  much  necessary  to  their  formation, 
but  rather  that  their  development  depends  mainly  on  the  size  of 
the  metallic  particles  forming  their  nucleus. 

A.  Allen. 


BOTANICAL. 


Crystals  in  Leaflet  of  Lathyrus  hirsutus. — Professor  Gulliver 
points  out  that  the  leaves  and  other  parts  of  most  of  the  Legu- 
mi?ioscB  contain  crystals.  In  some  plants  they  are  more  abundant 
than  in  others,  but  in  few  do  they  appear  to  be  more  plentiful  than 
in  this,  one  of  the  rarest  of  our  British  species.  Crystals  gene- 
rally require  the  Polariscope  to  show  them  properly. 

For  some  time,  all  plant-crystals  were  confused  under  the 
common  name  of  Raphides,  but  Professor  Gulliver  has  now 
divided  them  into  four  principal  classes  : — 

ist. — True  Raphides,  which  are  acicular  or  needle-shaped  in 
form,  and  with  a  rounded  shaft,  vanishing  at  both  ends  to  a  point. 
Their  general  shape  is  so  like  a  needle,  that  they  have  been 
named  after  that  useful  article,  from  the  Greek  pa(pLs,  a  needle. 
They  occur  loosely  in  bundles,  each  bundle  often  containing  some 
hundreds,  and  commonly  within  a  cell. 

2nd. — Long  Crystal  Prisms,  which  have  distinctly  angular 
sides,  and  truncate  or  pointed  ends ;  they  are  always  twice,  or 
more,  as  long  as  broad.  Sometimes  they  are  as  long  and  thin  as 
true  Raphides,  but  may  always  be  distinguished  by  their  angles. 
They  are  found  either  singly,  or  two  or  three  together — so  con- 
solidated that  they  never  admit  of  niotion  on  each  other. 

3rd. — Short  Prismatic  Crystals,  of  cuboid,  lozenge-shaped, 
square,  and  other  forms,  more  or  less  prismatic,  innumerable,  and 
contained  in  cells  firmly  impacted  in  the  tissues ;  mostly  in  chains 
along  the  vascular  bundles  of  the  plant ;  they  are  not  quite  as  long 
as  broad. 

4th. — Sphcer aphides.  These  are  globular,  conglomerate  masses 
of  Crystals,  with  their  projecting  ends  either  sharp-pointed,  or 
rounded.  Those  of  the  latter  form  are  sometimes  attached  to  the 
cell-wall  by  a  pedicel,  and  resemble  in  form  a  blackberry.  The 
Crystals  are  often  granular,  smoothish,  or  stellate  on  their  surface, 
and  are  commonly  dispersed  throughout  the  leaves  and  some  other 
parts  of  the  plant. 

Of  these   four   classes,   the  third  (Short   Prismatic   Crystals) 


THE   society's   NOTE-BOOKS.  153 

seems  to  be  the  most  varied,  and  crystals  belonging  to  it  are  to  be 
found  of  almost  every  form.  The  crystals  in  the  leaf  of  Lathyriis 
hirsutus  and  those  in  most  of  the  Leguminosae  belong  to  this  class. 
Any  two  or  more  of  the  four  varieties  may  occur  together  in  the 
same  plant.  The  sizes  and  shapes  are  not  constant,  but  may  all 
be  referred  to  one  or  other  of  these  four  classes. 

W.  H.  Beeby  and  W.  H.  Hammond. 


Those  Sphcer-aphides  which  are  "  attached  to  the  cell-wall  by  a 
pedicel  and  resemble  in  form  a  blackberry,"  may  be  found  in  great 
abundance  in  the  leaves  of  the  India-rubber  Plant,  Fiais  elastica. 
They  are  best  shown  i7i  situ  by  cutting  thin  sections  of  the  leaves, 
which  may  be  mounted  in  any  way  that  the  preparer  fancies.  A 
'•'bunch  of  grapes  "  is  perhaps  a  more  correct  simile  for  these  than 


a  "  blackberry. 


H.  M.  J.  Underhill. 


Pla?tt  Crystals. — I  should  like  to  know  whether  the  difference 
in  form  between  the  crystals  found  in  different  plants  corresponds 
to  a  constant  difference  in  the  chemical  composition  of  the 
crystalline  matters,  or  is  due  to  physiological  differences  only. 
Of  course,  the  formation  of  one  kind  of  crystalline  matter  in  one 
plant,  and  of  another  in  another,  is  in  itself  a  result  of  different 
physiological  action;  but  there  must  also  be  some  further  difference 
in  the  vital  condition  of  the  tissues,  to  cause  the  crystals  to  occupy 
such  different  positions  in  relation  to  the  cells,  as  they  do  in  the 
different  classes.  A  mere  difference  in  chemical  constitution 
would  hardly  account  for  the  crystals  in  one  case  occupying  the 
interior  of  the  cell,  and  in  another  being  imbedded  in  the  cell- 
wall.      What  is  the  chemical  constitution  of  the  crystals  ? 

In  the  Chickweed  leaf,  the  sinuous  shape  of  the  epidermal  cells 
is  very  curious ;  they  fit  together  like  the  pieces  in  a  picture- 
puzzle.  The  epidermic  cells  on  the  mid-rib  are  of  a  different 
shape  from  those  on  the  blade  of  the  leaf.  The  spiral  vessels  are 
also  well  seen,  and  their  mode  of  termination ;  or,  rather,  they 
have  no  end,  but  form  anastomosing  loops,  which  bend  round,  and 
so  join  on  with  the  bundle  in  another  nervure. 

H.  F.  Parsons. 


154  SELECTED   NOTES   FROM 

ZOOLOGICAL. 


Velia  currens  (PI.  15,  upper  half)  is  an  Hemipterous  insect 
belonging  to  the  family  HydrometridcB.  In  the  last  week  of 
December  I  found  a  little  swarm  of  about  twenty  or  thirty  strange, 
spider-like  insects  darting  forward  by  leaps  upon  the  surface  of 
running  water  in  a  brook  in  this  neighbourhood  (Norwood),  and 
after  some  trouble  succeeded  in  capturing  one.  On  comparing  it 
with  Westwood,  and  with  Douglas  and  Scott's  "  Hemiptera- 
Heteroptera,"  I  find  it  agrees  sufficiently  with  their  account  to 
enable  me  to  recognise  it  as  Velia  currens ;  but  there  are  some 
points  of  difference  in  both  descriptions  which  are  worthy  of 
notice.  Like  the  allied  genus,  Gerris,  it  is  found  under  two 
forms — a  winged  and  an  apterous  condition :  the  one  I  found  will 
be  seen  to  be  the  latter.  It  differs  from  Gei-ris  most  markedly  in 
the  stouter  and  more  oval  form  of  the  body,  the  comparative 
shortness  of  the  legs,  and  their  more  equable  distribution — the 
two  posterior  pairs  of  Gerris  being  placed  close  together,  and  at 
some  distance  from  the  anterior  pair.  Westwood  says  of  the 
Hydro7netridcB^  that  the  antennae  are  four-jointed,  the  terminal 
joints  having  occasionally  a  minute  rudimental  process  at  their 
base.  This  would  make  them  five-jointed,  and  therein  Westwood's 
statement  agrees  with  that  of  Douglas  and  Scott,  who  describe 
the  genus  Velia  as  five-jointed ;  but  if  we  include  the  rudimental 
joints  in  the  enumeration,  I  find  that  both  Velia  and  Gerris 
possess  at  least  six  joints,  if  not  more, — as  displayed  in  Figs.  2 
and  6,  PI.  15  ;  where  it  will  be  observed  that  not  only  the  terminal 
joints,  but  the  penultimate  also,  are  furnished  with  this  rudimental 
one,  thus  making  six.  There  is  also  a  ball-like  joint  at  the  base  of 
the  antennae,  but  I  am  not  quite  sure  whether  this  is  properly  to  be 
reckoned  amongst  the  components  of  the  antennae,  or  whether  it 
is  part  of  the  face. 

Again  :  Westwood  says  of  the  family  that  "  the  tarsi  are  short 
and  two-jointed,  occasionally,  however,  three-jointed,  as  in  the 
fore-tarsi  of  Velia,''  from  which  one  might  fairly  infer  that  the 
possession  of  three  joints  was  confined  to  the  fore-tarsi  alone 
of  this  insect,  instead  of  which  I  find  that  all  the  tarsi  are  three- 
jointed,  as  in  Fig.  5 ;  the  basal  joint  being  distinct  although 
minute,  like  the  before-named  rudimental  joints  of  the  antennae. 
The  ungues  in  this  insect  are  inserted  in  a  cleft  in  the  terminal 
joint,  as  in  Fig.  4,  beyond  which  they  scarcely  project.  Douglas 
and  Scott  say  that  the  apterous  form  is  common  in  small  com- 
panies on  clear  streams  from  March  to  September,  but  mine  were 
found  at  the  latter  end  of  December. 

A,  Hammond. 


JOURN.  POST.  MICRO.  SOC,  VOL.  I.,  PL.  15 


THE  society's  NOTE-BOOKS.  155 

EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  XV. 


Upper  Half. 
Fig.  1. — Velia  currens. 
,,    2  and  6. — Antennae  of  Velia  and  Gerris. 
,,    3  and  5. — Tarsi  of  ditto. 

,,    4. — Tarsus  showing  the  ungues  situated  in  a  cleft  of  the  terminal 
joint.  

Daphnia. — When  examining  these  rapidly-swimming  little 
creatures  in  the  living  state,  if  you  put  them  into  a  cell  where  they 
have  room  to  swim  about,  it  is  impossible  to  get  a  view^  of  them  for 
many  seconds  together ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  if  you  put  them 
on  a  flat  shde^  a  very  slight  pressure  applied  to  the  covering-glass 
is  sufficient  to  squeeze  out  their  interior.  The  best  way  of  seeing 
them  is  to  place  the  drop  of  water  containing  them  on  a  flat  slip ; 
drop  on  it  a  few  loose  fibres  of  cotton  wool,  and  then  put  on  the 
cover ;  they  are  thus  held  entangled  in  the  fibres,  as  in  the  meshes 
of  a  net,  and  may  be  watched  at  leisure. 

H.  F.  Parsons. 


The  eggs  in  this  genus  are  not  carried  in  external  sacs, 
as  in  Cyclops,  but  are  lodged  in  the  back,  under  the  shell ;  in 
which  receptacle  the  young  are  hatched,  and  are  there  retained 
until  the  moulting  of  the  shell.  The  eggs  produced  in  the 
autumn  are  snugly  embedded  in  a  thickened  part  of  the  carapace, 
called  the  ephippium ;  in  w^hich,  after  it  has  been  cast  off  from  the 
animal,  they  remain  until  they  are  hatched.  By  carefully  focus- 
sing, the  opening  in  the  under-side  of  the  shell,  through  which  the 
legs  are  protruded  when  swimming,  may  be  seen  under  the 
microscope. 

R.  A.  Hankey. 


Thymus  gland. — The  Thymus  is  a  body  w^hich  fills  a  large 
portion  of  the  anterior  part  of  the  thorax  in  young  mammalian 
animals.  After  birth  it  dwindles  away,  and  disappears  by  the 
time  adult-life  is  reached.  In  the  calf  it  is  called  the  "  Sweet- 
bread ;  but  the  sweetbread  of  the  pig  is  the  pancreas,  a  very 
different  organ.  The  Thymus  is  one  of  the  ductless  or  blood- 
vascular  glands ;  its  use  is  not  known,  but  is  supposed  to  be  to 
modify  in  some  way  the  blood  which  passes  through  it,  or  the 
lymph.     It  has  a  capsule  of  connective  tissue,  which  sends  in 


166  REVIEWS. 

prolongations,  or  septa,  dividing  the  gland  into  a  number  of 
lobules.  Many  lymph-vessels  are  contained  in  these  septa.  The 
substance  of  the  lobules  is  made  up  of  cells  resembling  lymph- 
cells,  supported  by  a  delicate  network  of  trabeculas. 

H.  F.  Parsons. 


[It  would  appear  from  Kolliker's  ''  Human  Anatomy,"  p.  401, 
that  the  Thymus  does  not  always  cease  growing  immediately  after 
birth,  but  continues  to  increase  up  to  the  second  year  of  life.  It 
then  generally  remains  unaltered  for  some  time  longer,  and  the 
period  at  which  it  finally  disappears  seems  to  be  somewhat 
uncertain.  KoUiker  himself  has  found  it  well  nourished,  and 
having  just  the  same  structure  as  in  childhood,  in  individuals 
twenty  years  old  ;  others  say  that  atrophy  commences  between  the 
eighth  and  twelfth  years,  whilst  the  period  of  its  complete  disap- 
pearance cannot  be  positively  referred  to  any  definite  age,  though 
it  is  not,  as  a  rule,  found  after  the  fortieth  year.  Certain  portions 
of  it  are  gradually  absorbed,  while  there  goes  on  simultaneously  a 
development  of  fat-cells  and  of  connective  tissue,  and  thus  the 
glandular  structure  becomes  in  time  entirely  effaced. — Editor?^ 


IRcpicwe* 


THE    POSTAL    PHOTOGRAPHICAL   SOCIETY. 
There  have  been  forwarded  to  us  the.  Rules  and  Prospectus  of 
this  newly-formed  Society,  and  we  herewith  subjoin  a  copy  of  the 
latter. — 

"The  Postal  Photographical  Society. — The  above  has 
been  founded  as  a  Postal  Society  for  the  convenience  of  amateurs 
in  different  parts  of  the  country,  and  with  the  following  objects — 
For  the  circulation  of  prints,  negatives,  etc.  ;  for  the  exchange  of 
photographs  and  of  information  on  photographic  matters,  and  for 
the  general  advancement  of  the  Science  and  Art  of  Photography. 
It  is  to  be  noted  that  this  Society  will  in  no  way  interfere  with  any 
Society  now  in  existence,  but  will  rather  tend  to  the  advancement 
of  existing  Societies  by  bringing  their  members  more  into  com- 
munication with  each  other.  Entrance  Fee,  2s.  6d. ;  Annual 
Subscription,  5s.  Further  information  and  a  copy  of  the  rules 
may  be  had  on  application  to  H.  H.  Cunningham,  Hon.  Sec, 
7,  Figtree  Court,  Temple.  Committee  : — G.  Allison,  Stoke-on- 
Trent  ;  F.  C.  Cowley,  Brighton  ;  T.  G.  Horton,  Royal  Military 
Academy,  Woolwich ;  J.  Pocock,  21,  Ladbroke  Grove,  London,W." 


CORRESPONDENCE.  157 

The  Hon.  Secretary  will  doubtless  be  pleased  to  supply  any 
additional  particulars  on  application.  We  wish  the  new  venture 
every  success. 


BIBLIOTHECA  MICROGRAPHICA. 

A  Bibliography  of  the  Microscope  and  Micrographic  Studies,  being 
a  catalogue  of  Books  and  Papers  in  the  library  of  M.  Julien 
Deby,  F.R.M.S.,  etc.  (D.   Bogue,   London). 

The  volume  before  us,  which,  though  part  3  of  the  series,  has 
been  published  before  parts  i  and  2,  is  devoted  to  the  literature 
of  the  DiatoviacecB.  It  was  compiled  with  the  co-operation  of 
Mr.  F.  Kitton,  F.R.M.S.,  and  treats  the  whole  subject  of  the 
Diato77iacece  in  a  thoroughly  exhaustive  manner,  and  will  doubt- 
less be  found  of  great  value  as  an  aid  in  assisting  the  student  to 
various  works  of  reference  on  the  subject. 


Mr.  Marlow,  of  Constitution  Hill,  Birmingham,  has  sent  us  a 
parcel  of  Ground-Edged  Glass  Slips,  of  various  descriptions  and 
of  superior  quality.  For  opaque  mounts,  there  are  plain  opal,  and 
coloured  slips.  Those  who  use  sunk  cells  will  find  the  clear, 
transparent  cell  in  the  opal  slide  to  have  a  very  pretty  effect.  Two 
very  efficient  and  cheap  zoophyte  troughs,  and  an  assortment  of 
round  and  square  tin  rings  of  various  thicknesses  were  also  sent. 


Correeponbence. 

The  Editors  do  not  hold  themselves  responsible  for  the  opinions  or 
statements  of  their  Correspondents. 


To  the  Editor  of  "  The  /ourfial  of  the  Postal  Microscopical  Society." 
Sir,— 

I  was  very  greatly  interested  by  the  paper  in  your  second 
number,  by  Mr.  A.  Hammond,  on  "  Stylaria  paludosa,"  as  I  have, 
for  some  time,  had  a  number  of  these  interesting  worms  in  one  of 
my  aquaria.  Not  being  very  "  well  up  "  in  the  recent  literature  on 
the  subject,  I  was  not  aware  that  their  multipHcation  by  fission 
was  doubted.     I  am  pleased  to  say  that  I  have  been  fortunate 

M 


158  CORRESPONDENCE. 

enough  to  see  this  process  take  place  on  two  or  three  occasions 
before,  and  once  since,  reading  Mr.  Hammond's  paper. 

Judging  from  my  own  observations,  I  cannot  see  how,  if  a 
little  care  was  used,  such  differences  of  opinion  could  arise. 

Let  me  take  this  opportunity  of  thanking  the  P. M.S.  for  the 
publication  of  a  Journal,  which  I  think  is  the  best  thing  of  the 
kind  I  have  yet  seen. 

Yours,  etc., 

Manchester.  Fred.  Farrow. 


To  the  Editor  of  "  The  loiirnal  of  the  Postal  Microscopical  Society'^ 

Sir,— 

A  friend  tells  me  he  has  met  with  Bacillaria  paradoxa  in 
the  Canal,  near  Stoke,  a  few  miles  from  this.  Is  not  this  unusual? 
Is  not  the  genus  supposed  to  be  marine,  or  at  any  rate  a  brackish- 
water  organism? 

Sto7ie,  Staff.  E.  Bostock. 


Water   Collecting-Apparatus. 

To  the  Editor  of  "  The  fourfial  of  the  Postal  Microscopical  Society." 

Dear  Sir, — 

I  should  be  glad  for  you  to  publish  in  your  Journal,  if  you 
think  it  worth  while,  the  following  description  of  a  piece  of 
apparatus,  which  I  have  found  very  useful  in  fishing  for  micro- 
scopic objects  in  water.  I  have  used  it  chiefly  in  searching  for 
Hydrachnidae,  and  so  far  have  found  no  other  piece  of  apparatus 
so  efficient  for  that  purpose;  it  can,  moreover,  be  easily  manufac- 
tured by  anyone  for  his  own  use. 

Obtain  a  piece  of  thick  brass  wire,  and  at  about  6  inches  from 
one  end  bend  it  into  a  ring  4  or  5  inches  in  diameter.  After 
connecting  with  some  finer  wire  the  two  extremities  of  the  ring, 
bend  the  stout  wire  at  right  angles  to  the  ring  and  continue  it  for 
about  4  inches.  Then  make  another  ring  about  ih  inches  in 
diameter,  and  there  terminate  the  wire, — leaving  the  smaller  ring, 
however,  not  quite  complete.  The  two  rings  will  thus  be  parallel 
to  each  other.  On  the  upper  ring  stitch  a  piece  of  tape,  and  to 
this  sew  a  piece  of  muslin,  made  in  the  shape  of  a  conical  bag, 
and  having  its  wider  end  affixed  to  the  tape.  Into  the  lower 
opening  of  this  bag  a  small,  wide-mouthed  glass  bottle,  of  about 
two  ounces  capacity,  should  be  fastened  by  a  piece  of  thread  or 
fine  string,  and  the  lower  ring  is  then  sprung  round  the  neck  of 


COKRESPONDENCE. 


169 


the  bottle.  The  other  end  f  of  the  brass  wire,  which  was  left 
projecting  for  about  6  inches,  is  now  to  be  firmly  lashed  to  a  light 
cane  or  stick,  and  your  apparatus  is  complete. 

Fig.   1 6. 


A  Wire  bent  into  shape. 

a  Ring  to  which  muslin  bag  is  sewn. 
b  Open  ring  to  fix  round  neck  of  bottle. 

B  Muslin  bag. 

C  Apparatus  complete,  with  bottle  D  attached. 
In  order  to  use  the  apparatus,  move  it  gently  backwards  and 
forwards  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  under  the  surface,  or  just 
above  the  bottom  of  the  pond,  and  among  the  weeds  ;  the  muslin 
will  allow  the  water  to  pass  through  it,  whilst  any  living  organisms 
will  be  retained  by  the  bottle.  This  can  from  time  to  time  be 
examined  with  a  pocket-lens,  and  when  it  is  found  to  contain 
game,  the  lower  ring  of  wire  can  be  slipped  oif,  and  the  neck  of 
the  bottle  pushed  up  through  the  upper  ring,  thus  inverting  the 
net.  The  contents  may  thus  be  poured  off  into  another  bottle, 
and  after  re-arranging  the  apparatus,  fishing  may  go  on  again. 
The  object  of  the  piece  of  wire  connecting  the  two  ends  of  the 
net  is  to  keep  all  stiif,  so  that  the  bottle  can  be  turned  in  any 
direction  and  yet  both  the  upper  and  lower  mouths  of  the  net  will 
remain  open.  A  trial  of  this  simple  apparatus  will,  I  think, 
satisfy  all  microscopic  collectors  of  its  great  utiHty. 

P.S. — The  Oribate  figured  on  Plate  lo,  Fig.  i,  is  not  Notaspis 
bipilis^  but,  according  to  Michael,  Notaspis  lucorum,  the  Zetes 
lucorujn  of  Koch.  The  Notaspis  bipilis  of  Nicolet,  or  Oppia 
cornuta  of  Koch,  is  a  very  interesting  and  not  uncommon  beetle- 
mite,  found  generally  singly,  in  moss.  It  is  at  once  distinguished 
from  lucorum  by  the  hairs  of  the  stigmata,  which  in  lucorum  are 


160 


COKRESPONDENCE. 


short,  curved,  and  flattened  in  a  pyriform  fashion,  so  as  to  appear 

as  if  knobbed  ;  whilst  in  bipilis,  they  are  long,  straight,  and  spiky 
— i.e.^  prickly. 

Fig.   17.  Fig.  18. 


Stigmatic  Hair  of  Stigmatic  Hair  of 

N,  lucorurn.  N.  bipilis. 

The  two  mites  differ  greatly  in  other  respects,  but  the  peculiar 
character  of  the  stigmatic  hairs  is  sufficient  to  distinguish  them. 

Yours  truly, 
Kirton-in-Lmdsey.  C.  F.  George. 


NOTICES  TO   CORRES- 
PONDENTS. 


All  communications  should  he  addressed  to 
'' Editm;"  care  of  Mr.  A.  Allen,  1, 
Cambridge  Place,  Bath.  They  must  he 
accompanied  by  the  name  and  address 
of  the  writers,  hut  not  necessarily  for 
jyuhlication. 

H.  E. — We  hope  to  insert  your  Paper 
in  our  next. 

E.  Bostock, — We  remember  finding 
Bacillaria  Paradoxa  some  years  ago  on 
some  Foreign  timber  floating  in  the 
Grand  Surrey  Docks,  and  we  then 
thought  that  both  had  been  imported  to- 
gether. 

C.  F.  G.— We  shall  be  pleased  to 
insert  your  promised  Paper. 

J.  E. — We  are  sorry  to  return  your 
Paper,  but  think  it  unsuited  for  our 
pages. 

Communications  received  from  N.H., 
M.  A.  H.,  J.  v.,  E.  L.,  S.  F.,  W.  E.  T. 


SALE    COLUMN. 


Advert i-iements  hy  members  arid  suhscrih' 
ers  are  inso-ted  here  at  the  rate  of  SIX- 
PENCE/or  20  tcords,  and  THREEPENCE 
for  every  additional  10  2cords  or  por^ 
tion  of  10.  — — 
Microscopic   Objects   for  Mounting. 

Fifty  preparations  accurately  named, 

2/6.— E.  H.  Philip,   4,   Grove   Street, 

Stepney,  Hull. 

BOOKS  RECEIVED. 


NoHhern  Microscopist,  from  com- 
mencement. 

Quekeit  Journal,  No.  1,  New  Series. 

Natural  History  Journal  and  School 
Hejjorter,  No.  51. 

The  Journal  (Keighley),  No.  3. 

Recent  Foraminifera 


Errata.— On  p.  91, /o?-  Echinus  read 
Echinocactus.  P.  35,  last  line  of  text, 
for   "dorsal"  read  ''dermal." 


The  Journal 


OF   THE 


Postal  Microscopical  Society. 

DECEMBER,    1882. 


®n  tbe  Structure  anb  leconomi?  of 
tbe  2)apbnla* 

THE  PEESIDENTIAL  ADDRESS. 

By  Arthur  Hammond,  Esq.,  F.L.S. 


'*2lfe^ 


Plates  18  and  19. 


■^^^ 

1 

PURPOSE  to  utilize  the  few  moments  which 
custom  places  at  my  disposal  for  the  Presidential 
Address,  by  endeavouring  to  impart  such  informa- 
tion as  lies  in  my  power,  on  what  may  indeed  be 
described  as  one  of  the  commonest  of  common 
objects  of  the  microscope. 

The  genus  Daphnia,  pre-eminently  among  the 
microscopic  Entomostraca,  is  a  favourite  with  every 
tyro  in  microscopical  science.  This  arises,  firstly, 
from  its  abundant  distribution,  seven  species  being  found  in  our 
own  country,  some  of  them  swarming  in  every  piece  of  water 
whither  microscopists  are  wont  to  resort ;  secondly,  from  its 
singular  form ;  and  thirdly,  from  the  facility  with  which  every 
portion  of  its  organization  can  be  made  out,  through  the 
transparent  cuticle  in  which  it  is  enclosed.  I  trust,  therefore,  that 
the  observations  I  shall  make  to-night  may  prove  of  general  interest. 
The  articulate  plan  of  structure  common  to  all  arthropods  is 

N 


162  ON  THE   STRUCTURE   AND 

not  easy  to  recognize  in  Daphnia.  In  no  portion  of  the  adult  is 
the  segmentation  of  the  body  so  clearly  visible  as  it  is  in  a  lobster 
or  crayfish  ;  and  the  great  extension  of  the  carapace — forming  as 
it  does  a  bivalve  shell,  enclosing  the  whole  of  the  thoracic  and 
abdominal  regions, — obscures  it  if  possible,  still  more,  so  that  the 
number  of  somites,  or  divisions  of  the  body,  can  only  be  ascer- 
tained inferentially,  and  chiefly  by  the  appendages  they  bear. 
These  are  enumerated  by  Baird,  in  his  history  of  the  British  Ento- 
mostraca,  as  follows  : — The  inferior  or  great  antennae,  the  superior 
antennae,  the  mandibles,  the  maxillae,  and  five  pairs  of  feet.*"  I 
do  not  propose  to  enter  into  a  full  description  of  all  these  organs, 
but  together  with  the  labrum  and  the  abdominal  termination  of  the 
body,  they  will  claim  our  first  attention. 

The  great  antennae  are  the  best  known :  they  are  the  in- 
ferior antennae  of  Baird.  They  are  the  sole  organs  of  locomotion, 
thus  offering  a  striking  contrast  to  the  sensory  functions  fulfilled 
by  the  corresponding  limbs  of  the  higher  Crustacea.  They  are 
moved  by  three  powerful  muscles  {m  in  m,  Fig.  4),  inserted  in 
the  integument  of  the  head.  In  the  two  branches  in  which 
they  terminate  we  may  recognize  the  exopodite  and  endopodite 
of  the  limbs  of  the  lobster  or  crayfish.  The  joints  are  furnished, 
as  we  all  know,  with  beautiful  plumose  setae.  It  is  somewhat 
curious  that  these  setae  are  always  wanting  at  the  junction  of  the 
second  and  third  joints  of  the  posterior  branch  in  the  antennae 
of  Daphnia  rotunda,  a  species  common  about  London. 

Just  below  the  beak  with  which  the  head  terminates,  (which,  by- 
the-way,  must  by  no  means  be  mistaken  for  a  mouth,)  we  find  the 
superior  antennae.  These  are  inconspicuous  organs  in  the  female 
(see  Fig.  11),  but  are  much  larger  in  the  male  and  in  the  embryo 
young.  They  are  usually  terminated  by  a  number  of  short,  stiff 
setae;  and  a  large  nervous  ganglion  in  connexion  with  them  at  the 
base  of  the  head,  shows  them  to  be  sensory  organs.  Below  the 
superior  antennae,  and  just  covering  the  mouth,  we  find  the  fleshy 
upper  lip  or  labrum  (/r.  Figs.  3,  4,  and  11).  We  may  have  to  look 
for  this  rather  closely  at  first,  as  it  lies  within  the  anterior  margin 

*  A  fuller  description  of  their  form  will  be  found  in  Baird. 


ECONOMY  OF  THE  DAPHNIA.  163 

of  the  valves,  but  occasionally  it  will  be  lifted  by  means  of  a  long 
muscle  (;;/,  Fig.  ii),  inserted  in  its  front  wall,  and  arising  from  the 
back  of  the  head,  between  the  coeca  or  rudimentary  liver,  which  will 
be  hereafter  described.  A  large  nervous  ganglion  (§',  Fig.  ii) 
occupies  a  considerable  portion  of  its  cavity,  and  blood  corpuscles 
circulate  freely  within  it.  Probably  it  is  the  seat  of  the  sense  of 
taste.  The  labrum  is  much  more  conspicuous  in  the  embryo 
young  (Fig.  1 7)  than  in  the  adult. 

The  remaining  limbs  attached  to  the  thoracic  region  of  the 
body,  together  with  the  abdomen,  are  included  within  the  valves 
of  the  carapace,  and  are  more  difficult  of  observation.  An 
oscillating  movement  just  below  the  anterior  margin  of  the 
valves  indicates  the  position  of  the  mandibles  {m  d,  Figs,  i,  3,  4, 
and  11).  These  are  stout,  bent  pieces.  If  carefully  traced,  they 
will  be  seen  to  play  on  a  pivot  at  the  junction  of  the  head  with 
the  carapace,  and  it  will  be  noticed  that  their  free  extremities 
work  against  each  other  with  a  motion  somewhat  like  that  of  the 
gizzard  of  the  Pitcher  Rotifer,  but  this  can  only  be  clearly  seen 
when  the  observer  is  fortunate  enough  to  get  a  front  view  of  the 
animal  between  the  valves.  Below  the  mandibles  are  a  pair  of 
maxillae  described  by  Baird,  but  I  have  not  succeeded  in  seeing  them. 

Following  these  are  the  five  pairs  of  feet  (i,  2,  3,  4,  5, 
Fig.  4) ;  Baird  has  described  them  in  detail  as  found  in  Daphnia 
Schcefferi,  enumerating  the  several  joints  of  which  they  are 
composed,  together  with  the  setse,  etc.,  appended  to  them;  I 
must,  however,  content  myself  with  general  observations.  The 
first  pair  of  feet  are  modified  in  the  male  (Fig.  i).  They  are 
furnished  with  a  claw  and  a  long  filament,  which  floats  outside  the 
shell,  and  supplies  a  very  good  sexual  character.  The  males  may 
at  once  be  distinguished  by  this  filament  together  with  the  greater 
size  of  the  superior  maxillae  (Fig.  i).  In  all  these  limbs  it 
appears  to  me  that  two  parts  may  be  distinguished  ;  an  external 
pouch-like  organ  (Fig.  4)  and  an  internal  part  curiously  modified 
and  furnished  with  plumose  setae  and  combs  (Figs,  i,  2,  and  19). 
Probably  we  have  here  again  the  exopodite  and  endopodite.  The 
pouch-like  organs  can  be  easily  seen  through  the  valves  of  the 
carapace ;   they  are  furnished  with  a  soft  integument  lined  by 


164  ON  THE  STRUCTURE  AND 

epidermis,  and  blood  corpuscles  may  be  observed  to  circulate 
within  them.  I  believe  they  are  the  chief  seat  of  the  respiratory 
process,  though  perhaps  this  is  also  carried  on  within  the  walls 
of  the  carapace.  The  third  and  fourth  limbs  bear  most  beauti- 
fully formed  combs, — the  branchial  plates  of  Baird, — but  this  I 
must  regard  as  a  misnomer.  They  are  employed  chiefly  in 
collecting  the  food  into  the  gutter  between  the  bases  of  the  limbs, 
which  leads  to  the  mouth.  The  abdomen  is  devoid  of  limbs,  and 
it  is  difficult  to  say,  consequently,  of  how  many  somites  it  is 
composed.  It  is  bent  upwards  towards  the  head,  and  bears  two 
or  three  fleshy  processes  on  its  dorsal  surface,  one  of  which  (/  r, 
Fig.  4)  is  instrumental  in  keeping  the  eggs  and  embryos  in  their 
places  in  the  brood  receptacle,  and  is  terminated  by  two  strong 
hooks  in  front  of  the  anus. 

The  head  of  the  Daphnia,  though  broad  in  the  embryo,  is 
often  very  narrow  in  the  adult,  where  it  encloses  the  eye,  but  it 
expands  behind  the  bases  of  the  antennae  into  a  sort  of  hood 
(/^,  Figs.  2  and  3),  which  serves  to  protect  the  delicate  cuticle  at 
the  articulations. 

The  whole  of  the  body  and  limbs  of  the  animal,  with  the 
exception  of  the  two  pairs  of  antennae,  are  enclosed  in  the  hard 
cuticular  covering  of  the  head  and  carapace  ;  the  valves  of  the 
latter  doubtless  represent  the  branchio-stegites,  or  gill-coverings  of 
the  higher  Crustacea,  and  I  believe  also  the  wings  of  Insects. 
Like  these,  they  consist  of  a  double  wall  (Figs.  7  and  8),  and  it  is 
within  this  double  wall  that  much  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood, 
which  is  so  striking  a  feature  in  these  creatures,  goes  on.  It  is 
well  to  bear  this  in  mind,  as  the  impression  so  apt  to  be  conveyed 
at  first  sight,  is  that  the  stream  of  corpuscles  carried  round  the 
posterior  margin  of  the  valves,  circulates  between  them,  an 
impression  which  a  moment's  reflection  must  show  to  be  erroneous, 
as  in  that  case  it  would  be  exterior  to  the  body.  Near  the 
anterior  margin  of  the  valves  there  is  a  curious  spiral  marking 
{s  g^  Fig.  2),  which  Leydig  calls  the  shell-gland,  and  likens  it  to 
the  green  gland  or  renal  organ  of  the  crabs  and  lobsters.  He 
also  says  that  the  two  walls  of  the  valve  are  connected  by 
trabeculae,  such  as  exist  in  the  wing-cases  of  some  beetles. 
Deposits  of  lime  sometimes  occur  within  the  valves;  these  are 
of  a  somewhat  stellate  form  (Fig.  10),  and  are  affected  by  polarised 
light.  A  deposit  of  pigment  is  also  found  in  individuals  of 
advanced  age.  In  Daphnia  SchcBffcri  I  have  found  the  animal  to 
be  an  opaque  white  from  this  cause.  Sometimes,  as  I  have  found 
it  in  D.  psittacca^  the  cavity  of  the  valves  is  seen  to  be  occupied 
with  cells  containing  granules.    These  cells  are  generally  spherical, 


ECONOMY  OF  THE  DAPHNIA.  165 

or  slightly  oval,  except  where  mutual  pressure  distorts  them ;  I 
believe  this  to  be  only  another  form  of  the  white  deposit  of 
D.  SchcE^eri. 

I  was  fortunate  enough  to  witness  on  one  or  two  occasions  the 
moulting  of  these  creatures.  The  cuticle  splits  in  definite 
directions,  one  across  the  region  of  the  heart,  and  another  extend- 
ing from  the  base  of  the  great  antennae  to  the  posterior  margin  of 
the  valves  (see//,  Fig.  2).  In  DapJmia  rotimda  I  have  observed 
that  the  line  of  fission  passes  between  the  reticulations  of  the 
valves,  but  never  across  them  (see  Fig.  25),  and  the  fact  that  the 
reticulations  in  this  part  of  the  shell  are  so  arranged  as  to  leave 
straight  lines  between  them  in  the  line  of  fission,  shows  that  the 
splitting  of  the  cuticle  is  a  matter  not  by  any  means  of  accident, 
but  of  careful  prevision.  In  DapJviia  psittacea,  the  line  of  fission 
is  indicated  by  a  row  of  minute  spines.  After  the  split  had  taken 
place  across  the  heart,  the  head  and  antennae  were  withdrawn,  then 
the  lateral  split  along  the  line  of  spines  took  place,  and  the  valves 
being  loosened,  came  off.  The  anal  hooks  and  the  covering  of 
the  feet  were  the  last  to  come  away ;  but  these  were  thrown  off 
slowly,  and  impeded  the  respiratory  movements  for  some  time. 
The  exactness  with  which  every  detail  of  the  process  of  moulting 
is  carried  out  is  well  illustrated  by  the  account  of  the  mode  in 
which  the  ephippium  is  cast,  which  has  been  furnished  by  Mr.,  now 
Sir  John  Lubbock,  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions  of  the 
Royal  Society  for  1857,  part  I.,  vol.  147  ;  but  to  understand  this, 
it  is  necessary  again  to  bear  in  mind  that  the  wall  of  the  carapace 
is  double,  and  that  the  new  carapace  is  formed  from  the  living 
epidermis  within  the  cavity — i.e.,  between  the  double  wall  of  the 
old  carapace,  and  that  the  ephippial  eggs  are  lodged  in  a  specialized 
portion  of  the  brood  receptacle  between  th,e  valves. 

The  ephippium,  as  it  is  found  after  the  moult  (Figs.  2,  24,  and 
28),  consists  of  an  external  bivalve  case,  enclosing  another ; 
within  which  last  are  found  the  eggs.  The  external  case  is  formed 
from  a  portion  of  the  outer  wall  of  the  old  shell  of  the  Daphnia, 
and  the  inner  case  from  a  corresponding  portion  of  the  inner  wall, 
and  the  newly-formed  shell  is  drawn  out  from  between  the  two, 
without  disturbing  the  relative  positions  of  the  differentiated 
portions,  which  make  the  outer  and  inner  cases  of  the  ephippium; 
so  that  after  the  moult  the  two  cases  are  found  one  within  the 
other,  as  they  were  before,  although  the  new  shell  of  the  parent 
has  been  drawn  out  from  between  them.  The  ephippium  thus 
cast  off  with  the  old  cuticle,  speedily  becomes  detached  therefrom, 
the  connection  between  them  at  the  time  of  moulting  being  very 
fragile;  in  fact,  only  just  sufficient  to  enable  them  to  come 
away  together. 


166  ON  THE  STRUCTURE  AND 

The  structure  of  the  shell  after  moulting  is  frequently  altered 
very  considerably  at  the  dorsal  portion  behind  the  line  of  fission, 
the  lozenge-shaped,  or  polygonal  reticulations,  as  the  case  may  be, 
being  here  considerably  smaller;  indeed,  where  the  ephippium  has 
been  cast,  the  reticulations  disappear,  and  are  replaced  by  irregular 
puckered  markings  (see  Fig.  21).  This  is  connected,  I  think,  with 
the  growth  of  the  shell,  which  is  more  rapid  on  the  dorsal  than  on 
the  ventral  margin,  and  is  requisite  to  produce  the  brood-receptacle, 
for  in  the  young  this  receptacle  scarcely  exists,  the  body  occupying 
the  whole  cavity.  In  connexion  with  this,  also,  I  may  mention 
that  Baird  describes  two  varieties  of  Daphnia  pitlex^  one  having 
the  spine  in  a  line  with  the  straight  dorsal  margin  of  the  shell, 
and  the  other  having  it  placed  in  a  medial  position  at  its 
extremity,  the  dorsal  margin  shewing  as  much,  or  nearly  as  much, 
flexure  as  the  ventral.  I  believe  this  does  not  arise  from  varietal 
difference  of  form,  but  from  excessive  growth  of  the  dorsal  portion 
of  the  shell  after  the  production  of  successive  broods  of  young, 
for  I  do  not  find  it  in  the  young  animals. 

The  mouth  of  the  Daphnia  is  not  easily  discovered.  It  is 
situated  immediately  under  the  labrum  or  upper  lip,  and  between 
the  grinding  surfaces  of  the  mandibles  (?;//,  Fig.  11).  Hither  are 
collected  all  the  nutritious  particles  that  come  within  reach  of  the 
current  created  by  the  movements  of  the  feet.  This  current  may 
be  seen  to  set  in  between  the  anterior  margins  of  the  valves,  as 
indicated  by  the  arrow  in  Fig.  2,  and  the  particles  are  collected  in 
a  sort  of  gutter,  commencing  with  the  posterior  pair  of  feet,  and 
extending  thence  forward  between  the  bases  of  the  limbs  to 
the  mouth,  where  they  frequently  form  a  dark  mass  (//,  Fig.  4). 
The  alimentary  canal  commences  with  a  narrow  oesophagus  {pes.^ 
Fig.  11),  which  passes  upward  into  the  head  between  the  crura  of 
the  brain;  it  is  furnished  with  muscles  (;;?',  Fig.  11)  attached  to 
the  integument,  which  occasionally  enlarge  its  diameter  so  as  to 
allow  a  pehet  of  food  to  pass,  and  closes  again  immediately  behind 
it.  It  corresponds  to  the  fore-gut  of  the  higher  Crustacea.  It 
then  suddenly  enlarges  into  a  spacious  cavity,  which  is  continued 
nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  body,  and  forms  the  mid-gut.  This 
cavity  combines  the  functions  of  stomach  and  intestine,  and  is 
furnished  with  an  outer  muscular  tunic  of  circular,  and,  probably, 
longitudinal  fibres,  within  which  is  a  glandular  epithelium,  and 
within  this  again  a  fine  soft  membranous  lining ;  under  ordinary 
circumstances  indistinguishable  from  the  epithelial  coat  with  which 
it  is  closely  connected.  Sometimes,  however,  it  is  separated  from 
the  latter  by  a  wide  interval,  and  consequently  becomes  conspicu- 
ous (see  Fig.  26,  m  I).     I  am  inclined  to  think  that  this  happens 


ECONOMY  OF  THE  DAPHNIA.  167 

previous  to  a  moult,  and  that  it  is  cast  together  with  the  external 
cuticle  of  which  it  is  the  homologue.  The  contents  of  the 
stomach,  I  have  sometimes  noticed,  exude  through  it,  as  if  it  had 
lost  its  continuity  in  places  ;  I  have  also  seen  a  similar  sloughing 
condition  of  the  internal  membrane  of  the  stomach  of  the 
larva  of  the  Crane  Fly.  The  remaining  portion  of  the  ali- 
mentary canal  consists  of  a  short  rectum,  or  hind-gut,  of  consid- 
erably less  diameter  than  the  stomach ;  it  opens  immediately 
below  the  large  pair  of  anal  hooks  (see  r,  Fig.  4).  A  peristaltic 
movement  is  visible  in  the  stomach,  a  wave  of  contraction 
passing  forward  along  that  organ.  A  pair  of  coeca  {coe.^  Figs. 
3,  4,  and  11)  are  found  in  the  head,  they  open  into  the  stomach 
at  its  commencement,  just  anterior  to  the  great  bend,  and 
represents  the  more  complicated  liver  of  the  higher  Crustacea. 
Like  the  stomach  they  are  furnished  with  muscular  walls  and  a 
glandular  epithelium.  A  movement  of  alternate  expansion  and 
contraction  commingles  their  contents  with  those  of  the  stomach. 

The  circulation  in  Daphnia  is  entirely  lacunar,  there  are  no 
such  simple  arteries  even  as  those  found  in  the  Crayfish.  The 
heart  is  lodged  in  a  special  chamber,  the  pericardial  sinus  (/  s, 
Fig.  4),  immediately  in  front  of  the  upper  end  of  the  brood 
receptacle.  Into  this  chamber  the  current  of  blood  comes  from 
the  dorsal  margin  of  the  valves,  and  enters  the  heart  by  two 
lateral  sHts  (Fig.  12).  When  from  any  cause  the  pulsation  of  the 
heart  is  retarded  these  slits  may  be  seen  to  open  and  close 
alternately.  From  the  heart  the  circulation  proceeds  into  the 
head,  bathing  the  great  nervous  centres,  and  passing  into  the 
labrum  ;  from  thence  its  course  becomes  much  more  obscure.  A 
strong  current,  however,  circulates  within  the  valves,  /.<?.,  between 
their  double  walls,  and  collecting  at  their  dorsal  margin,  passes 
thence  back  to  the  heart.  In  the  abdomen  also  a  strong  current 
is  seen  passing  between  the  stomach  and  the  body-wall  towards 
the  heart,  before  reaching  which  it  seems  to  encounter  another 
current  coming  from  that  organ  ;  this  latter,  however,  I  believe 
separates  on  either  side  of  the  stomach  and  passes  over  toward 
the  feet ;  currents  are  also  seen  in  the  pouches  of  the  feet. 

The  heart  is  stated  by  Leydig  to  beat  at  the  rate  of  from  200 
to  250  times  in  a  minute.  The  circulation,  I  have  sometimes 
observed,  is  better  seen  in  Daplmia  vetula  than  in  the  other 
species,  the  corpuscles  being  larger.  The  blood-plasma,  usually 
colourless,  is  under  some  circumstances  found  tinged  with  red  to 
such  extent,  as  to  impart  a  ruddy  hue  to  the  water  in  which  the 
creatures  live ;  it  is  then  singularly  like  the  red  fluid  circulating 
in  the  closed  vessels  within  the  bodies  of  worms,  except  that  the- 


168  ON  THE  STKUCTURE  AND 

latter  does  not  contain  corpuscles.  With  regard  to  their  respira- 
tion, Baird  calls  the  beautiful  comb-like  organs  attached  to  the 
third  and  fourth  pairs  of  feet,  branchial  plates.  I  think,  however, 
that  this  must  be  altogether  a  mistake,  if  it  implies  that  respiration 
takes  place  in  them.  They  are  surely  unfitted  for  such  a  function, 
the  hard  slender  teeth  of  the  combs  are  but  ill-adapted  to  bring 
the  blood  into  contact  with  the  external  medium,  and  it  is  doubtful 
whether  the  corpuscles  could  pass  into  them.  The  soft  integument 
of  the  pouches,  where  we  see  that  circulation  at  least  does 
certainly  take  place,  appears  much  better  adapted  for  the  purpose. 
The  combs  may  undoubtedly  serve  a  subsidiary  purpose  by  helping 
to  cause  the  influx  of  water  through  the  valves,  though  that 
would  seem  to  be  accomplished  more  by  the  action  of  the  feet  as 
a  whole,  than  by  that  of  the  combs  alone,  which  I  believe  are 
mainly  instrumental  in  causing  that  accumulation  of  food 
substances  between  the  bases  of  the  feet,  which  is  the  first  step  in 
the  act  of  feeding.  Leydig  considers,  and  I  think  with  reason, 
that  the  respiratory  process  is  also  largely  carried  on  within  the 
valves,  where  a  much  larger  circulation  is  maintained  than  seems 
to  be  necessary  simply  for  the  reparation  of  their  tissues.  The 
internal  wall  of  the  valves  is  delicate  enough  to  subserve  the 
purpose,  and  its  extent  is  all  that  could  be  desired. 

The  nervous  system,  with  the  exception  of  the  cephalic 
ganglia,  has,  I  believe,  not  been  made  out.  The  latter  are  seen 
in  the  embryo  to  form  a  nearly  continuous  mass  of  nerve  substance, 
in  the  front  of  the  head ;  they  subsequently  become  differentiated, 
as  follows  : — A  cephalic  ganglion  or  brain  (^r.  Fig.  ii)  of  a  trian- 
gular shape  lies  in  front  of  the  oesophagus,  the  apex  extending  to 
the  black  spot  (s),  which  has  been  supposed  to  represent  the  eye  of 
Cyclops,  and  the  ocelli  of  insects.  Posteriorly  this  is  continued 
as  two  nervous  cords  or  crura,  which  embrace  the  labral  muscle 
and  the  oesophagus,  beyond  which  it  cannot  be  traced.  A  smaller 
nerve  mass,  above  this  (o  n),  represents  the  united  optic  nerves  of 
the  eye.  From  the  rounded  extremity  of  the  latter,  nervous  cords 
are  given  off  to  the  several  visual  rods.  A  large  ganglion  (g), 
connected  by  cords  with  the  brain,  is  given  off  to  the  superior 
antennae,  and  another  (g)  occupies  part  of  the  cavity  of  the 
labrum,  thus  indicating  that  both  these  are  sensory  organs. 

The  eye  of  Daphnia  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  parts  of 
its  organization.  At  first  sight  it  seems  to  form  an  exception  to 
the  usual  form  of  the  visual  organs  in  the  higher  Crustacea,  in  two 
important  respects  :  firstly,  that  it  is  single  ;  and  secondly,  that  it 
is  apparently  immersed  in  the  body  cavity,  and  thus  dissociated 
from  the  epidermic  tissues  with  which  it  is  in  other  cases  associ- 


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ECONOMY  OF  THE  DAPHNIA.  16D 

ated,  and  from  which  it  derives  its  origin.  Both  these  exceptions 
to  the  general  rule  are,  however,  I  am  convinced,  apparent  rather 
than  real.  I  have  repeatedly  observed  that  the  organ  is  double  in 
the  earliest  stages  of  embryo  Hfe,  the  two  pigmentary  masses  being 
perfectly  distinct  (see  Figs.  i6  and  27),  and  even  in  adults,  if  a 
good  front  view  be  obtained,  the  duplicature  is  still  indicated  by  a 
notch ;  Leydig,  too,  I  find,  has  observed  such  to  be  the  case. 
This  coalescence  of  the  eyes  seems  to  be  in  conformity  with  that 
general  alteration  which  takes  place  in  the  body  of  the  embryo, 
whereby  it  is  reduced  from  a  depressed  larval  form  to  a 
compressed  condition  in  the  adult.  The  remaining  anomaly 
implied  in  the  immersion  of  the  eye  within  the  body  cavity, 
puzzled  me  for  a  long  time,  and  was  only  revealed  lately  by  the 
accidental  circumstance  of  my  having  under  examination  a 
specimen  deeply  coloured  by  the  red  tinge  which  these  animals 
sometimes  exhibit,  and  which  resides  in  the  plasma  or  fluid  of  the 
blood.  The  eye  is,  as  in  all  other  cases,  formed  by  an  invagination 
of  the  epiblast,  or  external  cellular  tunic  of  the  embryo  ;  but 
the  invagination  in  this  case,  I  believe,  proceeded  farther  than 
usual,  so  as  to  suffice  not  only  for  the  formation  of  the  organ, 
but  for  its  reception  in  a  cavity  between  it  and  the  cuticle,  or 
hard  outer  investment.  This  cavity  becomes  subsequently  closed 
at  the  neck  by  the  ingrowth  of  the  epiblast,  and  forms  an  internal 
sac  {0  s,  Fig.  11),  in  which  the  eye  rests,  and  is  balanced  therein 
by  muscular  action.  The  sac  is,  I  have  reason  to  believe,  filled 
with  nothing  but  water.  The  cuticular  covering,  which  in  other 
Crustacea  and  in  insects  takes  part  in  the  formation  of  the  corneal 
lenses,  does  not  enter  into  the  composition  of  the  eye  of  Daphnia; 
no  such  lenses  exist,  a  deficiency  which  necessarily  follows  the 
dissociation  of  the  organ  from  its  internal  surface,  and  its  mobile 
condition.  It  consists  therefore  of  only  the  crystalline  cones,  and 
the  rods  surrounded  by  pigment  cells  ;  which  form  the  epidermic 
structures  in  other  arthropods,  arranged  in  a  nearly  spherical 
form.  In  the  embryo  the  eye  is  stationary,  the  sac  not  having  yet 
been  formed.  It  is,  moreover,  in  close  proximity  with  the  optic 
ganglion,  another  point  of  rapprochement  with  the  more  typical 
forms,  which,  as  development  proceeds,  disappears  by  the  formation 
between  them  of  a  number  of  nervous  cords,  one  apparently  for 
each  visual  rod,  thus  providing  for  the  subsequent  characteristic 
mobility  of  the  organ. 

In  the  adult  the  optic  sac  is  rounded  in  front,  where  it  is  in 
close  proximity  to  the  general  epidermic  layer  underlying  the 
cuticle,  and  its  under  surface  towards  the  optic  nerve  is  of  a 
bulging  form,  somewhat  Uke  the  surface  of  a  cushion  puckered  in 


170  ON  THE  STKUCTURE   AND 

places  by  strings  attached  to  buttons.  In  fact,  it  is  a  hydrostatic 
cushion,  inflated  by  the  varying  pressure  of  the  blood  in  the  body- 
cavity  beneath  it,  the  strings  of  the  cushion  being  represented  by 
contractile  muscular  fibres  {7n\  Fig.  ii),  four  or  more  in  number, 
arising  from  points  of  the  exo-skeleton  on  either  side  the  head. 
If  the  muscular  action  exceed  the  pressure  of  the  blood  on  one 
side,  the  eye  will  be  drawn  round  on  its  cushion  toward  that  side, 
and  vice  versa;  the  movements  of  the  eye  are  the  result  therefore 
of  a  beautiful  balance  of  muscular  action  and  hydrostatic  pressure, 
I  have  met  with  similar  examples  in  the  insect  world. 
The  action  of  the  muscles  is  probably  entirely  reflex,  in  common 
with  most  if  not  all  the  actions  of  the  creature.  I  have,  on 
former  occasions,  in  the  Note-Books  of  our  Society,  represented 
the  muscles  as  passing  round  the  eye  like  a  rope  round  a  pulley. 
This,  however,  I  now  see  to  be  a  mistake.  A  curtain  of  connective 
tissue  passes  down  in  front  of  the  eye  and  confines  the  distending 
current  of  blood  within  its  proper  limits.  It  is  only  in  those 
specimens  whose  blood  has  a  red  tinge,  that  the  optic  sac  is 
rendered  evident,  its  bulging  lower  surface  having  been  previously 
mistaken  by  me  for  shreds  of  connective  tissue.  It  may  perhaps 
be  thought  strange  that  the  optic  sac  should  have  become  thus 
separated  from  the  adjacent  epidermic  tissue  of  the  head,  and 
wholly  immersed  in  the  mesoderm  of  the  body,  but  this  is 
precisely  what  happens  with  the  whole  extent  of  the  nervous 
cord  itself,  which  by  a  like  process  of  invagination,  eventually 
becomes  separated  from  the  epiblastic  tissues  which  gave  it  birth. 
I  may  add  that  at  one  period  of  its  development  the  eye  is 
seen  to  consist  of  a  central  mass  of  pigment  (Fig.  22),  surrounded 
by  large  transparent  truncated  cells,  at  the  bottom  of  each  of 
which  is  a  crystalline  cone  in  course  of  formation.  Finally,  I 
would  ask  whether  the  absence  of  corneal  lenses,  accompanied  as 
we  see  it  is  by  a  mobile  condition  of  the  remaining  visual  elements, 
may  not  suggest  a  connexion  between  these  two  conditions,  and 
throw  some  further  light  on  the  functions  of  the  cornea  in 
arthropods  generally. 

The  reproduction  of  Daphnia  has  been  well  described  by  Sir 
John  Lubbock,  in  the  paper  already  referred  to.  All  the  stages  of 
egg-development  may  be  seen  and  studied  with  advantage.  In 
some  the  rudiments  of  the  eggs  only  are  seen  in  the  ovary,  in 
others  the  eggs  have  passed  from  this  into  the  brood-chamber  or 
receptacle,  and  in  others  the  egg-covering  or  vitelline  membrane 
has  been  cast  off,  and  the  embryo  young  are  gradually  assuming 
the  mature  form.  This  constitutes  the  ordinary  or  agamic  process 
of  reproduction,  and  it  will  be  noticed  that  I  have  spoken  of  these 


ECONOMY  OF  THE  DAPHNIA.  171 

bodies  as  eggs,  thus  following  Sir  John  Lubbock's  lead  without 
prejudice  to  the  disputed  point  as  to  whether  they  are  properly 
entitled  to  the  term,  or  can  only  be  described  as  buds.  Beside 
this,  reproduction  is  carried  on  by  what  is  believed  to  be  a  true 
sexual  process,  resulting  in  the  production  of  ova  which  are  des- 
tined for  a  slower  course  of  development,  and  for  that  purpose  are 
enclosed  in  a  specialized  portion  of  the  brood-receptacle,  called 
the  ephippium  (Figs.  2,  24,  and  28).  I  will  first  describe  the 
course  of  the  agamic  eggs,  partly  from  Sir  John  Lubbock's  obser- 
vations, and  partly  from  my  own.  The  ovaries  are  placed  on 
either  side  of  the  alimentary  canal,  and  contain,  surrounded  by  a 
cellular  matrix,  the  bodies  which  Sir  John  calls  ovarian  masses 
(Figs.  9  and  14).  They  each  contain  from  two  to  four  or  five 
cells,  each  with  a  large  circular  nucleus  in  the  centre.  Four  or 
five  of  these  usually  follow  each  other,  and  it  appears  that  those 
nearest  the  heart  are  earliest  in  their  development.  In  course  of 
time,  all  but  one  of  the  nucleated  cells  disappear  from  the  ovarian 
masses.  One,  however,  remains  and  becomes  the  germinal 
vesicle.  Dark  granules  and  oil-globules  (Fig.  15)  collect  around 
it,  and  the  yelk  thus  formed  is  of  a  greenish  hue  in  all  the  speci- 
mens of  Daphia  pulex  which  I  have  specially  examined.  When 
one  brood  of  young  are  on  the  point  of  passing  from  the  recep- 
tacle into  the  water  to  commence  an  independent  fife,  the  ovary 
may  be  seen  filled  with  a  mass  of  these  ova  ready  to  take  their 
places. 

It  would  be  interesting  to  observe  how  the  ova  make  their  way 
from  the  ovaries  into  the  receptacle.  Sir  John  Lubbock  speaks 
somewhat  doubtfully  of  their  passing  out  near  the  heart,  and  I 
should  think  it  probable  that  such  is  the  case,  inasmuch  as  the 
more  advanced  eggs  always  appear  to  be  in  this  situation,  but  I 
have  not,  neither  has  Sir  John,  been  able  to  detect  any  duct  by 
which  they  make  the  passage.  The  eggs,  when  they  have  passed 
into  the  receptacle,  are  surrounded  by  a  covering  which  Sir  John 
Lubbock  describes  as  the  vitelline  membrane,  and  the  contents 
appear  to  me  to  be  granules  and  small  cells,  having  a  large  and 
conspicuous  oil-globule  in  the  centre  (see  Fig.  23).  Curiously 
enough,  the  eggs  are  now  of  a  reddish-yellow  hue,  at  least,  in 
Dap/mia  pulex,  where  alone  I  have  particularly  observed  them,  the 
green  hue  subsequently  again  prevailing  through  the  multiplication 
of  green  cells,  each  containing  an  oil-globule.  At  this  time,  the 
blastodermic  layer  is,  I  believe,  in  course  of  formation,  but  my 
optical  means  will  not  allow  me  to  speak  with  certainty  on  the 
point.  The  green  cells  which  Sir  John  Lubbock  describes  as 
yelk-masses  become  larger  and  are  aggregated  round  the  large, 


172  ON  THE  STRUCTURE  AND 

central  oil-globule.  They  appear  to  me  to  be  mesodermic  cells, 
analogous  to  the  fatty  rete  of  insects  ;  and,  like  them,  they  are 
more  abundant  in  the  earlier  stages  than  in  the  adult,  and  are 
largely  utilized  in  the  elaboration  of  the  structures  which  specially 
characterise  the  adult,  where  they  become  consequently  less  con- 
spicuous. 

A  primary  separation  of  the  head  from  the  body  can  be  seen 
even  before  the  embryo  quits  the  egg,  which  it  now  does,  the  cast 
vitelline  membrane  being  frequently  seen,  together  with  the 
embryos,  in  the  receptacle.  The  emlDryos  (Fig.  17)  are  now  of  a 
flattened  or  depressed  form,  strikingly  in  contrast  with  the  com- 
pressed condition  of  the  adult,  the  diameter  from  the  dorsal  to  the 
ventral  surfaces  being  much  less  than  that  from  side  to  side.  In 
the  centre  is  seen  the  large  oil-globule,  and  the  green  cells  by 
which  it  is  surrounded.  The  embryos  are  enveloped  at  this  time 
in  a  delicate  skin  [sk.,  Fig.  17),  of  which  Sir  John  Lubbock  says 
that  as  it  was  not  present  when  the  egg  was  laid,  it  must  have  been 
formed  since,  and  he  draws  the  conclusion  that  the  young 
Daphniae,  so  far  from  undergoing  no  metamorphosis,  do  in  fact 
enter  the  world  in  a  very  rudimentary  condition,  and  that  only 
after  the  first  change  of  skin  do  they  assume  the  distinctive 
characters  of  the  genus.  This  skin  is  subsequently  shed,  but 
previously  to  that  we  perceive  the  rudiments  of  the  anterior  limbs, 
viz.,  the  two  pairs  of  antennae,  the  mandibles,  and  the  first  pair  of 
maxillae,  all  in  the  form  of  rounded  buds,  except  the  great 
antennae,  which  are  longer.  The  remaining  limbs  are  as  yet  only 
indicated  by  notches.  In  the  greater  development  of  the  anterior 
limbs,  the  animal  certainly  bears  a  resemblance  to  the  Nauplius 
form  of  Cyclops  and  many  other  Crustacea. 

At  this  time,  too,  we  may  discern  the  carapace  as  a  flat  plate, 
covering  little  more  than  half  the  body  (Fig.  20),  somewhat 
notched  behind ;  while  from  the  centre  of  the  notch  proceeds  the 
terminal  spine,  no  appearance  as  yet  being  visible  of  any  approxi- 
mation to  the  lateral  margins,  such  as  that  which  subsequently 
converts  it  into  a  bivalve  shell.  The  enveloping  skin  is  now  cast 
off,  as  was  previously  the  vitelline  membrane,  and  development 
rapidly  proceeds,  l^vo  patches  of  pigment  indicate  the  future 
eyes ;  the  heart  begins  to  beat,  at  first  slowly,  and  part  of  the 
alimentary  duct  can  now  be  discerned ;  the  large  oil-globule  has 
disappeared,  but  the  smaller  cells  are  still  very  conspicuous.  The 
posterior  limbs  are  gradually  formed,  and  the  creature  is  ready  for 
an  independent  existence.  Such  is  the  course  of  what  Sir  John 
Lubbock  calls  the  agamic  eggs.  The  ephippial  eggs  pursue  a 
course  differing  in  many  important  respects,  but  I  have  not  been 


ECONOMY   OF  THE  DAPHNIA.  173 

able  personally  to  make  any  satisfactory  observations.  Sir  John 
Lubbock  says  they  are  produced  from  two  determinate  ovarian 
masses  in  the  lower  part  of  the  ovary,  one  on  each  side  ;  thus, 
there  are  never  more  than  two  to  fill  the  two  ampullae  of  the 
ephippium.  Their  development  in  the  ovary  is  not  accompanied 
by  the  presence  of  oil-globules,  as  is  the  case  with  the  agamic 
eggs,  and  they  are  much  darker  in  colour  (see  Figs.  13  and  6). 
Sir  John  Lubbock  has  witnessed  the  passing  of  the  yelk-mass  from 
the  ovaries  into  the  receptacle,  where  they  are  received  into  a 
specialised  portion  indurated  by  a  dense  cellular  growth  (Fig.  28), 
which  speedily  closes  upon  them.  They  are  then  cast  off  with  the 
next  moult,  secure  in  their  covering  against  the  adverse  influence 
of  drought,  or,  as  some  say,  of  the  winter's  cold,  but  the  former 
appears  to  me  the  more  probable  hypothesis,  inasmuch  as  I  have 
found  the  ephippia  produced  in  the  greatest  abundance  in  the 
months  of  May  and  June,  when  the  concurrent  abundance  of 
males  gives  weight  to  the  beHef  that  the  eggs  so  produced  are  true 
sexual  products.  The  position  of  the  testis  in  the  male  cor- 
responds to  that  of  the  ovary  in  the  female,  and  is  shewn  at  /, 
Fig.   I. 


EXPLANATION    OF    PLATES    XVIII.    and    XIX. 


Fig.  1.  — Male  Daphnia  psittacea,  showing  sa. ,  large  superior  antennse ; 
1,  first  pair  of  feet,  with  hook  and  filament  ;  md. ,  mandible  ; 
t.,  testis. 
,,  2.— Female  D.  psittacea:  h.,  the  hood  ;  s  g,,  the  shell-gland  ;//., 
lines  of  fission  of  the  carapace;  ejjJi.,  ephippium  with  two 
eggs. 

ii     3. — Front  view  of  head  of  D.  vetula :   cce.,  the  coeca  ;  Ir.,  the 

labrum  ;  x  x.,  jointed  organs  at  base  of  the  great  antennse, 

the  rest  as  before. 
,,     4. — Female  D.  psittacea,  showing  agamic  eggs  in  brood  receptacle : 

mmm.,  muscles  of  antennse  j/^?.,  dark  mass  of  food  particles  ; 

ht.,   heart  ;  |js.,  pericardial   sinus  ;  1,  2,  3,  4,   5,   pouches    of 

five   pairs   of  feet  ;    a. ,  anus  ;    r. ,  rectum  ;    pr. ,    process   of 

abdomen  retaining  eggs. 
,,     5. — Portion  of  shell-gland  of  D.  pulex. 
,,     6. — Ephippial  egg  of  D.  psittacea. 
,,     7. — Diagram,  section  of  carapace,  showing  double  wall  with  blood 

globules  between. 
,,     8. — Ditto,  showing  ephippium  closing  upon  the  egg. 


174  STKUCTURE   AND   ECONOMY   OF  DAPHNIA. 

Fig.    9. — Ovarian  mass,  with  nucleated  cells. 
,,  10. — Deposit  of  lime  from  carapace. 
,,  11. — Head  of  D.  pulex  :  os.,  optic  sac  ;  m.,  muscle  of  labrum  ; 

m',  muscle  of  oesophagus  ;  m",  one  of  the  muscles  of  the  eye ; 

br.,  brain ;  on.,  optic  nerve  ;  g,  ganglion  of  superior  antenna  ; 

g',  ganglion  of  labrum  ;  ces.,   oesophagus  ;  st,,  stomach  ;  mt.j 

mouth  ;  s. ,  dark  spot  ;  the  rest  as  before. 
,,  12. — Heart,  showing  slit. 

,,  13. — Ephippial  egg  from  ovary  of  D.  psittacea. 
,,  14. — Ovary  of  D.  jjsittacea :  mm.,  cells  of  matrix;  om.,  ovarian 

masses.     This  is  as  seen  immediately  after  the  passage  of 

the  mature  eggs  into  the  brood  receptacle. 
,,  15. — A  more  advanced  condition  of  the  ovary,  showing  six  agamic 

eggs,  containing  oil-globules  and  granules. 
,,  16. — Double  eye-spots  in  embryo  of  D.  vetula. 
,,   17. — Embryo    of    D.     psittacea    highly  magnified,    showing  sa., 

superior    antennae ;    ^  a. ,    inferior   or    large    antennae  ;     Ir. , 

labrum  ;  md. ,  mandibles  ;  g. ,  large   oil-globule  ;    mc. ,  green 

cells  of  mesoderm  ;  sk. ,  enveloping  skin. 
,,  18. — Embryo  D.  psittacea,  shov/ing  large  antennae  and  coiled-up 

spine,  sp. 
,,  19. — Comb,  or  so-called  branchial  plate  of  D.  pulex. 
,,  20. — Early  stage  of  embryo  of  D.  pulex,  showing  short  flattened 

carapace  and  spine. 
,,  21. — D.  rotunda,  showing  large  reticulations  at  anterior  margin, 

passing  into  smaller  ones  behind,  and  irregular  puckerings 

where  the  ephippium  has  been  cast  off. 
,,  22. — Embryo  eye  of  D.  -pulex,  Avith  truncated  cells  and  incipient 

crystalline  cones. 
, ,  23.  — Agamic   egg   of  D.   pulex :    vm.,    vitelline  membrane  ;  bl. , 

blastoderm  ;  g. ,  oil-globule,  surrounded  by  cells. 
,,  24. — Section  of  ephippium,  showing  inner  and  outer  case   with 

egg- 
, ,  25.  — Portion  of   carapace  of   D.  rotunda,  showing  ///. ,  lines  of 

fission. 
,,  26. — Portion  of  stomach  of  i).  psittacea;  m  Z., soft  inner  membran- 
ous lining. 
,,  27. — Double  embryo  eye  of  D.  psittacea. 
,,  28. — Ex^hippium,  showing  cellular  induration. 


[175] 


©It  tbe  Si3e  of  ©uet^-particlee  of  Mbeat 
anb  CoaL 

By  Hahnemann  Epps, 
Associate  of  King's  College,  London. 


ATTENTION  may  with  advantage  be  directed  to  the  general 
subject  of  subdivision,  when  it  is  remembered  what 
important  resuhs  are  caused  by  the  minute  dust  of  many 
substances.  I"  will  now  refer,  however,  only  to  the  powerful 
agency  exerted  by  such  inert  substances  as  the  minutest  motes  of 
wheat  and  coal.  The  subject  of  dangerous  dusts  has  been 
treated  of  by  such  eminent  men  as  Faraday,  Lyell,  Galloway, 
Abel,  and  others. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  greatest  risks  in  a  flour-mill  arise  from 
the  development  of  as  much  heat  as  will  ignite  the  fine  particles 
of  flour.  This  heat  is  due  to  the  (temporary)  arrestment  of  the 
supply  of  grain,  or  to  the  use  of  naked  flames  when  the  air  is 
charged  with  fluur-dust,  or  "  stivings."  The  conditions  under 
which  a  consequent  liability  to  explosion  arises  are  scarcely  at 
present  fully  defined ;  indeed,  it  is  unfortunately  the  conviction  of 
many  practical  millers,  that  whatever  precautions  may  be  taken, 
the  risk  of  explosion  from  such  causes  can  be  only  minimized. 
Explosions  and  fires  in  flour-mills  from  this  cause  do  every  now 
and  then  attract  attention,  causing  lamentable  loss  of  life  as  well 
as  of  property. 

Again,  it  is  pretty  well  established  that  coal-dust  plays  an 
important  part  in  the  serious  explosions  that  unfortunately  are  of 
such  frequent  occurrence  in  coal-mines.  From  the  time  of 
Faraday  (1845)  ^^  the  present  day,  this  conviction  has  been 
gradually  strengthening.  It  had  often  been  noticed  that  the  per- 
centage of  fire-damp  requisite  to  cause  the  air  of  a  mine  to 
become  explosive  was  by  no  means  constant,  and  that  the  same 
mixture  might  or  might  not  be  liable  to  explosion  according  to 
circumstances.  Gradually,  an  impression  which  had  long  been 
felt,  that  the  explosive  property  was  due  to  a  third  factor — coal- 
dust — became  strong,  and  has  now  at  length  been  demonstrated 
by  experiment. 

It  willj  therefore,  be  a  subject  of  great  interest  to  the  micros- 


176 


DUST-PARTICLES   OF  WHEAT   AND   COAL. 


copist  to  observe  what  variations  or  similarity  in  the  size  of  the 
dust-particles  of  the  two  substances,  wheat  and  coal,  there  appears 
to  be. 

I  have  been  unable  to  gather  the  dust  required  for  my  purpose, 
either  in  the  coal-mine  or  in  the  flour-mill,  and,_  therefore,  have  had 
to  content  myself  with  a  simple  mode  of  collection.  In  the  case  of 
coal,  I  have  collected  the  dust  on  shelves  placed  at  fixed  distances 
from  the  coal-trap  of  a  large  cellar,  during  the  unloading  of  several 
tons  of  coal ;  and  in  the  case  of  wheat-flour,  in  a  similar  manner 
during  the  sifting  of  flour  in  a  confined  space.  After  collecting 
the  samples  of  dust,  I  have,  by  gentle  tappings,  transferred  minute 
portions  to  glass  sUps  for  examination,  taking  care  that  the  par- 
ticles have  been  evenly  distributed  on  the  surface.  The  micros- 
copical examinations  have  been  made  with  a  i-inch  objective, 
A  eye-piece,  and  stage  micrometer,  and  by  reflected  light.  In 
cases  where  variation  in  the  diameters  of  particles  (which  in  both 
cases  are  very  rugged)  has  been  observed,  as,  e.g.,  of  an  oblong 
spheroid,  I  have  recorded  the  smaller  diameter.  I  have  chosen  for 
examination  groups  of  about  250  particles,  evenly  distributed  over 
the  field,  and  have  endeavoured  to  secure  the  same  conditions  of 
observation  in  each  case. 

Wheat-Flour. — I  have  examined  three  samples: — (i)  fine 
household  flour,  (2)  dust  from  it  collected  4  feet  off,  and  (3)  dust 
from  it  collected  6  feet  off". 


I. — Flour. 

No.  of   Fraction 
particles,  of  inch. 

3=-oo25o 

6=*ooi5o 
I  i  =  -ooioo 
3o=-ooo75 
50= -00050 
5o='ooo25 
5o='oooi5 
5o='oooio  (&less) 


2. — Dust  at  4  ft. 

No.  of     Fraction 
particles,   of  inch. 
2  =  '00250 

5=:-ooi5o 

8="ooioo 
2o=*ooo75 
3o='ooo5o 
4o="ooo2  5 
55=-oooi5 
90='oooiO(&less) 


3. — Dust  at  6  ft. 

No,  of    Fraction 

particles,   of  inch. 

0=*00250 

o=*ooi5o 

4=-ooioo 

8="ooo75 

i3="ooo5o 

25  =  '00025 

45=-oooi5 

I55="OOOIO  ^&  less) 


2sO 


250  250 

CoAL-DusT. — I  have  examined  also  three  samples  from  Welsh 
coal,  collected  at  distances  of  4,  6,  and  1 1  feet. 

I. — Dust  at  4  ft.        2. — Dust  at  6  ft.      3. — Dust  at  11  ft. 

No.  of   Fraction  No.  of     Fraction  No.  of   Fraction 

particles,  of  inch.  particles,    of  inch.  particles,  of  inch. 

9=-00250  2  =  '00250  0='00250 

i6=-ooi5o  8=*ooi5o  4=-ooi5o 


JOURN.  POST.  MICRO.  SOC,  VOL.  I.,  PL.  17 


1/ 


3. 


# 


>1 


7. 


8. 


9. 


1.^ 


:9 


rfv 


)S,j 


10. 


r 


11. 


12. 


m 


^-^^-/ 
^-^C^ 


.-5^ 


Wv 


13. 


14. 


15. 


16. 


17 


18. 


>A'~ 


^ 


Q: 


19. 


20. 


21. 


22. 


23. 


24. 


^ 


\ 


<-/ 


25. 


26. 


27. 


28. 


29. 


30. 


-\^i 


A. 


->' 


fSdl 


Mi! 


31. 


32. 


33. 


34. 


35. 


r\ 


% 


tr-r// 


zi^S 


x^ 


36. 


V 


a 


THE  BURSTING-POINT  OF  SOME  STARCH-CELLS.         177 

40="OOIOO  I2=*OOIOO  7='00I00 

7o='ooo75  28='ooo75  9=='ooo75 

45='ooo5o  4o=*ooo5o  2o='ooo5o 

25=-ooo25  55="ooo25  35=-ooo25 

2o="oooi5  45==*oooi5  75='oooi5 

25='oooio(&less)  6o='oooio(&less)  Ioo='oooio(&less) 


250  250  250 

The  results,  we  can  see,  express  what  might  have  been 
expected,  especially  the  greater  absence  of  the  larger  particles  at 
the  longer  distances.  To  secure  accuracy,  I  have  modified  my 
first  results  by  fresh  examinations.  It  has  been  impossible  to 
estimate  exactly  the  number  of  particles  of  the  smaller  sizes,  but 
the  numbers  expressed  may,  I  think,  be  taken  as  approximately 
correct.  The  question,  "  What  are  the  smallest  sizes  in  the 
two  dusts  ?  "  I  will  not  enter  upon  now ;  I  have  observed  particles 
of  -00003=^^^^^^^  inch,  even  with  a  low  power,  and  no  doubt  such 
as  travel  great  distances  will  seldom  exceed  "00005. 

Another  question  that  I  cannot  at  the  present  time  discuss,  is 
the  reason  why  such  dust  as  that  of  wheat  and  coal  should  be  so 
explosive.  I  will  therefore  conclude  this  hasty  sketch  with  a 
quotation  from  a  special  report  on  the  subject,  prepared  for  the 
Board  of  Trade,  which  gives  a  forcible  explanation  of  the  matter: — 
^'  The  finely-divided  dust-particles  being  diffused  in  the  air,  are 
each  brought  into  intimate  contact  with  the  oxygen  which  is 
necessary  for  their  combustion,  and  consequently,  when  ignition 
occurs,  it  is  very  rapid.  The  particles  near  the  flame  are  ignited, 
and  in  their  turn  ignite  the  neighbouring  particles,  which  again 
ignite  the  adjacent  ones,  until  the  whole  chamber  is  a  body  of 
flame."  It  seems  to  be  a  matter  of  extensive  surface,  and  there- 
fore of  rapid  combustion. 


1Rote6  on  tbe  Bursting^lpoint  of  0ome 
Starcb:==(reU0* 

By  W.  J.  DiBDiN,  F.I.C.,  F.C.S.      Plate  17. 

THE  following  record  of  a  series  of  experiments,  conducted 
with  a  view  of  ascertaining  whether  any  reliable  informa- 
tion could  be  obtained  from  the  bursting-point  of  various 
Starch-cells  as  a  means   of  assisting  in  their  identification,  may 
probably  be  of  interest,  although  the  results  are  not  of  the  analy- 
tical value  that  it  was  hoped  they  would  have  been. 

The  arrangement  used  for  ascertaining  the  temperature  was 


178 


NOTES   ON  THE  BURSTINC4-P0INT 


very  simple,  consisting  of  a  flask,  A,  such  as  chemists  use  for 
wash-bottles,  having  a  syphon-tube,  E,  connected  with  a  square 
white  glass  bottle,  B,  which  rested  on  the  stage  of  the  microscope, 
inclined  at  an  angle  of  45^,  one  of  its  sides  thus  serving  as  a  hot 
stage.  Another  tube,  G,  passed  through  the  cork  of  this  bottle 
and  served  as  a  waste-pipe,  in  order  to  keep  up  a  constant  flow 
of  water  from  the  flask  through  the  bottle.  Thermometers,  D  D, 
were  placed  in  the  flask  and  in  the  bottle.  Heat  was  then  applied 
to  the  flask,  and  so  a  constant  stream  of  water,  gradually  increasing 
in  temperature,  was  kept  flowing  through  the  bottle. 

The  starch  to  be  examined  was  then  mixed  with  a  little  water, 
and  placed  on  a  thin  cover-glass,  inverted  on  the  side  of  the 
bottle,  so  that  the  Starch-cells  were  in  immediate  contact  with  the 
bottle,  and  protected  by  the  cover-glass. 

This  arrangement  was  found  to  work  very  well.  The  error  due 
to  the  difference  of  temperature  between  the  water  in  the  bottle 
and  the  surface  of  the  glass  was  evidently  very  slight ;  but  what- 
ever it  was,  the  results  were  all  strictly  comparable,  as  the  same 
apparatus  was  used  for  all  the  experiments. 

The  accompanying  sketch  will   shew  at  a  glance  the  arrange- 

19. 


ment  of  the  hot  stage. 


Fig. 


A,  Flask.  B,  Glass  Bottle, 
with  square  sides.  C,  Cork. 
D  D,  Thermometers.  G,  Glass 
Syphon-tube.  F,  India-rubber 
Connecting-tube.  G  E,  Syphon- 
tubes  from  bottle,  one  to  the 
flask,  the  other  for  overflow. 
H,  India-rubber-lengthening  to 
overflow-pipe.  I,  Spirit-Lamp. 
K,  Tripod-stand. 


OF   SOME  STARCH-CELLS.  179 

Rice-Starch.  First  Expert7neiit. — At  165^  a  white  spot  like  a 
nucleus  appeared.  For  the  appearance  at  176°  see  Fig.  I.  Larger 
particles  were  expanding  at  178°  and  losing  form.  At  179°  many 
cells  were  very  attenuated  ;  see  Fig.  II.  At  i8i°  most  of  the  cells 
were  dissolved.  At  185°  all  cells  were  gone.  No  fracture  was 
distinguishable  during  dissolution. 

Secofid  Experiment — Appearance  at  140^,  see  Fig.  III.  At 
150*^,  see  Figs.  IV.  and  V.  At  169°,  Fig.  VL,  when  the  opening 
gradually  spread  out^  Figs.  VII.  and  VIII.,  and  became  very 
faint.  At  179°  nearly  all  the  cells  were  dissolved.  Fig.  IX.  shews 
another  cell  at  18 1^  like  a  film.  All  cells  had  burst  at  this 
temperature. 

Maize  Starch. — At  100°  the  hilum  was  distinctly  visible,  some 
cells  having  a  distinct  opening,  Fig.  X.,  but  most  having  only  a 
bright  spot.  No  plications  were  visible.  At  120°  the  hilum  of 
most  of  the  large  cells  had  opened  out  into  a  star-shape ;  see  Fig. 
XL  These  cells  burst  very  much  like  those  of  Wheat-starch.  At 
138°  some  cells  had  burst  all  round  the  edge,  see  Fig.  XII. ;  the 
hilum  of  others  opening  out.  Fig.  XIII.  shews  a  large  cell  at  148^. 
At  162°  the  small  cells  had  lost  form.  At  172°  the  cells  were 
rapidly  swelling  and  losing  angular  form.  At  178°  folds  were 
appearing  on  the  envelope.  At  182°  the  cells  were  very  attenuated 
and  apparently  empty. 

Sago  Starch. — The  appearance  at  100°  is  shewn  in  Figs.  XIV. 
and  XV.  At  152°  the  markings  from  the  hilum  were  opening  out 
and  multiplying.  At  160°  the  cells  were  swelling  rapidly  and  the 
markings  fraying  in  all  directions — similarly  to  potato  starch.  At 
165°  the  larger  cells  were  much  expanded  and  cracked  in  all 
directions,  and  the  smaller  cells  were  opening  out.  As  the  cells 
swelled,  the  plications  disappeared,  as  in  potato  starch.  At  176° 
the  smaller  cells  were  swelling  rapidly  and  the  larger  ones  attenu- 
ating. At  180°  the  envelope  of  the  cells  overlapped  on  itself.  All 
the  cells  had  burst,  and  the  envelopes  of  larger  ones  were  scarcely 
discernible.     At  183°  all  form  of  the  cells  was  entirely  gone. 

Sago  treated  with  lodifie. — Figs.  XVI.  and  XVII.  shew  the 
appearance  at  112°,  the  mark  opening  like  a  crack  in  a  piece  of 
glass,  the  dark  part  being  caused  by  refraction.  At  145°  the  cells 
were  swelling.  At  154^  the  dark  crack  was  expanding,  and 
smaller  ones  were  appearing  leading  from  it.  The  appearance 
at  168°  is  shewn  in  Fig.  XVIIL  ;  and  at  170°  in  Fig.  XIX. 
The  cuticle  was  apparently  fraying  away,  the  cells  being  very 
much  swollen.  At  i8o«^  all  the  cells  were  burst,  but  they  still 
contained  their  contents,  the  outer  coat  being  of  a  darker  blue 
than  the  interior  substance ;  see  Fig.  XX.  All  the  cells  opened 
like  a  piece  of  jelly  pulled  asunder,  the  Iodine  apparently  binding 


180  THE  BURSTING-POINT  OF  SOME  STARCH- CELLS. 

the  amyline  together  and  preventing  dissolution  ;  see  Figs.  XXL 
and  XXII.  At  194°  the  cells  had  not  collapsed,  ebuUition  for 
several  minutes  being  required  to  completely  distend  and  empty 
them. 

Wheat-Starch. — At  134S  a  nucleus  and  concentric  rings  were 
apparent,  and  the  corpuscles  were  swelling.  At  140?  a  nucleolus 
was  very  distinctly  seen.  At  150^  a  few  cells  were  burst;  see 
Figs.  XXIII,  XXIV.,  XXV.,  XXVI.  At  158^^  some  large 
cells  began  to  lose  shape.  For  appearance  at  164°  see 
Figs.  XXVII.  and  XXVIII. ;  and  at  174^  Fig.  XXIX.  At  176^ 
see  Fig.  XXX.,  and  at  177^,  Fig.  XXXI.  At  180^  the  form  of 
the  cells  was  beginning  to  disappear.  After  remaining  at  180^  a 
few  minutes,  all  the  cells  appeared  to  have  lost  their  original  form, 
and  their  contents  were  dissolved  out. 

The  chief  characteristic  of  Wheat-Starch  was  the  gradual 
swelling  of  the  cells  without  distinct  openings  appearing,  as  in 
other  Starch-cells;  only  one  exception  to  this  was  seen  at  164°. 

Potato-Starch. — At  140?  the  cells  began  to  split  open  ;  see 
Figs.  XXXII.  and  XXXIII.,  the  fracture  commencing  at  the 
hilum.  At  153^  the  centre  of  the  cell  was  gradually  opening  out, 
Fig.  XXXIV.  At  i58<=*  all  the  large  cells  were  burst.  At  170^ 
all  the  large  cells  were  fully  open.  At  180^  all  the  large  cells 
were  gone,  and  at  184^  all  the  cells  were  gone. 

Potato-Starch,  after  being  exposed  to  a  vioist  atvwsphere  for  some 
flays. — Very  few  of  the  cells  shewed  concentric  rings,  but  a  curious 
fracture  at  the  hilum  had  occurred,  from  which  other  fractures 
extended.  These  fractures  were  of  a  very  interesting  character, 
being  circular  and  saucer  shaped,  but  with  the  centre  raised ;  see 
Fig.  XXXV. 

As  the  cells  rolled  in  the  liquid,  it  was  distinctly  seen  that  this 
fracture  was  circular  (see  Fig.  XXXVI.),  having  a  central  point 
with  radiating  markings,  and  that  it  was  in  all  cases  in  the  longitu- 
dinal axis  of  the  cell,  a  little  above  the  centre,  coinciding 
with  the  hilum. 

From  the  foregoing  results  it  is  evident  that  a  temperature  of 
180*^  F.  is  sufficient  to  entirely  dissolve  the  various  starches 
experimented  with,  but,  unfortunately,  nothing  of  value  to  the 
analyst  has  been  obtained,  although  the  work  may  be  of  sufficient 
interest  to  place  the  results  upon  record. 


[181] 


®n  tbe  Salmon==2)i0ca6e^ 


IN  the  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society  for  the  current 
year,  there  are  recorded  some  experiments  by  Professor 
Huxley,  and  his  observations  thereupon,  with  reference 
to  the  parasitic  fungus,  Saproleg7iia,  which  has  of  late  wrought  so 
much  damage  among  the  Salmon  of  our  rivers ;  and  as  the  subject 
is  interesting,  both  economically  and  microscopically,  we  repro- 
duce them  here  for  the  benefit  of  our  readers. 

The  body  of  a  recently-killed  common  House-Fly  was  gently 
rubbed  a  few  times  upon  a  patch  of  the  diseased  skin  of  a  salmon ; 
and  it  was  then  left  for  a  while  in  a  vessel  of  water,  upon  the 
surface  of  which  it  floated,  being  buoyed  up  by  the  air  contained 
abundantly  in  the  tracheae.  In  the  course  of  about  48  hours, 
numerous  white,  cottony  filaments  made  their  appearance,  set 
closely  together  side  by  side,  and  radiating  from  the  body  of  the 
fly  in  all  directions,  so  that  it  presently  became  inclosed  in  a  thick, 
white,  spheroidal  shroud,  having  a  diameter  of  as  much  as  half-an- 
inch.  These  filaments  being  specifically  heavier  than  water,  they 
gradually  overcome  the  buoyancy  of  ^the  air  in  the  tracheae  of  the 
fly,  and  the  whole  mass  sinks  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  The 
filaments  are  very  short  when  they  first  become  discernible ;  and 
they  usually  make  their  appearance  where  the  integument  is 
softest,  as,  e.g.^  between  the  head  and  thorax,  upon  the  proboscis, 
and  between  the  rings  of  the  abdomen.  In  their  size,  structure, 
and  reproductive  arrangements,  they  are  precisely  similar  to  the 
hyphce  of  the  salmon-fungus ;  and  the  characters  of  both  alike 
prove  that  the  fungus  is  a  Saprolegnia^  and  not  an  Achlya.  It 
may,  moreover,  be  easily  shown  that  the  body  of  the  fly  became 
infected  solely  by  spores  which  adhered  to  its  surface  when  rubbed 
over  the  diseased  skin  of  the  fish.  These  spores  have,  in  fact, 
germinated,  and  their  hyphce  have  penetrated  the  cuticle  of  the 
fly,  notwithstanding  its  comparative  density ;  and  have  then 
ramified  inwards,  growing  at  the  expense  of  the  nourishment 
suppHed  by  the  fly's  tissues. 

Experiments  of  this  kind,  variously  repeated  with  all  needful 
precautions,  lead  us  to  the  important  practical  conclusion  that  the 
cause  of  Salmon-disease  may  exist  in  all  waters  in  which  dead 
insects,  infested  with  Saprolegnia^  are  met  with ; — that  is  to  say, 
probably  in  all  the  fresh  waters  of  these  Islands,  at  one  time  or 
another;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  Saprolegiiia  has  never  beer; 


182  ON  THE   SALMON   DISEASE. 

observed  on  decaying  bodies  in  salt  water.  Thus  it  becomes,  to 
say  the  least,  a  highly  probable  conclusion  that  the  origin  of  the 
disease  is  to  be  found  in  the  Saproiegftice  which  infest  dead  organic 
bodies  in  our  fresh  waters.  Neither  drought,  pollution,  nor  over- 
stocking will  produce  the  disease,  so  long  as  Saprolegjiia  is  absent ; 
though  doubtless  these  conditions  will  favour  its  development  or 
diffusion  wherever  the  fungus  already  exists. 

The  results,  then,  of  observations  and  experiments  recently 
made  appear  to  justify  the  following  conclusions  : — 

I. — That  the  Saprolegnia  attacks  the  healthy,  living  salmon 
exactly  in  the  same  way  that  it  attacks  the  dead  insect ;  and  that 
it  is  the  sole  cause  of  the  disease,  whatever  other  circumstances 
may — in  a  secondary  degree— assist  its  operations. 

2. — That  death  may  result,  without  any  other  organ  than  the 
skin  being  attacked  ;  and  that,  under  these  circumstances,  it  is  the 
consequence  partly  of  the  exhaustion  of  nervous  energy  through 
the  incessant  irritation  of  the  felted  mycelium,  with  its  charge  of 
fine  sand, — partly  of  the  drain  of  nutriment  directly  and  indirectly 
caused  by  the  fungus. 

3.— That  the  penetration  of  the  hyphce  of  the  Saprolegnia  into 
the  skin  renders  it  at  least  possible  that  the  disease  may  break  out 
in  a  fresh-run  salmon  without  re-infection. 

4. — That  Saprolegnia^  the  cause  of  the  disease,  may  flourish  in 
any  fresh  water,  in  the  absence  of  salmon,  as  a  saprophyte  upon 
dead  insects  and  other  animals. 

5. — That  the  chances  of  infection  for  a  healthy  fish  entering  a 
river  are  enormously  increased  by  the  existence  of  diseased  fish  in 
that  river ;  since  the  bulk  of  Saprolegnia  on  a  few  diseased  fish 
greatly  exceeds  what  would  exist  there  without  them. 

6. — That,  as  in  the  case  of  the  potato  disease,  the  careful 
extirpation  of  every  diseased  fish  is  the  treatment  theoretically 
indicated ;  though  it  may  not  be  worth  while  in  practice  to  adopt 
that  treatment. 


[183] 

Iponb^lbuntinQ  m  Mintcn 

By  E.  Wade-Wilton. 


IT  seems  to  be  the  general  opinion  amongst  microscopists  that 
ponds  will  not  repay  for  the  trouble  of  an  examination  in 
the  winter  months.  This  "  fireside  theory "  is  as  absm'd 
as  it  is  erroneous. 

In  the  coldest  part  of  last  year,  the  writer  was  out  collecting 
microzoic  Hfe,  when  he  met  a  friend,  who  asked  with  amazement, 
"  What !  haven't  you  got  your  stock  of  specimens  for  the  winter 
yet  ?  How  can  you  possibly  supply  your  customers  ? "  *  This 
friend  was  prevailed  upon  to  watch  the  collecting-operations,  and 
was  led  to  express  his  belief,  after  being  shown  many  forms  in 
great  abundance,  which  he  had  looked  upon  as  very  rare,  that  the 
winter  was  after  all  the  best  time  to  collect. 

During  the  winter  months,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  obtaining 
specimens  from  his  regular  collectors,  the  writer  is  often  obliged  to 
collect  his  own  specimens,  or  suffer  the  greater  inconvenience  of 
not  being  able  to  meet  the  demands  of  his  business,  and  he  feels 
great  confidence  in  the  truth  of  the  remarks  to  be  made  in  this 
short  paper. 

There  are  seasons  in  microscopical  work  as  perceptible  as  the 
seasons  of  the  year.  The  summer  is  devoted  to  '' Pond-Hunting,'' 
and  the  winter  to  mounting  or  to  mounted  objects ;  this  is  most 
unsatisfactory  and  quite  unworthy  of  a  practical  worker.  If 
"  Pond-Hunting  "  is  only  prosecuted  for  a  certain  part  of  the  year, 
what  observations  can  be  made  during  the  rest  of  the  year  ?  The 
least  observant  student  will  see  that  "  the  habits  of  animals  will 
never  be  thoroughly  known  till  they  are  observed  in  detail.  Nor 
is  it  sufficient  to  observe  them  now  and  then ;  they  must  be 
closely  watched,  their  various  actions  and  behaviour  under  dif- 
ferent circumstances  carefully  noted,  and  especially  those  move- 
ments which  seem  to  us  mere  vagaries,  undirected  by  any 
suggestible  motive  or  cause,  v^'ell  examined.  A  rich  fruit  of  results, 
often  most  curious  and  unexpected,  and  often  singularly  illus- 
trative of  peculiarities  of  structure,  w^ill,  I  feel  sure,  reward 
any  one  who  studies  living  animals  in  this  way.  The  most 
interesting  parts,  by  far,  of  published  natural  history,  are  those 
minute  but  most  graphic  particulars  which  have  been  gathered  by 
an  attentive  watching  of  individual  animals."  * 

We  make  no  apology  for   quoting   Mr.   Gosse  at  so  great  a 

*Gos3e,   "The  Aquarium,"  in  preface. 


184  POND-HUNTING  IN  WINTER. 

length,  but  most  sincerely  wish  that  our  (so-called)  practical 
microscopists  would  follow  his  advice  more  fully. 

Those  microscopists  who  keep  an  aquarium,  and  are  in  the 
habit  of  searching  in  it  for  living  microscopic  animals,  must  have 
noticed  that  when  there  is  a  superabundance  of  decaying  vegetable 
matter  in  the  aquarium, — that  is,  when  there  is  only  so  much  decay 
taking  place  in  the  water  as  will  not  interfere  with  the  health  of 
the  higher  animals  inhabiting  it, — the  microscopic  animals  are 
found  in  the  greatest  abundance.  The  Polyzoa  and  Tubular 
Rotifera,  especially,  are  found  to  be  in  the  best  condition  under 
these  circumstances. 

The  winds  of  October  and  November  drive  a  large  quantity  of 
dead  leaves  and  other  lifeless  vegetable-matter  into  the  ponds, 
which  decaying,  form  a  black  offensive  ooze.  This  is  generally 
to  be  found  congregated  in  the  shallowest  part  of  the  pond, 
covered  only  by  a  few  inches  of  water. 

In  this  ooze,  the  prevailing  forms  of  animal  life  will  probably 
be — Chilomo7ias  and  AmcEba^  in  great  abundance,  Trachelocerca 
olof'i  Euglena  de?tses,  and  JE.  pyrimi. 

These  may  generally  be  found  in  this  part  of  the  pond,  in  a 
very  fine  and  healthy  condition.  If  the  pond  is  of  moderate  size, 
some  portions  of  the  water  will  be  found  quite  "  sweet,"  and  yet 
containing  a  large  amount  of  the  "  lower  forms,"  especially  if  they 
are  partially  shaded  from  the  light;  we  may  look  for  Limnias 
ceratophylli^  Stephanoceros  Eichornii,  Floscnlaria  ornafa,  Melicerta 
7'inge?is,  and  various  other  "  hard-feeding "  Rotifers.  (We  enu- 
merate these  because  they  are  so  popular,  and  well-known  to 
every  microscopist). 

Sometimes  in  ponds,  but  more  generally  in  rivers,  canals,  or 
ditches,  we  find  large  quantities  of  the  "  American  Water-Weed," 
"  Anacharis  Alsi7iastniin,''  which  in  the  summer-time  almost 
chokes  them.  In  the  winter  the  greater  part  of  this  plant  dies 
down,  forming  a  light-brown  deposit  on  the  surface  of  the  mud. 
If  the  old  stems  are  examined,  a  host  of  interesting  specimens 
will  be  obtained. 

The  following  will  show  our  success  on  one  occasion  : — 

"Nov.  t8,  '8 1. — Meanwood  arches,  took  in  quantity  : — P/iilo- 
dina  roseola  and  B?'achio7iis  pala;  Mastigocerca  carinata,  Polyart/ira 
platypiera^  Actmums  Nepttmms,  Stcntor  Jitger,  and  S.  Mullcri ; 
ActiiwpJuys  sol ;    Trachelius  ovujn,    Coleps  /lirtus,   Tai'digrada'' 

The  above  is  extracted  from  some  notes  of  1881.  The  organ- 
isms were  obtained  from  one  ditch,  in  four  gatherings,  as  shown. 

The  Alg?eologist  finds  a  rich  reward  for  his  trouble  in  search- 
ing the  mountain-streams,  and  moorland  tarns  and  ponds  in 
winter, — perhaps  at  no  time  in  the  year  is  there  so  rich  a  harvest 


SELECTED  NOTES  FROM  THE  SOCIETY'S  NOTE-BOOKS.        185 

to  be  secured.  From  personal  experience  we  can  say  but  little  of 
the  algae  to  be  obtained  in  winter,  but  a  friend  writes  : — "  I 
always  turn  out  whenever  the  ponds  are  accessible  in  the  winter — 
it  is  the  harvest-time." 

Volvox,  C/iara,  Nitella^  etc.,  may  all  be  obtained  in  the  depth 
of  winter,  and  the  supply  of  specimens  which  can  be  obtained  at 
that  season  by  an  ardent  hunter  is  unUmited. 

We  may  perhaps  be  allowed  to  say  that  for  comfort  it  is 
desirable  to  have  such  apparatus  only  as  can  be  manipulated, 
whilst  wearing  a  pair  of  thick  gloves,  good  strong  boots,  not 
omitting  a  pipe,  plenty  of  tobacco  and  matches — no  cigars. 
Thus  equipped,  we  can  promise  the  earnest  pond-hunter  a  rich 
reward. 

We  do  not  wish  to  say  that  winter  is  the  best  or  only  time  to 
collect,  but  that  winter-collecting  is  very  important  and  should 
not  be  neglected  ;  in  collecting  at  this  time  of  the  year,  we  must 
expect  to  suffer  some  discomfort. 

For  those  who  are  unable  to  face  the  winter  wind,  we  purpose 
at  an  early  date,  with  the  Editor's  permission,  making  a  few 
suggestions  on  the  "  Microscopist's  Breeding-Tank." 

Leeds. 


Selecteb  IRotee  from  tbe  Societij'a 
1Rote^Boofe6. 


BOTANICAL. 


Sphagnum  Moss. — On  this  moss  Fig.  20. 

the  utricles,  which  form  a  very  good 
distinguishing  feature,  especially  to 
beginners,  may  be  very  distinctly 
seen.  In  the  present  instance  the 
leaves  have  been  pulled  off  the  base 
of  the  stem  for  the  purpose  of 
showing  them  more  clearly.  For 
instance,  in  Sphagmcm  rigidum  the 
utricles  are  clean,  as  in  ^,  Fig.  20;  va  S.  cymbilifolium  they  have 
spiral  fibres  inside,  as  in  b ;  in  S.  jnolluscum  the  ends  are  re- 
curved, as  in  c.  A  dark-ground  illumination  is  best  for  the 
examination  of  mosses. 

W.  H.  Chessman. 


186  SELECTED  NOTES  FROM 

As  it  may  not  be  generally  known  that  it  is  to  the  Sphagnums 
that  we  are  principally  indebted  for  our  peat,  I  will  quote  what 
Huxley  says  on  the  subject  : — 

"  In  this  part  of  the  world,  the  principal  peat  forming  plants 
are  certain  mosses  known  to  botanists  under  the  generic  name  of 
Sphag7iu77i.  The  stems  of  the  Bog-Moss  die  away  in  their  lower 
part,  while  the  upper  portion  continues  to  grow  freely.  The  inter- 
woven dead  portions  form  a  tangled  mass,  which  holds  water  like 
a  sponge  and  favours  the  growth  of  the  above  moss.  Remains  of 
other  plants  become  mixed  with  the  moss,  and  contribute  to  the 
formation  of  the  peat,  while  trunks  of  trees  occasionally  get 
imbedded  in  the  bog ;  muddy  matter  is  likewise  washed  during 
floods,  and  helps  to  consolidate  the  felted  mass,  and  to  produce  a 
deposit  of  considerable  firmness.  The  rate  at  which  peat  grows 
varies  greatly  under  different  conditions,  but  some  notion  of  the 
rate  may  be  gained  from  the  fact  that  Roman  remains,  and  even 
Roman  roads,  have  been  found  beneath  eight  feet  of  peat.  In 
Ireland  peat  bogs  are  so  abundant  tliat  they  cover  about  one- 
tenth  of  the  entire  surface  of  the  country ;  and,  in  some  cases, 
the  peat  may  be  as  much  as  forty  feet  in  thickness." 

W.  H.  Read. 


The  slide  under  notice,  containing  as  it  does  six  species  of 
Sphagnum^  is  a  very  instructive  one,  and  forms  an  example  of 
educational  mounting  that  I  would  strongly  recommend  our 
members  to  copy.  Seeing  six  different  kinds  together,  we  are 
enabled  to  note  the  very  marked  similarity  in  the  shape  of  the  cells, 
though  each  species  has  its  own  distinctive  form.  I  should  have 
thought  that  the  form  of  the  cell  and  shape  of  the  leaf  would  be 
an  easier  means  of  determining  the  species  than  the  utricles  of  the 
stalk.  Let  me  point  out  this,  taking  the  mosses  as  they  appear  on 
the  slide  : — 

I. — Sphagnwn  cymbilifolium.       Leaf — Roundish  egg-shaped. 
2.  „         molluscum.  Round  egg-shaped. 

The  special  difference  between  these  two  consists  in  that  the 
first  has  glands  (papillae)  at  the  back  of  the  apex  of  the  leaf,  which 
are  wanting  in  the  second. 

3. — Sphagftiim  acutifolwm.  Leaf — Pointed     egg  -  shaped, 

with  perichsetial  leaves, 
small. 
4.  „  compactutn.  Egg-shaped,  with  blunt 

point. 


THE  society's  NOTE-BOOKS.  187 

5. — Sphagnum plumosum.  Leaf — Perhaps  this  is  a  variety 

of  S.  cuspidatuin  called 
"  Feathery  Bog-Moss," 
and  if  so  the  form  of 
the  leaf  is  lanceolate. 

6.  „  squarrosum.  Elliptic,  with  broad  base 

tapering  to  a  point. 

The  capsules  of  these  mosses,  observed  with  paraboloid  or 
spot-lens,  is  a  lovely  object,  like  a  goblet  of  ebony  on  a  silver 
stem.  Linnseus  states  that  the  Lapland  matrons  dry  these  mosses 
and  lay  them  in  their  children's  cradles  to  supply  the  place  of  bed, 
bolster,  and  every  covering ;  and  being  changed  night  and  morn- 
ing, it  keeps  the  infant  remarkably  clean,  dry,  and  warm.  It  is 
sufficiently  soft  of  itself,  but  the  tender  mother,  not  satisfied  with 
this,  frequently  covers  the  moss  with  the  downy  hairs  of  the 
reindeer,  and  by  that  means  makes  a  most  delicate  nest  for  the 
new-born  babe. 

Henry  Basevi. 


J  regret  that  Mr.  Cheesman  did  not  carry  his  diagnosis  further, 
and  point  out,  in  his  own  way,  the  distinctions  between  all  the 
species  on  his  sUde.  It  is  obvious  that  Col.  Basevi's  remarks  point 
out  a  valuable  help  in  the  determination  of  species,  and  combined 
with  the  form  and  nature  of  the  utricle,  the  determination  of 
species  is  much  simplified.  I  find  great  difficulty  in  comparing 
cells  such  as  those  of  mosses,  where  the  forms  run  so  much  alike, 
and  any  additional  characteristics  are  most  welcome. 

Thomas  Steel. 


ZOOLOGICAL. 


Birds'-Head  Processes  in  Gemellaria. — Are  these  birds'-head 
processes  parasites  ?  I  have  met  with  them  on  different  zoo- 
phytes. On  one  occasion  I  saw  a  small  eel  seized,  and  the  mus- 
cular beak  retained  its  hold  till  the  death  of  both.  On  trying  to 
mount  them  together,  they  separated,  showing  the  eel's  body 
deeply  indented  by  the  beak. 

A.  Nicholson. 


Birds'-Head  Processes  are  not  parasitic.     They  serve  the  pur- 
pose of  police,  to   make  odd  things   in   the   shape   of   spores, 


188  SELECTED  NOTES  FROM 

embryos  of  all  sorts,  etc.,  that  would  settle  on  the  polypidom,  and 
so  cause  injury  to  the  body  politic^  "move  on."  On  carefully 
reading  Mr.  Nicholson's  remark,  it  will  not  be  understood  that  the 
eel,  Afigiiillula  (T.  W.)  and  Aviailariiim  died  together,  the  latter 
becoming  detached  after  death  from  exhaustion,  but  only  that  on 
attempting  to  mount  the  object,  the  Anguillula  slipped  from  the 
grasp  of  "  X  249,"  his  life  having  come  to  an  end,  I  suppose, 
from  the  strong  dose  of  poison  administered  in  the  guise  of 
"  moimting  fluids  Most  of  the  Polyzoa  have  these  processes, 
their  soft  parts  are  continuous  with  the  soft  parts  of  the  zoophyte 
to  which  they  belong,  and  correspondingly  nourished.  Some 
Polyzoa  have,  instead,  vibracula^  or  bristles,  which  in  life  sweep 
constantly  over  the  surface.  Molly  with  her  broom  always  at 
work,  you  see,  to  keep  things  clean  and  tidy.  In  some  instances, 
both  forms  are  found  on  the  same  polype,  in  others  only  one ; 
they  furnish  a  valuable  help  in  classification.  The  pedicellaria  of 
the  Echini  and  many  star-fishes  (see  Herapath  in  Quart.  Jour. 
Micro.  Sci.,  1865,  p.  175)  are  precisely  analogous. 

TuFFEN  West. 


A  paper,  with  a  plate  of  illustrations,  on  Avicularia  will  be 
found  in  Lon.  Micro.  Jour.,  1854. 

A.  Nicholson. 


Atax,  a  Water- Mite  found  on  a  Iivi?tg  Gnat. — Mr.  Alfred 
Atkinson  (President)  circulated  a  slide  of  above,  which  induced 
the  following  remarks  from  Mr.  Ball,  a  member  well  up  in  Acarea : — 
*'  Mr.  Atkinson's  mites  are  particularly  interesting  from  the  fact  of 
their  having  been  found  upon  a  gnat.  They  certainly  were  "  fish 
out  of  water,"  since  in  the  first  place  they  are  not  parasitic  mites  at 
all,  nor  are  they  acari  as  stated  on  the  slide.  They  are  the  young 
of  a  species  of  Atax^  a  mite  which  swims  freely  in  the  water.  The 
most  familiar  example  of  the  genus  is  a  beautiful  scarlet  mite, 
which  may  often  be  seen  spinning  its  way  through  clear  water  in 
ponds,  etc.  I  should  like  to  know  whether  the  gnat  was  a  dead 
one  picked  up  on  the  surface  of  some  water."  To  this  Mr.  Atkin- 
son replied. 

Hogg  says  of  ^^  Hydi-achnidce'^  \ — "In  their  young  state  they 
attach  themselves  parasitically  to  aquatic  animals."  These  mites 
were  certainly  parasitic  when  I  found  them.  They  entirely  covered 
the  posterior  portions  of  the  body  of  the  insect,  which  was  taken 
alive,  and  lived  under  an  inverted  wine-glass  several  days.  I'hey 
are  young  mites,  as  they  have  not  yet  developed  the  fourth  pair  of 


THE   society's   NOTE-BOOKS.  189 

legs.  It  is  possible  that  they  may  have  lived  on  the  gnat  larva,  or 
have  become  attached  to  the  insect  at  the  time  of  its  last  meta- 
morphosis. 


These  mites  are  the  larva  of  Aiax  histrionicus  or  Hydrachna 
histrionica  of  Hermann.  They  are  very  common  in  tanks  and 
stagnant  water,  and  attach  themselves  to  almost  anything  that  has 
been  or  is  alive  in  the  water. 

C.  H.  Griffith. 


Larva  of  Ant-lion. — This  larva  has  no  mouth,  but  instead  two 
horny  fangs  resembling  jaws,  which  are  toothed  upon  the  inner 
margin,  and  terminate  in  sharp  points.  These  jaw-like  appendages 
are  hollow,  and  serve  not  only  for  seizing  but  for  sucking  the 
juices  of  the  insects,  for  which  the  animal  so  cleverly  contrives  a 
pitfall.  The  mandibles  in  front  of  the  head  are  curiously  made, 
being  deeply  grooved  throughout  their  entire  length,  and  permit  the 
maxillae,  or  inner  pair  of  jaws,  to  play  up  and  down  them. 

E.  E.  Jarrett. 

Macrotoma  Plumbea. — Mr.  E.  Smith  has  found  this  insect, 
which  is  very  much  like  the  Fodura,  only  about  three  times  as 
large,  in  two  different  places  : — ist,  he  finds  it  plentifully  in  his 
cellar — those  found  there  are  lead-coloured  ;  2nd,  on  a  wall  at  the 
bottom  of  his  garden — these  assume  a  black  tint.  Is  the 
difference  in  colour  due  to  the  light  in  which  they  live,  the  struc- 
ture of  the  scales  and  the  insects  themselves  in  all  other  respects 
being  identical  ? 

E.  Smith. 


Colours  of  Beetles'  Wing-Cases. — This  question  is  a  much 
wider  one  than  is  supposed  by  many.  Diffraction  is  in  many 
cases  an  important  factor,  in  others  it  is  subordinate  to  thin  plate 
iiitej'ference^  and  both  are  frequently  controlled^  or  at  all  events 
modified,  by  the  presence  of  various  colouring  matters.  Thus  it 
happens  that  the  phenomenon  is  a  somewhat  complicated  one, 
and  any  one  elytron  must  be  taken  on  its  own  merits  and  subjected 
to  careful  optical  and  chemical  examination  before  a  full  exj^lana- 
tion  of  its  chromatic  phenomena  should  be  ventured  upon.  There 
is  work  here  for  the  student  of  insects  where  he  has  an  almost 
un worked  field,  and  the  certainty  of  doing  new  work.  I  have 
myself  made  a  partial  examination  of  the  wing-cases  of  Cantha- 


190  SELECTED  NOTES   FROM 

ris  veskaform,  whose  colours  I  refer  to  diffraction,  slight  "thin 
plate  action,"  and  the  pressure  of  leaf-green  or  chlorophyll.  The 
elytron  of  Corypheria  Africana,  a  beautiful  beetle  from  Old 
Calabar,  which  appears  red  in  one  light  and  blue  in  another, 
cannot  fully  be  investigated  in  its  mounted  condition  ;  but  I 
suspect  a  large  part  of  its  colour  is  due  to  a  green  resinoid  sub- 
stance, which  could  probably  either  be  dissolved  out  by  Ether, 
Chloroform,  or  CS  2.  The  iridescence  is  due  to  interference  by 
diffraction.  For  this  see  "Brewster's  Optics,"  "Ganot's  Physics,"  or 
"  Deschanel's  Natural  Philosophy." 

H.    POCKLINGTON. 


P.S.  Nov.,  1882. — The  Editor  has  been  good  enough  to 
allow  me  to  supplement  the  above  very  brief  note  by  an  abstract 
of  an  article  contributed  to  the  "  Pharmaceutical  Journal,"  March 
I  St,  1873,  on  the  "Colour  of  the  Wing-Cases  of  Cantharides." 
Cantharis  vesicatoria  is  furnished  "  with  two  wing-covers  of  a 
shining  metallic  green  colour "  (such  is  the  B.P.  description  of 
them),  but  when  examined  by  lamp-light,  the  colour  of  the  case 
varies  very  sensibly,  as  the  positions  of  the  lamp  and  wing-case  are 
changed,  and  these  variations  are  intensified  if  the  wing-case  be 
immersed  in  alcohol  or  carbon-bisulphide  (CS.^).    If  the  test-tube 

containing  the  insect  be  held  so  that  the  lamp  is  between,  and 
nearly  in  a  line  with  it  and  the  eye,  the  colour  appears  no  longer 
green,  but  rich  golden  copper ;  changing  the  position  of  the  tube, 
the  colour  passes  into  yellow,  and  quickly  to  green  ;  changing  the 
position  further,  the  colour  becomes  a  beautiful  blue  and  then 
purple.  Examining  the  wing-case  by  polarised  (incident)  light,  it 
is  found  that  the  colour  is  nearly  quenched  in  two  positions  of  the 
polarising  prism,  as  it  is  rotated  on  its  axis.  Examining  the  blue 
light  with  the  Nicol  prism,  we  find  that  in  two  positions  of  the 
prism  the  colour  is  again  nearly  quenched,  and  that  these  positions 
are  complementary  to  those  the  prism  occupied  in  the  former 
experiment.  The  blue  colour  is  more  intense  by  daylight  than  by 
lamp-light,  and  much  more  intense  than  either  by  magnesium  light. 
The  blue  is  not  a  pure  blue,  but  contains  a  little  green.  This 
blue  colour  is  probably  due  to  fluorescence  and  diffraction.  The 
small  balance  of  light  not  wholly  quenched  by  the  prism  was 
examined,  as  it  appeared  to  exhibit  traces  of  a  definite  colouring 
matter,  to  which  its  evident  green  colour  was  due.  Specimens 
were  placed  in  ether,  alcohol,  chloroform,  and  carbon-bisulphide, 
and  the  fluids  examined  spectroscopically.  A  sharply-defined  band 
was  seen  in  the  red,  a  shaded  band  in  the  green,  with  partial 
passing  into  general  absorption   of  the   blue  and   violet.     This 


THE  society's  NOTE-BOOKS.  191 

Spectrum  is  substantially  that  of  so-called  "  Chlorophyll."  An 
examination  of  a  number  of  different  specimens  of  Cantharides 
results  in  a  general  confirmation  of  this  spectrum,  but  various 
differences  are  discoverable  in  the  spectra  afforded  by  various 
specimens,  all  of  which,  however,  are  comparable  with  the  spectra 
given  by  "  Chlorophyll "  from  the  leaves  of  different  plants,  and 
there  is,  I  think,  no  doubt,  that  whatever  may  be  the  cause  of  the 
general  colour  of  the  wing-cases,  this  specific  green  colour  is  due 
to  the  presence  of  "  Chlorophyll "  derived  from  such  plants  as  the 
insect  has  fed  upon  during  its  life.  For  details  of  the  mode  of 
examination  pursued,  see  "  Pharmaceutical  Journal,"  Vol.  III., 
pp.  68i — 949. 

H.    POCKLINGTON. 


PREPARATION   AND    MOUNTING. 


Bleaching  Leaves. — I  am  much  interested  in  examining  the 
leaf-tissues  diiririg  the  process  of  bleaching,  noting  in  particular  the 
various  conditions  of  the  cell-contents,  starch,  raphides,  etc.  And 
in  many  instances  I  prefer  to  mount  such  specimens  afonce  (after 
well  washing)  in  glycerine  jelly. 

Chlorinated  soda  is  easily  made  by  adding  a  saturated  solution 
of  common  washing  Soda  to  a  saturated  solution  of  Chloride  of 
Lime,  until  all  the  chalk  is  thrown  down ;  then  filter,  and  keep 
in  a  dark  place. 

John  E.  Ingpen. 


One  would  primarily  expect  that  the  full  action  of  Alcohol, 
Chlorine,  etc.,  would  be  more  rapid  in  delicate  leaves  than  in  thick 
ones  (especially  when  of  coriaceous  texture),  but  this  is  not  uniformly 
the  case.  I  have  roughly  experimented  with  various  kinds  carefully 
selected,  both  whole  and  in  pieces, — thick  and  thin, — succulent 
and  coriaceous, — veined  and  reticulated  ;  and  I  have  noticed  the 
degree  and  character  of  their  permeability  as  individuals,  but  have 
not  yet  acquired  sufficient  information  to  warrant  any  general 
classification.  I  commend  to  the  notice  of  those  who  care  to  take 
up  this  subject,  the  common  Arabis  aibida,  to  be  found  in  almost 
every  garden  ;  leaves  of  it  bleach  rapidly  in  Chloride  of  Lime 
alone,  and  give  charming  results.  I  could  make  half-a-dozen  slides 
of  Arabis  leaf,  all  different  in  appearance,  and  vying  with  each 
other  in  beauty. 

W.  Teasdale. 


192  SELECTED  NOTES  FROM 

Bleaching  Fluid  for  Insects. 

Hydrochloric  Acid        -  -  -     lo  drops. 

Chlorate  of  Potash       -  -  -     i  dr. 

Water  -  -  -  -     i  oz. 

Soak  the  object  in  this  fluid  for  a  day  or  two  ;  wash  well. 


W.  Sargent,  Jun 


To  Mount  in  Glycerine.— Heat  India  Rubber  till  it  become 
sticky,  then  dissolve  it  in  Benzole,  put  a  ring  of  this,  both  on  cover 
and  slide,  then  let  it  remain  till  tacky;  place  the  object  in  glycerine, 
float  it  on  if  convenient,  arrange  it  and  place,  and  press  down  the 
cover,  wash  away  spare  glycerine,  and  run  asphalte  varnish  or  any 
other  finish  as  preferred,  and  the  slide  is  finished.  The  advantages 
are,  the  India  Rubber  sticks  in  spite  of  the  glycerine,  and  is  elastic, 
and  so  a  great  amount  of  trouble  is  saved. 

J.  G.  P.  Vereker. 


To   Mount  Plants  in   Glycerine  and  Water. — Add   to   the 

glycerine  first  a  few  drops  of  Carbolic  acid  to  guard  against 
fungoid  growth,  but  do  not  use  alcohol  with  the  glycerine  when 
the  natural  colour  of  the  plant  has  to  be  preserved.  Then  make 
a  mixture  containing  equal  parts  of  carbohzed  glycerine  and 
water ;  let  fall  a  drop  or  two  on  the  slide,  place  the  object  into  it, 
and  put  on  a  covering-glass,  which  should  not  be  cemented  down  : 
the  water  will  evaporate  in  time,  and  more  glycerine  and  water 
may  be  added,  until  the  plant  gets  gradually  filled  with  glycerine. 
After  this  comes  what  used  to  be  a  tedious  work — the  fastening 
dow^n  of  the  cover-glass.  This  may  be  easily  accomplished  by 
first  placing  a  ring  of  gelatine  round  it,  and  to  this  any  cement 
will  adhere.  The  gelatine  should  be  prepared  by  pouring  cold 
water  upon  it,  and  allowing  it  to  stand  for  24  hours ;  after- 
wards pour  off  the  water  that  remains  unabsorbed,  and  heat  the 
gelatine  till  it  dissolves,  adding  a  few  drops  of  Carbolic  acid. 
Each  time  before  using  the  gelatine,  place  the  bottle  in  a  basin  of 
hot  water  to  make  it  fluid. 

H.  M.  Klaassen. 


Sections  of  Teeth  to  Grind. — I  have  been  recommended  to 
employ  ground  glass,  using  with  it  in  the  early  stage  fine  ground 
pumicestone,  which  is  especially  needed  for  grinding  rough  shells, 
like  those  of  Lobster  or  Crab.  By  soaking  the  jaw  of  a  Mouse, 
Rat,  Weasel,  etc.,  in  a  solution  of  Balsam  in  Benzole,  allowing 
it  to  become  hard,  and  then  grinding  down  as  above,  very 
beautiful  sections  showing  the  teeth  /;/  situ  may  be  made. 

H.  E.  Freeman. 


THE  society's  NOTE-BOOKS.  193 

To  prevent  the  Growth  of  Mildew  on  Dry  Mounts,  it  is  useful 
to  paint  the  specimen,  and  the  interior  of  the  cell,  with  a  solution 
of  Carbolic  Acid,  or  Corrosive  Sublimate  in  spirit,  before  mounting. 

H.  F.  Parsons. 


Dr.    Hunt's    American    Cement    for    Ringing-Slides. — An 

American  correspondent  has  sent  me  the  following  recipe  for 
making  the  cement,  so  effectually  used  by  professional  micros- 
copists,  and  which  some  have  regarded  as  a  trade-secret : — 

"  Take  some  Zinc  White  as  sold  for  painters'  use,  drain  off  the 
oil,  and  mix  with  Ca?iada  Balsam  dissolved  very  thin  with 
Chlorofortn.  If  it  does  not  flow  freely  from  the  brush,  add  a  little 
Turpentine.  The  mixture  should  be  about  the  thickness  of  cream, 
and  kept  in  a  bottle  with  a  glass  cap.  An  old  glass-capped  spirit- 
lamp,  fitted  with  a  cork,  in  which  the  brush  is  fastened,  is  very 
convenient  for  holding  it,  and  is  always  ready  for  use. 

J.  Ford. 

Having  sealed  the  slide  with  the  above  cement,  paint  on  it 
with  artists'  oil-colours,  thinned  if  necessary  with  Turpentine,  and 
when  dry,  varnish  it  with  very  dilute  Balsam,  to  give  it  a  gloss. 

F.  J    Allen. 


Fatty  Acids  to  prepare  for  the  Microscope. — Boil  up  the  fat  or 
oil  with  solution  of  Caustic  Soda  or  Potash  (Liq.  Sodce  or  Liq. 
Potassae)  until  the  alkali  is  quite  saturated  and  refuses  to  absorb 
any  more  fat.  When  it  has  cooled  filter  it  and  add  dilute  Sul- 
phuric or  Hydrochloric  Acid  (stirring  and  warming  at  the  same 
time)  until  no  more  fatty  acid  separates.  Boil  for  a  second  or  two, 
then  set  aside  to  cool.  When  cold,  the  fatty  acid  will  be  found  in 
a  solid  mass  on  the  surface,  and  the  liquid  part  may  be  thrown 
away. 

It  is  well  to  boil  the  acid  in  fresh  water  to  purify  it ;  when,  on 
cooHng,  it  will  be  practically  pure.  N.B. — If  the  Liq.  Potassse  or 
Sodae  is  too  strong,  it  will  refuse  to  saponify. 

To  get  Crystals,  it  is  simply  necessary  to  melt  a  small  quantity 
on  a  slide,  and  spread  it  very  thin  ;  it  crystallizes  on  cooling,  and 
must  be  mounted  "  dry." 

F.  J.  A. 


194  REPORTS   OF   SOCIETIES. 

IReporte  of  Societiee, 


We  shall  he  glad  if  Secretaries  will  send  us  Notices  of  the  Meetings 
of  their  Societies.  Short  abstracts  of  Papers  read,  and  principal  Objects 
exhibited,  ivill  always  be  acceptable. 


OUR     ANNUAL     MEETING. 


ES 

S^ 

M 

^^^m\ 

HE  Ninth  Annual  Meeting  of  this  Society  was 
held  in  the  Duke's  Salon,  at  the  Holborn  Res- 
taurant on  Thursday  evening,  October  the  5th, 
Mr.  G.  D.  Brown,  M.R.C.S.,  F.L.S.,  President, 
in  the  chair,  supported  by  Mr.  Chas.  Stewart, 
M.R.C.S.,  F.L.S.,  in  the  vice-chair,  and  the 
following  Members  and  Friends.  The  Visitors' 
names  are  distinguished  by  an  asterisk  : — Rev.  G.  Bailey,  Dr. 
G.  D.  Brown,  Mr.  W.  P.  Collins,*  Dr.  F.  W.  Cooper,  Mr.  F.  C. 
Cox,  Mr.  T.  Curties,  Mr.  H.  E.  Freeman,*  Mr.  J.  W.  Goodinge, 
Mr.  A.  Hammond,  Mr.  H.  Hensoldt,*  Mr.  R.  A.  Hose,*  Mr. 
J.  E.  Ingpen,*  Mr.  G.  Looseley,  Mr.  A.  Madge,  Mr.  F.  Martin, 
Mr.  J.  Martin, ■-;=  Mr.  H.  N.  Maynard,  Mr.  S.  H.  Needham,* 
Dr.  T.  Partridge,  Mr.  C.  N.  Peal,  Dr.  Ralph  *  (Australia),  Dr. 
C.  Stewart,*  Rev.  E.  T.  Stubbs,  Mr.  W.  Teasdale,  Mr.  A.  Allen. 
At  the  conclusion  of  the  dinner,  the  President  proposed  the 
customary  loyal  toast,  "  The  Queen,"  which  was  heartily 
responded  to. 

The  Annual  Report  and  Treasurer's  Balance-Sheet,  which  had 
been  distributed  to  the  members,  being  taken  as  read,  Mr.  Peal 
proposed,  and  Mr.  Cooper  seconded,  a  resolution,  that  the 
Report  and  Balance-Sheet  be  adopted,  which  was  carried  unani- 
mously. 

The  following  is  a  copy  of  the  Report : — 
The  Committee  beg  to  present  their  9th  Annual  Report, 
and  in  doing  so  have  pleasure  in  congratulating  the  mem- 
bers of  the  '•  Postal  Microscopical  Society  "  on  its  continued 
and  increasing  success. 

The  ordinary  Boxes  which  were  in  circulation  at 
the  date  of  the  last  Annual  Meeting  are  still  circu- 
lating, but  will  now  be  called  in  immediatel}^  Con- 
sidering    the     length     of     time     that     they    have     been 


REPORTS  OF  SOCIETIES.  195 

travelling,  comparatively  few  accidents  have  happened 
to  the  slides.  With  the  new  issue  of  boxes  it  has  been 
decided,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  production  of  notes  and 
drawings,  to  send  a  larger  Manuscript-book  with  each  box. 
And  at  the  suggestion  of  several  members,  the  names  of  the 
circuits  will  be  altered ;  as  owing  to  the  withdrawal  of  some 
members,  and  the  addition  of  others,  many  of  the  names  now 
employed  do  not  represent  the  localities  to  which  they  belong. 
It  has  been  proposed  to  name  them  alphabetically  in  future ; 
and  in  order  to  distinguish  the  four  boxes  belonging  to  each 
circuit,  a  number  will  be  affixed  to  each  letter.  Several 
additional  Special  Boxes  have  been  put  into  circulation ; 
amongst  others  may  be  mentioned  one  devoted  to  the 
Foraminifera  by  Mr.  C.  Elcock, — one  on  the  Linaria  by  Mr. 
R.  H.  Moore, — and  Diatoms  by  Dr.  Partridge. 

At  the  date  of  the  last  Sub-Committee  Meeting,  there 
were  170  members  on  the  roll  of  the  Society;  of  these  32 
have  been  added  during  the  last  year ;  two  have  resigned, 
and  it  is  with  much  regret  that  we  have  to  record  the  loss  of 
a  third,  Mr.  H.  W.  M.  Jackson,  of  Ealing,  by  death. 

During  the  past  12  months  seven  Sub-Committee 
Meetings  have  been  held ;  these  have  been  fairly  well 
attended,  and  the  business  done  has  been  of  a  very  satis- 
factory nature. 

One  act  of  negligence  in  the  detention  of  boxes  has  just 
been  detected  and  adjusted.  It  might  have  been  avoided  if 
each  member  would  conscientiously  follow  the  instructions 
given  on  page  5  of  the  last  Annual  Report,  and  which  are 
here  reproduced  : — "  The  Hon.  Secretary  would  again  remind 
"  all  members  that  it  is  the  duty  of  each  one  accurately  to 
"  chronicle  in  the  Register-Book  provided  for  that  purpose, 
"  the  receipt  and  dispatch  of  all  boxes ;  and  whenever  any 
"  one  finds  that  three  weeks  have  elapsed  without  his  receiv- 
"  ing  a  box,  he  should  at  once  intimate  the  fact  to  the  Hon. 
"  Secretary,  who  will  then  take  steps  to  trace  the  defaulter ; 
"  and  should  the  neglect  prove  serious,  it  will  be  laid  before 
"  the  Local  Sub-Committee  at  their  next  meeting."  But  in 
consequence  of  several  members  having  kept  no  accurate 
record,  and  in  some  cases  none  whatever,  of  the  receipt  and 
dispatch  of  boxes,  your  Hon.  Secretary  had  great  difficulty 
in  tracing  the  offender.     Books  properly  ruled  for  the  purpose 


196  REPORTS   OF   SOCIETIES.  ** 

are   supplied  to  each  member  free,  and  it  is  hoped  that  all 
those  whose  books  are  filled  will  at  once  apply  for  others. 

The  publication  of  the  Notes  of  the  Society  is  now  an 
accomplished  fact.  The  first  part  of  the  "  Journal  of  the 
Postal  Microscopical  Society"  was  issued  on  March  2oth, 
succeeded  by  others  in  June  and  September,  and  the  fourth 
part,  completing  the  first  volume,  will  be  ready  about 
December  24th.  The  publication  of  this  Journal  has  been 
mainly  undertaken  by  your  Hon.  Secretary  (under  the  advice 
of  the  Committee).  In  the  Editorial  department  he  has  been 
assisted  in  no  small  degree  by  the  R-ev.  J.  H.  Green  (Chairman 
of  the  Local  Sub-Committee),  to  whom  are  tendered  herewith 
the  best  thanks  of  the  members  and  subscribers  generally. 

The  collation  of  the  Notes  is  at  present  a  more  laborious 
work  than  it  otherwise  would  be,  if  members  would  studiously 
avoid  writing  anything  in  the  Note-books  but  what  is  of  an 
instructive  nature.  It  is  found  also  that  many  Notes,  which 
were  instructive  when  accompanied  by  the  slides,  become 
comparatively  valueless  on  being  isolated  from  them  ;  this 
points  to  the  imperative  necessity  there  is  that  all  slides 
should  be  illustrated,  as  far  as  possible,  by  both  pencil 
and  pen. 

With  respect  to  the  drawing  of  the  plates,  owing  to  the 
great  expense  attending  high-class  Lithographic  work,  the 
publisher  has  been  induced  to  employ  a  local  artist,  and  is 
pleased  to  note  a  marked  improvement  with  each  issue ;  it  is 
confidently  hoped  that  by  the  time  the  first  part  of  Vol.  II. 
is  reached  the  execution  of  the  plates  will  have  become  all 
that  can  be  desired. 

Your  Hon.  Secretary  is  desirous  of  waiting  the  issue  of 
Part  iv.  before  laying  before  you  the  financial  result  of  the 
new  enterprise ;  and  meanwhile  he  would  earnestly  solicit 
your  cordial  help  and  co-operation.  Especially  is  it  desirable 
that  each  member  should  try  and  furnish  original  matter, 
written  either  by  himself  or  some  competent  friend,  suitable 
for  the  pages  of  the  Journal,  and  calculated  to  increase  its 
circulation  and  usefulness.  And  if  each  subscriber  would  also 
endeavour  to  obtain  three  or  four  others,  the  Journal  would 
quickly  become  an  undoubted  success. 


REPORTS  OF  SOCIETIES.  197 

The  following  is  a  copy  of  the  Balance  Sheet  : — 

The  Postal  Microscopical  Society  in  Account  with  the  Treasurer. 

£    s.    d. 

By  Balance  brought  forward    1     11     3 

Annual  Subscription,  Entrance 

Fees,  and  Subscription  for 

Circulating-  Journals         ...  42     8     0 

Deficit  carried  forward         ...  15  16     9 


£    s. 

d. 

To  Postages 

.  3(5    3 

4 

Letters,  &c.,  surcharged      . 

3  11 

Journey  to  London,  attending 

Annual  Meeting     ... 

.     2    0 

0 

Paper  and  other  Stationery. 

.     2  13 

0 

Dinner  Cards 

3 

6 

Christmas-Box  to  Postman  . 

2 

6 

Blackett's  Bill 

.    7  15 

9 

New  Boxes,  Covers,  &c. 

.    5    0 

0 

Journals           

..    5  14 

0 

£59  16 

0 

£59  16    0 


Audited  this  7th  day  of  September,  1882. 

RICHD.  H.  MOORE. 


Referring  to  the  above  extraordinary  deficit,  the 
Treasurer  wishes  to  state  that  nearly  £18  of  last  year's 
subscription  still  remains  unpaid,  which  if  paid  would  have 
shown  as  usual  a  balance  in  hand. 


Mr.  Peal  suggested  that  if  there  were  any  letters  concerning 
the  operations  of  the  Society  addressed  to  the  Chairman,  they 
should  be  read  to  the  meeting. 

The  President  repUed  that  there  was  a  letter  from  Colonel 
Basevi  addressed  to  the  Secretary,  which  he  would  ask  him  to 
read. 

The  Secretary  then  read  the  following  letter  : — 

"  Elm  Lodge,  Prestbury  ; 

4th  Oct.,  1882. 
"  Dear  Mr.  Allen, — 

Though  unable  to  be  present  with  you  to-morrow,  at  the 
annual  gathering  of  the  P. M.S.,  I  am  anxious  not  to  be  totally 
unrepresented,  and  will  ask  you,  therefore,  to  read  this  letter  to 
the  meeting.  There  are  one  or  two  points,  I  think,  should  be 
laid  before  this  Annual  Meeting  for  their  consideration  and  vote. 
The  first  that  I  will  mention  is  the  circulation  in  our  boxes  of 
what  are  known  as  '  Stock  Slides.'  Since  the  early  part  of  this 
year,  no  less  than  five  boxes  have  contained  the  Proboscis  of  a 
Blow-Fly,  and  the  note-books  to  each  reported  the  opinions  of 
members  on  the  subject — one  objecting,  and  the  next  remarking 
some  special  feature  said  to  be  better  seen  in  that  particular  slide 
than  in  any  previous  one.  Remarks  such  as  these  are,  in  my 
opinion,  very  objectionable,  and  take  up  room  that  might  be  filled 


198  REPORTS  OF  SOCIETIES. 

with  really  valuable  information.  This  is  especially  necessary 
now  that  we  are  printing  our  Journal.  I  would  therefore  propose 
to  the  meeting  that  you,  sir,  or  the  Local  Committee  at  Bath,  be 
requested  to  return  to  any  member  who  may  circulate  a  very  well- 
known,  not  to  say  common,  object,  his  slide,  with  a  polite  letter, 
stating  that  as  it  has  been  so  frequently  in  circulation  it  had  better 
be  exchanged,  and  I  would  only  deviate  from  this  rule  when  an 
object  of  the  kind  was  accompanied  by  a  drawing  and  such  a 
description  as  would  render  it  really  instructive  to  those  members 
of  our  Society  who  are  students  in  that  branch  of  natural  history. 

And  now  let  me  turn  to  another  point — namely,  the  pub- 
lication of  our  Journal.  The  three  numbers  that  have  been  issued 
have  far  exceeded  my  expectations,  and  the  last  number  is  one 
that  any  Society  might  be  proud  to  issue.  I  feel  sure  that  if  we 
can  continue  to  secure  Papers  like  those  by  Mr.  Stokes  and  Mr. 
Charles  Elcock,  and  that  by  Mr.  Lovett  on  'The  Embryology 
of  the  Stalk-Eyed  Crustacea,'  the  success  of  our  experiment  will 
be  assured.  I  have  only  one  suggestion  to  make,  and  that  is  that 
the  services  of  a  better  draughtsman  be  secured.  The  plates  in 
Nos.  I  and  2  are  certainly  inferior  to  the  letterpress.  I  am  aware 
that  in  this  remark  lays  the  main  difficulty  of  the  attempt  to 
publish  the  contents  of  our  Note-Books,  as  the  expense  of 
employing  a  good  draughtsman  is  very  heavy.  Still,  I  think  it  is 
a  subject  worthy  of  consideration,  and  therefore  take  the  liberty  of 
bringing  it  before  the  meeting. 

Hoping  that  you  will  have  a  successful  evening,  and  regretting 
that  my  health  prevents  my  joining  you, 

Believe  me  to  be, 

My  dear  Mr.  Allen, 

Yours  very  truly, 

Henry  Basevi." 

The  Secretary  stated  that  he  had  also  received  letters  from 
Mr.  Searle,  Mr.  Bostock,  and  several  others,  regretting  their  inability 
to  be  present. 

The  Chairman  suggested  that  the  Secretary  should  be  desired 
to  write  to  Col.  Basevi,  regretting  his  absence  and  thanking  him 
for  his  letter,  ^^'ith  regard  to  the  topics  of  his  letter,  he  thouglit 
as  to  the  Journal,  that  question  should  be  left  to  the  Journal 
Committee.  And  as  to  the  other  points,  respecting  slides,  he  con- 
sidered it  would  be  throwing  a  great  deal  too  much  upon  the 
Secretary  to  request  him  to  return  slides  not  worth  circulating. 
The  question  of  suitability  or  non-suitability  of  slides  must  be 
left  to  the  discretion  of  members.     They  might  be  told  quietly 


REPORTS   OF  SOCIETIES.  199 

that  their  sUdes  were  not  quite  up  to  the  mark ;  but  sending  back 
sHdes  would  not,  in  his  opinion,  be  the  nicest  way  of  doing  so. 

Mr.  Washington  Teasdale  considered  the  report  submitted 
to  the  meeting  singularly  satisfactory  on  the  whole.  This  had 
been  a  year  of  very  considerable  progress,  and  the  members 
should  congratulate  themselves  on  the  improved  position  of  the 
Society  and  its  then  satisfactory  state.  The  circulation  had  not 
been  so  congested  as  in  previous  years.  He  certainly  thought  it 
a  great  improvement  to  have  boxes  in  continual  circulation. 
More  slides  had  been  circulated  among  all  the  members  than  ever 
before.  It  was  most  desirable  to  fill  up  the  record-book  regu- 
larly. He  did  not  suppose  many  of  the  members  would  be  able 
to  fill  up  that  book  with  a  record  of  every  slide,  but  he  thought  a 
smaller  book,  just  to  note  the  arrival  and  departure  of  each  box, 
would  be  quite  sufficient.  He  had  himself  kept  such  a  record  for 
several  years  before  those  books  were  issued,  and  since  he  had 
taken  more  interest  in  the  affairs  of  the  Society,  he  had  indeed 
overlooked  entering  the  slides,  but  had  continued  to  keep  a 
register  of  the  receipt  and  despatch  of  the  boxes.  There  was 
another  matter,  which  perhaps  he  ought  not  to  say  anything  about, 
as  it  would  come  on  later — it  was  the  marked  progress  in  the 
Journal.  This  is  the  first  year  of  its  publication,  and  it  certainly 
is  at  the  present  time  becoming  still  more  interesting  and  of 
greater  importance  with  each  issue,  and  he  felt  quite  sure  that, 
under  the  able  management  of  its  Editor,  the  indefatigable  Hon. 
Secretary,  it  would  before  long  become  all  that  its  promoters 
desired  it — one  of  the  leading  and  most  useful  microscopical 
Journals  of  the  day  Then  there  was  the  question  of  stock  slides. 
There  certainly  were  such  slides,  as  for  example  the  "  Proboscis  of 
the  Blow-Fly,"  "Spicules  of  Gorgonia,"  and  "Saws  of  the  Saw- Fly." 
He  suggested  a  sort  of  hidex  expurgatorius  should  be  made  of 
about  two  dozen  of  the  most  common  sHdes.  He  did  not  think 
they  would  then  hear  anything  more  of  stock  slides.  It  was 
necessary  to  remember  that  many  of  their  contributors  were 
inexperienced  in  the  use  of  the  microscope.  They  purchased  a 
microscope,  and  with  it  many  of  the  stock  slides,  which  to  them 
were  highly  interesting,  and  with  a  sort  of  liberality  in  their 
ignorance  they  sent  them  round.  At  the  same  time,  he  held  that 
they  should  not  object  to  a  slide  just  because  a  similar  one  had 
been  circulated  before.  A  certain  object  might  be  prepared  in  a 
particular  way.  Another  member  might  send  round  the  same 
object  differently  prepared  to  shew  some  special  features,  or  the 
same  features  in  a  better  manner.  Another  reason  was  that 
formerly  only  a  small  proportion  of  sHdes,  certainly  not  more  than 
half,  were  circulated  through  every  circuit,  or  were  ever  seen  by  all 


200  KEPORTS   OF   SOCIETIES. 

the  members.  Many  of  the  slides  circulated  by  their  old  members 
would  be  exceedingly  interesting  and  valuable  if  they  were  sent 
round  again. 

The  Chairman  announced  the  result  of  the  voting.  Dr. 
Coombs  was  elected  President-Elect  and  Dr.  Partridge  Vice- 
President  for  next  year.  He  also  said  that  though  there  could  be 
no  doubt  on  the  next  question,  it  was  necessary  that  the  Secretary 
should  be  formally  re-elected.  The  Committee  would  also  be 
re-elected  for  the  ensuing  year.  Mr.  Allen  would,  of  course,  be 
re-elected  as  Secretary  and  Treasurer,  and  he  should  be  elected 
first. 

Mr.  CuRTiES  moved,  in  a  short  and  very  complimentary 
manner,  that  Mr.  Allen  should  be  asked  to  fill  the  office  of 
Secretary  and  Treasurer  for  the  ensuing  year. 

Dr.  Partridge  seconded  the  motion. 

The  Chairman,  in  putting  the  motion  to  the  meeting,  said 
Mr.  Allen  was  undoubtedly  the  life  and  soul  of  the  Society,  and 
he  could  not  think  what  they  should  do  without  him. 

The  motion  was  carried  unanimously. 

The  Secretary  thanked  the  Society  for  the  honour  they  had 
done  him.  He  had  nothing  to  add  to  what  he  had  said  last  year 
and  in  former  years.  It  was  a  great  pleasure  to  him  to  do  the 
work  of  the  Society.  He  felt  that  he  could  not  be  called  a  lazy 
man.  It  was  not  his  nature,  and  he  did  not  think  he  could  fulfil 
the  duties  required  of  him  if  he  were. 

The  members  of  the  Committee  to  be  re-elected  were  : — Col. 
H.  Basevi,  G.  Dannatt,  the  Rev.  J.  H.  Green,  E.  Lovett,  H.  N. 
Maynard,  R.  H.  Moore,  Geo.  Norfhan,  F.  E.  Robinson,  the  Rev. 
E.  T.  Stubbs  ;  the  Local  Sub-Committee  being  the  Rev.  J.  H. 
Green,  the  Rev.  E.  T.  Stubbs,  R.  H.  Moore,  G.  Norman,  F.  E. 
Robinson,  and  T.  B.  Silcock. 

Mr.  Teasdale,  in  moving  the  re-election  of  the  Committee 
and  Sub-Committee,  observed  that  the  Society  were  much 
indebted  to  the  Sub-Committee  for  their  labours  during  the  past 
year  in  reforming  the  working  of  the  Society.  As  the  Society  was 
now  so  well  constituted,  he  expressed  a  hope  that  many  of  the  old 
members  would  be  induced  to  rejoin  the  Society. 

Dr.  Partridge  remarked  that  the  Sub-Committee  had  devoted 
an  immense  amount,  not  only  of  time,  but  of  careful  thought,  to 
the  interests  of  the  Society,  and  he  had  much  pleasure  in  second- 
ing the  motion,  which  was  put  to  the  meeting  and  carried  unani- 
mously. 

The  Chairman  stated  that  this  concluded  the  business  of  the 


REPORTS   OF  SOCIETIES.  201 

evening,  and  it  was  now  his  duty  to  vacate  the  chair  in  favour  of 
his  successor,  who,  he  felt  sure,  would  be  more  an  ornament  to  it 
than  he  had  been. 

Mr.  Hammond,  the  President  for  the  ensuing  year,  then  took 
the  chair. 

Mr.  CuRTiES  said  it  occurred  to  him  that  on  the  eve  of  Dr. 
Brown's  departure  from  the  chair,  they  should  offer  him  their  very 
cordial  thanks  for  the  work  he  had  done  during  his  term  of  office, 
and  at  the  same  time  express  their  good  wishes  for  the  future.  He 
trusted  that,  although  resigning  the  presidency,  he  would  continue 
to  exert  his  influence  to  advance  the  interests  of  the  Society. 

Mr.  Maynard^  in  seconding  the  motion,  said  they  were  all 
fully  aware  of  the  great  service  Dr.  Brown  had  rendered  to  the 
Society. 

The  motion  was  put  and  carried  by  acclamation. 

Dr.  Brown  thanked  the  members  very  much  for  the  kind 
way  in  which  they  had  spoken  of  the  small  services  he  had  been 
able  to  render  during  the  year.  The  duties  of  the  office  had  not 
been  heavy,  but  had  led  him  to  take  greater  interest  in  the 
working  and  welfare  of  the  Society.  He  was  sure  his  interest 
would  not  diminish.  He  hoped  the  Postal  Microscopical  Society 
would  continue  to  prosper. 

The  new  President,  Arthur  Hammond,  Esq.,  F.L.S.,  then 
proposed  the  toast  of  the  evening,  "  Success  to  the  Postal  Micro- 
scopical Society,"  which  was  drunk  with  enthusiasm. 

The  President  then  delivered  his  address,  the  subject  of 
which  was  "  The  Anatomy  and  Life-History  of  the  Water-Flea, 
Daphiia  Pulex^''  and  was  illustrated  by  a  great  number  of  large 
diagrams,  specially  prepared  for  the  occasion,  but  owing  to  the 
advanced  hour,  he  was  compelled  to  pass  over  some  interesting 
features.  The  address  will  be  found  m  extenso  in  the  current 
number  of  the  Journal. 

The  Rev.  E.  T.  Stubbs  expressed  great  pleasure  in  listening  to 
the  President's  interesting  address.  He  remarked  that  there  was 
great  difficulty  in  getting  the  Daphnia  into  a  suitable  position  for 
examination,  as  described  by  the  President.  It  was  usually  seen 
lying  upon  its  side  ;  but  it  was  necessary  to  get  an  endwise  view 
of  it,  looking  towards  the  rectum,  front  of  the  head,  and  back  of 
the  head.  The  examination  of  the  Daphnia  in  those  positions 
would  add  immensely  to  the  knowledge  of  the  animal.  He  found 
it  very  easy  to  get  the  Daphnia  into  other  positions  by  placing 
them  between  two  slips  of  wood,  pieces  of  matches  pared  down, 
so  as  to  fit  inside  a  thin  zoophyte  trough,     Two  such  parallel 


!202  REPORTS   OF   SOCIETIES. 

slips  of  wood  would  include  a  number  of  Daphnia,  which  would 
be  seen  in  various  positions,  and  could  be  studied  in  a  way  not 
otherwise  practicable.  He  could  thus  obtain  a  front  view,  and 
examine  the  small  antennae  with  their  setse,  which  were  extremely 
interesting.  By  this  means,  also,  a  good  view  of  other  parts  of 
the  body  could  be  obtained.  He  thought  the  suggestion  would 
be  found  useful  to  the  members.  He  begged  to  propose  a  vote 
of  thanks  to  the  President  for  his  extremely  interesting  paper. 
The  President  thanked  the  members  for  their  kind  attention. 

The  President  then  proposed  "  Success  to  Kindred 
Societies,"  mentioning  especially  the  Royal  Microscopical  Society, 
the  Microscopical  Society  of  Victoria,  Australia,  and  the  Quekett 
Microscopical  Club,  officers  of  which  Societies  he  was  glad  to  see 
present  as  visitors.  He  coupled  with  the  toast  the  names  of  Mr. 
Charles  Stewart  (Hon.  Sec.  of  the  Royal  Microscopical  Society), 
Dr.  Ralph  (President  of  the  Victoria  Society),  and  Mr.  Ingpen 
(Hon.  Sec.  of  the  Quekett  Club). 

Mr.  Stewart  returned  his  best  thanks  for  the  kind  manner  in 
which  the  toast  had  been  drunk.  They  all  took  the  greatest 
interest  in  the  Postal  Microscopical  Society  and  in  any  work  con- 
nected with  microscopic  research.  He  was  sure  that  all  wished  to 
do  their  best  to  further  such  meritorious  efforts  to  popularise 
microscopy  in  outlying  districts  in  the  country. 

Dr.  Ralph  acknowledged  the  graceful  way  in  which  mention 
had  been  made  of  the  Society  at  the  Antipodes,  which  he  had  the 
honour  to  represent  as  President  on  that  occasion.  He  was 
gratified  at  having  been  present  at  that  meeting.  Though  he  was 
previously  unaware  of  the  existence  of  such  a  Society,  yet,  from 
what  had  transpired  at  the  meeting,  and  from  the  publications 
which  had  been  kindly  put  into  his  hands,  he  could  see  the  value 
of  such  a  Society.  They  had  in  the  South  a  Society  which  was 
trying  to  work  its  way  as  a  kind  of  affiliated  Society  with  the 
Microscopical  Societies  in  this  country.  They  had  also  a  few 
Naturalists'  Clubs,  but  not  one  answering  to  the  Postal  Micros- 
copical Society.  He  should  certainly  be  happy  to  report  its 
progress  when  he  returned  home,  and  he  hoped  to  initiate  others 
to  undertake  the  formation  of  such  a  Society.  He,  in  conclusion, 
again  thanked  them  for  the  kind  manner  in  which  he  had  been 
received. 

Mr.  Ingpen  said,  as  Dr.  Stewart  had  replied  on  behalf  of  the 
Royal  Microscopical  Society,  he  would  respond  to  their  kindness 
more  particularly  on  behalf  of  the  Quekett  Microscopical  Club, 
with  which  he  was  more  intimately  connected.  That  Society  had 
always  been  on  the  most  friendly  terms  with  the  Postal  Micros- 


REPORTS   OF   SOCIETIES.  203 

copical  Society.  It  would  give  the  members  of  the  Quekett 
Club  great  pleasure  to  correspond  with  members  of  the  Postal 
Society,  especially  the  more  distant  ones,  and  offer  them  every 
assistance  with  regard  to  manipulation,  processes,  and  other 
matters,  in  which  they  took  especial  interest.  The  value  of 
microscopical  pursuits  in  remote  districts  was  fully  recognized  by 
their  Club,  and  was  also  of  considerable  interest  to  the  other 
higher  bodies  who  were  interested  in  microscopic  work.  He 
thanked  them  for  their  kind  reception  of  the  toast. 

Mr.  CuRTiES  said  he  had  permission  to  propose  the  next 
toast,  that  of  "  The  Journal,"  and  it  afforded  him  great  pleasure 
to  do  so.  It  appeared  to  him  that  the  publication  of  the  Journal 
was  likely  to  inspire  new  life  into  the  Society,  extending  its 
influence  far  and  wide.  As  a  member,  he  warmly  and  heartily 
supported  the  Secretary's  excellent  idea  in  establishing  the  Journal. 
It  gave  them  an  opportunity  of  seeing  the  cream  of  their  Note- 
Books,  and  it  also  enabled  them  to  see  the  kind  of  work  the 
Society  continued  to  do.  The  Journal,  to  be  a  success,  must 
have  the  support  of  members  and  their  friends.  All  must  take 
an  interest  in  the  work,  and  endeavour  to  increase  its  circulation. 
In  conclusion,  he  thanked  the  Secretary  for  his  courage  in  starting 
it,  and  for  his  continued  zeal  in  the  Society's  welfare. 

The  Secretary,  replying  to  the  above  remarks,  said  that  the 
Rev.  J.  H.  Green,  of  Bath,  and  himself  had  up  to  the  present 
constituted  themselves  co-editors,  and  they  have  endeavoured  to 
make  the  Journal  in  every  respect  as  good  as  it  could  possibly  be 
made  for  the  money.  Indeed,  he  was  rather  afraid  that  they  had 
overstepped  the  mark.  A  man  unused  to  publishing  would  very 
probably  not  receive  so  satisfactory  an  estimate  from  the  printer 
as  one  more  accustomed  to  the  work  would,  and  hence  it  is 
possible  that  the  cost  had  not  been  sufficiently  studied  before 
issuing  the  first  number.  He  felt,  however,  quite  sure  that,  with 
the  cordial  co-operation  of  all  the  members  and  subscribers, 
success  at  no  very  distant  date  was  certain.  He  asked  them  to 
do  all  they  could  to  further  this  much-desired  object — first,  by 
contributing  suitable  matter  for  its  pages  and  then  by  doubling  the 
number  ot  subscribers.  The  Editors  will  always  be  glad  to 
consider  any  suggestions  made  by  their  friends  likely  to  add  to 
the  efticiency  of  the  Journal,  and  if  the  Secretaries  of  such 
Societies  as  do  not  publish  their  transactions  would  send  the 
papers  read  at  their  meetings  to  our  Journal,  they  would,  if  found 
suitable,  and  he  thought  there  would  be  no  doubt  on  that 
point,  ensure  a  place  in  it.  They  would  also  be  glad  to  receive 
papers  from  any  of  their  members.     He  wished  to  thank  Mr, 


204  REPORTS   OF   SOCIETIES. 

Curties  for  the  very  kind  manner  in  which  he  had  brought  the 
matter  forward. 

Mr.  Maynard  said  he  felt  much  interest  in  the  progress  of  the 
Society,  having  been  connected  with  it  from  its  commencement. 
He  was  particularly  interested  in  seeing  the  Journal  made  a 
success.  It  was  a  step  in  the  right  direction.  The  Hon. 
Secretary  had  been  considering  for  a  long  time  in  what  way  the 
Society  could  make  use  of  the  Notes  in  the  Note-Books.  He 
could  not  think  of  a  better  plan  than  selecting  the  cream  of  the 
Notes  and  publishing  them  in  the  Journal.  The  Secretary  had 
already  told  them  he  had  made  it  too  cheap.  That  was  the  fault 
of  their  Society  at  the  commencement,  though  he  hardly  liked  to 
call  it  a  fault.  The  Secretary  desired  to  make  the  Journal  as 
low-priced  as  possible.  It  was  a  good  thing  to  work  the  Society 
cheaply,  and  he  had  gone  on  the  same  principle  in  producing  the 
Journal.  He  hoped  all  would  take  an  interest  in  it.  If  all  did 
their  best  to  increase  the  circulation,  the  desired  end  would  be 
speedily  attained. 

At  the  close  of  the  meeting,  some  interesting  objects  were 
exhibited,  viz. — Daphnia  (alive),  by  the  President  in  illustration 
of  his  paper ;  also  a  number  of  large  drawings  explanatory  of  his 
paper,  Mr.  Curties  kindly  supplying  a  number  of  microscopes  and 
lamps ;  various  photographs  of  microscopic  objects  by  Mr. 
Washington  Teasdale ;  some  lantern-slides  by  Dr.  Partridge ; 
slides  of  selected  spicules,  Polyzoa,  etc.,  from  weathered  Car- 
boniferous Limestone,  by  Mr.  Needham,  F.G.S.  The  late  hour, 
however,  to  which  the  meeting  had  been  protracted  allowed  but 
little  time  for  the  examination  of  the  various  objects. 


BATH   MICROSCOPICAL   SOCIETY. 


The  second  general  meeting  of  the  Bath  Microscopical  Society 
was  held  on  Tuesday,  the  yth  ult.,  at  the  Mineral  Water  Hospital, 
Dr.  Hensley,  the  President,  in  the  chair. — A  paper  was  read  by 
the  Rev.  E.  T.  Stubbs,  M.A.,  on  -'Two  Species  of  Arachnida," 
illustrated  by  some  excellent  drawings  and  slides.  After  sketching 
the  history  of  the  branches,  classes,  and  sub-classes  in  the  animal 
kingdom,  the  sub-class  Arachnida  was  stated  to  consist  of  seven 
orders,  all  of  which  were  graphically  described,  and  from  the  two 
orders  PycriogonidcE  and  ScoTpio7iidcB  the  specimens  exhibited  and 
treated  of  were  obtained.  From  the  former  order  a  mounted 
specimen  of  Pycnogonum  liitorale  was  passed  round  the  table  and 


CORRESPONDENCE.  205 

explained,  the  creature  having  been  obtained  by  Mr.  Stubbs  from 
the  Brighton  Aquarium,  and  found  to  be  parasitic  on  the  Cetacea. 
The  order  contains  but  one  family,  but  several  genera — some 
British,  others  exotic,  but  all  exclusively  marine.  The  specimen 
exhibited  was  furnished  with  eight  legs  surmounted  with  claws. 
Head  tubular,  in  the  form  of  a  beak  or  proboscis.  The  abdomen 
rudimentary,  with  a  very  remarkable  digestive  cavity  extending 
into  the  legs  of  the  creature.  These  ramifications  of  the  alimen- 
tary canal,  however,  appear  to  serve  all  the  purposes  of  circulatory, 
respiratory,  and  chyliferous  systems  as  in  higher  animals.  Another 
slide  was  passed  round  the  table  from  the  order  Scorpionidce^  and 
consisted  of  a  fine  Scorpion  obtained  from  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean.  The  body  was  of  an  elongated  oval  shape, 
covered  with  a  horny  integument.  The  abdomen  united  to  the 
thorax,  and  consisting  of  1 2  segments,  five  of  the  latter  becoming 
narrower  and  forming  the  tail,  which  ends  in  a  sharp  curved  sting. 
The  poison  which  flows  from  this  formidable  weapon  appears  to  be 
carried  through  two  ducts  to  ten  orifices  near  the  point  of  the 
sting.  The  poison  of  the  Scorpion  is  more  or  less  venomous, 
depending  on  the  age  of  the  creature  and  the  season  of  the  year, 
and  certainly  upon  the  health  or  otherwise  of  the  victim. — At  the 
close  of  the  paper,  a  discussion  ensued  upon  the  nature  and  effects 
of  the  poison. — Dr.  Hensley  tendered  the  thanks  of  the  Society  to 
Mr.  Stubbs  for  introducing  so  interesting  a  subject. — Mr.  Pumphrey 
exhibited  a  specimen  of  fresh-water  Algae  (Batrachospermiun), 
which  had  been  introduced  into  a  stream  in  his  garden,  and 
appeared  to  be  well  established. 


Correapon&ence* 

The  Editors  do  not  hold  themselves  responsible  for  the  opinions  or 
statements  of  their  Correspondents. 


Bacillaria   Paradoxa   (p.    158). 
To  the  Editor  of  "  The  lour?ial  of  the  Postal  Microscopical  Society:' 
Sir,— 

Many  years  ago  I  found  this  Diatom  in  the  ditches  inter- 
secting swampy  meadows  on  both  sides  of  the  river  just  above  the 
town  of  Stafford,  and  communicated  the  fact  to  Professor 
Henfrey's  "Botanical  Gazette,"  1851,  p.  135. 


206  CORRESPONDENCE. 

I  understand  that  recently  borings  have  been  made,  not  far 
from  this  locahty,  in  search  of  a  water-supply  for  the  town,  but  the 
project  was  abandoned  because  the  water  proved  to  be  too 
brackish  for  household  use. 

RoBT.  C.  Douglas. 
Manaton  Rectory,  Moretonhampstead, 
Exeter;  Oct.  17th,  1882. 


To  the  Editor  of  "  The  Journal  of  the  Postal  Microscopical  Society. ^^ 
Sir,— 

There  seems  little  doubt  that  this  diatom  is  more  generally 
distributed  than  is  supposed,  for  in  addition  to  the  locality  men- 
tioned by  Mr.  Douglas,  it  is  noted  by  Mr.  Davis,  in  "  Practical 
Microscopy,"  as  having  been  found  attached  to  algae  taken  from 
the  canal  at  Birmingham. 

Although  probably  not  sweet,  the  canal-water  ranging  from 
Stoke-on-Trent  to  Birmingham  can  hardly  be  characterised  as 
"  brackish,"  although  possibly  that  in  the  ditches  round  Stafford 
might  be,  as  the  neighbourhood  is  very  low  and  marshy. 

It  is  quite  possible  that,  so  far  as  the  canal  is  concerned,  the 
Diatom  may  have  been  imported ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  fact 
of  its  being  found  in  ditches  round  Stafford  is  against  that  view, 
and  it  is  probable  that,  if  carefully  sought  after,  it  would  be 
frequently  met  with. 

It  can,  however,  no  longer  be  correct  to  describe  it,  as  it  is  at 
the  present  time  in  existing  authorities,  as  a  purely  "  marine " 
organism. 

Stone.  E.  Bostock. 


Felspar  and  Oligoclase. 
To  the  Editor  of  "  The  Journal  of  the  Postal  Microscopical  Society. ^^ 
Sir,— 

In  No.  I.  of  our  Journal,  the  Rev.  J.  M.  Mello,  writing  with 

regard  to  the  Felspars,  gives  the  formulae  wrong,  as  all  the  Oxygen 

is  left  out.     I  did  not  write  before,  as  I  thought  it  would  have 

been  corrected  in  the  following  number.     They  should  be  : — 

No.   -r.— K,  O,  Al     0„  6    Si    0„  and   part  of  the  Al     O, 

replaced  by  Fe    O  ,  and  Mn    O  ,  and  the  K    O  by  Na^  O  or 

Ca  O. 

No.  2.-Na,  O,  Al   0„  6   Si  0„  Ca  O,  K   O,  or  Mg  O  may 

2  2        3  o  it 

replace  the  Na    O. 


CORRESPONDENCE. 


207 


And   with   the   OHgoclase  it  should  be  Na^  O  replaced  by 

Ca  O. 

Yours,  etc., 

Arthur  Madge,  F.C.S. 


To  the  Editor  of  "  The  Journal  of  the  Postal  Microscopical  Society T 
Dear  Sir, — 

I  shall  be  glad  to  see  expressions  of  opinion  on  the  part  of 
other  members,  about  the  lines  round  the  plates.  In  all  scientific 
works  I  have  seen  they  are  omitted. 

Yours  truly, 

C.  P.  Coombs. 

[We  do  not  think  it  desirable  to  enter  into  a  discussion  on  this 
subject  in  the  pages  of  the  Journal,  but  if  any  of  our  subscribers 
have  a  decided  preference  for  the  plates  with  or  without  the 
border-lines  and  will  write  to  us,  we  shall  be  glad  to  accede  to  the 
wishes  of  the  majority.  In  some  cases,  the  border-lines  appear 
necessary;  Plate  17  in  the  present  part  may  be  taken  as  an 
example.  — Editor.  ] 


At  the  moment  of  going  to  press,  we  have  received  from  Mr. 
E.  Wade-Wilton,  of  Leeds,  7  or  8  sheets  containing  outline 
sketches  and  short  descriptions  of  various  specimens  of  Polyzoa  and 
other  aquatic  organisms  intended  to  accompany  his  weekly  tubes. 
His  customers  will  doubtless  find  these  sketches  very  useful, 
but  we  should  have  been  glad  to  have  seen  that  a  fittle  more  care 
had  been  expended  on  their  execution. 


NOTICES  TO  CORRES- 
PONDENTS. 

All  communications  should  he  addressed  to 

" Editor  "  care  of  Mr.  A.  Allen,  1, 

Camhridge  Place,  Bath.     They  must  he 

accompanied  by  the  name  and  address 

of  the  writers,  hut  not  necessarily  for 

piihlication. 

Several  very  interesting  papers  are  in 

print,  but  are   excluded  from  want  of 

room.    They  will  appear  in  our  next. 


SALE  COLUMN. 

Advertisements  hy  memhers  and  suhscrih- 
ers  are  inserted  here  at  the  rate  of  Six- 


pence for  20  ivords,  and  Threepence 

for  every  additional  10  xvords  or  jpor- 

tion  of  10. 

Microscopic   Objects   for   Mounting. 

Fifty  preparations   accurately   named, 

2/6.     R.    H.    Philip,    4,  Grove   Street, 

Stepney,  Hull. 

BOOKS  RECEIVED. 

Northern  Microscopist,  22,  23,  24. 
Quekett  Journal,  No.  2,  New  Series. 
Natural  History  Journal  and  School 
Re])orter,  up  to  date. 

The  American  Naturalist,  Oct.,  Nov. 
Natural  History  Notes,  up  to  date. 


%iBt  of  plates* 


Anguinaria  spatula 

Caligus,  a  New  Species  of 

Chrysolite   ... 

Coffee  and  Chicory    ... 

Daphnia,  Structure  of  ..  plates  i8,  i 

Elvanite 

Flustra  foliacea,  Structure  of     ... 

Gamasus  of  Humble  Bee 

Haematopinus  suis 

Hoplophora  ferruginea,  Foot  of 

Kidney  of  Rabbit 

Lepeoptheirus  Stromii,  Mouth  of 

Map,  showing  the  Towns  in  which  the 

Members  of  the  Society  reside 
Mouth  Organs  of  Suctorial  Lice 
Notaspis  bipihs  vel  N.  lucorum 
Solaster  Papposa,  Portion  of  Arm  of 
Soldier  Beetle,  Mouth  and  Wings  of 
Spider,  Anatomy  of  ... 
Ditto 

Spine  of  Dog  Fish     ... 
Starch-Cells,  the  Bursting-Point  of 
Stylaria  Paludosa,  Anatomy  of... 
Tanypus  Maculatus,  Anatomy  of  Larva  of 
Tortoise  Tick,  Rostrum  of 
Tubifex  Rivulorum,  Anatomy  of 
Velia  Currens 
Xanthia  in  Flint 


plate 

3  page  38 

5) 

6 

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2 

,,     36 

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II 

»  115 

9,  pages  I 

61,  169 

plate 

2  page  36 

5) 

14 

»  147 

5> 

2 

„     36 

)) 

15 

„  154 

)) 

10 

„  102 

5) 

5 

»     47 

)) 

6 

»     57 

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16 

„       I 

J> 

13 

»   147 

J> 

10 

„   102 

J) 

13 

„  147 

)) 

4 

»     43 

J) 

7 

,,     63 

)) 

12 

„   120 

>) 

3 

„     38 

)J 

16 

■„   177 

JJ 

8 

„     81 

)) 

8 

„     81 

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9 

„     92 

J) 

I 

»     14 

>) 

15 

»   154 

a 

3 

,,     38 

Jnbey  to  \)ol 


L  I  B  R  A  R  Y  1 :30 


Adulteration   of    Coffee 

and  the  Microscope       ...  115 
^cidium  Ranunculacearum  99 
American  Cement  for  Ring- 
ing-Slides            ...          ...  193 

Ant-lion,  Larva  of...          ...  189 

Anguinaria  Spatulata          ...  47 

Aperture  Diaphragm          ...  51 

Aperture,  Numerical          ...  7 

Aquaria  for  Microscopic  Life  135 

Atax          188 

Aulacomnium  Androgynum  99 

Bacillaria  paradoxa       158,  205 
Barker,  H.,  on  Photo-Micro- 
graphy    ...    _      ...    _      ...      75 
Bath  Microscopical  Society  5  2, 204 
Beetles' Wing-Cases,Colour  of  189 
Bibliotheca  Micrographica      157 
Bird's-Head     Processes     in 
Gemellaria  ...  ...    187 

Bleaching  Fluid  for  Insects  192 
Bleaching  Leaves  ...  ...    191 

Blow-Fly,  Teeth  of  ...     37 

Bolton's  Portfolio  ...  ...     51 

Brown,  Dr.  G.  D.,  on  Hydro- 
zoa  and  Polyzoa...  ...     73 

Cactus,  Sphsraphides  of  . . .  94 

Caligus,     a    supposed    new 

species  of           ...          ...  57 

Cat's  Tongue,  Section  of  48,  107 

Chlorophyll,   Inulin,   and 

Protein-Crystals  ...          ...  12 

Chrysolite    ...          ...          ...  40 

Class  Demonstration,  Micros- 
cope for               ...          ...  52 

Clifton  Oolite         ...         ...  96 


Page 
Coffee,  Adulteration  of  ...  115 
Collecting     Apparatus      for 

Water      158 

Coombes,    Dr.    C.    P.,     on 

Cutting   Sections  of   Soft 

Tissues    ...  ...  ...     61 

Correspondence  54,  106,  157,  205 

Cotton  Seeds  146 

Crystals  in  Leaflet  of  Lathy- 

rus  hirsutus  ...  ...    152 

Cuttle-Fish,  Teeth  from  the 

Sucker  of  ...  ...    146 


Daphnia     ... 

Daphnia,  Egg  of     ... 
Daphnia,  On   the  Structure 

and  Economy  of 
Dark-Ground      Illumination 
Deby,     Julien,     Bibliotheca 

Micrographi  ca    ... 
Dendritic  Spots  on  Paper  . . . 
Dermanyssus  gallinae 
Desmids  and  Confervae 
Diatoms 
Diatoms,  on 
Dibdin,  W.  J.,  Notes  on  the 

Bursting    Point   of    some 

Starch  Cells 
Diorite 

Dog  Fish,  Spine  of 
Dust-Particles  of  Wheat  and 

Coal,  sizes  of 


155 
155 

161 
94 

■•    157 
,.    150 

38,46 

.     50 

.     90 

22 


177 
40 
38 

175 


Ealing  Microscopical  and 
Natural  History  Club    ...    104 

Echino-cactus  Vesnagii  (sti^ 
no/n.),  Echinus  Vesnagii, 
Sphaeraphides  from        ...     91 


3  4 


9^1) 


11. 


INDEX. 


Page 
Egg  of  Louse  of    Vieillot's 

Pheasant  ...  93595 

Elcock,  Chas.,  on  Foramini- 

fera         25,  139 

Elcock's  Type-Slides  of  For- 

aminifera  ...  ...    104 

Elvanite       ...  ...  ...     40 

Embryology  of  the  Podoph- 

thalmata     or      Stalk-eyed 

Crustacea  ...  ...    109 

Enock's  Entomological  Slides  103 
Epps,  H.,  on  the  Size  of  Dust 

Particles   of    Wheat    and 

Coal         175 

Fatty  Acids  to  Prepare  for 

the  Microscope                ...  193 

Felspar  and  Oligoclase       ...  206 

Flint,  Xanthidia  in...          ...  41 

Flustra  foliacea       ...          ...  147 

Foraminifera,  Elcock's  Type- 
Slides  of              ...          ...  104 

Foraminifera,  How    to   pre- 
pare                   25,  139 

Fowl-Mite,         DcrmaiiyssiLS 

gaUincE.     ...           ..          ...  4^ 

Fruit  of  Palm         ...          ...  42 

Funaria  hygrometrica         ...  145 

Gamasus  from  Humble  Bee  44 
George,  C.  F.,  Water  Collect- 
ing-Apparatus    ...          ...  158 

Gemellaria,      Bird's-Head 

Processes  in        ...          ...  187 

Geranium,  Petal  of             •••  i45 

Gizzards,  to  clean  ...          ...  48 

Glycerine  Jelly  Mounts      ...  49 

Glycerine,  to  Mount  in      ...  192 

Greenock  Nat.  Hist.  Soc.  ...  105 

Growing-slide,  a  new  ...  118 
Gull,  Lice  said  to  be  taken 

from         ...          ...          ...  149 

HiEMATOPINUS  Suis  ...     1 48 

Hairs  on  Leaf  of  Vegetable 
Marrow  ...         ...         ,..     36 


Fage 

Hammond  A.,  on 

Tubifex  Rivulorum         ...      14 
Stylaria  Paludosa  ...     81 

The    Larva    of    Tanypus 

Maculatus        83 

The  Structure  and  Econ- 
omy of  Daphnia  ...    161 

Harrison,  J.  S.,  on  the  Adul- 
teration of  Coffee  ...    115 

Hepaticge    ...  ...  ...    100 

History  of  the  Postal  Micros- 
copical Society    ...  ...       4 

Holothurian  Plates  from  the 
Carboniferous  Strataof  the 
West  of  Scotland  ...      71 

Hoplophora  .  ...    100 

Horner,  W.,  on  Spiders,  their 
Structure  and  Habits      63,  120 

Hour  at  the  Microscope,  with 
Mr.  Tuffen  West,  an  34, 90, 145 

Humble-Bee,  Gamasus  of...     44 

Hydrozoa  and  Polyzoa       ...      73 

Illumination,  Dark-ground     94 
Inulin,  Examination  of      ...      12 


Kidney 

Kidney  of  Rabbit 


47 


Laeradorite,  or  Opalescent 

Felspar    ...  ...  ...     39 

Larva  of  Tanypus  Maculatus, 

on  the      ...     Z2i 

Lathyrus  hirsutus.  Crystals  in 

Leaflet  of  ...  ...    152 

Lice  said  to  be  taken  from  a 

Gull         ...  ...  ...    149 

Lichens        ...  ...  ...      29 

Living    Specimens    for    the 

Microscope,  new  series  of  106 
Lophocolea  bidentata  ...  99 
Lovett,  E.,on  the  Embryology 

of  the  Podophthahiiata  or 

Stalk-eyed  Crustacea      ...   109 


INDEX, 


111. 


Page 

Macrotoma  Plumbea        ...  189 
Micro-organisms,  new  method 

of  preparing  Minute       ..-  88 
Microscope  for  Class  Demon- 
stration   ...          ...          ...  52 

Microscope,    Unpressed 

Mounting  for       ...          ...  129 

Microscopic  Life,  Aquaria  for  135 

Microscopical  Apparatus   ...  51 
Microscopical    Examination 
of  Chlorophyll,  Inulin,  and 

Protein  Crystals  ...          ...  12 

Mildew  on  Dry  Mounts,  to 

prevent  the  growth  of     ...  193 

New  Method  of  Preparing 

Minute  Micro-organisms  88 

Notaspis  bipilis  v.  N.  lucorum  159 

Notaspis,  Mouth  of             ...  102 

Numerical  Aperture            ...  7 

Nummulites            ...          ...  97 


39 

206 


Oligoclase 
Oligoclase  and  Felspar 

Oolite,  Chfton        96 

Opalescent  Felspar    or    La- 

bradorite              ...          ...  39 

Orthoclase  ...          ...          ...  39 

Palm,  Fruit  of        ...          ...  42 

Paper,  Dendritic  Spots  on...  150 

Partridge,  Dr.  T.,  on  Diatoms  22 

Photo-Micrography             ...  75 

Plagioclase ...          ...          ...  39 

Plant  Crystals          ...           ••  ^^SZ 
Plants  to  Mount  in  Glycerine 

and  Water           ...          ...  192 

Plants,  Vital  Absorption  in  42 
Podophthalmata    or     Stalk- 
eyed    Crustacea,    on    the 

Embryology  of   ...          ...  109 

Polycistina,  Recent            ...  146 

Polyzoa  and  Hydrozoa      ...  73 

Pond-Hunting  in  Winter   ...  183 
Postal  Microscopical  Society, 

History  of  the    4 


Page 

Postal  Photographical  Society  1 54 
Proboscis  of  Tortoise  Tick  92,  95 
Protein  Crystals,  Microscop- 
ical Examination  of        ...      12 
Puccinia  Graminis  . . .  ...     98 

Rabbit,  Kidney  of  ...     47 

Reader,  Rev.  H.  P. ,  on  Lichens  2  9 
Report  of  Our  Own  Society  194 
Reports  of  Societies   52,  104,  194 
Reviews       ...  ...51,103,156 

Ringing    Slides,    American 
Cement  for  ...  ...    193 

Rhubarb,  Turkey   ...  ...     94 

Salmon  Disease     181 

Sections  of  Soft  Tissues,  to  cut     61 
Selected  Notes  from  the  Soci- 
ety's Note  Books 
Botanical     ...    42,98,152,185 
Inorganic  ...    40,96,150 

Preparation  (S:Mounting48, 191 
Zoological    ...  43,100,  154,  187 
Smith,  C.  Vance,  on  the  Ex- 
amination of  Chlorophyll, 
Inulin,  and  Protein  Crystals    1 2 
Smith,    J.,    on    Holothurian 
Plates  of  the  Carboniferous 
Strata    of    the    West    of 
Scotland ...  ...  ...     71 

Soft  Tissues,  Cutting  Sections  of  6 1 
Solaster  Papposa,  Spines  of    147 
Soldier  Beetle         ...  ...     43 

Sphagnum  Moss     ...  ...    185 

Sphagnum,  Stem  of  ...     90 

Sphseraphides  ...  ...    153 

Sphgeraphides  from   Echino- 

Cactus  Vesnagii ...  Qi?  94 

Spiders,  their  Structure  and 
Habits     ...  ...         62,,  120 

Spine  of  Dog-Fish    ..  ...     38 

Starch-Cells,   Notes    on    the 

Bursting-point  of  •••177 

Starches  to  Mount...  ...     49 

Stokes,  A.  W.,  on  Unpressed 


Mounting  for  the  Micros- 
cope 


129 


IV. 


INDEX. 


Page 
Stiibbs,    Rev.    E.    T.,    on  a 
Supposed  New  Species  of 

Caligus 57 

Stylaria  Paludosa    ...  ...     8i 


Tanypus  Maculatus,  on  the 

Larva  of  . . . 
Teeth  from  the  Sucker  of  the 

Cuttle-Fish 
Teeth  of  Blow-Fly  ... 
Teeth,  to  Grind  Sections  of 
Telephorus ... 
Thymus  Gland 
To  Our  Readers     ... 
Tortoise  Tick,  Proboscis  of 
Trichina  Spiralis     ... 
Tubifex  Rivulorum 

Ulva  Crispa 


83 


146 

37 
T92 

43 

155 

I 

92,95 

QT 


14 


99 


Page 
Unpressed  Mounting  for  the 
Microscope         ...  ...   129 

Vegetable  Marrow,  Hair 
on  Leaf  of  ...  ...     36 

Velia  Currens  ...  ...    154 

Vereker,  Hon.  J.  G.  P.,  on 
Numerical  Aperture       ...        7 

Yieillott's  Pheasant,  Eggs  of 
Louse  of 93,  95 

Vital  Absorption  in  Plants         42 

Wade-Wilton,  E.,  on  Pond- 
Hunting  in  Winter         ...    183 

Water-Collecting  Apparatus     158 

West,  Tuffen,  An  Hour  at  the 
Microscope  with       34,  90,  145 

Winter,  Pond-Hunting  in  ...    183 


Xanthidia  in  Flint 


41 


[SUPPLEMENT.] 


THE 

POSTAL  MICROSCOPICAL  SOCIETY. 


RULES 

AND 

NAMES  AND   ADDRESSES 

OF    MEMBERS, 


DECEMBER,    1882. 


BATH:     1,    CAMBRIDGE    PLACE. 

1882. 


The  Postal  Microscopical  Society. 


Officers  &  Committee  for  the  Session  1882-3. 


President : 

Arthur  Hammond,   F.L.S.,  70,  Finsbury  Park  Road,  London. 

President-Elect : 

Carey  P.  Coombs,  M.D.,  Castle  Cary,  Somerset. 

Vice-President : 

Thomas  Partridge,  M.K.Q.C.P.,  M.R.C.S.E.,  Stroud, 
Gloucestershire. 

Hon.  Sec.  and  Treasurer : 

Alfred  Allen,   t,  Cambridge  Place,  Bath. 

Committee : 

Alfred  Archard,  Elm  Place,  Bath. 

Geo.  Dannatt,  5,  The  Circus,  Greenwich. 

Rev.  J.  H.  Green,   15,  Prior  Park  Buildings,  Bath. 

Edward  Lovett,  George  Street,  Croydon. 

H.  N.  Maynard,  M.I.C.E.,  66,  Wood  Lane,  Shepherd's  Bush,  W. 

Richard  H.  Moore,   13,  Pulteney  Gardens,  Bath. 

George   Norman,   M.R.C.S.E.,   12,   Brock   Street,   Bath. 

William  Pumphrey,  The  Cottage,  Lyncombe  Vale,  Bath. 

Frank  E,  Robinson,  Kynance,  Weston,  Bath. 

Rev.  E.  T.  Stubbs,  M.A.,  Charlcombe  Rectory,  Bath. 


^be  postal  flDicroecopical  Society. 


A  GREAT  want  has  long  been  felt  by  those  who  take  an 
interest  in  the  Science  of  Microscopy,  of  a  ready  means  of 
communication  between  microscopists  living  not  only  at  a 
distance  from  each  other,  but  also  from  London  and  other  large 
towns  where  Microscopical  Societies  exist.  It  was  to  meet  this 
want  that  towards  the  end  of  1873  the  ^'■Postal  Micro-Cabinet 
Club "  was  formed.  At  that  date  it  was  composed  of  thirty-six 
members ;  but  having  increased  far  beyond  the  expectations  of  its 
promoters,  it  was  thought  desirable  in  1876  to  revise  the  Rules, 
and  at  the  same  time  to  change  its  title  to  the  "Postal  Micros- 
copical Society." 

The  Society  is  divided  into  Circuits  of  twelve  members  each, 
whose  names  are  arranged  geographically  ;  a  box  of  slides  is  sent 
by  the  Hon.  Secretary  at  fortnightly  intervals  to  the  member  whose 
name  stands  first  on  the  list,  who  must  keep  it  three  evenings  only, 
and  then  send  it  on  by  post  to  the  next  member,  and .  he  to  the 
following  one.  The  member  whose  name  stands  last  on  the  list 
returns  the  box  to  the  Hon.  Secretary,  who  forwards  it  to  the  first 
member  of  the  next  Circuit,  and  so  on,  until  the  objects  have  been 
seen  by  every  member  of  the  Society. 

Each  box  of  slides  is  invariably  accompanied  by  one  or  more 
MS.  books,  in  w^hich  the  members  are  requested  to  make  any 
remark  of  an  instructive  nature  respecting  the  slides,  or  on  any 
other  branch  of  microscopy  likely  to  prove  interesting  to  the 
members  generally.  One  most  useful  province  of  the  Society 
should  be  to  circulate  information  amongst  its  members,  and  to 
exchange  hints  respecting  the  most  approved  methods  of  preparing 
objects — e.g.,  injecting,  freezing,  cutting  hard  and  soft  sections, 
both  of  animal  and  vegetable  substances,  decolorizing  leaves  and 
vegetable  sections  ;  staining  in  one,  two,  or  more  colours,  mount- 
ing in  various  media ;  affixing  cells  securely  to  glass  slips,  etc.  etc. 
Drawings,  either  plain  or  coloured,  in  illustration  of  slides  con- 
tained in  the  box,  or  of  new  microscopic  appliances,  should  be 
made  on  drawing-paper  the  size  of  a  page  of  the  MS.  book  and 
attached  within  the  cover  at  the  end  of  the  same ;  such  notes  and 
drawings  will  be  considered  copyright,  and  exclusively  the  property 
of  the  Society,  and  may  be  removed  from  circulation  by  no  person 


4  THE  POSTAL   MICKOSCOPICAL   SOCIETY. 

but  the  Hon.  Secretary,  by  whom  they  will  be  retained  for  future 
reference,  or  published  if  deemed  expedient,  by  the  Committee. 
Drawing-paper  of  suitable  quality  and  size  can  be  obtained  on 
application  to  the  Hon.  Secretary. 

It  has  been  arranged  to  circulate  several  special  series  of 
slides.  One  devoted  to  Histological  and  Pathological  subjects  will 
circulate  among  the  whole  of  the  medical  members,  and  will  also 
be  sent  to  all  other  members  who  desire  to  see  them,  if  they  will 
communicate  their  wish  to  the  Hon.  Secretary.  Other  series  con- 
sisting of  Diatomacese,  Fungi  and  general  Botanical  slides, 
Foraminifera,  and  slides  illustrating  various  other  branches  of 
Natural  History  are  in  circulation;  these  are  sent  through  the 
entire  circuit  of  the  Society. 

All  members  are  invited  to  contribute  a  series  of  six  or  twelve 
slides  to  these  special  sections,  but  it  must  be  distinctly  understood 
that  they  are  required,  before  doing  so,  to  contribute  their  qiwta  of 
slides  to  the  regular  boxes  of  the  Society.  Every  slide,  in  each 
case,  must  be  accompanied  by  descriptive  notes,  and  should  also 
be  illustrated  by  a  drawing. 

Each  member  on  admission  to  the  Society  is  requested  to 
send  his  Carte-de-vis ite  to  the  Hon.  Secretary,  and  as  soon  as 
sufficient  portraits  are  collected,  they  will  be  grouped  together  and 
reproduced,  and  as  this  is  for  promoting  a  friendly  feeling  towards 
one  another,  each  member,  it  is  hoped,  will  take  a  copy  of  the 
same  when  published.  Two  of  these  groups  have  now  been 
published :  the  first,  which  consists  of  sixty-four  portraits,  was 
printed  in  1874,  in  Permanent  Photography,  by  the  Autotype  Fine 
Art  Co.  The  other,  in  which  the  portraits  are  arranged  in  a  more 
pleasing  manner,  was  printed  in  1878  also  in  Permanent  Photo- 
graphy by  the  Woodbury  Permanent  Photographic  Printing  Co. 
The  two  form  very  nice  companion  pictures.  They  are  published 
by  the  Hon.  Secretary.  Several  copies  of  the  second  group 
remain  on  hand,  and  may  be  had  from  him  at  8/6  each,  post  free. 

The  President,  at  the  termination  of  his  year  of  office,  will,  if 
he  deems  it  desirable,  give  a  short  address  or  written  summary, 
recounting  the  proceedings  of  the  Society,  and  the  President-Elect, 
on  taking  the  chair,  will  also  read  a  paper  referring  to  such  Natural 
History  and  Microscopical  subjects  as  he  may  deem  conducive  to 
the  welfare  and  the  furtherance  of  the  objects  of  the  Society. 

Several  gentlemen  have  presented  a  number  of  valuable  slides 
to  the  Society.  These  will  be  kept  by  the  Hon.  Secretary  for  the  us 
of  the  members,  and  will  form  the  Reference  Cabinet. 

Any  microscopist  shall  be  eligible  for  membership jvho  is  able 


RULES.  O 

to   offer   good    slides   for   examination :  and  who  will  otherwise 
endeavour  to  contribute  to  the  usefulness  of  the  Society. 

Several  Journals  si^ecially  interesting  to  microscopists  are  cir- 
culated amongst  the  members,  the  expense  of  the  same  being 
borne  only  by  those  to  whom  they  are  sent.  The  following  are 
now  in  circulation  : — foujiial  of  the  Royal  Microscopical  Society^ 
Quarterly  Jowiial  of  Microscopical  Science,  Nature,  and  the 
American  Monthly  Microscopical  Journal;  others  will  be  added 
at  the  desire  of  the  members. 


RULES. 


I. — That  the  Society  be  called  "  The  Postal  Microscopical 
Society,"  and  that  its  purpose  shall  be  the  circulation,  study,  and 
discussion  of  microscopic  objects  ;  and  the  general  advancement 
of  microscopy  and  the  Natural  Sciences  amongst  its  members. 

2. — That  application  for  membership  must  be  made  to  the 
Hon.  Secretary  through  a  member  of  the  Society,  or  other  well- 
known  microscopist,  on  the  form  provided  for  that  purpose,  and 
such  application  will  in  due  course  be  submitted  to  the  Committee 
for  their  approval.  Every  member  on  admission  to  the  Society 
shall  pay  an  Entrance-Fee  of  5/-  Ladies  as  well  as  gentlemen 
shall  be  eligible  as  members  of  the  Society. 

3. — That  the  Officers  of  the  Society  shall  consist  of  a  Presi- 
dent, President-Elect,  Vice-President,  and  Secretary,  the  latter 
acting  as  Treasurer,  to  be  elected  annually  by  the  members  at 
large ;  and  of  a  Committee  of  Management,  composed  of  six  or 
more  members,  elected  at  the  Annual  Meeting;  the  President, 
President-Elect,  Vice-President,  and  Secretary,  being  ex-officio 
members  of  the  Committee,  any  six  of  whom  shall  form  a  quorum. 

4. — That  a  Local  Sub-Committee  be  formed  of  some  of  the 
members  residing  in  Bath,  who  shall  meet  at  monthly  intervals, 
and  that  all  acts  of  detention  of  boxes,  damage  to,  or  non-circula- 
tion of  slides,  or  any  other  acts  of  irregularity,  be  laid  before  such 
Sub-Committee,  which  shall  have  full  power  from  the  General 
Committee  to  act  in  such  a  manner  as  in  their  opinion  the 
occasion  may  require. 

5. — The  Annual  Meeting  of  the  Society  shall  be  held  in 
London,  as  near  as  practicable  to  the  ist  of  October  in  each  year, 


6  RULES. 

to  receive  the  Report  of  the  Committee  for  the  past  year  ;  to  elect 
Officers  and  Committee  for  the  coming  year ;  and  to  transact  any 
other  necessary  business  of  the  Society. 

6. — That  the  Hon.  Secretary  shall  arrange  the  Circuits,  so  that 
each  shall  consist  of  twelve  members.  Each  member  receiving  a 
box  of  slides  may  keep  it  three  evenings  only,  Sundays  not  being 
reckoned,  after  which  he  shall  send  it  packed,  as  directed  in  Rule 
15,  to  the  next  name  on  the  list,  having  first  fully  filled  up  the 
Way-bill  accompanying  it.  If,  however,  such  box  is  described  as 
being  on  its  first  circuit,  each  receiver  must  add  a  slide, 
removing  at  the  same  time  his  own  therein  contained,  and  every 
slide  so  added  must  be  mounted  on  the  ordinary  3  in.  by  i  in. 
shp,  which  may  be  either  of  glass  (ground-edged  or  papered), 
wood,  or  cardboard. 

7.— That  the  books  which  accompany  the  boxes  shall  be  used 
for  recording  notes  and  memoranda  of  interest  on  the  slides  cir- 
culated. Members  on  placing  a  slide  in  the  box  are  desired  to 
give  all  the  information  in  their  powder  on  the  object  shown, 
accompanying  it  with  the  necessary  illustrative  drawings.  These 
will  be  published  as  means  permit.  Other  members  who  can  in 
any  way  add  to  a  knowledge  of  the  subject  are  requested  to  do  so. 
And  as  valuable  information  may  frequently  be  elicited  by  ques- 
tions relating  thereto,  such  may  properly  find  place  in  the  books. 
Any  other  information  of  general  interest  to  the  microscopist  may 
also  be  written  in  the  Note-Books. 

8. — That  no  slide  shall  be  removed  from  the  box  by  any 
person  but  the  owner,  and  then  only  after  it  has  completed  the 
round  of  the  Society,  unless  by  special  request  or  by  permission 
of  the  Committee. 

9. — That  the  member  whose  name  stands  last  on  the  Hst  shall 
in  due  course  send  the  box  and  all  slides,  MSS.,  and  drawings 
belonging  thereto,  to  the  Hon.  Secretary,  who  will  then  send  it  on 
to  the  next  circuit,  and  so  on,  until  it  has  been  seen  by  all  the 
members  of  the  Society. 

10. — That  the  Annual  Subscription  be  5/-,  payable  in  advance 
on  I  St  October,  but  that  any  member  elected  in  August  or  Sep- 
tember be  exempt  from  such  subscription  until  the  following 
October. 

II. — That  the  Entrance-Money  and  Annual  Subscription  shall 
be  paid  to  the  Treasurer  for  the  time  being,  the  amount  to  form  a 
fund  for  the  purchase  of  the  necessary  boxes,  and  for  the  payment 
of  postages,  with  other  expenses  to  which  he  may  be  put.     It 


RULES.  7 

shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Treasurer  at  the  end  of  each  year  to 
render  to  the  Committee  an  account  of  his  receipts  and  disburse- 
ments on  behalf  of  the  Society. 

12. — That  any  member  who  shall  by  accident  or  otherwise 
break  or  damage  any  slide  whilst  it  is  under  his  care,  or  cause  such 
to  be  broken  by  bad  packing,  before  it  is  received  by  the  next 
member,  will  be  considered  liable  for  the  same ;  the  value  of  such 
slide  to  be  assessed  by  the  Committee. 

13. — That  any  member  who  receives  the  box  with  its  contents 
damaged,  must  at  once  inform  the  Hon.  Secretary  of  the  fact,  and 
enclose  to  him,  at  the  same  time,  the  broken  or  damaged  slide  or 
slides,  which  should  always  be  packed  in  a  wooden  box. 

14. — The  MS.  book  or  books,  if  they  make  the  parcel  over 
12  oz.,  must  not  be  enclosed  with  the  box,  but  sent  by  book-post 
as  a  separate  package.  Both  box  and  books  must  be  sent  by  the 
same  post,  and  any  member  who  receives  either  one  whole  day 
before  the  other,  must  write  at  once  to  the  sender  and  to  the  Hon. 
Secretary,  who  will  take  immediate  steps  to  recover  the  same. 

15.— To  secure  safety  in  transit,  no  greater  number  of  slides 
than  there  are  spaces  allotted  to  receive  them  may  be  placed  in 
the  box,  which  must  be  packed  in  the  black  wrapper.  The 
address  should  be  written  on  a  loose  label  tied  to  one  end  of  the 
box,  and  sufficient  stamps  to  prepay  postage  placed  on  the  label 
(not  on  the  box),  special  care  being  taken  that  the  package  does 
not  exceed  12  oz.  in  weight.  N.B.— The  package  should  never 
be  wrapped  in  paper. 

16. — That  any  member  who  may  be  leaving  home  for  three 
days  or  more,  shall  write  and  inform  the  Hon.  Secretary,  who  will 
then  arrange  that  no  boxes  shall  be  sent  to  him  during  his 
absence. 

17. — That  no  member  may  circulate  any  but  good  sHdes,  and 
each  slide  must  bear  the  owner's  name  and  address  ;  it  is  also 
wished,  though  not  absolutely  insisted  on,  that  it  be  his  own 
mounting. 

18. — That  a  register-book  be  supplied  to  each  member,  in 
which  to  enter  the  name,  date  of  receipt  and  despatch,  and 
contents  of  each  box  as  it  comes  to  hand.  New  bookb  may  at 
any  time  be  had  on  application  to  the  Hon.  Secretary. 

19. — That  everything  written  in  the  MS.  books,  and  all  draw- 


8  RULES. 

ings  accompanying  the  same,  shall  be  considered  copyright,  and 
exclusively  the  property  of  the  Society,  and  shall  only  be  removed 
by  the  Hon.  Secretary. 

20. — The  Secretary  shall,  when  required,  lend  six  or  a  lesser 
number  of  slides  from  the  Reference  Cabinet,  with  all  notes 
relating  thereto,  to  any  member  wishing  for  them.  When  apply- 
ing for  such  slides,  the  borrower  must  send  a  box  and  three  penny 
postage-stamps  to  prepay  postage,  and  must  return  the  slides, 
post-paid,  within  a  fortnight. 

21. — If  MS.  notes  be  appended  to  any  of  the  slides  presented 
to  the  Reference  Cabinet,  they  should  be  written  on  separate 
sheets  of  paper  of  uniform  size,  which  may  be  obtained  of  the 
Secretary  on  application.  These  notes  will  always  be  lent  with 
the  shdes. 

2  2. — In  the  event  of  any  member  negligently  or  wilfully 
detaining  a  box  beyond  the  proper  time  ;  or  if  any  disagreement 
arise  between  two  or  more  members,  or  any  member  make  use  of 
rude  or  unpolite  remarks,  such  matters  shall  be  referred  to  the 
Committee,  whose  decision  in  the  case  shall  be  final. 


.inAi    [9] 


%\Bt  Of  fIDeinbere, 

Showing  the  date  of  entrance  of  new  members  and  the  circuits 
in  which  they  are  placed. 


1882* 


Ex-Presidents : — 

1873-4;   1874-5: 

Alfred  Atkinson,  C.E.,  Brigg. 

1875-6;  1876-7;   1877-8;  1878-9: 

TuFFEN  West,  F.L.S.,  F.R.M.S.,  &c.,  Frensham. 

1879-80  : 
H.  Franklin  Parsons,  M.D.,  F.G.S.,  Whitehall,  London,  S.W. 

1880-1  : 

Washington  Teasdale,  F.R.M.S.,  Headingley,  Leeds. 

1881-2  : 

Geo.  D.  Brown,  M.R.C.S.E.,  F.L.S.,  Henley  Villa,  Ealing,  W. 

President : — 1882-3: 

Arthur   Hammond,    F.L.S.,   70,   Finsbury   Park    Road, 

Hornsey,  London,  N. 


Allen  Alfred,  Hon.  Secretary  and  Treasurer, 
I,  Cambridge  Place,  Bath. 
{h)  Angove    E.    S.,    M.R.C.S.,   &c..  Ivy  House, 
Cambcrne^  Cornwall. 
Feb.,    1881.— (/)  Angove  W.   T.,    M.R.C.S.,    &c.,    Mildenhall, 

Suffolk. 
June,     1882. — {Ji)  Appleton  W.  M.,  22,  Regent  Street,  Clifton, 
Bristol. 
(/)    Archard  a.,  15,  Bath  Street,  and  8,  Elm  Place, 
Bath. 
Atkinson    A.,    C.E.,     Ex-President     P.M.S., 
Brigg. 
June,     1882. — {b)  Atkinson  W.,  55,  Bold  Street,  Liverpool. 


10  LIST   OF  MEMBERS. 

Oct.,     1 88 1. — (g)  Baddeley  Col.,  12,  Pittville  Villas,  Cheltenham. 
March,  1882.— (/)  Bailey  Rev.    G.,    i,  South  Vale,  Central  Hill, 

Upper  Norwood,  S.E. 
April,  i88t. — (;//)  Barrett  Sidney  R.,  C.E.,  23,  Stainsby  Road, 
Poplar,   E. 
(g)  Basevi    Col.     H.,    Elm     Lodge,     Prestbury, 

Cheltenham. 
(/)  Belli NGHAM   B.,   205,  Wolverhampton  Street, 

Dudley. 
(l?)  Booth  P.  L.,  M.R.C.S.,  11,  Hartington  Street, 

Barrow-  in-Furness. 
(d)  Bostock  E.,   F.R.M.S.,  The  Radfords,   Stone, 
Staffordshire. 
Feb.,      1 88 1. — (e)  Bradshaw  Isaac,  28,  Breadabane  Place,  Great 
Victoria  Street,  Belfast,  Ireland. 
(k)  Brown  George  D.,M.R.C.S.E.,F.L.S.,&c.,  Ex- 
President  P. M.S.,  Henley  Villa,  Ealing,  W. 
June,     1882. — (/)  Bryant  Miss  B.,  2,  Duke  Street,  Bath. 
Nov.,    1 88 1. — (;;/)  Burbidge    W.    H.,    Stanley    House,    Alleyne 

Park,  West  Dulwich. 
March,  1882.— (<^)  Bygott  Robt,  F.R.M.S.,  Sandbach. 

(^)  Cheesman  Wm.  Norwood,    Hon.    Sec.    Selby 
Naturalists'  Society,  The  Crescent,  Selby. 
(a)  Christie  James  C,  Old  Cathcart,  near  Glasgow, 

Scotland. 

(/)  Clover    Ernest,  Springfield    Lodge,   Sudbury, 

Suffolk. 

Cole  Arthur  C,  F.R.M.S.,  St.  Domingo  House, 

Oxford  Gardens,  Netting  Hill,  London,  W. 

Dec,     1880.— (/^)  Cooke  John  H.,  F.R.M.S.,  Winsford,  Cheshire. 

(/i)  Coombs  Carey  Pearce,  M.D.  Lond.,  President- 

Elect  P. M.S.,  Castle  Gary,  Somerset, 
(w)  Cooper  Frank  W.,  L.R.C.S.E.,  Gainsborough 

House,  Leytonstone,  Essex,  E. 
(a)  Cooper  William,  69,  West  Percy  Street,  North 
Shields. 
April,     1881. — (/)  Corser  Rev.  R.  K.,  ^M.A.,  12,  Beaufort  East, 

Bath. 
Nov.,     1882. — (k)  Cotton  Edwin,  Rose  Cottage,  Cowley  Road, 
Uxbridge. 
(d)  CowEN  Mrs.  A.,  9,  Rope  Walk,  Nottingham. 
Nov.,    1882.—;/^)  Cox   Fredk.  A.,  M.R.C.S.E.,  3,  Dean  Street, 
Park  Lane,  London.  W. 


LIST   OF  MEMBERS.  11 

Dec,     1880. — {/:)  Cox  F.  C,  1 1 1,  Blenheim  Crescent,  Kensington 
Park,  W. 

June,     1 88 1. — (g)  Cozens  Miss  M.,  17,  Royal  Crescent,  Chelten- 
ham. 

Dec,     i88c. — (a)  Crewdson    Rev.    Geo.,    M.A.,    St.    George's 
Vicarage,  Kendal. 
Crisp    Frank,    LL.B.,    B.A.,    Vice-Pres.    and 
Treas.    L.S.,  Sec  R.M.S.,  6,   Old  Jewry, 
London,  E.C. 

Oct.,     1882.— (^)  Crowther    G.    H.,    D.D.S.,    L.D.S.,  R.C.S., 
M.O.S.,  Bond  Street,  St.    John's,   Wake- 
field. 
CuRTiES  Thomas,  F.R.M.S.,  244,  High  Hol- 
born,  London,  W. 

(n)  Daniel  W.Clement, M.D.,M.R.C.S.E.,  Church 

Street,  Epsom. 
(/)    Dannatt  George,  5,  The  Circus,  Greenwich,  S.E. 
Sep.,      1882. — (e)    Davis  Henry,   29,  Linen  Hall  Street,  Belfast, 

Ireland. 
(k)  DiBDiN  W.  J.,  F.C.S.,  F.LC,  18,  Union  Road, 

Tufnell  Park,  London,  N. 
(a)  DuNLOP  M.  F.,  Glen  view,  Finnart  Road,  and 

2,  Church  Place,  Greenock,  Scotland. 

(e)  Elcock  Charles,   10,  Dunluce  Street,  Belfast, 

Ireland. 
Oct.,      1882. — (/)   Epps    Hahnemann,    A.K.C.    Lond.,    9,    Eliot 

Bank,  Sydenham  Hill,  S.E. 
May,      1 88 1. — (/)   Epps  James,  Junr.,  The  Hom.estead,  South  Park 

Hill  Road,  Croydon. 
June,     1882. — (/)    Everett  Miss  A.,  i.    Knight's   Hill   Terrace, 

Lower  Norwood,  S.E. 

Sep.,     1882. — (n)  Farhall  Maurice,  3,  St.  John's  Road,  Dover. 
Feb.,    1881.— (/)  Fenton    Mark,    M.D.,    Grey    Friar's    Green, 
Coventry. 
Field  J.  J.,  North  Lodge,  New  Barnet,  Herts. 
April,    1 88 1. — (/')   Fisher  Jos.  Wm.,  Apsley  Villa,  The    Grove, 
Ealing,  W. 
{§)  Fisher  W.   H.  C,  Rowcroft,  Stroud,  Glouces- 
tershire. 
Fitch  Frederick,  F.R.G.S.,  F.R.M.S.,  Hadl-igh 
House,  Highbury  New  Park,  I-ondon,  N 


12  LIST   OF  MEMBERS. 

(^)  Fluck  H.  B.,  4,  Northgate  Street,  Gloucester. 
(/)  Ford  John,  The  Uplands,  Tettenhall,  Wolver- 
hampton. 
Feb.,     1 88 1. — (;/)  Frampton  Capt.,  Porchester,  Hants. 

{h)  Freame  Robert  S.,  The  Chantry,  Gillingham, 
Dorset. 

{d)  George  C.  F.,  M.R.C.S.E.,  L.M.,  L.S.A.,  &c., 
Belle  Vue  House,  Kirton-in-Lindsey,  Hull. 
(§)  Giller  W.  T.,   County  of  Gloucester  Bank, 
Gloucester. 

Dec,  1882. — {e)  Glascott  Miss  L.  S.,  Alderton,  New  Ross, 
Ireland.  

Sep.,  1882.— (w)  G0N9ALVES-GUIMARAES  Dr.  D.  Antonio  Jose, 
Prof.  Mineralogy  and  Geology,  University 
Coimbra,  Portugal. 
GooDiNGE  James  Wallinger,  F.R.M.S., 
F.R.G.S.,  18,  Aldersgate  Street,  London, 
E.G. 

June,  1882. — {a)  Goodwin  William,  3,  Lynedock  Street,  Glas- 
gow, Scotland. 

wSep.,       1882.— (^)  GouGH    Thos.,    B  Sc,    F.C.S.,    20,    De   Grey 
Street,  York. 
(/)  Green   Rev.  J.  H.,  15,  Prior   Park  Buildings, 
Bath. 

Oct.,  1882. — {k)  Greville  H.  Leicester,  F.LC,  F.C.S.,  4, 
Moreland  Terrace,  Lambton  Road, 
Hornsey  Rise,  London,  N. 

{k)  Haigh  William,  Tempsford  Villa,  Ealing,  W. 
June,      188 !.—(/)  Hall  Robt.,  Garth  Villa,  Clyde  Road,  Croydon. 
Feb.,      1882. — (/)  Halsey   Rev.  J.,  Woodlands,  Thicket  Road, 

Anerley,  S.E. 
{k)  Hammond  Arthur,  F.L.S.,  President  P. M.S., 

70,      Finsbury     Park      Road,     Hornsey, 

London,  N. 
{c)  Harrison  J.  S.,  F.R.M.S.,  Wellington  Villa, 

Norton,  Malton,  Yorksh. 
Sep.,     i882.--(;;/)  Henriques   J'v.  Julio  A.,  Prof.  Botany  Uni- 
versity Coimbra,  Portugal. 
(/)  Henty   Miss  M.  A.,   Nazing   Park,    Waltham 

Cross,  Herts. 
{g)  Hepworth    Geo.    A.,    M.R.C.S.E.,    &c.,    4^ 

Clarence  Street,  Gloucester. 


LIST   OF  MEMBERS.  13 

(/)  HiPPiSLEY     Miss,     Ston    Easton    Park,    and 

(during  the   winter)    57,   Great    Pulteney 

Street,  Bath. 
(//)  HoLDSwoRTH  S.  R.,  M.D.,  Southridge  House, 

Hindon,  Wilts. 
Oct.;      1882. — {b)  Hogg    John    Alexander,    Serpentine    Lodge, 

Buxton. 
{d)  Holmes  C.  D.,  West  Parade,  Anlaby  Road, 

Hull. 
April,    1881.— (;^)  Hope  Miss  B.,  Mead  Vale,  Red  Hill,  Surrey. 
{n)  HoRSLEY    Col,    R.E.,    St.    Stephen's    Lodge, 

Canterbury. 
{a)  Ho  WORTH     Capt.,    Felixstow,    Ipswich,    and 

Braemar,  Aberdeenshire,  Scotland. 
{h)  Hudson  R.  S.,  M.D.,  Trewirgie  Villa,  Redruth, 

Cornwall. 
{c)  Hunter  E.,  F.C.S.,  Tillage  Works,  Goole. 

(d)  Jamieson  James,  95,  Constable  Street,  Hulk 
(i)  Jarrett  Miss  E.  K,  Camerton  Court,  Bath. 

Dec,     1882.— (4  Jolly  Herbert,  Stow  Villa,  Oldfield  Road,  Bath. 

Mar.,    1882. — (///)  Jorge  Dr.  Ricardo,  Oporto,  Portugal. 

Dec,     1882. — (/)  Kempson  A.,  Pres.  Micro.  Sect.,  Northampton 
Nat.  His.  Soc,  Parade,  Northampton. 
(/)  Klaassen  H.  M.,  F.G.S.,  Northside,  Chepstow 
Road,  Croydon. 

April,     1 88 1. — (/)  Lemmon  Mrs.  J.  A.,  Stanley  Llouse,  Park  Hill 

Road,  Croydon. 
Sep.,       1882.— (f)  Lett  Rev.   H.  W.,  M.A.,    T.C.D.,   Ardmore 
Glebe,  Lurgan,  Ireland. 
i/i)  LococK  Rev.  W.,  13,  Alexandra  Road,  Clifton, 

Bristol 
(;;/)  Loosely  George,   Toxteth   Villa,    6d>,   Wood 

Lane,  Shepherd's  Bush,  London,  W. 
(/)  LovETT  Edward,  55;  George  Street,  Croydon. 
{a)  Lyall   Thos.,    95,    High    Street,    Montrose, 
Scotland. 

(/)  Madge  Arthur,  East  Greenwich. 
{c)  Malcomson  S.    M.,   M.D.,  Union   Infirmary, 
Lisburn  Road,  Belfast,  Ireland. 
Nov.,     1882. — {k)  Mardon  Daniel  a.,  129,  High  St.,  Uxbridge. 


14  LIST   OF  MEMBERS. 

(fi)  Martin  Francis,  R.N.,  Shrub  Cottage,  Fair- 
field Road,  Old  Charlton,  Kent. 
Oct.,      1882. — {c)  Maynard  H.  LL,    15,  Barlow  Terrace,  Keigh- 
ley,  Yorks. 
{m)  Maynard  Henry   N.,   Mem.    Inst.   C.E.,   66^ 
Wood  Lane,  Shepherd's  Bush,   W.,  and  7, 
Westminster  Chambers,  London,  S.W. 
(/)  Moore  Milner,  M.D.,  Hales  Street,  Coventry. 
(e)  McKee  W.  S.,  Mill  Street,  Belfast,  Ireland. 
{k)  McKenzie   J.,  M.S.T.E.  &  E.,  Warden  Villa, 

Uxbridge   Road,  Ealing,  W. 
{d)  Measures  J.  W.,  M.R.C.S.E.,   Long  Sutton, 

Lincolnshire. 
{e)  Mills  S.,  A.B.,  L.R.C.P.,  L.R.C.S.,  &:c..  Lake 
View,  Fourmile  House,  Newry,  Co.  Down, 
Ireland. 
{c)  Milne  Geo.  A.,  F.C.S.,  Welham  Villa,  Norton, 
Malton. 
April,     1882. — {a)  Milroy  Anthony,  L.R.C.P.,  Kilwinning,  Ayr- 
shire, Scotland. 
(^)  Moore  Richard  H.,  Hon.  Sec.   Bath  Micros- 
copical Society,     13,    Pulteney   Gardens, 
Bath. 
Aug.,      1 88 1. — {c)  Morris  Rev.   A.   B.,   77,   Devonshire  Street, 
Keighley,  Yorks. 
MoRRiss  F.  W.,  Silver  Street,  Boston,  Lincoln- 
shire. 
Feb.,     1882.— (//)  Mundy  G.  B.,  The  Wilts  and   Dorset  Bank, 
Warminster. 


Nov.,     1881. — {b)  Narramore  W^m.,  5,  Geneva  Road,  Elm  Park, 
Liverpool. 
(;/)  Nealds  J.  G.  M.,  58,  High  Street,  Guildford. 
(V)  Newman  W.,  M.D.  Lond.,  F.R.C.S.,  Barn  Hill 

House,  Stamford. 
(/)  Norman  G.,  M.R.C.S.E.,  12,  Brock  St.,  Bath 


(d)  Oakley  J.,   M.R.C.S.E.,   &c..   Holly   House, 
Halifax. 
April,     1882. — {e)  O'Halloran  J.,  Inland   Revenue   Laboratory, 
Custom  House,  Belfast,  Ireland. 


LIST  OF  MEMBERS.  15 

{?t)  Page  W.  Irving,  F.R.G.S.,  M.R.C.S.  Wimble- 
don Common,  Surrey. 

(/)  ParsOxNS  H.  R,  M.D.  Lond.,  F.G.S.,  Past 
President' P.M.S.,  13,  Whitworth  Road, 
South  Norwood,  S.E.,  and  Local  Govern- 
ment Board,  Whitehall,  London,  S.W. 
Parsons  S.  G.,  54,  Bedford  Gardens,  Campden 
Hill,  Kensington,  V*'.,  and  91,  Great  Tower 
Street,  E.G. 

(?)  Partridge  T.,  M.K.Q.CR,  M.R.C.S.E., 
L.S.A.,  Vice-President  P.M.S.,  Bowbridge 
House,  Stroud,  Gloucestershire. 

{c)  Peach   Robert,  North  Park  Road,  Harrogate. 

{k)  Peal  C.  N.,  F.R.M.S.,  Fernhurst,  Mattock 
Lane,  Ealing,  W; 

(c)  PocKLiNGTON  H.,  F.R.M.S.,  Bardcn  Grove, 
Armley,  and  20,  Park  Row,  Leeds. 

{n)  Preece  W.  H.,  F.R.S.,  Mem.  Inst.  C.E., 
F.R.M.S.,   Wimbledon  Common,   Surrey. 

{g)  Priestlay  J.  E.,  B.A.,  Abbey  House  School, 
Tewkesbury. 

(/)  Prior  C.  E.,  M.D.,  St.  Peter's,  Bedford. 
Oct.,    ••  1882.— (^)  Prothero     D.    G.,    M.D.,     Enderly,    Great 

Malvern. 
Nov.,     188 1. — (/)  PuMPHREY  W.,  Vice-Pres.  Bath  Microscopical 
Society,    The    Cottage,    Lyncombe   Vale, 
Bath. 
Sep.,       1882. — {e)  PuRDON  Dr.  R.,  College  Square,  East,  Belfast, 
Ireland. 

May,      1881.— (^)  Read  W.   H.,   Kelvin    Grove,   Prince's   Park, 

Liverpool. 
Sept.,    1882. — (m)  Rebello-Valente  Alvaro,  Coimbra,  Portugal. 
{k)  Rich    W.,   Jun.,   Heanton  Terrace,   Redruth, 

Cornwall. 
(d)  RiDPATH  D.,  M.D.,  Gt.  Driffield,  Yorks. 
(/)   Robinson    F.    E.,    3,    Henrietta    Street,    and 

Kynance,  Newbridge  Road,  Bath. 
{d)  Robinson  G.  H.,  ii,  Westgate,  and  52,  Spring 

Street,  Huddersfield. 
{d)  Rogers   J.,    F.R.M.S.,    4,   Tennyson    Street, 

Nottingham. 
{c)  Rookledge  J.,  F.R.M.S.,  York  Union  Banking 
Co.,  Easingwold. 


16  LIST   OF   MEMBERS. 

{h)  Sarjant  T.  B.,  io,  Westfield  Park,   Redland, 

Bristol. 
(/)  Searle  a.  H.,  Church  Street,  Lutterworth. 
Nov.,     1881.— (/)  SiLCocK     T.    B.,    B.Sc,     Coldstream    Villa, 
Greenway  Lane,  and   14,  Abbey  Church- 
yard, Bath. 
{h)  Smith  C.  Vance,  3,  Parade,  Carmarthen. 
Feb.,     1882. — (a)  Smith  J.,  Stobs,  Kilwinning,  Ayrshire,  Scotland. 

{b)  Smith  Richard,  Stoke-on-Trent. 
Oct.,      1882.— (^)  Snell  J.  Saxon,  86,  Belsize  Road,  St.  John's 
Wood,  N.W. 
{d)  Stead  J.  J.,  Albert  Cottage,  Heckmondwike. 
June,     1 88 1. — {a)  Steel  T.,  Glentower,  Wood  Street,  Greenock, 
N.B.,  and  Condong,   Tweed   River,  Bris- 
bane, Queensland. 
Sep.,     1882. — (/)  Steward  J.  AV.,  42,  High  Street,  Bridgnorth. 
(;;/)  Stokes  A.  W.,  F.C.S.,  Analytical  Laboratory, 
Vestry  Hall,  Harrow  Road,  London,  W. 
(/)  Stubbs  Rev.  E.  T.,  M.A.,   Ex-President  Bath 
Microscopical  Society,  Charlcombe  Rec- 
tory, and  Sion  Hill  Place,  Bath. 
Aprils    1882. — {d)  Sutcliffe  F.,  Ash  Street,  Bacup,  Lancashire. 

(m)  Tait  W.  C,  C.M.Z.S.,  Oporto,  Portugal. 
{c)  TeasdaleW.,  F.R.M.S.,  Ex-President  P.M.S., 
Rosehurst,  Headingley,  Leeds. 
Oct.,      1882. — (e)  Turtle  Fredk.  L.,  Aghalee,  Lurgan,  Ireland. 
{e)  Turtle  J.  G.,  i,  Cambridge  Terrace,  Ormean 

Road,  Belfast,  Ireland. 
(;/)  TuTTE  E.,  Fareham,  Hants. 

{n)  Vereker  Hon.  J.  G.  P.,  Captain  4th  Brigade 
South  Irish  Division,  R.A.,  i,  Portman 
Square,  and  Union  Club,  Trafalgar  Square, 
London,  and  East  Cowes  Castle,  Isle 
of  Wight. 

Oct,      1882.— (^)  Waddell  Rev.  C.  Herbert,  B.A.,  The  Rectory, 
Warren  Point,  Co.  Down,  Ireland. 
{b)  Ward  Mrs.  J.  Clifton,   St.   Helen's,   Cocker- 
mouth. 
{g)  Watkins  C.  J.,  King's  Mill  House,  Painswick, 
Gloucestershire. 


LIST  OF   MEMBERS.  17 

Oct.,       1881. — {e)  Watson    T.,     7,     East     Wall,    Londonderry, 

Ireland. 
(//)  Watson  T.   E.,  F.R.M.S.,  St.  Mary's  Lodge, 

Newport,  Mon. 
Sep.,     1882. — (/)  Watts    Rev.    G.     E.,    Kensworth    Vicarage, 

Dunstable,  Beds. 
Whefxer  D.,  M.R.C.S.E.,  L.S.A.,  F.O.S.,  &c., 

Chelmsford. 
Nov.,     1882.— (;/)  White   Barrington,  M.R.C.S.E.,  L.Sa.,  Frant, 

Sussex. 
(/)  Whitefoot  T.,   jun.,   36,  High   Street,  Bridg- 
north. 
Dec,     1880. — {k)  Williams  A.  R.,  19,  Pemberton  Road,  Upper 

Hollo  way,  N. 
Sep.,      1882. — {b)  Williams  H.  H.,  i,  Shrewsbury  Road,  North, 

Claughton,  Birkenhead. 
Oct.,       1 88 1. — {i)  Wilson  J.  H.,  Woodville,  Lansdown,  Bath. 
Nov.,     1882.— (70  WooDD  H.  T.,  M.R.C.S.E.,  L.Sa.,  Calstock, 

Cornwall. 
(h)  Woods  T.,  Gillingham,  Dorset. 
In)  WooLLCOMBE  W.   G.,   B.A.,   F.L.S.,   Brighton 

College,   Brighton,  and  Cathedral  Close, 

Exeter. 
May,    1881.— (/)  Wright  John,  F.R.M.S.,  The  Lodge,  Whitton, 

Suffolk. 


7 


BATH  : 

CHARLES    SEERS,    PRINTER, 

I    ARGYLE    STREET. 


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